Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa: Embracing Digital Pedagogies (Digital Education and Learning) 3030976556, 9783030976552

Table of contents :
Preface
Acknowledgements
Praise for Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa
Contents
Notes on Contributors
List of Figures
List of Tables
1 Contextualising Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Multimodal Learning and Multimodal Learning Environments
1.3 Chapters Overview
1.4 Conclusion
References
2 Cultivating Locally Transformative Digital Pedagogies: The Need for Formative-Intervention Research
2.1 Introduction: The Need to Re-Orientate Digital Pedagogy Development in South Africa
2.2 The ‘Innovation’ Question Facing Digital Pedagogical Development and Research
2.3 Cultivating Locally Transformative Digital Pedagogies: A Change Laboratory Case Study
2.4 Conclusion: Activating Human-Centred Transformation—Educators as Change Agents
References
3 That’s So Hot Right Now: Generation Z’s Technological Use During the COVID-19 Lockdown
3.1 Introduction to Communication Technology Use in the Time of COVID-19
3.2 What Was the Research Issue?
3.3 Aiming to Address the Issue
3.4 Objectives—The Use of ICT by GENERATION Z
3.5 Existing Literature on the Issue
3.6 An Expectancy Model to Provide a Theoretical Frame
3.7 Operationalising Key Elements of the Research
Generation Z
Information and Communication Technologies
COVID-19 Lockdown
3.8 Research Methodology
3.9 Collecting the Data Through an Online Survey
3.10 A Descriptive Statistical Analysis of the Data
Discussions in Understanding the Issue
References
4 Alternative Multimodal Composition Assessments in Academic Literacy Modules
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Literature Review
Literacy and Academic Literacy
Multimodal Composition Pedagogy
4.3 Research Methodology
Research Methods and Design
Setting and Context
Sampling
Data Collection and Analysis
Ethical Considerations
4.4 Results and Findings
Assignment Choice
Student Assessment Choice
Preference for the Traditional Essay
Preference for Multimodal Assessments
Balance Through Options
4.5 Discussion
4.6 Strengths, Limitations, and Recommendations
4.7 Conclusion
References
5  Rethinking Assessment and Feedback in a Digital Age in Crises: Reflections on Large Class Teaching
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Schön’s Reflective Practice
5.3 Reflection-In-Action: Teaching and Assessing Large Classes Remotely During the COVID-19 Pandemic
5.4 Reflection-On-Action
Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT)
Using Technology in Education: Unequal Access and the ‘Digital Divide’ in Africa and South Africa
Large Class Teaching During the Pandemic: Navigating Through Remote Online Spaces
Issues of Academic Dishonesty in Remote Online Spaces
Remote Online Assessment and Feedback in Large Classes
5.5 Conclusion
References
6 Developing a Connective Student Support Framework for a Resource-Constrained ODL Institution in Mauritius
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Student Support in ODL
6.3 Connectivism and Student Support
6.4 Methodology
6.5 Institutional Context
6.6 Analysis of Current Practices
6.7 Student Support Services Proposal for Resource-Poor ODL Institutions
The Network
Communication Strategy
Data and Information Management
6.8 Conclusion
Appendix A: Synthesis of Student Support Services in 3 ODL and 4 traditional universities in the UK, Australia and South Africa
References
7 Professionalising Socialisation for Pragmatic e-Curriculum to the Rescue of South African Universities
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Professional or Performance e-Curriculum
7.3 Socialisation or Competence-Based e-Curriculum
7.4 Pragmatic or Personalised e-Curriculum
7.5 Digital Divide in South African Universities
7.6 Research Design and Methodology
7.7 Findings and Discussions
Professionalising Socialisation for a Pragmatic e-Curriculum
World University Rankings
Digital Technologies
Ideological-Ware Resources (Teaching and Learning Theories)
7.8 Conclusion with Implications
References
8 Teacher Perspectives on Blended Learning in a Changing Educational Landscape
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Research Methodology
Research Design, Approach and Paradigm
School Background
Sample
Semi-Structured Interviews
8.3 Data Analysis and Findings
Teachers’ Definitions of Blended Learning
Teacher Perspectives on Blended Learning in Language Education Over a Period of Five Years
Stress-Inducing Factors Regarding Technology Integration in Language Education
The Role of Training in Effectively Blending the Language Classroom
8.4 Conclusion and Summary
Recommendations
A Bottom-Up Rather Than a Top-Down Approach to Reform
Knowledge is Power
Limitations of the Study
Contributions of the Study
8.5 Conclusion
References
9 A Systematic Review of Digital Storytelling as Educational Tool for Teaching and Learning in Southern Africa
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Short History of Digital Storytelling
9.3 Study Methodology
Research Questions
Eligibility Criteria
Literature Search
Study Selection
Data Extraction
Data Analysis
9.4 Study Findings
Trends of Using Digital Storytelling
Comparing Trends of Digital Storytelling Usage
Impacts of Digital Storytelling on Teaching and Learning
9.5 Discussion
9.6 Conclusions
References
10 Technology-Enhanced Teacher Professional Development: The Experience of a Digital EdTech Start-Up in Malawi
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Technology and Professional Development for Teachers in Malawi
10.3 Conceptual Framework: Technology Use in Teacher Education
10.4 The Case Study: Padziwe
10.5 Findings and Discussion
10.6 Padziwe’s Use of Digital Technology for Professional Development
10.7 Collaborative Approach to Designing Technology-Enhanced PD for Teachers
10.8 Unstructured PD for Teachers
10.9 Conclusion
References
11 Conclusion
Index

Citation preview

DIGITAL EDUCATION AND LEARNING

Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa Embracing Digital Pedagogies Edited by Jako Olivier Avinash Oojorah · Waaiza Udhin

Digital Education and Learning

Series Editors Michael Thomas, John Moores University, Liverpool, UK Mark Warschauer, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, USA

Much has been written during the first decade of the new millennium about the potential of digital technologies to produce a transformation of education. Digital technologies are portrayed as tools that will enhance learner collaboration and motivation and develop new multimodal literacy skills. Accompanying this has been the move from understanding literacy on the cognitive level to an appreciation of the sociocultural forces shaping learner development. Responding to these claims, the Digital Education and Learning Series explores the pedagogical potential and realities of digital technologies in a wide range of disciplinary contexts across the educational spectrum both in and outside of class. Focusing on local and global perspectives, the series responds to the shifting landscape of education, the way digital technologies are being used in different educational and cultural contexts, and examines the differences that lie behind the generalizations of the digital age. Incorporating cutting edge volumes with theoretical perspectives and case studies (single authored and edited collections), the series provides an accessible and valuable resource for academic researchers, teacher trainers, administrators and students interested in interdisciplinary studies of education and new and emerging technologies.

Jako Olivier · Avinash Oojorah · Waaiza Udhin Editors

Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa Embracing Digital Pedagogies

Editors Jako Olivier Research Unit Self-Directed Learning, Faculty of Education North-West University Mahikeng, South Africa

Avinash Oojorah Centre for Open and Distance Learning Mauritius Institute of Education Réduit, Mauritius

Waaiza Udhin Centre for Open and Distance Learning Mauritius Institute of Education Réduit, Mauritius

ISSN 2753-0744 ISSN 2753-0752 (electronic) Digital Education and Learning ISBN 978-3-030-97655-2 ISBN 978-3-030-97656-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97656-9 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover illustration: Klaus Vedfelt This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

This publication provides a unique snapshot of the latest research on technology-enhanced education in the Southern Africa region in ten coherent chapters written by fifteen experts from higher education institutions in the Southern African region. The chapters were chosen after an open call was launched, and the best chapters were selected after a careful review of the abstracts and double-blind peer review of chapters. With original research from a number of Southern African countries, this book provides in-depth scientific scholarship focused on the dynamic multimodal learning environments in the region. Within the COVID-19 context, learning in Southern Africa has also abruptly had to move online and adapt to a new multimodal mode of delivery. Despite the focus mainly on higher education and professional development, the findings of the chapters in this book would also provide affordances to other levels of education. The implications of this publication and the unique contexts of limited resources and developing technologies and skills would specifically be relevant to institutions and academics elsewhere in Africa and the developing world. In terms of content, the book starts off with a general introduction in which the different chapters are contextualized, and the book’s broad focus is unpacked. The rest of the book covers transformative digital pedagogies, the role, voice and forms of support of students in multimodal environments, assessment, experiences and perceptions of students and selected specific technologies and approaches for multimodal learning. v

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PREFACE

The aim of this book is to show how using technology can be effectively employed for learning in multimodal learning environments within the Southern African context. The target audience of this book includes academics and researchers. The chapters in this book contain original research content not published before, and no part of the book has been plagiarized. The book has been subjected to an independent, double-blind and rigorous peer-review process. Mahikeng, South Africa Réduit, Mauritius Réduit, Mauritius

Jako Olivier Avinash Oojorah Waaiza Udhin

Acknowledgements

The editors and chapter authors are recognized for their very significant roles in making this publication possible. We also acknowledge the support of our colleagues and families in encouraging us to complete this book. The publication is an initiative supported by the UNESCO Chair in Multimodal Learning and Open Educational Resources, North-West University, South Africa.

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Praise for Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa

“This book explores the use and adaptation of digital technologies for multimodal learning and teaching, from chatbots to digital storytelling and beyond. Questions of curriculum, assessment, learning and pedagogy are explored, with attention to the modal preferences of learners, multimodal interactional practices and instructional environments, resources and technologies. Collectively the chapters highlight the relevance and significance of the dynamic digital sphere of multimodal learning environments, and the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic, within Southern Africa.” —Carey Jewitt, Institute of Education (IOE), Faculty of Education and Society, University College London, United Kingdom “The editors have put together a thoughtful collection of scholarly chapters focussing on multimodal learning environments and pedagogies. The book is most timely as so much of teaching and education post pandemic has strong multimodal dimensions, making this book highly relevant for any environment that is concerned with learning at all levels of society. This book lays out in-depth insights on the issues pertaining to multimodal learning. It offers the reader a number of innovative pedagogies that can be employed for successful multimodal learning in a variety of environments and not just schooling or higher education. The exciting element of this book is that it is written by scholars from the Southern African region, and the chapters offer valuable insights for anyone across ix

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PRAISE FOR MULTIMODAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS IN …

the world who has a stake in the future of multimodal learning and education.” —Ruksana Osman, UNESCO Chair in Teacher Education for Diversity and Development, Senior Deputy Vice Chancellor: Academic, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa “Going beyond ill-defined and persuasive flipped, blended or virtual idiosyncrasies, this book presents a cutting-edge approach to designing and implementing multimodal learning environments in a scholarly and design-based fashion. It explores different facets of multimodality in the Southern African context: appropriate theoretical pedagogy, the learner (characteristics, attitudes and expectations), targeted skills (composition and digital storytelling), assessment and feedback, learner support, the social divide, technology (chatbots), and the teacher (perspectives and professional development).” —Jozef Colpaert, Editor CALL Journal, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Antwerp, Belgium

Contents

1

2

3

4

5

6

Contextualising Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa Jako Olivier, Avinash Oojorah, and Waaiza Udhin Cultivating Locally Transformative Digital Pedagogies: The Need for Formative-Intervention Research Warren Lilley

1

9

That’s So Hot Right Now: Generation Z’s Technological Use During the COVID-19 Lockdown Marchant van der Schyff

31

Alternative Multimodal Composition Assessments in Academic Literacy Modules Louise Olivier

51

Rethinking Assessment and Feedback in a Digital Age in Crises: Reflections on Large Class Teaching Pryah Mahabeer

73

Developing a Connective Student Support Framework for a Resource-Constrained ODL Institution in Mauritius Myriam Blin

95

xi

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CONTENTS

7

Professionalising Socialisation for Pragmatic e-Curriculum to the Rescue of South African Universities Makhosazana Edith Shoba and Simon Bheki Khoza

8

9

10

11

119

Teacher Perspectives on Blended Learning in a Changing Educational Landscape Michele F. van der Merwe and Marné Pedro

141

A Systematic Review of Digital Storytelling as Educational Tool for Teaching and Learning in Southern Africa Cecilia Temilola Olugbara, Moeketsi Letseka, and Oludayo O. Olugbara

165

Technology-Enhanced Teacher Professional Development: The Experience of a Digital EdTech Start-Up in Malawi Foster Gondwe and Bob Maseko Conclusion Jako Olivier, Avinash Oojorah, and Waaiza Udhin

Index

197 213

217

Notes on Contributors

Dr. Blin Myriam is the Head of the think tank The Charles Telfair Centre. An economist by training, her research has focused on issues of gender and the care economy, the political economy of development, teaching and learning, and opening economics to more diverse research methodologies. More recently, her research has focused on issues of diversity, inclusion and well-being. Dr. Gondwe Foster is a Lecturer in Instructional Technology at the University of Malawi. He holds a Ph.D. from the Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Hiroshima University, Japan. He is specialized in Educational Development, including content areas of instructional technology, faculty development, comparative education and teacher education and professionalization. A great part of his research is committed to understanding the intersection of Information Technology and Teacher Education, especially teacher educators’ technology integration into their work. Dr. Khoza Simon Bheki is a Distinguished Teacher and Associate Professor: Mathematics Education and Curriculum with Educational Technology at the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN), South Africa. He has previously served as an Academic leader of Research and Higher Degrees and Teaching Practice at UKZN. He coordinates different undergraduate and postgraduate programmes and teaches and supervises postgraduate research. He has received several teaching, research

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NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

and supervision awards of excellence. He has graduated more than 100 Ph.D./M.Ed. students and published more than 50 publications in local and international journals. His keen interest is in e-learning theories/practices. Prof. Letseka Moeketsi is a Professor of philosophy of education and African philosophy at the University of South Africa (UNISA), Pretoria in South Africa where he is also holder of the endowed United Nations, Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) Chair on Open Distance Learning (ODL). Prof Letseka is Editor-in-Chief of Africa Education Review, an international scholarly journal that is jointly published by UNISA Press and Taylor & Francis in the UK. He is Chairperson of the Task Force on Distance Education in the World Council of Comparative Education Societies (WCCES). He is also Co-Chairperson of the WCCES’s Finance Standing Committee and a member of the National Commission for UNESCO. Dr. Lilley Warren is a Lecturer in Educational Psychology at the School of Education (UCT). He obtained his Ph.D. in Education in 2020, which focused on how language pedagogy could be meaningfully transformed through formative-intervention research. His continued research interests look towards how teaching and learning may be positively transformed through educational technologies and research, which draws on CulturalHistorical Activity Theory. In addition, he continues to apply his expertise to educational technology integration efforts, including provincial teacher-training programmes, online courses and research projects. Dr. Mahabeer Pryah is an Academic at UKZN. Pryah teaches at the Undergraduate and Postgraduate levels in Education. She supervises Postgraduate students and assists in the support programme for doctoral students. Her research interests lie in intellectualization of the curriculum, curriculum policy change and development, assessment, teacher education and development, gender, higher education and social and educational research. Dr. Maseko Bob is a Lecturer in Science Education at the University of Malawi Chancellor College. He holds a Ph.D. from the University of Witwatersrand in South Africa. He received his B.Ed. and M.Ed. in science education from the University of Malawi and University of Leeds, respectively. His research interests include the development and enactment of PCK in different classroom contexts, the use and deployment

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of various technology in the teaching and learning process, and teachers’ interaction with curricular documents in the teaching and learning process. Prof. Olivier Jako is the holder of the UNESCO Chair in Multimodal Learning and Open Educational Resources and is a Professor of Multimodal Learning in the Faculty of Education, North-West University. His research, within the Research Unit Self-Directed Learning, focuses on self-directed multimodal learning, open educational resources, multiliteracies, blended and e-learning in language classrooms as well as multilingualism in education. He currently holds a rating from the National Research Foundation and was awarded the Education Association of South Africa’s Emerging Researcher Medal in 2018. He has published numerous articles and book chapters, and he also acts as a supervisor for postgraduate students. Dr. Olivier Louise is a Senior Lecturer at the North-West University Mahikeng Campus in English for Education. She passed her B.A., B.A. Honours and Postgraduate Certificate in Education with distinction. She was awarded best academic performer in her faculty in 2003. She completed her M.Ed. degree in Education in 2009 on integrating motion media in the instruction of English literature. She completed her Ph.D. in English with a focus on academic literacy in 2015. Apart from delivering academic papers at local and international conferences, she has also published in local applied linguistics and education journals. Dr. Olugbara Cecilia Temilola is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the UNESCO Chair on ODL at the University of South Africa (UNISA), Pretoria in South Africa. She is a researcher with Doctorate in Science and Technology Education. She lectured Life Science at University of Zululand and Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. Her research interests include Digital Technology, Information Communication Technology in Science Teaching and Learning, Language in Science and Quantitative Methods. She has published in local and international reputable journals. She is a member of Southern African Association for Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education (SAARMSTE). Olugbara Oludayo O. is a Professor of Computer Science at the Durban University of Technology, Durban in South Africa. He has developed a special inclination towards scientific computational methods in the

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specialized areas of machine learning, computer vision, image processing and exponential technology for the development of a smart society. He is deeply committed to the use of scientific methods for creating relevant, insightful and effective solutions to critical problems facing the society. He is engrossed in conducting applied research in the chosen areas of specializations, guiding postgraduate research projects and stimulating students to acquire relevant computing skills at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. He is currently the MICT SETA Research Chair at the Center of Excellence in Fourth Industrial Revolution at Durban University of Technology. Dr. Oojorah Avinash is currently the Head of Centre for Open and Distance Learning at the Mauritius Institute of Education. He holds a doctoral degree in digitization of curriculum and has been heading major educational technologies projects at national level namely: Sankoré and Early Digital Learning Programme. He spoke at the UNESCO World OER Congress in Paris (2012) on Sankoré. He has published and copublished papers in accredited journals in the field of technology and pedagogy. His keen interest is in finding innovative ways to enhance teaching and learning at various levels. Avinash also has a long working experience in the education sector. Pedro Marné is a high school Teacher with a passion for contributing to the modernization of the classroom for the twenty-first century through educational research. In 2019, she obtained her Master’s degree in Curriculum Studies (cum laude) at Stellenbosch University with her research entitled “Teacher perspectives on blended learning as a teaching and learning approach for language teaching to the 21st century learner”. She also teaches part-time Afrikaans (Education) at Stellenbosch University. She completed a course in blended learning at Stellenbosch University in 2017. Her qualifications include a B.A. in Language and Culture (2012), Postgraduate Certificate in Education (2013), B.Ed. Honors in Language Teaching (2017) and M.Ed. in Curriculum Studies (2019). Dr. Shoba Makhosazana Edith is a Lecturer in Curriculum and Education Studies at the School of Education of the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Her research focus is curriculum, teaching and learning and language curriculum. Her work includes coordinating modules and teaching undergraduate and postgraduate students. She teaches the history of education, curriculum change and development.

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She also supervises postgraduate research at Ph.D., M.Ed. and Honours levels. She has published in local and international journals. Dr. Udhin Waaiza is a Senior Lecturer at the Centre for Open and Distance learning, Mauritius Institute of Education. She holds a Ph.D. in learning with technology from the University of Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. She also holds a Master’s in Computer Mediated Communication and Pedagogies and a B.Sc. (Hons.) in Textile Technology from the University of Mauritius. Waaiza has presented in many international conferences and won the award for best presenter at an international conference in 2017. She has published and co-published in accredited journals and conference proceedings. Dr. van der Merwe Michele F. is a Senior Lecturer in Afrikaans Curriculum Studies in the Faculty of Education at Stellenbosch University. She holds B.A., B.A. Hons., M.A. and D.Litt. degrees from Stellenbosch University, with a professional qualification B.Tech.: Education: Tertiary cum laude (Technikon SA). Her research foci include lexicography, pedagogical lexicography, language education, CALL and linguistics. Michele has presented various international conference papers on lexicography, has published in international journals on lexicography and has been a visiting scholar at various universities in Europe. Her social impact projects include the SA Trilingual Wine Industry Dictionary and the MobiLex glossary. Dr. van der Schyff Marchant has a Ph.D. in Communications and Media from the University of KwaZulu-Natal and is an active researcher in the Social Sciences with a passion for interventionist studies on gender-based violence, queercide, new technology utilization and contemporary philosophy. His major influences include Friedrich Nietzsche, Paulo Freire, Judith Butler and Desmond Tutu. For relaxation, when he has some spare time, he reads novels, listens to podcasts and takes his dog Amy for long walks in the tranquil Newlands forests of Cape Town, where he resides.

List of Figures

Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2 Fig. 6.1

Fig. 6.2

Fig. 6.3 Fig. 7.1 Fig. 9.1 Fig. 9.2 Fig. 10.1

Assignment choice Student assessment choice Student support services at the institution under study, 2019 (Source Consultation process with the institution, 2019) Network and Connections of Student Support Services in the Student Learning Journey (Source Original framework from author) Communication for effective student support services (Source Original by the author) Moodle LMS activities and resources PRISMA protocol for database searches to discover relevant articles (adopted from Olugbara et al., 2021) Distribution of studies on digital storytelling across education systems in Africa Padziwe Twitter account

59 60

103

107 110 121 171 186 203

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List of Tables

Table 1.1 Table 3.1 Table Table Table Table

3.2 4.1 4.2 6.1

Table 9.1 Table 9.2 Table 9.3

Levels of multimodality for multimodal learning environments Gen Z access to the Internet and ICTs during COVID-19 lockdown Gen Z opinions on COVID-19 lockdown and ICT usage Assignment choice Student choice Elements, Functions and components of student support services Data extracted from the reviewed studies Statistics on primary digital storytelling studies Descriptive analysis of selected primary articles

3 44 45 58 59 99 173 183 184

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CHAPTER 1

Contextualising Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa Jako Olivier , Avinash Oojorah , and Waaiza Udhin

1.1

Introduction

Multimodal learning environments have become ubiquitous in education at all levels due to an increase in available technologies and an increasing need for flexibility and access for learning. Indeed, the increased accessibility of information in several modes such as visuals, haptic, multimedia and kinaesthetic and combinations of the above, have changed and expanded instructional possibilities. Moreover, the proliferation of the modes of information could also mean more possibilities for learners

J. Olivier (B) Research Unit Self-Directed Learning, Faculty of Education, North-West University, Mahikeng, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] A. Oojorah · W. Udhin Centre for Open and Distance Learning, Mauritius Institute of Education, Réduit, Mauritius e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Olivier et al. (eds.), Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa, Digital Education and Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97656-9_1

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J. OLIVIER ET AL.

to represent knowledge. In this book the issue of multimodal learning environments is explored in unique contexts within the Southern African region and specifically in terms of experiences within the first two years of the COVID-19 pandemic. In this regard, this chapter provides a theoretical foundation towards the concept of multimodal learning environments and also shows how the chapters that follow fit within this context.

1.2 Multimodal Learning and Multimodal Learning Environments The concept of multimodal learning environments should be considered within the context of what Moreno and Mayer (2007) termed as interactive multimodal learning environments and for them this referred to learning environments where more than one mode of content knowledge representation is involved. Consequently, in this book the concept is extended beyond more communicative content to also include not only learning platforms, but also the student environment, learning process and institutional structure. However, multimodality in the sense of using different modes of representation within the learning context is central to how multimodal learning environments are considered. In terms of multimodality, it is evident that meaning-making and sign-making operate within and across various modes (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2001: 2). These modes can be considered as “any regularized organized set of semiotic resources for articulating meaning” (Jewitt, 2003: 32). Bezemer and Kress (2008) note how increasingly different modes of representation are included within the educational context. The use of multimodal learning environments holds many advantages as students have indicated favourability towards such environments while reporting support towards their comprehension and retention (Sankey, Birch & Gardiner, 2010). Moreover, multimodal environments have the potential to enrich the learning experience especially through the use of haptic feedback (Magana et al., 2019). Multimodal learning turns the learning environment into an all-embracing one whereby students

W. Udhin e-mail: [email protected]

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CONTEXTUALISING MULTIMODAL LEARNING …

3

become more engaged with the course content. Besides, multimodal learning opens avenues for a range of interesting media that helps in leveraging the use of digital learning tools and technology within the teaching and learning nexus. However, it is important to be cognisant of the challenges posed in terms of cognitive load when utilising multiple modes of communication (Bouchey et al., 2021). The way in which multimodal learning environments are conceptualised in this chapter draws heavily on the concept of multimodal learning and more specifically, self-directed multimodal learning (Olivier, 2020a, 2020b). The concept of self-directed multimodal learning can be defined as “an approach to education where individual modal preferences, communication through different modalities, as well as the blending of learning, teaching and delivery by means of different modes are employed with the aim of fostering self-directedness among students” (Olivier, 2020a: xxxiv). Different levels of multimodality are also relevant to understanding multimodal learning in this context. In drawing on the work by Olivier (2020a, 2020b) these levels are interpreted in terms of multimodal learning environments as is evidenced in Table 1.1. Table 1.1 Levels of multimodality for multimodal learning environments Level

Description

Individual multimodality

Individual modal preferences influence how students engage with semiotic resources and technologies around them. In this regard, customised and adaptive learning opportunities should be considered within multimodal learning environments Communication happens on a continuum of multimodality with varying degrees of modal and semiotic complexity. Such communication is central to learning as learning in itself is a form of communication. In multimodal learning environments communication tends to be driven by technology and is an essential component of any online social presence Teaching and learning can happen as face-to-face, online or in a blended fashion. Multimodal learning environments are essentially spaces in which both online and blended learning can take place In terms of the wider structure of educational institutions elements of multimodality can also be manifested as so-called contact, distance or hybrid institutions

Interactional multimodality

Instructional multimodality

Institutional multimodality

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J. OLIVIER ET AL.

These different levels of multimodality as well as the concept of a multimodal learning environment provide the theoretical basis for the chapters that follow that all relate to some form of infusion of multimodality or technology within the educational sphere.

1.3

Chapters Overview

Within the aforementioned context, ten very diverse studies were undertaken to explore different facets of multimodality and education within multimodal learning environments. From this overview the complexities of such environments are evident. In Chapter 2, Walter Lilley explores the need to re-orientate digital pedagogy research and development in Southern Africa with specific focus on educator agency. This chapter prompts questions on why change would be necessary in terms of digital pedagogy within multimodal learning environments. Within this chapter it is then evident that the individual’s role is imperative for change and ultimately, human-centred transformation. It is proposed that the affordances of the Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) and specifically Change Laboratories (CL) within the Southern African context should not be underestimated. This chapter brings a further transformative dimension to the concept of individual multimodality as this level of multimodality can extend beyond modal preferences to also relating to metamodal agency. Apart from the changing context of the multimodal learning environments in terms of digital aspects, this book also emerged during a time of the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic. In this regard, in Chapter 3, Marchant van der Schyff explored Generation Z’s technological use during the COVID-19 lockdown. As this context had an influence on many of the other chapters that followed, this chapter not only explored the specific nature of students known as Generation Z, but also set the scene in terms of how education has and was changing due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This chapter engages on the level of interactional multimodality as it explores the use of technology by Generation Z and how their communication behaviours were influenced in this COVID-19 online context. Van der Schyff concludes that a fluid approach might be necessary to understand the challenges experienced by Generation Z and that this is a very dynamic and changeable multimodal context. Assessment can be considered an integral part of learning. Within the context of multimodal learning environments, multimodal assessments

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(Olivier, 2021) can be considered as being highly relevant. In this regard, two chapters in this book deal with assessment. Firstly, in Chapter 4, Louise Olivier looks at multimodal compositions as a form of multimodal assessment. In this chapter focussing on assessment in university academic literacy modules, the need for increased student agency and choice is evident in terms of assessment. The affordances of multimodal assessment are evident as a way of addressing preferences in terms of individual multimodality. From the analysis of student perceptions, it is evident that they are positive towards multimodal assessments and that multimodal composition shows potential as a vehicle in this regard within the South African context. Furthermore, Pryah Mahabeer advocates for a rethinking of assessment and feedback in Chapter 5, specifically within the COVID-19 context. Importantly, Mahabeer notes that within this context it has become essential for lecturers to reconsider their roles and responsibilities. Therefore, in this chapter, a more humanist approach to online teaching, learning and assessment is advocated. Moreover, it is necessary to rethink and develop policies as well as practices for remote online teaching and assessment within multimodal learning environments. The importance of being responsive to student needs was noted in Chapter 5 and this issue is extended in Chapter 6 where Myriam Blin relates about the development of a connective student support framework for a resource-constrained open distance learning institution in Mauritius. This chapter emphasises the need for student support structures within multimodal learning environments, specifically in a context with capacity and resource constraints. Furthermore, this chapter draws on connectivism a learning theory, as the suggested framework recommends placing digital networks at the core of the student support process. In Chapter 7 the focus is on professionalising socialisation for the sake of a pragmatic electronic curriculum or e-curriculum to address the needs of South African Universities. Here, Makhosazana Edith Shoba and Simon Bheki Khoza explored the e-curriculum in terms of the university digital divide prevalent in South Africa. From this chapter, it is evident that professionalising socialisation for a pragmatic e-curriculum in higher education is highly necessary for universities as many of them have not crossed the digital divide and this is particularly true for universities where digital technologies drive teaching. The economic dualism in the country means that certain students are excluded. It is also recommended opportunities are created for students to reflect on their experiences to

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inform lecturers’ understanding of students’ identities in terms of the ecurriculum. Hence, even at the level of institutional multimodality the context and students’ needs should be considered. The focus is shifted in Chapter 8 to teacher perspectives on blended learning as Marné Pedro and Michele F. van der Merwe explored this within multimodal learning environments in a changing educational landscape. This study focussed specifically on language teachers and found that the integration of transformative teaching and learning approaches in this context depends on teachers’ perspectives that are recognised and addressed. Apart from the importance of teachers’ personal perspectives, this chapter also determined the need for opportunities for teachers to critically reflect on their own perspectives and teaching practices. It is also evident that teachers’ perspectives should be considered as being a highly important consideration for successful educational reform movements. Chapter 9 involves a systematic review of digital storytelling as an educational tool for teaching and learning in Southern Africa. This chapter, by Cecilia Temilola Olugbara, Moeketsi Letseka and Oludayo O. Olugbara covers relevant literature on this multimodal learning approach published from 1993 to 2021. From this review, it was evident that research on digital storytelling is mainly done in South Africa. In terms of the thematic content analysis, it was clear that digital storytelling promotes student engagement, enhances knowledge and skills, has the potential to build communities of practice, promote understanding between cultures and facilitate deep learning. From the research, the usefulness of digital storytelling as a means to support both interactional and instructional multimodality is undisputable. Finally, Chapter 10 involves technology-enhanced teacher professional development using the experience of a digital EdTech start-up. From this research within a multimodal learning environment, Foster Gondwe and Bob Maseko found that it is evident that the researched Padziwe education case has the potential to enhance teachers’ professional knowledge. The research also provides insights into technology-enhanced professional development for teachers, including the design and content for professional development activities specifically within the Malawian context.

1.4

Conclusion

In conclusion, the relevance of multimodality for education and specifically learning environments are clear globally and within the Southern

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African context. Multimodality, as expressed in the chapters, inaugurates new possibilities for learners and teachers to represent knowledge, express and implement teaching and learning and engage with each other. The chapters that follow intend to explore aspects of learning in terms of multimodal learning environments with regard to transformative digital pedagogies, the unique needs of Generation Z, alternative and multimodal assessments, student support, and professionalising socialisation for the university e-curriculum, teacher perspectives on blended learning and digital storytelling. All these chapters share a focus on some aspects of multimodal learning but also show how learning is dynamic and contextually bound. Unique challenges are evident in this context in terms of access and learning needs, especially in terms of the COVID19 pandemic. However, clear lessons can be learned from these chapters to inform educational practices in similar contexts.

References Bezemer, J., & Kress, G. (2008). Writing in multimodal texts: A social semiotic account of designs for learning. Written Communication, 25(2), 166–195. Bouchey, B., Castek, J., & Thygeson, J. (2021). Multimodal learning. In Ryoo, J. & Winkelmann, K. (Eds.), Innovative Learning Environments in STEM Higher Education: Opportunities, Challenges, and Looking Forward (pp. 35– 54). Springer. Retrieved January, 20, 2022. https://library.oapen.org/han dle/20.500.12657/47325 Jewitt, C. (2003). A multimodal framework for computer mediated learning: The reshaping of curriculum knowledge and learning. PhD thesis, Institute of Education, University of London. Kress, G., & Van Leeuwen, T. (2001). Multimodal discourse: The modes and media of contemporary communication. Arnold. Magana, A. J., Serrano, M. I., & Rebello, N. S. (2019). A sequenced multimodal learning approach to support students’ development of conceptual learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 35(4), 516–528. Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. (2007). Interactive multimodal learning environments. Educational Psychology Review, 19(3), 309–326. Olivier, J. (2020a). Self-directed multimodal learning to support Demiurgic access. In Burgos, D. (Ed.) Radical solutions and eLearning (pp. 117–130). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4952-6_8 Olivier, J. (2020b). Self-directed multimodal learning within a context of transformative open education. In Olivier, J. (Ed.) Self-directed multimodal learning in higher education (pp. 1–49). AOSIS. https://doi.org/10.4102/ aosis.2020b.BK210.01

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Olivier, J. (2021). Self-directed multimodal assessment: Towards assessing in a more equitable and differentiated way. In E. Mentz & A. Lubbe (Eds.), Learning through assessment: An approach towards Self-Directed Learning. NWU Self-Directed Learning Series Volume 7 (pp. 51–69). AOSIS. https:// doi.org/10.4102/aosis.2021.BK280.03 Sankey, M., Birch, D., & Gardiner, M. (2010). Engaging students through multimodal learning environments: The journey continues. In Proceedings ASCILITE 2010: 27th Annual Conference of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education: Curriculum, technology and transformation for an unknown future (pp. 852–863). University of Queensland.

CHAPTER 2

Cultivating Locally Transformative Digital Pedagogies: The Need for Formative-Intervention Research Warren Lilley

2.1 Introduction: The Need to Re-Orientate Digital Pedagogy Development in South Africa In this chapter, I invite you, to question what it means to cultivate change within your educational context. Many educational institutions, researchers, and educators are creatively taking up an important question—how can they best cultivate and embrace digital technologies for

W. Lilley (B) School of Education, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Olivier et al. (eds.), Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa, Digital Education and Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97656-9_2

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teaching and learning, i.e., ‘digital pedagogies’1 ? While the need for pedagogical change is highlighted in research, what is not clear is why this potential transformation of pedagogy using digital technologies is imperative, and whose interests these changes to teaching and learning should serve within multimodal learning environments (cf. Chapter 1). In South Africa, the rationale behind developing digital pedagogies in education can be attributed to global and local impetuses. On the one hand, there is escalating international pressure for our education system to transform in light of the Fourth Industrial Revolution’s (4IR) envisioned hyper-technological and globalised world of work (UNESCO, 2011). Increasingly, presidential addresses (Ramaphosa, 2021) and departmental plans (Department of Basic Education, 2014; Department of Higher Education and Training, 2017c, 2019) have advocated the necessity of updating our educational system so that our students will be able to effectively ‘compete’ in the 4IR’s knowledge economy, thus requiring drastic changes in the resources, literacies, and competencies we see in the classrooms of today. For example, the DHET (2017b) has emphasised how the increased use of digital technologies in higher education for teaching and learning will be critical in helping South African universities compete with other international educational institutions. Similarly, in basic education, the increased distribution of digital hardware, like tablet computers (Ramaphosa, 2019) and more recently, the proposed inclusion of ‘Robotics and Coding’ skills into our national curriculum are positioned as fundamental if our learners are to succeed in finding future employment (Department of Basic Education, 2021). On the other hand, mounting national pressures demand drastic systemic change, most markedly seen in calls to decolonise education, like FeesMustFall. As these continuing student protests and decades of local research make clear, education remains vastly unequal and inaccessible for most of our learners in both higher and basic education (Christie, 2020). Here too, the greater use of digital technologies for teaching and learning has been positioned to enable transformation. To illustrate, the increased

1 In recognition of emergent digital pedagogies (Bozalek et al., 2015) and to not

delimit research and development possibilities, I utilise ‘digital pedagogy’ in its most ‘open’ sense. Specifically, I use ‘digital pedagogy’ as an umbrella term to describe the essential use of digital technologies and software to inform and facilitate pedagogy. Examples may include the use of virtual learning environments for a fully online course, or the use of mobile software for ‘blended’ or ‘hybrid’ learning.

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digitisation of higher education courses to promote distance/blended learning has been leveraged as a viable pathway to not only aid students’ degree completion (Ng’ambi et al., 2016) but also to help more students enter into the formal learning process (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2017a). Moreover, progressively more research efforts are being made to identify how digital pedagogies can address critical educational crises in mathematics, science, and literacy instruction (Hardman, 2015; Maringe, 2021). In other words, educational innovation with digital technologies can be broadly characterised as caught between two competing forces for change. To one side, efforts should work towards South African education’s assimilation towards global 4IR needs. But, at the same time, the integration of digital technologies should also endeavour to respond to the local transformative needs of accessible, quality education for all. These undertakings foreground a potential dilemma facing the development of digital pedagogies—should they be purposed towards our global interests (i.e., to ‘internationalise’) or local needs (i.e., to ‘decolonise’/‘improve’ our education)? As Black et al. (2020) forewarn us, understanding the conflicting political nature of these aforementioned transformational impetuses is imperative, especially in light of the increased digitisation of education seen during the recent COVID-19 pandemic. Their article unpacks how current digitisation efforts that ignore local transformational needs will only exacerbate educational inequality. The unfortunate consequence is that rather than these technologies introducing a radical improvement to education and future employment, existing structures will most likely prevail, resulting in neither our local nor global interests for educational transformation ultimately being served (see Black et al., 2020; Christie, 2020; Howard, 2018). They are not alone in their critique. Researchers increasingly caution that attempts to digitise education that see technology and its integration as ‘value-free’ are at risk of undermining the powerful transformative potentials these technologies could provoke in postcolonial territories like South Africa (Amory, 2007). These concerns have led to a call for a more generative, contextualised understanding of how we develop and research digital technologies for teaching and learning (Reeves & Lin, 2020). A theoretical and methodological approach foregrounding the need for localised innovation and transformation driven, aligned, and mobilised

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from within the teaching and learning communities who will utilise these technologies in their classrooms (see Kwet, 2019; Wakunuma, 2019). This chapter serves to offer a possible pathway into how such locally transformative digital pedagogies may be realised in Southern Africa through the use of Cultural Historical Activity Theory’s (CHAT) concept of Expansive Learning (EL) and its formative-intervention methodology of Change Laboratories (CL) (see Lilley, 2020). To fully ground the necessity of such an approach, this chapter begins by problematising how contemporary research into digital pedagogies may be missing deeper contextual considerations when understanding how technology transforms teaching and learning. I then describe how CHAT and CL dialectical understandings of development offer more fertile terrain to engage with digital pedagogical development. In sum, this chapter has two aims: (1) to describe the issues of current research and development into innovative, digital pedagogies and (2) to introduce how CHAT and CL’s can cultivate innovative, digital pedagogies within Southern African education.

2.2

The ‘Innovation’ Question Facing Digital Pedagogical Development and Research

How can you create something new if you already know what it is? (Engeström, 2009, p. 311). Above, I have outlined how global and local impetuses for change have leveraged the power of digital pedagogies to profoundly transform Southern African education. In this section, to fully unpack the necessity for a more ‘localised’ development of digital pedagogies, I describe the challenges facing contemporary digital pedagogy research and efforts geared towards educational transformation. One type of digital pedagogy gaining rapid momentum is the incorporation of mobile technologies. The ubiquity of mobile devices, especially within Sub-Saharan Africa (GSM Association, 2020), has leveraged these emergent technologies as critical to adopting digital pedagogies within our classrooms (Aker & Mbiti, 2010). However, research on mobile pedagogies suggests that the digital affordances of these devices do not necessarily cultivate novel, transformative teaching practices. For example, in Burtson’s (2014) review of Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL)

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studies over the last twenty years, he found that most pedagogical implementations illustrated familiar behaviourist, teacher-centred, transmission modes of teaching and learning. This ‘reproduction’ of traditional pedagogy is not only confined to mobile devices in language education. Similar results are evident in Hardman’s (2005, 2019) extensive research on possible shifts in mathematics teaching and learning when desktop and digital software is introduced into the classroom. However, far from these digital technologies introducing ‘transformative’ changes into teaching and learning practices, data instead showed pedagogy could become even more restrictive, transmissive, and rote-based, especially within disadvantaged communities. Comparable reviews echo these findings (see Duman et al., 2015; Manca & Ranieri, 2013), showcasing that rather than transforming education, ‘innovative’ digital pedagogies may instead be reproducing traditional teaching and learning strategies with ‘new’ digital tools. The pedagogical reproduction these reviews and research highlight poses a challenge to digitising education efforts. As I stated earlier, digital pedagogies have been considered key to aligning our education with global 4IR trends and are increasingly underscored as offering a potential pathway to redress local educational quality and accessibility. However, if research suggests that current digital pedagogies simply replicate previous teaching and learning practices, does this mean our digitisation efforts are doomed to fall short of their intended transformational capacities for education? I do not think so. As much as a wealth of research questions the innovative impact of digital technologies on teaching and learning, many studies also highlight their potential transformative effects. For instance, Francis and Hardman’s (2018) study during the FeesMustFall protests showed how students’ use of social media to discuss the protest movement provided a more democratic, transcultural digital learning space that fostered deep knowledge production around the concept of decolonisation. At the same time, Bozalek et al. (2015) demonstrate several Southern African case studies which illustrate how a range of digital devices and software can offer the radical potential for making learning and teaching more diverse, agentive, democratic, and meaningful for educators and their students in line with our local and global interests for educational transformation. Recognising these differences in findings regarding digital pedagogical innovation leads to a more profound question into how to facilitate

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development and research that can surface transformative pedagogies rather than those that reproduce restrictive practices. In other words, the difference around ‘innovation’ findings highlights that there may be deeper issues in understanding, researching, and developing transformative digital pedagogies. One area that has received significant critical attention is how digital technologies are understood and described. Notable critics, such as Oliver (2011), have highlighted a problematic deterministic discourse surrounding educational technology research, wherein the ‘affordances’ of researched technology are seen to ‘naturally’ rationalise their inclusion within education sites. He traces this problematic discourse to oversimplified, initial cognitivist metaphors that suggest the human brain is comparable to a machine. Research that draws on this problematic perception of technology ‘naturalises’ the integration of devices based on the premise that ‘if the mind is understood to be “like” a computer, then computer-based tools are self-evidently well matched to [support] mental activities’ (Oliver, 2011, p. 376). A consequence of these deterministic technological accounts is that it makes little space for how these digital tools impact the teaching and learning process or how conflicting interactions may surface. Specifically, these accounts underplay the influence of social interaction, meaning, and agency on how devices are taken up in teaching and learning, ascribing the developmental impacts identified solely to the digital device. An illustrative research example can be seen in Ba¸soˇglu and Akdemir’s (2010) experimental study comparing student vocabulary acquisition via flashcards versus a vocabulary acquisition program (ECTACO Flash Cards ). While both the control (physical flashcards users) and the experimental (digital program users) groups’ vocabulary increased, the researchers posit that the improvement seen in the experimental group supports the impressive impact digital vocabulary tools may hold for language learning. Herein, the digital device is emphasised in vocabulary acquisition in its immediate availability and delivery of learning content, perpetuating the idea that the vocabulary gains evidenced within the experimental group are drawn primarily from the device’s affordances. Ironically, only when some of the experimental group students’ frequency of using the vocabulary program decreased are broader contextual concerns noted, such as the university’s semester-end impacting students’ use. As this example demonstrates, a concerted emphasis is

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placed on a digital tool for teaching and learning, even though studentparticipants demonstrated learning gains through physical and digital instruction (Ba¸soˇglu & Akdemir, 2010). While comparative research findings like these seriously question whether digitising pedagogy is needed, it also suggests an underlying prioritisation of digital devices as neutrally beneficial to any learning setting where they are applied (Oliver, 2011; Reeves & Lin, 2020). It is this ‘neutrality’, ‘affordance’, and ‘naturalness’ attributed to how digital devices transform pedagogy in educational research that is most concerning. No learning or instructional tool (whether physical or digital) is ‘neutral’. The fact that these technologies are human-made means that their designs are inscribed with certain ideologies of how learning or instruction are facilitated through them (Amory, 2007). Given the fact that most digital technologies employed in education, particularly in the Global South, originate from technology companies situated within the Global North, means that this ‘neutral technological discourse’ misses how these devices are actually ‘products designed with particular values and power relations embedded in them’ (Kwet, 2019, p. 21). In doing so, research that emphasises the ‘affordances’ of digital technologies but under-describes their social interaction may be neglecting how these digital devices are designed to work for Global Northern technology companies who develop and own them rather than the educational communities in the Global South who use them (Coleman, 2019; Wakunuma, 2019). For postcolonial ‘Southern’ sites, like South Africa, this political inscription of digital tools cannot be ignored. Southern African decolonising movements have highlighted how continued educational inequality is tied to our colonialist legacy being underpinned by Western values and epistemologies (Christie, 2020; Hardman, 2021). Consequently, Kwet (2019) asks if, in our bid to digitally transform education in line with global trends, we are opening ourselves up to new forms of colonialism, which seek more to ‘reproduce’ existing unequal relations than ‘transform’ or ‘innovate’ them. This question highlights how ‘neutral’ understandings of digital technologies which emphasise their ‘innovative’ capacity while negating their broader social interaction and impact are debatable in their conceptual ability to inform transformative potentials for Southern African digital pedagogies. At the same time, as the conceptualisation of digital technologies has become increasingly challenged within educational research, so too

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have the methodologies commonly used to investigate digital pedagogy. Engeström (2011) illustrates how much educational change research, informed by empirical and design-based research (DBR) methodologies, may be misaligned towards their transformative goals. He highlights how these research interventions, premised on Western positivistic binary logic that stress linear causality, are problematic when understanding and facilitating change with human actors who actively take up, resist, and shape their interactions within the world. For example, Ba¸soˇglu and Akdemir’s (2010) study of vocabulary acquisition is based on ascertaining how positive uptakes of mobile devices for language learning could apply to Turkish students. However, as previously discussed, their methodology struggled to account for the variability of their learning environment or the agency of students’ uptake of these devices for vocabulary learning. This is despite the researchers’ many well-intentioned, meticulous attempts to account for as many dependent variables as possible in their study (Ba¸soˇglu & Akdemir, 2010). The crux of the issue within positivist studies is that the complexity of learning environments, human agency, and their transformative interaction are not variables that can be easily accounted for. As Engeström (2011) explicitly states: Humans—practitioners, teachers, students – are intentional and interactive beings … [who] do not neatly obey the laws of linear causality. The practical usefulness and ecological validity of research on learning based on classical well-controlled experiments are more questionable than ever. (p. 599)

Even in rigorous, updated DBR methodologies, which emphasise an iterative development process encompassing participant-empathy and collective ideation, is the questionable nature of linear causality and the need to fully account for the complexity of diverse contexts and human-agency in the development of novel practices not fully overcome (see Akkerman et al., 2013; Vakil et al., 2016). Central to this difficulty is how DBR methodologies stipulate the need for ‘refinement’ of the interventionist’s digital technological or pedagogy, which through extensive iterations will ultimately result in a ‘perfected’ or ‘complete’ educational ‘solution’ to the participants’ problem (Engeström, 2011). In effect, by predetermining the transformational outcomes to be seen (as in empirical studies) or progressively ‘refining’ the transformation to be designed (as in DBR),

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the scope for the actual participants’ (the teachers and students) agency in the intended transformation is limited and devoid of context—change is instead relegated and purposed towards the interventionist’s prearranged digital tool and/or pedagogical model, and/or the intervention itself (Engeström, 2011; Engeström et al., 2014). Given these shortcomings, it is no wonder why educational technology researchers like Reeves and Lin (2020) entitle their recent overview of the field, ‘The research we have is not the research we need’. These insights illustrate that even our methods in the research and development of digital pedagogies may be limiting their transformational impact. Just as ‘neutral’ conceptualisations of digital devices for educational change neglect human agency and context in understanding pedagogical innovation, so too standard 2 educational research methods can be argued to do so. I find it no small coincidence that these conceptual and methodological limitations for educational transformation are derived from Western, individualistic worldviews. The totalising and selfreproductive nature of socio-economic and pedagogical models derived from this epistemology has been long recognised and critiqued (see Black et al., 2020; Hardman, 2021; Howard, 2018). With these shortcomings in mind, the innovation ‘question’ facing Southern African digital pedagogical research is whether, in our ‘neutral’ understanding of digital technologies and educational technology research, we are unintentionally ascribing solely to global impetuses for transformation which ‘reproduce’ the educational status quo in ‘new’ digital ways (Kwet, 2019). As the seminal quote by Engeström (2009) cited at the start of this section attests, the quandary lies in if we can surface novel, transformative digital practices in education if our digital pedagogical innovations rely extensively on (questionable) traditional methodologies and understandings? In line with this question, critics have argued for a re-orientation to educational technology research, which emphasises the need for a more agentive and context-driven approach to digital pedagogy research and development (Hardman, 2021; Kwet, 2019; Reeves & Lin, 2020). A re-orientation that stresses ‘localised’ understandings in communities’ agentive adoption of digital devices for teaching and learning and the 2 I emphasize ‘standard’ here in recognition of empirical and DBR studies which seek to innovative their methodologies considering the shortcomings I have highlighted above (see Akkerman et al., 2013; Vakil et al., 2016).

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contradictory role both local and international impetuses for educational transformational may contextually play out in teachers’ and students’ mobilisation of digital devices for learning. Below, I argue how CulturalHistorical Activity Theory (CHAT), in its dialectical understanding of development, holds much promise to cultivate such ‘localised’, transformative digital pedagogies within Southern Africa.

2.3 Cultivating Locally Transformative Digital Pedagogies: A Change Laboratory Case Study In this section, I discuss how CHAT’s dialectical understandings of development can posit a radical re-orientation for educational transformation that does not see Southern African local and global drivers for digital pedagogical development as mutually exclusive but instead uses the conflictual nature of these impetuses to drive transformation in teaching and learning practices with technology. To illustrate these potentials, I draw on insights derived from my Change Laboratory (CL) intervention (Lilley, 2020),3 which demonstrated how language educators were empowered to develop a unique digital language pedagogy once they became aware of conflicts within their teaching and learning practices. Through this discussion, I intend to illustrate how a more fruitful understanding of change comes from researching the individuals who mobilise digital devices to transform their pedagogic practice—educators as change agents, capable of transforming themselves and the world they act in. At the heart of dialectical perspectives, like CHAT, is that comprehending any living system necessitates identifying and understanding the system in its entirety, specifically, how the system’s elements have and will continue to oppose each other in development (Marx, 1979; Weiss, 1974). CHAT captures this dialectical understanding through three interrelated concepts: mediation, the activity system as a unit of analysis and the Expansive Learning process (Engeström, 1987), which I turn to describe in brief. Premised on Vygotsky’s (1978) research, mediation encompasses how human beings’ interaction within the world is cultural, in that our engagement within society is done to realise social needs achieved through

3 More detailed accounts of this study can be found in upcoming two working papers (Lilley, 2022a, 2022b).

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the particular use of cultural signs and tools by a more knowledgeable/culturally competent other. For example, consider formal schooling and the myriad social motivations for teachers’ and learners’ participation (Virkkunen & Newnham, 2013). To realise these social motives, individuals need to interact with one another in particular ways to achieve them. For instance, teachers’ instruction and students’ learning are both geared towards knowledge production. To produce this knowledge, the teacher and students take different complementary roles, where the teacher instructs and the learner studies through different uptakes of available cultural tools (whiteboards, digital devices, or worksheets) and signs (language) within that setting. In other words, these roles are only identifiable and meaningful through their juxtaposed relationship (where the teacher is identifiable through their teaching of the student, the student is identifiable through their learning from the teacher).4 As can be inferred from the dialectical teaching/learning relationship, the different purposeful uptakes of cultural tools and signs according to the complementary roles teachers and learners perform are integral. For instance, consider how the intentional use of a whiteboard (as a cultural tool) and the teacher’s language (as a cultural sign) elucidate mathematical knowledge to learners. Using a whiteboard and questions, the teacher can mediate a mathematical concept to the students. Similarly, students can mediate their mathematical understanding by drawing on the teacher’s whiteboard use, questions, and explanations. In this way, mediational artefacts unite the teacher’s instructional utilities and the students’ learning actions. In other words, cultural tools and signs, as mediational artefacts, combine both the teacher and learner or any two opposing phenomena in co-development (Virkkunen & Newnham, 2013). This co-development through mediation is most clearly articulated in Vygotsky’s (1978) general genetic law, which states what is imparted socially (interpsychologically) is also transformed within the individual (intrapsychologically), leading to a shared understanding that spurs the developmental process. In this way, dialectical theory ushers a move beyond binary distinctions of the individual and the society as separate but sees both as dialectically enmeshed. Such understandings are not new within African epistemologies. For example, consider how the 4 For Vygotsky, this dialectical relation between teaching and learning was so inherent he saw no difference between the two, preferring to use the term obuchenie which roughly translates to teaching/learning (Hardman, 2021).

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notion of ubuntu holds that for an individual to ‘become’ or ‘transform’ only occurs through interaction within society—a person becomes human through others. These dialectical, collective understandings of transformation can be seen to have particular synergy with CHAT’s aforementioned stress on the dialectical relationship between the individual, society, and mediational tools and signs in development (Hardman, 2021). To capture the functional interdependence between the individual, wider society, and purposeful use of cultural tools/signs towards development, CHAT stresses that the smallest instantiation of their complementary interaction must be the unit of analysis—the activity itself (Virkkunen & Newnham, 2013). According to Engeström (1987), activity is captured within the internal constructs of: • object-motive, capturing participants’ socially shared impetus for the activity, • the subject denoting the individual/s involved within the activity, • mediational artefacts referring to the purposeful use of cultural signs or tools to approach the object, • rules representing the cultural controls that afford or constrain participants’ actions towards the object, • the community reflecting others approaching the same objectmotive, • and the division of labour emphasising the different roles and functions participants take in approaching the object-motive. Of all these activity constructs, the object-motive is the most important, as it defines the internal dialectical relationship between the other constructs mentioned above and separates an activity from the myriad of others that surround it (Virkkunen & Newnham, 2013). To explain, consider the difference between a language classroom and a mathematics classroom. Both are derived from similar social motives for education. Still, their specific objects are different wherein the language teacher and students’ actions will work towards ‘developing language knowledge’, while the mathematical classroom’s object will work towards ‘mathematical concept development’. These different objects will, in turn, instantiate a unique constellation of different rules and division of labour of classroom activities, including how mediational artefacts are purposefully utilised. These differences highlight that every activity system is unique in its structure, in

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line with its objects and the broader communities and context that inform them (Virkkunen & Newnham, 2013). Central to understanding the construct of object and CHAT’s concept of Expansive Learning (EL) is how these internal relationships facilitate transformation. In the uniquely human evolution of tool development to realise our social objects, Marx (1979) emphasises how human activities became commodified through division of labour, leading to any aspect of activity conflicting between their worth/use-value and value in exchange. This internal conflict has spurred historical development and forthcoming transformation; as our object-motives change, so does our search and development of mediational means to approach them (Engeström, 1987). To illustrate, Vygotsky (1978) demonstrated how activity transformation is inherently human in his double stimulation research, where he would place individuals in a problem-solving situation beyond their current capabilities (‘first stimuli’) wherein the ‘usefulness’ and ‘value’ of their present mediational means to solve a problem are questioned. At the same time, the experimenters would present a host of ‘second stimuli’ to participants. Vygotsky (1978) found when participants realised they were unable to overcome the problem with their present mediational means; they transformed the experimenters’ ‘second stimuli’ to mediate new ways to solve the problem. In so doing, individuals changed their experienced conflictual present activity through collective means to generate a future form of their activity (Engeström, 2011). Thus, the individual has agentively expanded the internal conflicts within their current activity to promote the development of new ways of working, which EL seeks to capture (Virkkunen & Newnham, 2013). CL research-interventions represent a formalised methodology to facilitate EL potentials with participants. In these formative-research interventions, participants engage in a series of double stimulation workshops that aim to identify and externalise internal workplace conflicts (Engeström, 1987). As these contradictions increasingly manifest themselves, participants agentively search for and develop new mediational means to overcome them. To introduce these potentials for digital pedagogical development in Southern Africa, I outline my CL research-intervention. This formative research-intervention in a higher education centre in Cape Town sought to empower South African English as a Foreign

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Language (EFL) educators who were unsure of to what extent the integration of digital technologies could meaningfully benefit their instruction. Given this organisational dilemma, the educators and departmental managers were interested in exploring whether their current integration of technologies into their teaching practices could respond to the unique contextual demands of their site, their students’ needs and language learning strategies. Their articulated desire to explore digital potentials is central to CL and EL, as their collective motive for transformation came from the participants themselves, not the researcher (Virkkunen & Newnham, 2013). To fully understand and identify their desire for transformation, CL methodology advocates the need for the researcher-interventionist to conduct a preliminary ethnographic study (Engeström et al., 2014). The reasons for this are two-fold. Firstly, participants’ motive for change has arisen due to particular disturbances in their educational activity. If the CL is to address these, the researcher-interventionist must identify what these specific disturbances are and how the participants are presently addressing them. In identifying these disturbances, the researcher-interventionist collects ‘mirror data’ or ‘first stimuli’, which represent concretised instantiations of the disruption, i.e., possible manifestations of the internal contradictions participants face, which they will later collaboratively analyse and question (Virkkunen & Newnham, 2013). To fully account for the complexity of the department’s language educational activity, I conducted interviews with all the centre’s managers, language teachers, and students. As the subjects and community of activity, it is essential to capture how these participants differ in their views and approach to the object, as each may have different, conflicting motives for their participation (Virkkunen & Newnham, 2013). Similarly, I observed and recorded language lessons to see how educators and students actualised their approach towards the object, outlining any critical events which may have indicated possible ruptures or disturbance. Throughout this preliminary study, I collected various documents (from lesson planning to staff handbooks) to account for formalised rules and division of labour within the organisation’s activity. Findings from my preliminary study illustrated potential disruptions in both the rules and division of labour of teachers’ and students’ language learning activity when digital technologies were introduced. Notably, it appeared that the introduction of digital technologies led to either restrictive or expansive language learning opportunities. To explain, in

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one lesson, the use of digital pedagogy mirrored that of a traditional class, wherein the coursebook coverage (rule) and the teacher’s role in directing communicative interaction (division of labour) were prioritised. However, in another, the teacher’s introduction of mobile devices (mediator) expanded learning opportunities, wherein the teacher found the expected coursebook coverage (rule) to be ‘arbitrary’ towards students’ language learning needs (object ) and instead used his mobile phone to design a learning activity that promoted increased student participation (division of labour). These regressive and expansive potentials5 of teacher and student actions using digital pedagogies are central features of contradictions (Engeström, 1987). Due to the interdependent nature of activity systems, any introduction of a new mediator will impact other system constructs. In this case, potential sites were the rules and division of labour. Possible insights into where these potential contradictions emanated could be seen in the differences between managements’ and educators’ activity at the centre. Namely, in interviews and collected documents, management expressed difficulty in satisfying its income-generation impetus and its educational motive of developing students’ ability to communicate in English. To meet both, management required a ‘standardised’ adoption of international coursebooks as a set syllabus (rules ) and primary learning material (mediator), including a ‘communicative’ pedagogy (rule). Educators’ introduction of devices potentially contradicted these established features of the centre’s language learning activity to make this ‘work’. CLs provide a methodology to empower participants to confront and transform their activity. Based on EL, this transformation proceeds through six iterative CL stages of how internal contradictions increasingly manifest externally (Engeström, 1987). While the researcherinterventionist is initially responsible for setting up the initial ‘mirror data’ for these double stimulation sessions, participants’ increasing recognition of their internal contradictions and desire to overcome them

5 My emphasis here on potential contradictions are important to highlight. This is not my activity, so any stressed potential is my initial insight into reported disruption sites which may prove fruitful for initial ‘mirror data’ presentation to participants in attempts to facilitate their articulation of the actual contradictions in their activity (Virkkunen & Newnham, 2013).

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leads to them taking agentive actions towards transformation. Specifically, this CL research-intervention focused on three EFL educators who taught ‘Advanced’ students at the centre. In line with CL protocols, three management team members were invited, at critical intervention points, to discuss and assess the viability of teacher-participants’ intended transformations (Virkkunen & Newnham, 2013). The first CL stage (Charting the Situation) focused on raising all participants’ questioning of current organisation practices to surface internal contradictions being faced. This first session used ‘mirror data’ drawn from the lesson wherein a teacher moved towards a digital device, following how ‘arbitrary’ the set coursebook was. Initial discussions criticised the teacher for not following ‘standard’ practices, stating the teacher was ‘side-tracked’. Herein, we see participants interpreting the teacher’s divergence strictly to the centre’s formalised activity in the primacy of the coursebook dictating lesson content (Engeström, 2011). However, participants struggled to understand the teacher’s branding of the coursebook as ‘useless’. Following this difficulty and double stimulation protocol, I introduced a possible ‘second stimulus’ in the form of CHAT’s understanding of contradictions to help mediate their difficulty in resolving this aspect. In drawing on this concept, participants expressed more profound empathy for the teacher’s move, questioning whether the teacher’s adoption of the phone in their lesson was a possible ‘strategy’ or ‘self-evaluation’ to get closer to students’ own goals. Over several Charting the Situation sessions, these questions deepened and concretised as participants worked through other mirror data of their practice. Notably, their questioning centred on the external and internal motivators for set coursebook use, digital devices, power, and the role of the teacher in the classroom: P1: But we’re supposed to be moving away from that whole thing that the teacher is in power, that’s … P2: Are we? P3: We need to, we need to find another way of appearing we are earning our keep.

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In this short excerpt, we see participants questioning their current practices and teacher-value in a digital age, instigating an imperative to ‘find another way’. As stated earlier, once internal contradictions are raised and become increasingly externalised, participants will desire to find new ways to overcome them. Throughout several sessions, participants’ initial manifestations of the contradiction focused on the use-value of coursebooks in their ability to mediate students’ language learning needs (value-in-exchange) and their role in the classroom. To further aid participants’ agentive actions, CL’s next stage requires participants to map their current activity (actual-empirical analysis) and historically trace how their present activity came to be (historical-genetic analysis) (Virkkunen & Newnham, 2013). These analytical sessions aim to externalise how internal contradictions within one activity (like the mediator) impact internal constructs, such as rules, to help them clearly articulate the common, historical contradiction that has led to the present disruptive activity (Engeström, 1987). Through these sessions, teacher-participants identified that common to their previously identified issues with coursebook coverage (mediator) and teacher-centricity in the classroom (division of labour) was that these issues emanated from a rigid teaching activity and ‘communicative’ approach (rules ) that did not meet the changing language needs of their diverse student body (object ). Central to their analysis was the ‘wider forces’ implicated in these changes. Namely, how increasing global digitising efforts were ‘changing’ students’ desires for language education and how inadequately international coursebooks respond to students’ language needs and their engagement within their South African learning context. However, by teacher-participants’ questioning these broader transformational forces and their related impact on how their standardised practice contradicted their ability to meet student diversity, teacherparticipants began to idealise alternative ways of teaching and learning. These attempts captured their movement to CLs, creating a new model stage wherein participants imagine alternative structuring of their activity to mediate their current disruptive activity (Engeström, 2011). Central to participants’ discussion was greater ‘democratisation’ of the language pedagogy in the classroom, students’ exploration of Cape Town, and an expansion of mediational means to include digital technologies to realise their new teaching object. To illustrate:

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TP1: You give students the power to use the [digital] tool they are really comfortable with TP2: But also […] they have a wider range of things they can bring in […] TP1: And then they can shape the outcome in a way that. So that they have more power in the construction of whatever is produced. These ideas were eventually consolidated and tested in a new digital language pedagogy that re-centred these teachers’ instruction from ‘communication’ to ‘the co-creation of language between teachers and students’ (Lilley, 2022b). Critically, this envisioned model was designed by the teacher-participants themselves to work for them, and their students in ways that match their specific learning and context demands: ‘I don’t see how I am going to use mobile technology without the coursebook … mobile technology is going to be an assistant (TP2)’. Moreover, the ‘co-creation’ emphasis brings foreign students’ experiences of speaking English in South Africa into the classroom through digital technologies—allowing students greater agency in directing lesson foci to their actual experiences and needs. In this way, the teachers and students ‘co-create’ authentic language opportunities within the EFL classroom. Such models are emblematic in demonstrating the development of pedagogies with digital technologies rather than for digital technologies (Amory, 2007). Teacher-participants’ reflecting on the model and their use of it noted heightened learner participation in lessons, improved planning, and greater inclusion of more authentic resources for the class. Moreover, by this digital pedagogy’s development accounting for both global and local impetuses for educational change in its construction, teachers were able to agentively remould these forces to create a digital pedagogy that worked for them and their students. These powerful transformative changes did not go unnoticed by the rest of the centre. This digital pedagogical model was met well and incorporated into future academic programs and professional development opportunities (Lilley, 2020). The brief discussion of this CL formative-research intervention has only touched on its (un)intended transformational capacities (see Lilley, 2022a, 2022b). Critically, it demonstrates how teacher-participants as change agents transformed their pedagogy to meet the demands of their educational activity in response to both global and local demands.

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2.4 Conclusion: Activating Human-Centred Transformation---Educators as Change Agents At the start of this chapter, I asked how you understand change. As I have argued, this emphasis on you is intentional; seeing individuals as change agents of their activity is imperative when we seek to transform uniquely human activities, like teaching/learning. This chapter has discussed how a problematic agency attributing digital devices and/or positivist research methodologies to transform pedagogy may ultimately lead to ‘reproducing’ educational status quos rather than changing them in line with Southern African educational global and local needs. To move beyond this, I have argued that theoretical approaches like CHAT and research methodologies like CL may provide a means for us to draw on both impetuses for change that can find tailored digital pedagogies that transform the lives of educators and students in ways that work for them and their context. My formative research intervention with language teachers illustrates these capacities for pedagogical innovation. By centring the study on these educators’ abilities to bring about meaningful change to their teaching and learning, they were able to develop a novel language pedagogy that responded to their underlying contradictory local and global impetuses for change. Findings such as these demonstrate how novel, locally transformative digital pedagogies can be cultivated in education when educators are empowered to actively pursue innovation within their unique contexts.

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CHAPTER 3

That’s So Hot Right Now: Generation Z’s Technological Use During the COVID-19 Lockdown Marchant van der Schyff

3.1 Introduction to Communication Technology Use in the Time of COVID-19 The 2019 novel coronavirus, referred to as COVID-19, which originated in Wuhan, China (World Health Organization, 2020) has led to a global pandemic and necessitated South Africans to enter a lockdown since 27 March 2020 (Breakfast, 2020). At the time of writing this article, 4,208,841 people have died from the coronavirus and there are 196,988,941 confirmed cases in 220 territories (National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China, 2021). The COVID-19 outbreak has already exceeded the Cholera epidemic, which killed more

M. van der Schyff (B) School of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIE’s Varsity College, Cape Town, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Olivier et al. (eds.), Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa, Digital Education and Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97656-9_3

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than 1,000,000 people between 1817 and 1923, Asian Flu (1,000,000 deaths between 1957 and 1958), Swine Flu (200,000 death between 2009 and 2010), and Ebola (11,000 deaths between 2014 and 2016) combined and is close to the loss of life during the Antonine Plague from 165 to 180 (LePan, 2020). Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, Director-General of the World Health Organization, was quick to declare COVID-19 as a pandemic (World Health Organization, 2020) because of its rapid spread across a large geographic area in a short amount of time (Torrey et al., 2020). Scientists provided governments with a policy document proposing the chances of contracting the COVID-19 coronavirus can be reduced by washing your hands regularly, wearing a protective facemask, and staying at home to avoid close contact with infected people. All citizens had to refrain from physical gatherings, which increased the usage of communication technologies, such as smartphones and social media applications such as Facebook and Twitter (LePan, 2020). In South Africa, as in the rest of the world, the socio-economic implications of staying at home and not engaging with people in work, educational, or social context are severe, as a local survey of 19,330 participants showed that the lockdown made it difficult for 62.7% of participants to pay their bills, while 60.3% claimed that it had affected their income (Breakfast, 2020). A caveat in knowledge on the topic, which necessitated this study, is the communication behaviour of young adults during the initial stages of lockdown to provide insight to how they then adopt Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) as a response to the lockdown. An important group to consider in their technology using habits, as they are entering tertiary learning environments and the working world, is Generation Z (born between 1995 and 2015) (Brannan, 2019) as it is unclear what the influence of the pandemic has been (Francis & Hoefel, 2020). During the lockdown, information and communication technology has been redefined in its importance to socio-economic functioning. As global connectivity improves, generational shifts play a massive role in setting socio-economic behaviours. The lockdown has provided an opportunity for researchers to scrutinise the use of technology by the generation who are complete digital natives in how they use technology when other modes of communication (cf. Chapter 1) are not an option. Gen Z makes decisions in an analytical and pragmatic way; therefore, markets should be sensitive to the ICT usage of this generation in how

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they consume as access rather than possession, consume as an expression of individual identity, and consume as a matter of ethical concern (Francis & Hoefel, 2020). As Roberts (2010, in Chaffey & Smith, 2017) state: “We’ve moved from ‘The Attention Economy (push)’ to ‘The Attraction Economy (pull)’ to ‘The Participation Economy (share)’”. It would be of interest to hypothesise whether the South African youth is making a “share” shift in the way they have been forced to utilise ICTs.

3.2

What Was the Research Issue?

In his address given at the Cape Peninsula University in 2021, Minister of Higher Education, Blade Nzimande, expressed his concern over the anxiety and stress the COVID-19 lockdown had caused young people, especially those with limited access to the Internet and thereby their ability to utilise technology for studies, work, and mental wellbeing (Bhengu, 2021). The problem is that there is little information on the technology usage of South Africa’s Gen Z during the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdown (Francis & Hoefel, 2020). When there is little information to properly investigate the scope of an issue, society is left vulnerable to misinformation, rumour, and generalisation and the reactions thereto are speculative. Another reason that this lack of information is an issue stems from the importance to organisations and social establishments (such as political-, religious-, health-, and sporting groups) to effectively communicate with Gen Z workers and students. This lack of knowledge problematises the proper functioning and response of these sectors and the support they require to achieve core stability. The problem should be resolved so that parties with vested interests in communicating with South African Gen Z’ers have more insights to how these citizens utilise technology, to improve on their engagement with this group (Brannan, 2019). With technology being so ubiquitous in the Twenty-First Century, connecting us to everyone and everything to us, Gen Z is the current and future students, entrepreneurs, workers, and politicians, and the ones that will conceptualise and build the future we will live in. This generation needs support, and, frankly, we just don’t know enough about them, their communication style, and how they use technology. This gap in understanding needs to be addressed as we are experiencing an influence in institutions of higher learning- and working cultures of “safetyism” and

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anxiety which is being affirmed by paranoid parents, university administration, and workplace managers. There is a caveat in how to respond to the rapidness and fluidity of new ICTs and their use is shaping our communication behaviours.

3.3

Aiming to Address the Issue

Al Gore, American Politician and Environmentalist, popularised a Mark Twain quote in the Oscar-winning documentary, An Inconvenient Truth (2006), by stating that “what gets us into trouble is not what we don’t know. It’s what we know for sure that just isn’t so”. This is a musing about how people often assume the truth and validity of information in constructing ideas around a phenomenon. The aim of investigating how South African Gen Z’ers used information and communication technology during the initial stage of the COVID-19 lockdown, provides a better, more realistic overview, at a specific point in time and by surveying a particular group of Gen Z’ers, of how the information and communication technology using the behaviour of the youth. Additional research on social media use could also provide a more in-depth understanding of how the youth responded to the sudden implementation of lockdown because of the pandemic. To validate the investigation, a large enough sample is needed to participate in these surveys to generalise the findings to properly address the issue. There is socio-economic relevance to investigating the electronic communication habits of Gen Z’ers—who are true digital natives (Francis & Hoefel, 2020)—during a lockdown context will also provide more insights for stakeholders about this emergent group. The following sections will describe the online research study conducted during the 2020 lockdown period in South Africa to better describe the access of Gen Z during the lockdown, as well as which technology they use to access the Internet, how much time was spent online and included to what extent they believed their COVID-19 lockdown had influenced the way they communicated.

3.4

Objectives---The Use of ICT by GENERATION Z

How people use technology to communicate with their friends and family or how they share and attain information with their employers and colleagues is quite a broad theme. There are so many variables to consider, such as the difference in how older generations, who are not

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digital natives and were not born into the world of the Internet and social media, utilise technologies, to those who have grown up with these avenues of discourse. There are questions of access to the Internet as a country struggling to bridge the digital divide between those who have easy access to computers, the Internet, and smart devices, such as Tablets and smart cellular phones, and those living in economically depressed communities, where there isn’t only limited access, but also challenges, such as crime, gangsterism, corruption, and low levels of literacy, which problematises easy access (BusinessTech, 2018). It is therefore important to propose specific objectives to narrow the focus of the investigation. The investigation wanted to describe how South African Gen Z’ers used information and communication technology during the initial stage of the COVID-19 lockdown. This objective helped define the parameters of the investigation as it clearly stated the generation in question (that is, Gen Z’ers), who lives in a particular geographic area (that is, South Africa), and their interaction with a specific technology (which are those used for gathering and sharing information, and also engage with communication activities). The objective also identified the context (that is, the initial lockdown period that was instated as a result of the COVID19 pandemic to minimise the spread and impact thereof) which was a catalyst for this generation’s information and communication technology behaviour. A secondary point of interest, then, is to find out to what extent South African Gen Z’ers indicated the lockdown would influence their communication behaviour in the future. This objective extended the conversation to the respondents’ ruminations regarding the long term, or even irreversible influence the lockdown may have had on how they communicate. Society is constructed from the communication efforts and patterns, mores, and developments of its citizens. From the beginning of recorded history, people have found ways to communicate with one another from drawings, hand signs to smoke signals and drumming (Kalamtime, 2021). Though not completely replaced, these forms of communication became obsolete as the only ways to share meaning and create understanding when people developed patterned sounds, or language. Over time people have evolved to much greater intricacies of speech and language. Technology that allows for the ease and efficiency of communication, is one of the evolutions that have reshaped the way people interact with one another (Mehta, 2020). COVID-19 and the lockdown which followed

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necessitated people to change their communication behaviour and the way and frequency in which technology was used. The objective, then, is to describe how important information from ICTs are for Gen Z to respond to COVID-19 challenges, what communication benefits from ICTs the respondents enjoyed most during the lockdown, and to describe their engagement with brands under these conditions.

3.5

Existing Literature on the Issue

Engaging in a thematic overview of current research supported the research of this chapter with information to construct survey questions to better address the research issue and to more clearly define the gaps which exist in understanding the ICT usage of South African Gen Z’ers during the COVID-19 lockdown. The themes this literature investigated include the effects of COVID-19 on South African youth and studies involving the Uses and Gratification Expectation (UGE) to explain how ICTs were utilised during the initial stages of lockdown. There is a rich flow of research being conducted and published on intersectionality of the COVID-19 pandemic, its subsequent lockdown throughout different levels of intensity, and the use of communication and information technologies by affected institutions and people. The following studies contributed to the research in creating a foundation of knowledge from where context was derived. In a study on social media addiction, it was found that the COVID-19 pandemic and the lockdown, in a time where there is an increase in smartphone ownership from a young age, has influenced South African Gen Z (Munsif et al., 2020). Although the study from Munsif et al. (2020) on the correlation between the lockdown’s impact on increased use of social media which leads to addiction and its effects on academic performance deviated from the objectives of this study, their findings confirmed that the communication behaviour of Gen Z during the initial stages of the COVID-19 lockdown has changed. The gap in understanding what those behaviours were, and whether Gen Z’ers believed that these new modes of communication would persist beyond COVID-19 and the lockdown, remains unclear. Would South African Gen Z’ers even be aware of how COVID-19 and the lockdown has influenced or altered their behaviour? Answering this question was key in approaching the topic of how a phenomenon in the macro- and meso environment affected a specific group of individuals

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and whether they were able to provide comments on those conditions. A study conducted by Lerato Hlengiwe Sokhulu (2020) on students’ experiences of using digital technologies to address their personal research needs during the COVID-19 lockdown, provided some insights to the capabilities of Gen Z’ers to reflect on the impact of the pandemic. The research findings revealed that the participants were, indeed, aware of their personal needs, and were therefore able to identify how digital technologies could be applied in differing ways to achieve their goals and meet new challenges during COVID-19. Throughout the process of understanding their new needs, the study found that the participants became problem-centred and were able to tolerate and withstand uncertainty. The participants also emphasised continuity and convenience but experienced the rapid introduction of technology into their study- and work lives as a barrier to usage. These findings highlight the capacity for affected groups to provide insights of a quantitative nature into the influences, the COVID-19 pandemic had on their digital technology practices. However, from the study, the question still remained: “Can the assumption be made that COVID-19 and its subsequent lockdown had an effect on Gen Z’s ICT usage?”. Walter Matli (2020) published an article in the Journal of Sociology and Social Policy where he indicated that despite the positive aspects of advanced technology used in working from home, people have experienced other incumbent pressures, such as work overload and anxiety to perform timeously, which threatened students’ and employees’ lifestyles, and that the lack of interaction and the overuse of ICTs negatively affected their general wellbeing and health. This study showed that COVID-19 and the lockdown which followed, especially in its initial stages, had a definitive effect on all South Africans. The Internet as a tool in communication has changed the way people interact. This was even more evident in the recent development and use of friend-networking sites. However, no research has evaluated these sites and their impact on South African Gen Z students or workers (Raacke & Bonds-Raacke, 2008). In the Russian study conducted by Yaman and Çaking (2021, p. 513) respondents answered questions surrounding their use of technology and the Internet during the COVID-19 lockdown to determine whether there are any differences between the level of participation of the individuals in the expressions of generation. According to the results, it was determined that there were statistically significant differences between

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the participation levels of the individual generations (X, Y, & Z). Gen Z exhibited a different attitude from traditional methods in shopping, conducted research on the Internet for the product or service they wanted to purchase, and benefitted from the experiences and discourses of those they trusted. The highest average level of participation by Gen Z individuals was that the Internet helped individuals to live in their own imagination, free from the troubles of social life. In addressing the issue of how Gen Z, as digital native consumers, used ICTs, it necessitated establishing a foundation of knowledge regarding the generation’s brand purchase approach. The key findings from the literature included for this study were that Gen Z was impacted by the COVID-19 lockdown, especially in how they satisfy their research needs as well as their engagement with consumer brands, however, the extent of this impact and the particulars around describing it, as well as what revelations this group is aware of, remains underexplored.

3.6 An Expectancy Model to Provide a Theoretical Frame As an adaptation to the positivist nature of the research, and an introduction to the theoretical model, which was used to investigate the research issue, the Philosopher Willard van Orman Quine offered the argument that knowledge is constructed from interconnected beliefs where logic is central while observational statements are peripheral—between these emerge the models society use to describe their lived experiences. According to Quine (in Szudek, 2019), cogency depends on these two approaches to investigate impact through opinion. In the 1940s Uses and Gratification Theory (UGT) was introduced by Harold Lasswell, who described the media’s functions of surveillance, correlation, entertainment, and cultural transmission. It was only in 1969 that Jay Blumler and Denis McQuail described how audiences actively use media to satisfy their personal needs. The linearity of the UGT caused it to grow stale until the surge of the Internet and social media renewed academic interest in how people, particularly Gen Z for this study, use these platforms (Littlejohn et al., 2017). Information is transmitted through information and communication technologies and plays a role in the construction of meaning, the creation of new knowledge, as well as the interpretation and transmission of

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messages. Here, the UGT presupposed prior adoption of innovations in technology and is concerned with the individual user’s motivations for continued use thereof. The UGT approach also assumed that e-Learning resources, such as the Internet and social media, may compete with more traditional forms of discourse and information sharing by audiences to satisfy their needs. It presented a paradigm that suggested an active participant who makes deliberate choices therefore UGT focussed on active participation by neglecting to assess the reasons for users of new ICTs on why they utilise these platforms or combine more traditional resources in their reasoning (Severin & Tankard, 1997, in Mondi et al., 2008). Although the UGT’s theoretical lens was valid, these were some of the limitations in contextualising findings of the ICT using behaviours by Gen Z of new ICTs under the initial stages of the COVID-19 lockdown. Responding to these limitations of UGT, Expectancy-value model was introduced to the research to contribute more detail to the basic assumptions of the theory (Littlejohn, 1996, in Mondi et al., 2008). Expectancy-value theory describes the individual’s expectations (or needs) to their individual goal satisfaction (Vroom, 1995, in Mondi et al., 2008). According to the Expectancy-value model, audiences’ communication behaviour shows that they have certain values and beliefs which motivates their use and application of ICTs (Mondi et al., 2008). Thus, from this perspective, the integration of the UGT and Expectancy-value model (UGE) served to accommodate the suggestion that ICTs offered gratifications that are expected and valued by Gen Z users. According to David Hamilton (1998), the dimensions of the UGE concept may be defined as (1) Cognitive UGE, which refers to ICT users’ tendency to seek acquisition of knowledge, understanding, critical thinking skills, and information; (2) Affective UGE, which refers to users’ search for feelings of pleasure, emotional fulfilment, and aesthetics; (3) Personal Integrative UGE, which refers to users seeking credibility as capable self-regulation; (4) Social Integrative UGE, which refers to users seeking interaction and collaboration among a community of shared interests; and (5) Entertainment UGE, which refers to users’ tendency to look for ICTs that are fun and exciting, or relaxing and calming (Mondi et al., 2008). The UGE model argued that these aspects of the audience’s communication behaviour are imbedded and would provide a framework for understanding why and how Gen Z utilise new ICTs and could therefore be used for researching effects during the initial stages of COVID-19 lockdown.

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Another theory might have been considered, called “Adaptive Structuration Theory” by Marshall Scott Poole and Gerardine DeSantis (1990), because the theory asserts that groups use information and communication technologies and adapt to them based on features of the technology and describes the way members of the group use these technologies. However, this study investigates individuals classified as Generation Z, and not the generation as a collective group; therefore, the UGE model was selected to improve the validity and reliability of the research.

3.7 Operationalising Key Elements of the Research Although the key concepts of “Generation Z” or Gen Z, COVID-19 and the subsequent lockdown, “information and communication technologies” or ICTs, as well as “Uses and Gratification Expectancy” model or UGE were defined throughout the Background and theoretical framework sections of this chapter, it remains important to understand how they will inform the research issue. Generation Z Brannan (2019) stated that Gen Z refers to those born between 1995 and 2015, are digital natives, and are the newest generation to enter workplaces and institutions of higher learning. However, our understanding of this generation is incomplete and developing, because much of the existing research has focussed on the older generational groupings, such as Millennials and Generation X (Topic & Mitchell, 2019). Generational research helps to better understand how environmental changes influence different segments of society, because the analysis of their behaviours may suggest the likely demands and expectations of future consumers. Aside from the embeddedness in digital technology, understanding Gen Z’s media choice and the way they use it could be useful to describe the interplay between technology, new consumers, and the environment.

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Information and Communication Technologies Information and communications technologies, or ICT, refer to the contents and infrastructure enabling modern mediated interactions through computing. This means that ICTs encompass both mobile and Internet-enabled spheres by wireless networks, which include landline telephones, television, and radio, as well as more recent developments such as artificial intelligence and robotics (Pratt, 2019). Some examples of ICTs are digital whiteboards, interactive tables, digital books, educational applications, and digital teaching platforms such as Blackboard Collaborate and Scribbr. The research used ICTs as a dependent variable to investigate how environmental changes affected the communication behaviour of Gen Z. COVID-19 Lockdown In South Africa, an Alert Level 5 lockdown was instituted at midnight on 26 March 2020 and lasted until 30 April 2020 (Breakfast, 2020). Thereafter, an Alert Level 4 was instituted by the South African Government from 1 May 2020 to 30 May 2020. This period was described as the initial levels of lockdown which followed the COVID-19 outbreak (Department of Health, 2021). Under Alert Levels 5 and its adjusted Level 4, safety protocols had to be observed, including sanitising of hands and items bought at grocery stores, social distancing of at least 1.5 m between persons, and the use of protective equipment such as cloth face masks. These levels also prohibited social gatherings and movement, where only emergency workers could travel to perform and deliver services (Department of Health, 2021). This phenomenon created the physical- and psychological restrictions of communications for the South African Gen Z generation that necessitated an investigation on how their ICT usage was affected.

3.8

Research Methodology

The aim of this study was to investigate how South African Gen Z’ers used ICTs during the initial stages of the COVID-19 lockdown through an online survey completed by 238 respondents who indicated that they were born between 1995 and 2015. Respondents answered mostly closed-ended questions pertaining to their levels of accessibility to the

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internet as well as electronic communication devices, what they used these devices for, which social media applications they favoured, and to what extent they thought the lockdown would alter how they communicated? Francis and Hoefel (2020) echo the socio-economic relevance of investigating the electronic communication habits of Gen Z’ers—who are true digital natives—during a lockdown context as it provided more insights to stakeholders about this emergent group through a more positivistic epistemological perspective to provide descriptive statistics regarding this phenomenon. The research was more quantitative in nature and adopted a crosssectional time dimension to extrapolate insights from respondents who were experiencing the initial stages of COVID-19 lockdown. Although limited in understanding the true thoughts and feelings behind the motivations of the respondents to their ICT communication behaviour and how the pandemic may have affected or changed it, it did provide a statistical baseline approach to make deductive conclusions during a basic research scenario. The target population of the research were South African Gen Z’ers with access to the Internet and electronic communication devices which had to adhere to lockdown regulations. In South Africa there are approximately 19.59 million citizens that can be classified as Gen Z (Department of Statistics South Africa, 2020). Reaching an unspecified number of the target population when parameters such as access to the Internet and smart devices were introduced would have been a Brobdingnagian endeavour therefore one of the limitations of this research was that the findings lack generalisability to South African Gen Z’ers and can merely provide insights and not conclusive findings. We are still able to engage with a well-considered conclusion as the research used a probability sampling approach was used through a Google Docs survey which was designed and made available to students from a local institution of higher learning as well as an invitation to participate made to business networks. Everyone who met all the characteristics within the population parameters was asked to complete the online survey. As the researcher was based in Durban, KwaZulu-Natal at the time of data collection and had access to students and employees of certain businesses in the area, the snowball sampling methods are used. First, a link to the online survey was sent to members of the various social networks attached to the researcher with a request to forward the link to others within the population parameter. By the due date, the online survey had accumulated 238 respondents who

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participated. The survey was closed for any further participation as the researcher wanted to isolate the respondents’ experience with the initial Alert Levels 5 and 4 of the COVID-19 lockdown.

3.9 Collecting the Data Through an Online Survey Data was collected through an online survey. GoogleDocs was used to create a form with multiple quantitative questions. While many of these questions are closed-ended, two supporting and clarifying questions were open-ended, where respondents could provide more insights to their previous answers. There was an introduction to the survey identifying the researcher, the purpose and the scope of the research, and assuring respondents that they would remain anonymous and that they were able to discontinue at any stage if they felt uncomfortable. There were no incentives offered to the participants nor other form of remuneration in completing the survey to ensure a voluntary and frank response. The survey was also designed to be active for a short period of time to provide an overall idea of the theme at a particular point in time (Maree, 2017). Questions such as: “To what extent do you believe technology replaces face-to-face communication during the lockdown?”, “Has the lockdown changed the way you normally communicate through technology?”, and “Which one of the following options do you use social media for most, during the lockdown period?” (with options derived from the UGE model) provided the researcher with valuable insights to address the research issue.

3.10

A Descriptive Statistical Analysis of the Data

Performing a descriptive statistical analysis refers to summarising numeric data which quantitatively defines the features of respondents. GoogleDocs generated an automatic statistical breakdown of the respondents’ answers collectively. The reliability of statistics is contextualised by the functionality of GoogleDocs in how to scrutinise these statistics. The theoretical framework to contextualise the data received from the students, the researcher will rely on the assumptions from Mondi et al. (2008) Uses and Gratification Expectancy (UGE) theory. Here, the researcher

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Table 3.1 Gen Z access to the Internet and ICTs during COVID-19 lockdown Usage variables Unlimited access to Internet Percentage of waking day spent online

Yes No 1–25% 26–50% 51–75% 76–100%

n

%

154 84 26 72 95 45

64.70 35.30 10.90 30.30 39.90 18.90

specifically utilised the UGE model to investigate what gratification was sought from the respondent during the initial stages of the COVID-19 lockdown, which media these respondents used to satiate or gratify their needs, and whether gratification was obtained? (Table 3.1). The results showed that while 64.7% of respondents have unlimited access to the internet, only 23.5% of them indicated that they used the time under lockdown to improve their economic prospects. According to Haidt (2019) Gen Z tends to spend more time online, and this may result in more anxiety and depression and disengagement with going out and finding work or creating business opportunities, although causality between these variables is yet to be established. The Gen Z respondents indicated that the most irritating part of online engagement during the initial lockdown period of COVID-19 was “fake news” (38.2%) which contributed to confusion about the details surrounding how the virus was spreading, statistics around infections and deaths, and ruminations about the future and the effects of the pandemic. Another frustration, according to the respondents, was online content that created anxiety (26.9%), which coincides with findings that feelings of stress and depression affect this generation more than Millennials or Generation X (Haidt, 2019). The respondents did, however, indicate that the aspects of ICT use during lockdown that was the most enjoyable was the time they could spend on entertainment through multimedia platforms for watching shows and series, streaming music and online gaming (55.9%), followed by “engaging with family and friends” (10.5%), and not having the pressure of face-to-face engagements (9.7%) (Table 3.2). The two major ICTs used by the respondents to access the Internet and social media, are Smartphones (57.1%) and laptops (30.3%), which might have been much lower if the study incorporated respondents from

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Table 3.2 Gen Z opinions on COVID-19 lockdown and ICT usage Usage variables COVID-19 lockdown has changed how ICTs are used to communicate It is important that online content allow participation

ICTs are used most for

The extent to which COVID-19 irrevocably changed communication

Yes No Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree Entertainment Socialise Information/Education Distraction Self-improvement Completely Mostly Neutral Partially Not at all

n

%

97 141 27 78 126 5 2 93 52 46 31 16 69 88 40 33 8

40.80 59.20 11.30 32.80 52.90 2.10 0.80 39.10 21.80 19.30 13 6.70 29 37 16.80 13.90 3.40

less affluent institutions of higher learning and businesses in middle-class suburbs, as South Africa’s digital divide remains a reality for many of its citizens and Radio is still the biggest medium. In rural or remote areas, where there are challenges to access the Internet, information is often spread by large in-person gatherings, however, the COVID-19 pandemic further contributed to these challenges because of the way the virus spreads, and people were prevented from interacting in this mode (Cotterill, 2021). Although respondents indicated that they believe COVID-19 has mostly changed how we communicate, 49.6% of the participants further claimed that ICTs have completely replaced the need for face-to-face communication. Should this musing be true, this could have devastating implications for any relationship that requires the credibility and the ability to evaluate more accurately meaning through eye contact, facial expressions, body orientation, approximation, and a slew of other benefits derived from face-to-face interactions.

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Discussions in Understanding the Issue The study provided more insight to what online ICTs Gen Z’ers used during Levels 5 and 4 of the coronavirus pandemic in South Africa, and whether these technologies satiated their needs, and to what extent the communication behaviours of this generation, being digital natives, were influenced. This built on the research done by Brian Lucky Dlamini (2020) concerning how the News Media has adjusted their strategies to engage with Gen Z’ers, as well as Adjin-Tettey (2020) who posed the challenge to the description “digital natives” in the backdrop of the digital divide. Both these studies alluded to the communication behaviour of Gen Z’ers using digital devices in an environment where they are forced to engage online, however their reflections were qualitative and dealt with the lived experiences of respondents, while the heuristic value of this study presented descriptive statistical mores of technology use by Gen Z’ers to fulfil their communication needs during the pandemic and to gauge to what extent they believed the COVID-19 lockdown influenced their communication behaviour. There was, at the time of writing this chapter, no current information available on the digital communication usage behaviour of South African Gen Z’ers during the COVID-19 pandemic nor the subsequent lockdown. Some recommendations made by scholars such as Haidt (2019) and Sokhulu (2020) contribute to the call for future studies concerning Gen Z and their engagement with new ICTs, and how it intersects with this generation’s changing communication behaviour. Sokhulu (2020) suggested that researchers in generational studies combine their socialisation and professional experiences of using information technology to create a bespoke experience that would address their individual research needs. This would then allow them to adapt their interventions to suit a fluid climate in order to yield results that speak to the relevant issues of our time. For example, through the descriptive statistical analysis of the data which this chapter is based on, showed that Gen Z may adopt communication behaviour that could contribute to their feelings of isolation, which may account for the higher levels of anxiety and depression observed in this generation (Haidt, 2019). Studies on the issue therefore need to adopt an equally fluid approach to better understand the challenges of Gen Z, the recesses of communication behaviour and the fragility of how it may be influenced, as well as the progressive and ubiquitous nature of new ICTs within multimodal learning environments. The

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Internet continues to redefine the way teaching and learning, as well as work and especially play happens among young people. According to GenZ, COVID-19 has irrevocably changed the way society communicates and it is ‘therefore important to investigate the depth of these changes.

References Adjin-Tettey, T. D. (2020). Can ‘digital natives’ be ‘strangers’ to digital technologies? An analytical reflection. Inkanyiso: Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 12(1), 11–23. Bhengu, C. (2021). Blade Nzimande on the impact of COVID-19 on tertiary https://www.timeslive.co.za/politics/2021-06-15-in-quotes-students. blade-nzimande-on-the-impact-of-covid-19-on-tertiary-students/. [Accessed on 15 September 2021]. Brannan, K. (2019). What generation comes after millennials? Meet Gen Z . https://www.kasasa.com/articles/generations/who-are-gen-z. [Accessed on 2 May 2020]. Breakfast, S. (2020). Study reveals how the lockdown has impacted South Africans: Blade Nzimande shared findings of a study made on the impact the COVID-19 pandemic has had on South Africans. https://www.thesou thafrican.com/news/study-reveals-how-the-lockdown-has-impacted-south-afr icans/. [Accessed on 26 April 2020]. BusinessTech. (2018). Here’s how South Africa’s crime rate compares to actual warzones. https://businesstech.co.za/news/lifestyle/271997/hereshow-south-africas-crime-rate-compares-to-actual-warzones/. [Accessed on 6 April 2019]. Chaffey, D., & Smith, P. R. (2017). eMarketing eXcellence: Planning and optimizing your digital marketing. 3rd edition. Elsevier. Cotterill, J. (2021). South Africa struggles to get COVID-19 messages across. https://www.ft.com/content/0eefe8c2-dbd6-429d-8757-d973233cc3e9. [Accessed on 19 November 2021]. Department of Statistics South Africa. (2020). Stats SA launches online survey to gauge the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. www.statssa.gov.za. [Accessed on 10 May 2020]. Dlamini, B. L. (2020). An analysis of South African media companies’ strategies for Generation Z news media consumption. Unpublished MA dissertation. University of the Witwatersrand. Francis, T. & Hoefel, F. (2020). ‘True Gen’: Generation Z and its implications for companies: The influence of Gen Z—the first generation of true digital natives—is expanding. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/consumerpackaged-goods/our-insights/true-gen-generation-z-and-its-implications-forcompanies. [Accessed on 27 April 2020].

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Haidt, J. (2019). Jonathan Haidt: The three terrible ideas weakening Gen Z and damaging universities and democracies. YouTube. https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=B5IGyHNvr7E&t=2423s Hamilton, D. L. (1998). Causal attribution viewed from an informationprocessing perspective. In D. Bar-Tal & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), The social psychology of knowledge (pp. 359–385). Cambridge University Press. Kalamtime. (2021). Evolution of communication from ancient to modern times. https://www.kalamtime.com/blog/evolution-of-communication/. [Accessed on 15 November 2021]. LePan, N. (2020). Visualizing the history of pandemics. https://www.visualcapita list.com/history-of-pandemics-deadliest/. [Accessed on 26 April 2020]. Littlejohn, S. W., Foss, K. A., & Oetzel, J. G. (2017). Theories of human communication. Waveland Press, Inc. Maree, K. (Ed.). (2007). First steps in research. Van Schaik. Matli, W. (2020). The changing work landscape as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic: Insights from remote workers life situations in South Africa. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 40(10), 1237–1256. https:// doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-08-2020-0386 Mehta, V. (2020, August 30). How has communication changed over the years? #2 [Blog post]. https://medium.com/@mehtavandan97/how-has-commun ication-changed-over-the-years-2-a9d529e8f3b6 Mondi, M., Woods, P., & Rafi, A. (2008). A ‘uses and gratification expectancy model’ to ‘predict e-Learning experience.’ Educational Technology & Society, 11(2), 241–261. Munsif, A., Pa, W., Mahmud, M. S., & Zainal, M. S. (2020). Implications of social media addiction on academic performance among generation Z student-athletes during COVID-19 lockdown. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 4(18), 31–43. https://doi. org/10.26803/ijlter.20.8.12 National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China. (2021). Teams look to improve country’s COVID response. http://en.nhc.gov.cn/2022-02/ 21/c_85857.htm. [Accessed on 12 December 2021]. Pratt, M. K. (2019). ICT (information and communications technology, or technologies). https://searchcio.techtarget.com/definition/ICT-information-andcommunications-technology-or-technologies. [Accessed on 17 November 2021]. Raacke, J. & Bonds-Raacke, J. (2008). MySpace and Facebook: Applying the uses and gratifications theory to exploring friend-networking sites. Cyberpsychology & Behavior: The Impact of the Internet, Multimedia and Virtual Reality on Behavior and Society, 11(2), 169–174. https://doi.org/10.1089/ cpb.2007.0056

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Roberts, M. (2010). International migration of health professionals and the marketization and privatization of health education in India: From push-pull to global political economy. Social Science & Medicine, 124, 374–382. Sokhulu, L. H. (2020). Students’ experiences of using digital technologies to address their personal research needs during COVID-19 lockdown, African Identities, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/14725843.2020.1801384 Szudek, A. (Ed.). (2019). DK series: How philosophy works. Penguin Random House. Topic, M., & Mitchell, B. (2019). Generation Z & consumer trends in environmental Packaging. Project Report. The Retail Institute, Leeds. Torrey, J., Orr, J., & Florance, J. (2020). Rapid deployment of national guard alternative healthcare facility with isolation unit capabilities in response to COVID-19. Military Medicine, 186(1/2), 258. World Health Organization. (2020). WHO announces COVID-19 outbreak a pandemic. http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-emergencies/ coronavirus-covid-19/news/news/2020/3/who-announces-covid-19-out break-a-pandemic. [Accessed on 26 April 2020].

CHAPTER 4

Alternative Multimodal Composition Assessments in Academic Literacy Modules Louise Olivier

4.1

Introduction

The literacy environment in higher education, both globally and in South Africa, is continually evolving due to digital impacts that change how knowledge is accessed, processed, and assessed (Carstens, 2012; The New London Group, 1996) and specifically also in the context of multimodal learning environments. However, in many academic literacy courses, knowledge production and assessment are still mostly text-based and print-based (Kress, 2003, 2010; Lim et al., 2021), and students have no input or choice regarding assessment practices. Multimodal composition pedagogy can help students acquire creative, critical, digital, and collaboration skills necessary to be successful in

L. Olivier (B) Research Unit Self-Directed Learning, Faculty of Education, North-West University, Mahikeng, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Olivier et al. (eds.), Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa, Digital Education and Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97656-9_4

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the twenty-first century (Grigoryan, 2018; Gulecoglu, 2018; Ntelioglou et al., 2014; Wyatt-Smith & Kimber, 2009). With such a diverse student population in South African universities, social justice is also an aspect that can be addressed to provide students with alternative multimodal assessments so that all students can attain mastery in academic literacy, as not only one assessment mode is used (Archer, 2014; Bali & Mostafa, 2018; Sackstein, 2015). According to Baldwin (2016), expanding the way we view literacy “provides all students, including those from marginalized linguistic backgrounds and those with limited access to twenty-firstcentury technologies, access to the symbolic capital necessary to succeed in our increasingly globalized society” (pp. 5–6). This chapter is informed by multimodal social semiotics theory (Kress, 2010) because, according to this theory, systems of assessment have mainly focused on speech and writing for learning and meaning-making. According to Kress (2010), it is important that more current semiotic modes be integrated into forms of communication. Furthermore, this chapter is also guided by critical multimodal literacy theory. Critical multimodal literacy, based on critical literacy, is also important, as literacy cannot be separated from power relations (Anderson & Irvine, 1993; Freire & Shor, 1987; Shor, 1992). It also highlights the importance of integrating multiple modes for meaning-making. More importantly, it promotes student agency, culture, identity, and voice (Ajayi, 2015). Regarding the importance of the student voice, especially in the South African context, Bickford (2015) states that “[t]he traditional academic essay format, coerced into cognitivist conventions by the fear of appearing uncritical, preserves the hegemonic colonial mindset when it suppresses the clear, direct, and relatable voice of the student or scholar” (p. 2). As critical reflective practitioners (Van de Poel & Van Dyk, 2015), we should continuously evaluate whether the methods that we use to teach and especially assess academic literacy in higher education are still relevant and contribute to student success in the twenty-first century. Halbritter (2013) states that “[a] liberatory/democratic pedagogy for writing must imagine and target a variety of forms of legitimate rhetorical action that correspond to the variety of rhetorical situations that our students will encounter” (p. 13). In order to accommodate all students, this chapter is a plea to academic literacy lecturers for a paradigm shift to reconsider only using printbased assessments, such as the academic essay, to assess academic literacy. Academic writing conventions have already undergone many paradigm

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shifts (Alegbeleye & Jantchou, 2019; Hairston, 1982; Hyland, 2020; Jacobs & Farrell, 2001; Jiang, 2017; Laine & Schultz, 1985; Yeh, 2018), and it seems timely to support students in the digital age. Most importantly, we must listen to the main stakeholders: the students. Their needs are paramount when determining how their academic literacy needs are addressed and how they should be assessed.

4.2

Literature Review

Literacy and Academic Literacy Kern (2000) mentions that “[l]iteracy is an elastic concept: its meaning varies according to the disciplinary lens through which one examines it” (p. 23). Literacy also cannot be viewed as a single concept; rather, it is seen as encompassing the idea of multiple literacies (Carstens, 2012). According to Anstey and Bull (2006), a literate person is flexible and can respond to the changing nature of literacies, is able to learn new literacy practices, and has a wide range of literacy knowledge and skills to use in multiple modes in appropriate contexts. Academic literacy is also notoriously complex and difficult to define (McWilliams & Allan, 2014), even more so in the digital age. Due to the wide range of conventions and norms of disciplines, the term academic literacies in plural form is often used (McKenna, 2004). Students in higher education are usually deemed academically literate when they can access, process, and produce (Weideman, 2003) information, usually written in the form of an essay (Gulecoglu, 2018). Multimodal Composition Pedagogy For the purpose of this chapter, the definition of multimodality of Papageorgiou and Lameras (2017) was used to guide this research: Multimodality in today’s classrooms refers to ‘multiple’ modes of representation, with combined elements of print, visual images, and design. Multiple modes of representation include capabilities of combinations of oral and written language, visual, gestural, tactile, and spatial representations. This transitional shift from print-based education to multimodal education indicates the need to rethink how teaching and learning is conceived, approached, and practiced. (p. 134)

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To accommodate all types of writing, creating, and composing of academic information in various modes (cf. Chapter 1), multimodal composition is used for the remainder of this chapter. There are many hindrances to incorporating multimodal pedagogy. Although many lecturers assume that students are digitally literate (Leu et al., 2004), many are not when it comes to multimodal digital tools for pedagogical purposes. Considine et al. (2009) propose that students should be taught to “access, analyze, evaluate, and effectively communicate in a variety of forms including print and nonprint texts” (p. 472). Not only students need guidance with multimodal pedagogy and assessment. Lack of training and knowledge for assessing multimodal projects is also relevant to lecturers (Chandler, 2017; Godhe & Magnusson, 2017; Grigoryan, 2018; Gulecoglu, 2018; Summers et al., 2018; Tan et al., 2020). Many students and lecturers can also experience fear and anxiety if they must work with unfamiliar technologies (Beard, 2012; Tan et al., 2020). Furthermore, physical access to computers, networks, software, and licensing is also problematic for many students and lecturers worldwide and in South Africa (Grigoryan, 2018; Statistics South Africa, 2017). Many lecturers currently employ “digital technologies to support teacher-directed approaches with the aim of improving the quality of lecture presentations” (Papageorgiou & Lameras, 2017). However, there is a gap between multimodal teaching and learning and multimodal assessments (Tan et al., 2020). One of the main reasons why lecturers do not want to assess multimodal compositions is because they do not have adequate knowledge about the multimodal metalanguage and grammar of modes other than writing and writing rubrics (Chandler, 2017; Cloonan, 2011; Jewitt et al., 2016; Macnaught, 2018; Shin et al., 2020; Unsworth, 2014). Many lecturers also do not know how to design and assess multimodal compositions (Gulecoglu, 2018; Tan et al., 2020). Some lecturers also struggle to implement multimodal composition assessments due to “established practices in language education” (Godhe & Magnusson, 2017, p. 19). Furthermore, many composition lecturers face institutional limitations when trying to implement multimodal composition in the curriculum (Grigoryan, 2018), as assessment practices are “highly institutionalized and often draw on long disciplinary traditions” (Fjørtoft, 2020, p. 10).

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There are, however, many affordances of multimodal composition pedagogy (Chan et al., 2017; Grigoryan, 2018; Lombardi, 2018; Monea & Pybus, 2018; Nouri, 2018; Ntelioglou et al., 2014; O’Brien et al., 2019; Ross et al., 2020; Ryu & Boggs, 2016; Weninger, 2021) that can be applied in academic literacy modules. Multimodal pedagogy promotes more flexible, versatile, and personal learning for students’ varying learning styles (Bali & Mostafa, 2018; Gilakjani et al., 2011; Weeks, 2018). Multimodal pedagogy also promotes student engagement, intrinsic motivation, and even enjoyment in making their learning and assessment relevant for pedagogical and professional purposes (Bali & Mostafa, 2018; Beard, 2012; Lopez-Gil & Molina-Natera, 2018). Many proponents of multimodal assessments propose that students become part of the assessment processes due to the various pedagogical advantages for students and lecturers (Godhe & Magnusson, 2017; Tan et al., 2020). Students should not only be given assessment instructions but should also be involved in the negotiations of the assessments, such as topics, modes, and assessment criteria for the rubrics.

4.3

Research Methodology Research Methods and Design

This study is rooted in an interpretivist paradigm. Lynch (2003) states that the interpretivist paradigm “approaches the programme as something to be observed and interacted with” (p. 26). The interpretivist paradigm supports qualitative methods (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003), therefore, a mostly qualitative approach was employed in this project, as qualitative research explores attitudes and experiences and attempts to obtain an indepth opinion from participants (Dawson, 2009). Furthermore, a mixed-methods approach was utilized in this project. A QUAL + quan notation (Cresswell & Plano Clark, 2018) was used. The main focus was on the qualitative data, as “[h]aving an interest in knowing more about one’s practice, and indeed in improving one’s practice, leads to asking researchable questions, some of which are best approached through a qualitative research design” (Merriam, 2009, p. 1). Hence, the need to extend knowledge on practices and ultimately improve practices drove this research, and qualitative research lends itself to informing this process.

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Due to the nature of the data, this project entailed ethnographic research, and due to the research context, the research also drew on the principles of digital ethnography (Pink et al., 2016). In support of this decision, the following statement by Bateman et al. (2020) can be considered: “[i]ncreasingly relevant as a means of obtaining information about multimodality, and particularly about multimodal practices, are methods drawing on ethnography” (p. 144). In essence, this was a “descriptive, analytical and explanatory study of the culture (and its components), values, beliefs and practices of one or more groups” (Cohen et al., 2017, p. 623). Setting and Context This study was conducted at a South African university. At this university, all students are expected to complete a compulsory academic literacy module after they write a standardized academic literacy test. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the researcher had to use a blended teaching approach at the time of data collection. Students attended face-to-face classes before lockdown measures were imposed and did mostly paper-based activities from the prescribed textbook in class. Students also completed online activities such as multiple-choice tests and were provided with YouTube videos and other multimodal materials on the learning management system (LMS) of the university. Thus, there was some form of multimodal teaching and learning. There were, however, no formal multimodal assessments available to the students. Through a process approach to writing is used for scaffolding knowledge during the semester, the focus remains on the argumentative essay that counts the most toward the semester marks. To prepare them for this major writing assignment, the researcher decided to provide them with multimodal alternatives to the usual paragraphs to scaffold the writing process and introduce them to the essay topic. By the time they had to complete this assignment, they already had knowledge of writing introductions, paragraphs, and conclusions. They also had exposure to academic language, plagiarism, and the referencing style of the university. When the researcher introduced the assignment, she purposefully did not use “writing assignment” but rather “composition assignment” to encourage all forms of meaning-making. The participants had a choice between producing a paragraph, a diary entry, a PowerPoint presentation, an infographic, or a video. They had

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to provide a definition of the topic Fake News and an example in their field of study. This was also an attempt to link the topic with an example from their own field of study. This was done to make the assessment more relevant and authentic. For the technical aspects, the rubric was adapted to accommodate the various modes. The rest of the requirements were the same. Sampling The study participants were students who completed an academic literacy module. Delayed informed consent was obtained in order to not affect their marks in any way. Convenience sampling was used, as the researcher’s own students were sampled. This had to be done, as not all lecturers prefer and use alternative multimodal assessments. The students were Education students. For this study, gender, ethnicity, socio-economic level, and educational level were not used as selection criteria. Research participants were drawn from the full population of the academic literacy course of the researcher. Participants were recruited through an open invitation on the university’s LMS. Consequently, only a limited number of participants gave informed consent. Data Collection and Analysis Delayed consent was sought from the participants to conduct a document analysis on their assignments. The analysis was done to explore which assessment the students chose. They had a choice between a paragraph, a diary entry, a PowerPoint presentation, an infographic, or a short video. A short online survey questionnaire was developed, and students could access the questionnaire via the independent research recruiter who provided them with a link to Google Forms. The questions explored the students’ opinions of the traditional essay and multimodal assessments. A thematic analysis approach was used to analyze the qualitative data. Themes were identified and reviewed by the researcher and another rater, so as to ensure inter-rater reliability.

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Ethical Considerations An ethical clearance certificate was obtained from an ethics committee. The gatekeeper of the university also provided clearance for the research to be conducted. Only data gathered from participants who were willing to provide written informed consent were used in this study. The participants could withdraw from the study at any point without any penalty or disadvantage. Throughout the process, confidentiality was ensured, and the privacy of participants was respected. An independent researcher contacted the students and provided the researcher with the anonymized data.

4.4

Results and Findings Assignment Choice

As is seen in Table 4.1 and Fig. 4.1, only nine students opted for the traditional paragraph. The distribution indicates that students choose varying options when given the opportunity. Student Assessment Choice At the end of the semester, after having been exposed to traditional and multimodal assessments, students were asked which one they preferred and why (Table 4.2, Fig. 4.2). Preference for the Traditional Essay The themes that emerged from the responses for the preference for the traditional essay are discussed next. In terms of verbatim student responses. Table 4.1 Assignment choice Paragraph

Dear Diary

PowerPoint

Infographic

Video

Total

9

1

2

10

15

37

4

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Fig. 4.1 Assignment choice

Table 4.2 Student choice

Essay

Multimodal

Both

Total

6

14

5

25

Evidence of Learning and Knowledge Two students felt that writing an essay was the best way to assess what they had learnt during the semester: I prefer writing an essay to assess my knowledge since you have to use your own creativity together with your knowledge you obtained in this class to create the perfect essay and will therefore be a better choice to test what I have learned this semester. I have always loved to write essays on various topics since early school days, and the different writing assignments we completed during this semester were definitely the most fun out of all the other assignments. To me, these assignments taught me the most valuable new skills and helped me get used to utilizing the new tools we were introduced to. It Seems that, to These Students, an Essay Was the Best Avenue to Use the New Skills that They Had Acquired and Preferred to Be Tested Through an Essay.

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Fig. 4.2 Student assessment choice

Elaboration and Expression of Ideas Four students chose an essay, as it gave them the opportunity to have the space to express themselves freely and to elaborate on their thoughts: I personally would not mind any way we are tested on our knowledge. If I am supposed to pick one, I would say an essay. For me writing an essay is a great way to express ourselves and our opinions, as well as letting our knowledge of a subject take the spotlight. I Prefer to Write an Essay Because I Can Go into Detail and Can Elaborate the Skills that I Have Acquired. In terms of what I like to use to access my knowledge, I must admit that I am a big fan of writing an essay. It is easier to express yourself in writing than it is to do it in a video. I Prefer to Write an Essay to Assess My Knowledge Because I Am Able to Draft as Much as I like Until I Get to the Main Points.

Fear of Other Assessments Three students chose the essay, as they felt shy and did not want to speak in front of others: I prefer writing essays compared to presentations and videos, because I’m quite a shy person, standing in front of my peers is something challenging to me which I would like to overcome one day.

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I still prefer writing an essay to assess my knowledge because I am scared to speak in group of people meaning presentation are always hard for me to do even making videos. I will mistakenly speak the wrong words out of fear. I Prefer to Write an Essay Than to Do a Video or Presentation, I Find It More Challenging to Speak in Front of Many Students. In a video you have to have the guts to stand in front of a camera and say a bunch of things about the subject. If you fail to complete the video without any mistakes you have to redo it, while in an essay you can simply go back and correct yourself without having to redo everything.

These students could be carefully guided to attempt other assessments, as speaking and presenting are crucial in the field of education. Improvement of Language One student indicated that essays were beneficial for spelling and language: I Love Writing Essay a Lot Because It Helps Me to Improve My Spelling and Language.

This perception must be addressed by the lecturer, as spelling and language are also important for the other modes. Varying Points of View One student indicated that an essay was valuable to see other students’ ideas: I prefer to write an essay to assess my knowledge and to do it as a team because it gave me the chance to see other students point of view of the same topic we had and how each of us reasons in different ways. This also showed me how you can create a stronger essay supported by more than just your knowledge.

Lack of Knowledge and Skills of Other Modes In one instance, a student chose the essay due to limited knowledge regarding other modes: I Prefer to Write an Essay, as It is Easier for Me to Focus on the Content in the Essay Rather Than to Figure Out How to Do the Other Methods as I Am not as Familiar with Them.

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In the following section, the themes identified from the responses regarding the preference for multimodal assessments are discussed. Preference for Multimodal Assessments Creativity Five students chose alternative assessments, as they felt that these allowed them to be more creative and not limited to only written assignments: I Prefer Assessments Such as Presentations, Infographics, and Videos as They Are Teaching Me to Be More and More Creative. I Prefer the Use of Assessments like Videos and Presentations. It Allows the Student to Be More Creative and It Does not Limit Them to Only Writing. I Prefer Doing Infographics Because You Can Be More Creative When Designing Them and Compiling the Needed Information. I thoroughly enjoyed the creative side of the assignments too, once again allowing my thoughts to roam through fresh ideas (in the right hemisphere of my brain). I was encouraged to look at concepts with different eyes. I would not use essay to assess my knowledge because I realized that essays do not usually attract a person to your writings and I speak from experience because I noticed that I usually observe those that are colourful and has pictures too so that means they easily grab attention. So, I would use presentations because usually they are attractive, you also learn how to be creative.

This theme links with the literature on creativity being a twenty-firstcentury skill that can be enhanced using multimodal assignments instead of only written essays. Audience Awareness Students became more aware of their genre and audience: I Prefer a Video Presentation to Get the Chance to Connect with the Reader or the Viewer.

Student Agency and Choice Three students especially appreciated the opportunity to have more options to suit their needs:

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To Test My Knowledge I Would Prefer a Range of Assessments so Things don’t Get Stale and that also Gives a Better Idea of Ones Knowledge and Adaptability. I Prefer Using Other Assessments Such as Infographic and Videos Because as a Student We Live in Digital World Which Makes Our Lives Little Bit Easier. I think it’s a great idea to be able to have the options besides just an essay, because not everyone is able to put their ideas into words in a way that other people will be able to understand what their saying.

Fun The importance of enjoying the assessment was also underscored: I Prefer Using Other Assessment to Assess My Knowledge, Essay Boxes Me in to Text Message Only, While Other Methods Are Versatile and Fun to Use. I Find that Other Forms Such as Videos and Even Presentations of Some Sort Have a Different Way of Expressing the Same Message and They Are Often More Fun to Partake in. I Really Liked Making a Video. We Were Given the Chance to Challenge Our Creative Side and Making the Learning Experience so Much Fun.

Development and Use of Skills For two students, multimodal assessment afforded them the opportunity to develop and use new skills: I would prefer doing presentations, because this can unlock some of the oral skills learned at school and help me grow in self-confidence. This is important for presentation to a bigger audience, and puts the skills learned in RINL about Microsoft PowerPoint to good effect. I Think the Best Way to Properly Test Ones Knowledge is to Do Presentations. During a Presentation Verbal and Interactive Skills Are also Tested Rather Than just Writing Skills.

Learning and Learning Styles Two students indicated that the multimodal assessments assisted them in learning better: I prefer to be assessed with presentations, infographics, and tests. I feel like an essay is just linear, you write, you submit and get marks. You don’t really get to explore other ways where you can grow or are better at in terms of

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learning. Tests helps me to know what I don’t know about a certain module and if I only write an essay I will never know if I am learning or not. I Preferred the Presentation, Info Graph or Video Tasks Since They Allowed Me to Use a Format in Which I Would Remember the Work Best. Some of the Students also Realised that Their Personal Learning Styles Were Accommodated Through the Options of Multimodal Assignments. I Am a Visual Person; Therefore, I Prefer Other Assessments like Presentations, Videos, Mind Maps, Info Graphs and Many More; to Assess My Knowledge. I prefer other assessments over an essay. I am not good with writing and prefer doing things visually. I also enjoy it more, because it’s a new challenge. In school we used to follow the same boring routine every time with things like writing essays, but now we have more ways to express our understanding of the work we have learned.

Useful for Future Careers One student believed that multimodal presentations would be better to assess their knowledge to convey their ideas: I prefer to do a presentation rather than an essay to assess my knowledge because as a teacher a presentation is likely the method that I will have to use to convey my ideas. I think presentations helps us to get even more confidence and this is the practical choice.

Balance Through Options Twenty percent of the students saw the value of both traditional and multimodal assessments. One of the students was grateful to have some options: I Prefer Both Methods, Because It Analyses You in Different Ways. Both Can Help to Contribute to Your Ability to Assess Your Knowledge. Another Student also Realised that the Type of Assignment Would Influence Their Choice of Assessment: For me, it depends on the information the description is going to be about. If it is something I have a strong opinion of and would normally explain my view using demonstrations, I would rather do a video recording my opinion. Otherwise, I would be fine with writing an essay, as long as it is not too long! It is also Clear from the Above Quote that Some Students Do not like Long Essays. This Could Be Addressed When Designing the Essay and Other Assignments.

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To be honest, I don’t really enjoy writing essays which is why I would prefer presenting information via other platforms, but I must admit writing essays is a crucial skill and we as learners must be exposed to the process of writing a fair essay. Therefore I think a balance between essays and other forms is essential. I think that assessing a student’s knowledge based on an essay is perhaps the best method because it will indicate their language capability. However, I don’t think that writing an essay will fully assess a student’s knowledge because essays are dull and boring. If students are given the opportunity to do their own thing, I believe that they will take a bigger interest than writing an essay. This allows them to be creative. That’s why I enjoyed this module so much during this semester because of the freedom it gave to challenge me in differently.

Students have various opinions regarding the assessment of their knowledge in academic literacy modules, and their opinions should be included in the planning and designing of assessments in academic literacy modules.

4.5

Discussion

Although most of the student participants wanted multimodal options instead of the traditional essay, there were some students who still preferred the essay to assess their knowledge. One of the reasons was that the essay was a good opportunity to reflect on their knowledge and learning. The value of bettering their language skills in an essay was also highlighted. Another important reason mentioned by one student was that they could express themselves better and elaborate more in an essay. Three students indicated that they felt safer writing an essay as they had a fear of presentations and videos. The unfamiliarity with multimodal assessments was one of the main reasons why one of the students chose the essay. Therefore, it is clear that exposure to and training for students and lecturers are necessary to help guide students in their assessment choices. Many affordances of multimodal assessments were identified by the students. Five students highlighted the value of creativity when given multimodal assessments. This is especially important in enhancing their twenty-first-century skills. One student also emphasized the importance of audience awareness and connecting with the person assessing the assignment. Having a range of options was also stressed as a positive aspect of multimodal assessments. Three students stated that they enjoyed

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the assessments more than a traditional essay. This, in turn, also motivated the students more. The value of entertainment should thus not be ignored. The development and transfer of various skills other than writing (such as oral, presentation, and interactive skills) beneficial to their future careers were also valuable to three students. Two students were also grateful that their learning styles were accommodated. A balanced approach seems to be the solution. In this chapter, it is not proposed that the traditional approach should be completely abandoned and only multimodal assessments should be implemented. The findings underline that students want options and a say in how their academic literacy is assessed.

4.6

Strengths, Limitations, and Recommendations

The main strength of this research is that the student voice was incorporated into the data gathering. The main limitation of this study is that it was a small-scale study focusing on only one faculty at only one South African university. All stakeholders need to work together to ensure student success. Management should not only allow multimodal assessments but should actively promote the use thereof. From the empirical data, it is evident that students want a choice and a voice. The literature indicates that students should have input in assessments. Lecturers should limit the multimodal options and provide guidelines so that students can make informed decisions. Furthermore, lecturers should give students opportunities to use new modes and also let them help with the instructions and the criteria for rubrics. This can promote collaborative learning between peers and even between students and lecturers. Training and learning about multimodal assessments and learning and using multimodal metalanguage would be beneficial for both lecturers and students.

4.7

Conclusion

It has become clear that literacy has truly changed from only being able to read and write. However, multiliteracies and digital technologies are beginning to influence teaching, learning, and the assessment thereof. In this study, first-year Education students were provided with alternative multimodal assessments in an academic literacy module to offer the increasingly more diverse student population in the digital age more

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learning and assessment opportunities. It was found that students would like more types of assessments in an academic literacy course to suit their various learning styles and academic needs. According to Selfe (2009): When we insist on print as the primary, and most formally acceptable, modality for composing knowledge, we usurp these rights and responsibilities on several important intellectual and social dimensions, and, unwittingly, limit students’ sense of rhetorical agency to the bandwidth of our own interests and imaginations. (p. 618)

For student success in the digital age, lecturers in academic literacy modules need to provide students with choices and voices. Students should be included in the discussions regarding academic literacy assessment. Lecturers should continuously explore and determine what students need to survive in the digital age.

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schools. English Language Teaching, 9(6), 52–60. https://doi.org/10.5539/ elt.v9n6p52 Sackstein, S. (2015). Hacking assessment: 10 ways to go gradeless in a traditional grades school (Kindle ed.). Times 10 Publications. Selfe, C.L. (2009). The movement of air, the breath of meaning: Aurality and multimodal composing. College Composition and Communication, 60(4), 616–663. Shin, D-S., Cimasko, T., & Yi, Y. (2020). Development of metalanguage for multimodal composing: A case study of an L2 writer’s design of multimedia texts. Journal of Second Language Writing, 47 , Article 100714. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jslw.2020.100714 Shor, I. (1992). Empowering education: Critical teaching for social change. University of Chicago Press. Statistics South Africa. (2017). General household survey. http://www.statssa.gov. za/publications/P0318/P03182017.pdf. Accessed May 13, 2022. Summers, S., Szabo, J., & Ingram, E. L. (2018). Interdisciplinary faculty training experiences in multimodal composition. In J. C. Lee & S. Khadka (Eds.), Designing and implementing multimodal curricula and programs (pp. 139– 154). Routledge. Tan, L., Zammit, K., D’warte, J., & Gearside, A. (2020). Assessing multimodal literacies in practice: A critical review of its implementations in educational settings. Language and Education, 34(2), 97–114. Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (2003). Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioural research. Sage. Unsworth, L. (2014). Multiliteracies and metalanguage: Describing image/text relations as a resource for negotiating multimodal texts. In D. Leu, J. Corio, M. Knobel, & C. Lankshear (Eds.), Handbook of research on new literacies (pp. 377–405). Erlbaum. Van de Poel, K. & Van Dyk, T.J. (2015). Discipline-specific academic literacy and academic integration. In R. Wilkinson & M. L. Walsh (Eds.), Integrating content and language in higher education: From theory to practice (pp. 161– 180). Peter Lang. Weeks, R. (2018). Multimodal assessment: What, why and how? https://edu cational-innovation.sydney.edu.au/teaching@sydney/multimodal-assessmentwhat-why-and-how/. Accessed May 13, 2022. Weideman, A. (2003). Academic literacy: Prepare to learn. Van Schaik, Pretoria. Weninger, C. (2021). Multimodality in critical language textbook analysis. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 34(2), 133–146. https://doi.org/10. 1080/07908318.2020.1797083

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CHAPTER 5

Rethinking Assessment and Feedback in a Digital Age in Crises: Reflections on Large Class Teaching Pryah Mahabeer

5.1

Introduction

Crises can occur at any time and affect all sectors of society, including education; disturbing the teaching and learning process and affecting curriculum changes. Amin and Mahabeer (2021) argue that crises in education are not a new phenomenon, as history shows that pandemics, war, genocide, riots and political unrest destabilise teaching and learning leading to curriculum reform. The COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020 is one such catastrophe that has unsettled South African universities as we know them to be.

P. Mahabeer (B) Department of Curriculum and Education Studies, School of Education, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Olivier et al. (eds.), Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa, Digital Education and Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97656-9_5

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The global pandemic (cf. Chapter 3) disrupted economies and societies, and produced complexities on a wide scale in the education system (Daniel, 2020). Schools and universities were shut down. The scramble to find ways to recover and finish the academic year began. Although universities across the world had begun moving to Online Learning Management Systems to meet the demands of the twenty-first century, the COVID-19 pandemic propelled universities to move fully online to recover the academic year and for effective teaching and assessment. As a result of the lockdowns, universities were thrust into the digital and online virtual space of remote teaching and learning; an overdue process speeded up by the pandemic in educational institutions (Daniel, 2020). This disrupted the complacent, taken-for-granted traditional modes of delivering (cf. Chapter 1) the curriculum, and lecturers immediately had to think of new and innovative, quality remote online teaching methods, learning, assessment and feedback to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic induced lockdowns. Most governments and institutions played catch-up, and there was limited time to prepare for remote online teaching. In speeding up the capacity to teach remotely, institutions used synchronous and asynchronous learning approaches suitable for digital platforms (Daniel, 2020). Lecturers who were reluctant to embrace the digital platforms or were unfamiliar with remote online technologies, had no choice but to develop the requisite competencies and skills to participate in remote online pedagogies, activities and accessing online reading materials. In developing countries like South Africa, the context of this study, students come from diverse impoverished backgrounds, making access, affordability, and upkeep of technological software and resources barriers to using technology as a resource to promote quality education for all (Chetty et al., 2017). Students from various socio-economic backgrounds have diverse learning experiences, making it challenging to effectively adopt new digital technologies, to construct quality learning experiences, and to ensure that worthwhile knowledge is offered to all students. Students may lack access to technological devices and the technological expertise to access digital learning platforms of learning (cf. Chapter 6). In South Africa, the ‘digital divide’ deprives many students from impoverished backgrounds of access to equitable education (Chetty et al., 2017). The Minister of the Department of Higher Education and Training, Dr Blade Nzimande, underscored that no institution nor student would

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be left behind during the pandemic. This was quite challenging, especially for teaching modules with large cohorts of students from different geographical locations. This paper interrogates the nuances in remote online teaching, assessment (cf. Chapter 4), and feedback in large classes, to understand how these play out in upholding academic ethics and excellence within crises at a university in South Africa. The questions the paper seeks to respond to are: What are the opportunities and challenges faced when teaching and assessing large classes remotely? What measures can be put in place to ensure quality remote assessment and feedback practices in times of crisis? Hence, an understanding of Reflective Practice is key, following what has been given already.

5.2

¨ Schon’s Reflective Practice

In the swampy lowland, messy, confusing problems defy technical solution. The irony of this situation is that the problems of the high ground tend to be relatively unimportant to individuals or society at large, however great their technical interest may be, while in the swamp lie the problems of greatest human concern. The practitioner must choose. Shall he remain on the high ground where he can solve relatively unimportant problems according to prevailing standards or rigor, or shall he descend into the swamp of important problems and non-rigorous inquiry? (Schön, 1987, p. 1)

This study is underpinned by the interpretive approach using Schön’s theory of Reflective Practice as the lens to reflect on remote online teaching and learning practices, and on matters of quality when teaching and assessing large classes at a university in South Africa during the pandemic. As explained by Bates (2019, p. 326), Schön (1983, 1987) advocated ways in which the practitioner (academic lecturer in this case) becomes conscious ‘of their implicit knowledge and learn from their experience in and out of the classroom’ space. Schön (1983, 1987) believed reflection arises in one’s practice when one is explicitly confronted with unexpected, unique, and conflicting experiences. This, he describes as the ‘swampy lowland messes.’ He further reasons that from these experiences,

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connections can be made between theory and practice, and importantly, recognition of what works for them can also be made. Schön offers two concepts; reflection in- and on-action as two types of thinking. Reflection-on-action is the ‘after-event-thinking when the practitioner reflects, describes, and examines the experience to gain understanding and to develop future actions.’ Reflection-in-action is ‘thinking-while-doing,’ that is, the practitioner analyses the experience as they occur. Here, the practitioner can think on their feet and reinvent themselves by making quick decisions on what to do next (Bates, 2019, p. 326). The text presented in Sect. 5.3 below constitutes the reflections, experiences, and observations of the author (reflection-in-action), in problematising and contextualising the study. Thereafter, in Sect. 5.4 (Reflection-on-action), the paper proceeds to understand these experiences and to develop future actions through a review of the literature to locate existing studies. The literature selected is then analysed and synthesised for reasonable conclusions to be made (Denyer & Tranfield, 2009). This is not merely a literature review but a research study that explores a specific research question derived from a policy and practice issue (Denyer & Tranfield, 2009). The COVID-19 pandemic of 2020/2021 is a recent crisis and currently, research is limited in the field of education (Dlamini & Ndzinisa, 2020; Ramrathan, 2020; Sintema, 2020; Wargo, 2020) but there is growing scholarship. As such, current sources (2020– 2021) relevant to this research study were mainly considered. However, other sources are used to add substance and depth to the discussions.

5.3 Reflection-In-Action: Teaching and Assessing Large Classes Remotely During the COVID-19 Pandemic This section focuses on reflection-in-action in relation to remote online teaching of large classes. Schön’s notion of reflective practice posits reflection-in-action is a useful reflective tool for (thinking-while-doing) as a lecturer who is willing to thread the ‘swampy lowland’ and to question their conventions, values, and purposes (Hambly, 2002; Kim et al., 2019). Schön (1987) argued that practitioners might lack the reflective practice to make good decisions. It is by entering the ‘swampy lowland’ that the messy problems that emerged with online remote learning could

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inspire deep reflections and to make good decisions to find solutions to everyday matters (McNiff, 2020). Echoing Schön’s theory of reflective practice, Kim et al. (2019) argue that individuals (academics and students) who are becoming practitioners walk on the ‘high ground’ and may function as technical professionals and solve problems using research-based theory and techniques. However, they may not act in reality in a ‘messy’ situation that is complex, unstable, and uncertain in solving real-life problems. The aim is for academics to become reflective practitioners through reflection-in-action and to learn to improvise and deal with unexpected, uncertain, and unstable situations through critical reflections, open-mindedness, and flexibility during times of crises, as is the case with the COVID-19 pandemic (Kim et al., 2019). To achieve this, listening to the stories of experience (reflections) is essential to learn about what the curriculum means for oneself and others (Kim et al., 2019). Stories are rich and multifaceted, and the author recognises that while stories are subjective, they can reinforce understanding of one’s experiences to inform educational practice (Bell, 2002). We live to voice the stories of our experiences and lives lived (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000)—the aim being to retell and relive the stories of our experiences (Bell, 2002)—and to understand these experiences narratively (Clandinin et al., 2016). In this case, it is to understand differently, the challenges faced when shifting to remote online teaching. Through autobiographical narratives with an emphasis on reflective practise (Schön, 1983), researchers can frame research problems and rationalise their actions (Bell, 2002). The text (in italics ) below presents a story from reflection-in-action of the author. It narrates her experience of sharing with others within a university space during the pandemic, with the intention to problematise and contextualise this study: At the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and the lock-down restrictions imposed in March 2020, I was thrust into working remotely and teaching online entirely. Although I was exposed to the Online Learning Management Systems before the pandemic, I had never fully embraced them. As I think back, it was initially a daunting experience, punctuated by fear of the unknown, but now this is the new normal. I think of many of the benefits and drawbacks of teaching remotely. In the interest of reflecting on, and sharing good practices to ensure quality online remote teaching and assessment practices that also limit acts of cheating and plagiarism during

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the pandemic, I reflect on my experience, observation, and interactions as shared with others in a similar university space during the pandemic. I recall and share some enablers and constraints, opportunities and challenges, and implications for teaching and assessing large cohorts of students remotely, and for discipline-specific modules at a university in South Africa during the 2020/2021 academic year. As I planned and implemented the remote teaching plan, I learned how to navigate the online learning platform as quickly and as effectively as possible. A challenging process that included understanding the availability of innovative teaching resources and online assessment tools (test, quiz, assignment, etc.) in an online learning site—and gaining access to competent markers for assessing these tasks. Enablers that further expedited remote teaching and learning at the university were accessibility to the campus, and residential facilities for students from impoverished backgrounds and rural areas, and campus resources. The intention was to give the students access to network/internet resources to ensure quality remote teaching and assessments and ensure no student is left behind. Using technology, teaching and assessing in a remote online setting exposed me to rethink teaching and assessment methods. Through original and authentic online assessment activities, diversifying online assessment activities, using preassessment for preparation, and setting high-quality questions using Bloom’s taxonomy in an attempt to limit cheating and plagiarism. For example, students recorded presentations, and created posters and portfolios online — these were uploaded online for evaluation. Developmental tasks, open-book activities, take-home activities, self-assessment, peer assessment, and group assessment tasks were also used for online teaching and assessment. Carefully planned questions and rigorous online quizzes challenged students to think differently about the content and remote online assessments. Online feedback, especially for online essay questions, was challenging, and required carefully selected, reliable and skilful markers in the discipline-specific module to provide good feedback to a large cohort of students. Randomised Multiple Choice Question tests were often used to assess large classes with stricter test requirements. Online teaching, assessment and feedback was more conducive for smaller classes in the remote online learning environment. However, in the online learning environment, there were constraints like lack of technological skills on assessment tools for academics and students alike. Academics like myself, felt the anxiety and tension of being overwhelmed and overstretched. Besides other academic commitments, we were required to plan and execute the remote teaching plan – teach, develop multimodal

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content and materials, assess, and co-ordinate large undergraduate modules led successfully. Developing quality assessments and monitoring strategies was thought-provoking and time-consuming. Students frequently submitted online assessment activities late, and did not write online assessments at the scheduled dates and times, citing connectivity and data challenges. Some students appeared to exploit these circumstances when it came to late submissions of remote online assessments. Academics were accountable for students within our modules to ensure no student was left behind. Accommodating students was a challenging experience. One must be empathetic and compassionate to students, as close family members were ill, or they lost immediate family members, coupled with the pressure to pass and complete the academic year successfully to secure their funding, and the challenges of missed tests and the subsequent ‘catch up’ or ‘makeup’ assessments. Lecturers had to constantly revise submission dates, and opening and reopening remote online assessment activities became painstaking. Accommodating students was even more challenging for teaching large cohorts of undergraduates that exceeded 1200 students. Despite using synchronous and asynchronous classes, some students lacked non-engagement with the material on the online learning platform. Some students relied on recorded presentations and PowerPoint Presentations to view them at their leisure and easier accessibility to data/network. There was lack of training and support on using the online learning system for first-year students. They were straight out of school confronted with the new mode of remote online teaching and learning. I think we need much more resources, manpower, capacity and support to administer remote online assessments successfully. A sentiment shared by others. The university could employ a designated ‘IT specialist,’ available to continuously support, train, and assist the coordinator and lecturers in discipline-specific modules to effectively use online teaching, assessment, feedback, and monitoring tools. How to use lock browser software, proctoring, and other monitoring devices more effectively to avoid plagiarism and cheating when administering assessments. The perception is that remote online teaching is an emergency intervention because of the pandemic. Some lecturers do not see remote online teaching as sustainable and significant for higher education. Still, others see the value in teaching and working remotely and felt more productive in some ways. Virtual workshops/classes for both staff and students by the university ICS department are reasonable. Still, lecturers require more specialised and practical ongoing training and support on using innovative online teaching and assessment tools at a discipline level. Continual training and support for students using online learning sites is also necessary.

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One of the challenges perceived and experienced across modules was the susceptibility of remote online assessment to acts of plagiarism and cheating in different forms. Students submitted the same assessment activities. Students worked together on online Multiple Choice Question (MCQ) tests and shared answers — despite efforts made to randomise questions and answers for quizzes. Some measures for future remote online quality learning and assessment practice that limits teaching and plagiarism were shared. We can never achieve high-quality assessments if we do not strengthen students’ accountability. Students often do not understand the immorality of their transgressions and their implications, because they are not held accountable. I think students should be made aware of the university’s cheating and plagiarism policy, the disciplinary action and implications through awareness programmes in the form of quizzes and as part of the university curriculum contributing to their final mark, which will increase student engagement and accountability. Staff (academic and support) need to be adequately trained and supported on reporting transgressions. The understanding is that the policies favour students while creating a considerable burden for staff administratively. The lecturers are already heavily overloaded, and they choose to ignore it or are lenient and allow students to resubmit. Policy reviews to address academic dishonesty and revision in remote online teaching and learning situations are necessary — and more punitive measures that are more discipline-specific should be put in place to hold students accountable when transgressions are detected.

5.4

Reflection-On-Action

Schön’s Reflection-on-action is meant to reflect on one’s experience, understand what can be learned, and collaborate with people with different opinions and expertise (Kim et al., 2019). Important is bridging the gap between theory and practice, and to thoughtfully draw on theory over practice (Hambly, 2002). The following key issues and themes unfolding in the text are discussed in the subsequent sections: • Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT) • Using technology in education: Unequal access and the ‘digital divide’ in Africa and South Africa • Large class teaching during the pandemic: Navigating through remote online spaces • Issues of academic dishonesty in remote online spaces • Remote online assessment and feedback in large classes.

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Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT) Initially a daunting experience, punctuated by fear of the unknown, but now this is the new normal. I think of many of the benefits and drawbacks of teaching remotely. The perception is that remote online teaching is an emergency intervention because of the pandemic. Some lecturers do not see remote online teaching as sustainable and significant for higher education. Still, others see the value in teaching and working remotely and felt more productive in some ways. As I planned and implemented the remote teaching plan, I learned how to navigate the online learning platform as quickly and as effectively as possible. Some students relied on recorded presentations and PowerPoint Presentations to view them at their leisure and easier accessibility to data/network.

The online classes in times of crisis, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, also referred to as Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT), is described as a flexible and emergency approach and refer to synchronous (‘real-time’) and asynchronous (‘non-real-time’ classes) online remote learning (Jung & Shin, 2021). Lecturers use appropriate technology through remote online and offline education (e-learning, blended and flipped learning, internet) to improve practical teaching and learning (Jung & Shin, 2021). Educational technology through Online Learning Management Systems occurs in or out of the classroom. It is self-paced and can be teacher-led, learnercentred, synchronous (online learning takes place via live streaming), or asynchronous (offline learning) (Govender & Khoza, 2017). These strategies made it possible for students and lecturers to collaborate for a worthy learning experience and guaranteed that teaching and learning continued despite lockdown restrictions that led to institutions’ closures. Jung and Shin (2021) argue that many universities have progressively capitalised on online remote learning, while others have experimented with implementing quality online remote learning due to the pandemic. Indeed, remote online classes have become the new normal and are no longer an option in many universities globally (Jung & Shin, 2021). Learning strategies and content has become more diversified and have enabled lecturers to teach and students to learn remotely from anywhere without physical restrictions, making it possible for many students to access knowledge. Furthermore, the enforced remote online learning has

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positively resulted in reduced transport costs and healthier usage of time (Jung & Shin, 2021). The curriculum used for remote online learning during the pandemic crisis created online learning opportunities for students to learn and understand the module content (Daniels et al., 2021). Students do not have the resources and time to participate simultaneously, and establishing an asynchronous digital classroom provides flexibility in preparing materials and student access to these materials online (Daniel, 2020). The material is posted online, and students can engage with it at a suitable time, and lecturers can monitor participation and make appointments to address student needs and queries (Daniel, 2020). Studies show that during the pandemic, online remote learning at Korean universities occurred extensively through ‘Learning Management Systems’ and ‘real-time Zoom lectures’, and students and lecturers alike found it challenging adapting to the new normal virtual learning space (Jung & Shin, 2021). However, university students appreciated information quality above system quality and service quality in online remote learning classes (Jung & Shin, 2021). As such, relevant, up-to-date and easy-to-understand educational content positively affected learner satisfaction. Using Technology in Education: Unequal Access and the ‘Digital Divide’ in Africa and South Africa Enablers that further expedited remote teaching and learning at the university were accessibility to the campus, and residential facilities for students from impoverished backgrounds and rural areas, and campus resources. The intention was to give the students access to network/internet resources to ensure quality remote teaching and assessments, and ensure no student is left behind.

In South Africa, many students are from impoverished backgrounds and experience many challenges to remote online learning, such as the quality of hardware, high cost of data, unstable internet network connections, and load shedding by Eskom (electricity supplier) (Chetty et al., 2017; Jung & Shin, 2021). These factors accentuated during the pandemic pose significant challenges to the provisioning of quality remote online teaching and learning for students from poverty-stricken backgrounds.

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Chetty et al. (2017) emphasised that social and economic inequalities, marginalisation, and poverty signify the ‘digital divide,’ which are barriers to the twenty-first-century digital learning and knowledge building. In Africa, the prevalent ‘digital divide’ in education is attributed to the lack of comprehensive Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in education policies at all levels, lack of ICT infrastructure, lack of lecturers and students with appropriate ICT skills, high costs of internet connectivity, lack of support and access to telecommunications networks, uncertainties affecting the attitudes and convictions of lecturers (Mthethwa & Munyoka, 2021). Therefore, the successful integration of ICT in teaching and learning strengthens pedagogy, improves access in diverse contexts of usage, and empowers students and lecturers with the requisite skills and knowledge for the effective use of technology in education. The use of technology in education remains inequitable in different areas in countries in Africa. COVID-19 has exposed inequalities existent in our universities—historically, black universities lag behind while privileged universities flourish with remote online teaching and learning (Dlamini & Ndzinisa, 2020). In response to COVID-19, ERT challenges conventional teaching and learning and feedback practices where lecturers have a personal interaction with students. Universities are grappling with issues of diversity in knowledge building, equity and inclusivity, and quality with remote online teaching and learning, Dlamini and Ndzinisa (2020) suggest structures be put in place that link pedagogy, technology and context to reduce inequalities that influence students’ learning experiences. Drawing on the words of Albert Einstein, ‘it has become appallingly obvious that our technology has exceeded our humanity,’ this means human beings have become dependent on, and docile to, the demands of technology; arguably making technology humankind’s worst antagonist, according to Mthethwa & Munyoka (2021). Mthethwa and Munyoka (2021) further argue that ICT has not reached its total potential usage capacity in Africa, although access to ICT in rural areas is increasing considerably. Digital technologies in education have brought about many changes in Africa and South Africa in particular, to promote learning, provide students with broader access to information on the internet, and assist students to compete in the global market by empowering them with ICT skills, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills (Mthethwa & Munyoka, 2021).

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Effective and reliable technology in education can strengthen pedagogy, improve access to education, and enculturation of active involvement; however, integrating technology into education systems can be complicated because of diversity in contexts of application and usage (Mthethwa & Munyoka, 2021). Within the context of this study, realising the rewards and prospects of technology in education is significant, and understanding and confronting these challenges within the contexts in which they exist is imperative. These challenges relate to pedagogy, capacity building, planning and infrastructure, policy, affordability and sustainability of technology (ICT), and lack of understanding of the integration of technology into education (Mthethwa & Munyoka, 2021). Large Class Teaching During the Pandemic: Navigating Through Remote Online Spaces Accommodating students was even more challenging for teaching large cohorts of undergraduates…to plan and execute the remote teaching plan – teach, develop multimodal content and materials, assess, and co-ordinate large undergraduate modules led successfully. Online teaching, assessment and feedback was more conducive for smaller classes in the remote online learning environment. Academics were accountable for students within our modules to ensure no student was left behind. Accommodating students was a challenging experience. One must be empathetic and compassionate to students, as close family members were ill, or they lost immediate family members … Academics ... felt the anxiety and tension of being overwhelmed and overstretched.

The ‘massification’ of education and the rapid increase in student enrolments in response to the growing demand for higher education and addressing of the socio-economic challenges had already placed immense pressure on existing university resources (financial, physical, and human) even before the pandemic (Ouda & Majanga, 2021; Scott, 1995). Despite the benefits of massification of education in Africa in addressing access and redress, it adversely affects the quality of teaching and learning. This demands rethinking how lecturers and universities perceive teaching large classes and sustaining quality education and academic ethics (Mahabeer & Pirtheepal, 2019).

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Large classes are a reality at universities, with many class sizes exceeding 200 students (Cash et al., 2017), a condition that persists within remote online learning amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. A large class size environment is viewed as diminishing interest, distracting (noise and peers accessing the internet), impersonal and anonymous as neither peers nor the lecturer can notice students’ absence or inattentiveness (Cash et al., 2017). Cash et al. (2017) examined whether a ‘large class be perceived as small,’ their findings suggested that it is not the addition of resources nor the difference in lecturing methods, but the lecturer’s behaviour and the course structure that determines whether a large class can be perceived by students to feel smaller. Within a large class environment, Cash et al. (2017) espouse the idea of constructing virtual smaller classes that creates a sense of community for greater interaction, curricular flexibility, and a personalised learning experience that would improve student learning and academic performance, ensure student retention, and promote quality in remote online education. Studies point to the urgency for rigorous and cohesive collaboration and dialogue with all stakeholders to tackle large class teaching and learning, its implications for the curriculum, and alternate realistic pedagogical approaches that matter (Jawitz, 2013; Mahabeer & Pirtheepal, 2019). The studies further submit that academics are already overloaded, emotionally stressed and frustrated, and experiencing burnout in providing educational excellence (Tlali et al., 2019). Noticeably, lecturers need support, capacity building, sufficient resources from universities, and mentorship from experienced and seasoned academics, to improve their pedagogical approaches when teaching large classes in a remote online teaching and learning environment. The same can be said for rethinking advanced alternatives of remote online learning platforms in the provision of quality teaching, learning, and assessment. Before and during COVID-19, efforts continued to address access issues, the low success rates of students, and preparing students for the job market. Universities began using Online Learning Management Systems to deliver modules virtually (Jawitz, 2013). However, the COVID-19 pandemic compelled lecturers who were previously reluctant to embrace teaching all modules online fully to adapt—online remote classes is no longer optional, it is a requisite (Jung & Shin, 2021). This virtual delivery mode was beneficial for reaching a large cohort of students. The rethink and use of innovative alternatives through technology, such as remote online teaching and assessment, reduce overcrowding in classroom spaces.

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However, whether quality in education was sustained remains questionable, as issues of academic dishonesty continue in remote online teaching and learning spaces. In the novel by Charles Dickens ‘Great Expectations,’ I am reminded of Pip, the naïve and inexperienced young man who later realises, as he matures—that his ‘great expectations,’ his wealth, class, and social standing are inconsequential, and that what was more critical was a good conscience, affection, loyalty, and compassion. Similarly, during the pandemic, the role and expectations of the lecturer in implementing the emergency remote online teaching plan were perceived by them as impulsive and naïve and later required them to improvise, think on their feet, and rethink their roles, responsibilities, and pedagogies in meeting university student performance standards and learning outcomes. Importantly, as lecturers, we were expected to exercise greater understanding, compassion, empathy, and care, with little regard for our own. Many students experienced challenges beyond their control as close family members were ill, or they lost immediate family members and various academic challenges of learning remotely online. There was, therefore, a need for a humanist approach to remote online teaching and learning, and online assessment and feedback —to rediscover and make meaning of what it is to be human—focusing on re-humanising the curriculum (Mahabeer, 2018; Zhao, 2015). It calls for balancing the cognitive and the affective (psychological, social, moral, and emotional) domains, concerned with the interactive situations for advancing a meaningful learning experience for all students within the virtual classroom environment (Khatib et al., 2013). Issues of Academic Dishonesty in Remote Online Spaces One of the challenges perceived and experienced across modules was the susceptibility of remote online assessment to acts of plagiarism and cheating in different forms. Students should be made aware of the university’s cheating and plagiarism policy, the disciplinary action and implications through awareness programmes … as part of the university curriculum contributing to their final mark, which will increase student engagement and accountability.

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In remote online spaces, academic dishonesty manifests in many ways in which students are deceitful in their academic practices. Cheating under remote learning conditions is a matter of concern as students conveyed being more than four times more likely to cheat in online courses (42%) as compared to in-person modules (10%) (Watson & Sottile, 2010 cited in Daniels et al., 2021). Students even felt it was effortless to cheat in an online assessment activity. Concerns about cheating remain constant regardless of changing assessments; therefore, a careful rethink of online assessment strategies is necessary (Daniels et al., 2021). There is more possibility of academic dishonesty in the form of cheating, plagiarism, collusion, duplicate submission of activities, copying, misconduct through fabrication, and inappropriate use of internet sources in online environments than in face-to-face environments (Daniels et al., 2021; Mahabeer & Pirtheepal, 2019). So rethinking assessment within the remote online space should consider issues of academic misconduct. Despite university policies against such practices, incidences of academic dishonesty persist, with lecturers complaining about the lack of intervention and monitoring of cases, and the leniency in the implementation of policies, the added administrative work when reporting, and the dissatisfaction with the consequences of punishment (Mahabeer & Pirtheepal, 2019). Universities’ policies should be reviewed to address issues of academic misconduct in remote online environments. According to Daniels et al. (2021), performance goals are linked to cheating behaviour, and cheating is dependent on how performance is assessed. Lecturers play an important role in using Online Learning Management Systems to ensure quality teaching, learning and assessment practices that prevent acts of student cheating and plagiarism and engage students in active participation, and setting original assessments that change each year (Mahabeer & Pirtheepal, 2019). To respond to this problem, Daniels et al. (2021) advise lecturers to develop a sense of community within modules irrespective of class sizes. Teaching large classes is a formidable undertaking from the planning to the implementation stages of teaching, assessment, and feedback, especially with the increasing levels of academic dishonesty that compromise the quality of the educational process and experience, the quality of graduates, and the standing of the university, students and lecturers (Mahabeer & Pirtheepal, 2019). To manage academic dishonesty in large classes in the digital age, academics should rethink teaching and assessment strategies for educational purposes, by adopting a range of

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assessment strategies that discourage and evade cheating and plagiarism and to build a cohort of students with solid ethical behaviours (Mahabeer & Pirtheepal, 2019). Assessment strategies should be carefully planned and implemented for them to be reliable, realistic, authentic, and personalised in order to discourage any transgressions (Razi, 2015). A practice focusing on an ‘educative approach’ to manage academic dishonesty should include tools that detect and deter wrongdoings as they occur (Mulcahy & Goodacre, 2004). With remote learning, students should be taught ethics and academic integrity as part of the curriculum, so that they are cognisant of the implications of any deceitful behaviour. During the COVID-19 pandemic, students had to quickly adapt to remote online learning. This rapid transformation provided Daniels et al. (2021) the opportunity to investigate student motivation, participation, perceptions of success, and cheating in traditional face-to-face and remote learning (Daniels et al., 2021). The findings revealed that students’ perceptions of cheating increased. Notably, the results further revealed that students in large classes who were initially concerned about cheating became more concerned about the issue in remote online learning situations (Daniels et al., 2021). In light of such shifts occasioned by the online environment, the implications of this study will be meaningful. The larger the class size, the greater the frequency of transgressions of academic integrity, such as cheating. One explanation is that larger classes are more impersonal and anonymous, and students believe cheating will go undetected through the system (Cash et al., 2017; Daniels et al., 2021). Remote Online Assessment and Feedback in Large Classes Assessing in a remote online setting exposed me to rethink teaching and assessment methods...authentic online assessment activities, diversifying online assessment activities, using pre-assessment for preparation, and setting highquality questions using Bloom’s taxonomy in an attempt to limit cheating and plagiarism…challenged students to think differently about the content and remote online assessments. I think we need much more resources, manpower, capacity and support to administer remote online assessments successfully…a designated ‘IT specialist,’ available to continuously support, train, and assist the coordinator and

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lecturers in discipline-specific modules to effectively use online teaching, assessment, feedback, and monitoring tools.

There is no singular definition of assessment in higher education, instead, the definition emanates from the social context (Wall et al., 2014). Wall et al. (2014) show how power is an element of assessment practice, questioning ‘whom’ does assessment serve. Assessment is inseparable from the education process, and it is essential in achieving the goals of education and successful student performance (Brown, 2001; Gardner, 2012), and measuring student performance and knowledge using different activities (Black & Wiliam, 2004; Reddy & Le Grange, 2017). For some, assessment is about evaluating students’ learning to improve learning, evaluating programmes, or examining and determining institutional efficacy, which is a call for increased assessment activities for accreditation and accountability purposes (Wall et al., 2014). During the pandemic, remote online assessments identified weaknesses and reinforced strengths to improve learning (Jung & Shin, 2021). Some institutions changed their teaching and assessment focus within remote online learning. For example, the University of Alberta changed its letter grade system to the credit/no credit system (Daniels et al., 2021). Whether remote or traditional assessments are used, different forms of assessment and feedback are necessary to serve the purposes of improving student learning experience and performance. Assessment planning and feedback should be done in conjunction with teaching to ensure intended learning outcomes are met. To ensure quality and reliability, online assessment strategies should be inclusive, explicit, fair, clear and transparent; and provide all students an equal opportunity to achieve the intended learning—any form of bias and discrimination that prejudices students should be avoided (Reddy & Le Grange, 2017). Online formative assessment comprising developmental tasks such as, peer- and self-assessment, quizzes, tests, small formal or informal activities, is a useful strategy for supporting student learning (Black & Ninomiya, 2016; Wiliam, 1998). Black and Wiliam (1998) noted that ‘assessment for learning’ is based on the following five principles: students are active participants in the learning process; effectual feedback is vital to the learning process; teaching methodologies should be flexible and adaptable to assessment results; students are capable of self-assessment and peer-assessment; and learner inspiration and self-confidence is recognised. They further emphasised that students learn more successfully when

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stimulated and accountable for their own learning goals and assessment. Importantly, lecturers need to get inside the minds of their students and connect with their thinking and feelings (Bates, 2019). Using technology may give students valuable feedback (West & Turner, 2016). Ramaprasad (1983 in Ninomiya, 2016) posits that feedback should not only provide information about the student’s current work, but also provide students with the information to improve the quality of their future work. Studies by West and Turner (2016) revealed that students voiced dissatisfaction on receiving feedback on assessments at universities. They preferred a blended approach to feedback and found it challenging to interpret and act on online feedback received without consultation or face-to-face advice from lecturers, which could be done through online virtual platforms (Mahabeer & Akoo, 2021). These studies suggest that lecturers must understand how to use online assessment and feedback strategies effectually as meaningful tools to facilitate online learning. Online feedback that is timely, continuous (Dlamini & Ndzinisa, 2020), and promotes student performance and knowledge building within discipline-specific modules. With both reflections in- and on-action, Schön (1983, 1987) believed that practitioners would build understandings to shape their future practices. Schön’s reflective practice theory urges us to ‘think while doing’ and to think about our future choices and actions (agency) in situations. A case in point is academics and universities preparing remote online teaching and learning (including assessment and feedback) strategies in virtual class environments for transforming the education system postCOVID-19. Rethinking and aligning these remote online teaching and learning strategies to notions of diversity, inclusivity, and quality is key.

5.5

Conclusion

The rapid shift to remote online teaching and learning and online assessment during the pandemic focus on successfully measuring students’ realisation of the intended learning outcomes and meeting academic standards without compromising academic ethics. Essential to the remote online teaching and learning process is sustaining quality assurance principles and keeping with university policies. Sufficient institutional support, capacity building, access to technological resources, internet access for students, and rethinking pedagogy are essential for successful remote online learning to transpire in large class teaching.

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Wargo (2020) notes that we might find a world where education has transformed post the COVID-19 pandemic crisis. Some may decide the traditional classroom is superfluous, and others decide that remote online learning failed them and prefer going back to the conventional way of teaching. ‘In reality, what they will be left with is a ‘third space’ for higher education—one where certain functions have emerged… will continue to take place remotely, while other functions will revert to the traditional place’ (Wargo, 2020, p. 82). Although institutions might normalise and teaching return to face-to-face classrooms, the alternative arrangements of remote online learning (technology-based learning), transformed and affected during the pandemic, and found to be useful, will continue to thrive (Daniel, 2020). This study potentially contributes to the growing research efforts in response to crises situations such as the pandemic and the rethinking and development of policies and practices around remote online teaching, assessment and feedback practices. As a result, it may promote academic excellence and academic ethics, a sense of community for more interaction, a personalised learning experience, and the contemplation of what it means to be human within the remote virtual online classroom space.

References Amin, N., & Mahabeer, P. (2021). Curriculum tinkering in situations of crises and inequalities: The case of South Africa. Prospects, Springer, UNESCO Special Issue, 1–13. Bates, B. (2019). Learning Theories Simplified: ... and how to apply them to teaching. SAGE Publications Limited. Bell, J. S. (2002). More than just telling stories. Teachers of English to speakers of other languages, Inc (TESOL), Quarterly, 36(2), 207–213. https://www. jstor.org/stable/3588331 Black, P. J., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the Black Box. NFER. Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2004). The formative purpose: Assessment must first promote learning. Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 103(2), 20–50. Brown G. (2001). Assessment: A guide for lecturers. LTSN Generic Centre. Cash, C. B., Letargo, J., Graether, S. P., & Jacobs, S. R. (2017). An analysis of the perceptions and resources of large university classes. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 16(2), 1–12.

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Chetty, K., Aneja, U., Mishra, V., Gcora, N., & Josie, J. (2017). Bridging the digital divide: Skills for the new age. G20 Germany 2017: Think 20 Dialogue. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11910/10839 Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. Jossey-Bass. Clandinin, D. J., Lessard, V. C. S., & Huber, J. (2016). Engaging in narrative inquiries with children and youth. Taylor & Francis. Daniel, J. (2020). Education and the COVID-19 pandemic. Prospects, 49(1), 91–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-020-09464-3 Daniels, L. M., Goegan, L. D., & Parker, P. C. (2021). The impact of COVID19 triggered changes to instruction and assessment on university students’ self-reported motivation, engagement and perceptions. Social Psychology of Education, 24(1), 299–318. Dlamini, R., & Ndzinisa, N. (2020). Universities trailing behind: Unquestioned epistemological foundations constraining the transition to online instructional delivery and learning. South African Journal of Higher Education, 34(6), 52– 64. Denyer, D., & Tranfield, D. (2009). Producing a systematic review. In D. A. Buchanan & A. Bryman (Eds.), The Sage handbook of organizational research methods (pp. 671–689). Sage Publications Ltd. Gardner, J. (2012). Assessment and learning. SAGE. https://doi.org/10.4135/ 9781446250808 Govender, N., & Khoza, S. B. (2017). Technology in education for teachers (Chapter 5). In L. Ramrathan, L. Le Grange, & P. Higgs (Eds.), In education studies for initial teacher development (pp. 66–79). Juta. Hambly, L. (2002). The guidance practitioner: Technician or artist? Going beyond technical competence. Career Guidance Today, Institute of Career Guidance, 10(6), 1–5. Jawitz, J. (2013). The challenge of teaching large classes in higher education in South Africa: A battle to be waged outside the classroom. In D. J. Hornsby, R. Osman, & J. De Matos-Ala (Eds.). Large-class pedagogy—Interdisciplinary perspectives for quality higher education (pp.137–146). SUN MeDIA. http:// dx.doi.org/10.18820/9780992180690/09 Jung, J. H., & Shin, J. I. (2021). Assessment of university students on online remote learning during COVID-19 pandemic in Korea: An empirical study. Sustainability, 13(19), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131910821 Khatib, M., Sarem, S. N., & Hamidi, H. (2013). Humanistic education: Concerns, implications and applications. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 4(1), 45–51.

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Kim, J. H., Campbell, R. C., Nguyen, N. T. T., Taraban, R., & Reible, D. D. (2019, June). Exploring ways to develop reflective engineers: Toward phronesiscentered engineering education. In Proceedings of the American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) Annual Conference. Mahabeer, P. (2018). Curriculum decision-makers on decolonising the teacher education curriculum. South African Journal of Education, 38(4), 1–13. Mahabeer P., & Pirtheepal T. (2019). Assessment, plagiarism and its effect on academic integrity: Experiences of academics at a university in South Africa. South African Journal of Science 115(11/12), 1–8. https://doi.org/ 10.17159/sajs.2019/6323 Mahabeer, P., & Akoo, F. F. (2021). Connecting assessment and feedback: A customised and personalised experience for knowledge-building. Journal of Education, 83, 1–29. McNiff, J. (2020). Certainty abandoned and some implications for curriculum research. Review of Education. Mthethwa, P., & Munyoka, W. (2021). Information and communication technologies and educational change in Africa. In Sociological foundations of education in Africa: Perspectives, contexts and contemporary issues. T. Runhare, P. Gwirayi (Eds.). (pp. 365–393). Oxford University Press. Ouda, J. B., & Majanga, E. K. N. (2021). Educational inflation: The emerging diploma disease in Africa. In Sociological foundations of education in Africa: Perspectives, contexts and contemporary issues. T. Runhare, P. Gwirayi (Eds.). (pp. 340–364). Oxford University Press. Mulcahy, S, Goodacre, C. (2004, December 5–8). Opening Pandora’s box of academic integrity: Using plagiarism detection software. In: Proceedings of the 21st ASCILITE Conference (pp. 688–696). http://www.ascilite.org.au/con ferences/perth04/procs/mulcahy.html Ninomiya, S. (2016). The possibilities and limitations of assessment for learning: Exploring the theory of formative assessment and the notion of “closing the learning gap.” Educational Studies in Japan, 10, 79–91. Ramrathan, L. (2020). School curriculum in South Africa in the Covid-19 context: An opportunity for education for relevance. Springer. https://link.springer. com/journal/11125 Razi, S. (2015). Development of a rubric to assess academic writing incorporating plagiarism detectors. SAGE Open, 5(2), 1–13. Reddy, C., & Le Grange, L. (2017). Assessment and curriculum. (Chapter 11). In L. Ramrathan, L. Le Grange, & P. Higgs (Eds.). Education studies for initial teacher development (pp. 159–173). Juta. Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books. Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. Jossey-Bass.

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CHAPTER 6

Developing a Connective Student Support Framework for a Resource-Constrained ODL Institution in Mauritius Myriam Blin

6.1

Introduction

Distance education students can’t raise their hands to ask instructors questions or participate in discussions, and it’s difficult or impossible for them to take advantage of faculty office hours. Teaching assistants don’t always respond to email, and online class discussion boards can be neglected by students and faculty alike. In this sense, the “process of dialogue” is actually limited by technology. (…)

M. Blin (B) Charles Telfair Centre, Charles Telfair Campus, Telfair, Moka, Mauritius e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Olivier et al. (eds.), Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa, Digital Education and Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97656-9_6

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(…) struggling students tend to suffer in an environment when teachers aren’t there to help, or even notice there’s a problem. I wonder how many dropped out of my class, after attempting to make contact on the online message board, or getting hung up on the software?

These quotes were found on a blog of a mature student having engaged in a number of online learning courses. The quotes highlight one of the greatest challenges of Open Distance Learning (ODL), i.e. its ability to create a community of learners who feel supported during their learning journey. While extensive literature exists on the pedagogies, development, design and delivery of the quality online experience, including multimodal learning; literature on student support systems and management in ODL contexts remains scarce and mostly situated within developed countries’ realities (see for example De Fazio et al., 2000; Floyd & CaseyPowell, 2004; Lorenzetti, 2004; Simpson, 2004, 2013a, 2013b; Tait, 2000; Thorpe, 2003). Notable exceptions are the extensive review of student support systems in ODL institutions in developing countries by Sweet (1993) and a series of papers from the South African context (e.g. SAIDE, 2000; Subotzky & Prinsloo, 2011) as well as from south-east Asia (Darojat et al., 2015). To my knowledge, there is, similarly, limited literature on student support services systems that reflects the recent digital disruptions brought about by Web 2.0 technologies, artificial intelligence and the rising availability of open resources, which has in turn enriched multimodal learning, particularly in online environments.1 Yet there is a need to explore, review and better understand how digital disruption is affecting student support (Tait, 2014) and more importantly identify the processes that would allow digital disruptions to be agents of positive transformation in the delivery of student support services, especially in ODL settings. More specifically, there is a need to (a) rethink the dichotomy between learning and student support (Tait, 2014; Thorpe, 2003) and (b) explore in practice how digital disruption is affecting student support and lessons learnt (Tait, 2014). Universities in the global North have embraced the expanding digitalisation of higher education by adopting more and more advanced

1 There is some literature looking at sub-elements of student support, see for example Zhu (2016) on social media and library service; Bridgstock et al. (2019) on social connectedness and graduate employability or Cabellon and Junco (2015) on how digital changes are impacting the role and nature of student affairs services.

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integrated online learning technologies for their learning provisions, thereby blurring the lines between residential and blended learning. The digitalisation of learning has been driven by the need to meet learners’ expectations, the opportunity technology-enabled learning provides for cooperative learning and the potential to offer Higher education to a larger population (DAAD, 2018). It is also now increasingly perceived as an integral component of universities’ strategy to prepare learners for a working world driven by the 4th industrial revolution (Naudé, 2017). It is estimated that the global e-learning market will grow at an average annual rate between 7 and 10% over the coming years (Trines, 2018). In Sub-Saharan Africa, the growing population means universities across the continent are struggling to meet the demand for university seats (The Economist, 2019) and distance learning and attach digital educational tools have been identified as important avenues to address supply shortages and potentially reach remote areas (Burke, 2012; Trines, 2018). The digitalisation of higher education, more specifically, is also seen as a tool that can support the continent in preparing for the impact of the 4th industrial revolution (Naudé, 2017, Xing & Marwala, 2017). IMARC (2018) estimated that the e-learning sector in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) grew by 15% annually between 2010 and 2017 and is projected to grow by a further 50% by 2023. The success of digitalised distance learning, however, lies on the ability of institutions to provide effective student support, as the latter has shown to be of greater importance to student success in ODL contexts compared to traditional ones (Moody, 2004). This chapter is the product of an institutional reflection on how to set up a student support system in an ODL institution in Mauritius that would be effective despite important capacity and resource constraints. Connectivism, a relatively recent learning theory initiated by Siemens (2005) and Downes (2010), is reinterpreted within the context of student support as it is seen to provide a useful framework to optimise the use of digital tools as means to (1) improve student support services and (2) address institutional resources constraints. With 63.2% internet penetration (IWS, 2019) in Mauritius, we believe the ongoing digital revolution has the potential to transform the ODL student learning experience in the country. For universities in middleincome economies such as Mauritius that face resource and capacity constraints yet have access to globally competitive internet provisions, the ongoing digital revolution has the potential to transform the ODL student learning experience. After reviewing the literature in student

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support in ODL settings and presenting Connectivism as a theory of learning, this chapter will present a Student Support Framework developed for an ODL institution using Connectivism as the guiding thread for the development of the framework. The framework is further rooted in a review of the literature on student support provision and is derived from the review of current practices in both residential and ODL institutions to capture practices that are not yet reviewed in the literature.

6.2

Student Support in ODL

Student support and its attached pastoral care can arguably be rooted in Aristotle’s view that education should be a balance between knowledge, ethics and personal development (Barnes, 1982). At present, the intrinsic motive (humanistic approach) for developing student ethics and personal development is often lost in a more instrumental need to support students in succeeding in their learning journey. In contemporary literature, student support generally refers to the range of services that complement the course content and delivery to facilitate and improve the quality of a student’s learning journey (Tait, 2000). Contrary to course content and delivery that tends to be uniform for all students, student support tends to be individualised and provided from the perspective of the student (Floyd & Casey-Powell, 2004). The overarching aim of student support services is to contribute to students’ academic and personal development and increase/ensure student success while mitigating complaints, attrition and progression barriers. Tait (2000) classifies ODL student support into three primary but interdependent functions2 : 1. cognitive function that supports and develops learning; 2. affective function that offers an environment that promotes student commitment and self-esteem (social support, Wilcox et al., 2005); 3. systemic function that ensures administrative process and information management systems are effective, transparent and studentfriendly.

2 Note that these functions are equally applicable to a traditional residential setting.

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To meet these three functions, support services have traditionally included the following components as listed in Table 6.1 (Floyd & Casey-Powell, 2004; Lorenzetti, 2004; Tait, 2000): Arguably student support in residential university differs from that in ODL in that student support in ODL goes beyond the provision of specialised support and actually englobes all aspects of learning: course choice, study skills, access to group learning and seminars, etc. (Thorpe, 2003). That distinction, however, is probably less and less true as residential universities are increasingly perceiving student support holistically and as an integral part of the learning process. Yet, there are specificities in ODL settings that warrant a differentiated approach. Student demographics tend to differ in ODL settings with greater diversity in the student population in terms of location, age, learning skills, technological proficiency, nationality, and social capital. The student population is also generally more mature with multiple other Table 6.1 Elements, Functions and components of student support services Student services

Functions

Student Support Component

Prospective students enquiry and admission Assessment of prior learning and credit transfer Assessment literacy Pastoral care and academic advising Learning support (study skills) Guidance and counselling including personal and confidential counselling Differentiated services for students with special needs Library and IT services and associated learning support Record keeping and information management Career and employability support International students support

Systemic

Prospective Students Support

Systemic Cognitive Cognitive and affective Cognitive Affective

Academic and Learning Support Welfare and Special Needs Support

Affective and systemic Systemic and cognitive Systemic Cognitive Affective and systemic

Source Lorenzetti (2004), Tait (2000), and Floyd and Casey-Powel (2004)

Library and ICT Services Data/Information Management Career Counselling & employability International Students support

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responsibilities such as having families with dependents and/or being in full-time work. ODL settings typically offer limited face-to-face contact, thereby isolating learners and making it more difficult to create a community of learners and a sense of belonging. ODL also requires a minimum of technological proficiency from students and staff alike. Indeed, the physical distance of students implies that e-communication and e-learning dominate exchanges between students and the university. These specificities, particularly the greater diversity compounded with limited proximity, call for more extensive and diverse channels of support that go beyond the physical/residential support provision of traditional universities.

6.3

Connectivism and Student Support

Connectivism is a relatively recent learning theory often associated with Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), where learning takes place through connections made by the learner within a network (Siemens, 2005). The process of learning is thus under the control of the learner (learner is at the centre of the process) who creates knowledge while navigating through and engaging with the different components (nodes) of the network; learning is the set of connections made by the learner (Downes, 2007). Nodes are sources of information for the learner and are not necessarily solely online: it is a community of learners but also could be the university, the learning support unit, a webpage, an online group or the library (Siemens, 2006). Connectivism links well to a multimodal learning context where the different modes of learning themselves could constitute nodes within the system. Learning thus rests on the learner’s capacity to seek information, filter information (Kop & Hill, 2008) and, reflect and link the information (ideas, concepts, fields) and hence create knowledge through the connections of different nodes (Siemens, 2005). These connections often create links between interdisciplinary domains, and the learner links previous information (from one node) to current information (new nodes) to create new understandings. The theory is an interesting reflection of the changes taking place amongst the new generation of highly connected learners who use multiple of physical and digital platforms to accumulate knowledge and information (gaming, wikis, webpages, various social media: YouTube, WhatsApp, Pinterest, the family, school, university etc.). In that way learning through connection is chaotic, complex and individualised (Siemens, 2005). Connectivism

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not only integrates these technologies into the learning journey of the student, but it also actually considers these digital spaces as core elements of the learning. Connectivism is criticised for focusing much on the participants and the network and not so much on the roles of instructors and other actors such as support services (Bates, 2015). In fact, evidence reminds us that a majority of students refer and feel the need for the support of a “human intermediary” (e.g. tutor) to guide them through resources, activities, navigation and critical engagement (Kop & Hill, 2008). However, connectivism does not necessarily imply the absence of the human or physical in the network (i.e. the network is not solely digital). If we integrate different elements of student support within the network of learning of the student, the connections and nodes can extend beyond the online network into human interactions. Actually, the integration of student support nodes into the network can create a virtuous circle within the network where the student is better able to identify, filter and connect the nodes to create new understandings. The network itself will also support the ability of students to identify and engage with student support services they might not have been aware of, or understood. When developing the support system for our institution, we used Connectivism’s concept of network and connection as the frame for a holistic student support system that breaks the dichotomy between learning delivery and student support. Existing literature and data gathered on student support have been used to build a framework for a learning and support network from the perspective of the student that integrates the digital and the human.

6.4

Methodology

The development of the proposal was supported by a review of the literature on student support services and student support service systems in ODL contexts, as well as a review of university practices comparing student support provision in residential and ODL settings in four geographical locations: the UK, Canada, South Africa and Australia. These geographies were chosen as these countries (especially the UK, Canada and South Africa) have a long history of ODL provision. Following an interpretivist approach, four key themes were derived from

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the review reflecting key characteristics of ODL student support provision. These themes were then used to guide the development of the student support framework. The proposal was supported by a consultation process (semi-structured interviews) in the months of July and August 2019 with the line managers of the following divisions at the ODL institution: Academic Affairs (Director and Programme Managers), Admission, Marketing, Library and Student Affairs. The consultation process allowed to identify needs, gaps and concerns these divisions had regarding student support. The data (1) provided background to understanding the specificities of the institution’s context and (2) supported the identification of the nodes and components of the communication strategy when combined with the four key themes identified from the literature review. The consultation process did not allow to collect data from students. Unfortunately, the time frame of the project and the lack of access to existing student feedback data means this was not possible. A second phase in the project would require integrating student perspectives and feedback prior to implementation. The student support framework was developed using Connectivism as the frame for proposal, and the review of the literature and practices were used to identify the relevant nodes and connections to build an effective student support system.

6.5

Institutional Context

The ODL institution for which student support is being reviewed is a relatively young institution, just over ten years old, that has seen its student population shoot up to reach close to 6000 students by 2019. The consultation process has revealed that the institution has been at pains in adapting its services to keep pace with the rise in student numbers and generally has had a reactive approach to cope with the rapid growth, including the provision of student support. Student support services are still in their infancy with support provided mostly on an ad hoc basis with no comprehensive strategy. Our consultation across services within the institution identified that current support services cover the three main stages of a student’s learning journey: as a prospective student, as a current student and preparing for post-graduation (see Fig. 6.1 for details of the student support journey). Yet, the consultation also showed that the services tend to be reactive and dominated by information provision and ad hoc response to queries/complaints. Such a level of services

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•Marketing: programme counselling •Admission: application processing •Programme Managers: well-being and academic support •Student Affairs: complaints and queries, e-learning support, general enquiries. •IT: IT equipment support in classrooms •Library: e-library and physical library support •Employability modules

Fig. 6.1 Student support services at the institution under study, 2019 (Source Consultation process with the institution, 2019)

was adequate in the early years of the institution when student numbers allowed for a personalised non-systemic approach. With the institution projected to reach close to 10,000 students in the next three years, it will need a more systematic and systemic approach to student support. The limitations of the University’s student support services were highlighted in the Mauritius higher education regulators’ audit report in 2018. The report called for the institution to address gaps in the provision of student welfare and counselling support, career counselling, management of student complaints/queries and learning support (TEC, 2018). Encompassing these recommendations was the recommendation that the university develops an institutional learner support strategy. The limits of the institution’s provision of student support are to some extent a reflection of the institution’s limited capacity and resources that have not been able to keep pace with its rapid expansion. For example, the institution had a student to full-time academic staff ratio of 243:1 in 2019, with the institution relying largely on hourly-paid part-time tutors (Institution’s annual report data). This ratio is relatively lower than other ODL institutions in the region and beyond.3

3 For example, UNISA had a student to full-time academic staff ratio of 64:1 in 2020 (Cloete, 2021) and Open University in the UK had a student to academic staff ratio of 143:1 (Open University, 2020).

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In reaction to the regulators’ report, the institution has been working on a proposal aiming at addressing the specificities of open distance learning and integrating a proactive, interactive and inclusive support system where services are provided from the point of view of the student rather than that of the service provider. This chapter pertains to the first proposal submitted to the Institution for the development of an integrated and connected student support system.

6.6

Analysis of Current Practices

To explore current practices, a review of student support provisions in eight universities, four ODL institutions and four traditional institutions in the UK, Canada, South Africa and Australia was undertaken (see Appendix A for details). The review of existing practices shows that while the nature and purpose of student support services are similar between traditional universities and ODL institutions, the provision of student support in ODL institutions differs in three fundamental ways: 1. the ODL paradox; 2. self-management; and 3. the communication channels. ODL paradox: Arguably ODL’s challenge in providing effective student support services and in reducing attrition is Kafkaesque: evidence suggests that student support is of greater importance to student success in ODL context compared to traditional ones because of the isolation of students (Moody, 2004); but it is the inherent isolation of students in ODL setting that makes the provision of student support so difficult. The challenge for ODL institutions is in equipping students with the skills/understanding to autonomously seek and engage with online support tools. Students in ODL settings are not by nature aware of what they are “missing”: i.e. that their learning success depends on them engaging with online support tools and services. While the same could be said for students in traditional settings, the proximity, visibility and physical presence of a community of learners who can informally or formally share their own experience of support services means it is easier for students in traditional settings to develop an awareness of the importance of using these services.

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Our review of university practices suggests that most universities reviewed have already in place a fully integrated digital space using communities, social media and digital spaces for all student support and learning divisions/departments with the attempt to use communities, social media, wikis and informal groups to simulate experiences and sharing that would normally take place in a residential setting. Connectivism, the links between all the different formal and informal digital spaces and beyond, can also allow for greater visibility of the service. Self-management: The rate of attrition in ODL settings is much greater than in traditional settings (Moody, 2004; Simpson, 2013a, 2013b), a reflection of the difficulties ODL institutions face in providing systematic and individualised support to all students. While it is beyond the scope of this proposal to look into causes of attrition in ODL settings, the key factors related to attrition identified in the literature are isolation, disconnectedness, lack of perceived support and failure to motivate students (Moody, 2004; Simpson, 2013a, 2013b). The digitalisation of higher education and increased ease of access to the internet means that technology has become an effective tool to compensate for the physical distance, thereby reducing student isolation and improving student support. As such, the mode through which student support is provided in the reviewed ODL settings relied marginally on face-to-face support and almost exclusively on phone, e-mail, online self-evaluation tools, support toolkits and general advice. A core aspect of the modes in which student support is provided in ODL is its reliance on student self-management. Student support services in the ODL universities reviewed relied on the development of online support material that could supplement what a walk-in clinic, the first stage of face-to-face counselling or a study skills tutorial would provide. Self-management for student support is then complemented by comprehensive human support through phone, chat and face-to-face support (physical or online).4 Self-management relies on the willingness of the student to autonomously engage with these digital support tools, which can only happen if institutions have an effective communication strategy.

4 It should be noted that an increasing number of universities with residential settings are complementing their face-to-face support with developing self-managed support (e.g. SOAS with the welfare tool such as Silver cloud, https://soas.silvercloudhealth.com/sig nup/soas/).

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Communication strategy: Poor communication has been found as a core reason for attrition in ODL institutions (Frith & Kee, 2003). Indeed, with little scope for word of mouth and social interactions as tools to share experiences, effective communication is required as a core component of any student support strategy in ODL contexts. The foundation of the communication strategy is to develop awareness amongst ODL students not simply of the existence of student support services but also of their importance in the student’s learning success. In the ODL institution reviewed, the communication strategies were dominated by digital communication allowing for instant access to information and services, but these tended to be complemented by human reinforcement. Systemic digital communication is approached by ensuring that students’ digital journey, whether through the website or the e-learning platform, is systematically exposed to relevant information regarding student support services. In other words, information on student support and its importance is available within the curriculum, via the main webpage and within the e-learn platform. Digital communication is then reinforced with human communication (Online Human Touch or OHT) via a range of channels: the course tutors, student services, regional centres, face-toface sessions in some instances, as well as student online communities and student associations. Such strategy reflects findings in the literature that have shown the importance of human interactions for student retention and well-being (Betts, 2008).

6.7 Student Support Services Proposal for Resource-Poor ODL Institutions This section proposes to develop a holistic and systemic student support framework that is individualised and covers the whole of the student’s learning journey of the ODL institution concerned. The proposed framework (see Fig. 7.2) is rooted in the review and discussion in Sects. 6.2 and 6.3 and addresses the recommendations made by the regulator for that institution as reviewed in Sect. 6.5 and embeds the learnings from international practices as listed in Sect. 6.6. The framework proposes a connected network of student support components enabled by people and technology and facilitated by an explicit communication strategy.

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The Network Figure 6.2 illustrates the range of academic and non-academic student support services that we propose to implement. The framework addresses all components and functions of the student learning journey as listed in Table 6.1, but does not include supplementary back-office services that are essential to the student experience but not directly related to student support, such as examination or timetabling. All three functions: cognitive, affective and systemic, are covered across the components of the student support services network.

Fig. 6.2 Network and Connections of Student Support Services in the Student Learning Journey (Source Original framework from author)

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The proposal is for each component to: 1. have clearly defined roles and functions; 2. develop a strategy that would approach its services from the perspective of the student (i.e. understand the characteristics and needs of the student population and develop services that meet these needs and characteristics); 3. ensures it complies with the overall communication strategy set for student support services as detailed in Sect. 3.2; 4. be accessible to all learners; 5. establish clear liaisons and attached processes and procedures within and across the division to ensure that student support is holistic and integrated; and 6. support and inform student support delivery by collecting and analysing relevant data (e.g. usage, demographics and student feedback) for monitoring and review of the services. With the above listed six conditions, the framework will ensure a systemic, systematic and individualised student support service. Each component is connected to the other via the students, staff and technology. All three are agents of connectedness playing a role simultaneously. In other words, the agents of connectedness (themselves nodes) in the framework are a combination of (1) people (students and staff) making sense of the various dimensions but are also actors (through communication) of the connected dimensions (nodes). Secondly, the digital (technology) eases the connectedness (platform for connectivism). Such a proposal is supported by Siemens’s (2005) theory that we learn through the connections, or “links,” between various “nodes” of information. In our case, the learning pertains to student support mechanisms. An additional component in the framework is the world wide web. The latter is a recognition that students may integrate external nodes from online resources outside the institution to create new links between newly discovered nodes, hence reinforcing their knowledge/usage of student support. The world wide web is also an important not that can be used by different institutional components of the student support framework by taking advantage of open-source data and information that could be integrated into the support services.

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Communication Strategy The effective provision of student support services at our institution will depend on their ability to optimally combine different communication channels. Rooting it in Connectivism, the actual combination and the relative importance of one channel over another will depend on the specific service provided, but given the long term ambition of the institution to develop its international market, each support division needs to ensure that its services are usable and accessible to students in different geographies. To ensure an effective and supportive student support service delivery, each component of student support service will need to combine a digital and human component for (1) communicating information and (2) the actual delivery of the services. Both the website and the e-learning platform should be used as digital communication tools and digital delivery of services tools. The digital provision should be reinforced across divisions by targeted human interaction: this can be done via phone, live chat or physical. The existing blended mode of learning also allows for divisions to use students’ physical presence on campus to reflect on possible sensitisation campaigns and face-to-face delivery of services.5 The strategy is illustrated in Fig. 6.3. Service provision needs to be complemented by the creation and promotion of student communities. A first step in channelling communities is the setting up of a formal structure such as a student union/association, but the university should also encourage students to create sub-communities (within programmes, by themes or student clubs). Formal spaces should also be created via the e-learn platform, and informal spaces should be encouraged via the range of available social media chosen by the students. The overall objective is for services to provide a supportive environment where students feel accompanied throughout their learning journey. The processes for communicating and delivering services should be such that all student support services are:

5 While the institution still has limited international students, the institution ambitions to complement all online international delivery with localised face-to-face learning support across geographies, as used by the University of the South Pacific for example (USP, 2021).

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Fig. 6.3 Communication for effective student support services (Source Original by the author)

• Connected: delivery of the support service is understood and delivered as part of an overall connected network of services so students never receive support in isolation but can link it to other supports they are receiving, creating a meta-support structure for each and all students. • Responsive: support services should have mechanisms in place to ensure it promptly responds to queries and mechanisms in place to respond to needs change. • Accessible: all students should be able to access the support service irrespective of their needs and geographies. • Usable: the service should be relevant to the student’s specific needs and she/he should be able to apply it. • Self-managed: all services should offer a delivery of service that encourages users to self-manage their support needs. • Systemic: the student should feel supported across the entire system of student support delivery at all stages of the student learning journey. • Systematic: no student, irrespective of her/his circumstances should be left out of the student services available.

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Data and Information Management Supporting all components across the student journey, the institution will require systematic and systemic data and information management to support quality and standards of provision and feed new processes and nodes into the framework as required. To ensure that student support services are appropriate in scope and quality for the capacity of the university and mode of delivery, the institution shall implement data record and management processes and regular reviews and feedback from various stakeholders (students and staff) to monitor the availability and accessibility of the student support services.

6.8

Conclusion

Connectivism and putting digital networks at the core of the support process substantially improved the efficiency of the services and can address some of the constraints faced by resource and capacity-poor institutions. In small upper-middle-income economies such as Mauritius, where access to the internet is easily available, the potential of ODL and the opportunities it offers for the rest of the continent should not be underestimated. The chapter has presented a student support framework inspired by the theory of Connectivism for an institution engaged in ODL in Mauritius. The framework brings its own challenges in terms of implementation. For one, the ability of an institution to operationalise a CRAUSSS communication strategy is likely to be constrained by the difficulty in successfully integrating the physical, the human and the virtual. There is a risk of compartmentalisation, hence, breaking the links between the nodes. Similarly, the successful linkages between nodes depend on students’ ability to comprehend the learning experience system in its whole, and the latter depends on the success of the CRAUSSS communication strategy—if one of those components is lost, the system will fail. Finally, there is a need for more data on how students actually experience connected systems in ODL and multimodal learning environments to better assess the ability of the model to address their behaviour and experiences. The framework is at an initial stage, and the next step will require not only complementing and enhancing the framework by incorporating student feedback but also initiating a second consultancy process reviewing the implementation and enhancement of each component and their links within the institution and over time assess the impact of student support services.

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Acknowledgements The author received funding from the Tertiary Education Commission for an assignment from which the work of this chapter is derived.

Appendix A: Synthesis of Student Support Services in 3 ODL and 4 traditional universities in the UK, Australia and South Africa

Pastoral Care and academic Advising

Summary of typical services in traditional university settings

Summary of typical services in ODL university settings

UK: Personal tutor (PT) is usually an academic specifically trained as a personal tutor PT acts as first point of contact for all queries and follows students from year 1 to completion 1 Personal tutor has approx. up to 25 students to support and typical support includes: • personal support (settling in and personal and health problems; referral to specialised support); and • academic advising (progress monitoring, study problems) Personal tutor is the first point of contact and should refer students to specialised support services for any specialised personal support Australia: Academic support centralised by faculty with “Student Advisers”; act as first point of contact for support Academic progress is monitored through analytics that assess failure risk level, risk level is communicated to students via mail, students can seek advice from centralised student services/support and/or welfare services Pastoral care: centralised through students services and welfare office

UK and South Africa: Lecturer are complemented by e-tutors who play a double role: (1) as supporting learning specific to the module content, and (2) academic progress monitoring and first point of contact for further queries (personal, administrative etc.) UNISA (South Africa) is piloting a First year journey special support to prepare students to distance/blended learning. Weekly e-mail and live broadcast and MOOC to support students in understanding learning expectations and navigate learning journey during their first year Australia: As in traditional system with extensive access to services/support via e-mail, phone and online OU UK and UNISA have regional centres that allow for face-to-face support on academic and personal matters (continued)

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(continued)

Complaints and queries

Assessment Literacy

Summary of typical services in traditional university settings

Summary of typical services in ODL university settings

Multi channels: Academic programme related: Lecturer or Personal tutor first instance, then Programme managers/coordinators/directors; if unresolved heads of department and then deans Academic Appels: specific procedure, first instance personal tutor IT and Library related: e-mail log system with response and action mechanisms Administrative—Current students: Student services desk, E-mail (log systems in some universities), some universities have centralised student services, some are organised by faculties/departments. informal Administrative- prospective students: Plus additional mechanism within divisions. Face to face, phone and e-mail Procedures in place for response, action and communication of action Embedded in programme delivery and complemented with a Learning Support Centre providing face-to-face workshops and e-fact sheets on topics such as plagiarism, exam preparation, essay writing and marking criteria

Same as traditional, with intensive use of phone and e-mail channels combined with comprehensive online communication of information

Embedded in curriculum, and Academic/learning support via online platform using tools such as videos, webinars, toolkits, and self-evaluations UNISA regional centres have academic literacy facilitators (continued)

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(continued) Summary of typical services in traditional university settings

Summary of typical services in ODL university settings

Learning support

Learning Support centres providing face-to-face workshops drop-ins and e-fact sheets/toolkit on a range of topics such as academic writing, dissertation, plagiarism, assessment, referencing, numeracy, time management etc Within curriculum intervention on request

Library and IT Support

Subject librarians to support staff and students. “Ask a Librarian” e-mail log system E-library and physical library Training and workshops on aspects such as literature search, referencing, library catalogue, online resources etc Conceived as a Learning resource centre supporting independent learning and research with IT and learning facilities complementing traditional library services IT physical helpdesk together with a log system for troubleshooting IT labs, software training/workshops face to face or online Course management system (support students and staffs via log system and walk-in clinics) Face to face and e-learning training Walk-in, phone and e-mail support E-learning toolkit available online (e.g. using platform, Turnitin, submitting assignment, online text, viewing grades etc.)

Learning/academic support centres e-support via e-factsheets, videos, with live online support as well as phone/e-mail support Face to Face support/workshop also available OU uk and UNISA have regional centres that allow for face-to-face support Similar services to traditional with dominance of e-mail, online, and phone communication channels Comprehensive support via online information and e-tutorial E-mail log system for both IT and Library services

E-learning platform support

Course Management system via e-mail or live online support Same as traditional but with a great weight on the provision of online support material: toolkits, e-tutorial, online videos etc Face-to-face workshops available (induction and scheduled) Phone, e-mail and online support for all queries OU UK and UNISA have regional centres that can allow for face-to-face support (continued)

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(continued)

International students

Welfare and special needs

Careers, employability

Summary of typical services in traditional university settings

Summary of typical services in ODL university settings

International student office offering services from: immigration and visas, social/cultural outings, informal gatherings, accommodation support, survival toolkits, induction events and walk in. e-mail and phone ongoing support Typical services: personal/welfare issues, financial issues, health concerns, disabilities, settling at university, special circumstance Staffing: wellness and disability specialist, psychologists, trained administrative staff Personal counselling with professional counsellor on appointment, special circumstance advice and support and general advice via information desk, e-mail and phone Health and well-being e-advice Typical face-to-face services: Job matching, career advice, work placement (extra and within curriculum) CV clinic, graduate job, Job sector guides, employer’s events, self-evaluation Career fairs Staffing: Career counselling, trained admin staff in industry liaison Develops employer-university liaison and partnership, supports programmes for employability and work placement and career advice to student via e-career guides, face-to-face clinics and employer’s events Central Focus: graduate/early careers

No specific service within ODL settings reviewed

Same services and staffing as in Traditional universities, but with personal counselling and all welfare support available both face to face and on the phone as well as e-mail General health and well-being advice available online

Career services are generally available in the form of toolkits, self-evaluation and information page accessible online covering career planning, prepare for job opportunities, career development, personal development, career/job opportunities Central Focus: career development, new career and career promotion

Source ODL: UNISA (South Africa), Open University (UK), University of New England (Australia); Traditional: Imperial College (UK), University of Manchester (UK), Wits University (South Africa), Curtin University (Australia)

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CHAPTER 7

Professionalising Socialisation for Pragmatic e-Curriculum to the Rescue of South African Universities Makhosazana Edith Shoba

7.1

and Simon Bheki Khoza

Introduction

Universities or higher education institutions (HEIs), in line with most other sectors in the world, were affected by the coronavirus of 2019 (COVID-19). On 30 January 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared this situation caused by the virus a public health emergency of international concern after receiving a report about it on Tuesday

M. E. Shoba (B) Discipline of Education & Curriculum Studies, School of Education, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] S. B. Khoza Discipline of Curriculum Studies & Educational Technology, School of Education, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Olivier et al. (eds.), Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa, Digital Education and Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97656-9_7

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31 December 2019. Most governments responded to this situation by closing down (national lockdowns) various sectors in their countries that included universities. COVID-19 led to national lockdowns of different stages (physical/social distancing) that were implemented by various countries in the world. National lockdowns were used to contain COVID-19, training citizens to practise personal hygiene and to use digital technologies as their lifestyle for teaching, learning, research, and assessment. For example, in the Republic of South Africa (RSA), on Monday 23 March 2020, President Cyril Ramaphosa announced a national lockdown. The lockdown was supposed to last 21 days, from Thursday 26 March to Thursday 16 April 2020. This lockdown was, however, extended to 30 April 2020 as Stage 5. The lockdown moved to Stage 4 from 1 May 2020 and to Stage 3 from 1 June, when sectors started to operate. Only 33% of students were allowed to be on a university campus during Stage 3; 66% during Stage 2; 99% during Stage 1; and all students were allowed to return once the national lockdown was lifted. Consequently, all the universities in RSA had to use digital technologies in teaching, learning, research, and assessment. This process is known as online, electronic learning (e-learning), or digitalised curriculum (Khoza & Mpungose, 2020; Khoza, 2021b). However, for the purpose of this article which deals with curriculum, the process is known as the electronic curriculum (e-curriculum). Therefore, this article explores how and why professionalising socialisation for pragmatic e-curriculum results in a university digital divide in RSA. The digital divide is the division in the use of digital technologies for e-curriculum between the digitally well-resourced and the under-resourced universities.

7.2

Professional or Performance e-Curriculum

Performance (professional) curriculum is a plan for teaching, in which every activity required for teaching and learning is prescribed before teaching and learning take place (Berkvens et al., 2014; Van der Walt, 2015). Professional electronic curriculum (e-curriculum) is a teaching and learning system that uses university prescribed digital technologies/resources (Khoza, 2016a). The most popular university prescribed digital technologies are learning management systems (LMSs). LMSs are software that houses various teaching/learning activities and resources. Universities either develop their own internal LMSs, download opensource LMSs, or hire the services of proprietary (closed-source) LMSs.

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The basic page of an open-source LMSs is free. Some popular examples of open-source LMSs are Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment (Moodle), Canvas, Open edX, and Totara. Some popular examples of proprietary LMSs are Blackboard, WebCT, Sakai, inter alia. Although LMSs do have socialisation activities such as forums, chats, and such-like (Fig. 7.1), they are limited to formal teaching and learning. In a professional e-curriculum LMSs are mostly used to display course content, goals, summative assessment activities, resources, and other curriculum features as prescribed for teaching and learning (Grossi et al., 2018; Khoza, 2018). University LMSs have added more resources, such as Zoom (video-communication resource), Kaltura (video management), and others to support academics in teaching students to master their content (Fig. 7.1). Zoom was invented in 2011 by ChineseAmerican businessman Eric S. Yuan, in California, and launched in 2013. LMSs are capable of helping students to address the “what” questions of education and professional needs. For example, when questions arise on content, goals, resources (technologies), assessment, and more, academics/students simply visit the LMSs (Khoza, 2021b). There, any

Fig. 7.1 Moodle LMS activities and resources

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interested party can peruse the information generated by means of the activities/resources, as shown in Fig. 7.1. A study conducted by Khoza and Biyela (2020) on the content of mathematics that drives the e-curriculum concluded that mathematics content is divided into algebra, trigonometry, and geometry. These three divisions are applicable to a regular curriculum as well. This study supports the findings of studies (Abbott, 2015; Akugizibwe & Ahn, 2019; Budden, 2017), emphasising that all courses or subjects have their foundations, core, and elective topics of content. LMSs are capable of providing content in logical ways that support students who want to master their course content. Students have aspirations of achieving high marks for qualifications or professional needs (Biesta, 2015; Kisaka, 2018; Makumane & Khoza, 2020). The course content is not only divided into topics/sections; it is also divided into objectives that must be achieved by academics as the course short-term goals; while students achieve learning outcomes. In a professional e-curriculum, summative assessments, such as tests or examinations, are used to establish academics’ achieved objectives, while students master the course content by achieving learning outcomes (Kamahina et al., 2019; Toro-Troconis et al., 2019). Students are expected to have all prescribed digital technologies or resources. The professional e-curriculum refers to the individual performance of strictly following all course rules, and mastering content with limited time to share such with other students (Mabuza & Khoza, 2021; Mpungose, 2020a). In other words, it is a lonely journey when students follow strict instructions from their instructors (academics) on the content. In a professional e-curriculum, quality education is defined as a system that only follows prescribed content based on specific rules, without any deviation from the rules (structured/formal) (Mpungose & Khoza, 2022; Mpungose, 2020a). The professional e-curriculum favours students from affluent families/societies who can afford speedy internet connecting devices. Such resources can connect students even from homes/living rooms when they need to communicate with academics (le Grange, 2016; Sokhulu, 2021; Waghid, 2019). Most students from affluent families achieve their qualifications within the minimum time prescribed. Usually, such students join well-resourced research-extensive universities after coming from well-resourced schools. The students’ previous schools have usually had the same/similar digital

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technologies used by their universities. For this cohort of students, the professional e-curriculum adhered to by universities is quite familiar, their schools have shared the same environment (Czerniewicz, 2018; le Grange, 2016). These discussions on professional e-curriculum suggest that digital technologies are part of the prescribed teaching and learning resources that automatically help HEIs to teach even during times of novelty/uncertainty. According to Gondwe (2020), the main strength of the professional e-curriculum is the support offered by educational developers (educational/instructional technologists) to academics to advance their qualifications. Educational developers are an emerging profession within the higher education sector that is set to replace educational/instructional technologists. The main responsibility of the educational developers is to “collaborate with individual instructors, academic departments and larger campus units on a range of teaching and learning activities” (Gondwe, 2020, p. 3). These persons are responsible for educational development/technology centres (ED/TCs) in their HEIs. However, this does not suggest that some strengths of socialisation e-curriculum capable of producing collaboration platforms/spaces are not important.

7.3 Socialisation or Competence-Based e-Curriculum Competence-based or socialisation e-curriculum is a plan of learning in which student experiences are used to generate learning activities before or during the teaching and learning process (Hoadley, 2018; Khoza, 2019). The socialisation e-curriculum follows unstructured/informal processes based on people’s opinions. It allows students and academics to take risks through trial-and-error actions that may result in creativity (Mabuto, 2020; Mpungose, 2020b). The socialisation e-curriculum mostly involves the use of social-media sites (SMSs) in learning. Some examples of the most popular SMSs are Facebook, YouTube, WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, WeChat, Instagram, and TikTok. Most students come to universities able to use SMSs because their families or societies employ these sites for socialisation (Khoza, 2020b; Mpungose, 2020b). SMSs are mainly used for socialisation, users communicating or socialising with friends per such sites. Achievement of learning outcomes through interaction and peer evaluation become the drivers of the learning process. SMSs usually help

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students to observe how other people learn through socialisation or interactions. In other words, they address the “how” questions of education and societal needs. In a competence-based e-curriculum, quality learning is defined as what is currently working, as observed by the majority of local society or community members. When students join universities bringing their SMS skills, it becomes their responsibility to adapt to the university LMSs. Such may demand new knowledge, understanding, and structured ways of deploying digital technologies strictly for learning (Khoza & Biyela, 2020). Most students from disadvantaged families/societies find it difficult to adjust. This results in them completing their qualifications late, taking much longer than others to qualify (Kisaka, 2018; le Grange, 2017; Mpungose, 2020a). According to Laeen et al., (2019, p. 84), when the e-curriculum integrates SMSs, localising socialisation to one’s culture, “students end up in lack of incentive, leaving school, shallow learning, the inefficiency of the current performance of teachers, interruptions in communication, one-way interaction, and the challenges of locali[s]ation is denial of the cultural diversity of politicians, non-native content …”. In other words, digital technologies used to support a socialisation e-curriculum should be employed for both everyday and school knowledge (Hoadley, 2018; Khoza, 2020a). As such, this will help students with the next level of thinking that is consciousness of diversity. There is therefore the need for pragmatic or personal studies that combine the strengths of the professional (school knowledge) and socialisation (everyday knowledge) e-curriculum. This will overcome the tension between them, addressing both professional and societal needs (Mpungose, 2020c; Sokhulu, 2021).

7.4

Pragmatic or Personalised e-Curriculum

The personalised or pragmatic e-curriculum is the cognitive process of reflection that helps individuals to understand their personal needs or values before teaching and learning take place (Kaushik & Walsh, 2019; Khoza, 2016b). In a pragmatic e-curriculum, quality education is defined as what will work in teaching and learning irrespective of whether the system is professional or a socialisation process. In a pragmatic e-curriculum, teaching and learning start by addressing the “who” questions (who is teaching and learning?). This helps academics to choose,

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using relevant professional and socialisation activities based on the experiences of both academics and students (Khoza & Mpungose, 2020; Sokhulu, 2021). Pragma, the word from which the adjective pragmatic is derived, is a Greek word meaning action. Experiences are formed by actions that take place in specific situations and contexts. When people act, their actions are subconsciously stored in one of the three areas of the human brain known as the subconscious mind, where experiences may be retrieved for any action to take place. The subconscious mind works 24 h a day and seven days a week (24/7); however, the subconscious needs the conscious mind to distinguish between imaginary and real action (Khoza, 2021b). The conscious mind is the reasoning part of the human brain. This area of the brain does not function well when people sleep, are drunk, troubled, overexcited, or petrified (Khoza, 2021a). Another part of the human brain is the unconscious mind which is responsible for the functioning of all-natural body systems: breathing, heartbeat, digestive system, and others (Khoza, 2019). The unconscious mind functions naturally, no supervision is necessary. The subconscious and conscious minds, however, function through experienced social, and/or professional actions. Humans internally shape their experiences into beliefs through actions and intelligence (Dewey, 1933; Morgan, 2014). When the situations or contexts change, the actions change, as do the experiences and beliefs. In other words, all actions are unique and build on the consequences of previous actions. This suggests that the pragmatic e-curriculum is about what is internally believed will work through professional and/or socialisation experiences in addressing personal needs (Ivancheva et al., 2020; Mpungose, 2020b; Sokhulu, 2021). However, what seems to be missing but observable, is the positioning of natural actions. These are also experienced by people, shaping their beliefs to produce educational habits or a natural e-curriculum that addresses the philosophical “why” questions (Khoza & Mpungose, 2020; Khoza, 2020b). The natural e-curriculum has not been given sufficient space for exploring in the literature debate. Whatever action we see displayed by people reflects what has happened inside the human brain before actions are externalised.

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Digital Divide in South African Universities

The digital divide is the phrase used to indicate people’s differences in access, use, and outcomes of digital technologies. According to a study conducted by Dolan (2016) on the digital divide, digital technology users are categorised into “haves” and “have-nots” in terms of computer possessions. Most of those who have computer/internet access (the haves) are from urban areas or well-resourced communities; those who have limited or no computer/internet access (have-nots) come from rural areas or disadvantaged communities (Kormos, 2018; Scheerder et al., 2017). However, the introduction of mobile/smartphones has increased access (Level One—societal) to the internet, allowing digital technology users to connect to data bundles or Wi-Fi if they do not have computers. The connection to the internet is Level One of the digital divide, while knowledge and skills of using digital technologies are seen at Level Two (Kormos, 2018). Observable learning outcomes produced by the use of digital technologies are Level Three of the digital divide (Dolan, 2016; Khoza, 2020a; Khoza & Mpungose, 2020). This suggests that while the introduction of mobile/smartphones has helped to increase connectivity, it has only addressed Level One of the digital divide. According to Van Deursen and Van Dijk (2019), the HEI digital divide comprises inequalities shifting from physical access (Level One) to internet connections to material access (Level Two—professional). HEIs in urban areas, especially in big cities, have both physical access to the internet and the material, having advanced resources (LMSs, SMSs, and others) and educational developers/technologists (Mihelj et al., 2019; Mpungose, 2020c). On the one hand, HEIs that had pragmatically combined SMSs and LMSs, supported by educational developers/technologists, were able to complete their first semester of the academic year in June/July 2020 in RSA. This was even when they were affected by COVID-19 and lockdown challenges (Khoza & Mpungose, 2020; Sokhulu, 2021). The majority of students that study at these HEIs come from well-resourced schools and families (Hoadley, 2018; Khoza & Mpungose, 2020). This reflects that HEIs may take advantage of digital technologies that address their needs if they have invested in digital technologies and educational developers or technologists. On the other hand, HEIs, the majority of whose students were from disadvantaged communities, were unable to conclude their academic year

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even by the end of August 2020 when they were affected by COVID19 and lockdown challenges (Mpungose, 2020a; Sokhulu, 2021). This implies that Level Three (personal and natural) emphasises a digital divide of a gap between these two different groups of HEIs, in the achievement of academic outcomes (Khoza & Biyela, 2020). This study focuses on the actions of RSA HEIs in taking advantage of being a top country in Africa in internet penetration. The study uses secondary data that have been published variously, such as on HEI websites, in HEI bulletins, articles, books, and others. There are twenty-six (26) public universities in South Africa under different categories/types: five (5) research-intensive universities, six (6) universities of technology, and fifteen (15) comprehensive universities. These universities are located across all provinces—Western Cape, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, Free State, Northern Cape, North West, Eastern Cape, Limpopo, and Mpumalanga. The status of universities is worth noting as it illuminates engagement with the e-curriculum explored in this paper. Apartheid ideology of education entrenched in racism, sexism, and ethnicity gave birth to diverse universities such as the research-intensive (for the wealthy), and the technological and comprehensive universities (mainly for the disadvantaged communities). Research-intensive universities are highly ranked, attract highly qualified staff, are well resourced, sponsored, highly competitive, and strategically located in suburban areas for easy access to elite communities (Cliff et al., 2020). Research is part of the universities’ teaching and learning functions expressed in academics’ research interests. The academics package knowledge and pedagogy, critical and self-reflective. In short, academics are leaders in curriculum design. Academics, therefore, ensure that students benefit from the latest knowledge and thinking in their discipline and beyond. By contrast, technology and comprehensive universities have emerging reputations for research in international rankings, focusing on research as an applied activity (Cliff et al., 2020). Initial qualification for researchintensive universities is a degree; while comprehensive universities and universities of technology may offer diplomas, students do not necessarily need to meet the requirements. Nevertheless, despite the effect of the digital divide, all the HEIs must professionalise (LMSs) and apply socialisation (SMSs) for a pragmatic e-curriculum (using whatever suits the need/situation/context) to complete the academic year and to overcome

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COVID-19 and national lockdown challenges (Khoza & Mpungose, 2020).

7.6

Research Design and Methodology

This study uses the pragmatic paradigm to make sense of the complexity of the phenomenon under investigation/exploration. The word pragmatism originally derives from the Greek word pragma, which means action (Kaushik & Walsh, 2019). The concept of “action” is central to pragmatism. Pragmatist philosophy holds that we can never separate human actions from past experiences and beliefs that originate from those experiences (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018; Khoza, 2021a). After all, human thoughts are intrinsically linked to actions. In other words, people take actions based on the possible consequences of their actions, using the results of their actions to predict solutions to similar actions in the future (Kivunja & Kuyini, 2017). A primary contention of pragmatist philosophy is that the meaning of human actions and beliefs is found in their consequences (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018; Khoza & Fomunyam, 2021). External forces do not determine humans, who can shape their experiences through their actions and intelligence. Equally important is that pragmatists believe that reality is not static; instead, it changes at every turn of events (Cohen et al., 2018; Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Similarly, the world is not static; instead, it is in a state of becoming. The world changes through actions; thus, action is the way to change existence. Actions have the role of an intermediary. In short, actions are pivotal to pragmatism (Kaushik & Walsh, 2019; Shoba, 2021). The study engages with actions based on experiences universities undertook to save the academic year in response to changes and new understandings of reality. Such changes were brought about by the pandemic that has changed the world. The world is even now in a state of becoming. Universities’ previous experiences of the e-curriculum informed swift action in response to the pandemic, planning for the current and future unforeseen circumstances. Universities constructed knowledge socially; however, versions of those social constructions matched some individuals’ experiences more than others. As expressed in pragmatism, actions became pivotal, shaping university individuals’ experiences to varying degrees on the e-curriculum (Kaushik & Walsh, 2019; Makumane & Khoza, 2020).

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Methodologically, we used secondary data published on the HEI websites to produce the findings (critical discourse analysis—CDA). Critical discourse analysis arises largely from the Frankfurt school of critical theory (Cohen et al., 2018). CDA has as an agenda the critiquing of inequalities, discrimination, and ideological domination. According to Cohen et al. (2018), critical discourse analysis aims to transform and emancipate societies and their members. Thus, illegitimate power imbalances and influences within relationships are redressed. CDA has allowed us to interrogate how texts create ideological, political, social, and economic power imbalances, perpetuated, and subsequently achieved and reproduced through discourses (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). We interrogated texts not only for what they included but for what they excluded. We were able to engage with “the structured silences” in texts and how these personify disparities of power and influence in society (Cohen et al., 2018). We concentrated on the five research-intensive universities in RSA because we are part of them. We also believe that these universities’ findings may help empower other types of universities in RSA and other countries that need guidelines on the ecurriculum. We used pseudonyms (HEIv, HEIw, HEIx, HEIy, and HEIz) to represent the five HEIs, as part of ethical considerations.

7.7

Findings and Discussions

Professionalising Socialisation for a Pragmatic e-Curriculum HEIs in RSA, as in most other developed countries, have combined socialisation technologies (SMSs) with HEI-prescribed professional technologies (LMSs). This suits their situations and contexts in pragmatically addressing their unique needs. The RSA HEI pragmatic e-curriculum is driven by world university rankings, digital technologies, and ideologicalware resources (teaching/learning theories). World University Rankings RSA has features of both a developed and a developing country, with twenty per cent of schools being under-resourced (schools for the poor), and eighty per cent of schools being well-resourced (schools for the rich) (Hoadley, 2018). This status quo segues into some HEIs. For example, research-intensive universities recruit twenty per cent of their students

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from under-resourced schools and eighty per cent from well-resourced schools. The expectation is to perform well in the international rankings, thereby positioning SA universities on the world map. In contrast, comprehensives and universities of technology take the opposite stance to the research-intensive universities. This goes to the nature of the students, the majority of whom come from under-resourced schools. World rankings are an essential part of university factors that lead to high academic standards and research performance. The rankings stipulate five core activities in which HEIs should excel. These are teaching (30% learning environment), research (30% volume, income, and reputation), citations (30% research influence), international outlook (7.5% staff, student, research), and industry income (2.5% knowledge transfer) (Center for World University Rankings, 2021). In the recent past, (2019/2020 and 2020/2021), the five RSA research-intensive universities are in the world’s top five hundred (500), having been performing well according to the criteria set. When these HEIs were affected by COVID-19, they had to reposition their resources used for the five activities to manage the e-curriculum. Notable were varying responses to the e-curriculum. Some universities had to professionalise the socialisation for a pragmatic e-curriculum to save the e-curriculum—the student dynamics and the contextual factors affecting them. For instance, students from HEIw and other comprehensive universities did not respond well to online learning, boycotting it (Mpungose & Khoza, 2021). This was evident in the SRCs’ response to online learning published on their Facebook page. Quoted in the Witness newspaper was: “We do not want the semester to be wasted, and we accept e-learning if it will be implemented in a way that will accommodate all students, including those coming from economically disadvantaged backgrounds.” “Of course, this must be optional, so those who feel they can survive e-learning at home must remain at home, and those who can only cope with e-learning when on campus must return to campus. “Those from rural areas will not be able to study online because they have no network. Most students (black in particular) cannot afford the data required for e-learning”. (SRC, HEIw)

Dispute the above expressions that highlight access to data, connectivity issues/bandwidth, network, smart device/computer availability,

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poor living conditions, overcrowded homes, dealing with house chores between classes, and completing assignments, as main challenges hindering online learning, the HEIs saved the 2020/2021 academic year/calendar. Subsequently, universities became galvanised into action, providing more support for students to restructure resources for a pragmatic e-curriculum. Contextual factors of students were used to inform actions in line with their concerns. Restructuring meant developing new assessment strategies, introducing innovative ways of teaching, and being creative in responding to students’ needs. Adopting a pragmatic curriculum would mean that teaching and learning, as one of the core ranking activities, remained supported, teaching and learning standards therefore not plummeting nor being compromised. It is also worth noting that a pragmatic curriculum means that lecturers adapt and recalibrate courses. Lecturers therefore learn new ways of assessing and teaching for a pragmatic e-curriculum. It was initially thought that the transition from traditional teaching to online teaching would be easy for students. However, the reality dawned that universities had to supply what would work best for students in various contexts. Digital Technologies Digital technologies used by HEIs in RSA are divided into LMSs and SMSs. The five research-intensive HEIs, most of the HEIs of technology, and some of the comprehensive HEIs used LMSs such as Moodle, Blackboard, Sakai, Wits-e, Vula, clickUP, SUNLearn, amongst others. These became basic technologies for most of the HEIs when they moved to online teaching and learning (e-curriculum). Over and above these LMSs, most of the research-intensive HEIs, HEIs of technology, and some of the comprehensive HEIs, had Centres of Educational Technology (CET) or Educational Development/Technology Centres (ED/TCs), which they used to drive online processes. Some examples of the CET are the Centre for Innovation in Learning and Teaching (CILT), the Centre for Higher Education Development (CHED), and the Centre for Learning, Teaching, and Development (CLTD); others also exist. These centres were managed by educational technologists/developers who are professors in the field of educational technology (ET) (Khoza & Mpungose, 2020). For example, the University of Cape Town’s CET is managed by Professor Laura Czerniewicz and her team, who were publishing on issues of online learning long before the COVID-19 era.

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The 23rd and 26th March 2020, when the RSA state president announced and implemented the lockdown, marked the beginning of observable pragmatic (pragmatism) processes of the HEI e-curriculum. The HEIs had agreements with Telkom, MTN, Vodacom, and Cell C to provide staff and students with free data bundles for the Level One access to the internet. The HEIs provided staff and students with zerorated sites that only needed students to deposit R1 into their SIM cards to activate the connection. Four out of five research-intensive universities (HEIv, HEIx, HEIy, and HEIz) were able to complete their first semester of the academic year by July 2020 through the effective use of the e-curriculum (Khoza, 2020a). Educational development/technology centres (ED/TCs) and the nature of the recruited students seemed to be two of the common factors of the four HEIs, helping these four HEIs to complete the academic year 2020 without major changes to what they had planned in 2019 for 2020. The next few days (15–19 April 2020) will be used to transition to the online environment with the university officially opening for the second block on 20 April 2020 … Multiple surveys across the institution have revealed that between 10% and 15% of students do not have access to appropriate computing devices, adequate access to data or conducive learning environments… has established a mobile computing bank (MCB) which will enable qualifying students who do not have access to appropriate mobile learning devices to loan basic devices from the MCB … (HEIz)

According to this account, the 2020 academic year for HEIz went well, almost as though there were no challenges of COVID-19 and lockdown. The second-term teaching and learning processes started well in April as planned in 2019. These were facilitated by means of the e-curriculum through HEIz ED/TCs. Such established that more than eighty per cent (80%) of students had access to computers and internet connections (three access levels of the digital divide). The accounts suggest that one factor determining the success of an e-curriculum is students’ access to digital technology. The success of an e-curriculum requires that HEIs have more than 80% of students with access to digital technologies (three levels of access). In other words, these must be students from wealthy or well-resourced families so that the few from under-resourced families can be supported by ED/TCs through MCB, as one example of the support systems.

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This was evident from HEIw, which completed the second semester in September 2020 instead of July because it had more than 78% students from disadvantaged or under-resourced families. HEIw was mostly affected by the first-year students having to wait for laptops that were imported from China; and the training of academics on the e-curriculum. Although academics had the opportunity of acquiring knowledge and skills of the e-curriculum through a compulsory introduction to Moodle by the HEI leaders of teaching and learning, academics could not take advantage of this. The majority of students (from disadvantaged families) resisted the use of Moodle (Khoza & Mpungose, 2020). The resistance from the students was caused by the digital divide. The majority who came from disadvantaged families had limited or no access to computers and internet connections. The other challenge was that HEIw did not have ED/TC to facilitate the smooth introduction of LMSs (Khoza, 2020a). In March 2020, when the national lockdown began in RSA, academics and students had to train themselves by sharing the knowledge and skills they had on digital technologies. Some institutions compelled academics and students to survive without the support of ED/TC, the institution does not have such. This lack of support compromises the content coverage and summative assessment (Czerniewicz, 2018; Khoza & Mpungose, 2020). When academics and students socialised about what they were going to do in order to save the 2020 academic year, the HEIw professionally reduced the module content (produced a new revised policy) and what was to be assessed in each module. The academics had to implement this new revised policy. Ideological-Ware Resources (Teaching and Learning Theories) ED/TCs taking advantage of the introduction of an e-curriculum while academics have a choice seemed another determinant of the success of the e-curriculum, as observed from the account of HEIx below. The transition was relatively smooth because in 2015 – under the leadership of the then newly appointed vice-principal … [HEIx] transitioned to a hybrid approach to teaching and learning ... The [LMS] data for the first four weeks guided by [ED/TC] shows that lecturers uploaded 443GB of content to 3158 online courses and that 34,818 out of 35,939 (96,8%) undergraduate students used the LMS actively … 87% of students have access to the Internet … (HEIx)

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The universities found it difficult to be sufficiently professional in designing an e-curriculum with relevant ideological-ware resources (theories/approaches). Time was sparse—relevant theories must be identified through research. Socially, academics deprived of time for planning, used any digital technology available to teach; however, the processes produced pragmatic ideological-ware resources for teaching and learning. According to HEIv, “The move to remote teaching was unusually rapid. There was no time for the usual deliberate course design or online teaching strategies”. When academics design courses for an e-curriculum they usually begin with deliberations facilitated by the ED/TC. Such an approach produces relevant theories that drive digital technologies. Some of the theories HEIs used were the “structured approach” (HEIv), and the Bourdieu Framework. The structured approach is the approach that drives a professional e-curriculum such as the global education reform movement (GERM). The Bourdieu Framework is driven by the pragmatic e-curriculum, in which habitus becomes the main principle of the framework. Habitus, according to Bourdieu and Wacquant (1992), is structuring informed by background and past experiences, and structured in that it shapes one’s future experiences and engagement with the fields of which it forms part; it is not random. Technology plays an important role in students’ habitus through access to particular forms of cultural capital; it also shapes how they engage with their studies. The embodied and objectified states of cultural capital are especially relevant to both students’ scholarly identities in the field of higher education and to their personal identities (Khoza, 2021a).

7.8

Conclusion with Implications

Findings indicate that professionalising socialisation for pragmatic ecurriculum in HEIs is necessary because many have not crossed the digital divide, particularly in universities where digital technologies drive teaching (Makumane, 2021; Sokhulu, 2021). In other words, Multimodal Learning Environments (MLE) in Southern Africa that embrace Digital Pedagogies should pragmatically combine the main principles of professional and socialisation actions (professionalising socialisation). A pragmatic e-curriculum is a need or situation-driven MLE that advocates for individual unique intelligence as the centre of any education (Khoza, 2021a). The individual unique intelligence is capable of combining the

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strengths of professional and socialisation actions in order to address individual, professional, and societal needs (Khoza, 2021b). Gross inequalities between the wealthy and the indigent perpetuate such, therefore it is best to professionalise socialisation for a pragmatic e-curriculum thus minimising challenges. To illustrate, the e-curriculum favours the needs of students from wealthy or well-resourced families. Thus ED/TCs can support the few from under-resourced families through the MCB as an example of a support system. This is because South Africa has an affluent sector of the population with the economy and level of technology on a par with that of any mature country in the developed world (Mashinini, 2020). Some 8.5 per cent of students have access to a personal computer on an aggregate population basis. The above arguments highlight the uneven distribution of infrastructural resources such as bandwidth, access to the internet, and digital resource provision that many disadvantaged societies do not have (Hodges, Moore, Lockee, Trust, & Bond, 2020). le Grange et al. (2020) perceive this phenomenon as economic disparities that perpetuate digital inequalities and hinder smooth digital transition. In other words, technological development is somewhat held captive by the persistence of economic dualism in South Africa (Barbour et al., 2020). The persistence of class divisions also manifests in the provision of education and impact on the e-curriculum. In such cases, universities should plan for a pragmatic e-curriculum. COVID-19 has laid bare the intricacies of unpreparedness and denialist attitudes by universities that students are contextually challenged thus need a systems change/professionalising socialisation for a pragmatic ecurriculum (Ngubane-Mokiwa & Khoza, 2021; Zheng et al., 2019). Universities must act swiftly and responsibly, providing solutions by unbundling and “providing socially embedded, pedagogically innovative educational opportunities for students disadvantaged in several ways” (Ivancheva et al., 2020, p. 609). Unbundling considers social relevance and ensures that students have more significant opportunities to access a pragmatic e-curriculum (Ivancheva et al., 2020; Zheng et al., 2020). This study recommends that academics create an opportunity for students to reflect on their experiences before/during/after learning in order to understand their identities thus helping them to access a pragmatic e-curriculum.

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CHAPTER 8

Teacher Perspectives on Blended Learning in a Changing Educational Landscape Michele F. van der Merwe and Marné Pedro

8.1

Introduction

This chapter is written considering the already-changing educational landscape regarding twenty-first-century teaching and language education and the rapidly changing educational landscape due to the impact of COVID-19 (cf. Chapter 3) in South Africa. Arguably, most teachers in South Africa were not ready to adopt blended learning as a teaching strategy, let alone employ emergency online learning strategies, but there was no other option to revert to. Teachers were forced to prepare online learning materials and transfer their face-to-face teaching activities to online learning platforms, albeit synchronous or asynchronous.

M. F. van der Merwe · M. Pedro (B) Department of Curriculum Studies, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] M. F. van der Merwe e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Olivier et al. (eds.), Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa, Digital Education and Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97656-9_8

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This form of instructional multimodality (cf. Chapter 1) entailed moving their classes from the typical face-to-face setting to the Internet overnight. According to Mhlanga (2021), the Southern African teaching community turned to remote learning, using digital tools, including radio, television, cell phones, laptops and computers. He concluded that the COVID-19 pandemic rushed the digital revolution of the education sector in South Africa. According to Burgos et al. (2021) COVID-19, or any similar crisis, seriously affects human life and disrupts several daily crucial activities, including working and learning. The current COVID-19 global pandemic has affected several billions of students worldwide, as many schools had to close for months. Between March and April 2020, around half of the world’s educational institutions found themselves closing their doors and completely shutting down all conceivable classroom activities. Nowadays, because of COVID-19 (Affoueh & Burgos, 2021), more than 1.6 million children are unable to access formal education in primary, secondary and higher education. It is estimated that nearly 98% of students have been affected by the pandemic. As schools and universities have been closed in every country worldwide, many governments have decided to shift to online learning. This shift poses challenges but also opportunities on the micro- and macrolevels. Notwithstanding the decision, educational leaders should rethink schools’ and universities’ existing infrastructure, pedagogical resources that suit online learning, capacity building of teachers, and students’ readiness for such a move. These obstacles have affected the continuity of education for many students in the affected countries, and digital justice has not been a priority for educational policymakers to begin with (Affoueh & Burgos, 2021). Affoueh and Burgos (2021) describe many learning opportunities that have also emerged in this difficult time. A community of committed teachers had to learn how to record videos and upload them, how to deal with learning platforms, how to conduct collaborative learning, how to facilitate forums and respond to students’ posts effectively and how to manage their time and meet learners’ expectations. Although huge pressure was put on teachers, they were still left with no choice as to whether to accept or resist this situation. Even though a global movement has responded to it and continuous learning communities have emerged, digital justice has unfortunately not been observed since many students have no access to learning because they have no computers or smart devices. The lack of digital literacy

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also prevents many teachers from delivering quality learning content to their students. While many other teachers can use technology, many of them have no pedagogical background to teach online, and they have only reflected their face-to-face practices through their computers, which does not guarantee high-quality teaching or better learning (Affoueh & Burgos, 2021). Mhlanga (2021) discovered that introducing blended learning in South Africa is associated with challenges related to high levels of inequality, massive digital divide, resource constraints and skills shortages. Therefore, it is recommended that, for blended learning to be successful, it is important to ensure that there is a policy platform for addressing challenges related to inequality, skills deficit and the massive digital divide. This means that policies that are geared towards addressing all the abovestated challenges should be prioritised if blended learning is to be effective in South Africa. Dube (2020) also discussed the challenges in learning faced by South African learners in rural areas during the COVID-19 pandemic. According to him, rural learners face unprecedented challenges to adjust to a new model of learning, i.e., online learning, using various learning management systems and low-tech applications. The study revealed that many learners in rural areas were excluded from teaching and learning due to challenges related to resource constraints, such as lack of internet access, absence of learning management systems and low-tech software (Dube, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic prompted the South African government to close all educational institutions—from primary to tertiary educational institutions. The closure of schools was followed by the lockdown on 23 March 2020 by the president of South Africa for 21 days, which was further extended from 14 to 30 April 2020 (Government of South Africa, 2021). Another lockdown was enforced up to 1 June 2020. During total lockdown on levels 4 and 5, online teaching occurred in South Africa. Schools opened on 1 June, and only matric pupils were allowed to go to school, and they received face-to-face instruction. The rest of the school pupils in the high school reported on in this study, attended school following a rotating cycle of one week’s physical attendance of school and an alternative week of online teaching. This arrangement led to teachers making use of blended learning (i.e., a combination of delivery modes) which evidently formed or changed their perception of blended learning.

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Before the onset of the pandemic, teachers held certain perspectives on blended learning. In our research, we investigated their perspectives on blended learning during the pandemic. The changing educational landscape urges the teacher to have an innovative disposition with regard to teaching and learning, and to explore ways in which technology can be integrated meaningfully within the curriculum framework and combined with the most valued features of traditional learning experiences to ultimately transform the language classroom in terms of the nature and quality of the educational experience. A definition of teacher perspectives would be as follows: … the ideas, point of view and feelings of individuals on teaching. Perspectives would also include their stance on with regards to educational components, for example the role of schools in society, perspectives on pupils, the role of teachers in the education process as well as the curriculum. These perspectives provide a framework for the cognitive as well as affective characteristics underlying to teachers’ planning, decisionmaking and implementation with regards to teaching. (Galvis, 2012, p. 99)

8.2

Research Methodology

Research Design, Approach and Paradigm Qualitative research—the type of research reported on in this chapter—has its roots in phenomenology (Babbie & Mouton, 2001). Phenomenology, as a qualitative educational research approach, was used for the purposes of this research. A phenomenological approach was relevant in this regard, as the focus of a phenomenological study is the interpretation of a particular phenomenon (Merriam, 2009). In the present study, the phenomenon of language teachers’ perspectives on blended learning as a teaching and learning strategy was investigated. In addition, our research is placed within an interpretivist paradigm, as “a particular reality is examined” (Lombard, 2016, p. 9). The reality explored by us as phenomenologists is the various perspectives that the participants (teachers) held about blended learning as an approach for language education and how these perspectives influenced teacher practice.

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Taylor and Van der Merwe (2019) subscribe to the view of Taylor and Medina (2013, p. 4), who argue that interpretivism is important for educational research: … because it enables researchers to gain an understanding of the realworld experiences of teachers and learners within the context of the classroom, organization, and community and then to draw inferences that can contribute to research.

Against the background of Taylor and Van der Merwe’s arguments, it is important to understand how language educators experience blended learning in their classrooms. To deduce language teachers’ perspectives on blended learning with any degree of accuracy, we needed several varied resources from which these inferences could be formed. Within the context of this study, it was important to describe what the person believed and how they related to different perspectives, such as their perspectives on blended learning, teaching and learning approaches, and language teaching to the twenty-first-century learner. To understand these perspectives, an interpretivist case study design (Creswell, 2012) was used as an approach to serve as a framework for data collection to realise the objectives of the study. School Background The high school that formed part of this case study is a section-21 high school in the Western Cape and falls under the Western Cape Education Department. Teaching of the highest quality has been provided for more than 150 years. This statement is based on more than 20 consecutive years’ 100% pass mark obtained in the NSC examination. The school is a traditional school with a wide range of subject choice possibilities, good facilities, well-motivated teachers and a governing body with the necessary vision. It is the aim of the school to prepare learners who can take their place in the economy of the South Africa in the future and to equip them with the knowledge and skills that will make it easier for them to pursue a profession of their choice. The school governing body and staff, therefore, recognised in the School Policy for Blended Learning Integration (Anonymous, 2017) an urgent need to expose approximately 600 learners to “the most modern teaching methods, aids and computer technology that exist in order to optimally empower the learners for the future”.

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Sample We purposefully decided who would be approached to inquire whether they would participate in the investigation. This ensured that people who were knowledgeable about the topic under study were included in the research (Burns & Grove, 2001). For the present study, Grades 8–12 language teachers were approached. Eight teachers were selected from three language departments, namely the Afrikaans department, the English department and the Department of Foreign Languages. The teachers had between one and 30 years of teaching experience and varied qualifications, ranging from a basic diploma in teaching (two-year post-high school qualification) to postgraduate qualifications. Six women and two men were included in the sample, and their ages ranged from 28 to 65 years. The teachers who participated in this study adopted blended learning as a curricular strategy from September 2017, with the aim of integrating twenty-first-century teaching and learning objectives with existing teaching practices. In 2017, the selected school offered all staff members the opportunity to complete a short course on blended learning at the University of Stellenbosch, of whom five out of eight completed the training. Semi-Structured Interviews Qualitative interviews were used to generate data to better understand the complex realities of this study. The technique of interviewing links well with the aims of interpretivism, as space is created for the subjective compilation of knowledge around teacher experiences. It is therefore through the interaction of the participants during the interview that knowledge is created. Semi-structured interviews also provide the opportunity to try to form a greater understanding of teachers’ thinking and perspectives. During our study, we conducted two sets of interviews—the first round took place in 2017 when the teachers were first introduced to blended learning as a strategy for language education. The second round of interviews took place in 2021 after our teacher participants had implemented various online strategies to adhere to COVID-19 protocols and school health and safety measures as prescribed by the Department of Basic Education.

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Data Analysis and Findings

In this section, we describe the analysis and findings that emerged from the investigation so as to answer the main research question of this study, namely: What are language teachers’ perspectives regarding blended learning as a teaching and learning strategy in post-COVID times compared to pre-COVID times? The teacher participants in this study expressed their understanding of blended learning in language education. A code was assigned to each participant—the “P” stands for “participant”, and each participant is numbered to ensure anonymity. Teachers’ Definitions of Blended Learning Before discussing the findings, the participating teachers’ insights, and perspectives on blended learning as a pedagogical approach are explained. This point of departure is based on our view that if teachers have a limited understanding of the pedagogy underlining blended learning, their perception of the integration of the learning approach may be affected. In the words of Participant 7: “… you have to be careful about adopting a learning approach, which you do not really understand”. Teachers’ pedagogical knowledge of blended learning can ensure that they understand how to use and integrate learning technologies that can possibly change their teaching in order to achieve greater learner involvement and motivation. If the teacher does not have sufficient pedagogical knowledge of blended learning, they will most likely not be able to create rich, meaningful learning experiences regarding the use of technology in the language classroom. Consequently, both teachers and learners would be disadvantaged. Stacey (2008) also suggests that teachers should form part of a blended learning community that can provide continuous pedagogical as well as technical support so that teacher innovation can be maintained. Participant 6 (P6) made the following remarks regarding her understanding of blended learning: Blended learning allows learners to become more involved, thus leading to greater more engaged learners. The traditional methods are still used (those that work) but in an innovative way that the learners will relate to their 21st-century world. It’s about easily access to a world of resources outside of the immediate classroom.

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Participant 6’s reference to learners who can become “more involved” in the lesson and “engaged” learning correlates with the notion that twentyfirst-century learning represents a change in the traditional teacher and learner roles. This statement is related to Bolstad et al.’s (2012, p. 39) definition of the teacher’s role as a “mentor” who “guides” learners on their unique learning journeys. This understanding is central to the potentially rich and meaningful learning experiences that can be created through blended learning, and P6’s extensive understanding of these innovative teacher–learner dynamics may indicate the positive changes that were taking place in her classroom practice. Participant 7 explained that, with traditional learning approaches, “the teacher is the central point in the lesson and the learners are the spectators. Blended learning, however, means that the learners take ownership of the content, and they are participants—not mere spectators”. The reference to “spectators” versus “participants” was also echoed in P8’s definition of blended learning: With blended learning approaches, the learners take more ownership over their work, and therefore they figure out more for themselves. In traditional learning, the teachers are in charge, and the learners only respond to whatever command/exercise they are given.

Participants 6, 7 and 8 each highlighted the potential of blended learning to enhance learner involvement in a more prominent and meaningful way. Their perspectives also emphasised that the shift in teaching and learning dynamics could result in increased stimulation (activating higher-order thinking) in the learner. Three other participants (P2, P3 and P4) considered the use of technology in the classroom as the central aspect of blended learning. These participants highlighted the use of PowerPoints, online language games, online dictionaries and electronic devices as integral to blended learning. Although the use of technology is considered an important aspect of blended learning, a more important consideration, according to Garrison and Kanuka (2004), is that blended learning is inherently about the reconsideration and redesign of the teaching–learning relationship. It became clear from the participants’ perspectives that teachers’ understanding of blended learning varies from a basic understanding that blended learning involves the use of technology in the classroom to deeper insights that address issues such as change in teacher and learner

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roles, increased collaboration between learners, a greater responsibility to determine one’s own learning and increased learner stimulation. Although some teachers in their definitions of blended learning referred to ways in which the presentation of their respective learning areas can be changed using technology, there remains uncertainty with regard to a clear and practical understanding of how technology and subject pedagogy are interrelated. In other words, the teacher participants recognised certain core objectives of the blended learning method, but the convergence between their subject pedagogy and technology still seems to be vague. The next subsection is concerned with answering the main research question and the sub-research questions of this study, namely: What perspectives do language teachers hold on the use of blended learning methods in their classrooms, and what influence has the global pandemic had on these perspectives in the seemingly changing educational landscape? Teacher Perspectives on Blended Learning in Language Education Over a Period of Five Years During our first round of interviews in 2017, 62% of our participants were optimistic about blended learning practices and mentioned that the use of technology made the classroom “fun” (P3 and P8) and “enriches” the learning process (P3). Participant 1 expressed with great enthusiasm that, “if you still think technology has no role to play in class, then you have to think again!” Participant 2 stated, “[i]t is important to keep up with the times”, and P6 believed that “a key to the future of teaching is adaptability”. The second round of interviews took place in the second semester of 2021 after the teacher participants had to rapidly adapt to new teaching and learning strategies due to the national lockdown that was implemented on 26 March 2020 in response to COVID-19. The Grade 12 learners returned to school on 1 June 2020, and for the rest of the academic year, a weekly rotation cycle was implemented for Grades 8–11. The latter grades attended school every other week. Teachers had to rely on blended learning strategies to optimise academic time. After approximately 18 months of blended learning integration since the start of the

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national lockdown, only 50% of the teacher participants remained enthusiastic about the possibilities blended learning held for language education, as is evident from the views expressed in the next paragraph. Participant 3 expressed her concern that the integration of technology had proven to have a negative effect on her learners’ engagement in class. According to P3: … they (the learners) do not really want to focus on the class, because they know that the work is available somewhere on a platform/cloud that they can learn at a time that suits them. So the kids have become lazy.

This observation contrasts P3’s earlier remark that technology “enriches” the learning experience. Participant 1 echoed the perspectives of P3 when she asked, “why change to something (referring to traditional methods of teaching) that works? I do not like to integrate technology into the classroom. I want interaction with my students!” Participant 4 admitted that she felt unsure about how to integrate technology in a functional way—not just for the sake of using technology. Participant 1 acknowledged that COVID-19 brought about changes in the way she taught, which affected her attitude negatively. Participant 5 identified a problem regarding disengagement during the earlier stages of the pandemic but considered alternative strategies to improve interaction and collaboration: During the national lockdown, I initially gave a lot of information to my learners to work through, but my lessons weren’t interactive at all. As time passed by and I realized we weren’t returning to school any time soon, I designed my lessons to be more interactive and collaborative by using tools like Microsoft Forms and One Note. This enabled me to monitor my learners’ academic progress.

Out of the eight participants we interviewed, P5 was the only teacher who adapted his remote learning strategy to re-establish the relational aspect that seemed to be missing in the online classroom. The perspectives of P1, P3 and P4, however, were in stark contrast to the twenty-first-century teaching and learning practices that blended learning as an instructional model aims to achieve. According to Kalpana (2014, p. 27) and Ah-Nam and Osman (2017, p. 206), the needs of the twenty-first-century learner

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should relate to the use of technology to create “new knowledge in an active and dynamic way within the classroom context”. It was clear from listening to these teacher participants’ lived experiences with the implementation of blended learning over a period of five years that they had not seen the desired outcomes of technology integration in their classrooms and had become disheartened. This observation is solidified in P3’s perspective: “As an experienced teacher, I felt like I was starting all over again. I knew exactly what my job entailed. And now, suddenly, I also feel insecure within this space”. During our interview in 2017, P8 expressed that blended learning practices, especially with learning a foreign language, have a lot of potential to make the classroom more “interactive” and “fun”, thus, cultivating greater learner interest. While P8 strongly advised that technology had a place in the language classroom, it was at the same time her conviction that technology and online learning should not replace the interaction between the teacher and the learner. She saw the use of technology merely as a tool to diversify the presentation of lessons and to enable other teaching–learning possibilities such as groupwork and enrichment activities for learners. Participant 8, however, described the online teaching strategies that were adapted in 2020 as “detrimental for especially the learners who need more support”. Participant 5, on the other hand, had a positive perspective regarding the impact of COVID-19 on the teaching landscape about digital innovation. He was convinced that, in the past, there was always “a fear of failure”, but during the national lockdown, educators were “were forced to depend on learning technologies”. Participant 5 further explained how the school closure due to the national lockdown gave him the necessary time to redesign his instructional model as regards technology integration: I realised during our time of remote learning that prior to the pandemic, I was using technology to ‘window-dress’ my classes. I wasn’t using technology in a way that really promotes and enhances learning. When I only had technology to rely on during the pandemic, I had time to rethink the way I integrate technology.

Most of the participants agreed that “the interaction between the teacher and the learner is the most important element of language teaching” (P5). In this statement lies the divide between teachers who remained

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positive regarding the use of technology within language education and those whose enthusiasm dampened after their lived experiences during the pandemic. As the teacher participants held interaction and learner engagement in high esteem, those who did not have the supporting digital pedagogical knowledge in order to create an engaging and interactive online learning environment became estranged from their students and unable to gaze what and how their students were learning. The research findings emphasise the importance of aligning training with twenty-first-century teaching and learning goals, which should include enhanced learner collaboration and active engagement. Taylor and Van der Merwe (2019, p. 10) describe the teacher as the “creative builder” of the curriculum that meets the needs of the twenty-firstcentury learner in one achievable plan within the classroom. If teachers merely receive training in how to use digital tools and do not know how to use the digital technologies to achieve their desired outcomes—thus, becoming the “creative builders” that Taylor and Van der Merwe (2019, p. 10) refer to—teachers will see technology as a threat to meaningful learning and will revert to traditional approaches. This finding is supported by P1, who said, “I felt frustrated feeling so out of touch with my learners, I didn’t know what they have learnt and what knowledge was still lacking”. The above-mentioned arguments are in line with Prickel (2000, p. 4), who affirmed the crucial role of interactive involvement in the joint construction of knowledge. I think you get a lot of charismatic teachers, who do not need technology to stimulate a child. You must be careful, and you must ask yourself whether you are using technology simply to make the classroom “nice” or are you using it to expand the learner’s knowledge? (P7). Participant 5 agreed with the arguments of P7: “I am definitely less concerned with being ‘flashy’ with technology in class and more concerned with the impact that the tool has on learning”. The next subsection elaborates on teachers’ perspectives relating to stress-inducing factors regarding blended learning integration. Stress-Inducing Factors Regarding Technology Integration in Language Education Although most of the teachers agreed with the integration of technology “merely as a tool that can help you achieve certain goals”, as worded

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by P1, a few teachers felt anxious about “blending” the language class. Participant 7 was convinced, for example, that “some teachers have a total aversion to technology” and assumed that it would not be wise to impose such a pedagogical shift on non-interested educators. Participant 4 articulated her fears regarding the use of technology in the language class by mentioning that she “definitely feels uncomfortable with technology”, because she was never exposed to using technology in education as a learner or student teacher. We believe this consideration is aligned with Borg’s (2003) belief that early experiences of classrooms mould teachers’ initial perspectives of learning and therefore have a significant influence on their sustained perspectives. Participant 4’s response to her experience is an illustration of this issue. One could argue that this “aversion to technology” (as P7 blatantly put it) is illustrative of the power of perspectives. It is our belief, in accordance with Schommer-Aikins (2004), that teacher perspectives are an inseparable factor in the successful and meaningful integration of blended learning. Schommer-Aikins states that already-established perspectives in experienced teachers are nurtured, and therefore change does not take place easily. This argument is solidified by P2’s statement that “people always go back to their normal way of teaching—what’s comfortable”. Schommer-Aikins (2004) even warns that change might bring discomfort and confusion. Participant 5 picked up on the same notion: I believe the effectiveness of any training stems from staff’s intrinsic motivation. If a staff member is not interested, he/she will consider it a waste of time and walk away negatively. If a staff member already has a desire to use technology in class, training opportunities will highlight new possibilities of technology integration.

Participant 5’s perspective correlates with the research of Polly et al. (2010), who connected teacher perspectives on technology integration with the teacher’s value view of technology, specifically about the learning process. Participants 3, 4 and 6 also admitted that they felt a little intimidated by technology and emphasised that the phasing in of this new practice often made them feel “useless”. Therefore, these teachers felt that their competence as such was adversely affected.

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I think the world of technology and the possibilities it holds is so vast that it is intimidating, and then it is easier to stay with what you know and what you are familiar with. (P3)

These perspectives resonate with Wang et al.’s (2004, pp. 231–252) definition of teacher perspectives on technology integration: “self-confidence with regard to technology integration”. In this view, the teacher’s ability and comfort zone with regard to technology integration come to the fore. Participant 5 argued that the (lack of) “self-confidence with regard to technology integration” would negatively influence younger teachers who are mentored by teachers who feel cautious about blending the language curriculum: It can be really intimidating and discouraging for younger teachers entering the department with a certain enthusiasm of teaching in a way that resonates with the 21st-century learning if their superior (perhaps an older teacher with plenty of teaching experience) is not supportive of innovation with regards to technology in the classroom. The teacher’s mindset is going to affect the younger people, because they look up to the experienced teachers as the leader figures within their department.

Thus, one of the biggest obstacles to the integration of technology is the uncertainty that often accompanies the use of technology, especially for those who have not been initially exposed to it in their teaching careers. The uncertainty seems to cause fear, and although most teachers see the value of technology integration as a tool in the language teaching space, the anxiety caused by innovation overshadows the active and effective phasing in of teaching–learning technologies in twenty-first-century teaching and learning practices. Redecker et al. (2011) further emphasise that motivation is an important aspect in the promotion of lifelong learning and the professional development of teachers (cf. Chapter 10), and with it arises the need to align technology and pedagogy to create participatory teaching–learning environments that enable high-quality learning experiences. Next, we discuss the principle of lifelong learning for teachers and motivate why continuous professional development plays a crucial role in integrating future-oriented teaching and learning approaches.

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The Role of Training in Effectively Blending the Language Classroom Bolstad et al. (2012) emphasise that a culture of lifelong learning must be developed among teachers. According to Day (1999), teachers will only be able to achieve their educational goals if they are not only initially well prepared for their profession but also willing to remain lifelong learners in order to continually keep abreast of subject developments. During the interviews, we investigated the perspectives of language teachers on the value of training opportunities. Our point of departure with regard to teacher perspectives regarding lifelong learning was to find out whether teachers consider sustained professional development to be important and therefore, what impact training has on teachers’ perspectives on the use of technology in the language class. Participant 1 advocated for a bottom-up approach to the implementation of blended learning approaches and training opportunities for teachers: I think the only thing that brings about real meaningful change in perspectives is if change and training are teacher driven. If the innovation comes from within the subject group and it is their initiative, it will lead to a more positive engagement.

Participant 3 held a similar perspective and said: “If someone tells me that I have to do something—then I do not want to do it!” In this regard, we emphasise the central role that practitioners play in educational reform and further address this issue in the recommendations (Sect. Recommendations ). Participant 2 argued that a culture of empowerment should exist, where teachers are recognised as role players in the policy integration and training opportunities with regard to blended learning. She believed that by doing so, a sense of professional growth and personal achievement could be developed. She also connected teacher enthusiasm to teacher involvement by saying, “I would feel more enthusiastic about training opportunities if I could choose which sessions would benefit my teaching”. However, Participant 5 believed: If you make training optional, the people who already have a positive disposition to integrate technology will attend, and the people who are opposed

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to it, won’t. Then you are not really addressing the situation of people who do not have an intrinsic motivation to develop.

Participant 8 agreed with P5 that training does not have to be optional but suggested that “one can also not have training in a large group, it must be subject-centred or department-centred, because those people speak from the same mouth: the same language”. Participant 5 agreed and stated the following: … the most important things that I feel will promote the integration of technology within the classroom and equip our teachers to effectively do so, is going to stem from collaboration between teachers in a subject team, but also teachers from different schools.

These arguments are further addressed in Sect. Recommendations — specifically that blended learning committees should be established within school clusters and/or district contexts. Participant 1 highlighted the important notion that training should not merely focus on “showcasing an educational tool but rather on the pedagogical approach” in order to achieve meaningful technology-based learning experiences. It was, however, P5’s perspective that: … everyone should take responsibility for their own training. The schools supply the training opportunities and have structures that can assist teachers, but there should be a bigger urgency for teachers to do their own research and figure out how to best apply learning technologies within their specific subject. My experience is that teachers look to the school management and expects [sic] a precise recipe. There is no one more competent to blend the most effective way as the teacher herself.

In relation to P5’s argument that the teacher should primarily take responsibility for their own training and development with regard to adopting innovative digital strategies in the classroom, P4 suggested that “there must be someone permanently appointed by the school who can provide guidance on how to integrate technology into your lessons—like a technology consultant. We do not always know where to start looking”. One of the main concerns that emerged from the interview sessions with the teacher participants was that the extracurricular load together with the language teachers’ large amounts of marking and the creative

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redesign of lesson plans according to blended learning strategies posed an enormous challenge. Participant 2 highlighted this important contextual factor: Training is important. For me, it’s not a matter of I do not want to attend training, or that I do not value training opportunities; for me, it’s just a matter of availing time. Language teachers are constantly setting tests, marking and moderating. I would gladly participate in a week’s training where I can deeply investigate new digital tools and approaches—but don’t expect me to think creatively and redesign the way I teach when I am constantly under immense pressure to meet the minimum requirements of my job.

Various concerns raised by the teacher participants partly stem from limited knowledge about the scope of this pedagogical approach. This limited understanding of meaningful blending, with the aim of ultimately increasing learner involvement in constructing one’s own knowledge, often leads to negative personal experiences. These experiences can undermine continued technology integration and also deter the teacher and learner from limiting the full spectrum of possibilities that unlock meaningful technology integration. Next, recommendations are made for possible further research, and the limitations and possible contributions of this study are discussed.

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Conclusion and Summary Recommendations

This study examined teacher perspectives that may influence their willingness to adopt blended learning practices in the language class. The findings of this study, as discussed in the previous section, indicated that the answer to the research question—What are language teachers’ perspectives regarding blended learning as a teaching and learning strategy in post-COVID times compared to pre-COVID times?—is multifaceted. Although teachers’ positive beliefs about the use of technology within language education can be seen as a good starting point for meaningful blended learning integration, there are several factors that can ultimately influence the implementation of blended learning practices in the classroom.

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Schommer-Aikins (2004) confirms that efforts to bring about educational change, such as the integration of blended learning within language education, will not be fully realised unless specific measures are taken to establish teachers’ perspectives in order to address this issue. In the light of these arguments and our findings, it is recommended that teachers’ perspectives should be esteemed as a core consideration by educational policy reformers. The consideration of teachers’ perspectives in policy frameworks can potentially lead to a more meaningful and successful implementation of blended learning within the classroom context. A Bottom-Up Rather Than a Top-Down Approach to Reform During our interviews with the teacher participants, it was established that communal belief among teachers that the central role practitioners play in relation to educational reform is not sufficiently recognised by school management and school governing bodies. Collaborative relationships between teachers, learners, parent communities and authorised policy reformers are thus essential to ensuring that all those involved take ownership of the policies. It is therefore recommended that teachers be empowered with regard to the teaching and learning practices of blended learning so that they also play a leading role and have the freedom to make innovative decisions regarding the promotion of blending learning integration within the school structure. A further recommendation is that blended learning committees be established within school clusters and/or district contexts. Experienced teachers can, in collaboration with experts in the field of blended learning and educational leaders, plan policy integration and continuously monitor its progress. These professional learning communities, which extend beyond the immediate boundaries of a specific school context, can make a positive contribution to more meaningful blended learning integration. By creating a school culture of empowerment where teachers are recognised as role players in the policy integration of blended learning, a sense of professional growth and personal achievement can be developed. Although the aim is to achieve meaningful twenty-first-century teaching and learning experiences in the language classroom, the empowerment of teachers in this regard will also have other far-reaching benefits. Teachers’ active involvement in blended learning communities can provide

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unique opportunities for teachers to share good teaching–learning strategies with each other and also to learn more about their subject disciplines themselves by enhancing content knowledge. Knowledge is Power Teachers who were uncertain about their own ability to integrate technology with confidence in the classroom were a serious obstacle to the meaningful integration of blended learning in the participating school. Vandeyar and Killen (2006) argue that teacher perspectives are seen as determinants of actions, because they influence teachers’ judgements, and therefore the natural tendency is to act in ways that reinforce those perspectives. Thus, teachers who have little self-confidence regarding the use of technology for academic purposes may tend to avoid blended learning approaches in the classroom, or limit technology integration to the basic use of PowerPoint presentations and YouTube videos—thus not achieving any true form of reformation with regard to twenty-firstcentury learning goals. Most of the teaching participants in this study agreed on the important role of training opportunities in support of blended learning integration. It is recommended that lengthy and large “one-size-fits-all” type of training sessions be replaced with the following: • smaller (subject-related) professional learning communities; • immersive training experiences where teachers observe twenty-firstcentury teaching and learning practices; • training opportunities that provide teachers who may have diverse skill levels with regard to the use of technology with clear frameworks and guidelines on how to align blended learning practices with the curriculum objectives. It is recommended that training opportunities provide the opportunity for teachers to develop shared goals, expectations and perspectives regarding the integration of technology in the classroom. However, these shared perspectives must also be aligned with learner perspectives to achieve the optimal integration of blended learning practices in the classroom. During these training sessions, it is also important that teachers are trained in research-supported educational theories on blended learning practices. A comprehensive theoretical basis shared by teachers in the field

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of blended learning as a teaching and learning approach during training sessions with teachers is essential before attempting to apply this innovative approach in the classroom. This argument is supported by the fact that researchers believe that a lack of understanding and theoretical basis of blended learning can lead to a lack of application of the approach in the teaching–learning space. In the current research, it became apparent that the teacher participants who had a superficial understanding of the theoretical underpinnings of blended learning initially felt enthusiastic about integrating blended learning approaches. However, over the course of the five years in which the investigation took place, they became discouraged and doubtful about any meaningful change that blended learning could bring about in their everyday practices. It became clear that the global pandemic and pressure that teachers experienced in redesigning their instructional models reinforced the notion that “traditional” is better than “digital”. Why have the educational changes brought about by COVID-19 left teachers feeling discouraged about the possibilities of creating interactive, stimulating, problem-solving and engaging learning experiences by means of adapting blended learning strategies? The answer to this question may be that this limited understanding of the theoretical underpinnings of blended learning can ultimately also influence teachers’ perception of the success of the learning approach. Our observation during the interview process was that the participating language teachers could be regarded as experts in their field and that they were fully capable, with sufficient support, of developing more transformative ideologies with regard to blended learning practices. Experts in the field of the integration of learning technology in the classroom can play a major role in the development of such a theoretical foundation, which, in turn, can serve as a scaffolding for the teacher to more meaningful integration of blended learning practices.

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Limitations of the Study As in the case of most investigations conducted through case study research, there were certain limitations in this particular study. First, the scope of this study can be considered as limiting because we investigated the perspectives of a small sample (eight teacher participants) within the contextual framework of one particular school in the Western Cape province. It can therefore not be accepted that perspectives, experiences and conceptualisation of blended learning that emerged from this study would apply to all other schools. A further limitation goes hand in hand with the nature of research that examines subjective experiences. Teacher perspectives are often entrenched (Pajares, 1992), and therefore it can be an obstacle for teachers to articulate their perspectives on blended learning as well as the practices they adopt in the classroom. Since data in the current study were collected through interview sessions and not classroom observations, there is a possibility that the teachers’ perspectives were subjective reflections of the reality in their classrooms. Contributions of the Study This research provides a contextualised insight into language teachers’ perspectives on blended learning. The study contributes to educational research by highlighting the interaction between teacher perspectives and classroom practices and further establishes teachers’ perspectives as an important consideration for successful educational reform movements.

8.5

Conclusion

This study revealed that the integration of transformative teaching and learning approaches in language education depends on teachers’ perspectives that are recognised and addressed in this regard. In addition, the influence of teachers’ personal perspectives on their teaching practices should not be underestimated. Adequate opportunity for teachers to critically reflect on their own perspectives and teaching practices must be created by policy reformers. Our belief that teacher perspectives play an extremely important role in the planning and implementation phase of innovative teaching and learning approaches to blended learning was validated by this study.

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CHAPTER 9

A Systematic Review of Digital Storytelling as Educational Tool for Teaching and Learning in Southern Africa Cecilia Temilola Olugbara, Moeketsi Letseka, and Oludayo O. Olugbara

9.1

Introduction

The advancement of information communication technologies (ICTs) has increased the potential use of multimedia tools for curriculum delivery in multimodal learning environments that promote manifold learning activities among students (Balaman, 2018; Gachago et al., 2014a, 2014b; Gregori-Signes, 2014; Urbieta & Penalver, 2021). The combination of personal narratives with multimedia technologies has transformed digital stories into short movies that can be produced on a display device as

C. T. Olugbara (B) · M. Letseka University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] M. Letseka e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Olivier et al. (eds.), Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa, Digital Education and Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97656-9_9

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information for stimulating the interest of people (Wang & Zhan, 2010). Technological devices and electronic multimedia outlets have encouraged educators to utilize numerous novel approaches to engage diverse students to construct innovative ideas, knowledge, skills and share them more effectively (Chigona, 2013; Kotluk & Kocakaya, 2016; Moreau et al., 2018). Higher education institutions can integrate ultramodern multimedia technologies to transform teaching and learning pedagogies at the level of instructional multimodality that provides an opportunity to orchestrate images, sounds, music, gestures, and texts for conveying information to students (Urbieta & Peñalver, 2021). Multimodality of digital storytelling (DST) implies a combination of different learning modes such as social media, picture books, and print advertisements will result in different meanings (Gachago et al., 2014a, 2014b). DST is among the interactive education methods based on the application of emerging technologies such as Animaker Class, Book Creator, Story Creator, Comic Life, My Story, and Cloud Stop Motion, among several others. Effective DST platform entails the application of different modalities with the advancement in technological tools for multimodal discourse (Urbieta & Peñalver, 2021). In the future, DST will transcend multimedia to exponential technologies such as robotics to innovate educational service delivery. The robots will play the roles of humanoid digital storytellers in the future through the advancement of artificial intelligence and robotics computing. There are several definitions of DST, but they all concur that it combines the art of storytelling with the aid of digital multimedia and multimodal technologies. The increasingly evolving techno-centric digital media provides an opportunity to gather, develop, and share digital stories in different forms, including digital images, picture clues, audio narration, puppets, props, motions, scratch, accessories, and video clips (Robin, 2016). Storytelling was viewed as a dialogue between interlocutors with an intent to inspire, educate, entertain, record events, and pass along cultural expectations (Garrety, 2008). It entails creating a short personal narrative about self, family, adventures, events, accomplishments, ideas, challenges, frustrations, or learning experiences with the aid of digital

O. O. Olugbara Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

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technologies. In the context of this study, DST refers to the applications of multimedia and multimodal technologies to make short narratives a real learning phenomenon. Its useful applications have been demonstrated in different domains such as museums (Ladeira et al., 2014), therapy (Wilson et al., 2015), religious training (Hess, 2014), business (Whyte & Classen, 2012), and education (Rambe & Mlambo, 2014; Stewart & Ivala, 2017). DST has been used across universities in South Africa as a tool for teaching, learning, communicating, and gathering information in domains such as information systems (Ladeira et al., 2014; Pieterse & Quilling, 2011; Whyte & Classen, 2012), English language (Kajee, 2018), youth civic engagement (Reed & Hill, 2010), rural African community projects (Bidwell et al., 2010; Ladeira & Marsden, 2014; Ladeira et al., 2014; Lorini et al., 2017; Marsden et al., 2010; Mitchell & De Lange, 2013; Reitmaier et al., 2011;), and business organization (Whyte & Classen, 2012). It is a potent and innovative learning approach that provides a rich opportunity for students to engage in meaningful learning through content visualization. It fosters collaborative learning, and knowledge construction and increases educational outcomes (Nassim, 2018; Robin, 2016). It is a powerful strategy to build a community of practice, enhance effective communication, develop a professional identity (Condy et al., 2012; Çıralı & Usluel, 2015; Gachago et al., 2016; Ohler, 2013), and enable the development of multifarious skills among students (Pieterse & Quilling, 2011; Robin, 2008, 2016; Wu & Chen, 2020; Yang & Wu, 2012). It is widely lauded as a pedagogical tool that allows diverse students to unearth lived experiences and facilitate more nuanced understanding across differences in a multicultural classroom (Gachago et al., 2016; Walters et al., 2011). It facilitates the convergence of student-centered learning strategies such as technology integration, student engagement, higher-order learning, and project-based learning (Barrett, 2006; Phillips et al., 2019; Wu & Chen, 2020). It is a valuable instructional tool because of its inherent unique features such as creating, analyzing, and synthesizing images with written text that is appropriate for heterogeneous teaching styles not found in many other technological tools (Alismail, 2015). However, despite the significance of DST, there is a lack of systematic review that analyzed its applications and educational impacts across Africa. This study aimed to conduct a systematic review of literature on DST as an educational tool for teaching and learning in Southern

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Africa in comparison to the other regions in Africa. This systematic review will be of immense interest to researchers and practitioners engaging in digital story-based research and its practical applications. The review will contribute uniquely to the relatively new body of knowledge, advance human understanding and add to expanding literature about the applications of DST within the education setting. In addition, it will provide an overall picture of the evidence in the field for future research directions. The remainder of this chapter is succinctly articulated as follows. Sect. 9.2 presents a short history of digital storytelling. The systematic review methodology of this study is elucidated in Sect. 9.3. The presentation of study findings is given in Sect. 9.4, while Sect. 9.5 presents a discussion with a brief concluding remark in Sect. 9.6, including study limitations and future research.

9.2

Short History of Digital Storytelling

Digital storytelling is one of the recent applications of multimedia and multimodal technologies in the educational sector. However, the general connotation of storytelling is not new to people who have told thrilling stories throughout the ages. People have told stories about plentiful events, including themselves, others, communities, cultures, religions, heritages, educational experiences, and wars in relating with each other to transfer historical events from one generation to another. The way people share stories can make a difference in communicating real experiences, understanding the real messages, and distributing information swiftly. People started telling their personal stories a long time ago in the form of painting caves, writing on clay tablets, dressing trees, and marking roads, but later changed to oral storytelling (Carvalho & Cibrão, 2016). Oral storytelling took the forms of epic poems, chants, songs, rhymes, proverbs, myths, fables, idioms, and prayers. The fourth industrial revolution society of today has significantly revolutionized oral storytelling through digitalization in the form of DST. Further advancement is anticipated in the future with the innovations of robotics, artificial intelligence, augmented reality, virtual reality, and the metaverse. DST is a useful reflection tool that has helped students learn to understand their learning process within a virtual reality project-based learning environment (Kim et al., 2021). DST emerged in the United States in the late 1980s based on the work of Lambert and Atchley (Lambert, 2009). They founded the Center

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for Digital Storytelling (CDST), a non-profit organization at Berkeley in California to fight for social justice by giving voices to marginalized groups. Since the early 1990s, the CDST has held several workshops to offer training and assistance to people interested in creating and sharing personal and memorable life experiences, stories of other people, places, and communities where they live (De Jager et al., 2017; Robin, 2008). The experience of sharing stories was followed by scripting of life stories, producing a short film that lasted for about 2–5 minutes. The process was supported by facilitators, who asked questions to promote the making of media artifacts (Wu & Chen, 2020). DST association was created with the alliance of the DST campaign, representatives from several countries, and people across the world. DST was integrated into public broadcasting by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) of the United Kingdom (UK) under the banner of “Capturewales” (Meadows & Kidd, 2009).

9.3

Study Methodology

The principal assignment of this study was to conduct a systematic review of primary studies on digital storytelling to examine its trends and impacts as an educational tool in Southern Africa. The methodology of this study adheres strictly to a qualitative systematic review using the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (PRISMA) as a guiding protocol (Moher et al., 2009, 2015; Olugbara et al., 2021). In general, a systematic review can be performed as a qualitative synthesis or quantitative meta-analysis based on a disciplined protocol of PRISMA to support replicability. In this study, a qualitative synthesis was nominated to assist in the exploration of new insights about DST in the context of education systems in Africa. The qualitative synthesis followed a sixstage process of defining the research questions, specifying the eligibility criteria, searching the literature for relevant articles, selecting relevant studies, extracting useful data, and analyzing the extracted data. Research Questions The research questions that guided this qualitative synthesis toward achieving the study aim are defined as follows. 1. What are the trends of using digital storytelling in the education systems of Southern Africa?

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2. How are the trends of using digital storytelling in Southern Africa compared to the other regions of Africa? 3. What are the impacts of digital storytelling on teaching and learning in the educational systems of Southern Africa? Eligibility Criteria The specification of eligibility criteria often defines the primary studies to be included in or excluded from the qualitative synthesis. In this study, we have specified the following set of eligibility criteria in concordance with the defined research questions. 1. Duplicate articles retrieved by multiple search mechanisms were excluded to strengthen the validity of the qualitative synthesis. 2. Duplicate results published by the same authors in different journal outlets were excluded to avoid biases and strengthen the validity of the qualitative synthesis. 3. Primary studies must be peer-reviewed journal articles published in the English language from 1993 when DST was officially introduced to 2021. Conceptual papers, technical reports, book reviews, student theses or dissertations, editorials, conference proceedings, pundit commentaries, literature reviews, and other grey literature were excluded to strengthen the validity of the qualitative synthesis. 4. Primary studies must elucidate useful information in terms of the specific research question, country of study, study purpose, clear description of research methods, number of student participants, and validated support of study findings to be eligible for inclusion in the qualitative synthesis. 5. Primary studies must focus on the overall trends of DST within the milieu of education across Africa. Published articles that did not apply DST as an educational tool in the context of education systems in Africa were excluded. Literature Search Relevant studies were retrieved through a series of search efforts to discover articles that met the specified eligibility criteria. The initial literature search was conducted with two widely used scholastic databases

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Fig. 9.1 PRISMA protocol for database searches to discover relevant articles (adopted from Olugbara et al., 2021)

of Scopus, and Web of Science. The databases are widely used because they integrate high-quality publications from different publisher sources. The keyword searching was initiated based on two simple search parameters of “digital storytelling”, and “digital stories”. In addition, a Google scholar search was performed to locate specific articles discovered from the reference lists of other articles that were not necessarily included in the qualitative synthesis. Figure 9.1 shows detailed information about the outcomes of the literature searches following the PRISMA protocol (Moher et al., 2009, 2015; Olugbara et al., 2021). Study Selection The eligibility criteria were applied to a large volume of articles discovered through the process of the literature search to select those that qualify for qualitative synthesis. The study selection process was implemented to

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aid the remover of articles that violate the eligibility criteria. After the remover of duplicate records, the remaining articles were taken through the process of meticulously screening titles, abstracts, and contents of articles to retain only those that potentially satisfied the eligibility criteria. The titles and abstracts of the retrieved articles were screened, looking for digital storytelling in education or digital storytelling in educational research. The full article was ultimately perused to confirm whether the eligibility criteria were fully met and examined in the case where it was unclear from the abstract whether all the eligibility criteria were adequately met. A total number of 17 primary studies out of 41 articles investigated for eligibility criteria were included in the qualitative synthesis. The number of articles that were finally included in the qualitative synthesis translates to 41.46% of those investigated for eligibility. The study selection process of discovering relevant articles conformed rigidly to the PRISMA protocol of Fig. 10.1. Data Extraction The authors extracted useful data from the selected studies, compared extractions, and resolved differences through a series of discussions. The extraction of useful data was guided by the study research questions. The data should help to provide an overview of trends of using DST in the Southern African educational settings. Moreover, they should provide a basis for comparing trends of using DST in Southern Africa to other regions of Africa. Finally, they should assist in identifying the impacts of DST on teaching and learning in the educational settings of Southern Africa. Table 9.1 shows the data extracted from the selected studies to be authors of an article (author), year of article publication (year), country of study (country), the study purpose (purpose), method of data analysis (method), the sample size of participants (N), and summary of study findings (finding). Data Analysis Data extracted from the relevant studies were grouped for the analyses of trends, comparison, and impacts. The data analysis methods, for example, were grouped into qualitative, quantitative, and mixed groups. The study countries were grouped into five African regions of northern and subSaharan that consists of eastern, middle, southern, and western, according

Year

2013

2012

Chigona

Condy et al.

South Africa

South Africa

Country

Data extracted from the reviewed studies

Author

Table 9.1

Qualitative

Method

To analyze an innovative Qualitative way in which students used digital stories to reflect on their experiences of classroom diversity

To equip pre-service teachers with requisite skills for effective teaching in diverse classrooms

Purpose

10

60

N

(continued)

DST helped preservice teachers to build respect and understanding of their cultures. It enhanced the knowledge and technological skills and promoted mutual engagement among students. It created a shared understanding that bound students and led them to build a community of practice DST exposed students to new media literacies that prepared them for the richly diverse contexts. It aided the creation of communities and provided a communication platform for reflection. It facilitated reflection for deep learning

Finding

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Year

2017

2012

Dreyer

Duveskog et al.

(continued)

Author

Table 9.1

Tanzania

South Africa

Country 47

Qualitative

17

N

Method

To investigate how DST Qualitative as a media tool can enable students to express their dreams and solutions to overcoming challenges in life

To explore how students engage reflectively during the lessons through the creative use of DST

Purpose

DST helped students to engage through active participation and enhanced their critical thinking. It helped them to construct new knowledge and ideas. It engaged them in authentic learning and increased their understanding of curricula contents. It helped them to reflect on the practical issues and determine the areas for improvement DST provided an opportunity for students to express their thoughts and ideas about HIV and share stories with the community. It expanded perceptions of students on HIV, developed their technology, critical thinking, and information skills. It increased student motivation

Finding

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Year

2013

2014a, 2014b

Author

Gachago et al.

Gachago et al.

South Africa

South Africa

Country 19

Qualitative

27

N

Method

To investigate the use of Qualitative DST to create a space for students to recognize and honour capabilities necessary for engaging empathetically with others about social issues in education

To investigate the potential of DST to help students learn and address issues of difference, disrupt some deeply rooted beliefs and assumptions about others

Purpose

(continued)

DST encouraged students to share, engage, and be aware of differences and unequal socioeconomic, cultural, and political practices. It led students to have an intense emotional experience, promote critical thinking and reflection about the social arrangements of inequality and privilege DST provided an opportunity to elicit mutual respect and empathy for diverse students. It helped their growth as agents of social change, with the belief that they can make a difference individually and collectively. It created an emotionally charged space for student engagement

Finding

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Year

2014

2014a, 2014b

Gachago

Gachago et al.

(continued)

Author

Table 9.1

South Africa

South Africa

Country

To explore the use of DST to develop digital literacies in students at various levels of study and across disciplines

To explore the use of DST to identify how differences influence the pathways and experiences of preservice teachers on social and racial injustice

Purpose

212

62

Qualitative

Mixed methods

N

Method

DST provided a space for healing that was useful for building communities among the marginalized students. It dealt with the issues of differences, power, and oppression among students in classrooms. It offered opportunities for students to develop deep understandings of self and peers DST enabled differently positioned students to develop digital literacies and confidence in their abilities to engage with complex technologies. It led to high student engagement and a high level of satisfaction

Finding

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Year

2016

2018

Author

Gachago et al.

Hafidi and Mahnane

Algeria

South Africa

Country

Method

To explore student experiences of DST through a flipped-classroom approach

Qualitative

To investigate how DST Qualitative is used by preservice teachers to maintain, produce, and disrupt the differences that developed around discourses of fatherhood and absent fathers since apartheid in South Africa

Purpose

36

3

N

(continued)

DST enabled preservice teachers to speak, interact and share their stories on family problems of abuse or absent parents. It enhanced collaboration among preservice teachers through sharing and disclosure of often painful memories, thus facilitating an experience where cognitive thought and affective emotions were brought together DST increased the participation of students in the learning process

Finding

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Year

2013

2014

Ivala et al.

Ivala et al

(continued)

Author

Table 9.1

South Africa

South Africa

Country

Method

To investigate whether Qualitative the use of DST will foster and encourage reflection, deep learning, and higher-order thinking skills amongst pre-service student teachers

To investigate the use of Qualitative DST in enhancing student levels of engagement

Purpose

29

29

N

DST enhanced student engagement that led to a high level of reflection and deep understanding of the subject matter. It inspired students to interact with the contents DST enhanced the high level of reflection amongst students led to deep learning and understanding of the subject matter and developed their critical thinking skills

Finding

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Year

2020

2014

Author

Ofoegbu et al.

Rambe and Mlambo

South Africa

Nigeria

Country

Method

Quantitative To investigate the impact of an educational DST intervention on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) risk perception and knowledge among Nigerian adolescents Qualitative To explore the use of DST to externalize the personal knowledge of the previously disadvantaged postgraduate students on research processes. To explore the use of DST to study lived experiences and challenges of researching by postgraduate students

Purpose

5

98

N

(continued)

The intervention was effective in increasing HIV risk perception and knowledge among adolescents. It helped adolescents to increase HIV risk perception and knowledge DST helped students with information, collaborative engagement, and tracing the developmental path of students in critical and creative thinking research It supported their expression of lived experiences of conducting research

Finding

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Year

2016

2017

Stewart and Gachago

Stewart and Ivala

(continued)

Author

Table 9.1

South Africa

South Africa and the United States of America

Country

Method

To explore the use of DST to capture the voices of marginalized students on how they have been socially and historically marginalized and to empower them

Qualitative

Qualitative To use DST to investigate the awareness and social consciousness of students about the notions of “self” and “others” across continents

Purpose

9

105

N

DST facilitated an engagement across borders with differently positioned students. It provided a space for students to participate in dialogues and develop relationships outside classes through Twitter and Instagram. They used DST to share cultural and personal stories that helped clarify notions of otherness among the students in both local and global contexts DST created a liberated classroom space for students to redefine themselves outside of historicized representations. It proved to be an effective tool to engage students in the reflective and critical engagement of their writing practices. It provided a platform for students, especially those who had been marginalized to give ears to their voices

Finding

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Year

2015

Author

Tiba et al.

South Africa

Country

Method

Qualitative To explore perceptions of preservice teachers on the benefits and perceived barriers of DST during in-service practice

Purpose 75

N DST motivated preservice teachers to engage with the content. It enabled them to think critically about how to integrate stories with audio and visual components

Finding

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to the classification of the United Nations (UN). The extracted data from the selected studies were analyzed using descriptive statistics based on frequency, percentage, or probability that are appropriate for trend analysis. Thematic Analysis (TA) was considered an appropriate method for impact analysis based on the findings of the included studies. It is one of the most used methods of content analysis, where the coding is based on categories designed to capture the dominant themes in a text (Albelbisi et al., 2018). In this study, the impact is broadly hypothesized to include the influences, effects, or findings that have emerged in the usage of DST in an educational setting (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

9.4

Study Findings

The study findings are presented in three dimensions of identifying trends of using DST, establishing a comparison of trends in using DST across African education systems, and determining the impacts of DST on teaching and learning, following the research questions. The results of this study are based on the qualitative synthesis of findings gathered from the included studies. Trends of Using Digital Storytelling Trend analysis of the selected studies was conducted using descriptive analysis. Table 10.1 shows that a total sample size of 843 students who participated in the primary studies was included in this qualitative synthesis. Minimum and maximum numbers of participating students were, respectively, recorded as 3 and 212 for studies from Southern Africa. The mean and standard deviation numbers of participating students are, respectively, 49,588 and 52,214. The high standard deviation recorded indicates the nonuniformity of sample sizes across the studies. Table 9.2 shows that all the included articles were published within the years 2012 to 2020, but none were published in the years 2019 and 2021. Most of the articles (29.41%) were published in the year 2014, followed by 2013 (17.65%). The years 2012, 2016, and 2017 recorded the same publication rate of (11.76%), while 2015, 2018, and 2020 recorded the least publication rate (5.88%). Data analysis methods of the 17 included studies varied of which most of the studies were qualitative (88.24%) based on case studies and focused group interviews. There was one study that

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Table 9.2 Statistics on primary digital storytelling studies Year

Paper

Data analysis method Qualitative

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 Total

2 3 5 1 2 2 1 0 1 0 17

Quantitative

2 3 4 1 2 2 1

Educational level Mixed

Primary 1

1

Higher 1 3 5 1 2 2 1

1

1 15

Secondary

1 1

1

1

15

adopted a mixed method using questionnaires and focused group interviews (5.88%), and one study (5.88%) adopted the quantitative method. Most studies (88.24%) focused on the use of DST as a tool in undergraduate level education, one study (Duveskog et al., 2012) focused on primary school and one (Ofoegbu et al., 2020) focused on secondary school. The purpose of using DST, number of participating students, and findings vary across all studies. Table 9.3 shows the result of the descriptive analysis of the reviewed primary articles based on author, year of publication, name of the journal that published the article (journal), database where an article was retrieved (database), publisher of the journal (publisher), and country of publication (country). Most of the articles were published in the United Kingdom (41.18%), followed by South Africa (29.41%), while the publication rates for other regions are the United States (11.76%), Turkey (5.88%), Taiwan (5.88%), and Jamaica (5.88%). It can be observed that South Africa is the only African country with publishers of research outcomes on digital storytelling. This might be the likely reason the country has recorded the highest number of articles in this research domain. The articles retrieved from the databases of Web of Science and Scopus reflected an equal occurrence probability of 0.41 while the probability of retrieving an article from Google scholar is 0.19.

Year

2013

2012

2017

2012

2013

2014a, 2014b

2014

2014a, 2014b

Chigona

Condy et al.

Dreyer

Duveskog et al.

Gachago et al.

Gachago et al.

Gachago

Gachago et al.

South African Journal of Higher Education (SAJHE)

Critical Studies in Teaching and Learning South African Journal of Education The Electronic Journal of e-Learning

International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology (IJEDICT) The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology (TOJET) South African Journal of Education Educational Technology & Society

Journal

Descriptive analysis of selected primary articles

Author

Table 9.3

Google Scholar

Web of Science, Scopus Web of Science, Scopus

Scopus,

Web of Science, Scopus Web of Science, Scopus

Google Scholar

Google Scholar

Database

Education Association of South Africa (EASA) International Forum of Educational Technology & Society University of the Western Cape Education Association of South Africa (EASA) Academic Conferences and Publishing International Stellenbosch University, South Africa

Sakarya University

University of the West Indies, Barbados

Publisher

South Africa

United Kingdom

South Africa

South Africa

Taiwan

South Africa

Turkey

Jamaica

Country

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Year

2016

2018

2013

2014

2020

2014

2016

2017

2015

Author

Gachago et al.

Hafidi and Mahnane

Ivala et al.

Ivala et al.

Ofoegbu et al.

Rambe and Mlambo

Stewart and Gachago

Stewart and Ivala

Tiba et al.

Database

Journal of Education and Training Studies Journal of International Medical Research Internet and Higher Education British Journal of Educational Technology British Journal of Educational Technology The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa Web of Scopus Web of Scopus Web of Scopus Web of Scopus Google

Wiley-Blackwell Publishing Ltd Wiley-Blackwell Publishing Ltd Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS)

Science,

Scholar

Science,

Elsevier Ltd

Sage Publication Ltd

Scientific Research Publishing Redfame Publishing Inc

Inderscience Enterprises Ltd

Taylor and Francis Ltd

Publisher

Science,

Science,

Google Scholar

Web of Science, Scopus International Journal of Web of Science, Continuing Engineering Scopus Education and Lifelong Learning Creative Education Web of Science

Gender and Education

Journal

South Africa

United Kingdom

United Kingdom

United Kingdom

United Kingdom

United States

United States

United Kingdom

United Kingdom

Country

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Comparing Trends of Digital Storytelling Usage The general finding of this study is surprising because about 82.35% of the selected studies for qualitative synthesis came from South Africa. There was no study found from any other Southern African country. This result possibly does not indicate that DST is not used in other Southern African countries, it might be used but not researched. In comparison to other regions of Africa, the result is not encouraging because only Nigeria, Tanzania, and Algeria from western, eastern, and northern regions of Africa, respectively, reflected one article per country (Fig. 9.2). There is one collaborative research involving researchers from South Africa and the United States of America using student participants from both countries (Stewart & Gachago, 2016). The research from Nigeria differs significantly from those of South Africa in the method of data analysis, which is quantitative against qualitative methods used by South African researchers. The studies from Tanzania and Algeria are similar to the studies from South Africa because of the qualitative data analysis methods used by authors from these three countries. The purposes and findings of the selected studies generally differ across the regions of Africa.

Fig. 9.2 Distribution of studies on digital storytelling across education systems in Africa

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Impacts of Digital Storytelling on Teaching and Learning The salient findings from the systematic review of the selected studies have been articulated in Table 9.1. The studies generally reported DST as a useful tool in educational settings using the questionnaires, focused groups, and one-to-one interviews as data collection instruments. Five different themes based on the experiences of students about immersion in DST settings have emerged that impact teaching and learning in the Southern African education system, particularly in South Africa. The impacts of DST on education are promoting student engagement (Chigona, 2013; Dreyer, 2017; Gachago et al., 2013, 2014a, 2014b; Ivala et al., 2013, 2014; Rambe & Mlambo, 2014; Stewart & Gachago, 2016; Stewart & Ivala, 2017), enhancing knowledge and skills (Chigona, 2013; Condy et al., 2012; Dreyer, 2017; Gachago et al., 2013, 2014; Ivala et al., 2013, 2014; Rambe & Mlambo, 2014), building a community of practice (Chigona, 2013; Condy et al., 2012; Gachago, 2014), building an understanding of cultures (Gachago, 2014; Gachago et al., 2014a, 2014b; Stewart & Ivala, 2017), and facilitating deep learning (Condy et al., 2012; Dreyer, 2017; Gachago et al., 2013; Ivala et al., 2014). In addition, DST is generally touted as a multimodal narrative writing genre that allows the students to write in different modalities to communicate meanings appropriately. Its integration as a multimodal tool for writing instructions in English foreign language was shown to be more superior in improving narrative writing practices of students than orthodox paper-based writing activities (Balaman, 2018). The multimodal element of the DST reflection project on final-year students allowed them to tell stories in different modes by expressing their individuality and creativity in numerous ways (Gachago et al., 2014a, 2014b).

9.5

Discussion

The study findings on the analysis of trends generally revealed that DST studies were relatively low in other African countries than South Africa. There are more peer-reviewed articles from Scopus and Web of Science scholastic databases on the application of DST in the South African education system (Dreyer, 2017; Gachago et al., 2014a, 2014b; Stewart & Ivala, 2017), but a scarcity of studies does abound in other Africa countries.

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In terms of the comparative analysis of trends of digital storytelling usage, the purposes and findings of the selected studies generally differ across the regions of Africa. There are similarities among the studies from Southern Africa mainly represented by South Africa when compared to those of Tanzania and Algeria in terms of qualitative data analysis methods. However, dissimilarity abounds among the studies from South Africa when compared to the one from Nigeria in terms of qualitative versus quantitative data analysis methods. The different themes that have emerged from this qualitative review study to determine the impacts of DST on teaching and learning in Southern African education systems are discussed in this section. Digital storytelling is widely regarded as a pedagogical tool for promoting student engagement. It can help to engage students in meaningful learning (Chigona, 2013), and improve the capability of teamwork among students through social interaction when creating stories. It mediates sound academic conversations among students, peers, and staff about learning and understanding complex topics (Ivala et al., 2013), and leverages the voices of previously disadvantaged students in academic engagement (Rambe & Mlambo, 2014). Preservice teachers have reported that the production of DST extended opportunities for students to study beyond classroom time because of engagement with the subject matter anywhere. It has been used to explore the critical issues associated with diversity in engaging preservice teachers in poorresourced and marginalized communities (Gachago et al., 2014a, 2014b). DST has proven to be a genre that allows the students to work individually and in groups to produce a critical opinion about a conflicting social issue (Gregori-Signes, 2014). Student engagement in a multimodal analysis of their stories could facilitate a nuanced conversation on beliefs and assumptions that are hard to achieve (Gachago et al., 2014a, 2014b). Digital storytelling is enhancing knowledge and skills by helping students construct, articulate, build knowledge, ideas and share them more effectively at all levels of education (Baldwin & Ching, 2014; Lazar et al., 2020; Rambe & Mlambo, 2014). It can help students have a deeper understanding of the contents of curricula. The innovations of DST enable students to be involved in creating their own stories that can help them improve their academic performance and communication skills (Tiba et al., 2015). It has been reported that the production of digital

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stories has improved the commitment of students to learning eventually leading to a deep understanding of the subject matter (Ivala et al., 2013). It promotes the acquisition of multiple skills in students, such as technological skills, creative thinking skills, and multimedia skills (Robin, 2008, 2016). This is evident in the work of Chigona (2013) that students gained technological skills during the production of DST because they had to learn from more skilled peers. It has been reported that students broaden their critical thinking skills using DST (Yang & Wu, 2012) and the creation of digital stories (Yuksel et al., 2011). Digital storytelling is a useful device for building a community of practice (CoP) through multimodal pedagogy by drawing students together to develop enabling learning communities. Several studies have explicated the efficacy of CoP in promoting collaboration in tertiary institutions (Nair & Yunus, 2021). The CoP can develop the knowledge and skills of preservice teachers for their future teaching careers (Chigona, 2013; Okumura, 2017). It has been shown that students benefit from group work by learning from each other during the production of DST (Ivala et al., 2013). CoP theory based on the DST project has contributed to enhancing the knowledge and skills of preservice teachers and enabling them to promote solidarity (Okumura, 2017). Digital storytelling is important for building an understanding of cultures by allowing students to liberally express their voices, identities, and emotions (Nair & Yunus, 2021). It strengthens cultural tolerance and respect for differences by allowing students from different social and ethnic backgrounds an equal chance of expressing disparate experiences (Erdo˘gan, 2021; Gachago et al., 2014a, 2014b). It was applied to embark on student conversations that disrupt the notion of difference (Gachago et al., 2014a, 2014b; Stewart & Ivala, 2017). It was used by Stewart and Gachago (2016) to encourage students in multicultural classrooms to share a wide range of culturally embedded experiences about the differences. Students used it to build communities to engage in a participatory culture that strengthens their social connection and empowers them to challenge racial injustice and power structures (Angay-Crowder, 2015; Gachago, 2014). Digital storytelling facilitates deep learning, reflection for dealing with issues of diversity and offers the students an opportunity to reflect upon past experiences toward probing into reasons for actions (Baldwin & Ching, 2014). Deep reflection promoted by digital storytelling can lead to a deeper understanding of subject content (Ivala et al., 2013). It can

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help students to ruminate on the real issues after the execution of a practical assignment and determine the area for further improvement (Dreyer, 2017). Dreyer (2017) incorporated it in teacher training programs to encourage postgraduate education students to foster a culture of reflective practice for professional development. It was used by Ivala et al. (2014) as a reflective exercise among preservice student teachers that enhanced their deep learning and critical thinking skills.

9.6

Conclusions

Digital storytelling is still one of the most important tools for effective teaching and learning hard educational concepts. In this study, the authors have investigated the purpose, impact, and application of this educational tool in the context of Southern African education systems. Different themes have emerged from 17 previous studies that can increase human understanding of the application of the tool in educational settings in the context of Southern Africa. It is expected that the findings of this systematic synthesis will benefit educators and stakeholders of the high education system in strategic decision-making and scenario planning to improve the quality of education. The qualitative systematic review generally offers the capability to explore novel insights from the previous findings, but it is highly limited in the generalization of findings. The general characteristics of qualitative research such as verifiability of findings, difficulty to investigate causality, and lack of statistical representation are the inherent limitations of the present study. Moreover, the study was restricted to the few studies from the Southern African countries, which limits the generalizability of the findings of this study that should be interpreted with care. In the future, this study will be extended to location-independent research on digital storytelling using the quantitative methodology of meta-analysis to reveal the trend of Southern Africa when compared to the rest of the world. In addition, this will allow for the investigation of interesting statistical results such as effect size, sources of heterogeneity in included studies, and publication bias that are practically impossible to investigate with a qualitative review.

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CHAPTER 10

Technology-Enhanced Teacher Professional Development: The Experience of a Digital EdTech Start-Up in Malawi Foster Gondwe

10.1

and Bob Maseko

Introduction

The provision of timely opportunities for Continuing Professional Development (CPD) to teachers is key, especially within the context of multimodal learning environments (cf. Chapter 1). This is because CPD is taken as a means to improve students’ learning outcomes (Guskey, 2002). Guskey (2002) adds that CPD for teachers is a structured course that aims to ‘alter the professional practices, beliefs, and understanding of school persons toward an articulated end’ (Guskey, 2002, p. 381). This means that there are clear guidelines that are drawn by facilitators to

F. Gondwe (B) · B. Maseko School of Education, University of Malawi, Zomba, Malawi e-mail: [email protected] B. Maseko e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Olivier et al. (eds.), Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa, Digital Education and Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97656-9_10

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help teachers retain the knowledge and also to allow smooth knowledge transfer. Traditionally, CPD has taken the face-to-face approach, where teachers would physically meet with their CPD facilitators. However, with advancements in digital technology, we see some changes in the landscape of CPD. According to the literature, technologies such as social media, mobile, and information tools are being used to mediate teachers’ and teacher educators’ professional development and learning. Using technology for professional learning becomes particularly necessary in contexts where practitioners do not own their professional development, are limited by time and space, and there is an urgency to facilitate deep and reflective practice (Kidd & Murray, 2013). Kidd and Murray (2013) observe that while there is a growing body of knowledge about developing technology competencies for teachers and teacher educators, the role of technology as a vehicle for teachers’ and teacher educators’ professional development and learning is often overlooked among researchers. It is a long the foregoing background that we had set out to investigate the nature of CPD using digital technology. In this chapter, we explore technology-enhanced teacher professional development using the experience of a digital Education Technology (EdTech) start-up (Padziwe: https://padziwe.org/teachers.php) in Malawi. Padziwe can serve as an instrumental case because it has gained prominence locally and internationally as an innovative solution for addressing access and quality challenges of education in Malawi. Among others, Padziwe’s platform enhances teachers’ access to and engagement with the curriculum content as part of their professional development. In this way, the platform addresses the challenge of limited access to professional development opportunities by in-service teachers in Malawi. More importantly, the initiative demonstrates that teachers’ CPD is one of the significant areas for technology to play an important role in education (Carter, 2020). Malikwa (2020) also reports a case of one student with sickle-cell sickness who utilized the Padziwe tablet containing Padziwe library. The student accessed ‘interactive lessons rich in visuals that simplified concepts without requiring her to attend classes (Malikwa, 2020). Malikwa’s report also shows that Padziwe was also found useful for learners who lagged in their studies, as well as those that could not attend lessons due to school closures following the COVID-19 pandemic. In this chapter, we use a model inspired by the work of Jung (2005) as an analytical framework. Technology-enhanced professional learning is

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defined as using digital technology for teachers’ professional learning and development. By clarifying technology integration into teachers’ professional development and education, the case study contributes to increased teacher educators’ awareness of significant approaches, content areas, and the design of technology-enhanced professional learning for teachers working in contexts like Malawi. The goal is to provide insights into the deployment of CPD using digital technology. This is especially significant because of the uncertainty of face-to-face meetings as a result of the COVID-19 global pandemic. The chapter is structured as follows: First, we introduce the context of the study by focusing on technology and professional development for teachers in Malawi. This is followed by the conceptual framework that helped us make sense of the use of digital technology in CPDs for teachers. The next section describes the case study, followed by the key findings and discussion. We conclude by observing that the experience of Padziwe provides insights into technology-enhanced professional development for teachers, including the design and content for professional development activities.

10.2 Technology and Professional Development for Teachers in Malawi This section presents the context of professional development for teachers in Malawi. To begin with, the need for in-service teachers’ professional development stems from calls for strengthening teacher policy, support, and management systems in Malawi. The Ministry of Education published the National Standards for Teacher Education that may be used for a range of purposes, including for reference when planning professional development of teachers (Ministry of Education Science and Technology, MoEST, 2016). The Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Framework for teachers translates the policy statements for the institutionalization of a systematic and award-bearing CPD for teachers and teacher educators in the country (MoEST, 2018). The CPD framework guides the design and implementation of continuing PD programs, defined as structured and unstructured activities that every teacher must undertake during their career to update their competencies and change their attitudes (MoEST, 2018). According to the Ministry of Education, the diverse activities from which teachers can learn include distance learning and digital learning. In this way, the Ministry recognizes the

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potential of technology in facilitating and enhancing teachers’ access to professional development activities. This is especially important because access to professional development has been a policy concern in Malawi (Ministry of Education, 2008). Where opportunities such as CPD seminars and workshops are available, they have remained isolated from each other, short-lived, and there has been no system to monitor and evaluate the learning that teacher educators receive through such CPD (MoEST, 2018). Accordingly, the Ministry of Education has been implementing some technology-enhanced CPD activities to improve teaching and learning, as well as to fill the shortage of qualified teachers in schools. The experience of Domasi College of Education exemplifies teachers’ upgrading programs by Open and Distance Learning (ODL), including rationale, potential, and challenges of professional development via ODL. The ODL program in question is managed from a purposefully built Centre for Distance and Continuing Education which was opened in 2006 to administer and manage all ODL-related activities at the College (Msiska et al., 2013, p. 162). Msiska et al. (2013) further report that the ODL center coordinates the development of courses and instructional materials by respective faculties and departments. The ODL program combines faceto-face and independent study. Since the teacher educators handling ODL teacher education were initially meant for face-to-face training, the introduction of ODL necessitated professional development for teacher educators. Among others, teacher educators’ professional development training has focused on the areas of facilitating distance education and module design and editing. It has also become necessary for teacher educators to understand that distance learning materials should be learner-centered to promote autonomous learning among student teachers (Msiska et al., 2013). Despite progress on implementing ODL and E-learning CPDs, most CPD activities remain face to face. While the face-to-face approach is advantageous in that the message is delivered just in time, recent threats to social interactions as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic make it increasingly important to understand practices related to technology-enhanced professional development for teachers in Malawi. Therefore, this chapter reports findings on technology-enhanced teacher professional development using the experience of a Malawi-based digital EdTech start-up called Padziwe. As presented in the next section, we use a model inspired by the work of Jung (2005) as an analytical framework.

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In this chapter, technology-enhanced professional learning is defined as using digital technology for teachers’ professional learning. Additionally, we acknowledge that the definition of technology is contested in the literature (Spector, 2015). For the purposes of this chapter, we adopt Kadzera’s (2006) categorization of instructional technology in teacher education in Malawi. The author categorized instructional technology into three: common-readily available and fondly used technologies such as chalkboards and flip charts; creative technologies, which are produced using locally available resources; and higher-order technologies, which are mechanical or electronic in their operations and require maintenance and training to use. By clarifying technology integration into teachers’ CPD, the case study contributes to increasing teacher educators’ awareness of significant approaches, content areas, and design of technology-enhanced professional learning of teachers working in contexts similar to Malawi.

10.3 Conceptual Framework: Technology Use in Teacher Education The education technology integration literature reports some models for determining how technology is used. For example, Moersch’s (1995) LoTi (Levels of Technology Implementation) is a scale for measuring classroom technology use. It has a range of levels: 0 (non-use), 1 (awareness), 2 (exploration), 3 (infusion), 4 (integration), 5 (expansion), 6 (refinement). This scale is useful for classroom observation. Additionally, the Substitution Augmentation Modification and Redefinition (SAMR) model, which is also useful for classroom observation, stands for the following levels of classroom technology integration. (1) Substitution: substitute technology for traditional one, e.g., using pdf instead of a printed document; (2) Augmentation: technology substitutes traditional mode, but with some enhancement; (3) Modification: where technology is used to change some lesson tasks; and (4) Redefinition: using technology to offer new possibilities with educational technology (see, for example, Hamilton et al., 2016). Another model is Technology Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), which captures knowledge required by teachers and teacher educators to teach with technology while addressing the complex, multifaceted, and situated nature of this knowledge (Mishra & Koehler, 2006, p. 1017). For teacher education, Jung (2005) found four approaches to the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). First, ICT can

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be the main content focus, where teacher training is about how to use ICT in teacher training. Second, ICT can be the core delivery technology, where it is the vehicle for delivering teacher training, as is the case with online and distance learning. Third, ICT can be part of content or methods involving providing teachers and student teachers with models of appropriate practices of technology-enhanced teaching and learning. Fourth, ICT can be used as a facilitating or networking technology; e.g., providing online resources as one way of supporting teachers’ continuing professional development. Because of its specific focus on technology integration into teacher education, we find Jung’s work to be useful for understanding technology-enhanced professional development for teachers as run by Padziwe. The four dimensions proposed by Jung are useful for interpreting how technology becomes visible in Padziwe’s professional development programs for teachers as relevant in multimodal environments. Moreover, the model is linked to the multimodal learning framework explored in this book. For instance, where ICT is used as the core delivery technology for teachers’ CPD, it can leverage the potential of various digital technology tools to represent training content in multiple forms.

10.4

The Case Study: Padziwe

In this section, we describe the case of Padziwe to illustrate the use of technology in the professional development of teachers in Malawi. The data used in this chapter is based on personal communication with the founding executive director of Padziwe, and other internet sources available to the public. The authors obtained permission from the founder, who also provided internet sites where find further information could be found (e.g. Carter, 2020; Kumasewera & Padziwe, 2020). Padziwe is a profit organization that offers education through online and offline applications for learners, teachers, and schools, as captured in the Twitter screenshot shown in Fig. 10.1. It was founded in 2011 by Pilirani Kumasewera, a former secondary school teacher in Malawi. According to Kumasewera, the interest in developing educational Apps was initially motivated by the lack of teaching and learning resources. In one of the blog entries, Kumasewera writes, ‘I noticed that we did not have enough books in the library but we had some computers in the computer lab’ (Kumasewera, 2021). Educational apps are therefore expected to improve teachers’ and students’ access to instructional

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Fig. 10.1 Padziwe Twitter account

resources. It offers products such as Padziwe Tools for Teachers, Padziwe Digital Library, Padziwe Online schools, Padziwe Exam Bank, Padziwe Tablet, and Padziwe School Management System. Padziwe lessons thrive on multimedia learning (Moreno & Mayer, 2007), using tools such as interactive animations, videos, audios, and diagrams that simplify concepts easily for the students and teachers. For instance, Kumasewera reported that ‘The Teachers Desk’s biggest strength has been the way the content is presented. It is engaging and interactive, which makes it easy for teachers to understand it and attain learning outcomes’ (Pilirani Kumasewera, personal communication). He added that Padziwe ‘packages its digital content in ways that are meant to help institutions significantly reduce the amount of money, time, and effort required for the content to reach learners’. Other design aspects of Padziwe include enhancing access to digital tools, for example, by

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distributing gadgets to needy students and making available learning resources online for any student to download and use free of charge; ensuring quality content development, and alignment with the Ministry of Education’s policy directions such as leveraging the new ICT-based teaching and increasingly available learning technologies (Zambia and Malawi Community Partnership, undated). In this chapter, we focus on the teachers’ CPD component that Padziwe offers through its Padziwe Tools for Teachers and the Exam Bank that allows teachers to automatically create question papers from a huge collection of pre-created questions. In response to our email communication, Pilirani Kumasewera confirmed that his organization offers teacher training content. They use content that was developed by UNICEF and the Malawi Government through the Directorate of Teacher Education and Development (DTED) in the Ministry of Education. Padziwe took this content and digitized it by adding illustrations, videos, and interactive animations to make it more engaging and easier to understand for teachers. Currently, Padziwe uses the internet as the only means through which teachers can access this content. However, due to the limitations of access to hardware and the internet, the organization has been planning to offer alternative means of accessing the content offline, which is the case with content for secondary and primary school learners. The main challenge facing Padziwe’s technology-enhanced professional development is the lack of technological infrastructure (in terms of hardware and network) to enable teachers, even in remote areas to access the platform. Kumasewera further observed that many teachers in Malawi do not have the capacity to access devices that would allow them to access the platform and this is the reason they have been targeting to work with other organizations to install computers in schools so that teachers can take turns in using the platform. This has prompted Padziwe to develop some access models that can ensure that the platform can be sustainable but also easily accessible by as many teachers as possible.

10.5

Findings and Discussion

As already noted, while there appears to be abundant research on what teachers learn about using digital technology in their work, more research work needs to be done on how technology can support the professional learning of teachers themselves (Kidd & Murray, 2013). In this chapter, we have conceptualized the use of digital technology for

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teachers’ professional learning as technology-enhanced teachers’ professional development. Technology-enhanced professional development of teachers relates to Jung’s (2005) approach of using technology as a core delivery mode of teacher training. The use of digital technology in education is still in its infancy in Malawi, as studies report low access to technology resources as well as information deployed through other forms of technology (Chaputula, 2012). However, over the years some strides have been registered on technology use for various means, especially in education. In this section, we discuss insights into the use of digital technology for teachers’ professional development based on the case of Padziwe. Key issues under discussion include how Padziwe uses technology for professional development, design processes related to Padziwe’s technology-enhanced professional development, and the nature of teacher professional development supported by Padziwe.

10.6 Padziwe’s Use of Digital Technology for Professional Development Padziwe’s technology-enhanced professional development addresses problems related to teachers’ access to professional development opportunities in Malawi. As already noted, the Ministry of Education observes that there are limited professional development opportunities for teachers and teacher educators in Malawi (Ministry of Education, 2018). Furthermore, Selemani-Meke (2013) investigated factors that negatively affect primary teachers’ motivation to implement what they have learnt from CPDs. The study found that teacher motivation especially working conditions and monetary incentives provided during the CPD are some of the factors that hinder teachers’ implementation of what they learn from CPDs. Gondwe (2021) also studied teacher educators’ transfer of learning from technology professional development activities they undertake. Study findings showed that some teacher educators felt that they could not transfer learning partly because some of the professional development activities lacked hands-on experience. These findings are in line with theoretical propositions that the transfer of learning is influenced by the design of professional development activities, work environment, and the characteristics of learners (Jaramillo-Baquerizo et al., 2019). Although teachers and teacher educators in Malawi are expected to transfer their learning from professional development, such transfer does not always occur.

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Drawing upon the above literature, we observe that Padziwe bridges the gap in access to professional development opportunities by offering CPD to teachers for free. More importantly, Padziwe’s initiative seems to respond to the challenge of teachers’ transfer of learning from CPD by improving the design of CPD, especially the instructional materials that are informed by instructional design principles. Padziwe develops training content that is enriched with visual and interactive media, featuring videos, audios, and animations. Although we did not engage teachers who have undergone this technology-enhanced professional development to understand their experiences with these interactive media, Padziwe’s website shows some multimedia materials such as videos that present content in chunks. Based on Jung’s (2005) approaches to ICT use in teacher training, it can be said that Padziwe uses ICT as a vehicle for delivering teacher training. More importantly, from a multimedia learning perspective, it is clear that Padziwe’s instructional materials designed to appeal to multiple learner senses align with the principles of multimodal learning environments explored in this book. According to researchers, ‘multiple representations of content (text, video, audio, images, interactive elements)’ have become increasingly popular as they ‘cater more effectively to the different learning styles of an increasingly diverse student body’ (Sankey, Birch & Gardiner, 2010, p. 1). Thus, Padziwe’s instructional materials for teachers’ CPD amount to a learning environment that engages learners (in this case the teachers) with the potential to enhance their retention and transfer of the learned content (Moreno & Mayer, 2007; Sankey, Birch & Gardiner, 2010).

10.7 Collaborative Approach to Designing Technology-Enhanced PD for Teachers The literature suggests that collaboration among different stakeholders can enhance the use of digital technology in Malawi’s education system (Gondwe, 2021). In line with this insight, we observe that Padziwe’s development of educational Apps involves multiple stakeholders, including teachers, the ministry of education, and development partners. The overall aim of these education apps is to develop easy to understand concepts that target the learner. Among others, while teachers contribute content in terms of ‘what’ and ‘how’ to teach it, the ministry of education ‘evaluates the content for quality and consistency with the curriculum and provides feedback on how we can make it better’ (Kumasewera, personal

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communication). Teachers, education stakeholders, as well as development partners, brainstorm on ideas that enhance students’ learning in terms of organizing and adapting content by including among other things different representations such as simulations, animations, videos as well as audio which are key in the teaching and learning process. Once this is done, a programmer on the other hand executes all these by writing a program (simulations) or embedding appropriate learning resources (videos, audios) for the learning experiences. It is believed that by undergoing this task, teachers immensely benefit from it. For instance, teachers learn from other teachers how they have managed to solve or teach a difficult concept, how they managed to do that, and the resources they used to successfully teach a particular concept. Hence in the process, teachers are able to develop, maintain, and document their professional knowledge.

10.8

Unstructured PD for Teachers

Professional development for teachers can be structured or unstructured, or informal and formal (e.g. Evans, 2019; Macià, & García, 2016). There is no universally agreed definition of formal activities in the literature but some scholars have tended to define formal by distinguishing it from informal. For example, Evans (2019) distinguishes formal and informal activities based on the explicitness of aspects such as duration, curriculum, or certification. On one hand, according to Evans (2019), formal activities are those ‘that lie towards the “explicit” end of the learning continuum’ (Evans, 2019, p. 13). They are different from informal ones, ‘that are not explicitly labelled or signposted as such…which include occurring without the learner’s or developers’ awareness or consciousness of her/his learning or development…’ (p. 12). Such informal activities have the advantage of being self-directed and embedded in the context of teaching and learning. In Malawi, informal professional development activities are in line with the Ministry of Education’s view that the most effective form of professional development is usually coaching and mentoring, underpinned by personal study and research (MoEST, 2016). However, informal learning ‘is often dependent on the goodwill of colleagues; has a strong trial-anderror component; and it is not always apparent what needs to be learned’ (Kosnik et al., 2015, p. 71). This means that while teachers may be able to learn new effective ways of teaching a particular content on their own, it is in such a way that there are no guidelines to give directions on what,

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when, and how when using a particular strategy that is deemed effective. Furthermore, there is no discussion regarding the pros and cons of particular representations. This is problematic when it comes to knowledge transfer as teachers do not have the necessary skills of developing some representations on their own. Padziwe’s website boasts content in the following areas; mathematics, physics, and chemistry. This content is infused with other supporting materials including podcasts and interactive materials such as simulation on atoms, models, etc. Based on these materials, we note that Padziwe provides unstructured PD services to teachers concerning the teaching and learning of science. It is unstructured in the sense that there are no clear guidelines for teachers to follow content of the CPD. However, it is possible that when teachers are going through these materials, they certainly learn a few tricks about effective ways of teaching science to learners. As the teacher goes through the material or when the teacher is searching for the best or most effective ways of teaching a particular concept, he might come across content from the Padziwe website which outlines how a particular concept[s] may be handled. Through that way, a teacher may learn the new way of teaching and hence enhance his professional knowledge. Meanwhile, the unstructured nature of teachers’ CPD offered by Padziwe underscores the need for teachers to be motivated to undertake professional development and learn about using digital resources. This study did not generate enough evidence to support claims of what motivates teachers to undertake online professional development using Padziwe digital tools. We recommend this as an area that needs further research. However, in the literature, we learn that educators undertake professional development for several reasons, such as responding to policy expectations, improving their practice, and upgrading their qualifications that in turn result in career progression in terms of promotion (Ping et al., 2018). For example, in Malawi, the newly established CPD framework expects that teachers should undertake a minimum of 5 CPD activities in a year (MoEST, 2018). Gondwe (2021) also reports that self-directed learning such as independent study is one of the technology professional development activities that teacher educators undertake in Malawi.

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Conclusion

The need for a better understanding of professional development becomes necessary in view of the increased competition in education, everchanging nature of knowledge, increased enrolment in schools, the need for improved education standards in terms of students’ performance as well as the teaching and learning process. All these educational matters have motivated the increased demand for CPD of teachers. Meanwhile, although technology is not a solution to every problem we face in our everyday life, we have however seen a plethora of institutions embracing affordances of digital technology in so many areas including education. Over the years, digital technology has been shaping the landscape of teaching and learning in many institutions. For instance, higher education institutions are using digital technology to offer their courses. These are deliberate efforts by higher education institutions aimed at improving access to higher education. This is because digital technology capacitates institutions to reach almost everyone provided they have internet access. CPD is also one of the areas in education that is benefiting from digital technology. This chapter has explored technology-enhanced professional development of teachers using the case of an educational technology firm in Malawi. As a descriptive case study, it gives other researchers a starting point to explore other significant questions. For example, what is the impact of unstructured technology-enhanced professional development for teachers in Malawi? How is such impact connected to aspects such as the multimodal learning affordances of digital technologies that teachers use for their professional learning? How do teachers learn from the digital tools and from each other? How can technology-enhanced professional development initiatives such as Padziwe be sustained and scaled in resource-constrained environments such as Malawi?

References Carter, A. (2020). Sandboxes: Testing the strategy in Malawi. https://edtech hub.org/2020/01/31/sandboxes-testing-the-strategy-in-malawi/ (Accessed 16 March, 2022). Chaputula, A. H. (2012). State, adoption and use of ICTs by students and academic staff at Mzuzu University, Malawi. Program: Electronic Library and Information Systems, 46(4), 364–382. https://doi.org/10.1108/003303312 11276477

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Evans, L. (2019). Implicit and informal professional development: What it ‘looks like, how it occurs, and why we need to research it. Professional Development in Education, 45(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2018.144 1172 Guskey, T. R. (2002). Professional development and teacher change. Teachers and Teaching, 8(3), 381–391. Gondwe, F. (2021). Technology professional development for teacher educators in Malawi. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Hiroshima University, Japan. Hamilton, E. R., Rosenberg, J. M., & Akcaoglu, M. (2016). The substitution augmentation modification redefinition (SAMR) model: A critical review and suggestions for its use. TechTrends, 60(5), 433–441. Jung, I. (2005). ICT-Pedagogy Integration in Teacher Training: Application Cases Worldwide. Educational Technology & Society, 8(2), 94–101. Jaramillo-Baquerizo, C., Valcke, M., & Vanderlinde, R. (2019). Professional development initiatives for university teachers: Variables that influence the transfer of learning to the workplace. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 56(3), 352–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2018. 1479283 Kidd, W., & Murray, J. (2013). Using emerging technologies to develop professional learning. Professional Development in Education, 39(2), 165–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2013.771087 Kadzera, C. M. (2006). Use of instructional technologies in teacher training colleges in Malawi, Doctoral dissertation. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/handle/10919/27728 Kosnik, C., Menna, L., Dharamshi, P., Miyata, C., Cleovoulou, Y., & Beck, C. (2015). Four spheres of knowledge required: An international study of the professional development of literacy/English teacher educators. Journal of Education for Teaching, 41(1), 52–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476. 2014.992634 Kumasewera, P., & Padziwe (2020). Sandboxes: My experience participating in the sandbox alpha. https://edtechhub.org/2020/01/31/sandboxes-my-exp erience-participating-in-the-sandbox-alpha/ (Accessed 16 March, 2022). Kumasewera, P. (2021). A new system for digital education in Malawi. https://www.globalpartnership.org/blog/new-system-digital-educationmalawi (Accessed 18 March, 2022). Macià, M., & García, I. (2016). Informal online communities and networks as a source of teacher professional development: A review. Teaching and Teacher Education, 55, 291–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.01.021 Malikwa, M. (2020). A Library at fingertips. https://www.mwnation.com/a-lib rary-at-fingertips/ (Accessed 16 March, 2022). Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. (2007). Interactive multimodal learning environments. Educational Psychology Review, 19(3), 309–326.

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Msiska, F. G. W., Chimpololo, A., Liwambano, P. N., Maere, C., Mbendera, A., Phiri, D. D., Salagi, E., & Yambeni, A. M. (2013). Audit study to determine the effectiveness of open, distance and e-learning delivery mode in broadening and increasing access to education and training in Malawi. Commonwealth of Learning. Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST) (2008). National Strategy for Teacher Education and Development. Lilongwe. MoEST. (2016). National Standards for Teacher Education in Malawi. Lilongwe MoEST. (2018). Continuing Professional Development Framework for Teachers and Teacher Educators. Lilongwe Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017–1054. Moersch, C. (1995). Levels of technology implementation (LoTi): A framework for measuring classroom technology use. Learning and Leading with Technology, 23, 40–40. Ping, C., Schellings, G., & Beijaard, D. (2018). Teacher educators’ professional learning: A literature review. Teaching and Teacher Education, 75, 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.06.003 Selemani-Meke, E. (2013). Teacher motivation and implementation of continuing professional development programmes in Malawi. Anthropologist, 15(1), 107–115. Spector, J. M. (2015). Foundations of educational technology: Integrative approaches and interdisciplinary perspectives. Routledge. Sankey, M., Birch, D., & Gardiner, M. (2010). Engaging students through multimodal learning environments: The journey continues. In Proceedings ASCILITE 2010: 27th Annual Conference of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education: Curriculum, technology, and transformation for an unknown future (pp. 852–863). The University of Queensland. Zambia and Malawi Community Partnership. (undated). Padziwe Digital Education Project. https://www.zmcpcharity.com/copy-of-tikondane-project (Accessed 18 March, 2022).

CHAPTER 11

Conclusion Jako Olivier , Avinash Oojorah, and Waaiza Udhin

This book explored the nature of multimodal learning environments in Southern Africa in terms of embracing digital pedagogies through ten chapters. It is evident that in this context, due to wider technological advances and expansion, but also specifically due to COVID-19, learning environments are increasingly multimodal in nature. From the conceptual and empirical chapters in this book, the unique nature of the wider Southern African educational context is evident. However, the findings also have value for similar milieus globally.

J. Olivier (B) Research Unit Self-Directed Learning, Faculty of Education, North-West University, Mahikeng, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] A. Oojorah · W. Udhin Centre for Open and Distance Learning, Mauritius Institute of Education, Réduit, Mauritius e-mail: [email protected] W. Udhin e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Olivier et al. (eds.), Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa, Digital Education and Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97656-9_11

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The first chapter set out the theoretical framework for multimodal learning environments by positioning this type of context in terms of multimodality as well as multimodal learning. Consequently, in multimodal learning environments, the presence of different modes of representation is significant. Within this context, multimodal learning is interpreted in terms of individual, interactional, instructional and institutional multimodality. In the second chapter of this book, the focus was on digital pedagogy research and development in Southern Africa. The importance of educator agency was noted as they can then act as change agents as there is a move towards transforming teaching and learning as human activities. The problem is of course that educational status quos are often reproduced. The need for human-centred transformation was consequently clear especially within a dynamic learning environment. The third chapter related to the technological use by the so-called Generation Z during the COVID-19 lockdown. This generation is quite unique in that they function already within multimodal environments outside of the educational context. Yet, it is essential to find out more about the needs and characteristics of students from this generation, specifically within the COVID-19 context. However, students from this generation may adopt certain communication behaviours that could contribute to their feelings of isolation, which in turn may be the reason for the higher levels of anxiety and depression. From this chapter, it is clear that teachers need to be cognisant of the nature and unique needs of a changing student population. The importance of multimodal assessment was unpacked in the fourth chapter, where multimodal compositions was proposed as a means to address the increasing need to rethink assessment in terms of mode of delivery and communication. This chapter linked up with the ongoing discourses around the nature of literacies and, more specifically, academic literacies in a multimodal world. Evidently, student agency and choice underlie the successful implementation of multimodal assessments. Similarly, the fifth chapter also related to assessment and specifically a reconsideration of assessment and feedback within a multimodal context. In this chapter, issues around academic ethics and integrity were considered as the changing mode of delivery opened up certain challenges for learning and assessment. This chapter also advocated for a humanist approach to remote online teaching, learning and assessment.

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Student needs and responsiveness to these needs were covered in the sixth chapter. In this regard, effective student support structures are highly relevant in multimodal learning environments. Furthermore, this chapter recommended following an approach centred around connectivism and putting digital networks central to the student support process. In this way, some challenges of capacity-poor institutions could be addressed. Furthermore, the seventh chapter advocated for professionalising socialisation for the sake of a pragmatic electronic curriculum. Here, the importance of context and student needs were highlighted as professionalising socialisation for a pragmatic e-curriculum for universities is essential as many of them have not crossed the digital divide. This chapter also supported unbundling efforts and the promotion of student reflection opportunities. In the eighth chapter, teacher perspectives on blended learning were considered. This empirical study on language teachers concluded that integrating transformative teaching and learning approaches in a multimodal learning context depend on teachers’ perspectives that are recognised and addressed. The chapter also highlighted the importance of teachers’ personal perspectives on their teaching practices. Consequently, there should be sufficient opportunities for teachers to critically reflect on their own perspectives and teaching practices, especially in of multimodal learning environments. The ninth chapter presented a systematic review of digital storytelling research within the Southern African context. Despite this research mainly being confined to South Africa, the affordances of digital storytelling for multimodal learning in the whole region are evident. In this regard, the research in this chapter found that from the identified source documents, it is clear that digital storytelling promotes student engagement, enhances knowledge and skills, can contribute to building a community of practice and facilitate understanding of different cultures and deep learning. The final chapter reflected on the advantages of a selected technologyenhanced teacher professional development initiative. More specifically, this chapter explored technology-enhanced teacher professional development regarding the experiences of a digital EdTech start-up in Malawi. As such, the chapter showed how professional development could be facilitated effectively within a multimodal learning environment. The chapters in this book pointed to interesting issues such as the need for a deeper understanding of human agency in the implementation

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and usage of digital technologies in education. Indeed, Chapters 2 and 3 highlight that the drivers for the adaptation of multimodal learning technologies are human choices and dispositions. Chapter 2 claimed a need for a deeper understanding of human agency and the context of learning in the use of technology and the implementation of digital pedagogies, which is in line with the Affordance Theory, where the change agent is the human, being the teacher. In Chapter 3, the authors iterated the significant importance for deeper research into generational usage of technology as it cannot be taken for granted that true digital natives would be more attuned to learning online. Moreover, the disruptive nature of multimodal learning environments is also very apparent throughout the chapters of the book. In particular, Chapters 2, 4, 5 and 7 related to the tensions between reachability/quantity vs. quality in education; massification of learning vs. personalisation/authenticity of learning; internationalisation vs. decolonisation of education (even more important in the African context). Finally, the authors of the book chapters have advocated for a rethinking (“rethinking” seems to be the connecting theme across the chapters) of many educational practices in Higher Education, ranging from assessment (Chapter 5), teacher–student dichotomy (Chapter 6), curriculum design (Chapters 7, 8 and 9) and continuous professional development (Chapter 10). In conclusion, from these chapters, some vignettes of the nature of multimodal learning environments in South Africa were presented. In this regard, it is clear that for multimodal learning environments, the interaction between student, teacher and the environment is a complex process. Many of the chapters focus on students and their experiences in multimodal contexts, findings from this research can inform a better understanding of the needs and dispositions of students within the region. Importantly, these students also need support and an acknowledgement of their modal preferences. A further important theme across different chapters was the issue of assessment. Clearly, the need to rethink traditional modes of communication for assessment remains an ongoing challenge as a move from text-based assessments to multimodal artefacts is necessary. Finally, multimodal learning environments also require specific teacher agency, teacher development and a context conducive to learning as well as for the activities of the teachers. To this end, certain transformative approaches and strategies such as digital storytelling among others seem to be useful. This book attempted to give a sense of the nature of multimodal learning environments in the Southern African context, however, more research is necessary about this topic and the complexities it entails.

Index

A academic dishonesty, 87 academic literacies, 53 Adaptive Structuration Theory, 40 assessment, 52, 75, 89 assessment for learning, 89 B blended learning, 3, 97, 143, 147 C Change Laboratories (CL), 12 communication strategy, 106 community of practice (CoP), 189 competence-based e-curriculum, 123 connectivism, 98, 100, 101, 111 Continuing Professional Development (CPD), 197 Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Framework, 199 COVID-19, 31, 35, 41, 120, 141 critical multimodal literacy, 52

critical reflective practitioners, 52 Cultural Historical Activity Theory’s (CHAT), 12 cultural tolerance, 189

D deep learning, 189 design-based research (DBR), 16 digital divide, 74, 83, 126 digitalisation of higher education, 96 digital pedagogies, 10 digital storytelling (DST), 166, 168 digital technologies, 120 double stimulation, 21

E e-curriculum, 120 educational innovation, 11 educational technology integration, 201

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Olivier et al. (eds.), Multimodal Learning Environments in Southern Africa, Digital Education and Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97656-9

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F feedback, 90 formative assessment, 89 Fourth Industrial Revolution, 10

G Generation X, 40 Generation Z, 32 Gen Z, 32, 40

I individual multimodality, 3 information and communication technologies, 38, 41, 165 institutional multimodality, 3 instructional multimodality, 3 interactional multimodality, 3 interactive multimodal learning environments, 2 Internet, 35

multimedia tools, 165 multimodal assessments, 52, 66 multimodal composition, 54 multimodal composition pedagogy, 51, 55 multimodality, 2, 53 multimodal learning environments, 1, 2, 51 multimodal pedagogy, 54, 189

N nodes, 100

O ODL paradox, 104 ODL student support, 98 Open Distance Learning (ODL), 96

P Padziwe, 202 professional development, 209

L language, 35 language education, 13, 161 language teaching, 145 large classes, 85 levels of multimodality, 4 literacy, 51, 53 LMSs, 120

R reflection-in-action, 76 reflection-on-action, 76 reflective practice, 75, 76 remote assessment, 80, 86 remote online assessment, 80, 88

M Malawi, 199 Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), 100 Mauritius, 97 mediation, 18 Millennials, 40 multiliteracies, 66 multimedia learning, 203

S self-directed multimodal learning, 3 self-management, 105 socialisation e-curriculum, 123 social media, 35 social-media sites, 123 social semiotics, 52 South Africa, 141 South African Gen Z’ers, 35

INDEX

storytelling, 166 student engagement, 188 student success, 67 student support, 98 student support system, 97

T teacher education, 201 teacher perspectives, 144 teachers, 197 technology-enhanced professional learning, 201

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technology-enhanced teacher professional development, 198 Technology Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), 201 transformative digital pedagogies, 12 transformative teaching and learning approaches, 161 U Uses and Gratification Expectation (UGE), 36 Uses and Gratification Theory (UGT), 38