Education and Curricular Perspectives in the Qur'an 1498500897, 9781498500890

Table of contents :
Title Page
Introduction
Historical Discourse
Education in the Qur’an
Curriculum as Instruction in the Qur’an
Political Curriculum in the Qur’an
Race and Gender Curriculum in the Qur’an
Institutionalized Curriculum
References
Index
About the Author

Citation preview

Education and Curricular Perspectives in the Qur’an

Education and Curricular Perspectives in the Qur’an Sarah Risha

LEXINGTON BOOKS Lanham • Boulder • New York • London

Published by Lexington Books An imprint of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com Unit A, Whitacre Mews, 26-34 Stannary Street, London SE11 4AB Copyright © 2015 by Lexington Books All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Risha, Sarah. Education and curricular perspectives in the Qur'an / Sarah Risha. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4985-0089-0 (cloth : alk. paper) – ISBN 978-1-4985-0090-6 (ebook) 1. Islamic education–Qur'anic teaching. 2. Islamic education–Philosophy. I. Title. BP134.E38R57 2015 297.7'7–dc23 2014036855 TM The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Printed in the United States of America

Introduction I was raised as a Muslim wearing hijab, the head cover, almost all my life. I have been living in the United States (US) for more than twenty years. I worked as a teacher, vice principal, volunteer Sunday school principal, K–12 math curriculum developer, educational consultant, and a lecturer. I have worked at private and public schools in addition to Cisco Learning Institute and Commission of International and Transregional Accreditation. I also enjoyed being a student through my graduate studies at Northern Arizona University and Arizona State University. As a Muslim I read a few pages of the Qur’an, the holy book of Islam, on a daily basis. Although I have been in the field of education almost all my life, I had never taken the time to appreciate the educational curriculum found within the Qur’an. I think this was because I was reading the Qur’an as a daily habit and it was something I grew up with so I kept it separate from my actual life. The topic of this book is perspectives of education curriculum within the Qur’an using the limited amount of resources available. Educational curriculum in the Qur’an is introduced with an emphasis on the techniques the Qur’an uses to teach its followers. Mainly, education curriculum in the Qur’an calls for teaching the person as a whole, connecting all aspects of life as the social, intellectual, and spiritual. I have done some research looking for resources that dealt with education curriculum in the Qur’an; yet I realized that very few actually exist. In 2010, I joined a pilgrimage group going to Makah. I used the time designated for shopping to visit libraries. I had the chance to visit two grand libraries; one of them is The Jarir Bookstore, to look for books related to curriculum in the Qur’an. To my surprise there was nothing. There were many books dealing with Islamic philosophy of education but I was looking for a book connecting education curriculum with the Qur’an. This made me a little hesitant to approach the subject. However, reading what Martin Niemoller said in his address to the United States Congress in 1968 encouraged me to go ahead and write about this topic. Niemoller, whose speech appeared in the Congressional Record, noted: First they came for the Socialists, and I did not speak out— Because I was not a Socialist Then they came for the Trade Unionists, and I did not speak out— Because I was not a Trade Unionist Then they came for the Jews, and I did not speak out— Because I was not a Jew Then they came for me—and there was no one left to speak for me (p. 31636) After reading the words of Niemoller, I chose to speak out by addressing curriculum in the Qur’an and sharing my findings with others in academia. As a Muslim

woman announcing my faith by wearing the hijab, I felt violated and attacked on different occasions just for being a Muslim, especially after the events of September 11th. I felt if I did not explain myself and my faith to others, no one would, especially when misconceptions about Islam and Muslims grew dramatically after September 11, 2001. I have looked for resources that deal with education curriculum in the Qur’an and found that very few have been written. By changing my approach to my daily reading of the Qur’an and focusing on its educational curriculum aspects, I have found that the Qur’an uses different theoretical approaches that are found in Western curriculum studies, and I wanted to share these findings. It is possible to argue that the topic of this book is too broad or there are not enough references. There are a few reasons behind the choice of this topic. The first is that there is a mixture and confusion of history between the Arabic speaking countries and other Islamic countries. For example what happens in Afghanistan or Pakistan is usually connected with events in all Arab countries, although both regions are not Arab countries and are not even part of the Middle East. It is also expected that people and governments in the Muslim world are following the teachings of the Qur’an in their governing and restriction laws; however, they are not. Each country has its own interpretation and way of application of Islamic rules which sometimes have nothing to do with the Qur’an. This leads to the second reason which is lack of knowledge and misconceptions about Islam and Muslims. Muslim education has played an undeniable role in modifying Western identity since the Middle Ages. I cannot ignore the great work of some historians as Hourani and Hitti; however, “a school of Orientalists led by Bernard Lewis has attempted to ensnare the Arab civilization and show it as corrupt, despotic and ignorant” (Holmes, 1988, p. 50). In an article titled “Interpreting Islam in American Schools,” Douglass and Dunn (2003) wrote “Stereotypes and misrepresentations of Islam have been deeply ingrained in American culture” (p. 53). Hazleton, L. (2010, November 11) wrote an article titled “Madeleine Albright: Going Straight with Islam,” in which she stated that in October 2010, nineteen foreign ministers of nineteen different countries met in Madrid and they all agreed: We must communicate better by eliminating from our vocabulary terms that recall past stereotypes or that reflects ignorance or disrespect. The idea that the West has singled out Islam as an enemy is nonsense; so is the allegation that Islam provides a rationale for terrorism. (Huffington Post, p. NA) This is to say the view that Islam has been often misunderstood by non-Muslims is shared and acknowledged by these nineteen countries at least. Most of the current misunderstanding is related to the picture the media draws about Islam and Muslims. Although there has been some progress acknowledging the effects of Islamic scholarship since the Middle Ages, Islam has been often misunderstood by nonMuslims and Muslims alike. There are many Muslims who know only basic history of Islam, which is that Muslims had a great civilization, they invented numbers and

arithmetic but then they stopped (Morgan, 2007). I could blame Western media and language barriers for ignorance or misunderstandings from non-Muslims, but I do not know whom to blame for the ignorance of Muslims themselves about their own history and religion. Another reason behind this study is that “educational studies in the West have often been solely concerned with the Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian foundations of a European-centered history of learning” (Gunther, 2006, p.1367). The US society has a wide range of cultural background therefore there is a need to include others’ educational concepts and practices including the Islamic teachings. There is one more important reason behind the choice of topic for this book. The Qur’an was revealed in the Arabian Peninsula which was an underdeveloped region with no form of government. Arabs recognized the authority of the head of the tribes only. Education at that time was entirely oral and very few people knew how to read and write. The greatest intellectual accomplishment was Arabic poetry. However, after the revelation of the Qur’an, life has changed dramatically and a very welleducated civilization was developed. This civilization reached as far as China and Europe and they ruled Spain for more than 700 years. The Islamic Empire was the most civilized and educated at the time. Therefore, I was curious to learn the reason behind the change and how this transformation occurred. I am a believer in learning from our past and that history repeats itself but we are so busy that we do not pay attention to our own histories. Also I am contemplating exploring the methods the Qur’an used to have and its effect and ability to change people’s lives completely and create educated, civilized communities. The main source of Islam is its Holy Book, the Qur’an, and this is why it is my main resource.

CHAPTER ORGANIZATION This book has seven chapters, including the introduction. Each chapter starts with a brief summary of the main aspects of curriculum presented that is supported by Qur’anic verses. Chapter 1 constitutes Historical Discourse in which I introduce some historical information in regard to Islamic Law, the Qur’an, and phenomena in the Qur’an. It is noteworthy that in writing history, historians use dates as references to the past but there are no dates included in the Qur’an. This chapter has nothing to do with teaching history as a subject. In order to understand any type of curriculum, it is important to learn its historical development. The historical curriculum calls the reader/listener to look at the past, observe it, and learn from it. The focus of curriculum goes around to giving the learner freedom to think while addressing human relations. This chapter concludes with the reasons behind having different interpretations of the Qur’an. Chapter 2 presents the curriculum in reference to the development and redirection of students’ thought processes to help them find more meaning and significance in their lives. The focus of this chapter is on giving the learner freedom of choice while developing thinking abilities and at the same time addressing human relations among learners and the world. Mainly, education curriculum in the Qur’an calls for teaching the person as a whole, connecting all aspects of life including the social, intellectual, and spiritual. This chapter concludes by describing the holistic approach of education in the Qur’an. Chapter 3 presents curriculum as the methodology the Qur’an uses to transmit and teach its themes and topics. Here, curriculum in the Qur’an is introduced with an emphasis on the techniques the Qur’an chooses to teach its reader. It describes how the curriculum was implemented by the prophet Mohammed as the teacher, and practiced by his followers as the students. The chapter concludes with methods of instruction used in the Qur’an. For example, the Qur’an connects the past to present by using vivid descriptions. It also uses storytelling of events in the past, such as the stories of the prophets Ibrahim, Moses, Adam, Jesus, and others. Such stories invite the reader to think, observe, and learn from them. Chapter 4 describes the political curriculum existing within the Qur’an. The chapter starts by introducing ideology in the Qur’an followed by a description of how teachings and changes are delivered in steps and stages. In other words, it clarifies how the political curriculum in the Qur’an accomplishes social change. It also describes how the curriculum was implemented by the prophet Mohammed as the teacher. Chapter 5 is an introduction to race and gender texts in the Qur’an. The first part deals with race in the Qur’an and how the Qur’anic curriculum dealt with the extreme racism that was common on the Arabian Peninsula before the revelation of the Qur’an. Then it moves to understanding curriculum in the Qur’an as a gender text. This part explains gender equality in the Qur’an by providing some examples from the

Qur’an confirming the equality between sexes. The chapter concludes with a discussion of some of the most common misconceptions about women in the Qur’an. Chapter 6 discusses institutionalized curriculum in the Qur’an. It explains the development of institutions starting from homeschooling. Later the mosque became the learning center. After the spread of Islam, Kuttab, schools and universities were developed.

REFERENCES Albright Stonebridge Group. (2010). Islam and the West: Reaching intercultural understanding. Huff Post World. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/madeleine-albright/islam-and-the-westachiev_b_781996.html. Douglass, S. L., & Ross E. D. (2003). Interpreting Islam in American schools. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 588(1), 52– 72. doi: 10.1177/0002716203588001005. Gunther, S. (2006). Be masters in that you teach and continue to learn: Medieval Muslim thinkers on educational theory. Comparative Education Review, 50(3), 367– 388 doi: 0010-4086/2006/5003-0003$05.00. Holmes, G. (1988). The Oxford illustrated history of medieval Europe. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Morgan, M. (2007). Lost history: The enduring legacy of Muslim scientists, thinkers, and artists. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Press. Niemoller, M. (2002). Martin Niemoller’s actual address to the United States Congress, October 14, 1968, p. 31636. Retrieved from http://www.rumormillnews.com/cgi-bin/archive.cgi?read=21457.

Chapter 1

Historical Discourse Historically, Islam began in 610 CE in Makah, when Allah revealed the Qur’an to the prophet Mohammed. Two great empires, the Persian and Roman, sometimes called Byzantine, were controlling the world. The Persian Empire extended over Asia and Africa and it continued to exist for about two hundred and twenty years. The Roman Empire is well known for having the most powerful forces in Europe and it survived for about nine hundred years. After the death of Mohammed, his followers built the Islamic Empire defeating the two biggest empires and expanding from the Atlantic Ocean on the West to the borders of China on the East. Later, the Muslims crossed to Europe and ruled Spain for more than 700 years. The Islamic Empire continued for about 1200 years and was one of the most advanced and educated civilizations. Muslims believe this is because the Qur’an stressed the importance of seeking knowledge and paving the way for modern science. During the tenth century, Muslims translated most sciences and philosophies of the Romans, Greeks, Sanskrit, and Syriac into Arabic, the formal language of the Islamic Empire, and developed these sciences. They built observatories in Baghdad, Iraq, Palmyra, and Syria: “At least 60 major centers of learning spanned the Islamic Empire from Baghdad and Isfahan in the East to Cordoba in the West that courted the wisest and most influential leaders of human knowledge” (Nakosteen, 1964, p. 63). As a result, most scholars were eager to be part in the advancement of education system at the Islamic Empire. It is well known that Muslim civilization has played a fundamental part of constructing world education since the Middle Ages. A few examples of the influence of Islamic civilization on the West include the contributions of al-Ghazali to rationalism in the eleventh century; Averroes combined the Islamic and Greek philosophy which influenced non-Muslims’ thoughts for hundreds of years since the twelfth century and finally Ibn Khaldoun who is known for his contributions to sociological constructions in the thirteenth century: “Indeed, much of what we consider to be the basis of Western tradition from the period of classical antiquity was preserved not by the West but rather by Islamic scholars in the Middle Ages” (Holmes, 1988, p. 51). Nevertheless, this magnificence did not continue. Most Muslims believe that they lost all their glory because they moved away from teachings of the Qur’an. In other words, teachings of the Qur’an were the reason behind the strength of the Islamic empire in all its stages and through its twelve hundred years. Educational studies in the West are often concerned with the Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian foundations of a European-centered history of learning, while educational concepts and practices of other cultures and civilizations such as the Chinese, Indian, and Islamic are not given adequate consideration, which causes real challenges to Western societies (Gunther, 2006, p.1367). Douglass and Ross (2003) from the American Academy of Political and Social Science in an article called “Interpreting Islam in American Schools” explained that about thirty years ago, a

college student could graduate from a major American university and know very little about Islam or the Muslim community, if anything at all. This lack of knowledge combined with the negative presentation of the media led to the spread of misconceptions about Islam and Muslims which have grown dramatically after 9/11. However, to be fair, I do not ignore that there are Western scholars who acknowledged the Islamic education effects on the West, such as “Maria Rosa Menocal’s The Ornament of the World in 2002, Richard Rubenstein’s Aristotle’s Children in 2003, and Chris Lowney’s A Vanished World in 2005” (Morgan, 2007, p. xv). Current US society represents a diverse range of cultural backgrounds which increases the necessity to learn about different educational perspectives, concepts, and practices. It is important to study and learn about others’ thoughts including the Qur’an and Islam in general especially in a melting pot like the United States. The increasing Muslim population here in the United States and the world in general makes learning about the Qur’an more important. The Executive Summary of current worldwide population predictions by the Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion and Public Life (2011) indicates that “the world’s Muslim population is expected to increase by about 35 percent in the next 20 years, rising from 1.6 billion in 2010 to 2.2 billion by 2030” (para. 1). The report adds that the population of Muslims is growing “at about twice the rate of the non-Muslim population over the next two decades. . . . If current trends continue, Muslims will make up 26.4 percent of the world’s total projected population” (p. 13). This means that about one out of every four people is going to be a Muslim. Additionally, the Berkley Center for Religion, Peace and World Affairs (2007) reports that Islam is second to Christianity in regard to the number of followers (para 5). John Esposito (1994) agreed with the necessity of studying Islam and the Qur’an as he wrote that Americans need to learn about Islam and Muslims as their number is increasing in the United States and Islam is becoming one of the American religions. Consequently, there is a pressing need for a critical, unbiased, and systematic study of Islam’s diverse values, concepts, and beliefs especially those relating to the educational theories and philosophies developed by Muslim scholars. Thus, this book is dedicated to shedding light on a spectrum of topics in educational thought in Islam represented by the Qur’an. First, what does “Muslim” mean? Or who is a Muslim? A Muslim is the one who submits to the will of Allah. Most Muslims believe that they understand the teaching of Islam and follow Allah’s commands in the Qur’an by performing the five pillars of Islam which are: believing that there is no god but Allah and that the prophet Mohammed is his last messenger, praying five times a day, fasting the month of Ramadan from dawn to sunset, paying zakat (alms) which is 2.5 percent of one’s savings once a year, and performing the pilgrimage once in a lifetime. Muslims believe that Allah created humans and he knows best what is good for them. It is like buying a new car, a Toyota for example. A car comes with a user’s manual explaining all features and its function. Very few people will read this manual, but none would ever call Toyota and say, “you misplaced this part, it should be placed here or there.”

People would buy a car and do whatever they want with it. They are free to go wherever they wish, take whomever they want on a ride, use it for a race, or even trash it. It is their car and their responsibility. The same applies for our bodies and souls. Muslims believe that Allah created people and they are supposed to worship him and follow his orders, some people do follow these orders while others just ignore it. Following the Qur’anic teachings is a choice every Muslim has to do for him or herself. Unlike some religions, Muslims tend to highlight their religious identity by wearing a scarf or head-cover, for women, and praying five times a day. Writing about curriculum in the Qur’an is a unique academic study because literature dealing with curriculum in the Qur’an is underdeveloped. To explain, a researcher will find a wealth of literature comparing current scientific discoveries with verses from the Qur’an supporting these discoveries, such as embryology and stages of embryo development, the structure of the universe and how the earth is round, and geology as in the structure of mountains and seas (Campbell, 2002, p. 183). There are plenty of studies discussing the mathematical and numerical values that are found in the Qur’an; for example, the word “month” is mentioned twelve times and the word “days” is mentioned 365 times in the verses of the Qur’an (Yahya, 2005, p. 291). Other health studies address the medical concepts and cures mentioned in the Qur’an and much research supports this side, too (Al-Ghazal, 2004, p. 2). Further, there are numerous studies that explain pronunciation of the Arabic words in the Qur’an. A complete science was developed in this regard called ilm al-tajweed, the science of pronunciation. Many studies explain the best and fastest ways of memorizing the Qur’an. Additionally, there are many studies addressing educational situations in the Arab and Muslim world describing their great past achievement and current high illiteracy rates as the studies addressed in the UNESCO. However, there are very few studies discussing the education curriculum in the Qur’an. Therefore, I believe that my study is a unique academic study. In addition to misconceptions, lack of knowledge, and the rapidly increasing population of Muslims, there is one more important value for this book as it discusses how the Qur’an made striking change in its followers’ lives. Razwy (1996) in his book A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims CE 570 to 661, chapter 3, describes the situation in the Arabian Peninsula before the revelation of the Qur’an to be underdeveloped, with no form of government other than tribal leaders. Razwy stated that the most powerful people were those who were the richest and the moneylenders. Slavery was common. Men and women were bought and sold in markets alongside other goods. Arabs used to bury their female infants alive either due to their own poverty or because they thought a female might bring shame to the family. Education at that time was entirely oral, and very few people knew how to read and write. Additionally, Rodinson (1980), in her book Mohammed, explains: In practice the free Arabs were bound by no written code of law, and no state existed to enforce its statutes with the backing of a police force. The only protection for a man’s life was the certainty established by custom, that it would

be dearly bought. Blood for blood and a life for a life. The vendetta, tha’r in Arabic, is one of the pillars of Bedouin society. (p. 45) Later, and after the spread of Islam, life changed dramatically: women’s rights were supported by acquiring knowledge and through participation in daily social activities; equality between races and genders became the common trend, and love and respect for all human beings became the basis of communication. Education and the spread of knowledge were the driving force behind the development of Islamic civilization. Learning about how this change happened is a really important way to learn from our past.

SHARI’A AND ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE To have a better understanding of curriculum in the Qur’an, it is important to explain the Islamic law as it is the umbrella that covers all resources for Islamic rules and regulations. Islamic law is usually referred to as Shari’a. The word Shari’a means “path” in Arabic, and it is derived from the four main sources of Islamic law: the Qur’an, the Sunna, the teachings and practices of the prophet Mohammed, Ijma’, the consensus of a group of Muslim scholars, and Qiyas, reason by way of analogy. It is agreed by all Muslims that the Qur’an is the first and main source of law followed by the Sunna. This is based on the command by Allah: O you who believe! Obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those charged with authority among you. If you differ in anything among yourselves, refer it to Allah (Qur’an) and his Messenger (The Sunna), if you do believe in Allah and the Last Day: That is best and most suitable for final determination. (4:59) The second source of Shari’a is the Sunna, which is the “Tradition of the prophet Mohammed in what he ordered, forbade, did or acknowledged in his capacity as a prophet” (Hathout, 2008, p. 43). The Sunna explains rules that are generalized in the Qur’an. For example, Allah ordered people to pray five times a day and assigned the five times for prayer and the direction for prayers, but did not explain the procedure of the prayer and what to say in each act of the prayer. Therefore, the prophet Mohammed explained to people how to pray. This kind of explanation applies to many other commands in the Qur’an. In several verses of the Qur’an, Allah ordered Muslims to follow the prophet and submit to his decisions, for example, “And whatever the Messenger gives you, take it, and whatever he forbids you, abstain from it (59:7). Another verse exemplifying this order is “Whoever obeys the Messenger verily obeys Allah” (4:80). These verses and many others encouraged early Muslims to write and accumulate all the narrations of the prophet into a book in order to make the prophet’s teachings and sayings available for future generations to follow and adapt. The narrations of the prophet are called hadith for singular and ahadeeth for plural. As the Islamic empire expanded to China and North Africa, hadith literature developed into many different schools of

Islamic thought. This is because scholars in each community tried to reconcile local customs with Islam. The schools of thought are called madaheb. The encyclopedia of Islam translates Madaheb as a “way of thinking, persuasion.” It is a method of interpretation of the three major religious areas: belief, practice, and law: “The distinctions between these madaheb have more impact on the legal system than on individual Muslims, as many do not adhere to one school in their personal lives” (Ali, 2009, p. 140). More than one school might be followed in one region, because not all individuals adhere to all rules within one school. Different motives contributed to the development of these schools, such as the economic and social development of different Islamic communities, the era and approach of the spread of Islam in different regions, the degree to which Shari’a was applied, and how and when it was displaced by European codes during colonial rule (Ahmed and Donnan, 1998, p. 19– 20). However, the main reason behind this development was that during the time of the prophet, Muslims would consult with him and follow his teachings and advice. After the prophet’s death and the rule of the four major Muslim caliphs, the Umayyad ruled. Umayyad, also spelled Omayyad, developed and ruled the first Muslim dynasty between 661–750 CE. Umayyad rulers were not religious, and some moved away from the teachings of the Qur’an, which led many scholars to teach their own interpretations and understandings of the Qur’an. The teaching according to personal interpretation led to the development of more than twenty schools of thought. As Siddiqi (2005) pointed out, “There was no central authority that cared enough to unite all religious opinions at that time and this was the beginning of the development of various schools of interpretations” (p. 1). Later the Abbasid Caliphate succeeded the Umayyad and ruled the second Muslim dynasty between 750 and 1258. The Abbasid were very supportive of education, including Islamic law: They encouraged scholars to write books on Islamic laws and encouraged religious discussions and debates. Various scholars had the opportunity to debate their positions with others. Due to more discussions and debates, some scholars changed their opinions, some schools were eliminated and others merged into four major schools. (Siddiqi, 2005, p. 2) Therefore, Sunna has developed into four main schools of thought. During the third century of Hijra, or migration of the prophet, the four major Madaheb were established in several regions and local teachers used the laws of these four schools to teach Shari’a to their students (Siddiqi, 2005, p. 5). These schools of thought are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii, and Hanbali.

The Hanafi School Nu’man ibn Thabit ibn Zauti (699–767 CE) developed the Hanafi School. He is famously known in Islamic History as Imam Abu Hanifa. He was born in Kufa, Iraq, in the year AH 80 and passed away in AH 150. He is well known for his sharp intellect,

his meticulousness, integrity, and determination in the face of oppression. Imam Abu Hanifa devoted his time to teaching and learning. He established a school at Kufa, in Iraq, where he used to teach people his methods. Later, his school developed to be a College of Theology where he delivered lectures on Islamic Law and related subjects. A large number of his students supported him and devoted their time for his teachings. This devotion was the reason for the Hanafi School of thought to survive. His school is the first of the four Sunni schools to be founded. He was the first of the four imams to emphasize on the use of reason to make sense of religious questions based on the Qur’an and Sunna. It is historically associated in India and is the most widely followed school of thought. Hanafi school of thought is followed in Egypt, Pakistan, India, China, Turkey, the Balkans, Central Asia, Iraq, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh (Siddiqqi, 2005).

The Maliki School The Maliki School was established by Abu Abdullah, Malik ibn Anas (714–796 CE). He was born in AH 93 and died in AH 179 at Medina. His real ancestors were from Yemen; nevertheless, his grandfather settled in Medina after embracing Islam. He studied in Medina which was considered to have the most accurate Islamic learning at that time. Malik was born into a wealthy family and did not need to work for a living, so he spent his life studying, recording, and clarifying the legal teachings of Islam. Malik became the Imam of Medina, and one of the most renowned Imams of Islam. He used to be extremely careful about giving any legal opinion to the extent that if he was not sure about any topic, he would never hesitate to say “I do not know.” Yet, he was the man about whom Shafi’i said, “When scholars are mentioned, Malik is like the star among them” (Abu Zahra, 2002, p. 91). He is the author of alMuwatta’, The Approved, a very well-known Islamic book. Malik said that he showed his book to seventy religious scholars in Medina and all of them approved the information in it. This is why he called it al-Muwatta’ which is also well known between Hadith scholars as the Golden Chain. It took Malik forty years to write and finalize his book. He started with ten thousand narrations of the hadith and after studying the chain of command, that is the history of people who narrated the hadith, he reduced them to a little less than 2,000 hadith (Abu Zahra, 2002, p.92). The Maliki School was originated in Medina and is followed in North Africa Algeria, Tunis, Morocco, Mauritania, Libya, Kuwait, Bahrain, Dubai, and Abu Dhabi.

The Shafi’i School The third important school was that founded by Muhammad ibn Idris Shafi’i (767– 820 CE). He was a follower of Malik. His ancestors go back to Quraish, the tribe of the prophet Mohammed (Rippin, 2005, p. 90–93). He was born in AH 150 in Gaza, Palestine, the same year Imam Abu Hanifa died (al-Zubaidi , 2009, p.89–90). Shaf’i studied in Iraq and Medina; however, he did not agree with the other schools of

thought that were established before him therefore he established his own school (alZubaidi, 2009, p. 89–90). He was an extraordinary scholar who was able to resolve the differences and unite the Muslim scholars opinions at that time. The Shafii School is considered more conservative than the Hanafi and Maliki schools. Although it accepts the authority of four sources of jurisprudence (the Quran, hadith, ijma, and qiyas, or analogy), it did not encourage the qiyas, private judgment. Shafi’i was also known for being a significant poet. His poetry is noted for its beauty and wisdom. The beauty of his poetry made people collect it in one famous book under the name Diwan Imam al-Shafi’i. The Shafi’i school is followed in Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somali, and North Yemen, but the main concentration of the Shafi’i is in South East Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia, the Mainland SEA, and the Philippines.

The Hanbali School The Hanbali School was developed by Ahmad ibn Hanbal ash-Shaibani. He was born in the city of Baghdad, Iraq, in AH 164 and died in the same city in AH 241 or 780–855 CE. Ahmad ibn Hanbal was very much interested in learning about the Ahadeeth of the prophet, and traveled for several years through the Middle East to study the Qur’an and hadith. When he returned to Baghdad, he became a student of Imam Shafi’i (Ahmed, 2003, p. 1). Ahmad ibn-Hanbal is the founder of the fourth school of thought. It accepts the teachings of the Qur’an and hadith only. He followed most of Shafi’i’s methods emphasizing on the hadith, avoiding reasoning as much as possible, which is why his school is considered the most conservative of the four. Among the works of Imam ibn Hanbal is the great encyclopedia of ahadeeth called al-Musnad which was compiled during his lifetime. Al-Musnad contains more than thirty thousand hadith. His learning, piety, and reliable faithfulness gathered his community and scholars around his understanding and teachings. Hanbali School is embraced mostly in the Gulf States of Saudi Arabia, Qatar, North East of Oman, and the United Arab Emirates. It was also followed in Egypt. Egypt is unique in representing, maintaining, and accommodating all four schools. Each religious school in Egypt used to have four sections to accommodate students of each school of thought. Until the rule of Muhammad Ali, there were four courts as well, but he had limited it to Hanafi legislation (Abu-Odeh, 2004, p. 1089).

Ijma’ The third source of Shari’a is Ijma’. Ijma’ means “the consensus of scholars of Islamic sciences” (Kamali, 2005, p. 156). During the early Islamic era, the prophet Mohammed, as well as the four caliphs after him and their governors, used to appoint judges, to rule according to the laws of the Qur’an and Sunna. However, when a situation occurred and they cannot find a rule for it included in the Qur’an and Sunna, the judge would consent with judges from other regions and together they would

determine the outcome. Typically, Muslims would accept their rulings and adopt them. The Qur’an encouraged Muslims to follow this step: “Hence, decide upon the scheme which you will pursue, and then come forward in one single body . . .” (20:64).

Qiyas The fourth and last source is Qiyas, which is a judgment based on analogy: “Literally, Qiyas means comparison, with a view to suggesting equality or similarity between two things, one of which is taken as the criterion for evaluating the other” (Kamali, 2005, p. 180). Qiyas is used if there is no ruling found in the first three resources of Shari’a. Qiyas “is designed to ensure conformity with the letter and the spirit of the Qur’an and Sunna” (Kamali, 2005, p. 180). It cannot be used to change or contradict the rules of the Qur’an, Sunna, or Ijma’. Qiyas reflects the flexibility of Shari’a as asserted by Hathout (2008), writing, “The Shari’a is not a rigid set of rules to be copied and applied any time or place. It allows for human ingenuity to address changeable situations through progressive legislation” (p. 43). In conclusion of this section, I would like to add that the Qur’an is the main source of data collection in this book. Each aspect of educational curriculum in the Qur’an is explained and supported by verses from the Qur’an. In addition to the Qur’an, sunna, actions and sayings of the prophet, would be utilized when necessary. Since the focus of this book is discovering curriculum within the Qur’an, the third and fourth sources of Shari’a: Ijma’ and Qiyas, and the four schools of thought are not included. These additional sources were presented to provide the reader with a basic understanding of the four main sources of Shari’a.

THE QUR’AN It is necessary to start this introduction with few clarifications. First, the word “Qur’an” is also “transliterated as Quran, Koran, Al-Coran, Coran, Kuran, and AlQur’an, all referring to the same book but with differing pronunciations” (Donner, 1998, p. 173). The form used in this book is “The Qur’an.” There are different names for the book of Allah that are mentioned in the Quran including, but they are not limited to: Kitab, Nur, Huda, Furqan, Fasl, and Ilm. These names mean scripture, light, guidance, criterion, conclusive, and knowledge consecutively. The most popular among these names is the Qur’an. The Qur’an is an Arabic word that means continuous reading: “The revelation thus involves a recitation or something to be recited; and this indeed is the meaning of the original Aramaic word Qur’an, which came to signify the revelation in its totality as well as single parts of it” (Gatje, 1996, p. 5). Second, Muslims all over the world, regardless of their language, use the word Allah referring to God. “Allah” is an Arabic word, meaning the one and only god. The word Allah in Arabic is genderless and cannot be altered or changed into plural form. It represents the supreme divinity. Muslims believe that the Qur’an was sent to all

human as Allah addresses all people as the children of Adam and not only people of the Arabian Peninsula where the Qur’an was revealed. One example is: “O ye children of Adam! Whenever there come to you apostles from amongst you, rehearsing My signs unto you those who are righteous and mend (their lives) on them shall be no fear nor shall they grieve” (7:35). The Qur’an explains that Allah is the same God of Ibrahim, Jesus, Moses, and all other prophets. Third and finally, it is important to clarify the reference to the Qur’anic verses. All chapters and verses in the Qur’an are numbered, so to refer to a verse, the number of the chapter will be written first followed by the number of the verse. For example (3:20) refers to chapter three, the twentieth verse. The Qur’an calls its followers to recite its verses, “And recite the Qur’an in slow, measured rhythmic tones” (73:4). This is the reason behind Muslims reading parts of the Qur’an daily, from the time of the prophet Mohammed to now. Additionally, Muslims are required to recite a few verses of the Qur’an from memory during the five daily prayers, which makes it a universal practice for Muslims to memorize parts of the Qur’an. Memorization of the Qur’an is easier than memorizing most other books because of its rhythmic style. Michael Zwettler (1978), professor of language at Ohio State University, wrote in his book The Oral Tradition of Classical Arabic Poetry, “In ancient times when writing was scarcely used, memory and oral transmission was exercised and strengthened to a degree now is almost unknown” (p. 14). Many Muslims at the time of the prophet memorized the Qur’an: “During the lifetime of the prophet, people such as Zaid ibn Thabit, Ubayy ibn Kaab, Muath ibn Jabal, and Abu Zaid, memorized the whole Qur’an” (Al-Bukhari, 1979 Vol. 6, No. 525). Memorization of the Qur’an is a tradition that continues today. The Qur’an is taught at schools in all Muslim countries, and many centers specializing in the memorization of the Qur’an are established. All Muslims memorize the Qur’an or parts of it, in its original Arabic language. During the time of the prophet Mohammed, paper had not been introduced to the Arabian Peninsula. Arabs used to write the revealed verses on leather scrolls of animal skin (mainly camel), Egyptian parchment, cloth, and stones (Rodwell, 2004, p. 13). Before the death of the prophet, all surahs were written, collected, and kept in a large leather bag under the supervision of the prophet. There was no need to make copies of the Qur’an due to the oral culture at that time. When the prophet Mohammed died, the written copy of the Qur’an was kept with his wife Aisha. The prophet Mohammed asked those of his followers who knew how to write, to write the revealed verses only and not to write anything of his sayings or teachings. The Qur’an was transcribed by “some of the Prophet’s literate companions, the most prominent of them being Zaid ibn Thabit” (Suyuti, 1973, p. 41, 99). After the death of the prophet and with the spread of Islam, non-Arab speakers started to write their own copies of the Qur’an according to their own pronunciation of words and understanding of the verses, which led Othman, the third caliph, to act determinedly and quickly. He formed a committee of four, who were well known for their faith and for their accurate memorization of the Qur’an, and he asked them to

collect and verify all written copies of the Qur’an. He burned all copies that included mistakes of any kind. This committee made copies of the Qur’an and sent copies to all major Muslim cities (Bucaille, 2012, p. 4). Muslims believe that the current Arabic edition of the Qur’an has Allah’s exact words as were revealed to the prophet Mohammed more than fourteen hundred years ago. Allah protects the Qur’an from any changes, as stated in the verse “We who have sent down the dhikr, the Qur’an, and We will guard the Qur’an” (12:2). Two copies of the Qur’an written during that time are still available and displayed in Turkish and Tashkent museums (Schwally, 1919). These copies have exactly the same text as any current Qur’an. Some non-Muslim scholars studied the collection and preservation of the Qur’an and confirmed the authenticity of these copies. The orientalist, John Burton (1979), stated that the Qur’an “which has come down to us in the form in which it was organized and approved by the prophet. . . . What we have today in our hands is the Mushaf (Qur’an) of Muhammad” (p. 239). The religious scholar and Bishop Kenneth Cragg (1973) agrees with this as he wrote “The transmission of the Qur’an from the time of revelation to today as occurring in an unbroken living sequence of devotion” (p. 26). Additionally and according to UNESCO’s Memory of the World Program, the Qur’an collected by Othman “Is the definitive version” of the Qur’an (Jeffery and Mendelsohn, 1942). “A facsimile of the Mushaf in Tashkent is available at the Columbia University Library in the US” (Ibrahim, 1993, p. 113). There are more ancient manuscripts from all periods of Islamic history found in the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.; the Chester Beatty Museum in Dublin, Ireland; and the London Museum, have been compared with those in Tashkent, Turkey and Egypt, with results confirming that there have not been any changes in the text from its original time of writing. (Philips, 1997, p. 157) As for the language of the Qur’an, it is important to draw to the reader’s attention the fact that many classical languages disappeared with time. For example the Sanskrit language is replaced by different languages of India as Urdu and Latin is replaced by European languages. However, Arabic language is still used as it is the language of the Qur’an (Haeri, 2007). Classical Arabic used in the Qur’an is a little different from the Modern Standard Arabic. “Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) represents a more modern version of the Arabic found in the Qur’an, which is used in formal contexts and writing” (Hashim, 2011, p. 6). The Qur’an has had a great impact on the Arabic language, making it long-lasting. Usually, when a holy book appears in a specific language, it would be translated into different languages to be used during religious rituals. This is the same with the Qur’an; however, these translations cannot be used in the five daily prayers. Arabic is the language of worship for all Muslims, whether they are Arabs or not, from the time of revelation until now. This is why Muslims memorize the Qur’an in Arabic. The number of people who have memorized the Qur’an has been increasing ever since the day of revelation. Gibb (1962) wrote in

his book Mohammedanism that many non-Arab Muslims memorized the Qur’an by heart without understanding its meaning. This is why there are so few differences between classical and modern standard Arabic: “Other holy books also came to be associated with specific languages, such as the Torah with Hebrew, and, perhaps less intimately, the New Testament with Greek and Latin” (Hashim, 2011, p. 18). However, people in general tend to read the translations of these holy books and not their original forms, which allowed these languages to disappear over time. As for the Qur’an, millions of copies have been printed and are available in nearly every part of the world without any variant in the Arabic text. All printings of the Arabic Qur’an in the world are reviewed and approved by a special committee in Saudi Arabia. This standard ensures that Muslims all over the world read the same Arabic Qur’an. Arab Muslims in Saudi Arabia read the same Arabic Qur’an as Arabs in the United States, Africa, or Australia. The Qur’an is divided into 30 juz’, or parts, and includes 114 surahs, or chapters. The Qur’an was revealed over a period of twenty three years in Makah and Medina. A common misconception is that the surahs in the Qur’an are arranged according to length from longest to shortest except the first surah al-Fatihah. It is true that the second surah is the longest with 286 verses and the shortest are located towards the end with three verses only as surahs 103, 108, and 110; however, looking carefully at the surahs, one would realize that this is only true up to the fifth surah. For example, the sixth surah has 165 verses while the seventh surah is a little longer and has 206 verses; the eighth surah has 75 while the ninth has 149 verses; and the fifteenth surah has 99 verses and is shorter than the sixteenth surah which has 148 verses. These are only examples and a person might find many more examples towards the end of the Qur’an. After the revelation of any verse(s), the prophet Mohammad would call for a public meeting and teach his followers the new revelation. Additionally, he would tell them where the verse should be located in accordance to previous verses. The companions of the prophet confirmed this as they stated: “We used to write down the Holy Qur’an in the time of the Holy Prophet” (al-Nishabur, 2010, p. 611). Hence, the order of verses and surahs of the Qur’an were decided by Allah and not the prophet or his companions, and it was memorized in the same order. Allah says, “The responsibility of its collection and its arrangement lies on Us” (75:17) and “(But We have revealed it) in this manner (piece by piece out of necessity). And (in spite of the fact that it has not been revealed all at once,) We have arranged it in an excellent (form and order of) arrangement (and free of all contradictions)” (25:32). The first surah is called al-Fatiha, the opening. It is an introduction summarizing the main themes of the Qur’an in seven verses (Khaled, 2005). It is read at least seventeen times a day in the five daily prayers because it contains praise and glorification of Allah and the human request for Allah’s guidance and blessings. As an introduction to the Qur’an, al-Fatihah contains all the basic principles in the Qur’an. Surah al-Fatihah is considered the essence of the Qur’an and this is why it is placed at the beginning. Many religious scholars referred to Surah al-Fatihah as “the prayer,” “the essence,” and “the foundation” of the Qur’an (Zubair, 2011, p.1). According to

scholars, it was the first complete surah to be revealed to Prophet Muhammad. It sums up the entire message and teaching of the Qur’an. Thus the surah is also called “As-Sab` Al-Mathani” “And we have bestowed upon you the Seven Oft-repeated Verses and the Grand Qur’an” (15:87) that is “The Seven Oft-Repeated.” It states: Praise be to Allah, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the worlds; Most Gracious, Most Merciful; Master of the Day of Judgment. Thee do we worship, and Thine aid we seek, Show us the straightway, The way of those on whom Thou hast bestowed Thy Grace, those whose (portion) is not wrath, and who go not astray. (1:1–7) Surat al-Fatihah is both a prayer and a full introduction to the message of the Qur’an. It is like a short preface. It tells the reader that people should worship Allah only since he is the creator and the source of all blessings. It emphasizes the oneness of Allah which is the most fundamental essence of the Qur’an. It also reminds a person that living in this world is not everlasting. All will die, will be judged by Allah and will be rewarded or punished depending on their choices in this life and this is the second very important essence of the Qur’an. The third essence or main theme is that people have to ask for Allah’s guidance through all their lives. It also reminds its reader that Allah is the only one who can really provide guidance. This guidance came through Allah’s prophets and messengers. Those who follow his way will be rewarded and go to heaven while those who go astray deserve his punishment. These are the main three essences in the Qur’an and all were mentioned in seven verses only and in the first Surah of the Qur’an. The last verse of revelation is “. . . today I have completed for you your religion, fulfilled upon you My favors, and approved for you Al Islam as your religion” (5:3). Surahs in the Qur’an are categorized according to place of revelation. The Qur’an was revealed through twenty three years. The first thirteen years were in Makah and the last ten years in Medina. Makkan’ verses are the ones that were revealed prior to the Hijra or immigration of the prophet Mohammed from the city of Makah to the city of Medina at 622 CE. Medinan surahs are the ones revealed in Medina. This came to be known as the Makkan and Medinan surahs. According to Zarkashi (1988), there are eighty-five Makkan Chapters and their numbers are:

6/7/10/11/12/14/15/16/17/18/19/20/21/23/25/26/27/28/29/30/31/32/34/35/35/36/37/38/39 (Vol. 1, p.193) The other twenty-eight chapters were revealed in Medina. Medinan surahs have more and longer verses while the Makkan surahs have short verses. Most Makkan surahs stress on faith as the oneness of Allah and his powers. They elucidate that all humans are accountable for their actions and Allah is going to ask them about it at the day of judgment. This is because these were the first steps needed in establishing the faith and the oneness of Allah. Medinan surahs tend to deal with issues of communal law such as marriage, divorce, inheritance,

relationships between different communities such as Jews and Christian, and dealing with adversaries. This is because the prophet Mohammed was establishing a community and needed the social laws as the basic instruments of governance. Reading the Makkan and Medinan surahs according to the time of revelation is like taking a trip where you prepare yourself first with faith and worship and then move to application of rules and commandments as if it was translating the faith into a form of living as a practice of religion. The Qur’an addresses various topics. The main topic is Tawheed, the oneness of Allah. Another topic discussed in detail is the next life, heaven and hell. Histories and politics of previous nations, stories of previous prophets, and numerous occurrences during the life of the prophet Mohammed are mentioned in detail. The Qur’an provides arguments to challenge beliefs that do not agree with its teachings and objections that arise about its teachings. A reader of the Qur’an will find laws and policies on everyday activities such as family life, women’s rights, cleanliness, commerce, warfare, harmony, law, and democratic systems. Each surah has a title, usually related to the general theme of the surah. Every surah but one, the ninth surah, begins with the heading Bismillahir-Rahmanir-Rahim, meaning “In the Name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful.” These words are called “basmallah.” The basmallah is not only found repeatedly in the Qur’an but is considered by Muslims as a form of grace. Bismillahir-Rahmanir-Rahim is used on letterheads as titles and can be found engraved on entrances of buildings and offices. The basmallah is used as an expression and referred to in Muslim dialect as “Bismillah.” It is recited by Muslims in various situations such as riding in the car, eating or drinking, changing clothes, and going to bed. It is used in the recognition of Allah in all situations. The Qur’an has stimulated development of entire disciplines of knowledge dealing with its reading, writing, and interpretation. For example, its pronunciation or the manner in which it was recited had been preserved and a science was developed according to the rules of its recitation. This science was developed under the name “ilm al-Tajweed.” Along with the pronunciation of the Qur’an, another science was developed and is called “ilm al-Tafseer.” It deals with the meaning and reasons for revelations of the verses. It documents the rationalization of the Qur’an as it was explained by the Prophet Mohammed. Another well-known discipline would be the development of calligraphy that was started to preserve the written form of the Qur’an.

PHENOMENA IN THE QUR’AN Allah selected prophets in order to be the most suited person to deliver His message. He also provided prophets with miracles as proof of their prophethood. Allah selected miracles to fit in the same field as those which people excelled in at their time in order to comprehend the magnitude of these miracles. For instance, during the time of the prophet Moses people excelled at magical trickery. Kings and rulers, at that time,

surrounded themselves with the most powerful wizards as a sign of power. This is why the miracles of the prophet Moses were similar to their magical trickery such as changing a stick into a snake, parting the sea, and so forth. However; they were not tricks, but actual physical miracles that the wizards and magicians themselves submitted and believed in the prophet Moses. Another example is at the time of the prophet Isa (Jesus) people excelled in matters of medicine. Consequently, the prophet Isa’s miracles were of a medical nature, like raising the dead, healing the blind, and so forth, and of a degree that they could never hope to imitate. Similarly, the major miracle of the Qur’an is the language of the Qur’an. The literary and linguistic nature of the Qur’anic text is miraculous, for it transcends the productive capacity of the nature of the Arabic language. The Arabic language is the only language that really shows what words in the Qur’an truly mean while all translations are only interpretations. The language used in the Qur’an was a new type of literature—a little similar to Arab’s poetry but far beyond anything they could ever hope to match. During the sixth and seventh centuries CE, Arabs were the masters of their language. People of the Arabian Desert were, in general, unlettered. What set them apart was their mastery of the Arabic language represented in their poetry. They were well known for their ability to express fluently whatever they want and form it into poems. Their eloquent expressive poetry was the trademark of their gatherings. They used to boast about themselves, their families, and their history with poetry (Tzortzis and Deen, 2005). Arabs used to spend entire years composing and refining their poetry in anticipation of a yearly poetic competition of their peers from all over the country. The fact that they were unlettered forced them to train themselves in the memorization of works of literature to such an extent that they were able to memorize complete works from one single recitation. As for what the literature says in regard to the miraculous nature of the Qur’an is what Hamza Tzortzis stated in his book The Inimitable Qur’an, Introduction to the Literary and Linguistic Miracles of the Qur’an: From a linguistic point of view the Qur’an employs various rhetorical features such as the use of rhythm, figures of speech, similes, metaphors, and rhetorical questions. Also, the use of irony and the repetition of words are a small part of the Qur’an’s repertoire of rhetorical devices. Its cohesiveness includes various methods such as parallel structures, phrasal ties, substitution, reference and lexical cohesion. These features provide the bedrock and hang together to create the Qur’an’s unique style. (2003, p. 265) The Egyptian Mustafa Sadiq al-Rafi’i confirms this opinion as he states in his book Introducing the Qur’an’s Literary Excellence: Anyone who heard it had no option but to surrender to the Qur’an . . . every single part of his mind (the listener) will be touched by the pure sound of the

language music, and portion by portion, note by note, he will embrace its harmony, the perfection of its pattern and its formal completion. It was not much as if something was recited to him but rather as if something had burned itself into him. (New Civilization, 2003, p.5) A final example is what Arberry, in his personal experience with the rhythm of the Qur’an, wrote: “Whenever I hear the Qur’an chanted, it is as though I am listening to Music, underneath the flowing melody there is sounding . . . insistent beat of a drum, it is like the beating of my heart” (1964, p. 16). What makes the Qur’an a miracle is that it is outside the productive capacity of the nature of the Arabic language due to its unique literary form, inimitable genre, matchless eloquence, and frequency of rhetorical features? The prophet Mohammed had never participated in poetic competitions, was never a poet himself and did not even recite verses of other poets “It is not the word of a poet: little is that you believe!” (69:41). At the beginning of Qur’anic revelation, because people did not believe in the prophet Mohammed and his message, Allah challenged the Arabs, experts of the language at that time, to produce a literature like the Qur’an. If this challenge was fulfilled and they were able to create something like the Qur’an then this would prove that the prophet Mohammed is a liar and the Qur’an is his own creation and was not revealed by Allah. The challenge was stated in the Qur’an as: “If mankind and the jinn were to gather together to produce the like of this Qur’an, they could never produce the like thereof, even if they backed up one another” (17:88). This proclamation was repeated several times in the Qur’an and was the greatest challenge to their literary expertise. However, they could not even come near the mastery of the Qur’an. The challenge was reduced “Or, do they say: He has forged it. Say: Then bring ten forged chapters like it and call upon whom you can besides Allah, if you are truthful” (11:13) and again no one stepped forward. The challenge was reduced for the third time: “And if ye are in doubt as to what We have revealed from time to time to Our servant, then produce a Surah like thereunto . . .” (2:23). H. A. R. Gibb (1962) stated in his book Mohammedanism: Well then, if the Koran were his own (Muhammad’s) composition other men could rival it. Let them produce ten verses like it. If they could not (and it is obvious that they could not), then let them accept the Koran as an outstanding evidential miracle. (p. 42) Not a soul stepped forward to accept the challenge of producing the like of the Qur’an. British orientalist and translator Forster Fitzgerald Arbuthnot (1985) states, “and that though several attempts have been made to produce a work equal to it as far as elegant writing is concerned, none has as yet succeeded” (p. 5). Instead of composing a few sentences like the Qur’anic verses, they, the non-believers, persecuted the Prophet calling him insane, a sorcerer, poet, and soothsayer. Later, the fairness, justice, and logic of the Qur’an eventually won them over, and slowly

more and more people became Muslims (Gibb, 1962, p. 42). Reactions and experiences upon hearing the Qur’an have been witnessed throughout history. A realistic example of the Qur’an’s unique style would be the dramatic intellectual revival of desert Arabs. This effect of the Qur’an was changing the hearts and minds of many Arabs at the time of revelation. Non-Muslim Arabs at that time had realized its power and some had tried to lessen its effect by shouting, clapping, singing, and loudly chattering while it was recited to them. To comprehend this point, it is crucial to note the historical context in which the Qur’an emerged. Ibn Rashiq illustrates the importance attached to language at that time. He wrote, “It should be known that Arabs thought highly of poetry as a form of speech. Therefore, they made it the archives of their history, the evidence for what they considered right and wrong, and the principal basis of reference for most of their sciences and wisdom” (Tzortzis, 2010, p. 3–4). Arabs at the time of revelation considered themselves masters of the Arabic language. They took great pride in mastering the language and they granted upper social status to those who did. Developing poetry and saying it in their gatherings was considered highly prestigious. Although these opinions, in regard to the language of the Qur’an, may seem biased, they highlight the Qur’an literary structure and this is the reason behind introducing them to the reader. If the Qur’an is revealed to guide humanity to a peaceful and serene world, why are there so many misconceptions about the Qur’an and the religion of Islam in general? To answer this question, we need to look at the interpretations of the Qur’an.

INTERPRETATIONS OF THE QUR’AN Interpretation of the Qur’an is the procedure of understanding the legal principles and doctrines of “Islamic law through employing the intellectual effort” (Amini, 2009, p. 1). Different interpretations reflect the plurality of Islamic thought as is the case with the different schools of thought. When studying the Qur’an, it is important to note that reduction of the self is essential to have a better understanding of the Qur’an. Reduction of the self occurs when the reader suspends his own judgments and feelings and looks at the verses as they are revealed. It is like deleting all previous knowledge and understandings of a certain experience and looking at it with different lenses trying to understand what it really means. The first verse of the Qur’an represents this reduction. It says, “By the name of Allah, Most compassionate, Most Merciful” (1:1). This verse is mentioned at the beginning of all surahs, chapters, of the Qur’an, except one. The epistemological part of saying this verse is to remind the person who says it to reduce his background, ideas, and all concepts of natural, social, cultural, and psychological self and try to understand what Allah is telling him in the verses that he is going to read. Reciting this verse at the beginning of all surahs means it is asking people to try to understand the Qur’an through the eyes of Allah. The reader has to eliminate his own previous feelings and ideas and try to understand what Allah wants to say in the Qur’an and abide by his rules in all his activities. Using

this verse at the beginning of each action represents reduction of the self in order to understand the meaning as it is seen by Allah: “This meaning must be absolute and transcendental” (Omari, 2006, p. 2). It directs Muslims to how to approach experiences in their daily lives. One of the prophet Mohammed’s prayers is “God let us see things as they are,” which confirms that people are able to see things in two ways: as they are and as we wish to see them. Husserl (1982) called this shift “phenomenological reduction,” in which everyone becomes a phenomenologist. When the reader says “By the name of Allah, Most compassionate, Most Merciful,” he is working towards achieving the essences of the Qur’an by purifying the self from any previous impressions or conceptions. Curriculum in the Qur’an is asking its readers in almost all chapters to reflect, contemplate, reduce everything, and just see things in the way that Allah wants people to see them. This is one of the reasons for different interpretations of the Qur’an. Moreover, interpreting the Qur’an depends on the perspective of who is reading, how he is reading, and the situation in which he is reading it. Therefore, and as with other books, different interpretations of the Qur’an reflect the readers’ backgrounds and their philosophical and theoretical assumptions. Ramadan, the professor of Islamic Studies at Oxford University, considered by Time magazine as one of the one hundred most influential people in the world in 2010, stated in his article, “Good Muslim, Bad Muslim,” “The theme of moderation in religious practice has been a constant in Islamic literature from the very beginning, during the prophet Muhammad’s life in the early seventh century” (Ramadan, 2010, p. 3). Allah asks his followers in the Qur’an to be moderate and take the easy path in life as explained in the verse: “God desires ease for you, and desires not hardship” (2:158). The prophet Mohammed confirms: “Religion is very easy and whoever overburdens himself in his religion will not be able to continue in that way. So you should not be extremists” (AlBukhari, Vol. 1, No. 38). The prophet Mohammed and his companions were always flexible when it came to differences of opinion and did not use violence; “Instead they debated and educated the society” (Hassan, 2003, p. 6). Different interpretations go back to the eighth century when: Two interpretations of religious practice sprang up: ahl al-’azima, which is the group who applied the Islamic laws without considering the context or the need for easiness into account; and ahl ar-rukhas, which is the group who considered the context and the need for flexibility in the social context of daily life. (Ramadan, 2010, p. 2) To explain a little more, Ramadan (2010) gives an example of the difference between these two groups. In the Qur’an, there is a verse that allows elders, children, pregnant women, travelers, and sick people to break their fast during the month of Ramadan, the month of fasting for Muslims, if they find difficulty: O you who believe, fasting is prescribed for you, as it was prescribed for those

before you. . . . The month of Ramadan is that in which the Qur’an was revealed, guidance to men and clear proofs of the guidance and the Criterion. So whoever of you is present in the month, he shall fast therein, and whoever is sick or on a journey, (he shall fast) a (like) number of other days. Allah desires ease for you and He desires not hardship for you. . . . (2:183–185) In regard to these verses, ahl al-’azima would say the sick, elders, travelers, and pregnant women should fast because the more challenging something is, the more glory they receive from Allah. Ahl al-’azima shape their lives around choosing the more difficult path because they think it brings them closer to Allah. However, ahl ar-rukhas would pose that if it is permissible, then why go through pain? Their argument is if the creator, Allah, is giving this group of people the permission to break their fast, why should they suffer? Ahl ar-rukhas choose the easier path in life. This choice is not based on individual preference but rather on choices made by scholars or religious leaders of each area who make decisions for each region: “Muslims in general consider ahl ar-rukhas the moderate group” (Ramadan, 2010, p. 5). Over the past thirteen centuries, most Islamic scholars and Muslims have promoted and followed the path of moderation in their religious practices. Most are devoted to such fundamental principles as five prayers a day, fasting in the month of Ramadan, and avoiding alcohol and pork while adapting new aspects of new cultures and producing legal opinions for the latest challenges they face. This is what modernism mean for Muslims. However from non-Muslims’ viewpoint, moderate Muslims are those who adopt no distinctive dress, who consume alcohol, and who practice their religion by making it invisible in the public sphere. This entails us to realize that histories, cultures, and reference points are not identical; the notion of moderation has to be studied from within each system of reference. It cannot be imposed from outside. Therefore when non-Muslims see Muslims performing the five daily prayers, fasting during Ramadan, not eating pork, and adhering to their dress codes, they automatically conclude that they are extremist. This initial misconception about Muslims might be because of the invisibility of the daily religious practices in the non-Muslims daily lives. This is not to deny that among the diverse currents within Muslim communities there are a few extremist groups. Some examples of extremist groups are some Salafis in Saudi Arabia or the traditionalist Tablighis in Pakistan. Some members of these groups would discourage Muslims from interacting with Christians, Jews, or atheists, and even advise adopting a stance of hostility and rejection. At the same time, these same minority Muslim groups criticize other Muslim tendencies, going so far as to question their Islamic beliefs and practices and consider them kafir (disbelievers). It is ridiculous that the same group that paradoxically are considered “fundamentalists” and “extremists” within the West are called kafir from extremist Muslim groups. In the Qur’an, the prophet Mohammed himself was never said to have accused any Muslim of being a kafir or to have expelled an individual or group of

Muslims based on religious differences. In fact the prophet Mohammed has forbidden calling any Muslim a disbeliever, unless this individual publicly proclaimed that he is a disbeliever. This is another reason that people should be informed and study different religious faiths in order to understand them. Many people have different religious convictions, and it would be impossible to understand them without first understanding their beliefs. In other words, as is the situation with any other book, different people interpret the Qur’an differently. So, what is the right way to interpret the Qur’an? The Qur’an provides people with the appropriate way to interpret the text. The Qur’an is designed for people to read as a whole book and not just parts of it. To confirm this point, the Qur’an condemns those who choose parts of it: “While ye conceal much of its contents” (6:91). The Qur’an emphasizes considering all factors related to each verse due to its textual unity. To be able to understand the Qur’an, people are required to study the reasons for the revelation of its verses, while studying all other verses dealing with the same topic. In other words, people are required to read it “holistically and intratextually” to reach for its true meanings (Barlas, 2007, para 8). Different interpretations of the Qur’an should not be confused with the Qur’an itself. The Qur’an explains that there are some people “Who write the Book with their own hands, and then say: ‘This is from God’” (2:79). This means that the Qur’an differentiates between its text and people’s interpretations. Additionally, the Qur’an warns people that there will be groups who will falsify its meanings to match their needs or serve their agendas. The verse to support this is: “And there are among them un-lettered, who know not the Book but (see therein their own) desires and they do nothing but conjecture” (2:78). The proper way to understand the Qur’an and its rules is by reading it holistically. Holistically means to collect all the verses related to a topic, arrange these verses chronologically according to time of revelation, and learn the reason for revelation. By following this process, the interpreter will have a clearer idea of the Qur’an and its message.

Chapter 2

Education in the Qur’an Probably one of the most common definitions of the word “curriculum” can be derived from its Latin root meaning “race course.” For many students, school curriculum is considered to be a race they have to run by studying and memorizing all the subjects introduced to them in order to reach the finish line by passing their exams. Schools have been influenced by the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle who used the word curriculum in reference to the subjects taught at schools since the fourth century BCE. The meaning of the word curriculum extended in the early twentieth century to include subjects other than the classics. Therefore, it is not surprising that writers such as Longstreet and Shane (1993) wrote “curriculum is a historical accident-it has not been developed to accomplish a clear set of purposes. Rather, it has evolved as a response to the increasing complexity of educational decision making” (p. 7). In 1918, John Franklin Bobbitt, a university professor specializing in curriculum, was the first to publish a textbook entitled The Curriculum. Bobbitt defined curriculum as the experiences, planned and unplanned, that students have in school to become successful in society (Kliebard, 2004). The planned experiences are from the material taught in class—mathematics and science, for example. The unplanned experience refers to the acts that students learn that are not prescribed in textbooks, such as listening to the teacher or raising hands before speaking in class. School leaders in the United States adopted these ideas because they emphasized the importance of social proficiency (Kliebard, 2004). Afterward, Bobbitt in his book Curriculum of Modern Education (1941), developed new ideas in regard to curriculum as he wrote that curriculum can be: . . . an emphasis on the importance of general education; the inability to predetermine future lives and roles of students; the necessity for schools to develop individuals’ intellect rather than to train them for work and a respect for many of the classic authors of “great books” from the Western tradition. (Zacharias, 2004, p. 2) Later, another idea developed introducing curriculum as “the process by which these contents are transmitted or ‘delivered’ to students by the most effective methods that can be devised” ( Blenkin, Edwards and Kelly, 1992, p. 23). In their formulation, Blenkin et al. changed the meaning of curriculum to mean the instructions or methods that teachers use to teach the subject matter. Moreover, the word “curriculum” has been used to refer to the subject material taught at schools. It was the body of knowledge to be transmitted to students. Early Western foundations of educational scholars focused on great ideas taught in Classical and Renaissance periods: “The trivium (grammar, logic and rhetoric) and the quadrivuim (arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy)” (Stewart, 2013, para. 9). In the early twentieth century, the word “curriculum” was expanded to include more

practical and vocational subjects including the arts, physical education, and others (Holsinger and Cowell, 2000). At that stage, content was accompanied by skills training. Western traditionalists believed that having knowledge and skills would make an educated successful person. Recent views of curriculum recommend embracing common core state standards that promote providing a clear idea of the subject matter taught, activities, instructions, and all resources that can be employed by a teacher to achieve the goals of education, which has led some to think that each teacher would instruct according to his or her own beliefs and abilities. As a response, subject matter specialists developed packaged curricula for teachers to use and follow as a script. This may explain the use of teachers’ manuals in our schools. These multiple views mean that the word curriculum has various definitions: Some of these definitions can be: a set of subjects; content; a program of study; a set of materials; a sequence of courses; performance objectives; everything that goes on within the school including extra-class activities, guidance, and interpersonal relationships; everything that is planned by school personnel; a series of experiences undergone by learners in a school or that which an individual learner experiences as a result of schooling. (Oliva, 1997, p 4) Some scholars indicate that the debate about curriculum cannot be finalized because of the continuous changes in the world, which have resulted in the varying schools of thought. In 2009 Marsh wrote, “over 120 definitions of the term appear in the professional literature devoted to curriculum” (p. 2). In this chapter, the word “curriculum” refers mainly to developing and directing the thinking abilities of students in order for them to live fruitful lives and improve their world (Zacharias, 2004, p. 2). As an introduction to education curriculum in the Qur’an, it is necessary to clarify the meaning of the word “education” in Arabic, the language of the Qur’an. Al-Attas (1979), a prominent Muslim philosopher, writes that the Arabic word for education is derived from three different words: tarbiya, bring up; ta’dib, discipline; and ta’lum, educate. Tarbiya refers to leading people to maturity; ta’dib means accepting and performing communal and ethical conduct; and ta’lum is the act of receiving knowledge. Al-Attas adds, “What each of these terms conveys concerning man and his society and environment in relation to God is related to others and together they represent the scope of education in Islam, both formal and informal” (p. 157). According to this explanation, the word “curriculum” in the Qur’an includes guiding individuals to maturity while expanding their understanding of moral and social rules in addition to teaching new content. The word “education” in the Qur’an deals with the individual and his relation with God, society, and the world. There are two different types of knowledge mentioned in the Qur’an: the known knowledge, called ilm in Arabic, and hidden knowledge, Al-Ghayb. Ilm refers to the type of knowledge that humans have in terms of their ability to feel with their senses and comprehend with their minds, such as math, literature, arts, sciences, and other

subjects taught at school. Ilm or the known knowledge is the knowledge that humans are required to seek throughout their lifetimes. The second type of knowledge, Al-Ghayb, is the unknown. Al-Ghayb is one of the basic foundations of the belief system in the Qur’an. Examples of Al-Ghayb include the origin of Allah, time and place of death, and the time for the Day of Judgment. Muslims are obliged to believe in Al-Ghayb and are required not to pursue it as something that can be proven. The word Al-Ghayb is mentioned in the Qur’an numerous times. One of the verses states that the first aspect of believers is that they “Believe in Al-Ghayb, the hidden” (2:2). In several verses in the Qur’an, Allah describes himself as the only one who knows Al-Ghayb: “Allah, the one who knows the unseen/unknown and the visible/knowable” (39:46) and “With Him are the keys of the unseen (Al-Ghayb). No one has knowledge of it other than Him . . .” (6:59). Even the Prophet Mohammed does not know Al-Ghayb: “Say (O Muhammad!): “I do not say to you that I have the treasures of Allah nor that I know the unseen (Al-Ghayb). . . . I only follow what is revealed to me.” (6:50). However, Allah reveals certain things from the unseen to His messengers: “He is the One who knows the unseen (AlGhayb), and He reveals His unseen (Al-Ghayb) to no one, except to the messenger . . .” (72:26–27). For example, Allah revealed to His prophets descriptions of heaven and hell, scenes of the Day of Judgment, and information about some future events. Allah revealed this type of knowledge to support his messengers in order for them to teach, warn, and help people be prepared for those events. The words “knowledge” and “education” as used in this book refer to all types of known knowledge, including religious, literary, historical, and scientific knowledge.

THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE IN THE QUR’AN In general, theories of knowledge offer guiding principles for developing an educational system. They aid curriculum designers in building their own methodologies to reach their designed goals or objectives (Hansen, Fliesser, Froelich, and McClain, 1992). Each educational system incorporates its own particular theory of knowledge that fits its needs and desires. What’s more, educational philosophies evolve over time. Muslims believe the Qur’an carries a universal message and is not limited to time or place. In reading the Qur’an and coding aspects of curriculum, I found that there is no one clear definition of the theory of knowledge, yet great emphasis is placed on seeking knowledge. Therefore, I concluded that the Qur’an does not define a theory of knowledge to be used and applied because societies change constantly. Instead of defining a theory of knowledge, curriculum in the Qur’an uses four epistemologies. First, the lack of a clear definition of curriculum in the Qur’an has allowed Islamic scholars to provide various definitions and explanations of epistemology based on the time and place in which they live and using the same bases as those used in the Qur’an. Second, the Qur’an encourages people to pursue knowledge. Third, the Qur’an gives a detailed description of knowledgeable people and their behaviors, morals, and actions, which is more beneficial than a philosophical

definition of morals. Fourth, and since people may read the same text and come away with different interpretations and understandings, curriculum in the Qur’an uses demonstration to send a clear message of its teachings. Demonstrating the characteristics of educators and educated people encourages learners to build on these qualities. These four epistemologies will be addressed throughout this chapter. As for theory of knowledge in the literature, although curriculum in the Qur’an does not provide a definition for theory of knowledge, Muslim scholars have provided their own views in regard to curriculum in the Qur’an that supports my findings. Dr. Hasan Langgulung (2011), professor of science and technology at Malaysia University, pointed out the bases for curriculum in the Qur’an: The bases of Islamic Philosophy of education are . . . the belief that human has potency within the development of morality and spirituality, the belief that each individual is responsible for his action . . . and also the belief of universal similarity among the people. (p. 3) This is to say that curriculum in the Qur’an’s goal is to develop the learner’s personality from all aspects. Confirming this opinion is the results of the First World Conference on Muslim Education that was held in Mecca in 1977 where they approved the following objectives as the main goal of Islamic education: Education should aim at the balanced growth of the total personality of man through the training of Man’s spirit, intellect, his rational self, feelings and bodily senses. Education should cater therefore for the growth of Man in all aspects: spiritual, intellectual, imaginative, physical, scientific, linguistic, both individually and collectively and motivate all aspects towards goodness and the attainment of perfection. The ultimate aim of Muslim education lies in the realization of complete submission to Allah on the level of the individual, the community and humanity at large (Koylu, 2003, p. 129). The goal of this chapter is to elucidate what the Qur’an says first with regard to promoting education and seeking knowledge. Following that is a discussion of the five requirements within the curriculum of the Qur’an, the application of knowledge, intention, recognition of the self, critical thinking, and spirituality, in the context of Islamic beliefs.

SEEKING KNOWLEDGE Reading through the Qur’an, I found that one of the epistemologies used in the Qur’an’s curriculum is promoting education and seeking knowledge. The importance of learning and seeking knowledge is clarified in several ways. First, the revelation of the first five revealed verses of the Qur’an to the prophet Mohammed in the surah is called Al-Alaq, which reads: “Read in the name of your Lord who created, created man from a clot. Read, for your Lord is most generous, who teaches by means of the

pen, teaches man what he does not know” (96:1–5). The first verse, or to be more specific, the first word, in communication between Allah and the prophet Mohammed was “read;” it was not pray or fast. The word “read” clarifies the importance of knowledge for humans and emphasizes the value of education in the Qur’an. Another way the Qur’an demonstrates the significance of education and knowledge is through the story of the creation of the prophet Adam. When Allah created Adam, the first thing he did was teach Adam the science of naming things, ilm al-asma: “And He taught Adam all the names (of everything) . . .” (2:31). At the same time, Allah ordered Adam not to eat from a certain tree; some scholars indicated it’s a tree of eternity. Afterward, he gave Adam the chance to live his own life in his own way in heaven. By teaching Adam the names of everything immediately after creating him, Allah places the ultimate importance on knowledge and education. It is like education comes after life. The third method that curriculum in the Qur’an uses is explained in this verse: “Thy Lord said to the angels: I will create a vicegerent on earth” (2:30), with a vicegerent of Allah on earth being one who has the ability to rule the world. Adam was created to be the vicegerent of Allah on earth, and the Qur’an requires all sons of Adam to seek knowledge to develop their skills in all aspects of life in order to become competent vicegerents. The concept is similar to a student who works hard to meet the expectations of his favorite teacher or a child who tries to fulfill his parents’ expectations. Fourth, curriculum in the Qur’an asks people directly to pursue knowledge as in the first verse revealed (96:1). One example of a verse that encourages people to seek knowledge reads, “Allah will raise those who have believed among you and those who were given knowledge, by degrees” (58:11). This verse reflects the fact that knowledgeable people have a higher status in the eyes of Allah. One more example is: Their Prophet said to them: “(Allah) hath appointed Talut as king over you.” They said: “How can he exercise authority over us when we are better fitted than he to exercise authority, and he is not even gifted, with wealth in abundance?” He said: “(Allah) hath chosen him above you, and hath gifted him abundantly with knowledge and bodily prowess. . . .” (2:247) This verse explains that Talut was chosen as king because he had more knowledge. Some other verses encouraging learning and seeking knowledge are: Nor should the Believers all go forth together: if a contingent from every expedition remained behind, they could devote themselves to studies in religion, and admonish the people when they return to them, that thus they (may learn) to guard themselves (against evil). (9:122)

but say “O my Lord! Advance me in knowledge. (20:114) are those equal, those who know and those who do not know? It is those who are endued with understanding that receive admonition. (39:9) And when ye are told to rise up, rise up, God will rise up to (suitable) ranks (and degrees), those of you who believe and who have been granted Knowledge. . . . (58:11) It is He who has sent amongst the Unlettered a messenger from among themselves, to rehearse to them His signs, to sanctify them, and to instruct them in Scripture and Wisdom although they had been, before, in manifest error. (62:2) Along with the direct order, the Qur’an encourages people to pursue education by introducing Allah’s signs in the universe, followed by asking people to ponder these signs and to attempt to figure out how and why they happen. These verses are always concluded by questioning the reader or listener: “do they (people) not listen/ ponder/see/reflect . . .” on these signs and “Is He who creates comparable to any (being) that cannot create? Will you not, then, bethink yourselves?” (16:17). A further example states: And it is He who has spread the earth wide and placed on it firm mountains and running waters, and created thereon two sexes of every (kind of) plant; (and it is He who) causes the night to cover the day. Verily, in all this there are messages indeed for people who think! (13:3) Another verse reads, “In this, behold, there are messages indeed for those who are endowed with reason!” (20:128). These verses invite people to question the many signs in God’s creation everywhere and strive to find the answers to them. This is an indirect way of asking people to seek knowledge in order to understand the creation of the universe. In addition to verses of the Qur’an, the prophet Mohammed asked Muslims to attain knowledge, and he even encouraged them to travel for the purpose of pursuing knowledge from all parts of the world. Examples of the Ahadeeth, or sayings of the prophet, that demonstrate the importance of knowledge include “Allah opens the path of Paradise to one who takes a step on the path of acquisition of knowledge” (AlBukhari, Vol. 1, No. 201); “The best monuments and legacies which a man leaves behind himself are a dutiful son, useful buildings, knowledge which are benefited by the people after him” (Al-Bukhari, Vol. 2, No. 11); and “One who wishes to see those who are safe from the fire of hell should look at the seekers of knowledge” (AlBukhari, Vol. 1, No. 58). Additionally, when the prophet commended the worshippers and learners in his mosque, he praised the group who met to learn more and said, “I

have been sent as a teacher” (Al-Bukhari, Vol. 1, No. 11), affirming the prophet’s encouragement of learning and seeking knowledge over staying at the mosque and praying. Finally, the prophet Mohammed said, “Seeking knowledge is an obligation for every Muslim, man and woman” (Al-Bukhari, Vol. 1, No. 201). In terms of the significance of knowledge and the importance of seeking knowledge, Professor Asma Afsaruddin (2005), senior editor of the Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Women, points out that “The Qur’an depicts knowledge as a great bounty from God granted to His prophets and their followers through time” (p. 1). She also included verses 2:151–152, 4:113, 12:22, 28:14, among those confirming that Allah bestows knowledge on His prophets and their followers (p. 1). These verses state: A similar (favor have ye already received) in that We have sent among you a Messenger of your own, rehearsing to you Our Signs, and sanctifying you, and instructing you in Scripture and Wisdom, and in new knowledge. Then do ye remember Me; I will remember you. Be grateful to Me, and reject not Faith (2:151–152); But for the Grace of Allah to thee and his Mercy, a party of them would certainly have plotted to lead thee astray. But (in fact) they will only lead their own souls astray, and to thee they can do no harm in the least. For Allah hath sent down to thee the Book and wisdom and taught thee what thou Knewest not (before): And great is the Grace of Allah unto thee (4:113) “When Joseph attained His full manhood, We gave him power and knowledge: thus do We reward those who do right” (12:22); and “When he reached full age, and was firmly established (in life), We bestowed on him wisdom and knowledge: for thus do We reward those who do good” (28:14). These verses describe how Allah bestows knowledge to people so they may differentiate between good and evil and therefore lead their people. In conclusion of this section, it is worthy to note that curriculum in the Qur’an does not only emphasize seeking knowledge the rational way where learners listen to the teachers, read books, or Google information, it encouraged empirical seeking of knowledge as it says “Travel through the earth and see how Allah did originate creation . . .” (29:20). This is a clear order for people to do the effort, travel, learn from other cultures, and research.

THE FIVE EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS IN THE QUR’AN Application of Knowledge There are certain expectations and assertions that curriculum in the Qur’an anticipates and encourages its followers to adopt. The first expectation is application of knowledge. The expected application of knowledge is internal, within the human

self, and external as in communicating with others. People are not required to study merely for the sake of learning; they are required to apply knowledge towards the improvement of themselves and society, to “Follow what has been sent down unto you from your Lord” (7:3). For example, people learn morals to improve their own daily behaviors, but they study politics to improve society and to achieve justice and peace. Many verses require the knowledge a person gains to be reflected in his actions. For example: And say (unto them, O Prophet): “Act! And God will behold your deeds, and (so will) His Apostle, and the believers: and (in the end) you will be brought before Him who knows all that is beyond the reach of a created being’s perception as well as all that can be witnessed by a creature’s senses or mind -and then He will make you understand what you have been doing.” (9:105) The prophet Mohammed is the role model for all Muslims, and he was the first to apply all knowledge that he gained to all his daily life activities. Aisha, the prophet’s wife, described the prophet as a Qur’an walking on earth. Examples of applying knowledge include performing the five daily prayers, fasting the month of Ramadan regardless of the weather, paying annual alms representing 2.5 percent of a Muslim’s savings to the needy, and the pilgrimage to Mecca. Following certain dietary restrictions, such as refraining from drinking alcohol or eating pork, also can be considered an application of knowledge. Additionally, the prophet said: The feet of the son of Adam will not move away from his Lord on the Day of Resurrection till he is asked about five things about his life, how he spent it; about his youth, how he passed it; about his wealth, how he earned it; and on what he poured it; and what he did with that which he learnt. (Al-Bukhari, Vol. 3, No. 2424) The Qur’an describes those who have knowledge and do not apply it: The similitude of those who were charged with the (obligations of the) law, but who subsequently failed in those (obligations), is that of a donkey which carries a load of books (but understands them not). Evil is the similitude of people who falsify the sign of God: And God guides not people who do wrong. (62:5) Therefore, having knowledge and not applying it makes a person like an animal, as a donkey that does not know or comprehend the value of what he has learned and is merely traveling with a heavy weight on his back. Similar to Allah’s previously mentioned view of humans who do not apply their knowledge as resembling donkeys that are oblivious to the value of what they have learned, the Qur’an describes people who merely eat, sleep, marry, have children, and then die with no purpose or effort toward self-improvement as living like animals: “They have hearts wherewith they understand not, eyes wherewith they see not, and ears wherewith they hear not.

They are like cattle, nay more misguided” (7:179). As stated in the first part of this chapter, the first requirement in the Qur’an’s curriculum is the application of knowledge, which is meant to be combined with seeking knowledge itself. The application of knowledge is required in Western education as well. Paulo Freire, John Dewey, and many other educational theorists and scholars called for the application of knowledge. For example, Freire (1973) insisted that “Knowledge necessitates the curious presence of subjects confronted with the world. It requires their transforming action on reality” (p. 101). Mark Halstead (2004), at the University of Plymouth, in the United Kingdom, confirmed the importance of the application of knowledge when he wrote, “If a man reads a hundred thousand scientific subjects but does not act upon them, his knowledge is of no use to him, for its benefit lies only in being used” (p. 70). This suggests that for people to have knowledge and not act upon it is like adding one more book to a library, which serves no purpose if the knowledge contained in the book is not utilized. Azram (2011), doctor of science at the University of Malaysia, asserted the importance of applying knowledge when he wrote, “The theory of knowledge in the Islamic perspective is not just a theory of epistemology; it combines knowledge, insight, and social action as its ingredients” (p. 186). This view coincides with my readings of the Qur’an as related to the necessity of applying knowledge.

Intention Another requirement of curriculum in the Qur’an is intention. The Qur’an asks its followers to seek knowledge with an intention to satisfy the creator and get closer to him. Intention in the Qur’an is a basic foundation of any action: “Allah will not call you to account for thoughtlessness in your oaths, but for the intention in your hearts; and He is oft-forgiving most forbearing” (2:225). Some very simple acts are of great value in Allah’s view because of the pure intentions of the applicant. Other great acts lose their value because their intentions are not directed toward satisfying Allah: “As for those who strive in Us, We shall surely guide them in our ways” (2:276). Another example is “But there is no blame on you if ye make a mistake therein: (what counts is) the intention of your hearts: and Allah is Oft-Returning, Most Merciful” (33:5). Every person has to answer to Allah for what he does or fails to do according to his intentions. Prophet Mohammed confirms the necessity of intention before action by saying, “All actions are judged by motives, and each person will be rewarded according to their intention. Thus, he whose migration was to God and His Messenger, his migration is to God and His Messenger; but he whose migration was for some worldly thing he might gain, or for a wife he might marry, his migration is to that for which he migrated” (Al-Bukhari, Vol. 1, p. 42). This hadith explains that any action must be intended to satisfy Allah and get closer to him, as long as it does not contradict the commandments or prohibitions of the Qur’an. Allah asks people to seek knowledge with the intention of learning as a response to his orders.

Another demonstration of intention is the shahada, or testimony of faith, which is the first step a person must take to become a Muslim. The sole purpose of a believer in Allah is to make the intention that the main goal of being a Muslim is to obey Allah and please Him. The Qur’an states that humans must direct their lives and their intentions towards pleasing Allah: “Say: ‘My prayer and my rites, my living and my dying, are for Allah alone, the Lord of all the worlds” (6:162). Curriculum in the Qur’an stresses the intention of seeking knowledge because the main reason should be directed towards pleasing Allah through serving humans and society. Therefore, all research and sciences should aim to serve humanity. Halstead (2004) explains that knowledge is like money: we cannot just collect it but we have to use it. From the Qur’anic perspective the appropriate use of knowledge is through helping people live in balance according to Allah’s laws. Ibn Khaldon explains why people need to communicate and support each other as he wrote that a person cannot live alone by himself and he needs to associate with other people to stay alive. This is why people need to cooperate with each other. The prophet Mohammad said, “The believers in their mutual kindness, compassion and sympathy are just like one body. When one of the limbs suffers, the whole body responds to it with wakefulness and fever” (Al-Bukhari, Vol 1, #224). Having intentions for our actions is similar to Western legal codes in which individual responsibility is predicated on a person’s intent and motive. The difference is in curriculum in the Qur’an; the intention should be clear and the same which is satisfying Allah. Muslim scholars advise people to take a moment for themselves before approaching any action and to determine the intentions of their actions. Further, humans must avoid any action that is not directed toward pleasing Allah. Muslim scholar Jamal Badawi (2010) confirmed the importance of intention, writing: Behind any action or form of behavior there are certain motives. What Islam regards as essential is that the motives behind what we say or do should always be directed towards God. They should always be directed towards the purpose of perusing the pleasure, approval and satisfaction of God. (para. 3)

Recognition of the Self The goal of education is to enable the learner to reach self-realization of his or her own personality. Learning starts from birth and continues throughout one’s life. Curriculum in the Qur’an calls to developing learner’s personality to be an active useful member in society. This is becase curriculum in the Qur’an does not ask its followers to apply its rituals only as fasting, praying, or going to pilgrimage. It asks its followers to apply all its teachings which deal with all aspects of life including values, morals, psychological, political, physical, mental, and socioeconomic aspects while making balance between them. Therefore, learners are able to act to the betterment of their society and humanity in general. In other words, curriculum in the Qur’an

encourages seeking knowledge and makes it mandatory to fulfill religious and spiritual duties in addition to achieving social justice and economic development and to endure harmony between its members. The task of education is to connect each individual with ideal values. Therefore and as vicegerent of Allah on earth, the human being's role is to reconstruct the earth. This is what the verse “I am appointing of a representative on the earth” (2:30) means. Therefore the human’s responsibility is to do the effort to develop and reform the earth. Al-Naqib (1979) confirmed this view as he indicated that developing a practicing Muslim is the main objective of Islamic education. Curriculum in the Qur’an calls for respect and an appreciation for individuals, as it says, “We have honored the sons of Adam . . .” (17:70). Another verse addresses the recognition of Adam when Allah ordered the angels to bow to him: “When I have fashioned him (in due proportion) and breathed into him of My spirit, fall ye down in obeisance unto him” (15:29). Allah’s command to the angels reflects Adam’s prestigious status in His eyes. Other verses confirm Adam’s status by stating that the whole universe was created for Adam and his children to enjoy and utilize: “It is He Who hath created for you all things that are on earth . . .” (2:29). Another verse says, “It is We who have given you the authority on the earth and provided you (humanity) therein the means for the fulfillment of your life” (7:10). Curriculum in the Qur’an recognizes that learners have different abilities, interests, prior experiences, and learning potential, and the Qur’an encourages learners to learn about themselves first before learning about the world. “Allah does not charge a soul except (with that within) its capacity. It will have (the consequence of) what (good) it has gained, and it will bear (the consequence of) what (evil) it has earned” (2:286). Another verse states, “Everyone will be entitled to get according to his efforts” (53:39). Status is earned according to a person’s actions and deeds, as in “And for all there are ranks according to what they do” (46:19), but at the same time the Qur’an clarifies the criterion for gaining higher status: “The noblest of you in the sight of Allah is the best in conduct” (49:13). Curriculum in the Qur’an encourages learners to try to understand who they are and how their understanding of what they learn impacts their lives. Many verses in the Qur’an ask the reader or listener a question as a way to open a dialogue, with the ultimate goal of achieving recognition of the self. Examples include “. . . can the blind be held equal to the seeing? Will ye then consider not?” (6:50) and “These two kinds (of men) may be compared to the blind and deaf, and those who can see and hear well. Are they equal when compared? Will ye not then take heed?” (11:24). The use of questioning enables humans to discover who they are and to plan their lives in relation to the world they live in. Humans must develop and distinguish themselves through their own efforts and hard work: “Truly he succeeds that purifies it. And he fails that corrupts it!” (91:10–11). While individuals cannot control their physical growth, developing the inner self, mind, and personality should be their ultimate goal. Curriculum in the Qur’an connects self-development with each individual’s own actions: “And whatever (wrong) any

human being commits rests upon himself alone; and no bearer of burdens shall be made to bear another’s burden . . .” (6:164). Recognition of the varying nature of human beings is confirmed through the use of different methods in the Qur’an while calling people to believe in Allah. People learn in different ways; some learn by seeing: “Whoever, therefore, chooses to see, does so for his own good; and whoever chooses to remain blind, does so to his own hurt” (6:104). Others learn by reminding them only, as indicated in: “Yet go on reminding (all who would listen): for, verily, such a reminder will profit the believers” (51:55). Others learn by hearing: “There is indeed a reminder for everyone whose heart is wide-awake—that is, (every one who) lends ear with a conscious mind” (50:37). Additionally, Allah ordered the prophet to use different methods of teaching as in: “(Prophet), call (people) to the way of your Lord with wisdom and good teaching. Argue with them in the most courteous way, for your Lord knows best who has strayed from His way and who is rightly guided” (16:126). This verse suggests the use of wisdom, argumentation, and good manners to persuade people. This part will be explained in more detail in the Curriculum as Instruction chapter. Butterworth (2001) quoted Ibn Rushd, known as Averroës, the influential Islamic philosopher, when he explained that recognizing human differences is obvious in the Qur’an through the method Allah uses in communicating with people, as “People’s natures vary in excellence with respect to assent” (p. 8). Butterworth (2001) added: That is because people’s natures vary in excellence with respect to assent. Thus, some assent by means of demonstration; some assent by means of dialectical statements in the same way the one adhering to demonstration assents by means of demonstration, there being nothing greater in their natures; and some assent by means of rhetorical statements, just as the one adhering to demonstration assents by means of demonstrative statements. (p. 6) This asserts that there are three types of learners. Some people learn best by demonstration, some learn best by dialectical statements, and others learn best by rhetorical statements. This is reflected in Allah asking the prophet to use different types of teaching, as will be explained in detail in the next chapter. As for Western culture matching my finding is what Madeleine Grumet (1995) writes in Understanding of Curriculum: curriculum is not a set of facts, or a program of studies, but “the process of making sense with a group of people, of the systems that shape and organize the world” (p.19). The concept of realization of the self in education is addressed by Paulo Freire (1972) in Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Freire asserts that the major goal in education is to develop a critical awareness in the understanding of social, political, and economic problems, and then to take action for change (p. 19–20). He adds that developing critical consciousness will make it possible for people to start their search for their self-affirmation which would develop their sense of responsibility and lead to creating justice. Realization of the self has been addressed in curriculum in the Qur’an.

Critical Thinking Curriculum in the Qur’an encourages the development of critical learners who are able to learn in any context. In this section, critical thinking refers to the Paul and Elder (2001) definition: “That mode of thinking—about any subject, content, or problem—in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them” (p. 50). The Qur’an considers thinking and using one’s reason as a commitment that people must make. Allah says, “How little you reflect” (7:3), “God sets those who do not use their reason in a mire of uncleanness” (10:100), “We set out in detail the signs for people who will reason and understand” (30:28) and: And in the alteration of night and day, and in the provision (rain) God sends down from the sky and reviving thereby the earth after its death, and His turning about of the winds there are clear signs for a people who are able to reason. (45:5) Curriculum in the Qur’an develops critical thinking through several techniques. The first is by directing students to observe details within larger contexts in order to recognize the different creations in the world and how those creations are related to their own lives. The Qur’an presents signs for critical thinkers as a way to encourage them to use their mental abilities to discover the world around them. For example: Behold! In the creation of the heavens and the earth; in the alternation of the night and the day; in the sailing of the ships through the ocean for the profit of mankind . . . (here) indeed are signs for people who are wise. (2:164) This verse is a clear invitation to man to think about Allah’s creation of the universe, including the skies, earth, night, day, the oceans, and why ships are floating on them. The Qur’an asks people to observe, reflect, and question why Allah created the world: “These are signs in detail for those who reflect” (10:24); “Do they not reflect in their own minds?” (30:8). Many verses ask humans to think and reflect, among them 3:19, 2:219, 13:3, and 30:21. Curriculum in the Qur’an also encourages critical thinking through the use of storytelling. It uses stories of past generations to demonstrate the importance of critical thinking and its positive results. One example is the story of how the prophet Ibrahim thought critically when he started to look around himself and wonder about the sun and moon and whether they could be God, creator of the universe: So when the night covered him (with darkness), he saw a star. He said, “This is my Lord.” But when it set, he said, “I like not those that disappear.” And when he saw the moon rising, he said, “This is my Lord.” But when it set, he said, “Unless my Lord guides me, I will surely be among the people gone astray.” And when he saw the sun rising, he said, “This is my Lord; this is greater.” But when it set, he

said, “O my people, indeed I am free from what you associate with Allah. Indeed, I have turned my face toward He who created the heavens and the earth, inclining toward truth, and I am not of those who associate others with Allah.” (6:76–79) The prophet Ibrahim’s observation of the sun and the moon created a doubt in his heart and made him conclude that whatever sets and rises are created and cannot be the creator. This passage encourages people to observe and use their intellect rather than simply follow cultural traditions and thoughts. The prominent Islamic scholar AlBiruni explained that the main motive behind his studies and research is this verse: “And reflect on the creation of the heavens and the earth: our Lord! You have not created this in vain” (3:191). In many verses Allah asks people to study all aspects of nature and to try to understand mysteries of the universe. One example is when Allah asks humans to look at the sun and moon and study their stages according to a fixed reckoning: “The sun and the moon move according to a fixed reckoning.” (6:96) and “He ordained stages for the moon so that you might learn the method of calculating years and determining time” (10:5). If man does not look around him and think about what he is seeing he would never learn these facts. Mustafa Sadiq al-Rafi’i (1995) wrote, “In the Qur’an one finds many hints for the scientific facts; and modern science helps us to interpret the meanings of some of the Qur’anic verses and to discover their facts” (p. 127–129). The Qur’an calls Muslims explicitly to examine and ponder the signs of Allah in the universe. Allah orders man to observe what is in the heavens and the earth (10:101, 7:185). The Qur’an directs Man’s attention to the heavens to contemplate about its structure and adornment (50:6). Allah asks man to walk across the earth to find out how the creation began (20:20); to study how the Earth’s surface was formed (88:20); to understand the morphology of the Earth as we need to familiarize ourselves with the planet that we are living on. Furthermore, Allah requires man to study the configuration of mountains (88:19), his own food (8:24), and how the shecamel was created (88:17). “And in your creation and in what He spreads abroad of animals there are signs for a people that are sure” (45:4); “. . . consider what is it that is in the heavens and the earth” (10:101); “. . . travel on the earth and see how He made the first creation.” (29:20). These are only examples of what curriculum in the Qur’an uses to encourage people to think and use their intellect to understand all around them which is expected to lead to the appreciation of the creator. Tabataba’i (1957) wrote: The Qur’an invites reflection about heavenly signs, the brilliant stars and the differences in their conditions and the systematic order that governs them. It encourages meditation concerning the creation of the earth, seas, mountains, the creation of plants and animals, human beings and their inner world. Thus it invites to a study of natural and mathematical sciences and all other fields, the learning

of which is in the interest of humanity and brings felicity to human society. (p. 96.) Additionally, the popular Islamic scholar al-Gazali (1995) was a great supporter of critical thinking and encouraged questioning and doubts as he wrote “doubts are the things that lead to right; he who does not doubt had not looked, and he who does not look did not see, and he who does not see remains all his life in blindness and ignorance” (Al-Ghazali, 1995, p. 222). Al-Gazali explains that accepting all of what people see and hear without using critical thinking means to stay blind and ignorant. Another form that curriculum in the Qur’an uses to encourage critical thinking is the use of argumentation to foment learning. Argumentation was the basic structure in the development of logic. The Qur’an asks: “What makes you understand what it is?” (101:10). Through argumentation, the Qur’an introduces al-hadd wal-burhan, which means the evidential logic, saying, “Or, Who originates creation” then repeats it, “And who gives you sustenance from heaven and earth? (Can there be another) god besides Allah,” “Bring forth your argument, if ye are telling the truth!” (27:64). The Qur’an also asks the learner to call for proof, as in “Say: Bring your proof if you are truthful’’ (2:111). An example of both argumentation and calling for proof is when the prophet Ibrahim asked Allah to prove that He could revive the dead: “Behold! Ibrahim said: My Lord! Show me how Thou givest life to the dead. He (God) said: Dost thou not then believe? He said: Yes! But to satisfy my own understanding” (2:260). This verse confirms that asking for proof is encouraged in the educational curriculum of the Qur’an. Alternatively, there are some scholars who argue that curriculum in the Qur’an or as they call it “Islamic Education” does not encourage critical thinking. An example would be Halstead who wrote “Independence of thought and personal autonomy do not enter into the Muslim thinking about education, which is more concerned with the progressive initiation of pupils into the received truths of the faith” (Halstead, 2004, p. 519). If curriculum in the Qur’an does not encourage critical thinking then how can one respond to the verses when prophets of Allah ask for proof that Allah is the god and the creator? An example is when the prophet Moses went to Mount Sinai: . . . and his Sustainer spoke unto him, he said: “O my Sustainer! Show Thyself unto me, so that I might behold Thee!” Said (God): Never canst thou see Me. However, behold this mountain: if it remains firm in its place, then—only then— wilt thou see Me. And as soon as his Sustainer revealed His glory to the mountain, He caused it to crumble to dust; and Moses fell down in a swoon. And when he came to himself, he said: “Limitless art Thou in Thy glory! Unto Thee do I turn in repentance; and I shall (always) be the first to believe in Thee! (7:143) If thinking and asking for proof is not encouraged then why would Allah tell people the stories of the prophets asking for proof? The prophet Moses asked Allah permission to see him and he is a believer and a prophet but he wanted to strengthen his belief. This is to say, people are encouraged to seek proof and look for evidence.

In addition to questioning and using argumentation, the Qur’an clarifies the danger of accepting any assumption, whether theological or scientific, without any proof: “And follow not that of which you have not the (certain) knowledge . . .” (17:36). In many instances, the Qur’an questions unbelievers’ thoughts and ideas and works to convince them by providing evidence from their surroundings. For example, nonbelievers used to justify their rejection of worshipping Allah by arguing that they should not accept one god because their ancestors had worshipped different idols. Curriculum in the Qur’an responds to their argument by inviting them to use their reason: When he (Abraham) said to his father and his people: “What is it that you worship?” they said, “We worship idols; and we are ever devoted to them.” Abraham said: “Do they hear you when you invoke them? Or do they benefit you or harm you?” They replied: “But we found our forefathers doing the same.” Abraham said: “So, have you considered what you have been worshipping?” (26:70–75) The prophet Ibrahim is an example of someone who rejected his people’s beliefs, including his father’s, when he realized that worshiping idols did not make any sense. One more example of the Qur’an encouraging critical thinking is when Allah speaks to the prophet Mohammed, who was not able to read or write, refuting nonbelievers’ accusation that the Qur’an was written by Mohammed: O (Muhammad) thou hast never been able to recite any divine writ ere this one (was revealed), nor didst thou ever transcribe one with your own hand or else, they who try to disprove the truth (of thy revelation) might indeed have had cause to doubt (it). (29:48) If the prophet never knew how to read or write in his entire life, Allah says, it is not logically possible for Mohammed to have written a book like the Qur’an. Dr. Ibrahim B. Syed (2012), president of Islamic Research Foundation International, outlined that approximately 1,100 verses in the Qur’an emphasize “the importance of thinking, reflecting and pondering on the signs (natural phenomena) of Allah” (p. 1). Muslim scholar Khan (1997) confirmed my findings about critical thinking and further explained that the new, practical logic called al-hadd wal-burhan was developed on the basis of critical thinking and a system of argumentation (p. 132). In conclusion of this section, knowledge is obtained through going beyond what one already knows. One of the methods to gain knowledge and develop oneself intellectually is through critical thinking. Intellectual growth will lead to spiritual development as will be explained later.

Spirituality

The last major requirement in the Qur’an’s curriculum is spirituality. Human beings are made up of a dual nature—that is, body and spirit. The spiritual part consists of the soul, intellect, emotions, and the self. The five senses are considered to be the mind’s windows to its surroundings. Curriculum in the Qur’an’s goal is to create balance between mind, sense, and ethics (Manzoor, 1984, p. 282). It creates synchronization between human body and soul as they cannot be separated. This means that people need to take care of both and keep them healthy. Developing intellectual, physical, and moral sides of humans will produce a healthy society. Curriculum in the Qur’an is concerned with the body’s as well as soul’s needs. It deals with spirituality in two ways. First, the Qur’an obliges every Muslim to seek knowledge, and then it connects the intelligence of the heart and mind, as in “Have they not hearts with which to understand” (9:87). By seeking knowledge, humans are able to know more about Allah, which leads them closer to him and therefore develops their spirituality. Second, curriculum in the Qur’an reflects that our deeds affect our souls: “Every soul will be (held) in pledge for its deeds” (74:38) and “Whoever works righteousness benefits his own soul; whoever works evil, it is against his own soul . . .” (41:46). The Qur’an also indicates that each individual decides his own position: “Verily Allah will not deal unjustly with man in aught: It is man that wrongs his own soul” (10:44). Additionally, the more good deeds a person does, the closer to Allah he gets, and the more spiritual he becomes: “So fear Allah as much as ye can; listen and obey and spend in charity for the benefit of your own soul and those saved from the covetousness of their own souls—they are the ones that achieve prosperity” (64:16) and “Verily the noblest of you in the sight of Allah is (he who is) the most righteous of you” (49:13). This is to say that a person’s deeds affect his soul and therefore his spirituality, as in “If any one does a righteous deed, it ensures to the benefit of his own soul; if he does evil, it works against (his own soul). In the end will ye (all) be brought back to your Lord” (45:15) and “Verily We have revealed the book to thee in truth, for (instructing) mankind. He, then, that receives guidance benefits his own soul: but he that strays injures his own soul . . .” (39:41). Therefore, each individual gains spiritual and material success through the application of Qur’anic teachings. When the Qur’an provides guidance, it is always combined with moral lessons that improve human life as a whole. Muslim scholars agreed that “Education must be made equally for both, mind and spirit. Acquiring knowledge is not intended as an end but as a means to stimulate a more elevated moral and spiritual consciousness, leading to faith and righteous action” (Abdullah, 1982, p. 173). Curriculum in the Qur’an shows people the importance of seeking knowledge through questioning and the use of logic, while at the same time building and developing spirituality in order to achieve success in this life and the hereafter. Nasr (1984) confirmed this idea but changed the emphasis from the present to the afterlife. He wrote, “That while education does prepare humans for happiness in this life, its ultimate goal is the abode of permanence and all education points to the permanent world of eternity” (p. 7). Hassan, Norhasni, and Ahmad

(2011) confirmed that “Intellectual growth without spiritual development is aimless wandering and spiritual development without the intellectual component is meaningless” (p. 2117); that is, the development of the self should be towards developing the human as a whole. Dr. Hamm (2012) agreed that curriculum in the Qur’an is based on one main principle, which is to develop humans “Socially, ethically, emotionally and physically in order to achieve complete submission to Allah” (p. 225). Additionally, Al-Attas (1979) confirmed this as he explained that in the Qur’an, education “is directed toward the balanced growth of the total personality . . . through training Man’s spirit, intellect, rational self, feelings and bodily senses . . . such that faith is infused into the whole of his personality” (p. 158). Additionally, many Western scholars asserted the need to developing students’ cognitive, moral, and spiritual abilities as a whole. Miller (2005) wrote: The Swiss humanitarian Johann Pestalozzi, the American Transcendentalists, Thoreau, Emerson and Alcott, the founders of “progressive” education, Francis Parker, John Dewey, Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner, among others, all insisted that education should be understood as the art of cultivating the moral, emotional, physical, psychological and spiritual dimensions of the developing child. (p. 1) Additionally, in “Understanding Curriculum,” Pinar (2004) explains aesthetic education as the education that connects the body, mind, emotions, and spirit together. It gives learners the chance to reflect on and express their feelings, perceptions, and ideas in their own ways. This expression might be through music, dance, art, or any other type of activity that the learner may choose (2004, p. 602). The idea of aesthetic education matches what the famous Islamic scholar Ibn Sina, Avicenna, believed as he reported that the actual process of knowing begins with the five external senses: sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste. He supports the idea that teaching and learning using the five senses would strengthen learners’ faith which is one of the goals of curriculum in the Qur’an (Leaman, 2006, p.76). Some important medieval Islamic scholars whose works reflect aesthetic views and concepts are AlFarabi, Al-Ghazali, Ibn-Khaldun, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Sina, Al Jazari, and Ibn Al-Haytham ( Necipoğlu, 1995, pp. 363–380).

CONCLUSION In this chapter, I introduced the meaning of the word “curriculum” in Arabic followed by an explanation of the reasons for not providing a clear definition of educational theory. I also explained how, using specific verses from the Qur’an, curriculum in the Qur’an encourages seeking knowledge and describes the behaviors of knowledgeable people to make it easier for learners to comprehend and follow. Later I identified aspects of the Qur’an’s curriculum in terms of the necessity of applying

knowledge, having an intention behind seeking and applying knowledge, recognizing the self, developing critical thinking, and spirituality. After each section, I turned to the literature to examine other viewpoints and identify whether scholarly literature supports or disconfirms my analysis. The main concern of curriculum in the Qur’an is building a balanced human personality that does not neglect spirituality. Following these commands and traditions in acquiring knowledge, early Muslim rulers, especially at the time of the Abbasid beginning with the popular Harun al-Rashid, encouraged all Muslims to acquire learning. The historian Nakosteen (1964) found that Harun al-Rashid gave considerable support to educational institutions, which led to making elementary education almost universal among Muslims at that time, as he wrote: “Education was so universally diffused that it was said to be difficult to find a Muslim who could not read or write” (p.45). Most countries throughout the world today mandate that all children should attend school. After studying the collected data and examining the literature, I reached two conclusions. The first is that all Muslims are commanded to seek knowledge throughout their entire lives because those who have knowledge “tread the path of righteousness (taqwa)” (35:28). This verse and other data collected drew me to conclude that learning and seeking knowledge are not a personal choice; seeking knowledge is an order from Allah that must be fulfilled. People may choose the field of study they wish according to their needs or market demands, but seeking knowledge is a basic mandate in curriculum in the Qur’an. The second conclusion is that curriculum in the Qur’an follows a holistic approach. The holistic approach stands in contrast to the equivalent of a banking system in which educators deposit information into students’ minds for safekeeping. For a holist, learning takes place by interaction between the learner and the environment in a democratic classroom where “teachers and students are continually reflecting on themselves and the world, establishing an authentic form of thought and action” (Freire, 1998, p. 65). The holistic approach pays more attention to the necessity of balance among intellectual, physical, emotional, aesthetic, and spiritual development. This approach also employs cognition “To perceive critically the way they exist in the world with which and in which they find themselves; they come to see the world not as a static reality, but as a reality in process, in transformation” (Freire, 1998, p. 64). Holism is not a new approach to education; it was practiced long ago in China and India (Hassan, 2009, p. 231). Additionally, some scholars consider Socrates a holist because of his opinions encouraging people to know themselves and to be familiar with their needs, as in his famous “Know thyself” quote (Mahmoudi, Jafari, Nasrabadi, and Liaghatdar, 2012, p. 179). Additionally, holistic educators are interested in developing the whole person in relation to society, the community, the environment, and the universe. Mahmoudi et al. (2012) confirms that holism “aims for the fullest possible human development enabling a person to become the very best or finest that they can be” (p. 178). As seen from the collected data, curriculum in the

Qur’an acknowledges and encourages the holistic approach. Both curriculum in the Qur’an and the holistic approach prepare people with skills and values to help them live and connect with their surroundings, and both encourage people to seek knowledge through critical thinking and the use of logic while at the same time building and developing spirituality.

Chapter 3

Curriculum as Instruction in the Qur’an In this chapter, the word “curriculum” refers to instructions or methods of education adapted from Blenkin et al. (1992) as in “The process by which these (subject matter) are transmitted or ‘delivered’ to students by the most effective methods that can be devised” (p. 23). In other words, curriculum here refers to methods of instructions used in the Qur’an. As explained in the last chapter, curriculum in the Qur’an encourages acquisition of knowledge and asserts that its intention should be directed towards pleasing Allah and getting closer to him. One of the well-known companions of the prophet, Ibn Mas’ud, explained, “whoever attains knowledge, as if he has acquired prophet hood between his shoulders” (Al-Jawziyya, 2004, p.58). Describing the knowledge as being between the shoulders, ibn Mas’ud did not mean the mind but was referring to the heart like some would assume, because the heart is the king of the body and soul (AlGhazali, 2009, p. 36). One might wonder how seeking knowledge would bring people closer to Allah. A good example would be that science discovered a barrier between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean which is called a water blockade. This blockage stops the water of both seas from mixing. The water of each sea has its own features that don’t overlap with the other sea’s water despite there being no physical barrier. A famous French oceanographer, J. Cousteau, gives the following account as a result of his studies in water barriers: We studied the assertions by certain researchers about barriers separating seas, and noticed that the Mediterranean Sea had its own salinity and density and housed autochthonous fauna and flora. Then we examined the water of the Atlantic Ocean we discovered features entirely different from those of the Mediterranean Sea. According to our expectations, these two seas that merged in the strait of Gibraltar should present similar characteristics in terms of salinity, density and other properties. The two seas presented different features even though they were adjacent. This greatly puzzled us. An incredible barrier prevented the two seas from coming together. Although there are large waves, strong currents, and tides in these seas, they do not mix or transgress this barrier. (Thurman, 2007, p. 300–301) This fact that astounded oceanographers was revealed fourteen centuries ago in the Qur’an. This barrier that is not visible to the naked eye exists between the two seas and at the same time prevents water properties from mixing together was revealed to people in the desert of the Arabian Peninsula who had no experience with oceanography. The verse says, “He has let free the two seas meeting together. Between them there is a barrier which they do not transgress” (55:19–20). When

people read this verse, think about it, and realize that the new sciences support verses of the Qur’an that was revealed fourteen hundred years ago then they would have faith in the creator of these verses. The more they read, think, and connect with current sciences, the stronger their faith would become. This is the main reason behind curriculum in the Qur’an encouraging people to seek knowledge and making it mandatory for all its followers. Therefore, it is necessary to figure out methods of instruction existing within the Qur’an. Khaled al-Khalediy (2011) explains that the Qur’an and ahadeeth of the prophet Mohammed did not put any limit for teaching or learning. That is, they did not recommend any style for teaching and learning. The reason for keeping methods of instruction open for the teachers might be to encourage them to use and switch between teaching methods as needed to fit their students. It is important to note that the first pedagogical approach to education was a completely religious approach during the pre-medieval and medieval ages as was the case with other religions. At the beginning of Islamic era, learning was built around reading and memorizing the Qur’an according to the teachers’ personal method of instruction. The main goal was to help students memorize the Qur’an. Therefore, repetition was a very common method of instruction. Through my reading I found that the Qur’an uses different methodologies to teach its followers, such as commands, repetition, parables, storytelling, and demonstration.

COMMANDS One of the teaching methods found in the Qur’an is the command. In several verses in the Qur’an, Allah uses commanding language telling people what to do, what not to do, and how to influence their decisions. Muslims believe that Allah speaks in the Qur’an and people are to listen to his words. In the Qur’an, Allah speaks to humans using authoritative words to guide them to the path of knowledge: “This is the Book, about it there can be no doubt; it is a path for those who are aware of God” (2:2). A Muslim’s expected response to Allah’s words as indicated by “We hear and obey” (2:285). Allah teaches people by speaking with the voice of power, and people learn by listening to his words and following his commands. The language of command can be similar to the very old method of teaching: preaching and direct commandment. This method has its own influence on a student’s development. It explains to people what they are supposed to do and what is good for them but at the same time what things to avoid and what might be harmful to them. The Qur’an belongs to everyone, free of hierarchy; it does not require any mediator between Allah and humans, and anyone can approach Allah directly: “Indeed, I am close at hand. I answer the call of the one who calls me when s/he calls” (2:186). The Qur’an is available to everyone to read or listen to and study the curriculum contained within, which means there is no excuse for humans not to read it and try to comprehend its teachings. The Qur’an has its greatest effect on people when they read or listen to it. Ramadan (2008) states that when reading or listening

to Allah’s words in the Qur’an, people feel the power of Allah and immediately feel serenity and fall silent listening to his words, meditating and thinking of these words. It does not matter who they are, “women and men, poor and rich, educated and unlettered, Eastern and Western” (Ramadan, 2008, p. 2). One of Allah’s commands is to order people to read the Qur’an to learn and educate themselves: “Read in the name of your Lord” (96:1). In the first revelation of the Qur’an, the angel Gabriel commanded the prophet Mohammed, “Read!” The prophet Mohammed did not know how to read or write, like most of his community in Mecca at that time. Therefore, he responded, “I am not a reader.” The angel Gabriel repeated his command three times, and each time the prophet responded with the same answer. After the third time, the angel Gabriel revealed the first five verses: Read! In the Name of your Lord Who has created all that exists. He has created man from a clot. Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous. Who has taught by the pen. He has taught man that which he knew not. (96:1–5) During the first contact between the angel Gabriel and the prophet Mohammed, Gabriel is the teacher who commands his student, Mohammed, to read. Additionally, Allah demands people to listen to the Qur’an: “Hence, when the Qur’an is voiced, hearken unto it, and listen in silence, so that you might be graced with (God’s) mercy” (7:204). This is to say, when people hear the verses of the Qur’an read, they must listen and pay attention to it, trying to comprehend its guidance: “A book we have sent down to thee, blessed, that men possessed of mind may ponder its signs and so remember” (38:29). A main purpose of the Qur’an is to teach and guide. Muslims are to read and listen to the Qur’an to understand the laws, rules, obligations, prohibitions, and other practices as set forth by Allah. In addition, the Qur’an must be felt as well as understood because it addresses the heart as well as the mind: Allah has sent down the Best Statement, a Book, its parts resembling each other (in goodness and truth) (and) oft-repeated. The skins of those who fear their Lord shiver from it (when they recite it or hear it). Then their skin and their heart soften to the remembrance of Allah . . . (39:23) Verse 39:23 explains that when people listen to the Qur’an and think about its words, their hearts will feel its meanings. Curriculum in the Qur’an commands its adherents to read it in order to learn and follow Allah’s instructions in order to have happy and successful lives. As is the case with other religious texts, the Qur’an contains orders and prohibitions too numerous to be listed here. People are to obey Allah’s rules as the command, “O you who believe obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority from amongst you” (4:59). Additionally, Allah made it the society’s responsibility to take care of themselves and their people as in the verse: “Let there arise out of you a band of people who stand for all that is good, enjoining you to do what is right and forbidding what is

wrong. They are the ones to attain felicity” (3:104) and in “Ye are the best of peoples, evolved for mankind, enjoining what is right, forbidding what is wrong, and believing” (3:110). There are two types of rules included in the Qur’an: direct and indirect. The first type is very clear and directs that all people have to follow with no exception or negotiations and if people did not follow these orders they will be punished. For example Allah orders people to perform prayers: “Indeed, prayer has been decreed upon the believers a decree of specified times” (4:103). This verse is telling the follower of the Qur’an that prayer is obligatory and people have to pray in its designated times. Another example is “And perform the pilgrimage and the pious visit (to Mecca) in honor of God” (2:196). The verse is very direct as it is asking Muslims to perform a pilgrimage to Mecca. There are many straight forward orders in the Qur’an and in Sunna as well, that all followers of the religion must adhere to. An example in Sunna is applying the five pillars of Islam: The superstructure of al-Islam is raised on five (pillars), testifying (the fact) that there is no god but Allah, that Mohammed is his bondsman and messenger, and the establishment of prayer, payment of Zakat, the fast of Ramadan and Pilgrimage to the House (Ka’ba) (AlBukhari, Vol. 2, No. 7). In addition to the five pillars, some rules and prohibitions are fundamental teachings and cannot be changed. Prohibitions include murder: “And do not take any human being’s life which God has willed to be sacred” (17:33); adultery: “And come not near unto adultery; surely, it is a foul thing and an evil way” (17:33); and not to accept interest: “O you who have attained to faith! Do not gorge yourselves on usury, doubling and re-doubling it—but remain conscious of God, so that you might attain to a happy state” (3:130). The second type of rule is the kind that can be modified according to time and place, such as social rules. One example is: “Indeed, Allah commands you to render trusts to whom they are due and when you judge between people to judge with justice . . .” (4:58). In this verse Allah is asking people to judge with justice, which is not static. Another example is: “Behold, God enjoins justice, and the doing of good, and generosity towards (one’s) fellow-men; and He forbids all that is shameful and all that runs counter to reason, as well as envy; (and) He exhorts you (repeatedly) so that you might bear (all this) in mind” (16:90). The verse is asking people to behave well and be generous and it forbids disgraceful acts without explaining how to be good or details for being just. There are not many scholarly references to the Qur’an’s command language as a teaching method. What Abdel Haleem (2005) wrote in regard to dialogue in the Qur’an comes closest to supporting my finding that the Qur’an uses command language as he explained that one of the characteristics of style in the Qur’an is the use of dialogue. Allah speaks directly to people, as in “Have you ever considered the water which you drink? Is it you who cause it to come down from the clouds—or are We the cause of its coming down?” (56:58–59). He added that the Qur’an . . . involves the readers/listeners by questioning, directing, and urging them,

alternating this with information (e.g. 56:47–74). The Qur’an is also full of dialogue between God and His prophets (e.g. Abraham in 2:260; Noah in 11:45– 8), between prophets and their audiences (e.g. Salih and the Thamud people in 11:61–5), and between different individuals (e.g. Solomon and the hoopoe, Solomon and his chieftains, and the Queen of Sheba talking to her advisers, all in 27:19–44). (Abdel Haleem, 2001, p. 200)

REPETITION The second teaching method that exists in the Qur’an is repetition. The Qur’an started as verbal recitation before it became a written text. The prophet Muhammad, like most of his community in Mecca, was un-lettered. His response to the first word of revelation, “iqra” (read), was: “I cannot.” However, he repeated each revelation to his followers who also committed the words to memory, which reflects the important role repetition plays in the structure of the Qur’an. The Qur’an uses a special form of Arabic that is unlike any other Arabic text. The language of the Qur’an stretches the oral traditions of society and utilizes its conventions in its sound and musical forms which enables Muslims to assimilate and memorize its words. To this day, millions of Muslims continue to memorize the entire Qur’an even without understanding it. This is why it is often compared to an epic poem or a musical symphony. Just like the notes in a symphony may be repeated, so the verses in the Qur’an are frequently repeated; just as misplaced notes may play havoc with the whole symphony so does a misreading of the Qur’an which would lead the whole text to be out of sync. This is the reason behind Muslims paying excessive attention to the correct pronunciation of the Qur’an. Additionally, the Qur’an asks its listeners to pay attention to its verses “When the Qur’an is read, listen to it with attention, and hold your peace: that ye may receive Mercy” (7:204). The Qur’an explains the reason for using repetition as it says: “It is but a reminder and a (divine) discourse, clear in itself and clearly showing the truth” (36:69) and “This (divine writ), behold, is no less than a reminder to all the worlds” (38:87). Hence, the reason is that humans forget easily and repetition is used as a reminder of the main themes and teachings introduced. Other verses confirming the use of repetition as a reminder include 68:52, 40:54, and 88:21–22. Repetition is used as a teaching method throughout the Qur’an. Certain topics are repeated several times in different parts of the Qur’an. Two types of repetition occur in the Qur’an: direct and indirect. Direct repetition refers to repeating the same verse with exactly the same words. An example is the verse “Then which of the favors of your Lord will ye deny?” (chapter 55). This verse is repeated 33 times in the same surah. Whenever Allah mentions any of his favors in this surah, he asks, “Then which of the favors of your Lord will ye deny?” as a way to draw the reader’s or listener’s attention toward this favor. Another example of direct repetition is the first verse of the Qur’an. It says, “By the name of Allah, Most Compassionate, Most Merciful” (1:1). This verse is

mentioned at the beginning of all surahs of the Qur’an except one. Repetition of the same teachings confirms that these are the rules that Allah wants people to learn, follow, and comprehend. The repetition of verse (1:1) at the beginning of each surah reminds the reader or listener to reflect and see things the way Allah wants people to see them. The second form of repetition is the indirect form which refers to using different words to introduce the same concept in order to reach different types of learners. Sometimes, reading about the same topic several times might bore the reader. However, reading about the same topic in different words gives the reader new meanings with each reading and ensures his understanding of the topic. Indirect repetition is used to complete and add new information to the meaning of the verses in general. For example, the story of the prophet Adam is told in verses 2:34–37, 3:59, 7:11, 7:26, 17:61, 18:50, 20:116, and 36:60. The story is phrased differently several times in order to teach a new lesson each time and to fit within the theme of the surah in which it is being retold. As explained earlier, the story of the creation of Adam was once told to teach people that they have freedom of choice and that they are responsible for their actions. Another time it was introduced to inform the reader that Adam was created to be the vicegerent of Allah on earth; therefore people are to rise to this expectation. A third time the creation of Adam was mentioned to teach people how Satan deceived Adam into eating from the tree, and as a result he was descended to earth. This time the story of Adam was repeated to teach people not to follow Satan and to think and consider the consequences before taking any action. Repetition also is used as a teaching method to build certain concepts in the reader’s consciousness. Repetition strengthens the messages taught and emphasizes the arguments presented. Many verses assert the oneness of Allah and the fact that He created the whole universe. Repetition of Allah’s teachings and guidance helps people believe these teachings in their hearts and adopt them in their lives. Muslim scholars agree that repetition in the Qur’an may not cause dullness and exhaustion because it is not our words; the Qur’an is Allah’s words. Muslims believe that the more words are repeated, the better understanding and appreciation of its greatness a person obtains. The repetition becomes one aspect of the Qur’an’s miraculousness. Theologian Nursi (1998) wrote in his explanation of the Qur’an, “Repetition in the Qur’an does not cause boredom and weariness, but enhances the beauty and increases eagerness” (p. 151). He also confirmed my finding that the repetition of stories in the Qur’an serves to present a different aspect or new theme, or to emphasize a new angle each time a story is told. He used an example of the story of the prophet Moses: Sometimes the birth of Moses is focused on in the story, and his upbringing, and his appointment to prophet hood. In another, it is the obduracy of the unbelievers that is emphasized, and the fates they suffered. Then in yet another, in Surah alMu’min, the very different scene of a member of Pharaoh’s household is depicted. Then in Surah Ta Ha the story is told of Samiri and the calf of the

Children of Israel. Thus, different points are emphasized on every occasion. Each place the story is repeated a new meaning emerges, a different exemplary scene is given, and a different meaning is emphasized. (p. 153) In addition to his studies of the science in the Qur’an, Harun Yahya (2005) looked at repetition in the Qur’an in a different way. He counted the occurrences of certain words that mean something for Muslims and wrote, “Apart from the miraculous characteristics of the Qur’an which we have looked into so far, it also contains what we can term ‘mathematical miracles.’” By “mathematical miracles” he refers to “the number of repetitions of certain words in the Qur’an.” For example, he wrote: “Day” (yawm) is repeated 365 times in singular form... The number of repetitions of the word “month” (shahar) is 12. . . . The word “faith” (iman) (without genitive) is repeated 25 times throughout the Qur’an as is also the word “infidelity” (kufr). . . . The words “paradise” and “hell” are each repeated 77 times. . . . The words “wine” (khamr) and “intoxication” (saqara) are repeated in the Qur’an the same number of times: 6. (p. 317–318) Repetition is also a very old method of instruction which is still practiced in our schools today. When students repeat what they are learning, they will give the correct answers and pass their tests. It is part of the linear education that still exists in some schools. This is not to say that repetition is not a useful pedagogy, as it is needed in some areas; however, it is not the only method that should be used.

PARABLES Another method of instruction used in curriculum in the Qur’an is the use of parables. Parables represent events that may or may not be real in order to convey a lesson to the reader. The Qur’an explains its use of parable with this verse: “Indeed, We have offered in this Qur’an every evidence and lesson by way of parables and examples for people so that they may think and take heed” (39:27) and with this verse: “So God propounds parables for human beings, that they may reflect on them and infer the necessary lessons” (14:25). Parables make it easier for people to comprehend new lessons and reflect on them. The Qur’an uses parables to help people connect their learning with their own lives. An example of the use of parable in the Qur’an is the following: Art thou not aware how God sets forth the parable of a good word? (It is) like a good tree, firmly rooted, (reaching out) with its branches towards the sky, yielding its fruit at all times by its Sustainer’s leave. And (thus it is that) God propounds parables unto men, so that they might think themselves (of the truth). (14:24–25) “Good word” refers to any moral act or idea that is beneficent and enduring. The

verse calls for spreading good conduct. People can benefit from spreading the good word the same way they benefit from a tree in more than one way by eating the fruit of a tree and sitting under its shade. One of the Qur’an’s parables was used in discussing the application of knowledge to describe people who have knowledge and do not use it to benefit themselves or the world around them: The similitude of those who were charged with the (obligations of the) law, but who subsequently failed in those (obligations), is that of a donkey that carries huge tomes (but understands them not). Evil is the similitude of people who falsify the Sign of God: And God guides not people who do wrong. (62:5) This comparison describes people who have knowledge but ignore the signs of Allah in the universe and everything around them as donkeys. The donkey’s job is to carry things on its back without understanding what he is carrying or obtaining any wisdom from his burden. Therefore having knowledge without applying it is like the donkey carrying burdens without knowing the value of what he is carrying. The verse also shows how parables connect the lesson to everyday human life, followed by a description of the act and its expected results to improve understanding of the required meaning. To encourage people to spend for the sake of Allah, as in helping the needy or participating in activities benefiting humans in general, the Qur’an uses this parable: The parable of those who spend their property in the way of Allah is as the parable of a grain growing seven ears (with) a hundred grains in every ear; and Allah multiplies for whom He pleases; and Allah is ample-giving, knowing. (2:261) The verse clarifies that spending for the sake of Allah provides the same benefits as planting corn. The corn will grow with seven ears, and each ear has enough grains to benefit many people. Another example of parable used in the Qur’an describes the actions of disbelievers: The parable of those who disbelieve in their Lord: their actions are like ashes on which the wind blows hard on a stormy day; they shall not have power over anything out of what they have earned; this is the great error. (14:18) The verse explains that no matter how much good a disbeliever may have done, he will not benefit from his actions. Disbelievers’ actions, like ashes in the wind, are worthless. The Qur’an uses this parable to convince disbelievers of their need to worship and have faith in Allah. There is not much written in literature in regard to the use of parable in the Qur’an. The Qur’an uses daily life examples in the form of parables to explain its teachings and laws. Using examples in teaching is one of the most successful didactic methods. Al-Khalediy (2011) wrote, “It is necessary for the seeker of knowledge to

ask advice in all matters, and he sets a parable that ‘God commanded even his Messenger to ask counsel about all of his affairs’” (p. 41). Using examples from real life to connect ideas to students’ lives makes such ideas easier for students to understand.

STORYTELLING The fourth teaching method found within the Qur’an is storytelling. The Qur’an tells different types of stories; some of them are well known to believers of faiths that came before Islam. The Qur’an acknowledges and asks its followers to believe in all faiths that were revealed before the time of the prophet Mohammed, such as Christianity and Judaism. Muslims do not acknowledge faiths introduced after the prophet Mohammed. The Qur’an states, “We relate to you, the best of stories in what We have revealed to you of this Qur’an although you were, before it, among the unaware” (12:3). Storytelling informs the reader and teaches him about the past or that which is unknown to him. The Qur’an reveals the reason for using storytelling, stating, “All that we relate to thee of the stories of the messengers, with it We make firm thy heart: in them there cometh to thee the Truth, as well as an exhortation and a message of remembrance to those who believe” (11:120). Some stories are used to support the prophet Mohammed in his messages and to strengthen the faith of his followers. Some stories tell of historical events, such as stories of the prophets, and others represent a moral purpose or lesson to be learned and remembered. Curriculum in the Qur’an tells the history of previous nations and the rise and fall of earlier empires. It informs the reader of the lives of other prophets who came before the prophet Mohammed, such as the prophet Abraham (Ibrahim) in surah 14, the prophet Joseph in surah 12, Nuh (Noah) in surah 71, Hud in surah 11, and Isa (Jesus) in surah 19, as well as the prophet Mohammed in surah 47. The Qur’an also includes stories of people other than the prophets, as the story of Bilqis in surah 27, Dhul Qarnain in surah 18, People of the Cave and People of the Garden in surah 18, and the wise Luqman in surah 31. Sometimes the Qur’an tells only selected parts of a story at a time rather than telling the entire story at once. This partial storytelling is due to the theme of the surah in which the story is told. Therefore, the reader may find different stories mentioned in one surah. For example, surah 21 is called al-Anbiya, the prophets, and it describes the struggle of the prophets with their people. This surah includes stories of different prophets, such as Moses, Ibrahim, Lut, Isaac, David, and Solomon. Another purpose for storytelling in the Qur’an is to teach a certain moral or message. For example, the story of the prophet Ibrahim mentioned in chapter 4 describes the prophet Ibrahim’s steps of reasoning to conclude that the sun, moon, and stars could not have created the universe, and thus there must be a greater power behind this creation. The story describes the event as it happened so that the reader may follow in Ibrahim’s steps and think critically. The purpose of this story is to encourage critical thinking, as explained in chapter 4.

Another example of the use of storytelling as moral instruction comes from surah 5. To teach people to follow the orders prescribed to them, the Qur’an tells the story of the prophets of Bani Israel, the Jews, including Moses, and how they ruled by following Allah’s commands in the Torah: Indeed, We sent down the Torah, in which was guidance and light. The prophets judged by it for the Jews, as did the rabbis and scholars by that with which they were entrusted of the Scripture of Allah, and they were witnesses thereto. (5:44) The story continues as the prophet Isa, known as Jesus, is shown also to have ruled his people according to Allah’s revelation in the Injeel, or Bible: And We sent, following in their footsteps, Jesus, the son of Mary, confirming that which came before him in the Torah; and We gave him the Gospel, in which was guidance and light and confirming that which preceded it of the Torah as guidance and instruction for the righteous. And let the People of the Gospel judge by what Allah has revealed therein. (5:46–47) After relating that the prophets Moses and Isa were following Allah’s rules, the verses assert that the prophet Mohammed ruled his people according to Allah’s revelation in the Qur’an: And We have revealed to you, (O Mohammed) the Book in truth, confirming that which preceded it of the Scripture and as a criterion over it. So judge between them by what Allah has revealed and do not follow their inclinations away from what has come to you of the truth. To each of you We prescribed a law and a method. (5:48) Through storytelling the Qur’an shows people that following commands is standard in all faiths and by all prophets and their followers, and that the current followers of religion should adhere to the same procedure and follow Allah’s rules. Other verses illustrating this are 5:49, 4:105, 6:114, and 2:213. Another story used in the Qur’an to send a message or to teach a certain topic is that of the prophet Solomon and Bilqis, Ber Sheva (the Queen of Sheba). When Queen Bilqis received the prophet Solomon’s letter inviting her to submit to Allah and stop worshipping the sun, she called for a meeting with tribal leaders. She asked for their advice after she confirmed that she had never taken any political decision without consulting them. She said, “O eminent ones, advise me in my affair. I would not decide a matter until you witness (for) me” (27:32). Their response was, “We are fierce and courageous fighters. Yet, the affairs are now at your hands to see what commands you would like to give” (27:33). This story illustrates the importance of consultation in making decisions, and it is followed immediately by a command to the prophet Mohammed to oversee his community affairs by means of mutual consultation. One of these verses is “So overlook their performance and seek

forgiveness for them and consult them in the affair” (3:159). As a result, the prophet Mohammed consulted his people in almost all affairs. None of the storytelling in the Qur’an includes the time or date of the stories. Sometimes the Qur’an introduces the place or the main characters of the stories, as in the story of the Queen of Sheba mentioned above, while at other times it does not identify the characters or setting. The main focus is on the situation, people’s actions, and the results of those actions. An example of this is the story (18:32–42) of a man who has two beautiful, productive vineyards surrounded by date palm trees with a river running through them. The owner of the land tells his friend, “I am more than you in wealth and stronger in respect of men” (18:34). Looking proudly at his vineyard, he continues, “I think not that this will ever perish. And I think not the hour will ever come, and if indeed I am brought back to my Lord, (on the Day of Resurrection), I surely shall find better than this when I return to Him” (18:36). His friend responds, “Do you disbelieve in Him Who created you out of dust, then out of Nutfah (mixed semen and female fluids), then fashioned you into a man?” (18:37). The friend reminds the owner that these gardens are blessings from Allah, that he should be grateful to him, and that anything could happen to his gardens. Later, when the two gardens were destroyed, the owner, Remained clapping his hands (with sorrow) over what he had spent upon it, while it was all destroyed on its trellises, and he could only say: “Would that I had ascribed no partners to my Lord!” And he had no group of men to help him against Allah, nor could he defend (or save) himself. (18:42–43) The purpose of this story is to teach people to be grateful to Allah and have no doubts about his powers. The most important part of this story is not the time or place, but rather the underlying lesson. Storytelling is used in the Qur’an to support believers, present new information, and help people think and reflect, as indicated in “Indeed, in the stories of the prophets there is a lesson for those who are endowed with insight, with deep understanding . . .” (12:111). Sayyed Qutb (1960) clarified the reasons behind the use of storytelling in the Qur’an: 1. To explain the foundations of the prophet Sharia and the prophets were to raise it (Prophets: 25) 2. To stabilize the heart of the prophet Mohammed believers and followers of the Prophet of Islam, strengthening trust in God (Hood / 120) 3. To confirm previous prophets (AL / 93) 4. To reveal the Divine in the form of stories (moon / 4–5) 5. To express divine justice in the punishment of rejecters (Hood / 101) 6. To encourage and comfort the prophet against the rejecters (fater / 25–26). 7. To convey consciousness and evangelism (AH / 1, Taha, 113, salinity / 7,

gratuities / 19) 8. To emphasize how the prophets and messengers of God related to the people (p. 117–128) Sayyed Qutb’s explanation of the reasons behind storytelling confirms my findings; however, I missed his points in numbers four and seven. In this quotation the first word between brackets refers to the name of the surah in the Qur’an and the number refers to the number of the verse. Dr. Narges Shekarbigi and Noor (2012) from the Department of Qur’an and Hadith Sciences at Payam Noor University explain that sometimes storytelling in the Qur’an does not mention the date, place, or time of the story because: The focus is not on the people, but is instead on the situation that they are in. These situations can apply to other individuals in different times and places. One such example is the story of the prophet Adam’s two sons (5:27–3l). (p. 8641) Additionally, Mawdudi (1987) explained that stories of old nations and the consequences of their choices help readers comprehend those experiences and help them make their own choices. Hamid (2004) confirmed this point as he wrote that the Qur’an uses storytelling to “link the Prophet, his companions and successors with the historical dimension” (Para 6).

DEMONSTRATION The Qur’an helps readers understand its teachings through demonstration that uses the descriptive, explanatory, legitimating, and affiliation forms of language to draw a clear picture of what is to be taught. Demonstration makes it easier to convince people and help them follow the commands and avoid the prohibitions described. The descriptive form of language is used to connect the past to the present, the present to the future, or the real world to phenomenon. An example of the use of this form of language is the description of believers in this verse: The believers are only those who, when Allah is mentioned, feel a fear in their hearts and when His Ayat are recited unto them, they increase their faith; and they put their trust in their Lord; Who perform prayers and spend out of that We have provided them. It is they who are the believers in it. For them are grades of dignity with their Lord, and forgiveness and a generous provision (i.e., Paradise). (8:2–4) This verse describes the actions of believers so that the reader may learn by example and behave as believers do. Another example is this verse describing life in heaven: Verily, the dwellers of Paradise that Day, will be busy in joyful things. They and

their wives will be in pleasant shade, reclining on thrones. They will have therein fruits (of all kinds), and all that they will ask for. (It will be said to them): “Salamun” (Peace be on you), a word from the Lord, Most Merciful. (36:55–58) Describing life in heaven encourages people to act according to Allah’s rules and avoid his prohibitions so that they may enter heaven and enjoy its fruits. Another example of demonstration using descriptive language is the following verse explaining the punishment of evildoers on the Day of Judgment: Depart ye to a shadow (of smoke ascending) in three columns, (Which yields) no shade of coolness, and is of no use against the fierce blaze. Indeed it throws about sparks (huge) as forts, As if there were (a string of) yellow camels (marching swiftly). Ah woe, that day, to the rejecters of truth! That will be a day when they shall not be able to speak. Nor will it be open to them to put forth pleas. Ah woe, that day, to the rejecters of truth. (77:31–37) This description of punishment for evil doers is followed immediately by a description of the fresh air and shady trees that are the reward for the righteous people: “As to the Righteous, They shall be amidst (cool) shades and springs (of water); And (they shall have) fruits, all they desire eat and drink ye to your heart’s content: for that ye worked” (77:41–43). The highly visual nature of the descriptions and the word choice in the original Arabic bring the experience to life for the reader. It is necessary to note that descriptive language used in the Qur’an utilizes sounds. The use of delicate sounds in the following verse reflects the Qur’an’s ability to communicate meaning via the sound of its text: “And by the Night when it is still.” (93:2). The use of the words “when it is still” in Arabic creates a peaceful tone and a smooth sound which makes the reader feel the peace, stillness, and serenity that night time provides. Additionally, the Qur’an also uses sound to build intense images, for example, “And the producers of sparks striking” (100:2). The word for sparks striking, qad-han in Arabic, used in the verse, sends a sound that develops the sense of this image. The reader will feel and see sparks that are striking on earth. Some other examples are 100:4, 56:4, 79:6–7, 20:120, and 80:33. Descriptive language in the Qur’an is employed to increase the effect of its message. The Arabic language has many words for a single meaning, but Allah in the Qur’an selects and arranges the words to portray the intended meaning in addition to create sounds to conform to the image, scene, and message the book conveys. This is not only done by selecting the right words but also arranging them in a specific way to help the reader develop a clear picture of the topic. Just by touching upon a few simple examples it can be seen why Pickthall was lead to believe that the Qur’an has an “inimitable symphony” (Pickthall, 2001, p. 10). Arberry (1964) on his personal experience with the rhythm of the Qur’an wrote: “Whenever I hear the Qur’an chanted, it is as though I am listening to Music, underneath the flowing melody there is sounding . . . insistent beat of a drum, it is like the beating of my heart” (p. 16).

The second form of demonstrative language used in the Qur’an is the explanatory form, which describes how things are done. For example, one verse demonstrating the creation of the sky asks, “Have they never observed the sky above them and marked how We built it up? And furnished it with ornaments leaving no crack in its expanse” (50:6–10). The Qur’an does not only state “how We built it up,” but adds “and furnished it with ornaments leaving no crack in its expanse.” The Qur’an uses explanatory language to demonstrate the sky’s beauty by drawing the readers’ attention to how the sky is created without cracks or holes. Readers are asked to notice details instead of looking at the skies unthinkingly. Another example of explanatory language may be found in these verses: And when one of them is informed of the birth of a female, his face becomes dark, and he suppresses grief. He hides himself from the people because of the ill of which he has been informed. Should he keep it in humiliation or bury it in the ground? Unquestionably, evil is what they decide. (15:58–59) These two verses demonstrate how Arabs used to react when told they had had a baby girl, while at the same time describing the people’s negative reaction as an evil act, which is another way of admonishing them not to react in such a way. A further example of explanatory language is: And the grazing livestock He has created for you; in them is warmth and benefits, and from them you eat. And for you in them is (the enjoyment of) beauty when you bring them in (for the evening) and when you send them out (to pasture). And they carry your loads to a land you could not have reached except with difficulty to yourselves. Indeed, your Lord is kind and merciful. And (He created) the horses, mules and donkeys for you to ride and (as) adornment. . . . (16:5–8) The verses explain that Allah created some animals for people to enjoy and how these animals make human lives easier. Explanatory language gives the details of why and how things function in order for people to comprehend and absorb lessons in the Qur’an. The Qur’an urges people to contemplate the divine signs in the universe by awakening the instinctive visual sense in them. There are many verses that encourage humans to look around and enjoy the beautiful scenery in Allah’s creation. One verse is: “Do you not see that God has sent down rain from the sky, whereby have brought out produce of various colors? And in the mountains are tracts white and red, of various shades of colors, and black intense in hue. And similarly among men and crawling creatures and cattle who all have various colors” (35:27–28). These verses aim to arouse people’s genuine feelings and emotions so as to enable them to observe the beauty of everything on earth whether in the various colors and shades, plants, animals, or even inanimate objects. Many verses encourage learning by seeing and involve the visionary experience of revelation, the display by God of signs to be read by those with discernment, and spiritual sight as a form of consciousness,

“He Who created the seven heavens one above another; no want of proportion wilt thou see in the Creation of (Allah) Most Gracious. so turn thy vision again: seest thou any flaw?” (67:3) and “Visions (basa’ir) have come to you from your Lord. Whenever one sees, it is for the sake of his soul, and if one is blind, it is against (his soul). I am not your keeper” (6:104). This concept of “learning as seeing” broadly corresponds to Plato’s idea of the “vision” of the intellect; it refers to the knowledge that is acquired by the spiritual intelligence, which the Qur’an locates metaphorically in the heart. Before attaining this type of knowledge, the heart must first be opened and ready to listen (39:22). Once the heart is opened, it will assimilate (39:22). Curriculum in the Qur’an also discusses various aspects of the universe whose beauty Allah urges us to admire. The verses that talk about the universe and all creatures are numerous; therefore few examples are presented to put forth the idea of using vision as an aesthetic part of appreciating and enjoying beauty. In (50:6–10): “Have they never observed the sky above them and marked how We built it up? and furnished it with ornaments.” The Qur’an does not just say “how We built it up” but it adds “how We built it up and furnished it with ornaments leaving no crack in its expanse.” By this Allah draws the readers’ attention to that He created the sky with no cracks, no holes, no openings, and no clefts which is a manifestation, among others, of its beauty. In (20:53) “He Who has made for you the earth like a carpet spread out; has enabled you to go about therein by roads (and channels); and has sent down water from the sky.” The effect of the image of the earthly gardens, described as heavenly, is to draw our attention to their beauty since gardens are in general a symbol of beauty. Another example is in (88:16–21). In addition to explaining why and how things happen, curriculum in the Qur’an also uses the legitimating form of language to convince people that what is happening is rational and just. For example, to convince a person that believing in Allah is the rational thing to do, the Qur’an provides the following verse: How can you disbelieve in Allah when you were lifeless and He brought you to life; then He will cause you to die, then He will bring you (back) to life, and then to Him you will be returned. It is He who created for you all of that which is on the earth. Then He directed Himself to the heaven, (His being above all creation), and made them seven heavens, and He is knowing of all things. (2:28–29) In order to convince people that Allah is the only one worthy of worship, this verse argues for belief based on showing Allah’s powers in creating life and death. Another example of the use of legitimating language is the argument that happened when the prophet Ibrahim was trying to convince the king to worship Allah: Art thou not aware of that (king) who argued with Abraham about his Sustainer, (simply) because God had granted him kingship? Lo! Abraham said: “My Sustainer is He who grants life and deals death.” (The king) replied: “I (too) grant life and deal death!” Said Abraham: “Verily, God causes the sun to rise in the

east; cause it, then, to rise in the west!” Thereupon he who was bent on denying the truth remained dumbfounded: for God does not guide people who (deliberately) do wrong. (2:258) The verse also teaches people the way of using argumentation and legitimating language. When the king said “I (too) grant life and deal death!” the prophet did not refute the king’s point but rather moved on to his next point, giving more examples of Allah’s powers. The fourth type is the language of affiliation; it is the fourth kind of demonstration in the Qur’an and reflects how people belong to a certain group or community. The second surah, the longest in the Qur’an, provides an example of affiliation language. It states that there are three groups of people and demonstrates in detail their beliefs and actions. The first group is the believers, described thus: Who believe in the unseen, establish prayer, and spend out of what We have provided for them. And who believe in what has been revealed to you, (O Mohammed), and what was revealed before you, and of the Hereafter they are certain (in faith). . . . (2:2–5) The verses promote belief in the unseen, or al-Ghayb, knowledge (as explained in chapter 4), prayer, giving to the needy, and belief in the Qur’an, all previous books revealed before the Qur’an, and the Day of Judgment. The second group is disbelievers, described as: Indeed, those who disbelieve—it is all the same for them whether you warn them or do not warn them—they will not believe. Allah has set a seal upon their hearts and upon their hearing, and over their vision is a veil. And for them is a great punishment. (2:6–7) Disbelievers have made up their minds that they will not believe in anything but their own ideas, regardless of anyone’s attempts to promulgate other ideas. The third group is hypocrites: And of the people are some who say, “We believe in Allah and the Last Day,” but they are not believers . . . And when it is said to them, “Do not cause corruption on the earth,” they say, “We are but reformers . . . And when it is said to them, “Believe as the people have believed,” they say, “Should we believe as the foolish have believed?”. . . And when they meet those who believe, they say, “We believe;” but when they are alone with their evil ones, they say, “Indeed, we are with you; we were only mockers . . .” (2:8–14) These verses explain the actions of hypocrites who pretend to be believers when they are in the presence of believing people but disparage believers when they are by themselves. These verses affiliate the actions and beliefs of three groups of people to

help readers identify to which group other people and they themselves belong and to understand what their expected behavior is. In conclusion, didactic methods in the Qur’an use the language demonstration to explain the Qur’an’s teachings, with the purpose of instruction being to transform people’s lives. The next section explores how the literature supports the above findings. Muslims believe that language of the Qur’an is miraculous and that it is responsible for the transformation of society in the Arabian Peninsula. Khalifa (1982) wrote that scholars of Al-Azhar University explained the Qur’anic style is unmatched for many reasons, one of them being its rhythmic style: “The rhythm of the syllables is more sustained than in prose and less patterned than in poetry” (p. 24). British orientalist and translator Forster Fitzgerald Arbuthnot (1985) stated, “Though several attempts have been made to produce a work equal to it as far as elegant writing is concerned, none has as yet succeeded” (p. 5). Omran (1988) confirmed this point when he explained the value of the Arabic language to Arabs at the time of revelation. The oral culture and poetry played a major role in saving Arab’s early history due to their emphasis on the eloquence and coherent speech. The language of the Qur’an “was revealed in the most eloquent, articulate and elaborate style that Arabic language has known” (Omran, 1988, para.17). Omran added that religious scholars considered revealing the Qur’an in Arabic language reflects the wisdom of god because it speaks and deals with people using the language they were most familiar with and skilled at using during the time. In his book Towards Understanding Islam, Abul A’la Mawdudi (1987) asserted the use of different forms of language in the Qur’an. He explained that the Qur’an presents guidance while at the same time explaining rewards and warnings. Mawdudi added that curriculum in the Qur’an made its teaching clear, as it “Embodied a framework for the conduct of the whole of human life” (p. 11). As for the use of demonstration to encourage people to see the greatness of creation, Islamic scholar Sayyed Qutb (1960), in his Qur’anic commentary “In the Shade of the Qur’an,” attempted to evoke visual appreciation of the universe. He wrote: This world is beautiful, inexhaustibly beautiful. Man may grasp and enjoy this beauty as much as he wishes. . . . The element of beauty in this world is intentional. Perfection of creation results in achieving beauty . . . Look at the bee, the flower, the star, the night, the morning, the shades, the clouds, this music pervading the entire universe of beauty and perfection. The Qur’an draws our attention to all this, so we may ponder and enjoy it. . . . (Vol. 5, p. 252) This is to say that Allah asks people to look around, to think, and to learn why and how things are happening. By viewing the creation of everything this way, we can better comprehend the greatness of the creator, Allah. As if engaging in cognitive thinking is a commitment that people have to follow. Allah says “We detail Our Signs

for people who know” (6:97), “. . . people who understand” (6:98) “. . . people who believe” (6:99). According to the translator of the Qur’an Abdullah Yusuf Ali (2011) God is making a distinction: Knowing is for people who merely look at the Signs in the world around them; understanding is a higher form of cognition, one required to grasp mysteries; and believing is the highest form of cognition, faith, which brings people closer to Allah. (p. 318) Allah presents “signs” as a source of ideas in the form of indirect communication from him to man. An example comes from 2:164: “Behold! In the creation of the heavens and the earth; in the alternation of the Night and the Day; in the sailing of the ships through the Ocean for the profit of mankind . . . (here) indeed are Signs for a people who are wise.” The Qur’an emphasizes and demands that Muslims observe, think, ponder, reflect, and question creation, including the wonders of the universe and what is within us to recognize God’s existence. “Do they not ponder/reflect on the Qur’an?” 4:82, 23:68, and 7:184; “the signs in detail for those who reflect” 10:24, 30:21, 39:42, 45:13, 51:49, 51:49; “Do they not reflect in their own minds?” 30:8 and 34:46; “and contemplate the wonders of creation” 3:191; “in order that you may consider” 2:219, 2:226, 6:50, 13:3.

CONCLUSION People read for different reasons such as acquiring knowledge, getting new ideas, or trying to reach certain rational thoughts. In the Qur’an, Allah asks people to read and recite its verses “and chant the Qur’an very distinctly” (73:7) and provided two reasons. The first is for people to learn and educate themselves: “A book we have sent down to thee, blessed, that men possessed of mind may ponder its signs and so remember” (38:29). This is because one of the functions of the Qur’an is to teach, instruct, and guide. This verse reflects that the Qur’an should not be read only, but a reader needs to try to comprehend it and look for its connections with all aspects of life. Another reason for reading the Qur’an is to feel as it addresses the heart as well as the mind: Allah has sent down the Best Statement, a Book (this Qur’an), its parts resembling each other (in goodness and truth) (and) oft-repeated. The skins of those who fear their Lord shiver from it (when they recite it or hear it). Then their skin and their heart soften to the remembrance of Allah. That is the guidance of Allah. He Guides there with whom He wills; and whomever Allah sends astray, for him there is no guide. (39:23) Reading the verse reflects that the Qur’an uses two forms of language, the logical and the language of feelings. The Qur’an asks people to read its verses and at the same time work on understanding and feeling its meaning. Muslims are obliged to read it to understand its moral dimension as it holds founding bases and values for

their lives. In other words reading the Qur’an is mandatory to determine the laws and rules for the obligations, prohibitions, essential and secondary matters of religious practice, as well as those of the social sphere. As for Western culture, Pinar (1995) explained that language is “a manmade phenomenon” (p. 257). Language is changing all the time as if it is being developed or recreated over and over. With time, some parts of language are not used anymore, so they are dropped while at the same time new parts are added. “Curricularists, whether practitioners, researchers or simply talkers, use language to describe curricular events or phenomena” (Pinar, 1995, p. 253). Books written about curriculum use different language forms. There are six forms of language that are popular between curriculum writers. The first form of language is the descriptive language which is used as a link between the past and present, the present and the future, or the real world and phenomenon. It describes events or learning/teaching experiences only. The second form is the explanatory language. It explains why and how things are happening. Most of the language used in curriculum is explanatory. However there is not much attention paid to the differences between these two forms which is causing loss of vision and power. Controlling language is the third form. It is the form used to construct and influence occurrences, phenomena, or people. The controlling language is essential in combining between the descriptive and explanatory languages. The language of learning is an auxiliary symbol system to serve this in between function, and if tied to a good descriptive language it enables us to control events or phenomena in such a way that we can predict, within statistical limits, what might happen. (Pinar, 1995, 255) The fourth form is the legitimating language, which is used to rationalize something or to convince the listener/reader that what is happening is rational and the right thing to take place. It usually connects reason with action and is used with judging groups. Educational goals and objectives statements are examples of legitimating language. Perspective language is the fifth form of language. It is used to convince others to take similar positions or actions. It is the language used to prescribe similar actions. It is different than the descriptive language in that “it carries with it an imperative, a command, or an attempt to impose a course of action” (Pinar, 2004, p. 256). The last form of language that is used by curricularists is the language of affiliation. This form serves as a symbol of belonging to a certain group or community. For example the language used in education that insists with child centeredness, democratic education, or teaching for all reflects what group this person belongs to or what he or she wishes to construct: These six forms of languages are only indicators to different ways of language

which curricularists use. They are only to explain that writing can take many shapes and serve different functions. (Pinar, 2000, 256) Through my reading of the Qur’an I found two main points in regard to its curriculum. First, the Qur’an uses different teaching methods—such as command, repetition, storytelling, and demonstration—that are still used in schools today. Second, forms of language used by modern curricularists also exist as methods of teaching in the Qur’an. Pinar (2004) outlined six forms of language that are popular among curriculum writers: descriptive, explanatory, controlling, legitimating, perspective, and affiliation. I looked through the language of the Qur’an and found all six forms existing within the Qur’an. The command teaching method represents the controlling form of language mentioned by Pinar. Storytelling uses the descriptive form of language, while demonstration uses explanatory, legitimating, and affiliation language. The Qur’an uses Pinar’s perspective form of language in its requirement for critical thinking, as discussed in chapter 4. When the Qur’an’s teaching methods and forms of language are viewed in the context of its three-pronged ideology (the oneness of Allah, that man has freedom of choice, and that each individual is responsible for his actions) and its purpose (to invoke change towards a better life for adherents), one may see the Qur’an as a rich and highly effective source of curriculum.

Chapter 4

Political Curriculum in the Qur’an Political curriculum started to assert itself in the United States as a reproduction theory in the 1970s. Later, in the mid-1980s, it shifted to focus on daily educational practice concerned with political issues of race, class, and gender (Pinar, 2004, p. 313). The major scholarly players in this effort are Apple and Giroux and their academic writings (Schubert, Herzog, Posner, and Kridel, 1988, p. 173–174). Social relations in education, as in other fields, reflect the hierarchical associations. This is clear in the relationships between administrators and principals, principals and teachers, teachers and students, and students and students. These hierarchical relations reflect authority lines from administrators to principals to teachers to students. Therefore, to understand curriculum as political text, scholars need to understand the ideology that directs this curriculum. By “ideology” I refer to McLaren’s definition as: a way of viewing the world, a complex of ideas, various types of social practices, rituals and representations that we tend to accept as natural and as common sense. It is the result of the intersection of meaning and power in the social world. (1989, p. 176) Ideology is a key concept in understanding curriculum as a political text because it functions as representations of the educational system while developing students’ thoughts and personalities. Therefore, to understand the political curriculum in the Qur’an, it is necessary to learn the Qur’anic ideology. This chapter explains the teaching ideology in the Qur’an shedding some light on how the Qur’an describes ruling people, socializing, and consultation processes. It concludes with a short description of teachers in the Qur’an. To get a clear idea about political curriculum in the Qur’an, it is important to know that Islam’s doctrine is based in two sources, the Qur’an and Sunna. Muslims consider the Qur’an the origin of all knowledge because it is revealed from Allah, the most knowledgeable and wise; however, there are details and clarifications dealing with daily Muslim lives that are available in Sunna, the traditions of the prophet Muhammad. Sunna has two major parts: the daily actions of the prophet and his sayings. The first part deals with describing the life of the prophet Mohammed governing every aspect of his daily life, such as how he prays, eats, sleeps, deals with his friends and enemies, and all details of his life. The second part is Hadith, (pl. Ahadeeth) which is the sayings of the prophet Mohammed responding to questions, commenting on an action or situation, teaching his followers and others. After the death of the prophet Mohammed, his companions collected and wrote all his sayings to guide the next generations in following the prophet’s life in all aspects religious, legal, social, and economic. For example, ahadeeth topics include the oneness of Allah, prayers, fasting, and all other pillars of Islam, knowledge, trade and business,

mortgages, creations of Allah, marriage, divorce, hygiene, law, medicine, and even dreams. Muslims consider the ahadeeth of the prophet to be the second main source of Islam as they confirm, explain, and clarify the rules of the Qur’an as well as create new laws that Muslims have to adhere. There are six main well-known books of ahadeeth. They are Sahih Bukhari, Sahih Muslim, Sunan Abu Dawood, Jami alTirmidhi, al-Nasa’i, and Muwatta Imam Malik. The most accurate book of hadith is called Sahih Al-Bukhari. The majority of the Muslim world recognizes al-Bukhari’s work and accepts its legitimacy. It is considered the most authentic book of the ahadeeth of the prophet. One of the admired scholars who recognize al-Bukhari’s book is Ahmed ibn Hanbal. He is commonly known as Sheikh al-Islam, leader of Islam, and he is the founder of the Hanbali School, one of the four main Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence. Another scholar who approved of al-Bukhari’s book is Ali ibn al-Madini, who specialized in the study of hadith and its biographical evaluation in regard to its chain of narration. Sahih Al-Bukhari is still used all over the Islamic world and until now is the most accurate reference to the study of the hadith. Sahih Al-Bukhari has nine volumes, and each volume is divided into several books. These books are meant only to divide the ahadeeth according to topics, while the ahadeeth are numbered consecutively in each volume. Sahih Al-Bukhari has been translated into many languages, with all nine volumes translated into English by the scholar Muhammad Muhsin Khan. The ahadeeth in Sahih Al-Bukhari were collected and written by Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ismail al-Bukhari (AH 194–256). The prophetic ahadeeth were transmitted from one generation to the other orally without documentation. Al-Bukhari was among the first to work hard collecting ahadeeth. He spent sixteen years travelling from one region to another, collecting and writing the ahadeeth of the prophet. He was able to collect 2,602 hadith (Khan, 2009, p. 1). He finished his Sahih Al-Bukhari in 846 CE/AH 232. While al-Bukhari was collecting the ahadeeth, he checked each hadith from three different angles. First he checked each hadith for consistency with the verses of the Qur’an. Second, he checked the narrators of each and every hadith for his morals and truthfulness. Finally, al-Bukhari meticulously established the chain of reporters. Because of these standards, his collection of hadith is considered the most rigorous and accurate by all hadith scholars. As explained earlier, whenever verses from the Qur’an are not available to explain any concept of political curriculum, then the sayings or actions of the prophet from Sahih Al-Bukhari are used to support the claimed aspect of education. As for political curriculum, the Qur’an approaches the issue of political thought as a comprehensive discourse to establish general goals and frames. Politics in Arabic means siyasah. The word siyasah in Arabic embraces all social, political, and economic affairs. The word “siyasah” was never mentioned in the Qur’an. This led some to believe that the Qur’an has nothing to do with politics; it is only a religion. However, although the word “siyasah,” is not mentioned in the Qur’an, its meaning and ideology are mentioned in numerous verses. Likewise, the word “aqeeda,” faith, is not mentioned in the Qur’an but its meaning and ideology is all over the Qur’an and

its non-occurrence does not mean that there is no faith or principles of faith in the Qur’an. The Qur’an uses different terminologies referring to politics such as the word “mulk,” ruling people and leading them. The word “ruling” is mentioned in different verses as in “Hallowed be He in whose hand all dominion rests, since He has the power to will anything” (67:1). Other verses are 4:53, 5:49, and 5:50. There is one full chapter, number 67, called a mulk, ruling people. Another word political curriculum in the Qur’an uses is the word “deen,” which means a way of life in Arabic, to describe the religion as in “Behold, the only deen in the sight of God is (man’s) selfsurrender unto Him . . .” (3:19). Additionally, the Qur’an mentions the fair and great rulers such as the prophet Ibrahim: “We did grant revelation and wisdom unto the House of Abraham, and We did bestow on them a mighty dominion” (5:54) and chapter 12 which is dedicated to the story of the prophet Yusuf, Joseph, and how he ruled his people and saved them economically. It also mentions the arrogant and unjust rulers such as pharaoh: “Behold, Pharaoh exalted himself in the land and divided its people into castes. One group of them he deemed utterly low; he would slaughter their sons and spare (only) their women: for, behold, he was one of those who spread corruption” (28:4). This concludes that although the word “siyasah” is not mentioned in the Qur’an, all its related political aspects exists within the Qur’an. It is related to everything that takes care of the community whether it is economic, social, educational, or ruling and leading. The Qur’an is not only a religion that is practiced at the mosque; it is a way of life. Qur’anic ideology consists of principles evolving around a social order for the good of humanity at large. Hence, the Qur’anic ideology is the organization of society according to the laws of Allah with the sincere attempt to manage the affairs of people so that their rights are safely guarded (Moore, 2007, p. 25).

TEACHING IDEOLOGY To start with, it is necessary to emphasize that being a Muslim is a choice that a person has to make for himself: “And say: The truth is from your Lord, so let him who please believe, and let him who please disbelieve; . . .” (18:29). There is no obligation whatsoever upon any human being to become a Muslim: “There is no compulsion in religion; truly the right way has become clearly distinct from error . . .” (2:256). However, when a person decides to become a Muslim, a person has to believe in his or her mind and feel in his or her heart the oneness of Allah as this is the main foundation of being a Muslim. A person has to say the shahada, testimony of faith, with his tongue and submit in his heart that “there is no God but Allah and Mohammed is His last messenger” which is an ontological commitment. This means that to be a Muslim, a person must live the experience of the existence of Allah as the creator of the entire universe. This shahada must be experienced and felt personally to make the claim of being a Muslim true. Husserl (1982) believes that this lived experience is the first step to migrate from and to things themselves. Lived experiences refer to experiences that people live through, not the ones they hear about or watch.

This is to say that the primary basis of Qur’an is Tawheed, the oneness of Allah. Many verses explain and emphasize Tawheed. Surah 112 in the Qur’an is dedicated to describing the oneness of Allah, saying, “He is the One God. God the eternal, the uncaused cause of all being. Allah begetteth not nor is He begotten. Allah: there is none like unto Him. And there is nothing that could be compared with Him” (112:1–4). Reading this surah is considered by Muslims to be equal to reading one third of the Qur’an, as it stresses the most fundamental theme of the Qur’an—the oneness of Allah. In addition to surah 112, a verse considered by Muslims to be the greatest in the Qur’an is called ayah al-Kursi, or the verse of the throne. It, too, emphasizes the oneness of Allah: There is no god but He, the living, the self-subsisting, and the eternal. No slumber nor sleep can seize him. His are all things in the heavens and on earth. Who is there can intercede in his presence except as he permitted? He knoweth what lies before them (his creation) and after them. Nor shall they compass aught of his knowledge except as He willeth. His throne doth extend over the heavens and the earth and he feeleth no fatigue in guarding and preserving them, for He is the most high, the supreme. (2:255) For Muslims, this verse explains that Allah is the Lord of all creation; no one can worship a god other than him; he is the only one living forever and never dies, and he is the sustainer of the whole universe. In other words, Allah is one and there is nothing like him. The second main principle in political curriculum in the Qur’an is that Allah is able to create all people to be believers and worshippers of him, as indicated in “If it had been God’s plan, they would not have taken false gods . . .” (6:107). In this verse Allah tells humans that while he can create all humans as believers, he is the one who decided to give people freedom of choice. Several verses in the Qur’an emphasize that it is Allah’s plan to create people with freedom of choice. One example states, “Had He willed not (to giving humans the freedom of choice), He would have made every human being a believer altogether” (10:99). Once a person decides to be a Muslim, he is obliged to follow all the Qur’anic laws. Curriculum in the Qur’an does not accept people picking and choosing which laws to abide by or to violate. I am not saying that all Muslims abide by all the rules in the Qur’an as people choose to follow some orders and ignore others which would lead to the third principle of political curriculum in the Qur’an which is every person is held responsible for his own actions “Every soul draws the meed of its acts on none but itself: no bearer of burdens can bear the burden of another. Your return in the end is towards Allah . . .” (6:164). Other verses are 17:15 and 35:18. Political curriculum in the Qur’an made it very clear that each individual has to obey the laws that Allah has revealed in the Qur’an and in return, he will go to paradise after his death: “Behold, God has bought of the believers their lives and their possessions, promising them paradise in return . . .” (9:111). People are accountable to Allah for all their

choices even while he granted them freedom of choice. Allah will judge people and ask them about all their actions regardless of how tiny those actions are. This is clear in the verse that reads “So whoever does an atom’s weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom’s weight of evil will see it” (99:7–8). In other words, life is a test for humans, which is stated clearly in: “He who created death and life to test you (as to) which of you is best in deed” (67:2). Another verse that confirms the accountability of each individual reads, “Truly he succeeds that purifies it (the soul). And he fails that corrupts it” (91:7–10). Whoever does good deeds will purify his soul and go to heaven after death, and whoever does evil will corrupt his soul and be sent to hell. An example of freedom of choice and accountability is the creation of Adam. When Allah created Adam, he taught him the names of things, and then He left Adam to wander freely in heaven: And He said: “O Adam! Dwell you and your wife in the Paradise and eat both of you freely with pleasure and delight, of things therein as wherever you will, but come not near this tree or you both will be of the wrong-doers. (2:35) It was Adam who chose to eat from the forbidden tree and, as a consequence of this choice, he was descended to Earth. Allah only forgave Adam after he showed repentance for the choice he had made: “Then Adam received from his Lord some words, and He accepted his repentance” (2:37). The creation story teaches people that all choices have consequences, and people must think and decide for themselves. Accountability is not unique to religions. In all societies, religious or atheist, those who break a rule are held accountable for the consequences. Political curriculum in the Qur’an has some exceptions to humans’ liability and their freedom of choice. The prophet Mohammed lists these exceptions: “There are no deeds good or evil recorded for the following: the insane person until he becomes sane; a child until he grows to the age of puberty; and a sleeping person until he awakes” (Al-Bukhari, Vol. 5, No. 4398). This hadith asserts that after children reach the age of puberty, they become responsible for their own choices and actions. It also explains that we cannot blame the insane because they cannot make decisions for themselves and are, therefore, not accountable for actions committed while insane. Likewise, a sleeping person cannot be held accountable for actions committed while asleep. Another verse to confirm accountability is: You have complete freedom of choice, and you may select any way of life you want. But Allah’s system based upon eternal code is watching your every move and results of your action shall be compiled upon the basis of our infinite knowledge. (41:40) In other words, political curriculum in the Qur’an asks its followers to think about and measure each step before taking it, because Allah did not create us for nothing, and we are accountable for our choices: “Did you, then, think that We created you in

mere idle play, and that you would not have to return to Us?” (23:115). These three fundamental concepts—the oneness of Allah, freedom of choice, and human accountability—form the main bases of ideology in the Qur’an. The Qur’anic scholar Amro Khaled (2005) confirmed this as he explained that reading the Qur’an methodologically reveals its three main themes: the oneness of Allah, that man has freedom of choice, and that each individual is responsible for his actions that bear fruit accordingly. All topics in the Qur’an are built around these basic themes, and they are reinforced constantly (Khaled, 2005). Muslims believe in the absolute power of Allah which is established, whether creatures submit to it or not. Irrespective of anyone’s approval or denial, Allah’s supreme power exists all around us. This main concept of monotheism is summarized by Karolia (1999): Allah is the one God. He has no partner. He is All Powerful, Absolutely Just. He is The First, The Last and The Everlasting, He was when nothing was, and will be when nothing remains. He only grants life and knows what is in the Heavens and the earth. He knows what is in our hearts and listens to the entire creation. He sent all the prophets to guide man to Worship only Him. (Islam section, para. 1) Furthermore, several scholars agree with my opinion as Hassan Hathout (2008) asserted the sovereignty of Allah and confirmed his creation of humans with freedom of choice. He explained that the most significant belief in the Qur’an is that Allah created man and provided him with four principal qualities unique to humankind: “Knowledge, an awareness of good and evil, freedom of choice and accountability” (p. 6). Hathout continues that the human brain has the ability to “Observe, rationalize, analyze, experiment and conclude” (p. 6). Therefore, humans have the ability to comprehend, differentiate between matters, and choose. Abdul Sattar Kassem (2012), professor of political science at Najah National University, supported this idea as he wrote, “Man has been created with the ability to differentiate between right and wrong, and an ability to choose between purification and corruption” (p. 168). Moreover, Nabil Al-Najjar (2010), professor of managerial economics and decision sciences at the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University, asserts that Allah created people and asked them to observe and ponder the universe to learn and then to decide what to follow. Sayed Rabinataj and Rmezan Azadboni (2011) from the department of theology at the University of Mazandaran explained that the Qur’an encourages people to enjoy their freedom of choice but at the same time be mindful that “Unlimited liberty in any social setup means its total destruction, which beats the very purpose of freedom in the first place” (p. 8). There are other principles that curriculum in the Qur’an asks its followers to adhere to. After embracing Islam, it encourages its followers to spread the word about Islam, to invite people to be Muslims and to teach others about the religion: “Call thou (all mankind) unto thy Sustainer’s path with wisdom and goodly exhortation, and argue with them in the most kindly manner” (16:125). It encourages Muslims to

do and invite others to enjoin the good and forbid the evil: and that there should be a group of your community ((of people) who invite unto all that is good, and enjoin the doing of what is right and forbid the doing of what is wrong: and it is they, they who shall attain to a happy state! (3:104) Another foundation of political curriculum is that every human deserves to be treated with respect because Allah bestowed humans with dignity and respect as in “Now indeed, We have conferred dignity on the children of Adam, and borne them over land and sea, and provided for them sustenance out of the good things of life, and favored them far above most of Our creation” (17:70). There should be no distinction in regard to colors, social, or religious status. One more foundation is that people shall live in cooperation with each other as the Qur’an says: “help one another in furthering virtue and God-consciousness, and do not help one another in furthering evil and enmity; and remain conscious of God: for, behold, God is severe in retribution!” (5:2) because cooperation promotes comfortable life and helps maintain Allah’s laws. Justice should be served to all humans because it gives confidence and security “God enjoins justice, and the doing of good, and generosity towards (one’s) fellow-men; and He forbids all that is shameful and all that runs counter to reason, as well as envy” (16:90). Political curriculum in the Qur’an concerns itself mainly with broad principles of life and very little with detailed instructions. For example, the punishments for murder and capital offences such as fornication, robbery, and defamation are provided in the Qur’an. Details of punishments for other capital offences like adultery and drinking alcohol are provided by the Hadith. For instance, though the Qur’an has prohibited and punished theft, it is the Hadith that provided the conditions under which the punishment shall be meted out. Other punishments are left open to fit the time and place. The second point I would like to address to understand curriculum as political text in the Qur’an is how it deals with the idea of governing and ruling People. The Qur’an says in surah, chapter, 5: Surely We revealed the Taurat in which was guidance and light; with it the prophets who submitted themselves (to Allah) judged (matters) for those who were Jews, and the masters of Divine knowledge . . .” (5:44) “And in their footsteps We sent Jesus the son of Mary, confirming the Law that had come before him: We sent him the Gospel: therein was guidance and light, and confirmation of the Law that had come before him: a guidance and an admonition to those who fear Allah. Let the people of the Gospel judge by what Allah hath revealed therein. . . . (5:47) To thee We sent the Scripture in truth, confirming the scripture that came before it, and guarding it in safety: so judge between them by what Allah hath revealed, and follow not their vain desires, diverging from the Truth that hath come to thee.

To each among you have we prescribed a law and an open way. If Allah had so willed, He would have made you a single people, but (His plan is) to test you in what He hath given you: so strive as in a race in all virtues. The goal of you all is to Allah; it is He that will show you the truth of the matters in which ye dispute. (5:48) These verses put in plain words that all the prophets of Bani Israel, the Jews, including Moses, used to rule, judge, and decide matters of their people according to the Divine Revelation (At-Taurat or Torah) (5:44). Following in their footsteps, the prophet Eisa, Jesus, son of Mary, also used to rule, judge, and decide matters of his public according to the Injeel, Bible, the book revealed to him (5:46–47). Then came the prophet Muhammad and he, too, judged between people following the Qur’an, the book that was revealed to him. Allah commanded all prophets to rule, judge, and decide matters of their people according to what was revealed to them and so they did. Other verses confirming the same idea are: “And judge, between them by what Allah has revealed and do not follow their inclinations and beware of them, lest they tempt you away from some of what Allah has revealed to you . . .” (5:49) and in 4:105, 6:114, and 2:213. As for the role of rulers, political curriculum in the Qur’an reinforces the idea of consultation or shura in Arabic: “consult them in the affairs” (3:159). Consultation can be with a council of advisers to the government or an individual. The idea of consultation is also at the heart of Western democracy, and readers of the sources of Western tradition and of Islamic tradition may be surprised to find that the two are not so far different from each other (Ramadan, 2004, p. 2). Political curriculum in the Qur’an uses examples to teach people and clarify its rules and orders. For example, it displays, cites, and illustrates liberal political traditions of previous ages as examples to the prophet Mohammed and to the readers to comprehend and follow. One of the examples regarding handling affairs is the story of the prophet-king Solomon and Ber Sheva. The story reflects the Queen’s tradition of shura, consultative democracy. When the queen received the prophet Solomon’s invitation to submit to Allah and believe in him instead of worshipping the sun, she called for a meeting with the leaders of her nation, informed them about the letter, and stated that she had never made any political decision without consulting them. She said, “O eminent ones, advise me in my affair. I would not decide a matter until you witness (for) me” (27:32). She asked their advice on this occasion also. Their response was: “We are fierce and courageous fighters.” Yet, “the affairs is now at your hands to see what commands you would like to give” (27:33). Their response was to give her, the queen, the option to fight or to accept the prophet Solomon’s offer. There are various references to social, diplomatic, and political affairs in different verses such as 4:83, 7:54, 22:67, 26:151, 30:4, 47:21, 50:5, 65:12, 18:10, 9:50, 60:62, and others. In Arabic, affairs is called amr, and as directed by political curriculum in the Qur’an, all Muslims’ daily affairs whether social, economic, or political, are to be managed by means of mutual consolation centering around justice as in “Allah commands you . . .

and when you judge between people to judge with justice” (4:58). There is a whole chapter in the Qur’an called Surah Al-Shura, in which Allah describes that the expected behavior of the believers is consultation. Allah says: “And their affair is shura, mutual consultation, amongst themselves and whatever life-provisions We have bestowed upon them, they spend for others there from” (42:38). Additionally, Allah describes the believers as those who “respond to (the call of) their Sustainer and are constant in prayer; and whose rule is consultation among themselves; and who spend on others out of what We provide for them as sustenance” (42:38), this is to say consultation at all levels from small individual affairs to national and international levels is very important. The prophet Mohammed was commanded by Allah to administer socio-politicoeconomic affairs by means of mutual consultation: “So overlook their performance and seek forgiveness for them and consult them in the affair” (3:159). Therefore, the prophet Mohammed never dispensed any important affair without consultation. He made a clear distinction between ruling principles and administrative affairs. For ruling principles, he consulted his close and senior companions like Abu Bakr, Umar, Othman, Ali, and others. with whom he held special sessions and considered policy matters and diplomatic affairs. In regard to the implementation of administrative affairs he would hold consultative assembly of the office-bearers, leaders, and concerned people (Siddiqi, 1987, p.202 ff). The objective of these consultations was the welfare of the people. I would like to add that discussion, asking questions, dialogue, and conversation are encouraged between the rulers and their people. An example is the creation of Adam: Thy Sustainer said unto the angels: “Behold, I am about to establish upon earth one who shall inherit it.” They said: “Wilt Thou place on it such as will spread corruption thereon and shed blood -whereas it is we who extol Thy limitless glory, and praise Thee, and hallow Thy name?” [God] answered: “Verily, I know that which you do not know.” (2:30) There are two things we can learn from this verse. The first is that although Allah is the creator and can do whatever he wants, as a ruler, he shared with the angels, his plans and informed them about what he was going to do. The second point is that the angels, as his followers or I may say his community, did not just accept and say: “Ok you are the Lord, you can do what you want.” They questioned his decision and showed that they are not supporting his idea of creating humans. However, Allah’s response was “I know what you do not know,” but later he proved to them that he is right. This is to say that political curriculum in the Qur’an encourages open discussion and free opinions. This is what we call democracy in our current times. Another example of freedom of speech is the story of the prophet Moses when Allah asked him to go and tell the Pharaoh about his religion and ask him to submit to Allah. The verses goes as follows:

(And now) go thou unto Pharaoh: for, verily, he has transgressed all bounds of equity. Said (Moses): “O my Sustainer! Open up my heart (to Thy light) and make my task easy for me, and loosen the knot from my tongue so that they might fully understand my speech, and appoint for me, out of my kinsfolk, Aaron, my brother. One who will help me to bear my burden: Add Thou through him to my strength, and let him share my task.” (20:24–32) The prophet Moses did not just say “yes, I will,” but he asked Allah to help him first and then to appoint his brother, Aaron, to support him and help him in inviting pharaoh to their religion. The same experience is mentioned in another verse that says: And my brother Aaron—he is far better in speech than I am. Send him, therefore, as a helper, so that he might [more eloquently] bear witness to my speaking the truth: for I fear indeed that they will give me the lie.(28:34) Allah’s response to the prophet Moses’ request was: “We shall strengthen thine arm through thy brother, and endow both of you with power, so that they will not be able to touch you: by virtue of Our messages shall you two, and all who follow you, prevail!” (28:35). This is to conclude that open dialogue is a strong principle that people in control need to learn and apply. For Muslims, following the laws and commands in the Qur’an is a foundation of political curriculum in the Qur’an. This is because the religion is the umbrella under which regulations operate in the worldly life and it is the way for a successful life in the hereafter. It is common sense that laws cannot implement or enforce themselves upon people; it is for people to decide to adapt and follow. But the ways to implement or enforce the laws based upon it may be altered according to the suitability of time and circumstances. One of the verses explains this as it says: “O you who believe obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority from amongst you” (4:59). As it is clear in the verse, the first authority that people have to follow is Allah and his rules as explained in the Qur’an. If there is no explanation or rule of any kind, then people have to ask the prophet, as obeying him and following his steps is as necessary as obeying Allah: “Whoever pays heed unto the Apostle pays heed unto God thereby; and as for those who turn away—We have not sent thee to be their keeper” (4:80). The prophet Muhammad was mortal and could not live forever: “And Muhammad is only an apostle; all the (other) apostles have passed away before him: if, then, he dies or is slain, will you turn about on your heels?” (3:144). Nevertheless this did not mean the end of Islam and this is when the third option was presented which is following those who have authority and judge by the rules of Allah. All the affairs shall be decided by mutual consultation, in the light of the Qur’an. If there is any disagreement among the representatives on any matter, the judgment thereof will be referred to Allah represented by his book: “And on whatever you may differ, (O believers) the verdict thereon rests with God. (Say, therefore :) “Such is God, my

Sustainer: in Him have I placed my trust, and unto Him do I always turn!” (42:10). In short, the Qur’an speaks about politics and government in many verses using the theme of leadership and succession and making them a trust of the ruler whose role is to guide human life, spread righteousness, law, and order, and to preserve justice and goodness in society. In the Qur’anic view, politics (siyasah) is the relations between humans including enjoying, utilizing, and owning of material objects. The Qur’an points out that ruling people and following orders should be with balances in each and every sphere of human life: “O children of Adam, take your adornment at every masjid (mosque), and eat and drink, but be not excessive. Indeed, He likes not those who commit excess” (7:31). Another verse is: “And my people, fill up the measuring and the balance with equity and do not depreciate the things of mankind, and do not perpetrate (mischief) in the land as corruptors” (11:85).

CHANGING PROCESS Curriculum in the Qur’an deals with changing people and helping them adopt new rules and regulations. Allah, as the creator of humans, knows that true changes in human behavior cannot happen merely by asking people to follow new rules. Change is a gradual process that takes time and energy, which is one of the reasons behind revealing the Qur’an over twenty-three years. This length of time was needed by the prophet Mohammed in order to reform and construct a new society. Additionally, this time was needed for his followers to be reformed and become reformers themselves. Curriculum in the Qur’an changed Muslim society in stages to make it easier on people at that time to accept these changes, as promised in the Qur’an: “A discourse which We have gradually unfolded, so that thou might read it out to mankind by stages, seeing that We have bestowed it from on high step by step, as (one) revelation” (17:106). One example from the Qur’an of change presented in stages is the phasing out of intoxicating substances. Drinking alcohol was part of people’s lives at that time, but over a period of ten years intoxicating substances were prohibited in stages. The Arabic word “al-Khamr” includes all types of intoxicants, whether wine or drugs. The first step was the revelation of this verse: “They ask you about intoxicants and games of chance. Say: In both of them there is a great sin and means of profit for men, and their sin is greater than their profit” (2:219). This verse clarifies that there are some beneficial aspects of alcohol, but the negative aspects are greater. This verse helped Muslims not only recognize the negative effects of drinking but also consider it an evil that should be avoided. The second step came with the revelation that prohibited Muslims from performing prayers while intoxicated, saying, “Oh you who have attained to faith! Do not attempt to pray while you are in a state of drunkenness, but wait until you know what you are saying” (4:43). This verse caused Muslims to change their drinking habits. Muslims must pray five times a day, so they refrained from drinking until after the last prayer of the day, late in the evening. By following this verse, Muslims adapted to consuming less alcohol. Some of them drank after the

evening prayer only but some ceased all alcohol consumption. By following this verse Muslims prepared for a change in lifestyle. After a few years, as people had become accustomed to very little consumption of al-Khamr, the third and final step was revealed: Oh you who have attained to faith! Intoxicants, and games of chance and idolatrous practices, and the divining of the future are but a loathsome evil of Satan’s doing. Shun it, so that you may attain a happy state. By means of intoxicants and games of chance Satan seeks only to sow enmity and hatred among you, and to turn you away from the remembrance of God, and from prayer. Will you not, then, desist? (5:90–91) These two verses declare that all intoxicants are intended to move people away from Allah, and that by consuming al-Khamr people lose all mental abilities, making them more susceptible to following Satan’s doing. After the revelation of these verses, people stopped drinking and al-Khamr was prohibited completely. Most prohibitions were handed down similarly, in stages. Another example of gradual change is what happened with the prophet Moses. During one of the first contacts between him and Allah in Sinai desert. Allah asked him to throw his stick, to show him how to use it as a miracle to convince Pharaoh and his followers of the true new religion. But when he saw it move rapidly, as if it were a serpent, he drew back (in terror), and did not (dare to) return. (And God spoke to him again) O Moses! Fear not—for, behold, no fear need the message-bearers have in My Presence (27:10) This verse reflects that the prophet Moses was scared and ran away when he saw the stick changing into a snake, but Allah comforted him and told him that prophets do not fear as they have complete trust in Allah. The second incident was at Pharaoh’s palace when he invited all the sorcerers to challenge the prophet Moses and gave them promises if they proved the prophet Moses is wrong. That time was the first for the prophet Moses to show people the power of his stick: Said (the sorcerers):”O Moses! Either thou throw (thy stick first), or we shall be the first to throw. He answered: “Nay, you throw (first).” And lo! by virtue of their sorcery, their (magic) ropes and sticks seemed to him to be moving rapidly: and in his heart Moses became apprehensive. (But) We said: “Fear not! Verily, it is thou who shalt prevail! . . . (20:65–68) In this incident, the prophet Moses only feared in his heart, he did not show his feelings, which reflects a gradual change in feelings compared to the first time using his stick. The third step was while the prophet Moses led his followers to run away from Pharaoh and his soldiers. When they reached the Red Sea, his followers

became scared because they had the sea in front of them and Pharaoh and his soldiers behind them, and there was no other way, so they thought they were dead: “as soon as the two hosts came in sight of one another, the followers of Moses exclaimed: “Behold, we shall certainly be overtaken (and defeated)!”(26:61). At this moment, the prophet Moses said “Nay indeed! My Sustainer is with me, (and) He will guide me!” (26:62). At this point Allah inspired the prophet Moses to “Strike the sea with thy stick!” whereupon it parted, and each part appeared like a mountain vast” (26:63). Therefore, the prophet Moses’ feelings changed completely. At the beginning it was fear and running away that changed to just fear and doubts in the heart to a complete trust and submission to Allah. This change was gradual and it did not just come by itself. In addition to the Qur’an, as a teacher the prophet Mohammed changed people’s attitudes gradually. For example in encouraging people to seek knowledge, he laid fundamental principles through stages. At the early stages of Islam, discrimination was the trend. The rich would not sit by the poor or the black by the white. The first step the prophet Mohammed made was stating that “let the poor and the rich be equal before you in the acquisition of knowledge” (Totah, 1926, p. 44). This announcement was so hard for people to accept that some of them stopped attending the prophet’s study sessions for a while. After a few months, when they noticed that sitting by the poor and studying with them was a necessity they have to live with, they started to accept it gradually. The second step was when the prophet changed his followers’ attitude towards who is better in the sight of Allah. The prophet was command teaching his companions when one of them asked him which of two people could be envied, the rich or the knowledgeable? He said “it is the person whom God has given wisdom and who applies it for the benefit of humankind and shares it with others” (al-Bukhari, Book 1, No. 6:500). By this, the prophet clarified that to be a person with knowledge and teaching it to people is better than being rich in the sight of Allah. This completely changed his followers’ attitudes toward the poor and they started to look at them differently, sitting with them and even listening to them in educational settings. The prophet also promised various rewards from Allah for those who teach people, praise God, and spread knowledge (Gulick, 1953, p. 49). Later, he praised people who would travel and come from faraway lands to seek and spread knowledge. He asked his followers in Medina to take care of them and treat them with goodness (al-Qazwıni, 1993, p. 143). Moreover, he transferred his own responsibility reminding his people that they have to teach what they learned even if it is only one verse (al-Bukhari, 1979, 4:442). Another Hadith is: The example of guidance and knowledge with which Allah has sent me is like abundant rain falling on the earth, some of which was fertile soil that absorbed rain water and brought forth vegetation and grass in abundance. (And) another portion of it was hard and held the rain water and Allah benefited the people with it and they utilized it for drinking, making their animals drink from it and for

irrigation of the land for cultivation. (And) a portion of it was barren which could neither hold the water nor bring forth vegetation (then that land gave no benefits). The first is the example of the person who comprehends Allah’s religion and gets benefit (from the knowledge) which Allah has revealed through me (the Prophets and learns and then teaches others. The last example is that of a person who does not care for it and does not take Allah’s guidance revealed through me (He is like that barren land.). (Al-Bukhari, Vol. 3 No. 21) Finally, he declared the best among you is the one who teaches and learns the Qur’an: “the best among you (Muslims) are those who learn the Qur’an and teach it” (Al-Bukhari, Vol. 6:545). This is to encourage people to learn and teach others what they have learned. Another example of the prophet bringing gradual change to early Muslims is the change he did to his followers at that time. Man is both an individual and a member of a community. One cannot be separated from the other without destroying something valid in both. The individualism that stresses complete freedom from any kind of social control leads to disintegration of society. It gives complete license to the individual to overthrow ideals and values of the society he lives in. Similarly complete social control that represses the creative and critical urge of the individual, cripples man and leads society to either degeneration and stagnation or sudden and violent social upheaval. Political curriculum in the Qur’an preserves the basic structure of society by conserving all basic values, transmitting them to the next generation, and renewing culture whenever deterioration or loss of values occurs while, at the same time, nurturing personal growth. It is through this nurture of the individual and the preservation and transmission that both the individual and society attain quality of life. Therefore, to build a strong community for Muslims in Medina, the prophet Mohammed started a socialization process through different steps. The first was before his migration to Medina at the Second Bai’at or compact. He appointed twelve group leaders from among the people of Medina to represent him and to spread the word of Islam for their people. This was in consonant with the earlier prophetic tradition of the prophets Musa and Eisa who had appointed twelve leaders of the twelve tribes of Bani Israel and twelve disciples, respectively. This action made the prophet Mohammed closer to the people of Medina (Siddiqi, 1979, p.237–238). Therefore, the people of Medina were ready for him and were very happy to accept him and his group that they celebrated their arrival with songs. The second step was after migration when the prophet Mohammed settled in Medina and more followers started to migrate from Mecca to Medina, he set up a system of brotherhood that took three steps. The first was by joining one of the Muhajirun, migrants, and one of Ansar, people of Medina, into brothers and not just roommates. They became brothers, in the truest sense. The Medinan Muslims provided their Makkan brothers with food, shelter, and clothing. The Medinan people shared their houses, businesses, and even inheritance with the Makkans. They provided console, support, and all that the Makkans needed. This brotherhood

relationship was rectified later by making blood relation and matrimonial relation supersede other relations in matter of inheritance. At that time and with Arab tribal enmity and prejudices, the brotherhood system was truly revolutionary. It gave the migrants a chance to rebuild their lives in their new home, while creating a deep bond of love and affection between Muslims of two very different cities. This brotherhood system is an example of political curriculum commitment to the establishment of a brotherhood based purely on faith not on color, language, race, or ethnicity. Later, after establishing the Medinan and Makkan brotherhood system, a universal brotherhood was announced by declaring all Muslims as brothers: “Verily all Muslims are brothers, so amend and rectify affairs amongst your brothers” (49:10). This is to say that all Muslims whether in Africa, Europe, Asia, or any other part of the world, are brothers and sisters. Brothers means to protect, support, and care for each other. Finally, the last step was declaring that all humans are the descendants of one father, Adam: “O mankind, fear your Lord, who created you from one soul and created from it its mate and dispersed from both of them many men and women . . .” (4:1). This is to say that all people are equal as they are brothers and sisters descended from the same parents which should lead to universal justice of giving everyone his rights regardless of color, race, or nation. The Prophet defined justice as “giving everybody his due” which means the natural rights; and the Qur’an adds: “Allah surely commands you to pay off the trusts to its owner and whenever you judge between men judge with equity” (4:58). The purpose of the Qur’an’s curriculum is to teach people and make changes toward a better life. The teachings of the Qur’an transformed the lives of Arabs dramatically, eradicating many habits in practice at the time of revelation. Generally, Arabs believed in spirits and demons and had many different gods to worship. They were idolaters as each tribe had its own idol around Kaaba (Margoliouth, 2010). Curriculum in the Qur’an changed all these beliefs to worship only one god that is Allah and the Muslims who were worshipping idols were the ones who destroyed all idols around Kaaba and in all other places. The Qur’an described Arab life before Islam as living in a time of ignorance. Arab society before Islam was considered a male dominant society where females had no status and were sold as property; this will be explained in more detail in the Race and Gender Chapter. Arabs used to bury their baby daughters alive because they considered having a baby daughter a shame, “and when the girl-child that was buried alive is made to ask. For what crime she had been slain” (81:8–9). This was changed through one step only when Allah revealed the verse that people are not to kill their children which explains that some habits had to be changed in one single step. However, revealing the Qur’an in twenty-three years was a major factor behind such gradual cultural transformations. In the Qur’an, all prophets were sent by God to guide humankind and change them. Their primary focus was the reform of individuals, who, when suitably reformed, could form a society inspired to follow Allah’s teachings. Change happened through gradual and sustained reform at the level of individuals of that society, and, then, the .

system of governance was reformed. Their reformist efforts aimed primarily at the transformation of the inner consciousness, beliefs, and behavior of individuals through education, moral instruction, and unification. This is what the Qur’an regards as the aim behind God sending to humankind a long chain of prophets: Allah did confer a big favor on the believers when He sent among them a Messenger from among themselves, rehearsing unto them the signs of Allah, purifying them, and instructing them in scripture and wisdom, while, before that, they had been in manifest error. (3:164)

TEACHERS IN THE QUR’AN In line with most religions of the world, Islam places great emphasis on teaching and elevates the status of teachers. Teachers are to cater to the welfare of individuals and their communities. For Muslim teachers, the primary motive for engaging in teaching ought to be seeking the pleasure of Allah as they are impersonating one of his actions and fulfilling his orders (Mogra 2008, p. 319). So what does the Qur’an say about these hierarchical relationships of education that reflect authority lines from administrators to teachers to students? There are several points mentioned in the Qur’an that can be commented on here. First, the Qur’an mentioned that ultimate knowledge lies with Allah only while human knowledge is limited and incomplete; second, knowledge and giving knowledge are godly attributes; and third, knowledge and sharing knowledge (teaching/learning) are the sources and justification of status and leadership. The value of the teacher is judged by the fact that Allah has made reference about teaching to himself: “The most merciful, taught the Qur’an, created man and taught him eloquence” (55:1–4). Therefore, arguably, no other profession can compete in terms of virtue with the teaching profession. The distinction of teachers is also evident in relation to the role of messengers because messengers were teachers to their communities: “Just as We have sent among you a messenger from yourselves reciting to you Our verses and purifying you and teaching you the Book and wisdom and teaching you that which you did not know” (2:151). It is clear that teachers perform the role of such great people which places a responsibility on teachers in that knowledge and practice are to be combined (Morga, 2010, p. 318). The prophets, otherwise ordinary human beings, have an elevated status among mankind because of their knowledge: “And certainly We gave knowledge to Dawood and Sulaiman, and they both said: Praise be to Allah, Who has made us to excel many of His believing servants” (27:15). Allah says in the Qur’an, “We sent not a messenger except (to teach) in the language of his (own) people, in order to make (things) clear to them . . .” (14:4). Explaining the function of messengers, Saqeb (1996) contends that they were chosen by Allah “throughout history and to all nations and tribes to raise peoples’ gaze from narrow, immediate and selfish pursuits to universal ideals.” (p. 29–30). The same is

true about the prophet Muhammad, he was “the channel of the revelation of the book which is considered by all Muslims to be the quintessential sum of all knowledge, both human and divine” (Nasr, 1987, p.65). Islam paid considerable attention to teachers for their being the first brick in the structure of social development and the cause of guiding and developing behaviors and mentalities of individuals and communities. Additionally, the Qur’an repeatedly suggests that only those who possess knowledge and understanding are capable of guiding and leading people. Allah promised people with knowledge that “Allah will raise in ranks those of you who believe as well as those who are given knowledge” (58:11), which is an example of the relationship between knowledge and status. Another verse: Their prophet said to them: Surely Allah has raised Talut to be a king over you. They said: How can he hold kingship over us while we have a greater right to kingship than he, and he has not been granted an abundance of wealth? He said: Surely Allah has chosen him in preference to you, and He has increased him abundantly in knowledge. (2:247) This is to say that Allah chose him to be the leader because he has the knowledge. Another point that can be added here is that the Qur’an gave teachers the authority and status of a parent. In the Qur’an, parents should have the highest respected authority in the Islamic social system. One verse is: “Come, let me convey unto you what God has forbidden to you: “Do not ascribe divinity, in any way, to aught beside Him; and (do not offend against but, rather,) do good unto your parents” (6:151). Other verses are 17:23, 29:8–9, 31:14, and 46:15. Parents should be respected, very well treated, and taken care of in Islamic law. Therefore by giving teachers the status of parents, the Qur’an asks its followers to transfer the utmost respect to teachers. This concept of parent-like authority vested in teachers is balanced by responsibilities and by an emphasis on values and accountability. As explained earlier, the Qur’an agrees with the broad educational aims of creating good individuals and good citizens but it attaches great importance to faith, piety and moral values as fundamental aims of education. This widens the dimensions of the teachers’ task, which is “creating close relationship between the teacher and the taught, spiritual as well as professional” (Al-Attas, 1979, p. 111). This means that knowledgeable educated people/ teachers guide learners closer to Allah and are attributed the highest status as prophet Mohammed says: “Everyone in the universe, in the heavens and on earth, prays for forgiveness for the scholar, even the fish in the sea.” (Al-Bukhari, Vol 1, No. 245) and “Three will intercede on the Day of Resurrection: The Prophets, then the scholars, then the martyrs” (Al-Bukhari, Vol. 3, No. 4456) which is one reason for a deeply embedded concept of respect for teachers, and contributes to the acceptance of their leadership role. This notion of high respect for the teacher was particularly true at the beginning of Islam. This was strengthened by the assumption that guiding toward knowledge was an act of giving

which could not be repaid. This is why in the first few centuries of the spread of Islam there was no concept of a paid teacher in the Muslim world. The Muslim scholars volunteered to teach at mosques or homes to all those who came seeking knowledge (Al-Attas, 1979, p. 97). At the early ages of Islamic civilization, to get higher status and respect in society, people used to seek higher education. They used to teach for free with no expected salary. They used to have their own jobs to earn a living and teach at the same time. For example, “the poet Abu al-’Atahiya was a ceramic artist, al-Jahiz was a bread seller and fishmonger and al-Ghazali’s name refers to his father’s job as a worker in the production of woolen clothes” (Ahmad, 1989, p.39). However, after the spread of Islam, education became well established and teachers began to dedicate themselves full time to their teaching and got paid for it. People were attracted to teachers because of their personalities and characteristics (Hussain and Ashraf, 1979). Teaching was a process of giving knowledge and developing learners’ personalities as a whole and this is how teachers were/are able to change the world. Historically, the prophet Muhammad has been recognized, accepted, and celebrated as a great teacher. Several verses affirm and specifically afford the honor of being a teacher to him: “It is He Who sent amongst the unlettered a messenger from amongst themselves, to rehearse to them His signs, to purify them, and to instruct them in The Book and wisdom, although they had been before in manifest error” (62:2). In other words, one of the main objectives of sending prophets to humankind was to transmit wisdom and knowledge and to teach the Book of Allah. In addition to the Qur’an, the hadith demonstrates that the prophet Muhammad referred to himself as a teacher, saying, “I have been sent as a teacher” (al-Qazwını, 1993, 1:130). The prophet Mohammed adopted and practiced this command; his companions and later followers followed his steps and paid great attention to education. Their expectation of teachers was not that they should have knowledge, but also to have a personal commitment to faith and be a role model of virtue and faithfulness that students can promptly imitate (Halstead 2004, p. 31). The most important intention for being a teacher should be seeking the pleasure of Allah as they are emulating one of his actions and fulfilling His orders. Muslim teachers have to be part of their social communities with positive caring attitude toward their problems (El Tom, 1981, p. 40). It is intriguing to note how rapidly Islam spread beyond the boundaries of the Arabian Peninsula, transforming a large number of ignorant and barbaric people within a short period of time. The conversion of large numbers of people indicates the success of their teachers. Hence, what were the steps taken by the prophet–teacher to eliminate the traits of ignorance and illiteracy? The prophet Mohammed declared that the acquisition of knowledge was compulsory on all Muslims. Therefore, education was opened to everyone on an equal basis; the only restriction was one’s ability and interest. His next step was to give learners an additional responsibility. He announced the criteria of those who would be excellent people. He stated that the best were the ones who taught and learned the Qur’an. This was the foundation for

establishing the base that a Muslim should be either a student or a teacher. The third step was announcing that any effort that his followers exerted in search of knowledge was equal to an act of worship. The first Muslims followed these steps; they learned and taught others to recite and to understand verses of the Qur’an in different localities and tribes in and around Mecca. Saqeb (1996) points out that there were only seventeen literate Muslims in Mecca at that time and most of the teaching took place orally. But this figure changed considerably during the time of the prophet and after his death (Morga, 2010, p. 321). It is well known that teachers are their students’ exemplars. Students are imitating their teachers all the time, talking like them, acting like them and even dressing up like them. Because of this, teachers are obliged to over discipline themselves and be a perfect model on morals and manners to be the best exemplars to their students. Vygotsky realized that learning is not an individual activity, and that more insightful analyses of educational development need to be discussed in relation to the social interactions that take place between the actors involved. Accordingly, by developing deeper relationships with their students, educators can consciously care for students in a way that provides a suitable environment for growth. This attention to students’ needs from educators would provide a role model for other students to help each other grow in cooperative learning settings. This quality of the studentteacher relationship is essential to Islamic pedagogy as well. Many Western academics have elaborated on the nature of this affective and caring relationship between teacher and student (Bailey, 2000; Noddings, 1984; Rogoff, 1990). Nel Noddings wrote in Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education (1984), as a reaction to that more attention and care should be paid to students to develop intellectually and emotionally. Noddings took this notion further when she wrote that educators have a moral obligation and responsibility to care for their students and be their role models by acting the values they want to instill in their students (Noddings, 1992, p. 75). Fullan (2001) stated that “Educational change depends on what teachers do and think—it’s as simple and as complex as that” (p. 115). An accurate example of this would be the prophet Mohammed as he was developing the characters of his followers and purifying their souls. Hence, the teacher assumes the role of developing students intellectually, providing nourishment for their souls and molding their personality. Teachers’ efforts are the source of establishment of civilizations and prosperity of life character, as well as achievements of the great expectations for which the nation yearns. There is no doubt that the most commonly held accountable for the implementation of change are teachers. “Researchers need to look more closely at teachers and their powerful impact of attitude change on productivity, enthusiasm and commitment of students” (Cohen, 1995, p. 110). The pedagogy used throughout most of Islamic civilization was that of the prophet Muhammad. He was a caring teacher leading by example and teaching a customized curriculum in a dialectical manner. This curriculum emphasized a foundation of moral character and application of knowledge in one’s behavior for the

benefit of society (The Berkey Center, 1992, pgs. 1–38). Similarly throughout Islamic history, Islamic education was a cooperative activity between both teachers and students and that paid less attention to books or institutions than on how one actually learned to be able to pass on their knowledge (the Berkey Center, 1992, pgs. 16, 18). Early Muslim students used to spend a good part of their lives traveling to learn from scholars. Another important point that cannot be ignored and that played a major role in the change and transformation of the people of the Arabian Peninsula is the impact of the prophet’s personality as a teacher. His pleasant countenance, anger management, praise, forgiveness, and patience captivated his students. His behavior toward all created beings is imitated by some of his followers still today. Abdul Haq (1991) confirmed this attitude as he wrote describing the prophet Mohammed that “history cannot give us the example of any other comparable personality wherein the diverse traits of character are so magnificently fused together into one perfect whole” (p. 284). One of the important features of the prophet Muhammad is that he taught by being a role model in his behavior and personality combined with having no contradictions between his statements and his actions. More specifically, he was “affectionate to everyone” (3:159) and was “ardently anxious about his followers and kind to them” (9:128). Perhaps this can be considered as personalized learning approach. The prophet Muhammad was not educated in a school or university nor did he learn how to read or write. Yet, his influence and contribution to the knowledge of science has no parallel in history. He replaced ignorance with knowledge, reason with custom, research in place of blind following, and slavery of humankind to stewardship of Allah and despair with hope and mercy (Rahman, 1980, p. 62). Traditional Muslim education was not an activity separated from other aspects of society; it was rooted in the community it served, responding to its needs and aspirations and preserving its values and beliefs. The prophet cared for teachers and showed their elevated standings. Earlier Muslim scholars have recognized that students do imitate their teachers and follow their steps. A teacher, as transmitter of knowledge, is considered an authority figure worthy of respect. There was a natural integration of the curriculum and a close personal relationship between teacher and students; superiority was discouraged and undue attention was not paid to examinations.

Chapter 5

Race and Gender Curriculum in the Qur’an Race is a concept that was brought to the world by the nineteenth century. Several scholars, politicians, and religious and community leaders around the globe discussed the issue of race. For example, Dreyfus and Rabinow (1982) explain that “At the end of the nineteenth century Foucault stated that the notion of ‘race’ was adopted by racist biologists and eugenicists, who gave it the modern sense of ‘biological race’, which was then integrated to ‘state racism’” (p. 128). To explain a little more, Fuller (1984) wrote that racism is: a system of thought, speech, and action, operated by people who classify themselves as ‘white’, and who use deceit, violence, and/or the threat of violence, to subjugate, use, and/or abuse people classified as ‘non-white’, . . . for the ultimate purpose of maintaining, expanding, and/or refining the practice of White Supremacy (Racism). )p.1) Mills (1999) confirmed Fuller’s opinion as he wrote: “Racism is usually planted by twisting the natural characteristic differences such as skin complexion, physical features, culture, language, and place of geographic origin” (p. 180). Additionally, it is worthy to note that concepts of race, gender, and class are subject to change in space and time. Looking back into history, one may notice that the term people of color has evolved according to political circumstances. For example, prior to the civil war, Jews and Irish were discriminated against and treated as non-white (Omi and Winant, 1994, p. 11). This is not the case anymore as they, the Jews and Irish, are considered whites now. Another example would be the following: By the end of the seventeenth century, Africans, whose specific identity was Ibo, Yoruba, Dahomeyan, etc., were rendered “black” by an ideology of exploitation based on racial logic. Similarly, native Americans were forger into “Indians” or the “red man” from Cherokee, Seminole, Sioux, etc. people.” (Omi and Winant, 1994, p. 51) Antiracist education is a core educational component, emphasizing tolerance, equality, justice, and freedom to all people, regardless of skin color, ethnicity, religion, gender, and all other diversities of the world.

RACE IN THE QUR’AN “Racial curriculum” in this chapter refers to the body of material included in Qur’anic verses that concern race.

The term “racism” refers to any form of discrimination based on race or ethnicity. Racism based on skin color was widespread in most of the world during the preIslamic era. Likewise, racism was wide spread in Makah, as each tribe felt superior to other tribes (a phenomenon known as tribalism), and at the same time Arabs felt superior to non-Arabs. As part of the racial curriculum in the Qur’an, Allah describes a person with racist feelings as a jahili, an ignorant person: “Those who disbelieve filled their hearts with fanatical rage of the time of ignorance . . .” (48:26); this verse describes the situation of people before Islam. It was revealed to ask people to stop the tribalism and Arabism as they are parts of jahilia, or the era of ignorance before the revelation of the Qur’an. The Qur’an explains the first instance of racism happened at the beginning of creation when Allah created Adam. In fact, racism was very clear in Iblees (Satan’s) behavior when Allah ordered him and the angels to bow down to Adam: Your Lord said to the angels, “I am creating a human being from aged mud, like potter’s clay. Once I perfect him, and blow into him from My spirit, you shall (all) fall in prostration before him.” The angels fell prostrate; all of them, except Iblees. He refused to be with those who prostrate. (15:28–31) The reason for Iblees’s refusal to prostrate before Adam is explained in another verse: “He (God) asked, “What prevented you from prostrating when I ordered you?” He (Iblees) replied, “I am better than he; you created me from fire, and created him from mud” (7:12). Iblees’s refusal acknowledges his feelings of superiority over Adam. Therefore, using Iblees’s example, the racial curriculum in the Qur’an explains that racism occurs due to feelings of superiority over others. To solve this feeling of superiority, the racial curriculum in the Qur’an dictates that the only criterion for superiority is one’s own actions: O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that you may know each other. Verily the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is (one who is) the most righteous. And Allah has full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things). (49:13) Reading this verse methodologically would assist in deriving a few perspectives in regard to the racial curriculum in the Qur’an. First, it starts by addressing all humans, as it says “O mankind!”; it did not address a certain group, gender, nationality, or any particular race, which generalizes the verse to all people. Second, after everyone started to pay attention, the verse asserts that all people are created by the same God: “We created you.” This is to say that since all people are created by one and the same creator, then he would create all humans in the same way and from the same material. The third viewpoint introduced in the verse is that all humans belong to the same parents, Adam and Eve: “We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female.” Consequently, all humans are brothers and sisters in a very large extended

family. The verse also confirms that variations in gender, language, and ethnic background are not bases for superiority. All humans are created from the same material. The prophet Muhammad explains, “You all belong to Adam, and Adam was created from dust” (Sahih al-Bukhari, Vol. 73, #223). That is, there is no reason for any person, gender, group, or race to feel superior to or better than another, whether they be kings or paupers. All humans are created from a despised fluid, as the Qur’an describes it: “Then He made his seed from a draught of despised fluid” (32:8). Being created by Allah, the One Creator, “with the same material” means equality. The fourth and last perspective that can be derived from this verse is that the racial curriculum in the Qur’an explains the reason behind our different shapes and colors, which is: “You may know one another” (49:13). This is to say that Allah deliberately created humans differently and the reason behind this variation and diversity is, as Allah describes it, to know each other and to learn to communicate with one another. This confirms, as indicated in the verse above, that Allah considers the most pious person as the best among people: “Verily the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is (one who is) the most righteous” (49:13). Additionally, in regard to the historical context of the verse (49:13) and as explained in Safwat Al-Tafasir: Tafsir Al-Qur’an Al-Karim, Explanation of the Qur’an, this verse was revealed after the Conquer of Mecca. After entering Mecca, the prophet asked Bilal, the former Abyssinian slave, to make the adhan or call for prayer. Being the person to call the adhan implies a highly prestigious status that Muslims greatly respect and appreciate. A group of three newly converted Muslims were sitting together and one of them whispered that he was glad his parents were not alive to witness such a sickening scene. The other one voiced his surprise that the prophet could not ask anyone other than a black man to call for prayer. The third person, Abu Sufyan, refrained from making any improper comment but left them furious of what had taken place. When the prophet learned about these three men, he asked them about their conversation and they confirmed what he was told and for this reason this verse was revealed. Therefore, the prophet called for a meeting to deliver the revealed verse for his people and to announce that piety is the only principle for how Allah judges people, regardless of all other earthly factors (Al-Sabouni, 1981, Vol. 3, p. 237). The racial curriculum in the Qur’an emphasizes equality in different verses, and explains that all people are equal in the sight of Allah as they are created from the same parents: O people, observe your Lord; the One who created you from one being, and created from it its mate, then spread from the two many men and women. You shall regard God, by whom you swear, and regard the parents, God is watching over you. (4:1) To explain the way the racial curriculum in the Qur’an treats racism, I will provide an example of how the prophet Mohammed engaged with this issue during the time of

revelation. As explained earlier, during the time of revelation racism was the common trend. Therefore, the prophet Mohammed in his role as a teacher was instrumental in helping his followers embrace equality. After his migration from Makah to Medina and as his followers started to arrive to Medina, the prophet Mohammed developed a social system, called the brotherhood, in which a Muhajir, migrant, and an Ansari, occupant of Medina, became brothers. Being brothers means to share houses, businesses, and even inheritance. The inheritance relation was changed later by limiting the blood and matrimonial relatives to inheritance. It ensured that migrants, without any consideration to their background, ethnicity, or color, had the opportunity to start a new life in a new society while maintaining a strong bond of love and respect with the people of Medina. The Ansari was to accept any Muhajir from Makah as his brother, disregarding his color or race. This brotherhood system was a reflection of a structure based only on faith. To confirm this relation, Allah revealed a kind of universal brotherhood system in the racial curriculum in the Qur’an by declaring that all Muslims are brothers: “Verily all Muslims are brothers, so amend and rectify affairs amongst your brothers” (49:10). The application of this verse was strengthened when the prophet Mohammed announced, “You cannot enter paradise unless you become a total believer and you won’t become a total believer unless you love each other” (Al-Bukhari, Vol. 1, No. 629). By following these verses and ahadeeth, a strong brotherhood system based on equality was built. Until now, this system is acknowledged to a certain degree. When I, an Arab, meet Muslims from a different country such as Pakistan, China, or Mali, they will call me sister and I will call them sister or brother. There are several verses teaching people to keep the brotherhood system as a base for social life. For example, the prophet Mohammed taught his followers: “It is forbidden for two people to start a whispering conversation in the presence of the third” (Al-Bukhari, Vol. 5, No. 2825) as this possibly will hurt the feelings of the one who is left out. Another hadith of the prophet is: “It is not permissible for a Muslim to sever relations with his brother for more than three days” (Al-Bukhari, Vol. 5, No. 2850). The prophet allows three days for any angry feelings to settle down, and then the two people are expected to resolve their issue and establish communication again. Later, the prophet Mohammed overemphasized this equality foundation when he stated during his farewell speech: “All people stand equal, like the teeth of a comb; no advantage shall an Arab have over a non-Arab or a non-Arab over an Arab, except in righteousness” (Sahih Al-Bukhari, Book 63, No. 607). This is to confirm that actions are the only criterion for differentiation between people. Another important note that should be added to the racial curriculum in the Qur’an is the fact that after embracing Islam, the prophet’s companions called themselves Muslims without differentiating amongst themselves on the basis of race. On the contrary, they ignored their racial backgrounds and identified themselves as Muslims, not Arab-Muslims, Roman-Muslims, or African-Muslims. This is because Allah said, “Who could say anything better than someone who summons to God and

acts rightly and says I am but one of the Muslims?” (41:33). Some companions of the prophet were not Arabs, like Suhayb, who never addressed himself as RomanMuslim, nor did Bilal introduce himself as African-Muslim. Another story that further consolidates the egalitarian status among Muslims at the time of the prophet describes how a man visited Medina and observed a group of people sitting together studying. Among the group was Salman, who was from Persia, Suhayb from Greece, and Bilal from Africa. The man then noted that if the Madinan tribes supported Muhammad, it was because they are Arabs like him. But what are the non-Arabs doing here? When the prophet learned of what took place, he turned angry. He went to the mosque and addressed his people saying: O people, know that your Lord and Sustainer is One. Your ancestor is one, your faith is one. The Arabism of anyone of you is not from your mother or father. It is no more than a tongue (language). Whoever speaks Arabic is an Arab. . . . Indeed my friends and allies are not the tribe of so and so. Rather, my friends and allies are the pious wherever they may be. (Sahih Al-Bukhari, Vol. 5, #604) The racial curriculum in the Qur’an confirms that race and genealogy are not criteria for distinction; rather the only superiority criterion accepted by Allah is a person’s actions, which means race has nothing to do with having an exceptional moral or social character. Allah and his prophets taught people how to love and respect each other without any regard to their race. Many Muslim scholars confirm my findings for equality in the racial curriculum in the Qur’an. The well-known Persian theologian and philosopher Fakhr ad-Din ar-Razi (2005), in his at-Tafsir al-Kabir, explained the verse “Verily the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is (one who is) the most righteous.” (49:13): “People are equal insofar as they are irreligious and impious. What makes them different is the content of their moral character” (p. 136). Therefore, people have no basis for claiming to be superior because of their social class, color, or gender since they all are children of the same parents, Adam and Eve. Dr. Paul Hardy (2002), at the University of Chicago agrees with this point as he reflects on the verse mentioned above (49:13), writing, “That you may come to know each other,” means you have the same ancestors, so there is no superiority between each other nor in the sight of Allah. The only distinction between you is the most virtuous among yourselves (p. 7). To conclude this section, I would like to add that in current days, many scientists believe that all humans evolved from a single set of parents. The best proof for this is that besides variations in external features such as height, color, facial appearance etc., all human beings have the same internal constitution. This would have been impossible, had the human race not evolved from a single set of parents. (Yahya, 2000, p. 19) Since there is no superiority among humans, then racism is incompatible with surrender to Allah, the basic structure of being a Muslim. Stephen Jay Gould (1994),

the Harvard paleontologist and essayist, asserts this: It makes us realize that all human beings, despite differences in external appearances, are really members of a single entity that had a very recent origin in one place. There is a kind of biological brotherhood that’s much more profound than we ever realized. (p. 2) This belief is in agreement with the racial curriculum in the Qur’an, as it states that all people are created from the same parents. Since there is no superiority among humans, racism is incompatible with submission to Allah, the basic structure of being a Muslim. But what about evolution theory? The curriculum in the Qur’an encourages the scientific pursuit and mandates that people search for knowledge. Therefore, even though Muslims believe in scientific methodology, they do not believe in the theory of evolution. In general, Muslims believe that there is a lack of evidence in the theory of evolution. Ghaffar Hussein (2013), the consultant of cultural issues, explains this with numbers: Belief in evolution remains a minority position in virtually all Muslim societies around the world today. According to studies, 22 percent of Turks, 16 percent of Indonesians, 14 percent of Pakistanis, 11 percent of Malaysians, and 8 percent of Egyptians believe in evolution. In comparison, belief in evolution is between 60–80 percent in most European societies, and 40 percent in the US. (para 2) However, the idea of developing through stages is mentioned in the Qur’an. Dr. Zameelur Rahman (2012), at the University of Cambridge in the UK, clarifies that some people use the verse “We created you in stages” (71:14) as evidence that the Qur’an supports the evolution theory since people are created through stages: “However, there is no supporting textual evidence for this claim. More apparently, this verse speaks about the embryological stages of development” (p. 12). Rahman (2012) continued: “This idea is rejected in the Qur’an, and it asserts that the embryo develops in stages, as detailed in verse 23:13.” As for the explanation of the verse “We created you in stages” (71:14), Ibn Kathir (1933) states in Explanation of the Qur’an: “He created you in stages”. It was said: Its meaning is (He created you) from a drop (of fluid), then a clot of blood, then a piece of flesh. Ibn ‘Abbas, ‘Ikrimah, Qatadah, Yahya ibn Rafi’, al-Suddi and Ibn Zayd said this.” (p. 1922) Therefore, verse (71:14) is not sufficient to be used as proof that the Qur’an supports the theory of evolution, mainly because this interpretation contradicts the other verses, some of them mentioned above, in regard to the direct creation of Adam. Furthermore, Muslims believe that Allah created Adam without a father or a

mother, the same way as He created Jesus miraculously without a father: “Verily, the likeness of Isa with Allah is as the likeness of Adam. He created him (i.e., Adam) from dust and said to him, be, and he came to be” (3:59). Therefore, Muslims in general do not believe that humans are developed from monkeys because this would contradict the verses that describe the creation of Adam, as mentioned above.

GENDER IN THE QUR’AN Whenever I ask my friends or students about how they learn or know about other cultures, the most common response is from television. Media, in general, and television, in particular, usually introduce the Islamic practice of women covering their bodies—the veiled woman—to reflect oppression, ignorance, and backwardness. This viewpoint is easily accepted, especially with the absence of the curricular role of other opinions from the Islamic world. According to a study of more than nine hundred Hollywood films, media critic and Professor Jack Shaheen (2003) noted that 95 percent of the movies that include some elements of the Islamic culture present Muslims in stereotypical ways. Women who are not veiled are always assumed to be modern, educated, and open-minded. It seems that the more a woman shows her body, the more modern and open-minded she appears to be. Thinking about how society looks at veiled women made me think of the hegemonic cultural meaning developed and delivered primarily through the media. Turow and Gans (2002) explained that the media, more specifically television, reach great numbers of people and creates an impact on society. They added, “Some media scholars argue that entertainment TV’s impact can be even more powerful than news in subtly shaping the public’s impressions of key societal institutions” (Turow and Gans, 2002, p. 1–2). The negative representation of the veiled Muslim woman was compelling to me because of what I hear from my students and colleagues and because I am a veiled woman who is misrepresented. As an educator, I feel the need to inform people about how the Qur’an, the main source of Islam, deals with gender in general and veiled women in particular. Before addressing the most common misconception regarding gender in the Qur’an, it is necessary to introduce some points that might not be well-known to the non-Muslim reader. The first is that the Qur’an does not present Allah as a male or female, and it is common knowledge among Muslims that Allah has no gender. In fact, the Qur’an explicitly forbids calling Allah father or making any visual representation of Him. For Muslims, Allah is beyond gender: “There is nothing like unto Him” (42:11). One surah, or chapter, surah 112 is dedicated to the Divine Unity of Allah and explains that there is nothing like him. One might ask, however, why the words “he” and “him” are used when referring to Allah. This usage is because there is no word for a genderless being in Arabic language, the language of the Qur’an. It is simply a linguistic convenience. When the Qur’an refers to Allah as him, it does not indicate that Allah is masculine. The second point regarding gender in the Qur’an is that Allah created Adam and

Hawwa, Eve, from the same nature: “O mankind! Reverence your Guardian-Lord, who created you from a single person, created, of like nature, his mate . . .” (4:1), and both were created “in the best of moulds” (95:4). These verses suggest that Adam and Hawwa are created from the same material without any distinction between them. Third, in regard to the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden, in the Qur’an, Allah holds both Adam and Eve equally accountable and equally responsible for eating from the tree as in: “O Adam! You and your wife dwell in the garden and enjoy as you (both) wish: but approach not this tree or you (both) run into harm and transgression” (2:35). The Qur’an has never singled out Eve for blame, as is clear in the above-mentioned verse. In another verse, Satan caused them both to decide to eat from the tree: Then Satan began to whisper to them . . . he said, “Your Lord only forbade you this tree lest you (both) should become angels or such beings as live forever.” And he swore to them (both) that he was their sincere adviser. So by deceit he brought about their fall. . . . (Allah) said: “Get you (both) down with enmity between yourselves. On earth will be your dwelling place and your means of livelihood for a time.” He said: “Therein shall you (both) live and therein shall you (both) die; and from it shall you (both) be taken out (at last). . . .” (7:19–27) On the contrary, two verses in the Qur’an reprimand Adam alone, not Eve, for eating from the forbidden tree: “We (Allah) had already beforehand taken the covenant of Adam, but he forgot: and We found no firm resolve on his part” (20:115) and “Thus did Adam disobey his Lord, and allow himself to be seduced (by Satan)” (20:121). This leads one to conclude that in the Qur’an, Eve is not the reason behind the descent of Adam to earth. Both are responsible for their actions, and Eve should not be treated with less respect due to the descent to earth. Fourth, the Qur’an considers women and men partners who guide and support each other, “And of His signs is that He created for you from yourselves mates that you may find tranquility in them; and He placed between you affection and mercy. Indeed in that are signs for people who give thought” (30:21). Males and females are created to be each other’s mates or spouses, and neither is considered better than the other. The fifth point is that at the beginning of Islam, women played a major role in developing the community in every aspect of life. The prophet Mohammed never prevented women from participating in any discussion or activity. If Allah had not approved of female participation and involvement in developing the community, the prophet would never have allowed it. During the era of the prophet, women participated actively in the religious, educational, social, and intellectual affairs of their communities (Wadud, 1999, p. 3). Ahmed (1992) confirmed this as she wrote, “Women of the prophet’s community felt they had a right to comment forthrightly in any topic” (p. 72).

At the time of the prophet, Nusayba bint Kaab, who is considered one of the first advocates for women’s rights went to the prophet and asked him, “Why does Allah address men only in the Qur’an?” Soon after her question, Allah revealed that the Qur’an in fact addresses Muslim men and women equally: Indeed, the Muslim men and Muslim women, the believing men and believing women, the obedient men and obedient women, the truthful men and truthful women, the patient men and patient women, the humble men and humble women, the charitable men and charitable women, the fasting men and fasting women, the men who guard their private parts and the women who do so, and the men who remember Allah often and the women who do so—for them Allah has prepared forgiveness and a great reward. (33:35) This verse clarifies for all Muslims that there is no difference between men and women and that men and women are equal. Although the masculine form is used when addressing a group of people in the Arabic language, this is only due to a language limitation as there is no word in Arabic Language that can be used to refer to genderless objects. All words in the Arabic language are either masculine or feminine. For example the sky and sun are considered feminine objects while the moon and mountains are considered masculine. Therefore, Nusayba wanted to make sure that everyone, including men, knew that the Qur’an and its teachings are for both men and women. One last point is that men and women have the same obligations and are judged by their actions. Only their actions determine their position in this life and the hereafter, not their race or gender. An example is the following verse: “Verily, the most honored of you in the sight of God is the most righteous of you” (49:13), which explains that the only criteria for getting a higher status in the sight of Allah are actions only, not gender. Another verse that exemplifies this is: “I shall not lose sight of the labor of any of you who labors in My way, be it man or woman; each of you is equal to the other” (3:195), and in “Every soul will be held in pledge for its deeds” (7:38). These verses confirm that both men and women are promised the same reward for good conduct as well as the same punishment for bad deeds. The stories introduced in the Qur’an refer to men as well as women of the past. An entire chapter in the Qur’an narrates the story of Miriam (Mary), the mother of Jesus, in surah 16. The queen of Sheba, Bilqis, is mentioned as a just ruler in surah 27. The story of Asia, Pharaoh’s wife, and how she saved the prophet Moses from being killed as a child is mentioned in detail in surah 28. The stories of the prophet Ibrahim’s wives and Lot’s wife appear in surah 15, and Aziz’s wife appears in surah 12. The third-longest surah in the Qur’an is called Al-Nissa, the woman who introduces women’s rights and asks men to take care of them and treat them with love and respect. Introducing women and their achievements in the Qur’an reflects the appreciation of women’s roles in developing their societies. Additionally, many Muslim women’s names are mentioned in Islamic history. At

the time of the prophet, even during war, women were very active participants as they fought beside the men, carried water for the warriors and nursed the wounded. Nusaiba, one of the women at the time of the prophet is well known as the first nurse in Islam. She was the one that the prophet Mohammed praised in the Battle of Uhud. He commended her bravery by saying, “I did not turn right or left, but that I saw her fighting near me” (Bullock, 2002, p. 7). Another popular fighter after the death of the prophet was Khawla bint al-Azwar, known as the Black Knight (Bullock, 2002, p. 7). Additionally, Leila Ahmed (1992), in her book Women and Gender in Islam, documented that Aisha, the wife of the prophet, also played a major role in public life. She was renowned for her education and intelligence, particularly as she knew how to read and write. The companions of the prophet saw her as their religious reference. She was also known for transmitting 2,210 hadith, sayings, of the prophet and was an educator, a public speaker, and a scholar of law (Ahmed, 1992, p. 193). A further law related to gender in the Qur’an is that women are equal to men in terms of work and salaries. Women used to work beside their husbands in the fields, and each man was paid for his work and for his wife’s work. The verse “To men are allotted what they earn, and to women what they earn” (4:32) changed this situation, as it indicates that women should own their earnings, the same as men, and their salaries belong to them, not to their parents or husbands. The verse also announced women’s right to work and earn their own money. Dr. Jamal Badawi (2010), vice chairman of Islamic University, confirmed that in order to obtain a holistic understanding of the Qur’an, one should study the Qur’an methodologically. He explained that an interpreter of the Qur’an should consider the context in which each verse was revealed, the reason for revelation and how the prophet explained it. Women’s status in the Muslim world has nothing to do with the teachings of the Qur’an because the Qur’an treats women the same as men. Moreover, the Qur’an “Does not privilege the man’s creation or endow him with attributes or faculties not given to the woman” (Murata, 1992, p. 43). Now, I will address the most widespread stereotypes in regard to Muslim women. These misconceptions include (but are not limited to) polygamy, requiring women but not men to cover their bodies, inheritance law, and testimony.

Polygamy Polygamy had existed before Islam when men used to marry as many as ten wives. Jamal Badawi (1998) explained in “Polygamy in Islamic Law” that Western literature and media discuss polygamy as if it is an Islamic custom or exists only in Islam: “No text in the Qur’an or Sunna explicitly specifies either monogamy or polygamy as the norm, although demographic data indicate strongly that monogamy is the norm and polygamy the exception” (p. 35). Islam regulated and restricted polygamy but did not prohibit it. Furthermore, there are several examples of the approval of polygamy among Jews, Christians, and other religions. As for the Qur’an, out of more than 6,600 verses, only two verses explicitly

address polygamy. The first is “If you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly with the orphans, marry women of your choice, two or three or four; but if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly (with them), then only one” (4:3). As explained earlier, to understand any verse it is important to read it in its historical context. Verse 4:3 was revealed after the Battle of Uhud in which many Muslim men were martyred, leaving their widows and children with no support. Therefore, allowing men to take widows as additional wives provided a social and economic solution to the problem of too few men to support the women and children of a community. Badawi (2010) explained that in verse 4:3 “it is also evident that the general rule in Islam is monogamy and not polygamy” (p. 7). Moreover, although this verse allows polygamy, it limits the number of permitted wives and requires justice among the wives. Dealing justly with one’s wives is an obligation, as the husband is responsible for providing his wife with housing, food, clothing, kind treatment, etc. If one is unsure of being able to provide the same for all, the Qur’an says, “Then (marry) only one” (4:3). It is important to note that the verse begins with “not be able to deal justly with the orphans,” which clarifies that the main reason for permitting polygamy is to do justice for orphans and widows. The second verse that mentions polygamy is in the same chapter: “You are never able to be fair and just between women even if it is your ardent desire” (4:129); this verse explains human nature, saying that if a man chooses to have more than one wife, he can never treat them equally. Therefore, it is better if he stays with one wife. Some additional details must be considered in regard to polygamy. Badawi (2010), explained that both husband and wife have choices; no one forces them to do anything they do not want. First, a man may choose not to marry another wife. A future second wife may refuse to marry a man who has a wife if she does not want to be part of a polygamous relationship. A wife may state in her marriage agreement that her prospective husband shall not practice polygamy. When this is accepted, it will be compulsory for the husband not to marry another woman. If the husband breaks this agreement, the wife has the right to ask for a divorce (p. 7). The misconception that Muslim men routinely practice polygamy is unfounded. Most Muslim men are married to one wife only. Although there will always be debate about its validity and place among Muslims, the intended purpose of polygamy was not to oppress women; it was a solution for social problems. I will conclude this part by offering an explanation from a professor of law at the University of Richmond, Dr. Aziza Al-Hibri, referring to verses 4:3 and 4:129. She argues that in reading these verses, it is illogical to assume that the Qur’an is giving permission to a man to practice polygamy: (a) If you can be just and fair among women, then you can marry up to four wives. (b) If you cannot be just and fair among women, then you may marry only one. (c) You cannot be just and fair among women.

(b) and (c) are of the logical form: If p then q; i.e., you may marry only one wife. (Al-Hibri, 1982, p. 216)

Veils/Hijab Another area that is surrounded by misconception is Muslim women’s dress, or what is known as hijab. Hijab is the term used by Muslims referring to the head covering. It is common for people to ask why women are required to cover their bodies even though men are not. Leila Ahmed (1992) explained that “the practice of veiling among women was prevalent in Greek, Roman, Jewish, and Assyrian communities before Muhammad started requiring his wives to ‘take the veil’” (p. 55). This is to say that hijab existed in all ages and in all religions, and it was well known prior to the arrival of Islam. It is a common practice in different communities and not only among Muslims. The Qur’an explains that Allah created men and women physically different in the verses “Our Lord is He Who has endowed everything with its appropriate faculties and then guided it to their proper use” (20:51) and “God has fashioned mankind according to the nature designed by Him, there is no altering the creation of Allah” (30:31). The Qur’an recommends that women cover their bodies and be modest in the verse “O The prophet, tell your wives and your daughters and the women of the believers to bring down over themselves (part) of their outer garments. That is more suitable that they will be known and not be abused. And ever is Allah forgiving and merciful” (33:59). The verse explains that the main reason for asking women to dress modestly is to avoid ill treatment and to provide protection for women outside the family environment. Physical appearance is one of the main reasons why women are sexually abused. Hijab might appear restrictive to some, but it serves a social function to prevent undesirable activities such as sexual abuse and adultery. Men are commanded to lower their gaze and not to stare at women, as well as to be covered from below the chest down to the knees in front of women. Both men and women are required to uphold chastity. The verse “O children of Adam, we have provided you with garments to cover your bodies, as well as for luxury. But the best garment is the garment of righteousness. These are some of God’s signs, that they may take heed” (7:26) also mentions hijab, explaining that women know what is decent and what is revealing, and stating that righteousness is the basic rule of dress code in the Qur’an. Another verse addressing hijab is And tell the believing women to subdue their eyes, and maintain their chastity. They shall not reveal any of their beauty spots except what is normally apparent. They shall cover their chests with their Khimar and shall not relax this code in the presence of other than their husbands, fathers, the fathers of their husbands, their sons, the sons of their husbands, their brothers, the sons of their brothers, the sons of their sisters, other women, the male servants or employees whose

sexual drive has been nullified, or the children who have not reached puberty (24:31) The verse explains to women that they are not required to cover their bodies or wear hijab in front of their close male relatives, such as fathers, brothers, or nephews. It is important to note that there is a difference between women’s behavior outlined in the Qur’an and in cultural practices. Some Muslim cultures have no strong Islamic traditions, whereas others put extreme restrictions on women. Both ends of the spectrum contradict each other and the teachings of the Qur’an. The isolation of women was unknown at the time of the prophet Mohammed. Women used to go to the mosque to attend prayers, participate in educational sessions as learners and teachers, take part in political discussions, fight alongside men in wars, and work in the field of medicine. Wearing the hijab did not stop women from participating in these activities. Female seclusion reflects only cultural and personal influences (Amer, 2006, p. 295): “Thus, wearing the veil is not in itself indicative of either oppression or emancipation. Rather it is the particular social, cultural, and political contexts in which the veil is worn and understood that will determine its meaning” (Kate, 2011, p. 2). Moreover, it is important to know what women feel about wearing hijab. Dr. Ali (2012) stated that women wearing hijab have explained their reason thus: We want to stop men from treating us like sex objects, as they have always done. We want them to ignore our appearance and to be attentive to our personalities and mind. We want them to take us seriously and treat us as equals and not just chase us around for our bodies and physical looks. (p. 2) It is rare for people to ask women about their feelings toward wearing their hijab instead of judging and concluding that they are mistreated or forced to wear it. Many people might be surprised to learn that most women wearing the hijab do not feel oppressed. Modesty for a Muslim woman is an expression of the self. It is a way of showing the world that she is a Muslim. For many women, wearing the hijab is not a burden, it is a commandment from Allah, and they are happy to do it. Additionally, the direction to men to “lower their gaze” is rarely addressed, whereas much attention is focused on women’s dress only.

Inheritance The third misconception introduced here is related to inheritance. People often ask why a man’s share of inheritance is double the share of a woman. Three verses address this issue: . . . The male shall have the equal of two females’ share; but if there are more than two females, they shall have two-thirds of what (their parents) leave behind;

and if there is only one daughter, she shall have one-half thereof. . . . after (the deduction of) any bequest he may have made, or any debt (he may have incurred). (4:11) And you shall inherit one-half of what your wives leave behind, provided they have left no child; but if they have left a child, then you shall have one-quarter of what they leave behind, after (the deduction of) any bequest they may have made, or any debt (they may have incurred). And your widows shall have onequarter of what you leave behind, provided you have left no child; but if you have left a child, then they shall have one-eighth of what you leave behind, after (the deduction of) any bequest you may have made, or any debt (you may have incurred). (4:12) “Say: “God enlightens you about the laws concerning (inheritance from) those who leave no heir in the direct line: If a man dies childless and has a sister, she shall inherit one-half of what he has left, just as he shall inherit from her if she dies childless. But if there are two sisters, both (together) shall have two-thirds of what he has left; and if there are brothers and sisters, then the male shall have the equal of two females’ share” God makes (all this) clear unto you, lest you go astray; and God knows everything.” (4:176) In all three verses, women are entitled to an inheritance, but men receive double the amount. Although this appears to be unequal, a few points must be clarified. In all three verses, the expressions “bequest” and “debts” are mentioned. The verses indicate that debts of the deceased must be paid first, bequests then must be deducted and after that inheritance may be divided. This means that parents or husbands may leave a bequest for the females in the family according to their needs. Second, in the Muslim family system, men are the protectors and providers for their families. This is their mandatory duty and responsibility: “Husbands are the protectors and maintainers of their (wives) because Allah has given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means” (4:34). The Qur’an’s position is that a husband is accountable for supporting his wife and children, whereas the wife is not obliged to work to support her family. She may if she wishes to, but it is not her responsibility. This indicates that women are more secure financially and are less burdened with claims on their possessions. Women’s possessions before marriage do not transfer to their husbands, and a woman is not obliged to provide financially for her family. Thus, a man’s share is double that of a woman because of his financial responsibilities towards his family, which includes his wife and children if he is married and his mother or single sisters. Accordingly, the Qur’an’s position is far from discriminating against women as commonly interpreted. The reduction in a woman’s share of inheritance is due to her economic situation and not because she is inferior to a man. Dr. Niaz Shah (2006), professor of law at Cambridge University, confirmed this as he wrote, “It seems a valid conclusion that women inherit a smaller share not because of their gender, but instead due to their economic contribution” (p. 898). He

also continued, “The Koran also allows for bequests to women in order to prevent economic injustice” (p. 898). When parents or husbands know that the male figure in the family will not take care of the women, the solution is to write a bequest for those women.

Testimony The fourth and last misconception discussed here is that of unequal testimony. When discussing gender equality in the Qur’an, one of the questions often raised is why the testimony of one male is equal to that of two females. Through my readings of the Qur’an, I discovered that very few verses in fact deal with testimony. One of these verses addresses sexual offenses, in which the testimony of males and females is given equal value: And for those who launch a charge against their spouses and have no evidence but their own, their solitary evidence (can be received) if they bear witness four times (with an oath) by Allah that they are solemnly telling the truth; And the fifth (oath) (should be) that they solemnly invoke the curse of Allah on themselves if they tell a lie. But it would avert the punishment from the wife if she bears witness four times (with an oath) by Allah that (her husband) is telling a lie; And the fifth (oath) should be that she solemnly invokes the wrath of Allah on herself if (her accuser) is telling the truth. (24:6–9) The verse explains that evidence or confirmation of the husband and the wife is equally acceptable. This is contrary to the claim otherwise. Another example mentioned in the Qur’an in regard to testimony is the story of the prophet Yusuf (Joseph) and the wife of the king of Egypt, Al-Aziz. The story starts as follows: “And she in whose house he was living (conceived a passion for him and) sought to make him yield himself unto her; and she bolted the doors and said, ‘Come thou unto me!’” (12:23). But the prophet Joseph refused and explained to her that her husband, the king, is so kind to him that he let him live in his own house and he, prophet Yusuf, will never betray the king. The wife would not listen to his words and as he was leaving the room towards the door she followed him and “she (grasped and) rent his tunic from behind-and they met her lord at the door!” (12:24). At that moment she claimed to her husband that the prophet Yusuf is the one who was trying to seduce her and she asked her husband to punish him, while the prophet Yusuf explained, “It was she who sought to make me yield myself unto her!” (12:25). In this situation, the husband did not know whom to believe, which confirms that both of their testimonies were of equal value; he did not just ignore her words or believe the prophet Yusuf. He looked for help and asked his advisors to assist. One of the advisors said, If his tunic has been torn from the front, then she is telling the truth, and he is a liar; but if his tunic has been torn from behind, then she is lying, and he is

speaking the truth.” And when (her husband) saw that his tunic was torn from behind, he said, “Behold, this is (an instance) of your guile, O womankind! Verily, awesome is your guile!—Joseph, let this pass! (12:29) The verses clarify that both the male and female testimonies were taken seriously and caused confusion until the king found a resolution. The last verse that mentions testimony is the main reason behind the misconception that a man’s testimony has more weight than a woman’s. In all 6,600 verses in the Qur’an, only one verse differentiates between a man’s and a woman’s testimony: O you who believe! When you deal with each other in transactions involving future obligations in a fixed period of time, reduce them to writing. Let a scribe write down faithfully as between the parties. . . . And get two witnesses out of your own men, and if there are not two men, then a man and two women, such as you choose for witnesses so that if one of them errs, the other can remind her. (2:282) The reason for requiring two female witnesses is to prevent confusion or unintended errors in business deals. This verse does not make a generalization about women; furthermore, this rule is voided by subsequently revealed verse 24:6–9, mentioned above in reference to sexual offenses. The general rule of testimony in the Qur’an is to have two witnesses, with male and female testimony being of equal value. It must be noted that some Muslim scholars claim that women are more likely to forget because of their biological nature, thus explaining why there should be two female witnesses. The patriarchal perspectives in certain societies might lead some to claim that women lack certain skills; they forget easily or generally have a weaker character than men. However, it is not the Qur’an making such an assertion but rather Muslim scholars. Dr. Aftab Hussain (1978) wrote, “The theory that women are weak in memory is proved erroneous by the Koran which does not make any distinction in matters of evidence between man and woman” (p. 245). The Qur’an considers both males and females as equal vicegerents of Allah on earth, and both are responsible for this trust: “The absence of active and intelligent participation of women in the public sphere naturally might breed such attitudes, and these have apparently made their way into the analysis and application of Islamic law in such societies and places in history” (Quraishi, 1997, p. 308). Dr. Niaz Shah (2006) confirmed this opinion in explaining verse 2:282: Conservative scholars have interpreted this verse out of its proper context. . . . They ignored the fact that the role of a second female witness is to remind, not to testify. Instead, they interpret the verse as if the testimony of the second female witness is obligatory, reinforcing the theory that women are intellectually inferior and, therefore, the testimony of one female is insufficient. (p. 900)

Additionally, Shah (2006) confirmed that scholars “Could not find any evidence from any primary text, Qur’an or hadith, to exclude women from something more important than testimony: being herself a judge who hears and evaluates the testimony of others” (p. 884). Wadud (1999) explained that at the time of the Qur’an’s revelation, Arabs’ trade and business was considered to be within the male domain whereas women had no experience in this area; therefore, “They were less equipped than men for testimony in commercial transactions” (p. 5). To conclude, misinterpretations of verses in the Qur’an by some cultures and even some Muslim scholars have resulted in ideas that reflect discriminatory attitudes towards women, particularly when those verses have been interpreted out of their contexts, historical backgrounds, or reasons for revelations. However, reading the verses of the Qur’an methodologically shows that the Qur’an respects all humans— men and women alike—and treats them equally. The only criteria for superiority set forth in the Qur’an are one’s actions and righteousness. Methodological reading should dispel such misinterpretations and inaccurate assumptions about the teachings of the Qur’an’s, which is not itself the source of discriminatory actions or viewpoints.

Chapter 6

Institutionalized Curriculum In this chapter, the word “curriculum” refers to all concepts and activities in the field of education. Curriculum as an institutionalized text includes planning, application, teaching, and evaluation (Pinar, 2004, p.791). Therefore curriculum as institutionalized text is associated with the daily function of a school as an institution. It is worthy to note that although teaching/learning is a main concept in the Qur’an, there are limited studies dealing with the methods of teaching during the era of the prophet Mohammed. Nevertheless, almost all scholars agreed that the most important element was teaching values inspired from the Qur’an. Therefore, this chapter will deal mainly with school developments at the time of the prophet, before and after migration of the prophet from Mecca to Medina, and school development after his death and spread of Islam. The chapter will conclude with the current situation of education in Muslim countries who are expected to be applying and following the principles of curriculum in the Qur’an. In the early history of Islam, the most important perception of teaching children was the belief that raising children according to the teachings of the Qur’an is an obligation for parents and society. This is the reason why, at that time, the education of Muslims started with learning how to read and memorize the Qur’an. The common conception was that the Qur’an is the source of knowledge and by learning the Qur’an children would learn about Allah, his creations, and the general laws of the universe. This would, in turn, invite them to believe in Allah and try to learn about the universe around them in an effort to become closer to him. After learning how to read and memorize the Qur’an comes the application of gained knowledge. This is similar to other types of empirical sciences where students need to learn how to classify and realize what they are learning before analyzing the learned material. Qur’anic curriculum as institutionalized text confirms that all knowledge has religious significance and should ultimately serve to make people aware of Allah and of their relationship with him. A clear consequence of this is that religion ought to be the base and source of all education, acting as the glue that holds the entire curriculum activities together. For young children everything in the world is new, so they must be taught the names of things before they can begin to comprehend what these things are. Muslims believe that this is what Allah did. Allah created Adam, then he taught him the names of things, and after that he sent Adam down to Earth to be his vicegerent. This means education starts with the basics; learning the names of things and building upon that knowledge. Memorization of the Qur’an was the first step in Islamic curriculum, however, an education that transforms requires more than that. Islamic pedagogy requires education to be applied, as was explained earlier. However, although teaching and learning is a main concept in the Qur’an, according to al-Khalediy (2010), there are no studies that deal with methods of teaching during that era, but almost all scholars agree that the most important element was teaching values

inspired from the Qur’an (p. 23). It is important to note that the prophet Muhammad, who was traditionally known to be un-lettered, is the one who started education. According to Tibawi (1954), the prophet Muhammad was an effective leader and a great teacher as he was the main source for promoting teaching and learning. As explained earlier, the Qur’an encourages its followers to learn from all fields of education and not to be limited to Islamic resources. The Qur’an and hadith, sayings of the prophet Mohammed, require and demand its followers to seek knowledge, learn, observe, and use reason. In addition to the several verses, there are many ahadeeth encouraging Muslims to acquire knowledge from all corners of the world. Some examples of the sayings of the prophet encouraging travelling to seek knowledge are: “Allah makes the way to Jannah easy for him who treads the path in search of knowledge”(Al-Bukhari, Book 13, No. 1381) and “He who goes forth in search of knowledge is considered as struggling in the Cause of Allah until he returns” (Al-Bukhari, Book 13, No. 1385). This is to say that seeking knowledge is encouraged from all over the world and not only Islamic sources. In one of the ahadeeth, the prophet clearly asked his followers to take knowledge from the Jews: “Convey from me even an Ayah of the Qur’an; relate traditions from Banu Israel, and there is no restriction on that; but he who deliberately forges a lie against me let him have his abode in the Hell” (Al-Bukhari, Book 13, No. 1380). A practical example of taking knowledge is encouraged from non-Muslims is that before Islam there were about seventeen people in the Arabian Peninsula who knew how to read and write, hence at the Battle of Badr (624 CE), the first battle between Muslims and the non-believers, the prophet Mohammed offered freedom for all of prisoners of war who would teach ten Muslims to read and write. Through the use of this strategy, about six hundred Muslims learned how to read and write in a short period of time (Morgan, 2007, p. 319). There are two significant consequences, as a result of the prophet Muhammad’s dedication to teaching and learning and the spread of Islam in diverse areas around the Arabian Peninsula, that are noteworthy. The first is that the Qur’an was written and collected in book form before his death. Later, the companions of the prophet were able to make copies of the Qur’an and sent copies to all areas under the Islamic rule. Second, the companions sent teachers to other regions who were able to teach and explain the Qur’an as it was revealed. These phenomena later led to the establishment of a sophisticated and well-organized Muslim educational system that reached its glory in classical times, 700–1300 CE (al-Khalediy, 2011, 24).

BEFORE MIGRATION Formal traditional learning, as we know now, did not exist in Arabia before the revelation of the Qur’an; however, teaching and learning became of great value in the following hundred years. This is because of the teachings of the Qur’an as well as the prophet Mohammed’s encouragment of Muslims to seek knowledge. Educational institutions took different forms during the Islamic era. At the very beginning of the

revelation of the Qur’an very few people believed in the prophet Mohammed and his message. The majority remained non-believers who oppressed and tortured the prophet and all who believed in him. As a result, the prophet started to teach the revealed verses secretly to his followers. He taught in hidden, private settings like the homes of his followers. Additionally, his followers used to hold secret study sessions in their homes to learn and teach each other what they had learned about the revealed verses of the Qur’an. This secret setting can be considered what is known today as home schooling. Many people adopted this home schooling system due to its effectiveness as they can learn secretly without any attacks or punishments from non-believers. Therefore, home schooling represents the first form of an institutionalized teaching program. One of the most popular houses, or we can call it homeschooling center, was called Dar al-Arkqam. One great example of the success of home schooling is the conversion of Omar Ibn al-Khattab, the second caliph or ruler, of Islam after the death of the prophet. Before converting to Islam, Omar Ibn al-Khattab, holding his sword, announced that he was on his way to kill the prophet Mohammed because of his preaching when one of the people of Mecca told Omar that his sister Fatima and her husband had converted to Islam. If Omar was going to kill anyone it should be his close relatives first before killing others from different tribes. Omar became very angry and went straight to his sister’s house. While waiting at the door, he heard recitation of Qur’anic verses coming from inside the house: When his sister opened the door he screamed: “What is this balderdash I have heard?” “You have not heard anything.” Fatima and her husband tried to calm him down but he slapped his sister on the face. Omar, however, already regretted his behavior and he asked to read the scriptures she had tried to hide. Omar started to read surah Taha (surah 20 in the Qur’an) and after only a few verses he stopped and cried “How beautiful and noble is this speech!” This was how Omar converted to Islam and later became the second Caliph. (Tzortzis, 2008, p. 15) This is to describe the effect of homeschooling and its role in spreading knowledge. On a side note, the story shows that the Qur’anic teachings were for both women and men because Fatima, his sister, was present at the lesson, converted to Islam, and was learning at this session. Another form of teaching in Mecca was private tutoring. At that time, people from different areas outside Mecca started to learn about the Qur’an through trade. Some of them, including merchants, made the effort to meet the prophet Mohammed and listen to his teachings, and some of them embraced Islam. When people from other regions embraced Islam, the prophet Mohammed would send private tutors back to their cities with them to teach the revealed verses. An example is when the prophet Mohammed appointed Mu’adh Ibn Jabal to go to Yemen to teach the people there the Qur’an. Another example is when representatives from the tribes of Aws and Khazraj, the largest tribes in Medina, came from Medina and the prophet Mohammed sent a

private tutor, Mus’ab Ibn Omair, who could teach them in their own town (Haykal, 1989, p. 119). This step played a major role in opening the hearts of the people of Medina and preparing them to accept his teachings and Islam.

AFTER MIGRATION As a result of the torture and sufferings of the prophet Mohammed and his followers in Mecca, Allah ordered the prophet Mohammed to migrate to Medina which was ready for him and his teachings due to the private tutoring the people there had already received. When the prophet Mohammed settled in Medina, the mosque became the main center of almost all daily activities including learning and teaching. Muslims are required to pray five times a day at a mosque near them. If praying at a mosque is not feasible for any reason, then they can pray wherever they want. However, it is an obligation for all Muslims to attend the Friday noon prayer at a mosque of their choice. When Muslims gathered at the mosque for prayer times, the prophet used the time after prayer for teaching and instruction: “This association of the mosque with education remains one of its main characteristics throughout history” (Rahman, 2006, p. 4). Muslims, regardless of ethnicity, origin, age, or gender, used to meet at the mosques to gain knowledge. Generally speaking the mosque was the main center for meditation, prayers, religious teachings, and even political discussion. In all areas where Islam spread, mosques were established and were the main centers for teaching and learning about the Qur’an and the prophet’s teachings. Tibawi (1972) wrote, “the mosques became the first schools in Islam (and) it would be equally true to say that the Qur’an was the first textbook” (p. 66). The prophet Mohammed used to call people to gather in the mosque in order to listen to the new revelations and their interpretations (Anzar, 2003, p. 2). It was the place where Muslims who had questions or needed solutions to their problems would go to find answers. Additionally, people used to meet to learn the Qur’an and memorize it at the mosque. People, students, scholars, and even sometimes laymen used to sit beside each other in a circle called a halaqah, listening to the prophet or one of his companions give a lecture. The prophet Mohammed appointed teachers to teach reading and writing in nine mosques around Medina that served as schools. Home tutoring and teaching were also included as part of the teaching program (Morgan, 2007, p. 317). The mosque continued to be the center of learning after the prophet’s death. In the mosque school, teachers would sit on a cushion and lean against a column or wall as students sat around him or her, listening and taking notes. There was no age limit and no restrictions on women attending these classes. Some historians indicated that women also taught classes in which men were listening and taking notes. Arnold J. Toynbee (1948) wrote in “History on Trial”: Few Westerners recognize the extent to which Arab women contributed to the social, economic and political life of the empire. Arab women excelled in medicine, mysticism, poetry, teaching, and oratory. They even had active roles in

military conflicts. Current misconceptions are based on false stereotypes of Arab life and culture popularized by some journalists and those who are anti-Arabs. (p. 25) During the tenth century, there were an estimated 3,000 mosques in Baghdad alone. In the fourteenth century, Alexandria had some 12,000 mosques, all of which played an important role in education (Middle East Center, 1996, p.2). At the beginning, mosques became centers of learning, emphasizing memorization of the Qur’an (Talbani, 1996, p. 66). A few years later, and in addition to the Qur’an, these learning centers started to teach the traditions and biographical narratives from the life of the prophet Muhammad. Disciplines such as philosophy, chemistry, mathematics, and astrology were introduced later. These subjects were pursued with no fixed curriculum and with teachers appointed by parents. Teachers accepted responsibilities according to their level of education, and often traveled to teach, as did students who sought better teachers and more knowledge (Tritton, 1957, p. ix– xii). In addition to the mosques, there was a veranda attached to the mosque of the prophet in Medina called Al-Suffah. It was set to accommodate people coming from outside of Medina to learn the Qur’an: “Al-Suffah was also used as a regular residential school where reading, writing, Muslim law, memorization of the Qur’an, and the method of reciting the Qur’an in the way it was revealed were taught under the direct supervision of Prophet Muhammad” (Muhammad, 2009, p.68). Therefore Al-Suffah was a school that had curriculum, teachers, students, and a dormitory. The spread of Islam in different regions led to increasing numbers of students, which resulted in the development of teaching assistants’ positions. Advanced students of the scholar, who was giving the speech, would stay in different parts of the mosque and repeat the lecture in a loud voice to those who were far away and could not hear what the scholar was saying. Islamic education in the mosque is considered informal because its decision-making, curriculum, and schedules were determined by the scholar who is teaching or offering the lectures and does not follow any certain obligations. (Berkey, 1992, p. 7). Later and during the first century of Hijrah, the migration of the prophet, the katatib, informal schools, developed. The kuttab (plural, katatib) means school that teaches the Qur’an (Tibawi, 1972, p 26). Katatib were found in Spain, Sicily, Africa, Iran, and the Arab world. “The Kuttab as a basis of traditional Islamic education had developed and become widespread by the 8th century” (Dodge, 1996, p. 84). The kuttab could be located in a variety of locations such as mosques, private homes, shops, tents, or even out in the open. There was no special building dedicated for the katatib. There is no certain date when the katatib were first established but they were found in all parts of the Islamic empire. As for teaching instruction, the day at the kuttab started with the teacher asking students to recite what was taught the day before. When students show that they memorized the verses that were taught to them earlier, the teacher would read and

repeat the next few verses until students learn how to recite and pronounce the new verses correctly (Bouzoubaa, 1998). Repetition was the main approach that was used in the kuttab. Eight- to nine-year-old children were able to memorize the Qur’an and learn some other basic skills, such as reading and writing, some geography, and math. It used to take three to four years to finish memorizing the Qur’an: “Islamic education was based upon the acknowledgment of the Qur’an as the core, pivot and gateway of learning. It was also recognized as the spine of all disciplines” (Husain and Ashraf, 1979, p. 120). When graduating from the kuttab, students could choose either to join businesses with their families, or to continue onto madaris (schools) for higher education (Gesink, 2010, p. 327). The kuttab’s main responsibility was providing learners in all different areas of Muslim populations with the basic foundations of Qur’anic teachings in order for them to be able to practice their religion. Therefore, it became necessary to develop textbooks on Islamic Studies. Some of the books that were first developed at that time were in regard to Fiqa—Islamic jurisprudence, Sunna—Prophet’s traditions, Hadith—Prophet’s sayings, and Tafseer—the explanation of the Qur’an. Some societies will add Arabic grammar, poetry, and often penmanship to the previous curriculum of Islamic Studies (Tibawi, 1972, p. 86). The katatib continued to be the place for learning until Western models of education were introduced in the modern period. Currently, the word “kuttab” is not used in the Arab world anymore. The Arabic word for school is “madrasa” (plural: madaris). Historically, the word madrasa was used to differentiate between elementary and higher education. Madrasa was used to refer to higher education institutions while kuttab was used in reference to elementary schools. In Arab countries, madrasa refers to K–12 schools. However, in Islamic countries such as Pakistan and Bangladesh, where Arabic is not the formal language, madrasa is used to refer to Islamic religious schools (Blanchard, 2006, p. 2).

DEVELOPMENT OF MADRASA During the eighth century, translation centers and innovations were developed. These centers were called Madaris. Madaris provided rooms to scholars to hold meetings, teach classes, and to read. By AD 900, there were elementary schools for both boys and girls in almost all areas (Nakosteen, 1964, p. 47). With the spread of madaris and the expand of translations from different cultures, libraries were established and “Books were collected from all over the world to create monumental libraries that housed volumes on medicine, philosophy, mathematics, science, alchemy, logic, astronomy and many other subjects” (Ryan, 2001, p. xvii). It is really interesting to learn that one of the catalogues of inventory of the books in 1045 revealed that there were about 6,500 volumes of books on different subjects, including architecture, astronomy, and philosophy, existed in the library during the Fatimid Empire (Hasan, 1997, p.4). Advanced education took place in madaris, hospitals, observatories, and the

homes of scholars. Traveling from one city to another to seek knowledge was very common. Teachers also used to travel to introduce and discuss their knowledge in all disciplines: social, political, religious, philosophical, and scientific. This is the same as what educators do today when they attend conferences to present and participate in new developments in different curriculum. Throughout the second half of the medieval period (eleventh to sixteenth centuries) madaris were places of higher education and were funded by awqaaf (sg. Waqf), religious endowments built on charity contributions, usually in the form of a building or piece of land preserved to be used for religious purposes. Awqaaf were usually protected from taxes (Gesink, 2010, p. 326). With the expansion of the Muslim Empire, more madaris were established. The first known madrasa was established by the Fatimid caliphs in 1005 AD in Egypt. Madaris had different teachers for different subjects taught as well as a library similar to our current educational institutions. Additionally, madaris provided students with papers and pens free of charge. Later, Nizam-ul-Mulk, the Fatimid ruler who is known to be the father of public education, established numerous madaris all over the Islamic empire providing Islamic knowledge and sciences, philosophy, public administration, and governance (Haqqani, 2002, p. 45). These madaris produced well-known philosophers and scholars. For example, “Ibn Hazm of Cordoba (994– 1064) was a pioneer in the comparative history of religions and Ibn Gabirol of Malaga’s (1020–1070) fundamental work was the synthesis of the Jewish faith and the modern philosophy” (Charafi, 2003, p. 3). Some Muslim scholars are very well known to Western culture under Latin names. For example, the philosopher Ibn Rushd is known as Averroes; the mathematician al-Zarqashi is known as Arzachel; al- Bitruji the astronomer is known as Alpetragius, and the physician Ibn Zuhr who is known as Avenzoar (Charafi, 2003, p. 3). Changes and modifications continued as Islam spread and interacted with different religions, cultures, and socio-economic backgrounds which resulted in the development of universities. In Egypt, Al-Azhar University was established in tenth century AD, Al-Qayrawwan and Al-Zaytuna in Tunisia, Al-Qarawiyyin in Morocco, and Al-Nizamiyyah University in Baghdad (Tibawi, 1972, p. 30). It was during this period that the Islamic world made most of its contributions to the scientific and artistic world. Al-Azhar attracted Ibn Al-Haytham as a student, while Ibn Khaldoun taught there toward the end of the fourteenth century, and Al-Baghdadi taught medicine at the end of the twelfth century (Shaikh, 2009, p. 49). Exceptional contributions were made in all educational fields. We owe architectural sites like the Taj Mahal and the Alhambra to Muslim culture and we owe Tales of 1001 Nights, Ali Baba, Aladdin, and Sinbad to Muslim literature. By the thirteenth century, according to Aziz Talbani (2005), the ulama (scholars) had become “self-appointed interpreters and guardians of religious knowledge . . . learning was confined to the transmission of traditions and dogma, and (were) hostile to research and scientific inquiry” (p. 70). It was during this period that the Islamic world made most of its contributions to the scientific and artistic world. Morgan (2007) stated in his book Lost History:

Thousand years ago al-Khwarizmi and Omar Khayyam introduced algebra and algorithms, enabling today’s laptops and cell phones, our global economy and feats of engineering like skyscrapers and the Space Shuttle. Ibn al-Haytham and al-Tusi established the base of modern optical theory, named many stars, and left us a sense of the solar system that enabled Galileo and Copernicus to see the earth orbiting the sun, leading to today’s satellites and space travel. To AlZahrawi and Maimonides, Ibn Sina and al-Razi we owe the first modern cardiology and antiseptics and antibiotics, the first sutures and obstetric forceps, the first modern insane asylums and psychotherapy. To forgotten engineers and inventors like Jabir and al-Jazari we owe the foundations of modern chemistry and engineering, the first torpedo, and the first glider flight by Ibn Firnas in Spain 1200 years ago. (p. 73) Unfortunately, this dedication to education did not continue. In the thirteenth century, Western violence and colonization started in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. Razavi (1996) wrote that “it is a totally erroneous notion that Islam fell into complete intellectual decadence after the Mongol invasion,” maintaining that there was not nor is an “intellectual vacuum” or draining of Islamic influence (p. 239–240). By the eighteenth century, the Muslim world was not able to survive the Western invasion. Crusaders, getting away from the path of religion and political rivalry among Muslim leaders, were the reasons behind this defeat. This defeat lead to the decay of Muslim learning and scholarship. Unfortunately, it has not bounced back yet (King, 2010, p. 7). “The last nail in the coffin of advanced learning in Islamic schools came with the European colonial powers occupying whatever was left of the Muslim lands” (Anzar, 2003, p. 2). Sadly, Muslim countries currently have some of the lowest literacy rates in the world. According to the Islamic Relief Worldwide Foundation, in 2005 there were 774 million un-lettered Muslim adults, 64 percent of whom are women; furthermore, 72 million primary school age children were not enrolled in the same year. However, as explained earlier, illiteracy has nothing to do with the teachings of the Qur’an. The Qur’an and the Hadith have been advocating education as a social necessity and explicitly emphasizing the importance of education for over 1400 years. In conclusion of this chapter, institutionalized curriculum in the Qur’an considers educating people and seeking knowledge an obligation for every Muslim to attain. This education starts by teaching the names of things first before applying what is taught. Teachers at the beginning of Islam learned this procedure from the Qur’anic curriculum as this is what Allah did. Allah created Adam, he taught him the names of things, and after that he descended Adam to earth to be his vicegerent (Kohlberg and Selman, 1972, p.29). Historically, Muslims used to start their teaching with how to read, write, and memorize the Qur’an because they believed the Qur’an to be the source of knowledge. By learning the Qur’an, students would learn about their creator, Allah, his creations, and his laws of the world which would lead them to think and question their surroundings. Later, after students learn reading, writing, and

memorization of the Qur’an, comes application. Students are shown how to apply what they learn to their actual life and later are required to apply it themselves (Hashim, 2006, p. 96). After the spread of Islam to different parts of the world, translations of books on different disciplines and cultures, such as the Romans and Indians, were established and many disciplines were built on these translations and developed. As for the development of institutions, private settings, similar to homeschooling, were first. Mosques were the second form of institutionalized curriculum. Later kuttab was developed until, finally, schools and universities were built all over the Islamic empire.

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Index A accountability, 1 Adam prestigious status, 1 aesthetic education, 1 balance between mind and sense, 1 building balanced human being, 1 holistic approach, 1 our deeds affect our souls, 1 Aisha was a religious reference for the companions, 1 Allah has no gender, 1 Al-suffah as residential school, 1 application of knowledge, 1 internal application of knowledge, 1 external application of knowledge, 1 application of knowledge in western education, 1 appreciation for individuals, 1 asking questions and dialogue, 1

B brotherhood system, 1

C challenges to western societies, 1 changing process, 1 gradual change and prophet Mohammed, 1 gradual change and prophet Moses, 1 intoxicating prohibition stages, 1 choices have consequences, 1 consequences of prophet Mohammed dedication to teaching, 1 consultation, 1 creation of prophet Adam, 1 critical consciousness, 1 critical thinking, 1 curriculum as institutionalized text, 1

D

definition of the word curriculum, 1 demonstration, 1 command, 1 descriptive form of language, 1 explanatory form of language, 1 language of affiliation, 1 developing the whole person. see Paulo frère 1972 pedagogy of the oppressed, 1 development of Madrasa, 1 development of teaching assistance positions, 1 development of universities, 1 direct order, 1 direct repetition, 1

E educational philosophies, 1 equality, 1 essence of the Qur’an, 1 exceptions of human liabilities, 1 expulsion from the garden of Eden, 1

F first advocate of women’s rights, 1 first five revealed verses in the Qur’an, 1 first instance of racism, 1 freedom of choice, 1 freedom of speech, 1 function of the Qur’an, 1

G gender in the Qur’an, 1 governing and ruling people, 1

H hadith, 1 , 2 hegemonic cultural meaning, 1 history of previous nations, 1 homeschooling, 1.1-1.2 , 2

I

ideology, 1 indirect communication between Allah and man, 1 indirect order, 1 indirect repetition, 1 influence of Islamic civilization, 1 See Holmes, g. (1988). The Oxford Illustrated of Medieval Europe inheritance, 1 institutional curriculum after migration, 1 institutional curriculum before migration, 1 intention, 1 interpretation of the Qur’an, 1 Islamic empire, 1.1-1.2 isolation of women, 1

K knowledge has religious significance, 1 hidden knowledge or alghayb, 1 known knowledge or ilm, 1 kuttab (pl. katatib), 1

L language limitation, 1 learning from non-Muslims, 1 lived experience, 1

M Madaheb, 1 The Hanafi school, 1 The Hanbali school, 1 The Maliki school, 1 The shaft’s school, 1 Makkan surahs, 1 meaning of the word education in Arabic, 1 Medinan surahs, 1 memorize the Qur’an, 1 messengers were teachers, 1 methods of instructions, 1 argumentation, 1 command, 1 open discussion, 1

parables, 1 private tutoring, 1 repetition, 1 storytelling, 1.1-1.2 moderation in religion, 1

T the mosque was the center for teaching and learning, 1

M Muslim education, 1 Muslim population, 1 Muslims’ viewpoint, 1

N negative representation of veiled women, 1

O observe details, 1 Prophet Ibrahim’s observation, 1 prophets asking for proof, 1 oral culture, 1

P phenomena in the Qur’an, 1 See Tzortzis, h. a. (2008). Matchless Eloquence: al-Kawthar. See also arberry, a. j. (1964). The Koran Interpreted. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press political aspects, 1 polygamy, 1 See Jamal Badawi, 1998, polygamy in Islamic law preservation of the Qur’an, 1

T the prophet encouraged travelling to seek knowledge, 1

P Prophet Mohammed as a teacher, 1

Q

questioning, 1 Qur’anic ideology, 1

R race, gender, and class are subject to change, 1 racism, 1 recognition of the self, 1 reduction of the self, 1 reform of individuals, 1 religious identity, 1 representations of the educational system, 1

S Sahih al-Bukhari, 1 seeking knowledge, 1 , 2 self-development, 1

T the shahada or testimony, 1

S Shari’a and Islamic jurisprudence, 1 social relations in education, 1 sources of Islamic law, 1 The Qur’an, 1 Sunna, 1 , 2 ijma’, 1 qiyas, 1 spiritually, 1 student–teacher relationship, 1

T tawheed, the oneness of Allah, 1 teacher’s manual, 1 teachers have the authority of parents, 1 teaching is a process of giving, 1 testimony, 1 theory of knowledge in the Qur’an, 1 time of ignorance, 1 transformation of inner consciousness, 1

tribalism and Arabism, 1 two types of rules: direct and indirect, 1 types of learners, 1

U unplanned experience, 1 use of wisdom and argumentation, 1

V veils, hijab, 1

W western traditionalists, 1 who is a Muslim?, 1 why Muslims memorize the Qur’an in Arabic, 1

About the Author Sarah Risha started her educational career as a teacher, vice principal, volunteer Sunday school principal, educational consultant, and is currently a university lecturer. She has worked at private and public schools, both locally and abroad, in addition to developing math and language arts K–12 curriculum for schools here in the United States and the Middle East, working with Cisco Learning Institute and Commission of International and Transregional Accreditation. She developed several courses in Arabic language and Middle Eastern cultures that are currently being taught at Maricopa Community Colleges as well as Arizona State University. Sarah earned her Master’s Degree at Northern Arizona University and her PhD at Arizona State University.