Economic Prehistory of the Central Andes 9780860545521, 9781407347097

Table of contents :
Cover
Copyright
Contents
List of Contributors
Introduction and Acknowledgments
Section 1
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11

Citation preview

Economic Prehistory of the Central Andes

edited by

Elizabeth S. Wing and Jane C. Wheeler

BAR International Series 427

1988

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S427, 1 9 88 : • Economic Prehistory of the Central Andes'. @The Indi vi dual Authors,

1988

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545521 paperback ISBN 9781407347097 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545521 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS P age I NTRODUCT ION J ane C . Whee ler SECT TON 1ECONO M IES ALONG THE CENTRAL COAST FROM 5 000 B .C . TO I NCA T IMES P rece ram ic A rchaeobo tany o f Huaca P r ia ta : I nve s t iga t ion sf r om 1 946 t o 1 986 Robe r t McK .B i rd

2 3

P rece ram ic An ima lU se a t Hua ca P r ie ta D iana G . Ma t th ie sen

1 8

P rece ram ic An ima lU se o nt h eC en t ra l C oa s t E l izabe th J .R e i tz

3 1

P rece ram ic t oE a r ly F o rma t ive S ub s i s tence o nt he C en t ra l C oa s t G lendon H . We i r ,R ober tA . B enf e r , a nd J ohn G .J one s

5 6

L a te P rece ram ic t h rough E a r ly Hor izon S ub s i s tence i nt h eC a sma Va l ley S he l ia P ozor sk ia nd T homa sP ozor sk i

9 5

T he F i she rmen o fC h incha : O c cupa t iona lS pec ia l iza t ion o nt he L a te P reh i span ic Andean C oa s t Dan ie lH .S andwe i s s

9 9

Ma r ine F ood S ou rce sf o rP reh i s tor ic C oa s ta lP eruv ian C ame l ids :E v idence a nd I mp l i ca t ions M ichae lJ .D eN i ro S ECT ION 2H IGHLAND ECONO M IES AS S EEN AT P IRURU I N THE DEPARTMENT OF HUANUCO AND AT THE CAJA MARCA BAS IN P reh i s to r ic S ubs i s tence i nt h eN o r th H igh land so fP e ru :E a r ly Ho r izon t o L a te I n t e rmed ia te Me lody S h imada P im ru : AP re l im ina ry R epor to nt he A rchaeo log ica lB o tany o f aH igh land Andean S i te E l i sabe th B onn ier a nd L aw rence K ap lan S ECT ION 3PUNA ECONO M IES AS S EEN AT THE PRECERA M IC S ITES I N J UN IN AND THE I NCA S ITE OF HUANUCO PA MPA

19

1 30

1 31

1 48

1 53

Hun t ing a nd Herd ing E conom ie so nt he J un in P una K a the r ine M . Moo re

1 54

U se o fA n ima ls b yt he I nca a sS een a t Huanuco P ampa E l izabe th S . Wing

1 67

1 ]1

L IST OF CONTR IBUTORS Robe r tA .B en f e r , D epa r tmen to f An th ropo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fM i s sou r i ,C o lumb ia MO 6 5211 R obe r t McK .B i rd , B ox 5 142 , R a le igh NC 2 7650 E l i sabe th B onn ie r , I n s t i tu to F rance sd eE s tud io s And ino s , C a s i l la 1 8 -1217 ,L ima 1 8P e ru M ichae lJ .D eN i ro , D epa r tmen to fE a r th a nd S pace S c ience s , Un ive r s i ty o fC a l i fo rn ia ,L os Ange le s CA 9 0024 J ohn G .J one s , D epa r tmen to f An th ropo logy ,T exa s A & M Un ive r s i ty ,C o l lege S ta t ion TX 7 7843 L aw rence K ap lan , D epa r tmen to fB io logy , Un ive r s i ty o f Ma s sachu se t t s , B o s ton MA 0 2125 D iana G . Ma t th iesen , D epa r tmen to fZ oo logy , Un iver s i ty o fF lor ida , Ga ine sv i l le FL 3 2601 K a the r ine M . Moo re , P eabody Mu seum , Ha rva rd Un ive r s i ty ,C ambr idge MA 0 2138 S he l ia P ozo r sk i , D epa r tmen to fP sycho logy ,P an Amer ican Un iver s i ty ,E d inbu rg TX 7 8539 T homa sP ozo r sk i , D epa r tmen to fP sycho logy ,P an Amer ican Un ive r s i ty ,E d inbu rg TX 7 8539 E l izabe th J .R e i tz , D epa r tmen to f An th ropo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fG eo rg ia ,A then s GA 3 0602 D an ie lH .S andwe i s s , D epa r tmen to f An th ropo logy , C o rne l l Un ive r s i ty ,I t ha ca NY 1 4853 Me lody S h imada , P eabody Mu seum , Ha rva rd Un ive r s i ty ,C ambr idge MA 0 2138 G lendon H . We i r , D epa r tmen to f An th ropo logy ,T exa s A& M Un ive r s i ty ,C o l lege S ta t ion TX 7 7843 J ane C . Whee le r , D epar tmen to f An th ropo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fC o lo rado ,B ou lde r CO 8 0309 -0233 E l izabe th S .W ing , F lo r ida S ta te Mu seum , Un iver s i ty o fF lo r ida , G a ine sv i l le FL 3 2601

i v

I NTRODUCTION Du r ing t h e p a s t f ew y ea r s i mpo r tan t a dvance s h ave b een made i n s t ud ie s o f z oo log ica l a nd b o tan ica l m a te r ia ls e x cava ted f r om C en t ra l Andean a r cheo log ica l s i te s . T he se s t ud ies p rov ide d e ta i led i n fo rma t ion o n p reh i s to r i c s ub s i s tence , p l an t c u l t iva t ion , a nd a n ima l h u sband ry . T oge the r t h ey s erve a s ab a s is f o r d ocumen t ing t h e p roce s s o f e conom ic d eve lopmen t f r om e a r ly h un t ing , f i sh ing , a nd g a ther ing t h rough i n ten s ive a g r icu l tu ra lp roduc t ion a tt h et ime o ft he S pan i sh c onque s t . T he s t a te o fo ur k now ledge o fp reh i s to r ic p l an t a nd a n ima l u se sw a ss umma r ized , a bou tt h i r ty y ea r s a go , b ys uch i mpor tan t p ub l ica t ion s a st h e E thnobo tany o fP re -Co lumb ian P eru b y Ma rga re t T ow le ( 1961 ) a nd t he F auna a nd E thnozoo logy o f S ou th Ame r ica b y R aymond G i lmo re ( 1 950 ) . W i th t he s u bsequen t g r ea t ly i n c rea sed a c t iv i ty i n t he s ub f ie lds o f p a leoe thnobo tany a nd z ooa rcheo log ya nd t he i n t r in s ic i n te re s t i nt h i s i mpo r tan tc en te r o fp l an t a nd a n ima l d omes t ica t ion , t h en umbe r s o fs t ud ie s o ft he se ma te r ia l sh a s g rown e normou s ly . I n o rde rt ot ake s t ock o fs ome o f t h i s r e sea rch , w e o rgan ized as ympo s ium o n t h i s s ub jec t a t t h e S oc ie ty f o r Amer ican A rchaeo logy a nnua l mee t ing t ha tw a sh e ld May 1 4 , 1 985 i nD enve r , C o lo rado . T he p a r t i c ipan t s a tt h i s s ympo s ium p repa red p ape r s wh ich h ave n ow b een b rough t u p t o d a te t oi n c lude t h e i rl a tes t r e su l t sf o r i n c lu s ion i nt h i s s ympos ium v o lume . Efo r t sw e re made t o i n c lude b o th b o tan ica l a nd z oo log ica l s t ud ie s f r om t he t h ree p r inc ipa l e co sy s tem s o ft he c en t ra l Andes , t he p una , h igh land v a l ley s , a nd c oa s t . Many i mpor tan t s t ud ie s a r e n o t i n c luded s imp ly b ecau se o ft he c on s tra in t s i mposed b y t he s chedu le o f t h e m ee t ing d u r ing wh ich t he s ympo s ium w a s h e ld . T h i s s hou ld n o tb ev i ewed a st he f i na lw o rd o nt he s ub jec tb u tr a the r as t ep i nt h ep rog re s so ft he a na ly s i s o f p lan t a nd a n ima l r ema in s a nd t h e i n s igh t s u ch i n te rd i s c ip l ina ry s t ud ie s c an h ave o n t he u nder s tand ing o ft he f u e ls f o rt he c u ltu ra l d eve lopmen ti nt h i si mpo r tan ta r ea . J ane C . Whee le r J une 1 988

G i lmore , R a ymond M . 1 950

F auna a nd e thnozoo logy o f S ou th Ame r ica . P p . 3 45 -464 , i n Handbook o f S ou th Amer ican I nd ian s ( J .H . S tewa rd e d . ) . Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion B u reau o f Ame r ican E thno logy B u l le t in 1 43 , Wa sh ing ton DC T ow le , Ma rga re tA . 1 961 .T he e thnobo tany o fp re -Co lumb ian P eru .A ld ine P ub l i sh ing C o .C h icago , 1 80 p p .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS We a r e m os t i ndeb ted t o K a r la B o swo r th f o r t r ans fo rm ing t he c on t r ibu ted p ape r s w i th a n o p t ica l s canne r t o c ompu te r d i sk a nd t o D ianna C a rve r f o r f o rma t t ing a nd p r in t ing t he e d i ted c hap ters . T h i sv o lume c ou ld n o th av eb een p roduced w i thou tt h e i rh e lp .

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S ECT ION 1 ECONO M IES ALONG THE CENTRAL COAST FRO M 5 000 B . C . TO I NCA T I MES T he c oa s t o fP eru i sa n a r ea o fs ha rp c on t ra s t s , f r om as ea o fs upe r la t ive r i chnes st oo ne o ft he d r ies t d e se r t s i nt h e w or ld . T o q uo te R osa F ung ( 1 988 ) " the r o le o f t he s e a i n t he l i f e o f t he se a nce s to ra l s oc ie t ie s , a tt he d awn o ft he i r c i v i l iza t ion , i su nden iab le . I t s s ho re sf o s tered n o t o n ly t he g row th o ft he f i sh ing v i l lage s , b u t a l so t he c on s truc t ion o ft emp le s ." I ti sa l so o n ly w i th t h e u se o f t he n ewe s t a r cheo log ica l r e cove ry t e chn ique s t ha t t h e f u l l e x ten t o f t he p reh i s tor ic u s e o f t he se r e sou rce sc an b e s e en . A t t h e s i te o fE l P a ra i so w i th i t s ma jo r a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tures , f o r e xamp le , t h ep r ima ry a n ima l r ema in s a r e t hose o fh e r r ing a nd a nchov ie st ha tc an o n ly b er e covered b ys i ev ing w i th f i ne ( 1 mm ) g auge s c reen . T he se s ma l l s choo l ing f i she sa r e a tt he b a se o ft he f ood c ha in . T hey s uppo r tt he h i gh p opu la t ion s o fc a rn ivo rou s f i she s , s ea b i rd s , a nd m a r ine mamma ls wh i ch w e re a l so e xp lo i ted b y c oa s ta l p eop le s . T hough t he c oa s t i se x ceed ing ly d r y i ti si n te r sper sed b y s e a sona l ly f l ow ing r i ve r s a nd p a tche s o fv ege ta t ion k nown a sl oma s wh ich o we t h e i r g row th t o i n te r cep t ion o f f og t ha t d r if t s i n f r om t he c o ld Humbo ld t c u r ren t . A rcheo log ica l r e sea rch h a s s hown t ha t t h i s s e c t ion o ft he P a c i f ic c oa s ti sn o t a ta l t h e i nho sp i tab le r eg ion i tm ay a ppea rt ob e b u th a sf u rn i shed t he r e sou rce sn eces sa ry f o re a r ly s eden ta ry l i f e a nd d eve lopmen to fc omp lex s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion .

F ung P ineda ,R o sa 1 988 T he L a te P rece ram ic a nd I n i t ia l P e r iod . P p . 6 7 -96 i n P e ruv ian P reh i s to ry ( R . W . K ea t ing e d . ) . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s ,C ambr idge E ng land .

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CHAPTER 1 PRECERAMIC ARCHAEOBOTANY OF HUACA PRIETk I NVESTIGAT IONS FROM 1 946 TO 1 986 Robe r t McK . B ird , B ox 5 142 , R a le igh , NC 2 7650

ABSTRACT E xcava t ion b y J un ius B . B i rd o f a3 00 m3 p i t u s ing a s em i iso la ted b lock t e chn ique r evea led n ea r ly 2 0 ,000 f r agmen ts o fp l an t r ema ins a nd o ver 7 700 p i eces o ft e x t i le , b a ske t ry , a nd c ord . L ima b eans , t h ree , p oss ib ly f ou r c ucu rb i t s pec ies , ap epper , g uava , c o t ton , a nd many o ther s pec ies d a te b ack a tl e a s tt o a bou t2 450 B .C . ( unco r rec ted ) . A t a bou t2 325 B .C . t here w a s as h if tt o more g ourd s he l l , c ucu rb i t s t ems , b eans ( two g enera ) a nd t o f ewer c o t ton s eeds . T here w ere d ec rea ses i n a bundance o fl ucuma a nd a ch ira b e tween 2 200 a nd 2 000 B .C . I n i t ia l P o t tery p er iod d epos i t s n ea rby s how i n t roduc t ion o fp eanu ts a nd n ew s qua sh , c o t ton , a nd p epper f o rms .

I NTRODUCT ION T he g ray , d ry p receram ic m idden o f Huaca P r ie ta j u t s a brup t ly a bove t he b each l ine o f t he Ch icama V a l ley . I ti st he g rea te s t o ft he P eruv ian c oa s ta l C o t ton P receram ic s i tes b o th i ni t s d ep th a nd i nt he u nder s tand ing o fi t s d ebr is . A f ter f o r ty w eek s o ff i e ldwork a nd f o r ty y ea rs o fl a bora tory s t udy i th a sy i e lded aw ea l th o fi n forma t ion ,b u t much r ema ins t ob e d one . F or t e nw eek si n 1 946 J un ius B ird e xcava ted t wo l a rge p i t si nt he m idden u ncover ing e normous q uan t i t ies o f t ex t i les , c rude ly w o rked s t ones , p lan t s , b ones , a nd s he l ls . F our a dd i t iona l e xcava t ions w ere m ade i n c eram ic -bea r ing d ebr is t o t he n or th o f t he m idden d ur ing a no ther 1 w eek s o ff i e ld r e sea rch ;f u r ther n o te t ak ing , f i e ld c l a s s i f ica t ion , c a ta logu ing ,p ack ing a nd v i s i tors o ccup ied 1 8w eek s more ! D e ta i led s t udy o f t he t ex t i les f o rms t he b u lk o f s ubsequen t a na ly s is , b u t a l l t he ma ter ia l r ece ived c ons iderab le a t ten t ion f r om B i rd . T he p lan t s w ere s en t t o s pec ia l is t s who f ocused o n t he c u l t iva ted p l an ts a nd p ub l ished as e r ies o f p aper s . C ons iderab le b o tan ica l i n forma t ion i si n B ird , Hy s lop , a nd S k inner ( 1985 : 1 01 -105 , 2 20 -240 ) . A l though n ow , f o r ty y ea r s l a ter , t he a na ly s is a nd p ub l ica t ion a re l a rge ly f i n ished , t he c o l lec t ions , n o tes , c ha r t s , mov ies , p ho tog raph s , t apes , a nd c ompu ter f i l es r ema in i n N ew York a t t he Amer ican Museum o f Na tura l H is tory f o r t hose i n tere s ted i n d i scover ing s ome n ew f a c t a bou t t h is f a sc ina t ing a r ray o f ma ter ia l . Many o f t he w i ld p lan ts r ema in u n iden t if ied ; e v idence a bou t t he i r u ses a nd p repa ra t ions n eeds much more s t udy . B ecause t h e p lan ts a re t oo c omp lex a n a r ray f o r c omp le te c overage h ere , t he c u l t iva ted p lan t s a nd f ood c rops w i l l b e empha s ized .

THE S ITE T he Huaca P r ie ta p receram ic m idden l i es o n at ongue o fs of tc ong lomera te r ock , 4 6m a bove p resen ts ea l e ve l . I tr i ses 1 2 .5 m a bove a nd r uns 1 25 m a l ong t h is b a se i n at r unca ted , d eep ly s c a r red c one . T he re wa s c ons iderab le e ros ion o f t he s ou thwes tern s i de when s ea l e ve l t empora r i ly s h if ted -

u pward s ome t ime b etween t he C o t ton P receram ic p er iod a nd t he p resen t ( B i rd 1 948a ,b ; P ozor sk i a nd P ozor sk i 1 979b ) . How much d amage w a s d one b y t he E a r ly Hor izon t s unam i i sd eba tab le ( B i rd 1 948a ,b , 1 951 ; B ird e ta l . 1 985 ; R . B i rd 1 987 ) . Wind h a s l ong s i nce c a rr ied s o me ma ter ia l t o t he n or th s i de , b u t a s s a l t f r om s ea -spray a ccumu la ted i nt he m idden a nd t he u pper me ter o n t he w es t t u rned a sh a rd a sc oncre te ,w ind e ros ion w a sg rea t ly d im in i shed . A l a rge p i t w a s o nce d ug i nt he c en ter o ft he m idden i n as ea rch f o r t r ea sures . T h i s r evea led many s ub te r ranean s t ruc tures made o f c obb les s e t i n h a rd mud mor ta r , p robab ly made e spec ia l ly s t rong b y u se o f s ea w a ter . More s uch s t ruc tu res w ere f ound a bove t he n o r th f l ank o ft he m idden b u t n o t n o r th o f ar e ta in ing w a l l a l ong t h is f l ank . T he d eep d epos i ts b e low t he w a l l w ere f o rmed a s r e fuse w a s t h rown t o t he l e e s i de , r ecord ing t he h i s tory o ft he s i te w i th r e la t ive ly l i t t le d i s turbance . O f c ou r se , o lder ma ter ia l f r om t he h ab i ta t ion a r ea c ou ld h ave b een d ug u p i n c ons truc t ing a s ub ter ranean r oom , m ixed w i th c urren t t r a sh a nd t h rown o ver t he w a l l , b u t movemen t o f more r e cen t m a te r ia l d ownwa rd w a sp robab ly m in ima l .

HISTORY OF EXCAVATION The two largest excavations were in the preceramic debris of the midden, on the west and north (Bird 1951; Bird et al. 1985:29-43). The smaller western one, HP-2, was dug to test the consistency and structure of debris in the older strata (Bird 1948b:fig. 5-6). It yielded little perishable material. A north-south exploratory trench on the north side was dug from the late, ceramic-bearing Gallinazo deposits to the top, past the retaining wall. Excavation HP-3 consisted of part of this, another trench 4 m to the east, and, between the trenches, a semi-isolated block 11 m long. The retaining wall formed the upper part of the south side (Bird et al. 1985:fig. 20-23). The two trenches were always kept lower than the block, reducing the possibility of excavational intrusion. A wheelbarrow ramp on the north side was taken out later in separate units. Strata were carefully followed in defining the layers, which were subdivided where thick or variable in consistency (Bird et al. 1985:fig. 20). The uppermost layer in HP-3 yielded Gallinazo ceramics dating A D. 20 - 220. Tsunami-deposited cobblestones, just beneath, tapered to nothing up the slope. Layer C was hard packed, seemingly an aeolian deposit, without any observable intrusion of ceramics or other later material. The next 14 layers, all steeply sloping (20-30 ° ) and averaging about 35 cm thick, were roughly similar: mixed ash, firestones, shells, plant remains, textiles, burials, etc. Layers R, S, and T were thinner and more horizontal with little perishable material and increasing amounts of soil. Layer U was sterile soil on the conglomerate base. The final depth at the south wall, which was inclined at about 68 degrees, was 11 m. The north side was 6 m deep. The bottom measured 4.9 by 4.2 m, and the estimate of volume removed, including the trenches, is 300 cubic meters. Ceramic-bearing deposits of many cultures extend 2 km north of the midden, high and dry on the low conglomerate mesa. Bird placed an excavation at the base of the midden north flank finding Gallinazo ceramics and maize (Bird and Bird 1980). Three more excavations were dug 100 to 150 m further north encountering Cupisnique (600? - 100 B. C.), Pre-Cupisnique (1050? - 900 B. C.), and Guaftape (1600? - 1050? B. C.) deposits over a thin Cotton Preceramic layer (Bird et al. 1985:46-50). Long trenches were used to start two of the three (HP-4 and HP-5), then areas were selected for lateral expansion of the excavations. The objective was to find stratified refuse, but many constructions impeded the search. The midden was 3-4 m deep in the three pits; the construction ranged from finely finished to coarse, using adobe or mortared cobblestone, placed on the surface or underground (Bird et al. 1985:fig. 31). Many finely made artifacts were found. CULTURAL REMAINS The most prominent manufactured materials in HP-3 were the 2648 fabrics made without heddles using twining, looping, netting and finger-weaving techniques (Bird et al.1985:92-218; Skinner 1986). Many are intricately decorated with structural designs but need microscopic study to determine the pattern of warp manipulation because contrasting colors are almost always lacking. Some show pattern relationships to modern warp-patterned textiles from the Central and South­ Central Andes. Only a few of the many thousand pieces of gourd were decorated, but two whole, very small gourds, from the only well-appointed burial out of forty, bore complex figures (Bird 1963; Bird et al. 1985:70-74). Several people have discussed the apparent similarity of these to Valdivia ceramics of the same time, ea. 2300 B.C. Gourds were made into bowls, fishnet floats, discs, and ladles. About 3800 stone artifacts came out of excavation HP-3 and 4800 out of HP-2, generally flakes and percussion-flaked cobblestones, without any pressure flaking or ground stone. Sandals, basketry, matting, nets, floats, net weights, bodkins, a needle, a pendant, and three fishhooks are the more notable of the rest of the artifacts. Firestones were very common, dominating the down slope portions of some layers. Apparently they were used in pit cooking, today called pachamanca in Peru, or for boiling in gourds.

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DAT ING R ad ioca rbon d a te s f o r Hua ca P r ie ta w e re a mong t he f i r s t r epo r ted f r om S ou th Ame r ica ( B i rd 1 951 ) . S even f o rmed t h e b a s i s o fa n e s t ima ted s pan o f2 550 -1225 B .C . f o r t he p rece ram ic m idden , s i gn i f ican t ly g r ea ter t han t ha t n ow u sed f o r t he C o t ton P rece ram ic ( 2 500 -1750 B .C . , u nco r rec ted ; P a t ter son a nd Mose ley 1 968 ) . B i rd h ad e a r l ie r ( 1 948a ) made a no the r e s t ima te o f i n cep t ion d a te b a sed o n s t ra t ig raphy a nd e s t ima ted r a te s o f d epo s i t ion : 3 000 B .C . I n 1 984 t h ree n ew r ad ioca rbon d a te s w ere o b ta ined f r om g ou rds f r om e x cava t ion HP -3 o n t h e t heo ry t ha t af r equen t ly f ound a nnua l , w i thou t t he o dd p hy s io log y o f s ome p l an t s l i ke ma ize ( B rowman 1 981 ) , w ou ld p rov ide a f i rmer b a s i s f o r d a t ing t han w ood w h ich m igh t h ave c ome f r om ac en tu r ies -o ld t r ee o r h ave b een r eu sed l ong a f te r i n i t ia l d epos i t ion . However , t h e o b served d a te s ( 1780 , 1 320 a nd 2 010 ± 100 B .C . ) o n ly p a r t ly m a tch t hose e xpec ted f o rt he u n i t s ( E l -E2 : 1 800 ,J 3 : 2 050 ,a nd M :2 200 B .C .r e spec t ive ly ) . A l l d a te s h ere a r e u ncor rec ted b ecause o f t h e v aga r ies o f t he c o r rec t ing s cheme s ( B rowman 1 981 ; R . B i rd 1 987 ) . T he t r ue d a te o fi n cep t ion o ft h eC o t ton P rece ram ic may b ee s t ima ted a s2 900 3 500 B .C . a nd o ft e rm ina t ion a s1 900 -2500 B .C . ( K le in e ta l . 1 982 :f ig .3 D ,E ) .

ENV IRONMENT T he m idden l i es 1 40 m f r om t h e b each , 3 . 5 km f r om t h e R io C h icama a nd 2 0 km f r om t h e f oo th i l ls o ft h e Andes . S t ra igh t o u tf r om t he m idden i s ar ocky a r ea e xpo sed a tv ery l ow t i de sw he re v a r iou ss h e l l f i sh c an b eg a the red . T he b each c hanges t here f r om c obb le s tone so nt h e s ou th t os and , t h e l a t ter a r ea w i th a s ha l lowe r g rad ien t a nd a ng led a way f r om mos t w ave s . T h i s p rox im i ty t o s e ve ra l ma r ine h ab i ta t si sr ef lec ted i nt he z ooa rchaeo log ica l r e co rd : s he l ls o ft h ec ho ro mu s se lw h ich i su sua l ly f o und s eve ra l m e ter s d eep , p i ece s o f ma r ine c r ab , a nd b one s o fs ea ls a nd p engu in sw e re f ound i n t h e m idden ( B i rd e ta l . 1 985 ; Ma t th ie sen c hap te r 2t h i s v o lume ) . No t a l t he se s pec ies c ou ld h ave l i v ed i n t he n ea r v i c in i t y , a l though t h e o f sho re r ocky a r ea w a s p robab ly h i ghe r a tt ha t t ime . S ome m ay h ave w a shed a sho re i n ju red Io nce c augh t as i ck p e l ican t h e re . -

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A ma r sh y a rea w i th t o tora ( S c i rpus c a l if o r n i cu s s p . t a to ra ) j u s t t o t h e s ou thea s t i sd ue t o f r eshwa te r s e epage a tp resen t , b u t w ha t t he a r ea w a s l i ke f ou r m i l lenn ia a go , b e fo re i r r iga t ion , i s u nknown . F l a t v a l ley b o t tom t e r ra in l i es b e tween t he m idden a nd t h e r i ve r , p robab ly i r regu la r ly s upp l ied w i th w a ter b e fo re i r r iga t ion , b u t p erhap s w e l l s upp l ied w i th u se fu l p l an t s . I ft he s ea l e ve l r o se f o r aw h i le , a sp roposed t oe xp la in t he e roded w e s te rn s i de o ft he m idden ( B i rd e ra l . 1 985 :13 1 6 ) , t h is l ow a r ea w ou ld h ave b een u nderwa te r . T he s u i tab i l i ty o f l a nd n ea r t he m idden f o r g a rden ing a l so v a r ied w i th t he a moun t o fs ea s p ray l a nd ing o n t h e s o i l s a l ty s u r fa ce s o i l s e em s t o h ave b een s c raped of a ts ome t ime a nd p i led i r regu la r ly i n mounds 1 4 mh i gh . T oday l i t t le i sg rown i nt he i mmed ia te a rea ,e x cep ta l ong amodern d ra inage d i tch . - -

H ISTORY OF ARCHAEOBOTAN ICAL S TUD IES Over 2 0 ,000 p ieces o f p l an t w e re r e cove red f r om e x cava t ion HP -3 . T hese w ere d i s t r ibu ted t h roughou t t h e m idden e xcep t i n l a ye r s B( t he t s unam i c obb le s tone s ) a nd T ( t he l owe s t c u ltu ra l d epos i t ) w i th i n crea s ing ly p oo r p re serva t ion f r om l a ye r 0 t o t he b o t tom . T he re a r e n o m a jo r c hanges i n t h e s pec ie s a r ray , b u t s ome r a re s pec ie s h ave a s po t ty d i s t r ibu t ion a nd s ome s pec ie s ' f r equenc ie sc hange s i gn i f ican t ly ( Tab le 1 ;B i rd e ta l . 1 985 : tab le 2 1 ) . S ome u n i t sh ad al ow d en s i ty o f p l an t s ( 02 ,H 2 -12 ,e t c . )e spec ia l ly w he re f i re s tone s made u pt h eb u lk o ft h ed ebr i s . T he c u l t iva ted a nd o the r m a jo r f ood s pec ie s f r om t h e C o t ton P rece ram ic p e r iod a t Huaca P r ie ta i n c lude c o t ton , b o t t le g ou rd , t wo s qua sh /pumpk in s pec ie s , ap eppe r , L ima a nd j a ck b ean s , a ch i ra ,b u lru sh t uber s , l u cuma , g uava , a nd c i rue la d e l f r a i le o r c ansaboca . A l though s ome m ay n o t h ave b een t e nded , a l l e xcep t b u lru sh w e re p robab ly i n t roduced b y man t o t he a r ea a nd mo s t w e re p robab ly d ome s t ica ted . W i th in t h i s p e r iod , t hey p rov ide l i t t le e v idence o f morpho log ica l c hange d ue t os e lec t ion ,b u tt he re a r e o cca s iona l s i gn i f ican tc hange si nf r equency . T he l i s t o fp lan t s p resen ted o n T ab le 1i sn o t d ef in i t ive ; mo s t o fi tc ome s f r om f i e ld a na ly s i s , u pda ted a nd p l o t ted o n ac ha r t a bou t 3 0 y ea r s a go b y G a ry V e sce l iu s . D a ta f r om a r t ic le s a nd

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u npub l ished n o tes h ave b een u sed t o c or rec t i t . S pec ies i d en t if ica t ions n eed t ob e c hecked . B i ts o f c on sumed p lan t s w ere f ound i n many f e ca l a nd i n te s t ina l s amp les , i n c lud ing 2 8 f r om o ne b ur ia l ( Ca l len a nd C ameron 1 960 ; b e low ) ; t he se d o n o ta ppea r i nt he t a b le . L es s s e cure u n i t s a r e om i t ted , t hose a s soc ia ted w i th t r enches a nd r amps . J un ius B ird b egan t he s t udy o f t hese ma ter ia ls a lmos t a s s oon a s t hey w ere e xcava ted h e a sked t he f i e ld c rew f o r t he i r l o ca l n ames a nd u ses . He s t a r ted a c ompa ra t ive c o l lec t ion , b o th p ersona l ly a nd b y s o l ic i t ing s pec imen s . Many c a tegor ies w ere d if eren t ia ted , a nd ma te r ia ls w ere s or ted b efore s h ipp ing wh ich made t he r e covery o fi n forma t ion c on s iderab ly e a s ier . -

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Mos to ft he c o l lec t ion h a st r ave led w ide ly s i nce a r r iv ing i n t h e Un i ted S ta tes . Abou th a lf w en t t o Hugh C u t ler a t t he F ie ld Museum i n C h icago i n 1 949 , a nd w a s t aken b y h im t o t h e M issour i B o tan ica l Ga rden , S t . L ou is . T ha t p a r t a nd t he r e s t w en t t o Ma rga re t T ow le a t t h e B otan ica l Museum , Ha rva rd , i n 1 958 a nd 1 960 a nd a l w a s r e turned t o t h e Amer ican Museum o f Na tura l H is tory i n 1 983 . Numerous b o tan is t s h ave b een c onsu l ted a bou t t he i d en t if i ca t ion s a nd s evera l i mpor tan t a r t ic les r e su l ted , a t l e a s t i n p a r t , f r om t h is work ( Kap lan 1 965 ; P ickersg i l l 1 979 ; S auer 1 964 ; S auer a nd K ap lan 1 969 ; S tephens 1 975 ; Wh i taker 1 983 ; Wh i taker a nd B ird 1 949 ) . Mos t r ecen t ly t he s t af f o f t he N ew York B o tan ica l Ga rden l ooked o ver u n iden t if ied o r q ue s t ionab le ma ter ia l a nd i d en t if ied s evera l s pec ies , e spec ia l ly a s o -ca l led s apo te ( Cappar i s a ngu la ta ; C appa r idaceae ) . S evera l t a xa a re r epor ted f o r t he f i r s t t ime h ere o r i n t he n ew ly p ub l ished r epor t o n t he s i te e d i ted a nd a u thored i np a r tb yJ ohn H y s lop ( B ird e ta l . 1 985 ) whe re many p ho tograph so fa nd more i n forma t ion a bou t t hese a nd o ther ma ter ia ls c an b e f ound . Ih ave mea sured s o me o ft he s pec imen s a s ap os s ib le h e lp i n f u tu re c ompa r i sons . Good f i gures o f s ome t a xa , e spec ia l ly B unchos ia , C anava l ia , C anna , I nga , L ucuma , P e r sea , P haseo lus l u na tu s , P . v u lga r i s , ( 1961 ) .

a nd P s id ium a r e i n Tow le

M AIER IAL PLANT S PEC IES : CULT IVATED AND WILD C o t ton (Ma lvaceae ) :

T he Huaca P r ie ta p receram ic c o t ton , Go ss yp ium b arbad en se L . , w a s

c a refu l ly mea su red , d escr ibed , a nd i lus t ra ted b y S tephens ( 1975 ) . T he 9 2c omp le te s eed s f r o m HP 3a re 7 . 7 -8 .0 mm l ong , s ma l ler t han t he s eeds o f t he I n i t ia l P o t tery a nd E a r ly Hor izon p e r iods a t Huaca P r ie ta ( 7 .8 -8 .7 mm l ong ) a nd l a rger t han w i ld G . b arbad ense f r om w es tern E cuador a nd n or thern P eru ( 5 .9 mm ) . T he p receram ic s eeds a re a l f uzzy . T here a re a l so 1 28 i ncomp le te s eeds . A l l c o t ton f i be rs t e s ted a re w ider t han w i ld o nes a nd h ave at h inner w a l l , a nd c eram ic p e r iod f i bers a re w ider a nd t h inner s t i l l , o n t he a verage . T he c o lor s a re b rown , c hoco la te , a nd l i gh t b rown o r wh i te . A b o l l a nd t wo s egmen t s w ere r e covered f r om t he m idd le o f t he p receram ic d ebr i s (HP -3 u n i t J 2 ) . T he l a t ter mea sure 2 3 a nd 2 6 mm l ong , c on s iderab ly s hor ter t han c eram ic p er iod s egmen ts . T here i sn o e v idence o ft he o ther N ew Wo r ld c u l t iva ted c o t ton ( G . h i r su tum L . ) n or o f t he Amazon ian k idney c o t ton ( G . b arbad ense v a r . b ras i l iense (Mac f . ) Mauer . ) . Co t ton o ccurred i n a l l a yers t h rough l a yer R . C o t ton , a s w e l l a s b a s t , y a rn w a s u sed i n f abr ic s a nd t o p l y c ordage ( Sk inner 1 984 ) . C ane ( Poaceae ) : h a sn o tb een s t ud ied .

C af la b rava ( Gynenum s ag i t ta tum ( Aub i . ) B eauv . ) w a s f ound c ommon ly b u t

Gourds ( Cucurb i taceae ) : B o t t le g ourds ( Lag enar ia s i ce rar ia (Mo l . ) S tand l . ) w ere t he mo s t c ommon p l an t i t ems " over 1 ,000 s he l l f r agmen t s , 1 300 s eeds a nd a bou t5 50 p edunc le f r agmen t s" - .

w ere r e covered f r om p receram ic d ebr is (Wh i taker a nd B ird 1 949 :2 ) . T he f r u i t s v ary c on s ide rab ly i n s hape a nd s i ze . S ome h ave n a r row n eck s 1 5 cm l ong a nd b od ie s 1 2 cm i n d i ame ter . O ther s a re s phe r ica l . Many h ave s hor t b road n eck s . T hey w ere u sed a s f i shne t f l oa t s , b ow ls o r j a r s , d ipper s , a nd p lug s . One b ow l mea sures a n e s t ima ted 4 1 c m a c ros s a t t he r im , a no ther i s3 4 c m , b u t mos t b ow l o pen ings a re a bou t 2 2 c m i n d i ame ter . T h icknes ses a re i n t h e r ange o f2 -9 mm . Unc lass if ied c ucu rb i tp edunc les d i scus sed b e low a re p robab ly l a rge ly L agenar ia . Gourd s eeds i n c lude a tl e as tt wo

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t y pes , 6b y 1 4 mm a nd 9b y 1 7 mm w i th b a sa l p rotuberances ( ) Ah i taker 1 983 ; Wh i take r a nd B i rd 1 949 : f i g . 3 ) . B rome l iads ( Brome l iaceae ) : Many c a rbon ized a nd s ome u nca rbon ized s t em s w i th c l ose ly p acked l e a f b ases w ere i n i t ia l ly c a l led " ca t ta i l r oo t s" b u t s eem t o b e al o ca l , t hough n o t n ea rby , b rome l iad u sed f o rf ue l . S im i la r s pec imens h ave b een f ound i n o ther s i tes a nd h ave b een i d en t if ied a s ab rome l iad , T i l land s ia s p . ( Pozor sk i a nd P ozor sk i1 9 79a ,b ) b u tp os s ib ly t hey a re V r ie s ia s p . S ome f r om HP -3 l a yer 0 h ave awoody c ore mea sur ing 9 -16 mm i nd iame ter . S hor tr emnan t so fe nc irc l ing l e a fb a ses a re 2 -3 mm a pa r t . T here a re s ome p ro trud ing a x i l la ry b uds 4mm w ide , i nt h ree s p i ra l ing l o ng itud ina l r ank s ( F igure 1 ) . C a t ta i l ( Typhaceae ) : C a t ta i l ( T ypha a ngus t if o l ia L . o r T .d om inguens i s P er s . ) f l ower ing s t em s ( c u lms ) h ave b een l i s ted b yB i rd b u th ave n o tb een c hecked .

ANNUAL FOOD CROPS B eans ( Fabaceae ) : S eeds a nd p ods o f b o th p a l la r d e l o s g en t i les ( Canava l ia p lag io spe rma P i per ) a nd L i ma b ean o r p a l la r ( Phaseo lu s l u na tus L . ) w ere f ound t h roughou t t he v ege ta l r e cord ( Sauer a nd K ap lan 1 969 ; L .K ap lan p er s . c omm . 1 968 ) . C anava l ia w a s l e s sc ommon t han P haseo lu s . T he g enera c an b e d i s t ingu ished b y s eed a nd p od , t he f o rmer h av ing w ider p ods ( 4 .0 -4 .5 cm ) w i th l a rge , more w ide ly s paced r i bs a l ong t he p od s u tures a nd l ong h i lums o n t he s eeds ( abou t 1cm ) . P receram ic C anava l ia s eeds f r om HP -3 l a yer s G , H , a nd Ia nd p ods f r om HP -3 l a yer sM a nd 0 a re t y p ica l o f C .p lag io spe rma a nd n o t o fC . e ns if o rm i s ( L . ) DC . , t he j a ck b ean o f Mesoamer ica , n or o f w i ld s pec ies ( Sauer 1 964 ;S auer a nd K ap lan 1 969 ) . T he L i ma b ean , P haseo lu s l u na tus v a r . m i c rocarpus B en tham , i se a s i ly d i s t ingu ished f r om t he c ommon b ean ( P . v u lgar i s L . ) b y p od s hape t hose o ft he l a t ter a re n a r rower w i th t h in s u tures a nd n a r rower s eeds . T he c ommon b ean i sn o t r epor ted f r om HP -3 b u t i sr epor ted a s soc ia ted w i th C up isn ique c eram ic s a t Huaca P r ie ta ( Kap lan 1 965 ) . T he L ima b ean o ccur s i na l l HP -3 l a yers d own a tl e as t t o l a yer 0 ,i n ac l ea r ly d omes t ica ted f o rm ( i b id . ) . -

P eppers ( So lanaceae ) :

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S eeds a nd r i nd o fp eppe r h ave b een i d en t if ied a s C ap s icum b acca tum

L .v a r . p endu lum (W i l Id . ) E shbaugh b y B a rba ra P icker sg i l l ( 1969 ) .

S he s ay s t here a re t wo c o lor

f o rms l ow i ne xcava t ion HP -3 , o range a nd r ed , a nd t ha t t he s eeds , 2 . 6 -3 .1 mm w ide , f a l l w i th in t he r ange o f modern c u l t iva ted C .b acca tum ,w ider t han s eeds o ft he w i ld v a r ie ty , 2 . 4 mm . O range f r u i t s a r e n o tk nown among w i ld C .b acca tum p opu la t ions . S qua shes ( Cucurb i taceae ) : S qua shes o ft he s pec ie s C ucurb i ta f i c if o l ia B ouché a nd C . moscha ta D uch . e x P o ir w ere c er ta in ly p resen t ; p os s ib ly t here w a s a no ther s pec ies a l so p resen t (Wh i taker 1 983 ; Wh i taker a nd B ird 1 949 ; n o tes l e f t b y Hugh C u t ler ) . T here a re c l ea r d i s t inc t ion s b etween b o t t le g ourd a nd s qua sh r i nd a nd s eeds ( Cu t ler a nd Wh i taker 1 961 ) . A l l s qua sh s pec ies c an b e d i s t ingu ished b y s eed a nd s ome b y p edunc le . S eeds o f C . f i c if o l ia a nd C . mo scha ta a re f ound t h roughou t t he m idden d own t o l a yer R . R ind f r agmen ts l e s s t han 3 mm t h ick a re p os s ib ly C ucurb i ta . T he g roup o fu nc la s s if ied c ucu rb i tp edunc les ( C .f i c if o l ia , C . moscha ta , a nd /or L ag enar ia ) h ave d iame ters o f 6t o 1 5 mm ( one 1 8 mm ) a t t he t i ps a nd 1 t o 2 0 mm ( one 2 3 mm ) a t t he e xpanded b a ses . Ana tom ica l s t ud ies o ft h in r i nds a nd L ag enar ia l ike p edunc les s hou ld g rea t ly a i d i n d i f f eren t ia t ion . P os s ib ly at h ird s pec ies o fC ucu rb i ta i si nd ica ted b y av ery f ew t h icker p edunc les .

WILD OR PERENN IAL FOOD PLANTS C irue la d e l F ra i le ( Ma lph ig iaceae ) :

S eeds o f c i rue la d e l f r a i le o r c ansaboca ( Bunchos ia

a r inen iaca ( Cay . ) R ich . ) w ere c ommon a nd v a r iab le . F ive s qua t t oe l onga te s eeds mea sure 1 2 .5 -24 .6 mm l ong , 8 . 2 -13 .7 mm w ide , a nd 4 . 7 -11 .0 mm t h ick . One s i de o ft he s eed i sf l a t ter a nd s moo th , t he r e s to ft he s urface h a s ac harac te r is t ic f i brous n e twork ( F igure 2 ) .

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A ch ira ( Cannaceae ) : T uber s o fa ch i ra ( Canna e du l i s K er -Gaw l . ) a ppa ren t ly w ere ama jor f ood a t Huaca P r ie ta , a s a t o ther e a r ly s i tes ( Ugen t e ra l . 1 984 ) , a nd t he l e aves a l so e n te red t he HP -3 r ecord . T he t uber s a re c y l indr ica l a nd l a rge ( F igure 3 ) . Two f r om HP -3 u n i t E l -E2 mea su re 3 1 -48 mm w ide b y 6 4 -85 mm l ong , i n comp le te . T hey f e e l h eavy o r d ense c ompa red t o o the r s pec imen s , a nd h ave ag ra iny i n ter ior . F a in tl e a fo rb rac t s c a r se nc i rc le t hem , 8t o 1 7 mm a par t . C ha rac ter is t ic t r iangu la rb rac t s may b e f ound o n s o me t uber a p ices . S ome o ft he f i brous w ads ( be low ) m ay b e t he c hewed r emnan t s o ft he o u ter p a r t so ft hese t uber s . S apo te ( Cappa r idaceae ) :

Many s eeds l a be led " cereza" s e em t o b e t he s apo te , C appar i s

a ngu la ra Ru iz e t P ay . , i d en t if ied b y M ichae l D i l lon f o r t he f i r s t t ime i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . S apo te p lan ts a re f ound i nt he v a l ley ma rg ins a s wha ta ppea rt ob e s hrubs i nt he d eser tb u t wh ich a re p robab ly t r ees b ur ied b y s h if t ing s ands . T he f r u i t s a re a bou t 1 5 c m l ong w i th a h a rd s he l l a nd a roma t ic f l esh . F ive s eeds i d en t if ied a s p os s ib ly s apo te f r om HP -3 u n i t Qi mea sure 1 0 .5 -14 .6 mm l ong , 7 . 6 -10 .5 mm w ide , a nd 5 . 3 -7 .9 mm t h ick . T he ma rg ins o ft hese a re o f f se t o n o ne s i de ( F igure 4 ) . Whe ther t hese a re t he f o rm i d en t if ied a s C appar i s i si n d oub t b ecause a no ther s e t o f s eeds l a be led c ereza , a t l e a s t f our f r om HP -3 l a yer 0 , a re d if e ren t i n f o rm ( F igure 5 ) . T he se may b e p a l i l lo ( Campomane s ia l i nea r if o l ia Ru iz e t P ay . , My r taceae ) , j udg ing b y c ompa r i son w i th a n i lu s t ra t ion ( Tow le 1 96 1 :p la te 3 ) a nd d imen s ions (McVaugh 1 958 ) . T hese mea sure 1 0 .4 -12 .3 b y 8 . 5 1 .7 b y5 . 8 -6 .5 mm ,c omp le te ly o ver lapp ing t he f our a bove ,b u tw i thou tt he l a tera l of se t . L ucuma ( Sapo taceae ) : L ucuma ( Lucuma b i f e ra Mo l . ) , e a s i ly i d en t if ied b u t n o t m ea sured o r d esc r ibed h ere ,w a sc ommon ly f ound . Guava (My r taceae ) : Guava ( P s id ium g ua java L . )w a s r a re . Two f r u i t sf r om HP -3 l a ye r s G a nd M mea su re 1 6 .2 a nd 1 7 .0 mm l ong r e spec t ive ly a nd 1 5 .2 a nd 2 4 .8 ( i ncomp le te ) mm i nd i ame ter , w i th at e rm ina l c oro l la s ca r 4 . 9 mm a c ros s . S eeds a re a bou t 1 . 7 mm w ide . Ano ther s pec ie s i n t he My r taceae , C ampomane s ia l i nea t if o l ia , i sd i scus sed u nder s apo te ; i ti s as ma l l t r ee b ea r ing sma l l e d ib le f r u i t . B u lrush ( Cyperaceae ) : Sma l l , r ound t uber s , o f ten a t tached t o s t o lons , a re a c on s tan t a nd c ommon c omponen t ( F igure 6 ) . A s w i th t wo o ther monoco ts i n t he c o l lec t ion , C anna a nd T i l land s ia , l e a f s ca rs e nc irc le t he t uber s , r oo t s c a r s , a nd a x i l la ry b uds a re c ommon . T he se may b e b u lrush ,S c i rpus mar i t imus L . a nd /or r e la ted s pec ies . Two t y pes c an b e d i s t ingu ished b yt h e s hape o f t he t uber b a se t aper ing w i th l ong i tud ina l r i dges o r more s harp ly a t tenua ted a nd s moo ther ( F igure 5 ) . - -

I n ar ecen t c ur sory c heck , n o s pec imen s w h ich a r e c l ea r ly t ubers o f t he c a t ta i l , T ypha a ngus t if o l ia L . , w e re s een , a nd mos t s o l a be led a re a c tua l ly ab rome l iad , T i l land s ia o r V r i e s ia . S ome o dd t ubers wh ich may b ec a t ta i l a re d i scu ssed b e low .

OTHER M ATER IALS Many s pec imens r ema in p oor ly i d en t i f ied ,e ven i fg i ven as pec ies n ame . S evera l may h ave h ad a p l ace i nt he d i e t . P ods o f mandaco ( al o ca l n ame ) w ere f a i r ly c ommon ( B ird e ta l . 1 985 :f ig . 1 83 ) a bou t 6 7w ere f ound i n HP -3 l a ye rs E t oP , t wo f r om HP -3 J 2 a nd M measu r ing 4 5 a nd 5 7 mm l ong , -

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9 . 0 a nd 9 . 2w ide , a nd 6 . 4 a nd 3 . 9 t h ick , w i th 6a nd p os s ib ly 9s eeds i n al e gume l ike p od . As ma l l s e t o ft uber s , p robab ly o f amonoco t , p os s ib ly c a t ta i l , a re e a s i ly d i f f e ren t ia ted : f l a t tened , w i th b ranches i nt wo l a tera l r ank s a nd z i gz agg ing b rac t s c a r s . Two s uch a re 4 7 -60 mm l ong , 2 4 -35 mm w ide , a nd 1 6 -25 mm t h ick ( F igure 7 ) . Av a r ied a r ray o f ma ter ia ls h a sb een c a l led b a rkc lo th b u t t he re h as b een n o b o tan ica l s t udy o f t hese . S ome l ook l i ke p oor b a rkc lo th , o ther s l i ke t h in w ads o f o dd f i ber . T here a re many w ads o r q u ids o f f i b rous ma ter ia l o f many c on s i s tenc ies . P e rhaps a s pec ie s i n t he m i lkweed f am i ly ( Asc lep iadaceae ) , af am i ly w i th ah i s tory o fb a s t f i ber u se , i sr epresen ted b y s ome f r u i tr ema ins ( F igure 8 ) . M inor s pec ies f ound i ns ma l l q uan t i ty h ave b een l i s ted b yB ird e ra l . ( 1985 ) .

8

FECAL RE MA INS AND I NTEST INAL CONTENTS H uaca P r ie ta f e ce s a nd i n tes t ina l c on ten t s w e re t h e b a s i s o f ap i onee r ing s t udy b y C a l len a nd C ame ron ( 1960 ) . T hey s t a ted t ha t " i t s e em s f a i r ly c l ea r t ha t t he d i e t o f t he se e a r ly Ame r ican i nhab i tan t s c on s i s ted ma in ly o f b ean s , c ucu rb i t s , p eppe r s , v a r iou s r oo t s , mu s se ls a nd o the r s e a o rgan i sm s" ( i b id . p . 3 9 ) w i th f i sh , c l am s , s na i ls , s ea u r ch in s , a nd c r ab s b e ing m inor c omponen t s . T hey t h ough tt he b ean sw e re p robab ly b o th C anava l ia a nd P haseo lu s .

PLANT RE MA INS FOUND WITH CERA M ICS I nt h e n ea rby I n i t ia l P o t t ery p er iod d epo s i t s , p eanu t s a c company t he i n t roduc t ion o f Guaf lape c eram ic s ,a s d o af o rm o fw a r t y s qua sh ( Cucu r b i ta mo scha ta ; Wh i take ra nd B i rd 1 949 ) , at uf t ed t y pe o fc o t ton seed ( S tephen s 1 975 ) , a nd ap eppe r w i th s ma l le r s e eds a nd ad ec iduou s f r u i t ( Cap s icum c h inen s eJ acq . , C .f ru t e scens L . ,o rC .b acca tum ;P i cke r sg i l l 1 969 ) . Ma ize , a vocado , a nd c ommon b ean a ppea rw i th C up i sn ique c e ram ic s ( po s t -850 B .C . ) a bove t h e Guañape a nd P re -Cup i sn ique d epo s i t s i ne x cava t ion s HP -4 a nd HP -5 ( B i rd e ta l . 1 985 ; R .B i rd 1 978 , 1 984 , 1 9 87 ; K ap lan 1 965 ; T ow le 1 961 ) . T he f i nd ing sw e re c ons i s ten t i n b o th e x cava t ion s t h e se c u l t iva ted p lan t s w e re l a ck ing i nd epos i t s l a id d own b e fo re 9 00 B . C . , e ven t hough p re serva t ion o f p lan t r ema ins w a s g ood w e l l b e low t h e C up i sn ique l a ye r s . Howeve r , s ome v e ry r o t ted c obs w e re f ound i n ag rave a t t h e b a se o f t he p rece ram ic m idden , w h ich p robab ly w a s d ug i n t h e P re C up i sn ique p er iod ( J . B i rd p e r s .c omm . ; B i rd e ta l . 1 985 ;R .B i rd 1 987 ) . I tw a so pened ,a ppa ren t ly b y t he 9 00 B . C . t s unam i , g r ea t ly d i s tu rbed , a nd o ve r la id b y am e ter o fc obb le s tone s . G robman e ta l . ( 1961 ) s t ud ied ma ize c obs f r om Huaca P r ie ta t h ink ing t hey w e re t h ee a r l ie s t f r om t h e s i te , b u tt h ey w ere f r om Ga l l inazo d epos i t s i ne x cava t ion HPi , ( B i rd a nd B i rd 1 980 ) . N icke r son ( 1 953 ) m ea su red a nd p l o t ted many C up i sn ique a nd G a l l inazo c ob s . -

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SH IF IS I N FREQUENCY AT HUACA PR IETA T he a r chaeobo tan ica l s h if t s a ccompany ing t he s t a r t s o f t he C o t ton P rece ram ic p e r iod , t h e I n i t ia lP o t tery p e r iod , a nd t he C up i sn ique s t y le a r e t h e mo s t d rama t ic i nt h ea r ea .W i th in t h e C o t ton P rece ram ic , a t a bou t 2 325 B .C . ( l aye r 0 /P i n te r fa ce i ne x cava t ion HP -3 ) t he re w a s as h if t t o mo re manda co , j a ck b ean s , g ou rd s h e l l , L ima b ean f r u i t s , a nd c ucu rb i t p edunc le s , a nd t o f ewe r c o t ton s eed s , p ropor t iona te ly ( c ompa re l a ye r 0w i th t h e s um s f o r l a ye r s Pt h rough S ,T ab le 1 ;B i rd e ta l . 1 985 : tab le 2 1 ) . T h i s i sp rec i se ly where t w in ing e n te r st h e Huaca P r ie ta r e cord ( B i rd e ra l . 1 985 :248 , f i g . 1 88 ) . T here w e re d rop s i nl u cuma , c e reza , a ch i ra , a nd c af ia b rava a nd i n c rea se i nc a t ta i l c u lm s b e tween l a yer sM a nd I( 2200 2 000 B .C . )w hen p l a in t w in ing ,d e s ign s t r ipe s ,n a tu ra lc o lo r ,a nd b a s t f i be ru sage a l so i n c rea sed . -

RELAT IONSH IPS WITH OTHER S ITES T he p receram ic d epos i t o f Huaca P r ie ta a nd t he p l an t s t he re f rom p rov ide ab enchma rk f o r c ompa r i son t o o the r e a r ly S ou th Ame r ican c o l lec t ion s . Wh i le t h e re i sc on s ide rab le s im i la r i ty i n s pec ie sa r ray sb e tween Huaca P r ie ta a nd s e ve ra l o the r C o t ton P rece ram ic s i tes , o ne f i nds o cca s iona l d i sco rdan ce . T he re a r e n o a vocado , c ommon b ean , c h i r imoya , m a ize , man ioc , wh i te p o ta to , o r s wee tp o ta to s pec imen s f r om t h e Hua ca P r ie ta C o t ton P rece ram ic , n o r f r om t h e Guanape o r P re C up i sn ique d epo s i t s n ea rby . However , p rece ram ic m a ize h a s b een r epor ted f r om A spero , L o s Gav i lane s , Gu i ta r re ro C ave , P ik imachay , a nd o ther P eruv ian s i te s a nd f r om T i l iv iche a nd o the r Ch i lean s i tes . T he re h a s b een much d i scu s s ion a bou tw he ther t he m a ize c ob s f r om t he se s i te s f i t a p a rs imon ious e vo lu t iona ry p a t tern ( R . B i rd 1 984 , 1 987 ) , a s w e l l a s a bou t t h e i r a r chaeo log ica l p rov en ience a nd a s soc ia t ion s ( Bonav ia 1 982 ; F e ldman 1 980 ; G robman e t a l . 1 977 ; L ynch 1 980 ; L ynch e i 'a l . 1 985 ; MacNe i sh 1 969 ; V es ce l iu s 1 981 ) . P ozo r sk i a nd P ozo r sk i ( 1 979b ) l i s t c ommon b ean ( P ha seo lus v u l ga r i s L . ) a nd a vocado ( P e r sea ame r i cana M i l l . ) f r om t wo c u t s a nd p acay ( I nga f eu l l e i DC . ) f r om o ne c u t a tA l to S a lave r ry , ( Co t ton P rece ram ic p e r iod , Moche v a l ley , a bou t 2 0 km s ou th o f Huaca P r ie ta ) . T hey l i s t c ommon b ean , a vocado , a nd ma ize ( 2 c obs ) f r om G rama lo te ( In i t ia l P o t tery p e r iod , Moche v a l ley ; 1 979a ) . One a vocado p i t w a s r e cove red f r om l owe r I n i t ia l P o t te r y d epos i t s a tL a s A lda s ( Fung 1 972 ) . Wh i te p o ta toe s ( So lanum t u be ro sum L . , a nd /o r o the r

9

S o lanum s pec ies ) a nd s wee t p o ta toes ( I pomoea b a ta tas ( L . )P o ir . e xL am . ) h ave b een r epor ted f r om t h ree C a sma v a l ley s i tes , Huaynuna ( Co t ton P receram ic ) , P ampa d e l a s L lama s Moxeke , a nd -

T or tuga s ( I n i t ia l P o t tery p er iod ) ( Ugen te ta l . 1 981 , 1 982 , 1 984 ) . Over 8 0p ieces o fm an ioc r oo t a nd t wo man ioc s t em s w ere f ound i nt he l a t ter t wo s i tes ( Ugen t e ta l . 1 986 ) . A t t he l a rge ly p rece ram ic L os Gav i lanes s i te , p eanu t s w ere f ound i n f our teen s amp les f r om a l t h ree e poch s , a nd man ioc (Man iho te s cu l en ta L . ) a nd ma ize ( Z ea may s L . ) c ame f r om E poch 2 a nd 3 r efu se . An u n iden t i f ied s pec ie s o fP haseo lus w a s f ound o n ly i nE poch 2 ,a nd p acay , c h i r imoya ( Annona c he r imo l ia M i l l . ) ,a nd L ima b eans a ppea r o n ly w i th E poch 3 ( Bonav Ia 1 982 ; P oppe r 1 982 ) . C ommon b ean i sr epor ted f r om v ery e a r ly ( abou t 8 000 B .C . ) l e ve ls o f Gu i ta r rero C ave ( upper S an ta v a l ley , L ynch 1 980 ; L ynch e ta l . 1 985 ) . Av ery i mpor tan t q ues t ion i sh ow t hese s pec ie s c ou ld h ave b een u sed f o r al ong t ime l e s s t han 2 50 km f r om Huaca P r ie ta a nd n o t h ave b een u sed a tt ha t l ong -occup ied s i te , e spec ia l ly when c o t ton , p epper , s qua sh , a ch i ra , L ima b ean ,j a ck b ean , g uava , a nd l u cuma a ppea red i n s e ve ra l a rea s a l ong t he P eruv ian c oa s tj u s t b efore o r s oon a f te r 2 500 B .C . i nd ica t ing t ha t c u l t iva ted p l an t s h ad e a r l ier s pread w ide ly i n ar a ther b r ief t ime ( Cohen 1 979 ;P a t ter son a nd Mose ley 1 968 ; P ea r sa l l 1 978 ; P icker sg i l l 1 969 ) . P erhap s i tp a ra l le ls t he u se o fc eram ic s o n t he E cuador ian c oa s t f o r o ve r a m i l lenn ium b efore a dop t ion b y e a r ly P eruv ians . On t he o ther h and , o ne mu s t c ons ider t ha t d i s turbance m ixed l a ter ma ter ia ls i n to s ome s ha l low s i te s . I s i tp os s ib le t ha t p eop le may h ave s i gn if ican t ly d i s turbed s o me p receram ic s i tes o ver t he l a s t 3 500 y ea r s w i thou t l e av ing i n tru s ive c eram ics? T here s hou ld b e s o me c l a r if ica t ion when s pec imen s wh ich s e em e xcep t iona l ly e a r ly a r e d a ted b y d i rec t ly d e term in ing c a rbon i s o tope r a t ios u s ing a ma s s s pec trome te r a nd a p a r t ic le a cce le ra tor ( Browman 1 981 ; C ona rd e t a l . 1 984 ; L ynch e t a l .

1 985 ) . There h a s b een g r ea t

r e c t if ica t ion o ft he Un i ted S ta tes c hrono logy o fc u l t iva ted p l an t s r e cen t ly b yu se o fa c ce lera tor ma s s s pec t rome try ( A MS ) r ad ioca rbon d a t ing ( Asch a nd A sch 1 985 ; B er ry 1 985 ; Chapman a nd C r i tes 1 987 ; F ord 1 985 ; M inn is 1 985 ; Sm i th a nd C owan 1 987 ; Wa t son 1 985 ) .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS Iw e l l r emember t en w onder fu l mon th s o f e xp lora t ion o ft he Huaca P r ie ta a r ea a nd t hank m y p a ren t s , J un iu s a nd Ma rga re t , f o r t ha t t ime a nd f o r t he i r c onvey ing t o me t h e e xc i temen t o f f i e ldwork . T he ir c a refu l d ocumen ta t ion o f t he Huaca P r ie ta ma te r ia ls h a s g rea t ly f a c i l i ta ted l a ter s t ud ies . J ohn Hy s lop c on t r ibu ted mos t o ft he c hap ter o n p l an tr ema ins i nt he d e ta i led r epor t o n t he Huaca P r ie ta p receram ic ma ter ia ls , i n a dd i t ion t o e d i t ing t he v o lum inous n o te s a nd f ur the r ing i d en t i f ica t ions , t hereby g rea t ly h e lp ing w i th t h is p aper .

L ITERATURE C ITED A sch , Dav id L . a nd N ancy E .A sch 1 985 P reh is tor ic p lan tc u l t iva t ion i nw es t -cen t ra l I l ino i s .P p .9 9 -147 i nP reh i s tor ic F ood P roduc t ion i n No r th Amer ica ( R . I .F ord , e d . ) . An th ropo log ica l P ape r s No . 7 5 , Museum o f An th ropo logy , Un iver s i ty ofM i ch ig an , A nn Arbo r . B erry ,M ichae l S . 1 985 T he a ge o f ma ize i nt he G rea ter S ou thwes t : ac r i t ica l r ev iew .P p . 2 79 -307 i n P reh is tor ic F ood P roduc t ion i n Nor th Ame r ica ( R . I .F ord , e d . ) . An th ropo log ica l B ird ,J un ius B .

P aper s No . 7 5 , Museum o f An th rop o l o g y , Un i v er s i ty o fM i ch igan,

An n

Arbor .

1 948a Amer ica 's o ldes tf a rmers . Na tura l H is tory 5 7 :296 -303 , 3 34 -335 . 1 948b P receram ic c u ltures i n Ch icama a nd V iru .P p .21 -28 i nA R eappra i sa l o fP eruv ian A rcheo logy (W . C .B enne t t ,e d . ) . Memo ir so ft he S oc iety f o r Ame r ican A rchaeo logy 4 , Menosha , W iscons in . 1 951 S ou th Amer ican r ad ioca rbon d a tes .P p . 3 7 -49 i nR ad ioca rbon Da t ing ( F .J ohnson , e d . ) . Memo ir s o ft he S oc ie ty f o r Amer ican A rchaeo logy 8 ,S a lt L ake C i ty , U tah . 1 963 P re -ceram ic a r tf r om Huaca P r ie ta , Ch icama V a l ley . I awpa P acha 1 : 29 -34 . B ird ,J un ius B . ,J ohn Hy s lop , a nd M i l ica D .S k inner 1 985 T he P receram ic E xcava t ions a tt he Huaca P r ie ta , C h icama V a l ley ,P eru . An th ropo log ica l P apers , Vo l . 6 2 , Amer ican Museum o fN a tura l H i s tory , New York . 2 94 p p .

1 0

B i rd , Robe r t McK . 1 978 A rchaeo log ica l m a ize f r om P e ru .C ommun ica ted i n Ma ize G ene t ic sC oope ra t ion N ew sL e t te r5 2 :90 -92 . 1 984 S ou th Ame r ican ma ize i nC en t ra l Amer ica ?P p .3 9 -65 i nP re -Co lumb ian P lan t M ig ra t ion ( D .S tone ,c d . ) .P aper so ft h eP eabody Mu seum o fA rchaeo logy a nd E thno log y , V o l .7 6 , Ha rva rd Un iver s i ty ,C ambr idge , Ma s sachu se t t s . 1 987 A p o s tu la ted t s unam ia nd i t se f ec t so nc u l tu ra l d eve lopmen ti nt h eP eruv ian E a r ly Ho r izon . Ame r ican An t iqu i ty 5 2 :285 -303 . B i rd , Robe r t McK . a nd J un iu sB .B i rd 1 980 G a l l inazo m a ize f r om t h e C h icama v a l ley ,P eru . Ame r ican An t iqu i ty 4 5 :325 -332 . B onav Ia , Ducc io 1 982 P rece rám ico P eruano : L o s Gav i lane s . C orpo ra c ión F inanc ie ra d cD e sa r ro l lo S .A . COF IDE a nd I n s t i tu to A rqueo lóg ico A lemán .E d i tor ia l Au son ia -Ta l le res G ráf i co s S .A . ,L ima . B rowman , Dav id L . 1 981 I s o top ic d i s c r im ina t ion a nd c o r rec t ion f a c to r si nr ad ioca rbon d a t ing .P p .2 41 -295 i n Advance si nA rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heo ry ,V o l . 4( M .B .S ch i f f er , c d . ) . A cadem i cP re s s ,N ew Yo rk . C a l len ,E .O .a nd T .W .M . C ame ron 1 960 A p reh i s to r i c d i e tr evea led i nc op ro l i te s .N ew S c ien t i s t8 : 35 -40 . C hapman ,J ef er son a nd G a ry D . C r i te s 1 987 E v idence o fe a r ly ma ize ( Z ea may s )f r om t h eI c ehou se B o t tom s i te ,T ennes see . Amer ican An t iqu i t y5 2 :352 -354 . C oh en , Ma rk N . -

1 979 A rchaeo log ica lp l an tr ema in sf r om t he C en t ra lC oa s to fP eru .N awpa P acha ( 1978 ) 1 6 :23 -50 . C ona rd ,N icho la s ,e ta l . 1 984 A cce le ra to rr ad ioca rbon d a t ing o fe v idence f o rp reh i s to r ic h o r t icu l tu re i nI l ino i s . N a ture 3 08 :443 -446 . C u t le r , Hugh C .a nd T homa sW . Wh i take r 1 961 H i s to ry a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o ft he c u l t iva ted c ucu rb i t si nt h e Ame r ica s . Ame r ican An t iqu i ty 2 6 :469 -485 . F e ldman , Robe r tA . 1 980 A spero ,P eru : a r ch i tec tu re , s ub s i s tence e conomy ,a nd o the ra r t i fac t so f ap receram ic ma r i t ime c h ie fdom . Unpub l i shed P h .D .D i s se r ta t ion ,D epa r tmen to f An thropo logy , Ha rva rd Un ive r s i ty , C amb r idge , Ma s sachu se t t s . F o rd ,R icha rd I . 1 985 P a t te rn so fp reh i s to r ic f ood p roduc t ion i nN o r th Ame r ica .P p .3 41 -364 i nP reh i s tor ic F ood P roduc t ion i n No r th Ame r ica ( R .I .F o rd ,c d . ) . An th ropo log ica lP ape r s No . 7 5 , Mu seum o f An th ropo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fM ich igan , Ann A rbo r . F ung P ineda , R osa 1 972 L a sA lda s : s uu b ica c ión d en t ro d e lp roce so h i s tó r ico d e lP e rü a n t iguo .D éda lo ( Sao P au lo , 1 969 )5 (9 -10 ) :5 -207 .[ OCLC#1562324 ] G robman ,A lexande r , Duc c io B onav Ia , a nd D av id H .K e l ley w i th P au lC . Mang le sdo r fa nd J u l ián C áma ra -Hernández 1 977 S tudy o fp re ce ram ic ma ize f r om Hua rmey ,n o r th c en t ra lc oa s to fP eru .B o tan ica l Mu seum L eaf le t s , Ha rva rd Un ive r s i ty 2 5 :221 -242 . G robman ,A lexande r ,W i l f redo S a lhuana a nd R ica rdo S ev i l la w i th P au l C . Mange l sdo r f 1 961 R ace so f Ma ize i nP eru . N a t iona lA cademy o fS c iences N a t iona l R e sea r ch C ounc i l , P ub l ica t ion 9 15 , Wa sh ing ton , DC .3 74 p p . K ap lan ,L aw rence -

1 965 A rcheo logy a nd d ome s t ica t ion i n Ame r ican P ha seo lus ( b ean s ) .E conom ic B o tany 1 9 :358 -368 . K le in ,J ef rey ,J .C .L erman ,P .E .D amon a nd E .K . R a lph 1 982 C a l ibra t ion o fr ad ioca rbon d a te s :t a b le sb a sed o nt he c on sen su sd a ta o ft h ew ork shop o nc a l ib ra t ing t h er ad ioca rbon t ime s c a le . R ad ioca rbon 2 4 :103 -150 .

L ynch ,T homa sF . ,e d i to r 1 980 Gu i ta re r ro C ave : E a r ly Man i nt he Ande s .A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew York a nd L ondon . 3 28 p p . L ynch ,T homa sF . , R . G i l lesp ie ,J ohn A .J . Gow le t t ,a nd R .E .M .H edges 1 985 C h rono logy o f Gu i ta r re ro C ave ,P e ru .S c ience 2 29 :864 -867 . MacNe i sh , R icha rd S . 1 969 F i r s t Annua l R epo r to ft he A yacucho A rchaeo log ica l -Bo tan ica lP ro jec t .R .S . P eabody F ounda t ion f o rA rchaeo logy ,P h i l l ips A cademy , Andover , Ma s sachuse t t s , 5 4p . McVaugh , R oge r s 1 958 My r taceae .P p .5 69 -818 i nF lo ra o fP eru Q .F . Ma cb r ide ,e d . ) .F ie ld Mu s eum o f N a tu ra l H i s to ry ,B o tan ica lS e r ies v o l . 1 3 ,p a r t4 ,n o .2 , Ch ic ago . M inn i s ,P au lE . 1 985 Dome s t ica t ing p eop le a nd p l an t si nt he G rea te rS ou thwes t .P p .3 09 -340 i nP reh is to r i c F ood P roduc t ion i n No r th Ame r ica ( R .I .F ord ,e d . ) . An th ropo log ica lP aper s No . 7 5 , Mu seum o f An th ropo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fM i ch igan , Ann A rbor . N icke r son , No r ton H . 1 953 V a r ia t ion i nc ob morpho logy a mong c e r ta in a r cha eo log ica la nd e thno log ica lr aces o f ma ize . Anna l s o ft he M i s sou r iB o tan ica l G a rden 4 0 :79 -111 . P a t te r son ,T homa sC .a nd M ichae lE . Mo se ley 1 968 L a te p rece ram ic a nd e a r ly c e ram ic c u lt ur e so ft he c e nt r a l c oa s tofPe ru . N awpa P acha 6 : 115 133 . P ea r sa l l ,D ebo rah M . -

1 978 P a leoe thnobo tany i nw e s te rn S ou th Ame r ica :p rog re s sa nd p rob lems .P p .3 89 -416 i n T he N a tu re a nd S ta tu so fE thnobo tany ( R .I .F o rd ,e d . ) . An th ropo log i ca lP ape r s No . 6 7 , Museum o f An th ropo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fM ich igan , Ann A rbo r . P icke r sg i l l ,B a rba ra 1 969 T he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o fc h i l ip eppe r s( Cap s i cum s pp . ) a nd t he s equence o fp lan t d ome s t ica t ion i nP e ru . Ame r ican An t iqu i ty 3 4 :54 -61 . P oppe r ,V i rg in ia 1 982 Aná l i s i sg ene ra l d el a s mue s t ra s ( bo tán ico s ) .p p .148 -156 i nP rece rám ico P e ruano : L o s Gav i lane s ( Duc c io B onav ia ) . E d i to r ia l Au son ia -Ta l le res G rá f icos S .A . P ozo r sk i ,S he l ia a nd T homa sP ozo r sk i 1 979a An e a r ly s ub s i s tence e xchange s y s tem i nt he Moche V a l ley ,P e ru .J ou rna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 6 : 413 -432 . 1 979b A l to S a lave r ry : aP eruv ian c oa s ta lp rece ram ic s i t e . Anna ls o fT he C a rneg ie Museum . 4 8 :337 -375 . S aue r ,J ona than 1 964 R ev i s ion o fC anava l ia .B r i t ton ia 1 6 :106 -181 . S aue r ,J ona than a nd L aw rence K ap lan 1 969 C anava l ia b ean si n Amer ican p reh i s to ry . Ame r ican An t iqu i ty 3 4 :417 -424 . S k inne r ,M i l ica D . 1 986 T h ree t e x t i le sf r om Hua ca P r ie ta , C h icama V a l ley ,P e ru .P p .11 -18 i nT h eJ un ius B . B i rd C onf e rence o n Andean T ex t i le s( A .P .R owe ,e d . ) .T he T ex t i le Mu s eum , Wa sh ing ton , DC . Sm i th ,B ruce D .a nd C . Wes ley C owan 1 987 Dome s t ica ted c henopod ium i np reh i s to r ic e a s tern N o r th Ame r ica : n ew a c ce lera to r d a te sf r om e a s te rn K en tucky , Ame r ican An t iqu i ty 5 2 :355 -357 . S tephen s ,S .G . 1 975 A r e exam ina t ion o ft he c o t ton r ema in sf r om Hua ca P r ie ta ,n o r th c oa s ta lP eru . Ame r ican An t iqu i ty 4 0 :406 -419 . T ow le , Ma rga re tA . 1 961 T he E thnobo tany o fP re -Co lumb ian P eru .A ld ine P ub l i sh ing C o . , Ch icago . 1 80 p p .

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Ugen t , Dona ld ,S he l ia P ozo r sk i , a nd T homa sP ozo r sk i 1 981 P reh i s to r ic r ema in so ft h es wee tp o ta to f r om t he C a sma V a l ley o fP eru .P hy to log ia 4 9 :401 -415 . 1 982 A rchaeo log ica lp o ta to t ube rr ema in sf r om t he C a sma V a l ley o fP eru .E conom ic B o tany 3 6 :182 -192 . 1 984 N ew e v idence f o ra nc ien tc u l t iva t ion o fC anna e du l i si nP e ru .E conom ic B o tany 3 8 :417 -432 . 1 986 A rchaeo log ica l m an ioc (M an iho t )f r om c oa s ta lP eru .E conom ic B o tany 4 0 :78 -120 . V es ce l iu s , Ga ry S . 1 981 E a r ly a nd /o rn o t so -ea r ly m an i nP eru : Gu i ta r re ro C ave r ev i s i ted . Qua r te r ly R ev iew o fA rchaeo logy . 2 (2 ) :8 -13 , 1 9 . Wa t son ,P a t ty J o 1 985 T he i mpac to fe a r ly h or t icu l tu re i nt he u p land d ra inage so ft h eM idwes ta nd M idsou th .P p .9 9 -147 i nP reh i s to r ic F ood P roduc t ion i n No r th Amer ica ( R .I .F ord , e d . ) . An th ropo log ica lP ape r s No .7 5 , Mu seum o f An th ropo logy , Un ive r s i ty o f M ich igan , Ann A rbo r . Wh i take r ,T homa sW . 1 983 C ucu rb i t si n Andean p reh i s to ry . Ame r ican An t iqu i ty 4 8 :576 -585 . Wh i take r ,T homa sW . a nd J un iu sB .B i rd 1 949 I den t if i ca t ion a nd s i gn if icance o ft he c ucu rb i t ma te r ia ls f r om Huaca P r ie ta ,P eru . Amer ican Mu seum Nov i ta tes 1 426 :1 -15 .

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T ab le 1 .As ummay o ft h e c oun t so fa r chaeob io tog ica lc a tagor ie si n Huaca P r ie ta e x cava t ion HP -3 . L aye r sa r eg rouped i np a r tb y ap re l im ina ry g roup ing made b yJ un iu sB i rd :l a yer sD -F ,G -J ,a nd K N , f o l low ing s t ages i nr e ta in ing w a l l c on s truc t ion . L aye r0i ss e pa ra ted b ecau se i ts t a r ted an ew t r end i nf r equenc ies a nd c on ta ined many p l an tr ema in s . P ha seo lu si n HF3i n c lude so n ly P .l una tu s . T he c e reza s e eds may i n c lude mo re t han o ne t a xon .

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1 8

Adap ted f r om ac ha r tp repa red b yJ un iu sB i rd a nd G a ry V e s ce l iu sa nd f r om p ub l i sh ed i n forma t ion a nd n o te so fs e ve ra l i n v e s t iga to r s . f = f ru i t ; s = seed s ;+ =uncoun ted b u tp re sen t

1 4

Figure l. A c,arbonized specimen of Tillandsia or Vricsia, with three ranks of lateral shoots, random root scars and dosely spaced leaf scars. 56 mm long.

Figure 2. A small Bunchosia seed, uncarbonized. The surface generally has prominent reticulations, but one facet (right) is smooth and flatter. 12.5 mm long.

Figure 3. Part of a Canna tuber, uncarbonized, with a terminal bud just visible at the top. A large lateral shoot was broken off to the right of the bud. The leaf scars are obscure. 37 mm long.

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Figure 4. Possible Capparis seeds, uncarbonized. Note the lateral offsets. Number 8 is 14 mm long.

Figure 5. Another seed type labeled cereza, possibly Campomanesia, uncarbonized. There is no offset. Sarne scale as Figure 4; number 7 is 12 mm long.

Figure 6. Three possible Sci,pus tubers, uncarbonized. The two larger ones are tapered and longitudinally creased. The top one is 35 mm long by 13 mm wide.

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Figure 7. A possible Typha tuber, uncarbonized, with two ranks of lateral branches, 47 mm long.

Figure 8. A pod possibly of an asclepiad, uncarbonized. It has been flattened by soaking and drying on paper towel and is now 14 cm long.

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CHAPTER 2PRECERAMIC ANI MAL U SE ON THE CENTRAL COAST D iana G . Ma t th iesen , D epa r tmen t o fZ oo logy , Un iver s i ty o fF lor ida , Ga inesv i l le ,F L3 2611

ABSTRACT T he A rcha ic P er iod a n ima l s ubs is tence e conomy o f t h e n or th c oa s t o f P eru , a se v idenced b y Huaca P r ie ta , i sc ha rac ter ized b y an ea r ly t o ta l d ependence o n t he ma r ine e nv i ronmen t . L and a n ima ls a r e r a re t o a bsen t , a s a r e t he w eapons w i th wh ich t o h un t t hem . The f auna l r ema ins f r om Huaca P r ie ta r epresen t mo l lusc s , c r abs , s ea u rch ins , f i she s , c e taceans , p inn ipeds , a nd a v a r ie ty o f ma r ine , s hore , a nd ma r sh b i rds . Huaca P r ie ta i su nusua l i nt ha t b i rds a r e t he mos ta bundan t f a una l c omponen t , a nd t he p resence o f b o th N ea rc t ic a nd An ta rc t ic m ig ran ts s ugges t s y ea r -round o ccupa t ion o ft he s i te .

I NTRODUCT ION Huaca P r ie ta i s a3 000 t o 4 500 y ea r -o ld s i te o n t he c oa s t o fP eru e xcava ted b y t he l a te J un ius B i rd . T he s i te i sf amou s f o r i t s w e l l -preserved b o tan ica l s pec imens a nd d ecora ted t e x t i les , s ome o f wh ich i n c lude d es igns o fb i rds ( B ird , 1 963 ) . I np repa ra t ion o f amonograph o n Hua ca P r ie ta ( B i rd e t a l . , 1 985 ) Amer ican Mu seum a r cheo log is tJ ohn H y s lop r eques ted t ha t Is t udy t he H ua ca P r ie ta b i rd r ema ins , a nd ab r ief s umma ry a ccoun t o f t he b i rds i si n c luded i n t ha t v o lume . A more t ho rough t r ea tmen t ,w i th t he c o l lec t ion i d en t i f ied t os pec ies , i sp resen ted h e re ( se Tab le 1 ). T he l o ca t ions o f Huaca P r ie ta , t wo o ther a r chaeo log ica l s i tes ( La P a loma a nd L os Gav i lanes ) , a nd t wo p a leon to log ica l s i tes ( Ta la ra a nd L aC a ro l ina ) a re s hown o n t he map ( F igu re 1 ) . Is ea rched t he l i t era ture f o r c oa s ta l P eruv ian s i tes w i th b i rd f auna s s u f f ic ien t ly i d en t if ied t o a low c ompa r i son w i th Huaca P r ie ta , a nd If ound o n ly t hese . T he b i rd r ema ins f r om L a P a loma a nd L os Gav i lanes h ave b een p a r t ia l ly i d en t if ied b y E . J .R e i tz a nd E . S . Wing , b u t f u r ther work o n t h em wou ld b e n eeded t o a low f u l l c ompa r ison w i th Huaca P r ie ta . D r . R e i tz h a sk ind ly p u t t he L aP a loma b i rds a t m yd i sposa l f o rc omp le te i d en t if ica t ion . Ac ompa r i son o ft hese t wo s i tes w ou ld b e o fs pec ia l i n te res t b ecause L a P a loma i sc on s iderab ly o l der t han Huaca P r ie ta : 5 000 t o 7 700 y ea rs B P . T a la ra a nd L a C a ro l ina a r e L a te P le is tocene t a r p i t s whose n on -pa s ser ine b i rds h ave b een i d en t i f ied b y K enne th C ampbe l l , o ft he L os Ange les C oun t y Museum ( Campbe l l , 1 976 , 1 979 ) . A s f a r a s Ik now , t he Huaca P r ie ta b i rd b ones c ons t i tu te t he o n ly f u l ly iden t if ied c o l lec t ion o f a v ian r ema ins f r om t he c oa s t o f P eru , i fn o tS ou th Amer ica .

METHODS I tw a s n eces sary t o c l ean t he s pec imens t horough ly , b ecause t he i d en t if ica t ion o f b i rd b ones f r equen t ly d epends o n p rec i se m ea su remen t s a nd t he e xam ina t ion o fs ub t le morpho log ica l f e a tures . T hey w ere g en t ly w a shed i na n u l t ra son ic c l eane r i np l a in w a ter a nd w ere r i nsed w i th many c hanges o ff r esh w a ter t ol e ach t hem o fs a l t. T hey w ere i d en t if ied b y c ompa r ison w i th o s teo log ica l r e f erence s pec imens , a bou t wh ich s ome c ommen t i sr equ ired . R ega rd ing t h e c ormoran t s , t he mo s t a bundan t b i rd a t H uaca P r ie ta , t h e Guanay ( Pha i c roco rax b ouga invl h i i ) i ss o much l a rger t han t h e o ther t wo s pec ies f ound i nP eru ( t he " B igua" o r N eo t rop ica l C ormoran t , P . o l ivaceous , a nd t he " Chu i ta" o r R ed legged C ormoran t , P . g a ir nard i ) , t ha t t here i sl i t t le d i f f icu l ty i n mak ing i t s i d en t if ica t ion . I ti si mpor tan t , h owever , t ha t o n ly S ou th Amer ican B igua s pec imen s ( v iz . , P . o . o l ivaceous ) b e u sed f o r c ompa r i son . T he No r th Amer ican s ubspec ies ( P . o . mex icanus a nd P . o . c hanco ) a r e t he f o rms u sua l ly a va i lab le h e re i n N or th Amer ican museum s , b u t t h ese s ubspec ies a re d ec ided ly s ma l ler t han P . g a ir na rd i a nd t hus make t he s epara t ion o f B igua a nd C hu i ta C ormoran t s a ppea r d ecep t ive ly s t ra igh t forwa rd . S ou th Amer ican B igua s a r e a c tua l ly a bou t t he s ame s i ze a s C hu i ta s , a nd t he t wo s p ec ies mus t b e d i s t ingu i shed , n o tb ys i ze , b u tb yq ua l i ta t ive morpho log ica l c ompa r ison ,w h ich c an b e d one .

1 8

Id espa i r o f i d en t i f y ing t he b oob ies ( Su la s p . ) . T he r a re m ig ran t Ma sked B ooby , S u la d ac t y la t ra , i st he l a rges t o ft he t h ree b ooby s pec ies f ound i nP eru ; t he c ommon r e s iden t" P iquero" o r P e ruv ian B ooby S . v ar iega ta , i st he s ma l les t ; a nd t he n or thern r e s iden t " Camanay" o r B lue -foo ted B ooby , S . n eboux i i , i si n -be tween . Af te r e xam in ing s ome t wo d ozen r e fe rence s ke le tons , h owever , I f ound t hey d id n o t d if er s uf ic ien t ly e i ther i n s i ze o r morpho logy t o a low c e r ta in i d en t if ica t ion o f f r agmen ted s ubfos s i ls . T he s i ngu la r e xcep t ion i st he d i s t inc t ly r obus t , t h ick -shaf ted t a r some ta ta rsu s o fS .d ac ly la t ra , t he b i g foo t among b oob ies , o f wh ich t here w a s n o e v idence among t he Huaca P r ie ta r ema ins . T he P eruv ian o r "Mo l ino 's" P e l ican ( P e l ecanus t hugus ) i sa t p resen t g enera l ly c ons idered a s ubspec ies o ft he B rown P e l ican ( P . o cc id en ta l i s ) , b u t i tw a s o nce c ons ide red as epa ra te s pec ies ( s ee We tmore , 1 945 ) , a nd t h i s v i ew s eems t o b e g a in ing s uppor t ( Pa rker e t a l . , 1 982 ) . I ti sb y f a r t he l a rge s t o f t he " brown" p e l ican s , a nd i ti st hus e a s i ly i d en t i f ied . F igu re 2 i lus t ra tes t h is p o in t g raph ica l ly : T he s ubspec ies a nd t he ir g eog raph ica l r anges a re l i s ted a c ros s t he b o t tom , a s a re t he n umbers o fs pec imens m ea sured . T he v er t ica l b a r s r epresen tt a r sus mea suremen t st aken f r om s t udy s k in s (We tmore , 1 945 ) ; t h e s e xes a re g i ven s epa ra te ly , s i nce p e l icans a r e d imorph ic . T he h or izon ta l t i ck s o n t he P . o . c aro l inens i s b a r s a re m ea suremen t s t aken b y me o f o s seous t a r some ta ta r s i o f F lo r ida B rown P e l icans . T h is s i ze -ag reemen t d emons t ra tes t ha t t a r sus mea su remen t s f r om s k in s , wh ich a re g enera l ly a va i lab le i n t he l i t era ture , a r e r ough ly c ompa rab le t o t he g rea tes t leng th m ea suremen ts o fo s seous t a r some ta ta r s i . T he l a ck o fo ver lap i ns i ze b e tween P eruv ian P . t hagus a nd E cuador ian P . o . murphy i i sn o t wha t o ne w ou ld e xpec t b e tween a d jacen t p opu la t ions o f t he s ame s pec ies , a nd Iam i n c l ined t o r e cogn ize t hagus a s ag ood s pec ies . T here a re d i f f erences i nc o lor a nd b ehav ior a s w e l l . T here w a s o ne i n tac t p e l ican t a r some ta ta rsus i n t he c o l lec t ion , a nd i t s l e ng th i s s hown b y t he h or izon ta l l i ne a c ros s t he c ha r t . r ead i ly i den t i f ied .

I t s s i ze c l ea r ly d emons t ra tes why P . t hagus i ss o

Gu l ls a re n o tor ious ly d i f f icu l t t oi d en t if y , a nd Ih ad au n ique o ppor tun i ty i ni d en t if y ing t he g u l ls f r om Huaca P r ie ta . D r . Wayne Hof fman , t hen a d oc tora l c and ida te a t t he Un iver s i ty o f S ou th F lo r ida i n T ampa , w a s p repa r ing a d i sser ta t ion t ha t i n c luded a s y s tema t ic r ev is ion o f t he L a r idae . H eh ad a ssemb led wha t w a su ndoub ted ly t he mos t d i verse c o l lec t ion o fg u l l s ke le tons e ver a va i lab le f o r s t udy i n o ne p l ace a t o ne t ime . H e w as n o t o n ly g rac ious e nough t o a low me a cces s t o t h is v a luab le r e f erence c o l lec t ion , b u t , i n a dd i t ion , h e i ndependen t ly i d en t i f ied t he Huaca P r ie ta l a nd s pec imens . T he f a c t t ha tw e a g reed o n a l b u t af ew o ft he " i n termed ia te" d e term ina t ions g i ves me c on s iderab le c onf idence i n o u r r e su l t s . T h is magn i f icen t g u l l c o l lec t ion h a s n ow b een d i sman t led a nd r e turned t o i t s r e spec t ive museums ; a s ac on sequence , If i nd Iam n ow u nab le t o i d en t if y t he g u l ls f r om L a P a loma t o t he d eg ree Iw a s a b le t o d o w i th Huaca P r ie ta . Ib u i l t a n e x tens ive d a ta b a se o f r e ference mea suremen ts o f t hese l a nds , wh ich a l low s m e t o p l ace b o th t he g u l ls a nd t he t e rn s i n t h ree s i ze c l a s ses , b u t w i thou t t he s ke le tons t hemse lves , I am u nab le t o t ake t he d e te rm ina t ions t o s pec ies . Wo rker s r e tu rn ing t o t he f i e ld p l ea se k eep i n m ind t he g rea t n eed f o r r e f e rence s ke le tons o fc oa s ta l P eruv ian e ndem ic b i rds ( wh i le a t t he s ame t ime h eed ing r e s t r ic t ion s o nc o l lec t ing ) . Ih ave t h roughou t u sed n umber o f i d en t if ied s pec imens , r a ther t han m in imum n umber o f i n d iv idua ls (MN I ) . T he p rob lem o f MN I i sr a ther d i f f eren t , a nd s omewha t l e ss p res s ing , i nt he c a se o f b i rds t han i ti si n mamma ls . MN I i s , among s t o ther t h ing s , ar e spon se t o t he p rob lem o f s i ze d i spa r i ty i n mamma ls : amouse b one r ep resen t s av ery d i f f eren t s ubs is tence v a lue t han ad eer b one , amuch g rea ter d i f f erence t han b e tween t he b ones o f s ay , ad uck , ac ormoran t , a nd ah eron . Ia m r ea sonab ly c omfor tab le u s ing n umber o f s pec imen s w i th Huaca P r ie ta , e spec ia l ly a s t he d om ina te t a xa a l h ave w e igh t s , i fn o tw ing -spans , r ang ing i nt he s ame o rder o f magn i tude . I n mos t c ases , a t l e a s t f o r b i rds , t he n umber o f s pec imens h a s a bou t a s s t rong a r e la t ionsh ip w i th t he a c tua l t hana tocoenos i s a sd oe s a ny e s t ima t ion o f MN I .

RESULTS AND D ISCUSSION B i rd r ema ins w ere more a bundan t i n t he l ower l e ve ls o f t he t wo p i t s f r om wh ich t hey w ere e xcava ted ( HP -2 a nd HP -3 ) :

1 9

ABCD ( upper )

3 6

c -I ( upper )

2 7

( t o ta l u pper )

6 3

EFGH ( l ower )

1 03

L -S ( l ower )

2 16

( t o ta l l ower )

3 19

HP -2 ( t o ta l )

1 39

HP -3 ( t o ta l)

2 43

( g rand t o ta l )

3 82

T here w ere n o s ubs tan t ia l o rn i tho log ica l d if erences b e tween p i t s o r b e tween l e ve ls , s o t h e c o l lec t ion i st r ea ted h ere a s as i ng le u n i t . T he p reserva t ion o ft he c o l lec t ion i se xce l len t ; t he s t o rk r os t rum e ven i n c ludes i t s r hampho theca , o r h orny s hea th . T he r epresen ta t ion o f p os t -cran ia l s ke le ta l e l emen ts i su nrema rkab le , b u t t he n umber o f i n tac t c r an ia i su nusua l . S ome 3 -4 % o f t h e s pec imens s howed s i gns o fb u tcher ing a nd r oa s t ing ( t ha ti s ,c u t m a rk sa nd c ha rr ing ) . A s u mma ry o f t he Huaca P r ie ta b i rd r ema ins l i s ted b y f am i ly g roup i n o rder o fa bundance i s p resen ted o nT ab le 2 . T he a v ifauna i so verwhe lm ing ly c oa s ta l a nd mos t ly ma r ine . T he Huaca P r ie ta b i rd r ema ins i d en t if ied t os pec ies a nd g rouped a st os easona l i ty a r e l i s ted o n T ab le 3 . Humbo ld t C ur ren te ndem ic r e s iden t s d om ina te ,c omp r is ing o ver 8 6% o ft he c o l lec t ion . O f t hese e ndem ic s t he Guanay c ormoran t , t he P eruv ian P e l ican , a nd t he b oob ie s a r e t he mos t c ommon . T hese s pec ies c ons t i tu te t he " guano" b i rds o fP eru , wh ich w ere r e spons ib le f o r t he h uge d epos i ts o fg uano f e r t i l izer t ha tw ere m ined -ou ti nt he l a te 1 9 th a nd e a r ly 2 0 th C entu r ies . Guanay so nce o ccur red a l ong t he c oa s t o fP eru b yt he m i l l ions a nd a re t he mo s t c ommon b i rd u t i l ized a t Huaca P r ie ta . T he ir n umber sc ra shed d ur ing t he 1 930 's b ecause o ver -f i sh ing o fa nchov ie s d es t royed t he ir p r ima ry f ood . N e i ther t he Guanay s , t he a nchovy f i shery , t he g uano i n dus t ry , o r t h e o ther member s o ft ha tf ood w eb h ave y e tr e covered . T he s pec ies a t Huaca P r ie ta r epresen ted b y i mma ture , t ha t i s ,i n comp le te ly o s s i f ied , s pec imen s a re l i s ted o n T ab le 4 . T he p a t tern o fg row th i nb i rds i sv ery d if eren t f r om t ha t i n m amma ls : mo s t b i rds r each t he ir f u l l a du l ts i ze b efore l e av ing t he n es t , a tt he a ge o f af ew w eeks o r mon th s , a nd d o n o t h ave ap ro trac ted p er iod o fo s teo log ica l i mma tur i ty o rg radua l e p iphy sea l f u s ion a sd o mamma ls . L a rge n es t l ing o r p re -f ledg l ing b i rds , i n capab le o f f l i gh t , make e a sy p rey ; a nd t he h arves t ing o f n es t ing s ea b i rds , e spec ia l ly c ormoran t s , h a s b een a c ommon p rac t ice f o r c oa s ta l p eop les ( s ee Howa rd , 1 929 ) . T he n umber o f i mmature s pec imens w a s s urp r is ing ly l ow . T he e x ce l len t s t a te o f p reserva t ion o f t he Huaca P r ie ta ma ter ia ls makes i tu n l ike ly t ha t i mma ture s pec imen s h ave s imp ly d ecayed . T he l a ck o fw a r iness t ha t Guanay s e xh ib i t t owa rds g uano m iner s s ugges t s t ha t h arves t ing a du l ts wou ld b eb u t s l igh t ly more d if i cu l t t han h a rves t ing n es t l ing s . Two s pec imens i n t he c o l lec t ion , o ne p e l ican a nd o ne p engu in , e v idenced medu l la ry b one , t h e c a lc ium r e se rve u t i l ized b y b reed ing f ema le b i rds t o p roduce e gg she l l .

T he t ex tu re o f medu l la ry

b one , d epos i ted b etween t he t r abecu lae , i sf i ne a nd d e l ica te , q u i te u n l ike t ha t p roduced b y t r auma o r d i sea se . T h i s i sc onc lus ive e v idence o fb reed ing a nd i n mo re t empera te l a t i tude sw ou ld b e v ery u sefu l i n forma t ion r ega rd ing s ea sona l i ty , a s mos t b i rds h ave v ery l im i ted b reed ing s ea son s . However , a te qua tor ia l l a t itudes t he b reed ing o fb i rds i su sua l ly k eyed t o e nv ironmen ta l p arame te r s o ther t han d ay leng th , a nd i n t he c a se o f t he Humbo ld t C ur ren t e ndem ic a v ifauna , mos t s pec ies b reed n ea r ly y ea r -round . Humbo ld tP engu ins w ere t he f ou r th mos t a bundan t s pec ie s a t Huaca P r ie ta . P engu in n umbe r s h ave d ropped d ra s t ica l ly t h is p a s t c en tu ry d ue t o g uano m in ing . Wi th t he b are rock , of -sho re i s lands s t r ipped o fg uano , t he p engu ins h ave n o s ubs t ra te i n wh ich t o d i g t he ir n es t b u r rows . T hey a r eg e t t ing b y , i n much reduced n umber s , b yb reed ing i ni n acce s s ib le c aves a nd f i ssure sb o th o n o f s hore i s lands a nd o n t he ma in land . P engu ins a r e e a sy p rey w hen c augh t o nl a nd . T he r ema in ing t h ree Humbo ld t c ur ren t e ndem ic s , t he P eruv ian D iv ing P e tre l , G rey Gu l l , a nd I nca T ern t oge ther r epresen tl e s st han t h ree p ercen to ft he t o ta l .

2 0

T he N igh t Heron a nd o ther ma r sh b i rds a re t oday r a ther u ncommon . Is uspec t t ha t h erons , wood s t orks , a nd o ther ma r sh b i rds w ere more c ommon i n t he p a s t , when p robab ly l e s s o f t he ma r shy f l ood -p la in a nd r i ver -bo t tom w a sc onve r ted t oc u l t iva t ion . T he Wh i te -cheeked P in ta i l i s amuch more c oa s ta l d uck t han i su sua l f o r o ther member s o ft he d abb le r g enus Anas . Un l ike t he ma r ine Guanay a nd Chu i ta C o rmoran ts , t he B igua C ormoran t i s more ab i rd o f f r esh -wa ter r i ver s a nd l a kes . S k immers c an f i sh o n ly i n c a lm w a ter , s ugge s t ing t he p re sence o f an ea rby e stua ry ,l a ke , o r q u ie ts t re tch o fr i ver . T he o n ly t e r res tr ia l b i rd i n t he e n t i re a v ifauna i st he r e s iden t S crub B lackb i rd . f r equen tc u lt iva ted l a nd a nd t h e s h rubs a nd t r ees a l ong w a te rcour ses .

T hese b i rds

T he s horeb i rds ( t he Godw i t , Wh imbre l , a nd Dow i tcher ) a re n or thern m ig ran t s , p resen t d ur ing t he a u s t ra l s u mmer . T he F rank l in 's a nd L augh ing Gu l ls a re a l so N ea rc t ic m ig ran t s , t he F rank l in 's b e ing r e gu lar a nd t he L augh ing u sua l ly a ppea r ing t h i s f a r s ou th o n ly d ur ing E l N inos . T he S wa l low t a i led G u l l b reeds i nt he Ga lapagos a nd i sp resen t o f fP eru d ur ing t he a us t ra l s u mmer . T he B lack b rowed A lba tros s a nd S oo ty S hea rwa ter a re s ou thern m ig ran ts , b reed ing i n An ta rc t ica a nd o ccur ing o f fP eru d ur ing t he a us t ra lw in te r . T he p resence o fw in ter a nd s u mme r m ig ran ts w ou ld s eem t o e s tab l ish r a ther c onc lu s ive ly t ha t Huaca P r ie ta w a s i nhab i ted y ea r -round , b u t Imus t s ound a n o te o f c au t ion . Many n on -pa s ser ine m ig ran tb i rds , e spec ia l ly s ea b i rds , d o n o tb reed when o n ly o ne o r t wo , o re ven u p t o s even ,y ea r s o f a ge . Af ew o f t hese s ub -adu l t b i rds may , i n f requen t ly , p er s is t t h roughou t t he y ea r o n o r n ea r t he ir w in te r ing g rounds , u n t i l t hey a re r eady t o make t he ir f i r s t m ig ra tory f l i gh t b ack t o t he i r b reed ing g round s . Thus , o ccur rence o fm ig ran t b i rds i sn o t a bso lu te e v idence f o r s ea sona l h ab i ta t ion . Id o b e l ieve i n mos tc a ses t ha ti ti sa ccep tab le e v idence ,f o r t hese l a gga rds a re r a ther r a re . I na dd i t ion t o t he b i rds f o r wh ich t he o s teo log ica l e v idence i sn ow k nown , i nh i s 1 963 p aper o n t he p receram ic a r t o f Huaca P r ie ta , J un ius B i rd i l us t ra ted e xamp les o fb i rd r epresen ta t ions . T hese r ep re sen ta t ions i n c luded o ne l a be led " ma le c ondor w i th af i sh i nh i ss t omach f r om at w ined f abr ic ," t he b o rder f r om a t w ined f a b r ic l a be led " band o fp a r ro t l ike b i rds ," a nd ad es ign o f" b ird f i gures o n woven t e x t i le ." T he f i gures d o i ndeed r e semb le , r e spec t ive ly , ama le c ondor w i th i t s d i s t inc t ive n a sa l : a t t le a nd t he c ha rac ter is t ic , b i g -headed p rof i le o fp ar ro t s . I n teres t ing ly h owever , n e i the r c ondors n or p a r ro ts w ere i d en t if ied f r om Huaca P r ie ta o r L a P a loma . A d es ign c a rved i n to t he l i d o f a d eco ra ted g ourd ( s ee F igu re 3 )c ou ld a ga in b e i n terpre ted a s t he p rotuberance o n t he b i l l o f ama le c ondo r ,b u t i tf i rs t s t ruck me a sb e ing mos tl i ke t he p rof i le o f aG ian tP e t re l , Mac ronec te sg i gan tea , a s pec imen o f wh ich Id id i d en t i f yf r om L aP a loma , t hough n one o ccur red a t Huaca P r ie ta . T here w ere o ther t i t i l la t ing f i gures Id i scovered i nt he l i t era tu re a s Iw a ss ea rch ing f o rs i tes w i th wh ich t oc ompa re Huaca P r ie ta . A f i gure o fu n iden t if ied b one t ubes f r om E nge l 's p aper ( 1963 , p . 5 2 , F i g . 18 ) o n t he p receram ic s i te o f A s ia , o n t he P eruv ian c oa s t s ou th o f L ima , i n c ludes a n u nm i s takab le b ooby r ad iu s . F ung 's p aper ( 1969 , p . 9 7 , F ig . 2 ) o n L a s A lda s , a no ther p receram ic P eruv ian c oa s ta l s i te s ou th o f Huaca P r ie ta , i n c ludes a f i gure i lus t ra t ing u n iden t if ied b i rd -bone a r t i fac t s . Mos t o ft he b ones i nt he f i gu re a re f r om c ormoran t s . P ozorsk i men t ions , i n h er 1 983 p aper o n s i tes i n t he Moche Va l ley , t ha t " Shore b i rds f i gu re p rom inen t ly i n t he f auna l i n ven tory . P e l icans , c ormoran t s , a nd g u l l -s ized s pec ies a ccoun t f o r a bou t 2 0% o ft he t o ta l [ f auna l r ema ins ] . . ." . On ly t he p e l ican s a re l i s ted i nh er t a b les , s o Iw a s n o t a b le t o make a ny q uan t i ta t ive c ompa r ison w i th Huaca P r ie ta . S he c ons iders 2 0% a n u nusua l ly l a rge p ropo r t ion f or b i rd r ema ins , a nd Iw ou ld c er ta in ly a g ree . I ti sd ef in i te ly u nusua l f o rb i rds t o amoun t t o mo re t han a f ew p ercen t o f t he t o ta l f auna l r ema ins i n e i ther a r chaeo log ica l o r p a leon to log ica l s i tes . Huaca P r ie ta i se ven more u nusua l i n t h is r ega rd , f o r b i rds a re t he d om inan t a n ima l f ood t aken . Huaca P r ie ta i sn o t as he l lmound : i t s ma t r ix i sp r inc ipa l ly a sh a nd s o i l . T here w ere 3 82 b i rd , 5 6 mamma l , s ome 3 00 f i sh , a bou t 3 20 mo l luscan , l e s s t han 1 00 c rab s pec imens , af ew s ea u rch in

2 1

s p ines , af r agmen t o f as t a r f ish , a nd f our s ea t u r t le b one s ( B ird , e t a l . , 1 985 ) . Mo re t y p ica l ly , a tL a P a loma t he b i rd b ones c ons t itu te o n ly al i t t le more t han 1% o ft he s pec imens ( approx ima te ly 3 00 o f 2 9 ,000 s pec imens ) . When Huaca P r ie ta w a s e xcava ted i n 1 946 , i th ad n o t r a ined t here s i nce 1 925 , a nd t ha t h ad b een t he f i r s t r a in i n3 8 y ea r s . I n ar eg ion a s a r id a nd d evo id o ft e rres t r ia l a n ima l s a st he P eruv ian c oa s t , i ti sl i t t le wonder t ha t a bor ig ina l i nhab i tan t s made u se o f t he Humbo ldt C u r ren t a nd i t s r i ch a n ima l l i f e , e spec ia l ly i t s ma r ine b i rds . T he v ery l im i ted i n te r t ida l h ab i ta t , ar e su l to ft he s t eepnes so f t he c oa s t ,e xp la ins t he d ependence o nv er tebra te , r a ther t han i n ver tebra te , r e source s . Af am i ly -by -fam i ly c ompa r ison o ft he n on -pa s se r ine a v ifauna s f r om t he f i ve s i te s s hown o n t he map i nF igure 1i sp resen ted o n T ab le 5 . T he t a xa a r e g rouped b yg ros s h ab i ta tp re f erence : m a r ine , ma r sh , a nd t e r res t r ia l . Ma r ine b i rds d om ina te a t Huaca P r ie ta , L aP a loma , a nd L o s Gav i lane s , b u t t h is ma r ine c omponen t w a s t o ta l ly l a ck ing a t t he P le is tocene p a leon to log ica l s i te s . T he mos t a bundan t b i rds a t T a la ra w ere w a ter fow l , a nd a t L a C a ro l ina p a r ro ts d om ina ted , b u t t h e se w ood land /ma r sh land a v ifauna sh ave n ow e s sen t ia l ly v an i shed . A l l o ft hese s i tes a r e d e ser ts t oday . T he a bor ig ina l i nhab i tan ts o f t he t h ree a r chaeo log ica l s i tes , wh ich r ange i na ge f rom 3 000 t o 8 000 y ea r s b efore t he p resen t , w ere h a rves t ing aHumbo ld t C ur ren t a v ifauna , o ne w h ich w ou ld b e f ound i nt he r eg ion t oday , t hough f o rs o me s pec ies n ow i ng rea t ly r educed n umbe r s . T he e xcava t ion a nd i d en t i f ica t ion o f f auna l r ema in s f r om a dd i t iona l a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a leon to log ica l s i tes , p a r t icu la r ly t hose i nt he 7 000 -13 ,000 y r s BP t ime s pan , w i l l f u r ther h e lp r e vea l t he n ature a nd t im ing o f t he p os t -P le i s tocene d eser t if ica t ion o f P eru a nd i t s i mpa c t o n a bo r ig ina l s ubs is tence p a t terns .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS Iw ou ld f i r s tl i ke t ot hank J ohn H y s lop f o rt he o pportun i ty t os t udy t hese r ema ins . F or t h e g enerous l o an o fs pec imen s Imus t t hank S y lv ia S cudder ,F lo r ida S ta te Museum , Z ooa rchaeo logy L abora tory ; P ierce B rodkorb , Un iver s i ty o fF lor ida ,D epa r tmen to fZ oo logy ; Ma r ion J enk inson , Un iver s i ty o fK ansa s , Museum o fN a tura l H i s tory ; G len Woo lf enden , Un ivers i ty o fS ou th F lor ida ;J . V . R emsen , L ou i s iana S ta te Un iver s i ty , Museum o fZ oo logy ;T homa sA . Webber , F lor ida S ta te Museum , O rn i tho logy D epa r tmen t ; L es ter L .S hor t , Amer ican Museum o f Natura l H i s tory ; a nd , i nd irec t ly , mos t o ft he ma jor museums i nt h is c oun t ry f o rt he " s econd -hand" u se o ft h eg u l l a nd t e rn s ke le tons b or rowed b y Wayne Hof fman . T hank st oD r . Hof fman f o r ma jor a s s is tance i ni den t if yi n g t he Huaca P r ie ta l a nds ; t oJ ane Whee le rf o ra cces st oh er l i b ra ry w i th p erm iss ion t ox e rox much r e levan tl i t era ture ; t o E l izabe th R e i tz f o rp erm i s s ion t oc on t inue h er work o n t he P a loma b i rds ; a nd t oE l izabe th W ing f o ru sefu l d i scus s ion a nd e spec ia l ly f o rh e rp a t ience a nd d ip lomacy .

L ITERATURE C ITED B ird ,J .B . 1 963 P re -ceram ic a r tf r om Huaca P r ie ta , C h icama V a l ley . Nawpa P acha 1 : 29 -34 . B ird ,J .B . ,J .H y s lop , a nd M . D .S k inner 1 985 T he p receram ic e xcava t ions a tt he Huaca P r ie ta , Ch icama V a l ley , P e ru . An thropo l . B lake , E . R .

P ap . Amer ican Mu s . N a t . H is t . 6 2 (1 ) :1 294 .

1 977 Manua l o fn eo t rop ica lb i rds ,v o l . 1 . Un iver s i ty o fC h icago P ress , Ch icago . C ampbe l l , K . E .J r . 1 976 T he L a te P le i s tocene a v if auna o fL aC a ro l ina ,s ou thwes tern E cuado r .P p . 1 55 -168 i n C o l lec ted P apers i n Av ian P a leon to logy ( S . L .O lson , e d . ) . Sm i th son ian Con t r ib . P a leob io l . No . 2 7 , Wa sh ing ton DC . 1 979 T he n on -pa sser ine P le is tocene a v i fauna o ft he T a la ra T ar S eeps , n or thwes tern P eru . Roy . On ta r io Mus . L i f eS c i . C on tr ib . No . 18 ,p p . 1 203 .

2 2

E nge l ,F . 1 963 A p rece ram ic s e t t lemen to nt he c en t ra lc oa s to fP e ru :A s ia , Un i t 1 .T ran s . Ame r . P h i l .S oc . ,n . s . ,5 3 (3 ) :1 -139 . F ung P ineda , R . 1 969 L a sA lda s : s uu b icac ión d en t ro d e lp roce so h i s tó r ico d e lP e rü a n t iguo . D éda lo ( Mu s . A r tA rch . ,S ao P au lo ,B ra s i l ) 5 (9 -10 ) :5 -207 . Howa rd ,H . 1 929 T he a v i f auna o f Eme ryv i l le S he i lmound . Un iv . C a l i fo rn ia P ub l .Z oo l . ,B e rke ley 3 2 (2 ) :301 -395 . Mu rphy , R .C . 1 925 B i rd I s land so fP eru : t h e R ecord o f aS o jou rn o nt he Wes tC oa s t . G .P .P u tnam ' s S on s ,N ew Yo rk . 3 62 p p . 1 936 O cean ic B i rd s o fS ou th Ame r ica . 2v o l s . Ma cm i l lan ,N ew Y ork . 1 245 p p . P a rke r ,T .A . ,S .A .P a rke r , a nd M .A .P l enge 1 9 82 An Anno ta ted C heck l i s to fP eruv ian B i rds .B u teo B ook s ,V e rm i l l ion ,S ou th Dako ta

1 0 4p .

P ozo r sk i ,S . 1 983 C hang ing s ub s i s tence p r io r i t ies a nd e a r ly s e t t lemen tp a t tern so nt he n o r th c oa s to f P eru .J ou r .E thnob io l .3 (1 ) :15 -38 . We tmore ,A . 1 945 A r ev iew o ft h ef o rm so ft he B rown P e l ican . Auk 6 2 : 5 77 -586 .

2 3

T ab le 1 .S pec ies l i s t o f Huaca P r ie ta b i rd r ema in s .

D iomed ea c f .m e lanoph r i s P uf f i nu sg r i seu s P e l ecano id e sg amo t i i S phen i scu sh umbo ld t i P ha lac roco rax b ouga inv i l l i i P .g a ima rd i P .o l ivaceous S u la s p . P e l ecanu st hagu s N y c t i co rax n y c t co rax My c t e r ia ame r i cana Anas b ahamens i s L imo sa f edoa Numen iu sp haeopu s L imnod romu sc f .g r i seu s L aru s mod e s tus L ar us a t r i c i l la L a ru sa ./ p ip i x can L a rus p ip i x can L a ru sp ./ c i r rocepha lu s L a ru sc i r rocepha lu s C r eag rus f ur ca ru s L a ro s t ema i n ca R ynchop s c f .n i g e r D ive sd i ve s

T o ta l

n

%

3 4 1 2 6 1 31 1 3 8 6 7 7 4 2 2 1 1 2 4 4 3 1 0 1 4 1 5 1 5

0 . 8 1 . 0 0 . 3 6 . 8 3 4 .3 0 . 3 0 . 8 2 2 .5 2 0 .2 1 . 0 0 . 5 0 . 5 0 . 3 0 . 3 0 . 5 1 . 0 1 . 0 0 . 8 2 . 6 0 . 3 1 . 0 0 . 3 1 . 3 0 . 3 1 . 3

3 82

2 4

B la ck -b rowed? A lba t ro s s S oo ty S hea rwa ter P eruv ian D iv ing P e t re l Humbo ld tP engu in Guanay C o rmo ran t C hu i ta C o rmo ran t B igua C o rmo ran t b oob ies P eruv ian P e l ican B lack -c rowned N igh tH e ron Wood S to rk Wh i te -cheeked P in ta i l Ma rb led Godw i t Wh imb re l S ho r t -b i l led? Dow i tcher G ray Gu l l L augh ing Gu l l L augh ing /F rank l in 's Gu l l F rank l in ' s Gu l l F rank l in 's /G ray -hooded Gu l l G ray -hooded Gu l l S wa l low ta i led Gu l l I n ca T e rn B lack? S k imme r S crub B la ckb i rd

T ab le 2 . Huaca P r ie ta b i rd r ema ins l i s ted b yf am i ly .

n

PHALACROCORAC IDAE SUL IDAE PELECAN IDAE

1 35 8 6 7 7

LAR IDAE S PHEN ISC IDAE I U t hR IDAE

3 2 2 6 5

%

3 5 .3 2 2 .5 2 0 .2 8 . 4 6 . 8 1 . 3

c ormoran t b ooby p e l ican g u l l / tern p engu in b lackb ird

SCOLOPAC IDAE

4

1 . 0

s horeb i rd

PROCELLARI IDAE ARDE IDAE

4 4

1 . 0 1 . 0

s hearwa ter h eron

D IO MEDE IDAE C ICON I IDAE ANAT IDAE

3 2 2

0 . 8 0 . 5 0 . 5

a l ba t ros s wood s t ork d uck

RYNCHOP TDAE PELECANO IDIDAE

1 1

0 . 3 0 . 3

s k immer d i v ing p e t re l

T o ta l

3 82

2 5

T ab le 3 . S ea sona l i ty o fo ccupa t ion a t Huaca P r ie ta .

HU MBOLDTCURRENT ENDEM ICS ( RES IDENT ) : P eruv ian D iv ing -Pe t re l P eruv ian ( Humbo ld t )P engu in P eruv ian ( Guanay ) C ormo ran t P eruv ian /B lue foo ted B ooby P eruv ian P e l ican G ray Gu l l I nca T e rn OTHER RESIDENTS : N eo t rop ica l ( B igua ) C o rmo ran t R ed legged ( Chu i ta ) C o rmo ran t B lack -c rowned N igh tH e ron Wood S to rk Wh i te -checked P in ta i l G ray -hooded Gu l l B lack S k imme r S crub B lackb i rd MIGRANTS PRESENT I N AUSTRAL SU MMER : Ma rb led Godw i t Wh imbre l S ho r t -b i l led Dow i tche r L augh ing Gu l l F rank l in ' s Gu l l S wa l low ta i led Gu l l MIGRANTS PRESENT I N AUSTRAL WINTER : B lack -b rowed A lba t ros s S oo ty S hea rwa ter

n

%

1 2 6 1 31 8 6 7 7 4 5

0 . 3 6 . 8 3 4 .3 2 2 .5 2 0 .2 1 . 0 1 . 3

3 1 4 2 2 4 1 5

0 . 8 0 . 3 1 . 0 0 . 5 0 . 5 1 . 0 0 . 3 1 . 3

1 1 2 4 1 0 1

0 . 3 0 . 3 0 . 5 1 . 0 2 . 6 0 . 3

3 4

0 . 8 1 . 0

T ab le 4 . I mma tu re b i rd b one s pec imen sf r om Huaca P r ie ta .

n o .o f s pec imen s

p ercen t

Humbo ld tP engu in

4o f 2 6

1 5 .4

Guanay C o rmo ran t

1 5o f 1 31

1 1 .5

B ooby

2o f 8 6

2 . 3

P eruv ian P e l ican

2o f 7 7

2 . 6

2 6

T ab le 5 . C ompa r i son o fn on -pa s se r ine a v i fauna s( pe rcen t ) .

HP

A lba t ros s P e t re l /Shea rwa te r D iv ing P e t re l P engu in B ooby P e l ican Ma r ine C o rmo ran t F re shwa te rC o rmo ran t G rebe H e ron S to rk T h i s /Spoonb i l l D uck R a i l J a cana A voce t T h ick -knee P lover S ho reb i rd S eed sn ipe G u l l /Te rn S k immer T inamou V u l tu re H awk /Eag le F a lcon G uan D ove P a r ro t B a rn Ow l T rue Ow l N igh t ja r

0 . 8 1 . 0 0 . 3 6 . 8 2 2 .5 2 0 .2 3 4 .6 0 . 8

1

2 . 4 0 . 5 1 . 5 1 .7 5 . 4 6 8 .8

1 . 0 0 . 5

2

8 . 2 2 . 3 1 5 .1 5 5 .8

0 . 5 0 . 5

1 . 5

8 . 4 0 . 3

7 . 8

4

3 . 5

5 . 8

1 . 0

3

9 . 3

1 . 1

1 . 1

< 0 .1 2 . 1 0 . 1 1 . 3 0 . 8 0 . 4 5 5 .1 < 0 .1 < 0 .1 0 . 5 0 . 8 7 . 4 < 0 .1 2 . 0 < 0 .1 3 . 0 2 . 7 8 . 9 0 . 1 1 .3 < 0 .1 1 . 3 1 . 9 0 . 1

0 . 3

2 1 .6

0 . 1 1 . 1 3 . 2 1 7 .3 0 . 2 0 . 2

0 . 5 1 . 1 4 . 9 4 . 1 4 5 .0 0 . 1 0 . 3

1 ,W ing & R e i tz ( 1982 ) ;2 ,R e i tz (MS ) ;3 ,C ampbe l l( 1979 ) ;4 ,C ampbe l l ( 1976 )

2 7

D iomede idae P roce l la r i idae P e lecano id idae S phen i s c idae S u l idae P e lecan idae P ha lac roco rac idae P ha lac roco rac idae P od ic iped idae A rde idae C icon i idae T h re sk io rn i th idae Ana t idae R a l l idae J acan idae R ecu rv i ro s t r idae B u rh in idae C ha rad r i idae S co lopa c idae T h inoco r idae L a r idae R ynchop idae T inam idae C a tha r t idae A cc ip i t r idae F a lcon idae C rac idae C o lumb idae P s i t ta c idae T p ton idae S t r ig idae C ap r imu lg idae

ADDENDA S ince t h i s p aper a nd t he f o l low ing o ne b y EJ . R e i tz w e re w r i t ten , Ih ave a dvanced , t hough s t i l l n o t e n t i re ly f i n i shed , i d en t if i ca t ions o f t h e P a loma b i rd r ema in s . T he s i te s a r e r ema rkab ly s im i la r , f o r Humbo ld t c u r ren t ma r ine b i rds d om ina te b o th a v i f auna s . T he re w e re f ewe r ma r sh b i rd s a t L a P a loma a nd f ewe r t e r re s t r ia l b i rds a t Huaca P r ie ta . T he ma jo rd if e rence b e tween t h e s i t e s i st ha t b i rds a r et he d om inan t f a una l c omponen t a t Hua ca P r ie ta ( s ome 3 3% o ft h e t o ta l r ema in s ) , w h i le a t L aP a loma b i rd r ema in sc on s t i tu te o n ly a bou t 1% o f af auna d om ina ted b y mamma ls a nd f i shes .

CO MPAR ISON OF B IRD RE MA INS BY FA M ILY

Huaca P r ie ta

PHALACROCORAC IDAE SUL IDAE PELECAN IDAE LAR IDAE S PHEN ISC IDAE I C 1bR IDAE PROCELLARHDAE ARDE IDAE D IO MEDE IDAE PELECANO ID IDAE SCOLOPAC IDAE C ICON I IDAE ANAT IDAE RYNCHOP IDAE CATHART IDAE ACCIP ITR IDAE S TR IG IDAE Aye ss p .i n de t .

T o ta ls

n

%

n

1 35 8 6 7 7 3 2 2 6 5 4 4 3

3 5 .3 2 2 .5 2 0 .2 8 . 4 6 . 8 1 . 3 1 . 0 1 . 0 0 . 8

1 40 1 0 6 0 2 2 1 8 1 8 6 1

4 6 .5 3 . 2 1 9 .9 7 . 3 5 . 9 0 . 3 2 . 7 2 . 0 0 . 3

1 4 2 2 1 0 0 0 0

0 . 3 1 . 0 0 . 5 0 . 5 0 . 3

2 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 9

0 . 7

3 82

2 8

L aP a loma

3 01

0 . 3 0 . 7 0 . 3 9 . 6

L a C aro l ina v j

oTc j lara H uaca P r ieta o Los G av i lanes L a P a loma

F igu re 1 . Map o fS ou th Amer ica a nd t he f i ve s i tes d i scus sed .

2 9

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H uaca P r ie to p e l ican

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F igure 3 . D ecora t ive g ou rd f r om Huaca P r ie ta w i th b i rd mo t if ( f rom B i rd , 1 963 :P 1 .2 ,F ig . l a ) .

CHAPTER 3 PRECERAMIC ANI MAL U SE ON THE CENTRAL COAST E l izabe th J .R e i tz , Depa r tmen to f An th ropo logy , Un iver s i ty o f Georg ia ,A thens , GA 3 0602 a nd T he F lor ida S ta te Museum , Un iver s i ty o fF lor ida , Ga inesv i l le , FL 3 2611

ABSTRACT Zooa rchaeo log ica l a na ly s is o ff auna l r ema ins d epos i ted a ta r chaeo log ica l s i tes a l ong t he c en t ra l c oa s t o fP eru d ur ing t he P receram ic h ave p rov ided d a ta a l ter ing s t anda rd i n terpre ta t ions o fh uman s ubs is tence s t ra teg ies i nt h i s a rea . I n t h i s p aper t he s t anda rd i n terpre ta t ion s a re r ev iewed f o l lowed b y i n t roduc t ion o f n ew d a ta e xcava ted f r om t he c en t ra l c oa s t s i tes o f L a P a loma a nd E l P a ra iso . T he se d a ta d ocumen th eavy u se o f ma r ine r e sou rces b yc oa s ta l r e s iden t s .

I NTRODUCT ION Much h a s b een w r i t ten a bou t t he r o le o f ma r ine r e sou rces i n t he d eve lopmen t o f Andean c oa s ta l c i v i l iza t ion . P a t ter son a rgued t ha tu se o f ma r i t ime r e sou rces b egan a f ter t e r res t r ia l o nes h ad b een o verexp lo i ted ( 1971 ) , a l though c l ima t ic c hange ( Lann ing 1 967 ) h a s a l so b een c i ted a s t he s t imu lus f o r a n e a r ly s w i tch f r om t e rres t r ia l t o ma r ine r e sources . I th a s b een a rgued b y M ichae l Mose ley a nd o ther s t ha t ma r ine r e sou rces c ou ld s uppor t c omp lex s oc ia l o rgan iza t ions a nd m onumen ta l a r ch i tec ture w i thou t e x tens ive u se o f a g r icu ltu ra l p roduc t s ( Lann ing 1 967 ; Mose ley 1 975 , 1 978 ) . T h is a rgumen t h a s b een c oun tered b y t he c on ten t ion t ha t ma r ine r e sources w ere i n adequa te t o s uppor tt he d eve lopmen t o fs t a te s oc ie ty o nt he c oa s t ( Pa r son s 1 970 ; R aymond 1 981 ; W i lson 1 981 ) a nd many a r chaeo log i s ts c ons ider a n a g r icu ltu ra l b a se c r i t ica l f o r t he r i se o f c oa s ta l s t a tes . Wh i le e ach o f t he se a rgumen ts h a s i t s mer i t s , a l s uf er f r om l a ck o f d a ta . J .S co t t R aymond 's a r gumen t t ha t a g r icu ltura l r e fuse i so f ten p oor ly p reserved a nd c onsequen t ly u nder represen ted a t a r chaeo log ica l s i tes i sw e l l t aken ( 1981 ) . H i s p os i t ion r e ce ives f u r ther s uppor t f r om e thnog raph ic l i t e ra ture wh ich i nd ica tes a w idespread t endency f o r h un ters a nd g a therer s t o d er ive t he b u lk o f t h e i r n u tr ien ts f r om p l an t s r a the r t han a n ima ls , e ven wh i le g l or ify ing t he h un t o ver g a ther ing ( f or e xamp le L ee a nd DeVore 1 968 ) . I ts eems u n l ike ly t ha t h umans o n t he c oa s t o fP eru e ver d epended e x c lu s ive ly u pon t e r res t r ia l ( p resumab ly p lan t ) o r ma r ine ( p resumab ly a n ima l ) r e sou rces . Dav id W i lson 's a rgumen t t ha t ma r ine r e sources d id n o t s uppor t t he d eve lopmen t o f s t a tes i ss evere ly d amaged , h owever , b y h i s a s sump t ion t ha t p receram ic p eop les d id n o t u t i l ize s ma l l f i sh , s pec if ica l ly a nchov ies a nd h er r ing s ( 1981 ) . He b a ses h i s a s sump t ion , a nd h i s c a lcu la t ions , o n d a ta p rov ided b y M ichae l Mose ley ( 1968 ) . A t l e a s t s ome o f Mose ley ' s d a ta w ere c o l lec ted u s ing a 1 / 2 inch s c reen ( 1 968 :28 ) a nd t he ma ter ia ls r ecovered w ere i d en t if ied o n ly t o c l a s s ( i . e . f i sh , b i rd , mamma l ) . F or i n terp re ta t ion o f h uman s ubs is tence f r om f auna l r ema ins , i mproved r e covery t e chn iques a nd more d e ta i led a na ly s i si sd es i rab le . Accumu la t ing a dequa te d a ta f o r i n terpre t ing p receram ic s ubs is tence w i l l r equ ire many y ea r s o f i n ten s ive a rchaeo log ica l e for t s w i th d i l igen t r ecove ry a nd q uan t if ied s t ud ies o f t he b io log ica l d a ta . T he d a ta p resen ted h ere r epresen t af i r s t s t ep i n t ha t p roces s . T h is d i scus s ion w i l l f ocus u pon t he f a una l r e ma ins f r om P a loma . T he d a ta f r om t h is s i te i nd ica te t ha t b o th t e r res tr ia l a nd ma r ine a n ima l r e sou rces w ere e xp lo i ted , a l though ma r ine r e sou rces w ere more e x tens ive ly u sed . T he h eavy u s e o fs pec ies t y p ica l o ft he mode rn P eruv ian c oa s t a l so r a i ses q ues t ions a bou tc l ima t ic c hange i nt he p a s t 7 000 y ea r s . T hese r e su l t s a re t hen c ompa red t o i n fo rma t ion f r om E l P a ra iso , o r C huqu i tan ta . I n a na ly s is o f t hese d a ta i ti sa s sumed t ha t t e r res tr ia l p lan ts w ere a n i mpor tan t p a r t o ft he P a loma d i e ta nd w ere u sed i nc on junc t ion w i th ma r ine a n ima ls . I n p resen t ing o n ly t he f auna l d a ta t he f u l l c omp l imen to ff oods u sed b yc oa s ta l p opu la t ions a ppea r sf a r more r e s t r ic ted t han i ta c tua l ly w a s .

PALO MA S ITE P a loma h a s b een u nder s t udy b y aj o in t r e sea rch t e am f r om t he Un iver s i ty o f M is sour i C o lumb ia a nd t he Un iver s idad Nac iona l Ag ra r ia o f L ima , P eru .

A p or t ion o f t he s i te h ad b een

e xcava ted b y F reder ic E nge l o ft he Un ivers idad N ac iona l Ag ra r ia b e tween 1 973 a nd 1 975 . T he s i te w a s e xcava ted b y t eams o fP eruv ian a nd Amer ican a r chaeo log i s t s r epresen t ing t he P a loma P ro jec t b e tween 1 976 a nd 1 984 . T he p r inc ipa l i n ves t iga tor o f t he P a loma P ro jec t w as Robe r t N . B enfe r , Un iver s i ty o f M is sour i . C o -pr inc ipa l i n ves t iga tors w ere F rede r ic Andre E nge l ( 1976 -77 ) , A l ice N . B enf er ( 1977 ) , a nd G lendon H . We ir ( 1980 -83 ) . P a loma i sl o ca ted i nt he C h i lca V a l ley o fP eru , a bou t 6 5 km s ou th o fL ima ( F igure 1 ) . T he s i te i si n ad ry q uebrada a bou t 7 . 5 l i nea r km n or th o ft he C h i lca R ive r ( F igure 2 ) a nd 1 8 km s ou th o ft he L u r in R iver . P a loma i so n t he n or th e dge o f t he l oma s o f P a loma , a pprox ima te ly f ou r l i near km f r om t he P ac if ic O cean . T he Ch i lca R iver i sd ry e xcep t f o r t he s ummer when s o me r unof f f l ow s f r om t he h igh lands d own i t s c ourse . T he s i te i sl o ca ted o n a n a luv ia l p la in 2 00 t o 2 50 m a bove s ea l e ve l ( Benf er 1 982 ) . T he p la in i sa pprox ima te ly 2 50 b y 6 00 i nw ide o f wh ich t he s i te o c cup ies s ome 1 5 h ec ta res . P a loma i sa n A rcha ic p receram ic v i l lage .

Uncorrec ted r ad ioca rbon d a tes i nd ica te t ha t t he

v i l lage w a s o ccup ied b etween 7 700 a nd 5 000 y ea r s a go ( Benf er 1 984 ) . I tp robab ly w a s o ccup ied p r ior t o t h is a nd w a s r eoccup ied b r ief ly i n l a ter t imes . Over 5 6 h ouses a nd 2 00 g r aves w ere e xcava ted . T hese g raves w ere f ound i n a s soc ia t ion w i th n umerous r eed h u t s , s o me o fw h ich w ere b urned a f ter b e ing a bandoned . Houses s howed e v idence o f s uper imposed f l oors , b u t t y p ica l ly n o r eoccupa t ion ( Benf er 1 984 ) . A tt h is t ime i th a sn o t b een d e te rm ined whe ther t he v i l lage r epresen t s o ccupa t ion b y s ma l l n umber s o f p eop le o ver a l ong p er iod o f t ime o r i n term i t tan t ly b y al a rger n umber o fp eop le . Two t y pes o ff auna l s amp les w ere t aken . T he f i rs t o ft hese w ere g rab s amp les . G rab s amp les w ere a dven t i t ious ly c o l lec ted i nt he f i e ld i n t he c ou rse o fe xcava t ing t he h ouses a nd b u r ia ls . These w ere c o l lec ted d u r ing e xcava t ion o ft he 6b y 6m s qua res i n 1 976 a nd t he 3b y 3m s qua re s i n 1 979 . No s c reens w ere u sed t o c o l lec t g rab s amp les . T he g rab s amp les w ere f r om s t orage p i t s , h ea r th s , h ouse f l oor s , a nd b ur ia ls . T he o ther t y pe o fs amp le w a s f r om p robab i l i ty s qua res . T he s i te w a s t e s ted t o d e te rm ine d ep th o fd epos i t s , e x ten t o fh ouses , a nd t he p resence o fa dd i t iona l b u r ia ls b y as e r ies o f s qua res r andom ly d i st r i bu ted a c ross i t . P robab i l i ty s amp les w ere c o l lec ted f r om t hese e xcava t ions u s ing a s t ack o f , l og ica l s c reens wh ich e nded w i th 1 . 5 mm mesh . T he ma te r ia ls w ere c o l lec ted a s s t anda rd ized v o lume t r ic 5 l i ter ( 5000 c ub ic c m ) s amp les f r om e ach l e ve l o fs i x teen 3 b y 3m s qua re s . On ly 6 o f t hese s qua res h ad f auna l r ema ins . T he f auna l r ema ins w ere s t ud ied a t t he F lor ida S ta te Museum . Dur ing i den t i f ica t ion n o tes w ere made o f b one mod if ica t ion s , e l emen t s , a ge , a nd s e x o f t he t a xa i d en t if ied . MNI w a s d e term ined f r om p a i red e l emen t s , a ge , a nd s e x .

A l l g rab s amp les w e re l umped i n to a s i ng le

a na ly t ica l u n i t . E ach p robab i l i ty s amp le w a s c on s idered a s epa ra te a na ly t ica l u n i t . B ioma ss w a s d e term ined u s ing a lome t r ic s c a l ing f o rmu lae ( Ca s tee l 1 978 ; Gou ld 1 966 , 1 971 ; R e i tz a nd C ord ie r 1 983 ; R e i tz e ta l . ; Wing a nd B rown 1 979 ) ( Tab le 1 ) .

EL PARA ISO S ITE E l P a ra iso i s aL a te P receram ic monumen ta l s i te l o ca ted a t t he mou th o f t he R io C h i l lon a nd o ccup ied b etween 2 500 a nd 1 750 BC (Mo se ley 1 975 :26 ) . E xcava t ions w ere c onduc ted u nder t h e d i rec t ion o fJ ef ery Qu i l ter i n 1 983 . Dur ing Qu i l ter 's e xcava t ions ac omb ina t ion o f 1 / 4 inch a nd 1 / 16 i n ch s c reens w ere u sed t or ecover t he f auna l r ema ins a l though i ns ome c a ses 5 0 g rams o fm a t r ix a nd a s soc ia ted f auna l r ema ins w ere r e covered w i thou t s or t ing . F auna l s amp les w ere r e cove red i n t h i s w ay f r om f our t e s t p i ts . I den t if ica t ion w a s d one a t t he F lor ida S ta te Museum b y B onn ie McEwan a nd K a r la B oswor th (W ing 1 985 ) .

3 2

RESULTS T he r esu l t s o f i den t i f ica t ion f r om P a loma a re p resen ted i n t wo f o rms .

T he f i r s t o f t hese

c on ta in s t he d a ta f r om t he g rab s amp les ( Tab le 2 ) a nd t he s e cond o f t hese i st he d a ta f r om t he p robab i l i ty s amp les ( Tab le 3 ) . T hese d a ta a re s u mma r ized f o r c ompa ra t ive p urposes ( Tab les 4 a nd 5 ) . I n t hese s umma r ies t e r re s t r ia l mamma ls i n c lude m ice , f oxes , d eer , a nd c ame l ids ; b i rds i n c lude ow ls , p e l icans , b oob ies , c ormo ran t s , h e rons , s ea g u l ls , a nd p engu ins ; a nd ma r ine mamma ls i n c lude o t te r s ,w ha les , a nd s ea l i on s . T he " o the r" c a tegory i n c ludes as p ider monkey , amoun ta in l i on , a nd o ne h uman . S ince t he p robab i l i ty s amp les c on ta ined p r ima r i ly s ma l l a n ima ls t he g rab s amp les w ere i n c luded h ere t os how t he t o ta l r ange o ft a xa wh ich m igh th ave b een u sed a tP a loma . T he i mpor tance o fr e cove ry me thod i nt he ma ter ia ls t o b e a na lyzed i sa ppa ren t when t he g rab s amp le a nd p robab i l i ty s amp les a re c ompa red . T he p robab i l ity s amp les p rov ide a more a ccura te r ef lec t ion o f t he r e sources wh ich w ere u sed . C ons ider ing t he r e covery me thod t he g rab s amp les p robab ly r e f lec tt he n on -f i sh p or t ion o ft he d i e t wh i le t he p robab i l i ty s amp les r ef lec tt he f i sh p or t ion . I n t he p robab i l i ty s amp les t he ma in s pec ies g roup i n t e rms o f i nd iv idua ls w ere musse ls (My t i l idae ) a nd ma r ine f i she s . Ha lf o f t he i nd iv idua ls i d en t if ied w ere mus se ls . Among t he v er teb ra tes o ver h a lf o ft he i nd iv idua ls w ere a nchov ies ( Engrau l idae ) . T he d rum f am i ly ( Sc iaen idae ) c on t r ibu ted 1 4 p ercen t o f t he v er teb ra te i nd iv idua ls , f o l lowed b y h er r ing s ( C lupe idae ) , wh ich c on t r ibu ted 8 p ercen t . B i rds , ma r ine mamma ls , a nd t e r res t r ia l mamma ls w ere a l a bsen t f r om t he p robab i l i ty s amp les a l though af ew b ones i d en t if iab le t ob i rd a nd mamma l c l a s ses w ere p resen t . I n t h e g rab s amp les , t hese m is s ing t a xa w ere more p rom inen t . Mus se ls c on tr ibu ted 2 0p ercen t o f t h e i n d iv idua ls , w i th ma r ine g a s t ropods c on tr ibu t ing o ver 5 0 p ercen t . T er res t r ia l mamma ls , p r ima r i ly C ame l idae ( 1 .1 p e rcen t o f t he v er teb ra te i nd iv idua ls ) a nd d eer ( 0 .4 p ercen t o f t he v er tebra te M N! ) , c ompr ised 2p ercen t o ft he v er tebra te i nd iv idua ls , a l though l e s s t han 1p ercen t o f a l l i n d iv idua ls . Ma r ine mamma ls w ere a l so i d en t if ied . T hese w ere p r ima r i ly s ea l i on ( 2 .5 p ercen t o f t he v e r tebra te i nd iv idua ls ) . One wha le v er tebra w a s i d en t if ied a nd t h ree s ea o t ter s ( Lu t ra f e l ina ) . B irds , p r imar i ly ma r ine a nd s hore b i rds s uch a s p engu ins , p e l icans , a nd c ormoran t s , c ompr i sed 8 p ercen to f t he v er tebra te i nd iv idua ls . E ven t hough n o s c reen w a s u sed , 5p ercen t o fa l i nd iv idua ls w ere f i shes . Anchov ies c ompr i sed 4 1p e rcen t o ft he v er tebra te i nd iv idua ls i nt he g rab s amp les . B iomass c a lcu la t ion s i nd ica te d if eren t p ropor t ions . I n T ab les 4 a nd 5 o n ly t hose t a xa f o r wh ich MN! w ere t abu la ted a r e i n c luded i nt he b ioma s sc a lcu la t ion . C a tegor ies s uch a s Un iden t if ied B ird a nd S combr idae , f o r wh ich n o MN !w a s c a lcu la ted , a re n o t i n c luded i nt hese t ab les wh i le t a xa s uch a sc ormoran t ( Pha lac roco rax s pp . ) a nd p os s ib le t una ( c f . E u thynnus s pp . ) a re i n c luded . B ased o n b ioma s s , ma r ine mamma ls w ere t he ma jor c on t r ibu tor o fn u t r ien ts . C omb ined w i th s hore b i rds , f i she s a nd ma r ine i nver tebra tes , ma r ine o rgan isms c on t r ibu ted 8 8 p ercen t o f t he b ioma s s wh i le t e rre s t r ia l mamma ls c on t r ibu ted o n ly 1 p e rcen t . S p ider monkey ( A te l es s pp . ) , moun ta in l i on ( F e l i s c onco lo r ) , a nd h uman ( Homo s ap iens ) r ema ins a re d i scoun ted s i nce i ti sp robab le t ha t t hese d o n o t r epre sen tf ood i t ems . S eve ra l p o in ts a bou t i d en t if ica t ion s hou ld b e a ddres sed . T he C r ice t idae t a xon c on ta ins f r agmen t s wh ich a re p robab ly t hose o ft he r i ce r a t ( O iy zomy s s pp . ) . Two mand ib les wh ich c ou ld n o t b e p o s i t ive ly i den t if ied w ere a tl e a s t n o t f r om c o t ton r a t s . A c an ine t oo th w a s i d en t if ied a s d og ( Can idae ) . Th is t oo th w a s l a rge e nough t o b e f r om ad omes t ic d og ( Can i sf am i l iar i s ) r a ther t han a f ox ( Du s ic yon s pp . ) b u t t he i d en t if ica t ion c ou ld n o tb e made w i th c er ta in ly . T he b ones o fC ame l idae c anno t b e i den t if ied f u r the r a tt h is t ime . T he d i ff icu l t ies o fi d en t i f ica t ion w i th t h is f am i ly a r e w e l l k nown a nd d o n o t n eed t o b e a ddres sed h ere . T he a s sump t ion i s made t ha t t hese b ones a re f r om g uanaco ( Lama g uan icoe ) g i ven t he e a r ly d a te o f t he s i te a nd t he e x tens ive u se o f o therw ise w i ld a n ima l r e sources . Th is a s sump t ion may n eed t o b e r ev ised p end ing f u r ther work . T he C erv idae a re p robab ly wh i te ta i led d eer ( Odoco i l eus v i rg in ianus ) a nd t he s ea l i on ( O ta r i idae )w a sp robab ly O tar ia f l ave scens r a ther t han Ar c tocepha lus a us t ra l i s d ue t he s i ze r ange f ound i nt he ma ter ia ls a nd t he l a rge s i ze o fs ome o ft he s pec imens .

3 3

Two o f t he s pec ies i d en t if ied a r e o f s pec ia l i n teres t .

T he s p ider monkey ( A t e le s s pp . ) a nd

moun ta in l i on ( F e l i sc onco lo r ) i d en t i f ica t ion sw ere b o th made o nt he b a s is o fp rox ima l f emora . T he monkey f emur w a s f u sed a nd h ad b een wo rked . A t 5 0 mm b e low t he h ead t h e b one h ad b een r emoved f r om t he s ha f t b yt he g roove a nd s nap me thod . Sma l l c u ts w e re a l so v i s ib le j u s t b e low t he h ead . T he c a t f emur w a s u nfused , b u t h ad b een w orked i nt he s ame f a sh ion a s t h e monkey f emur . I th ad a l so b een c u tb e low t he h ead . Wh i le t hese t wo s pec imens may r epresen t a n ima ls c ap tu red o r r a ised l o ca l ly , t h is s eems p a r t icu la r ly u n l ike ly i nt he c a se o ft h e s p ider monkey . E xam ina t ion o f t he e l emen t s i d en t if ied p rov ides a dd i t iona l i n forma t ion a bou t t he u se o f a n ima ls i n t he v i l lage . T he e l emen t s i d en t if ied f o r O ta r i idae i np a r t icu la r a re i n te res t ing ( Tab le 6 ) . G iven t ha t P a loma i s 4l i nea r km f r om t he c oa s t i ts e em s u n l ike ly t ha t e n t ire c a rca s ses wou ld b e b rough t t o t he v i l lage , e spec ia l ly c ons ider ing t ha t t h ree o ft h e s ea l i ons w ere a du l t s a td ea th , a nd a t l e a s t o ne a ma le . However , t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f e l emen ts c l ea r ly i nd ica tes t ha t p or t ions f r om t h roughou t t he c a rca s s , i f n o t e n t ire c a rca s ses t hemse lve s , w ere b rough t u p t o t he v i l lage . Mod if ica t ion s t o t hese e l emen t s a re t abu la ted i n T ab le 7 . B urn ing w a s t he p r ima ry mod if i ca t ion o bserved a nd may i nd ica te t ha t r oa s t ing w a s ama jor f ood p repa ra t ion me thod . Mea su remen ts a re p resen ted i n T ab le 8 . R aw mea su remen t s o f f i sh a t la s w id th s a nd t h e o to l i th l e ng th s p rov ide e s t ima tes o ft he s i zes o ff i sh wh ich w e re u sed . A l lomet r ic e s t ima tes o fb ody s i ze u s ing a t la s w id th a nd o to l i th l e ng th i nd ica te t ha t l o rna s ( Sc iaena d e l ic iosa ) r anged i n w e igh t f r om 2 gm t o 3 81 gm . S tanda rd l e ng th s o f t hese f i shes a r e e s t ima ted t o b e b etween 3 7 mm t o 3 03 mm b a sed o n a lome t r ic e s t ima tes f r om o to l i th l e ng th s . T he a ve rage l e ng th o fl o rna s i nt h is s amp le w a s 1 85 mm ,b a sed o n a t la s mea suremen t s . T he c ocos ( Pa ra lonchurus p e ruanus ) m ay h ave w e ighed b e tween 5 gm a nd 2 75 gm a nd h ad a s t anda rd l e ng th o f b e tween 5 8 a nd 2 41 mm , b a sed o n a lome t r ic e s t ima tes f r om a t la s a nd o to l i th m ea suremen t s . T he a verage l eng th o f c ocos i n t h is s amp le w a s2 11 mm . T he a ge o f d ea th c ou ld b e d e term ined f o r s ome s pec imens ( Tab le 9 ) a nd i si mpor tan t i n d i scus s ing t he s ea son i n wh ich t he s i te w a so ccup ied . One o ft he h eron ( Ardea c oco i ) i nd iv idua ls w a s aj uven i le . A l l o ft he d eer e l emen t s ( Cerv idae ) w e re a ppa ren t ly f r om a du l t s . Two u n fused p rox ima l C ame l idae p ha langes s ugges t t ha t a t l e a s t o ne i nd iv idua l w a s l e s s t han 1 8 mon th s o ld . Ano the r i nd iv idua l w a s as ub -adu l t a nd t he t h i rd a n a du l t . Mo s t C ame l idae b ones c ou ld n o t b e a ged , h owever . Two o f t he s ea l i ons ( O ta r i idae ) w ere a l so j uven i le s . Two s pec imens , h umer i i d i aphy ses u nfused b o th p rox ima l ly a nd d i s ta l ly , s ugges t s t ha t t wo p ups w ere s l augh tered . T h ree o f t h e s e a l i ons w ere a du l ts a td ea th . S exua l d imorph i sm w a se v iden t among t he a du l t b ones . One i nd iv idua l mus t h ave b een ama le b a sed u pon t he e x t reme ly l a rge s i ze o fs ome e l emen ts .

D ISCUSSION I fb o th t he g rab a nd p robab i l i ty s amp les a r e c ons idered , t he s pec ies e xp lo i ted b yt he P a lomans w ere p r ima r i ly ma r ine o rgan i sms . T he b u lk o f t he c a lo r ies c onsumed w ere o b ta ined f r om s ea mamma ls p r ima r i ly a nd s e conda r i ly f r om f i shes , b i rds , a nd i n ver tebra tes . T er res t r ia l v er teb ra tes w ere u sed t o s o me e x ten t , h owever . C ame l idae may h ave b een c aptu red e i the r f r om t he l oma s o r t he r i ver v a l leys . S ince p eop le t end t o e xp lo i t t he mo s t p rox ima l c ommun i ty , i ti s l i ke ly t ha t t e rres t r ia l v er tebra tes w ere h un ted i n l oma s n ea r t he v i l lage r a ther t han a t t he mo re d i s tan t r i ver v a l ley . I ta ppea rs t ha t a l o ft he ma r ine v er tebra tes a nd i n ver tebra tes c ou ld h ave b een t aken o f ft h e r ocky o r s andy b eaches n ea r P a loma . U se o f more d i s tan t c ommun i t ies i ss ugge s ted b y t he s p ide r monkey a nd p erhaps b y t he moun ta in l i on . T hese i t ems c ou ld h ave b een o b ta ined e i ther f r om t he c oa s ta l r eg ion n or th o ft he S echura D eser t , o r f r om t he Amazon r eg ion , a l though t h e moun ta in l i on m igh th ave b een t aken l o ca l ly S ome e v idence i sf ound i nt he v er tebra te f auna o fb o th s ummer a nd w in te r o ccupa t ion s . S ea l i ons ( O ta r i idae ) a re f ound o n t he P eruv ian c oa s t i nt he s ummer mon th s when t h e P eruv ian c u r ren t i sc l oses t t o s hore . T he G ian t F u lma r (Mac ronec te s g i gan t eus ) , g uanaco ( Came l idae ) , a nd d eer ( Cerv idae ) i d en t if ied i nt he s amp les s ugges t a n o ccupa t ion d u r ing t he d amp w in te r mon ths when t he c ur ren t i sf u r ther f r om s hore . More w ork i sn eeded o n t h e s ea sona l h ab i ts o ft h e f i sh b efore t h ey

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c an b e u sed t o i n terp re t s ea sona l h uman a c t iv i ty . Many o f t he s pec ies s ugges t w in ter o ccupa t ions , w h i le s ome i nd ica te s u mmer r e s idence . The u se o f av a r ie ty o f t e chn ique s f o r o b ta in ing v er tebra tes i ss ugges ted t h rough a na ly s i s o f t h e se d a ta . T he l and v e r tebra tes w ere p robab ly h un ted o r t r apped . S ea l i ons c ou ld h ave b een s p ea red o r c l ubbed o n t he b eaches . P engu ins a ppa ren t ly c an a l so b e a pproached c l ose ly e nough t o c l ub a nd t he o ther b i rds m igh th ave b een c l ubbed o rn e t ted a sw e l l . T he s pec ies t hemse lves d o n o t s ugges t wh ich me thods w e re emp loyed . The v a r ie ty o f s i zes a nd h ab i ta t s o f t he f i shes s ugges t t ha t s evera l f i sh ing t e chn iques w ere u t i l ized . Her r ing s , a nchov ies , a nd s ome o ft he s ma l l d rum s w ere p robab ly c aptured w i th an e t o r a s c oop o f r eeds m igh t a l so h ave b een u sed . T he l a rge , c a rn ivorous a n ima ls m igh t a l so h ave b een t a ken b y n e t s , o r b y h ook a nd l i ne . I f an e tw a s u sed t o c o l lec tt he l a rger f i sh , i tm igh t h ave b een a d if e ren t s i ze mesh f r om t ha tu sed t oc ap tu re t he a nchov ies . T hese d a ta a re b u t as i ng le e xamp le o fA rcha ic s ubs is tence o n t he c en t ra l c oa s t o fP eru . I ti s i n te res t ing t ha t t hese r e su l t s a r e s im i la r t o t hose f r om t he s i te o fE l P a ra iso . T he E l P a ra iso f auna l a s semb lages a re v ery s im i la r t ot hose i nt he P a loma p robab i l i ty s amp les ( Tab le 1 0 ) . More t e r res t r ia l m amma ls w ere i d en t i f ied ,b u t t hese w e re a l u n iden t if ied r oden ts . As i ng le b i rd w a s i d en t if ied , a si n t h e P a loma c o l lec t ion . F i sh c ompr ised 9 6 p ercen t o f t he i nd iv idua ls a nd a l o f t he mea sureab le b i oma ss . Her r ing s a nd a nchov ies c ompr ised 8 7p e rcen t o ft he i nd iv idua ls . T he o ther f i sh t a xa w ere d rums ( Sc iaen idae ) a nd mu l le ts (Mug i l c epha lu s ) . I n t he 1 / 4 inch s amp les f ox ( Dus ic yon s pp . ) , C ame l idae , a nd d eer w e re i d en t i f ied a s w e l l a s d uck s ( Ana t idae ) , d oves ( Co lumb idae ) , a nd o w ls ( S t r ig iformes ) .

SUM MARY S tudy o f t he d a ta s ugges ts t ha t b o th t e r res t r ia l a nd ma r ine a n ima l r e sources w ere u t i l ized b y r e s iden ts o fc oa s ta l s i tes i nt he A rcha ic p er iod . T he ma in t e r res t r ia l h ab i ta t e xp lo i ted w a sp robab ly t h e l oma s , b u t t h is w a s n o t a ma jor r e source a r ea . Ma r ine r e sources w ere h eav i ly e xp lo i ted a nd p rov ided mos t o f t he c a lor ies o r ig ina t ing f r om a n ima l s ou rces . T h is i s , h owever , n o t t o s ay t ha t m a r ine p lan t sw ere more h eav i ly u sed t han t e r res t r ia l o nes . T he d a ta f o r d e term in ing s ea sona l o ccupa t ion a t P a loma a re n o t y e t t horough ly e xp lored ; h owever , i t a ppea r s t ha t o ccupa t ion a t P a loma c ou ld h ave b een a t l e a s t i n term i t tan t i f n o t p e rmanen t . The r e sources u sed f o r f ood a ppea r t o b e o fg ood q ua l i ty . Qua l i ty o f d i e t d epends , o fc our se , o n a n a dequa te q uan t i ty o ff ood a sw e l l a sa n a dequa te q ua l i ty o ff ood . T he d a ta i nd ica te t ha t t he q ua l i ty o f a n ima l f oods c onsumed w a s g ood , b u t d o n o t s ugges t whe ther t hese f oods w ere a va i lab le i ns u ff ic ien t q uan t i t ies t o f e ed a l o f t he P a loman s a dequa te ly . G iven t he n a ture o f t he P eruv ian C u r ren t a nd t he e x ten t t o wh ich v i l lager s e xp lo i ted t he r e sources o ft he C ur ren t i ts eems p robab le t h a ta n ima l f oods w ere a l so a va i lab le i ns uf ic ien t q uan t i ty d ur ing n orma l y ea r s . When t he P eruv ian C u r ren t w a s d ef lec ted f r om t he c oa s t b y E l N iño , s ubs tan t ia l mod if ica t ions i n t he ma r ine b a sed p o r t ion o ft he d i e t mu s th ave b een r equ i red . Mos t o f t he s pec ies i d en t if ied f r om P a loma a r e f ound i n t he v i c in i ty o f t he s i te t oday . S ince c on t inen ta l c l ima tes a r e s i gn if ican t ly i nf luenced b y o cean ic c ur ren ts , ama jor c l ima t ic c hange o n t he c oa s t wou ld h ave c o inc ided w i th ac hange i nt he l o ca t ion o ft he P eruv ian C u r ren t i nt h is a rea . T h i s w ou ld a l so mean mod if ica t ions i nt he u p -we l l ing o fn u tr ien ts wh ich f o rm s t he b a s i s f o r t he modern P e ruv ian f ood c ha in f ound i nc oa s ta l w a ters . S uch ac hange wou ld u ndoub ted ly b e r ef lec ted i nt he t e r res tr ia l a nd p a r t icu la r ly i nt he ma r ine f auna . S ince t he f auna a tb o th P a loma a nd E l P a ra iso a r e t ho se c ons idered t ob e t y p ica l o ft he P eruv ian C ur ren t t oday , i ta ppea r s t ha t t here c anno th ave b een s ub s tan t ia l a l tera t ion i nt h e ma r ine e nv i ronmen tf r om t he t ime P a loma w a so ccup ied t o t he p resen t . Any e nv ironmen ta l c hange wh ich o ccur red w a sp robab ly d ue t o o ther f a c to rs .

T he e v idence f r om t he s i tes o f P a loma a nd E l P a ra iso i nd ica tes t ha t ma r ine f auna w ere e x tens ive ly u sed i n t he A rcha ic P er iod . I n t e rms o f a n ima l p roduc t s i ti sq u i te p os s ib le t ha t ma r ine r e sou rces a l one c ou ld h ave s uppor ted c omp lex s oc ia l o rgan iza t ions a nd a r ch i tec tura l p ro jec ts . I n t he c a se o fE l P a ra iso i ti sc l ea r t ha t ma r ine o rgan isms w ere t he c en tra l p or t ion o ft he a n ima l b a sed d i e t . T he d i s t inc t ion b e tween p lan t a nd a n ima l r e sou rces i sa n i mpor tan t o ne , h owever . T er res tr ia l p l an t s u ndoub ted ly p layed a s i gn if ican t r o le i n c oa s ta l p reh i s tory w i th ma r ine f auna p lay ing a c omp lemen ta ry r o le . S tudy o f t he d i e ta ry b a se o f t he L a te A rcha ic a nd t he c omp lex o fp lan t a nd a n ima l r e sources wh ich w ere u sed c anno t b e a ddres sed t h rough a s imp le ma r ine / ter res t r ia l d i cho tomy . I n s tead w e n eed t oe xp lore t he t o ta l c omp lex o fr e sources u sed a nd t he i n ter re la t ion sh ip a mong t hem i no rder t ou nder s tand t he s ubs i s tence b a se u pon wh ich c oa s ta l p opu la t ions d epended . On ly t hen c an w e i s o la te t he s ubs is tence a nd e nv i ronmen ta l v a r iab les wh ich w ere i mpor tan t i n t he d eve lopmen to fc oa s ta l s t a tes . T he r e su l t s o f t he P a loma p ro jec t r epor ted h ere s hou ld b e v i ewed a s a n i n i t ia l s t ep i n al ong p roces s . E xam ina t ion o f b io log ica l ma ter ia ls f r om c oa s ta l s i tes i n P eru c an p rov ide i n forma t ion n eeded f o r u nder s tand ing h uman s ubs is tence i n t h is a r ea . Wh i le t he c onc lus ions d rawn f r om t h is s t udy w i l l u ndoub ted ly b e mod if ied i n t he f u ture t hey i nd ica te t he p o ten t ia l t ha t z ooa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ies h o ld f o rf u r ther r e sea rch .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS Iw i sh t o t hank Rober tA . B enf er , F reder ick E nge l , G lendon H . We ir , a nd A l ice N . B en fer f o r t he o ppor tun i ty t o e xam ine t he f auna l ma te r ia ls f r om P a loma . T he s t af f o f t he C en t ro d e I nves t igac iones d e Z ona s A r ida s , p a r t icu la r ly t he d i rec tor C a r los L opez O cona , h ave p rov ided i n va luab le a s s is tance . Iw ish t o t hank J ef ery Qu i l ter f o r p erm is s ion t o r e f er t o t he u npub l i shed r e su l ts o ft he E l P a ra iso e xcava t ion . Ia l so g ra tefu l ly a cknow ledge t he a s s i s tance o f Ha ro ld Ro l l in s , D iana Ma t th ieson , R icha rd T hor ing ton , O l iver P ea r son , a nd J ane Whee ler . A l l i d en t if ica t ions a nd a na ly s i s o f t he f auna l ma ter ia ls w a s d one a t t he F lo r ida S ta te Museum , Ga inesv i l le , a nd t he g enerou s a s s is tance o fE l izabe th S . Wing i sg rea t ly a pprec ia ted . F und ing w a s p rov ided b y Na t iona l S c ience F ounda t ion g ran ts BNS 7 6 -12316 ; BNS 7 8 -07727 a / b ; a nd BNS 8 1 -053940 . An e a r l ier v er s ion o f t h is p aper w a s p resen ted a t t he 5 0 th Annua l Mee t ing o f t he S oc ie ty o f Amer ican A rchaeo logy i n1 985 .

L ITERATURE C ITED B en f er , Rober tA . 1 982 E lp royec to P a loma d el a Un ive rs idad d e M is sou r i ye iC en t ro d eI nves t igac iones d e Zona sA r ida s . R ev is ta d e C . I .Z .A . ,L ima ,P eru . 1 984 T he c ha l lenges a nd r ewa rds o fs eden t i sm : t he P receram ic v i l lage o fP a loma ,P eru .P p . 5 31 -558 i nP a leopa tho logy a nd t he O r ig in o f Ag r icu lture (M .N . C ohen a nd G .J . A rme lago s ,e ds . ) . Academ ic P res s ,N ew York . B rack E gg , An ton io J . 1 974 L os v er tebrados d e l a sL oma sc os tera sd e lP eru . Ana les C ien t if i co s 1 :3 -4 . C a s tee l , R icha rd W . 1 978 F auna l a s semb lages a nd t he "W iegeme thode" o rw e igh t me thod . J ourna l o fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 5 (1 ) :71 -77 . C ohen , Ma rk Na than 1 971 P opu la t ion g row th , s ubs i s tence a nd t he s e t t lemen ti nt he Ancon -Ch i l lon r eg ion o ft he c en t ra l c oa s to fP eru . P h .D . d i s ser ta t ion , C o lumb ia Un iver s i ty . Un iver s i ty M ic rof i lms , Ann A rbor . D r iesch , Ange la v on d en 1 976 A g u ide t o t he mea su remen t so fa n ima l b ones f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i tes . P eabody Museum B u l le t in No . 1 . Ha rva rd Un ive rs i ty , C amb r idge Ma s sachuse t t s , 1 36 p p . E igenmann , C a r l H . 1 921 T he n a ture a nd o rgan iza t ion o ft he f i she s o ft he P ac if ic s l ope o fE cuador ,P eru , a nd Ch i le . P roceed ing so ft he Amer ican P h i losoph ica l S oc ie ty 5 5(4 ) :503 -523 .

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Enge l ,F reder ic 1 973 N ew f a c ts a bou tp re -Co lumb ian l i f ei nt he Andean L oma s . C ur ren t An thropo logy 1 4 (3 ) :271 -280 . F ied le r , R . H . 1 934 T he P eruv ian f i sher ies . Geog raph ica l R ev iew 3 4 :96 -119 . G i lmo re , Raymond M . 1 950 F auna a nd e thnozoo logy o fS ou th Amer ica . P p . 3 45 -464 i n Handbook o fS ou th Amer ican I nd ians , Vo l . 6 .( J .S tewa rd ,e d . ) . B u reau o f Amer ican E thno logy B u l le t in 1 43 . Sm i th son ian I ns t i tu t ion , Wa sh ing ton D C . Gou ld ,S .J . 1 966 A l lome try a nd s i ze i no n togeny a nd p hy logeny . B io log ica l R ev iew o ft he C ambr idge P h i losoph ica lS oc ie ty 4 1 :587 -640 . 1 971 Geome t r ic s im i la r i ty i na lome tr ic g row th : ac on t r ibu t ion t ot he p rob lem o fs ca l ing i n t he e vo lu t ion o fs i ze . T he Amer ican Na tura l i s t 1 05 (942 ) :113 -137 . G ray son , Dona ld K . 1 979 On t he q uan t if i ca t ion o fv er tebra te a r chaeofauna . P p . 1 99 -237 i n Advances i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory , Vo l .2 . (M . B .S ch if f er ,e d . ) . A cadem ic P res s , N ew York . G r imwood , I .R . 1 969 No tes o n t he d i s t r ibu t ion a nd s t a tus o fs o me P eruv ian mamma ls . Amer ican C omm i t tee f o rI n terna t iona l W i ld l if eP ro tec t ion S pec ia lP ub l ica t ion No .2 1 . H i ldeb rand , S amue l F . 1 946 A d esc r ip t ive c a ta log o ft he s hore f i shes o fP eru . U .S . Na t iona l Museum B u l le t in 1 89 . Sm i th son ian I ns t i tu t ion , Wa sh ing ton D C . I dy l l ,C .P . 1 973 The a nchovy c r i s i s . S c ien t if ic Amer ican . 2 28(6 ) :22 -29 . I zum i ,S e i ich i , a nd T osh ih iko S ono 1 963 Andes 2 ,e xcava t ions a t Ko tosh ,P eru , 1 960 . Un iver s i ty o fT okyo P res s ,T okyo , 2 10 Koepcke , Ma r ia

P P .

1 970 T he B irds o ft he Depa r tmen t o fL ima ,P eru . L iv ing s ton , Wynnewood ,P ennsy lvan ia , 1 44 p p . L ann ing , E dwa rd P . 1 967 P eru B efore t he I nca s . P ren t ice -Ha l l , E ng lewood C l if f s , N ew J ersey , 2 16 p p . L ee ,R icha rd B . , a nd I r v in D eVore ,e d i tors 1 968 Man T he Hun ter . A ld ine , C h icago , 4 15 p p . Meye rd eS chauensee , Rudo lphe 1 966 T he S pec ies o fB irds o fS ou th Amer ica w i th T he ir D i s tr ibu t ion . L iv ing s ton P ub l ish ing , Wynnewood ,P ennsy lvan ia , 5 77 p p . Mo se ley , M ichae l E . 1 968 Chang ing s ubs is tence p a t terns : L a te P receram ic a r chaeo logy o ft he c en t ra l P eruv ian c oa s t . Unpub l i shed P h .D . d i s ser ta t ion , Depa r tmen to f An th ropo logy , Ha rva rd Un iver s i ty . 1 975 T he Ma r i t ime F ounda t ions o f Andean C iv i l iza t ion . C umm ing sP ub l . C o . , Men lo P a rk , C a l iforn ia , 1 31 p p . 1 978 P re -ag r icu ltu ra l c oa s ta l c i v i l iza t ions i nP eru . C a ro l ina B io log ica l S upp ly C ompany S c ien t if ic P ub l ica t ions D iv is ion No . 9 0 . Murphy , Rober t C ushman 1 936 Ocean ic B irds o fS ou th Amer ica . Macm i l lan , N ew Yo rk , 1 245 p p . P a r son s , Mary H . 1 970 P receram ic s ubs i s tence o n t he P eruv ian c oa s t . Amer ican An t iqu i ty 3 5 (3 ) :292 -304 . P a t ter son , Thoma s C . 1 971 T he emergence o ff ood p roduc t ion i nc en t ra l P eru . P p . 1 81 -209 i nP reh i s tor ic Agr icu lture ( S .S truever ,e d . ) . Na tura l H is tory P res s , Ga rden C i ty , N ew Yo rk .

3 7

P range , Henry D . ,J ohn F . Anderson , a nd Hermann R ahn 1 979 S ca l ing o fs ke le ta l ma s st ob ody ma s si nb i rds a nd mamma ls . Amer ican Na tura l i s t 13(1 ) :103 -122 . R anda l l ,J ohn E . 1 968 C a r ibbean R eef F i shes . ' VHF P ub l ica t ion s ,J e r sey C i ty , N ew J ersey ,3 18 p p . R aymond ,J .S co t t 1 981 T he ma r i t ime f ounda t ions o f Andean c i v i l iza t ion : ar econs idera t ion o ft he e v idence . Amer ican An t iqu i ty 4 6 (4 ) :806 -821 . R e i tz , E l izabe th J . , a nd Dan C ord ier 1 983 U se o fa lome try i nz ooa rchaeo log ica l a na ly s i s . P p . 2 37 -252 i n An ima ls a nd A rchaeo logy :2 . S he l l M iddens , F i shes , a nd B irds ( J . C lu t ton -B rock a nd C . G r ig son , e ds . ) . BAR I n terna t iona l S er ies 1 83 , Ox ford . R e i tz , E l izabe th J . ,I .R . Qu i tmyer , H .S . Ha le ,S .J . S cudder , E . S .W ing 1 987 App l ica t ion o fa l lome t ry t oz ooa rchaeo logy . Amer ican An t iqu i ty 5 2 (2 ) : 3 04 -317 . S chwe igger , E . 1 964 E l L i tora lP eruano . Un ivers idad Nac iona l " F reder ico S impson , George G . ,A . Roe , a nd R . C .L ewon t in

V i l la rrea l" , L ima .

1 960 Quan t i ta t ive Zoo logy . Ha rcour t , B race , a nd C o . , N ew York ,4 40 p p . T ow le , M . A . 1 961 T he E thnobo tany o fP re -Co lumb ian P eru . V ik ing F und P ub l ica t ion i n An thropo logy 3 0 :1 -80 . Weberbauer , Augus t 1 936 A v ege ta t ion map o ft he P eruv ian Ande s . G eog raph ica l R ev iew 1 3 :304 -306 . W i l l iamson , G . , a nd W .J .A .P ayne 1 978 An I n t roduc t ion t o An ima l Husbandry i nt he T rop ic s . L ongman , N ew Y ork , 4 47 p p . Wi lson , Dav id J . 1 981 O f ma ize a nd men : ac r i t ique o ft he ma r i t ime h ypo thes is o fs t a te o r ig in so n t he c oa s t o fP eru . Amer ican An th ropo log i s t8 3 :93 -120 . Wing , E l izabe th S . 1 985 P rov is iona lp re l im ina ry r epor t o nt he f auna l r ema ins f r om E l P ara iso ( PV 4 6 -35 ) , P eru . Ms . o n f i l e , F lo r ida S ta te Mu seum , Un iver s i ty o fF lor ida , G a ine sv i l le . Wing , E l izabe th S .a nd A .B rown 1 979 P a leonu tr i t ion : Me thod a nd T heory i nP re -H is tor ic F oodway s . Academ ic P res s ,N ew York ,2 02 p p . Wy r tk i , K laus , E . S t roup ,W .P a tser t , R . Wi l l iams , a nd W . Qu inn 1 976 P red ic t ing a nd o bserv ing E l N iño . S c ience 1 91 :343 -346 .

3 8

T ab le 1 .A l lome tr ic V a lue s U sed i nT h is S tudy .*

F auna l C a tego ry

N

l o ga

b

r 2

B ioma s s ,k g ,f r om B one We igh t , k g Mamma l B i rd C hondr ich thye s O s te ich thye s N on -Perc i fo rmes S i lu r i formes P e r c i formes S e r ran idae C a rang idae H aemu l idae S pa r idae S c iaen idae

9 7 3 07 1 7 3 93 19 3 6 2 74 1 8 1 7 2 5 2 2 9 9

1 . 12 1 . 04 1 . 68 0 . 90 0 . 85 1 . 15 0 . 93 1 . 51 1 . 23 0 . 84 0 . 96 0 . 81

0 . 90 0 . 91 0 . 86 0 . 81 0 . 79 0 . 95 0 . 83 1 . 08 0 . 88 0 . 82 0 . 92 0 . 74

0 . 94 0 . 97 0 . 85 0 . 80 0 . 88 0 . 87 0 . 76 0 . 85 0 . 86 0 . 42 0 . 98 0 . 73

0 . 018 0 .162

0 . 681 0 . 918

0 . 83 0 . 89

A t la s Wid th , mm , t oS tanda rd L eng th , mm S c iaen idae 1 52

1 . 93

0 . 61

0 . 65

B ody We igh t ,k g ,f r om A t la sW id th , mm S c iaen idae 1 85

1 .79

1 . 66

0 . 62

1 . 48

0 . 82

0 . 71

3 .06

2 . 28

0 . 63

E d ib le Mea t We igh t , g m , f r om S he l l We igh t , gm P e lecypod 7 9 G a s t ropod 1 34

S t anda rd L eng th , mm , f r om O to l i th L eng th , mm S c iaen idae 1 54 B ody We igh t ,k g , f r om O to l i th L eng th , mm S c iaen idae 1 89

* K eyt oa bbrev ia t ion s : F o rmu la i sY =ax' ;w he re Y i sb i oma s s ; Xi sb one w e igh t ; ai st h eY i n t e rcep t ; a nd bi st he s l ope ; Ni st he n umbe ro fo b se rva t ion s .

3 9

T ab le 2 . P a loma : G rab S amp le S pec ies L i s t .

T axon

C oun t

MN I %

Ud . Mamma l A t e l e ss pp . S p ider monkey Homo s ap iens Human Ud . R oden t C r ice t idae N ew Wo r ld M ice

1 469 1 2 6

We igh t gm

B ioma s s k g

2 773 .49

3 3 .016

2 6 .5

1

0 . 02

8 . 50

0 . 181

0 . 2

1

0 . 02

6 2 .10 0 . 10 0 . 50

0 . 003 0 . 014

t r t r

1 3 4

O i omy s s pp . R ice r a t

1

1

0 . 02

0 . 20

0 . 006

t r

My s t ice t i B a leen wha le s

1

1

0 . 02

4 71 .50

6 . 701

5 . 4

C an idae c f . Du s i c yon s pp . p o s s ib le F ox

1 1

1 . 40 0 . 20

0 . 036 0 . 006

t r t r

Du s ic yon s pp . F ox c f . L u t raf e l ina p o s s ib le C oa s to t te r

7

6 . 9

0 . 15

0 . 1

1 . 20

0 . 031

t r

L u t raf e l ina C oa s to t te r

5

3

0 . 07

1 6 .90

0 . 335

0 . 3

F e l i sc onco lo r Moun ta in l i on c f .O ta r i idae p o s s ib le S ea l i on

1

1

0 . 02

2 3 .50

0 . 451

0 . 4

1 . 50

0 . 04

t r

4 271 .09

4 8 .695

3 9 .1

5 3 .80 7 4 .20

0 . 95 1 . 27

0 . 8 1 . 0

O ta r i idae S ea l i on

3 2 49 8 1 4

C ame l idae Guanaco

4 7

S phen i scu sh umbo ld t i Humbo ld tp engu in P roce l la r i idae S hea rwa ter s Mac ronec t e sg i gan teu s G ian tF u lma r S u la s pp . B ooby P e l ecanu st h agu s P e l ican P ha lac roco rax s pp . C o rmo ran t

0 . 02

1

A r t ioda c ty la c f .C ame l idae p o s s ib le Guanaco

C erv idae D ee r Ud .B i rd

1

7

0 . 02

3

0 . 07

5 00 .90

7 . 076

5 . 7

1

0 . 02

8 5 .60

1 . 443

1 . 2

2

0 . 04

2 5 .80

0 . 393

0 . 3

2

1

0 . 02

1 . 20

0 . 024

t r

4

1

0 . 02

6 . 60

0 . 114

t r

4

1

0 . 02

5 . 90

0 . 103

t r

2 6

4

0 . 09

7 9 .50

1 . 095

0 . 9

1 04

8

0 . 2

2 34 .00

2 . 924

2 . 4

8

1 0

4 0

A rde idae H e ron s

1

A rd ea c oco i H e ron

7

1

0 . 02

1 2 .10

0 . 197

0 . 2

G e r anoae tu s me lano l eucas B la ck -c res ted B uz za rd -Eag le

1

1

0 . 02

2 . 50

0 . 047

t r

L a r idae Gu l l s

6

2 . 70

0 . 05

t r

L ar u ss pp . G u l l

7

2

0 . 04

5 . 00

0 . 088

t r

S tr ig i fo rmes Ow l s

1

1

0 . 02

0 . 20

0 . 005

t r

c f . F r ing i l l idae p o s s ib le F inche s

1

1

0 . 02

0 . 10

0 . 003

t r

C a r cha rh in idae R equ iem s ha rk s Ud .F i sh C lupe idae H e r r ing s

4

1

0 . 02

1 0 .50

0 . 951

0 . 8

Eng rau l idae Anchov ies A r i idae S ea c a tf i shes

0 . 00

2 893 18

1 6

0 . 4

9 . 12

0 . 173

0 . 1

4 428

14

2 . 5

1 4 .821

0 . 254

0 . 2

2 0

A r iu sf e l i s H a rdhead c a t f i sh

1

1

0 . 02

0 . 25

0 . 005

t r

S er ran idae S ea b a s se s

1

1

0 . 02

0 . 10

0 . 002

t r

P ara lab rax s pp . S ea b a s s

2

1

0 . 02

0 . 70

0 . 028

t r

c f . C a rang idae p o s s ib le J ack s

2

5 . 90

0 . 186

0 . 2

5 . 80

0 . 183

0 . 2

0 . 2

1 6 .80

0 . 466

0 . 4

2

0 . 04

1 .72

0 . 339

0 . 3

C arang idae J a ck

1 5

C aranx s pp . J a ck

1 7

N ep tomenus s pp . J a ck

2 6

1 0

T rach ino tus s pp . P ompano

1

1

0 . 02

0 . 10

0 . 005

t r

T rachu r u sc f . mu rphy i J u re l Haemu l idae G run t s

5

2

0 . 04

1 . 70

0 . 062

0 . 1

1

0 . 02

1 .345

0 . 148

0 . 1

An i so t r emus s pp . G run t

1 0 9 7

Haemu lon s pp . G run t

4

2

0 . 04

0 . 85

0 . 021

t r

I sac ia c f .c oncep t ion i s C ab inza S c iaen idae D rum s

1

1

0 . 02

0 . 10

0 . 004

t r

1

0 . 02

0 . 01

0 . 001

t r

6

0 . 1

3 . 10

0 . 09

0 . 1

B a i rd i e l la s pp . S i lve rp erch C yno sc ion s pp . S ea t rou t

8 1 1

4 1

P a ra lonchu ru spe ruanu s C oco S c iaena d e l i c io sa L o rna

1 7 1 79

3 5 6

0 . 07

6 . 10

0 . 148

0 . 1

1 . 2

3 8 .62

0 . 581

0 . 5 t r

C he i lodac t y lu ss pp . Wra s se

2

1

0 . 02

0 . 30

0 . 004

P ime lome topon s pp . Wra s se

1

1

0 . 02

0 . 80

0 . 009

0 . 1

4 65 .00

3 . 317

2 . 7

1 . 70

0 . 018

t r

S combr idae Ma cke re ls c f .E u thynnu ss pp . p os s ib le T una E u thynnu ss pp . T una

1 207 8 2 8

8

0 . 2

1 0 .33

0 . 096

0 . 1

6 43

5

0 . 1

2 57 .46

1 . 914

1 . 5

T hunnu ss pp . T una

1 0

1

0 . 02

6 . 20

0 . 06

0 . 1

Ud .V e r teb ra te Ud . An thozoa C o ra l

5 7 8 7

2 40 .10 3 73 .15

3 0 8 4 1 68

1 68

3 . 7

5 6 .30 1 21 .60 5 10 .95

0 . 056 0 . 21

t r 0 . 1

7 9

7 9

1 . 7

1 8 .80

0 . 01

t r

2 25

2 25

4 . 9

2 18 .75

0 . 1

t r

0 . 02

0 . 10

0 . 00008

t r

S combe romo ru s s pp . Macke re l

Ud . Mo l lu s ca Ud . Ga s t ropoda F i s su r e l la c r as sa K eyho le l i mpe t S cu r r iapara s i t i ca L impe t T egu la t r id en ta ta T egu la L i t to r inape ruv iana P er iw ink le C r ep idu la s pp . S l ippe rs he l l

1

1

1 741

1 741

3 8 .1

2 502 .53

0 . 91

0 . 7

N a t ica s pp . C ra s s i lab rum c r a s s i lab r um Mu rex

1 2 8 7

1 2 8 7

0 . 3 1 . 9

8 . 55 1 04 .9

0 . 005 0 . 049

t r t r

T ha id idae Rock she l ls

1 4

4 8 .80

0 . 024

t r

C oncho l epa sc oncho l epa s R ock she l l

9 1

9 1

2 . 0

2 386 .80

0 . 87

0 . 7

1 90

1 90

4 . 2

2 735 .73

0 . 98

0 . 8

T ha i ss pp . R ock she l l T ha i sb i se r ia l i s R ock she l l

1

1

0 . 02

9 . 30

0 . 005

t r

T ha i sc hoco la ta R ock she l l

5

5

0 . 1

7 9 .20

0 . 038

t r

T ha i sh aemas toma R ock she l l

3

3

0 . 07

1 0 .10

0 . 006

t r

X an thocho ru sb r od e r zp i i R ock she l l

8

8

0 . 2

1 0 .10

0 . 006

t r

N a s sar iu ss pp . B a ske ts he l ls

5

5

0 . 1

0 . 90

0 . 0006

t r

O l iv idae O l ive s he l ls S cu ta lu s s pp . L and s na i l

1 9

1 9

0 . 4

8 6 .60

0 . 041

t r

1 43

1 43

3 . 1

1 79 .90

0 . 081

t r

4 2

U d .P o lyp lacopho ra C h i ton s

2 84

U d .P e lecypod G l y c yme r i so va ta B i t te r swee t

4 17 1 3

My t i l idae Mus se ls

3 6

7

0 . 8

3 95 .89

0 . 2

4 96 .40 1 03 .00

0 . 071 0 . 024

t r t r

1 438

4 1

0 . 9

1 451 .61

0 . 154

0 . 1

A u lacomya a t e r Mus se l

5 42

1 89

4 . 1

1 572 .59

0 . 157

0 . 1

C ho romy t i lu sc ho ru s Mus se l

2 58

7 3

1 . 6

1 648 .05

0 . 162

0 . 1

P e rumy t i luspu r pu ra tu s Mus se l

7 60

2 98

6 . 5

5 24 .68

0 . 074

t r

S em imy t i lu sa l go su s Mus se l

6 58

3 26

7 . 1

2 12 .25

0 . 04

t r

0 . 2

2 97 .80

0 . 05

t r

A r gopec t en p u rpu ra tu s S ca l lop

2 9

M e sode sma d onac ium Wedge c l am

7 20

3 27

7 . 2

1 734 .70

0 . 167

0 . 1

3 3

1 2

0 . 3

5 61 .40

0 . 078

t r

P r o to thaca t h aca V enu sc l am U d .C ru s ta cea m uymuy B a lanus s pp . B a rnac le U d .D ecapoda C rabs U d .E ch ino idea S ea u rch in U d .I nver teb ra te

TOTAL

7

8 0 1 7 16 1 652

4 . 90 0 . 10 1 581 .80 2 03

4 . 4

4

1 . 50

3 05

2 2960

1 94 .435

4 293 .66

4 575

3 4951 .161

4 3

1 24 .5797

T ab le 3 . P a loma P robab i l i ty S amp le s : S pec ie sL i s t .

T axon

C oun t

MN I

We igh t

#

%

B ioma s s k g

%

Ud . Mamma l

5

1

0 . 2

3 . 50

0 . 081

5 . 4

Ud . R oden t Ud .B i rd

1 1

1 1

0 . 2 0 . 2

0 . 10 0 . 40

0 . 003 0 . 009

0 . 2 0 . 6

Ud .F i sh C lupe idae H er r ing s

165 1 85

1

2 . 6

1 8 .07 3 . 72

0 . 490 0 . 133

3 2 .3 8 . 8

E ng rau l idae Anchov ies

3 525

7 7

1 8 .0

7 . 43

0 . 283

1 8 .7

P a ra lab rax s pp . C ab r i l la

2

1

0 . 2

0 . 30

0 . 014

0 . 9

c f .C a rang idae p o s s ib le J ack s

2

1

0 . 2

0 . 10

0 . 005

0 . 3

T r achu ru sc f . mu rphy i J u re l

1

1

0 . 2

0 . 20

0 . 009

0 . 6

3 . 5

2 . 90

0 . 112

7 . 4

2

0 . 5

0 . 40

0 . 013

0 . 9

Haemu l idae G run t s An i so t r emu ss pp . G run t

1 44 1 4

1 5

Haemu lon s pp . G run t

3

1

0 . 2

0 . 20

0 . 006

0 . 4

I s ac ia c f .c oncep t ion i s C ab inza

1

1

0 . 2

0 . 10

0 . 004

0 . 3

O r thop r i s t i ss pp . G run t

1

1

0 . 2

0 . 10

0 . 004

0 . 3

C yno sc ion s pp . S ea t rou t

1

1

0 . 2

0 . 10

0 . 007

0 . 5

P ar a lonchu ru spe ruanu s C oco

3

2

0 . 5

0 . 60

0 . 032

2 . 1

3 . 5

2 . 44

0 . 125

8 . 3

S c iaena d e l i c io sa L o rna Ud .V e r teb ra te Ud . An thozoa C o ra l

2 1

1 5

1 2

3 0 .91 8 . 10

Ud . Mo l lu sca Ud . Ga s t ropoda F i s su r e / la c r a s sa K eyho le l i mpe t

1 3 4 3 1 8

1 8

4 . 2

2 5 .71 2 . 53 1 . 80

0 . 01 0 . 001

0 . 7 0 . 07

S cu r r iapa ras i t i ca L impe t

1 7

1 7

4 . 0

0 . 44

0 . 0004

0 . 03

C r ep idu la s pp . S l ippe rs he l l

2 0

2 0

4 . 7

1 3 .60

0 . 009

0 . 6

0 . 005

0 . 3

0 . 018 0 . 009

1 . 2 0 . 6

S cu ta lu s s pp . L and s na i l

6

6

1 . 4

9 . 10

Ud .P o lyp la copho ra C h i ton s

1

1

0 . 2

0 . 70

Ud .P e lecypod My t i l idae Mu s se ls

1 37 4 7

2 6 .91 1 6 .02

4

Au lacomya a t e r Mu s se l C ho romy t i lus c ho rus Mu s se l

1

1

0 . 2

2 . 90

0 . 002

0 . 1

2 9

1 7

4 . 0

6 8 .40

0 . 033

1 . 3

P erumy t i luspurpu ra tu s Mu s se l

1 54

8 0

1 8 .7

1 03 .30

0 . 041

2 . 7

S em imy t i lu sa lgo su s Mu s s e l

2 17

1 05

2 4 .6

5 6 .70

0 . 024

1 . 6

Me sod e sma d onac ium Wedge c l am

1 8

1

2 . 6

3 3 .80

0 . 019

1 . 3

P ro to thaca t haca V enu sc l am

1 8

1 0

2 . 3

17 .00

0 . 027

1 . 8

Ud . C ru s tacea B a lanu ss pp . B a rna c le

1 75 1 07

Ud .D ecapoda C rab

3 5

Ud .I nve r tebra te

TOTAL

2 . 73 1 .61 9

2 . 1

1 . 20

9

0 . 42

6 152

4 27

5 74 .54

1 . 51 54

T ab le 4 . L aP a loma G rab S amp le s : S ummary .

MN I #

%

B ioma s s k g

%

6

0 . 1

8 . 675

1 0 .9

1 2 3 2 35 3 2 78 2 635 1 43 3 6

0 . 2 0 . 5 5 . 1 0 . 07 6 . 1 5 7 .6 3 . 1 0 . 8

5 5 .73 1 4 . 993 5 . 361 0 . 632 7 5 .392 3 . 231 0 . 081

7 0 .0 6 . 3 6 . 7 0 . 8 9 4 .7 4 . 1 0 . 1

9 27 3 53 2 03

2 0 .3 7 . 7 4 . 4

0 . 587 0 . 319

0 . 7 0 . 4

A l l I nve r tebra te s

4 297

9 3 .9

4 . 218

5 . 3

TOTAL

4 575

T er re s t r ia l Mamma ls Ma r ine Mamma ls B irds F i she s O the r* A l l V e r tebra tes Ma r ine G a s t ropod s T erre s t r ia l Ga s t ropods C h i ton s Mus se l s O the rB iva lve s C rab s

*

7 9 .6097

A t e l e ss pp . , Homo s ap i ens , a nd F e l i sc onco lo r .

4 5

T ab le 5 . P a loma : S ummary o fP robab i l i ty S amp le s

MN I #

Mamma ls B i rds F i shes A l lV e r tebra te s Ma r ine G a s t ropods T e r re s t r ia l G a s t ropods C h i ton s Mu s se ls O the rB iva lve s C rab s A l lI nve r teb ra te s

2 1 1 29 1 32 5 5 6 1 2 03 2 1 9 2 95

TOTAL

4 27

%

0 . 5 0 . 2 3 0 .2 3 0 .9 1 2 .9 1 . 4 0 . 2 4 7 .5 4 . 9 2 . 1 6 9 .1

B ioma s s k g

%

0 . 084 0 . 009 0 . 747 0 . 840 0 . 011 0 . 005

8 . 6 0 . 9 7 5 .6 8 5 .1 1 . 1 0 . 5

0 . 086 0 . 045

8 . 7 4 . 6

0 . 147

1 4 .9

0 . 987

T ab le 6 . L aP a loma : E lemen tD i s tr ibu t ion .

E lemen t

T ee th Mand ib le /Max i l la V e r teb ra S capu la Humeru s R ad iu s /U lna C a rpa l Me tacarpa l P ha lanx Me ta ta r sa l T a r sa l T ib ia F emu r I nnom ina te R ib Me tapod ia l C a rpa l iTa r sa l O the r

TOTAL

A t e l e s

C an idae

F e l i s

L u t r a

3 1 3 1

O ta r i idae

1 2 9 5 2 1 0 1 5 1 8

5

1

1

1

9

1

4 6

6

3 7 1 5 8 8 1 0 6 4 3 1 2 1 4

2 62

C ame l idae

C e rv idae

2 1 7 1 1 5 5 5 1 0 1

1 1 1 1

3 1 7

2

1 4

6 1

8

T ab le 7 . L aP a loma . Mod if i ed B one s .

T axon

U d . Mamma l A t e l e ss pp . F e l i sc onco lo r O ta r i idae A r t iodac ty l c f .C ame l idae C ame l idae C e rv idae U d .B i rd A rd ea c oco i S .h umbo ld t i P e l ecanus t hagu s P ha lac roco rax s pp . C a rcha rh in idae Ud .F i sh C lupe idae E ng rau l idae A r i idae C a rang idae N ep tomenus s pp . P a r a lab rax s pp . H aemu l idae S c iaen idae S c iaena d e l ic io sa S combr idae c f .E u thynnu ss pp . E u thynnu ss pp . S combe romo ru ss pp . Ud .B one

TOTAL

C u t

1 0 1

B u rned

R oden t Gnawed

1 31

4

1 4 1

1

4

1

Dog Gnawed

Worked

1

1 3 1 1

1 2 8 1 5

2 1

2

1

1 1 3 1 7 1 5 4 2 1 8 1 2 1 2 8 4 2 1

1 1 1

4 3 8

6 3

3 50

1

4 7

1

4 4

T ab le 8 . P a loma Mea su remen t s .

T axon

E lemen t

D imen s ion

Mea su remen t , mm

A t e l e s s pp .

f emu r

B p

3 6 .1

A t e l e s s pp . F e l i sc onco lo r

f emu r f emu r

DC B p

1 8 .7 4 5 .3

F e l i sc onco lo r O ta r i idae O ta r i idae O ta r i idae C ame l idae C ame l idae C ame l idae C e rv idae C erv idae S phen i scu sh umbo ld t i P roce l la r i idae P roce l la r i idae P roce l la r i idae P roce l la r i idae P roce l la r i idae P roce l la r i idae Mac ronec t e sg i gan t eu s Mac ronec t e sg i gan t eu s Mac ronec t e sg i gan t eus S u la s pp . P e l ecanu ss pp . P e l ecanu ss pp . P e l ecanu s s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp .

f emu r f emu r f emu r s c apu la i s tp ha lanx i s tp ha lanx m e taca rpa l c a lcaneu s m e tapod ia l c o ra co id f emu r f emu r f emu r f emu r f emu r f emu r c a rpome taca rpu s c a rpome taca rpu s c a rpome ta ca rpu s c o raco id c a rpome taca rpu s c a rpome taca rpu s c a rpome ta ca rpu s c o raco id c o raco id

DC B p DC GLP G I B d B p GB B d GL B d B p D d D p GL S C B p D id G I Lm B p D id G I B p D id

P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco ra xs pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp .

c o raco id c o raco id f emu r f emu r f emu r f emu r f emu r f emu r f emu r f emu r h ume ru s h ume ru s r ad iu s s c apu la t i b io ta r su s

GL Lm B d B p B p D d D p D p GL S C B d B p D id D ic B d

7 0 .0 6 4 .5 1 8 .5 1 6 .3 1 6 .5 1 .2 1 0 .6 1 0 .6 6 0 .0 7 . 4 3 . 6 2 5 .1 9 . 5 1 7 .3 1 .9

P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp .

t i b io ta r su s t i b io ta r su s t i b io ta r su s

B d B d D d

1 2 .6 1 4 .2 1 2 .4

P ha lac roco rax s pp . P ha lac roco rax s pp .

u lna u lna

D id D id

1 0 .3 7 . 4

P ha lac roco rax s pp .

u lna

D ip

1 3 .9

4 8

2 1 .8 4 7 .1 2 1 .4 3 7 .2 6 3 .4 4 . 8 3 4 .1 1 9 .9 2 3 .4 7 6 .6 8 . 5 9 . 0 5 . 6 4 . 7 3 6 .9 4 . 0 2 0 .5 1 3 .8 1 05 .6 5 2 .6 3 2 .5 1 6 .9 1 52 .0 1 5 .6 1 2 .1

P ha lac ro co rax s pp . P ha lac ro co rax s pp . P ha lac ro co rax s pp . Laru ss pp . Laru ss p p . Laru ss p p . L aru ss p p . Laru ss p p . Laru ss p p . Laru ss p p . Laru ss pp . Laru ss pp . Laru ss pp .

u lna u lna u lna r ad iu s r ad iu s r ad iu s u lna u lna u lna u lna u lna u lna u lna

S tr ig i fo rme s S tr ig i fo rmes C lupe idae P ara lab rax s p . c f . C a rang idae c f . C a r cang idae Nep tomenus s pp . Nep tomenus s pp . T rachu r u ss pp . C yno sc ion s pp . C yno s c ion s pp . C yno sc ion s pp . P ara lonchu ru spe ruanu s P ara lonchu rus p e ruanu s P ara lonchu ru sp e ruanu s P ara lonchu rus p e ruanu s P ara lonchu rus p e ruanu s S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d ei l c io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic iosa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic iosa S c iaena d e l ic iosa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic iosa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa

t a r some ta r su s t a r some ta r su s o to l i th a t la s o to l i th o to l i th a t la s a t la s o to l i th a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s o to l i th a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s

4 9

D ip GL S C B d GL S C B p B p D id D ip D ip OL S C

4 . 7 1 38 .0 5 . 3 6 . 1 9 8 .0 2 . 1 1 .9 9 . 0 7 . 4 1 3 .0 8 . 6 1 00 .7 4 . 4

B d G I L eng th W id th L eng th L eng th W id th W id th L eng th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th L eng th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th

7 . 8 4 9 .8 9 . 6 4 . 0 8 . 6 9 . 4 6 . 1 7 . 3 6 . 9 3 . 1 5 . 5 5 . 8 2 . 8 4 . 3 5 . 1 5 . 5 2 . 2 1 . 8 2 . 2 2 . 4 2 . 4 2 . 5 2 . 6 2 . 6 2 . 6 2 . 7 2 . 7 2 . 8 2 . 9 3 . 0 3 . 1 3 . 1 3 . 2 3 . 4 3 . 4 3 . 4 3 . 4 3 . 5 3 . 5 3 . 9 4 . 0 4 . 1 4 . 2

S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa

a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s a t la s

W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th W id th

4 . 2 4 . 2 4 . 2 4 . 3 4 . 3 4 . 5 5 . 3 5 . 5 6 . 2

S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa

a t la s o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th

W id th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th

6 . 7 1 . 3 2 . 1 6 . 4 6 . 8 7 . 0 7 . 0 7 . 1

S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa

o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th

L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th

7 . 2 7 . 4 7 . 4 7 . 4 7 . 6 7 . 6 7 . 6 7 . 6 7 . 7 7 . 8 7 . 8 7 . 9

S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa

o to l i th o to l i th

L eng th L eng th

7 . 9 7 . 9

S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa

o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th

L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th

8 . 0 8 . 1 8 . 1 8 . 2 8 . 3 8 . 4 8 . 4 8 . 4 8 . 5 8 . 6 8 . 7 8 . 7 8 . 7 8 . 9 8 . 9

S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa

o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th

L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th

8 . 9 8 . 9 9 . 0 9 . 1 9 . 1 9 . 1 9 . 1 9 . 1 9 . 1 9 . 2

5 0

S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l ic io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa

o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th

L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th

9 . 3 9 . 6 9 . 6 9 . 7 9 . 7 9 . 7 9 . 9 9 . 9 1 0 .0 1 0 .0 1 0 .1 1 0 .2 1 0 .4 1 0 .4 1 0 .4 1 0 .5 1 0 .6 1 0 .7 1 0 .8 1 0 .9 1 0 .9 1 0 .9 1 0 .9 1 .0 1 .0 1 .1 1 .2 1 .3 1 .4 1 .5 1 .5 1 .5 1 .6 1 .7 1 .7 1 .7 1 .7

S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S c iaena d e l i c io sa S combe romo ru s s pp . S combe romo ru ss pp .

o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th o to l i th a t la s a t la s

L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th L eng th

1 .8 1 2 .0 1 2 .3 1 2 .7 1 3 .1 1 4 .3 1 6 .7 4 . 8 5 . 7

S combe romo ru ss pp . C he i lodac l y lu ss pp . E u thynnu s s pp .

a t la s a t la s a t la s

L eng th W id th W id th

7 . 1 7 . 8 5 . 9

E u thynnu ss pp . E u thynnu s s pp .

a t la s a t la s

W id th W id th

6 . 0 6 . 1

E u thynnu ss pp . E u thynnu ss pp .

a t la s a t la s

W id th W id th

6 . 3 6 . 6

E u thynnu s s pp . E u thynnu ss pp . E u thynnu ss pp .

a t la s a t la s a t la s

W id th W id th W id th

6 . 9 7 . 1 7 . 3

5 1

E u thynnus S pp . E u thynnus Spp. E u thynnus S pp .

a t la s a t la s a t la s

W id th W id th W id th

7 . 4 7 . 5 8 . 3

T ab le 9 . L aP a loma :A ge

T axon

Unfused

Adu l to r Unknown

A te l e s s pp . F emur F e l i sc onco lo r F emur Lu t ra f e l ina

1 1

Rad ius

1

F emur O ta r i idae

1

Mand ib le a nd T ee th

4

Ver tebra S capu la Humerus

7 1 1 3

1 4

Rad ius /U lna I nnom ina te

1 3 1

3 1

F emur T ib ia C a rpa ls /Ta r sa ls

4 3

6 5 3

3 3

1 0 4

i

3 6 1

Me tapod ia l P ha lanx C ame l idae Mand ib le V er tebra Humerus R ad ius/U lna F emur C arpa l /Ta r sa l Me tapod ia l P ha lanx C erv idae

1

2 3 5 7 4

1 2

R ad iu s Me tapod ia l A rde idae T a r some ta ta rsus

1 1 1

5 2

T ab le 1 0 . E lP ara iso S umma ry *

MN I #

T e r re s t r ia l Mamma ls B i rd s F i she s

1 3 1 3 47

TOTAL

3 61

%

B ioma s s k g

%

3 . 6 0 . 3 9 6 .1

t r t r 0 . 809

1 00 .0

0 . 809

* (w in g 1 985 )

5 3

ECUADOR

COLO MB I A

T umb.. 8schura Desert T ru j i l lo

BRAZ IL

P it iv I lca L ogo d • lunin

L IMA C h i le. C . I I.t.

P ACIF IC OCEAN L ag A l T iticaca

CH ILE

F igure 1 . Map o fP eru .

F igu re 2 . L ower C h i lca V a l ley .

5 4

P robab i l ity Square*

1 P R.t .r. 1

26

s o

F i gu re 3 . Map o fP a loma .

5 5

CHAPTER 4 PRECERAMIC TO EARLY FOR MATIVE S UBSISTENCE ON THE CENTRAL COAST G lendon H . We ir , D epa r tmen t o f An th ropo logy , T exa s A& M Un iver s i ty , C o l lege S ta t ion , T exa s 7 7843 R ober tA . B enf er , Depa r tmen t o f An th ropo logy , Un iver s i ty o fM is sour i , C o lumb ia , M is sou r i 6 5211 J ohn G .J ones , Depa r tmen t o f An th ropo logy , T exa s A& M Un iver s i ty , C o l lege S ta t ion , T exas 7 7843

ABSTRACT C opro l i te , p lan t , a n ima l , a nd h uman r ema ins r e covered d ur ing a r e cen t r e sea rch p rog ram o f e xcava t ions , s amp l ing a nd a na ly ses , a r e b eg inn ing t o p rov ide n ew q uan t if ied p r ima ry b a se l ine d a ta o n h uman d i e t s a nd s ubs is tence f r om a s e r ies o f f i ve s i tes s pann ing M idd le P receram ic t o E a r ly F orma t ive t imes o n t he c en t ra l c oa s t o fP eru . T hese n ew d a ta d ocumen tt he u se o f aw ide v a r ie ty o f ma r ine a nd t e r res t r ia l r e sources a ts i tes i nt he C h i lca , O tuma , a nd Chancay Va l ley s , b e tween a bou t 5 000 a nd 1 800 B .C . De ta i led a na ly ses c a r r ied o u t c oncur ren t ly w i th o ur e xcava t ions a tt h ese s i tes d ur ing t he s u mmer o f 1 984 s ugges t t ha t t hese r e sources v a ry l o ca l ly a nd t h rough t ime . T hese d a ta a l so i nd ica te t ha t ma jor c omponen t s o f mos t ly u ncu l t iva ted p l an t r ema ins a re p resen t i n h uman d i e t s , a l ong w i th s o me c u l t iva ted p l an t s . Ma r ine a n ima l r e sou rces , h owever , d om ina te t he r i ch s amp le . F ina l ly , t hese d a ta s ugges t t ha t p resen t e xp lana tory mode ls f o r t he s ubs is tence b a ses o f e a r ly c omp lex s oc ie t ies o n t he c oa s t o fP eru n eed t o b e r ev ised t o r ef lec t t he a ctua l , mo re c omp lex a nd c omp lemen tary n a ture o f t he ma r ine a nd t e r res t r ia l r e sources , a nd n ew q uan t i ta t ive ly b a sed mode ls n eed t o b e d eve loped a nd t e s ted . Our c on t inu ing s t ud ies ( i nc lud ing p o l len a nd mo l lusc s t ud ies ) , a nd an ew s e r ies o fr ad ioca rbon d a tes a r e r e f in ing a nd c l a r if y ing t he n a ture o ft h e se d i e ta ry a nd s ubs is tence r e la t ionsh ips a nd t he ir c hanges o ver t ime i nc oa s ta lp opu la t ions .

I NTRODUC If ON T h is p aper r epor t s t he p re l im ina ry r e su l t s o f as t udy c onduc ted d ur ing t he s ummer o f 1 984 t o s t udy t he d i e ta ry a nd s ubs is tence b a ses o f as e r ies o f f i ve s i te s o n t he c en t ra l c oa s t o f P eru . I n a dd i t ion , w e r epor t n ew ly a va i lab le d a ta f r om t he P receram ic s i te o f P a loma ( Enge l 1 980 ; B enf er 1 982 ; B enf er 1 986 ) . T he p r inc ip le o b jec t ive o f o u r s t ud ies w a s t o d emon s t ra te t he f e a s ib i l i ty o f a p rog ram o ft e s te xcava t ions , s amp l ing a nd d e ta i led a na ly ses t o i n ves t iga te t he c hanges t h rough t ime i n t he d i e ts a nd s ubs i s tence b a ses o fc oa s ta l h uman p opu la t ions f r om t he p er iod o f a bou t 5 000 t o 1 800 B .C .

Our u l t ima te g oa l i s t o d ocumen t t he q uan t i ta t ive b a s i s o f t he p r ima ry modes o f

s ubs is tence f r om P receram ic t h rough E a r ly F orma t ive t imes . T o a cqu ire t hese p r ima ry b a se l ine d a ta w e r e covered h uman c opro l i tes a nd o ther h uman r ema ins , a sw e l l a sa n ima l a nd p lan t r ema ins a t a s e r ies o ff i ve M idd le t o L a te P rece ram ic t h rough E a r ly F orma t ive s i tes ( La te P rece ram ic t o I n i t ia l : R owe a nd Menze l 1 967 o r Upper A rcha ic t o L ower F orma t ive : L umbrera s 1 974 ) o n t he c en tra l c oa s t o fP eru . T hese s i tes i n c lude p rev ious ly u nexcava ted M idd le P receram ic e l emen ts a tt he P a loma s i te ( 12b V I I 6 13 ) o n t he n or thern f r inge o ft he C h i lca d ra inage , M idd le t o L a te P receram ic e l emen t s o ft he C h i lca Iv i l lage s i te i nt he C h i lca V a l ley , L a te o r C o t ton P receram ic e l emen t sa t t he A s ia B each s i te o n t he R io O tuma , a nd t wo a s soc ia ted L a te P receram ic t o E a r ly F orma t ive s i tes i n t he m idd le C hancay V a l ley o fc en tra l P eru ( F igure 1 ) . Our s amp l i ' ig p rog ram empha s ized t he r e covery o f a l c op ro l i te , h uman , f auna l a nd f l ora l s amp les f r om u nd istu rbed , d a ted s t ra ta o f k nown a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t a s d ef ined b y mu l t ip le s t ra t if ied t e s t e xcava t ions a t e ach s i te .

A s e r ies o f r ad ioca rbon d a tes f r om o ur s t ud ies i s n ow

a va i lab le , a nd s upp lemen ts e x tan t r ad ioca rbon d a tes f r om t h ese s i tes . Our me thodo logy w a s d es igned t op rov ide ar i gorous ly q uan t if ied a nd c ros s -da ted d a ta b a se where n one c ur ren t ly e x is t s , i n o rder t o d eve lop p re l im inary , f i r s t a pprox ima t ion b a se l ine d a ta a nd t o s ugges t t he i r r e levance t o v a r ious c ompe t ing s i ng le a nd mu l t ip le f a c tor s ubs is tence mode ls f o r t he d eve lopmen t o f e a r ly

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c omp lex s oc ie t ie s o n t he c oa s t o f P eru . T he l a rge r q ues t ion s o f t he p roces se s i n vo lved i n t h e eme rg ence o ft he se s oc ie t ie s m ay t h en b e a ddre s sed f r om t h ep e r spec t ive o fq uan t if ied b a se l ine d a ta w i th w h ich t ot e s tt he a pp l icab i l i ty o ft h e se mode ls .

METHODS AND MATER IALS E xcava t ion P rocedu res a nd S amp l ing Qua l i ta t ive c r i te r ia b a sed o n r e conna i s sance a nd s urvey w ere u sed t o s e lec tt h e s i te s . T he s i te c on tex t st e s ted w e re s e lec ted b yv i sua l i n spec t ion o fs u r f a ce f e a tu res w i th t he u n i t sb e ing c ho sen b y r andom iza t ion f o r t o ta l e x cava t ion a nd d e ta i led s amp l ing a nd a na ly se s . I fn o s i te m ap sw e re e x tan t , t hey w e re p repa red , a nd e a ch s i te mapped a f ter s e lec t ing ad a tum p o in t a nd l a y ing o u t as i te g r id . One t ot h ree 3 i nb y 3i ns qua re s w e re t hen r andom ly s e lec ted f r om t h e s t ra t if ied s amp le a te a ch s i te , a nd w ere c a refu l ly e x cava ted t o r e cove rt h e d a ta b a se f o ro u r s t ud ie s . E ach s qua re w a sd i v ided i n to s ubun i t s ( o ff ou r 1 . 5 i no rn i ne 1i ns i ze s , d epend ing u pon a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t a nd s amp l ing c on s ide ra t ion s ) , w h ich w e re f u r ther d i v ided i n to p robab i l i ty a nd e co log ica l s amp le u n i t s , a nd w e re t hen e x cava ted t os t e r i le s o i l . P robab i l i t y s amp le sa r ev o lume t r ica l ly s t anda rd ized s amp le sr andom ly s e lec ted p ropor t iona l t o t h e a r ea s d ef ined a s r e fu se d ep th ( Ben f e r 1 982 ) . E co log ica l s amp le s a r e c omp le te r e cove ry u n i t s . E x cava t ion s w ere c a r r ied o u t f o l low ing t h e n a tu ra l s t ra t ig raphy , w i th t h e ma jor l e ve ls b e ing s ubd iv ided i n to a rb i t ra ry 1 0c m u n i t s . T he r ema in ing s ubun i t ( s ) i ne a ch s qua re w ere c on served f o r f u ture e x cava t ion s . C a ref u l h o r izon ta l a nd v er t ica l c on t ro l s w e re ma in ta ined t h roughou t e x cava t ions a t a l s i te s , w i th r e covered m a te r ia ls b e ing p rec i se ly r e co rded a nd s t ra t ig raph ic p ro f i le sp repa red . Q uan t if ied s amp le sw e re t a ken f r om e ach l e ve l o ft he ‚ ubun i t sd es igna ted f o r t h isp urpose , and c on s i s ted o f v o lume t r ica l ly s t anda rd iz e d 5l i te r ( 5000 c m 3)s amp le s . Af t e r i n i t ia l f i e ld s c reen ing , t hese s amp les w e re s ubsequen t ly p a s sed t h rough a n e s ted s e r ies o f g eo log ica l s c reen s o f 6 mm , 3 mm ,a nd 1 . 5 mm s i ze st o e nhance r e cover y o fs ma l le rm a te r ia ls . S ubun i t s d e s igna ted f o rr e cov ery o f e co log ica l s amp le sw e re t o ta l ly e x cava ted , a sw e re t h e p robab i l i ty s ubun i t s , a nd a l m a ter ia ls p a s sed t h rough as c reen s e r ie s a tt h e s i tes a nd i nt h e l a bo ra tory f o r t h e s ma l le r c omponen t s . Quan t i f ied ma t r ix s amp les w e re a l so t aken t os e rve a st h eb a s i so ff u r the ra na ly se s . T he P a loma s i te ( 12b WI 6 13 ) ( F igu re 2 ) w a s t he s ub jec t o f n ew t e s t e xcava t ion s o f k nown E ar ly t oM idd le P rece ram ic c on tex t s ,b a s ed u pon e a r l ie rw o rk a tt h i ss i te ,i no rder t oe s tab l ish ad a ta b a se l ine w i th wh ich t o c ompa re t he o the r s i te s , a nd t o s t anda rd ize f i e ld e x cava t ion a nd s amp l ing t e chn ique s . A 3i nb y 3m t e s tp i t w a sp l aced i nt he SW q uad ran t o f as e lec ted s qua re f r om a n a r ea k nown , f r om p rev ious e x cava t ion s i nt h e a r ea , t oc on ta in many c op ro l i te s . T he 6i nb y 6i ns qua re w a s N 90 E 55 . T h i s s qua re w a s p a r t ia l ly e xcava ted , a s d e sc r ibed a bove , d own t o s t er i le s o i l , a ta m ax imum d ep th o f0 . 67 i n . E qua l s i zed s ubun i t sw e re e xcava ted t os t e r i le s o i lf o r 1 )t h eh i gh p r io r i t y e co log ica l s amp le , i n c lud ing c op ro l i te s , a n ima l , p l an t a nd h uman r ema in s , a nd 2 ) t h e q uan t i f ied p robab i l i ty s amp le . T he C h i lca I( Pan tano ) s i te ( 12b WI 1 )( F igure 3 )w a st e s ted b yp l acemen to f a3i nb y 3i nt e s t p i ti nt h e SW q uadran to fs qua re N 110 E 83 , a nd e x cava ted t o am ax imum d ep th o f1 . 8m . T he t e s t s qua re w a s d i v ided i n to u n i t sf o r t o ta l r e covery o fe co log ica l s amp les a nd t he p robab i l i ty s amp le . A c ompa rab le p or t ion w a sl e f tf o rf u ture e xcava t ion s . Due t ot he c omp lex i ty o ft he s t ra t ig raphy a tt h e s i te ,i n c lud ing t he p resence o ft wo h ou se s , a nd t he c on s t ra in t s o ft ime , t h e s qua re w a s n o te xcava ted t o s t e r i le g round , a nd w a s c ov e red w i th h eavy p l a s t ic a nd b ackf l l led t op ro tec t i tf o r af u ture f i e ld s ea son w hen i tw i l lb e c omp le ted . T he A s ia B each s i te ( 12b X I 2 )w a s e x cava ted b yp l a c ing a3i nb y 3m t e s t p i ti n a6i nb y 6m s qua re , o n t op o f a mound , a d jacen t t o a n e a r l ie r e x cava t ion ( F igu re s 4a nd 5 ) . Un i t s w e re e xcava ted f o r e co log ica l a nd p robab i l i ty s amp le s , a sb e fo re , a nd ac ompa rab le p o r t ion c on served f o r f u ture e x cava t ion s . Two L a te P rece ram ic t oE a r ly F o rma t ive s i te sf o rm ing a n a r ch i tec tu ra lc omp lex w e re e x cava ted i nt he C hancay V a l ley , s i tua ted a bou t 2 6 km f r om t h e mode rn b each z one ( F igu re s 6 ) . T he f i r s t o f

5 7

t hese , L a P o lva reda ( lib V I 5 0 ) i sl o ca ted a t9 00 m a bove s ea l e ve l i n as i de v a l ley o ft he C hancay R iver . T h is s i te w a sc omposed o ft h ree mounds o ne l a rge mound a pprox ima te ly 9 0 m i nd i ame ter a nd 5m i nh e igh t , a nd t wo s ma l ler mounds t ot he s ou thea s ta nd s ou thwes t o ft h e m a in mound . T he s ou thea s t mound i sa bou t 2 0 m i n max imum d i ame te r , a nd t he o ne t o t he s ou thwes t a bou t 8m i n d i ame ter . T hese s ma l ler mounds w ere n o ti n ves t iga ted d u r ing t he p i lo tp ro jec t . -

T he f i r s t e xcava t ion a t L a P o lva reda w a s a3 m b y 3m t e s t p i t p laced i n a6m b y 6m s qua re e s tab l i shed j u s t t o t he w es t o f ap a t io o n t op o ft he mound . Our e xcava t ions q u ick ly r evea led t ha t w e h ad e ncoun tered t he r ema ins o f ma son ry f l oor s where w e h ad h oped t o f i nd m idden d epo s i t s . T he n ondomes t ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he m idden c on tex ts a t t h i s s i te r e su l ted i n r e la t ive ly f ew o rgan ic r ema ins b e ing f ound t o d a te . A ccord ing ly , w e moved o u r e xcava t ions t o a n u nnamed s e cond s i te ( lib V I 5 1 ) l o ca ted i n a n a ppa ren t m idden a rea r e la ted t ot he t h ree mounds o ft h e f i r s t s i te . H ere w e i mmed ia te ly e ncoun tered c our ses o f d res sed s t one f o r as t ruc ture . A s i ng le n ond iagno s t ic c e ram ic s herd , r e covered j u s t b enea th t he s u r face , w a s t he o n ly c eram ic a r t ifac t e ncoun tered a tt he s i te .

T he s ur face m idden d epos i t d id n o t c on t inue b enea th t he t op f ew c en t ime ter s , where w e

i n s tead e ncoun tered w indb lown d us t c on ta in ing c l am s he l ls , many l a nd s na i ls , af ew l i th ic c o res , f l akes , a nd b ones . T he f i r s t o f an ew s e r ies o fr ad ioca rbon d a tes ( uncor rec ted ) f r om o ur r ecen t p i lo t s t udy c l u s ter b etween 5 420 a nd 4 990 r ad ioca rbon y ea r s f o r t he M idd le P receram ic c on tex ts e xcava ted a tP a loma , b etween 5 070 a nd 3 320 r ad ioca rbon y ea r s f o r t he L a ter P receram ic Ch i lca Is i te , a nd r ange f r om 3 160 t o 3 000 r ad ioca rbon y ea r s f o r t he L a te P receram ic A s ia B each s i te . T he n ew s e r ies o f d a tes f r om t he L a te P receram ic t o E a r ly F orma t ive C hancay V a l ley s i tes a re n o ty e t a va i lab le . C op ro l i tes C opro l i te s amp les w ere e xcava ted f r om t he c on tex t s o f t he s i tes , r e corded a nd t r anspo r ted t o t he l a bora tory f o r t r ea tmen t a nd a na ly s is . O f t he s evera l h undred c opro l i tes e ncoun tered i n t he e xcava t ions , 3 25 c opro l i tes i n a n e xce l len t s t a te o f p reserva t ion w ere s e lec ted f o r p re l im ina ry a na ly ses , r e su l t sf r om 5 8 a re p resen ted h ere . T he c opro l i te s amp les s t ud ied w ere c hosen o n t he b a s is o f t he ir p reserva t ion , s t ra t ig raph ic a s soc ia t ion a nd c on tex t , a nd c ame f r om s e cure ly d a ted a nd p roven ienced s t ra ta . E x tens ive f l ora l a nd f auna l r e f erence c o l lec t ions w ere made a nd u sed t o c onf i rm i d en t if ica t ion o f t he c opro l i te c omponen ts . T es t s u sed t o e va lua te f e ca l o r ig ins i n c lude t he o bserva t ion o f t he o r ig ina l d ry c op ro l i te , s o lu t ion c o lor a nd o dor c ha rac ter is t ic s , a nd t he n a ture a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o ft he s amp le c omponen t s . T yp ica l h uman c op ro l i tes a re d i s t ingu ished f r om a n ima l s c a ts b y a r ange o f morpho log ica l c ha rac ter i s t ic s i n c lud ing s i ze a nd s hape , a n o paque d ark b rown t o b lack s o lu t ion c o lor a nd as t rong f e ca l o dor . C on ten t s o fh uman c opro l i tes o f ten i n c lude f r agmen t s o fc ha rcoa l f r om c ook ing a nd a r e la t ive ly w ide r ange o ff l ora l a nd f auna l ma ter ia ls , d ue t ot h e omn ivorous n ature o f man . B a sed o n t hese c r i ter ia , a l c opro l i te s t ud ied w e re d e term ined t ob e o fh uman o r ig in . T rea tmen t b egan b y t he r emova l o f s ur face c on tam ina t ion , s ke tch ing , p ho tog raph ing , a nd r e cord ing a l morpho log ica l c ha rac ter i s t ic s i n c lud ing w e igh t , mea suremen ts , c o lor , a nd s u r f ace i n c lus ions .

T he c opro l i tes w ere t hen c u t i n h a lf a l ong t h e l ong itud ina l a x is w i th o ne h a lf b e ing

r e ta ined f o r l a te r p a ra s i te a nd p o l len a na ly ses . T he c op ro l i te p or t ion b e ing a na lyzed w a s t h en p laced i n as ea led , s t er i le c on ta iner , a nd c overed w i th a s o lu t ion o f 0 . 5 p ercen t t r i sod ium p ho spha te ( Na3PO 4)f o r am in imum o f7 2 h ours i no rde r t o r ehydra te t he o rgan ic c omponen t s , w i th p er iod ic a g i ta t ion t o more f u l ly e xpose a l s u r face a r ea st ot he s o lu t ion . C o lor , o dor , a nd s o lu t ion c ha rac te r is t ic s o f t he l i qu id f r ac t ion w ere t hen r e corded a nd t h e s o lu t ion p a s sed t h rough a s e r ies o f g raded s i eves , w i th m e sh o pen ing s o f 1 . 0 mm a nd 0 . 5 mm , a nd f l u id a nd ma ter ia ls s ma l ler t han 0 .5 mm b e ing r e ta ined i nt h e c a tch p an o ft he s i eve s e r ies . Du r ing t h is p rocess c opro l i te p or t ions w h ich h ad n o t c omp le te ly b roken d own w ere g en t ly d i sagg rega ted w i th j e ts o f d i s t i l led w a ter a nd ag l a s s s t i r r ing r od . T he c oa r se ( 1 .0 mm ) , f i ne ( 0 .5 mm ) , a nd l i qu id

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c o mponen t sw ere t hen t r ans f er red t of i l ter p aper a nd s l ow ly d r ied i n al a bora tory o ven a t4 0 .500 C . When c omp le te ly d r ied , t he r e s idues w ere p l aced i n g r idded p e t r i d i shes f o r c omponen t i d en t i f ica t ion . T he r e s idues w e re s t ud ied t h rough a l ow -powered s t ereob inocu la r m ic roscope a t v a r ious m agn if ica t ions , a nd a pp ropr ia te ma ter ia ls w ere p ho tog raphed . A l l c omponen ts w ere i d en t if ied w here p os s ib le , a nd t he i rc ompos i t ion r e corded i nt e rms o fs amp le r e s idue v o lume . A rchaeo log ica l P lan t a nd An ima l Ma ter ia ls A l l a r chaeo log ica lp l an t a nd a n ima l ma ter ia ls c on ta ined i nt he s i te s ed imen ts w ere r ecovered b y e xcava t ions a nd s i eved f r om s e cu re ly d a ted ,w e l lp roven ienced c on tex t s ; a l w ere r ecorded . T he d a ta b a se f r om o ur p i lo t s t udy c ons is t s o f 1 0 ,175 i nd iv idua l a n ima l r ema in s a nd more t han 1 5 ,126 i n d iv idua l p l an t r ema in s f r om t he v o lume t r ic ( p robab i l i ty ) s amp les a l one .

T he r e covery o f t he

s ma l ler s eeds a nd o ther ma ter ia ls w a s i n sured b y p a s s ing s ed imen t s t h rough a s c reen s e r ies o f 6 . 5 , 1 . 5 , 0 . 8 mm a sw e l l a s s ma l ler a per tures . B ecau se o ft he f r ag i le n a ture o ft he o rgan ic c on ten t s , o n ly d ry s c reen ing a nd h and r e covery t e chn iques w ere u sed . A l l ma ter ia ls w ere c a refu l ly p acked i n p ro tec t ive c on ta iners ,l a be l led w i th p roven ience a nd o ther p er t inen t i n forma t ion , a nd t r an spor ted t o l o ca l a r chaeobo tan ica l i n terpre ta t ion .

a nd

z ooa rchaeo log ica l

l a bora tor ie s

f o r

i d en t if ica t ion ,

a na ly s is ,

a nd

Once i nt he l a bora to r ies , t he f l ora l a nd f auna l ma ter ia ls w ere d esc r ibed , w e ighed a nd i den t if ied b yc ompa r ison w i th e x ten s ive p lan t a nd a n ima l r e f erence c o l lec t ions ma in ta ined i nt he l a bora tor ies . F rag i le ma ter ia ls w ere c onse rved b y s t ab i l iza t ion a nd p reserva t ion , a nd a l ma ter ia ls i ndexed a nd s t ored f o r f u ture s t ud ies . P rob lema t ica l s pec imens w ere r e f er red t o s pec ia l is ts a t t he J av ier P rado Museum o fN atura l H is tory , t he Na t iona l Ag ra r ian Un iver s i ty o fP eru a nd t he I ns t itute o ft he S ea i n L ima , P eru . A l l p l an t a nd a n ima l ma ter ia ls w ere i d en t if ied t o g enu s a nd s pec ies where p os s ib le . Nonfood p l an t ma ter ia ls w ere e va lua ted a nd p l aced i n p robab le c a tegor ies o f u sage s uch a s c ons truc t ion , f i rewood , o r o ther e conom ic a nd i ndus tr ia l u se s . T he p ercen tage o fo ccur rence o ft he ma jor a n ima l a nd p lan t g roups , s uch a s f i shes , s ea mamma ls , ma r ine b i rds , f i re w ood , c ons truc t ion ma ter ia l , a nd f ood t uber s , i nt he v o lume t r ic ( p robab i l i ty ) s amp les f r om t he f our s i tes a re p resen ted i nb a t t lesh ip c urve g raph s ( F igures 1 7 3 1 ) . Quan t i ta t ive e s t ima tes o f b ioma s s a nd f ood v a lues a re b e ing d eve loped f o r f ood p l an t s a nd a n ima ls w here p os s ib le , i n o rder t o d ef ine t he i mpor tance o f t hese r e sources a nd t he r e la t ive c on t r ibu t ion s o f ma r i t ime a nd t e r res t r ia l ma ter ia ls t o p a s t h uman d i e t s ( Capps 1 987 ) . -

Human R ema ins Numerou si nd ica tor so fd i e t a re p resen t i nh uman s ke le ta l r ema in s . Ana ly ses o ft r ace e l emen t s i nb one a nd h a ir , s t ud ies o f Ha r r i sl i nes a nd d en ta l c a r ies w e re f ound t ob eu sefu l i np rev ious s t ud ies a t P a loma a nd b y o ther i n ve s t iga tor s e l sewhere ( Cohen a nd A rme lagos 1 984 ) . T race e l emen t a na ly s is w i th a n i n s tumen ta l n eu t ron a c t iva t ion w a s made o f an umber o fe l emen ts i nb one a nd h a ir o f as amp le o fh uman s ke le ta l r ema in sf r om t he s i te o fP a loma . I n a l s uch s t ud ies , t h e e f f ec t s o f p os s ib le c on tam ina t ion a nd d i agena s is mus t b e c ons idered w h ich w e i n ve s t iga ted w i th t h e l a rge s amp le ( n = 1 77 ) f r om P a loma . No s i gn if ican t c or re la t ion b e tween c a lc ium a nd s t ron t ium i n b one w a s f ound w i th v a lues o b ta ined f r om 5 3 s o i l s amp les a d jacen t t o t he b one . Magnes ium w a s n o t a mong t he t wen ty e l emen ts d e tec ted i n t he s o i l . However , i t s p resence i sr e la t ive ly o bscured b y a l um inum wh ich o ccur s i n s o i l b u t n o t u sua l ly i n b one , s o d i agenes is c anno tb e r u led o u t o n t hose g rounds . A l a rge b ody o f r e sea rch e x i s ts o n l e ve ls o f s t ron t ium i n b one a nd t he r e la t ionsh ip o f t hese l e ve ls t o d i e t ( S i l len a nd K avanaugh 1 982 ) . An a na ly s i s o f s t ron t ium l e ve ls f o r as ma l l s amp le o f i n d iv idua ls o f b o th s e xes f r om d if eren t s t ra t ig raph ic l e ve ls h a s b een c omp le ted ( Benf er 1 984 ) . S t ron t ium d e term ina t ion sa r e n o tc omp le te f o r t he L a te o rL a te P receram ic s amp le .

5 9

O ther e l emen t s , e spec ia l ly b a r ium a nd magnes ium , h ave b een s ugges ted a s u se fu l i n d i e ta ry r e sea rch . We d id n o t d e tec t b a r ium , b u t w e f o l lowed K lep inge r ' s s ugges t ion ( 1984 ) i nc on s ider ing magnes ium a sa n e l emen t o fp os s ib le n u t r i t iona l i mpor tance . Magnes ium i s ab io log ica l ly i mpor tan t e l emen t wh ich i sg enera l ly f ound i nh i gher amoun t si np l an tt han i na n ima l f oods . We c ompa red t he c oncen t ra t ions o f magnes ium a nd c a lc ium i n t wo s amp les o f h uman b one a nd a s soc ia ted l ama a nd d og b ones . S ince t he L a te P receram ic s amp le i st oo s ma l l ( N = 1 7 ) t o a low h o ld ing s ex a nd a ge c ons tan t , t he p oo led v a lues w ere u sed f o r b o th t h is s amp le a sw e l l a s t he o ne f r om P a loma . T he l a ter p e r iod i n c ludes o ne s pec imen f r om t he L a te P receram ic s i te a d jacen tt o P a loma ( 12b V I I 6 13 ) , t h ree f r om t he C h i lca Iv i l lage ( 12b V I I 1 ) , f i ve f r om t he A s ia s i te ( 12b X I 1 ) , a sw e l l a so ne f r om a no ther s i te i nt he s ame v a l ley ( 12b X I2 ) , t wo f r om P a raca s ( 14a V I3 ) , a nd o ne e ach f r om C u lebra s ( lib X I 2 8 ) a nd R io d e I s la ( 14b V I 9 0A ) . T hese s i tes a re d esc r ibed i n t he a t la ses p ub l ished b y E nge l ( 1980 a nd 1 981 ) , a nd a r e f r om t he c en tra l a nd s ou th c en t ra l c oa s t o f P e ru . Wi th t he e xcep t ion o f o ne s pec imen f r om o ur e xcava t ion s a t t he C h i lca Is i te i n 1 984 , t he r ema inder w ere e xcava ted b yE nge l ( 1966 , 1 970a ,b ,a nd c ,1 973 , 1 980 ) . T he s pec imens w e re i n af a ir t o e xce l len t s t a te o fp reserva t ion b u ti ng enera l , t hey w ere h a rder t han t he o l der b ones f r om P a loma . Mu l t ip le b ones w ere u sed i n t he P a loma s amp le , a nd i n s ome i n s tances , mu l t ip le b ones f r om t he s ame i nd iv idua l a re r epresen ted . T he P a loma s amp le i n c ludes more j uven i les t han d oes t he L a te P receram ic s amp le . No t r end i n magnes ium c oncen t ra t ions i nd if eren t a ge c l a s ses i sa ppa ren t . Two b ones f r om l ama s a nd a n i n t rus ive d og f r om P a loma , b ur ied w i th e a r s o f c orn h ave a l so b een a na lyzed ( Ben fer 1 984 ) . No t e r res t r ia l c a rn ivore w a se xcava ted f r om P a loma ,e xcep tt he s i ng le t oo th f r om a p uma ( Re i tz C hap ter 3 ) , t o p rov ide a g auge o f t he c oncen t ra t ion o f magne s ium f o r t he c a rn ivorous e nd o f t he d i e ta ry s pec t rum . T en s amp les f r om modern b ov ines w ere i n c luded a s c on t ro ls . E lemen ta l c ompos i t ion o f ten v a r ies a l ong t he s ha f t o f t h e h a i r ( Benf er e ta l . 1 975 ) . S tud ies w i th modern ma ter ia ls ( Ad ler e ta l . 1 977 ; Obrusn ik e ta l . 1 973 ) r epor t t ha t many e l emen ts i n c rea se p rox ima l t o t he s ca lp . Where t here a re p a t terns f o r e s sen t ia l e l emen t s s uch a s mangane se , c a lc ium , i r on , n i cke l , c oba l t , a nd c h rom ium , s im i la rp rof i les a r e f ound a mong h a i r st aken f r om a pp rox ima te ly t he s ame s i te ( Ad ler e ta l . 1 977 ) . I ncrea ses a nd d ec rea ses a l ong t he s haf ta tt en c en t ime ter i n terva ls h ave b een i n terpre ted a s r e su l t ing f r om t he c ha rac ter is t ic d i e t o f t he i nd iv idua l ( Obru sn ik e t a l . 1 973 ) . S ince a bou t 9 0% o fh ead h a ir i sg row ing a ta ny o ne t ime , a d jacen t h a i r s m igh t n o t h ave t he s ame p a t tern , a l though Obrusn ik a nd o ther s ( 1973 ) f ound n o d if erence s b etween h a ir s i n t he r e s t ing a nd i nt he g row ing s t a te . I n s t ud ies o fp reh i s tor ic h a irs , c on tam ina t ion i s more l i ke ly t o b e ap rob lem .

However , e ach

h a ir s e rves a s i t s o wn c on t ro l . I t s eem s u n l ike ly t ha t e nv ironmen ta l f a c tor s w ou ld s y s tema t ica l ly p roduce p a t tern s a l ong t he s ha f t , a l though s egmen t s c l oses t t o t he s ca lp m igh t b e mo re b uf f ered f r om c on tac t w i th t he s o i l . S ea sona l v a r ia t ion i n f oods m igh t b e i nd ica ted w i th t he f i nd ing o f i n c rea se , t hen d ec rea se , f o l lowed b y i n c rea se , ma rk ing a r e tu rn t o t he c on sump t ion o f t he f o rmer s ea son , i nd i e ta r i ly i mpor tan te l emen t s . Here w e p resen t d a ta f o r t h ree a r chaeo log ica l s pec imens , t wo w i th s e r ia l mea suremen t s a l ong t he s ha f t ( t he t wo b es t s pec imens a na lyzed , a nd o ne s i ng le s e c t ion , F igu re s 7t o 1) . One s pec imen , T -71 , i sf r om P a loma ( 12b V I I 6 13 ) . S pec imen T -2 c omes f r om aL a te P receram ic s i te ( 1 2b V I I 6 12 ) a d jacen tt o P a loma . T he l a s t s pec imen ,T -3 , i sf r om as i te ( 104 S c t )t o t he s ou th o fP a loma o n t he P a raca s P en in su la a nd a s soc ia ted w i th a C la ss ic P er iod a g r icu l tu ra l d epos i t . A s i ng le modern c on t ro l s pec imen i sp resen ted f o rc ompa r ison .

PRESENTAT ION OF DATA We w i l l f i rs t p resen t t he r e su l t s o f o ur s t ud ies o n t he h uman r ema in s . T hese r ema in s s hou ld r eg is ter t he e fec t o fd i e t wh ich w i l l b e d e term ined f r om t he r ema ins o fp l an t s , a n ima ls , a nd h uman c op ro l i tes . T h is w i l l b e f o l lowed b yp resen ta t ion o fn on -human b io log ica l d a ta f r om e ach s i te .

6 0

Human R ema ins B one i s t he p r ima ry m inera l r e servo ir o f t he h uman b ody . Dur ing l i f e , c oncen t ra t ions o f e l emen ts i n b one may i n c rea se o r d ecrea se i n r e sponse t o t he i n take o ff ood o r w a ter . Absorp t ion a nd p er s is tence d epends u pon me tabo l ic p rocesses i n vo lved i n t he mode l ing a nd r emode l ing o f b one . T urnover o fb one m inera ls c on t inues t h roughou tl i f e . T race e l emen t a na ly s is i n b one :

R aw p a r t s p er m i l l ion , r a t ios o f c a lc ium a nd magnes ium , o r

p red ic ted v a lues f r om t he l i nea r r eg res s ion o fc a lc ium a nd magnes ium ( Ben f er 1 984 ) c an a l b e u sed a s m ea sures o f t he c oncen t ra t ion o f magnes ium i n b one ( Tab le 1 ) . C a lc ium d oes n o t c or re la te h igh ly w i th magnes ium i n t he P a loma s amp le ( r = . 2 1 ) a nd , t herefore , may b e c ons idered t o b e a bsorbed i ndependen t ly i nb one . Magnes ium i sf ound i nv ery h i gh c oncen t ra t ions i ns eaweed , wh ich w e h ave d e tec ted i nc opro l i tes .1 I ti sp resen t i n a pprec iab le b u t much l ower c oncen t ra t ion i nn u t s , s p ices , s o me g ra ins , f i sh , a nd s o me s he l lf ish . I to ccu r s i ng enera l ly l ower c oncen tra t ion s i n p l an t s , a l though t he c oncen t ra t ion i nL ima b eans i s modera te ( Sch roeder , Na son , a nd T ip ton 1 968 ) . T he L a te P receram ic s amp le h a s s i gn if ican t ly l ower c oncen t ra t ions o f magnes ium a s wou ld b e p red ic ted i ft he p lan t c omponen t o ft he d i e t o ft ha t t ime p er iod w a s r e la t ive ly more i mpor tan t t han i nt he e a r l ier P a loma d i e t , o r i fc onsump t ion o fs eaweed d im in i shed . T he p reh is tor ic l ama a nd d og v a lue sc l ose ly ma tch t he mode rn b ov ine s t anda rd . T h is s ugges ts t ha tt he d og ,f r om amuch l a te t ime p er iod ,w a s n o tc onsum ing much a n ima lp ro te in . T race e l emen t a na ly s is i n h a i r : T race m inera l c oncen t ra t ions o f h uman h a i r a re a f unc t ion o f t he i n take o f e l emen ts , e spec ia l ly t h rough t he d i e t . S tud ies o f p reh is tor ic h a ir h ave s ugges ted t he i r p rom i se i n t he s t udy o f d i e t a nd d i sea se ( Benf er e ta l . 1 975 ; S andford e ta l . 1 984 ) Anem ia s c an i nf luence e l emen ts s uch a s magnes ium , i r on , a nd manganese ( Sandford e t a l . 1 984 ) . Ch rom ium c oncen t ra t ion may i nd ica te d i abe tes ( Ben f er e ta l . 1 981 ) . A n umber o f e l emen t s may v ary i nt he i r c oncen t ra t ions w i th s ex a nd w i th a ge o ft he i nd iv idua l ( Ben f er 1 984 ) . Z inc i s ad i e ta r i ly i mpor tan t m inera l wh ich may b eu sed t o mon i tor t he c onsump t ion o fa n ima l p ro te in . A rchaeo log ica l h a ir s pec imen s h ave v a lues v ery c l ose t o o ur modern s pec imen , a s w e l l a s t o o ther p ub l ished v a lues . C hanges a l ong t he s haf t s o fo fh a ir a re n o t as imp le f unc t ion o fd i s tance a s m igh t b e e xpec ted f r om c on tam ina t ion . I ns tead , t hese c hanges a l ong 2 . 5 c m s e c t ions , ap er iod o f mprox ima te ly a mon th o fn o rma l h a ir g row th , may b e i n terpre tab le a s d e tec t ing s ea sona l s h if ts i n d i et . A l l c opper v a lues a re c l o se t o t he modern c on t ro l ( F igure 7 ) . However , t here i s as ubs tan t ia l r educ t ion i n t he m idd le s e c t ion o f s pec imen T -3 , w h i le s pec imen T -2 s how s t he s ame v a lue f o r t he f i r s t t h ree s ec t ions a nd a n i n c rea se i n t he mos t d i s ta l s egmen t . T he s pec imen f r om P a loma , T -71 , h a s ah i gher c opper c oncen t ra t ion wh ich may b e r e la ted t o c on tam ina t ion f r om t he p rac t ice o f c over ing b ur ia ls w i th s a l t ( Edwa rd 1 987 ; B enf er a nd E dwa rd 1 988 ) . C opper i sf ound i n h i gher c oncen t ra t ions i n a n ima l f oods . S ince modern s pec imens p roduce i n crea sed v a lues a l ong t he s haf t , d ecrea ses i ns ome s egmen t s may b e mea su r ing i n c rea sed c on sump t ion o fc a rbohydra tes . Mu l t ip le e l emen ts f r om t h e s ame i nd iv idua l a l low b e t ter c on t ro l o f s amp le f l uc tua t ions . F or i n s tance , s pec imen T -2 s how s g enera l ly i n c rea s ing v a lues f o r p o ta s s ium a nd i r on ( F igures 9 a nd 1 0 ) . Th is may r ef lec t c on tam ina t ion o fs ome e xposed e nds o ft he h a ir . T he h i gher v a lue f o r p o ta s s ium f o rT -71 , f r om P a loma , i sp robab ly d ue t ot he c u s tom o fc over ing b ur ia ls w i th s a l t . Z inc i sl ower i nt he a r chaeo log ica l s pec imens t han i nt he modern c on t ro l , a s m igh tb e e xpec ted f r om i n d iv idua ls w i th a l e s s c a rn ivorous d i e t ( F igu re 8 ) . S ea sona l v a r ia t ion i sp erhaps l e a s t i nT -2 , t he L a te P recera ic s pec imen . Ch rom ium v a lues d o n o t d if er n o t iceab ly f r om t he r ange o f v a r ia t ion o f modern i n d iv idua ls u na f f ec ted b y d iabe tes , s o t h i s d i sea se i sn o t i nd ica ted i n t he p reh is tor ic i nd iv idua ls e xam ined ( F igure 1) . C adm ium , l e ad a nd s od ium v a lues w ere a l so o b ta ined . E leva ted v a lues f o r c adm ium w ere e xpec ted g i ven t he l a rge c omponen t o fs ea f ood wh ich i sh i gh i nt h is e l emen t .

6 1

F u r ther w ork o ne l emen ta l a na ly s is o fh a ir i sn eces sa ry . W i th p resen t k now ledge , e ven l a ck ing p rec ise i n forma t ion o n p a thway s o f a bsorp t ion t h rough t h e g u t a nd d epos i t ion i n t he h a ir , o bv iou s p a t tern ing a l ong s e r ia l s e c t ions may b e p rov id ing e v idence o fs ea sona l s h if ts i n d i e t . Da ta f r om 2 5 a dd i t iona l s pec imens f r om L a te P receram ic a nd I n i t ia l P er iod s i tes h ave b een r epor ted ( Benf er a nd T yppo 1 988 ) . Af u l l r epor t i sf o r thcom ing , b u t i tc an b e s a id t ha t a dd i t iona l s e r ia l s e c t ions s uppo r t t he e xamp les p resen ted h ere . M ic roscop ic a na ly s is o ft hese h a ir s a nd o ther sw e h ave s t ud ied ( Ben f er e i 'a l . 1 975) r evea led n o r eg ions w i th r educed d i ame ters a sm igh t b ee xpec ted d ur ing ap er iod o fi lness o r f am ine . Howeve r , t h is i sn ega t ive e v idence o n ly s i nce t hese a r ea s , i fp resen t , a r e where b reakage i s mos tl i ke ly t o o c cur i nt r anspor t a nd h and l ing . Ha r r is L ines o f L imb E lemen t s : P er iods o f s t res s wh ich may b e f o l lowed b y ag radua l r ecov ery d epos i t " l ines" , a c tua l ly s p icu les o fo ver ly m inera l ized b one a tt he g row ing e p iphy se s . They s how u p p a r t icu la r ly w e l l i n t he d i s ta l e nd o f h uman t i b iae i n r ad iog raph s . I nves t iga tor s i n t he N o r th Amer ican A rcha ic a nd t he E uropean N eo l i th ic h ave f ound t ha t f o rager s a re s ub jec t t o a nnua l s t res ses wh ich l e ave l i nes i n t he e nds o fl imb e l emen t s d u r ing e ach y ea r o f l i fe . We a l so o bserved t h is p henomenon a tP a loma . F erguson ( ms . ) f ound t ha t a l w omen a nd mos t men ( who r e sorb m o re b one t han w omen ) h ave t hem a tP a loma . Mose ley ( 1972 :38 -39 ) d i scus s ing t he Ancon -Ch i l lon a r ea , s ugges ts t ha t s t orage o f ma r ine r e sources m igh t b e d if icu l t w i th p receram ic t e chno logy a nd o cca s iona l mac rocyc les o fc l ima te s uch a s E l N iño c ou ld h ave c r ea ted s evere p rob lem s . Howeve r , a t P a loma , w e d o n o t f i nd o cca s iona l s evere l i nes , b u t r a ther l e ss d en se a rea s w h ich s eem t o b e o ccurr ing s ea sona l ly . S eden t ism a l one w i l l n o t e ven o u t t h e " l ean t imes" s t res s . I ti sl i ke ly t h a t i t w i l l t ake r e l iab le a nd s t orab le c u l t iva ted p lan t s t or emove t h ese p ers is ten ta nnua l l i nes . R ad iog raph s o f t h ree l imb e l emen t s , f r om C h i lca I a nd A s ia , d emons t ra te n umerou s l i nes wh ich w ere p robab ly d epos i ted a nnua l ly ( F igure 1 2 ) . T h i s c on t ras ts w i th t he r ad iog raphs o f t i b iae f r om L a te P receram ic d epos i ts a t ( 12b V II 6 12 ) a d jacen t t o P a loma a nd A s ia Iwh ich e ach s how o n ly o ne l i ne ( F igure 1 3 ) . Annua l l i nes may r ep resen t o ne d if icu l t s ea son , o r s l owed g row th d u r ing t he f oggy w in te r f o l lowed b y more r ap id g row th i nt he s unny s p r ing a nd s u mmer . Wh i le l i nes a re c oncen t ra ted d u r ing p uber ty , t h is l i ke ly r ef lec ts t he s en s i t iv i ty t o s t re s s o f j uven i les d ur ing t h is p er iod o fr ap id g row th (Ma r t in , Goodman , a nd A rme lago s 1 985) . P ers is tence o fl i nes i n modern p opu la t ions , who may b e much l e s s s t res sed t han A rcha ic p er iod p eop le , i so f ten s hor t . Many more l i nes may h ave e x is ted t han p er s is t i n to a du l thood . We a g ree w i th Ma r t in a nd o ther s ( 1985 ) t ha t j uven i les may b e more i n forma t ive . We h ave r ou t ine ly s t ud ied j uven i le s a nd more w ork w i th l a rger s amp les e spec ia l ly o ft h is a ge c l a s s i sn eces sa ry . We e xpec t t o f i nd f ewe r b u t s t ronger l i nes i n t he l a ter E a r ly I n i t ia l p er iod , f o l lowed b y f ewer l i nes a s c en tra l iza t ion o f a u tho r i ty l e d t ob e t ter managemen to fs urp luses d u r ing o cca s iona l b ad c rop y i e lds . D en ta l C a r ies : D en ta l c a r ies h ave b een r epor ted b y n ume rous i n ves t iga tors t o o ccur i n s i gn i f ican t f r equenc ies o n ly among a g r icu ltura l is t s ( Cohen a nd A rme lagos 1 984 ) . E xper ience h a s s hown t h a t whenever more t han a f ew c a r ies a re f ound p er p e r son , t here w a s ad ependence o n d i e ta ry c a rbohydra tes wh ich a re n ea r ly a lway s a g r icu l tura l p l an t s . T he k nown e xcep t ion i st he c a se o ft h e h i gh r a te o fu se o fd i e tary c a rbohydra tes f r om a corns b y C a l iforn ia I nd ians . The i n c idence o fd en ta l c a r ies i s as imp le mea sure a nd d oe s n o t r equ ire a l a rge s amp le n umber , o n ly a bou t 1 2 i nd iv idua ls w i l ly i e ld more t han 3 00 t e e th , an umber p er p e r iod s uf ic ien tf o r t h is p urpose . T u rner ( 1976 ) f o und n o c a r ies i n 7 6 V a ld iv ia P er iod C t e e th , a nd o n ly t wo p o s s ib le c a r ious l e s ions i n Macha l i l ta p e r iod i nd iv idua ls f r om s ou thwes tern E cuador . T hese d a ta a r e i n cons is ten t w i th a l i f e b a sed o n e a r ly i n tens ive a g r icu lture . We p red ic t t ha t t he s h i f t t o g rea ter empha s is o n c a rbohydra tes a mong a g r icu l tura l is ts i n l a ter t imes s hou ld r eg is ter d i rec t ly i n c a r ies f r equency a nd i n o ther o ra l p a tho log ies s uch a s p er idon ta l d i sea se . We p red ic t ah i gher f r equency o f i nd iv idua ls w i th d en ta l c a r ies w i l l b e f ound a mong e a r ly a g r icu ltura l p er iod p eop les i n C en t ra l P eru t han among t h e ir p redeces sor s . S co t t ( 1974 ) h a s c onf irmed t ha t , f o r t he c oa s ta l P eru , t he f r equency a nd s eve r i ty o f c a r ies i s much g rea ter f o r a g r icu l tura l is t s . T he P a loma p eop le h ad t he p red ic ted f r equency o f c a r ious l e s ions , b e low o ne p ercen t ( Ch r is ty T urner , p e r s . c omm . ) .

6 2

L a te P erce ram ic a nd I n i t ia l

P er iod d en t i t ion s h ave n o t y e t b een s t ud ied , a l though c a r ies h ave b een o bserved i n I n i t ia l P er iod d en t i t ion . O ther P a tho log ies : Ab u r ia l f r om t he C h i lca Is i te s how se v idence o fc h i ldhood a nem ia j udg ing b y a p neuma t ic ized s ku l l a nd h ea led s c a r s o n t he e ye o rb i t s . Her v er tebrae w ere o s teophy t ic , a l though t h e u pp ing w a s n orma l f o r awoman o fh er a dvanced a ge . O ther I nd ica tor s : We b e l ieve t ha t t he i nd ica tor s d i scus sed a bove s hou ld a low u st oe va lua te d i e ta ry h ypo theses w i th r e la t ive ly s ma l l s amp les a nd w i th a t e chno logy t ha t w e n ow c on t ro l w e l l . I n a dd i t ion , s uch c ha rac ter i s t ics a s a ch ieved s t ature a nd l i nea r e name l h ypop la s t ic l i nes a re b e ing s t ud ied . H is tomorphome t r ic a na ly s is a nd i s o top ic a na ly s is o f c a rbon , n i t rogen , a nd s t ron t ium a re a l so b e ing c on temp la ted f o ro u r s amp le o fh uman r ema ins f r om t he c en t ra l c oa s t o fP eru . P lan t a nd An ima l Ma ter ia ls P a loma S i te : A r i ch v a r ie ty o fw e l l p reserved h uman c opro l i tes , f l ora l , a nd f auna l r ema ins w ere r e covered . T he p rof i les o f o u r e xcava t ion s how w e l l s t ra t if ied d epos i ts a nd f e a tu res , i n c lud ing h ea r ths a nd t he w a l l o f ah ouse . F i sh , s he l lf i sh , a nd c actus ( Haageoce r eus s p . ) f r u i ts eeds w ere f ound a s soc ia ted w i th t he h ea r th s , a nd a w ide v a r ie ty o f p l an t f i ber s a nd s he l lf i sh w i th t he h ouse . R ad iocarbon s amp les w e re t aken i n a l u n i t s a nd l e ve ls where a ppropr ia te ma ter ia ls , p r inc ipa l ly c ha rcoa l ,w ere f ound . A w ide v a r ie ty o f c ons truc t ion , f i rewood , a nd f ood p lan t r ema ins w a s f ound t h roughou t a l l e ve ls a nd u n i ts , i n c lud ing c anes , w i l low ( Sa l ix s p . ) , a nd o ther w oods .

F auna l r ema ins i n c luded a

w ha le r i b , s ea l i on r ema in s i n a l u n i ts , a nd s he l l d epo s i t s t h roughou t , a l though d im in ish ing i n s i ze a nd f r equency i n t he t op a nd b o t tom l e ve ls . Human r ema ins i n c luded t e e th a nd c l umps o f h a ir , a l though n op r imary h uman b u r ia ls w ere e ncoun tered i nt he e xcava ted u n i t s . L i th ic a r t ifac t s w e re l e s s f r equen t , b u t i n c luded p o in ts , ap er fora ted h ammers tone o rp os s ib ly a d i gg ing s tone ,w o rked s t one s , a nd ah and h e ld g r ind ing s t one . O ther a r t ifac t si n c luded ac l us ter o f5 c ac tus -sp ine f i sh h ook s a nd 2 p robab le c ame l id b one f i sh h ook s . A d r i l led o l ive s he l l ( O l iva s p . ) o rnamen tw a sa l so f ound a sw e l l a s af i res ta r ter o fc ane w i th 5s ma l l c ha r red h o les . T he s i te r e fuse w a s r i ch i n s he l lf ish w h ich c ompr ised 2 5 p ercen t t o 3 0 p e rcen t o f a l a r chaeo log ica l s ed imen t s . T hese i n c luded p r inc ipa l ly mus se ls c a l led c horos l o ca l ly ( Au lacomya a t e r , C ho romy t i lus c ho rus , a nd P erumy t i lus p urpura tus ) , c l ams l o ca l ly c a l led macha s (M esod e sma d onac ium) , a nd a lme ja s ( S eme l e c ar ruga ta ) , a nd t he g a s t ropod c a l led c hanque ( Concho l epas c oncho lepas ) , b a rnac les ( Ba lanu s s pp . ) , ma r ine s na i ls , l impe t s ( F i s sur e l la c r as sa ) , s c a l lops ( Ar gopec ten p u rpura tus ) , a nd o ther s i nd escend ing o rder o ff r equency ( F igure 1 4

-

1 7 ) .

O ther a n ima l r ema ins i n s im i la r d escend ing o rder o f f r equency i n c luded av a r ie ty o f f i sh , s ea m amma ls ( i nc lud ing s ea l i ons a nd wha les ) , ma r ine b i rds ,c ame l ids , c erv ids , c rabs , a nd o ther s ( F igure 1 8 ) . T he g rea t ma jor i ty o f a l p l an t r ema ins a t t he s i te w ere o f w i ld t e r res t r ia l o r ig in . O f t hese , n onfood p lan t s , s uch a s f i rewood a nd c ons t ruc t ion ma te r ia ls d om ina ted . W i ld p lan t r ema ins o f p robab le f oods i n c luded aw ide v a r ie ty o fs eeds , f r u i t s , a nd t ubers . T hese i n c luded g uayaba ( P s id ium s p . ) , m i to ( Car ica c and icans G ray ) , l u cuma ( Lucuma o bova ta HBK ) , c actus f r u i t ( Haageoce r eus s pp . ) , a nd av a r ie ty o fw i ld t uber si n c lud ing as pec ies o fB egon ia . P os s ib le c u l t iva ted p lan ts i n c luded s qua sh ( Cucurb i ta s pp . ) a nd g ourd ( Lagenar ia s i ce rar ia (Mo l . ) S tand i . ) ( F igure 1 9 ) . A t o ta l o f2 33 c op ro l i tes w ere r e covered i n t he p i lo t s t udy t e s t e xcava t ion s a tP a loma . T he i r a na ly s is s how s t ha tb o th w i ld t e r res t r ia l p l an tf oods a nd ma r ine a n ima l r e sources w ere p rom inen ti n t he d i e ts o f t he P a lomans . Ma r ine f oods i n c luded f i sh , ma r ine mamma ls , a nd c r abs among o ther s . S i gn if ican t p ercen tages o f p l an t f i ber s a nd s e eds w ere p resen t i n t he c opro l i tes , i n c lud ing g ra s ses , s o lanaceous s e eds , c ucu rb i t s , c ompos i tes , c henopods , a nd o ther s e eds . T o d a te , t he o n ly c u l t iva ted p l an t s p resen t i n t he P a loma c opro l i tes a r e c ucurb i ts , p robab ly s qua sh , b a sed u pon r e cogn izab le

6 3

mac rofos s i l i n c lus ions . O ther c opro l i te r e s idues i n c luded c ha rcoa l , p os s ib ly f r om c ook ing , i n sec t s ( pos s ib ly d i e ta ry ) , a nd i norgan ic s and a nd s t one a cc iden ta l ly i n ges ted . C oprophageous i n sec t s , a l though n o t ad i e ta ry c omponen t , w ere a l so n o ted . T he c op ro l i te p o l len s pec tra w i l l s ubs tan t ia l ly amp l if ya nd r e f ine t hese d a ta . A tt he t ime o fo ccupa t ion , t he P a loma s i te w a sl o ca ted i n al oma s s e t t ing w i th aw ide v a r ie ty o f t e r res t r ia l p l an t a nd a n ima l r e sources a va i lab le i nt he v i c in i ty . T oday , t he l i t tora l z one i sl oca ted 4 km f r om t he s i te , a nd i n t he p a s t , a s t oday , h ad a bundan t a nd r i ch ma r ine r esource s where s e a mamma ls , f i sh , ma r ine a v ifauna , a nd s he l lf ish w ere t aken i nl a rge n umber s , t r anspor ted t o t he s i te , a nd c on sumed . A p a t tern o f s eden tary r e s idence i s s ugges ted b y t he h ouse s wh ich w e re e ncoun tered , a nd t he s ea sona l n a ture o fs ome o ft he r e sources a l so s ugges ty ea rr ound s e t t lemen ta t c e r ta in p er iods . T he d i e t s a nd s ubs is tence s t ra teg ies , b e ing d ef ined b y q uan t i ta t ive m e thods , w i l l c l a r if y t he s ubs is tence b a s is o f t he P a lomans , a nd t he n a ture o f a ny c hanges f r om E a r ly t hrough M idd le P receram ic t imes . Whe ther c u l t iva ted p l an t s w ere g rown a t t he s i te , o r c ame f r om n ea rby r i ver ine v a l ley s ources i sb e ing s t ud ied . C h i lca I S i te : Once a ga in , ar i ch a nd d i ver se d a ta b a se w a s r e covered f r om o u r e xcava t ion s , i n c lud ing t he r e covery o f5 5 h uman c opro l i tes a nd aw ide v a r ie ty o fp lan t a nd a n ima l r ema ins f r om t he d epos i t s o ft h is M idd le t o L a te P receram ic s i te . E nge l ( 1966 , 1 970a , b ,a nd c ,1 981 ) a nd o the r s ( Dorman 1 964 ) h ave p ub l i shed r epor t s o f t he ir w ork a t t he s i te . Our e xcava t ion s r evea led n o e v idence o fc eram ic s , a l though t he r ema ins o fc o t ton w ere e ncoun tered i na n a d jacen t s qua re . T he p rof i les d emons t ra te t he w e l l s t ra t if ied d epos i t s , d eeper t han o ther s h ave e ncoun tered a t t h is s i te . Two h ou ses w ere d i scovered wh ich w ere c omp le te ly f i l led w i th a d eep a nd w e l l p re served s he l l d epos i t . T he s t ra t ig raphy i sc ompr ised o fa l terna t ing l e ve ls o fw indb lown g ray d us t , s he l l , a nd o rgan ic s . D i s turbances d ue t o t he c ons t ruc t ion o f t he t wo h ouses , f r om e j ec t ing o lder d epo s i t s d ur ing t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f t hese s em isub ter ranean d we l l ing s , p osed a p rob lem i n i n terpre ta t ion . F ur the r e xcava t ions w i l l e x tend t he o r ig ina l t e s t s qua re t o ma in ta in b e t te r h or izon ta l c on t ro l a nd t o mo re f u l ly u nde rs tand t he c omp lex d i s turbed s t ra t ig raphy a t t h is s i te . A s e r ies o f r ad ioca rbon s amp le s ( cha rcoa l )w ere t aken f r om a l l u n i t s a nd l e ve ls , a nd w i l l more s e cu re ly d a te t hese c on tex t s . A r t ifac t s w ere f ew , b u t i n c luded p o in t s s im i la r t o t hose f ound a tP a loma , b one t oo ls , ma r ine ' rm c onc re t ions u sed a s s c raper s o r a brade rs , a nd s ome b i fa c ia l ly c h ipped s t one i mp lemen ts . S i te r e fuse w a s r i ch i n s he l l f ish , w i th mus se ls more f r equen t t han c l am s a nd o ther s pec ie s , a nd w i th s e a mamma ls , ma r ine b i rds , f i sh , a nd c ame l id b ones a l so o ccur r ing ( F igu re 2 0 a nd 2 1 ) . C u l t iva ted p l an t r ema ins i n c luded c ucurb i t s eeds a nd r i nds ( s qua sh a nd g ourd ) f r om N 110 E 83 , a nd c o t ton f r om a t omb c on tex t i n s qua re N 110 E 92 . O ther f ood p lan ts e ncoun te red i n t he s i te s ed imen ts i n c luded c ayhua ( C yc lan the ra s p . ) , ma sh ish i ( an i nd igenous s pec ies o ft h e g enus C ucum i s ) , a nd a ch ira ( Canna s p . o r p os s ib ly C anna e du l i s K er . ) , wh i le t ube rs i n c luded as pec ies o fB egon ia . Achupa l la a nd o the r b rome l iads o ft he g enu s T i l land s ia p rov ided b o th f i ber a nd al ow g rade f ue l . Cons truc t ion ma ter ia ls i n c luded v a r ious c anes , woods , a nd o ther ma ter ia ls . P lan t c ordage made o f maguay ( Four c roya s p . ) a nd j unco ( C ype rus s p . o r C yper us s pp . ) w a s a l so r e covered , a s w ere w orked g ou rd ( Lagenar ia s i ce rar ia (Mo l . ) S tand l . ) f r agmen t s ( F igure 2 2 ) . A h uman b ur ia l ( Tomb # 200 ) w a s f ound e rod ing o u t o f t he r i ver b ank i n s qua re N103 E 92 , a nd w a s e xcava ted . I th ad b een d i s turbed i np rev ious e xcava t ions a tt he s i te . Bone a w ls w ere f ound w i th t he s ke le ton o f a n o ld f ema le , l y ing o n h er l e f t s i de i n as em i f lexed p os i t ion . There w a s e v idence t ha t af i re h ad b een b u i l to n t he f l oor o ft he t omb w hen t he b ur ia l t ook p l ace , a s i nd ica ted b y b urned t e x t i le w rapp ing s o n t he u nder s ide o f t he b u r ia l , ap a t tern wh ich h ad p rev ious ly b een n o ted i ne a r l ier e xcava t ions a tt he P a loma s i te . A t t he t ime o f o ccupa t ion , C h i lca Iw a s al i t tora l z one s i te w h ich h ad b een v e ry n ear a b each where s he l lf i sh , s ea mamma ls , a nd ma r ine a v if auna w ere p a r t icu la r ly a bundan t . T he C h i lca r i ver ine v a l ley s e t t ing a l so p rov ided many t e r res t r ia l r e sources u sed b y t he i nhab i tan ts . A d egree o f p ermanence i ss ugges ted b y t he l a rge h ouses t ha t h ave b een e ncoun tered a tt h is s i te . However , t h e

6 4

s ea sona l ly d ry n a ture o ft he n or th b ranch o ft he C h i lca R iver t oday , i fa l so t he c a se i nt he p a s t , may h ave p roh ib i ted y ea r r ound s e t t lemen t d u r ing c er ta in p er iods . More d e ta i led a r chaeobo tan ica l a nd z ooa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ies may h e lp r e so lve t h is i s sue . A s ia B each S i te : T h is a r t i f ic ia l mound ( F igure 5 ) c on ta ined e v idence o f ap rev iou s e xcava t ion , p robab ly b y Edwa rd L ann ing a ccord ing t o o ur i n fo rman ts . I n o u r e xcava t ions w e f ound a s he l l d epos i t i mmed ia te ly b e low t he s u r face , c ompr i sed p r ima r i ly o f c l am a nd b i rd r ema ins . T he e xcava t ion e ncoun tered t he i n s ide o f ah ou se c on s t ruc ted o fw e l l p reserved b r ick s o fs un d r ied mud ( l imo ) a nd p os ses sed s evera l f l oors . Two h ea r th s w ere e xcava ted w i th in t he h ouse , a nd a t e s t p i t p laced t h rough t he l owe s t f l oor r evea led a n a dd i t iona l 0. 6 i n t o 1i n o f d epos i t s i mmed ia te ly o ve r ly ing s t er i le s o i l . T he h ouse w a s p r ima r i ly f i l led w i th a s he l l d epos i t o f c l am s a s w e l l a s r ema ins o f n umerous ma r ine b i rds , f i sh , s ea mamma ls , c rabs , a nd a f ew t e r res t r ia l mamma l b one r ema ins . T he s he l l d epos i tw as c omposed mos t ly o fc l ams a nd s ome mu s se ls ( t he r ever se o f t he f r equenc ies a tP a loma a nd C h i lca I ) , b a rnac les , s c a l lops , l a nd a nd ma r ine s na i ls , a nd l impe t s i n d escend ing o rder o f f r equency ( F igu re 2 3 a nd 2 4 ) . P lan t r ema ins f r om t he s i te s ed imen t s i n c luded c ayhua ( C yc lan the ra s p . ) , a nd g uayaba ( P s id ium s p . [ o r P s id ium g ua java L . ] ) , w i th g ourd ( Lag enar ia s i ce rar ia (Mo l . ) S tand l . ) , s qua sh ( Cucurb i ta s p . ) , t wo t y pes o f b ean s ( Canava l ia a nd P haseo lu s s p . ) , a nd c o t ton ( Go ss yp ium s p . ) among t he p robab le c u l t iva ted p l an t s ( F igu re 2 5 ) . An a noma lou s s amp le o f c orn c obs , t i ed a nd c overed w i th c o t ton t e x t i le c ord , w a s f ound j u s t b enea th t he s u r face a nd w a sj udged t o b e i n t rus ive f r om al a ter o ccupa t ion a tt he s i te . T h ir ty s i x h uman c opro l i te sw ere a l so e xcava ted f r om s i te c on tex t s , a nd r ad ioca rbon s amp les w ere t aken f r om a l l a pp ropr ia te s i te l e ve ls . A sa t Ch i lca I ,t he e xcava t ions w ere c overed w i th h eavy p la s t ic a nd b ackf i l led t op ro tec t t he s i te u n t i lw e c on t inue a nd e xpand e xcava t ions t here . T he A s ia B each s i te , l i ke C h i lca I ,i so n as ea sona l ly d ry s t ream a nd i sc l ose t o t he b each . A t t he t ime o f o ccupa t ion , h owever , t he s i te w a s a ppa ren t ly much c l oser t o t he b each , j udg ing b y t he o bserva t ion t ha t o n ly s i tes o f l a ter p er iods a re f ound b etween i ta nd t he modern b each z one ( Berna rd ino O jeda ,p ers .c omm . ) . T he s ubs is tence o r ien ta t ion o f t h is L a te P rece ram ic s i te c l ea r ly i n vo lved a n empha s is o n b o th mar i t ime a nd t e r res tr ia l e xp lo i ta t ion . T he l a rger , b e t ter c ons truc ted h ouse a tA s ia ( a s c ompa red t o C h i lca I ) may a rgue f o r mo re s eden ta ry l i f e . T he h ouse i sw e l l p reserved , w i th p or t ions o ft he w a l ls h av ing s u rv ived i n tac t . S evera lp i eces o ff i ne c ordage w ere f ound embedded i nt he w a l l o ft he h ouse . T hey w ere n o t c omposed o fc o t ton ( a l though c o t ton c ordage w a s r e covered e l sewhere a tt he s i te ) , b u t w ere o fw i ld p lan t f i be rs ( C yperus s pp . o r S c i ,pu s s pp . ) . F ew a r t i fac ts w ere f ound a t t he A s ia B each s i te , a s c ompa red t o P a loma a nd Ch i lca I ,a nd c on s i s ted o f wo rked b one i mp lemen t s , i n c lud ing b i rd b one a nd s he l lb eads . Chancay Va l ley S i tes : T he m idden d epo s i t ( lib V I5 1 ) c on ta ined p l an tr ema in s o fw i l low ( Sa l ix s p . ) a nd a cac ia ( Acac ia s p . ) o r a l ga r roba ( P ro sop i s s p . ) f i rewood a nd o ther p l an t s . L aP o lva reda a nd s i te l ib V . 1 5 1 f o rm p a r ts o fa n a r ch i tec tura l c omp lex o fL a te P receram ic t o E a r ly F orma t ive t imes w i th a n a r royo r unn ing t h rough t h e c en ter o f t he c omp lex , w i th t y p ica l modern v ege ta t ion i n c lud ing c actus ( N eora imond ia mac ro s t ibas (We rd . a nd B ackbg . ) B ackbg . a nd Haag eoce r eus c hos icens i s (We rd . a nd B ackbg . ) B ackbg . ) . F og , wh ich n ou r ishes t h is v ege ta t ion , o ccur s a tm idday a tt h is l o ca le t oday , w here w a ter , c l ose t o t he s ur face , i s t apped b y modern w e l ls . T h is p a t tern o f w in ter a tmosphe r ic mo i s ture a nd g roundwa ter may h ave c on t r ibu ted t o t he s e lec t ion o ft h is s i te a tt he t ime o fo ccupa t ion , s i nce w i l low i s aw a ter l ov ing s pec ies a nd o ccur si nt he v i c in i ty t oday . An ima l r ema ins f r om t h ese s i tes i n c luded c l am s , l a nd s na i ls , mu s se ls , ma r ine s na i ls , a nd b arnac les i nd escend ing o rder o ff r equency ( F igure 2 6 ) . B ird , c ame l id a nd f i sh b ones , a nd c r ab s he l l w ere a l so e ncoun tered . T he m idden w i th a r ch i tecture a tl ib V I 5 1 a l so c on ta ined t he r ema ins o fa n i n fan tb ur ia l ( Tomb . # 1 ) . P lan t r ema ins c ons i s ted ma in ly o f n on food f i rewood a nd c ons t ruc t ion ma ter ia ls . T he f ew r e ma ins o f f ood p lan t s w h ich w ere e ncoun tered a r e , d ue t o t he i r f r agmen tary n a ture , s t i l l

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u ndergo ing a na ly s is .

No c orn h a s b een e ncoun te red t o d a te , b u t f r agmen ts o f g ourd ( Lag enar ia

s i ce rar ia ( Mo l . ) S tand ! . ) a nd s qua sh ( Cucu rb i ta s p . ) e p ica rp a ppea r t ob ep resen t ( F igu re 2 7 ) . C opro l i tes T he t o ta l c opro l i te s amp le f r om o ur s t ud ie s t o d a te r e presen t s a l s t ra ta o ft h e P a loma , C h i lca I ,a nd A s ia s i tes i nt he p i lo t s t udy ( t he Chancay s i tes a re i n comp le te ) ( F igure 2 8 a nd 2 9 ) . Ana ly s is h a s r evea led s evera l s i gn if ican t d i e ta ry p a t terns , i n c lud ing t ha t o f ah eavy r e l iance o n b o th m a r ine a n ima ls a nd n on -cu l t iva ted p lan t f oods . Among t he d om inan t c a tegor ies o f d i e ta ry c omponen t s i n t he c opro l i tes w a s t ha t o f p lan t e p iderm is a nd f i ber wh ich w ere f ound i n o ver 7 4 p ercen t o f t he c opro l i tes r ep resen t ing a l s i tes . T h i s c a tegory s how s t he i mpor tance o f p l an t f oods i n t he P receram ic t o F orma t ive c oa s ta l d i e t s . B a sed o n c ons iderab le p or t ion o f t he p l an t e p iderm is i s i n t e chn iques s how p rom ise i n t e rm s o f i d en t i f ica t ion c opro l i tes . S ome o f t he P a loma ma ter ia l h a s b een

o ur a na ly t ica l s t ud ies i ti s s u spec ted t h a t a f a c t t he r ema ins o f t uber s . N ew a na ly t ica l o f t h i s u sua l ly c r yp t ic c omponen t o f h uman t en ta t ive ly i d en t if ied a s as pec ies o f t ube rous

b egon ia . T he i mpor tance o f t uber s i sw e l l d ocumen ted i nl a ter t ime s , a nd i ti se xpec ted t ha t t hey a l so p layed a n i mpor tan tp a r ti nt he d i e t s o ft he P receram ic t oF orma t ive c oa s ta lp opu la t ions . G ra s s s e eds ( p robab ly c aryop ses o f as pec ies o fP aspa lum) a re a no ther ma jor c opro l i te f ood c omponen t . A l though f ound o n ly a t t he s i tes o f P a loma a nd C h i lca I ,t hey a ppea r a t t imes a d om inan t c omponen t , o ccur r ing i nf r equenc ies a s h i gh a s9 4p ercen t . T he f a c t t ha tp a spa lum g ra ss i sn o t k nown f r om A s ia , al a ter s i te , p robab ly r e f lec ts o n ly a d if erence o f h ab i ta t r a ther t h an a c hange i nf ood r e sou rces o ver t ime . O ther c opro l i te p l an t r ema in s i n c luded c ac tus a nd o ther p l an t s p ines , g loch ids ( Opun t ia s pp . ) , a nd s o lanaceous ,c ucu rb i t , a nd o ther s eeds . S o lanaceous s e eds i n c luded i nde term ina te s pec imen s o f t he f am i ly S o lanaceae a sw e l l a st hose o fp apa c ima r rona ( So lanum c f . S .phy l lan thum ( Cay . ) D una l) , a nd w e re l a rge ly r e s t r ic ted t oP a loma . I ti sn o t k nown i ft h e f r u i t s o r s e eds o ft h is s pec ies a re e d ib le , b u t t hey may h ave b een more i mpor tan t a s as ource o ft uber s . T he f r equency o ft he se s eeds o ccur s a s h i gh a s 1 7 p ercen t o f t he s amp le r e s idue v o lume i n o ne s amp le f r om P a loma . F ragmen t s o fo ne a dd i t iona l member o ft he S o !anaceae f am i ly w a s r e covered i n ac opro l i te f r om t he A s ia B ea ch s i te , a nd w a s t ha t o f ac apu l i o rg round c herry ( Phy sa l i s s p . ) . T he c ac t i a ppea rt o p lay ar o le i nt he d i e t a s w e l l , a s s hown b y t he p resence o f ma s t ica ted s p ines , s e eds o f t he c ac tus ( Haag eoce r eus s p . ) , a nd g l och ids c ha rac ter is t ic o f t he g enu s O pun t ia . A s pec ies o f Haageoce r eus i s among t he d om inan t c ac tus a l ong a rea s o f c oa s ta l P eru t oday , a nd i sa bundan t i nt he h i l ls o f t he P a loma a nd C hancay V a l ley s i tes . A s mos tf r u i t s o ft he c ac t i a re t e chn ica l ly e d ib le ( i . e . n on -po isonous ) , i ti sl i ke ly t ha tt he s eeds f ound i nt he P a loma c opro l i te s amp le r epresen t as ea sona l d i e tary i t em . We b e l ieve t ha tc on t inued s t udy a tt hese s i tes w i l l h e lp t od e f ine t he n ondomes t ic p a t tern ing o f r e fuse t he re i n o rde r t o more f u l ly u nder s tand t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f r e sources b y e xpand ing o ur t e s t e xcava t ions t o a cqu ire a l a rger d a ta b ase . P os s ib le c opro l i te ma ter ia ls h ave a l so b een f ound , a nd r ad ioca rbon s amp le s h ave b een t aken o f a ppropr ia te ma ter ia ls e ncoun tered i n s i te c on tex t s a nd l e ve ls .

D ISCUSS ION T he P receram ic t o E a r ly F o rma t ive p eop les o f t he c en t ra l c oa s t o f P eru h ad f i ve p os s ib le r e source z ones w i th in t he c a tchmen t a rea s o ft h e ir s e t t lemen t s . A s ide f r om t he a nd c oa s ta l d eser t , t hese i n c lude t he r a iny h i gh lands o ft he w es tern Andean f l ank s , t he l omas f og o a ses , r i ver ine v a l ley s a nd a l ong t he P ac i f ic c oa s tl i t tora l w here f r esh t ob rack i sh w a ter a qu if er s o ccur b eh ind b each d unes a ss eeps a nd i ns ha l low w e l ls . O ft he s i tes w e s t ud ied , P a loma i sa n a nc ien t l oma s s i te c l ose t o t he l i t tora l , C h i lca Ii s ar i ver ine v a l ley s i te s im i la r ly c l ose t ot h eb each ,A s ia i s ab each s i te w i th a c ce s s t o r i ver ine v a l ley r e sou rces , a nd t he C hancay s i tes a r e l ower t o m idd le v a l ley s i tes w i th e a sy a c ce s s t o Andean f l ank a nd o ther r e sources . A l l o f t hese z ones a r e w i th in 5 0 km o f t he o cean . Our d a ta s ugges t t ha t t he c oa s ta l p eop les w ere u s ing a l o f t hese t e r re s t r ia l a nd ma r ine r e source z one s f r om t he e a r l ies t t imes , b u t t ha t o ver t ime , t hey g radua l ly s h if ted t o i n crea s ing empha s is o n l i t tora l z one a n ima l r e sources a nd u l t ima te ly t ot he p lan t r e sources o ft h e r i ver ine v a l ley s .

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The r e su l ts o fo ur s t ud ies a tt hese s i tes s ugges t t ha t ma r ine a n ima l r e sources a ppea r t o h eav i ly d om ina te t he a r chaeo log ica l s amp le i nt e rms o ff r equency o f o ccur rence a ta l s i tes . T hese i n c lude s e a mamma ls a nd /or f i sh a nd s he l l f ish r ema ins i n d escend ing o rder o f o ccur rence ( F igure 3 0 ) . O ther f auna l c omponen t si ns im i la r o rder i n c lude ma r ine a v ifauna , c rabs , c ame l ids , c erv ids , r oden t s , i n sec ts , a nd ma r ine a nd t e r res t r ia l s na i ls . O f t he s he l lf i sh , mus se ls ( va r ious s pec ies o f c horo ) d om ina te a tP a loma a nd C h i lca I , wh i le c l ams ( s pec ies o f macha ) a re more f r equen ta tA s ia a nd t he C hancay s i tes . O ther t han ma r ine b i rds ,t he mos tf r equen t t e r res t r ia l f auna a r e r oden t s ,c erv ids , a nd c ame l ids . A s i gn if ican t c omponen t o fp lan t r ema ins w a s a l so p resen t i n t he a r chaeo log ica l s ed imen t s a t t h e s i tes . T he g rea t ma jor i ty o fa l l p lan t r ema ins a tt he s i tes w ere o fu ncu l t iva ted t e r res t r ia l o r ig in . O ft hese , n onfood f i rewood a nd c ons truc t ion ma ter ia ls d om ina te a ta l s i tes ( F igure 3 1 ) . P lan t f ood r ema ins i n c lude aw ide v a r ie ty o fs eeds ,f r u i t s , a nd t uber s . T hese i n c lude g uava o rg uayaba ( P s id ium s p . ) , c ayhua ( C yc lan thera s p . ) , m i to ( Car ica s p . ) , l u cuma ( Lucuma o bova ta HBK . ) , ma sh i sh i ( an i n d igenous s pec ies o f C ucum i s ) , a nd mo l le ( Sch m us mo l l e L . ) f r u i ts , av a r ie ty o f f e ra l t uber s i n c lud ing as pec ies o ft he g enus B egon ia , s i gn if ican t amoun t s o fg ra s s c a ryopses ( " seeds") ( p robab ly as pec ies o fP aspa lum ) , many c henopod a nd s o lanaceous s eeds , a nd a ch i ra ( Canna e du l i s K er . ) a nd c a t ta i l ( T ypha s p . ) r h izomes . P robab le d omes t ica tes i n c lude c ucu rb i ts ( s qua sh a nd g ourds ) , b eans ( s pec ies o fC anava l ia a nd P haseo lus ) , a nd c o t ton ( Go ss yp ium b arbad ense L . ) . S qua sh a nd g ou rd r ema in so ccur a ta l s i tes , a si sp robab ly t he c a se w i th t he b eans ( t he C hancay s i tes d a ta i si n comp le te ) , a nd c o t ton o ccu r so n ly a tA s ia a nd C h i lca I . T he o n ly c orn ( Z ea may s L . ) r ema ins e ncoun tered w e re a noma lous , a nd w ere f ound j u s t u nder t he s ur face a t A s ia , p robab ly i n t rus ive f r om l a ter t imes . O ft he o ther f ood p l an t s , c ayhua o ccur so n ly a tA s ia a nd C h i lca I ,g uayaba a tP a loma a nd A s ia , a ch i ra o n ly a tC h i lca I ,a nd m i to , l u cuma a nd mo l le o n ly a tP a loma b a sed o n t h e d a ta t o d a te f r om o u rp i lo t s t udy . The h uman c opro l i te d a ta i nd ica te t ha t b o th u ncu l t iva ted t e r res tr ia l p l an t f oods a nd ma r ine a n ima l r esou rces w ere a bou t e qua l ly p rom inen t i n t he d i e ts a t a l l s i tes i n t he p i lo t s t udy . A s i gn i f ican t c omponen t o f p l an t e p iderm i s , f i ber s , a nd s eeds w a s p resen t , i n c lud ing g ra s s c a ryopses a nd f i bers , s o lanaceous , c ucu rb i t , c ompos i te , c henopod , a nd o ther s eeds , a nd a s i gn if ican t c omponen t o f wha t w e b e l ieve t o b e t uber e p iderma l r e s idues a nd f i ber . T o d a te , t he o n ly c er ta in c u l t iva ted p lan t p resen t i nt he a na lyzed c opro l i te s amp les i ss qua sh ( Cucurb i ta s p . ) r epresen ted b y s e ed f r agmen ts , a sw e l l a st he s i gn if ican tc omponen to fw i ld p lan t s . The g loch ids , c ha rac ter is t ic o f t he g enu s Opun t ia , may r epre sen t t he i n ges t ion o fp r ick ly p ea r f r u i t o r p ads . I ti si n teres t ing t ha t t oday O pun t ia i sn o t u sua l ly k nown f r om t he c oa s ta l a rea s o f c en t ra l P eru , b u t i sr a the r ah i gher a l t i tude p lan t mos t c ommon a bove 2 000 me ter s . T hus i t s p resence i nc opro l i tes f r om c oa s ta l s i tes may d ocumen te xp lo i ta t ion o ft he w es tern Andean f l ank sb y c oa s ta l p eop les , a nd /or s ea sona l s t orage o ft h i sf ood r e source a tt hese s i tes . Add i t iona l p lan t f oods r e covered f r om t he c opro l i tes a l so r ef lec t t he r e l iance o f t he c oa s ta l p opu la t ions o n w i ld f oods . T hese i n c lude t he f r u i ts o f as pec ies o f C henopod ium wh ich r e semb les t h a t o f q u inoa , s eeds o f p u rs lane ( Po r tu laca s p . ) , a nd s eeds o f t he g ra s s , c ompos i te , a nd mus ta rd f am i l ies . Cu lt iva ted p lan t f oods a re r ep resen ted i n t he c opro l i tes b y s qua sh s eeds ( Cucurb i ta s p . ) , a nd a r e t o d a te , t he o n ly c er ta in c u l t iva ted p l an t i d en t if ied i n t he s pec imens . S qua sh s eeds a re k nown f r om t he a rchaeo log ica l s amp le f r om v i r tua l ly a l s t ra ta o f a l l s i tes , y e t a re f ound i n t he c opro l i tes o n ly f r om Ch i lca Ia nd A s ia , a nd i na pprec iab le q uan t i t ies o n ly f r om t he l a t ter s i te . T h is may s ugges t t h a tt he c onsump t ion o fs qua sh i n c rea sed i nf r equency f r om e a r l ier t ol a ter s i tes a nd t imes , a l though al a rger s a mp le i sn eeded t ov er if yt h is a ppa ren tt r end . A l though mos t ly w i ld p lan t f oods a r e o f o bv ious i mpor tance i n c oa s ta l d i e t s , s i gn if ican t q uan t i t ies o f ma r ine f oods i n c lud ing f i sh , s he l lf ish ,c rab , a nd ma r ine mamma ls , a re p rom inen t i nt he d i e t . F ish b ones a nd s c a les w ere r e covered i nc opro l i tes f r om a l s i tes i np ercen tages a s h i gh a s 9 1

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p ercen t o fc opro l i te s amp le r e s idue v o lume . B a sed o n v a r ia t ion s i n s ca le p a t terns a sw e l l a s g ro s s s i ze d if erences , i ti sb e l ieved t ha t am in imum o f f i ve d if e ren t s pec ies o f f i sh a r e r epresen ted . B ecause o f t he a bundance o f f i sh b one a nd s c a les , o ccur r ing i n o ver 8 4 p ercen t o f t h e c opro l i te s amp les , i ti se v iden t t ha t t hey w ere a n i mpor tan t ma jor d i e ta ry c omponen t . I t i sl e s s c er ta in whe ther t hey r epresen tc onsump t ion o f who le f i sh o r , a l terna t ive ly , f i sh mea l , a l though t h e f ormer i s , i no ur j udgmen t , t he more l i ke ly c a se . We h ave m icroscop ica l ly e xam ined modern s amp les o f f i sh mea l wh ich c on ta in r e cogn izab le f i sh b ones a nd s c a les o f a bou t t he s ame s i ze r ange a s t hose r e covered i n s o me c opro l i tes . However , t he p a t tern s o f b reakage a nd f r ac ture i n t h e c opro l i te s amp le d o n o t r e semb le t ha t o f modern g round f i sh mea l ( u s ing a h and g r ind ing s t one a nd b a tan ) . I n a dd i t ion , i ti su nc lea r a s t o wha t p urpose g r ind ing s ma l l f i sh s pec ies f o r h ypo the t ica l s torage w ou ld s e rve , s i nce t he g r ind ing p roces s e xposes more s ur face a rea t o a tmospher ic o x ida t ion t han w ou ld s t orage o f d r ied who le f i sh , a nd i n a ny e ven t , w ou ld i n vo lve a n e x tra s t ep i n l i t tora l f ood p repa ra t ion p rac t ices a nd c oncomm i tan te xpend i tu re o fe nergy . Unfor tuna te ly , t he p r imary i nd ica tor o f f i sh i n t he d i e t , t he f l esh , h as b een o bscured b y d i ges t ion . A s ar e su l t , i n ferences b a sed o n s ke le ta l a nd s c a le r ema ins a lone may l e ad t o a n u nderes t ima t ion o f t he i mpor tance o f t h is f ood r e source . A c ons iderab le q uan t i ty o f l a rger f i sh b ones a re k nown f r om t he s i te 's a r chaeo log ica l s ed imen t s , y e t t y p ica l ly o n ly t he s ma l le r f i sh b one s a r e u nders tandab ly c on sumed . T h is u ndoub ted ly s kew s t he s amp le i nf a vor o f s ma l le r , r a ther t han l a rger f i sh i n t e rms o f t he ir i d en t if ica t ion i n h uman c opro l i tes . T hus , i ti sl i ke ly t ha t many o f t h e c opro l i tes w ere c omposed o ft he f l esh o fl a rger f i sh wh ich c anno tb er ecogn ized a s s uch a tp resen t . T he c a tegory o fs he l l a nd b a rnac le f r agmen t s , mo l lusc p ea r ls a nd s ea u rch in s p ine s , c omb ined , w ere r ecovered i n 8 1 p ercen t o f t he c op ro l i tes a na lyzed , a nd f u r ther r ef lec ts t he i mpor tance o f ma r ine a n ima l r e sources i nt he f ood b a se . A l though t he p resence o ft hese c omponen t s a r e p robab ly t he r e su l t o f a cc iden ta l i nges t ion , t he re i s as t rong c or re la t ion i no ur d a ta w i th t he p re sence o ff i sh b ones a nd s c a les , s ugges t ing t he s epa ra te c l us ter ing o f ma r ine a n ima l mea ls a nd t e r res t r ia l p l an t f ood mea ls . S im i la r ly , e v idence o f s ea s qu ir t ( c i rue lo d e l ma r )w a sf ound i n ac opro l i te s amp le f r om t he A s ia s i te , a l though i ti sn o tc e r ta in i ft he c omponen tw a sd i e ta ry o r s imp ly ac on tam inan t . C rab mea ti sa no ther ma jor d i e ta ry c omponen tw h ich w a sp resen t i nt he a rchaeo log ica l s amp le , mos t ly a tP a loma ,b u t a l so i n d ec rea s ing f r equenc ies a tt he C h i lca Ia nd A s ia B each s i te s . A l though c r ab r ema ins w ere f ound i nc opro l i tes o n ly f r om P a loma ,c rab s he l l f r agmen ts a nd m ea t t r aces w e re f ound i n6 3 p ercen t o ft he s amp les t here , r ep resen t ing a s much a s6 6p ercen t o ft he c op ro l i te r e s idue v o lume i n i nd iv idua l s pec imens . T he f a c t t ha t c rab r ema ins a r e n o t k nown i n t he c op ro l i te s amp le s f r om t he l a ter c oa s ta l s i tes o f C h i lca I a nd A s ia , a nd o n ly i n much r educed f r equenc ies i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l s amp le d oes n o t n eces sar i ly r ef lec t ad i e tary s h i f t ,b u tp robab ly t he r e la t ive s carc i ty o f t h is f ood r e source a t t hese l a t ter s i tes . A lso , s i nce t he b each a tP a loma , L a T iza , i s ar ocky b ea ch , wh i le t hose a t Ch i lca Ia nd A s ia a r e s andy b eaches , t he p resence o fh igher f r equenc ies o fc rabs i nt h e t o ta l s amp le a tP a loma may s imp ly r ef lec tt he p ref erences o fc r abs f o r r ocky b each h ab i ta ts . T he d e term ina t ion o f ma r ine mamma l v er sus t e r res t r ia l mamma l r ema ins i n t h e c opro l i tes i s s o mewha t p rob lema t ica l , i n t ha t t he mea t r e s idues a re n o t d i agnos t ic p er s e , a nd w e mus t i n s tead d epend o n c a refu l a na ly s is o f mamma l h a ir a nd b one f r agmen t s wh ich a re r ecogn izab le i n t h e c opro l i tes . However , where t hese r ema ins a r e f ound i nt he c opro l i tes , o ur d a ta s how t ha t t hey a r e t y p ica l ly f ound i n mea ls wh ich e xc lude i d en t i f iab le p l an t r ema ins . B a sed u pon t h i s o bserva t ion a s w e l l a s t he c a refu l a s ses smen t o ft he h a ir a nd b one r ema ins , i ti sb e l ieved t ha t t he m amma l r ema in s a r e l a rge ly t hose o f s ea , r a ther t han t e r res tr ia l mamma ls , a s t he a r chaeo log ica l s ed imen t s o verwhe lm ing ly s ugges ts . Un t i l o ur a na ly t ica l t e chn iques s u rmoun t t h is m e thodo log i ca l h urd le , t h i s a spec t o fo ur d i e ta ry a na ly s is mus tr ema in o pen t oi n terpre ta t ion . O ther d i e tary c omponen t s a ppea r t o r epresen t e xcep t iona l m ea ls , a nd i n c lude g rubs , p resen t i n o ne s amp le f r om A s ia a t 9 3 p ercen t l e ve ls , a nd n oncoprophagus i n sec t c h i t in f ound a t s i gn if ican t l e ve ls o n ly i n f i ve s amp les f r om P a loma , C h i lca I a nd A s ia . O ther c opro l i te r e s idues i n c lude c ha rcoa l f r om c ook ing a nd i norgan ic s t one c h ips , s and , a nd s i l t . T hese r e s idues p robab ly d o n o t n eces sa r i ly r ef lec t d i e tary p rac t ices , b u t r a ther c u l tura l p rac t ices . A l though t he e x ter iors o f a l

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c op ro l i te s amp les w ere c l eaned p r ior t o a na ly s i s , s t one c h ips , s and , a nd c ha rcoa l w ere r e covered f r om t he i n ter ior o f a l l s pec imens . B ecause o f t he g enera l l ow f r equenc ies o f i n c lud ing b o th a eo l ian a nd b each s and , i ti s f e l t t ha t t hese ma ter ia ls p robab ly p rac t ices s uch a s r e la t ive ly u nsan i ta ry f ood p repa ra t ion t e chn iques , p u l l ing f oods r a the r t han g eophagy p er S e , a l though t h is p rac t ice h a s b een s u spec ted e l sewhere c oa s ta l P eru (We ir a nd B onav io 1 985 ,B ryan t a nd We i rm s ) .

t hese r e s idues , r e f lec t c u l tura l f r om f i res e t c . , i n Andean a nd

CONCLUSIONS B a sed o n o u r s t ud ie s , i t a ppea r s t ha t ma r ine r e sources a nd d i e ta ry e l emen ts a re ma jor c omponen ts i n t he t o ta l s amp le f r om a l s i tes , i n c lud ing b o th t he e a r l ier P a loma d a ta a nd t he r ecen t s t ud ie s , a l though a ma jor c omponen t o f t e r res tr ia l p l an t r e sources i sa l so p resen t i n s i gn if ican t amoun ts a nd f r equenc ies . T h i s s ugges t s t ha t t he d om inan t s ub s i s tence mode a t t hese c oa s ta l s i tes s t ud ied t o d a te , f r om M idd le P receram ic t h rough E a r ly F orma t ive c on tex ts , s t res sed t he u se o f a w ide v a r ie ty o f ma r ine a n ima l a nd mo s t ly w i ld t e r res t r ia l p l an t a nd s ome a n ima l r e sources . C u l t iva ted p lan t s a re c l ea r ly s e conda ry i nt he d i e t , a nd s o me ( gou rds a nd c o t ton ) may b e p r ima r i ly n on food i ndus t r ia l p lan t s u sed a s a d junc t s t o a n e s sen t ia l ly ma r i t ime f o rag ing e conomy d ur ing L a te P receram ic t o E a r ly F orma t ive t imes , a s o ther s h ave a l so s ugges ted ( Pozor sk i a nd P ozor sk i 1 979 ) . B u tt h e ma t ter i sn o t a ss t ra igh tforwa rd a ss imp ly t e r res t r ia lv e rsu s ma r ine r e sou rce b a ses ,b u tr a ther i s a more c omp lex empha s is o n mos t ly t e r res tr ia l w i ld p lan ts w i th s o me t e r res t r ia l a n ima ls , a l ong w i th mos t ly ma r ine a n ima ls w i th s ome i nd ica t ion o f ma r ine p l an t f oods ( s eaweed , f o r e xamp le , a l though a tv ery l ow f r equenc ies ) . B u t t h is r a ises t he l a rge r i s sue , whe ther t he s ubs is tence b a se o f t he p er iod w a s ma r i t ime o r t e rre s t r ia l I n t he c on tex t o fo ur a r chaeo log ica l a nd s ubs is tence s t ud ies , w e a ppea r t o h ave t he r i gh t a nswe r st o t he w rong q ues t ion s ! C er ta in ly , ma r ine a n ima ls a nd /or f i sh a nd t e r res t r ia lw i ld p l an t s a re t he m a jor d ie ta ry c omponen t s . However , t e r res t r ia l a n ima ls a nd c u l t iva ted p l an t s , a nd a tl e a s t s ome ma r ine p lan t s a re a l so d i e ta ry c omponen t s . T hus t he q ues t ion s hou ld b e o ne o f t he r e la t ive empha s is o n t hese c omp lemen ta ry r e sou rces , a nd f u r the r , o n t he n a ture o ft he p roces ses i n vo lved i n t he s h i f t ing s ubs is tence empha ses f r om p receram ic t oe a r ly f o rma t ive t imes . I f s i gn if ican t q ues t ions o f p roces s i n s ubs i s tence p a t terns a re t o b e a nswered , t hen t hese q ue s t ions n eed t o b e r eph ra sed i n t e rms o f t he more c omp lex r ea l i ty . T hus w e a g ree w i th R e i tz ( Chap ter 3 ) t ha t t he ma r ine / ter res t r ia l d i cho tomy d oes n o t a ppea r t o b e e n t ire ly a ppropr ia te . F ur the r , we b e l ieve t ha t t he m a r ine a nd t e r res tr ia l h ypo theses a re n o t f u l ly a dequa te mode ls o ft he c omp lex p a t tern s o fi n terac t ion i np receram ic t oe a r ly f o rma t ive s ubs is tence b a ses . B a sed u pon o ur s t ud ies t o d a te , o n ly a f u l ly q uan t if ied d a ta b a se , t ak ing i n to c on s idera t ion mu l t iva r ia te f a c tors i nc lud ing a nswer st o q ues t ion so f emp i r ica l ly e s tab l ished b ioma s sa nd f ood v a lues , a nd q uan t i ta t ive ly s t a ted c os t /bene f i t s ubs i s tence s t ra tegy h ypo theses , c an a dequa te ly a ddres s t h i s c r i t ica l ly i mpor tan t ma t te r wh ich h a s s een much d eba te , b u t l i t t le d a ta . We a re c on t inu ing a nd e xpand ing t he i n tens i ty a nd s c ope o fo ur i nqu ir ies i n to t hese q ues t ions .

SUMMARY F i ve P receram ic t o E a r ly F orma t ive s i tes d a t ing f r om a bou t 5 000 t o 1 800 B .C . w ere e xcava ted d ur ing ap i lo t s t udy c on s i s t ing o fe x tens ive e xcava t ion s , i n ten s ive s amp l ing a nd d e ta i led a na ly ses t o e s tab l i sh t he q uan t i ta t ive b a s i so fd i e t s a nd s ubs is tence f o rt he e a r ly c omp lex s oc ie t ies o n t he c en t ra l c oa s to fP eru . T he d a ta b a se r ecovered f r om t hese s i tes c on s i s ted o f h uman c opro l i tes a nd o ther h uman r ema in s t he o n ly d i rec te v idence o fp a s t h uman d i e t s a nd t he a s soc ia ted f a una l , f l ora l a nd o ther r ema in sf r om t he s i te s ed imen t s wh ich s e conda r i ly r ef lec tp a s t d i e t s a nd s ubs i s tence p rac t ice s . T hese d a ta h ave b een s t ud ied c oncu r ren tw i th o ur e xcava t ions a nd s ugges tt ha t : -

-

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1 . An e x treme ly r i ch d a ta b a se b ea r ing o n t hese q ues t ion sw a sp reserved i n t he f i ve s i tes , a nd t h ese r e sources v a ry l o ca l ly b y s i te a nd t h rough t ime . T he d a ta b a se c ons is ted o f v o lume t r ica l ly s t anda rd ized p robab i l i ty s amp les a nd t o ta l r ecovery e co log ica l s amp les f r om a l l s i tes . 2 . Ma r ine a n ima l r e sou rces d om ina te t he s amp le f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i tes ' s ed imen ts , b u t m a jor c omponen t s o f t e rre s t r ia l p l an t r ema ins w e re a l so p re sen t , i n c lud ing a w ide v a r iety o f w ood , c ha rcoa l , r oo t s , f r u i t s , t ubers , a nd s e eds . F auna l r ema in s i n c luded s ea mamma l s , f i sh , s he l lf ish , ma r ine a v ifauna , o ther ma r ine f auna , a nd t e r re s t r ia l mamma ls i nd escend ing o rde r o ff r equency a nd p robab le d i e ta ry s i gn if icance . T he g rea t ma jor i ty o f a l p lan t r ema ins w e re f i rewood a nd c ons truc t ion ma ter ia ls . O f t he p l an t f ood r ema ins , t h e ma jor i ty w ere o f w i ld o r ig in , a l though c u l t iva ted p l an t sw ere p resen t , a nd i n c lude c ucu rb i t s ,b ean s , a nd n ond ie ta iy c o t ton . 3 .I n h uman c opro l i tes , b o th ma r ine a n ima l a nd t e r res t r ia l p l an t f oods w ere p rom inen t a t t h e s i tes s t ud ied . T he d om inan t r e cogn izab le f auna l r ema ins i n t h e c opro l i te s a r e mar ine a n ima ls i n c lud ing f i sh , p robab le ma r ine mamma ls , a nd s he l lf ish . P lan t ma te r ia ls f r om c opro l i tes w e re a l so p rom inen t a nd w ere o verwhe lm ing ly w i ld ; t he o n ly c e r ta in c u l t iva ted p l an t p resen t i n t he c op ro l i te s amp le t o d a te i s ac ucurb i t ,p robab ly s qua sh . 4 .T hese d a ta s ugge s t t ha tt he p r imary c omponen t s o fh uman d i e ts d u r ing t hese p e r iods were m a r ine a n ima ls , mos t ly w i ld t e r res tr ia l p l an t s , s ome t e r res t r ia l a n ima ls , a l though c u l t iva ted p lan t s w ere p resen t . Over t ime i n c rea s ing empha s is w a sp l aced o n l i t tora l z one a n ima l r esou rce s , a nd u l t ima te ly o n t he p l an tr e sources o ft he r i ve r ine v a l ley s . Mos t ma jo rp l an ta nd a n ima l r esou rces p resen t i nt he p a s t a re a l so p resen t i ns im i la r d i s t r ibu t ions t oday , s ugge s t ing t ha t ma jor c l ima t ic c hange w a s n o t a f a c tor a l ong t he c en t ra l c oa s t o fP eru d ur ing M idd le P rece ram ic t o E a r ly F orma t ive t imes . 5 .A t P a loma a nd i n l a ter s i tes t he f i nds o f O pun t ia a r e p erhaps t he b es t i nd ica tor o f u se o f t he h i gher e l eva t ions . E nge l ( 1970c ) r epor ted O pun t ia a tT res V en tana s C ave l oca ted a t n ea r ly 4 ,0 00 me ter se l eva t ion i nt he P una a bove t he c en t ra l c oa s t . T he s e r ia l s e c t ions o fh a i r d o n o t p roduce a s much v a r ia t ion a sw e w ou ld e xpec t h ad t here b een s ea sona l t r anshumance a t P a loma , much l e s s i n t he f o l low ing t ime p er iods . 6 . Ha r r i s l i nes may s ugges t a n i mp rovemen t i n t he a b i l i ty t o h ave a dequa te f ood s upp l ie s y ea r a round , s i nce n ea r ly a l f ema les a tP a loma s how s ome y ea r ly , o rs ea sona l s t resses ,w hereas o n ly s ome o ft he f ema les f r om s ubsequen t t ime p er iods s how t hese l i gh t l i nes . P resen t d a ta a r e e qu ivoca l , b u t t he v a r ie ty o f f oods f ound i n t he c opro l i tes a rgues a ga ins t o cca s iona l f a i lure o fc u l t iva ted o rw i ld p lan ts c au s ing i n to lerab le s t res s . 7 . We h ave o bserved s ome d en ta l c a r ies i nE a r ly Hor izon b ur ia ls , wh ich s ugges t ad rama t ic i n c rea se i nc a rbohydra tes a nd /or c hange i nf ood p repa ra t ion h ab i t s ,b u t t he s amp les a re a sy e t t oo s ma l l t ob e d ef in i t ive . Magnes ium c oncen t ra t ion i nb one s ugges t s t h a t t he v ege tab le c on ten t o ft he c oa s ta l d i e t may h ave i n c rea sed i n t he L a te P receram ic p er iod , a l te rna t ive ly , s eaweed c on sump t ion ma y h ave d im in i shed . 8 .F ina l ly , t hese d a ta s ugges t t ha t p resen t e xp lana tory mode ls f o r t he s ubs i s tence b as is o f e a r ly c omp lex s oc ie t ies o n t he c oa s t o f P eru a r e i n adequa te a nd n eed t o b e r ev ised t o r ef lec t t he more c omp lex a nd c omp lemen tary n a ture o f t he ma r ine a nd t e r res t r ia l r e sources . N ew q uan t i ta t ive ly b a sed mode ls n eed t o b e d eve loped a nd t e s ted . Our n ew q uan t i ta t ive ly d er ived p r imary b a se l ine d a ta a r e h e lp ing t o d ef ine t hese f a c tor s , a nd a r e c on t r ibu t ing t o t h is g oa l . Ou r c on t inu ing s t ud ies ( i nc lud ing h uman , p o l len , a nd mo l lusc s t ud ies ) , a nd an ew s e r ies o fr ad iocarbon d a tes a re c l a r i f y ing t he n a ture o f t hese c omp lex s ubs is tence a nd d i e ta ry r e la t ion sh ips a nd t he ir c hanges o ver t i me i n c oa s ta lp opu la t ions .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS We w ish t o t hank D r . Hugo L udef la R . o ft he M in i s tr y o fC u l ture o fP eru a nd D r . F rede r ic A . E nge l , D irec tor o f t he C en ter f o r A r id L and S tud ies o ft he N a t iona l Agrar ian U n ivers i ty o fP eru ,

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w i thou t whose g enerou s a s s is tance a nd i n s t i tu t iona l s uppor t t he r e sea rch r epo r ted i n t h i s p aper c ou ld n o t h ave b een c a r r ied o u t . F und ing f o r r e sea rch r epor ted i n t h is p ape r w a s p rov ided i np a r t b y Na t iona l S c ience F ounda t ion g ran ts BNS 7 6 -12316 , BNS 7 8 -07727 a l b , a nd BNS 8 1 -053940 , R ober t A . B en f er , D i rec tor . F und ing f o r t he p i lo t p ro jec t w a s p rov ided b y F reder ic A . E nge l , G lendon H . We i r , a nd R ober t A . B en f er , a nd b y g ran t s f r om t he C o l lege o f L ibera l A r t s , T exa s A& M Un iver s i ty ( Dean D an ie l F a l lon ) , a nd b y t he R esea rch C ounc i l o ft he Un ivers i ty o fM i s sour i , C o lumb ia . R ad iocarbon d a te s h ave b een g enerou s ly p rov ided b y t he R ad ioca rbon L abora tory o f t h e Un iver s i ty o f C a l ifo rn ia , R iver s ide ( R .E . T ay lor , D i rec tor ) , a l so f unded t h rough t he N a t iona l S c ience F ounda t ion . B erna rd ino O jeda E . a nd V i rg in ia I s ayama o ft he C en ter o fA r id L and S tud ies a nd Ke i th W . C apps o f t he D epa r tmen t o f An th ropo logy , T exa s A& M Un ivers i ty , h ave made s i gn if ican tc on t r ibu t ions t ot he c on ten to ft h is p aper .

OO T hOTE T he f o l low ing r e f erence p rov ides a ni n teres t ing d i scu s s ion o ft he p reh is tor ic u ses o fs eaweed . B e l l , Mar t in 1 981 S eaweed a s ap reh is tor ic r e sou rce . P p . 17 -126 i n E nv ironmen ta l A spec t s o f C oa s t s a nd I s lands ( D . B ro thwe l l a nd G . D imb leby e ds . ) . S ympos ia o ft he A s soc ia t ion f o r E nv ironmen ta lA rchaeo logy No . 1BAR I n terna t iona l S er ies 9 4 Ox ford .

L ITERATURE C ITED A d ler ,J .F . ,A .J .S amue l ,a nd T .S . Wes t . 1 977 T he a na tom ica l a nd l ong i tud ina l v a r ia t ion o f t r ace e l emen t c oncen tra t ion i n h uman h a ir . Ana ly t ica C h im ica A c ta 9 2 :217 -227 . B en f er , Rober tA . 1 982 E lp royec to P a loma d e l a Un iver s idad d e l aM is sou r i ye lC en tro d e I nves t igac iones d e Zona sA r ida s .2 : 33 -73 , L ima ,P erü . 1 984 T he c ha l lenges a nd r ewa rds o fs eden t i sm : t he P receram ic v i l lage o fP a loma ,P eru . Chap ter 2 1p p .531 -558 i nP a leopa tho logy a tt he o r ig ins o fa g r icu lture (M .N . C ohen a nd G .J .A rme lagos ,e ds . ) .A cadem ic P res s ,I nc . Ha rcour tB race J ovanov ich , O r lando F lor ida . 1 986 Ho locene c oa s ta l a dap ta t ion s : c hang ing d emog raphy a nd h ea l th a tt he f og o a s is o f P a loma ( 5000 7 700 B .P . )i n Andean a r chaeo logy ( R . Ma tos M . ,S .A .T urp in , a nd -

H . H .E l ing e ds . ) . UCLA Monog raph si nA rchaeo logy : L os Ange les . B en f er , Rober tA . ,J .T .T ypo , V . B .G ra f , a nd E . E .P i cke t t 1 975 M inera l a na ly s is o fa nc ien tP eruv ian h a i r . Amer ican J ourna l o fP hy s ica l An th ropo logy 4 8 :277 -282 . B en f er , Rober tA . ,J ames A . Vog t , a nd S .S ch iage l 1 981 I ns trumen ta l n eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s is o fa nc ien tP eruv ian b one .p aper p resen ted S oc ie ty o fA rchaeo log ica l S c ience ,S an D iego C a l iforn ia . B en f er , Robe r tA . a nd J eremy E dwa rd 1 988 T he P a lomans t oa s ted ,t hen s a l ted t he i rd ead .p aper p resen ted a tt he 1 6 th Annua l M idwes te rn C on f erence o n Andean a nd Amazon ian A rchaeo logy a nd E thnoh i s tory , Ann A rbor M ich igan . B en f er , Rober tA . a nd J ohn T rppo 1 988 T race e l emen ta na ly s is o fh a i r : ap a leopa tho log ica lp er spec t ive ,p aper p resen ted a tt he P a leopa tho log ica l A s soc ia t ion Mee t ing , K ansa sC i ty M is sour i . B r yan t , Vaughn M . a nd G lendon H . We i r n .d . Human d i e t si nt he Ayacucho R eg ion o fP eru . Unpub l i shed manuscr ip t . C apps , Ke i th W i l l iam 1 987 T he a r chaeoma laco logy o ff our M idd le t oL a te P receram ic ( 5000 -1899 BC ) s i tes o n t he c en tra l c oa s to fP eru . Unpub l i shed Ma s ter sT hes is ,T exa s A& M Un iver s i ty , C o l lege S ta t ion ,T exa s .

7 1

C ohen , Ma rk N a than a nd G eo rge J .A rme lago s ,e d s . 1 984 P a leopa tho logy a nd t h e O r ig in so fA g r icu l tu re . A cadem ic P re s sI nc . Ha r cou r tB race J ovanov ich , O r lando F lo r ida . Donnan , C .B . 1 964 An e a r ly h ou se f r om C h i lca ,P e ru . Ame r ican An t iqu i ty 3 0 (2 ) :137 -144 . E dwa rd ,J e remy 1 987 S tud ies o ft he h uman b one f r om t h e Ame r ind ian s i te a tP a loma ,P eru ,b yn eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i s . Unpub l i shed P h .D .D i s se r ta t ion , Un ive r s i ty o fM i s sou r i C o lumb ia , C o lumb ia M i s sou r i . E nge l ,F rede r ic A . 1 966 G eog ra f ia h umana p reh i s tó r ica ya g r icu l tu ra p reco lomb ina e nl aq ueb rada d e C h i lca . L ima : N a t iona l A g ra r ian Un ive r s i ty . 1 970a E xp lora t ion o ft h e C h i lca C anyon ,P eru . C ur ren t An th ropo logy 1 :1 1 970b S ob re c omp le jo sa g r ico la sp reh i span ico se ncon t rados a nl a sl oma s ye nl o sc os teno s d e L ac uenca d e C h i lca ,P eru . XX IX C ong re s so I n ternac iona l d e Ame r i can is ta s , L ima , 1 970 . 1 970c C e ram i s te s al ' oeuv re d an sl ag o rge d e C h i lca ,a uP e rou .J ou rna l d el aS oc ie te S u i s se d e s Amer ican i s te s ,G eneve ,B u l l .N o .3 5 , 1 971 . 1 973 N ew f a c t sa bou tP reco lumb ian l i f ei nt h e Andean L oma s . C u r ren t An th ropo logy 1 4 (4 ) :271 -280 . 1 980 P a loma : V i l lage 6 13 .P p . 1 03 -135 i nP reh i s to r ic Andean e co logy ( F . -A .E nge le d . ) . Human i t ie sP re s s , N ew Yo rk . 1 981 P reh i s to r ic Andean E co logy ,V o lume I . Human i t ie sP re s s ,N ew York , 1 5 5pp . F e rgu son ,J acque l ine A . n .d . A ge o fs t re s s d u r ing c h i ldhood a tP a loma :p red ic t ion b y Ha r r i sl i nes . Unpub l i shed manu sc r ip ti nP a loma p ro jec tf i l e s . K lep inge r ,L inda L . 1 984 Nu t r i t iona l a s se s smen tf r om b one . Annua l R ev iew o f An th ropo logy 1 3 :75 -96 . L umb re ra s ,L u i s G . 1 974 T he P eop le sa nd C u l tu re so f Anc ien tP eru . T ran s la ted b yB e t ty J . Megge r s . Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion P re s s , Wa sh ing ton D .C . Ma r t in ,D eb ra L . ,A lan H . Goodman , a nd G eo rge J .A rme lago s 1 985 S ke le ta lp a tho log ies a si n d ica to r so fq ua l i t ya nd q uan t i ty o fd i e t .P p .2 27 -279 i n The a na ly s i so fp reh i s to r ic d i e t ( R .I .G i lbe r tj r .a nd J .H .M ie lke e ds . ) .A cadem ic P res s , O r lando , F lo r ida . Mo se ley ,M .E . 1 972 S ubs i s tence a nd d emog raphy : a ne xamp le o fi n te rac t ion f r om P eru .S ou thw e s tern J ou rna l o f An th ropo logy 2 8 :25 -49 . Ob ru sn ik ,I . ,J .G i s la son ,D . Maes ,D .K . M icm i l lan ,J .D 'Au r ia ,a nd B .D .P a te 1 973 T he v a r ia t ion o ft r a ce e l emen tc oncen t ra t ion si ns i ng le h uman h ead h a i r s .J ou rna l o f R ad ioana ly t ica l C hem i s t ry 1 5 :115 -134 . P ozo r sk i ,S he l ia a nd T homa sP ozo r sk i 1 979 A l to S a lave r ry : aP eruv ian c oa s ta lP rece ram ic s i te . Anna l so fC a rneg ie Mu seum 4 8 : 3 37 -375 . R owe ,J ohn H .a nd Do ro thy Menze l 1 967 P eruv ian A rchaeo log y .P eek P ub l ica t ion s ,P a lo A l to ,C a l i fo rn ia . S choen inge r ,M .J .a nd C .S .P eeb le s 1 981 Ef ec to f mo l lu sc e a t ing o n h uman b one s t ron t ium l e ve ls .J ou rna l o fA r chaeo log ica l S c ience 8 : 391 -397 . S ch roede r ,H .A . ,A .P .N a son , a nd J .H .T ip ton 1 968 E s sen t ia l m e ta ls i nm an : m agne s ium .J ouna l o fC h ron ic D i so rde r s2 1 :815 -841 . S co t t ,E ugene C . 1 974 D en ta lv a r ia t ion i np reco lumb ian c oa s ta lP eru . Unpub l ished P h .D D i s se r ta t ion . Un ive r s i ty o fM i s sou r i -Co lumb ia , C o lumb ia ,M is sou r i . n .d . D en ta lp a tho log ya nd s ub s i s tence i nc oa s ta lP eru . Unpub l i shed manusc r ip t .

7 2

S i l len ,A . a nd M . K avanaugh 1 982 S t ron t ium a nd p a leod ie ta ry r e sea rch : ar ev iew . Y ea rbook o fP hy s ica l An th ropo logy 2 5 :67 -90 . S andford , Mary K . , Denn is P .V an Gervan , a nd Rober tB . Meg len 1 984 E lemen ta l h a i ra na ly s is : n ew e v idence o n t he e t io logy o fc r ib ra o rb i ta l is i nS udanese Nub ia . Human B io logy 4 : 831 -844 . T u rner I , Ch r is ty G . 1 976 Den ta l c a r ies a nd e a r ly E cuador ian a g r icu l tu re . Amer ican An t iqu i ty .4 3 :694 -697 . We i r , G lendon H . 1 985 T he L oma so fP a loma : h uman -env i ronmen tr e la t ions i n ac en t ra lP eruv ian f og o a s i s a r chaeobo tany a nd p a lyno logy .i n Andean A rchaeo logy ( R . Ma tos M .ed . ) . UCLA Monog raph si n An th ropo logy : L os Ange les . We i r , G lendon H . a nd Ducc io B onav ia 1 985 T he Hua rmay s i te : c opro l i tes a nd d i e t s .I n s t i tu te o f Andean S tud ies , L ima ,P eru .

7 3

T ab le 1 . Magne s ium a nd C a lc ium C oncen t ra t ion si nB one E xp re s sed o nP a r t sP e rM i l l ion .

SA MPLE

NUMBER

MAGNES IUM

CALC IU M

Mg /Ca

P a loma P rece ram ic m ean S .D .

1 7

6 663 .6 2 122 .6

2 8289 .0 1 796 .6

0 . 238 0 . 08

1 7

4 401 .2 2 025 .8

2 70517 .0 2 5533 .0

0 . 016 0 . 006

1 7

3 889 .5 3 08 .7

2 18822 .0 1 5635 .0

0 . 018 0 . 001

4 7733 .0 8 47 .1

2 61968 7 72 .9

0 . 018 0 . 003

2 21265

0 . 031

L a te P rece ram ic m ean S .D . L &EA s t anda rd m ean S .D . P a loma l ama m ean S .D .

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P a loma d og m ean

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F i g u r e 4 C e r v i c a l v e r t e b r a e o f c a m e l i d w i t h p r o j e c t i n g p r o c e s e s r e m o v e d ,

CHAPTER 9 PIRURU: A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL BOTANY OF A HIGHLAND ANDEAN SITE Elisabeth Bonnier, Institute Frances de Estudios Andinos, Casilla 18-1217, Lima, 18 Peru Lawrence Kaplan, Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA 02125 ABSTRACT The Tantamayo ruins are open sites about 3800 meters above sea level on the eastern Andean slopes in the Maranan drainage. Carbonized plant macrofossils, pollen, and phytoliths are under study to determine subsistence patterns and possible evidence for commerce with the eastern slope lowlands. Vegetation appears to have been stable throughout the occupation during which wild and possibly cultivated quinoa came into use. Biogenic opal remains reveal surprising high frequency of panicoid grass phytoliths which suggest the use of grass materials from the eastern slope lowlands. INTRODUCTION The site of Piruru in the Department of Huanuco is located on the right slope of the Rio Tantamayo at 3800 meters mean elevation above sea level. From the present day village of Tantamayo, the site is reached by a 2 - 3 hour climb to the edge of the puna. Piruru is an open site marked at the surface by fortifications of the Late Intermediate which cover an area of about 4.5 hectares. The current excavations have been in progress since 1981 particularly in lower levels in which a rectangular platform was discovered by Girault in 1970 (Bonnier et al. 1983). This structure and another like it is composed of a fill of rocks and soil contained by a low wall of 2 courses of standing stones. The original platform probably dates to the Preceramic Period. The Formative Period is also represented at the site. We present here some preliminary results of the botanical analysis of the Formative through Late Intermediate. Plant remains from the Preceramic have not yet been examined. Since 1981 Bonnier and Catherine Rozenberg have directed the project. They have designed the excavations to comprise 3 units: Unit 1/11, 15 meters square; Unit III, 40 meters square; and Unit IV, 30 meters square. By the end of the 1983 season the excavation of Unit I/II had been completed. A maximum depth of 3.8 meters is recorded. Considerable progress has been made in Units III and IV and the excavations may be completed during the 1985 field season. A stratigraphic summary as recognized by Bonnier and Rozenbeng primarily on the basis of Unit I/II excavations shows a substantial hiatus in occupation between Early Formative and Late Intermediate phases. Because Piruru is an open site the contents of the site are of course subjected to precipitation moisture which would affect organic materials in a way different from materials protected in a cave or rockshelter site. The influx of plant remains growing at the surface of an open site may be quite different from what might be encountered in the case of a sheltered site. Soil pH at the site ranges from about 5 to above 6, moderately acid to nearly neutral. Animal bones are only rarely encountered, and the distribution of calcium and other exchangeable ions suggests substantial leaching, but the phosphorus content suggests that bones may have decomposed in the soil. So far, pollen preservation has not been good in those samples which we have extracted. A marshy area a few miles from the site has good pollen preservation but lacks sufficient depth for adequate coring Extracts from the marsh surface show an overwhelming proportion of grass pollen and palynomorphs from nonseed plants.

148

F LOTAT ION SA MPLES F lo ta t ion s amp le s f r om t he 1 982 a nd 1 983 f i e ld s ea son s h ave b een a na ly zed f o r s e ed a nd v ege ta t ive r ema in s . S imp le w a te r f l o ta t ion m e thods w e re a dap ted t o t h e e x i s t ing f i e ld c ond i t ion s d u r ing t h e 1 982 s e a son . S t ream w a te rw a s t e s ted f o r t he p re sence o fp l an t mac rofo s s i l ma te r ia ls b y s ma l l m esh s i ev ing d u r ing J u ly a nd f ound t o b e c omp le te ly f r ee o f c on tam inan t s . F ou r l i t e r s o i l s amp le s w ere u sed t h roughou t . S amp le s c o l lec ted a t t h e e xcava t ion s w e re h and c a r r ied i np l a s t ic b uck e t s t o t he w a te r s ou r ce a nd s t i r red i n to t ub s . F lo ta te w a s c o l lec ted i n 1mm m e sh s i eve s a nd d r ied o nf o i l i n s ide t he l a bt e n tf o rp ro tec t ion f r om t h eh i gh w inds . F ou r t hou sand s i x h und red f o r ty f ou r ( 4 644 ) s e eds w e re c o l lec ted f r om 7 6 s o i l s amp le s . Tw en ty th ree s e ed t y pe s a r e r ep resen ted i n t h e t o ta l s e ed p opu la t ion . T he ma jo r i ty a r e n o t c a rbon ized b u t t h e re a r e a tl e a s t 9c a rbon ized g roup s . F u r the rp rog re s s o n i d en t if i ca t ion ma y a l te r t he r a t io o fc a rbon ized t on o tc a rbon ized s e eds . T he s eeds r e cove red a r e a l i nt h e . 7 5 ±2m i l l ime te r r ange i ns i ze . None , a tt h i s t ime , c an b e r e f e r red t o a ny d omes t ica ted g roup ,w i th t he p os s ib le e xcep t ion o fs ome c henopod s e eds . A l though t he se s e eds a re b e low t he s i ze r ange f o r q u inoa ( Chenopod ium q u inoa W i l ld . ) ,w h ich i sg rown i nt h e a r ea c u r ren t ly , t h ey c ou ld r ep resen t ac u l t iva ted r e sou rce . T he o ccu r rence o fa ny s i ng le s e ed t y pe i n t he m a t r ix o fs amp le si sp a tch y . Howeve r , a lmo s te ve ry f l o ta t ion s amp le h a so ne o r mo re s e ed t y pe s p re sen t . Af ew s amp le sh ave n o s e eds a ta l , af ew h ave h undred s , o ne s o i l s amp le h a so ve r 1 000 . I n v i ew o ft h is d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn , w e h ave s o f a r o n ly t r ea ted t h e s e ed d a ta f r om t he s t andpo in t o f d i v e r s i t y , t ha t i s ,t he n umbe r o fs e ed t y pe s wh ich a r e r epre sen ted i ne ach p ha se , L a te I n te rmed ia te o fU n i t s 1 1 1 ,I I , I V ;L a te I n te rmed ia te F i l l o f Un i t s I / L I ,I I ; F o rma t ive F i l l l i l I ;F o rma t ive o f Un i t I / l I( Tab le 1 ) . T he s epa ra t ion o ft h e F o rma t ive f r om t h e L a te I n termed ia te b y o ne o r t wo l a ye r so ff i l l i nt he i n i t ia ls amp les f r om t he 1 982 a nd 1 983 f i e ld s ea son sp rov ide s ac on tex tf o rt e s t ing t he s i gn if i cance o f t he s e ed s amp le . T he re a r et wo c l ea r ly s epa ra ted l e ve ls o fo ccupa t ion . T he L a te I n te rmed ia te s how s as ub s tan t ia l ly h i ghe r d eg ree o fd i ve r s i ty o fs e ed t y pe s t han d oe s t he F o rma t ive ( Tab le 2 ) . T h i s d i ve r s i ty i sm ea su red i nt wo w ay s : 1 .t he n umber o fs e ed t y pe sp re sen t i na l o ft he s amp le s r ep re sen t ing as i ng le p e r iod ; 2 .t he a ve rage n umbe r o fd if e ren t k i nds o fs e ed s d i v ided b y s eed c on ta in ing s amp les o f ap e r iod o fo ccupa t ion o r al a ye r o ff i l l . On ly t ho se s amp le s t ha t c on ta in s eeds a r e i n c luded i n t h e se c a lcu la t ion s o f d i ve r s i ty . F o rma t ive f i l l i st r ea ted i n t h e s ame w ay a sa re t he z one so fo ccupa t ion . T he re i s n o r egu la r d if e rence b e tween t h e p e r iods s hown i n T ab le 2 a nd s e ed d i ve r s i t y c a lcu la ted o nt he b a s i s o ft h e t o ta l n umbe r o fs e ed t y pe si ne ach p er iod . However ,w hen t he a ve rage f r equen cy o f s e ed t y pe s p e r s amp le i s e xam ined , t h e re a r e c l ea r d i s t inc t ion s a mong L a te I n te rmed ia te a nd F o rma t ive . W i th in e ach o f t h e se z one s t h e re a ppea r s t o b e c on s i s tency a mong t ho se u n i t s o ft he e x cava t ion t h a t a r e r ep resen ted . T he n umbe r o f s o i l s amp le s a na ly zed a nd t h e t o ta ln umber o fs e eds p re sen ti ne a ch l a ye r a ppea r sn o tt od e te rm ine t he d i s t inc t ion sa mong z one s . A s w e p rog re s s f u r the r i n t he i d en t i f ica t ion o f s e ed t y pe s a nd t he a na ly s i s o f a r t i f ac t s a nd a c t iv i t y a r ea s , w e may f i nd t h a t c e r ta in s e ed s pec ie s w i l l s how s t ronge r r e la t ion sh ip s t o c u l tu ra l f a c to r st h an d o o the r s .

PH YFOL ITH ANALYS IS T he a na ly s i s o f b iogen ic o pa l s , p hy to l i th s , w a s made p a r t o f t h e b o tan ica l a na ly s is a s a p a leoeco log ica l t oo l a nd i no rder t o p rov ide a n i n dex f o r s i te u se s i nce p una g ra s se s a r e u sed f o r f ue l ,t h a tch ing , a nd a s ap ack ing ma te r ia l i nt he s t o rage o ft ube rou sf ood r e sou rce s . T h i su b iqu i ty o f u se m ay , w e r ecogn ize , p rove t o r educe t h e s i gn if i cance o fg ra s s p hy to l i th a na ly s i s b y e l im ina t ing c on t ra s t ing r a tes o fd epo s i t ion .

1 49

Along with each 4 -liter soil sample for flotation, paired samples were taken for pollen and phytolith analysis. We have by now extracted phytoliths from 56 samples and have completed the differential counts. In addition to the excavated samples, we have investigated the phytolith types found in reference herbarium collections from the vicinity of the site and a few surface pinch samples have been tested. We recognize 13 types of phytoliths (Twiss, et al 1969) which are scored for each sample and then for purposes of comparison are grouped into four categories: long; trapezoids; truncates; bilobates. The middle two categories should probably be combined. The last category, bilobates, are often called dumbbells and are considered to be characteristic of the Paniceae, or the panicoid grass subfamily. Bilobates, however, are often found in grass species other than those of the Paniceae. Indeed, one of the predominant grasses of this part of the puna, probably Stipa sp., a festucoid species turns out to be loaded with bilobates. The bilobate phytolith form is considered to be characteristic of those grasses, panicoids, that, in the greater number of species carry on the efficient c4 type of photosynthesis (the Kranz carbon cycle).

c4 phototsynthesis is most efficient at high temperatures above 80° degrees F (30°-40°C), (Gould and Shaw, 1983) which is much higher than that typical of the puna climate during the growing season. c3 grasses (the Calvin-Benson photosynthetic cycle) are characteristic of grasslands ° ° ° °

having growing season temperatures of 60 - 78 degrees F (15 -25 C) (Gould and Shaw 1983, p. 50). Contemporary ecological correlations of temperature, elevation, and photosynthetic carbon cycle in East Africa (Livingstone and Clayton 1980) are sufficiently regular to permit paleoclimatic reconstruction based on fossil grass cuticles in that area. In some of our counts, bilobate phytoliths reached 9 to 10 percent. This count is unexpectedly high at a mean elevation of 3800 meters in the Andes if the source of bilobates are grass species within the Paniceae. This initial assumption in our study was based on North American (Twiss et al. 1969) and East African (Livingstone and Clayton 1980) findings concerning the distribution of panicoid and festucoid grass species. We speculated that the bilobates in our site samples might have been derived from woody panicoid grasses brought up from low elevations on the eastern slopes of the Andes. A study of our marsh sample and recently received plant collections showed that the bilobates were present in off site control sediments and in a festucoid grass Stipa. Gould and Shaw (1983) record the presence of bilobates in the festucoid grass genus Stipa, but the abundance of these phytolith types in some of our samples was unexpected. As far as we have gone in the analysis, it appears that phytoliths are well preserved in these soils, that differences between surface control samples and prehistoric sediments may be discerned and, that differences occur in the percentage composition of phytolith types in different parts of the site. With respect to the significance of the panicoid (bilobate) phytolith type occurring in these prehistoric sediments, we emphasize that even the most general application of a north temperate (or east African) model to a highland Andean system may be completely wrong. Any archaeological project in the Andean highlands which hopes to analyze plants remains both macroscopic and microscopic must provide for field collections at the right seasons and for extensive laboratory analysis. Coordinated sampling for microfossil and macrofossil extraction must also be provided for. From Unit IV, Late Intermediate, we have a probable maize macrofossil and it is likely that we shall find phytolith types that are specific in the identification of maize in the Piruru vegetation zone. With such findings we should be able to extend our understanding of the distribution of maize in the site. WOOD, TUBERS, RHIZOMES Carbonized vegetative structures from 63 flotation samples in Unit I/II and III have been separated into wood, fleshy tubers, and nonfleshy rhizomes. The occurrence of carbonized tuber macrofossils in Late Intermediate and Formative samples is common while they are absent from the

150

i n terven ing f i l l l a yer . C a rbon ized w ood a nd r h izome s , o n t h e o the r h and , a r e mo re r andom ly d i s t r ibu ted t h rough a l l a ye r s . We h ave n o t y e t a t temp ted t o i d en t i f y t h e t ube rou s r ema ins . Woods h ave b een p a r t ia l ly i d en t if ied . S ome i sa l de r ,A lnu sj u ro l l ens i s , t h e o n ly i n d igenou s a r bo rea l s pec ie s n ow p re sen t i nt h e r e g ion a bove a bou t 3 400 m e te r s . Rh izome s may b e t ho se o f s ome g ra s ses o r b road lea f ed h e rbaceou s s p ec ie s , a l though mo s t o ft h e g ra s se s a r e b unch t y pe s . P o ta to i sp resen t , b u tw e c anno t s a yw i th c e r ta in ty w he the r a l o ft he o the r c a rbon ized f l e shy t uber s a r e o ca ( Oxa l i s t u be ro sa Mo l . ) , u lucu ( U l lucu s t u be ro su s C a lda s . ) , o r ma shua ( T ropaeo lum t u be ro sum R u iz . a nd P ay . ) b u t t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion i ss t r ik ing i nc on t ra s tt ot ha t o fw ood o ro fr h izome s .

CONCLUS ION S of a r t h e re i so n ly t h e b eg inn ing o fe v idence f o r t he s ub s i s tence b a se . Wha tw e h ave i sa bou t w ha t w e w ou ld e xpec t , i ft h e e conomy w a s b a sed o n s t a rchy t ube rou s c rop s a s t he p r ima ry c a lo r ie s ou rce c omp lemen ted b ya n ima l p ro te in . We may f i nd t ha t q u inoa ,o rw i ld c henopod ium s pec ie s , o r o ther w i ld s e ed p ro te in r e sou rce s w e re e xp lo i ted . T here i so n ly m in ima l e v idence a sy e t f o r f ood m a ter ia l f r om o u t s ide o ft h e p re sen t e nv i ronmen ta l z one o ft h e s i te . Me thodo log ica l ly , P i ru ru h a s s hown a l ready t ha t a n o pen s i te a tt h e e dge o ft h e P una may c on ta in a n a bundance o fc a rbon ized a nd n onca rbon ized p l an t m ac ro fo s s i l s wh ich c an b e e x t ra c ted b y w a te r f l o ta t ion , t ha t p o l len i s p r e sen t , a nd t ha tp hy to l i th sa r e a bundan t .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENT We g ra te fu l ly r e cogn ize t he i n va luab le c on t r ibu t ion s o f L e s ley S neddon t o t he w o rk o f t h i s p ro jec t t h rough h er l a bo ra to ry a na ly s i s o f s amp le s f r om P i ru ru . F unds f o r t he l a bo ra tory a na ly s i s h ave b een p rov ided b yt h e C o l lege o fA r t sa nd S c ience s , Un ive r s i ty o f Ma s sa chuse t t s ,B o s ton .

L ITERATURE C I T hD B onn ier ,E l i sabe th , R . Howa rd , L .K ap lan ,C .R ozenbe rg 1 983 . R echerche sa r cheo log ique s ,p a leobo tan iques e te tno l ingu i s t iques d an su ne v a l lee d u Hau t Ma ranon ( Pe rou ) : L eP ro je tT an tamayo P i ru ru .B u l l .I n s t .F rança is d 'E tude s And ine sX I I ( 1 -2 ) :103 -133 . G ou ld , F rank W . a nd R .B .S haw 1 983 .G ra s sS y s tema t ic s2 nd e d .T exa s A & M Un ive r s i ty . L i v ing s tone ,D .A . a nd W .D . C lay ton 1 980 . An a l t i tud ina ld ine i nt r op ica lA f r ican g ra s sf l o ra sa nd i t sp a leoeco log ica ls i gn i f icance . Qua te rna ry R e sea rch 1 3 :392 -402 . T w i s s ,P .C . ,E .S ue s s , a nd R .M . Sm i th 1 969 . Mo rpho logy a nd c l a s s if i ca t ion o fg ra s sp hy to l i th s .S o i lS c ience S oc ie ty o f Ame r ica , P roceed ing s3 3 (l ) :109 -115 .

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T ab le 1 C hrono log ica l c or re la t ion a nd a r ch i tec tura l f e a tu res

PHASES OF OCCUPAT ION

ARCH ITECTURE

P IRURU TANTA MAYO L a te I n termed ia te

FORT IF IED S ETTLE MENT F ILL

P IRURU P IR WA E a r ly F orma t ive

C IRCULAR S TRUCTURES

P IRURU W AYTA P receram ic

PLATFOR MS

P IRURU W AKCHA

SUBTERRAN IAN CONSTRUCT ION

P receram ic

T ab le 2 F lo ta t ion s eed r ecovery o f2 3 s eed t y pes i n c lud ing c a rbon ized a nd u nca rbon ized s pec imen s

PERIOD

UN IT

NU MBER OF

NU MBER OF

AVERAGE

SEED

SA MPLES

TYPES PRESENT

FREQUENCY t y pes / samp le

TOTAL

1 /23

. 2 1

1 49

2 3 /23

. 3 3

2 105

L a te I n termed ia te

I / lI

4

L a te I n termed ia te

I I

L a te I n termed ia te

I V

6

1 8 /23

. 3 5

1 785

F orma t ive F i l l

I / l I

3

6 / 23

. 1 3

5 9

F orma t ive F i l l

I I

7

1 5 /23

. 1 3

2 85

Upper F orma t ive

I I

9 / 23

. 0 8

9 1

Upper F orma t ive

I / l I

1 /23

. 1 3

7 8

L ower F orma t ive

I / l I

1 0 /23

. 0 8

9 2

2 2

1 4

9

1

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S EU IION 3 PUNA ECONO MIES AS SEEN AT THE PRECERA MIC S ITES I N JUN IN AND THE I NCA S ITE OF HUANUCO PA MPA T he P una i st he h i gh g ra s s land p l a in , a bove 4 000 me ter s e l eva t ion . T h is c o ld e nv ironmen tw a s made n o t o n ly p os s ib le b u tp roduc t ive f o rh uman o ccupa t ion b y t wo g roups o fa n ima ls , t he d eer a nd t h e c ame l ids . Domes t ica t ion o f t he c ame l ids , a s e a r ly a s 4 000 B . C . , o ccur red i n t he P una o f t he c en t ra l Andes (Whee ler 1 984 ) . T hese d omes t ic h erd a n ima ls p rov ided many g oods , s uch a s woo l , d ung , mea t , a nd b one , a nd s e rv ices , s uch a s b urden b ea r ing . P o ta toes w ere a l so c u l t iva ted a tt hese e l eva t ions . T oge ther t hese p roduc ts w ere v a lued c ommod i t ies o fe xchange f o rr e sources f r om l ower e l eva t ions e nr ich ing l i f e i nt he P una a tl e a s t d ur ing I nca t imes . T he v a lue o ft he d omes t ica tes o ft he P una w a sr ecogn ized t h roughou t t he Andean r eg ion a sd emons t ra ted b yt he s pread i nt he i ru se , f i r s t i nt h eh i gh land v a l ley sa nd t hen a l ong t he c oa s t (W ing 1 986 ) .

Whee ler ,J ane C . 1 984

On t he o r ig in a nd e a r ly d eve lopmen t o fc ame l id p a s tora l ism i n t he Andes . P p . 3 95 -

4 10 i n An ima ls a nd A rchaeo logy 3 . E a r ly Herder s a nd t he ir F lock s ( J . C lu t ton B rock a nd C .G r igson ,e ds . ) . BAR I n terna t iona lS er ies 2 02 , Ox ford E ng land . W ing , E l izabe th S . 1 986

Domes t ica t ion o f Andean mamma ls . P p . 2 46 -264 i n H igh A l t itude T rop ica l B iogeog raphy ( F . Vu i l leum ier a nd M . Mona s te r io , e ds . ) . Ox ford Un iver s i ty P res s , Ox ford E ng land .

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CHAPTER 1 0 HUNT ING AND HERDING ECONO MIES ON THE J UNIN PUNA K a ther ine M . Moore , Museum o f An th ropo logy , Un iver s i ty o fM ich igan , Ann A rbo r ,M ich igan 4 8109 C ur ren t Addres s : P eabody Museum , Ha rva rd Un iver s i ty , C ambr idge , Ma ssachu se t t s0 2138

ABSTRACT T he e a r ly e conom ies o f t he J un in h igh a l t i tude g ra s s land , o rp una , a re k nown p r ima r i ly f r om a s e r ies o f s t ra t if ied r ock she l ter d epos i t s . F auna l r ema ins f r om P receram ic a nd F orma t ive c omponen t s i nd ica te f undamen ta l s h if t s i n s ubs is tence p rac t ices a nd c u ltura l a t t itudes t owa rds a n ima ls d u r ing t he f our th m i l lenn ium B .C . Two mea su re s o fh un ter a nd h erder s e lec t iv i ty ( r a t io o f c erv id t o c ame l id r ema in s , a nd a ge s pec if ic mor ta l i ty c urves o f p rey a n ima ls ) d ocumen t t he se c hanges r epea ted ly , w i th s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ions w i th in a l o ca l a rea . Da ta f r om T e la rmachay a nd P anau lauca p erm i t f i neg ra ined a na ly s i s o ft he c hanges i n a n ima l morpho logy a nd d emography t ha t a ccompan ied t h is p roces so fd omes t ica t ion .

I NTRODUCT ION The e vo lu t ion o f a n ima l u se i n c en tra l P eru e xemp l if ies s evera l i mpor tan t p roces ses . On t he mos t g enera l l e ve l , o ne may e xam ine t he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween h uman s a nd t he i r p rey a n ima ls a nd t he e f ec t t ha t a n ima l b ehav ior h a s o n p a t tern s o f h uman s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t . Mo re s pec if ica l ly , t wo t r ends i n a n ima l u se c an b e s een o n r e g iona l s ca le i n J un in : t h e s h if t t o more s pec ia l ized h un t ing o f l a rge u ngu la tes , a nd t he d eve lopmen t o f d omes t ica ted s pec ies o f c ame l ids . T hese p rocesses , a nd t he p os s ib le i n terac t ion b e tween t hem , h ave b een s t ud ied i n l i gh t o f a c on s iderab le s amp le o fa n ima lb one r ema ins f r om av a r ie ty o fa r chaeo log ica l s i tes .

LOCAT ION : THE JUN IN PUNA The J un in p una ( F ig . 1 ) , b e tween 4 100 m a nd t he u pper l im i ts o fv ege ta t ion , i si nt he h i ghes t z one o fp ermanen t h uman o ccupa t ion i nP eru . T hough t h ere i se v idence f o r p reh i s tor ic a g r icu lture w i th in t h is a rea , i ti s a bove t he l e ve l o f modern a g r icu ltu re ; w i th f a ir ly a bundan t r a infa l l ( 8 50 mm /yea r ) o f se t b y t he l ow mean t emp e ra t u res ( 50 C, 4 0 F ) ( ONERN 1 976 ) . Modern c ame l id h erd ing i n J un in t akes p l ace o n av e ry l im i ted s c a le a nd i ti sn o t c omparab le t o t h e l a rge h erds o bserved a round L ake J un in b y C ieza d e L eon a nd o the rc h ron ic ler s , n or t o t he i mpor tan t h e rd ing e conomy a t tes ted t ob y a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s . I n t he l a te 2 0 th c en tury ,c a t t le a nd s h eep h ave c ome t o d om ina te t he e x tens ive a reas o f g raz ing l a nd , t hough t he r e cen t a nd h i gh ly s ucces s fu l r e in troduc t ion o f t he v i cuña p rov ides s t rong s uppor t f o r t h e p roduc t iv i ty o f t h is g ra s s land h ab i ta t w i th b o th w i ld a nd d omes t ic c ame l ids .

MATER IALS USED I N ETHNOZOOLOGICAL RESEARCH I N JUN IN T he d a ta b ase f o r e thnozoo log ica l r e sea rch i n J un in c omes e xc lu s ive ly f r om r o ck she l ter s i tes a nd t he ir a s soc ia ted t a lus d epos i t s . V ery f ew o pen p rece ram ic s i tes a r e k nown f r om t he a rea , a nd n one o f t hem h ave p roduced a ny a n ima l r ema in s . T hese r ock she l ters , mos t o f w h ich a r e i n l i mes tone b edrock , h ave y i e lded a bundan t , w e l l p rese rved b one f r agmen t s i n g ood r e la t ive s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t , w i th r ad ioca rbon d a tes wh ich a low c ompa r isons a c ros s s pace . T he se r ockshe l ter s i tes a re n o t n eces sa r i ly r epresen ta t ive o f t he e n t ire s pec t rum o f p rece ram ic a c t iv i t ie s a nd s e t t lemen t t y pes . I t i s c l ea r t ha t t hese s i tes h ave s he l tered o ccupa t ion s o f v a r ious s i ze s , d ura t ion , a nd f unc t ion ; a nd t ha t s i te f unc t ions h ave c hanged t h rough t ime a t as i ng le l o ca t ion . T hose s i tes w i th t he h i ghes t d ens i t ies o fp reh is tor ic r ema ins , g rea tes t d i vers ity o ff e a ture t y pes a nd t oo l a s semb lages , a nd t he mos t s pace a va i lab le f o r s he ltered h ab i ta t ion h ave g ene ra l ly b een l a be led b ase c amps . T hese s i tes h ave a l so p rov ided t he ma jor i ty o fa n ima l b one s amp les f o r s t udy . Sma l ler , s hor ter t e rm o ccupa t ions h ave p rov ided f a una l s amp les t oo s ma l l t ob e u sed f o rt he k i nds o fd e ta i led a na ly s is t ha ta re u nder taken i nt h is p aper .

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The f i r s t p ha se o fe thnozoo log ica l r e sea rch i nt h is a rea w a s s umma r ized b y J ane Whee ler a nd h e r c o l leagues i n 1 976 (Whee ler P i res -Fer re ira , P i re s -Fer re ira , a nd K au l icke 1 976 ) i n ap aper c ompar ing f auna l r ema in s f r om f i ve s i tes i n J un in : U chcumachay , P anau lauca , P achamachay , A comachay , a nd T e la rmachay . T he e xp lo i ta t ion o f c ame l ids a nd d eer c l ea r ly d om ina ted t he i mpor tance o f s ma l ler a n ima ls , i n c lud ing b i rds , r oden t s , f oxes , a nd s kunk s . T he t r end o ver t he c our se o ft he P receram ic , h owever ,w a sf o rt he p ercen tage o fc ame l ids t oi n c rea se f r om 5 0% t o 7 0% i nt he e a r l ies t s amp les a ta bou t 7 000 B .C . t o 8 0% t o 9 0% i n l a te P receram ic t imes a t a bou t 2 000 B .C . An i n c rea s ing ly c l ose r e la t ionsh ip b e tween h umans a nd c ame l ids , e ncompa s s ing b o th s p ec ia l ized h un t ing a nd h e rd ing , w a sn o ted b yE l izabe th Wing ( 1972 ) i nh er work i n Huanaco . T he m agn itude o f t he c hange w a s much l e s s o n t he p una t han i n t he h i gh land v a l ley s . S ince t h is f i r s t a pprox ima t ion o fP rece ram ic a n ima l u se i nJ un in , t h ree o f t hese s i tes : P achamachay , T e la rmachay , a nd P anau lauca , h ave b een e x tens ive ly e xcava ted . T he l a rge f auna l s amp les f r om t hese e xcava t ion s h ave a l lowed u s t o p roceed w i th f u r ther a na ly s is o fs e lec t ion e xer ted b y h un ters a nd h erder s o n t he c ame l id p opu la t ion .

T ELAR MACHAY T e la rmachay i s as ma l l r ock she l ter i n t he P a lcomayo b a s in o n t he e a s tern e dge o f t he J un in p una , w i th a r e s tr ic ted l i v ing a r ea a nd o ve rhang c ompa red t o t he o ther s i tes i n t h is d i scus s ion . E x cava t ions w ere c a r r ied o u t u nder t he d i rec t ion o f Dan ie le L ava l lee , a nd t he f auna l r ema ins h ave b een r epor ted b yJ ane Whee ler . An ima l b one f r om t he e i gh tp ha ses o fl i v ing f l oor s a re s umma r ized i n F igure 2 ( Lava l lee a nd J u l ien 1 981 , L ava l lee , J u l ien a nd Whee ler 1 982 (84 )) . P ercen tage o f c ame l ids t o o ther i d en t if iab le b one i n c rea ses g radua l ly f r om 6 5% i n t he e a r l ies t l e ve ls t o u n t i l i t p eak s a t 9 0% . T he p ercen tages o fn ewborn c ame l ids a nd d eer s eem t o t r ack e ach o ther i nr e la t ive a bundance , i nd ica t ing t ha t s ome s ea sona l s h if t i n s i te o ccupa t ion may b e i n vo lved . Two s i gn if ican t q ua l i ta t ive f e a tures h ave b een i d en t if ied b y Whee ler ( 1984 ) a s p o in ts where h uman managemen t o f t h e c ame l id p opu la t ion h ave i n tens if ied . T he f i r s t , d ur ing t he f i f th m i l lenn ium B .C . , i s t he a ppea rance o f amorpho log ica l ly d i s t inc t i n c isor t oo th f o rm t ha t i sa s soc ia ted w i th modern a l paca s . T he s e cond i s af ea ture i n l i v ing f l oor where t he r ema ins o f an umber o f n ewborn c ame l ids w e re r e covered f r om a s ea led p i t . H igh mor ta l i ty o f n ewborn a n ima ls d ue t o i n tes t ina l i n f ec t ions i s c ha rac ter is t ic o f modern h e rd ing s y s tem s . L oca l e thnog raph ic a ccoun t s men t ion ap a t tern o f mov ing c ame l id h erds t o t he h ighes tp a s tures j u s tb efore t he b i r th s ea son i no rde r t o m in im ize t he mor ta l i ty o f c ame l id n ewborns d ue t o muddy c or ra ls a nd p a s tures ( Pa lac ios 1 981 ) . T he r ema ins f r om T e la rmachay may i nd ica te as im i la r o ccur rence o fa ge -spec if ic mor ta l i ty i n a n e a r ly h erd ing s y s tem , b u tt he s pec ia l t r ea tmen t may a l so i nd ica te ar i tua l a spec tt ot he i ru se .

PACHA MACHAY P achamachay , as ma l l r ock she l ter o n t he w es tern s i de o f L ake J un in w i th a n e x ten s ive t a lus d epos i t , wa s e xcava ted b y R am iro Ma tos a nd J ohn R ick d ur ing t he 1 970 's ( R ick 1 980 ) . F auna l d a ta h ave b een a na ly sed mos t r e cen t ly b y J ona than K en t ( Ken t 1 982 ) . V ery s ma l l s amp les a re a va i lab le f r om t he e a r l ies t p ha ses o ft he s i te 's ma in l i v ing f l oor d epos i t s , wh i le s amp les f r om l a ter p receram ic l e v e ls y i e lded more b one . T he p ercen tage o fc ame l ids d ur ing t he l a te P receram ic l e ve ls , d a ted t ot he t h i rd m i l lenn ium B .C . , i s9 4% , a nd o ther s amp les f r om t he s i te s e em c ompa rab ly h i gh . T he a ge p ro f i les f r om t h is s amp le s how ap ropor t ion o f n ewborn c ame l ids i n t he 2 0% r ange ; n o t a s h i gh a s s ome o ft he o ther s i tes .

PANAULAUCA T he c ave s i te o fP anau lauca l i es s ou th s t o fL ake J un in o n ap ermanen ts t ream t ha tf l ow s i n to t h e Man ta ro , a t a n e l eva t ion o f 4 150 m . L a rge s ca le e xcava t ions d i rec ted b y J ohn R ick w ere c onduc ted i n 1 980 t o 1 982 , a nd h ave e xpced l i v ing f l oor s d own t o l e ve l 2 1 , d a ted t o 3 185 B .C . + 75 ( Be ta 7 742 ) . T es t s ound ing s h ave b een e x tended t o s t er i le s o i l t h rough b o th l i v ing f l oor a nd t a lus d epos i t s , a nd t he e a r l ies t c u ltura l l e ve l h ave b een d a ted t o 7 700 B .C . ± 140 (WSU 2 845 ) .

F auna l

m a ter ia l f r om o ccupa t ion s u rfaces a nd t r a sh d epos i t s a r e c urren t ly i n a na ly s is , a nd c o l labora t ive r e sea rch o np lan t r ema in s a nd h uman b one c hem is try i sa l so i np rog re s s .

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T he ma in l i v ing f l oor a r ea o f P anau lauca i ss hown i n c ros s s e c t ion i n F igure 3 ,d i v ided i n to c h rono log ica l p ha ses , a l ong w i th t he t a lus s ound ing ( F igu re 4 ) . T he b a s ic f e a tures o ft h ev ery l a rge f auna l a s semb lage a tP anau lauca a r e v ery s im i la r t o t hose a tT e la rmachay a nd P achamachay . I n a c o lumn s amp le , c ame l id p ercen tages r anged f r om a l ow o f 7 1% i nP hase 1 t o 8 7% i nP ha se 4 , a t a bou t 3 000 B .C . (Moore 1 984 ) . T h is p ropor t ion t hen i n c rea ses o n ly s l igh t ly t oa bou t9 0% a tt he e nd o ft he s equence ( A .D . 1 000 ) . S pec if ic a ge d a ta a re a l so a va i lab le t oc ompa re w i th t he o the rs i tes .

METHODS F or t h is s t udy , Ia na ly sed as amp le o f4 53 c ame l id a nd d eer j aw s f r om f i ve l i v ing f l oor s ( l eve ls 1 , 1 6C , 1 6P , 1 8 , a nd 2 1 ) a nd t he t wo c omp le te c o lumn s amp le s ( un i t s 1a nd 3 5 ) a tP anau lauca i na n a t temp tt o w ork o u t t he a ge s t ruc ture o ft he p rey p opu la t ion a sp rec ise ly a s p oss ib le . J ane ' Whee le r v ery k ind ly made a va i lab le t o me al a rge s amp le o f d a ta o n t oo th w ea r i n amodern h e rd o fa l paca s , a low ing me t o a s ses s t he v a r ia t ion i nd en ta l d eve lopmen t a nd w ea r i n as i ng le p opu la t ion , b efore I a pp l ied t hese a ge d e term ina t ions t o a n a r chaeo log ica l s amp le ( s ee Whee le r 1 982 ) . My f i r s t s t ep w a s t o c ompa re t he r e la t ive r a tes o f t oo th e rup t ion a nd w ea r i n b o th s amp les t o s ee i ft h e p reh is tor ic c ame l ids w ere u ndergo ing f a s ter o rs l ower w ea rt han t h is managed , d omes t ic p opu la t ion ( F igure 5 ) . Io bserved t he f a s tes t r a tes o f w ea r o n t he P receram ic c ame l id s amp le ( Pha ses 1 t h rough 4 ) a nd i n termed ia te r a tes o fw ea r o n t he j aw s f r om t he F orma t ive s amp le , c ompa red t o t he s l ower r a tes o f w ear o n t he a n ima ls f r om L a R aya ( Den iz a nd P ayne 1 982 ) . T h i s may i nd ica te e i ther ad iference i n t he n u t r i t iona l s t a tus o f t he c ame l ids b etween P receram ic a nd F orma t ive t imes , o r ad ife rence i n v ege ta t ion c over i n p a s ture a rea s ( overg razed o r t h in ly c overed p a stures l e ad t o f a s t d en ta l w ea r b ecause o f t he amoun t o f s o i l i n ges ted b y g raz ing a n ima ls ) . I ti sa l so p os s ib le t ha t b o th f a c tor s , o vera l l n u t r i t ion a nd t he q ua l i ty o f t he f o rage , i n terac t i n p roduc ing t h is e fec t . I ft h e s t rong t e r r i tor ia l o rgan iza t ion o f t he w i ld c ame l ids ( F rank l in 1 978 , 1 983 ) p reven ted i nd iv idua l a ccess t o f r esh p a sture a tt he h e igh t o f t he d ry s ea son ,w i ld P receram ic c ame l ids m igh th ave u nde rgone f a s te r t oo thwea rt han F orma t ive h erds , wh ich m igh th ave b een moved o n ad a i ly b a s is , l i ke mode rn h erds . T he a ge c l a s ses u sed h ere a r e c omprom ises b e tween t he s equences o ft oo th e rup t ion a nd w ea r o n Whee ler 's modern s amp le , a nd t he t im ing o f e rup t ion i n t h is f a s ter w ea r ing a r chaeo log ica l s amp le . I n t he y ounges t a ge c l a s ses , e rup t ion r a tes a r e u sed t o c or re la te a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l t h modern s amp les . T he a ge c a tegor ies a r e o f u nequa l l e ng th i n d u ra t ion , b u t r e p resen t w ea r s t a tes t ha tc an b e c l ea r ly s epa ra ted f r om o ne a no ther i na r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l . Wea rs t a tes f or t h e o ldes t a n ima ls h ave b een a rb i t ra r i ly c l as s if ied f r om a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l o n ly , s i nce n o a n ima ls w i th s uch a dvanced w ea r o ccur red i n t he modern s amp le ( F igu re 6 ) . I ti si mposs ib le t o s pecu la te h ow o ld t hese a n ima ls m igh t b e , o r h ow much t ime i sc on ta ined i n as i ng le o ne o f t h e o l d a n ima l c a tegor ies .

RESULTS H is tog rams b y p ercen tage o fe ach a ge c l a s ses a re s hown i nF igu re 6 ,w i th t he y ounges t a n ima ls t ot he l e f t a nd t he o ldes t o nes t o t he r i gh t . E ach h or izon ta l d i ag ram r epresen ts o ne p ha se ,w i th t he mos t r e cen t a tt he t op . T he w id th o fe ach b lock i nt he g rey b a r i se qu iva len t t o t he d u ra t ion o fe ach a ge c l a s s . T he d i f f erences b e tween p ha ses i s g rea tes t i n t he y ounger a ge c l a s se s , wh i le t h e r epresen ta t ion o f o lder a n ima ls r ema ins much t he s ame , p erhaps i nd ica t ing t h e c on t inued i mpor tance o f h un t ing t h roughou t t he F orma t ive . F e ta l c ame l ids a r e r epresen ted o n ly i n t h e P receram ic . I n t he c l a s ses o f v ery y oung a n ima ls , ap a t te rn o f i n c rea s ing r epresen ta t ion o f t h e y c nges t a ge c l a sses ( an ima ls i n t he f i rs t mon th o f l i f e ) c an b e s een , mos t n o tab ly i n P hases 6 t h rough 8 . T hese a n ima ls , a ccord ing t o modern s t ud ies , w ou ld h ave d i ed d ur ing t h e w e t s ea son , p erhaps i n J anLa ry t h rough Ma rch . An ima ls i n t h is a ge c l a s s o ccur i n a l l p ha se s , s o t he i r d i spropor t iona te r epresen ta t ion i n t he l a ter , F orma t ive a nd E a r ly I n te rmed ia te P e r iod M idd le Hor izon s amp les i mp l ies e i ther ad if eren t s ea sona l f o cu s f o r t he o ccupa t ion a tt h is s i t e , ac hang ing s t ra tegy f o r t he p rocu remen t o f a n ima ls o f v a r ious a ge c l a s ses , o r ah i gh mor ta l i ty o f t hese -

v u lne rab le i n fan t a n ima ls f o r s ome o ther r ea son .

1c

An ima ls i nt he t h ree t on i ne mon th a ge c l a s s may b e ag ood i nd ica tor o fo ccupa t ion a nd a n ima l p rocuremen t d u r ing t he d ry s e a son , f r om J une t o O c tober . T hese a n ima ls a re r epresen ted i n r e la t ive ly s ma l l n umbers , f r om p ha se 3 t h rough p ha se 7 ,f r om t he m idd le P rece ram ic t h rough t he F orma t ive . P ha ses 5 a nd 6 c on ta in t he mos t e qu i tab le a nd c omp le te r epresen ta t ion o f a ge c l a sses , a nd m ay b e t he b es tc and ida tes f o r as em i -seden ta ry , o rp e rmanen to ccupa t ion i nt h is s equence . T hese d a ta , wh ich l ump a l f our f o rms o f c ame l ids t oge ther i n to a s i ng le g roup , a l so b lu r t he i mpor tan t d if erence b e tween p rocuremen ts t ra teg ies o fw i ld v er su s d omes t ica ted a n ima ls . Age c l a s s h i s tog rams o f d eer ( F igu re 7 ) f r om P anau lauca m igh t a low s epa ra t ion o f t he e f ec ts o f c hang ing p a t te rn s o f s e lec t ion a nd s ea sona l i ty i n h un t ing a w i ld a n ima l , f r om t he e f ec t o f managemen t o f h erd s s e en i n t he c ame l id a ge p rof i les . Age a s s ignmen t s f o r d eer i nt he P anau lauca s amp le a re n o t made a sc onf iden t ly a s t hose f r om c ame l ids s i nce t hey a r e d er ived f r om aNor th Amer ican s amp le o f wh i te ta i led d eer ( Sev r inghau s 1 949 ) , ad i f f eren t s pec ies f r om t he H ippocame lus t ha t h a s b een i d en t i f ied a tP anau lauca . I n terpre ta t ion o fp ha ses 7 a nd 8a re h ampered b yv ery s ma l l s amp le s i zes . A r e la t ive ly s t ab le p a t tern c an b e s een i n t he p ha ses 1t h rough 6 ,w i th a p r ima ry e xp lo i ta t ion o f ma tu re a n ima ls . T h is p a t tern c hanges i nt he l a s t t wo p ha ses t o ah igh r epresen ta t ion o fv ery y oung f awn s . T hese p a t terns a re c ompa red i n as umma ry d iag ram o f c umu la t ive f r equency c urves t o t he c ame l id d a ta i n t h ree g roups o fp ha ses . I n t h is d iag ram ( F igure 8 ) , t he l a s t t wo p ha ses o fd ee r a ge c l a s ses h ave b een om i t ted b ecause o ft he v ery s ma l l s amp le s i zes . On ac rude s c a le , f o r b o th d eer a nd c ame l ids , t he l a te F orma t ive a nd E ar ly l i n termed ia te P er iod M idd le Hor izon d epos i ts s how -

c hange s t o p a t terns o f s im i la r h igh p ropor t ions o f v ery y oung a n ima ls . C ame l id e xp lo i ta t ion , p robab ly s o me c omb ina t ion o f h erd ing a nd h un t ing , h ad c omp le te ly o verwhe lmed d eer h un t ing i n e conom ic i mpor tance b y t hese p er iods , a nd t he t im ing o f d eer h un t ing s eems t o h ave b een c omp re s sed i n to t he s ea son where c ame l id h erd ing a c t iv i t ies t ook p l ace i nt he p una z ones .

CONCLUSIONS T he d ense a n ima l b one r ema ins a t t hese s i tes a low u s t o i n f er t ha t p reh is tor ic d i e t s w ere d om ina ted b y mea t . T he l e an m ea to fc ame l ids a nd d ee rw a sc omp lemen ted b y as ma l ler n umber o f r oden t sa nd b i rds whose h ighe rf a t c on ten tw ou ld h ave b een ap a la tab le a nd n u t r i t iona l ly i mpor tan t s upp lemen t (Moore 1 982 ) . T he p lan t f ood c omponen t s o f t he p reh is tor ic a ndean d i e t r e covered f r om d epos i ts a tP anau lauca a nd a na lyzed b y D eborah P ea r sa l l ( 1984 ) , i n c lud ing t uber s , s eeds , a nd f r u i t s , r ef lec t aw ide r ang ing a nd k now ledgeab le u se o f p lan t r e sources i n av a r ie ty o f p una m icroenv i ronmen t s . T he s e lec t ion o f t he l o ca l c ame l id p opu la t ions e xer ted b y p reh is tor ic h un ter s a nd h erders u ndoub ted ly i nvo lved b o th b ehav iora l a nd morpho log ica l c ha rac ter i s t ics o f t hese a n ima ls . T h is s e lec t ion , c a rr ied o n d ur ing t he f i f th t h rough t h i rd m i l lenn ia B .C . , may h ave c hanged t he p a t tern o f s easona l o ccupa t ion a nd mob i l i ty b etween p una s i tes , a nd b etween p una s i tes a nd s i tes a t l ower a l t i tude s . A t t he s ame t ime , d eer h un t ing w a s r educed i n i mpor tance , p erhaps b ecause o f i t s d ecrea s ing c ompa rab le e f ic iency , o r b ecause o f ac onf l ic t b e tween t he t im ing o f h un t ing a nd h e rd ing .

L ITERATURE C ITED Den iz ,E . a nd S .P ayne 1 982 E rup t ion a nd w ea ri nt he mand ibu la r d en t i t ion a s ag u ide t o a g ing T urk ish a ngora ' o a ts . BAR ( B r i t i sh S er ies ) 1 09 :155 -205 . F rank l in ,W . 1 978 S oc ioeco logy o ft h ev i cuna . Un iver s i ty M ic ro f i lms , Ann A rbor M ich igan , 1 69 p p . 1 983 Con t ra s t ing s oc ioeco log ies o fS ou th Amer ica 's w i ld c ame l ids : t he v i cuna a nd g uanaco . P p .5 73 -629 i n Advances i nt he S tudy o f Mamma l ian B ehav ior ( J . F .E isenberg a nd D . G . K le iman ,e ds . ) . Amer ican S oc ie ty o f Mammo log is ts ,S pec ia lP ub l ica t ion No . 7 .

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K en t ,J .D . 1 982 T he d omes t ica t ion a nd e xp lo i ta t ion o ft he S ou th Amer ican c a me l ids : m e thods o f a na ly s i s a nd t he i r a pp l ica t ion t oc i rcum lacu s t r ine a r chaeo log ica l s i t e si nB o l iv ia a nd P eru . Un iver s i ty M ic rof i lms , Ann A rbo r M ich igan , 3 48 p p . L ava l lee , D . a nd M .J u l ien 1 981 Un a spec td e L ap reh is to i re a nd ine : l ' exp lo i ta t ion d es c ame l ides e td e sc e rv ides a u f o rma t i fd ans l ' abr id eT e la rmachay ( Jun in ,P e rou ) .J ourna l d e l aS oc ie te d es Amer ican i s ts 6 7 :69 -96 . L ave l lee ,D . , M .J u l ien , a nd J .C . Whee ler 1 982 (84 ) T e la rmachay : n i ve ls p receram icos d e o ccupac ion . R ev i s ta d e l Mu seo Nac iona l 5 6 :55 -133 . Moore ,K .M . 1 984 An ima lp rocuremen t a nd u se i np reh is tor ic h i gh land P eru .P aper p re sen ted a tt he 4 9 th Annua l Mee t ing o ft he S oc ie ty f o r Amer ican A rchaeo logy ,P o r t land O regon . ONERN 1 976 T nven ta r io ye va luac ion d e l o sr ecur sos n a tu ra les d e l a SA IS " Tupac Amaru" . L ima : Of i c ina Nac iona l d eE va luac ion d e R ecu r sos Na tura le s . P a lac ios R ios ,F . 1 981 T echno log ia d e lp a s to reo .P p . 2 17 -232 i nT echno log ia i ne i' Mundo And ino ( H . L ech tman a nd A .S o ld i ,e ds . ) . Mex ico : I NAH S er ie An t ropo log ia 3 6 . P ea rsa l l , D . 1 984 P reh is to r ic a dap ta t ion t o t he J un in p una ,P e ru ; t he r o le o fp lan tr e sou rces . P ape r p resen ted a tt he 4 9 th Annua l Mee t ing o ft he S oc ie ty f o r Amer ican A rchaeo logy , P or t land O regon . R ick ,J .W . 1 980 P reh is tor ic Hun te r s o ft he H igh Andes .N ew York : A cadem ic P res s ,N ew York ,3 60 p p . S ev r inghau s , C .W . 1 949 T oo th d eve lopmen t a nd w ea ra sc r i ter ia o fa ge i n wh i te t a i led d ee r .J ou rna l o f Wi ld l if e Managemen t 1 3 :195 -216 . Whee ler P i res -Ferre ira ,J .C . 1 975 L af auna d e C uch imachay ,A comachay A ,A comachay B ,T e la rmachay yU tco 1 . R ev is ta d e l Museo Nac iona l4 1 :120 -127 . Whee ler ,J .C . 1 982 Age ing l ama a nd a l paca b yt he ir t e e th . L lama Wor ld 1 (2 ) :12 -17 . Whee ler P i res -Fer re ira J .C . ,P i re s -Ferre ira E . , a nd K au l icke P . 1 976 P receram ic a n ima lu t i l iza t ion i nt he c en t ra lP eruv ian Andes . S c ience 1 94 :483 -490 . Wing , E .S . 1 972 U t i l iza t ion o fa n ima l r e sources i nt he P eruv ian Andes .P p .3 27 -351 i n Andes 4 : E xcava t ion a tK o tosh ,P e ru ( S . I zum i a nd K .T erada e ds . ) . Un ive r s i ty o fT okyo P res s ,T okyo .

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1 64

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CHAPTER 1 U SE OF ANI MALS BY THE I NCA AS S EEN AT HUANUCO PAMPA E l izabeth S . Wing , F lor ida S ta te Museum , Un iver s i ty o fF lor ida , Ga inesv i l le , FL 3 2611

ABSTRACT T he r ema ins o f n a t ive h e rd a n ima ls , t he C ame l idae , a r e o verwhe lm ing ly p redom inan t a t t he I n can u rban s i te o f Huanuco P ampa . Ana ly s is o ft he a ge d i s t r ibu t ion o ft he a n ima l p opu la t ion a nd t h es i ze r anges o ft hese a n ima ls p rov ides i n s igh ti n to t he h erd managemen tp rac t ices o ft he I nca .

I NTRODUCT ION The a n ima l r ema ins e xcava ted f r om t he I ncan u rban c en ter o f Huanuco P ampa a r e , a s e xpec ted , o verwhe lm ing ly t he r ema ins o f t he d omes t ic h erd a n ima ls , l ama a nd a l paca . Documen t s d es c r ibe t he g rea t c a re w i th wh ich t he I nca managed t he i r h erd a n ima ls . An ima ls w ere s eg rega ted a c cord ing t o s evera l c r i ter ia i n c lud ing c oa t c o lor wh ich p robab ly r e su l ted i n p urer s t ra ins o f l ama a nd a l paca b reeds t han w e re k nown b efore o r s i nce . E v idences o fs pec ia l ized a n ima l u se w ou ld a l so b ee xpec ted i nt he r ema in sf r om a nu rban c en ter w i th s pec ia l ized a c t iv i t ies a nd f unc t ions . T hu s , t h i s s amp le o fr ema ins p rom ises t op rov ide n ew u nder s tand ing o fh erd ing i nt he Andes b yt he I nca . Huanuco P ampa i sl o ca ted a tn ear ly 4 000 i ne l eva t ion i nt he n or th c en t ra l Andes . T he c u ltura l a s soc ia t ions o f t he f auna s amp le i n c lude s pec ia l ized s t a te a c t iv i t ies a se v idenced b y t he a r ch i tec tura l f e a tures a nd a r t ifac tua l r ema in s (Mor r is , p er s . c omm . ) . V ery l a rge n on res iden t ia l b u i ld ing s a r e l o ca ted i n z one I B ( F igure 1 ) . E v idence f o r b rew ing a nd l a rge s c a le f ood p repa ra t ion e x is t i nt h is a r ea . Hea r th s a nd c ook ing a rea s w ere f ound i n z one I I C . T he w a l led c ompound i nz one V B i s t hough t t o h ave b een o ccup ied b y women who w ere e ngaged i ns p inn ing a nd w eav ing a c t iv i t ies a nd p os s ib ly a l so c h icha p repa ra t ion . No e v idence f o r r ea r ing h erd a n ima ls s uch a sc or ra ls w a sf ound a t t h e s i te . Therefore , o n ly as egmen to ft he a n ima l h usbandry p rac t ices b yt he I nca c an b e e xpec ted t o b er evea led b yt he r ema ins f r om Huanuco P ampa .

MATERIALS AND METHODS T he f auna s amp le u pon wh ich t h is p aper i sb a sed w a s e x cava ted b y C ra ig Morr is , Amer ican Mu seum o f N a tura l H i s tory . T he f auna r ema ins w ere i d en t if ied b y C a rman Rosa C a rdosa , D en ise P ozz i -Esco t , E l izabe th J .R e i tz a nd E l izabe th S . W ing i n Huanuco u s ing c ompa ra t ive s pec imens b o r rowed f r om av a r ie ty o fs ources . S tanda rd z ooa rchaeo log ica l me thods w ere u sed : e ach s pec imen w a s i d en t if ied t o t he l owes t p os s ib le t a xon ; t he e l emen t a nd i t s c ond i t ion ( whe ther b urned , m od if ied , o r d amaged i na ny w ay ) w a s r ecorded ; mea suremen t s w ere t aken f o l low ing t he g u ide l ines o fv on d en D r iesch ( 1976 ) a nd m ea suremen t su sed p rev ious ly o nc ame l id r ema ins (W ing 1 972 ) ; a nd t h ec oun ts a nd w e igh t s o fa l s pec imens w i th in o ne t a xon a nd o ne p roven ience w ere r ecorded . T he r ema ins a re i ns t orage i n Huanuco . T he f auna s amp le r epor ted h ere w a s e xcava ted f r om z ones I , l i i ,a nd V o ft he s i te ( F igu re 1map o ft he s i te ) .

FAUNA CO MPOSIT ION T he f auna s amp le u nder c ons idera t ion f r om z ones I , I I , a nd V i n c ludes 8 836 i d en t if ied t oo th a nd b one f r agmen ts f r om a t o ta l o f 3 3 ,513 b one f r agmen t s . T he i d en t i f iab le c omponen t i s2 6 .4 p ercen t o f t he t o ta l s amp le o fb one f r agmen t s f r om t he se t h ree z ones . T he p or t ion o f t he s amp le f r om e ach o f t he z ones w h ich i si d en t if iab le , 2 7 .3 , 2 6 .3 , a nd 2 5 .6 p ercen t r e spec t ive ly , d if er s l i t t le f r om o ne z one t o a no the r . T h is s ugges t s t ha tt he b one w a ss ub jec ted t o s im i la r amoun t s o fp re - a nd p os t - d epos i t iona l d es t ruc t ion a s i ti s t he g rea t e x ten t o f f r agmen ta t ion wh ich r ender s b ones u n iden t if iab le . C ame l id r ema ins p redom ina te c ons t i tu t ing 8 4 p ercen t o f t he b ones i n t he s amp le f r om t hese t h ree z ones . I n z ones I I a nd V c ame l ids c ons t i tu te more t han 8 8 p ercen t wh i le i n z one I t h ey c on s t i tu te 5 1 p ercen t o f t h e t o ta l i d en t if ied f auna o f t ha t z one a nd 6 7 .1 p ercen t w hen E uropean

1 67

d omes t ic a n ima l r ema ins a re e xc luded ( Tab les 1 ,2 , a nd 3 ) . T he r ema in s o f Eu ropean d ome s t ic a n ima ls a re s ca rce , l e s s t han 3p ercen t i nz ones I I a nd V , b u t a r e i mpor tan t , 2 4 p e rcen t , i n z one I . F or t he p urpose o f t h is a na ly s is t he E uropean d omes t ica tes w i l l b e e l im ina ted f r om c ons idera t ion a l though t he I nca a nd E uropean o ccupa t ion o ft he s i te may h ave b r ie f ly o ver lapped . Deer i st he p r ima ry w i ld a n ima l r epresen ted a t Huanuco P ampa . T he ir r ema in sc ons t itu te l e s s t han 7 p ercen t o f t he t o ta l n a t ive s pec ies i d en t i f ied f r om e ach z one . O f t hose w h i ch c ou ld b e i d en t if ied t o s pec ies t he ma jor i ty o r 1 4 a re t he t a ruca ( H ippocame lus a n t i sens i s ) a nd o n ly o ne i st h e wh i te ta i led d eer ( Odoco i l eus v i rg in ianus ) . Al a rge p ercen tage ( 19 p ercen t i nz one I a nd 2 0 p e rcen t i nz one I I ) o ft he d eer r ema ins a re a n t ler f r agmen t s . T h is i ss ubs tan t ia l ly more t han t h e 1 . 4p e rcen t a n t ler f r agmen t si nz one V wh ich i s more c ompa rab le t o t he r e la t ive a bundance o f1 . 2p ercen ta n t le r f r agmen ts f ound b y F lannery ( ms ) a tJ aywamachay . N ine o f t he 4 7 a n t ler f r agmen t s f r om z one I a nd I I i n c lude t he b a se t y p ica l o f as hed a n t ler . T herefo re , a l o ft he r ema ins o fd eer r e corded d o n o t r epresen t a n ima ls w h ich w ere c augh t f o r c onsump t ion . T en o ft he a n t lers f r om z one I Ta nd I I w ere worked o r b urned . T he p resence o f t hese mod if ied a n t ler s a s w e l l a s t he r e la t ive ly g rea te r a bundance o f a n t ler f r agmen t s i n t hese z ones s ugges t s t ha t t hey may h ave b een amo re i mpor tan t s ou rce o fr aw ma te r ia l f o rt oo l manu fac ture i nt h is p or t ion o ft he s i te . Gu inea p ig s ( Cav ia p o r ce l lus ) r ema ins a re s ca rce i n t h is s i te a si n a l l o ther s i te s , l o ca ted i nt h e P una , s t ud ied t hus f a r (W ing 1 986 ) . T he ir r ema ins c ons t itu te l e s st han 2p ercen t o ft h en a t ive f auna . T he l a rge s i ze i st he ma in c r i ter ion b y wh ich t he s ke le ta l r ema in s o f .d omes t ic g u inea p igs may b e d i s t ingu ished f r om t he ir w i ld a nces tor . T he s i zes o f t he r epresen ted s pec imens a re c ompa rab le t o t ha t o f modern d omes t ic f o rm s . Dog ( Can i sf am i l iar i s ) r ema ins a re n o t a bundan ta nd t he n a ture o ft he r e ma in sd ifer f r om t h e r ema ins o ft he o ther a n ima ls i nt h is f auna b y b e ing s ku l ls o r a s soc ia ted s ke le tons o fb ur ied a n ima ls . T hey a re r epresen ted ma in ly b y f i ve p a r t ia l s ku l ls a nd t wo n ea r ly e n t ire b ur ia ls ( Tab le 4 ) . F ou r o f t he d og s ( I II A 3 /21 , I I B1 / 1 , I I B1 / 6 , I I B3 / 17 ) w h ich h ave mea su rab le r e ma in s a r e s im i la r i n s i ze t o t he s ma l l d og s d esc r ibed b yB ro thwe l l ( 1979 ) . T he d og s ke le ton f r om z one 1 ( 1 1 C7 a /2 ) i sa s ma l l d og w i th a s hor tj aw a nd b owed l e gs a nd may b e ar epre sen ta t ive o ft he P eruv ian p ug -nosed d og . Two l a rge d og s a re r ep resen ted b y as ku l l ( I I B4 a /1 ) a nd a t i b ia ( V C 1 1 /5 ) . T he s ku l l i s c ompa rab le t o t he I nca d og d esc r ibed b y A l len ( 1920 ) b u t a s i ti sf r om z one I w h ich i n c lude s a bundan tr ema ins o fE uropean d omes t ica tes t h is d og c ou ld a l terna t ive ly b e aS pan i sh b reed . I n a dd i t ion ,t wo n a t ive s pec ies a nd s i xE uropean d omes t ica tes w ere i d en t if ied f r om t hese z one s . T he n a t ive s pec ies i n c lude t he h og n osed s kunk ( Conepa tus r a ) r epresen ted b y o ne b one f r om z one I a nd a t i namou ( T inam idae ) r epresen ted b y o ne b one f r om z one I I . European d omes t ica te s i n c lude a c a t ( F e l i s c a tus ) , s heep a nd o r g oa ts ( Capr in idae ) , p i g s ( Sus s c rof a ) , c a t t le ( Bos t auru s ) , h or ses ( Equus c aba l lus ) , a nd c h ickens ( Ga l lus g a l lus ) . O f t hese t he c a t t le w ere b y f a r t he mo s t a bundan tc ons t itu t ing 5% o ft he t o ta l i d en t if ied r ema ins .

CHARAC IER IST TCS OF TUE HERD AN I MALS T he r ema ins o f h erd a n ima ls , c ame l ids , a re o verwhe lm ing ly a bundan t a t Huanuco P ampa l e ad ing o ne t o c onc lude t ha t t hey w ere c en t ra l t o t ha t p a r t o f t he e conomy c oncerned w i th a n ima l u se . T he c ame l ids i n c lude t wo w i ld s pec ies ( Lama g uan icoe a nd L ama v i cugna) a nd t wo d omes t ic s pec ies ( Lama g l ama a nd L ama p acos ) wh ich h ad o ver lapp ing b u t d i f f eren t u se s . D is t inc t ion b e tween t he f r agmen tary s ke le ta l r ema ins o ft hese s pec ies i sd if icu l t . Two me thods h ave b een u sed w i th l im i ted s ucces s . One i sb a sed o n t he d i f f erences i n t he s i ze o f t he t wo l a rge s pec ies , t h e g uanaco ( Lama g uan icoe ) a nd t he l ama ( Lama g l ama ) ; a nd t h e t wo s ma l l s pec ies , t he a l paca ( Lama p aco s ) a nd t he v i cuña ( Lama v i cugna ) (W ing 1 972 ) . T he o ther me thod i s b a sed o n t h e morpho log ica l 0 i f f erences i n t he i n c isor s . T he l ama a nd g uanaco h ave i n c isors w i th c l osed r oo t s a nd s pa tu la te c rowns . T he v i cuña h a s a n o pen r oo ted t oo th w h ich i ss qua re i nc ross s e c t ion a nd h a s e name l a l ong t he e n t ire l a b ia l s i de . T he a l paca a l so h a sa n o pen r oo ted t oo th , b u t i ti sr e c tangu la r i n c ros ss e c t ion a nd h a s e name l o n t he l a tera l , l a b ia l , a nd m ed ia l s i des d own t o t he g um l i ne (Whee le r 1 984 , s ee F igure 2 ) . T he a s sump t ion Iam mak ing i st ha t t he ma jor i ty o f t he c ame l ids a t Huanuco

1 6 .8

P ampa a r e d omes t ic a n ima ls . T h i s a s sump t ion i sb a sed o n d ocumen ta ry e v idence . One mu s t a tt he s a me t ime r e member t ha t a mong t he d ocumen t s d esc r ib ing h erd ing p rac t ices i s o ne c i ted b y B rowman ( 1974 ) wh ich i sa n a c coun t o f ar oundup d u r ing wh ich t he d eer c augh t w ere s l augh tered f or f ood ,t he v i cuf la w ere s horn a nd r e lea sed , a nd s o me ma le g uanaco w ere k ep ta nd i n corpora ted i n t he l ama h erd . T hus , s o me a dm ix ture o fw i ld c ame l ids may b e e xpec ted . T he c a me l id r ema ins f r om Huanuco P ampa a re a pprox ima te ly e qua l n umber s o f l ama s a nd a l pa ca s b a sed o n t he t wo m e thods o f d i s t ingu i sh ing b e tween t he r ema ins o f t hese a n ima ls a nd a dhe r ing t he b a s ic a s sump t ion t ha t t he ma jor i ty o f t he se a n ima ls a re d omes t ic . B a sed o n l imb mea su remen ts 2 02 ( 55 p ercen t ) f a l l i n t he s i ze r ange f o r l ama a nd 1 67 ( 45 p ercen t ) a re i nt he s i ze r ange f o ra l paca . B a sed o n t he i n c isor morpho logy 1 4 ( 44 p ercen t ) a r e l ama a nd 1 8 ( 56 p ercen t ) a re a lpaca . T he s a mp les t ha t c an b e i d en t if ied t o s pec ies a r e t oo s ma l l t o p rov ide a n u nder s tand ing o f s pec ia l ized u ses o fe i ther o ft h ese a n ima ls i np a r t icu la r d i s t r ic ts o ft he s i te . T he g enera l c onc lus ion t ha tc an b e d rawn f o r t he s i te a s awho le i st ha t l ama a nd a l paca w ere s l augh tered i na pprox ima te ly e qua l n umbers t hough t he ir s pec ia l ized u se f o rf i ber a nd t r anspor t d ifer . P ack a n ima ls wh ich c ame w i th al o ad a nd l e f t a ga in w ou ld o fc our se l e ave n o s ke le ta l r e cord . One a t temp t t oi d en t if y t h e l o ca t ion o rh ab i ta t t he a n ima ls , wh ich w ere s l augh tered , h ad c ome f r om w a s t h rough a n a na ly s is o f t he p hy to l i th s a dher ing t o t he t e e th a nd r ef lec t ing t he v ege ta t ion c onsumed ( Arm i tage 1 975 ) . P hy to l i th s s c rapped f r om t he s i des o f t he mo la rs o ff our s uch a n ima ls w ere e xam ined b yD eborah P ea r sa l l ( l e t ter Ma rch 1 3 1 980 ) . T he f our a n ima ls f r om wh ich s uf ic ien t p hy to l i th s amp les c ou ld b e e x t rac ted w ere p robab ly a l a l paca . T he a verage p hy to l i th c oun t r e su l t s a re 2 9p e rcen t F us tuco id g ra s se s a nd 4 3 p ercen t d i co ty lednous t y pes . T hese d a ta a re p resen ted h ere w i thou ta t temp t a ti n terpre ta t ion a tt h is s t age i nt he r e sea rch . T he w ork ing h ypo thes is r ema in s t ha t i fs amp le s a re t aken f r om h erd a n ima ls wh ich h ad p acked l oads f r om t he l ow lands , t hey w ou ld c a rry t he p hy to l i th r ema ins o f t he ir l ow land d i e t o n t he ir t e e th . s ubs tan t ia te t h is .

Much more w ork n eeds t o b e d one t o

T he a ge d i s tr ibu t ion o f t he c ame l ids f r om t he s i te r evea ls a mature p opu la t ion . Age d e term ina t ion w a s b a sed o n p a t terns o f t oo th e rup t ion , w ea r , a nd r ep lacemen t o f t he 1 34 d en ta ry s pec imen s i n t h is s amp le . T he b io log ica l mode l u sed i st ha t worked o u t b y Whee ler ( 1982 ) f o r a l a rge s amp le o f a l paca o fk nown a ges . V ery f ew ( 4 p ercen t ) o f t he a n ima ls i n t he Huanuco P ampa s a mp le w e re l e s s t han n ine mon th s o ld , i nf a c t ,9 2 p ercen t o ft he p opu la t ion w a sa l ive a tt wo y ea r s o f a nd 7 8 p ercen t w a sa l ive a tt h ree y ea r s o fa ge ( F ig u re 3 ). T hr ee y ea r s i sa c r i ti c a la ge si n ce i t i s a . a nd t h is a ge t ha t c ame l ids f i r s t b reed , a r e t r a ined a sp ack a n ima ls , a nd a r e f i r s t s horn . T hus , i f t he p opu la t ion w a s u sed p r ima r i ly f o r i t s p roduc ts ( woo l ) , s e rv ices ( burden b ea r ing ) , a nd b reed ing s tock i tw ou ld b e a dvan tageou s t o ma in ta in t he a n ima ls b eyond t h ree y ea r s o f a ge . I ti s aw e l l k nown p henomenon t ha t t he y oung s egmen to f mos tp opu la t ions h ave h i gh mor ta l i ty r a tes . T h i s h a s b een s hown t o b e t r ue o f t he se h erd a n ima ls wh ich a r e s uscep tab le t o b ac ter ia l i n f ec t ion s i n t he c onf ine s o fc rowded c or ra ls (Whee ler 1 984 ) . T he v i rtua l a bsence o fr ema ins o ft hese y oung a n ima ls s ugge s t s t ha t t he h erd a n ima ls w e re n o t r ea red a t Huanuco P ampa , b u t o n ly b rough t t o t he s i te a s ma tu re p roduc t ive i nd iv idua ls . T h is i ss uppor ted b yt he l a ck o fc orra l f e a tures a tt he s i te . S ome i n forma t ion may b e g a ined a bou t t he c onforma t ion o ft he se a n ima ls b y ac ompa r ison o f t he mea su remen t s o ft he s ke le ta l r ema ins . T he s c a l ing o fd imens iona l mea suremen t sw i th b ody s i ze a nd t h eu se o ft hese r e la t ion sh ip s i n a t temp t st od i s t ingu ish s ke le ta l r ema ins o ft he t wo l a rge s pec ies f rom t h e t wo s ma l l o nes h a s a l ready b een m en t ioned . C ompa r isons b etween t wo d imens iona l measu remen ts s uch a sw id th a nd l e ng th o f as ke le ta l e l emen t s hou ld a l so s c a le t o a n ima l s i ze . Two e l emen t s w h ich o f ten s urv ive w ho le a nd t he refore c an b e mea sured a l ong s eve ra l p l anes a r e t he c a lcaneum a nd t he a s t raga lus . T he p a ir o fm ea suremen ts w h ich c ou ld b e t aken mos t f r equen t ly a nd wh ich d i sc r im ina te w e l l b etween modern a l paca a nd l ama a r e t he g rea tes t h e igh t ( aa i nW ing 1 972 ) a nd t h e g r ea tes t r ead th a tt he s u s ten tacu la r p roces s ( b 'b ' i n Wing 1 972 ) o ft he c a lcaneum . T hese p a irs o f m easuremen ts c ou ld b e t aken o n 1 21 s pec imens ( Tab le 5 a nd F igure 4 ) . Mos t o f t he s pec imen s f r om t he s i te a nd a l o f t he modern s pec imens t ha t w ere m ea sured c on form t o as i ng le r eg re s s ion s i gna l .

S evera l s pec imens f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l s i te d ev ia te f r om t he e xpec ted .

e l e men t w h ich i s n a r rower t han w ou ld b e e xpec ted f o r i t s h e igh t may b e c a l led g rac i le . 11 6 9

An Two

specimens are outside of the confidence interval of the regression by being more gracile. In addition, six elements are robust, being broader than would be expected for their height. Similar examples of deviations from the regression signal are seen in measurements taken of the astragalus. These measurements are the greatest length (c'c' in Wing 1972 or GLI in von den Driesch 1976) and greatest width (aa in Wing 1972 or Bd in von den Driesch 1976) (Figure 5). As with the measurements of the calcaneum, the majority of the measurements of the astragalus from the Incan site and the modern animals fall close to the regression. Again, there are eight specimens that are outside of the confidence intervals. Six of these may be characterized as gracile, being narrower than would be expected from their length; and two are robust, being broader relative to their length than expected. The majority of the unusual specimens are associated with walled compounds. Unfortunately none of these astragali or calcanea can be associated directly with one another and therefore could not have come from the same foot. However, since these two elements articulate with one another, it is probable that a gracile astragulus would articulate with a gracile calcaneus and furthermore that they would be proportional to the body as a whole. All of the gracile astragali come from the walled compound V B 5. Five of the deviating calcanea and one robust astragalus come from the other walled compound III C 4. Five of the specimens come from outside of the walled compounds (IIB2, IIB5, IIIC9, IIIDla, VA3). The question is whether these deviating specimens are from significantly different animals or are aberrant data. I believe that even though the numbers of deviating specimens is relatively low, the data from the measurements of these two elements support each other in respect to the type and relative frequency of the deviation and in the predominant contexts in which they were found. It must be remembered that these are probably remains of domestic animals which are by nature variable. Since the majority of these deviating specimens were found in association with specialized contexts at the site, it is possible that they may have come from special animals. They may represent animals that resulted from breeding experiments. Similar deviations must be sought in other Inca sites as well as descriptions of unusually proportioned animals in the documents. CONCLUSIONS The sample of animal remains analyzed from Huanuco Pampa conforms in many respects to what one would expect to find based on what is known of the composition of other Andean fauna samples and what we know from documentary evidence. However, this sample also provided new information which will have to be substantiated by further studies of fauna remains associated with Incan sites. The aspect of this fauna! assemblage which met expectations is the dominance of the native domestic animals and particularly the herd animals. One could also have predicted that the age structure of the herd would be fully mature animals, including primarily those individuals used for transport or for their wool production. Though these finds are predictable, it is important to have this confirmation from the fauna sample. This analysis also provided information which could not have been predicted based on our present state of knowledge. The information gained from this sample allows for a more detailed understanding of animal use in the Incan urban setting. A difficult but important question in Andean zooarcheology is the problem of distinguishing between the skeletal remains of the four species of Camelids. At Huanuco Pampa the problem is presumed to be limited to the determination of the ratio of alpaca to llama. This study, using two methods to distinguish between llamas and alpacas, indicates that they wer kept in approximately equal numbers. Furthermore, no correlation could be detected between an)' of the sectors of the city from which fauna remains were studied and one or the other of these two herd animals. 170

Among the animal remains are a few bones,16 in all,which deviate significantly from the rest of the camelid remains. These are markedly either more robust or more gracile than the norm, and these do appear to come more commonly from walled compounds. In this paper, I suggest that these bones may be evidence for breeding experiments. This possibility needs further study from other fauna samples from Inca period sites and from historic documents. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am most grateful to Craig Morris for the opportunity to work on this exceedingly interesting collection of animal remains and to the National Science Foundation for the award to Craig Morris of a grant entitled Inca Urbanism: analysis of data from Huanuco Pampa which provided the financial support for this project. The research was carried out in Huanuco during the summer of 1979 with the able help of Elizabeth Reitz, Carman Rosa Cardosa, and Denise Pozzi-Escot. My thanks are due to them as well as to Irvy Quitmyer and Wendy Zornleffer for help in preparing the graphs and illustration in this paper. I wish to also express my sincere thanks to Deborah Pearsall for the work she did in examining the phytoliths scraped from the camelid teeth. LITERATURE CITED Allen,G. M. 1920 Dogs of the American aborigines. Bulletin Museum of Comparative Zoology 63:431517. Armitage,P. L. 1975 The extraction and identification of opal phytoliths from the teeth of ungulates. Journal of Archaeological Science 2(3):187-197. Brothwell,D.,A. Malaga,and R. Burleigh 1979 Studies on Amerindian dogs,2: variation in early Peruvian dogs. Journal of Archaeological Science 6(2):139-161; Browman,D. L. 1974 Pastoral nomadism in the Andes. Current Anthropology 15(2):188-196. Flannery,K. V.,C. S. Jacobson,and E. Baker · n.d. The animal bones from caves above 3000 meters in the Ayacucho Valley. Unpublished manuscript. von den Driesch,A. 1976 A guide to the measurement of animal bones from archaeological sites. Peabody Museum Bulletin No. 1,Harvard University,Cambridge Massachusetts,136 pp. Wheeler,J. C. 1982 Aging llamas and alpacas by their teeth. Llama World 1(2):12-17. Wheeler,J. C. 1984 On the origin and early development of camelid pastoralism in the Andes. Pp. 395410 in Animals and Archaeology: vol. 3 (J. Clutton-Brock and C. Grigson,eds.). BAR International Series 202. Wing,E. S. 1972 Appendix IV Utilization of animal resources in the Peruvian Andes. Pp. 327-352 in Andes 4 Excavations at Kotosh,Peru (S. Izumi and K. Tarada,eds.). University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo. Wing,E. S. 1986 The domestication of animals in the high Andes. Pp. 246-264 in High Altitude Tropical Biogeography (F. Vuilleumier and M. Monasterio,eds.). Oxford University Press,New York.

171

T ab le 1 . F auna f r om z one I .

S PEC IES REPRESENTED

Dog

NUMBER OF S PEC I MENS

PERCENT OF TOTAL FAUNA

15

Gu inea P ig

6

PERCENT OF NAT IVE S PEC IES

6 . 12

8 . 05

0 . 32

0 . 42

C ame l id

9 58

5 0 .96

6 7 .09

D ee r

1 01

5 . 37

7 . 07

M ino rS pec ie s

2 48

1 3 .19

1 7 .37

1 428

7 5 .96

1 00 .00

4 52

2 4 .04

1 808

1 00 .00

T o ta lN a t ive S pec ie s I n t roduced Dome s t ica te s

T o ta lF auna

T ab le 2 . F auna f r om z one I I .

S PEC IES REPRESENTED

Dog Gu inea P ig C ame l id D ee r M ino rS pec ie s T o ta lN a t ive S pec ie s I n t roduced Dome s t ica tes

T o ta l F auna

NU MBER OF S PEC IMENS

PERCENT OF TOTAL FAUNA

3 0

PERCENT OF NAT IVE S PEC IES

0 . 56

0 . 57

0 . 06

0 . 06

5 061

9 4 .62

9 5 .71

1 41

2 . 64

2 . 67

5 3

0 . 99

1 . 00

5 288

9 8 .86

1 00 .00

6 1

1 . 14

5 349

1 00 .00

3

1 72

T ab le 3 . F auna f r om z one V

S PEC IES REPRESENTED

NU MBER OF S PEC I MENS

PERCENT OF TOTAL FAUNA

PERCENT OF NAT IVE S PEC IES

Dog

1 5

0 . 93

0 . 96

Gu inea P ig

3 1

1 . 93

1 . 98

1 414

8 7 .99

9 0 .41

Dee r

7 3

4 . 54

4 . 67

M ino rS ec ies

3 1

1 . 93

1 . 98

1 564

9 7 .32

1 00 .00

4 3

2 . 68

1 607

1 00 .00

C ame l id

T ota l N a t ive S pec ies I n troduced Domes t ica tes

To ta lF auna

1 7 .3

T ab le 4 . Measuremen ts o fd og r ema ins .

MEASURE MENT

CONTEXT

ZONE I

B 4A J1

MAND IBLE P 1 - M3 P 1 -P4 HM1 - M3 L eng th , Ml H e igh to fd en ta ry a t M1 SKULL T o ta ll e ng th ,b a sa l P l - M2 L eng th ,P 4 M1 - M2 W id th ,o cc ip i ta l c ondy le

C 7a l2

ZONE I I

A 3 /21

B i /l

1 3 1 16

1 3 3 /12

6 9 .1 3 5 .5 3 5 .4

6 1 .1

1 8 .4

6 0 3 1 .9 3 0 .5 1 8 .9 2 1 .1

2 2 .1

5 3 .4 2 6 .7 1 8 .3

1 84

1 29 4 6 .2 1 5 .7

1 8 3 0

2 1 .3 2 4 .2

5 1 .2 1 5 .5 1 5

2 9 .4 ZONE V C 1I /5

POST -CRAN IAL L eng th o f : h umeru s r ad iu s u lna f emu r t i b ia W id th o f. f emu rh ead

1 09 .2

1 05 .5 1 00 1 23 .5 12 .9 1 08

1 27 .7

1 5 .1

1 74

1 80

T ab le 5 . Measuremen t so fc ame l id c a lcaneum a nd a s traga lu s

GREATEST HE IGHT /GREATEST BREADTH OF CALCANEU M

S PEC I MENS

NU MBER

m ode rn l ama m ode rn g uanaco m ode rn v i cuña Huanuco P ampa t o ta l r obu s ts pec imen s g r a c i le s pec imen s

MEAN mm

RANGE mm

6 3 3

1 . 55 1 . 48 1 . 57

1 . 39 -1 .64 1 . 44 -1 .54 1 . 50 -1 .62

1 21 2

1 . 47 1 . 99

1 . 04 -2 .01 1 . 96 -2 .01

6

1 . 12

1 . 04 -1 .20

GREATEST LENGTH /GREATEST WIDTH OF ASTRAGALUS

S PEC I MENS

m ode rn l ama m odern g uanaco m odern v i cuña modern a l paca Huanuco P ampa s amp le r obu s ts pec imen s g r ac i le s pec imen s

NU MBER

6 3 3 6 1 53 6 2

1 75

MEAN mm

1 . 57 1 . 67 1 . 62 1 . 52 1 . 56 2 . 03 1 . 23

RANGE mm

1 . 52 -1 .61 1 . 55 -1 .76 1 . 57 -1 .67 1 . 48 -1 .55 1 . 23 -2 .19 1 . 88 -2 .19 1 . 23

V IA

-

V IB

"I f \

-

I

-

a -

. O . .. .

_ _. ..

• ' _ ______°

'i j

VA

c

$ . .

,1 .. •

VB VC

,

-

. -

HUANUCO P A MPA

200

N

F igu re 1 Map o ft he s i te o f Huanuco P ampa ( a f te rC ra ig Mo r r i s ) .

1 76

METERS

a

b

To

C

5 cm

0

F igu re 2 C ame l id i n c i so rt y pes : a .v i cuña ;b .a l pa ca ;c .l ama a nd g uanaco .

100

75 0

0

D ) r

wo

50

c a ) C w

C ) C

25

a ) 1 0

1 2

1 4

A ge i n y ea rs F igu re 3 S u rv ivo r sh ip c u r ve f o r c ame l id s b a sed o n t oo th e rup t ion , w ea r , a nd r ep la cemen t i n 1 34 d en ta ry s pec imen s . 1 77

Ca lcaneum g rea tes t h e ight a nd g reatest b readth 5 0

.

.

.

.

••:t

•

40

•* ein

• .*

*

• .

..

l e e

.

* .

. * ø •* . • • •

* M -

• • •

•

S

*

•. •

30

*

*

Huanuco Pampa Zone V

• Huanuco Pampa Zone I I

. 20 10

30

20

40

G rea test b readth ( b 'b ')

F igu re 4 Mea su remen t s o ft he g r ea te s th e igh t ( a a ) a nd t h e g r ea te s tb read th ( b 'b ' ) o ft he c a lcaneum o ft he c ame l ids r e cove red f r om z one I Ia nd V .

1 78

Astraga lus l ength and b readth

5 4, -

5 2

A

5 0 S

S

S

S

4 8

. S

4 6 A

. so&

A

4 4 •

.

4 2

555

‚ . .

A

•• S

.

A

40

S

A

3 8

. .

3 6

G r e a t e s t l e n g t h c ' c ' ) ( G L I ) ( I n m . )

•

A At

A

S

.

•

:

A

• 5 #I S

3 4

A

•. A

*

3 2

A

3 0

Huanuco P ampa Zone V

• Huanuco P ampa Zone I l

S

* Whee ler s d ata : a lpaca more t han 3 y ears o ld • Whee ler s d ata : a lpaca l ess t han 3 y ears o ld

2 8

2 6

2 4

1 6

1 8

2 0

2 2

2 4

2 6

2 8

3 0

3 2

3 4

3 6

Greatest b readth aa (Bd) ( In m m .)

F igu re 5 Mea su remen t s o ft h e g rea tes t l e ng th ( c 'c ' o r GL I ) a nd t he g r ea te s t b read th ( a ao rB d ) o f t h e a s t raga lu s o f t he c ame l ids r e cove red f r om z one I I a nd V c ompa red w i th d a ta f r om mode rn a l paca

1 79