Man-made Soils 9780860545293, 9781407346915

Table of contents :
Cover
Copyright
CONTENTS
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MAN-MADE SOILS IN THE NETHERLANDS, ESPECIALLY IN SANDY AREAS ("PLAGGEN SOILS")
3. CLIMATE AND PLAGGEN SOILS
4. POLLEN FROM PLAGGEN SOILS IN THE PROVINCE OF NORTH BRABANT, THE NETHERLANDS
5. PALYNOLOGY OF PLAGGEN SOILS ON THE VELUWE, CENTRAL NETHERLANDS
6. ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF COLLUVIATION IN SOUTH-EAST ENGLAND
7. THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL COMPONENT OF AGRICULTURAL SOILS IN THE MIDDLE EAST: THE EFFECTS OF MANURING IN ANTIQUITY
8. ASPECTS OF BURIED PREHISTORIC SOILS IN THE LOWER WELLAND VALLEY AND THE FEN MARGIN NORTH OF PETERBOROUGH, CAMBRIDGESHIRE
9. SO-CALLED SECONDARY PODZOLIZATION IN BARROWS
10. MEGALITHS, SOILS AND VEGETATION ON THE DRENTHE PLATEAU
11. SOILS OF PRE-HISPANIC FIELD SYSTEMS IN THE RIO SALADO BASIN, NORTHERN CHILE - A PRELIMINARY REPORT
12. THE ROLE OF GEOLOGY IN THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL FIELD SURVEY IN THE OER-LJ ESTUARY (NETHERLANDS)

Citation preview

Man-made Soils

edited by

W. Groentnan-van Waateringe and M. Robinson

Symposia of the Association for Environmental Archaeology No. 6

BAR International Series 410 1988

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S410, 1988: 'Man-made Soi ls' ©

The Individual Authors, 1988

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545293 paperback ISBN 9781407346915 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545293 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ONTENTS P age

1 .

I ntroduction W . G roenman-van W aateringe a nd M . R obinson

1

2 .

M an-made s oils i n t he N etherlands, s andy a reas ( "plaggen s oils") W . v an d e W esteringh

5

3 .

C limate a nd p laggen s oils H .A . H eidinga

2 1

4 .

P ollen f rom p laggen s oils i n t he p rovince o f N orth B rabant, t he N etherlands C .C . B akels

3 5

5 .

P alynology o f p laggen s oils o n t he V eluwe, N etherlands W . G roenman-van W aateringe

5 5

6 .

A rchaeological a nd e nvironmental a spects o f c olluviation i n s outh-east E ngland M .J . A llen

6 7

7 .

T he a rchaeological c omponent o f a gricultural s oils i n t he t he M iddle E ast: t he e ffects o f m anuring i n a ntiquity T .J . W ilkinson

9 3

8 .

A spects o f b uried p rehistoric s oils i n t he l ower W elland v alley a nd f en m argin n orth o f P eterborough, C ambridgeshire C .A.I. F rench

15 1

9 .

S o-called s econdary p odzolization i n b arrows L .T . R unia

1 29

M egaliths, s oils a nd v egetation o n t he D renthe p lateau J .A . B akker a nd W . G roenman-van W aateringe

1 43

1 0.

e specially i n

c entral

P age 1 1.

ystems i n t he R io S alado S oils o f p re-Hispanic field s reliminary r eport b asin, n orthern C hile - a p H .C .M . K eeley

1 83

1 2.

urvey T he r ole o f g eology i n t he a rchaeological field s i n t he O er-IJ e stuary ( Netherlands) P .C . V os a nd R .W . B randt

2 07

i i

L IST O F C ONTRIBUTORS

M r. M .J. A llen , D epartment o f A rchaeology, U niversity o f S outhampton, H ighfield, S outhampton , S 09 5 NH , U K . D r. C .C . B akels, I nstituut v or P rehistorie, R euvensplaats 4 , 2 311 B E L eiden , t he N etherlands. D r. J .A. B akker, A lbert E gges v an G iffen I nstituut v or P rae-en P rotohistorie ( IPP), S ingel 4 53 , 1 012 W P A msterdam , t he N etherlands. D rs . R .W . B randt , I PP , S ingel 4 53, 1 012 W P A msterdam , t he N etherlands. D r. C .A .I . F rench , 3F ountain C ourt, U fford , n ear S tamford, P E9 3 BJ , U K . P rof. W . G roenman-van W aateringe, he N etherlands. I PP , S ingel 4 53, 1 012 W P A msterdam , t D r . H .A . H eidinga , he N etherlands. I PP , S ingel 4 53 , 1 012 W P A msterdam , t D r. H .C .M . K eeley, A ncient M onuments L aboratory, H istoric B uildings a nd M onuments C ommission , F ortress H ouse, 2 3 S avile R ow , L ondon , W 1X 2 HE , U K . D r. M . R obinson , U niversity M useum , P arks R oad, O xford, 0 X1 3 PW , U K . I r. L .T . R unia, I PP , S ingel 4 53,

1 012 W P A msterdam , t he N etherlands.

D r. P .C . V os , S ingel 9 , 1 012 V C A msterdam , t he N etherlands. I r. W . v an d e W esteringh , V akgroep B odemkunde e n G eologie , P ostbus 3 7, 6 700 A A W ageningen , t he N etherlands . M r. T .J . W ilkinson, 2 6 A lexandra T errace, L incoln, L N1 1 JE , U K .

1 . W .

I NTRODUCTION

G roenman-van W aateringe a nd M . R obinson

T he e xistence o f r aised a gricultural s oils f rom t he m edieval p eriod i n t he N etherlands w as t hought t o b e s o i ntriguing t hat t he A EA w as i nvited t o d evote t he 1 985 a nnual c onference t o t his p henomenon a nd t o m an-made s oils i n g eneral. T he m eeting p lace h ad, o f c ourse, t o b e i n t he N etherlands. T he c onference w hich r esulted i n t his v olume t ook p lace a t S lot A ssumburgh, H eemskerk, i n t he N etherlands, f rom 2 0th 2 3rd S eptember. T he p reparation o f t his v olume t ook m ore t ime t han a t f irst e xpected, m ainly d ue t o t he l anguage p roblem f or D utch c ont ributors p reparing a rticles f or p ublication i n E nglish. T his v olume c omprises t hree s omewhat s eparate g roups o f p apers. F irstly, t here a re p apers o n p laggen s oils. T hese s oils w ere i ntentionally r aised a nd h ave a p rofile c haracterised b y a n u nnaturally t hick A l h orizon. T he p aper b y v an d e W esteringh d eals w ith t heir o ccurrence i n t he N etherlands a nd e lsewhere i n N W E urope, t he k ind o f m aterial u sed t o r aise t hem a nd t heir p edological p roperties, s uch a s t exture, p article s ize, p hosphate c ontent, c olour p H a nd h ydrology. H eidinga d iscusses t he c onditions w hich m ade i t n ecessary t o i ntroduce t he p laggen s ystem , a s i llustrated b y a n e xample f rom t he c entral p art o f t he N etherlands. T he c ommon v iew i s t hat p laggen s oils c ame i nto e xistence b ecause s ome m eans w as n eeded t o i ntensify t he p roduction o f w inter r ye. T his i s c hallenged b y H eidinga , w ho s upposes e xtreme d rought i n t he 1 0th c entury t o h ave b een t he p rime m over f or t he o rigin o f t he p laggen s oils, b ecause o f t heir h igh w ater r etaining c apacity. E ven a fter t he d ry p eriod c ame t o a n e nd, t his c apacity w as o f c ons iderable a dvantage o n t he d ry P leistocene s andy s oils i n N W E urope. T he a rticles b y B akels a nd G roenman-van W aateringe d eal w ith t he p ollen a nalysis o f t he p laggen s oils. P laggen s oils a re a lmost u nique a mongst a rable s oils b ecause t heir l ow p H a nd h igh h umic c ontent g enerally r esult i n t hem b eing r ich i n w ell p reserved p ollen, i ncluding p ollen f rom t heir c rops. T he g radual r aising o f t he c ultivated s urface m eans t hat t hey d isplay a s tratified s equence. B akels d iscusses t he d ifferent p ollen s ources i n m an-made r aised s oils a nd t he r epresentat ion i n t he p ollen r ecord o f d ifferent c rops w hich c ould h ave b een g rown t here. T he r esults a re c ompared w ith l iterary s ources f or c rops i n t he p rovince o f N orth B rabant. T he a rticle b y G roenman-van W aateringe i s a s hort e laboration o f a p oster, p resented a t t he c onf erence, a nd d ealing w ith s ome a rable s oils o n t he V eluwe i n t he c entral p art o f t he N etherlands. I t d iscusses t he s upposed r aised s oil o f 1 0th c entury K ootwijk. T he s econd g roup b rings t ogether a rticles d ealing w ith v arious s oil c hanges c aused p artly b y m an a nd p artly b y n atural p henomena . A llen a pplied m agnetic d ating, t he m easurement o f m agnetic

1

s usceptibility a nd t echniques o f s oil m icromorphology a s w ell a s m ore t raditional m ethods t o t he s tudy o f v alley c olluvium a nd l ynchet d eposits i n E ast S ussex. H e o bserves t hat m ost l ate N eolithic/early B ronze A ge s ites i n t he v alley b ottoms o f t he s tudy a rea l ie o bscured b eneath p lough-induced c olluvium . W ilkinson p resents a s tudy o f m anuring p ractices a nd t heir r elationship t o e xtensive a rtefact s catters a round s ome a rchaeological s ites i n t he M iddle E ast. S urface s ampling t echniques e nabled t he d efinition o f l ane u se z ones, w hile t he e xcavation o f s oil p rofiles p rovided e vidence o f p loughing, d eflation, e rosion a nd s edimentation . A d emographic a spect i s s hown b y t hese a rtefact s catters w hich o nly r epresent t imes o f p eak p opulation. F rench d iscusses t he n ature o f t he s oils i n t he l ower W elland v alley, E ast A nglia, p rior t o t he f looding w hich g ave t he F enlands t heir p resent-day a ppearance. T hin s ection t echniques w ere a pplied t o p alaeosoils u nderneath N eolithic m onuments. T hey s howed a rgillic b rown e arth, a s d evelops u nder s table w oodland. C learance a nd c ultivation f rom t he N eolithic o nwards b egan a p rocess o f s oil c hange, i ncluding e rosion a nd d eposition o f w ind-blown a nd c olluvial m aterial, o nly t o b e h alted i n l ow-lying a reas b y a lluviation. R unia d escribes a s tudy o f s oils u nderneath p rehistoric b urial m ounds a nd q uestions t he p henomenon o f s o-called s econdary p odzolization. M icromorphological a nd c hemical a nalyses d o n ot s upport t he t hesis t hat b uried s oil p rofiles a ct a s i lluvial h orizons f or s oil f ormative p rocesses t aking p lace a t t he p resent-day s oil s urface.

s oils

T he l ast g roup o f a rticles i s m ainly c oncerned w ith t he e ffect o n h uman h abitation a nd a gricultural p ractices. T he a rticle

o f b y

B akker a nd G roenman-van W aateringe a nalyses t he s oils a vailable t o t he N eolithic F unnel B eaker p eople a nd t he c hoices m ade b y t hem c oncerning t heir d aily e xistence ( possibilities f or a griculture) a nd t heir i deology ( where t o b uild t he f unerary m onuments). M egalithic t omb ( hunebed) c onstruction t ook p lace o n d ry a nd l oamless c oversands, m ostly i n t he v icinity o f s tonefields , w here l arge b oulders w ere e asily a vailable. T he a rable f ields w ere s ituated o n l oamy f ine c oversands. K eely's a rticle d eals w ith h er r esearch o n a bandoned a gricultural t erraces r elated t o p re-Hispanic s ettlements i n a m arginal h igh d esert a rea o f C hile, w here, w ithout a n i rrigation s ystem , a griculture w ould n ot h ave b een p ossible. E vidence f or e rosion o f t he t erraces, b oth b y w ater a nd w ind, s howed t he n eed f or t he c onservation o f s oils . S oil p roperties, s uch a s p article s ize, o rganic m atter c ontent, p H a nd n utrient l evels a re d escribed. B randt a nd V os d escribe t he c lose r elationship b etween g eological d evelopment a nd h abitation i n t he c oastal a reas o f t he N etherlands, b ased o n ag eological a nd a rchaeol ogical s urvey o f t hree a reas i n t he f ormer I J-estuary. T he r esult i s ad etailed l andscape r econstruction, c ombined w ith s ettlement h istory. V arious s urveying m ethods w ere d eveloped f or g rassland o n d ifferent s oil t ypes , e ach a rea r equiring i ts o wn s trategy. T he g eneral c onclusion o f t he c onference a nd t he p apers p resented h ere i s t o e mphasise t he c lose l ink b etween m an a nd s oil d evelopment. A lthough s oil f ormation s .s. c an b e d escribed a s a n e ntirely n atural p henomenon i n t erms o f c hemical a nd p hysical p rocesses, t he h uman a spect, e specially s ince t he b eginnings o f a griculture, i s u biquitous o n a m acro- and m icromorphological s cale . T he a wareness o f t hese h uman-induced p rocesses h as w ide i mplications f or a b etter u nderstandi ng o f s ettlement a rchaeology. I n t his r espect, h owever, i t i s n ot

2

n ecessary t o t hink i n t erms o f m an b eing e ntirely d ependent o n t he e nvironment. T he c onference g ave n umerous e xamples o f m an n ot s ubmitt ing t o t he r estrictions i mposed b y s oil t ypes a nd c limate, b ut i nstead a ctively c reating e ntirely n ew t ypes o f s oil. M an i s a lso h ighly c apable o f r esponding a dequately t o l andscape c hanges i nduced b y h is o wn a ctions, s uch a s e rosion , c olluviation a nd a lluvial d eposition. T he p edologist a nd a rchaeologist a like s hould b e g rateful t o h is p redecessors f or t he h eritage l eft t o h im i n t he f orm o f b uried s oils, a p alimpsest o f e vidence f or p re-settlement c limatic c onditions a nd o f s ubsequent h uman b ehaviour.

3

2 .

M AN-MADE S OILS I N T HE N ETHERLANDS, E SPECIALLY I N S ANDY A REAS ( "PLAGGEN S OILS") W .

v an d e W esteringh

A bstract T he p laggen s oils i n t he s andy a reas o f t he N etherlands a re a nthropogenic, c haracterized b y ah umic d ark t opsoil m ore t han 5 0cm t hick ( Al h orizon). C ereal c ultivation w as o nly p ossible i n a w ellb alanced a gricultural s ystem w hich i ncluded, b esides a rable l and, p astures f or t he d ung p roducing a nimals, p lus a l arge a rea w here l itter c ould b e o btained. T his s ytem , e xisting f or c enturies, w as e ntirely d ependent o n n atural c onditions, i .e. c haracter o f t he s oil a nd h ydrology. T o k eep t he f ertility o f t he p oor P leistocene s andy s oils, i n u se a s a rable, a t t he r equired i ntensity, i t w as n ecessary t o a dd n utrients, i .e. s table m uck o r d ung-laden e arth. E ventually, n ew s oils f ormed o n t op o f t he o ld o nes a s a r esult o f t he i norganic p articles i n t he d ung . P laggen s oils s how c haracteristic f eatures. T hey o ccur a lso i n o ther N W E uropean c ountries, s ometimes q uite s imilar t o , s ometimes d iffering f rom t he D utch p laggen s oils.

2 .1

I ntroduction

P laggen s oils 1 a re w ide s pread i n t he P leistocene s andy a reas o f t he N etherlands ( fig. 2 .1), a lthough o ccurring o nly u nder s pecific c onditions. W hereas i n t he N etherlands, u nder n atural s oil c onditions t he A l h orizon a nd t he p lough l ayer ( Ap h orizon) p ractically n ever e xceed 3 0cm , t he p laggen s oils a re c haracterized b y d ark, h umic t op l ayers ( Al o r A h h orizons) o f m ore t han 5 0cm t hickness, i ndicated a s A an h orizons ( 'an ' o f a nthropogenic). T ogether w ith p laggen-like s oils w ith A l ( Aan) h orizons o f 3 0-50cm t hickness t hey c over a bout 3 0% o f t he D utch P leistocene s andy s oils ( Pape 1 970). P laggen s oils a re r arely f ound o n l oam o r c lay. I f m an-made s oils ( old a rable o r s ettlement s oils) o ccur t here, t hey a re u sually d ifferent f rom t hose o n s and. T he g enesis o f s andy p laggen s oils i s d etermined b y t he n atural s oil c ond itions, t he h ydrology a nd a n a gricultural s ystem p ractised f or c enturies. T he g eology, p edological a nd h ydrological c onditions, p ast f arming p ractices, m anuring a nd s oil f ertility, t he g enesis o f t he p laggen s oils a nd t heir c haracteristics, a nd t heir o ccurrence o utside t he N etherlands w ill b e d iscussed.

5

e

4r

F ig .

B rus se ls •

2 .1

B ELG IUM

D istribution o f p laggen s oils i n n orthwestern E urope. ( From P ape 1 970)

6

2 .2

G eology T he

s tructure

o f t he D utch l andscape h as m ainly b een

s haped

b y

g eological p rocesses i n t he l ast t wo G lacial p eriods ( van S taalduinen e t a l. 1 979) ( fig. 2 .2). I n t he S aale G laciation, d eep v alleys w ere c arved o ut b y g laciers, w hile w eight a nd p ressure o f t he l and-ice p ushed u nderlying d eposits u pwards ( pushed r idges). A fter t he r etreat o f t he i ce, m oraine m aterial ( till, b oulder c lay) o f n orth E uropean o rigin r emained b ehind i n t he n orthern a nd e astern p arts o f t he N etherlands. I n t he f ollowing I nterglacial a nd t he W eichsel G laciation s evere e rosion t ook p lace o f t he p ushed r idges a nd d eep e rosion v alleys b ecause o f t heir e asily e rodable l oose m aterial. T he m ost i mportant p rocess o f t he W eichsel G laciation i n t he N etherlands w as t he d eposit ion o f c oversand, a nd, e specially i n t he s outhern p art o f t he c ountry, o f l oess. T his r esulted o ver l arge a reas i n p edogenesis i nvolving p arent m aterial w ith a h igh q uartz c ontent ( sometimes m ore t han 9 0%) a nd t hus a v ery l ow n atural s oil f ertility. O nly i n t hose p laces w here s and f rom r iver v alleys w as b lown i n, d id s oil w ith a h igher f ertility f orm . T hus w e c an s ay t hat t he P leistocene p art o f t he N etherlands i s c haracterized b y l ow h ills a nd s hallow v alleys c overed f or a l arge p art w ith p oor q uartz-rich s and, w hile t he r est s hows m ainly a f lat l andscape.

2 .3

S oils

D ry a nd p oor c oversands a re c haracterized b y h umus p odzols ( Haplohumods, S oil S urvey S taff 1 975), w et h umus p odzols i n c oversand a re c lassified a s H aplaquods. S oils f ormed i n s ands b lown f rom r iver v alleys a re o f4en c lassified a s a cid b rown f orest s oils a nd b rown p odzolic s oils. T he d evelopment o f t he l andscape p attern, h owever, d epended o n t he g eogenesis a nd t he e xtent o f e ach s oil t ype. M oreover, r elief a nd t he h ydrological s ituation d etermined w hich s oils w ere u sed f or a griculture. T hus i n t he P leistocene a rea b ecause o f d ifferences i n t he n ature o f t he s oils, t heir e xtent a nd t he n umber a nd s ize o f t he v alleys, p rospects f or a griculture d iffer b etween t he N E p art o f t he N etherlands, ( the p rovince o f D renthe), t hose i n t he c entral a nd e astern p arts ( the p rovince o f G elderland), a nd t hose i n t he s outhern p art ( the p rovince o f B rabant). A cid b rown f orest s oils a re b etter s uited f or p ermanent u se a s a rable t han h umus p odzols . L ow-lying h umic g ley s oils m ake b etter g rasslands t han g roundwater p odzols. T he a rable, h owever, c ould o nly o ccupy a v ery l imited p art o f t he w hole t erritory, b ecause t he l argest p art w as n eeded f or o ther p urposes ( Edelman 1 950; n ext s ections.

2 .4

v an d e W esteringh 1 979).

T his w ill b e d iscussed i n

t he

F arming p ractices i n t he p ast

P ermanent f arming i n t he P leistocene s andy a reas o f t he N etherlands w as n ot p ossible w ithout r egular m anuring, b ecause o f t he r ather l ow n atural s oil f ertility o f t he c oversands. N ot o nly t he a rable, b ut a lso t he g rassland n eeded m anuring u nder t hese p oor s oil

7

I

FED . REP . OF GER MANY

HOLOCENE f i ne a nd l oa my f i ne s and

f i ne s and ( coas ta l a nd i n land d unes )

( p redo m inan t ly c ove r s and ) d i to o ve r ly ing l oa my ma te r ia l t

p redo m inant ly l oa my ma te r ia l ( mar ine )

( d it ver ly ing g lac ia l t i l ) to o l 6 •

f i ne s and ( ma r ine ) ' 1

•

••

l oa my a nd c l ayey mater ia l ( f luv ia t i le )

• •

•

*0

•s e

•

l s and a nd c oarse s and , o ften g rave ly ( f luv ia t i le p reg lac ia l a nd f l uv iog lac ia l ) s outhern b oundary o f t he S aa le i c e s hee t

p ea t ( par t ly c ove red w ith ma r ine

OLDER FOR MAT I ONS

o r f l uv ia t i le s ed i men t 2 00p m ( per 2

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)

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1 60 -1 y

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p r . 00Y

p r . NOS

1

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t h ickness

( c m)

F ig .

2 .7

B iopore d istribution o f f ive p laggen s oils

1 5

o f

p laggen

l ayer

p arts o f E ast- nor p robably W est-Germany, w here m ore l oamy s oils, d eveloped f rom m oraine m aterial, a re p resent. I t i s k nown, h owever, f rom w ritten s ources t hat h eather t urves w ere c ut a nd u sed f or t he p reparation o f e arthy m anure ( pers. c omm . D r. M ax L inke), a lthough p laggen s oils h ave n ot b een f ound b y t he s urveys. T he r eason f or t his m ight b e, t hat, b ecause o f t he h igher s oil f ertility o f t hese l oamy s oils a nd a s a c onsequence t he l arger a rea t hat c ould b e u sed a s a rable t here w as n ot e nough s table m anure f or a ll t he f ields, o r t hat t he m ineral c ontent o f t he m anure w as m uch l ess. C onsequently i t i s n ot f ound i n t he s oil p rofiles a nd d id n ot l ead t o r aised m an-made s oils. I n t he P leistocene l andscape o f J utland, D enmark, p laggen-like s oils c an b e f ound i n s mall f ields a round v illages, m ore o r l ess c omp arable t o t he D utch p laggen s oils, b ut n ot s o p rominent. O n S eeland, D enmark, o ld a rable s oils o n l oam a re f ound, n ot, h owever, w ith a r aised u pper l ayer ( Aan h orizon), b ut w ith a d eepened A l h orizon, c aused b y b iological h omogenisation, a s w as t he c ase i n t he D utch H olocene a rea o n t he c lay s oils ( see s ection 2 .5). I n N orway o ne c an s ometimes f ind n ear o ld s ettlements a longside f iords s mall f ields w ith a h umus p odzol f ormed o n g ranite b ut w ith a n A l h orizon t hat i s a bnormally t hick . T his t hickness i s t he r esult o f m anuring t he f ields o r g arden p lots w ith c omposted d omestic r efuse, f ish r emains, s eaweed e tc. ( Kaland 1 986). I n s ome o ld D utch f ishingv illages, f or e xample o n t he f ormer i sland o f W ieringen o r t he F risian i slands t his w as p ractically t he o nly a vailable b edding m aterial f or a bsorbing t he d ung. C onry ( 1969, 1 970) d escribes f or t he I rish R epublic s o-called s anded s oils. I n s ome c oastal a reas c alcareous s ea-sand w as b rought o nto t he a rable i n m anure, o r i t w as u sed f or s anding t he h eavy c lay s oils. P article s izes c haracteristic f or s ea-sand c an b e f ound b esides t he q uite d ifferent t exture o f t he o riginal s oil p rofile. T he I rish r aised s oils h ave, i n c ontrast t o t he D utch o nes, c olours m atching t hose o f t he b uried s oils a nd n ot o f t he m aterial b rought u p f rom e lsewhere. I n t he I nsch v alley, S cotland, m an-made s oils i n i nfields h ave b een d escribed b y G lentworth ( 1954). T he d epth o f t he f ragipan i n t he s ubsoil o f t he o riginal s oil p rofile c ompared t o i ts d epth i n t he s ubs oil o f t he i nfields i s a n i ndication t hat t he A l h orizon, 8 0cm t hick , i s n ot ac ompletely n ew, r aised l ayer, b ut p art o f t he n atural s oil p rofile, g enerated p artly b y t urning o ver t he o riginal s oil p rofile a nd p artly b y t he m ineral p articles i n t he e arth-containing m anure. T hese s oils a re w ell c omparable t o t he D utch m an-made s oils w ith d eepened A l h orizon i n c lay a nd l oamy s oils.

2 .9

C onclusions

T he g enesis o f p laggen s oils ( raised m an-made s oils u sed f or a rable) i s c losely r elated t o a n e xtinct, h istorical, a gricultural s ystem t hat f or c enturies p ermitted c ultivation o n t he p oor s andy s oils o f t he N etherlands. A griculture a t t hat t ime w as h ighly d ependent o n t he n atural s oil c onditions. T his m akes i ntegrated r esearch o f l andscape a nd s oil, a grarian h istory, h istorical g eography a nd

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a rchaeology n ecessary. A t horough k nowledge o f a griculture i n g eneral a nd t he r equirements o f t he d ifferent c rop p lants i n r espect o f t he s oil a nd t heir n utrients, t ogether w ith s oil s cience ( soil s uitability, l and e valuation) i s a lso n eeded. O nly t hen w ill i t b e p ossible s uccessfully t o s tudy l andscape g enesis a nd r egional h istory. L ocation , g enesis a nd c haracteristics o f p laggen s oils c an b e i dentified a nd u nderstood w ith t he h elp o f p edology a nd a gricultural r esearch .

N otes 1 .

U SA P laggepts , G ermany P laggenböden o r P laggenesche, p laggengronden , t he N etherlands e nkeerdgronden.

2 .

D ystrochrepts o r H aplumbrepts w hen t hey h ave a t exture f iner t han v ery f ine s and, l oamy v ery f ine s and o r f iner ; O rthents o r P samments i f t hey h ave a c oarser s tructure.

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B elgium

R eferences B akels, C .C ., 1 988 . P ollen f rom p laggen s oils i n t he p rovince o f N orth B rabant, t he N etherlands. I n: W . G roenman-van W aateringe a nd M . R obinson ( eds.), M an-made s oils. ( This v olume), 3 5-54 . B akker , H . d e, 1 979. M ajor s oils a nd s oil r egions i n t he N etherlands . T he H ague: J unk P ublishers , W ageningen : P udoc . B akker, H . d e a nd S chelling, J ., 1 966. S ysteem v an b odemclassificatie v oor N ederland. W ageningen : P udoc . B ehre , K .-E ., 1 980 . Z ur m ittelalterlichen P laggenwirtschaft i n N ordwestdeutschland u nd a ngrenzenden G ebieten n ach b otanischen U ntersuchungen . I n : H . B eck , B . D enecke, H . J ankuhn ( eds.), U ntersuchungen z ur e isenzeitlichen u nd f rühmittelalterlichen F lur i n M itteleuropa u nd i hrer N utzung , T i. I. A bhandlungen d er I A kademie d er W issenschaften i n G ottingen , P hil.-Hist. K lasse , 3 . F olge, 1 16 , 3 0-44.

C onry, M .J ., 1 969. M an 's r ole i n s oil p rofile m odification a nd f ormation i n I reland. D ublin : t hesis . C onry, M .J .,

1 970 .

P laggen s oils i n I reland.

P edologie 1 9, 3 21-329.

D is, A . v an a nd R ogaar, H ., 1 986. M an-made s oils i n t he P leistocene s andy l andscape. I n : G uidebook t our B : s oils a nd l andscapes a round t he R hine v alley , G ermany a nd t he N etherlands; X III C ongress o f t he I SSS . M itteilungen d er D eutschen B odenkundlichen G essellschaft 4 7, 2 11-223 .

E delman , C .H ., 1 950. S oils o f t he N etherlands . H olland P ubl . C omp .

A msterdam :

N orth

G lentworth , R ., 1 954. T he s oils o f t he c ountry r ound B anff , H untley a nd T urriff. E dinburgh : H er M ajesty 's S tationery O ffice . G roenman-van W aateringe, W ., 1 988. P alynology o f p laggen s oils o n t he V eluwe , C entral N etherlands. I n : W . G roenman v an W aateringe a nd M . R obinson ( eds.), M an-made s oils . ( This v olume), 5 5-65 .

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H ammen, T . v an d er a nd B akker, J .A ., 1 971. F ormer v egetation , l andscape a nd m an i n t he D inkel v alley. I n : T . v an d er H ammen a nd T .A . W ijmstra ( eds.), T he U pper Q uaternary o f t he D inkel v alley ( Twente , E astern O verijssel, t he N etherlands). M ededelingen R iiks G eologische D ienst , N .S., 2 2, 1 47-158.

K aland, P .E ., 1 986. T he o rigin a nd m anagement o f N orwegian c oastal h eaths a s r eflected b y p ollen a nalysis. I n : K .E . B ehre ( ed.), A nthropogenic i ndicators i n p ollen d iagrams , 1 9-36. R otterdam : B alkema . K nibbe, M ., 1 969. G leygronden i n h et d ekzandgebied v an S alland ( with s ummary: C oversand g ley s oils i n S alland, t he N etherlands). W ageningen : t hesis.

P ape, J .C ., 1 970. 2 55.

P laggen s oils i n t he N etherlands.

G eoderma 4 , 2 29-

S oil S urvey S taff, 1 975. S oil t axonomy , ab asic s ystem o f s oil c lassification f or m aking a nd i nterpreting s oil s urveys . W ashington : U .S. G ovt. P rinting O ffice. S taalduinen , C .J . e t. a l., 1 979. T he g eology o f t he N etherlands. M ededelingen R ijks G eologische D ienst 3 1, 9 -49.

W esteringh , W . v an d e , 1 970 . D e o pbouw v an e nige e ssen b ij D enekamp. L andbouwkundig t ijdschrift 8 2, 2 83-288 . W esteringh , W . v an d e , 1 973 . B odemkundig o nderzoek a an o udbouwlandgronden i n N oord-Limburg . L andbouwkundig t ijdschrift 8 5, 1 95-200 . W esteringh , W . v an d e , 1 979. D e o ntwikkeling v an h et a grarisch c ultuurlandschap i n e en z andgebied ( Winterswijk). C ultuurtechnisch t ijdschrift 1 8 , 1 99-210.

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3 .

C LIMATE A ND P LAGGEN S OILS H .A. H eidinga

A bstract O n t he s andy s oils o f C ontinental N W E urope a m ethod o f s oil e nrichment h as b een i n o peration s ince t he M iddle A ges w hich h as r esulted i n t he f ormation o f ac haracteristic t ype o f m an-made s oil: t he p laggen s oil. H ere w e a ttempt t o a ssess w hether e conomic a nd d emographic o r p hysical a nd c limatological f actors c an b e i solated w hich m ay h ave c aused o r s timulated t he i ntroduction o f p laggen m anuring s ince i ts a doption r epresents a m ajor c hange i n c urrent f armi ng p ractice. A nalysis o f t he a vailable e vidence s uggested t he c ause t o l ie i n t he e xtreme c limatological c onditions w hich m ust h ave a ffected a g reat a rea o f E urope d uring p art o f t he 1 0th c entury, i .e. t he v ery p eriod i n w hich p laggen m anuring w as a dopted o n a l arge s cale.

3 .1

I ntroduction

U ntil t he e xtensive i ntroduction o f a rtificial f ertilizers t owards t he e nd o f t he l ast c entury, t he t raditional m ethod o f r estoring f ertility t o t he p oor s andy s oils o f N W G ermany, t he N etherlands a nd N B elgium w as t o s pread a m ixture o f a nimal m anure a nd c ut h eather s ods o r o ther s uch a bsorbent, u sually h umic, m aterial o ver t he f ields. T he r esult o f t his r egular, s ometimes e ven a nnual, a ddition o f m ineral-rich b ulk m aterial w as t he c reation o f a n a nthropogenic s oil, s ometimes r eaching a d epth o f 1 .5m : t he s o-called p laggen s oil. E lsewhere i n t his v olume, v an d e W esteringh d escribes t he c haracteristics o f t his p articular t ype o f m an-made s oil, w hile G roenman-van W aateringe e xamines t he p alynological c ontent o f s ome p laggen s oils f rom t he V eluwe, a r egion i n t he c entral N etherlands. H ere, h owever, t he p roblem t o b e t ackled i s w hy t his l abour i ntensive s ystem w as i ntroduced o ver s o w ide a r egion a t a p articular p eriod i n t he M iddle A ges a nd w hy t he g eographical d istribution o f t he p laggen s oils i s, i n t he m ain, r estricted t o t he a bove-mentioned a rea o f E urope. I t s hould, h owever, b e b orn i n m ind t hat t his s ystem i s n ot e xclusive t o t he M iddle A ges, n or t o t his g eographical a rea: s od f ertilization i s a lso a ttested i ncidentally i n e arlier t imes a nd i n o ther r egions ( cf. v an d e W esteringh, t his v olume; K ossack e t a l., 1 974). F ertilization b y m eans o f s ods i s a n i ntensive m ethod o f s oil e nrichment. T his i s, f or i nstance, b rought o ut c learly i n t he r eminiscences o f H arm T iesing ( born 1 853), a f armer f rom D renthe, w ho h ad s een s od m anuring s till i n o peration i n h is y outh ( Tiesing 1 974). T he s ods w ere s tripped f rom t he h eath , f ar f rom h ome, a nd t hen h ad t o b e t ransported b ack t o t he f arm o n a c art. H ere t he s ods c ould e ither

2 1

b e u sed a s s table l itter t o r etain t he a nimal d roppings a nd u rine, o r e lse t hey m ight b e m ixed i n w ith t he d ung l ater. W hen t he m ixture w as w ell r otted i t w as b rought o ut t o t he f ields f or s preading. A lthough i t i s p ossible t hat m edieval s od m anuring d iffered i n s ome r espects, w hichever s ystem w as u sed, i t w as c ertainly j ust a s l abour i ntensive a nd w as a lso h ampered b y h igh t ransport c osts. A ccording t o S licher v an B ath ( 1963), a dditional h orses w ere r equired t o m aintain t he s ystem , w hich, i ndeed, w ould h ave b een i nconceivable w ithout t he a vailability o f h orse t raction. F urthermore , e xtensive t racts o f w aste l and f rom w hich t o s trip t he t urf w ere a lso r equired; l and w hich w as i n f act s imply d enuded. T he i nescapable c onsequences w ere s oon m anifest, b ut t he d egeneration o f u nclaimed l and i s u nlikely t o h ave p revented f armers f rom a dopting t his s ystem . E ven t oday, l ong t erm p lanning i s r are e nough i n t he a gricultural s ector. I t i s r ather t he h igh l abour a nd t ransport c osts w hich w ould f orm t he m ajor t hreshold. I n o ther w ords, t here m ust h ave b een e xtremely p ressing r easons w hy t he t raditional a gricultural r egime w as a bandoned i n f avour o f a c ostly i nnovation . A lthough t he s tep t o am ore p roductive b ut a lso a m ore l abour i ntensive f orm o f f arming i s n ot a n i nvariable c oncomitant o f d ire c risis ( cf. B oserup 1 965), i t i s l ikely t hat s od m anuring w as a dopted a s am ethod o f r ectifying a n i ncreasing s hortfall i n y ields. W hat n eeds t o b e i nvestigated, t herefore, i s w hether t he i ntroduction o f t his s ystem c oincided w ith a n a gricultural c risis i n t he r espective r egions. I n o rder t o m ake t he c ausual a ssociation b etween t he t wo c redible, b oth t he n ature a nd t he c auses o f t his c risis m ust b e i dentified a nd t he p eculiar a dvantages o f t his p articular s ystem o f f ertilization n eed t o b e d efined.

3 .2

P ush a nd p ull f actors i n t he i ntroduction o f s od m anuring

S ub-recent s od m anuring w as e specially p revalent i n c ombination w ith i ntensive r ye c ultivation , w hereby a p art o f t he f armland w ould b e f ertilized t o p ermit a n a nnual c rop ( Slicher v an B ath 1 963). T hat t he a ssociation w ith r ye c ultivation e xisted r ight f rom t he o utset i s a ssumed b y B ehre ( 1976) o n t he b asis o f p alynological a nalysis o f a p laggen s oil a t D unum ( Lower S axony). H ere , t he i nception o f p laggen f ertilization o n a n a lready w ell e stablished f ield s ystem w as c oupled w ith a n e xplosive i ncrease i n r ye p ollen . W hy, h owever, t his f orm o f m anuring s hould b e p articularly s uited t o r ye c ultivation i s n ot e xplained. I n D unum t here a re i ndications t hat i n a ddition t o t he s hift f rom b arley a nd o ats t o r ye, c ultivation a s a w hole w as i ntensified ( though t his i s n ot t o s ay t hat t he e ntire c ereal c rop w as i ncreased). T he q uestion r emains a s t o w hat p art t he m aterial w hich w as a dded t o a nimal m anure p layed i n t his p rocess. I t i s g enerally a ssumed t hat h eather s ods e tc. s erved b oth a s a m edium t o r etain a s m uch o f t he s tall d roppings a s p ossible ( van d e W esteringh 1 978-9) a nd a s a n i ndependent m easure t o i mprove t he s tructure a nd f ertility o f t he s oil i tself. H owever, r esearch c arried o ut b y P ape ( 1970) i ndicates t hat t he t urves t hemselves - w hich w ere u sually s tripped f rom r elatively i mpoverished s oils -contribute l ittle o r n othing t o t he c hemical f ertility o f t he f ields. W hat d oes d istinguish p laggen s oils f rom n on-raised s oils i n a p ositive s ense i s t he m uch i mproved r egime o f m oisture r etention a nd t he m ore f avourable c onditions f or r oot d evelopment. T he m oisture a vailable f or g rowth i s a pparently i ncreased, w hich i s o f c onsiderable i mportance o n t he h igh s andy s oils,

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w here d rought f orms a r ecurrent a gricultural p roblem . T he N etherlands S oil S urvey I nstitute c lassifies t he p ervious s andy s oils w ith d eep n atural w ater t able a s l ow g rade. D ue t o m oisture s hortage i n t he g rowing s eason t hey a re o nly m oderately s uited t o r ye a s a w inter c ereal a nd a re , i ndeed, t oo d ry f or o ats o r b arley a s s ummer c ereals. T hose a reas c overed b y p laggen s oils, w hich a re m uch l ess s usceptible t o d rought , a re h owever, m ore f avourably a ssessed. I n t his c ontext i t s hould b e s tressed t hat o nly s oils a t l east 5 0cm d eep a re c lassified a s p laggen s oils ( enkeerdgronden). R aising t he l evel o f t he f ields w ith s oil b rought f rom e lsewhere m ight i n f act c onfer s till o ther a dvantages . E ven w aterlogged s oils a nd s oils w ith p oor c hemical o r p hysical p roperties m ay b e p repared f or c ultivation i n t his m anner . A lthough l arge a reas o f p oor s oils w ere i n f act t aken i nto c ultivation b y t his p rocess, m ere i ncrease i n a rable a rea c annot h ave b een t he p rimary p urpose o f t he i ntroduction o f p laggen m anuring . T he p laggen s oils o n d amp g round a nd t he e xtremely p oor h igh s ands a re o f l ater d ate t han t hose o n t he m oderately f ertile d ry s ands ( in p articular t he B rown P odzolic s oils) -in o ther w ords, t hose s oils w hich h ad a lready b een u nder c ultivation f or l ong p eriods o f t ime ( Pape 1 970 ; v an d e W esteringh t his v olume; H eidinga 1 984a). I f p laggen m anuring w as p ractised i n o rder t o o btain a m aximum r eturn o n a nimal m anure , i t m ust h ave b een d one t o i ncrease y ield p er a gricultural u nit . T he o ther a lternative i s t hat t he g round m ay h ave b een e xhausted a nd e xtra m anuring w as r equired t o r estore f ertility t o t he o riginal l evel. I n t his c ase, s oil e xhaustion m ust h ave m anifested i tself a cross t he w hole e xtent o f t he N G erman a nd D utch s andy s oils w ithin t he s pace o f ac entury o r t wo , w hich i s o nly c onceivable i f e xternal f actors a re e nrolled a s t he c ause . T he a gricultural l and w hich i n t he M iddle A ges w as e nriched b y p laggen m anuring h ad i n p art b een i n u se s ince t he I ron A ge , w hile o ther a reas w ere o nly c leared i n t he c ourse o f t he M iddle A ges , t hus m aking a ' time b omb ' e xplanation ( predictable e xhaustion i n Xn umber o f y ears) r ather l ess l ikely. I f, o n t he c ontrary, p laggen m anuring w as p ractised i n o rder t o i mprove t he m oisture b alance o f t he s oil, i t w ould r ather s uggest a n a ttempt t o a void h arvest f ailure , i .e. t he m aintenance o f r egular p roduction . I n t his c ase , t he u se o f s ods c an o nly h ave b een e ffective i n t he s hort t erm i f f airly l arge q uantities w ere s pread a t t he o utset. F urthermore , t here i s n o r eason t o c ontinue a dding s ods o nce a c ertain d epth o n t he f ield h as b een a chieved . T he r easons f or m aintaining a p articular s ystem m ay, o n t he o ther h and, d iffer f rom t hose w hich l ed t o t he a doption o f t hat s ystem i n t he f irst p lace , q uite a part f rom t he p ossibility t hat a o nce s uccessful m ethod w as s imply c ontinued w ithout a ny p articular a wareness o f i ts u sefulness. I f i t i s a ccepted t hat p laggen m anuring w as o riginally a dopted i n o rder t o c ounter t he e ffects o f d rought, t hen t he r ainfall s hortage m ust h ave b een o f a s erious n ature. T he o dd d ry s ummer c an h ardly h ave b een a n a dequate r eason t o a dopt s uch a c ostly s ystem . W hether i t w as c limatic c hanges o r e lse d emographic a nd e conomic c onditions w hich a re t o b e l inked t o t he i ntroduction o f p laggen m anuring c an o nly b e a dequately a ssessed i f t he d ate w hen t he s ystem f irst c ame i nto r egular u se c an b e e stablished. D ating i ndividual p laggen s oils i s n ot e asy, s ince o lder , p loughed u p a rchaeological

2 3

r elics a re o ften i ncorporated i n t hem a nd l ater m aterial h as a lso b een t ransported d ownwards . T he s ame i s o f c ourse t rue f or t he o rganic m aterials w hich m ay b e u sed f or r adiocarbon a ssay. B ecause o f t he b ackground ' noise ', e specially o f t he e arlier m aterial, t hese s oils o ften t end t o b e d ated t oo e arly. A ccording t o B ehre ( 1976), w ho h as a ssessed t he e vidence f rom N G ermany a nd t he N etherlands, t here i s n o s upport f or a ny d ate p rior t o t he 1 0th c entury. F or D unum , h e w as a ble t o d ate t he f irst p laggen m anuring w ith a f air d egree o f c ertainty t o t he m iddle o f t he 1 0th c entury o n a c ombination o f a rchaeological , p alynological a nd r adiocarbon e vidence. I n K ootwijk t oo, t here a re i ndications f or t he a doption o f t his m ethod o f f ertilization i n t his s ame p eriod ( see b elow). S ince i t w ould b e f ar f etched t o r egard t hese t wo r elatively w ell s tudied s ites a s c hance e xceptions, i t d oes s eem l ikely t hat a d ate i n t he 1 0th c entury f or t he i nception o f p laggen m anuring o n a n e xtensive s cale c an b e a ccepted. T he d ate i n i tself l imits t he n umber o f p ossible c auses f or t his a gricultural r evolution . T hus i t i s e xtremely u nlikely t hat f ood s hortages a s a r esult o f o ver p opulation c ould h ave l ed t o s uch d rastic c hanges. T here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t hat t he c ourse o f p opulation d ensity i n t he N etherlands a nd N W G ermany d iffered i n a ny m arked d egree f rom t he g eneral E uropean t rend, i .e . g rowth b etween c a . 6 00-850 , s tagnation b etween c a . 8 50-1050 a nd s pectacular g rowth b etween c a . 1 050-1300 ( cf. S licher v an B ath 1 963). T here c an b e n o q uestion o f a s tress s ituation i n t he 1 0th c entury . F urthermore, u ntil w ell i nto t he 1 2th c entury t here w as a mple v acant l and o pen t o c learance . O nly f rom t he 1 3th c entury a re t here h ints t hat g reater c ontrol w as e xercised o ver w aste l and o n t he s andy s oils, a s w itnessed b y s tringent r egulat ions c oncerning t he u se o f t his l and. N either c an t he p roduction o f s urpluses f or t he n on-agricultural p opulation h ave b een o f s ignificant i mportance p rior t o t he 1 3th c entury . T here w ere s till s carcely a ny t owns a nd e ven t hen, t hese w ere f or t he m ost p art e ntirely d ependent o n t he i mmediate n eighbourhood f or s upplies. T he c onsiderable i ncrease i n f eudal d ues a nd o ther b urdens, w hich r educed t he a grarian p opulation t o a s ervile a nd h opeless c ondition i n t he 9 th a nd 1 0th c entury w ould, a ccording t o S licher v an B ath ( 1963) i n f act h ave r emoved a ny s timulus t o i ncreased e ffort a nd c apital i nvestment a t t his t ime. M easures i ntended t o i ncrease p roduction c ould, o f c ourse, h ave b een i mposed o n t he p easantry f rom a bove. T his i s, f or e xample , w hat i s s uggested i n t he c ase o f D unum , w here p laggen m anuring w as i ntroduced a t t he s ame t ime a s ar e-allotment o f t he s ettlement w as c arried o ut ( Behre 1 976). O n t he w hole, h owever , t he o wnership o f l arge e states w as p oorly d eveloped i n t he a reas w here t urf m anuring f ound f avour , s o t hat s uch c ompulsory m easures m ust h ave r emained e xceptional. T he o nly a nomaly w hich I h ave b een a ble t o i solate i n t he 1 0th c entury w hich m ight h ave s timulated c hange i n t he a gricultural s ystem i s a p eriod o f c limatic c hange. U sually, i t i s d amp a nd c old w hich i s t he c ause o f p oor h arvests i n W E urope, b ut i n t his c ase, a p eriod o f a bnormal a ridity i s c oncerned. D rought w ill c ause m ajor d isruption t o a rable f arming i n a reas w hich a re b y n ature a lready d ry. T his w as t he s ituation a t K ootwijk ( prov . G elderland, N etherlands) w here t he e xcavat ions c arried o ut b y t he A lbert E gges v an G iffen I nstitute f or P re-and P rotohistory o f t he U niversity o f A msterdam h ave n ot o nly u ncovered t he c onsequences o f t hese c onditions, b ut h ave a lso p rovided e vidence a s t o t he n ature o f t he c limate a t t his t ime.

2 4

3 .3

D rought a nd c risis a t K ootwijk i n t he 1 0th c entury

K ootwijk l ies i n t he c entral p art o f t he V eluwe, a r egion w hich f or t he m ost p art i s f ormed o f h igh , d ry s ands, a pproximately 1 /5th o f w hich i s c overed b y s ub-recent d rift s ands , w hich f orm w hat i s p robably t he l argest ' desert ' o f W E urope. T races o f s ettlement d ating f rom t he N eolithic t o c a . 150 A D h ave b een f ound i n t he l argest o f t he s tilla ctive d rift s ands o f t he r egion , t he K ootwijkerzand, a l ittle t o t he s outh o f t he v illage o f t he s ame n ame ( fig . 3 .1 a , b ). E xcavations c arried o ut b etween 1 971 a nd 1 981 w ere l argely c oncerned w ith t he s ettlements f rom t he R oman p eriod o nwards ( see H eidinga 1 984a). I t i s c lear t hat f rom t he I ron A ge a t l east, a rable f arming w as r estricted t o a s mall d eliberately s elected a rea , w hich i s d istinguished f rom t he s urrounding r egion b y t he p resence o f ar elatively f ertile s oil ( Brown P odzolic s oils). T he p eriodically s hifting s ettlements w hich w ere t he d irect a ntecedents o f m odern K ootwijk w ere l ocated o n t he e dges o f t his f ertile i sland. I n t he 8 th c entury s ettlement w as c oncentrated a round a p ool w hich w as a v ital s ource o f w ater f or m an a nd b east. T his s ettlement, w hich h ad g rown t o av illage o f m ore t han 2 0 f arms i n t he 9 th c entury, d isintegrated i n t he 1 0th c entury i nto s maller c entres s cattered e lsewhere t hroughout t he t erritory . A nalysis h as s hown t hat b arley, r ye a nd o ats w ere t he m ajor c rops i n t he h eyday o f t he s ettlem ent ( Heidinga 1 984a ; G roenman-van W aateringe a nd v an W ijngaardenB akker, f orthcoming). F ertilization b y m eans o f t urves w as n ot y et p ractised. T he 1 0th c entury s aw s everal s ignificant d evelopments. I n t he f irst p lace , t he p ool b egan t o d ry o ut. T hen , w ind b lown s and b egan t o d rift i n o ver t he f ields , e ventually, s oon a fter 1 000 , f rustrating e very a ttempt a t a rable c ultivation. T ogether, t hese f actors w ere r esponsible f or t he f light o f t he v illagers t o o ther p arts o f t he t erritory, w here , h owever, s afety w as i n t he e nd o nly t o b e f ound o n t he s ite o f t he p resent d ay v illage o f K ootwijk a nd i n t he l ow l ying w estern s ector o f t he a rea . B efore t he g eneral a bandonment, y et a nother c hange c an b e r ecorded : t he f ormation o f t he f irst m an-made s oils. T hese l ast f ields -though g enerally p oor i n p ollen - have p roduced e vidence s olely f or r ye c ultivation ( Groenman-van W aateringe t his v olume). I t i s s ignificant t hat a ll t hese d evelopments c an b e l inked t o c limatic e xtremes, t he n ature a nd e xtent o f w hich b ecame c lear w hen t he h ydrology o f t he p ool w as a nalyzed. T he p ool i n q uestion s eems t o h ave a ccumulated i n ad epression i n t he t errain w here r ain w ater c ollected o n a n i mpermeable b ank c a. 7 51 50cm b elow t he p resent s urface . T he ' true ' w ater t able o ccurs a t a s till g reater d epth . T he w ater r egime o f t he p ool w as , t herefore e ntirely d ependent o n t he b alance b etween t he r ainfall o n t he o ne h and a nd e vaporation , s eepage a nd c onsumption o n t he o ther. T he u pper e dges o f t he d epression i n w hich t he r ain w ater a ccumulated h ad a lways b een d ry, a nd i t w as i n t his p art t hat w ells w ere s unk a s e arly a s t he 9 th c entury i n o rder t o o btain c lean d rinking w ater. E very t ime t hat t he w ater l evel r eceded, n ew w ells w ould b e s unk a t al ower l evel, u ntil e ventually t he c entre o f t he b y t hen e ntirely d ried o ut p ool w as r eached. S ome o f t he w ells c ould b e d ated a rchaeologically a nd t aken w ith o ther e vidence , i n p articular t he d ifferent l evels f rom w hich t hey w ere d ug , ar elatively d etailed p icture o f t he f luctuation o f t he w ater t able c ould b e f ormed.

2 5

F ig. 3 .1

evealed T he l ocation o f t he R oman a nd m edieval settlements r 1-12th c entury; b y e xcavation i n t he K ootwijkerzand 1 : 1 : 6 -7th c entury; 2 : 8 -10th c entury; 3 : 2 -3rd c entury; 4 ool i s i ndicated b y 5 : 7 th c entury. T he l ocation o f t he p t he a rrow . D rawing : I PP .

2 6

P late 3 .1

T he c entral a rea o f t he f ormal p ool, w ith t he l atest w ell ( a h ollowed t reetrunk) a nd a rable l and ( the d ark l ayer) f rom t he 1 0th c entury A D , s ealed b y b lown s and. P hoto: I PP.

2 7

A s i t w as p ossible t o e stimate t he a mount o f w ater c onsumed a nd i t c ould a lso b e s hown t hat s eepage f rom t he p ool s ides w as n egligible , t he v ariable r esponsible f or t he u ltimate d rying o ut o f t he p ool c ould b e i dentified b y ap rocess o f e limination. T he c ause c an b e a ttributed t o c limatic f actors - through e ither d ecreasing r ainfall a nd/or i ncreased e vaporation . F igure 3 .2 c harts t he c alculated a nnual r ainf all b etween c a. 7 00 a nd 1 000 ( curve A : t he r ate o f p resent c limatic c onditions i s a ccepted; c urve B : t he d eviation f rom t he p resent r ates i s a ttributed f or 5 0% t o a n i ncrease i n t he r ate o f e vaporation). T he t rue v alues f or r ainfall w ould p robably h ave l ain s omewhere b etween t he t wo c urves. I t i s l ikely t hat a ny s hortage i n r ainfall w ill a lso b e a ccompanied b y i ncreased e vaporation , p articularly i n s ummer. T he c onclusion m ust b e t hat d uring s ome o f t he 1 0th c entury , a nd p ossibly e ven l asting i nto t he 1 1th c entury, i t w as d rier t han h as e ver b een t he c ase s ince r eliable w eather r ecords h ave b een k ept f or a ny p eriod o f t ime i n N W E urope. T he c limate o ver a l arge a rea o f E urope m ust h ave h ad a c ontinental c haracter w ith c old d ry w inters a nd w arm d ry s ummers. L amb ( 1982) r eaches a s imilar c onclusion b y w ay o f v arious m ethods o f r esearch , i ncluding t he y ear r ing f requency o f t he S pessart o aks, w hich d isplay e xtreme s tagnation i n g rowth b etween c . 9 10 a nd 9 30 a nd a gain a fter 9 90 . T he c onsequences f or a rable f arming o n t he h igh s ands , w here t he r isk o f c rop f ailure d ue t o d rought, e ven i n n ormal c ircumstances , w as a lready g reat, i s e asy t o p redict : p oor y ields o f r ye a nd a c omplete d isaster a s f ar a s t he s ummer c ereals w ere c oncerned. T he p roblem m ust h ave b een c ompounded b y t he l asting c haracter o f t he d rought. L ogically i t m ight b e a ssumed t hat a s olution w ould b e s ought i n a s tructural a daptation s trategy. I n t his c ontext, t he m arked d ominance o f r ye w hich w as n oted a t D unum a nd - if l ess o bviously, a t K ootwijk -from t he m iddle o f t he 1 0th c entury i s s ignificant. R ye i s a ble t o w ithstand p eriods o f d rought a nd a lso, a s i t i s a n a utumn s own c rop , i t f orms a p rotective c over f or f ields a t r isk o f b eing b lown o ut. T he r isk o f w ind e rosion i s g reatest d uring d ry s pring w eather w hen t he f ields a re f allow o r h ave j ust b een s own w ith s ummer c ereals . A c over o f y oung w inter c ereals d iminishes t his p articular h azard ( see S teckhan 1 950). W ind e rosion c an b e f urther l imited b y r educing t he p eriod o f f allow . R ye c ultivation a nd i ntensification a re , t herefore, o bvious m ethods o f c ombating d rought a nd t he t hreat o f w ind e rosion . T he s ame i s t rue o f s od f ertilization , w hich , i ndeed, i ncreases t he s oil's m oisture r etention c apacity. T he p eriod i n w hich t his m ethod o f f ertilization w as f irst s ystematically u tilized w as o ne o f e xceptional a ridity. C onversely, n o o ther f actors e merge w hich m ight h ave s timulated s uch f ar r eaching a daptations o f e xisting f arming p ractices a nd i t i s , c onsequently, t empting t o t hink i n t erms o f a c ausual l ink . R ecurrent e xperience o f d rought p erhaps l ed t o t he r ealization t hat a t hicker p lough s oil d iminished t he l ikelihood o f c rop f ailure . T his i n t urn m ay h ave l ed t o t he i dea o f a ctually i ncreasing t he t hickness o f t he h umic c over b y m eans o f s oil b rought i n f rom e lsewhere . T his w as o f c ourse m ost e fficient w hen c ombined w ith t he s preading o f d ung. T he r eason f or t he c ontinuance o f t he p ractice f or t he n ext 9 00 y ears , h owever, l ies i n t he g radual a ppreciation o f o ther a dvantages o f t he s ystem .

w hich

I n K ootwijk t hings h appened s lightly d ifferently . T he p lough s oil I r egard a s am an-made s oil w as r aised o n a s ubsoil o f b lown

2 8

P REC IP ITAT ION I N CM

P RO

Y EAR

7 6 ‚.

/ 7 1

_ B

7 0 -

6 0-

p hase

1

p hase 2

1

p hase 3

1

p hase 4 ) L O G

7 00 17 50A0

F ig . 3 .2

LO

QL O

NJ0

N -

C ) C)

c " 0 , 1rlm )c

(N

Q

Wa te r leve l

' )+ NAP i n m .

9 50 1000 A D

E stimated a nnual p recipitation b etween c a . 7 00 a nd 1 000 A D . A : m inimum ( evaporation r ate a s a t p resent); B : m aximum ( symmetrically i ncreased e vaporation); C : p resent d ay q uantity. D rawing : I PP .

2 9

— 3 60 0

3 500 m + NAP

Aan „ . —A1 —A2 0 — 3 4. 0

B22 B3

F ig. 3 .3

S ection t hrough m an-made a gricultural l ayers ( Aan) f rom t he 1 0th c entury A D i n t he K ootwijkerzand. B oth l ayers l ay o n a nd a re b lown o ver b y d rift s and. D rawing : I PP .

3 0

s and. P resumably t his i s p rimarily a n a ttempt t o r estore t he e arlier c onditions. F igure 3 .3 s hows a h umic p lough s oil o f t he n ormal t hickn ess ( 10-15cm) r aised o n t op o f al ayer o f b lown s and w hich c an o nly h ave b een d eposited s hortly b efore . T his a rable l ayer w as i n t urn c overed b y d rifting s and. O n t his s and t oo, a n ew , m oderately h umic p lough s oil w as l aid w hich m ust o riginally h ave a ttained a d epth o f s ome 4 0cm ( the t op h as b een b lown o ut i n m any p laces). T his d epth i s p artially e xplicable i n t erms o f p eriodic s and d rifting , b ut, i n m y o pinion , i t a lso p oints t o h uman a gency i n a n a ttempt t o c ollect a s m uch h umic s oil a s p ossible o n t he f ield. T he a rtificial n ature o f t his p lough s oil i s c alled i nto q uestion b y G roenman-van W aateringe ( this v olume) a nd i ndeed m any o f t he c haracteristic p roperties o f a c lassic p laggen s oil a re a bsent. T his m ay b e d ue t o t he n ature o f t he m aterial u sed t o r aise t he f ield. T he s econd p lough s oil w as c ertainly n ot c omposed o f h eather s ods a nd t he g eneral i mpression i s r ather t hat h umic s oil f rom ( abandoned) f ields i n t he n eighbourhood h ad b een c ollected. I t d oes , n evertheless , s eem t o m e t hat i t i s h ighly u nlikely t hat t he p rocess o f s oil f ormation c ould b e s o f ar a dvanced i n t he d rift s ands a fter o nly a c ouple o f d ecades t o a ccount f or e ither t he h umic n ature o f t he l ower s oil o r t he t hickness o f t he u pper p lough s oil. N either c ould t hey r esult f rom n ormal m anuring p ractices. S elective n atural d eposition o f t he h umic p articles a lone i n t his p articular a rea s eems i nherently u nlikely.

3 .4

C onclusion a nd s ome f inal c omments

H owever d ubious t he s tatus o f t he 1 0th c entury p lough s oil b eneath t he d rift s ands a t K ootwijk a s a g enuine p laggen s oil m ay b e , i t i s a t a ny r ate c ertain t hat t his m ethod o f s oil e nrichment b egan t o b e u sed e lsewhere i n t his p eriod. T hat c limatological c onditions s timulated i ts a doption o n al arge s cale c annot b e p roved, b ut , c onsidering t he e vidence a vailable f or t he 1 0th c entury, i t i s a p ossibility w hich i s c ertainly w orth c onsideration . T he e xplanatory m odel p roposed a lso a ccounts f or t he r elationship b etween s od f ertilization , r ye c ultivat ion a nd i ntensification . O ne q uestion r emains u nsolved: w hy w ere p laggen s oils n ot f avoured i n o ther d rought s ensitive a reas o f E urope w hich w ere s ubject t o t he s ame c limatological c onditions? A lthough a n a nswer i s n ot e asy t o f ind, t he s ignificance o f a nother c haracteristic f eature o f m edieval a rable c ultivation s hould n ot b e u nderrated i n t his c ontext. T his i s t he r idge-and-furrow w hich c an s till b e i dentified o ver g reat t racts o f W estern a nd C entral E urope. T he s pecial w ay o f p loughing r esults i n t he a ccumulation o f h umic s oil i n l ong, n arrow b eds, d omed i n c ross s ection . S uch b eds p ossess b etter m oisture r etent ion p roperties t han a f lat p loughed f ield. T hat r idge-and-furrow a nd p laggen s oils s hould b e r egarded a s v ariants o f o ne a nd t he s ame s ystem i s s omething w hich a t t his s tage o f r esearch I w ould o ffer m erely a s a s uggestion .

N ote T his a rticle i s a s ummary o f H eidinga 1 984a I II, 2 a nd a lso H eidinga 1 984b.

3 1

3 .

S ee

A cknowledgements T hanks a re d ue t o D rs . C arol v an D riel-Murrey f or t ranslating t ext i nto E nglish , A ndre N uman f or t he d rawings, F red G ijbels f or p hotograph , a nd P rofessor W illy G roenman-van W aateringe f or d iscussions o n t his s ubject.

3 2

t he t he t he

R eferences B ehre, K .E ., 1 976. B eginn u nd F orm d er P laggenwirtschaft i n N ordwestdeutschland n ach p ollenanalytischen U ntersuchungen i n O stfriesland. N eue A usgrabungen u nd F orschungen i n N iedersachsen 1 0, 1 97-224. B oserup, E ., 1 965. T he c onditions o f a gricultural g rowth . A llen a nd U nwin .

L ondon :

G roenman-van W aateringe, W . a nd W ijngaarden-Bakker, L .H . v an , ( eds.), i n p ress. T he e cology o f e arly m edieval K ootwiik . C ingula.

H eidinga , H .A ., 1 984a . D e V eluwe i n d e v roege m iddeleeuwen . A specten v an d e n ederzettingsarcheologie v an K ootwijk e n z ijn b uren . P h .D . t hesis , U niv. o f A msterdam . ( An e dition i n E nglish i s f orthc oming). H eidinga, H .A ., 1 984b . I ndications o f s evere d rought d uring t he 1 0th c entury A D f rom a n i nland d une a rea i n t he C entral N etherlands. G eologie e n M ijnbouw 6 3, 2 41-248.

K ossack , G ., H arck , O . a nd R eichstein , J ., 1 974. Z ehn J ahre S iedlungsf orschung i n A rchsum a uf S ylt. B ericht d er R ömisch-Germanischen K ommission 5 5, 2 61-428.

L amb, H .H ., 1 982. C limate , h istory a nd t he m odern w orld. N ew Y ork: M ethuen.

P ape, J .C ., 1 970. 2 55.

P laggen s oils i n t he N etherlands.

L ondon a nd

G eoderma 4 , 2 29-

S licher v an B ath , B .H ., 1 963. T he a grarian h istory o f W estern E urope A D 5 00-1850. L ondon : A rnold. S teckhan, B odenabtrag d urch W ind i n N iedersachsen -eine G efahr f ur d ie L andeskultur. N eues A rchiv f ür N iedersachsen 1 7, 3 13-335 .

T iesing, H ., 1 974. O ver l andbouw e n v olksleven i n D renthe . b y C .H . E delman . 2 nd e d. A ssen : v an G orcum .

2v ol. E d.

W esteringh , W . v an d e, 1 978-1979. D e o ntwikkeling v an e en a grarisch c ultuurlandschap i n e en z andgebied ( Winterswijk). C ultuurtechnisch T ijdschrift 1 8 , 1 99-210 .

3 3

4 .

P OLLEN F ROM P LAGGEN S OILS I N T HE P ROVINCE O F N ORTH B RABANT , T HE N ETHERLANDS C .C . B akels

A bstract P laggen s oils a re m an-made a rable s oils . T hey a re c haracterized b y t hick A h orizons, w hich o we t heir t hickness t o a n a ge-long p ractice o f u sing m anure c ontaining a f air a mount o f m ineral m atter. P laggen s oils a bound i n p ollen, b ut t he p ollen s pectra a re d ifficult t o i nterpret. T he r eason f or t his i s t hat t he p ollen s ources a re i nterwoven t o ah igh d egree. I t i s, h owever, p ossible t o t race s ome o f t he o rigins o f t he m atter o f w hich t he m anure i s c omposed a nd t o d istinguish s ome o f t he c rops g rown . T he d ominance o f r ye c ultivation d uring t he M iddle A ges a nd l ater h istoric p eriods s tands o ut c learly.

4 .1

I ntroduction

P laggen s oils a re a rable s oils w ith a n u nusually t hick A h orizon ( Pape 1 970). T hey a re m an-made . T he t hick A h orizon i s t he r esult o f as pecial w ay o f p reparing m anure. T o o btain a s m uch m anure a s p ossible, t he f armer k eeps h is a nimals o n a b edding c omposed m ainly o f t urves c ut f rom e ither h eath o r g rassl and. T o t his c lean s and, f allen l eaves c ollected f rom t he f orest a nd d ry d itches, a nd e ven s traw -if n ot t oo e xpensive -may b e a dded. T he f arm a nimals d rench t his m atter w ith t heir d roppings. T hey a re k ept i n t he s tables f or a s l ong a s p ossible, a t l east d uring t he n ight. T he m ixture o f b edding a nd d roppings c an b ecome q uite t hick i n t he c ourse o f t ime. T herefore, t he f loor o f t he s tables i s d eepened w ith r espect t o t he f loor o f t he l iving q uarters. O nce o r t wice a y ear t he m anure i s r emoved. L ater o n l oamy e arth o r m ore t urves m ay b e m ixed i n t o i ncrease t he a mount o f m atter. T his w ay o f p reparing m anure i s b est k nown f rom t he s andy s oils i n N W E urope. T he p roduct w as u sed f or f ertilizing p oor a rable l and. T he p ractice w as c ommon f rom t he M iddle A ges u p t ill t he b eginning o f t he 2 0th c entury. B ecause t he m anure c ontains a f air a mount o f m ineral m atter, w hich w ill n ever d ecay, t he s urface o f t he f ields w as r aised. N owadays t hese f ields f orm l ow m ounds i n t he l andscape. T he s oils i n q uestion a re c alled p laggen s oils a fter t he G erman w ord f or t urves: P laggen . T he c olour o f t hese s oils v aries f rom b lack t o b rown. P laggen s oils a bound i n p ollen. C ontrary t o w hat o ne w ould e xpect t o e ncounter i n d ry s andy s oils, w hich h ave, m oreover, b een p loughed r epeatedly, t he p ollen g rains a re b eautifully p reserved. T he r eason

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T he p laggen s oil a rea i n n orthwestern E urope ( shaded) a nd t he l ocation o f t he s ites m entioned i n t he t ext. D rawing: I PL . 1 . B orkel e n S chaft. 2 . S on e n B reugel. 3 . O ss.

3 6

w hy i s n ot q uite c lear b ut o ne p oint m ay b e t hat t he p H i s l ess t han 5 . T he p H f rom t he p laggen s oils i nvestigated f or t his p aper r anges f rom 3 .6 t o 4 .3. O ut o f c uriosity Ii nvestigated t he p ollen c ontent o f t hree p laggen s oils i n t he D utch p rovince o f N orth B rabant. T heir l ocation w ithin t he N W E uropean p laggen s oil a rea i s i ndicated i n f ig 4 .1. T he s amples w ere c ollected f rom t he w alls o f t renches.

4 .2

T he p ollen d iagrams

T he s lides w ere p repared a s u sual w hen h andling m ineral m atter. T he o nly d ifficulty e ncountered w hile d rawing t he d iagrams w as s electi ng a p ollen s um . T here i s n o c lear d ifference b etween l ocal a nd r egional p ollen . T he p ollen i n t he p laggen s oil h as a t l east t hree m ain s ources. T he f irst i s t he u sual p ollen r ain w hich o riginates i n t he n ear o r m ore d istant s urroundings. T he s econd i s t he c rop g rown o n t he f ield t ogether w ith i ts f ield w eeds. T he t hird s ource i s t he m anure a nd t his i s am ost c omplicated s ource. I t c omprises p ollen f rom t he b edding, i .e. t urves, f allen l eaves, s traw, b ut i t a lso c ontains p ollen f rom t he d roppings, i .e. f rom t he f ood c onsumed b y t he s tabled a nimals. S ome o f t his i s i llustrated i n f ig. 4 .2. T he a ctual v egetat ion c ontributes t o t he p ollen r ecord i n m ore t han o ne w ay. I t i s t herefore i mpossible t o s elect a p ollen s um , w ith t he e xception o f t he t otal p ollen s um . T he t hree d iagrams w hich f ollow w ere d rawn o n t he b asis o f t his s um .

4 .2.1

B orkel e n S chaft

T he p laggen s oil f rom B orkel e n S chaft i s a s o-called b lack p laggen s oil. I t s hows t wo h orizons: a n A anp ( anthropogenic A , p loughed), w hich i s t he r ecent a nd s ubrecent p loughed h orizon, a nd a n A an2 b eneath . T he p laggen s oil r ests o n ax ero-podzol t hat d eveloped i n c oversand. S amples w ere t aken f rom b oth t he o riginal s oil p rofile a nd t he a nthropogenic s oil. T he d iagram i s s hown i n f ig. 4 .3. S pecies n ot m entioned a re t o b e f ound i n T able 4 .1. T he o riginal C a nd B C h orizons d o n ot c ontain p ollen, b ut t he B a nd A h orizons d o. T hey a re c haracterized b y h igh v alues f or E ricales ( mainly C alluna), G ramineae, R umex a cetosella a nd s ome P otentilla. T his a ssemblage m ust h ave b elonged t o t he o riginal v egetation, w hich s eems t o h ave b een a h eath . T his i s i n a greement w ith t he p resence o f a x ero-podzol. T he h igh v alues o f R umex a cetosella i mply t hat t his h eath w as d isturbed t o s ome e xtent. T rees p lay n o r ole, e ven t hough t heir p ollen p ercentages a re t he h ighest o f t he w hole d iagram h ere. T he c ountry w as o pen , a t l east i n t he a rea o f s ampling. I t i s, o f c ourse, v ery d ifficult t o a ssess t he e xtent o f f orest i n m ore d istant a reas f rom t his t ype o f s ample. T he B h orizon a lready s hows p ollen t ypes w hich b elong t o c ultivated s pecies . T hese c ould h ave m ade t heir w ay d own f rom t he f irst f ields a bove i n a n atural w ay, b ut t his i s n ot t he o nly p ossibility. T he t renches s howed n eat r ows o f s pade-marks a t t he b ase o f t he p laggen s oil. T he p ollen g rains m ay h ave b een d ug d own,

3 7

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S ome o f t he p ossible w ays i n w hich p ollen m ay f ind i ts w ay t o t he a rable l and . Ah eap o f t urves a nd l eaves n ext t o t he f arm h ouse a waits u se a s b edding i n t he s table . N ot s hown a re t he a nimals a dding m atter b y m eans o f t heir d roppings. T he d roppings c ontain p ollen t aken i n w ith t he f ood b rowsed o utside o r e aten w ith t he f odder d istributed i n t he s table. T he r esulting m anure i s c arted o nto t he l and w here i t a dds p ollen t o t he l ocal a nd r egional p ollen r ain . D rawing : I PL .

3 8

a lthough t hese s pade-marks w ere a voided d uring s ampling. A nyhow, r epresent t he f irst c rops d ocumented b y p ollen : H ordeum ( listed C erealia) w ith s ome S ecale .

t hey u nder

T he A an h orizon i tself m ust h ave b een d isturbed o ver a nd o ver a gain b y p loughing. N evertheless, t he p ollen c urves a re n ot m erely s traight l ines. T here i s a s triking d ifference b etween t he A an2 a nd A anp h orizons, w hich c an b e e xplained b y a ssuming t hat s ome o f t he p ollen i n t he A anp h orizon w as p loughed i nto t he s oil w hilst a lmost n o n ew m ineral m atter w as a dded. T he p ollen c ontent o f t his l ayer i s t herefore a m ixture o f p ollen w hich i s t he r esult o f p laggen m anuring a nd p ollen f rom a nother, l ater m ethod o f f ertilization w ithout o r a lmost w ithout t his k ind o f m anure. F rom t his p oint o f v iew t he A an2 z one r epresents t he o riginal p ollen a ssemblage i n a p laggen s oil b etter. O ne o f t he m ain s ources o f t urves m ust h ave b een t he h eath. E ricales ( Calluna w ith a l ittle E rica) a mount t o n o l ess t han 3 0% . A s econd s ource m ight h ave b een g rassland, b ut t he G ramineae p ollen c ould a lso h ave c ome f rom M olinia g rowing o n t he h eath . T he t hird p lant w ith ar ather h igh p ercentage i s R umex a cetosella . T his s heep s orrel m ight h ave g rown o n d isturbed p atches o n t he h eath, b ut a nother p ossibility i s t hat i t w as a f ield w eed. A s econd c ategory o f b edding i s r epresented b y t he M onoletae s pores. T heir o rigin l ies e ither i n t he u se o f m atter c ollected i n f orests o r d ry d itches, o r i n t he u se o f f ern l eaves. T he p ercentage i s r ather l ow , a nd s o a re t he p ercentages o f t ree a nd s hrub p ollen w hich w e w ould e xpect t o f ind i f f allen l eaves w ere i ndeed u sed. T he s ource w as p erhaps n ot v ery i mportant, o r, a nother p ossibility, t he p ollen c ontent o f t he l eaf-mould w as m eagre. A ccording t o e xperiments p erformed b y H avinga ( 1984), p ollen i n l eaf-mould d ecays w ithin t welve m onths. A t hird c ategory o f b edding w hich t urns u p i n t he m anure i s S phagnum p eat. I t i s k nown t hat d ried, c rumbled p eat w as a lso b rought i nto t he s tables. T he c rop p lants a re r epresented b y r ye ( Secale), o ther C erealia ( barley w ith a f ew o ats), b uckwheat ( Fagopyrum) a nd s purrey ( Spergula a rvensis). S purrey w as a n i mportant c rop p lant. I t w as s own a s f odder a nd h ad t he r eputation o f b eing e specially g ood f or d airy c attle. O f c ourse i t i s a lso a f ield w eed. I n a ddition t o t he p lants a lready m entioned, t he A anp a lso s hows m aize ( Zea) a nd h emp ( Cannabis). T here i s a c lear i ncrease i n b uckw heat a nd i n t wo o ther p ollen t ypes w hich m ight r epresent c rops: C ruciferae ( rape-seed a nd t he l ike) a nd C henopodiaceae ( beets). T hese t wo m ay h ave b een w eeds, b ut i n t hat c ase t he C henopodiaceae w ould s uggest, o n e cological g rounds, t he c ultivation o f r oot c rops. Q uite i nteresting i s t he b ehaviour o f t he c ornflower ( Centaurea c yanus). I t i s o ften s tated t hat c ornflower i s a lways f ound t ogether w ith r ye. H ere t his i s a pparently n ot t he c ase. I t c omes l ater i n t he p ollen r ecord.

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b lanket w as t hin o r a bsent t omb b uilding m aterial c ould b e c ollected i n t he o utwashed s tonefields b y T RB m an . F ig . 1 0 .4 s hows t he p lace o f t he s tonefields, b ut n ot w here t he s and c over m ust h ave h idden e ven t he s tones t hat w ere o ver l m t hick . I t s hould a lso b e p ointed o ut t hat t he h unebeds a re a lways l ocated o n d ry s and, u sually c oversand o f o ver 1 .2m t hickness. T he b oulders w ould t herefore h ave b een h auled s ome d istance. O f t he 5 4 h unebeds s till i n e xistence ( one w as d iscovered i n 1 982) a nd t he k nown s ites o f 2 4 d estroyed o nes i n t he N etherlands, r espectively 5 3 a nd 2 1 l ie o n t he D renthe P lateau ( fig . 1 0.2). 3

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O nly t he r ecent 1 :50 ,000 g eological a nd s oil m ap s heets a re u sed h ere.

F ig. 1 0 .3 w as c ompiled f rom t he a ppendix m aps ' Top o f t he F ormation ' o f t he g eological m ap s heets 1 6E , 1 7W a nd 1 7E .

D rente

O f t he 4 0 h unebeds o n t hese s heets , 2 0 l ie a bove c ompletely e roded b oulderclay ( 'stonefield') 2 0 l ie a bove p artially e roded b oulderclay.

O f t he l atter 2 0 t ombs , 1h as 4a re 4a re 3a re

a n u nknown d istance f rom s tonefields ( D44a) n o m ore t han 1 00m f rom a s tonefield 1 50-200m f rom a s tonefield 3 00m f rom a s tonefield.

T hus i n 7 8% o f t he k nown c ases, t he h unebeds w ere c onstructed l ess t han 3 50m f rom a reas w here s tonefields l ay i n t he s ubsoil ( or a t t he s urface i f t here w as a h ole i n t he c oversand b lanket). O f t he r emaining e ight t ombs t he d istance t o s tonefields i s m uch l arger a nd m ust t he b uilders h ave r esorted e xclusively t o b oulders l ying o n t op o f t he p artially e roded b oulderclay. F rom w est t o e ast t hese h unebeds a re n amed D 52a , D 52, D 54a , D 54b, D 54c, D 32, D 36, D 37. T he l ast t hree a re o n s heet 1 7E , o n t he H ondsrug. F or D 36 a nd D 37 b oulders m ust h ave b een a vailable i n t he n earby e roded r iver v alley. T he o ther f ive a re f rom a reas o n s heets 1 6E a nd 1 7W w here c ompletely e roded b oulderclay a reas a re r are . T he c ontour l ines o n t he g eological a ppendix m aps s how t hat t he t ombs D 52 a nd D 52a a lso l ie o n o r n ear t he s lopes o f e roded r iver v alleys. W here t his s eems n ot t o b e t he c ase

1 53

( D54a , D 54b-c w ith g rid r eferences 2 28/536 a nd 2 34/549, c f. f ig. 1 0 .4), t wo t ombs w ith f ive p airs o f s ide s tones a nd o ne t omb w ith t wo p airs w ere b uilt. T hey a re n ot t he s hortest i n t heir c lass ( Bakker 1 979a , 1 50 , T able V ), s o t hat t he e xpectation t hat s uch e xceptionally l ocated h unebeds w ere m ade o nly f rom s mall s tones a nd h ad m ediocre d imensions i s n ot f ulfilled. T he i nterim c onclusion m ay b e d rawn t hat a lmost a ll h unebeds a re r estricted t o a reas w here b oulders w ere a vailable a ccording t o t he g iven i nterpretation o f t he g eological m ap. T heir u neven d istribution i s w holly d ue t o t he r arity o f b oulders ( because o f t he l esser e rosion o f t he b oulderclay) i n g reater p arts o f t he D renthe P lateau. T he s oil m ap t ells u s w here t he b uilding m aterials f or t he h unebeds m ay b e s upposed t o h ave b een a vailable a t t he s urface . I t d ocuments b oulderclay w hen t hicker t han 2 0cm a nd 0 -40cm b elow t he s urface ( symbol K X), o r a t 4 0-120cm b elow t he s urface ( symbol x ). T he u sual t hickness o f c oversand o n t he H ondsrug w here m ost h unebeds o ccur i s 6 0-150cm . T hus m ost l arger b locks o n t op o f t he p artly e roded b oulderclay o f t he m ap m ust h ave p opped t hrough t he c oversand. U sually t he s ymbols f or b oulderclay a re a lso p rovided w ith a dditional s ymbols f or s toniness. S tony a reas u nconnected w ith e xisti ng b oulderclay ( called s tonefields a bove) u nfortunately a re o nly r arely i ndicated o n t he s oil m ap. T he d istances t o s ymbol K X o r x ( boulderclay a t o r l ess t han 1 20cm b elow t he s urface) a re f or t he 6 2 t ombs o n t he a vailable s oil m ap s heets ( 12E , 1 6E , 1 7W , 1 7E):

f or 2 5 f or 1 4 f or 1 1 f or 9 f or 1 f or 1 f or

( 40%) 0 -50m ( 23%) 7 5-100m ( 18%) 1 50-200m ( 15%) 2 50-300m (2 %) 50m ( D30) 5 (2 %) t he d istance m ay h ave b een u nder 3 00m , b ut l ater w ind e rosion h as a ltered t he s urroundings ( D45). 1 (2 %) 2 500m ( D10)

T he t ombs a t ad istance o f 0 -50m f rom x o r K X l ie o n t he b rink o f b oulderclay i n t he s ubsoil. F or D 30 t he d istance t o s hallow b oulderc lay i s l arger , b ut i n t his c ase s ymbol ' ...g ' ( coarse s and a nd/or g ravel 4 0-120cm d eep), w hich i s 2 00m a way , p ossibly c oincides w ith a ( shallow) s tonefield i n t he s ense o f t he g eological m ap. T hat l arge b oulders o ccurred a mong t he g ravel i s d emonstrated b y a ' fake h unebed ' c onstructed t here d uring a forestation o f t he h eathlands a bout 1 930 ( Klok 1 979 , i ll. o n p . 7 5). D 10 l ies i n as tonefield -in i ts v icinity t he b oulderclay i s c ompletely e roded. A gain t he 3 00m d istance c atches t he e ye. I n 5 9 ( 95%) o f t he 6 1 a vailable c ases t he d istance t o t he s toney b oulderclay w as 0 -300m . T he f act t hat t he n ecessary c apstones a nd s maller b oulders . w ere m ost p robably a vailable w ithin 3 00m ( -400m) a ccording t o t he m aps, e xplains w hy t here w ere s uch g ood p ossibilities f or h unebed b uilding i n t he

1 54

a reas w here t hey a re s ituated. T he s carcity o f h unebeds i n t he m idwest o f t he D renthe P lateau m ust b e d ue t o s uch f actors a s t he g reater t hickness o f c oversand t here , t he l esser e rosion o f t he b oulderclay a nd t he p ossibility t hat t he r are h unebeds w ere c ompletely r emoved s ooner t han i n s tone-richer r egions. I n a ddition , T RB p opulation c ould h ave b een t hinner h ere b ecause t he a rea w as l ess s uitable f or a griculture, b ut t his p ossibility h as s till t o b e c hecked w ith t he s oil m aps.

1 0.5

W hy t he R enfrew g ame d oes n ot w ork i n D renthe

H ow a re w e t o u nderstand t hat R enfrew 's T hiessen p olygons a round m egalithic t ombs g ive t erritory d ivisions p lausible f or R ousay a nd A rran, b ut m uch l ess s o f or t he D renthe P lateau? A s ensible s ite l ocation c ombines a s m any g ood p roperties a s p ossible. T he r esearcher m ay r ediscover w hat w ere s carce e ssential c onditions . T he s carcest c ommodities i ndispensable t o t he t omb b uilders ' s ociety w ere c ritical f actors. T heir p resence d etermined w here t he l ocation o f t ombs , s ettlement , f ields a nd t erritories w as p ossible. O n t he r ocky i slands o f A rran a nd R ousay t ombs w ere r estricted t o t he v icinity o f t he s cantily a rable s oils, w hile s tones f or c hamber c airn c onstruction w ere p robably p lentiful a lmost e verywhere ; o n t he s andy D renthe P lateau t he p resence o f b oulders d ictated t he p lace o f t he t ombs, w hereas t he p resence o f a rable s oil w as p erhaps m uch l ess p roblematic. O ther d ecisive f actors m ust h ave b een t he a vailability o f t he m anpower n eeded f or t he c onstruction o f t he p articular t omb t ype, a nd t he i mportance a ttached b y t he l ocal s ociety t o t he b uilding e fforts. E ach o f t hese m ay h ave b een d ifferent o n b oth i slands a nd t he D renthe P lateau. O n t he e astern r idges o f D renthe, t here i s ah eavy c oncentrat ion o f h unebeds w hich s uggests t hat t he t ombs w ere b uilt h ere w herever p ossible a nd a lso a s m any a s p ossible. O nly i n t he n orthwest a nd t he s outhwest o f t he P lateau t he t erritory c oncept s eems t o w ork s omewhat b etter, a s w e h ave s een a bove. P robably b oulders ( and m anpower?) w ere s carcer h ere. Ah int i s g iven b y t he f act t hat t he t hree h unebeds D 54a-c, w hich w ere s o e xceptionally d istant f rom s tonefields i n f ig. 1 0 .4, b elong t o t he s outhwestern g roup . I t s eems a s i f t he m inimally n ecessary n umber o f t ombs w ere c onstructed h ere w ith m uch e ffort. I n t he n orthwestern p art, f or w hich g eological m aps a re a s y et l acking , t he s ituation w ill n ot h ave b een m uch d ifferent. H owever, i t i s p ossible t hat t he r egular s pacing i n b oth t hese r egions w as d ue t o ah uman t erritory d ivision w hich n aturally o ften c oincided w ith t he r iver v alleys . B ut t his p oint n eeds f urther r eflect ion b ecause t he s ides o f t he r egularly s paced r iver v alleys m ay a lso h ave p rovided t he l oose b oulders f or t he t ombs a nd t he c oversand r idges w ere f ramed b etween t hem .

W hile

T his l ine o f r easoning d eserves c larification o f a nother p oint. w e s aw t hat p erhaps a s m any h unebeds w ere b uilt a s p ossible o n

1 55

t he e astern r idges o f t he p lateau, t here a re a lso a f ew l arge s tonef ield a reas w ithout m egalithic t ombs i n f ig . 1 0 .4. W e w ill c ome b ack t o t his p oint i n s ection 9 .

1 0 .6

R oad a lignments o f T RB m egalithic g raves

W e m entioned t he a lignment o f m any h unebeds o n t he e astern r idges i n s ection 3 . A t f irst s ight t hese a lignments c an b e f ully e xplained b y t he p eriglacial t opography. I n t he m ain t hey a re d ue t o t he s traight p arallel b oulderclay/stonefield b oundaries v isible o n t he r ight h and s ide o f f ig. 1 0 .4 a nd t he r esulting r elief a nd c oversand t opography ( Wieringa 1 968 , m ap). T herefore i t i s u nnecessary t o p ostulate a lignment a long o ld s traight t racks. T his d oes n ot, h owever, i mply t hat t hey w ere n ot s ituated o n s uch s traight r outes.. S everal h unebed a lignments c oincide w ith t he l ines m uch m ore d ensely m arked b y l ater p rehistoric b arrows , w hich c ertainly w ere p rehistoric r outes ( Bakker 1 976 ; J ager 1 984; T aayke 1 985, f ig. 1 0 .1). T hus, a ccording t o Z ipf's ' principle o f l east e ffort ' t hese p rehistoric r oads s imply f ollowed t he e asiest s traight c ourse a s i ndicated b y t he r elief ( however s light). T hus t he h unebed l ocation c ombined a t l east ( a) i n s everal , n ot a ll c ases, t he s ide o f a n i mportant r oute , ( b) a d istance n ot m uch o ver 3 00m f rom t he n ecessary b oulders, ( c) a s w e s hall s ee i n t he f ollowing s ection , ap osition o n d ry s and, u sually o n a s lope o r r idge. S ince s uitable s oils f or a rable l and a nd s ettlement s ites w ere a vailable a lmost e verywhere i n t he d rier p arts o f t he h unebed r egion ( sections 7 a nd 8 ) t he q uestion m ay b e p osed w hether T hiessen p olygons a round t he t ombs a re a t a ll h elpful t o u s f or d etecting t erritories i n T RB s ociety. W ere t he h unebeds l iterally g enuine c entral p laces a t a ll f or W est G roup s ociety? T hey m ay q uite w ell h ave t aken a c entral p lace i n t he l ife o f T RB p eople , w ithout d isplaying t his b y t heir p osition i n t he l andscape. A s m arkers, t hey c ould a lso b e e xpected, f or i nstance , a t t he b oundaries o f f ields o r a t t he l imits o f t erritories ( instead o f i n t he c entres o f t he l atter), o r, a s i s e ven m ore p robable i n o ur c ase, a s m onuments o r m arkers a long r outes . R ecently K innes ( 1975) c onsidered t he d esign o f B ritish c hambered t omb p lans i n t erms o f t he l inear, d ispersed o r a ggregate a rrangement o f c hamber m odules. W e t hink t hat t his t ripartition m ay a lso b e u seful f or d iscussing s ettlement a nd b urial p atterns. K innes ' s cheme w as r eproduced i n a m onograph o n ' The M egalithic M onuments o f W estern E urope' ( Renfrew , e d. 1 981, 1 00). I n t he s ame v olume R enfrew ( 1981, f ig . 2 ) d iscussed a v ariety o f g eographical r elationships b etween s ettlement p attern a nd t he l ocation o f b urial/ritual f acilities p ossibly a s aw ay o ut o f at oo s lavish a pplication b y o thers o f h is c entral t erritory m arkers c oncept o f t he t ombs. H is s even s chematic m aps a ppear t o h ave -or c ould h ave -been d esigned w ith t he h elp o f a c ombination m atrix o f a gglomerate s ettlement, d ispersed s ettlement, a gglomerate b urial/ritual f acility ( i.e . am ajor c ollective t omb) a nd d ispersed b urials. A s t he a lignments o f s everal ( but n ot a ll) h unebeds o n -the D renthe P lateau d emonstrate , R enfrew 's s cheme ( 1981, f ig . 2 ) s hould a t l east b e e xpanded w ith l inear a rrangements -as a s ort o f a nalogy t o t he t hree

1 56

o ptions o f K innes. L ocation a long r outes o f m egaliths, b arrows a nd i n J utland s tendynge-graver i s aw idespread p henomenon i n n orthwestern p rehistoric E urope ( Bakker 1 979) w hich i s e ssentially i ncompatible w ith t he c oncept o f m egaliths a s c entral t erritorial m arkers. I n t he s ame v olume , K aelas ( 1981) g ives a m ap c ompiled b y H yenstrand o f o ver 2 50 m egalithic p assage g raves i n a n a rea o f s ome 1 350 s q k m i n F allbygden i n n orthern V ästergotland, S weden ( fig. 1 0 .5). T heir d ensity ( on a verage o ne t omb p er 5 .3 s q k m) i s a bout s even t imes t hat i n t he a rea o f t he p renthe P lateau i n f ig. 1 0 .1 ( on a verage o ne t omb p er 3 6 .5 s q k m)." T he t ombs s how p artly c lustered, p artly d ispersed d istributions, a nd a lignment a long r oads ( which t ake . a ccount o f t he n umerous s wamps a nd t he r elief) i s a lso s triking . T he a rea w as s ubdivided b y H yenstrand b y s traight l ines i nto t erritories w ith 7 -25 t ombs e ach , b ased o n t he a ssumption t hat a n i mmediate a rea o f 2 -2.5km r adius f rom e ach p assage g rave g roup w as t he s upply a rea f or f ood p roduction . H yenstrand 's t erritories s eem t o m e a s a rtificial a s T hiessen p olygons w ould h ave b een i n t his c ase . T he i mpression o ne g ets w hen t he t erritory d ivisions a re o mitted f rom H yenstrand 's m ap i s o ne o f d iffuse r oad a lignments w hich c lot t ogether i n m any p laces w here t he n umber o f t ombs b ecomes l arge a nd t hey b egin t o c luster. Am ap o f o ver 9 50 b arrows i n t he V eluwe ( central N etherlands) h as t he s ame e ffect ( Klok 1 982). A m ap b y S chlicht ( 1968, f ig. 1 0 .6) o f t he m egalithic g raves i n t he G erman H ümmling d irectly e ast o f f ig . 1 0.1 d isplays a m uch m ore d istinct s et o f r oute a lignments t han t hose o f F allbygden a nd t he D renthe P lateau . T he k nown m egaliths a re h ere h ardly c lustered a nd a lmost a ll s eem t o l ie o n a ncient r oads w hich t ake t he s traightest c ourse a nd a void c rossing t he p eaty r iver v alleys a s m uch a s p ossible. W here t hey c rossed v alleys, t he p rehistoric r outes a re o ften s till i n u se t o t he p resent d ay a nd a t t he f ord a t S pahn-Werpeloh t here a re l ate m edieval d efensive e arthworks ( Landwehren , S chlicht, p ers. i nf.). A pplication o f T hiessen p olygons t o t his a ligned d istribution p attern g ives n o c onvincing r esults a t a ll. I nstead o f r elying t oo m uch o n T hiessen p olygon t erritories i n r egions , r esearch c ould b etter c oncentrate o n t he m apping o f d istribution o f i ndividual o r v ery l ocal f eatures i n t he p ottery t hus d erive, e ventually, i nsight i nto t he i nteraction s pheres a t l ocal l evel , i .e . o f t he c ommunal a reas ( or ' territories ').

1 0 .7

o ur t he a nd t he

C oversand t ypes

T he 1 :50 ,000 c oversand s urfaces s oils. C ode n ames II, b ut t he;e a re I o f f eatures.

s oil m ap r eveals a g reat m any d etails i n t he d rier w hich w ere n ot c overed b y p eaty o r h umic-sandy g ley r un l ike Y 23-VII, H d21-VII, H n21-VI, H n23x-V , K X23m any m ore c ombinations o f t he f ollowing t hree s orts

1 57

F ig.

1 0.5

H yenstrand's t erritorial d ivision o f t he F allbygden p assage g rave a rea, S weden. W hen t he b oundary l ines a re o mitted, s everal r oad a lignments e merge. 2=m arshland 1= l ake 4= p assage g rave 3= p lateau S ource: K aelas 1 981, f ig . 1 0.

1 58

F ig .

1 0 .6

T he a ligned p osition o f t he p assage g raves o n t he s light w ater-sheds o f t he H ümmling , G ermany. T he l eft m argin i s f ormed b y t he D utch b order ( cf. f ig. 1 0 .1) a nd t he t ombs a re 3 0 t o 5 0km e ast o f t he r ight m argin o f f ig. 1 0 .2. T he g eomorphology o f t his l andscape i s v ery s imilar t o t hat o f t he D renthe P lateau . T he p eaty d eposits i n p eriglacial v alleys a nd b ogs a re s haded. S ource: S chlicht 1 968.

1 59

( a)

s oil t ype s ensu s tricto .

Y

T he m ost i mportant a re :

h oltpodzol , ' typical ( non-humic) b rown p odzolic e arth ' ( Avery 1 973) H d = h aarpodzol, ' humuspodzol' H n = v eldpodzol, ' typical ( humic) g ley s oil ' p Zg o r p Zn = b eekeerd, b roekeerd, g ooreerd, ' typical h umic-sandy g ley s oil ' K X = b oulder c lay o r ' potclay ' l ess t han 4 0cm b elow s urface x ( added t o t he c ode n ame) = b oulderclay a t 4 0-120cm b elow s urface

( b)

=

t exture o f t he u pper l ayer o f p arent m aterial:

3 0 = c oarse 2 3 = l oamy f ine s and ( more t han 1 7.5% l oam) 2 1 = f ine s and w ith l ittle o r n o l oam ( less t han 1 7.5%) ( 'loam ' i s t he f raction s maller t han 5 0 m)

( c)

m ain g round w ater t ype a s d etermined b y t he M ean H ighest G roundw ater a nd t he M ean L owest G roundwater l evels b elow t he s urface :

V II V I V I V II I I I I

= . . . = = =

M EG M EG M EG M EG M EG M EG M EG

> 80cm 4 0-80cm < 40 c m > 40 c m < 40 c m (

,

. /

T errace S oil P rofiles a t P aniri.

2 00

•

4

-

00 ( 5 8 g 00 0e )0 25

0t o 3 0cm

V ery d ark g reyish b rown ( 10YR3/2) f riable c oarse g ravelly h umic l oamy s and w ith w eak s ubangular b locky s tructure. S tones 2 0% g ravel t o m edium ( mainly g ravel); r oots a bundant c oarse t o f ine f ibrous a nd w oody .

B elow 3 0cm

G ravels a nd b oulders o f t he r iver b ed: v ery d ark g rey ( 10YR3/1) f riable s tructureless g ravelly c oarse s and m atrix c ontaining r ounded a nd a ngular p ebbles a nd s ome v ery l arge b oulders. R oots c ommon c oarse t o f ine f ibrous a nd w oody. T he b ase o f t he p it w as a t l m .

A ll t he s ides o f t he p it w ere s imilar a nd t he p rofile w as m odified b y t erracing .

l ittle

SI V T 3A A s eries o f t erraces t o t he s outh o f t he s ettlement w as e xamined, w est o f t he Q uebrada P aniri , a nd t hese s eemed t o b e v ery e roded - with p erhaps 3 0 t o 6 0cm o f s oil l ost . T he a rea i s b ounded b y aw all t o t he w est ( no d oubt b uilt t o k eep a nimals o ut o f t he c rops), b elow w hich t erraces c over t he s teeper s lopes a nd f latter f ields a re a ssociated w ith m any c anals. M any s tone m ounds , w hich a lso o ccur e lsewhere o n t he s ite, o ccupy t his a rea . T he s lope o f t he l and w as a bout t hree d egrees , a lthough t he f ield s urfaces w ere g enerally f lat, a nd v arious h erbs g rew . T he t erraces w ere a bout 4 x 2 m a nd t hat d escribed b elow w as b ounded b y ac anal t o t he e ast. 0t o 7 cm

D ark b rown ( 10YR3/3) f riable c oarse l oamy s and w ith w eak m edium s ubangular b locky s tructure. R oots c ommon c oarse t o f ine f ibrous; s tones 1 0% g ravel t o m edium .

7t o 2 5cm

D ark y ellowish b rown ( 10YR3/4) f riable c oarse l oamy s and w ith w eak m edium s ubangular b locky s tructure . S tones 2 0% g ravel t o m edium ; r oots c ommon c oarse t o f ine f ibrous a nd w oody.

B elow 2 5cm

L arge b oulders w ith m atrix s imilar t o a bove.

SVT 3A A n a rea o f r ather b roken-down t erraces w as e xamined, t o t he s outh o f a l arge s tone m ound. T he s lope o f t he l and w as a pproximately 2 1 d egrees a lthough t he t errace s urfaces w ere f airly f lat. A r epresentative f ield w as 4 x 2 m , w ith w alls 5 0cm a t b ack a nd f ront a nd a c anal t o t he s outh . T he n orth-facing s ection f rom t he b ack t o t he f ront o f t he t errace i s d escribed a t t he m id-point: 0t o 1 5cm

D ark g reyish b rown ( 10YR 4 /2 ) c oarse l oamy s and. R oots c ommon c oarse t o f ine f ibrous a nd w oody; s tones 1 0% g ravel t o m edium ( mainly g ravel).

2 01

1 5 t o 8 0cm

Y ellowish b rown ( 10YR5/6) c oarse l oamy s and. R oots c ommon c oarse t o f ine f ibrous a nd w oody; s tones i ncreased f rom 1 0% t o 5 0% w ith d epth ( gravel t o m edium).

B elow 8 0cm

I ndurated m aterial ( calcrete), w hich h ad b een d eliberately d ug o ut a t t he f ront o f t he t errace , p resumably t o a llow t he d epth o f s oil t o b e i ncreased a nd t o f acilitate m ovement o f w ater d ownslope f rom t errace t o t errace.

I n g eneral s oil p H w as s lightly a lkaline , r anging f rom 6 .9 t o 9 .2 w ith a m ean o f 8 .3, a nd s oil c onductivity w as l ow , r anging f rom 0 .5 t o 6 .5 w ith a m ean o f 1 .7, g iving n o i ndication o f s alinity a t P aniri. T he f ields o n g ently s loping l and w ere v ery s mall ( usually 4 x 2 m a cross), w ith s hallow d rops t o t he f ields b elow a nd b ounded b y c anals o n o ne o r b oth s ides. T he s oils w ere v ery s hallow a nd c ontained v ery l ittle f ine m aterial, b eing g enerally c oarse l oamy s and a nd r arely c oarse s andy l oam i n t exture . T hey a ppeared t o b e e xtremely e roded b y b oth w ind a nd w ater a ction , n o d oubt d ue t o l ack o f av egetation c over , w ith p erhaps 3 0 t o 6 0cm o f s oil l ost. T his w as d educed b y l ooking a t t he p resent s oil s urface i n r elation t o t he t ops o f t he s tone w alls a nd c anals t o w hich, i n t he p ast, t he s oil w ould h ave r eached . T he s oils o f v alley s ide b ench t erraces h ad c learly b een e roded b ut w ere s till m uch d eeper t han o n t he f latter s ite , r eaching d epths o f u p t o l m . I n s ome c ases i n t he l ower p art o f t he p rofile d arker m aterial, c ontaining m ore c lay t han t he o verlying m aterial, o ccurred s imilar t o t hat n oted b y W right ( 1963a) i n t he S alar d e A tacama r egion . T he s oil i s d eeper a t t he f ront o f t he t errace t han a t t he b ack i n o rder t o p rovide a l evel s urface f or c ultivation a nd, i n s ome c ases, t he t errace b uilders h ad t o c ut t hrough t hick l ayers o f c alcrete t o p rovide t he r equired s oil d epth a nd f acilitate d rainage d ownslope. T he c ross-channel t erraces i n t he v alley b ottom w ere g enerally m uch l arger t han t he o ther t erraces b ut t his m ay n ot h ave b een t he c ase i n t he p ast. I t i s t hese t erraces w hich a re p redominantly c ultivated n ow a nd w hat w ere o riginally s mall f ields m ay h ave b een a malgamated t o f acilitate m odern c ultivation ( wheat h as b een a n i mportant c rop i n r ecent y ears). T hose w hich h ad f allen i nto d isuse a ppeared t o h ave b een c onsiderably e roded. A djacent t o t he V ega , o n t he o ther s ide o f t he q uebrada f rom t he a ncient s ettlement , s ome o f t he v alley s oils w ere v ery c alcareous a nd h ad a v ery h igh w ater t able d ue t o w ater s eeping f rom s prings a t t he b ase o f t he s lope. T hese s oils w ould p robably b e i ncluded i n M elendez a nd W right 's ( 1962) P aniri A ssociation o f g leyed a nd h alf-bog s oils d erived f rom r ecent a lluvium b ut f ield c onductivity r eadings i ndicated t hat t hey a re n ot s aline . A lthough c ontaining m ore f ine m aterial t han a ny o f t he o ther s oils e xamined, t hey a re s till d ominated b y s and. T he s oils w hich a re s till b eing c ultivated a re a lmost c ompletely r emade p eriodically a nd s oil i s b rought f rom n earby u ncultivated a reas , i f n eeded, t o m aintain t he l evel i n r elation t o t he f ield w alls .

2 02

1.4

C omments

T he I ncas a ppear t o h ave h ad v ery l ittle i mpact o n t his a rea a part f rom a l arge I nca b uilding w ithin t he L ate I ntermediate s ettlement a t T un , t here i s v ery l ittle e vidence o f t heir p resence. V arious r easons h ave b een p ut f orward f or t errace a bandonment a nd p opulation d ecline s ince t he t ime o f f irst c ontact w ith t he S paniards i n t he 1 6th c entury . T hese i nclude d ecimation a nd r elocation o f t he p opulation u nder t he i nfluence o f E uropean d iseases a nd c olonial m ining , r e-orientation o f t he a gricultural e conomy t o p astoralism , i ntroduction o f E uropean d omestic a nimals -leading t o o ver-grazing a nd i ncreasing a ridity o f t he c limate . T he a rgument f or c limatic c hange, h owever, r equires v erification . I n t he u pper L oa f oothills i ndustrial d evelopment a nd a ccelerated g rowth o f t he n eighbouring u rban c entres o f C alama a nd C huquicamata h as h ad a s trong i mpact o n t he c ultural s ystem . E arly i n t his c entury t he L lareta w as m assively e xploited a s f uel f or t he c opper m ining i ndustry a t C huquicamata. T he t owns a re a ttractive , e specially t o t he y oung , r esulting i n ab reakdown o f c ultural p atterns. R estrictions o n b order c rossings h ave i nterrupted t he s ocial c ontact a nd c ommercial i nterc hange w ith t he n eighbouring A ndean v illages i n B olivia a nd A rgentina . T he e normous n eed f or w ater i n C alama , C huquicamata a nd A ntofagasta h as r esulted i n a s hortage f or t he A ndean v illages a nd c onsequent r eduction i n c arrying c apacity f or l ivestock a nd t he a rea o f c ultivated l and. C learly p rior t o t he S panish c onquest P aniri w as a f lourishing a gricultural s ettlement, a s w ere o ther c entres s uch a s T oconce , C upo, T un i a nd A yquina. T he s ophistication o f t he f ield a nd i rrigation s ystems i mplies u nified d irection i n t heir c onstruction a nd t hus a r elatively h igh d egree o f s ocial o rganisation . P riorities f or f uture w ork i nclude p roduction o f a b asic m ap o f P aniri, c ontinuation o f t he i rrigation s urvey, i nvestigation o f t he s tone m ounds, f urther s tudies o f t he d evelopment o f t he a gricultural f ields ( in p articular t o o btain d ating e vidence f or d ifferent p hases o f f ield c onstruction) a nd a rchaeobotanical s tudies ( particularly p hytolith a nalysis) t o t ry t o f ind o ut w hat c rops w ere g rown i n t he p ast, c ombined w ith t he m odern l and u se s urvey. S uch i nformation s hould p rovide a b asis f or c omp arison w ith o ther s ites i n t he r egion .

1.5 1

C onclusions

1 .

T he R io S alado b asin i s a m arginal h igh d esert a rea , w ith c haracteristically l imited v egetation , d ominated b y t hree m ain s oil a ssemblages , i .e. G reyish a nd B rownish S ierozem-like s oils o f t he C ool U pland D esert, L ithosols r elated t o M inimal B rown F orest s oils a nd S teppe g rassland s oils o f t he A ndean A ltiplano.

2 .

R emains o f p re-Inca s ettlements w ith a ssociated f ields a nd i rrigation c anals a re q uite n umerous a nd s ome, s uch a s a t T oconce a nd P aniri, h ave h ighly s ophisticated t errace s ystems w hich w ould h ave r equired u nified d irection i n t heir c onstruction a nd t hus a r elatively h igh d egree o f s ocial o rganisation.

2 03

3 .

T he l arge a rea o f a gricultural f ields ( mainly t erraces) a t P aniri r eceived w ater f rom a s ophisticated c anal s ystem s upplied b y w ater f rom t he s lopes o f M ount P aniri a nd t he u pper Q uebrada P aniri. S pring w ater w as r egulated b y r eservoirs a nd t ransported b y s tones ided c anals a nd a queducts . N umerous s tone m ounds f ound o n t he s ite m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith t he i rrigation s ystem .

4 .

T here a re t hree t ypes o f f ield a t P aniri, i .e. l evelled b ench t erraces o n t he v alley s ides , s hallow t erraces o n g entler s lopes a nd c ross-channel t erraces i n t he v alley b ottom . I t i s l ikely t hat t he l atter w ere t he e arliest w hile t he o thers r epresent a m ore h ighly e volved s ystem o f s oil a nd w ater m anagement a nd c orrespond t o t he m ain p eriod o f o ccupation , d ated f rom p ottery t o t he L ate I ntermediate ( Toconce) p eriod o f 8 50 t o 100 A D .

5 .

S oils w ere g enerally o f s lightly a lkaline p H ( mean 8 .3) b ut s howed n o s igns o f s alinity ( mean c onductivity 1 .7). A ll s oils w ere s andy t o v arying d egrees a nd a lso , i n m any c ases, e xtremely s tony. A ll a ppeared t o h ave b een e roded b y b oth w ind a nd w ater a ction .

6 .

T he s oils o f t he s mall f ields o n g entle s lopes a nd i nterfluves w ere v ery s hallow a nd t he m ost e xtremely e roded, a ppearing t o h ave l ost 3 0 t o 6 0cm o f s oil.

7 .

V alley s ide s oils a lso a ppeared t o h ave b een e roded b ut w ere g enerally q uite d eep ( up t o l m), p articularly a t t he f ront o f t he t erraces w here s oil h ad b een b uilt u p b ehind t he w all i n o rder t o p rovide a f lat s urface f or c ultivation .

8 .

T he c ross-channel t erraces w ere g enerally t he l argest a nd h ad d eveloped o n r iver a lluvium , m uch o f w hich w as v ery e xcept i n t he w aterlogged a reas a djacent t o t he V ega.

9 .

T he m ajor p hase o f t errace c onstruction i n a ppears t o h ave c oincided w ith a gricultural I ntermediate p eriod, d uring w hich t ime i t C hilean N orte G rande p articipated i n a c ultural a rea c entred o n t he d rainage b asin

1 0 .

s oils s tony

t he R io S alado b asin e xpansion i n t he L ate i s t hought t hat t he S outh-Central A ndean o f L ake T iticaca .

T he r easons f or a bandonment o f t he t erraces a re s till u ncertain b ut i t n ow s eems l ikely t hat d epopulation r esulting f rom t he S panish c onquest w as a m ajor f actor. T his d ecline i s c ontinuing d ue t o m odern p ressures o n t he r ural c ultural s ystem i n t he u pper R io L oa r egion .

2 04

A cknowledgements Iw ould l ike t o t hank C arlos A ldunate, V ictoria C astro a nd C arlos U rrejola f or p roviding t he o pportunity f or m e t o w ork w ith t hem i n t he n orth o f C hile ( Project : " Sistemas d e A sentamiento e n l a R egion d el L oa S uperior : P atrones A rqueologicos y E tnograficos", g rants D IB S 1435-8533 a nd S 1435-8544). Ia m m ost g rateful t o t he R oyal S ociety, t he B ritish A cademy, t he W enner-Gren F oundation , t he U niversity o f L ondon C entral R esearch F und a nd t he R oyal G eographical S ociety f or p roviding g rants f or t his r esearch . Iw ould l ike t o t hank a ll t hose w ho h ave p articipated i n t he w ork , p articularly F ernando M aldonado , P ilar A lliende, T im M alim , D ebbie S imons , L ucila R ecart H aynes , L indsey O 'Callaghan , R on a nd M ary J arvis . Ia m v ery g rateful t o t hose o rganisations a nd p eople w ho h ave p rovided i nformation a nd a ssistance -there a re t oo m any t o n ame a ll b ut I w ould l ike t o m ention t he D epartment o f E arth S ciences o f t he O pen U niversity ( who a llowed m e t o h ire t heir L androver i n C hile), W ye C ollege o f A griculture ( laboratory a nalyses), t he M useo C hileno d e A rte P recolombino i n S antiago , t he B ritish G eological S urvey, W arwick B ray, B ente B ittmann , a nd o ur n eighbour a t P aniri ( Sra . J ulia C ruz) w ho m ade b read f or u s .

2 05

R eferences A ldunate d el S olar , C . a nd C astro R ojas, V ., 1 981. L as C hullpa d e T oconce y s u r elacion c on e l p oblamiento a ltiplanico e n e l L oa s uperior p eriodo t ardio . S antiago : K ultrun . A ldunate , C ., A rmesto , J .J., C astro , V . a nd V illagran , C ., 1 983. E thnobotany o f a p re-Altiplanic c ommunity i n t he A ndes o f n orthern C hile. E conomic B otany 3 7(1), 1 20-135.

D iaz V ial, C . a nd W right, C ., 1 965. S oils B ulletin 1 , R ome : F AO .

S oils o f t he a rid z one o f C hile.

D onkin , R .A ., 1 979 . A gricultural t erracing i n t he a boriginal N ew W orld. V iking F und P ublications i n A nthropology 5 6, U niversity o f A rizona P ress.

F ield, C ., 1 966. Ar econnaissance o f s outhern A ndean a gricultural t erracing . U npublished P h.D . t hesis, U niversity o f C alifornia .

L ynch, T .F ., 1 983. C amelid p astoralism a nd t he e mergence o f T iwanaku c ivilisation i n t he S outh-Central A ndes. W orld A rchaeology 1 5 ( 1), 1 -14 .

M elendez, E . a nd W right, C ., 1 962 . L os s uelos d e l a r egion c entral d el v alle d el L oa y s u d esarollo a gricola . U npublished r eport f or I REN : T AM/RE/194. M ortimer , C ., 1 980 . D rainage e volution i n t he A tacama D esert o f n orthern C hile . R evista G eologica d e C hile 1 1, 3 -28.

N unez, A .L ., 1 978. N orthern C hile. I n : T aylor , R .E . a nd M eighan , C .W . ( eds.), C hronologies i n N ew W orld a rchaeology , 4 83-511. L ondon : A cademic P ress.

V illagran , C ., A rmesto, J .J . a nd A rroyo, M .T .K ., 1 981. V egetation i n a h igh A ndean t ransect b etween T un i a nd C erro L eon i n n orthern C hile. V egetatio 4 8 , 3 -16 . W right, A .C .S., 1 963a. T he s oil p rocess a nd t he e volution o f a griculture i n n orthern C hile. P acific V iewpoint 4 , 6 5-74 . W right, A .C .S., 1 963b. " Los B ofedales" -alkaline c ushion-bog p eats o f t he s emi-arid C hilean A ltiplano . P acific V iewpoint 4 , 1 89-193 .

2 06

1 2.

T HE R OLE O F G EOLOGY I N T HE A RCHAEOLOGICAL F IELD S URVEY I N T HE O ER-LJ E STUARY ( NETHERLANDS) P .C. V os a nd R .W . B randt

A bstract I n t he c oastal a reas o f t he N etherlands, a c lose r elationship e xists b etween t he o ccupation h istory a nd t he g eological d evelopment. T herefore, g eology i s o f g reat i mportance t o f ield s urveys i n t hese a reas. G eology c an s upply i mportant i nformation o n l ocational c hoices b y ( pre)historical i nhabitants o f c ertain r egions. A lso, g eology i s o f i mportance t o t he s urvey m ethod t o b e e mployed. I n t his p aper, t he r ole o f g eology w ith r espect t o t he s urvey s trategy o f t hree a reas i n t he f ormer O er-IJ e stuary w ill b e d iscussed.

1 2.1

I ntroduction

T he O er-IJ e stuary ( "Oer" i n D utch m eans " old, f ormer") l ay n orthw est o f A msterdam ( fig . 1 2.1). D uring t he B ronze A ge a nd t he I ron A ge i t w as c onnected w ith t he N orth S ea a nd d uring t he p rehistory t he e stuary w as a n i solated r egion b ecause i t w as c ut o ff f rom t he r est o f t he c oastal a rea b y l arge p eat a reas; i t w as a ccessible o nly v ia t he c oastal b arriers a nd d unes a rea , a nd v ia t he s mall r ivers d raining t he p eat a reas ( fig. 1 2.2). T he o ccupation h istory o f t he O er-IJ r egion w as c losely r elated t o t he g eological d evelopments i n t he e stuary. T he c oastal b arriers a nd d unes a rea, a nd t he p eat a rea l ay s o h igh t hat t hey w ere n ot f looded, n ot e ven d uring e xtremely h igh-water l evels ( fig. 1 2.3). T herefore, t he s andy s oils o f t he c oastal b arriers a nd d unes a rea h ave b een o ccupied c ontinuously s ince t heir d evelopment ( in t he a rea o f t he O erI J e stuary f rom c a . 4 000 B P). I n c ontrast, i n c ertain p arts o f t he p eat a rea , w here p eat f ormation c ontinued, d rainage w as s o p oor t hat o ccupation w as i mpossible. W ithin t he e stuary, d uring p eriods o f s trong m arine i nfluences, t he i ntertidal a nd s upratidal a reas w ere n ot s uited t o o ccupation. O nly d uring l ow t ides w as t he i ntertidal a rea s uited f or s hort v isits b y m an . T he s upratidal a rea c ould b e v isited s afely f or l onger p eriods b ecause i t w as f looded o nly d uring s pring-tides a nd s torm s urges. D uring p eriods i n w hich t he e stuary w as c ompletely o r p artly i solated f rom t he s ea , t he i ntertidal a nd s upratidal a reas w ere n ot f looded a nymore. T hen t hese p arts o f t he e stuary w ere s uited t o p rolonged o ccupation, p rovided t hat t he d rainage c apacity o f t he a rea w as s ufficient. F rom t he E arly M iddle A ges o nwards t he O er-IJ e stuary w as c onclusively i solated f rom t he s ea b y n ew c oastal b arriers ( Jelgersma

2 07

A SSENDELVER P OLDERS

F ig.

1 2 .2

F ig .

1 2.1

L ocation o f t he s tudy a rea .

P alaeogeographic r econstruction o f t he " Oer I J" e stuary, c a. 4 00 B C . 1 . c oastal b arriers c overed b y d unes 2 . i dem ., p resumed 3 . b eaches a nd o ther s andy d eposits b etween t he c oastal b arriers , w here t here i s a p ossibility o f p eat f ormation i n t he d epressions. 4 . e stuarine d eposits: t idal f lats a nd s alt m arshes 5 . r eedy , f en p eat 6 . o ligotrophic r aised b og 7 . t idal i nlet 8 . l arge t idal c hannels 9 . b order o f t he V elserbroek P older, U itgeesterbroek P older a nd A ssendelver P olders I V elserbroek P older I I A ssendelver P olders I II U itgeesterbroek P older 1 0. s chematic c ross-section w ith p aleo-tidal r anges

2 08

F ig . 1 2.2

P alaeogeographic r econstruction o f t he " Oer I J" e stuary, c a. 4 00 B C.

2 09

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2 10

e t a l. 1 970). T herefore t he d rainage c apacity i n t he a rea d ecreased m arkedly, s o t hat l arge s cale p eat f ormation o ccurred a nd s hallow l akes w ere c reated i n t he l ower p arts. U ntil t he l arge s cale p eat r eclamat ions ( Besteman a nd G uiran 1 983) f rom A D 1 000 o nwards , t he a rea o f t he O er-IJ e stuary ( with t he e xception o f t he c oastal b arriers a nd d unes a rea) w as n ot s uited t o o ccupation . T he d estruction o f p rehistoric s ites a s a c onsequence o f t he l owering o f t he w ater t ables i n l arge s cale r eallotments ( Assendelver P olders a nd U itgeesterbroek P older) a nd t own d evelopment ( Velserbroek P older) w as t he d irect c ause o f t he r egional a rchaeological i nvestigat ions o f s ettlements ( Brandt 1 983) w hich h ave b een c arried o ut s ince 1 979 b y t he A lbert E gges v an G iffen I nstitute v oor P rae e n P rotoh istorie ( IPP). T he i nvestigation s tarted i n t he A ssendelver P olders ( 1979-1981). B ecause i n t he l ate s eventies t he r eallotment p rocess i n t his a rea w as f ar a dvanced, i t w as n ecessary t o s et u p a l arge-scale i nvestigative c ampaign i n w hich t he f ield s urvey h ad t o c oincide w ith t he e xcavations. D uring t his c ampaign m uch a ttention w as p aid t o t he g eological d evelopment o f t his a rea . T he k nowledge o f t he g eological d evelopment a nd t he o ccupation h istory, o btained d uring t his c ampaign o f i nvestigation , h as s trongly i nfluenced t he s et-up o f t he f ield s urvey i n t he o ther p arts o f t he O er-IJ r egion .

F or t wo r easons g eology i s o f i mportance t o f ield s urveys : 1 .

S ince t here e xists a r elationship b etween t he g eological d evelopm ent i n a n a rea a nd t he o ccupation h istory , g eology c an s upply i mportant i nformation c oncerning l ocations w here o ne h as a g ood c hance o f f inding t races o f h abitation , o r -in t he c ase o f e rosion -little c hance o f f inding h abitation l ayers ;

2 .

O ccupation l ayers m ay b e c overed w ith y ounger d eposits; t he t hickn ess o f t hese d eposits i s o f g reat i mportance w ith r espect t o t he s urvey m ethod t o b e e mployed.

A nother f actor t hat i s i mportant t o t he s trategy o f t he f ield s urvey i s t he l and u se ( grass l and o r a rable l and) ( Bult 1 983). T he a rea o f t he f ormer O er-IJ e stuary m ainly c onsists o f g rass l and. T herefore w e w ill l eave o ut o f c onsideration t he d ifferences b etween f ield s urvey i n g rass l ands a nd i n a rable l ands. I n t his p aper w e w ill g o i nto t he r ole t hat g eology h as p layed i n t he d etermination o f t he i nvestigation s trategy o f t he f ield s urveys w hich w ere c arried o ut i n t he U itgeesterbroek P older i n 1 983 a nd 1 984 , a nd i n t he V elserbroek P older i n 1 984 a nd 1 985 . I n S ection 2 , w e w ill d iscuss t he r elation b etween t he g eological d evelopment a nd t he o ccupation h istory i n t he A ssendelver P olders ( because t his r elation w as o f g reat i mportance t o t he s trategy o f t he f ield s urvey i n t he o ther a reas o f t he e stuary) a nd r eview t he m ethods w hich w ere e mployed d uring t he f ield s urvey i n t hese P olders .

211

F ig.

1 2.4

G eological m ap o f t he A ssendelver P olders. T he m ap r epresents t he c lastic d eposits a nd p eat l ayers f rom t he p eriod o f t he D unkirk 0 a nd D unkirk I t ransgression p hases ( 1500 - 0 B C). T he D unkirk 0 a nd D unkirk I d eposits a re c overed b y am edieval c lay l ayer o f 3 0 -40cm . I n t he g eological m ap t his l ayer i s e xcluded. 1 . s ites s urveyed, 2 . s ites e xcavated, 3 . t idal c reek a nd t idal l evee d eposits, 4 . l agoonal a nd b ackswamp d eposits ( more t han 1 00cm t hick), 5 . b ack-levee m arsh d eposits ( less t han 1 00cm t hick), 6 . r eedy f en p eat, 7 . o ligotrophic p eat, 8 . m aximal e xtension o f r eedy f en p eat o n b ackswamp d eposits, 9 . m aximal e xtension o f o ligotrophic p eat ( older t han t he D unkirk 0 t ransgression). 2 12

I n S ection 3 , w e w ill d eal w ith t he f ield s urveys o f t he U itgeesterbroek P older a nd t he V elserbroek P older s eparately: b ecause t hese a reas h ave e xperienced a c onsiderably d ifferent g eological d evelopment, t he s trategy o f t he f ield s urvey h ad t o b e d ifferent a s w ell.

1 2.1

T he A rea o f t he A ssendelver P olders

1 2.2.1

G eological d evelopment a nd d istribution p attern o f s ettlements

F ig. 1 2.4 r epresents t he g eological s ituation o f t he A ssendelver P olders d uring t he l ate I ron A ge. T his g eological m ap s hows t hat t he p olders c an b e s ubdivided i nto t wo a reas : 1 .

t he a rea w ith c lastic d eposits ( mainly c lay),

2 .

t he p eat a rea.

W ithin t he a rea w ith c lastic d eposits ( "clay a rea"), t he f ollowing s edimentary e nvironments c an b e d istinguished: c reeks, t idal l evees, b ackswamps ( supratidal), a nd t idal f lats ( intertidal). T he p eat a rea c an b e s ubdivided i nto P hragmites p eat a nd o ligotrophic p eat. I n t he g eological m ap, t he s ites' t hat w ere f ound d uring t he f ield s urvey b y a mateur a rchaeologists ( Heide man 1 965; 1 971) a nd b y t he I PP a re i ndicated b y d ots . T he e xcavated s ites a re i ndicated b y s tars . T he d istribution p attern o f t he s ites s hows t hat t he s ettlements f rom t he l ate I ron A ge a re m ainly l ocated i n t he t idal l evees a nd t he b order z one o f t he p eat a rea , b ut a lso i n t he b ackswamps. T he g eological d evelopment a nd i ts r elation w ith t he o ccupation h istory o f t he A ssendelver P olders d uring t he l ate B ronze A ge a nd t he I ron A ge ( Vos 1 983; 1 985) a re s ummarized i n T able 1 2.1.

T able 1 2.1:

L andscape r econstruction a nd i ts r elation o ccupation h istory o f t he A ssendelver P olders

L andscape r econstruction

w ith

t he

O ccupation h istory

1 000 -1500 A D A round 1 000 A D t he A ssendelver P olders w ere c olonized a gain , w hen l arge s cale d rainage s ystems w ere c onstructed. V ia t he c anals t he s ea c ould e xert i ndirect i nfluence o n t he a rea; a s a r esult a c lay l ayer o f 2 5 t o 5 0cm w as d eposited.

P ermanent s ettlements t o d ate

2 00 -1000 A D T he d rainage o f t he a rea h ad b ecome s o b ad t hat l arge-scale p eat g rowth o ccurred i n t he f ormer s alt-marshes.

2 13

N o p ermanent s ettlements

0 -200 A D T he o ld t idal c reek s ystem s ilted u p. T herefore t he d rainage c apacity i n t he a rea d ecreased. T he i nhabitants t ried t o k eep u p t he d rainage c apacity b y d igging d itches . P robably t he t erps, a bout 2 0cm h igh , w ere t hrown u p i n o rder t o k eep t he h ouses d ry d uring e xtreme r ainfall i n w inter, w hen t he f ields i n t he f ormer s alt m arsh w ere f looded.

P ermanent s ettlem ents i n f ormer s alt-marshes a nd b order z one o f t he p eat a rea

1 50 B C -0 T he p rocess o f r eduction o f t he t idal a mplitude a nd e xtreme h igh w ater l evel h ad g one s o f ar t hat t he s alt m arshes i n t he e stuary w ere n ot f looded a nymore.

P ermanent s ettlem ents i n t he f ormer s altm arshes a nd b order z one o f t he p eat a rea

3 00 -150 B C B ecause o f t he s edimentation t he s alt m arshes s ilted u p, a nd t herefore t hese a reas w ere f looded l ess f requently d uring s pring-tides. T he t idal a mplitude a nd t he e xtreme h igh w ater l evel g radually d ecreased b ecause t he t idal p rism o f t he e stuary ( and c onsequently t he t idal i nlet) b ecame s maller. T he r eduction o f t he t idal p rism o ccurred b ecause s edimentation w as g reater t han e rosion i n t he e stuary.

N o p ermanent s ettlement

50 -300 B C 5 B ecause o f t he f urther e nlargement o f t he t idal i nlet, t he t idal a mplitude i ncreased a nd t he e xtreme h igh w ater l evel r ose. B ecause o f t he l owering o f t he p eat s urface b y c ompaction a nd o xidation ( caused b y d rainage) a nd t he r aised e xtreme h igh w ater l evel, t he b order z one o f t he p eat w as f looded.

N o p ermanent s ettlements

6 50 - 5 50 B C T he t idal i nfluence i ncreased f urther e stuary. O n t he o ld t idal l agoon c lay

i n t he l ayers ,

t idal l evees a nd b ackswamps d eveloped. T he t idal c reeks d rained t he b order z one o f t he p eat a rea; c onsequently t he p eat g rowth s topped i n t his a rea.

2 14

P ermanent s ettlem ents i n t he b order z one o f t he p eat a rea

7 00 -650 B C B ecause o f a n e nlargement o f t he t idal i nlet, t he t idal a mplitude, t he e xtreme h igh w ater l evel, a nd t he t idal c urrents i ncreased i n t he e stuary. A s a r esult, a c hannel a nd c reek s ystem d eveloped i n t he l agoonal c lay a rea . T his n ew s ystem i mproved t he d rainage c apacity o f t he b order z one o f t he p eat a rea . D uring t his t ransition o ligotrophic p eat d eveloped l ocally i n t his z one.

N o p ermanent s ettlements

1 000 -700 B C I n t he c lay a rea a t idal l agoon d eveloped, w hich w as l inked w ith t he s ea b y a s mall t idal i nlet. T he w ater i n t he l agoon w as b rackish t o f resh. I n t he w hole p eat a rea t he p eat g rowth c ontinued.

1 2.2.2

N o p ermanent s ettlements

F ield s urvey

I n t he A ssendelver P olders t he f ollowing f ield s urvey m ethods w ere e mployed: -

D itch-side s urvey. I n a utumn f armers a re o bliged ( by t he a uthorities) t o c lear t heir d itches. I f a d itch c uts a s ite, a rcheological m aterial m ay b e d ug u p a nd d eposited i n t he d itch s ides d uring t he c learing p rocess. M ole-hill s urvey. M oles m ay p ush u p a rchaeological m aterial a nd t herefore t hey a re i mportant t o g rassland f ield s urveys.

-

R elief m apping i n t he f ield. P rehistoric t erps a re o bservable i n t he f ield a s s mall r ound e levations i f t hey a re c a. 2 0cm h igh. T hey c an b est b e o bserved d uring a utumn a nd w inter, b ecause i n t hese s easons t he g rass i s s hort. A erial p hotograph r esearch. P rehistoric t races ( ditches a nd t erps) i n t he s hallow u nderground a re o bservable i n a erial p hotographs o n t he b asis o f c rop m arks.

-

C ore s urvey. T he c ore h ole s urvey i s c arried o ut b y m eans o f a " tree h ole" d rill a nd a n a uger. A " tree h ole" d rill i s a t ractor-driven d rill w hich i s u sed t o d ig h oles ( 90cm d eep a nd w ith 7 0cm i n d iameter) i n w hich t rees a re p lanted. T he a uger ( diameter 6 o r 2 cm) i s p ushed i nto t he g round m anually t o a d epth o f m ax. 6 -8m .

T he c ore s urvey b y m eans o f t he t ree h ole d rill w as a pplied v ery f requently i n t he c lay a rea o f t he A ssendelver P olders. D rawbacks o f t his m ethod a re: ( a) i t i s l abour-intensive c ompared t o t he o ther m ethods, a nd ( b) n ot a ll t he f armers w ill a llow a n i ntensive d rilling

2 15

p rogram o n t heir l and. O ther m ethods w hich w ere a pplied a nd w hich l ed t o g ood r esults w ere r elief m apping i n t he f ield a nd t he u se o f a erial p hotography. T he m ediaeval c lay l ayer ( 25-50cm) h as n ot l evelled t he p rehistoric r elief b ecause t his l ayer c overs t he l ate I ron A ge o ccupation l evel l ike a b lanket. I n t he a erial p hotographs t he t erps c an e asily b e r ecognized b y t he c ircular d itches a round t he t erps, w hich h ave d arker s hades o f g rey t han t he o ther p arts o f t he g rassland. B esides t he r elief m apping a nd t he a erial p hotograph r esearch m ethods, d itch-side s urvey i s a n e ffective m ethod t o t rack d own s ites i f t hey a re c ut b y d itches. I n t he p eat a rea d itch-side s urvey i s t he m ost s uccessful m ethod. T here a re t wo e xplanations f or t his f act: f irstly, b ecause t he o ther m ethods f ail ( see b elow), a nd s econdly b ecause i n t he p eat a rea t here a re m ore d itches p er h ectare t hen i n t he c lay a rea s o t hat t here i s a b etter c hance o f c utting a s ite. R elief m apping i n t he f ield d oes n ot y ield a ny r esults b ecause n o t erps h ave b een t hrown u p i n t he p eat a rea . A lso a erial p hotograph r esearch d oes n ot p roduce s atisfactory r esults b ecause t he d itches a re f illed u p w ith p eat s o t hat i n t he a erial p hotographs n o c ontrasts a re o bservable. C ore s urvey w ith t he t ree-hole d rill i s n ot p ossible a s t he f armers w ill n ot a llow t his, s ince d epressions w ould d evelop a fter t he f illing u p o f t he h oles a s a c onsequence o f p eat o xidation. C ore s urvey w ith a n a uger ( diameter 6 cm) w ould b e a llowed, b ut b ecause l ittle m aterial i s b rought u p b y t his d rill m any b orings w ould h ave t o b e m ade a nd e ven s o, t he r esults w ould b e r ather p oor. T his i s b ecause s ites i n t he p eat c an o nly b e r ecognized b y s herds a nd w ooden s tructures. O ccupation l ayers w hich c onsist o f o rganic m aterial a re h ard t o r ecognize i n t he a uger, a nd b ones h ave m ostly b een d issolved b y t he a cid p eat. I n t he p eat a rea a c onsiderable n umber o f m ole-hills o ccur. D uring t he d itch-side s urvey t hese m ole-hills w ere a lso i nvestigated. T hese i nvestigations f requently l ed t o t he d iscovery o f s herds. T he n umber o f s ites w hich w ere d iscovered w ith t he h elp o f t his m ethod i s s mall r elative t o t he t otal n umber.

1 2.3

F ield s urvey i n t he U itgeesterbroek P older a nd t he P older

1 2.3.1

S trategy o f t he f ield s urvey

V elserbroek

T he f ield s urvey, a s c arried o ut i n t he U itgeesterbroek P older a nd i n t he V elserbroek P older, c an b e s ubdivided i nto f our p hases ( fig. 1 2.5): I I I II I I V

c ompiling e xisting d ata, c ollecting n ew d ata, c hecking a rchaeological d ata p er s ite, a dvising o n c ultural r esource m anagement p olicy.

2 16

I C omp i l ing e x is t ing d a ta G eo log ica l d a ta S o i l d a ta

R esu l ts o f A s-

G eomo rpho log ica l d a ta

s ende lve r P o lde r

A e r ia l-pho tog raphs

I n ves t iga t ions

A rchaeo log ica l d a ta • I n ven to ry o f a l l a r-

I n ven to ry o fa l l

c haeo l . f ea tures

E a r th-sc ience d a ta

E va lua t ion

I C o l lec t ing n ew d a ta

d ec id ing s u rvey s t ra tegy

V e lse rb roek P o lder

U i tgees te rb roek P o lde r

D i tch-s ide s u rvey

C o re-survey

M o le-h i l l s urvey

( auge r)

i n c lud ing: P hospha te .P o l len

O b l ique a e r ia l-pho tog raphs R e l ie f m app ing i nt he f i e ld

I n ven to ry o f n ew a r-

C omp le t ion o f

I n ven tory o f n ew a r-

C omp le t ion o f

c haeo log ica l d a ta

g eo log ica l r eco rd

c haeo log ica l d a ta

g eo log ica l r eco rd

G eo log ica l m ap 1 :5 000

F ence d iagram

i n c lud ing l o ca t ion o f a rchaeo log ica l f e a tures

i n c lud ing l o ca t ion o f a rchaeo log ica l f ea tures

E va lua t ion

E va lua t ion

M

4 1—

C heck ing a rchaeo log ica l d a ta p e r s i te

C o re-survey

a uge r t r ee-ho le " d r i l l

p hospha te

T r ia l e xcava t ion

• G eo log ica l m ap 15000 i n c lud ing l o ca t ion o f a rchaeo log ica l s i tes

G eo log ica l m ap 1 15000

D e ta i leddesc r ip t ion

i n c lud ing l oca t ion o f

p e r s i te

D e ta i led d esc r ip t ion p e r s i te

a rchaeo log ica l s i tes

E va lua t ion •P ub l ica t ion

E va lua t ion •P ub l ica t ion

D Z A dv ice o n c u l ture r esource m anagemen t p o l icy

F ig . 1 2.5

S chematic r epresentation o f t he i nvestigation s trategy o f t he f ield s urvey o f t he U itgeesterbroek P older a nd V elserbroek P older.

2 17

D uring p hase I , g eological a nd a rchaeological d ata o f e ach a rea w ere c ollected, a nd i nventories o f t hese d ata d rawn u p. T hese i nventories, t ogether w ith t he r esults o f t he i nvestigations i n t he A ssendelver P olders, w ere t he b ase o n w hich t he s urvey s trategy o f t he n ext p hase w as d etermined.

1 2.3.2

T he f ield s urvey i n t he U itgeesterbroek P older

P hase 1 : c ompiling e xisting d ata. T he g eological d ata w hich w ere c ollected i p t he f irst p hase c onsisted o f g eological, m orphological a nd s oil m aps,' a nd a n umber o f p ublications a bout t he a rea ( de R oo 1 953; P ons a nd K loosterhuis 1 955; Z agwijn 1 971). T he a rchaeological d ata i ncluded e xcavation r eports ( Groenman-van W aateringe e t a l. 1 961; H albertsma 1 964; S tuurman 1 978) a nd t he r esults o f t he f ield s urvey b y a mateur a rchaeologists ( Helderman 1 965; .1 971). I n a ddition , a erial p hotographs s upplied v aluable i nformation c oncerning c reek p atterns a nd o ld d itch p atterns. A fter a n i nventory o f t he g eological d ata w as d rawn , i t a ppeared t hat t he g eological s tructure o f t he U itgeesterbroek P older w as v ery s imilar t o t he s tructure o f t he A ssendelver P olders. J ust l ike t he A ssendelver P olders, t he U itgeesterbroek P older c onsisted o f a p eat a rea a nd a c lay a rea d uring t he B ronze A ge a nd I ron A ge. O n t he b asis o f t he g eological s tructure t he f ollowing d istribut ion p attern o f p rehistoric s ettlements c ould b e e xpected i n t he U itgeesterbroek P olders: -

e arly I ron A ge,

i n t he b order z one o f t he p eat a rea;

-

l ate I ron A ge, t he g reatest d ensity o f s ettlements i n t he t idal l evees a nd i n t he b order z one o f t he p eat a rea , a nd - less d ensely -in t he b ackswamps.

T he d rawing u p o f a n i nventory o f t he a rchaeological d ata r evealed t hat m ost s ites ( 20) a ppeared t o l ie i n t he b order z one o f t he p eat a rea . O nly a f ew f inds w ere m ade i n t he c lay a rea ( 4). A ll t he f inds d ated f rom t he l ate I ron A ge. A fter d rawing u p t he i nventory o f t he g eological a nd a rchaeological d ata, o ne p roceeded w ith d etermining t he s trategy o f t he n ext p hase o f t he f ield s urvey: c ollecting n ew d ata. O n t he b asis o f t he e xperiences i n t he A ssendelver P olders, i t w as d ecided t o e mploy t he f ollowing f ield s urvey m ethods i n t he c lay a rea : d itch-side s urvey, m ole-hill s urvey, a erial p hotograph r esearch, a nd r elief m apping i n t he f ield. D itch-side s urvey, m ole-hill s urvey a nd r elief m apping c an b e p erformed s imultaneously b y a n e xperienced a rchaeologist. D uring b ad w eather h e c an w ork o ut h is d ata a nd c arry o ut a erial p hotograph r esearch. F or p hase I I o f t he f ield s urvey, i n p articular W . d e V ries-Metz t ook d etailed o blique a erial p hotographs o f t he c lay a rea. C ore s urvey w ith a n a uger o r " tree h ole" d rill w as n ot c arried o ut i n t his p hase o f t he i nvestigation , b ecause t his m ethod i s v ery l abour-

218

i ntensive, a nd w ould ( on t he b asis o f t he e xperience o f t he f ield s urvey o f t he A ssendelver P olders) n ot a dd m any s ites t o t hose t hat h ad a lready b een f ound w ith t he h elp o f o ther m ethods. T he f ield s urvey m ethods t hat w ere a pplied i n t he p eat a rea a re a nalogous t o t hose u sed i n t he A ssendelver P olders: d itch-side s urvey a nd m ole-hill s urvey.

P hase I I: c ollecting n ew d ata . T he d itch-side s urvey, m ole-hill s urvey, o blique a erial p hotograph r esearch, a nd r elief m apping i n t he f ield w ere c arried o ut i n 1 983 a nd 1 984 b y C . R avesloot o f I PP . B esides a rchaeological d ata, t he f ield s urvey a lso y ielded n ew g eological d ata . O n t he b asis o f t he f inds f rom t he m aterial t hrown u p a long t he d itches, t he b oundary b etween t he c lay a rea a nd t he p eat a rea c ould b e d etermined a ccurately, a nd w ith t he h elp o f a erial p hotographs a nd r elief m apping i n t he f ield t he c reek p attern a nd t he t idal l evees p attern c ould b e d etermined i n f air d etail. U sing t hese d ata a nd t he g eological d ata w hich w ere c ollected d uring p hase I , a p rovisional g eological m ap ( scale 1 :5,000) o f t he a rea w as m ade, o n w hich t he ( assumed) a rchaeological s ites w ere a lso i ndicated. D uring t he e valuation, t he s trategy f or t he n ext p hase o f t he f ield s urvey, c hecking a rchaeological d ata o f s ites , w as d etermined.

P hase I II: c hecking a rchaeological d ata p er s ite. I t w as d ecided t o i nvestigate a ll t he ( assumed) s ites w ith a n a uger o r t he " tree h ole" d rill. D uring t his c ore s urvey t he p resence o f a n o ccupation l ayer, a t erp l ayer, a nd a rchaeological m aterial ( quantitative a nd q ualitative) w ere e specially l ooked f or. I n t he c lay " tree h ole" d rill, a n a uger w as u sed a nalyses w ere a lso

a rea h alf o f t he s ites w ere i nvestigated w ith t he t he r emaining s ites w ith a n a uger. I n t he p eat a rea o n a ll t he s ites. D uring t he c ore s urvey p hosphate m ade o n t he o ccupation l ayers.

A d etailed d escription w as m ade o f e ach s ite i n w hich t he g eological s tructure, t he r elief a nd s hape o f t he s ettlement, t he h eight o f t he t erp l ayer a nd/or o ccupation l ayer, t he a rchaeological m aterial ( quantitative a nd q ualitative) a nd t he c oncentration o f p hosphate ( Eidt 1 973) w ere m entioned. A g eological m ap ( scale 1 :15,000) o f t he a rea w as a lso d rawn, w hich t he l ocations o f a ll t he a rchaeological s ites w ere i ndicated.

i n

I n t otal, 1 21 n ew s ites w ere d iscovered d uring t he f ield s urvey; 4 7% o f t hem w ere l ocated i n t he f ormer t idal l evees, 2 6% i n t he b order z one, 2 0% i n t he f ormer i ntertidal a rea , a nd 7 % i n t he f ormer b ackswamp ( Brandt a nd R avesloot 1 985). A ll s ites d ate f rom t he l ate I ron A ge. A s ingle f ind f rom t he e arly I ron A ge w as m ade i n a t idal l evee, i ndicati ng o ccasional v isits t o t he a rea.

t he

D uring t he e valuation o f p hase I II, l oss o f t he m ost v aluable s ites

2 19

t he w ay o ne c ould b est p revent b ecause o f r eallotments w as

c onsidered. I n g eneral, l oss o f v aluable s ites c an b e p revented e ither b y a ppealing t o t he M onuments L aw o r b y e xcavating t he s ites . T he r esults o f t he s urvey, t he g eological m ap , a nd t he a dvice t o t he a uthorities t o p rotect t he m ost v aluable s ites , w ere i ncluded i n t he f inal r eport.

P hase I V : a dvice o n c ultural r esource m anagement p olicy. I t w as p roposed t o t he a uthorities t hat 1 2 a reas s hould b e p rotected a gainst t he c onsequences o f t he r eallotment b y a ssigning t o t hem t he s tatus o f " archaeological m onument" . F or f our v aluable s ites , w hich c ould n o l onger b e s aved b ecause o f t he c onstruction o f n ew d itches a nd r oads , f inancial s upport f rom t he p rovincial g overnment w as a pplied f or . S ubsidies w ere a llocated t o t hree s ites , a nd t hese s ites w ere e xcavated i n t he s ummers o f 1 984 a nd 1 985.

1 2 .3 .3

F ield s urvey i n t he V elserbroek P older

P hase I : c ompiling e xisting d ata . T he g eological d ata o f t he V elserbroek P older w ere r ather l imited; f or i nstance , n o d etailed g eological o r s oil m aps e xist o f t his a rea. H owever, a n umber o f p ublications w ere a vailable ( Güray 1 952; v an S traaten 1 957; B ennema a nd P ons 1 957; J elgersma 1 970 ; Z agwijn 1 971). I t a ppeared f rom t hem t hat t he t ransition z one b etween t he c oastal b arriers/dunes a rea a nd t he s alt-marshes o f t he O er-IJ e stuary w as l ocated i n t he V elserbroek P older. A rchaeological s ites i n t he a rea a round t he V elserbroek P older w ere d iscovered b y a mateur a rchaeologists ( Woltering 1 979) d uring e xcavations t hat t ook p lace d uring s everal p ipe-line l aying p rojects i n t he a rea . F ield s urvey t echniques s uch a s d itch-side s urvey y ielded h ardly a ny r esults. I n 1 978, d uring t he l aying o f a p ipe-line, a n umber o f b arrows d ating f rom t he B ronze A ge w ere d iscovered. T wo b arrows w ere e xcavated b y t he R ijksdienst v oor O udheidkundig B odemonderzoek ( Woltering 1 979). T he f inds p roved t hat t he V elserbroek P older a nd i ts d irect s urroundings h ave b een c ontinuously o ccupied s ince t he e arly B ronze A ge . T he l argest n umber o f f inds w as m ade i n t he t ransition a rea b etween t he d unes a nd t he s alt-marshes. F or p rehistoric m an , t he t ransition a rea w as t he m ost f avourable l ocation t o s ettle; b oth t he e stuary a nd t he d unes a rea c ould b e u sed f or s ubsistence. T he s altm arshes c ould s erve a s p astures f or l ivestock . D uring e xtremely h igh w ater l evels ( e.g. s torm s urges), t he d unes s erved a s a s helter f or t he l ivestock ( this i n c ontrast t o t he s ituation i n t he A ssendelver P olders). T he t ransition z one f rom t he s alt-marshes t o t he d unes, w hich w as f looded o nly i ncidentally , w as f avourable f or a griculture b ecause o f t he n atural s ilt l ayers , w hich w ere d eposited p eriodically, a nd t he g ood s oil c omposition . T he m ore e levated s andy s oils w ere m uch l ess f ertile. I n t he V elserbroek P older t he p rehistoric f inds w ere a lmost e xclusively m ade d uring e xcavations; t his c an b e e xplained b y t he f act t hat t he p rehistoric c ultural l ayers l ay d eeper t han 8 0cm u nder t he s urface . T hey a re c overed w ith d une s and a nd/or c lay l ayers , c onsequently p rehistoric g roundtracks c ould n ot b e r ecognized i n t he

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a erial p hotographs n or i n t he f ield. A lso t he d itch-side s urvey y ielded h ardly a ny r esults b ecause t he p rehistoric l ayers l ay t oo d eep. S ince t hese m ethods w ere n ot v ery s uccessful, i t w as d ecided t o c arry o ut a c ore s urvey w ith a n a uger i n p hase I I o f t he f ield s urvey. T he d iameter o f t he a uger h ad t o b e 2 cm b ecause i t w as a lmost i mpossible t o p ush a n a uger w ith a d iameter o f 6 cm i nto t he s andy d eposits. M oreover, b ecause o f t he l ack o f c ohesion o f t he s andy d eposits, i t w ould h ave b een v ery d ifficult t o b ring u p t he m aterial w ith a n a uger o f 6 cm d iameter.

P hase I: c ollecting n ew d ata . T he c ore s urvey i n t he I V elserbroek P older w as c arried o ut b y W . B osman i n 1 984 a nd 1 985 . I n t otal, a bout 2 50 b orings w ere m ade i n t he t ransition z one b etween t he d unes a rea a nd t he e stuary . Ad etailed d escription o f t he s ediment c omposition a nd t he a rchaeological m aterial w as m ade f rom e ach b oring. A lso , i n a l arge n umber o f b orings p hosphate a nalyses a nd p alynological i nvestigations w ere m ade. T he p alynological i nvestigation w as d irected o nly a t p ollen i ndicating a griculture i n t he d irect s urroundings , e .g. C erealia a nd P lantago l anceolata . T he b orings w ere p lotted i n a f ence d iagram , i n w hich t he l ocations o f t he a rchaeological f inds w ere i ndicated a s w ell. T he f ence d iagram p rovides a f ine v iew o f t he s patial d istribution p attern o f t he d unes a nd t he e stuarine d eposits , a nd i t c learly d elineates t he r elation b etween t he g eological s tructure a nd t he d istribution o f t he v arious c ulture l ayers . A s a c heck o f t he c ore s urvey, a c ontrol e xcavation w as m ade i n a n i mportant s ite i n 1 985 .

P hase I II : c hecking a rchaeological d ata p er s ite. F rom t he c ontrol e xcavation , i t a ppeared t hat t he g eological r ecord , w hich w as b ased o n t he b orings, w as a ccurate ( Bosman 1 985). B esides , t he c ontrol e xcavation p roved t hat c ultural l ayers w ere a lso p resent . I n t otal, e ight a gricultural l ayers w ere e xcavated a t d epths v arying b etween 1 a nd 2 .50m b elow t he s urface ( Beemster a nd B randt 1 985). T he a gricultural l ayers w ere s eparated b y s mall d unes a nd e stuarine h umic c lay l ayers. T he o ldest l evel d ated f rom t he m iddle B ronze A ge . A t p resent, t he e xcavation r esults a re b eing a nalysed f urther a nd a g eol ogical m ap ( scale 1 :15,000) o f t he V elserbroek P older i s b eing d rawn.

P hase I V : a dvice o n c ulture r esource m anagement p olicy. S ince t he f uture o f t he V elserbroek P older h ad a lready b een d etermined ( a n ew q uarter o f t he m unicipality o f V elsen) i t w as t oo l ate t o a ssign t he s tatus o f " archaeological m onuments" t o p arts o f t he p older. A t p resent t he I PP i s w orking o ut a n e xcavation s cheme i n o rder t o p revent t he i rreversible l oss o f t he m ost v aluable s ites.

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1 2.4

C onclusions - M aking u se o f g eological i nformation i n t he f ield s urvey o f c oastal a reas y ields m ore a rchaeological s ites t han n ot d oing s o. - Since t he g eological s tructure d iffers p er a rea, i t i s i mpossible t o d evelop a g enerally a pplicable s trategy f or a f ield s urvey i n t he c oastal a rea . E ach p lot r equires a s eparate a pproach . - T he f ield s urvey s hould b e c arried o ut b efore t he f uture ( e.g. r eallotment) o f t he a rea i s d ecided o n . T hen i t i s p ossible t o p rotect o r t o e xcavate a n umber o f i mportant s ites. U nfortunately, i n p ractice ( e.g. t he V elserbroek P older) t he f ield s urvey i s c arried o ut a fter t he d etermination o f t he f uture o f t he a rea , s o t hat a l ot o f a rchaeological m aterial i s w asted.

N otes 1 .

A s ite i s a ny l ocation i n w hich t races o f ( pre)historic h abitation, a rtefacts, e cofacts, e tc., o r c ombinations o f t hem h ave b een f ound d uring t he f ield s urvey.

2 .

G eological m ap, 1 :50 ,000, b lad 1 9 w est. R GD , i n p ress. S oil m ap o f D e R oo ( 1953) a nd P ons a nd K loosterhuis ( 1955). M orphological m ap, 1 :50,000 , b lad 1 9 w est , S TIBOCA .

A cknowledgements W e w ould l ike t o t hank W . B osman a nd C . R avesloot f or t heir v aluable a dvice o n a spects o f t he s urveys i n t he V elserbroek P older a nd t he U itgeesterbroek P older. W e a re g rateful t o J .T .E .M . S mit f or t ranslating t he m anuscript.

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R eferences B eemster , D .C .M . a nd B randt, R .W ., 1 985 . V elserbroek P older-Rugbyveld H ofgeesterweg H OG I . I ntern r apport I PP . B ennema , J . a nd P ons, L .J ., 1 957. T he H olocene d eposits i n t he s urroundings o f V elsen a nd t heir r elations t o t hose i n t he e xcavation . I n : L .M .J .U . v an S traaten a nd J .D . d e J ong ( eds.), T he e xcavation a t V elsen. Ad etailed s tudy o f U pper-Pleistocene a nd H olocene s tratigraphy. V erh . K on . N ed. G eol. M ijnbouwk . G en ., G eol . S er. 1 7. B esteman , J . a nd G uiran , A .J ., 1 983 . E en m iddeleeuws-archeologisch o nderzoek i n A ssendelft; e en v roege v eenontginning i n m iddeleeuws K ennemerland. I n : R .W . B randt , G .J . v an d er H orst , a nd J .J . S tolp ( eds.), d e Z aanstreek a rcheologisch b ekeken , 9 6-128 . Z aanstad. B osman , W ., 1 985. V oorlopig v erslag v an d e b oorcampagnes 1 983-1985 i n d e V elserbroek P older. I ntern r apport I PP . B randt , R .W ., 1 983 . D e A rcheologie v an d e Z aanstreek. I n : R .W . B randt, G .J . v an d er H orst, a nd J .J . S tolp ( eds.), d e Z aanstreek a rcheologisch b ekeken , 9 6-128 . Z aanstad. B randt, R .W . a nd R avesloot , C ., 1 985. D e v eldverkenning i n d e U itgeesterbroek e n K rommenier W oudpolder. I n : P .J . W oltering ( ed.), H olland 1 7, 3 35. B ult , E .J ., 1 983. M idden-Delfland, e en a rcheologische k artering . I nventarisatie , w aardering e n b ewoningsgeschiedenis. N ederlandse A rcheologische R apporten I I.

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N KNOB , 1 00-101.

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J elgersma , S ., J ong , J . d e, Z agwijn , W .H . a nd R egteren A ltena , J .F ., 1 970 . D epositional h istory a nd c oastal d evelopment i n t he w estern N etherlands; g eology, v egetational h istory a nd a rchaeology. M ededel. R iiks G eologische D ienst, N .S . 2 1, 9 3-167.

P ons, L .J . a nd K loosterhuis, J .L ., 1 955. R apport v an d e v erkenning v an d e b odemgesteldheid v an h et z uidelijk g edeelte v an d e p rovincie N oord-Holland . S TIBOKA , r apport 4 09.

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D e

S traaten, L .M .J .U . v an , 1 957. T he H olocene d eposits. I n : L .M .J .U . v an S traaten a nd J .D . d e J ong ( eds.), T he e xcavation a t V elsen . d etailed s tudy o f U pper-Pleistocene a nd H olocene s tratigraphy. V erh. K on . N ed . G eol . M ijnbouwk . G en . G eol. S er . 1 7, 9 3-218.

A

S tuurman , H .W ., 1 978 . B en c haotische i nheemse v indplaats u it d e R omeinse K eizertijd i n A ssendelft . W esterheem 2 7, 8 1-105.

V os, P .C., 1 983. D e r elatie t ussen d e g eologische o ntwikkeling e n d e b ewoningsgeschiedenis i n d e A ssendelver P olders v anaf 1 000 v . C hr. I n : R .W . B randt, G .J . v an d er H orst, a nd J .J . S tolp ( eds .), d e Z aanstreek a rcheologisch b ekeken, 9 6-128. Z aanstad. V os, P .C., a nd B randt, R .W ., 1 985. P ublicatie A ssendelver P older P apers I I. R apport I PP , n r 8 5-376 , A msterdam .

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„

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