Foreign Language Education and its Cross-Curricular Links [1 ed.] 9781443874885, 9781443850698

Citation preview

Foreign Language Education and its Cross-Curricular Links

Foreign Language Education and its Cross-Curricular Links Edited by

Marek Krawiec

Foreign Language Education and its Cross-Curricular Links Edited by Marek Krawiec Reviewed by Teresa Siek-Piskozub (Professor Ordinarius) Proofread by Marlene de Wilde, Robert Pritchard & Grzegorz Dusza This book first published 2017 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2017 by Marek Krawiec and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-5069-1 ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-5069-8

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures............................................................................................ vii List of Tables .............................................................................................. ix Preface ........................................................................................................ xi Part One: Various Aspects of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning English Language Teaching and Learning from the Perspective of the Imperial Tetragon of Embodiment .................................................... 3 Marlena Bielak Authenticity in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning: Controversies and Interpretations .............................................................. 21 Magdalena Aleksandrzak The Importance of Building Learner Autonomy through SelfAssessment in ELT in Official Language Schools in Spain ...................... 39 Zofia Stasiakiewicz Part Two: ICT in Foreign Language Didactics On Forming Chosen Key Competences within the Visual Classroom ...... 55 Martyna Klejnowska-Borowska ICT Tools for our Schools ......................................................................... 67 Weronika Olek-Taszarek Do it Yourself! Creative Language Learning with Self-Made Web Comics .............................................................................................. 81 Elena Schäfer

vi

Table of Contents

Part Three: (Inter-) Cultural Components of Language Education Aspects of Intercultural Communication in LSP Teaching ....................... 95 Joanna Kic-Drgas Developing Intercultural Competence with Linguistic Landscape and M-Learning ....................................................................................... 107 Jacek Tadeusz WaliĔski Woman with Umbrella Then and Now: Paintings, Soundtracks, and Paparazzi in the German-as-a-Foreign-Language Classroom ........... 121 Emilie Martinez Part Four: CLIL in the Contemporary Language Class Relevance of Bingo to Cross-Curricular Language Learning and Teaching ........................................................................................... 139 Marek Krawiec English in Medicine: How CLIL Helps Develop Thinking Skills in Students ............................................................................................... 163 Katarzyna Kurczak The Cross-Curricular Nature of the Storyline Method in Language Education ................................................................................................. 179 Tomasz Róg Contributors ............................................................................................. 195

LIST OF FIGURES

1-1: The ITE and its Parameters .................................................................. 6 4-1: Overview of the Virtual Classroom and its Tools. ............................. 56 4-2: Virtual Classroom Tools. ................................................................... 57 5-1: Students Learning English using Netbooks........................................ 68 5-2: An Example of a Pearltree. ................................................................ 72 5-3: An Example of a Mind Map Created using Popplet. .......................... 74 5-4: An Example of an Answergarden “Web Tools for Schools”. ............ 76 6-1: Creating One’s Own Comic with Bitstrips......................................... 86 6-2: Brainstorming on the Medium Comic by Means of a Word Cloud. .. 88 6-3: Comics to Visualize the Meaning of Verbal Expressions in French ... 89 7-1: Process of Intercultural Learning ..................................................... 100 10-1: Bingo Game Matrix........................................................................ 151 10-2: Bingo Game Matrix with Example Entries from the Category of Geography/Tourism. ...................................................................... 152 10-3: Bingo Game Matrix with Example Entries from the Category of Social/Cultural Life. ...................................................................... 154 11-1: Language Proficiency in Particular Subgroups. ............................. 168 11-2: Study Group Results in Individual Tasks. ...................................... 171 11-3: The Results of A0 Subgroup in Individual Tasks. ......................... 172 11-4: The Results of A1 Subgroup in Individual Tasks. ......................... 172 11-5: The Results of A2 Subgroup in Individual Tasks. ......................... 173 11-6: The Results of B1 Subgroup in Individual Tasks. .......................... 174

LIST OF TABLES

2-1: Fundamental Differences between Naturalistic and Pedagogic L2 Discourses. ..................................................................................... 26 2-2: Types of Pedagogic Interaction. ......................................................... 29 4-1: Communication in Foreign Languages – Virtual Classroom Tools. .. 62 4-2: Digital Competence – Virtual Classroom Tools. ............................... 64 11-1: Application of CLIL 4Cs in the Study Group in the Context of Cystic Fibrosis. .............................................................................. 170 12-1: Cross-curricular Areas Addressed in the Travel Agency Storyline. ............................................................................................ 187 12-2: Learners’ Hard and Soft Skills Utilized in the Travel Agency Storyline. ............................................................................................ 189

PREFACE

The present volume is a collection of articles written by language teachers and scholars who, in their theoretical considerations and practical studies, emphasize the important role of foreign language education and its cross-curricular links. The book reflects essential theories, assumptions and implications which have recently been forwarded in the field of language teaching and learning, and reports findings from studies conducted in this field. The material here delineates ways of leading language classes and developing students’ knowledge and skills according to current educational conceptions and postulates. It also points to some trends and tendencies which are evident and characteristic of the practices of contemporary language teachers and learners. Since the articles constituting the book touch upon a variety of aspects of language education, it was crucial to group them into four parts, which basically reflect the main points of interest of the contributors to this volume. The four parts are: 1) Various aspects of foreign language teaching and learning 2) ICT in foreign language didactics 3) (Inter-)cultural components of language education 4) CLIL in the contemporary language class Part 1 consists of articles which discuss the subject of foreign language teaching and learning by considering the perspective of the Imperial Tetragon of Embodiment (Marlena Bielak) and the criterion of authenticity (Magdalena Aleksandrzak) as well as the notion of autonomy related to self-assessment (Zofia Stasiakiewicz). Part 2 comprises materials which focus on the problems of forming chosen key competences in the virtual classroom (Martyna KlejnowskaBorowska), of using different ICT tools in schools, especially in language lessons (Weronika Olek-Taszarek), and of providing conditions for creative language learning with self-made web comics (Elena Schäfer). Part 3 includes papers which point to the role of (inter-)cultural components in language education. Within the spectrum of issues discussed in this part, there are selected aspects of intercultural communication in teaching a language for specific purposes (Joanna Kic-

xii

Preface

Drgas) and implications for the development of intercultural competences with linguistic and M-learning (Jacek WaliĔski) as well as suggestions about the use of paintings as cultural and artistic products in the foreign language classroom (Emilie Martinez). Part 4, which most significantly emphasizes the cross-curricular character of language teaching and learning, is composed of articles that underline the enhancement of students’ knowledge and skills through CLIL. This part stresses the relevance of games (especially Bingo) to the integration of the content of different school subjects in foreign language classes (Marek Krawiec), highlights the role of CLIL in the context of teaching English for medical purposes (Katarzyna Kurczak) and recognizes the interdisciplinary nature of the Storyline Method in language education (Tomasz Róg). The book is thus an essential source of information for all individuals who find the issue of foreign language teaching and learning and its crosscurricular character interesting for consideration and implementation in everyday practices at school and in educational systems. The volume in fact functions as a guidebook for both teachers and learners who can use it to delve into the mechanisms of language education and discover its interdisciplinary links.

Editor

PART ONE: VARIOUS ASPECTS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE IMPERIAL TETRAGON OF EMBODIMENT MARLENA BIELAK

The paper aims at presenting a preliminary analysis of the English language teaching and learning process that occurs in the closed public space of the Polish state high school. The aspects of English language teaching and learning under analysis are considered to be significant factors that contribute to the identity of the present-day Polish state high school. The process of English language teaching and learning is analysed with reference to the parameters that characterise the Imperial Tetragon of Embodiment (ITE) by Puppel (2009; 2011). In accordance with the basic assumptions of the aforementioned framework, Polish state high school and English language teaching and learning, approached from the institutional perspective, are viewed as an interplay of such attributes as Displays, Militancy, Utility and Trade-offs.

1. Introduction The undertaken analysis of English language teaching and learning constitutes the initial stage of a larger project whose aim is to research the identity of the Polish school in relation to the various communicative processes occurring in it. Since the communication that takes place in the closed public space of the school in some respects results from the present educational policy, the above research project is initiated by the analysis of the teaching and learning process that is directly responsible for developing communicative skills, which in this paper are also referred to as communicative resources (cf. Puppel 2004, 5). Aspects of expanding communicative resources will be analysed with reference to non-native language teaching and learning, exemplified by English as the most popular foreign language taught in Polish educational institutions. The process of evolving communicative resources in English language

4

The Perspective of the Imperial Tetragon of Embodiment

teaching and learning is in turn examined with regard to the parameters of the ITE by Puppel (2009; 2011). The English language teaching and learning process under analysis takes place in the closed public space of the Polish state high school. Accordingly, subsequent sections will elaborate on the concept of school identity, the framework based on the ITE and its parameters, and research into the identity of English language teaching and learning (taking place in the closed public space of the Polish state high school) from the perspective of the ITE.

2. School identity The problem of identity is a very broad term which includes a number of aspects. As such, the notion is neither easy to define nor explain (cf. Denek 2009, 60; Bauman 2007, 5) and it generates, because of its vagueness and ambiguity, a great deal of controversy. Accordingly, one may point to numerous definitions of identity, e.g., Baumeister (1986), Bausinger (1983), Denek (2009), Hall (1992) and Wnuk-LipiĔski (2005) inter alios. As stated by Giddens (2006, 736), identity may be defined as the “distinctive features of an individual or a group, who or what this individual or group is and what is important to them [translation mine, M.B.]”. Bauman (2007, 18) views it “(…) as something that must be generated and not discovered, as the object of our efforts and an aim one must reach; as something one must form out of elements or select from accessible wholes [translation mine, M.B.]”. Additionally, it is frequently stressed that identity is subject to constant changes. Its dynamic character has been emphasised by SzymaĔski (2009), Denek (2009) and WnukLipiĔski (2005) inter alios. One can point to the existence of different types of identity. As asserted by Denek (2009, 64), identity may be described by means of adjectives, e.g., distinguishing cultural identity, European identity or school identity inter alia. In this paper it is the school identity that is of particular interest. The problem of school identity may be perceived with regard to several aspects, e.g., the idea of school as an institution (cf. WawrzakChodaczek 2009, 133). The fact that such an institution as a school must have its own identity is emphasised, for example, by Chaáas (1994, 133). Additionally, MáyĔska (2009, 257) highlights that the school may be perceived as a collective construct. In other words, the institution that is a school is formed by people who, as independent beings, possess their

Marlena Bielak

5

individual identities, which results in a collective identity formed within an institution. In reference to the identity of an institution, two identity types should be differentiated, i.e., the outer identity and the inner one (Tap 1980, 11– 15). In relation to schools, the outer type refers to the realisation of different school functions and the application of the rules regulating its proper functioning. It is the identity that must be generated to satisfy the requirements of the educational authorities and the needs of the parents. The inner type of identity indicates the internal ways of functioning, which are not evaluated by those outside the institution (cf. MáyĔska 2009, 258– 59). Significantly, school identity is the result of a set of numerous factors, among which one can identify aspects connected with the influence of the social and cultural environment. The facets that definitely play a vital role in the development of a school identity include issues connected with history, tradition or local community (cf. MáyĔska 2009, 259–62). In this paper, only one selected aspect of school identity will be examined – the identity of Polish state high schools with regard to expanding communicative resources in the English language teaching and learning process. The identity in question will be analysed with reference to the ITE by Puppel (2009; 2011).

3. The Imperial Tetragon of Embodiment (ITE) The ITE framework rests on the notion of embodiment, which signifies living entities/bodies (i.e., embodied agents). Embodied agents, as biological, social and cultural beings, are in possession of a biological agent, social agent and cultural agent identity. The identity of embodied agents is the effect of embodied agents’ politics, defined by Puppel (2011, 8) as “(…) the art of running the government/management of the body to remain, win, dominate (…)”, which results in sustainability. Identity politics is further classified into biological entity, social entity and cultural entity politics. The embodied agents’ politics may be analysed from an institutional perspective (i.e., each product of the embodied agents’ politics, as an element of culture, becomes an institution) and as such is conditioned by the constant interaction of the parameters of the ITE, i.e., Militancy (M), Trade-offs (T), Utility (U), Displays (D) (cf. Figure 1-1). In other words, the aforementioned parameters of an institution interact, which results in the changeable identity placed inside the tetragon. Conditions permitting, the parameters may be imperialised/maximised.

6

The Perspective of the Imperial Tetragon of Embodiment

Figure 1-1 The ITE and its Parameters (Puppel 2011, 11) In order to illustrate the above approach, one may point to man as an example of embodiment. In other words, man is a biological entity that originates from the reproduction of cells. A human body enters the cultural environment surrounding it and acquires institutional features (becomes an institution). Significantly, everything man produces possesses an institutional character. Since all products of man (viewed as a cultural being) acquire the status of an institution, communication, school and foreign language teaching and learning are perceived as institutions as well. The interplay of the parameters of each institution (e.g., the institution of school or English language teaching and learning) generates the identity situated inside the ITE (Figure 1-1). The identity is of a changeable nature, which results from the fact that all institutions are designated by the same attributes but the percentage of the maximisation of each feature may be different at divergent moments. Since the attributes form a constant, dynamic relationship, at any point of its existence an institution may represent the imperialisation of one parameter, i.e., it may be either Displays-dominant, Utility-dominant, Trade-offs-dominant or Militancy-dominant. The ITE attributes are described below (cf. Puppel 2009, 277–82). 1) Militancy – an institution may be described as militant if it is characterised by some degree of militancy presented outwards. 2) Utility – an economically-centred notion that refers to the present or future potential and use of an institution. Theoretically, each institution should aim at achieving the status of being useful.

Marlena Bielak

7

3) Displays – an institution signals its attractiveness via diverse display modes. In the case of a natural language, one can identify audio-vocal, graphic and multimodal-multimedia displays. The parameter of Displays in terms of language refers to high communicative resources, the beauty of language. 4) Trade-offs –refers to a situation when an institution is engaged in different trade-offs (exchanges), the bidirectionality of the process being significant. In the case of schools, Trade-offs refers to the exchange of knowledge between teachers and students. In other words, Trade-offs in education refers to the dynamism of the participants’ roles in the process of teaching and learning, i.e., the parameter in question emphasises the function of the feedback provided by students. The ITE and its parameters will be applied to recognise the identity of English language teaching and learning with regard to developing communicative resources in Polish state high schools. The description of the research and its precise aims and participants are presented in the subsequent section.

4. Research into the identity of English language teaching and learning in terms of the elaboration of communicative resources in the closed public space of the Polish state high school under analysis The research constitutes a pilot study of the development of communicative resources in the English language teaching and learning process taking place in the closed public space of Polish state high schools. In accordance with the assumptions of ITE, the Polish state high school is regarded as an institution and its identity is perceived as an interplay of the parameters of Displays, Militancy, Utility and Trade-offs. Analogically, the identity of English language teaching and learning in relation to the elaboration of communicative resources, which contributes to the identity of the Polish school, is approached in terms of the same attributes. The objective of the research is to find answers to the questions demonstrated below. 1) Which ITE parameter dominates the English language teaching and learning process with reference to developing communicative skills in the closed public space of the Polish state high school?

8

The Perspective of the Imperial Tetragon of Embodiment

2) Is the identity of the English language teaching and learning process in relation to developing communicative skills optimal in terms of the needs of Polish students? 3) What is the Polish high school identity with regard to English language teaching and learning in terms of the interplay of the ITE parameters? The study constitutes a qualitative research project based on individual interviews, which represents a qualitative method based on conducting individual talks with a small number of respondents carefully selected on the basis of their direct relevance to the research aims. The aforementioned method was chosen as, in accordance with what is stated by Weimann (2011), individual research interviews are typically applied in the case of initial research stages. In other words, they enable one to gather basic preliminary information on the issues under analysis. They are also more specific than a survey because of freedom of expression and the real possibility to ask further questions. Accordingly, the research results will be treated as a source of data presenting the attitudes of respondents towards the development of communicative resources in English language teaching and learning held in the closed public space of Polish state high schools, and will be used to prepare appropriate research tools for conducting further stages of the research into the identity of the Polish school. The research participants, both the teachers and the students, represent different high schools. The students taking part in the study achieve very good results at school. In this study, four Polish high school students learning the English language and four Polish high school teachers of the English language were interviewed individually in the house of the author of this paper without any third party. The research participants were informed that their participation in the research was anonymous. Each individual talk with one respondent lasted around one hour. The interview scenario, aimed at obtaining information on the identity of English language teaching and learning with regard to the elaboration of communicative resources, consisted of the enquiries presented below. 1) How often do you cover, during English school classes, exercises from the course book? 2) How often do you prepare, during English school classes, additional projects not included in the course book? 3) Do the exercises covered during English school classes develop communicative skills in the optimal way?

Marlena Bielak

9

4) Do the exercises developing communicative skills covered during English school classes: x refer to situations in which everyday communication is used? x refer to situations in which literary spoken language is used? x refer to situations in which literary written language is used? x allow one to express what one really thinks? x allow one to evolve one’s creativity? 5) Is developing communicative skills in terms of the English language popular among teenagers? 6) Do you realise your ambitions with regard to English language teaching/learning? 7) Do you think that what you learn/teach during English classes is useful? 8) Is there anything that hinders the development of communicative skills during English school classes? 9) Is developing communicative skills in reference to English at a very advanced level popular among teenagers? 10) Are you asked by your teacher if you consider the communicative skills you learn during English classes useful? /Do you ask your students if they consider the communicative skills they learn during English classes useful? 11) Are you asked by your teacher if you need to practice, during English classes, communicative aspects other than the ones covered in class?/ Do you ask your students if they need to practice, during English classes, other communicative aspects than the ones covered in class? The responses provided by the research participants have been used to specify the identity of the English language teaching and learning process with regard to the development of communicative resources. The research answers were analysed in relation to the parameters characterising the ITE, which yielded the results presented in the subsequent part.

5. Results of the research into the identity of English language teaching and learning in relation to the elaboration of communicative resources in the closed public space of the Polish state high school under analysis The presentation of the research results will specify the status of the parameter of Displays, Trade-offs, Utility and Militancy in reference to the

10

The Perspective of the Imperial Tetragon of Embodiment

elaboration of communicative resources in English language teaching and learning in the closed public space of the Polish state high schools under analysis. The research results will be presented with regard to the responses provided by the students and the teachers, with some concluding remarks highlighted.

5.1. Results of the research with regard to the responses provided by the students The students’ responses allow one to determine the status of all the ITE parameters in reference to the aspects of English language teaching and learning in question. This section presents the precise conclusions drawn on the basis of the opinions expressed by the students participating in the study. 1) The parameter of Displays is non-dominant. The students’ responses that specify the status of the parameter of Displays are presented below. The exercises covered during English school classes do not develop the interviewed students’ communicative skills in the optimal way because: x the level of the course book exercises is excessively low in the case of all the interviewed students; x the course book exercises are very schematic; they provide one pattern in accordance with the one students have to practise, i.e., basic grammar structures and a very limited choice of vocabulary; x the scheme of one’s answer is tailored to the subject needs of a given unit; x additional projects that are more ambitious and aim at developing students’ communicative skills are covered too rarely or not at all; x the exercises refer predominantly to situations in which everyday communication is used (i.e., the highest level of communicative skills is not evolved); x the exercises rarely refer to situations in which literary spoken language is used; x the exercises frequently refer to situations in which literary written language is used (which signifies the neglect of oral communicative skills);

Marlena Bielak

x

2)

a)

b)

3)

11

the exercises, due to their level, allow one to express what one really thinks in a very limited way and they do not evolve one’s creativity; x the process of English language teaching during school classes mainly concentrates on expressing the basic meaning of one’s message; the form is often disregarded. The parameter of Trade-offs possesses a fluctuating status as the students’ opinions concerning the exchange of knowledge in terms of developing communicative skills in English language teaching and learning are both positive and negative. Negative opinions point to the unidirectionality of the process of English language teaching and learning with regard to developing communicative skills in the Polish state high schools under analysis: x feedback is not sought: we neither evaluate what we learn during classes nor suggest what aspects of communicative skills we need to practice; x feedback is not taken into consideration: we are occasionally asked to say what we think about our English classes; however, what we suggest does not influence the way lessons are conducted. Positive opinions highlight the bidirectionality of the process of English language teaching and learning with regard to developing communicative skills in the Polish state high schools under analysis: x we are asked to evaluate what we practise in classes; x our suggestions are treated seriously, i.e., our problems are explained. The attribute of Utility is non-dominant. The students’ opinions that determine the status of the parameter in question are demonstrated below: x what one learns during English language school classes is useful in the sense that the school performs the function of complementing what one learns outside; x the idea of utility in terms of developing communicative skills in English language teaching and learning is adjusted to average, non-ambitious students. In other words, the core curriculum has been formed with regard to students who do not feel any need to develop advanced communicative skills. If you want to learn more than the information at the basic level (e.g., to be a competition winner or represent a good level of

12

The Perspective of the Imperial Tetragon of Embodiment

knowledge), you must learn on your own: have additional private lessons, read books, watch TV, contact foreigners and find information on the Internet; x the teaching system concentrates on marks; it does not concentrate on the usefulness of the knowledge students must acquire. Consequently, the aim of many students is to get a positive mark and not to learn what they will need in their future life; x the teaching system frequently forces students to learn things that are not always necessary. In the case of competitions, one must acquire a multitude of items of encyclopedic knowledge that is not useful; x students generally perceive the study of the humanities as resulting in unemployment and as not useful, which is the effect of the Ministry of Education policy of strongly propagating science and technology interests. Few students are aware that the highest communicative skills constitute the basis of utility in the case of each profession; x the usefulness of English lessons is undermined by the fact that some teachers come unprepared for classes and do not conduct them properly. 4) On the basis of the students’ opinions, one can identify defensive behaviours aimed at securing the present status of the teachers’ profession and school per se. The defensive methods applied by teachers are Militancy-based. Since the practices in question seem to underlie the policy of school functioning, it is assumed that the students’ opinions presented below point to the dominant position of the parameter of Militancy. The students’ responses emphasise the following aspects in terms of the attribute in question: x true but controversial opinions expressed by students are not welcome; one is punished for expressing them (or even ridiculed); x students who do not express what they really think are accepted and supported; x the promoted tendency is to agree with the teacher and accept being controlled. The material obtained during the interviews demonstrates that the attributes of Displays and Utility are non-dominant and Trade-offs possess a fluctuating status, whereas the parameter of Militancy (which is generally not supposed to characterise the identity of any school) is

Marlena Bielak

13

present and predominates. The research results in reference to the students’ responses will be complemented by the opinions expressed by the interviewed teachers, which are presented in the subsequent section.

5.2. Results of the research with regard to the responses provided by the teachers The teachers’ responses, like the students’ opinions, provide sufficient material to specify the status of the ITE attributes in terms of the facets of English language teaching and learning under analysis. The conclusions that result from the teachers’ answers are presented in this section. 1) The parameter of Displays is non-dominant. The teachers’ responses that determine the status of the parameter of Displays in reference to the elaboration of communicative resources are demonstrated below: x the interviewed teachers emphasise that they are not able to develop their students’ communicative skills in the optimal way because they are limited by: - the requirements of the core curriculum (the basic level curriculum includes rudimentary linguistic aspects, which does not elaborate students’ communicative skills to an advanced level); - time constraints – if they conduct, for example, two classes a week (the basic level curriculum), they are able to cover the course book (which does not allow for developing students’ communicative skills in the optimal way). Consequently, students are only able to develop their communicative skills within the minimum scope offered by the basic level option, which is very meagre: x there is no time to introduce discussions based on expressing students’ original opinions; x creativity may be developed only when students are asked to prepare a writing task at home; x if students choose the extended level version, the teacher has more chances to develop students’ communicative skills. However, in reference to the elaboration of communicative skills within the extended level course, the teachers face the following problems:

14

The Perspective of the Imperial Tetragon of Embodiment

- very few students are interested in taking the extended level course (only the elite of the school) as the humanities are on the defensive; - the communicative skills of some linguistically advanced individuals cannot be elaborated in class, while working with the whole group, as their knowledge represents a higher level than the one offered by the core curriculum of the extended level course; - the grading system of the oral English language final schoolleaving exam is structured in a way that does not encourage students to develop the highest communicative resources. A very low level of skills allows one to pass (one only fails if absolutely nothing is said). The form of language is not of central importance. One must express basic meaning and it is direct communication that counts. In other words, the aim of the oral English language final school-leaving exam is to communicate to be understood. Forms like She dancing, They is a room, I see a children allow the student to achieve a relatively high number of points. The presentation of the highest communicative skills does not constitute the main objective. In fact, it is superfluous. Accordingly, students conclude that it is safer to use simple structures as it prevents them from possibly making mistakes in sophisticated forms. 2) Trade-offs is the parameter of the fluctuating status. The teachers’ responses confirm the students’ answers that the English language teaching and learning process in reference to developing communication skills is not always approached as bidirectional. a) Opinions that point to the unidirectionality of the process of English language teaching and learning in terms of evolving communicative skills in Polish state high schools: x It is difficult to treat evaluation requirements seriously. The number of hours of the basic level curriculum hardly enables one to prepare students for the final exam. Therefore, there is no time to focus on feedback. There are more important problems. b) Opinions that point to the bidirectionality of English language teaching and learning in relation to developing communicative skills in Polish state high schools: x I ask my students to provide feedback and I try to modify my teaching methods on the basis of their opinions.

Marlena Bielak

15

3) The attribute of Utility is non-dominant. The teachers’ responses that determine the status of the parameter in question are described below: x the idea of usefulness in terms of English communicative skills is individually conditioned. In other words, it depends on how students want to make use of what they have learned; x in the case of many students, English language teaching and learning with reference to developing communicative skills is useful in the sense that they have to pass the final schoolleaving exam. They do not intend to use it in future as they are going to study other subjects. The majority of students (and their parents) do not realise that communicative skills, in terms of both their native and foreign language, are required in any profession; x students frequently treat the humanities as a burden. They neglect the discipline as graduation in this field results in unemployment; x the English language will be useful for students who are going to work in Anglo-Saxon countries. However, those who will find work as blue-collar workers constitute quite a numerous group, and high communicative skills are not required. Therefore, the process of elaborating high communicative resources is not useful in the case of the above group. Advanced ways of communicating will be definitely useful in the case of white-collar workers but the level of communicative skills offered by the Polish core curriculum (even the extended version) does not enable one to satisfy the requirements set by Anglo-Saxon or multinational companies. Intelligent students, if they start learning the English language in kindergarten, are able to reach a much higher level at the end of their secondary education (and they do, learning outside the school). Therefore, the development of English communicative skills in Polish high schools satisfies the criterion of utility in the sense that it constitutes the basis for further development. 4) On the basis of the teachers’ responses, it may be concluded that it is the parameter of Militancy that determines the English language teaching and learning process in reference to developing communicative resources. The examples of militant behaviours regulating the functioning of school are presented below:

The Perspective of the Imperial Tetragon of Embodiment

16

x x

x x x

x x

educational authorities, under the influence of students and parents, attempt to organise educational activities in a studentfriendly way; consequently, teachers are limited in their work by the behaviour of students and parents, who are well informed about what the core curriculum includes and immediately protest against any attempts at expanding communicative skills that are not curriculum-motivated; the argument provided by parents is that their children intend to continue their education by studying medicine or technical subjects, and they will not need any foreign language; the above view is supported by educational authorities who state that the role of the school is to prepare for the final schoolleaving exam and Oxford level is not required; since non-traditional teaching is not always accepted, it is safer to follow the course book page by page. As stated by one of the interviewed teachers, the application of methods of teaching other than course book exercises was once objected to by parents and, as a result, her colleague was dismissed; teachers are, therefore, not allowed to have their own vision of teaching; another militant behaviour that is supposed to regulate the functioning of school is connected with the duty of preparing numerous documents and excessive promotional activities.

The material presented above shows that the parameter of Trade-offs possesses a fluctuating status and Displays and Utility are non-dominant, whereas the attribute of Militancy dominates. In other words, the answers given by the teachers generally confirm what was stated by the students participating in the study. In reference to the above, there arises a need to present summing-up remarks, which will be given in the subsequent section.

5.3. Final results of the study In the face of the above results, a number of final conclusions have been drawn which refer to the responses provided by both the students and the teachers. Since the research constitutes a qualitative study based on a small number of representatives, the concluding remarks are not to be treated as a generalisation that concerns all the state high schools on the territory of the Republic of Poland. The conclusions refer to schools where

Marlena Bielak

17

the interviewed respondents learn and teach respectively. Indicating some trends that exist in the educational field, the concluding remarks will be used as guidelines for further research conducted on a large population (which will allow for generalisations). The conclusions are presented in the numbered list below. 1) The Polish state high schools under analysis in reference to developing communicative skills in English language teaching and learning created the conditions for the maximisation (imperialisation) of the attribute of Militancy. 2) The favourable conditions for the maximisation of the parameter of Militancy result from: x the strong pressure exerted on the school by students and their parents; x the demographic decline. 3) The parameter of Militancy detectable in the schools in question, paradoxically, constitutes a protective measure against the attacks on the school by the students and their parents. 4) Since the Polish state high schools under analysis must resort to the parameter of Militancy to protect themselves, the attributes of Utility and Displays have become non-dominant, and Trade-offs has assumed the fluctuating status, i.e., the level of teaching has been lowered. 5) Other instances of Militancy-dominant behaviours result in the creation of excessive graphic communication. Teachers produce a multitude of documents to help crush the rebellion launched by the students and their parents and/or ensure safety for the schools and their employees. 6) The Militancy-dominant character of the schools is also observable in the promotional aspects of school life. In the face of the demographic decline, teachers get involved, often too excessively, in numerous activities promoting their place of work in the local area. Promotion resembles battles in which one fights for students to be able to form a class one can teach. 7) Accordingly, it is concluded that the English language teaching and learning process in terms of developing communicative skills in the closed public space of the Polish state high schools under analysis is definitely Militancy-dominant. 8) The identity of the Polish state high schools in question with regard to English language teaching and learning is, therefore, Militancydominant as well.

18

The Perspective of the Imperial Tetragon of Embodiment

9) Since the identity of the English language teaching and learning process in relation to developing communicative skills is not optimal in terms of the needs of Polish students, changes in the identity of the schools under analysis are recommended. 10) As the dominant parameter of Militancy does not seem to be a good solution to the ailments of the Polish state high schools, it is postulated that education should be Utility-, Trade-offs- and Displays-dominant. 11) Accordingly, English language teaching and learning should aim at developing high communicative resources, the effectiveness of the process being achieved by implementing interesting and challenging projects (examples of educational tasks may be found in Krawiec 2012; 2013). Simultaneously, students must be consistently encouraged to express feedback in the form of their own true opinions. They should listen to their teachers and remain silent but they should also say what they need. The conclusions presented above point to the necessity of conducting research on a larger scale that will present a more generalised picture of the issues in question. Nevertheless, it can be emphasised that certain negative educational trends can be identified even at this stage of research. In accordance with the ITE assumptions, the Polish state high schools under analysis, just as all institutions, aim at sustainability, i.e., they strive for survival. Nevertheless, the methods that have been applied so far are not optimal in terms of the intellectual development of the Polish teenagers under analysis. The aforementioned fact points to the necessity of introducing modifications embodying the issues in question. Additionally, the study indicates the research participants feel a considerable level of frustration, which may be interpreted as an appeal for changes.

6. Final conclusions The paper presented the results from the preliminary analysis of the identity of the English language teaching and learning process with regard to evolving communicative resources in the closed public space of the Polish state high schools. The problem was examined with regard to the parameters of the ITE by Puppel (2009; 2011). On the basis of the above, it was concluded that the English language teaching and learning process in terms of elaborating communicative resources in the closed public space of the Polish state high schools under analysis is Militancy-

Marlena Bielak

19

dominant. Accordingly, the identity of the Polish state high schools in question with regard to the issues under analysis is Militancy-dominant as well. The aforementioned identity of the English language teaching and learning process with reference to developing communicative skills is not optimal in terms of the needs of Polish students. Therefore, changes in the identity of the schools under analysis are recommended. One should accept the fact that effective modifications in terms of the whole educational system are unavoidable, and the defensive, Militancydominant methods described above, aimed at securing the present status of the school, have not resulted in educational success.

Bibliography Bauman, Zygmunt. 2007. ToĪsamoĞü. Rozmowy z Benedetto Vacchim. GdaĔsk: GdaĔskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne. Baumeister, Roy F. 1986. Identity: Cultural Change and the Struggle for Self. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bausinger, Hermann. 1983. “Senseless Identity”. In: Anita JacobsonWidding (ed.), Identity: Personal Socio-Cultural. A Symposium. Uppsala. Acta Universitatis Upsakiensis, 337–46. Chaáas, Krystyna. 1994. W poszukiwaniu toĪsamoĞci szkoáy wiejskiej. Rzeszów: Wydawnictwo OĞwiatowe Fosze. Denek, Kazimierz. 2009. Ku toĪsamoĞci edukacji. In: Krystyna Chaáas (ed.), Kreowanie toĪsamoĞci szkoáy. Tom 1. Konteksty teoretyczne, poglądy, wyniki badaĔ. Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL, 59–71. Giddens, Anthony. 2006. Socjologia. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Hall, Stuart. 1992. The question of cultural identity. In: Stuart Hall, David Held, Tony McGrew (eds.), Modernity in its Futures. Cambridge: Polity Press, 275–77. Krawiec, Marek. 2012. “A Virtual Tour of EFL Students to the World of Art: Theoretical and Practical Implications”. In: Marek Krawiec (ed.), Od jĊzyka do kultury, literatury, sztuki i mediów. Waábrzych: DTP Service, 89–101. —. 2013. “Project Work Based on Tour-leading Activities as a Way of Developing Students’ Cultural Knowledge about Urban Surroundings”. In: Emilia Wąsikiewicz-Firlej, Hadrian Lankiewicz (eds.), From Classroom to Workplace: Advances in Applied Linguistics. Piáa: PaĔstwowa WyĪsza Szkoáa Zawodowa im. Stanisáawa Staszica w Pile, 59–69. MáyĔska, Katarzyna. 2009. Spoáeczna przestrzeĔ a kreowanie toĪsamoĞci szkoáy na przykáadzie zawodowej szkoáy Ğredniej. In: Krystyna Chaáas

20

The Perspective of the Imperial Tetragon of Embodiment

(ed.), Kreowanie toĪsamoĞci szkoáy. Tom 1. Konteksty teoretyczne, poglądy, wyniki badaĔ. Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL, 255–66. Puppel, Stanisáaw. 2004. “An Outline of Domain-resource-agent-accessmanagement (DRAAM) Model of Human Communication: Towards an Ecology of Human Communication”. PoznaĔ: Adam Mickiewicz University, Department of Ecocommunication. Electronic Journal Oikeios Logos 1, 1–26. http://keko.amu.edu.pl/sites/default/files/oikeios _ logos_nr1.pdf/ (date of access: 10th April 2014). —. 2009. Remarks on the sustainability of natural languages in the cultural-institutional perspective. In: Stanisáaw Puppel, Marta Bogusáawska-Tafelska (eds.), New Pathways in Linguistics. Vol. II. Olsztyn: Instytut Neofilologii UWM, 275–86. —. 2011. An outline of a multiple triune continuum model of language and communication. PoznaĔ: Adam Mickiewicz University, Department of Ecocommunication. Electronic Journal Oikeios Logos 8, 1–25. http://keko.amu.edu.pl/sites/default/files/ oikeios_logos_nr 8.pdf/ (date of access: 10th April 2014). SzymaĔski, Mirosáaw. 2009. ToĪsamoĞü szkoáy jako edukacyjnej wspólnoty. In: Krystyna Chaáas (ed.), Kreowanie toĪsamoĞci szkoáy. Tom 1. Konteksty teoretyczne, poglądy, wyniki badaĔ. Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL, 45–58. Tap, Pierre. 1980. Introduction. In: Pierre Tap (ed.), Identities collectives et changements Sociaux. Toulouse: Privat, 11–15. Wawrzak-Chodaczek, Mirosáawa. 2009. Aksjologiczne aspekty toĪsamoĞci szkoáy i toĪsamoĞci w szkole. In: Krystyna Chaáas (ed.), Kreowanie toĪsamoĞci szkoáy. Tom 1. Konteksty teoretyczne, poglądy, wyniki badaĔ. Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL, 131–38. Weimann, Natalia. 2011. Indywidualny wywiad pogáĊbiony. http://cogision.com/uslugi_narzedzia/indywidualny-wywiadpoglebiony/ (date of access: 10th April 2014). Wnuk-LipiĔski, Edmund. 2005. ĝwiat miĊdzyepoki: Globalizacja, demokracja, paĔstwo miĊdzynarodowe. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Znak.

AUTHENTICITY IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING: CONTROVERSIES AND INTERPRETATIONS MAGDALENA ALEKSANDRZAK

The notion of authenticity appears frequently in the context of foreign language teaching; however, its interpretation in the field is considered a rather controversial issue due to differing views on how authenticity can be defined. There is no consensus among researchers on the application of the concept as interpretations look at it from various perspectives that differ considerably in their methodological approach. Yet, it can be claimed that recent views seem to depart from a binary understanding of the concept towards multifaceted models of authenticity, and explore it from more individual or learner-oriented perspectives. They concentrate on specific aspects of the learning process and examine separately the authenticity of task, language and social situation. The article discusses the concept of authenticity on the basis of selected literature and briefly overviews different interpretations of the notion, terminological problems and resultant controversies. Special emphasis is put on three essential areas of foreign language learning, namely the authenticity of the learning process, the authenticity of classroom communication and, finally, authentic materials.

1. Introduction The concept of authenticity, the definition of the term and its application to foreign language teaching have been the objects of debate for the past few decades. The term “authentic” is used commonly in EFL literature but its meaning is not always clearly defined, which may create a sense of inconsistency and lead to a range of controversies concerning the nature of authenticity in foreign language pedagogy. Thus, the adjective “authentic” functions as “real, natural” with regard to a particular type of discourse;

Authenticity in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

22

and as “original” with respect to authentic texts or materials. There are several other terms frequently used in discussions on authenticity, such as genuineness, realness, truthfulness, validity, credibility or legitimacy (Tatsuki 2006, 1), and this abundance of synonyms often blurs the picture and makes the task of defining authenticity in the context of language learning even more difficult. However, despite the lack of a unanimous interpretation of the term, authenticity is generally considered to be a positive attribute which evokes associations of desirable qualities such as originality, quality and purity (Mishan 2004, 219). In light of the complexity of the problem and controversies around it, Breen (1985, 61) points to the necessity of identifying the specific authenticity under debate. He distinguishes the following categories: x x x x

authenticity of the texts that may be used as input data for learners; authenticity of the learners’ own interpretations of such texts; authenticity of the task conducive to language learning; authenticity of the actual social situation of the language classroom.

Also, Taylor (1994) rejects the notion of global or absolute authenticity. He regards authenticity as a relative matter, and underlines that different aspects of it can be present in different degrees. Instead of concentrating on the general concept, he argues for making a distinction between authenticity of language, authenticity of task and authenticity of situation. This approach seems to be reflected in recent publications in the field. Accordingly, it is possible to distinguish the main areas of interest among researchers and practitioners who focus on the notion of authenticity, and its adequacy and application to foreign language teaching: x authenticity of the learning process (situation, task); x authenticity of classroom communication (language, situation); x authentic materials (language, task).

task,

Interestingly, a certain tendency can be observed in the ways in which authenticity is interpreted nowadays: namely the adjective “authentic” is not necessarily understood as “real” or “original” but it is often used in the sense of inner authenticity, defined from an individual perspective, which adds a more personal dimension to the term and allows for understanding it as individually “meaningful” or “important” (Ciepielewska-Kaczmarek 2013) in a given learning context. This departure from the most straightforward and

Magdalena Aleksandrzak

23

basic interpretations of authenticity as a binary concept (quite often relying on a rather vague concept of objective or absolute authenticity) towards more individual approaches also reflects general tendencies in modern foreign language teaching, which stress the importance of the individual character of the learning process and treat a language classroom as a unique learning and communicative setting governed by specific rules and rituals.

2. Defining authenticity – interpretations Historically three common approaches to the concept of authenticity have been observed (Solhi 2013, 25): 1. the strong authenticity position – language is best learned if all input is authentic, and any manipulation or adaptation of materials used is rejected; 2. the intermediate authenticity position – input should be varied in degrees of authenticity depending on the learners’ proficiency level and the purpose of the course; 3. the non-authenticity position – language is best learned if input is specially designed or written for a particular group of learners. In fact, such an arrangement of authenticity is considered insufficient and imprecise as it derives from a binary model of authenticity according to which materials, tasks or language used in the teaching process can only be either authentic or inauthentic. It is not specifically indicated, however, who they are authentic for (the learner, the teacher or the writer who prepares the materials). Moreover, the traditional interpretation of authenticity does not take into account the relationship between a given text (written or spoken) and the learner who acts as a language user, and whose response to it actually decides whether a particular learning activity is authentic or not in his own perspective. The interpretations of authenticity presented below seem to address this gap as they focus on how learners actually respond to the learning situation, materials, tasks, language and the procedures used in it. According to van Lier (1996), authenticity does not depend on the character of materials or a specific lesson plan – it is rather a kind of longterm goal that the teacher and students should consciously work towards. He declares that “authenticity is the result of acts of authentication, by students and their teacher, of the learning process and the language used in it” (van Lier 1996, 128). Similarly, Widdowson (1998) interprets authenticity

24

Authenticity in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

as a social construct and connects it to the learning activity rather than to the origin of materials used in a classroom, and claims that a learner’s sense of authenticity arises from involvement with a particular learning task. Importantly, Widdowson (1998) emphasises that language loses authenticity outside its context of use, and reality is not embedded in a given text. What makes a text real is the fact that it has been produced with a particular audience in mind and in a defined set of contextual conditions. In his view, then, authenticity refers to active participation in a learning activity that learners accept as appropriate or natural, that is, authentic in a given situational context. However, Brown and Menasche (2005) postulate that at least three different levels of task authenticity can be distinguished: x genuine authenticity; x simulated authenticity; x pedagogical authenticity. In their opinion, genuine authenticity is not likely to be achieved in institutional language learning as it is only possible in natural communicative situations (immersion in the target language) where a teacher or instructor is not available and language users can rely only on their own linguistic repertoires. Such a way of reasoning inevitably leads to the conclusion that complete authenticity is in fact an unachievable aim in formal language teaching. This view is contradicted by Taylor (1994), who undermines the concept of absolute, abstract authenticity. He states that authenticity is not only a property of language or a communicative task but also concerns the participants of communication, the ways of using the language, the nature of interaction and the surroundings in which it occurs. A key issue, however, is whether the participants of communication perceive the situation, the environment in which they communicate and the language used as authentic. Taylor (1994) assumes, then, that authenticity should not be looked upon as a quality that resides in instances of written or spoken language input but rather as a quality created by the response to it in the act of interpretation. Thus, it may be concluded that a sense of authenticity is created each time in a given learning activity or social interaction. In this way learners create their own sense of authenticity in the language classroom. Apart from distinguishing different levels of task authenticity, Brown and Menasche (2005) also propose a multifaceted model of input authenticity, which comprises the following types:

Magdalena Aleksandrzak

25

x genuine input authenticity – real-life input is used in language teaching, and is not changed in any way; x altered input authenticity – real-life input is used in teaching; there are no changes in its original form but there might be some comments or explanations added to it; x adapted input authenticity – real-life input is adapted by the teacher with the intention of simplifying it (words or grammatical structures can be changed); x simulated input authenticity – the input is created specifically for the classroom but it attempts to copy the format and style of the genuine input; it usually contains numerous authentic text characteristics and may be indistinguishable from the genuine input; x inauthenticity – the input is created for the classroom with no intention to resemble genuine authentic materials, although it may contain authentic features. Brown and Menasche (2005) do not try to evaluate particular types of input authenticity in terms of their effectiveness in language learning, and even inauthenticity is not seen as of lesser pedagogical value than other types. Each type seems to have its specific functions, which may be essential at particular levels of foreign language proficiency or needed at a given stage of language development. Finally, WilczyĔska (2002) defines authenticity as a form of personal involvement in interaction that reflects a learner’s personality, goals, capabilities and aspirations, and is manifested in the individual communicative style. This broad interpretation of authenticity corresponds to her model of individual communicative competence, and refers to the notion of self-regulation as presented in the Vygotskyan perspective. It stresses the importance of the individual dimension of language learning and the role of self-regulative mechanisms in developing communicative abilities. The above interpretations of authenticity are rooted in modern approaches to foreign language teaching that place the learner in the centre of the learning process (learner-centredness). Idealistically, authenticity can be thus understood as a learner’s inner acceptance and involvement in learning activities, and is connected with establishing a specific relationship between the teacher and students based on mutual respect and understanding differences, or the aims of particular activities in the classroom and beyond. Any attempts to create this kind of relationship usually influence the character of classroom communication, which, as a

26

Authenticity in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

result, becomes more symmetrical and less dominated by the teacher. This in turn opens up a space for personalising the contents of learning and communication to a larger extent than in teacher-fronted classrooms.

3. Authenticity of classroom communication Classroom discourse is generally regarded as a problematic and demanding research area due to the very complexity of the subject, the multiplicity of the available models and the variety of elements that create the shape of such communication. The character and authenticity of classroom communication have been discussed by researchers of different methodological backgrounds, resulting in descriptions of pedagogic discourse that draw on numerous theoretical traditions, including such influential ones as the sociolinguistic, structural, psycholinguistic, interactionist or strategic approaches (Majer 2003, 36–58). One of the outcomes of this ongoing debate is the presentation of classroom interaction as an example of institutional (or artificial) discourse, which exists and seems to be well-grounded only within a limited context of formal learning environments and which, therefore, bears little or no resemblance to natural or naturalistic communication. Thus, a commonly recurring problem concerning pedagogic discourse is the question of its authenticity or, in other words, the extent to which it should reflect or does reflect natural communication in informal settings (Aleksandrzak 2013, 135). Undoubtedly, classroom communication possesses several characteristics that are not found outside educational settings, but at the same time it is marked by many universal features typical of natural discourse. The table below illustrates the most fundamental differences between pedagogic and naturalistic L2 discourses (Majer 2003, 220): Characteristic goal function focus language use structure style/register power relations directionality learner role talk pattern input

Naturalistic L2 discourse non-instructional social interaction meaning authentic communicative non-hierarchical informal equalised two-way speaker symmetrical information exchange foreigner talk

Pedagogic L2 discourse instructional class management form pre-planned pseudo-communicative hierarchical formal unequal one-way talker asymmetrical IRF/display questions teacher talk/peer talk

Magdalena Aleksandrzak metatalk output opportunities switching to L1 negotiation of meaning feedback

absent ample none frequent repair

27 frequently used limited frequent rare error correction

Table 2-1 Fundamental Differences between Naturalistic and Pedagogic L2 Discourses (Majer 2003, 220) The above characteristics show clearly that considerable differences may be observed between natural and classroom discourse; however, it is worth mentioning that they should not be treated as mutually exclusive features but rather as opposite ends of continua (Majer 2003, 219). Interestingly, much of the research in the field concentrates on identifying the gaps between natural and pedagogic discourse and indicating the deficiencies of classroom communication by making comparisons with natural communication. In consequence, the focus of the research is then on what ideal classroom communication should be like instead of on what it actually is (Gil 2002, 275). Although this kind of research may serve quite an important practical aim, that of finding effective ways of increasing the quality and quantity of learners’ language production, such an approach is frequently criticised. For example, van Lier (1996) claims that too much attention is given to defining the different features. Gil (2002) points to the specific unique dynamic of classroom interaction and its inherent pedagogical aspect, which cannot be ignored in analysing classroom communication. Similarly, Majer (2003) rejects the idea of presenting pedagogic discourse as artificial, inauthentic, distorted or deviant. In his opinion, it is a type of interaction that constitutes a discourse domain in its own right, and is authentic in instructional learning environments. In this view, authenticity is not seen as an objective or absolute quality that may be brought to the language classroom by attempts to imitate natural interaction, but rather as a feature that results from the attitude of the participants of the learning process, who perceive the classroom as a natural setting where learning and communication occur. According to Rivers (1993), in order to be interpreted as authentic, classroom interaction must contain information that is interesting and meaningful to the speaker and the listener; thus, it should involve not only expressing one’s own ideas but also comprehending the ideas of others. As Ellis (1999) points out, this situation is more likely to take place when the participants of speaking activities share discourse rights. Classroom discourse is then constructed collectively by the teacher and students (van

28

Authenticity in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

Lier 1996) and takes the form of a collaborative social enterprise (Hall and Verplaetse 2000). However, the focus of interaction may shift from the natural to the pedagogic mode in accordance with the changing demands of the learning process. The presence of these two complementary modes, which mingle and overlap (Gil 2002), seems to be a distinguishing feature of classroom discourse and determines its unique, dynamic and often unpredictable character. Yet, as in any kind of institutional context, there is always a probability that the unequal distribution of talking rights can prevent learners from active participation in classroom interactions. In order to avoid this, Gil (2002) argues for reducing the distance between the teacher and students and establishing more symmetrical relationships, which, in turn, will give learners more talking rights. Garton underlines the importance of learner initiative in the classroom, which she defines as “an attempt to direct the interaction in a way that corresponds more closely to the interest and needs of the learners” (Garton 2002, 48). In practice this means changing the traditional roles in the classroom, giving learners more talking time and departing from teacherfronted interaction formats; this change results in a greater variability in the interaction patterns used during speaking activities. The frequently observed asymmetry of classroom discourse is also discussed by Piotrowski (2011). In his opinion, classroom interaction, as opposed to natural communication, is characterised by the dominance of focus on the form and the task performance process. Meaning-oriented discourse, which constitutes the most natural communication, is not common in classroom conditions due to the fact that learners’ language production is a form of realisation of a specific task and is often subject to evaluation. As a result, a potential “communicative problem is pushed to the background” (Piotrowski 2011, 219) and the dominating interaction formats do not have much in common with natural styles of communication. In consequence, a sense of artificiality and inauthenticity of the whole learning (and communicative) situation may develop and prevail in the classroom. However, Leo van Lier (1996) assumes that classroom discourse does not have to closely imitate the patterns typical of a spontaneous conversation. In his opinion, it is a very specific kind of communication in which the interplay between the pedagogic and the natural mode determines the shape of the interaction. The shifts in mode are connected with the current circumstances of the ongoing communication in the classroom, which frequently require departing from the script of the lesson. This property of classroom interaction is referred to as contingency. According to van Lier (1996, 178), levels of contingency may differ depending on the type of pedagogic interaction used at a given

Magdalena Aleksandrzak

29

moment. Table 1-2 presents types of classroom interaction marked by increasing levels of contingency. Type

Characteristics

transmission

the delivery of information from one person to another in a monologic format

IRF (initiation/response/feedback) questioning

the eliciting of information by means of questions and answers, where all the questions are asked by the same person (the teacher) and the answers are provided by the learners; the questioner in fact determines the character of the discourse used in the classroom

transaction

the exchange of information goes two ways; the character of the discourse is thus determined by all participants

transformation

discourse is jointly managed by all the participants, and this influences the character of the learning situation by the possibility of changing roles, relationships, learning aims and procedures; meaning and events are co-constructed by all the contributors

Table 2-2 Types of Pedagogic Interaction It seems that more “contingent” classroom discourse (transaction, transformation) offers more opportunities for personalising the content of learning and communicating. Consequently, it creates more space for expressing authentic, that is, individually relevant, messages or ideas. These types of interaction are obviously more common in learner-centred classrooms characterised by an equal distribution of talking rights. Similarly, Pawlak (2004, 103) states that “replicating the characteristics of general conversation in the foreign language classroom does not necessarily promote language development and, in some cases, it can even hinder rather than foster that process”. He points out that it frequently reduces the chances of participation in interaction for less proficient or less confident learners, who may feel discouraged when some communicative problems are encountered. Additionally, the availability of the shared mother tongue, which both the teacher and learners may switch to whenever necessary or just be more comfortable with, may act as a barrier that prevents learners from any attempts to initiate interaction and communicate spontaneously in the target language. Excessive use of the students’ first language, which is a common occurrence in many classrooms, prevents learners from taking risks or practising new

30

Authenticity in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

structures and, as a result, learners communicate below their actual or aspired level of competence. As Piotrowski (2011) suggests, reducing the first language use to a minimum can be a way out of the situation. Moreover, it allows for exploiting the potential of metacommunication in the target language. It is also worth mentioning that the perception of the language classroom as an artificial environment is often explained in terms of the unavailability of native-speaker interlocutors and a lack of exposure to real-life language that students are likely to be confronted with in natural settings. However, as Pawlak (2004) declares, the authenticity of interaction and the effectiveness of interactive processes in the language classroom should not be judged or measured against the presence or absence of a native-speaker instructor. He states that “the teachers’ linguistic background and teaching experience do not necessarily affect various aspects of classroom discourse to the same extent” (Pawlak 2004, 81). His research, in which interactive processes promoted by Polish and American teachers were compared, showed that other factors, such as the format of the lesson, teaching styles or students’ involvement with learning activities, influenced the character of classroom interaction to a greater extent than the presence of a native-speaker teacher in the classroom. To sum up, irrespective of the dominating interaction formats and their levels of contingency (van Lier 1996), every language classroom should ensure opportunities for both meaning-focused and form-focused language practices. Learners must be allowed not only to initiate interaction but also to control the topic, use planned and unplanned discourse within authentic contexts (Johnson 1995), participate in the negotiation of meaning and perform various language functions. Such activities enable students to experiment with the language, operate beyond their current level of proficiency and, as a result, activate self-regulative mechanisms that contribute to language development.

4. Authentic materials The widespread use of authentic materials is usually attributed to the advent of the communicative approach to foreign language teaching. However, although it cannot be denied that authentic materials were popularised and fully recognised by Communicative Language Teaching, they also constituted quite an important element of the learning process in the Grammar-Translation and Audiovisual Methods.

Magdalena Aleksandrzak

31

The main argument in favour of using authentic materials is connected with the fact that, as natural instances of language use, they are considered to contain a more realistic picture of real-life language than materials prepared specifically for pedagogical purposes. Moreover, authentic materials comprise a much wider variety of texts (written and spoken) than most textbooks. Among others, they include the following text types: x x x x x x x x x

literary texts; newspapers and magazines; films, radio and television programmes; internet sources; prescriptions and instructions; maps and menus; bills, receipts and notices; official letters and brochures; samples of informal language used in private conversations, emails, chats or letters; x advertisements and announcements.

The great popularity of such resources stems also from the numerous advantages they offer both to the teacher and learners. The most valuable characteristics of authentic texts from the didactic perspective can be summarised as follows (Mishan 2004, 219): x the richness of authentic texts in terms of linguistic and sociocultural content; x the opportunity to select the most relevant and interesting texts for a particular group of learners; x the motivational aspects of relying on and learning from authentic materials; x the opportunity to choose from a variety of cultural products in different media (newspapers, magazines, TV, film, radio, CDs, literature, the Internet, etc.), which increases the attractiveness of the lesson; x their physical appearance and presence in the classroom. Other advantages of using authentic materials include the following: x learners are exposed to real language in real-life communicative situations;

32

Authenticity in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

x authentic materials provide insight into current events and cultural aspects of life in the target language countries; x if properly chosen, authentic materials can encourage learners to read or listen in a foreign language beyond the classroom; x the same material can be used for different teaching purposes (reading comprehension, discussion, vocabulary practice, etc.); x they contain non-standard instances of language use (slang, a variety of dialects or accents, etc.); x authentic materials build background knowledge by exposing learners to new ideas and real-life content; x they help to prepare learners to deal with real-life situations beyond the language classroom; x they reflect ongoing changes in the language – they are up-to-date in terms of grammatical structures and vocabulary; x authentic materials comprise a wide range of text types and language styles. Yet, some of these advantages can easily turn into difficulties that learners may come across while working with the texts. They may result from the specificity of a given cultural context that students are not familiar with, or the very form of the text if it contains too many new language structures (Smuk 2013, 77). What is more, the fact that a particular material is authentic does not guarantee that learners will automatically accept and like it. Lee (1995) introduces the notion of learner authenticity, according to which learners may accept materials as authentic only if they are relevant to their experiences or, in other words, they are tailored appropriately to their current needs and abilities. Needless to say, at the beginning and lower intermediate levels of foreign language proficiency, most authentic materials need to be adapted to be used effectively in the classroom, but unmodified language input in the form of spoken discourse or written texts can turn out to be impractical, frustrating and de-motivating for higher level students too. Thus, the selection of materials for a given course of learning should be particularly careful and well thought out. The teacher has to take into account not only the didactic aims of the lesson but also the learners’ level of proficiency and their interests. Too-difficult materials can easily discourage students from using any real-life texts in their learning, and certain socio-cultural aspects, if they are too distant from students’ own reality and require specific background knowledge that learners do not possess, may appear uninteresting or, simply, too complicated to follow. Yet, although utilising available materials is often a necessity, introducing modifications into

Magdalena Aleksandrzak

33

authentic texts is by no means an easy task. Adapting materials to suit the needs of a particular group of learners may involve: x simplifying or explaining some language elements; x adjusting the length of the material to make it more manageable; x converting available materials into exercises that suit the aims of the lesson or course; x converting authentic materials into a variety of workshop activities. Regardless of the kind of intervention and changes introduced to original texts, such modifications are usually intended to facilitate and accelerate learning. On the other hand, improper adaptation of materials may lead to faulty learning (Tomlinson 2003) and carries the risk of reducing learners’ chances to become familiar with real and authentic language. In addition, the question arises whether modified materials can still be treated as authentic. Seen in this light, seemingly obvious definitions of authentic materials – “written or spoken texts that were produced by a real speaker or writer and originally directed at a native-speaking audience” or “materials not written for teaching purposes but for a real-life communicative purpose” (Lee 1995) – are no longer satisfying. The frequent use of terms such as original, source or adapted materials is another problem that has been the subject of theoretical debate, without any clear solution so far. Pfeiffer (2001) makes a distinction between original and authentic texts. In his view, original texts are those taken from original, authentic sources, while authentic texts are not original but they follow the criterion of naturalness, the linguistic norms of a particular language and its forms of use. Grucza (2004, 80) points to the necessity of looking at the authenticity of a given text with respect to a particular communicative situation in which or for which this text has been produced. An original text is thus a text that has not been modified in any way as far as its form and content are concerned (the originality of text). The originality of context is defined as the original context in which a particular text was produced. Importantly, an original text may appear in an original context (an article in a newspaper) or in a changed, that is unoriginal, context (a newspaper article in a textbook). As Grucza (2004, 81) claims, these two features do not determine each other. In fact, any discussion of authenticity should take into account the notion of context, although that may lead to further complications in interpreting the concept. As Widdowson (1998) states, assuming that

34

Authenticity in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

discourse is always created with a particular addressee in mind and that it loses its authenticity beyond this context, it may be concluded that using authentic materials in any form for teaching purposes actually compromises their authenticity. Similarly, Mishan (2004, 221) is of the opinion that any attempts to replicate the original context are inauthentic since such reconstructions occur in conditions different from those in which the original texts were produced. To add to the authenticity complication, Widdowson (1998) employs yet another term to refer to the specific property of texts designed for proficient users of language, namely genuineness. He treats it as the essential characteristic of the material or text itself, while authenticity is interpreted here as referring to the uses to which the texts are put. Such an approach presents authenticity as a social construct created through the interaction of the users, situations and the texts (Lee 1995). Despite the lack of agreement in the terminological debate, the following characteristic features of authentic materials are usually enumerated (Smuk 2013, 77): x include different forms and formats: written, spoken, iconographic, electronic, etc.; x are related to different spheres of human life (everyday life, traditions, culture, education, work, etc.); x are produced in natural communicative situations; x have a clearly defined real communicative aim; x are created by native users of language; x are directed at native users of language; x are not primarily produced for teaching purposes; x do not intend to convey knowledge of language; x can be adapted (modified) for a particular teaching purpose. Although it seems that the source and purpose of materials are most frequently used as a point of reference while identifying them as authentic or not, Rogers and Medley (1988) suggest that other criteria should be taken into consideration when first choosing a text for teaching purposes, namely the quality, appropriateness and naturalness of the language. Yet both appropriateness and naturalness are rather elusive and relative terms that do not submit to ready-made interpretations. For example, Tatsuki (2006, 5) claims that deciding whether a particular sample of language used in a given material (written or spoken) is natural or not entails answering the following questions:

Magdalena Aleksandrzak

35

1. Whose language is it? – the expressions considered appropriate and acceptable vary according to the people who are speaking, and they depend on a variety of factors such as age, sex or kind of relationship between speakers. 2. In which contexts and for what purposes is it used? – appropriate or acceptable language can also vary according to where the interaction is taking place and the reasons the participants have for communicating. 3. By what means is naturalness achieved? – the boundaries between spoken and written language are becoming blurred; still, there are expectations of what is acceptable or appropriate in a particular social situation. Thus, naturalness and appropriateness of language need to be examined each time within the clearly defined context of use. Accordingly, introducing authentic materials into a learning environment means that the context in which they were originally developed has to be explored as thoroughly as the language patterns used in them, if such materials are intended to fulfil their pedagogic and educational functions.

5. Conclusions The above discussion allows certain conclusions to be formulated which shed some light on the notion of authenticity and its prevailing interpretations in modern language pedagogy. First of all, in the context of language teaching and learning, authenticity cannot be understood as an easily explicable feature which can be defined as a global, objective or abstract characteristic. Recent approaches to the problem of authenticity seem to be far from relying on a simple dichotomy between authentic and inauthentic. Instead, they are based on multifaceted models of authenticity, explore different aspects of the learning process separately or in combination and define authenticity specifically in relation to a particular task, sample of language or situation. Secondly, the notion of learner authenticity should be taken into account: that is, the learner’s conviction that a particular learning situation, task, material or interaction pattern used in the classroom is natural and authentic from a learner’s perspective. In other words, it is a process of authenticating various aspects of individual learning rather than some outside factors that create a sense of authenticity in language learning. Thirdly, classroom communication should be investigated as a specific kind of discourse that follows its own mechanisms and rules. As language

36

Authenticity in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

classrooms are places where learning and communication naturally occur, learners should be motivated to equip themselves with their own sense of authenticity and realism. The efficiency of classroom interaction should not be judged on the basis of the extent to which it resembles natural or naturalistic discourse, but rather by assessing learners’ involvement with particular learning activities and their willingness to participate in them. The lack of a positive response from students may be, however, a useful hint that certain modifications are needed. In fact, attempts to replicate natural communication in the classroom can often turn out to be pointless, unrealistic and frustrating for both the teacher and students. Classroom discourse reflects learners’ present reality, their abilities, experiences, problems and aspirations, and in this sense, it is authentic. Learners in the language classroom create their own learning community, which is essentially different from any native-language-speaking community. Thus, the discourse used in classroom interactions, influenced and shaped by a specific set of contextual factors different from those typical of natural communicative settings, should be approached from a perspective that recognises this specificity. Finally, authentic materials for a particular class have to be chosen with precaution. They should be adequate for learners’ level of proficiency, background knowledge, interests, aims and needs. The effectiveness of such materials in promoting learners’ language development can be best evaluated not on the basis of some characteristics of the material itself but in regard to the way in which students respond to it. A positive attitude to such materials usually means greater involvement in learning activities, increased motivation for learning a foreign language in general and, last but not least, a sense of performing a real task, which is likely to help in confrontations with real-life language beyond the classroom.

Bibliography Aleksandrzak, Magdalena. 2013. “Approaches to Describing and Analysing Classroom Communication”. Glottodidactica XL/1, 129–45. Breen, Michael P. 1985. “Authenticity in the Language Classroom”. Applied Linguistics 6, 60–70. Brown, Steve, Lionel Menasche. 2005. “Defining Authenticity”. http://www.as.ysu.edu/~english /BrownMenasche.doc (date of access: 1st March 2013). Ciepielewska-Kaczmarek, Luiza. 2013. “Postulat autentycznoĞci w glottodydaktyce”. In: Stanisáaw Puppel, Teresa Tomaszkiewicz (eds.),

Magdalena Aleksandrzak

37

Scripta manent – res nova. PoznaĔ: Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM, 47–56. Ellis, Rod. 1999. Learning a Second Language through Interaction. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Garton, Sue. 2002. “Learner Initiative in the Language Classroom”. ELT Journal 56/3, 47–56. Gil, Gloria. 2002. “Two Complementary Modes of Foreign Language Classroom Interaction”. ELT Journal 56/3, 273–79. Grucza, Sambor. 2004. “AutentycznoĞü i oryginalnoĞü tekstów a glottodydaktyczne nieporozumienia w tej sprawie”. Przegląd Glottodydaktyczny 19, 75–83. Hall, Joan. K., Lorrie S. Verplaetse. 2000. “The Development of Second and Foreign Language Learning through Classroom Interaction”. In: Joan K. Hall, Lorrie S. Verplaetse (eds.), Second and Foreign Language Learning through Classroom Interaction. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1–16. Johnson, Karen. E. 1995. Understanding Communication in Second Language Classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lee, Winnie. 1995. “Authenticity Revisited: Text Authenticity and Learner Authenticity”. ELT Journal 49 (4), 323–28. Majer, Jan. 2003. Interactive Discourse in the Foreign Language Classroom. àódĨ: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu àódzkiego. Mishan, Freda. 2004. “Authenticating Corpora for Language Learning: A Problem and its Resolution”. ELT Journal 58/3, 219–27. Pawlak, Mirosáaw. 2004. Describing and Researching Interactive Processes in the Foreign Language Classroom. Konin: Wydawnictwo PaĔstwowej WyĪszej Szkoáy Zawodowej w Koninie. Pfeiffer, Waldemar. 2001. Nauka jĊzyków obcych. Od praktyki do praktyki. PoznaĔ: Wagros. Piotrowski, Sebastian. 2011. “On the Authenticity of Communication in the Foreign Language Classroom”. In: Mirosáaw Pawlak, Ewa WaniekKlimczak, Jan Majer (eds.), Speaking and Instructed Foreign Language Acquisition. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 215–29. Rivers, Wilga M. 1993. Interactive Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rogers, Carmen V., Frank Medley. 1988. “Language with a Purpose: Using Authentic Materials in the Foreign Language Classroom”. Foreign Language Annals 21(5), 467–78. Smuk, Maciej. 2013. Definicje i redefinicje materiaáów autentycznych: Perspektywa podmiotowa ucznia. JĊzyki Obce w Szkole 1/2013, 76–81.

38

Authenticity in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

Solhi, Mehdi. 2013. “Authenticity and Teaching Idioms”. International Affairs and Global Strategy 9, 23–30. Tatsuki, Donna. 2006. “What is authenticity?” http://jalt.org./pansig/2006/Titles.htm (date of access 21st March 2013). Taylor, David. 1994. “Inauthentic Authenticity or Authentic Inauthenticity?” TESL-EJ 1/2. http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/tesl-ej/ej02/a (date of access: 8th February 2013). Tomlinson, Brian. 2003. Developing Materials for Language Teaching. London: Continuum. van Lier, Leo. 1996. Interaction in the Language Curriculum: Awareness, Autonomy and Authenticity. London: Longman. Widdowson, Henry. G. 1998. “Context, Community and Authentic Language”. TESOL Quarterly 32 (4), 705–16. WilczyĔska, Weronika. 2002. “Wprowadzenie: Cele i zaáoĪenia projektu PA”. In: Weronika WilczyĔska (ed.), Autonomizacja w dydaktyce jĊzyków obcych: Doskonalenie siĊ w komunikacji ustnej. PoznaĔ: Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM, 15–27.

THE IMPORTANCE OF BUILDING LEARNER AUTONOMY THROUGH SELF-ASSESSMENT IN ELT IN OFFICIAL LANGUAGE SCHOOLS IN SPAIN1 ZOFIA STASIAKIEWICZ

Enhancing learner autonomy and preventing teacher-dependence is one of the main challenges that foreign language teachers face nowadays, especially when working with experienced adult learners who are already socially and financially autonomous. Based on the knowledge about learner autonomy and self-assessment acquired from the CEFR document, the Official Language School Curriculum as well as the articles of David Little (1997), Michael Harris (1997) and David Gardner (1999), this paper focuses on the importance of promoting self-awareness and receiving constructive feedback from students.

1. Introduction Achieving autonomy is the ultimate and explicit goal of all learning. It is especially important in the acquisition of the second, foreign, language. Moreover, it is considered crucial in the instruction of adult learners. Learner autonomy should be implemented step by step among all learners, regardless of their age. Its benefits can be particularly visible in adult learners from the Official Language Schools in Spain. The Official Language Schools are public schools teaching modern languages at the non-university level. The courses are directed at adults2 and structured in a 1

This article is the result of the author’s internship in the Official Language School Maresme (Mataró) that took place in 2014 as part of her Master’s in Teaching of Compulsory Secondary Education and Baccalaureate, Professional Training and the Teaching of Languages at the Pompeu Fabra University (Barcelona). 2 You have to be at least 16 years old to be admitted.

40

The Importance of Building Learner Autonomy through Self-Assessment

five-year itinerary. After the third and the fifth year, the students take exams (intermediate and advanced3). Some schools also offer classes at the C1 level. The most popular languages are English, French and German, but some schools also offer Italian, Russian, Catalan or Arabic, among others. The two-and-a-half hour classes take place twice a week in the morning or in the afternoon, depending on the school. One of their goals, apart from teaching, is to encourage students to develop tasks without assistance and to prove and exercise their skills outside the classroom. Self-monitoring and self-assessment are important parts of this process as they give students precise feedback on their progress, highlight the aspects to improve and “(...) deepen their understanding of what constitutes quality outcomes in a specified area” (Spiller 2009, 5). As students are asked to set their own goals and objectives towards their learning, they are also asked to self-monitor their work and progress and finally to self-assess the effort they put into learning and the quality of the outcome. They should also be able to check if the work they have done matches their goals. Self-assessment can also prompt students to take advantage of all the possible opportunities for language use and practice. Finally, it forms independent and self-reliable users of a foreign language. Language awareness is equally necessary to attain learner autonomy and can only be put in practice by successfully withdrawing linguistic scaffolding. Students should be able to take responsibility, gradually, for their decisions and undertake independent actions. Apart from doing homework, coming to class regularly, using English while working in pairs, doing what teachers ask her/him to do in class and learning at home, an autonomous learner is capable of critical thinking, rating the activities proposed by the teacher and adjusting them to her/his objectives. Why is learner autonomy so important with adult students? According to Phil Benson (2008, 27), “as adults, we are perhaps already autonomous to a considerable degree and our classroom behaviours should not, therefore, be interpreted in the same way as those of younger or lessexperienced learners”. Adults, as Benson points out, have a previous experience of learning and sometimes even teaching. Therefore, they already have opinions and ideas on what a language class should be like, what should be expected of them as learners and what they can expect from the teacher. Furthermore, they tend to be financially and socially independent in their personal lives, therefore attaining autonomy is an obvious extension of this process into the field of language acquisition. 3 The terms do not correspond to the CEFR as the intermediate level is B1 and the advanced B2.

Zofia Stasiakiewicz

41

Moreover, adult students not only have greater language awareness than younger ones but also possess a more mature attitude towards learning. By knowing their possibilities, their advantages and constraints, by applying knowledge from other fields to language learning and by using it in contexts beyond the classroom, they can adapt learning strategies to their current needs and the amount of time they possess. Therefore, they are more informed about their progress than the teacher and can make adjustments to improve their own outcome. On the other hand, due to their personal obligations, work, time constraints, etc., selfevaluation gives them valuable information about the usefulness of certain methods in learning and gives them the opportunity to change them if necessary. Assuming responsibility for their own learning renders students more proficient. However, meeting these expectations requires working independently as well as in cooperation with other members of the class, and solving the constraints that may appear in the process. This does not mean, however, that the teacher is no longer needed or that her/his feedback is always less accurate than self-correction and the learner’s critical reflection. Nowadays, and especially when dealing with adult learners, teachers should bear in mind, while designing and conducting activities in class, how they can help students move towards personal autonomy in learning and what kinds of learning lead towards this goal (Benson 2008, 20). Students have to try to answer similar questions: what kind of learning best fits their goals and needs and how they can assess their own progress in a reliable and valid manner. This way, students can actually monitor their progress. Moreover, encouraging persistence in students’ commitment is crucial to fostering motivation and a supportive atmosphere in class. Teachers have to help students set specific goals and make them attainable. According to Ernesto Macaro (2008, 58), “language users of English may become increasingly self-assertive about the kind of proficiency that they wish to attain”. Therefore, the teacher should also take into account that not all learners wish to work with the same intensity and dedication. For this reason, identifying students’ own strengths and weaknesses and setting goals are crucial to establishing a learning plan. Students should decide what and when to learn outside of the classroom, how to learn (useful resources) and how to evaluate their progress. These apparently simple steps are very important in establishing a more selfdirected learning model – a model that is necessary in adult education and has already been proven to be the most effective among language learners.

42

The Importance of Building Learner Autonomy through Self-Assessment

The theoretical and legal framework of this paper is based on the analysis of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) elaborated by the Council of Europe and published in 2001. It is a crucial document for every teacher and language learner. The CEFR also constitutes a main point of reference for the curriculum of Official Language Schools in Spain. These two documents provide a necessary guide in designing activities for class and self-assessment proposals for students of the Official Language Schools. As far as learner autonomy and the application of self-assessment in language learning are concerned, David Little’s (1997), Michael Harris’ (1997) and David Gardner’s (1999) approaches are the main basis of this paper. More practical proposals for applying self-assessment as part of language instruction by Ágota Scharle and Anita Szabó (2000) and numerous articles from Learner and Teacher Autonomy: Concepts, Realities, and Responses, edited by Terry Lamb and Hayo Reinders (2008), can also be used to elaborate individual proposals for activities enhancing learner autonomy and applying self-assessment among adult learners of the B1+ level of the Official Language School.

2. The threshold: between A and B level According to the CEFR, B1 and B2 learners are classified as independent users. An important distinction between the A2 level, called basic user, and the B1 level is that the latter user should be capable of conscious and intentional use of language, specified in the following description: Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes and ambitions and briey give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans. (Council of Europe 2001, 24)

What distinguishes the B from the A user is the lack of dependence on others or other materials, the possibility of performing and relying on the learner’s own judgement. English language learning in an Official Language School in Spain is organised into five courses. Students have five hours of class per week. The 3rd year is concluded by an exam certifying their B1 level of English. Students of the 5th year take a B2 exam at the end of the course.

Zofia Stasiakiewicz

43

Therefore, the students of 4th should, at the end of the course, attain a B1+ level of the CEFR. This level is also specified by the CEFR. This band appears to be a Strong Threshold (B1+). The same two main features from the previous descriptions (A1 and A2) continue to be present, with the addition of a number of descriptors that focus on the exchange of quantities of information. For example: (…) take messages communicating enquiries, explaining problems; provide concrete information required in an interview/consultation (e.g. describe symptoms to a doctor) but with limited precision; explain why something is a problem; summarise and give his or her opinion about a short story, article, talk, discussion, interview, or documentary and answer further questions of detail; carry out a prepared interview, checking and confirming information, though he/she may occasionally have to ask for repetition if the other person’s response is rapid or extended; describe how to do something, giving detailed instructions; exchange accumulated factual information on familiar routine and non-routine matters within his/her field with some confidence. (Council of Europe 2001, 34–35)

The context of communication is no longer only immediate, as in the case of an A2 user. An independent user, a B1+ user should be able to communicate clearly, still with limited precision, in other contexts outside the immediate environment. Moreover, important parts, starting from the B level, in the development of a task or performing in other contexts, not only in class, are evaluation, monitoring success, and repair: selfcorrection (Council of Europe 2001, 64). All users are encouraged to follow a similar pattern while planning, preparing a task, trying it out, performing it and, at the end, evaluating and repairing it. A B1+ user should be able to search for expressions or words that express the meaning she/he wants to transmit, and can rephrase or recast her/his own performance if necessary. There are no descriptors available in the CEFR for A users as far as compensating, monitoring and repair are concerned. Therefore, an A user is not expected to be able, at this level of acquisition, to have an awareness of making mistakes that constrain communication. A B user, on the other hand, is already expected to be able to put these skills into practice; therefore to be independent and in fact autonomous to some extent. The authors of the CEFR document encourage learners to use the descriptors of their level of English to self-assess (Council of Europe 2001, 180). The suggested forms of self-assessing one’s progress constitute a reference checklist where the learner can simply reformulate the descriptors by putting them in the first person (I can...) or a grid “(...) for continuous or summative assessment, rating a profile onto a grid of selected categories (...) defined at different levels” (Council of Europe

44

The Importance of Building Learner Autonomy through Self-Assessment

2001, 180). The focus is put on what a learner can do and how well she/he can do it, not on what she/he does wrong. Self-assessment focuses on repairing, elaborating and personalising strategies for improvement – positive aspects of any performance – not on listing mistakes or errors that the learner makes. Self-assessment should, however, be related to clear descriptors that indicate to the learner what exactly is expected of her/him in a particular task or at a particular level of proficiency. Joyce, Spiller and Twist (2009, 1) claim that “students must be taught how to use self-assessment. Both teachers and students need to accept that first efforts will not be perfect (...)”. At the same time, it should not be the only assessment that the learner is submitted to. Teacher assessment, peer assessment and assessment resulting from taking an exam all provide feedback and therefore foster accuracy in the overall learner assessment, which can be “(...) a key factor in maintaining students’ interests and attention” (Ross 2006, 2). It is important to point out that CEFR is applied in the curriculum of the Official Language School in Spain where specific levels and descriptors correspond to the CEFR’s indicators. Also, learner autonomy and self-assessment are included in the main objectives of an intermediatelevel user. The learner should therefore set her/his own goals and identify communication needs, control the process of learning and be able to evaluate it. Among the basic competences, more specifically among the communicative skills, we can find listed all the linguistic stages, such as reception, production, interaction and mediation. They are all divided into three (or more) main stages: planning, execution (production), evaluation and repair. The curriculum puts, therefore, great emphasis on the process of learning and not only on developing a task. The learner should first plan her/his performance, whether it is oral or written, and at the end evaluate it, correct it and elaborate suggestions for improvement. The description of evaluation and repair from the interaction part is a good example of this strategy of learning: “valoración del éxito de la comunicación o modificación del discurso para aconseguirlo, a partir de la autoevaluación o la retroalimentación que facilita la persona interlocutora con su reacción escrita u oral (gestual o de expresión facial)”.4 The role of self-monitoring during the development of a task, self-assessment after completing it and

4

“valorization of the communication’s success or modification of the discourse to accomplish it, by self-evaluation or retro alimentation, which is enabled by the interlocutor with her/his written or oral reaction (gestural or face expression).” All translations from Spanish to English are made by the author of the article.

Zofia Stasiakiewicz

45

the feedback from the interlocutor are important parts of achieving a required competence. Similarly, as in the case of expected communication skills, the basic user is neither required to possess these skills nor to put them into practice. The main objectives for the basic level are: “desarrollar y utilitzar las estrategias que permiten evaluar y continuar el aprendizaje del idioma una vez superado el Nivel básico”.5 Therefore, at the A1 and A2 levels, learners are provided with self-assessment strategies that should be applied in the independent stage of learning, which is the B1 level. If we analyse the communication strategies and skills, we can see that the basic curriculum for the Official Language School does include evaluation and repair; however, learners are still in the process of acquiring these skills. Self-assessment is a key learning strategy in autonomous learning and should be applied at all levels of proficiency, and integrated in the classroom routine as a natural part of improving writing, listening, reading and speaking skills. Its importance grows as the learner reaches the threshold and the teacher’s scaffolding diminishes progressively. The student is no longer a basic, dependent user but an autonomous learner capable of assessing her/his own work. This change does not take place over one day. The process requires involvement and taking on new responsibilities and risks. As Michael Harris (1997, 15) points out, “(...) as learners progress they will inevitably be taking more risks, which will consequently generate more errors”. Thus, it is important that teachers focus their attention on students’ progress in terms of communication and not the number of mistakes they make. This is even more important with adult learners, who feel they are learning at a slower pace than when they were younger and often prefer to use a very limited range of grammatical structures and expressions for fear of committing a mistake. As much as correctness is important, communication should be the prime objective in learning. According to Harris (1997), simple questions concerning practice skills, the language that the student has been learning, new information she/he has acquired and the advantages and disadvantages of a certain activity can be very helpful in assessing one’s progress or performance related to a task and can be included in everyday classroom activities. This kind of assessment provides necessary feedback for the learner on the accuracy of the course programme and for the teacher as far as the effectiveness of a particular methodology of teaching is concerned.

5

“to develop and use strategies that permit one to evaluate and continue language acquisition once the basic level has been acquired.”

46

The Importance of Building Learner Autonomy through Self-Assessment

However, David Little (1997) points out that autonomy in learning is never “final and absolute”. Self-assessment, as a crucial part of learner autonomy, will never become the only and most adequate form of assessment (at least not in all learning contexts). Only when combined with other types of assessment, and provided that learners engage in the process of their own learning, does it prove itself effective and lead to improvement. Initially, the initiative might come from the teacher but if learners are not involved, learning will be passive and eventually it will even fail to take place. Motivating students who face a number of difficulties in their learning, often leading to considerable disappointment, is not an easy task. Therefore, teachers should help students set realistic and achievable goals. As Ágota Scharle and Anita Szabó (2000, 7) point out: When we encourage students to focus on the process of their learning (rather than the outcome), we help them consciously examine their own contribution to their learning. Such an awareness of the difference that their efforts can make is an essential first step to the development of a responsible attitude. Self-evaluation requires the learners to go even further: they have to step into the shoes of the teacher and judge their own work as objectively as they can. By doing so, they can formulate an idea of their level of proficiency: discover weak and strong points and plan the directions of progress. Setting targets for themselves, they are more likely to consider these targets their own and feel responsible for reaching them.

3. The role of self-assessment in questionnaires In order to elaborate a programme of activities that could be developed in class or self-assessment proposals to improve language awareness, it is very useful to gather information from students, to collect feedback on how they perceive their learning, what they think should be improved and how they evaluate their language skills in general. The main purpose of a self-assessment questionnaire is to make students more aware of their learning needs. Ideally, it should be displayed around April, giving students the possibility to assess and summarise their work during the year. At the same time, it also gives them time to assess and improve their skills before the final examination in June. Any questionnaire should be anonymous so as to encourage students to make a critical and honest reflection on their learning, as well as give valuable feedback to the teacher. Explicit questions can also make students reflect on the parts of their learning they should devote more time to, make them aware of unknown strategies for improvement and provide an overall

Zofia Stasiakiewicz

47

view of their progress related to the four language skills: speaking, reading, writing and listening. In the first part of a questionnaire, students can be asked to evaluate their general level of speaking, reading, writing and listening skills. Then, each of the four basic skills can be analysed by answering around five questions about the ways of learning and assessing students’ own work and learning modalities. The last part can concern short and long-term goals in learning English, the areas students feel good in, the aspects they feel they should improve, the influence of other aspects that may constrain their learning and the ways students plan their learning.

4. Is a teacher in class necessary? Considering that students can be autonomous and independent, is a teacher still necessary in class, or can students learn without her/his guidance? When working with experienced adult learners, the teacher’s role should be reduced or modified: “as students begin to take charge of their learning, the teacher needs to take on the role of facilitator or counsellor in an increasing number (and type) of classroom situations” (Scharle and Szabó 2008, 5). The teacher will need to step aside, ceding the leadership position to students as they will only become more autonomous and responsible for their learning if they are given space to get involved. Learning can in fact only happen if students are willing to contribute to it and if they perceive it as meaningful. By helping students become more autonomous, we prepare them to learn without assistance, to plan their learning themselves, to self-monitor their work and self-assess it to some extent. Although teachers’ and learners’ views about autonomy may be different, the goal should be the same, and seeking an agreement and a common strategy is the most adequate way to proceed. The teacher should finally give students the freedom to choose a learning style or strategy, the modality of learning that best fits them. As William La Ganza (2008, 66) points out, teachers should hold “(...) back from influencing the learner” and the learner should hold “(...) back from seeking the teacher’s influence”. Therefore, it is an interrelation that requires the participation and commitment to the new roles of both teachers and learners. Barbara Sinclair (2008, 242) declares that autonomy is a capacity for making informed decisions about one’s own learning and that this capacity needs to be developed through introspection, reflection and experimentation in the form of “learner training” or some other kind of intervention by a facilitator, such as a teacher or counselor.

48

The Importance of Building Learner Autonomy through Self-Assessment (...) In other words, autonomy is a capacity for potential individual and group self-directed learning behaviors (...).

Keeping these reflections in mind, the activities proposed by the teacher should have a component of individual work, done by the student, that provides her/him with a critical reflection over her/his performance. Self-assessment, however, will not be effective if students remain passive learners. The initial intents may differ in the teacher’s and learners’ expectations. Nevertheless, with time, less scaffolding should be required and the results will improve (Joyce, Spiller and Twist 2009, 1). Having analysed their spoken or written performances in terms of the initial objectives, they can focus on aspects needing improvement. Four stages of self-assessment process can be singled out, in this order: selfmonitoring, self-correction, self-evaluation and self-reflection. At the same time, the teacher has to acknowledge that the number of possible strategies equals the number of students in class, and the best assessment is the one that works for the particular student. As David Gardner (1999, 50) points out: assessments with any combination of the above criteria can be selfassessment because this term refers simply to the mode of administration, i.e., assessments which are self-administered. Self-assessments may be constructed by anyone, including, but not necessarily, the learner.

Therefore, the teacher should encourage students to find or create the most effective method in their learning process. While self-assessment promotes individualisation, it does not exclude support and feedback from other sources. Autonomous learners who self-assess their work may be very collaborative classmates and may like to work in group. In the Official Language Schools, where the majority of learners are autonomous adults who combine learning tasks with personal responsibilities and work, the tasks should be very meaningful and practical. On the other hand, they should also include entertainment elements to encourage the students’ engagement in completing the tasks. Self-assessment appears as a natural consequence of autonomy in learning. If students decide to take responsibility for their learning, they should also be able to self-monitor and evaluate their work, especially if they are adult learners with previous positive or negative learning experience. This also gives them the opportunity to evaluate methods and approaches to learning, their learning strategies, and change them if necessary. Critical reflection is also very valuable in assessing materials and activities proposed by the teacher, especially activities that are

Zofia Stasiakiewicz

49

optional. An autonomous student should choose the activities or exercises that best fit her/his needs.

5. Drawbacks of self-assessment Unreliability is one of the aspects of self-assessment that is considered a drawback to its validity (Ross 2006). Research on this subject is very inconclusive due to the variability of findings. However, the outcome of applying self-assessment seems to be less important than the process itself as long as its purpose, benefits to the learner, the procedure and the plan for improvement are clearly defined and followed. According to the CEFR, “the main potential for self-assessment, however, is in its use as a tool for motivation and awareness rising: helping learners to appreciate their strengths, recognise their weaknesses and orient their learning more effectively” (Council of Europe 2001, 191).

6. Conclusions As we have seen, learner autonomy is of the utmost importance in learning contexts such as in the Official Language Schools in Spain. One of the difficulties that adult students, who have to reconcile their personal responsibilities and obligations with learning English, point out is the shortage of time to study. Many students find the time they can devote to learning is limited to attending classes. For this reason, showing them different, potentially useful learning strategies and adjusting them to their needs is so important. Self-assessment, as a part or a result of learner autonomy, enables adult learners to increase the accuracy and precision of learning. It can become a very common and useful tool as it allows one to measure, immediately, the suitability of particular resources or learning techniques. Initially, students can view it as an additional bargain, further work that traditionally was attributed to the teacher. Many students will not trust their own opinion or their classmates’ opinion. They can also feel the need for the active presence of the teacher to tell them whether something is or is not correct, whether they are right or wrong. Undoubtedly, this attitude may seem easier at the beginning. Relying completely on the teacher’s judgement does not require critical reflection but can, at the same time, lead to misunderstandings and lack of comprehension. In conclusion, the ultimate goal of every learner is to become an efficient language user who can communicate in a comprehensible and cohesive way using both aural and written resources. Understanding other people’s performance in a natural

50

The Importance of Building Learner Autonomy through Self-Assessment

context (aural, visual or audiovisual reception) is crucial for every language learner regardless of their current language level. Autonomy, self-reliance and responsibility are necessary to attain it. Third-year students of the Official Language Schools are viewed as independent users, and they are encouraged at this stage to use selfassessment as a form of evaluation. Questionnaires can be useful as they enable them to identify their strengths and weaknesses; however, some argue that they can be unreliable. In that scenario, the teacher’s role is to guide the students and help them achieve their goals in learning. As the teacher cannot respond to all of the learner’s needs and questions during a limited time in class, learner autonomy in seeking an explanation, answers and opportunities to learn is nowadays almost compulsory for every learner, especially for adults. Students should trust their opinions, as no one can evaluate their progress, abilities and deficiencies better than they can. The subject of this paper is far from being exhaustive. Much more could be said about learner autonomy and self-assessment in terms of its usefulness, applicability, reliability, validity, and others. The study raises further questions and issues, such as how to make students aware of the learning strategies they use, how to help them find the ones that are effective, how to get learners to reflect on their own performance, why in some contexts students seldom perceive the necessity of being autonomous and self-assess their work and how to encourage students to take risks.

Bibliography Benson, Phil. 2008. “Teachers’ and Learners’ Perspectives on Autonomy”. In: Terry Lamb, Hayo Reinders (eds.), Learner and Teacher Autonomy: Concepts, Realities, and Responses. Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 15–32. Council of Europe. 2001. Common European Framework of References for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Strasbourg: Modern Language Division / Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Escuela Oficial de Idiomas. “Currículum nivel intermedio”. http://www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/queestudiar/menuitem.ff1f9982a6e 44c19e85c7273b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=fc59cd7bdc01e210VgnVCM200 0009b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=fc59cd7bdc01e210VgnVCM200 0009b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default (date of access: 9th April 2013).

Zofia Stasiakiewicz

51

Gardner, David. 1999. “Self-assessment for Autonomous Language Learners”. Links & Letters 7. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong, 49–60. Hacker, Penny, Gary Barkhuizen. 2008. “Autonomous Teachers, Autonomous Cognition: Developing Personal Theories through Reflection in Language Teacher Education”. In: Terry Lamb, Hayo Reinders (eds.), Learner and Teacher Autonomy: Concepts, Realities, and Responses. Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 161– 83. Harris, Michael. 1997. “Self-assessment of Language Learning in Formal Settings”. ELT Journal 51/1, 12–20. Joyce, Chris, Lorraine Spiller, Juliet Twist. 2009. Self-Assessment: What Teachers Think. Wellington: New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1–18. La Ganza, William. 2008. “Learner Autonomy – Teacher Autonomy: Interrelating and the Will to Empower”. In: Terry Lamb, Hayo Reinders (eds.), Learner and Teacher Autonomy: Concepts, Realities, and Responses. Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 63–79. Lamb, Terry, Hayo Reinders (eds.). 2008. Learner and Teacher Autonomy: Concepts, Realities, and Responses. Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Little, David. 1997. “Language Awareness and the Autonomous Language Learner”. Language Awareness 6/2–3, 93–104. Macaro, Ernesto. 2008. “The Shifting Dimensions of Language Learner Autonomy”. In: Terry Lamb, Hayo Reinders (eds.), Learner and Teacher Autonomy: Concepts, Realities, and Responses. Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 47–62. Ross, John A. 2006. “The Reliability, Validity, and Utility of Selfassessment”. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation 11/10, 1– 13. Scharle, Ágota, Anita Szabó. 2000. Learner Autonomy: A Guide to Developing Learner Responsibility. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sinclair, Barbara. 2008. “Multiple Voices: Negotiating Pathways towards Teacher and Learner Autonomy”. In: Terry Lamb, Hayo Reinders (eds.), Learner and Teacher Autonomy: Concepts, Realities, and Responses. Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 237–66.

52

The Importance of Building Learner Autonomy through Self-Assessment

Spiller, Dorothy. 2009. “Assessment matters: Self-assessment and Peer Assessment”. Teaching Development. The University of Waikato, 1– 19.

PART TWO: ICT IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE DIDACTICS

ON FORMING CHOSEN KEY COMPETENCES WITHIN THE VISUAL CLASSROOM MARTYNA KLEJNOWSKA-BOROWSKA

The growing popularity of e-learning has introduced new terms to education, such as virtual classrooms. Virtual classrooms are simulated classrooms, where teachers and learners interact together using computers linked to the Internet. They are synchronous-based learning environments that provide students and teachers with learning tools, learning materials and opportunities both for discussions and independent study. The aim of this article is to present the possibilities of the virtual classroom in forming such key capabilities as communication in foreign languages and digital competence. Furthermore, some advantages and limitations of the virtual classroom are discussed in this paper.

1. Introduction Nowadays e-learning is gaining popularity in different types of schools such as language schools, lifelong learning schools and universities. There are also projects that introduce e-learning tools in lower secondary schools and high schools. What is more, e-learning is practised in companies to deliver courses and training to employees. The most popular tools used in e-learning include learning platforms and virtual classrooms. Learning platforms make courses (training) available and are applied to manage them. Virtual classrooms, on the other hand, are used to teach classes (conduct training). The following article discusses the opportunities of the virtual classroom in achieving such capabilities as communication in foreign languages and digital competence. Firstly, it presents available virtual classroom tools. Secondly, this paper identifies positive and negative points of using virtual classroom software. Finally, it illustrates how the competences mentioned above can be developed by the application.

56

On Forming Chosen Key Competences within the Visual Classroom

2. The virtual classroom – the tool’s functionalities Virtual classrooms as educational tools are offered by a wide range of schools and education portals. A virtual classroom is considered a set of tools for conducting lessons live over the Internet. It may be a separate Internet application or one of the modules of a learning platform (Lenkiewicz 2012, 28). Nowadays, to use virtual classroom tools, one has to pay. The few exceptions include virtual classrooms offered by universities on learning platforms. Virtual classrooms enable their users to stay in direct contact with a tutor, which brings that form of teaching closer to the traditional classroom. The tutor communicates with students online via the Internet. Each student’s workstation is equipped with a web camera, microphone and headphones. The main window of the application presents images of the tutor and students, so what is done during the lesson is visible to both.

Figure 4-1 Overview of the Virtual Classroom and its Tools The virtual classroom provides the learner with a wide range of functionalities in the form of tabs,1 which include: 1. Virtual whiteboard – used for different class activities: brainstorming, making notes, writing key vocabulary, etc.; it also allows users to draw images, type text and present materials that have been prepared in advance. 1 The virtual classroom tools discussed below are offered by Citilingua Language School based in Warsaw [http://www.citilingua.pl/].

Martyna Klejnowska-Borowska

57

2. Presentation – the tab is used to upload a file into a viewing window to present a document to the participants; it enables the tutor to display PowerPoint slides or documents in such formats as Word, Excel, PDF; it also allows the tutor to use course books, materials uploaded from the Internet or materials prepared by himself. 3. YouTube – the tab is used to view and share videos that can be found on the website; it allows for the display of video clips, TV clips, music videos, video blogs etc. 4. Polling – allows the tutor to ask students survey questions in real time; the questions can be multiple choice, multiple answer or open-ended; poll questions need to be initially created and then administered during the class; the tab is usually used to evaluate the tutor’s lesson, express opinions on a certain topic or check students’ knowledge. 5. Desktop – allows tutors to open up their computers to the students; when the tutor shares the desktop, the students may see everything that is displayed on the computer. 6. Chat – allows for the exchange of text messages during the lesson; is usually used for submitting questions, signalling technology problems or brainstorming. 7. Recording – the virtual classroom enables the tutor to record the lesson so that the students may replay it afterwards at any time; it helps to repeat and assimilate new material.

Figure 4-2 Virtual Classroom Tools

58

On Forming Chosen Key Competences within the Visual Classroom

3. The virtual classroom – benefits and limitations Virtual classroom sessions, prepared to obtain certain educational purposes, may be beneficial for the students attending them. Compared to the traditional classroom, it is easier to organise a lesson in the virtual classroom as students and tutors may attend it from any place in the world at any time. Students may participate in lessons at home, at work or during a business trip. The virtual classroom is an ideal option for people who are not able to attend normal classes; for instance, young mothers, the disabled or busy people. Furthermore, the application may help students who have gaps in learning, or have difficulties in acquiring a language during normal classes. On the other hand, the application may also be used for highly gifted students to develop their interests. As far as the tutor is concerned, sessions in virtual classrooms may be conducted by native speakers. Furthermore, it is much easier to encourage foreign students to participate in lessons organised via the application. That way, students from different countries may share their ideas and experiences or even draw up interschool projects. It should be emphasised that lessons conducted in the virtual classroom can be recorded so students who did not attend the class have the opportunity to catch up. What is more, by replaying the recording, students may review the material discussed during the lesson. Another advantage of the virtual classroom is the savings in time and costs. In comparison to traditional lessons, virtual classroom lessons can be organised more quickly. Students and tutors do not waste their time commuting to school, and that saves their money too. Furthermore, the tutor does not have to reserve a classroom and projector or distribute materials. In the case of language learning, it is easier to prepare authentic materials such as films, songs, radio programmes and newspaper articles. Authentic materials are mainly used to improve learners’ communication skills and listening ability. They have the advantage of exposing learners to the language used in real life. What is more, authentic materials, especially those that deal with topics familiar to students and relevant to their personal experience, can capture their interest and stimulate their imagination (Lingzhu and Yuanyuan 2010, 2). This way, the motivation of students is increased. Despite the fact that there are a lot of benefits to using virtual classrooms, some limitations also exist. To start with, tutors and students need to be familiar with the tools offered by the application before the lessons start. For this reason, there should be some classes conducted

Martyna Klejnowska-Borowska

59

earlier to give the learners some general knowledge of the application. Technical problems may also arise. Virtual classrooms rely on technology, which means that technical issues such as bandwidth or speed of the connection may create problems. When conducting classes in the virtual classroom, one has to remember the limitation of the number of participants. Effective communication can be achieved only when there are a few learners involved in the task. In the case of virtual classroom language sessions, it is desirable that there are small groups of learners (up to six students) so that all of them obtain feedback from the teacher. As far as the teacher is concerned, he or she should be totally committed to his or her work with the virtual classroom application. Each lesson conducted in the virtual classroom should be precisely planned by the tutor. Educational materials should be prepared in the electronic form and placed on the server of the application beforehand.

4. Learning foreign languages versus virtual classrooms According to Uniwersalny sáownik jĊzyka polskiego [Universal Dictionary of the Polish Language] (Dubisz 2003), competence is defined as “the implicit, internalised knowledge of something, somebody’s skills”.2 Knowledge is defined as “what one knows, the whole of the information acquired by somebody” while skills are “abilities to do something well”. Communication in foreign languages is one of the most important issues discussed in the European Union language education policy. Several documents have been published so far about such language educational policies as plurilingualism, linguistic diversity and mutual understanding. One of these documents is the Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning (REPC). It defines eight key competences, “which all individuals need for personal fulfilment and development, active citizenship, social inclusion and employment” (REPC, L394/13). Key competences include communication in foreign languages and digital competence, which in the context of the virtual classroom are considered complementary. As far as communication in foreign languages is concerned, the indicated document comprises the following definition: Communication in foreign languages [...] is based on the ability to understand, express and interpret concepts, thoughts, feelings, facts and

2

All translations from Polish are made by the author of the article (MKB).

60

On Forming Chosen Key Competences within the Visual Classroom opinions in both oral and written form (listening, speaking, reading and writing) in an appropriate range of societal and cultural contexts (in education and training, work, home and leisure) according to one’s wants or needs. Communication in foreign languages also calls for skills such as mediation and intercultural understanding. An individual’s level of proficiency will vary between the four dimensions (listening, speaking, reading and writing) and between the different languages, and according to that individual’s social and cultural background, environment, needs and/or interests. (REPC, L394/14)

As can be seen from the document, the emphasis was put on developing four communication skills, which should be improved during language classes, including virtual classroom sessions. It is also important to learn foreign languages “informally as part of lifelong learning” (REPC, L394/15). It seems that the tools offered by the virtual classroom are more appropriate for developing speaking and listening skills. The application allows one to communicate face to face with the tutor in real time, which helps to improve one’s fluency and accent. Students also have the opportunity to communicate with the tutor and other students via chat, which allows participants to send messages to one another. Furthermore, speaking classes may be conducted by native speakers, who are more likely to participate in distance learning. Another option is to invite a native-speaker student to attend virtual classroom sessions in order to motivate other students and make the classes more attractive. Listening skills may be improved by using the YouTube tab. It enables watching and listening to films, songs, video blogs, etc. What is more, if the teacher prepares materials in an MP3 format, they can be easily displayed using the Presentation tab. Listening skills can be developed by sharing the desktop with the tutor. That functionality allows teachers to use different audio materials to enhance students’ listening techniques. Reading skills may be developed using the Presentation tab, which allows tutors to upload documents in Word, PDF or PPT formats. As Nugroho (2010, 9) states, By giving students a variety of materials to read, teachers provide multiple opportunities for students to absorb vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, and discourse structure as they occur in authentic contexts. Students thus gain a more complete picture of the ways in which the elements of the language work together to convey meaning.

Martyna Klejnowska-Borowska

61

Virtual classrooms also allow reading skills to be improved, via the chat function. The teacher can post links to various websites into chat so students can be sure the materials used during the lesson are authentic. Writing in a foreign language tends to be one of the most difficult skills to acquire. The virtual classroom enables students to develop it through, again, the chat function, which allows students to discuss issues as they arise, without disturbing the class. What is more, all written assignments can be sent to the teacher via email in the Word format or, if handwritten, after being scanned. Apart from skills, communication in foreign languages requires certain knowledge and attitudes. In this context, knowledge concerns “vocabulary and functional grammar and an awareness of the main types of verbal interaction and registers of language. Knowledge of societal conventions and the cultural aspect and variability of languages is important” (REPC, L394/14). Effective communication in a foreign language depends on the level of vocabulary knowledge. Incomplete lexical knowledge is a major factor contributing to communication barriers (Komorowska 2004, 115). To avoid such a situation, tutors should prepare lexical exercises based on vocabulary introduced during the lessons. Word knowledge is strongly related not only to reading comprehension but also to other communication skills. The virtual classroom provides a wide range of tools with which to introduce and repeat new vocabulary. Lexical exercises can be displayed in the Presentation tab or on the Virtual Whiteboard. What is more, the teacher may post links to vocabulary exercises found on different websites. Lexical exercises are also available on the e-learning platforms that sometimes constitute an integral part of virtual classroom software. The second component of language knowledge is functional grammar. Grammar teaching is viewed as the presentation and practice of certain grammatical structures. In the case of virtual classroom lessons, grammatical structures can be introduced through the Presentation tab or Virtual Whiteboard. Furthermore, some grammatical items may be explained with the use of YouTube films or songs. On the other hand, practice of grammatical structures should be integrated into different communicative activities such as finding and exchanging information, talking about oneself and discussion. The last component of communication in foreign languages is related to a positive attitude that “involves the appreciation of cultural diversity, and an interest and curiosity in languages and intercultural communication” (REPC, L394/15). Building such an attitude may be

62

On Forming Chosen Key Competences within the Visual Classroom

supported by virtual classroom lessons conducted by native speakers. Interest in language communication can be developed by presenting authentic materials during classes (articles, songs, films, etc.) or by conversations with native-speaker peers. .

Components of communication in foreign languages

Virtual classroom tools

speaking

virtual classroom allows for communication with a teacher and students in real time

listening

YouTube (watching films, songs, podcasts etc.); Presentation (listening to MP3 files); Desktop (watching films from all available websites)

reading

Presentation (reading texts prepared by the tutor in DOC), PDF formats; Virtual Whiteboard (enables direct reference to texts from the Internet)

writing

Virtual Whiteboard; Chat; Email; Pools

vocabulary

Presentation; Virtual Whiteboard

grammar

Presentation; Virtual Whiteboard; YouTube

building a positive attitude towards foreign languages

virtual classroom lessons can be conducted by native speakers; the application allows for creating interschool projects; Presentation (demonstrating authentic materials)

Table 4-1 Communication in Foreign Languages – Virtual Classroom Tools

5. Digital competence versus virtual classroom Virtual classroom software creates a supportive learning environment for students and teachers who want to develop their digital competence. Digital competence is a universal area of competence that all citizens working, living and learning in the knowledge society need to develop. At the EU level, digital competence has been recognised as one of the eight key competences for lifelong learning defined by the European Recommendation on Key Competences (EU Skills Panorama 2012, 2). According to the Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning, digital competence

Martyna Klejnowska-Borowska

63

involves the confident and critical use of Information Society Technology (IST) for work, leisure and communication. It is underpinned by basic skills in ICT: the use of computers to retrieve, assess, store, produce, present and exchange information, and to communicate and participate in collaborative networks via the Internet. (REPC, L394/15)

As with other key competences, the document stipulates the skills, knowledge and attitudes that constitute digital competence. The needed skills are the ability to use computer and Internet tools and to manage information, the capacity to distinguish the virtual from the real world and to see the connections between these two domains, the ability to use Internet-based services and to use technologies to support creativity, critical thinking and innovation. The expected knowledge is to be gained by understanding the function of main computer applications, the risks of the Internet and online communication, the validity and reliability of online information and the legal and ethical principles behind the use of collaborative tools. As far as attitudes are concerned, the recommendation provides the following guidelines: citizens should be critical and reflective towards information; they should become responsible users and be interested in engaging in online communities and networks (Ferrari 2012, 12). Digital competence may be developed by participating in virtual classroom lessons. In terms of skills, the abilities can be achieved by searching for and elaborating on materials for language classes; for instance, when the tutor proposes a webquest lesson. Students searching for new information familiarise themselves with web browsers. Skills are also learned by using assorted computer and Internet tools during classes; for instance, creating PowerPoint presentations and preparing engrossing texts (Word) or films (Windows Movie Maker, Adobe After Effects CS6 etc.). Virtual classroom software broadens knowledge in the scope of digital competence. It provides a wide range of opportunities to use computer text editors (Word, Notepad), presentation programs (Microsoft PowerPoint, OpenOffice, Prezi), graphics editing programs (Adobe Photoshop, GIMP), etc. In the case of virtual classroom language classes, critical and reflective attitudes towards IST may be formed by evaluating materials found on the Internet by paying special attention to orthographic and grammatical errors. The virtual classroom tool that can be used to provide such activities is the Desktop (desktop sharing).

On Forming Chosen Key Competences within the Visual Classroom

64

Components of digital competence

Virtual classroom tools

skills

YouTube (searching films that are thematically connected with the activity); Desktop (searching websites to find information about a given topic); Presentation (preparing materials with the use of various computer and Internet tools)

knowledge

Presentation (knowledge of computer and Internet tools)

attitude

Desktop (skimming texts found on the Internet to reveal errors)

Table 4-2 Digital Competence – Virtual Classroom Tools

6. Conclusions According to the material presented above, one can draw many conclusions about the use of virtual classrooms in both language learning and developing digital competence. Virtual classrooms offer a wide range of possibilities for preparing not only language classes but also lessons on various subjects. Owing to the fact that virtual classroom sessions are interactive, one can attend them from any place in the world. Using a virtual classroom to develop both communication in foreign languages and digital competence is particularly effective because 1) it helps to achieve basic skills for both types of competences, 2) it provides essential knowledge, 3) it develops attitudes that contribute to both types of competences, 4) it is equipped with a wide range of tools that can be used in different ways, and 5) it is based on constant contact with a tutor so the skills and knowledge gained during lessons may be monitored and evaluated systematically.

Martyna Klejnowska-Borowska

65

Bibliography Dubisz, Stanisáaw (ed.). 2003. Uniwersalny sáownik jĊzyka polskiego. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. EU Skills Panorama. 2012. Digital Competence Analytical Highlight, prepared by ICF GHK for the European Commission. http://euskillspanorama.cedefop.europa.eu/docs/AnalyticalHighlights/ DigitalCompetence_en.pdf (date of access: 25th April 2014). Ferrari, Anusca. 2012. Digital Competence in Practice: An Analysis of Frameworks. Spain: Publications Office of the European Union. Komorowska, Hanna. 2004. Metodyka nauczania jĊzyków obcych. Warszawa: Fraszka Edukacyjna. Lenkiewicz, Paweá. 2012. Budowa nowoczesnej platformy e-learningowej. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo PJWSTK. Lingzhu, Ji, Zhang Yuanyuan. 2010. “The Use of Authentic Materials in Teaching EFL Listening”. http://www.hltmag.co.uk/aug10/mart03.htm (date of access 17th March 2014). Nugroho, Wuri. 2010. The Process of Teaching Reading by Using the Direct Method to the First Grade Students of SMP Negeri 1 Gatak. http://eprints.uns.ac.id/2792/1/164823008201001211.pdf (date of access: 15th March 2014). Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning. (REPC). http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006: 394:0010:0018:en:PDF (date of access: 27th April 2014).

ICT TOOLS FOR OUR SCHOOLS WERONIKA OLEK-TASZAREK

New technology has become so ubiquitous that it seems almost impossible to live without it. If it is omnipresent in our lives, why not incorporate it in our teaching? The following article deals with the use of information and communication technology in a language classroom. The purpose of this article is to provide teachers with a short guide on the most commonly used web tools. The author focuses on practical rather than theoretical information, and enumerates useful and effective web tools that may be successfully used both by technologically-advanced teachers and beginners in this area.

1. Introduction Modern technologies seem to have penetrated all aspects of our lives, including education. With the increased pace of life and advances in technology, we can hardly imagine our lives without ICT tools. This has happened not without a reason as there is a whole package of benefits behind the use of information and communication technology not only in our everyday lives but also in learning and teaching. According to Page (2007), “if education is about knowledge and intellectual skills, then information technology lies at the heart of it all”. The advantages of implementing ICT in a language classroom are best summarised by Prensky (2008, 2): Today’s technology (…) offers students all kinds of new, highly effective tools they can use to learn on their own – from the Internet with almost all the information, to search and research tools to sort out what is true and relevant, to analysis tools to help make sense of it, to creation tools to present one’s findings in a variety of media, to social tools to network and collaborate with people around the world.

68

ICT Tools for our Schools

What is more, Herbie Hancock, a jazz musician, once said that “[a] great teacher is one who realises that he himself is also a student and whose goal is not to dictate the answers, but to stimulate his students’ creativity enough so that they go out and find the answers themselves”.1 ICT tools may be a perfect solution for the teacher who tries to create the perfect learning environment for students born in the digital era and may be referred to as digital natives. According to Dudeney and Hockly (2007, 8), a digital native is “someone who grows up using technology, and who thus feels comfortable and confident with it”. For many of today’s learners, computers seem to be the preferred medium of learning, and high-tech gadgets are what the pen and paper used to be for the teachers during their youth.

Figure 5-1 Students Learning English using Netbooks (photo by Weronika Olek-Taszarek) A Chinese proverb says “Do not confine your children to your own learning, for they were born in another time”. ICT tools have a tremendous potential as, if properly employed, they may activate and engage students who are required to “press buttons, think out problems, and manipulate the tools they have to achieve a goal” (Hendricks 2013) instead of listening to a lecture. Therefore, it is crucial to make the best use of technological devices and available applications in order to make the learning process as effective as possible. Teachers nowadays need to be creative and innovative in their use of media and technology if they want to engage learners. It is crucial to remember that technology is not the aim of education, but, as Garrett (1991, 75) points out, the computer and the web

1

http://jazz-quotes.com/artist/herbie-hancock/ (date of access: 6th May 2016).

Weronika Olek-Taszarek

69

are mediums “in which a variety of methods, approaches, and pedagogical philosophies may be implemented”. After a very long debate on the issue, it seems that the crucial question is no longer whether to use ICT for educational purposes but how new media, computers and web tools may be employed effectively to meet the students’ needs. Many teachers are already aware of the fact that they cannot avoid ICT but too often they do not know how to incorporate new tools in their lessons. From the infinite number of possibilities, they use a very limited range, with Power Point and digital course books often being the only tools applied. It is true that there are teachers who are already passionate about incorporating ICT in their classrooms. What is more, as Harmer (2013) suggests, there may be as many techno wizards among teachers as among students. Nevertheless, many instructors do not employ technology for a variety of reasons. They are not confident enough, they are afraid that the technology will crash or they do not have enough knowledge about technology (Sharma and Barrett, 2007). This article overviews a wide selection of web tools that may be used easily and effectively for learning and teaching.

2. Useful web tools The list of useful web tools is a very long one, if not infinite. Therefore, it seems impossible to enumerate or use all of them. Web tools can be grouped according to the purpose they serve. However, as one application may be used in a variety of ways, there are many different possibilities of grouping the tools. For the purposes of this article, the following groups will be distinguished: x x x x x x x x x

Presentation and video tools; Photo tools; Organising tools; File storage and collaboration tools; Mind mapping tools; Audio tools; Quiz and poll tools; Website builders; Other tools.

70

ICT Tools for our Schools

The web tools mentioned in this article have all been used and tested by the author and her students. Each group includes only a tiny selection of the web devices that were found to be the most attractive.

2.1. Presentation and video tools It appears that presentation is often one of the stages of a foreign language lesson. Although the Presentation, Practice, Production procedure has been heavily criticised over the years (Harmer 2001, 82), with the use of ICT tools it seems possible to create engaging presentations. The traditional and commonly chosen tool is Microsoft Office PowerPoint; however, nowadays there are more interesting options to choose from. First of all, we may move beyond the slides and use Prezi (www.prezi.com), the perfect software for creating engaging zooming presentations. This software provides a virtual canvas where we zoom out to see the whole picture and zoom in to see the details. Furthermore, presentations may be created in the form of a video using Microsoft Photo Story or Windows Movie Maker, which can be downloaded for free. The first one is an application that enables us to design audiovisual stories from digital photos and images. Some of its functions include adding narration, zooming effects, transitions, captions, titles and background music to our film. Windows Movie Maker is a basic video and audio editing software that has more options as it allows the adding and editing of video and audio materials. In the programme we can split or trim audio and video, adjust transitions between music clips, adjust the volume of different clips, add narration, titles, credits, captions and a wide range of visual effects, for example, blurring, fading in or out, rotating, increasing or decreasing brightness and slowing down. However, if for some reason we do not want to download anything, we may use web-based tools such as Animoto (www.animoto.com) and Jux (www.jux.com) to create a presentation. Animoto is an easy and quick-touse, cloud-based service that produces video slideshows from photos, video clips and music. It offers a wide variety of video style options and its own music library. Jux is a blogging platform that enables its users to create beautiful and engaging content of seven different types – BlockQuote, Article, Photo, Video, Slideshow, Countdown and Streetview. A major feature of Jux is its overall design, which is very elegant. The page is organised chronologically and looks more like a digital magazine than a blog. Another tool that enables us to make powerful animated presentations in the form of cartoons is Powtoon (www.powtoon.com). The application

Weronika Olek-Taszarek

71

has an easy-to-use editor that guides us through the creation process, during which we may choose a template and a theme. Each theme offers a number of text effects, characters, animations, arrows, shapes and backgrounds. We may also add our own images and audio files. All in all, Powtoon provides all the necessary animation tools to create an eyecatching presentation or video. Last, but not least, Glogster (www.glogster.com) is an online platform that allows for the creation of interactive posters called glogs. A glog may include content of almost any kind, such as images, texts, links, videos, music, sounds, special effects and animations. It is created by dragging and dropping elements, which may then be rotated or moved. What is more, Glogster provides Glogpedia, where we can browse through thousands of glogs created by other users. To conclude, all the above tools can be used not only by teachers but also by learners to present their knowledge or research results on a given topic in an interactive way.

2.2. Photo tools Since photos and images seem to be an inseparable part of every presentation, a photo editor might be very handy. One of many options to choose from is an online photo editing service, PicMonkey (www. picmonkey.com). It is easy and quick, and does not require registration. The service is cloud-based so the users upload photos from their computers or from the web and edit their images. Among the possible editing options, we can find cropping, rotating, resizing, teeth whitening, adding effects, texts, fonts, frames, stickers, overlays, textures and creating collages. When our work is ready, we can share it or save it on our computers.

2.3 Organising tools While browsing the net, we often come across an interesting article, website or image that we would like to keep for later. Instead of writing down the website address or saving the article or image on our computers, it is possible to make use of a wide range of effective organising web tools. To begin with, media content such as images and videos can be stored and managed by creating boards of visual bookmarks, called pins, using Pinterest (www.pinterest.com), a social bookmarking site. Users organise their pinboards by a central topic or theme, and every time they come across interesting content, it can be added by means of a “Pin it” button.

72

ICT Tools for our Schools

Furthermore, Scoop.it (www.scoop.it) is a curation service that provides a way to gather content through smart searches on a particular topic. Scoop.it users can either collect the information themselves and add it to their curated topic or use the suggested resources gathered on the basis of the keywords submitted while creating a given topic. A similar curation tool is Livebinders (www.livebinders.com), an electronic portfolio to organise, bookmark and store online content in binders. It is very practical and neat as all the documents and links can be organised into tabs, and the links are viewed as pages in a book rather than URLs on a page. Finally, Pearltrees (www.pearltrees.com) is another graphic and collaborative curation tool to collect and organise web content together with personal images, notes, documents and files. A distinguishing feature of Pearltrees is its elegant visual interface, which enables the users to drag links into units called “pearls”.

Figure 5-2 An Example of a Pearltree (author: Weronika Olek-Taszarek) An important advantage of all the mentioned tools is the fact that they not only enable users to collect and organise web content they have found but also let them follow other users to discover much more content and enrich their libraries.

Weronika Olek-Taszarek

73

2.4. File storage and collaboration tools Many teachers prepare materials in their homes and bring them to schools to use in the classroom. Instead of carrying pen drives or sending the materials to email accounts, it is very convenient to use file hosting services such as Google Drive or Dropbox. Both services provide access to our documents and videos from any place. Dropbox users create a folder on each of their computers, and the files placed there are immediately synchronised and can be accessed from any computer, tablet or smart phone connected with the Dropbox account. Google Drive is a similar file storage and synchronisation service, which works in the same way as Dropbox. However, Google Drive has more features as it is the home of Google Docs, an online data storage device. Google Docs can be utilised to create and edit documents, spreadsheets and presentations online while collaborating in real time with other users even if they don’t have an Office suite installed on their computers. Both Google Drive and Dropbox are very easy and convenient tools that enable the students and teachers to communicate, share and cooperate.

2.5. Mind-mapping tools Among the many techniques to teach and learn vocabulary, Komorowska (2005, 163) mentions mind mapping. According to Sökmen (1997, 250), “semantic mapping generally refers to brainstorming associations which a word has and then diagramming the results”. Mind maps are valuable tools to study and organise information, solve problems and make decisions as they help to generate, structure and classify vocabulary and ideas. Since mind maps are very useful, there is a wide range of mind-mapping tools available on the web. To begin with, an easy-to-use free online platform for brainstorming ideas and creating interactive displays of information is Popplet (www.popplet.com). Popplet’s simple interface allows users to quickly organise ideas graphically, share them, and collaborate with others. Each item added to the Popplet has a tag with the name of its creator; therefore, when the platform is used in the classroom, it is possible to monitor the input of each student. A great advantage of the platform is that we can add audio and video materials and our popplets can be exported as.jpg or.pdf files and embedded into other websites.

74

ICT Tools for our Schools

Figure 5-3 An Example of a Mind Map Created using Popplet (author: Weronika Olek-Taszarek) Another free intuitive online mind-mapping application to manage ideas is Mind42 (www.mind42.com). Simple to use, it lets the user organise, share and develop ideas in collaboration with others by adding images, notes, web links and icons. The only disadvantage of Mind42 is that the application organises new nodes automatically and the user cannot change his/her position. Fortunately, there is an alternative, more flexible software that allows the user to move all the items around the map freely and connect them according to the user’s idea by drawing arrows. Spiderscribe (www. spiderscribe.net) may be utilised to add and manage text, files, pictures, geographical maps and calendar events to create unique mind maps. However, in Spiderscribe it is impossible to embed audio and video in our maps. Therefore, the three mentioned mind-mapping tools can be used interchangeably as, despite being very similar, each of them provides unique features.

Weronika Olek-Taszarek

75

2.6. Audio tools Among a wide range of benefits of using web tools for learning and teaching foreign languages is the possibility to record audio and voice. The simplest application to record voice is Vocaroo (www.vocaroo.com). To use Vocaroo there is no need to install any software and it does not require registration. The only tool necessary to use this audio recorder is a microphone. When we open the page, we can record our voice, which can then be downloaded to our computer or embedded in a blog or website. Furthermore, language skills can be enhanced by creating customised speaking avatars using Voki (www.voki.com). Voki is a creative voicerecording tool that can be used in a myriad of ways. Students can develop animal, cartoon or human characters and give them their own voice. These avatars may be embedded in websites and used in digital storytelling projects, or projects such as eTwinning or Erasmus+ in which schools from around the world cooperate and exchange ideas. Last, but not least, in order to introduce a little bit of magic into our classrooms, we can use Fotobabble (www.fotobabble.com) and add narration to our photos. Fotobabble works in three easy steps: we upload a photo, record our voice and share our Fotobabble with friends or embed it in a blog or website. This application is perfect for telling stories or creating e-cards. All in all, Vocaroo, Voki and Fotobabble are extremely easy to use and they help engage students and improve their language skills.

2.7. Quiz and poll tools Whether we want to assess students or gather information to evaluate our work, the web offers free quiz and polling tools. These tools let us create a variety of our own materials that fit our learners’ individual needs. To begin with, Hot Potatoes is a downloadable software suite that includes five applications to create class materials such as cloze, quiz, matching, ordering, multiple choice, jumbled sentences and crossword exercises. Hence, Hot Potatoes can be utilised not only to make quizzes but also to create interactive exercises for the learners. Classroom materials, specifically action mazes, can be made using Quandary, which is another programme created by the same authors. The activities created in both, Hot Potatoes and Quandary, work on Internet browsers and can be placed in our blogs or websites. However, even though Hot Potatoes and Quandary are useful tools, they have to be downloaded. A free online application to make quizzes

76

ICT Tools for our Schools

and questionnaires is SurveyMonkey (www.surveymonkey.com). It is a web-based survey software with 15 question types such as rating scales, multiple choice, ranking, open-ended questions, drop-down menus and more. With SurveyMonkey, we may ask for answers to any question, control the flow with skip logic, eliminate bias with random assignment and customise the look of our survey. When the survey is ready, we can either send it by email or embed it on our website. After we collect the responses, we can view the results then analyse them using various charts and graphs to finally download the results. Another polling tool for receiving feedback and brainstorming ideas is AnswerGarden (www.answergarden.ch). It is very minimalistic in its use as we only enter a topic, for example “Web tools for schools” and choose an answering mode; we then get an email with our answergarden link, which we can share, email or embed on our website. When our respondents provide their answers, we can instantaneously overview the results. The answers are represented in the form of a growing word cloud; the bigger a word is, the more answers of this kind were submitted.

Figure 5-4 An Example of an Answergarden “Web Tools for Schools” (author: Weronika Olek-Taszarek) Finally, we can easily collect feedback and ask our students to express their thoughts on a given topic by utilising Padlet (www.padlet.com). Padlet is a virtual wall that works like an online piece of paper where students can place content such as photos, web links, documents, texts and videos. The teacher creates the wall and the students provide responses using mobile devices without having to log in. A significant advantage of this tool is that we pose a question and immediately gather feedback, which can be seen by all the participants. To conclude, these quiz tools

Weronika Olek-Taszarek

77

provide an amazing opportunity to gather opinions, collect votes, evaluate work and see the results.

2.8. Website builders Most of the web tools mentioned in this article are used to create online materials. Hence, we need some online space where all the developed items can be placed. Such space can be created using various website builders such as WordPress (www.wordpress.com), Wix (www.wix.com) and Wikispaces (www.wikispaces.com). They are all web development platforms that provide all the creation and management tools we need to create websites where we can place any kind of work and ideas, blogs, activities, quizzes, documents, images, links, audio and video materials as well as homework assignments. What is more, Wikispaces offers a platform for education – Wikispaces Classroom. Apart from providing the basic website development tools, Wikispaces Classroom makes it possible to create online projects the students can do alone or in teams. In this classroom workspace, the learners can edit the documents and safely communicate with other students and the teacher. Finally, Wikispaces supplies assessment tools for the teacher in order to measure the students’ contributions and involvement.

2.9. Other tools The web is a rich resource which supplies many more tools that serve purposes different from the groups classified above. First of all, the videos found on the Internet and the videos we produce are in many different formats. In order to work on them or watch them on various devices, it is essential to adjust the format. In such a situation, AllConverterPro is a very convenient device. After installing the software on our computers, we can easily convert audio and video parameters into the preferred formats. Furthermore, films are often longer than our lessons but we can edit and cut out film pieces by deploying Virtual Dub. Another useful piece of downloadable software is Subtitle Workshop, where we can create subtitles. However, although Subtitle Workshop is a very convenient and efficient piece of free software to create subtitles and offers advanced editing features, it may be too difficult to use for a beginner. Hence, we may generate subtitles using Amara (www.amara.org). Unlike Subtitle Workshop, Amara is a website where we can add captions and subtitles to online videos. It is easy to use; therefore, it can be employed by our students.

78

ICT Tools for our Schools

Last but not least, by utilising Google Earth, learners can fly around the planet, see maps, satellite images of the Earth, famous buildings in 3D and can plan and run virtual trips all over the world. What is more, the teacher can assign projects where the students prepare and record trips around famous cities such as London, New York or any other place on the globe.

3. Conclusion Generally speaking, there are countless available web tools that can be employed successfully in a language classroom. Nevertheless, it is essential to note that providing computers and other tools with the Internet connection in the schools is not enough. Bill Gates once said, “Technology is just a tool. In terms of getting the kids working together and motivating them, the teacher is the most important”.2 Hence, it can be claimed that the key to success is an innovative teacher who knows how to effectively incorporate ICT tools in order to develop the students’ language skills. What is more, it seems crucial to remember that our students do not have any “superior technical ‘connection’” (Harmer 2013) and teachers should not worry that their learners are more adept at using computers, as very often it turns out they are not. In fact, many students use technology only to watch films and socialise with friends. Therefore, it is even more important to use innovative technology to create efficient learning environments and develop students’ language and digital skills.

Bibliography Dudeney, Gavin, Nicky Hockly. 2007. How to... Teach English with Technology. Harlow: Pearson Longman. Garrett, Nina. 1991. “Technology in the Service of Language Learning: Trends and Issues”. Modern Language Journal 75/1, 74–101. Harmer, Jeremy. 2001. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. —. 2013. “Shall We Kill Off the Digital Native?” http://jeremyharmer.wordpress.com/2013/11/22/shall-we-kill-off-thedigital-native/ (date of access: 1st May 2014).

2

Meier, J. D. 2011. Lessons learned from Bill Gates. http://sourcesofinsight.com/lessons-learned-from-bill-gates/ (date of access: 6th May 2016).

Weronika Olek-Taszarek

79

Hendricks, Drew. 2013. “A Look at Recent Findings on Technology in the Classroom”. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/drew-hendricks/technologyeducation_b_2867458.html (date of access: 22nd April 2014). Komorowska, Hanna. 2005. Metodyka nauczania jĊzyków obcych. Warszawa: Fraszka Edukacyjna. Page, John. 2007. “The Ten Fundamental Reasons for Using Technology in Education”. http://www.mathopenref.com/site/techreasons.html (date of access: 20th April 2014). Prensky, Marc. 2008. “The Role of Technology in Teaching and the Classroom”. Educational Technology, November-December 2008. http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky-The_Role_of_Techn ology-ET-11-12-08.pdf (date of access: 20th April 2014). Sharma, Pete, Barney Barrett. 2007. Blended Learning: Using Technology In and Beyond the Language Classroom. Oxford: Macmillan Education. Sökmen, J. Anita. 1997. “Current Trends in Teaching Second Language Vocabulary”. In: Norbert Schmitt, Michael McCarthy (eds.), Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 237–57.

DO IT YOURSELF! CREATIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING WITH SELF-MADE WEB COMICS ELENA SCHÄFER

Ever since mankind has existed, images have been used as a means of communication. From the first cave paintings to today’s latest pictures and graphics, images have always carried a high potential for the transmission of knowledge and communication. Unsurprisingly, visual media have become an essential part of education in the 21st century. The article presented here investigates the potential of selfmade web comics as a creative language-learning tool. Comics offer students easy access to complex subjects, are modern and can be easily created, printed or shared among classmates by using web-based computer programs. The elaboration aims to highlight the potential of comics for second-language learning. In this context, practical ideas of how self-made web comics can turn into creative tools, encouraging productive competences such as speaking and writing, will be shown.

1. Introduction Comics have always enjoyed great popularity. Even though they were originally humorous and mostly read by children and teenagers, comics have evolved (cf. Hesse 2009, 21). As a consequence, nowadays comics comprise a great variety of content and forms, which range from “superhero, detective >and@ science fiction >to@ horror, western, war, and romance” and which even tantalise adults (Bond 2011, 110). This versatility is mainly due to the comic’s visual imagery, which is capable of treating funny as well as difficult and unpleasant topics. Their didactic potential being undisputed, it is not surprising that comics have become a legitimate and integral part of modern textbooks and teaching materials.

82

Creative Language Learning with Self-Made Web Comics

2. The didactic potential of comics Based on the idea that a picture can say more than a thousand words, there are numerous reasons to use comics for foreign language teaching. Generally, students benefit from the fact that pictures can be accessed simultaneously rather than sequentially (cf. Burkmark 2008, 8). As such, even weaker students enjoy reading because they can fall back on their visual literacy. Still, there is a need for guidance and instruction concerning the decoding, interpretation and analysis of visual input for all students for they are challenged to go beyond the image border and contextualise it with the characters’ speech/thought bubbles or short texts. In addition, the reader has to fill the white space between the panels, the so-called gutter, in order to contribute meaning to a story (cf. Elsner 2013, 65). At this point, characteristic elements of the panel help to mentally connect and construct what cannot be seen. As a result, and contrary to the many dissenting voices, comics then “require >…@ more complex cognitive skills than other forms of literature” (Bond 2011, 116). However, differences in perception also cause differences in interpretation. In these cases, the individual reading experience automatically initiates the desire for authentic communication, as students want to let others know their personal ideas and interpretations by discussing them in class. This positive energy and dynamic can be used as a starting point for many activities fostering the students’ reading, speaking and writing skills. Against this background, the educational use of comics corresponds to the principles of a communicative language approach as claimed by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) (Council of Europe 2001).

3. Reasons to create a web-based comic For both the teacher and students, working with comics sounds like an attractive alternative to regular lessons. However, the creation of comics is not only entertainment but also hard work, given that it requires a set of linguistic, personal, and media competences. Before starting to design a comic, students gather in small groups, in which they begin thinking of a storyline suitable to the topic they are given. It is therefore important to remind the students of a storyline’s main structure, consisting of an introduction to the setting and the characters as well as a problem and its solution (cf. Wright/Sherman 1999, 4). Keeping this information in mind, they are free to invent diverse characters and establish their relationship in order to create a turning point or a punch line

Elena Schäfer

83

within their story. At this point, strong social skills in terms of interaction, collaboration and conflict management are needed to reach a mutual agreement on the story’s characters and development. As a result, students are no longer passive consumers: the fact that they are given the opportunity to create their own aesthetic product will make them feel motivated and proud to share it with their classmates, who will give feedback and comment on it. This student-centred activity engages each student actively and offers opportunities for differentiation at the same time. Strong as well as weak students will feel stimulated by the flexibility of how the task can be fulfilled. In other words, there are no limits concerning the plot or its visual and linguistic realisation. Each student can focus on aspects appropriate to his abilities. This means that learners are free to rely either on the linguistic skills and grammatical structures they already know and feel secure about or they can go further by including, for example, unknown vocabulary or different linguistic codes. Without a doubt, the intrinsic motivation to express and realise one’s ideas can move mountains. Thus, competences linked to the target language are often unconsciously improved and stored in the long-term memory. Nevertheless, the teacher should guide students on their way to creating their own comic by giving advice and providing help to avoid the feeling of getting lost. All in all, comics can either be handmade or computer-aided. With regard to the small windows of time that schedules provide, I want to mention some advantages of web-based comic programs. Nowadays, computer media represent a legitimate learning resource (cf. Council of Europe 2001, 12). That is why students should acquire (critical) media skills as soon as possible. Using a web-based program demands and involves creative as well as visual representation skills: apart from an appealing layout, the comic’s figures must be created and individually adjusted to the specific panels. To strengthen the story’s meaning, the application of borders, gestures and facial expressions is essential and must therefore be edited carefully. Fortunately, computer programs make it easy to delete, add or change details even afterwards. The same holds for linguistic uncertainties. So, when using these programs, students can progress step by step, focusing on selected aspects without feeling pressured to consider all relevant aspects at the same time. After the editing process, the comics should be shared and discussed in class. Depending on the students’ agreement, their work could even be honoured by an online publication, e.g., on the school’s homepage.

84

Creative Language Learning with Self-Made Web Comics

Certainly, “creating a comic >is quite intensive and@ takes much longer than reading a comic; there are many steps to follow and many decisions to make” (Maliszewski 2013, 234). For this reason, students need to be aware of the comic’s main characteristics in advance. The most important ones will be shown hereafter.

4. What makes a comic? There have been many attempts to define and generalise the category and characteristics of comics. In this context, Eisner’s idea of “Sequential Art” as well as McCloud’s description of comics as “juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequences, intended to convey information and/or produce an aesthetic response in the viewer” (2006, 9) have found major acceptance. Since these approaches towards the medium might be too complex for young language learners, they must redefine the central aspects of a comic on their own. As most learners are experienced in reading comics, they usually know about some of the main features, such as the sequence of (at least two) panels and the use of speech/thought bubbles. However, students are often not aware to what extent stylistic devices and simple drawing techniques can intensify a picture’s meaning. Thus it is necessary to teach them how “the discipline works” in order to express themselves “in the forms and language of the domain” (Starko 2010, 174). Comics are generally drawn, and stand out, for their specific code of simplifying, distorting and abstracting visual content. This very special kind of depiction permits the reader to identify with the comic’s (mostly fictional) persons, surroundings and items. At the same time, the additional arrangement of wavy lines evokes sounds and dynamics in terms of temporal, spatial and emotional effects (cf. Wolk 2007, 120–25). In this context, the selection of colours and symbols plays a big role, too. Although the comic is a hybrid medium consisting of an interplay of words and pictures, visuals can turn out to be so strong that no further (written) explication is needed. Still, both interact and are mutually dependent when it comes to decoding and contributing meaning to a comic’s panel(s) (cf. Bongco 2000, 46). The language used in comics is usually rather simple and contains colloquial elements. Also, there is certain flexibility concerning the spelling and the variation of lettering representing linguistic particularities as well as intonations and sound effects (cf. McCloud 2006, 134). In order to understand and analyse comics properly, it is therefore

Elena Schäfer

85

necessary to develop a new kind of understanding that goes beyond comparing and assessing verbal and visual structures separately. (…) We must not lose sight of the fact that both pictures and texts are the fundamental basis of almost all comics, and to seek to understand one without the other is to misinterpret the substance of this hybrid genre. (…) the key to understanding comics does not lie in the words or pictures themselves but in the interaction and relationship between them. (Bongco 2000, 49)

For this reason, Monnin (2010, 4–5) claims that there are two types of panels: content panels and story panels. While story panels determine a story’s development in terms of setting, climax and resolution, content panels make use of either the separate utilisation of words and images or their combination in order to tell parts of a story. Thus, complex reading strategies are required to follow a comic’s framed narration.

5. Introduction to the use of Bitstrips Creating a comic sounds difficult, but thanks to modern Web 2.0 tools, the process has been considerably simplified since talent or abilities in drawing are no longer needed. An exemplary introduction into the webbased program Bitstrips and its function of creating comics, characters and avatars will be given against this background. Bitstrips can either be used on the computer or as an app (only for Android, iPhone and iPad). Although it is free of charge, either an online registration or a Facebook account is needed. To get started, the user can first of all create an avatar (a virtual identity) of himself in case he wants to be part of the comic. Otherwise, future comic creators can directly follow the bottom “create > comic” in order to start a neutral comic. The title can be given up front or whenever the user wishes to do so (“title of strip”). The main categories, such as the layout, art library, text bubbles, controls and filters, are listed at the top of the page. With the help of these options, the number of panels, the background (“art library > panels”) as well as the characters’ sex, look and clothes (“art library > characters”) can be individually designed or taken from the program’s predesigned repertoire. The same holds for the characters’ expressions, movements (“control”) and verbal articulations (“text bubbles”). The settings can also be changed by moving, modifying or deleting items (“unlock”). However, this procedure must be repeated for each panel (Figure 6-1).

86

Creative Language Learning with Self-Made Web Comics

Figure 6-1 Creating One’s Own Comic with Bitstrips Whether the comic is finished or not, it can be saved at any time by clicking on “save”. This is one major advantage of the digital format since the comic is stored by its title in the category “my strips > strips” and can be further edited and modified at any time. Once the comic is completely finished, the possibility exists to print it at the end of the page (“print this Bitstrip”). As long as the “publish” button is not pressed, the comic remains private and unpublished. To secure the session, it is highly recommended to log out. Despite the fact that the homepage is entirely in English (or French or Chinese), it is for the most part self-explanatory and easy to operate. As a result, and thanks to its visual support, even users with little proficiency at the computer will enjoy creating a comic. Due to its great popularity and high didactic potential, Bitstrips is now also accessible especially to schools. Even though its educational use is subject to a charge, private virtual classrooms are offered, showing the teacher the students’ activity by providing a safe learning environment where instructions and tasks can be given. In addition to this, teachers can make use of curriculum-relevant comics as well as respective activities that have been predesigned for different grades and subjects. They can also upload their own class activities and share them with other colleagues (cf. bitstripsforschools.com).

Elena Schäfer

87

Before getting started it must be taken into consideration that not every student is familiar with activities on the computer. It is therefore important that the teacher provides not only an introduction to the program but also clarifications concerning data privacy protection before going online. To raise digital awareness among the students, it must be guaranteed that they do not reveal any personal data or information. Instead, they should be advised to use a pseudonym.

6. Creative language learning with comics As already mentioned, comics possess a high didactic potential for foreign language acquisition. In this context, I wish to illustrate possible ways of working creatively with self-made comics by taking the example of French and Spanish classes. Still, these examples can be easily transferred to any language class. Just like other mediums, a comic should never stand alone for itself. Instead, the use of comics demands a didactic structure. To avoid one-way communication, I recommend a distinction into pre-, while- and postactivities. The examples shown are only proposals. Activities can always be added or changed according to one’s taste and target.

6.1. Pre-activities Before starting to design a web-based comic, students need to be familiar with the comic’s language as well as the respective computer program. This initial phase also includes linguistic preparation. Students must be aware of and understand the main vocabulary used in the web-based comic creator. At the same time, the teacher should initiate a group brainstorming on the comic’s main themes and characters. By doing so, story-specific vocabulary and other linguistic knowledge will be activated. This can be done either by traditional paper-based brainstorming or by the web-based creation of a so-called word cloud (e.g., popplet.com / wordle.com). As shown in the following example, a word cloud can also be used to summarise the comic’s characteristics (Figure 6-2).

88

Creative Language Learning with Self-Made Web Comics

Figure 6-2 Brainstorming on the Medium Comic by Means of a Word Cloud

6.2. While-activities During the process of creating the comic, students must design panels and contextualise them into a coherent storyline by using visualisation and speech and/or thought bubbles. Appropriate topics to work on are, for example, one’s personal presentation with the focus on family members, hobbies and free-time activities. Still, it is not always necessary to let the students create the whole comic. Instead, single comic panels can also be created in order to explain, depict and internalise grammar rules like negation, imperative sentences or the use of the Spanish and French subjunctive. Another idea is to let students think of situations where typical verbal expressions and exclamations are likely to occur (Figure 6-3). Without the speech bubble’s content, these pictures can even turn into a quiz of guessing the correct expressions by describing the scene.

Elena Schäfer

89

Figure 6-3 Comics to Visualize the Meaning of Verbal Expressions in French

6.3. Post-activities After having finished the comics, the products will be presented in class. There are several ways to do this. One possibility is to let students present their comic by narrating the storyline and explaining the non-verbal strategies and stylistic devices they have been using to create certain effects. Based on their reflections, they practice verbal storytelling while the rest of the class can think of an appropriate title. Another option is to delete the content of the speech bubbles with the objective of letting other classmates fill in the gaps by adding words that

90

Creative Language Learning with Self-Made Web Comics

match individual panels as well as the whole context. In the next step, the results can be compared and discussed. Furthermore, the comic’s last panels can be left out in terms of an open ending. The reconstruction and expansion afford a great deal of curiosity, imagination and creativity on the part of the students since they must predict the continuation of the story on the basis of the comic’s characteristic elements. Story endings can either be written down or first visualised (e.g., as a single panel) and then verbalised. Instead of letting the students create several comics in small groups, the teacher could also decide to make a class project. In this case, each week one student has to create a panel and pass it to another classmate, who continues to work on the next panel (cf. Cary 2004, 74–75). Though the comic’s creation will take some time, each student contributes actively to the story’s development. Meanwhile, they are free to expand the storyline according to their abilities and ideas by focusing either on linguistic or visual elements. To sum up, all of the mentioned activities enhance the students’ communication skills for they initiate authentic discussions and feedback among the students. Be it the discussions about the title, the artistic visualisation and preparation or the continuation of the comic, students learn from one another and thereby acquire many linguistic competences.

7. Conclusion The major aim of this paper was to emphasise the value of self-made web comics for foreign language teaching. On the basis of a theoretical approach, the didactic potential as well as the characteristics of the medium have been exemplified. In addition, an introduction was given on the web-based program Bitstrips. As shown, the creation of a digital comic has many advantages in comparison to comics made with pen and paper. Apart from offering many opportunities of personalisation, web-based comics facilitate the process of designing, editing and sharing one’s authentic product. At the same time, students become interactive and independent language users exceeding their (linguistic) limits. The creative realisation of a self-made comic demands a high level of linguistic, visual, social and media skills. Because of the comic’s hybridity, students learn about the powerful interplay of words and images as well as about techniques to strengthen their meaning. In the next step, they are free to put their teacher’s instructions into practice. At this stage, students autonomously develop reading and writing skills as well as

Elena Schäfer

91

creative thinking. However, the ensuing discussion affords speaking and/or writing skills when explaining, justifying or commenting on creative combinations of visuals and texts. In view of this positive dynamic, a selection of ideas and activities has shown the comic’s function as a creative tool for language learning. In this context, it is important to emphasise that in order to be educational, comics need to be didactically structured, context embedded and cognitively demanding according to the students’ needs and abilities.

Bibliography Britstrips. 2012. “Instant Comics Starring You and Your Friends”. http://britstrips.com (date of access: 19th April 2014). Bond, Ernest. 2011. Literature and the Young Adult Reader. Boston: Pearson. Bongco, Mila. 2000. Reading Comics: Language, Culture, and the Concept of the Superhero in Comic Books. New York: Taylor & Francis. Burkmark, Lynell. 2008. “Visual Literacy: What You Get is What You See”. In: Nancy Frey, Douglas Fisher (eds.), Teaching Visual Literacy Using Comic Books, Graphic Novels, Anime, Cartoons, and More to Develop Comprehension and Thinking Skills. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, 5–26. Cary, Stephen. 2004. Going Graphic: Comics at Work in the Multilingual Classroom. Portsmouth: Heinemann. Council of Europe. 2001. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Strasbourg: Cambridge University Press. Elsner, Daniela. 2013. “Graphic Novels in the Limelight of a Multiliteracies Approach to Teaching English”. In: Daniela Elsner, Sissy Helff, Britta Viebrock (eds.), Films, Graphic Novels and Visuals. Developing Multiliteracies in Foreign Language Education – An Interdisciplinary Approach. Münster: LIT Verlag, 55–72. Hesse, Mechthild. 2009. Teenage Fiction in the Active English Classroom. Stuttgart: Klett. Maliszewski, Diana. 2013. “The Benefits of Writing Comics”. In: Carrye Kay Syma, Robert G. Weiner (eds.), Graphic Novels and Comics in the Classroom, 233–44. McCloud, Scott. 2006. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. New York: William Morrow.

92

Creative Language Learning with Self-Made Web Comics

Monnin, Katie. 2010. Teaching Graphic Novels: Practical Strategies for the Secondary ELA Classroom. Gainesville: Maupin House Publishing. Starko, Alane J. 2010. Creativity in the Classroom. Schools of Curious Delight. New York: Routledge. Wolk, Douglas. 2007. Reading Comics: How Graphic Novels Work and What They Mean. Philadelphia: Da Capo Press. Wright, Gary, Ross Sherman. 1999. “Let’s Create a Comic Strip”. Reading Improvement, 36 (2), 66–72. http://rhondaaltonen.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/wright-g-sherman-r1999-lets-create-a-comic-strip-reading-improvement-362-66-72.pdf (date of access: 19th April 2014).

PART THREE: (INTER-) CULTURAL COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE EDUCATION

ASPECTS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN LSP TEACHING JOANNA KIC-DRGAS

In the world of advanced development, a very intense specialisation of diverse fields of professional life can be observed. The tendency affects not only the expectations of learners who attend language courses but also the range of methods and approaches present in LSP (Foreign Language for Specific Purposes) classes. The phenomenon mentioned above is the best proof for the advancement process of permanent changes in foreign language teaching. An integral element of the new, modified LSP class is intercultural communication, which has already been implemented in the GL (General Language) class, though its meaning for LSP teaching cannot be underestimated. The following paper aims to discuss elements of interculturality transferred to the field of language teaching in the professional context. Both the theoretical background of the subject and practical proposals of the raised issue will be presented.

1. Introduction The globalisation and simplification of border-crossing procedures have led to a boost of mobility worldwide. People have started travelling, visiting new places or even changing their place of living. In the current world, “commuting” to work in a foreign country does not surprise anymore. In these new circumstances, contacts with representatives of foreign cultures have become an integral part of human life. Thus, the ability to communicate respectfully with foreigners is required not only in everyday life but also, or above all, in the professional sphere. Business contacts are a very tender gauge of intercultural understanding and knowledge. That is why foreign language teaching faces new challenges. The foreign language classroom is no longer only a place where a foreign language is taught, and it certainly fulfils the new function of giving learners an opportunity to meet a foreign culture and learn how to communicate with foreigners with

Aspects of Intercultural Communication in LSP Teaching

96

respect to their differences. Interculturality seems to be a necessary aim and tool in a foreign language class. Moreover, it is equally or even more vital in the LSP classroom, regardless of whether it concerns business, marketing, technical or academic language. Learners are interested in developing communication skills in a specific domain of the foreign language because they are willing to understand their interlocutors and to be understood by them. The following paper aims to discuss the idea of implementing intercultural aspects in the LSP teaching curriculum as an integral part of it. The article consists of two parts. In the first part, the main ideas of intercultural communication and LSP teaching are presented and discussed. The second part focuses on the methodical solutions of an intercultural approach in LSP practice. The practical reflections on the topic discussed in the article refer to experience acquired by the author of the following paper.

2. Culture in a foreign language classroom According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Maslow 1954), two of the most essential human needs are security and belonging. Culture, understood as a set of rules and patterns of behaviour, is a guarantee of stability but, as Williams (1983, 87) stated: “Culture is one of the two or three most complicated words in the English language”. This is why scholars have been fruitlessly working on a common definition of culture for ages. The complexity of the topic makes it impossible to reach an agreement as to which of the definitions is the most adequate. In their considerations, Samovar et al. (2013, 9) focused on the characteristics of cultures, thereby presenting new light on the issue. The discussed arguments support the conviction that culture can be perceived as a subject in a foreign language classroom. x

Culture is learned

This characteristic of culture shows that it is not an innate quality but can be learned, which implies that it can also be taught. The source of cultural knowledge is, above all, observation of the cultural patterns present in the surrounding world. Nevertheless, the importance of interactions (including thinking, feeling and analysing) cannot be ignored. The fact that culture can be learned leads to the conclusion that the subject of the teaching or learning process does not have to be the culture of the native country; it can be a foreign culture as well. Samovar et al. (2013, 8)

Joanna Kic-Drgas

97

distinguish between the conscious (in a classroom) and subconscious (in a foreign reality) learning of culture. This viewpoint definitely widens the spectrum of possible subjects a foreign language teacher can include in the teaching syllabus. x

Culture is transmitted intergenerationally

The pattern of learning from the master, usually an older and more experienced person, is valid also in the context of a culture that has been passed from one generation to the other. In the artificial conditions of a foreign language, the classroom teacher is the mediator connecting learners with the foreign culture. Not age but experience in contacts with the foreigners is the key factor in the formal teaching-learning context. x

Culture is symbolic

Apart from words, gestures, movements and facial expressions also formulate the message. The ability to produce and decode non-verbal signs correctly is part of the entire teaching process. The subjects of non-verbal communication gain new meaning in reference to a foreign country, where the understanding process is hampered by a different historical and sociological setting. Both symbols of the culture and their understanding belong to the language learning and teaching process. Hence, without basic knowledge about culture and the way it functions in a certain society, a full understanding of the intentions and feelings of an interlocutor representing the foreign culture will not be possible. These statements show that culture is an integral part of a teaching process, since culture represents the spirit of a nation. The need to implement its elements in a foreign language class is unquestionable. Moreover, through having an insight into the foreign culture, one is more sensitive towards one’s own culture, which again is an incentive to establish communication between cultures in the form of intercultural communication.

3. Intercultural communication – main ideas Bennett (1998, 2–4) points out that the key word in facing intercultural issues is “difference”. The scholar compares similarity-based monocultural communication with intercultural communication, understood as “communication between people of different cultures”. This viewpoint on

98

Aspects of Intercultural Communication in LSP Teaching

intercultural communication refers to the defined term in a very general sense. On the other hand, Arent (2009, 2) presents intercultural communication in a narrower context by shifting the stress onto a subjective dimension of communication, referring to the individual experience: “Intercultural communication is the sending and receiving of messages across languages and cultures. It is also a negotiated understanding of meaning in human experience across social systems and societies”. Another interesting contribution to the discussion on the nature of the intercultural communication is provided by Gudykunst (2000, 314): “Cross-cultural” and “intercultural” are often regarded as interchangeable. They are nevertheless different. Cross-cultural research involves comparing behaviour in two or more cultures (e.g. comparing selfdisclosure in Japan, the USA and Iran when individuals interact with members of their own culture). Intercultural research involves examining behaviour when members of two or more cultures interact. (…) Understanding cross-cultural differences in behaviour is a prerequisite for understanding intercultural behaviour.

While Gudykunst (2000) analyses the mutual relationship between crosscultural and intercultural communication, Samovar et al. (2013, 12) state that a number of “culture-related components” take part in integrating communication and culture. These components include perception, patterns of cognition, verbal behaviours, non-verbal behaviours and the influence of context. All of them are responsible for decoding the messages conveyed by representatives of the foreign culture, which is why their wrong interpretation can be a source of unfortunate misunderstandings (more in Carroll 1956). To shed some light on the role of the mentioned components in the teaching process, a more detailed discussion follows.

3.1. Perception Perception, seen by Samovar et al. (2013) as a “critical aspect of intercultural communication”, is the way the human organism reacts to the stimuli provided by the outside world. People perceive the surrounding world in a different way as a response to the socio-cultural elements fundamental to their beliefs, values and worldviews (Samovar et al. 2013, 13).

Joanna Kic-Drgas

99

3.2. Beliefs, values and attitudes Beliefs, values and attitudes are subjectively-experienced feelings connected with the nature of objects, events and importance of certain opinions. They vary not only from one country to the other (e.g., set of cultural values) but also from one individual to the other (e.g., set of individual values). Although there is no clear pattern according to which values or beliefs are categorised, the native culture influences the way people think (Samovar et al. 2013, 12).

3.3. Verbal communication As speech is the feature distinguishing human beings from animals, the significance of verbal communication in interpersonal contacts cannot be underestimated. Butterfield (2010, 2) defines verbal communication as “using speech to exchange information with others”. Some of the most common occasions for verbal communication are face-to-face meetings, interviews, workshops, lectures, conferences, official speeches and unofficial conversations. Almost every time people encounter others, they take part in an en- and de-coding process in order to send and receive a message. Like the previous components, verbal communication is influenced by socio-cultural aspects. Lack of knowledge in that field can be very harmful, especially in the business world.

3.4. Non-verbal communication Eye contact, facial expressions, movements, gestures and personal distance are only a few examples of non-verbal communication that seem to have gone unnoticed for ages because they could not be translated into verbal signals (see Wiener, Shilkret and Devoe 1980, 265). With time, the attitude to the significance of body language has changed and it has become a subject of scientific interest. Non-verbal communication enables people to exchange messages “in any and all modalities that do not involve words” (Matsumoto, Frank and Hwang 2013, 6). Intercultural communication has become a subject not only involving theoretical considerations in current research but also its practical implementations in different areas of life (more in Matsumoto, Frank and Hwang 2013).

100

Aspects of Intercultural Communication in LSP Teaching

4. The elements of intercultural learning Grosch and Leenen (2000, 29) argue the process of intercultural learning has the form of the following relationship: starting point (input) ĺ process ĺ result (output) intercultural education

intercultural learning

intercultural competence

intercultural encounters

Figure 7-1 Process of Intercultural Learning (Grosch and Leenen 2000, 29, translated by the author of the paper) According to the scheme, intercultural learning is a long-lasting process triggered by an encounter between people belonging to different cultures. Grosch and Leenen (2000, 30) underline the value of intercultural encounters as incentives intensifying one’s experience of a foreign culture. Additionally, the voluntary character of the contacts, equality of status and the intensity of the relations can have a positive impact on the result of the meeting. The fact that both unconscious accidental situations (meetings) and formal ones (education) contribute to the start of a learning process is worth emphasising. Development of intercultural competence understood as “the ability to communicate effectively in cross-cultural situations and to relate appropriately in a variety of cultural contexts” (Bennett and Bennett 2004, 149) is a result of the described process.

5. The place of intercultural communication in the current LSP teaching Intercultural learning has many functions that can be easily incorporated in the language teaching curriculum. Lafraya (2011, 14) names the following: x increasing the awareness of the positive value of cultural diversity x establishing potential cooperation between representatives of foreign cultures

Joanna Kic-Drgas

101

x communication on an equal footing between people from different cultural backgrounds The realisation of these functions is vital for establishing a balance between the LSP class and intercultural learning. First of all, it is necessary to consider the place of interculturality in the specific domain of language teaching. Liddicoat and Scarino (2013, 196) maintain the following: Language education, because its focus is on language, will inevitably privilege language as the entry point to cultures. (…) The aim of intercultural language teaching and learning is not to displace language as the core focus of language education but to ensure that language is integrated with culture in conceptualising language culture.

Bearing the pragmatic aspect of language teaching in mind, one sees that the LSP classroom gives many opportunities to implement the suggested aim. Since learners attending an LSP course are eager to communicate with foreigners in professional situations in the future, knowledge of the foreign culture and the variety of behaviour patterns connected with belonging to the culture is meaningful for them. The only problem appearing at that stage of reflection of interculturality and LSP teaching is how the intercultural content should be integrated in the foreign language course. The analysis conducted in the next part of the article will encompass the following aspects: x regularity of presentation and discussion of intercultural issues x ways of introducing intercultural issues in the class x examples of practical exercises implemented as an incentive to argue the intercultural topics

6. Practical aspects of intercultural LSP In language teaching, theory meets practice. The statement gains new meaning in the context of the intercultural LSP class. First of all, this is because the participants are usually adults (seldom teenagers), the majority of whom have already experienced contact with foreigners. That is why they have certain expectations concerning the LSP classroom, and want to focus mainly on developing communicational skills. Secondly, LSP methodology differs from GL teaching as it refers to certain situations in which learners use language specific for a particular domain. The reasons mentioned above lead to the conclusion that the introduction of intercultural

102

Aspects of Intercultural Communication in LSP Teaching

topics in the LSP classroom should take the specificity of the learners’ profile into account (Kic-Drgas 2014, 84–86). The needs of LSP learners are the starting point for designing the way intercultural aspects can be incorporated in the foreign language syllabus. Bearing in mind the previous experience and motivation to learn, intercultural issues should be treated as an integral part of the teaching process. In the context of LSP, three kinds of exercises can be differentiated: x exercises introducing intercultural content x simulation exercises revising gained knowledge x grammar and lexical exercises with intercultural content in the background The first group of exercises aims to introduce intercultural issues in a foreign language class. The exercises can be preceded by a short introduction or implemented without it. In the latter solution, learners usually act more freely, which increases the reality of the stimulated situation. A good way to start a discussion devoted to intercultural issues is to play an intercultural game or ask learners to solve a case study. The second of the discussed categories encompasses revision-oriented tasks, which should be planned in the LSP programme a few weeks after the initial presentation of the topic. Finally, the third group includes exercises whose main aim is not to present intercultural aspects in the LSP teaching but to revise some grammar of lexical structures with regard to intercultural examples in the background. The suggested division looks back on the aim and scope of the raised intercultural issues. Exercises vary in both form and length: some of them (especially those from the first group) can be planned for the entire class; others only have a short-lasting character and are foreseen as 2–3-minute activities completing the analysed topic. To illustrate the described diversity, the next part of the article provides an insight into some exercises representing these categories.

6.1. An intercultural game The most transparent example of intercultural tasks is an intercultural game (more in Losche 2005). The game presented here is modified by the author of this paper for the conditions and aims of the LSP classroom. The main aim of the game (a business meeting simulation) is to emphasise cultural diversity and its consequences. Learners are divided into two groups representing business partners coming from different

Joanna Kic-Drgas

103

countries and, at the same time, from different cultures. Both parties have to negotiate a very important agreement. Each group receives a very detailed description of their own financial possibilities and, bearing that in mind, they negotiate the most profitable conditions. Additionally, one group receives a description of rules of behaviour and expectations towards the second group that can be presented only in a non-verbal way. The other group receives only the list of expectations towards the behaviour of the second group. One modification that can be implemented is an independent person (observer) taking notes during the meeting of groups’ representatives. After finishing the game, the participants are expected to share their opinions of the behaviour of the representatives of the other group, the biggest obstacles in their communication, ways of overcoming them and the end results of the negotiations. The game provides the following benefits: x encourages learners to reflect on their own attitude to cross-cultural differences x gives the opportunity to face a real business situation and adjust to unexpected conditions x teaches how to deal with obstacles and solve problems occurring during negotiations x presents the value of non-verbal communication

6.2. Case study Case studies can be incorporated as a tool to raise intercultural issues. While working on a case study, learners can work in groups, cooperating together, or think about a solution to the problem individually. An example of a case study involving specific knowledge is shown below. The Chinese supervisor of a big corporation has a meeting with his English partner. Both men have a very important issue to discuss. The Chinese man starts asking the Englishman about his family life and the English partner feels embarrassed and tries to avoid answering the questions. After a few minutes, the Chinese partner feels offended and does not want to continue the discussion. The English businessman does not know why or how he has offended the business partner. At the same time, the Chinese partner feels disrespected. He followed the typical Chinese business protocol, which indicates asking about family life before moving on to business. After analysing the problem, learners are asked to:

104

Aspects of Intercultural Communication in LSP Teaching

x identify the patterns of behaviour of the English and the Chinese businessmen x discuss the source of misunderstanding between them x make suggestions for solving the problem The exercise x introduces the intercultural problem with a real example, and x encourages discussions about cross-cultural differences and the significance of intercultural knowledge in the business world.

6.3. Visual materials Visual materials can trigger an intercultural discussion, promote crosscultural understanding and encourage learners to consider the value of intercultural knowledge in the context of specific language usage. There are special materials prepared artificially for foreign language teaching, but working with original materials, containing some elements of interculturality in them but fulfilling something other than educational aims, for instance, HSBC advertisements (to be found on the www.youtube.com/watch?v=GOHvMz7dl2A, date of access: 20th March, 2014), is much more interesting and creative. The advertisements mentioned above refer to various intercultural issues, such as non-verbal communication, masculinity vs. femininity in different cultures, behaviour at the table, etc. Played without a soundtrack or stopped every few minutes, the materials provide a number of possibilities not only for developing speaking skills but also for raising intercultural awareness.

7. Conclusion Intercultural education has found its place in foreign language teaching. Modern life creates the necessity of understanding other cultures and being able to communicate with others in spite of a number of differences. This well-known aspect of traditional foreign language teaching cannot be underestimated in LSP teaching.

Joanna Kic-Drgas

105

Bibliography Arent, Russel. 2009. “Bridging the Cross-cultural Gap”. www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472033577-ch1.pdf. (date of access: 20th March, 2014). Bennett, Janet M. (ed.). 1998. Basic Concepts of Intercultural Communication: Selected Readings. London: Intercultural Press. Bennett, Janet M., Milton J. Bennett. 2004. “Developing Intercultural Sensitivity: An Integrative Approach to Goal and Domestic Diversity”. In: Dan Landis, Janet M. Bennet, Milton J. Bennet (eds.), Handbook of Intercultural Training. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 147–65. Butterfield, Jeff. 2010. Verbal Communication: Illustrated Course Guides. Boston: Cengage Learning. Carroll, John B. (ed.). 1956. “Introduction”. Language, Thought and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge: Technology Press of Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Grosch, Rainer W., Harald Leenen. 2000. “Bausteine zur Grundlegung interkullturellen Lernens”. In: Ulrich Dovermann, Ludger Reiberg (eds.), Interkulturelles Lernen. Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 29–48. Gudykunst, William B. 2000. “Methodological Issues in Conducting Theory-Based Cross-cultural Research”. In: Helen Spencer-Oatey (ed.), Culturally Speaking. Managing Rapport through Talk across Cultures. London: Continuum, 293–315. Kic-Drgas, Joanna. 2014. “Effective Business English Teaching and Learning”. Global Management Journal 2014/1, 82–87. Lafraya, Susana. 2011. Intercultural Learning in Non-Formal Education: Theoretical Frameworks and Starting Points. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. Landis, Dan, Janet M. Bennet, Milton J. Bennet (eds.). 2004. Handbook of Intercultural Training. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Liddicoat, Anthony J., Angela Scarino (eds.). 2013. Intercultural Language Teaching and Learning. West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons. Losche, Helga. 2005. Interkulturelle Kommunikation. Sammlung praktischer Spiele und Übungen. Augsburg: Ziel. Maslow, Abraham. 1954. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper. Matsumoto, David, Mark G. Frank, Hyi Sung Hwang (eds.). 2013. Nonverbal Communication: Science and Applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

106

Aspects of Intercultural Communication in LSP Teaching

Samovar, Larry, Richard Porter, Edwin McDaniel, Carolyn Roy (eds.). 2013. Intercultural Communication: A Reader. Boston: Cengage Learning. Wiener, Morton, Robert Shilkret, Shannon Devoe. 1980. “‘Acquisition’ of Communication Competence. Is Language Enough?” In: Mary Ritchie Key (ed.), The Relationship of Verbal and Nonverbal Communication. Mouton Publishers: The Hague, 275–95. Williams, Reynold. 1983. Keywords. London: Fontana.

DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE WITH LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE AND M-LEARNING JACEK TADEUSZ WALIēSKI

This paper discusses a basic scenario of m-learning activities for a situated in-the-field examination of cultural diversity using the linguistic landscape approach, i.e., a systematic examination of written displays of minority languages in the public space. By participating in content exchange via the Web 2.0 paradigm, where learners act as both media consumers and media creators, they can raise their cultural awareness through empirical hands-on exploration of the surrounding linguistic reality in a local environment. Exploration of cultural diversity conducted in the framework of connectivism using m-learning activities can be used to demonstrate that cultural awareness tends to be heavily influenced by personal perspectives and common stereotypes. Autonomous discovery of that phenomenon from the pedagogical perspective of authentic and informal learning results in an increased cultural awareness, which elevates participants’ intercultural competence.

1. Introduction The development of intercultural awareness has already been perceived for some time (e.g., RHLEFM 2008; CEDEFOP 2009) as a basic condition for peaceful and prosperous coexistence in these modern times of highly accelerated globalisation and glocalisation. An ability to handle communication in culturally diverse environments is no longer required only of professionals working in international settings, but has become a key qualification sought after by employers (Deardorff and Hunter 2006). As expressed by Spitzberg and Changnon (2009, 4), “[w]ith ample opportunities for employment overseas, it becomes important for

108

Intercultural Competence with Linguistic Landscape and M-Learning

internationally competitive business to hire interculturally competent employees, if only for the future success of the business”. The cultural diversity of a given environment can be investigated with linguistic landscape methodology, which is a rapidly growing field of research that can be essentially defined as a systematic examination of written displays of minority languages in the public space (Shohamy and Gorter 2009). An inextricable link between cultural diversity and its linguistic presence is stated in the Universal Declaration of Cultural Diversity (UNESCO 2002). The research discussed in this paper follows the assumption that an exploration of cultural diversity can be situated in an environment fairly familiar to the participants. As put by Byram, Nichols and Stevens (2001, 17), “people who live in a particular country do not know intuitively or otherwise the whole of the culture of that country because there are in fact many cultures within a country”. This study explores the hypothesis that linguistic landscape exploration, conducted with proper interaction, collaboration and interpretation of results via m-learning activities can contribute positively to intercultural competence development.

2. Linguistic landscape The idea of linguistic landscape (henceforth, LL) was developed in sociolinguistics by Landry and Bourhis (1997, 25), who described it as follows: “The language of public road signs, advertising billboards, street names, place names, commercial shop signs, and public signs on government buildings combines to form the linguistic landscape of a given territory, region, or urban agglomeration”. This description is regarded (e.g., Gorter, Marten and van Mensel 2012) as the reference point for subsequent developments in the field. The linguistic landscape, essentially understood as counting languages on written signs inside and outside various types of buildings and subjecting them to different levels of analysis, also frequently embraces qualitative data in the form of background interviews and thorough examinations of collected language samples. Combined with other sources of data, such as information on spoken language traditions or language legislation, it contributes to a better understanding of the dynamics of cultural diversity in a particular area as it takes into account language demographics, attitudes and policies (Gorter et al. 2012, 3–4). LL entails multilingualism, which in the era of dynamic globalisation and glocalisation is often manifested through the presence of minority languages (in all senses discussed above) in the linguistic landscape of a

Jacek Tadeusz WaliĔski

109

given region (Gorter 2006, 81–82). Since any linguistic landscape is an entirely human-made phenomenon, it reflects the cultural reality of a given location. Consequently, it can be used to investigate how language signs reflect language demographics and the attitudes of a given region to discover the underlying cultural diversity. An important aspect of LL research involves various types of minority languages. One major distinction made by Gorter et al. (2012, 5–6) concerns autochthonous (or traditional) and migrant (or new) minority languages, although, as emphasised by Extra and Gorter (2008, 9), these groups have much more in common than is usually noticed. Another crucial distinction relates to the difference between unique minority languages, i.e., ones existing only as minority languages (e.g., Basque or Welsh), and local-only minority languages, i.e., ones that are majority languages in another state (e.g., Polish in Lithuania). Gorter et al. (2012) emphasise, however, that such distinctions are not always easily applicable to real-life situations; hence, in each particular case they are, at least to some extent, arbitrary. Another point in question in LL research concerns the unit of analysis. Although all LL studies take into consideration language signs, there are different views on what should be considered a valid language sign for the linguistic landscape. Backhaus (2007, 66) defines it quite broadly as “any piece of written text within a spatially definable frame”. Traditionally, most LL studies have been based on static linguistic signs. However, as noted by Gorter et al. (2012, 6), this perspective seems to be somewhat outdated nowadays when, especially in urban regions, we are surrounded by flat screen displays and other dynamic visual signs that have gained enormous popularity.

3. Mobile learning Mobile learning (henceforth, m-learning) is often associated with learning delivered by mobile handheld devices such as smartphones, tablets, portable music players, etc., usually connected wirelessly to the Internet. Although such devices are central to conducting m-learning activities, such conceptualisations of m-learning have been recently viewed as rather constraining (e.g., Kukulska-Hulme 2010) since they are limited to current technological instantiations, which tend to become obsolete before gaining widespread use in education. Other proponents of m-learning (Winters 2006; Sharples, Milrad, Sánchez and Vavoula 2009) conceptualise m-learning in terms of the mobility of learning. This aspect is highly important because extending

110

Intercultural Competence with Linguistic Landscape and M-Learning

learners’ mobility changes both the nature of learning and the variety of ways in which it can be delivered. However, as emphasised by Traxler (2009, 15), the nature of learning mobility can be viewed differently by different learners: for some people it may be associated with reading on a laptop computer while commuting to school while for others it may be hands-free listening to podcasts while exercising. Because the above interpretations somewhat constrain the understanding of m-learning, it has become apparent that its full conceptualisation is still emerging. Moreover, as noted by Traxler (2009, 14), the present distinction between m-learning and e-learning appears to be temporary since, with the advent of portable devices, wireless connectivity, and extended battery life, these two concepts may soon merge into one. Therefore, Traxler (2009) proposes viewing m-learning from the underlying learner experience. What distinguishes m-learning from other forms of electronic education is the emphasis put on the ownership, informality, mobility, and educational contexts that are inaccessible to conventional, i.e., desktopbound, e-learning. Kukulska-Hulme (2010, 181) points out that m-learning is more specific than e-learning in its focus on mobility, which greatly extends the control of time and location that learners have over their learning activity by broadening learning opportunities in comparison to the traditional e-learning. Since m-learning is closely tied to e-learning as well as distance education, any attempts to develop its definition and implications must take into account that it occurs differently in different educational contexts. Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler (2007) undertook an extensive analysis of research conducted in different learning contexts (including a large number of pilots, case studies and trials) to specify emerging categories of m-learning. One distinguished category involves informal, personalised, situated m-learning, which takes place when “mobile, wireless and handheld technologies are enhanced with additional functionality, e.g. location awareness or video-capture, and deployed to deliver educational experiences that would otherwise be difficult or impossible” (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler 2007, 182). This study focuses on that particular category.

3.1. Pedagogical characteristics of m-learning Among different characteristics of m-learning, one that is particularly significant for this study is the aspect of situated learning (Lave and Wenger 1991), which implies that in the course of educational activity, learning takes place in appropriate and meaningful contexts. Because

Jacek Tadeusz WaliĔski

111

situated m-learning supports context-specific and immediate learning that situates and connects learners (Traxler 2009, 18), this aspect is perfectly suited to the linguistic landscape methodology. It enables students to act as apprentices in the process of hands-on exploration of local cultural diversity, which results in their participation in the learning community. This study puts a strong emphasis on informal education (Livingstone 1999), which can be essentially defined as learning involving the pursuit of knowledge that occurs without the presence of externally imposed curricular criteria but is conducted under the guidance of an institutionallyrecognised instructor. It involves a transition from the knowledge production paradigm to the knowledge navigation paradigm (Brown 2005), where both formal and informal approaches to learning are mixed, and the traditional teacher’s role changes to that of a mentor. Another aspect of m-learning particularly relevant to linguistic landscape investigations is the aspect of authentic learning, which implies that learning is centred around authentic tasks that enable students “to explore, discuss, and meaningfully connect concepts and relationships that are relevant to the real-world and are meaningful to the students” (Donovan, Bransford and Pellegrino 1999). While investigating the local linguistic landscape, learners become directly involved in the inquiry of cultural diversity, which provides them with opportunities to pursue meaningful problems and become engaged in the social discourse. Moreover, the implementation of m-learning discussed in this paper falls into the pedagogical framework of connectivism (Siemens 2005), in which learning is focused on connecting specialised information sets collected by individuals involved in the learning process. These connections enable learners to gain new knowledge, which expands their current state of knowing. The experience of individuals involved in the investigation of cultural diversity is fed back into a shared linguistic landscape to create new knowledge for all students involved in the process. Collaborative activities enable learners to gain new knowledge through the connections they have formed while examining the local cultural diversity with the linguistic landscape methodology.

4. Intercultural competence Terms such as intercultural competence or intercultural effectiveness can be traced back to the 1970s and 1980s, when various efforts were undertaken to develop a list of intercultural competence characteristics. They showed that any comprehensive measures applied in this context must be multidimensional in nature (Spitzberg and Changnon 2009). For a

112

Intercultural Competence with Linguistic Landscape and M-Learning

long time, the conceptualisation of intercultural competence (henceforth, IC) had not been completely agreed between various disciplines, terminologies and theoretical frameworks, which inspired Darla Deardorff (2004; 2009) to conduct a comprehensive survey in order to identify the components incorporated in that concept. Her outcome-based definition, which has achieved wide consensus among intercultural scholars, sees IC as “effective and appropriate communication and behaviour in intercultural situations based on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills and attitudes” (Deardorff 2008, 39). Deardorff’s definition is accompanied by an extensive, multidimensional cyclical model that visualises the development of IC from a personal to an interpersonal level of interactions. The model shows that the process of IC development can be viewed as a movement from individual internal outcomes, characterised by personal intercultural reflection and attitudes, to external outcomes, which result in effective interaction in intercultural contexts. Altogether Deardorff identifies over 20 elements that were agreed upon by international scholars and professionals in the field, including knowledge, skills, attitudes, comprehension and tolerance. Her model presumes that the development of IC skills is an ongoing learning process that involves, among other crucial elements, curiosity and discovery, which are necessary to transform one’s attitude, knowledge and skills to become sensitive to cultural differences in situations where language functions as a means of interaction and communication. This is consistent with views expressed by European scholars (e.g., Byram, Nichols and Stevens 2001; Byram, Gribkova and Starkey 2002). Byram puts the skill of discovery and interaction, understood as “the ability to acquire new knowledge of a culture and cultural practices and the ability to operate knowledge, attitudes and skills under the constraints of realtime communication and interaction” (Byram et al. 2002, 14), among the basic skills involved in the process. Therefore, a key aspect of IC development is the opportunity to discover and evaluate as well as to analyse and interpret various phenomena related to other cultures since the acquisition of intercultural competence takes place through the discovery, interaction and interpretation of other cultures’ manifestations.

5. Implementing linguistic landscape with m-learning The study discussed in this paper aimed to elevate students’ intercultural awareness through the empirical discovery, analysis and interpretation of a linguistic landscape implemented with m-learning activities. It was conducted at the Institute of English Studies of the University of Lodz in

Jacek Tadeusz WaliĔski

113

Autumn 2012. The target group consisted of 20 students in an MA programme in English Philology. Lodz is the third-largest city in Poland, located in the central part of the country, with a population of over 700,000 citizens. Over the last few years, the city has seen many foreign companies open offices in the region. Consequently, the city shows numerous traces of cultural diversity in its linguistic landscape. The investigation was conducted in the context of a local environment, i.e., a location familiar to participants (cf. WaliĔski, in press, for a similar study conducted in a foreign environment). The location was limited to a 700-metre stretch of the main street (Piotrkowska), restricted by two crossstreets. Students’ familiarity with the location facilitated the mapping of the identified language signs, and prevented participants from wandering off the exploration site. The activity was conducted in two stages, with the following scenario: 1) Initial tutoring and instruction, including the collection of students’ predictions about foreign languages manifested on the site of exploration (30 minutes). 2) Introduction to the linguistic landscape methodology and assignment of exploration quadrants to students (15 minutes). 3) Exploration and data collection conducted with mobile phones (60 minutes). 4) Mapping the linguistic landscape onto a common shared map in Google Maps; sharing impressions from exploration (45 minutes). 5) Discussion based on comparison of predictions with empirical data acquired through hands-on examination. Summary of differences between the subjective intuitions and objective empirical findings (30 minutes). The activity was conducted in two stages, each taking two teaching hours. The study focused on migrant minority languages, whose visibility stems from mixing different cultures in modern Europe. The participants, as advanced philology students, were expected to have a fairly extensive knowledge of various languages. They were encouraged to look for all foreign language signs they could possibly recognise. The unit of analysis for the LL exploration was specified broadly as “any visible foreign language sign that could be spotted”, including both outdoor and indoor locations in the vicinity of the street. Data collection was conducted using a simple methodology. Students took pictures of the spotted language signs with mobile phone cameras, and noted their locations. Only personal mobile phones were used for data

114

Intercultural Competence with Linguistic Landscape and M-Learning

collection – no additional technical equipment was required to conduct this type of activity. The transfer of the locations of the foreign language signs to a commonly shared map of the linguistic landscape was achieved with the use of Google Maps – a popular web service provided free of charge by Google (see: maps.google.com). It enables marking locations on electronic maps and, what is especially crucial in this case, it allows for each marked location to be marked with a picture. Moreover, such maps can be shared publically.

5.1. Notes on m-learning activities At the beginning, the aims of the activity were explained to the students, who were asked to think about their personal perspectives on the cultural diversity in Lodz and to prepare lists of five foreign languages that they expected to see in the central part of the city, i.e., the exploration site. These initial predictions allowed the students’ starting level of cultural awareness to be identified. It should be noted that all participants who took part in the study had previously studied in Lodz for an extended time and had a general familiarity with the exploration site. For the actual exploration activity, the students were divided into ten pairs, each requested to visit a different area assigned as a quadrant specified by address numbers on either the left or right side of the street. The students were encouraged to continue exploration until at least ten public inscriptions in foreign languages were discovered. During the exploration, a ranking of languages expected to feature in the location was compiled by the instructor based on the students’ lists. When the exploration activity had ended, foreign language signs accompanied by pictures taken with mobile phones were mapped with the help of the instructor in Google Maps, which took about 45 minutes. In the meantime, short informal discussions were held with the returning teams, which allowed participants to share impressions from the exploration. All participants enjoyed the informal, hands-on exploration of foreign culture manifestations. A tangible outcome of the exploration activity was a shared electronic map with foreign language sign locations, each accompanied by a picture of the sign. During the final stage of the session, the students compared their predictions with the linguistic landscape emergent from the data obtained empirically, which provided an opportunity to expand their perspectives on the local cultural diversity.

Jacek Tadeusz WaliĔski

115

6. Observations and conclusions The activities demonstrated some evident discrepancies between the students’ expectations based on subjective intuitions and what was discovered through the situated connected learning based on the empirical exploration. The following 11 languages were included in the students’ predictions: English (20 predictions); Spanish (17); German (15); Italian (15); French (13); Chinese (8); Turkish (7); Japanese (2); Czech (1); Russian (1); Vietnamese (1). The linguistic landscape revealed 9 languages in the exploration site, including: English (45 signs); French (12); German (7); Turkish (4); Chinese (3); Japanese (2); Italian (2); Greek (1); Dutch (1). The listing shows that top positions in the students’ lists were occupied by popular European languages, i.e., English, French, German, Italian and Spanish. The participants rightly expected English to be ubiquitous in the linguistic landscape of the city (cf. Bolton, 2012). Obviously, it was not only prevalent but also particularly recognisable for the English Philology students taking part in the study. Additionally, it seems that French and German tend to occupy prominent positions in the students’ mind-sets as they were both included in numerous predictions and spotted in numerous signs. However, some other languages observed in the area differed from the students’ expectations as to their prevalence. For example, the expected visibility of Spanish was not confirmed in the exploration site at all. Moreover, Italian was not as strongly visible as had been expected. When asked why they see these languages as important in the city landscape, some students replied that they learn those languages either in mandatory university courses or of their own accord in language schools. Such discrepancies indicate that our perception of the local cultural diversity is significantly affected by individual subjective representations: what we recognise as important is what we already know. Furthermore, no signs of Czech, Russian, or Vietnamese were spotted in the exploration site but traces of Greek and Dutch were found instead. This indicates that the objective reality does not necessarily overlap with personal expectations. A further indication that we perceive local cultural diversity from the perspective of individual cognitive representations is the conspicuous absence (both in predictions and spotted signs) of other less popular European languages, e.g., Norwegian, Portuguese, Romanian, etc. Although they were neither included in predictions nor spotted in the exploration, this does not necessarily mean that they do not function in the exploration site. It rather indicates that they escape perception because they are not widely recognised.

116

Intercultural Competence with Linguistic Landscape and M-Learning

Obviously, the above-discussed study is too limited (short time, few participants, small exploration site) to discuss general cognitive schemas pertaining to cultural diversity perception. However, the activity fulfilled its aim, which was to demonstrate that awareness of foreign cultures in the local surroundings tends to be biased by individual perspectives and stereotypes. When the above findings were summarised, the participants admitted that the activity exposed some foreign cultures somehow neglected in their mind-sets. For example, different Asian cultures frequently tend to be approached superficially under the umbrella notion of “Chinese” (cf. WaliĔski, in press). Moreover, the students learned that some cultures perceived as “common” from individual perspectives are not necessarily strongly manifested in the local linguistic landscape. The students admitted that their perception of the local cultural diversity had changed. As pointed out by Deardorff (2008, 36), attitudes of respect, openness, curiosity, and discovery for acquiring and processing knowledge about other cultures are fundamental to the development of the much desired internal outcomes characterised by personal stance and intercultural reflection. Thus, broadening cultural awareness is a sound foothold for further intercultural competence development. Taken together, the results indicate that cultures that are not fully recognised in cognition become, at least to some extent, neglected in our perspectives on cultural diversity, even if they are strongly manifested in the linguistic landscape. This observation goes along the lines of Piaget’s theory of schemata (Inhelder and Piaget 1958), Papert’s theory of constructionism (Harel and Papert 1991) and constructivist assertions that learning is based both upon experience of external objects and former knowledge (Jonassen 1991). It is also congruent with the cognitive “Me First” principle of world perception (Cooper and Ross 1975), as well as findings on the level of mental construal of distant and near phenomena (Trope and Liberman 2010). In more general terms, the study demonstrates that crucial for the successful implementation of m-learning in real-life educational settings is not the technology itself but how we use it to create enhanced learning experiences. The study shows how relatively unproblematic it is to employ m-learning for an effective and entertaining learning experience used for pursuit of meaningful problems, which are not easily detectable otherwise. Moreover, the above-presented scenario provides for a contextualisation of learning, which is achievable to a much greater extent with m-learning than would ever be possible with traditional e-learning.

Jacek Tadeusz WaliĔski

117

Bibliography Backhaus, Peter. 2007. Linguistic Landscapes: A Comparative Study of Urban Multilingualism in Tokyo. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Bolton, Kingsley. 2012. “World Englishes and Linguistic Landscapes”. World Englishes 31, 30–33. Brown, Tom H. 2005. “Beyond Constructivism: Exploring Future Learning Paradigms”. Education Today, Vol. 2. Thames, NZ: Aries Publishing Company. Byram, Michael, Bella Gribkova, Hugh Starkey. 2002. Developing the Intercultural Dimension in Language Teaching: A Practical Introduction for Teachers. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Byram, Michael, Adam Nichols, David Stevens (eds.). 2001. Developing Intercultural Competence in Practice. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. CEDEFOP. 2009. Skills for Europe’s Future: Anticipating Occupational Skills Needs. Luxembourg: Official Publications of the European Communities. Cooper, William E., John. R. Ross. 1975. “World Order”. In: Robin E. Grossman, James L. San, Timothy J. Vance (eds.), Papers from the Parasession on Functionalism. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society, 63–111. Deardorff, Darla K. 2004. The Identification and Assessment of Intercultural Competence as a Student Outcome of Internationalization at Institutions of Higher Education in the US [PhD dissertation]. North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC. —. 2008. “Intercultural Competence: A Definition, Model, and Implications for Education Abroad”. In: Victor Savicki (ed.), Developing Intercultural Competence and Transformation. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing, 32–52. Deardorff, Darla K. (ed.). 2009. The SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Competence. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Deardorff, Darla K., William Hunter. 2006. “Educating Global-ready Graduates”. International Educator 15, 72–83. Donovan, M. Suzanne, John D. Bransford, James W. Pellegrino (eds.). 1999. How People Learn. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Extra, Guus, Durk Gorter (eds.). 2008. Multilingual Europe: Facts and Policies. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Gorter, Durk. 2006. “Further Possibilities for Linguistic Landscape Research”. In: Durk Gorter (ed.), Linguistic Landscape: A New Approach to Multilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 81–89.

118

Intercultural Competence with Linguistic Landscape and M-Learning

Gorter, Durk, Heiko F. Marten, Luk van Mensel (eds.). 2012. Minority Languages in the Linguistic Landscape. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Harel, Idit, Seymour Papert. 1991. Constructionism. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Inhelder, Bärbel, Jean Piaget. 1958. The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence. New York: Routledge. Jonassen, David H. 1991. “Evaluating Constructivistic Learning”. Educational Technology 31, 28–33. Kukulska-Hulme, Agnes. 2010. “Mobile Learning as a Catalyst for Change”. Open Learning: The Journal of Open and Distance Learning 25, 181–85. Kukulska-Hulme, Agnes, John Traxler. 2007. “Designing for Mobile and Wireless Learning”. In: Helen Beetham, Rhona Sharpe (eds.), Rethinking Pedagogy for a Digital Age. New York: Routledge, 180– 92. Landry, Rodrigue, Richard Y. Bourhis. 1997. “Linguistic Landscape and Ethnolinguistic Vitality”. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 16, 23–49. Lave, Jean, Etienne Wenger. 1991. Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Livingstone, David W. 1999. “Exploring the Icebergs of Adult Learning”. The Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult Education 13, 49–72. RHLEFM. 2008. Making Learning Mobility an Opportunity for All [Report of the High Level Expert Forum on Mobility]. Brussels: European Commission. Sharples, Mike, Marcelo Milrad, Inmaculada Arnedillo Sánchez, Giasemi Vavoula. 2009. “Mobile Learning: Small Devices, Big Issues”. In: Nicolas Balacheff, Sten Ludvigsen, Ton de Jong, Ard Lazonder, Sally Barnes, Ton de Jong (eds.), Technology Enhanced Learning. Heidelberg: Springer, 233–49. Shohamy, Elana, Durk Gorter (eds.). 2009. Linguistic Landscape: Expanding the Scenery. New York: Routledge. Siemens, George. 2005. “Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age”. Inter. Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning 2, 3–10. Spitzberg, Brian H., Gabrielle Changnon. 2009. “Conceptualizing Intercultural Competence”. In: Darla Deardorff (ed.), The SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Competence. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2–53. Traxler, John. 2009. “Current State of Mobile Learning”. In: Mohamed Ally (ed.), Mobile Learning. Edmonton: AU Press, 9–24.

Jacek Tadeusz WaliĔski

119

Trope, Yaacov, Nira Liberman. 2010. “Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance”. Psychological Review 117, 440–63. UNESCO. 2002. “Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity”. In: UNESCO Records of the General Conference, 31st Session. Paris: UNESCO. WaliĔski, Jacek. In press. “Application of New Media in the Linguistic Landscape Approach to Increasing Cultural Awareness in Foreign Environments”. In: Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, Monika Kopytowska et al. (eds.), Languages and Cultures in Contact and in Contrast. Chambery: Savoy University Press. Winters, Niall. 2006. “What is Mobile Learning?” In: Mike Sharples (ed.), Big Issues in Mobile Learning. Nottingham: University of Nottingham, 5–9.

WOMAN WITH UMBRELLA THEN AND NOW: PAINTINGS, SOUNDTRACKS AND PAPARAZZI IN THE GERMAN-AS-A-FOREIGN-LANGUAGE CLASSROOM EMILIE MARTINEZ

Gerhard Richter’s painting Frau mit Schirm (Woman with Umbrella) (1964), one of his most famous portraits, is based on a newspaper photograph. Viewers are fascinated by this painting because of the mysterious and yet everyday identity of the subject, Jackie Kennedy, while the title picked by Richter evokes associations with Monet’s impressionist paintings. As cultural products, paintings convey messages. Richter’s portrait conveys messages about the positive sides of being the First Lady, such as fame, as well as the dark side of this phenomenon, such as the loss of anonymity: Kennedy was constantly followed by paparazzi, and was hiding behind a mask, both figuratively and literally. This paper presents didactic and methodic concepts for using paintings in the foreign language classroom with international, young-adult university students. The author of the article demonstrates how she encourages her learners of the German language to experience art in relation to current social and political topics. She focuses on the potentials of paintings, such as their creative and emotional power and their status as cultural and artistic products; she also discusses ways of using movie soundtracks and paintings within task-based approaches to learning.

1. Introduction Women with umbrellas are a typical motif of the impressionist era. One of the most famous examples is Monet’s series of a woman with an umbrella, which depict female figures, who are sometimes accompanied by a child. One example is La promenade (The Walk), for which Monet’s wife and

122

Woman with Umbrella Then and Now

child posed in the 1870s. The umbrella (or parasol) seems to be a symbol of the upper class that the female figure belongs to. This mark of female elegance is also present in Richter’s Frau mit Schirm (Woman with Umbrella) (1964), but seems to hold additional significance. This paper begins with a comparison between the works of Richter and Monet then moves into teaching German as a foreign language through art-integrated lessons. The tasks discussed in this paper were assigned to university students who participated in a German-as-a-foreign-language lesson based on the creative and narrative power of paintings. Both of the aforementioned paintings representing women with umbrellas were analysed as cultural products, with students reflecting on the messages they conveyed. Reflections included the function of the umbrella in both Monet’s and Richter’s paintings. As Krawiec (2012, 90–91) notes, art as an object of aesthetic feelings, a source of knowledge about societies and their cultures and an inducer of emotional reactions among people […] can achieve its educational aim only when it is properly and carefully perceived, experienced and comprehended.

Comprehending art implicitly incorporates the various contexts – psychological, social and political – related to art pieces. A work of art can be defined as a “culture document” (Badstübner-Kizik 2002, 8; translated from the German “Kulturdokument”). Students were tasked with reflecting on these contexts, as well as on the issues surrounding the paparazzi, as represented in Richter’s photorealistic Woman with Umbrella, which is based on a paparazzi photograph of Jackie Kennedy. In order to boost the emotional reactions aroused by paintings, the teacher-researcher combined visual (paintings) and auditory mediums (instrumental music in the form of movie soundtracks) when working with the students, thus adopting the concept of “mixed media” (Heibach 2004, 165), which refers to the coexistence of various media which do not undergo any conceptual transformation. The first part of this paper is based on the idea that every work of art is a mirror of its social context (Antweiler 2009, 95; Martinez 2013, 146; Schuster 2011, 281). This section discusses the role of the umbrella in both Monet’s and Richter’s above-mentioned paintings. In order to focus on the umbrella, the titles of the paintings will be discussed in their original languages, German and French. In the next part of the paper, taskbased approaches within an art-integrated German-as-a-foreign-language lesson will be described in detail, following Badstübner-Kizik’s recommendations for the use of works of art in the foreign language

Emilie Martinez

123

classroom. The reactions of two groups of university students – one from Spain and one from Germany – who attended the same art-integrated German lesson in their respective countries, will be presented in order to emphasise the advantages and disadvantages of such a pedagogical concept. As a whole, the paper will open new perspectives for foreign language learning and teaching through the artistic mediums of painting and instrumental music (e.g., movie soundtracks).

2. Richter’s and Monet’s Woman with Umbrella 2.1. Richter’s Woman with Umbrella Gerhard Richter is one of the most famous German painters worldwide; he “just needs to want it and all [gallery walls] are ready for him” (Schreiber 2007, 12). Since his start as a painter in the former German Democratic Republic and his move to West Germany in the 1960s, he has constantly changed his style; in addition to trying all the traditional genres, he has also created abstract paintings. Honnef (1969; as cited in Elger 2008, 186), who had the opportunity to comment on Richter’s very first public exhibition in Western Germany, spoke of Richter’s “style break as a style rule” (translated from the German “Stilbruch als Stilprinzip”). Richter could thus be nicknamed the German chameleon. The German painter became successful for his interpretation of ready-made art and his rejection of Pop Art (as typified by the American artist Warhol). Richter did not believe in abandoning the medium of painting, and refused to move away from it as other artists of his generation did. He therefore approached ready-made art by using photographs as a basis for his paintings. These photographs represented his “present” (Richter 1986; as cited in Elger and Obrist 2008, 175; translated from the original German) without “any specific topic choice” (Richter 1964; as cited in Elger 2008, 22; translated from the original German). In most cases, Richter reproduced magazine photographs realistically, but intentionally blurred. Woman with Umbrella is an exception in that it is not very blurred. In addition, the figure depicted on it is not an anonymous woman, as in most of his paintings, but a famous American figure (Butin 1993, 26). However, at first glance, Kennedy could be any woman holding an umbrella on a rainy day, covering her mouth perhaps because she is yawning. Richter is convinced that Kennedy’s gesture of covering her mouth has a deep meaning as an expression of her fate: “I was very much touched by the way her fate is expressed by a single gesture” (Richter 1981; as cited in Elger 2008, 269; translated from the original German). Indeed, former

124

Woman with Umbrella Then and Now

president John F. Kennedy had been assassinated only a few months before this paparazzi photograph was taken, casting Woman with Umbrella as a symbol of a mourning woman. The fact that this woman could, in fact, be anyone is probably why Richter did not want to represent Jackie Kennedy as a media star but as an anonymous woman; he did not want people to “look at it and immediately recognize Jackie Kennedy” (Richter 1991; as cited in Elger 2008, 269; translated from the original German). Butin (1993) defines such paintings by Richter, which represent people in the most anonymous way, as paintings “which avoid a subject” (26) (translated from the original German “sujetvermeindende Bilder”). Counterintuitively, in spite of the gap between the actual identity of the subject and its pictorial representation, the viewer may feel closer to the woman than they would in, for example, the Jackie Kennedy painting done by Warhol, who represented the First Lady with typical, almost caricatured features in his famous series of Pop Art portraits, such as Red Jackie (1963).

2.2. Richter and Monet Richter gave the painting a rather banal title, reminiscent of paintings of the impressionist era. Woman with Umbrella does not give any information about the emotional state of the depicted woman, sounding neither positive nor negative, and does not sound mysterious either, since it reminds the viewer of Monet’s Woman with Umbrella. While impressionist painters commonly picked a title that best described the sujet of the painting itself, by the time Richter was painting, artists had more freedom in a title choice. One may therefore wonder why he picked such a title. Above all, it is clear that he intended to give a certain anonymity to the figure he depicted. The nondescript title may also have been a mark of respect; bearing in mind Richter’s own experience with loss in the family, it is possible that Richter also meant to express his empathy. Indeed, death is a constant motif in his work; he also painted Kennedy’s assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald (Elger 2002, 9). However, this painting is explicitly titled with the name of the murderer, in contrast to Richter’s anonymous representation of Jackie Kennedy as any mourning wife. Richter never explicitly discusses his intention to refer to Monet in Woman with Umbrella, making his own interpretation of the impressionist painting, but there are a number of indicators that this was the case. The umbrella in Monet’s painting is held by the woman above her head in an elegant way; in Richter’s Woman with Umbrella, it is kept closed. The umbrella attracts the viewer’s attention in Monet’s painting, but is not at

Emilie Martinez

125

all stressed in Richter’s work. Upper-class women used to carry umbrellas for protection against the sun as very white skin was not only considered beautiful but also the mark of belonging to a leisured class who did not perform manual labour, in contrast to the tanned skin of peasants. The umbrella may have communicated a symbolic meaning about female social roles. A woman living in the 1870s needed male social and financial protection due to laws limiting female social and economic opportunities. The umbrella in the impressionist era could then have symbolised female fragility and the need for protection. In the 1960s, the Second Wave Feminist movement brought more freedom for women in Western countries: with an ability to live and work on their own, they no longer needed an umbrella, literally or figuratively, above their heads. As a recently widowed wife, Jackie Kennedy’s closed umbrella could symbolise that her husband is no longer there to protect her. A comparison of the paintings’ titles in German raises linguistic questions about the specific meaning and connotation of “umbrella.” Even though Monet’s paintings were originally titled in French, one can assume that Richter was more familiar with the German translation. In Monet’s painting, the umbrella is called a “Sonnenschirm,” with “Sonne” meaning “sun” and “Schirm” meaning “umbrella”; in Richter’s painting, the umbrella is simply called a “Schirm,”, highlighting the fact that the sun has disappeared from the life of the depicted lady. In Monet’s pastel, lightcoloured impressionist painting, the lady seems to be enjoying the wonderful weather; in Richter’s painting, the sombre, depressing colours mirror Jackie Kennedy’s grief.

3. Paintings, soundtracks and paparazzi in the foreign language classroom 3.1. Presentation of the German-as-a-foreign-language lesson with paintings and soundtracks In the art-integrated language lesson discussed in this paper, the students had to focus on the psychological, social and political contexts related to the paintings of Richter and Monet. The lesson included various tasks based on Badstübner-Kizik’s guidelines (2002; 2004; 2007) for using paintings in the German-as-a-foreign-language classroom to support language production, which enabled the students to perceive the painting as a cultural product, from a broad perspective to a closer one. All students had attained a B2 level of German language proficiency (indicating advanced competence, as defined by the Common European

126

Woman with Umbrella Then and Now

Framework of Reference for Languages). The first group attended German classes at the University of Santiago de Compostela in Spain, and was made up of two students from Spain and two students from Switzerland who had been living in Northern Spain for a few years. The second group was more homogeneous, and was made up of four American exchange students studying at Friedrich Schiller University in Germany. 3.1.1. First part of the lesson The lesson consisted of two main parts. In the first part, the students worked with the paintings themselves, whose narrative and emotional power were explored in combination with movie soundtracks. In the second part, students distanced themselves from the paintings by reflecting on messages conveyed by the art works in relation to the society they live in, according to Grätz’s (1997, 6) technique of “Distanzierung.” At the beginning of the lesson, students were shown a projection of Richter’s Woman with Umbrella. The title was not given so as not to influence their interpretation of the work. The students briefly expressed their first impressions orally. They were then asked to work with a partner and write a story about the painting in which the following elements had to appear: the identity of the depicted woman, the place and the time. The students were asked to respond to the questions “Who is the depicted woman?” and “Where is she and what is she doing?” Each pair of students kept their story to themselves and then listened to two music pieces from contemporary movie soundtracks: the main theme of the American movie The Holiday (soundtrack by Hans Zimmer) and the piano piece Comptine d'un autre été from the French movie Amélie in its original version Le fabuleux destin d'Amélie Poulain (soundtrack by Yann Tiersen). The students had to decide which of the two music pieces best expressed the story of the woman in the painting and which moment of the story the painting represented. In order to do so, the students had to fill in a table on the various moments, atmospheres and feelings they perceived when listening to the music. Specific functional vocabulary, such as adjectives to describe the music and the general atmosphere, were given to the students to help them with this task. After each pair had written a story, they exchanged their story with the other pair in the group, and they each gave a title to their colleagues’ story. Each pair then got their story back and could change the title if they wanted to. In the next step, the teacher showed Monet’s Woman with Umbrella to the students, who wrote a story focusing on the same questions as before. Instead of listening to movie soundtracks, this time the students had to

Emilie Martinez

127

imagine what kind of music would best express the emotions related to the story they created about Monet’s painting, and to describe that music. Each pair then presented their story to the other pair. The next step was to compare the two versions of Woman with Umbrella. This was done orally, with the full group exchanging ideas. The students focused on the artistic period, the pose of the depicted woman and the general atmosphere of the painting (especially as expressed by the use of colour), and tried to discern the artists’ intentions. The identity of Richter’s subject in Woman with Umbrella was revealed to the students so they could understand the intentions of the painter. Students also read a commentary by Richter about his intentions for this painting. However, the text (below, translated from the original German) was altered to omit the name of the depicted woman; students needed to fill it in themselves: I purposely picked an anonymous, neutral title, because I didn't want people to just look and immediately recognize J_________ K_________. I absolutely wanted to avoid such a reaction. A title such as “Woman with Umbrella” does not reveal anything, it tells no story. […] About the painting “Woman with Umbrella”, I was very much touched by the way her fate is expressed by a single gesture.

Because of the difficulty of such a task for students who might be unfamiliar with the former American First Lady, another very famous portrait of her – Red Jackie by Warhol – was shown. The teacher asked the students why, in their opinion, they were now asked to look at Red Jackie and whether the same painter as before – Gerhard Richter – had painted it or not. The students reflected on the painting styles, and the teacher eventually informed them about the real names of the paintings, the years they were painted and the artists’ names. After hearing this information, the students were able to discuss the intentions of each painter in representing a famous person such as Jackie Kennedy as a star or as an anonymous mourning woman. 3.1.2. Second part of the lesson The second part of the lesson was dedicated to reflections about the contemporary phenomenon of paparazzi. First, the students had to think about the sort of names that are now given to photographs such as the one used by Richter for Woman with Umbrella; the teacher asked them, in addition, whether such photographs are easy to find and where they can be found. The students were expected to identify these as “paparazzi

128

Woman with Umbrella Then and Now

photographs” and to realise that, these days, magazines are full of pictures of famous people, shot in their everyday life. A change of medium facilitated the link between the issues evoked through Jackie Kennedy’s portraits and contemporary society; instead of paintings, photographs from magazines representing the American First Lady Michelle Obama with the former French First Lady Carla BruniSarkozy – who, because of her former career as an international model and her current career as a singer, has been one of the most photographed women in the Western world – were shown to the students. The students were then asked to answer the following questions: “Who are these women? How did you recognise them? Why did someone take a picture of them?” and finally, “Do you think one should or can constantly take pictures of a famous person? Do you think famous people (in your home country or in a foreign country) suffer from such a phenomenon, or are they rather happy about it?” Two other paparazzi pictures, both of Michael Jackson’s children, were shown to the students. In the first picture, the children are wearing masks, a rigorous measure taken by the King of Pop to protect his kids from paparazzi; in the second one, the children are attending their father’s funeral in 2009. This mourning context is comparable to Richter's Woman with Umbrella. The goal was to provoke the students to debate on the issue of whether or not paparazzi should be punished, as well as on the issue of fame and its consequences. Michael Jackson was a clear example of this question: he lived in isolation on his huge estate, was often mocked by the press for his childlike behaviour, and was criticised openly for his strange appearance, resulting from numerous plastic surgery operations. Exploring the various steps of the art-integrated German lesson, focusing on the students’ reactions during the lesson, the next section illustrates the advantages and disadvantages of teaching concepts using non-verbal materials.

3.2. Reactions of the students during the art-integrated lesson 3.2.1. Language production through non-verbal artistic media The students immediately showed enthusiasm for Richter’s Woman with Umbrella. The fact that the depicted woman looks a bit mysterious, with her hand covering her mouth, motivated them to speak. They could not help wondering who the mysterious lady might be. Her gesture quickly became the main object of their discussions. The storytelling based on the combination of the painting and the movie soundtrack was perceived as an

Emilie Martinez

129

exciting task. The group of students living in Spain, however, felt rather afraid of not being able to distinguish moments when listening to the music. These students had had a rather conservative experience with language learning, and such an art-integrated lesson was quite new for them. Even though they had fun, they also worried about their capacity to adapt to such a new form of teaching. After the teacher explained to them that there was no right or wrong answer in this kind of task, and that all they had to do was use their creativity, they felt reassured. Eventually they were very skilled at completing the task. In contrast, the American students studying at Friedrich Schiller University in Germany were much more self-confident, which may be due to their cultural learning habits: writing a story based on the perception of a painting was a task they had often been assigned in elementary school art classes. When the teacher asked them if they found such an exercise childish, they replied that doing it in a foreign language meant a lot to them; it was an exciting and relaxing activity in which they enjoyed using their imagination as well as learning new vocabulary. Thus, these students did not find it childish but enriching. As each soundtrack contained passages that aroused positive or negative emotions, the students wrote stories in which the ups and downs of life clearly appeared. For instance, when listening to the soundtrack from The Holiday, one pair of students imagined that the lady in the painting, a married woman and a mother, was going through a tough phase in which she was realising that she did not feel fully happy in her roles as a wife and mother. As she was walking home from work one day, she suddenly felt tired and had a headache, but as she reached her car she heard nice music on the radio, which she perceived as a positive sign. When she got home, she opened the door and found herself suddenly in front of a group of joyful people having a party – her own birthday party, which her husband and children had planned, while she had actually forgotten about this special day. According to the students, the painting represents the moment she opens the door and has a shock, expressing this emotion by putting her hand to her mouth. After that day, new difficulties appeared in her life, as expressed by the soundtrack. The soundtrack Amélie was selected by the teacher because it contains only one instrument, a piano, and because it is famous in Europe as well as in the US (the home countries of the students). One interpretation, made by a group of students studying in Spain, was that the woman depicted in the painting is a Spanish exchange student going to Germany through the Erasmus exchange programme. In the beginning, she feels quite excited, and she is delighted to start a new life in Berlin. However, because she is a Spanish girl coming from a rather small place, Santiago de Compostela,

130

Woman with Umbrella Then and Now

she struggles with the language barrier, and feels overwhelmed by the immensity of the German capital. One day, she gets lost and feels really scared; she regrets having left her home country to come to a foreign place and wonders if she will ever find her way back to the student dormitory. Her fear grows by the minute – this is the precise moment represented by the painting. However, in the story, the girl is eventually saved. Here, the students clearly associated their own concerns with the painting and the soundtrack. At the time of the lesson, all of them had been thinking about studying in Germany as exchange students. This dream was also a source of worries because of the fear of leaving their small home town of Santiago de Compostela and because of anxieties regarding the cultural differences between Spain and Germany. All the students recognised the soundtrack from Amélie, and one American student complained that he could not associate the painting with the soundtrack because his association between the music and the film was so strong. For this reason, he preferred to use the soundtrack from The Holiday, which he heard for the first time in class, in combination with the painting. 3.2.2. Role of individual preferences While the students enjoyed reflecting on the identity of the lady represented in Richter’s Woman with Umbrella, they did not express any admiration for Richter’s talent as a painter; however, Monet’s impressionist Woman with Umbrella led to very emotional reactions of admiration, especially the American students, who could not stop praising the beauty of the French artist’s work. Even though none of them was able to remember the artist’s name, they managed to say the name of the art movement, Impressionism, in their mother tongue, which is very similar to the German term used for it (Impressionismus). Three of the American students were particularly enthusiastic as they had already seen the painting in the Musée d’Orsay in Paris. These students remembered precisely what century the painting was from, while the students living in Spain were also able to determine that temporal information by examining the clothes worn by the lady. Imagining the music that would express Monet’s painting had disappointing results. The students agreed that they were fond of the Amélie soundtrack, which, in their opinion, perfectly suited the painting; thus, they felt no need to relate different music to the painting. Both groups seemed to find this task a bit boring and nonsensical compared to the previous task where they got to listen to music instead of imagining it.

Emilie Martinez

131

It seems that actively dealing with music was more fun than imagining it as listening to music arouses emotions. As a consequence, the stories the students came up with about Monet’s Woman with Umbrella were all very similar and not particularly creative: all of the students made up love stories, with the woman meeting or waiting to meet her lover on a nice summer’s day. 3.2.3. Comparing Richter and Monet When tasked with comparing both Woman with Umbrella paintings, the students were particularly skillful at discussing details such as gestures and the role of the umbrella. Most students thought of this object as a symbol of protection. A student from the US emphatically rejected the idea that Jackie Kennedy could have needed male protection; the American First Lady was, the student argued, a very self-confident and emancipated woman. After reading Richter’s commentary (given above), the American students were the only ones who recognised Kennedy, because of her eyebrows. The students living in Spain felt irritated because of their inability to recognise Jackie Kennedy but were, at the same time, very curious, and not all of them were enthusiastic when the identity of the woman was revealed. Two of the students had never heard of her, and they admitted they were not very interested in American First Ladies. 3.2.4. First ladies and paparazzi: sociopolitical issues in western societies When the pictures of the contemporary First Ladies Michelle Obama and Carla Bruni-Sarkozy were shown to the students, they became noticeably enthusiastic. Even the students living in Spain who had previously expressed very little interest in Jackie Kennedy changed their mind about the importance of such women for them personally, as well as for Western societies in general, as they suddenly recognised the two women. They were able to name both and define their positions and the countries they represented. After such a positive initial response to the two paparazzi photographs, the students were very involved in the discussions about fame and the preservation of privacy. They were familiar with the term paparazzi – at least in their mother tongue – and enjoyed working on such a familiar topic (all of them had at least once bought gossip magazines). Both groups recognised Michael Jackson’s children behind their masks, and the group living in Spain seemed particularly touched by the fate of the singer. The American students, in contrast, became annoyed

132

Woman with Umbrella Then and Now

with talking about so many famous people from their own country, and one of them asked why the teacher did not pick anyone coming from a German-speaking country. Before the teacher could respond, another American student, fed up with German magazines, expressed that they showed more American than German celebrities. Such a remark led the students to reflect on the influence of American culture in Europe and on the globalised, or rather, Americanised world, which is full of paparazzi ready to take any picture for money. Both groups clearly felt concerned by such issues and both mentioned the death of Lady Diana, who lost her life in a car accident while fleeing paparazzi. The students living in Spain mentioned a positive side of the paparazzi phenomenon. Spain is a conservative country in which the Catholic Church plays an important role. Catholic people believe that the paparazzi are useful in exposing sins that would, otherwise, remain hidden, such as infidelity. According to these students, the paparazzi bring out the truth; if a public figure is doing something wrong, the world will hear about it in the media. Both groups associated fame and being followed by the paparazzi with money. The students agreed that being famous means earning a great deal of money; the negative consequences of being so wealthy are only fair. The students added that many stars actually enjoy being followed by paparazzi. According to one student from the US, celebrities have always used paparazzi to promote their own interests. For instance, Jackie Kennedy was probably just like today’s celebrities: at times, she liked the paparazzi and enjoyed being the centre of attention; and at other times, she despised their presence.

4. Concluding remarks The art-integrated German-as-a-foreign-language lesson presented in this paper used a combination of tasks (language-related and art-related), mediums (auditory and visual), the old with the new (paintings vs. soundtracks, Monet vs. Richter), the unknown (Richter’s paintings) with the familiar (Amélie movie soundtrack, the umbrella, the paparazzi phenomenon), eliciting a combination of opinions expressed by the students. This lesson has shown that, with the use of paintings, students from both groups can develop not only their written and spoken language skills but also their artistic sensibilities and interest in social issues. The combination of paintings and instrumental movie soundtracks proved especially effective in motivating the students to use the target language. In addition, the students perceived that paintings are thematically linked to

Emilie Martinez

133

the society in which they live. The potential of art-integrated lessons can thus be summarised as follows: Through direct […] contact with art, students can draw their attention to certain aspects of life, which, of course, would not be present in their sphere of considerations if they did not have access to this form of world reflection. By appreciating art on their own and correlating their old and new experiences, they can broaden their knowledge about people and their lives, and can approach the surrounding reality in a more holistic way. (Krawiec 2012, 92)

The use of paintings helped the students develop critical thinking skills, reflecting on the specific contexts of the Woman with Umbrella paintings, the meaning of the umbrella for each of the two ladies, and concerns associated with paparazzi. All the students felt concerned by the issues of paparazzi, money and fame discussed during the German lesson because they live in a world that is, in spite of all differences, becoming a “unit” (Antweiler 2011, 7; translated from the German “Einheit”). In the group studying at the University of Santiago de Compostela, a striking evolution took place regarding their way of dealing with the issue of being the First Lady. The use of a new medium (photographs) and sujets that they were more familiar with (Michelle Obama and Carla Bruni-Sarkozy) sparked a change in their perception of the importance of such an issue. As a teacher, one needs some courage to attempt to change students’ prejudices and beliefs about the “right” way of learning and teaching. There is not one right way to learn but a great variety of ways, including those based on art and creativity. When using artistic mediums, the teacher should be aware that reassuring students about their capacity to deal with such materials is likely to affect them and their skills positively. Above all, showing them that there is no right or wrong answer to a painting can be very effective. High school and university students may at first find tasks based on personal creativity a bit childish. It is therefore important to show them the clear goals of the lesson, and to encourage them to relax; in the case of this lesson, they realised by themselves how much they had learned. Finally, it would be interesting to use movie soundtracks that evoke the plot of the movie itself rather than focusing only on the narrative and emotional power of the music. If very famous soundtracks are used, teachers could profit from students’ automatic association between the movie and the soundtrack. Having a multicultural group of students (e.g., Spanish and American) could lead to exciting exchanges on social issues, with a stronger focus on cultural specificities. This would contribute to

134

Woman with Umbrella Then and Now

personal enrichment and the development of intercultural competence in societies marked by a growing “global culture” (Antweiler 2011, 19).

Bibliography Antweiler, Christoph. 2009. Heimat Mensch. Was UNS ALLE verbindet. Hamburg: Murmann. —. 2011. Mensch und Weltkultur. Für einen realistischen Kospopolitismus im Zeitalter der Globalisierung. Bielefeld: Transcript. Badstübner-Kizik, Camilla. 2002. Kunst im fremdsprachlichen Landeskundeunterricht zwischen Kunstwissenschaft und Kunstpädagogik. Beitrag zu einer Didaktik der Landeskunde. http://zif.spz.tu-darmstadt.de/jg-06-3/beitrag/kunstwissenschaft.htm (date of access: 10th February 2014). —. 2004. Wortschatzarbeit, Schreiben, Hörverstehen … und was noch? Anmerkungen zur Rolle von Kunst und Musik im Fremdsprachenunterricht. ÖDaF-Mittelungen 1, 6–18. —. 2007. Bild- und Musikkunst im Fremdsprachenunterricht. Zwischenbilanz und Handreichungen für die Praxis. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Butin, Hubertus. 1993. Gerhard Richter. Editionen 1965-1993. Kunsthalle Bremen. 24. Oktober bis 21. November 1993. Eine Ausstellung mit Unterstützung der Norddeutschen Landesbank. München: Jahn. —. 2004. Gerhard Richter und die Reflexion der Bilder. In: Hubertus Butin, Stefan Gronert (eds.), Gerhard Richter. Editionen 1965-2004. Catalogue Raisonné. Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 9–84. Elger, Dietmar. 2008. Gerhard Richter, Maler. Köln: DuMont. —. 2002. Landschaft als Modell. In: Dietmar Elger (ed.), Gerhard Richter. Landschaften. Ostfildern-Ruit: Cantz, 8–23. Elger, Dietmar, Hans Ulrich Obrist. 2008. Gerhard Richter. Text 1961 bis 2007. Schriften, Interviews, Briefe. Köln: Walther König. Grätz, Ronald. 1997. Kunst und Musik im Fremdsprachenunterricht. In: Goethe-Institut, Hans-Jürgen Krumm et.al. (eds.), Fremdsprache Deutsch. Zeitschrift für die Praxis des Deutschunterrichts. Band 17 Kunst und Musik im Deutschunterricht. München: Klett, 4–8. Heibach, Christiane. 2004. Sprachkunst als synästhetisches Phänomen – Probleme und Fragestellungen. In: Christian Filk, Michael Lommel, Mike Sandbothe (eds.), Media Synaesthetics. Konturen einer physiologischen Medienästhetik. Köln: Herbert von Halem Verlag, 163–79. Krawiec, Marek. 2012. “A Virtual Tour of EFL Students to the World of Art – Theoretical and Practical Implications”. In: Marek Krawiec (ed.),

Emilie Martinez

135

Od jĊzyka do kultury, literatury, sztuki i mediów. Waábrzych: Wydawnictwo DTP Service, 89–102. Martinez, Emilie. 2013. Gegenwärtige Malerei im Unterricht Deutsch als Fremdsprache und die Unterstützung der Kunstbildwahrnehmung durch wortlose Musik und Klänge. In: Eva V. Chen, Magali Moura (eds.), Kulturdidaktik im Unterricht Deutsch als Fremdsprache. Facetten der Vermittlung von Kultur und Landeskunde an Fremdsprachenlernende. Rio de Janeiro: Apa, 135–68. Schreiber, Jürgen. 2007. Ein Maler aus Deutschland. Gerhard Richter. Das Drama einer Familie. München and Zürich: Pendo. Schuster, Martin. 2011. Wodurch Bilder wirken. Psychologie der Kunst. Köln: DuMont.

PART FOUR: CLIL IN THE CONTEMPORARY LANGUAGE CLASS

RELEVANCE OF BINGO TO CROSS-CURRICULAR LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING MAREK KRAWIEC

The following article discusses the important role of games in cross-curricular language education. It particularly emphasises the relevance of Bingo to the cross-subject work of students in school conditions. The author in his paper provides the answer to the question of how Bingo can help a teacher of English relate to different school subjects in his/her lessons. The article presents both theoretical foundations and findings from empirical studies conducted among students from the Angelus Silesius University of Applied Sciences (PWSZ im. Angelusa Silesiusa) in Waábrzych and the Complex of Secondary Schools No. 1 (ZSP nr 1) in Krotoszyn. The following material also describes the formula of playing Bingo in school conditions, and features the crosscurricular content (e.g., geographical, socio-cultural) that can be incorporated into this language game.

1. Introduction Foreign language learning and teaching in modern schools is a very challenging task that is mainly conditioned by the regulations of educational authorities and the changes occurring in contemporary society. In order to meet the demands of these two forces, language teachers need to take a number of steps, and prepare materials and activities that will guarantee effective learning and functioning for their students in the present world. It is thus language teachers who must take responsibility for the multidimensional development of their students. To be able to lead such development, language educators need certain tools that can help them in their work with students. One of these tools is a game which in scholarly literature (e.g. Siek-Piskozub 1994) is presented as a very

140

Relevance of Bingo to Cross-Curricular Language Learning

important stimulator that allows the development of knowledge and behaviours of young people and prepares them for adult life. Bearing in mind the important role of games, it is necessary to link it with modern educational requirements and check its effectiveness in such a highly promoted domain as cross-curricular teaching. The effectiveness of games in this area will be discussed in the paper using the example of Bingo. Before describing this game and its role in the cross-subject work of EFL learners, as well as presenting empirical findings with regard to this issue, the theoretical foundations for games and for a cross-curricular approach to language education will be provided.

2. Games in foreign language learning and teaching Considerations on the role of games in the process of foreign language learning and teaching will begin with a presentation of definitions of a game. With this aim in mind, it is necessary first to draw attention to the explanations provided by Katie Salem and Eric Zimmerman (2003, 80), who characterise a game as “a system in which players engage in an artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome”. A similar view is expressed by Nikolas Szilas and Martin Acosta (2011, 218), who describe a game as “a dynamical system of signs in which the player acts, independently of any consequence outside the system, in order to reach a goal assigned by the game”. The above observations need to be supported by the explanation provided by Clark Abt (1987, 6), for whom a game “is an activity among two or more independent decision-makers seeking to achieve their objectives in some limiting context”. What is underlined in the above definitions is that a game constitutes a competing system in which players governed by specific rules act in a way that allows them to achieve their goals. Games as such should be seen as an integral part of the teaching/learning process. They can be played at different stages of the lesson and be used for different purposes (e.g., for the purpose of making students aware of what they already know, or revising and practising the particular material) (Burkat 2006, 47; Uberman 1998). Teresa Siek-Piskozub (1994, 28–36) maintains that games can be used: x in the initial phase of the lesson – during which they can act as a warm-up activity that may prepare students for studying new material or for revising and consolidating the material already discussed in previous lessons;

Marek Krawiec

141

x in the main phase of the lesson – during which new material can be presented and introduced to students in a very pleasant and enjoyable form; x in the final phase of the lesson – when the game can lead to the summary and consolidation of information presented in a given class. When applied to foreign language teaching, a game, as Cynthia Martin (1995, 1) suggests, needs to be seen as “a fun activity which gives young learners the opportunity to practice the foreign language in a relaxed and enjoyable way”. Recent support for the discussion of games in foreign language learning and teaching comes from what is termed Positive Psychology (PP), which views emotions, both pleasant and unpleasant, as “the primary human motive” that provides “energetic intensity to all human actions” (Siek-Piskozub 2016, 90). One of the main aims of PP is the development of tools that will arouse emotions and stimulate engagement in different life activities, including those connected with foreign language learning and teaching. Such a tool in the context of language education is the ludic strategy (Siek-Piskozub 2001), which involves games, among others. Considering this issue, Siek-Piskozub (2016, 91) refers to Seligman (2011) and her PERMA model. This model provides a scheme for analysing factors that lead to the increase in self-development (flourishing). PERMA is, in fact, “an acronym which comes from the first letters of the factors crucial for well-being: positive emotion (P), engagement with activities which are employing one’s strengths (E), developing a positive relationship with others (R), finding meaning beyond the self (M), and the feeling of accomplishment or achievement (A)” (Siek-Piskozub 2016, 91). Siek-Piskozub is of the opinion that all these factors may be related to games that play a considerable role in language education and which are crucial for the well-being of a learner. In one of her earlier publications, Siek-Piskozub (1994, 20–24) enumerates five functions of games in foreign language lessons. She points to: x the organisational function – which suggests that games help to properly plan and organise students’ and teacher’s activities in a class; x the motivational function – which is evident in games’ potential for encouraging students to active participation in lessons and for motivating them to learning and achieving success;

Relevance of Bingo to Cross-Curricular Language Learning

142

x the didactic function – which is seen in the capability of games for developing the language and intellectual skills of learners; x the cognitive function – which comes down to recognition of students’ personality traits, their skills and ways of solving different problems; x the educational function – which is connected with the promotion of positive behaviours and value systems among students, who thanks to game playing, can learn how to act adequately in relation to others. The games commonly used in school conditions are those that involve group work. Such games play a considerable role in students’ lives as they help young people to consult other group members about their views, develop proper lines of argumentation, and negotiate, that is, improve the communicative skills; so important for social functioning in the present world (Muzyczka 2006, 87). In her article, Alicja Burkat (2006, 48) enumerates the games that are most appreciated by students in foreign language classes. She points, for example, to: x x x x x

memory games; card games; language dominoes; puzzles; movement games (e.g., pantomime addressed especially to young learners); x writing and drawing games; x guessing games; x rhymes and songs. As Burkat (2006, 48) indicates, these and other games should be skilfully introduced and used by the teacher in the classroom so they can essentially contribute to the development of the learner and the facilitation of the teaching process. Using a game in a foreign language lesson requires, however, the teacher to take a series of steps. While employing games in a foreign language class, the teacher is first of all advised to carry out a proper selection of materials and activities. In order to ensure that students benefit from games, he/she should choose those that correspond to the age and level of language advancement of students, as well as to the content

Marek Krawiec

143

discussed and practised in a lesson (Pypáacz 2004, 188–89). With regard to this point, Agnieszka Uberman (1998) emphasises that: Teachers should be very careful about choosing games if they want to make them profitable for the learning process. If games are to bring desired results, they must correspond to either the student’s level, or age, or to the material that is to be introduced or practised. Not all games are appropriate for all students irrespective of their age (…). Games become difficult when the task or the topic is unsuitable or outside the student’s experience.

Another factor that plays a role here is the duration of a game. Due to time limitations of a lesson, not all games can be suitably employed in school work with students. If the teacher, however, wishes to apply a longlasting game, he/she is recommended to introduce certain modifications so that it can adequately match the time limits and the content of the lesson. The teacher should remember that games cannot be too long because otherwise they may be too tiring for students. The suggested time span of a game used in a lesson is thus 5–15 minutes. It is also important to inform and show students how to play a given game. It is advisable to demonstrate the rules of a game by engaging two or three students to perform some example activities related to the game (Pypáacz 2004, 188– 89). It is thus the teacher who needs to consider (Burkat 2006, 47): x x x x

what aims he/she wants to achieve by using a game in a lesson; if the chosen game is adequate to the age and skills of learners; if it is possible to play it in particular conditions; how much time it takes to play the game and to what extent it is beneficial to the learning/teaching process.

The teacher is also responsible for arranging the materials necessary for the implementation of a game in a lesson. The materials may include (Muzyczka 2006, 87): x x x x x

boards; pictures; dominoes; texts; matrices.

144

Relevance of Bingo to Cross-Curricular Language Learning

In the beginning, the teacher should clarify all the rules of the game. The rules have to be explained in a simple way so learners can successfully play it without having to address some additional organisational questions to the teacher (Burkat 2006, 47). During game playing, the teacher’s role comes down to eliminating all the barriers connected with the implementation of the game in a lesson and to the creation of conditions proper for performing this sort of activity by young people (Burkat 2006, 47). When students play a game, the teacher usually functions as an observer of their actions and behaviours or as an assistant who helps them only when the situation requires. The teacher’s silence in a game has a very positive impact on learners who, in such conditions, can activate themselves and succeed in their learning process without feeling any of the fear or stress usually connected with a lesson (Burkat 2006, 47–48). When using games, the teacher, however, must always remember that a game-based lesson should not only introduce students to a state of relaxation and enjoyment but also meet some educational requirements, among which one may point to the development of the students’ intellectual, social and creative competences (Burkat 2006, 47). Scholars and teachers, in their reports and publications (e.g., Burkat 2006; Muzyczka 2006; Pypáacz 2004; Siek-Piskozub 1994) point to a number of advantages of using games in the foreign language classroom. They claim that games are not only a part of the learning process but also a crucial element of upbringing. As Daria Muzyczka (2006, 86) indicates, games can help students develop knowledge effectively and prepare for adult life, which is governed by a set of rules and involves certain decisions and choices. They can also teach students how to compete and play fairly. Muzyczka maintains that games constitute an essential motivational factor that allows for practising and revising material which in other circumstances would be viewed by learners as dull and uninteresting. Similar arguments are forwarded by Krystyna Pypáacz (2004, 188), for whom games have considerable value because they reinforce students’ interest in a foreign language, raise their motivation for learning, make lessons more attractive and contribute to the creation of an optimal atmosphere for language acquisition. At this point, it is also worth quoting Grzegorz Markowski (2006, 57), who emphasises that games, in particular lexical ones, create a range of opportunities for the development of students’ interactions, communicative skills and creativity. In language games, as he notes, players not only compete with one another but also cooperate and find solutions together.

Marek Krawiec

145

Markowski claims that through properly chosen games, students can learn new vocabulary, master their communication skills and become aware of their own ways of solving problems in different situations. He maintains that games allow players to freely express their thoughts and show their personality traits (e.g., temperament, motivation, risk-taking predispositions). He puts forward the opinion that lexical games are capable of creating situations in which learners have the chance to discover new communication modes and maximally improve their language skills. A corresponding opinion is expressed by Alicja Burkat (2006, 45–6), who notes that games, which are an indispensable component of modern course books and other materials for teaching foreign languages, contribute not only to the creation of a pleasant atmosphere in a lesson but also to students’ language learning. She indicates that games make the teaching material and the teaching process more interesting. According to Burkat, games allow students to enjoy lessons and gain satisfaction from working with attractive material and achieving specific goals. She maintains that games in a lesson encourage students to concentrate and motivate them to further and more effective work. In her opinion, gamebased lesson tasks and activities allow for practising and revising material in a more “lively” way. The above enumerated advantages, and others, can be related to the lists of positive effects of games presented by Burkat (2006, 46–47) and Pypáacz (2004, 188–91) in their articles. The material below, which is based on the two lists, correspondingly implies that games: x provide a natural context for communication; x show learners how to use a foreign language in real-life situations; x have a positive impact on the development of students’ knowledge and skills (including language skills such as listening, reading, speaking and writing); x draw learners’ attention to certain issues, and as a result, enhance their concentration capacities; x bring fun and pleasure to students; x increase young people’s motivation for learning; x allow students to entirely engage in a lesson; x create a pleasant atmosphere and guarantee a feeling of safety and relaxation for those learners who are afraid of making mistakes and feel stressed during the lesson; x shape and reinforce young people’s positive attitude to the given subject;

146

Relevance of Bingo to Cross-Curricular Language Learning

x successfully reduce the dominating role of the teacher in the classroom by encouraging students to engage in different forms of interactions; x help quiet and shy students to overcome speaking barriers (they reduce the feeling of stress and inhibition); x teach not only how to compete but also how to cooperate with others; x help to create better in-class contacts; x allow for sharing and exchanging experiences of game players; x encourage young people to integrate with a group and develop a sense of belonging; x develop the emphatic skills of learners; x create more opportunities for autonomous learning; x increase students’ creativity; x prepare young people to function in real life. The advantages highlighted here suggest that games are an important element not only in the process of testing and improving students’ knowledge and skills but also in the emotional development of young people. Opponents of games do not, however, agree with the arguments presented above. They point out that such activities have nothing to do with learning, there is not enough time for incorporating them in a lesson and students should concentrate on more serious tasks during their education. Besides, they maintain that the preparation of games and their adaptation in a lesson are pointless as they are very time- and workconsuming (Burkat 2006, 45). Remigiusz Koluch (2003, 45–46), in his considerations on the drawbacks of games, points to the unnecessary use of the native language by students, the mistakes learners make and which teachers do not correct so as not to disrupt the young people in their game playing, the laborious process of preparing this sort of activity for classes, and the feeling of stress that originates from learners’ desire to win. Some disadvantages of using games are also listed by Teresa Siek-Piskozub (1994, 24–27), who, apart from the above-mentioned aspects, notes that games may lead to certain misbehaviour among students. She states that in a game, learners may behave loudly and disturb other players, may compete with one another to such an extent that conflicts in class quickly arise and can reveal a lack of discipline and willingness to follow certain rules. Despite some disadvantages, a game needs to be seen as a valuable activity in the foreign language learning/teaching process. Showing

Marek Krawiec

147

enormous potential, it creates a number of opportunities in the educational field as well as in the sphere of cross-curricular language learning and teaching, whose fundamentals will be described and discussed in the forthcoming section.

3. Cross-curricular language learning and teaching Cross-curricular learning and teaching is nowadays one of the most important concepts for language educators who, in their work with students, are recommended to adopt the principles of school subject integration and preparation of young people for holistic perception and interpretation of the surrounding reality. The cross-curricular approach is highly promoted in modern scholarly literature, which encourages teachers to take a number of steps and develop such activities and materials that will guarantee that students apply their knowledge and skills in different human domains (Krawiec 2014, 243–46). Before delineating the main assumptions of this approach, it is necessary first to define the term of cross-curricular learning and teaching. One of the explanations presented with regard to this notion is the definition provided in the Collins English Dictionary (2015), which suggests that cross-curricular education denotes or relates to “an approach to a topic that includes contributions from several different disciplines and viewpoints”. Another definition of the term is formulated by Denise Soares and Kimberly Vannest (2013, 91), who state that cross-curricular or, in other words, interdisciplinary teaching “involves a conscious effort to apply knowledge, principles, and/or values to more than one academic discipline simultaneously. The disciplines may be related through a central theme, issue, problem, process, topic, or experience”. Essential for the discussion on the issue in question are also the considerations of Jonathan Savage (2010, 15), who maintains that: A cross-curricular approach to teaching is characterised by sensitivity towards, and a synthesis of knowledge, skills and understandings from various subject areas. These inform an enriched pedagogy that promotes an approach to learning which embraces and explores this wider sensitivity through various methods.

The essence of cross-curricular language education, also referred to as CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning), is integration or, in Savage’s (2010) words, synthesis. This integration comes down to linking the language other than the students’ mother tongue with the content typical of the specific school subject (e.g., geography, history). The major

148

Relevance of Bingo to Cross-Curricular Language Learning

goals of such integration can thus refer to a triad of concepts – the content, language, and language skills (Szulc-Kurpaska, Szpotowicz 2009, 37). In cross-curricular education, a key role is assigned to language teachers who, in the conducted classes, may essentially contribute to the synthesis of knowledge and skills from different domains (Krawiec 2014, 245). In order to obtain very good results in their cross-curricular work with students, it is recommended that educators combine elements of the four basic “Cs” (MoĪejko 2013): x content (which applies to the knowledge, skills and understandings of a specific theme); x communication (which has to do with using and learning the language for various interactive purposes); x cognition (which involves the skills of thinking and understanding of abstract and real concepts); x culture (which includes the notion of understanding of otherness and self). Implementation of the postulates of cross-curricular education at schools requires cooperation between teachers of different subjects. When organising, for instance, cross-subject work in foreign language lessons, language educators need to collaborate and exchange information with subject teachers and prepare activities and materials that will help to (Savage 2010, 42): x relate students’ learning to their wider life experiences; x point to similarities between individual subjects and make connections between them more explicit; x create opportunities for interdisciplinary learning; x develop meaningful cooperation and collaboration in the school community; x provide a wide range of teaching and learning opportunities; x guarantee learners’ cognitive, personal and social development; x encourage educators to evaluate and reflect on their teaching and be innovative in the curriculum planning; x facilitate a shared vision of the curriculum design among teachers and school authorities. As several scholars emphasise, cross-curricular learning and teaching is very adaptable and dynamic, which means that it can be applied at different levels of education (e.g., primary, secondary, academic) and can

Marek Krawiec

149

be based on different techniques and forms of work (e.g., project work, group work). This type of teaching, as they note, helps to integrate content topics and subjects (language and non-language ones), and, as a result, to provide valuable educational outcomes for a wider range of learners (Marsch 2002; Wolff 2003). Considering the advantages of cross-curricular education, it is worth alluding to the findings and observations of scholars and teachers delineated in the Primary Programs Framework for Teaching and Learning: Curriculum Integration (Alberta Education 2007, 6), which suggests that this approach: x allows for better flexibility and adjustment in the teaching process; x motivates learners to extend knowledge and experience and view the world more holistically; x helps young people process information in an effective way; x encourages learners to distinguish qualities and related elements of subject areas; x makes connections between the knowledge students gain at school, and that which they acquire in out-of-school environments, more visible; x provides a relevant context for learning, which corresponds to students’ individual needs, interests, capacities and experiences; x allows young people to be active participants in their learning process, as in this approach the context is more meaningful for students; x engages learners in multimodal and multidimensional work; x makes it possible to assess students’ knowledge and skills in a number of ways; x increases students’ motivation and autonomy. When discussing the notion of cross-curricular learning and teaching, one should not forget to point to several problems that may occur during the implementation of this approach in school conditions. One of the most frequently mentioned obstacles is a lack of cross-curricular materials, as well as the limited knowledge of teachers of subjects that are the focus of students’ interdisciplinary work. As Dieter Wolff and Agnieszka Otwinowska-Kasztelanic (2010, 12) emphasise, the preparation of crosscurricular materials and activities requires from teachers a considerable amount of effort, determination and the constant upgrading of knowledge and skills. Problems, however, also concern students for whom crosscurricular tasks and materials may be too challenging and, as a result, too

150

Relevance of Bingo to Cross-Curricular Language Learning

absorbing to be incorporated into their learning process. Another problem originates in schools that seem to be badly equipped with cross-curricular materials and aids, and therefore unable to implement the CLIL concepts. Despite these drawbacks, the cross-curricular approach needs to be seen as a valuable educational model that creates numerous possibilities for the adaptation of different methods, techniques and forms of work in school conditions, especially in a foreign language lesson. One of such techniques is a game, more specifically, Bingo, whose relevance to crosscurricular language learning and teaching will be emphasised and discussed in the following section.

4. Bingo and its relevance to cross-curricular language education As Alicja Burkat (2006, 48) notes, many classroom games contain one matrix to which different content may be introduced. Such is the case with the Bingo game discussed here, whose overall pattern and rules remain generally the same but whose content can be changed according to the topics discussed in a lesson and the level of knowledge, experiences and interests of learners. Despite some variants of the game, which are shown in Internet resources, the present paper offers an unchangeable formula for playing it with changeable content possibilities. The content introduced through the game may relate to different school subjects and thus encourage students to use knowledge from various domains. Such a formula, which has been initiated and developed by the author of this article, helps to implement cross-curricularity in the educational field, which is confirmed by some of the research findings given in the latter part of this article. The whole formula of Bingo, with its matrix and rules, is reflected in the following material: Name: BINGO Duration: 20–30 minutes Players: pre-intermediate / intermediate students (whole group) Lesson stage: initial / main / final (depends on the teacher) Rules: Stage 1: On a piece of paper, students draw a 5x5 grid with a crossed square in the middle. Next, each student individually, or the teacher himself, describes in a foreign language a set of earlier prepared entries by using his knowledge and associations from a given thematic category. The presentation of the entries usually requires from each student elaboration

Marek Krawiec

151

of 2–3 items (it depends on the size of the group of students), and from the teacher a description of 24 elements, which correspond to the 24 blank squares in the grid. Students from the whole group listen to the descriptions presented either by their colleagues or the teacher and make guesses. When somebody thinks he/she knows the answer, he/she says it out loud so that everyone can hear it. After approval of the answer by the person who has described the entry, each student, without consultations with others, inserts it into one of the blank squares chosen by him/her in the grid. To move on to the next stage, all the squares need to be filled with entries guessed in the way featured above. Stage 2: After filling in all the squares with entries, students listen to the teacher, who selects the items from his list in a random way according to his preference and reads them out to the class. Students cross off the entries they hear and check if they have lines of five crosses going horizontally, vertically or diagonally. When they have such a line in their grids, they shout “Bingo” and win a prize prepared by the teacher. Matrix: 5x5 grid with a cross in the middle square (as shown below)

Figure 10-1 Bingo Game Matrix To exemplify cross-curricular links in the game, two matrices with filledin squares are featured below. The entries in the squares reflect two thematic categories: Geography/Tourism and Social/Cultural Life. The suggested entries, together with their descriptions, were forwarded in a

152

Relevance of Bingo to Cross-Curricular Language Learning

mini game study by 52 1st-, 2nd- and 3rd-year English Philology students of the Angelus Silesius University of Applied Sciences (PWSZ im. Angelusa Silesiusa) in Waábrzych on the 23rd February, 2015 (students’ language levels: B1/B2/C1). The matrices, together with example descriptions of the entries the students formulated in their game playing, illustrate how easily a foreign language teacher may adapt the game content to the issues discussed in a lesson, e.g., geographical, historical, cultural, social or environmental. This points to the contribution of the game to cross-curricular language education, which essentially prepares students, as already signalled in this paper, for a holistic perception and interpretation of the world and surrounding reality, and for finding necessary links between different spheres of human life.

Australia

Hotel

Greece

Rio de Janeiro

Tent

Ticket

Plane

Amsterdam

Louvre

Souvenirs

Paris

Cracow

Iceland

Las Vegas

Guide

London

Map

Spa

Palace

Nile

Mount Everest

Holland

Pyramids

Berlin

Figure 10-2 Bingo Game Matrix with Example Entries from the Category of Geography/Tourism Example descriptions of the entries from the category of geography/tourism (formulated by the students in the mini game study and presented here in alphabetical order): Amsterdam – a city in the Netherlands with a lot of canals, the Van Gogh museum and legal marihuana in coffee shops.

Marek Krawiec

153

Australia – is an island-continent with vast terrains of deserts and with such animals as kangaroos, koala bears and dingoes. Berlin – a city known for its Brandenburg Gate and Reichstag. It is the capital of Germany. Cracow – one of the most beautiful cities in Poland with many attractive places to see such as the Wawel Castle and the Mariacki Church. Greece – a country in southern Europe with nice but rather lazy people. The country is associated with feta cheese, olives and Zorba’s dance. Guide – is a person who helps us to spend time in a foreign country and gives us information on famous places and their history. Holland – a country known for plantations of tulips, for bicycles, windmills and the legalisation of soft drugs. Hotel – a place where you usually stay in when you are on a business trip or on holidays. It is big, often comfortable, has many rooms and a check-in counter. Iceland – is a country located in the north-west of Europe, characterised by geysers, meadows and hills. The capital city of this country is Reykjavik. Las Vegas – one of the American cities known for its casinos and night life. Many couples go there to get married. London – a city in Britain famous for such places as Buckingham Palace, Big Ben, London Eye and Tower Bridge. It is one of the largest cities in the world. Louvre – the most famous museum in France, where you can admire wellknown pieces of art such as the Mona Lisa, painted by Leonardo da Vinci. Map – a piece of paper (usually folded) with names of cities, roads, streets and main places. It has a scale and a legend. Mount Everest – the highest peak in the world; located in the Himalaya Mountains. Nile – the longest river in the world; it flows in Africa. Palace – almost the same building as a castle but it does not have any defensive properties. Paris – the capital of France. For many people it is the most romantic city in Europe. The Eiffel Tower is a symbol of this city.

154

Relevance of Bingo to Cross-Curricular Language Learning

Plane – a flying machine that has engines and wings, and which allows for transporting many people and objects very quickly from one country to another. Pyramids – monumental buildings in Egypt where mummies of dead pharaohs are kept. The buildings have a triangular shape. Rio de Janeiro – a large city in Brazil, most famous for the Statue of Jesus and the biggest carnival parades, which are always full of people dancing in the streets, especially the samba. Souvenirs – small objects brought home from different places, usually from holiday destinations. They remind us of the places we have visited and the moments connected with these places Spa – a place where you go to when you feel sad and overworked, and where you want relax. It has many swimming pools, saunas and massage rooms. Tent –a sort of a shelter made of fabric, which you must take when you go on holidays and you don’t want to stay in a hotel. You can put it up, for example, at the campsite. Ticket – a piece of paper you must buy when you want to travel, for example, by bus, train or by plane. Sometimes you must validate it in special machines.

Match

Library

Present

Amusement park

Restaurant

Park

Museum

Concert

Facebook

Wedding

Quarrel

Neighbour

Shopping centre

Opera

New Year’s Eve

Poem

Theatre

Singer

Pub

Composer

Cinema

Anniversary

Art gallery

Comedy

Figure 10-3 Bingo Game Matrix with Example Entries from the Category of Social/Cultural Life

Marek Krawiec

155

Example descriptions of the entries from the category of social/cultural life (formulated by the students in the mini game study and presented here in alphabetical order): Amusement park – a place in which there are certain constructions and buildings that serve to emotionally and physically entertain people (e.g., roller coasters, merry-go-rounds or bumper cars). Anniversary – a form of celebrating some long-lasting activities, relationships or the existence of something. It is a yearly celebration of an event that took place in the past. Art gallery – a place where different forms of art are exhibited for visitors, like paintings, sculptures, etc. Cinema – a place where there is a big screen, and where usually new movies are released. People can enjoy themselves there. Comedy – traditionally a literary composition created to amuse the reader. Now, it is applied to cinematic, verbal and sometimes musical compositions, which all have one goal – to amuse the audience using, for example, satirical sarcastic, absurd or grotesque subject matter. Composer – a person who creates music compositions. Such a person was Wolfgang A. Mozart. Concert – an event during which a band or a singer plays music live for thousands of fans. It is usually organised in big cities and stadiums. Facebook – the most famous social network, on which registered users can find their friends, send them messages and share photographs, videos and information with them. Library – a building that contains a huge number of books that people can borrow and read at home. Sometimes in this building meetings and discussions with writers are organised. Match – an event in which two opposing sides of a certain sport discipline compete with each other in a friendly (although not necessarily harmless) manner in order to win a prize. Museum – a place where you can admire, for instance, different historical objects, pictures, sculptures, etc. This place can show you how people lived in the past and what they achieved.

156

Relevance of Bingo to Cross-Curricular Language Learning

Neighbour – a person who lives next door, and may be very helpful in taking care of your house, watering plants etc. when you and your family go on holidays. New Year’s Eve – the last day of the year, celebrated all over the world. On this day people meet with their friends, eat, dance, listen to music, drink alcohol and watch fireworks at midnight. Opera – a performance that combines music, ballet and theatre. Among popular ones are Carmen by George Bizet and Aida by Giuseppe Verdi. Park – a place where you can spend your free time walking or jogging. In this place there are trees, shrubs, flowers and sometimes even small lakes. It is a quiet area where you can relax and read a book on a bench. It is the perfect place for mothers with small children. Poem – a piece of literary text which has rhymes and which helps to send a message to the reader. It has rather a short structure. It usually consists of a few verses. Present – a gift given by guests invited to a party, for example, a birthday party Pub – a place built especially for relaxation and entertainment purposes to which a group of people can go, consume alcoholic and/or non-alcoholic beverages (most commonly beer) and sometimes eat food, smoke tobacco and sit and converse with other people. This place offers some entertainment devices, such as billiards tables, darts and/or gambling machines. Quarrel – a situation in which two opposing sides disagree on a matter or matters and exchange verbal arguments. Restaurant – a place where you can eat some food and talk with your friends. The food is usually served by waiters. Shopping centre – a place where people meet, eat something and do shopping. It is usually a huge building with a lot of shops, cafés, restaurants or even cinemas. Singer – a musician who uses his own voice as a musical instrument. This is a person who performs on a stage and records songs. Theatre – a building where actors play on the stage to a wider audience. The stories they present can be comedies, tragedies and others.

Marek Krawiec

157

Wedding – a religious or civil ceremony in which a man and a woman take an oath to become a husband and a wife; they pledge to each other loyalty, respect and love. This ceremony is often followed by a family meeting or a party.

5. Questionnaire survey The above implications can be confirmed by the results of a questionnaire survey conducted by the author of this article among 26 second- and thirdyear students from the Complex of Secondary Schools No. 1 in Krotoszyn on the 12th March, 2015 (students’ language levels: A2/B1). The questionnaire was addressed to those students who had had the chance to play Bingo in their English lessons more than three times. The questions addressed to the students in the survey were as follows: 1. Do you find the Bingo game in your English lessons attractive? YES / NO 2. Why do you think it is / isn’t attractive? 3. What can you learn by playing Bingo? Such questions helped to obtain qualitative as well as quantitative information about Bingo and its role in English language lessons at the secondary school level. The first question allowed the researcher to specify if the Bingo in the formula described above is attractive for students. All the respondents participating in the questionnaire survey pointed to the “YES” answer, which definitely proves the attractiveness of the game for young people. As for why, the student respondents indicated that this class activity: x is a lot of fun (10 respondents); x tests their memory and develops their thinking skills (10 respondents); x helps improve and expand vocabulary (8 respondents); x develops learners’ knowledge and skills (7 respondents); x leads to the integration of the group (7 respondents); x creates a nice atmosphere in the classroom (4 respondents); x encourages students to compete (4 respondents); x makes them interested in the lesson (3 respondents); x contributes to cross-curricular language learning and teaching (3 respondents); x helps students to prepare for a test (3 respondents); x teaches one how to win and lose (2 respondents);

Relevance of Bingo to Cross-Curricular Language Learning

158

x helps young people to learn the language (1 respondent); x gives one a chance of receiving a prize (1 respondent); x allows students to learn in a unique way (1 respondent). The last question in the survey contributed to the identification of the areas of knowledge and skills developed through Bingo. In their responses to this question, students highlighted that this activity leads to the mastery of: x x x x x x x x x x x

vocabulary items from different areas of human life (22 respondents); skills of winning and losing in the right way (9 respondents); pronunciation of foreign words and phrases (7 respondents); concentration skills (5 respondents); memorisation of information (5 respondents); the English language in general (3 respondents); obeying rules of games and competing (3 respondents); logical thinking (2 respondents); integration with the group (2 respondents); communication skills (1 respondent); making fast decisions (1 respondent).

What comes to the fore after an analysis of the responses is that Bingo is highly appreciated by young people because, as they state, it essentially helps them learn and practice foreign vocabulary and develop thinking and concentration skills as well as react properly to moments of winning and losing. Apart from its educational potential, the game also provides learners with a lot of fun and a number of cross-curricular and integrative possibilities. Bearing all this in mind, it is necessary now to formulate final conclusions with regard to the use of games, especially Bingo, for the purpose of cross-curricular language learning and teaching.

6. Conclusions Considering all the responses of the examined students, it needs to be emphasised that Bingo is a fun activity which, among other attributes, plays a very important role in bringing cross-curricular content closer to learners. Due to numerous possibilities of introducing content from different school subjects (e.g., geography, history, cultural studies, biology), this language game, as exemplified above, can help the teacher

Marek Krawiec

159

stimulate young people to do cross-subject work and retrieve information and vocabulary from different domains of human life, which is an aspect highly recognised particularly in the last part of the questionnaire survey (responses to question 3). Besides, as the teaching experience of the author of this article proves, the game can be played with learners of different ages and language levels, which points to its usefulness and universality in the educational field. On the basis of the above findings and observations of the author of the paper, one may draw a conclusion that a game is a relevant form of crosscurricular work that helps teachers not only develop the language skills of the students but also test and enrich young people’s knowledge of a number of areas. Thus, a game needs to be seen as an essential facilitator of cross-curricular language education and a preparatory step for adult life, which is inseparably connected with a holistic and multidimensional interpretation of surrounding reality.

Bibliography Abt, Clark C. 1987. Serious Games. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Alberta Education. 2007. Primary Programs Framework for Teaching and Learning: Curriculum Integration. Alberta, Canada: Alberta Education. https://education.alberta.ca/media/656618/curr.pdf (date of access: 15th February 2015). Burkat, Alicja. 2006. Gry i zabawy jako element wspomagający nauczanie jĊzyków obcych. JĊzyki Obce w Szkole 3, 45–48. Collins English Dictionary. 2015. http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/cross-curricular (date of access: 15th February 2015). Koluch, Remigiusz. 2003. Gry w nauce jĊzyka obcego – zalety i wady. JĊzyki Obce w Szkole 1, 43–46. Krawiec, Marek. 2014. “Cross-curricular Links during a Virtual Visit to a Castle in an English Lesson: Theoretical and Practical Implications”. In: Marek Krawiec (ed.), Cross-Curricular Dimensions of Language Learning and Teaching. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 243–62. Markowski, Grzegorz. 2006. Gry leksykalne w nauczaniu francuskiego jĊzyka handlowego. JĊzyki Obce w Szkole 2, 53–57. Marsh, David. 2002. CLIL/EMILE – The European Dimension: Actions, Trends and Foresight Potential. Jyväskylä, Finland: Continuing Education Centre, University of Jyväskylä.

160

Relevance of Bingo to Cross-Curricular Language Learning

http://clil-cd.ecml.at/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=ekwp4udVLfQ%3D& tabid=947&language=en-GB (date of access: 15th February 2015). Martin, Cynthia. 1995. Young Pathfinder 2: Games and Fun Activities. London: CILT. MoĪejko, Zbigniew. 2013. “The Role of Affective Factors in CLIL Provision in the Secondary School”. In: Danuta GabryĞ-Barker, Joanna Bielska (eds.), The Affective Dimension in Second Language Acquisition. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 226-240. https://books.google.pl/books?id=YGye8qE3U1oC&pg=PT193&dq=ci lt.org.uk+content,+communication,+cognition,+culture&hl=pl&sa=X &ei=LEnwVIGvOYTCPPSAgegC&ved=0CCIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage &q=cilt.org.uk%20content%2C%20communication%2C%20cognition %2C%20culture&f=false (date of access: 15th February 2015). Muzyczka, Daria. 2006. O grach i zabawach na lekcjach jĊzyka angielskiego – krzyĪówki. JĊzyki Obce w Szkole 2, 86–89. Pypáacz, Krystyna. 2004. Nauczanie jĊzyka angielskiego przez gry i zabawy. JĊzyki Obce w Szkole 6, 188–92. Salem, Katie, Eric Zimmerman. 2003. Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals. MIT Press. Savage, Jonathan. 2010. Cross-Curricular Teaching and Learning in the Secondary School. London: Routledge. Seligman, Martin E. P. 2011. Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-Being. New York: Atria. Siek-Piskozub, Teresa. 1994. Gry i zabawy w nauczaniu jĊzyków obcych. Warszawa: WSiP. ––. 2001. Uczyü siĊ bawiąc. Strategia ludyczna na lekcji jĊzyka obcego. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. ––. 2016. “The Compatability of Positive Psychology and the Ludic Strategy in Foreign Language Education”. Glottodidactica XLIII/1, 89–98 Soares, Denise, Kimberly Vannest. 2013. “STEM Project-based Learning and Teaching for Exceptional Learners”. In: Robert M. Capraro, Mary Margaret Capraro, James R. Morgan (eds.), STEM Project-Based Learning: An Integrated Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Approach. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers, 85–98. Szilas, Nikolas, Martin Acosta. 2011. “A Theoretical Background for Educational Video Games: Games, Signs, Knowledge”. In: Patrick Felicia (ed.), Handbook of Research on Improving Learning and Motivation through Educational Games: Multidisciplinary Approaches. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference, 215–38. Szulc-Kurpaska, Maágorzata, Magdalena Szpotowicz. 2009. Teaching English to Young Learners. PoznaĔ: Wydawnictwo PWN.

Marek Krawiec

161

Uberman, Agnieszka. 1998. “The Use of Games: For Vocabulary Presentation and Revision”. Forum Vol. 36, No. 1, http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/usia/E-USIA/forum/vols/vol36/no1/p20.htm (date of access: 15th February 2015). Wolff, Dieter. 2003. “Integrating Language and Content in the Language Classroom: Are Transfer of Knowledge and of Language Ensured?” La revue du GERAS ASp 41–42, http://asp.revues.org/1154 (date of access: 15th February 2015). Wolff, Dieter, Agnieszka Otwinowska-Kasztelaniec. 2010. CLIL – przeáomowe podejĞcie w edukacji europejskiej. JĊzyki Obce w Szkole 6, 7–13.

ENGLISH IN MEDICINE: HOW CLIL HELPS DEVELOP THINKING SKILLS IN STUDENTS KATARZYNA KURCZAK

The use of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) in Medical English classes has not been widely discussed in literature, especially as regards the context of Polish tertiary education. The present author focuses on the implementation of CLIL at lower levels of language proficiency. This paper tackles the issue of different cognitive skills developed during Medical English classes conducted with an extensive use of the CLIL approach. The aim is to analyse and present student results after completing 30 hours (1/3) of the course. The analysis is based on the observation of students’ work during the period. Moreover, the final test provides a substantial sample of material for a thorough analysis at different angles. The aspect of the development of HOTS (higher-order thinking skills) and LOTS (lower-order thinking skills) is mostly explored in the students whose initial language level was low: CEFR A0 to A2. Although it is commonly believed that CLIL brings the best results at higher levels of language proficiency, the present analysis demonstrates a remarkable potential for work with lower-level students.

1. Introduction This paper offers the analysis of different thinking skills that I work on with my students. The students of the Medical University of Warsaw are obliged to complete a 60–120 hour medical language course, tailored to the particular needs of individual faculties. There are different syllabi for Nursing, Physiotherapy, Public Health, Medicine or other faculties and departments. The work requires a skillful integration of medical content and language teaching. This difficult goal seems to be attainable with CLIL.

164

English in Medicine

According to Marsh and Lange (2000), CLIL refers to any educational situation in which an additional language, and therefore not the most widely used language of the environment, is used for the teaching and learning of subjects other than the language itself. CLIL cannot be used solely for the teaching of a language or a subject. In order for CLIL to prove successful, students need to develop both subject content and language. In Poland, CLIL is becoming ever-more common in the bilingual programmes implemented in secondary education. These programmes are usually more content-oriented. Teachers are obliged to cover the content included in the programme specified by the Ministry of Education. Therefore, the majority of Polish studies on CLIL refer to the secondary context of content-oriented CLIL teaching. There are few studies concerning the use of CLIL in tertiary education. There are university departments implementing foreign language programmes, such as the English Division at the Medical University of Warsaw, but their focus is mostly on the content, not on the language. Some scholars (e.g., Tang 2010) claim that CLIL is useful in teaching students with higher proficiency of the general language. Therefore, CLIL may be perceived as an elite approach, which is offered only to the best students. The following question can be asked: “If CLIL proved to be so successful at higher levels of language proficiency, why not try and implement it at lower levels?” CLIL offers a wide exposure to authentic language (with differences depending on individual teachers) so it seems very promising in contrast with methods involving shorter periods of language exposure or language that is non-authentic in its artificially created communicative situations. I incline towards the statement made by Graddol (2006, 86): “The learner is not necessarily expected to have the English proficiency required to cope with the subject before beginning study”. Graddol also emphasises the obvious, but sometimes neglected, truth resulting from the definition of CLIL – the simultaneous development of content and language. In my research, I am concentrating on the usefulness of CLIL at lower levels of language proficiency. I am going to test different aspects of CLIL methodology application in my ESP teaching. One of these aspects is the observation of student groups as regards the types of cognitive processing required for the completion of certain tasks – LOTS and HOTS. LOTS stands for “lower-order thinking skills” and HOTS stands for “higherorder thinking skills”. The idea was introduced by Bloom (1956). The socalled Bloom’s taxonomy categorised thinking skills into six levels.

Katarzyna Kurczak

165

Remembering, understanding and applying are the LOTS, and analysing, evaluating and creating are the HOTS. The conditions of CLIL effectiveness include challenging students to create new knowledge and developing new skills through reflection and engagement in higher-order as well as lower-order thinking (Coyle, Hood and Marsh 2010, 54). Higher-order and lower-order thinking skills are elementary to the cognitive aspect of CLIL’s 4Cs. Coyle, Hood and Marsh (2010) describe the 4Cs as follows: x Content (progression in new knowledge, skills and understanding); x Communication (interaction, progression in language using and learning); x Cognition (engagement in higher-order thinking and understanding, problem solving and accepting challenges and reflecting on them); x Culture (“self” and “other” awareness, identity, citizenship, and progression towards pluricultural understanding). It is emphasised that these elements need to be integrated in order for CLIL to take place (Coyle, Hood and Marsh 2010, 55). Moreover, higherorder thinking skills should play an important role in the CLIL approach. The more efficient a student is in the use of the HOTS and LOTS, the more he approaches the mastery of full communicative competence. Wiesemes (2009) characterises CLIL as post-method, an approach that lets the teacher select the methods of work based on the observation of individual abilities or weaknesses of particular students. Such an individualised task selection promotes language acquisition and facilitates the development of different language skills. It is a very valuable approach that enhances student autonomy. An experienced teacher is able to introduce techniques which will support the students in achieving the best possible results. The post-method is closely connected to the use of compensation strategies. It is obvious that students whose initial language level was B2/C1 are capable of achieving a very high level of receptive and productive skills as regards the use of specialist medical language throughout the course. The present author aims at answering the question: “What are the possible results of students at A0-A2 taught with the use of the CLIL approach?” The study shows that in spite of being exposed to a highly specialist discourse, low-level students do not seem discouraged. On the contrary, they quickly acquire some basic metalinguistic skills, which facilitates their functioning within the complex content (e.g., finding specific information in specialist texts).

166

English in Medicine

2. Method In my everyday work, I have the possibility of monitoring the progress of about 250 students during each academic year. Each faculty has its own specificity as regards the language level and content taught. For example, students of the medical faculty start their Medical English classes at the level of B2 – C1, students of Physiotherapy A2 – B2, Public Health A1 – B1 and Nursing A0 – B1. This paper focuses on the students in the Master of Sciences in Nursing (MSN) programme as the initial group level was the lowest in comparison with other groups taught by the present author. No group is homogeneous as regards the language proficiency level. Therefore, it was crucial to use tasks that scaffold and improve the knowledge and skills of those at lower levels and those at higher levels. Merging content and language is a challenging task. It changes the way classes are designed. Content needs to be the starting point when planning a lesson then, with the use (or the help) of 4Cs, it can be neatly combined with language. Some authors point out that the cognitive element is commonly neglected in CLIL classes (Godfrey 2013). The teaching of critical thinking, as this poses the most difficulty, is not only dependent on the abilities of students to acquire content or language material. Mastering thinking skills, especially higher-order thinking skills, is another aspect of learning. It is not only about the “what and how” of learning but also about qualities specific for individual students and their predispositions. Introducing the elements of critical thinking is demanding as such, but it promotes a more holistic approach to teaching. With science developing every day, it is necessary to look at any aspect of life in a broader context. Teaching also needs to follow this holistic pattern – we, teachers, can no longer instruct our students on separate elements of the jigsaw puzzle of our specific area. We need to teach in context, otherwise future generations may be somewhat handicapped – they will notice individual pieces but they will find it impossible to see the whole picture. According to Dieter Wolff (1999), teachers need to avoid teaching factual knowledge, which will not involve students and will not enhance their processing efforts as regards both language and content. He emphasises that a CLIL classroom offers an environment for explorative learning which cannot be found in a conventional classroom. There are numerous ways in which critical thinking skills may be enhanced, such as working with charts, figures, graphs and tables. The method used in this study was based on the analysis of test results. The main criterion for the study group selection was the lowest initial

Katarzyna Kurczak

167

language level. Materials used during classes were designed at CEFR B1/B2 level of language proficiency. The students were assessed after 30 hours of this Medical English course. In order to facilitate the analysis, test results were put in tables and graphs.

2.1. Study group The study group consisted of 43 students (women) from two mixed-ability groups. They studied at the Medical University of Warsaw – MSN programme. The level of language proficiency varied significantly within the group, from A0 to B1 according to CEFR. There were 7 students who had never learned any English – they were qualified as the A0 subgroup. Nine students had learned General English at a secondary school but during the Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) programme, they attended Medical German or Medical Russian courses. This subgroup, qualified as A1, had had at least a 3-year break from learning English and/or had no Medical English background. The remaining 27 students had attended a Medical English course at a medical university (90 to 120 hours of Medical English) during their BSN studies. They were subdivided into two groups: 17 students formed the A2 subgroup and 10 students formed the B1 subgroup. Figure 11-1 shows the percentages relating to the number of students in individual subgroups as regards the language proficiency. A2 is the largest group (40% of all students) and A0 is the smallest group (16%). Groups A1 and B1 are similar in size (21% and 23%, respectively).

168

English in Medicine

B1 23%

A0 16%

A1 21%

A2 40%

Figure 11-1 Language Proficiency in Particular Subgroups

2.2. Course design Medical English courses are developed taking into consideration the specific needs of each faculty. Therefore, each faculty has its own general course outline. In order to make the reader familiar with the specificity of the MSN course, it seems necessary to present a brief course outline and supply an example of a lesson. The syllabus was developed by the present author in 2013, and it was based on the requirements set out in Polish law (Rozporządzenie Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa WyĪszego z dn. 9 maja 2012 w sprawie standardów ksztaácenia dla kierunków studiów: lekarskiego, lekarsko-dentystycznego, farmacji, pielĊgniarstwa i poáoĪnictwa – Regulation of the Minister of Science and Higher Education of May 9th, 2012 establishing the standards of education for the following faculties: medical, dentistry, pharmacy, nursing and midwifery). MSN course outline (simplified) for the academic year 2013/2014: 1. Students know and are able to use/describe: x Terminology concerning human anatomy, physiological aspects of body systems and organs; x The most common diseases and disorders (names and brief description);

Katarzyna Kurczak

2. 3.

4. 5. 6. 7.

169

x Signs and symptoms (medical and patient language); x Types of medications, dosage, drug formulations; x Nursing and treatment procedures; x Hospital wards (names and typical equipment); x Operating theatre (basic equipment). Students are able to discuss their professional experience. Students know the form and are able to analyse the language of typical professional texts (research articles, assessment forms, patient charts, hospital documentation). Students perform the patient assessment and chart information concerning the patient’s health status. Students give the patient relevant information and instructions during medical procedures. Students inform the patient, the family or medical personnel about the patient’s health status. Students are aware of their own limitations as regards language proficiency and understand the need of constant development in the area.

The above list shows the extent of a new language that needs to be acquired by students. It is a very demanding task with groups at lower levels of proficiency and necessitates the implementation of a method which would optimise language acquisition and make it possible to meet the criteria resulting from the Regulation. Basing their choices on these general recommendations, teachers select a course book and design additional materials. The present study group was taught with an extensive use of CLIL so additional materials were prepared in order to be useful from the viewpoint of the CLIL approach. Table 11-1 presents an outline of a lesson covering the topic of Cystic Fibrosis. The table clearly shows the implementation of the CLIL 4Cs in the present Medical English course.

English in Medicine

170

CYSTIC FIBROSIS CONTENT

What is Cystic Fibrosis? Pathophysiology of the disease Signs and symptoms Diagnosis Treatment: drugs, physiotherapy Living with CF – patient perspective

COMMUNICATION

Language OF learning

Key vocabulary:

Cystic Fibrosis CF-related signs and symptoms Chest percussion Laboratory tests

Language FOR Describing cause and effect learning Imperative (how to perform chest percussion) Giving advice (dealing with the condition)

COGNITION

CULTURE

Language THROUGH learning

New vocabulary New expressions Instructing/giving advice

Understanding

The causes of the disease Physiotherapeutic intervention The process of treatment

Doing

Patient/family education Chest percussion

Learning

The importance of treatment Group work – developing an educational programme Self-assessment

Rare disorders Dealing with a patient and his family Empathy

Table 11-1 Application of CLIL 4Cs in the Study Group in the Context of Cystic Fibrosis Moreover, at the beginning of the course, the study group was offered an intensive 3-hour terminology revision. The aim of the revision depended on the initial language level of students: x A0/A1 students – getting acquainted with the basic terminology necessary for subsequent classes;

Katarzyna Kurczak

171

x A2/B1 students – revision of terminology acquired during the BSN programme.

3. Assessment and results Student progress was assessed with a test covering the material taught during the whole semester (30 hours) and an oral presentation. The results included in this study are based on the written test. The test consisted of a variety of tasks which might be accomplished by students at different levels. There were seven tasks (1 HOTS and 6 LOTS). The HOTS task (Task 1) involved answering open questions (e.g., give advice, instruct a patient, evaluate a patient’s lifestyle). Tasks 2–7 (LOTS) involved matching questions and answers, asking questions, defining terms, selecting correct words and applying memorised vocabulary in context. Figure 11-2 shows the results of all study group students in relation to particular test tasks. Although the students earned the fewest points in the HOTS task, there were also two LOTS tasks (Tasks 2 and 6: defining and asking questions) with a similar result. The results of the remaining LOTS tasks (Task 3, 4, 5, 7) were very good, from 91 to 96%. 95,81%

100,00%

96,28%

93,26%

91,28%

80,00% 60,00%

59,40%

60,81%

Task 1 hots

Task 2 lots

60,23%

40,00% 20,00% 0,00% Task 3 lots

Task 4 lots

Task 5 lots

Task 6 lots

Task 7 lots

Figure 11-2 Study Group Results in Individual Tasks The results analysed in relation to language levels are presented in Figures 11-3 – 11-6.

English in Medicine

172

91,43%

100,00%

79,05%

80,00%

90,00%

80,95%

60,00% 40,00%

26,43%

22,86%

20,00% 13,10% 0,00% Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 hots lots lots

Task 4 Task 5 Task 6 Task 7 lots lots lots lots

Figure 11-3 The Results of A0 Subgroup in Individual Tasks The students in subgroup A0 scored the fewest points in Task 1 (HOTS) and in Tasks 2 and 6 (LOTS). Three of the students did not attempt to complete Task 1. Five students obtained from 10 to 33% in the HOTS task. Tasks 2 and 6 seemed easier, but the results were very low: from 0 to 55%, with the average of slightly over 20%. The results in the remaining four tasks were good and very good (from approx. 79 to 91%). Surprisingly, the A0 students dealt very well with Task 4, which involved understanding the context and inserting appropriate words. 100,00%

100,00% 80,00% 60,00% 40,00%

61,67%

88,89% 93,52%

91,67% 61,11%

40,05%

20,00% 0,00% Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 hots lots lots

Task 4 Task 5 Task 6 Task 7 lots lots lots lots

Figure 11-4 The Results of A1 Subgroup in Individual Tasks

Katarzyna Kurczak

173

The students in subgroup A1 scored the fewest points in Task 1 (HOTS) and in Tasks 2 and 6 (LOTS). As regards the HOTS task, only one student did not obtain any points and the remaining 8 students obtained from 16 to 68% (subgroup average was about 40%). The results obtained in Tasks 2 and 6 were better than in subgroup A0, ranging from 40 to 90%, with the average of approximately 61%. The results in the remaining four tasks were good and very good (from approx. 88 to 100%). The overall result obtained in Task 4 was lower than in subgroup A0. 99,22% 100,00%

100,00% 80,00%

74,88%

66,18%

94,41%

90,20% 66,47%

60,00% 40,00% 20,00% 0,00% Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 hots lots lots

Task 4 Task 5 Task 6 Task 7 lots lots lots lots

Figure 11-5 The Results of A2 Subgroup in Individual Tasks The students in subgroup A2 scored the fewest points in Tasks 2 and 6 (LOTS). As regards the HOTS task, the results ranged from 48 to 98% (subgroup average was about 74%). The results obtained in Tasks 2 and 6 were lower in comparison with Task 1, with the average of approximately 66%. The results in the remaining four tasks were very good (from approx. 90 to 100%).

English in Medicine

174

100,00% 80,00%

98,00% 100,00% 98,33% 82,92%

75,00%

95,00% 75,00%

60,00% 40,00% 20,00% 0,00% Task 1 Task 2 hots lots

Task 3 lots

Task 4 Task 5 lots lots

Task 6 Task 7 lots lots

Figure 11-6 The Results of B1 Subgroup in Individual Tasks The students in subgroup B1 scored the fewest points in Tasks 2 and 6 (LOTS). As regards the HOTS task, the results ranged from 73 to 96% (subgroup average was about 83%). The results obtained in Tasks 2 and 6 were lower compared to Task 1, with the average of 75%. The results in the remaining four tasks were very good (from 95 to 100%).

4. Discussion Considerable differences in the language proficiency levels of the students necessitated extensive individualisation of the teaching process. The input was the same for all students. It is obvious that the production of A0 students is much poorer than that of A2 or B1 students. Surprisingly, the level of reception of A0 students seemed much higher than expected. The observation of students during the semester demonstrated the mastering of the following skills: understanding of basic information while listening, understanding of the teacher’s instructions and a considerable amount of understanding of the teacher’s explanations in English (e.g., some questions in English were correctly answered to by A0 students in Polish). It is clear that A0/A1 students have to put in a lot of effort in order to achieve a skilful use of HOTS. Taking into consideration the goals of this particular group of students (communication within their professional area), we should be careful when discussing their improvement towards CALP (cognitive academic language proficiency – a term coined by Jim Cummins in 1979). Seemingly, CALP, which requires students to use

Katarzyna Kurczak

175

higher-order thinking skills, does not need to be incorporated into this particular course. Students are exposed to tasks provoking the development of HOTS, which provides them with the confidence to operate in professional situations that will usually require communication at lower levels of critical thinking. One of the main weaknesses of CLIL is neglecting the development of the grammatical competence of students. This problem may be overcome in two ways. When planning the content for classes, I always analyse if there are any specific grammatical constructions used in particular contexts (for example, the use of simple past and present perfect in taking a history). The procedure during the class includes the presentation of new material, a short reminder of the grammatical item (preferably based on the elicitation from students) and using the structure in subsequent tasks. Another way of dealing with new grammatical items is feedback following speaking or writing tasks. This is an easy way of diagnosing weak points and providing further, necessary explanations. The use of compensation strategies is crucial in my work. Otherwise, the students could get easily discouraged in the labyrinth of grammar and highly-specialised authentic texts. I commonly use these strategies in the instructions or introduction of new material. I avoid simplifying texts that the students work on. Moreover, with frequent use of video materials (instructive videos, recorded lectures, etc.), it would be a very difficult task. In such situations, it is very important to prepare the students for the vocabulary content they will encounter – introduce and explain key words and terms. On the other hand, it is necessary to closely observe the behaviour of the group in order to avoid a situation in which students passively wait for an explanation. This would be highly destructive in terms of developing learner independence and autonomy. Numerous methods might be helpful in overcoming such a problem. For example, the teacher may help the students once or twice with a word or a structure, but the group needs to realise that afterwards they will be expected to remember the word or understand the structure. Being an independent, autonomous learner is extremely important as those students who will need Medical English at work will have to use the language without any assistance after 90 hours of the course. The most demanding task for the teacher is not the teaching of the students but not discouraging them. Thus, it is essential to introduce strategies for the facilitation of language acquisition, such as compensation strategies or the post-method. Without their implementation, it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to help A0/A1 students

176

English in Medicine

acquire elements of B1/B2 foreign specialist language as they might get easily discouraged without any assistance.

5. Conclusion To conclude, I would like to quote one of my A0 students attending the CLIL course: When I saw these difficult texts at the beginning of the course, I thought that I would be the first one to fail the Medical English class. After one semester, when I see such a text, I know that I will not understand a lot of important information or analyses included in it but I am not scared as I was before. I know that I will be able to find some basic, relevant information if I need to. I know how and where to look to succeed. I know how to use the fishing-rod to catch my fish.

Bibliography Bloom, Benjamin S. 1956. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc. Coyle, Do, Philip Hood, David Marsh. 2010. Content and Language Integrated Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cummins, Jim. 1979. “Cognitive/academic Language Proficiency, Linguistic Interdependence, the Optimum Age Question and Some Other Matters”. Working Papers on Bilingualism No. 19, 121–29. Godfrey, Chad L. 2013. “Readdressing EFL Approaches: CLIL Curriculum in a Japanese Medical University Context”. Asian EFL Journal Vol. 15 No. 4, 366–72. Graddol, David, 2006. English Next: Why Global English May Mean the End of “English as a foreign language”. London: The British Council. http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-english-next.pdf (date of access: 30th April 2014). Marsh, David, Gisella Lange. 2000. Using Languages to Learn and Learning to Use Languages. Jyväskylä: University of Jyväskylä. Rozporządzenie Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa WyĪszego z dn. 9 maja 2012 w sprawie standardów ksztaácenia dla kierunków studiów: lekarskiego, lekarsko-dentystycznego, farmacji, pielĊgniarstwa i poáoĪnictwa. http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/DetailsServlet?id=WDU20120000631 (date of access: 30th April 2014). Tang, Eunice. 2010. “Researching the Reform in College English Curriculum”. College English 7(1), 182–86.

Katarzyna Kurczak

177

Wiesemes, Rolf. 2009. “Developing Theories of Practices in CLIL: CLIL as Post-method Pedagogies?” In: Yolanda Ruiz de Zarobe and Rosa Maria Jimenez Catalan (eds.), Content and Language Integrated Learning: Evidence from Research in Europe. Bristol/Buffalo/Toronto: Multilingual Matters, 41–62. Wolff, Dieter. 1999. “Content Based Language Learning: Some Critical Issues”. In: David Marsh, Bruce Marsland (eds.), CLIL Initiatives for the Millennium: Report on the CEILINK Think-Tank. Jyväskylä: University of Jyväskylä, 122–24.

THE CROSS-CURRICULAR NATURE OF THE STORYLINE METHOD IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION TOMASZ RÓG

One of the challenges for education in general is to allow learners to integrate knowledge and skills from different academic disciplines. Such cross-curricular teaching has the potential of bringing learners closer to seeing the so-called “big picture” and avoids compartmentalising knowledge into separate school subjects. A method of teaching put forward in this article, known as the Storyline method, can be seen as an idea for interdisciplinary teaching. In this article, a sequence of lessons conducted according to the principles of the Storyline method will be presented. The central aim of this sequence is to develop foreign language skills while covering the curricula of different school subjects. Before this, however, the author will elaborate on the place of the Storyline method in cross-curricular teaching and foreign language education.

1. Introduction Cross-curricular education can be seen as progressive, putting the learners at the centre of attention and aiming to prepare them for the world in which they will be required to use all the knowledge and skills available to them. In this way, it grows apart from traditional education, in which the main focus was on knowledge transmission. The merits of cross-curricular teaching rest upon its holistic approach both to the learner and to knowledge, allowing learners to see the big picture without compartmentalising science into discrete categories. As a result, crosscurricular teaching embraces the whole of human experience instead of dissecting knowledge into separate subjects. Furthermore, as Krawiec (2014, 244) suggests, there seems to be a reasonable congruence between Polish educational authorities and scholars concerning the benefits of such education for encouraging learners to link different modes of teaching.

180

The Cross-Curricular Nature of the Storyline Method

The author wishes to lay out in this article the benefits of using the Storyline method in foreign language education, focusing primarily on its cross-curricular nature. Presented below is an example of an EFL lesson conducted according to the principles of the Storyline method which testifies to its ability to include many school subjects while still retaining the central aim of developing foreign language skills. To begin with, however, a historical overview of the origins of the Storyline method will be followed by its main tenets. Later, we shall move on to discussing the cross-curricular dimension of the method and the ways to implement it in foreign language education. Finally, the said exemplary lesson will be elaborated on and a number of conclusions given.

2. The origins and principles of the Storyline method The evolution of the Storyline method can be traced back to 1965 when three Scottish teachers – Steve Bell, Fred Rendell and Bill Michael, working for the Inservice Department at the Jordanhill College of Education – concentrated on developing new teaching methods to aid primary education teachers (Harkness 2007, 19). Their labours were the gleanings of official reports such as “Primary Education in Scotland” (Scottish Education Department, 1965) and “The Plowden Report”, published two years later in England (Central Advisory Council for Education, 1967). The main criticism stemming from these publications boiled down to the unsuitability of teaching methods in Scottish schools. The dominant approach had been to ask learners to read pages from their course books at home then come to school, open the books at a given page and answer teachers’ questions. As the learners had to memorise facts from the books, the exams consisted of providing answers to theoretical questions. The assessment was summative rather than formative (cf. Materniak 2006, 84–85). In order to rectify the situation, the reports put forward a number of suggestions. First of all, the well-being and development of every child were put in the centre of attention. It was advised that the pattern of education take into account the nature of a child’s development in primary years. Secondly, schools were asked to focus more on learners’ active participation. The pupils were to be given opportunities to actively participate in their learning. Thirdly, the teaching material should no longer be distant from their experience; instead, children should learn about the events from their immediate environment. An immense weight was attached to drawing from learners’ interests. It was suggested that

Tomasz Róg

181

learners should see the connection between their day-to-day experience and the content of the classes. Finally, changes to the curriculum were to be carefully planned and introduced, bearing in mind the need for pupils to master skills and be taught how to learn (Creswell 1997, xiii–xiv). Though a number of academic articles were published in those years regarding the introduction of these changes, their recommendations were general and did not offer any practical solutions. The method developed at the Jordanhill College of Education received its name in 1988 when an organisation to promote it was established. Beforehand, it was referred to as the Topic Approach or the Topic Method (Eiríksdóttir 1995, 5). The first members of the in-service staff tutor team were S. Bell, S. Harkness and F. Rendel, and the approach they took on was to be more learner-centred and less focused on course book work. The method they developed regarded the nature of a child and its development as well as the suitability of the learning context. Only then, it was assumed, would the learners be more prone to developing positive attitudes towards the learning process. The partnership between students and teachers was to develop social abilities while the focus on existing learners’ knowledge was to help them create their own way of learning. The Storyline method was first used mainly in the schools of West Scotland but was progressively adopted in other countries, often by different names (e.g., it is known as the Glasgow Method in Germany and the Scottish Method in Iceland) (Eiríksdóttir 1995, 5). In Poland it is often referred to as the Scottish Method of Pedagogic Story: szkocka metoda opowieĞci wychowawczej. The theoretical basis on which the idea of the Storyline method was founded comprises six principles developed by the European Association for Educational Design, an international organisation which supports the development of the Storyline approach. Highlighting the distinctiveness of the method, they read as follows: 1. The Principle of Story: Stories are a central point of human experience; they provide the learners with a predictable, linear structure and a meaningful context for teaching given parts of the curriculum. 2. The Principle of Anticipation: The story draws the learners, makes them wonder about what will happen next, and ensures that learning goes on all the time as the learners are engaged in it not only in a class but also outside school; they are eager to bring their ideas to the classroom.

182

The Cross-Curricular Nature of the Storyline Method

3. The Principle of the Teacher’s Rope: The rope, which the teacher holds, is the road travelled by the learners. In spite of the twists, bends, detours and diversions, they follow this road and learn the previously-planned curriculum goals. 4. The Principle of Ownership: The learners take ownership of their characters; hence, they feel pride, responsibility and enthusiasm for the project. They are not “empty vessels” waiting to be filled, and they know a lot more about a given subject collectively than as individuals. 5. The Principle of Context: The context of the Storyline is linked to real-life problems so new learning is always linked to previous knowledge. The learners see the story as relating to their own lives and the predictable sequence of events ensures the story is a context they understand. 6. The Structure before Activity Principle: Learners decide what they need to know in order to complete the storyline, and in doing this, they frame their own questions. Consequently, they feel the need to understand what they do not know. The learners are given structures, enabling them to make their discoveries, and it is the teacher who provides the formats so the pupils do not have to accomplish the tasks on their own (Creswell 1997, 10–12). The Archetypal Storyline proceeds according to a particular schedule. Of pivotal significance is the story concept, upon which a series of lessons is built. Planned in a linear fashion, it should include the customary story elements: the setting, the characters, the time and the plot. When thoroughly considered, the story will constitute the driving force behind the teaching material to be covered. In a typical storyline, the learners take on different roles, depending on the topic, and act them out, guided by the teacher (Materniak 2009, 234). In the storyline presented below, the learners become travel agents setting up their own businesses, inventing advertising slogans, organising trips and dealing with unexpected situations.

3. The cross-curricular dimension of Storyline As stated in the introduction, the primary focus of the present article is to elucidate the cross-curricular nature of the Storyline method and to present how it can be accommodated in teaching foreign languages. The following section is particularly devoted to the practical dimension of the method in question, with the aim of expounding how foreign language education may benefit from its implementation. Of primary importance at this point is the

Tomasz Róg

183

idea of the omnidirectionality of the Storyline method, its flexibility to incorporate various subject matters as well as the prospects of genuine communication in the foreign language it holds. Owing to the fact that the Storyline method fits most, if not all, school curricula, it allows for cross-curricular implementation. Traditionally, interdisciplinary teaching was connected with the application of knowledge or skills to learning more than one academic subject. Such teaching was organised around a thematic unit (a person, event, phenomenon, problem, topic, etc.) considered from various viewpoints. The idea of structuring material into “units” is ever present in foreign language education, by which token the learners achieve a set of specific goals after having gone through a given sequence of lessons. In the case of languages, the goals are to integrate various skills (mainly listening, speaking, reading and writing as well as the use of particular grammatical structures). In the case of hard- and life-science, cross-curricular teaching is traditionally concerned with integrating themes. The idea is to give learners a broader picture, avoid the fragmentation of knowledge and show them how the knowledge of one discipline can be transferred to another. It should also develop reflectivity and critical thinking skills indispensable for arriving at an integrated picture of the world. The main difference between this traditional cross-curricular teaching and the Storyline method is that the sequence of lessons is not organised around a thematic unit but around a story (Creswell 1997, 5). This small change makes a big difference. The beneficial aspects of the Storyline method have been accentuated throughout this article, but let us stress them once again, particularly in relation to traditional cross-curricular teaching. First of all, Storyline usually generates high levels of motivation among learners. The characters and places created by them account for a significant personalisation of the educational experience. Secondly, it is learner-centred, with the main resource in the classroom being learners’ knowledge, experience and ideas. Apart from the goals set by the teacher, the learners can also express their willingness to discover new things for themselves. Thirdly, Storyline demonstrates the interrelatedness of in-class and outside-class experience; the problems discussed in the lessons are relevant to learners’ realities, and the acquired skills and knowledge are very useful for them (Eiríksdóttir 1995, 5). What is more, the learners can take on different roles and try out various responses to real-life problems while in a secure, non-threatening environment. Apart from these aspects, which in the present author’s opinion distinguish the Storyline method from traditional cross-curricular teaching, there are others that should also be mentioned in this in-depth treatment of the method. It should therefore

184

The Cross-Curricular Nature of the Storyline Method

be observed that Storyline allows for the use of up-to-date technology in looking for the solutions to the problems, promotes collaborative learning, teaches responsibility, and develops learner creativity (Maternak 2009, 234). Finally, as already stated, it easily enables the integration of various school subjects. There are many potential implications of this conjuncture when it comes to foreign language classes. Of pivotal importance is Storyline’s potential for developing so-called communicative competence, a notion firmly rooted in the literature of the field and the goal of any language lesson or language course; in fact, the goal of language teaching in general. Communicative competence has been conceived differently in the history of foreign language education (Róg 2013, 35–64) but, multifaceted as the construct is, the idea behind it boils down to the ability to give and receive adequate information. Simply put, in order to gain this ability, one needs to receive linguistic input (a model of language) and interact linguistically with other speakers of the language (i.e., to practise and test hypotheses). Such an approach is permeated with a dialogical view of developing communicative competence, and this brings about the question of the authenticity of this dialogue. While abundant literature on foreign language teaching exists, the problem of creating authentic communication in a language classroom remains unsolved. The first issue here is the idea of an information gap – a situation in which learners are missing the information needed for the successful completion of a task. The second issue is the genuineness of the communicative activity. The effectiveness of teaching and the motivation of the learners are much higher when there is an authentic need to learn. Therefore, an information gap, which is perceived by learners as something they indeed should find out, will have priority over problems artificially created just for the sake of learning. As already evidenced, the Storyline method fits in well with creating a genuine information gap and, when conducted in a foreign language, permits a lot of input and interaction. A successful Storyline that integrates both foreign language and content teaching will depend on five factors: goals, activities, the teacher’s role, learners’ roles and the setting (Creswell 1997, 13). Due consideration will be given to each of them. First of all, Storyline goals determine its pedagogical purpose. This will depend on such variables as the teacher’s familiarity with the subject content to be taught, learners’ language proficiency, their age, group size and the time devoted to conducting the storyline. It goes without saying that one does not expect foreign language teachers to be experts in various school subjects; nonetheless, as language is mainly a tool for conveying content, the position of a language teacher

Tomasz Róg

185

is a specific one. It can be argued that in fact most foreign language classes are interdisciplinary as skill development requires topics to be dealt with. In other words, rarely are language lessons metalinguistic in nature. Every reading or listening comprehension activity is based on a certain topic, and every language production activity (speaking or writing) also requires a certain topic on which to be based. Therefore, the present author’s claim is that foreign language teachers should not only be experts in language but they should also have a broad knowledge of the world so they can use the language to talk about many different things. At the same time, it is advisable to consult teachers of other subjects before embarking on a Storyline topic (Creswell 1997, 13). Also, since the constructivist philosophy advises collaborative work between teachers and learners (cf. Henderson 1996, 7; quoted in Siek-Piskozub 2006, 163), an added value is that the teacher learns something new in the course of the storyline. Exemplary goals can be, for example, to investigate how media function, what levels of English (or any other foreign language) the citizens of learners’ hometowns have, what life on a farm looks like, how to set up a successful business, etc. Learners’ interest in a particular discipline can help the teacher determine the scope of investigation. As far as the activities are concerned, feasibility is a prime concern. Storyline topics stimulate learners to look for ways of discovering things for themselves (Maternak 2009, 234). Customarily, these include typical research procedures: interviews, questionnaires, asking others and conducting a literature review, but they could also include brainstorming, testing hypotheses and trying out new solutions. Some may require a field trip, constructing various models or recording a film. It is the teacher’s responsibility to ensure the availability of time, materials and space, and to make sure health and safety regulations are in place. The next component in designing a storyline is the specification of learners’ roles for each separate activity. This means deciding upon general requirements for the learners since it is impossible to predict the decisions made by the learners in the course of a storyline. It has already been mentioned several times that learners are free to decide how to best approach each task. As the course progresses, increasingly more independence can be awarded to the learner. Therefore, more scaffolding should be provided at the beginning stages of Storyline lessons and, as the learners gain more confidence in responding to the storyline questions, the teacher’s support should be withdrawn. Such gradation refers not only to the whole sequence of lessons but also to each activity, and depends on a learner taking responsibility for carrying out the planned tasks. Worth stressing at this point is the idea that with a growing autonomy, learners

186

The Cross-Curricular Nature of the Storyline Method

may contribute at later stages to the development and planning of storyline topics. Approached in this way, the philosophy behind Storyline is strengthened and learners’ motivation undoubtedly increases. The teacher’s role, which is another factor to be taken into account in planning a sequence of Storyline lessons, is characterised by change. As stated above, with the development of learners’ skills, the teacher’s initial function will be different from his or her role at the end of the course. In the early stages, the teacher’s responsibility will mainly concern the design of the story, suggesting appropriate language for carrying out the research and providing feedback. Later, the teacher’s role might be to negotiate between the needs of a learner and the demands of an institution. When organising a cross-curricular storyline in a foreign language, the teacher should conduct in-depth research of the chosen topic in order to decide on the goals and desired outcomes of learners’ work. This should then be checked against the core curriculum to ensure the demands of governmental orders are met. The next step is to equip learners with the appropriate language skills necessary to carry out the tasks. Since the whole procedure will be carried out in a foreign language, it is difficult to predict all the linguistic needs of the learners, especially since specialist language may come into play. For this reason, much of the language-related aspects of Storyline may be characterised as opportunistic teaching. Consequently, the teacher’s position changes from that of an authority, instructor and initiator to one of adviser and guide, and also a co-learner. The final factor to consider in planning out Storyline is the learner setting, which denotes the number of learners involved in carrying it out (Creswell 1997, 14). Different types of settings – pair, whole class or individual work – have their advantages and disadvantages; however, the most privileged of those is group work. Nonetheless, settings should be varied throughout the course to allow learners to reflect on their progress in different situations. The provision of a variety of settings will cater for different learners’ needs and will give them teamwork experience in addition to individual development.

4. Travel agency: A practical development of Storyline in a foreign language classroom This section provides the reader with an example of a practical development of the Storyline method in keeping with the idea of its crosscurricular nature. The reported storyline was undertaken by the present author with a group of middle-school (Polish: gimnazjum) learners aged 13–14. The theme of this Storyline project was travelling, and it was

Tomasz Róg

187

planned to cover three to four weeks of school time with nine hours of school work and about three hours of homework. This storyline was conducted during lessons of English as a foreign language, which meant covering a number of points from the state’s core programme of teaching; mainly: x the learner uses a basic set of lexical phrases allowing him/her to communicate with regard to the topic of travelling and tourism; x the learner understands and can produce simple advertisements in a foreign language; x the learner understands and produces short texts both oral and written; x the learner can collaborate with other students by doing project work; x the learner uses communication strategies (Polish Core Curriculum 2012, 18–24). Moreover, the theme of travelling encompasses several other points of the Polish Core Curriculum (2012) relating to school subjects other than modern foreign languages. It should be noted at this point that the Polish core curriculum applies the CEFR guidelines. Table 12-1 presents some of these points (page numbers indicated in the brackets).

School subject

Curriculum areas

Civic Studies

the learner knows the rules of safe travelling and avoiding dangers (p. 88); can critically analyse advertising (p. 81); critically assesses Internet content (p. 93)

Art

the learner creatively uses artistic expression, e.g., in producing advertisements (p. 220)

Information Technology

the learner can find information on the Internet, databases, and catalogues using appropriate search engines (p. 183)

Polish

the learner can selectively and critically use electronic media, e.g., the Internet (p. 9)

188

The Cross-Curricular Nature of the Storyline Method

Geography

the learner can design and describe a journey using maps (p. 106); present an itinerary designed on the basis of maps, the Internet and guidebooks (p. 109)

Business Studies (Polish: podstawy przedsiĊbiorczoĞci)

the learner can critically examine advertising texts, and make a distinction between advertising and persuasion (p. 103)

Biology

the learner understands the functioning of the human digestive system (p. 122)

Civil Defence Course (Polish: edukacja dla bezpieczeĔstwa)

the learner knows how to help a person with food poisoning (p. 197)

Maths

the learner applies an appropriate mathematical model in carrying out given operations; is capable of logical reasoning (p. 172–73)

Table 12-1 Cross-curricular Areas Addressed in the Travel Agency Storyline This goes to show how different school subjects can be employed in the organisation of a Storyline project. In the case of the travel agency storyline, the learners’ tasks are to set up their own travel agency, use available resources to plan a journey to selected places, estimate the costs, invent their advertising slogan and logo, and deal with an unexpected outbreak of food poisoning. All this is done in a foreign language and demands creativity, resourcefulness and a certain degree of autonomy from the learners. In fact, to fully accomplish their storyline, they need to utilise both their hard skills (specialist knowledge and abilities) as well as their soft skills (personal qualities and interpersonal skills). The hard skills are teachable whereas the soft skills are developed through practice (ĩyliĔska 2013, 10). Table 12-2 presents the hard and soft skills used and developed while working on the travel agency storyline.

Tomasz Róg

Hard skills

Soft skills

using English as a foreign language reading maps estimating the cost of a trip understanding the rules of safe travelling being able to justify the benefits and drawbacks of different means of transport setting up a business understanding how advertising works using the Internet to find specific information understanding how to prevent and deal with food poisoning

creativity initiative/ motivation communication skills team work time management flexibility / adaptability leadership skills active listening problem solving emotional intelligence negotiating making friends

189

Table 12-2 Learners’ Hard and Soft Skills Utilized in the Travel Agency Storyline On the whole, the hard skills are the ones traditionally taught at schools. They can be proven through pen-and-paper tests or with adequate certificates. The soft skills, on the other hand, are the ones for which no diplomas can be produced. As ĩyliĔska (2013, 10) observes, they are the ones being increasingly asked about during job interviews. The school of the future should not be limited to information transfer but should develop creativity, collaboration, the ability to select information and other soft skills. In this respect, Storyline supports the use and advancement of soft skills. Episode One (2 lessons) The first episode of this Storyline project was, as customary, devoted to providing the impetus for the whole story, which took the form of a few key questions. The initial brainstorming should stimulate learners’ interest and boost their motivation. The learners were asked to define a travel agency. They had to discuss, initially in groups and later in plenary, how a travel agency operates, how it is organised, what equipment is necessary in this business, who the employees are and what their roles are. We then moved on to what the agency offers. The learners’ task was to brainstorm what should be included. The answers given by learners oscillated around types of accommodation, tourist attractions, cost, food and means of transport. This provided a great opportunity for introducing new vocabulary in English. Additionally, the learners were asked to discuss the advantages

190

The Cross-Curricular Nature of the Storyline Method

and disadvantages of different means of transport, which was an exercise in giving arguments, defending them and negotiating one’s viewpoint. As homework, learners were to create a written version of what had been established in the course of the two lessons. This was to be done in groups. Episode Two (2 lessons) Each group shared what they had designed. They described the interiors of their travel agencies and presented very general outlines of their offers. They were then asked to think about the rules for inventing a good name and an advertising campaign for a business. Everybody shared their knowledge and ideas with other learners; the teacher also came in with some of his advice. Working in groups, the students were later asked to think of names for their agencies and invent a logo and an advertising slogan. Those who did not have the time to finish in class had to complete the task as homework. Episode 3 (3 lessons) This series of lessons took place in a computer classroom. After presenting the results of their earlier (home)work, the learners worked on designing one of their agency’s offers. Using the Internet, they designed the itinerary of one trip of their choice, which was later presented to potential clients (other learners). In the process, the learners had to find out ticket prices, expected weather conditions, tourist attractions, the cost of the trip and insurance, etc., and had to ensure the potential trip would run smoothly and that its programme was feasible. They also had to take into account the length of time for visiting museums and galleries, the distances the travellers had to go, the prices of the hotels they stayed in and any other details they thought necessary. The last lesson in this episode was devoted to presenting the offers. The learners had to use persuasive language and advertise their trips as best as they could in order to attract clients. Other learners were allowed to ask any questions they wanted concerning the trip. For the presenters, this was an exercise in public speaking. For the whole class, this episode meant acquiring the skills of finding specific information on the Internet: finding hotels, checking the prices, finding out prices of plane tickets, using maps (in particular Google Maps) to estimate distances, visiting webpages to discover tourist attractions in various European cities and estimating the cost of the whole trip.

Tomasz Róg

191

Episode 4 (1 lesson) In this episode, the learners had to prepare advice for their clients with regard to preparing for the trip. The task was to come up with instructions regarding what to pack in their luggage, how to prepare for the flight, what documents to take with them and how to contact the agency while abroad. As a result, the learners first revised and extended their travel vocabulary and, second, practised the skills of giving informative speeches. Episode 5 (1 lesson) This lesson began with a twist of events. The learners were told there had been an outbreak of food poisoning among the travellers and the learners had to react quickly. To begin with, they revised the vocabulary related to the human digestive system and described the possible symptoms of food poisoning. Working collaboratively, they shared their knowledge of how to help those affected and worked on their plan of action. At the end of this lesson, the learners created a leaflet for the clients advising them how to prevent and what to do in case of food poisoning. When the Storyline is finished, it is customary to introduce a high point, a celebration of the events in the storyline. In the case of the abovepresented sequence of lessons, one idea could be to organise a trip to a travel agency, where the learners could compare their ideas with reality. Another solution could be to invite a travel agent to the classroom. In the storyline described in this article, none of this was, unfortunately, possible. Instead, the learners organised a display of their work (logos, advertising slogans, trip offers and leaflets) in the school hall.

5. Conclusion The Storyline proposal presented in this article testifies to its great potential for integrating various school subjects into a sequence of lessons and, what is more, conducting them in a foreign language. Quite importantly for a foreign language teacher, the method offers a potential for a holistic approach to language in which all the linguistic skills are integrated. As a result, it gives an opportunity for authentic language use – a communicative situation often recommended in language education. As far as other school subjects are concerned, the Storyline method allows for integrating knowledge from various disciplines in a manner which lets learners see the big picture and use their knowledge and available

192

The Cross-Curricular Nature of the Storyline Method

materials exhaustively. As expounded above, careful design of the Storyline sequence increases the chances for a teacher’s endeavours to meet with success.

Bibliography Central Advisory Council for Education. 1967. The Plowden Report. Children and their Primary Schools. London: Her Majesty’s Stationary Office. Creswell, Jeff. 1997. Creating Worlds, Constructing Meaning. The Scottish Storyline® method. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Eiríksdóttir, Björg. 1995. Qualities of the Storyline Method for Teaching in Primary Schools in Iceland. http://frontpage.simnet.is/storyline/Mastersritgerd.pdf (date of access: 12th February 2014). Harkness, Sallie. 2007. “Continuing Professional Development in Storyline”. In: Steve Bell, Sallie Harkness, Graham White (eds.), Storyline Past, Present and Future. Glasgow: Enterprising Careers, 19–26. Henderson, James G. 1996. Reflective Teaching: The Study of your Constructivist Practices. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill, an imprint of Prentice Hall. Krawiec, Marek. 2014. “Cross-curricular Links during a Virtual Visit to a Castle in an English Lesson: Theoretical and Practical Implications”. In: Marek Krawiec (ed.), Cross-Curricular Dimensions of Language Learning and Teaching. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 243–62. Materniak, Mieczysáawa. 2006. PodejĞcie Storyline a process nauczania/ uczenia siĊ jĊzyków obcych na etapie przejĞciowym. Studia Neofilologiczne V, 83–91. —. 2009. PodejĞcie Storyline – kreatywna wspóápraca ucznia i nauczyciela. In: Dorota Sikora-Banasik (ed.), Wczesnoszkolne nauczanie jĊzyków obcych: Zarys teorii i praktyki. Warszawa: CODN. Polish Core Curriculum, Podstawa programowa ksztaácenia ogólnego dla gimnazjów i szkóá ponadgimnazjalnych, których ukoĔczenie umoĪliwia uzyskanie Ğwiadectwa dojrzaáoĞci po zdaniu egzaminu maturalnego. http://bip.men.gov.pl/men_bip/akty_prawne/rozporzadzen ie_20081223_zal_4.pdf (date of access: 14th February 2014). Róg, Tomasz. 2013. Intercultural Speakers and Study Abroad Programmes: The Case of Erasmus Students. Saarbrucken: Lambert Academic Publishing.

Tomasz Róg

193

Scottish Education Department. 1965. Primary Education in Scotland. Edinburgh: Her Majesty’s Stationary Office. Siek-Piskozub, Teresa. 2006. “Constructivism in Language Pedagogy”. In: Edyta Lorek-JeziĔska, Teresa Siek-Piskozub, Katarzyna WiĊckowska (eds.), Worlds in the Making. Constructivism and Postmodern Knowledge. ToruĔ: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Mikoáaja Kopernika. ĩyliĔska, Marzena. 2013. Neurodydaktyka: Nauczanie i uczenie siĊ przyjazne mózgowi. ToruĔ: Wydawnictwo Naukowe UMK.

CONTRIBUTORS

Magdalena Aleksandrzak (PhD) – is an assistant professor and researcher in the Institute of Applied Linguistics at the Adam Mickiewicz University in PoznaĔ, Poland. Her main research interests include: developing speaking skills at the advanced level of foreign language proficiency, evaluation of spoken language, models of classroom communication, the role of interaction in foreign language learning and learner autonomy. Marlena Iwona Bielak (PhD) – is a senior lecturer in the Department of Philology at Stanisáaw Staszic University of Applied Sciences in Piáa, Poland. She received her MA in English Studies from the Catholic University of Lublin. In 2010 she obtained her PhD degree from the Adam Mickiewicz University in PoznaĔ. Her research interests focus on communication theory, public space, ecology of language and glottodidactics. Joanna Kic-Drgas (PhD) – holds a PhD degree in applied linguistics. She works in the Institute of Applied Linguistics at the Adam Mickiewicz University in PoznaĔ, Poland. Her scientific fields of interest are: foreign language teaching (English as a Foreign Language, German as a Foreign Language), LSP (Language for Specific Purposes), intercultural communication, translation and interpreting. Martyna Klejnowska-Borowska (PhD) – is a holder of a PhD degree in linguistics (the University of Warsaw, the Faculty of Applied Linguistics). She defended her PhD dissertation on “Principles of compiling a RussianPolish specialist dictionary for didactic purposes (on the material of securities terminlogy)” in 2015. She teaches English and Russian at the Your Language Courses School in Páock. Her research interests focus on lexicography, terminography and didactics. Marek Krawiec (PhD) – is an assistant professor at the Wielkopolska University of Social and Economic Studies (Wielkopolska WyĪsza Szkoáa Spoáeczno-Ekonomiczna) in ĝroda Wielkopolska, Poland. He is also a lecturer in the Philological School of Higher Education (WSF) in

196

Contributors

Wrocáaw. For 15 years he was a teacher of English in the Complex of Secondary Schools No. 1 (ZSP nr 1) in Krotoszyn. His research interests focus on foreign language learning and teaching, especially crosscurricular dimensions of language didactics, as well as on socio- and ethnolinguistic aspects. Katarzyna Kurczak (MA) – is a Medical English teacher at the Medical University of Warsaw. She specialises in medical translation and teaching English for Medical Purposes. She is the author of additional materials for the CUP course book: “Cambridge English for Nursing” (Virginia Allum, Patricia McGarr). She has wide experience in teaching students of different ages and levels. Currently she is a PhD student at the University of Warsaw. Her scope of interests includes bilingual education, English for Medical Purposes, CLIL and vocabulary acquisition. Emilie Martinez (MA) – is a PhD candidate at the Friedrich Schiller University (FSU) in Jena, Germany, as well as an artist. Her thesis deals with using contemporary paintings, instrumental music and soundscapes in the foreign language classroom with young-adult learners, with a strong focus on incorporating emotions in developing foreign language skills. Additional research interests include teaching German literature, foreign language acquisition in older adults, and the development of intercultural competence in the foreign language classroom. Besides teaching English and French to older adults, she has offered courses in German as a Foreign Language, German literature and German cultural studies to international students at FSU and at the University of Santiago de Compostela in Spain. Weronika Olek-Taszarek (MA) – graduated from the English Department at the Adam Mickiewicz University in PoznaĔ. She has been a teacher of English for seven years. Now, she teaches in Primary School No. 2 in Jarocin, where she explores the use of technology in the language classroom and coordinates international partnership programmes such as Comenius and eTwinning. She is particularly interested in foreign language learning and teaching, ICT and culture. Tomasz Róg (PhD) – is a senior lecturer at the Department of Philology, Stanisáaw Staszic University of Applied Sciences in Piáa, specialising in applied linguistics and the methodology of language teaching. He is the author of numerous articles devoted to glottodidactics published in Poland and abroad, and a book (2013) on the development of intercultural communicative competence among students participating in the Erasmus

Foreign Language Education and its Cross-Curricular Links

197

programme. His professional experience includes teaching linguistics, history of English, phonetics, contrastive English-Polish grammar, descriptive grammar and language teaching methodology. He has conducted many workshops for both pre- and in-service language teachers and is an active member of Modern Language Association of Poland. Elena Schäfer (PhD) – is a research assistant in the department of Didactics of Romance Languages and Literatures at the GoetheUniversity, Frankfurt, Germany. She obtained a doctorate in the didactics of French and Spanish. Her area of research includes inter alia New Media and Teaching Aids for foreign language learning. Besides the use of new media, her articles focus in particular on the didactic potential of audiovisual media in the language classroom. Zofia Stasiakiewicz (MA) – graduated in Spanish Philology from the University of Adam Mickiewicz (Poland) in 2009 and in Spanish (2011) and Catalan Philology (2012) from the University of Girona (Spain). She has also completed a Master’s degree in Research Studies in Humanities (University of Girona, 2012) and a Master’s degree in Secondary Compulsory Education in English (University Pompeu Fabra in Barcelona, 2013). She worked as an English and French language teacher with both younger and adult learners for several years. She is currently a PhD student at the University of Girona (Spain), elaborating a doctoral thesis on the reception of Witold Gombrowicz’s literary work in Spain. Jacek Tadeusz WaliĔski (DLitt) – works as an associate professor in the Institute of English Studies at the University of Lodz, Poland. He holds an MA in Social Pedagogy (1995), an MA in English Philology (1997), and a PhD in Linguistics (2001). Over the past fifteen years, he has actively participated in a number of international research projects targeted at implementations of e-learning in tertiary education and in-service teacher training. His current academic interests focus on innovative applications of mobile learning for intercultural competence development, as well as interactions between language and cognition in the mental processing of socio-cultural reality.