Technical Communication : A Design-Centric Approach, 1e 9780367438302, 9780367438234, 9781003006060

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Acknowledgments
Preface
Part I: Establishing a Framework
Chapter 1: What Is Technical Communication?
The Basics
Chapter 2: Design-Centric Communication
Introduction to Design Thinking
Empathize
Define
Ideate
Prototype
Test
Chapter 3: Style
What Is Style?
Plain Style
Persuasive Style
Intercultural Communication
Chapter 4: Document Design
What Is Document Design?
Five Principles of Design
Color
Design-Centric Thinking
Chapter 5: Ethics
Legality
Honesty
Confidentiality
Quality
Professionalism
Fairness
Objectivity
Part II: Mastering Technical Genres
Chapter 6: Activity Reports
What an Activity Report Is
How to Write an Activity Report
Design-Centric Thinking
Chapter 7: Analytical Reports
What an Analytical Report Is
How to Write an Analytical Report
Literature Reviews
Design-Centric Thinking
Chapter 8: Proposals
What Is a Proposal?
How to Write a Proposal
Design-Centric Thinking
Chapter 9: Oral Presentations
Why Give an Oral Presentation?
How to Give an Oral Presentation
Design-Centric Thinking
Chapter 10: Resumes, Cover Letters, & Interviews
Resumes, Cover Letters, & Interviews
How to Write a Resume
How to Write a Cover Letter
How to Navigate an Interview
Design-Centric Thinking
Chapter 11: Instructions
What Are Instructions?
How to Write Instructions
Design-Centric Thinking
Chapter 12: Data Visualization
What Is Data Visualization?
How to Use Data Visualization
Ethics of Data Visualization
Design-Centric Thinking
Chapter 13: Technical Definitions
What are Technical Definitions?
How to Write a Technical Definition
Design-Centric Thinking
Chapter 14: Technical Descriptions
What Are Technical Descriptions?
How to Write a Technical Description
Design-Centric Thinking
Appendix A: Punctuation Guide
Comma
Colon
Semicolon
Hyphen
Em Dash
En Dash
Apostrophe
Quotation Marks
Asterisk
Parentheses
Brackets
Ellipsis
Period
Exclamation Point
Question Mark
Ampersand
Slash
Appendix B: Student Exercises
Transitional Words and Phrases
Parallelism
Active and Passive Voice
Verbosity
Strong Sentence Structure
Imperative Mood
Purpose Statements
Precise Language
Titles and Subject Lines
Natural Diction and Tone
Appendix C: Supplementary Examples
Resumes and Cover Letters
Reports
Proposals
Instructions
Technical Descriptions
Literature Review
Index

Citation preview

ISTUDY

Technical Communication Technical Communication: A Design-Centric Approach is a comprehensive textbook for introductory courses in technical communication and professional writing. Technical Communication takes a design approach to foundational and emergent technical communication skills such as document design, job applications and interviews, workplace collaboration, and report writing, providing students with practical guidance on matters of ethics, style, and problem-solving in a range of professional and organizational contexts. Tis is a core textbook suitable for undergraduate courses in technical and professional communication. Te book is supplemented by an innovative website featuring interactive simulations of various real-world technical communication challenges. Visit https://microcore.byu.edu/

Jon Balzotti is an associate professor in the English department at Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, where he teaches courses in technical communication, proposal writing, and style. His research interests include professional communication pedagogy, workplace genres, and digital learning environments.

Technical Communication A Design-Centric Approach

Jon Balzotti

First published 2022 by Routledge 605 Tird Avenue, New York, NY 10158 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2022 Taylor & Francis Te right of Jon Balzotti to be identifed as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafer invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifcation and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Balzotti, Jon, author. Title: Technical communication : a design-centric approach / Jon Balzotti. Description: Second edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifers: LCCN 2021014633 (print) | LCCN 2021014634 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367438302 (hbk) | ISBN 9780367438234 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003006060 (ebk) Subjects: LCSH: Communication of technical information. Classifcation: LCC T10.5 .B344 2021 (print) | LCC T10.5 (ebook) | DDC 601/.4—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021014633 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021014634 ISBN: 978-0-367-43830-2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-43823-4 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-00606-0 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003006060 Typeset in Minion Pro and Acumin Pro by Chelsea Ames Access the companion website: https://microcore.byu.edu/ Publisher’s note Tis book has been prepared from camera-ready copy provided by the author.

Contents Part I: Establishing a Framework Chapter 1: What Is Technical Communication? Te Basics � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 6

Chapter 2: Design-Centric Communication Introduction to Design Tinking� � � � � � � � � � � � �12 Empathize � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �14 Defne � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �23 Ideate � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �26 Prototype � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �28 Test � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �31

Chapter 3: Style What Is Style? � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �36 Plain Style� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �38 Persuasive Style � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �72 Intercultural Communication � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �80

Chapter 4: Document Design What Is Document Design?� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �93 Five Principles of Design � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �94 Color � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �108 Design-Centric Tinking � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �114

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ContEnts

Chapter 5: Ethics Legality � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �122 Honesty� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �124 Confdentiality � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �124 Quality � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �126 Professionalism� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �127 Fairness� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �128 Objectivity � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �130

Part II: Mastering technical Genres Chapter 6: Activity Reports What an Activity Report Is � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �137 How to Write an Activity Report � � � � � � � � � � �140 Design-Centric Tinking � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �149

Chapter 7: Analytical Reports What an Analytical Report Is � � � � � � � � � � � � � �156 How to Write an Analytical Report � � � � � � � � �158 Literature Reviews � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �170 Design-Centric Tinking � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �190

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ContEnts

Chapter 8: Proposals What Is a Proposal? � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �196 How to Write a Proposal � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �197 Design-Centric Tinking � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �212

Chapter 9: Oral Presentations Why Give an Oral Presentation? � � � � � � � � � � � �221 How to Give an Oral Presentation � � � � � � � � � � �224 Design-Centric Tinking � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �240

Chapter 10: Resumes, Cover Letters, & Interviews Resumes, Cover Letters, & Interviews � � � � � � � �249 How to Write a Resume� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �250 How to Write a Cover Letter� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �260 How to Navigate an Interview � � � � � � � � � � � � � �267 Design-Centric Tinking � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �272

Chapter 11: Instructions What Are Instructions? � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �277 How to Write Instructions� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �280 Design-Centric Tinking � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �297

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ContEnts

Chapter 12: Data Visualization What Is Data Visualization?� � � � � � � � � � � � � � �305 How to Use Data Visualization � � � � � � � � � � � �313 Ethics of Data Visualization � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �316 Design-Centric Tinking � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �317

Chapter 13: Technical Defnitions What are Technical Defnitions?� � � � � � � � � � � �321 How to Write a Technical Defnition � � � � � � � �322 Design-Centric Tinking � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �329

Chapter 14: Technical Descriptions What Are Technical Descriptions?� � � � � � � � � � � 334 How to Write a Technical Description � � � � � � � 338 Design-Centric Tinking � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 351

Appendix A: Punctuation Guide Comma � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �357 Colon � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �360 Semicolon � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �362 Hyphen � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �363 Em Dash � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �365 En Dash � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �367 Apostrophe � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �369 Quotation Marks � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �370 Asterisk � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �372

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ContEnts

Parentheses � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 374 Brackets � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 375 Ellipsis� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 377 Period � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 379 Exclamation Point � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 380 Question Mark � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 382 Ampersand � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 383 Slash � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 385

Appendix B: Student Exercises Transitional Words and Phrases � � � � � � � � � � � � 388 Parallelism � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 390 Active and Passive Voice � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 392 Verbosity� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 393 Strong Sentence Structure � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 396 Imperative Mood � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 399 Purpose Statements � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 401 Precise Language � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 402 Titles and Subject Lines � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 403 Natural Diction and Tone � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 406

Appendix C: Supplementary Examples Resumes and Cover Letters � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 410 Reports � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 414 Proposals� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 418 Instructions� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 431 Technical Descriptions� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 448 Literature Review� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 449

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ContEnts

Acknowledgments Associate Designer/Editor Chelsea Ames Contributors/Editors: Lindsey Tanner Matthew Baker Lila Rice Rebecca Cazanave

[x]

Preface T

echnical writing is a contemporary, relevant, and critical skill for every employee today. Writing is most efective when it is both well-written and adaptive, namely adaptive to your reader. Tink of your reader as, above all, your end user. Te highest quality of writing is that in which you plan, brainstorm, compose, and revise with your end users' needs in mind. Tose needs will determine your writing style, your content, your choice of visuals, and your overall document design, each of which may have important ethical and legal entailments for you and the company for which you work. Efective technical writers must learn to employ informed and fexible processes for writing and speaking, including fnding or creating ideas about which to write, collecting evidence and essential data, planning and drafing, editing and proofreading, and designing or presenting a message meant for specifc end users. All of these tasks require technical writers to analyze diferent aspects of audience, their writing purpose, and context to convey information clearly and efciently. If you can do this successfully, your communication skills will create previously unforeseen opportunities. Te most efcient approach to the end goal of impressive technical writing is through the lens of design thinking. Te design-centric approach is applicable not only in design scenarios, but also when creating a piece of technical writing.

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PrEFACE

Troughout this book, you’ll learn the communication structures (or genres) typically used by technical writers in science and engineering and about the processes that produce them, as well as their organizational and stylistic conventions. In addition, you'll be learning these techniques along with the useful viewpoint of design thinking. Tis will ensure that you consider the end user and their needs at all times from the beginning. Starting with empathy is emblematic of the design-centered thinking process, and it shows. Te result is an end product that has thoughtfully met your end user's needs. At the same time, it's equally important that technical writers learn to write in a correct, clear, and direct style that allows readers to comprehend and use technical information. Combining these two infuences will make you a standout writer, as long as you are also able to read your own work critically, without ego, and always willing to improve. Tis book will aid you in developing the skills and attitude necessary to become a professional technical writer and communicator. Tese are the essentials—let’s master them together.

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Part I: Establishing a Framework It’s important to understand a few establishing principles that will frame how you approach any writing task. Te purpose of Part I is to provide you with a context of what technical writing is, introduce a design-centric model that will guide your writing process, and provide instruction on principles of style, document design, and ethics.

PArt I

Mastering these fve areas will prepare you to succeed in drafing any technical document. As you move throughout the book and learn more about specifc technical genres, you may want to refer back to sections in Part I to better guide your progress and remind yourself of what you have learned. It’s important to note that efective writing isn’t a talent that some people possess and others don’t. Learning and practicing frameworks for writing and speaking will enable anyone to write and communicate efectively. Te job of this textbook is to teach you those frameworks—the practice is up to you. Writing skills are highly sought-afer in the technical workplace. People enjoy working with colleagues who are able to clearly communicate and do so in a respectful manner. Communication skills help provide value to clients, resolve confict, and get work done right the frst time. Recent graduates who pursue technical and scientifc careers are ofen surprised by the amount of writing required during their day-to-day tasks. In fact, you’ll likely fnd that you spend between 25 and 40 percent of your workday using and creating technical documents. Given the importance of these tasks in the technical workplace, employers highly value technical writing skills.

[2]

EstAblIshInG A FrAMEwork

https://images.app.goo.gl/JfSmFf5thHTNWtX58

[3]

PArt I

Approximately 50 percent of all employers take writing skills into account during the hiring process. Many employers complain that communication skills in general are lacking in college graduates and those entering the workforce. For example, the members of the American Institute of Aeronautics (AIAA) ranked oral communication as the number one skill that new hires needed to improve. Technical writing was number three. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), while some employers anticipate ofering short-term, job-specifc training to technical communicators, having the basic skills and ability to apply them in a variety of circumstances is a prerequisite to earning many positions in today’s workplace. If you have profcient technical writing skills you’ll have more success both in starting a career and in succeeding in it than one who chooses to forego developing such skills. According to the BLS, job opportunities for those with good technical writing skills will continue to be plentiful. Taking time now to hone your writing and overall communication skills is an investment in your professional success. As you practice your technical writing skills, you’ll fnd that they will help you become an invaluable employee in any organization.

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1

CHAPTER

What Is Technical Communication?

ChAPtEr 1

The Basics In very practical terms, technical communication is used every day by professionals and consumers to solve problems in the workplace. Te motive of technical communication is to employ words and images to help readers, not writers, accomplish their goals which might include helping employees learn something important for their job, perform a task on the job, or make critical decisions that impact the long-term security of the company. Whatever the goal, technical communication should be accessible, clear, and easily understood so readers can accomplish whatever they need by using the message you create. Now let’s lay some groundwork by discussing the basics of technical communication. Of course, to communicate, you must start with something you want to express—information that is directed to someone, and for our purposes we call that someone the “end user.” Users in the domain of technical communication are the rhetorical audience who need our documents for some particular workplace purpose. Tey are the ones that we want to empathize with and plan our writing around in order to give it the strongest efect. For instance, say you are tasked with writing an internal-proposal for your team’s latest brainstorm session. Te end user might be your immediate supervisor, or even the board of directors at your

[6]

tEChnICAl CoMMunICAtIon

company. Your end users in this scenario are the decision-makers: the ones that will read your writing and determine whether or not to spend resources on the new project. While the example of a proposal is a particular genre of technical writing, we should expand our defnition of technical communication to include presentations, reports, descriptions, instructions, audiovisual forms, numerical communications, etc. For instance, in a presentation, the technical communicator would be considering the way a presentation looks and how the design of their communication can help the user stay engaged and how the design might also communicate credibility (or lack thereof). It’s important to keep in mind that technical communication can be used in a variety of forms and that elements of document design can infuence whether an end user will read and understand the message or whether the document appears confusing or frustrating. Now we need to focus in on technical writing as a vital category within technical communication, with a functional defnition of its own. Technical writing can be defned as the delivery of practical, scientifc, or mechanical information in a way that is clear, accurate, and easily accessible for a specifc group of people. As we said above, we defne those people as users, since the kind of writing we’re talking about is used routinely by people to solve problems in daily life.

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ChAPtEr 1

Technical communication is also the way important information is shared and passed on in scientifc or engineering sites and workplaces. Although there are a lot of types of technical writing, they're all tied together by a defnition that includes the everyday goals of the end user. Te defnitions below are not mutually exclusive, but important to take into account as features and goals of good technical writing. Technical writing should: •

Transmit what may be detailed and complex information as quickly and clearly as possible. Although the material may be

difcult, your goal is to pass it on to your end user in a succinct and efective manner. Communicate with appropriate complexity, using the right vocabulary, for the user and situation. You must know who your users are and what they need the information for.

•

Use standardized forms, called genres, that follow expected and familiar conventions. In this way, technical users can un-

derstand more information on the frst read and avoid slogging through an unfamiliar format. It’s the mark of a professional to learn how to communicate in the genre of the community you’re trying to inform or persuade. Anticipate what your end user expects and communicate according to those expectations through problem-solving and critical thinking.

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tEChnICAl CoMMunICAtIon

•

Be objective. Objectivity is required in most instances of tech-

nical writing because the information is what’s important, not the opinion of the writer. Being objective signals that the focus is on facts, not feelings. Objectivity can assist in presenting a message clearly, without imposing barriers that opinion or bias can create, such as emotion-based disagreements or responses.

Even though technical writing requires objectivity and the human element isn’t always present in the writing itself, the technical writer should be conscious that her or his end user is made up of real people with real problems. Burying meaning in difcult jargon or convoluted phrasing (sometimes called “legalese,” “academese,” or any other “-ese” depending on the audience) will frustrate the user’s goal of getting quickly to the pertinent information they need. Rather, the meaning should be clear and accessible so information is useful and comprehensible. Attention to the conventions of technical writing, appropriate complexity, proper objectivity, and consideration of the circumstances and needs of readers will result in superior technical writing. Technical writing isn’t just one kind of writing. You’ll have to make choices and alter your style, the information you include, the complexity of the information, and your tone (as well as a host of other elements) depending on the writing situation. Tese elements determine the genre of your communication.

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ChAPtEr 1

Te genres (standardized forms) of technical writing can vary greatly. Genre in technical writing is a kind of language. It’s the mark of a professional to learn how to communicate in the genre of the community you’re trying to inform or persuade. Your genre and end user are critical elements to consider when creating a piece of technical writing. It requires studying multiple examples of the genre and lots of practice. In Part II you will learn how to master the many diferent kinds of technical genres that you will encounter in the workplace. Attention to these aspects of technical writing will help insure your eforts are successful. However, the very best technical writing is aware of its user on a level that surpasses the ordinary. Writing stands out when the end user has been taken into account beforehand. We will discuss using empathy and the other steps of design thinking in Chapter 2. When you successfully master the needs of your user, your potential with a particular piece of writing increases exponentially. Te goal is to be as user accessible (and efcient) as possible. Most novice writers focus on the end results of efective writing, but experienced writers start with asking questions. Te purpose of the next chapter is to help you fnd the right questions to ask to make sure you write and design documents that help users. To aid you in this process, this text uses the design-centric model to improve your technical writing and communication skills.

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2

CHAPTER

Design-Centric Communication Chapter outline I. II. III. IV. V. VI.

Introduction to Design thinking Empathize Define Ideate Prototype test

ChAPtEr 2

Introduction to Design Thinking Most novice writers think of the writing process as just one thing: writing. However, working professionals know that there’s a lot more to writing than just sitting down and typing. Tis chapter is about a writing process that draws heavily from design thinking to create user-centered documents. Design thinking is a creative strategy used by professionals who thoughtfully consider how the products they create will be used by real people. Tese products can range from scientifc inventions to simple workplace practices like fling, but they all aim to solve real-world issues.

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Design-centric thinking originated in creative theory and grew to encompass a way of thinking and approaching the world. Te design-centered approach is composed of the following steps: Empathize, Define, Ideate, Prototype, and Test. Te steps of the design-centric approach are just as helpful when they are translated into your writing process. Adding writing vernacular to the fve design-centered steps might look something like the following: 1. Empathize with your intended user. 2. Defne the purpose behind what you are writing. 3. Ideate and brainstorm your ideas. 4. Prototype and draf your message. 5. Test and revise your work. Making use of design-thinking steps in the writing process provides us with a way to empower our thinking before, during, and afer the creation of a piece of technical writing. It is a strong base from which to improve and fne-tune your writing process. Te most impactful part of the design-centric approach is its special focus on the user’s needs from the very beginning. Taking empathy into account and thinking about your purpose and message increases the strength and efectiveness of your writing. Tese fve steps are not linear; you can move forward or backward through them in any order during your writing process. In the de-

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sign world, these steps connect you to your user’s needs, determine your direction, help you execute your intention, and review your work. Tey also facilitate thinking outside of any “box” and coming up with new ideas and ingenious work-arounds. At frst, it may be frustrating to incorporate so many elements into your writing process, but you’ll improve with practice. Te diferent elements of the design-centered approach may overlap; questions like, “What is my end user’s background knowledge on this subject?” could pertain to both “empathize” and “defne,” but knowing where the elements difer—to be sure you’re asking all the necessary questions—will set you apart as an extremely efective technical communicator.

Empathize Te frst step in design-centric thinking is empathy. In our modern digital world of faceless communication, it can be difcult to imagine fesh and blood humans at the other end. When you send an email it goes…where? Cultivating an awareness of the person at the other end—engaging with our capacity to empathize—is how professional writers “psych out” the reader. When solving a customer issue, for example, a design team won’t fall back on statistical data or imaginary consumers, but instead will look for real consumers and use observations and survey data to understand them. A team might begin by studying consumer habits, all the while working to better understand who the consumers are and what they need.

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DEsIGn-CEntrIC CoMMunICAtIon

Understanding end user needs will be the frst important step in your writing process to craf efective technical documents. In writing, we call this an ability to empathize with your reader. But how is it done? Everyone has the ability to utilize empathy, but like anything else in this book it must be cultivated through deliberate practice. Te frst step is to start asking questions about users. You must cultivate curiosity and imagination to do it. Writers and communicators with empathy have learned the art of listening hard, doing all they can to understand the emotional and workplace needs of their reader. Te ability to impart emotion from yourself to your reader is a critical skill for designers, and writers. If you can communicate with your audience in this way, the intended efect of your communication is bolstered by your connection.

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ChAPtEr 2

Although empathy may seem like an abstract concept that can be difcult to pin down, it is known as the ability to be acutely aware of another person. It is seeing and sensing a person, and considering that person’s needs within one’s own mind. When we write we may unintentionally focus inward, leading to self-centeredness. But we want our writing to be for the reader (user), not the writer, and that requires transferring attention to the end user as soon as possible. Empathetic writing starts by asking questions. Writers want to know as much as they can before they work to inform or persuade readers. In this way, writers who engage in empathy are demonstrating their curiosity about their readers.

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We want our professional writing to predict desires and anticipate problems; in short, we want to produce communication that responds to the needs of our user. In the rest of this chapter you will learn how and when to apply empathy to your writing, especially as a design-centered thinker, to predict desires and produce superior professional communication. Getting to know your user is a key part of the step to empathize. Te needs of your user determine many of your choices as you communicate technical information. You can expect your documents to be read by four types of end users: Primary readers: Tese readers are your intended end users.

Generally, the information you provide will allow them to make decisions or take action, so you must understand why they want to receive your technical communication and what they’ll do with it. Tese readers may have any level of technical expertise.

Secondary readers: Tese readers may not be your intended users,

but they’ll ofen read your documents and advise primary readers in how they should approach your communication. Tey’re usually experts in their feld and will know what to look for, good or bad, in your communication.

Tertiary readers: As the name suggests, these are third-party readers who are unassociated with you as the creator of a document, or with the primary users of the document. Tese individuals search for problems in your technical writing. Tey can be journalists,

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activists, auditors, or competitors of your primary readers. Tey ofen are motivated to protect themselves or others from inaccurate information, incomplete logic, or unethical practices that could occur in documents they examine. Gatekeepers: Tese readers review technical communication be-

fore it reaches the primary readers. Tey could be individuals who advocate for you or for another party. Typically, your own supervisor will act as gatekeeper, but other administrators or lawyers from your organization may need to approve your documents as well. Gatekeepers’ interests lie in protecting you and your organization from ethical or legal problems, as well as ensuring that the information communicated is accurate and efective.

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DEsIGn-CEntrIC CoMMunICAtIon

Being curious about rather than afraid of who your readers will be is perhaps the best way to develop empathy and understanding. You begin by asking important questions: what do potential readers care about? What do they expect from this document? Why do they need this document? What problem(s) does this document need to solve for them? Where and when might they use this document? Once you’ve posed these questions, it’s time to listen carefully to what your readers have to say. Ofen, people will answer questions you didn’t think to ask as they explain their needs and circumstances, but they can expect that you, as a professional, will incorporate everything they say into a better document. Keep asking questions until you have a solid sense of why readers might need your piece of communication. If you don’t have direct access to your end user, as mentioned at the start of this chapter, you must learn to use your imagination and place yourself in your readers’ shoes. Try to answer each of the above questions as if you were the end user yourself. You may need to do some research about situations and needs generally, even if you can’t get specifc details. Getting a sense of user needs requires time, but it’s time well spent. Te specifc groups and sub-groups that your intended users belong to will determine the more specifc levels of your writing. All of us belong to multiple groups at any point in time. You may be an engineer, but you are also, perhaps, a son, a member of your local

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recreational baseball team, and a citizen of the United States. You will be infuenced diferently based on which role you are operating within. Te same principle applies to your intended readership when you write something. Are you writing to white collar employees as a whole, or to attorneys specifcally? Do you mean to speak more to conservative or moderate Americans? Consider that, “to really understand somebody else, we have to attempt to understand where that person is coming from. Tis is a broader view of empathy that requires us to attend to diferences not only in positions but in personal histories, cultural contexts,

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and individual preferences” (Leake). Who exactly are the people you are writing for? Tis is what you must determine. Is this a beginner you are dealing with, or do they already have some background? Are you writing to a general audience or a group in particular? You might determine such things as: what professional role is your reader in? What is their background? What is their world view? Level of education? You can move on from their descriptors, to the ways in which they may be approaching your writing: what are they looking for and/or anticipating? Consider it from their angle: how will they view your topic and approach you as author? Why will they be picking it up or pulling it up on their computer and what could they expect to fnd there? Each of these and more are important considerations as you focus in on your end user. Knowing more specifcally who you anticipate them to be will make writing with empathy much easier. Identifying exactly who your user is will add an extra measure of specifcity and control. When you are in the mind frame to engage with that user, your writing will form to ft the purpose, and this specifcity will be obvious to readers.

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ChAPtEr 2

You engage empathy when you fne-tune to your users and think through these types of points in your pre-writing patterns. Unfortunately, unlike in design thinking, professional writers rarely have a pool of end users that they can interview, although it’s recommended that a professional writer glean as much information as possible from external stakeholders. Te best alternative is to build an outline around user needs. For example, say a writer is composing an instruction manual for technicians who perform repairs on industrial machinery. Te writer needs to create an outline of who these technicians are and how they’ll use the manual on the job. Tis outline should be written down so that the writer can refer back to it while he or she is drafing. Doing so will ensure that the writer stays on topic and can remember the end user’s needs while writing. You can utilize empathy by simply learning more about those you hope to create a product for. If you know all there is to know about who you’re writing for, you are going to care more about the end product. We must have meaning behind what we are doing to care about it. In what ways will our eforts inform or afect them for the better? If we know this, we will naturally fnd ourselves putting in more efort.

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https://images.app.goo.gl/7fmjNkLeCwkbRbt5

Logically and mentally connecting with the person or group that we’re doing something for will immediately increase our efciency and output.

Define Defne is the next step in the design-centric process. Tis is when you gather the information you have found and proceed with it. It is when you determine what the “so what?” will be of the research you gather. In the design world, this step focuses on the problem you’re trying to solve. Te key is to defne it as a specifc challenge that needs a solution. You want it to be something along the lines of a statement that clearly lays out the intended situation to be fxed. Lay out the problem in the simplest terms to efectively narrow in on the aim of the fnal product.

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ChAPtEr 2

Your problem statement should not be too narrow, since doing this limits potential approaches and ideas. If you fear being too broad or too narrow, err on the side of being too broad when defning the document’s purpose. You can increase in specifcity as you move forward with your writing, but it is more difcult to try and expand your ideas afer establishing prior parameters. Do well in this second defne step in order to keep the remainder of your project on track. With a well-defned and established problem to solve, your focus will remain clear on what is required to accomplish it. Hopefully you are taking from your prior step, incorporating what you have learned from looking at your end user. Utilizing that to

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inform your end goal is the entire point of the frst empathizing step. If you keep your purpose focused on the user, your project will remain user-oriented throughout. Take a look at everything you gathered in the empathize stage. Find a way to consolidate it—visually, if possible. Combine and synthesize the information into one problem to be tackled. You might ask a series of questions in order to determine your statement aim. For instance, you could use the classic “Who, what, where, and why” questions. Who is this for? What is the purpose? Where does this apply? Why should this project be taken on? In writing terms then, the goal in the defne step is to determine your purpose for writing. What is your mission and hope with this piece? How might you see yourself reaching the purpose that you hope your writing addresses to your user? What is the hole you’re trying to fll with your writing? Try to bring your thoughts together thus far, to make your path forward clear. If you can determine this, you will be well on your way. Tis step is part of the process inherent in design-centric thinking to frst understand. You cannot write about something without frst understanding where you want to end up.

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Ideate Te next step in this design-centric model has to do with exploration and looking for many possible solutions to meet your end user’s particular needs. Don’t be afraid to consider radically diferent solutions for your writing problem, even if they seem to confict with each other. Ernest Hemingway once said that he chose to “write drunk” but “edit sober,” the sentiment being that one should try and create unhindered but revise with care. Along those same lines, you should test the boundaries of your writing: imagine ideas without assuming they need to obey certain rules. Let yourself be free to imagine or conceive of something new. Te concept design thinkers seem to live by is no idea is too stupid to be tested and follows the principle that even simple ideas can develop into powerful solutions to problems when allowed to grow. Just sitting in a room and waiting for someone to propose an idea is not going to do the job. Tere needs to be a direction for ideas to emerge: the purpose and/or problem that was laid out in the defne step. If you haven’t done this yet, you will need to back up and create it or you will not know what your ideas are moving toward. Te ideate step is where all the brainstorming happens! Stir them all up—crazy ideas, bad ones, worthwhile ones, half-hearted ones. No idea is unacceptable right now! You can always parse things down later to your best material. Writers need to be willing to try

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any strategy and throw out ideas that don’t work for their readers, even if they’ve invested signifcant time and energy into a single strategy. Use some kind of tool to organize and channel what you are coming up with. Tere are many methods with which you might inspire and urge creativity and idea generation. A wall, a dry erase board, a spreadsheet, a quick-write exercise, etc. Te possibilities are endless in order to rouse your brain. Some methods will work better for you or your team than others. You will need to have some sort of format or method, however, in order for your ideation process to go smoothly. What is going to create a comfortable environment and help people to share? You are going to achieve more and/or better feedback if all

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ChAPtEr 2

parties involved are not afraid to speak up and share the thoughts they are having. If the people in attendance are not familiar with one another, you might even do some work beforehand in the form of activities or other technique, in order to get people more comfortable with one another. Te point behind this is to create a space where the next big idea can be found. Tis won’t happen if people don’t feel as if they can share diferent, big, or out-there ideas. Te more brains the better on this, so recruit people if you need more thoughts fowing to your project. Now to take what has been thought of and whittle it down to the best choice(s). Tis can also be done in numerous ways; pick the most efective for you.

Prototype We now come to the fourth step, where we make our frst versions and fesh out an actual shadow of what we want to create. Te goal of this stage is to work out as many kinks as possible before a product is released or produced. If we can fnd the issues now, we’ll be in much better shape than if we were to make critical mistakes in a real-life version. Prototyping allows you to test these things out. Te most efective prototype will be one that answers the questions your team has.

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Know what you are hoping to fnd out in these “beta tests.” Te key to this step, frankly, is for the writer to fail. For design thinkers, that means they construct their best ideas out of cheap materials: plywood, popsicle sticks, Elmer’s Glue, and so on. For writers, we call this process creating, or materializing, a rough draf.

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ChAPtEr 2

Never assume that your frst draf will be your fnal draf. Mizrahi explains: “A frst draf is one of several stabs you’ll take at this work. . . . Your goal at this stage of the writing process for both short and longer documents is to put something down on paper (or the screen) that you will revise later. It’s a waste of your valuable time to labor over any individual word or sentence as you write your draf; the word or sentence may be eliminated by the fnal version.” Te whole point of drafing is experimentation, and the more variants you attempt, the more duds you can eliminate from your writing. Similar to the principle of building several prototypes, writers can experiment with syntactic approaches to an idea without limiting themselves by worrying about failure. For example, I may fnd that an alphabetical approach doesn’t work for repair technicians. Tey may get frustrated by an organization that doesn’t read as intuitive, which may make them angry and careless as they attempt to make repairs. If you fnd that an idea that you thought would work actually makes life more difcult for your users, you have a duty to revise until you have a draf that helps rather than hinders them. Starting on a frst draf can be hard: initiating frst steps and starting up your writing process. But in some ways this is the most important stage, because you can’t create a second, improved version without putting the frst one down.

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Just as with testing a version on an app, each new iteration of your writing will increase in quality. Sometimes drafing or prototyping itself gives you new or reformed ideas for your direction. Tis is all part of the process.

Test Testing is connecting our prototype step with our initial project aim and comparing notes. Did our prototype meet our needs and our design aim? What might need to be changed or added?

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Te best thing to do is run it by users and get their reactions and feedback. Again, the “users” in writing scenarios are our readers/intended audience. Running it by them is to have people proofread or review your writing, for feedback and any errors they may see. Tis stage might send you back to the prototype stage to try again, or even back to the ideate or defne stage if your approach gets really shaken up by new ideas and feedback from users. In an app test situation, you are getting people to try the app and point out any faws, their opinion, and ask questions of them in order to learn what kind of experience they are having with it. You want to get any negative feedback now so that changes are in your hands before you send it out. As a writer, do the same thing. Let test users have the “product” you have created, learning where you can improve and what they would suggest you tweak. If anything is not clear about their feedback, make sure to ask questions to ensure you know everything you need to about their experience as users. By bringing your best ideas to life and testing them with potential end users, you’ll learn quickly how to improve. Ofen, users may think they know what they want until they’re confronted with it. In the design world, when given a prototype that meets their specifcations, users ofen discover new problems or issues with their initial concerns. Do you see how this might apply to writing?

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DEsIGn-CEntrIC CoMMunICAtIon

Particular stakeholders similarly might suggest a particular set of ideas be included in a draf, but once they see those ideas integrated into the whole document they quickly notice that their needs aren’t being met by the piece of writing. Writers, like design teams, need to prepare themselves for when readers dislike their frst, second, or even third drafs. But each attempt provides more information, more data to help solve the problem and address the need. It’s important to remember with writing to not give up and to be okay with failing.

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Te idea behind the test step falls in line with that of a user-driven process and especially the use of empathy. Writers need to learn what the user thinks of the product so that it can be rehabbed accordingly. Review your test results closely and consider all input. Tis will only make your fnal product stronger. Don’t stop the writing process until you have something great. Afer several attempts, the writer and test readers will fnd a draf that works, and the writer will be better prepared to edit the writing and introduce a new technical document. Te design-centric model, derived from design thinking, is a nonlinear approach to resolving business issues that aligns easily with eforts to write a strong, professional piece of writing. By following the ideas in this chapter to help you plan and organize your technical writing, you’ll be prepared to turn a previously blank page into a piece of writing that perfectly suits the purposes of your end user.

Check Your Understanding 1. 2. 3.

What is design thinking and what is it used for? What are the fve parts of design-centered thinking? Which step is going to be most benefcial to your writing process?

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3

CHAPTER

Style Chapter outline I. II.

what Is style? Plain style i. Cohesion ii. Coherence iii. Clarity iv. Correctness III. Persuasive style IV. Intercultural Communication

ChAPtEr 3

B

efore we jump into the diferent genres that are typical within professional writing, it’s important that we understand some principles of style and grammar that, if mastered, can strengthen all our writing, regardless of genre.

What Is Style? Style is your manner of communication. If the message is the content, then the style is the way you present the message. Style is like personality. It can be cheerful, professional, to-the-point, fowery, rude, humorous, and so on.

Many elements contribute to how your style is perceived, but all style involves putting words into sentences, sentences into paragraphs, paragraphs into sections, and sections into whole documents. Novice technical writers sometimes assume that style refers to one’s “personal style.” While you may develop such a style over time, the emphasis in technical writing is in communicating information clearly and quickly to your reader. You should adjust your style so that it serves the needs of your reader rather than fulflling your own creative impulses. When beginning your career, it’s important to realize that good writing isn’t something anyone is born with. Learning to write clearly and correctly in any language usually requires years of efort.

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stylE

See your career—no matter what it is—as a lifelong exploration of good writing. Continue to practice even as your style improves. Traditionally, there are three main types of style: plain, persuasive, and grand style. Technical writing is mostly written in plain style, but it can have elements of persuasive style, depending on the purpose of the documents you’re writing. •

Plain style focuses on reader comprehension.

•

Persuasive style aims to infuence reader

•

Grand style is meant to be impressive and

It’s characterized by simple sentence structures, emphasis on factual information, and directness.

opinion. It’s characterized by an emphasis on logic, examples, and personal values.

emotionally moving. Te audience recognizes artistry in grand style, more so than in plain or persuasive style.

Tink of your audience. What style will be most efective for you to use with them? Will a plain style get your point across, or would some persuasive elements be fruitful? You will need to decide if being direct will communicate best, or adding enhancing examples will be better.

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Tis chapter will only explain plain and persuasive style—grand style is generally used in literary or artistic writing. Before we look at the characteristics of the traditional plain and persuasive styles, we’ll learn how to decide which overall style is best for a particular writing situation by using design thinking.

Plain Style Technical style is plain style. Its main features can be divided among the four c’s: cohesion, coherence, clarity, and correctness. Tis section will describe how you can achieve these stylistic features.

I. Cohesion

Cohesion refers to the way separate and distinct elements come together to form a united whole. When a bricklayer builds a building, he uses bricks, stuck together with cement, to form walls. As a writer, you use sentences, linked with transition words, to form paragraphs. Using cohesion strategies like parallelism, topic strings, and the old-new contract will help make your wall not only stick together, but also look better. In other words, they’ll give your writing style. We will go over all three of them in this section. Sentences While you must choose and use proper words and phrases to make your meaning clear, cohesion really begins on the level of the sentence. Sentences must be correct, clear, and direct, especially in documents describing technical subjects.

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Sentences ofen follow this structure: subject–verb–complement Te subject is the actor of the sentence. Te verb is the action. So, in a sentence like “He slept,” he is the subject and “slept” is the verb. But most sentences have more information. Te words that come afer the verb are complements. A complement is a grammatical term referring to all the words beside the subject and verb that complete a sentence. Tese words might describe the scene or goal of an action. For example, in a sentence such as “He slept soundly,” the word “soundly” is the complement. In a longer sentence like “He slept from midnight until noon,” the words “from midnight until noon” make up the complement. If a sentence has a complement, it should match up with the established scene or goal of the action.

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In a cohesive sentence, all of the words need to come together to form a whole that makes sense and flls its purpose. Tis is especially important in technical writing, since each piece of writing serves a specifc—and ofen vital—purpose. Te words the, rider, three, of, times, horse, and threw have clear meanings, but when you put them together, the sentence isn’t cohesive: Example: Te rider three of the times horse threw.

Tis sounds like nonsense because these words cannot come together this way and have meaning. Tis time, the words are placed in a cohesive relationship to each other: Example: Te horse threw the rider of three times.

Technical communicators must bring words together in recognizable and acceptable ways to create meaningful sentences. Paragraphs

Paragraphs are collections of sentences that have the same main

idea. Make sure to announce your topic clearly and in a predictable position (like a topic sentence) so readers can easily follow your subject and logic. Each of these sentences is cohesive, but the paragraph is jarring because the sentences don’t fow together to form a united whole: Example: A lazy dog lay down in the road and licked his jaws.

Surgery is one option for people who were born with legs of dif-

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stylE

ferent lengths. Te severe thunderstorm warning for the county will end this evening at fve p.m. However, you’ll have to pay a fee if you wait until the last day to take the test. When you use a topic sentence, it’s like giving your reader a window to the paragraph. Tey can expect everything in the paragraph to make sense based on the frame you provided in your topic sentence: Example: A severe weather warning was issued for Douglas

County this afernoon. Te National Weather service defnes a severe thunderstorm as one that produces winds of at least ffy-eight miles per hour or hail one inch in diameter or about the size of a quarter. Since a severe thunderstorm warning typically means that a tornado could form at any time, residents of the county are advised to seek shelter immediately. Te severe thunderstorm warning will end this evening at fve p.m.

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In technical writing, diferent paragraphs have specifc functions. Introductory paragraphs prepare your readers for the main ideas in a text. Concluding paragraphs wrap everything up and remind readers of the most important points. Short transitional paragraphs move documents from one idea to the next. Body paragraphs, which form the bulk of most documents, inform or persuade your reader, depending on whether plain or persuasive style is appropriate for the context. Transitions If sentences are bricks and paragraphs are walls, transitions are the cement that sticks the bricks together. Transitions provide connections between ideas. Transitions can be a word such as “nevertheless,” a phrase like “as you can see,” or even a sentence: “What follows is another way to solve the problem�” When you use words, phrases, and sentences to show relationships between your ideas, you help your readers understand the overall message of the document. More than merely useful, transitions are critical as guideposts through sometimes challenging ideas and help readers to move forward instead of becoming mired down in details. Use transitions to connect sentences and form fowing, readable paragraphs: Example: Finally, Brotherson and Craf will be providing every

employee with a new ofce chair. Te new chairs are designed

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with the well-being of the operator in mind. For example, each chair is equipped with small-cell foam padding in the seat, a curved backrest, sof armrests with adjustable height, and a tilt feature that transfers body weight to the backrest. Ultimately, the chairs will contribute to the long-term health of our employees, and workplace injuries are projected to decrease by up to 35 percent. Each transition word lets readers know a little bit about how the sentence relates to the sentence afer it. “Finally” implies that this is

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the last main point or topic in a larger piece. “For example” tells you an example is coming. “Ultimately” suggests a fnal piece of information and signals that the section or piece is coming to a close. Tese kinds of words tell your readers what to expect, which helps them make sense of the information you provide. Next, we’ll go over a few ways to add style while still maintaining cohesive paragraphs: parallelism, topic strings, and the old-new contract. Parallelism

Parallelism is a grammatical structure that signals equivalent relationships between ideas. To create parallel structure, use words that have the same function (like all verbs or all nouns) to indicate two or more ideas of equal importance. Parallelism can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level.

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Incorrect: Te technician was told to clean his equipment

and that his laboratory bill must be paid at once.

Correct: Te technician was told to clean his equipment

and to pay the laboratory bill at once.

In the incorrect example, the grammar is fawed. In the sentence, the technician was told two things: “to clean his equipment” and “that his laboratory bill must be paid.” Te frst verb is to clean, which is an active verb, with the technician as the clear actor. Te second verb is “must be paid” and is a passive verb, with the actor of the verb unclear. (Learn more about active and passive voice in the “Active Voice” section later in the chapter.) Te two diferent kinds of verbs create unnecessary confusion about who will do the action in the sentence. Te parallel sentence corrects the problem by using two active verbs: “to clean” and “to pay.” Te verbs both work the same way, clarifying the actor of the sentence as the technician. Here’s another example: Incorrect: Add water and oil and air to the tires. Correct: Add water and oil to the motor and air to the tires.

Te frst sentence doesn’t explain where the water and oil should go. Without explaining that detail, the sentence sounds like water, oil, and air should all go in the tires. Te parallel example provides more information—clarifying action. Parallel constructions eliminate opportunities for confusion. Pay special attention to your

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headings and bulleted lists. For example, if a heading begins with a command verb, the others should too. Or if one item in a bulleted list is a complete sentence, the rest should be as well. Topic Strings Topic strings are consecutive sentences that all begin with the same actor (the sentence’s subject, who does the action). Example: Te Director of Internal Afairs is initiating a new

screening process. He used to work for a security frm. He believes the new process will keep client secrets safe. As DIA, he aims to raise the bar on company ethics and promote more trust with both new and former clients. Sentences can all begin with the same word, or they can use synonyms or pronouns that directly refer to the original subject. So long as you refer to the actor in the same spot in each sentence, readers will clearly see the new information’s relationship to the old. Topic strings won’t ft in every paragraph, but if you’re writing multiple sentences about a single subject, they can make your writing look streamlined and professional. Let’s apply topic strings to a non-human subject—our previous example about severe thunderstorm warnings: Example: Severe Tunderstorm Warnings are issued when the

wind is at least ffy-eight miles per hour or there is a risk of hail at least one inch in diameter. Tey originate with the National Weather service. Tey can be put into efect without a Severe Tunderstorm Watch already being in place. Severe Tunderstorm Warnings are typically in efect for one hour.

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Old-New Contract To use the old-new contract, simply restate something you already said before you introduce something new. Far from being repetitive, this strategy explains how new information relates to what’s come before. Te following paragraph is a good example of the old-new contract. Note how each sentence refers back to the topic (or frst) sentence. Giving readers that reference point helps them to make sense of a paragraph that otherwise seems dense with information: Example: During the late 1950s, Dr. James Folsom created an

intervention technique called reality orientation (RO) for health care personnel to use with elderly persons with dementia, who are ofen confused about where they are and who they’re with. Tis intervention is based on the premise that an individual’s ability to function within their environment is directly related

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to their degree of orientation to that environment. Using this technique, health care workers are instructed to reorient individuals whenever they become confused about person, place, or time. Reality orientation can be administered on a constant basis (called 24-hour RO) as health care staf interact with confused individuals alone or in a group to help them memorize facts to act appropriately in their current environment. Each of the emphasized words or phrases in the previous paragraph not only begins a new sentence, but each also ties back to the original topic sentence of the paragraph. When you refer back to known information, make sure to begin a sentence or paragraph with: • • •

Information your reader already knows or can infer. Information that’s easy to understand. Information that’s short and simple.

People remember best what is said last, so it’s a good idea to put new information at the end of a sentence or paragraph. Tis new information should be: • • •

Information your reader isn’t likely to know. Information that you want to emphasize. Information that’s complex or lengthy.

Te old-new contract allows your reader to more easily follow and absorb technical content.

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II. Coherence

Coherence is the quality of systemic or logical connections be-

tween ideas. Each word, phrase, and sentence should move smoothly and logically to the next.

Style is closely linked to logic and reasoning. If you’re creating a logical order of events, your readers want to see all the elements of the logic. In persuasive writing, sometimes a writer may leave out some parts of an argument so she or he can emphasize a particular point of view. Technical writers have an obligation to include all relevant information. A good way to show all your logic is to use deductive and inductive reasoning. In construction, it’s important to have high-quality materials to make a solid building. In writing, your materials are sentences and paragraphs and they must be coherent to construct a solid document.

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Good sentences tell a story and make it easy to visualize a scene: Example: Little Miss Mufet sat on a tufet, eating her curds and whey.

However, writers sometimes try to embellish sentences by using complicated words and long-winded sentences. Tey mistakenly think that complex sentences make them look smarter. So instead of writing something like the previous sentence, they might write something like this: Example: Little Miss Mufet reclined upon a tufet for the

purpose of ingesting curds and whey.

Tis sentence is still coherent, but it’s harder to understand. Te writer has replaced short, easily comprehensible words with ones that sound more impressive because they have Latin roots or sounded cool in the thesaurus. You’ve probably seen this style in academic texts; it’s sometimes called “academese” or “bureaucratese.” Deductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning, also known as a syllogism, draws a logical conclusion from step-by-step information. A syllogism is made of three parts: a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. A major premise is a generally accepted piece of information. A minor premise is a specifc application of the major premise. A conclusion is a logical statement that results if the frst two premises are true.

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Te conclusion in this example may seem pretty obvious, but that’s what a syllogism is designed to do. With all the elements clearly spelled out, your readers will have no doubt about the logic of your conclusions. Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning takes more than one piece of empirical (observable and measurable) evidence and draws a conclusion based on that evidence. Tis kind of evidence is common in scientifc experiments where scientists test a hypothesis using observation. Unlike deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning allows for the possibility that the conclusion is false. With inductive reasoning, you create an argument for the probability of a conclusion.

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Major premise: A truck is a vehicle with a cab, a bed, and at least two doors. Minor premise: Tis vehicle has a cab, a bed, and four doors. Conclusion: Tis vehicle is a truck.

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A simple way to understand inductive reasoning is that it moves from specifc to general and then reaches a conclusion. Specific: Tis plant has long white petals, a green stem, and

spiky leaves.

More general: Daisies have those characteristics. Most general: Tis plant is a daisy.

Inductive reasoning is especially important in technical writing that tries to make a new claim based on research. In a technical document, you must describe all the relevant evidence that leads to the conclusion, including the strengths and weaknesses of the evidence.

III. Clarity

Clarity in writing refers to the absence of ambiguity. Avoid writing anything that will confuse your readers or leave them asking questions about what you meant. Following are some principles meant to help you write more clearly: Accuracy Accuracy is essential in technical writing. Ethics require that you make sure that every fgure, number, and citation in your work is as accurate as possible. However, as a writer, you must also decide how many details are necessary to give an accurate picture of the situation. Tis aspect is linked to the next principle, brevity. For the sake of accuracy, you should include specifc details, but only those that are necessary for the readers to achieve their purpose.

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Te following paragraphs show the diference between giving lots of accurate details versus giving enough details to provide an accurate picture without burdening your reader with unneeded information. Example 1: Hay Manor, the house belonging to Hay Park, is 8,909

square feet. Te park is situated along the west branch of the Salt Creek, which is 43 miles long and 10 feet wide at its widest point, and lies half a mile southeast of the manor house. Te whole estate of Hay Park is 25 acres, which were purchased in 1873 by Colonel William Cowpen, who helped established Hay County. Hay Park was the county seat of Hay County from 1885 until the Colonel’s death in 1916, afer which the county seat was moved to Roy. Hay Manor boasts real hardwood foors over two-thirds of the house, with a fagstone entry hall and carpet in all the bedrooms except the master.

Example 2: Hay Manor is over 8,000 square feet and sits on 25 acres

along Salt Creek. It was the county seat of Hay County and home of Colonel William Cowpen for 31 years and boasts real hardwood foors in much of the house.

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Te frst example contains accurate details, but it could be overwhelming for a reader who is skimming a list of houses for sale. Te historical and geographical details included in the frst paragraph would be more appropriate for readers who are already interested in the house and wanted to know more. Te second paragraph also provides accurate information, but it’s pared down to make reading easier. Striking the balance between enough and too much information can be difcult for novice writers, but as with any principle in this book, you’ll improve with practice. To help with this, always keep the purpose of the document in mind when deciding what relevant details to include. Brevity Allied with accuracy is brevity, or writing concisely and using economy of language. Technical readers want to understand the content of your documents as quickly as possible, so be brief. Don’t waste your readers’ time with long, involved sentences. Many beginning technical writers assume the complexity of their sentences should match the complexity of the subject material for their work to be taken seriously. Actually, it’s usually in your best interests to choose simple words and phrases. [ 54 ]

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Language is remarkably versatile, and there are typically many ways to express any given concept. You should strive to match the formality of the writing situation without becoming overblown in your language. Remember that the purpose of technical documents is to help your reader with a practical matter. Tey don’t want to wade through difcult sentences and endless blocks of text to get to the information they need. Here are some tips for keeping text brief: • • • •

Keep sentences short. Choose simple words over complex ones. Avoid adding unnecessary words. Write shorter paragraphs.

The following is a long example:

Difculties were experienced due to the length of the journey between the factory and the store, which caused a certain amount of the product to be unacceptable for shelving. It is our considered opinion that these difculties could be alleviated and perhaps done away with altogether if the product was transported at an optimum temperature for its nature, perhaps in a wheeled conveyance constructed for the purpose of transporting products at cooler temperatures than are generally found to exist in the vehicles currently used for transporting product from the factory to the store.

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And this is an example of brevity:

Because of the long distance from the factory, some of the shipment was already spoiled when it arrived at the store. We recommend that the company use refrigerator trucks to keep the product from going bad en-route to its destination. Te second paragraph is much easier to understand. Readers don’t want to waste their time wading through long explanations when a short one will do. Active/Passive Voice Voice refers to whether a subject does an action or is acted upon. Tere are two voices in English: active and passive. Active voice has a subject that performs an action. When a subject acts upon a verb, the sentence is in active voice. Active voice is direct, bold, and concise. Example: Te jawbone readily attaches itself to a dental implant

in a process called osseointegration.

Passive voice has a subject that is acted upon. Verbs in the passive

voice use state of being verbs like be, have, and will.

Example: Dental implants are attached to the jawbone during a

process called osseointegration.

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You should choose passive voice when: • •

No one knows who or what did the action. Te doer of the action isn’t important.

Many technical documents focus on mechanisms, processes, or fndings. Tese subjects are acted upon, so passive voice is appropriate. For example: Modifcations or additions are made to the system on a regular basis. Manuals are written annually and provided to crew members to keep them updated on major changes. Passive voice is also acceptable if it doesn’t afect the level of engagement with the reader or the clarity of the sentence. Passive voice should be used to improve the variety of sentences, but it shouldn’t be a default sentence structure.

Nominalizations Nominalizations refer to words that have been changed into a noun form. Tese words aren’t inherently bad in writing, but they are ofen longer and more complicated than the original form of the verb, adjective, or adverb. Nominalizations are a major cause of academese writing. [ 57 ]

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For example, analysis is a noun formed from the verb analyze. Te adjective clear can be turned into the noun clarity. Changing the function of words is a handy process, one that gives writers stylistic options. But you’ll run into problems if you use nominalizations more than simple verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. Let’s look at a comparison: Sentence 1: Te analyst completed his compilation of the data with great speed. Sentence 2: Te analyst compiled the data quickly. Sentence 1 requires fve more words than sentence 2 because it uses nominalizations instead of simple verbs and modifers. Imagine an entire article consisting of sentences like sentence 1; it would be about two times longer than one that used more direct phrasing like sentence 2.

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Let’s look at another comparison: Sentence 3: Te placement on a tufet of little Miss Mufet was performed for the ingestion of curds and whey. In this sentence, the verbs place and ingest have been nominalized—they’ve been made into nouns. Te actor in the sentence, Miss Mufet, has also been shifed from the subject position. She should be at the beginning of the sentence, near the verb, so it’s clear who is doing the acting. However, writers can compound the nominalization and make a sentence even more confusing: Sentence 4: Te little Miss Mufet curds and whey ingestion placement on a tufet was performed. Here, the whole action has been turned into a noun. Tat makes it hard to envision what actually happened. Unfortunately, too much professional writing resembles sentence 4. It’s a style that takes too much time to read and write. It also asks readers to work harder than necessary. Vague Pronouns Pronouns stand in for and refer to nouns that came before (these nouns are called antecedents). If a sentence uses a pronoun that doesn’t clearly refer to an antecedent, it’s a vague pronoun. Vague pronouns confuse readers because they do not refer to a specifc noun. It, this, that, and which are common ofenders.

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Incorrect: When you prepare your yard for an in-ground

pool, you must frst dig a large hole. Tis allows your contractors to properly lay a foundation for the water feature. Correct: When you prepare your yard for an in-ground pool, you must frst dig a large hole. Tis step allows your contractors to properly lay a foundation for the water feature. Incorrect: You should also install a door opener, which monitors movement around your home. Correct: You should also install a door opener, a device that monitors movement around your home.

In the incorrect examples, this and which refer vaguely to the ideas listed in the previous sentence. In this scenario, it is unclear to the readers what this or which means. Te correct examples eliminate vagueness by adding an additional subject (this step or a device that). Tis extra information allows readers to clearly understand your intended meaning.

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Word Choice Since technical writing must be accurate and brief, words that have multiple interpretations can confuse your readers. Instead, choose words that have exact, practical meanings. One element of word choice is the use of jargon. Many industries develop jargon, meaning slang or specialized words that only make sense in those industries. Example: Te back bench didn’t run the story about the baseball game. It was spiked because the lead was boring and the whole thing was basically fller. It wasn’t a big surprise, considering that the writer is working on spec.

Tis is journalistic jargon. Te back bench refers to senior journalists who make decisions about production. Te lead is the frst paragraph of a news story and can make or break the whole piece. Filler means that the piece was written to fll gaps in the paper if there were any, but in this case the story was spiked (not published). Tis isn’t a surprise to the writer of the paragraph, however, because the writer of the piece on the baseball game is working on spec, which means that any stories they write are only used if the paper needs more space flled. Jargon is used to shorten the time it takes to read and write industry-specifc documents. Since your documents may be read by people with varying levels of expertise in a number of technical industries, you should avoid using jargon.

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Te only time you should use jargon is when you know the word will be easily understood by your intended audience and there is only one interpretation for the word chosen. If you describe a specialized process, you can use specialized language, but you should use the technical term rather than an industry-specifc word. Most of the time, however, choose a familiar word over a complicated one. Even better, choose words that your readers can picture in their minds.

IV. Correctness

Maintain your authority as a writer by using correct grammar. Technical readers may question your professionalism if they read a document riddled with grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, or typos. Tis textbook doesn’t have enough space to cover every grammatical issue you might encounter in your writing career. (Note: Some of the principles from previous sections are also grammatical rules.) Tis section will present some common grammar issues. Comma Splices A comma splice occurs when two sentences that can stand separately are separated by a comma. Te resulting sentence is long and uncomfortable. To fx the sentence, replace the comma with a period or remove the comma and add a coordinating conjunction. Te coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. Te mnemonic

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device to remember coordinating conjunctions is “fanboys.” Incorrect: A new motor replaced the pulley system, its state-of-the-art design has cut energy losses by a large percentage. Correct (with a period): A new motor replaced the pulley

system. Its state-of the-art design has cut energy losses by a large percentage. Correct (with a coordinating conjunction): A new motor replaced the pulley system, and its state-of-the-art design has cut energy losses by a large percentage.

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers Misplaced modifiers are descriptive phrases that appear to modify the wrong noun due to their placement in a sentence. Incorrect: Now sodden with gravy, Maury ate the stale

baking powder biscuits. Correct: Maury ate the stale baking powder biscuits, now sodden with gravy. In the incorrect example, the modifer sodden with gravy appears to alter the subject, Maury. Te correct sentence makes it clear that the biscuits are sodden, not Maury. Dangling modifiers create confusion because they modify a noun

that’s not in the sentence.

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Incorrect: Afer reading the new book, the movie is sure to be great. Correct: Afer I read the new book, I was convinced that the flm adaptation would be great.

In the incorrect example, it sounds like the movie has just read the new book. Since the movie is an inanimate object and can’t read, the sentence must include a subject to clarify its meaning. Hyphens Hyphens can be a tricky punctuation, and it doesn’t help that some words that seem like they should be hyphenated aren’t and vice versa.

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Examples:

Antipasto Anti-proliferation

Cooperate Co-parent

Titleless Nineteenth-century

Because the conventions of spelling change over time, it’s best to check a good dictionary to fnd out the current status of a word. Tere are certain times when you always use a hyphen, such as in a compound adjective structure. Tis occurs when two words work together to describe a noun, and the compound structure should always come before the noun: Examples:

A well-known actress. Te ear-splitting racket.

Tese sugar-free drinks. His solar-powered home.

If the descriptors come afer the noun, no hyphen is used: Examples:

Te actress was well known. Tese drinks aren’t sugar free. Te racket was ear splitting. His home is solar powered.

Never use a hyphen with an adverb ending in –ly: Incorrect: Her daughter is poorly-dressed. Incorrect: Her son is smartly-dressed.

Tere are other rules for hyphen usage, many of which are covered in Appendix A: Punctuation Guide.

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Pronoun Agreement Pronouns include words like he, she, it, they, and we. Possessive pronouns like his, hers, its, theirs, and ours are used to indicate possession. Pronouns must agree with the number and gender of the original noun: Incorrect: One should always brush his or her teeth. [Be cause one is genderless, it can’t be the antecedent for the gendered his or her.] Correct: One should always brush one’s teeth. Correct: People should always brush their teeth. Incorrect: Payday loans should only be used as a last resort.

It can ruin your credit score. Correct: Payday loans should only be used as a last resort. Tey can ruin your credit score.

With pronouns, it’s also important to avoid ambiguity. A misidentifed pronoun can change the meaning of a whole sentence or paragraph and will frustrate your readers: Ambiguous: If husbands knew more about how their wives communicate, they would be happier. [Does they refer to husbands or wives?] Better: Husbands would be happier if they knew more about how their wives communicate. Ambiguous: Te university’s policy makes it the guilty party,

not the students. [Does it refer to the university or the policy?] Better: Te university, not the students, is guilty because of its policy.

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Ambiguous: Especially critical to Hitler’s early success were his invasion of Poland, reclaiming of the Sudetenland, and quiet annexation of Austria. Tis strengthened his power base. [What exactly does this refer to?] Better: Especially critical to Hitler’s success were his invasion of Poland, reclaiming of the Sudetenland, and quiet an nexation of Austria. All three actions strengthened his power base.

Commonly Misused Words Te following words represent a small sampling of common errors that a word processor’s spell check may not catch because it doesn’t know what you’re trying to say. Technology can do a lot to help a writer, but it’s still up to you to know what you’re trying to say, to pick the right words, and to make sure your meaning is clear to your audience. Less versus Fewer Less refers to objects or concepts that can’t be counted individually

(like liquids), while fewer is used for countable items.

Incorrect: I had fewer time to fnish my homework this

week.

Correct: I had less time to fnish my homework this week. Incorrect: I ate less cookies than anyone else at the party. Correct: I ate fewer cookies than anyone else at the party.

Less is also used when talking about individual items that tend to be grouped into one bulk amount:

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Example: I don’t take an airplane if I am traveling less than

fve hundred miles. Example: I make less than eight dollars an hour. Lay versus Lie

To understand the diference between these verbs, it’s important to understand the diference between transitive and intransitive verbs. Transitive verbs take an object, as in “I maintained product quality.”

In this sentence, product quality is the object. “I maintained” doesn’t make sense by itself.

Conversely, intransitive verbs don’t take objects. “Water evaporates” doesn’t require an object, and in fact, adding one would be incorrect. However, many verbs can be used as both transitive and intransitive verbs, depending on what you want to say. Lay is a transitive verb that means to put or place something. It

requires an object, as in, “She lays the sample in the container.” Te past tense of lay is laid: “She laid the containers in a row on the table.” Lie is an intransitive verb that means to assume a resting or hori-

zontal position. It can’t take an object. “Te nurse lies on the couch afer her long shif.” Te past tense of lie is lay: “Te sleep subject lay awake for hours.”

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Afect versus Efect

Because afect and efect are pronounced similarly, they’re ofen confused in writing. Te following defnitions will help you distinguish between the two words: Afect is most commonly used as a verb. Te word has three mean-

ings:

1. To infuence, especially emotions. Example: Te therapy did not afect his behavior in the in tended way. 2. To pretend, imitate, feign, or fake. Example: When chimps are in constant contact with humans, they begin to afect human gestures.

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Afect also has a third defnition as a noun that’s mostly limited to medical, psychological, and educational jargon: 3. An emotion or feeling associated with an idea or object Example: Te participant showed inappropriate afect when shown pictures of death and disease. When used in this third sense, afect is pronounced with the stress on the frst syllable, and the a is pronounced the same as in can. Efect is most commonly a noun, meaning:

1. An infuence. Example: Te Federal Reserve chairman’s speech had a positive efect on the stock market.

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2. A result.

Example: Increased retention is an efect of this teaching

method.

3. Belongings (usually plural). Example: Te victim’s personal efects were gathered and placed in a plastic bag. Efect can also be used as a verb which means to cause something to happen, to accomplish, or to achieve: Example: Te coup was efected by a small band of guerrillas. Example: Tough it was not easy, the therapy efected a last-

ing change in her behavior.

When used as a verb, efect connotes a sense of completion or absoluteness, not merely partial success. So, in the above example about the band of guerrillas efecting a coup, the meaning is that they achieved their aim totally. In other words, the coup was efective. To sum up, afect is usually a verb; efect is almost always a noun, as in these sentences: His pleas didn’t afect her. His pleas had no efect on her. Tey were unafected by the stimulus. Te stimulus had no efect on them.

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Abbreviations: i.e. and e.g.

Two of the more commonly confused Latin borrowings are i�e� and e�g� Tey’re abbreviations for id est, which means “that is,” and exempli gratia, which means “for example,” respectively. When you must choose which to use, simply substitute the English translation for each and you should be able to choose the right one. Example: Te psychologist diferentiated between distress

and eustress, i�e�, stress that is harmful and stress that is productive of good. [Te meaning desired is “that is.”]

Example: Despite their human rights violations, the U.S. has

continued to trade with some repressive countries, e�g�, China and Cambodia. [Te meaning desired is “for example.”]

Notice that when i�e� and e�g� are used, there is a period afer each letter of the abbreviation. Also, there is always a comma following each abbreviation.

Persuasive Style Persuasive style doesn’t merely inform—it also persuades your au-

dience to act or think in a particular way. In technical writing, not all persuasive methods are appropriate. For example, it would not be appropriate to use emotional manipulation to alter your readers’ opinions. However, three methods that work in technical writing are persuading with logic, examples and evidence, and values.

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Persuade with Logic

Use deductive or inductive logic to persuade your readers toward a particular course of action. In a persuasive context—as in an informative context—it’s inappropriate to leave out relevant information that doesn’t support your argument. However, when you’re seeking to persuade rather than merely inform, you can explain the signifcance of the information you present with moves like the following: • • • •

Argue that specifc causes lead to specifc efects. Ofer a choice between two options. Explain costs and benefts of the situation. Argue that your course of action is better than an alternative.

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Example: Better workforce management will result in better behav-

ior from employees. Specifcally, the new email system will keep managers informed of trends in tardiness, absences, and sick days, so that they can better respond to employees on a case-by-case basis. Te current system is haphazard. Te team leads generally receive information over the telephone with the correct information rarely being relayed to the appropriate managers. Additionally, none of the information is saved, making it nearly impossible to reliably review employee performance. Te current system gives employees the freedom to abuse company policies and prevents managers from holding employees accountable. Te email system will be a written record, in one location, to which managers can refer. Te existence of such a record will also encourage employees to be more accountable for attendance and punctuality at work.

Logical Fallacies

In order to really persuade your readers, it’s important to avoid logical fallacies. A fallacy is an error in reason, which causes your audience to question your credibility. Below are some common fallacies with examples of how they might appear in technical writing. You may not be familiar with these genres now, but you can return to this section at any time and refresh your memory so you can avoid committing these fallacies in your own writing. Begging the Question

Tis fallacy is also known as the circular argument fallacy. It depends on a questionable claim as the backbone of the argument, as in, “Te project will not be done in time because it will take longer

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than the project should take.” Tis begs the question as to how long the project should take to fnish, so the argument isn’t logically sound as to why the project will be fnished late.

Cause and Efect

Tis fallacy takes two unrelated facts or occurrences and says that because one of them came about afer the other, then the frst one caused the second: “Katrina was hired just before the break-in, so Katrina caused the break-in.” In incident reports where you must give background information on what happened, you have to make sure that every event is explained in detail to show your reader what happened instead of making assumptions or baseless accusations.

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Either/Or

Also known as “false dilemma,” this fallacy presents two alternatives as the only options—if you don’t choose one then you must choose the other: “If you don’t follow our plan to save the company, you will be bankrupt by the end of the year.” As you’ll learn later in this book, there is a section in proposals where you explain to the person or organization the efects of not taking action as you suggest, but overblown claims like bankruptcy won’t add to your credibility and will show that you—and by extension your organization—are poor logicians. Hasty Generalization

If you base your conclusions on only a small sample size or a tiny amount of data, you could be committing this fallacy. If you wrote, “All the literature showed that sentencing sofware is viewed favorably” when you only reviewed two papers on the subject, you would be committing the fallacy of hasty generalization. Red Herring

Tis fallacy is committed when you bring in an irrelevant question or piece of information to avoid dealing with the real issue or to distract attention from the real dilemma, as in: “We are over the budget by ten thousand dollars, but the original budget was an arbitrary number that was arrived

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at without a great deal of thought. Te budget should’ve been prepared and overseen by top executives rather than the project manager.” In a progress report, going over budget—and by ten thousand dollars—is a major problem. If you misdirect attention from the fact that you are over budget by focusing attention on how the budget was created, you’re committing the red herring fallacy.

Persuade with Examples and Evidence

Use specifc instances of a phenomenon to aid the audience in understanding your argument. Readers tend to understand abstract ideas better when they can picture an example or are presented with multiple pieces of evidence. Tere are several kinds of examples and evidence that can be used: • Hypothetical examples explained in relatable terms • Personal experiences (where appropriate) • Empirical observations • Data generated from experiments • Measurements Example: Radon testing and mitigation are vital concerns if you

own a home with a fnished basement. You can test for radon with an at-home testing kit, available at most hardware stores. If the radon level is high, you should install a radon mitigation system to protect your family from exposure. While I was growing up, my family lived in a home with a radon mitigation system that had been installed by the previous own-

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ers, who had also built the house� Te system consisted of a PVC pipe which ran from the foundation out through the roof� Such a system is typically unsightly, but ours was in a basement bedroom where few people would ever see it� Installing the system yourself might be the most cost-efective option, as long as you do it correctly. No matter how or where you install it, having a radon mitigation system is essential if the radon in your home is above an acceptable level. Years of exposure can lead to cancer and other lung problems, particularly if anyone in the home smokes. While serving as United States Surgeon General, Richard Carmona issued a statement that included the statistic that more than twenty thousand Americans die of radon-related lung cancer each year. (http:// sosradon.org/radon-advisory-story)

Persuade with Values

Values are your audience’s beliefs or judgments about what is im-

portant. Persuading with values means structuring your argument to mention values that your audience has and emphasizing that your proposed course of action will either fulfll those values or prevent something else from opposing those values. In elections, values-based persuasion is ofen used to encourage voters to cast ballots in favor of someone and against someone else. In a TV ad from the 1952 presidential campaign of Dwight Eisenhower, the commercial ends with a male voice saying, “Now is the time for all good Americans to come to the aid of their country.” Tis sentence was well known at the time from an exercise in a book on how to use a typewriter, but the words themselves are

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attributed to Patrick Henry. Te values appealed to here are patriotism and principle. Te implied argument is that if you’re as patriotic as Patrick Henry and a good American, you would vote for Eisenhower. In a technical context, your colleagues may place scientifc objectivity as a core value. In that case, your technical writing should emphasize objectivity to appeal to their values. Tis method works because people trust those who have the same values and beliefs as them. Example: Dr. McCloud’s study is groundbreaking and contains

new information on the causes of climate change. Te data on which he based his analysis was gathered over the course of fve years from labs around the country� Dr� McCloud excluded himself from the data-collection process because he has built his career around a position of natural-causes global warming and he wished the data to be free from any internal bias� Only once the data had been collected and sent to other scientists on diferent sides of the issue did Dr� McCloud begin working on his analysis�

Using your knowledge of an audience’s values to help persuade them doesn’t mean you should abandon your personal values to appeal to theirs. Your audience will likely be able to tell if you’re forcing an argument that you don’t truly believe in. It’s efective to refer to values that are shared by both you and the audience.

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For example, this student, when writing a proposal to review how earthquakes are predicted, wrote the following: Troughout the world, devastating earthquakes occur with little or no advance warning. Some of these earthquakes kill hundreds of people. If the times, magnitudes, and locations of these earthquakes could be accurately predicted, many lives could be saved. (Gray 1995) Te student made an appeal to the value of the importance of human life and preserving it. Tis is a value that’s likely held by all who would read his proposal.

Intercultural Communication Te fnal topic to cover in this section is an essential one: intercultural communication. At the start of an international business trip, an American businessman sat in an airport terminal waiting to board his fight. A Chinese businessman sat beside him and the two struck up a conversation. Tey chatted until it was time to board their fight, then proceeded toward the plane together.

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As they walked down the jet bridge, a few baggage handlers were frantically collecting some of the larger carry-on bags to stow away beneath the airplane. As the Chinese man approached them, they hurriedly indicated that they intended to take his bag. Not understanding what they said, the man panicked. Moving to protect his luggage, he tried to protest, but the baggage handlers didn’t understand him. Afer a second unsuccessful exchange, both the baggage handlers and the Chinese man looked at the nearby American man in desperation. Tey had each realized at the same moment that he was the only one who understood what was going on. So, he became an impromptu translator—from English to English—and was able to solve the communication problem between them. Communicating across cultures is a skill—a skill that not everyone has, but that everyone can develop. Developing this skill—the ability to communicate and engage appropriately with people from various cultural and linguistic backgrounds—is becoming increasingly vital in our globalized society. Advances in technology are enabling ever greater movements of people, goods, and information across borders. In the business world, it isn’t unusual for a company to simultaneously negotiate manufacturing contracts in one country, fle applications for intellectual property in another, and hold discussions for expansion into the markets of a third. Technical documents—whether instruction manuals, product descriptions, or white papers—are regularly moving across borders online as well. As such, the ability to appropriately and respectfully communicate

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across cultures is becoming ever more vital to success. What follows are some principles to help you develop the important intercultural communication skills that will guide you to successfully navigate the complex, interconnected world we live in. Intercultural communication is fundamentally the phenome-

na whereby people from diferent cultures engage in a symbolic process to create shared meanings (Sadri and Flammia 10). When speaking of people from diferent cultures, it’s important to recognize that culture is a word that is notoriously difcult to defne. For example, in a seminal study conducted several decades ago, anthropologists Kroeber and Kluckhohn, afer providing a comprehensive etymology of the word, compiled a list of over a hundred defnitions used in literature (1952). Among the defnitions of culture, there’s one sense that refers to “that which is excellent in the arts, manners, etc.,” as in the phrase, “a cultured person” (“Culture” 2018). However, the “culture” referred to in intercultural communication, rather than being based on a kind of qualitative judgment about what is good in society, generally refers instead to an objective view of “the behaviors and beliefs characteristic of a particular social, ethnic, or age group” (“Culture” 2018). In other words, intercultural communication happens any time that people who identify with diferent but equally valid internally cohesive groups—cultures—attempt to exchange meaning with each other.

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Te difculties with intercultural communication generally stem from the tendency of the members of a cultural group to assume that their behaviors, traditions, and beliefs are “normal” or superior when compared to the difering behaviors, traditions, and beliefs of other cultural groups. For most, it takes conscious training and repeated exposure to diferent perspectives to learn to “go beyond our initial perceptions of our own culture—whichever culture that may be—as the one right way of being in the world” (Sadri and Flammia 34). To do so requires a few things. You must become aware of cultural diferences. For example, we can learn that an appropriate greeting in some cultures would be a handshake, whereas in others it

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would be a bow or an embrace with kisses on each cheek. We can learn that in some cultures repeated refusals are expected before at last accepting a profered gif, whereas one refusal is understood to be fnal in other cultures. We can learn that eating with hands is expected in some cultures, but is considered rude in others. While arriving late for an appointment would be highly disrespectful in some cultures, it’s expected and normal elsewhere. By exposing ourselves to cultural diferences, we open our minds to the fact that there are numerous acceptable ways of doing things. Afer becoming aware of cultural diferences, it’s then important to cultivate a mindset that “if people think and feel diferently about the world, they are not demented . . . they simply are making diferent assumptions and using diferent categories to make sense of the world they inhabit and fnd meaning in it” (Rosaldo ix).

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As we develop this mindset and learn—with curiosity and an open mind—to explore and embrace all cultures, we can learn to appreciate what’s best in all of them. Tis respect and goodwill toward those we might classify as diferent is the frst step in efective intercultural communication. Almost everyone is happy to engage with somebody who shows respect, curiosity, and understanding for their deeply held beliefs, traditions, and perspectives.

Tips for Communicating across Cultures

In addition to becoming aware of and embracing cultural diferences, there are some practical tips that can help those of diferent cultures to interact successfully through oral, written, and visual communication. To master these tips, it’s frst essential to consider the medium of communication: the English language. As the lingua franca, English is estimated to have approximately 328 million native speakers—the third-highest number of native speakers of any language in the world afer Chinese and Spanish (Baker 5). However, experts also estimate that at least two billion people speak English as a second language (Baker 6). What this means is that most of the intercultural communication you engage in will be in English. It also means, given that there are far more people who speak English as a second language than natively, that what English is and will become is no longer entirely controlled by native speakers.

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For this reason, if you’re a native speaker, you’ll need to be sensitive—as you speak and write across cultures—to what English is as an international language—a utilitarian means of communication not always considered to be tied to a specifc culture. Keeping the international nature of the language in the back of your mind—with an eye to an audience of second-language learners— will help you engage more successfully with various intercultural audiences. Te following are some tips that can help you do this: Use simple grammatical structures

Avoid complex sentence structures when possible, such as passive voice, clef sentences (“it was your sister whom I called”), existential clauses (beginning with “there is” or “there are”), conditionals, and so on. Whenever possible, use simple subject-verb-object sentence structures. Use high-frequency words

In 1953, Michael West published a list of two thousand high-frequency words that accounted for roughly 85 percent of all English language texts (“General Service List” 2017). In recent years, improved corpora have allowed other researchers to create additional high-frequency word lists, such as the New General Service List, which includes approximately 2,800 words that account for around 92 percent of all English language texts (“New General Service”). Sticking to high-frequency words, such as the words on these lists, will make it more likely that your intercultural audiences will understand all that you write.

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Avoid figurative language, idioms, jargon, and slang

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Steer clear of literary allusions, metaphors, and other fgurative language whenever possible. Tese aspects of language tend to be tied closely to aspects of culture, and they can be difcult to translate.

Idioms are extremely difcult to master, and they’re also difcult to translate given that they usually mean something quite diferent than their literal translation. For example, you can imagine the confusion that might ensue if idioms like “go on a wild goose chase,” “beat around the bush,” or “break a leg” were translated literally. Jargon and slang are also difcult to master, and your audience is less likely to be familiar with such words or phrases. Even terms familiar to many non-native English speakers, such as homesick, can cause confusion when used in a meeting with individuals whose experience with the language is mostly in professional or business contexts.

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Look for common scripts

Many of our daily interactions are governed by semantic scripts, also known as schemata. Tese scripts are based on our prior knowledge of how certain events ofen play out. For example, when somebody says, “Hello! How are you?” we know that the usual response is, “I’m fne, thank you. How are you?” We also know that each time we go to the grocery store, we’ll be asked certain questions, and will give the same answers each time.

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By tuning into the scripts that you’re playing out during your various daily interactions, you can ofen guess what

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people will say or do long before they say or do it. Anticipating what will be said in certain situations will help you understand intercultural conversations even before they occur. Focus on body language

In oral communication, a lot of communication is transmitted nonverbally. For this reason, being attuned to facial expressions, gestures, tone of voice, proximity, and other nonverbal features will do much for helping transfer meaning in intercultural exchanges. However, improper body language can also lead to serious misunderstandings. For example, in some cultures, standing too close to another interlocutor can cause serious discomfort (Sadri and Flammia 177), as can pointing fngers or displaying the underside of your shoe. Furthermore, certain hand gestures you’re familiar with may be considered obscene in other cultures, such as the okay sign or the thumbs-up and thumbs-down signs. It’s best to take some time to familiarize yourself with the acceptable uses of body language for your various audiences. Use universal images and symbols

When including images in your communication, try to use simple, neutral images that are easy to understand. Tere are few symbols that have been standardized across cul-

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tures, so neutral images may be difcult to identify. However, try to avoid gestures, colors, or images that may be ofensive for the cultures and people included in your audience. Listen and ask questions

When communicating orally, listen respectfully and attentively, demonstrating clearly that you’re trying to understand. Don’t be afraid to ask questions to check your understanding. Also, it’s always a good idea to prepare for anticipated intercultural communications by researching the cultures of your target audience. Even if you make mistakes, the efort that you’ve put into trying to understand and communicate efectively will demonstrate your goodwill and won’t go unappreciated.

Check Your Understanding 1. 2. 3.

What are the four parts that make up plain style? Tink of an example of a logical fallacy you have seen in the real world. Why is it important to take intercultural communication into account?

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4

CHAPTER

Document Design Chapter outline I. II.

what Is Document Design? Five Principles of Design i. balance ii. Contrast iii. repetition iv. Alignment v. Proximity III. Color IV. Design-Centric thinking i. Empathize/Define/Ideate ii. Prototype/test/Implement

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Y

ou’re an engineer in a company that translates 3D industrial designs into 2D cutting patterns for automotive, furniture, and marine industries. You’ve been assigned to create an informational document describing your company’s products for its most important clients. Tis document needs to clearly and persuasively explain how your company’s technology cuts down on manual steps and makes the pattern process faster and less expensive. However, you need to present the information so readers can quickly scan the document and fnd the information they need. Te document’s design should also refect the level of quality your company hopes to project. So, how do you design the document so it’s easily scannable and creates a good impression of your company?

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What Is Document Design? Let’s start with what document design is and what it isn’t. Document design refers to the decisions that you make about the visual presentation of your technical documents. Te purpose of document design in technical writing is to: • • • •

Make a good impression. Clearly forecast the organization, logic, and order of the document. Help readers quickly understand the message of the document. Use visual prompts to remind readers of important information.

Document design is not making boring information look fun and exciting. Of course, there are times when you’ll have a limited say in the design of your content. In some larger companies, they may have a publishing team or an in-house technical writing group, whose responsibility it is to create consistency across company publications and communication. However, it would be a mistake to assume this will be someone else’s job. In fact, you should promote yourself as someone who understands writing and document design. Te principles of document design are benefcial for almost all situations where communication is needed to solve real-world problems. Clean, professional-looking documents and slides make a more favorable frst impression on audiences. Tey also lend you, the author, an aura of authority and profciency.

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Five Principles of Design Tis section will introduce fve basic principles to help you efectively design and communicate: balance, contrast, repetition, alignment, and proximity.

I. Balance

Balance is the arrangement of visual elements on a page to give the

document a feeling of stability. Te goal isn’t to place text or visuals on every inch of the page, but rather to thoughtfully arrange the visuals on the page.

Balanced documents don’t need to be completely symmetrical, but they can be. However, a better way to think about balance is visual weight. Visual weight refers to how much a visual element attracts the eye. A large red dot in the middle of this page would draw your eye much more strongly than the lines of text you’re currently reading, so it has more visual weight. Positive space describes elements with visual weight. Tese ele-

ments include text, graphics, pictures, maps, tables, and charts.

In contrast, all the space that is lef unmarked is referred to as negative space, or white space. You can use positive space or negative space to balance positive space.

Symmetrical Balance: Positive space balanced with positive space is

called symmetrical balance. To create balance with positive space, you need to use visual elements that have similar visual weight (see Figure 4.1).

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Tink of your document in terms of quadrants: your design should be balanced around the y-axis (on the lef and right sides) and the x-axis (on the top and bottom). Asymmetrical Balance: Asymmetrical balance uses positive space on

one side of an axis and negative space on another side.

Factors That Influence Visual Weight To determine how to balance visual elements, use the following factors to determine which visuals have more weight than others:

Figure 4�1 Symmetrical balance has the same visual weight across an axis�

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•

•

• • •

Size: Larger elements feel heavier.

Position: Elements farther from the center of a document feel

heavier. A small element near the edge can be balanced by a larger element in the center (see Figure 4.2). Texture: An image can have texture if it appears to be three-dimensional (see Figure 4.3). An element with more complex texture is heavier than an element with simple texture or no texture at all. Isolation: An element surrounded by more white space has more visual weight. Quantity: A group of smaller elements can balance one larger element. Orientation: An element leaning diagonally feels heavier than an element that is horizontal or vertical.

Figure 4�2 Te space on the lef is balanced by the space on the right� Te lef has two thistles and the right has only one� Te bird balances the two sides by giving more visual weight to the single thistle on the right with its warm, intense colors�

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Figure 4�3 Te basketball on the lef has more visual weight than its counterpart on the right because of the more complex texture�

• • • •

Shape: Elements with more complex shapes have more weight

than those with simple shapes. Color: Brighter and more intense colors create more weight. Value: Darker tones are heavier than lighter tones. Contrast: Elements that have greater diferences in light and dark tones are heavier than those with less pronounced diferences.

II. Contrast

Contrast is the arrangement of opposite visual elements to create

interest and emphasis. In design, all elements that aren’t the same should be drastically diferent. Elements that are too similar cause confusion. Contrast shows the readers where to focus their eyes on a document. When you make two visual elements dramatically diferent, you create contrast, drawing attention. For example, a feld of white

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Figure 4�4

with a dark fgure in the foreground creates stark contrast where the dark meets the light (see Figure 4.4 above). Contrast happens when opposite visual qualities meet. Tere are many visual elements that can be contrasted, such as color, font, size, line thickness, and shape. Avoid placing elements on a page that are similar but not the same. For example, if you have a paragraph with two fonts that are similar but not easily diferentiated, you’ll cause the reader to stop and wonder why the text changed. Contrast should be obvious and signal information of importance. Tat’s why headings are ofen a diferent size, color, and typeface (font) than body text. Te contrast signals a change of topic in the text.

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Contrast in Text Generally, documents should only include two fonts. Many designers choose typefaces that contrast signifcantly: a serif typeface and a sans serif typeface (see Figure 4.5). A serif typeface has a small line (called a serif) attached to the end of a stroke in a letter or symbol. Designers most ofen choose serif typefaces for body text because they are considered easier to read for long stretches of time. A sans serif typeface doesn’t have serifs attached to the end of a stroke in a letter or a symbol. Designers use sans serif typefaces for headings or titles because they are more legible from farther away. White Space White or negative space is an important method for introducing contrast into your designs. White space shouldn’t just be what’s “lef over” or “empty” when you’ve added all the text and visual elements. Instead, white space can and should be part of the design and taken into account during the design process.

Figure 4�5

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III. Repetition

Repetition creates consistency in a document by repeating design

elements. For example, all headings should be the same font, color, and size. Tat way, when your audience encounters a heading, they’ll know it’s a heading because it follows the pattern. Repetition of visual elements creates unity in your design, tying together separate parts of your document. For example, in a text-only document, consistent margins, typeface size, and spacing all contribute to unity. Even if individual paragraphs delve into diferent topics, repetition of those visual elements helps tie the content together. Be consistent within a page and between pages of a document. Here are some (but not all) of the things you should consider: • • • •

Your headings follow a consistent pattern. Te pages have consistent margins and formatting. Your lists use consistent bulleting or numbering systems. Te page numbers appear in the same place on each page.

Be careful not to be too repetitive in your design. Monotonous designs (that lack any contrast) are ofen seen as boring and will not attract your readers to your content.

IV. Alignment

Alignment refers to the arrangement of visual elements on a page. Good alignment means elements are arranged along invisible lines, like margins or grids (see Figure 4.6). Placement should be purposeful.

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Organized Alignment

Mixed Alignment

Figure 4�6 Te image on the lef has proper alignment, adding order and stability to the page� Te image on the right has mixed alignment, making the page look messy and disorganized�

Te purpose of alignment is to organize and unify the page. Following invisible lines (like margins) creates a visual tie between elements. Many word-processing programs use lines that appear and disappear to allow you to move margins, create columns, and arrange graphics. Topographic Alignment You have more options for text alignment than the default settings in your word processor. • • •

Flush Left: Text is aligned along the lef margin/gutter; the right

margin is ragged (not justifed). Flush Right: Text is aligned along the right margin/gutter; the lef margin is ragged. Fully Justified: Letter and word spacing are adjusted so the text is aligned along both margins.

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•

Center Justified: Text is centered in the page so there is even

space on either side of the text.

In technical documents, lef justifed text is usually your best option (see Figure 4.7). Center justifcation makes paragraphs hard to read, and when center justifcation is used in headings it tends to unbalance the body text underneath.

Figure 4�7 Te four kinds of typographic alignment�

Layout Layout refers to the arrangement of visual elements on a page. Use grids to balance page layout. You can use columns, text boxes, tables, graphics, and so on. Use consistent spacing between elements (see Figure 4.8).

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Figure 4�8 Examples of layout�

V. Proximity

Proximity refers to the physical closeness of textual or visual items.

Let’s look at three aspects of proximity: grouping of like items, the number of elements per page, and white space.

Grouping When items are grouped together, there is an implied relationship between them. Like items—or items that relate to each other— should be grouped together. Your readers will naturally group similar items that are physically close to each other into a single unit. Tey’ll assume items that aren’t near each other in a design aren’t closely related.

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In example 1 below, the items are spread far apart and seem to have no meaningful relation to each other, though your readers will try and fgure out (for example) what vanilla, fruit, and chocolate chips have in common, because they’re grouped close together.

Figure 4�9

In the second example in Figure 4.9, the items have been placed in proximity to one another to create meaning and to help the readers understand the relationships of diferent items simply by looking. Because the ice cream favors are visually separate from the toppings, readers can register at a glance that fudge sauce is diferent from butter pecan without even knowing that’s what they did. When writing a report or other document in which you utilize tables, graphs, or other illustrations, it’s important to place the visual elements in close proximity to where you refer to them in the text. For example, try to avoid placing a paragraph describing a graph on

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one page and the graph itself on the next, since doing so forces readers to go back and forth, turning the page. Whenever possible, make decisions with your designs that allow your readers to most easily interact with your documents. Number of Elements It’s best to have no more than three to fve visual elements or units on a page. Tis limit keeps your design tight and your document from becoming too busy or difcult to read. As with the writing process, it’s important to put yourself in the audience’s place when designing a document. To do this, squint your eyes and look at your design. Count the number of visual elements you see by counting the number of times your eye stops at a group of visuals. Clean up your document by eliminating visuals or by grouping more items together, if necessary. In Figure 4.10 below, the frst fier has many diferent visual elements. Te result is messy and doesn’t efectively communicate

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Figure 4�10 Te better use of proximity in the second example helps make the information easier for the reader to access�

the information the audience needs to know. Compare it with the second fyer in Figure 4.10, which follows the principle of proximity to group like items together and is therefore much easier to read. White space is the part of your design where there are no words or images. It doesn’t always have to be white (you can use other colors), but it should be blank without any pictures or text. Don’t try to fll this space in just because it looks empty. Sometimes white space is also referred to as negative space, but white space is a good thing, because it provides contrast and helps readers navigate your document more easily. In Figure 4.11, the words are all jammed together and white space is not being used, making the fier difcult to read. You may have an experience where someone gives you a document like this and

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Figure 4�11 Te lack of white or negative space in this ad makes it very difcult to read� Te text appears as an impenetrable wall, and the reader’s eye does not know where to go�

asks you to improve it. Always consider using white space to improve a document’s clarity and simplify the reading experience for your audience. Referring back to the principle of alignment, “trapped white space” is when there are multiple lines in a design and the result is that the white space between the diferently aligned elements is oddly shaped and appears trapped (see Figure 4.12). Tis would truly be negative space, since it makes your design appear amateurish and chaotic. Solve the issue of trapped white space by following the principle of alignment to create strong lines, placing each element along those lines and thus bringing unity and maturity to the design (see Figure 4.13).

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Figure 4�12 Te trapped white space draws the eye away from the content to itself�

Figure 4�13 Here, the white space is free, running to the edge of the design�

Color You might not have the option to use color in technical documents, but where it is permissible, color can be quite efective. Muted colors are ofen more appropriate for professional contexts. Use a color

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wheel to create combinations of colors that work together in your design. Primary Colors Te color wheel begins with red, yellow, and blue. Tey are the primary colors because they’re the only colors you can’t create by mixing colors together. Tese colors are spaced in thirds evenly around the color wheel.

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Secondary Colors If you mix an equal amount of each primary color with the color next to it, you create secondary colors. Yellow and blue make green, blue and red make purple, and red and yellow make orange. Te secondary colors are placed evenly between primary colors on the color wheel. Tertiary Colors Mix equal parts of the secondary colors to make tertiary colors. Yellow and orange make yellow-orange, and blue and purple make violet, and so on. Shades, Tints, and Tones You don’t need to only work with colors at their full saturation. As shown below, sometimes pure colors, called hues, are too bold for technical documents. You can alter the strength of a color by using colors that have black, white, or gray added to them. A hue plus black is a shade. A hue plus white is a tint. A hue plus gray is a tone. Tese subtler colors can add dimension to your design.

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Complementary Colors Complementary colors are directly opposite each other in the color wheel. Tese colors work best when one color functions as the main color and the other as an accent, as shown above. Complementary colors work together to create attractive color schemes. Triads Triads are sets of three colors that are equidistant from each other (see below). Red, yellow, and blue make up the primary triad and orange, green, and purple make up the secondary triad. You can also use triads of tertiary colors. Triads create more interesting color schemes.

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Split Complement Triads Split complement triads combine a triad and the complementary colors. Instead of choosing the color directly opposite on the color wheel, choose the two colors on either side of that color to complement the frst color, as shown below. Tis technique can create unexpected and innovative color schemes.

Analogous Colors Analogous colors are colors to the lef and right of the frst color (see below). Tey share a similar undertone. You can use analogous colors of various tints, shades, and tones. Analogous colors create a subtle color scheme.

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Monochromatic Colors A monochromatic color scheme involves using one hue and altering its tints, shades, and tones to create a sense of variety (shown above). Tis scheme is quite simple and subtle, as well as the cheapest to print because it only requires mixing one color with black and white.

Illustrations

All illustrative materials should add meaning to your text. Illustrations inserted simply to take up space or “spice things up” are more ofen distracting or confusing to readers. Your images should enhance or clarify your text. In technical documents, illustrations meant to provide information should always have a numerical designation and either a title or a caption. When you use labels, you can easily reference the illustration in the body text and the reader can follow your reference to the illustration more easily. Titles and captions should clearly describe the information in the fgure without reference to the text.

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let’s look at the principle of document design through the lens of the Design thinking process introduced in Chapter 2:

Design-Centric Thinking I. Empathize/Define/Ideate

Just as you need to take the writing situation into account before you begin drafing your text, the same principles afect your document’s design. Te context is the surrounding circumstances of the document you’re designing. To make sure you address the context, ask yourself a few questions: what is the genre of the document? Are you designing marketing or informational materials? In short, your document design should ft the circumstances of your communication. Let’s look at an example design in Figure 4.14, which is an informational document for ExactFlat, a company that converts 3D designs to 2D patterns. Te clients in this situation are industry professionals who are used to reading content-heavy documents that aren’t designed to be visually interesting. Tey’ll probably interact with this document in a business meeting or an ofce space and will be looking for bits of key information. Tey won’t notice a lot of visual detail, but their overall impression of the document will be negative or positive based on how you utilize basic principles of design that enhance or diminish their ability to fnd what they need. As you can see in Figure 4.14, the design includes plenty of space for text, but also enough white space so the audience doesn’t get tired reading a lot of text. Te document also

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uses a bulleted list in a contrasting color that grabs attention and promotes the key benefts of the product. Te visual elements are not merely decorative—they also address the needs of the audience.

Figure 4�14

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Formulate the idea(s) behind what you will be writing. Te message is information you want to convey in your document. Afer you get a sense for the context of your communication, you must collect the information you’ll need in the design. Gather blocks of content—items that will become objects in your design. When designing a set of instructions, you’ll need to frst research and write numbered steps. Once you’ve written the steps and your introduction and conclusion, you can start thinking about how to design your information so readers can clearly understand the message that you need to convey. Te message of the document in Figure 4.14 is simple: why customers should buy the 2D design technology. Te reader can distinguish the diferent parts of the message as you use color, shape, headings, and other design elements to structure the information.

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Envision your audience and put yourself in their shoes.. Your audience is those you expect to interact with your document. What are

your audience’s expectations for your document? Are you writing for a general audience, colleagues, clients, or supervisors? What are their wants and needs? Whatever they may be, your task is to fulfll them. Te audience for the document in Figure 4.14 is commercial customers who need to make a decision about whether to radically change their design process. Tey currently use manual methods to transfer 3D designs into 2D patterns, and they want to know if a technical method would work better. Your job as a designer is to make the information that will convince your audience easy to fnd, read, and understand. As they interact with your document, they expect a clean, professional design throughout, in which design elements are incorporated simply to help them access the information quickly, as well as fnd it again when needed. Te example document uses columns to make the body text paragraphs easier to read. Shorter columns are easier to skim and make readers feel like they’re reading faster. Te plentiful white space provides room for them to make notes in the margins, if needed. Defne the purpose of your writing. Te purpose is the reason a given document exists. Why are you writing this document? Are you trying to sell a product? Do you need to justify a project? Do you need to maintain the reputation of your company? Your design should support whatever your purpose is.

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Te purpose of the document in Figure 4.14 is to sell a company product. However, since it includes technical information as well, you need to showcase your technical expertise to maintain the company’s credibility. A professional, subdued design makes both purposes possible because it provides the information in a simple, straightforward way, while also introducing an image that the audience can keep in mind as they consider the product. A design that is too busy, with bright colors and complicated patterns, will take away from the message of the words, while uncomplicated, polished images create a solid concept that works on paper and lingers in the mind of your audience. Tis document uses a navy, black, and white color scheme with simple curved lines that mimic the 2D patterns that your company’s products create. Tus, images can subtly reinforce your written message.

I. Prototype/Test/Implement II.

Te product is the fnal form your document takes. What kind of document are you creating? Is it a single- or multi-page document? Is it a paper or digital document? Is color printing feasible, or are you limited to black and white? Make sure that your design is practical and cost efective. Te document in Figure 4.14 is a physical booklet that can be handed out to prospective customers. A booklet is an ideal format for informational documents because it can include a lot of text and

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customers can take it with them afer a presentation to study it at their leisure. Having a physical reminder of what you’re ofering— that contains answers to many possible questions—will help with marketing as your audience interacts with your product, meaning a written and designed document.

Conclusion Document design organizes and enhances the information in your technical documents. Just like an attractive place setting can enhance the appeal of your food, good document design can give your content an excellent frst impression. It also provides visual cues that naturally attract your readers’ eyes to the most crucial parts of your document. An attractive document that appears to efortlessly guide readers to the most important information will give them a pleasant reading experience and give you a positive professional reputation.

Check Your Understanding 1. 2.

3.

What makes document design crucial to technical writing? How is considering your audience a useful approach to designing your document? What are the fve overarching principles of design?

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5

CHAPTER

Ethics Chapter outline I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII.

legality honesty Confidentiality Quality Professionalism Fairness objectivity

EthICs

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Te factor that ties all technical communication together is ethics. No matter the genre, audience, or purpose, you must be ethical. Ethics afect colleagues, the company, and customers. Unethical behavior can lead to legal and other consequences, including loss of personal credibility, your job, and future opportunities. Most employers and organizations have a code of ethics or conduct you must follow in order to retain your job or membership. One such professional organization is the Society for Technical Communication (STC). Te STC helps promote best practices in the feld of technical communication and provides educational opportunities for members. Te society also embraces a set of six ethical principles, which will be used here as a basis for discussing the practical nature of ethics and various forms of unethical behavior. Te STC’s six ethical principles are legality, honesty, confidentiality, quality, professionalism, and fairness. To these, we will add the important principle of objectivity. Tese seven ethical principles apply as you write, of course, but are also essential as you complete any professional task or interact with colleagues and clients.

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Legality In the workplace, there are laws that govern just about everything. Educating yourself on laws that govern you and others you work with can keep you safe and provide support to lean on if pressured to “bend” a rule. Laws—and policies that ensure you follow the laws—are ofen described in training or introductory documents when you begin working for an organization. It’s important to pay attention to the small print and understand the implications of each policy or law. Technical communication embraces spoken words as well as writing. In many states, there are laws that require employees to report if they see something unethical going on, whether or not they have all the details. If you see something questionable going on at work, report it to your supervisor. If he or she is involved, you may have to take it to a higher level of management. Many people are unaware that their failure to report things they even think they saw, without knowing the whole story, can make them legally liable if those around them were in violation of the law. Plagiarism is a violation of the law. Plagiarism can be committed by either directly taking credit for work you didn’t do, or by failing to give credit to the person or group who did do the work. To protect yourself and your organization from plagiarism claims and also to avoid hurting someone whose work may have assisted you, it’s always better to over-cite than to under-cite. If you got an idea from reading someone else’s work, include a reference to it in your sources or notes.

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Figure 5�1 Tere are famous examples of plagiarism you may or may not have heard of, including the reportedly plagiarized portions of Vladimir Putin’s Master’s thesis from a textbook�

Copyright Copyright gives a creator the exclusive legal right to distribute any literary, musical, or artistic works. Te Internet has made copyright law more difcult to enforce, as many images are available online for free. However, it’s still important to comply with the law in a professional context. While you’re a student, you may fall under the fair use clause of the Copyright Act. Tat means you can use many copyrighted materials for educational purposes. However, in a professional setting, it is inappropriate to use images that you didn’t create without frst asking permission. If you have any questions about which images are available through public

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domain, do some research about the image before you include it in a technical document. Take advantage of any stock photography or image subscriptions services your company may have access to. Obtain permission to use an image before you include it. Read up on “Title 17” at www.copyright.gov for more information about copyright law.

Honesty Sometimes you may come across an opportunity to sanction or oppose something that’s not illegal but is unethical. Honesty also applies as you present information to any of your readers. Misrepresenting facts in order to make your organization look better is common but dishonest. Leaving out the negative parts of customer reviews if you’re using quotes on a webpage, for example, is unethical. Every company wants to present the best view of themselves, but if you have to heavily edit someone’s review for content before placing it on the page, it’s ethical to fnd a diferent, positive review rather than changing the meaning of what a client meant to express. Te concept of going “of the record” can be tricky to negotiate. If an employer or colleague asks you to go of the record, let them know your personal ethics or values and that you won’t bend any rules or break any laws to protect the company or anyone inside it.

Confidentiality You may ofen be responsible to protect the private information— and sometimes even the identity—of clients and organizations for whom you work. Protect this information by not discussing it

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Figure 5�2 An example of a high-profle ethics case involves the original research paper touting that vaccines cause autism� It had fabricated data and was retracted by the medical journal that published it�

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with others who don’t have a legitimate need to know, publishing it online, or distributing it in any other form. Occasionally, you may work for an organization with strict privacy policies that prohibit you from using documents you create, as samples in a personal portfolio, for example. In these situations, you should follow the company policies, since you signed documents to that efect when you began work. Especially within competitive industries, you might be asked to sign some kind of non-disclosure agreement as part of your hiring paperwork. Contracts such as these prohibit the sharing of proprietary information outside of the company. Ensure that you never fraternize or put yourself in a position of suspicion for communicating something with a party that you shouldn’t have.

Quality Ethical behavior includes doing your best work. Referred to as “taking pride in your work,” the characteristic of doing your best in

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all circumstances is part of workplace ethics and will earn you the loyalty and respect of coworkers and employers. If you’re someone who always provides high-quality work, you will be presented with more opportunities and privileges because you’re seen as trustworthy. Even if you don’t personally have a contract with a client to provide your best work, as you have with your employer, ethical behavior prompts that you present information truthfully and promptly and advocate to the best of your ability for your client.

Professionalism Your employers and clients can expect professionalism from you, and they will. Professionalism can refer to the amount of time that you let pass before responding to an email or phone call. It’s manifest in the way you handle disappointment on the job or when someone is rude to you. Because you’re a representative of the company, many employers will survey your social media presence before hiring you to see what kind of a person you are when you aren’t in the ofce. Writing a scathing comment about an unpleasant coworker or even using foul language in everyday online posts can be a red fag to potential employers that you aren’t the kind of person they want representing their company. Another mark of professionalism is how you refer to people who are diferent from you. Tere’s no excuse for discriminatory lan-

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guage in the workplace, whether spoken or written, and some organizations have a “one strike and you’re out” policy. It’s inappropriate to refer to a person or a group of people with any terms related to their race, ethnicity, religion, gender, age, or sexual orientation. If you are talking about someone who holds a title that’s historically gendered, choose a gender-neutral title instead (for example, “salesperson” instead of “salesman”). As laws and policies change on the best way to refer to people, stay educated and make a commitment to do your best to avoid ofensive terms and apologize if you ofend unintentionally.

Fairness Fairness in technical communication embraces many of the elements already mentioned in this chapter on ethics, but another principle is fairness to your coworkers in how you treat them. If

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you hear gossip around the ofce, resist passing it on (in written or other communication), as this can potentially open you up to harassment in the best-case scenario or to charges of libel and slander if the gossip becomes more serious. If there were rumors circulating about you, you’d want people to give you the beneft of the doubt. Extend the same courtesy to them

https://images.app.goo.gl/MLzBdBrkq318J83W7

Figure 5�3 Here is an example of racist language in a document� Tis textbook excerpt illustrates how devastating it is when communication is unethical; the publishers had to ofcially apologize afer a picture of the entry went viral online�

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and respond with fairness by refusing to pass gossip on verbally or through emails or memos to coworkers and others. Employing the traditional “Golden Rule” is good personal policy to follow in any professional scenario. Behaving toward others in the same way you hope they would act toward you will help keep you above the fray and set you apart as a fair and ethical person. Show respect to your coworkers, supervisors, clients, customers, and any others you communicate with, both verbally and written.

Objectivity Especially when it comes to technical writing, being ethical includes being objective. If your writing is tinged with opinion and bias and the document genre does not call for it, this will count against you. You may not be considered an objective source and your writing not considered with the weight that it should.

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Being objective means looking at the concrete facts of a scenario or concept as an outside observer, whether we are internally biased or not. Unless someone directly asks for your opinion on a subject, most readers pick up a technical document to become more informed and make judgments based on the insight gathered from reading. Tus, presenting non-facts as facts is a violation of the reader’s trust for the aim they had in picking up your document. On its face, ethics may seem irrelevant in a discussion on technical writing, but the way we present ourselves in any communication is critical. In the same way that a sentence of dishonesty spoken aloud will have consequences, if your writing is dishonest or unethical in any way, it will afect you at a future time.

Check Your Understanding 1.

2.

Does your desired career have a code of ethics (like the Hippocratic Oath or the IEEE Code of Ethics)? How does that code afect communication in that feld? Are there things you cannot say or things you must say? Have you ever witnessed a breach of professional ethics? Can you identify which of the seven principles were not followed in that situation?

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Part II: Mastering Technical Genres

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Part II goes over multiple examples of professional scenarios modeled afer a situation you might face in real life. Each scenario calls for a certain genre of technical document. Afer going over what that document type is and how to write it, the chapter then considers the genre using the concepts of the design-centric model. You may address any number of audiences in your career, including people with more, less, or similar expertise than you have; people with expertise in a diferent feld; or clients, colleagues, competitors, and legal professionals. You must be prepared to adjust your communication to meet varying needs. When learning to write for a new audience, it’s useful to read examples of the genre in which they communicate and imitate the examples until you feel comfortable writing in that genre. (Tis includes using the right jargon and conventions of the genre.) Consideration of readers infuences issues as small as what words to use and as big as what questions to ask and answer.

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6

CHAPTER

Activity Reports Chapter outline I. II.

what an Activity report Is how to write an Activity report i. Introduction ii. body iii. Conclusion iv. style v. Design III. Design-Centric thinking i. Empathize/Define ii. Ideate/Prototype iii. test/Implement

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S

pencer is a manufacturing engineer, doing contracted work for a company in Taiwan. Tis company has asked him to perform an accelerated lifetime test (ALT) on a gaming console. Spencer’s company performs this test ofen: Using an accelerated lifetime testing chamber, a given product is exposed to high temperatures and humidity for several months to simulate 20 to 30 years of normal use. However, due to some unique characteristics of this particular gaming console, Spencer fnds that diferent parameters will be required to best replicate the aging process. A new process must be developed which will expose the product not only to heat and humidity but to vibration as well. In order to move forward with this new process, Spencer must write a detailed report to justify the changes he wishes to make and get it approved. Te company in Taiwan wants to release their new gaming console in [?] months. In order to complete the necessary ALT before that time, Spencer’s proposal for a new process must be approved within the next [?] weeks. With his and his company’s reputation at stake, Spencer is daunted at the task of perfecting the three to four-page report with such limited time. More fond of mathematics than language, Spencer feels completely out of his wheelhouse and doesn’t feel like he is capable of completing such a proposal on time. How can Spencer complete the necessary activity report in time? What is the step-by-step process that he needs to follow in order to make the writing process more manageable? [ 136 ]

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What an Activity Report Is Spencer’s experience is typical of someone asked to write an activity report (in this case, a white paper). To that end, let’s defne activity reports as a genre and outline their use. Te activity report has an important job in the workplace: it provides key information that managers need to make critical decisions. Te purpose of an activity report is to keep your end user informed. Tis could be on an industry-wide or company-wide scale, depending on the project. Te end user of an activity report is usually your boss or supervisor. Your job as the writer will be to provide information to the reader that describes the steps of an activity done during a particular period of time as you work to complete a project. A good activity report highlights and details the work that was done and brings others up to speed on your results. It will include context emphasizing what the information in the report might mean for the topic, company, or industry at large. Some activity reports simply consist of an employee’s day-to-day tasks they have completed: literally an “activity report.” But there’s typically more to them than that. Tey can range from an informal breakdown of the activities of a project, to a more formal, presentation-ready rehearsal and analysis of the work of a large team. Tere are a variety of activity report genres. Here are some of the major ones:

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White Papers: Also known as briefs, the job of white papers is to inform your reader about developments in your industry or in your area of expertise. White papers are usually written. Briefs are a written version of briefngs, which have already been presented orally. Tese types of reports ofen provide groundwork for future projects. To write white papers or briefs, review the literature on a specifc subject and provide a report of your fndings. Taken in three steps, a white paper or brief (1) condenses the research you have done into a few well-chosen sentences, (2) intensifes why the research or the subject is important, and (3) provides information on the subject’s future signifcance. Usability Reports: Ofen called a Usability Testing Report, this document is a key part of understanding the needs and experience of your users. It is also necessary in evaluating your product’s success. When you run a test for any product, this report delivers the results found in a succinct and useful manner. Progress Reports: The progress report provides documentation, or an update, on your activities before the project is completed. As you can guess, the purpose of these kinds of reports is to enable the reader to assess the progress of the project and plan for the future. They describe the tasks that have been completed and tasks that have yet to be completed, and they may include time estimates, problems and concerns, and costs of the project.

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Routine Reports: Tese reports are required regularly and used to provide information or facts. Also called periodic reports, these documents might include an annual report to shareholders or a department’s monthly report on expenditures and personnel. Completion Reports: Future bosses will most likely ask you to write a completion report. And when they do, you will need to present the outcomes of a project or initiative you have been developing. Tese reports will also describe the steps of the process or provide recommendations for future action. Regulatory Reports: Tese reports contain information on how well a department or organization complies with rules, policies, or governmental laws. Such reports might also be called compliance reports. Incident Reports: Typically, whenever there is an accident or an unforeseen event, an incident report must be generated. Depending on the nature and severity of the incident, and if you as the writer were directly involved, it can be difcult to write these reports

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objectively; however, it’s essential to provide details that describe what really happened and not give excuses as to why it happened. Sticking to the facts of what occurred and how it was dealt with are the key points of incident report writing. Laboratory Reports: Laboratory reports deal with the activities in a laboratory, usually experiments. Tey present the methods used, the results achieved, and the experimenter’s conclusions. It’s important to reiterate that the reports provide information on the most important parts of your activity with the project, and should avoid trivial activities that decision-makers would fnd distracting and uninformative. Activity reports usually provide an update of your project in process but they can also report your successful—or unsuccessful—completion of a project. When writing an activity report, you can use these questions as a guide: What has happened with this project since it began (or since the last report)? What is going on now with this project? What needs to happen/will happen in the future with this project?

How to Write an Activity Report You begin writing a report long before you create the fnal draf by taking regular—even daily—detailed notes on the project or experiment. Tese can be written or electronic. Don’t rely on your memory to keep track of important facts. Besides, if you have kept good notes, your report will be mostly written by the time you sit down to craf it. Te following sections describe the major parts of most activity reports.

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I. Introduction

Te features of an activity report start in an efective introduction where your objective has been clearly spelled out. Additionally, the introduction should be where you explain any background knowledge that the reader needs in order to understand the report, including any necessary prior context, reference to past reports that inform yours, etc. Te opening paragraph(s) would also have instruction concerning what materials were used, how the activity was approached in preparation, or the setup you implemented for top performance and the facets involved. Let’s say you were writing a monthly update in a multi-year project. In that case, you may not need to rehash the purpose of the project. However, if you are writing a completion report, it might be helpful to write a more thorough overview of the entire project for present and future readers. Bottom line is, the introduction should do the following (not necessarily in this order): • Set the stage for the reader (what is this report about?) • Describe the situation that necessitates the report • Forecast the contents of the body.

II. Body

Te body of your activity report document will include your project summary with any and all relevant details, including your tasks involved. A good point to go to from there would be your work accomplished, any challenges or problems encountered, and your subsequent results. With said results, there should be some form of

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Objectives

Setup

Background

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discussion, including reference to the implications of these results. Te body of any document is the core feature, and should contain these important sections in some manner: Tasks: a list and description of the tasks that have been completed, particularly those completed since the last or previous report, if any exist. Provide as much detail about the completed tasks as necessary for the intended reader to fully understand. Te tasks can be organized in chronological order or by category. Choose an organization that will best help your reader understand the status of the project. Here is an example of a summary for a progress report on a dam construction job, organized by category of tasks: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

General Excavation Drilling and grouting Mass concrete Oil piping

Te organization of the report should grow logically out of the subject matter and the requirements of those who requested the report.

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Tasks

Results

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Results: Pick a few major outcomes and report on them. Te results you choose to include should refect the priorities of the people in charge of maintaining the project. For example, if your company values efciency, your report should stress that the project is being completed on time or even ahead of schedule. Choose the most signifcant results to avoid overwhelming readers with too much information—consider making them a bulleted list or otherwise separating them visually to help your readers’ navigation. Issues and Future Plans: It is important to notify project managers and other interested parties of any issues you have encountered up to this point. You should also present your solution or an idea for a possible solution; in general, whenever you have to report something less than positive, it is good practice to follow up with an action plan or idea that responds to the situation. If there are no issues to report, it is still appropriate to use this space in a report

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to look ahead to upcoming tasks, provide an expected timeline for their completion, and discuss other directions that could be taken afer the project is completed in regards to research or further projects. If there is nothing else to say, this update could simply reiterate that the goals defned at the beginning of the project are still appropriate and on track. Expenses: If your reader asks for fnancial information, include an expenses section, pointing out anywhere that actual costs difer from projected ones. Explain the costs of the reporting period, including an enumerated list if necessary. Tis may also be an appropriate place to explain why costs are higher or lower than originally estimated.

III. Conclusion

Te content of your conclusion depends on the kind of report you are writing. For example, if progress on research is being reported, it may be necessary to present a detailed statement of conclusions reached. On the other hand, a report on the progress of a simple machine installation wouldn’t likely require a long or formal conclusion. Generally speaking, keep your conclusion to concise sentences that summarize the main points of your report. Since reports are ofen written for record purposes, your intended reader may simply read your conclusion to understand your status. End on a positive, forward-looking note without promising too much. For example, don’t overestimate the amount of work that can be completed in a forthcoming period.

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IV. Style

Activity reports should use plain style (see Chapter 3) to maintain an informative, straightforward tone. Use active sentences (with a clear acting verb) whenever possible to make the text easy to understand. Passive: Te study was funded by Agricorp Intl. for six months. Active: Agricorp Intl. funded the study for six months. You can make a report less personal by using your own job title as the subject of a sentence rather than “I” or your name. Personal: I was in charge of coordinating programmers for the missile defense system. Less personal: Te head technician was in charge of coordinating programmers for the missile defense system. Avoid using emotional language. Your reader is likely uninterested in your personal investment in a project and prefers to read about your progress in an objective report.

V. Design

When possible, follow a template provided by your employer. If your company has no formal style guide, be consistent in your own formatting. Use the same spacing, margins, and serif font in all your reports (Times New Roman is a safe standard). If you can, ask your supervisor for an example of an exemplary report and imitate its formatting. Since activity reports aren’t likely to be read cover to

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cover, arrange your text into sections with clear headings so a reader can skim through it quickly to fnd needed information. When necessary, use graphics like graphs, charts, and tables to present large masses of data. Since activity reports provide documentation for company records, it helps to include all relevant data for the current stage of the project. If you have a great deal of data that is necessary for understanding the status of the project but cannot be written in sentence form, include the data in a chart, graph, or table. If you have a full-page graphic or multi-page graphics that will interrupt the fow of the report, you may choose to include them in an appendix rather than in the body of the report. Technical positions require extensive documentation and reporting to keep track of project progress. As you learn to take careful notes and clearly explain your processes with the needs of your end user in mind, you will become an invaluable member of your team and an asset to your company. Te primary purpose of an activity report is to give an accurate picture of a project’s status at a given moment. But the report may also give managers confdence that satisfactory progress is being made, record your work for future reference, and protect the company. let’s break down this writing task, using the Design thinking process introduced in Chapter 2.

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Design-Centric Thinking I. Empathize/Define

As with any writing situation, you should give the readers’ needs premier importance. Begin by learning the context of the situation in which your activity reports are being read and used and consider the specifc end user you are writing them for. In technical industries, you will likely have to report your progress frequently, since reports are ofen created on a daily basis. In some cases, your report might not be read from beginning to end by any one person; if that’s the case, you will need to make the report easy to scan, helping the readers fnd the information they need quickly and without too much efort. In Spencer’s scenario introduced at the beginning of the chapter, the end users are other professionals in the industry who are familiar with accelerated lifetime testing chambers and the standard processes. You will be writing in order to get approval from professionals now but also to provide a record for professionals in the future. Let’s consider what these two groups need from this document. In order to justify your proposed new process to these professionals, you must demonstrate a thorough knowledge of the standard process as well as the ways in which you will deviate from it. You can do this through a fuent use of the industry language. Tey will all be experts, and thus will be expecting clarity, conscision, and completeness. Once you know your context and end user, you can begin to explore what to include in your report. Remember the design-centric

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model here: the activity report is intended to help solve a problem or need. You should report on the progress you make on a project, but not every detail is relevant to the report. Ofen your readers will need to know something specifc about your progress, but other times general activities will better show how well you are meeting deadlines. Managers might care more about the extent of your progress, the costs, how long your project took, or some combination of all three. It’s helpful to narrow down what the goal of your document is by developing a single problem statement. Tink again of your end user and what they are looking for. In this case, your problem statement would look something like this: “Industry professionals need a direct explanation on why and how you plan on departing from standard procedures in accelerated lifetime testing so that they can both approve the new procedure now as well as look to it in the future as a record.” Tis concise problem statement will serve as the foundation for your report. Continually check back in with this problem statement throughout the writing process to ensure that you are on track.

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II. Ideate/Prototype

If we put ourselves in Spencer’s shoes, it may feel daunting to begin this report since the success of the accelerated lifetime test is on the line. Tis anxiety is lessened, however, when you take regular detailed notes throughout the whole process. Don’t rely on your memory to retain important facts. If you keep good notes, you will already have a record of nearly all the material you need for this report before you even sit down to craf it. Once you are ready to tackle the drafing process, begin by brainstorming. Look through your notes and organize your thoughts. Write down an outline of the standard ALT process as well as an outline of your proposed changes. You may want to make a list on a whiteboard of every parameter and adjustment that you made on the ALT as well as your rationale. Give yourself time to think about everything you may want to include and to begin thinking about organizational strategies. Now is the time to gather as much material as you can which might be relevant to this report. Hopefully the ideate step helps you feel more prepared to start writing your frst draf of this activity report. Looking at all the notes you collected during your ideate stage, it is now time to get your thoughts out on paper in one organized report. You should expect this frst draf to have plenty of room for improvement. Tat’s okay—you can always change elements of it later. No matter how messy it may be, though, it is important to create a solid frst draf that you can pass on to other members of your team. Receive their feedback. Send it to those specialists that will be able to check your facts and help you be thorough and precise. In this

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scenario, a chemist and physicist may be useful in fact-checking you and clarifying your explanations. Use the individuals and resources that you have at your disposal to improve your report draf until you feel that it is efective in addressing your problem statement. Afer writing a draf of your report and including as much detail as possible, read it over as if you were your direct supervisor. Imagine his or her reaction to diferent sections of the report. Now, afer you have read from an empathic position, start to remove content that may not be necessary for your reader or identify what might need to be added to the report. As you write more and more reports, it will become intuitive what information you should include and what you should exclude, but learning this skill takes time and efort.

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III. Test/Implement

In some cases, an activity report may be presented as a fnal product in a number of forms. A report may be oral, as with a formal or informal briefng. It can also be a paper digital document. You may create a document that is meant to be read immediately to make important decisions or one that is primarily meant to be stored in your company’s databases. Once you have created a complete draf of your report, it’s time to share it with your target reader. In this case, you may share with your coworkers or other ALT experts. Look back at your problem statement and consider whether or not your report is meeting the needs of your end user. Ensure that you successfully conveyed to your reader the details and rationale for the new ALT process which you produced. If you receive questions or critiques from the professionals reading your activity report, you may beneft from revision. Depending on their reaction to your report, you may have the opportunity to publish to an even larger group of readers within the ALT industry. Check Your Understanding 1. 2. 3. 4.

Do you know what an activity report is? Do you know when you would write an activity report? Do you know what to include in an activity report? Do you know how to use the design process on an activity report?

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CHAPTER

Analytical Reports Chapter outline I. what an Analytical report Is II. how to write an Analytical report III. literature reviews i. how to write your literature review ii. literature review organization IV. Design-Centric thinking i. Empathize/Define/Ideate ii. Prototype/test/Implement

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J

ason is a research molecular biologist with an emphasis in agriculture. Recently, he has been assigned as the team lead for a group of scientists researching the efect of diferent diets in livestock. Afer successfully carrying out their experiments, it is time for the team to work collaboratively to compose a research report of their fndings. Research reports can be split into many sections, from the initial research question to a description of the data collected to the formation of a conclusion. Jason assigns a section to each team member. While the team is united in their understanding of the experiment and its fndings, each member naturally employs diferent writing styles. Tese abrupt stylistic changes are distracting. As the team lead, Jason must ensure that the team can create a cohesive report with a consistent and neutral writing style. How can Jason and his team ensure that they are united not only in content but in style? What are the stylistic parameters for analytical reports?

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What an Analytical Report Is Analytical reports present technical fndings to an audience. Tey are called analytical reports because it’s the writer’s responsibility to analyze and interpret technical data so that the conclusions reached at the end of the report make logical sense to readers. A conclusion can be an interpretation of fndings, a recommendation for a course of action, an assessment of quality, or any other discovery that can be derived from your research. Te following are some of the more common types of analytical reports, starting with the research report as mentioned on the previous page: Research reports: A research report presents the results of a study. Generally, these kinds of reports are conducted to answer a question about a trend or problem that must be addressed before an important decision is made. Your fndings may indicate the varied causes of a situation, based on past and current research. Tese reports include the same sections as scientifc reports. Scientific reports: A scientifc report presents the results of observational studies or experiments. It explains your fndings and also describes the steps you took to complete your study: 1. Selecting a research question 2. Developing a hypothesis 3. Crafing a research methodology 4. Collecting data 5. Analyzing the data and adjusting the hypothesis 6. Forming conclusions

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Recommendation reports: You’re an expert in your feld. Eventually, someone is going to ask you to make suggestions about the best course of action to take. Such recommendations may be for your own company, a client, or any other interested party. A recommendation usually solves a problem or issue your end user is facing. Te report should include an in-depth description of the situation to show that you are informed, descriptions of possible courses of action, and a recommendation for a particular solution that is based on the evidence you’ve accumulated. Your recommendation should seem like a natural solution. Feasibility reports: Before following a recommended or suggested course of action, management needs to know if the action is reasonable. A feasibility report determines whether following a specifc course of action is feasible, or in other words whether it can and should be done. Sections of a feasibility report include: • Possible solutions to the problem • Criteria for assessing the solutions • Te solutions measured against the criteria • Te best solution based on the reported analysis of the solutions Many feasibility reports are long because they include all relevant information so that readers can feel confdent in making a decision based on the report. Tese reports can lead to major fnancial expenditures. Te purpose of an analytical report is to inform, instruct, analyze, and form conclusions about data. In some cases, such as with recommendation reports, you also seek to persuade your reader to pursue a particular course of action.

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How to Write an Analytical Report Before you start writing a report, you need to gather the relevant information and interpret data. You may need to do an observational study or simply gather technical research. Use the information you gather to present a clear and complete picture of your subject to your intended reader. Introduction Te strength of an introduction is in the clarity of the writing. As with abstracts, don’t talk around the subject and purpose of the report—come right out and express them directly. Te introduction is an appropriate place to provide background information or give the

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rationale for the report. If you need to provide extensive detail, you could choose to include a separate background or rationale section following the introduction. A background section is not necessary in every report, but it is useful if you’re writing an academic report or if your end user doesn’t have much familiarity with the report’s subject. If included, the background section includes the issues that led to the need for this report, the paradigms of the study, or the context of the subject matter. Any other relevant information that explains the circumstances of the subject matter is also appropriate. Alternatively, the rationale section provides the reasons you conducted the research for your report. A rationale section should be included in academic reports or in reports where the study must be justifed to your readers. Generally, an introduction should include a purpose statement. A purpose statement is a one-sentence summary of the reason for the report. Tis could be your conclusion or recommendation based on the evidence you found. Here is an example of a purpose statement:“Tis report outlines the benefts and challenges of switching ERP sofware from our legacy system to a cloud-based system.” Te level of detail you provide in your introduction depends on your end user's familiarity with the subject. If your reader is a collaborator in internal research, you probably don’t need an extended introduction. However, if you’re writing a report for inclusion in a database or for a client, you ought to provide sufcient information to avoid confusion.

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Purpose Statements

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Body Te body of a report provides the methodology, the results, and a discussion of your data. You must include all relevant and important details of your research so readers understand that your conclusion is frmly based in data. Methodology: Te methodology section describes the research techniques used to gather your data. Tese techniques might include observations, experiments, surveys, interviews, testing, or other methods. • Opening: Describe the way in which you collected information, potentially giving examples as to where and how this method has been used before. • Body: Break down your study into sections and discuss each in detail. • Closing: Discuss the limitations of your study and methodology. A limitation of a study may be that it was conducted among a group of people of a particular region of the country who experience diferent economic challenges than most citizens. A limitation of a methodology might be that you used quota sampling to interview 50 men and 30 women. You must present a logical assessment of any weaknesses of your research so readers trust the validity of the report. Results: Te results section describes the fndings of your research. You should present all relevant facts, data, and evidence you’ve collected. Present your results with the least amount of interpretation possible. You’ll provide an interpretation of your fndings in the subsequent discussion section. • Opening: State the most important fndings of the study.

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Methods

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• •

Body: Give space to each fnding in turn, presenting graphs or tables as needed. Closing: A specifc conclusion to this section may not be needed, but if you want to tie it all together, you can briefy restate the opening.

Graphics: If your study produced numerical data, use graphics such as charts, tables, and graphs to present the data in your report. Tese graphics should support the results in your written text, not replace them. If you fnd that your graphics take up more than one page or provide a distracting amount of detail, you may consider including them in the appendix rather than in the body of your report. Discussion: Te discussion section relates the results back to your original research question, hypothesis, or main point. Tis discussion is also known as the analysis or interpretation of your data. Does the data prove or disprove your hypothesis? Why do you say so? Tis section should answer questions like these. • Opening: Referring to the important fndings from your results section, ofer your conclusions and further ideas on each. • Body: Dedicate a paragraph or more to explaining your overall conclusions in detail, using evidence to justify your interpretations. If you used graphs or tables in the results section, take more space to interpret and explain the data found in the graphs or tables. • Closing: Particularly important for long reports, a conclusion to the discussion section should reiterate any important points that the body of the research shows.

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Discussion

Results

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Conclusion Te conclusion states the main point of the report and makes recommendations, depending on the purpose of the report. Busy readers will ofen turn to the conclusion to fnd the most important points of your fndings. Te conclusion is an appropriate place to anticipate the future of research on the subject, and make any last arguments for the general importance of the subject. When transitioning to a conclusion, it is a good rhetorical move to use words like “in conclusion,” or “ultimately” to signal the end for your readers. Te following moves can be used in a conclusion (not necessarily in this order): • Transition to show the paper is ending. Use phrases like “to sum up” or “in conclusion.” • Restate your main point. • State recommendations. • Reemphasize the importance of the study. • Look to the future and discuss future paths the research could pursue. Recommendations: If the purpose of your report is to recommend action, include that in a Recommendations section. If you have more than one recommendation, you may choose to list and number your recommendations. If you need to discuss them, you can do so following your list. All recommendations must be reinforced by proof in the text. Be specifc in your recommendations. If you recommend that further research is needed, suggest the kind of research. If you recom-

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mend beginning or ending a project, or allocating more funding to continue a project, explain why and describe the course of action you intend. If your data does not indicate a clear-cut solution or course of action, you may provide several options. Be honest about the uncertainties and weaknesses of each option. You may recommend that one solution has greater strengths than others, but only if the data supports that conclusion. It’s also perfectly acceptable to state that the research has resulted in no useful conclusion—once again, as long as the data so indicates. Sometimes, the recommendations section will have another name. In the example in Appendix C, the recommendations section is titled “Next Steps.”

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Back Matter Back matter includes all information that proves the soundness of your conclusions, but ofers too much detail for the readability of the report. Appendices: Appendices include data or supporting documents that would be distracting in the body of your report, such as data tables, charts, diagrams, fgures, articles, screenshots of newspapers or magazines, the derivations of equations, before and afer photographs, and price lists. References: At the end of your report, it may be necessary to include a list of references. Use an appropriate citation style guide to determine how your list of references should be formatted.

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Style A fnal consideration is the form the report takes (the product). Your report may be a multi-page physical document or a PDF fle. You may also write shorter reports that are housed in databases or sent in emails. Te form of the report depends on the level of detail and formality required by your reader. Longer reports should be formatted so that readers can quickly fnd the information they need (since they are ofen not meant to be read in their entirety). Clear headings and subheadings that signal lean, focused paragraphs help your reader skim for relevant information. An analytical report should mainly use plain style. You may also need to include elements of persuasive style if you provide a recommendation or other argument. It’s inappropriate to provide apologies for your research (even if you provide disappointing data or when you admit to weaknesses in your methodology). Instead, always present your fndings as objectively and unemotionally as possible. Te formality of your presentation depends on the writing situation. If you’re writing a long report to an external audience, you should likely use a more formal tone. However, an internal report may require a more conversational, professional tone to make the report easier to read.

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Design Most companies use a standardized template for reports. Follow the template whenever possible to maintain a consistent company brand. If your company doesn’t have a template, create a functional design. Your design should refect the subject matter of the report and the preferences of readers. If you have doubts about those preferences, defer to your employer’s judgment. Use headings and subheadings for each section of the body so readers can easily locate sections relevant to their purpose. Headings should convey information and set up expectations for the section. Tey serve as an outline and a road map for the report. Actively look for places to display data or information. Breaking up large blocks of text with tables, graphs, or other graphics can create visual interest and emphasis on important data. Be sure to use these graphics only to clarify or enhance the meaning in your report, never to replace text. Analytical reports are a common genre in technical felds. You’ll likely write many reports in your career. Te main thing to remember is to be as objective and clear as possible so readers can use your reports to do their jobs well. As you master the ability to write analytical reports that are clean, clear, and comprehensible for everyone who picks them up, you will become an essential part of your company’s decision-making processes.

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Literature Reviews What Are They? Literature reviews answer a specifc research question by summarizing, synthesizing, analyzing, and evaluating the most current and relevant research on your topic. In many technical industries, researchers are increasingly producing new primary studies or reports on technical innovations. In 2008, as compared to 1991, researchers created three times as many studies on malaria, eight times as many studies on obesity, and forty times as many studies on biodiversity [Pautasso M. (2010). Worsening fle-drawer problem in the abstracts of natural, medical and social science databases. Scientometrics, 85, 193–202, doi:10.1007/s11192-010-0233-5]. One way to stay competitive in a

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fast-moving environment is to produce literature reviews to share with your colleagues. Most of the time, a literature review becomes necessary because of a research question or a practical problem. Your company may want to know the best methods for performing a particular process or manufacturing a product. You also may need to stay up to date with innovations in a particular feld. To fnd the answer to your research question, you must: • • • •

Toughtfully select studies that are relevant and current. Critique studies for the quality of their methods, results, and conclusions. Look for connections and disagreements between studies. Present your fndings as clearly and objectively as possible.

Since literature reviews are designed to survey as much relevant research as possible, they are ofen quite long documents. It wouldn’t be surprising to create a literature review of over fve thousand words to adequately brief colleagues about the latest research in even an obscure area of technical study. Form When you approach a technical problem or question, you defnitely don’t want to waste time replicating original research or developing products that have already been completed. Te work that has already been done to answer your question is the situation, or context, in which you must view a literature review. A literature review

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summarizes and evaluates the current knowledge of your chosen subject. Literature reviews must be focused around a central fnding or observation. Tis organizing idea or claim is usually the answer to a research question you have as you sif through the literature on a particular topic. In order to present the most accurate and complete answer, you must thoughtfully consider the primary research. Here are four methods of critique that can aid in forming your claim and crafing your message: 1. Summary: State the main points of the relevant research, including the arguments that each study proposes. 2. Synthesis: Combine ideas from multiple studies to form a theory about your topic. Look for similarities and diferences between studies to determine researchers’ consensus and disagreements in the subject area. 3. Analysis: Examine and critique the study’s methodology and interpretation of fndings. Ask if the source has any bias, if the evidence can be verifed, if the methods are sound, and so on. 4. Evaluation: Using criteria determined by your feld, assess the quality of the research. Tis will ofen include a value judgment on whether the study holds up to scientifc scrutiny. In a workplace setting, your end user for this kind of document will be company peers or supervisors. However, literature reviews are ofen published in scientifc and technical journals to aid other researchers in keeping up with industry trends.

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If your reviews are made available to a wider readership via publication (sometimes as part of a white paper), you may have to take into account diferent levels of technical knowledge—for example, student or novice researchers may use your work to get a better picture of the status of a feld of research. Understanding who might use your analysis will help you make decisions about detail and specifcity. Remember, the purpose of a literature review is to provide an accurate and complete review of the technical community’s answer to a particular research question or claim. You may fnd that researchers disagree about a correct answer or that most researchers agree on a particular position, with a small group of dissidents having an alternative view. In any case, you must present the nature of the disagreement as accurately as possible so readers have a good understanding of the status of the answer within the research community. Literature reviews, by their nature, are lengthy products. Tey can easily reach up to fve thousand words because they must adequate-

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ly summarize as much relevant research as possible. So understanding the expectations of your readers will help you determine the length and depth of your analysis. A literature review can appear as paper documents or digital documents, and as mentioned earlier may be formatted for inclusion in a scientifc or technical journal. But they may circulate only as internal documents meant to be used in one company.

I. How to Write Your Literature Review before you start You’ll do a great deal of work before you write a single word of your literature review. You must select a subject, make a plan, research, take notes, and create an outline. Select a Subject In a technical workplace, you’ll likely choose a subject based on the needs of your company. However, in an academic setting, you have the opportunity to choose a subject that can help prepare you for your career. Use the following criteria to choose a subject: • Te subject is interesting to you. • Te subject is related to your intended career feld. • Te subject is familiar enough that you can read intelligently about it, but it’s not so familiar that you have nothing to learn. • Te subject is narrow enough that you can adequately cover it in around fve thousand words. • Te subject has enough published material available for you to review.

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You may also consider choosing a subject that is an important, popular, or cutting-edge aspect of your feld. You may fnd that the knowledge you gain by creating a literature review will aid you in your job search afer graduation. Te kinds of subjects that are appropriate for a literature review include: • Subjects relating to a project you’re actively working on. • Subjects concerned with making a practical decision. • Subjects that add to your practical knowledge.

Search Keywords Make a list of possible relevant terms to begin researching. Tese terms will likely be the words you use to search library databases, called keywords. Tese keywords should help you fnd books, articles, and other publications that relate to your chosen subject. However, you may fnd that a subject you fnd interesting doesn’t have enough research available to write a literature review. In that case, you may need to use synonyms of your keywords or simply use other keywords to fnd more information. If you still don’t fnd any information, you may have to abandon the subject. You may also fnd that a chosen subject is too broad, and that to properly review all relevant research you’d have to write a book.

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If you discover your chosen subject is too broad, consider focusing the subject to answer a part of the total question. You’ll have to choose precise keywords or longer phrases to narrow your subject. Note that longer keyword phrases usually result in more specifc studies, which will make your literature review all the more useful in answering a specifc research question. Make a Plan While you may fnd useful information by searching library databases haphazardly with relevant keywords, you’ll ultimately save time by formulating a plan for research. Once you’re satisfed that your subject is neither too broad nor too narrow, plan out methods for researching and taking notes of your fndings. First, make a list of all the things you want to know about your subject. Ten add things you think your reader will want to know. Tese lists will sometimes be identical; other times they won’t. Your lists will help you identify what information is important to your review as you read through your sources. You’ll probably have to

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revise this list several times as you proceed with your research. Next, set actionable goals leading up to your deadline. Give yourself mini-goals for researching, taking notes, creating an outline, writing a draf, and revising. Research Tere are so many methods for research that this text can’t possibly cover them all. Here are a few of the most relevant tips for literature reviews: • • • • • • • •

Use keywords in library or journal databases to fnd studies that directly relate to your subject. Make sure all sources are credible (typically peer reviewed by credentialed experts in the subject feld). Use books for background research. Check the dates of publications to fnd the most recent studies. Read abstracts, discussions, and conclusions before you commit to reading the whole study. When you fnd a study that directly relates to your subject, read through the bibliography to fnd related sources. If you know the citation of an article, search for it directly. Keep track of the search terms and sites that you use so you can replicate your search.

If you fnd that another researcher or writer has already completed a literature review on your subject, use that source for your review. It’s unlikely that the review will include the most recent research, so you can still contribute an updated literature review to your feld.

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For a more complete review of research methods, see the research section from Chapter 3. Take Notes Unless you want to read through your sources a second time as you write your literature review, you should take notes as you research. Since a literature review involves compiling information from various sources, it is important to make sure your notes contain both accurate information from your sources and exact references to where you found the information. As you discover new sources, write down the citations using the style guide required by your feld. Use a word-processing document to keep track of your citations or an online citation manager such as RefWorks. Formatting your citations as you go will save you time on your fnal draf.

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Develop a method of note-taking that works for you. Some people print out all their sources and use sticky notes directly on the pages to mark important passages. Others hand write notes on cards with authors’ names and page numbers. Still others type notes into a word processor along with the citations. Whatever method you use, remember to keep track of authors’ names and page numbers so you can include the information in your internal citations when you write your review. As much as possible, write your notes using your own words. Be sure to summarize main points, synthesize similarities and diferences between sources, analyze methods and results, and evaluate the quality of studies. As you write these ideas in your own words, you can more easily place the information in your literature review. It’ll also demand that you fully comprehend what you read rather than just parroting the information. Include context in your notes so you’ll understand specifcs when you read them later. You don’t want to have to read through your sources a second time when

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thorough notes could have saved time. Record direct quotations sparingly. A literature review mostly shows your summary and interpretation of a subject’s current state of research. You should quote the words of an author only when the phrasing is particularly memorable or interesting, the author is a well-known authority, or the concept is difcult to explain in diferent words.

II. Literature Review Organization Read through your notes thoroughly and be familiar with the content of your research before you even begin writing. When you know your subject well, you’ll likely see connections and have an intuitive organization in mind that you can use in your literature review. While there is no single organizational strategy prescribed for literature reviews, most arrange fndings in an introduction, body, and conclusion. Troughout this section, you can refer to Appendix C: Supplementary Examples for an example of a literature review. Introduction Te introduction should provide a clear picture of the issue you investigated. Include necessary background information, a clear explanation of the subject, your research methods (if needed), and a brief summary of your fndings (including a thesis statement).

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Background Information Start with background information, or the context of the subject. Remember that your reader doesn’t have all the specialized knowledge you gained during your research. Explain as much about the background as necessary to understand the research question. Explanation of the Subject Describe the research question or problem clearly and simply. If your subject has multiple parts or steps, describe them. Defne terms your readers may not have heard before, as well as difcult or unfamiliar concepts. Tis is a good place to list the aspects of the subject as they will appear in subheadings within the body section of the literature review. Research Methods A literature review may also include the research methods you used to fnd your sources, describing the databases and keywords used as well as time constraints. Tis information can give your reader some context about the thoroughness of your literature review. Summary of Findings Explain the overall consensus of the answer to your research question or problem. If you found any inconsistencies or nuances about the answer in your research, write brief descriptions of them. Include a thesis statement, or a one-sentence summary of the main fndings from your research.

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body Te body makes up the bulk of a literature review. Within it, each main idea of your subject is partitioned into subsections. Tese main ideas should come from your research. Look for common themes, questions, and subtopics that your sources continually address. Tose aspects should be included in the body of your literature review so your readers have a thorough understanding of the available literature.

Some examples of subtopics appropriate to a literature review include: • Parts, steps, or aspects of the subject. • Methodologies used in studies. • Achievements in the subject. • Consensuses on the subject. • Te main areas of debate about the subject. • Research questions that have yet to be answered. • Approaches, limitations, and conclusions of sources, including past reviews. • Innovations or recent fndings that may not have been included in past reviews.

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Use subheadings to separate the foremost aspects of your literature review. Tese subheadings should logically relate to the main subject of the literature review. Begin each subsection of your body with a topic sentence that describes the most signifcant fndings from your sources concerning the subsection. Individual paragraphs should avoid simply summarizing fndings from your sources. Of course, some summary is necessary for your readers to understand the context of the fndings. However, you should also use insights from your notes to synthesize, analyze, and evaluate the fndings. Each section should discuss one aspect of your topic and include research from at least two sources, in order to synthesize information from your sources or compare and contrast fndings. Hint: good synthesis means you should never end a paragraph with a citation. Let’s compare two paragraphs. One paragraph merely summarizes information from two studies, while the other employs synthesis, analysis, and evaluation to reveal useful insights about the studies: Paragraph 1: Researchers of human emotion have been interested in self-doubt for many years. A 1983 report from Tawler and Gilbert surveyed plant workers on how they felt they performed in their jobs. Te responses were varied and interesting. Several years later Harvey carried out a similar study focused on university students who had just fnished a major project and had not yet received their grades (2005).

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Paragraph 2: Researchers of human emotion have been interested in self-doubt for many years. A 1983 report from Tawler and Gilbert surveyed plant workers—who were rated as top performing by their employers—on how they felt they performed in their jobs. Te responses were varied and interesting. Several years later, Harvey carried out a similar study, this time focused on university students who had just fnished a major project and had not yet received their grades (2005). Both studies found that people who are doing the best in their group ofen fear that they are among the worst. Some plant workers from the 1983 study feared that they could lose their jobs at any time, and so they arrived on time and stayed focused on their tasks while at work, leading to better overall performance. Similarly, some of the university students with the highest grades on the project had such high standards for themselves that even though they did much better than other students in the class, they worried that they had failed because they had not matched their own high standards. From these studies it appears that self-doubt can be a great motivator to achievement, but self-doubt also provides a false picture of where someone is in relation to others. In the past, researchers focused on the responses of those who were performing within the top percentages of their groups. Further research on selfdoubt could focus on those who perform at a mid-range or lower to begin to determine the efects of self-doubt on individuals with lower performance scores, and even to discover whether self-doubt is a cause of poor performance. All interpretations of the sources must be grounded in the research itself. Your personal opinion has no place in a literature review.

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Conclusion Te last part of your literature review is the conclusion. Te conclusion provides a summary of the main ideas from the body. Begin by restating your thesis (in diferent words). By this point in the literature review, the answer to your research should feel natural because of all the research and fndings you presented. Ten briefy review the main aspects of the literature review. Remind the reader of the most important information provided by your sources. Your literature review can end here if you like. You can also conclude by looking to the future. You might discuss areas of the subject that have yet to be fully researched or point out common limitations in past studies. Tis kind of conclusion is especially appropriate if a subject lacks consensus from researchers in your feld. Internal Citations Citations, or written references to your sources, are necessary for literature reviews. Te subject of your text is information gathered from other authors, and you must acknowledge them when you describe their research. You must cite your sources whenever you include a fact, idea, fnding, or opinion that’s not your own. Whether the information is quoted, paraphrased, or summarized, you must give credit to the author. Te best way to avoid accidentally taking credit for an idea that isn’t yours is to insert citations as you transfer your notes to your draf. Use page numbers from your notes if they’re required by your industry’s style guide (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.).

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Many students are uncomfortable with citations; they worry about over- and under-citing. However, readers won’t judge your literature review by its citations, unless you attempt to gain credit for work that is not your own. If you write one paragraph that contains information from a dozen sources, the paragraph should include a dozen internal citations. If you have several pages that contain information from only one source, those pages should show one citation. Internal citations should appear at the end of the portion of the discussion based on a source. Te portion may be a phrase, sentence, paragraph, or multiple paragraphs. Tere is no need to cite your own original thoughts, such as transitions, synthesis, analysis, or evaluation of sources.

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Footnotes Some style guides require citations to be placed in footnotes, meaning notes at the bottom of a page. However, footnotes can also be used to include other information that doesn’t properly belong in the main discussion. Tese include technical defnitions and explanations of unfamiliar terms. Footnotes minimize interruption to the main text but do still interrupt, so they should be kept to a minimum. Bibliography A bibliography is an alphabetized list—according to authors’ last names—of all the written sources you’ve consulted. A literature review of fve thousand words or more may include between 20 and 30 sources in its bibliography. Te bibliography should include all sources used in your internal citations. You may have also done background research that didn’t make it into the fnal draf of your literature review. In that case, you may choose to include or omit those sources from your bibliography, depending on how helpful you believe the sources would be to your users.

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Format the sources according to the style guide used by your feld. style Literature reviews use plain style. Tey focus on providing information based on research fndings. Literature reviews involve little persuasion, except to convince readers to consider the synthesis, analysis, and evaluation you employ. Your interpretations should be so frmly founded on your sources that you can rely on a restatement of the facts to convince your users. Te most important stylistic tool you can use in completing a literature review is consistency. Be consistent with active or passive voice as well as present or past tense throughout your text. Design Literature reviews use plain design. Defer to your company’s design standards, if possible. If your company has no standard, follow the style guide used in your feld. Most style guides recommend a serif font such as size-12 Times New Roman, one-inch margins, and half-inch indents at the beginning of each paragraph. Since literature reviews ofen include headings and subheadings, diferentiate the headings from the body text in some way. For example, you might create a heading using a diferent alignment, font, or font size to signal the beginning of a new section or subsection.

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Conclusion Literature reviews allow you to survey and critique the research done on a topic in your technical feld. Tey always include internal citations and a bibliography so readers can look up the original studies if they want to know more. By creating and reading these documents, you can stay on top of industry trends and have a frm base for any innovations in your own company. Literature reviews are crucial for collaboration within felds. Tey also help technical workers avoid repeating work that has already been done. By learning how to read and write literature reviews, you can become an asset not only to your future employers, but also to the development of your technical feld.

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Design-Centric Thinking Remember that the specifc needs of your report depend on the context, or what the reader intends to do with the content of the report. For example, if you’re writing a research report for a retail chain that wants to know which of its locations are most proftable, then your goal is to determine which locations are most proftable and then use other metrics to analyze what makes them more successful than other locations.

I. Empathize/Define/Ideate

As we learn from Jason’s experience at the beginning of the chapter, an attitude of empathy is especially vital in reports that are written collaboratively. You must empathize with your team members in order to be unifed in your writing eforts. As a team, you must consider your end user and determine how to best meet their needs in order to maintain a consistent and efective voice throughout the whole report.

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If your report is not intended for other experts, then you need to maximize readability by eliminating jargon and making it as simple as possible to understand. If your report is intended for experts, then the opposite may be true: jargon and technical terms may make the material clearer and lend credibility to your writing. You can also determine the needs of your readers by the purpose for which they read your reports. Some readers may not have technical training but read the report in order to make decisions. Decision-makers can be advised by another type of reader, while a third kind of reader evaluates your content for truth or legality. Tese readers could be supervisors, lawyers, insurance adjusters, or anyone with a stake in the content. To stay focused on the message or question at hand, start with the end in mind. Once you immerse yourself in the research it’s easy to become distracted by the breadth of your analysis or the potential applications of your research tool. Resist these temptations and concentrate on what readers need to know. If you’re writing a recommendation report, the message is your recommendation. If you’re writing a conclusion report, the message is the outcome of the project. Te most important part of the message is focusing on the readers’ needs rather than on what you want to tell them. Te fnal goal for Jason’s team is to produce a scientifc report on the efects of diferent diets in livestock. Before each team member begins writing the sections that have been delegated to them, however, they must work together to make sure that their vision of the report as a whole is consistent.

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During this stage, you must brainstorm as a team all the elements you will need to include in your fnal report. As discussed in Chapter 6, this stage of writing is made much easier if you have been keeping thorough notes throughout the whole experiment. At this stage, you’ll be ready to compare notes with your teammates and make sure that you are all on the same page. Consider as a team what points need to be included in each section. For example, discuss in detail what the concluding claim of your report will be so that you can all work toward that same destination. Discuss the general outline of each section of the report so that nothing is missing and nothing is redundant.

II. Prototype/Test/Implement

At this point in the writing process, your purpose should be clear to you, but if you feel like your draf is lacking in direction, try the exercise mentioned in the “Prototype” section of Chapter 6, reading and editing your report as if you were your own direct supervisor. Because supervisors must make important decisions and recom-

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mendations based on the information in your report, envisioning such viewpoints will likely help you avoid unnecessary details and information. Once you and your team have created a complete draf of your report, you need to test it on a reader. Especially when working with team members, it helps to have a fresh pair of eyes to tell you whether the report is efective as a cohesive whole. In Jason’s example, this stage might be carried out by sharing the report with other experts in the feld who weren’t involved in the experiment, in order to get an unbiased opinion. Once you receive their feedback, work together as a team to implement whatever changes you deem necessary. Make sure that each team member’s contribution is not only strong on its own but that it also fts with the report as a whole. Each section must be as objective and clear as possible so that readers can use your reports to do their jobs well. Once you have worked through all of these steps, you will be ready to publish your report to your intended users. As you master the ability to write analytical reports that are clean, clear, and comprehensible for everyone who picks them up, you will become an essential asset to your company. Check Your Understanding 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Do you know what an analytical report is? Do you know when you would write an analytical report? Do you know what a literature review is? Do you know what to include in an analytical report and a literature review? Do you know how to apply the design process to an analytical report?

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8

CHAPTER

Proposals Chapter outline I. II. III. IV. V.

what Is a Proposal? how to write a Proposal style Document Design Design-Centric thinking

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C

ara works for a company that distributes various building materials. A construction company in town is drafing plans for new apartment complexes and it is Cara’s job to persuade them to hire her company to provide the necessary materials. While Cara can think of many reasons why her company’s materials might be superior to those of other companies, she needs to narrow it down to a succinct argument for the construction manager to review. She decides that her central argument is that the materials distributed by her company are ethically superior in terms of their manufacturing origins as well as their long-term efect on the earth. In order to persuade the construction manager, Cara must accomplish two tasks. First, she must persuade him that ethics are an important factor to take into account when constructing apartment buildings. Ten, she must persuade him that her distribution company would be the best choice to ofer that ethical integrity. How can Cara create this multifaceted argument while still maintaining simplicity and cohesion? How can Cara quickly catch the attention of the construction manager so that he gets to her central argument before losing interest?

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What Is a Proposal? A proposal is a combination of a technical report and a sales pitch. Most of the time, you’ll write a proposal as a petition to begin a job. A proposal might secure research funding, approval for a new project, or a government contract. You’ll most likely not be the only party competing for what you need, so it’s important to put in the work to produce the best proposal possible. In order to convince the powers that be that you are the best candidate for the job, you’ll need a proposal that not only thoroughly explains the issue at hand, but also ofers a thoughtful and persuasive solution. Writing a proposal takes extensive research, refection, drafing, organizing, and revision. A good proposal will answer the questions a reader needs answered to solve a technical problem.

• • • • • •

What is the problem at hand? What is the proposed solution to the problem? Why is this proposed solution the best course of action? What is the estimated time frame for this proposed solution? What methods, equipment, personnel, and so on will be required to execute the proposed solution? How much will the proposed solution cost?

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In the workplace, employees need to create proposals for many reasons and under many circumstances. Technical workers create proposals to suggest solutions to complicated, technical problems. Tese problems are ofen time-consuming and expensive to fx. Your readers are also stakeholders—people who have fnancial or reputational interest in the success of the project. Tese stakeholders use proposals to evaluate candidates before they select who will do the job.

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How to Write a Proposal Tis section of the chapter will focus on the form of the proposal. Most of the time, the form will be determined by the institution receiving the proposal. Your audience may require the proposal digitally or physically, with certain formatting. It’s important to conform to the requirements given. Deviating from client requests may give the impression that you, the writer, are careless or unwilling to follow directions, which will afect how much your readers trust you to execute their interests.

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Before drafing your proposal, look over your request for proposal (RFP), if you received one, to ascertain what the formatting requirements are, if any. Many RFPs will give you an outline of sections that are needed. Others will assume you know the sections that are usually included in a proposal.Te following are the most common sections included in proposals. However, keep in mind that not all of them may be necessary for your proposal, and there may be other sections not listed here that you need to include. Abstract Many RFPs require an abstract: a short summary of the most important points of your proposal. Most abstracts should only be between 250 and 500 words, but you should follow the provided word counts with exactness. An abstract should have: • A clear statement of the problem and solution (purpose statement) • Te objectives • A short description of the methodology • A plan for evaluation of the project (if relevant) Some companies call the abstract a summary. It should never be over one page long and should be directed at a non-technical audience, since the audience is usually managers. Introduction Te introduction identifes the problem your audience wants you to solve and your solution to that problem. Here are six “moves” your introduction can make: 1. Clearly defne the subject of the proposal, including a description of the problem, the causes, and the possible efects if noth-

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Abstract

Intro

Evaluation

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ing is done about the problem. 2. Transition to your purpose statement (your solution to the problem). 3. Emphasize the importance of the problem. 4. Ofer background information about the problem. (Tis enhances your ethos by displaying your expert knowledge of the subject.) 5. Outline the organization of your proposal. An introduction is essentially an argument for your reader to keep reading your proposal. You want to include a neat summary of your proposal, but you also must entice your reader to continue reading. Background Te background section—also called the current situation section— allows you to dive in deeper and show a more detailed picture of the problem your proposal will solve. Here are three moves the background should make: 1. Defne the problem and describe it in appropriate detail. 2. Explain the causes of the problem and how understanding those causes reveals possible solutions. 3. Explain the potential efects of the problem if nothing is done to solve it. Take your audience’s prior knowledge into account when writing the background. If your audience has technical expertise, you can use more technical language and less explanatory details. If you’re writing to managers or bureaucrats, be sure to avoid jargon and explain the details as simply and clearly as possible.

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Procedure Te procedure or the project plan section lists a step-by-step method for solving the problem. Use the outline from your writing process to explain all major and minor steps in your procedure. Your procedure should include: 1. A clear explanation of the solution 2. A list of objectives, or goals, that your plan strives to achieve 3. A clear, precise explanation of how you’ll achieve each objective—the major and minor steps, which may include: • A timetable, schedule, or time line to show the reader how long each objective should take to complete • A list of materials that you will need to complete each task • A list of people or groups responsible for completing each objective 4. All relevant technical details involved in your methodology 5. Te deliverables, or results, of your project A thorough procedure section shows your audience that you un-

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derstand the problem at hand. It also shows that you’re capable of developing an evidence-based plan and are competent to follow through with the actual work. Evaluation In the evaluation, you will explain how you’ll measure the success of your project. Tis section is more relevant for research projects, which aim to either add knowledge to a feld of research or test it. Most industry ventures use profts as their measure of success. However, if you’re creating a proposal for a client, you can show them here that you value their bottom line as much as they do. Success is ofen difcult to measure, so you may need to contract the work to specialists. For example, you may hire a statistical expert to analyze your data fndings or an accountant to evaluate projected profts. Be sure to include costs for this work in your costs section.

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Follow-Up Te follow-up section also mostly pertains to research projects. Many stakeholders want to know what you will do with your research once you’ve gathered it. You should use the results of your project to add to the feld of study. Here are some suggestions: • • •

Write a paper describing your fndings and submit the document to a retrieval center. Choose a specifc professional conference and present a paper of your fndings. Use your fndings to create or improve a program at your organization.

As with all other sections, be clear and specifc about your plans. Qualifications In addition to the ethos you create by writing a clear and detailed proposal, you can also show your qualifcations for the project as you describe the personnel who will do the work, your organizational support, and your access to resources. Personnel: Provide relevant information about the people who will be involved in the project. Tis could include: • Short biographies of those in leadership roles, with a description of previous experiences that have prepared them for this project. • Resumes or vitae of leaders, to be included in the attachment section. • Demographic information on the company’s workforce.

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Organizational support: You may need collaborative help from other groups within your organization. Tis could be another department in your organization, a division in your university, or partner companies. Obtain letters of support for your project and include them in the attachments. Resources: Describe the resources you already have access to that will enable you to complete the project. Although your budget section will describe the resources you need to purchase, the stakeholders want to ensure that you don’t have to start from scratch. List facilities, laboratories, equipment, or personnel you have access to in order to complete the project. Costs and Benefits Te costs and benefts can serve as a conclusion for your proposal. Summarize the benefts of your project and use them to justify the costs. Here are some moves you can make in this section: • Use a transition to signal the conclusion of your proposal. •

List the costs of the project (they may or may not be itemized, depending on if you have a budget section). Tis is a good place to explain what new resources you need and how they’ll contribute to the completion of your project.

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• Summarize the benefts of the project (or what will happen now that the problem is being solved). •

Describe the future of the project if the readers approve your proposal.

•

Tank your readers for their time and consideration and provide contact information.

Don’t add any new ideas to the conclusion. Simply restate the information you have provided in other sections so that your readers can feel like they thoroughly understand your solutions to their problems. Attachments In the attachment section, otherwise known as the appendix, include any additional documentation requested by the stakeholders. Tese documents might include resumes or vitae, a bibliography, letters of support, or documents or technical specifcations that you intend to use to complete your project. Some institutions also ask for a budget to be included in the attachments section.

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Budget A budget is an itemized list of resources and personnel required to complete a project, along with the costs. You should have already listed your rationale for budget items in the costs and benefts section. Here, you should create a chart that shows a breakdown of costs and a total sum of all costs. For example, if you need to hire personnel to complete the task, you could defne the hourly pay of the workers and estimate how many hours they will require to complete the work. If you need to purchase new equipment, you should list each separate piece and add up the totals. Create headings for diferent types of expenses. You could have a

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heading for personnel, equipment, sofware, expenses for attending a professional conference, contract work with outside frms, or compensation for your own time. Be realistic about your expectations. Trim the budget where you must; however, ensure that you (and your company) won’t lose money by completing the project.

Style Since a proposal is part technical report, part sales pitch, you need the style of the proposal to both educate and persuade. Use plain and persuasive styles to meet this goal. Plain style: Communication that values reader comprehension frst. Readers should understand each sentence the frst time they read it. Plain style uses sentences characterized by clear grammar, detailed descriptions and defnitions, and directness. Persuasive style: Communication that aims to infuence the audience’s action or thought. Persuasive style uses examples, analogies, and emotional appeals. Write in a predominantly plain style in sections that require more technical expertise, like the procedure section. Use persuasive style in sections where your audience will make decisions, like those that focus on benefts or analyze the importance of the project.

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However, you don’t want the style of the proposal to awkwardly lurch between two diferent styles. Te proposal should sound like it was written by one person—even if it wasn’t. Your proposal should also be easy for readers to skim and understand: • Front-load your paragraphs with the most important information. • Use headings that indicate the main ideas in the sections. • Defne any words that may be unfamiliar to your decision-making audience. • Keep sentences within breathing length. • Use bulleted or numbered lists when details need to stand out. In order to get the job, your proposal needs to not only include the best plan to fx the problem at hand; it also needs to convince your audience that you are the right person to enact your plan. Style that is plain and persuasive will do a lot of that work.

Document Design Before reviewers even read your proposal, they’ll see the design. A clean, professional design creates a positive frst impression that will infuence how people judge the content of your proposal. If they see a sloppy, haphazard design, they may assume that your proposal’s content is as well. Te impression formed at frst glance ofen afects the way readers think about the document even afer going over the content. To make the best impression, ask the following questions:

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• • •

What’s the best way to deliver this message? Do I conscientiously adhere to the constraints or requirements provided? Does my product create a professional, trustworthy image of me, my work, and my company?

Sometimes, proposals won’t require any design. For example, if you’re given a standardized form to fll out, you will likely use the default font and paragraph settings in the document. A form is already formatted and organized the way the institution wants, so you would mainly need to avoid confusing readers with unclear paragraph breaks. Use a frst-line indent or a space between paragraphs (not both), and then be consistent with your usage. (Refer to the example of a proposal in Appendix C.)

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Layout If you do need to design your document, frst check for any formatting requirements from the institution you are submitting the proposal to. Tose requirements supersede any advice you see here. For technical documents, it’s best to adhere to an established style guide. If your company has or uses a style guide, use those formatting guidelines. You can also use formatting guidelines from a citation style guide such as APA, MLA, Chicago, or Turabian. If none of these style guides provide a format that suits your proposal—and you have permission to deviate from a standard format— you can create your own layout. Whatever layout you choose, be consistent. Use the same font, color, and font size for all text of the same type. Tat means your heading text should have a consistent style, while your body text has a (diferent) consistent style. All spacing and indentation should also be consistent.

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Any diferences in your visual design signals to readers that they should look for a diference in the content as well. Use those diferences purposefully (like the diference between heading and body text) to draw attention to the most important parts of your proposal. Embellishments All decoration in body text draws attention to itself. Color, graphics, and charts can make your proposal more attractive, but they should only draw attention to the most important parts of your document. Tese design elements should support the technical content of your proposal and make the information easier to understand. Be purposeful when using any of the following techniques to enhance your argument: • Use color in the headings, graphics, headers, or footers to add energy to the page. • Use graphs to illustrate trends. • Use images, maps, or illustrations to clarify or reinforce confusing or important points. • Use larger margins to provide room for reader notes or pull quotes. • Use lists and headings to help readers easily locate information. • Use page numbers so readers can easily reference information. • Use tables or charts to organize large amounts of data. Remember, too much decoration can distract from your argument or make your proposal look and feel unprofessional. Simple, functional embellishments will enhance the look of your proposal and create a positive frst impression.

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Design-Centric Thinking As with the other types of technical writing we’ve discussed so far, proposal writing can be made easier by using design-centric thinking to give your process structure. To increase the chance of your proposal being chosen from the stack of proposals your audience will receive, you need to have a good understanding of context. Te context of the proposal is the background situation that infuences how the proposal is received. Tere are several factors you should consider: • • •

Financial issues and economic trends that afect your readers’ attitudes about the proposed project—what money matters are important to the potential client or stakeholder. Ethical issues and legal concerns that afect the project. Internal and external political issues—relevant laws or attitudes of lawmakers toward your project might be an external political issue; also, the relationships between the group soliciting the proposal and those groups afected by the proposal’s execution should also be understood.

As always with the principles of design-centric thinking, diferent aspects overlap. We’ll discuss the specifc audiences who might read your proposal in a moment, but these questions can help you consider how your audience fts into the larger context. Tis list is not exhaustive, but it should help get you started:

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• • • • • •

What circumstances led to the audience’s need for this proposal? What is my audience’s relationship to me, the writer? What is my audience’s relationship to my employer? What concerns does my audience have regarding this technical problem? What are my audience’s values regarding this project? Would they prefer a thorough solution? An efcient one? Should I provide an ultimate proposed solution, or is my audience looking for a segment of a larger process?

If you understand how your audience fts into the larger context, you are far more likely to present the information in your proposal in a way that addresses your audience’s primary concerns, increasing the odds of your proposal being selected.

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Next, consider the message or content of your proposal. Your audience may have to sif through a large stack of proposals (physically or electronically) to fnd one that adequately meets their needs. As you write, ask yourself what you ought to include in the message of your proposal. Here are a few (but not the only) suggestions: • • • • • •

What solution do I propose to the problem at hand? Is my solution clearly expressed? Does the solution have parts? If so, are the primary and secondary solutions clearly ranked? Do I exclude all unnecessary information? Do I know what information is most important to my audience? Do I respond to my audience’s real concerns rather than to the parts that personally interest me?

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When you show that you not only thoroughly understand the problems your audience faces, but that you also understand how your solution addresses their real concerns, you make yourself an attractive candidate for the job. Te content of your proposal will be evaluated by specifc criteria defned by your audience. However, in technical felds, projects are generally evaluated by their quality and feasibility. Your audience will not only care that your proposed solution is appropriate and supported by solid evidence, but also that it can be executed according to the specifcations you outline. If you remember the four types of readers described in Chapter 1, it’s helpful to use them in creating your reader profle. In this section, we create a potential reader profle using these four types of readers, to help you know how they might approach your proposal: Primary readers: Since these readers can approve (or reject) your ideas, to appeal to them you’ll need to present your case clearly and convincingly. Tese people need to agree with your proposed solutions and trust you to execute those solutions. Secondary readers: Tese readers will be the ones who thoroughly check your evidence. If they agree with your handling of the issue, they will recommend your proposal to the decision-makers. Tertiary readers: Tese readers are motivated to fnd problems

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in your proposal. Tey may be lawyers who need to protect the stakeholders from legal liability, journalists, or community activists who protect the public. Gatekeepers: Tese readers work at your company or have additional interest in getting the proposal accepted. Tese people may include technical advisors, company lawyers or accountants, or your direct supervisors. To fnd out more about the values your audience has regarding the project, do some research. Look into the company, government branch, or academic institution your proposal is directed to. Analyze the image, or brand, that they project. Do they value innovation or efciency? Are they focused on quality or afordability? Emphasize their values in your proposal. See if you can fnd profles of the people who will actually read your proposal. If you can, call or email a point of contact (POC). Prepare questions specifc to your project and fnd out if you’re headed in the right direction. Analyze his or her response. Is it bored, excited, or hostile to your ideas? Make changes accordingly. If applicable, examine the request for proposals (RFP) for clues. What does your audience ask to see in a proposal? Deliver on those things. When it comes to purpose, most proposals express it with a purpose statement, or a one-sentence summary of the problem and its solution.

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Purpose statements should be direct and clear. Tey can start like this: • Te purpose of this project is to. . . • Our goal is to. . . • Te primary aim of this project is to. . . Writers place the purpose statement near the beginning of the proposal, usually in the introduction, so the audience can understand quickly and clearly what the proposal ofers. Te text of the proposal should always serve the purpose. Tangential information distracts from the purpose and may bore or frustrate your readers. You want your proposal to be selected as the optimal solution for your audience’s problem. When you’re deciding what information to communicate and what to leave out, always

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ask yourself if each section of the proposal is as convincing as it could be and refects the purpose. If it is submitted physically (as opposed to electronically), your product will usually be presented on 8½” by 11” paper, spiral-bound or in a portfolio. Conclusion Te ultimate goal of any proposal is to get the job. Te proposal represents an opportunity for you to showcase your technical expertise, trustworthiness, and understanding of your audience’s needs. If you can show your audience that you possess the attributes and resources necessary to complete the job—and to do it better than the competition—you’ll stand out as the right candidate.

Check Your Understanding 1. 2. 3.

What is the purpose of a proposal? What is important to include in a proposal? What are the benefts of basing a proposal around a central purpose?

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CHAPTER

Oral Presentations Chapter outline I. II.

why Give an oral Presentation? how to Give an oral Presentation i. Introduction ii. body iii. Conclusion iv. Design v. style vi. Preparing for the Presentation III. Design-Centric thinking i. Empathize/Define/Ideate ii. Prototype/test/Implement

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S

arah is a consulting mechanical engineer who specializes in the analysis of motor vehicle collisions. She has been contacted to help a specifc motor vehicle company which is being accused of producing defective brakes. Her current assignment is to gather and analyze relevant research in order to inform attorneys in the upcoming court case. Sarah won’t be performing the research herself; just consolidating and interpreting research that has already been done. Tis is called a literature review (see Chapter 7). Once she has gathered all relevant information, Sarah will be in charge of presenting it to the court. Since the attorneys will be relying on Sarah’s work to inform their decisions, it is vital that she is completely thorough and unbiased in her presentation of information. Although she has her own personal views on this specifc court case, Sarah must put those aside in order to maintain neutrality in presenting her fndings. How can Sarah be concise in her presentation while still remaining adequately thorough? How can Sarah ensure that her personal biases don’t afect her presentation of information?

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Why Give an Oral Presentation? Tere are quite a few lessons we might take from Sarah’s experience, but perhaps the most salient for this chapter is the process of discovery. At the beginning Sarah knew her subject, but she needed to understand something before she developed her idea. She needed to understand her audience and—importantly—how to adapt her presentation to ft their concerns with her topic. Te most common mistake presenters make is forgetting their audience. So, why do people give oral presentations to an audience? Presenters do so for all kinds of reasons: someone needs to learn, understand, or be persuaded, and a presentation covers large amounts of information in a short amount of time. Rather than dishing out information on a one-by-one basis, a whole ofce can meet together and hear the information at the same time. It is also a way to give updates on the progress you’re making for a current project or a way to pitch ideas and get people excited. Oral presentations, when done right, create countless opportunities to convey critical information in a timely fashion. Tere are two main presentation types, and it’s important to understand them before we move on to developing an efective presentation style. First is the informal presentation. What does informal mean? Most teams need to present weekly or monthly reports, and ofen those reports happen in a meeting where team leaders stand and give a short presentation to other team leads. Te informal presentation becomes a way to communicate progress on a particular project. You may have some experience giving these types of presentations, but be warned that supervisors can easily spot

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inefective communicators when they compare your presentation to others. Te managerial supervisor will be taking notes on your ability or inability to present information efciently, and those notes could impact your ability to succeed in a particular company. Other informal presentations include pitching ideas to your supervisor, at informal meetings, or over phone calls with potential clients. On the formal side, presentations are a bit more, well, formal. Tey include corporate speeches, workshops, trainings, briefngs, demonstrations, and panel discussions. Speakers rely heavily on slides and notes when giving the presentation and ofen use a desk or podium when addressing the audience. While both formal and informal presentations are performed in front of a range of diferent audiences in the corporate world—clients, colleagues, managers, and more—formal presentations will ofen carry more weight and leave a greater impact on the organization. Tat responsibility means these presentations will require more time and attention

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than informal presentations. You’ll want to set aside enough time to properly prepare for your presentation. Whether they’re tasked with giving a formal or informal presentation, what do efective presenters do? First, they remember that they are speaking to people. Tey make eye contact and aren’t afraid to smile. As they present they refer to their visuals or slides, but give most of their attention to the people sitting in the audience. Tey may walk around and work the room, but they don’t turn it into a frantic pace. Tese presenters vary their vocal pitch as well as volume and pace. Certain things you’ll want to emphasize more than others, so let that come out in your speaking. If it’s appropriate for the type of presentation you’re giving, don’t be afraid to ask questions and get the audience involved. If you bring up new terms, be sure to introduce and defne them so your audience can keep up with your arguments and general train of thought. What do inefective presenters do? Mostly, inefective presenters

forget there are people in the audience. Tese kinds of presenters turn their back on the audience and read from their slides. When they eventually do make eye contact, they might stare at one individual for too long. Teir monotonous voice creates no emphasis and puts everyone to sleep. Tey slouch. Tey don’t balance their weight evenly across their feet, which results in constant shifing from foot to foot and distracts from their message. When someone raises his or her hand with a question, these presenters ignore them or don’t listen carefully to the question and fail to appropriately respond. In short, everyone in that room wants to get out as fast as possible.

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How to Give an Oral Presentation I. Introduction

Tell them what you’re going to tell them. Preferably in a short, catchy, memorable way. Keep in mind that the introduction is the very beginning of your entire presentation, and people in the audience will determine if your presentation is worth their undivided attention. Te frst few moments will set the tone for the rest of your time, so use them wisely. Do something memorable, but not too crazy. As mentioned before, watch examples of great presentations and see what they do to grab the audience and then launch into the body of their presentation.

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Here are some strategies for attention grabbers. Tink about which method would be most appropriate for the type of presentation you are giving: • • • • • • • •

Rhetorical question Startling statistic Compelling statement Anecdote Quotation Quiz Survey Interesting analogy

Intros should have the following moves: Defne the subject: Make sure audience clearly understands the subject of the presentation. What is the purpose of your presentation? Tis purpose should be obvious within the frst one to two minutes. Ofer relevant background information: Provide a framework so the audience understands what you’re trying to say. Tis framework can be a history of the subject or your personal relationship to it. You’re ofering context to orient your audience on the subject and help them understand the next point. Stress the importance of the subject: Why does this topic matter? Your audience wants to know why this subject is important to them, and why they should care about it.

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Reiterate the purpose: What are you trying to achieve with your presentation? Tis step is vital and should be clear in your introduction. Use an additional slide or other visual way to forecast the structure of the rest of the presentation. It ofers a diferent kind of context for your audience, and they’ll feel as though they know what to anticipate for the rest of your presentation. Tey know where you’re taking them.

II. Body

If a good presentation is like a train ride, then the body of your presentation is where the bulk of the traveling happens. Your audience are your passengers, and your job is to make sure they stay awake and engaged for the ride. Te primary way to do that is to assure your audience of your organization. It is not enough to be organized; you must also give your audience a sense that you are in control of your presentation. Te easiest way to instill comfort is to verbally connect each point of the body back to the purpose. By using clear transitions, your audience will feel you have control over your topic. Similar to how a train conductor announces a destination during intervals of a journey, it is wise to verbally remind your audience that each point of the body ties back to your purpose as you transition from one section to another.

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Of course, when discussing an organized presentation, the following question arises: What is the best way to organize your presentation? It depends on your purpose. Where is the train headed? Depending on your information and purpose in sharing it, you may organize it in a variety of ways. According to the experts, there are fve ways to outline a presentation: 1. How a topic is arranged in space (spatial design). Example: Begin a presentation about a toaster by explaining the physical construction of a toaster, starting with the outside plastic shell and moving inward to the mechanics. 2. How a topic occurs in time (sequential design). Example: Begin a presentation on toasters by outlining the history of toasters (the frst being invented in Scotland in 1893) and continuing until you reach present day.

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3. How a topic naturally divides into subcategories (categorical design). Example: Explain the diferent kinds of toasters by type, including pop-up toasters, conveyor toasters, and toaster ovens. 4. How a topic stands against a contrasting topic with which the audience is familiar (comparative design). Example: If your audience is familiar with bonfres, discuss the efciency of cooking a piece of bread in a toaster in comparison to attempting to do so over an open fame. 5. How a topic can cause something else to happen (causation design). Example: If trying to convince your audience that toasters are evil, try structuring your presentation around how toasters will eventually lead to a digital Armageddon. It is important to stay as close to your purpose as possible. Any unnecessary distractions or tangents not connected with your purpose will cause your proverbial train to veer of the rails and endanger the concentration of your passengers. By focusing your points on the purpose, you stay on track and will more likely retain the audience’s focus throughout your presentation. Te less complicated you lay out your purpose, the better, as the likelihood of your audience remembering your points will be much higher.

III. Conclusion

When you exhaust your points and your presentation draws to a close, it is important to end on a high note. Presenters commonly

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make the mistake of not preparing their fnal words. Tis makes them wrap up by saying something like: “and, um, that’s my presentation.” Tis kind of ending diminishes the impact of your entire presentation. Te conclusion of your presentation should be just as strong as the introduction, gently guiding your audience to integrate your topic into their lives. Using keywords, such as “to conclude” and “in summary” will tip of your audience that the presentation is coming to a close, allowing them to brace themselves for a strong ending. One of the most important jobs of a train conductor is to state the destination—otherwise known as your thesis. Announcing the purpose will remind your audience of the purpose of your presentation and prepare them to remember it. However, there are other points that will ensure your audience will feel satisfed with your conclusion.

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Tere are four points that contribute to a strong conclusion: 1. Summarize purpose and main points. 2. Reiterate the importance of your purpose. 3. Motivate the audience to act based of your purpose. 4. Finish with a sense of closure. Your conclusion should be as long as your introduction, approximately ten percent of your runtime. Make it poignant, and make a statement. Tese statements will wrap up your ideas into a sense of closure, preparing your audience to take your message with them and apply it in their future endeavors.

IV. Design

You may think that technology is the answer to an efective presentation, but that is not always the case. When slides are poor quality, grainy, or too cluttered, then technology has the opposite efect of engaging your audience. And that goes for all visuals that you use in your presentation. Keep it simple and don’t be afraid to shelve the bells and whistles so you can engage your audience—just you and them. It doesn’t mean that you can’t have visuals, but don’t use them as a crutch. Here’s an example. An engineer was giving a presentation in front of coworkers and the president of the company. He was proposing various solutions by using a PowerPoint presentation with fancy transitions and a

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colorful display format. When he got to the slide with the three possible solutions, the last item on the list was do nothing. Te next slide was blank to illustrate his point even more. He shut of the screen and fully turned to his audience and engaged them on this fnal solution of doing nothing and why it was the best for the company as a whole. Te fnal part of his presentation so drastically difered from the frst that it proved his point even further. He talked to the people in the room; he held no notes or papers—pure engagement. And what did the company fnally decide to change? Nothing. Of course, this situation is just one example of a successful presentation that used a certain technique, and that technique may not work for you, so we will look at some of the options that you can

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choose from when selecting the best methods and modes to convey your point and emphasize what’s most important. Above all, you want to use what’s best for the space and time provided and select a form of visual presentation that best illustrates your points. When using visual aids, there are some key principles to keep in mind. You’ll want to keep a balance between too much and too little. If you have too many visuals in your presentation, it can be distracting and hard to follow. Yet, if you have too few, then you could be missing opportunities to demonstrate your point in stronger ways that could impact your audience more. Warning: avoid the glib, student-centered comedy images that add little to your presentation (e.g., memes, gifs). While these types of images might be fun to include, they mark you as immature, unprofessional, and unimaginative. On the actual slides or visuals, make sure the font type and size are legible from the back of the room you’re presenting in. Use a variety of slides: images, graphs and charts, words, video clips, and so on. Only put the information you want to emphasize on the slides because that’s where your audience’s attention is, so make it worth their time. Are you catching their attention at the beginning or reemphasizing a point? Are the slides visual or points of summary toward the end? Slides, fip charts, whiteboards, podiums—technology of some kind

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generally makes an appearance when we talk about the presentation product. Whatever technology you decide to use with the presentation, make sure that you’ve practiced with those visuals. A lot. You may think everything will fall into place once you get up there, but if you haven’t practiced and know your visuals as well as the words you’re saying, then it could turn disastrous fast. Know your space. Know your visuals. Know how they all work together. When in doubt, aim for clarity. Even evaluate the color choices of each graph. Remember that when designing your own visuals, simple is best. Tere’s no need to get overly fancy and spend excessive amounts of time on design when other things (like preparing your overall presentation content) are more important.

V. Style

Building an engaging presentation is key to a successful one as it will ensure that you retain your audience’s attention. A train with blacked-out windows puts people to sleep like a lifeless presentation drains your audience. To be engaging, use illustrations and personal stories. Doing so will humanize your topic, but taking time to speak about yourself or everyday problems will not fascinate your audience. You do not have to be a professional comedian to be engaging—in fact, cracking too many jokes is strongly discouraged, as it will pull your audience away from the purpose and instead focus on you. If you use humor, do so sparingly and always in good taste, making sure to avoid potentially ofensive jokes. In total, you should never

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sacrifce focus on your thesis for the sake of entertainment. You are there to share a message, but an occasional joke or story might bring a smile to an audience member’s face and arrest their interest.

A Digital Projector with a Computer:

A digital projector with a computer is one of the most common ways to present visuals in a presentation. It’s easy to use and highly attractive. Most of the time, the technology is easy to access, but that doesn’t mean the technology will always work. Once, a presenter frantically tried to get the computer and projector to work, but afer a few minutes abandoned the technology and spoke directly to her audience. Luckily, she was prepared and knew her material well enough that she was able to express her various points and opinions. When using this kind of technology, you have to prepare for the worst. Another thing to think about—your audience’s attention will

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be fxated on the slides when they are up. Is that always where you want their attention? If not, then take control and blank the screen. Find ways to divert their attention back to you and what you are saying if the slide is not important in that moment. Some things to keep in mind when designing slides: •

Make sure that your audience can read the text against the background. Slides that can’t be deciphered are distracting and discouraging for your audience.

•

Slides that are cluttered with too many words can be just as bad as having text that isn’t readable. It can be extremely frustrating and a little daunting when an audience is faced with that many words to read at once, especially in a presentation. It’s also distracting if you’re trying to say something diferent or in addition to all those words.

•

Along with not having too many words on your slides, also beware of having too much in general. Overly cluttered slides are also distracting and frustrating for people. Tey will waste time trying to fgure out what your slide means rather than listening to you. Simplify instead.

One fnal point on slides—don’t feel like you have to use one of the prepackaged templates. If none of them seem to ft your purpose then design one that works for you. Again, don’t take too much time on this (your oral presentation is not an exam on InDesign), but assess and see if something simpler would work better.

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Whiteboard or Chalkboard:

Whiteboards and chalkboards can be incredibly useful when used right and with a fair amount of confdence. Tey allow greater interaction with your audience. You can make lists, draw images on the spot. Your listeners won’t feel like they’re dealing with just another canned presentation but will feel like you are truly listening to them and valuing their opinions. Tis technology also requires that you think on your feet and translate your and your audience’s comments into visuals on the board. Handouts:

Handouts have a number of pros—they reinforce points made in the presentation or provide data that won’t be visible from the projector. Tey can also be formatted to leave room for note-taking. Tese things can add richly to your presentation, but they are not without their downsides. Handouts can be distracting and take a long time to pass around, causing the speaker to lose momentum. Te audience may end up reading the handout rather than listening to the presentation.

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No matter what you decide to use, make sure that you are comfortable using it. If you are deeply self-conscious of your handwriting, you may not want to write on the board at all. If the tech is available to use PowerPoint slides, then that may be your best option. It’s up to you, but know that there are plenty of options to choose from, and whatever it is, make sure that the method clearly supports your main point/purpose for giving the presentation.

VI. Preparing for the Presentation Practice

As has already been said but bears repeating, consider watching examples of good presentations from people who exude confdence and fgure out how they keep the audience engaged. When you watch a presentation through the eyes of a future presenter, the experience is diferent. Take notes and pay attention to their eye contact and how they ask questions that encourage people to respond. Tink about what they do that you could realistically emulate in your own presentation. Practice in front of the mirror and in front of others. You may even want to record yourself doing the presentation so you can watch it later to see how an audience member would view you and you presentation. Whatever you have to do to practice, do it, as it will ease your nerves more than anything else. Speaking of nerves, if you’re one who gets nervous approaching your presentation, that’s actually a positive sign. Clammy palms, increased heart rate, shallow breathing. Tey mean you’re normal, and feeling a bit of anxiety leading up to the big day means that

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you’ll approach the presentation with humility. It means that you care about this; you want it to go well. Don’t be afraid to practice deep, slow breaths. Te more prepared you are, the better it will go. Presenters have been known to nearly pass out in the middle of a presentation, so if you know this is something you’re inclined to do, have a chair handy. And along with practice, know your material extremely well. Do research that branches out from your topic. Not too much—you want to spend the bulk of your time on the material you will actually present on. Yet, the more familiar you are with the topic you’ll be speaking on, the better. If your topic is controversial, then know both sides, regardless of which you present on. Te thought of questions will terrify you less if you’ve done your homework. Allot your time

Your audience is trapped when you give a presentation so you must be mindful of their patience. You will likely be given a specifc amount of time. You must use that time to say only necessary things central to your main point, and never go over that time. It’s also usually helpful to plan time at the end for questions. Long presentations don’t necessarily have long intros and conclusions. Keep intros and conclusions concise. Presentation organization

Since time is so precious, partition your presentation into several main points. Your presentation should be organized into an introduction, body, and conclusion. Since your medium is the spoken word, you need to keep your listeners interested and on track with your content by repeating what you have to say. Basically you’ll tell

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them what you’re going to say, say it, and then remind them what you said. Tat structure is the only way your listeners will remember. Allow for visuals that also repeat what you have said. Tey will increase the chances that your audience will remember the various points you’ve touched on. Visuals also add variety to your presentation that can keep your audience focused. However, they can also be an unnecessary distraction. Always leave extra time in case something happens during your talk or you are interrupted. A couple minutes to bufer the unexpected is plenty of time. Usually you’ll have more to say than time to say it. Te more you say, the more your audience will forget. Keep it simple and repeat ofen. Make hard decisions about what information is the most important so they actually absorb it. When practicing your presentation in front of other people, ask what they got out of it. What do they think are the main points of your presentation? What was the most memorable part? Don’t forget to get a sense of the physical layout of the room and presentation technology (like a podium, table, microphone, projector, computer, whiteboards, and so on). Make sure you test and retest everything. Te size of the room and the number of people may afect the visuals you decide to use and your presentation style. Presenting can be scary, but it can also be a blast. Breathe. Practice. Practice some more, then go in there and be you.

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Design-Centric Thinking In order to be an efective presenter, we can incorporate principles of design-centric thinking in with steps that will improve your presentation.

I. Empathize/Define/Ideate

https://images.app.goo.gl/ej5vfHXV94gme1Kd8

First, you need to know how to prepare for your presentation. Tis step is probably the most important. You need to fgure out what the audience should know, do, or believe. In a sense, this step is more important than step two, fguring out what you want to say, because your message needs a purpose before substance. Your purpose statement should be short and say something like: “Tis presentation will inform my audience about the progress I and my team have made on [current project].” Or maybe your presentation will pitch a new idea to the company— something you’re hoping they will get excited about. (If this is the case, hopefully you’re already excited about it too.) Maybe giving

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a presentation is part of the interview process, and what you want your audience to know is that you’re the ideal candidate for the position. In that case, your goal is for the people in the room to get to know the real you and what you would add to the company. Te clearer the objective statement, the more likely the presentation will resonate with your audience. Some presentations provide jargon-heavy detail to a managerial team, with little background on the project—managers hate when presentations waste their time in this way. Or a presenter might opt for a more global overview of the project, a seemingly inclusive presentation that anyone could follow; however, what’s really needed in this scenario are specifc details so the technical team sitting in the audience might have a better sense of the product they’re developing or the solution the company needs to implement. Again, the way to address this problem is a clear statement about what the presenter hopes the audience will get from the presentation. Afer you determine your precise objective, you’ll want to work a little to understand your audience. Tis step can be tricky. We don’t always have access to the people who will attend our presentations, and even if we did, the information might be incomplete or unrelated to the objective. However—and this is critical—some information is always better than no information. And the process of asking these questions will help get you out of your limited perspective and into thinking about your audience and their needs.

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Start by asking the role of each audience member. Tis practice is known as discovering your rhetorical audience. You try to fnd out who the decision-makers are—they’re the people you want to convince or inform with your presentation. Ten, ask why this person or group is attending the presentation in the frst place. What does this rhetorical audience already know and what might they need to know to understand your message, thus helping you achieve your goal? What do they believe about you and your team and how can that inform your approach to the message? In a sense, is their opinion of you going to help, or get in the way of your message? Short presentations may just rely on your experiences on a project and only require a pen and paper to jot down what you know about time lines and deliverables. But with larger formal presentations, you’ll probably need to research information, compile reports, go over sales fgures, and generally gather more data to include. But gathering data and facts is only the start. Once data is collected, you may need to create charts and fgures—visual displays of the data or information. Tis process requires some discrimination. You must decide what content to include and what to exclude from the presentation, again being directed by your presentation statement. (You can see why that earlier work was so critical to your success during this stage of the process.)

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Te audience won’t listen to the whole thing; they just won’t. Tink back to the last presentation you sat through and ask yourself what you remember most. You can probably remember one to two main points that you walked away with—maybe a phrase or two that was catchy and stuck with you. Remembering when you were an audience member will help you have greater empathy with your audience. So, what do you want your audience to remember? When you last watched a presentation, how did the presenter connect with you—or maybe not connect with you? Tink about the peers and supervisors in your group; what do you know about them? Tis knowledge does not mean you reference embarrassing stories about them in your presentation. What’s important to them? With oral presentations, you usually have a better idea of who exactly you’re talking to. In small groups, you can gauge their reactions. In technical terms, there are four diferent audience types: Primary: action-takers who will use information from your pre-

sentation to make a decision. Tis group is the one you’ll start with when working to understand your audience and how to best communicate and connect with them. What do they already know about you and you about them?

Secondary: advisors who give advice to those who make decisions (the primary audience). Tey can be experts in the feld or just have trusted opinions about the subject.

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Tertiary: evaluators who have an interest in what you’re saying but

aren’t involved in decisions. Tey might be journalists, lawyers, activists, competitors, or concerned citizens.

Gatekeepers: supervisors who will see your presentation before you

present it to the intended audience. Tey check for accuracy and determine if you fulfll the purpose of the presentation and mission of the company.

Asking questions is the best way to get to know your audience: is your topic a point of interest for your audience or do you have to start from scratch and build interest? What examples are you using that your audience could relate to in some way? Tink of your presentation as a way of building or furthering a relationship with your audience.

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You’ve already written a purpose statement as the frst step in creating your presentation. You should know what you want to achieve: training, informing, or another reason. If there is more than one sentence explaining the purpose of your presentation, it’s probably too long. Remember to ask those critical questions as you review and revise your purpose statement: what do I want my audience to think or feel afer my presentation? Why am I giving this presentation? What is the single most important thing I’ll say and repeat?

Check Your Understanding 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Do you know when a presentation is the best genre for communication? Do you know how to adapt a presentation to your audience? Do you know how to start and end a presentation? Do you know the best practices for using visual aids in a presentation? Do you know the common mistakes that presenters make and how to avoid them?

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10

CHAPTER

Resumes, Cover Letters, & Interviews Chapter outline I. II. III. IV. V.

resumes, Cover letters, & Interviews how to write a resume how to write a Cover letter how to navigate an Interview Design-Centric thinking

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wo candidates, Conner and Mia, are being interviewed for the same position at a sofware development company. Te interviewer asks the same question of both: “On a scale of 0-5, how would you rate your level of competency in using JavaScript?” Mia immediately asks a follow-up question: “Can you give me an example of what the levels of the scale could mean?” Te interviewer clarifes that a “0” would indicate a complete lack of exposure, a “1” would describe someone who took a class but has done nothing more, and a “5” would describe someone who could perform all expected tasks without reference materials. Mia thinks for a second before saying that she would give herself a “4” based on that scale. She then explains that performing expected tasks would be easy for her but she might occasionally need reference materials for more complicated tasks. As for Conner, the interviewer had noticed throughout the interview that he appeared nervous. To make it easier, the interviewer repeats a clarifcation of the scale without waiting to be asked: a “1” describes someone who has taken a class and a “5” describes an experienced expert. Wanting to show a level of confdence, Conner says “4 or 4.5” with no further explanation. Te interviewer asks for his rationalization and Conner states, “Well, I took a class.” Which candidate is showing a higher level of engagement in the interview? Which candidate is demonstrating a greater ability to think critically? [ 247 ]

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Ever since you were a child, you’ve likely thought about what you will do “when you grow up.” During your college years, the answer to this question becomes more urgent, especially as graduation nears. Perhaps you want to pursue a career in computer programming, but the only experience you have in the feld is a student job, a summer internship, your required coursework, and your senior project. Many of the jobs you’ve looked at—even some entry-level positions—require several years of experience that you just don’t have. What can you do to showcase your experience so that employers take you seriously as a job candidate?

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Resumes, Cover Letters, & Interviews Te U.S. Department of Labor has determined that most people change careers between four and six times in their lifetimes, with between 12 and 15 job changes. With so much job shufing ahead, it’s valuable to learn what techniques work for getting not only the job, but also the career path you want. Resumes and cover letters are the two most common documents requested by hiring managers before they hire new employees. Most employers also use interviews to determine if a job candidate is a good ft for their organization. Resumes: Simply put, a resume is a list of your relevant experience, with descriptions of how you excelled in those positions. Your resume should showcase your skills with examples and evidence of your professional accomplishments. Cover Letters: A cover letter is a letter outlining why you’re interested in the job and why you’d excel at it. Include things like your professional personality, motivations, and habits, as well as the reasons you would be great at a particular job. Te purpose of both a cover letter and a resume is to secure you an interview. Interviews: Afer hiring managers receive a resume and cover letter, they select the strongest candidates to interview. At this point in the hiring process, employers want to see if you’ll be a good ft in the team you might join. We address interviews in this chapter because, as detailed in Chapter 1, an interview is an instance of the

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communication process (remember sender, receiver, channel, and message?), and it’s smart to know best practices for this rhetorical situation.

How to Write a Resume If you’re serious about applying for a job, you ought to tailor your resume and cover letter to that job so the hiring manager considers you a top candidate.

Research

Start by researching the company you’re interested in. A simple online search should reveal insights into the company culture. Te “About Us” section of the company website is ofen especially helpful. If you have any professional contacts, ask them for information.

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Ask key questions and take notes as you search: • • •

What does the organization do? What makes this organization diferent from their competition? What are the organization’s core values? e.g. do they emphasize cost saving or do they prefer to see themselves as being at the cutting edge of their industry?

Depending on what you discover, you can decide how to present the information in your resume and cover letter. For a company that values efciency, you can include a line about fnishing projects ahead of schedule in your resume. In your cover letter, you could share a story about how you managed your time in school so well that you never missed a deadline.

Learn the Job Description

Hiring managers complain that job candidates ofen don’t really understand the responsibilities of the jobs they apply for. Surprise them by reading the job description thoroughly. Try summarizing the job to a friend to ensure you understand what you’re applying for. Picture yourself doing the job, imagining challenges you might encounter and new ideas you would like to implement. You can use some of those ideas in your cover letter, and they defnitely ought to come up in your interview. Many people who are new to the workforce worry about meeting all the qualifcations listed in a job description. However, hiring managers know that they are unlikely to fnd a candidate who meets every single one. Instead, think about the ways you are a match for the job and put them in your cover letter.

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Organization

Some hiring managers spend less than thirty seconds scanning a resume to decide if a candidate meets the job qualifcations. So you may have a limited opportunity to convince an employer that you’re right for the job. Resumes have conventions. Tese conventions can be fuid, depending on the position or the feld, but there are some basics that remain the same. Te best way to show you’re a strong candidate is to follow these basic conventions. Te organization of a resume is simple: in a document that’s generally one page—but can be expanded to a second page to include relevant information—list your past work experience in reverse chronological order. If you’re a college student, you may not have extensive work experience, but you can and should also use volunteer experience, internships, and coursework to show of your qualifcations. You can refer to Appendix C: Supplementary Examples for sample resumes. Keywords: Many companies require candidates to enter their

resume information in a digital submission form in addition to the one-page resume. Tese online forms search through your resume for keywords that relate to the industry and the job. Te computer creates a ranked list of candidates who match the most keywords. Tere’s no need to write two separate resumes (one for people and one for computers). Instead, incorporate keywords into your resume. You can fgure out what keywords the company is looking for by reading the job description and looking at the company website. However, don’t copy the job description word for word, as it might look like you have nothing original to contribute. Instead, use the key words and phrases naturally in your sentences.

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Header

Work Experience

Education

Volunteer Experience or Extracurricular Activities

Skills

Awards & Achievements

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Imagine that a position calls for a computer science major with great interpersonal skills, Internet technology expertise, and experience with setup and maintenance of various platforms. Your resume should include keywords from the job description to show that you have the skills the employer is looking for. Let’s say you completed an internship with a local IT company, which gave you direct experience working with several of the required skills. Use the phrase accounts payable in your resume. Example: Processed hundreds of invoices per week in accounts payable department. Maybe you don’t have any accounting experience that demonstrates your leadership skills. You might have experience in a volunteer organization or in a school project where you learned leadership. You can include a form of the keyword leadership in what might otherwise seem to be irrelevant experience. Example: Served as vice president of student association. Organized and led bimonthly activities with over one hundred participants. Header: Te header of a resume contains your name, address,

phone number, email address, and website, if you have one. Te font for your name should be a larger size than the rest of the text so it catches the eye. Education: If you’re just beginning your career, your degree should

come next. Your degrees should be in reverse chronological order, with the most recent degree frst.

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Include: • Te name of the university or college and its location. • Your major. • Your minor. • Any distinctions you earned (such as magna cum laude). • Te month and year of your graduation (even if the date is in the future—your hiring manager can fgure it out). • Your GPA (if it’s impressive or if the employer requires it). • If you want to include relevant coursework or school projects, include them here or in the “Volunteer Experience” or “Extracurricular Activities” section. Work Experience: Tis section includes your relevant work expe-

rience, including career-related jobs and internships (even unpaid ones). For each job, include: • • • •

Your job title. Te name of the company and its location. Te dates of employment (with the month and year). A bullet list of workplace accomplishments.

Te phrasing of your bullet list of accomplishments is critical for capturing a prospective employer’s attention. Use action verbs and brief phrases (not complete sentences). Avoid subjective traits like “creative innovator” or “great leadership skills.” Instead, focus on measurable accomplishments. Any time you can use a number or detail to show the scope of your work, do it. Tis is known as quantifying your work experience.

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Example: Completed fve marketing campaigns for Fortune 500 companies. Include between two and four bullet points for each job. Long lists are tiring to the eye, and the hiring manager will likely move on to the next section before fnishing a long list.

Aerospace/Mechanical Entry-Level Engineer or Engineering Intern Flight Works, Inc. is a growing OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) of advanced components for aerospace, medical, and other applications. Flight Works is seeking out dynamic, result-focused, hand on, entry level or intern aerospace or mechanical engineer to join its expanding development and production team. The company is located in Irvine, CA near John Wayne Airport and the position provides the opportunity for exposure to many technologies in a fast-paced environment where you will be involved in all aspects of the product development cycle, from concept definition to test.

Job Description and Responsibilities Engineers and Engineering Interns lead and assist in fluid system design, test, manufacturing, assembly, component characterization, and generation of associated supporting documentation. Interfacing with various aerospace/medical/etc. companies and government officials may be necessary. Occasional US travel may be required. Options for part time, full time, and flexible hours. Hourly or salary depending on experience.

1. Student or recent B.S. in Aerospace or Mechanical Engineering or related discipline 2. Technical background or understanding of fluids, thermal, materials, or electric components 3. Experience with solid modeling and CAM software (SolidWorks, UG, etc), drawing generation, and GD&T (general dimensioning and tolerancing) 4. Strong analytical skills; able to implement complex analytical models in MS Excel or other tools 5. Excellent verbal, written, and graphical communication skills 6. Experience with instrumentation and data acquisition preferred (LabVIEW or similar) 7. Hands on lathe and mill experience preferred (CNC or normal) 8. Must be highly self-motivated and able to handle concurrent tasks requiring various sets of skills at multiple stages of the product development cycle 9. Must be able to work well in an integrated team including daily interactions with technicians, engineers, and management 10. US Citizenship required

Figure 10�1 A job description for an entry-level engineering position�

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Qualifications and Preferred Skills

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Volunteer Experience or Extracurricular Activities: If you don’t

have a lot of professional experience, you can include volunteer work or extracurricular activities in a “Volunteer Experience” or “Extracurricular Activities” section. Even if these experiences don’t seem like they have a lot to do with your feld of study, you can show how your experiences have prepared you for the job you’re applying for. For example, if you’ve participated in student associations, clubs, volunteer groups, student journals, or student projects, you can include them here. Follow the same organization in this section that you did in the “Work Experience” section. Describe the work you did and the qualities you learned, keeping the focus on measurable accomplishments.

Skills: In the “Skills” section, list skills that are relevant to your

industry. Some industries place greater value on a set of measurable skills than others, so consult a mentor in your feld to fnd out if you need to include a “Skills” section at all. You don’t need to list where or when you learned each skill—just a short description of

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the skill or the name of the technology and your level of mastery. Tis is an appropriate place to list foreign languages spoken. Awards and Achievements: Only include an “Awards and Achieve-

ments” section if you have awards that are relevant to the job. Academic awards such as scholarships for academic performance, prizes in competitions, memberships in honors societies, and college and departmental honors are all appropriate for inclusion in this section.

Portfolios: Not every industry requires a portfolio, but in some in-

dustries it’s helpful to have a sample of your work to show potential employers. Many felds now encourage digital portfolios, in which candidates post examples of their work to a personal website. If you have a website, include the link in your resume.

Style

A resume should be as brief as possible. Read through every phrase in your resume and shorten every line. Since you may only have thirty seconds of an employer’s attention, you don’t want to waste time. Te following is a poor example of a bulleted work experience entry: • Interned as a website assistant for a journal dedicated to academic studies editing content and code (HTML, CSS) for dozens of pages. Here is a better example: • Interned as a website assistant for a journal dedicated to academic studies. • Edited content and code (HTML, CSS) for dozens of pages. [ 258 ]

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A resume should also have consistent formatting. Always write years and months the same way. Te same goes for bulleted lists— all should begin with an active verb in past tense. Te only exception is for the job you currently have; you should begin these bullet points with present tense.

Document Design Visual hierarchy: Make the most important information in your

resume visually distinct from the rest. Your name should be in the largest font size in the document, and the headings should be distinctly larger than the body text. Your name and the headings can also be in a diferent font to create even greater contrast. Professional Fonts: Overly ornamental fonts can be difcult to read

and look unprofessional. Instead, use clean, professional-looking fonts for all text. You can use a sans serif font for headings and contrast it with a serif font for body text, or you can use a consistent font for everything. Also, avoid using fashy colors. Usually black and white is just fne, especially if you submit a resume digitally, and then a potential employer prints it out. Save your resume as a PDF to avoid corrupting the style when a hiring manager downloads it. A PDF creates a static copy of your resume exactly as you designed it.

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How to Write a Cover Letter A cover letter shouldn’t just be a regurgitation of your resume. You only get two pages (your resume and cover letter) to convince a potential employer that you’re the best ft for a position. Don’t waste a page by simply repeating information in your resume. Instead, think about what you might say to a friend about why you’re excited about the job and why you would be excellent at it. You’ll probably think of things that don’t show up in your resume, like personal traits and work habits. Just like in the resume, you should back up every claim about your skills with an example or with measurable evidence. You have more space in a cover letter, so you can even tell a story that shows how you exhibited traits that would make you the best ft for the job. You can refer to Appendix C: Supplementary Examples for sample cover letters.

Organization

Te organization of a cover letter is in four basic parts: the header, the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. Te header is the information at the very top of the page, and the other sections are usually spread among two to three paragraphs. header: Te header of a cover letter should be the same as the

resume. (Remember the design principle of repetition!) Below the header, include the date, the name and title of the person soliciting the application (this information should be available on the job description), and the address of the company. Te salutation of the letter would ideally begin with “Dear Mr./Ms. [last name of the hiring manager].”

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“To whom it may concern” should only ever be used as a last resort if you can’t fnd any specifc person or group to address. If you know more than one person is involved in the hiring process, “Dear Selection Committee” can be appropriate without being too vague. Introduction: Cover letters are a much less strict genre than re-

sumes. Te most important aspects of a cover letter are expressing your professional enthusiasm and make the hiring manager feel like he or she knows you a little better. Te content of a cover letter varies depending on writer personality and the writing situation. However, it’s always a good idea to clearly state the position you’re applying to in the introduction. If you’re applying to a large company, it’s possible they have several positions being flled, and you want your application to get to the right place. Te introduction is also a good place to: • Explain how you heard about the position (this is especially useful when you know someone within the organization). • Convey something about the position that made you excited about it. • Include a polite plea for the reader to consider you for the position. However, these points are also perfectly appropriate for the body section as well. Te only thing you should avoid is a “My name is . . .” introduction. Hiring managers know to look for your name at the top of the resume and the bottom of your cover letter. Including it at the beginning of the letter as well makes it look like you don’t know what to say and you’re just trying to fll up space.

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body: Te body section of the cover letter contains the bulk of your

argument for why you’re a good ft for the position. It’s visually satisfying to have two or three paragraphs in the body (though you may have more or fewer, depending on the information you want to convey). Tere are several organizational strategies you can choose. All of the following are equally acceptable, but they are by no means your only options: •

•

•

Each paragraph is focused on a diferent trait that qualifes you for the position. For example, if you’re applying for a computer programming position, you might want to emphasize your attention to detail, efciency, and ability to learn new technologies quickly. Each paragraph should include examples of things you’ve done that demonstrate these traits. Each paragraph is focused on a diferent category of experience that qualifes you for the job. For example, the same computer programming position might have paragraphs organized around your educational background, work experience, and skills in certain technologies. Each paragraph is focused on a diferent kind of evidence that qualifes you for the position. Using the same computer programming position as an example, the paragraphs could be organized around the diversity of your experience, the length of your experience, and all the traits that make you a good ft for the job.

Allow space to give evidence for each claim you make about your qualifcations.

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Conclusion: Te conclusion of a cover letter should be confdent and

enthusiastic. Here are some suggestions: • • • • • •

Confdently state that you’re a good match for the position. Express enthusiasm about a particular aspect of the job. Request an interview. Express hope that you’ll hear from the employer soon. Provide contact information. Tank the employer for their consideration.

Sign of with a simple “Sincerely” or “Best regards,” followed by your full name. Repeat your contact information below your signature, even if you have written it before.

Common Mistakes

Here are fve common mistakes you ought to avoid in your cover letter: 1� Don’t focus on how the job will help you. You want to explain what you’ll contribute to your employer, not what your employer will do for you. 2� Don’t use hyperbole. Exaggerations like “I’m the best candidate for this job” sound like sales tactics or bragging. Instead, make claims supported by evidence. 3� Don’t claim that you have excellent communication skills� Show that you have good writing skills by writing well. In a worstcase scenario, you say you have good writing skills but your cover letter doesn’t refect that, so your hiring manager questions your ability to self-assess. 4� Don’t mention salary. Your frst communication with a potential employer should—as mentioned before—focus on what you

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can ofer, not what the company can ofer you. Even though employers know that employees work for money, mentioning salary this soon in the process comes across as greedy. 5� Don’t write more than one page. Most hiring managers won’t turn to a second page, so cut out unnecessary information until all that remains in your letter is the best evidence that you’re a good ft for the job (on one page).

Style

Tough a cover letter is a professional document, it’s your best opportunity to express your personality to a potential employer. Your supervisor wants an employee who will not only do work well, but will also be easy to work with. Use a conversational, friendly tone to give the right impression. To create a conversational tone, pretend you’re writing to an authority fgure you know well and enjoy talking with. Use standard grammar and make sure your sentences can be easily understood by a reader. Focus on positive aspects of your qualifcations and the job you’re applying to. Be polite.

Document Design

A cover letter doesn’t need a complicated design. Many times, your cover letter will just be an email to which you attach a resume. Use standard letter layout, with full lef aligned text and spaces between paragraphs. Use a standard, professional-looking font in a size that’s easy to read. Te hiring manager is much more concerned with the content of your cover letter than its design, so keep it simple.

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How to Navigate an Interview Te interview is an opportunity for an employer to get to know strong candidates. At this point in the process, your interviewer already thinks you have the skills to do the job, but he or she wants to learn about your personality and see how you’ll ft with the team and company. An interview is a chance for employers to learn about your communication skills, work ethic, confdence, and personality. You’ll probably feel nervous before going in to an interview, especially if you don’t have a lot of experience selling yourself to a potential employer. Take ten minutes sometime before your interview to review your strengths. If you dwell on your weaknesses or fears before you begin an interview, that negativity might come across as a lack of confdence. If you focus on your strengths, you’ll feel more confdent during your interview.

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Also, remember that not every job you interview for will be the right job for you. Use the interview to evaluate your potential employer. Do you think you will be happy in the day-to-day work at the company? Will the position be a good stepping stone for your career? Te interview is as much a chance for your potential employers to impress you as it is for you to impress them.

Prepare for Questions

You’ll never be able to completely predict the questions an interviewer will ask. However, if you know what interviewers generally want to get out of an interview, you can prepare for that. Here are some potential interview questions and inquiries, and why interviewers ask them: 1� “Tell me about yourself�” Interviewers usually use a question like this to break the ice and help you feel more comfortable. While they might not say it, this question is really about your professional self. You don’t have to talk about your personal life. 2� “Why are you leaving your current job?” If you just graduated from college, this question is easy. Interviewers ask this question because they honestly want to know if you’ll be happy in the job they’re ofering. Be honest in answering this question, but don’t use it as an opportunity to complain about your current job—you’ll look like you have a negative attitude. 3� “Tell me about a time when� � �” Interviewers want to know how you’ll handle challenges in the job they’re ofering. Tey ofen gain more insight into your work style by evaluating decisions you have made in the past, rather than asking you to speculate on how you’d act in the future. 4� “What interests you about this job?” Interviewers genuinely want to know why you’re applying for the job. Tey may be looking

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for an employee who will stick it out for the long haul, or they may want someone who loves tackling challenges. Since you can’t read their minds (and you don’t want a job that doesn’t ft your goals), be honest. 5� “What salary range are you looking for?” Tis question is tricky, because interviewers ofen already know how much they’re willing to pay you, but if you name a lower fgure, they will match it without ofering you their original (higher) rate. However, if you name a salary that’s too high, you may price yourself out of the position. Research the market rate ahead of time to negotiate well for yourself. Before you get to the interview, brainstorm questions you think you might be asked. Write down your answers, then rehearse them so you get comfortable with saying them out loud. If you fnd a question difcult to answer, practice it even more so you won’t get caught of guard in your interview.

Dress Appropriately

Select clean, pressed clothing for your interview. Do some research to fnd out how formal the ofce is. You can even ask the person who reached out to you from the company. Most people understand the stress of interviewing and will be happy to give you a hand. If you can’t fnd out ahead of time, it’s safer to dress more formally than less. Avoid wearing distracting jewelry or scents.

Have Confidence

Remember, the reason the hiring manager brought you in for an interview is because she or he thinks you’re qualifed. Hiring is stressful. Te hiring manager wants you to be the solution to the job vacancy so he or she can get back to regular duties.

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Figure 10�2 Even if the company you’re applying to is casual, show you’re a serious contender by dressing in business attire�

Also, no hiring manager has ever seen a perfect candidate, so don’t worry about giving the perfect interview. Interviewers are used to people who are nervous. If your interviewer is rude or judgmental to you during the interview, take that as a sign that you don’t want to work in that kind of environment.

Ask Questions

At the end of an interview, your interviewers will usually ask if you have questions. Your interviewers want you to ask questions. Tey want to help you understand the job and the company. Tey want to resolve any worries or questions you have. Tey also want to see what kinds of questions you’ll ask. If you only ask about salary and benefts, you signal that you’re only interest-

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ed in what the company can do for you. If you ask about the work and the organization as well, you signal that you’re thoughtful and genuinely interested in the opportunity. To think of genuine questions, imagine what you’d want to know as you go into work every day. Here are some ideas: • • • • • •

What does a typical day in the position look like? How would you describe the culture here? How would you describe the company management style? When you think about the person you’ve seen do this job best, what made his or her performance so outstanding? What are the biggest challenges a person in this position will face? What are your next steps for hiring? What is your timeline for letting me know your decision?

Be sure to get an answer about the timeline for their hiring decision. You don’t want to waste weeks stressing about not hearing back about a job when they know their decision will take a month.

Leave with Confidence

Tank your interviewers for their time and say you look forward to hearing from them. Shake each interviewer’s hand frmly and walk out of the ofce with a smile. It’s over—you did it!

Write a “Thank You” Note

It’s not only polite, but could be critical to write a thank you note to the people who interviewed you. It provides a fnal reminder to them of who you are, and demonstrates qualities of follow-up communication as well as considerate attention. A thank you note doesn’t have to be long—a few lines are sufcient. [ 271 ]

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You can send a note in the mail (a handwritten note is not necessary, but it’s a nice gesture) if you know the company won’t get back to you for several weeks. You can also send a thank you email if that’s been the primary mode of communication between you and the interviewers. In your note, express your appreciation for the interviewers’ time and emphasize your continued interest in the job.

Design-Centric Thinking In your job search, it helps to understand your particular situation, not just principles of job searching in general. You can tailor your resume, cover letter, and interview to the situation so you get the job and career you desire.

Empathize/Define/Ideate

Beginning with context, ask yourself what industry you are trying to break into. Te norms and expectations of your particular industry will afect how you put your documents together and what kind of information you provide. You also ought to consider the organization itself. Is the company large or small? Is it a nonproft, [ 272 ]

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a family-owned company, a national-level organization, or maybe a startup? You’ll emphasize diferent work experience and qualifcations in your documents depending on the context of the job. Te message you convey depends on the document. Your resume should list any relevant experience. Your cover letter should explain why you’re interested in the job and why you’d be great at it. In the interview, you should present your qualifcations and goals in the most honest and favorable light possible. Your audience is generally the employers who are in charge of hiring new employees. You may be writing to a company board, a human resources representative, the supervisor of a department, or some other individual. Assume that your audience has knowledge of the job requirements and the authority to make a hiring decision. Your purpose in submitting a resume and cover letter and being interviewed is to get a job. However, you shouldn’t be satisfed with just any job. You want a job that fts your immediate professional needs, including an adequate salary, duties that you’re capable of completing, a company culture that makes you comfortable, and coworkers with whom you get along. You also want a job that will help you reach your long-term professional goals. Te job should be in your desired feld or have the potential to lead to said feld.

Prototype/Test/Implement

Your product is the physical resume, cover letter, or your performance during the interview. Te product should create a professional impression on your audience—an impression you can create not only with the content you write, but also with your writing style and document design.

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Ask someone whose opinion you trust to look over your resume and cover letter, especially someone with experience in your feld or a trusted professional mentor. Rehearse your interviewing skills and questions with similar trusted friends, family, or associates. Doing so will help you identify kinks in your product so you can fne-tune it before it lands in front of your potential employer.

Conclusion Te frst time you compile a resume and write a cover letter, it can be overwhelming. However, once you write a good draf of these documents, you never have to start from scratch again. You can add and subtract from a resume for your entire career, updating your design and wording as you add new experiences and remove outof-date ones. Since you’ll probably apply for many jobs over the course of your career, it’s a good idea to get good at writing resumes and cover letters and interviewing.

Check Your Understanding 1. 2. 3.

Do you know how to write a resume & cover letter and what to include? Do you know how to prepare yourself for an interview? What questions do you ask yourself to insure you are a good ft for a position and aim to get it?

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CHAPTER

Instructions Chapter outline I. II.

what Are Instructions? how to write Instructions i. list of requirements ii. numbered steps iii. style iv. Design III. Design-Centric thinking i. Empathize/Define/Ideate ii. Prototype/test/Implement

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A

fer graduating with a degree in Business Management, Amy has worked to create a new app which will help its users to create, distribute, and analyze surveys. With the right connections made, Amy has a support team which will help her to launch this new app. First, though, Amy must ensure that her support team understands the details about how the app functions. Te instructions will be written in the form of an employee handbook: a thorough step-by-step guide which explains the usage of the app as well as a series of questions and answers with all the other information the support team will need to know. Since the app is new and groundbreaking, Amy doesn’t have a model to follow to ease the writing process for this handbook. She is working with fairly unprecedented and complicated ideas, so the instructions in this employee handbook must be thorough yet simplifed enough for the employees to understand. How can Amy introduce her novel ideas in a way that is precise yet still simple enough to be clear? How should Amy organize her instructional handbook in order to maximize understanding in her employees?

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What Are Instructions? Instructions are a type of process writing. However, unlike process descriptions—which focus on the process itself—instructions address the reader directly. It’s assumed that the reader will turn the instructions into action to complete a task. Instructions always contain numbered steps. Readers should be able to read a step and have enough information to put it into practice. At the conclusion of all the steps, readers should be completely fnished with the intended task. Instructions are one type of writing where the readers rely heavily on the writer. You must write clear, accurate, and complete steps, or your audience may make mistakes. If a product or process fails because the instructions lacked clarity or completeness, the company that produced the instructions is held legally liable for any costs, damage, or injuries incurred. Instructions explain how to perform a specifc task, such as how to assemble a product or perform a process. For example, a new telescope may contain instructions on how to put it together, and then how to use it. Instructions include specifc, detailed, numbered steps that directly address the readers. In your technical career, the kind of instructions you write may be diferent than those most people are familiar with, but they will follow the same principles. Tese kinds of instructions include procedures, protocols, and documentation.

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Procedures: Procedures describe an established guideline for a series of actions that must be performed in a certain order or manner. Procedures are usually used in the workplace to ensure quality control and consistency in regularly repeated actions. For example, doctors use procedures to handle emergency situations, like what to do when a patient arrives in an ambulance. Procedures are addressed directly to readers.

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Protocols: Protocols are systems of rules for routine series of actions. Protocols are similar to procedures, but the order and manner of the steps for protocols must be far more strictly followed. Protocols usually apply to situations that require greater exactness and precision, such as laboratory experiments or government operations. For example, a procedure for treating a burn victim may be altered depending on the needs of the patient. However, a protocol for a scientifc experiment measuring the efect of fertilizer on plant growth must precisely follow the step outlined so the experiment can be repeated and the results verifed. Protocols may be written directly to readers or in third person. Documentation: Documentation provides guidance on the proper use and maintenance of a piece of equipment or sofware. Documentation may also be used as a general reference for a category of technical problems which can be adapted to particular situations. For example, sofware developers use documentation to record how to use code so multiple developers can collaborate on a single project. Documentation may be written in third person or directly to readers.

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How to Write Instructions Before You Start Do background research on the product or process you’re describing: • • • • • • •

Find out the purpose of why the product or process was developed. Look up its history of the product or process. Has the task been recently developed? Has it changed? How has it changed? Are readers familiar with a former iteration of the task? Collect materials. Are there older versions of the instructions available? Can you fnd instructions for similar tasks? Ask subject-matter experts for advice. Observe someone performing the task. If possible, do the task yourself.

Take detailed notes of your fndings. Pay special attention to any problems, difculties, or safety hazards that users encounter. Title Te title is specifc to the subject of the instructions. It should clearly describe the task that readers intend to complete. Bad example: Travel Scope 70 Refractor Telescope Good example: Setting Up Your Travel Scope 70 Refractor Telescope

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If the instructions describe a complex task, use headings and subheadings to break up the overall task into smaller, achievable ones. Introduction Te introduction contains all necessary background information on the subject. Te length of the introduction depends on the complexity of the task and your readers’ familiarity with the task. If the task is simple, you may need only a sentence (a purpose statement). All instructions should contain a purpose statement, or a statement of why the user should be reading the instructions, such as this one: Classic Monopoly Rules Object: Te object of the game is to become the wealthiest player through buying, renting, and selling property.

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Te introduction is also an appropriate place to explain: • • • •

Te difculty level of the task. Te gravity of performing the task incorrectly. How long it’ll take to complete the task. How much of the instructions they must read before they get started.

However, try not to overwhelm your readers. Assume they are capable of completing the task and address them with confdence.

I. List of Requirements

Before you tell your readers how to begin the task, create a list of requirements to make sure they have all the necessary tools, parts, materials, and conditions to complete the task. Tere is nothing more frustrating to users than getting halfway through a task only to discover they need a tool that wasn’t previously mentioned. To avoid confusing your readers, separate the requirements into distinct lists, according to the category of the requirement. • • • •

Tools: Devices or equipment used to carry out a particular function. Parts: Components of equipment or machines that combine with other pieces to create the fnished product. Materials: Unfnished substances that must be reformed for use in the fnished product. Conditions: Environmental requirements, such as limitations of time or temperature and awareness of delicate operations or danger.

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how to Dye Easter Eggs: what you need hard-boiled eggs Paper towels or newspaper Cups deep enough to submerge an egg Egg dipper, tongs, or slotted spoon 1/2 cup boiling water 1 teaspoon white vinegar liquid food coloring (about 20 cups per color)

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» » » » » » »

II. Numbered Steps

Steps are the centerpiece of instructions. Tey will likely make up the bulk of the text of your instructions. Arrange the steps in the most logical order that they must be completed. Consider your readers’ patience as you arrange the steps. Don’t ask users to backtrack or repeat steps unless they are necessary to complete the task. Don’t tell users to begin working on many diferent components of a task at once when they could fnish the components one at a time.

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Identify steps in the task

To create a logical order for your instructions, you must identify the steps required to complete the task. Use logical mapping techniques to determine the steps. 1. Use your notes to write a loose outline of how to complete the task. 2. Write the name of the task in the center of a piece of paper. 3. Draw a circle around the task. 4. Ten identify the major, or most vital, steps in completing the task. 5. Write the major steps around the main task. 6. Draw circles around the major steps and connect the circles to the main task circle. 7. Identify the minor steps, or steps that lead up to completing each major step. 8. Write the minor steps around each major step. 9. Draw circles around the minor steps and connect the circles to the corresponding major step. 10. Take notes of steps that require hazard statements. 11. Write hazard statements near the corresponding major or minor steps. 12. Draw boxes around the hazard statements to diferentiate them from steps. 13. Determine the chronological order of the steps. 14. Write the order by numbers in each major and minor step. 15. Use this order to write the frst draf of your instructions.

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write the steps with Clarity, Accuracy, and safety

Begin with preparatory steps. Tese steps include preparing materials, creating a work space, collecting resources, and anything else users need to do before they begin the task. How to Jumpstart a Car: 1. Locate a set of jumper cables. 2. Locate a vehicle with a working battery. 3. Pull the vehicle that can run close to the vehicle with the dead battery. Incorrect Example (where did we get the cable?): 1. Start by clamping one end of the positive cable to the positive post on the dead battery.

Maintain strict chronological order� All steps should be arranged in the order in which they must be completed. Any other order will confuse your reader. Mark each step with its own sequential number. Notes or warnings shouldn’t be numbered because they aren’t steps to be followed. How to Jumpstart a Car (cont.): 4. Open the hood on both vehicles. Note: this may require pulling a lever or pushing a button inside the vehicle. 5. Remove any kind of cover over both batteries. 6. Clean any dirt or other substance away from the posts on both batteries. 7. Locate the positive (+) and negative (-) clamps at either end of the cables.

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Caution: Make sure that the positive and negative clamps never touch while attached to either battery. To ensure this, try to have a diferent person holding each one of the four clamps. Incorrect Example (note the “caution” is numbered): 6. Clean any dirt or other substance away from the posts on both batteries. 7. Locate the positive (+) and negative (-) clamps at either end of the cables. 8. Caution: Make sure that the positive and negative clamps never touch while attached to either battery. To ensure this, try to have a diferent person holding each one of the four clamps.

Use command voice� Begin each step with an action verb, as if you were talking directly to the users and telling them what to do. Each step should be a complete sentence.

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How to Jumpstart a Car (cont.): 8. Connect one of the positive clamps to the positive post of the dead battery. Incorrect Example: 8. At this point, you can potentially attach one of the ends marked positive to the battery.

Write short, straightforward sentences. Your readers should immediately understand your intended meaning, with no secondary interpretation available. Any ambiguity will frustrate and confuse your readers. How to Jumpstart a Car (cont.): 9. Connect the other positive clamp to the positive post of the working battery. 10. Connect one of the negative clamps to the negative post of the working battery. Caution: Do not connect the second negative clamp to the negative post of the dead battery. Tis can cause sparks and shortages. 11. Connect the second negative clamp to an unpainted metal part of the car, such as an engine bolt. Incorrect Example: 9. Connect the other positive clamp to the working battery, one of the negative clamp to the working battery, and the other negative clamp to an unpainted metal part of the other vehicle, such as an engine bolt.

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Include only one action per step� Your readers are impatient to move forward and not inclined to read your instructions carefully. Include just one command in each step to avoid a second command from being overlooked. How to Jumpstart a Car (cont.): 12. Start the working vehicle. 13. Wait a minute or so for the dead battery to charge. 14. Try to start the non-functioning vehicle. Note: if the vehicle fails to start, wait a few more minutes to let the battery charge and try again. Te vehicle should be running before you detach the cables 15. Once the non-functioning car is running, detach the cables, beginning with the negative clamps and ending with the positive clamps. Caution: Do not let any of the clamps touch while any of the clamps are attached to any part of either vehicle. 16. Keep the now-running vehicle on and take a short drive, if necessary, to give the battery more time to charge.

Defne a specifc goal for each step. Readers should clearly recognize when they have completed a step. You may need to describe how the product looks, sounds, smells, or feels diferent afer the step is completed. Here are a few more things to keep in mind as you write instructions:

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Give exact dimensions and measurements� When readers know exactly how much of something they’re supposed to use, they feel confdent that they’re following the instructions correctly. Include repeated steps� When four or more steps must be repeated, tell the reader to “repeat steps w through z.” When three or fewer steps must be repeated, they should be written out again in the instructions. If a repetitive process is used, write the repeated steps once, then give the total number of repetitions and prescribe the sequence of the repeated steps. Do not omit any steps, no matter how obvious they seem� By the time you write down the instructions for the task, you will be very familiar with the task. Don’t assume that your readers are just as familiar.

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Readers won’t read between the lines; they require explicit guidance for every step they must take. Here is the full set of instructions afer following the steps above: How to Jumpstart a Car: 1. Locate a set of jumper cables. 2. Locate a vehicle with a working battery. 3. Pull the vehicle that can run close to the vehicle with the dead battery. 4. Open the hood on both vehicles. Note: this may require pulling a lever or pushing a button inside the vehicle. 5. Remove any kind of cover over either battery. 6. Clean any dirt or other substance away from the posts on both batteries. 7. Locate the positive (+) and negative (-) clamps at either end of the cables. Caution: Make sure that the positive and negative clamps never touch while attached to either battery. To ensure this, try to have a diferent person holding each one of the four clamps. 8. Connect one of the positive clamps to the positive post of the dead battery. 9. Connect the other positive clamp to the positive post of the working battery. 10. Connect one of the negative clamps to the negative post of the working battery. Caution: Do not connect the second negative clamp to the negative post of the dead battery. Tis can cause sparks and shortages. 11. Connect the second negative clamp to an unpainted metal part of the car, such as an engine bolt.

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12. Start the working vehicle. 13. Wait a minute or so for the dead battery to charge. 14. Try to start the non-functioning vehicle. Note: if the vehicle fails to start, wait a few more minutes to let the battery charge and try again. Te vehicle should be running before you detach the cables. 15. Once the non-functioning car is running, detach the cables, beginning with the negative clamps and ending with the positive clamps. Caution: Do not let any of the clamps touch while any of the clamps are attached to any part of either vehicle. 16. Keep the now-running vehicle on and take a short drive, if necessary, to give the battery more time to charge.

Comments, Notes, and Examples

Comments, notes, and examples are not steps. Tey provide more information to help readers understand a step, but they can be distracting if they’re included in the same block of text as the step itself. Instead, they should be placed on the line immediately following a relevant step. Comments, notes, and examples add further explanation: • • •

Comments: Additional advice or defnitions needed for less experienced readers or troubleshooting in case a step doesn’t work out. Notes: Background information necessary to understand a specifc step or series of steps. Examples: A specifc illustration that aids readers in understanding the step.

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Troubleshooting Troubleshooting refers to a systematic search for the source of a failure in a specifc task in order to solve the problem. Depending on the complexity of the task, you may need to provide troubleshooting throughout the instructions or a table listing potential problems and their solutions. Simple tasks may only require a sentence or two at the end of the instructions. A troubleshooting note should include a description of the problem’s symptom, an explanation of how the problem might have occurred, and how to solve the problem so the readers can move on to the next step in the instructions. Te following is an example of troubleshooting: Problem: Game system will not turn on or reboot. Solution: Reset the AC adapter. • Note: most power issues with the game system will be fxed by resetting the AC adapter. • Unplug the AC adapter from both the outlet and the console and let sit for at least 2 minutes. • Plug both ends back in, making sure that the adapter is plugged directly into a wall outlet and not a surge protector or power strip. https://images.app.goo.gl/Dc2ytBvt6g7wuKxC6

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Hazard Statements Prevent injury or product damage (and limit legal liability for you and your company) by including hazard statements. Hazard statements provide safety information, warning readers of potential dangers. Place hazard statements early in the instructions and then again before steps where readers will complete difcult or dangerous actions. Hazard statements should always include the hazard, the seriousness of the hazard, and how to avoid injury or damage. Most technical writers use a three-tiered rating system for safety information: danger, warning, and caution. Defnitions and examples of each are provided below. Danger: Readers may be at risk for serious injury or even death. Only use this highest level of warning when users are faced with real danger. Example: Danger: Carbon monoxide, fre, and explosion hazard� Tere are serious hazards associated with using this stove and fuel� Acci dental fre, explosion, and misuse can cause death, serious burns, and property damage� You are responsible for your own safety�

Warning: Readers may be injured if they complete the step incorrectly. Use warnings more frequently, whenever readers might injure themselves or others. Example: Warning: Do not touch any components on the circuit board while the main AC of DC power is on�

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Caution: Readers may make mistakes that cause damage to the product or equipment. Use cautions liberally to alert readers of difcult steps. Example: Caution: Before working on the transmitter, remove the battery�

Conclusion

Use the conclusion to inform the readers that they have fnished the steps. Te conclusion may be a separate section or the fnal numbered step, depending on the formality and length of the document. Te conclusion is an appropriate place to describe the fnished product, ofer information about how it works, explain how it can be modifed, or detail what the readers might do afer completing the task. Te following is an example conclusion for instruction on assembling a trampoline: Afer you have fnished setting up your trampoline, test it for safety� Check over the frame and the springs to make sure no parts are loose or wobbling� Ten climb on the trampoline and bounce a couple of times to make sure it is stable� You can increase the safety of your trampoline by purchasing an enclosure net that can be installed on the top of the trampoline� Your trampoline is now ready for the whole family to bounce� Have fun and be safe!

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III. Style

Te style (or the tone, voice, and word choice used by writers) varies by convention for diferent kinds of instructions. Formal instructions may require third-person voice, no contractions, and strict traditional grammar. Casual instructions can be written in command voice and use more common words. As with all technical writing, avoid using jargon—or overly specifc or slang technical words—as it might not be understood by readers outside your industry or company. Instead, choose words that can be understood by the widest audience possible. Avoid a patronizing tone in your instructions. Obviously, readers know less than you about this particular task. However, the best way to help them successfully complete the task is to have confdence in their abilities. Write clear, accurate, and safety-conscious directions, respecting your readers enough to be direct and inofensive with them.

IV. Design

Te design of your instructions should be clean and easy to read. With numbered instructions, you won’t be able to use indented paragraphs, so use white space between each numbered step. Use white space liberally in your design, especially around headings, notes, hazard statements, and graphics.

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Consider using a two-column design. Instructions usually have such short sentences on the lef side of the page that single-column designs have excess white space on the right. Two columns also leave space for graphics to be interspersed as needed among the steps (see Figure 10.2). Graphics—such as illustrations, photos, diagrams, and fgures— provide readers with a visual representation of the task. It’s ofen easier for readers to imitate the steps they see in a drawing or photo than it is for them to translate written instructions into action.

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If you’re using them, keep graphics as simple as possible. When practical, use diagrams and line drawings with clear labels. If you must use photographs, avoid including extra details like complicated backgrounds, clutter, or patterned clothing. Te simpler your illustrations, the better they’ll be understood by your readers. • • • •

Assign chronological numbers to each graphic. Begin with “Figure 1” or “Image 1” and proceed chronologically. Refer to accompanying graphics within the steps themselves. A simple statement like “see Figure 4” or “(Figure 4)” will notify readers that a graphic is available that illustrates the step. Caption all graphics. Captions should include the reference number of the graphic and provide a description of the action depicted in the graphic. Coordinate the graphics with the text. Place graphics near the steps they illustrate. If space is prohibitive, place graphics on a separate page in the same chronological order as the steps.

Lastly, don’t begin an instruction at the bottom of one page and complete it at the top of the next. Breaking up a step will force your readers to re-read the step, which they don’t want to do. Instead, insert a page break and move the entire step to the next page.

Design-Centric Thinking I. Empathize/Define/Ideate

Tough there are many specifc documents under the umbrella of instructions, for this chapter we’ll call all such documents

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instructions for simplicity’s sake. For instructions, the context includes where a document will be read and how it will be used. Will readers use your instructions at a desk? Will they read the whole document before they start the process, or will they read as they go? Instructions also work in the context of safety and legal liability. Readers rely on instructions to do their jobs correctly and safely. Your instructions must be perfectly clear and correct to avoid being found legally liable for technical malfunctions or injury. If a casual or confused technician causes damage to expensive equipment or harms workers, your instructions will be subject to legal scrutiny. Te message of instructions is the operation of a product or the execution of a process. You must understand how to use a product or do a process to efectively instruct your audience. You must also be aware of any dangers or difculties that might arise as readers perform the task. Your audience is readers who approach your instructions with the aim of carrying them out. Your readers are not just passively absorbing the information you present—they must also put the steps into practice.

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Readers only reluctantly read instructions. If they could perform the task without the aid of instructions, they generally would. Your readers will likely be unmotivated to read your instructions carefully. Tey will want to understand everything in them the frst time without having to read anything twice. Your readers will also not act unless they are told to, so you must spell out every single step for them. Readers who are following instructions or enacting documentation do not expect to have to fll in gaps of information. Your audience will vary. Readers use instructions for diferent purposes depending on their role in executing the process or using the product: Primary readers: Action-takers. Tese readers use your documen-

tation to complete a task. To efectively explain the steps, you must keep in mind their level of skill and familiarity with the product or process.

secondary readers: Advisors. Tese readers assist primary ones in

completing their task. Tey could be trainers, teachers, or managers, or they may have other advisory roles. tertiary readers: Evaluators. Tese readers do quality control of

your documentation. Tey may test your documentation for safety, technical quality, and legal liability. Gatekeepers: Supervisors. Tese readers approve your instructions

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before they go out to the primary users. Tey may or may not have technical expertise in your feld. Te purpose of instructions is to enable your reader to safely and correctly execute a process or use a product. Te best instructions include enough information so readers don’t need any other documents to complete their task. Instructions and documentation should include a one-sentence purpose statement at the beginning of the document. Tis statement allows readers to quickly determine if the instructions meet their needs to complete the task. Example: Te purpose of these instructions is to show you how to use your new digital video camera. Your readers are completely reliant on you and your instructions for accurate and complete information that keeps themselves and others safe. You tell them exactly what they must do to be successful in their jobs or to use products they’ve paid for. Be mindful of that responsibility as you create instructions.

II. Prototype/Test/Implement

Te fnal product may be digital or on paper. Paper instructions tend to accompany technical products. Complicated equipment may require a multi-page manual for users. Many instructions are recorded digitally, either in a company’s internal fles or on its websites. Instructions always have a list of numbered steps to help readers correctly follow the steps.

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user testing

Afer completing your frst draf of the instructions, test them on real users. You cannot assume that any reader will immediately understand your phrasing, especially if you’ve become familiar with the task and have lost some objectivity. Here are a few suggestions for user tests: Performance Test: Find readers to perform the task your instructions describe. Give them a set amount of time to read and perform the task (or act out the task if you have limited materials available). Aferward, ask questions. Where did they struggle to understand the instructions? Where were the instructions clear? Did they feel like they could follow the instructions correctly? Based on their feedback, make adjustments to your instructions. Safety Test: Tis test functions similarly to the performance test, but it focuses on safety. Give your readers the instructions and have them read and perform the task. Ask them if they noticed the hazard statements. Did they understand the statements? Did they alter their behavior as a result of reading the hazard statements? Did they think the statements were labeled correctly? Would they add or subtract hazard statements? Adjust your instructions from their feedback.

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Your goal is not only to avoid liability for you and your company, but also to serve those who will read your work. Remember to keep in mind accuracy, clarity, and safety. You need your instructions to provide accurate information so readers can accomplish the purpose of the instructions. If you provide incorrect information, your instructions are essentially useless. You must also provide instructions that are written in a clear way so readers can understand them. If your instructions are accurate but incomprehensible, your readers will experience signifcant frustrations. Finally, make sure that you prioritize the safety of your readers. Some readers may feel that safety concerns just make instructions more cumbersome, but you know better. When you include steps and commentary that help keep your readers safe from accident or injury, you serve their own best interests and maintain your own integrity as a technical writer. Check Your Understanding 1. 2. 3. 4.

Why write instructions? What is involved in writing instructions? What are the parts of successfully written instructions? How do you apply design-centric thinking when you write instructions?

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12

CHAPTER

Data Visualization Chapter outline I. II. III. IV.

what Is Data Visualization? how to use Data Visualization Ethics of Data Visualization Design-Centric thinking I. Empathize/Define/Ideate II. Prototype/test/Implement

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S

teven is a data and assessment consultant for the Mountain School District. His current project is to help teachers in their efort to improve individualized education plans (IEPs) for students with special needs. While teachers have been keeping track of the efectiveness of various IEP strategies, Steven’s job is to organize and present the data in a useful manner. Te goal of this data visualization is to clearly demonstrate to teachers which strategies are helping students progress and which strategies may need more attention. Steven will be enabling teachers to more thoroughly consider and adjust their teaching methods based on organized data rather than simple anecdotal experience. Teachers send him a large amount of data with details of varying relevance, which Steven then has to sort, flter, and interpret in a way that persuades teachers toward specifc courses of action. How can Steven use visuals to communicate what he intends to communicate? How can he decide which data details are most important and useful to present?

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What Is Data Visualization? Data visualization refers to visual aids such as graphs, charts, and tables that represent several pieces of data. Tey can help your audience interpret and understand the signifcance of numbers and other results—if they are produced correctly. As a student in a STEM-related feld, you will be working with graphs and charts more than the average person. Te purpose of data visualization is to encourage the eye to compare diferent pieces of data, to communicate a clear message that can’t be represented as well with words. Terefore, the proper creation of a graph, chart, or table should use design elements like contrast to establish distinct parts. Our brains are not good at comprehending larger numbers without an aid to make it more visual and make sure we understand the message.

Scenarios in which to use data visualization might include: • • •

to report back on finances during a quarterly meeting to represent research findings in a journal article to summarize proposed steps for a project

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Genres that ofen include data vizualization are: reports, posters, presentation slides, etc. Tis chapter will cover the basics of using data visualization to communicate clearly. Students will learn more about the graphs and charts commonly used in their industry from their content courses, but we will cover general concepts here. Many of the genres explored in this textbook ofen include some element of data visualization. Proposals, research reports, product descriptions, and other genres sometimes rely on a good graph or a thorough table to achieve their purpose. For instance, a proposal may use a graph showing the results of an experiment to display the viability of the proposed project. Learning how to efectively design data visualization will enhance your communication skills.

Types of Data Visualization Te most common forms of data visualization that you are likely to be familiar with are charts, graphs, and tables. You likely have experience with most of these: • • • • • • •

Column charts Bar or stacked bar graphs Pie charts Line graphs Area charts Scatterplots Tables

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Others you may have encountered before include: • • • • • •

Heat maps Timelines Tree diagrams Ring charts Word clouds Venn diagrams https://images.app.goo.gl/ErH6wpfvZq7nkHx6

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A few of the recent trends in data visualization are infographics and visual abstracts. Both are designed for general instead of technical audiences. Infographics ofen help organizations disseminate a lot of information on a single signifcant topic (for example, see Figure 12.1 for an infographic on infographics). Visual abstracts, on the other hand, have been used by several science

Figure 12�1 Infographics are a great way to summarize and impart a lot of information at once�

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journals to tweet out fndings from their research articles (see Figure 12.2). As a computer-literate generation, many of you may be asked to create these kinds of data visualizations during your career. A solid knowledge of graphic design/data visualization practices will look good on a resume and be practical no matter what your job is.

Figure 12�2 Visual abstracts can help get a succinct point across�

Graphs and Charts Te purpose of graphs and charts is to help readers understand the signifcance of your data. Line graphs illustrate trends and comparisons between two or

more variables (see Figure 12.3). Good line graphs have simple lines, numerical labels, and text labels.

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Figure 12�3 Line graphs work well to compare trends over time�

Bar chart show comparisons between quantities (see Figure 12.4).

Tey’re most useful when the data is separated into categories. All the bars should be the same width, with the length illustrating the quantity measured.

Pie charts show a whole divided into parts (see Figure 12.5). A pie

chart is most useful when the pie “slices” are easy to distinguish. It’s hard for a pie chart to be useful when multiple slices appear to be the same size. Numeric labels can help distinguish the slices.

Flow charts depict a series of steps, actions, or decisions (see

Figure 12.6). Tey usually illustrate a process described in the body text. Keep in mind that a fow chart shouldn’t replace a description of the process in the body text, but rather supplement it.

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Figure 12�4 Bar charts compare quantities between categories�

Figure 12�5 Pie charts show how parts ft together into a whole�

Figure 12�6 Flow charts show how steps lead to future steps�

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Diagrams A diagram is a simplifed drawing showing the workings, structure, or appearance of an object (see Figure 12.7). It’s generally a line drawing with labels. Diagrams are useful in illustrating an object that’s Figure 12�7 Tis diagram shows the layers of the earth� unfamiliar to your audience. A diagram can also show an object in the middle of a process, like a car engine in motion. An exploded view drawing is a diagram that shows the relationship of order of assembly for various parts of an object (see Figure 12.8). It looks like the object is exploded, with each part clearly separate and labeled but still generally in a position that would make sense if the object were properly assembled.

Figure 12�8 Tis exploded view helps the person assembling the burger see how the ingredients are placed�

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Te labels of diagrams are called callouts. Callouts include a line from the part being labeled to a label on the diagram itself. If the item is too complicated to allow for direct labeling, its callout may be handled with item numbers and a separate index or legend. Tables A table arranges data into rows and columns. It shows a lot of data at once but uses space efciently. While graphs show trends, tables are excellent for showing detail. Use a table when readers need to see details about a trend or a comparison to properly understand the situation. Tere are generally two types of tables that are used in technical documents: 1. Tables that contain a lot of data without immediate application to the text; these tables are generally found in appendices. 2. Tables that may contain less data with immediate application to a specifc section of the text; these belong beside the material they illustrate. Footnotes afer the table should be used whenever bits of data within the table need explanation. Use an asterisk (*) or dagger (†) in the footnote to avoid your readers interpreting a superscript as an exponent.

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Long tables should be broken up into two shorter ones to avoid carrying over to a second page. If a table can’t be compressed or broken up, it can be carried over to a second page with an identical layout and “continued to” and “continued from” labels clearly marked.

How to Use Data Visualization How do you know what form the data visualization should take? Ask yourself what the primary purpose is for displaying your data. Based on this, you can determine what method will best emphasize your point.

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For instance, say you want to show the comparison of a trend over time. To best show this, you could use a line chart, column chart, or area chart. But for something where you want to highlight the composition, you might use a pie chart or a stacked column chart. Here are some suggestions for efective graphs, adapted from Rougier, Droettboom, & Bourne (2014), with some examples for each: a. Have a message in mind. First, identify what you want the data visualization to do. Graphs and tables should not merely take up space; they should support the overall message of the document. b. Explain your message in the caption. What should the reader notice? Since the reader is not reading your thoughts, you will need to write out (or vocalize in a meeting) the important points or trends behind your message. An explanation of the visualization might begin with a phrase like “As you can see” to cue the reader to pay attention to certain things. c. Find a form that will best display or highlight your message. Your purpose will ofen determine the form that the visualization should take: for example, if you want to show the percentages of the whole, you might use a pie chart. If you want to show the lowest numbers in your table, you might only highlight those portions with a color, leaving the rest in plain black and white.

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https://www.ktvn.com/story/41067230/the-top-10-types-of-data-visualization-made-simple

d. Use color efectively to allow easy comparisons. Te reader should be able to distinguish between the diferent lines, bars, points, or pie slices on your graph. For this reason, colors should be chosen carefully to make sure they are not too similar and they don’t create optical illusions (like bright blue next to bright red, which creates a 3D efect). Color can also help to convey your message, such as a gradient showing fuctuations between high (dark colors) and low (light colors). A temperature chart may use the familiar range of dark blue to dark red to help the reader immediately identify cold and hot. e. Simplify the appearance of the graph by avoiding chartjunk. Chartjunk refers to design choices that create chaos or other-

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wise distract from the data. It may take the form of fancy fonts, unnecessary colors, or too much data crammed into one chart. Tere should be no extraneous elements on a graph. Question every design choice: if something does not serve your message, it should be removed. If you want your message to come across clearly, the graph should be as simple as possible.

Ethics of Data Visualization Do not mislead your reader by distorting the data. It can be tempting to remove pieces of data that do not support your goal, but you should be honest in showing the actual numbers. Do not stretch or truncate your dataset.

Figure 12�9 Tis chart does not show an accurate comparison between the two values� Te chart on the right is more representative of the data�

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Graphs and charts should accurately represent data. Sometimes, the visual representation of a graph can be misleading to readers (see Figure 12.9). For example, if the vertical axis of a chart doesn’t begin at zero, the diferences between variables could appear exaggerated. Readers are counting on you to give them information from a credible source, and in such a way that they are not misled. If you present them with inaccurate statistics or reduced/enlarged data in your data presentation, you are violating the trust they place in you as designer.

Design-Centric Thinking I. Empathize/Define/Ideate

Readers will be a specifc set of people with skills or lack thereof that inform or hinder their reading of your data. What visualization is going to be most benefcial for your specifc audience and their frame of reference? Tis factor is going to direct not only the choice of format for your data, but also the way you choose to display it. We want to make sure to analyze the audience in order to create graphics that are easy to understand. We are doing the audience a service by incorporating data visualization; however, we have to

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https://images.app.goo.gl/Z6iSD997s2Nsgmb69

consider what the audience will be able to notice on a graphic. Our design choices will need to draw out the signifcance of the data for the audience.

II. Prototype/Test/Implement

Afer making your data visualization, run it by a trusted colleague or test representative of your intended audience. If their takeaway is not what you were hoping for, make tweaks to fne-tune its message.

Check Your Understanding 1. 2. 3. 4.

Do you know when to use data visualization? Do you know how to choose your form of data visualization based on your data and purpose? What data visualization practices are unethical? What makes a data visualization easy to understand?

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13

CHAPTER

Technical Definitions Chapter outline I. what Are technical Definitions? II. how to write a technical Definition III. Design-Centric thinking

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M

eimei is an engineer at Tech Point, a technology company working to put a new home security system on the market. She has already helped engineer the video surveillance and motion detector systems, which are meant to connect to a homeowner's cellular device and send an alert when unusual movement is sensed. She also made this product adaptable to the needs of the customer, with personalized settings that ensure alerts are sent only when movement detected is unusual to the specifc customer. With so many moving parts in this modern security system,Tech Point wants to ensure that everything works perfectly and consistently before putting it on the market. However, while Meimei and her team are experts in engineering this technology, testing the quality of the technology requires a diferent skill set. Te company hires a third-party company that specializes in quality assurance testing. Tese specialists will implement tests to determine whether Tech Point's product meets their high-quality standard. Meimei has been put in charge of writing the requirements document for the specialists, which will lay out Tech Point's expectations for them. In order to clarify these expectations in precise detail, Meimei needs to include technical defnitions for terms specifc to the home security system industry, such as “babysitter code,” “pet immunity,” or “interior protection.” How can Meimei decide which terms need to be defned in her requirements document? Whether it be through parenthetical notes or an end glossary, how can she decide the most user-friendly way to incorporate her defnitions into the document? [ 320 ]

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What Are Technical Definitions? A technical defnition explains unfamiliar terms and concepts to improve a reader’s understanding of the term. A defnition should be used when your reader needs to understand a new concept or an unfamiliar word. Use technical defnitions to clarify the specialized terminology that technical communicators use. When you write technical defnitions, you need to consider what your audience already knows. If you are writing to an audience of electronic engineers about a process used by microbiologists, you will need to explain certain terms, but you can assume they have experience reading technical documents. However, if you are writing to a general audience, you will have to assume a lack of technical expertise.

here are some situations that will require a technical definition: 1� You know your audience is unfamiliar with a concept or term. For example, a proposal on recommended new tests at a steel-making plant would need to defne hole expansion as a kind of testing. 2� You introduce a familiar term that has a diferent or more specifc meaning within the context of your document. For example, consider the word base. Te meaning of this word difers when used by a baseball player, a chemist or a cosmetician. In each case, you would need to defne what the word base means in the context of the profession. 3� You need to limit a topic of discussion. For example, a report describing friction welding (a process where the technician uses

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lateral force to fuse metals) would need to diferentiate the process from traditional types of welding (which use heat to fuse metals together). By defning the specifc process, the writer clarifes the scope of the report for the reader. 4� You wish to provide a comparison between subjects. In a comparison, it is essential that the reader clearly understands the similarities and diferences between two subjects. A technical writer should defne the terms at the beginning of the comparison to ensure clarity. Technical defnitions create clarity for your reader. Use a technical defnition when it is necessary for your reader to understand what a term is or does.

How to Write a Technical Definition Basic Definition A basic defnition is very short. It is sometimes just a phrase, but usually a sentence. Te basic defnition contains three parts: 1. Te term being defned 2. Te category to which that term belongs 3. Te features that diferentiate the term from others in its category For example, a sentence defnition for eosin could read, “Eosin is a chemical compound used in making red printing ink.” Tis defnition contains the term being defned: eosin. Ten the sentence describes its category, “a chemical compound.” Finally, it distinguishes this particular chemical from others: it is used in making red printing ink.

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Tis formula mimics the way most people process new information. First, we encounter an unfamiliar term. Ten we try to place the term in a category of our previous knowledge. Ten we diferentiate the term from the others we already know (otherwise, we may be tempted to discard the word as an unnecessary synonym). Here are a few tips to write useful defnitions for your readers: • Sometimes readers will not require a full sentence defnition. A synonym following the unfamiliar term, ofset by commas, can give the reader enough information to proceed. For example: “Te analgesic, or painkiller, should be delivered in low doses.” • Do not repeat the key term being defned in the diferentiation section. A statement like “a screwdriver is an instrument for driving screws” is frustratingly circular. • Use qualifying phrases when you use a word diferently from standard practice. For example, if you are using more limited

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•

defnition for “hydroponics” than is common in your feld, you may write: “In this report, hydroponics refers to . . .” Use familiar words in the category and diferentiation parts of the defnition, as they will otherwise be unintelligible. Avoid sentences like Samuel Johnson’s defnition for a network. Even Johnson, a famous lexicographer who compiled one of the frst dictionaries, provides a classic example of what not to do: “A network is anything reticulated or decussated, at equal distances, with interstices between the intersections.” Tis defnition uses such complex language that you might need to consult several other dictionary entries before you could decipher it.

Extended Definition An extended defnition includes the basic defnition, followed by more details to provide a more complete defnition. If a basic defnition fails to answer a reader’s questions about the subject, an

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extended defnition provides more information to answer those questions. An extended defnition answers questions readers might have about the subject, like: • • • •

How does this subject work? What are its parts? What does it look like? How does it compare to other similar subjects?

You don’t need to answer each of these questions in an extended defnition, but you should keep in mind the likely questions a reader would have in order to choose which questions to answer. An extended defnition has no particular organizational or length requirements. Rather, a technical writer should consider what the audience needs to know to determine what information to include. Tere is no single way to extend a defnition. Here are a few suggestions: •

•

Although you should try to use familiar words in the category and defnition parts of the defnition, some of your terms may still be unfamiliar to readers. In those situations, you can include further defnition of unfamiliar terms. For example, a gadget is a small electrical or mechanical tool, such as the pager, a wireless device that can receive and display verbal and textual messages. Use concrete examples. Examples help the reader imagine a specifc time or place that the defned term may be used or occur.

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•

•

•

• • •

•

For example, this list will make frequent use of examples to illustrate how the principles may be used in defnitions. Compare and contrast the term to other terms within the category. For example, a micrometer caliper is a measuring tool like other calipers, but it difers in that it uses a calibrated screw rather than a slide to measure. Explain the word etymology, or history. Te word roots can help reveal the meaning of the word. For example, “conspiracy” comes from the Latin conspirare, which means “to agree” or “to plot.” Use an analogy. Compare the term to something the reader might understand better. For example, ransomware on a computer is like an intruder who breaks into your house, changes the locks, and then charges you a fee to change them back. Show how a term illustrates a basic principle in action. For example, distillation processes make use of the principle that liquids vaporize at diferent temperatures. Describe causes and efects. Magnetism, for example, relies on the efects of electric currents and magnetic moments of electric particles creating magnetic felds. Use negation. It ofen helps readers to defne a subject by what it is not. For example, a digital clock displays a numeric representation of time, as opposed to an analog clock, which uses rotating hands that point to fxed numbers on dials. Include the location of the term. Sometimes it helps a reader to know where a thing may be found. Fields like biology, geology, and astronomy tend to use information about physical locations. For example, it may be helpful to know that feldspar makes up 41 percent of the earth’s crust.

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•

Use graphics to visually illustrate the term. Sometimes a picture can reveal more about the term than your words alone can describe.

Here is an example of an expanded defnition using the term eosin from earlier:

Eosin is a chemical compound used in making red printing ink (basic defnition). Eosin comes from eos, the Greek word for “dawn,” which here refers to the pink of the dawn’s light (etymology). Te chemical is an acidic compound that binds to basic compounds to form salts (further defnition). Te compound contains bromine and fuorescein, which results in a dark red or pink dye (principle in action). Tere are two common variants of eosin, eosin B, which has a blue undertone, and eosin Y, which is more yellow (compare and contrast). Eosin Y is also used in histology, or the study of microscopic tissues, to stain tissue samples (example).

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Style Plain style is direct, clear, and precise. In order to achieve this style, use simple words and short sentences as ofen as possible. Generally this makes the language less exciting but also more easily understandable. Your description will be more widely understood if you limit jargon (specialized words that are unfamiliar to those outside of a given profession). Another point that can be made about style when writing defnitions is that there can be a temptation to use an adverb when categorizing something unfamiliar so that it seems more familiar. An example of this might be if you are describing what an assist is in basketball: “An assist is where you pass your teammate the ball so they are able to score.” Using the adverb “where” weakens your style and unnecessarily clutters the sentence. Eliminate nonessential adverbs to write: “An assist is a pass to a teammate just before she or he successfully scores.” Design Since a defnition is generally part of a larger document, the needs of that larger document should determine the document design. If you happen to be writing a defnition-specifc document, use bold, italics, headings, or white space to diferentiate the term being defned from the defnition. In addition, keep the design professional and clean by limiting embellishments and maintaining consistent font colors, size, and spacing.

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Design-Centric Thinking Te purpose of a technical defnition is to provide a useful explanation of how a term fts into categories of similar terms and how it is diferent from those terms. Your primary goal is to be clear and concise. Tink about dictionary entries: they aren’t long, but they defne the word clearly. Your technical defnition may call for more detail than is provided in a standard dictionary defnition but you should still consider these a standard for clarity and concision. Determine the length and level of complexity of your defnition based on the context in which you are writing. Te context of a defnition depends on the document the defnition appears in. If

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you are writing a defnition for educational purposes, consider the previous knowledge of your audience to ensure they learn what you are teaching. If you are writing to inform a technically profcient audience, you will make diferent choices. Te message is the defnition itself, and how you craf the message is determined by your audience, as is the terminology and sentence complexity that would be appropriate for them. If you’re writing to a general audience with no prior knowledge on the subject you’re defning, then you probably want to use easier language and a simpler defnition. If your audience primarily consists of industry insiders who are familiar with at least the basics, then you may be able to rely on more complex terms and well-known industry jargon. Keep in mind, many times technical defnitions will be used by many diferent kinds of audiences so try to cater to everyone who might access the defnition. Focus on defning the subject of your defnition: What is the term you are defning? What category does it belong to? What diferentiates it from other terms within that category? Tese three questions will guide the content of your message. A technical defnition can take diferent forms depending on the factors we’ve discussed so far. However, generally a technical defnition is less than a page. A defnition may be as short as a parenthetical phrase or as long as several paragraphs. If your readers have familiarity with the subject and just need a reminder for a rarely used term, a page-long defnition will likely frustrate and bore them. To

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contrast, if you use a term outside the audience’s area of expertise and then fail to clarify, the rest of the document could easily be misunderstood. Generally, the purpose of a defnition is to provide needed information that contributes to a larger document. Te form of a technical defnition can be basic or extended, depending on how much detail is necessary to fully explain a concept to your audience. Conclusion Technical defnitions provide clarity for technical terms that may not be immediately understood. A careful technical writer should consider audience needs as a frst priority when determining how much information and what kind of information will best serve the readers’ understanding.

Check Your Understanding 1. 2. 3. 4.

What is a technical defnition? When would you need to write a technical defnition? What do you include in a technical defnition? How do you apply design-centric thinking to a technical defnition?

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CHAPTER

Technical Descriptions Chapter outline I.

what Are technical Descriptions? types of technical Descriptions II. how to write a technical Description i. Introduction ii. Part-by-Part Description iii. style iv. Design III. Design-Centric thinking i.

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J

enna and her team, a group of solar power engineers, have been working on a more efcient method of solar roof tile manufacturing. Tis project could be revolutionary because, while solar panels are more environmentally friendly than conventional sources of energy, the initial cost of manufacturing and installation is enough to drive most people away. With a more efcient manufacturing method, this renewable energy source could be implemented on a broader scale, making solar roof tiles more accessible to the general public. Upon completion of the project, Jenna is assigned to write a report briefng the company's executives on the new method. Te executives who will receive Jenna's report have many years of experience in the industry, but the techniques for the newly-developed method include groundbreaking research. Jenna needs to describe these new techniques in thorough detail so executives will feel confdent altering the company's existing manufacturing processes. She also needs her descriptions to be as simple and straightforward as possible, lest company executives decide the new method is too complex to implement. How can Jenna describe the new manufacturing method thoroughly and simply? Since the executives already have a solid foundation in solar engineering, how can Jenna determine which information requires clarifcation?

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What Are Technical Descriptions? A technical description uses precision and detail to create a working model of the subject in readers’ minds. A description should be used when the reader needs to be able to mentally visualize the parts of a mechanism or picture the steps in a process. Technical descriptions describe products and processes in detail so readers can create a clear picture in their minds. A technical description is more complete than a technical defnition. You’d use a technical description rather than a technical defnition when your reader needs to understand how a product does what it does or what it is composed of. Keep in mind that a technical description ofen includes a defnition within it. Te level of detail you include in your description depends on the purpose for which you write it. If, for example, you know your readers want to construct a similar device themselves, you need to include highly detailed information. However, if readers need to make a decision about purchasing a product, they might only want

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a generalized understanding of what a device can be used for or what it can do. Your purpose in writing the description depends on your audience’s needs. I. Types of Technical Descriptions Tis section outlines fve diferent types of technical descriptions: specifc descriptions, general descriptions, product descriptions, process descriptions, and specifcations. Specifc descriptions: Specifc descriptions have to do with single instances of actions. For example, a description can explain what happened during an automobile accident, how hard the rain is falling outside, or the plans for a company’s new headquarters. Specifc process descriptions must be associated with a particular point in time: the past, present, or future. General descriptions: Also called universal descriptions, general descriptions deal with repeated or repeatable processes. For example, a general process description can treat how bricks are made, what bears do when they hibernate, or what normally happens in the event of cardiac arrest. Product descriptions: Also called physical descriptions, they answer the question, “what does the subject look like?” Product descriptions create a mental picture of the parts, or physical features, of the subject. Tey treat the color, shape, size, material, and fnish of each individual part. Tey also explain how each part relates to the others to make up the whole. For example, a product description might create a mental image of an adhesive tape dispenser, a gas turbine jet engine, or a mangrove swamp.

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Process descriptions: Tese descriptions answer the question, how does the subject function? Process descriptions break up processes into a series of steps or stages that make up the process (see example above). For example, a process description could explain how an automobile is assembled, how a desiccator dries and stores samples, or how a volcano erupts. Process descriptions also include some physical description to explain how subjects execute the process. Specifcations: Also called “specs,” specifcations describe a standard of design to be precisely met and the required materials in the making of a product. Specs difer from physical descriptions in that they are ofen more numerical than verbal and ofen appear in bulleted or numbered lists rather than sentences. For example, manufacturers of roofng tiles use specifcations to ensure that the tiles meet drop height performance requirements. Specifcations are written in third person and describe the product itself rather than addressing the technicians involved in creation and assembly. Process Description vs. Process Instructions A description does not necessarily intend a reader to be able to recreate a particular process. Unlike instructions, which tell a user how

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to complete a process so that they might accomplish a task, process descriptions are informative. Process descriptions may include steps, but they don’t imagine the reader to be an active participant in the process. Use this chart to diferentiate audience expectations in a process description versus a set of instructions.

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How to Write a Technical Description While a defnition of a term provides an understanding of the term in comparison to other terms, a description lays out in detail the specifcs of the term. A description is generally separated into four parts: the heading, the introduction, the part-by-part description (body), and the conclusion. Heading While your technical description may not be a complete document on its own, it should be clearly separated by a heading or title. Draf a heading that specifcally identifes the purpose of your document. For example: » Crohn’s Disease: Symptoms, Causes, and Tests » Description of Badges that Monitor Worker Exposure to Gases » How Does a Belt Drive Lathe Work? Your heading should clearly label the text that follows as a description. I. Introduction Your introduction should be front loaded with the most important things the reader needs to know. Ten, outline the organization of the part-by-part description so readers know what to expect in the rest of the description. Follow this outline for your introduction: 1� Defnition of the subject. What is your subject? What category does it belong to? How is it diferent from other subjects within the category? 2� Purpose or function of the subject. What does the subject do? In what context does it exist? Why does the subject matter to the

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reader? Here it’s helpful to explain how the readers relate to the subject. Can they operate the subject? Can they hold the subject in their hands or do they need to move around to properly view it? 3� General appearance of the subject. Use sensory words to create a vivid picture of the subject. You might also include a comparison with a familiar object. Familiar comparisons give the reader a big picture by making connections to concepts they already understand. For example, the behavior of electricity in a circuit can be compared to the behavior of water in a pipeline. 4� Division of the subject into its major parts. List the parts in the order you’ll be organizing them in the body.

Technical Descriptions •

Heading

•

Introduction

•

Part-by-Part Description

* * * * * * * *

•

Defnition Purpose or Function General Appearance Division into Parts Major Part 1

» »

Minor Part 1 Minor Part 2

» »

Minor Part 1 Minor Part 2

»

Minor Part 1

Major Part 2 Major Part 3 Graphics

Conclusion

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II. Part-by-Part Description To give a full description of the subject, you need to describe each of the component parts in sufcient detail. Technical writers use a hierarchical system to organize the parts: the two categories are called major parts and minor parts. types of Parts:

Tere are three types of parts that can be described: features, functions, and stages of a process. •

Features are the physical parts of a subject. Te features are

•

Functions are the purposes that the features of the subject per-

•

Stages of a process are the chronological steps that make up

divided by their physical appearance in relation to each other rather than by their function. For instance, the face of a clock is visible to the user while the movements are placed behind the face. form. A clock could be described in terms of what the separate parts do rather than what the features look like. Te three major parts in this case would be the power source, the movements which control the motion of the dials, and the clock face that displays the time. In this way, the functions of the clock determine the division of the parts.

a process. For example, the process of soldering an electrical connection are as follows: a worker secures the materials and equipment, then prepares the soldering iron, then prepares the joint to be soldered, then applies the solder, and fnally, tapes the joint.

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Major and Minor Parts:

Major parts refer to the largest or most important parts of the subject. Major parts are made up of minor parts. For example, an analog clock is made up of two major parts: the clock face and the movements motor (the battery-powered gears that move the clock hands). Te clock face is made up of four minor parts: dial, hands, glass, and case. Te movements motor is made up of seven minor parts: battery compartment, microchip circuit, quartz crystal oscillator, stepping motor, gears, time set knob, and central shaf. Of course, the minor parts can be broken down even further. Te circuit and electric stepping motor are composed of even smaller parts. Describing these very minor parts can clarify how a clock works, but your audience may not require that level of detail.

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Arranging the Parts:

Follow the organization of parts you outlined in the introduction. To write each paragraph in the part-by-part description, follow the same organization as the introduction, treating each major part as its own subject that must be defned and described: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Defnition of the major part Purpose or function of the major part General appearance of the major part Division of the major part into minor parts

Tis pattern can be repeated for each minor part. When you decide how to order the parts, do it in such a way that the organization clarifes the purpose of the subject. If you’re describing a process, arrange the stages of the process in chronological order. A product description requires more thought. For example, a technical writer composing a description of a tape dispenser would use the two purposes of the subject to determine the organization of the parts. A dispenser’s purposes are frst, to hold a roll of tape in place and second, to cut sections of tape. To describe the parts of the dispenser, the writer could choose to organize the parts by features (a logical organization would be from top to bottom or from bottom to top of the dispenser). Alternatively, the writer could arrange the parts by function, in the order a reader might use the parts to dispense tape.

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Te following are possible orders for the parts based on the type of description the writer chooses: Arrangement by Feature: 1� Te base 2� Te adhesive tape holder 3� Te roll of tape 4� Te cutting blade Arrangement by Function: 1� Te roll of tape 2� Te adhesive tape holder 3� Te base 4� Te cutting blade Either pattern of arrangement can make logical sense in this case. Te most important factor to consider in arranging the parts is that the pattern be logical.

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Conclusion Conclusions are not always necessary for a description. As long as your description follows the outline you created in your introduction, a reader will not be surprised when you describe the last part of the subject and end unceremoniously. However, if you choose to add a conclusion, it’s a good place to summarize how the parts relate to each other to make up the whole. Reiterate the purpose of the subject. A conclusion should answer readers’ questions about what the subject looks like, how it works, or how it’s used. If you’re writing a process description, be sure to describe one complete working cycle of the process and indicate that the next step would repeat the frst step, beginning a new cycle.

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Graphics As a technical writer, you may not be responsible for producing visual representations of your subject. Treat graphics as a supplement (useful, but not essential) to your written descriptions. However, if you have access to graphics, a written description combined with a visual representation can provide a more complete picture for the reader. If you use graphics, include labels to clarify how the graphics relate to your description. Colors, irregular shapes, relative sizes, and complex physical relationships are ofen more easily seen than verbally explained. Visuals can be efective in depicting actions as well as objects. Before-and-afer photos, ghost drawings, arrows indicating direction of movement, and varying degrees of color to represent temperature changes can enhance your reader’s understanding of your description.

III. Style

Since clarity is the most important purpose of a description, plain style is generally the best choice. Plain style is direct, clear, and precise. In order to achieve this style, use simple words and short sentences. Generally, this makes the language less exciting but also more easily understandable. Your description will be more widely understood if you limit jargon (specialized words that are unfamiliar outside your profession).

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Here is an example of jargon: Guts should be set in 10/12 in a serif font and are printed 1/1, no bleed� Here is an example of a description that would be more easily understood: Book interior pages should use a 10 pt font with 12 pt line spacing� Te font should have a serif� Inside pages are printed double-sided in black and white with no artwork or text extending into the margins� Only use passive verbs (“to be” verbs) when the subject is more important than the actor in a sentence. Otherwise, use active verbs. Tis practice will make it more obvious what is going on in your descriptions. Passive sentences can obscure cause and efect relationships that are essential to technical descriptions. Passive: Tis show was made possible by a grant from the WhoDunIt Foundation. Active: A grant from the WhoDunIt Foundation made this show possible. Te goal of a description is to make unfamiliar products and processes familiar. Create connections to concepts that the readers already understand. Here are a few suggestions:

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Compare and contrast the subject to other subjects within the same category. Tis comparison can be used to compare unfamiliar subjects with familiar ones or to simply highlight similarities and diferences. For example: “Te 2013 Audi A6 dashboard features a full technology suite with a fip-up dash-top display with a touchpad. Te 2013 BMW 3 Series has a similar dash display with touch technology, but the touchpad remains stationary in the display position.” Use a simile� A simile compares the subject to something more familiar with the words “like” or “as.” For example: “A watch is like a miniature clock, with all the parts shrunk down to ft on a person’s wrist.”

https://images.app.goo.gl/HiNpCrf2WJ2QtUgE7

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Use an analogy. An analogy is like a simile, but it compares two things on two diferent levels. For example: “Internet bandwidth is like a freeway. A freeway only has so many lanes and if everyone tries to use it at once, trafc moves slower. Bandwidth is similarly clogged by too many users at once.” Use a metaphor. A metaphor creates a picture of the subject by equating the subject with a more familiar thing. For example: “Te desktop is the junk drawer of the computer. It’s a good place to save fles you need right away, but keeping too many fles on the desktop leads to an overstufed junk drawer where you can’t fnd anything.” Emphasize causes and efects. Tis method is especially important for process descriptions. By emphasizing causes and efects, you show how one stage of a process naturally leads to the next step. For example: “Acid rain results from a series of chemical reactions caused by sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides spewed into the atmosphere by power plants.” Use negation. It ofen helps readers to defne a subject by what it isn’t. For example: “A solid state hard drive stores information on your computer, but unlike a traditional hard drive, it contains no moving parts. Avoid using subjective qualifying words like “very,” “easy,” and “always.” Tese words are generally superfuous and speculative. Include only necessary details. Describe the subject using sensory language. Use words that describe sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste to create a more vivid picture of the subject. For example: “A

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hot-air balloon is composed of an envelope of sewn-together panels of sturdy nylon. Te fabric can withstand temperatures of more than 220 degrees Celsius from the propane-fueled fame.”

IV. Design

For more extensive discussion and general information on design, remember to refer back to Chapter 4: Document Design, for important principles like layout, direction, balance, etc. Your company will most likely have a standardized documentation or corporate design that you can use for your layout. However, if you have more freedom to design the text of your document, you might want to consider a layout that will aid the organization of your description. For example, headings can help to clarify the organization and help readers to quickly fnd what they’re looking for. For the same reason, minor parts can be enumerated in bulleted lists. Tables help to organize numerical data, and labels increase the clarity of graphics. When laying out the document, leave white space for images with a two- or three-column format. Te medium you choose to deliver your report will depend on the needs of your audience. Assume that any descriptions you write will need to be available electronically. Save your fnal draf in a fle that will maintain your formatting choices, such as a PDF. If you need to present your documentation to an audience, you might create a slide presentation. If you need to distribute your defnitions or descriptions to a wide audience, consider posting your text online.

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A technical description can be crafed in a variety of forms and formats. A description may range from one brief sentence to several pages, depending on how much information the readers need to fully understand the subject. Ofen, a description will not be the only text in a document, but will instead make up part of a larger document (see Figure 14.1). Present your description in a format that fts the project. Figure 14.1 is an example of a technical description as part of a larger document. Te document is a patent application for a portable storage and transport unit. Included in patent applications are descriptions of every part of the invention with detailed, numbered fgures. Tis paragraph describes Figure 6 in the application. Te numbers refer to callouts in the fgure (Farmer, 2017).

Figure 14�1

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Design-Centric Thinking Empathize/Define/Ideate Te purpose of a technical description is to clarify a subject that may be misunderstood by your intended audience. Focus on the characteristics of the product or process that you’re describing. Most of the time, a description provides new information that the reader can use in research, development, or construction. Te degree of detail you must include depends on the context and the audience in question. Te context infuences how the document you’re writing will be received. Te technical description is rarely the only information you’re presenting to your audience. A description may be used in any technical document—including a report, proposal, instructions, or even an oral presentation. Te context of the larger document should be taken into account when writing a description. Tis will help you to determine the scope of the technical description. Some projects may require a general, summary description while others may require an indepth, detailed description of every facet and feature. Understanding the context will also help you to know what not to include—to defne the boundaries of your description. If other descriptions are included in the larger document, then you don’t need to include those in your description. Understanding the larger goals of the project will allow you to know what information is essential and what is extraneous.

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https://images.app.goo.gl/dAt7L7BpXRzJ2tXz8

When you know who your audience is and what their needs are, determining the level of detail required in a description becomes less of a guessing game. Your documents will likely reach any of four diferent types of audiences: Primary readers: these readers most need to understand your de-

scription. Tey’ll use your description in some way.

Secondary readers: these readers are usually experts on the sub-

ject. Tey require technical detail and accuracy.

Tertiary readers: these readers are generally not the intended audi-

ence, but they have some kind of stake in the process, product, or place you’re describing. Tey usually have motivation to fnd fault in your document.

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Gatekeepers: these readers review your document for technical correctness and precision. Be sure to account for all four types of audiences when composing your description.

Prototype/Test/Implement Once you’ve determined the context, audience, and purpose of your technical description, you need to craf the description itself with these elements in mind. Te message—or subject—of your description is the thing you’re describing. Include as much detail as the product requires, not more. Your reader doesn’t want to spend any more time on the description than he or she needs to. Allow the reader to quickly get the necessary information and then move on. A description with too much information can be just as bad as one with too little. What does your audience already know? You don’t need to waste time and efort describing or explaining elements that your audience is already familiar with. Overall, the goal is to produce a thorough yet concise description.

Conclusion

Technical descriptions provide a detailed picture of a process or product to improve clarity for the reader. A technical writer should consider the audience’s needs frst when deciding what level of detail the description should provide to be helpful to the audience.

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Check Your Understanding 1. 2. 3. 4.

What is a technical description? What is a scenario for which you would write a technical description? What do you include in a technical description? How does design-centric thinking inform a technical description?

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A

APPENDIX

Punctuation Guide Appendix outline i. Comma ii. Colon iii. semicolon iv. hyphen v. Em Dash vi. En Dash vii. Apostrophe viii. Quotation Marks ix. Asterisk x. Parentheses xi. brackets xii. Ellipsis xiii. Period xiv. Exclamation Point xv. Question Mark xvi. Ampersand xvii. slash

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Audiences in technical writing need information quickly and accurately. Information should be clear, direct, and concise. For any of this to be accomplished, you must have a conscious knowledge of language structure and conventions—and one of the key components of that knowledge is grammar and punctuation. Tis guide is provided to expand your knowledge of punctuation, its correct (as well as incorrect) usage, and its stylistic benefts. You’re provided a defnition and exploration of each piece of punctuation, and then incorrect and correct examples, with an explanation of the errors and some alternate solutions. William Strunk, author of Elements of Style, wrote, “A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts” (32). Part of that efciency and efectiveness is punctuation. Punctuation is an essential tool in your writer’s toolbox, and you must have a working knowledge of it in order to use it efectively and to grow your communication skills. In using punctuation, there are many stylistic options available to you, which you can consider and appropriately apply to your rhetorical situation and audience.

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Comma

One of the most versatile pieces of punctuation is the comma. Too ofen, we think of commas simply in terms of right and wrong— correct and incorrect. Commas certainly do have rules: they can be used in sentences to indicate a pause (and thus emphasis), to separate items within a list, and to mark the place of a thousand in numerals, among other functions. Tey shouldn’t connect two independent thoughts without some kind of conjunction, but more on that later. However, commas are by nature stylistic. Tey change the fow, the sound of how a sentence, an idea, is read and perceived. You can create a pause, mix up pacing, extend a train of thought, or otherwise creatively alter the way your readers interact with a piece of writing. Removing commas can create feelings of restlessness and speed up a sentence. None of these are about correctness—they’re about style and how you, the writer, can control more than just word choice. To accomplish more with commas—and other punctuation—the rules and conventions are still important to understand. Te following are some common errors (like comma splices) and unintentional mistakes people make that you should consider as you write, in technical spheres and elsewhere.

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Errors and Solutions Comma Splice: A comma splice connects two independent clauses or two distinct ideas as one sentence without some kind of conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so, for example). Tis is one of the most common errors in writing. Incorrect Example: I’m going to the store, I’ll be right back. Fix: I’m going to the store� I’ll be right back� Alternatively, you could insert a conjunction: I’m going to the store, but I’ll be right back� Another fx would be using a semicolon instead of a period between the two independent clauses: I’m going to the store; I’ll be right back� An em dash could also be used: I’m going to the store—I’ll be right back� Unnecessary Comma: Inserting an unnecessary comma creates an

entirely diferent, unintended meaning. Be careful as you write to ensure that each comma is necessary and conveys what you want— as in the following example, where the comma actually changes the audience as well as the meaning. Incorrect Example: Stop clubbing, baby seals! Fix: Stop clubbing baby seals!

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Missing Comma: Similar to an unnecessary comma, a missing

comma drastically alters the meaning of a sentence away from the writer’s intent—in the example below, regretting love and apologizing. Be wary and proofread. Incorrect Example: I’m sorry I love you� Fix: I’m sorry, I love you� Numerals: Typically, when using large numbers (in the thousands

and beyond), you would include a comma to distinguish each group of three digits. Incorrect Example: Pull out $1000 at the bank� Fix: Pull out $1,000 at the bank�

Another possibility is spelling out the numeral: Pull out one thousand dollars at the bank� However, this might be dependent on what style is being employed, as rules can difer between style guides like Chicago and APA or even an in-house company style guide. Oxford Comma: Commas are placed between items in lists, and for years there has been debate about whether one was needed before the fnal conjunction in a list.

Te Oxford comma has been historically used in certain styles like Chicago and MLA but not in others like AP and APA. However, in recent years the Oxford comma has been added to those styles as well. Te general rule is if omitting the comma will cause confusion or misunderstanding, then use it.

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Incorrect Example: I went to dinner with my parents, the Pope and Mother Teresa� Fix: I went to dinner with my parents, the Pope, and Mother Teresa�

Colon

In the book Punctuate It Right, the author refers to the colon as the mark of expectation or addition (1). It’s like a road sign, an arrow pointing forward and signaling to read on for relevant information. Commonly speaking, colons are used to inform readers that what follows the mark explains, develops, defnes, or proves what came before. In sentences, colons frequently precede a list of items, introduce a quote, or set up an expansion or explanation of an idea. Colons are also used to separate hours from minutes in time, chapters from verses in scripture, and numbers in ratios. How colons are used—what emphasis they place, where they’re located in a sentence, and so on—are stylistically up to you. Tey’re a more fexible punctuation mark than you might think, especially since they are typically thought of as quite formal. Errors and Solutions Unnecessary Colon: Tere is no need to include colons that interrupt the fow of lists that are established in the sentence, and colons should almost never have an incomplete sentence preceding them.

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If you aren’t sure whether a colon is needed, try removing it from the sentence and see if it is still correct without it. Incorrect Example: Tey specialize in: art, languages, and design� Fix: Tey specialize in art, languages, and design� Unrelated Colon: Whenever a colon is used to connect two inde-

pendent sentences, those sentences must be connected in some way—similar to a semicolon (see the next entry ). Otherwise, readers are lef perplexed, trying to discern the connection between ideas, which is something that as a writer you never want to happen. Incorrect Example: I have little time to complete my fnal project: I want ice cream� Fix: I have little time to complete my fnal project: my baby is due in a week�

Capitalization: As mentioned in the previous colon error, co-

lons function like semicolons when connecting two independent clauses. In such cases, don’t capitalize the frst word afer the colon unless it’s normally capitalized. Incorrect Example: Snowfall continues to come down: Consequently, trafc has slowed to a crawl� Fix: Snowfall continues to come down: consequently, trafc has slowed to a crawl� If two or more sentences follow the colon, you do capitalize the frst word in the chain: He made three points: First, it’d take too long� Second, the price even with the coupon wouldn’t be worth the trip� Tird, he still had to do the laundry� [ 361 ]

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Semicolon

Te semicolon is ofen confused with and used interchangeably with the colon. Tis is understandable, as they ofen accomplish similar functions, such as linking clauses and showing connection. However, a colon is like an arrow pointing forward and a semicolon is more like an equals sign, suggesting that what is joined by the mark is interdependent—needing one another for complete meaning—and relatively the same in terms of length and structure. Semicolons are used at the end of sentences to show a pause, typically between two independent clauses, that is more pronounced than a comma and signifes that the clauses are connected. Semicolons can also be used in a list that contains internal commas. Use a semicolon when you want to create and emphasize a relationship between two or more sentences and concepts. Errors and Solutions

Unrelated Semicolon: As was mentioned earlier with colons, when

connecting two independent clauses they have to be linked; otherwise, audiences will be lef confused and be pulled out of the fow of the writing. Te connection between the two ideas must be clear so the use of a semicolon is justifed. Incorrect Example: I hope to go home this summer; the sky is so blue today� Fix: I hope to go home this summer; it’s way too hot here�

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Transitional: Semicolons are also used between two independent

clauses when those clauses are linked by a transitional expression such as however, for example, thus, and so on. Incorrect Example: Varying opinions suggest this is not the case, however, experts disagree� Fix: Varying opinions suggest this is not the case; however, experts disagree� Super-comma: Commas are usually the punctuation mark used in

a list to divide up its contents; however, sometimes semicolons can perform that function for lists within lists. Tis use of semicolons is known as a super-comma. It makes clear where the divides are. Incorrect Example: Te new store has groceries, houseware, and electronics on the frst foor, clothing on the second, and books, music, and food on the third� Fix: Te new store has groceries, houseware, and electronics on the frst foor; clothing on the second; and books, music, and food on the third�

Hyphen

Te question of when to use a hyphen is common among writers, whether new or experienced. Dictionaries and style guides vary on correct usage; however, the silver lining is that, outside of some core principles and conventions, decisions can come down to stylistic

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choice, which expands your creative freedom as a writer. Hyphens are used to join adjectival words and thus indicate that they have a combined new meaning or that they are linked, to divide a word onto two lines in a document, and to suggest a continuing or implied idea in a sentence. With hyphens, you literally have the power to create new words and link ideas in ways that a reader might never have read or considered before. Mistakes tend to crop up when adverbs (or words functioning as such) are hyphenated or when hyphens are used too frequently—as with any writing tool, oversaturation will limit its power. Errors and Solutions Hyphen Placement: Whenever a compound adjective begins with an adverb that ends in “-ly,” a hyphen is unnecessary. Also, only include hyphens when the hyphenated word comes before the noun it’s modifying. Incorrect Example: She was a smartly-dressed woman in a style that was always up-to-date� Fix: She was a smartly dressed woman in a style that was always up to date� An alternative fx for the above example that uses hyphens: She was a well-dressed woman, always wearing an up-to-date style�

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Hyphen List: You may include hyphens in a running list so long

as the words being hyphenated are connected to the same noun. Tis helps prevent misreading, as readers might not pick up on the relationship as easily without the hyphens. Incorrect Example: Te condo has two, three, and four-bedroom options available� Fix: Te condo has two-, three-, and four-bedroom options available� Hyphenation: Whether a word uses a hyphen depends on the style

guide being used or, more likely, the dictionary being employed. Te Chicago Manual of Style includes a table that can be referenced for general use and rules. Check against your style guide and use dictionaries like Merriam-Webster when unsure. Incorrect Example: Mr� Peterson was promoted to chief-of-staf, which was an eye opener� Fix: Mr� Peterson was promoted to chief of staf, which was an eye-opener�

Em Dash

You might be more familiar with em dashes as a couple of hyphens clustered together, as that’s historically how they've been signifed. Some computer programs will even create the dash from that setup. (For your reference,

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there are keyboard shortcuts to create em dashes: for a Mac it’s “shif,”+ “option,” + minus, while for a PC it’s “control,” “alt,” and the minus button.) Em dashes are used to indicate breaks in thought, to create a parenthetical statement within a sentence, and in the place of various punctuation marks; depending on the context, these dashes can take the place of commas, parentheses, or colons, each with a different efect. Of the three dash marks (the other two being hyphen and en dash), this is the longest and the most versatile, with more options and creative license available to you. Errors and Solutions Spaces: While some businesses still include spaces around dashes (like newspapers), generally it’s reasonable to assume that spaces are not employed in most styles. Incorrect Example: Most places — if they’re up to speed — will not have spaces around dashes� Fix: Most places—if they’re up to speed—will not have spaces around dashes� Multiple Dashes: It’s best to play it safe and only use two dashes in

a given sentence to avoid confusion, for yourself and your readers. It also makes the sentence and ideas drag on for too long.

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Incorrect Example: Te court reached a verdict—guilty—which was unexpected—the accused had one of the best lawyers in the country� Fix: Te court reached a verdict—guilty; this was unexpected, as the accused had one of the best lawyers in the country� Another possible fx: Te court reached a verdict of guilty, which was unexpected—the accused had one of the best lawyers in the country� Tere are many possible ways to change the sentence to make it correct, and each could have a slightly diferent emphasis and fow. Other Punctuation: If the parenthetical statement within the em

dashes were instead surrounded by parentheses, then there would be a comma afer the concluding parenthesis. With em dashes, however, extra punctuation is not needed. Incorrect Example: Once she discovered the problem—it was a big one—, she began to panic� Fix: Once she discovered the problem—it was a big one—she began to panic�

En Dash

Completing our exploration of dashes is the en dash, which is used with spans or ranges of numbers, dates, directions, and times. As with hyphens and em dashes, there should be no spaces around the punctuation mark. (And as with the em dash, there are specifc keyboard

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shortcuts for making an en dash: for a Mac it’s “option” + minus, while for a PC it’s “control” and the minus button.) Here’s a professional tip for you: never use two or three or however many hyphens in place of en or em dashes. Tis is an incorrect practice carried over from typewriters days, when hyphens were the only available option on keyboards. To do this nowadays is seen as unprofessional and dated, which is never a good way for your writing to be perceived. Errors and Solutions

Hyphen versus En Dash: En dashes are used with number ranges

such as dates, not hyphens.

Incorrect Example: Te 2007-08 seasons was the team’s best� Fix: Te 2007–08 season was the team’s best� Spelled Out: If you introduce a span of numbers with words like from and between, don’t use an en dash. Rather, use to or and, respectively.

Incorrect Example: Te Civil War occurred between 1861–65� Fix: Te Civil War occurred between 1861 and 1865� Compound Adjectives: Most compound adjectives will simply

use a hyphen to show the connected nature of the words. However, when an element of that compound adjective is unconnected

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(in the example below, “Newbury” is not connected to “Award”), change the hyphen to an en dash. Incorrect Example: She is a Newbury Award-winning author� Fix: She is a Newbury Award–winning author� Direction and Conflict: En dashes are used instead of hyphens between words that indicate direction or confict.

Incorrect Example: Te Libertarian-Democrat debate will be taking place in the building next to the north-south railway� Fix: Te Libertarian–Democrat debate will be taking place in the building next to the north–south railway�

Apostrophe

Te apostrophe is used grammatically to indicate possession, the omission of letters or numbers, and plurals for individual letters. Apostrophes are usually associated with contractions, which are steadily becoming more accepted in various forms of writing, but there are less common applications and more common mistakes, particularly with unexpected possessives and personal pronouns. Errors and Solutions Contractions: Contractions are a shortening of words by combination, signaled by an apostrophe. You can always tell if one is needed in your sentence by spelling the potential contraction out. Incorrect Example: Its looking like he didnt do his homework� Fix: It’s looking like he didn’t do his homework�

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Put into practice what was mentioned above about spelling contractions out: It is looking like he did not do his homework� If the apostrophe were not included, it would be possessive of looking, which makes no sense. Plurals with Single Letters: Tis use of the apostrophe clarifes

that a plural is being used for singular letters. In essentially all other cases you would not use an apostrophe for plurals, included years (1980s). Incorrect Example: Mind your ps and qs� It’s a phrase that originated in the mid-1800’s� Fix: Mind your p’s and q’s� It’s a phrase that originated in the mid1800s�

Confusing Possessives: Possessives are generally formed with an

apostrophe and an s—even with x’s and z’s and plural nouns. Also, apostrophes should never be separated from their attached word by punctuation. Incorrect Example: Mr� Draxs’ kids have lef lots of their childrens’ toys at the Greens�’ Fix: Mr� Drax’s kids have lef lots of their children’s toys at the Greens’�

Quotation Marks

When pulling directly from someone else’s work and words, be it a song title or its lyrics or an excerpt from a scholarly article, you’ll signal that the words are not your own with quotation marks. Tese are used most commonly to start and complete a quote, title, or segment of dialogue. [ 370 ]

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However, quotation marks can also highlight and emphasize certain terms to readers, ofen in an ironic sense. Tis usage is called scare quotes. If employed, the writer must be clear on what feeling and intention—hence why such quotes are recurrently preceded by the phrase so-called. Another professional tip is to ensure that you use smart or “curly” quotation marks rather than “straight”—the former is more modern and should be the default for, at the very least, any kind of published work. Errors and Solutions

Quotes Inside Quotes: When quoted material includes quotations

within itself, use single quotation marks inside the double ones.

Incorrect Example: “When he talks about “the meaning of life,” he does so quite ironically�" Fix: “When he talks about ‘the meaning of life,’ he does so quite ironically�" Adjacent Punctuation: Unless punctuation is part of an original

quotation, everything except for commas and periods should be placed outside of quotation marks. Otherwise, it seems like the punctuation is a part of the quotation, which ofen is not the case. Incorrect Example: His recent article is titled “Misery Loves Everyone’s Company;” it ofers a solution to what the author calls “involuntary social isolation”� Fix: His recent article is titled “Misery Loves Everyone’s Company”; it ofers a solution to what the author calls “involuntary social isolation�”

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Song Title: Song titles should be placed within quotation marks—

albums should be in italics (though if the entire sentence is in italics, like the below example, then the album wouldn’t be in italics to diferentiate it from the other text). Incorrect Example: I love the song Te Only One Who Gets Me from Charles Kelley’s album, “Te Driver�" Fix: I love the song “Te Only One Who Gets Me” from Charles Kelley’s album, Te Driver�

Asterisk

No doubt you’ve read an advertisement that made a bold, enticing claim but then had a little star at the end of it. Ten, in noticeably smaller text, there’s an annotation, amending or clarifying the claim—or maybe it doesn’t even refer you to anything. Asterisks are perceived like promises, committing that further exploration and illumination will come. As mentioned, asterisks are used to reference an annotation, though they can also stand in for omitted writing—that you the writer have changed or have some further comment to be made. Each of these have common errors, ofen due to where the asterisk is placed and what, if anything, it replaces. Errors and Solutions

Adjacent Punctuation: Place the asterisk afer punctuation

marks—treat it the same as a superscript numeral. No space before that punctuation.

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Incorrect Example: Mrs� Tompson stated that the decision was sound*� Fix: Mrs� Tompson stated that the decision was sound�* Multiple Asterisks: Using a singular asterisk works fne so long as there is only one reference or footnote on a given page. However, if multiple ones are used, then it could get confusing as to what is being referred to; therefore, you should increase the numbers of asterisks.

Incorrect Example: Te data suggest that we need to make radical changes to our infrastructure�* We also have to alter our hiring policy to refect modern practices�* Tis is supported by the branch manager�* Fix: Te data suggest that we need to make radical changes to our infrastructure�* We also have to alter our hiring policy to refect modern practices�** Tis is supported by the branch manager�*** An alternative solution would be to change the asterisks to a numbered list: Te data suggest that we need to make radical changes to our infrastructure�(1) We also have to alter our hiring policy to refect modern practices�(2) Tis is supported by the branch manager�(3) Omission: Tere are a number of options available for omitting

parts of words. When using asterisks, omission generally involves vowels more than consonants, but the context should still be clear—but not too clear so as to render censorship pointless. Incorrect Example: My boss told me he “didn’t give a da*n” about my excuses for failing� Fix: My boss told me he “didn’t give a d**n” about my excuses for failing� [ 373 ]

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An alternative option for omission employs em dashes: My boss told me he “didn’t give a d— —n” about my excuses for failing� Another possibility is brackets if it’s quoted material, like the example: My boss told me he “didn’t [care]” about my excuses for failing�

Parentheses

Several punctuation marks can set of parenthetical—meaning related or supplementary— statements in sentences, which can include just single words or fragments or even multiple sentences, and each one has a diferent feel. Commas can enclose entire statements, and they largely feel neutral and matter-of-fact. Dashes are more abrupt and better highlight and emphasize. Parentheses suggest that the information contained within is complementary but not necessary. Tey are stronger than a comma and—like dashes—do not grammatically impact the surrounding sentence, a rule that ofen leads to unintentional mistakes. Errors and Solutions

Punctuation Placement: When parenthetical statements are in-

cluded at the end of a sentence and are a part of that sentence, the concluding punctuation should be outside the parentheses. Incorrect Example: Go to the store (it’s about a mile away�) Fix: Go to the store (it’s about a mile away)� Another possible fx would be to make two sentences: Go to the store� (It’s about a mile away�) If the parenthetical portion is a standlone sentence, then the punctuation goes inside the parentheses. [ 374 ]

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Verbs: Whatever is included inside the parentheses must not be

grammatically necessary to a sentence. Terefore, the verb tense should match the subject—this can sometimes sound awkward, so rewording the sentence can be efective (see below). You can tell if the parenthetical material is necessary by taking the parentheses—and words within—out of the sentence and seeing if it still works. Incorrect Example: Te president of the company (and his assistant) were supposed to arrive an hour ago� Fix: Te president of the company (and his assistant) should have arrived an hour ago�

Translations: Short translations of texts that are not quoted can be

included in parentheses. (If it is quoted, then it should be in brackets. Also, foreign words should always be italicized.) Incorrect Example: My knowledge of Spanish is limited to hola [hello] and adios [goodbye]� Fix: My knowledge of Spanish is limited to hola (hello) and adios (goodbye)�

Brackets

Perhaps not as popular as parentheses, brackets are used in a similar fashion, enclosing words or fgures and separating them from the rest of a sentence as a parenthetical statement. Te distinction comes with where brackets are placed: inside of quotes. Tey can also change

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elements of a quote, altering capitalization or, as mentioned, adding information for clarifcation or expansion. Most issues with brackets come in treating them as being more angular versions of parentheses, which they are not. Tey’re certainly tied to parentheses, but they have specifc functions with quotes and changes to written materials. Errors and Solutions Changed Quotes: When altering elements of a quote, use brackets rather than other kinds of punctuation—such as parentheses—to signal that the original material is being altered by you, the writer. Incorrect Example: Tey found that “(n)o evidence supports this conclusion�” Fix: Tey found that “[n]o evidence supports this conclusion�” Brackets in Parentheses: In the event that parentheses are re-

quired within parentheses, brackets are then used instead.

Incorrect Example: She toured the country and gave lectures (while simultaneously publishing a book (2008))� Fix: She toured the country and gave lectures (while simultaneously publishing a book [2008])� Errors: Te Latin term sic means “thus” or “so”; this indicates that a

mistake has been lef in from an original quote and is not the fault of you, the writer. Te word sic should be italicized, but the enclosing brackets

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shouldn’t be—the inverse is used in the following example: Incorrect Example: Te representative’s statement said that “human error were responsible�” Fix: Te representative’s statement said that “human error were [sic] responsible�”

Ellipsis

Have you ever trailed of when unsure what to say next in a conversation or presentation? Te written equivalent of that is an ellipsis, or three periods one afer the other. Ellipses (the plural form) are used in sentences—ofen quotes—to signal the omission of writing that is either superfuous or is understandable from context clues, ensuring that only the most relevant information is presented. However, ellipses can also be used to indicate incomplete thoughts (like the trailing of previously mentioned), provide a brief pause, or suggest a nervous and awkward silence. Tone is an important part of writing, and tools like ellipses—and a number of other punctuation marks mentioned and to be mentioned—aid in conveying this to readers. Errors and Solutions

Beginning and Ending a Quote: When a quote is introduced as part of a sentence, ellipses aren’t needed before or afer, even if some material has been omitted. Ellipses can be used in quotes— see the “Omission” example on the next page.

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Incorrect Example: Abraham Lincoln said that “� � � this government cannot endure, permanently � � �” when divided� Fix: Abraham Lincoln said that “this government cannot endure, permanently” when divided� Spacing: Microsof Word and similar programs have automatic

ellipses generators, but the spacing is insufcient for some styles. AP accepts no spaces, but for other styles like Chicago, type out the spaces between, before, and afer the periods to form clearer ellipses points. Incorrect Example: I didn’t want to say it � � � but you’ve lef me no choice: I do think the dress makes you look fat� Fix: I didn’t want to say it � � � but you’ve lef me no choice: I do think the dress makes you look fat�

Omission: Most styles advocate including a period before an

ellipsis that is followed by a new sentence and capital. How the ellipsis itself is formatted depends, but it’s generally the case that if the word afer the ellipsis is capitalized, you should have a period before said ellipsis. Incorrect Example: Toreau stated, “I learned � � � that if one advances confdently in the direction of his dreams, � � � he will meet with � � � success � � � He will put some things behind � � � In proportion as he simplifes his life, the laws of the universe will appear less complex�” Fix: Toreau stated, “I learned � � � that if one advances confdently in the direction of his dreams, � � � he will meet with � � � success� � � � He will put some things behind� � � � In proportion as he simplifes his life, the laws of the universe will appear less complex�”

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Period

Easily one of the most common punctuation marks, the period is used at the end of a sentence to show the conclusion of an idea or an abbreviation. Periods are like stop signs, signaling a greater pause and concluding a complete idea and clause. While texting and other online trends tend to no longer use periods as such, most forms of professional writing (business, scholarly, and the like) still use periods in this way. Of course, most know what a period does, but it has some less wellknown uses, and its placement can be confusing when combined with other punctuation marks, leading to an assortment of complications and errors. Errors and Solutions

Multiple Punctuation: When a sentence ends with an abbreviation,

its concluding period serves as both the terminal, ending punctuation and the period for the abbreviation. Incorrect Example: Jonathan said, “It’s late� We’ll continue this tomorrow at eight a�m�”� Fix: Jonathan said, “It’s late� We’ll continue this tomorrow at eight a�m�”

Spacing: Back when typewriters were a major writing tool, two

spaces were placed afer a period; today, however, a single space is more ofen preferred.

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Incorrect Example: Te document was written on a typewriter� It’s amazing how technology has changed since then� I can’t believe it� Fix: Te document was written on a typewriter� It’s amazing how technology has changed since then� I can’t believe it� Abbreviations: Particular style guides ultimately determine what

periods are included with what abbreviations, but a loose, general rule is that periods are included in lowercase and mixed-up (in terms of capitalization) abbreviations and removed for all upper case ones. Incorrect Example: Te F�B�I� found traces of Na�Cl� in the victim’s ears, and he’s just been identifed as Mr Alvin Armstrong, a Ph�D� professor of sociology� Fix: Te FBI found traces of NaCl in the victim’s ears, and he’s just been identifed as Mr� Alvin Armstrong, a PhD professor of sociology�

Exclamation Point

“He had a heart attack.” “He had a heart attack!” While both of these are grammatically accurate, one more successfully gets across the situational distress and concern likely associated with it, and that is the one with the exclamation point. Exclamation points are used at the end of sentences to signal excitement, outcry, or at least greater emphasis. To be efective, exclamation points should be used in moderation—more so than even

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other punctuation marks. Te efect is greatly lessened with too many repeated uses, to the point that it becomes basically like a period. Terefore, be careful and employ the exclamation point only where truly needed and appropriate. Errors and Solutions

Terminal Punctuation: Both question marks and exclamation

points are terminal punctuation (as are periods), so they should never be used together in a single sentence, though there is a term for this: interrobang. In the below example, either could be used, depending on intent, but only one should be chosen so as to be correct. Incorrect Example: What in the world are you doing?! Fix: What in the world are you doing! Unnecessary Comma: If an exclamation point is used in the

middle of a sentence, like with dialogue, the comma that would normally be included inside the concluding quotation mark is removed. Incorrect Example: “Never mind!,” Doug yelled� Fix: “Never mind!” Doug yelled� Titular Exclamation: When the exclamation point is part of a title

or proper noun, then a comma should be used—as grammatically necessary. Incorrect Example: Afer spending years at Yahoo! he fnally got the job he wanted at Google� Fix: Afer spending years at Yahoo!, he fnally got the job he wanted at Google� [ 381 ]

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Question Mark

As its name would suggest, a question mark is used at the end of a sentence to indicate a direct question or to express uncertainty or doubt. Indirect questions or requests may seem like they should end with questions marks, but such would actually conclude with periods. Common shortcomings with question marks emerge from placement adjacent to other punctuation and whether it should be applied to a given statement. Errors and Solutions

Placement in Quotes: Unless quoted material is itself a question,

place the question mark outside of quotation marks to show that it isn’t part of the original quote and is rather part of the outside sentence structure. Incorrect Example: What do you mean by “it’s time?” Fix: What do you mean by “it’s time”?

Unnecessary Comma: As mentioned before with exclamation

points, if a question mark is used in the middle of a sentence, such as with dialogue, then the comma that would normally be included inside the concluding quotation mark is removed. Incorrect Example: “What time are we having dinner?,” the girl asked� Fix: “What time are we having dinner?” the girl asked�

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Requests: Tough phrased as a question, requests should actually end with a period rather than a question mark. Punctuating it this way eliminates the possibility that the audience might say “no.”

Incorrect Example: Would you run this over to our neighbor? Fix: Would you run this over to our neighbor� Uncertainty: You can imply uncertainty by adding a question mark

into text to suggest following up and clarifying information. Use parentheses for regular text and brackets for quotes. Some authorities remove the space before the question mark, making it part of the uncertain word, while others are more inclined to have a space to allow for better fow. Choose whichever fts your appropriate style guide. Incorrect Example: Te doctor advised me to only take three [?] Aspirin a day� Fix: Te doctor advised me to only take three (?) Aspirin a day�

Ampersand

Most people are familiar with ampersands from names like AT&T and brands like Dungeons & Dragons. It is used to represent the conjunction and, commonly with business names and with document sources in scholarly and other forms of formal writing. Some style guides advocate ampersands and others recommend spelling out the and. Be clear on what your specifc company uses. When it is used with abbreviated business names or common expressions, do not include spaces around the ampersand.

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Errors and Solutions Flowing Text: You should spell out the and in most texts, titles, and so on; the ampersand isn’t a perfect replacement. (Te subsequent examples will show the more acceptable instances.) Incorrect Example: My schedule for today is I’m going to work, the gym, & the spa� Fix: My schedule for today is I’m going to work, the gym, and the spa� Citation: Correct citation methods depend on the style being

employed. Chicago and MLA would have you spell out the and (as well as use the Oxford comma), while APA is more inclined toward ampersands without the comma, as seen below. Use the appropriate style for the business or genre. Incorrect Example: Studies suggest that the current method for creating nuclear power could be made more efcient (Smith, Jones, & Brown)� Fix: Studies suggest that the current method for creating nuclear power could be made more efcient (Smith, Jones & Brown)� Business Names: When business names (that are themselves ab-

breviations) include an ampersand, no spaces should separate the letters and ampersand. Incorrect Example: My phone’s dead—guess it’s time to visit the AT & T store� Fix: My phone’s dead—guess it’s time to visit the AT&T store�

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Slash

Te slash is not commonly used outside of informal communication. Almost everyone who’s ever sent a text message has used “and/or” to suggest either or both of stated possibilities. However, slashes are used in more formal and professional spheres between other alternatives (functioning similar to the word or), as well as with fractions, ratios, and line breaks in fowing text for poetry and musical lyrics. Tere are two forms of slashes: forward and backward. Tey are not interchangeable and are illustrated below along with other common mistakes associated with slashes. Errors and Solutions Direction of Slash: A backward slash should not be used interchangeably with a standard forward slash. A backward slash is really only ever used in computer coding. Incorrect Example: It makes no diference—use a colon\semicolon� Fix: It makes no diference—use a colon/semicolon� Poetry and Music: Poetic and musical line breaks are signaled by

slashes. New lines are capitalized, and the slash should have spaces on each side of it. Incorrect Example: Robert Frost in his poem “Te Road Not Taken” wrote, “I took the one less traveled by, and that has made all the diference�”

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Fix: Robert Frost in his poem “Te Road Not Taken” wrote, “I took the one less traveled by, / And that has made all the diference�” Normal Spacing: When in doubt, don’t include spaces around slashes. Tere are certain exceptions listed in Chicago, and there should be spaces when suggesting line breaks in poetry (as seen in the previous example), but generally spaces aren’t needed. Defnitely do not have a space afer a slash and not one before—commit to no spaces or including spaces; in whichever case, be consistent.

Incorrect Example: You could go to the mall and get a pretzel / an ice cream cone� Fix: You could go to the mall and get a pretzel/an ice cream cone�

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APPENDIX

Student Exercises Appendix outline i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x.

transitional words and Phrases Parallelism Active and Passive Voice Verbosity strong sentence structure Imperative Mood Purpose statements Precise language titles and subject lines natural Diction and tone

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Transitional Words and Phrases

Transitional words and phrases assist readers in forming connections between concepts, creating greater sentence and paragraph cohesion. Find the most ftting transition words or phrases to improve cohesion in the following sentences. Use any transitions more than once—and don’t be limited to the examples provided. Example transitional words: Terefore First Of course So Also Overall

However But also Tus Accordingly Next Conversely

1. One of Jane’s favorite pastimes is traveling. ___, she took a sales job so that she wouldn’t have to pay for her hobby. ___, it hasn’t worked out the way she wanted ___ pitch meetings take almost all of the time she has in any new area. ___ she’s always tired due to catching red-eye fights. Te sights have certainly been magnifcent, ___ the job hasn’t allowed her to do what she loves—too much work and not enough play. ___, while it fed her traveling addiction, she knew sales wasn’t for her and quit. 2. It’s raining today; ___, we can’t go to the beach. ___, everyone’s really tired, ___ perhaps it wouldn’t be safe to try and make such a long trip anyway. ___, seeing as someone forgot to buy food for the road, we’d all be exhausted, hungry, and cranky by the time we even got there. ___, I’m going to sleep.

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3. Deciding on what university to attend is ofen a difcult decision for students. ___, most guidance counselors will provide them with diferent resources ___ assessments and brochures. ___, counselors need to ofer students more resources in order to assist them with making a more informed decision about where to go for further education. ___, this isn’t easy task for the counselors, who have to take into consideration many diferent factors—GPA, afordability, location, career goals—to present the best options. ___, the process of selecting a college is easy for no one. Transitions can link sentence-level ideas, but they can also do so between entire paragraphs; you might know these as topic sentences. Including transitional words and phrases between paragraphs helps readers understand larger connections between paragraphs and ofen relate back to a central idea or message. Te following example doesn’t include transitions between paragraphs. Add them at the start of each paragraph so that the whole reads more smoothly: Traveling to new places is more than a hobby—it’s a way of life. I work solely to fund my next trip. When I was nineteen, I went on my frst voyage by myself. I saw Scandinavia, Sweden, and the Netherlands. Aferward, I knew I’d spend the rest of my days traveling the globe, seeing new sights and meeting new people. I’m so addicted that when I’m not traveling, I’m planning where to go next. ___. I receive numerous promotional emails from traveling websites. Harrison’s Travel Log and Trailblazer are two

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of my favorites. When I open an email and read the headline—“Sale. $500 all-inclusive 5 nights in Hawaii”—I can picture myself there already. I imagine myself lying on the beach, far away from my daily drudgery and responsibilities. ___, I recently ordered a monthly magazine called Travel on a Budget. I knew it would feed my addiction more, but I couldn’t resist. Tis is one of the best traveling magazines out there. It ofers great tips, such as keep a hundred-dollar bill folded up inside your luggage tag for emergencies (21). I’d never thought to do that. Not only do I appreciate the magazine’s traveling tips, but the exotic pictures entice me even further. Te current issue showed views of Sicily, and now I have to go there and see it myself. ___; I’m currently planning a trip to Vancouver next month. Every time I take a trip, it makes me want to see more of the world and enjoy all it has to ofer.

Parallelism

Parallelism, or parallel structure, balances phrases and clauses in one or more sentences, ensuring that your writing is readable and easier to process for readers.

Correct the errors in the following sentences by altering verb tense or restructuring the sentence as a whole—whatever fxes the problem and allows for appropriate emphasis, rhythm, and clarity. Errors will include faulty parallelism in individual words or phrase and clause structure.

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1. Learning a new language as an adult is more difcult than to learn one as a child. 2. We couldn’t help but wonder who he was and was doing here. 3. Tere are only two ways to get ahead in the world: making friends, or to get lucky. 4. Te bride strolled down the aisle, turned to the groom, and was blushing. 5. His mother cut the carrots, diced tomatoes, and was peeling the potatoes when his father came rushing through the door. 6. Te author not only wants fame but also money. 7. Te TV show Won’t You Be My Neighbor? is enjoyable and it is educational. 8. I prefer to swim rather than diving. 9. Our group emphasized fair work distribution, communication, and being responsible for one another. 10. You’ll fnd the spare light bulbs in the closet or kitchen counter. 11. My friends should never judge me by my words or what I did. 12. Te customer was extremely frustrated and wanted to ex[ 391 ]

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change her food, to obtain a refund, or she wanted to speak to the restaurant manager.

Active and Passive Voice

Te diference between active and passive voice primarily revolves around the subject being the agent or patient of the sentence; that is, does the person or thing perform an action (active) or does something happen to or change the subject (passive). Both styles have their place, though active is generally perceived as more concise and clear for most readers. Even in scientifc writing or political spheres—where passive is more commonly used and accepted—too much of it clouds meaning and bogs down readers. Possible reasons to use passive voice: • • • •

Te subject or agent of the sentence is unknown. You are conveying a general truth. Te person or thing being acted upon is what’s being emphasized. You wish to be vague about the subject or agent.

Te following sentences and paragraphs contain active and passive sentences. Revise when it’s appropriate. Sometimes passive might be acceptable or even preferable, depending on the context and how long it takes to convey an idea—however, when in doubt, active voice is almost always a good option. 1. Te university’s entrance exam was failed by over half of the school’s applicants. Action was considered by various department heads and administration to ensure that attendance would not fall below acceptable levels. Eventually, a decision was reached. [ 392 ]

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2. Water dissolved the sodium hydroxide. Hydrochloric acid then titrated this solution. 3. Mistakes were made by me and by others in this committee. Lines were crossed. Tis fact is known, and responsibility will be accepted from those who are accountable. 4. Last year, a hurricane was experienced by my family and me. It was Hurricane Fabio, and incredible damage to our property and neighborhood was caused by its powerful winds of over two hundred miles per hour, as well as its heavy rains. Te pine tree in our yard was uprooted and blown across the roof of our house, creating a massive hole, through which rain poured in. Te front room was fooded with water, which rose to a height of two feet. When we began to believe the worst of the storm had passed, we glanced out a window to see that our minivan had been hit by our neighbor’s own fallen tree. 5. A somewhat controversial proposal was presented by the data-processing department that requested an increase to its staf. Afer an extremely long debate, the long-term planning committee endorsed the proposal.

Verbosity

Unlike speech, which ofen contains qualifers and fllers, technical writing should eliminate all unnecessary words, phrases, and ideas in order to get straight to the main message readers want. Here are some tips for reducing wordiness:

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• • • • •

Remove fller words and phrases such as, “It is commonly believed that verbosity is bad.” Cut any redundancies in words or ideas. Avoid the use of qualifers like very in, “She is very misinformed.” Replace longer phrases with short, succinct ones. Eliminate as many instances of passive voice as appropriate for the writing situation.

Put these and other efective principles into practice by editing down the following sentences and paragraphs to make the end results as direct and concise as possible: 1. For all intents and purposes, the reason that Mr. Franklin arrived quite late for work was due to the simple fact that he stopped his vehicle at many trafc lights that were red—or even yellow—in color. 2. In a situation in which a college class is overenrolled, you may request that the instructor of the class give you a permission-to-add code. However, this option is not guaranteed to get you into a class, as some university departments won’t give out codes anymore. 3. A university campus rally was attended by more than fve hundred students. Six students, during the event, were arrested by the campus police for disorderly conduct and property damage, while several other students were charged by the campus administrators with the organization of a

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public meeting without being issued a permit by the school to organize such events. 4. In the very near future, college freshmen must all become more aware of the basic fact that there is a need for them to make contact with an academic advisor concerning the important matter of a major and the selection thereof. 5. Government leaders tend to like to reference the creation of new jobs for the country’s citizens. Tey claim that these newly created jobs indicate that there is a strong economy. Tey, however, don’t mention that the low-wage jobs are typically created without many—if any—benefts or security. 6. A fairly substantial number of people very much enjoy reading murder mystery books on a regular basis. Generally speaking, of course, these people are not murderers themselves, nor would these people really ever truly enjoy seeing another person commit an actual murder, nor would most of these people actually enjoy trying to solve a legitimate murder. Tey probably simply enjoy reading murder mysteries because of this reason: they have found a way to escape from the monotonous, boring, uninspiring routine of dull everyday existence. To such kinds of people, the murder mystery book genre is realistic fantasy. It is realistic because the characters in the murder mystery are, as a general rule, reasonably believable as real people. Tey are not just made-up, cardboard cutout fgures. It is also more realistic than some other book genres

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because the character who is the hero—the character who solves the murder mystery—solves it not usually by trial and error and other haphazard methods, but rather by exercising a higher degree of logic and reason than your average person. It is absolutely and totally necessary for the people who enjoy murder mysteries to have some sort of admiration for the human faculty of logic. But it is noteworthy that murder mysteries are also fantasies. Te kinds of people who read such books of fction are basically playing a game. It is a game in which they suspend certain emotions. One of these human emotions that they must suspend is a sense of pity. If the average reader stops to feel pity and sympathy for each and every story victim who is killed, or if the reader stops to feel terrible horror that such a thing could happen in our modern world of today, that person will simply never fully appreciate the reading of murder mysteries. Te reader of murder mysteries keeps uppermost in mind at all times the goal of arriving, through logic and observation, at the fnal solution to the mystery ofered in the book by its author. It is a game with life and death. "Whodunits" hopefully help the readers to hide from the hideous horrors of actual life and death in the world outside the book.

Strong Sentence Structure

Not all sentences are created equal in terms of efectiveness. Like a hundred-meter sprint, you’ve got to start and end strong. Tere are techniques employed by professionals and general tips on how to begin a sentence, as well as how to keep your audience engaged

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through it, but keep in mind that what’s most important in technical writing is that you’re able to convey the necessary information to readers clearly and directly. Don’t let style and fourish override this. Also, not every suggestion below will be applicable to a given writing scenario; however, the following are some ways to improve both sentence beginnings and sentence construction overall: •

Avoid certain sentence beginnings: this is, it is, that is, it is important to note that, at the end of the day, there are, and so on. (You might’ve noticed that there are was used in the introduction to this section. Tese sentence beginnings don’t need to be avoided like the plague—more like the common cold: preferable not to have as they lack meaning, but it won’t kill your writing.)

•

Unless appropriate, rarely use passive voice, as it increases verbosity, obscures meaning, and ofen necessitates weaker sentence beginnings.

•

Eliminate redundancies in wording and information, as well as vagueness.

•

Consider using certain techniques frequently employed by professional writers (again, evaluate your writing situation and only use those that are appropriate): • •

Alter sentence lengths between short and long and complex to create variety. Combine sentences to vary sentence lengths and structures.

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•

•

Start with (and potentially include in the middle) informative descriptions such as infnitive phrases, prepositional phrases, parallelism, truncated clauses, and coordinating or correlative conjunctions to add style and diversity.

Add appositives, absolutes, or modifers to develop additional meaning for the sentence’s subject, either at the beginning or as an interjectory clause.

Using some of these tips and techniques, revise the following sentences and paragraphs to have stronger beginnings and a better structure as a whole, eliminating, adding, or combining elements to correct as well as strengthen the sentence: 1. It is important that all who work at the company feel valued. Our president is dedicated to ensuring that employees know they’re valued and appreciated. Measures will be implemented by management to help create this atmosphere of appreciation in every department. 2. Last weekend I saw a science-fction flm. I watched the movie with several friends. Te flm focused on the experiments of a mad scientist in space. He controlled his patients’ lives by manipulating their dreams. 3. Tere are more efective ways to use our budget. It is important to remember that we have limited resources and time, and the client is expecting results soon. In the end, if this team doesn’t get back on track soon, we won’t keep our client. Ten the business will not survive.

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4. Many animals are still complete mysteries to scientists. Tis has generated a great interest in studying rarer species. Tere are so many creatures out there we know so little about. 5. To improve his writing, tired of feeling inadequate compared to his peers, and afer he’d embarrassed himself with a post online, several books were read by Jack in order to make his writing skills better. 6. For me, the absolute worst thing about waiting tables is the restaurant uniform. All of the waitresses at the restaurant I worked at have to wear an ugly brown-striped jumper. Te shirts are polyester and scratchy. Sometimes someone you know comes in. Now I have a job in an ofce. I don’t miss it at all. 7. Mr. Williams is elderly and struggling to make due on his own. He can’t legally drive. He has trouble getting up the stairs of his house. He has debts to pay without sufcient funds. He needs help from his community. 8. I think that if kids watch too much TV that can be bad. My kid brother watches too much TV and he doesn’t do enough to help out around the house. Tat is not good and it shows how accurate my point is. It is necessary for parents to make kids watch less TV. It is bad for their brains and habits.

Imperative Mood

In technical instruction, you’ll employ imperative mood. Tis writing style omits the pronoun in a sentence and issues a command for

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readers to follow in present tense. Imperative mood is some of the most direct, uncluttered writing you’ll ever create. Rewrite the following sentences to be in the imperative mood, eliminating all unnecessary words or extra details to ensure clarity and simplicity. But be sure essential information is present: 1. You should begin by inserting the memory card into the card slot. 2. Now that you’ve complete the second step, you must pull out and assemble the parts for step three. 3. You will need to heat up the water to a hundred degrees. Tis is when the water boils. 4. Unwisely walking around near the clif edge may result in a dangerous fall, and therefore it is recommended that you stay a safe distance to maintain your personal security. 5. A large volume of the liquid needs to be extracted. 6. Te user may now choose to open up the fle, and it’ll automatically open itself when it is clicked on with the mouse. 7. Opening the box will require using the provided boxcutter. Use it to cut open each side of the container. Ten carefully close the boxcutter to make sure no one is injured by it. 8. You might want to wear gloves or some other kind of protective material when handling the hot plate. Burns are possible.

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9. It would be ideal if you were able to set at least six hours aside to complete the task. Tis is recommended because the process is difcult to restart once begun. 10. Take or use this product precisely as directed. Ingest three pills by the mouth daily for the week.

Purpose Statements

Purpose statements, or theses, are declarative sentences that

summarize a particular subject and goal of a document or project. Tese are usually in the introduction to provide the audience with an accurate understanding of what will be addressed and gained from reading. Efective purpose statements are: • • • •

Goal-oriented Clear, without any tangents or unnecessary details Precise Concise—around one or two sentences

Write purpose statements for the following subjects, being as thorough and specifc as possible; feel free to do some quick research and be creative. If none of these are appealing, search for a topic that works better for you. (Tis could help you explore potential topics for literature review.) 1. What efect do B vitamins have in preventing neurodegeneration in the brain?

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2. How efective is cognitive behavior therapy on pediatric obesity? 3. Does playing video games afect one’s psychological development and behavior? 4. How feasible is zero-energy for building design? 5. What are the efects of biogeographical studies on aquatic species?

Precise Language

Ambiguity is the enemy in technical writing. Whether you’re writing instructions, descriptions, or any other kind of technical document, your language needs to match the context and has to be precise, as vagueness could result in your company being sued and you being fred. In the following sentences and paragraphs, identify the ambiguity (some will have more than one alternative interpretation) and rewrite so the meaning is clear. You might clarify pronouns, break up strings of nouns with prepositional phrases, clarify wording, and so on. 1. Only at two hundred degrees did the solution begin adhering to the container walls, and this was not consistent. 2. Te department head grilled her aide over lost documents.

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3. I saw a man on a hill with binoculars. 4. Apparently, Joel isn’t coming to the party. Tell Mark that we’ll see him on Tursday. 5. Tough my motorcycle hit a tree, it wasn’t damaged. 6. Te compiler didn’t accept the program because it contained errors. 7. Look at the dog with one eye. 8. In low atmospheric temperatures and high oil toxicity levels, we tested how well the organisms endured. 9. Derrick called his father last night. Tey talked for over an hour, and he confrmed that he’d be home tomorrow. 10. Juliet’s nurse gave Romeo a message saying that she was in love with him.

Titles and Subject Lines

Titles in documents and subject lines in emails serve as concise miniature introductions. Tey’re the frst bit of information your readers receive. Both guide readers and ofen determine if more will be read. To craf efective titles and subject lines, you must keep them to the point, specifc to the topic, and tonally consistent with the rest of

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the document or email. Also, use keywords from the feld so that it’s searchable, in a database or in an email folder. Diferences emerge in that email subject lines are ofen more personal and fexible in what they contain, such as names, deadlines, and persuasive sales tactics. Write several diferent variations of titles or subject lines for the following topics. (Each is marked as being meant for a title or a subject line, as there are some diferences between the two types, as previously mentioned.) 1. Title: You’ve been assigned to write a report investigating two types of biometric authentication: physiological and behavioral. (Physiological biometric authentication uses physical characteristics to authenticate someone, whereas behavioral biometric authentication measures a person’s behaviors to authenticate him or her.) Your emphasis is on which of these kinds of authentication is more secure and is likely to be the standard in the near future. 2. Subject line: You were assigned to update your company’s handbook—specifcally the safety procedures around heavy machinery. Now completed and approved, you’re to send it out to all company employees in a mass email, requesting that they read it over. 3. Title: You work for an insurance organization and have been told to research and write up a technical description of a possible new model of vehicle to be used by claim adjusters as they go into the feld to verify customer claims. Your com-

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pany has given you a budget for the purchase and is looking for a model that is more fuel-efcient and has better GPS and Bluetooth technology. 4. Subject line: A company fre drill is scheduled for tomorrow, and you’ve been asked to remind those in your department of when it is and what procedures to follow. 5. Title: You’ve been assigned to write a literature review about the current state of solar power research and technology in terms of efciency and environmental impact when compared to other kinds of energy transformation. 6. Subject line: You’ve just fnished an interview for a job you desperately want and decide to craf a thank you email for your interviewers—just a couple lines expressing gratitude for their time and your continued interest in working for them. 7. Title: You’ve been told to write a set of instructions for customers who buy a new drone model, which requires assembly afer purchase and is upgraded with superior GPS and motor power. 8. Subject line: You work for a marketing frm and are sending out a promotional email to those on the company subscription list, advertising an upcoming seminar on recent developments in SEO strategies. You want to get people interested in registering for the event as early as possible.

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Natural Diction and Tone

When starting a particular document or project, you need to answer several key questions to nail the word choice and the tone you’ll employ: • • •

Why am I writing this document? Who am I writing to and what do I know about them? What is the context surrounding my audience?

You’ve seen questions like these in this textbook already, but they’re worth reiterating. Knowing answers to them will solidify the level from which you write, what words will best convey information to specifc readers, what tone of voice to use, and so on. In most forms of business or technical writing, a positive, direct, and confdent tone that is clear on what’s most important and what will beneft your readers is efective. At times when a positive tone isn’t appropriate, like when addressing fault or conveying other kinds of failure, maintain professionalism that doesn’t attack individuals, but rather makes your position on a given issue clear. Assuming that you’re writing to an educated audience—meaning intelligent but not necessarily informed readers—take the following sentences and paragraphs and rewrite them to match the audience and positive tone most people respond well to and appreciate: 1. I’m unequivocally the hardest worker I know, and I’m always looking to improve. I have always felt that my time should be

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spent well, so I unceasingly challenge myself. Recently, I doubled my eforts and took a full-time load of college courses while holding two part-time jobs. I achieved a 3.93 GPA, and in the same semester I managed to bench three times my bodyweight and do thirty pull-ups. 2. You did not read the instructions as carefully as you should have, thus your system has shut down. 3. She will be out of town from March 30 until April 11 and won’t be able to meet with you until afer then. Don’t forget to book a meeting room ahead of time. 4. Tank you for ofering me the position of manager at your company. Unfortunately, I’m unable to accept the ofer. I didn’t think that the position would efectively utilize my communication and customer-service skills to the degree that I was hoping. Terefore, I have accepted a job as assistant director at a diferent organization. 5. Please don’t lock the supply closet. If you do, those who don’t have keys will be annoyed and have to take time to bother janitorial or coworkers to get it unlocked. 6. When elucidating certain academic topics, students may attempt to meet or even to excel minimum word count requirements for a given scholastic assignment by constructing lengthy compound sentence structures and superior diction, which are—in some cultures—indicative of an advanced degree of education and greater verbal dexterity.

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7. I can’t continue to allow company employees to arrive late on a regular basis. Tis sort of behavior is absolutely unprofessional and unacceptable. 8. Tis letter was sent to let you know that you won’t be receiving the Blake Scholarship; we spent many months working through thousands of submissions, and the scholarships went to the most impressive applicants. 9. Failure to keep to the project timeline will result in severely altered deadlines, which will most likely lead to several cuts to the bottom line and delayed projects down the road. 10. Eric, the working conditions in your wing are utterly horrendous! Te foors are slippery, handrails are frequently loose, and machinery is too crowded. And the stink is revolting. I’m almost astounded that there haven’t been more injuries in the area. What an absolute dump. What kinds of slobs are you all over there? I’m giving you notice that I won’t be bringing any more clients over to see your operations, nor will I be setting foot in your wing until you and those under your management deal with the pigsty.

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APPENDIX

Supplementary Examples Appendix outline i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

resumes and Cover letters reports Proposals Instructions technical Descriptions literature review

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Resumes and Cover Letters

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Reports

Note: While it is not practical to reprint the entire reports here, the reports from which we have taken our examples and many others can be found at gao.gov for your perusal and education.

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Proposals

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Instructions

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may cause it to break re-attach correctly

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using the provided bag, hold

Cinch

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Technical Descriptions

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Literature Review

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Index accuracy 52–4, 285, 302 active voice 56–7, 346, 392–3 activity reports: defnition of 137–40; design-centric thinking 149–53; document design 147–8; examples of 414–30; how to write 140–8; style of 147 alignment 101–3; layout 102–3; topographic 101–2 ampersands 383–4 analogies 347–8 analogous colors 112 analytical reports: defnition of 156–8; design-centric thinking 190–3; document design 169; examples of 414–30; how to write 158–69; literature reviews 170–90; style of 168 apostrophes 369–70 appendices 167 asterisks 372–4 asymmetrical balance 95 audience 117, 298, 330, 351, 353–4; gatekeepers 18, 216, 244, 299–300, 353; primary readers 17, 215, 243, 299, 352; secondary readers 17, 215, 243, 299, 352; tertiary readers 17–18, 215–16, 244, 299, 352; see also end users

back matter 167 balance 94–7 bar charts 309–10 bibliographies 187–8 body language 88–9 brackets 375–7 brainstorming 26–8 brevity 54–6 charts 308–10 clarity 52, 285, 302; accuracy 52–4, 285, 302; active/passive voice 56–7; brevity 54–6; commonly misused words 67–71; hyphens 64–5, 363–5; misplaced and dangling modifers 63–4; nominalizations 57–9; pronoun agreement 66–7; vague pronouns 59–60; word choice 61–2 coherence 49–50; deductive reasoning 50–1; inductive reasoning 51–2 cohesion 38; old-new contract 47– 8; paragraphs 40–2; parallelism 44–6; sentences 38–40; topic strings 46; transitions 42–4, 388–90 colons 360–1 color 108–13

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commas 357–60; comma splices 62–3, 358 common scripts 88–9 commonly misused words 67–71 complementary colors 110 completion reports 139 confdentiality 124–6 context 212, 329–30, 351 contrast 97–9; in text 99; white space 99, 106–8, 295–6 copyright 123–4 correctness 62; comma splices 62–3 cover letters 249, 260–7, 410–13 dangling modifers 63–4 data visualization: defnition of 305–13; design-centric thinking 317–18; ethics of 316–17; how to use 313–16 deductive reasoning 50–1 defning, in design thinking 13, 23–5, 29, 31–2; in activity reports 149–50; in analytical reports 190–2; in data visualization 317–18; in document design 114–18; in instructions 297–300; in oral presentations 240–5; in resumes, cover letters and interviews 272–3; in technical descriptions 351–3 design see document design

design thinking 12–13, 212–18, 329–31; see also defning; empathy; prototyping; testing diagrams 311–12 document design: of activity reports 147–8; of analytical reports 169; color 108–13; defnition of 93; design-centric thinking 114–19; fve principles of 94–108; illustrations 113; of instructions 295–7; of literature reviews 188; of oral presentations 230–3; of proposals 208–11; of resumes 259; of technical defnitions 328; of technical descriptions 349–50 documentation 279 drafing see prototyping ellipses 377–8 em dashes 365–7 embellishments 211 empathy, in design thinking 13–23, 29, 31; in activity reports 149–50; in analytical reports 190–2; in data visualization 317–18; in document design 114–18; in instructions 297–300; in oral presentations 240–5; in resumes, cover letters and interviews 272– 3; in technical descriptions 351–3 employer requirements 3–4

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en dashes 367–9 end users 6–10; empathy with 14–23; gatekeepers 18, 216, 244, 299–300, 353; primary readers 17, 215, 243, 299, 352; secondary readers 17, 215, 243, 299, 352; tertiary readers 17–18, 215–16, 244, 299, 352; see also audience ethical principles 121–31, 316–17 examples and evidence, persuading with 77–8 exclamation points 380–1 exploded view drawings 311 fairness 128–30 feasibility reports 157 feedback 32, 151, 301 fgurative language 87 fow charts 309–10 footnotes 187, 312 gatekeepers 18, 216, 244, 299–300, 353 general descriptions 335 genres 8–10 grand style 37 graphics 296–7, 345 graphs 308–10 grouping 103–5 honesty 124 hyphens 64–5, 363–5

ideating, in design thinking 13, 26–9, 31–2; in activity reports 151–2; in analytical reports 190–2; in data visualization 317–18; in document design 114–18; in instructions 297–300; in oral presentations 240–5; in resumes, cover letters and interviews 272–3; in technical descriptions 351–3 idioms 87 illustrations 113 imperative mood 399–401 incident reports 139–40 inductive reasoning 51–2 infographics 307 instructions: defnition of 277–9; design-centric thinking 297–302; document design 295–7; examples of 431–48; how to write 280–97; style of 295; versus process description 336–7 intercultural communication 80–90 interviews 249–50, 267–72 jargon 9, 61–2, 87, 330, 345–6 laboratory reports 140 layout 102–3, 210–11; see also document design legality 122–4 line graphs 308

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listening 90 literature reviews: defnition of 170–1; document design 188; examples of 449–64; form of 171–4; how to write 174–89; style of 188 logic, persuading with 73–7 logical fallacies 74–7 metaphors 347–8 misplaced modifers 63 monochromatic colors 113 natural diction and tone 406–8 nominalizations 57–9 objectivity 9, 130–1 old-new contract 47–8 oral communication 4 oral presentations: design-centric thinking 240–5; document design 230–3; how to give 224–40; reasons for 221–3; style of 233–7 paragraphs 40–2 parallelism 44–6, 390–2 parentheses 374–5 passive voice 56–7, 346, 392–3 periods 379–80 persuasive style 37, 72, 207–8; with examples and evidence 77–8; with logic 73–7; with values 78–80

pie charts 309–10 plagiarism 122–3 plain style 37–8, 147, 168, 188, 207–8, 328, 345; clarity 52–62; coherence 49–52; cohesion 38–49; correctness 62–72 precise language 402–3 primary colors 109 primary readers 17, 215, 243, 299, 352 principles of design 94; alignment 100–3; balance 94–7; contrast 97–9; proximity 103–8; repetition 100 problem statement 23–4 problem-solving 8 procedures 278 process descriptions 336–7 process instructions see instructions product descriptions 335 professionalism 127–8 progress reports 138 pronouns: pronoun agreement 66–7; vague pronouns 59–60 proofreading 32, 359 proposals: definition of 196–7; design-centric thinking 212–18; document design 208–11; how to write 197–211; style of 207–8 protocols 279

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prototyping, in design thinking 13, 28–31; in activity reports 151–2; in analytical reports 192–3; in data visualization 318; in document design 118–19; in instructions 300–2; in resumes, cover letters and interviews 273–4; in technical descriptions 353 proximity 103; grouping 103–5; number of elements 105–8 punctuation 356; ampersands 383–4; apostrophes 369–70; asterisks 372–4; brackets 375–7; colons 360–1; commas 357–60; ellipses 377–8; em dashes 365–7; en dashes 367–9; exclamation points 380–1; hyphens 64–5, 363–5; parentheses 374–5; periods 379–80; question marks 382–3; quotation marks 370–2; semicolons 362–3; slashes 385–6 purpose 117–18, 215–16, 300, 329 purpose statements 159–60, 216–17, 240, 281, 401–2 quality 126–7 question marks 382–3 questioning 90, 244, 270–1 quotation marks 370–2 recommendation reports 157 references 167

regulatory reports 139 repetition 100 reports see activity reports; analytical reports research reports 156 resumes 249–59, 410–13 rough drafs 29–30 routine reports 139 scientifc reports 156 secondary colors 109–10 secondary readers 17, 215, 243, 299, 352 semicolons 362–3 sentences 38–40 shades, tints, and tones 110 similes 347 slang 61, 87, 295 slashes 385–6 specifc descriptions 335 specifcations 336 split complement triads 112 strong sentence structure 396–9 style: of activity reports 147; of analytical reports 168; defnition of 36–8; grand 37; of instructions 295; of literature reviews 188; of oral presentations 233–7; of proposals 207–8; of technical defnitions 328; of technical descriptions 345–9; see also plain style; persuasive style

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subject lines 403–5 syllogism see deductive reasoning symmetrical balance 94–5; persuasive style 207–8; plain style 207–8 tables 312–13 technical communication, defnition of 6–10 technical defnitions: defnition of 321–2; design-centric thinking 329–31; document design 328; how to write 322–9; style of 328 technical descriptions: defnition of 334–7; design-centric thinking 351–3; document design 349–50; examples of 448; how to write 338–50; style of 349–50 technical writing, defnition of 7–10 tertiary colors 110 tertiary readers 17–18, 215–16, 244, 299, 352 testing, in design thinking 13, 29, 31–4; in activity reports 153; in analytical reports 192–3; in data

visualization 318; in document design 118–19; in instructions 300–2; in resumes, cover letters and interviews 273–4; in technical descriptions 353 titles 403–5 topic strings 46 topographic alignment 101–2 transitions 42–4, 388–90 triads (colors) 110–11 universal images and symbols 89–90 usability reports 138 vague pronouns 59–60 values, persuading with 78–80 verbosity 393–6 visual abstracts 307–8 vocabulary 8 white papers 138 white space 99, 106–8, 295–6 words: commonly misused 67–71; high frequency 86; word choice 61–2

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