EDUCABILITY OF ADOLESCENTS IN INDUCTIVE ABILITY

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University Microfilms 300 N orth Z e e b R oad Ann A rbor, M ichigan 48106 A X erox E d u c a tio n C om pany

13-8614

ID3907 •E3 Higgins, Conwell Dean, 19031942 Educability of adolescents in induc.H5 tive ability; an experimental study in the field of general biology at the secondary level... New York, 1942. vii,206 typewritten leaves, tables (part fold.) diagrs.,forms. 29cm. Thesis (Ph.D.) - New York university, School of education, 1942. Bibliography? p.cl27a-131. AS9441

Shelf ..is:

Xerox University Microfilms,

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106

T H IS D ISSERTA TIO N HAS BEEN M ICRO FILM ED EXACTLY AS RECEIV ED .

aoceptefc f AUG 1 2 1^

EDUCABILITY OF ADOLESCENTS IN INDUCTIVE ABILITY

An E x p e rim e n ta l S tu d y I n t h e F i e l d o f G e n e ra l B io lo g y a t t h e S e c o n d a ry L evel

CONWELL DEAN HIGGINS

S u b m itte d i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e ' re q u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e d e g re e o f D o c to r o f P h ilo s o p h y i n t h e S c h o o l o f E d u c a tio n o f New Y ork U n i v e r s i t y 1942

PLEASE NOTE: S o m e p a g e s m a y have i n d i s t i n c t print. F i l m e d as received. Uni versity Microfilms, A Xerox Education Company

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I w ish to e x p re s s my d e b t t o th e members o f th e s p o n s o rin g c o m m itte e , P r o f e s s o r C h a rle s J . P i e p e r , C hairm an, P r o f e s s o r P a u l V. West and P r o f e s s o r E r n e s t R. Wood.

T h e ir

a s s i s t a n c e , i n th e form o f s u g g e s t i o n s , c r i t i c i s m and s t i m u l a ­ t i o n i s t r u l y a p p r e c i a te d . The t e a c h e r s who c o o p e r a te d i n th e s tu d y , M iss R uth Dodge, B r o th e r A lp h o n su s, S i s t e r Mary L o u rd e s, Mr. A rth u r J o n e s , and M iss Mary W arren, s p e n t a g r e a t d e a l o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l tim e i n c a r r y i n g o u t t h e i r p a r t o f th e p ro g ram .

T h e ir h e lp i s g r a t e ­

f u l l y acknow ledged. The v a l i d a t i o n o f th e ite m s o f th e Judge C o n c lu s io n s T e s t was p o s s i b l e th ro u g h th e work o f D r. Cyrus W. B a rn e s, D r. D a r r e l l B a rn a rd , D r. M a rtin L. R o b e rts o n and Mr. F r a n c is B. M cG arry. My th a n k s a re a l s o due f o r th e h e lp o f Mr. L lo y d Clum, Mr. Herman B lum el and M rs. James C u lle n who a id e d in t h e a n a l y s i s o f th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l .

ii ft 8 9 4 4 1

CONTENTS CHAPTER I

PAGE THE PROBLEM

1

S ta te m e n t o f t h e P ro b lem D e f i n i t i o n o f t h e P ro b lem Im p o rta n c e o f t h e S tu d y S p e c i f i c A b i l i t i e s i n R e f l e c t i v e T h in k in g D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e P ro b lem B a s ie A s s u n p tio n s S p e c i f i o A s p e c ts o f t h e P ro b lem II

ANTECEDENTS

8

O b je c tiv e s o f S c ie n c e E d u o a tio n P r e v io u s Aims P r e s e n t Aims A tta in m e n t o f O b je c tiv e s E x p e rim e n ta tio n i n I n d u c t i o n S u rv e y S t u d i e s C o n c e p tu a l E x p e rim e n ta tio n E x p e rim e n ta l S t u d i e s S tu d ie s o f T ra n sfe r E v a lu a tio n o f E x p e r im e n ta tio n III

THE EXPERIMENT

33

O verview o f E x p erim e n t The S c h o o ls The T e a c h e rs The S c a le s Henm on-N elson The T h u rs to n e T e s ts Ju d g e C o n c lu s io n T e s t D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n T e s t C o r r e l a t i o n o f I n i t i a l M easu res I n s t r u c t i o n i n I n d u c tiv e P r o c e s s e s IV

THE DATA

44

O r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e D ata C om parison o f t h e A, B, and C S am ples C om parison o f x and c W ith in S am ples A, B, and C S i g n i f i c a n c e o f F i n a l Mean C a in s o f C o n tro l Sam ples S i g n i f i c a n c e o f F i n a l Mean G a in s o f E x p e rim e n ta l S am ples I n i t i a l C om parison o f S am p les x and 0. F i n a l C om parison o f S am ples x and o

iii

CHAPTER IV

PAGE (c o n * t) I n t e r m e d i a t e T e s t S c o re s A s p e c ts o f J u d g e C o n c lu s io n s T e s t S c o re s The G a in s on t h e Ju d g e C o n c lu s io n s T e s t by C a te g o r ie s D i s t r i b u t i o n o f R esp o n se s o f ite m s o f t h e Ju d g e C onclu­ s io n s T e s t D i r e c t i o n o f E r r o r on I n o o r r e o t R esp o n se s o f t h e Ju d g e C o n c lu s io n s T e s t The D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s T e s t The D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n T e s t R esp o n ses C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f I n c o r r e c t R esp o n ses C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f C o r r e c t R e sp o n se s The T h u rs to n e I n d u o tio n R e s u l ts SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary R e s t r i c t i o n s o f t h e C o n c lu s io n s The C o n c lu s io n s C o n c lu s io n s from th e D a ta o f t h e S ub-S am ples R ecom m endations T ea ch in g I n d u c t i v e M ethods S u g g e s tio n s f o r F u r t h e r R e se a rc h B ib lio g ra p h y A ppendix A A ppendix B A ppendix C A ppendix D

ir

117

127 152 159 199 206

LIST OF TABLES TABLE

TITLE

PAGE

I

C o r r e l a t i o n o f I n i t i a l S c o r e s . . . .............................................

40

II

I n i t i a l Means o f t h e C o n tro l and E x p e rim e n ta l C l a s s e s .....................................................................................................

45

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f P u p i l s by S c h o o ls and S a m p le s...............

46

V a ria n o e s o f S u b -S aiq p les.......................

47

C om parison o f I n i t i a l V a ria n c e R a ti o s o f F a i r e d E x p e rim e n ta l and C o n tro l S e c ti o n s o f S am ples A, B, and C....................

49

C om parison o f I n i t i a l M eans o f S am p les A, B, and C by t h e t s t a t i s t i o . . . ...............

51

F and t v a lu e s o f x and o w i t h i n S am ples A,B,

52

III IV 7

VI V II V III II X H H I X III XIV XV XVI XVII

and C.

t V a lu e s f o r C om parison o f I n i t i a l and F i n a l Means o f S a m p le s.........................................

55

t V a lu e s f o r C om parison o f F i n a l Means o f x and c S a m p le s................................................................

55

S i g n i f i c a n c e o f I n i t i a l Mean D i f f e r e n c e f o r t h e E x p e rim e n ta l and C o n tro l G ro u p s..............................................

57

S i g n i f i c a n c e o f F i n a l Mean D i f f e r e n c e s f o r t h e E x p e rim e n ta l and C o n tro l G ro u p s.........................

65

M eans and Sums o f S q u a re d D e v ia tio n s f o r t h e C a te g o r ie s o f t h e I . e . T e s t ....................

75

t V a lu e s f o r G a in s on t h e C a te g o r ie s o f t h e I . C . T e s t . 75 t V a lu e s f o r F i n a l G a in s on t h e C a te g o r ie s o f t h e I . C . T e s t ..............................................................................................

74

P e r c e n ta g e o f I . C . T e s t I te m s C hecked by S u b -S am p les.

75

C o m p ila tio n o f R e sp o n se s on t h e Ite m s o f t h e J . C. T e s t .........................................................

78

C hi S q u a re V a lu e s f o r D i s t r i b u t i o n o f R e sp o n ses on t h e I . C . T e s t ................................................................................

79

v

TABLE X V III XIX

TITLE

PAGE

T h e o r e t i c a l F req u en o y and C h i-S q u a re V a lu e s o f E r r o r D i s t r i b u t i o n s Due t o C hance........................................

8l

D i r e c t i o n o f E r r o r on C a te g o r ie s o f t h e I . C . T e s t . .

82

▼i

LIST OF DIAGRAMS DIAGRAM

TITLE

1

C o m p arativ e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f I n i t i a l HenmonN e lso n S c o r e ..................................................................................

2

C o m p arativ e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f I n i t i a l Ju d g e C o n c lu s io n S c o r e .......................................................................... .

PAGE

59

5

C o m p arativ e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f I n i t i a l D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n C om plete S c o r e .....................................................

4

C o m p arativ e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f I n i t i a l D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n Beyond S c o r e s ..................................................... .

5

C o m p arativ e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f I n i t i a l D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n F a l s e S c o r e ............................................V . ..........

6

C o m p arativ e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f I n i t i a l T b u rs to n e I n d u c t i o n S c o r e ................... ........................................................

7

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f G a in s B etw een I n i t i a l a n d F i n a l J .C . S c o r e ........................................................................................ .

8

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f G a in s b etw een I n i t i a l and F i n a l D .C. C om plete S c o r e .................. ...............................................

9

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f G a in s B etw een I n i t i a l and F i n a l D .C . Beyond S c o r e . ..................................................................... .

10

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f G a in s B etw een I n i t i a l and F i n a l D.C. S c o re F a l s e ..........................................................................

li

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f G a in s B etw een I n i t i a l and F i n a l T h u rsto n e I n d u c t i o n S c o r e s ...................................................

12

Comparison of Equated Means of the Categories of the J.O. Test..........................................................................

76

13

C om parison o f I n i t i a l and F i n a l Means on T bur­ s to n e I n d u c t i o n T e s t ........................................................... .

84

14

C om parison o f D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n S c o r e s w ith H ig h e s t P o s s i b l e S c o r e ..........................................................

116

v ii

61

67

69

CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM S ta te m e n t o f th e P roblem I t I s th e p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y t o d e te rm in e I f im p ro v e­ m ent o f in d u c tiv e a b i l i t y fo llo w s a program o f i n s t r u c t i o n and p r a c t i c e i n s i t u a t i o n s c a l l i n g f o r t h e use o f i n d u c t i v e m eth o d s. The p re s e n c e o f c a u s a b i l i t y i s i n f e r r e d by m eans o f a c o n t r o l l e d e x p e rim e n t i n t h e f i e l d o f G e n e ra l B io lo g y a t t h e s e c o n d a ry sc h o o l l e v e l .

F o rm a lly s t a t e d , th e problem i s t o d e te rm in e

th e e d u c a b i l i t y o f a d o le s c e n ts a s to i n d u c t i v e a b i l i t y . D e f i n i t i o n o f th e Problem E d u c a b il i ty i s " th e c a p a c i ty f o r r e c e i v i n g e d u c a t i o n " .! However, i t i s s a f e to assum e t h a t su c h c a p a c i t y i s n o t th e o n ly f a c t o r w hich d e te rm in e s e d u c a b i l i t y o r g a in s .

In c e n tiv e s

t o l e a r n , su c h a s g o a ls p e r c e iv e d , c o m p e titiv e s p i h i t and i n t e r e s t a re among th e f a c t o r s in v o lv e d .

The l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n , a l s o ,

may w e ll be c o n s id e re d w ith i t s l e n g t h o f i n s t r u c t i o n , th e m a tu r a t i o n a l l e v e l o f th e p o p u la tio n and th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l te c h n iq u e s in v o lv e d . A d o le s c e n ts r e f e r s s p e c i f i c a l l y t o th e p u p i l s o f th e G e n e ra l B io lo g y c l a s s e s who make up th e p o p u la tio n sam ple u s e d i n t h i s s tu d y . I n d u c tio n I s th e " a c t o r p r o c e s s o f r e a s o n in g from a p a r t

W e t,s te r ls New I n t e r n a t i o n a l D i c t i o n a r y , p . 818

to a w h o le , fro m p a r t i c u l a r s t o g e n e r a l s , o r fro m th e i n d i v i d u a l to th e u n iv e rsa l" .-* -

B a sin g h i s w ork on t h e a s ­

su m p tio n o f u n if o r m ity i n n a t u r e , Jo h n S te w a rt M ill form u­ l a t e d ^ c r i t e r i a o f i n d u c t i v e m eth o d s. m ethods o f in d u c tio n w hich a r e :

M ill r e c o g n iz e d f i v e

( 1 ) m ethod o f a g re e m e n t,

(2 ) m ethod o f d i f f e r e n c e , (3 ) m ethod o f ag reem en t and d i f r f e r e n c e , (4) m ethod o f r e s i d u e s , (5) m ethod o f c o n c o m ita n t v a ria tio n s .

The s k i l l o f an i n d i v i d u a l i n u s in g i n d u c t i v e

m ethods i s c o n s id e r e d a m easure o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l 's i n d u c t i v e a b ility . Among a l l p o s s ib l e t a s k s ( t e s t s ) w hich migjht be u s e d a s m ea su re s o f in d u c tiv e a b i l i t y , t h r e e have been s e l e c t e d f o r u se i n t h i s e x p e rim e n t. o rig in a l

These ta s k s a r e :

(1) d raw ing

i n f e r e n c e s from b i o lo g i c d a t a , ( 2 ) c a t e g o r i z i n g i n ­

f e r e n c e s made by o t h e r s and (3) i d e n t i f y i n g p a t t e r n s p r e s e n te d in n o n - v e r b a l m a t e r i a l .

When r e f e r e n c e i s made t o in d u c tiv e

a b i l i t y i n t h i s s tu d y , th e a b i l i t y r e f e r r e d t o m ust o f n e c e s ­ s i t y be r e s t r i c t e d t o t h a t m easured by th e t a s k s ( t e s t s ) u se d i n t h i s e x p e rim e n t. Im p o rta n c e o f th e S tu d y An voider s ta n d in g o f th e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i s an a i d to s k i l l f u l p r a c t i c e i n th e a r t o f te a c h in g .

I t Is p o s s ib le

t h a t o b j e c t i v e s s e t up f o r s c ie n c e c o u rs e s may be m o d ifie d when th e m a t u r a t i o n a l r a t e s and l i m i t s o f m e n ta l a b i l i t y a re d e te rm in e d . 1 . I b i d . p . 1269 2 . Jo h n S te w a rt M i l l , A System o f L o g ic . p . 2 2 3 -3 0 .

3 The m e n ta l p r o c e s s ctf i n d u c t i o n i s i n t r i c a t e l y a s s o c ­ i a t e d w ith t h e com plex o f m en tal a c t i v i t i e s w h ic h f u n c t i o n s i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c m ethod. 1 E x p e rts a r e a g re e d on o b j e c t i v e s i n s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l s c ie n c e w hich a r e p r e d i c a t e d upon th e s u c c e s s f u l g ro w th o f p u p i l s i n th e s c i e n t i f i c m ethod.

C e r ta in o b j e c t i v e s a r e

d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e a b i l i t y t o u s e in d u o tio n : G u id in g p r i n c i p l e s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i n s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l s c ie n c e s u g g e s te d b y m odern p sy c h o lo g y a r e : 1.

2 3 4.

E x p e rie n c e w ith n a t u r a l phenomena a n d th e a p p l i c a t i o n s of s c ie n c e s h a l l le a d t o th e f o r m u la tio n o f c o n c lu s io n s r e l a t e d t o th o s e b ro a d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s w hich hav e t h e l a r g e s t a p p l i c a t i o n i n human i n t e r e s t s . A problem s o lv in g a p p ro a c h i n se c o n d a ry s c h o o l s c ie n c e sh o u ld b e r e g a r d e d a s th e b e s t means of r e a l i z i n g outcom es o f s c i e n t i f i c m ethods and th e u n d e r s ta n d in g s o f th e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s o f s c ie n c e .

An o b j e c t i v e o f se c o n d a ry s c h o o l s c ie n c e s h a l l be to im p a rt c e r t a i n a b i l i t i e s t o th e s tu d e n t such a s : 1. 2. 34. 5.

Power o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n A b i l i t y t o e v a l u a t e d a ta . A b ility to th in k s c i e n t i f i c a l l y .

lle th o d s of i n s t r u c t i o n i n s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l s c ie n c e s h a l l p r o v id e t h e l e a r n e r w ith many o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o e x e r c i s e im p o r ta n t a b i l i t i e s i n p ro b le m s o l v i n g su c h a s : 1. 2. 3* 4. 5* 6.

I n f e r r i n g c a u s e s fro m o b se rv e d e f f e c t s . P r e d i c t i n g e f f e c t s fro m e s t a b l i s h e d c a u s e s . S e t t i n g h y p o th e s e s on t h e b a s i s o f o b se rv e d phenom ena. A n a ly s in g d a t a .

......

R each in g v a l i d c o n c lu s io n s . 2

1 . -E.R.Downing, E le m e n ts a n d S a fe g u a rd s of S c i e n t i f i c T h in k in g ) S c i e n t i f i c M onthly. V o l. No.XXVI, p . 2 3 1 -3 2 . 2 . N a t io n a l A s s o c ia t io n f o r R e s e a rc h i h S c ie n c e T e a c h in g . C om m ittee R e p o r t. S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n

5 (d ) (e ) (f) Cg) (h )

S k i l l i n g e t t i n g th e s e n s e o f th e w r i t t e n passag e S k i l l i n u s in g l i b r a r i e s and o t h e r s o u r c e s o f g r a p h ic in f o r m a tio n S k i l l i n a s s e s s in g th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f a u t h o r i ­ tie s S k i l l i n e x p re s s in g h y p o th e s e s and t e n t a t i v e c o n c lu s io n s u n am biguously an d e c o n o m ic a lly i n w ords or otha? sym bols S k i l l i n m a th e m a tic a l p r o c e d u r e s , in c lu d in g s t a t i s t i c a l m ethods and g r a p h in g . 1 D e l im i ta ti o n s o f t h e Problem

The p o p u l a t i o n s tu d ie d i s l i m i t e d t o 240 G e n e ra l B io lo g y p u p i l s e n r o l l e d i n t h e f o llo w in g s c h o o ls :

Johnstow n H igh

S c h o o l, Jo h n sto w n , N. Y. j A lbany H igh S c h o o l, A lb a n y , N. Y .; P h i l i p S c h u y le r H igh S c h o o l, A lb a n y , N. Y .j a n d V in c e n tia n I n s t i t u t e , A lb an y , N. Y. Ten a d d i t i o n a l s c h o o ls were a p p ro a c h e d b u t c o o p e r a t i o n was n o t s e c u re d b e c a u s e o f p r i o r o b l i g a t i o n s of t h e s t a f f s or b e c a u se o n ly one c l a s s o f B io lo g y was ta u g h t i n th e s c h o o l, making i t d i f f i c u l t t o p r o v id e a c o n t r o l g ro u p .

B ecause a

la r g e number o f c o o p e r a tin g s c h o o ls co u ld n o t be s e c u r e d , i t was n o t p o s s i b l e t o i n s u r e random sam pling i n th e s e l e c t i o n o f th e a c t u a l s c h o o ls f o r th e s tu d y , so t h a t th e c o n c lu s io n s m ust o f n e c e s s i t y b e r e s t r i c t e d to th e p o p u l a t i o n s t u d i e d .

The

l e n g t h of th e e x p e rim e n t was r e s t r i c t e d to one s c h o o l y e a r . B a s ic A ssum ptions The p s y c h o lo g ic a l view o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r i s i n g e n e r a l a g re em e n t w ith th e p o s i t i o n o f t h e Com mittee on t h e F u n c tio n 1.

I b i d . , p . 312.

o f S c ie n c e i n G e n e ra l E d u c a tio n 1 w hich r e g a r d s th e i n d i v i d u a l a s a n e n t i t y , h i s r e a c t i o n s b e in g c o n s id e re d i n r e l a t i o n t o th e w hole o rg an ism r a t h e r th a n b e in g im p o r ta n t p e r s e .

The

d e s c r i p t i v e te rm s o rg a n is m ic or g e s t a l t a r e n o t u se d b y t h e C om m ittee a lth o u g h t h e y a r e a p p r o p r i a t e . I t i s n o t assum ed t h a t th e m ea su re s o f i n d u c tio n u se d i n t h i s s tu d y a r e p u re and co m p lete m easu res of i n d u c t i v e a b i l i t y , n e i t h e r i s i t assum ed t h a t t h e m ea su re s a r e m u ta lly e x c l u s i v e . S p e c i f i c A s p e c ts o f th e P roblem C e r ta in a s p e c t s o f th e p ro b lem a r e s 1.

To d e te rm in e w hether or n o t t h e s u b j e c t s g a i n i n i n ­

d u c ti v e a b i l i t y i n s i t u a t i o n s c a l l i n g f o r th e s o l u t i o n o f n o n ­ v e r b a l ty p e s o f m a t e r i a l s th ro u g h p r a c t i c e i n s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s c a l l i n g f o r i n d u c t i v e m ethods. 2.

To d e te r m in e w h e th e r o r n o t th e s u b j e c t s g a in i n i n ­

d u c tiv e a b i l i t y to draw i n f e r e n c e s from s p e c i f i c ty p e s o f m a t e r i a l a s a r e s u l t o f p r a c t i c e and i n s t r u c t i o n i n o t h e r s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s w hich u t i l i z e in d u c tiv e m ethods. 3* p ra c tic e

To d e te rm in e th e e f f e c t of i n d u c t i v e i n s t r u c t i o n and i n s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s upon th e a b i l i t y o f th e s u b j e c t s

t o e v a lu a te 4.

i n f e r e n c e s a lr e a d y made.

To com pare th e a c h ie v e m e n t made i n t h e s e t h r e e ty p e s

o f s i t u a t i o n s w ith th e view o f d e te rm in in g t h e e x te n t t o w hich s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n i s e f f e c t i v e i n e a c h o f th e s e s p e c i a l i z e d ty p e s o f i n d u c t i o n . 1.

The Com m ittee on t h e F u n c tio n o f S c ie n c e i n G e n e ra l E d u c a tio n , S c ie n c e i n G e n e ra l E d u c a tio n . p p . 1 7 -2 2 .

4 Commenting on p ro b lem s s u g g e s te d b y an a n a l y s i s o f a q u e s t i o n n a i r e , th e co m m ittee a s s e r t e d , We need t o know t o w hat e x t e n t we can e x p e c t *s c i e n t i f i c th in k in g * on th e p a r t of th e lo w er I .Q .* s i n o u r c l a s s e s , and we n e ed g r e a t l y t o have e x p e r im e n ta l work done i n o u r s t a t e c o n t r o l l e d se c o n d a ry s c h o o ls a s w e ll a s i n th e e x p e r im e n ta l s c h o o ls c o n n e c te d w ith te a c h e r s * c o ll e g e , f o r th e r e a s o n t h a t th e l a t t e r do n o t show t r u e p i c t u r e s o f t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n s o f th e c l i e n t e l e of th e se co n d a ry s c h o o ls i n a d em o c rac y . 1 The e x te n t t o w hich " s c i e n t i f i c th in k in g " m a y b e e x p e c te d on t h e p a r t o f p u p i l s of d i f f e r e n t a b i l i t i e s i s p e r t i n e n t . The p r o c e s s of r e f l e c t i v e t h in k i n g h a s b een a n a ly z e d i n t o fiv e p hasesi 1 . A s e n s e of p e r p l e x i t y , or o f w an t, o r of b e in g th w a r te d , f o llo w e d by i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of th e p r o b l e m .... 2. 'O cc u rre n c e* o f t e n t a t i v e h y p o t h e s e s . . . . 3» T e s tin g and e la b o r a tin g h y p o t h e s e s . . . . 4 . D e v isin g more and more r ig o r o u s t e s t s to w hich th e r e s u l t i n g h y p o th e s e s may b e s u b je c te d t o . . . . 5 . A rr iv in g a t a s a t i s f a c t o r y s o l u t i o n and a c t in g upon i t . • . . None o f th e s e p h a s e s of th o u g h t i n t o w hich r e ­ f l e c t i v e th in k in g may be a n a ly z e d i s r e a l l y d i s t i n c t . T hey a l l go on m ore o r l e s s s im u lta n e o u s ly , e a c h d oing so m eth in g t o p e r f e c t th e o t h e r s . d S p e c if i c A b i l i l i t i e s i n R e f l e c t i v e T h in k in g A n a ly s is o f r e f l e c t i v e t h in k in g h a s r e s u l t e d i n th e f o r m a tio n o f s p e c i f i c a b i l i t i e s i n v o l v e d .i n th e p r o c e s s . T hese a r e : (a) (b ) (c )

1. 2.

S k i l l i n d e v is in g an d s e t t i n g up e x p e rim e n ta l a p p a r a tu s S k i l l i n th e u se of m easu rin g in s tr u m e n ts S k i l l i n r e c o g n iz in g s o u r c e s of e r r o r i n o b s e r­ v a t i o n and m easurem ent.

I b id . . p . 224. The Com m ittee on th e F u n c tio n of S c ie n c e i n G e n e ra l E d u c a tio n , S c ie n c e i n G e n e ra l E d u c a tio n , p p . 3 09-IO .

5*

To a n a ly z e th e p r o g r e s s made th ro u g h o u t th e p r a c t i c e

p e r io d f o r th e p u rp o s e o f d e te r m in in g p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n r a t e o f a c h ie v e m e n t w ith r e s p e c t to th e t h r e e ty p e s o f in d u c ­ t i o n , an d t o s n a ly z e t h e f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e s e d i f ­ fe re n c e s. 6.

To compare th o s e o f h ig h er^ a v e ra g e a n d lo w e r l e v e l s

o f m e n ta l a b i l i t y w ith r e f e r e n c e t o r e l a t i v e ty p e s of a b i l i t y and p r o g r e s s i n i n d u c t i o n .

CHAPTER I I ANTECEDENTS O b je c tiv e s o f S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n An u n d e r s ta n d ir g o f t h e g ro w th and d e v elo p m e n t o f s c ie n c e e d u c a tio n nay be g a in e d by c o n s id e r in g c h an g e s v h ic h hav e ta k e n p l a c e i n t h e aim s o f s c i e n c e e d u c a tio n . P re v io u s Aims D r a s t i c c h a r g e s i n th e aim s o f s c ie n c e e d u c a tio n have o c c u rre d s in c e th e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y . c i n c t l y sum m arized'1’ th e sequence of a im s.

N o ll h a s s u c ­

P r i o r t o 1850

th e r e l i g i o u s i m p l i c a ti o n s o f s c ie n c e w ere s t r e s s e d , e s p e c i a l ­ l y i n b o ta n y and z o o lo g y , and th e a c t u a l work was c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e m a s te ry o f f a c t s .

B etw een 1850 and 1910 th e

r e l i g i o u s g o a l was g r a d u a l ly rep la c e d b y em phasis upon d i s ­ c i p l i n e o f th e m ind, p re m ise d upon th e b e l i e f i n b ro a d t r a n s ­ f e r o f tra in in g *

D uring t h i s p h a s e , th e m a s te ry o f f a c t s

was s t i l l e m p h asized .

When e x p e r im e n ta tio n f a i l e d t o j u s t i f y

a c c e p ta n c e o f th e d o c tr in e o f fo rm a l d i s c i p l i n e and t r a n s f e r o f t r a i n i n g a s a p rim a ry d e te r m in e r o f c u r r i c u l a , s c ie n c e i n s t r u c t i o n l o s t p r e s t i g e and s c ie n c e e n ro llm e n t i n se c o n d a ry sc h o o ls c e a s e d t o g ro w . P r e s e n t Aims N o ll s t a t e d t h a t s in c e 1910 S c ie n c e e d u c a tio n i s a p p ly in g th e m ethods o f s c ie n c e 1 . " V ic to r H. N o l l , The T eaching of S c ie n c e i n E le m e n ta ry and S eco n d ary S c h o o ls , p p . 5- I 0T

t o i t s own p r o c e d u r e , an d i s m aking s u b s t a n t i a l p r o g r e s s i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f p l a c i n g s c ie n c e a s a s u b j e c t i n th e c u rr ic u lu m on a much f ir m e r and more s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s th a n i t h a s e v e r been b e f o r e . A t t e n t i o n i s b e in g d i r e c t e d to w a rd th e p roblem o f s e e in g w hat s c ie n c e i n ­ s t r u c t i o n c a n do to f i t p e o p le fo r b e t t e r and m ere com­ p l e t e l i v i n g i n p r e s e n t - d a y s o c i e t y i n s t e a d o f i t s b e in g d i r e c t e d to w a rd a n £ p r i o r i j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f i t . 1 A f t e r a n a ly z in g and c l a s s i f y i n g aim s or o b j e c t i v e s o f s c ie n c e te a c h in g from 130 s o u r c e s , N o ll s e t up c r i t e r i a f o r t h e f o r m u la tio n o f o b j e c t i v e s , an d w i t h th e a i d o f s i x e x p e r ts i n t h e f i e l d , a r r i v e d a t t h e s e a im s , w hich a p p l y a t a l l l e v e l s * 1.

2.

3* 4. 5* 5.

7. 8.

9.

U n d e rsta n d in g o f th e n a tu r e and o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t i n o r d e r t h a t th e p u p i l may (a ) be in te r e s te d i n i t . ( b ) a p p r e c i a t e th e c o m p le x ity a n d , w i t h a l , t h e o rd e rlin e s s o f i t . ( c ) a p p r e c i a t e th e p la c e o f man i n i t . (d ) a p p r e c i a t e th e p a r t t h a t s c ie n c e p l a y s i n i t . A tta in m e n t o f h e a l t h th ro u g h ( a ) a p p r e c i a t i o n of i t s v a lu e t o s o c i e t y and th e in d iv id u a l. (b ) l e a r n i n g s p e c i f i c h a b i t s o f work an d h e a l t h ­ f u l liv in g * A c q u i s i ti o n o f d e s i r a b l e h a b i t s o f work a n d s tu d y , in c lu d in g a c c u ra c y , th o ro u g h n e s s , p e r s i s t e n c e , good o r g a n i z a t i o n or p la n n in g ) and n e a t n e s s . I n c u l c a t i o n o f h a b i t s o f th in k in g t h a t c o n t r i b u t e to th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e . D evelopm ent o f a b i l i t y t o u s e t h e s c i e n t i f i c m ethod. D evelopm ent o f a b i l i t y to d o h o u se h o ld t a s k s , su ch a s r e p a i r i n g e l e c t r i c a l a p p l i a n c e s , rem oving s t a i n s from c l o t h i n g and o t h e r g o o d s, c a r i n g f o r house and g a rd e n p l a n t s , e tc . D evelopm ent o f i n t e r e s t i n s c i e n c e , c h i e f l y f o r w o rth y u se o f l e i s u r e th r o u g h r e a d i n g , h o b b ie s , e t c . O p p o r t u n i ti e s f o r e x p l o r a t i o n , f o r 1t h e p u rp o s e of ( a ) a c q u a in tin g th e p u p i l w ith th e , d i f f e r e n t n a tu r a l s c ie n c e s ; an d (b ) h e lp in g him to f i n d w h e th er o r n o t s c ie n c e h o ld s a n y i n t e r e s t f o r him , and i f i t d o e s, w here h i s i n t e r e s t l i e s . P r o v i s i o n s f o r v o c a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n . 2

10 A l i s t of o b j e c t i v e s ) d i f f e r i n g somewhat fro m th o s e form u­ l a t e d by N o l l , i s p r e s e n te d by F ru tc h e y a n d T y le r ) who a l s o s u g g e s t a p p r o p r i a te e x a m in a tio n p ro c e d u re f o r m easuring g ro w th i n th e a c h ie v in g of t h e s e a im s . T e a c h e rs o f th e n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s a r e co n ce rn e d w ith b r in g in g a b o u t a v a r i e t y o f changes i n t h e b e h a v io r o f s t u d e n t s . The d e s ir e d outcom es o f a c o u rs e i n th e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s p ro b a b ly in c lu d e s t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f a know ledge of t h e p r i n c i p l e s and f a c t s of th e c o u r s e ; a n u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e im p o r ta n t t e c h n i c a l te rm in o lo g y and sym bols used i n t h i s f i e l d ; th e a b i l i t y t o i d e n t i f y s t r u c t u r e s and p r o c e s s e s a n d t h e i r f u n c t i o n s ) a s } f o r e x a n p le , i n b o ta n y a n d z o o lo g y ; a f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h r e l i a b l e s o u r c e s of in f o r m a tio n on s c ie n c e p ro b le m s; th e a b i l i t y t o r e c o g n iz e u n so lv e d p ro b le m s i n s c i e n c e ; a n i n t e r e s t i n s c i e n c e ; a n i n t e r e s t i n n a t u r a l phenomena and an i n t e r e s t i n s o lv in g p ro b lem s i n n a t u r a l s c ie n c e f o r w hich t h e s t u d e n t h a s n o p r e s e n t s o l u t i o n ; th e a b i l i t y t o draw re a s o n a b le g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s fro m e x p e r i ­ m e n ta l d a t a ; th e a b i l i t y t o p l a n e x p e rim e n ts to t e s t h y p o th e s e s ; th e a b i l i t y to a p p ly s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e s t o s i t u a t i o n s new to th e s t u d e n t s ; s k i l l i n l a b o r a t o i y t e c h n iq u e s . 1 A tta in m e n t of O b je c tiv e s T h a t th e mere m a s te ry of f a c t s } and f a c t s a lo n e , i s s t e r i l e and f u t i l e , and t h a t i n h e r e n t i n a m a s te ry o f s c ie n c e a r e v a lu e s o f g r e a t im p o rta n c e was se n se d 2 by Dewey i n 1910. I n a n a d d r e s s t o th e S e c tio n o f E d u c a tio n o f t h e A m erican A s s o c ia t io n f o r t h e Advancement of S c ie n c e , Dewey a s s e r t e d , One o f th e o n ly two a r t i c l e s t h a t re m a in i n my c re e d of l i f e i s t h a t th e f u t u r e o f our c i v i l i z a t i o n d ep en d s upon t h e w idening s p r e a d and d e e p e n in g h o ld o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c h a b i t o f m ind; and t i a t th e p r o ­ blem of p ro b lem s i n our e d u c a tio n i s t h e r e f o r e t o d i s ­ co v er how to m atu re a n d make e f f e c t i v e t h i s s c i e n t i f i c h a b i t . . . . When our s c h o o ls t r u l y become l a b o r a t o r i e s o f know le d g e -m a k in g , n o t m i l l s f i t t e d o u t w ith i n ­ 1. 2.

H e r b e r t E . Hawkes, E .F . L i n d q u i s t , C .R . Mann, The Con­ s t r u c t i o n and Use o f A chievem ent E x a m in a tio n s . p . 2 1 4 . Jo h n Dewey, S c ie n c e . Hew S e r i e s V o l. XXXI, No. 7 8 7 , (D eceiib er, 19IO ), p . 127*

11 f o r m a tio n - h o p p e r s , t h e r e w i l l no lo n g e r be need t o d i s c u s s t h e p la c e o f s c ie n c e i n e d u c a ti o n . 1 I n com m enting upon t h e m ajo r aim s of s c ie n c e t e a c h i n g , p C ro x to n em phasized th e d an g er o f h a v in g th e p u p i l 's g o a l t h a t of t h e s c i e n t i f i c s p e c i a l i s t r a t h e r th a n th e c u l t i ­ v a tio n o f s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s .

To a v o id t h i s p i t f a l l ,

C ro x to n s t r e s s e d th e im p o rta n c e o f p r o v id in g th e p u p i l w ith p r a c t i c e i n v a r i e d a c t i v i t i e s w hich g iv e w ide e x p e rie n c e i n th e s c i e n t i f i c m ethod.

He p o in te d o u t t h a t t h e a t t i t u d e s o f

s c ie n c e may b e d e v e lo p e d i n a v a r i e t y o f l i f e

s itu a tio n s .

T hat s c ie n c e t e a c h i n g h a s f a i l e d t o i n c u l c a t e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s w hich f u n c t i o n i n o u t - o f - s c h o o l a c t i v i t i e s was r e c o g n is e d by B a i l , We have had h u n d re d s o f th o u s a n d s o f e x p e rim e n ts p e rfo rm e d i n o u r s c ie n c e l a b o r a t o r i e s , a l s o we have had h u n d re d s o f e x p e rim e n ts d e v o te d t o th e s tu d y o f th e te c h n iq u e s , p ro c e d u r e s , a n d outcom es of v a r i o u s ty p e s o f l a b o r a t o r y te a c h in g i n s c i e n c e ; y e t pupils come fro m th e l a b o r a t o r i e s w ith a w i l l i n g n e s s , even an u r g e , t o u se u n r e l i a b l e in f o r m a tio n . They a ls o have the h a b i t o f fa rm in g o p in io n s w ith o u t e i t h e r th e e v id e n c e or the d e s i r e t o f i n d th e e v i d e n c e .. . . 3 W hile r e c o g n iz in g t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r a c q u i s i t i o n o f f a c t s , C u r t i s 4, s t r e s s e d th e f a c t t h a t m a s te ry o f such m a t e r i a l sh o u ld le a d t o t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s :

a f u n c t i o n a l u n d e rs ta n d in g

of th e m a jo r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s or p r i n c i p l e s and a n i n c u l c a t i o n of s c ie n tif ic a ttitu d e s . !• 2. 3* 4.

I b i d . . p . 127. W .C .C roxton, M ajor Aims i n S c ie n c e T e a c h in g , S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n . V o l. XEX, N o.4 . (D ecem ber, 1935) p p . 1 ^ 1 -1 5 2 . P .M .B a il, The F u n c tio n o f S c ie n c e i n D em ocracy, S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n , V o l. XXVI, No. 1 , ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 4 2 ), p . $ . F r a n c i s £>. C u r t i s . C h a p te r XVI. D ia g n o s is a n d R em ed ial T re a tm e n t i n th e F i e l d o f S c ie n c e . T h ir t y - F o u r t h Y ear­ book o f th e N a t io n a l S o c ie ty f o r th e S tu d y of E d u c a tio n , P. 331.

12 Pow ers made i t c l e a r t h a t t h e m ajor g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s of s c ie n c e a r e n o t t o be c o n s id e r e d a s d i c t a and im posed on th e i n d i v i d u a l b u t t h a t t h e s e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e to be i n d u c t i v e l y d e r iv e d .

"T h is C om m ittee p o s t u l a t e s t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a m ajo r

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n a s one t h a t i s b u i l t up from gro w in g u n d e rs ta n d ­ in g o f p r i n c i p l e s t h a t i n t u r n a r e d e v e lo p e d from th e s m a lle r i d e a s t h a t a r e th e p r o d u c ts of n e c e s s a r y and d e s i r a b l e e x p e r i ­ e n c e s i n l i v i n g • m1 E x p e r im e n ta tio n i n I n d u c tio n A re v ie w o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l s l i t t l e

ex­

p e r i m e n t a l m a t e r i a l w h ich th ro w s l i g h t on th e p ro b lem o f how th e h ig h e r m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s o p e r a te or im prove i n t h e c l a s s room .

The s i t u a t i o n nay b e a p p r e c i a te d b y c o n s id e r in g th e

comments o f B ro w n e ll. E d u c a t i o n a l i s t s w i l l welcome t h e tim e when p sy c h o lo ­ g i s t s g iv e a g r e a t e r s h a re o f t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o le a r n in g p ro b lem s w h ich a r e l i k e th o s e o f th e s c h o o l . P sy c h o lo ­ g i s t s a r e s t i l l fo n d o f e x p e rim e n tin g w ith m azes, w ith d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and p u z z le b o x e s , w ith c o n d itio n in g to r e l a t i v e l y sim p le s tim u lu s s i t u a t i o n s , w ith n o n se n se s y l l a b l e s , w ith p a i r e d a s s o c i a t i o n s o f u n r e l a t e d w ords and num bers. They s t i l l n e g l e c t — o r so i t seems t o th e e d u c a t i o n a l i s t —t h e more s i g n i f i c a n t k in d of human p ro b le m s, nam ely th o s e w hich r e l a t e t o b e h a v io r i n a m e a n in g fu l p ro b lem s i t u a t i o n i n w hich th e ‘h ig h e r* m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s a r e c a l l e d i n t o p l a y . The t y p i c a l p s y c h o lo g ic a l e x p e rim e n t i s p la n n e d so t h a t * in s ig h t* i s p r a c t i c a l l y im p o s s ib le and the s u b j e c t , human or a n im a l, c a n p r o g r e s s o n ly by g u e s s in g and th e n somehow b y r e t a i n i n g th e c o r r e c t g u e s s . W hile to o much s c h o o l le a r n in g r e s e m b le s t h i s m odel, th e aim o f th e sc h o o l i s away from s u c h k i i r i s of l e a r n in g and a c c o r d i n g l y , th e e d u c a t i o n a l i s t i s e a g e r f o r w h a te v e r s u g g e s tio n s he c a n f in d t o h e lp him w ith r e s p e c t to l e a r n in g t h e o r y . 2 1. 2.

S .R a lp h P ow ers. C h a p te r V, The P sy ch o lo g y o f S c ie n c e T e a c h in g . The T h i r t y - F i r s t Y earbook of th e R a ti o n a l S o c ie ty f o r t h e S tu d y o f E d u c a tio n , p . 6 0 . W illia m A. B ro w n e ll. T h e o r e ti c a l A s p e c ts o f L ea rn in g and T r a n s f e r of T r a i n in g . Review o f E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a rc h . V o l. IX , (J u n e , 1 9 3 9 ) ,"p p . 2 6 ? -6 8

M elto n suggested"** t h a t t h e v a lu e o f l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s sh o u ld n o t b e u n d e rv a lu e d f o r Mb y r e v e a l i n g the b a s ic v a r i ­ a b l e s i n th e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s w hich m ig h t re m a in o b sc u re d i n th e co m plex s c h o o l s i t u a t i o n , th e l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s have a d i r e c t i v e a n d c o r r e c t i v e f u n c t i o n i n th e e d u c a tio n a l p sy ­ c h o lo g y o f lea rn in g * * . C u r t i s 2 h a s s t a t e d t h a t p r i o r to 1935 e x p e r im e n ta tio n i n s c ie n c e e d u c a tio n was l a r g e l y c o n fin e d t o th e s u b j e c t m a tte r of s c ie n c e . A re v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i n g to th e d evelopm ent o f c r i t i c a l t h in k in g h a s b e e n o rg a n iz e d by G la s e r u nder n in e h e a d in g s :

(1 )

The N a tu re o f t h e T h in k in g P r o c e s s , (2 )

C auses o f E r r o r s i n T h in k in g , ( 3 )

Age and R easo n in g A b i l i t y ,

(4 )

S ex and R easo n in g A b i l i t y , (5 )

(6 )

R easo n in g and I n t e l l i g e n c e ,

Academic S ta n d in g , ( 8 )

R easo n in g and L e a rn in g ,

(7 )

R easo n in g A b i l i t y a n d

T r a in in g t o T h in k C r i t i c a l l y and

T r a n s f e r of T r a in in g to T h in k C r i t i c a l l y , and ( 9 ) ment o f A b i l i t y to T h in k C r i t i c a l l y . 3

The M easure­

W hile many o f th e e x p e r i ­

m e n ta l s t u d i e s a r e n o t re v ie w e d i n d e t a i l , a n o v e r-v ie w o f t h e w hole f i e l d

i s a d e q u a te ly g iv e n .

I n th e l i t e r a t u r e re v ie w e d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , th e e x p e r im e n ta l s t u d i e s a r e r e s t r i c t e d to th o s e w hich a r e c o n ­ c e rn e d w ith a s p e c t s o f s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y w ith 1 . A rth u r W. M e lto n , L e a r n in g , E n c y c lo p e d ia o f E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a rc h , p . 6 82. 2 . F r a n c i s D. C u r t i s . C h a p te r XVI, D ia g n o s is and R em edial T re a tm e n t i n t h e F i e l d o f S c ie n c e . T h i r t v - F o u rth Y e ar­ book o f th e N a tio n a l S o c ie ty f o r th e S tu d y o f E d u c a tio n , o . P* 3 3 1 . 3 • Edward M. G l a s e r , ^ n E xp o r im ent i n th e D evelopm ent o f C r i t i c a l T h in k in g , p p . 1 7 -7 7 .

14 th e I n d u c tiv e p ro c e s s * The e d u c a ti o n a l l i t e r a t u r e re v ie w e d h a s h een g ro u p ed a s s u r v e y o r s t a t u s s t u d i e s , e x p e r im e n ta l s t u d i e s an d s t u d i e s i n w hich in d uctive t r a n s f e r h a s b e e n c o n sid e re d *

C la s s ific a tio n

of t h e s e s t u d i e s i s a r b i t r a r y f o r a n e x p e rim e n t may go beyond a s i n g l e c a te g o r y . S u rv ey S t u d i e s The work rev iew ed u n d e r th e s u rv e y s t u d i e s i s c o n c e rn e d c h i e f l y w ith th e i n d u c t i v e a b i l i t y of th e i n d i v i d u a l and does n o t d e a l w ith ch an g es or g ro w th i n th e a b i l i t y o f t h e i n d i ­ v i d u a l , n e i t h e r a r e th e y c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e e f f e c t s o f s p e c ia liz e d in s tru c tio n *

However, c e r t a i n c o m p a riso n s have

b een made on th e b a s i s o f d i f f e r i n g s c h o o l l e v e l s . C ro x to n s o u g h t1 to d e te rm in e i f p u p i l s i n a l l g r a d e s w ere a b l e t o g e n e r a l i z e and a p p ly the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a f t e r e x p e r ie n c in g a d e m o n s tr a tio n or d i r e c t e d p l a y .

I n one o f the

d e m o n s tr a tio n s , exam ples o f i n s e c t s , f i s h , r e p t i l e s , b i r d s and mammals w ere p la c e d b e f o r e th e c h i l d r e n .

A f t e r th e

c h i l d r e n a g re e d t h a t t h e e x p e rim e n te r was a l s o an a n im a l, c o m p a riso n s w ere made among th e a n im a ls on th e b a s i s o f c o l o r a t i o n an d n u o b er o f le g s *

Then th e b i r d s were s in g le d

out and t h e p u p i l s w ere a s k e d w hat d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e b i r d s from th e r e s t o f th e a n im a ls . c o rd e d f o r t h r e e q u e s t i o n s .

Yes and no r e p l i e s w ere r e ­ 1.

MAre a l l a n im a ls th a t hav e

1 . W. C. C ro x to n , P u p i l s 1 A b i l i t y to G e n e r a liz e . S c h o o l S c ie n c e and M a th e m a tic s. V o l. XXXVI, (Ju n e ,~ I5 3 5 T , p p . 6 2 7 -5 3 4 .

15 w in g s , b i r d s ? " b ird s ? "

3.

2 . "Are a l l a n im a ls t h a t have f e a t h e r s ,

"Are a l l a n im a ls t h a t s ta n d , on two. l e g s , b ir d s ? "

The p u p i l s who a n sw e re d th e t h r e e q u e s tio n s w ere c r e d i t e d w ith a s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s p o n s e .

The r e s u l t s of th e f o u r

le a r n in g s i t u a t i o n s u se d i n th e s tu d y a r e sum m arized i n t h e f o llo w in g t a b l e . Grade

K in d e rg a r te n I II III IV V VI V II V III IX O p p o rtu n ity C la s s I O p p o rtu n ity C la s s I I

No. of P u p ils

182 188 172 189 223 219 246 85

77

62 30 35

P e r Ceji t o f A,11 Who G e n e ra liz e G e n e ra liz e A pply and A pply 10 21 43 40

V

62 61 65 65 58

V 69

14 26 33 43 44 53 62 66 60 66 33 63

7 ll 21 28 38 41 51 55 40 17 40

B ecause o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n s and r e s t r i c t i o n of t h e d a tq , C ro x to n was c o n s e r v a tiv e i n h i s c o n c lu s io n .

He t e n t a t i v e l y

s t a t e d t h a t c h i l d r e n of th e h ig h e r p rim a ry g r a d e s , t h e i n t e r ­ m e d ia te , a n d th e j u n i o r h i g i s c h o o l g ra d e s a r e c a p a b le o f g e n e r a l i z i n g and t h a t m arked s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e j u n i o r - h i g h s c h o o l p u p i l s o v e r i n te i m e d ia t e - g r a d e p u p i l s i n t h i s a b i l i t y i s n o t e v id e n t. I n a s tu d y i n w hich s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f th e s c i e n t i f i c method were c o n s id e r e d , N ic h o ls 1 a s k e d , "Can we t e s t a ls o t h e e f f e c t o f t r a i n i n g on th e a b i l i t y t o g e n e r a l i z e fro m 1 . U. N ic h o ls , The High S c h o o l S tu d e n t and S c i e n t i f i c M ethod, J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n a l P s y c h o lo g y . V o l. XX, (M arch, 1929)» P* 200.

16 p a rtic u la rs ? "

The t r a i n i n g i n q u e s tio n was t h a t of w r itin g

c o n c lu s io n s b a sed upon r e g u l a r l a b o r a to r y w ork.

I n o rd er to

d e te rm in e th e i n f e r e n t i a l a b i l i t y o f g i r l s i n th e IX B s c ie n c e c l a s s e s o f th e S o u th P h i l a d e l p h ia H igh S c h o o l, th e p u p i l s were g iv e n a t e s t item w hich p r e s e n t e d th e b e h a v io r o f w orker a n t s a t fo u r te m p e ra tu re l e v e l s and w ere d i r e c t e d to w r ite a c o n c lu s io n .

No i n f o n n a tio n w as g i v e n re g a rd in g th e way t h e r e ­

s p o n s e s w ere e v a lu a te d , b u t N ic h o ls r e p o r te d t h a t 39*5 p e r c e n t of th e n i n e t y - t h r e e g i r l s w ere u n a b le t o w r ite a n a d e q ­ u a te c o n c lu s io n . B e d e ll* s study-1- c o n p a re d th e a b i l i t y o f e ig h th and n i n th y e a r G e n e ra l S c ie n c e p u p i l s t o r e c a l l an d i n f e r .

The t e s t

m a t e r i a l c o n s i s t e d o f t h i r t y p a r a g r a p h s , e a c h o f w hich was c o n c e rn e d w ith a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of s c ie n c e .

The p a ra g r a p h s

s e l e c t e d s a t i s f i e d th e s e c r i t e r i a : 1 . Each p a r a g r a p h m u st c o n ta in a g ro u p o f s c i e n c e f a c t s t h a t a r e p e r t i n e n t t o th e p r i n c i p l e w h ich th e s u b j e c t i s e x p e c te d to i n f e r . 2 . The p r i n c i p l e w hich i s t o b e i n f e r r e d m ust n o t be d i r e c t l y s t a t e d i n the p a ra g r a p h . 3 * I n r e s p e c t t o such f a c t o r s a s v o c a b u la r y , s t y l e , and l e n g t h , the p a ra g r a p h m ust be t y p i c a l of th e re a d in g m a t e r i a l commonly found i n th e g e n e r a l s c ie n c e c o u r s e . 4. The p a r a g r a p h used m ust be new t o th e p u p i l ; t h a t i s ; th e y m ust n o t be e x a c t c o p ie s o f o th e r m a t e r i a l w hich h e h a s r e a d . Two s e t s o f t e s t ite m s were c o n s tr u c te d f o r e a c h p a r a ­ g ra p h ; one s e t of ite m s m easured r e c a l l and th e o t h e r s e t m easured in f e r e n c e . 1. 2.

The r e c a l l s e c t i o n c o n s is te d o f f i v e

R a lp h C. B e d e ll, The R e la tio n s h ip Betw een th e A b i l i t y t o R e c a ll and tK e A t a l i t y t o I n f e r i n g p e c i f i c L e a rn in g S i t u a t i o n s . Z b ic l., p . 2 1 .

17 m u ltip le c h o ic e ite m s f o r e a c h p a ra g r a p h ) t h e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e h e in g an a c t u a l

p o r t i o n of th e p a ra g ra p h .

I n th e

in f e r e n c e p o r t i o n o f t h e

t e s t , f i v e i n f e r e n c e s w ere p r e s e n t e d .

T hese in c lu d e d th e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e a s w e ll a s one c h o ic e s c i e n t i f i c a l l y t r u e h u t n o t s u p p o r te d by th e e v id e n c e and one -1 c h o ic e nw hich was more o r l e s s p l a t i t u d i n o u s . " U sing t h e p a ra g ra p h a s th e b a s i s , B e d e ll d iv id e d th e t e s t i n t o c h a n c e h a lv e s and " th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e d i f f e r e n c e s of s c o r e s . . . showed th e

2

t e s t to b e r e l i a b l e . " The

tim e f o r

a d m in is te r in g th e B e d e l l T e s t i s two h o u rs ahd i s g iv e n i n e i t h e r t h r e e o r f o u r c o n s e c u tiv e d a y s .

The nunfoer of p u p i l s

i n t h e s tu d y was A f te r p r e s e n t i n g s i x t e e n c o n c l u s i o n s of a p s y c h o lo g ic a l c h a r a c t e r , B e d e ll gave c o n c lu s io n s o f p e d a g o g ic a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . Those w hich have b e a r i n g upon th e p r e s e n t p ro b lem f o llo w : 1 . I t i s p r a c t i c a l l y im p o s s ib le f o r th e g e n e r a l s c ie n c e s t u d e n ts who r a n k i n th e low er tw e n ty - f iv e p e r c e n t i n i n t e l l i g e n c e to i n f e r g e n e r a l i z e d s c ie n c e p r i n c i p l e s from r a t h e r t y p i c a l g e n e r a l s c ie n c e s i t u a t i o n s . . . . 2 . The o n ly group of s t u d e n t s s t u d i e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n who c o u ld i n f e r a f a i r number o f g e n e r a l i z e d s c ie n c e p r i n c i p l e s from r a t h e r t y p i c a l g e n e r a l s c ie n c e s i t u a t i o n s was th e u p p e r tw e n ty - f iv e p e r c e n t i n i n t e l l i g e n c e . 6 .............. i f t h e f a c t o r o f th e i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s c o r e i s c o n s id e r e d , t h e s c o r e s on t h e I n f e r e n c e S e c tio n o f th e B e d e l l T e s t a r e m ark ed ly more s i g n i f i c a n t f o r p r e d i c t i n g m arks i n g e n e r a l s c ie n c e th a n a r e th e s c o r e s on th e f a c t u a l R e c a ll S e c tio n of t h a t t e s t or th e s c o r e s on t h e Terman Group T e s t o f M ental A b i l i t y , Form A. 1. 2.

I b i d . , p . 22. I]0i(T», p . 2 3 .

T 18

C o n c e p tu a l E x p e rlm e n ta tio n C h ild re n * s c o n c e p ts have b een s t u d i e d b7 tw o m ethods: (1 )

t h e i n te r v ie w o r " c l i n i c a l 1* m ethod, and ( 2 ) t h e group

m ethod. The i n te r v ie w m ethod i s one i n w h ich th e e x p e rim e n te r s e e k s t o l e a r n how the c h il d r e a s o n s by h a v in g th e c h il d v e r b a l l y e x p la in phenomena o r e x p e rim e n ts .

The i n v e s t i g a t o r

i s n o t c o n fin e d to one q u e s t io n b u t may d e r i v e a v a r i e t y o f r e s p o n s e s by a s e r i e s o f q u e s t i o n s .

F i a g e t u se d t h e i n te r v ie w

m ethod e x t e n s i v e l y 1 w ith c h i l d r e n w hose age ra n g e d from t h r e e y e a r s th ro u g h e le v e n y e a r s . The g ro u p m ethod i s one i n w hich th e i n v e s t i g a t o r p r e s e n t s h i s s u b j e c t s w ith an e x p e rie n c e ( d e m o n s tra tio n o r e x p e rim e n t) and th e i n d i v i d u a l s re s p o n d by w r i t i n g a n c lu s io n .

e x p la n a t i o n o r con­

One a d v a n ta g e o f th e group m ethod o v e r th e in te r v ie w

m ethod i s t h a t t h e sam ple may be l a r g e r b u t th e g ro u p method c a n o n ly be u s e d w i t h c h ild r e n who a r e a b le t o w r i t e . A c r i t i c i s m o f th e group m ethod o f e l i c i t i n g c o n c e p ts o f c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s i s t h a t th e i n v e s t i g a t o r " a c c e p ts th e f i r s t r e a d y answ er o f th e c h il d a s r e p r e s e n ti n g h i s b e s t c a u s a l t h in k i n g and h i s a c t u a l c o n c e p t" .^

A c o u n te r c r i t i c i s m o f th e

i n te r v ie w m ethod i s t h a t p o s s ib ly " th e c h il d i s p r e s s e d to 1. 2.

J e a n P i a g e t , The C h ild * s C oncept! on o f th e W orld Ju d g ­ m ent an d R easo n in g i n th e C h ild . ' T?5e C h ild *s Con­ c e p t! on of E h y s ic a lU a v u s a lity . J e a n M a rq u is D eu to h e, The D evelopm ent o f C h ild re n * s C o n cep ts o f C a u sa l R e l a t i o n s , p .

19

e x p la in w hat he means b y e ac h s t a te m e n t . . . .ilnd t h a t b e c a u se th e y f e e l o b lig e d t o a n sw e r th e q u e s t i o n s , th e y in v e n t an answ er w hich w i l l h e lp them out o f t h e i r d i f f i c u l t y " . ^ P i a g e t c a te g o r iz e d 2 c h i l d r e n 's e x p la n a t i o n s o f c a u s a l i t y i n t o s e v e n te e n ty p e s and i n d ic a t e d ^ t h a t th e c h i l d 's g ro w th i n a b i l i t y to i n f e r c a u s a l i t y w as d e f i n i t e l y r e l a t e d to m a tu r a tio n . The c o n c lu s io n s o f P i a g e t w ere n o t s u p p o rte d by the in v e s t i g a t i o n 4 o f Huang who p r e s e n te d d e m o n s tr a tio n s i n t h e foxm o f c o n j u r o r 's t r i o k s , sim p le s c i e n t i f i c e x p e rim e n ts and i l l u s i o n s t o 27 p rim a ry o h i ld r e n .

The c h i l d r e n 's e x p la n a tio n s o f t h e

o c c u r r e n c e s w ere o b ta in e d by th e i n t e r v i e w m ethod and "w e re, w ith r a r e and m o s tly e q u iv o c a l e x c e p tio n s , d e f i n i t e l y n a t u r ­ a lis tic .

They w ere p h y s i c a l c o n c e p ts o f a 's i m p l e ' v a r i e t y

b u t n o t p s y c h o lo g ic a l, f i n a l i s t ! 0 , m a g ic a l, m o ra l, a n i m i s t i c , a r t i f i o i a l i s t i c or m y s tic " .5

U sing many o f th e q u e s tio n s

u t i l i z e d b y P i a g e t , Oakes s tu d ie d ^ th e re s p o n s e s o f o h i ld r e n a s w e ll a s a d u l t s and c o n clu d ed t h a t t h e e v id e n c e f a i l e d to s u p p o r t P i a g e t 's f in d in g o f d e f i n i t e s t a g e s i n c o n c e p tu a l g ro w th . The group m ethod was u se d i n t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y t o o b ta in i n f e r e n c e s o r c o n c lu s io n s o f p u p i ls a t th e se c o n d a ry l e v e l . 1. 2. 3. 4.

L oo, o i t . 7 e a n T T a g e t, Th» C h i l d 's C o n c ep tio n o f P h y s i c a l C a u s a l i t y . p p . 258- 6 7 . I b i d . . p . 267- 7 3 . I . H uang, C h i l d r e n 's E x p la n a tio n s o f S tr a n g e Phenomena, S m ith C o lle g e S t u d i e s i n P s y c h o lo g y . I .

5.

I b i d . . p . il^ T

S.

M ervin S . Oat e s , How Do C h ild r e n E x p la in T h in g s ? , S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n , XXVI (F e b r u a r y , 1 9 4 2 ), p p . 61-3*

E x p e rim e n ta l S tu d ie s I n v e s t i g a t i o n s c o n s id e re d h e re a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y th e u se o f c o n t r o l g ro u p s a n d a r e c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e e f f e c t o f te a c h in g p ro c e d u re upon t h e a b i l i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s to g e n e r a l ­ iz e * G i l b e r t 1 p u b lis h e d th e f i r s t l e a r n i n g s tu d y i n th e f i e l d o f s c ie n c e e d u c a tio n i n 1910*2

He com pared two m ethods of

te a c h in g z o o lo g y t o b e g in n in g p u p i l s i n th e Academy o f t h e U n i v e r s i ty o f I l l i n o i s .

One group was t a u g h t from t h e a p p lie d

o r econom ic v ie w p o in t w h ile th e second g ro u p w as t a u g h t so t h a t th e c u l t u r a l and d i s c i p l i n a r y a s p e c t s o f th e m a t e r i a l w ere e m p h a size d .

W hile th e a u th o r p o in te d o u t t h a t s c a n ty

d a ta make c o n c lu s io n s t e n t a t i v e ) he fo u n d t h a t th e g ro u p i n w hich econom ic a p p l i c a t i o n s w ere s t r e s s e d made more g a in s i n th e a b i l i t y t o s e t up e x p e rim e n ts and i n t e r p r e t d a ta and to le a rn f a c ts .

The i n t e r e s t o f th e p u p i l s o f th e econom ic

g ro u p was a l s o ju d g ed to be s u p e r i o r . C u r t i s ^ e q u a te d G e n e ra l S c ie n c e g ro u p s on th e b a s i s o f th e B r i g h tn e s s Q u o tie n t.

A f te r s i x m e e tin g s o f th e e x p e r i ­

m e n ta l g ro u p At t h e l e s s i n t e r e s t e d h a l f o f th e c l a s s was e lim in a te d t o s e rv e a s c o n t r o l ) a lo n g w ith tw o o t h e r con­ tro ls .

F o llo w in g t h i s , C u r t is gave th e e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s

s p e c ific in s tr u c tio n in s c ie n tif ic a ttitu d e s . 1. 2.

3.

J . P . G i l b e r t , An E x p e rim e n t on M ethods o f T eaching Z o o lo g y , The J o u r n a l of E d u c a tio n a l P sy c h o lo g y . V o l. I , ( J u n e , 1910) p p . 321- 332 . F . 0 . C u r t i s , Second D i g e s t , I n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n th e T ea ch in g of S c ie n c e . V o l. I I , p . 3 . F r a n c is D. C u r t i s , Some V a lu e s D e riv e d from E x te n s iv e R e a d in g - o f G e n e ra l S c ie n c e . C o n tr ib u tio n s t o Edu­ c a t i o n No. 163. New Y ork: T e a c h e rs C o lle g e . Colum bia U n i v e r s i t y , 1924.

New spaper c l i p p i n g s c o n ta in in g f a l s e d e d u c tio n s , p ro b lem s w ith i n s u f f i c i e n t o r s u p e r f lu o u s d a t a , d i s ­ c u s s io n s o f s u p e r s t i t i o n s , in c o m p le te d d e m o n s tr a tio n s o f e x p e rim e n ts p e r m i tt i n g p r e d i c t i o n o f p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s , and r e p o r t s upon i n v e n to r s and o t h e r s c i e n ­ t i s t s who w ere f o r c e d to s t r u g g l e f o r t h e i r s u c c e s s a g a i n s t p r e j u d i c e a n d n a rro w -m in d e d n e ss, w e re i n t r o ­ duced and d i s c u s s e d f u l l y b y t h e e x p e rim e n te r and th e c la s s . The i n s t r u c t i o n p e r i o d o f a b o u t two h o u r s was d i s t r i ­ b u te d o v e r s i x c l a s s p e r i o d s .

A f t e r a l a p s e o f f o u r m onths

th e p u p i l s were t e s t e d on a g ro u p " T e s t o f S c i e n t i f i c A t­ t i t u d e s " d e v is e d b y C u r t i s .

A f t e r com paring th e e x p e rim e n ta l

and c o n t r o l g ro u p s , C u r t i s s t a t e d , "The c o n c lu s io n seem s ju s tif ie d th a t a l i t t l e in s tr u c tio n in s c ie n tif ic a ttitu d e s p ay s l a r g e d i v i d e n d s . . . . "

I n a n o th e r e x p e rim e n t th e e f f e c t

o f e x t r i n s i c r e c r e a t i o n a l r e a d in g of s c i e n t i f i c books was com pared w ith o r d i n a r y c la s s w o rk i n g e n e r a l s c ie n c e .

C u rtis

re p o rte d , The c o n c lu s io n seem s j u s t i f i e d t h a t e x te n s iv e re a d in g o f g e n e r a l s c ie n c e a p p a r e n t l y o f i t s e l f s e r v e s t o g iv e some t r a i n i n g i n s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s , b u t su c h g a in s a s may th u s b e se c u re d a r e in c o n s id e r ­ a b le a s com pared w ith th o s e made when d e f i n i t e i n ­ s t r u c t i o n i n s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s i s g i v e n .3 The work o f G i l b e r t an d C u r t i s d o e s n o t f U lly meet th e c r i t e r i a o f a n e x p e rim e n ta l s tu d y i n t h a t th e a b i l i t y m easured was n o t d e te rm in e d i n i t i a l l y so t h a t g a in s o f th e two g ro u p s c o u ld n o t be com pared.

I n t h e s e c a s e s i t i s assum ed t h e ex­

1.

P . D. C u r t i s , In v e s tig a te .o n s i n th e T ea ch in g o f

2. 3-

Ibid., p. 115.

p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l g ro u p s a r e e q u a l i n a b i l i t y a t th e b e g in n in g of t h e e x p e rim e n t. E d m isto n c o n d u c te d a n e a q o e rim e n t,! u s in g two g r o u p s , i n w h ich t h e a b i l i t y o f c o ll e g e s t u d e n t s to g e n e r a l i z e was m e a su re d , s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n was g iv e n th e e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p i n g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , and th e tw o g ro u p s w ere re m e a su re d a f t e r a tw o-m onth p e r i o d .

The number o f c a s e s was n o t g iv e n .

The o r i g i n a l t e s t s p l u s a l i k e number o f new t e s t s w ere g i v e n th e second t e s t i n g p e r i o d . . . .The t e s t s w ere n o t o f th e o b j e c t i v e ty p e , b u t were made a s o b je c tiv e a s p o s s i b l e . . . . A f t e r t e s t s h a d b een a d m in is te r e d to b o th g r o u p s , a n o th e r s e t was p ro v id e d f o r u se i n t h e i n ­ s t r u c t i o n o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l g r o u p . The fo llo w in g i n s t r u c t i o n was p ro v id e d s 1 . An a n a l y s i s of g e n e r a l i z a t i o n r e q u i r e d by t h e q u e s t i o n . E i t h e r u n d e rs c o re th e f e a t u r e s o f th e s ta te m e n t a s k in g f o r th e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n or o u t­ l i n e th e re q u ir e m e n ts . 2 . U n d ersco re i n th e p a ra g r a p h e a c h f a c t r e ­ l a t e d t o t h e f e a t u r e s u n d e rs c o re d i n t h e q u e s t i o n ; or fo llo w in g th e o u t l i n e of th e r e q u ir e m e n ts com­ p l e t e a n o u tlin e of th e a t t r i b u t i n g f e a t u r e s o f th e p a ra g ra p h . 3* C o l le c t a l l r e p e a t e d or r e s t a t e d f a c t s i n t o one s ta te m e n t. P ro d u ce t h e s h o r t e s t s ta te m e n t o f th e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n w hich c o v e rs th e a t t r i b u t i n g f e a t u r e s , w ith o u t r e s t a t i n g them i n a lo n g com plex s ta te m e n t. 2 The c o n c lu s io n s w e re : 1 . G e n e r a liz in g a b i l i t y o f s t u d e n t s c an be g r e a t l y im proved by t r a i n i n g . 2 . A b i l i t y t o g e n e r a l i z e i s no m ore dep en d ­ e n t upon i n t e l l i g e n c e a s m easured b y g ro u p i n t e l ­ l ig e n c e t e s t s th a n a re . o t h e r f e a t u r e s o f e d u c a tio n . • • • • •

4 . L ea rn in g a b i l i t i e s a s w e ll a s in f o r m a tio n may b e im proved by l e a r n i n g . . . . 3 1. 2. 3*

R . W. E d m isto n , T e s tin g G e n e r a liz in g A b i l i t y , Peabody J o u r n a l fif E d u c a tio n . V o l. X II, (M arch, 1935) > P P * 2 4 6 -2 5 1 . I b id .. p . 247 Ibid.. p. 249

23 W e s s e ll d e te r m in e d 1 th e e f f e c t o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n g e n e r a l S c ie n c e upon th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s o f th e p u p i l s a s m easured by two fa rm s of W e s s e l l 's T e s t .

One h u n d r e d - f o r t y

se v en p u p i l s conqorised th e e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p v h i le one h u n d re d f o r t y p u p i l s made up th e c o n t r o l g ro u p . in v o lv e d :

Pour a t t i t u d e s were

( 1 ) free d o m from s x p e r s t i t i o n s , ( 2 ) a b i l i t y t o b a se

judgm ent on f a c t ,

( 3 ) a b i l i t y to d i f f e r e n t i a t e f a c t and th e o r y

and (4 ) th e c au se and e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p .

C are was ta k e n

t h a t th e te a c h in g o f t h e c l a s s e s should n o t d i f f e r from t h a t o f p r e v io u s y e a r s .

The c l a s s e x p e rie n c e was found s i g n i f i ­

c a n t ly t o in c r e a s e freed o m fro m s u p e r s t i t i o n s b u t n o t g r e a t l y to c h an g e th e o t h e r a t t i t u d e s . S e v e ra l a s p e c t s o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g w ere m easured b y G la s e r i n h i s e x p e rim e n t^ w ith h ig h s c h o o l p u p i l s o f th e 1 2 th y e a r.

The t e s t s a r e t i t l e d :

A S u rv ey o f O pin io n s ( S o c i a l

P ro b le m s) L o g ic a l R easo n in g T e s t (A rea o f A b s tr a c t P ro b le m s ), I n f e r e n c e T e s t, G e n e r a li z a t i o n T e s t , D is c r im in a tio n o f A rgu­ m ents T e s t and E v a lu a tio n o f A rgum ents T e s t.

The i n f e r e n c e

t e s t u sed by G la s e r i s one i n w hich th e p u p i l i s a s k e d t o a c c e p t a s ta te m e n t a s t r u e and on t h i s b a s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e appended c o n c lu s io n s a s t im e , p ro b a b ly t r u e , i n s u f f i c i e n t d a ta f o r c o n c lu s io n , p ro b a b ly f a l s e o r f a l s e .

The g e n e r a l i z a t i o n

t e s t c o n s i s t s of f r e q u e n t l y h e a rd s ta te m e n ts i n w h ic h t h e 1.

2.

G eorge W e s s e ll, M easuring th e C o n tr ib u tio n of th e N in th G rade G e n e ra l S c ie n c e C ourse to th e D ev elo p ­ m ent o f S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e s , S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n . V o l. XXV, (Novem ber, 1 9 4 1 ), p p . 336- 3 39 . Edward M. G l a s e r , £ n E x p erim e n t i n th e D evelopm ent of C r i t i c a l T h in k in g .

24 f i r s t word i s o m itte d an d th e p u p i l c i r c l e s one of f i v e w ords a s b e in g m ost a p p r o p r i a t e . know, few , n o .

The c h o ic e s a r e :

a l l , m o st, d o n 't

The ite m s o f th e D is c r im in a tio n o f A rgum ents

T e s t c o m p rise a s e r i e s o f q u e s t io n s t o g e th e r w ith f o u r s t a t e ­ m ents w hich the p u p i l e v a l u a t e s a s b e in g s tr o n g o r weak a r g u ­ m ents f o r s u p p o rtin g each q u e s t io n .

E v id e n ce f o r th e v a l i d i t y

and r e l i a b i l i t y of th e t e s t s was p r e s e n t e d . The e x p e rim e n t was c o n d u c te d i n e i g h t E n g lis h c l a s s e s ta u g h t b y e i g h t t e a c h e r s i n f o u r s c h o o ls . se rv e d a s c o n t r o l s .

F our o f th e c la s s e s

T here w ere 127 p u p i l s i n th e e x p e rim e n ta l

c l a s s e s a n d 132 p u p i l s i n th e c o n t r o l c l a s s e s .

The c l a s s e s

w ere e q u a te d on the b a s i s o f a g e , a v e ra g e s c h o o l g ra d e o f th e p re c e d in g y e a r , O t i s I .Q . and re a d in g s c o r e .

The i n s t r u c t i o n

of th e e x p e rim e n ta l c l a s s e s e x te n d e d f o r t e n w eeks w ith f i v e p e r io d s o f f o r t y m in u te s p e r w eek. used i n te a c h in g c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g .

E ig h t l e s s o n u n i t s w ere The t i t l e s a r e :

(1 )

R e c o g n itio n o f F eed f o r D e f i n i t i o n , (2 ) L ogic a n d W eight o f E v id e n c e , ( 3 ) The N a tu re o f P ro b a b le I n f e r e n c e ,

(4 ) D e d u c tiv e

and I n d u c tiv e I n f e r e n c e , ( 5) L o g ic and th e Method o f S c ie n c e , and Some C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f S c i e n t i f i c A t t i t u d e , ( 6 ) P r e ­ j u d ic e a s a F a c to r M aking f o r "C rooked T h in k in g " , (7 ) V a lu e s and L o g ic , and ( 8 ) P ropaganda and "C rooked T h in k in g " . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d f o r th e b a t t e r y o f t e s t s b u t th e e x p e rim e n ta l g r o u p s d id n o t d ev elo p th e a b i l i t y to s e l e c t t h e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s on th e I n f e r e n c e T e s t o r to i d e n t i f y th e s tr o n g and w eak, a rg u m e n ts o f th e D is c r im in a tio n o f A rgum ents T e s t.

S tu d ie s o f T ra n s fe r The w ork re v ie w e d h e re c o n s id e r s th e c a r r y o v e r of i n ­ d u c tiv e a b i l i t y from one f i e l d t o a n o th e r . Barlow p r e s e n t e d 1 e x p e rim e n ta l e v id e n c e w hich he h e ld s u p p o r ts th e th e o r y t h a t t r a n s f e r i s a m ajor f a c t o r o f l e a r n in g among th e h ig h e r m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s .

S e v e n ty - s ix c h i l d r e n

who w ere tw e lv e and t h i r t e e n y e a r s of age w ere s p l i t i n to ex­ p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l g ro u p s a s were f i f t y - n i n e a d u l t s .

A ll

th e s u b j e c t s w ro te th e m o ral im p lie d i n f i f t e e n of A e s o p 's F a b l e s , a s an i n i t i a l and f i n a l t e s t .

The e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p s

w ere g iv e n i n s t r u c t i o n on th e f o llo w in g m a t e r i a l : a b s t r a c t i o n s and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s

a n a l o g ie s ,

( in d u c tiv e and d e d u c tiv e

a s p e c t s ) , and r e a d in g le s s o n s w h ic h s t r e s s e d c o m p reh en sio n and a n a l y s i s o f b e h a v i o r .. Twelve i n s t r u c t i o n p e r io d s w ere g iv e n , e a c h of w hich l a s t e d tw e n ty m in u te s . The f a c t t h a t "when th e f i n a l t e s t m a t e r i a l d i f f e r e d e n t i r e l y from th e t r a i n i n g m a t t e r , th e t r a n s f e r am ounts w ere a s g r e a t a s when th e end t e s t s re se m b le d th e i n t e r p o l a t e d c o n te n t" s u g g e s t t h a t " t r a n s f e r would seem t o depend o n th e a n a l y s i s o f th e m sn ta l s t e p s in v o lv e d i n l e a r n i n g . . . .a n d on i n t e n t i o n a l e f f o r t s t o a p p ly l e a r n i n g m e th o d s" .^ D a ily indicated3 th at prior to 1925 the p ro b lem s given

1. 2. 3.

llyron C. Barlow, T r a n s f e r o f T ra in in g i n R e a s o n in g , J o u r n a l g f E d u c a tio n a l P sy c h o lo g y . V o l. XXVIII, (F e b ru a ry , 1937)> PP» 122- 2b. I b i d . . p . 127. B enjam in W. D a ily , The A b i l i t y p f H igh S c h o o l P u p i l s E s s e n t i a l D ata i n S o lv in g P ro b le m s. T e a c h e rs C o lle g e , Colum bia T J h iv e rs ity . C o n tr ib u tio n s to E d u c a tio n , Ho. 1 9 0 . Hew Y ork, 1925, p . v i i i - 1 0 3 .

26 i n h ig h s c h o o l a lg e b r a w ere much s im p le r th a n th o s e m et b y th e p u p i l i n o u t - o f - s c h o o l a c t i v i t i e s .

He f e l t t h a t p r e ­

s e n t a t i o n o f j u s t enough d a ta to s o lv e a pro b lem o f f e r e d p o o r p r e p a r a t i o n f o r l i f e p ro b le m s i n w hich t h e d a t a m a y b e i n s u f ­ f i c i e n t or so num erous t h a t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y . D a ily s o u g h t t o s tu d y p u p i l r e a c t i o n when to o l i t t l e

o r to o

m uch d a ta were g iv e n , th e e f f e c t o f s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n i n p e r t i n e n c y o f d a ta , and th e e x te n t to w hich s c i e n t i f i c h a b i t s * o f th in k in g g a in e d th r o u g h a s tu d y o f a l g e b r a c a r r i e d o ver to o th e r sc h o o l s u b je c ts .

S c a le s u s in g a lg e b r a a s w e ll a s non-

m a th e m a tic a l m a t e r i a l w ere p r e p a r e d t o m easure th e p u p i l a b i l i t i e s in q u e s tio n .

The n o n -m a th e m a tic a l m a t e r i a l d e a l t

w ith Am erican h i s t o r y , s c ie n c e a n d g e n e r a l i n f o r m a ti o n .

P re ­

lim in a r y t e s t i n g was fo llo w e d b y i n s t r u c t i o n o f th e e x p e r i­ m en tal g ro u p s .

An a n a l y s i s o f f i n a l t e s t s c o r e s le d t o th e

c o n c lu s io n t h a t t h e i n s t r u c t i o n was e f f e c t i v e and t h a t th e a b i l i t y o f s c i e n t i f i c t h in k in g was c a r r i e d o v e r t o o th e r sch o o l s u b je c ts . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t r a i n i n g i n l o g ic a s a m ethod by w hich im provem ent m ig h t be made i n th o u g h t h a b i t s was s t u d i e d b y W h i t e . L e s s o n s i n l o g i c w ere g i v e n t o a group o f b o y s s tu d y in g grammar (mean a g e , 12 y e a r s , 10 m onths) i n t h e V auxh a l l C e n tr a l S c h o o l, London,one hour a week f o r t h r e e m o n th s. The i n s t r u c t i o n in c lu d e d a s p e c t s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , in f e r e n c e and e m o tio n a l o r a f f e c t i v e t h i n k i n g . 1.

A seco n d c l a s s , (m ean

E r n e s t E . W h ite, A S tu d y o f th e P o s s i b i l i t y o f Im prov­ in g H a b its o f T hought i n S c h o o l C h ild r e n by a T r a in ­ in g i n L o g ic . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l of E d u c a tio n a l P s y c h o lo g y , V o l. V I, P a r t I I I , TNovember, 1 9 3 6 ), P P . 267-73*

a? a g e , 12 y e a r s , 11 m o n th s) e q u a te d on t h e b a s i s o f th e C h e lse a M ental T e s t S c o r e s , s e rv e d a s a c o n t r o l .

A t th e c lo s e o f th e

e x p e rim e n t b o th c l a s s e s w ere g i v e n a re a s o n in g t e s t i n f our p a rts :

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , o r d e r i n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , c o n v e r s io n

and o p p o s itio n o f p r o p o s i t i o n s , a n d th e s y llo g is m , a s w e ll a s B a l l a r d ’ s E n g lis h C o n s tr u c tio n T e s t a n d a w r i t t e n c o n p o s i ti o n . The e x p e r im e n ta l c l a s s made g a in s i n th e f i r s t t h r e e t a s k s w hich w ere c o n s id e r e d p ro b a b ly s i g n i f i c a n t and due " to th e p r e s e n c e o f an a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r : t e a c h i n g . 1,1

th e r e s u l t o f th e lo g ic

I t sh o u ld b e n o te d t h a t i n t h i s s t u d y t h e i n i t i a l

a b i l i t i e s o f th e c l a s s e s i n l o g i c and grammar w ere assum ed t o be s i m i l a r . Madge’ s s tu d y 2 was a n a tt e m p t t o m easure th e t r a n s f e r of c h e m ic a l know ledge g a in e d i n a h ig h s c h o o l c h e m is try c o u rs e to th e s o l u t i o n o f o u t - o f - s c h o o l c h e m ic a l p ro b le m s.

F if ty - tw o

p u p i l s who s t u d i e d c h e m is tr y composed th e e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p v h i le t h e r e w ere f o r ty - o n e i n th e c o n t r o l g r o i p . d a ta le a d to th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t t r a n s f e r o c c u r s .

A n a ly s is o f I n re g a rd

to p erm anence o f t r a n s f e r , Mudge r e p o r te d f u r t h e r t h a t ”r e t e n t i o n o f th e f a c t s o f c h e m is tr y i s s u s ta i n e d over a lo n g e r p e rio d t h a n i s t h e a b i l i t y t o a p p ly t h e f a c t s " . 3 The u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e t r a n s f e r in v o lv e d i n M udge's s tu d y i s d e r iv e d from a n e x a m in a tio n o f t h e F u n c tio n a l T e s t w hich c o n s i s t s a£ tw o p a r t s .

P a r t One c o n s i s t s o f 22 ite m s

w h ich d e s c r i b e s i t u a t i o n s "w hich may o c c u r i n e v e ry -d a y l i f e . 1. 2.

3.

I b i d ., p . 271. E v e ly n L . Mudge, T r a n s f e r o f T ra in in g i n C h e m istry . The J o h n s H opkins U n i v e r s i t y S tu d ie s i n E ducatT on, No. 2 6 . B a ltim o r e : The Jo h n s H opkins P r e s s , 1939, p. ix -76. o p. c i t . , p . 48

28 Many of them do".**- S o lu tio n s t o th e s i t u a t i o n s a r e appended t o e ac h s i t u a t i o n and th e i n d i v i d u a l c o n s id e r s a s o l u t i o n a s b e in g e f f e c t i v e o r i n e f f e c t i v e .

An exam ple f o llo w s :

A d ro p of m e lte d s u lp h u r f a l l s on th e f l o o r . Which o f th e f o llo w in g w i l l c o m p le te ly rem ove i t ? ( * ) • W hich n o t? ( - ) . ( 1 ) w a te r , ( 2 ) c a rb o n d i s u l p h i d e , ( 3 ) ammonia, (4 ) a l c o h o l . To c o r r e c t l y re sp o n d th e in d iv u d u a l m ust r e c a l l th e s o l u b i l i t y o f s u lp h u r .

Nowhere d o e s Mudge d e m o n s tra te t h a t

a m e n ta l a b i l i t y o t h e r t h a n r e c a l l i s in v o lv e d i n th e p r o p e r re s p o n s e t o t h e i te m .

I t a p p e a rs t h a t any t r a n s f e r of

c h e m ic a l know ledge in v o lv e d i n t h i s ite m i s from th e s o l u ­ b i l i t y o f s u lp h u r i n th e t e s t tu b e t o th e s o l u b i l i t y of s u l ­ p h u r on th e f l o o r .

The i te m c i t e d i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f

m a t e r i a l i n P a r t One a n d t h e raw s c o r e s from P a r t One c o n t r i ­ b u te more to t h e t o t a l s c o r e th a n d o e s P a r t Two.

I n th e

seco n d p a r t o f t h e t e s t , f o u r p a ra g ra p h s from p o p u la r s c ie n c e books a r e p r e s e n t e d and th e t e s t ite m s f o llo w in g e a c h p a r a ­ g ra p h m easure " u n d e r s ta n d in g 11 o f th e p a r a g r a p h .

Mudge d o e s

n o t s u g g e s t w hat a b i l i t i e s mgy b e t e s t e d b y P a r t Two.

A

p e r f e c t s c o r e on t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e t e s t i s t h i r t y and i n ­ s p e c tio n o f th e ite m s s u g g e s t s t h a t s i x o f th e ite m s p o s s i b l y m easure th e i n d i v i d u a l s a b i l i t y t o a p p ly th e c h e m ic a l p r i n ­ c ip le s . The I n s tr u m e n t u sed t o m easu re c h e m ic a l In f o r m a tio n was th e Iowa P la ce m e n t E x am in a tio n C h e m istry T ra in in g T e s t s . asm uch a s Mudge d id n o t e s t a b l i s h t h e v a l i d i t y o f th e

In ­

2r 9 F u n c t io n a l T e s t a s m easu re o f a b i l i t y o t h e r th a n t h a t m easured b y t h e Iowa T e s ts , i t f o llo w s t h a t t h e c o n c lu s io n s o f th e s tu d y i n r e s p e c t t o t r a n s f e r a r e n o t v a l i d . E v a lu a tio n of E x p e r im e n ta tio n C om parison o f t h e f i n d i n g s o f the e x p e rim e n ts re v ie w ed i s d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e th e in s tr u m e n ts used to m easure i n d u c t i v e a b i l i t y w ere d i s s i m i l a r .

I t i s h i g h ly u n l i k e l y t h a t th e v a r io u s

t e s t s re v ie w e d have th e same f a c t o r lo a d in g s f o r th e t o t a l popu­ l a t i o n s t u d i e d o r e v e n f o r sam p les fro m a m ore homogeneous popu­ l a t i o n , s u c h a s p u p i l s of t h e 1 0 th y e a r o f h ig h s c h o o l.

The

e v id e n c e f o r q u e s tio n in g t h a t t h e t e s t s o f in d u c tio n a r e m easu res of t h e same s p e c i f i c a b i l i t y o r a b i l i t i e s i s somewhat i n d i r e c t . T h o rn to n g a v e 1 a s e r i e s o f t e s t s t o 189 c o lle g e s t u d e n ts w hich w ere l a b e l e d by t h e i r a u th o r s a s m ea su re s of p e r s i s t e n c e .

The

t e s t s c o r e s w ere c o r r e l a t e d and a n a ly z e d b y T h u r s to n e 's m u lt i p le f a c t o r m e th o d s.

No one f a c t o r was fo u n d t o b e p r e s e n t i n a l l

th e t e s t s b u t f i v e f a c t o r s a p p e a re d w hich had u n iq u e n e s s and no u n if o r m ity was found i n th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e f a c t o r lo a d in g s smong th e t e s t s a n a ly z e d . The' a n a l y s i s of p e r s o n a l i t y s c a l e s by P e rry d e m o n s tra te d ^ t h a t th e t i t l e

of a s c a l e d id n o t i n s u r e t h a t a s p e c i f i c f a c t o r

o f p e r s o n a l i t y was b e in g m ea su re d .

F o u r in d e p e n d e n t f a c t o r s

w ere fo u n d a s w e ll a s a s p e c i f i c f a c t o r and a chance f a c t o r f o r each t e s t used . 1. 2.

T e s ts o f "dom inance" and "a sc e n d a n c e "

G eorge R . T h o rn to n , A F a c to r A n a ly s is o f T e s ts D esigned to M easure P e r s i s t e n c e . Raymond C arver P e r r y , 4 Group F a c to r A n a ly s is o f t h e A d ju stm en t Q u e s tio n n a ir e . p . 8 1 -8 2 .

i

30.

were fo u n d to hav e two f a c t o r s i n common w h ile t e s t s la b e le d a s m easu res o f " i n t r o v e r s i o n " o r " n e u r o tic te n d e n c ie s " were fo u n d to c o n ta in th e same f a c t o r . I n making a f a c t o r a n a l y s i s o f a b a t t e r y of t e s t s ,

th e

1 2 p o p u la tio n s u se d by T h o rn to n and P e r r y a s w e ll a s b y T h u rsto n e * were r e l a t i v e l y hom ogeneous. Even assum ing t h a t t h e m easu res o f i n d u c tio n fo u n d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e w ere i d e n t i c a l , c o m p a riso n s o f th e in d u c tiv e a b i l i t y o f sam p les fro m th e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o ls , h ig h s c h o o l s , and c o l l e g e s would be h a z a rd o u s f o r T h u rsto n e h a s s u g g e s te d ^ t h a t a t e s t * s v a l i d i t y i s n o t a b s o lu te b u t i s t h e r e s u l t a n t o f th e t e s t and a p a r t i c u l a r p o p u l a t i o n .

Thus a v o c a b u la ry

t e s t m ight be a m easure of a v e r b a l f a c t o r f o r e le m e n ta ry p u p i l s w h ile th e same t e s t , w ith a tim e l i m i t , m ight m easure a p e r c e p t u a l sp e e d f a c t o r i n a- sam ple o f c o ll e g e s t u d e n t s . The two m ea su re s o f i n d u c t i v e a b i l i t y w hich a p p e a r to be m ost d iv e r g e n t i n c o n te n t and c o m p le x ity w ere th o s e u se d by C ro x to n an d E d m isto n .

The t h r e e d im e n tio n a l p l a y e x p e r i ­

en ce g iv e n e le m e n ta r y p u p i l s b y C ro x to n a p p a r e n t l y re d u c e d t h e in f lu e n c e of d i f f e r e n t i a l r e a d in g co m p re h en sio n found w ith p u p i l s d i s t r i b u t e d from th e p re -p r im a ry c l a s s e s t h r u th e n i n th g ra d e .

T e s t m a t e r i a l u se d by E d m isto n was n o t p r e s e n te d i n

h i s r e p o r t b u t from th e d i r e c t i o n s g iv e n i t w ould seem t h a t th e in d u c tiv e t a s k demanded o f th e c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s was th a t 1. 2. 3»

L . L . T h u rs to n e , P rim a ry M e n tal A b i l i t i e s . , and T. G. T h u rs to n e , F a c t o r i a l S tu d ie s gf In te llig e n c e . Ib id ., p. 2, 3.

31 o f s e l e c t i n g p e r t i n e n t f a c t s fro m w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l and o f o r g a n iz in g th e f a c t s i n a c o n c is e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , a t a s k p r o b a b ly f a r beyond th e a b i l i t y o f many e le m e n ta ry p u p i l s . I n sum m arizing th e su rv e y s t u d i e s , i t a p p e a r s t h a t , i n d u c t i v e a b i l i t y , a s m easu red by th e r e s p e c t i v e s c a l e s of N ic h o ls , W essel and B e d e l l , was p o s s e s s e d by a m in o r ity o f th e h ig h s c h o o l p u p i l s who made up t h e sa m p le .

No i n s t r u c ­

t i o n was g iv e n th e s u b j e c t s i n th e s t u d i e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s s u rv e y . The re v ie w o f e x p e rim e n ta l s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e s t h a t s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s , c r i t i c a l th in k i n g and in d u c tiv e a b i l i t y w ere fo u n d to b e g e n e r a l l y im proved b y s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n . C u r t i s fo u n d t h a t t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s o f G e n e ra l S c ie n c e p u p i l s b e n e f i t e d by two hour s of d i r e c t i n s t r u c t i o n a s w e ll a s by r e a d i n g s c i e n t i f i c b o o k s.

No s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n i n

s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s was g iv e n G e n e ra l S c ie n c e p u p i l s b y W essel and he r e p o r te d t h a t o f f o u r a t t i t u d e s m easu red , t h e o n ly p o s i t i v e change w as i n a n i n c r e a s e i n freedom fro m s u p e r­ s titio n s .

The E f f e c t i v e n e s s of i n s t r u c t i o n i n c r i t i c a l t h i n k ­

in g was d e m o n s tra te d by G l a s e r 's 1 2 th y e a r E n g lis h p u p i l s th o u g h n e g a t iv e r e s u l t s were r e p o r t e d w ith tw o o f h i s s c a l e s . C o lle g e s t u d e n t s w ere fo u n d by E d m isto n t o p r o f i t from i n ­ s tr u c tio n in g e n e ra liz in g . I n sum m arizing s t u d i e s c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e t r a n s f e r o f th e h ig h e r m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s , p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r was r e p o r t e d b y B a rlo w , D a ly , W hite an d Mudge though M udge's c o n c lu s io n s a r e s u s p e c t b e c a u se th e v a l i d i t y o f h i s t e s t was n o t e s t a b -

lis h e d .

More th a n 1800 s t u d i e s of t r a n s f e r w ere rev ie w ed by

S a n d ifo rd and he s t a t e d - 1- t h a t i n a b o u t 90 p e r c e n t of th e c a s e s , t r a n s f e r was p o s i t i v e a n d ra n g e d fro m 0 -2 0 p e r .c e n t* T r a n s f e r was found t o b e g r e a t e r w ith more i n t e l l i g e n t su b ­ j e c t s , w ith r e l a t i v e l y younger s u b j e c t s and i n s i t u a t i o n s h a v in g common e le m e n ts .

Ju d d a s s e r t e d 2 t h a t t r a n s f e r o f th e

h ig h e r m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s i s t y p i c a l r a t h e r t h a n a t y p i c a l . 1. 2.

P e te r S a n d if o r d , T ra n s f e r o f T r a in in g , E n c y c lo p e d ia o f E d u c a ti o n a l R e s e a rc h , p . 1307* C h a rle s H. J u d d , E d u c a tio n a s C u l t i v a t i o n o f th e H igher M en tal P r o c e s s e s , p . 2 0 0 .

'S

CHAPTER I I I THE EXPERIMENT O verview o f E x p erim e n t The e x p e rim e n t was c a r r i e d o u t In f o u r h ig h s c h o o ls . F iv e t e a c h e r s e a c h t a u g h t two b io lo g y c l a s s e s , one an e x p e r i ­ m e n ta l and th e o t h e r a c o n t r o l g ro u p .

The o r g a n i z a t i o n i s

shown i n th e f o llo w in g t a b u l a t i o n :

S c h o o ls

T e a c h e rs

dum ber o f P u p i l s i n C la s s e s E x p e rim e n ta l C o n tro l

B

c

30 29 19

c

d

22

23

D

«

38

27

138

131

it

a

25 34 22

The t e s t i n g and i n s t r u c t i o n a l s c h e d u le f o r a l l c l a s s e s were a s f o llo w s : T e s ts P r e lim in a r y T e s ts

C om pleted O c to b e r 4 , 1940

F i f t e e n t h I n s t r u c t i o n P e r io d

J a n u a ry 3 1 , 1941

I n te r m e d ia te T e s ts

F e b ru a ry 14, 1941

T h i r t i e t h I n s t r u c t i o n P e r io d

May 2 3 , 1941 ,

F in a l T e s ts

June 7 , 1941

T h i r t y l e s s o n s o f in d u c tiv e i n s t r u c t i o n w ere g iv e n th e e x p e r im e n ta l c l a s s e s , e a c h a b o u t f o r t y m in u te s i n l e n g t h . l e n g t h o f t h e l e s s o n v a r i e d s l i g h t l y fro m week t o w eek.

The The

t e a c h e r s w ere r e q u e s t e d t o sp a c e th e le s s o n s by w eek ly i n t e r ­ v a l s , and w ith few e x c e p tio n s th e sc h e d u le was m a in ta in e d .

In

t h e o a s e s o f d e v i a t i o n , two l e s s o n s w ere g iv e n i n one w eek. The S c h o o ls The s c h o o ls i n w hich t h e e x p e rim e n t was c a r r i e d on a r e : Jo h n sto w n High S c h o o l, Jo h n sto w n , N. Y ., V in c e n tia n H igh S c h o o l, P h i l i p S c h u y le r H igh S c h o o l, and A lbany High S o h o o l; the l a s t th r e e a re l o c a te d i n A lb an y , New Y ork.

Johnstow n

h a s 1 0 ,6 0 0 i n h a b i t a n t s and i s l o c a t e d 43 m ile s n o r th w e s t o f A lb a n y , N .Y .

A lb an y , New Y ork, i s l o c a t e d on t h e Hudson

R iv e r , 150 m ile s n o r t h o f New Y ork C i ty . The Teache r s The e x p e rie n c e o f th e te a o h e r s who ta u g h t th e e x p e r i ­ m e n ta l a n d c o n t r o l B io lo g y c l a s s e s o f th e e x p e rim e n t i s

shown

i n th e f o llo w in g t a b u l a t i o n : T ea ch e r

Y e a rs o f B io lo g y * Taught

a

9

b

7

c d

7 6

e

3

♦ S y lla b u s i n G e n e ra l B io lo g y . (R e v is io n o f A p r i l 1 9 3 6 ). The t J n i v e r s i t y o f th e S ta te of New Y ork, The S t a t e E d u c a tio n D e p a rtm e n t. A lbany: The U n i v e r s i ty o f th e S t a t e o f New York P r e s s . 1 9 3 6 . P . 6 0 .

The c o o p e r a tio n an d i n t e r e s t o f th e t e a c h e r s e x te n d e d th ro u g h ­ o u t th e e x p e rim e n t.

B e fo re th e e x p e rim e n t b e g an , i t was made

c l e a r t h a t no c o m p a riso n s w ould be made from one te a c h e r to a n o th e r , h en ce t h e r e was no p r e s s u r e to m a in ta in p e r s o n a l p re s tig e . The S c a le s The t e s t s u s e d i n th e e x p e rim e n t w ere t h e s e : HenmonN e lso n T e s ts o f M e n tal A b i l i t y , ^ L. L. T h u rsto n e * s T e s ts o f I n d u c t i o n , 2 J u d g e -C o n c lu s io n s T e s t d e v is e d by th e e x p e rim e n te r* and D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s T e s t. Henmon-Ne1 son T e a t At th e b e g in n in g o f th e e x p e rim e n t, a l l p u p i l s w ere g iv e n th e Henmon- N elso n T e s t o f M e n tal A b i l i t y , H igh S ch o o l Exam ina­ t i o n , G rades 7 t o 1 2 , Form A t o s e rv e a s a b a s i s f o r d i f f e r e n ­ t i a t i o n o f p u p ils in to th re e a b i l i t y le v e ls .

The v a l i d i t y o f

th e test«3 was ju d g e d by two c r i t e r i a , th e d i s c r i m i n a t i n g v a lu e o f e a c h ite m f o r p u p i ls o f known h ig h and low m e n ta l a b i l i t y , and c o r r e l a t i o n b etw een th e t e s t w ith o t h e r s i m i l a r w id e ly 'u s e d t e s t s .

A l l ite m s o f t h e t e s t d i s c r im i n a t e betw een

p u p i l s o f known h ig h an d low m e n ta l a b i l i t y and th e t e s t i t s e l f c o r r e l a t e s c o n s i s t e n t l y h ig h w ith o th e r m ea su re s o f m e n ta l a b ility .

The r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e t e s t f o r th e t e n t h g ra d e i s

1 . V.A.C.Henmon, M .J. N e lso n , Henmon- N e lso n T e s ts o f M e n tal A b i l i t y , H igh S chool E x am in a tio n - G rades - 7-12 - Form A. New Y ork: H oughton M i f f l i n Company, 1935. 2 . L .L . T h u rs to n e , T e s ts f o r P rim a ry A b i l i t i e s . W ash in g to n , D.C. A m erican C o u n c il on E d u c a tio n (7442 Ja c k so n P l a c e ) , 1938. 3 . T e a c h e r 's M anual ( R e v is e d ) . Henmon-Nelson T e s ts o f M en tal A b ility .

36 •9 0 0 .

The a d m i n i s t r a t i o n tim e i s t h i r t y m in u te s . The T h u rsto n e T e a ts

The T h u rs to n e T e s ts f o r P rim a ry A b i l i t i e s ^ c o n s i s t o f s i x t e e n t e s t s a id m easure se v e n f a c t o r s o r a b i l i t i e s . a re :

T hese

p e rc e p tio n * number* v e r b a l* space* memory* i n d u c t i o n a n d

re a s o n in g .

Only th e t e s t s o f in d u c t i o n w ere u se d i n t h i s

stu d y * t e s t s o f th e o t h e r f a c t o r s were n o t c o n s id e r e d p e r ­ t i n e n t t o t h i s e x p e rim e n t. The m easure of th e i n d u c t i o n f a c t o r i s a c c o m p lish e d b y a g ro u p o f t h r e e t e s t s .

T hese a r e t i t l e d :

U a rk s , and Number P a t t e r n s .

L e t t e r G ro u p in g ,

The e s tim a te d r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e

i n d u c t i o n t e s t s b y t h e s p l i t - h a l f method i s tim a te d v a l i d i t y o f th e t e s t s i s .53*

.8 7 and th e e s ­

The a d m i n i s t r a t i o n tim e

i s f o r t y - f o u r m in u te s . J u ig e - C o n c lu s io n T e s t T h is t e s t was d e sig n e d t o m easure t h e a b i l i t y o f th e p u p i l t o i d e n t i f y c o n c lu s io n s a s b e in g c o m p le te , i n c o n p l e t e , in a p p lic a b le t o

th e d a ta * o r f a l s e .

A pp en d ix A. (p p . 133 - 57 ).

I t is p re s e n te d i n

The a d m i n i s t r a t i o n tim e i s f o r t y

m in u te s . S e l e c t i o n o f Ite m s D u rin g t h e s c h o o l y e a r 1938-39 tw e lv e condensed r e p o r t s o f e x p e r im e n ts w ere g i v e n 150 t e n t h - y e a r B io lo g y p u p i l s . 1.

The

L . L . T h u rs to n e , T e s ts f o r P rim a ry A b i l i t i e s . The Am erican C o u n c il on E d u c a tio n C/442 J a c k s o n P l a c e ) , W ashington* D. C ., 1938.

3? p u p i l s w ere d i r e c t e d t o s tu d y th e d a ta c a r e f u l l y , t o a c c e p t a l l th e d a t a a s t r u e , t o c o n s i d e r a l l th e d a t a , and t o w r i t e a c o n c lu s io n .

E ig h te e n h u n d red o f t h e s e c o n c lu s io n s w ere

e v a lu a te d by the c a te g o rie s :

i n v e s t i g a t o r and w ere p la c e d i n one o f f o u r

c o m p le te , in c o m p le te , beyond th e d a t a and f a l s e .

One h u n d re d and f i f t y - s i x o f th e ite m s w ere s e l e c t e d w hich i n th e o p in io n of t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r , w ere c o n s id e r e d a s b e in g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e f o u r c a t e g o r i e s and w ere u s e d i n a p r o ­ v i s i o n a l foxm o f t h e t e s t u se d i n a r e h e a r s a l o f th e e x p e r i ­ m ent

i n th e y e a r 193 9 -4 0 -

p e n d e n tly

A ju ry

o f fo u r b i o l o g i s t s , in d e ­

p la c e d each ite m i n one o f th e f o u r c a t e g o r i e s .

F i f t y - n i n e i te m s w ere d is c a r d e d b e c a u se o f a b sen c e o f a g re e ­ m ent on th e p a r t o f t h e j u r y .

The c r i t e r i a u se d a s a b a s i s

f o r th e s e l e c t i o n o f th e ju r y w e re: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Founding i n B io lo g y T eaching e x p e rie n c e a t th e se c o n d a ry l e v e l E x p e rie n c e i n t e a c h i n g f o r outcom es R e co g n ize d a s com petent r e s e a r c h w o rk e rs*

The t e s t was m u ltig r a p h e d , i n w hich form i t w as u s e d i n 194041R e lia b ility o f

T est

The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t o f th e t e s t was d e te n u in e d by c o r r e l a t i n g th e s c o r e s cf th e even-num bered ite m s w ith th e s c o r e s o f th e odd-num bered ite m s .

The c o e f f i c i e n t o b ta in e d

was s u b s t i t u t e d i n th e Spearm an-Brown fo rm u la and a r e l i a ­ b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t o f .903 was found.

The number o f c a s e s

was fo u r h u n d red and t w e n ty - e ig h t . ♦Members o f t t e N a t io n a l A s s o c ia tio n f o r R e se a rc h T ea ch in g . T hree o f th e f o u r ju d g e s s a t i s f i e d t h i s c r i t e r i u m .

V a lid ity o f T est The t e s t ite m s a r e a o t u a l c o n c lu s io n s o f t e n t h y e a r B io lo g y p u p i l s .

The q u e s t io n o f th e v a l i d i t y o f th e ite m s

c e n t e r s a b o u t th e a c c u ra c y w ith w hich th e ite m f i t s i n t o one o f th e f o u r c a t e g o r i e s and th e d i s c r i m i n a t i n g v a lu e o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ite m s b etw een p u p i ls o f h ig h and low a b i l i t i e s a s m easu red b y t h e e n t i r e t e s t .

The s c o r in g s t e n c i l f e p r e s e n t s

co m p lete ag reem en t on t h e p a r t o f th e j u r y . The fre q u e n c y p e r c e n t re s p o n s e on each item was found f o r th e p u p i l s of t h e h i g h e s t and lo w e st g ro u p s and n i n e t e e n ite m s w ere d is c a r d e d by i n s p e c t i o n a s h a v in g low d i s c r i m i n a t ­ in g p o w er.

The h ig h group in c lu d e d p u p i l s h a v in g t h e h i g h e s t

tw e n ty - f iv e p e r c e n t o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s , th e low g ro u p i n ­ c lu d e s p u p i l s h a v in g the lo w e s t tw e n ty - f iv e pe'r c e n t o f c o r ­ r e c t resp o n ses.

The p r o b a b le e r r o r o f th e d i f f e r e n c e o f th e

means o f t h e h ig h &od low g ro u p s w as c a l c u l a t e d f o r the r e ­ m a in in g ite m s and the r a t i o o f mean d i f f e r e n c e and p r o b a b le e r r o r o f d i f f e r e n c e o f m eans was d e te rm in e d .

The fo rm u la ^

u se d w e re : P .E . f . p . -

.6745

P .E . d i f f H#L «

|

fg U O b -fp f

| t P .E .Hr

♦ I P .E .j ,^

R a tio « fp g — fP i, P .E . d i f f H#L A l l r a t i o s e x ce ed e d a v a lu e o f 4 w ith f i v e e x c e p tio n s . The r a t i o s f o r th e f i v e e x c e p tio n s ra n g e d from 1 .9 2 end 2 .4 8 ? 1.

*

K a r l H o lz in g e r , S t a t i s t i c a l M ethods f o r E d u c a tio n , p . 243- 4 .

S tu d e n ts i n

The ite m a n a l y s i s i s p r e s e n te d i n A ppendix D, p . 206

3r 9 D lr e o t-O o n e lu s lo n s T e s t F i f t e e n ite m s ^ w ere u se d i n 1938-39 to m easu re th e a b i l i t y o f p u p i l s to make o r i g i n a l i n f e r e n c e s .

A n a ly s is of

th e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t s i x o f t h e f i f t e e n ite m s w ere n o t s u i t e d b e c a u se th e ra n g e o f c o n c lu s io n s was r e s t r i c t e d . The d i r e c t i o n s and ite m s c o m p risin g the t e s t a r e p r e s e n t e d i n A ppendix A. p p .1 3 8 -5 0 The c o n c lu s io n s w ere w r i t t e n f o r each item on a 2" x 6 " o a rd .

The s o o rin g o f th e i te m s was done u sin g t h r e e c a t e ­

g o rie s :

( 1 ) c o m p le te n e s s , ( 2 ) beyond th e d a ta and ( 3 ) f a l s e .

The v a lu e s w ere n o t oom bined b e o a u se i t was found t h a t e v e ry such m ethod t r i e d o b s c u re d tbe p i c t u r e . I n s o o rin g t h e c o n c lu s io n s , a g u id e was b u i l t up f o r e a c h t e s t ite m .

•

The g u id e was made by ex am in in g m ore th a n

f o u r h u n d red r e s p o n s e s f o r e a c h o f t h e ite m s and p la c in g th e r e s p o n s e s i n s u b - c a t e g o r i e s u n d e r tb e th r e e m ain c a t e g o r i e s . A ssignm ent o f v a lu e s t o th e s u b - c a t e g o r i e s was c o m p le te ly s u b je c tiv e .

The ra n g e d e te rm in e d upon was 0- 5 .

I n some

c a s e s h a I f - s t e p i n t e r v a l s w ere u s e d , t h a t i s , 2 .3 o r .3 w ere u s e d .

The g u id e i s p r e s e n te d i n A ppendix A. p p . 138-50

I n e v a lu a tin g re s p o n s e s on t h e b a s i s o f f a l s e n e s s , th e r u l e w as r i g i d l y f o llo w e d t h a t no re s p o n s e be ju d g e d f a l s e u n le s s t h e e x p e rim e n ta l d a ta w ere o o n t r a d i c t e d .

A fa ls e

s ta te m e n t n o t p e r t i n e n t to t h e t e s t ite m was g iv e n a v a lu e 1.

S . M. B arrow s, F . P . F r u tc h e y , V.W. P r i c e , L . H. S n y d e r, and R. W. T y le r o f Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Z oology T e s t I I , I . I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f E x p e rim e n ts , P r o v i s i o n a l Form s, New Y ork: (5o6 WesTT’l l b S t r e e t ) The C o o p e ra tiv e T e s t S e r v ic e o f th e A m erican C o u n c il on E d u c a tio n , 1934* 1935» 1938.

40

of z e ro .

A g a in , I f a p e r f e c t l y t r u e s ta te m e n t was made b u t

was u n s u p p o rte d by th e d a t a , t h a t s ta te m e n t was ju d g ed a s b e in g beyond th e d a t a , and so o re d a s 5 .

The re s p o n s e s w ere

e v a lu a te d n o t on th e b a s i s o f b ro a d b i o l o g i c p r i n c i p l e s b u t upon th e s p e c i f i c and l i m i t e d d a ta o f e a c h e x p e rim e n t.

Com**

p a r i s o n s o f s c o r e s were made f o r ite m s 1 , 2 and 5 betw een s c o r e r s AB, AC and BC.

C o e f f i c i e n t s o f r e l i a b i l i t y w ere .9 4 7 ,

.950 and .930 r e s p e c t i v e l y .

More th a n 300 i n i t i a l c o n c lu s io n

s c o r e s o f b o th e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n t r o l g ro u p s were u s e d . The a d m i n i s t r a t i v e tim e o f th e t e s t i s f o r t y m in u te s .

C o r r e l a ti o n of I n i t i a l M easures The number o f p u p i l s who to o k a l l th e I n i t i a l t e s t s was 4 2 8 .

C o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t i o n w ere fo u n d f o r th e s i x

m ea su re s and a r e i n T ab le I , page 4 0 .

TABLE I C o r r e l a t i o n o f I n i t i a l S c o re s HenmonN e lso n Henmon-Nelson Judge C o n c lu s io n s D i r e c t (C om plete C o n c lu - ( Beyond s lo n s ( F a ls e T h u rsto n e I n d u c tio n

• 543 .365 .1 9 7 - .2 9 7 .5 2 8

J . C. T est

D i r e c t C o n e lu s io n s Com. Beyond F a ls e

.5 4 2

.3 6 5 .3 0 0

.3 0 0 .1 0 4 - .1 5 6 .3 6 3

- .0 5 5 - .3 4 1 .1 9 4

.1 9 7 - .2 9 7 .1 0 4 -.1 5 6 - .0 5 5 -.3 4 1 - .1 4 5 - .1 4 5 .053 - .1 6 0

th u r­ s to n e .5 2 8 .363 .1 9 4 .053 - .1 6 0

41

F o r t h e m ost p a r t th e c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e lo w , th o u g h a d e f i n i t e t r e n d p ro b a b ly e x i s t s betw een Henmon-Nelson and Judge C o n c lu s io n s , Henm on-Nelson and T h u rs to n e I n d u c t i o n .

The tr e n d

i s l e s s m arked betw een Ju d g e -C o n c lu s io n s and T h u rsto n e In d u c ­ t i o n , a s w e ll a s betw een D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s , C om plete and HenmonN e ls o n , D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s , C om plete and Judge C o n c lu s io n s , and D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s , Com plete and D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s , F a l s e . S l i g h t o r no r e l a t i o n i s e v id e n t in t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s in v o lv in g D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s , B eyond.

I n s t r u c t i o n In I n d u c tiv e P ro c e s s e s A f t e r th e p r e lim in a r y t e s t i n g , th e e x p e rim e n ta l c l a s s e s w ere g iv e n a b r i e f s ta te m e n t on th e s c i e n t i f i c m ethod w ith s p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a ti o n g iv e n t o th e f a c t o r s w hich a r e in v o lv e d in th e f o r m u la tio n o f th e h y p o th e s is o r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n .

The

i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l c o n s i s t e d o f b r i e f s o r resu m es o f t h i r t y b i o l o g i c a l e x p e rim e n ts .

S o u rc es o f t h i s m a t e r i a l in o lu d e :

J o u r n a l o f P a r a s i t o l o g y . J o u r n a l of N u t r i t i o n . B o ta n ic a l G a z e t te . J o u r n a l o f th e A m erican M e d ic a l S o c i e t y . Y earbook o f A g r ic u ltu r e 1959 and I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f E x p e rim e n ts .

To se o u re a s much

u n if o r m ity a s p o s s i b l e i n th e i n s t r u c t i o n , e a c h t e a c h e r was g iv e n th e f o llo w in g s u g g e s tio n s :

1.

L o c. c l t .

42

P ro c e d u re f o r g iv in g i n s t r u c t i o n in d raw in g c o n c lu s io n s fro m e x p e r im e n ta l d a t a . A.

D i s t r i b u t e d a ta s h e e ts t o e a c h p u p i l .

B.

D i r e o t th e p u p ils to r e a d t h e e x p e rim e n t c a r e f u l l y , to c o n s id e r a l l f a c t s a s t r u e , t o c o n s id e r t h a t th e e x p erim e n t i s c o n t r o l l e d , t o i d e n t i f y th e e x p e r i ­ m e n ta l f a c t o r , and to w r i t e a c o n c lu s io n .

(The

c o n c lu s io n i s w r i t t e n on p a p e r o t h e r th a n th e d a ta s h e e t).

Time l i m i t f o r w r i t i n g th e c o n c lu s io n i s

10 m in u te s . C.

C o l le c t th e w r i t t e n c o n c lu s io n s b u t n o t th e d a ta sh e e ts .

D.

L i s t c o n t r o l l e d and e x p e r im e n ta l f a c t o r s on b l a c k ­ b o a rd .

W rite s a t i s f a c t o r y c o n c lu s io n on t h e b a lc k -

b o a rd .

(The a n a l y s i s o f th e e x p e rim e n t and form u­

l a t i o n o f th e c o n c lu s io n i s a c o o p e r a tiv e t a s k o f th e c l a s s and th e t e a c h e r . £.

Time l i m i t i s 10 m in u te s .

S e l e c t c o n c lu s io n s a t random and p la c e on b la c k b o a rd . T hrough d i s c u s s i o n of c l a s s , ju d g e th e c o n c lu s io n s on th e b a s i s o f c o m p le te n e s s , a c c u ra c y , and d e g re e t o w hich c o n c lu s io n goes beyond th e d a t a .

The num ber o f

c o n c lu s io n s a n a ly z e d i s d e te m i n e d b y t h e l e n g t h o f th e c l a s s p e r i o d .

P u p ils may w r i t e s e v e r a l c o n c lu s io n s

on th e b o a rd t o a v o id t h e l o s s o f tim e . * l i m i t e d by l e n g t h o f o la s s p e r i o d . *

The tim e v a r i e d from 15 to 20 m in u te s .

Time i s

43

Eaoh te a c h e r was a l s o g iv e n an a n a l y s i s o f e a c h e x p e r i ­ ment a s w e ll a s a c o n c lu s io n c o n s id e r e d s a t i s f a c t o r y b y th e In v e s tig a to r.

The e x p la n a tio n o f s c i e n t i f i c m ethod g iv e n th e

p u p i l s , t o g e t h e r w ith th e e x p e rim e n ts and a n a l y s i s o f th e e x p e rim e n ts a r e in A ppendix B, pag e l 6 0 . The o r d e r in w hich t h e e x p e rim e n ts w ere u s e d i s a p p ro x im a te ly th e same a s th e seq u en ce o f e x p e rim e n ts in th e a p p e n d ix .

CHAPTER IV THE DATA

O rg a n iz a tio n of t h e D ata B ecause th e c l a s s e s o f th e f i v e t e a c h e r s w ere n o t a l l 1 o rg a n iz e d on th e b a s i s of a b i l i t y l e v e l s , th e e x p e r im e n ta l and c o n tr o l sam p les w ere re g ro u p e d on th e b a s i s o f raw s c o r e s o f 2 th e Henm on-Nelson T e s ts of M en tal A b i l i t y . The number o f p u p ils and th e I n i t i a l means of th e c l a s s e s a r e g iv e n In T a b le I I , page 45 The r e g r o u p in g was done b y m aking a d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e raw s c o r e s o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l and c o n tr o l sam p le s and th e n by t r i a l and e r r o r two p o i n t s were s e l e c t e d w hich ro u g h ly d iv id e d * th e t o t a l sam ple I n t o h i g h , m id d le , and low s a m p le s. The number o f p u p i ls In th e s m a lle s t sam ple was f o r t y and f o r con­ v e n ie n c e a l l th e re m a in in g sam p les w ere re d u c e d t o t h i s num ber. Numbers w ere a s s ig n e d to e a c h p u p i l In th e sam ples w hich exceeded 3 f o r t y and b y u se o f th e random number te c h n iq u e p u p i l s were 1. 2.

*

3.

A u s tin R . C ouldon, The R eorgani z a t i o n o f th e P u b lic S ch o o l System o f A lb a n y . New Y o rk . T E e s ls , E d .D ., New Y ork: V. A. C. Henmon, M. J . N e ls o n , Henmon-Nelson T e s ts o f M en tal A b i l i t y . H igh S ch o o l E x am in a tio n - G rades 7 -1 2 - Form A* New Y ork: H oughton M i f f l i n Company, 1935. The h i g h , m id d le , and low sa m p le s w i l l h e r e a f t e r be r e f e r r e d t o a s A, B, and C sam p les r e s p e c t i v e l y . S u b s c r ip ts x and c d e n o te sam p les a s b e in g e x p e rim e n ta l o r c o n t r o l ; i . e . , Bx i n d i c a t e s th e m id d le e x p e rim e n ta l sa m p le . E . F . L i n d q u i s t , S t a t i s t i c a l Anal y s i s i n E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a rc h . p p . 2 4 -2 9 . '

44

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Pi

48

The P T e a t The h y p o th e s is t e s t e d b y th e F t e s t was t h a t th e sam ples w ere draw n from e q u a l l y v a r i a b l e p o p u l a t i o n s , P b e in g th e r a t i o b etw een th e e s t im a t e s o f th e t r u e v a ria n c e o f t h e sam p les m e a su re d .

The g r e a t e r v a r ia n c e i s ta k e n a s t h e d e n o m in a to r.

The fo rm u la i s :

The h y p o th e s is o f e q u a lly v a ria b le p o p u la tio n s i s a c c e p te d o r r e j e c t e d d e p en d in g upon how o f te n an e q u a l v a lu e of P would be fo u n d in an i n f i n i t e number o f p a i r s o f sam p les ta k e n from 1 th e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n . R e fe re n c e t o S n e d e c o r 's T ab le f o r F r e v e a l s w h eth er a v a lu e i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e 1 p e r c e n t , l e v e l o r th e 5 p e r c e n t , l e v e l .

I f a v a lu e i s a t t h e 5 p e r c e n t ,

l e v e l , two p o s s i b i l i t i e s may be e n t e r t a i n e d .

One p o s s i b i l i t y

i s t h a t an u n u s u a l e v e n t h a s o c c u r r e d , a v a r ia n c e o f t h i s m ag n itu d e m ight o c c u r b y chance sam p lin g f i v e tim e s o u t o f a h u n d red .

The o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h a t a t r u e d i f f e r e n c e o f

v a r ia n c e e x i s t s In w hich c a se th e h y p o th e s is t h a t th e sam ples fcre draw n from e q u a l ly v a r i a b l e p o p u la tio n s i s r e j e c t e d . *

*

I b i d . , p p . 6 2 -6 5 . i n t h i s e x p e rim e n t, a v a lu e a t th e 5 p e r c e n t , l e v e l i s a c c e p te d a s s u f f i c i e n t e v id e n c e t o r e j e c t th e h y p o th e s is o f e q u a l ly v a r i a b l e p o p u l a t i o n s .

49

F v a lu e s a r e found In T a b le V. TABLE V.. Comparison of I n i t i a l Variance R atios of Paired Experimental and Control Sections of Samples A, B and C D irect Conclusions False Complete Beyond

Thurstone Induction

Samples

HenmonNelson

Judge Conclusions

Ax Bx

1.505

1.328

1.076

(1.800)

1.122

1.241

Ac Be

1.643

1.079

1.209

1.273

(1.857)

1.249

Bx Cx

(5.287)

1.119

(2.000)

1.275

1.513

1.097

Bx Cc

(3.897)

(1.871)

(2.535

(1.913)

1.189

1.475

Where t h e r e a r e t h i r t y - n i n e d e g re e s o f freedom In b o th s a m p le s, an F v a lu e o f 1 .7 0 would b e exceed ed In 5 p e r c e n t o f an I n ­ f i n i t e num ber o f sam ples draw n from th e same p o p u la tio n . P a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e v a lu e s In T a b le V w hich e x ceed 1 .7 0 and in th e s e c a s e s th e h y p o th e s is t h a t a t r u e d i f f e r e n c e in v a r i a b i l i t y e x i s t s i s a o c e p te d .

C om parisons o f v a r i a b i l i t y o f sam ples A and

B r e v e a l s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in th e Beyond and F a l s e c a t e ­ g o r i e s o f th e D ir e c t C o n c lu s io n s .

A com parison o f sam ples B

and C i n te rm s o f v a r i a b i l i t y r e v e a l s g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n c e s th a n betw een sam ples A and B.

The co m p lete o a te g o ry o f D ir e o t Con­

c lu s io n s and Henmon-Nelson s c o r e s e x h i b i t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ­ en ces o f v a r i a b i l i t y b etw een b o th Bx Cx and Be Cc.

The same

i s t r u e o f Judge C o n c lu s io n s and th e beyond c a te g o r y o f Com plete C o n c lu s io n s in th e co m parison o f Be and Cc.

80

The t T e a t The h y p o th e s is t e s t e d by th e t t e s t was t h a t th e means o f th e sam ples A, 5 , and C w ere e q u a l, t b e in g th e r a t i o betw een th e d i f f e r e n c e o f th e means and an e s tim a te of th e s ta n d a r d e r r o r o f th e d i f f e r e n c e o f th e m eans.

The fo rm u la u se d f o r t

is

t

The a c c e p ta n c e o r r e j e c t i o n o f th e h y p o th e s is i s b a s e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y upon th e same re a s o n fo llo w e d in th e P t e s t . The 1 T a b le o f t g iv e s th e l e v e l a t w hich v a lu e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t w ith v a r io u s d e g re e s o f fre e d o m .

The t v a lu e s a r e i n T a b le V I . , p . 51*

Of th e co m p ariso n s m ade, t h e hypotheses o f e q u a l means o f sam ples A, 3 , and C was r e j e c t e d f o r a l l m easu res w ith th e v e x c e p tio n o f t h r e e v a lu e s o f th e D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s T e s t w hich h av e b e en p la c e d i n p a r e n t h e s e s .

Thus th e a ssu m p tio n was

made t h a t sam p les A, B, and C a r e p ro b a b ly In d e p e n d e n t o f eac h o t h e r .

1.

I b i d .. p . 8 8 .

si

TABLE VI. Comparison of I n it ia l Means of Samples A, B, and C by the t S t a t is t ic

Samples*

Ac Bc ®x Bx Bc Bc

Direct Conclusions** Complete Beyond False

Thurstone Induction

HenmonNelson

Judge Conclusions

19.429

2.470

2.832

16.803

3.406

2.389

31.469

5.342

2.909

3-594

(-1 .1 0 4 )

6.203

26.970

4.908

(1.530)

4.843

-2.397

3-414

-2.310

-4.032

2.009

( - .845) -4 .2 1 4

5*882

C om parison o f x and c. W ith in Sam ples A, B , and C The h y p o th e s is t h a t th e t r u e means o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n t r o l g ro u p s w ith in sam p les A, B , C were e q u a l a t t h e b e g in n in g o f th e e x p e rim e n t was t e s t e d by th e t t e s t .

The P

t e s t s e rv e d a s a b a s i s f o r a c c e p tin g o r r e j e c t i n g th e h y p o th e s is t h a t i n i t i a l l y th e t r u e v a r ia n c e s of th e e x p e r im e n ta l and c o n tr o l g ro u p s w ith in sam ples A, B, and C w ere e q u a l.

The r e s u l t s a r e

i n T ab le V I I . , p . 5 2 .

*

In a l l t t a b l e s th e sam ple l i s t e d f i r s t i s u s e d a s M^, th e sam ple l i s t e d second i s u se d a s Mg , a l i s t i n g o f Ax Bx i n d i c a t e s t h a t in th e fo rm u la f o r t , th e mean o f Bx i s su b tra cted from th e mean o f Ax. H ig h er v a lu e s f o r Beyond i n d i c a t e l e s s c a u t io n , h ig h e r v a lu e s f o r F a l s e i n d i c a t e l e s s a c c u r a c y . Hence th e n e g a tiv e v a lu e >2.310 i n Beyond f o r Ax Bx shows t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s o f sam ple Ax w ere more c a u tio u s th a n th o s e o f sam ple Bx. L ik e w is e , th e n e g a tiv e v a lu e - 4 .0 3 2 in F a ls e f o r Ax Bx i n d i o a t e s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s o f sam ple Bx w ere l e s s a c ­ c u r a te th a n i n d i v i d u a l s o f sam ple Ax.

52

TABLE VII. Find t values of x and c w ithin Samples A, B, and C

1.127 - .558

AA

?

1.089 1.085

BxBc

^ t

1.004 - .272

CC

^

1.358 -1.630

1.272 -

.0 2 3

1.315 .127

D irect Conclusions False Complete Beyond (1.730) .081

1.159 - 1.290

1.540 .000

(1.874) .330

(1.952) 1.141

1.302 .347

1.621 .095 1.021 • 558 1.246 - .319

Thurstone Induction 1.086 o

Judge Conclusions

•

HenmonNelson

i

Samples

1.079 (2.705) 1.246 .916

E x am in atio n o f T ab le V II r e v e a l s t h a t a t t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e e x p e rim e n t th e e x p e r im e n ta l and c o n tr o l su b -sa m p le s w ith in sam ples A, B, and C may b e re g a rd e d a s h a v in g e q u a l means w ith one e x c e p tio n , a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in means e x is te d f a v o r in g th e Bx on th e T h u rsto n e I n d u c tio n T e s t .

The a ssu m p tio n

t h a t fo llo w e d was t h a t t h e e x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l su b -sa m p le s w ere co m p arab le and t h a t no t r u e d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t e d in i n i t i a l i n d u c t i v e a b i l i t y a s m easured by th e p a r t i c u l a r t e s t s u se d w ith th e e x c e p tio n s n o te d . The h y p o th e s is of e q u a l v a r ia n c e s w ith in sam ples A, B, and G on th e f o u r t e s t s was a c c e p te d w ith t h r e e e x c e p ti o n s . T hese were betw een Ax Ac and Cx Co on th e co m p lete c a te g o r y of D i r e c t C o n c lu sio n s and betw een Bx Bo on th e beyond c a te g o r y o f D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s .

53

S i g n i f ic a n c e o f F in a l Mean G aina o f C o n tro l Sam ples W ith in t h e c o n t r o l su b -sam p le a o f A, B, and C, g a in s In means w ere found f o r th e Judge C o n c lu sio n s T e s t , th e D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s , and th e T h u rsto n e I n d u c tio n T e s t .

The h y p o th e s is

was made t h a t i n i t i a l and f i n a l means w ere e q u a l and th e h y ­ p o t h e s i s was t e s t e d by th e t t e s t .

The t v a lu e s a r e In T a b le V I I I .

TABLE V III. t Values for Comparison of I n it ia l and Final Means o f Samples D irect Conclusions Beyond False Complete

Thurstone Induction

4.873

(1.400)

(- . 042)

Bc

4.049

( .803)

-3 .0 5 0

-2 .1 8 2

9.778

Cc

3.001

2.927

(-1.549

-4 .7 2 3

5.036

00

Ac

1

Samples

Judge Conclusions

6.026

The h y p o th e s is o f e q u a l means was r e j e c t e d f o r th e t h r e e sa m p le s on th e Judge C o n c lu sio n s T e s t and th e T h u rsto n e I n d u c tio n T e s t.

P a r e n th e s e s i n d i c a t e th e f i n a l means on th e

D ir e c t C o n c lu s io n s w hich d id n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y exceed th e i n i t i a l m eans. In th e in s t a n c e s In w hich th e f i n a l means o f th e c o n tr o l sam ples w ere found to be t r u l y g r e a t e r th a n th e i n i t i a l m eans, s e v e r a l f a c t o r s may b e o p e r a t i v e .

T hese i n c l u d e :

m a tu r a tio n ,

g r e a t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e v o c a b u la ry o f th e t e s t s a s a r e ­ s u l t o f i n s t r u c t i o n in B io lo g y , t e s t p r a c t i c e , i n s t r u c t i o n

«

and p r a c t i c e in in d u c tio n in th e B io lo g y c l a s s e s , and e x p e r ie n c e s o u t o f th e B io lo g y c l a s s e s .

No a ssu m p tio n s hav e been made a s

t o w hat f a c t o r o r co m b in atio n o f f a c t o r s may b e r e s p o n s i b l e .

S i g n i f ic a n c e o f F in a l Mean S a in s o f E x p e rim e n ta l Sam ples The b a s i c a ssu m p tio n was made t h a t w ith o u t t h e i n s t r u c ­ t i o n and p r a c t i c e in I n d u c tio n o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l s u b -s a m p le s , th e f i n a l means o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l sam ples would n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r fro m th e f i n a l means o f th e c o n t r o l sa m p le s.

W ith t h i s

a ssu m p tio n in m in d, th e h y p o th e s is was made t h a t th e f i n a l means o f t h e e x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l sam p les on th e Judge C o n c lu sio n s T e s t , D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s , and T h u rsto n e I n d u c tio n T e s t w ere e q u a l . 1 The h y p o th e s is was t e s t e d by th e t s t a t i s t i c . The fo rm u la f o r t is

t =— 2------I

dz

n (n -1 )

The o b se rv e d m ean, M0 , was th e f i n a l mean o f th e e x ­ p e r im e n ta l su b -sam p le on th e r e s p e c t i v e t e s t s w h ile th e f i n a l mean o f th e c o rre s p o n d in g c o n tr o l su b -sam p le was u se d a s th e h y p o t h e t i c a l m ean, M^.

n r e f e r s to th e number o f c a s e s .

55

t v a lu e s a r e In T ab le IX.

TABLE IX t V a lu es f o r C om parison o f P i n a l Means o f x and c Sam ples

Samples

Direct Conclusions Complete Beyond False

Judge Conclusions

Thurstone Induction

Ax Ac

2.437

3.911

-3.700 (- .837)

(1.076)

Bx Bc

2.744

2.740

(-1.488)(-1.879)

(2.014)

Cx Cc

( .780)

(1.002)

(-1.863)(- .804)

( .673)

The h y p o th e s is of e q u a l means f o r th e e x p e r im e n ta l and c o n tr o l su b -sa m p le s o f sam ple A was r e j e c t e d f o r th e Judge C o n c lu sio n s T e s t and th e co m p lete and beyond c a t e g o r i e s o f th e D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s .

The same h y p o th e s is was r e j e c t e d w ith in

th e B sam ples f o r th e Judge C o n c lu s io n s and th e oom plete c a t e ­ g o ry o f th e D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s .

W ith in th e C sa m p le , th e

h y p o th e s is o f e q u a l means was a c c e p te d th o u g h i n a l l i n s t a n c e s th e e x p e r im e n ta l means ex ceed ed t h e c o n t r o l m eans.

I n i t i a l C om parison o f Sam ples x and c I t was assum ed t h a t th e e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n t r o l g ro u p s w ere com parable sam ples from th e same p o p u la tio n in te rm s o f g e n e r a l m e n ta l a b i l i t y and i n d u c t i v e a b i l i t y , a s t h e s e a b i l i t i e s were m easu red b y th e Henmon-Nelson T e s t o f M e n tal A b i l i t y and b y th e in d u c t i v e m e a s u re s .

T h is a ssu m p tio n was t e s t e d b y d e te r m in in g

56

w h eth er o r n o t th e d i f f e r e n c e s o f m eans c o u ld be c o n s id e re d to b e due t o chance v a r i a t i o n .

The s i g n i f i c a n c e of th e i n i t i a l

mean d i f f e r e n c e was t e s t e d by th e C r i t i c a l R a t i o .

I f th e d i f ­

f e r e n c e c o u ld be e x p e c te d by chance t o o c c u r l e s s th a n 90 tim e s 1 o u t o f 100, th e d i f f e r e n c e was h e ld to b e due t o chanoe and not to be a s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e .

The fo rm u la u sed to d e t e r ­

m ine th e C r i t i c a l R a tio w as:

Mean

M

D if f e r e n c e

D

=

-

M.

S ta n d a rd D e v ia tio n o f th e S ta n d a rd D e v ia tio n

° 0 = ,= =

S/ff

S ta n d a rd E r r o r o f th e D if f e r e n c e

C r i t i c a l R a tio

CR

=

o

z— d iff

The r e s u l t s of th e c o m p u tatio n s a r e g iv e n i n T a b le X ., p . 5 5 . The means o f th e c o n tr o l g ro u p w ere s l i g h t l y h ig h e r th a n th e means o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p on th e H enm on-N elson, Judge C o n c lu s io n s and D ir e c t C o n c lu sio n s F a l s e . 1.

The mean d i f f e r e n c e

H enry E . G a r r e t t , S t a t i s t i c s in P sy c h o lo g y and E d u c a tio n . Second E d it i o n ” New Y ork: Longmans, Green and Company, 1938, p. 213.

I

57

somewhat fa v o re d th e e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p on D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s , Com plete and D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s Beyond th o u g h t h i s d i f f e r e n c e was n o t fo u n d t o be s t a t i s t i c a l l y m e a n in g fu l.

However, on th e

T h u rsto n e I n d u c tio n T e s t , i t was h e ld to be q u i t e l i k e l y t h a t th e mean d i f f e r e n c e f a v o r in g th e e x p e rim e n ta l group was o f s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n ific a n c e . TABLE X. Significance of I n i t i a l Mean Differences for the Experimental and Control Groups HenmonNelson X 12.908 I c 12,855 107.1 MX c 107.6 D - 0.5

0

0 X c °x °c d if f

13.8 12.5 1.3 1.1 1.7 - 0.29

CR Chances in 100

62

D irect Conclusions Judge Conclusions Complete Beyond* False 3.003 3,047 25.0 25.4 - 0.4 10.8 10.8 .99. .99

786.5 726.0 6 .6 6.1 .5

1 .4

3.5 . .42 .32 .53

- 0.29

0.94

62

79

Thurstone Induction

1.670.0 873.5 __3801 _ 1772.0 .861.5 . 3539 13.9 _ 7j.3_ _ 31.7 14.8 7.2 29.5 2.2 .1 - 0.9 6.4 . 5.3.. 6.4 . 4.9. .48 .58 .58 .45 .66 .82 - 1.03 85

0.02 51

10.7 11.5 .98 1.1 1.5 1.5 94

The c o m p a ra tiv e d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r a l l i n i t i a l m easu res i s p r e s e n te d i n Diagram s 1 -6 , p p . 58—6 3 . and i s f u r t h e r e v id e n c e t h a t th e g ro u p s w ere i n i t i a l l y co m p arab le e x c e p t f o r th e i n d u c t i v e

* As th e Beyond s c o r e s i n c r e a s e , more r a s h n e s s i s i n d i c a t e d .

58 :...:

Q

Oi

o>

CD

Oi

Q

cO

O

9m

Q

C

cO

Oi

Mi

i

60

Oi Oi

in m

LO

5

61

Q

O

QO

in in

-

-

62

cO

CO LO

rsl

in

1G

£3

63

Q

rvj

Cr

IQ

_!_L

64

a b i l i t y m easured by th e T h u rsto n e T e a t.

F i n a l C om parison o f Sam ples x and c_ Yfhlle i n d i v i d u a l r e g r e s s io n s o c c u r r e d , th e c o n tr o l g ro u p made g a in s on e a c h o f th e in d u c tiv e m e a su re s.

The g a in s

may have b een due to a v a r i e t y o f f a c t o r s , some o f w hich may b e th e i n s t r u c t i o n in b io lo g y and o th e r s c h o o l s u b j e c t s , th e p r a c t i c e e f f e c t on th e t e s t s , th e m a tu rin g o f th e p u p i ls and o r m ore I n t e r e s t .

The b a s i c a ssu m p tio n was made t h a t w ith o u t th e

s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n g iv e n th e e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p , th e f i n a l mean s c o r e o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p w ould n o t hav e d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th e f i n a l mean s c o re o f th e c o n tr o l g ro u p . S hould th e e x p e r im e n ta l f i n a l mean s c o re on th e I n d u c tiv e m easu res exoeed s i g n i f i c a n t l y t h a t s c o re made b y th e c o n t r o l g ro u p , th e I n f e r e n c e would f o llo w t h a t th e i n s t r u c t i o n g iv e n th e e x p e r i ­ m e n ta l group was r e s p o n s i b l e .

The f i n a l mean d i f f e r e n c e of th e

e x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l g ro u p s was t e s t e d f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e b y means o f th e C r i t i c a l R a t i o . T ab le X I, page 6 5 .

The r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n te d in

65 TABLE XI.

Significance of Final Mean Differences fo r the Experimental and Control Groups Judge Conclusions

1248.0 1584.5

X

4361 3926

1165 880

X

_ 36.3 32.7

. . 9.7 .. 7.3

3.6

Thurstone Induction

530.5 . 626.0

5153 4852

10.4 13.2

__ 4.4 5.2

. 42.9 40.4

2.4

- 2.8

- 0.8

2.5

13.5 13.5

6.4 4.9

. 7.3 . _ 3.8 7.0 4.3

11.2 11.7

1.2 1.2

0.58 0.45

.67 •64

0.35 0.40

1.0 1.1

d if f

1.69

.73

.92

.53

1.5

CR

2.13

3.31

X c Mc D a

a~

a

D irect Conclusions Complete Beyond False

X

c °x _ . °c

-3 .0

1.5

1.7

Chance * 98 100 100 96 93 100 l6 ch an ces a r e s l i g h t t h a t a n y o f th e f i n a l mean d i f f f a v o r in g th e e x p e rim e n ta l group a r e due t o c h a n c e .

The In fe re n c e

t h a t f o llo w s i s t h a t th e in d u c tiv e i n s t r u c t i o n g iv e n th e e x p e r i ­ m e n ta l g ro up was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e g a in s made on t h e m easures o f in d u c tiv e a b i l i t y Judge C o n c lu s io n s and D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s . Inasm uch a s th e e x p e r im e n ta l group mean f o r T h u rsto n e I n d u c tio n S c o re s i n i t i a l l y exceeded th e c o n t r o l g ro u p m ean, I t i s h ig h ly u n l i k e l y t h a t th e i n s t r u c t i o n r e s u l t e d in g a in s In th e in d u c tiv e a b i l i t y m easured by th e T h u rsto n e T e s t . D i s t r i b u t i o n s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l g a in s on th e I n d u c tiv e

*

L oo. c l t

66

t e s t s were made f o r th e p u p i ls of t h e e x p e r im e n ta l and c o n tr o l g ro u p s .

The c u rv e s of c u m u la tiv e f re q u e n c y p e r c e n t f o r g a in s

o f b o th groups a r e p r e s e n te d in D iagram s 7 - 1 1 , pp.6 7 -7 1 * The g a in s on th e T h u rsto n e I n d u c tio n a p p e a r q u i t e s i m i l a r f o r b o th g ro u p s w ith th e c o n t r o l sam ple s l i g h t l y f a v o r e d . f lu e n c e o f th e Be sam ple i s p ro b a b ly r e s p o n s i b l e .

Thin i n ­

On the'

Judge C o n c lu sio n T e s t and t h e D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s , g r e a t e r g a in s w ere made by th e e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p .

I n te r m e d ia te T e s t S c o re s One te a c h e r was u n a b le t o a d m in is te r th e t e s t s t o th e e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n tr o l c la s s e s a t th e end o f th e f i r s t f i f t e e n le s s o n s in i n d u c t i o n .

F o r t h i s re a s o n a com parison o f i n t e r ­

m e d ia te g a in s was n o t made w ith e i t h e r th e i n i t i a l or f i n a l re s u lts .

I n s p e c tio n o f T a b le I I , p*45*

r e v e a l s t h a t th e A

g ro u p s made g r e a t e r g a in s on th e Judge C o n c lu sio n s T e s t th e f i r s t f i f t e e n w eeks w h ile on th e T h u rsto n e I n d u c tio n T e s t g r e a t e r g a in s w ere made a t th e end o f th e second p h ase o f in s tru c tio n .

67

fO

H-

«VI

in

3

CQ

fM

68

b_.__£

\

rst

S' QCS

in rsj

69

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! K b .. 5

QO cO

77

M

225

I

1

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t

101 . .108

J148- -538...........jou # - : t- japK-iS -A lsft 466 H5 153 "

542

nr

177

2t t

is6

400 600 n r

' ml-- 29?""'IS-i r ' iW

g r 1 m :: " ir is .

120

i

193

lU

111

162 351

172

'

I38*f «ia 1

. 11«5

O bserved fre q u e n c y

fD

T h e o r e t i c a l fre q u e n c y

ft

Where th e v a lu e of c h i- s q u a r e was l e s s th a n 7 .8 1 5 , th e h y p o th e s is o f chance d i s t r i b u t i o n was a c c e p te d . d i s t r i b u t i o n s In T a b le XVI, page

Of th e 76

7 8 , 22 were t e s t e d b y th e

c h i- s q u a r e s t a t i s t i c and In a l l i n s t a n c e s th e h y p o th e s is o f ch an ce d i s t r i b u t i o n was r e j e c t e d . w ere

The re m a in in g 54 d i s t r i b u t i o n

t e s t e d by i n s p e c t io n and th e h y p o th e s e s o f chance d i s t r i b u

t l o n was r e j e c t e d .

The t h e o r e t i c a l f re q u e n c e and th e o b ta in e d

c h i- s q u a r e v a lu e s f o r th e 22 d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e in T ab le X V II,

TABLE XVII Chi Square Values fo r

D istribution of Responses on the J.C . Test

Samples Incomplete I n i t i a l F inal Ax Bx

h

111.5

x2

135.0 212.2 110.3 152.5

ft X2

Cx

h x2 CM M

Ac Be

x2 Cc

ft X2

Catagories______________ Beyond False I n i ti a l F inal I n i ti a l F inal 151.

151.

47.5 100.5

75.0 154.8

59.4 1*9.5

205.8 155.0

212.2 152.5 169.3

220.6

30.6

79.2

75.0 146.5 l 6l .8 2t.4

80.7 183.9 126.3 156.0 46.4 83.9 100.6 122.5 42.4

42.3

68.2

• 167.8 175.5 17.1

89.3

149.8 175.5 50.1

57.5

80

I n i t i a l l y and f i n a l l y , t h e num ber o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s on t h e c a t e g o r i e s c o m p le te , beyond, and f a l s e , T a b le XVI, p a g e 78 e x ce ed e d t h e number o f i n o o r r e o t r e s p o n s e s . A t t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e e x p e rim e n t t h e g r e a t e r num ber o f r e s p o n s e s on t h e i n c o r r e c t c a te g o r y w ere i n c o r r e c t l y p la c e d u n d e r c o m p le te , w ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f su b -sa m p le Ac.

At th e

c lo s e o f t h e e x p e rim e n t, o n ly t h e Co and Cx s u b -s a m p le s ju d g ed a g r e a t e r number o f in c o m p le te ite m s a s b e in g c o m p le te .

B to fffc jL p B £ £ B t j p ,e m Inc,qjx.w % E s s p .o n s .e & Ju d g e C o n c lu s io n s Te3t

She.

I f a p u p il m arked a n ite m i n c o r r e c t l y , th e e r r o r was fo u n d u n d e r one o f t h e t h r e e o t h e r c a t e g o r i s , t h a t i s , a C o r r e c t ite m m ig h t be ju d g ed t o be in c o m p le te , beyond th e d a ta o r f a l s e .

To d e te rm in e i f t h e i n c o r r e c t ite m s f o r any

c a te g o r y w ere c o n s i s t e n t l y c l a s s i f i e d u n d e r any c a te g o r y , th e f r e q u e n c y o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e on T a b le 1 6 , p . 78 was d i s r e g a r d ­ ed and t h e c h i- s q u a r e s t a t i s t i o was u se d t o t e s t t h e h y p o th e s is t h a t th e e r r o r s w ere d i s t r i b u t e d among t h e i n c o r r e c t c a t e g o r i e s by chance.

F o r exam ple, i n i t i a l l y on t h e co m p lete c a te g o r y ,

t h e i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s o f sam ple Ax w ere d i s t r i b u t e d a s f o llo w s : CATEGORY I n c o m p le te ,

Beyond

7A_________ 65

F a ls e

_

59

81

I n t h i s I n s ta n c e th e t h e o r e t i c a l fre q u e n c y re s p o n s e i f due to ch an ce w ould "be 6 5 .3 .

The c h i- s q u a r e v a lu e o f t h i s d i s t r i b u ­

t i o n was 1 .8 4 7 and th e h y p o th e s is o f ch an ce d i s t r i b u t i o n was a c c e p te d f o r , w ith two d e g re e s o f free d o m , a c h i- s q u a r e valuede x c e e d in g 5 .9 9 0 was n e c e s s a r y t o r e j e c t th e h y p o th e s is t h a t th e e r r o r d i s t r i b u t i o n was due to c h a n c e .

The 36 d i s t r i b u t i o n s

o f e r r o r i n T ab le XVI, page 78 were t e s t e d and th e t h e o r e t i c a l fre q u e n c y and c h i- s q u a r e v a lu e o f d i s t r i b u t i o n s due t o ch an ce a r e i n T ab le X V III. TABLE X V III T h e o r e t i c a l F re q u en c y and C h i-S q u a re V alues o f E r r o r D i s t r i b u t i o n s Due to Chance Sample ft ** 2

Com plete I n i t i a l F in a l 6 5 .3 1 .3 4 7

C a te g o r ie s #2 In co m p le te #3 Beyond I n i t i a l F in a l I n i t i a l F in a l l 0 3 .0

#4 F a ls e I n i t i a l F in a l

.952

ft AC x 2a **

BC

f2 X ft 9

X2

8 1 .0

1 3 0 .3

.667 8 9 .7

2 .2 1 5 .2263 1 4 2 .7 128. 1 1 3 .0

2 .2 8 2

ft CX X 2

96.3 X

.495

10

o

ft

l'. I b i d • , p •' 3 6

.229

1 2 6 .7

5 .3 5 9

2 .2 4 8 1 3 1 .0 5 .2 3 7 125. 1 4 7 .0 1 .9 1 2

2 .2 9 9 3 3 4 .7 5 .6 6 4

82

A t t h e b e g in n in g o f th e e x p e rim e n t, 10 d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f e r r o r w ere found to b e due to c h a n c e , th e d i s t r i b u t i o n s w ere In c a t e g o r i e s c o m p le te , Beyond and F a l s e .

At th e c lo s e o f th e

e x p e rim e n t, f o u r d i s t r i b u t i o n s w ere fo u n d to be due t o ohanoe and w ere in c a t e g o r i e s Beyond and F a l s e . D is r e g a r d in g th o s e sam p les In w hich th e e r r o r d i s t r i b u ­ t i o n s w ere due t o c h a n c e , th e d i r e c t i o n o f e r r o r on th e f o u r c a t e g o r i e s i s g iv e n In T ab le XIX,

TABLE XIX D irection of Sample

Y» A

f

Batio f C ftLtio

f Jw B atio f

Error on

C ategories of th e J.C .

Test

Category # 2 Incomplete tf 1 Complete I n i t i a l Error ' F in al Error I n i t i a l Error F in al Error 4 1 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 1 3 4 74 280 24l 12? 86 13i 568 179 62 654 336 199 4 .5 3 231 169 4 .2

2.6 4 .3 3 .7 2 .1 6 .0 2.9 1. 149 387 242 170 486 318 193

3 .1 • 2.7

4 .8

3 .0

2 .1

4 3 Beyond I n i t i a l Error F in al Error 1 2 4 1 2 4 201 122 258 385 200 147

2.4 2 .6 3 .1 4 .6 4 .3 3 .1 220 372 300 104 304 270

4 .9

3 .2

1 .9

t 5 .5 2 .8 1.7 48$ 422 186 4 .5

3 .9

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# 4 False I n i t i a l Error F in a l Error 1 2 3 1 2 3 193 181 258 297 313 489 3 .1 76

2 .8 4 .4 2.9 4 .1 2.7 245 278 86 122 190

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3 .1

4 .2

2.7

3 .4

3 .9

83

The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f e r r o r on c a te g o r y (1 ) co m plete was c o n s i s t e n t l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n d e s c e n d in g o r d e r , (2) in c o m p le te , (3 ) b e y o n d , and (4 ) f a l s e .

The e r r o r d i s t r i b u t i o n on c a te g o r y

(2 ) in c o m p le te i n d e s c e n d in g o r d e r was (1) c o m p le te , (3 ) b e y o n d , and (4 ) f a l s e .

The o rd e r o f e r r o r on (3) beyond i n t h r e e c a s e s :

x I n i t i a l , c i n i t i a l and c f i n a l was (1) c o m p le te , (2) in c o m p le te , and (4) f a l s e .

A r e v e r s a l o f e r r o r f o r x f i n a l was (2) In c o m p le te ,

(1 ) c o m p le te , and (4) f a l s e .

On th e f a l s e c a te g o r y , th e e x ­

p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l g ro u p e r r o r s w ere g r e a t e s t on c a te g o ry (3) beyond th e d a t a .

The second and t h i r d o r d e r e r r o r s f o r th e

c o n tr o l g ro u p was (2 ) In c o m p le te and (1 ) c o m p le te .

In a l l

i n s t a n c e s ite m s on c a t e g o r i e s (1) o o m p le te , (2) in c o m p le te , and (3) beyond th e d a ta w ere l e s s o f t e n m arked a s f a l s e . The D i r e c t C o n c lu s io n s T e s t N ine e x p e rim e n ts o f b i o l o g i c m a t e r i a l com prised th e t e s t ite m s o f th e D i r e c t C o n c lu sio n s T e s t . w r i t e a c o n c lu s io n f o r e a c h e x p e rim e n t.

Each p u p i l was d i r e c t e d to The c o n c lu s io n s w ere e v a l ­

u a te d i n te rm s o f t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s , c o m p le te , beyond and f a l s e . The h i g h e s t s c o r e g iv e n any c o n c lu s io n on any c a te g o ry was f i v e so t h a t th e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e s c o re on any c a te g o r y was 4 5 .

D iagram 13

g iv e s a g ra p h ic com parison of t h e sam ple means w ith th e t o t a l p o s ­ s i b l e s c o re o r ra n g e of th e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s .

The d iag ra m i s n o t

t o s e r v e a s a co m p ariso n o f th e c a t e g o r i e s , b u t r a t h e r to r e l a t e th e c a te g o r y mean w ith t h e p o s s ib l e s c o r e .

(See page 84)

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N U M BER* ATTERNS Print your name here-

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Look at the numbers in the squares below. Notice the arrangement of the numbers in each square. 6 1 6 1 6

7 2 7 2 7

8 3 8 3 8

9 4 9 4 9

0 5 0 5 0

3 6 7 4 5

4 5 8 3 6

5 4 3 8 7

6 3 4 7 8

7 8 5 6 3

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In the first square, the numbers run in the order 6789012345 throughout the square. In the second square, the numbers 345678 run from left to right across the first row, then back across the second, etc. In the third square, the numbers 012345654321 run down and up the columns. In the fourth square, the numbers 1234567890 run diagonally across the square. Look at the next square. Notice that not all the numbers are given. Otherwise, it is the same as one of the squares which has been shown above. See for yourself that this is so. 6 3 4 6 5. 4 3 1 3 7 8 J 6 In the next square not all the numbers are given. There is also an X. See for yourself that the number 5 should be in its place. Therefore, a mark- has been put under the number 5 at the side. 1 6 4 2 7

2 3 5 7 1 2 1 5 6 4 X 6 1 4

Now work the next examples. In each square find the number which should be in place of X. It is one of the numbers at the right of the square. Put a mark under the correct answer. 4

1 2 X 1 2 1

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When the signal is given (not yet), turn the page and mark other problems of the same kind. Work rapidly and accurately because your rating will be the total number of correct answers. You may not be able to finish in the time allowed. STOP HERE.

WAIT FOR FURTHER INSTRUCTIONS.

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4

APPENDIX B STATEMENT OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD EXPERIMENTS AND ANALYSIS

160

Why, where, ana what are- constantly used words. always asking questions.

Man is

F^rum. earliest times man has

tried

to unuerstand himself and his surroundings. Direct observation was the first method which gave ceptable answers.

The calendar of the Egyptians was

ac­

based

upon long observation of the heavens. Many questions cannot be answered by simple observation. In attempting to explain the cause of disease, man devils and demons.

blamed

Superstitions or unfounded beliefs were

built up, and these beliefs had a profound influence

upon

m a n ’s thought and action. The scientific method of determining the truth has been slowly developed and is surrounded with safeguards. A thorough mastery of the method comes only after Iona study and practice. Because of this,

the discussion which follows is incomplete

and is concerned

only with some of the elements of

the

scientific method. Ii. the study of General Science you have become familiar with certain generalisations in science.

You recall that air

is a mixture of gases and that certain microorganisms disease.

cause

Generalizations are valuable; they are "short cuts"

by which we solve many of our problems. One must be careful not to confuse a generalization in science with a superstitious statement or a hypothesis. statement "All blonds are fickle" is not accepted by

The

the

scientist because it has never been demonstrated experimentally. A generalization which is not yet thoroughly tested by

a

scientist is called a hypothesis. How is a hypothesis formed?

First, one must have

a

161

question or a problem. causes malaria?

It may be asked, what is air or what

In answering these questions,

it is necessary

to make observations carefully and collect all possible facts which may be related to the problem.

Then these facts

studied and a possible answer is derived. is called the hypothesis. from the facts.

are

This possible answer

There may be several hypotheses drawn

The mental activity in formulating the hypo­

thesis is called induction. Before you can feel safe in using the hypothesis, you must test it carefully. generalization.

If it satisfies all the tests, it becomes a

If the tests do not substantiate the hypothesis

it is discarded and another hypothesis is tested.

Sometimes

a

hypothesis is discarded by inference, making experimentation u n ­ necessary. After a generalization has been accepted,

one may use it

in interpreting new related facts or problems.V/hen one uses a generalization in understanding or solving a n*w problem, the

mental activity is called deduction. A study of the following diagram may make

the discussion

more clear. HYPOTHESIS TESTED BY INFERENCE OR EXPERIMENT INDUCTION Menta: tal Activity FACTS

FACTS

FACTS

fa) HYPOTHESIS DISCARDS!} OR * (b) GENERALIZATION DEDUCTION Mental Activity FACTS

FACTS

FACTS

Solution of new but related problem

162

Experimentation is an important element in arriving at the truth. ing.

Design of experiments is complicated and required train­ In its simplest form, the effect cf one factor is observed,

This factor is called the experimental factor.

The experiment

must be run twice,

once with the factor present and once with

the factor absent.

Differences in the two trials are dixe to

the experimental factor. This may be shown by considering the factors necessary for seed germination. temperature.

These are known to be moisture, air, and

An experirent to show the necessity for moisture

requires that the same mimber and kind of seed be used.

An

example follows: Experiment

Control

Air

Air

Temperature 700F.

Temperature 70°F.

Moisture

Absence of moisture

100 corn seed

100 corn seed

In drawing a conclusion,

great care must be taken.

conclusion is restricted by several factors.

The

These factors are;

1. Experimental Factor 2. Control Factors 3. Basis of comparison (observed differences between the experiment and the control). By arranging these items in a diagram, the boundaries of the conclusion may be understood. Experimental factor--moisture

c corn seedf--

>

Control Factors^

corn seed air

YU

Area of1 Conclusion

F.

-} 700?

Time ob served

Observed

1

^ _________________

Basis of comparison— possible germination

^Control Factors

163

If one wishes to speak of seeds in general,

of temperature

other than 70°F., or of other conditions not controlled, must qualify the statement,

k

hypothesis is made,

ie.,

possible 70°F, is tnc best temperature for corn seed. hypothesis is then subject to experimentation.

cne it is

The

164 ✓

Catalogue of Experiments and Analyses Page I

S e e d s:

R e la ti o n of A ir t o G e rm in a tio n ..............

166

II

S e e d s:

R e la ti o n o f S u n lig h t t o G e r m in a tio n ..

166

III

Cucumber P l a n t s and W i l t .............................................

1®7

IV

S u lp h u r Spray and A pple S c a b ....................................

1®®

V VI

E u g le n a G r a c i l i s i n Heavy and D i s t i l l e d

W ater 1®9

P h o to tro p is m o f L e t h o c e r i ...........................................

17°

V II

E f f e c t of pH on R e p ro d u c tio n o f T h a llo p h y te s .

171

V III

C om parison o f Growth o f F le m ish G ia n t and P o l i s h R a b b its * .......................................................

172

IX

E x p o su re of S u nflow er S eed s to X - r a y s ...............

*73

X

E f f e c t o f T em p eratu re on Swimming Time of M ussel Crab L a rv a e .......................................................

17*

XI

B la c k L o c u st and N itr o g e n C o n c e n tra tio n in S o i l .......................................................................................

175

X II

Time F a c to r i n A p p l i c a ti o n o f F e r t i l i z e r to W heat.....................................................................................

176

X EII

Grow th of W illow T ree and Use o f S o i l M in e r a ls ..............................................................................

177

E r o s io n o f F o r e s t L i t t e r .....................

177

A sc o rb ic A cid i n M ilk ....................................................

179

V ita m in C i n Canned S t r a in e d V e g e ta b le s

I®3

XVII

L o ss o f T hiam in (B^) i n Rooking o f V e g e ta b le s

1®1

X V III

E f f e c t o f S to ra g e on V ita m in C i n O r a n g e s . . . .

I®2

XEX

R ib o f la v in D e f ic ie n c y D i e t f o r W hite L eghorn C h ic k s ...................................................................................

l®2

XX

R ib o f la v in and P h e a s a n t C h i c k s . . ...........................

1®3

XXI

Serum I n j e c t i o n and Pneum onia i n R a t s ................

1®5

XIV XV XVI

165 Page XXII

V ita m in D E f f e c t Upon Growth and C a l c i f i ­ c a t i o n of C h ic k s .........................................................

XX III

B ourquin-S herm an F l a v in U n its i n S e v e r a l F o o d s ...................................................................................

XXIV

•f* M 18$

E f f e c t o f P h o to p e rio d s on S o y b ean s.....................

XXV E f f e c t o f Cooking on A sc o rb ic A cid C o n te n t o f P e a s .............................................................................. XXVI

I r r a d i a t e d Y e a s t and R ic k e ts i n C h i l d r e n . . . .

XXVII

V itam in A and C o ld s........................................................

XXVIII

C uring of Hay and C a ro te n e V ita m in .....................

XXIX

E f f e c t o f Foods oh H a t c h a b i l i t y o f E g g s..........

XXX W h ite f is h E g g s....................

m 191

293 ^ *9?

„

166

Experiment I An i n v e s t i g a t o r p la c e d 100 s e e d s of th e same k in d on m o is t b l o t t i n g p a p e r and k e p t them i n a b o t t l e c o n ta in in g no a i r . The b o t t l e w as k e p t a t room te m p e r a tu r e and w as exposed t o l i g h t . None o f th e s e e d s g e rm in a te d . He th e n p la c e d 100 s e e d s o f th e same k in d on m o is t b l o t t i n g p a p e r and k e p t them i n a b o t t l e open t o t h e a i r . The b o t t l e was k e p t a t room te m p e r a tu re and was exposed to th e l i g h t . N i n e ty - e ig h t of th e s e s e e d s g e rm in a te d . A n a ly s is C o n tr o l f a c t o r s : Same k in d and nuntoer of s e e d s , m o is tu re , te m p e r a tu r e , s u n l i g h t , a b se n c e o f s o i l . E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r : N e g a tiv e c o n t r o l :

P re se n c e o f a i r

A bsence o f a i r

B a s is o f c o m p a riso n :

G e rm in a tio n o f s e e d s

C o n c lu s io n : T h is e x p e rim e n t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s e se e d s need a i r t o g e rm in a te . * * * * * *

*

E x p erim en t I I A g r a i n o f c o rn was p la c e d upon m o is t b l o t t i n g p a p e r i n a g l a s s d i s h i n a warm (2 0 °C .J l ig h t room. A n o th er g r a i n o f c o rn was p la c e d upon m o is t b l o t t i n g p a p e r i n a g l a s s d i s h i n a warm (20°C.O d a rk room . B oth s e e d s g e rm in a te d ( th e embryo p l a n t w i t h i n th e se e d beg an t o g ro w ). A n a ly s is C o n tr o l f a c t o r s :

T e m p e ra tu re , m o is tu r e , same k in d o f seec\.

E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r : N e g a tiv e c o n t r o l :

S u n lig h t

Absence o f s u n l i g h t

B a s is o f c o m p a riso n :

G e m in a tio n o f s e e d s

C o n c lu s io n : The e x p e rim e n t i n d i c a t e s t h a t c o rn g r a i n s w i l l g e rm in a te i n t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e of l i g h t .

167

N o te :

S in g le o b s e r v a tio n s a r e a v e r y poor b a s i s f c r a n y c o n c lu s io n ; many o b s e r v a t i o n s by d i f f e r e n t e x p e r i ­ m en te rs a r e n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e c o n c lu s io n s a r e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p te d . E x p erim en t I I I

An i n v e s t i g a t o r w orking w ith cucumber p l a n t s w hich w ere w i l te d a s a r e s u l t o f a d i s e a s e d c o n d itio n p la c e d them i n a g re e n h o u s e k e p t a t a r e l a t i v e l y h ig h te m p e ra tu re (2 5 ° C .) th e n rem oved th em i n l o t s of tw e lv e p l a n t s e a c h a t v a r i o u s tim e s t o a g re e n h o u se k e p t a t 20 C* The r e s u l t s o f h i s e x p e rim e n t a r e g i v e n b e lo w .

L ength o f tim e i n warm g re e n h o u s e . A verage tem p­ e r a t u r e 25°C .

Days 1 2 7 14

32 75

E f f e c t on t h e p l a n t s w h ile i n t h i s h ig h te u p e ra tu re .

R ecovered M II II II II

A verage l e n g th o f tim e a f t e r re tu rn in g to te m p e ra tu re of 20°C . b e fo r e th e p l a n t s a g a in w i l t e d .

15 15 2 3 16 30

h o u rs h o u rs days days d ay s days

A n a ly s is C o n tr o l f a c t o r s : D is e a s e d cucumber p l a n t s , te m p e r a tu re o f 20°C. and 2 5 ° C ., number of p l a n t s . E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r s : B a s is o f c o m p a riso n :

L en g th o f tim e in g re e n h o u se a t 25°C . P e r io d s o f tim e b e f o r e w i l t i n g a g a i n .

C o n c lu sio n : I t i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e a g e n t p ro d u c in g cucumber w i l t i s i n h i b i t e d a t a te m p e r a tu re of 2 5 °C ., and t h a t th e lo n g e r th e i n f e c t e d cucum ber i s k e p t a t 25°C«* th e lo n g e r i t t a k e s f o r t h e a g e n t to p ro d u ce w i l t when th e i n f e c t e d cucuntoers a r e rem oved t o a te m p e ra tu re o f 20°C .

168

Experiment IV An i n v e s t i g a t o r a tte m p te d t o d e te rm in e th e e f f e c t o f two s p r a y s i n c o n t r o l l i n g t h e d i s e a s e c a l l e d a p p le s c a b * The f i r s t was a f l o t a t i o n o f s u lp h u r s p r a y , t h e second was a lim e s u lp h u r sprsgr. Ten o r c h a r d s w ere s p ra y e d w ith th e s u lp h u r f l o t a t i o n s p r a y , te n o rc h a rd s w ere t r e a t e d w ith t h e lim e s u lp h u r s p r a y , and t e n o rc h a r d s were n o t t r e a t e d . He c o n tin u e d h i s work f o r f o u r y e a r s fro m 1929 t o 1932, i n c l u s i v e . E ach y e a r th e p e r c e n t of a p p le s f r e e fro m t h e d i s e a s e c a l l e d Ns c a b n was com puted f o r e a c h group o f o r c h a r d s . T hese p e r c e n t s a r e shown b e lo w . P e r c e n t o f A pples t r e e From Scab Y ear

1929 1930 1931 1932

F lo ta tio n of S u lp h u r Spray

Lime S u lp h u r S pray

Not T re a te d

97 97 97 92

28 9 16 23

92 97 97 97 A n a ly s is

C o n tro l f a c t o r s :

Humber o f o r c h a r d s , tim e .

F a c to r s n o t m e n tio n ed b u t assum ed to b e c o n t r o l l e d : V a r ie ty o f t r e e , p a r a s i t e , nuntoer o f t r e e s , y i e l d o f a p p l e s ,.t y p e o f s o i l (m in e ra l s a l t s ) , c lim a te , am ount o f s p r a y . E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r s : t a tio n sp ra y . N e g a tiv e c o n t r o l :

Lime s u lp h u r s p r a y , s u lp h u r f l o ­

U n tre a te d o rc h a rd s

B a s is o f C o n p a riso n : sc a b

P e r c e n t o f a p p le s f r e e from a p p le

C o n c lu s io n : B o th s p r a y s a r e e q u a l ly e f f e c t i v e i n p r e ­ v e n tin g a p p le s c a b , t h e c h o ic e of sp ra y u n d o u b te d ly b e in g i n f lu e n c e d by e a se o f a p p l i c a t i o n o r r e l a t i v e c o s t. * * * * * * 4c

16*

Experiment V E u g le n a g r a c i l i s w ere o b ta in e d fro m a tw o -w e ek s-o ld p e p to n e c u l t u r e ( b a c t e r i a f r e e ) . The E u g le n a w ere w ashed w ith d i s t i l l e d w a te r t o rem ove th e c u l t u r e s o l u t i o n . One c c . o f a s u s p e n s io n o f E uglena was p la c e d i n e a c h o f e i g h t t e s t tu b e s . I n f o u r o f th e t e s t t u b e s 10 c c . o f o r d in a r y d i s t i l l e d w a te r w as ad d ed . I n th e o th e r f o u r t e s t t u b e s was added 10 c c . of heavy w a te r o f low c o n c e n tr a ti o n . The a v e ra g e c o n c e n tr a ti o n a t th e b e g in n in g cf th e e x p e rim e n t was 3 1 )7 5 0 E u g le n a p e r c c . o f l i q u i d i n e a c h t u b e . The tu b e s w ere exposed t o n o r t h e r n l i g h t a t 17 to 20°C. f o r 45 d a y s . The number o f E u g le n a i n e a c h t e s t tu b e was t h e n c o u n te d . The r e s u l t s a r e g iv e n i n th e t a b l e b elo w .

T est Tube Number

Kind o f V a te r

Number of E u g len a p e r c c . o f liq u id A f te r 45 d ay s

1 2 3 4

O rd in a ry d i s t i l l e d n n n n ti 11

5 1 ,7 5 ° 5 0 ,8 0 0 5 0,400 5 1,500

5 6 7

Heavy w a te r It H it n it 11

56,750 59 ,6 5 0 6 2 ,0 0 0 57,950

Q

A n a ly s is C o n tr o l f a c t o r s : S t r a i n o f E u g le n a g r a c i l i s , b a c t e r i a f r e e tw o -w eek s-o ld p e p to n e c u l t u r e , volume o f w a te r i n each t e s t tu b e ) a v e ra g e c o n c e n tr a ti o n of E u g len a p e r c c . o f l i q u i d i n e a c h t u b e ) te m p e r a tu re r a n g e , l e n g t h o f tim e E u g le n a w ere o b se rv e d ) ty p e o f l i g h t t o w h ic h E u g le n a w ere e x p o se d . E x p e r im e n ta l f a c t o r : N e g a tiv e c o n t r o l :

Heavy w a te r

O rd in a ry d i s t i l l e d w a te r /

B a s is o f c o m p ariso n : day s.

Number o f E u g le n a p e r c c . a f t e r 45

C o n c lu s io n : The number o f E u g le n a g r a c i l i s grown i n h eav y w a te r f o r a p e rio d o f 45 days exceeded by 12% th e number o f E u g len a grown i n o r d in a r y d i s t i l l e d w a te r . P e rh a p s th e heavy w a te r a c t i v a t e s t h e food-m aking p r o c e s s (p h o to sy n th e s i s ) •

170 Experiment VI S e v e r a l s m a ll a q u a t i c a n im a ls ( L e th o c e r i) were p la c e d i n b r i g h t l i g h t (617 m e te r - c a n d le s ) f o r f o u r h o u r s . One o f them was p la c e d i n th e d a rk fo r 5 m in u te s and th e n th e l i g h t was tu r n e d o n . F i f t e e n se c o n d s l a t e r ( r e a c t i o n tim e ) th e a n im a l gave a re s p o n s e ( s e e d iag ra m a t A ). A n o th e r a n im a l a f t e r b e in g k e p t in. th e l i g h t f o r fo u r h o u r s was k e p t i n t h e d a r k 10 m in u te s . I t s r e s p o n s e was made i n 7^ se c o n d s ( s e e d iag ram a t B ). O th e r i n d i v i d u a l s w ere k e p t i n th e d a rk f o r is d iag ra m . lo n g e r p e r i o d s and t h e i r r e s p o n s e s a r e r e c o rd e d i n

i s ' ..

A .

15

10

10

•H

5

0 Number o f M in u tes L e t h o c e r i Were K ept i n th e D a rk . Anal y s i s F a c to r s n o t m en tio n ed b u t assum ed to be c o n s t a n t : Temper­ a t u r e , pH of w a te r ( a c i d i t y or a l k a l i n i t y ) , d i s t a n c e fro m l i g h t . F a c to r s common to a l l L e th o c e r i: 4 h o u rs i n i t i a l e x p o su re to 617 m e te r - c a n d le s of l i g h t . E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r :

V a rio u s p e r i o d s o f d a rk n e s s .

C o n c lu s io n : The r e a c t i o n tim e o f t h e L e th o c e r i was th e s lo w e s t when t h e d a rk p e r i o d was s h o r t e s t (5 m in u te s ) . L e n g th e n irg th e d a r k p e r io d t o 1 0 , 15 and 20 m in u te s r e s u l t s i n r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e d e c r e a s e s i n r e a c t i o n tim e . However, e x te n s io n o f d a rk p e r i o d s from 20 t o a s much a s 100 m in u te s r e s u l t e d i n s l i g h t d e c r e a s e o f r e a c t i o n tim e .

171

Experiment VII An e x p e rim e n te r was w orking w ith a c e r t a i n s p e c i e s of s m a ll p l a n t s ( T h a llo p h y te s ) w hich w ere grow n i n a l i q u i d c o n ta in in g th e n e c e s s a r y e le m e n ts f o r g r o ttth . A q u a n t i t y of th e l i q u i d was d iv id e d i n t o t h i r t y - s i x e q u a l p a r t s each o f w hich was p la c e d i n a s m a ll j a r and a l l o f th e j a r s w ere k e p t a t 30°C . f o r s i x d a y s . The l i q u i d i n f o u r of th e s e j a r s was made somewhat a l k a l i n e . I n fo u r j a r s t h e l i q u i d was k e p t p r a c t i c a l l y n e u t r a l ; i n f o u r o th e r j a r s th e l i q u i d was made s l i g h t l y a c i d ; i n f o u r o th e r j a r s t h e l i q u i d was made s t i l l m ore a c i d ; a n d so on t h e l i q u i d i n e a c h g ro u p o f f o u r j a r s b eiijg made s l i g h t l y more a c i d th a n th e p r e c e d in g g ro u p . I n t h e f o llo w in g t a b l e , th e d e g re e o f a c i d i t y i s i n d ic a t e d i n th e l e f t hand colum n, i n w h ic h pH 2 .1 i s t h e m ost a c i d l i q u i d , pH 2 .6 i s s l i g h t l y l e s s a c i d , pH 7*1 i s a lm o st n e u t r a l and pH 8 .1 i s somewhat a l k a l i n e . I n t h e o th e r colum ns o f t h e t a b l e th e a v e ra g e nunber o f new p l a n t s , w h ich had b e e n p ro d u ce d i n e a c h j a r d u rin g t h e f i r s t two d ay s, fo u r d a y s an d s i x d a y s , a r e shown. D egree of A c id ity M easured i n PH 2 .1 2 .6 3 .6 4 .2 4 .8 6 .4 6 .7 Z*1 8 .1

A verage Niumber o f New P l a n t s J6 poduced i n Two d a y s F our d a y s S ix d a y s . .....

0 0 130 180 230 250 290 310 320

0 0 230 320 430 530 580 610 630

0 150 350

W

680 78O 860 890 900

A n a ly s is C o n tr o l f a c t o r s : Kind o f p l a n t , q u a n ti t y o f g ro w th medium, grow th e le m e n ts , te m p e r a tu r e , le n g th o f t im e . E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r :

pH r a n g e .

C o n c lu s io n : A t a pH of 2 .1 , no new p l a n t s a r e p ro d u c e d . A t a pH of 2 . 6 , no new p l a n t s a r e p ro d u ce d a t t h e end o f fo u r d s y s . As th e pH i n c r e a s e s from 3 .6 to 8 .1 , t h e r e i s a p r o g r e s s i v e i n c r e a s e i n number o f new p l a n t s p ro d u c e d . F or e a c h pH r e a d in g , t h e r e i s a p r o ­ g r e s s i v e i n c r e a s e i n num ber o f new p l a n t s p ro d u c e d . F o r eac h pH r e a d i n g , t h e r e i s a p r o g r e s s i v e i n c r e a s e i n nunber o f p l a n t s from t h e two day th ro u g h th e s i x day p e r i o d .

17*

Experiment VIII The i n c r e a s e i n g ro w th o f a l a r g e and a s m a ll r a c e o f fem ale r a b b i t s was o b se rv e d i n te n - d a y i n t e r v a l s o v e r a p e rio d o f tw o h u n d re d d a y s. The r e s u l t s g iv e n below a r e e x p re s s e d i n t h e p e r c e n ta g e i n c r e a s e i n w e ig h t f o r each t e n day i n t e r v a l d u rin g th e f i r s t tw o hundred d a y s o f t h e l i f e o f t h e l a r g e r a c e (F le m ish G ia n ts ) and s m a ll ra c e ( P o l i s h ) ra b b its .

Age i n d ay s

P e rc e n ta g e in c r e a s e i n w e ig h t L arg e r a c e S m all r a c e (F le m ish (P o lis h ) G ia n ts ) 221 72 67 45 25 20 16 15 13 12 11 9

0 -1 0 10-20 20-30 30-40 4 0 -5 0 50-60 60-70 7 0 -8 0 8 0 -9 0 90-100 100-110 110-120 120-130 130-140 140-150 150-160 160-170 170-180 180-190 190-200

7 6 4 4 4 3

20 7 67 70 34 22 16 15 12 11 Q 8 ' 5 6 4 3 4 2 3 4 1 .6

A n a ly s is F a c to r s n o t m entioned b u t assum ed to b e c o n s t a n t : Number o f r a b b i t s , ty p e s o f f o o d , norm al com plim ents o f fo o d , h e a l t h o f r a b b i t s , e x e r c i s e , c o n s t a n t s u p p ly of w a te r , s i z e of p e n s , te m p e r a tu r e , s e g r e g a t io n o f s e x e s , se a s o n o f y e a r b o rn . E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r s :

F le m ish G ia n t v a r i e t y , P o l i s h v a r i e t y .

I n t e r - e x p e r i m e n t a l c o m p ariso n o f f a c t o r s se rv es as m u ltip le c o n tro l. C o n c lu s io n : The o u ts ta n d in g g a in i n b o th ty p e s of r a b b i t s o c c u rre d i n th e f i r s t t e n d a y s .

173

W ith one e x c e p tio n , th e p e r c e n t g a in i n w e ig h t d e c re a s e d th ro u g h o u t 20 i n t e r v a l s . W ith tw o e x c e p tio n s , th e p e r c e n t g a in i n w e ig h t o f th e F le m ish G ia n t e x ce ed e d t h a t o f th e P o lis h v a r i e t y . *

*

*

*

*

*

*

E x p erim e n t IX One h u n d red and te n su n flo w e r s e e d lin g s w h ic h w ere a l l se v e n d ay s o ld and o f p r a c t i c a l l y th e same s i z e w ere p la c e d i n to tw o g ro u p s o f f i f t y - f i v e e a c h . A l l of them w ere grow n under th e same c o n d itio n s o f te m p e r a tu r e , l i g h t and m o is tu r e . One g ro u p w as g iv e n a s l i g h t e x p o su re t o x - r a y s . The o t h e r g roup w as n o t ex p o sed to x - r a y s . M easurem ents fro m t h e b a s e of th e stem t o th e grow ing p o i n t , ta k e n a t th e s t a r t o f th e e x p e rim e n t and a f t e r f i v e , e i g h t , and f i f t e e n days had e la p s e d , a r e t a b u l a t e d b elo w : Number o f days a f t e r th e e x p e r i ­ ment h ad begun a t Which m eas­ u rem e n ts were made 0 £ 0 15

H e ig h t o f S u n flo w er P la n t Stems Unexposed Number A verage of H e ig h t P la n ts (c m .)

55 54 54 19

2 .4 6 6 .6 0 7 .7 2 1 3 .0 2

E xposed t o x - r a y s Number A verage of H e ig h t P l a n ts (c m .)

55 55 54 19

2 .4 2 6 .5 8 7 .7 4 1 3 .0 8

A n a ly s is C o n tr o l f a c t o r s : Nunber o f s e e d s , k ind o f s e e d s , a g e of s e e d s , te m p e r a tu r e , l i g h t , m o is tu re . E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r :

S l i g h t e x p o su re of x - r a y s .

C o n c lu s io n : The amount o f x - r a y ex p o su re on t h e s e su n ­ flo w e r s e e d s h a s no a p p r e c i a b l e e f f e c t upon t h e a v e ra g e grow th o f h e i g h t o f s te m s , over a p e r io d o f 15 d a y s . N o te :

The e x p e rim e n t i s weak i n t h a t th e amount of x - r a y t r e a tm e n t i s n o t g i v e n . The word s l i g h t i n t e m s o f e x p o su re i s v a g u e .

174

Experiment X A g ro u p of 3 ° o n e -d a y o ld l a r v a e o f th e m u sse l c ra b were p la c e d i n a h e a t i n s u l a t e d g l a s s tro u g h and a d a p te d to t h e w a te r a t 2 7°C. f o r a t l e a s t a h a l f h o u r. A l i g h t a lo n g th e s i d e o f th e g l a s s tro u g h w as tu r n e d on. As t h e l a r v a e swam a lo n g the s i d e o f th e tro u g h to w a rd th e l i g h t , th e l i g h t was moved so t h a t th e i n t e n s i t y o f l i g h t on t h e l a r v a e was k e p t c o n s t a n t . By u sin g a s to p w a tc h , th e tim e n e c e s s ­ a r y f o r th e f a s t e s t i n d i v i d u a l or group o f i n d i v i d u a l s to swim 29 cm. w as ta k e n . The e x p e rim e n t was p e rfo rm e d 10 tim e s a t t h i s te m p e r a tu r e . The a v e ra g e o f th e 10 r e a d i n g s o f th e tim e f o r swimming 29 cm. i s r e c o r d e d i n th e t a b l e b e ­ low . Then th e e x p e rim e n t was p e rfo ra te d 10 tim e s a t eac h o f th e o th e r te m p e r a tu r e s . The a v e ra g e tim e a t e a c h te m p e ra tu re i s r e c o r d e d i n t h e t a b l e b elo w .

T em p eratu re D e g re e s C e n tig ra d e 2 7 .0 2 5 -9 2 4 .8 2 3 .5 2 2 .0 2 0 .0 1 8 .5 1 7 .6 1 6 .5 1 5 .2 1 4 .2 1 3 .4

Time i n S econds f o r Swimming 29 cm. (A verage o f 10 r e a d i n g s ) 1 2 .4 1 3 .1 1 4 .5 1 5 .5 1 7 .7 2 0 .7 2 4 .8 2 5 .6 2 7 .7 3 2 .3 3 6 .1 3 9 .1 A n a ly s is

C o n tr o l f a c t o r s : Number o f m u sse l c r a b l a r v a e , age o f l a r v a e , p r e - e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d itio n in g a t te m p e ra tu re s te s te d f o r a t l e a s t a h a lf h o u r, in te n s ity of l i g h t , d i s t a n c e l a r v a e swam, number of t r i a l s r u n a t each te m p e r a tu r e . E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r : Twelve te m p e r a tu re s a t w h ich swimming r a t e of l a r v a e w ere ex am in ed . C o n c lu s io n : As t h e te m p e r a tu re d e c re a s e d from 27°C . to 1 3 « 4 °C ., th e sp e ed a t w hich th e l a r v a e swam d e c re a s e d .

175 Experiment XI A s tu d e n t o f f o r e s t r y v i s i t e d a p l a n t a t i o n of B la c k L o c u st t r e e s . From t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p l o t s o f ground he to o k s o i l sam p les a t v a r io u s d i s t a n c e s fro m th e edge o f t h e B lack L o c u s t p l a n t a t i o n and a n a ly z e d i t f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f n i t r o g e n . H is r e s u l t s a r e g iv e n i n t h e g r a p h b elo w . 21

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04 D is ta n c e i n F e e t Away From B la c k L o c u s t P l a n t a t i o n A n a ly s is F a c to r s common t o a l l p l o t s : P l a n t a t i o n of B la c k L o c u st t r e e s ; d i s t a n c e a t w hich sam p le s w ere ta k e n f o r each p lo t. E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r : s o i l sa m p le s.

P e r c e n t of n i t r o g e n p r e s e n t i n th e

C o n c lu s io n : W ith one e x c e p tio n ) e a c h m easurem ent i n e a c h p l o t showed a d e c re a s e i n p e r c e n t of n itr o g e n i n th e s o i l a s t h e sam ples w ere ta k e n a t g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e s from th e l o c u s t t r e e s . I t i s p o s s ib l e th e lo c u s t t r e e s o r some f a c t o r a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e t r e e s ) i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e d i f f e r e n c e i n n i t r o g e n c o n c e n tr a ti o n . N o te :

I t i s h i g h ly d e s i r a b l e t o a s s o c i a t e n i tr o g e n con­ c e n t r a t i o n o f the s o i l w ith the l o c u s t t r e e s y b u t th e s ta te m e n t m ust be q u a l i f i e d ) i . e . ) p o s s i b l e , p r o b a b le .

176 Experiment XII A l e v e l f i e l d w ith s i m i l a r s o i l th ro u g h o u t was d iv id e d i n t o s i x p l o t s arid p l a n t e d w ith th e same k in d o f w h e a t. F iv e of th e p l o t s o f s o i l w ere t r e a t e d w ith n i t r a t e s , each w ith the same am ount o f n i t r a t e b u t a p p li e d a t l a t e r tim e s a f t e r t h e w h eat was p l a n t e d a s shown i n t h e t a b l e b elo w . One p l o t o f w heat was n o t t r e a t e d w ith n i t r a t e s . The y i e l d o f w heat i n b u s h e l s p e r a c r e and th e p e r c e n t o f p r o t e i n in th e w heat g r a i n s a r e g i v e n i n t h e t a b l e b elo w .

Days A f te r P l a n ti n g When N i t r a t e Was Added P lo t P lo t P lo t P lo t P lo t P lo t

#1. #2 . #3. #4. #5* #6.

17 d a y s 33 d a y s 48 d a y s 72 d a y s HO days No n i t r a t e added

Y ie ld o f Wheat i n B u sh e ls P er A cre

P e r C ent o f P ro te in in Wheat G ra in s

1 0 .6 2 1 .0 1 9 .9 2 1 .9 1 3 .1

9 .3 1 0 .4 1 1 .8 1 3 .2 1 5 .2

9 .4

8 .6

A n a ly s is C o n tr o l f a c t o r s : Amount o f f e r t i l i z e r u s e d , ty p e o f s o i l , ty p e o f w h e at. F a c to r s assum ed t o be c o n t r o l l e d : R a i n f a l l , te m p e r a tu r e , amount o f s u n l i g h t , fre e d o m from d i s e a s e , v i a b i l i t y of s e e d . N e g a tiv e c o n t r o l :

No n i t r a t e s added t o p l o t # 6 .

E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r : Number o f d a y s a f t e r p l a n t i n g a t w hich n i t r a t e s were a d d ed t o d i f f e r e n t p l o t s . B a s is o f c o m p a riso n : Y ie ld of w heat p e r a c r e , p e r c e n t o f p r o t e i n i n w heat g r a i n s . C o n c lu s io n : The tim e a t w hich n i t r a t e s a r e ad d ed a f t e r p l a n t i n g o f w h e at a f f e c t s th e y i e l d and p e r c e n t o f p r o t e i n o f t h i s v a r i e t y of w h e a t. The p e r c e n t of p r o t e i n i n t h e w h eat g r a i n i n c r e a s e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y a s th e a p p l i c a t i on o f n i t r a t e s i s d e la y e d . A p p li­ c a t i o n of f e r t i l i z e r fro m t h e 33r d day to th e 72nd day h a s a b o u t o p tim a l e f f e c t on y i e l d o f w heat b u t a p p l i c a t i o n a s l a t e a s th e 110t h d ay r e s u l t s i n d e ­ c r e a s e i n y i e l d of w h e a t. The n e g a tiv e p l o t showed p o o rest r e s u lts .

N o te :

P r a c t i c a b i l i t y o f o p t i o n a l d a te f o r a p p l i c a t i o n o f n i t r a t e s i s q u e s tio n a b le .

* * * * * * * E x p erim e n t X I II A w illo w t r e e w as grown f o r f i v e y e a r s i n a la r g e p o t o f s o i l . The p l a n t was r e g u l a r l y s u p p lie d w ith p u r e w a te r , b u t no a d d i t i o n a l s o i l or m a t e r i a l s o t h e r th a n w a te r w ere ad d ed t o t h e p o t . A t t h e b e g in n in g of th e e x p e rim e n t th e w illo w t r e e w eighed 5 p o u n d s; a t th e end o f 5 y e a r s i t w eighed 164 p o u n d s. The l o s s i n w e ig h t o f t h e s o i l was 2 o u n c es. A n a ly s is C o n tr o l f a c t o r s :

W illow t r e e , s o i l , p u re w a te r .

F a c to r s p e r t i n e n t t o i n f e r e n c e : 159 l b . w e ig h t i n c r e a s e o f t r e e , n e g l i g i b l e s o i l l o s s (2 o z . ) . C o n c lu s io n : The i n c r e a s e o f w e ig h t of th e w illow t r e e c a n n o t be e x p la in e d by u t i l i z a t i o n o f s o i l m a t e r i a l s . I t i s p o s s i b l e th e w e ig h t i n c r e a s e i s du e t o u se o f w a te r , m a t e r i a l s fro m th e a i r , o r a c o m b in a tio n o f b o t h . C a u tio n : D a ta a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t t o i n f e r p h o to s y n th e s is o r p r o te in s y n th e s is . *

*

*

*

*

*

*

E x p erim e n t XIV On Ju n e 1 , 1929 a sam ple o f f o r e s t l i t t e r c o v e rin g th e s o i l o f a w h ite p in e f o r e s t was c o l l e c t e d , d r i e d , and w e ig h ed . The sam ple o f ' l i t t e r was t h e n p la c e d i n a w ire b a s k e t , t h e b o tto m of w hich was c o v e re d w ith c h e e s e c l o th . The b a s k e t and i t s c o n te n ts w ere r e p la c e d so t h a t t h e l i t t e r was i n c l o s e c o n ta c t w ith t h e m in e r a l s o i l o f th e f o r e s t . On O c to b er 1 , 1929, th e c o n te n ts o f th e b a s k e t w ere rem oved, d r i e d a n d w e ig h e d . On June 1 , 1930 and O ctober 1 , 1930, th e same p ro c e d u re was fo llo w e d a second tim e , u s in g a n o th e r sam ple o f w h ite p in e f o r e s t l i t t e r . The r e s u l t s o b ta in e d a r e g iv e n i n t h e t a b l e b elow .

F o re st L itte r 1929 1930

D ry W eight i n Grams on June 1 240 570

O cto b er 1 223 493

L o ss o f Dry W eig i t i n Grams P e r C ent 17 77

7«1 13-5

178

D u rin g e a c h e x p e rim e n t th e am ount o f r a i n f a l l an d t h e te m p e ra tu re w ere m easured d a i l y . The t o t a l r a i n f a l l and th e a v e ra g e te m p e r a tu re f o r e a c h eaq)erim ent a r e g i v e n i n t h e t a b l e b elow . _______D uring E x p e rim e n t

1929L -.133&

A verage T em p era tu re (D eg rees P .) . . .

59-9

6 3 .7

T o ta l B a i n f a l l ( I n c h e s ) ............

5 .8

1 4 .8

A n a ly s is C o n tr o l f a c t o r s : Same p ro c e d u re i n e x p o sin g l i t t e r to e r o s i o n , p e r io d o f e x p o s u re . F a c to r s c o n s id e re d i n draw ing c o n c lu s io n : C o m p arativ e r a i n ­ f a l l , t e m p e r a tu r e , p e r c e n t l o s s o f d ry w e ig h t. C o n c lu s io n : G r e a te r r a i n f a l l and h ig h e r a v e ra g e te m p e ra tu re i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith g r e a t e r p e r c e n t l o s s o f d ry w e ig h t of l i t t e r . N o te :

I t i s im p o s s ib le , w ith th e d a ta g iv e n , t o i n f e r t h e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t o f te m p e ra tu re an d r a i n f a l l or l o s s o f d r y w e ig h t. * * * * ate % *

179 Experiment XV A s c o rb ic a c i d (V ita m in C) o c c u rs i n m i l k . T h is s tu d y com pares t h e amount of a s c o r b i c a c id found i n n in e b ra n d s o f e v a p o ra te d m ilk .

P ro d u c t T e s te d

A sc o rb ic a c id p e r l i t e r (1000 c . c . ) mg. (1 /0 0 0 t h o f a gram )

Brand 1

* .8

Brand 1

7 .0

B rand 2

•5.4

B rand ^

9 .6

B rand 4

9 .6

B rand H

.

____ l ^ Z .

.

B rand. 6__________________________________ l i t Z B rand 7__________________________________ 14*1 \

B ran d 8 ( i r r a d i a t e d ) t r e a t e d w ith u ltr a - v io le t lig h t

2 2 .3

B rand 9

n

2 0 .4

Brand 10

n

7 .9

B rand 10

it

6 .7

B rand 11

N

..

............ -Z*4

............................

A n a ly s is T h is i s n o t a n e x p e rim e n t i n th e r e g u l a r l y a c c e p te d s e n s e o f th e te rm b u t r a t h e r a s u r v e y . However) d a t a from su c h a n a n a l y s i s a r e s u b j e c t to i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and i n f e r e n c e s may b e made. M a te ria l s tu d ie d : m ilk .

I r r a d i a t e d a n d n o n - i r r a d i a t e d e v a p o ra te d

B a s is o f c o m p a riso n : o f m ilk .

M illig ra m s of a s c o r b i c a c id p e r l i t e r

180

C om parison: B ran d s an d ty p e s o f m ilk v a ry w id e ly I n t h e amount o f a s c o r b i c a c id p r e s e n t* N o te :

M ilk i s i r r a d i a t e d to f o r t i f y t h e m ilk w ith V itam in D, n o t V ita m in C* S p e c if ic c o m p a riso n s a r e i n a d v i s a b le b e c a u se o f to o few d ata* *

*

*

*

*

*

*

E x p erim e n t XVI The amount o f V ita m in C fo u n d i n can n ed s t r a i n e d v eg e­ t a b l e s w as d e te rm in e d f o r s e v e r a l ^ a r s * V e g e ta b le

T om atoes n It It

S p in ach F a l l s p in a c h S p rin g s p in a c h S p rin g s p in a c h S p rin g s p in a c h F a l l s p in a c h S p rin g s p in a c h

Y ear

1930 1932 1933 1935 A verage 1930 1931 1932 1933 193+ 1934 1935 A verage

Peas It It It II

G reen beans ii n n N

1930 1932 1933 1934 1935

V itam in C In te rn a tio n a l U n its 142 to o low 1 70 64 69 24

2l 18 66 $0 85 53 5 3 .8

45 33 32

A verage

3 9 .6

1930 1932 1933 1934 1935 A verage

17 17 23 15 9

16.2

181

A n a ly s is Inasm uch a s th e d a ta a r e s c a n ty , c o n c lu s io n m ust he t e n t a t i v e and o n ly g r o s s c o m p a riso n s made. C o n c lu s io n : I c o n c lu d e t h a t o f the sam p les t e s t e d , to m a to e s w ere r i c h e s t i n V ita m in C, s p in a c h was n e x t, th e n p e a s and th e g re e n b e a n s w ere l o w e s t . W ith in e a c h fo o d t e s t e d , t h e V ita m in C c o n te n t v a r i e d w id e ly fro m y e a r to y e a r . * * * * * * * E x p erim e n t XVII The a f f e c t o f co o k in g upon T hiam in (V ita m in B^) was d e te rm in e d f o r s e v e r a l f o o d s .

Pood

C ooking Method

T hiam in c o n te n t r e ­ t a i n e d b y cooked fo o d

C a r r o ts

P r e s s u r e Cooker B o ile d

P o ta to e s

Baked B o ile d (p a re d )

84% 67%

P e a s , g re e n

Simmered H w ith soda

80% 67%

B e a n s , sn a p

B o ile d 11 w ith soda

68% 41%

B e a n s, n avy

B o ile d

9

w ith soda

100% 100%

100% 100%

A n a ly s is T h is d a t a d o e s n o t c o n ta in a c c e p te d e x p e r im e n ta l p r o ­ c e d u r e , b u t i s r a t h e r a c o m p a ra tiv e s tu d y . C o n c lu s io n : I c o n c lu d e t h a t b e c a u se o f th e d i f f e r i n g l o s s e s o f th ia m in ( V i t . B ^ ), no g e n e r a l i z a t i o n c a n be made r e ­ g a r d in g th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f c a r r o t s , p o t a t o e s , p e a s , snap an d navy b e a n s .

i

Experiment XVIII The c o n c e n t r a t i o n of V ita m in C i n t h e F l o r i d a o ran g e (p in e a p p le v a r i e t y ) was d e te rm in e d a t th e tim e o f p ic k in g and a l s o a f t e r feeing i n c o ld s t o r a g e f o r a month a t 4 2 °F .

Sam ples

1 2 3 4 I

V itam in C i n m illig ra m s p e r 100 M.L. As p ic k e d A fte r s to ra g e

3

P

65 68 70

i

l

68 52 91 53 11

^ F r u i t had feeen p r o c e s s e d b e f o r e p a c k in g A n a ly s is C o n tr o l f a c t o r :

V a r ie ty o f o ra n g e

E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r s : L en g th o f tim e s t o r e d ; te m p e r a tu re o f s t o r a g e ; p r o c e s s in g o f f r u i t . C o n c lu s io n : I c o n c lu d e t h a t th e u n p ro c e sse d f r u i t in c r e a s e d i n V ita m in C c o n te n t a f t e r b e in g s to r e d one m onth a t 4 2 ° F ., b u t th e p ro c e s s e d f r u i t l o s t V ita m in C when s t o r e d u n d e r t h e same c o n d i t i o n s . %%* * * * * E x p e rim e n t XIX Ten S in g le Comb W hite L eghorn c h ic k s w ere p la c e d on a d i e t d e f i c i e n t i n r i b o f l a v i n and t e n o f th e same k in d o f c h ic k s w ere f e d a r i c h r i b o f l a v i n d i e t .

The b a s a l d i e t w as: c o rn m eal 55«5%i p e a n u t o i l m eal 15*0%) c a s e i n 11.0% , c a n e m o la ss e s 5*0%, s a l t m ix tu re 5«o%. The d i e t s w ere t h e same w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e r i b o f l a v i n c o n t e n t . One d i e t c o n ta in e d 6 .9 m icrogram s o f r i b o f l a v i n p e r gram w h ile t h e o t h e r d i e t c o n ta in e d 1 .0 m icrogram o f r i b o f l a v i n p e r gram .

183

The c h ic k s w ere m a in ta in e d on th e d i e t s 6 weeks and th e n were k i l l e d and th e t i s s u e a n a ly z e d f o r r i b o f l a v i n c o n t e n t .

T is s u e

Low R ib o f la v in D ie t M icrqgram s p e r gram

L iv e r H e art G iz z a rd Leg B re ast

1 1 .2 4 .3 1-3 1 .0 0 .4

H igh R i b o f la v i n D ie t M icro gram s p e r gram 3 2 .9 1 8 .4 4 .1 4 .2 0 .8

A n a ly sis C o n tr o l f a c t o r s : V a r ie ty o f c h ic k s , number o f c h ic k s , b a s a l d i e t , le n g th o f fe e d in g p e r i o d . F a c to r s assum ed to b e c o n t r o l l e d : o f e a c h g ro u p . E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r s :

H e a lth and a v e ra g e w e ig h t

H igh and low r i b o f l a v i n d i e t .

B a s is o f c o m p a riso n : U icrogram s o f r i b o f l a v i n i n v a r io u s t i s s u e s of t h e two g r o u p s . C o n c lu s io n : I n a l l c a s e s , th e t i s s u e s exam ined o f c h ic k s f e d h ig h r i b o f l a v i n d i e t c o n ta in e d more r i b o f l a v i n th a n th o s e f e d low r i b o f l a v i n d i e t . S to ra g e of r i b o f l a v i n i s g r e a t e s t i n l i v e r , and p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e c r e a s e s i n h e a r t , g i z z a r d , an d l e g . V ery l i t t l e i s s t o r e d i n b r e a s t t i s s u e . As a s o u rc e o f r i b o f l a v i n , th e l i v e r , h e a r t and g i z z a r d of c h ic k e n s f e d a r i c h r i b o f l a v i n d i e t m e r it c o n s i d e r a t i o n . * * * * % ** E x p erim en t XX R i b o f la v in (V ita m in G) i s a f a c t o r e s s e n t i a l f o r gro w th and f o r h a tc h in g o f e g g s . D rie d whey, y e a s t , d r i e d skim m ilk , and l i v e r a r e r i c h i n r i b o f l a v i n . G roups o f p h e a s a n t c h ic k s w ere f e d v a iy in g am ounts o f l i v e r f o r a p e r io d o f s i x w eek s. The d i e t s w ere u n ifo rm w ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f th e liv e r.

5

184

G roups

A

A verage w e ig h t (g ram s)

D rie d L iv e r i n d i e t (p e r c e n t)

0

B

In itia l

At 4 weeks

At 6 weeks

1 8 .7

4 8 .8

102.0

18. S

86

.v

162.2

_

C

2

18.8

110.8

D

1

1 8 .7

119. H

228.2...

E

4

18.8

1 1 0 .4

2-18.2

F

5

1 9 .9

1 4 2 .6

262. 5 _

G

6

1 9 .2

1 5 1 .0

281

H

7 ..................... ..

...

_ .20 J. 9

.5

_274 j 2_

A n a ly s is F a c to r s assum ed t o b e c o n t r o l l e d : A pproxim ate number of p h e a s a n t c h ic k s i n e a c h g r o u p , b a s a l d i e t i s d e f i c i e n t i n r i b o f l a v i n , same ty p e o f l i v e r . C o n tr o l f a c t o r s : B a s a l d i e t , l e n g t h o f e x p e rim e n t, a v e ra g e i n i t i a l w e ig h t w i t h in 2 g ra m s. E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r s : d ie t.

V a rio u s p e r c e n t s o f d r i e d l i v e r i n

B a s is o f c o n p a r is o n : A verage w e ig h t o f whole g ro u p s i n i t i a l l y , f o u r an d s i x w eek s. C o n c lu s io n : The a d d i t i o n of 1 p e r c e n t of d r i e d l i v e r i n th e d i e t r e s u l t s i n l a r g e g a in s i n w e ig h t o f t h e p h e a s a n t c h ic k s a s shown a t th e end o f 4 and 6 . week p e r i o d s . I n c r e a s i n g t h e p e r c e n t o f d r i e d l i v e r to s i x p e r c e n t o f th e d i e t r e s u l t s i n a c o n s i s t e n t i n ­ c r e a s e i n w e ig h t. However, 7 p e r c e n t l i v e r d i e t d o es n o t e x te n d th e g a i n s . I t seems a d v is a b le t o in c lu d e r i b o f l a v i n i n th e d i e t of p h e a s a n t c h i c k s .

185 Below are given the results ol' an experiment with four groups of rats vhich were treated in various ways after being infected with pneumonia germs. LOT I Of the ten rats in Lot I, nine recovered and one died from the infection with pneumonia * - V ^ L germs.

Ten rats were infected with pneumonia germs, and immediately given anti-pneumonia serum. Survivors LOT II Ten rats were infected with pneumonia germs and were inoculated with anti-pneumonia serum, in the same manner as Lot I, twelve hours after in­ oculation with the germs.

Of the ten rats in Lot II, seven recovered and three died from the infection with pneumonia germs.

Survivors LOT III Ten rats were infected with pneumonia germs and were inoculated with anti-pneumonia serum, in the same manner as Lot I, twenty-four hours after inoculation with the germs. By this time, thirty to sixty per cent of the lung tissue of each rat was affected.

Of the ten rats in Lot III, five recovered and five died from the infection with pneu­ monia germs. „ f

Survivors

LOT IV A control experiment was set up in v?hich ten rats were infected with pneumonia germs at the same time and in the same manner as Lot I, but were not given anti-pneumonia serum.

Of the ten rats in Lot IV, nine died and one survived the in­ fection with pneumonia germs.

Survivors

1.

Interpretation of Data Test 2.52. Progressive Education Association. Evaluation in the Eight Year Study. Chicago: University of Chicago, p.4

186

Analysis C o n tr o l f a c t o r s : Nuntoer o f r a t s i n e a c h l o t , i n f e c t i o n w ith pneum onia germs* E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r : I n j e c t i o n of a n ti-p n e u m o n ia serum a t v a ry in g p e r io d s a f t e r i n f e c t i o n . N e g a tiv e c o n t r o l :

A bsence of a n ti-p n e u m o n ia serum .

B a s is o f c o m p a riso n :

M o r t a li t y o f r a t s .

C o n c lu s io n : Serum g i v e n im m e d ia te ly a f t e r i n f e c t i o n i s h i g h ly e f f e c t i v e f o r r a t s b u t a s t h e i n t e r v a l b etw een i n f e c t i o n and i n j e c t i o n of serum was i n c r e a s e d t o 12 h o u rs a n d 24 h o u r s , th e seru m became p r o g r e s s i v e l y l e s s e f f e c t i v e . R a ts h a v in g no serum d ie d w ith one e x c e p tio n . N o te :

N o th in g i s s a id i n r e g a r d t o ty p e s o f pneum onia. * * * * * * * E x p e rim e n t XXXI

The e f f e c t s o f v a r i o u s k in d s o f V ita m in D w ere s tu d ie d i n r e l a t i o n to g ro w th and c a l c i f i c a t i o n o f c h ic k s . The t e s t a n im a ls w ere male v h i t e L eghorn c h ic k s w h ic h w ere r e c e i v e d i n t o t h e l a b o r a t o r y in D ecem ber, 1938, on th e seco n d d a y of l i f e . They w ere s e p a r a te d i n t o f o u r t e e n g ro u p s o f from 1 2 - 1 8 b i r d s e a c h . A l l th e c h ic k s w ere f e d th e same d i e t , t h e only d i f f e r e n c e b e in g i n t h e V ita m in A. One n e g a tiv e o i l (100 p o s itiv e

g ro u p r e c e iv e d 2% o f c o r n o i l (no V ita m in D) f o r c o n t r o l ; a n o th e r g ro u p r e c e iv e d 2% o f co d l i v e r U .S .P . u n i t s o f V ita m in D p e r g ra m ), f o r th e c o n tro l.

The c h ic k s r e c e i v i n g su p p le m e n ta ry V ita m in D w ere g iv e n th e v i ta m in s d a i l y b y d i r e c t (sto m ach tu b e ) i n j e c t i o n i n t o t h e c ro p w ith th e f o llo w in g e x c e p tio n s : D u rin g th e f i r s t 4 days o f t h e e x p e rim e n t none o f th e b i r d s w ere i n j e c t e d to a v o id e x c e s s iv e h a n d lin g , b u t fro m th e 7t b t o the 10t h d a y s , th e d o sag e was d o u b le to com pensate f o r th e l a c k of i n i t i a l tre a tm e n t. A f te r th e 1 0 th d a y , a l l g ro u p s r e c e i v e d d o sa g e s a s shown i n th e t a b l e . Body w e ig h ts w ere re c o rd e d w e e k ly , and th e c h ic k s w ere s a c r i f i c e d on t h e 3 P th d a y . The two t i b i a ( s m a ll b o n es o f t h e f e e t ) w ere rem oved f o r s tu d y of c a l c i f i c a t i o n and ash c o n t e n t .

187

RESPONSE OF CHICKS TO TREATMENT WITH VITAMIN D Croup No.

V ita m in P re p .

D a ily Dose Body In d e x of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Wt. C a lc ifi­ C a in % c a t i o n U n its

Bone a s h A verage %

1 2 3 4

V ita m in D3 p u re c r y s ­ t a l s 4 0 ,0 0 0 u n its per mg.

1 2 3 6

366 410 405 461

♦ 1 .3 § ♦ 2 .5 6 ♦3 .0 5 ♦ 3 .3 8

3 8 .0 2 4 1 .6 4 44.9 8 4 4 .9 5

5 6 7 8

D-5 C h o le s ­ te ra l 2 0 ,0 0 0 u n i t s p e r mg.

1 2 3 0

433 435 398 469

r 2 .4 1 ♦2 .8 8 1-2 .9 6 ♦ 3 .3 3

4 3 .4 0 4 5 .6 1 4 4 .0 3 45. l l

9 10 11 12

Irra d ia te d C h o le s te ra l (D e ls te ro l)

1 2 3 0

294 354 37§ 298

+0 .3 1 ♦2 .2 3 ♦2 .8 9 ♦3 .0 7

3 6 .2 9 4 2 .0 2 4 4 .0 3 4 5 .6 4

13

2% c o rn o i l ( d i e t a lo n e )

300

- 1 .5 0

3 1 .5 7

14

2% cod l i v e r o il in d ie t

306

t3 « 3 *

4 4 .8 2

A n a ly s is C o n tr o l f a c t o r s : Male w h ite L eghorn c h ic k s , b a s a l d i e t , 30 d a y s, p o s t m orterns. E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r s : V itam in D3 p u re c r y s t a l s , D3 c h o le s t e r a l , I r r a d ia te d c h o le s te ra l* N e g a tiv e c o n t r o l :

2% c o rn o i l .

P o s itiv e c o n tro l:

2% cod l i v e r o i l .

C o n c lu s io n : Body w e ig h t and c a l c i f i c a t i o n o f c h ic k s i s most s a t i s f a c t o r y w ith D3 c h o l e s t e r a l , 6 u n i t s b e in g b e t t e r th a n f e w e r u n i t s , i r r a d i a t e d c h o l e s t e r a l i s l e a s t s a t i s f a c t o r y . 2% cod l i v e r o i l and c o r n o i l r e ­ s u l t i n a b o u t th e same g a in i n w e ig h t b u t c a l c i f i c a t i o n i s f a r more i n f e r i o r w ith c o r n o i l .

188 Experiment XXIII The r a t s i n t h i s e s p e rim e n t w ere b re d i n th e same l a b o r a t o r y and f e d th e same d i e t . When th e a v e ra g e body w e ig h t o f t h e r a t s i n e a c h l i t t e r re a c h e d a b o u t 60 g ra m s , th e y were a l l p la c e d on a d i e t f r e e from f l a v i n . F or aboub two weeks th e a n im a ls g a in e d i n w e ig h t, a f t e r w hicn t h e r e was a te n d e n c y tow ard s t a t i o n a r y o r d e c l in i n g w e ig h t. A f te r th e body w e ig h t had become c o n s ta n t o r had begun to d e c lin e f o r a p e rio d o f a w eek, v a r i o u s su p p le m e n ta ry fo o d s w ere g iv e n to th e a n im a ls p la c e d i n i n d i v i d u a l c a g e s eq u ip p e d w ith r a i s e d w ire s c r e e n b o tto m s. The B ourquin-S herm an f l a v i n u n i t p ro d u c e s a g a in i n w e ig h t o f 3*5 gram s p e r week ab o v e t h e g a in o f w e ig h t i n th e n e g a tiv e c o n t r o l a n im a ls .

Supplem ent Fed

Amount Fed D a ily

Number o f B a ts

G ain i n Body Wt. i n t h e 8 week C u r a tiv e P e rio d A c tu a l G ain Above G ain N e g a tiv e C o n tro ls

B o u rq u in Sherman F l a v i n U n its p e r gram

C o tto n s e e d m eal

0*50 gm. 1 .0 0 gm.

6 6

5 1 .0 8 5 .0

4 1 .0 7 5 .0

2 .9 2

Soy b e a n s

0 .5 0 gm.

6

5 5 .0

4 5 .0

3 .2 0

D rie d Whole M ilk

0 .2 5 gm. 0*50 gm.

6 6

4 7 .0 8 3 .0

3 7 .0 7 3 .0

5 .2 8

D rie d B re w er' s Y east

0 .1 5 gjn.

6

9 4 .0

8 4 .0

2 0 .0

N e g a tiv e C o n tr o ls on b a s i s ra tio n s

0 .0 0

7

1 0 .0

••••

••••

(

A n a ly s is C o n tro l f a c t o r s : S t r a i n o f r a t s , d i e t o f r a t s p r i o r t o b e ­ g in n in g o f e x p e rim e n t, g ro u p o f r a t s on b a s a l d i e t , l e n g t h o f e x p e r im e n ta l fe e d in g p e r i o d . E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r s : C o tto n s e e d m e a l, s o y b e a n s , d r i e d m ilk , d r i e d B re w e r's y e a s t .

18?

C o n c lu s io n : The g a i n i n w e ig h t o f th e r a t s i s r e l a t e d to th e d i e t ) c o tto n s e e d m eal a n d soy b e a n s hav e a b o u t th e same am ount o f grow th s t i m u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l ( f l a v i n ) ) d r i e d whole m ilk p r o v id e s more f l a v i n w h ile d r i e d B rew er*s y e a s t i s r i c h e s t i n t h i s g ro w th s t i m u l a ti n g m a t e r i a l . A bsence o f f l a v i n r e s u l t s i n s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n w eig h t* I t i s p o s s ib l e f l a v i n i s n e ed e d i n th e grow th o f o th e r , an ima I s * * * * * * * * E x p erim e n t XXIV I t i s known t h a t B i lo x i so y b ean r e q u i r e s a s u c c e s s io n of r e l a t i v e l y d x o r t l i g h t p e r i o d s (p h o to p e r io d s ) eac h f o l ­ lowed b y a r e l a t i v e l y lo n g d a rk p e r io d f o r th e p r o d u c tio n o f f lo w e rs ( f l o r a l i n d u c t i o n ) . F i f t y - f i v e p o tS ) e a c h c o n ­ t a i n i n g two u n ifo rm p l a n t s , w ere d iv id e d in to e q u a l l o t s a t 8 :0 0 a .m ., a f t e r h a v in g r e c e i v e d a n i n i t i a l p e rio d o f i l ­ lu m in a tio n fro m 5*90 P*m. u n t i l 8 :0 0 a .m . th e p r e v io u s m orning * l E ach l o t r e c e iv e d a 1 6 -h o u r d a r k p e r i o d . I n d i v i d u a l l o t s w ere n e x t e x p o se d t o t h e f o llo w in g p h o to p e r io d s : 1 0 , 11 , 12, 13, 14, 16, 1 8 , 20, 2 4 , 3 0 , and 36 h o u r s . A f te r an y g iv e n l o t was exposed t o t h i s p h o to p e rio d i t was r e ­ tu r n e d to th e darkroom where i t rem ained f o r 16 h o u r s . I t was a g a in e x p o se d to a p h o to p e rio d e q u a l i n d u r a t i o n t o th e one i t had p r e v i o u s l y r e c e iv e d . A t t b s end o f se v en c y c le s of s u c h t r e a tm e n t e a c h l o t w as m a in ta in e d i n t h e room i ll u m in a t e d by t h e a r c lamp u n t i l 7*00 a .m . t h e fo llo w in g m o rn in g . Seven c y c l e s , e a c h c o n s i s t i n g of a 16-h o u r d a rk p e r io d accom panied b y f o llo w in g p h o to p e r io d L en g th of P h o to p e rio d i n H ours 10

Number of p la n ts having flow ers Number of nodes p ossessin g f lo r a l primordia or flow ers

11

12

13

14

16

18

29

24

39

10

9

9

8

8

4

2

0

Q

0

18

19

17

12

13

7

2

0

0

0

A n a ly s is C o n tr o l f a c t o r s : B i lo x i so y b e a n s , i n i t i a l i l l u m i n a t i o n p e r i o d , 7 c y c le s o f 16 h o u rs o f d a rk n e s s , f i n a l , i l ­ lu m in a tio n p e r io d , u n ifo rm p l a n t s .

36

190

F a c to r s assum ed t o be c o n t r o l l e d : T e m p e ra tu re , m o is tu r e , a b se n c e o f p a r a s i t e s , s o i l and s o i l c o n d i t i o n s . E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r s :

V a rio u s p h o to p e r io d s .

B a s is o f c o m p a riso n : Number o f n o d es h a v in g f l o r a l p r i m ordia or f lo w e r s . C o n c lu s io n s : Of th e p h o to p e r io d s s t u d i e d , 10 h r . , 11 h r . , and 12 h r . r e s u l t i n most f lo w e r p r o d u c tio n , w h ile an i n c r e a s e o f p h o to p e r io d t o 13 h r s . and 14 h r s . r e s u l t i n d e f i n i t e d e c r e a s e i n f lo w e r s p ro d u c e d . E x te n s io n o f p h o to p e r io d s t o 16 h r s . and 18 h r s . r e s u l t i n marked d e c r e a s e i n f lo w e r s , w h ile p h o to p e rio d s o f 20 h r s . and more r e s u l t i n no flo w e r p r o d u c tio n . I t i s p o s s ib l e t h a t e x c e s s iv e l i g h t i n h i b i t s th e p r o d u c tio n horm ones n e c e s s a r y f o r f lo w e r in g o f B i l o x i so y b e a n s. * * * * * * % E x p erim e n t XXV The r e l a t i v e am ounts o f V ita m in C ( a s c o r b i c a c i d ) i n p e a s and i n the c o o k in g w a te r was d e te rm in e d a t t h e v a rio u s s t a g e s of c o o k in g . Two v a r i e t i e s o f p e a s, Thomas L ax to n and A lderm an, w ere grown on u p la n d s o i l . ( O n ta r io c la y loam a t Geneva, New Y o rk ). They w ere h a n d -p ic k e d when th e y re a c h e d t h e s u c c u l e n t s t a g e , h a n d - s h e l l e d , cooked, a n d th e n t e s t e d f o r a s c o r b ic a c i d i n a s s h o r t a tim e a s p o s s i b l e .

L en g th of Cooking P e rio d i n m in u te s

Thomas L ax to n V a r ie ty A sco rb ic A cid M illig ra m s p e r gram Wet W eight

0 (raw ) 1 3 4

C ooking W ater 0.00

6 8 10 12 14 16

0.10 0.10

0.11 0.11

A lderm an V a r ie t y A sco rb ic A cid M illig ra m s p e r gram Wet W eight

Cooking W ater

0 .2 4 0.21 0 .1 9 0 .1 8

0.00 0.02 0.03

0.17 0.15 0.15

0 .0 6 0 .0 7

0 .1 4 0 .13 0.12

0.05

0.08 0.08 0.10 0.12

191

Analysis C o n tr o l f a c t o r s : S o i l upon w hich p e a s w ere grow n, h a n d lin g p r i o r t o c o o k in g , a n a l y t i c a n a l y s i s . F a c to r s assum ed t o b e c o n t r o l l e d : E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r s : pea. N e g a tiv e c o n t r o l :

Cooking p r o c e d u re .

L e n g th s o f c o o k in g tim e , v a r i e t y o f

Raw p e a s

B a s is o f c o n p a ris o n : M illig ra m s p e r gram of a s c o r b ic a c id i n p e a s and c o o k in g w a te r . C o n c lu s io n : I n b o t h v a r i e t i e s o f p e a s , a s the c o o k in g p e r io d le n g th e n s to 16 m in u te s , th e am ount o f a s c o r b ic a c id o f cooking w a te r i n c r e a s e s . D e s t r u c t i o n o f a s c o r b i c a c id i s a p p r e c i a b ly g r e a t e r i n th e Thomas L ax to n v a r i e t y t h a n i n th e A lderm an v a r i e t y . From a c o o k in g s t a n d p o i n t , u s e o f cooking w a te r seems d e s i r ­ a b l e , m aking u n d e rc o o k in g o f p e a s u n n e c e s s a ry . * * * * *' * * E x p erim e n t XXVI Two g ro u p s o f young c h i l d r e n (7 m onths or l e s s ) i n T o ro n to w ere s t u d i e d f o r a fiv e - m o n th p e r io d to d e te rm in e th e r e l a t i o n o f V ita m in D i n t h e d i e t and th e d i s e a s e r i c k e t s . The d e g re e o f r i c k e t s a t th e b e g in n in g of t h e e x p e rim e n t i s shown i n T able I . TABLE 1 Group

E x p e rim e n ta l (Irra d ia te d y e a s t) C o n tr o l (no V ita m in D)

T o ta l C ases

No R ic k e ts

S lig h t R ic k e ts

%

%

M ild R ic k e ts

M oderate o r Marked R ic k e ts

%

69

8l

16

3

0

75

88

11

1

0

B e fo re t h e i n i t i a l e x a m in a tio n no V ita m in D had b e e n g iv e n by mouth a lth o u g h n a t u r a l l y m ost of t h e c h i l d r e n had r e c e iv e d th e V ita m in D b e n e f i t o f summer s u n s h in e . I n T o ro n to v e ry l i t t l e V itam in D e f f e c t o f su n s h in e i s o b ta in e d a f t e r th e m id d le o r end o f S ep tem b er.

192

The e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p of c h i l d r e n w ere f e d tw ic e d a i l y two h e a p in g ta b le s p o o n s of cooked f a r i n a c o n ta in i n g i r r a d i a t e d y e a s t f u r n i s h i n g 500 i n t e r n a t i o n a l V itam in D u n i t s . The c o n ­ t r o l g ro u p r e c e i v e d a b a s i c d i e t s i m i l a r t o th e e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p b u t r e c e i v e d no V ita m in D. The number o f c a s e s show ing a c t i v e l y a d v a n c in g r i c k e t s w ith no e v id e n c e o f h e a l in g a t th e tim e o f o b s e r v a tio n a r e shown i n T able I I . TABLE I I Group

T o ta l C a se s

Autumn

E x p e rim e n ta l ( I r r a d ia te d y e a s t)

69

% 6

C o n tr o l (no V ita m in D)

75

9

M iddle o f W in te r 4

%

21

End o f W in ter % 0

31

A n a ly s is C o n tr o l f a c t o r s : L en g th o f f e e d in g p e r i o d s , b a s i c d i e t , a b se n c e o f m o d era te o r m arked r i c k e t s . F a c to r s assum ed to b e c o n t r o l l e d : A verage ag e o f g ro u p s , p r e v io u s d i e t and e x p o su re t o s u n l i g h t , se x . Expei1im e n ta l f a c t o r : N e g a tiv e c o n t r o l :

1000 I .U . V itam in D d a i l y .

A bsence o f V itam in D.

B a s is of c o n p a r is o n : Nuuber o f c a s e s i n e a c h group show ing a c t i v e l y a d v a n c in g r i c k e t s . C o n c lu s io n : Over a f iv e - m o n th p e r i o d , th e group o f c h i l d r e n f e d on a d i e t f r e e o f V ita m in D e x h i b i t a n i n c r e a s i n g number o f c a s e s o f a c t i v e l y a d v a n c in g r i c k e t s w h ile th e g ro u p g iv e n 1000 I .U . of V itam in D showed a p r o g r e s s i v e d e c r e a s e i n a c t i v e l y a d v a n c in g r i c k e t s , t h e r e b e in g no a c t i v e l y a d v a n c in g r i c k e t s i n the e x p e r im e n ta l group a t th e end o f 5 m onths. I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t a d e q u a te p o r t i o n s o f i r r a d i a t e d y e a s t w ould e l i m i n a t e r i c k s t s i n man. * %* * %* %

193 Experiment XXVII 211 young a d u l t s , m e d ic a l s t u d e n t s and n u r s e s , mean ag e 24 y e a r s , w ere d iv id e d by random i n t o t h r e e g ro u p s . Group A was g iv e n a w eek ly dose o f 2D 0 ,0 0 0 i n t e r n a t i o n a l u n i t s o f V itam in A i n th e form o f h a l i b u t o i l . I n a d d i t i o n e a c h dose c o n ta in e d 4 ,0 0 0 i n t e r n a t i o n a l u n i t s of V ita m in D. Group B an d C were c o n t r o l s ; Group B r e c e iv e d the v i o s t e r o l e q u iv a le n t of th e h a l i b u t o i l g iv e n Group A, w h ile Group G was g iv e n p l a i n m aise o i l (no V ita m in s A and D ). S p e c ia l e f f o r t s w ere made to have i n d i v i d u a l s t a k i n g p a r t i n t h e e x p e rim e n t ig n o r a n t o f t h e i r group i n o r d e r to p r e v e n t a p r e ju d ic e d p o i n t o f v ie w . To a i d i n t h i s , th e m a t e r i a l was w e ll d is g u i s e d i n a sm a ll am ount o f to m a to j u i c e (w h ich c o n t a i n s only a l i t t l e V ita m in A ). R e co rd s w ere k e p t of t h e number and d u r a t i o n o f c o ld s of th e p e o p le . The e x p e rim e n t l a s t e d from J a n u a r y , 1933> u n t i l th e f i r s t week of M arch, 1934.

Group A

Group B

Group C

Number o f I n d i v id u a ls

58

63

68

Number o f r e l a t i v e l y s e v e re c o ld s

55

51

52

L en g th of c o ld s i n p e r c e n t 10 d ay s o r l e s s 11-20 d a y s 2 1 -3 0 days 30 d a y s or more

6 5 .0 2 8 .4 5 .6 1 .0

6 0 .8 2 7 .6 7 .6 4 .0

5 4 .0 3 1 .4 8 .8 5 .8

A n a ly s is F a c to r s assum ed to b e c o n t r o l l e d : D ie t o f g ro u p s th ro u g h o u t e x p e rim e n t, b i a s o f i n d i v i d u a l s , s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o c o ld s . E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r s : 200 ,0 0 0 I .U . V ita m in A w eekly w i t h 4000 I .U . V ita m in D w eek ly . N e g a tiv e c o n t r o l :

M aise o i l (no V itam in s A or D ).

B a s is o f c o m p a riso n : Number o f se v e re c o l d s , d u r a t i o n o f c o ld s i n p e r c e n t. C o n c lu s io n : M assive d o sag e of V ita m in A d o e s n o t d e c r e a s e th e number o f c o ld s w i t h in t h i s h ig h ly s e l e c t e d popu­ l a t i o n : h o w ev er, th e d u r a t i o n o f c o ld s i s somewhat l e s s . C om parisons betw een Group B a n a C a r e somewhat c o n f l i c t ­ in g .

..

j

194

N o te :

Inasm uch a s v ita m in d e f i c i e n c y i s more e a s i l y d i s ­ c e r n i b l e i n v e ry young o r g a n is m s , c o n c lu s io n s m ust be r e s t r i c t e d t o t h i s s p e c i a l p o p u l a t i o n . F u r t h e r , th e d i e t of t h i s f a v o r e d group may b e assum ed t o have co n ­ t a i n e d V ita m in A so t h a t th e V itam in A d o sa g e m ust b e c o n s id e r e d a s a d d i t i o n a l to noxw al d i e t r a t h e r t h a n t o a b a s ic d i e t ( d e f i c i e n t i n V ita m in A ). * * * * * * * E x p e rim e n t XXVIII

C a ro te n e (V ita m in A) o c c u rs i n h a y . Hay was c u re d u n d e r d i f f e r e n t c o n d itio n s of tim e a n d te m p e r a tu r e . The amount of c a r o te n e p r e s e n t and the p e r c e n t o f d i g e s t i b l e p r o t e i n was d e t exm ined.

T em p era tu re (®F)

Time o f E xposure

C a ro te n e p e r 100 gram s M illig ra m s

320

10 m in . 60 min*

25*7 4*7

82*9 4 6 .4

356

10 min* 60 min*

1 6 .8 2 .0

8 3 .4 27*8

392

10 m in. 60 m in .

7 .7 .0

4 1 .3 9 .9

D ig e s tib le p r o t e i n ( p e r c e n t)

A n a ly s is C o n tr o l f a c t o r s :

Hay, tim e e x p o su re .

E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r :

T e m p era tu re s o f 320°F, 3 5 6 °F , 392°F .

B a s is o f c o m p a riso n : C aro ten e c o n te n t and p e r c e n t o f d i ­ g e s tib le p ro te in . C o n c lu s io n : As e x p o su re t o h e a t i s in c r e a s e d from 10 t o 60 m in u te s , th e hay l o s e s c a ro te n e and d i g e s t i b l e p r o ­ t e i n . C u rin g hny a t a te m p e ra tu re of 3 2 0 °F . i s s u p e r io r t o 3 5 6 °F . and 392°F . w ith r e s p e c t to c a r o te n e and d i ­ g e s t i b l e p r o t e i n c o n te n t*

l?5

Experiment XXIX W hite L eghorn y e a r l i n g h e n s w ere fe d a b a s a l r a t i o n of th e f o llo w in g c o m p o s itio n : Ground w heat 1 5 .0 Wheat b ra n 1 0 .0 Steam ed bone m eal 2 .0 F in e o y s te r s h e l l s 4 .0 S a lt 0 .5

Cod l i v e r o i l 1 .0 - 2 .0 E i t h e r m eat s c r a p s , 1 0 .0 menhaden f i s h m e a l, 9 .0 o r c a s e in 7 .5 Y ellow c o rn t o make 100 p a r t s

The e f f e c t s of v a r i o u s a d d i t i o n s o f fo o d t o t h i s d i e t on h a t c h a b i l i t y a r e shown i n t h e t a b l e . Pen A d d itio n s to B asa^ Eggs (c a g e ) R a tio n s Set 1

None

F e rtile E ggs H atched

F e rtile

C h ick s H atch ed

no. 297

% 8 7 .9

no. 21

% 8 .0

2

3% l i v e r m eal

708

8 0 .9

486

8 4 .8

4

10% w heat se rm

520

9 1 .3

145

3 0 .5

5

2% w heat germ o il

310

9 0 .3

6

2 .1

7

5% d r i e d whey

504

272

6 4 .0

.8 4 .3

A n a ly s is C o n tr o l f a c t o r s :

W hite L eghorn y e a r l in g h e n s, b a s a l r a t i o n .

E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r s : 3% l i v e r m e a l, 10% w heat germ , 2% w h e a t germ o i l , 5% d r i e d w hey. N e g a tiv e c o n t r o l :

B a s a l d i e t aLone

C o n c lu s io n : F e r t i l i t y o f eg g s p ro d u c e d b y h e n s on a l l d i e t s v a ry no more th a n 11 p e r c e n t ; h o w ev er, 3% l i v e r m eal su p p le m e n t g i v e s h ig h h a t c h a b i l i t y . The o th e r a d d i t i o n s a re u n s a tis f a c to r y f o r th e n e x t b e s t d i e t r e s u l t s i n o n ly 2 o u t o f 3 eg g s h a tc h in g . I t i s p ro b a b le t h a t l i v e r m eal c o n t a i n s a s u b s ta n c e n e c e s s a r y f o r s a t i s ­ fa c to ry h a tc h a b ility ( r ib o fla v in ) . * * * * * * * E x p e rim e n t XXX I n Lake E r i e , w h i t e f i s h spawn i n l a t e November when de­ c re a s in g w a te r te m p e r a tu r e s r e a c t a b o u t 6°C . Soon th e la k e

196 f r e e z e s o v e r. T h e r e a f t e r , t h e e g g s i n th e ic e - c o v e r e d w a te r d e v e lo p a t te m p e r a tu re s o nly s l i g h t l y above f r e e z i n g f o r a p e r i o d o f a b o u t 4 m o n th s. The peak o f h a tc h in g o c c u rs i n th e g o rin g when t h e te m p e r a tu re o f th e w a te r a p p ro a c h e s 6°C. I n t h i s stu d y eggs of th e w h i t e f i s h w ere in c u b a te d a t s p e c i f i c te m p e r a tu r e s and m o r t a l i t y , h a t c h a b i l i t y , and a b ­ n o r m a l i t i e s o f th e embryos w ere s t u d i e d . I n c u b a tio n te m p e r a tu r e s D egrees C e n tig ra d e 0 .5

2 .0

4

6

8

10

M o rta lity , p e r c e n t (a ) P r i o r t o h a tc h in g s ta g e (b ) D u rin g h a tc h in g s ta g e ( c ) T o ta l

2 6 .3 3 8 .0 1 .1 4 .0 2 7 .4 4 2 .0

4 0 .0 2 7 .5 3 4 .4 6 3 .O 1 .4 1 4 .0 4 6 .8 3 6 .4 4 1 .4 4 1 .5 8 1 .2 9 9 .4

Eggs h a tc h e d a l i v e p e r c e n t

7 2 .7 5 8 .0

5 8 .6 5 8 .5 1 8 .8

E s tim a te s em bryos a l i v e a t h a tc h in g s ta g e t h a t were a b n o m a l, p e r c e n t

0

0

1

10

25

0 .6

50

L e n g th s i n M illim e te r s of Newly H atched W h ite f is h in c u ­ b a te d a t V a rio u s C o n sta n t T e m p era tu re s D e g ree s C. 10°

8°

6°

40

11 - 12

8 - 9 .5

2° 11 - 13

0 .5 ° 12 - 14

A n a ly s is C o n tr o l f a c t o r s

W h ite f is h e g g s .

F a c to r s assum ed to be c o n t r o l l e d : pH o f w a te r , oxygen i n w a te r , m in e r a l s a l t s i n w a te r . B a s is of c o m p a riso n : m a litie s .

H a t c h a b i l i t y , m o r t a l i t i e s , a b n o r­

197

E x p e rim e n ta l f a c t o r s : T e m p era tu re s I n D eg rees C e n tig ra d e 0 .5 2.0 4 .0 6.0 8.0 10.0 C o n c lu s io n : I c o n c lu d e t h a t o f th e in c u b a tio n te m p e ra tu re s s t u d i e d , o.5°C i s th e b e s t f o r h a t c h a b i l i t y o f w h ite f i s h e g g s , te m p e r a tu re s o f 2 .0 * C , 4 .0 * C , and 6 . 0 - C a re a b o u t e q u a lly e f f e c t i v e f o r h a tc h in g th e s e e g g s , w h ile h a t c h a b i l i t y d e c r e a s e s a t 8.0*C and a t 10.0*C v e ry few o f th e eg g s h a tc h . Of th e eggs w hich h a tc h , no a b n o r­ m a l i t i e s a re p r e s e n t a t 0.5*C and 2.0*C and th e a b n o r­ m a l i t i e s i n c r e a s e from 4.0*C t o 10.0*C . N o te : W h ite f is h a r e fo u n d o n ly i n la k e s whose te m p e ra tu re s i n w in te r become r e l a t i v e l y low .

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