Microbial Decontamination of Food 9811951136, 9789811951138

Table of contents :
Preface
Contents
Chapter 1: Techniques for Detection of Microbial Contamination
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Detection, Identification, and Enumeration Techniques of Microorganisms in Food Products and Food-Processing Environment
1.3 Culture-Dependent Methods
1.4 Analysis of Foodborne Pathogenic Bacteria by Standard Culturing Methods
1.5 Aerobic Plate Count by Standard Culture Methods
1.6 Yeast and Mold Count
1.7 Direct Plating Technique
1.8 Culture-Independent Methods
1.8.1 Nucleic Acid-Based Methods
1.8.1.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction
1.8.1.2 Multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction
1.8.1.3 Real-Time or Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction
1.8.1.4 Droplet Digital Polymerase Chain Reaction
1.8.1.5 Oligonucleotide DNA Microarray
1.8.1.6 Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification
1.8.1.7 Recombinase Polymerase Amplification
1.8.2 Immunological-Based Methods
1.8.2.1 ELISA
1.8.2.2 Lateral Flow Immunoassay
1.8.3 Biosensor-Based Methods
1.8.4 Environmental Monitoring Program in Food-Processing Facilities
1.8.4.1 Petrifilm
1.8.4.2 API for Identification of Foodborne Microorganisms
1.8.4.3 Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization-Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS)
1.8.4.4 Assessment of Airborne Microorganisms in Food-Processing Plants
Sedimentation Plate Method
Microbiological Air Sampler
1.8.4.5 ATP Bioluminescence Assay as an Indirect Microbiological Method
1.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 2: Decontamination of Fruits
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Decontamination Techniques
2.2.1 Heat Treatment of Fruits
2.2.2 Chemical Treatment of Fruits
2.2.3 Chlorine and Chlorine Compounds
2.2.4 Peroxyacetic Acid
2.2.5 Hydrogen Peroxide
2.2.6 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds
2.2.7 Electrolyzed Water
2.3 Emerging/Nonthermal Techniques
2.3.1 Ozone
2.3.2 High-Pressure Processing (HPP)
2.3.3 Cold Plasma
2.3.4 Ultraviolet Treatment: UV-C
2.3.5 Ultrasound
2.3.6 Pulsed Electric Field (PEF)
2.3.7 Food Irradiation
2.4 Natural Antimicrobials
2.4.1 Organic Acids
2.4.2 Essential Oils
2.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Decontamination of Vegetables
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Pathogens and Spoilage Microorganisms of Vegetables
3.2.1 Sources of Contamination in the Vegetable Production Chain
3.3 Conventional Methods for the Decontamination of Vegetables
3.3.1 Chlorine Compounds
3.3.2 Hydrogen Peroxide
3.3.3 Peracetic Acid
3.4 Alternative Methods for Decontamination of Vegetables
3.4.1 Organic Acids
3.4.2 Essential Oils
3.4.3 Ozone
3.4.4 Electrolyzed Water
3.4.5 Ultrasound
3.4.6 Cold Plasma
3.5 Final Considerations and Future Trends
References
Chapter 4: Decontamination of Ready to Eat Vegetable Salads
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Pathogens and Spoilage Microorganisms in Ready-to-Eat Vegetable Salads
4.3 Conventional Methods of Decontamination
4.4 Alternative Methods of Decontamination
4.4.1 Organic Acids
4.4.2 Hydrogen Peroxide
4.4.3 Peroxyacetic Acid
4.4.4 Essential Oils
4.4.5 Ozone
4.4.6 Ultrasound
4.4.7 High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP)
4.4.8 Irradiation
4.4.9 Combined Decontamination Methods
4.5 Conclusions and Future Trends
References
Chapter 5: Decontamination of Sprouts
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Sprouting Process
5.3 Prevalence of Sprouts-Linked Enteric Disease Outbreaks
5.4 Autochthonous Microflora of Sprouts
5.5 Human Pathogens Associated with Sprouts
5.6 Decontamination Methods of Sprouts
5.6.1 Chemical Agents
5.6.1.1 Sodium Hypochlorite
5.6.1.2 Chlorine Dioxide
5.6.1.3 Organic Acids
5.6.1.4 Hydrogen Peroxide
5.6.1.5 Ozone
5.6.1.6 Electrolyzed Water
5.6.1.7 Cold Plasma
5.6.2 Physical Methods
5.6.2.1 Hot Water Treatment
5.6.2.2 UV Irradiation
5.6.2.3 Ultrasound Treatment
5.6.2.4 Pulsed Light
5.6.2.5 Gamma Irradiation
5.6.3 Biological Methods
5.6.4 Effects of Combined Methods
5.6.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 6: Decontamination of Microgreens
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Potential Sources/Factors Affecting Microgreen Contamination
6.3 Contaminants Varies with Microgreen Production Systems
6.4 Microgreens Production and Their Safety Status
6.5 Microgreens Harvest, Packaging, Marketing, and Susceptibility to Contamination
6.6 Decontamination Techniques for Microgreens
6.6.1 Production-Based Decontamination Techniques
6.6.1.1 Seed Decontamination
6.6.1.2 Growing Media and Microgreen Contamination
6.6.1.3 Irrigation Water Quality
6.6.1.4 Manipulation of Seed Density and Microgreen Seedling Pathogens
6.6.1.5 Use of Biofungicides During Production for Decontamination of Microgreens
6.6.2 Non-production-Based Decontamination Techniques
6.6.2.1 Wash Treatments for Microgreen Decontamination
6.6.2.2 Calcium and Related Salts for Microgreen Decontamination
6.6.2.3 Organic Acids and Ethanol for Microgreen Decontamination
6.6.2.4 Packaging Material for Microgreen Decontamination
6.6.2.5 Edible Coating Application for Microgreen Decontamination
6.6.2.6 Ultraviolet Radiation Application for Microgreen Decontamination
6.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Decontamination of Cereal and Cereal Products
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Conventional Decontamination Techniques
7.3 Drying
7.4 Debranning
7.5 Chlorine and Hypochlorite
7.6 Thermal Treatments
7.7 Dry Heat Treatments
7.8 Moist Heat Treatments
7.9 Organic Acids
7.10 Novel Decontamination Techniques
7.11 Ozone Treatment
7.12 Irradiation
7.13 Cold Plasma
7.14 Pulsed Ultraviolet Light
7.15 Microwave
7.16 Biological Methods
7.17 Natural Ingredients
7.18 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Decontamination of Nuts
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Techniques for Decontamination of Nuts
8.2.1 Almond (Prunus dulcis L.)
8.2.1.1 Decontamination Methods for Almond
Physical Methods
Chemical Methods
Biological Methods
8.2.2 Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.)
8.2.2.1 Decontamination Methods for Pistachios
Physical Methods
Chemical Methods
Biological Methods
8.2.3 Walnut (Juglans regia L.)
8.2.3.1 Decontamination Methods for Walnuts
Physical Method
8.2.4 Hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.)
8.2.4.1 Decontamination Methods for Hazelnuts
Physical Methods
8.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Decontamination of Spices
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Contamination of Spices
9.2.1 Conventional Decontamination Technologies of Spices
9.2.1.1 Ethylene Oxide
9.2.1.2 Steam
9.2.1.3 Sun Drying
9.2.1.4 Hot Air Drying
9.2.2 Novel Decontamination Technologies for Spices
9.2.2.1 Ozone
9.2.2.2 Cold Plasma
9.2.2.3 Pulsed Electric Field
9.2.2.4 Pulsed Light
9.2.2.5 Irradiation
9.2.2.6 Infrared Radiation
9.2.2.7 Radiofrequency Treatment
9.2.2.8 Ultrasound
9.2.2.9 Microwave Heating
9.2.2.10 High Hydrostatic Pressure
9.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Decontamination of Meat and Meat Products
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Nonthermal Technologies
10.2.1 Food Irradiation
10.2.2 High-Pressure Processing
10.3 Biopreservation and Natural Antimicrobials
10.4 Packaging Technologies
10.4.1 Vacuum Packaging
10.4.2 Modified Atmosphere Packaging
10.5 Thermal Technologies
10.5.1 High-Frequency Heating
10.5.2 Ohmic´s Heating Technology
10.6 Conclusion
10.7 Future Recommendations
References
Chapter 11: Decontamination of Poultry and Poultry Products
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Modern Poultry Industry
11.3 Egg Contaminants
11.4 Meat Contaminants
11.5 Broiler Microbiome Control
11.5.1 Bird Vaccination
11.5.2 Feed Supplements and Drinking Water Treatment
11.5.3 Antibiotic Use
11.5.4 Biosecurity
11.6 Egg Production
11.7 Egg Decontamination
11.8 Novel Egg Contaminant Control
11.9 Meat Production
11.10 Meat Decontamination
11.10.1 Scalding
11.10.2 Washing
11.10.3 Chilling
11.10.4 Sanitising
11.10.5 In-package
11.11 Novel Meat Contaminant Control
11.12 Recommendations
11.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Decontamination of Fish and Fish Products
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Fish Spoilage
12.3 Methods of Fish Decontamination
12.3.1 Chemicals
12.3.2 Cold Plasma
12.3.3 Pulsed Light
12.3.4 High-Pressure Processing
12.3.5 Gamma Irradiation
12.3.6 Ultrasound
12.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Decontamination of Milk and Milk Products
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Sources of Milk Contaminants
13.3 Microbial Contaminants
13.4 Chemical Contaminants
13.5 Decontamination Procedures in Milk and Milk Products
13.5.1 Biological Antibacterial Agent
13.5.2 Chemical Decontamination
13.6 Physical Decontamination
13.6.1 Pasteurization and Sterilization
13.6.2 Microfiltration Associated with Pasteurization and Sterilization
13.6.3 Aseptic and Active Packaging
13.6.4 Novel Technologies
13.6.5 Microfiltration
13.6.6 Bactofugation
13.6.7 High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP)
13.6.8 Gamma Irradiation
13.6.9 Homogenized High Pressure
13.6.10 Ohmic Heating
13.6.11 Pulsed Electric Field (PEF)
13.6.12 Sonication
13.6.13 Ultraviolet Rays
13.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Decontamination of Fruit Beverages
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Safety Consideration for the Beverage Industry
14.3 Technological Interventions for Decontamination of Beverages
14.3.1 Thermal Processing
14.3.2 Non-thermal Processing
14.3.2.1 High-Pressure Processing
14.3.2.2 Pulsed Electric Field
14.3.2.3 Pulsed Light Technology
14.3.2.4 Ultrasonication Treatments
14.3.2.5 Ultraviolet Processing
14.3.2.6 Cold Plasma Processing
14.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Decontamination of Food Powders
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Food Powder Production, Properties and Deterioration
15.3 Microbial Contaminants
15.4 Decontamination Methods
15.4.1 Thermal Treatments
15.4.1.1 Microwave Treatment
15.4.1.2 Infrared Treatment
15.4.1.3 Radiofrequency Treatment
15.4.1.4 Instant Controlled Pressure Drop Technology/Détente Instantanée Contrôlée (DIC)
15.4.2 Nonthermal Techniques
15.4.2.1 High-Pressure Treatment
15.4.2.2 Pulsed Light
15.4.2.3 Ozone Treatment
15.4.2.4 Cold Plasma Treatment
15.4.2.5 Radiation Treatment
15.5 Conclusions
References
Correction to: Decontamination of Cereal and Cereal Products
Correction to: Chapter 7 in: M. A. Shah, S. A. Mir (eds.), Microbial Decontamination of Food, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-...

Citation preview

Manzoor Ahmad Shah Shabir Ahmad Mir   Editors

Microbial Decontamination of Food

Microbial Decontamination of Food

Manzoor Ahmad Shah • Shabir Ahmad Mir Editors

Microbial Decontamination of Food

Editors Manzoor Ahmad Shah Department of Food Science and Technology Government Degree College for Women Anantnag, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Shabir Ahmad Mir Department of Food Science and Technology Government College for Women Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India

ISBN 978-981-19-5113-8 ISBN 978-981-19-5114-5 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5114-5

(eBook)

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022, corrected publication 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

Food is contaminated in the supply chain and is the point of concern among consumers and industries. There is also a considerable increase in foodborne outbreaks, which pose challenges to industries associated with the production of processed food. Various strategies are used to prevent the contamination during postharvest stage, storage, and distribution. Different methods are exploited for reducing or eliminating the microbial contamination from food commodities. The conventional techniques used for decontamination demanded a considerable requirement for novel technologies, which are efficient, environment friendly, and costeffective. Novel technologies such as cold plasma, irradiation, pulsed light, etc. efficiently decontaminate without adversely affecting the nutritional properties and sensory characteristics of food material. There is a lack of scientific information on the microbial decontamination of different food commodities such as fruits, vegetables, cereals, sprouts, microgreens, meat, poultry, milk, nuts, spices, etc. under one umbrella. The application of conventional and novel technologies for improving the food safety of individual food commodities is addressed in this book. Comprised of 15 chapters, the first chapter starts with the techniques for detection of microbial contamination in food. Chapters 2–10 deal with the microbial decontamination of plant-based food commodities such as fruits, vegetables, ready-to-eat vegetable salads, microgreens, beverages, nuts, cereals, sprouts, and spices. Other chapters focus on the microbial decontamination of poultry, meat, and fish. The final chapter deals with the microbial decontamination of food powders. Written by several experts in the field, this book is a valuable source for students, scientists, and

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Preface

professionals in food science, food microbiology, food technology, food processing, and other allied sciences. Anantnag, India Srinagar, India

Manzoor Ahmad Shah Shabir Ahmad Mir

The original version of this book was updated: the chapter title has been updated. A correction to this book can be found at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5114-5_16

Contents

1

Techniques for Detection of Microbial Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . Sudsai Trevanich

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Decontamination of Fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anandu Chandra Khanashyam, M. Anjaly Shanker, Anjineyulu Kothakota, and R. Pandiselvam

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Decontamination of Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jackline Freitas Brilhante de São José, Leonardo Faria-Silva, and Bárbara Morandi Lepaus

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Decontamination of Ready to Eat Vegetable Salads . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bárbara Morandi Lepaus, Erlany Monteiro Ribeiro Pelissari, Leonardo Faria-Silva, and Jackline Freitas Brilhante de São José

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Decontamination of Sprouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 K. Ranjitha and J. Ranjitha

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Decontamination of Microgreens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Sajid Ali, Aamir Nawaz, Safina Naz, Shaghef Ejaz, Sajjad Hussain, and Raheel Anwar

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Decontamination of Cereal and Cereal Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Mudasir Bashir Mir, Saqib Farooq, Reshu Rajput, Manzoor Ahmad Shah, and Shabir Ahmad Mir

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Decontamination of Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Hilal Yildiz and Bahar Tuba Findik

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Decontamination of Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 S. Kirti Aradhana, Karuna Ashok Appugol, Sumit Kumar, C. K. Sunil, and Ashish Rawson

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Decontamination of Meat and Meat Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Iftikhar Younis Mallhi, Muhammad Sohaib, and Rida Tariq

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Decontamination of Poultry and Poultry Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Maitiú Marmion and A. G. M. Scannell

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Decontamination of Fish and Fish Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Shabir Ahmad Mir, Saqib Farooq, Manzoor Ahmad Shah, and Mudasir Bashir Mir

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Decontamination of Milk and Milk Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Pinaki Ranjan Ray, Lopamudra Haldar, Chandrakanta Sen, and Mahasweta Bhattacharyya

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Decontamination of Fruit Beverages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Nikhil Kumar Mahnot, Sayantan Chakraborty, Bhaskar Jyoti Das, Pallab Kumar Borah, and Sangeeta Saikia

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Decontamination of Food Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Sanjeev Kumar and Satyendra Gautam

Correction to: Decontamination of Cereal and Cereal Products . . . . . . . Mudasir Bashir Mir, Saqib Farooq, Reshu Rajput, Manzoor Ahmad Shah, and Shabir Ahmad Mir

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Chapter 1

Techniques for Detection of Microbial Contamination Sudsai Trevanich

Abstract Problems of deleterious effects in food are mainly caused by two groups of microbial agents including food pathogenic or spoilage microorganisms. The presence and contamination of those microorganisms in food can lead to the adverse impacts for both consumer health and food business operators around the world. To overcome such microbial risk in food or food-processing environments, one of control measures which food business operators can apply is to monitor or evaluate those relevant microorganisms by using specific, sensitive, and reliable detection, identification, or enumeration methods. Therefore, this chapter aims to basically emphasize on the brief principles and applications of standard culturing methods (reference methods) and rapid methods (alternative methods) as analysis tools for detection, identification, or enumeration of foodborne microorganisms. These methods are generally classified into two major categories: culture-dependent and culture-independent assays. Additionally, their major advantages and disadvantages are described. Keywords Foodborne microorganisms · Contamination · Standard methods · Rapid methods · Detection

1.1

Introduction

A significant concern all over the world is food safety and food quality. There are a lot of different foodborne microorganisms which can contaminate food products and food-processing environments (e.g., water, air, packaging, food contact surfaces, and nonfood contact surfaces). These microorganisms including bacteria, yeasts, molds, viruses, or parasites are responsible for foodborne diseases or food spoilage. Microorganisms causing food or water poisoning are generally called food or waterborne pathogens, while microorganisms causing food and beverage spoilage S. Trevanich (*) Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. A. Shah, S. A. Mir (eds.), Microbial Decontamination of Food, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5114-5_1

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S. Trevanich

are normally called food spoilage microorganisms. In recent years, the foodborne disease incidence has gradually increased and caused a significant problem in public health worldwide, and the loss of food products due to food spoilage microorganisms becomes a big issue related to food security. Some main bacterial pathogens associated with food are responsible for most outbreaks of foodborne diseases around the world including Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica, Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC), Staphylococcus aureus, and Vibrio parahaemolyticus (US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2018; World Health Organization 2019). Foodborne microorganisms are normally present in different foods and foodprocessing environments. It is essential to analyze such foodborne microorganisms to provide safe and quality food and reduce the foodborne disease incidence and food spoilage problems. The standard (conventional or traditional) culturing methods for detection, identification, or enumeration of the foodborne microorganisms, especially foodborne pathogenic bacteria, found in foods are mainly based on culturing the target bacteria on appropriately chosen media followed by biochemical screening and confirmation (Antonio et al. 2020). The standard methods for detection of foodborne pathogenic bacteria are usually labor- and time-consuming as they include many steps of activities such as different culture broths or agar media preparation (e.g., pre-enrichment, selective enrichment, and differential-selective media), media incubation at different conditions, isolate confirmation, colony counting, or reporting. The standard methods generally need at least 2–3 days for presumptive result and up to 7 days or more for confirmative identification of the species or serovars of the target microorganisms (Zhao et al. 2014). Moreover, standard methods give low sensitivity (Lu et al. 2017) and false-negative results in case of viable but non-culturable (VBNC) microorganisms present in the test sample (Kim et al. 2018; Zhao et al. 2017). Additionally, standard culturing methods cannot be used directly to detect or count foodborne viruses. To overcome the limitations of standard methods, a variety of rapid, simple, and reliable methods have been continuously developed for detection, identification, and enumeration of significant foodborne microorganisms. Rapid methods are generally more accurate and time-, labor-, and cost-efficient, as well as able to minimize human errors and reduce the amount of hazardous waste (Mandal et al. 2011). Rapid methods are valuable for food manufacturing and competent authorities related to food safety and quality management, as they can provide the results with shorter time and sensitive enough even the microbial target at low numbers found in food. Rapid methods are generally categorized into nucleic acid-, immunological-, and biosensor-based methods (Mariateresa et al. 2020; Zhao et al. 2014). Some examples are multiplex polymerase chain reaction (mPCR), real-time PCR, loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), lateral flow immunoassay, and optical-, electrochemical-, and mass-based biosensors (Antonio et al. 2020; Mariateresa et al. 2020). However, further development of rapid method in terms of sensitivity, specificity, suitability, and acceptability is still required as each rapid method has its own disadvantages. Analyzing food and environmental samples

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Techniques for Detection of Microbial Contamination

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for the contamination of foodborne microorganisms including food pathogenic and food spoilage bacteria, molds, and yeasts is a standard practice for ensuring food safety and quality. This chapter focuses on the brief principles and applications of standard culturing methods and rapid methods for detection, identification, and enumeration of foodborne microorganisms and provides examples of their advantages and disadvantages.

1.2

Detection, Identification, and Enumeration Techniques of Microorganisms in Food Products and Food-Processing Environment

In this chapter, a great number of tests used for examination of microbial contamination in different sources can be classified into two types as follows. Qualitative tests are basically based on detection or presence/absence of the target microorganism in the final food products, raw materials (ingredients and packaging), or foodprocessing environments. For example, Salmonella is not detected in 25 g of food, 25 ml of beverage, per 50 cm2, or per hand. Quantitative tests are aimed at determining the numbers of the microbial targets contaminated in the test sample which will be foods, water, raw materials, or food production environments (e.g., food contact surface or air). The results from quantitative tests are generally reported as the numbers of target microorganism per unit of weight, volume, area, or piece of object tested (e.g., CFU/g, CFU/0.1 g, MPN (most probable number)/g, MPN/100 ml, CFU/m3, CFU/50 cm2, CFU/spoon, CFU/hand). The Department of Medical Science, Ministry of Public Health, Thailand (2017), has established microbiological criteria for each type of food and food contact surfaces in Notification of Department of Medical Science Number 3 (2017). For example, aerobic plate count (APC) should be 5-log reduction in each of E. coli O157:H7, S. enterica, and L. monocytogenes. In carrot and beetroot juice, HPP treatment (300–400 MPa, 5–10 min) sufficiently inactivated E. coli and Listeria sp. strains for enhanced shelf-life of the juices during storage (Nasiłowska et al. 2018). A compiled report of multiple studies reported that HPP treatment of soy smoothie at 450–650 MPa for 3 min and cactus juice at 200 MPa for 10 min caused 3-log reduction in mesophilic bacteria in the former and yeast, mold, and acidtolerant microorganisms in the latter, respectively (Daher et al. 2017). Further, in red fruit smoothie with orange, banana, and lime, a 350 MPa for 7 min HPP treatment led to 1.8-log reduction in yeast, mold, and aerobic bacteria, 2.4-log reduction of enterobacteria, and 2.5-log reduction of psychrotrophic bacteria. Overall, HPP has been implemented by more than 160 industries (Daher et al. 2017). Evidently, HPP results in enhanced shelf-life via microbial inactivation; however, it is important to optimize the process parameters to assure total microbial safety to such products in accordance with the requirements set out by regulatory bodies, alongside minimizing changes in product characteristics.

14.3.2.2

Pulsed Electric Field

Currently, the food industry employs pulsed electric field (PEF) treatment for enhancing mass transport, for increasing the yield of bio-actives and juice production, and also for pasteurizing liquid foods non-thermally. Basically, in PEF-based juice processing, the target juice is forced through a strong electric field generated between a two-electrode system. The electrodes are fed with high voltage pulses in microsecond (μs) periods (Timmermans et al. 2019). Above a critical field strength, typically between 5 and 50 kV cm1, confers microbial deactivation (bacteria, fungi, and others). Mechanistically, such strong electric fields induce the formation of pores on microbial cell membranes or by enlargement of existing pores. Depending

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upon the treating conditions, such pores may be reversible or irreversible, i.e., permanent, thus changing cell membrane permeability. The altered permeability allows the loss of cell contents to the surrounding media or there is an influx of the surrounding medium, leading to altered barrier functions, membrane potential, and electrical resistance of the cells. This results in cell inactivation. USDA National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (Ransom and NACMCF 2005) has allowed the use of PEF technology for pasteurization. Also, juice processors can utilize PEF for commercial pasteurization in compliance with FDA’s 5-log reduction regulation (21 C.F.R. 120; FDA 2001b). PEF technology is effective for beverage processing, including fruit juices and alcoholic beverages via inactivation of microorganisms such as E. coli, L. monocytogenes, Lactobacillus plantarum, Salmonella sp., S. cerevisiae, etc. In low-alcohol red wine, ~2-log reductions in the viable yeast counts were achieved with a PEF treatment of electric field intensity at 40 kV cm1 and a cumulative treatment time of 270 μs (Puligundla et al. 2018). For strawberry juice, a PEF treatment at 35 kV cm1 for 27 μs treatment time and 350 mL min1 flow rate with 2 μs pulses resulted in ~5-log reduction of acid-tolerant E. coli. The same treatment also resulted in a reduction of background microbiota (total aerobic bacterial counts and yeast-mold) by 2-log (Yildiz et al. 2019). A pilotscale PEF treatment of orange juice resulted in 8-log and 9-log reduction in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Escherichia coli, respectively, by flowing orange juice at the rate of 30 L h1 at a field strength of 20 kV cm1 at a specific energy of 150 kJ L1 (Lee et al. 2020). A continuous flow bench-scale PEF-processing system for apple cider at a repletion rate of 1000–1500 pps at 35–30 kV cm1 accomplished 5-log reduction of pathogens E. coli O157:H7 and S. typhimurium (Mendes-Oliveira et al. 2020). In a recent development, a microchip-PEF treatment on blueberry juice flowing at the rate of 7 mL min1 at 350 V with a pulse width of 0.15 ms led to complete inactivation of total plate counts and yeast-mold counts while extending the shelf-life and retaining bioactive components with minimal changes in sensory characteristics. This microchip technique requires a lower operating voltage to achieve the same germicidal effect compared to conventional PEF (Zhu et al. 2019). Multiple factors that affect the microbial inactivation with PEF are process factors (electric field intensity, exposure time and temperature, pulse wave width and shapes, chamber configurations), microbial entity factors (type, concentration, and growth phase of microbes), and sample matrix factors (pH, ionic strength, conductivity, and antimicrobials). Overall, microbial inactivation increases with increasing electric field intensity, exposure time, and the matrix temperature (Timmermans et al. 2019). However, the desired temperature is 5 logs. On the contrary, the same treatment could not fully decontaminate yeasts and molds in a pineapple-mango juice blend. However, the colony counts for yeast and molds were under the permissible limit (1.26 log CFU mL1) (Amanina et al. 2019). Bhullar et al. (2018) with a flow spiral reactor at dosage levels of 30 mL cm2 were able to achieve >5-log reductions of E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes in coconut water without generating any cytotoxic components. In recent times, UV-C light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as an alternative UV source have been employed for juice decontamination specifically in orange and apple juice. Studies with UV-C LEDs have shown that at a 1420 mJ cm2, dosage 4.44-log reduction of S. cerevisiae population in orange juice could be achieved, while in apple juice, Zygosaccharomyces rouxii levels were significantly reduced by 5.46-log reductions at 1200 mJ cm2 dosage (Niu et al. 2021; Xiang et al. 2020). In a pilot-plant study, 3.6 log-cycles, 3.7 log-cycles, and 1.3 log-cycles of inactivation were achieved in an orange-banana-mango-kiwi-strawberry blend for L. plantarum, E. coli, and S. cerevisiae, respectively (Fenoglio et al. 2020). Another pilot-scale study with a UV system with a turbulent flow resulted in a 4-log reduction in different microbes’ population, viz., E. coli K12, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella sp., and S. cerevisiae except for Cladosporium sp. when inoculated to Rooibos iced tea beverage (Monyethabeng and Krügel 2016). In carrot juice, a UV-C treatment led to a significant improvement in shelf-life as it restricted the growth of mesophilic and psychrotrophic bacteria along with Enterobacteriaceae, yeast, and molds as compared to untreated juice (Riganakos et al. 2017). Most studies about UV-C treatment of beverages have suggested minimal or no impact on the physical, chemical, as well as sensory properties. Overall, one can easily deduce that UV-C treatments are quite effective in reducing microbial loads, thereby providing safety in beverages and increasing shelf-life. However, still more research needs to be carried out to better optimize UV-C treatment taking into consideration of the varied juice matrices.

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Cold Plasma Processing

Cold plasma (CP) processing has created a niche as a novel, green, non-thermal processing technology for decontamination of food and food products. The plasma process is acclaimed to be a fast, simple, economical technique that leaves no chemical residues (Mahnot et al. 2020). CP technology employs gases that are energized, leading to the generation of reactive gas species, charger ions, and neutral gas species, which in turn confer microbial inactivation (Niemira 2012). Literature suggests that CP inactivation, in general, is majorly mediated by the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), along with minor contributions due to emitted ultraviolet radiations. However, in liquids these generated gas species also tend to diffuse into the liquid causing acidification, synergistically leading to microbial cell stress and eventual cell death. These species tend to damage lipid by layer and degrade DNA, lipids, and proteins leading to impaired complex cell responses and cell signaling. The cells are unable to repair such damage and eventually get killed or inactivated (Thirumdas et al. 2015). CP technology has been routinely utilized for surface decontamination; however, the technology faces a challenge when considering decontamination of liquids owing to the diffusion of gas species inside the liquid. Nonetheless, scientists have come up with unique strategies to treat liquid foods to eradicate both bacteria and fungi using variously configured plasma generating and treatment conditions. Mahnot and others (2019a, b) were able to inactivate >5 logs of S. typhimurium populations in tender coconut water using a dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) type plasma setup in 2 min at 90 kV using air as a working gas for plasma generation. The same group also were able to decontaminate L. monocytogenes and E. coli by 5 logs, through a similar setup using both air and modified air (O2, 65%; CO2, 30%; N2, 5%) as the working gas (Mahnot et al. 2019a, b). In apple juice and sour cherry nectar, an atmospheric jet plasma setup with air as a working gas was able to achieve 4 and 3.3-log reductions with a treatment time of 2 min (Dasan and Boyaci 2018). Bacillus sp. are hardy organisms; a plasma jet treatment (argon + 1% O2) on blueberry juice led to a 7.2-log reduction in Bacillus sp., in 6 min at 11 kV (Hou et al. 2019). A gliding arc discharge method for decontaminating tomato juice using N2 gas resulted in 3.45-log, 3.55-log, and 3.32-log reductions in the total aerobic mesophilic bacteria colonies, yeast, and molds, respectively, just after a 5-min treatment at 40 W power level (Starek et al. 2019). The same lab also reported a 3.7-log reduction in Candida albicans in 1 min and a 3.5-log reduction in Saccharomyces cerevisiae in 5 min in tomato juice at the same treatment conditions (Starek et al. 2020). In apple juice, a plasma spray reactor (operating conditions: 21.3 kV, 30 min) using normal air as the feed gas enabled approx. 6-log reduction in Zygosaccharomyces rouxii (Wang et al. 2018). But with a DBD setup, 5-log reductions of Z. rouxii were achieved in 140 s at 90 W power with the feed gas as air (Xiang et al. 2018). In an interesting work indirectly related to the safe processing of wine, CP technique could completely inactivate Brettanomyces bruxellensis, while Pediococcus pentosaceus and Acetobacter pasteurianus inactivation were limited (Sainz-García et al. 2021). From the various studies, one can

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deduce that CP process parameters such as power, voltage, treatment time, feed gas composition, and sample treatment volume are key parameters to be optimized to get maximal inactivation efficacy. Overall, CP technology has delivered promising results in decontaminating beverages, although there is a need for further process optimizations and pilot-scale studies to make it a commercially viable technique. The other non-thermal processing techniques for beverages such as ozone treatment, use of antimicrobial metabolites, fermentation, and combinations of the technologies mentioned so forth, also commonly described as hurdle technologies, are being actively researched, and interested readers are directed toward other excellent reviews, books, and studies (Lacroix 2010; Badwaik et al. 2015; Singh and Shalini 2016; Brodowska et al. 2018).

14.4

Conclusion

Decontamination in the beverage processing sector is taken quite seriously. Optimized conventional, novel technologies or combinations of multiple technologies are being explored or even implemented to deliver on consumer demands. For processors, considerations such as beverage matrices, type of spoilage and pathogenic microbes, quality, and sensory value retention are quite important to process beverages with appropriate techniques and deliver as per consumer preferences. Although considerable research is available as discussed in the chapter, the shelf-life considerations of processed juices specifically by novel technologies are not quite extensive. Limited shelf-life and requirement of refrigerated storage remain as hurdles for processes from being implemented on industrial scale. Nonetheless, in-depth research on deciphering mechanisms to easily inactivate hardy microbes and extensive shelf-life studies would be quite important. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has hampered the beverage sector initially but the market is on track for a significant growth. Importantly, the pandemic has taught us the importance of building strong immunity and keeping oneself safe from deadly diseases. As a consequence, people seek products having immune-boosting characteristics. The beverage sector is gearing up for the same and looks forward to delivering newer functional beverages with the “immunity-boosting” tag at the same time maintaining strict microbial safety. The newer blends in the beverage sector will require unique interventions and optimizations in processing technology, to deliver on the changing consumer needs. Considering the emergence of viral pandemics, challenges on viral decontamination in beverages remain a rather unexplored area alongside other known pathogenic microbes. Thus, further research needs to be carried out to process and develop safe beverages that can be industrially viable.

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Chapter 15

Decontamination of Food Powders Sanjeev Kumar and Satyendra Gautam

Abstract Food powder is dehydrated loosely bound solid particles of food. A wide range of food for various applications is processed in powder form after dehydration using commonly practised method such as oven/hot air drying, spray drying, freeze drying, etc. These powders are mostly low in moisture content and water activity, thus less favourable for microbial growth and, therefore, considered safe for consumption. However, processing-associated contaminations often lead to food-borne outbreaks even with food powders. Hence, integration of microbial decontamination method(s) during processing step is very much needed to avoid such risk. Conventional hot air drying/decontamination methods are economical but have been reported to affect the quality parameters of powders. Alternatives to those traditional methods can be used which are effective and have comparatively lesser impact on quality parameters. Such methods include thermal (microwave, infrared, radiofrequency and instant controlled pressure drop) treatments as well as nonthermal (high-pressure, pulsed light, ozone, cold plasma and radiation) treatments. Besides, radiation treatment which is amenable to packed food powders eliminates processing contaminants as well as assures safety during storage in packed condition. In current chapter, efficacy of various decontamination methods employed to inactivate microbial contaminants in food powders has been discussed. Keywords Food powder · Microbial decontamination · Thermal methods · Nonthermal methods · Irradiation

S. Kumar Food Technology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India S. Gautam (*) Food Technology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. A. Shah, S. A. Mir (eds.), Microbial Decontamination of Food, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5114-5_15

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Introduction

A food powder is dry loose particles of solid food in tiny form that represents a large proportion of total processed food in the world. These have wide range of applications in day-to-day life as salt, sugar, flour, milk, almond, spices, coffee, dry beverages, cakes, ice cream mixes, colouring agents, etc. Nowadays, several foods and their ingredients are being prepared in powder form due to advantages like less bulkiness; storage, transportation and usage conveniences; high stability; possibility of a high production; and diverse applications (Fitzpatrick 2013). Most food powders have low moisture level which reduces the rate of quality degradation. Therefore, these can be stored for a longer period as compared to other forms of food products. A number of powders are now being mixed to develop many new product formulations, and the final product is made later by suspending in suitable solvent and further processing. An alternative process to improve food powder product characteristics is agglomeration or granulation. Food powders include fine and cohesive particles with low dispersibility in liquids, and agglomeration of food powders produces porous granules having higher wettability and dispersibility (Schubert 1987). Agglomeration process has also advantages like lower elutriation rates and reduction in the handling or inhalation dangers of powder particles (Cuq et al. 2013). The water activity (aw; available water) in food, storage temperature and packaging material affect the microbial growth during storage. Low water activity, high temperature and low air and vapour permeability of packet can significantly prevent microbial contamination and growth. The minimum aw supportive for the growth of most of the bacteria, yeast and mould are 0.9, 0.85 and 0.65, respectively (Hayman and Podolak 2017). Food powders prepared by dehydration process possess aw of
0.7 (Blessington et al. 2013). Thus, food powder is generally considered safe due to its low aw. However, many food powders could contain food-borne pathogens that may survive for a long period once the food gets contaminated during handling. Many of such powders are used as ready-to-eat or as recombined or rehydrated product, presuming its safety (Oliveira et al. 2000). Recently, few deadly outbreaks of food-borne microorganisms had happened due to food powders such as Cronobacter sakazakii in infant formula powder (Heperkan et al. 2017), Enterococcus in dairy powder (Pal et al. 2016), microbes in vegetable powder (Wang et al. 2015) and Bacillus cereus in rice powder. Due to clinical cases in different age groups, major safety concern of food powders got highlighted.

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Food Powder Production, Properties and Deterioration

The powder preparation involves drying as well as size reduction from a wet solid. In general, this process includes step such as raw material selection/authentication, blending, drying/decontamination, pulverizing (reducing to fine particles), sieve distribution, filling and packaging (Fig. 15.1). In certain methods, decontamination is done post-packaging too. Traditionally, hot air drying is used for dehydration that provides shelf life extension as well as lighter weight (due to moisture loss) for transportation. Although energy consumption is lesser, the high temperatures and the presence of oxygen in the drying process could affect the product quality. Thus, drying methods such as spray drying, freeze drying and other modern thermal/nonthermal techniques discussed later are used for the purpose. In spray drying, liquid/slurry is sprayed with air at elevated temperatures in fine particles for dehydration. This is commonly used method for obtaining good quality of powders from yeast, whey, milk and other high valuable products. However its widespread use is restricted due to high energy consumption. Also, the oxygen present in the air get mixed with the food droplets during spray drying which can negatively affect the heat-sensitive and oxidable nutrients. During freeze drying sublimation of a frozen product occurs. Freeze Fig. 15.1 Step involved on the production of food powder (a and b indicate two alternative steps after sieve distribution)

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drying can yield high-quality products as most of the deterioration reactions are either slowed down or stopped due to low temperatures which minimizes loss of flavour, aroma as well as nutrient due to the absence of water and oxygen (Ratti 2001). Nevertheless, the cost of production is manifold higher than spray drying or conventional air drying. Thus, the associated high operational cost of freeze drying restricts its commercial usage except for some high-value products like coffee, probiotic microorganisms, encapsulated aroma, etc. The end product should meet specific quality standards in terms of moisture content, morphology, particle size, distribution and strength, bulk density, flowability and surface activity at the air-solution interface of re-dispersed aqueous suspensions (Chronakis et al. 2004). Many of these parameters in powder can be determined based upon the principle discussed below. Moisture content of a food powder can be determined using the following formula: Moisture Content ð%Þ ¼

Weight of water  100 Total weight of powder

To assess shape, mostly optical techniques are used based upon 2-D image of the particles including Fourier shape description (Lorén et al. 2006). Some simpler approaches include measuring the particle length to breadth ratio. Food powder particles and agglomerates tend to soften that can be measured by Mohs hardness scale (Barbosa-Cánovas et al. 2005). For particle strength determination, uniaxial compression testing is commonly applied (Fitzpatrick 2013). It can be applied to a bulk powder or individual powder particles. Bulk density of powder can be estimated as per the formula: Bulk Density ¼

Weight of powder Volume of powder bed

Powder flowability is about overcoming the resistance to flow. Cohesion forces that affect flowability include van der Waals, electrostatic and magnetic forces. Jenike (1964) developed a mathematical analysis based upon two-dimensional stress and principles of soil mechanics to determine the minimum hopper opening size for preventing cohesive arching and minimum hopper angle from the horizontal for mass flow. It requires powder flow properties measurement such as flow function, effective angle of internal friction and hopper wall yield locus (angle of wall friction). Quality degradation of food powders mostly involves chemical, physical and microbial deteriorations. However, degradation of food powder quality may sometimes occur with or without change in the physical appearance. Physical deterioration of food powders is due to structural collapse, caking, stickiness, crystallization, loss of flowability as well as solubility of protein. Some chemical deterioration is Maillard browning (due to non-enzymatic reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars), release of free fats and loss of volatiles in encapsulated powders during storage (Banavara et al. 2003).

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Post-processing contaminations during packaging, transportation and storage should be avoided as much as possible for preventing quality deterioration due to microbe. Microbial deteriorations of powder happen due to various reasons. Rehydration/hygroscopicity of powder leads to increase of water activity which supports microbial growth and problems like caking, stickiness, etc. Positive oxidationreduction potential (Eh) supports most of the aerobic microbes. Redox couples, such as ascorbic acid, cysteine, glutathione and reducing sugars, are important for maintaining reducing conditions that protect the powder from microbial degradation (Farber 1991). Certain processes such as mincing, cutting, chopping and grinding increase oxygen content of foods and also lead to significant increase in positive Eh that supports the growth of microbe (Dilbaghi and Sharma 2007). Retention of antimicrobial components is another important factor that prevents microbial growth. Antimicrobial properties of food powders are due to certain constituents such as essential oils in case of spices and enzymes such as lactoperoxidase, lysozyme, lactoferrin and casein protein in milk and ovotransferrin, lysozyme, avidin and ovoflavoprotein in egg albumin of hen (Davidson and Branen 1993).

15.3

Microbial Contaminants

There are around 200 or even more food-borne pathogens, which are implicated in various illnesses and may result in morbidity and mortality. Most common infections are due to Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Listeria spp., Shigella spp., Vibrio spp. and Escherichia coli. Intoxications mostly occur due to staphylococcal toxin due to Streptococcus aureus, botulinum due to Clostridium botulinum and mycotoxins from toxigenic fungi. Toxico-infection may happen due to Clostridium perfringens, Bacillus cereus and E. coli causing gastroenteritis and Vibrio cholerae causing cholera (Majumdar et al. 2018). The high level of microbial contamination in spices and herbs has been reported in many studies including presence of B. cereus, B. subtilis, B. polymyxa, B. coagulans, E. coli, E. freundii, L. monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., V. cholerae, S. dysenteriae, Enterococcus spp., C. perfringens, Serratia spp., Klebsiella spp. and C. botulinum (McKee 1995; Kumar et al. 2010). Aspergillus spp., Bacillus spp., Micrococcus acidophilus, Mucor, Penicillium spp., Rhizopus spp. and Streptococcus aureus may cause spoilage of dried milk powder. Therefore, pathogenic microbes must be absent in food powders including dried milk for ensuring microbial safety for the consumers (Pal et al. 2016). Hence, production and processing of food powder should include decontamination strategies for preventing their spoilage as well as food-borne illnesses.

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Decontamination Methods

Decontamination of food powder can be achieved by thermal process where high temperature treatment (beyond ambient) is involved as well as nonthermal techniques where treatments other than high temperature are used. In certain thermal treatments, drying and sterilization are performed simultaneously. Nonthermal treatments, in many cases, can be applied even after packaging which ensures prevention of post-processing handling contaminations.

15.4.1

Thermal Treatments

Convective hot air drying is a less costly method of food powder treatment. However, it dramatically affects the physical properties, aromatic compounds or nutritional substances, thus inevitably reducing the product quality. The other conventional thermal methods like steaming, sterilization and pasteurization under high temperature also are effective in ensuring microbiological safety of food powders, but again negative impact on qualities and suitability in wide-range use restrict their wide applications (Dufort et al. 2017). Several alternatives to conventional techniques are now being used where impact on quality parameters is comparatively lesser such as microwave, infrared, radiofrequency treatment and instant control pressure drop technology.

15.4.1.1

Microwave Treatment

The heating by microwave (frequency 915–2450 MHz; wavelength 1 mm to 1 m) takes place due to interaction of sample and electric field, resulting in ionic and dipole changes as well as increased agitation of water molecules resulting in heating effect (Lew et al. 2002). Decontamination efficacy of microwave treatment depends upon microwave power, temperature, powder thickness and treatment time (Jiang et al. 2018). Despite the advantages of microwave treatment, the formation of “cold spots” within food powder limited its industrial application as harmful bacteria in those regions can survive and grow under favourable condition. Microwave treatment causes denaturation of protein, extrusion of its cellular matrix and finally killing of the microorganisms. Microwave treatment at 650 W at 98  C with the holding time of 20 min achieved ~5 log reduction of mesophilic bacteria in the paprika powder (Eliasson et al. 2015). The microwave treatment at 663 W for 12.5 min of black pepper was found to sufficiently reduce the microbial load including pathogens such as Salmonella spp., Shigella spp. and E. coli (Jeevitha et al. 2016). Inactivation of yeast and mould from dried turmeric was assessed using high-power short-time (HPST) microwave where ~1 log reduction was achieved (Behera et al. 2017).

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Infrared Treatment

Infrared (IR) frequency ranges between 300 GHz and 430 THz (wavelength 700 nm to 1 mm) and is absorbed by atom/molecule changing rotational-vibrational movements as well as dipole moment. Thus, heating occurs due to radiative heating of surface and conductive heating towards the inside of the sample (Trivittayasil et al. 2011). Water activity of the sample and IR parameters (temperature and energy) are the prime factors in achieving microbial reduction in food powders (Staack et al. 2008). The thermal inactivation of microbes due to infrared treatment is because of damages in biomolecules like protein, RNA, cell wall and DNA. Infrared heating at 500 W for 3–5 min was earlier reported to significantly reduce S. typhimurium and E. coli from red pepper (Ha and Kang 2013). On infrared (2.5 μm) exposure of cumin powder, 90% reduction was achieved in mesophilic aerobic bacteria and yeast and mould after 2 h of treatment (Erdoğdu and Ekiz 2011). Simultaneous treatment of near-infrared (NIR) and UV radiation for 7 min achieved ~2.8 log reduction of Cronobacter sakazakii in powdered infant formula (Ha and Kang 2014).

15.4.1.3

Radiofrequency Treatment

Radiofrequency (30–300 MHz, wavelength 1 m) is a part of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum, where the electrical energy is transformed to EM nonionizing radiation and released slowly as heat into food sample based upon their dielectric properties (Piyasena et al. 2003). The decontamination efficacy depends upon RF temperature, frequency, sample depth, moisture content of sample, equipment capacity and target microbes. Heat transferred is directly absorbed by DNA and proteins of the microbes that affects the cell structure as well as functionality. Broccoli powder when treated using radiofrequency (6 kW) resulted in inactivation of microbe up to ~4 log CFU/g with negligible degradation in colour (Zhao et al. 2017). Interestingly, Jeong and Kang (2014) reported ~7 log reduction of S. typhimurium and E. coli O157: H7 in dried red and black pepper powder due to treatment of radiofrequency (27 MHz at 90  C for 80 s).

15.4.1.4

Instant Controlled Pressure Drop Technology/Détente Instantanée Contrôlée (DIC)

DIC is a thermomechanical process where sample is subjected to saturated steam for a short period followed by rapid pressure drop under vacuum which induces mechanical stress causing sudden cooling of product and auto-vaporization of water (Hamoud-Agha and Allaf 2019). Microbial decontamination by this technology depends on product expansion property, particle size, thermal and mechanical stress, vacuum developed, pressure drop, volatile content of sample and microorganism type. Its treatment efficacy was shown in various studies such as inactivation

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of Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella spp. in skim milk powder and seaweed (Allaf et al. 2011) and inactivation of flora load in onion powder (Albitar et al. 2011). DIC in combination with hot air (50  C) significantly reduced bacterial load (Mounir et al. 2011). Also, mycotoxin (e.g. patulin) decontamination from apple pomace powder was reported (Mounir et al. 2009).

15.4.2

Nonthermal Techniques

Nowadays, there is demand for high-quality food powder having negligible microbial load with value addition (Rifna et al. 2019). Depending upon the extent of thermal treatments, there are negative effects on the quality of food powder. Therefore, nonthermal treatments are gaining importance due to their lesser impact on food powder qualities.

15.4.2.1

High-Pressure Treatment

Packed or unpacked food powders are subjected to high pressure (300–800 MPa). Factors that affect its efficacy are treatment pressure, temperature, moisture content of powder, acidity of powder, protein structure and equilibrium constant. This treatment causes destruction of the non-covalent bonds in microbial cell’s proteins, nucleic acid and lipids of microbes leading to their inactivation. Several studies have indicated its potential effect on microbial inactivation in infant food, caraway and coriander particularly for Cronobacter sakazakii, coliforms, yeast and mould (Windyga et al. 2008; Arroyo et al. 2012).

15.4.2.2

Pulsed Light

Pulses of UV-C for short time are repeatedly released by a xenon lamp on the food powder during this treatment. UV radiation is absorbed by DNA resulting in crosslinked thymidine dimers eventually leading to killing of microbes due to DNA damage. Pulsed light inactivation effect has been reported for L. monocytogenes in infant powdered milk (Choi et al. 2010). Also, the treatment has shown to be effective against S. typhimurium and E. coli in the powdered red pepper (Cheon et al. 2015). The pulsed light with fluence (9.1 J/cm2, 61 pulses and 20 s) was found to reduce yeasts, moulds and total plate counts by 2.7, 3.1 and 4.1 log, whereas reductions in aflatoxin B1, total aflatoxins and ochratoxin A were ~67, 51 and 37%, respectively (Woldemariam et al. 2021). Pulsed light (three to four passes) was reported to inactivate C. sakazakii from non-fat dry milk, wheat flour and egg white powder by ~5.3, 4.9 and 5.3 log and E. faecium by ~3.7, 2.8 and 2.7 log from these products, respectively (Chen et al. 2019). Pulsed light plasma (pulsed light and cold plasma) treatment yielded ~3 log inactivation of bacteria from red pepper powder

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(Lee et al. 2020). Pulsed light at temperature 57–58  C exhibited inactivation of C. sakazakii by 3.2 log from non-fat dry milk (Chen et al. 2018). Pilot-scale intense pulsed light (IPL) device (two xenon lamps attached to self-designed cyclone sides) at conditions 1800–4200 DC voltage, 0.5–1.0 ms pulse width, 2 Hz frequency and 1–5 min time reduced total mesophilic aerobic bacteria by 0.45, 0.66, 0.88 and ~3 log from ground black pepper, red pepper, embryo buds of rice and sesame seed, respectively (Hwang et al. 2021). UV rays and thermal effect of pulsed light were found more pronounced in glass beads/quartz plate and coloured food powders (black pepper and wheat flour), respectively, for significant decontamination (up to 7 log) of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Fine and Gervais 2004).

15.4.2.3

Ozone Treatment

Ozone (O3) is generated by the effect of electric discharges on oxygen molecule. It oxidizes cell component in the cell wall as well as proteins, DNA and RNA inside cell eventually causing cell lysis. The treatment has been shown to be effective against bacteria as well as spores of B. cereus and fungus from rice flour and barley powder (Young et al. 2016; Tiwari et al. 2010). Beyond certain level, this treatment may negatively affect the quality parameters. Ozone treatment of skim milk powder for 120 min was quite effective in reducing microorganisms to below detection limit (Sert and Mercan 2021). In another study, gaseous ozone treatment (5.3 mg L1 for 120 min) was a more promising method in reducing Cronobacter spp. from skim milk powder as compared to whole milk powder (Torlak and Sert 2013). Gaseous ozone treatment (1.0 ppm for 360 min) of flaked red peppers reduced B. cereus and E. coli counts up to 2.0 log. For reduction of Bacillus cereus spores by 1.5 log, treatment of 7.0 ppm for 360 min was required (Akbas and Ozdemir 2008).

15.4.2.4

Cold Plasma Treatment

Plasma is the fourth state of matter. It is completely or partially ionized gas composed of ions, atoms, molecules and nuclei and, thus, electrically neutral. Ionized gas species produced by an electric field are used directly or indirectly to treat food products (Bourke et al. 2018). It has good potential for commercial application and can be applied inside the packet (Misra et al. 2011). In a study, cold plasma treatment (15–35 kHz; 2–20 min) with helium gas was performed on onion powder (Kim and Min 2018). The treatment (15 kHz) significantly reduced E. coli, S. enteric and L. monocytogenes from the sample. Cold plasma treatment (CPT) with nitrogen (900 W and 667 Pa for 20 min) reduced A. flavus spore by ~2.5 log. Similar treatment inhibited total aerobic bacteria in red pepper powder by ~1 log. CPT (helium-oxygen gas mixture; 900 W) in combination with heat treatment (90  C for 30 min) inhibited B. cereus spores by ~3.4 log (Kim et al. 2014). Among cold plasma-forming gases, mixture of He-O2 (99.8:0.2) and He alone were found more effective in reducing C. sakazakii in infant milk powder and B. cereus spores in

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onion, respectively. Further, integration of cold plasma with microwave treatment as well as cold plasma with heat and microwave treatment reduced 90% count of spores in onion (Oh et al. 2015). Cold atmospheric-pressure plasma (25 kV) treatment of turmeric powder reduced ~1.5 log in aerobic viable cell count. During the first 3 min, reduction was more pronounced (Hemmati et al. 2021). Decontamination of viable bacteria and coliform bacteria on the dry powder food ingredients (placed in an atmospheric-pressure nonequilibrium DC pulse discharge mixture of gases Ar and O2 plasma jet) is proportional to the plasma treatment time when OH and O3 radicals are incident (Yuji et al. 2021). In another study, inactivation of spores of Bacillus spp., Geobacillus spp. and Penicillium spp. was assessed after treatment with cold atmospheric plasma produced by a dielectric barrier discharge device and air as process gas. Highest inactivation (~3 log) was achieved for B. coagulans spores for exposure of only 10 s at low surface energy (0.18 W/cm2). B. subtilis spores were found to be the most resistant among strains studied (Beyrer et al. 2020). Impact of thermal and nonthermal methods on microbial reduction and quality of food powder is illustrated in Table 15.1.

15.4.2.5

Radiation Treatment

Radiation processing involves exposure of food to electromagnetic (ionizing) radiation such as gamma (γ) rays, electrons and X-rays. The approved sources for food processing applications are gamma radiation from radioisotopes (cobalt 60 and caesium 137), electron beam (
10 MeV) and X-rays (
5 MeV) (Roberts 2014). Gamma radiation from cobalt 60 source is more widely used for food preservation owing to the availability of irradiation plant and commercial feasibility of bulk processing due to high penetration into the food samples. Walls and ceiling of gamma irradiation plant are shielded with 1.5–2.0-m-thick high-density cement concrete (2.5 g/cm3). Such shielding is not required for electron beam facility. Besides, electron accelerators can be switched “on-off” as per the need. However, penetration of electron becomes limiting in case of bulky products which can be overcome by the conversion of electrons to X-rays. Radiation absorbed dose is measured in terms of gray (Gy) which means absorbed dose of 1 joule/kg of food. A suitable dosimetry system is used to determine dose rate of irradiator. The direct interactions of radiation and radiolytic products of water damage DNA and impair the growth and viability of microorganism. It is a food processing technology and approved by international organizations and statutory bodies such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI). In several studies, radiation treatment was quite effective in reducing microbial level to acceptable or negligible range without affecting the physico-chemical, nutritional and organoleptic properties of food powder. Packaged sample is subjected to radiation treatment which eliminates post-processing microbial contamination and

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Table 15.1 Some studies pertaining to thermal and nonthermal decontamination methods for food powders

Food powder Red pepper

Techniques (energy/ wavelength/ frequency) IR (500 W)

Shredded garlic

IR (3.3 μm)

Black pepper

Microwave (800 W)

Peanut

Microwave (360, 480, 600 W)

Barley grass powder

RF heating (6 kW; 27.1 MHz; 120–240 mm) DIC (saturated steam pressure of 0.44 MPa; 40 s)

Seaweed and skim milk

Apple pomace powder Fennel, cornflour and Chinese herbs Infant formula Powdered infant formula Powdered infant formula Red ginseng powder Paprika, pepper and oregano

DIC (0.2–0.6 MPa) High-pressure treatment (6.8  104 N/ cm) Pressure treatment (100–200 MPa) Pulsed light (17 mJ/cm2) Pulsed light (5000, 600, 300 and 100 μs at 25 kV) Ozone treatment (18 ppm) Cold plasma treatment (2.45 GHz)

Target microbes and reduction in food S. Typhimurium and E. coli; ~3 log reduction Aspergillus Niger; ~4 log reduction Salmonella spp., shigella spp. and E. coli; ~ 6 log reduction Aspergillus flavus; ~65% reduction

E. coli and aspergillus spp.; ~5 and 7 log reduction reductions, respectively Salmonella spp. and Staphylococcus aureus; reduction of 87% for skim milk and 100% for seaweed Aspergillus Niger; reduction in patulin mycotoxin Inactivation Bacillus cereus spores

Impact on quality Colour and pungency remain unchanged Reduced moisture, volatile oil and vitamin C Reduced volatile oil content, piperine, resin Reduced moisture, water activity; free fatty acid remains unchanged Aroma and antioxidant properties remain unchanged

References Ha and Kang 2013 Feng et al. 2018 Jeevitha et al. 2016 Patil et al. 2019

Cao et al. 2019

Increased surface area

Allaf et al. 2011

Increased flavonoid, quercetin and drying kinetics Reduced gelatinization ratio by 10%

Mounir et al. 2009 Tsujimoto et al. 2004

Cronobacter sakazakii; ~7 log inactivation

Increased freshness

Arroyo et al. 2012

Listeria species; inactivation up to >99%

Nutrients and minerals remain unchanged –

Arroyo et al. 2018

Listeria monocytogenes; 4–5 log reduction

Choi et al. 2010

Total aerobic bacteria and yeast; ~2 log reduction

Reduced flavour

Byun et al. 1998

Bacterial count; ~3 log reduction

Reduced colour

Hertwig et al. 2015

(continued)

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Table 15.1 (continued)

Food powder Dried maize seeds

Techniques (energy/ wavelength/ frequency) Cold plasma treatment (80 W cm3)

Target microbes and reduction in food Aspergillus flavus, Alternaria alternata and fusarium spp.; ~4 log reduction

Impact on quality Increased wettability

References Zahoranová et al. 2018

thus ensures microbial safety of the food powder during prolonged storage. Radiation processing has several advantages over other decontamination methods. It can be used for pre-packed food which eliminates probability of post-processing contaminations and, thus, also prevents contamination during storage. Radiation treatment is feasible at commercial scale. At suitable radiation dose, impact on physicochemical and organoleptic properties is generally negligible. Kumar et al. (2010) evaluated several medicinally important herbal powders such as guggul (Commiphora mukul), rose (Rosa centifolia), gulvel (Tinospora cordifolia) and chirata (Swertia chirayita) and herbal formulation powders such as shatpatryadi, rasayan, kashayam and scrub. In those studies, a gamma radiation (60CO) dose of 10 kGy was found to completely eliminate total aerobic plate count and presumptive coliform without affecting the physico-chemical and antioxidant properties. Similar radiation dose was recommended for shatavari formulations without affecting its bioactive (shatavarin IV) content (Deshmukh et al. 2020). Radiation treatment reduced the microbial load substantially up to 3 log at 5 kGy from casein and milk powder. At 10 kGy further reduction of microbial load up to 4.5 log was observed (Żegota and Małolepszy 2008). Table 15.2 illustrates efficacy of radiation processing in reducing microbial contamination from food powders.

15.5

Conclusions

Although there are several methods to decontaminate microbe from food powder, conventional thermal techniques cause change in powder qualities. Many recent thermal and nonthermal emerging techniques have attracted the food powder manufacturer and industry. However, implementation of the works in the laboratory requires further R&D for making them commercially reasonable and viable. Radiation treatment is one among various technologies which can be commercially utilized for microbial inactivation without significantly affecting the qualities. The bottleneck for this technology is large capital and infrastructure requirement. Technology which alone is not sufficient enough to decontaminate microbes should be applied in combination with other techniques for synergistic effects. It is noteworthy

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Table 15.2 Impact of radiation processing in microbial decontamination of food powders

Sample powder Dehydrated herbs and spices, allspice berries, caraway seeds, oregano and rosemary

Target microbe Enterococcus faecium

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) powder Dried red pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) powder

Total viable microbial count Aerobic plate counts and yeast and mould counts Total microbial population

Red chilli, turmeric, cumin, coriander, garlic and black pepper and ginger powder Ready-to-use powdered Cocoa beverage premix

Source/ decontamination dose Electron beam, gamma radiation (60CO)/12 kGy dose Gamma radiation (60CO)/5 kGy dose Electron beam, gamma radiation (60CO)/3 kGy dose Gamma radiation (60CO)/2–6 kGy

Rahman et al. 2021

Gamma radiation (60CO)/10 kGy

Puligundla et al. 2017

Gamma radiation (60CO)/5 kGy

Odai et al. 2019

Gamma radiation (60CO)/5 kGy Gamma radiation (60CO)/5–10 kGy

Mali et al. 2011 Mamatha and Patil 2011 Kwon et al. 1987

References Schottroff et al. 2021

Sádecká et al. 2004 Kyung et al. 2019

Pomegranate peel powder

Aspergillus oryzae, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and bacillus cereus L. Monocytogenes, E. coli and S. typhimurium Microbial count

Kalmegh (Andrographis paniculata) powder

Total aerobic count and total fungal count

Garlic and onion powder

Total aerobic bacteria, spore count and total fungal count Total viable count

Gamma radiation (60CO)/10 kGy Gamma radiation (60CO)/10–15 kGy

AduGyamfi et al. 2014

Total aerobic plate count and presumptive coliform

Gamma radiation (60CO)/10 kGy

Kumar et al. 2010

Pepper (Capsicum annuum) powder

Herbal (Cryptolepis sanguinolenta root, Desmodium adscendens stem and leaves, Moringa oleifera, Griffonia simplicifolia, Voacanga africanus seeds) powder Herbal powders of guggul (Commiphora mukul), rose (Rosa centifolia), gulvel (Tinospora cordifolia), chirata (Swertia chirayita) and herbal formulation powders shatpatryadi, rasayan, kashayam and scrub

that any treatment for decontamination would be acceptable if it does not significantly affect the qualities and properties of powder and prevent physical, chemical and nutritional deterioration.

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Correction to: Decontamination of Cereal and Cereal Products Mudasir Bashir Mir, Saqib Farooq, Reshu Rajput, Manzoor Ahmad Shah, and Shabir Ahmad Mir

Correction to: Chapter 7 in: M. A. Shah, S. A. Mir (eds.), Microbial Decontamination of Food, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5114-5_7 The original version of this chapter was inadvertently published with the incorrect title. The correct title should read as ‘Decontamination of Cereal and Cereal Products’. The chapter has been updated with this erratum.

The updated original version of this chapter can be found at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5114-5_7 © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. A. Shah, S. A. Mir (eds.), Microbial Decontamination of Food, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5114-5_16

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