The Christian Conscience

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THE CHRISTIAN CONSCIENCE

Philippe DELHAYE

THE CHRISTIAN CONSCIENCE Translated from the French by Charles Underhill QUINN

DESCLEE

COMPANY

First published in French under the title La conscience morale du chretien (Desclde & Co., Tournai, Belgium). Nihil obstat : Daniel V. Flynn, J.C.D., Censor librorum. Imprimatur : + Terence J. Cooke, D.D., Archbishop of New York.

New York, April 15, 1968. The nihil obstat and imprimatur are offical declarations that a book or pamphlet is free of doctrinal or moral error. No implication is contained therein that those who have granted the nihil obstat and imprimatur agree with the contents, opinions or statements expressed. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number :

68-31195.

All rights reserved. Printed and bound in Belgium by Desclee & Co., S. A., Tournai.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

II

BIBLIOGRAPHY

.,.

INTRODUCTION

.

§

I. Spirit of this Study I. II.

.

.

Precisions on the Meaning of the Words Used I. II.

19 19

.

21 22

The Use of the Terms Syneidesis and Conscientia in Classical and Sacred Languages . The Terms Used in Theological Manuals . 1. Habitual and actual conscience . 2. Divisions of the habitual conscience . 3. Divisions of the actual conscience .

23 25 25 27 27

.

28

.

35

.

37

.

37

I.

The Conscience - Judge and Norm . 1. The conscience and personal acts . 2. The conscience and the behavior of others .

37 38 39

II.

The Conscience Identified with the Person. 1. The good conscience . 2. The bad conscience .. 3. The weak conscience .

40 40 41 41

First part.

POSITIVE THEOLOGY

Chapter I.

§ II.

19

.

III. The Senses Retained by Modem Philosophers

§ I.

13

The Conscience, an Encounter between God and Man Conscience and Law .

III. Method § II.

.,.

The Teaching of St. Paul

The Habitual Conscience

The Actual Conscience

.

42

I.

The Obligation of Obeying the Judgment of Conscience

...

42

II.

The Criteria of the Conscience and Cases of Conscience

...

44

C ontents

6 1. 2. 3. 4.

Judgments of liceity and prudence ... Criterion of fraternal charity . Criterion of charity toward God Criterion of charity toward one’s self

§ III. The Originality of St. Paul

§ II.

46

47

.

48

I.

The Exceptional Importance of the Theme of Conscience ...

48

II.

St. Paul and the Philosophers

.

49

Biblical Themes Analogous to Conscience : Heart, Wisdom and Prudence .

51

.

51

I.

The Heart as a Witness to the Moral Value of Acts .

52

II.

The Place Where the Divine Law Is Interiorized

Chapter II.

§ I.

44 45

The Heart

.

53

III. The Heart Is the Source of Moral Life.

53

IV. The Heart Is Involved in the Understanding of Moral Value

54

V.

57

The Conversion of the Heart.

Wisdom and Prudence I.

.

Wisdom and Prudence in the Old Testament

58

.

59 59

.

60

.

62

1. The role of wisdom-prudence " Profane ’’ wisdom-prudence “ Virtuous " prudence

2. Nature of wisdom-prudence Intellectual quality Moral attitude Gift of God

3. How wisdom is acquired

Docility and experience Moral life Prayer and the search after God

II.

Prudence in the New Testament 1. The Gospels

.

63

.

63

Jesus recommends " prudence ’’ True prudence

2. St. Paul.

64

Discerning what is best Moral life and prudence

3. Other New Testament writings.

65

The Epistle of St. James Other texts

III. Prudence and the Philosophers . 1. Plato . 2. Aristotle . 3. Cicero and Macrobius.

66 66 66 67

Contents

7

Patristic Signposts

Chapter III. § I.

.

The Different Uses of the Terms “ Conscience ” and “ Heart ”

§ II.

69

...

69

I.

The Different Terms Used to Denote the “ Moral Faculty ”

69

II.

The Richness of the Terms ouvsISyjctk; and Conscientia

...

70

The Theme of Remorse and Interior Peace. The Conscience as a Witness and a Judge .

72

I.

Remorse

72

II.

Joy of a Good Conscience

. .

III. The Unimpeachable Character of These Judgments

73

.

74

§ III. The Objective Discernment of Good and Evil: the Conscience as Guide and Law .

76

I.

Inborn Power

II.

The Knowledge of the Good

III.

Resistance to Good or Evil

IV.

The Conscience, Center and Origin of the Natural Law

79

. .

82

.

V.

Optimism of the Fathers

VI.

Presence of God in the Soul

.

VII.

The Dual Nature of the Conscience

. . .

VIII. The Various Attributes of the Conscience

76

77 78

85 88

.

90

§ IV. Self Involvement. The Conscience as a Responsible Subject and a Spiritual Center .

92

.

93

II. The Conscience as a Responsible Subject . III. The Secret Character of the Conscience, Except Before God IV. The Conscience as the Moral Balance Sheet of the Soul ...

I.

The Pure or Defiled Conscience

94 95 97

V.

.

97

.

101

The Ill Conscience and the Healed Conscience

Second part.

Chapter I.

DOCTRINE

The Habitual Conscience

.

103

The Problems.

103

I

introduction.

§ I.

Nature of the Habitual Conscience.

The Doctrinal Problem

...

I.

The Word Synderesis

II.

The Matter Itself : the Nature of the Habitual Conscience

.

1. The background . 2. Thomistic doctrine . 1) The nature of synderesis 2) What connections must be made between the habitual conscience, the actual conscience and the natural law?

106 107 no m 114

Contents

8 3) Can synderesis be wrong or fail? 4) Can synderesis cease to act in a soul?

§ II.

Qualities and Defects of the Habitual Conscience. Pastoral and Casuist Problem . I.

Defective Consciences . 1. The broad or pharisaical conscience . 1) 2) 3) 4)

II.

120 120

Tendencies Factors or predispositions The dangers Remedies

2. The scrupulous conscience. 1) 2) 3) 4)

I][8

124

Description Factors and predispositions Principles of action Remedies

The Right Conscience . 1. Principles .

140 141

1) The conscience in the Church 2) Conscience and law 3) Conscience and the case of conscience

2. Some directives

.

147

1) Endeavor for clarity 2) Sincerity, a spirit of penance, docility

Chapter II. §1.

The Certain Actual Conscience.

Necessity and Force of the Conscience’s Judgment

.

153

.

153

I.

General Principles

II.

The Teaching of St. Thomas, Commenting on St. Paul

III. Theological Reasoning §11.

153

...

157

.

160

Description of the Judgment of Conscience

..

...

164

I.

Analysis of the Actual Conscience

.

164

II.

Does Prudence Intervene in Every Judgment of Conscience?

171

§III.'TAe Judgment of Liceity

.

175

I.

The Correct Judgment

.

175

II.

The Case of the Invincibly Erroneous Conscience . 1. Its force for the individual . 2. The “ rights ” of the invincibly erroneous conscience

178 178 182

§ IV. An Additional Note on Religious Liberty

.

188

I.

The Nature of Religious Liberty According to Vatican II 1. What it is . 2. What it is not .

188 188 189

II.

Religious Liberty and the Gospel . 1. In the first place, the freedom of the act of faith may be mentioned • •• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• •••

189 19®

Contents

III.

2. The example of Jesus Christ . 3. The example of the apostles . 4. The Church's attitude .

190 190 191

The Bases of Religious Liberty . 1. The juridical basis . 2. The moral basis .

191 191 193

IV.

The Social Dimensions of Religious Liberty

.

194

V.

Limitations to Religious Liberty in Civil Law . 1. First criterion : other men’s rights . 2. The second limitation attached to the right to religious liberty has reference to the " common good ” and “ the public order ” .

195 196

VI.

§ V.

9

196

The State and Religious Liberty.

197

VII. The Church and Religious Liberty . 1. A right claimed . 2. An acknowledged and favored right .

198 198 199

The Prudential Judgment

.

200

I.

Its Different Forms

.

200

Case of a virtuous act . Case of a sinful act . “ Prudentia camis " . Case of the erroneous conscience .

201 201 202 202

Psychological Sources of the Prudential Judgment . 1. Informing one’s self . 2. Judging things in their true value . 3. Decision and action .

203 203 204 207

1. 2. 3. 4. II.

III. Dangers which Beset the Prudential Judgment .. 1. Excess of prudence . 2. Absence of prudence .

208 208 210

1) Think, do not be precipitous 2) Be zealous and steadfast

Chapter III.

The Doubtful Conscience

.

213

t

.

213

1. The problem . 2. Precisions of vocabulary .

213 214

introduction.

§ I.

§ II.

The Meaning of the Question

Historical Background

.

216

I.

The Middle Ages

.

216

II.

The " Moral Systems ”

.

The Judgment of Liceity in Case of Doubt I.

From Practical Doubt to Moral Action

. ...

...

.

221 228 228

Contents

10 1. Pratical doubt

.

228

The argument from scripture The theological argument

2. The passage from “ practical doubt ” to “ moral certitude ” . II. The “ Principles of Action ” .. ... x. When the goal must absolutely be achieved, it is necessary and sufficient to follow the safest and most probable path . 2. In case of conflict between two duties, we must choose the lesser evil . 3. If there is a doubt of fact one will limit oneself to the presumptions that follow from the general qualities and attitudes of the person . 4. In the area of Church laws, there is no obligation in the case of a doubt of law .. 5. An objective doubtful obligation does not involve a subjective obligation .

229 231

231 233

236 237 239

1) Is this probabilism again? 2) The cogency of the position 3) Objection

§ III. The Judgment of Prudential Expediency

.

243

I.

The Necessity to Go Beyond the Judgment of Liceity

243

II.

Elements of the Judgment of Prudential Expediency x. The criterion of the intention of charity . 2. The concrete realization of the charitable intention

245 245 248

3. The duty of lucidity

.

249

4. Charity towards oneself and towards others. The circumstances of the act .

250

III. The Pastoral and Prudential Use of the Different Solutions of the Doubts of Conscience . 1. Personal deliberation . 2. The use of divergent probabilities . CONCLUSION

.

252 252 253 255

Index of Biblical Citations

267

Name Index

269

Subject Index

.

2 73

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

S. ALPH.

Opera moralia S. Alphonsi Mariae de Ligorio, Gaude ed., 4 Vols. (Rome, 1905-1912).

Ami Cl

L’ami du ClergS (Langres, 1878 £f.).

Catholicisme

Catholicisme, hier, aujourd’hui, demain, edited by G. Jacquemet (Paris, 1848 fif.).

CCL

Corpus Christianorum collectum a monachis O. S. B. abbatiae S. Petri in Steenbrugge, Series latina (Tumhout : Brepols, 1954 ff.).

Encyclopedia,

CIC

Codex Iuris Canonici (Rome, 1917).

DAFC

Dictionnaire Apolog&tique de la Foi Catholique, under the direction of A. d’A16s (Paris, 1911-1931).

Denz

H. Denzinger, Enchiridion symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fdei et morum, quod denuo edidit C. Rahner, 30th ed. (Freiburg im Breisgau : Herder, 1955).

Denz, 32nd ed.

H. Denzinger, Enchiridion... etc., quod funditus retractavit... A. Schonmetzer, 32nd ed. (1963).

DBS

Dictionnaire de la Bible, Supplement, under the direction of L. Pirot, A. Robert, H. Cazelles and A. Feuillet (Paris, 1928 ff.).

Diet. Spir.

Dictionnaire de spirituality ascitique et mystique, under the direction of M. Viller, A. Rayez, C. Baumgartner (Paris, 1937 ff-)Dictionnaire de tMologie catholique, under the direction

DTC

of A. Vacant, E. Mangenot and E. Amann (Paris, 19031950).

ETL

Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses (Louvain, 1924 ff.).

Et. Bibl.

Etudes Bibliques, collection edited by the Ecole Biblique de Jerusalem (Paris : Gabalda).

Kittel

Theologisches Worterbuch zum Neuen Testament, under the direction of G. Kittel and G. Friedrich (Stuttgart, 1933 ff.).

MSR

Melanges de Science Religieuse (Lille, 1944 ff.).

NRT

Nouvelle Revue TMologique (Tournai, 1869 ff.).

PG

J. P. Migne, Patrologiae cursus completus, Series graeca (Paris, 1857-1866).

PL

J. P. Migne, Patrologiae cursus completus, Series latina (Paris, 1844-1864), Supplementum, accurante A. Hamman (Paris, 1958 ff.).

RB

Revue Biblique (Paris and Jerusalem, 1892 ff.).

A bbreviations

12 RSPT

Revue des sciences philosophiques et th&ologiques 1907 ff.).

RT

Revue Thomiste (Toulouse and Paris, 1892 ff.). Recherches de thiologie ancienne et mediSvale (Mont-C6sar, Louvain, 1929 fif.) with its supplement, BTAM : Bulletin de thSologie ancienne et midiSvale.

RTAM

SChr STh.

Collection Sources Chrdtiennes (Paris, 1942 £E.). Summa Theologica of St. Thomas Aquinas.

(Paris,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

We do not intend to repeat here the bibliographical information given under each question. Nor will we cite any of the excellent general works that contain a section De Conscientia. We shall merely be content with mention¬ ing those studies which are directly concerned with the conscience itself. Alcorta J. I., La moral existencialista y la consciencia en Santo Tomas*, in Sapientia Aquinatis (Cong. Romae, 1953) (Rome, 1955) pp. 377-85. Arcy E. D’, Conscience and Its Right to Freedom* (London, 1954). Bardaste A., S. J., “ Lo scropolo : diagnosi e cura*, ” Digest Religioso, Teologia e Vita, I, no. 1 (1954) PP- 30-37. Bender M., “ Dubium juris in canone is*, ” Ephemerides Juris Canonici 2 (1953) 9-27Bevenot M., “ St. Thomas and the Erroneous Conscience*, ” Thomistica Morum Principia 2 (Rome, 1961) 107-13. Bissonier H., Introduction d la psychopathologie pastorale*, (Paris, i960).

144 pp.

Bless H., Traite de psychidtrie pastorale* (Bruges, 1951). Blic J. de, “ Probabilisme*, ” DAFC (1923), IV, pp. 302-15. Botte B., O. S. B., “ La Sagesse dans les Livres Sapientiaux*, ” RSPT 19 (1930) 83-94Bourke J. V., “ The Role of Proposed Practical Intellectual Virtue of Wisdom*, ” Proceedings of the American Catholic Philosophical Asso¬ ciation 26 (1952) 160-67, Brisbois E., “ Pour le probabilisme*, ’’ ETL 13 (1936) 74-97Cabrero de Anta M., CMF, “ Probabilismo canonico*, ” Salmanticenses 2 (i955) 80-89. Carabelisse G., La conscience concrete, choix de textes (Paris, 1955). Caron A., “ The Concept of Moral Certitude in Canonical Decisions*, ” Jurist 19 (1959) 12-28. Carpentier R., S.J., “ Conscience, ” Diet. Spir. II (i95°) 1459-575; —, “ Comment formuler le probEme de la conscience chr6tienne ? ” Problemi scelti di teologia contemporanea. Analecta Gregoriana, Vol. 78, Theol. A, no. 11 (Rome, 1954), pp. 463-68. Chollet A., “ Conscience*, ” DTC 3, cols. 1156-74. Coffey T. P., “ Moral Systems and a Defense of Compensationism*, ” Anal. Theol. Review (1959), PP- 199-210. Concetti H., O. F. M., De christianae conscientiae notione et formatione secundum Bernardinum Senensem* (Rome, 1959)-

Bibliography

14

Congar Y., O. P., “ Die Kasuistik des heiligen Paulus*, ” Veridindigung und Glaube, Festg. f. F. X. Arnold, ed. by T. Filthaut and J. A. Jungmann (Freiburg im Br., 1958) pp. 16-41. Coulson J., “ The Authority of Conscience*, ” Downside Review 57 (1959) 141-58. Coune M., " Le probleme des Idolothytes et 1’Education de la Syneidesis*,” Recherches de Science Religieuse 51 (1963) 497-534. Crowe M. B., “ The Term Synderesis and the Scholastics*, ” Irish Theol. Quarterly 23 (1956) 151-64, 228-45. Cruysberghs C., De Conscientia*, 3rd ed. (Malines, 1928). De Coninck L., S. J., “ La formation et le redressement de la conscience*,” NRT. 70 (1948) 673-89. Delesalle J., Liberte et valeur* (Louvain, 1950). De Greef E., Notre destinSe et nos instincts (Paris, 1945). Delhaye P., Le probleme de la conscience morale chez saint Bernard itudii dans ses oeuvres et dans ses sources* (Namur, 1957). —, “ La conscience morale dans la doctrine de saint Bernard*, ” Coll. Analecta Cist. 9 (1953) fasc. 3-4. —, “ Les bases bibliques du traits de la conscience*, ” Studia Montis Regii 4 (1961) 229-52. Deman T., O. P., La Prudence*, Som. Th6ol. (Paris, 1949). Demoulin J., Propos dSsobligeants sur la bonne conscience du chretien* (Paris). Diaz-Alegria I. M., " De liberate conscientiarum in civitate servanda juxta principia S. Thomae*, ” Thomistica Morum Principia 2 (Rome, 1961) 114-17. Doherty R., The Judgments of Conscience and Prudence* (River Forest, Illinois, 1961). Dons H., “ Gewissen (1957) 101-20.

und

christliches

Gnadenleben*, ”

Anima

12

Doyle W., S. J., Le scrupule et son traitement* (Toulouse, 1956). Dubarle A. M., Les sages d’Israel* (Paris, 1946). Dupont J., “ Syneidesis. Aux origines de la notion chr6tienne de cons¬ cience morale*, ” Studia Hellenistica 5 (1948) 119-53. Finance J. de, “ La sophia chez saint Paul*, ” Revue des Sciences Religieuses 25 (1935) 385-41?Frost F., La conscience morale dans Voeuvre de Bishop Kirk*. Licentiate dissertation, Faculty de Th6ologie (1958) 154 pp.; Resum6 in Melanges de Science Religieuse 15 (1958), p. 148. Gardeil A., O. P. La vraie vie chrStienne* (Paris, 1935) (pp. 101-89, on the faculty of self-control). Geiger L. B., O. P., " La tMologie du scrupule*, ” Vie spirituelle, Supple¬ ment 29 (November, 1956) 400-24. Gilson E., Spirit of Medieval Philosophy (New York, 1936). Goffi T., " El alma escrupulosa. Nociones, causas, pastoral*, ” Rev. de Espiritualidad 20 (1961), 79-102.

Bibliography

15

Goldbrunner J., “ La cura spirituale degli scrupulosi*, ” Digest Religioso (Autumn, 1956). Gratton H., “ Essai de psychologie pastorale sur le scrupule*, ” Vie spirituelle Supplement 48 (1959) 95-124. Grin E., “ Le role de la conscience morale dans la th£ologie romande (protestante) et dans l'Evangile, ” Hommage et reconnaissance. Recueil Karl Barth (Neuchatel, 1946) pp. 43-55. Guardini R., Conscience* (New York, 1932). Gusdorf A., Traite de Vexistence morale (Paris, 1949), 1st pt., chap. 3, “ Les styles de l’existence morale, ” pp. 151-97. Haag H., etc. " Sapienza*, ” Dizionario Biblico (Turin, i960). Haring B., The Law of Christ* I (Westminster, Md., 1961). Hiirth P., “ Hodiema conscientiae christianae problemata metaphysica, psychologica, theologica*, ” Problemi Scelti di Teologia contemporanea (Rome, 1954) PP- 393‘4I4J6rome J., Lo Scropolo* (Rome, 1955). Joumet P., “ M6thodes actives et developpement de la conscience morale*, ” Ecole Nouvelle (1951) pp. 129 ff., 1933. Labourdette M., “ Connaissance pratique et savoir moral*, ” Jacques Maritain. Son oeuvre philosophique (Paris, 1948) pp. 142-79. Lacroix J., Les sentiments et la vie morale (Paris, 1952). Landgraf A. M., “ Der ‘ casus perplexus ’ in Collectanea Franciscana 39 (1959) 74-86.

der Friihscholastik, ’’*

Lavelle L., Traiti des valeurs (Paris), I (1951), II (1955). Leclercq G., La conscience du chritien* (Paris, 1947). Le Senne R., TraitS de morale gindrale (pp. 332-74 : presentation of the various conceptions of the moral life), 4th ed. (Paris, 1961). Lesetre H., “ Prudence*, ” Dictionnaire de la Bible 5, c. 803. Lindemann R., Der Begriff der Conscience in franzosischen Denker, Berliner Beitrage zur Romanischen Philologie (Iena and Leipzig, 1938). Lottin O., O. S. B., Etudes de morale, histoire et doctrine* (Gembloux, 1961). —,

“ La valeur normative de la conscience*, ” ETL (1932) 409-31.

—, Psychologie et morale aux XIIe et XIIIe siScles*, II, pp. 103417; 948. —,

Morale fondamentale*, pp. 163-65; 221-23; 324-39-

Lumbreras P., O. P., “ Conscientia recta venit prudentiae actus*, ” Doctor Communis 8 (1955) 7-20. Madinier G., La conscience morale (Paris, 1958). —,

Conscience et amour (Paris, 1958).

—,

La conscience morale (Paris, 1954).

Mailloux N., O. P., “ La pastorale et les scrupuleux*, ” Vie spirituelle, Supplement 39 (November, 1956) 425-39. Maritain J., Moral Philosophy* (New York, 1964).

Bibliography

16

Martindale H., “ Diagnosis and Treatment of Scruples*, ” Homil. and Past. Review 55 (1954) 16-22. Mondolfo R., “ La coscienza morale e la legge interiore in Plutarco, ” Filosofia 8 (1957) 8-16. Mora G., “ The psychotherapeutic Treatment of Scrupulous Patients*, ” Cross Currents 7 (Winter, 1957) 29-40. Morisset P., “ Prudence et fin selon saint Thomas*, ” Sciences EccUsiastiques 15 (1963) 73’98. Noble H. D., O. P., “ Prudence*, ” DTC 13, cols. 1023-76. —,

La Conscience morale* (Paris, 1923).

—,

La prudence*, Som. Th6ol. (1925).

—,

Le discernement de la conscience* (Paris, 1924).

Odier C., Les deux sources, consciente et inconsciente, de la vie morale (Neuchatel, 1947). Olivier B., La conscience chritienne* (Brussels, 2nd ed., 1958). O’Neill C., Imprudence in St. Thomas Aquinas* (Milwaukee, 1955). Palazzini F., La Coscienza* (Rome, 1961). Patrologia Latina, 220, cols. 351 ff. Index de conscientia, 218, cols. 1227 ff.

Index patristico-theologicus, cap. 104. Peinador A., “ Problema de la formacion de consciencia*, ” Ilustracidn de Clero 41 (1953) 237-41. Perin L., “ La conscience a l’age de raison, ’’ Anneau d’or 97 (JanuaryFebruary, 1961) 67-74. Petrocchi M., II problema del lassismo nel secolo XVII* (Rome, 1953). Petzal A., “ La synd6rese. De l’aigle d’Ez6chiel a la conscience morale par la Commentaire de saint J6rome*, ” Theoria 20 (1954) 64-77. Philippe de la Trinity, “ Morality objective et subjective*, ” Trouble et Lumiere. Etudes CarmSlitaines (1949) pp. 57-64. Philippot R., De dubio in jure praesertim canonico* (Namur, 1947). Pieper J., Prudence : the First Cardinal Virtue* (New York, 1959). Pierce C. A., Conscience in the New Testament, Studies in Biblical Theology 15 (London, 1955)Pius XII, “ The Christian Conscience, and its Necessary Education in Youth, ” Discourse of March 23, 1952. —,

“ The Voice of Conscience, ” Discourse of Dec. 12, 1946.

Renz O., Die Synteresis nach dem HI. Thomas von Aquin*, Beitrage zur Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters, Bd X (Munster, 19x1). Richard R., Le probabilisme moral et la philosophie* (Paris, 1927). Rodrigo L., S. J., Tractatus de Conscientia Morali*, Vols. 3 and 4 of the Praelectiones theologico-morales Comilenses, Series I, Theologia moralis fundamentalis (Santander, 1954 and 1956). Rohmer J., “Synd6rese*, ” DTC 14, cols. 2992-96. Rosmini A., Trattato della coscienza morale*, ed. G. Mattai (Rome, 1954). Rousselot P., S. J., Quaestiones de Conscientia* (Paris, 1937).

Bibliography

17

Sala G., O. F. M., “ II valore obligatorio della conscienza nei primi scolastici*, ” Studi Franciscani (1957) 174-198. —, “ II concetto di sinderesi in S. Bonaventura* ” Studi Francis¬ cani (1957) 3-riSchaller J.-P., Direction des arms et medecine moderne* (Mulhouse, 1959). Schlatter A., “ Herz und Gehim im ersten Jahrhundert, ” Studien zur systematischen Theologie Theodor von Haering dargebracht (Tubingen, 1916) pp. 86-94. Seel O., “ Zur Vorgeschichte des Gewissensbegriff im altgriechischen Denken, ” Festschrift Fr. Dornseiff (Leipzig, 1953) pp. 291-319. Sertillanges A. D., La morale de saint Thomas d’A quin*, new ed. (Paris, 1942). Snoeck A., S. J., “ La pastorale du scrupule, ” NRT, 79 (1957) 371-87; 478-93Spicq C., O. P., “ La conscience dans le Nouveau Testament*, ” RB 47 (1938) 50-80. —,

Les Epitres Pastorales*, Coll. Et. Bibl. (Paris, 1947).

—-, “ La vertu de prudence dans l’Ancien Testament*, ” RB 42 (1933) 187-210. Stelzenberger J., Conscientia bei Augustinus* (Paderbom, 1959). —, “ Conscientia bei Tertullianus*, ” Vitae et Veritati, Festgabe fur Karl Adam (Diisseldorf, 1956) pp. 28-43. —, “ Conscientia in der ost-westlichen Spannung der patristischen Theologie*, ” Tubinger Theol. Quartalschrift 141 (1961) 174-205. —,

Syneidesis im Neuen Testament* (Paderbom, 1961).

Stevaux A., “ La prudence du chr6tien*, ” Revue DiocSsaine de Tournai 14 (1959) I9-3IStuart G., Conscience and Reason (London, 1955). Sullivan J. D., “ The Problem of Scrupulosity*, ” Bulletin of the Guild of Catholic Psychiatrics 4 (Dec. 1957) 21-35. Tiberghien P., “ Morale des actes et morale des tendances*, ” Masses ouvrieres 90 (1953) 8-20. Tillman F., " Zur Geschichte des Begriffs ‘ Gewissen ’ bis zu den paulinischen Briefen*, ” Feitschrift Sebastian Merkle (Diisseldorf, 1922) PP- 336-47Van Imschoot P., “ Sagesse et esprit dans l’Ancien Testament*, ” RB 47 (1938) 23-49. Vereecke L., Conscience morale et loi humaine selon Gabriel Vasquez* (Paris, 1957)Vergote A., “ L’acces k Dieu par la conscience morale*, ” ETL 37 (1961) 481-502. Von Horstein F., etc., “ Pastoral und Klugheit*, ” Special number on Prudence, Anima 15 (i960) iff. Yankal6vitch M., La mauvaise conscience (Paris, 1951). Zamcke L., Enfance et conscience morale (Etudes psychologiques). French translation from the German by H. Bourdeau-Petit (Paris, 1955). N Y 41. — 2

Bibliography

18 Zaruch L., Enfance et conscience morale* (Paris, 1955).

Anonymous, “ D’une th6rapeutique spirituelle du scrupule*, ” La Vie spirituelle, Supplement (March 1935), [i4i]-[x53]. Cahier Laennec, 2 (i960), “ Obsession et scrupule*. ” Le Cceur*, Etudes Carm61itaines, (1950). Note doctrinale du ComitS thSologique de Lyon; Loi morale et conscience*

(July, 1950). Thomistica Rerum Principia (Thomistic Congress of i960)*,

(Rome, i960).

2 Vols.

INTRODUCTION

§ I. I.

Spirit of this Study THE CONSCIENCE, AN ENCOUNTER BETWEEN GOD AND MAN

In our own day, moral theology is presented in many ways. One of them underlines the aspect of the dialogue between God and man that is affirmed in the life of a Christian. God takes the initiative in a revelation that implies a moral conversion. Our Lord preaches a baptism of penance and, to those who accept it, gives a share in Life. From then on they are to live as children of light. In this light, the treatise on the moral conscience takes on a very special importance. Indeed, it studies this privileged encounter between God and man which is to be found in the moral conscience. On one hand, the conscience is God’s voice, this intimate presence of the Saviour which leads the soul to a better moral life and disencumbers it of its weaknesses. What Augustinian tradition has to say about the mind can be said also of the conscience: it is in God and by God that we grasp the Truth and truths alike. Actually, it is through the conscience, God’s abode in us, that we grasp moral values and that we make judgments on our attitude toward them. In this frame of reference the conscience then represents the primary spokesman of the Christian life. But in another aspect, conscience represents man, for he can use well or not the moral light and fortitude that are in him. It is with this meaning in mind that St. Paul speaks of the “ weak conscience ” of the Christian, that lacks strength and does not correspond to divine grace. It is in this sense also that we shall speak of an examination of conscience to describe our search to know whether we have acted rightly or where we have done wrong. We see then, in this twofold aspect, that the conscience truly realizes the conditions of a contact between God and the soul. II.

CONSCIENCE AND LAW

With this in mind, we see in what sense we must understand an often (and rightly) repeated theme in connection with the conscience and the

20

Introduction

law. The law would be the exterior norm, the expression of God’s will; the conscience would represent man in his autonomy. In this view, we might be tempted to believe that there is some sort of antagonism between them. To the extent that man wants to be himself, he will seek to achieve the greatest possible independence from the law. And if, by chance, the law is unclear, if its formation or application is dubious, man’s conscience is only too happy to reclaim its total freedom. In this way of looking at things, stemming as it does particularly from Ockhamism, we should have to hold as an acquired fact that the law comes from God’s will alone, if not from his whim, and that on the other hand the conscience represents man alone. What is overlooked actually is that the law of God is founded not only on his authority but also and especially on his wisdom. And on the other hand, our conscience is, in us, the reflection of divine wisdom. Conscience and law then have much more in common than in conflict. If the divine law is clear, the conscience would be happy to find in it a complement of light. St. Paul, as we shall see, speaks of the conscience as enlightened by faith. St. Augustine considers that the exterior law was given because the conscience, obscured by Adam’s sin, was no longer capable on its own of lighting the way for us in our moral life. 1 If the law is neither clear nor precise, the conscience obviously still has its complete autonomy; we do not see why it should refrain from assuming its responsibilities when faced with what is merely a phantom law. St. Paul did enough railing against Jewish legalism to keep us from falling back into it, and from feeling ill at ease because there is no external precept to guide and bind us. But if the conscience—to the extent that we hold this—does enjoy Christian freedom, it must be governed according to the laws of the spirit, i.e. in accordance with what the good directs. In this sense, a modem probabilist, Fr. Rousselot,2 says that to a judgment of proba¬ bility must be added rightness of intention. This is to say that where the conscience acts without the help of the law, it must be inspired itself by the norms that tend toward human dignity and the service of God. Furthermore, these two concepts go together, and are but the two aspects of a morality of man—the image of God. There is no question of confusing law and conscience or of letting the conscience be destroyed by the law. The conscience, in the face of the clearest and most determinative law, always has the role and the 1 St. Augustine, De Spiritu et littera, chap. 28, PL, t. 44, 230. Cf. P. Delhaye, Permanence du droit naturel (Namur, 1961) p. 54. * P. Rousselot, Quaestiones de conscientia (Paris, 1937) P- 68.

Introduction

21

value of interiorizing the law, to implant it by making it personal. But a collaboration must be promoted where some might have seen a conflict. III.

METHOD

If I use such fuzzy language in recalling the past, it is with a very specific intention. Actually, my aim in this work is to dispense as much as possible with the history of the “ systems of morality. ” Whether we like it or not, the tract on conscience has always been the object of controversy. In the Middle Ages there was a conflict between those who interpreted conscience in the line of Greek intellectualism, and those who preferred the views of voluntarism. After the Renaissance, the problem of a doubtful conscience took on extraordinary importance because in the Ockhamist notion of law to which we have just alluded, law is nonexistent unless it is founded upon a clearly expressed will. It is useless to try and compensate for it by using reason or conscience, since reason—even the divine reason—did not work it out. And since that time the various theological schools have been involved in an extraordi¬ narily aggressive battle. Seven “ moral systems ” were met with: absolute tutiorism, mitigated tutiorism, probabiliorism, equiprobabilism, probabilism, compensationism, laxism. Today we have quite emerged from these struggles of yesterday and we can even state that a sort of common doctrine has been established. Extreme positions have been obscured and some systems have not been loath to surreptitiously reintroduce in their own theories certain theses taken from conflicting systems. But the “ will to be right ” was not dimmed to that extent. Seeing that system B had taken something from system A which he cherishes, yet without admitting it, a particular partisan of system A will be more sensitive to the camouflage of the operation than to the homage implicitly given his system. This we might add is not a phenomenon peculiar only to the tract on conscience. Theologians are hardly gifted in playing the role of “ father of the prodigal son. ” They are much more successful as the “ elder brother. ” This is by way of saying that, if we put ourselves here on the level of the histories of these controversies, everyone will be unhappy because we shall have to point out that this word has changed its meaning or that thesis is merely the adaptation of an idea to which it has often been opposed. Let us put aside this undertaking for another time, and focus our attention on other aspects of the problem. Instead of piling polemic on polemic, let us look at history and doctrine positively. It is much more important to know what St. Paul, the other sacred writers and the

Introduction

22

Fathers thought about conscience, than to consider controversies where the blindness of passion vies with narrowmindedness. The recent direction taken by work in the area of moral theology invites us furthermore to concentrate our effort on quite another field. On every side we see the claims for, if not the realization of, a biblical and patristic revival. Our intention then is to find a common ground outside of these controversies by shaping this work in the light of Pauline teaching. Several exegetes, such as Fr. Spicq,3 for example, studied the Pauline doctrine of the conscience twenty years ago. Yet the moralists have not always shown enough interest in this research, and especially have not made it the basis of their own work. Our opinion then is that we have here a new field to till, where, if we do not bring totally new things to light, we shall at least sum up old things which have gone unnoticed. Omnis scriba doctus in regno caelorum similis est homini patrifamilias qui profert de thesauro suo nova et vetera (Mt 13,52). On the other hand, our intention is to offer a doctrinal solution that takes specifically into account different trends, and retains their essential worthwhile ideas by disentangling them from their narrowness and compromising. It seems to us, for example, that a distinction between two phases of the problem of doubtful morality appear in St. Paul and that to each of the problems thus distinguished, the two chief trends that divide theologians today supply a worthwhile answer. What good would be served by stirring up their quarrels? Moreover, we refuse to go along with those whose total focus is on this problem of the doubtful conscience alone. We are, after all, hardly in doubt about our moral duty from morning till night! On the contrary, we are constantly aware, in conscience, of what we should do (antecedent conscience) and what we have done (consequent conscience). Let us broach this problem then from a new slant, but at the outset let us specify the terms employed— which we have just used for the first time.

§ II.

Precisions on the Meaning of the Words Used

If we were editing a few pages of a manual, we should undoubtedly offer, at the start, a series of definitions which the student would do well to commit to memory. But here we are writing for a wider public and. according to the laws of a very different kind of book. The hurried reader can then be content with skimming over the definitions we give here. But later, should he stumble over a technical word or hesitate s C. Spicq, La conscience dans le Nouveau Testament, RB, 47 (1938), 50-80

Introduction

23

over the meaning of too fertile an expression, he can return to this point for the necessary precision. We shall carry on our investigation in several areas so that we may better grasp a reality that is infinitely more polyvalent in regard to a conscientious ” inquiry than to the approximations of common vocabu¬ lary, which is almost exclusively focused on two or three meanings. Let us see then: 1. The use of the terms cuve £873(714 and conscientia in classical and sacred languages. 2. The terms used in theological manuals. 3. The senses retained by modern philosophers and current usage. I.

THE USE OF THE TERMS SYNEIDESIS AND CONSCIENTIA IN SACRED AND CLASSICAL LANGUAGES

The term in the sense of a faculty of moral judgment is found abundantly in the Pauline Epistles and in the Pauline discourse reported in the Acts of the Apostles. We have been able to note 22 different passages: Rom 2,15; 3,9; 4,2; 9,1; 1 Cor 8,1-12 (3 times); 10,23,33 (5 times); 2 Cor 1,12; 4,2; 5,11; 1 Tim 1,5; 1,19; 3,9; 4,2; 2 Tim 1,3; Tit 1,15; Heb 9,9; 9,14; 10,12; 10,22; 13,18; Acts 23,1; 24.16. On the other hand the rest of the Greek Bible uses guve £873(7(4 only twice and cruv£tSrjvai twice in more or less precise senses. Job 27,6 has 06 yap ouvoiSa IpauTqi aroTca 7tpa£ave£87) 61

32

23, 52 61

(Ps)

10

59 52 55

JO 4

14 (13) 2 24 (23) 4 26 (25) 2 3i (30) 19

(1 K)

(35) 2-3 55 (5o) 12 58 (50) 19 53 119 (54) 9 58 (72) 1 (72) 11-12 55 (77) 72 59 61 (91) 7 61 (93) * (94) 8-11 55 (100) 2 58, 61 80 (118) (118) 70 55 (118) J55 55 (146-147) 3 53

Proverbs fPr,)

4

2 7 10

36 5i 5i 55 73 73 78 92 94 95 IOI 119 119 “9 147

52

7

Psalms

(2 S)

jo

2

(j Ch)

59 59

II 36-39

6

8

(1 S)

7 j5 6

1 Kings

62

(2 Ch)

5

(Jg)

2 Samuel 24

60

59

Samuel 16 16 24

58 59

2

Job Judges

62

Chronicles

Judith

(Jos)

7-8

7

9

53 54 60 61

24 36

22

Ezra

23n

Deuteronomy

15 25

35

(Lv)

1

4

•

28 38 46-52 1 24

(31)

9

36 (35) 2-5

62

58 52 58 60

55

1 1 2 2 2 2

2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10

3 7 1-12 i-5 1

9 10-15 i-3 1 16 4-6

4 10 20-21

5 22-23 1

4 1-36

4 9 13 14-16 1-12

JO 4-5 5

17 19

62 63 62 53 62 62 53 53 62 62 53 62 60 53 60 55 62 62 62 62 61 60 59 62 60 62 61 62 60

* We are following the Jerusalem Bible (© 1966 Darton, Longman & Todd Ltd.., London, and Doubleday & Company, Inc., Garden City, New York). Used by permission of the publishers. N Y 41 — 18

Index of Biblical Citations

266 23 12

14 14 14 14 14

6

M H H H

IO II 12

16 16 17 17 17 18 18 18

!9

23 8

17 27 29

33 14 21 23 21-25 21 8 15 27 2 12

33 7

19 19 19 19 20 20 21 22

8 11

62 60 60 61 60, 61 62 60 62

59 59, 59

59

19 20 21

19 21 1

58 61 60

i-3

4

58 59

10 16 8

60

6

53 53

14

120 60 60 61 26 62

59, 62

28 28

5

56

7

60

29 30 31

27 2

54 60 60

Ecclesiastes (Qo)

4 5

6-8 20 1-2

7

9

119

7

22 8

52 61

17 15

60 60, 61 23n

55 52 60

54 61

Wisdom (Ws)

6

16-23 12 1-20

55 56 59

7

7

8

6

4

38 38 4i 42

87

52 53 57 52 57

19

33 7

61

18

60

23 28

59 60

Ezekiel (Ezk) 1 2 2

4-12

5

9 9

18

33

59

6

2

3 3 3

58

15

5 9

12 9 7

Baruch (Ba)

17

62 60

9 7

42

61

4-5 4

20

119

59

23 23 24

10 10 11 20

55 23n. 55,

59 55

59 52 58

8

17 10

23 24 3i 3i

Ecclesiasticus (Si)

20

11-20

60

18 2 11

9

58, 62 62 62

7

10

14 17 5

1

9 13 17

21 18

4-7 9 i-5

60

62 61, 87 61 60

36

8 8

Isaiah (Is)

3-4 18-19

6 21-32 7-11

87 54 58 57 53, 54 58 58 58

Daniel (Dn)

*5 ff3

58 59

5 6 10 11

20 9-10 13 2

120

3

4 39

55

5 7

12 JO

96

8

25

59

!9

11-12

9

13

60

24 29 40

5

13

11

52

1

3

4i 44 44 46

5i 55 57 57 61

62 61, 62

59 80

13

54

14 20 10 22 8

61 61 60

58 57

6-7

58

i5

53. 54 53

1

Hosea (Ho)

58

4 14

14

61

2

58

Joel

(Jl)

1 2

3 14 15

26“, 55

1

58 59 58

22

61

6

13

8

12 12-13 12 20

55 55

9 10 11

1

62

17 17

59

18

3

10

60 62

52 52 52 58

13-15 12 ff.

58 58

Amos f)

5 Jeremiah (Jr)

3 3 3 4 4

59 53 59

58

7 17

1

13

Obadiah

60 (Orn)

01

7 iviican 6

61

9

Zechariah (Ze) 1

4

7

12

58 55

Malachi (Ml)

2 2

14 15

ff-

87 87

Index of Biblical Citations

267

NEW

Matthew (Mt) 3

4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 IO 13 13

i5 i5 i5 i5 i5 18 19 23 23 23 25

27 28

17 8 25 28 29 12 21 33 12 24-27 16 15 24-30 3-6 8 10-20 10 14 3 11 16-28 23-24 24 1-13 3 18-19

58 58 58 87 54 251 58 54 64 77 63 63 55 183 120 54 54 69 56 58 57n 56 120 28 63 52 144

14-16 21-22

52 54

Luke (Lk)

5

12 12 12 12 12 12

13 i3 14 i4 i5 i5 i5 16 16 18

18 19

32 1-9 16-20 33 34 41-48 58 3-5 13 28-33 28-32 7-10 n-32 a ff8 15 18-23 28-30 20-27

21 12-ig 17

146 64 58

John (Jn) 3

7 8

9 10

12 15 i5 15 16 18

19-22 17 42-47 39-41 26 40 10 15 24-25 2 37

56 56 56 56 56 55 140 142 56 179 56

Acts (Ac) 1 2 5

24 27

7

5i 8 9 1 16 27

i5 19

23 24 28

4

52 58 54 54 52 55 23. 40 23, 40,119 48n, 55

Romans (Rm)

Mark (Mk)

6 7

19

21 24

TESTAMENT

58 64 63 64 54 64 87 58 58 64 63 58 58 139 63 52 63 64 146

18 ff. 21 ff. 21

1 1 1 2 2 2 2

5

2 2

14

2

26-29 29

2 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 5

7 7 7

12 14-16 I4-I5

15

9

10 19-21 2

15 5 8 13-14

4-5 7-9 9

37, 1090 55 48“ 48n, 55 80 145 37. 90, 97. 10911 80, 83, 87 23, 38, 48. 97 80 54 23 37 80 23 80 53 139 80 148 80 89

7 7 7 7 7

14-25 15 19-20 22 23

8 8 8 8

4

9 10 11 12 12

13 13 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 16

5-6 6 27 1 9-10 25 2 16 2 5 2 5 6-8 6

14 15 18 22-23 23 18

80 82 82, 148 82 90 86 49 26 48n, 52 23. 38 54 48“ 65, 148 4811 42 42 43 43 47 247 43 247 43 43 228 48“

i Corinthians (i Co) IO 1 49“ 1 64 17 1 23 39n 1 64 25 26, 148 2 II 149 3 3 12 6 44- 47 6 47. 250 13 171 7 i-9 7 9 57n 250 7 13 8 1-12 23 8 i-3 44 8 7-12 45 8 7 41. 44 8 IO 4i 12 8 4i 64 10 1-13 10 49 15 10 23 23. 44 IO 25 ff44 28-29 39, 45 IO IO 30-31 247 46 IO 3i IO 33 23 149 13 4ff143 13 11

Index of Biblical Citations

268 2 Corinthians (2 Co) I I I I

3 3 4 5 11

12-24 12-13 12 22 6-11 15 2 11 19

64

38 23.

74

53 53 54 40, 64

39 49

Colossians (Col) 1

9

3

1

64, 65 145. 154

1 Thessalonians (1 Th) 2

4

3 5 5

12-13 21-22

8

23 4

52 65 65 26 4811

Galatians (Ga)

4

8-9

65

5

17 19-22 22-23 22 7

86

5 5 5 6

148 148 86 146

Ephesians (Ep)

1 Timothy (1 Tm) 1

5

1 2

19 22

3

9

4

2

1 1

8 17

49

3 4

27 I4-I5

53

4

18

48n, 54

5 5

7-i 1 8-10

148 148

5

8-9

65

1

10-14

5

8

145

1

*5

65 149

2 Timothy (2 Tm) 1

3

9-11 9-10

1 2 3

9 15 2-2

65 148 148 65 65

23. 4i

8

13

2 12 16 22 18

23. 23. 41 23 53 23. 23.

James (Jm) 1 1

3 3 4

5 19 2 17 8

65 60 60 65 58

1 Peter (1 P) 1

3 4

5

13

ff. 15-16

7 8

66 48“ 66 66

2 Peter (2 P)

66

3

2

65 23. 41119, 157

Hebrews (Heb)

3 5

10 10 10 10

9

14

1 John (1 Jn)

Titus

Philippians (Ph) 1 I

23, 48“ 119, 140, 244, 246 23. 41 4811 23. 40 23, 41, 120

9 9

7-5 14 10

55 75 53

3 3

5

18-22 20-21 20 20

66 52 74 66

Revelation (Rv) 2

23

17

17

20

12

52 54 96

41 41

41- 48n 40

NAME

Albert the Great, St., 106, 107, 112 Alcher of Clairvaux, 109 Alexander VII, Pope, 223, 240 Alexander VIII, Pope, 155, 223 Alexander of Hales, 107, 161, 162 Alphonsus de Liguori, St., 131, 132, 225, 233, 236, 264 Amand, D., 83 Ambrose, St., 59, 69, 71, 73-75, 80, 83, 87-91, 93, 94, 96, 98, 99 Andes, C., 86 Antoninus of Florence, St., 119, 217, 218, 220, 221 Apuleius, 86 Aristotle, 24, 66, 67, 218, 260 Amobius, 94 Athanasius, St., 83, 87 Athanasius (pseudo), 91, 92 Augustine, St., 19, 20, 37, 59, 69, 71

73-75, 77-8°, 83, 84, 86, 88,

90-99,

no, 113, 154, 159, 214, 233, 258, Banez, 225 Basil, St., 71, 77, 83, 87, 89, 90, 91, 93, 95, no, 116 Baudoin, C., 129 Benedict XV, Pope, 238 Bergson, H., 204

INDEX

Chrysippus, 49 Chrysologus, P., 98 Cicero, 23-25, 50, 67, 71, 86 Clavier, H., 51 Clement of Alexandria, St., 70, 74,

9i, 93, 95 Clement of Rome, St., 70, 93 Crowe, M. B., 114 Cyprian, St., 24, 71, 94, 95, 97, 98 Cyril of Alexandria, St., 80, 81, 89, 91 Cyril of Jerusalem, St., 93 De Blic, J., 106, 108, 109 De Foucauld, C., 209 De Greef, 250 Delhaye, P., 20, 24, 25, 37, 108 Deman, T., 50, 217, 226, 240, 263 Democritus, 23 Demosthenes, 24 Descartes, R., 150, 207 Diodorus of Sicily, 23 Diogenes, 99 Dionysius, 117 Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 23 Dorotheus, St., 87, 90, 91, 93 Dubois, P., 134 Duffner, M., 134 Durkheim, E., 30

Bernard, St., 231, 258, 260 Boethius, 63, 94 Bonaventure, St., 27, m, 219 Caesarius, St., 69, 93, 96-99 Carpentier, R., 121

Epictetus, 99 Eusebius, St., 80, 91 Euthymius, 87 Eymieu, A., 127

Cassian, 69, 81, 82, 88, 91, 93, 94,

Faustus of Riez, 88, 92, 94, 99

97. 98 Cassiodorus, 71

Festugiere, A.-J., 83 Fichte, 255 Firmicus Matemus, 98

Chaine, J., 65 Chanson, 215

Fonsegrive, G., 29, 30

Name Index

270 Fouil6e, A., 78 Francis de Sales, St., 139 Francis Xavier, St., 210 Freud, S., 128 Gardeil, A., 217 Gaudentius of Brescia, St., 78, 80 Gemelli, A., 127 Genicot-Salsmans, 236 Gomperz, T., 78 Gonzalez de Santella, 224 Gratian, 155, 218 Gregory the Great, St., 69, 79, 85, 9i

Gregory Nazianzen, St., 81, 83, 91 Gregory of Nyssa, St., 74, 91, 93 Grieger, P., 104 Grouzel, A., 108 Haring, B., 227 Hauscherr, I., 91 Herodotus, 24 Hilary of Poitiers, St., 71, 74, 80, 91, 93. 94- 96 Hitler, A., 196 Hugh of St. Victor, 219 Huvelin, H., 209 Ignatius Loyola, St., 126 Innocent I, Pope, 74 Innocent XI, Pope, 224, 232 Irenaeus, St., 81, 82 Isidore of Pelusa, St., 78, 83, 89, 91 Jacob, F., 51 Jagu, A., 78 James, St., 58, 65 Janet, P., 127 Jansen, 147, 223, 225 Jansenius, 83, 84 Janssens, M., 217 Jerome, St., 25, 26, 74, 75, 80, 83, 87, 9i, 94. 95. 105. 107-110, 113, 117, 256 John XXIII, Pope, 156 John Chrysostom, St., 71-77, 80-83, 85, 88, 89-95, 98, 99 John Climacus, St., 73, 83, 87, 88, 91-93

John Damascene, St., 81-83, 9°. 110 Julian, 81, 89 Justin, St., 74, 77, 91 Kant, E., 104 Klug, I., 85 Lactantius, 25, 70, 71, 92-94, 97, 98 La Fontaine, 31 Lagrange, M.-J., 229 Lalande, A., 29 Laloux, P., 225 Lambruschini, F., 227 Langton, S., in, 216 Lanza, A., 234, 236 Lebacqz, J., 57 Leenhardt, F. J., 43 Le Gall, A., 121, 122 Leibniz, 104 Leo XIII, Pope, 56 Leo, St., 69, 94, 96, 97, 99, 218 Le Senne, R., 32, 33, 103, 104 Lhermitte, J., 128 Livy, T„ 24 Lombard, P., 108 Lottin, O., 106, 108, in, 114, 216, 217, 241 Louis XIV, 183, 184, 196 Luther, M., 258 Macarius the Egyptian, 88 Macarius (pseudo), 91, 92 Macrobius, 67, 68 Mahoney, V., 129 Martha, C., 99 Maximus, St., 78, 83, 91, 92, 94 Methodius, St., 91, 95 Molina, 225 Nilus, St., 80, 90, 94 Noble, H., 169 Noldin, H., 234, 236 Ockham, 20, 21, 213, 222, 243, 258 Origen, 25, 69, 7°. 74. 77. 81, 83, 86-89, 9L 93-96, 99. 108, 146, 258 Origen-Rufinus, 76, 82, 90, 91, 95, 97 Orlando of Cremona, in

Name Index

Pascal, B., 31, 33, 207, 223 Paul VI, Pope, 156, 157 Pelagius, 84, 85, 91 Peter of Poitiers, in P6trement, S., 83 Petzaell, A., 106 Philip, Chancellor, in, 237 Philo, 24 Pindar, 24 Pius XII, Pope, 56, 128, 156, 183, 257, 259, 263 Plato, 24, 26, 66, 67, 78, 107, 261 Plautus, 23 Pliny, 24 Polycarp, 93 Potton, M.-A., 225 Procopius of Caza, 80 Prosper of Aquitaine, St., 80 Prosper (pseudo), 81 Priimmer, D., 39, 225-227 Racine, J., 51 Rauth, F., 30 Rhabanus Maurus, 108 Rhomer, J., 106 Richard of St. Victor, 219 Robin, L., 78 Rodrigo, N„ 43 Ross, W. D., 78 Rousseau, J.-J., 187 Rousselot, P., 20, 226 Seneca, 50, 86, 99 Serenus, Abbot, 82

271 Sertillanges, A.-D., 217 Sidonius, 94 Simeterre, R., 78 Simoneaux, H., 105 Socrates, 50, 86, 147, 255, 261 Spicq, C., 22, 24 Tanquerey, A., 226 Telch, C., 223, 240 Tertullian, 25, 71, 75, 81, 93 Thalassius, 88, 92 Theodore, 89 Theophilus of Antioch, 86 Thomas, St., 25, 43, 107, no, 113118, 154, 155, 157-163, 165, 168, 169, 171-174, 177-179, 190, 202, 203, 205, 208, 216, 217, 219, 234, 240, 241, 248, 256, 260, 263, 264 Udo, Magister, 108 Ulpian, 38 Vaillard, R., 211 Verbeke, G., 86 Vermeersch, A., 236 Victor, St., 90, 93-95. 98 Victor of Tunnunum, 69, 76 William of Auvergne, 237 William of Auxerre, in Zalba, M., 235 Zerwick, M., 43

SUBJECT INDEX *

A Abstinence, 247. Act of C, 25, no, 153, 164-175, 256. Action, 208. Activity, characteriological, 104. Adversary (C as), 87. Adult, 143, 143“ 144. Affectivity, 169 f. Aggressivity, 124. Ambiguity, 123. Angel, guardian (= C), 87. Anger, 123. Animal C, 33. Antecedent C, 28 1, 92, 158. Anxiety of C. see remorse. Apathetic, 121. Appetite for God, in, 115. Apprehension, 125. Artistic C, 33. Autonomy, spiritual, 244, see per¬ sonalism. B Bad C, 32, 40, 93 f., see remorse. Balancesheet, man’s moral (= C), 96 f. Biblical origin of moral theology, 22, 32, 66, 119, 219, 228. Blindness, moral, 55 f. Book (= C), 32, 86, 96. Box (= C), 97. Broad C, 120-124. C Cases of C, 47, 247. Casuists, 105, H9n, 139 f., 146, 148, 217. Caution, 49. Censor (= C), 88. Certain C, 29, 153-212. Certitude, moral, 149 1, 150“, 177 1, 217-221, 229 f. Certitude, practical, 222.

Characteriology and C, 104. Charity, 37, 42, 45, 48, 90, 123 1, 128, 139-143. 145. 149 i, 154. 171 f-, 212, 224“ 231, 245, 247-250, 257 f„ 262. Choice, 94, 255. Christ, center of morality, 246, 262, 264 Christian C (working in a climate of faith and charity, moved by the Holy Spirit and grace) 38, 40 f., 73, 82, 90, 96, 118, 142, 146, 149, 152, 233. 257-262. Church and C, 142 ff., see magisterium. Circumstances as a criterion of mo¬ rality, 47, 57a 123, 146, 165 f., 171, 173, 175. 251. Commitment, C as a faculty of, 97. Companion, life (= C), 87 f. Compensationism, 225 f., 263. Complex, inferiority, 136 f. Compunction, 73, 89, see remorse. Concrete, sense of the, see circum¬ stances. Concupiscence, 77-79. Concupiscible, 26. Confession, 134, 150“, see remorse. Confession of faults, 98, see remorse, penance. Confessor and probability, 252. Confidence, 74, 126. Conscientious, 32, 125. Consequent C., 28, 29, 158-159. Continuity of the C, 96-97. Contrition, see remorse. Controversies about the tract on C, 221-228. Conversion, 184, see remorse. Conviction, 41, 43. Cremation, 186. Criminal C, 93. Criteria of C and morality, 44-48, 57®, 214, 21411, 246. Criticism, 207.

* Our intention here is to give a modest index indicating essentials rather than a completely detailed analysis, This index may be completed by the analytic table of contents at the beginning of the book. “ C ” should be read “ conscience. ”

Subject Index

274 D

Flight from responsibility, 145, see fear of living. Damned, C of the, 118. Folly, 117. Danger of following the C, 237, see Folly of the Cross, 64. errors. Force of the judgment of C, 42-44, Decision, 138. 153-164, 177. Defects of the C, 27-28, 32, 41, 87, 91, Foresight, 64, 212-214. 105 f„ 119. Formation of the C, 146, 152. Deformation of the C, 146. Freedom, Christian, 19, 39, 44, 46H, Deliberation, moral, 116. 140, 244, 249, 252. Delicate C, 27, 32. Freedom of C, 182-188. Dialogue, morality of—by the C, 19, Freedom, religious, see liberty. 36, 146, 244. Functions of the C, 91. Direction, 144, 150°. Discernment, 19, 30, 31, 37, 60, 64 f., 76-93, 143° 149. Discouragement, 209, 2x1. Docility, 62. Dogma and moral, 119“. Doubtful C, 29, 44, 213-254. Doubts of C, 214 f., 221, 227 f., 237 f.. Dualism, Manichaean, 82, 82°. Duality of the C, 33, 38-40, 53, 88-90, 94, 146, 255. Dynamism, moral, 124, 242. E

G Glory of God, 46 f., 252, see intention. God, the policeman, 147. God, voice of, 19, 38. Good C, 32, 40, 73 f„ 85, 93, 139-141. Good faith, 43, 155-158, 178, 185, 237. Grace, 83, 85, 262, see Christian C. Guilt, 129, 138, 178, see remorse. H Habit, 122, 236. Habitual C, 25, 27, 37-42, 100-152. Habitus, 27, 111 f., 114, 118. Happiness, 66. Hardening of the heart, 54 f. Heart, 23, 37, 48, 48° 50, 51-58, 69, 85. 96, 256. Hedonism, 255. Heretics, C, of, 111, 118 f. Hiding place ( = C), 97. History, 5611, 203. Holy Spirit, 20, 38, 86, 146, 258, see Christian C. Honest, 63 f. Humanism, Christian, 83. Humility, 149 f. Hypermotivation, 122, 138, 209, 211, 249Hypocrisy, 61.

Eagle (allegory applied to C), 26 f., 87, 107, 113, 118. Education, 122. Education of the C, 136, 141-151, 253. 259Emotivity, 104 f., 121, 124, 127, 130, 136. Empiricism, psychological, 208. Encounter between God and man, 19, 36, 257, see charity, personalism. Equiprobabilism, 225. Errors of C, 116, 150, 155, 178, 240. Erroneous C, 28 f., 155!; respect of the E.C., 3911, see rights. Examination of C, 97-99, 150“. Expediency, 166, see judgment of prudence. I Experience, 62, 206 f., 212. Extrinsicalness, 81, 89!, 145, 159, Idolothytes, 41, 43 f., 47, 171, 200. 236. Ignorance, 55, 77 1, 122 1, 154, 230, 241 f. F Ignorance and C, invincible, 153 f., Faith, 38, 40 f., 73, 90, 95, 118, 142, 178-188. 146 f., 224° 225, 231 f„ 246, 259, Illusion, 250, see hypermotivation. 262, see Christian C. Image of God, 20, 85. False C, 28. Immobilism, 206-209. Favoritism, 250. Impartiality of the C, 30 f., 87. Fear of God, 60, 125 f. Imprudence, 122, 173. Fear of living, 136, 209. Impulse for good in the C, 115 f. Feelings and C, 30. Inconstancy, 214. Flesh, 73, 95. Individualism, 144.

Subject Index

275

Infantilism, 145. Injustice, 250. Innatism, 76, 8i, 110-113, 115. Intellectualism, 129, 259, 261. Intelligence, 59“, 63, 66 1, 149 f. Intention, 20, 40, 56 f., 64, 67“, 151, 158, 158“ 168, 172, 178, 211, 214, 21411, 225, 245. Intention, right, 24611, 247, 264, see judgment of prudence. Inferiority, 37, 50, 53, 82, 96 f., 143, 146. Intersubjectivity of the C, 95. Intrinsicalness, 85, 88 f., 143, 148 1, 153, 155. 175. 258 f. Introspection, 124, 126. Intuition, 77, 81, 115 f., 166-168, 175, 178, 205 1, 259 f. Irascible, 26. Isolation, 124.

J

Law of Christ, 81, 83, 257 f., 264. Law of Moses, see Jews. Law, natural, 37 f., 77-80, 83, 89, 91, 112 f., 116, 122, 153, 155, 214“ 233, 241, 256, 258, 264. Law, penal, 245. Laxism, 120, 12011, 126, 130, 223, 258. Laziness, intellectual, 147 f. Legalism, 20, 54, 79, 81, see juridicism. Liberty, religious, 156!, 188-200. Lie, 123, 165, 165“, 172, 233 f. Love, see charity. Love, captative and oblative, 143. Lucidity, 33, 123, 148-150, 203 f„ 249, 255, 262. M

Magisterium, 144 f., 152, see church, law. Marriage, 171. Means, immoral, 209. Means, safest, 232 f., see tutiorism. Medicine and scruples, 135, see scruples. Memory, 204. Merit, 37. Method, 21 f., 36, 105, 240, 262-264. Mind, see spirit. Mirror (= C), 32. Modern, 21411. Moral and dogma, 119“. Moral guide (C as), 72, 85, 90. Moral sense, 84, see emotivity, passions. Moral systems, 11, 168, 222, 226 f., 230, 239. Mystical C, 258.

Jews, 79 1, 89. Joy of a good C, 29 f., 73 f-. 9iJudge (= C), 31 f., 37-39, 72, 74 *•> 84, 86 f., 89, 92. Judgment, moral, 25, 29 f., 76, 84, 87, 261, see values. Judgment of C, 42-44, 153-164, 164175, 259-264. Judgment of free will, 169-171. Judgment of liceity, 44-47, 167, 175177, 182, 228-231, 244-245, 251, 254, 262-264, see judgment of free will, judgment of C. Judgment of prudence, 44-47, 167, 171-175, 243-245, 245-251, 253, 260264. Judgment of prudential expedience, N see judgment of prudence. Juridicism, 120-122, 124, 130, 138, Naivete, 206. Narcotics, 18711. 258. Narrow C, 27. Justice, 66, 224, 232 f., 250. Nature, 37, 38, see seeds of the virtues, natural law. K Negligence, 211. Knowledge, 44 f., 50°, 60, 66. Nervous, 104, 122. Knowledge, moral, 56-58, 77, 7711, Neurosis, 129. 177 f., see values. Norm (C as), see force of the judgment of C. L Norms, moral, 42, see law. Lamp (= C), 98. Notions, natural, 21 x. Law, 2i, 60, X2i, 134, 142, 145 f., 151-153, 159 f-, 162 f., 175, 177, O 180, 213, 213“ 214, 222, 229, 237, Oath, 118, 180. 240, 243 f., 245, 257. Law and C, 19-21, 28, 37, 45, 49, 53. Obedience, 132 f., 167, 221. 78-81, 87 f., 144, 151, 160 f., 163 f., Obedience to the C, 132, see force of the judgment of C. 175 f., 181, 213“ 244-247, 257 f.

Subject Index

276 Objectivity of the moral norms, 40, 56“ 5711, 144, 152, 169, 181, 220, 259, 262, 264, see law. Obligation, 176, 241, 242°, 24311, see force, law. Obstinacy in evil, 55. Ockhamism, 212, 222, 243, 258. Onanism, 214. Opinion, 221 f., 22211, 226, see moral systems. Opinion of others, 74, see intersub¬ jectivity. Optism, 82, 84. Orientation toward the good, 108 . P Pagans, 25, 37 f., 45, 48, 65-68, 77-79, 95, 108, io8n, 118, 146, 178, 261. Paschal morality, 153, 258. Pastoral, 106, 252. Passions, 117, 122. Paternalism, 206. Pelagianism, 84, 144. Penance, 72, 73, 97, 150, see remorse. Permanence of C in time, 38, 117, 260. Perplexed C, 29, 21311, 232, 235-238. Personalism, 56, 5711, 77, 81, 83, 14111, 1421, 1451, 167, 169, 172, 184, 204, 242, 245, 253, 255, 257, 263. Personality identified with C, 40-42, see personalism. Perspicacity, 61. Pharisaical C, 28, 120-124, 142. Phlegmatics, 121 f., 124. Philosophy, 29-34, 49, 58, 66-68, 86, 100 f. Pleasure, 249. Prayer, 59, 65, 199. Presence of mind, 206. Presumption, 117, 237. Pride, 84. Primarity, 101, 116, 118. Principles, 178. Principles of action, 231-243, see moral systems. Principles of law, first, 112, 115. Principles of moral life, first, 113-116, see innatism, intuition. Principles, reflex, see moral systems. Probabilism, 223 f., 239 f., 243 f., see moral systems. Probabilities, divergent, 253. Probability, 221 1, 239 f. Probable C, 29, see probabilism. Protest of the C against evil, 117 f. Prudence, 49, 58-68, 166 f., 171-175, 200-212, 2251, 24611, 250 f., 259, 264.

Psychiatry and scruples, 12511 Psychoanalysis, 127 f. Psychoasthenia, 127, 139. Psychological C, 29, 33, 255. Psychology, 100 f„ 103, 135-137, 204. Psychopathy, 128 f. Psychosis, 129. Public C, 32. Pure C, 40, 93. Purification of the C, 98.

Q Qualities of the C, 27-28, 32, 40, 93 97, 102 f., 119. R Reason, 26, 78, 89 f., 117, 154, 160162, 176, 205, 260. Reason, inferior, no, 182. Reason, practical, 27, m-114. Reason, superior, no, 182. Reasoning, 116, 117, see syllogism. Reciprocity, principle of, 77. Referral of one’s acts to God, 46, 248 f., see charity. Reflection, 210 f., see prudence. Religious C, 33, see mystical C. Remorse, 29, 30, 52, 55, 57, 58, 70-73, 76, 86, 91, 97Respect of consciences, 3911, 183, 253, see subjective rights, tolerance. Responsibility, 32, 92-95. Restitution, 235. Retentiveness, characteriological, 103. Right C, 27 f., 40, 140-151. Right of self-defense, 2x0. Rigorous C, 28, 130, 147, 258. S Sacraments, 15011, 224, 233, 236. Sanctified C, 33. Sanctuary ( = C), 31, 95, 257. Sanguine, 103, 121, 124. Savage (myth of the noble), 214. Scandal, 3911, 45 f. Scientism, 261. Scruples, medical therapy for, np11. Scrupulous C, 27 f., 2811, 124-140. Search for God, see charity, intention, referral. Secondarity, psychological, 103, 121, 124. Secret of the C, 95 f., 148, 257. Seeds of the virtues, natural, 83, 92, 261. Self, building of the, 96, see personalism.

Subject Index

277

Self-control, 123. Sensitivity, 174, see emotivity, passions. Sexual morality, 242°. Simplicity, 63. Sin, 37, 69, 72, 92, 15011, 157, 173, 201 f., 228, 242 f. Sincerity, 64, 66, 149. Situationism, condemnation of, 264. Society and the individual, 143. Soiled C, 93. Solitude of the C, 257. Spark (= C), 26. Spirit, 69, 72, 86, 90. Spiritual infancy, 14311. Spontaneity, 33, 124, 175, 244. Subconscious, 121. Subjective rights of the invincibly erroneous C, 182-188. Subjectivism, 258. Subjectivity, 220. Suicide, 185. Supernatural morality, 81, 83, see law of Christ. Syllogism, 112, 115, 165 f., 174-176, 179-181, 205, 261. Synderesis, 105-118, 153, 164, 179 f., 256, 260. T

Tolerance, 185, see subjective rights. Tribunal (= C), 72. Tutiorism, 216 f., 219-221, 223, 231, 233-235U Universality of the judgment of C, 30, see force. V Values (C’s grasp of), 18, 30 f., 37' 54, 57, 88 f., 92, 105, X17, 122, 124, I47> 149, 15011. 151. 167, 174 f., 220, 255, 257, 258-262. Vigilance, 63, 208. Virginity, i7r, 173. Virtues, 66-68, 82, 257, see faith, charity. Voice of God in the C, 88, 89. Voluntarism, in 1, 114, 259. W Weak C, 28, 41-45, 50“ 57“ Will, 56-57, 160, 161, see practical reason, responsibility. Wisdom, 59-63, see prudence. Witness (= C), 32, 38, 52, 53, 74, 84, 89.

Temperance, 66. Temporality, 212. Temptation, 121. Youth, 212. Thanksgiving (to God), 247, see glory. Theocentrism of Christian morality, 18, see Christian C, law of Christ. Tobacco, 18711. Zeal, 212.

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