Islam, Archaeology and History: Gao Region (Mali) ca. AD 900 - 1250 9780860548324, 9781407349558

Table of contents :
Cover
Copyright
DEDICATION.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND CHARTS
LIST OF PLATES
Chapter 1: Introduction.
Chapter 2: Excavations and Surveys conducted in the Gao Region 1900-1993.
Chapter 3: Archaeological Research in the Gao Region, 1993
Chapter 4: The Archaeology of Islam, Urbanism, Architecture, and Burial in the Gao Region
Chapter 5: The Gao Region and Trans-Saharan Trade
Chapter 6: The Gao Region and Inter-Regional Trade
Chapter 7: Politics and Religion; The Effect of Islam in the Gao Region
Chapter 8: Conclusions
Plates
APPENDICES
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Appendix 4
Appendix 5
Appendix 6
Appendix 7
Appendix 8
Appendix 9
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LIST OF CAMBRIDGE MONOGRAPHS IN AFRICAN ARCHAEOLOGY

Citation preview

Cambridge Monographs in _African Archaeology 39 Series editor: John Alexander

Islam, Archaeology and History Gao Region (Mali) ea. AD 900 - 1250

Timothy Insoll

BAR International Series 64 7 1996

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 647 Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 39 Islam, Archaeology and History © Timothy Insoll and the Publisher 1996 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860548324 paperback ISBN 9781407349558 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860548324 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1996. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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DED ICAT ION . T h i sv o lume i sr e spec tfuly d ed ica ted t oJ ohn A lexande r , t h e s e r ie s e d i to r , a nd my f o rme r s upe rv i so r , R od a nd S u san Mc In to sh , t h e p i onee r s o f moder n a r chaeo logy i n Ma l i , a nd P au lo F a r ia s , s ou r ce o fk now ledge o na l lt h ings G ao .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS . Ia m g ra tefu l t o an umbe r o fp eop le w ho h ave p rov ided m e w i th a s s is tance a nd e ncou ragemen t d ur ing t h e c ou r se o fm y r e sea r ch . A bove a l l Iwou ld l i ke t o t hank m y w i f e , R a che l MacLean , f o r h e r p a t ience a nd h e lp . Ia m a l so e spe c ialy g r a te fu l t o J ohn A lexande r , D av id P h i l l ip son , a nd D av id E dwa rd s f o rr e ad ing a nd c ommen t ing o n d ra f t c op ie s o ft h e d o c to ra l d i s se r ta t ion wh ich f o rms t h e b a s i s o f t h is v o lume , a nd t oR u th D an ie ls f o rp roof -read ing . Iw ou ld a l so l i ke t ot hank D r S anogo , t h e D i rec to r , a nd D r D embe le , t h e A s s is tan t D i rec to r o f t h e Ma l ian I ns t i tu t d e s S c ience s Huma ines f o ra l low ing m et oc onduc t my r e sea r ch . Ia m a l so v e ry g ra tefu l t o Mes s r s S ekou B er the , N a fogo C ou l iba ly , E lmok ta r T oure a nd D r T e reba T ogo la f o r h e lp w i th v a r iou sp a r t so ft h e f i e ldwo rk i nG ao . Iw ou ld a l so l i ke t ot hank C o l in F l igh t f o r mak ing a l l h i s u npub l ished p ape r s h e ld i nt h eC en t re o f Wes t A f r ican S tud ie s , t h e U n ive r s i ty o f B irm ingham , a va i lab le t om e , a nd t ot h e i r g ua rd ian , P au lo F a r ia s , f o ra l l h i s h e lp a nd e ncou ragemen t . F und ing f o r t h e r e sea rch w a sk ind ly p rov ided b yt h e Em s l ie H o rn iman T ru s t o ft h e R oya lA n th ropo log ica l I n s t i tu te , t h e B r i t i sh A cademy a nd t h e U n ive r s i ty o f C amb r idge ( An tony Wi lk in S tuden t sh ip ) . Ih ave b enef i ted f r om d i scus s ion s o n G ao w i th n ume rou s p eop le i n c lud ing v a r iou s i nhab i tan ts o f t h e c i ty , mo s t n o tab ly Y u su f Ma iga , E lmok ta r T ou re a nd A bdoulaye Ad ino ,a nd Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank t h em . Ia m a l so g r a te fu l t oR a che l Wa rd a nd R eg ina K rah l o ft h e D epa r tmen t o f O r ien ta l A n t iqu i t ie s , t h e B r i t i sh Mus eum , L ondon , a nd J ames A l lan o f t h e D epa r tmen t o f O r ien ta l A n t iqu i t ie s , t h e A shmo lean Museum , O xfo rd , f o rc ommen t s o n t h e a s semb lage o f i mpor ted p o t te ry a nd g la s s , a nd t o A la s ta i rL amb f o rc ommen t s o n t h eb ead s . S t even L aur ie o f t h e S edgw ick Museum o fG eo logy ,C ambr idge , mu s ta l so b e t h anked f o r i d en t ify ing a n umbe r o f t h e m a te r ia ls a nd f o r a na lys ing t h e b ronze , c oppe r a nd l e ad s amp le s , a s mus t J o se t te R iva l la in o f t h e Mu sge d e l ' Homme i n P a r is f o r c ommen t s o n c opp e r m e ta lwo rk , e spec ia l ly c u r rency i n go t s . T hank s a r e a l so d ue t o L aw rence Sm i th a t tached t o t h e D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy ,C amb r idge ,f o ru nde r tak ing t h e a na ly s i s o f b r ick t h in s e c t ion s , K ev in a nd R a che l MacDona ld o f t he I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , L ondon f o r a na lys ing t h e f auna l r ema ins , S usan K ee t ch Mc In to sh f o r c ommen t so n t h e p o t te ry m e thodo logy i ng ene ra l , a nd P au lo F a r ia s f o rt r ans la t ing t h e A rab ic i n scr ip t ion s . I f Ih ave f a i led t o m en t ion a nyone e l se w ho h e lped , m any a po log ie s . N eed le s s t o s ay a l l m i s take s , s ho r tcom ing s a nd om i s s ion s r ema in my o wn . T imo thy I n so l l ,S tJ ohn ' sC o l lege ,C amb r idge . May 1 996 .

CONTENTS

A ppend ix 9 : Ap r e l im ina ry r epo r t o n t h e f a una l r ema in s r e cove red f r om G ao A nc ien a nd G ao -Saney ( 1 993 s e a son ) . 1 24

C hap te r1 :I n t roduc t ion . P age 1 C hap t e r 2 :E xcava t ion s a nd s u rvey s c onduc ted i n t h e G ao r e g ion 1 900 -1993 . 7

B ib l iog raphy . 1 33

C hap te r3 :A rchaeo log i ca lr e sea r ch i nt h eG ao r e g ion . 1 993 . 2 8 C hap te r4 :T he a r chaeo logy o fI s lam ;u r ban i sm ,a r ch i te c tu r e a nd b u r ia li nt h eG ao r e g ion . 4 3 C hap te r5 :T he G ao r e g ion a nd t r ans -Saha ran t r ade . 6 0 C hap te r6 :T he G ao r eg ion a nd i n te r reg iona lt r ade . 7 7 C hap te r 7 :P o l i t ic s a nd r e l ig ion ; t h e e f ec t o fI s lam i nt h e G ao r e g ion . 8 C hap te r8 :C onc lu s ion s . 9 5 A ppend ice s . 9 9 A ppend ix 1 :L i s t o fs i t e s i nt h e C e r c le d e G ao r e co rd ed b y S eydou D awa ( 1 985 ) . 1 00 A ppend ix 2 :I mpo r ted g l azed p o t te ry f r om t h e e xcava t ion s i nG ao A nc ien . 1 02 A ppend ix 3 :I mpo r t ed g l a s sf r om G ao . 1 0 3 A ppend ix 4 :T he b ead sf r om G ao . 1 04 A ppend ix 5 :A na ly s i so f al e ad i n go tf r om G ao A nc ien . 1 06 A ppend ix 6 : A na ly s i s o f e i gh t c oppe r -a l loy a r t i f a c t s f r om G ao . 1 07 A ppend ix 7 : A d esc r ip t ion o f t h e l o ca l ly m anu f a c tu r ed p o t te ry a s semb lage r e cove red f r om t h e e xcava t ion s i nG ao A nc ien a nd G ao -Saney a nd c o l le c t ed f r om t h e s u r f a ce a t K o ima a nd G o rongobo . 1 1 A ppend ix 8 :G ao .B r ick t h in sec t ion s . 1 2 3 I

L IST OF F IGURES , TABLES AND CHARTS .

F i g . 1 . 1 : T he L o ca t ion o fG ao .

F i g . 6 . 1 . P r inc ipa l t own s a nd a r ea s i n vo lved i n i n te r r e g iona lt r ade . 7 9

P age 2 F i g .2 . 1 .C eme t e r ie sr e co rded b yD eG i roncou r t . 8

T ab le A pp .4 . 1 -4 . 4 .( Bead s ) . 1 0 5

F i g .2 . 2 . S i t e sr e co rded b yD awa . 1 0

F i g .A pp .5 . 1 -5 . 2 .( L ead ) . 1 06

F i g .2 . 3 .D e ta i led p lan o fN o r th G ao . 1 2

F i g .A pp .6 .1 -6 . 13 .( Coppe r /b ronze ) . 1 07 -110

F i g .2 . 4 . Mo sque e xcava t ed i nG ao A nc ien . 1 6

F i g .A pp .7 . 1 -7 . 4 .( Lo ca lp o t te ry ) . 15 -116

F i g .2 . 5 .T he a r chaeo log i ca ll a nd scape . 1 8

C ha r tA pp .7 . 1 -7 . 24 .( Loca lp o t te ry ) . 17 -122

F i g . 2 . 6 . L o ca t ion o f t h e c eme te ry , s t ruc tu r e Q a nd 1 993 t r ench a tG ao -Saney . 1 9

T ab le A pp .9 . 1 -9 . 4 .( Fauna lr ema in s ) . 1 25 -126

F i g .2 . 7 .O u t l ine o fG ao -Saney c eme te ry s t ruc t u re s . 2 0 F ig .2 . 8a .S t ruc tu re Q . 2 6 F ig .2 . 8b .D e ta i led p l an o fs t ruc tu r eQ . 2 6 F ig .3 . 1 . Moder ne nc roa chmen tu pon G ao A nc ien . 2 9 F ig .3 . 2 .G o rongobo c eme te ry . 3 1 F ig .3 . 3 .L o ca t ions o ft h ew a l l sa tG ao A nc ien . 3 4 F ig . 3 . 4 .G ao Anc ien s t ra t ig raph ic p r of i le . 3 5 F ig . 3 . 5 . T he h ippopo tamu s t u sk s a nd t h e f i r ed -b r ick b u i ld ing a tG ao Anc ien . 3 8 F ig .4 . 1 .T own p lan s . 4 4 F ig .4 . 2 .S ongha iv i l lage a tL abbezenga . 5 2 F ig .4 . 3 .C ou r tya rd h ou se a tT inge . 5 3 F ig .5 . 1 .S imp l i f ied m ap o ft h et r ade c en t r e s . 6 1

1 1

L IST OF P LATES .

P l a t e2 . 1 . Mo sque o fA sk ia Muhammed i nG ao . 9 7 P l a te 3 . 1 .B u r ia la tK o ima . 9 7 P l a te 3 . 2 .C ache o fh i ppopo tamu st u sk s . 9 8 P l a te 6 . 1 .C oppe ri n go tf r om G ao -Saney . 9 8 P l a te A pp .2 . 1 .E xamp le so fi mpo r ted g l azed p o t te ry . 1 2 7 P l a t eA pp .3 . 1 .E xamp le so fi mpo r t ed g l a ss . 1 2 7 P l a t eA pp .4 . 1 .S e le c t ion o fb ead sf r om G ao . 1 2 8 P l a te A pp .7 . 1 .R ed s l ipped p o t te ry . 1 2 8 P l a te A pp .7 . 2 .C hanneled p o t te ry . 1 29 P l a te A pp .7 . 3 .G eome t r ic d eco ra t ed p o t te ry . 1 29 P l a te A pp .7 . 4 . B la ck -bu rn i shed g eome t r ic d eco ra ted ,b r own b u rn i shed ,a nd b l ack b u rn i shed p o t t e ry . 1 30 P l a te A pp .7 . 5 .C o rd a nd t w ine d e co r a ted p o t te ry . 1 30 P l a t eA pp .7 . 6 .P a in ted p o t te ry . 1 3 1 P l a te A pp .7 . 7 .S u r f ace c ole c ted p o t t e ry f r om G ao -Saney . 1 3 1 P l a te A pp .7 . 8 .S u r f a ce c o l le c ted p o t t e ry f r om G o rongobo . 1 32 P l a te A pp .7 . 9 .S u r f ace c ole c t ed p o t t e ry f r om K oüna . 1 32

i v

w i l l b e e xam ined i n d e ta i l i n C hap te r 4 , t o a s se s s t o w ha t

Chap ter 1 :I n troduc t ion .

d eg r ee I s lam ic i n f luence i s a ppa ren t i n t h e G ao R eg ion . C hap t e r s 5a nd 6 w i l l e xam ine t h e a gen t s o f , a nd p roce sse s b eh ind , t h e i n i t ia l s p read o fI s lam , me r chan ts a nd t r ade , b o th t r an s -Saha ran a nd i n te r reg iona l . Empha s i s , a s i n a l t h e c hap te r s , w i l l b e u pon t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , a nd t h e c ommod i t ie so ft r ade a nd t h er ou te sb yw h ich i tw a s c onduc ted

1 . 1 ) G enera lI n troduct ion a nd R esearch S truc ture : T he i n t roduc t ion o fI s lam t o , a nd a ccep tance o fI s lam b y , t h e

( a bundan t ly a t te s ted t o b y a r chaeo log ica l e v idence ) w i l l b e d i s cus sed . C hap te r 7w i l li n teg ra te t h e a r chaeo log ica le v idence

i n hab i tan ts o f b o th t he G ao R eg ion a nd t h e w ide r We s te rn S ahe l w a s o f f undamen ta l i mpo r tance , a nd h ad f a r rea ch ing

i na n a t temp t t oe va lua te t h e e f e c to fI s lam u pon t h e p o l i t ica l

e f ec t s , s oc ia l ly , p ol i t ica l ly a nd e conom ica l ly . H oweve r , n o s y s tema t ic s t udy h a sy e tb een u nder taken o ft h ea r chaeo logy o f

a nd s oc ia l s t ruc tu res w h ich e x i s ted i n t h e G ao R eg ion , p r ima r i ly b e tween c a .AD 9 00 -1250 , a nd w il a l so a s se s s t h e a pp ea l o fI s lam a nd s ugge s t p o s s ib le r e a son s w hy c onve r s ion

I s lam w i th in e i the rt h e Gao R eg ion , o rt h e We s te rn S ahe l a nd S udan , wher ea s n ume rou s d e ta i led h i s to r ica l , a n th ropo log ic a l a nd s o c io log ica l s t ud ies e x i s t wh ich e xam ine c onve r s ion t o

t o I s lam t o ok p la ce . F ina l ly , t h e c onc lu s ion s w h ich c an b e d r awn f r om t h i s s t udy w i l lb eo u t l ined i nC hap te r8 .

I s lam a nd I s lam iza t ion i n We s tA f r ica ( s ee f o re xamp le L ew i s 1 966 ,L ev tz ion 1 979 , Wi l l i s 1 985 ) . T h is s t udy s e ek s t or ed re s s t h i s s i tua t ion . I n t h e S ongha i l a nguage , t h e t r a ce s o f p a s t o c cupa t ion a r ec a l led " Dondon B orey " ( Rouch 1 953 :153 ) , a nd t h e Dondon B or ey o f t h e G ao R eg ion b e twe en c a .AD 9 00 1 250 w i l lb ee xam ined , w i th a n empha s i s u pon u nde r s tand ing t h eb eg inn ing ,p roces s ,a nd e f f ec to fI s lam iza t ion i nt h er e g ion

T he G ao R eg ion w a s c ho sen a s af o cu s o fs t udy a s v e ry l i t t le w a s k nown a bou tt h e a r chaeo logy o ft h i s i mpor tan t r eg ion , o r t h e c i ty o f G ao , i t s m a jo r c en t re o f p opu la t ion ( w i th in t h e i mmed ia te e nv i rons o fw h ich f i e ldwo rk h ad t ob ec oncen t ra ted o w ing t o t h e i n secu re s i tua t ion d e sc r ibed a bove [ s ee a l so C hap te r 3 ,s e c t ion 3 . 1 ] ) . H ence b o th t h e c i ty a nd r eg ion c ou ld

d u r ing t h i s p e r iod . T o a ch ieve t h is , n ew a r chaeo log ica l e v idence w i l l b e p rov ided , a nd t h e e x is t ing a r chaeo log ica l e v idence r e -exam ined , a nd t h en i n teg ra ted w i th t h e h i s to r ica l

b e r ega rded a s v i r tua l a r chaeo log ica l T er ra I ncogn i ta . T he r eg ion i sa l so o fp a r t icu la ri n te re s ta si ti s amo sa ic o fn omad ic a nd s eden ta ry l i f es ty le s , o f d es e r t , s avanna , a nd r i ve r ine

e v idence .

e nv i ronmen t s , a nd a t aj unc t ion o f t r ade r ou te s , b o th t r ans T he r e su l t s o f t h is r e sea rch a l so h ave a r e levance b eyond

S aha ran a nd i n te r -reg iona l .

d o cumen t ing t h e i n i t ia l a ccep tance a nd s p read o fI s lam i nt h e G ao R eg ion .I s lam ic a r chaeo logy h a s t e nded t of o cu s u pon , f o r e xamp le , a r t s ty les a nd a r ch i tec tu re , t o t h e d et r imen t o f r e sea r ch i n to t h e s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l e f ec t s o fI s lam . I s lam ic a r chaeo logy i ss t il t oo o f t en r ega rded a s as ub -d isc ipl ine o f

A long s ide e xam ina t ion r e levan t t o i n c luded t h e

a r t -h i s to ry , a nd i ti sh oped t h a t t h i s w o rk w i l l g o s omeway t o

t h e a r chaeo log ica l f i e ldwo rk , a d e ta i led o f a r ch ive s , museum c a ta logues a nd c ole c t ion s G ao w a s u nder taken . T he p r ima ry s ou rce s G ao -Saney a r ch ive l e f t b y C o l in F l igh t i n t h e

a l ter ing t h e se p e rcep t ions , a t l e a s t f o r t h e Wes t ern S ahe l . V a l id c r i t ic i sm sh ave a l so b e en made o fa dop t ing a n a pp roach w her eby , " a r chaeo log ica l q ue s t ion s o f ma jo r i n te r e s t h ave

C en t re o f Wes t A f r ican S tud ie s , t h e U n ive r s i ty o f B i rm ingham , t h e c o l lec t ions a nd c a ta logues o f t h e Musee d e l ' Ho rnme i nP a r is , t h e Musee d u S ahe l i nG ao a nd t h e Mu see N a t iona le i n B amako . S e conda ry s ou r ce s i n c luded t h e

u sua l ly b e en f r amed i n t e rms o f t h e d e scr ip t ions o f We s t A f r ican t owns a nd e n t repö t sp rov ided b yA rab c h ron ic ler s a nd

c o l lec t ions a t t h e B r i t i sh Museum , t h e V ic to r ia a nd A lber t Museum , t h e Museum o f A r chaeo logy a nd A n th ropo logy i n

t r ave l ler s f r om t h e 9 th c en tury AD o nwa rd " ( S .K . a nd R .J .

C amb r idge ,a nd t h eA shmo lean a nd F i tzw i l l iam Mu seums .

Mc In to sh 1 984b :76 ) . T h is h a s c er ta in ly b een t h e c a se i n t h e p a s t , a nd i ti sa ga in h oped t h a t t h i s s t udy w i l l g o s omeway t o c o r rec t ing t h i si mba lance b ya t temp t ing t oi n teg ra te t h e c i ty o f G ao w i th in i t sr eg ion ( b ea r ing i n m ind t h e l im i ta t ions p l aced o n f i e ldwo rk b y t he p r esen t s e cu r i ty s i tua t ion r e su l t ing f r om t h e a f terma th o f t h e T ua reg [ Tama sheq ] r ebe l l ion o f t h e p a s t

S tudy h a s b e en c oncen t ra ted w i th in t h e t ime p e r iod c a .AD 9 00 -1250 , a s t h is w a s a f o rma t ive p e r iod , s ee ing t h e d eve lopmen t o f r egu la r t r an s -Saha ran t r ade a l l ied w i th t h e a r r iva l o f I s lam i n t h e Wes t e rn S ahe l , o f w h ich t h e G ao R eg ion f o rms a p a r t . T he l im i t s o f c a .AD 9 00 -1250 w e r e s e t

f i ve y ea r s ) .

a s t h ey a pp rox ima te ly e qua te , r e spe c t ive ly , w i th t h e f i r s t a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o ri nd i r ec tc on tac t( t rade g ood s ) w i th

T o a ch ieve t h e se a ims t h is v o lume h a s b een d i v ided i n to e i gh t

t h e I s lam ic w o r ld , a nd h ence w i th I s lam , i nt h e G ao R eg ion , a nd l a t te r ly , i n t h e m id -13 th c en tu ry AD , w i th G ao a nd i t s R eg ion f a l l ing u nde r t h e c on t ro l o f t h e Emp i re o f Ma l i , t h e

c hap ter s . F i r s t ly , t h e G ao R eg ion , i t s e nv i ronmen t , p eop le s , l a ter p r eh is to ry a nd h i s to ry , w i l l b e i n t roduced , a s w i l l I s lam

p o in ta tw h ich t h e d i scu ss ion e nd s .

a nd t h e r e qu i remen t s t h e r e l ig ion m akes u pon t h e b el i eve r . C hap te r 2w i l l e xam ine t h e r e su l t s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch p ro je c t s ( s u rvey a nd e xcava t ion ) w h ich h ave b een c onduc ted i nt h e G ao R eg ion p r io r t o 1 993 , a nd t h e a u tho r ' s o wn f i e ldwo rk , t he r e su l t s o f w h ich a r e p resen ted i n C hap te r 3 . T hr ee c a t egor ies o f e v idence , s e t t lemen t p a t terns , a nd , a r ch i tec tu ra l a nd f une ra ry r ema in s , w h ich c an i nd ica t e t h e p r esence o r i nf luence o f I s lam i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd

Two g enera l m e thodo log ica l p o in t s s hou ld a l so b e made . T he l i ngu is t ic e v idence w i l l n o t b e c on s ide red , a s t h e a u tho r d o e s n o t p r e tend t ob e al i ngu i s t , a nd s uch e v idence i sb eyond t h e s cope o f t h is s t udy . S e cond ly , t h e re i s ad el ibe ra te i n ten t ion w i th in t h i s d i scuss ion t o a vo id , w heneve r p o ss ib le , e n ter ing t h e s ome t ime s r a ther h ea ted d eba te o ve r e t hn ic i ty w i th in t h e 1

T he G ao R eg ion l i e s w i th in t wo c l ima t ic z one s , t h e S aha ran a nd t h e S ahe l ian . T he A dra r d e s I f ora s , ag r oup o f l ow m oun ta ins t ot h e n o r th o fG ao ,c a nb es a id t of o rm t h e b o rd e r b e tween t h et wo c l ima t i cz one s( Sw i f t1 975 :443 ) .T he S aha r an z one ,t h en o r the rn p a r to ft h eR eg ion ,i sa na r ea o ft r ue d e se r t . R a in fal i s s c a r ce , b e tween 2 0 -100mm a nnua l ly , a nd t h e v ege ta t ion t h a ti sf o und i sl a rge ly c ompo sed o fE upho rb ia a nd s p a r se g r a s se s , a g r icu l tu re i sn o t p r a c t i sed i n t h e S aha ra f o r o bv iou sr e a son sa nd p a s to ra l i sm p r edom ina te s( Dawa 1 985 :3 ) . T he i mpo r t ance o fp a s to ra l ism c an b e s e en i nt h e f a c t t h a t , p r io r t o t h e d r ough t s o f 1 974 a nd 1 984 -5 , t h e re w e r e 1 , 000 ,000 c a t t le a nd 2 , 000 ,000 s h eep a nd g oa t s i n t h e G ao R eg ion , af i gu r er e duced b y5 0% a f t e rt h e d rough t s ( Imper a to 1 9 86 :151 ) . T he i n d igenous S aha r an f a una f o rme r ly i n c luded g az e l le , o s tr i ch a nd d e ser t f o x , b u t h a s n ow b e en l a rge ly h un ted t oe x t inc t ion ,a sh a st h eS a hel i an f auna ( s ee b e low ) .

G ao R eg ion ( S ee f o r e xamp le L ange 1 991 , 1 994 , H unw ick 1 994 ) . T h i s i sf o r t wo r e a son s ; t h e a r chaeo log i ca l e v idence ( t he p r ima ry f o cu s o ft h e r e sea r ch ) d oe s n o t a low ad e ta i led e va lua t ion o ft h i s s ub je c t , a nd s e cond ly , t h e c on s t r uc t ion o f e t hn ic i d en t i ty i s af l u id p ro ce s s w h ich i sv e ry d i ff i cu l t t o r e con s t ruc t . .H ence t h et e rm sS o rko ( u sed b yt h ei n hab i tan t so f G ao t h em se lve s ) o r p ro to -Songha i a nd p ro to -Tu a r eg w i l l b e u s ed ,w he re n ece s sa ry ,t or e f e rt ot h e i n hab i tan t so ft h er e g ion p r io rt ot h e 1 5 th c en tu ry AD a nd t h e f u l l d eve lopmen to ft h e S ongha i Emp i re . I n s umma ry , i ti sh oped t h a t t h e i n ev i tab le s ho r t com ing s o f t h i s i n i t ia l f o ray i n to t h e a r chaeo logy o ft h e N ige r B end w il b ee xcused ,a nd i ti sf u r the rh oped t h a ts ome d eg ree o fi n te r e s t w il b es t imu la ted i nt h i si mpor tan t ,b u t much a r chaeo log ica l ly n eg le c ted r e g ion o f Wes tA f r ica . 1 . 2 ) T he G ao E nv ironmen t :

R eg ion .

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T he S ahe l i s at r ans i t iona l z one b e twe en t h e S aha ra a nd t h e m o re t h ick ly w ooded S udann ic s a vanna ; h er er a inf a l l , t h ough s t i l l s p a r se , i s m o r e p l en t ifu l t h an i n t h e S aha ran z one ; H odgk in ( 1 987 :86 ) r e co rd s t h a t t h e a v e rage a nnua l r a infa l l a nd d ay s o fr a in a tG ao b e tween 1 9 31 -1 960 w e r e 2 60 .3mm i n4 6 .6 d ay s . C ram -c ram g ra ss , a c a c ia t y pe t h o rn t r ee s , a nd a l ong s ide t h e r i ve r , D oum p a lm s , a r e t h e c h a ra c te r i s t i c v ege ta t ion o ft h e S ahe l ( I b id . T r im ingham 1 9 59 :2 -3 ) . T h ree s e a sona l e x t r eme s e x i s t i n t h e S a he l : Ac o ld p e r iod b e tween D e cembe r -F eb rua ry , ah o t a nd d r y p e r iod b e tw een A p r i l May , a nd a w e t s e a son b e twe en m id -June - S ep tembe r ( S .E .Sm i th 1 9 80 :468 ) . T he S ahe l ian f a una i n co rpo ra te s a

a nd

T he mode rn a dm in i s t ra t ive a r ea , t h eR eg ion d eG ao f o rms t h e S i x th R eg ion o ft h e R epubl i c o f Ma l i . I ti sl o ca ted i nt h e e a s t o ft h ec oun t ry ,e ncompa s se st h eR ive rN ige rw he r ei tb end st o t h e s ou th ( t he N ige r B end ) , a nd c ov e r s 3 21 ,994 I cm2 ( F igu r e 1 . 1 ) . I n 1 987 ,3 80 ,722 p eop le l i ved w i th in t h eR eg ion , 5 5 ,266 o f w hom l i ved i n t h e c i ty o f G ao , t h e a dm in i s t ra t ive h eadqua r te r sf o rt h eR eg ion ( Tou r e 1 992 :2 ) .T he c i ty o fG ao i s a l so t h e h eadqua r te r s f o r t h e s ma l le r a dm in i s t ra t ive u n i t , t h e C erc le d e G ao , w h ich i sa tt h e h ea r t o f t h e l a rge r R eg ion .

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w ide r r a nge o fs p e c ie s t han t h e S aha ran f a una , a nd i n c lude s g azele , v a r iou s o t he r s pec ie s o f a n t e lop e , b u f f a lo , g i ra f f e , e l ephan t , l i on , a nd i nt h e N ige r , h i ppopo t amu s a nd c r o cod i le ( S .E .Sm i th 1 980 :468 ,T ou r e 1 992 :3 ) .

G ou rma i n Ma l i , a nd a no the r a t D or i i n B u rk ina F a so ( We eke s 1 987a :707 ) .

E x ten s ive c u l t iva t ion o ft h e s t r ip o fl a nd a d ja cen t t ot h e R iv e r N ige r ,w he r ei tf l ow s t h rough t h e S ahe l , i su nde r tak en . T h i s i s m ade p o s s ib le b y t h e a nnua l N ige r f l ood , w h ich i sc au sed b y r a in a tt h e s ou r ce o ft h e r i ve r i n t h e G u inea Moun t a in s . T he e n su ing f l ood -wa te r s t r ave l d own t h e N ige r r a i s ing t h e a ve r age w a t e rl e v e l b y 6m b e twe en D ecembe r -F eb rua ry , a nd r i ce i sp l an ted t oc o inc ide w i th t h e f l ood ( Hodgk in 1 987 :60 ) . B e s ide s t h e a g r icu l tu ra l b enef i t s b rough t b y t h e a nnua l N ige r f l ood ,t h ei n c r ea s ed w a te ra l so e ncou r age st h eg row th o fB o rgu ( E ch inoch loa s t ag ina ) , aw a te rw e ed u s ed t of e ed c a t t le ( I b id ) . L im i ted r a in f ed a g r icu l tu r e i sa l so p o s s ib le i n a r ea s o f t h e S ahe l , a nd s ow ing ( o f m i l le t ) i sd one a f t e r t h e f i r s t r a in s i n m id June , b u t r e l iance o n r a in -f ed a g r icu l tu r e i sn o t r e a l ly v i ab le u n t i l t h e S udann ic S avanna a r ea i sr e a ched t ot h e s ou th o fG ao ,w he r er a infa l li sg r ea te r( Hodgk in 1 987 :72 , 1 07 ) .

1 . 3 )T he G ao R eg ion .P eop le s : N omad ic p a s to ra l is t s , s eden ta ry a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s a nd f i she rmen c u r r en t ly i n hab i t t h e G ao R eg ion . T he m a jo r i ty a g r icu l tu ra l i s t e t hn ic g roup a r e t h e S ongha i , a nd t h e m a jo r i t y p a s to ra l i s t e t hn ic g roup a r e t h e T ama sheq ( Tua r eg ) . Sma l le r n umbe r s o f p a s to ra l i s t F u lan i ( Peu l ) a nd Moo r s ( Ma l ian A rab s ) a r e a l so f o und . T he m ode rn p opu la t ion o f t h e c i ty o f G ao i s mo r e d i ve r se a nd i sd i s cu s sed b e low ( s ec t ion 1 . 3d ) . 1 . 3a ) T he S ongha i : D awa ( 1 985 :10 ) m ake s t h e i mpo r tan t p o in t t h a t , " I l e s t d if i c i le d e d i s soc i e r l ac i v i l i sa t ion S ongho i d e s on e s pace g dograph ique " . T he h i s to ry o fG ao a nd t h e G ao R eg ion i si n ex t r icab ly l i nked w i th t h e S ongha i a sw i l l b ecome a ppa r en t . T he S ongha i ( Son ra i , S onghay , S ongho i ) a r e a N eg ro e t hn ic g r oup w ho o ccupy t h e r i ve r ine s t r ip a d jacen t t o t h e N ige r f r om j u s t s ou th o f T imbuk tu i n Ma l i t o N or ther n N ige r ia , a nd T r im ingham r ema rk s t h a t t h e S ongha i , " ma rk a z one o f t r an s i t ion f r om t h e Mand e Wo r ld t o t h e C en t ra l S udan " ( 1 959 :15 ) . T he S ongha i l a nguage f o r al o ng t i me r ema ined u nc la s s if ied b u t w a s f i na l ly a s s igned t o t h e N ib S aha ran g r oup ( Hunw ick 1 994 ) . I n 1 975 t h e S ongha i n umbe r ed 2 00 ,000 i n Ma l i , 4 00 ,000 i n N ige r a nd 2 0 ,000 i n B en in ( Cuoq 1 975 :177 ) . W i th in t h e S ongha i e t hn ic g roup f u r the r s ub -g roup s e x i s t ; t h e a r ea c ommenc ing 1 00km s ou th o f G ao i si n hab i ted b y t h e Z e rma ( S e e O l iv ie r d e S a rdan 1 984 ) , w h i l s t t h e S ongha i c ommun i t ie s i n N o r the rn N ige r ia a nd B en in a r e m ade u p o f a no the r s u b -g roup , t h e D end i ( N iezen 1 987 :37 ) . R ouch l i s t s a l l t h e S ongha i a nd r e la ted g roup s a s t h e S ongha i , S o rkawa , D end i , Z e rma , K ou r tey , Woggo , T yenga , G ungawa a nd Ma ranse ( 1 954 :8 ) a nd S ongha i s e t t lemen t i s n o t s o le ly a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e R ive r N ige r . As ma l l S ongha i c ommun i ty e x i s t s i nA gadez i nN ige r , a no the r a tH ombo r i i nt h e C en t r a l

S ongha i o r ig ins a r e u nc lea r . I t h a s b e en s ugge s t ed ( C i s s e 1 975 :165 -6 ) t h a t t h e S ongha i w e r e o r ig ina l ly a S aha ran p eop le f r om t h e A i rr e g ion , w ho , f olow ing c on f l i c t w i th t h e i r n e ighbou r s , l e f tt h e A i r a nd s e t t led w i th in t h e C had b a s in . A t s ome u nk nown d a te , a nd a ga in d ue t oc on f l ic t , t h e S ongha i m ov ed o nce mo re f r om L ake C had t o a n a r ea t h ey n ow i n hab i t , a r ound t h e L abbezenga r a p id s o n t h e Ma l ian N ige r ien B o rde r . T he t r ad i t ion o fS ongha i o r ig ins i sr e co rded i n t h e T a r ikh e l F e t tach ( Kat i 1 913 :41-42 c i ted i n R ouch 1 953 :165 ) , a nd i s e xam ined b y R ouch ( 1953 :196 -9 ) , w ho a r gue s t h a t t h e S ongha i d eve loped f r om c on ta c t a mong f o u r g r oup s ; T he D o o r " Ma s te r s o f t h e w a te r " , t h e G ow o r " ma s t e r s o f t h e s o i l " , t h e S o rko , a nd m ig ra t ing B e rb e r s p r obab ly f r om s ou the rn L ibya ( 1 953 :165 -9 , s e e S t ole r 1 992 :51 -53 f o r ac onven ien t t r ans la t ion ) . Wh i l s t L ev tz ion ( 1 985 :150 ) a nd H unw i ck ( 1966 :124 ) s ugge s t t h a t S o rko m ig ra t ion i n to t h e K uk iya a r ea a nd t h e i r r e su l tan t s up r ema cy o ve rt h e i n d igenous " ma s te r s o ft h e s o i l " , a l l ied w i th af u r the r i n pu t f r om t h e G ow h un te r s , l e d t o t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e S ongha in uc leu s( a ga in a ta n u nknown d a te ) . T he a im o ft h e r e sea r ch w a s n o t t h e i n ve s t iga t ion o fS ongha i o r ig in s , a nd t h e e x i s t ing a r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce d o e s n o t a low a s i gn i f ican t c on t r ibu t ion t o b e m ade t o t h e d eba t e . N eve r the le s s , i tc an b e s t a ted t h a t i ti sp robab le t h a t t h e S ongha i d i d d eve lop o u t o f t h e f u s ion a nd a s s im i la t ion o f a n umbe r o fd i f f e ren t e l emen t s a s s ugge s ted i n t h e t r ad i t ion o f o r ig in s . When a nd w he re t h i s p ro ce s s b egan c anno t a tp r esen t b ea c cu r a t e ly s pec if ied ,a nd t h e d a te a tw h ich t h e S ongha i c an a c tua l ly b e s a id t oe x i s ta s ad i s t inc tp eop le i sa l so d i ff i cu l t t o p i npo in t . T he m a jo r i ty o f t h e S ongha i a r e a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s , g r ow ing s t ap le c r op s s uch a s r i ce a nd m i l le t i n t h e f l oodp la in z one . S ome s ub s i s to n f i sh ing a nd r i ve r ine m amma l h un t ing , w h ich i su nder taken b y as p ec ia l i s t s ub -g roup , t h e S o rko ( s ee L ige r s 1 964 a nd C hap te r 5 , s e c t ion 5 . 6b ) . H un t ing w a s a l so o f i mpo r tance , u nder taken b y a no the r s pe c ia l i s t s ub -g roup , t h e G ow , b u t w i th t h e l a rge -s ca le e x te rm ina t ion o f w i ld l i f e , p r ima r i ly a f te r t h e a r ea w a s c o lon is ed b y t h e F rench i n t h e e a r ly 2 0 th c en tury AD , t h i s c ea sed t o b e a s i gn if ican t o ccupa t ion . P a s to ra l i sm i s n o t p r a c t is ed o n a ny s i gn i f ican t s c a le b y t h e S ongha i . T he m a jo r i ty o f t h e S ongha i t o day a r e n om ina l ly Mu s l im , b u tt ot h e s ou th o fG ao a n im i sm i ss t i l l o f s ome i mpo r tance ( s e eC hap te r7 ,s e c t ion 7 . 3a f o r ad e sc r ip t ion o fS ongha it r ad i t iona lr e l ig ion ) . 1 . 3b )T he T ama sheq ( Tuar eg ) : T he o t he rm a jo re t hn ic g roup i n hab i t ing t h e G ao R eg ion . T hey a r e u sua l ly k nown a s " Tua r eg " ( " fo r saken o ne s " ) , aw o rd p r obab ly g i ven t o t h i s p a s to ra l i s t e t hn ic g roup o f B e rb e r o r ig in b y t h e A rab s . T he T ua r eg s p eak T ama sheq , w h i l s t t h e i r a l phabe t i sk nown a s T if inagh ( We eke s 1 984b :151 ) . T he t e rm T ua r eg w i l l b e e mp loy ed h e r e a s i te n joy s m o r e c ommon u sage . T he T ua r eg

3

f l o ra l a na ly s i s a tt h e K a rka r ich inka t c omp lex h a s s hown t h a t b e tween c a .1950 -1300 BC t h e T i lems i V a l ley w a s r e duc ed d u r ing t h e d r y s e a son t o as e r ie s o f muddy p ond s ( Ta lbo t 1 980 :51 ) . T he s ou thwa rd movemen to fp opu la t ion h ad b egun , a nd b yc a .1000 BC c l ima t ic c ond i t ion sr e semb l ing t h o se o ft h e p r e sen t b ecame e s tab l i shed ( S .K . a nd R . J . Mc In to sh 1 988b :100 ) .

i n hab i tt h e S ahar aa nd S ahe l b e twe en T imbuk tu a nd B i lma i n N ige r , I n -Sa l ih i n A lge r ia a nd K ano i n N ige r ia ( No r r i s 1 975 :1 ) , t h ey n umbe r ( 1 975 ) a pp rox ima t e ly 2 00 ,000 i n Ma l i ( Cuoq 1 975b :178 ) . T ua r eg s o c ie ty i sd i v ided i n to f i ve d i s t inc t s o c ia l c a tego r ie s ; n ob le s ( Ima ja r en ) , v a ssa l s ( e g . I m rad a nd D ebaka r ) , h o lymen o r ma rabou t ( e g . K e lE s suk ) , s l ave s ( L k lan o rB e l la ) , a nd a r t i sans ( I nadan ) ( S .E .Sm i th 1 980 :468 ) . C a t t le o r c ame l h e rd ing i st h e i r p r ima ry e conom ic o c cupa t ion , a nd t h e T ua reg a r e Mu s l im ( s ee Sw i f t 1 975 a nd N ico la i sen 1 963 f o r ad e ta i led e xam ina t ion o fa l la spe c t so fT ua r eg l i f e ) .

W i th t h e e s tabl i shmen t o f d rye r c l ima t i c c ond i t ion s , p e rmanen t s e den ta ry s e t t lemen t s b egan t o b e c l u s te red a l ong t h e N ige r , a nd t h e se a r e d i scus s ed i nC hap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 . 3c . T he s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s o ft o day w e r e e s tabl i shed ; p a s to ra l i s t s i n t h e d r i e r r e g ion s , a nd a g r icu l tu r a l i s t s c oncen t ra t ed a l ong t h e R ive r N ige r . H oweve r , c l ima t i c o s c i l la t ion s h ave o c cu r r ed d u r ing t h el a s tt h r ee m i l lenn ia , l e ad ing t op e r iod sw hen w e t te r

1 . 3c ) T he F u lan i : Sma l l c ommun it i e s o f F u lan i p a s to ra l i s t s i n hab i t t h e G ao R eg ion , p r edom inan t ly b e tween G ao a nd A n songo , t ot h e s ou th o fG ao . N iezen ( 1 987 :36 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h ey c ame t ot h e G ao R eg ion i nt h e 1 9 th c en tu ry AD d ur ing t h e t ime o fU thman D an F od io ' sJ i had ( s ee C hap te r7 ,s e c t ion 7 . 6 ) , a sa ," s p in -of ff r om t h e c en t ra l a r ea o fc onf l i c t w h ich l a y t ot h es ou thea s t " ( I b id ) . T he F u lan ia r e Mu s l im .

c ond i t ion s a ga in p r eva i led , wh ich m u s t h ave h ad a n e f ec t i n t h e G ao R eg ion ; b e tween c a .AD 7 00 -1100 f o r e xamp le ( R .J . a nd S .K . M c In to sh 1 988 :145 ) , a nd a ga in b e twe en t h e 1 6 th 1 8 th c en tu r ie s AD , w hen r a infa l l i n c r ea sed a l ong t h e t r op ica l m a rg in o f t h e S aha ra ( N icho l son 1 980 :175 ) . N eve r the le s s t h e se p e r iod s o fg r ea te r h um id i ty n eve r l e d t o ar e pea t o ft h e c ond i t ion sw h ich e x i s ted b e tween c a .5000 a nd 1 000 BC .

1 . 3d ) Moo rs a nd O ther s : T he Moo r s ( s ome t ime s r e f e r r ed t o a s Ma l ian A rab s ) a r e am ino r i ty i nt h e G ao R eg ion . T hey a r e n omad ic p a s to ra l i s t s , A rab ic s p eak e r s a nd Mu s l ims . Sma l l c ommun i t ie so fH au sa a nd L ebane se m e r chan t s a r e a l so f ound i nG ao i t se l f . B e s ide s t h e ma jo rg roup s ,i n s ign if i can t n umber s o fm o s t o f t h e i mpo r tan t e t hn ic g roup s o ft h e We s t er n S ahe l a nd S udan a r e f ound i nG ao , a s i st ob e e xp ec t ed i n am a jo r a dm in i s t ra t ive a nd c omme rc ia lc en t r e .

1 3 ) AS ummary o ft h eH i s tory o fG ao : H av ing o u t l ined v e ry b r ief ly t h e e v idence f o r t h e e a r l ie s t s e t t lemen t i nt h e G ao R eg ion , i ti sa l so n e ce s sa ry , b y w ay o f i n t roduc t ion , t os umma r i se t h e " o r thodox " h i s to ry o fG ao a nd

1 . 4 )T he Gao R eg ion .E ar l ie s tS e t t lemen t :

i t sr e g ion u n t i li t sc o lon i sa t ion b yt h eF r ench .

T he e a r l ies t o ccupa t ion i n t h e G ao R eg ion i s s t i l l l i t t le u nde r s tood ( Ea r ly S tone A ge ,M idd le S t one A ge ) ,h oweve rt h e G ao R eg ion w a s o ccup ied d u r ing t h e L a te S t one A ge ( h ence fo r th L .S .A . ) d a t ed t o 5 000 -1000 BC ( K .Ma cDona ld p e r s .c omm . ) .P e rmanen ts eden ta ry o ccupa t ion o ft h e f a r -no r th o ft h e G ao R eg ion w a s p o s s ib le o w ing t ot h e w e t te r c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s w h ich p r eva i led p r io r t o c a .1000 -500 BC , t h e p r e sen t S aha ran e nv i ronmen t t h en r e s emb led a S ahe l ian o ne . L ak e s e x i s ted i n w ha t i sn ow t h e S aha ra , a s i n t h e A zawad b a s in . T o q uo te S .K . a nd R . J . Mc In to sh ( 1988b :94 ) , " t he " Sahel ian ized " S aha ra s uppo r ted w ide sp r ead h uman o ccupa t ion f r om 5 000 BC u n t i lc a .2000 1000 BC " .

O u r k now ledge o f t h e e a r l ie s t h i s to ry o f t h e G ao R eg ion i s b a s ed u pon t wo s ou r ce s ; o ra l t r ad i t ion , " u n m e lange i n ex t r i cab le d ef a i t s r e e l s o u i r ree l s " ( Rouch 1 953 :16 1 ) , a nd t h e S ongha i C h ron ic le s w r i t ten i n A rab ic , mo s t n o tab ly t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry AD ,T a r ikh e sS oudan a nd T ar ikh e lF e t tach ( E s S a 'd i 1 900 ,K a t i 1 9 13 ) .B yt h e7 t hc en tu ry AD ,t h ef i r s tc ap i ta l o f ap ro to -Songha i n a t ion w a se s tab l i shed a tK uk iya , n ea rt h e L abb ezenga r a p id s ( Hunw ick 1 966 :125 . A l a rge ly u n inve s t iga ted a r chaeo log ica l s i te d o e s e x is t a t B en t iya , t h e p r e sumed s i te o fK uk iya ( s e e C hap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 . 3b ) . H e r e , c on t a c t s b e twe en B e rb e r s a nd S ongha i s uppo sed ly i n t roduced t h e l a t t e rt ot r an s -Saha ran t r ade a nd s t imu la ted a mong t h em a m o r e c ohe s ive p o l i t ica l o r gan i sa t ion ( Lev t z ion 1 985 :150 ) . K uk iya w a sa l so i nt h e7 t h -8 th c en tu r ie s AD , a cco rd ing t oE s S a 'd i ( 1 900 :4 -9 ) , t h e a u tho r o f t h e T a r ikh E s -Soudan , " t he c r ad le o ft h e f i r s t S ongha i d yna s ty " , t h e Z a o r D ia ( Hunw ick 1 985a :5 ) . A g r oup a s c r ibed C h r i s t ian B e rbe r o r ig ins b y D e la f o s se ( 1 912 , c i ted i n R ouch 1 953 :169 ) , o r a l te rna t ive ly , a c co rd ing t o I s lam i c t r ad i t ion , Y emen i o r ig in s ( Hunw ick

D ev i ss e a nd V er ne t ( 1 993 :19 ) m ake t h e p o in t t h a t , b e tween c a .2500 -500 BC , t h e S aha ran l a ke s b egan t od ry u p a nd a s a c on sequence r i ve r s , a nd o t he r p r inc ipa l w a te r cou r s e s , b e came m o r e i mpor tan t t om an . A n e xamp le o fs u ch aw a te r cou r se i s t h e T i lems i V a l ley , ar e l ic t c hanne l a c t ive d ur ing p a r t s o ft h e H o lo cene , w h ich r un s f r om t h e R ive r N ige r a t G ao t o t h e A d ra rd e s I f o ra s ,a nd a l ong w h ich s i te sd a t ing f r om t h eL .S .A . a r e f o und ( Gau s sen a nd G au s sen 1 962 , T a lbo t 1 980 :45 ) . O ne s u ch s i te c omp lex i st h a t o fK a rka r ich inka t N or th a nd S ou th , 8 5km n or th o f G ao , w h ich t h e e xcava to r A .B . Sm i th h a s a r gued w a s u s ed b y t h e e a r l ie s t p a s to ra l i s t s o ccupy ing t h e S ahe l ( 1 992 :131 ) , a nd w he r e c u l t iva t ion f o rmed p a r t o f a d i ve r s if ied p a s to ra l e conomy , a l ong s ide t h e u t i l i sa t ion o fw i ld r e sou r ce s ( S .K . a nd R .J . Mc In to sh 1 988b :100 ) . F auna l a nd

1 966 :125 ) . F olow ing t h ee s tabl i shmen to ft h e Z ad yna s ty , t h e S o rko w e r e p u shed o u t o ft h e K uk iya a r ea a nd a bou t AD 6 90 f o unded a s e t t lemen t i n t h e v i c in i ty o f G ao ( Rouch 1 953 :172 a nd s e e C hap te r 3 ,s e c t ion 3 . 2c f o r ad i scu ss ion o ft h e f i r s t s e t t lemen t i n G ao ) . T he re i st h en a g ap i n e ven t s a nd t h e n a r ra t ive r e commence s w i th t h e s t a r t o f t h e A r ab ic h i s to r ica l s o u r ce s 4

b eg inn ing i nt h e l a te 9 th c en tu ry AD . T he p e r iod b e tween AD 9 00 -1250 i se xam ined i n d e ta i l i n t he f o l low ing c hap te r s a nd n eed n o t b e a n t ic ipa ted h e re , e xcep t t om en t ion t h a t G ao w a s k nown a s K awkaw ( Gawgaw , J aw jaw ) t o t h e e a r ly A rab ic h i s to r ians a nd g eog rapher s , a nd i ss t il k nown a s G awgaw t o t h e T ua reg t o day . T he T ua reg t e rm G awgaw i sp o s s ib ly t h e o r ig in o f K awkaw , a nd i s n o t ad i s to r t ion o f t h e S ongha i p ronunc ia t ion ,G aawo ( Fa r ia s ,p er s .c omm . ) .

T he Mo roc can a rmy r eached t h eR ive r N ige r i nt h e v i c in i ty o f moder n B amba 2 0 w eek s a f t e r s e t t ing of . Af t e r r e s t ing , t h e a rmy h eaded s ou th t owa rd G ao , a nd w a s h a r r ied b y b o th T ua r eg r a ide r sa nd S ongha i t r oop s . A tT ond ib i ,5 0km n or th o f G ao , A sk ia I s ha l c , t h e S ongha i r u le r , m e t t h e Mo roccan f o r ce s i nc omba t . T he S ongha i a rmy , t hough l a rge r i nn umbe r s , w a s d ef ea ted a nd t h e r emnan t s f l ed s ou th , a nd t h e Mo roccan s e n te r ed G ao ( Bov i l l 1 968 ) . T he c ap tu r e o fG ao p roved t ob e a d i sappo in tmen t t ot h e Mo roc cans , w ho f ound o n ly ac i ty b u i l t o f mud b r ick a nd e xh ib i t ing n one o f t h e w ea l th t h ey h ad

B yt h e m id -13 th c en tu ry AD ,t h e h i s tor ica ls ou rce s t e l l u s t h a t t h e i nc rea s ing p ro sper i ty o fG ao a t t ra c ted t h e a t ten t ion o f i t s

e xpec ted t o f i nd . ( Su r fa ce c olec t ion d ur ing a r chaeo log ica l

w e s te rn n e ighbou r , t he e mp i re o f Ma l i , w h ich e x tended c on t ro l o ve r t he Gao R eg ion . L ev tz ion ( 1985 :152 )

s u rvey c on f i rms t h i s , w i th n o i mpo r t s , g l azed p o t te ry o r g l a s s , d a t ing f r om t h i sp e r iod b e ing f ound . )

c onven ien t ly s umma r ises e ven t s a t t h i s j unc tu re : t h e G ao R eg ion w a s ar emo te p rov ince a nd p e r iod ica l ly managed t o t h row o ft h e y oke o f Ma l ian o ve r lo rd sh ip . O ne s uch r ebe ll ion

A t ten t ion s wung a way f r om G ao t o T imbuk tu , w h ich t h e Mo roc can s made t h e i r ma jo r c en t r e i n t h e We s te rn S ahe l .

a r ound AD 1 275 l ed t o t h e r i se o f t h e S onn i d yna s ty , w h ich

H unw ick ( 1985b :367 ) make s t h e p o in t t ha t , " t he S ongha i

r e p laced t h eZ ad yna s ty . T he a r ea , h oweve r , w a s b rough t b ack

e mp i re s ank w i th s ca r ce ly ar i pp le " , a nd w i th i tG ads r o le a s

u nde r Ma l ian c on t ro l , a nd w a s v i s i ted b y t h e Ma l ian e mpe ro r Mansa Musa o nh i s way b ack f r om p i lg r image t o Mecca i nt h e m id -14 th c en tury AD .

a n e n tr epo t . G ao w a s u sed a s a g a rr ison t own b y t h e Mo roccan s , a nd H odgk in ( 1987 :99 , 4 35 ) a rgues t ha t t h e s ou thwa rd m ig ra t ion o f t h e I u l lem inden a nd T ademeke t T ua reg f r om t h e Ad ra r d e s I f or a s i n t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry AD

F rom t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e 1 5 th c en tu ry AD , Ma l i c ou ld n o

c on t r ibu ted t ot h e c omp le te c hange i np owe rr e la t ions a nd t h e

l o nge r s e cu r e i t s e as te rn p rov ince s , a nd G ao o nce a ga in

d eve lopmen t o f an omad p i l lage e conomy w i th in t h e r eg ion .

a ch ieved f u l l i ndependence . T he S onn i r u le r s b u i l t u p t h e i r m i l i tar y p owe r , a nd i n AD 1 420 t h e S ongha i t h emse lve s r a ided p a r t o f Ma l i . I n t h e m id -15 th c en tu ry AD , S ongha i

I mmense u pheava l w as f e l t i n t h e G ao R eg ion , N iezen ( 1987 :62 ) s ugge s t s t ha t s oc ia l a nd r el ig iou s d if e r ence s a mongs t t h e a n im i s t a nd Mus l im S ongha i i n c rea sed , a nd

t e r r i to r ia l e xpans ion b egan h e re , a nd u nde r S onn i A l i t h e

S ongha i s o c ie ty b a s ica l ly s pl i t

G rea t t h e S ongha i K ingdom w as e xpanded i n to a n e mp i r e ( Lev t z ion 1 985 :152 ) . S onn i A l i d ied i n AD 1 492 , a nd w a s

D awa ( 1 985 :10 ) d esc r ib e s a s t h e a u then t ic a nd r e s is tan t S ongha i i n t h e s ou th ( b e low A n songo ) . T hese " t rue " S ongha i o f t en b ea r t h e s urname "Ma iga " , w h i l s t t h e d e scendan t s o ft h e Mo roccan s , t h e Anna ( f rom R uma , t h e Mo roc can muske tee r s [ N iezen 1 987 :61 ] ) , h ave t h e s urname " Tou r e " ( C i ss e 1 975 :165 ) .

s u cceed ed b y o ne f i na l S onn i r u le r ( Rouch 1 953 :186 ) , b e fo r e t h e mo s t f amou s o f t h e S ongha i r u ler s c ame t op owe r , A sk ia Muhammad , w ho a ssumed p owe r i n AD 1 493 , a nd f ound ed t h e l a s t S ongha i d yna s ty , t ha t o f t h e A sk ia s . A sk ia Muhammed c on t inued t oa dd t e r r i to ry t ot h e S ongha i e mp i r e , b o th a t t h e e xpense o f t h e n ow d ecayed Ma l ian Emp i r e , a s w el a s a dd ing p rev iou s ly i ndependen t t e r r i to r ies . B o rgu i n N o r ther nN iger ia , t h e Mos s i a nd H au sa s t a te s ,a nd t h e T ua r eg w ere a l lt h ef o cus o fS ongha im i l i ta ry a c t iv i ty ; a ti t s max imum e x ten t

t h e

S ongha i

e mp i re

c ove r ed

1 , 400 ,000

i n to t wo g roup s , w i th w ha t

I n AD 1 770 G ao w a s t a ken b y t h e T ua reg , a nd i n AD 1 854 i t w a s f ound t o b e l a rge ly d e se r ted a nd a m e re s hadow o f i t s f o rme r s e l f w hen v i s i ted b y B a r th ( s ee C hap te r 4 , s e c t ion 4 . 3c i ) . E ven t s h ad l e f t G ao a nd i t s r e g ion b eh ind a nd i th ad b ecome r e lega ted t o t h e p er iphery . F rench c onque s t o f t h e

s qua r e

k i lome t r e s ( s ee Hunw ick 1 985b f o r ad e ta i led a na ly s i s o f

r e g ion b egan i n AD 1 894 w i th t h e c ap tu r e i n t h e w e s t o f

S ongha id u r ing t h i sp e r iod ) .

T imbuk tu , a nd a c onven t ion w a s s i gned i n G ao i n AD 1 909 ( Tou r e 1 992 :6 ) .

A sk ia Muhammed d i ed i n AD 1 538 , h av ing b e en d epo sed i n AD 1 528 a nd a p e r iod o f d e s truc t ive i n -f igh t ing o ve r s ucce s s ion r i gh t s a nd p ower e nsued ( Bov i l l 1 968 :140 ) . A

1 . 6 ) I s lam :

n umbe r o f r u ler s f olowed A sk ia Muhammed , b u t n one p o sse s sed h i s a b i l i t ies a nd t r oub le b egan t o d eve lop . T he H ausa s t a tes r evo l ted , a nd i n AD 1 582 t h e Mo roc can S u l tan

W i th in t h e c on tex t o f i n t roduc ing t h e r e sea rch i t i s a l so n e ces sa ry b r ief ly t o i n t roduce I s lam , i t s o r ig ins a nd e a r ly

o b ta ined c on t ro lo ft h e s a l td epo s i t s a tT eghaza i nt h e S aha ra , n o r th o fG ao ( Dav id son 1 990 :82 ) . T h is w a s ap o r ten tous e ven t a nd i n AD 1 590 aw e l l -equ ipped Mo roccan a rmy o f4 000 m en

h i s to ry ,t h ep r inc ip le s o ft h e Mu s l im f a i th , a nd t h e s choo l s a nd s e c t s i n to w h ich i ti sd iv ided .

w a s d e spa tched s ou th t o c onque r S ongha i . T h i s f o r ce w a s

1 . 6a ) T he Or ig ins o f I s lam a nd i t s I n i t ia l S pread t oN or th

c ompo sed o f T u rk s , S pan ish a nd Mo ro ccan Moo r s , a nd p r isone r s o f w a r w ho w ished t o r edeem t h emse lve s . Mo s t i mpo r tan t ly t h ey w e re e qu ipped w i th f i r ea rms a nd c annon m anned b y C hr is t ian g unne r s ( Bov i l l 1 968 , H unw ick 1 985b :364 ) .

A f r ica : T he Mu s l im r e l ig ion o r ig ina ted i n t h e A rab ian P en insu la w hen t h e P rophe t Muhammed ( b .ca .AD 5 70 d .AD 6 32 ) , a n A rab t r ade r f r om Mecca a nd t h e l a s t , a nd mo s t i mpor tan t , t h e s ea l , o f t h e p rophe t s , r e ce ived h i s f i r s t r eve la t ion f r om God i n AD 6 10 . ( I ts hou ld b er emembe red t h a t 5

a nd t h e S h r i t e s ( f olowe r s o f A l i , t h e a s s a s s ina ted f ou r th C a l iph , a nd h i s d e s cendan t s ) . T hey d eve loped f r om t h e m id 7 t h c en tu r y AD , o u t o f c onf l ic t s o ve r t h e n a tu r e a nd t h e l e g i t ima t e i d en t i ty o f t h e C a l ipha t e ( t he h i ghe s t p o l i t ica l a u tho r i ty i nI s lam a nd t h e p rophe t ' s s u c ces so ra sl e ade r o ft h e Mu s l ims ) . I th a s a l r eady b e en s t a ted t h a t S unn i so ft h e Ma l ik i s c hoo lp r edom ina t e w i th in t h e We s t er nS ahe l , a nd t h e s ame i s t r ue i nt h e G ao R eg ion . S h i ' i te c ommun i t ie s n eve r a ppea r t o h ave e x i s t ed i n t h e r e g ion a nd a r e n o t f ound t o day ( s e e C hap te r 5 , s e c t ion 5 . 7a f o r ad i s cu s s ion o f t h e v a ry ing i mpo r tance o ft h eI s lam ic s e c t sb e twe en AD 9 00 -1250 ) .

t h e Mu s l im c a lenda r d oe s n o t b eg in u n t i l AD 6 22 , w i th t h e m ove f r om Mecca t o Med ina b y Muhammed a nd h i sf olowe r s , k nown a s t h e h id j ra [ Dawood 1 993 :1 , E l -Fa s i 1 992 :16 -17 ] ) . T he c on t inuou s s t ream o f r eve la t ion s w h ich Muhammed r e ce ived i nt h ef o rm o fv e r se s ,a r ea r ranged i nc hap t e r s ( S ura ) , a nd t h e 14 S u ra t o ge the r f o rm t h e K o r an , " t he p r e cep t s a nd p r inc ip le s ( o f w h ich ) f o rm t h e b a s i s o f t h e I s lam ic f a i th " ( I b id :18 ) . B y t h e t i me Muhammad d i ed i n AD 6 32 , I s lam h ad s p r ead t h roughou t m o s t o f A rab ia . W i th in t h e s pace o f af ew y ea r s , t h e n ew ly I s lam i zed n omad ic A rab t r ibe s h ad s p r ead o u t o f A rab ia ,c onque r ing al a rge a r ea . T he f i r s t c oun t ry i n vad ed i n A f r ica w a sE gyp t , w h ich w a se n t er ed i n AD 6 39 a nd o ccup ied i n AD 6 41 , w hen t h e l a s t B yzan t ine g a r r i son e va cua ted A lexand r ia . T he s t age w a s s e t f o r t h e c onque s t o f t h e Magh reb , w h ich b egan w i th a p r epa ra to ry e xped i t ion i n to w ha t i sn ow L ibya i n AD 6 47 ; w i th t h e f i r s t I s lam i c p r ov inc e i nN or th A f r ica , I f r iq iya ( A f r ica ) , c ove r ing t h e a r ea , m o r e o r l e s s , o f p r e sen t d ay T un is ia a nd c en t r ed a r ound t h e c i ty o f K a i rouan f ounded i n AD 6 70 ( Mone s 1 992 :122 -123 ) . T he c onque s t o f N o r th A f r ica b y t h e A r ab s w a s c omp le te b y AD 7 11 a nd S pa in w a s c ap tu red b e twe en AD 7 11 a nd 7 12 . H oweve r , t h e p ro ce s s o f I s lam iza t ion o f t h e n a t ive B e rb e r i n hab i tan t s o fN or th A f r ica w a s n o t c omp le ted u n t i l t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD ( H rb ek a nd E l -Fa s i 1 992 :37 ) .

A nI s lam i c s e c tw ho w e r e o fi mpo r ta nce i nt h e We s t e rn S ahe l a r e t h e K ha r id j i te s , w ho a r e i n t u rn d i v ided i n to an umbe r o f s ub se c t s , f o r e xamp le , t h e N ukk ar i t e s , S uf r i te s a nd l b ad i t e s . T he K ha r id j i te s w e r e d emoc ra t ic i no u t look , a nd b el i ev ed t h a t a nyone c ou ld b ee l e c ted h ead o ft h e Mu s l im c ommun i ty , i fh e , " p o s se s sed t h e n e ce s sa ry q ua l if ica t ion s o fp i e ty , i n teg r i ty a nd r e l ig iou s k now ledge " ( E l -Fa s i 1 992 :23 ) . K ha r id j i te , n ame ly I b ad i te , b el i e f s w e r e o nce e x tan t i n t h e G ao R eg ion ( S ee C hap t e r s 4 , s e c t ion 4 . 3c iü a nd 5 . s e c t ion 5 . 7a ) . l bad i c ommun i t ie s s t i l l e x i s ti nN or th A f r ica , a sa tD je rba I s land i n T un i s ia , a nd i n t h e Mzab a r ea o f A lge r ia , b u t a l l t r a ce o f l b ad i t eb el i e f si nt h eG ao R eg ion h ave d i sappea red . A r e cen t I s lam ic m ovemen t o r g r oup w h ich s hou ld b e m en t ioned h er e i st h e Wahhab iyya , w h ich i sg a in ing g round i nt h eG ao R eg ion s i nce i t si n t roduc t ion i n to Ma l ii nt h e 1 930 s ( Imp e ra to 1 986 ,N iezen 1 987 ) . T he g roup d eve loped i nA rab ia i nt h e 1 8 th c en tury AD a sa na n t i -Su f i m ovemen t ,a nd N iezen ( 1 987 :2 ) w ho h a s s t ud ied t h e e f e c t s o f t h e Wahhab iyya m ovemen t i n G ao i n d e ta i l , c l as se s i ta s e spou s ing " r ad ica l r e fo rm " ,b yt e a ch ing t h a t t h e w o r sh ip a nd v ene ra t ion o fp i ou s m en ( ma r abou t so rs a in t s ) m u s tb ea vo id ed .T h i s i si n te r es t ing a s t h e i mpo r tance o f S u f i b ro the rhood s a nd t h e " c u l t o f t h e s a in t s " h a s i n c r ea sed i n t h e Wes te rn S ahe l s i nce t h e 1 9 th c en tu r y AD ( T r im ingham 1 962 :158 -9 ) . T he p opu la r i ty o ft h e Wahhab iy ya r ep r e sen t s a no the r s t age i n t h e d eve lopmen t o f I s lam i nt h e G ao R eg ion , w h ich w i l l n o tb e o u t l ined h e r e a si t

1 . 6b ) T he F ive P i l lar s : T he e s s en t ia lp r inc ip le so ft h e I s lam ic f a i th a s c on ta ined i n t h e K o ran . T he f i r s t i st h e c r edo o r S hahada , " The r e i sn o g od b u t God a nd Muhammed i st h e P rophe t o f G od " ; w h ich i s t h e e xp r e s s ion o f a b so lu te mono the i sm . T he s e cond i sr i tua l p r aye r f i ve t i me s ad ay i n t h e d i re c t ion o f Me cca ( Sa la t ) . T he t h i rd i st h e f a s t ( S aum ) i n t h e t e n th mon th o f t h e l u na r y ea r , R amadan . T he f o u r th i s Z aka t , g i v ing b e twe en 2 . 5 -10% o f o ne ' s w ea l th t ot h e n eedy . T he f i f th i sH ad jd j ,p i lg r image t o Mecca . 1 . 6 c ) I s lam ic L aw a nd L ega l S choo l s : T he K o ran a l so c on ta in s p roh ib i t ion s a nd r e commenda t ion s f o r e v e ryday l i f e , f o r e xamp le , p o rk a nd a l coho l a r e f o rb idden a nd a m an i s r e s t r ic t ed t o f ou r l e ga l w ive s . S harra , I s lam i c l aw , w a s c od i f i ed b e tween t h e 8 t h -9 th c en tu r ie s AD ,a nd d r aw s u pon a s s ou r ce st h eK oran a nd t h eH ad i th , t h e s a y ing sa nd p r a c t ice so f t h e P rophe t Muhammed . D if f e ren t a pp roa che s i nd r aw ing u p t h e l aw l e d t o t h e e me rgence o f f o u r l e ga l s c hoo l s , ( Madhab ib ) ; t h e H anaf i , Ma l ik i , S ha f ii a nd H anba l i , a l l o f w h ich a r e S unn i ( E l -Fa s i 1 992 :20 -2 1 ) ( s ee b e low ) . O f i mpo r ta nce i nt h e Wes te rn S ahe l i st h e Ma l ik i s c hoo l , w h ich p r edom ina te s t h roughou t We s t ern a nd N or ther n A f r ica , a nd w h ich e spou se s r e la t ive ly f o rma l i s t ic d o c t r ine s ( D raman i I s s i fou 1 992 :51) .

i sd i scu s s ed i nd e ta i l t h roughou tt h ef olow ing c hap te r s .

1 . 6d ) T he I s lam ic G roup s a nd S ec t s : W i th in t h e Mu sl im c ommun i ty t h e r e a r e an umb e r o fd i f f e r en t g r oup s a nd s e c t s . w h ich p r ima r i ly d eve loped d ue t op o l i t ica lr e a son s( s ee E l -Fa s i 1 992 :22 -24 a nd L ap idu s 1 988 :58 f o r g r ea te r d e ta i l o n d eve lopmen ta nd d o c t r ina l d i f f e rence s ) . T he t wo m a jo rg r oup s a r e t h eS unn i ,t h ea dhe ren t so fS unna ( t he w ay o ft h ep r ophe t ) , 6

t r ave l s i n t h e Gourma , t h e U ppe r L ake s R eg ion a nd a l ong t h e N ige r B end , h e c olec t ed e t hnog raph ic , a n th ropo log ica l

C hap ter 2 :E xcava t ions a nd S urvey s c onduc ted i nt he G ao R eg ion 1 900 -1993 .

a nd a r chaeo log ica l d a ta ( De sp lagne s 1 903 , 1 907 , 1 951 ; L ebeuf a nd P aques 1 970 ) . T he p ionee r ing r e sea r ch o f D e sp lagne s i si mpor tan t , b ecau se a s w e l l a s e xcava t ing t h e 2 . 1 ) G enera lI n troduc t ion :

t umu l i o f K i l l i a nd E l -Oua lad j i , h e p rov ide s ab ody o f e t hnograph ic a nd a r chaeo log ica l d a ta o n I s lam ic a nd p re -

T h i s c hap te r s umma r ises t h e r e su l t s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch p ro jec t s w h ich h ave b een c onduc ted p r io r t o t h e a u tho r ' so wn f i e ldwo rk w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion b e tween 1 900 a nd 1 993 .T h is r e sea r ch h a sn o tb een e x ten s ive ,a nd , f o rt h i s r e a son , t h e f i e ldwo rk o f t h e f ew a r chaeo log i s t s a nd

I s lam ic b u r ia l p ra c t ice s a nd f unera ry monumen t s i nt h e G ao R eg ion ,w h ich e mpha s ize s t h e c omp lex i ty o fb u r ia l p ra c t ice s i nt h e G ao R eg ion a nd i lus tra tes t ha t Mu s l im b u r ia l r i tua l s c an a l so b e v a r ied . D e sp lagnes a l so p rov ide s f i r s t -hand o b serva t ion o n t h e s i te s o fG ao Anc ien a nd B en t iya /Kuk iya , a nd o n an umbe r o f " A te l ier s " s i tua ted b e twe en R he rgo a nd

h i s to r ians w ho h ave wo rked i n t h e G ao R eg ion w i l l b e c on s ide red s epa ra te ly a nd c h rono log ica l ly . T he se v a r iou s p ro jec t s h ave b e en d r iven b y v e ry d i f f e ren t r e sea r ch a ims ,

L abbezenga o nt h eN ige r .

a nd c onduc ted u s ing v e ry d i f f e ren t m e thodo log ie s , af a c to r w h ich j u s t if ie s t h e a pp roach h e re e mp loyed . F ur the rmo re ,

2 . 2b ) G .R .D e G ironcour t , 1 908 -1909 , 1 911 -1912 .

t h e r e -exam ina t ion a nd p re sen ta t ion o fF l igh t ' s u npub l i shed f i e ld -no te s f r om h i s e xcava t ion s a nd s u rvey s a t t h e s i te o f

G .R . d e G i roncou r t u nde r took t wo e xped i t ion s w h ich a r e o f g r ea t i mpo r tance t ot h e s t udy o ft h e a r chaeo logy o fI s lam i n t h e G ao R eg ion , o n a ccoun t o f t h e l a rge b ody o f A rab ic i n scr ip t ion s h e c o l lec ted . D ur ing t h e c ou r se o f t h e 1 908 1 909 e xped i t ion D e G i roncou r t made ap re l im inary v i s i t t o B en t iya /Kuk iya a nd mapped t h e N ige r B end , w h ich r e su l ted i n t h e p roduc t ion o f t h e f i r s t 1 : 500 0 00 map o f t h e r e g ion

G ao -Saney ( s ee s ec t ion s 2 . 7d , 2 . 7e , 2 . 70 d emand s a mo re p e r sona l ized a pp roach . T he G ao R eg ion ( f o r t h e p u rpo se s o f d i scu s s ing p r ev iou s a r chaeo log ica l f i e ldwo rk ) , c ove r s b o th b ank s o f t h e R ive r N ige r f r om B ou rem t o t h e n o r th o f G ao , s ou thwa rd s t ot h e v i l lage o fB en t iya , wh ich i sl o ca ted b e low A n songo , c l o se t o t h e Ma l i /N ige rf r on t ie r ( F igu re 1 . 1 ) . T h i s a r ea i sc ove r ed b y t h e I ns t i tu t G gograph ique N a t iona l ( Hence fo r th I .G .N . ) ,

( De G i roncou r t 1 913 , F a r ia s 1 992 :116 ) . T he s e cond e xped i t ion b egan i n O c tobe r 1 911 , a nd t wo o f D e G i roncou r t ' s s t a ted o b je c t ive s ( 1920 :136 ) w e r e t h e

1 : 200 0 00 s hee t s G ao ( NE -30 -V I ) , G ao -E s t ( NE -31 -1) , a nd

i n ves t iga t ion o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins i nt h e Ad ra rd e s I f o ra s a nd t h e G ao R eg ion , a nd t h e e xam ina t ion o f t h e

A nsongo ( ND -31-X IX ) . T he s i te o f G ao -Saney w h ich i s

A rab ic e p ig raphy o f t h e N ige r V a l ley a nd a d jacen t a r ea s

l o ca ted w i th in t h e a r ea c ove r ed b y t h e s hee t , G ao -E s t , i s d i scussed s epa ra te ly b eg inn ing i ns e c t ion 2 . 6b e low .

( Fa r ia s 1 992 :116 ) . D e G i roncour t t r ave l led i n Ma s ina , a nd i na nd a round B ou rem a nd G ao , t h e T i lems i V a l ley , a nd t h e A d ra r d e s I f o ra s . 8 12 r ubb ings o f A rab ic a nd T i f inagh i n sc r ip t ion s ,a nd al a rge n umbe r o fA rab ic manu scr ip t s w e r e c o l lec ted . T hese h ave n eve r b e en p ubl i shed b u t a r e n ow b e ing s t ud ied b y D r P .F . d e Morae s F a r ia s o ft h e C en t re o f Wes tA f r ican S tud ies ,t h eU n ive r s i ty o fB i rm ingham .

A rchaeo log ica l s u r face s u rvey c ove r w i th in t h i s r e g ion h a s b e en v e ry u neven . A n umbe r o f f a c to r s , s uch a s t h e i n hosp i ta l i ty o ft h e t e r ra in a nd t h e c l ima te , h ave m ean t t h a t t h e a r ea i mmed ia te ly b o rder ing t h eR ive rN ige rh a s r e ce ived t h e mos t a t ten t ion f r om a r chaeo log i s t s . Mo re r e cen t ly , t h e i n secu re s i tua t ion i n t h e G ao R eg ion , r e su l t ing f r om t h e a f terma th o ft h e T ua reg r ebe l l ion h a s s ever e ly r e s t r ic ted t h e a r ea s i n w h ich a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch c an s a f e ly h e c onduc t ed , mak ing f u r the r r eg iona l s u rvey v e ry d i ff i cu l t t o

D e G i roncou r t a l so r e co rded t h e l o ca t ions o f 5 5 Mu sl im c eme t er ies ( F igu re 2 . 1) a nd p rov ided t h e f i r s t a nd t h e mo s t d e ta i led d e scr ip t ion s o f t h e Mus l im c eme t er ie s a t

u nder take a t p resen t . Away f r om t h e r i ve r , t h e T i lems i V a l ley w h ich h a si t s mou th a tG ao ,h a s a l so b een t h e s ub je c t o f s ome a r chaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion , b u t t h i s h a s b een m a in ly c oncen t ra ted u pon much e a r l ie r p reh i s to r ic s i t es , w h ich a r e n o t t h e f o cu s o f d i scus s ion h e re , b u t w i l l b e m en t ioned ,b yw ay o fb a ckg round ,w he re n ece ss a ry .

E ssuk /Tadmekka a nd B en t iya /Kuk iya ,a sw e l l a s aw ea l th o f s upp lemen ta ry f une ra ry d a ta . A p o in t o f c au t ion s hou ld b e n o ted . A t p r esen t t h e d a ta p resen t ed i n D e G i roncou r t ' s ( 1920 :312 -31 ) m ap ( a nd s e e F igu re 2 . 1) , a nd i n h i s s i te l i s t i s" r aw " d a ta ; am ix o fb o th m ed ieva l a nd modern d a ta . T he f u l l p o ten t ia l o f t h e d a ta w i l l n o t b e r ea l ised u n t i l a l l t h e i n scr ip t ion s h ave b e en t r ans la ted , a nd a c eme t e ry c h rono logy e s tab l ished , w h ich c anno t b e d one u n t i l t h e D e G i roncou r t c o rpus i sp ub l i shed . Van B e r chem ( 1920 :355 -6 ) make s av e ry r e levan t p o in t a bou t t h e i n scr ip t ion s c olec ted

2 . 2 )A r chaeo log ica lS urveys I nt he G ao R eg ion :

b yD eG i roncou r t ,a nd t h e i rp o ss ib le i mpo r tance ; 2 . 2a ) L .D esp lagnes , 1 903 . " I I e s t d onc c er ta in q ue l e s ma t& iaux r appor t& p ar M . d e G i roncour t c ons t i tuen t u ne s ource p rgc ieuse e te n t i2remen t n ouve l le p our l ' h i s to i re d e l ' I s lam a u N iger . . . .. 1 s e ra p os s ib le s ans d ou te , p ar l ' examen

T he f i r s t v i s i to r t or e co rd p r ec i se ly h i s o b se rva t ions o f t h e a n t iqu i t ies o f t h e G ao R eg ion t h i s c en tu ry w a s L ieu tenan t L ou i s D e sp lagne s . D ur ing t h e c ou r se o f D esp lagne ' s

7

2 . 2c )R . Mauny , 1 950 .

c ompa re d e s d a tes m or tua i res , d e r e t racer l a m a rche d e l ' i nvas ion n u s su lmane d u S ahara v e r s l eg o lf e d e G u ined e t d ' en f i x er p eu t -i t r e l 'eoque a pprox ima t iv e" .

Mauny u nde r took as u r vey o ft h e a r chaeo log ica lr ema ins i n t h e v i c in i ty o fG ao i n 1 950 . T he f o cu s o f t h i s s u r vey w a s G ao A nc ien , w he re h e a l so c onduc ted e xcava t ion s , t h e r e su l t s o fb o th t h e e xcava t ion s a nd t h e s u rvey a r e d i scu s sed r e sp ec t ive ly i n s e c t ion 2 . 5 a nd C hap te r 3 , s e c t ion 3 . 2b . Mauny a l so i n ve s t iga ted t h e t e la nd c eme te ry a tG ao -Saney , t h er e su l t so fw h ich a r e d i scu s sed i ns e c t ion s 2 . 6c a nd 2 . 7c . T he d a ta Mauny ( 1 951 ) p rov ide s i so fg r ea t i mpo r tance , a s h i s w a s t h e f i r s t a nd mo s t d e ta i led s u rvey ( un t i l t h a t o ft h e c u r r en t a u tho r ) w h ich h a s b een c onduc ted i n G ao A nc ien .

A s w i th t h e d a ta p rov ided b y D e sp lagne s , t h e o b se rv a t ion s o fD e G i roncou r t ( 1920 ) i lu s t ra te t h e d i ve r s i ty o ff u ne ra ry monumen t s f ound i n t h e G ao R eg ion . H i s w a s t h e f i r s t s u rv ey o ft h e a r chaeo logy o ft h e r eg ion a nd i sc e r ta in ly s t il t h e m o s t d e ta i led i n ven to ry o fe p ig r aph ic d a ta , a n e xe r c i se w h ich w ou ld b ed i ff icu l ti fn o ti mpo s s ib le t or epea tt o day ,a s a r e su l t o f d i spe r sa l , l o s s a nd d e s truc t ion .

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F igu r e 2 . 1 . C eme te r ie s r e co rded b y D e G i roncou r t o n t h e N ige r B end a nd i n t h e Ad ra r d e s I f or a s ( f rom D eG i roncou r t 1 920 :16 1 ) .

8

f r e t ior

i s ac eme te ry o r s e t t lemen t o r b o th , e ven t hough t h e a ccompany ing s i te d escr ip t ion m ay c on ta in i n fo rma t ion w h ich a l low s m o re d e ta i led i n te rp re ta t ion . S im i la r ly , a d e f in i te mu l t i -func t ion s i te i so f t en n o t b roken d own i n to i t s i n d iv idua l c omponen t s f o r t a bu la t ion , w h ich means t ha t a c eme te ry a nd s e t t lemen t s i te w i l l g e t c l a s sed a s ac eme t e ry a l one , o r v i ce -ve r sa . D awa ( 1985 :104 ) i d en t if ied 5 9 s i te s ,

2 . 2d ) F .I roko ,c a .1970 -74 . D ur ing t h e c ou r se o f d oc to ra l r e sea r ch , I r oko , as t uden t o f R aymond Mauny , v i s i ted b o th G ao a nd B en t iya /Kuk iya , a nd h ence s hou ld b e men t ioned b r ief ly h e r e . I r oko p r ima r i ly a h i s to r ian , d id n o t c onduc t a ny a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch , b u t s t a te s h i s o b jec t ive s a s t o ; " V i s i te d e s p r inc ipaux l i eux h i s tor iques e tr ecue i l d es f a i t s 1 4enda i r es o u m y th iques l e s c oncernan t" ( 1974 :22 ) . Wi th in t h e v i c in i ty o f G ao t h e se w e r e l i s ted a s ; t h e mosque o f A sk ia Muhammed ; ac ana l r epu t ed ly d ug b y S onn i A l i ; B i l lako lo , a n a r ea b eh ind t h e a i rf ie ld u sed f o r p a s tu re b y t h e S ongha i K ings ; K o ima , t h e h a rbou r u sed b yt he K ings o fG ao , a nd f i na l ly , t h e i s land o f

b u tw hen t h is i sr e c t i f ied a nd a na ly sed b y t h e i r c omponen t s , t h en umbe rr i se st o7 4 ( Append ix 1 ) . H i s d a t ing s cheme p ropo sed f ou r p e r iod s ; P a liv l i th ique , N go l i th ique ,E poque S ongho ia nd S ubac tue l .T he P a leol i th ic a nd N eol i th ic ( La te S tone A ge ) a r e n o t o fr e levance h e r e , o f

e x i le o f A sk ia Mohammed s i tua ted i n f r on t o f G ao . A s ide f r om K o ima ( a n e a r ly o ccupa t ion s i te d i s cus sed i n C hap te r

c oncer n

3 , s e c t ion 3 . 2c ) , a nd t h e mo sque o f A sk ia Muhammed ( d is cus sed i nC hap te r 4 , s e c t ion 4 . 3c iü ) , a l l t h e o t he r s i te s , o ra tl e a s tt h e i ra scr ibed f unc t ions a r e o fn or e levance t ot h e d i scu s s ion h e re . No n ew a r chaeo log ica l i n fo rma t ion i s

t h e b a s i s o f t h e t e x t i tw ou ld a ppea r t h a t E poque S ongho i r e f e r s t ot h e p e r iod f r om t h e 7 th c en tu ry AD t o t h e e nd o f t h e 1 6 th c en tury AD , ( f rom t h e f ounda t ion o f t h e p ro to S ongha i s t a te i n K uk iya , t o t h e f i na l d e s t ruc t ion o f t h e

p rov ided , b u t a b r ief a nd i n comp le te s umma ry o f a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch c onduc ted i n G ao i s g i ven ( I roko 1 974 :22 -40 ) .

S ongha i Emp i r e b y t h e Mo roccans a tt h e b a t t le o fT ond ib i i n AD 1 591) ( Dawa 1 985 :9 -10 ) . S ubac tue l t h e refo re r e f e r s t ot h el a s t4 00 y ea r s . B ea r ing t h e se c au t iona ry p o in t s c once rn ing D awa ' s m e thodo logy i n m ind , i ti s au se fu l w o rk , a nd u n t i l t h e

2 . 2e ) S .D awa , 1 984 .

s e cu r i ty s i tua t ion i mp rove s , a nd t h e r e su l t s c an b e r e e va lua ted a nd a ugmen ted o nt h e g round , i tr ema ins t h e mo s t c omp rehen s ive a nd r e cen t b ody o f s u rvey d a ta w e h ave f o r t h e G ao R eg ion . F o r t h is r e a son , a nd a si ti sa n u npub l i shed w o rk , i tw i l l b e d i scus sed i nd e ta i l . Whe re as i te i sr e f e r red

T he mo s t i n tens ive s u rvey o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins i n t h e C erc le d e G ao t od a te w a s u nder taken b y S eydou D awa , a n a r chaeo logy u nde rg radua te i n t h e E co le N orma le S upiT i eure i n B amako a s p a r t o f h i s d eg ree r equ i remen t s . D awa , an a t ive o f t he G ao a r ea , l i s ted a t o ta l o f 5 9 s i t e c omp lexe s i n t h e r eg ion i n 1 984 . P r io r t o d i scu s s ing t h e s u rvey

r e su l t s ,

a c oup le

a r e t h e p e r iod s E poque S ongho i a nd S ubac tue l .

P rec i se d ef in i t ion o f t h e se t wo p e r iod s i sn o t g iven , b u t o n

o f

p o in t s

c oncern ing

t o i n t h e e n su ing s e c t ion s i ti s f olowed b y t h e r e f e r ence n umbe ra s s igned t oi tb y D awa , a l ong w i th t h e r e levan t p age r e f e rence i n b ra cke t s , f o r e xamp le , F ou l lod j i -Ko lo ( 2 )

t h e

( 1 985 :14 ) .

m e thodo logy e mp loyed b yD awa s hou ld b e m ade , w h ich w a s s omewha t u nor thodox , a nd i n vo lved a sk ing a s e r ies o f q ue s t ion s o ft h e e lde r s i ne a ch v i l lage v i s i ted a bou tt h e s i te s w i th in t h e i r r eg ion . T he n ames o f a l l t h e p l ace s c olec t ed f r om t h e o ra l t r ad i t ions w e re t h en l i s ted , a nd t h e se w e re i n

2 . 2f )P .F ar ia s , 1 988 .

t u rn m a rked u pon t he I .G .N . 1 : 200 0 00 maps o f t h e a r ea ( d iscu s sed b e low , a nd s e e F igu re 2 . 2 a nd A ppend ix 1 ) . T he s i te s w e re a l so v i s i ted , t hough D awa ( 1 985 :1) a dm i t s t h a t o w ing t od i ff i cu l t ies s uch a sl a ck o fw a te r , t h e c oncen t ra t ion

I n c onnec t ion w i th h i s r e sea rch i n to t h e e p ig raphy o f t h e A d ra r d e s I f o r a s a nd t h e N ige r B end ( 1974 , 1 986 , 1 990 ) , w h ich h a s a l ready b e en r e f e r red t o i n c onnec t ion w i th t h e D e G i roncou r t c o rpus o f i n scr ip t ions ( s ec t ion 2 . 2b ) , F a r ia s v i s i ted G ao , E s sukfradmek l ca , G ao -Saney , a nd

o f p opu la t ion w i th in f a vou rab le a r ea s , a nd s and s to rms , e nqu i ry w a s l im i ted t o t h e a r rond i semen t s o f H aou s sa F ou lane a nd G ao ( no f i nd s f r om h i s s u rvey w e re l o ca t ed

B en t iya /Ku l c iya

e i the ri nB amako o rG ao ) .

( Fa r ia s

1 990 ) .

F a r ia s 's

o b serva t ion s

c oncer n ing t h e l a t te r s i te a r e o fi mpo r tance a s h e a ppea r s t o h ave b een t h e mo s t r e cen t s cho la r t o v i s i t t h e s i te , a nd s e cond ly h e r e co rded a f u r the r s i te i n t h e v i c in i ty , a p r ev iou s ly u nknown mound ( p robab ly a t e l l -s i te ) , l k in

F ur the rmo re , t he u se o f t oponym ica l r e con s truc t ion a s a means o fl o ca t ing s i tes o n t h e I .G .N . m aps h a s m ean t t h a t , w i th a n umbe r o f t h e s i te s , h i s map r e f e r ence s a nd h i s d e sc r ip t ion sa st og eog raph ica lp o s i t ion ,b a sed u pon d i s tance

s ou th -wes to ft h eE gef -n -Tawaqqa s td une ( Fa r ias 1 990 :105 ) .

f r om s pe c if ic v i l lages e t c , d o n o t a lway s t a l ly . T h i s m ean s t ha ti nc e r ta in c ases e xac t p os i t ion so fs i te sc anno tb ef ound . D awa d oe s n o t p rov ide a d i s tr ibu t ion m ap o f t h e s i te s b y wh ich s i te l o ca t ion s c an b e c ro s s -checked , h oweve r o ne h a s

2 3 ) AS yn thes i so ft he S urvey E v idence : T he

p r ima ry

e mpha s i s

o f t h is

s e c t ion

w i l l

b e

u pon

e va lua t ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h e p re sence o f I s lam i nt h e G ao R eg ion , mo sque s , c eme te ry a nd s e t t lemen t

b een p roduced f r om t h e a va i lab le d a ta ( s e e F igu re 2 . 2 a nd Append ix 1 ) .

d a ta . H oweve r ,m en t ion w il a l so b e made o fs i te sp re -da t ing t h e i n t roduc t ion o f I s lam ( 9 th -1 O t h c en tu r ies AD ) , a s i ti s n e ce ssa ry t o b r ief ly a s se s s t h e p re I s lam ic b ackg round b y

D awa i sa l so o ver c au t ious i n i n terp re t ing t h e f unc t ion o f many o ft h es i te s . Aq ues t ion ma rk i sl e f to ve rw he the r as i t e

w ay o fc on t ra s t .

9

• • • A +

I r on A ge s i te w ith e v idence o fI s lam L .S .A . s i te op o s s ib le L .S .A . s i te I r on A ge s i te 0 p oss ib le I r on A ge s i te ' wa i t s i te pp o s s ib le r e cen t s i te u nda ted s i te

F igu r e2 . 2 .S i t e sr e co rded b yD awa i nt h ev i c in i ty o fG ao ( p lo t t ed f r om d a ta p r e sen t ed i nD awa 1 985 ) .

1 0

D awa a r gue s ( I b id :103 ) , t h a t t h e l a ck o f Mu s l im c eme t e r ie s c ou ld b e e i the r ar ef le c t ion o f t h e p auc i ty o fa r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch i n t h e a r ea , o r t ha t I s lam w a s p rof e s sed o n ly b y a m ino r i ty o f t h e p opu la t ion . T hough t h e f o rme r e xp lana t ion

2 3a ) Mo sques : T he a b sence o fs i te s w i th mosque s o u t s ide o ft h e t wo u rban a r ea s o fG ao A nc ien a nd G ao -Saney i ss t r ik ing ( F igu re 2 . 2 ) . O n ly t h ree m osque s h ave b een r e co rded , t h e A sk ia Mohammed mo sque i n G ao ( 45 ) , t h e m o sque e xcava ted b y Mauny ( 1951 ) i n G ao A nc ien ( 44 ) ( bo th d e scr ib ed b e low ) , a nd a t h i rd c i rcu la r mo sque a t F ou l lod j i -Ko lo ( 2 ) ( Dawa 1 985 :14 ) . O ne o the r s t ruc tu re w h ich D awa ( I b id :40 ) s ugge s t s r e semb le s a mo sque w a s r e co rded a t t h e u nda ted s i te o fT ondo -Bon T iedo ( 18 ) . Whe the r t h i s s t ruc tu re w a s a m o sque w e d o n o t k now f o r c e r ta in , h ence a t p re sen t i t r ema ins u nc la s s i f ied a s s uch . T he c i rcu la r mo sque a t F ou l lod j i -Ko lo i st h e f i r s t r epo r ted i n t h e G ao a r ea , a nd i t w ou ld a ppea rt ob ea ne nc losu re mosque r a the rt h an ar oof ed s t ruc ture . A cco rd ing t oD awa 's i n forman t , t h e a r ea i nw h ich

i so bv iou s ly p o s s ib le , t h e l a t te r i sa l so t r ue , a nd f u r the rmo re l o s s a nd d es truc t ion o f g raves tone s a s w e l l a s t h e p o s s ib le a r chaeo log ica l i nv i s ib i l i ty o f s ome c eme te r ie s m igh t a l so h ave c on t r ibu ted t ot h i sa b sence . A l though D awa d id n o t f i nd much e v idence o f I s lam ic b u r ia lr i te s ,h e( 1985 ) e ncoun te red aw ide v a r ie ty o ff une ra ry monumen t s . T he c eme ter ie s c l a ss if ied a s S ubac tue l ( h encefo r th r e f e r red t oa s " r ecen t " ) , a r e o f i n te re s t a s t h ey d a te f r om t h e l a s t 4 00 y ea r s , ap e r iod w hen I s lam w a s c e r ta in ly e s tab l i shed w i th in t h e u rban c en t r es o ft h e Wes te rn S ahe l . T h ree c eme ter ies w e re d a t ed t o t h i s p er iod , a nd v a r ia t ion i nb u r ia lp rac t ice s i sa ppa ren t . A t H aou ssa -Fou lane

t h e m osque w a s f ound w a s i nhab i ted b y p eop le e xpe l led b y A sk ia Mohammed ( AD 1 493 -1 528 ) ,p r e sumab ly f r om G ao , t h ough t h is i s n o t s t a ted . A no the r c i r cu la r mo sque i s r epo r ted b y D e G i roncou r t ( 1920 :333 ) , w ho d e scr ibed a c i rcu la r f une ra ry e nc lo su re mo sque o f p robab le m ed ieva l d a te o n t h e I s land o f O ue igoun , s i tua t ed b e tween L abbezenga a nd Ka rou o n t h e R ive r N ige r , t ot h e s ou th o f

( 5 ) ( I b id :20 ) ,g roup so f ma rke r s t one s w e re f ound w h ich h ad n o d om inan t o r ien ta t ion . I n c on t ra s t i s o la ted ma rke r s t one s w e re r e co rded a t A r igan ( 3 ) ( I b id :16 ) , w h ich w a s p rov is iona l ly d a t ed t o t h e r e cen t p er iod , a nd g r ave s c on ta in ing s eve ra l s ke le ton s , w i th n o c a re t a ken a s t o

G ao .

D aa rna -Tondo ( 10 ) ( I b id :26 ) . T he c eme te ry a t D aama T ondo i sc e r ta in ly n o t Mus l im , a s b u r ia ls s hou ld h ave b een

O ft h et wo e a r ly mosque s s of a rf ound i nt h e c i ty o fG ao , t h e d es cr ip t ion D e sp lagnes p rov ide s o f t h e mo sque o f A sk ia Muhammed i so fi n te re s t . D esp lagne s v i s i ted G ao i n 1 903 , w he re h e m en t ions t ha t a l l t ha t w a s l e f t o f t h e o l d c ap i ta l , G ao A nc ien , w e re a f ew mound s o f r ubb le ( 1 907 :73 ) . A p ho tog raph i s p rov ided o f t h e " V ii l le m osqu& d e G ao c ons tru i te v e rs 1 324 p ar K ankan Mansa Moussa " ( I b id :74 ) . T h i s i s am i s iden t i f ica t ion , t h e m o sque s hown i n t h e p ho tog raph i s n o t t h e mosque o f Mansa Mu sa , w h ich i s p robab ly my th ica l , b u t t h e mo sque o f A sk ia Muhammed , w h ich a cco rd ing t o o ra l t r ad i t ion w a s b u i l t i n t h e 1 6 th c en tu ry AD ( P la te 2 . 1 ) . T he c i ty o f G ao h a s e xpanded d rama t ica l ly s i nce t h e p ho tograph w a s t a ken , a nd t h e o pen

o r ien ted n o r th -sou th a nd mu l t ip le g raves a r e n o t u sed ( s e e C hap te r 4 , s e c t ion 4 . 4 f o r a mo re d e ta i led d i scu ss ion o f

o r ien ta t ion o r p o s i t ion w e re f ound i n t h e c eme te ry a t

Mu s l im b u r ia l , i t s a r chaeo log ica l r e cogn i t ion a nd a d e scr ip t ion o ft h e f une ra ry monumen t s i nt h e G ao R eg ion ) . T he l a ck o f g rave o r ien ta t ion a tH aou s sa -Fou lane s im i la r ly i mp l ie s t h a t t h is c eme te ry i sn o t Mus l im . We d o n o t k now w he the r t h e A r igan c eme te ry i s Mus l im o r n o t , a s s i ng le ma rke r s t ones a r e f ound o n Mu s l im g rave s , a nd u nfor tuna te ly t h e o r ien ta t ion o f t h e g r aves i s n o t s t a t ed . Wha t t h i s d a ta d oe s s how i st h a t e ven w i th in t h e l a s t 4 00 y ea r s , n on - Mus l im b u r ia l w a s s t i l l c ommon ly e mp loyed i n t h er u ra la r ea s ,o n ly af ew k i lome t re s f r om G ao .

a r ea s u r round ing t he mo sque h a s n ow b een b u i l t u pon . T he

T he E poque S ongho i ( h encefor th r e f e r red t oa s " med ieva l " ) , c eme te r ies r e co rded b y D awa a l so s howed g rea t v a r ia t ion ,

mo sque sa r ed i scussed f u r the ri nC hap te r4 ,s e c t ion 4 . 3c iü .

t hough t h e w ide t ime span c over ed b y t h is p e r iod ( 7 th -16 th c en tur ies AD ) means t h a t a l l g raves d a t ing f r om b e fo r e t h e m id -9 th c en tu ry AD w ou ld b e e xpe c ted t ob e n on - Mu s l im . T h i r teen c eme t er ie s w e re p rov i s iona l ly d a ted t ot h i s p e r iod , f i ve o f t h em f i rm ly . T he t h ree d ef in i te Mus l im c eme te r ie s h ave a l ready b e en r e f e r red t o a bove . A t H ombo r i -Tondo ( 13 ) , a nd A do rdo r ( 26 ) , t wo c eme t er ies p rov is iona l ly d a ted t ot h e m ed ieva l p er iod , s ke le tons e rod ing o u t o f t h e s u r f ace w e re f ound o r ien t ed i n a w ide v a r ie ty o f p o s i t ion s ( M id :31 ,48 ) . C ommuna l g rave s , w he re t h e s ke le ton s w e r e

2 3b ) C eme ter ies a nd G rave s : T he a b sence o f Mus l im c eme t er ie sr e co rded b y D awa w i th in t h e v i c in i ty o f Gao i sa l so n o t iceab le ( F igu re 2 . 2 ) . D awa m akes t h ep o in tt ha to u to ft h e 2 8p o s s ib le c eme t er ie s f ound , ( i n r ea l i ty 3 1 ) , o n ly t h ree a r e c e r ta in ly Mu s l im , o ne i nG ao A nc ien , o ne t ot he e a s t o ft h e mo sque o fA sk ia Mohammed a nd t h e o t he r a t G ao -Saney ( M id :102 -3 ) . D awa f a i led t o r e co rd t h e o ther Mu s l im c eme te r ie s w i th in G ao i t se lf , a s f ou r c eme te r ies w e re r e co rded b y D e G i roncou r t ( 1920 ) ,

l a id o ne u pon t h e o t he r w e re f ound a t Mou laye -Bango ( 28 ) , a l ong w i th s t one c i r c les a nd t umu l i ( I b id :50 ) . S tone c i r c le s w e re a l so f ound a t H u r ey -Bango ( 39 ) . I ti s a ppa ren t t h a t

A boubaka r S adda , G u i rakand ie , A rand i re a nd t h e d i spu ted Go rogobo ( o r Go rongobo , s e e C hap te r 3 , s e c t ion 3 . 2b iv ) , a nd F a r ia s h as r e co rded f u r the r Mu s l im c eme te r ie s a nd g rave s ( F igu re 2 .3 ) . T hese c eme te r ies a r e a l l n ow w i th in , o r c l ose t o , t h e u rban a r ea o fG ao ,b u t t h e i rp os i t ion s r i ng G ao Anc ien ,a nd w e re o bv iou s ly l i nked w i th t h a t s e t t lemen t ( s e e C hap te r 3 , s ec t ion 3 . 2bv ) . D e G i roncour t h imse lf a l so

t h e se c eme ter ie sa r ea l l n on - Mus l im . T he t wo L a te S tone A ge c eme te ry / se t t lemen t s i te s , T in D ib i r i ( 2 7 ) , a nd S oyame ( 32 ) , s hou ld a l so b e m en t ioned a s t h ey d i f f e r f r om t h e o t he r c eme te r ie s d escr ibed b y D awa . Two g roup s o f m ega l i ths w e re f ound a t T in -D ib i r i ,

m is sed Mu s l im c eme te r ies , mo s t n o tab ly t h e o ne a t G ao S aney ( Fa r ia s ,p e r s .c omm . ) .

i n t e r spe r sed w i th s ma l l s t one c i rc les ( I b id :49 ) , e i the r h u t p l a t fo rms o r f u r the r g rave s . A t S oyame a n umbe r ( no t

1

I .A sk ia 's Mosque a nd G u i rakand ie c eme tery . 2 . U nnamed c eme tery . 3 . Go rongobo c eme tery ( a s l o ca ted b y D c G i roncou r t 1 920 ) . 4 . Abaka r S adda c eme tery . 5 . F a ran j irey c eme te ry . 6 . A lzanaban ja c eme ter y .

F igu r e 2 . 3 . D e ta i led p l an o f N o r th G ao s how ing c eme t e r ie s a nd a r ea s o f e xcava t ion a nd s u r vey ( a dap ted f r om F a r ia s 1 996 i np r e s s ) .

1 2

s p ec i f ied ) o f s t one c i rc les w e re f ound l a id o u t i n ac u rved l i ne ( I b id :55 ) . N o a t temp t w a s made b y D awa t o d a te

9 0 cm w id th , a nd 8 15cm t h icknes s . S ome o ft h e s t e lae w e r e s e ti np l ace w i th o va l f i red -b r ick sa nd s ome w e re s u r rounded b y ab o rde r o f u pr igh t f i red -b r ick s . Two s t e lae w e re d a ted , o ne t o AD 1 327 , a nd a no the r t o AD 1 419 ( I b id :34 ) . R ubb ings w e r e t a ken f r om 1 72 i n scr ibed t omb s tone s i n t h e

a no the r 1 3 c eme te r ies . T hese s i te s a r e n o t d es cr ibed i n d e ta i l .E igh to ft h e 1 3 s i tes c on ta in e i the rc omp le te s ke le ton s o r a r e c ove r ed i n s ca t te r s o f b one , h oweve r t h e f i ve o t he r s i te s d o n o t a nd a r e p os s ib ly n o t c eme te r ie s a t a l l , t h ese i n c lude D aa r na H ondo ( 9 ) , T ondo -Bob T iedo ( 1 8 ) , A go ra ( 19 ) ,B a l le s sad j ie ( 55 )a nd Agu inaou i -Aou i( 57 ) .

t wo n e c ropo l i se s b y t h e N ige r , many o f w h ich d a ted f r om t h e 1 4 th -15 th c en tu r ie s AD ( Fa r ia s 1 990 :105 ) . A longs ide t h ed e sc r ip t ions o ft h e c eme te r ie s ,D e G i roncou r t ( 1920 :342 -

T he l a ck o f Mu s l im c eme ter ies r e co rded d ur ing D awa ' s s u rvey i s p a r t ia l ly c o r rec ted b y t h e d a ta p rov ided b y D e G i roncour t . T he se d i f f e ren t p a t te rns a r e ar ef lec t ion o f d i f f e r en t r e sea r ch a ims a nd m e thodo log ie s ( d is cu s sed i n

4 3 ) a l so ma rk s t h er ema ins o fw ha t w e re p o s s ib ly h ab i ta t ion a r ea s i n t h e v i c in i ty o ft h e mode rn v i l lage o f B en t iya u pon h i s p lan ( F igu re 2 . 1 ) . T he se a r e l o ca ted n ea r Y o r e i a nd G a r ia , a nd o nce t h e s e cu r i ty s i tua t ion p e rm i t s , d e se r ve f u r the r i n ve s t iga t ion , a s t h is i s t h e p robab le l o ca t ion o f

s e c t ion 2 . 4 ) .

m ed ieva lK uk iya .

I ti sa ppa ren t f r om t h e map p roduced b y D e

G i roncou r t ( 1920 :161) , t ha t t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e c eme te r ie s c on ta in ing Mu s l im i n scr ip t ion s a r e t o b e f ound c l u s te red a l ong t h e N ige r , p redom inan t ly o n t h e l e f t b ank , a s w e l l a s a l ong t h e l e ng th o ft h e T i lems i v aley , a nd t o al e s se re x t en t

D ur ing F a r ia s 's v i s i t t o B en t iya /Ku ldya a p rev ious ly u n r epo r t ed mound s i te l an s ou th -wes t o f t h e E gef -n T awaqqa s t d une w a s r e co rded . F a r ia s ( 1990 :105 -7 ) d e sc r ib e s t h e mound a sc ove r ed i ns he rd s a nd o the r v es t ige s

i t s p a leo t r ibu ta r ie s ( F igu re 2 . 1) . T he d ef in i t ion o fw h ich i s t h e l e f t b ank a nd w h ich i s t h e r i gh t b ank o f t h e N ige r f olow s s t anda rd u sage a s d ef ined b y H unw ick ( 1994 :16 ) ,

o f h ab i ta t ion . O ne o f t h e i n scr ip t ions f r om t h e s i te n ea r E gef -n -Tawaqqa s t b ea r s ad a te o f e i the r AD 182 , o r AD 1 201 . T h i s e a r ly d a t e s ugge s t s t ha t a n I s lam ic p opu la t ion w e re s e t t led h e re a tt h e s ame t ime a s i n G ao A nc ien a nd , F a r ia s s ugges t s , w a s ma in ta in ing t r ade l i nk s n o t o n ly t ot h e n o r th ,b u ta l so s ou th a nd e a s t .

w ho s t a tes t h a tt h e S ongha i w o rd G urma ( a s i nt h e G ourma , a n a r ea t ot h e w e s to fG ao ) , a lway s a ppl ie s t ot h e r i gh t b ank l o ok ing d own r i ve r , w h i ls t Aw sa o r Haw sa r e f e r s t ot h e l e f t b ank a l l t h e w ay f r om t h e I n land N ige r d e l ta t ot h e K ebb i . T he c eme te ry p a t te rn ing i so fi n te res t a si tf olow s t h e m a in a xe s o f c ommun ica t ion a nd o f t r ade . I ti s u n l ike ly t o b e u ndu ly i nf luenced b y D e G i roncou r t 's s u rvey m e thodo logy ,

I n s umma ry , a na ly s i s o f t h e s urvey d a ta h a s p rov ided u s w i th a b ody o f i n fo rma t ion o n t h e c eme te r ies , f une ra ry

a sh i s c ove rage o ft h e a r ea w a s v e ry t ho rough , a nd i tw ou ld a pp ea r t o i nd ica te t h a t I s lam w a s s t ronge r a mong s t t h e n omad ic p opu la t ion .

monumen t s , a nd f une ra ry p rac t ices i n t h e C erc le d e G ao , w h ich i si n va luab le i n s t udy ing t h e i mpac t o f I s lam w i th in

B en t iya /Kuk iya :

t h i s r e g ion . T h is e v idence w i l l b e d i scus sed f u r the r i n C hap te r4 ,s e c t ion 4 . 4 , w he re i tw i l l b e c on t ra s ted w i th t h a t f r om o t he ra r ea so ft h e We s tern S ahe l .

C ompa red t o G ao i t se lf , t h e re i s i n

g ene ra l , al a ck o f i n fo rma t ion r e la t ing t o B en t iya /Ku l c iya , t h e o r ig ina l p ro to -Songha i c ap i ta l , t h e refo re w e a r e f o r tuna te t ha t D e G i roncou r t ( 1920 :27 ) , D e sp lagne s ( 1907 :75 ) , a nd F a r ia s ( 1990 :105 -7 ) p rov ide u s w i th s ome

2 . 3c )S e t t lemen ts a nd F or t i f ica t ion s :

d e ta i l o n t h e a rea a nd i t s c eme te r ie s . T he d e scr ip t ion D e sp lagne s ( 1907 :75 ) p rov ide s i sn o t v e ry d e ta i led , b u t i so f

i )T he d a ta w eh ave o nt h e s e t t lemen ts i tes w i th in t h e C erc le d e G ao , o u t s ide o ft h e c i ty o fG ao , i sp r ima r i ly p rov ided b y D awa ( 1 985 ) . A v a r ie ty o f s e t t lemen t s i te s , d a t ing f r om d i f f e ren t p e r iod s , a nd u t i l is ing d i f f e ren t s t y le s o f c on s t ruc t ion w e re r e co rded b y h im . O n ly o ne p o s t AD 1 500

u se i nt h e s t udy o ft h ef une ra ry monumen t so ft h er e g ion . H e m en t ions t ha t d eb r i s c ove r ed t h e a r ea a nd t h a t t h e o n ly s t and ing monumen t w a s as i ng le c i rc le o f d re s sed s t one s . T h i s s t one c i rc le i ss im i la rt oo the rs ma l l s t one c i r c le s w h ich D e sp lagnes r e co rded i n ac eme tery a t L abb ezenga t o t h e s ou th o f B en t iya . T he s ke tch p rov ided ( I b id :75 ) o f t h e L abbezenga monumen t s how s ac i r c le o f r ough ly d r es sed s t one s , s ome w i th T if inagh i n scr ip t ions w h ich w e re s e t i n to t h e g round . T hese t omb s a re a lmo s t c e r ta in ly p r e - o r n on I s lam ic , a s n o r e f e rence i s made t ot h e h ead a nd f e e t b e ing m a rked , w h ich a long w i th a n o r th -sou th o r ien ta t ion w ou ld b e i n d ica ted i ft he g rave w a s Mus l im . H oweve r t h e u se o f s t one c i r c le s t od ema r ca te Mus l im g rave s w a s a l so c ommon , a nd w a s r e co rded b y D esp lagnes ( I b id :46 ) e l sewhe re , f o r e xamp le a mong t h e A rab Koun ta c l an n ea r B ou rem , a nd

s e t t lemen t w a s p o s i t ive ly i d en t if ied , K ad j i -T iedo ( 2 1 ) , ( I b id :43 ) , b u t a no the r p o s s ib ly r e cen t ly o ccup ied s e t t lemen t i sm en t ioned , A r igan ( 3 ) ( I b id :16 ) , n e i the r d escr ibed i na ny d e ta i l . F ive s e t t lemen t s i t es a r e d ef in i te ly , a nd a f u r the r s even s i te s t e n ta t ive ly p l aced w i th in t h e 7 th -16 th c en tu r ie s AD . T e l l s i te s w e re f ound a tC h i r f ey -Hondo ( s u rmoun ted b y s t one c i r c le s ) ( 1 ) ( I b id :12 ) , a nd G ao -Saney ( 43 ) ( I b id :70 ) . F ou r s t r uc tu res w h ich a ppea r t o b e r ound -house s w e r e r e co rded c l us te red a round t h e c i r cu la r mo sque a tF ou l lod j i K o lo ( 2 ) ( I b id :14 ) , a nd a s i ng le w a l l b u i l t o u t o f s phe r i ca l h andmade s un d r ied mud b r ick w a se ncoun te red a tS o ra ( 36 ) ( I b id :59 ) .

a mong t h eA u l l im inden a nd I guade ren T ua reg .

A s u r f a ce s p read

o f a r chaeo log ica l

i nd ica ted t h a t Mou laye -Bango s e t t lemen ta sw e l la s ac eme te ry .

( 28 )

( I b id :50 ) ,

ma te r ia l w a s

a

D e G i roncou r t « 1920 :27 ) , i n c on t ra s t p rov ide s u s w i th a d e s cr ip t ion o f a Mus l im c eme tery a t B en t iya /Kuk iya . I ti s d e s c r ibed a s f a i r ly l a rge , a t 3 00 -400m n o r th sou th b y 1 00 2 00m e a s tt ow es t ,a nd m ade u po fr ow so fg ne i s s a nd q ua r tz

i ) S even mo re s i te s w e re c l a ssed a s p o s s ib ly o f t h e s ame d a te . T h ree w e re f o r t if i ed ; H ombo r i -Tondo ( 13 ) ( I b id :31)

s t e lae a l igned n o r th -sou th . T he s t e lae w e re u sua l ly r e c tangu la r , s e t v e r t ica l ly , a nd f r om 3 0 -110cm h e igh t , 4 0 -

p o s i t ion m ak ing u s e o ft h e a va i lab le h igh g round . A c ce s s t o t h e s i te w a s b y a v aley w h ich w a s d e f ended b y t wo

w a s al a rge s i te , 4 10m l o ng x2 30m w ide , s e t i n ad ef en s ive

1 3

s t o rage s i lo s w a s f o und , T a l ind j ie ( 6 ) ( I b id :21 ) . T h ree s i te s w i th s t one c i r c le s w e re r e co rded , t wo o f w h ich w e re a l so f u ne r a ry s i te s w h ich h ave a l r eady b een r e f e r r ed t o , n ame ly T in -D ib i r i ( 2 7 ) a nd S oyame ( 32 ) . T he t h i rd s i te A za ( 2 4 ) ( I b id :46 ) , w a s c ove r ed b y t h e r ema ins o f 1 8 s t one ( h u t ) c i r c le s a l igned e a s t -we s t , a nd i st h ough t t ob e ah ab i ta t ion s e t t lemen t . T he l a s t s i te p rov i s iona l ly d a t ed b y D awa ( 1 985 :65 ) t o t h e L .S .A . , H u r ey -Bango -T iedo ( 4 0 ) w ou ld a ppea ro n t h eb a s i s o fD awa ' s d es c r ip t ion t ob e am ix tu re o f b o th L .S .A . a nd l a te r o ccupa t ion d eb r i s , r a the r t h an p u r e ly L .S .A . T he r ema in s o f f i ve b anco ( l iqu id mud ) s t ruc tu r e s , w h ich a r e m o r e u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th l a te r p e r iod s ( h e re d e f ined a sp o s t AD 3 00 ) , w e re f ound ,a l ong w i th as p read o f g r ound s t one t o o l s a nd p o t te ry , w h ich a r e n o t d e sc r ibed i n a ny d e ta i l .

e a r thwo rk s ,i n s ide o fw h ich w e r ec i rcu la r s t one f o unda t ion s , p r e sumab ly t h o se o f h u t s , t h ough t h i s i sn o t s p e c if ied . A s e cond d e f en s ive s i te , G a rey -Gangano ( 3 7 ) ( I b id :60 ) d i f f e r s i n t h a t t h e w a l l s a nd s u rv iv ing s t ruc tu r e s a r e m ade o u t o f b anco a nd e r ec ted u pon a n a r t if i c ia l mound . T he t h i rd d ef en s ive s i te , K o i -Guu ru ( 3 3 ) ( I b id :56 ) , i sm ade u p o fs i x s ma l l mound s s u rmoun ted b y c i r cu la r b anco s t ruc tu r e s w h ich a r e s u r rounded o n t h e i re a s twa rd s i de ( t he s i de a way f r om t h e R ive r N ige r ) , b y a b anco r ampa r t . Mauny ( 1 950 :842 ) s ugge s ted t h a t d e f en s ive s i t e s w e r e p o s s ib ly t o b ef ound o n t h e i s land si nt h er i ve rf a c ing G ao , w h ich c ou ld h ave b e en u sed a s p l ace s o f r e fuge d u r ing t i me s o f i n secu r i ty . D awa ( 1 985 ) d id n o t i n ve s t iga te t h e se a r ea s , b u t t h e a u tho rm ade av i s i tt oo ne s ma l l i s land o ppo s i te t h e p o r t a t G ao , w he r e n o s u ch e v iden ce , e i the r o f s e t t lemen t s o r d e f ence sw a sf ound .

v ) O the r m is celaneous s i te s d e s cr ibed b y D awa i n c lude a s u r f a ce s i te r e f e r r ed t o a s A cheul ian , L ag r e ich -Pa leo ( 4 8 ) ( I b id :75 ) , a n u nda ted w o rk shop , p o s s ib ly u sed f o r i r on s me l t ing ,T acha rane ( 1 1 ) ( I b id :28 ) , ag roup o fT i f inagh r o ck i n s c r ip t ion s , H aama -Fo jo jo ( 8 ) , a nd a n u nda ted s i t e d e sc r ibed a s ap o s s ib le p o t t e ry wo rk shop o r at omb ,T ianame ( 4 ) ( I b id :18 ) . H e re a l so s hou ld b e m en t ioned t h e m i s celaneou s " A t e l i e r " o r w o rk shop s i t es r e co rded b y D e sp lagne s ( 1 907 ) . T hese s i t e s a r e u n fo r tuna te ly n o t d e s c r ibed i n a ny d e ta i l ( S ee L ebeuf a nd P a cque s 1 970 :51 5 4 ) , b u t w ou ld a ppea r t oh ave b een n o t o n ly w o rk shop s b u t s e t t lemen t s i t e s ,j udg ing b y t h e o b jec t s c ole c ted f r om t h em , w h ich i n c lude s p ind le w ho r l s , b one p o in t s , j ewe l le ry a nd s ma l l c l ay f i gu r ine s , p o s s ib ly c h i ld ren ' s t o y s . T he s i t e s , w h ich a r e s i tua t ed b e tween R he rgo a nd L abbezenga , a s a t T ond i l i , L o toko ro , a nd t h e s o -ca l led Mo ro ccan C a sbah a t

T he u nde f end ed s i te s o f p o s s ib le m ed ieva l d a te i n c lud e o t herw i se u nde sc r ibed s u r f a ce s p read s , a tA n -Saname ( 3 4 ) ( I b id :57 ) , a nd a tT acha rane ( 1 4 ) ( I b id :36 ) . As em i -c i r cu la r b anco s t ruc tu r e w a s r e co rded a tK ogou ro ( 3 0 ) ( I b id :52 ) a nd s t one c i r c le s a nd e nc lo su r e s , s ome b u t n o t a l l o fw h ich w e r e f une ra ry , w e re f ound a t H u r ey -Bango ( 3 9 ) ( I b id :64 ) . T he r ema ins o f as t r uc tu r e d e s c r ib ed a s " angu la r " ( I b id :66 ) , a nd a n 1 8m l o ng s e c t ion o fw a l lw a sd i scove red a tA l iB o ro ( 4 1 ) . i ) S even u nd a ted s e t t lemen t s i t e s w e re a l so r e co rded . F i v e s u r f a ce s p read s o f p o t te ry a nd b one ( t yp e s n o t s p e c if ied ) w e r e f ound a tK o igou ro ( 1 7 ) , S a r u -T iedo ( 2 2 ) , G o rom ( 2 3 ) , a nd A lkambe -Gound iame ( 3 5 ) , ( M id :39 ,44 ,45 ,58 ) , a nd a t T ond ey H ondo ( 1 2 ) a n u n spe c if ied n umb e ro fc i r cu la rb an co s t ruc tu r e s w e r e f ound ( I b id :30 ) . Ac ave s i te w a s d i s cov e r ed a t A rou -Nda Wand e ( 7 ) ( I b id :23 ) w h ich w a s u s ed b y f i she rmen t ok eep t h e i rf i sh ing m a te r ia l .

B amba , l a rge ly f a l l o u t s ide o ft h e G ao R eg ion a sd e f ined i n t h i s c hap t e r , b u t a r e o f i n te r e s t a s t h ey p rov ide o ne o f t h e f ew a s semb lage s o f m a t er ia l f r om o u t s ide o f G ao , o n t h e N ige r B end . T h i s m a te r ia l , s ome o f w h i ch t h e a u tho r e xam ined i n t h e Mu sge d e l ' Homm e i n P a r i s , w i l l b e d i s cu s sed f u r the ri nC hap t e r6 ,s e c t ion 6 . 2g .

i v ) T he L .S .A . s i t e s s u rveyed s hou ld a l so b e b r i ef ly m en t ioned t op rov ide am ea su r e o fb a ckg round t ot h e l a t e r s e t t lemen t s . T en L .S .A . s e t t lemen t s i te s w e re r e co rded a nd f ou r L .S .A . " wo rk shop " s i te s . O f t h e t e n s e t t lemen t s , f i v e w e re f i rm ly d a t ed t ot h e 5 t h -2nd m i l lenn ium BC a nd h ave b e en t h e s ub jec t o f p r ev iou s a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion . K a rka r ich inka t N o r th a nd S ou th ( 50 a nd 5 1 ) ( Dawa 1 985 :77 ,78 ) , a r e t wo h ab i ta t ion mound s w h ich w e r e i n ve s t iga ted b y Mauny ( 1 955 ) a nd l a te r b y A .Sm i th ( 1 974 ,1975 ,1980 ) . I n B egouan , ( 5 2 ) a nd G ao -Hyd ro C a rbu r e s ( 5 3 ) ,a r e t wo s u r f a ce s p read s o fl i t h ic m a te r ia l a nd p o t t e ry ( Dawa 1 985 :79 ,80 ; G au s sen a nd G au s sen 1 962 ) . T he c omb ined s e t t lemen t s i te a nd w o rk shop o fI nGangab e r i s d e s cr ibed b y D awa ( 1 985 :73 ) a s h av ing b een u n re cogn is ed p r io rt oh i ss u rvey ,h oweve rt h i s i si n co r r ec ta s Mauny ( 1 951 :851 ) r e f e r s t oi t s g ene ra l l o ca t ion , a nd L ho t e ( 1 942 ,1943 ) c e r ta in ly i n ve s t iga ted t h e s u r round ing a r ea , w he r e h e d i s cove red t h e n e ighbou r ing w o rk shop s i te o f G adaou i ( 4 7 ) . T he w o rk shop s i te o f L ag r e ich N eo i s m en t ioned b y D awa ( 1 985 :76 ) a s h av ing b e en i n ve s t iga ted b y G au s sen a nd G au s sen ( 1 965 ) . O ne o t he r p o s s ib le w o rk shop s i te p rov i s iona l ly d a t ed t ot h eL .S .A . w a sr e co rded a tA za -Hondo ( 2 5 ) .

2 . 4 ) S yn the s i s . I s lam , S urvey Me thodo logy , a nd t h e G ao L and scape : T he d a ta p rov ided b yt h e s u r vey s d i s cu s sed a bove i l us t ra ted t h e d i ve r s i ty o f a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins f o und i n t h e G ao R eg ion . When e a ch o ft h ec a t ego r ie s o fe v id en ce w a s l o oked a t i n d iv idua l ly , d i f f e ren t p a t te rns b egan t o e me rge . T he a na ly s i s o f t h e m o sque , c eme te ry , a nd s e t t lemen t d a ta , p rov ided b yD awa ( 1 985 ) , h a s s hown t h a t , a mong t h e p r o to S ongha i , I s lam a pp ea r s t oh ave h ad l i t t le i mpa c t o u t s ide o f t h eu r ban a r ea so fG ao i nt h ep e r iod c a .AD 9 00 -1250 ,a nd i t c an b es ugge s ted t h a t t h e a ccep tance o fI s lam w a s n o tr e a l ly s i gn i f i can t i n t h e c oun t ry s ide u n t i l t h e l a t e 1 8 th -19 th c en tu r ie s AD . T he c eme te ry p a t te rn ing m igh t b e i n d i cat ive o f e a r l ie r a nd g r ea te r I s lam iza t ion a mong s t t h e pm to T ua r eg /A rab n omad ic p opu la t ion . A l though t h e p r e sence o f I s lam i ns e t t lemen t sc an b er e cogn ized a r cha eo log ica l ly b ya v a r ie ty o f c a t ego r ie s o f e v idence ; i n c lud ing t h e a b sen ce o f c i r cu la rs t r uc tu r e sa nd t h ea dop t ion o fr e c tangu la ro rs qua r e , i nwa rd look ing h ou se p l ans a nd t h e u se o f mou ld -fo rmed f i r ed -b r ick s ( s ee C hap te r 4 , s e c t ion 4 . 3 ) . A l l t h e se c a t ego r ie s o f e v idence s hou ld b e n o t iceab le w i thou t

T he f i ve o t he r s e t t lemen t s i t e s w h i ch D awa p r ov i s iona l ly d a ted t o t h e L .S .A . a r e mo r e u n i fo rm i n s t ruc tu ra l l a you t t h an t h e l a te r s e t t lemen t s . O ne c ave s i te w i th a s so c ia t ed 1 4

r e info rced b y 1 0 b u t t re s ses a t i n terva ls o f b e tween 1 . 35 1 . 40m ( F igu re 2 . 4 ) . T he b u t tre s ses w e re 9 0cm t h ick a nd

e xcava t ion a nd w e re a b sen t a tt h e s i te s r e co rded b y D awa ( 1985 ) .

5 0 cm h igh . T he s ou the rn h a lf o f t h e q ib la w a l l w a s d es troyed b y e ros ion , a s w a s t h e n or thern w a l l o f t h e m o sque . At e s t -p i t t ot h e w e s t o f t h e q ib la w a l l u ncove r ed

A s a l ready n o ted i n s ec t ion 2 . 3b a bove , t h e a b sence o f a r chaeo log ica l e v idence r e co rded b y D awa i nd ica t ing t h e p re sence o f I s lam o u t s ide o f t h e u rban a r ea s i si n c on t ra s t

r ubb le f ounda t ions ,w h ich w e re p o s s ib ly t ho se o ft h e w e s ter n w a l l , t hough t h i s c ou ld n o t b e s a id w i th c e r ta in ty . Ap o t te ry c ondu i t , 3 . 5m l ong w a s a l so u ncove red , w h ich w ou ld h ave

w i th t h ed a ta p rov ided b y D eG i roncou r t ( 1920 ) ,a nd r ef le c t s t h e d i f f e rence s i n r e sea r ch a ims , b a ckg round s , a nd m e thodo logy o f t h e t wo s cho la r s . D e G i roncou r t c oncen t ra ted u pon e p igraph ic e v idence a nd i nf luence s f r om N o r th A f r ica , wh i ls t D awa u sed l o ca l k now ledge a nd o ra l t r ad i t ion a s aw ay o f l o ca t ing a nd i n te rp re t ing s i te s w h ich

b een u sed t oc hanne l w a s te w a te r a way f r om t h e a b lu t ion s a r ea ( Mauny 1 951 :842 -44 ) . When r e con s t ruc te d t h e d imen s ion s o ft h e e a s ter n Q ib la w a l l t o ta l 4 3 .4m i n l e ng th , w h ich a cco rd ing t o Mauny ( 1961 :492 ) , i sa lmo s t t h e s ame a s t h e g rand mosque a t D jenne . T he e a s t -we s t d imen s ion s w e re r e cons truc ted a t2 7m o n t h e b a s is o ft h ep o s i t ion o ft h e p o t te ry c ondu i t ( F igu re 2 . 4 ) . T he s i ze o ft h e b r ick s u sed i n

w e re i mpor tan ti nS ongha i l o ca l c on tex t . H ence ,c on sc iou s ly o r u ncons c iou s ly , e mpha s is w a s p l aced u pon d i f f e ren t t y pe s o fe v idence .

t h em ih rab i sn o tr e co rded . F u r the r a r chaeo log ica l s u rvey w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion w il e nab le ag rea te ru nde r s tand ing o ft h e d i f f e ren t ia lp a t ter n s o f

T he C eme tery : T o t h e e a s t o f t h e mo sque ac eme te ry w a s

I s lam iza t ion w h ich a ppea r t oe x i s t . T hus h av ing d i scu s sed

f ound ( t he n umbe r o fg raves i sn o t s pec if ied , b u t n o t omb s

t h e s ur vey e v idence r e co rded p r io r t o 1 993 , i t i s n ow a pp rop r ia te t o move o nt oe xam ine t h er e su l t so ft h er e levan t a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ions c onduc ted w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion b efo re t hose o ft h ea u tho r .

w e re p l aced i nt h e mo sque a r ea ) . T he m a jo r i ty o ft h e t omb s w e re o va l a nd w e re d ema rca ted b y o va l b r ick s s e t i n to t h e g round ( p resumab ly f i red ) , t h e e xcep t ion b e ing t h ree r e c t angu la rt omb s . O ne s ch is t s t e le b o re a n i n scr ip t ion d a ted AD 1 364 ( Mauny 1 951 :844 ) .

2 .5 ) A rchaeo log ica l S urveys a nd E x cava t ion s i n t he C i ty

O ther R ema ins : I mmed ia t e ly t o t h e e a s t o f t h e r oad t o B ou rem a 3 0m l e ng th o f s t one f ounda t ion s w a s f ound r unn ing n o r th -sou th ( F igu re 2 . 4 ) . T he f ounda t ion s w e r e m ade u p o f f i ve p a ra l le l w a l ls d iv ided i n to a n umbe r o f s ma l l r ooms mea sur ing a pp rox ima te ly 2m x 1 . 2m . A

o fG ao : 2 . 5a )I n troduc t ion : O n ly t wo s u rvey s a nd e xcava t ions o fr e levance t ot h i s s t udy w e r e c onduc ted w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion b efo r e 1 993 , b o th w i th in t h e e nv i rons o f G ao A nc ien . T he o the r s i te s w h ich h ave b e en i n ve s t iga ted , a s ide f r om G ao -Saney ( Se c t ion 2 . 6 ) , a r e a l l p reh is to r ic a nd h ave b e en r e f e r red t oi n s e c t ion 2 . 3c a bove .

n umbe ro ft e s t -p i t s f a i led t og i ve a ny p o s i t ive r e su l t s a nd t h e

2 . 5b )M .K iko ine , 1 949 , a nd R . Mauny , 1 950 :

2 . 5b i i ) D i scus s ion :

T he e xcava t ions a nd s u rvey s i nG ao A nc ien w e re i n s t iga ted b y M . M iche l , t h e C ommandan t d e C erc le i n G ao , a f t e r h e a nd D .P . P ed ra ls l o ca ted a n umbe r o f r u in s o n t h e 2 . 5km

T he mo s ti mpo r tan tr e su l t o ft h e e xcava t ions w a s t h e p a r t ia l r e cove ry o f t h e G ao A nc ien mo sque . I t s d imen s ion s

p o in t o n t h e r oad t o B ou rem ( F igu re 2 . 3 ) . T he i n i t ia l e xcava t ion s w e re u nder taken b y ag eo log is t , M . K iko ine i n 1 949 ( Mauny 1 961 :113 ) . T hese e xcava t ion s u ncove red t h e r ema ins o f a wa l l b u i l t o u t o f f i red -b r ick s a nd p a r t o f a mo sque . T he r e su l t s o f t h e e xcava t ions a nd s u r vey s a r e r e co rded b y Mauny ( 1951 :842 -845 ) w ho c on t inued t h e e xcava t ion s ( c la ss if ied h e re a s a s e cond c ampa ign ) i n

b e c ompa r ed w i th t h e u nda ted F r iday mosque a t E ssuk

f unc t ion o f t h e b u i ld ing w a s a nd f ounda t ion s w e re s e en n e ighbou r ing a r ea ( Mauny d i scu ssed i nd e ta i li nC hap te r

n o t a s cer ta ined . F u r the r w a l l s c over ing t h e w ho le o f t h e 1 951 :844 -45 ) . T h i s a r ea i s 3 ,s ec t ion 3 . 2bü .

m ea su re , 4 3 .4m n o r th sou th a nd 2 7m e a s t -we s t , w h ich c an ( Tadmekka ) , w h ich m ea su red 2 3 .5m n or th -sou th x 1 5 .5m e a s t -we s t ( C res s ie r 1 992 :71 -73 ) , t h e mosque a t K oumb i S a leh w h ich w a s r ebu i l t t h ree t ime s b e tween t h e 1 0 th -15 th c en tu r ies AD ( Dev is se 1 975 :123 , D ev i s se a nd D ia l lo 1 993 :108 ) , a nd m ea su red 4 6m e a s t -we s t a nd 2 3m n or th s ou th ( Mauny 1 961 :473 ) , p re sumab ly i n i t s f i na l f o rm , a nd t h e mosque a t N ian i w h ich m ea su red 1 8m x 1 3m

F eb r ua ry 1 950 .

( F i l ipow iak 1 979 :208 q uo ted i n Mc In to sh a nd Mc In to sh 1 984 :91) . I n G ao i t se lf , t h e mosque o f A sk ia Muhammed , w h ich w a s o r ig ina l ly f ounded i n t h e 1 6 th c en tu ry AD ,

2 . 5 1 3 i )R e su l t s : T he Mo sque : 1 50m t o t h e e a s t o f t h e 2 . 5km p o in t o n t h e

t h ough r ebu i l t s i nce , m ea su res 5 2m n o r th -sou th a nd 9 m e a s t -wes t( Mauny 1 950 :67 ) .

r oad t oB ou r em t h er ema ins o f ab anco q ib la w a l lc on ta in ing a n o mega s haped m ih rab b u i l t o u to ff i red -b r ick w e re f o und ( F igu re 2 . 4 ) . T he m ih rab c hamb e r w a s f r om a s ub s tan t ia l m o sque ( F igu re 2 . 4 ) , a nd w a s o r ien ted e a s t -no r th -ea s t , m ea su r ed 2m i n d iame te r , a nd w a s 9 0cm t h ick a nd 5 0 cm h i gh . A s a l ready m en t ioned , t h e f i r ed -b r ick m ih rab c hambe r

R e -su rvey o ft h er ema ins s howed t ha t Mauny 's r e cons t ruc ted d imens ion s a r e l a rge ly c o r re c t . Howeve r , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t Mauny d id n o t r e cogn ize t h e e x is tence o f t h e o the r b anco w a l ls a nd i n adve r ten t ly d es t royed t h em d u r ing t h e e xcava t ions . T he d e l inea t ion o f b anco w a l ls w i th in a s u r round ing ma t r ix i s d i ff icu l t ( R . Mc In to sh 1 974 :165 ) .

f o rmed p a r t o f al a rge r q ib la w a l l c on s t ruc ted o u t o fb anco , t h e n o r thern h a l fo fw h ich m ea su red 2 1 .8m a nd w h ich w a s 1 5

J udg ing b y t h e s i ze o f t h e mo sque , w h ich p r e suppo se s a l a rge Mu s l im c ong r ega t ion , t h e b u i ld ing u n cove red m u s t h ave b een e i the r as ubs tan t ia l w a rd mo sque , o r t h e m a jo r t own mo sque ,o r mo s tp robab ly t h eF r iday mo sque .

T he d a t ing o ft h e G ao A nc ien mosque c an a l so b e r ev i sed . Mauny ( 1951 :844 ) d a ted t h e mo sque t o AD 1 364 , o n t h e b a s i s o fa n i n s c r ibed t omb s tone f ound c l o s e b y . T h is d a t e i s f a r t o o p re c i se a s t h e a s so c ia t ion b e twe en t h e m o sque a nd t omb i sn o t a t a l l c er ta in , a nd i tc an n ow b e t e n ta t ive ly p l aced i nt h e d a ted c on s t ruc t ion s equence u n cove red d u r ing t h e 1 993 e xcava t ion s e a son ( Chap te r 3 , s e c t ion 3 . 3 ) . A l though i ti st emp t ing t oa s c r ibe t h e G ao A nc ien m o sque a P e r iod 1d a t e , ( l a t e 1 3 th -ea r ly 1 4 th c en tu r ie s AD o nwa rd s ) , a s t h i s i s t h e p e r iod w hen b anco a nd b anco b r i ck s w e r e e x ten s ive ly u s ed , t h e u s e o f f i red -b r ick i n t h e m ih rab , a p r ima ry c on tex t , i s r e s t r ic t ed t o P e r iod 2 i n t h e 1 993 s equence ( l a t e 1 2 th c en tu ry -13 th c en tu ry AD ) a nd i ti s

c •

t h e r e fo r e p o s s ib le t od a t e t h e m o sque p rov i s iona l ly t o t h e 1 2 th -13 th c en tu r ie s AD . 2 . 5b i i i )C onc lus ion s : T he a r ch i tec tu ra l d a ta r e cove red f r om t h e e xcavat ion s i n G ao A nc ien i l us t ra te s t h a t G ao A nc ien w a s s ub jec t t o a v a r i e ty o fi n f luence s , a nd t h a t i t mu s t h ave b e en h ome t oa c o smopol i tan p opu la t ion , b u i l ding i nb o th l o ca l a nd f o r e ign s t y le s . T he d eve lopmen t o f al o ca l r el ig iou s a r ch i te c tu ra l s t y le c ou ld n o t h ave o c cu r red s udden ly a nd , w i th t h e u nu sua lm ih rab s ugge s t st h a tb yt h e 1 2 th 13 th C en tu r ie s AD I s lam w a s a l r eady w e l l e s tab l i shed i nG ao , a nd t h a t al o ca l " N ige r b end " v a r ian t o f I s lam ic r el ig iou s a r ch i te c tu r e h ad a l r eady b egun t od eve lop , f u s ing av a r ie ty o fe l emen t s . T h i s p i c tu r e o fG ao A nc ien i si na g reemen tw i th t h a tp rov ided b y t h e o t he r c a tego r ie s o f a r chaeo log ica l e v id ence r e cov e r ed f r om t h e 1 993 s e a son ,a nd w i th t h e A rab ic h i s to r ica l s ou r ce s a nd w i l l b e c on s ide r ed f u r t he r i n s ub sequen t c hap t e r s .

F ounda t ions

0 R ec tangu la r V

v

Mo sque

T omb s 1 1

y

C eme ter y I 0 0m

F igu re 2 . 4 . Mo sque e xcava ted i nG ao A nc ien b y Mauny ( a f te r Mauny 1 951 :843 a nd 1 961 :492 ) .

1 6

s uppo sed t o h ave b een e xcava ted ; a nd h e re w e re t wo s t ruc tu r es , 1 7m a nd 5m l o ng ( F l igh t 1 981 :101-2 ) . T h is s hows t h a tl i t t le c onf idence c an b ep l aced i nt h e d e sc r ip t ions o f t h e s i te l e f t b y C hambon , w ho o bv iou s ly d id n o t k now

2 . 6 ) A rchaeo log ica l S urvey s C onduc ted a t G ao -Saney : 1 931 -1993 . 2 . 6a )I n troduc t ion :

w ha th appened i nt h ee xcava t ions h ea r ranged . G ao -Saney h a s s ufe red a s omewha t c heque red h i s to ry , w i th t h ea r chaeo log ica l wo rk b e ing c a r r ied o u tt h e re v a ry ing i n q ua l i ty , a nd w i th t h e r e su l t s b e ing i n suf f ic ien t ly

2 . 6d ) C .F l igh t , 1 969 , 1 971 a nd 1 972 : The C eme tery :

p ub l i shed . T h i s i su nfor tuna te a s i ti s av e ry i mpor tan t s i te , a nd o f c ruc ia l i mpor tance i n u nde r s tand ing t h e s p read o f

T he mo s t e x ten s ive s u rvey c onduc ted a t G ao -Saney w a s u nde r taken b y C o l in F l igh t o f t h e C en t re o f We s t A f r ican

I s lam i n to t h eG ao R eg ion b e tween c a .AD 9 00 -1250 .

S t ud ie s , t h e U n ive r s i ty o f B i rm ingham . F l igh t f i r s t v i s i ted G ao -Saney b r ief ly i n 1 969 a nd 1 971 t o e xp lo re t h e p o s s ib i l i t ie s f o rr e sea r ch ( F l igh t 1 975a :83 ) ; n o d e ta i led f i e ld n o te s w e re f ound r e la t ing t ot h e se r e conna issance v i s i t s i n t h e a r ch ive s a tB i rm ingham .

G ao -Saney i sl o ca ted a pp rox ima te ly 6 1 an t o t h e e a s t o f t h e modern c i ty o fG ao , o n t h e R ou te d u T i lems i , t h e p r inc ipa l t r uck r ou te t oA lger ia ( I nsol 1 993a , F l igh t 1 975a ) . T he s i te i s made u p o f t wo c omponen t s , as ubs tan t ia l h ab i ta t ion mound , a nd a c eme te ry ( F igu res 2 . 5 a nd 2 . 6 ) . T he t e l l

T he f i r s t ma jo r s e a son c omp r i sed b o th s u rvey a nd t h e c eme t e ry . T he s u rvey a nd p lo t t ing t h e p o s i t ion s

c ove r s a n a r ea o f8 00m x 3 00m a nd r i ses t o ah e igh t o f8 m a bove t h e s u r round ing t e r ra in (Mauny 1 96 1 :498 , F l igh t 1 979a ) . T he c eme te ry , w h ich h a s a t t ra c ted s o much i n te res t o n a ccoun t o ft h e s t e lae d i scove red t h e re , i ss i tua t ed 5 00m

w a s c onduc ted i n 1 972 , a nd e xcava t ion ( s ee s e c t ion 2 . 7d ) , i n i n vo lved n umber ing , d e sc r ib ing o f a l l t h e i n sc r ibed g rave s tone s

a nd f r agmen t s i n t h e c en t ra l p a r t o ft h e c eme te ry . 5 8 i t em s w e re r e co rded , 2 8 f r agmen t s a nd 3 0 c omp le te o r n ea r ly

n o r thea s to ft h et e l l (Mauny 1 961 :113 )a nd c ove r s a n a r ea o f a t l e a s t t wo h e c ta res b e ing s epa ra ted f r om t h e t e l l b y t h e R ou te d u T i lems i ( F igu re 2 .6 ) . As umma ry o f t h e p r ev iou s w o rk c a r r ied o u t a t G ao -Saney i s t o b e f ound i n F l igh t ( 1981) . H oweve r , i th a s p roved n eces sa ry t ou pda te a nd a dd t ot h is e x ten s ive ly u s ing F l igh t ' s u npub l ished f i e ld n o te s a nd s em ina rp ape r s .

c omp le te s t e lae ( F l igh t 1 975a :83 ) .T he t wo b r ick -bu i l tt omb s a tt h e s i te , t h e g rand c a veau , e xcava ted b y C hambon , a nd t h ep e t i t c aveau ,p o s s ib ly t h e s t ruc tu re e xcava ted b yC o lone l D ubo in ( d es cr ibed i ns e c t ion 2 . 7b ) ,w e re a l so r e -su rveyed .

2 . 6b ) B . d e P on to is , 1 931 , a nd J .C hambon , Augu s t 1 939 : T he C eme tery : 2 . 6e ) O ther R e searcher s , 1 971 -1 992 : T he C eme tery a nd t h eT e l l :

C red i t f o r t h e i n i t ia l d i scove ry o f t h e " Roya l " c eme te ry a t G ao -Saney i su sua l ly g iven t oJ ean C hambon , C ommandan t d e C erc le , w ho c ame a c ro s s t h e s i te w h i ls t o u t s hoo t ing g u inea f ow l w i th h i s w i f e i n A ugus t 1 939 ( F l igh t , 1 978b :9 , 1 981 :91 -2 ) . C er ta in ly C hambon 's i st h e f i r s t d i rec t r e f e rence t o t h e c eme te ry , h oweve r Mauny ( 1951 :845 ; 1 961 :113 ) men t ion s t h a t B erna rd L e P on to i s d ug a tt h e " nd • cropo le d e e xcava t ion sw a se ve rp ub l ished a nd n o men t ion o fa ny s t e lae f ound i sm ade . I tw a s t h e d i s cove ry o f t h e r oya l s t e lae ( s ee s e c t ion 2 . 7a ) w h ich w a s t o make t h e c eme te ry a tG ao -Saney f amou s . F i r s t p ub l ic men t ion o f t h e s t e lae wa s made b y

A . L amb a nd J . Hunw ick , 1 971 -73 : A la s ta i r L amb a nd J ohn H unw ick , o f t h e U n ive r s i ty o f Ghana , v i s i ted G ao S aney i n 1 971 , w he re L amb m ade a c o l lec t ion f r om t h e s u r f a ce o ft h et e l lo fc oppe ro b je c t s ,c r uc ib le f r agmen t s , g l a s s b ead s , a nd d eb r i s r e su l t ing f r om t h e manufac tu re o f c a rne l ian b ead s . T he g l a ss a nd c a rne l ian ma te r ia l w a s d epo s i ted i nt h eC or n ing Museum o fG la s s , N ew Yo rk S ta te , a nd t h eo the rm a te r ia l w a s s t o red i nt h e H orn iman Museum , L ondon ( Lamb , p e r s . c omm . ) . T he c eme te ry w a s r e -v i s i ted b yJ ohn H unw ick i nJ anua ry 1 973 , w ho p ho tog raphed s ome

T heodo r e Monod ( 1940 :2 ) .

o ft h es t e lae p rev iou s ly m apped b yF l igh t( 1978a :11) .

No m en t ion o f t h e t e l l a t G ao -Saney h ad y e t b e en made .

S . D awa

Whe the r t h is w a s b ecause i th ad e s caped n o t ice , w h ich s eem s u n l ike ly ,o rb ecause i tw a sr e ga rded a sn a tu ra l , w h ich i sp os s ib le ,i sn o tk nown .

( 1 985 :67 -70 ) v i s i ted t h e c eme te ry a nd t h e t e l l i n 1 984 , d ur ing h i s s u rv ey o f a r chaeo log ica l s i tes i n t h e C erc le d e G ao . A s ide f r om r e co rd ing t ha t t h e s i te w a s i n ap oo r c ond i t ion , n o w o rk w a s u nder taken b y D awa . T he c eme te ry

S an ig p r is d e Gao " i n 1 931 . N o f u r the r r epo r t o f t h ese

a nd

P .

F ar ias ,

1 985 -1990 :

S eydou

D awa

h a sa l so b een v i s i ted o n an umb e ro fo cca s ions b yF ar ia s , f o r t h e p u rpo se s o fs t udy ing t h e s t e lae , t h e l a s t s uch v i s i t b e ing m ade i nJ anua ry 1 988 . F ar ia s ( 1990 :80 ) n o ted t ha t s ome o f

2 .6 c ) R . Mauny , 1 950 : The C eme tery : T he n ex t s u rvey t o b e c a r r ied o u t a t G ao -Saney w a s b y R aymond Mauny , w ho i n 1 950 , h av ing e xam ined t h e

t h e s t e lae h ad d i sappea red s i nce h i s p r ev ious v i s i t s . T h i s s ad d es t ruc t ion b o th o f t h e c eme te ry a nd t h e t e l l i s am a jo r p rob lem a nd i sc on t inu ing t o day ( I nso l l 1 993 , 1 994b ) .

e x i s t ing s t e lae , v i s i ted t h e c eme te ry a tG ao -Saney , w he r e h e s u rveyed a nd p ho tog raphed t wo b r i ck -bu i l t s t ruc tu re s w h ich h ad b een p rev ious ly e xcava ted . N e i the r o f t h e se s t r uc tu re s a greed w i th t he d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e b u i ld ing e xcava ted u nde r C hambon 's o rde r s , a s o n ly o ne 1 0m long s t r uc tu re w a s

M . R a imbau l t a nd K . S anogo , c a .1981 -1988 : G ao -Saney w a s a l so v i s i ted d ur ing t h e c ou r se o f t h e " I nven ta i re d e s S i te sA rchgo log ique s " , ap ro je c tc a r r ied o u ti nt h e 1 980 s 1 7

1 8 F igu re 2 . 5 .T he a r cha eo log ica l l a ndscap eo ft h eG ao a r ea .

j o in t ly b yt h e Ma l ian I ns t i tu td e sS c ience sH uma ine sa nd t h e M i s s ion F ran p i se d e C oope ra t ion e td ' Ac t ion C u l ture I le . T he e x t en t o f t h e e xcava t ion s c onduc t ed , i fa ny ( wh ich a ppear s t o b e t h e c a se ) , i sn o t r e co rded , a nd n o f u r the r ma te r ia l f r om t h e se i n ve s t iga t ion s w a s f o und i n e i the r B amako o rP a r i s . T he s o le C 14 d a te t oh ave b een o b ta ined f r om G ao -Saney w a s p roce s sed a s ar e su l t o f t h i s m i s s ion ( Pa 4 12 ) . T he p rec i se c on tex t f r om w h ich t h e c ha r coa l s amp le w a so b ta ined i sn o tk nown ,a pa r tf r om t h e f a c tt h a ti t c ame f r om t h e t e l ( F igu r e 2 . 6 ) . T he d a t e w hen c a l ib ra ted s pans t h e r a nge AD 9 75 -1150 ( Ra imbau l t a nd S anogo 1 991 :520 ) .

2 . 7 ) A r chaeo log ica l E x cava t ion s C eme t ery : 1 931 -1978 .

a t G ao -Saney ,

2 . 7a )B .L eP on to is ,1 931 ,a nd M .B ar to l i , Augus t 1 939 : O ft h e e xcava t ion s o fB ena rd L e P on to i s i n 1 931 t h e r e a r e n o d e ta i l s , e xcep t t h a t Mauny ( 1 961 :113 ) r e co rd s t h a t a c ha l cedony a nd af a ience b ead , a nd ah i nged c oppe r t o rque w e r e f o und d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f t h e e xcava t ion s . T h i s s t a temen t b y Mauny , h oweve r , i s i n a ccu ra te , f o r s eve ra l s t r ings o fb ead s , f i ve s t one b r a ce le t s , a nd o ne g l a s s b r ace le t

F igu r e 2 . 6 . T he l o ca t ion o f t h e c eme t e ry , S t ruc tu r e Q , a nd t h e O c tob e r 1 993 t r ench a tG ao -Saney ( adap ted f r om Mauny u npubl i shed ) .

1 9

T h e

f r om L e P on to i s ' s e xcava t ion s , a r e d i sp layed i nt h e Mu see d es A r t sA f r ica ins e tO cean i ens i nP a r i s . T he d ocumen ta t ion r e ga rd ing t h e se e xcava t ion s i sm i s s ing , a s sum ing a ny w a s e ve rp roduced . T he f i r s t e xcava t ion s a tG ao -Saney o fw h ich w e h ave s ome d e ta i l s w e r e c onduc ted i n t h e c eme t e ry , a nd w e r e a r ranged b yJ ean C hambon a nd s upe rv i sed b yM . B a r to l i , t h e d i re c to r o f t h e E co le R eg iona le ( Mauny 1 96 1 :113 ) . T hey c oncen t ra t ed u pon a t omb , b u i l t o f f i red -b r ick , w h ich w a s s ub sequen t ly t e rmed " S t ruc tu r e F " b yF l igh t ( 1 981 :92 ) , w ho r e -excava ted t h i s s t ruc tu r e i n 1 974 ( F igu r e 2 . 7 ) . I tw a s f r om t h i s b u i ld ing t h a t t h e " r oya l " s t e lae a r e s a id t o h ave c ome , b u t t h e e xac t c i r cums tance s a nd c on tex ti nw h ich t h e s t e la e

w e r e f o u nd a r e d i ff icu l tt or e cons tru c t . O n ly o ne s t e lae w a s f ound t oh ave b e en f i xed i n p lace w i th i r on h ook s w h ich , " Qu i n ' on tp a s r e s i s te a u z e le d e sp i ocheu r s " ( Le t t e r f r om C hambon t o Monod 1 941 , q uo ted i nF l igh t 1 981 :93 ) ; w h ich s t e lae t h i sw a s ,w ed on o tk now . S even s t e lae , d a ted t o t h e 1 2 th c en tu ry AD , w e re a mong t h o se u ncove red d u r ing t h e h as ty e xcava t ion s a r ranged b y C hambon i nA ugu s t 1 939 .F l igh t ( 1 981 :93 ) make s t h e p o in t t h a t i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t m o r e s t e lae w e r e f o und , b u t w e r e n o t r e co rded a t t h e t ime . I n t o ta l 2 6 s t e lae , s ome v e ry f r agmen t a ry , a pp ea r t oh ave b een r e cove red b o th f r om t h e e xcava t ion s a nd t h e s u r f a ce o f t h e c eme t e ry a t G ao -Saney ( F l igh tU nda t ed :1 ) . Men t ion o ft h e s t e lae w a sa ga in m ade i n

F igu r e2 . 7 . O u t l ine o fG ao -Saney c eme te ry s t r uc tu r e s( a dap ted f r om F l igh t 1 974 , 1 978a . 1 979a ) .

2 0

t wo a nonymou s r epo r t s i n No tes A f r ica ine s i n 1 941 , w hen

S c iences Huma ine s i nB amako , t h e Musge d u S ahe l i nG ao ,

t h ep o s s ib le A nda lus ian o r ig in f o rf i ve o ft h e s t e lae , made o f

a nd F l igh t 's b a se i n G ao , t h e Ho te l A t lan t id e , a l l w i th n ega t ive r e su l t s . A s i ng le b ag o f m e ta lwo rk a nd b ead s i n p oo r c ond i t ion w a s f ound i n t h e C en t re o f We s t A f r ican S t ud ie si nB i rm ingham .

w h i te m a rb le a nd i n scr ibed i n l ow r e l ief , w a s f i r s t p ropo sed ( Anonymous 1 941 :a a nd b ) . I tw a s n o t u n t i l 1 948 t h a t t h e f i r s t o f t wo a r t ic les , ( one s ub sequen t ly r epr in ted ) , f uly d escr ib ing 1 2 o f t h e s t e lae w e re p ubl i shed b y S auvage t ( 1948 , 1 949 , 1 950 ) . T he r e s t o f t h e s t e lae w e re p ubl i shed

T he f o cu s o f F l igh t 's r e sea rch w a s t h e r e -excava t ion o f t h e

l a te rb yV i re ( 1958 , 1 959 ) .

b u i ld ing s i n t h e c eme te ry . D ur ing t h e c ou r se o f t h e t h ree c ampa igns h e e xcava ted f i ve s t ruc tu re s ; F IG a nd H , t h e s o c a l led g rand c aveau , K , t h e s o -caled p e t i t c aveau a nd J ,a n e nc lo su re ( F igu re 2 . 7 ) . P r io r t oi n te rp re t ing t h e f unc t ion o f t h e se s t r uc tu re s a nd r ev i s ing F l igh t ' s c h rono logy , t h e se b u i ld ing s w i l lb ed e sc r ibed .

T he p rog res s o f t h e e xcava t ion w a s n o t w el re co rded , t h e o n ly f i r s t -hand a ccoun t s o f t he e xcava t ions w e re t wo l e t te r s w r i t ten i n 1 939 a nd 1 941 ( F l igh t U nda ted :!) . T he re i sn o d i scus s ion o ft h es t ruc tu re s a nd o n ly t wo f i nd sa r e d e s cr ibed , ap o t te ry i n cen se b urne r a nd ag o ld b ead . A pa r t f r om t h e se , t h es ke le ton o f ac h i ld w a s f ound ( F l igh t 1 981 :93 ) .

2 . 7d i ) S truc ture F IG a nd H : 2 . 7b ) C o lone lD ubo in , 1 940 -41 :

T he F IG a nd H s t ruc tu ra l c omp lex t h ough n amed t h e g rand c a veau , w h ich i mpl ied as i ng le s t ruc tu re , i si nf a c tm ade u p

U ncon t ro l led e xcava t ion , amoun t ing t o l i t t le m o re t h a t

o ft h ree b u i ld ings a s s igned t h e c od e s F , Ga nd H b y F l igh t ( 1 975b :29 ) ( F igu re 2 . 7 ) . Two p ha se s o fc ons t ruc t ion c an b e d i s ce rned .

a ma teu r c u r io s i ty , c on t inued a t t h e G ao -Saney c eme te ry i n 1 940 . I n F l igh t ' s 1 974 r e -excava t ion o f t h e b r ick -bu i l t s t ruc tu r es a tG ao -Saney e v idence o fd i s tu rbance w a s f ound , a nd i ta ppea r s l i ke ly t h a t t wo f u r the r s t ruc tu res ( G a nd K ) , w e re e xcava ted b y C o lone l D ubo in , t h e s u cce s so r a s

P ha se 1 :T he p r ima ry S t ruc tu re F , w a s ap la in r e c tangu la r b u i ld ing m ea su r ing 1 0 .8m

C ommandan t d e C erc le t o C hambon ( F l igh t 1 981 :97 ) . N o i n forma t ion o n t h e se e xcava t ion s e x i s t s , b u t D ubo in i s r emembe red f o rh i s d ec i s ion t od i sp lay s ome o ft h e s t e lae i n t h e w a l ls o f t h e p ub l ic b u i ld ing s i n G ao ( I b id 9 7 ) , t wo o f w h ich c an s t i l l b e s een t oday , i n t h e e x ter io r w a l l o f t h e D iou la mosque , a d jacen t t o t h e ma in ma rke t -p lace i n moder nG ao .

e a s t -we s t b y 3 . 2m n o r th -sou th .

T he re w e re f ou r d e f in i te d oo rway s , o ne i n t h e w e s t w a l l , t h ree i n t h e s ou th , a nd a p os s ib le f i f th d oo rway h ad o nce b een s e t i n t h e c en t ra l w a l l ( F igu re 2 . 7 ) . S t ruc tu re F w a s w e l l b u i l t , t h e w al s s urv ived t o am ax imum h e igh t o f 1 2 c ou r se s o ff i red -br ick w ho se a ve rage s i ze w a s 2 2 x2 2 x5 . 5 c m . T he w a l l s w e re b u i l t u pon t r ench f ounda t ion s , w h ich w e r e m ade u p o f t wo t ot h ree l a ye r s o f i r regu la r b l o ck s o f p urp le -b rown c ong lome ra te , g rou ted w i th b l ack mud . H a l f a nd q ua r te r -s ized b r ick s w e re a l so u sed w he r e n eeded , a t c o rne r s f o r e xamp le ( F l igh t 1 975a :88 ) . T he r e w a s n o m en t ion o f af l oo r . A c on tempo ra ry s e cond r e c tangu la r s t r uc tu re , H , w a sj o ined t o Fo n t h e e a s t b u t h ad b een r a zed

2 . 7c ) C onc lu s ions : I n s umma ry , a s ide f r om t h e d i scove ry o f t h e s t e lae , w ho se e xac t c on tex t a r e u nknown , l i t t le i n fo rma t ion i sg a ined a bou t t h e d eve lopmen ta nd h i s tory o ft h e c eme te ry f r om t h e f i r s tc ampa igns o fe xcava t ion c onduc ted t h e re .

t o t h e g round p r io r t o t h e c ons tr uc t ion o f G , a nd h ence s u r v ived o n ly a s l i nes o f f ounda t ions ( t h i s s t ruc tu re i sn o t d e sc r ib ed i na ny d e ta i l ) ( F igu re 2 . 7 ) . P ha se 2 : An ew s t r uc tur e , G , w h ich w a s b u i l t i np l ace o fH

2 . 7d ) C . F l igh t , 1 972 , 1 974 a nd 1 978 :

a nd r ep r esen t s t h e s e cond p ha se o fc on s t ruc t ion i n t h e F IG a nd H c omp lex . S t ruc tu re G m ea su red 5 . 4m e a s t -wes t a nd 3 . 6m n o r th -sou th . Ad oorway w a s f ound i n t h e s ou th w a l l a nd a l a rge r e c tangu la r n i che i n t h e n o r th -ea s te rn c or ne r w h ich m ea su red 1 . 4m w ide b y l m d e ep ( F l igh t 1 978a :4 , 1 975b :29 ) . T he c ons truc t ion t e chn ique s e mp loyed i n t h e

T h ree s eason s o f e xcava t ion s w e re c onduc ted i n t h e c eme te ry b y C o l in F l igh t ; at e s t e xcava t ion i n S ep tembe r a nd O c tobe r 1 972 , a ma jo r e xcava t ion i n S ep temb e r a nd O c tobe r 1 974 , a nd af u r the r e xp lo r a to ry s ound ing i n Ma rch 1 978 . D ur ing t h e e xcava t ions F l igh t d id n o t r e co rd s ma l l f i nd s , o n ly s t e lae a nd s t ruc tu res . T he r e a son s g i ven f o r n eg lec t ing t o r e co rd a l l t h e f i nd s w e re t ha t t h e w o rk w a s s o le ly c once rned w i th r e -excava t ing t h e s t ruc tu re s o r ig ina l ly e xcava ted b y C hambon , B a r tol i a nd D ubo in , a nd t h a t t h e

b u i ld ing o fG w e re s im i la r t ot h ose u sed i n s t ruc tu re F , t o w h ich i t w a s a dded , e xcep t t h a t t h e w a l l s w e re b ad ly

r e co rd ing o fp o t te ry w a s n o t t h e f o cu so ft h e r e sea r ch , h ence a ny p o t te ry w h ich w a s f ound w a s b agged a nd r ebu r ied . F l igh t ( p e r s . c omm . ) , h a s i n fo rmed t h e a u tho r t h a t p o t te ry w a so n ly r e cove red i ns ubs tan t ia l q uan t i t ies f r om o ne a r ea , a

2 . 7d i i ) S truc ture s Ka nd J :

a l igned , t h e f i red -b r ickwo rk w a s n o t s o c a refu l ly b onded , a nd i th ad n o f ounda t ion s . A ga in t h e re w a s n of l oo r .

f ound t h em a nd i th a s n o t b een p o s s ib le t ol o ca te t h em . T he

S t r uc tu re K , n amed t h ep e t i t c aveau , i sl o ca ted 2 0m t o t h e s ou th o f t h e F , G a nd H c omp lex . I ti s as ma l l d e tached r e c tangu la r b u i ld ing m easu r ing 5m b y 2 . 5m , w i th o ne n a r row d oo rway i n i t s w e s t w a l l ( F igu re 2 . 7 ) . F l igh t ( 1 978a :6 ) makes t h e p o in t t h a t t h is b u i ld ing i ss im i la r t o

a u tho rh a s s ea r ched f o r a ny s urv iv ing ma ter ia l f r om F l igh t ' s e xcava t ions i n t h e Mus & Na t iona l a nd t h e I n s t i tu t d e s

a l igned ,c a re les s ly c on s tr uc ted a nd l a cked f ounda t ion s .

s ma l l t r ench w h ich w a s d ug o u t s ide o f s t ruc tu r e F ( S ee b e low ) .T hese s he rd sw e re b agged a nd r ebu r ied w he re F l igh t

s t ruc tu r e G , a s i t s w a l l s o f f i red -br ick w e r e a l so b ad ly

2 1

I ti sn ece s sa ry t or e -exam ine F l igh t 's c h rono logy . T he f i r s t t h ree -pha se d a t ing s cheme c an b ed i sm is sed a st oo p re c i se a s i tw a s b a sed u pon t h e s t e lae , w ho se c on tex t s a r e n o t s e cu re . T he s t e lae c ou ld e a s i ly h ave b een moved i n to t h e s t ruc tu re s

S t ruc tu r e Ji sd e sc r ibed a s ar ec tang le e nc lo sed b y ac rude w a l l , w h ich F l igh t s ugge s t s w a s p o s s ib ly o n ly e ve r 3 0cm h igh ( t he e v idence o n w h ich t h i s s t a temen t i sb a s ed i sn o t e l abo ra ted ) . T h i s s t ruc tu re i ss i tua ted t o t h e e a s t o f G a nd

a t al a te r d a te t han t h a t i n scr ibed u pon t h em , o r t h ey c ou ld h ave b e en e nc lo sed b y t h e w a l l s o f S t ruc tu res F , G a nd H l ong a f te r i n termen t a nd g rave -ma rk ing t ook p l ace . S im i la r ly t h e r ev ised t wo -pha se c h rono logy , t hough mo r e c au t iou s mu s t a l so b e r e con s ide red s i nce i ti s a l so b a sed

w a s p robab ly b u i l t a f te r t h e o the r b r ick s t ruc tu re s w e re i n r u ins ( F l igh t 1 975b :29 , 1 978a :7 ) . I td i f f e r s f r om t h e o t he r b u i ld ing s a s i tw a s b u i l t f r om ma te r ia ls t a ken f r om o the r s t ruc tu re s ; b r ick s r obbed f r om e a r l ie r w a l l s , l ump s o f c ong lome ra te s im i la r t o t h o se u sed i n t h e f ounda t ion s o f s t ruc tu re F , a nd e ven a wor n o u t q ue rn s tone ( F l igh t

u pon t h el a rge ly i n secu re e p ig raph ic e v idence .

1 978a :7 ) . S ee F l igh t ( 1981 :96 ) f o r ap lan o fs t ruc tu re J .T he r e con s truc ted p l an o f t h e w ho le s t ruc tu ra l c omp lex i s p rov ided i nF igu re 2 . 7 . I tw a s a pp rox ima te ly 7m x5 m , w i th

A mo re s e cu r e c h rono logy c an n ow b e p ropo sed b a sed u pon t h e c on s t ruct ion s equence , d a ted b y Nor th A f r ican i mpo r t s , u ncove red i n 1 993 a t G ao A nc ien . A s im i la r s equence o f c ons truct ion t e chn iques t o t h o se a t G ao -Saney w a s

as i ng le o pen ing t ot h es ou th .

d i s cove red ; t h e d ec l ine i nb u i ld ing s t anda rd s , f r om c a ref uly a l igned c ons truc t ion s u t i l iz ing f i red -b r ick , t o mo re c a re le s s b u i ld ing u s ing b anco b r ick s a nd r e -used f i red -b r ick f r agmen t sb e ing e v iden t . T he f i red -br ick b u i ld ing u ncove r ed i nG ao A nc ien h a sb een p rov i s iona l ly d a t ed t ot h e e nd o ft h e 1 2 th -13 th c en tu r ies AD , w h i le t h ree p ha ses o fl e s s w e l lb u i l t

2 . 7d i i i ) Chrono logy : T he p rec i se d a te o ft h e s t ruc tu res i sn o t k nown , h oweve r i t h a sp roved p o s s ib le t or ev ise F l igh t ' sc h rono logy a nd p l ace i t o n a mo re s e cu re f ounda t ion . F l igh t ' s c h rono log ie s w e re b a sed u pon p a t terns o f s im i la r i ty b e tween t h e s t ruc tu ra l

s t ruc tu res c ou ld d a te f r om a ny t ime a f te r p r ima ry o ccupa t ion o f t h e f i red -b r ick b u i ld ing h ad c ea sed , p o s s ib ly f r om t h e l a te 1 3 th c en tu ry AD o nwa rd s . T he n ew c h rono logy d a tes t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f S t ruc tu res F a nd H , ( t he f i red -b r ick b u i ld ings ) , t o t h e l a te 1 2 th -13 th c en tu r ie s

s equence a nd t h e e p ig raph ic d a ta . F l igh t ( 1978a :7 -8 ) o r ig ina l ly d iv ided t h e c h rono logy o ft h e c eme te ry s t r uc tu re s i n to t h ree p e r iod s , l a , l b , a nd 2 . T he s t e lae w e re d i v ided i n to t wo g roup s ,a n e a r ly g roup w i th d a te sr ang ing f r om AD 100 -1150 a nd a l a te r g roup w i th d a tes r ang ing f r om AD

AD , w i th t h e a l te ra t ion s , i n vo lv ing t h e d es t ruc t ion o fH ,a nd t h e c ons tr uc t ion o f G , a nd o f K t ak ing p l ace f r om t h e l a te

1 200 -1300 . H e s ugge s ted , ( 1978a8 ) , t h a t t h e se g roup s o f d a ted s t e lae c o r r esponded w i th P e r iod s 1a nd 2 ,a nd t h a t t h e P e r iod 1 s t e lae c ou ld b e f u r the r s ubd iv ided i n to t h o se o f A lmer ian s t y le o n w h i te ma rb le , d a t ing f r om AD 100 110 , a nd t ho se i m i ta t ing A lmer ian s t y le b u t made i nl o ca l s ch i s t w h ich d a te

f r om AD

117 -1120 .

1 3 th c en tu ry AD o nwa rd s . S t ruc tu re J , t h e u n roo f ed e nc lo su re c ou ld h ave b een b u i l t a t a ny t ime a f te r t h e l a t e 1 3 th c en tu ry AD .

H ence F l igh t

( 1 978a :8 ) s ubd iv ided P er iod 1 ,i n to l a a nd l b . T h i s d a t ing

2 . 7e )

s cheme w a s l a te r a bandoned i n f a vou r o f as imp l if ied t wo p e r iod c h rono logy ( I b id 1 978b :11 ) , w i th P er iod 1 ,c ove r ing t h e f i r s t h a l fo f t h e 1 2 th c en tury AD , t h en a g ap o f h a lf a c en tu ry , f olowed b yP e r iod 2 ,e ncompa s s ing a l l o ft h e 1 3 th

S truc ture s :

T he

I n terpre ta t ion

o f t he

C eme tery

a nd

i t s

c en tu ry AD . I n t h e o r ig ina l c h rono logy S t ruc tu res F a nd H w e re p l aced

T he mo s t c ommon i n te rp re ta t ion p roposed f o r t h e c eme te ry s t ruc tu re s i st h a t t h ey a r e t omb s . T h i s i n te rp re ta t ion w a s f i r s t p ropo sed b y C hambon i n 1 939 , w ho r e f e r red t o a

i nP e r iod l a , a nd w e re t e n ta t ive ly d a ted t oc a .AD 100 . I n t h e r ev i sed t wo -pha se c h rono logy , s t ruc tu re s Fa nd H w e r e d a ted t ot h e l a te 1 t h -ea r ly 1 2 th c en tu r ie s AD , w hen F l igh t

c aveau , o r v au l t , a s t h e p l ace o f d i scove ry o f t h e s t e la e ( F l igh t 1 981 :92 ) , a nd w a s a l so s uppo r ted b y Mauny ( 1951 :845 , 1 961 :113 ) . T he t omb h ypo the s is i s

( 1979a7 ) , s ugge s ts t h e c eme te ry w a s f i r s t e s tab l i shed . S t ruc tu re G w a s d a ted t o c a .AD 120 , ( Pe r iod l b i n t h e

u nde r s tandab le a st h e s t ruc tu res a r e s i tua ted i nt h e m idd le o f al a rge Mu s l im c eme te ry .

2 . 7e i )E x is t ing I n terpre ta t ion s :

o r ig ina l c h rono logy ) , b u t t h i s w a s s ub sequen t ly r e v i sed t o t h e l a te 1 2 th -ea r ly 1 3 th c en tu r ies AD ( F l igh t 1 978b :11 , 1 979a :7 ) . Ow ing t o t h e s im i la r i t ies i n c on s truc t ion s t y le b e tween S t ruc tu re s Ka nd G , S t ruc tu re K w a s d a ted i n t h e

A no the r

i n t e rp re ta t ion

w a s

p u t

f o rwa rd

b y

F l igh t

( 1978b :10 ) , w ho a rgued t ha t t he c eme te ry b u i ld ing s d i scove red f o rm p a r t o f al a rge r s t ruc ture . F l igh t ( 1979a :7 ) p ropo sed t h a t Hw a s t o o w ide t oh ave b e en r oof ed a nd w a s

r e v ised c h rono logy t ot h e e nd o ft h e 1 2 th -ea r ly 1 3 th c en tu ry

p robab ly a c ou r tya rd , w ho se o r ien ta t ion w a s p e rhap s d i c ta ted b ya n a sy e t u nd i scove red s t ruc tu r e t ot h e e a s t o fF L i nt h e a r ea o ccup ied b yJ ,w h ich i sl a te ri nd a te ( F igu re 2 . 7 ) .

AD ( F l igh t 1 978b :11 , 1 979a :7 ) . F l igh t ( 1978a :7 ) o n ly r e f e r s t oS t ruc tu re Ji nt h e o r ig ina l c h rono logy ,w he re i ti sg i ven a P e r iod 2 ,o r p o s t AD 1 200 d a te . N o a t temp t w a s made t o d a te S t ruc tu re Ji nt h e r ev i sed c h rono logy . T he c h rono logy ,

T hese h ypo the t ica l e a s te rn s t ruc tu res , a long w i th H w e r e l a te r d e s t royed , Fw a s r epa i red a nd a l te red , a nd G a nd K w e re b u i l t . F l igh t s ugge s t s t ha t p os s ib le f unc t ions f o r t h ese

a s F l igh t h imse lf ( 1978b :11) a dm i t s , w a s r e l ian t u pon i nd i rec t a nd c i r cum s tant ia l e v idence . No C 14 s amp les w e r e p roce s sed ,a nd a s ide f r om t h e s t e lae b ea r ing i n sc r ip t ions , n o

s t r uc tu res i n c lude aw a l led e nc lo su re , s im i la r t ot h o se f o und

o the r d a tab le a r tef ac t s , s uch a s i mpor t ed p o t t ery o r g l a s s

i n t h e n e cropol i s a t T egdaous t ( Unda ted :2 ) , o r p a r t o f a mo sque c omp lex , w i th t h e u nd iscove red e a s te rn b u i ld ing

w e re r e cove red .

2 2

( t ermed X b y F l igh t ) b e ing t h e mo sque , H t h e c ou r tya rd ( Sahn ) , a nd F t h e a b lu t ion s a r ea o r l a tr ine , w i th t h e a l te ra t ions , d emo l i t ions a nd c on s truct ion o fGa nd K t ak ing

e nc lo su re s ,s ome w i th m ih rab s , w e re f ound d i v ided i n to f ou r m a in g roup s . T he se s t r uc tu res w e re o r ien ted n o r th -sou th o ve r a n a r ea o f 7 00m a nd w e re f ound t o c on ta in l a rge n umb e r s o f b od ies , o r ien ted i n a v a r ie ty o f p o s i t ion s

p l ace l a te r ( F l igh t 1 979a :7 ) . N o a t t emp t w a s made a t i n te rp re t ing t h ef unc t ion o fs t ruc tu re J .

( D .Robe r t 1 970a :65 , 1 970b :476 ) . T he o r ien ta t ion o f t h e b od ie sa ppea r s t oh ave b e en d i c ta ted b o th b yt h e p re sence o f n a tu ra l o b s ta c le s , s u ch a s r o ck s , w h ich mean t as i ng le

E ach o ft h ese i n te rp re ta t ion sw i l ln ow b ee xam ined .

a l ignmen t c ou ld n o t b e a dhe red t o ( D .Rober t 1 970b :475 ) , b u t m igh t a l so h ave b een t h rough c ho ice . T he d ive r s i ty 2 . 7e 1 1 ) The T omb T heory :

e ncoun te r ed l e d S .R obe r t ( 1970 :275 ) t o s ugge s t t ha t t h e re w e re d i f f e ren t p ha se s o f I s lam iza t ion , mo re c omp lex t han

T he p ropo sa l t h a t t h e s t ruc tu re s f unc t ioned p u r e ly a s t omb s i sd i ff icu l t t os uppo r t . T he re w a s al a ck o fs ke le ta l ma te r ia l i n t h e b u i ld ings ; o n ly o ne s ke le ton , t ha t o f a c h i ld d i scove red b y C hambon i n 1 939 , w a s r e co rded a s h av ing b een f ound d ur ing a ny o ft h e e xcava t ion c ampa igns a nd i t i s d i ff icu l t t o a t t r ibu te t h i s l a ck o f s ke le ta l ma te r ia l t o p re serva t ion f a c to r s , a s s ubs tan t ia l q uan t i t ie s o f f auna l r ema ins w e re r e cove red f r om t h e r e cen t e xcava t ions o n t h e t e l l s i te . U n le s s t h e t omb s h ad b een c l ea red o u t e a r l ie r ,

t h eA rab ic t e x t s m ake a ppa ren t . As im i la rc omp lex i ty c an b e s e en i nt h eG ao R eg ion ,f o rt h e s u rvey d a ta h a s s hown t h a ta v a r ie ty o ff o rms o f Mu s l im b u r ia l c o -ex i s ted i nt h e a r ea , a nd t h a tt h ep ace o fI s lam iza t ion v a r ied b e tween e t hn ic g roup s .

w h ich s eem s i mp robab le , t h e p re sence o fl a rge r q ua l i t ies o f s ke le ta l ma te r ia lw a st ob ee xpe c ted ,b u ti si nf a c tm is s ing .

Ag roup o ff une ra ry e nc lo su r e s i st ob e f ound c l o se r t oG ao , i nt h en ec ropol io fE s suk ,t h ep robab le s i te o fT admekka , t h e s p i r i tua l a nd a cadem ic h ome o f t h e S ou ther n T ua regs ( No r r is 1 975 :2 ) ,a nd t h e i r m ed ieva l c ap i ta l . T hese s t ruc tu re s a r e d i ff i cu l t t o d a te p rec ise ly a s f u r the r a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion i s n eeded a t t h i s s i te , h oweve r i n scr ip t ions d a ted t o t h e 1 th c en tu ry AD h ave b een f ound a t E ssuk

S e cond ly , a pa r t f r om t h e s t e lae s uppo r ted b y t h e i r on h ook s r e f e r red t oi ns e c t ion 2 . 7a , i ts e em s t h a t t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e s t e lae w e re n o t f ound i n t h e i r o r ig ina l c on tex t b u t w e r e d i scove red p ropped u p a ga ins t t h e w a l l s , p resumab ly o ft h e F IG a nd H s t ruc tu ra l c omp lex , t h ough F l igh t 's n o tes a r e n o t v e ry c l ea r o n t h is p o in t . T h i s w ou ld n o t h ave b e en t h e o r ig ina l c on tex t o f t he s t e lae . F l igh t ( 1978b :9 ) m ake s t h e p o in t t ha t s ome o ft h e s t e lae w e re s pec if ica l ly d e s igned t ob e i n se r ted i n to n i ches i n t h e w a l l s o f t omb s , b u t h e d oe s n o t e xp la in o n w ha t e v idence t h i s i sb a sed . H oweve r i t wou ld a ppea r t ha t F l igh t ( 1978b :10 ) i sc o r rec t w hen h e s ugge s t s t h a t t h e s t e lae w e re r emoved f r om e l sewhe re a nd c ole c ted

( Fa r ia s 1 990 :91-105 ) . T he p lan o f t h e n e cropo l i a t E s sukfradmekka p rov ided b y D e G i roncou r t ( 1920 :337 ) , s how st h a tl a rge n umbe r so ff une ra ry e nc lo su re sa r e g rouped a r ound t h e r u in s o f t h e o ld t own . T he n o r thea s te rn n e c ropol i s a ppea r s t o b e t h e l a rge s t a nd i s made u p o f a g roup o fa tl e a s t 1 9 t i gh t ly p acked e nc losu re s , w i th f u r the r e nc lo su r es s c a t te red a round t h e ma in g roup . O ne s t ruc tu re ( D ) c l ea r ly h a s am ih rab . T he t omb s , many o f w h ich a r e m a rked w i th s t one s a t t h e h ead a nd f oo t b ea r ing A rab ic i n scr ip t ion s ( Lho te 1 951 :67 ) , a r e c on ta ined w i th in t h e se

i n s ide S t ruc tu r eF .

v i s i ted o nh o ly a nd f e a s td ay s .

e nc lo su re s . F unera ry e nc lo su r e s w e re u sed a s p l aces w he r e p raye r s c ou ld b e s a id f o r t h e d ead , a nd w h ich c ou ld b e

I ti sp e rhaps t oE s suk /Tadmekka r a the r t han t o T egdaous t t h a t w e s hou ld l o ok f o r a ny p o s s ib le s im i la r i t ies , a s i tw a s t h rough E s suk/Tadmekka a nd t h e Ad ra r d e s I f o ra s t ha t t h e ma in t r ade r ou te n o r thwa rds f r om G ao p a ssed . F a r ia s ( 1990 :85 ) h a s e s tab l i shed al i nk b e twe en s ome o f t h e s t e lae i n sc r ip t ion s w i th in t h e G ao -Saney c eme te ry , o ne o f w h ich w a s d a t ed t o AD 1 088 , a nd t h e moder nc a l l ig raph ie s o ft h e

2 . 7e i i i ) The F unerary E nc lo sure sT heory : A n a l ter na t ive i n te rp re ta t ion c an b e o f f e red t ha t t h e s t ruc tu res w e re f une ra ry e nc lo su re s , p o s s ib ly w he re t h e d ead w e re c ommemo ra ted . F a r ia s ( p e r s . c omm . ) h a s p ropo sed t h e t i t le o f , " Room s f o r t h e d ead " , f o r s uch s t ruc tu r es . T ogo la ( p e r s . c omm . ) made t h e i n te res t ing s ugge s t ion t ha t t h e s t ruc tu res m ay h ave b een l i nked w i th t h e Mar abou t ic t r ad i t ions o f Wes t A f r ica , a nd m ay h ave b een p u t u p a t a l a te r d a te . C e r ta in ly a mongs t t h e S ongha i o f T imbuk tu a s Ma r ty ( 1920 :55 ) r e co rd s , s a in t s ' t omb s a r e f r equen t ly v i s i ted . B es ide s t h e c ommemo ra t ive a spec t , t h e f une ra ry e nc lo su re sa l so s e rved af unc t iona l p u rpose , t ok eep a n ima l s o u t .

K e l -es -suk , t h e T ua reg h o lymen w ho c l a im E ssuk/Tadmekka a st h e i rp l ace o fo r ig in . L ink s b e tween t h e K e l -e s suk a nd t h e T ua reg s a round G ao r ema in s t rong e ven t o day , a nd t h e A rab ic s ou r ce s r e co rd t h a t l i nk s b e tween T admekka a nd G ao w e re s t rong i nt h e m ed ieva lp er iod . I ti sf e a s ib le t o s ugge s t t h a t t h e F /G /H c omp lex a t G ao S aney s e r ved as im i la rp u rpo se t ot h e f une ra ry e nc lo su r e s a t T admekka . H oweve r t h e a b sence o f b u r ia l s w i th in t h e

ma in p er iod o fo ccupa t ion h a s b e en d a ted t ob e tween t h e 9 th

s t ruc tu re s a tG ao -Saney i si nc on t ra s t t o t h e l a rge n umbe r s o f t omb s f ound i n t h e e nc lo su r es a tE s suk/Tadmekka . T he F IG /H i s t ruc tu ra l c omp lex d oes d i f f e r i n c e r ta in r e spec t s f r om t h e e nc lo su r e s f ound a t T egdaou s t a nd E s suk /Tadmekka ,b u ti ts hou ld a l so b e r emembe red t h a t t h e p re sence o f a b ody i s n o t a p re r equ is i te f o r t h e

-e a r ly 1 4 th c en tu r ies AD ( S . R obe r t 1 966 ; D . R obe r t 1 970a :64 ; P o le t 1 985 :233-45 ) . O ve r 1 00 r e c tangu la r s t one

c ommemo ra t ion o ft h e d ead , t h e s t e lae c ou ld h ave s e rved a s as ub s t i tu te .

A s a l ready m ent ioned , F l igh t ( Unda ted :2 ) s ugge s ted a n a na logy w i th t h e f unera ry e nc lo su r e s f ound a t T egdaous t . T he T egdaou s te nc losu res w h ich s ha red t h e f unc t ion o fb o th t omb s a nd c ommemo ra t ive s t ruc tu res w e re f ound o n a p la teau 2 1 cm n or th o ft h e ma in a r ea o fh ab i ta t ion , w he re t h e

2 3

a l ready b e en d i scus sed a bove , h ow t h e v a r ie ty o f e x te rna l t r ade p a r tne r s o fG ao , a nd p o s s ib le a r ea s o f i nf luence u pon

2 .7e iv )T he Mo sque T heory : F l igh t 's ( 1979a :7 ) a l terna t ive i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e f unc t ion

t h e c i ty a r e r ef le c ted i n t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l e v idence a nd t h e

o f t h e c eme te ry s t ruc tu re s w a s t ha t t h ey f o rmed p a r t o f a mosque c omp lex . T he p o s i t ion ing o f Ha nd i t s r e la t ion sh ip w i th F c e r ta in ly i mp l ie st h a ti tw a sp ar to f al a rge rs t ruc tu r e . H oweve r h i s a s ser t ion t ha t H w a s t o o w ide t o h ave b een

a s semb lage so fi mpor ted g ood s r e cove red f r om G ao A nc ien . T h i s b ody o f e v idence i lus t ra te s t h a t G ao w a s i n c on ta c t w i th d i f f e ren t a r ea s o ft h e w ide r I s lam ic wo r ld a t d i f f e ren t t ime s , a nd s ome t ime s w i th a n umbe r o fa reas a to nce . T he

r oof ed , c anno t b e e i the r p roved o r d i sp roved a tp resen t , a s

p roces se s b y w h ich I s lam s p read i n to t h e G ao R eg ion , a nd h ow t h ey a r e i nd ica ted w i th in t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a r e

w e d o n o t k now whe the r c o lumns ( a s f ound a tG ao A nc ien i n 1 993 ) w e re u sed ; t h ey w ou ld h ave o ve r come t h e d if i cu l ty

c omp lex . T hese a r e p o in t s wh ich w e w i l l r e turn t o i n t h e f olow ing c hap te r s .

o f r oof ing a l a rge s t ruc tu re w i th t h e l im i ted l e ng ths o f t imbe ra va i lab le l o ca l ly . T he f a c tt h a tg rea tc a re w a s i n ves ted i nb u i ld ing t h eo r ig ina l

2 . 8 ) A rchaeo log ica lE xcava t ions a t Gao -Saney , The T e l l :

S t ruc tu r e Hi ss i gn if i can t , f o r t h e u se o f f i red -b r ick i n t h i s f u e l -poo r r eg ion i sr a re . F i red -b r ick a ppea r s t o h ave o n ly b een u sed i np re s t ig iou s o r i mpor tan t c on s t ruc t ion s , s uch a s i n t h e m ih rab o ft h e G ao A nc ien mo sque , a nd i n t h e l a rge b u i ld ing u ncove red i n G ao A nc ien ( d i s cu s sed f u r the r i n

2 . 8a )R . Manny , 1 952 : T he f i r s tr e co rded e xcava t ions o n t h e t e l l w e re c onduc t ed b y

C hap te r 4 , s e c t ion 4 . 3b i i i ) . T he u se o f f i red -b r ick f o r a mo sque i st h e refo re n o t u nexpec t ed . N o m ih rab w a s f ound ,

R aymond Mauny i n 1 952 . S eve ra l t e s t p i t s w e r e d ug , a nd Mauny d e sc r ibe s ( 1961 :113 ) h ow t h e s u r face o ft h e t e l l w a s l i be ra l ly c ov e r ed i n p o t te ry f r agmen t s . S eve ra l s he rd s o f

t h e n i che i nt h e n or the rn c o rne ro fGd oe s n o t b e long t ot h e o r ig ina lp ha se o fc ons truc t ion ,a nd i si n co r rec t ly o r ien ted , a s e a s t i st h e o r thodox d i re c t ion o f m ih rab o r ien ta t ion i n t h e G ao a rea . I fS t ruc tu re X d oe s e x i s t , i tw ou ld b e w i th in t h a t s t ruc tu re t ha t t h e m ih rab w ou ld b e f ound . T he mosque

g l azed p o t te ry o fS pan i sh o r ig in w e re r e cove red f r om ad i s u sed m i l i ta r y t r ench ( Mauny 1 952 :514 a nd s ee C hap t e r 5 , s e c t ion 5 . 5a ) . A s ide f r om t h e i mpor ted p o t te ry , t h e r e su l t so f t h e se e xp lo r a to ry s ound ing s w e re n o t p ubl i shed i n d e ta i l . A s e a rch t h rough t h e Mau ry a r ch ive s i n t h e C en tr e d e

i n te rp re ta t ion i s a t t rac t ive , b u t u n t i l S t ruc tu re d i scove red ,w il r ema in p ure ly h ypo the t ica l .

R echerche sA f r ica ine si nP a r is f a i led t of i nd a ny o fh i s n o te s

X

i s

2 . 7ev )D i scu s s ion :

r e la t ing t ot h i s , o ra ny o fh i s o the r e xcava t ion s a nd s u rvey s i nG ao . T he l im i ted e xcava t ion b y Mauny s howed t h a t t h e t e l l , a s w e l l a s t h e c eme te ry a t G ao -Saney w a s o f i mpor tance . T h i s i ss i gn if ican t , a sp r io r t ot h is p o in t t h e t e l l

I t i s a ppa ren t t ha t t o p ropo se a s i ng le f unc t ion f o r t h e

c onduc ted o n t h e G ao -Saney t e l l w a s b y t h e a u tho r i n

s t ruc tu re s i n t h e c eme te ry a t G ao -Saney i ss imp l i s t ic . T he s t ruc tu re s p robab ly s e rved a v a r ie ty o ff unc t ion s o ve r t ime , w h ich a l te red a cco rd ing t op reva i l ing l o ca l b el i ef s a nd t h e c hang ing e x te rna l i nf luences e xe r ted u pon t h e G ao a r ea . T hey s e rved a s t omb s , a s p l ace s o fc ommemo ra t ion a nd o f p raye r . T he r ebu i ld ing o ft h e s t ruc tu r e s w i th in t h e s ame a r ea a nd t h e c on t inua t ion o ft h e u se o ft h e c eme te ry o ve r al o ng p e r iod o f t ime a t tes t s t o i t s s ymbo l ic i mpo r tance . E ven

O c tobe r 1 993 ,a nd i sd i scus sed i nC hap te r3 ,s ec t ion 3 . 4 .

h ad b een c omp le te ly i g no red . T he o n ly o the r e xcava t ion

2 . 8b ) C .F l igh t , 1 978 : T he f i na l s e a son c onduc ted b y C o l in F l igh t a tG ao -Saney i n Ma rch 1 978 w a s f o cu sed u pon t h e t e l l . T he a r ea w h ich w a s e xcava ted w a sc ho sen b y s u r fa ce -wa lk ing a nd e xam in ing t h e

S t ruc tu re J , t h e f i na l s t ruc tu re t o b e b u i l t , w a s n o t f unc t iona l ; t h e r e con s t ruc ted h e igh t o ft h e w a l l s , i fc o rrec t , a t 3 0 cm ,

d i s t r ibu t ion o ff i red -b r ick f r agmen t s , i na n a t temp t t ol o ca te t h e p a lace o ft h e k ings w hose f une ra ry s t e lae w e re f ound i n t h e c eme te ry ( F l igh t 1 979a :2 ) . T he a r ea c ho sen f o r e xcava t ion w a s n o t o n t h e ma in t e l l , b u t as ma l l h ilo ck a t

s ugge s t s as ymbol i c s t ruc tur e , a s w a l l s o f t h i s

h e igh t c ou ld n o t h ave k ep t a n ima ls o r t h ieves o u t . I ti s p robab le t ha t t h is c rude ly b u i l t s t ruc tu re s e rved a s ap raye r a r ea , p e rhaps a Z aw iya , w h ich w a s b u i l t a f te r t h e o the r s t ruc tu re sh ad c ea sed t ob eu sed .

t h e w es te rn e nd o f t h e s i te ( F igu re 2 . 6 ) , w he re a d en se c oncen t ra t ion o f b roken a nd s ca t te red b r ick f r agmen t s w a s f ound . T h i s h ilock r e a ched ah e igh t o f 2m a nd w a s o u t s ide o ft h e ma in i n hab i ted a r ea r ep resen ted b yt he t el .

T he s i tua t ion i n G ao i sp e rhaps s im i la r t o t h a t f ound a t T egdaou s t , w i th t h e d i f f e ren t p ha se s o f I s lam iza t ion r ef lec ted i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . Mu l t ip le I s lam ic i nf luence s a nd p ha s es o f I s lam iza t ion a r e l i ke ly t o b e r ep re sen ted i n t h e s t ruc tu re s a t G ao -Saney . T he v a r ie ty o f e x terna l i n f luence s w h ich w a s e xe r ted u pon t h e G ao a r ea ,

2 . 8b i ) S truc ture Q : T he e xcava t ions u ncove red t h e r ema ins o f a b u i ld ing ,

w h ich c an b es ugge s ted f o rt h e G ao -Saney s t ruc tu re s , i sa l so

t e rmed S t r uc tu re Q b y F l igh t ( 1979b :35 ) . Once a ga in n o s ma l l -f ind s w e re r e co rded , t hough F l igh t d id c olec t p o t te ry f r om t h e s u r f a ce o ft h e t e l l , w h ich i sn o l onge r t ob e f ound , a l though f ou r p ho tog raph s o f t h i s ma ter ia l h ave b een o b ta ined w i th ap age o fc ommen t s b y S .K . Mc In to sh ( d a ted 9 /88 ) , w h ich s hows t h a t t h is p o t t e ry i sv e ry s im i la r t ot h a t r e cove red f r om t h e e xcava t ions i n G ao Anc ien a nd G ao -

r e f lec ted i no t he rc a tego r ie so fe v idence . F a r ia s ( 1990 :79 ,97 ) f ound t ha t t h e re w a s g rea t v ar ie ty o f c a ll igraph ic s t y le s i n t h e c eme te ry a t G ao -Saney . T hese i n c luded A nda lu s ian s c r ip t s f r om A lmer ia , s c r ip t s f r om K a i rouan a nd f r om o t he r a r ea s o f N or th A f r ica , a s w e l l a s l o ca l c op ie s o f t h e A lme r ian s c r ip t ,a nd l o ca l ly d eve loped f o rms o fK uf ic . I th a s 2 4

d imen s ion s , w h ich

S aney , d i scu s sed i nC hap te r6 ,s e c t ion 6 . 2 1 a nd A ppend ix 7 , a nd d a ted t ot h e 1t h -13 th c en tu r ie s AD .

F l igh t ( 1979a :5 ) h im se l f a dm i t s w e r e

b a sed u pon l a rge ly t e nden t iou s e v idence a nd c on je c tu ra l m ea su remen t s ,a su np roved .F l igh t 's f i e ld n o te sa nd p lan sd o n o t

T he w a l l s o fS t ruc tu re Q h ad b een e n t i r e ly r obbed o u t a nd n o t as i ng le b r ick w a s f ound i n s i tu . F l igh t ( 1978 :Unpub , 1 979a :3 ; 1 979b :35 -6 ) r e coun t s t ha t t h e p lan o ft h e b u i ld ing w a sr e cove red b ye mp ty ing t h e r obb e rt r enches o ft h e i re a r th a nd r ubb le f i l l w h ich v a r ied i n w id th b e tween 2 . 45m a nd 0 . 75m a nd r e a ched a d ep th o f u p t o 1 . 5m , a nd b y t r ac ing t h e r ema ins o f t h e i r i n te rna l w h i te p l a s te r w a l l r ende r ing ,

p rov ide

e nough

e v idence

t o p erm i t

a n

a ccu ra te

r e con s truc t ion o ft h e d imens ion s o ft h i s s t ruc tu re . H oweve r F l igh t 's ( 1979a :5 ) s ugges t ion t ha t t h e u se o f s uch ma s s ive i n ter na l p i l la r s a nd wa l ls i mp l ies a b u i ld ing o f s ome c ons ide rab le h e igh t , c an b e a ccep ted . S ince t h i s w a s b u i l t o f f i red -b r ick , i tw a sc e r ta in ly a n i mpor tan tc omp lex .

a nd i t sp ro tec t ive r ed s and -and -mud d ado , w h ich s urv ived i n p l aces t o ah e igh t o f 1 . 2m ( F igu re s 2 . 8a a nd b ) . T he se m e thod s h ave p roduced a n a ccu ra te p lan a s r e ga rd s t h e i n ter na l f e a tu re s , b u t t h e e x ter na l d imen s ion s o f t h e s t ruc tu re a r e u nce r ta in , b ecau se t h e o u te r e dge o f t h e

2 . 8b i i ) T he D a te o fS truc ture Q : F l igh t ( 1979b :36 ) p ropo sed a d a te o f c a .AD

100 f o r

S t ruc tu r e Qo nt h eb a s is o ft h e s im i la r i t ies i nt h e b r ick s u sed

s t r uc tu re w a sn eve rs a t i sf a c to r i ly l o ca ted .

i n t h is b u i ld ing a nd t hose u sed i n t h e c eme te ry s t ruc tu re s . T he p ropo sed d a te o fc a .AD 100 mus t b er ev ised , a si tw a s

T he p lan o f t h e b u i ld ing s how s a n a pp rox ima te ly s qua re c ompa r tmen t , 1 4 .4m , n o r th sou th a nd 1 4 .2m e a s t -we s t ( F igu res 2 . 8a a nd b ) . T h i s b u i ld ing w a s d i v ided u p i n to a s e r ie so fn a r row p a ssage sb yt wo s e t s o ft h ree i n ter na lp i l la r s

b a sed u pon t h e i n va l id c eme te ry c h rono logy . U s ing t h e G ao A nc ien c ons truc t ion s equence , S t ruc tu re Q c an b e p rov is iona l ly d a ted t o t h e 1 2 th -13 th c en tu r ies AD , t h e p e r iod w hen f i r ed -b r ick w a sb e ing u sed .

a nd a c en t ra l w a l l . T he se w ou ld h ave b een b u i l t o f f i red F ur the rmo re , i ti sn ow c l ea r t ha t t wo t ype s o f f i r ed -b r ick

b r ick , b u t n one s urv ived i n s i tu . D e sp i te t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i n te rna l w a l l a nd p i l la r s w e re b u i l t o n a ma s s ive s ca le , a t n ea r ly 2 . 5m t h ick , s e conda ry r e info r c ing w a s a l so p rov ided ( F igu re 2 . 8b ) . F l igh t a rgue s ( 1979a :4 , 1 979b :35 ) t h a t t h e s e conda ry s uppo r t ing wa l l s w e re a dded t ot h e s t ruc tu re p r io r t oi th av ing b een f i n ished , t h e e v idence f o r t h i s b e ing t h a t

w e re u sed i n t h e G ao R eg ion , t h e s ma l le r t ype u sed i n S t ruc tu re F i nt h e c eme te ry a nd Wa l l Ei nG ao A nc ien , a nd t h e l a rge r t y pe u sed i n S t ruc tu re Q a nd i n t h e f i red -b r ick b u i ld ing i nG ao A nc ien . D i s t inc t s im i la r i t ie s c an b e s e en i n t h em ine ra l sp re sen ti ns amp le so ff i red -b r ick f r om S t r uc tu re Q a nd f r om t h e f i red -b r ick b u i ld ing u ncove red i n G ao A nc ien i n 1 993 . As amp le o ff i red b r ick f r om t h e c eme te ry a t G ao -Saney w a s a l so a na lysed b u t t h is d i f f e red i n i t s c ompo s i t ion ( L . Sm i th a nd K . K r ishnan , p e r s . c omm . , a nd s e e A ppend ix 8 ) . A l though t h e t wo t ype s o f f i red -b r ick

o n ly as i ng le l a ye ro fp la s te r w a s f ound , w h ich c ove red b o th t h e p r ima ry a nd s e conda ry f e a tu re s . T h i s w a s s uppo sed ly a dded i n as i ng le o pera t ion , w h ich m ean t t ha t t h e s e conda ry w a l l sh ad a l ready b een i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e s t ruc tu re b e f o r e i tw a s f i n i shed . I ti se qua l ly p o s s ib le t h a t t h e b u i ld ing w a s n o t p la s te red a t a l l u n t i l t h e s e conda ry s t reng then ing h ad b een a dded ,w h ich c ou ld h ave o ccu r red a t ad a te s ubsequen t

a ppea r t ob e b road ly c on tempo ra ry i n d a te ( j e . w i th in t h e o ne a nd a h a lf c en tu r ies s panned b y P e r iod 2 ) , mo re t h an

t ot h ep r ima ry c ons t ruc t ion . A c ce s s t o t h e i n ter io r o f S t ruc tu re Q w a s p rov ided b y a c o r r ido r 1 . 9m w ide a nd mo re t h an 1 0m l ong ; b eyond t h is d i s tance , t h ee dge so ft h ec o r r ido rw h ich w e re d ef ined b yt h e

t h ea b sence o ff i red -b r ick f r agmen t so n t h e s u r f ace o ft h et e l l

r ed p la s te rd ado ,b ecame l e s sc l ea r( F igu re 2 . 8a ) .A na t temp t t of i nd t h eo u te re dge o fS t ruc tu re Q w a s made b yd i gg ing a s e r ie s o f t r ia l t r enche s t o t h e w es t , s ou th , a nd e a s t o f t h e s qua re c ompa r tmen t . Wha t F l igh t ( 1 979a :5 ) i n te rp re ted a s t h eo u ter e dge o fS t ruc tu re Q w a s f ound a t ad i s tance o f3 2 .5 mt ot h e s ou th ( F igu re 2 . 8a ) . T he e v idence f o rt h eo u te re dge i sd e scr ibed a s at r ench w i th a n ea r v er t ica l f a ce o f 2 0 cm h e igh t , w h ich c u t t h e f i l l ing o fa no the r t r ench o n as im i la r a l ignmen t , i n te rp re ted a s ab u i lde r 's t r ench l e f t o ve r f r om

d oe s n o t s uppo r t t h is i d ea , a nd s ugge s t s t ha t t h e b r ick s w e r e i nf a c tb e ing r e -used e l sewhe re .

2 . 8b i i i )T he F unc t ion o fS truc ture Q : V a r iou s i n te rp re ta t ions a s t o t h e f unc t ion o f S t ruc tu re Q h ave b een p ropo sed b y F l igh t , at omb ( 1978b :14 , 1 979a :6 , 1 979b :36 ) , at ype o f f o r t if i ca t ion ( 1978b :13 ) , ap y ram id ( 1 978c :2 ) , am ina re t o r l a rge t owe r ( 1978 U npub l i shed :17 ) . N o e v idence e x i s t s t o s uppo r t t h e p y ram id h ypo the s i s , a nd a l though i ta ppea r s t ha t p a r t a t l e a s t o f S t ruc tu re Q w a s

t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f S t ruc tu re Q . N o t r ace o f a n o u te r e dge w a s l o ca ted t ot h e w e s t o f t h e b u i ld ing , w he r e t wo mode rn b u r ia ls w e re f ound . T he e a s ter n e dge w a s a l so a b sen t a st h e

r oof ed ( d i scu s sed b e low ) ,i ti su n l ike ly t h a t t h is b u i ld ing w a s

a r ea h ad b een d e s t royed b y e ro s ion ; n o m en t ion i sm ade o f a na t temp tt of i nd t h e n o r ther ne dge o fS t r uc tu re Q .

at owe r , a s s uch s t ruc tu re s a r e n o t f ound i n t h e We s ter n S ahe l . S t ruc tu r e Q i s e qua l ly u n l ike ly t o h ave b een a f o r t i f ica t ion a st h e p o s i t ion i sw rong , i ti so ve r looked b y t h e t e l l , a nd n o e v idence o f t h e t e l l e ve r h av ing b een f o r t if ied h a sb een f ound . S im i la r ly i t s f unc t ion a s am ina re t mu s ta l so a tp resen t b er u led o u t , a s n o o the r t r aces o f amosque , s uch a st h ep raye rh a l l ,c ou r tya rd e t c ,w e re f ound n ea rby .

I ft h e t r ench f ound t ot h e s ou th o ft h eb u i ld ing w a st h e o u t e r e dge o f S t ruc tu re Q , i tg i ve s e x ter na l d imen s ion s f o r t h e s t ruc tu re o fa tl e a s t 5 0m e a s t -w e s t a nd 3 0m n o r th -s ou th . T hese d imen s ions a re v e ry l a rge a nd i ti s

o ne s ou r ce o f c l ay w a s b e ing u sed t o p roduce t h em ( s ee A ppend ix 8 ) . F l igh t ( 1979a :6 ) h a s s ugge s ted t ha t S t ruc tu re Qw a sr obbed t op rov ide b r ick s f o rt h ea d jacen tt e l l , h oweve r

u n l ike ly t h a t

S t ruc tur e Qw a sb u i l tw i th ma s s ive w a l l so fu p t o2 0m w id th ( t he d i s tance f r om t h e i n te rna l f a ce o f t h e w a l l s t o t h e p ropo sed o u te re dge ) . I ti sn ece s sa ry t oc on s ide rt h e e x ter na l

T he mo s t r ea l is t ic o ft h e i n te rp re ta t ions s ugge s ted b yF l igh t ( 1978b :14 , 1 979a :6 , 1 979b :36 ) ,i st h a tS t ruc tu re Q w a sa 2 5

G ao 1 978 S tructure

A rea o f d eta i led 1 a n

2 0m

..

St r uct u ra l F ea tu r e E xcava ted _ i £u tz ce ‘ , 12

O uter e dge o f s uperstructure?

F igu re 2 . 8a . S t ruc tu r e Q( f rom F l igh t 1 979b :37 ) .

r —u . . . . 1 --u -r1 5m

S t r uc tu ra l F ea tu r e E xcava ted

F igu re 2 . 8b . D e ta i led p l an o fS t ruc tu r e Q( f rom F l igh t 1 979b :37 ) .

2 6

t omb , b u i l t a s ar e su l t o f t h e I s lam iza t ion o f t h e r u l ing d yna s ty a tG ao -Saney u nde r t h e i nf luence o ft h e A lmo rav id movemen t , a nd wh ich w a s u sed b y o ne o f t h e k ings c ommemo ra ted o n t h e s t e lae , p r io r t o t h e t r an sf e r o f t h e

h a s b e en c olec ted a l ong w i th d a ta o n s e t t lemen t a nd c eme te ry p a t te rn ing w h ich a ppea r s t oi nd ica te t h e e x is tence

s t e lae t oS t ruc tu re F . T he t omb h ypo the s is i sf e a s ib le , b u t i t s hou ld b e s t re s sed t ha t t h e a va i lab le e v idence d oe s n o t s uppo r t t h ep re c i se d e ta i l s o fF l igh t 's i n te rp re ta t ion , s uch a s t h ea s soc ia t ion w i th t h eG ao -Saney r u le r s .

t h e c i ty o fG ao , t h e p a ramoun t s e t t lemen t w i th in t h e r eg ion a nd t h e f i r s tp o r t o fc a l l o ft h e Mu s l im me rchan t sa nd h ence t h e mo s t e xpo sed t o I s lam , h a s b een l a rge ly n eg le c ted b y r e sea r che r s t od a te . I n a n a t temp t t or e c t ify t h is s i tua t ion a

o fd i f f e ren t ia lr a te s o fI s lam iza t ion i nt he G ao R eg ion a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e c u r ren t m i l lenn ium . I ti sa l so a ppa ren t t h a t

p rogramme o f a r chaeo log ica l s urvey a nd e xcava t ion w a s A n e xam ina t ion o f t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l e v idence a l low s t h e

u nde r taken i nG ao i n 1 993 , t h e r e su l t s o f wh ich w i l l n ow b e d i scu s sed .

t omb i n te rp re ta t ion t o b e b o th a l te red a nd a mp l if ied . S t ruc tu re Q d i f f e r s a r ch i tec tura l ly f r om t h e s t ruc tu re s i nt h e G ao -Saney c eme tery i n t h e u se o f p i l la r s a nd i n te rna l r e info rc ing w a l l s , t h e t h ick w a l l s , a nd t h e l a ck o f f oundat ion s . T he t h ickne ss o ft h e f i red -b r ick p i l la r s a nd t h e i n te rna l w al s s ugge s t s ab u i ld ing w h ich w a s r oof ed , a nd p o s s ib ly t wo s to reyed . An e xp lana t ion w h ich h e lp s i n e xp la in ing w hy s uch ma s s ive w a l l s w e r eu sed i nS t ruc tu re Q i ss ugge s ted b yt h e 1 993 G ao A nc ien d i scove r ies . T he f i red b r ick b u i ld ing u ncove red a tG ao A nc ien w a s a l so s uppo r ted b yf i red -b r ick p i l la r s ,o ne o f wh ich m ea su red 8 0cm i nw id th a nd n ea r ly 2m i n l e ng th . N e i the r t h e f i red -b r ick p i l la r o r f l oo r i n G ao A nc ien w e re b u i l t u pon f ounda t ions , i n s tead t h ey w e re b u i l t d i rec t ly o n to t h e u nde r ly ing s and . T he l a ck o ff ounda t ions m ean t t ha t t h e s t reng th o ft h e b u i ld ing l a y i n i t s w a l l s a nd i n terna l s uppo r t s . E ven f o r ar e la t ive ly l i gh t r oof , c ompensa t ion i n t h e f o rm o f t h icke r , s t ronge r w a l l s h ad t ob e u sed . Whe re t h e re i s al a ck o f f ounda t ion s , a s i n S t ruc tu re Q , t h is i s e ven more i mpor tan t , a nd e spec ialy w he re t h es ub so i li ss and . T he a r ch i tec tu ra l e v idence t e l l s u s t h a t S t ruc tu re Q w a s r oo fed , a nd f r om t h e ma s s ivene s s o ft h e s uppor ts i tc an a l so b e p ropo sed t h a t t h is r oof w a s e i the r h eavy o r h igh , o r a c omb ina t ion o f b o th . R a the r t han a f l a t r oof , t h e i n terna l l a you t o f t h e p i l la r s a nd w a l l s s ugge s t s t ha t t h is d eg ree o f r e info r c ing m igh t h ave s uppo r ted ad omed r oof . B a sed u pon t h i s i t c an b e p roposed t h a t S t ruc tu re Q r e semb led a " Kubba " t y pe o fd omed t omb , w h ich c an a l so f unc t ion a s a p l ace o f w o r sh ip ( D iez 1 986 :289 ) . K ubba type t omb s a r e w ide ly f ound i nt h e Magh reb a nd i no t he ra r ea so fS udann ic A f r ica . T homa ssey a nd Mauny ( 1951 :440 ) i n te rp re t t h e monumen ta l " Tomb o ft h e c o lumn s " a tK oumb i S a leh a s a K ubba t omb . T he e x is tence o f t h e s t ruc tu r e a t G ao -Saney n eed n o t b e a n i nd ica t ion o ft h e p r esence o f" ma rabou t i sm" , w h ich d eve loped l a te r , b u t m igh t i nd ica te f u r the r c onnec t ion s w i th t h e Magh reb o r E gyp t . Whe the r t h e s t ruc tu re w a sb u i l t w i th t e chn ica l h e lp f r om t h e A lmo rav id s a sF l igh t( 1978b :13 ) h a ss ugge s ted ,w ed on o tk now ,b u tt h is r ema ins ap o s s ib il i ty . T he l a ck o fs ke le ta l ma te r ia l i sn o t a n o b s ta c le t o t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion . A s a l ready s t a ted a bove , a b ody i sn o t an e ces s i ty ,t h e m e re a s so c ia t ion w i th ar e l ig iou s l e ade r o ro the r i mpo r tan t p e r son c an e n su re t ha t v ene ra t ion a nd c ommemo ra t ion c on t inue sa t as i te .

3 . 9 ) C onc lu s ions : H av ing d i scu ssed t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch c onduc ted i n t h e G ao R eg ion p r io rt o1 993 , i tc an b e s e en t ha t t h is v a r ied i n b o th c ove rage , m e thodo logy a nd q ua l i ty . N eve r the le s s , i mpo r tan t i n fo rma t ion o n mo sque a nd f une ra ry a r ch i tec tu re 2 7

C hap ter 3 : A rchaeo log ica l R e search i n t he G ao R eg ion . 1 993 .

o u t s ide t h e m a jo r c en t res o f p opu la t ion r e su l t ing f r om t h e a f terma th o ft h e T ua reg r ebel ion . A s p a r t o f t h e s u rvey s i n 1 993 , s u r fa ce c o l lec t ion s o f a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l w e re made a nd c ompa red w i th t h o se f r om e l sewhe re o n t h e N ige r B end . T h is a l lowed b o th f am i l ia r isa t ion w i th t h e ma ter ia l p r io r t o e xcava t ion a nd a p rov i s iona l c h rono logy t o b e c ons t ruc ted . Whe re a pp rop r ia te , t h e ma te r ia l c olec ted a t e ach s i te w i l l b e d i scu ssed i nt h ef olow ing s e c t ion s .

3 . 1 ) R esearch Ob je c t ive sa nd Me thodo logy : A s s t a ted i n C hap te r 1 ,t h e p r ima ry o b jec t ive o f t h e 1 993 f i e ldwo rk w a s t oe nab le g rea te r u nde r s tand ing o ft h e e f ec t s o ft he i n troduc t ion o fI s lam i nt h e G ao R eg ion b y : i )P lac ing t h e p rev ious ly a r chaeo log ica l ly n eg lec ted c i ty o f

3 . 2b )T he C i ty o fG ao :

G ao w i th in i t s r eg ion , a nd r e con s t ruc t ing t h e e conomy a nd t r ade l i nks o f t h e c i ty a nd i t s r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e s u r round ing a r ea d u r ing t h ep e r iod u nde rc on s ide ra t ion .

3 . 2b i ) G enera l P o in t s : A s i tw a s o ne o ft h e mo s t i mpor tan t t r ad ing a nd p o l i t ica l c en t res i n t h e w ho le o f t h e We s ter n S ahe l , c ap i ta l o f t h e S ongha i e mp i re a nd c en t re o f t h e S ongha ip eop le ,e mpha s is w a s p laced u pon i nves t iga t ing t h e c i ty o f G ao i n d e ta i l . A l though t h e w ho le o f t h e c i ty w a s

i )E xam in ing b y means o fs u rvey a nd , w he re a ppl i cab le , b y l im i ted e xcava t ion , t h e t h ree s i te c omp lexe s o f G ao , G ao -

s t ud ied d ur ing t h e c ou r se o ft h e s u rvey , p a r t icu la r a t ten t ion w a s p a id t o t h e n or thern p a r t o f t h e c i ty a s t h i s a r ea e ncompa s se s t h e a r ea s o fl o nge s t o ccupa t ion , t h e q ua r te r s o f G ao A nc ien , G ade i , t h e s i te o f t h e A sk ia Muhammed mosque , a nd t h e mou ths o ft h e T i lems i V a l ley a nd t h e Wad i G angabe r ( F igu re s 2 . 3 a nd 2 . 5 ) . T he s ou the rn h a lf o f t h e c i ty , w h ich b eg ins w i th t h e " adm in is t ra t ive q ua r te r " , i s

S aney a nd K o ima ( F igu re 2 . 5 ) , t oa s se s s t ow ha t d eg ree t h e p re sence o fI s lam c ou ld b e s e en i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a tt h e se s i tes . i i ) P rov id ing t h e f i r s t b ody o f d a tab le m a te r ia l r e cove r ed f r om c on tro l led e xcava t ion s w i th in t h e c i ty o f G ao , a nd i ndeed , f r om t h e w ho le r e g ion , t o e nab le t h e s equence o f o ccupa t ion t ob er e cons t r uc ted .

l a rge ly mode rn i n d a te , a nd w as b u i l t b y t h e F rench w ho e s tab l i shed t h emse lves a s t h e c o lon ia l p owe r i n G ao i n t h e

i v ) A s se ss ing t h e e f ec t o f I s lam u pon t h e e x i s t ing p o l i t ica l

e a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu ry . T he s ou the rn a r ea , a s ide f r om

s t ruc tu re o ft h er eg ion a nd i t s r o le i nl a y ing f ounda t ion s f o r l a te r d eve lopmen t s , s uch a s t h e e me rgence o f t h e S ongha i

i s o la ted s he rd s , l a cked t h e q uan t i t ie s o f a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l f ound o n t h e s u r fa ce o ft h en or ther na rea .

e mp i re . S ince Mauny ( 1951 :838 ) p roduced h i s a r chaeo log ica l map o fG ao ,t h e c i ty h a s g rown c ons iderab ly t oa ccommoda te t h e i n f lux o fr e fugee s f l ee ing t h e S ahe l ian d rough t s ( F igu re 3 . 1)

Two me thod so fi nve s t iga t ion w e re e mp loyed : i )A g ene ra lr e conna is sance s u rvey i nt h e G ao R eg ion w h ich

( I nsol 1 993a :630 ) . T he a r ea o f G ao A nc ien a s p lo t ted b y

w a s c onduc ted i nJ anua ry 1 993 , a nd e x tended i nS ep temb e r

Mauny h a s b een e nc roached u pon c ons iderab ly b y mode rn

a nd O c tobe r 1 993 .

d eve lopmen t( F igu re 3 . 1 ) . T h is means t ha t t h e l i ne b e tween modern a nd o l d G ao a s r ep re sen ted b y Mauny , h a s l a rge ly d i sappea red . Mauny ( 1951 :841) r epo r ted t h a t a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s ( po t t e ry ,c oppe ra nd i r on f r agmen t s , s t one a nd g l a s s

i i ) As ea son o fe xcava t ion a tG ao A nc ien a nd G ao -Saney i n S ep tembe ra nd O c tober 1 993 .

b ead s ) c ove r ed a t l e a s t t wo s qua re k i lomet re s . T h is w ho le a r ea w a sg i ven t h e n ame G ao A nc ien b y Mauny a nd w a s n o t f u r the r s ubd iv ided . T he se r ema ins w e re d el im i ted t o t h e w e s t a nd n o r thwes t b y t h e f l ood -p la in ( Quar t ier S onra i e t A rma ) ,t ot h en o r thea s tb y t h e B ourem r oad ,a nd t ot h e s ou th b y t h e 1 . 5km p o in t o n t h e s ame r o ad ( F igu re 3 . 1) . T he r e su l t s o f t h e 1 993 s u rvey s how t h a t Mauny w a s l a rge ly c o r rec t i n d e l im i t ing t h e e x ten t o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l

3 . 2 ) The S urvey R e su l t s : 3 . 2a ) I n troduc t ion : I tw a s n o t t h e a im o ft h er e sea rch p ro je c tt oc onduc t al a rge s ca le d e ta i led r eg iona l s u rvey s im i la rt ot h o se u nder taken b y R . a nd S . Mc In to sh ( 1980 )i nt h em idd le N ige rD e l ta o rb y I . Musa Mohammed i nC en t ra l D a r fu r ( 1 986 ) . As ma l le r sca le s urvey w a s f o cu ssed u pon t h e u rban a r ea o f G ao a nd t h e r eg ion a round i t , wh ich i n c luded t h e r e la ted s e t t lemen t s o f G ao -Saney a nd Ko ima . T h i s s u rvey , t h e f i r s t s t age i n

r ema ins , b u t t h e n ew r e su l t s h ave a l so s hown t h a t i ti s p os s ib le t o d i s t ingu ish i t s c omponen t " quar t ier s " , a nd s ugge s tt h a te ach h ad i t so wn i nd iv idua lf unc t ion .

R edman 's mu l t i -s tage s u rvey s y s tem ( 1973 :63 -5 c i ted i n Mohammed 1 986 :17 ) , w a s d eemed t h e mo s t a pp rop r ia te means o fr e co rd ing s i te l o ca t ions a nd a r t if ac t d i s t r ibu t ion s , a nd f o r c hoo s ing a n a r ea f o r e xcava t ion w i th in t h e t own o f G ao . F u r thermo re , i th a sa l ready b e en s t a ted t h a tc onduc t ing

r e ta ined b u t h a s b e en a pp l ied o n ly t o t h e n uc leus o f t h e m ed ieva l c i ty , w h ich l o ca l o ra l t r ad i t ion a s soc ia ted w i th Mansa Musa , t h e Ma l ian e mpe ro r w ho r e igned b e twe en AD 1 312 -37 ( Lev tz ion 1 985 :141) . T h i s a s soc ia t ion w a s o f i mpo r tance a si ts ugge s ted t h a t t h is a r ea o f G ao w a s l i nked

ar eg iona l s urvey t oc omp l imen t t h o se o fD awa ( 1985 ) a nd

w i th p re -Songha i e mp i re t r ade a nd s e t t lemen t , a nd h ence

D eG i roncou r t ( 1920 ) ( d iscu s sed i nC hap te r 2 ,s e c t ion s 2 . 2b a nd 2 . 2e ) ,w a si mpo s s ib le d ue t ot h es t a te o fi n secu r i ty f ound

w a s ap robab le s i te o fe a r ly t r ans -Saha ran t r ade a nd I s lam ic i nf luence . T he c onnec t ion b e twe en G ao A nc ien a nd Mansa

3 . 2b i i ) G ao Anc ien : T he n ame G ao A nc ien h a s h e r e b een

2 8

Musa i se ven m o r e s i gn if ican t , a s a no the r q ua r te r o fG ao t o t h e s ou th o f G ao Anc ien , n amed G ao S onra i e tA rma b y

a r ea r ough ly 3 00m n or th -s ou th b y 2 00m e a s t -we s t , w h ich i ss i tua ted a tt h e 2 . 5km p o in t o n t h e r oad t oB ou r em a tt h e n or thern o u t sk i r t s o f G ao . O n ly t h i s a r ea h a s b een w el p r e served a s i th a s n o t y e t b een b u i l t u pon , c over ed w i th

Mauny ( 1951 :838 ) i sa ssoc ia ted l o ca l ly w i th t h e g rea tes t o f t h e S ongha i r u le r s , A sk ia Muhammed ( r e igned AD 1 493 1 528 ) . T h i s q ua r te rf o rms t h e s ou the rn b ounda ry o ft h e a r ea

r ubb ish o rq ua r r ied f o rc l ay f o rb r ick manuf ac ture .

o f a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins d el im i ted b y Mauny , a nd i st h e l o ca t ion o f t h e mosque a nd t omb o f A sk ia Muhammed w h ich s t i l l s t and s t oday , a nd w h ich m ay h ave b een a t t h e c en t re o ft h ec i ty i nt he 1 5 th a nd 1 6 th c en tu r ies AD .

T h ree z one s w e re s u rveyed w i th in t h e c en t ra l a r ea i n J anua ry 1 993 ( F igu re 2 . 3 ) . Z one Iw a s o r ig ina l ly t hough t t o b et h ea r ea o ft h e mosque e xcava t ed b y Mauny . Ad ep res s ion v i s ib le o n t h e s u r f a ce w a s d e scr ibed a s t h e c i s tern a t tached

T he n uc leu s o f G ao A nc ien w ou ld a pp ea r t o h ave b een

t o t h e m o sque b y a n o ld man w ho r emembe red t h e 1 950

l o ca ted i n t h e a r ea whe re Mauny e xcava ted i n 1 950 ( s ee

e xcava t ion ,

s e c t ion 2 . 5b i ) a nd whe re t h e 1 993 e xcava t ion s w e re u nder taken ( F igu r e 2 .3 ) . T h is a r ea h a s a si t s c en t re a n o p en

g r ave s tone s i n t h i s a r ea o f t h e s i te . T he i n fo rman t 's s t o ry w a si n i t ia l ly g iven s uppo r tb yt h ed i scove ry o ft h er ema in so f

t h e r e

w a s

a l so

a n o t iceab le

Mo sque a nd t omb o f A sk ia Muhammed

E

A pp rox ima te e x ten t o t e ncroachmen t F loodp ia ,

—

A rea o f G ao A nc ien 0

I k m

F igu re 3 . 1 . Modern E nc roachmen tu pon G ao A nc ien ( a dap ted f r om Mauny 1 951 :838 ) . 2 9

a bsence

o f

s ub s tan t ia l ly b u i l t s t one w a l l sj u s tt ot h e e a s to ft h e B ou r em r oad ( Zone I ) , w h ich t a l l ied w i th t h e l o ca t ion f o rj u s t s uch w a l l s m a rked o n Mauny 's p lan ( 1951 :843 ) . T he se w a l l s j o ined e a ch o the r t o f o rm s ma l l c e l l l ike c hambe r s , w h ich w e re p o s s ib ly t h e r ema ins o f s ma l l s hop s o r mona s t ic c el s . F ur the r s u rvey i n S ep tembe r , a f t e r t h e a f f ec t s o f t h e y ea r ' s r a in s h ad b een f e l t , s howed t h a t t h is i d en t if ica t ion w a s i n co r re c t a nd t ha t t h e mo sque e xcava ted b y Manny w a s i n

S ongha i c l an w ho s pe c ia l i se t o day i n f i sh ing a nd r i ver ine mamma l h un t ing . T he p os s ib le S o rko c onnec t ion s a r e f u r the r r e in fo rced b y t h e f a c t t h a t i ti s o ne o f t h e f ew r ema in ing p l ace s w he re t r ad i t iona l s ewn c ano e s a r e s t i l l b u i l t , w h ich w e re u sed f o rh ippopo tamu s h un t ing a nd w h ich a r e n ow u sed f o r t r an spo r t p u rpo se s ( Rouch 1 948 , I n so l l 1 993c ) . T ogo la ( p e r s . c omm . ) h a s m ade t h e i n te res t ing c ommen t , o f r e levance i n t h is c on tex t , t ha t G ade i t o day

f a c tl o ca ted 1 00m n o r thea s to fZ one I( I nso l l 1 994 :45 ) .

mo re r e semb le s aS ongha i /So rko v i l lage t han a n u rban q ua r te r .

Z one I I w a s s i tua ted t ot h e s ou thea s to fZ one I ,w he re t h e re w e r e an umbe ro fs ha l low ly b u r ied t omb s tone s ,a nd l a rge p o t r ims e r od ing o u t o f t h e g round . O u t l ines o f g r ave s a nd

T he p o s i t ion o f G ao A nc ien i n r e la t ion t o G ade i i s a l so i n fo rma t ive . G ade i i si d ea l ly s i tua ted f o r f i sh ing a nd f o r

n ume rous g rave s tones c ou ld b e s een , i n d ica t ing t h e e x is tence o f a n e x ten s ive c eme t ery . S eve ra l o f t h e t omb s tone s w e re l y ing f l a t o n t h e g round a nd a n umbe r o f t h em w e re b roken . T he t omb s tone s w e re made f r om l o ca l ly

a cce s s t ot h e a r ea s o f c u l t iva t ion a nd b ou rgou g ra s s i n t h e

o b ta ined c h lo r i te i n sc r ip t ions .

s ch i s t ;

n one

w a s

f ound

N ige r , a s i tf r on t s t h e r i ve r . I ti sr e co rded i n t h e T imbuk tu c hron ic les t h a t G ade i w a s t h e h a rbou r o f I mp er ia l -Songha i G ao ( Fa r ia s , p e r s . c omm . ) , a nd c ou ld h ave b een i n vo lved i n r i ver ine t r ad e a nd t h e s upp ly o f i v o ry . U n l ike G ade i , G ao A nc ien w a s n o t p o s i t ioned w i th r i ve r f r on tage a s ap r ima ry

b ea r ing

f a c to r , i tf a ce s G ao -Saney , t h e T i lems i v a l ley a nd t h e t r ade r ou te s t ot h e n o r th ( F igu re 2 . 5 ) . I ti st h e refo re , ap o s s ib il i ty t ha t G ao A nc ien d eve lop ed f r om G ade i , f o r ad i f f e ren t p u rpose , a s t h e c en t re o ft r ade a nd t h e p robab le l o ca t ion o f

F u r the r s urvey o f t h e 6 00 s qua re me t re s o pen a r ea i n S ep tembe r a nd O c tobe r 1 993 s howed t ha t t h e w ho le o ft h i s p ar t o fG ao A nc ien w a s c over ed i n s t ruc tura l r ema ins . T he ma jo r i ty o ft h e s t ruc tu ra l r ema ins r e co rded , f i red -b r ick a nd

t h er oya l t own .

b anco w a l l s , r ubb le , s t one wo rk , g rave s , w e re f ound i n a d en se c oncent ra t ion , s ugges t ing t h a t t h i s w a s t h e c en t re o f t h e u rban a r ea i n w h ich w e re t ob e f ound p ub l ic b u i ld ings , s uch a s t h e mosque e xcava ted i n 1 951 , a nd t h e m e r chan t ' s h ou se o r p a lace e xcava ted i n 1 993 . T he s u r f a ce d en s i ty o f a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l d e crea sed n o t iceab ly a way f r om t h e o pen a r ea b o th t o t h e n o r thwe s t , e xcep t i n t h e v i c in i ty o f

3 . 2b iv ) G orongobo : T h i s a r ea i sl o ca ted i nt h e mou th o ft h e T i lems i v a l ley , a pp rox ima te ly l km n or thwe s t o f G ao A nc ien ,c l o se t ot h ec ou r se o ft he Wad i G angabe r , ac hanne l w h ich r uns f r om t h e N ige r t o G ao -Saney u p t h e T i lems i V a l ley ( F igu r e 2 . 5 ) . T he l o ca t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l r ema in s

Go rongobo , d i s cu s sed b e low , a nd t h e n or thea s t , w he re i s o la ted s ca t te r s o fp o t te ry a nd a s i ng le u nda ted g r ave w e r e f ound i nt h e d unes . O n ly t h e w e s t o f G ao A nc ien i nG ade i w a sd i f f e ren t .

n o t a s s ubs tan t ia l a s h a s b een a r gued ( Lange 1 991 :257 , 1 994 :283 -284 ) . I n t h e mo re h um id c ond i t ion s w h ich w e r e p ronounced f r om c a .AD 7 00 -1100 i ti s p robab le t h a t i t wou ld h ave b e en n av igab le f o r a t l e a s t p a r t o f t h e y ea r ,

3 .2b i i i ) Gade i : S u rvey h e re s howed a c on t inua t ion o f

t hough t o day i ti sd ry o r i so n ly f i l led w i th s ea sona l p ond s . T he l o ca t ion o ft h e t e l l a tG ao -Saney a ppea r s t oh ave b een

i nt h is a r ea s ugge s t s t h a tt h e f l ow o ft h e Wad i G angabe r w a s

i nf luenced b y t h e Wad i G angabe r , a nd h ence t h i s c hanne l

s u r f a ce s p read so fa r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l , i n c lud ing s he rd s o f l o ca l ly made p o t tery a nd f a una l r ema ins . N o s t ruc tu ra l r ema in sw ere r e co rded a nd f r agmen t so ff i red -b r i ck w e re n o t n o ted ; i mpor t ed p o t t e ry a nd g l a s s , b ead s a nd m e ta lwo rk w e re a l so a bsen t . A l though n o e xcava t ion h a s b e en c a r r ied o u t i n G ade i , t h e r e covery o f ac omp le te p o t b ea r ing a n

w a s o fs ome i mpo r tance ( s ee s ec t ion 3 . 2d ) , b u t i ti su n l ike ly t h a ti tw a s e ve r ap e renn ia lr i ve r . G o rongobo w a s s u rveyed i nO c tobe r 1 993 . Ac eme t e ry a nd a l a rge s p read o fp o ts he rd s , t h e r ema ins o fa n o ccupa t ion s i te , w e re r e co rded . T he l a t te r h ad b een ( a nd w a s s t i l l b e ing ) ,

i n scr ip t ion i nA rab ic w h ich h ad b een f ound a t ad ep th o f3 m d ur ing t h e c ou r se o f b u i ld ing w o rk , s ugge s t s t h a t d eep

a lmo s t c omp le te ly d es t royed b y t r ea su re h un te r s , a nd t h e p re c i se f unc t ion o ft h e s i te r ema ins u nknown . I tw a s al e ve l a r ea ,a pp rox ima te ly 1 00m x5 0m w h ich i sd o t ted w i th r e cen t l m d eep p i t s . T he p o t t ery w h ich h ad b e en l e f t b eh ind b y t h e

o ccupa t ion d epo s i t s a r e t ob e f ound i nt h i s q ua r te r . T h i s p o t i so ft h e t ype u sed t op ro t ec t t h e o wne r f r om D j inn ( s p i r i t s ) , o rp eop le w i th e v i li n ten t ions . T hey w e re o f ten b u r ied u nde r t h e f l oo rb yt h e e n t rance s t oh ouse so rc ompound s ( K i rkman

r obbe r s d i f f e r ed i nc er ta in r e spec t s f r om t h a tr e cove red f r om

1 963 :26 ) . T he a s semb lage o f l o ca l ly made p o t t e ry c olec ted f r om t h e s u r fa ce a t G ade i i n c ludes s he rd s o f r e d -sl ipped w a r e s a nd c hanne l led w a r es s im i la r t ot h o se r e cove red f r om t h e e xcava t ion s i n G ao A nc ien , a s w e l l a s m o r e r e cen t p a in ted w a re s( s ee C hap te r6 ,s e c t ion 6 . 2 1a nd A ppend ix 7 ) .

t h e e xcava t ions i n G ao A nc ien a nd G ao -Saney , a s t h e a s semb lage i n c luded s he rd s d eco r a ted i n ac heque rboa rd p a t tern o f s l ipped a nd u n s l ipped a r ea s , d el inea ted b y c omb i mp re ss ion , w h ich t hough a b sen t f r om t h e e xcava ted a s semb lage s w a s c olec t ed f r om t h e s u r f a ce a tG ao -Saney i n J anua ry 1 993 ( s e e A ppend ix 7 ) . T ogo la ( p e r s . c omm . ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e c heque rboa rd w a r e s a r e p os s ib ly e a r ly i n d a te a nd t ha t G o rongobo w ou ld t h en b e o ne o f t h e f i r s t

B o th l o ca l t r ad i t ion a nd t h e g eog raph ica l p o s i t ion ing o f G ade i i n r e la t ion t o G ao A nc ien s ugge s t t h a t t h i s q ua r te r w a sp o s s ib ly o ne o ft h e f i r s t a r ea so fo ccupa t ion w i th in G ao .

s e t t lemen ts a t G ao . O the r s herd s f r om Go rongobo w e r e s im i la r t ot h o se i nt h e e xcava ted a s semb lage s a nd i n c luded

I ti sg ene ra l ly t hough t b yt h e i n hab i tan ts o fG ao t h a t G ade i , a nd n o t G ao A nc ien , w a s t h e f i r s t p a r t o f G ao w h ich w a s

g eome t r ic d e co ra ted w a re s a nd b lack b u rn i shed w a r e s d a ted t ot h e 1 0 th -13 th c en tu r ie s AD ( s ee A ppend ix 7 ) .

o ccup ied , a nd t ha t t h e o r ig ina l i n hab i tan t s w e re S o rko , t h e

3 0

T he c eme t e ry a t G o rongobo , w a s l o ca ted a pp rox ima te ly 3 00m c l o se r t o G ao A nc ien , a nd d oe s n o t a pp ea r t o b e l i nked w i th t h e d es t royed s i te . D e G i roncou r t ( 1 920 :320 -1 ) d oe s n o t p l ace h i s c eme te ry , w h ich a l so b ea r s t h e s im i la r n ame o fG o rongobey a tt h i s l o ca t ion , b u t i n s tead l o ca te s h i s c eme t ery w i th in G ao i t se l f ,o n t h es ou th e rn p e r iphe ry o fG ao A nc ien . T h i s i n accu racy o n t h e p a r to fD eG iron cou r t i so u t o fc ha ra c te r ,a nd F a r ia s( p e r s .c omm . ) a t t r ibu te st h i s m i s take t ot h e w ande r ing o fp l a ce n ame s s i nce t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e c en tu ry , o rc on fu s ion i nD e G i roncou r t ' s f i e ld n o te s . W i th in G o rongobo c eme te ry 6 7 s t e lae a nd o ne f i r ed -b r ick o va l g r ave w e r e r e co rded ( F igu re 3 . 2 ) . A l l t h e s t e lae w e re a s soc ia ted w i th Mus l im g r ave s , o r ien t ed n or th sou th , t h e c o r re c to r ien ta t ion f o r t h ea r ea . Two o ft h e i n sc r ip t ion s h ave b e en r e ad . T he f i r s t , w h ich h a s b een d epo s i ted i nt h e Mu sge d u S ahe l i n G ao , i s d a t ed t o AD 1 305 -1306 , w h i l s t t h e s e cond , l e f t i ns i tu , b ea r s ad a te o f AD 130 ( Fa r ia s , p e r s . c omm . ) . T he p o t te ry o n t h e s u r f a ce w a s t h e s ame a s t h a t f r om t h e G ao A nc ien a nd G ao -Saney e xcava t io ns , a nd n o

c heque rboa rd w a r e s w e r e r e co rded . I ti sp robab le t h a t t h i s c eme te ry w a s a s so c ia ted w i th t h e m ed ieva l s e t t lemen t o f G ao A nc ien a nd w a s o ne a mong a n umbe r o f c eme te r ie s u s ed b yt h e Mu s l im i n hab i tan t s .

3 . 2bv )O ther C eme ter ie s : F a r ia s h a s i n ve s t iga ted s i x mo r e c eme te r ie s w h ich r i ng G ao A nc ien ( F igu r e2 . 3 ) a nd t h e s e quence o fd a te sr e co rded r un s f r om AD 1 242 -1360 . F a r ia s ( p e r s . c omm . ) e spou se s c au t ion i n l o ok ing a tt h e s e quence o f d a te s a s m any i n sc r ip t ion s h ave b een d e s t royed , b u r ied u nde rb u i ld ing so re r oded . T h i s i s t r ue , b u t i n e s sen ce t h e s equence c oncu r s w i th t h e e v idence f r om t h e e xcava t ion s i n G ao A nc ien d i s cu s sed b e low , w he r eby i mpo r t s d a ted p redom inan t ly t o t h e 1t h 1 2t hc en tu r ie s AD p r ecede t h eu se o ff i r ed -b r ick a r ch i te c tu r e a nd t h e f u l l d eve lopmen t o f t h e I s lam ized Q ua r t ie r i n t h e l a t e 1 2 th t o 1 3 th c en tu r ie s AD .

F igu r e3 . 2 . Go rongobo c eme te ry . 3 1

t h er i ve r . T he se s k e le ton sw e re o r ien ted w i th t h eh ead t ot h e e a s t a nd t h e f e e t t o t h e w e s t , a s o ppo s ed t o t h e Mu sl im n o r th sou th o r ien ta t ion i nt h e r e g ion ( P la te 3 . 1 ) . N o g rave g ood s w e r e f o und i na s so c ia t ion w i th t h e s ke le ton s a nd a t p r es en t t h ey a r e u nda ted . T he r e c tangu la r m ud -b r i ck w a l l s t ump sw h i ch w e r er e co rded w ou ld s e em t ob e modem , a nd f r om as t ru c tu r ew h ich w a sr e cen t ly a bandoned i nt h ef a ce o f d une e nc roa chmen t .

3 . 2bv i )D iscus s ion : T he s u rvey r e su l t s h ave s hown t h a t a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e c u r ren t m i l lenn ium G ao h ad g rown t o b e al a rge c i ty , c ompo sed o f an umbe r o fd i f f e ren t " quar t i er s " . A t i t s h ea r t w a s a n a r ea c on ta in ing p ub l ic b u i ld ing s , m onumen ta l a r ch i t ec tu re a nd r i nged b y g r aveya rd s . T he p r e sen ce o ft h e f i red -b r ick a r ch i tec tu ra l r ema in s , t h e c l us te r ing o f Mu sl im c eme te r ie s ,a nd t h el o ca t ion o fG ao A nc ien ,f a c ing t h e t r ade r ou te s ,a l ls ugge s tt h a tt h i sw a st h eI s lam ized p a r to ft h ec i ty i nt h e 1l t h -13 th c en tu r ie s AD . I tc an b e f u r the r s u gge s t ed t h a t G ao A nc ien w a s t h e c en t re o fm e r can t i le a c t iv i ty a nd p o s s ib ly a l so t h e r oya l q ua r te r ( s e e C hap te r 4 , s e c t ion 4 . 2b i i ) . T he a b sence o f f i r ed -b r ick a r ch i tec tu ra l r ema in s , i mpo r t s a nd t h e q uan t i t ie s o f Mu s l im g r ave s f o und a tG ao A n c ien s ugge s t s t h a t e ven t h ough t h ey w e r e o ccup ied c on tempo raneou s ly , G o rongobo a nd G ade i d i f f e r ed t oG ao A nc ien a nd w e re o ccup ied b y d i f f e r en t c ommun i t ie s , a nd a l so w e re p o s s ib ly t h ef i r s ta r ea so ccup ied w i th in G ao .

T he s u r vey r e su l t ss uppo r tt h e a r gumen tf o re a r ly s e t t lemen t a tK o ima ( e xcava t ion i so fc ou r se r e qu i red t om o re f i rm ly e s tab l i sh t h e c h rono logy a tt h i s s i t e , s c hedu led f o r t h e n ex t s e a son ) . H oweve r , t h i s d oe s n o t m ean t h a t K o ima w a s t h e s i t e o f a" r igh t b ank " G ao , f o r t h e d a ta p rov id ed b y D awa ( 1 985 ) , o n ce p l o t ted , s h ow s i ti so n ly o ne s i t e a mong a n umbe rl o ca t ed o nt h er i gh tb ank ( F igu r e2 . 2 ) . T he p r esence o f t h e n on I s lam i c b u r ia l s i s o f i n te r e s t c on s ide r ing t h e p agan a s so c ia t ion s o ft h e s i te . S im i la r ly t h e re w a s al a ck o f e v iden ce f o rI s lam o rc on tac tw i th Mu s l im m e r chan t s , s u ch a s f i r ed -b r i ck , g l a s s a nd i mpo r ted p o t te ry , w h i ch a ga in i l u s t ra te s t h a t a mong t h e S ongha i , i nw hose o r a l t r ad i t ion K o ima f i gu r e s p r om inen t ly , I s lam h ad l i t t le i mpa c t o u t s ide o fu r ban n u c leu s ,e ven af ew k i lome t r e sf r om G ao .

3 . 2c )K o ima : A no the r s i te c omp lex s u r veyed w a s a t K o ima , 4 k rn n o r thwes t o fG ao o n t h e o ppo s i te b ank o ft h e R ive r N ige r ( F igu re 2 . 5 ) , w h ich i sk nown l o ca l ly a s" l a d une r o se " , o n a c coun to ft h el a rge r e ds a nd d une w h i ch p a r t ia l ly c ove r st h e s i te . A t ten t ion w a s f o cu s ed u pon K o ima f o r t h r ee r e a son s . F i r s t ly , t h i s s i te f i gu r e s i mpo r tan t ly i no r a l t r ad i t ion w h ich s ugge s t s t h a t K o ima w a s p o s s ib ly t h e f i r s t s i te w h ich t h e S o rko o ccup ied i n t h e G ao r e g ion a f te r t h ey m oved n o r thwa rd s f r om t h e B en t iy a /Ku l z iya a r ea i n t h e m id i s t M iHe l ium AD ( C i s se 1 975 :166 ; T ou r e 1 992 :11 ; H unw i ck 1 985 :5 ; 1 994 :7 ) . S e cond ly , A l -Muha l lab i w r i t ing b e tw een AD 9 76 -996 , a nd A l B ak r i w r i t ing i n AD 1 061 , b o th m en t ion t h ee x i s tence o f a" r igh tb ank "G ao ,t h ee x i s t ence o f w h ich h a s b een m uch d eba ted b y h i s to r ian s ( Lange 1 991 :258 ; 1 994 :284 ; H unw ick 1 994 :266 ) . T h i rd ly , K o ima s t i l l h a s a n im i s t a s soc ia t ion s a nd i sr e co rded a s b e ing t h e b u r ia l p l ace o f t h e p agan S o rko c h ief , K oyma Ame rou Mama ,a ne ven tw h ich r e pu ted ly o ccu red c a .1700 y ea r sa go , a nd i nt h e 1 5 th -16 th c en tu r ie s AD ,i tw a s ap o r tu s ed b yt h e A sk ia r u le r s o f G ao ( C i s se 1 975 , C i s se a nd Y a t ta ra U nda ted ) .

3 . 2d )G ao -Saney : T he t h i rd m a jo r s i t e c omp lex s u r veyed w a s t h e t e l l a nd c eme te ry a tG ao -Saney ,a nd a sm en t ioned i nC hap te r 2 ,t h e s i t eh a s ac heque r ed h i s to ry .T he t e l l w a s v i s i ted i nJ a nua ry 1 993 a nd w a s f o und t ob e i n av e ry b ad c ond i t ion , d o t ted w i th h o le s d ug b y t wo -man t e am s t oo b ta in b ead s t os e l l . T he w ho le s u r f a ce o ft h e s i te w a s l i t te r ed w i th p o t s h e rd s a nd c omp le t e v e s se l s , f r agmen t s o f i r on a nd w ood , b one s a nd b ead s . E ro s ion w a s b e ing e xace rba ted i n t h e r obbed a r ea s b y t h e f o rma t ion o f d eep r u n -o f f c hanne l s c u t t ing t h rough t h el e s sd amaged a r ea s( I n sol 1 993b :42 ) . As u r f ace c o l le c t ion o f p o t te ry w a s m ade , a nd i tw a s f ound w h i ls t f i e ld -wa lk ing t h es i te t h a tt h en o r thwe s t e rn c o rne ro ft h et e l l h ad r ema ined r e la t ive ly u n touched . T he c eme te ry , w hen v i s i ted i n O c tobe r 1 993 w a s f o und t o h ave f a red b e t te rc on s ide r ing i t s h i s to ry .T he o u t l ine so ft h e t wo b r i ck -bu i l t t omb s c ou ld s t i l l b e s e en , a nd t h e b a ck f i l l ing u nde r tak en b y F l igh t h ad b een e f f ec t ive . S eve ra l i n ta c t a nd f r agmen ta ry s t e lae w e r e s t i l l p re sen t , b u t n o a t t emp tw a sm ad et oc heck t h es t e lae w i th t h o se r e co rded b y F l igh t( 1 975a :84 ) ,a s m any h ad b een m oved o rt a k en a way .

N o t e l l e x i s t s h e r e , b u t av a r ie ty o fa r chaeo log ica l r ema in s c on s i s t ing o fs p r ead so fp o ts h e rd s ,e r od ing w a l ls t ump sa nd s i xb u r ia l sw e r er e co rded .T he p r e c i se c h rono logy o ft h es i t e i s n o t k nown , h oweve r a n e xam ina t ion o f t h e l o ca l ly p roduced p o t te ry c ole c ted f r om t h e s u r f a ce o ft h e s i t eg i ve s ap o s s ib le i nd ica t ion o ft h e d a te . T he a s s emb lage c on ta in s s h e rd s o fc o rd - a nd t w ine -de co ra ted w a r e s w h ich a ppea r t o b e e a r l ie r t h an t h o se s of a r f o und a tG ao A nc ien a nd G ao S aney ( s ee A ppend ix 7 ) . A long s ide t h e se p o s s ib le e a r ly w a r e s , o t he r s he rd s w e re f o und o ft h e s ame t y p e s a st h o s e r e cove r ed f r om t h e e xcava t ion s i n G ao A nc ien i n d ica t ing t h a t o ccupa t ion o f t h i s s i te a l so c on t inued a f te r t h e 9 t h c en tu ry AD . T he s e t t lemen t a ppea r s t od a te t ot h e i s t a nd e a r ly 2 nd M i l lenn ium AD .

A na s s e s smen ts u gge s ted t h a t : a )F i r ed -b r ick w a s o n ly u s ed i n f u ne r a ry c on tex t s a tG ao S an ey .N ot r a ce o ff i r ed -b r i ck w a sf o und o nt h et e l ; t h eo n ly f i nd s o ff i r ed -b r i ck w e r e i nt h e a r ea w he re F l igh t ( 1 979a ) e xcava ted S t r uc tu re Q , w h ich i sn o t o n t h e t e l l i t s e lf , b u t 3 0m t ot h ew e s to fi t( s ee C hap te r2 ,s e c t ion 3 . 8 ) . b )T he t e l l h a s b e en m uch d i scu ssed b y mode rn h i s to r ian s a nd a r chaeo log i s t s . I n am ap d rawn b y R aymond Mauny , p r obab ly a s ar e su l t o f h i s s u rvey w o rk i n G ao e i the r i n 1 950 ,o rf o l low ing h i se xcava t ion sa tG ao -Saney i n1 952 t h e t e l la ppea r st ob ep a r to f al a rge rc omp lex .T h is m ap s how s

S i xb u r ia l s w e re f ound e r od ing o u to ft h e l a nd s u r f a ce c l o se t ot h e l owe rs l ope so ft h e d une , i na n a r ea d i re c t ly f r on t ing 3 2

what appear to be three other large tells and three smaller mounds to the northeast of Gao-Saney (Figure 2.5), these are not remarked upon by Dawa (1985), and unfortunately owing to the security situation could not be visited in 1993. It is possible that the tell at Gao-Saney fonns part of a larger complex, as is found in other areas of Mali, for example, in the Merna region, located to the north of the Inland Niger Delta. Mauny (1951:840), makes a possible reference to this when he mentions: "Mais on en trouve aussi des eminences (buttes-tbnoins provenant de la degradation des terrasses jluviales anciennes) a des kilometres de Gao. C'est le cas, en particulier, de la co/line de Sane a 9 kilometres de la ville". At present this mystery remains unsolved.

It can also be seen that there are differences between each of the three site complexes, reflecting both the diversity in archaeological remains found in the Cercle de Gao, and the degree to which Islamization is apparent. The central concentration of buildings, some constructed out of fired­ brick, which was found at Gao Ancien, is lacking at the other two sites, where fired-brick use is restricted to funerary contexts at Gao-Saney, and absent altogether at Koima. This reflects the character of Gao Ancien as a trade centre, subject to diverse foreign and Islamic influences, and is evident in the several early Muslim cemeteries clustered around the central city. Further differences exist, the lack of evidence for the presence of Islam at Koima, burials, trade goods etc, is apparent, and is parallelled in the animist associations of the site in oral tradition. At Gao-Saney, the presence of the vast habitation �ound, which is very different in character to Gao Ancien suggests differences between the two sites. Although at least partially Muslim, as evidenced by the extensive Islamic funerary remains, differences can be seen in certain aspects of the material culture remains found at Gao-Saney and Gao Ancien, which suggests that these two sites were occupied by different social groups (see Chapter 4, section 4.2bii). The lack of imports, such as glass and pottery, outside of the two sites of Gao Ancien and Gao­ Saney is also noticeable, which concurs with the evidence for the limited spread of Islam outside of the urban areas and trade routes at this time, and among the Songhai in general.

c) The location of the tell at Gao-Saney appears to have been influenced by the Wadi Gangaber (Figure 2.5). Mauny (1961:498) suggested that Gao-Saney was linked to the Niger by a channel, which was once navigable, and analogous to Timbuktu and its port, Kabara, which are also linked by a seasonally navigable channel. This channel could have been used both for communication and transport. Cisse and Yattara (Undated:134-6) collected an oral tradition that for communication pwposes a cord strung with little bells was hung between Gao-Saney and the "fishermen", presumably the Sorko on the Niger. It is probable that, "the cord hung with bells", is a reference to the Wadi Gangaber, as a means of communication and link with the Niger. 3.2e) Discussion: Settlement and Islam in Gao:

Even within the urban area of Gao, differences are apparent between various areas, the city was not homogeneous but appears to have been composed of different quarters, each with its own character; cosmopolitan Gao Ancien, with its Islamized inhabitants, and Gadei, the centre of riverine trade, occupied by Sorko or proto-Songhai. This diversity is perhaps to be expected in a vibrant trading city which would inevitably attract different social and ethnic groups. Continued smvey will allow more precise reconstruction of the various elements which made up the city, and the complex settlement structure and relationships between the component sites within the vicinity of Gao. It is now appropriate to discuss the results of the excavations conducted in Gao Ancien and Gao-Saney in 1993.

Although the effect of Islam upon settlement patterns in Gao is discussed in detail in Chapter 4, section 4.2bii, it is necessary to provide a summary of the 1993 survey results and settlement data here. The discussion of Dawa's (1985) smvey data in Chapter 2 has shown that the area within the immediate vicinity of Gao was occupied in the L.S.A. (Gao­ Hydro Carbures). The pottery from Koima suggests that occupation of the area continued from the L.S.A. into the early 1st millennium AD, but whether there was ever a "Right Bank" Gao at Koima needs further investigation. Similarly, further archaeological investigation is needed in Gadei to assess the validity of the tradition of Sorko migration from Bentiya/Kukiya to Gao in the late 7th century AD (see Chapter 1, section 1.5), however a C14 date spanning the period between the 5th and early 7th centuries AD, obtained from the basal layer of the Period 5 deposits in Gao Ancien (see section 3.3cvi below), certainly suggests that the area within the vicinity of Gao was not empty and unoccupied when, and if, the Sorko migration occurred.

3.3) Excavations in Gao Ancien and Gao-Saney, September and October 1993:

It has also been suggested on the basis of the survey results and the oral tradition that initial occupation within the area of the city of Gao was concentrated beside the river Niger, in Gadei, and at the mouth of the Tilemsi Valley. Furthermore, it has been shown on the basis of similarities in the local pottery assemblages found (and dated at Gao Ancien), that all three major site complexes; Gao, Gao-Saney and Koima, were occupied at the beginning of the 2nd millenium AD.

3.3a) Introduction and Methodology:

The emphasis of this section will be upon the stratigraphy and phasing uncovered during the course of the excavations in Gao Ancien and Gao-Saney. General discussion and interpretation of the events which shaped this site will also be undertaken but description of the finds, the architectural

33

r ema ins a nd b u r ia l s e ncoun t e red w i l l b e c onf ined t o t h e f olow ing f ou rc hap t e r s . A 6x6 . 5m t r ench w a s e xcava ted i nG ao A nc ien i nt h e o pen a r ea o fG ao A nc ien d i scus sed i ns e c t ion 3 . 2bü ( F igu r e 2 . 3 ) . T he e xcava t ion a r ea w a s s e lec ted d u r ing t h e s u rv ey o fG ao c onduc ted b y t h e a u tho r i n c oope ra t ion w i th t h e Ma l ian I n s t i tu t d e s S c ience s Hu r r za ine s i n J anua ry 1 993 . E xcavat ion w a s c a r r ied o u t f r om t h e 1 9 th S ep tembe r t ot h e 11t h O c tobe r 1 993 . T he e xcava t ion s w e r e d i re c ted b y t h e a u tho r w ho w a s a s s i s ted b y S ekou B e r the ( t ran s la to r a nd r e s ea r ch a s s i s tan t ) , N a f ogo C oul iba ly ( t e chn ic ian a t t h e I n s t i tu td es S c i ences Huma ine s ) , a nd E lmoc ta rT ou r e ( Chef d u d i v i s ion d e P a t r imo ine C u l ture ! d e G ao ) .

T he n umbe r s a s s igned t o t h e l e ve l s d u r ing t h e e xcava t ion a r e b ra cke ted i n t h e t e x t . A rb i tr a ry l e ve l s w e r e u s ed w hen t h e r e w e r e d if i cu l t ie s i nr e cogn i z ing t h e a c tua l l e ve l s . T he m a in d i ff i cu l ty e ncoun te red w a s t h e c o lou r c hange s w h ich t h e d epo s i t s u nderwen t a s t h ey d r ied o u t . T h i s o f ten m ad e t h e c hange f r om o ne d epo s i t t y p e t o a no the r d i ff i cu l t t o r e cogn ize , h ence t h e u se a tt i me s o fa r b i t ra ry l e ve l s . B e f o r e e xcava t ion s c ommenced , t h e d a tum u sed w a s s e t u p b y o u r s e lve s . A l l h e igh t s g i ven o r ig ina l ly r e f e r t ot h i s d a tum b u th ave s i nce b een r e ca lcu la ted s oa st ob e mo r e i n d icat ive o f t h e s u r f ace l e ve l , t e rmed p o in t z e ro ( Ma in G r id B a se P o in t o r M .G .B .P . ) a nd i n t h e n o r th w e s t c o rne r o f t h e t r ench ( F igu r e 3 . 3 ) . A l l d epo s i t s w e r e s i eved u s ing a5 mm m e sh t wo -man s i eve . C on tex t s w he r e f i ne r g r ad e s i ev ing

F IRED BRICK F LOOR

F i gu r e 3 . 3 . T he l o ca t ion so ft h e w a l l sa nd f i red -b r i ck f l oo ri nt h ee xcava t ion a tG ao A nc i en .

3 4

w a s d eemed n ece s sa ry w e r e s i eved u s ing a l mm m e sh s i eve .

3 3b )S ummary o fS i te P has ing : T he h i s to ry o f t h e s i te c an b e d i v ided i n to f i ve d i s t inc t e p isode s ( P e r iod s 1t o5 ) , w i th P e r iod 1r e f e r r ing t ot h e m o s t r e cen t a nd P e r iod 5 t o t h e mo s t a nc ien t ( F igu r e 3 . 4 ) . T h i s r e ve r sa lo ft h e u sua lp rac t ice o fn umbe r ing p has e so rp e r iod s s t a r t ing w i th n umbe r 1f o r t h e m o s t r e cen t a l low s f o r t h e a dd i t ion o f f u r the r p e r iod s t o t h e l owe r e nd o f t h e c h rono logy s hou ld t h i s b e come n e ce s sa ry a s ar e su l t o ft h e n ex t s e a son o fe xcava t ion s . T o s umma r is e t h e c h rono logy :

P er iod 1 : D i s tu rbed a nd c on tam ina ted l a ye r . F i f th o c cupa t ion l e ve l . C a . la te 1 3 th / ea r ly 1 4 th c en tu ry AD -2 0 th c en tu ry AD . T he d epo s i t s w e re d i s tu rb ed b yt h e a c t iv i t ie s o f p eop le q ua r ry ing f o rb u i ld ing ma te r ia l sa nd b u ry ing r ubb i sh . ( I ti sp o s s ib le t h a to ccupa t ion i nt h i sa r ea o fG ao A nc ien h ad e nded b y t h e 1 5 th -16 th c en tu r ie s AD , a s a ppea r s t o b e s i gna l led b yt h e a b s en ce o ft o bac co p ipe s a nd o t he rm a te r ia l d a t ing f r om l a te r c en tu r ie s [ s ee s e c t ion 3 . 3d ] . H owev e r t h e d i s tu rbance a nd c on tam ina t ion o f t h e P e r iod 1 d epo s i t s m eans c au t ion i n ve s t iga t ion ) .

h a s

t o b e

e xe r c i sed

P er iod 3

P enod 3

P er iod 4

I m

r n ^

Wind a nd wa ter m ixed y e l low -brown s and .

G rey c lay ( f loo r ) .

Y e l low r ubb le t i l led s a ndy s o i l .

D ense m ix o f h one , c ha rcoa l a nd h anco

L ieh t g rey -brown h anco t i l led s o i l .

B one a nd c ha rcoa l i n f i ance .

S treaked s and .

Y e l low s and a nd c lay m ix .

F ine l i gh t -g rey-brown s and .

I r on s l ag .

F igu re 3 . 4 . G ao A nc ien s t r a t ig raph ic p rof i le .

3 5

f u r the r

T h r ee p ha s e s o fc on s truc t ion , 1 A , 1 B a nd 1 C i n d ica t e t h a t o c cupa t ion o ft h e s i te c on t inued f r om P e r iod 2a nd i n vo lved

2

( )

p end ing

t h e c on s t ruc t ion o fb anco ( l iqu id ) mud a nd b r ick w a l ls A , B , Ca nd D a nd w a l l Ew h ich w a s c on s t ruc ted o u to fr e -used f r agmen t so ff i red b r ick . ( F igu re 3 . 3 ) . P ha se 1A r e f e r s t ot h e mo s t r e cen t a nd P ha se 1 C t ot h e mo s t a nc ien t . T he p r ec ise d a te o ft h e se p ha ses o fc on s truc t ion i su nknown , e xcep t t h a t

f r om t h e s u r fa ce l a ye r s t o ab a sa l d ep th o fb e tween 1 25 a nd 1 35 c m . T he s e cond d i s t inc t l a ye r wa s c ha ra c te r i sed b y ad ec l ine i n t h e a moun t o f mode rn r ubb i sh a nd a n i n c rea se i n t h e

P ha se 1 C c ommenced w i th t h e i n co rpo ra t ion o ft h e P e r iod 2 f i red -b r ick b u i ld ing i n to t h e 1 C s t ruc tu re w h ich s ugge s t s t h a tt h i sw a sd one a f te rt h eP e r iod 2b u i ld ing w a sa bandoned b y i t s o r ig ina l i nhab i tan t s , t h is c ou ld h ave t a ken p l ace a ny t ime f r om t h el a te 1 3 th c en tu ry AD o nwa rd s .

w h ich f o rmed as or t o fr a f t , mea su r ing 6 0cm x 7 0 cm , w h i le t h e f o rme r i nc on t ra s t w a s c ompo sed o fu nf i red b r ick r ubb le a nd w a s mo re w ide ly s p read o ve ra n a r ea o f 3m2 ( 7 ,8 ,9 ,10 ) . F i red -b r ick s w h ich h ad o nce f o rmed p a r t o f t h e P e r iod 2

P er iod 3 : T h i rd o ccupa t ion l e ve l . P ha se o f s t rong N or th c on tac t s .

D a ted

b y

i mpo r t s

t o t h e

a mo re c ompac t y elow s andy s o i l ( F igu re 3 . 4 ) . T he se d epo s i t s w ou ld a ppea r t o h ave b een l i nked w i th t h e s t ruc tu r e s o fb u i ld ing P ha se 1 B w h ich a r e d escr ibed b e low . T h i s r ubb le w a s e spe c ia l ly c oncen t ra ted i nt wo a r ea s , t ot h e s ou th o f w a l l Ea nd i n t h e n or thwe s t c o rne r o f t h e t r ench . T he l a t te r w a s l a rge ly c ompo sed o ff r agmen t s o ff i red -b r ick

P er iod 2 : F ou r th o ccupa t ion l e ve l . F i red -b r ick b u i ld ing ; l a te 1 2 th c en tu ry -13 th c en tu ry AD .

A f r ican

a moun t o fb u i ld ing r ubb le p resen t , w h ich w a s f ound w i th in

1l t h -12 th

c o lumn b a se w e re s ca t te red a c ro s s t h e w e s ter n s i de o f t h e

c en tu r ie s AD . C on s truc t ions a nd o ccupa t ion d eb r i sp re sen t .

t r ench . P er iod 4 : S econd o ccupa t ion l e ve l . l a te 9 th -11 t hc en tur ie s AD . C a che o f h ippopo tamu s i v o ry p re sen t . S t ruc tu re s a nd t h en a d es t ruc t ion p ha se a t t o p o f l e ve l . O ccupa t ion d eb r i s a nd s ome i mpor ted s he rd s .

Two l e n se s o fr ed s and o f 5mm d ep th w e re e ncoun te r ed a t t h e s ame l e ve l a s t h e r ubb le s p read s , a tt h e n or th a nd s ou th o f t h e t r ench ( 1 3 ) . T hese l e n se s r an u p t o , a nd s t opp ed a b rup t ly a t , w a l ls A a nd B , b u t w e re l i nked t oge the r b y a t h in b and o f r ed s and o f 2 -3cm w id th w h ich c on t inued n or th -s ou th a c ro s s t h e s i te . I ti sp os s ib le t ha t t h e r ed s and i st h er ema in s o f af l oo rw h ich r an a cro ss t h e w es ter ns i de o f t h e s i te a nd w h ich w a s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e P ha se 1 B

P er iod 5 : F i r s t o ccupa t ion l e ve l . 6 th /7 th -9 th c en tu ry AD . S he rd s o f l o ca l p o t te ry a nd s ome f a una l r ema ins , t h e f r equency o f s uch ma ter ia l d rop s o f a t b a se o f l e ve l . N o s t ruc tu ra l e v idence o r p o s t o r s t ake h o les f ound , u n l ike i n t h e s ucceed ing p e r iod s .

s t ruc tu re s . T he l e nses o f r ed s and w e re c u t t h rough b y a s ha l low t r ench w h ich w a s f i l led w i th c l ean y elow f i ne g ra ined s and . T h i s t r ench , w h ich w a s r e la t ive ly s ha l low ( 1 1cm ) , a l so r an u p t o t h e l i ne o f r ed s and w h ich r an b e tween w a l l s A a nd B . A t i t s o ppo s i te e nd t h e t r ench w idened o u ta nd t h e s and d epos i t sr an a round t h e f i red -b r i ck c o lumn F ( 6 ,11 ,12 ) . T he d epo s i t s i n t h e s i te w e re n ow

33c ) S tra t igraphy : 33c 1 ) P er iod 1 : T he s i te h a s s uf f e red c ons id erab ly f r om mode rn r ubb i sh

e f ec t ive ly s pl i t i n to t wo . T he d epo s i t s i n o ne t h i rd o f t h e t r ench , t h e w e s t , b e ing y elow s and a nd i n t h e o t he r t wo

d ump ing a nd t h ep a ssage o fp eop le a nd l i ve s tock , a s w e l l a s t h e a c t ion o f t h e w ind a nd e ro s ion b y r a inwa te r r uno f f . F ur the r d amage h a s b een c au sed b y p eop le d i gg ing i n to t h e d epo s i t st oo b ta in m a ter ia l w h ich c an b er e -used f o rb u i ld ing p u rpo se s . T hese p rocesse s h ave r e su l ted i n d i s tu rbance a nd c on tam ina t ion .

t h i rd s o ft h e t r ench ac on t inua t ion o ft h e d epo s i t made u p o f r ubb le i n ac ompa c ty e l low s andy s o i l . T he r e a son f o r t h e s pl i t i n t h e d epo s i t s i n t h e s i te o n ly b ecame a ppa ren t w hen t h e P er iod 2 f i r ed -br ick f l oo r w a s

T he t op o ft h e f i red -br ick c o lumn b a se ( F ) w a s v i s ib le o n t h e

u ncove red . T he s andy d epo s i ts o f t h e w es te rn t h i rd o f t h e

p resen t s u r f ace , a s w a s t h e t o p o f t h e w a l l b u i l t o u t o f f r agmen t s o fb aked b r ick ( E ) ( F igu re 3 . 4 ) . L igh t s weep ing ( 1 ,3 ,5 ) r evea led t h e p re sence o f w a l ls A , B a nd C w h ich

s i t e w e re f ound t ob et h er e su l to f ar obbe rt r ench , w h ich h ad n ea t ly s l i ced t h rough t h e f i red -b r ick f l oo r . ( 16 ,19 ,20 ) . T he s and d epo s i t s w e re w ide ly s p read a bove t h e l e ve l o f t h e r obbe r t r ench , b u t w e re t h en s e en t o f i l t h e t r ench a s i t

w e r e c ove r ed b y al cm d eep l a ye r o fd u s t ( F igu re 3 . 4 ) . T he f i r s tl a ye r st ob ee xcava ted ( 2 ,4 ) s howed t h a t t h e t o p 5 10 cm

c on t inued d own t h rough t h e f l oo r t o ad ep th o f 3 0cm b e low t h e f l oo r l e ve l , o r 7 0 -75cm b e low t h e s u r fa ce l e ve l . T he t r ench w ou ld a ppea r t o h ave b een d ug f a i r ly r e cen t ly t o

o f t h e p a le y elow b rown s andy d epo s i t s w e re s ub jec t t o much m ix ing a nd w e re h eav i ly c on tam ina ted b y av a r ie ty o f moder n r ubb i sh i n c lud ing s c rap s o f c l o th , f r agmen t s o f

o b ta in c on s t ruc t ion ma ter ia ls . Two i t ems o f c on tam ina t ion w e re r e cove red f r om t h is d epos i t a t ad ep th o f 4 0 cm : A

e name l b a s ins , g la ss a nd o t he r d e t r i tus ( F igu re 3 . 4 ) . A r ubb i sh p i tw a sf ound c u t t ing d own f r om t h e mode rn s u r f ace

mode rn s i lve r -pa in ted p l a s t ic b ead a nd p a r t o f a n e r oded b l a ck r ubbe rr i ng o rw a she r( 16 ,17 ) .

l a ye r t o ad ep th o f3 5 c m i nt h e s i de o ft h e t r ench n ea r t h e s ou thwe s te rn c o rne ro ft h ee xcava t ion u n i t .

A s t h er ubb le f i l led d epo s i t s i nt h e w e s te rn t wo t h ird s o ft h e s i te w e re r emoved ( 14 ) , i tw a s n o t iced t h a t t h e m a t r ix i n w h ich t h e r ubb le w as f ound b egan t o c hange ( 15 ) . T he

F ur the r d i s tu rbance h ad b e en c aused b y t h e d igg ing o f a s o l i t a ry Mu s l im g rave o r ien ted n o r th -sou th , w h ich p a r t ia l ly c u t t h rough t h e mo s t modern P ha se l A w a l l , w a l l C , a nd

c ompa c t y elow s andy s o i l g ave w ay t o ac ompac t l i gh t g r ey

c on t inued d own i n to t h e P e r iod 4 d epo s i t s . T he g rave mu s t

b rown s o i l w h ich v a r ied i n d ep th a nd c on ta ined a l a rge

h ave b een d ug f a i r ly r e cen t ly , a s t h e p i t d ug t or e ce ive t h e b ody a nd t h es t one s l ab s s u r round ing i tc ou ld b ec l ea r ly s e en i n s e c t ion i n t h e e a s tern f a ce o f t h e t r ench , c u t t ing d own

a moun t o f b anco ( F igu re 3 . 4 ) .

T h i s n ew d epo s i t w a s

u ndoub ted ly a s so c ia ted w i th t h e P ha se 1 C s t ruc tu re s w h ich a r ea l so d e s c r ib ed b e low . R emova lo ft h e n ew d epo s i t s i nt h e 3 6

c en t ra l p o r t ion o ft he s i te b egan t ou ncove r t h e f i red -b r ick f l oo r ( 17 ) . N ot r ace o ft h e f i red -b r ick f l oo r w a s f ound i nt h e e a s t o f t h e s i te , a s t he e dge o f t h e f l oo r r an n o r th -s ou th a c ro s s t h ec en t re o ft he t r ench . I n s tead t wo f u r the r h eap s o f r ubb le w e re u ncove red i nt h e e a s te rn h a lf o ft h e t r ench ( 18 ) . P a r to fw a l l Bw a s f ound t oh ave c o l lapsed l e av ing al e n s o f o range c o lou red m a te r ia lt ot h e e a s to ft h e e x is t ing w a l l , a nd

s t anda rd s s e en o ve r t ime i n t h e G ao Anc ien s equence i s s im i la rt ot h a te ncoun te red i nt h eG ao -Saney c eme te ry . T race s o f aw h i te p l a s te rc oa t ing w h ich w a s a pp l ied t os ome o f t h e f i red -b r ick s w a s a l so f ound . I ti sp o ss ib le t h a t t h i s c oa t ing w a s a pp l ied t o t h e b r ick s i n t h e u nknown o r ig ina l s t ruc tu re w h ich w a s r obbed t o make w a l l E , f o r o n w a l l E i t se l f n o t r ace o f p l a s te r w as f ound o n t h e c emen t b e tween

ap i le o f r o ck s l ab s wa s f ound d umped i n t h e n o r thea s te rn c o rne r o ft h e t r ench . As he rd o fw ha t a ppea r s t ob e mode rn g l a s s w a sr e cove red f r om t h i s l a ye r ( 18 ) , i nd ica t ing t h a t t h e

t h eb r ick s .T he p la s te rw h ich w a s a dher ing t ot h e b r ick s w a s t r an sf e r red a l ong w i th t h e b r ick s f r om t h e r obbed s t ruc tu re

e a s te rn d epo s i t sh ad a l so b een d i s tu rb ed f a i r ly r e cen t ly .

w hen t h ey w e re b e ing r e -used i nt h ec on s t ruc t ion o fw a l lE .

T he e nd o ft h e P er iod 1d epos i t s i n t h e e a s tern p a r t o ft h e t r ench w a ss i gna l led b yt h e i rr ep lacemen tb y as t reaked s and d epo s i to fP e r iod 2d a te w h ich f o rmed ab a r r ie rb e tween t h e c on tam ina ted a nd d i s tu rbed d epo s i t s a nd t h e u nd i s tu rb ed a nd u ncon tam ina ted d epos i t s ( F igure 3 . 4 ) .

T he d i f f e rence i n t h e f i red -b r ick s u sed i n w a l l Ea nd t h o se u sed i nt h e f l oo rw ou ld a ppea r t oi nd ica te t ha t , b y n o t u s ing t h eP e r iod 2f l oo ra s as ou r ce o fr aw ma ter ia l , t h e b u i lde r s o f Ew an ted t op re serve a nd i n corpo ra te t h e f l oo r w i th in t h e l a te r c on s t ruc t ion . T he r obbe r t r ench men t ioned a bove , w h ich c u t s t h rough a nd p a r t ly d es t roy s t h e f i red -b r ick f l oo r i sn o t l i nked t oP ha se 1 C a s i ti s mo re r e cen t i nd a te a nd i s

3 . 3c i i ) P er iod One S truc ture s :

p robab ly l i nked w i th P ha se 1 A .

An umbe r o fw a l l s b u i l t o u t o f av a r ie ty o f ma ter ia ls w e r e f ound a bu t t ing o r b u i l t o ve r t h e P er iod 2 f i red -b r i ck

Wa l l A : T he d imen s ions o ft h e b anco -b r ick s ( un -f i red mud b r ick ) , u sed i n t h e P hase 1 B u ppe r c ou r se o f w a l l A a r e f a i r ly u n ifo rm , h oweve r t h e w ay t h ey a r e l a id i su nusua l a s t h ey c hange d i rec t ion f r om n o r th -sou th t o e a s t -we s t i n t h e c ou r se w h ich f o l low so n f r om t he j unc t ion w i th wa l lE . O n ly o ne c ou r s e o f b anco -b r ick w a s a c tua l ly s een i n s e c t ion i n w a l l A . T h i s c an b e e xp la ined i n t wo w ay s . F i r s t ly , t h a t t h e l owe r b anco -b r ick c ou r se s w e re n o t s e en w h i le t h e s i d e s o f

b u i ld ing . T he e v idence s ugge s t s t h a t t h e se s t ruc tu r e s r ep re sen tl a te ro ccupa t ion , a nd t h ree p ha se s o fc on s truc t ion c an b ed i s t ingu i shed ; 1 A , 1 Ba nd 1 C . T he p r ima ry P ha se 1 C s t ruc tu res w e re b u i l t t o m ake u se o f t h e e a r l ie r , P e r iod 2 , f i red -b r ick f l oo r . Wh i l s t t h e P ha se 1 B s t ruc tu re s w e r e a s soc ia ted w i th ar ed s and f l oo r , a ta n u nknown l a te r d a te w a l lC ,t h es o le P ha se l Aw a l lw a sb u i l t .

w a l l Aw e re c l eaned ,a nd s e cond ly , t h a t t h e s u rv iv ing c ou r se o fb anco -b r ick w a sl a id u pon a n e a r l ie rw a l lo rc o re o fb anco

T he f i red -b r ick f l oo r a ppea r s t oh ave b een i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e 1 C p ha se o fc ons truc t ion , w hen w als D a nd E a nd t h e

r ubb le a nd mud . T he f i r s t e xp lana t ion c an b e d i scoun ted a s b anco -b r ick s w e re s e en i n t h e s ec t ion o f w a l l B , w h i l s t t h e

l owe r b anco ( l iqu id mud ) c ou r se s o f A w e re b u i l t , a nd

s e cond p ropo sed e xp lana t ion i ss uppo r ted b y t h e e x is tence o f t h e r ed p la s te r f l oo r . T h i s f l oo r ( a s sum ing i t s i n te rp re ta t ion a s af l oo r i sc or re c t ) , r un s u p t o , a nd a b rup t ly s t op s , a tt h e e dge o f w a l l A , a pp rox ima te ly a t t h e h e igh t o f t h e b anco b r ick s .

p o s s ib ly t h e l owe r c ou r se s o f B( F igu re 3 . 3 ) . F ou r d i f f e ren t s t y le s o fc on s tr uc t ion c an b e s e en i nt h e se w a l l s . Wa l l Ei s b u i l t o u t o f r e -used f i red -b r ick s a nd f r agmen t s o f f i red b r ick . Wa l l Ai sb u i l t o u t o fb r ick s m ade o u t o fb anco o n a b anco a nd r ubb le b a se w h i l s t w a l l Di sm ade o u t o fb anco , a nd w a l l Bi sc ons truc ted o u t o f b anco o n ab anco -b r i ck r ubb le b a se .D u r ing P ha se 1 B t h e t o pc ou r se s o fw a l l s Aa nd Bw ou ld a ppea rt oh ave b een l a id u pon t h e e a r l ie rP ha se 1 C w a l ls a nd i nt h e c a se o fAt oh ave a lmo s t e xa c t ly f olowed t h e o r ig ina l a l ignmen to ft h e e a r l ie r w a l l ( F igu re 3 . 3 ) . B o th p hases o f w a l l b u i ld ing , 1 C a nd 1 B s e em t o b e a s so c ia ted w i th s epa ra te f l oo r s .

Wa l l B : As im i la r s i tua t ion c an b e s e en w i th w a l l B , w h ich i sa ta lmo s t t h e s ame a l ignmen t a s w a l l Aa nd 1 . 8m w e s to f i t( F igu re 3 . 3 ) . H e re t h e c ons truc t ion s equence i st h e r e ve r se o fw a l l A , w i th ap ha se 1 B 1 0 -12cm c ap o fb anco o ve r ly ing aP ha se l A 6 0cm l a ye r o f i r regu la r ly s pa ced b anco -b r ick s w h ich c u td own i n to t h eP er iod t h ree d epo s i t s . A ga in t h e r ed p l a s te r f l oo r r uns u p t oa nd s t op s a tt h e e dge o f w a l l B , a t t h eh e igh to ft h eb anco c ap .

Wa l l E : T he t y pe o ff i red -b r ick u sed i n w a l l Ei sd i f f e ren t f r om t ha t u sed i nt he P e r iod 2 f i red -b r ick f l oo r . T he w a l l E b r ick i sm uch r edder i n c o lou r , h a s ac oa r se r c on s i s ten cy a nd i ss l igh t ly s ma l le r i n s i ze . L e s s c a re w a s a l so t a ken i n

Wa l ls D a nd C : O n ly p a r t o f w a l l D c ame w i th in t h e e xcava ted a r ea , h oweve r , t h e c on t inua t ion o f t h i s w a l l a nd i t s j unc t ion w i th w a l l Ac ou ld e a s i ly b e s een o u t s ide o f t h e

t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f wa l l Et han i ss hown i n t h e P e r iod 2

t r ench . Wa l l Dw a s b u i l t o u t o fb anco , a nd i t s e dge w i th in t h e t r ench w a s d ef ined b y ad i s t inc t l a ye r o f mud o fb e twe en

c o lumn b as e . T he b o t tom c ou r se s s how a d ef in i te s l ope d ownwa rd s t ot h e e a s t ,a si ft h e b r ick s w e r e c r ude ly s t acked u p w i thou t much t hough t a s t o t h e i r p l ac ing . C omp le t e

3a nd 5 cm t h ickne s s . T h is l a ye r mu s t b e t h e r ema ins o f a l i qu id mud r ende r ing a pp l ied t ot h e e x ter io r s u r f a ce s o ft h e w a l l . T he f i na l w a l l t ob e b u i l t w a s t h e P ha se l A w a l l C . T h is w a l lw h ich w a s b u i l t o u to fb anco -br ick s w a sb u i l t o ve r

b r ick s w e re u sed i n t h e l owe r c ou r se s w h i ls t t h e u ppe rmo s t c ou r se s w e r e c ompo sed s o le ly o ff i red -b r ick f r agmen t s . T he s t ump o fw a l l Es urv ives t o ad ep th o fb e tween 5 5 a nd 6 0cm . I n C hap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 . 7d i , t h e s im i la r l a ck o f c a re i n t h e c ons truc t ion o f t h e l a te r s t ruc tu r e s i n t h e s equence a t t h e G ao -Saney c eme tery w h ich w a s r e co rded b yF l igh t ( 1979 :6 7 ) w as c ommen ted u pon . T he d e te r io ra t ion o f b u i ld ing

w a l l Bi nt h es ou thea s tern c o rne ro ft h et r ench ( F igure 3 . 3 ) . T he Wa l lP has ing a nd t he F loor s : C u t t ings w e re made i n to t h e w a l l s a d jo in ing t h e f i red -b r ick f l oo r t o t r y a nd u nde r s tand t h e i r r e la t ionsh ip w i th t h e f l oo r . I tw a s f o und 3 7

t h a tw a l l s Aa nd D w e r eb u i l tu pt ot h ee dge o ft h e f l oo r ,a nd o ve r lapped o n to t h e f i red -b r ick f l oo rb y2 3cm . T he f a c tt h a t b o th w a l l s Aa nd D w e r e b u i l t r i gh t u p t ot h e v e ry e dge o f t h e f l oo r l e nd s f u r the r s uppo r t t o t h e h ypo the s i s t h a t t h e f i r ed -b r ick f l oo rw a si n co rpo ra ted i n to t h el a te rs t ruc tu re . T he c u t t ing m ade i n to t h e b a se o fw a l l Bs howed t h a t t h e f i red -b r ick f l oo r c on t inued u nder nea th t h i s w a l l . T he s i tua t ion w i th w a l l Bi ss l igh t ly c onf u s ing , a s p a r t o f t h e e a s te rn h a l fo ft h e w a l l h ad c o l lap sed ( 1 8 ,21 ) . H oweve r , i t c an b e p o s tu la ted t h a t t h e f i red -b r ick f l oo r c on t inue s u p t o t h e e dge o ft h e o r ig ina l P ha se 1 C b anco -b r ick w a l l B , u pon w h ich t h e l a te r P ha se 1 B b anco c ap w a s l a id . T he o r ig ina l e dge o fw a l l Bc an b e h ypo the t ica l ly r e con s t r uc ted a sb e ing r o ugh ly 2 0 cm t ot h ee a s to fi t sp r es en tp o s i t ion b ye x t end ing t h e a l ignmen t o f t h e f l oo r f r om t h e n or th o f t h e t r ench a c ro s s i n to t h e s ou th . H ence i ti sp r obab le t h a t t h e e a rl ie r

b anco -b r ick w a l l Bf o rmed p a r t o ft h e P ha se 1 C s t ruc tu r e w h ich r e -u sed t h e f i r ed -b r ick f l oo r , w h i l s t t h e P ha se 1 B b anco mud w al B w a s b u i l t a tt h e s ame t ime a st h e P ha se 1 B b anco -b r ick w a l l A . B o th t h e P hase 1 B w a l l s a r e a s so c ia ted w i th t h e r ed p l a s te r f l oo r a nd w ou ld a ppea r t o h ave b een b u i l t a f t e r t h e f i red -b r ick f l oo r h ad c ea sed t ob e u sed . 3 3c i i i )P er iod 2 : P e r iod 2 w a s s i gna l led b y t h e c on s t r uc t ion o f as ub s tan t ia l f i r ed -b r ick b u i ld ing . T he r ema ins o fp ar t o f af l oo r a nd o ne c o lumn b a se w e r e d i scove r ed i n t h e w es te rn s i de o f t h e t r ench ( F igu r e 3 . 5 ) . T he f i red -b r ick f l oo r e i the r d i d n o t e x tend i n to t h e e a s ter n s i de o f t h e t r ench , o r h ad n o t s u r v ived i nt h i ss i de o ft h et r ench w he r e ,a sh a sb een a l ready d e sc r ib ed , al a y e ro fs t r eaked s and f o rmed ab a r r ie rb e tween

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F igu re 3 . 5 .T he h i ppopo tamu st u sk sa nd t h e f i red -b r ick b u i ld ing i nG ao A nc ien . 3 8

1

t h e d i s tu rb ed a nd c on tam ina ted P er iod o ne d epo s i t s a nd t h e e a r l ie r u nd is tu rbed a nd u ncon tam ina ted d epo s i t s ( F igu re 3 . 4 ) . T he s t reaked s and d epo s i tw ou ld a ppea rt oi nd ica te t h a t t h e s i te w a s u noccup ied f o r ac er ta in t ime a t t h e e nd o f P e r iod 2 ,p r io r t o t he P e r iod 1s t ruc tu re s b e ing b u i l t . I ti s u n l ike ly t h a t o ccupa t ion c ea sed b e twe en P er iod 2 a nd 3 ,a s t h e s t reaked s and d epo s i t d id n o t c on t inue u nder nea th t h e f i red -b r ick f l oo r .

U ndoub ted ly t h e f l oo r a nd t h e c o lumn b a se f o rm p a r t o f a l a rge r s t ruc tu re , w h ich w ou ld a ppea r t o h ave b een a n i mpor tan t b u i ld ing . T he u se o f f i red -b r ick a ppea r s t o h ave b e en r e s tr ic ted t ob u i ld ings s uch a s mosques ,p a lace s ,a nd i n t h e c a se o f S t ruc tu re Q a t G ao -Saney , ac ommemo ra t ive K ubba t omb . T he c oncen t ra t ion o f f i red -b r ick w i th in t h i s a r ea o fG ao A nc ien , w h ich h a s a l ready b een r ema rked u pon i ns e c t ion 3 . 2b i i , s ugge s t s t h a t t h is a r ea o fG ao A nc ien w a s t h e n uc leu s o f t h e t own . I t c an b e p roposed t ha t t h is

T he f i red -b r i ck f l oo ra nd c o lumn b a se w e re b u i l to u to fw ha t

b u i ld ing , t h e mo sque w i th t h e f i red -b r ick m ih rab u ncove r ed

a ppea r t ob e mou ld -fo rmed b r ick s . T he se b r ick s a r e h a rd , w e l l f i r ed , a nd a re t empe red w i th b o th s and a nd v ege tab le m a ter ia l . When b roken o pen i tc an b e s e en t h a t t h e b r ick s a r e b lack i n t h e c ent re , p robab ly a s ar e su l t o f i n comp le te f i r ing ( f ired -b r ick t e chno logy a nd i t so r ig in sa r ed i scu ssed i n

b y Mauny , a nd t h e n ume rou s o the r r emnan t s o f f i red -b r ick w a l l v i s ib le f o r a t l e a s t 1 00m e a ch w ay a round t h e 1 993 e xcava t ion t r ench , r ep r e sen t t h e n uc leus o f t h e m ed ieva l t r ad ing c en tre a nd r oya l c ap i ta l o f G ao A nc ien . T he

d e ta i l i n C hap te r 4 , s e c t ion 4 .3b i i i ) . T he b r i ck s u sed w e r e u n iform i n s i ze . Comp le te e xamp l es w h ich w e re m ea su red

p o s s ib le p a lace , c ou ld b e a n a t temp t a t emu la t ing t h e c l us te r ing o fs uch b u i ld ings f ound i nt h e c en tre s o ft owns i n N or th A f r ica a nd e l sewhe re i n t h e I s lam ic wo r ld , a nd

c oncen t ra t ion o f p ub l ic b u i ld ing s , t h e l a rge mo sque a nd

i ns i tu o n t h ec o lumn b a se ,a nd wh ich w e r ep i cked o u to ft h e r ubb le r emoved f r om t h e p er iod 1d epo s i t s , r anged i n s i ze f r om 2 1 .5cm l eng th x 2 1cm w id th x 6 cm d ep th t o2 6 cm

d i scu s sed i nC hap te r4 ,s e c t ion 4 . 2b i .

l e ng th x 2 5cm w id th x 7 cm d ep th . T he mo s t c ommon ly f ound b r ick s i ze u sed b o th i nt h e f l oo ra nd t h e c o lumn b a se

3 . 3c iv ) P er iod 3 :

m ea su r ed 2 5cm i nl e ng th x2 5cm i nw id th x7 cm i nd ep th . L igh t g r ey b rown d epo s i t s c on ta in ing b anco s im i la r t o t ha t f ound a t t h e b o t tom o f P er iod 1 c on t inued u ndernea th t h e P e r iod 2s t reaked s and l a ye r ( 2 1 ,22 ) . C on tempo ra ry w i th t h e b anco d epo s i t b u t a t as l igh t ly d e epe r d ep th w a s f ound a d i f f e ren ta nd s ha l lowe rl a ye ro ff i ne rl i gh t g r ey b rown s andy ma te r ia l w h ich c on ta ined l e s s b anco ( F igu re 3 . 4 ) . E xcava t ion w a s c oncen tr a ted w i th in t h e e a s te rn h a lf o f t h e t r ench , a s c on t inu ing e xcava t ion i n t h e w es te rn s i de o f t h e

I th a s a l r eady b een d e s cr ibed h ow t wo t y pe s o f f i red -b r ick w e re u sed i n t he G ao r eg ion , t h e s ma l le r t y p e f ound i n P e r iod 1w a l l Ea nd t h et y pe f ound i nt h eP e r iod 2f l oo r a nd c o lumn b a se ( Chap te r 2 ,s e c t ions 2 . 7 a nd 2 . 8 a nd A ppend ix 8 ) . T he f l oo r w as c ons t r uc ted o u t o ft h e l a rge r b r ick s , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f f i ve l a rge b r ick s l ab s ( F igu re 3 . 5 ) , w h ich w e re j u s t o ve r f ou r t ime s t h e s i ze o f t h e n o rma l b r ick a t a pp rox ima te ly 5 5-60cm l o ng x5 5 -60cm w ide x6 -7cm d eep

t r ench w ou ld h ave i n vo lved d e s t roy ing t h e f i red b r ick f l oo r . H oweve r , t h e r emova l o f t h e f ou r l a rge f l oor ing s l ab s r e f e r red t o a bove s howed t ha t t h e f i ne r l i gh t g rey b rown

a nd w e ighed 2 5 -30kg e a ch . T he f ou rf i red -b r ick s l ab s a tt h e n o r the rn e nd o f t he f l oo r w e re r emoved t o e nab le t h e u nderf loo rf i l l ing t ob e e xam ined ( The se w e re l a te rr e p laced i nt he i r o r ig ina l p o s i t ion s ) . I tw a s f ound t h a t t h e f l oo r w a s l a id d i r ec t ly o n to t he P er iod 3d epo s i t s b e low . T he f l oo r h ad s ub s ided s l igh t ly a s i ts l oped d own t o t h e s ou th , w i th t h e r e cons t ruc ted f l oo r t o s u r fa ce h e igh t s b e ing 3 6cm i n t h e n or th a nd 5 4cm i n t h e s ou th . No t r a ce o f mo r ta r w a s f ound

s andy d epo s i tc on t inued u ndernea th t h ef l oo r( 23 ) . T he d eep e r ( 2 1 ,22 ) d epo s i t w ou ld a ppea r t ob e r ubb le f r om a b anco s t ruc tu re w h ich w a s p resen t p r io r t o t h e c ons t ruc t ion o ft h e f i red -b r ick b u i ld ing . T h is w a s d es t royed t om ake w ay f o r t h e n ew b u i ld ing a nd t h e r ubb le l e veled . S uppo r t ing e v idence f o r t h e p re sence o f aP er iod 3s t ruc tu re w a s f ound t owa rd s t h e b a se o ft h e d epo s i t ( 21 ,22 ) , w he re a h a rd p udd led mud f l oo ro fg r ey c l ay o fb e tween 3 -5cm d ep th

b e tween t h e b r ick s i n t h e f l oo r , a nd w ou ld n o t h ave b een n eeded a s t h e i nd iv idua l f l oo r b r ick s f i t ted p e r f ec t ly t o ge the r . Whe re g ap s b e tween t h e f l oo r ing b r ick s e x is ted , t h ey h ad b een f i led i nw i th s ma l lp i ece s o ff i red -b r ick .

w a se ncoun te red ( F igu r e 3 . 4 ) . F u r the r

T he e xac td imens ions o ft h e f l oo ra r ed i ff i cu l tt or e con s truc t , a st he c omp le te f l oo rh a s n o t y e tb een u ncove red . P a r t o ft h e f l oo r h ad a l so b een r emoved , s ome b r ick s w e re t a ken w hen t h e P e r iod 1r obbe r t r ench w a s d ug a nd i ta l so s e em s l i ke ly t h a t ac oup le o f r ows o f b r ick s w e re r emoved f r om t h e e a s tern s i de o ft he f l oo r , w he re i ts hou ld h ave r un u p t ot h e f i r s t p ha s e w a l l B . Ac u t t ing made i nt h e s ou thern f a ce o f t h e t r ench s howed t h a t t h e f l oo r c on t inued o u t i n t h i s

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n or thea s ter nc o rne ro ft h e t r ench w he re t h e r ema ins o f wha t a ppea r s t oh ave b een af a l len d oo r w e re f ound . N o t r ace o f t h e a c tua l w ood h ad s u rv ived , i n s tead t h e p re sence o f t h e d oo r w a s i nd ica ted b y a n a pp rox ima te ly r e c tangu la r r i ch b rown d epo s i t f l ecked w i th y e l low , w h ich w a s i nc on tra s t t o t h e s u r round ing f i ne l i gh t g r ey b rown s andy ma te r ia l . T he d a rke r b rown d epo s i t c ove red a n a r ea o f a pp rox ima te ly 2 . 25m x 7 5cm . S eve ra l i t ems o f w ha t w e re p o s s ib ly d oo r f i t t ing s w e re f ound i nt h i s s ame a r ea , a nd i n c luded ac oppe r

d i rec t ion ,a nd i tw i l lb ef u r the ru ncove red i nt h ef u tu r e .

c a tch , s eve ra l c o r roded i r on n a i ls a nd s t ud s , a nd t h e

N o t r a ce o f f ounda t ion s w e re f ound u nder nea th t h e f i red b r ick c o lumn b ase . T he c o lumn b a se w h ich m ea su red 1 . 8m

f r agmen t s o f al o ck . I ft h i s w a s ad oo r , i ti sp o ss ib le t ha t i t w a s f i xed t o t h e P e r iod 3 b anco b u i ld ing o r t o a no the r

l ong x6 0 cm h igh x 7 0cm w ide h ad b een b u i l t d i r ec t ly o n to t h e e a r l ie r s u r face , w h ich mu s t h ave b een l e veled o fp r io r t o c on s tr uc t ion . T he mud w h ich h ad b e en u sed a s mo r ta r h ad l a rge ly d i sappea red .

s t r uc tu re n o ty e tl o ca ted . A 2 -3cm t h ick p i ece o f aw h i te p l a s ter f l oo r w a s f ound

3 9

s ea led b e low t h e d oo r ( 25 ) , a nd p re se rved b e low t h e b au lk

s i nk a l m xl m t e s tp i t t oa s se s s t h e d ep th o ft h e r ema in ing

w h ich c on ta ined w a l l Ei n i t s u ppe r c ou r ses . I ti sn o t c l ea r

d epo s i t s ( t h i s w a s l a te r e xpanded ) . T he t e s t p i t w a s p l aced b e tween t h e 3 m a nd 4m p o in t s o n t h e e a s ter n w a l l o f t h e t r ench ( F igu re 3 . 5 ) . T he t o p 3 0cm o ft h e d epos i t s c on ta ined b anco ( 27 ,28 ) , a nd a t a3 0cm d ep th t h e o u t l ine o f ap i t w a s t r aced w h ich c u t i n to t h e P e r iod 5 d epo s i t s t o am ax imum d ep th o f 1 60 cm b e low t h e s u rface l e ve l . I n s ide t h i s p i t a pp rox ima te ly 5 3 h ippopo tamus t u sk s w e re f ound . T he u se o f t h e t e rm t u sk s i s c o r re c t , t hough t e chn ica l ly t h e f i nd

w he the r i t wa s c onnec ted w i th t h e p udd led mud f l oo r o r w he the r i ti nd ica tes t ha t a no the r P er iod 3 s t ruc tu re w a s s i tua ted t ot h en o r th o ft h eb anco b u i ld ing . A t t h e a pp rox ima te d ep th o f t h e p udd led mud f l oo r , t h e p os s ib le d oo r a nd t h e w h i te p la s te r f l oo r ( 60 -7 5cm b e low s u r f ace l e ve l ) , av e ry d ense c oncen t ra t ion o f p o t te ry a nd g la s s , b ronze a nd i r on o b jec t s a nd b ead s w a s f ound ( F igu r e o f t h e P e r iod 3 b u i ld ing . E v idence f o r t h e c on t inua t ion o f t h is r i ch l a ye r u ndernea th t h e f i red b r ick f l oo r wa sp rov ided

c on s i s ted o f h i ppopo tamus i n c iso r s a nd c an ine s . T he f ul n umb e r w i l l n o t b e k nown u n t i l c on se r va t ion i sc omp le te . ( F igu re 3 .6 a nd P la te 3 . 2 ) . T he d i f fe r ence i nt he f i l li nw h ich t h e t u sks w e r e f ound a nd t h e s ur round ing d epo s i t w a s q u i te

b y t h e r e cove ry o f as he rd o f 1 th c en tu ry AD C uerda S eca

d i s t inc t . T he p re sence u nde rnea th t h et u sks o ft wo s u rv iv ing

w a re ( d ry c o rd w a re , s e e C hap te r 5 , s e c t ion 5 . 5a i ) a nd s eve ra l f r agmen t s o f c oppe r f r om a b e low -f loo r t e s t -p i t ( 23 ,24 ) .T he l a ye rw a s i n te r rup ted o n t h e w e s te rn s i de o ft h e s i te b y t h e P e r iod 1r obbe r t r ench , w h ich h ad c u t t h rough a nd d es t royed a l l t h ed epo s i t s .

s l ive r so fw ood ,o ne 8 cm l o ng a nd t h e o t he r6 cm l o ng w h ich h ad o nce f o rmed p a r t o f ab eam o r p l ank , a nd ad a rk b rown o rgan ica l ly r i ch l i nea r d epo s i t w h ich w a s f ound i n v e ry l o ca l i sed c on tex ts s ugge s t s t h a t t he t u sk s w e re o nce p l aced u pon w ood en b eams w i th in t h e p i t ( a ccu ra te ly r e cons t ruc t ing t h e d imen s ion s o ft he se b eams i si mpo s s ib le ) . T he k n if e a nd t h e r ed -s l ipped p o t te ry j a r o r b o t t le n e ck

3 . 4 ) ( 2 1 -2 4 ) . T h i s l a ye r w a s a s so c ia ted w i th t h e o ccupa t ion

T h i s l a ye r ( 2 1 -24 ) c on ta ined a d en se c oncen t ra t ion o f i mpo r ted ma te r ia l a nd i s i mpo r tan t f o r s eve ra l r ea son s . F i r s t ly , n ea r ly a l l t h e e v idence i nd ica t ing t h e e x terna l c on tac t s o f G ao c ome s f r om t h i s 5 cm d eep d epo s i t .

w h ich c an b e s e en i n p la te 3 . 2 h a s n o s i gn if icance , t h e se i t ems h ad m e re ly b een i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h ep i tf i l ing .

S econd ly , t h e ma ter ia l o r ig ina te s f r om a w ide r ange o f s ou r ces , a nd t h i rd ly , t h e a s semb lage h a s p rov ided a s e cu re

T he d epo s i t so fb anco ( 2 7 ,28 ) a nd b anco ,b one a nd c ha r coa l

d a te f o rP e r iod 3( s ee s e c t ion 3 . 3d ) .

t u sk s w e re r emoved . T he o n ly l a rge p i e ce s o f s l ag w h ich w e r e f ound d ur ing t h e e xcava t ions c ame f r om t h e b o t tom o f t h e P e r iod 4 d epo s i t s ( 1 .5kg a pp rox ) . T he e nd o fP e r iod 4 w a s i nd ica ted b y t h e d i s cove ry o f af r e sh l a ye r o f s t r eaked s and a nd p ebb le s ( 29 ,31 ) , w h ich w a s i d en t ica l t o t h e ma te r ia l i n to w h ich t h e p i t c on ta in ing t h e t u sk s h ad b e en

( 30 ) s u r round ing t h e p i t w h ich c on ta ined t h e h ippopo tamu s

T he p re sence o f t h e i mpor ted ma ter ia l i lus t ra tes t h a t , s ho r t ly b efo r e t h e f i red b r ick b u i ld ing w a s c on s truc ted , t h e o ccupan t so ft h eP e r iod 3s t ruc tu re w e re a c t ive ly i n vo lved i n t r an s -Saha ran t r ade . T he d en s i ty o ft h e ma te r ia l a nd t h e f a c t t ha t t h e ma jo r i ty o f t h e a s semb lage i s o f g ood q ua l i ty s ugge s t s t ha t t h e p eop le r e ce iv ing t h e i mpor ted i t ems h ad v e ry d eve loped t a s te s . I ti sp o s s ib le t ha t t h e s ame p eop le w e re i n vo lved i nt h e c ons truc t ion o ft h e P e r iod 2f i red -b r ick

d ug .T h is s t r eaked s and d epo s i t wa sP e r iod 5i nd a t e .

b u i ld ing d u r ing t h e 1 2 th o re a r ly 1 3 th c en tur ie s AD .

i nhab i tan t s a ppea r t o h ave b een l i ke t h o se o f P e r iod 3 ,

3 . 3cv )P er iod 4 :

i n vo lved i n t r ade , a s t h e c ache o f h i ppopo tamu s t u sk s p o s s ib ly r ep r esen t s ac ons ignmen t o f i v o ry d e s t ined f o r

I tw ou ld a pp ea r t ha t t h e s i te w a s o ccup ied i n P e r iod 4 a nd t ha t t h e r ubb le w a s t h e r ema ins o fP e r iod 4 s t ruc tu r e s . T he

N or th A f r ica . T he i n te rpre ta t ion t ha t t h e t u sk s w e r e t r ade i t ems w i l lb ed i scus sed f u r the ri nC hap te r5 ,s e c t ion 5 . 6b .

T he P e r iod 4 d epo s i t s w e re u ncove red u nde r t h e p udd led mud f l oo ra nd a tt h eb a se o ft h e f i ne l i gh t g r ey b rown s andy s ed imen t . Ab anco f i l led l a ye r s im i la r t ot h e o ne a bove t h e p udd led mud f l oo r w a s e ncoun te red u nde rnea th t h e f l oo r i n

T he e nd o ft h e P er iod 4 s t ruc tu res may w e l l h ave c ome w i th

t h e s ou thea s t o f t h e t r ench , a nd a d ense 6 cm d eep l a ye r o f b one , c ha rcoa l a nd b anco w a s f ound b e low t h e P er iod 3 s andy s ed imen t ( 26 ) . T he b anco f i l led d epo s i t c on t inued d own t o ad ep th o f 1 20cm b e low s u r fa ce l e ve l w h i ls t t h e d en se l a ye ro fb anco , c ha rcoa l a nd b one g ave w ay t o al a ye r w h ich s t il c on ta ined t h e se m a te r ia l s b u t i nl e s se r q uan t i t ie s ( F igu re 3 . 4 ) .

s ome v io lence , p o s s ib ly i n vo lv ing a f i re , a s a d en se c oncen t ra t ion o fc ha r coa l -f i l le d d eb r i s w a s f ound a tt h e t o p o ft h ed epos i t sd a t ing f r om t h is p er iod .

3 . 3cv i ) P er iod 5 : T he t o p 2 0 -50 cm o ft h eP er iod 5d epo s i t s w a sc ompo sed o fa l a ye r o fh o r izon ta l ly b edded s t reaked s and c on ta in ing af a i r a moun t o f p ebb le s ( 29 ,31) . T he l owe s t l a ye r r emoved ( 32 ) d i f f e red s l igh t ly i ni t sc ompo s i t ion , w h ich w a s am ix o fb o th y elow s and a nd c l ay ,b u tw ou ld a ppea rt oh ave b een n a tu ra l i n o r ig in . E xcava t ion w a s f i n ished a t ad ep th o f 1 . 85m

As ha l low r ubb i sh p i t w a s f ound i n t h e n o r thea s te rn c o rne r o ft h et r ench .T h is p i t wa s f u l lo ff a una l m a te r ia l a nd p o t te ry a nd w as n o t iceab le d ue t oi t s d a rke r b rown f i l l . T he p i t w a s p a r t ia l ly s ea led b y t h e P er iod 3 w h i te p la s te r f l oo r a nd c on t inued d own i n to t h e P e r iod 5 d epo s i t s t o ad ep th o f 1 0 cm ( 26R ) . T h is r e fuse p i t w a s p robab ly a s soc ia ted w i th a P e r iod 4s t ruc tu re .

b e low t h e p r e sen t -day l a nd s u r fa ce ( F igu re 3 . 4 ) . S he rd s o f l o ca l ly made p o t te ry a nd a f ew o the r a r t i fac t s , o ne s he rd o f g l a s s , f ou r b ead s , t wo s c rap s o f c oppe r a nd s ome f a una l m a te r ia l , c on t inued t ob e f ound i n t h i s d epo s i t . T he q uan t i ty

A t ad ep th o f 2 0cm b e low t h e s u r f ace o f t h e P e r iod 4

o fm a ter ia l r e cove red f r om t h e l owe s t P e r iod 5 d epo s i t s w a s much r educed i nq uan t i ty , a nd o n ly t h e o cca s iona l s he rd o f

d epo s i t s i tw a s d e c ided t o h a l t l a rge s ca le d i gg ing a nd t o 4 0

l o ca l p o t te ry w a s f ound , a l ong w i th s ome c ha r coa l . N o

e s tabl i shed a tt h e 1 5 th -16 th c en tu r ie s AD . T hough f u r the r i n ve s t iga t ion i sn e eded t of i rm ly e s tab l i sh w hen G ao A nc ien w a sf i naly a bandoned .

s t ruc tu ra l e v idence , s uch a s b u i ld ing r ubb le o r s t ake o rp o s t h o l es w e re f ound i nt he P e r iod 5d epos i t s . O n t h e b a s i s o f t h e e v idence a va i lab le , i tc an b e p ropo sed t h a t o ccupa t ion o f t h is a r ea o f G ao A nc ien t o ok p l ace i n

T he p ropo sed d a t e r a nge f o r t h e G ao A nc ien l o ca l p o t te ry

p e r iod 5 ,b u t t h a t a ny a s soc ia ted s t r uc tu re s w e re n o t i n t h e e xcava ted a r ea . T he a ppa ren t n a tu ra l o r ig in o f t h e l owe s t d epo s i t , s ugge s t s t ha t n o o ccupa t ion p re -da te s t h e 6 th /7 th c en tu r ie s AD , i n t h i s a r ea o f G ao A nc ien . F ur the r

a g reemen t w i th s im i la r a s semb lage s o f l o ca l p o t te ry r e cove red f r om e l sewhe re o n t h e N ige r B end . D is t inc t s im i la r i t ie s c an b e s e en b e twe en t h e G ao m a ter ia l a nd t h e p o t te ry c olec ted f r om t h e s u r f a ce b y R . a nd S . Mc In to sh d ur ing t h e i r s u rvey o f t h e G ourma -Rha rou s a nd T imbuk tu

a s semb lage , t h e 6 t h /7 th - 1 5 th / 16 th c en tu r ies AD i s i n

e xcava t ion i n a d jo in ing a r ea s w i l l h e lp i n c l a r i fy ing t h i s p o in t .

a r ea s . T hese s im i la r i t ie s , w h ich w e re f i r s t n o t iced a nd c ommen ted o n d ur ing t h e e xam ina t ion o ft h e s u r f ace s he rd s c olec ted d ur ing t h e J anuary 1 993 G ao s u rvey ( I n sol 1 993 ) , i n c lude ah i gh p e rcen tage o fb ody s he rd s w i th r ed s l ip a st h e

3 . 3 c 1 )T he D a t ing o ft he G ao Anc ien S equence : T he d a t ing o f t h e G ao A nc ien s equence r e s t s u pon t h ree f a c to r s . F i r s t ly , t h e p re sence i n t h e P e r iod 3 d epo s i t s ( 2 1 2 4 )o fa na s semb lage o fi mpor ted p o t te ry a nd g l a s so fk nown d a te w h ich s ea led a na s semb lage o fl o ca l ly p roduced p o t te ry , i n c lud ing r ed s l ipped , c hanne l led , g eomet r ic d e co ra ted , b l a ck b u rn i shed g eome t r ic d e co ra ted , b rown b u rn i shed , b l ack b urn i shed , c o rd - a nd t w ine -de co ra ted , a nd p a in ted w a re s . Ab road ly s im i la rr ange o ft h e se w a r es w e re p re sen t

s o le d e co ra t ive t r ea tmen t , a nd t h e p re sence o f b o th c omb i mp res sed b l ack b u rn i shed w a re s , a nd c hanne l led w a re s w h ich a r e f ound a tt h e G ou rma -Rha rou s s i t e s b u t n o t a tt h e T imbuk tu s i te s ( R . a nd S . Mc In to sh 1 984 , 1 986 ) . R ed s l ipped b o t t le n e ck s o f as im i la r t y p e t o t h e o ne s f r om t h e e xcava t ions i nG ao w e re a l so f ound a tt h e G ou rma -Rha rou s s i tes ( s e e A ppend ix 7 ) . T he G ou rma -Rha rous ma te r ia l w a s i n i t ia l ly d a ted t o b e tween AD 5 00 -1500 b y R . a nd S . Mc In to sh ( 1984 :35 ) , a nd t h en f u r the rn a r rowed d own t o AD 9 00 -1200 o n t h e b a s is o f s im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h e N ige r B end c hanne l led a nd p a in ted w a re s a nd t h o se f r om f u r the r u p r i ve r . T he i r p ropo sed b roade r d a t e r ange c an b e s e en t o b es uppo r ted b y t h eG ao A nc ien e v idence .

i n P er iod s 4a nd 5 . A l though t h e re w a s a n a b sence o f d a tab le ma ter ia li nt he d i s tu rbed l a ye r s a bove t h e f i red -b r i ck b u i ld ing , t h e s t ra t ig raphy s ugge s t s t h a t t h is b u i ld ing w a s c onnec ted w i th t h eo ccupan t so fP e r iod 3 . T h i s a s semb lage o fi mpo r ted ma ter ia l , w h ich p redom inan t ly c ame f r om l a ye r s2 1-24 ; 3 4 s he rd s o fg l azed p o t t e r y a nd 1 47 f r agmen t s o fg l a s s d a ted t ot h e 1t ha nd 1 2 th c en tu r ie s AD , t h ough ac oup le o fs he rd so fp ink a nd l u st re g la ss o fp o s s ib le 1 0 th c en tu ry AD d a te a r e a l so p r esen t ( The c omp le te a s semb lage i sd i scussed i nC hap te r5 ,s e c t ion 5 . 5a i ) .

3 . 4 ) E xcava t ion sa tG ao -Saney , O c tober 1 993 : 3 . 4a )T he E xcava t ion :

T he s e cond f a c to r i n t h e d a t ing s equence a r e t h ree C 14 d a t e s : O ne f r om ac ha r coa l s amp le o b ta ined f r om aP e r iod 3 c on tex t ( 2 1) , o f 160 + / - 7 5 b p o r AD 7 84 -981 C a l a t 1 S i gma ( GX -21656 ) . O ne f r om a P e r iod 4 c on tex t ( 28 ) , o b ta ined f r om a s amp le t aken f r om o ne o f t h e s l ive r s o f w ood w h ich o nce f o rmed p a r t o f t h e b eam s p l aced u nder nea th t h e c ache o f h ippopo tamu s i vo ry . T h is d a t e , 105 + / - 1 65 b p o r AD 7 27 -1153 C a l a t 1S igma ( GX 2 0623 ) , i si n a cco rd w i th a f r agmen t o f p ink g l a ss d a t ing f r om t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD a l so r e cove red f r om a P e r iod 4 c on tex t a bove t h e c ache ( 26 ) . T he t h i rd d a te w a s o b ta ined f r om c ha r coa l r e cove red f r om t h e b a sa l P er iod 5 l e ve l ( 32 ) , 1 430 + / - 9 0b po r AD 5 52 -672 C a l a t 1S igma ( GX -21657 ) , b a sed u pon t h i s d a te t h e l owe r e nd o f t h e G ao A nc ien s e quence c an b e p rov is iona l ly d a ted t ot h e 6 th /7 th c en tu r ie s AD .

Ab r ief e xcava t ion w a s c onduc ted a tG ao -Saney b e tween t h e 1 4 th a nd 2 0 th o fO c tobe r 1 993 , w i th t h e a im o fd i scove r ing i t s n a tu re , r e la t ing i t s s equence t o G ao A nc ien a nd a s ce r ta in ing w he the r G ao -Saney w a s i n f a c t t h e s i te o f S a rna t , t h e t r ad ing h a lf o ft h e d ua l -c i ty o fG ao d e scr ibed b y A l - Muha l lab i ( wr i t ing b e twe en AD 9 76 -996 ) , a s t h e c i ty o n w h ich c a ravans c onve rged f r om a l l d i r ec t ions ( Lev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :174 ; F l igh t U nda ted b : 1 ) . A 4m 2 a r ea w a s e xcava t ed a tt h e n o r thwe s tern e nd o ft h e t e l l a tG ao -Saney , o ppo s i te t h e c eme te ry ( F igu re 2 . 6 ) . T he c ho ice o fe xcava t ion a r ea w a s d i c ta ted b y t h e f a c t t h a t 8 0% o f t h e t e l l h a s b een d e s t royed b y l oo te r s ( I nso l l 1 993b ) . T he e xcava t ions w e r e d i rec ted b yt h ea u tho r ,a s s i s ted b yD r -H reba T ogo la , N a fogo C ou l iba ly a nd E lmo c ta rT oure . 3 . 4b ) T he E xcava t ion R esu l t s :

p o t t e ry a nd t o bacco p ipe f r agmen t s . T he p ipes c anno t b e e a r l ie r t h an AD 1 591 , t h e d a te o ft h e i r i n t roduc t ion t o We s t A f r ica ( S . a nd R . Mc In to sh 1 984 :27 ) . T he mode rn ma te r ia l t h a t w a s f ound w a s r e s t r ic ted t o t h e P e r iod 1d epo s i t s , b u t o t herw i se t h e a s semb lage o f l o ca l p o t t e ry w a s b road ly

A t h i rd f a c to r w a s t h e a b sence o f r e cogn i sab ly mode rn

T he e xcava t ion s amp led w ha t p roved t o b e a n e x ten s ive m idden p rov is iona l ly d a ted t o t h e 1 0 th -13 th c en tu r ie s AD , w h ich c over ed t h e w ho le o f t h e n o r thwes te rn a r ea o f t h e mound . T he s o le d epo s i t e ncoun te red w a s af i ne g r ey a sh c on ta in ing l a rge a moun t s o f p o t t e ry a nd f auna l ma te r ia l . Many o f t h e p o t s he rd s r e cove red s howed s i gns o f h av ing

c ompa rab le w i th t ha t f r om t h e o the r p e r iod s . H ence t h e u ppe rl im i to ft h e G ao A nc ien s equence c an b ep rov i s ionaly

b een b urn t . T h is d i d n o t a ppea r t oh ave b e en c aused d ur ing n o rma ld omes t ic u sage b u tr a the rt h a tt h e r ubb ish w a sb u rn t ,

4 1

p e rhap s i n s i tu , o r t he a she s c on ta in ing t h e p o t te ry a nd o the r d u rab le a r t ifac t s w e re d umped o n t h e m idden . O n ly o ne i t em o f modern c on tam ina t ion , p a r t o f aF rench m ade w a te rp ump , w a sr e cove red f r om t h e t op o ft h e d epo s i t s . N o d i sce rn ib le c hange i n t h e s t ra t ig raphy w a s n o t iced a nd t h e s ame g r ey a sh c on t inued d own t o ad ep th o f 2 30cm b e low s u r f ace l e ve l a t wh ich p o in t e xcava t ion s w e r e s t opp ed b ecause o ft h e u ns tab le n a ture o ft h e d epo s i t s . I ti sp robab ly f o r t h i s r e a son t ha t t h is a rea o ft h e t e l l r ema ined r e la t ive ly u ns ca thed a nd w a sn o tt ouched b yl oo te r s . N o s t ruc tu ra lr ema ins w e re e ncoun te red a nd i tw ou ld a pp ea r t ha t w e w e re e xcava t ing t h e m idden a r ea o ft h e s e t t lemen t . I ti sp o s s ib le t ha tt h e se m idden d epo s i t s w e re b u i l tu p o ve ra v e ry s ho r t p e r iod o f t ime , p e rhaps a s l i t t le a s o ne c en tu ry ( Togo la , p e r s . c omm . ) . B y w ay o f c ompa r i son , O zanne ( 1962 :123 ) e s t ima ted t ha t 7 . 6m o f m idden d epo s i t s e xcava ted b yT hur s tan S haw ( 1961 ) a tt h e s i te o f D awu i n Ghana t ook b e tween 7 7 a nd 8 1 y ea r s t o b e b u i l t u p . A t p re sen t , t h e p re c i se d a te o f t h e G ao -Saney m idden i sn o t k nown , b u t t h e l o ca l p o t te ry a s semb lage f r om G ao -Saney i s s im i la r t o t h a t f r om G ao A nc ien , t hough i t l a ck s t h e d ive r s i ty o f w a r es f ound a t t h e l a t te r s i te . R ed -s l ipped , c hanne l led , g eome tr ic -deco ra ted ,c o rd - a nd t w ine -de co ra ted , a nd p a in ted w a r es w e re r e cove red s ugges t ing ap rov i s iona l d a te r a nge o f b e tween t h e 1 0 th -13 th c en tu r ies AD f o r t h e G ao -Saney m idden ( Append ix 7 ) .

3 . 5 ) C onc lu s ions : T he 1 993 f i e ld -season p rov ided a b ody o f e v idence t o s upp lemen t t h e e x i s t ing d a ta w h ich h a s a l ready b een d i scu ssed i nC hap te r 2 .F rom t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i t h a s p roved p o s s ib le t ob eg in t or e cons t ruc t t h e s equence o f o c cupa t ion w i th in Gao A nc ien , t h e me r can t i le q ua r te r , a nd i t s r e la t ionsh ip b o th w i th t h e o t he r q ua r te r s o fG ao , a nd t h e n e ighbou r ing s i te c omp lexe s o fG ao -Saney a nd K o ima . I ti s n ow a pp rop r ia te t o e va lua te t h e s e t t lemen t s t r uc tu re i n g rea te r d e ta i l , a nd more i mpo r tan t ly , t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o rt h ei mpac to fI s lam .

4 2

i n t h e o the r m a jo r t r ad ing e nt repö t s o f t h e Wes te rn S ahe l , s u ch a sT egdaous ta nd K oumb i S a leh .

Chap ter 4 :T he A rchaeo logy o fI s lam ,U rban i sm , A rch i te cture a nd Bur ia li nt he G ao R eg ion .

4 _ 2b ) I s lam , U rban i sm a nd S e t t lemen tP a t tern s : 4 . 1 ) G enera lI n troduct ion : 4 . 2b i )I s lam a nd U rban i sm : I nt h ep rev ious t wo c hap ter s t h e t y p e so fs e t t lemen tp a t te rns , a r ch i tec tu ra l e v idence a nd f une ra ry d a ta w h ich h ave b een f ound i nt he G ao R eg ion ,b o th b yp r ev ious i nve s t iga to r s a nd t h e a u tho r , w e re d e sc r ibed . A rch i tec tu ra l a nd f une ra ry d a ta

Much o fw ha tJ . S .T r im ingham h a s w r i t ten a bou tt h e h i s to ry o f I s lam i n A f r ica n ow n e ed s r ev i s ion ( 1949 , 1 952 , 1 959 , 1 962 , 1 964 , 1 968 ) , h oweve r h e ( 1968 :3 ,38 ) m ake s t wo

a r e t wo o f t h e ma jo r c a tego r ies o f e v idence w h ich i n d ica te t h e p re sence o f I s lam i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T he i nf luence o f I s lam s hou ld b e n o t iceab le i n b o th c a tego r ie s ,

i mpo r tan t p o in t s ; t ha t t r ade wa s o ff undamen ta l i mpor tance i n t h e t r ansm i s s ion o f I s lam i n Wes t A f r ica , a nd t ha t t h is t r ade w a s l i nked w i th u rban c u l ture , a s t r ad ing r e la t ions

w i th t h e

u l t ima te ly s t emmed f r om t h e c i ty . U rban i sm a nd I s lam w e re c onnec ted , a nd t h roughou t t h e Dar a l I s lam , u rban c en tre s

c hange

t o I s lam ic

b u r ia l p rac t ice s , a nd t h e

a ppea rance o fa n I s lam ized f o rm o fa r ch i te c tu re a nd s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion o fs pace , i n co rpo ra t ing n o t ion s o fp r iva cy , a nd

h ave t a ken o n t h e c ha rac te r o f t h a t r e l ig ion . T o q uo te R edman ( 1986 :46 ) ; " I s lam ic r e l ig iou s i d eo logy p l ayed a p e rva s ive r o le i nt h e l i f e o fi t s a dhe ren t s , s o t ha t c i t ie s t h ey b u i l t o r r enova ted w e re c ons is ten t w i th a s e r ie s o f I s lam ic i d ea l s " . T he se p e r ce ived i d ea l s i n c luded ; d ef in ing t h e h ub o fp ub l ic l i f e i nt h e c i ty w i th t h e c on s t r uc t ion o ft h e ma rke t p l ace a nd F r iday mo sque i n t h e c en t re o f t h e c i ty , a nd

t h e c oncep t o f monumen ta l a r ch i te c tu re . T h i s c hap te r w i l l a s se s s t o w ha t d eg ree t h e v a r ie ty o f t y pe s o f a r ch i tec tu ra l s t y les , c ons truc t ion t e chn ique s a nd m a ter ia ls e ncoun te red , a nd t h e f une ra ry p rac t ice s o fG ao a nd t h e N ige r B end w e r e i nf luenced b y t h e a ppea rance o fI s lam . Wh i l s t a r te fa c tu ra l e v idence i sc ons ide red i nC hap te r s 5a nd 6 .

s imu l taneous ly d e -empha s iz ing t h e c en tra l i ty o f t h e r e s iden t ia l l a you t , t h e r eby r e f lec t ing l o ya l ty t o t h e f am i ly g roup a nd t h e p r iva cy o f d ome s t ic l i f e ( I b id :46 -7 ; V on G r unebaum 1 955 ) . I s lam ic t e ach ings r ega rd ing c ommuna l F r iday p raye r ( a f i xed mo sque ) , p i lgr image ( t o t h e u rban c en t re o f Mecca ) , a nd t r ade ( c onduc ted i nu rban c en t re s ) ,a l l f u r the r p romo ted u rban i sm ( Beg 1 986 :227 -8 ) , a nd

4 . 2 )U rban a nd o ther S e t t lemen t s .P a t tern ing : 4 . 2a ) The o r ig ins o f U rban i sm i n t he Midd l e N iger R eg ion :

c on t r ibu ted t o ad i s t inc t ive I s lam ic c ha rac te r .

U rban i sm i nt h e Wes tern S udan h a s b een s hown t op reda te t h e a r r iva l o f Mus l im Nor th A f r ican t r ade r s i n t h e 8 t h a nd 9 th c en tu r ie s AD . E xcava t ions a t t h e s i te o f J enne jeno i lus t ra ted t ha t t h e e a r l ies t s e t t lemen t , as ma l l h am le t o f

T he q ue s t ion c an b e p o sed . T o w ha t e x ten t d o t h e m ed ieva l u rban t r ad ing c en t r es o f t h e We s ter n S ahe l p o s ses s c ha rac te r i s t ics w h ich a l low t h em t ob e d ef ined a se xh ib i t ing a n I s lam ic c ha rac te r? I n t h e t h ree t r ad ing c en t re s f o r w h ich

m ixed a g r icu l tu ra l is t s , w a s f ounded i nt h e 3 rd c en tu ry BC , a nd t ha t t h e s e t t lemen t e xpanded t oi t s max imum s i ze a sa n u rban c ommun i ty b e tween AD 6 00 -800 ( Mc In to sh a nd Mc In to sh 1 980 , 1 984 :90 ) . S im i la r ly , a t t h e s i t e s o f T egdaous t a nd K oumb i S a leh , s e t t lemen t b egan b e fo r e t h e a r r iva l o f N or th A f r ican Mus l im m e r chan t s i n t h e l a te 9 th

ar e a sonab le a moun t o f d e ta i l i s a va i lab le ; T egdaou s t , K oumb i S a leh , a nd E ssuk ( F igu re 4 . 1) , t h e i r p lans i nd ica te

c en tu ry AD ; 2m o fd epo s i t s w e r e f ound b enea th t h e l e ve l s o f t h i s p e r iod , a nd i th a s b e en a r gued ( I b id :90 -91 ) t h a t t h e g ene ra l l a ck o fs t ruc tu re s i nt h e se l e ve l s i sp robab ly mo re a r ef le c t ion o f t h e d i ff icu l ty o f i d en t i fy ing b anco a r ch i tec tu re w i th in i t s s u r round ing ma tr ix , r a ther t han a p o s i t ive p re u rban a t t r ibu t ion .

c l u s t e r s o f r e c tangu la r s t one , b r ick , o r b anco h ouse s , s ome w i th c our tya rd s ( E s suk , K oumb i S a leh , T egdaou s t ) , F r iday mo sque s ( E s suk , K oumb i S a leh , T egdaous t ) , ama rke tp lace , s hop s o r k io sk s ( Koumb i S a leh , T egdaous t ) , a nd c eme te r ie s g rouped a round t h e s e t t lemen t ( Tegdaous t , Koumb i S a leh , E s suk ) , a s w e l l a s ar e a sonab ly r egu la r t own p lan ( Koumb i S a leh , T egdaou s t ,E ssuk ) ( De G i roncou r t 1 920 :337 ; C onnah 1 987 :105 ; R obe r t 1 970b :477 ) . T he e x i s tence o ft h e se f a c to r s i n d ica te s t h a t w i th in t h e We s t ern S ahe l a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h e c u r ren t m i l len ium t h e re e x i s ted s e t t lemen t s w i th n o t iceab le I s lam ic c hara c ter i s t ics .

t h a t t h ey e xh ib i t many o f t h e c ha ra c ter i s t ics o f t h e I s lam ic c i ty o r t own a s i sf ound w i th in t h e w ide r I s lam ic w o r ld :

I tc an b e s een t ha t s im i la r p roce s se s o ccu r red a tG ao , a nd t h a t s e t t lemen t i nt h e c i ty b egan b e fo r e t r an s -Saha ran t r ade . A l though i ts eems c e r ta in t ha tG ao w a so ccup ied p r io rt ot h e s t a r to ft r ans -Saha ran t r ade , t h i s d oe s n o t m ean t h a t t h e c i ty w a s n o t s ub jec ted t o n or thern i nf luence s o n ce t h i s t r ade b egan , a nd t ha t t h e se i n f luence s w e re n o t s i gn if i can t . T he

4 . 2b i i ) S e t t lemen tP a t terns a nd I s lam a t Gao :

a va i lab le a r chaeo log ica l e v idence s ugge s t s t h a t G ao A nc ien , e ven i fi t s f ounda t ion w a s n o t d i rec t ly a tr ibu tab le t o t h e g row th i n t r ans -Saha ran t r ade f r om t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD o nwa rd s , c e r ta in ly g rew a nd t o ok o n i t s I s lam ized c ha rac te r a s ar e su l t o ft h is t r ade . B u t i ts hou ld a l so b e r emembe red

B ecau se e xcava t ion i nG ao h a s n o t b een o n t h e s ame l a rge s ca le a s a t T egdaous t a nd K oumb i S a leh , a nd a s t h e c i ty , u n l ike t h e o the r t h ree s i te s , i ss t i l l o ccup ied , t h e p lan o ft h e c omp le te t own a s i tw a s a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e c u r ren t m i l lenn ium i s n o t r e ad i ly a cces s ib le . Wa l ls a nd o t he r

t h a t t h e i n f luence o fI s lam d ur ing t h is f o rma t ive p e r iod w a s a ppa ren t ly c onf ined t o t h e u rban e nv i ronmen t , w he re i t

s t ruc tu ra l f e a tu r es d o n o t s urv ive a bove g round a nd f u r the rmor e , p a r ts o f G ao A nc ien a nd t h e o the r h ave b een

c on sp i red t ob r ing s i gn if ican t c hanges , n o t o n ly t oG ao , b u t

4 3

E ssuk ( f rom L ho te 1 951 :67 )

T egdaou s t( f rom Manny 1 950c :108 )

o cro . 'Di mes o f t he o ily .. O rob•f olo r oo m , • 1 •o f flool . o folori e r••• lo w t

• foolf f• f o l wide. l oolotoO ‚ slo t s s teno cons eructfon

vvV l eo•ori e I nu p AAA I see l le i ld M OO. . I f lo ff lO

K oumb iS a leh ( f rom C onnah 1 985 :105 )

F i gu r e4 . 1 .T own p l an so fE ssuk ,K oumb iS a leh ,a nd T egdaou s t . 4 4

d e s t royed b y q ua rry ing a nd b u i ld ing w o rk . H oweve r , i ti s s t il p o s s ib le t o s ay t ha t G ao e xh ib i t s c ha rac te r i s t ics o f a n

a si ns o d o ing t h e u rban t r ade c en t re s a r e s een i n i s o la t ion , r emoved f r om t h e i rc on tex t . B ea r ing t h is p o in ti nm ind , i ti s

u rban c en tre i nf luenced b y I s lam , e spe c ia l ly d u r ing t h e l a te 1 2 th -13 th c en tu r ies AD . AF r iday mo sque a nd o t he r f i red b r ick b u i ld ing s a r e c l u s te red i n t h e c en t re o f G ao A nc ien , r e c tangu la r h ou se p lans w e re u sed , a nd G ao A nc ien i s r i nged b y Mu s l im c eme te r ie s . T he c e l l -shaped s t ruc tu re s r e co rded b y Mauny ( 1950 ) , a nd s ub sequen t ly s t ud ied b y t h e a u tho r , a r e p o s s ib ly r ema ins o f s hop s o r s t a l l s , s im i la r t o t h o se u ncove red i n Koumb i S a leh (Mauny 1 961 :470 ) .

n ece s sa ry i n a t temp t ing t or e cons t ruc t t h e i mpac t o f I s lam

I t mus t a l so b e n o ted t ha t t h e u rban t r ad ing c en tre s , i n c lud ing G ao , w e re v e ry much i mp lan t s w i th in t h e l a ndscape ,a nd t h a ta r chaeo log ica le v idence f o r t h e p re sence

C hap te r 3 , a nd b a sed u pon t h i s e v idence a n i n te rp re ta t ion c an b e p ropo sed r e ga rd ing t h e s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re a tG ao , t h e d eg ree o f I s lam i c p ene t ra t ion , a nd t h e r e spec t ive f u nc t ions o fG ao A nc ien a nd G ao -Saney .

a nd t h e i r Mus l im i nhab i tan ts w e re r e ga rded a s o u t o f t h e o rd ina ry , a nd s ome th ing t ob e w a ry o f , i si lus t ra ted b y t h e r e pea ted m en t ions i n t h e A rab ic h i s to r ica l s ou r ce s t o t h e e x i s tence o f d ua l s e t t lemen t s , o ne u sua l ly i n hab i ted b y Mu s l im m e r chan t s , a nd t h e o t he r b y al o ca l r u le r a nd h i s

G ao -Saney : T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence s ugge s t s t h a t G ao -Saney w a s n o t s o le ly a N or th A f r ican I s lam ic B e rbe r , a nd o r , A rab s e t t lemen t . F i r s t ly , t h e s t ruc tu ra l e v idence n eed s e xam in ing . T he g ene ra l a b sence o f r e cogn i sab le

c ou rt A t G ao , A l - Muha l lab i ( d .AD 9 90 ) r e co rded t h a t t h e k ing o f K uku ( Kawkaw = G ao ) ; "h a s at own o n t h e N i le ( N ige r ) , o n t h e e a s te rn b ank , w h ich i sc a l led S a rnah , w he re t h e re a r e m a rke t sa nd t r ad ing h ouses a nd t ow h ich t h e re i sc on t inuou s t r a ff i c f r om a l lp a r ts . H e h a s a no the r t own t ot h e w e s t o ft h e N i le w he re h e a nd h i s m en a nd t h o se w ho h ave h i s c onf idence l i ve . T he re i s amosque t h e re w he re h e p ray s b u t t h e c ommuna l p raye r g round i sb e tween t h e t wo t own s " ( F l igh t U nda ted b :1 ; L ev tz ion a nd H opk ins 1 981 :174 ) . T he e x i s tence o ft w in s e t t lemen t s a tG ao i sa l so r e co rded b y A l B a l ch ( d .AD 1 094 ) , b u t n o t b y A l Id r is i ( w r i t ing i n AD 154 ) . A l -Bak r i a l so r e co rd s t h a t t h e c ap i ta l o fG hana w a s o f t w in

s e t t lemen t s

( Lev t z ion

a nd

T he e x i s tence o f t wo ma jo r s e t t lemen ts i n t h e G ao r e g ion , G ao -Saney a nd G ao A nc ien , i sc o r rec t , a nd t h e c onne c t ion b e tween t h e n ame s o fS a rnah a nd S aney i ss t ra igh t fo rwa rd . I ndeed t h i s c onne c t ion h as b een r e f e r red t o o n s e ve ra l

Mus l im me r chan t s e t t lemen t a nd w h ich t h e r oya l t own , t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence h a s a l ready b e en d es c r ibed i n

T he c en t re se x i s ted a tt h e s uf f e rance o ft h e l o ca l r u le r s , w ho b enef i ted f r om t h e t r ade c onduc ted i nt h em . T hey c anno t b e t e rmed r ep re sen ta t ive o f e i the r t h e i nd igenou s s e t t lemen t s , o r o f t h e a r ch i te c tu re o f t h e We s te rn S ahe l , b e tween t h e 1 0 th -13 th c en tu r ies AD . T he f a c t t ha t t h e se t r ade c en t re s

u p

s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re i n G ao , a s r e co rded b y t h e A rab h i s to r ian sa nd g eographe r s o ft h is p er iod .

o cca s ions ( Hunw ick 1 980 :416 , 1 985 :7 ; L ange 1 994 :283 ; L a s t 1 985 :179 ) . A s r ega rd s t h e o the r p o in ts made b y A l Muha l lab i a nd A l -Bak r i , c oncern ing w h ich s i te w a s t h e

o fI s lam o u t s ide o ft h e u rban e nv ironmen t i sl a rge ly a b sen t .

m ade

u pon t h e c i ty o fG ao b e tween t h e 1 0 th -13 th c en tu r ies AD , t o e xam ine h ow a ccu r a te a nd r e levan t a r e t h e d e scr ip t ion s o f

s t ruc tu ra l r ema ins o n t h e t e l l a t G ao -Saney , b o th i n t h e m idden a nd t h e l o o te r s ' p i t s , c an b e e xp la ined b y t h e f a c t t h a t c on s truc t ion w a s i nb anco , w h ich c o l lapsed t of o rm t h e s u cce s s ive l a ye r s o f t h e t e l l . T he u se o f b anco a s a c on s tr uc t ion m a ter ia l , r a ther t h an t h e i mpor t ed t e chno logy o f f i red -b r ick , s ugge s t s ab u i ld ing t r ad i t ion w h ich w a s p e rhap s S ongha io rp ro to -Songha i . H oweve r ,b anco w a sa l so u s ed a s ac on s tr uc t ion ma te r ia l i n v a r iou s a r ea s o f N or th A f r ica , h ence t h i se v idence d oe s n o t e xc lude t h e e x is tence o f aN o r th A f r ican c omponen t a tG ao -Saney . O the r c a tego r ie s o fa r chaeo log ica l e v idence s ugge s t t h a t t h i s c ommun i ty w a s m o r ed i ve r se t h an i su sua l ly a s sumed .

H opk in s

T he a s semb lage o fl o ca l ly m anuf ac tu red p o t tery f r om t h et e l l

1 981 :87 , 13 , 8 0 ) , t h e Mu s l im s e t t lemen t ( i den t if ied w i th K oumb i S a leh ) , a nd A l -Ghaba , t h e , a sy e t u n loca ted , r oya l t own . O the r d ua l s e t t lemen t s e x is ted , t h e p agan D o r oya l t own w a s s epa ra ted f r om t h e Mu s l im c omme r c ia l c en t r e o f Y a re sna b y t h e Uppe r R ive r S enega l ( L ev tz ion 1 973 :188

a t G ao -Saney i s e s sen t ia l ly t h e s ame a s t h a t f r om G ao A nc ien , e xcep t t h a t i tl a ck s t h e d i ve r s i ty o f h i ghe r q ua l i ty w a re t ype s , a nd v es se l s i ze s f ound a t G ao A nc ien ( s ee A pp end ix 7 ) . T he a b sence o f s uch w a re t y pe s a nd v e s se l s s ugge s t s t ha t G ao -Saney h ad d i f f e r en t n eed s , a s d oe s t h e

q uo ted i n A radeon 1 989 :111 ) , a nd F a r ia s ( 1990 :105 ) h a s s ugge s ted t ha t t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween a n u n -named s i te l o ca ted a bou t 1 cm s ou th -we s t o f t h e d une o f E gef -n -

r e cove ry o fo ve r2 0 c u rved c oppe r i n go t s f r om t h e s u r f a ce o f t h e t e l l a nd t h e i r a b sence a t G ao A nc ien . T he se i n go t s a pp ea r t o b e a S udann ic c u r rency i t em , s omewha t r em in is cen t o f t h e man i l la , a nd d o n o t r e semb le a ny c u r r ency i t em u sed i nN or th A f r ica ( s ee C hap te r 6 ,s e c t ion

T awaqqa s t ,a nd t h e v i l lage o fB en t iya , i sa l so r e p re sen ta t ive o ft h e d ua l s e t t lemen tp henomenon , w i th t h e s i te n ea rE ge f n -Tawaqqa s tb e ing t h e Mus l im s e t t lemen t .

t h e A rab ic s ou r ce s a nd i n t r y ing t o ma tch t h e h i s to r ica l d e scr ip t ion s t og eograph ica l l o ca t ions . ( See H unw ick 1 994 ; L ange 1 991 , 1 994 ,f o rt h e a rgumen t so ve rG ao ) . I ti sn o t t h e a im h er e t o e n te r t h e se o f t en h ea ted d eba te s , f o r t h e

6 . 2b i a nd P la te 6 . 1 ) . AN or th A f r ican p opu la t ion , e spec ia l ly am e rcan t i le o ne , m igh t b e e xpe c ted t ol e ave t r a ce s o f t h e c u r r ency t h ey w e r e u sed t o , b u t t h e m a jo r i ty o f s uch e v idence h a s b e en f ound a t G ao A nc ien ( a g o ld d ina r , c oppe r t okens , a nd I s lam ic g l a ss w e igh t s ) , a nd n o t a tG ao S aney , w h i ch , w i th t h e c omp le te a bsence o f c urved c opp e r i n go t s a tG ao A nc ien , s ugge s ts t h a t a l ong s ide t h e Mu sl im

a r chaeo log ica l d a ta d oes n o t o f t en a l low t h e l e ve l s o f p r ec i s ion r equ i red t o a nswe r t h e q ue s t ions r a ised b y t h e

N or th A f r ican A rab a nd B e rb e r m e r chan t c ommun i ty t h e re w a s as ubs tan t ia l i nd igenou sp opu la t ion a tG ao -Saney .

A rab ic h i s to r ica l a ccoun ts . I tc an a l so b e a r gued t h a t t h e a n swe r ing o ft h e se q ue s t ion s s hou ld n o t b e t h e p r imary a im o fa r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch ( Mc In to sh a nd Mc In to sh 1 984 ) ,

T he i nd ica tor s o f a" s oph i s t ica ted , d eve loped " t a s te ( l uxu ry g l a s s , p o t te ry , j ewe l le ry , e t c ) , w h ich w ou ld p e rhap s b e

Much e f fo r th a s b e en e xpended i nd i scu s s ing t h e v a l id i ty o f

4 5

S ongha id e r ived Z uwa o rZ ad yna s ty ( Hunw ick 1 985 , 1 994 ) , o r l e s s p l au s ib ly a Mande d e r ived d ynas ty ( Lange 1 991 ,

e xpec ted t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th N or th A f r ican m e rchan t s , i nd igenou s r oya l ty , o r o the r h igh s t a tu s i nd iv idua l s , h ave b een f ound a tG ao A nc ien . T h i s t ype o f ma te r ia l w a s l a rge ly

1 994 ) . R ega rd le s s o ft h e a rgumen t s o ve rr ega l e t hn ic i ty , t h e s t e lae a r e t e s t imony t ha t ac ommun i ty o f d ive r se o r ig in s

a b sen t f r om G ao -Saney , a nd i tc anno t b e a rgued t h a t i tw a s a l l r emoved b y moder n t r ea su re s e eke r s -t h e f o cu s o ft h e i r

e x i s ted a tG ao -Saney i nt h ee a r ly 2 nd M ilenn ium AD .

a t ten t ions a re b ead s ,a nd n o tb roken s he rd so fp o t a nd g l a ss . N or th A f r ican p o t te ry a nd g la ss i sn o t f ound o n t h e t e l l a t G ao -Saney i nt h eq uan t i t ies i ti sa tG ao A nc ien .

T he i n te rp r e ta t ion o f G ao -Saney a s t h e h ome o f ap o lyg lo t c ommun i ty i nt h e 1 0 th -13 th c en tu r ie s AD c an b e d eve loped f u r the r . I tc an b e s ugge s ted t ha t a round t h e t e l l w i th i t s m ixed i nd igenou s a nd Mu s l im No r th A f r ican B e rbe r /A rab p opu la t ion , t h e n omad s ( p ro to -Tua reg ) p e r iod ica l ly e s tab l i shed t h e i r c amp s ( f o r av a r ie ty o fr e a son s , s oc ia l a nd e conom ic ) . T h i s i n te rp re ta t ion i s l e n t w e igh t e spec ia l ly w hen t h e p o s s ib le p re sence o ft h e n omad S anha jan d yna s ty

T he a b sence o f manufac tu r ing e v idence a tG ao A nc ien a nd i t s p re sence a t G ao -Saney i sa l so s ugge s t ive . F ive s p ind le w ho r ls a nd s eve ra l p i ece s o f c ruc ib le a nd s l ag w e r e r e cove red f r om t h roughou t t h e m idden d epo s i t a t G ao S aney . Manuf ac tu r ing d eb r is ( me ta lwo rk ing , b ead manuf ac tu re e t c ) , w a s l a rge ly a b sen t o n t h e s u r f a ce o f G ao

a tG ao -Saney i sc on s ide red . I bn B a t tu ta r e co rd s t h a t i n t h e m id -14 th c en tu ry AD t h e B e rbe r B a rdama t r ibe l i ved i n

A nc ien b u t a ga in w a s s p read o ve r t h e s u r f a ce o ft h e t e l l a t G ao -Saney . T h i s s ugge s t s c ra f t p roduc t ion a t G ao -Saney , a nd i ti sp robab le t ha t t h e re w a s as ubs tan t ia l i nd igenou s i npu ti n to t h i s i ndu st ry .

t e n t s made o fc o t ton c l o th a nd s t raw m a t s w h ich w e re l a id u pon aw ood en f r ame ( Lev t z ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :301 ) . H e a l so m en t ion st h a tt h ef u r the s t l im i t s t h is t r ibe t r ave l led , w a s t oK awkaw ( Gao ) , w h ich i mp l ies t ha t t e n t s w e re t ob e f o und

T he e v idence a l so s ugge s t s t ha t G ao -Saney f unc t ioned a s a

a round G ao . T he e x i s tence o ft e n t s , a nd i ndeed , n omad s , i s

manufa c tu r ing c en t re p roduc ing b ead s ( t he d i scove ry o f mou ld f r agmen t s u sed f o rb ead p roduc t ion w e r e r epo r ted t o t h e a u tho r , b u t n one w a s a c tua l ly s een ) , c oppe r a nd i r on m e ta lwo rk , a nd p robab ly a v a r ie ty o f o the r p roduc t s i n p e r i shab le a nd n on -pe r ishab le ma ter ia l s . I tw a s l o ca ted a t

o f t en n eg le c ted b y b o th h i s to r ians a nd a r chaeo log i s t s a l ike ( Cr ibb 1 991 ) , b u t a mong t h e n omad ic T ua reg , f o r e xamp le , m a t -and -sk in t e n t s , w h ich w e re p robab ly b ased u pon ma t a nd -sk in s t a t iona ry h u t p ro to types , w e re u n t i l r e cen t ly t h e d om inan t f o rm o f s he l te r ( B i rke t -Sm i th 1 960 ; N ico la isen 1 963 ;

s ome d i s tance f r om G ao t o s e rv ice t h e c a ravan t r ade , a nd p o s s ib ly a l so b ecause f ue ls uppl ie s w i th in t h e v i c in i ty o fG ao

F aeg r e

1 979 ) .

T en t s

a nd o t he r

a r chaeo log ica l ly

e pheme ra ls t ruc tu re s mu s th ave b een u sed i nt h e N ige r B end a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e c u r ren t m i l lenn ium , a nd t e n ted c amp s mu s t h ave b een c ommonp lace a r ound t h e g rea t c i t ie s a nd t r ade c en t re so ft h e We s te rn S ahe l .

c ou ld h ave b een l a rge ly d e s t royed . A no the r p r ima ry l o ca t iona l f a c to rt ha t mus t b e c on s ide red i sd e f ence , t ok eep t h e S ahe l ian B e rbe r /Tua reg a t s ome d i s tance f r om G ao A nc ien . I r oko ( 1973 :77 ) makes t h e p o in t t h a t G ao -Saney f o rms t h e b es t o b se rva t ion p o in t w i th in t h e r eg ion . T he l o ca t ion o f t h e d ef ence s a t t h e s i te o f K o i -Gou rou i sa l so

A s d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 . 3b , t h e s u rvey d a ta

i n fo rma t ive i n t h is r e spe c t , t he r ampa r t w a s s i tua ted o n t h e e a s te rn o rd ese r ts i de ,i lus t ra t ing t h ep e rce ived o rr e a lt h rea t p osed b y t h e n omad s . T he e x is t ing o ra l t r ad i t ions a nd w r i t ten a ccoun t s s ugge s t t ha t c onf l ic t b e tween n omad s a nd

a ppea r s t os how t h a t I s lam iza t ion w a s s t ronge r a mong t h e n omad s , s u ch a s t h e p ro to -Tua reg , t han a mong t h e s eden ta ry p ro to -Songha i . T he e x i s tence o f t h e m any e p ig raph ic t r ad i t ions a nd c ons t ruc t ion t e chn iques w i th in t h e c eme te ry a t G ao -Saney h a s r evea led t h e mu l t ip le I s lam ic

s eden ta r ies w a s ar e cu r r ing t h eme . B a r th ( 1 965 ) w r i t ing much l a te ri nt h e m id -19 th c en tu ry AD , i sv e ry i n fo rma t ive

i nf luence s a nd p ha se s o f I s lam iza t ion w h ich o ccu r red a t G ao , a nd i tw a s p roposed i n C hap te r 2 ,s ec t ion 2 . 7ev t ha t

o n t h e a n tagon ism b e tween t h e n omad ic a nd s ed en ta ry c ommun i t ies w h ich t h en e x is ted , a nd c e r ta in ly t o day t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e T ua reg a nd S ongha i i s ac au t iou s o ne .

s ome o ft h et omb s i nt h e G ao -Saney c eme te ry w e re p l ace s o f p raye r a nd c ommemo ra t ion . T he G ao -Saney c eme t e ry , a t s ome d i s tance f r om t h e t e l l , p o ss ib ly r ef l ec t s t h e f a c t t h a t i t w a s a tt ime s o n ce s u r rounded b y c amp s o fb o th n omad s a nd

I t w ou ld a ppea r t h a t G ao -Saney w a s af o ca l p o in t f o r

m e rchan t s . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h is c eme te ry , o w ing t o i t s p o s i t ion a tt h e b a se o ft h e T i lems i V a l ley a nd t h e ma in G ao

c a ravan s , a r e -supp ly c en t re p e rhap s , w h ich h e lp s i n e xp la in ing t h e c eme te ry , w i th i t s v a r ie ty o f e p ig raph ic t r ad i t ion s . A s men t ioned i nC hap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 . 7ev , F a r ia s ( 1990 :85 ) e s tab l i shed al i nk b e tween an umbe r o ft h e s t e la e i n scr ip t ion s f r om t h e c eme te ry a tG ao -Saney , o ne o fw h ich

t o N or th A f r ica t r ade r ou te , w a s u sed b y a l l t h e I s lam i zed e l emen t s o f t h e c ommun i ty a t G ao -Saney , t h e n omad ic p ro to -Tua reg ( Be rbe r s ) ,a nd b y No r th A f r icans ,a sw e l la sb y

w a s d a ted t o AD 1 088 , a nd t h e t wen t ie th c en tu ry c a ll ig raph ie s o f t h e T ua reg K e l -es -Suk . T he se s t e lae w e r e f ound a l ongs ide o the r s b ear ing l o ca l ly d eve loped s c r ip t s , s c r ip t s f r om Ka i rouan , a nd a c tua l s t e lae i mpor ted f r om

T h is d oe s n o t m ean t h a ta l l t h e No r th A f r ican m e r chan t s o r

I s lam ized S ongha io rp ro to -Songha i .

t h e Mus l im c ommun i ty a t G ao -Saney l i ved i n t e n t s . T he e x is tence o fS t r uc tu re Q ,t h eK ubba t omb ,a tt h e w e s te rn e nd o f t h e t e l l , s ugge s t s t h a t Musl ims a l so l i ved i n t h e t e l l s e t t lemen t , a nd w ou ld h ave made u p a s ub s tan t ia l c omponen t o f t h e p opu la t ion . Wha t t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence d o e s s how i st ha t ad iver se c ommun i ty e x is ted a t

A lme r ia c ommemo ra t ing a l o ca l r oya l d yna s ty ( Dav id son 1 990 :68 ) . Much d eba te h a s c en t red a round t h e e t hn ic i ty o f t h e

i nd iv idua ls

c ommemo ra ted

u pon

s ome

o f

t h e

t omb s tones , w i th t h e 1 2 th c en tu ry AD s t e lae p o s s ib ly b e ing t h o se o f S anha ja B e rbe r s r e la ted t o t h e A lmo rav id s ( Hunw ick 1 980 ) , a nd l a ter o n i n t h e 1 3 th c en tu ry AD , a

4 6

G ao -Saney . T he G ao -Saney c eme te ry a nd S t ruc tu r e Q r ep r e sen t t h e I s lam ic f a ce t o f t h e o ccupa t ion a tt h e s i te a nd o the r , a s y e t u nd is cove red , c eme te r ie s , b o th Mu s l im a nd

n on - Mus l im , mus te x i s tw i th in t h ev i c in i ty . I t wou ld a ppea r t he refo re t ha t G ao -Saney w a s h ome t o a m ercan t i le c ommun i ty , a nd t ha t S a ney c an b e i d en t if ied w i th t h e S a rnah o fA l - Muha l lab i . H oweve r t h i s c ommun i ty w a s ad i ver se o ne , a nd n o t m e r e ly c ompo sed o f Mu sl im N or th A f r ican me rchan ts . On t h e c on tra ry , t h e re a ppea r s t o h ave b een a l ongs ide t he me rchan t s , as ubs tan t ia l i nd igenou s

A na na ly s i so ft h ea s semb lage o fi mpo r ted p o t te ry , g l a ss a nd m e ta lwo rk , i lus t ra tes t h a t t h is ma ter ia l i so f h igh q ua l i ty , a nd n o t t h e u sua l a ve rage e xpo r t q ua l i ty t r ade g ood s f ound , a s o n t h e F a s t A f r ican c oa s t f o r e xamp le ( I nso 1 1 f o r thcom ing ) . T h i s s ugge s ts t ha t s ome m embe r s o f t h e p opu la t ion o f G ao A nc ien w e re o f h igh s t a tu s , r i ch m e r chan t s , o r m embe r s o f n ob le , o r r oya l , f am i l ie s . T r ade , b u t n o t i t s e ems , manufac tur ing , w a s o f e conom ic

p opu lat ion i n t he t e l l s e t t lemen t , w i th n omad ic g roup s

i mpo r tance . T he a b sence o f s l ag , s p ind le w ho r ls , c r uc ib le s ,

p o ss ib ly c amped

t h e

a nd o the r manu f ac tu r ing d ebr i s , i s n o t iceab le , a s i s t h e

c eme te ry a nd S t ruc tu re Q ,t h e re i s ag ene ra l l a ck o fe v idence f o r I s lam a t t h e s i te , wh ich s ugge s t s t ha t s ome o f t h e

p re sence o ft r ade i nd ica to r s , al e ad i ngo t , l a rge q uan t i t ies o f b ead s ,a nd ah oa rd o fh ippopo tamu si vo ry ( s ee C hap te r5 ) .

p opu la t ion o f t h is v e ry l a rge s i te m us t h ave b e en n on Mus l im .

4 . 2b i i i ) S ummary .T he D ua l C i ty o f Gao :

a round .

F ur the rmo re ,

a s ide f r om

N o d i rec t ( i nsc r ip t ion s e t c ) , o r i n d i rec t ( t rade g ood s ) , e v idence h a s y e t b een u ncove red w h ich i nd ica tes t h a t Mu sl ims w e re p r esen t i n t h e c i ty o f G ao b efo r e t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD ,a nd i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t Mus l ims w e re c onf ined t o G ao -Saney d u r ing t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD . H oweve r i t i s u n l ike ly t ha t a Mus l im c ommun i ty e i the r f ounded t h e t e l l

G ao Anden : T he q ue s t ion o fw he the r G ao A nc ien w a s t h e s i te o ft h e r oya l t own w i l l n ow b e e xam ined . T he c ho ice o f G ao A nc ien f o r as e t t lemen t mu s t h ave r e su l ted f r om i t s p rox im i ty t ot h e mee t ing p l ace o f t h e N ige r a nd t h e t r ade r ou te r unn ing n or th -s ou th a l ong t h e T i lems i V a l ley ( F igu re 2 . 5 ) . O ccupa t ion i n G ao A nc ien h a s n ow b een d a ted b a ck t o t h e 6 th /7 th c en tur ies AD , r a the r t han t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD

s e t t lemen t , o r m ade u p a l l t h e p opu la t ion o f t h e t e l l . I ti s a l so p robab le t h a tG ao w a s t h e s i te o ft h e l o ca lr oya l c ap i ta l , a nd t e n ta t ive ly i ti ss ugge s ted t ha t t h e o r ig ina l s e t t lemen t w a s i nG ade id i re c t ly a d jacen tt ot h er i ve r ,b u t w i th ag row th i nl a nd -ba sed i n te r reg iona l t r ade ( t he i mmed ia te p recu r so r o f f u l l t r ans -Saha ran t r ade ) , d i rec ted t o t h e n or th v i a t h e

a s w a s p rev ious ly t hough t ( I nsol 1 996 ) , h ence a l though t r ans -Saha ran t r ade wou ld n o t a ppea r t o h ave o f f e red t h e i mpe tu s f o r o ccupa t ion a way f r om t h e r i ve r a round G ade i ( a nd t h e s e cu r i ty o f f e red b yt h er i ve rw i th i t s n ume rou s i s le t s a nd c reek s ) ,i tc an s t i l l b e s ugge s ted t h a ti n te r reg iona l t r ade w i th t h e r e g ions t o t h e n or th ( Ad ra r d e s I f o ra s e t c . -s e e C hap te r 6 ) , o f f e red t h e i n i t ia l s t imu lu s . F u r the rmo re i ti s n ow a lmo s t c er ta in t ha t G ao A nc ien w a s n o t f ounded b y i n com ing N o r th A f r ican m e rchan t s . T he s im i la r i t ie s i n t h e l o ca l p o t t e ry a s semb lage s f r om G ao A nc ien a nd t h o se f r om e l sewhe re o n t h e N ige r B end , i na r ea s n ow o ccup ied b y t h e S ongha i , s how t ha t G ao A nc ien w a s a n i nd igenou s f ounda t ion ,p robab ly b yt h eS o rko o rp ro to -Songha i . H oweve r i ti sa l so u nden iab le t ha t t h e i n hab i tan t s o f G ao

T i lems i V a l ley a nd p e rhap s a l so e a s t , G ao A nc ien w a s f o unded a s i tw a s i n a mo re c onven ien t l o ca t ion f o r t h i s t r ade . G ao -Saney w ou ld c er ta in ly a ppea r t oh ave b een t h e h ome o f a m e rcan t i le a nd manuf ac tu r ing c ommun i ty , a nd i t i s f e a s ib le t ha t t h i s s i te w a s t h e S a rnah o f A l - Muha l lab i , a nd w a s h ome t o Mu s l im e l i te s ( r oya l ty o rn ob i l i ty ) , i n t h e e a r ly 1 2 th c en tu ry AD , a nd a ga in i n t h e 1 3 th c en tu ry AD . N o d a ted i n sc r ip t ion s a r e f ound a f te r t h e l a te 1 3 th c en tu ry AD i nt h e G ao -Saney c eme te ry w h ich s ugge s t s e i the r t ha t i tw a s

A nc ien w e re i n c reas ing ly i n c on tac t w i th N or th A f r ica , a s

n o l o nge r u sed a f te r t h i s d a te o r b u r ia l c u s toms h ad c hanged .

e v idenced b y t h e i mpor ted i t ems r e cove red , e spec ia l ly f r om P er iod 3 c on tex t s ( s ee C hap te r 5 ) . I ti si n t h i s p e r iod , t h e l th -12 th c en tu r ies AD , t ha t w e c an s t a te t h a t c on tac t s w i th t h e I s lam i c w o r ld w e re w e l l e s tab l i shed , a nd b y i n f e rence t h a t I s lam w a sb eg inn ing t ob ea ccep ted w i th in G ao A nc ien , i fo n ly o n al im i ted s ca le , p e rhaps r e s t r ic ted t o t h e r oya l f am i ly , t h e c ou r t , t he Nor th A f r ican m e r chan t s , a nd t h e i r l o ca lp a r tne r si nt r ade .

I n t h e 1l t h -12 th c en tu r ie s AD t h e re w a s ab oom i n t r ans S aha ran t r ade , a nd e v idence f o r t h is t r ade i sf ound a tb o th G ao A nc ien , a nd i n l e s se r q uan t i t ies a t G ao -Saney . D i rec t a nd i nd i rec t e v idence f o r I s lam i sa l so f ound a tb o th s i te s , a nd i tc anno t b e a rgued t ha t as epa ra t ion o n r e l ig ious g round s w a s ma in ta ined b e tween t h e t wo c ommun i t ie s , c e r ta in ly f r om t h e e a r ly 1 2 th c en tu ry AD ( AD 130 b e ing

I nP er iod 2 ,t h e f i red -b r ick b u i ld ing w a s c on s tr uc ted , w h ich t h e s t ra t ig raphy i nd ica tes w a s l i nked w i th e ven t s i n P e r iod 3 ,a nd w h ich d a tes f r om t h e l a te 1 2 th -13 th c en tu r ie s AD . E lsewher e w i th in t he c en t ra l a r ea o f G ao A nc ien f u r the r

t h e d a te o n o ne o ft h e G o rongobo s t e lae ) , a nd p o ss ib ly f r om t h e 1 th c en tu ry AD , w h ich i st h e d a te o f t h e b u lk o f t h e i mpor ted p o t t e ry a nd g l a ss f r om G ao A nc ien . Musl im f une ra ry i n sc r ip t ions b e come mo re c ommon f r om t h e m id 1 3 th c en tu ry AD o nwa rd s ( Fa r ia s , p e r s . c omm . ) , a nd w i th t h e c on s truct ion o ft h e f i red -b r ick b u i ld ing , a nd t h e mosque

e v idence f o r t h e I s lam iza t ion o f w ha t mu s t h ave b een t h e h i gh s t a tu sg roup w i th in t h e c i ty i si n d ica ted b yt h ep r esence o f t he m o sque i nco rpo ra t ing t h e f i red -b r ick m ih rab , e xcava ted b y R aymond Mauny ( 1951 ) ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 . 5b a nd s e c t ion 4 .3c iü ) . T he p re sence o f t h i s mosque i sp roof n o t o n ly o f al a rge Mu s l im p opu la t ion b u t

i n co rpo ra t ing t h e f i red -b r ick m ih rab d u r ing t h e l a te 1 2 th 1 3 th c en tu r ie s AD , w e s e e t h e d eve lopmen t o f G ao A nc ien a st h e I s lam ized Q ua r t ie r , e xh ib i t ing t h e c ha ra c te r i s t ics o fa s ma l lI s lam ic u rban c en t re . T h i s ,i ti sp ropo sed , wa s h ome t o

a l so o ft h e d eve lopmen t o f aN ige r b end v a r ian t o fI s lam ic r e l ig iou s a r ch i tec tu re , w h ich s ugge s t s t ha t I s lam w a s w el e s tab l i shed w i th in t he u rban c on tex t b y t h e 1 3 th c en tu ry AD .

am ixed Musl im c ommun i ty o fb o th l o ca la nd Nor th A f r ican o r ig in , s u r rounded b y am a jo r i ty n on - Mus l im p opu lat ion i n G ade i , a nd a tt h e v a r ious o the r s i te s i d en t if ied b y D awa a nd

4 7

o ccup ied b y S ongha i , a nd t ha t Ko i -Guu ru i s aS ongha i

d i scussed i nC hap te r2 .

n ame . T he t el a tG ao -Saney c on t inued t ob e o ccup ied d u r ing t h e 1 2 th -13 th c en tu r ies AD , p o s s ib ly a s ameans o fk e ep ing t h e n omad s a t s ome d i s tance f r om G ao A nc ien b y p rov id ing s upp l ies a nd m a rke t ing f a c il i t ie s a way f r om t h is c en t re . T he c eme te ry w a s s t i l l u sed u n t i l t h e l a te 1 3 th c en tu ry AD , b u t a f te r t h e 1 4 th c en tury AD t h e p i c tu re i sl e s s c l ea r . T he re i s a n a bsence o fb o th l a te rp e r iod p o t te ry a nd t o bacco p ipe s a t G ao -Saney , h oweve r t h e i n tr igu ing d i s cove ry o f as i ng le s he rd o fC h ine se p o t tery d a ted t ot h e 1 6 th -17 th c en tu ry AD

a nd S udan h a s b een s t ud ied i ns ome d e ta i l , b u tr e sea r ch h a s c oncen t ra ted u pon f ou r i s sue s : T he d eve lopmen t o f t h e s o -

P e r iod 1a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s w e re much d i s tu rbed , b u t w ha ti sa ppa ren ti st ha t t h e a r ea c ont inued t ob eo ccup ied ,a t

c a l led " Sudane se S ty le " , t h e mean ing o ft h e t e rm " I s lam ic A rch i te c tu re " , t h e i nf luence o f t he a r ch i tec t a l -Sahe l i , a nd t h e c o r r e la t ion b e tween s qua rehous e s a nd I s lam , a nd r oundhou se s a nd A n im ism ( Pruss in 1 968 , 1 971 , 1 981 , 1 986 ; A radeon 1 989 ; D enye r 1 978 ) .

l e a s t f o r aw h i le ,b u t t ha t s t anda rd s o fc ons truc t ion d e c l ined a nd i mpo r t s a r e n o l onge r f ound . Howeve r , a s t h e b u r ia l o f p e r iod 1 d a te i nd ica te s , t h e p opu la t ion a t t h i s t ime w a s Mu s l im . T he a b sence o fd epo s i t s d a t ing f r om t h e p e r iod o f S ongha i e mp i re

( 15 th -16 th c en tu r ies AD )

4 . 3a ) P rob lems i nE va lua t ing I s lam ic I n f luences u pon t he A rch i te c ture o ft he Wes tern S ahe l : P r io r t od i scu ss ing t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l e v idence f ound d u r ing t h e e xcava t ions a nd s urvey s i n Gao a n umbe r o f g ene ra l p o in t s n eed t ob e made . A rch i tec tu re i nt h e Wes ter n S ahe l

( K rah l p e r s c omm ) , o n t h e s u r f ace o f t h e t e l l h in t s a t t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a to ccupa t ion a tt h i s s i te c on t inued l a te r t han i s u sua l ly t hough t . A t G ao A nc ien t h e p o s t -14 th c en tu ry AD

t h e

4 . 3 ) A rch i tec ture i n t he G ao R eg ion a nd Compa r ison s w i th t he Wider Wes tern S ahe l :

i s a l so

i s sue wh ich n eed sf u r the ri n ves t iga t ion .

T he d eve lopmen to ft h e S udane se s t y le , d ef ined b yA radeon ( 1989 :113 ) a s ; " f la t roof ed s t ruc tu r e s b u i l t o f s un -d r ied b r ick s a nd e mbel i shed w i th b u t tresses ,p a rape t p inac les a nd p o s s ib ly c of e r s o n a f a cade p unc tua ted b y a d oo rway e nca sed i n a h eavy mou lded s u r round " , w a s n o t i n s tan taneous w i th t h ea r r iva lo fI s lam . I t sd eve lopmen tt o ok

4 .2c ) S e t t lemen t Ou t s ide t he Ma jor C en tre s :

p l ace o ve r s eve ra l c en tu r ie s a nd w a s s ub jec t t o an umb e r o f f a c to r sa nd i n f luence s ,b o th i nd igenou sa nd i mpo r ted ,w h ich w e re f u sed t o ge the ro ve rt h ec en tur ies .

i n tr igu ing , n o i mpo r ted p o t te ry o r g la s s d a t ing f r om t h i s p e r iod w a s f ound . T he q ue s t ion c an b e p o sed , c ou ld t h e c en t re o fo ccupa t ion h ave s h i f ted d ur ing t h is p e r iod? T o w he re , w e a r e n o t y e t s u re , b u t p o s s ib ly t o t h e a r ea s u r round ing t h e mosque a nd t omb o fA sk ia Muhammed -a n

T h i s h a s a l r eady b een d i scus sed i n d e ta i l i n C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 . 3c , a nd h ence w il o n ly b e b r ief ly m en t ioned h e re . T he a na ly s i s o f t h e s e t t lemen t d a ta , p r ima r i ly p rov ided b y

T he a t t r ibu t ion o f t h e d eve lopmen t o f monumen ta l a r ch i tec tu re i n t h e Wes ter n S ahe l a nd S udan t o t h e A nda lu s ian p oe t a nd s ome t ime a r ch i tec t , a l -Sahe l i , i n t h e m id -14 th c en tu ry AD i s t o ta l ly i n a ccura te . A radeon

D awa ( 1985 ) ,h a ss hown t h a ta mong t h e S ongha i , I s lam h ad l i t t le i mpac t o u t s ide o ft h e u rban a r ea s o fG ao i nt h e p e r iod AD 9 00 -1250 . I th a s b een f u r the r a rgued t h a t t h e i mpac t o f I s lam w a s n o t r e a l ly f e l t i n t h e c oun try s ide u n t i l t h e e a r ly 1 9 th c en tu ry AD .

( 1989 :99 ) h a s c onv inc ing ly s hown t h a t t h e a l -Sahe l i c l a im p u t f o rwa rd b y s cho la r s l i ke D e la fo s se ( 1924 ) i s am y th , b a sed u pon v i ew s t ha t Wes t A f r icans , p r io r t oa l -Sahe l i h ad b een i n capab le o fc ons t ruc t ing a ny th ing e xcep t s ma l l r ough

T he p l ans p roduced f r om D awa ' s

s omewha t r aw d a ta , ( he p rov ide s n o s i te p lo t s o r p lan s ) , s how t ha tp e rmanen t s e t t lemen t s i te s a r e c l us te red a l ong t h e N ige r , f o r w a te r a va i lab il i ty , e a se o f t r an spo r t a nd a g r icu l tu re ( F igu re 2 . 2 ) . A pa r t f r om G ao -Saney , o n ly p reh is to r ic p e rmanen t s e t t lemen t s i te s ( L .S .A . ) a r e f ound i n

h u ts . T he u n ifo rm c o r re la t ion b e tween s qua re o r r e c tangu la r h ou se s a nd I s lam , a nd b e tween r oundhou ses a nd a n im i sm i s a l so t oo s imp l is t ic . I nc er ta in c ase s t h ea dop t ion o fs qua re o r r e c tangu la r h ou se p lans d oe s s eem t ob e c onnec ted w i th t h e

t h e T i lems i V a l ley , f o r e xamp le K a rka r ich in l ca t N or th a nd S ou th . D awa ( 1985 :101 ) a r gue s t h a t t h i s w a s d ue t o t h e

a ccep tance o f I s lam , a s a t J enne jeno , w he re r e c t i l inea r h ouse s w i th mu l t ip le r ooms a re f ound a f te r AD 1 000 r ep lac ing t h e r oundhous es f ound i n p rev iou s p ha se s

f avou rab le c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s w h ich e x i s ted i n t h e G ao R eg ion p r io rt ot h e o nse to fa r id i ty i nt h e l a s tt wo m i l lenn ia , w h ich h ave made p ermanen t s e t t lemen t a way f r om t h e r i ve r n on -v iab le .

( Mc In to sh a nd Mc In to sh 1 984 :92 ) . R ec tangu la r h ou se p l an s h oweve r ,a r e a l so f ound a mong a n im i s t g roup s , f o re xamp le t h e Dogon ,B obo a nd L ob i ( Enges t rom 1 959 :65 ) . A tN te ro so

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e d e f ended s i tes i sa l so i n fo rma t ive a s t h ey a r e l o ca ted t o p ro tec t t h e i r i nhab i tan t s f r om t h rea t s c om ing f r om t h e d eser t . T h i s i s e spec ialy t r ue o f K o i Gou rou ( 33 ) , w h ich h a s i t s r ampa r t o n t h e e a s te rn o rd e se r t s i de . I th a s b een men t ioned a bove t ha t t h e t h rea t o f n omad

i n n o r the rn G hana a r e c tangu la r b u i ld ing d a ted t ot h e 2 nd M i l lenn ium BC w a s f ound ( Dav ie s 1 967 ) . R oundhou se s a r e a l so u sed b y I s lam iz ed i nd igenous g roup s , f o r e xamp le , t h e Ma l inke ( Enges t rom 1 959 :64 ) . An a r chaeo log ica l s u r vey o f t h e B a f ing r e g ion i n t h e e x t reme w e s t o f Ma l i , a n a r ea i nhab i ted b y t h e Ma l inke , f ound t ha t r o undhouse s , b u i l t o f

i n cur s ion s i s ar e cu r r ing t h eme i n t h e o ra l t r ad i t ions o ft h e a r ea , a nd i ti so fi n te res t t h a t t h e mode rn n ame s o ft h e s i te s

mud u pon b amboo a rma tu res w e r e c ommon ( Sanogo 1 991 :152 ) . T he e x is tence o f ac i r cu la r mo sque w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion , a t F ou l lod j i -Ko lo , h a s a l so b een m en t ioned

i nd ica te t h e i r l i nks w i th t h e S ongha i , w ho a r e s eden ta ry a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s . D awa ( 1985 :31 ,60 ,112 ) m en t ion s t h a t b o th G a rey -Gangano ( 37 ) a nd H ombo r i T ondo ( 13 ) a r e t o day

( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 . 3a ) .

4 8

A l though r e c tangu la r o r s qua re h ouse -p lan s c anno t b e u n i fo rm ly e qua ted w i th t h e a ccep tance o f I s lam , D enye r ( 1978 :160 ) m akes t h e p o in t t ha t t h e re i s ac o inc idence

E lsewhe re i n t h e Wes tern S ahe l s t one u s e i se ncoun te red w he r eve r t h e ma te r ia l i s c ommon ly f ound . Many l a te r e xamp le s c ou ld b e g iven . I n S ou the rn Mau r i tan ia t h e r ampa r t s o f t h e c i tade l o f A zug i , t h e p o s s ib le A lmo rav id f o r t re s s , w e re c on s truc ted o u t o f d ry s t one ( Mauny 1 955 ,

b e tween i nwa rd look ing c ou r tya rd s t ruc tu re s , f o rm ing d e tached c ompound s s u r rounded b y e nc lo s ing w a l l s , a nd a r ea s w he r e p eop le e spouse I s lam i n Wes t A f r ica . T h is i n t u rn l e ad s t o a c on s ide ra t ion o f t h e t e rm " I s lam ic a r ch i tec tu r e " . G rube a r gue s ( 1978 :10 ) , q u i te r i gh t ly , t h a t i t i sp o ss ib le t od ef ine a n " I s lam ic A r ch i te c tu re " , a sc ompa red t o a " non I s lam ic a r ch i te c tu re " , b y a n umbe r o f t y pe e l emen t s , o ne o f wh ich i s ac oncen t ra t ion u pon t h e i n ter io r , o r a n " i nwa rd look ingnes s " . I n t h is r e spec t t h e c ou r tya rd h ou se wou ld a ppea r t o b e a n a spe c t o f a r ch i tec tu re w h ich h a s b een d i rec t ly i nf luenced b y I s lam . T he c ou r tya rd h ou se r e f lec t s t h e n o t ions o f p r iva cy a nd s anc t i ty o f f am i ly l i f e i mpor tan t i nI s lam . A l though n o s i ng le I s lam i c h ou se -p lan d eve loped , at y p ica l t ype c an b e s a id t oe x i s t , w i th a ng led e n trance p a s sage s , men 's g ue s t r ooms a nd w omen ' s a r ea s , w h ich i sf ound f r om Z anz iba r , t oT imbuk tu , t oC en t ra l A s ia ( Pe ther idge 1 978 ; Don ley -Re id 1 984 ; a l -Azzaw i , p e r s . c omm . ) . O the r a r ch i tec tura l f o rms wh ich a r e d i rec t ly a t t r ibu tab le t oI s lam ic i n f luence i n t h e We s t er n S ahe l a nd S udan a r eo fc ou r se mo sque s ,a nd c er ta in t y pe so ft omb s , f o r

S a ison 1 981 ) ; l a rge n umbe r s o fb u i ld ing s a tb o th T egdaou s t a nd K oumb i S a leh w e re b u i l to fs t one ( Be r th ie r 1 983 :45-46 ; P o le t 1 985 ) ,i n as t y le wh ich Mauny ( 1961 :467 )c ompa red t o t h a t f ound i nt h e t own s o f Oua la ta a nd T ich i t t . A t Koumb i S a leh t h e F r iday mosque , w i th i t s s ucce s s ion o f t h ree m ih rabs , wa s c on s truc ted o u t o f s t one ( Dev isse a nd D ia l lo 1 993 :108 ) , a nd t h e c o lumn s i n t h e a p t ly n amed " Tomb o f t h e c o lumn s " w e re " f a i tes d e d a l les d e s ch i s t e s uperpo sge s " ( Thoma ssey a nd Mauny 1 951 :440 ) . E labo ra te s t one n i che s w e re a l so f ound , s e t i n to s ome o f t h e h ouse s , w h ich t h em se lve s w e re b u i l t o f s t one s l ab s s e t w i th b anco mo r ta r ( Mauny 1 950 ; T homa s sey a nd Mauny 1 956 :120 -22 ) . T he e x is tence o f t h e L a te S tone A ge d ry -s tone v i l lage s f ound a l ong t h e D ha r T ich i t t - Wa la ta i n s ou thea s tern Mau r i tan ia ( Ho 1 1 1 986 :91 ; H ugo t 1 990 :261 ) i n a pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame v i c in i ty a s K oumb i S a leh a nd T egdaou s t i lus t ra tes t h a t , a s a t G ao , t h e u se o f s t one a s ab u i ld ing ma ter ia l p reda ted N o r th A f r ican c on tac ts .

e xamp le , t h e monumen ta lK ubba t omb . T he a r ch i tec tu ra l e v idence f r om G ao , a s f r om t h e w ide r We s tern S ahe l i lus t ra tes t h a t a r ch i tec tu re i nt h e 1 0 th -14 th c en tu r ie s AD w a s d ive r se i n s t y le s , m a te r ia l s , a nd o r ig ins . I n c e r ta in r e spe c t s t h e i nf luence o f I s lam w a s f a r rea ch ing

4 . 3b i i ) B anco a nd B anco -Br ick : T he u se o f b anco ( l iqu id mud ) a nd b anco -br ick s ( unf ired mud b r ick s ) i n G ao w a s c ommon . T he e a r l ies t o ccupa t ion d epo s i t s i n G ao A nc ien w h ich c on ta ined s t ruc tu ra l d eb r i s w e re f i l led w i th b anco r ubb le ( Pe r iod 4 , l a te 9 t h -1 1t h c en tu r ie s AD ) , a nd i n

a nd i no the rr e spec t s o fn o i mpo r tance a ta l l . T h i s e v idence w i l ln ow b ed i s cussed .

s ubs equen tp e r iod s ,b anco r ema ins i n c lud ing ap udd led mud f l oo r( P er iod 3 , 1t h -12 th c en tu r ies AD ) , a nd a ngu la r w a l l s made o u to fb o th b anco a nd b anco -br ick w e re f ound ( Pe r iod 1 ,1 4 th -20 th c en tu r ies AD ) . T he t e l l a tG ao -Saney w a s m ade u p o f s u cce s s ive l a ye r s o f c o l lapsed b anco s t ruc tu re s . T he r e cove ry o f 2 0 d ra inp ipe f r agmen ts f r om G ao A nc ien , p redom inan t ly f r om P e r iod 4 c on tex t s , s ugge s t s t h a t f l a t r oof ed b anco s t ruc tu re s w e re b e ing b u i l tb yt h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD . T hese d ra inp ipe f r agmen t s wou ld a pp ea r t oh ave b een u sed t oc hanne l r a inwa te r f r om f l a t r oof s . T he e x is tence o f

4 3b ) Ma ter ia l sa nd T echn ique s : Aw ide v a r ie ty o fc on s t ruc t ion ma ter ia ls h ave b een f ound i n a r chaeo log ica lc on tex t s a nd a r e s t i l l u sed t o day i n G ao a nd t h e Wes t e rn S ahe l ; s t one , f i red a nd u nf i red b r ick , l i qu id mud , wood , t h a tch . T he ma te r ia l u sed d epended o n w ha t w a s l o ca l ly a va i lab le , a nd d i f f e red f r om a r ea t o a rea . T he v a r ie ty o f m a te r ia ls f ound r equ i re s t h a t aw ide v a r ie ty o f

t h e se d ra inp ipe f r agmen t s a nd t h e ir a s so c ia t ion w i th f l a t r oof ed s t ruc tu re s makes i tp robab le t ha t t h e f o re -runne r s o f

c ons t ruc t ion t e chn ique s w e re a l so e mp loyed , m ason ry , b r ick -mak ing a nd f i r ing ,c a rpen t ry ,t h a tch ing a nd w eav ing .

t h e S udane se s t y le o f h ous ing p reda te t h e b eg inn ings o f t r ans -Saha ran t r ade a nd N or th A f r ican c on tac t s . B anco w ou ld c e r ta in ly h ave b een u sed a s ac ons t r uc t ion ma te r ia l i n

4 . 3b i ) S tone : Mauny ( 1951 ) make s t h e p o in t t h a t s t one w a s n o t c ommon ly u sed a s ab u i ld ing ma te r ia l i n t h e G ao R eg ion , d ue t o i t s g enera l a bs ence i n t h e a r ea , e xcep t

G ao b e fo r e N or th A f r ican c on tac ts b egan . T he m a jo r i ty o f t h e s t ruc tu re s r e co rded b y D awa ( 1985 ) i n t h e G ao r eg ion

a l ongs ide t h eN ige ro n t h eG ourma b ank . T he r e su l t so ft h e r e cen t a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch h ave s hown t h a t Mauny i s

w e r eb anco r oundhouses .

g ene ra l ly c o r r ec t , h oweve r s t one w a s u sed f o r f ounda t ion s , a si n S t ruc tu re F i nt h ec eme te ry a tG ao -Saney ,a nd i ns t one w a l ls ( p robab ly a l so f ounda t ion s ) , r e co rded d ur ing t h e s urvey si nG ao A nc ien . D awa ( 1985 )m en t ion st h a t h e f ound

P r io rt oP e r iod 1( 14 th -2 0 th c en tu r ies AD ) n o e v idence f o r b anco b r ick u se w a s f ound i nG ao A nc ien . We d o n o t k now i ft h e P e r iod 4 b anco s t ruc tu r e s w e re b u i l t o fb anco -b r ick o r s imp ly o f b anco , n o i d en t if iab le b r ick f r agmen t s s urv ived . D awa ( 1984 :59 ) r e f e r s t o aw a l l b u i l t o u t o f " banco b a l l s "

r oundhou ses b u i l t o u t o f s t one b u t i sp robab ly r e f e r r ing t o t h e u se o f s t one f o r f ounda t ion s r a the r t han c omp le te s t ruc tu re s . T he s t one e ncoun te red i si n a l l c as e s u nd r es sed , a nd w a se xp lo i ted a s ab u i ld ing m a te r ia lp r io rt oa ny I s lam ic c on tac t s .T he S ongha io f Hombo r i s t i l l u se s t one t ob u i ld a l l t ype s o fs t r uc tu res ,a nd b o th mo sques a nd h ou se s a r eb u i l t i n t h e l o ca l ly a va i lab le g ran i te ( r eco rded d ur ing t h e a u tho r ' s r e conna is sance s urvey i nJ anua ry 1 993 ) .

w h ich w a s f ound a tt h e s i te o fS o ra , d a t ed t ot h e " med ieva l p e r iod " . T h is i s ar e f e rence t o s pher ica l h and -mou lded s un d r ied b r ick s , w h ich a r e c ommon ly u sed i n Wes t A f r ica , f o r e xamp le i n t h e g rea t mo sque a t A gadez , f ounded i n AD 1 449 ( C r es s ie r a nd B ernu s 1 984 :9 ) . T h is t y pe o fb r ick w a s d eve loped i n d igenous ly o u to fc o i lt e chn ique su sed i np o t te ry p roduct ion ( P russ in 1 981 :234 ) . I t wou ld a ppea r t ha t h and -

4 9

mou lded c on ica l , s pher ica l a nd c yl ind r ica l mud b r ick s w e r e a l l i nd igenous ly d eve loped i n t h e Wes te rn S udan . Whe r ea s P ru ss in ( 1981 :237 ) a rgues t ha t t h e t e chno logy f o r mak ing c a s t u n -f i red b r ick s w a s i n troduced f o l low ing c on tac t s w i th

G raba r ( 1978 :65 ) m akes t h e p o in t t h a t ; " t he e xp re s s ion o f p owe r i s i n m any w ay s a n a u toma t ic a t t r ibu te o f monumen ta l a r ch i te c tu re " , a nd t ha t t a sk s s uch a s t h e f i r ing o f b r ick s a nd o rgan i sa t ion o f wo rk g angs d emanded l e ga l a u tho r i ty a nd f i nanc ia lm ean so n ly a va i lab le t o af ew . I nt h is

N o r th A f r ica .

c on t ex t , ac ommen t b y I bn S a ' id ( d .1286 -7 ) o n a r ch i te c tu re i nB a r isa , o ne o ft h e t own s i nT akru r o n t h e R ive r S enega l ,

T oday i n G ao b anco i s t h e p redom inan t c ons t ruc t ion ma ter ia l , w hen modern ma ter ia ls l i ke c onc re te a r e n o t a va i lab le o rc anno t b e a f fo rded . U nf i red b anco -b r ick i su sed f o rb o th d ome s t ic a nd r e l ig ious a r ch i tec tu re ,r ende red w i th a p ro tec t ive c oa t ing o f mud , w h ich i so f t en r enewed a nnua l ly , a s o n t h e mosque a nd t omb o fA sk ia Muhammed . B u i ld ing wo rk i sc a r r ied o u t b y p rof es s iona l m a sons , w ho f o rm a d i s t inc tg u i ld (M iner 1 953 :52 ) . T he u s e o f b anco a r ch i tec tu re w a s p robab ly c ommon t h roughou tt h e We s te rn S ahe la nd S udan a tt h e b eg inn ing o f

i so f i n te re s t ; " None b u i ld s w i th p l a s te r a nd b aked b r ick s e xcep t ar u le ro r ap e r son o fw ea l th a nd d i s t inc t ion t ow hom h e h a s g i ven p e rm i ss ion t o d o s o " ( L ev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :185 ) . T h i s i sw ha t a ppea r s t oh ave h appened i nG ao . C on s t ruc t ion u s ing f i red -b r ick w a s c onf ined t o t h e u pper e che lon s o f s o c ie ty a nd w a s a s t a temen t o f p owe r a nd a u tho r i ty , w h ich f olowed f r om t h e b oom i n t r ans -Saha ran t r ade r ep re sen ted b y t h e 1l t h -12 th c en tu r ies AD i mpor t s r e cove r ed f r om G ao A nc ien . T he s ymbol i c a spe c t o f f i red -br ick t e chno logy i n G ao i s f u r the r s uppo r ted b yt wo f a c to r s . F i r s t ly , t h e re i sn o c l ima t ic

t h e c u r ren t m i l lenn ium , b u t i ti so n ly r e cen t ly t h a t i th a s b egun t o b e r e co rded d ur ing e xcava t ion s , o w ing t o t h e d i ff i cu l t ie s i n d ef in ing b anco w i th in i t s s u r round ing m a t r ix ( R . Mc In to sh 1 974 ) . T h i s h a s b i a sed t h e a r ch i tec tu ra lr e co rd i n f avou r o f monumen ta l a nd l a rge ly n on rep re sen ta t ive

n eed f o r f i red -b r ick a r ch i tec ture f o r t h e r a ins a re n o t h eavy e nough t o d e s t roy b anco a r ch i tec tu re . S econd ly , t h e re i sa l a ck o f f u e l f o r f i r ing b r ick s i n t h e G ao a rea . E ven i n a p e r iod o f mo re h um id c ond i t ions i ti su n l ike ly t ha t t h e re w a s

a r ch i tec tu re b u i l t o u to fd u rab le ma te r ia l s s uch a s s t one a nd f i red -b r ick , ap rob lem a l so e ncoun te red o n t h e F a s t A f r ican

e ve r s u ff i c ien t f u e l f o r f i r ing l a rge q uan t i t ies o fb r i ck s o n a r egu la r b a s i s . A l though o t he r f ue l s s u ch a s d ung a nd s ma l l s t ick s , t w igs , e t c , c an b e u sed t o f i r e b r ick s ( L ewco ck 1 978 :137 ) , l a rge r p i e ce s o f wood a r e p r e f erab le ( p e r sona l o b se rva t ion s o fb r ick k i lns i n Uganda ) , w h ich a r e a b sen t i n t h eG ao R eg ion .

c oa s t . E xamp le s o fs i te s w he re b anco a r ch i te c tu re h a s b een f ound i n c lude J enne jeno , w he re c yl ind r ica l a nd r e c tangu la r mud b r ick a nd p la in b anco c on s t ruc t ion w a s r e co rded ( S .K . a nd R .J . Mc In to sh 1 980 :106 -110 ) . B anco s t ruc tu res d a ted t o

T he o r ig ins o f f i red -b r ick t e chno logy i n G ao i nd ica te a n

b e tween t h e 1 0 th -13 th c en tu r ie s AD w e re a l so f ound a t N ian i i n G u inea ( F il ipow iak 1 981 :77 ,88 ) , w h ich h a s b een i d en t i f ied , a lmo s t c er ta in ly i n co r rec t ly , w i th t h e c ap i ta l o f

I s lam ic l i nk . T he t e chn ique o fl a rge s ca le b u i ld ing i nf i red b r ick w a s p redom inan t ly c onf ined t oa r ea s e a s t o ft h e R ive r

t h e Emp i re o f Ma l i o ft h e s ame n ame . At e x tua l r e f e rence t o c on s truc t ion i n b anco a l so e x is t s , A l -Uma r i ( d .1349 ) r e co rded t h a ti nt h e c i ty o f BYTY , c ons t ruc t ion u s ing b anco w a sc ommon ; " They b u i ld u pc l ay t ot h eh e igh to ft wo th i rd s o f ac ub i t t h en l e ave i tt i l l i td r ie s . T hen a l i ke a moun t i s b u i l t u pon i t . . .and s oo n t i l l t h e e nd " ( Lev t z ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :262 ) . BYTY h a s a l so b een i d en t if ied w i th N ian i , t h e

N ige r ( P ru ss in 1 981 :238 ) , a nd t he a b s en ce o fa r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r c on s truc t ion u s ing f i r ed -b r ick i n t h e w e s t i s n o t iceab le . T he g ene ra l l a ck o f u s e o f f i red -b r ick a t s i te s s uch a sT egdaou s ta nd K oumb i S a leh i sp a r t ly e xp l icab le b y t h e s c a rc i ty o f f u e l f o r f i r ing b r ick s , b u t e x ten s ive u se o f f i red -b r ick c on s tr uc t ion i s n o t f ound i n a rea s w he re f ue l w ou ld h ave b een mo re p l en t i fu l , f o r e xamp le t h e I n land N ige r D e l ta . A t J enne jeno f i red -b r ick w a s n o t u sed a s a

a fo re -men t ioned c ap i ta l o f t h e Emp i re o f Ma l i b e tween t h e 1 3 th -14 th c en tu r ies AD ( I b id :411 ) .

G ao ,b o th a tG ao -Saney a nd i nG ao A nc ien , a nd h a s a l r eady

p r ima ry c on s truc t ion ma te r ia l , t he p i ece s t ha t w e re f ound w e re u sed a sa r ch i tec tu ra le mbe l l i shmen t so ri na rea ss ub jec t t o h eav ie r w ea r , s uch a s d oo r f rames ( S .K .M c In to sh 1 995c :215 ) . T he e xcep t ion a re t he e n igma t ic a rea s o ff i red c l ay " a rg i le c u i te " ,w h ich h ave b een r e co rded d u r ing s u rvey s

b een d i s cu ssed i n C hap te r s 2a nd 3 .T he t omb c omp lex i n t h e c eme te ry a tG ao -Saney w a s b u i l t o u to fw e l l -f i r ed b r ick s

o f mound s i n t h e U pp e r L ake s r e g ion , a s a t T i s sa la ten . T he se a r ea s o f f i red -c lay p o s s ib ly f o rmed p a r t o f f une ra ry

o f u n ifo rm d imens ions , a s w e re t h e b u i ld ing u ncove red i n G ao A nc ien , a nd t h e m ih rab o f t h e mo sque e xcava ted b y Mauny ( 1951) . S t ruc tu re Q w a s o r ig inaly b u i l t f r om f i red b r ick , a nd t h e s u r f ace o ft h ec en t ra l a r ea o fG ao A nc ien w a s c ove r ed i n f i red -b r ick f r agmen t s a nd s t ruc tu ra l r ema ins .

s t ruc tu re s ,o rw e r e ar e info r c ing l a ye rt op ro tec tt h e f une ra ry c hambe r i nt h e c a s e o fb u r ia l mound s ( Dembe le 1 991a :181 , 1 991b :65 ; S id ibe 1 991 :191 ; D embe le a nd R a imbau l t 1 991 :253 ) . H oweve r ,t h e i rf unc t ion i sn o tw e l l u nde r s tood o r d e sc r ibed , a nd t h ey a r e v e ry d i f f e r en t t o t h e monumen ta l

P ru ss in ( 1981 :238 ) h a sa rgued t h a tt h es e lec t ive u se o ff i red -

a r ch i tec tu re f ound i nG ao ,a nd f u r the re a s t .

b r ick s ugge s t s i tw a s i n t roduced a l ong w i th t h e d eve lopmen t o f s t rong c ohes ive p ol i t ie s a nd t h e e me rgence o f u rban

F i red -b r ick i sf ound e x ten s ive ly i n t h e C en t ra l S udan . I n

4 .3b i i i ) F ired -Br ick : F i red -b r ick i s e x ten s ive ly f ound i n

c onu rba t ions . T h is i s t oo s imp l is t ic , a nd i tc an b e a rgued

N o r the rn

t ha t i t s s ho r t l ived u se i n G ao ( l a te 1 2 th -13 th C en tu r ie s AD ) , a nd i t s c onf inemen t t o b u i ld ings o f i mpo r tance , i s

b e tween AD 1 450 -1470 ( B iva ra nd S h inn ie 1 962 :3 ; C onnah 1 981 :227 -30 ) , i n D a rfu r , f o r e xamp le a t S hoba , w he re a

d i rec t ly l i nked w i th t h e a ccep tance o fI s lam , a nd i nd ica te s a b r ief d e s i re t os ymbo l i se s t a tu s , p r io rt ot h e f u l l e vo lu t ion o f t h e S udane se s t y le . 5 0

N ige r ia ,

a s

a t B i rn i

N 'Ga za rgamo ,

f ounded

f i red -b r ick mo sque w a s r e co rded ( Ba lfou r -Pau l 1 954 :13 ) , a nd i n N ige r , w he r e a t G a roume le , af i red b r ick " pa la ce " w a s d i s cove red , p o s s ib ly d a t ing f r om t h e 1 4 th c en tu ry AD

( B ine t 1 956 ; B iva ra nd S h inn ie 1 962 :4 ; Z aka r i 1 985 :47 ) . A t O ua ra i n e a s te rn C had , t h e c l u s t e r o f f i red -b r ick b u i ld ings d a te f r om t h e 1 7 th -18 th c en tu r ie s AD ( L eb euf a nd K i r sch 1 989 :25 -6 ) .F u r the rc omp lexe s o ff i red -b r ick b u i ld ings h ave b een f ound e l sewhe re i n C had , a s a t t h e u nda ted s i te o f O uogay i( Hua rd a nd B acqu ie 1 964 :8 ) .

p re sence o f n omad c amps a nd t e n ted s t ruc tu re s w a s d i s cu ssed . I ti s p o s s ib le t ha t i n c er ta in c on tex t s o rgan ic ma te r ia l s w i l l s u rv ive i n t h e G ao R eg ion , e sp ec ia l ly i n t h e d rye rn o r ther nz one .

4 . 3bv )P las ter : P la s te ri s ama ter ia l w h ich c ou ld o we i t s u s e T he u se o ff i red -b r ick i nG ao p reda te s i t s u se i nt h e C en tra l

i nt h e G ao R eg ion t ot r an s -Saha ran t r ade a nd N or th A f r ican c on tac t s . T he r ed p la s te r d ado w h ich s u rv ived o n S t r uc tu re Qw a sa pp l ied a s ad e co ra t ive f e a tu re ,a nd t h ee xcava t ion s i n G ao A nc ien u ncove red af r agmen to f aw h i te p la s te rf l oo ri n aP e r iod 3 c on tex t . F ur the r p la s te r f r agmen t s w e re f o und a dhe r ing t ot h e p i e ce s o ff i red -br ick r e -u t i l ised i nt h e P e r iod

S udan , a nd i ti s u n l ike ly t h a t t h e t e chno logy o f m ak ing mou ld f o rmed , u n ifo rm s i zed , f i red -b r ick s o r ig ina ted e i the r i n G ao i t se l fo r i n t h e C en t ra l S udan . T he t e chno logy w a s a lmo s t c e r ta in ly t r ansf e r red d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f t r ans S aha ran t r ade f r om Nor th A f r ica . F i red -b r ick w a s u sed e x ten s ive ly i nv a r iou sa rea s o fN or th A f r ica w i th w h ich G ao

1w a l l E . T h i s w h i te p la s te r c oa t ing h ad b een a pp l ied , p robab ly a s ad eco ra t ive f e a tu re , t ot h e o r ig ina l w a l l w h ich w a s r obbed t o b u i ld w a l l E . D eco ra t ive p l a s te r w o rk w a s e x ten s ive ly u sed i n No r th A f r ica , a nd i t s d i scove ry o n ly i n

w a s c onne c ted b y t r ade . F i red -b r ick h ad b een u sed i n t h e R oman p e r iod i n Nor th A f r ica , b u t i tw a s n o t u n t i l t h e c om ing o f I s lam t ha t i tw a s w id e ly u sed . Wha t Ma rca i s ( 1954 :9 ) t e rm s ; " t he a nce s to r o f a l l I s lam ic r e l ig iou s s t ruc tu r es i nt h e O cc iden t " , t h e g rea t mo sque a tK a i rouan , w h ich

w a s

f ounded

i n

t h e

9 th

c en tury

AD ,

a s soc ia t ion w i th f i red -b r ick i nG ao s ugge s t s aN or th A f r ican o r ig in f o rt h et e chn ique .

t hough

s ub sequen t ly r ebu i l t , w a s c on s t ruc t ed o u t o f f i red b r ick ( Ma rca i s 1 926 ;L ez ine 1 966 :163 ) .

O the r c o lou ran t s a nd d e co ra t ive t e chn ique s w e re d eve loped i nd igenou s ly . A f r agmen t o f y elow o ch re w a s r e cove r ed f r om a P e r iod 1 c on tex t ( 18 ) . T h is m a te r ia l c ome s f r om B ou r em 7 0km n or th o fG ao ( Tou re ,p e r s . c omm . ) , a nd w hen m ixed w i th b u t te r a nd c l ay i su sed t o day t od eco ra te h ou se s w i th ac o lour fu lc oa t ing ( M ine r 1 953 :34 ) .

A s w e l l a si t s u se i n Ka i rouan , t h e c ap i ta l o fI f r iq iya , f i red b r ick w a su sed i nI s lam ic S pa in ( Redman 1 986 :78 ) ,a no the r a r ea c onnec ted t o G ao b y t r ade , w he re t h e c on s tr uc t ion o f f i red -b r ick p ila r s ,r a the rt han s t one c o lumn s ,w a sa s so c ia ted w i th t h e A lmo rav id s ( To r re s -Ba lba s 1 991 :499 ) . I tw a s n o t u sed i nt h el bad i , Mzab a r ea o fA lge r ia ( Me rc ie r 1 922 :207 ) , a nd t h e o r ig ina l i mpe tu s f o r f i red -b r ick u se i n G ao c ou ld h ave c ome f r om t h e A lmo rav id s . F l igh t ( 1978b :13 ) h a s

4 . 3bv i ) S ummary : Aw ide v a r ie ty o fc ons truc t ion m a te r ia ls a nd t e chn ique s w e re i n u se i n t h e G ao R eg ion a nd t h e We s ter n S ahe l a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h e c u r ren t m i l lenn ium . T he u se o fo n ly t wo ma te r ia l s i nG ao c an d ef in i te ly b e s a id

s ugge s ted t h a tt h is m igh t h ave b e en i nt h e f o rm o ft e chn ica l h e lp . C on s ide r ing t he i mpo r ted p o t te ry o f S pan i sh a nd I f r iq iyan o r ig in , t h e c a che o f i v o ry w h ich w a s p o s s ib ly d e s t ined f o rt h e i vo ry wo rk shop s o fS pa in , a nd t h e e ng raved t omb s tone s b rough t f r om A lmer ia , aN or th A f r ican o r e spe c ia l ly S pan ish o r ig in f o r f i red -b r ick t e chno logy i n G ao

t ob ea t t r ibu tab le t oI s lam ic i nf luence , f i red -br ick t e chno logy a nd d e co ra t ive p l a s te r w o rk . T he u se o f mou ld s f o r f o rm ing b r i ck s m ay a l so b e a t t r ibu tab le t o I s lam i c i nf luence , a s P rus s in ( 1981 :237 ) h a s a rgued . O therw i se l o ca l ly a va i lab le ma te r ia ls a nd t r ad i t iona l t e chn iques a ppea r t o h ave b een

s e ems h i gh ly p robab le ( s ee C hap te r 5 ,s e c t ion 5 . 7a ) . I tc an t h e refo re b ec onc luded t ha tf i red -b r ick a r ch i te c tu re i nG ao i s i nd ica t ive o fc on tac t s w i th N o r th A f r ica a nd p o s s ib ly o ft h e

u sed .

a ccep tance o fI s lam . 4 . 3c )S truc ture s : 4 . 3b iv ) O rgan ic Ma ter ia l s : Wood , c l o th , s t raw , r e ed s , a nd o the ro rgan ic m a te r ia ls h ave b een u sed i nt h e We s t ern S ahe l f o r many m i l lenn ia . No t r ace o ft h e i r u se w a s f ound d ur ing t h e r e cen t e xcava t ions a nd s u rvey s , a pa r t f r om t wo f r agmen t so fw ooden b eams o rp lank s u pon w h ich t h e c ache o fh ippopo tamu si vo ry h ad b e en p l aced ,a nd t h ed oo rf i t t ing s

4 . 3c 1 ) Hous ing : T en t s a nd o ther mob i le s he l ter s : Amongs t t h e S ongha i p o r tab le s he l te r s a r e f ound . B ra s seu r ( 1968 :117 -18 ) , i n h i s d ef in i t ive s t udy o f s he l te r t ype s i n Ma l i , d e scr ibe s t h e S ongha i l i v ing b e tween T imbuk tu a nd A nsongo t o day a s

w h ich s ugge s ted t ha t ad oo r h ad b een f i xed t o ab anco s t ruc tu re i nP er iod 3 a tG ao A nc ien . O rgan ic m a t er ia ls a r e w ide ly u t i l i sed t oday ; w ooden a rma tu re s a r e u sed b y t h e S ongha i , u pon w h ich ma t c ove r ing s a r e e r ec ted ( P ro s t 1 954 :186 -7 ) , a nd wood a nd s t raw a r e u sed f o rr oof ing mo r e e ndu r ing s t ruc t ure s ,a nd f o re x ter na ls ca f fo ld ing p o le sw h ich

" qua s i -seden ta ry " , o w ing t o t h e i r e x tens ive u se o f p o r tab le h u ts w h ich e nab le t h e f l ood c yc le s o ft h e R ive r N ige r t ob e f olowed f o r c u l t iva t ion p u rpose s . T he se h u ts v a ry i n s hape a nd s i ze a nd a r e b u i l t o f ma t s u pon a w ooden f r ame . When B a r th ( 1965 :481) v i s i ted G ao i n t h e m id -19 th c en tu ry AD

a r e p e rmanen t ly f i xed i n to s ome b u i ld ings ,a si nt h e mo sque a nd t omb o f A sk ia Muhammed . D u r ing t h e p e r iod u nde r d i scus s ion ( c a .AD 9 00 -1250 ) i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e a b sence o f s u i tab le b u i ld ing t imbe r w ou ld h ave m ean t t h a t p a lm t r unk s w e re u sed f o r r oof j o is t s , a s t h ey a r e a tp r e sen t . T he

o r ma t t ing h u t s . I ti sp robab le t ha t s uch h u t s w e re u sed b y t h e p ro to -Songha i , b e tween t h e 1 0 th -13 th c en tu r ie s AD , b u t i t s hou ld a l so b e n o ted t ha t s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s w e r e , a cco rd ing t oB ra s seu r( I b id :119 , 1 25 ) , s e r ious ly d i s rup ted i n t h i s r eg ion f o l low ing t h e Mo roccan i nva s ion o ft h e l a te 1 6 th

u b iqu i tou s t h a tched r oundhouse w a s u ndoub ted ly c ommon ( s ee n ex t s e c t ion ) , a nd i n s e c t ion 4 . 2bü t h e p robab le

c en tu ry AD . I ti s ad i s t inc t p o ss ib i l i ty t h a t w ha t R ouch ( 1954 :31 ) t e rms " s eden ta ry m ig ra t ion " , o n ly b ecame

t h e c i ty w a s r educed t o ac o l lec t ion o f3 00 " buge " ( bo rgu? ) ,

5 1

p ronounced c onque s t .

f o l low ing

t h e

u pheava l s o f t h e

Mo ro ccan

T he h ypo the s i sw a sp ropo sed i ns e c t ion 4 . 2bü t h a tt h e t e l la t G ao -Saney w a s p e r iod ica l ly e nc i r c l ed b y n omad a nd m e r chan ts c amp s . U n fo r t una te ly a r chaeo log ica le v idence f o r t h e e x i s tence o ft h e se s t r uc tu re s h a s n o t y e t b een f o und . We a r e r e l ian t u pon e t hnog raph ic a nd h i s to r ica l d a ta t os ugge s t w ha t t h e se s t ruc tu r e s m ay h ave b e en l i ke . Wha t i sa ppa ren t f r om t h e e t hnograph ic a c coun t s w h ich d e sc r ibe t h e T ua r eg , B ela , a nd F u lan i , i st h e e x ten t t ow h ich t empo r a ry p o r tab le s he l t e r s a r e u sed ( N ico la i sen 1 963 ; B ra ss eu r 1 968 ) . D ur ing e a r l ie rp e r iod ss u ch s he l te r s mu s t h ave e x i s ted ,a sn o ta l l t h e p opu la t ion l i ved i nf i xed p e rmanen ts t r uc tu r es s u ch a sb an co r oundhou se s . Among t h e t r ue n omad s , t h e T ua r eg f o r e xamp le , t e n t s f o rm t h e ma jo r s he l te r t y pe . N ico la i sen ( 1 963 )c a ta logued 2 9d i f f e r en tt y pe so ft e n tf r ame a mong t h e T ua r eg . Two t y p e s o fs t r uc tu re s a r e u s ed , t h e t r u ly p o r tab le s k in t e n t , a nd t h e h eav ie r f r ame a nd m a t t e n t ( F aeg r e 1 979 :67 ) . T he d es c r ip t ion o ft h e B e rbe r t e n t b y I b n B a t tu ta ( s ec t ion 4 . 2bü ) i lus t ra te s t h a t f r ame a nd m a t t e n t s h ave c hanged l i t t le s i nce t h em id -14 th c en tury AD . P ermanen t Dwe l l ing s : I n a r ea s o ccup ied b y t h e S ongha i w he re t h e Mo roc can s f a i led t o p ene tra te , i e . s ou th o f

A n songo , a nd w h ich w e re n o t s ub je c t t o t h e u pheava l s s uf e r ed i n t h e G ao a r ea , p e rmanen t r oundhou se c on s tr uc t ion i n b anco a nd s t raw i s c ommon ( B ra sseu r 1 968 :127 ) . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e S ongha i h ave at e nden cy t o s e t t le p e rmanen t ly w he r eve r f e a s ib le , a nd i t c an b e p ropo sed t h a t am ix o fp e rmanen t v i l lages a nd p o r t ab le h u t s w ou ld h ave b een u sed b y t h e p ro to -Songha i , a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e c u r ren t m i l lenn ium , n o t s o l e ly i mpe rmanen t " t o r to i se h u t s " . T he s u rv ey d a ta c o l le c ted b y D awa ( 1 985 ) s uppo r t s t h e p i c tu r e o fp e rmanen t s e t t lemen t s o u t s ide o f t h e u r ban a r ea s , a s r oundhou ses i n b anco a nd s t one w e r e r e co rded a nd d en s i ty o f o c cupa t ion s i t e s w a s h i gh . I mpe rmanen t m ob i le s he l t e r s w ou ld h ave b een p r ima r i ly c onc en t ra t ed a way f r om t h e r i ve r w i th t r ue n omad s . T rad i t iona l S ongha i d ome s t ic p l ann ing a nd s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu r e h a s l i t t le i n c ommon w i th I s lam ic m ode l s . T he s t r uc tu r e o f s e t t lemen t s s ou th o f A n songo s how s t h a t t h ey f o low a p a t te rn o f r oundhouse a gg lome ra t ion w i th n o r e gu la r s t re e t -p lan . c ommon ly f ound t h roughou t t h i s r e g ion o f A f r ica , a s a tL abbezenga , w he r e b o th r oundhous e s a nd m o sque s a r e f o und ( F igu r e 4 .2 ) . T h i s a ga in i lu s t ra te s t h a t o u t s ide o ft h e u r ban e nv i ronmen t m o r e t r ad i t iona l p a t ter n s w e r e l a rge ly ma in ta ined . Whe r e r e c tangu la r , t e r ra ced b an co

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5 2

h u t s a r e f o und , b e tween T imbuk tu a nd L ake D ebo f o r e xamp le ,t h e i ru se wou ld a pp ea rt ob e f a i r ly r e cen t ; B r a ss eu r ( 1 968 :127 , 5 33 ) s t a tes t h a t t h e F rench a dm in i s t ra t ion e n cou raged t h e b u i ld ing o f b anco h u t s , a nd t h a t t e r r aced ( p resumab ly r e c tangu la r ) h u t sw e r en ow b ecom ing c ommon , e s pec ia l ly a ss t o r ehous e s . B a r th ( 1 965 :2 15 , 2 29 ) i nt h e m id 1 9 th c en tu r y AD e ncoun te red t h e u se o f b o th r e c tangu la r c ou r tya rd h ou se s , w he r eby t h e l i v ing q ua r t e r s , r e cep t ion r o om s , s t o r e rooms a nd c ook ing a r ea s a r e a r ranged i nwa rd l o ok ing a r ound a c en tra l c ou r tya rd , a nd r oundhou se s a mong s tt h e S ongha i . A tT inge , n ea r H ombo r i , h e s t ayed i n ac ou r tya rd h ou se b u i l to fs un -d r ied c l ay ( F igu r e4 . 3 ) , w h ich i so bv iou s ly i n f luenced b y I s lam i c m ode l s , w h i l s t a t t h e v i l lage o fF s aye o r I ' se , a l so i n t h e s ame a r ea , av a r i e ty o f r oundhou se sw e re i nu se . W i th in G ao A nc ien , b anco s t r uc tu r e s w e r e p r e sen t f r om a t l e a s tP e r iod 4( l a te 9 th c en tu ry AD ) , b u ti ti so n ly i nP e r iod 1t h a t d i r ec t e v idence f o r t h e s h ap e o f t h e se s t ruc tu r e s i s f o und . T he w a l l s , w h ich w e r e b u i l t c ommenc ing i n P ha se 1 C , a nd c on t inu ing i n l A a nd 1 B ( s ee C hap te r 3 ,s e c t ion 3 . 3c i i ) , f o rmed p a r t o f ar e c tangu la r o r s qua r e s t r uc tu r e . H oweve ra ni n f e rence a st ot h e s hape o ft h eb anco s t ruc tu r e s c an b em ad ef r om t h ep r e sence o ft h e d oo rf i t t ing s i nP e r iod 3 ,a nd d r a inp ipe f r agmen t s . I tc an b e s ugge s ted t h a t i ti s u n l ik e ly t h a ta n o rna te d oo rw i th c opp e rf i t t ing s w ou ld h ave b e en f i t ted t o ar oundhou se ( no t r ad i t ion o fs u ch ap r ac t ice i s r e co rded e i the r i n t h e A rab ic h i s to r ica l s ou r ce s o r t h e a va i lab le e t hnograph ic a ccoun t s ) , w h ich s ugge s t s t h a t t h e s t ruc tu r e t o w h ich t h e d oo r w a s f i t ted w a s p o s s ib ly r e c tangu la r o r s qua r e . S im i la r ly ar oundhou se w ou ld h ave b een t h a t ched a nd n o t f l a t roo f ed , h ence t h e d ra inp ip e f r agmen t s a l so s ugge s t t h a t r e c tangu la r o rs qua r e s t ruc tu r e s w e re b u i l t i n G ao A nc ien d ur ing t h e 1 0 th -12 th c en tu r ie s AD . W i th in t h e G ao a r ea i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t r e c tangu la r h ou se f o rm s c an b e e qua ted w i th I s lam , o r a t l e a s t w i th N o r th A f r i can c on tac t s . Away f r om t h e u r ban a r ea t h e a r chaeo log i ca l e v idence s ugge s t s t h a t t h e r o undhou se w a s

t h e d om inan t f o rm o f c on s t r uc t ion . T he m a jo r i ty o f t h e s t ruc tu r e sr e co rded b yD awa ( 1 985 ) i nt h e G ao R eg ion w e r e r oundhou se s b u i l t o u t o f b anco o n s t one f ounda t ion s . T he o n ly e xcep t ion i st h e p r e sence o ft h e " angu la r " w a l l a tA l B o ro , b u t t h e m a te r ia l s u sed i n i t s c on s t ruc t ion a r e n o t s p ec if ied . E thnog raph ic d a ta o n u rban h ou s ing i n G ao i n t h e r e cen t p a s t i sl a rge ly l a ck ing , u n l ike T imbuk tu w he r e much d a ta h a s b e en c ole c ted ( M ine r 1 953 ; Mauny 1 952b ) , b u t c ou r tya rd h ou se sa r ef ound i nG ao t o day .A ne xamp le o ft h i s t y pe o f h ou se i s p rov ided b y t h e r e s idence o f E Lmoc ta r T ou r e ; as pa c iou sc ou r tya rd h ou se b u i l t i nt h e 1 940 s o fm ud b r ick a nd b anco , r o o f ed w i th p a lm t r unk s a nd f i t ted w i th i mpor ted h a rdwood s hu t te r s a nd d oo r s . Among s t l e s s w el o f f am i l ie s , c on s truc t ion i ss im i la r ly i n b anco b u t o n a m uch l e s s g rand s c a le . T he c ompound b e long ing t o Ma iga , a l so i nG ao , i sa ga in i nwa rd l o ok ing a nd s u r rounded b y a n e nc lo s ing m ud b r ick w a l l , b u t i s l e s s " A rab " a nd m o r e " A f r ican " i n c ha ra c t e r , w i th i t s n ume rou s d we ll ing s , b o th t o r to i se h u t s a nd r e c tangu la r m u l t i roomed s t ruc tu r e s b u i l t o fb anco d o t ted a r ound t h ec ompound .

4 . 3c i i )O ther S truc ture s : Av a r ie ty o fo t he r t y p e s o f s t r uc tu re s m u s t h ave e x i s t ed i n G ao a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e c u r ren t m i l lenn ium . T he f i r ed b r ick b u i ld ing u ncove r ed i nG ao A nc ien m igh t h ave f o rmed p a r t o f ap a lace o r r i ch m e r chan t s h ou se , a nd Mauny ( 1 951 :844 -5 ) r e co rded t h e e x i s t ence o f an umbe r o f s ma l l o ne r oom h ou se s i nG ao A nc ien , p o s s ib ly k i o sk s o r s hop s , p e rhaps s im i la rt ot h o se a tK oumb iS a leh . D ep end ing o n t h e d eg re e o f I s lam iza t ion , c ara vans era i o r k hans ( t rav ele r s h o s te l s ) ,m a rk e t s , m ad ra sa s ( c o l leg ia te mo sque s o rp l a ce s o f s t udy ) ,a nd h ammam s ( b a th -hou se s ) m igh ta l l b ee xpec ted t o b e p r e sen t w i th in G ao . A l l t h e se s t ruc tu r e s s hou ld b e a r cha eo log ica l ly d e te c tab le , a nd f u r the r s u rvey a nd

F igu r e4 . 3 . C ou r tya rd h ou se a tT inge ,s c a le u nknown ( f rom B a r th 1 965 :215 ) .

5 3

e xcava t ion m ay r evea l t h em . O ne s t r uc tu re w h ich d oe s n o t a ppea rt oh ave e x i s ted i s at own w a l l ; n o t r ace o f aw a l l w a s f ound , wh ich a g rees w i th t h e d escr ip t ion o fG ago ( Gao ) b y L eo A f r icanu s i n t h e 1 6 th c en tu ry AD w ho m ent ion s t h a t

T he G ao A uden Mo sque : T he c onven t iona l ly r e c tangu la r mo sque e xcava ted b y Mauny p rov ide s u s w i th a w ea l th o f d a ta o n I s lam i nG ao ( F igu re 2 .4 ) , a nd t h e u se o fb o th b anco a nd f i red -b r i ck i so fi n te re s t . F i red -b r i ck u se i sr e s t r ic ted t o

t h e t own w a su n -wa l led ( 1896 :826 ) .

a n e l emen t o f g r ea t i mpo r tance , t h e m ih rab , ap o in t a l so r ema rked u pon b y P ru s s in ( 1986 :124 ) . Why wa s o n ly t h i s p a r t o f t h e m o sque b u i l t o f f i red -b r ick a nd n o t t h e w ho le b u i ld ing? A f unc t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion c an b e p ropo sed ; t h a t t h e c o s t s o fc on s t ruc t ing s uch a l a rge b u i ld ing o u t o ff i red -

4 . 3c i i i ) Mosque s : A v a r ie ty o f mo sque t ype s h ave b een r e co rded i n t h e G ao

b r ick a l one w e re t o o h i gh a nd h en ce t h e mo r e r e ad i ly a va i lab le m a te r ia l , b anco , w as u sed . B e s ide s t h e m o re f unc t iona l c on s ide ra t ions , i ti sp robab le t h a t f i red -b r ick w a s c ho sen a s ac onsc ious d ec i s ion t o o rnamen t a nd e mpha s ise t h e m ih rab . S uch au se i sp a ra l le l led i nt h e 1 6 th c en tu ry AD m o sque ,c onve r ted f r om ac a thedra l , a tQ a s r I b r im i nN ub ia ( J .A lexande rp e r . c omm . ) .

R eg ion ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s e c t ions 2 . 3a i a nd 2 . 5b ) . T he se p rov ide i n fo rma t ion n o to n ly o n a r ch i tec tu ra l s t y le s ,b u ta l so o n t he s ou r ce s o fI s lam ic i n f luence e xer ted u pon G ao , b o th g eog raph ica l ly a nd i nt e rms o fr e l ig iou sd o c tr ine . C ircu lar Mo sque s : I n s e c t ion 2 . 3a t h e r e co rd ing b y D awa ( 1985 ) o f a c i r cu la r mosque a t F ou l lod j i -Ko lo w a s m en t ioned . T he u se o f ac i rcu la rp lan f o r amo sque ,e ven f o r t h e mo re e pheme ra l e nc lo su re mo sque i su nusua l . K ha l i l ' s Mukh tasar , at r ea t ise o n Ma l ik i t e l aw , s pec if ie s t h a t a mosque s hou ld b er e c tangu la r ( P ru ss in 1 971 :137 ) ,h ence t h e

I ti sa l so n e ces sa ry t oe xam ine a na log ie s f o r f i red -b r ick u s e i n s u ch a c on t ex t . A p o s s ib le S pan i sh l i nk c an b e s e en . F i red -b r ick w a s u sed t o p ave t h e f l oo r o f t h e m ih rab c hambe r i n t h e c en t ra l mo sque a t A lme r ia i n s ou ther n A l A nda lu s ( Ewe r t 1 971 :F ig 4 ) , w i th w h ich G ao w a s c onne c ted

c ommon ly f ound mosque s hape i sr e c tangu la ro rs qua re . D e C o r se ( 1989 :135 ) f ound t ha t r ound mo sque s w e re b u i l t b y t h e Y a lunka , t h e mo s t I s lam ized g roup i n n o r thea s te rn S ie r ra L eone . T hese w e re v e ry s im i la r t o t h e d wel ings i n t h e a rea ,a nd w e re s ome t ime sa d jacen tt ot r ad i t iona l s hr ine s , " i nd ica t ing t h e s ync re t ic n a tu re o f r e l ig iou s b e l ie f s " ( I b id :135 ) . C lo se r t o G ao , R ouch ( 1953 :264 ) p rov ide s a

b yt r ade : A lmer ia w a s t h e s ou rce o ft h e m a rb le s t e lae f o und a t G ao -Saney . T he A lmer ia mosque w a s b u i l t i n t h e l a te 1 0 th c en tu ry AD a nd w a s e n la rged a tl e a s t t w ice i nt h e 1 th c en tu ry , a s w e l l a s b e ing r e -deco ra ted i n t h e 1 2 th c en tu ry ( Ewe r t 1 971 :394 -401) . T he e xcava to r s u gge s t s t ha t t h e f l oo r w a s r e la id i n t h e p o s t Is lam ic p er iod , b u t t ha t t h e b r ick s

p ho tog raph o f a n u nda ted c i rcu la r s t ruc tu re a t A r ib inda b e low Hombo r i o n t h e Ma l ian /Bu rk inabe b o rde r . T he se c i rcu la r s t one s t ruc tu res a r e c a l led mo sque s b y t h e S ongha i o ft he Gourma ( I b id :154 ) , b u t a r e n o t t r ue mosque s , r a the r

t h em se lve s w e re c e r ta in ly f r om t he I s lam ic p e r iod . T hey m easu re b e twe en 2 6 -31cm l e ng th x 1 2 -15cm w ide x 2 cm

t r ad i t iona lc u l tp laces a tw h ich Mu s l im r i te st a ke p l ace .

s im i la r i t ies b o th w i th t h e G ao Anc ien m ih rab b r ick s , a nd

d ep th , w h ich a cco rd ing t o Ewer t ( I b id :4 13 ) i sn o t u nusua l , a s I s lam i c b r ick s w e re o f ten e x t rao rd ina r i ly t h in . T he i r w i th t h ef l oo rb r ick s i nt h e f i red -br ick b u i ld ing u ncove r ed i n G ao A nc ien i nS ep tembe r 1 993 a re s t r ik ing .

I ti sp o s s ib le t ha t t h e s t one c i rcu la r " mosque " a t A r ib inda a nd t h e r ound mo sque s a t F oulod jo -Ko lo a nd O ue igoun r ep resen t as yn the s is o f A n im ism a nd I s lam . T he f a c t t h a t a l l t h ree e xamp les w e re f ound w i th in r u ra l a r ea s , w he re e ven t o day t r ad i t iona l r e l ig iou s b e l ie f s a mong t h e S ongha i

D i f f e rence s b e tween t h e A lmer ia a nd G ao m ih rabs d oe s n o t s uppo r t as o l e ly S pan i sh i n f luence . T he r e c tangu la r m ih rab i nA lmer ia m ea su re s 2 . 45m x 1 . 88m w h ich d i f f e r s f r om t h e s ma l le r , a pp rox ima te ly 2m d iame te r , o mega s haped m ih rab

a r e s t rong , i lus t ra te s t h e s upe rf ic ia l h o ld o fI s lam o u t s ide o f t h e u rban a r ea s . T he A r ib inda s t one c i r c le , w h ich a ppea r s t o h ave b een u sed a s ap l ace o f Mus l im p raye r d ue t o t h e p re sence o f s i x ma rk ings c ar ved o n i t s s t one s , r epo r ted ly made b y t he p rophe t ( Rouch 1 953 :154 ) , i sa na logou s w i th

i nG ao . A radeon ( 1989 :119 ) h a s s ugge s ted t ha t t h e u s e o fa m ih rab c hambe r a t G ao A nc ien i nd ica te s t ha t s t y l i s t ic i nf luence f r om t h e m a jo r mosque s i n t h e Magh reb r a the r t h an f r om S pa in w e re b e ing f e l t i n G ao . S he a r gue s ( I b id :119 ) t h a t m ih rab " chambe r s " , u sua l ly p o lygona l , a r e f ound i nt h e m a jo r A lmo rav id a nd A lmohad mo sque s i nt h e

t h e Y a lunka c i rcu la r mo sques , w he reby I s lam ic a nd A n im i s t e l emen t se x i s ts i de b ys i de .

Magh reb , f o r e xamp le i n t h e m id -12 th c e n tu ry AD m o sque T ha t t h e c i rcu la r mo sque s a t F ou l lod j i -Ko lo a nd O ue igoun

a tT inma l i n S ou the rn Mo rocco ( s ee E wen 1 986 :f ig 1f o r p lan ) . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e r ounded m ih rab c hambe rs h ape

w ou ld a ppea r t o b e e nc lo su re mosque s r a the r t h an r oo fed s t ruc tu re s i sa l so o fi n te re s t . A cco rd ing t oI bad i l aw , u n les s

a t G ao A nc ien i s al o ca l d eve lopmen t o f t h e Magh r eb ian

t h e I mam i st r ave l l ing , F r iday p raye r mus t t a ke p l ace i n a b u i l t mo sque . Ma l ik iF r iday p raye rc an b ec onduc ted o u t s ide o n a n e nc los ed a r ea w i th ama rked o u t M ihrab , e ven i fo n ly d ef ined b y al i ne o fs t ones o n t h e g round , b u t I bad i p raye r s c anno t ( T r im ingham 1 964 :83 ; A radeon 1 990 :111 ) . T h i s a l lows ad i f f e ren t iat ion b e tween I bad i a nd Ma l ik i r i tes t ob e

p o lygona l m ih rab c hambe r , h oweve ri ti s mo re p robab ly t h e r e su l t o f t h e f u s ion o f a n umbe r o f e x te rna l I s lam ic i n f luence s , Magh reb ian , E gyp t ian , a nd A nda lus ian , r a the r t h an a ny o ne d om inan t t r a i t . T h is c an a l so b e s een i n t h e v a r ie ty o f ma te r ia l i mpo r ted i n to Gao A n c ien f r om t h e w ide r I s lam ic w o r ld . T he l u xu ry c e ram ics a nd g l a ss a r e d e r ived

made b a sed u pon a r chaeo log ica le v idence ,a nd i tc an b e s e en

f r om a v a r i e ty o f s ou rce s , i nd ica t ing mu l t i -d i re c t iona l c omme r ce ,a nd b yi n f e rence ,i n f luence sa sw e l l .

t ha t t h e mo sque s a t F ou l lod j i -Ko lo a nd O ue igoun a r e Ma l ik i . T he i r r ough c on s truc t ion a nd s hape m ake i t e x t reme ly u n l ike ly t ha t t h ey w e re I bad i , a s t h ey w ou ld n o t mee tt h er equ i red s pec if ica t ion s .

T he o r ig ins o ft h e b u t t re ss ing u sed t o s uppo r t t h e m o sque w a l l s a l so n e ed s c ons ide ra t ion ( F igu re 2 . 4 ) . P russ in a r gue s

5 4

( 1986 :126 ) t h a t t h e u se o fb u t t re ss ing a nd t h e p re sence o f

p opu la t ion " , w ho c ou ld h a rd ly h ave mus te red t h e r e sou r ce s

t h e c i r cu la r m ih rab s ugge s t s t ha t t h e G ao A nc ien mosque w a s d e r ived f r om al o ca l "Mand ing " a r ch i tec tu ra l t r ad i t ion . T he d es c r ip t ive t e rm "Mand ing" i sm i s lead ing ,a si ts ugge s t s a n a r ch i tec tu ra l c on t inuum e x i s ted t h roughou t We s t A f r ica , w h ich i sn o t t h e c a se a s d iver se s t y le s o f a r ch i tec tu re a r e f o und . I ti su n r ea l i s t ic t o a t temp t t oa pp ly a Mand ing l a be l

t o r ebu i ld a l a rge a nd i mpor tan t monumen t . H ence t h e s t ruc tu re w e s e e t oday , t hough much a l te red , i si n e s sence o ne o fs ome a n t iqu i ty . T he mo s td e ta i led ,a nd c e r ta in ly mo s tf a nc i fu l i n te rp re ta t ion o f i t s o r ig in a nd f unct ion w a s p ropo sed b y P ru s s in ( 1986 :124 -31) , w ho s ugge s t s t h a t t h e monumen t s i t s o n

t o t h e a r ch i te c tu re o f Gao , w h ich w a s t h e c ap i ta l o f t h e S ongha ie mp i re ,a nd c en tre o ft h e S ongha ip eop le , w ho w e re l i nked i n to ad i f f e ren t c u l tu ra l a nd e conom ic c omp lex f r om t h e w es te rn o r ien ted Mande . T he i d en t if ica t ion w i th t h e Mande i sr em in i scen t o f t h e c u r ren t d eba te a bou t e t hn ic i ty i nt h eG ao R eg ion ( Lange 1 991 , 1 994 a nd H unw ick 1 994 ) .

t h e ; " s a c red a nce s t ra lp lace o ft h e p r e Is lam ized D ia K ing s " ; G ao A nc ien o n ly c om ing i n to p rom inence i n t h e 1 4 th c en tu ry AD a nd G ao -Saney b e ing t h e e a r l ie r Mu s l im c en t re . A s t h e d i scu s s ion i n p re ced ing s e c t ion s h a s s hown , t h i s i n te rpre ta t ion o f s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re i sw rong , b u t P ru s s in d oe s s ugge s t t ha t t h e p r e sence o f t h e d oub le p ro je c t ing

F rom at e chn ica lp e r spec t ive , t h e u s eo fb u t t re ss ing i mp l ie s

m ih rab , w h ich w a s a l so r ema rked u pon b y Mauny ( 1950 :67 ) , b e i n te rp re ted a s am inba r a nd m ih rab , r a the r t han d oub le m ih rab w h ich i s c ha rac te r i s t ic o f t h e Ma l ik i

ab u i ld ing o fs ome h e igh t , a nd i sd i f f e r en t t o t h e s t ruc tu ra l r e in fo rc ing u sed i n t he l a te 1 2 th -13 th c en tu ry AD f i red b r ick b u i ld ing u ncove red i nG ao A nc ien , 1 50m t ot h e e a s to f

mo sque s i nt h e Mzab r eg ion . I ti sf u r the r p roposed t h a t t h e e x i s tence o f t h e m ih rab -m inba r c an b e d a t ed t o ap e r iod

t h e mosque ( I n sol 1 994a ) . P i l la r s b u i l t o u t o f f i red -b r ick w e re f ound i n s ide t h is s t ruc tu re . T h is i sn o t a n i nd igenou s

w hen t h e I mam w a s i n ve s ted w i th p o l i t ica l a u tho r i ty ,

t e chn ique a nd , a s d i scussed a bove , i mp l ie s N or th A f r ican i n f luence . B o th t e chn iques h ave t h e i r a dvan tage s , f i red -

p o s s ib ly d ur ing

t h e J ihad s

o f t h e

1 9 th

c en tu ry

AD .

A longs ide t h e Ma l ik i f e a tu re s , P ru s s in s ee s I b ad i i nf luence i nt h e t h ree l e ve l s o f t h e s t ruc tu re a nd i t s s t a i rca se m ina re t

b r ick i s am a te r ia l mo re s u i ted t op i l la r c on s t ruc t ion , w h i l s t b anco c an b e u s ed i n c on junc t ion w i th t imbe r r oo f s uppor t s a nd b u t tre s s ing . T he c o -ex i s tence o f d i f f e ren t a r ch i tec tu ra l s t y le s a ga in i l us t ra te s t h e mu l t ipl i c i ty o f i n f luence s b e ing

( I b id :1 29 -130 ) .

e xe r ted u pon G ao ,b o th i mpo r ted a nd i nd igenou s .

T he r e cogn i t ion o f t h e i nf luence o f d i f f e ren t s e c t s o f I s lam w i th in t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu res o ft h e mosque a nd t omb o f A sk ia Muhammed i so fi mpor tance .L ea ry ( 1 978 :276 ) p o in t s

T he Mosque a nd T omb o f A sk ia Muhammed : A t h i rd m o sque i n G ao i s t h e mosque a nd t omb o f A sk ia Muhammed w ho r e igned b e tween AD 1 493 a nd 1 528 , a nd d i ed a cco rd ing t ot h e T ar ikh e sS oudan ,i n AD 1 538 ( Mauny

o u t t h a t , a l though f ound i n t h e S aha ra ( f o r e xamp le i n t h e C h ingue t t i mosque , 1 3 th -15 th c en tu r ie s AD ) , t h e m ih r ab m inba ri sn o t f ound t ot h e e a s t o fG ao . I t wa s n o t p resen t i n t h e G ao A nc ien mo sque , w h ich s ugge s t s t h a t i t s a dop t ion i n

1 950 :66 ) , a nd i ti sp os s ib le t ha t t h e s t ruc tu re w a s f ounded a r ound t h i s d a te . Mauny ( I b id :67 ) ) a rgues t ha t t h e t r ad i t ion a st oA sk ia Muhammed 's d ea th a nd t h e c on s truc t ion o f t h e m o sque a nd t omb i s v e r if ied b y t omb s tone s i n t h e n e ighbou r ing c eme te ry o f G u i rakand ie , w h ich a r e t ho se o f A sk ia Muhammed 's s ons . B a r th ( 1965 :480 ) m en t ions t h a t h ec amped n ea r ; " t he r u ined ma s s ive t owe r ,t h el a s tr ema in s

G ao w a s l a te r t han t h e 1 3 th c en tu ry AD , t hough t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry d a te s ugge s ted b y P rus s in w ou ld a ppea r t ob e b o th t o op rec is ea nd t oo l a te . T he e x i s tence o f I bad i f e a tu re s i n t h e a r ch i tec tu re o f t h e We s ter n S ahe l h a s b een t h e s ub jec t o f d eba t e . Me r c ie r ( 1928 ) s ugge s ted t ha t t h e m ina re t s o f t h e Wes ter n S udan h ave t h e i rp ro to type si nt h e Mzab , a nd S chach t ( 1954 , 1 957 , 1 961 ) e xpanded t h is i d ea w hen h e p roposed t h a t t h e a r cha ic

o f t h e p r inc ipa l mo sque . . . the s epu lch re o f t h e g rea t c onque ro r , Muhammed " . T h is t owe r i sd e s cr ibed ( I b id :482 ) a sr i s ing i ns e ven " t e r ra ce s " , w h ich b ea r s n o r e semb lance t o t h e t omb t o day , a nd a s P ru s s in ( 1986 :129 ) p o in t s o u t t h e a c company ing i lus tra t ion i n B a r th ( 1965 :480 ) s how s o n ly

t y p e o f s t a i rca se m ina re t f ound i n c e r ta in a r ea s o f We s t A f r ica h a s i t s p ro to type i n I bad i a r ea s o f N or th A f r ica , f o r e xamp le D je rba I s land a nd S ou s se i n T un i s ia . A n e xam ina t ion o ft h e mo sque s i na no the r p redom inan t ly I bad i a r ea , t h e Mzab i nA lge r ia , i lus t ra tes t h a t t h e re a r e s t r ik ing s im i la r i t ie s b e tween s ome o f t h e mo sque s f ound t h e re a nd t h o se i n t h e We s te rn S ahe l . E xamp le s o f t h i s a re p rov ided b y t h e n ow d e s t royed mo sque a t E l -A teuf , t h e f i r s t I bad i t own f ounded i nt h e Mzab i n AD 1 012 f o l low ing t h e m ove

t h ree t e r ra ce s . L ea ry ( 1978 :276 ) h a s a rgued o n t h e b a s i s o f B a r th ' s d e sc r ip t ion t h a t t h e p resen t t h ree l e ve l s t ruc tu r e d a te s f r om t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry AD , j e . , a f te r t h e v i s i t o f B a r th . H oweve r F a r ia s ( p e r s . c omm . ) h a s s ugge s ted a n a l terna t ive a nd

f r om S ed ra ta ( B i sson 1 962 :215 ; R o che 1 970 :25 ) , a nd t h e mo sque a nd t omb o fA sk ia Muhammed . T he Mzab mo sque s a r e s omewha t mo re r ef ined b u t t h e u se o f c o lumns a nd t h e m ina re ts t y le sa r et h es ame .

c onv inc ing e xp lana t ion t oa ccoun tf o rt h e c onfu s ion o ve rt h e n umbe ro fl e ve ls . B ar th , w ho w a s i l d ur ing h i s s t ay i nG ao , wa sc onf u sed ,a nd m ixed h i s d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e mo sque w i th t h a to fA gadez .C onfus ion o ve rt h i s monumen ta ppea r st ob e ar e cu r ren t t h eme a s D esp lagne s , w ho v i s i ted G ao 4 0 y ea r s l a t e r , p rov ide s ap ho tog raph o f t h e monumen t , w h ich i s

I nc e r ta in r e spec t st h ese s im i la r i t ie s a r e d i c ta ted b yt h e s ame c ons t ruc t ion ma te r ia ls b e ing e mp loyed , b anco a nd p a lmwood , b u t i n o the r r e sp ec t s t h e s im i la r i t ies a re d ue t o I b ad i p re sence i n , a nd i nf luence u pon , t h e We s ter n S ahe l , a nd s pe c if ica l ly u pon G ao ( d iscus sed f u r the r i n C hap te r 5 ) . T he r emnan tI bad if e a tu re si nt h e mosque a nd t omb o fA sk ia Muhammed i lus t ra te , a s d id t h e v a r ie ty o f f e a tu re s i n t h e

i d en t ica l t ot h es t ruc tu r e s een t oday ,b u ta sc r ib e s i tt o Mansa Mu sa ( s ee C hap te r2 ,s ec t ion 2 . 3a ) . I fL ea ry i st ob eb e l ieved t h e mosque a nd t omb w e re r ebu i l t b e tween B a r th 's a nd D e sp lagne ' sr e spe c t ive v i s i t s ,b u tt h is c anno tb es uppor ted a s B a r th ( I b id :480 ) a l so men t ion s t h a t w hen h e v i s i ted G ao i t w a s ; " now t h e d e so la te a bode o f as ma l l a nd m ise rab le 5 5

G ao A nc ien mosque , t h e mu l t ipl ic i ty o f I s lam ic i n f luence s e xe r ted u pon G ao . F ur the rmo re , t h e mosque a nd t omb o f A sk ia Muhammed r ep resen t s t h e f u l l d eve lopmen t o f t h e S udane se S ty le , f r om w ha t h a s b een t e rmed t h e N ige r B end

t h ey w e re a lway s av a r ian t o f t h e s ame b a s ic f o rm , t h e t umu lu s ( Mauny 1 961 :75 ) . T he se i n c luded t h e B as ina , w he re t h e b ody w a s p l aced i n at r ench , t h e t r ench f i l led i n , a nd c over ed w i th a c i r cu la r h eap o f s t one s , al ow c a i rn

v a r ian to fI s lam ic r e l ig iou s a r ch i tec ture .

( Mauny 1 971 :78 ) , a nd t h e more e l abo ra te s t epped s t one C houche t s , t h e u se o f w h ich f o r b u r ia l M i lburn ( 1981 :51) h a s a rgued , c ont inued i n to t h e I s lam i c p e r iod . A longs ide

4 .3d ) S ummary : Ag rea tv a r ie ty o fb u i ld ing ma te r ia l sa nd a r ch i te c tu ra l f o rm s

t h e se t wo t y pe s av a r ie ty o fo the r f u ne r a ry monumen t s w e re b u i l t ; i n c lud ing c r e scen t , h a l f -moon , k ey -ho le a nd v shaped t umu l i ( Monod 1 932 :20 -56 ; Mauny 1 961 :76 -90 , 1 971 :78 ;

a r e f ound i n t h e G ao R eg ion , h oweve r , i t h a s p roved p o s s ib le t oi s o la te a n umbe r o ff e a tu res w h ich a ppea r t ob e

S e rp ion 1 994 :108 ) . T hese monumen t s a r e f ound e x tens ive ly t h roughou t t h e S aha ra , a nd t ot he n o r th o fG ao i nt h e Ad ra r

a t t r ibu tab le t o Nor th A f r ican c on tac t s a nd t h e i nf luence o f I s lam . T he se i n c lude ; t h e u se o f f i red -b r ick a nd p la s te r , mou ld t e chno logy , r e c tangu la r h ou se p lans , a nd mo sque p lan s a nd f i t t ings .

d e s I f o r a s , f o r e xamp le a t t h e s i te o f O ued A taoue t ( Ra imbau l t 1 991a :121) . L ho te ( 1956 :404 ) r e co rd s t h a t n on I s lam i c t umu l i o f S aha ran t ype a r e f ound i n t h e T i lems i V a l ley a nd u p t ot h e b ank s o ft h e N ige r n ea r t oG ao , w he re t h ey a r e f ound i n , " t ou tes l e sp e t i te s c r i tes s i tuges a u N ord e ta uN ord E s td e l al o ca l i tg " .

4 .4 ) F unerary P rac t ice s a nd Monumen t s i n t he G ao R eg ion :

I n C hap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 . 3b t h e u se o fs t one c i rc les a s g r ave m a rke r s f o r Mu s l im b u r ia ls i n t h e N ige r B end a r ea w a s r ema rked u pon . T he i r u se a ppea r s t oh ave b een r e s t r ic ted t o t h e T ua reg , a nd g roup s w h ich w e re i n c on tac t , o r w e r e a s so c ia ted w i th t h em , s uch a s t h e m a rabou t ic K oun ta c l an ,

4 .4a )I n troduc t ion : T he Mu s l im b u r ia l r i te i sv e ry d i s t inc t ive , a nd i ss ub jec t t o s t r ic tr u le s w h ich e nsu re t h a t al a rge ly u n if ied r i te i su sed i n a l l r eg ion s o f t h e I s lam ic w o r ld . T he g rave p i t i so r ien ted f a c ing t h e q ib la o ft h e mo sque , a nd t h e d eepes t p a r t o f t h e p i t i sd ug n a r rowe r t or e ce ive t h e c o rpse l y ing o n i t s s i de w i th i t s f a ce t owa rd t h e m ih rab ( A lexande r 1 979 :217 ) . T he

a nd p o s s ib ly t h e T ua reg s l ave s ( Bela ) . C on tempo r a ry B e l la g r ave s a r e r ound i n s hape , a nd M ine r ( 1953 :233 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h ey r ep resen t a n a ma lgama t ion o f t h e a nc ien t T ua r eg c i r cu la r g rave t yp e ( s ee b e low ) w i th t h e Mu s l im f o rm . S tone c i rc les a re f ound o nt h eN ige rB end a nd v a ry f r om 6 0 -80 cm d i ame te r t o3 -6m f o rA u l l im inden c h ief s

g rave s hou ld n o t b e d ug t o od eep , u sua l ly t o ad ep th o fo ne m e t re o r s o , o r t h e d ecea sed " canno t h ea r t h e c r y o f t h e muezz in " ( M ine r 1 953 :225 ) . C o ff in s a r e o p t iona l a nd g rave g ood sa r en o tb u r ied w i th t h ec o rp se o the rt h an as h roud a nd s ome t ime s g rave c l o th s ( D ick ie 1 978 :30 ; T r im ingham 1 959 :179 ; M ine r 1 953 :224 ) . T he u se o f g rave ma rke r s ,

( De sp lagne s 1 907 :46 ) . I ti sp o ss ib le t h a t t h e u se o f s t one c i r c le s a mong t h e T ua reg a nd t h e g roup s mo s t c l o se ly c onnec ted w i th t h em , r ep resen t s ac on t inua t ion o f p re I s lam ic p ra c t i ce s .

t omb s tone sa nd memo r ia l sd epends u pon s e c ta r ian c us tom .

T he c o -ex i s t ence o f n on Is lam ic a nd I s lam ic e l emen t s i n

T he p re sence o f t h e Mu s l im b u r ia l r i te i s a r cheo log ica l ly r e cogn i sab le , a nd w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion i ti se mp loyed b y a l l Mu s l ims . Howeve r , a s w i th a r ch i tec tu re , d i ve r s i ty i s a ppa ren t . A r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h e c o -ex is tence o f a w ide r ange o f b u r ia l p ra c t ice s a nd f une ra ry monumen t s i n t h e Wes ter n S ahe l a nd S udan b e tween t h e 1 0 th -13 th c en tu r ie s AD h a s b een f ound , a nd many d i f f e ren t t y pe s o f g rave ma rke r w e re u sed i nt h e G ao R eg ion , s ome o fw h ich w e re d eve loped f r om p re I s lam ic t r ad i t ion s . G ao i sa t t h e

T ua r eg t omb sh a s b een c ommen ted o n b y Ma in ly ( 1971 :78 ) , w ho s t a te s t h a t mode rn T ua reg t omb s o f ten f olow a nc ien t mode l s , b u t t h e p re sence o f ma rke r s t one s a t t h e h ead a nd f oo to ft h e g r ave a nd t h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e b u r ia l s how t h a t t h ey a r e I s lam ic . A r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h is c o e x i s tence w a s f ound b y M i lbur n ( I b id :52 ) i n t h e p redom inan t ly T ua reg A i r a r ea o f t h e S aha ra . H e e ncoun te red b o th t h e c l a s s ic Mus l im t omb w i th n o r th -sou th o r ien ta t ion a nd m a rke r s t one s , a nd t h e u s e o f l a rge c i r cu la r a nd o va ls t one e nc lo su re sf o r Mus l im b u r ia ls .

i n te r f ace b e tween t wo z ones ; t h e S aha ran z one o f b u r ia l u nde r s t one t umu l i , a nd t h e S udann ic z one o f b u r ia l u nde r e a r then t umu l i . A longs ide t h e se t wo b road g roup ings m any o the r v a r ie t ies o f b u r ia l a r e e ncoun te red ( s ee f o r e xamp le Mauny 1 961 , 1 971 ; Mc In to sh a nd Mc In to sh 1 980 , 1 988 ; K ie thega e t a l 1 993 ) . T he r ema inde r o f t h e c hap te r w il d i scuss t h et ype so ff une ra ry p rac t ices a nd monumen t s f ound i n t h e G ao R eg ion , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f f i red -b r ick t omb s

4 .4c ) P ro to -Songha i R i te s ( Communa l B ur ia l a nd p re -

wh ich h ave b een d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 2 , s e c t ions 2 . 7 a nd 2 . 8 .

a nd w e re o r ien t ed w i th t h e h ead t ot h e e a s t a nd t h e f e e t t o t h e w e s t , a so ppo sed t ot h e Mus l im n o r th -s ou th o r ien ta t ion i nt h e r eg ion . T he se b u r ia l s w e re c er ta in ly n o t Mus l im , a nd p rov ide a n i n d ica t ion o f o ne o f t h e p re Is lam ic b u r ia l

I s lam ic i nd iv idua l I n termen t ) : A n e xamp le o fp r e I s lam ic i n termen t i ns i ng le g rave s f ound a t K o ima h a s a l ready b een men t ioned ( Chap te r 3 , s e c t ion 3 . 2c ) . T he s i x b u r ia ls w h ich w e r e d i s cove red w e re l a id f l a t

4 .4b ) S aharan T ype s o fB ur ia l . Mus l im a nd Non - Mu s l im

t r ad i t ions o f t h e G ao r eg ion . A t p re sen t t h ey a r e u nda ted ,

( S tone C irc le s ,B as ina s , C houche t s ) :

b u t p o t te ry d a ted t o AD 2 50 -800 w a s f ound a r ound t h e P r io r t o t h e a r r iva l o f I s lam i n t h e r eg ion , av a r ie ty o f

b u r ia ls . E a s t -w e s t o r ien ta t ion a pp ea r s t o b e ac ommon f e a tu re o f p r e I s lam ic b u r ia l . D e sp lagne s ( 1907 :55 )

f une ra ry monumen t s w e re b u i l t b y S ahe l ian B e rbe r s , b u t 5 6

m en t ions t ha tt h e n ume rous t umu l i h er e co rded i nt h eL ake s r eg ion w e re g ene ra l ly a l igned e a s t -we s t o n t h e i r b ase l i ne .

e va lua ted u n t i l f u r the r i n ve s t iga t ion o f t h e N ige r b e twe en G ao a nd t h e a n im i s t S ongha i s t rongho ld s a round

Whe re t h ey o ccu r red t oge the r t h ey w e re o r ien t ed i n ah a l f c i r c le w i th t h e a r c f a c ing e a s t -w e s t . F lexed i n huma t ion i n

B en t iya /Kuk iya a nd L abb ezenga i sp o ss ib le . H oweve r i tc an b e h ypo the s i zed t h a t t h e c on t inua t ion o f n on Is lam ic b u r ia l p ra c t ice s i n to mo re r e cen t t imes w i l l b e f ound i n t h e s ou the rn r eg ion s ,w he re I s lam ic p ene t ra t ion h a s a lway sb een

s i ng le g rave s c ou ld a l so b e e xpec ted , D awa ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 . 3b ) men t ions t ha t h e f ound s i ng ly i n te r red s ke le ton s i n av a r ie ty o f p o s i t ions w h ich a r e u n fo r tuna te ly u n spe c if ied .

w eak .

D awa ( 1985 :50 ) a l so r e co rded t h e u se o fc ommuna l g rave s

4 .4 e )I s lam ic R i tes ( F ired -Br ick B order s ) :

a t t h e c eme te ry a nd s e t t lemen t s i te o f Mou laye -Bango . G rave s c on ta in ing s eve ra l s ke le ton s w e re a l so f ound a t D aama T ondo ( I b id :26 ) . T h i s i so fi n te re s t a ss im i la rg r ave s

T he a s soc ia t ion b e twe en f i r ed -b r ick a nd I s lam ic f une ra ry monumen t s a t G ao -Saney h a s a l ready b een d i scus sed i n

h ave b een f ound o n t he p e r ime te r o ft h e u rban a r ea o fG ao A nc ien b y F ar ia s ( Pe r s . c omm . ) . T he c ommuna l b u r ia l s i n

C hap te r 3 .A na ly s i s o ft h e d a ta p rov ided b y D awa p rov ide s f u r the r e v idence o f t h e a s soc ia t ion b e tween f i red -b r ick a nd

G ao A nc ien a r e n on - Mus l im a nd i nt h i s c on tex ta r ep o s s ib ly

I s lam ic b u r ia l , w i th i t s u se a s a n e dg ing o r c urb . D awa ( 1 985 :103 ) a rgue s t h a t f i red -b r ick i so n ly f ound i n Mu s l im

e i the r o ne o ft h e f ew a r chaeo log ica l ly v i s ib le i nd ica t ion s o f s l avery o r i nd igenous a n im i s t s . T he p o s i t ion ing o f t h e c ommuna lg rave so nt h ee dge o ft h eu rban a r ea ,w h ich h ad a s ubs tan t ia l Mu s l im p opu lat ion f r om t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD o nward s wou ld a ppea rt ob ed e l ibe ra te . S l ave sw e re t r aded a t G ao , a nd t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e se g raves ( on t h e p e r iphe ry o f m e r can t i le G ao A nc ien ) d oe s n o t a pp ea r t o i n d ica te g r ea t

L ake sR eg ion o f Ma l i ,w he r ei t su se i sr e cen t . D eG i roncou r t ( 1 920 :308 ) a l so m en t ions a g rave a tB en t iya /Kuk iya w h ich w a s b o rde red b y a n o va l e nc lo su re o f u pr igh t b r ick s . T he

s oc ia ls t a tu s .

b r i ck st h emse lves w e re o va l i ns hape a nd s im i la r t oo ne s h e s aw i nt h et own o fD ia ,a bove D jenne .L ho te ( 1956 :404 )a l so r e co rd s t h a t h e s aw s ma l l f i red -b r ick s u sed t o ma rk o u t

4 . 4d ) Unu sed T ype so f Bur ia l : T he a bsence o fc er ta in g rave t ype s i nt h e G ao R eg ion w h ich

t omb sa tB en t iya /Kuk iya .

a r e c ommon e l sewhe re i n t h e Wes ter n S ahe l a nd S udan s hou ld a l so b e n o ted . H ypogea o f t h e t y p e f ound i n s ou thwe s te rn Ma l i a re n o t e ncoun te red . A lso a b sen t a r e j a r b u r ia l s , w h ich a r e w ide ly r epo r ted f r om t h e I n land N ige r D e l ta ( Desp lagne s 1 907 :47 ; S zumow sk i 1 955 :66 ; B edaux 1 978 :167 -170 ; Mc In to sh a nd Mc In to sh 1 980 :74 ) , w he re

T he u se o f f i red -b r ick ( a t B en t iya /Kuk iya ) a s am eans o f d ema rca t ing t omb s i so fi n te re s t , a nd i sa l so f ound i n G ao , w he re i t w a s r e co rded b y D esp lagne s ( 1907 :73 ) , w ho d e sc r ibe s t h e " f e t ish i s t " t omb s h e s aw w h ich w e r e s u r rounded b y c i r c les o f f i red -br ick s e t v e r t ica l ly o n e nd . T he i d en t if i ca t ion o ft h e f i red -b r ick t omb s w i th a n im is t s o r " f e t i sh i s t s " i s w rong , a s f i red -b r ick t omb s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th Mu s l ims r a the r t h an a n im i s t s . H ence i tw ou ld a ppea r

t h e i r u se p e r s i s t s u n t i l t h e 1 7 th -18 th c en tu r ie s AD , l o ng a f t e r t h e p ene t ra t ion o f I s lam ( K ie thega e t a l 1 993 :434 ) . S im i la r ly t h e a b sence o fb u r ia l u nde r e a r the rn t umu l i i nt h e G ao R eg ion i sr ema rked u pon b y Mauny ( 1 950 :848 ) , a nd t h e re i sa n a b sence o fb u r ia l i n a s soc ia t ion w i th u p tu rned

t h a t D e sp lagne s w a s d es cr ib ing a Mu s l im c eme te ry , w h ich

a n th ropomo rph ic p o t te ry a nd s t a tue t te s . T he l a t te r f o rm o f i n huma t ion h a s b een r e co rded j u s t s ou th o ft h e G ao R eg ion . G ado ( 1993 :369 -373 ) r epor t s i t s u se a tt h e i mpor tan t s i te o f A s inda -S ika t o t h e s ou th o f t h e Ma l i -N ige r b o rde r , w he re t h e ma in p e r iod o fo ccupa t ion h a s b een d a ted t ob e tween t h e 3 rd -13 th c en tu r ie s AD . D esp lagne s ( 1907 :47 ) r e co rd s t h a t t h e S ongha i o f t h e T er n a nd t h e S i rba b u r ied c o rp se s i n a c r ouched p o s i t ion w i th g rave -good s , i n ac one -shaped h o le , w h ich i ns andy a rea s wa sr ep la ced w i th al a rge j a r . A no the r t yp e o f g rave ma rke r w h ich m igh t b e e xpec ted t o h ave b een u sed o n Mu s l im g raves i n t h e G ao R eg ion ,

u n fo r tuna te ly w a s u n -named , a nd c anno t n ow b e l o ca ted . Mauny ( 1950 :841) a nd L ho te ( 1956 :404 ) a l so r e f e r t o t h e u se o f f i red -b r ick f o r m a rk ing o u t c i r cu la r t omb s a t G ao . T he c eme te ry w h ich M a nny e xam ined c on ta in ing t h ese g r ave s i sa ga in u nfo r tuna te ly u n -named , b u t i sd e scr ibed a s b e ing t ot h e n or th o ft h eR ou te d u T i lems i ,b y t h e a i rf ie ld . T he u se o f f i red -b r ick i n f u ne ra ry c on tex ts h a s a l so b een r ema rked u pon b y D e sp lagne s ( 1907 :73 ) , a nd w a s n o t iced b y t h e a u tho r i n t h e c eme te ry o f S h i t id ibe w h ich i sl o ca ted 1 00m n or thea s to ft h ep ol i ce p o s to n t h e t r a ck t oG ao -Saney . T he e xac t d a te o f t h i s c eme te ry i sn o t k nown , b u t i tw ou ld a ppea r t o b e f a i r ly r e cen t , a l though i ti sn o l onge r u sed . H e re f i red -br ick s ( t i le i sn o t t h e c o r re c t d e sc r ip t ive t e rm ) o f amuch s ma l le rs i ze t h an t h o se u sed i nt h eb u i ld ings a tG ao S aney a nd G ao A nc ien w e re b e ing e mp loyed t o f o rm r e c tangu la r r a the r t h an c i r cu la r o r o va l e dg ings . A b r ick f r om S h i t id ibe m ea su red 1 2 .5cm x 1 2 .5cm x 2 cm , a s

c ons ide r ing i t s S o rko a ssoc ia t ions , b u t w h ich a r e s o f a r a bsen t , a r e p o t te ry t uye re s a nd b o t t le -ne ck s . D esp lagne s ( 1907 :48 ) r e co rd s t ha t t uye re s e t i n to g rave s w e re u sed f o r p our ing l i ba t ions o r of er ing s t ot h e d ead a sl a te a st h e e a r ly 2 0 th c en tu ry AD ,a nd h ep rov ide sa n i lu s t ra t ion o fS o rko o r B ozo t omb s s u rmoun ted w i th t uye r e ( I b id :F ig 5 1) .

c eme te r ies , w he re c i r cu la r a nd o va l b o rde r s o f f i red -b r ick a r e e ncoun te red , a nd h e r ema rks t ha t t h i s d eno tes ac e r ta in o r ig ina l i ty i n t h e G ao R eg ion . T he p rac t ice o f u s ing f i red b r ick i n s uch a f une ra ry c on tex t i sn o t c ommon o u t s ide o f t h e G ao R eg ion , b u t h a s b een r e co rded a tG oundam i n t h e

A t

D jenne t u ye r e s w e re u sed a s ma rke r s i n t h e Mu sl im c eme te ry ( Mc In tosh a nd Mc In to sh 1 980 :37 ) .

c ompa red t o2 5cm x2 5cm x7 cm i nt h e f i red -b r ick b u i ld ing a tG ao A nc ien . T he S h i t id ibe b r ick s a r e a l so more c r ude ly m ade t han t h e b u i ld ing b r i ck s a nd a r e r ed s l ipped a nd

T he a b sence o f t h e se p ra c t ice s i n t h e G ao R eg ion s how s r e g iona l v a r ia t ion , b u t i t s f u l l s i gn if i cance c anno t b e

d e co ra ted w i th z i g -zag t w ine d eco ra t ion . T he s i ze d i f f e rence b e tween t h e f une ra ry f i red -b r ick s a nd t h e f i red -br ick s u sed 5 7

i nb u i ld ing may b e d ue t od i f f e rence s i np roduc t ion c o s t s i n t h is f u e l -poo rr eg ion .

t h a t t h e r e co rd o fc eme te r ies a nd g rave s mu s t i n ev i tab ly b e b i a sed t o ac er ta in d eg ree b yt he a dve r se c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s i nt h er e g ion a nd b ye ro s ion p rocesse si ng ene ra l ) .

T he o r ig in o fd ema rca t ing g raves w i th f i red -b r ick s , a nd t h e A s ide f r om t h e s t anda rd Mus l im t omb s , w i th t h e i re ng raved

d a te o fi t si n t roduc t ion , i sd i ff i cu l tt ot r ace . T he ma jor i ty o f t h e g r ave sa tt h e c eme te ry o f Go rongobo , 2 1 cm t ot h e w e s to f

o r u n -eng r aved ma rke r s t ones , D e G i roncour t ( 1920 ) a l so e ncoun te red aw ide v a r ie ty o fo the r f une ra ry ma rke r s i nt h e

S h i t id ibe , w e re n o t e dged w i th f i red -b r ick . Two s t e lae f r om Go rongobo h ave b een d a ted ,o ne t o AD 130 , a nd t h e o the r

G ao R eg ion . T he r e -use o fe a r l ie r e ng raved s t e lae i n A nma ( Songha i ) c h ief s ' t omb s i n c eme ter ies t o t h e n or th o f G ao w a s f ound . A round B amba ( upr ive r f r om B ou r em ) , s t one a xe s a nd p ounde r s w e re u sed t o ma rk t omb s , a nd Mu sl im t omb s w e r e f ound t o t h e n or th o f G ao , w h ich u t i l i sed

t o AD 1 306 ,b o th f r om g r ave sw h ich w e re n o te dged . Mauny ( 1951 :844 ) ment ion s t h a t h e f ound o va l t omb s ma rked o u t w i th u p -ended o va l b r ick s ( p re sumab ly f i red , b u t t h is i sn o t s pec if i ed ) i n G ao A nc ien , h oweve r n o d a te o r p rec ise l o ca t ion f o r t h e se g rave s i sp rov ided , t hough a 1 3th c en tu ry

f r agmen t s o fs t one a xe s o r g r ind ing s t ones a s h ead a nd f oo t ma rk e r s . S im i la r ly , t owa rd s t h e s ou th o f G ao , mo r ta r s a nd p ol i s so i r s o f r os e q ua r tz w e re f ound b ea r ing f une ra ry i n s c r ip t ion s ( I b id :299 , 3 05 -6 ) . A l l t h e se e xamp le s o fr e -u se h ave d ef in i te a r chaeo log ica l i mpl ica t ion s , a nd i fc au t ion i s n o t e xe r c i sed , c ou ld l e ad t o s ome c onf us ion . S im i la r ly t h e

AD d a te i sp robab le . A s d i s cu s sed i n s e c t ion 4 . 4b a bove , Mus l im g rave s i n t h e G ao R eg ion w e r e o f t en d ema r ca ted b y as t one c i r c le , a nd c i rcu la rs t one e nc lo su r e s f o r g rave s a r e w ide ly f ound i nP re -

u se o fm a rke r s t one s w a s n o t r e s tr ic ted t o Mus l im b u r ia l s ,

I s lam i c c on tex t s i n t h e d e ser t r eg ion s t o t h e n or th o f G ao , w he re t h ey w e re c ommon ly e mp loyed b yt h e T ua reg ( Mauny 1 961 , 1 971) . T he u se o f s t one c i rc le s , o f ten i n c on junc t ion w i th h ead a nd f oo t s t one s , a l so c on t inued i n to t h e I s lam ic p er iod .T he u se o ff i red -b r ick t oc r ea te as ma l l e nc lo su re f o r t h e t omb c ou ld b e ac on t inua t ion a nd e mbe l l i shmen t o ft h i s

D awa ( 1 985 :20 ) r e co rd s t ha t ma rke r s t ones w e re u sed o n n on - Mus l im g rave sd a ted t ot h e l a s t4 00 y ea r s .

4 . 4g )C eme ter ie s :

p rac t ice w h ich h a s d eve loped w i th in t h e p a s t m i l lenn ium , p o s s ib ly w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion . F i red -b r ick u se i n s uch a c on tex t i s n o t f ound i n t h e a r ea s w i th w h ich G ao w a s c onne c ted b y t r ade , f o r e xamp le , t h e I bad i , Mzab a r ea o f A lge r ia .

I s lam i c c eme te r ie s a r e c ommon i n b o th G ao a nd t h e G ao R eg ion , a nd h ave b e en d i scussed i n C hap t e r s 2a nd 3 . F igu r e 2 . 3 i lus t ra te s t h e c eme ter ie s w i th in G ao , w h i ls t F igu re 2 . 1 s how s t h e c eme te r ies r e co rded b y D e G i roncour t ( 1920 ) , t ow hom w e a r e i ndeb ted f o r p rov id ing t h e b u lk o f r aw d a ta o n I s lam ic c eme tery p a t tern ing . B ea r ing t h e c au t iona ry p o in t made e a r l ie r r ega rd ing D e G i roncou r t ' s m e thodo logy i n m ind ( s ee s ec t ion 2 . 4 ) , i ti s p o s s ib le t o i n te rp r e t t h e d a ta p a t ter n s v i s ib le i n F igu re 2 . 1 . I tc an b e s e en t h a t t h e g rea te s t c oncen t ra t ion o f c eme te r ie s l i e s b e twe en G ao a nd B ou r em , a nd t ha t t h e n umbe r s d rop o f c on s ide rab ly t ot h e n o r th o fB ou rem a nd s ou th o fG ao . I ti s p o s s ib le t h a tt h i sp a t te rn ing i sr e la ted t ot h ep rox im i ty o ft h e T i lems i v a l ley , t h e ma in t r ade r ou te f r om G ao l e ad ing t o

4 .4 f ) S t e lae : T he " c la s s ic " Mu s l im b u r ia l i n t h e G ao R eg ion w ou ld h ave f o l lowed t h e r i te s o u t l ined a bove i n s e c t ion 4 .4a f o r t h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e c o rpse , a nd i n mo s t c a se s g rave ma rke r s , s ome t ime s i n scr ibed , w ou ld h ave b een u sed . T he g rave ma rke r s o r s t e lae , c an b e f ound i nd iv idua l ly , b u t mo re c ommon ly a re e ncoun te red i n c eme te r ie s , a nd w hen i n scr ibed a r e as ou r ce o f i n fo rma t ion o n t r ade p a t te rns , I s lam , a nd i n c e r ta in c a s e s , e t hn ic i ty . A s a l ready n o ted , t h e

N o r th A f r ica , d own w h ich me r chan t s r e ached G ao . I s lam ic i nf luence w ou ld h ave s p read o u t o f G ao , i n i t ia l ly t o t h o se

s t e lae a nd t h e m ed ieva l A rab ic i n scr ip t ion s o f t h e N ige r

i n vo lved i nt r ade a nd t r ans -Saha ran t r ave l , s uch a st h e l o ca l m e r chan t s a nd t h e i r T ua reg e sco r t s , c ame l d r ive r s a nd

B end a nd t h e Ad ra r d e s I f o ras a r e b e ing s t ud ied b y F a r ia s ( 1986 , 1 990 , 1 995 ) .

g u ide s w ho m ay h ave b e en s e t t led b e twe en B ou rem a nd G ao , o r a t l e as t b een b u r ied a long t h e ma jo r t r ade r ou te s ( many n omad b u r ia l s a r e p robab ly i nd iv idua l i n te rmen t s s ca t te r ed o ve r l a rge a r ea s , h ence t h e n umbe r o f Mu sl im

T he s t e lae u sed i nt h eN ige rb end a r e made f r om av a r ie ty o f s t one . D e G i roncou r t ( 1 920 :304 ) d e sc r ibe s t h e s t e lae f r om G ao i t s e lf a sb e ing m ade o fq ua r tz i te a nd g ne is s ,w i th s ch i s t s b e ing f ound l e s s f r equen t ly t han i n B en t iya /Kuk iya . T he

b u r ia l sc ou ld b ea pp rec iab ly l a rge r ) .

G ao i n s cr ip t ion s a r e d e s c r ibed a s t h e mo s t i n te re s t ing , a nd a s e xh ib i t ing t h e b es t w o rkman sh ip , w h ich i sp e rhap s t ob e

A l though Mu s l im c eme ter ies a re f ound w e s t o fG ao , F a r ia s ( 1990 a nd p e r s . c omm . ) h a s s hown t ha t f une ra ry e p ig raphy i sn o t f ound i n t h e se c eme te r ies . F une ra ry i n sc r ip t ion s a r e n o t e ncoun te red a ts i te s s uch a s Koumb i S a leh , N ian i a nd

e xpe c ted a sG ao i s ,a nd w a s ,t h e b i gge s ta nd mo s ti mpo r tan t t r ade c en t re a nd c i ty i nt h e r eg ion . T he r e la t ive a dvan tage s a nd d i s advan tages o f u s ing s ch is t s f o r f uner a ry s t e lae w a s

T egdaou s t . T h i s

n o ted d ur ing t h e 1 993 s e a son . T he q ua r tz i te s t e lae , b e ing h a rde ra nd l e ss p rone t os p l i t t ing t h an t h e s ch is t s t e lae , w e r e mo re d u rab le a nd l e s s p rone t o e xh ib i t ing t h e a f f ec t s o f w ea the r ing . T h i s o bv iou s ly a f f e c t s t h e s ur v iva l r a te s o f i n sc r ip t ion s i n f a vou r o f q ua r tz i te s . T h i s p o in t w ou ld a l so

F a r ia s

( 1990 :69 )

a tr ibu tes

t o Ma l ik i

t r ea t ise s , w h ich s ay at omb s hou ld n o t h ave a n i n sc r ip t ion . I nG ao t h i s r e s t r ic t ion w a s f l ou ted a st h e T ua reg t r ad i t ion o f e p ig raphy i nT if inagh h ad g i ven ap re ceden tf o ri n sc r ip t ion s i nA rab ic . T he s e r ie s o ft omb s tone s i mpor ted f r om A lme r ia i n A l -Anda lu s , t h en u nde r t he c on tro l o f t h e N o r the rn A lmo rav id s , w a s a n e xp res s ion " of t h e p o l i t ica l r e cogn i t ion

a ppea r t oh ave b een n o t iced b y t h e s upp l ie r s o ft h e S pan ish ma rb le f une ra ry s t e lae s upp l ied t om ember s o ft h e G ao e l i te a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e 1 2 th c en tu ry AD ( i t s hou ld b e n o ted

a nd s uppo r t g ran ted b y a n e x terna l Mu s l im p owe r " t o t h e r u l ing f am i ly a tG ao -Saney ( I b id :76 ) . T h is i so fi n te re s t a s 5 8

n e i the rt h eN o r the rn o rS ou ther nA lmo rav id s h ad at r ad i t ion o f f u ne r a ry e p ig raphy , w h ich t h ey r e f ra ined f r om f o r r e l ig iou sr e a son s( F a r ia s 1 967 :828 , 1 990 :76 ) . T he a b s en ce o f f u ner a ry e p ig raphy i n t h e w e s t , a nd i t s p r e sence a tG ao a nd i n t h e N ige r B end i s , l i ke t h e u s e o f f i red -b r ick , a no the r a r chaeo log ica l e xamp le o f t h e d i f f e r ence s w h ich e x i s ted b e tween t h e t wo a r ea s . T rade r e la t ion s , t r ade p a r tne r s a nd p a t te rns o fI s lam iza t ion i nG ao d i f f e r ed t ot h o se f o und a to t he r e n t r epo t s , s u ch a s K oumb i S a leh . I tc an b e p r opo sed t h a t t h e i nd iv idua l i sm o fG ao a s r ef l ec ted i nt h e se e s sen t ia ld i f f e r ence s , a l r eady v i s ib le b yt h e 11t h c en tu ry AD , w e re t o l e ad t o t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e e mp i r e o f S ongha i , w h ich r e a ched i t s p eak f o u r c en tu r ie s l a te r .

4 . 4h )S ummary : F u r the r a r chaeo log ica l r e s ea r ch i s n e eded b e fo r e w e w il h ave ad e f in i t ive c a ta logue o ft h e b u r ia lp r a c t ice s o ft h e G ao R eg ion b e twe en t h e 1 0 th -13 th c en tu r ie s AD . H ow eve ri tc an b e s a id t h a t t h e p r e sence o f Mu s l im b u r ia l r i t e s w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion i s a r cha eo log ica l ly r e cogn i sab le , a nd i n sc r ip t ion s s how i tt ob e e s tab l i shed b yt h e e nd o ft h e 1t h c en tu ry - e a r ly 1 2 th c en tu ry AD . B e s ide s t h e s t anda rd Mu s l im b u r ia l w i th i t s i n s c r ibed ma rke r s t one , av a r ie ty o f l o ca l a dap ta t ion s o f p r e I s lam i c f u ne r a ry monumen t s e vo lved , m o s t n o tab ly f r om t h e S aha ran s t one t umu l i a nd c i r c le s . T he m o s t c ommon n on -Mu s l im b u r ia l r i te e ncoun te r ed i n t h e G oo R eg ion w e r e s imp le m u l t ip le o r s i ng le i n huma t ions , a nd t h e a b sence i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o f av a r ie ty o f b u r ia l t y p e s , w id e ly f o und e l sewhe r e a l ong t h e N ige r ( s ee a bove ) , b o th t o t h e s ou th a nd w e s t , s ugge s t s t h a t i ti s f r om t h e n o r th , a nd t h e a s y e t l i t t le u nde r s tood e a s t , r a the r t h an i n o t he r d i r e c t ion s t h a t t h e b u r ia lc u s tom so fG ao w e r ei nf luenced .

4 . 5 )C on c lu s ions : D ive r s i ty i sa ppa ren t i nt h e s e t t lemen t p a t te rn ing , f une ra ry monumen t s , a r ch i te c tu ra l f o rm s a nd b u i ld ing m a te r ia l s f ound i nt h eG ao R eg ion . T he i nf luence o fI s lam u pon t h e s e c a tego r ie s o f a r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce i sn o t iceab le a nd a n umbe r o f f e a tu re s h ave b e en i s o la ted w h ich c an b e a t t r ibu ted t o N or th A f r ican c on tac t s . I th a s a l so p roved p o s s ib l et op r opo se a n i n te rp re ta t ion w h ich h e lp se xp la in t h e s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re a t G ao , t h e d eg re e o f I s lam ic p ene t r a t ion a nd t h e r e spe c t ive f unc t ion s o fG ao A nc ien a nd G ao -Saney . T rans -Saha ran t r ade w a s t h e m ean s b y w h i ch t h e se I s lam i c a nd N o r th A f r ican i n f luence sr e a ched t h e G ao R eg ion .T h i sw i l ln ow b ed i s cu s sed i nC hap t e r5 .

5 9

r e g iona l t r ad e p a t te rns r a the r t h an d i s tance r ou te l i nk ing n or th a nd s ou th .

C hap t er 5 :T he G ao R eg ion a nd T ran s -Saharan T rade .

a c on t inuou s l o ng

O ne e n igma t i c r e f e r en ce e x i s t s w h ich m ay r e f e r t o c on ta c t b e twe en t h e i n hab i tan t s o f N o r th A f r ica a nd t h o se o f t h e G ao r e g ion . H e rodo tu s ( ca .430 -450 BC ) r e co rd s al e gend t h a t f i ve y oung n ob le Na samon ian m en , f r om t h e G r ea te r S y r t i s i nL ibya , s e to u t t oe xp lo r e t h e d e ser t p a r t s o fL ibya . T hey t r ave r sed t h e d e se r t i n aw e s t e r ly d i rec t ion a nd a f te r m any d ay s , w e r e c o l le c t ing f r u i t f r om t r ee s s i tua ted o n a p l a in , w hen t h ey w e r e s e ized b y d wa rf i sh n eg ro e s w ho s e l a nguage t h ey c ou ld n o t u nde r s tand a nd w e r e c a r r ied a way o ve r e x ten s ive m a r she s u n t i l t h ey r e a ched a t own . Ag r ea t r i ve r c on ta in ing c r o cod i le s f l owed p a s t t h e t own , r unn ing f r om w e s t t oe a s t ; e ven tua l ly t h e m en r e a ched h ome s a f e ly a f t e rv a r iou sa dven tu r e s ( Bov i l l 1 968 :14 ) . T he r i ve rr unn ing w e s t t oe a s t h a s b een i n te rp re ted a s t h e N ige r , a nd i th a s b e en s ugge s ted t h a t t h i s w a s i n t h e v i c in i ty o f G ao , b u t a s L aw ( 1 967 :186 ) a r gue s , i td oe s n o t s i gn if y a n e s tabl i shed t r an s -Saha ran t r ad e r ou te b u t r a the r a n e x t r ao rd ina ry o ccu r rence .

5 . 1 ) G enera lI n troduc t ion : T rade w ou ld a ppea r t oh ave b een t h e c r uc ia l f a c to r i nb o th t h e i n i t ia l i n troduc t ion o f I s lam t o t h e G ao R eg ion a nd We s ter n S ahe l v i a N o r th A f r i can A r ab a nd B e rbe r Mu sl im t r ad e r s ,a nd a l so i nt h e r e l ig ion s f u r the rd i s sem ina t ion a way f r om t h e m a jo r u rban c en tre s t h rough t h e p roce s s o f i n te r r e g iona l t r ade , p r edom inan t ly v i a i nd igenou s I s lam i zed Mu s l im m e r chan t g roup s ( d is cu s sed i n C hap te r 6 a nd C hap te r 7 ,s e c t ion 7 . 4a ) . W i th in t h i s c hap te r e mpha s i s w i l l b eu pon d i scus s ing t r an s -Saha ran t r ade . T he p o s i t ion o fG ao w ou ld h ave b een ac r uc ia l f a c to r i ni t s i mpo r tance i nt r an s S aha ran t r ade , a s i tw a s i n i n te r reg iona l t r ade . G ao i s i d ea l ly s i tua ted a t t h e j unc t ion o f R ive r ine , S avanna a nd S aha ran t r ade r ou te sa nd a tt h e mou th o ft h eT i lem s i V a l l ey , t h e m a in r ou te t o N o r th A f r ica . T he r e cove ry o f l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l i n d ica t ive o f t h e p a r t ic ipa t ion i n t r an s -Saharan t r ade b y s ome o f t h e i n hab i tan t s o f G ao h a s a l ready b e en r e f e r red t o i n t h e p r ev iou s c hap te r s . T h i s m a te r ia l ; g l a s s , p o t te ry , j ewe l le ry , i v o ry e t c , i so fg r ea t i mpo r tance , a s i ta l low s u s t ob eg in t o r e con s t ruc t t h e i d en t i ty o ft h e t r ad ing p a r tne r s o fG ao , a nd p rov ide s e v idence o f t h e a r ea s o f t h e I s lam ic w o r ld w h ich w e r ee xer t ing a ni n f luence u pon t h eG ao R eg ion .

A r chaeo log i ca l e v id en ce i nd i ca t ive o f t r an s -Saha ran c on ta c t s b e f o r e AD 7 00 i s e x tr eme ly r a re , a nd t h e o n ly e v id ence f o r s u ch c on tac t s i s f r om J e nne jeno w he re t wo H elen i s t ic b ead s w e r e r e cove red f r om l e ve l s d a t ed t o t h e l a t e i s t M i l lenn ium BC ( S .K . a nd R . J . M c In to sh 1 988b :124 ) . I tc an b e a r gued t ha t t h e n eed f o r c ommod i t ie s o b ta ined v i at r an s -Saha ran t r ade w a s n o t a s g r ea t i nN o r th A f r ica b e fo r ec a .AD 5 00 -600 a s i tw a s a f t e r t h i s d a te , w hen a n ima l p roduc t s s u ch a s i v o ry , s k in s , o s t r ich f e a the r s e t c , h ad b e come s c a r ce f o l low ing t h e d e s t ru c t ion o fl a rge g ame i n t h e R oma n a nd i mmed ia te p o s t -Roman e r a . S im i la r ly , G a r ra rd ( 1 982 :452 ) a r gue s t h a t at r an s -Saha ran t r ade i n g o ld w a s u n l ike ly b e fo r e AD 3 00 a s i t a ppea r s t h a t r e qu i r emen t s w e r e p r ev iou s ly f u l f iled b y t h e C en t ra l , a nd n o tt h e We s t e rn ,S udan .

5 . 2 )P re -I s lam ic T rade .5 00 BC -AD 7 00 : Whe the r t r an s -Saha ran c on tac t s b e twe en t h e G ao R eg ion a nd N or th A f r ica e x is ted d ur ing t h i s p e r iod h a s b e en t h e s ub jec t o f much d eba te a nd p u r e s p ecu la t ion ( s e e f o r e xamp le Mauny 1 947 , L aw 1 967 :185 -186 , B ov i l l 1 968 :15 ) . L aw ( 1 967 :181 ) a r gue s t h a t t wo g ene ra l p rob lem s e x i s t i n e va lua t ing e a r ly t r an s -Saha ran c on tac t s ; f i r s t ly , much mo r e i sk nown o f t h e r e la t ion s b e tween t h e S aha ran i n hab i tan t s a nd t h e p eop le o f t h e N o r th A f r i can c oa s t t h an o f t h os e b e tween t h e S aha ran s a nd t h e i n hab i tan t s o ft h e S ahe l a nd S avanna s d u r ing t h i s p e r iod . S e cond ly , o u r k now ledge o f S aha ran -c oa s ta l c onnec t ion s i sg eog raph ica l ly r e s t r ic ted ; G reek a nd R oman c on ta c t s w i th t h e C en t ra l S aha ra a r e m uch b e t te ru nde r s tood t h an t h o se w i th t h e We s te r n S aha ra . A l though t h e e x i s tence o f a ny f o rm o f d i re c t c on ta c t s b e twe en N o r th A f r ica a nd t h e G ao R eg ion i s s t il n o t p roven , t r ade c on ta c ts b e twe en t h e i n hab i tan t s o f t h e G ao R eg ion a nd t h o se o ft h e A d ra r d e s I f o ra s c ou ld h ave t a ken p l a ce , w i th s em i -p rec iou s s t one s s u ch a s a ga te s , s oap s tone s a nd s c h i s t s ,a l l f r om t h e S aha ra , g o ing s ou th ,a nd f o od s tuf f s g o ing n or th i n r e tu rn . T h i s w a s t h e p a t te rn o f S aha ran S ahe l ian t r ade i nt h e l a te rp e r iod s , a nd w i l l b e d i s cu s sed i n t h e c on tex to fr e g iona l t r ade i nC hap te r6 .R ock -eng rav ing s o fm en r i d ing i nh o r se -d rawn c ha r io t s ,w h i ch f olow t h e l i ne o f a n o l d c a ravan r ou te r unn ing f r om t h e A hagga r t o t h e A d ra r d e s I f o ra s , s t op i n t h e v i c in i ty o f E s suk /Tadmekka ( Lho te 1 959 :125 B ov i l l 1 968 :15 ) ( F igu r e 5 . 1 ) . T he a b sence o fc ha r io t e ng rav ings b eyond t h i s p o in t c ou ld b e e xp la ined b y t h e f a c t t h a t , b eyond t h e A d ra r d e s I f o ra s , " Sudan ic t e r r i to ry " w a s e n te red , b u t t h i s i s i nd i ca t ive o f p o s s ib l e 6 0

A r cha eo log i ca l e v id en ce i n G ao f o r t r an s -Saha ran t r ade b e fo r e AD 7 00 i sl a ck ing a nd t hough d epo s i t s d a t ing f r om t h i sp e r iod h ave y e tt ob ei n ve s t iga ted f u l ly ,i tc an b ea r gued t h a t , c on t ra ry t oG a r ra rd ( 1 982 :459 ) , G ao w a s n o t i n vo lv ed i n t h e g o ld t r ade a t t h i s t ime , a nd t h a t i ft r an s -Saha ran c on ta c t s d i d e x i s t , t h ey w e r e o r ien t ed f u r the r t ot h e w e s t , t owa rd s t h e p r o to -emp i r e o f Ghana . Whe r e i n t h e Mema R eg ion ,w h ich a pp ea r st oh ave b een t h eh i n t e r land f o rp ro to G hana , Ma cDona ld a nd T ogo la ( pe r s . c omm . ) f ound o ve r 2 50 s i t ec omp lexe sd a t ing f r om b e twe en AD 4 00 -1200 ,a f te r w h ich d a te d e s s i ca t ion b egan t o make o ccupa t ion i nt h ea r ea u nf ea s ib le .

5 . 3 ) I bad i Merchan t s ( Trans -Saharan t r ade AD 7 00 9 00 ) : I tw a s t h e i nt roduc t ion o f t h e c ame l , b e twe en t h e 2 nd -5 th c en tu r ie s AD , w h ich g ave t h e i mpe tu s t ot h e b eg inn ing o f r e gu la r t r an s -Saha ran t r ade ( Cu r t in 1 984 :2 1 ) , b y p rov id ing a n i d ea l ly s u i ted m eans o ft r an spo r t f o r t h e d e se r t c r o s s ing . A cco rd ing t ot h e A rab ic h i s to r ica l s ou r ce s , m emb e rs o ft h e l b ad i s e c t w e r e t h e f i r s t t r ade r s t o e s tab l i sh a pr e s en ce w i th in t h e We s t e r n S ahe l . P o s s ib le l i nk s b e twe en t h e l b ad i

B e tween AD 8 50 -900 t h e r e a r e r e f e r ence s t o t r ad ing r e la t ion s b e tween T aher t a nd T admekka ( E s suk ) i n l b ad i c h ron ic le s ( S ee L ew ick i 1 960 , 1 962 , 1 964 , 1 971 ) . Mo s t i mpo r tan t ly , t h e c h ron ic le r o f T ahe r t , I bn a s -Sagh i r , w ho w ro te a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD , m en t ion s t h a t Muhammad i b n ' A r fa , an o tab le o fT ahe r t , s t ayed f o ra p e r iod a tt h ec ou r to f aK ing o fS udan ,a sa mba s sado rf r om a R o s t em id i mam w ho r u led b e tween AD 8 23 -872 . L ew i ck i ( 1 971 :119 ) m ake s t h e p o in t t h a t , a l though t h e S udane se r u le r i sn o t m en t ioned b y n ame , i ti sc onc e ivab le t h a t t h i s e nvoy w a s s en t t oG ao . C onnec t ion s f r om G ao w ou ld h ave g one v i a T admekka a nd Wa rga la t o T ahe r t ( Fa r ia s 1 990 :77 ) ,a nd f o l low ing i t sa bandonmen t ,t oS ed ra ta ( F igu re 5 . 1 ) .

I mama te o fT aher t a nd Gao a r e a t te s ted n o t l o ng a f t e r t h e f o unda t ion o f T aher t i n t h e l a te 8 t h c en tu ry AD . T he K ha r i j i te r e vo lu t ionar y l e ade r , Abu Y a s id Makh lad i b n K a idad , w a s b o rn i n T admekka d u r ing t h e p e r iod b e twe en AD 8 74 -883 , a nd i ti sr e co rded t ha t h i s f a the r t r aded w i th K awkaw ( L ev t z ion 1 985 : 1 51 ) . F l igh t ( Unda ted b : 1 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a tA bu Y az id may e ven h ave b e en b o rn i nG ao , t h es on o f aT un i s ian m e rchan ta nd as l ave g i r lp u r cha sed i n T admekka . E l sewhe re i n t h e We s t e rn S ahe l , l i m i ted e v iden ce f o r t r an s -Saha ran t r ade p r io r t ot h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD h a s b een f ound . D ev i s se ( 1992 :197 ) m en t ion s t h a t g l a zed p o t t e ry f r om I f r ig iya w a s r e cov e r ed f r om l e v e l s a t T eg c laou s t d a t ing , " undoub ted ly e a r l ie r t h an 9 00 " ( AD ) , a l ong w i th p rec iou s a nd s em i -p r e c iou s s t on e s .

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F igu r e 5 . 1 . S imp l if i ed m ap o ft h et r ade c en t r e s i n We s tA f r ica a nd t h e i rp r inc ipa l N or th A f r ican t r ade p a r tne r s ( a dap ted f r om L ev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :xx ) . 6 1

I n C hap te r 4 , s e c t ion 4 .3c iü t h e e x is tence o f I bad i a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu res i n t h e mo sque a nd t omb o f A sk ia Muhammed w e re men t ioned , a nd t h i s i st h e e x ten t o f t h e

s oc ie t ie s w h ich e x i s ted a l te red i nc ha rac ter b e tween AD 9 00 AD a nd t h er i se o ft h e T akrur e mp i re c a .AD 1 000 ( S .K . a nd R . J . Mc In to sh 1 993 , S .K . Mc In tosh 1 994 :179 ) . T h i s w a s t h e

c ur ren t ly a va i lab le e v idence f o r a n I bad i p re sence i n G ao ;

p e r iod a t w h ich c opp e r , s t y l i s t ica l ly a nd c ompo s i t iona l ly l i nked t o ma te r ia l f r om T egdaous t a ppea red ( I b id .

a r chaeo log ica l e v idence s uch a s t r ade g ood s f r om k nown I bad ia r ea s ,h a sn o ty e tb een f ound a tG ao . T he u se o fb rown g laze o n t h ree s he rd s f r om G ao A nc ien , a nd i t s u se i n T aher t f r om t h e 9 th c en tu ry AD o nwa rd s ( Ma rca is a nd D es sum -Lama r re 1 946 :57 , a nd s e e s e c t ion 5 . 5a i ) , may b e

S .K . Mc In to sh 1 995b :387 ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h e r ap id d eve lopmen t o f t r ans -Saha ran t r ade a f te r AD 9 00 i sc onf i rmed b y t h e A rab ic h i s to r ica l s ou r ce s w h ich p rov ide u s w i th much u sef u l i n fo rma t ion .

s i gn if ican t , t hough t h e G ao s he rd s a r e l a te r i n d a te ( 1l t h 1 2 th c en tu r ie s AD ) . O therw ise , p a ra l le l s a r e n o t t ob e f ound b e tween t h e ma ter ia l f r om e i the r o f t h e t h ree s ucces s ive ma jo r c en t re s o fI bad i o ccupa t ion : T aher t ( mode rn T ia re t i n A lge r ia ) , S ed ra ta w h ich w a s f ounded a f te r T aher t h ad t ob e

5 . 4a )T he Good sa nd C ommod i t ies T raded :

a bandoned i n AD 9 09 , o r t h e Mzab , ar ocky p l a t eau o n t h e T he i t ems w h ich w e re t r aded f a l l i n to t wo c a tego r ie s , t ho se

t h re sho ld o f t h e S aha ra i n S ou thern A lge r ia , w h ich w a s o ccup ied a f te r S ed ra ta a l so h ad t ob e a bandoned a s ar e su l t

Wi th in G ao , t h e a b sence o f a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r

f o rw h ich w e h ave a r chaeo log ica le v idence , a nd t h o se w h ich a r er e co rded i nt h eA r ab ic h i s to r ica l s ou rce s a sb e ing t r aded , b u t f o r w h ich w e d o n o t h ave a r chaeo log ica l e v idence . S im i la r ly , t h e t r ade i t ems c an b e s ubd iv ided i n to t ho se w h ich w en t n or th , p redom inan t ly r aw ma ter ia ls , a nd t ho se

t r ans -Saha ran t r ade p r io r t o t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD s ugge s t s

w h ich w en ts ou th ,p r edom inan t ly f i n ished g ood s .

t ha t a ny t r ade c onduc ted b e fo r e t h i s d a te w a s e i the r o n a s ma l l s ca le o r i n c ommod i t ie s t h a t a r e s o f a r

5 . 4a i ) Nor th t oS ou th :

o fr e l ig ious p e r secu t ion ( Van B e r chem 1 953 :165 , 1 954 :151 ; Me r c ie r 1 922 :5 ) .

a r chaeo log ica l ly u nde tec tab le ( t he C 14 d a te o b ta ined f r om b e low t h e h ippo t u sk s c anno t b e u sed w i th t o o much p rec is ion , y e t i n te rp re ted i n c on junc t ion w i th a f r agmen t o f

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s ou thwa rd s .O ne o ft h e mo s ti n te res t ing l i s t s o fc ommod i t ie s i sp rov ided b y Y aqu t ( d .AD 1 229 ) w ho r e co rd s t h a t s a l t

p ink g l a ss o f 1 0 th c en tu ry d a te , r e cove red f r om aP er iod 4 c on tex ta bove t h ec ache i ti sp robab le t ha t t h e h oa rd o fi v o ry w a s n o t c onnec ted w i th I bad i t r ade r s , b u t b e long s t o t h e s ub sequen t p ha se o f t r ade ) . I t i s p robab le t h a t t h e f i r s t c onver t s t o I s lam i n G ao w ou ld h ave b een t h e I bad i me r chan t s ' S udane se p a r tne r s i n t r ade , s l ave s o r s e rvan t s , b u t w e h ave n o a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h i s , o r i ndeed ,

( d i scu s sed i nC hap te r6 ,s e c t ion 6 .2a ) , b und les o fp ine w ood ( u sed f o r t a r manuf ac tu re ) , b lue g l a ss b ead s , a nd c opp e r b ang le s , r i ng s , a nd b ra ce le t s w e re t aken t o Ghana ( L ev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :169 ) . O the ri t ems w h ich w e re r e co rded a s b e ing s en t s ou th i n c lude ; b ra s s , c eda r -wood , w oo l len a nd c o t ton c l o th ing , c ow r ie s , c o ra l b ead s , ak o ran a nd s wo rd t o

e i the r d i rec t ly o r i nd i rec t ly , f o r I s lam p r io r t o t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD . A t p resen t w e a r e r e l ian t u pon t h e h i s to r i ca l s ou r ce s t op rov ide u s w i th a p i c tu re o f t r ans -Saha ran t r ade i n t h e G ao R eg ion b efo re t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD , a nd i t a ppea r s t o h ave b e en r e la t ive ly u n impo r tan t c ompa red t o w ha tw a st od eve lop b eg inn ing i nt h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD .

G ao , a nd w hea t , d a tes a nd r a is ins t o Awdagho s t ( I b id 3 9 ,69 ,83 ,87 ,130 ,177 ,185 ) . T he d escr ip t ion o f Nor th A f r ican t r ade i t ems w h ich w e re s en t t oG ao ( Kawkaw ) , b y A l -Zuh r i ( c a .AD 154 ) , i n a n o t herw i se s omewha t c onfu s ing r e f e rence a r e a l so o fi mpor tance . H e m en t ions t ha t f r u i t ( o f u n spec if i ed t y p e ) w a s s en t f r om E gyp t , d a tes a nd r a i s in s f r om t h e Magh reb , s i lk , g auze a nd l i nen ( un spec if i ed o r ig in ) , s a f f ron a nd c l o th f r om a l -Anda lu s , a nd t u rbans a nd c l o th f r om I f r iq iya ( I b id :97 ) . T o t he se c an b e a dded a ga te s

5 . 4 ) T rans -Saharan T rade ( AD 9 00 -1 200 ) : I t w as i n t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD t h a t t r an s -Saha ran t r ade

f r om E gyp t a nd g a rne t s f r om Mo rocco ( Dev is se 1 992 :208 ) , p ape r , g l azed p o t te ry , g la s s , p lan t p roduc t s w i th i ndu s t r ia l

b egan t o d eve lop s i gn if ican t ly , a nd d ur ing t h e s ub sequen t t wo c en tu r ie s t h e re w a s ab oom i nt r ade , w h ich w i th in t h e

u se s , s uch a sT ama r i sk -ga l l ( at ann ing a gen t f r om s ou the rn Mo rocco ) ( Lomba rd 1 975 :225 ) , l e ad , w e igh t s , c o ins , s c a le s

G ao R eg ion l a id t h e f ounda t ion sf o rt h e d eve lopmen to fG ao A nc ien a s a n I s lam ized q uar t ie r o f t h e t own . E x ten s ive

o r b a lance s , d eco ra t ive m e ta lwo rk a nd w eapon ry , m e ta l i n go t s , a l aba s te r , m ed ic ine s , i nk a nd w r i t ing ma te r ia l s , a nd

a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t r an s -Saha ran t r ade d ur ing t h i s p e r iod w a s f ound d ur ing t h e 1 993 e xcava t ions ,a nd h a s b een

t h es t e la eo fS pan i sh o r ig in w h ich w e re f ound a tG ao -Saney . I tc an b e s e en t h a t s ome o f t h e se i t ems , f o r e xamp le , t h e K o r an , c o ins , s c a le s , w e igh t s a nd s t e lae , c ou ld b e d i r ec t ly r e la ted t ot h e p re sence o f Mu s l im t r ade r s , o rp eop le t r ad ing w i th I s lam ic a r ea s . H oweve r , s eve ra l c a tego r ies o fe v idence

r e cove red f r om o the rs i tes w i th in t h e Wes te rn S ahe l , s uch a s T egdaous ta nd K oumb i S a leh . A t T egdaous t , D ev i s se a rgues ( 1992 :206 ) , i tw a s i nt h e 9 t h 1 0 th c en tu ry AD t h a tt h es i te b egan t or e semb le at own , w i th s t ree t s , s qua re s , amo sque a nd a n a ccompany ing g row th i n l uxu ry c onsump t ion . S im i la r ly , a t K oumb i S a leh ,

w ou ld n eed t o b e r e cove red ( a s i n G ao ) b e fo r e a ny c onc lu s ion sc ou ld b ed rawn a st ot h ed eg ree o fI s lam i za t ion .

e xcava t ions i n t h e h ab i ta t ion q ua r te r s howed t h a t t h e t own f l ou r ished f r om t h e 1 0 th -1 l t h c en tu r ies AD ( Ber th ie r 1 983 ) .

5 . 4a i i ) S ou th t oN or th :

A l so i n t he w e s t , i n t h e M idd le S enega l V a l ley ( h encefo r th M .S .V . ) , f i e ld s u rvey h a s s hown t h a t t h e s ma l l -sca le

T he A rab ic h i s to r ica ls ou rce sa l so p rov ide u s w i th a n i d ea o f t h e c ommod i t ie s w h ich w e re s en t n o r th f r om t h e We s te rn 6 2

S ahe l . T he t h ree mo s t i mpo r tan t c ommod i t ie s w e re g o ld , i v o ry , a nd s l ave s . O the rs w e re e bony , s k in s h ie ld s ( Lam t ) , s k in s , g um , d yed g oa t -sk ins , a nd h ide w h ip s ( Lev tz ion a nd H opk ins 1 981 :67 ,9 5 , 1 33 ) .

t o h ave b een l i nked i n to a d i f f e ren t t r ad ing o rb i t , a nd p o s s ib ly s t ruc tu red b y ad i f f e ren t e t ho s , f r om t h e mo re e a s te r ly s i te s , s uch a s G ao . T he a b sence o f at r ad i t ion o f f une ra ry e p ig raphy a tt h e w es ter ns i te s i sa n e xamp le o ft h i s . A s a l ready m en t ioned , F a r ia s ( 1990 :69 ,108 ) a t t r ibu te s t h e

5 . 4b )T he T ran s -Saharan T rade R ou te s( AD 9 00 -1200 ) :

i n f r ingemen t o f Ma l ik i t r ea t ise s o n f une ra ry i n scr ip t ion s i n t h e G ao r eg ion t o a p re I s lam ic t r ad i t ion o f T ua reg e p ig raphy i nT if inagh w h ich e x is ted i n t h e a rea . S im i la r ly ,

T he s ou r ce a r ea s o f t h e i mpo r ted m a te r ia l p rov ide a n i nd ica t ion a s t ot h e t r ad ing p a r tne r s o f t h e m a jo r e nt repo t s

t h e a b sen ce o fc on s t ruc t ion u s ing f i red -b r ick i n t h e w e s t i s n o t iceab le , a nd h a s b een r ema rked u pon i n C hap te r 4 ,

i n t h e Wes te rn S ahe l a nd t h e r ou t es b y w h ich t h e t r ans S aha ran t r ade wa s c onduc ted . T h i s i n t u rn p rov ide s a n

s e c t ion 4 . 3b i i i . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a tt h ese d i f f e rence s a r e i np ar t

i n d ica t ion o f t h e a rea s o f t h e w ide r I s lam ic w o r ld w h ich

d ue t o t h e o pe ra t ion o f t h e d i f f e ren t t r ad ing c yc le s , w i th t r an s -Saha ran t r ade f r om G ao o r ien ted mo re t ot he e a s t .

e xe r ted a ni n f luence u pon t h et r ade c en tr e s . I n t h e w e s t , r ou tes o pe ra ted c onnec t ing T egdaou s t , K oumb i S a leh a nd t h e S enega l R ive r p o l i t ies t o t h e Magh reb v i a e i the r t h e d e se r t r ou te t o S i j i lma sa , t h e ma jo r g o ld t r ade r ou te u nde r t h e F a t im id s ( Dev is se 1 992 :197 ) , o r a l ong t h e r ou te f o l low ing t h e A t lan t ic c oa s t , w h ich Mauny ( 1961 :430 ) c l a s se s a s o n ly o f s e conda ry i mpo r tance ( F igu re 5 . 1 ) . V anacke r ( 1979 :172 ) h a s a r gued t h a t a n e a s te rn o r ien ted t r ad ing p a t te rn w a s a l so i n o pe ra t ion , a nd w a s t h e r ou te b y w h ich g l a ss r e a ched T egdaou s t ( F igu re 5 . 1 ) . T h i s r ou te

5 . 5 )N or thern I mpor t s i nG ao a nd t he We s tern S ahe l : A r cha eo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion

h a s p rov ided a v a r ie ty o f

e v idence a t te s t ing t o t h e e x i s tence o f t r ans -Saha ran t r ade . T h is w i l l n ow b r ief ly b e d e scr ibed , b efo r e G ao i se xam ined a s ac a se s t udy t o a s se s s h ow e x terna l t r ade p a r tne r s c an i nd ica te a r ea so fI s lam ic i nf luence ( s ec t ion 5 . 7 ) .

o pe ra ted v i aT i rekka a nd T admekka ,a nd i sd e s c r ibed b yA l B a l c r i a s a5 0 d ay sj ou rney b e tween T admekka a nd G hana ( Koumb i S a leh? ) ( Lev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :85 ) . Hodgk in ( 1 987 :128 ) m akes t h e p o in t t ha t t h e e s tabl i shmen t o f T imbuk tu ( 1 3 th c en tury AD ) c aused t h e d ec l ine o fT i r ekka . T he i mpo r tance o f t h i s r ou te r unn ing a l ong t h e n or the rn

5 . 5a ) G lazed P o t tery a nd G las s : G lazed p o t te ry a nd g l a ss w e re t wo o ft h e ma jo r c a tego r ie s o f l u xu ry f i n i shed g ood s w h ich w e re s h ipped a cro s s t h e d e ser t . Ab r ie f s umma ry o fp re -1950 f i nd s o fg lazed p o t te ry i nt h e We s t e rn S ahe l i sp rov ided b y Mauny ( 1952 ) . S he rd s o f

b ank o f t h e N ige r f o r Ghana - N or th A f r ica c onnec t ion s

g l azed p o t t e ry h ave b een r e cove red f r om ; E ssuk /Tad rnekka , t h e i mpo r tan t t r ad ing p a r tne r o f G ao ( no t d e scr ibed o r

r ema ins t ob e f uly e va lua ted , b u t i tc an b e s ugge s ted t h a t t h e mo re w es te rn o r ien ted t r ade s y s t em , r unn ing f r om t h e Maghr eb s ou thwa rds ( e g . S i j i lma sa s ou th ) , w a s o f g r ea te r i mpo r tance t os i tes s uch a sT egdaous ta nd K oumb i S a leh .

l o ca ted i nt h e P a r is o r Ma l ian c o l lec t ions ) , A ze l ik , p o s s ib ly t h e s i te o f t h e much d i spu ted c opp e r t r ad ing c en t re o f T akedda , T eghaza , w he re s he rd s f r om w a re s p roduced i n F ez i nt h e 1 6 th a nd 1 7 th c en tu r ies AD w e re c olec ted a tt h e

T rans -Saha ran l i nk s f r om G ao w en t n or th v i a T admekka i n

s a l tm in ing s i te

t h e A d ra r d e s I f o ra s , t h en v i a t h e o a s i s o f Wa rga la t o K a i rouan , a nd t hen t o o the r t owns i n N or th A f r ica . T he s e cond m a in r ou te w en t a l so v i a T admekka , t h en v i a G hadame sa nd o n t oT r ipo l i a nd E gyp t( F igu re 5 . 1 ) . Ar ou te f r om G hana t oE gyp t , v i aG ao a nd Ma randa , a l so a ppea r s t o h ave o pe ra ted . I t s e x i s tence i sr e co rded b y I bn a l -Faq ih i n AD 9 03 ( Lev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :27 ) , a nd i tm igh t b e

( Te r ra sse 1 938 ) , a nd s im i la r w a re s w e re c ole c ted a t O ua la ta , s ome o f w h ich w e re p roduced i n F ez i n t h e 1 8 th c en tu ry AD , w h i l s t o the r s w e re made i n T ameg rou t o r T a f i la la t i n S ou thern Mo ro cco ( Mauny 1 952 :516 ) . As he rd o fg l azed p o t te ry o fN or th A f r ican o r ig in w a s a l so r e cove r ed f r om t h e s i te o f S in th iou B a ra i n S enega l , a6 7ha mound w h ich h a s b e en d a ted t ob e tween t h e 5 th a nd 1th c en tu r ie s AD ( Th i lman s a nd R av ise 1 980 q uo ted i n Mc In to sh a nd Mc In to sh 1 986 :430 ) . T he l a ck o f i mpor ted c e ram i cs a t

t h e s ame r ou te men t ioned i n t h e ' Hudud a l 'a lam ( s ee s e c t ion 5 . 5c i ) . L ho te ( 1972 :453 ) r e co rd s t ha t Ma rende t , o r Ma randa , w a s c i ted s i x t imes i nt h e A rab ic s ou rce s b e tween AD 8 72 -1154 a sb e ing o n t h et r ade r ou te f r om G ao t oE gyp t

N ian i , l o ca ted j u s t i n s ide t h e R epubl ic o f Gu inea i su nu sua l c on s ide r ing i t sp ropo sed i d en t if ica t ion w i th t h ec ap i ta lo ft h e

( F igu re 5 . 1) . D e sp i te t h e a bundance o f t e x tua l d e sc r ip t ion , t h is m o r e d i re c t r ou te b e tween t h e N ige r B end a nd E gyp t r ema ins l i t t le u nde r s tood , a l though as e r ies o fc oppe r i n go t s f ound a t G ao -Saney a nd d i scus sed i n C hap te r 6 , s e c t ion 6 . 2b i a ppea r t o a t te s t t o t h e o pe ra t ion o f a t l e a s t t h e

e mp i re o f Ma l i ( N iane 1 970 :43 ) . Men t ion i s m ade o f a " f ragmen t d ' un p o t d e f a i ence i mpor tg " ( F i l ipow iak 1 981 :77 ) , r e cove red f r om aw e l l d a ted t o AD 1 570+ -50 , b u t o t herw i se t h e q uan t i t ie s o f i mpor ted p o t te ry ( a nd g l a s s e t c ) o ne m igh t e xpe c t o n as i te o f s uch i mpor tance a r e m i s s ing . Two l a rge s c a le e xcava t ion s , b es ide s t h e G ao i nve s t iga t ion s

Ma rende t -G ao s ec t ion . T he me chan ics a nd o rgan i sa t ion o ft r an s -Saha ran t r ade a r e d e sc r ibed i nd e ta i lb yL ev tz ion ( 1985 :158 -9 ) a nd n eed n o tb e

( c onduc ted s i nce 1 952 ) ,r equ i re s epa ra te t r ea tmen t .

r epea ted h e re ; s u ff ice t o s ay t ha t t r ave l a c ro s s t h e S aha ra w a s u nde r taken i n s t age s , f r om w el t o w el , a nd e ach

T egdaou s t : A w ide v a r ie ty o f g l azed c e ram ics a nd g l a s s i mpor ted f r om N or th A f r ica h ave b een r e cove red f r om

c a ravan w a sl e db ye xpe r ienced g u ide s .

T egdaous t , t h e p re sumed s i te o f Awdagho s t , o n w ha t w a s t h e ma in t r ade r ou te f r om Mo rocco a cro s s t h e S aha ra

D i f f e rence s b e tween t h e ma jo r e n t repo t s a nd h ow t h ey w e r e

( Robe r t 1 970a :64 ) . Two ma in t ype s o f whee l -made c e ram ic a r e f ound , aw h i te b od ied c eram ic w i th a w h i te s l ip , a nd

s t ruc tu red c an b e s e en .T egdaous ta nd K oumb i S a leh a ppea r 6 3

o pe r a t ing v i a T admekk a a nd Wa rga la , a nd t h en o n t o I f r iq iya a nd A nda lu s ia , w h i l s t T egdaou s t w a s c onne c ted t o S i j i lma sa a nd t h e Magh reb , f u r the r t ot h e w e s t . T he h i ghe r q ua l i ty c e ram i c s a t G ao m ay b e a n i n d ica t ion o f

g l az ed c e ram ic s . D ue t o i t s s i ze , a nd t h e f a c t t h a t i tw a s r e cove r ed f r om c on t ro l led e xcava t ion s , t h e a s semb lage f r om T egdaou s t i sb y f a r t h e b e s t b ody o fm a te r ia l w i th w h ich t o c ompa r e t h e i mpor ted c e ram i c s a nd g l a s s f r om G ao . H oweve r , a s a t G ao , t h e p e r cen tage o f i mpo r ted p o t te ry f o und a tT egdaou s ti sv e ry s ma l l c ompa r ed t ot h e a moun to f l o ca l ly p rodu ced p o t te ry .

a mb a s sado r ia l o r m e r can t i le t r ade .

g i f t

e xchange

r a the r

t h an

p u r e ly

K oumb i S a l eh : C on s ide r ing t h e i mpor tance o f t h e s i te o f K oumb i S a leh , t h ep r e sumed s i te o ft h e m e r chan ts e t t lemen t a t ta ched t ot h ec ap i ta lo ft h e Emp i re o fG hana ,f ew s h e rd so f g l azed p o t t e ry o r g l a s s h ave b een r e cove r ed . D u r ing t h e c ou r se o ft h e e x ten s ive e xcava t ion s c onduc ted a tt h e s i te b y T homa s sey a nd Mauny i n 1 949 a nd 1 950 o n ly f i ve s h e rd so f g l azed p o t te ry w e r ef o und , a nd f o u rf r agmen t s o fg l a s s . T he p o t t e ry w a s o f af i ne p i nky -b rown f a b r ic a nd h ad a d a rk g r een g l a ze ( p a t t e rn? ) u pon w h i te g l aze ( Thoma s s ey a nd Mauny 1 956 :124 ) . An umbe ro fs h e rd so fs l ipp ed w a r e w e r e

Wh i te s l ipped p o t te ry w a s m o s t c ommon ly f ound i n l e ve l s d a ted t o t h e 9 t h a nd 1 0 th c en tu r ie s AD , w i th t h e s he rd s c om ing p redom inan t ly f r om o i l l amp s , w a te r f i l te r s a nd j ug s . T he w h i te s l ipped w a r e sw e re c ommon e v e ryday w a re s w h i ch , d ue t ot h e i rp o ro s i ty , w e r e u s ed t op r e se rve a nd c oo l l i qu id s . T hey w e re u sed e x ten s ive ly t h roughou tt h e Mu sl im w o r ld ( Robe r t -Cha le ix 1 983 :272 ) . T he v a r ie ty o f g l azed c e ram i c s f ound a tt h e s i te r ef l e c t sT egdaou s t ' sp o s i t ion a sa n i mpo r tan tt r ad ing c en t r e .G r een g l azed s h e rd sw e r et h e m o s t c ommon t y p e e ncoun te red ( Robe r t 1 970a :67 ) ; O the r t y p e s f ound i n c lude s he rd s d eco ra ted i n ter na l ly w i th y elow a nd e x te rna l ly w i th a g r een g l a ze , s he rd s w i th p a in ted d eco ra t ion ,e ng r aved g r een g l a zed c e ram ic s ,a nd ac oup le o f s he rd so fl u s t r ew a re . T he mo s tc ommon f o rm f ound w a st h e o i l l amp b u t s h e rd s f r om c up s , s ma l l c on ta ine r s ( Vana ck e r 1 979 :158 ) ,p l a te s ,j ug s a nd b ow l s w e re a l so d i s cove red . T he s ou r ce a r ea s o ft h i s m a te r ia l i n c luded I f r iq iya , t h e Magh reb a nd S pa in ( Robe r t 1 970b :489 ; R ob e r t -Cha le ix 1 983 : 2 73 8 3 ) .

a l so f o und , w h ich a pp ea rt oh ave b een l o ca l ly p roduced , b u t s ha r e s im i la r i t ie s w i th f o rms , s u ch a sc e ram ic w a t e r f i l te r s , p roduced i nE gyp t ( l b id :125 ) . T he g l a s s w a s n o t d e sc r ibed i nd e ta i la nd i sn o ta va i lab le f o rs t udy . T he m o r e r e cen t e xcava t ions u nde r taken i n t h e m o sque q ua r te r( Be r th ie r 1 983 ) ,a l so f a i led t of i nd much e v iden ce o f g l azed c e ram ic s o r g l a s s . F ive s h e rd s o f w ha t a r e t e rmed " me ta l l ic g l a zed p o t t e ry " ( 1 983 :98 ) w e re f ound ( i t i sn o t c l ea r i ft h i s t e rm r e f e r s t ol u s t re d e co ra ted p o t t e ry ) , a nd 3 8 f r agmen t s o fg l a s s . T he s he rd s w e r e r e cove r ed f r om l e ve l s d a t ing f r om t h e 1t h c en tu ry AD o nwa rd s , w h i l s t t h e g l a s s h a s b een p r edom inan t ly d a t ed t ot h e 1t h c en tu ry AD . T he a b s ence o f g l azed p o t t e ry , u n le s s t h e mo sque a r ea w a s a t yp ica l , i ss u rp r i s ing c on s id e r ing t h e r e la t ive a bundance o f g l a zed c e ram i c s a tT egdaou s t , ac on tempo ra ry s i te w h ich mu s t h ave b een i nc on ta c t w i th K oumb i S a leh , a nd i n deed t h e a s semb l age s o fl o ca l ly p roduced p o t t e ry f r om b o th s i te s s ha r e m any s im i la r i t ie s , h ence t h e a b sence o f g l azed c e ram ic sa tK oumb iS a leh i se ven mo re s u rp r i s ing .

G la s s w a s a l so mo s t c ommon ly f o und i n P e r iod 2 i n t h e w o rk shop q ua r te r , d a t ed t o b e tween t h e l a t e 9 t h a nd l a te 1 0 th c en tu r ie s AD . T he w a re s f o und i n c luded g r een , b l u e a nd t u rquo i se g l a s s f r agmen t s f r om p e r f ume b o t t le s a nd c up s ,a nd an umbe ro ff r agmen t s f r om e ng raved o r mou lded g l a s s g ob le t s ( Vanacke r 1 979 :162 , D ev i s s e 1 992 :208 ) . T he g ob le t s h ave b een w e l l s t ud ied , a nd a r e s im i la rt oe xamp le s f r om R aqqada , t h e 9 th c en tu ry AD A gh lab id c ap i ta l , w h i l s t o t he rm a te r ia l ( un spec if i ed ) ,w a s s im i la rt os he rd sr e cove r ed f r om F u s ta t( Vana cke r 1 979 :166 -8 , 1 983 :522 ) . T he m a te r ia l f r om T egdaou s t s ha re s s im i la r i t ie s w i th t h e a s s emb lage f r om G ao A nc ien ( d iscu s sed b e low ) . G r een g l azed a nd l u s tre p o t t e ry a r e f o und a t b o th s i t e s , I f r iq iya s upp l ied b o th s i te sw i th w a r es ,a nd i tw ou ld a ppea rt h a tb o th w e re r e ce iv ing l u s t re p o t te ry f r om S pa in . As he rd o f l u s t r e w a r es ou rced f r om Ma laga w a s r e cove r ed f r om 1 2 th c en tu ry AD l e v e l s ( Robe r t -Cha le ix 1 983 :294 ) ,a nd i ti sa l so p o s s ib l e t h a t as he rd o f 11t h c en tu ry AD t a rn i shed y elow l u s t r e w a r e , i n te rp re t ed b y R obe r t -Cha le ix ( 1 983 :283 ) a s c om ing f r om E gyp t , m ay i n f a c t b e as h e rd o fe a r ly S pan i sh l u s t r e p o t te ry ,s im i la rt ot ho se f r om G ao A nc ien .

5 . 5a i ) G lazed P o t t ery f r om G ao :

I no t he r w ay s t h e re a r e d i s t inc t d i f f e r ence s b e tween t h e t wo a s s emb lage s ,n o tab ly i nt h el a ck o fv a r ie ty i nt h ea s semb lage o f g l a s s f r om T egdaou s t , a nd t h e a b s en ce o f w h i te s l ipped w a r e s , s he rd s f r om o i l lamp s ,e ng raved a nd p a in ted p o t te ry , a nd m ou lded g l a s s a t G ao . A no the r d i f f e rence i s i n t h e l a rge r q uan t i t ie s o f g ood q ua l i ty w a r e s , s u ch a s l u s tre a nd C uerda S eca ( dr yc o rd ) w a re s f ound a tG ao , a sc ompa red t o T egdaou s t , w he re t h e e x i s tence o fo n ly ac oup le o fs he rd s o f l u s t r e p o t te ry i sd e sc r ibed , a nd l u s t r e g l a ss a pp ea r s t o b e a b s en t .I ti sp o s s ib le t h a tt h e se d i f f e rence sa r ed ue t ot h e f a c t t h a tG ao w a s l i nked i n to a n e a s ter no r ien ted t r ad ing s y s tem ,

Two ma in p r ob lems h ave b een e ncoun te r ed d ur ing t h e a na ly s i s . F i r s t ly , t h e s t udy o fm ed ieva l I s lam ic p o t te ry f r om b o th N o r th A f r ica a nd S pa in i sa n u nde r r e sea r ched t o p ic , t h i s i se sp e c ia l ly t r ue o f t h e c e ram ic s f r om I f r iq iya a nd S pa in ( Daou la tl i 1 980 :197 ; Z ozaya 1 980 :265 ) , t h e m a in s ou r ce a r ea so ft h e m a te r ia l f ound i nG ao . L ane ( 1947 :3 ) i n h i s w o rk o n e a r ly I s lam i c p o t t e ry , d i d n o t c on s ide r t h e p o t t e ry o fS pa in a nd N o r th A f r ica , " a s s ol i t t le o ft h e i re a r ly p o t te ry i s k nown " , a nd t h e s i tua t ion r ema in s l a rge ly u nchanged . T he s e cond p rob lem i st h a t t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e l i t e ra tu r e , s u ch a si ti s ,i sw r i t ten f r om a n a r t h i s to r ica l , a nd

I n t o ta l , 3 0 s h e rd s o f i mpor t ed g l az ed p o t te ry w e r e f o und d ur ing t h e e x cava t ion s a t G ao A nc ien , 2 4 o f t h e se w e r e i d en t if iab le . A l l b u t o ne u n iden t if iab le s he rd ( P e r iod 4 ) c ame f r om P e r iod 3c on tex t s ( 1 1th -12 th c en tu r ie s AD ) . T he i d en t if i ca t ion o ft h e s i x s h e rd s f r om G ao -Saney h a s p r oved m o r e d i f f icu l t , a s f i ve a r e v e ry a b raded , a nd o n ly t h ree s h e rd sh ave a ny t r a ce o fg l aze r ema in ing ,t h e s he rd sa r e a l so s u r f a ce c ole c t ed m a te r ia l , w h ich l im i t s t h e i r u se f u lne s s f o r d a t ing p u rpos e s .

6 4

n o t a n a rchaeo log ica l , p e r spec t ive . T h i s a pp roach r e su l t s i n a n e mpha s is b e ing p laced u pon d escr ib ing t h e b e s t p i ece s , a nd u pon mo t i fa nd d eco ra t ion , t ot h e d e t r imen t o fd e ta i led c h rono log ica l a nd c on tex tua l d escr ip t ion , a nd i so f ten p oo r

f r om s eve ra l c en tu r ie s s ubs equen t ly a r e f ound i nh i gh -s ta tu s c on tex t s , s uch a s r oya l c ou r t s a nd c ap i ta l s ( Ca ige r -Sm i th 1 985 :27 ) . T h i s w a s t h e c a se a t 1 0 th -cen tury Mad ina t a z Z ah ra , a nd t h e 1t h c en tury AD p a lace a nd c ap i ta l o f t h e

i nt e rms o fd e s c r ip t ion a nd i lu s t ra t ion .

H ammad id p r ince s , t h e Q a l 'a t B anu H ammad ( Ma r ca i s 1 913 ; G o lv in 1 980 ) . H ence t h e i nhab i tan ts o fG ao w ho w e r e i mpo r t ing t h e l u s t re w a re s , v i a t r ans -Saha ran t r ade , w e re b e ing s e n t t h e h i ghe s t q ua l i ty p roduc t s , n o t o n ly c ommon e xpo r tw a re s .

H oweve r , i t h a s p roved p o s s ib le t oi d en t i fy b o th t h e s ou r ce a r ea sa nd t h e d a te s o ft he i mpo r ted c e ram ics r e cove red f r om G ao A nc ien . T he a ssemb lage d iv ided i n to s i x w a r e t y p e s : l u s t red , C uerda S eca , b rown g lazed , b rown a nd y elow g l azed , g reen , b rown a nd y elow g lazed , o l ive g reen a nd

C uerda S eca : C uerda S eca , s ome t ime s t e rmed r e s i s twa re o r d ry c o rd w a re , i sf ound o n No r th A f r ican a nd S pan i sh s i te s f r om t h e 1th c en tu ry AD ( F ro th ingham 1 951 :9 ) . R e s i s twa re p roduc t ion b egan i n S pa in i n t h e 11t h c en tu ry

b rown g l azed , a nd o ne c a tego ry , m iscelaneou s a nd u n iden t if ied . T he s ou r ce a r ea s o fb o th t h e i mpor ted p o t te ry a nd g la s s d id n o t v a ry s i gn if i can t ly o ve r t ime . T he b u lk o f t h e ma te r ia l w a s f r om I f r iq iya a nd t h e Magh reb ( 10 th -12 th

AD ( Redman 1 986 :125 ) , a nd t h i s w a re t ype w a s e x ten s ive ly m anuf a c tu red i n S pa in , T un is a nd A lger ia u nde r t h e

c en tu r ies AD ) , w i th g l a ss c om ing f r om E gyp t ( 10 th -12 th c en tu r ies AD ) , a nd s ome g l azed p o t te ry f r om a l -Anda lu s ( 1 1 th -12 th c en tu r ie s AD ) . T he b ackg round a nd d a te o fe a ch w a re t ype w i l l b e d i scussed h e re ( t he f a b r ic , v es se l f o rms , d e co ra t ion , a nd manufac tu r ing t e chn iques e mp loyed i n t h e p roduc t ion o fe a ch w a re t ype ,a r ed escr ibed i nA ppend ix 2 ) .

A lmohad s ( AD 130 -1269 ) ( F ro th ingham 1 951 :9 ) . T he t wo G ao s he rd s s ha re c l o se s t s im i la r i t ie s w i th I f r iq iyan ma te r ia l o ft h e 1t hc en tu ry AD (Wa rd , p e r s . c omm . ) , b u t aS pan i sh o r ig in w ou ld a l so a ppea r t o b e f e a s ib le . O ne s he rd o f t h i s w a re w a s s ea led u ndernea th t h e f l oo r o f t h e f i red -b r i ck b u i ld ing .

L u s tre Ware s : E leven s he rds o fl u s t re w a re w e re r e cove r ed S he rd so fr e s i s twa re w e re f ound a tt h e s i te o fQ sa re s -Segh i r o nt h e Mo roccan c oa s t . T hese s he rd s , w h ich h ave ad i f f e ren t f a b r ic t ot h eG ao m a te r ia la nd w h ich a r el a te ri nd a te ( e nd o f

f r om G ao A nc ien , a nd Mauny ( 1952 :514 ) r e co rd s t h e d i scove ry o f af u r the r s even s he rd so n t h e h ab i ta t ion mound a tG ao -Saney . T he p rec i se d a te a tw h ich l u s t r e -de co ra ted p o t te ry b egan t ob e p roduced i n N or th A f r ica a nd S pa in i s

t h e 1 2 th c en tu ry -e a r ly 1 3 th c en tury AD ) , w e re t h e f i ne s t p i e ce s o f p o t t e ry e ncoun te red o n t h e s i te ( Redman 1 986 :126 ) . T h i s r e info r ce s t h e p ropo sa l t h a t h igh q ua l i ty

s ub jec t t o d eba te ( Ca ige r -Sm i th 1 985 ; F ro th ingham 1 951 ; J enk ins 1 980 ) . S he rd s f r om l u s t re w a r e s h ave b een d a ted t o t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD a tt h e s i te o f Mad ina t a z -Zahr a n ea r C o rdoba ( F ro th ingham 1 951 :2 ) . Whe the r t he se s he rd s w e r e p roduced b y E gyp t ian em ig r6 c r a f tsmen wo rk ing i n S pa in , o rw he the rt h ey w e re i mpo r ted ,h a s n o tb een e s tab l ished . B y t h e l a te r 11t h c en tu ry AD , l u s t re w a re p roduc t ion w ou ld a ppea r t oh ave b een e s tab l i shed i n Ma laga , S pa in , w i th t h e

B rown G lazed : I ti sd i ff icu l t t ob e p re c i se a bou t t h e a r ea o f o r ig in o ft h e t h ree s he rd s o f b rown g la zed w a re , a s b rown g l az e w a s w ide ly u sed i n N or th A f r ica , c e r ta in ly f r om t h e 9 th c en tu ry o nwa rd s . A s a l ready m en t ioned , b rown g l a ze s

t e chn ique s o f l u s t re p roduc t ion h av ing b een c a r r ied t h e re f r om e i the r B aghdad , o r E gyp t , v i a I f r iq iya , w he re l u s t re p a in ted t i l es d a ted t o t h e 9 th c en tu ry AD h ave b een

h ave b een e ncoun te red a tT aher t , t h e 9 th c en tu ry AD I bad i c ap i ta l i n A lge r ia ( Ma rca is & D e s sum -Lama r re 1 946 :57 ) , a nd a t t h e 9 th -cen tu ry s i te o f N egr ine i n I f r iq iya ( P iane l

m a te r ia lw a sb e ing s en tt oG ao .

r e cove red f r om t he g rea t mo sque i n Ka i rouan ( Ma rca i s

1 951 :10 ) . I ti sn o tk nown i fb rown g l aze s w e re u sed a tt h ese

1 928 ) , a nd v ia t h e C en t ra l Magh reb , whe re b o th l u s t re d eco ra ted t i l e s a nd v es se l f r agmen t s h ave b e en r e cove r ed

s i t e s s i ng ly , o r i n c omb ina t ion w i th o the r c o lou r s . B rown m onoch rome w a r e s , g l azed o n t h e e x te r io r , w e re r e cove r ed f r om l e ve l s d a ted t ot h e 9 t h -12 th c en tur ie s AD a tt h e t own o fS e t i f i nA lge r ia ( Mohamed i 1 980 :220 ) . T he G ao s he rd s , j udg ing b y t h e q ua l i ty o ft h e g l aze , a r e f r om amonoch rome f i ne -wa re , p os s ib ly o f 1l t h -12 th c en tu ry AD d a te (Wa rd ,

( J enk in s 1 980 :336 -8 ) . A n umb e r o f t he l u s t re s he rd s r e cove red f r om G ao s e em i d en t ica l t o ma ter ia l r e cove red f r om e xcava t ions i n Ma laga , w h ich h ave b een d a t ed t o t h e 1 2 th c en tu ry AD ( Gomez -

p e r s .c omm . ) .

Mo r eno 1 940 ) . T he s ame d eco ra t ive mo t i f s a nd c o lou r s a r e e mp loyed ( See J enk ins 1 980 :339 , F ig 2 1 ) . J enk in s ( 1980 :340 -1 ) a rgues t ha t t h e Ma laga ma ter ia l c ou ld e ven b e o f l a t e I1t hc en tu ry d a te , w i th i n sp i ra t ion c om ing f r om t h e Magh reb . T he S pan i sh i d en t if ica t ion a nd p roposed d a te

B rown a nd Y e l low G lazed : I ti sa l so d i ff icu l t t ob e p r ec i se a bou t t h e o r ig in o ft h e s i ng le s he rd o ft h is w a re , o t he r t h an t h a ti tc ome sf r om N or th A f r ica ( po ss ib ly I f r iq iya ) ,a nd d a te s f r om t h e 11t h -12 th c en tur ies AD (Wa rd , p e r s . c omm . ) . R obe r t -Cha le ix ( 1983 :274 ) make s t h e p o in t t h a t t h e u s e o f

r ange f o r t h e Gao ma ter ia l h as b e en c onf irmed b y Wa rd ( pe r s . c omm . ) . T he d escr ip t ion o f t h e s he rd s f ound b y

d i f f e r en t g l a zes i n terna l ly a nd e x ter naly i sf ound a tQ a l 'a t B anu H ammad . H ence w ek now t h a tt h is t e chn ique w a su sed f r om t h e 1t hc en tu ry AD o nwa rd s .

Mauny ( 1952 :514 ) a t G ao -Saney s ugge s t s t ha t t h e se w e r e a l so S pan i sh l u s t re w a r es f r om C o rdoba , a nd h e d a te s t h em t ot h ee a r ly 1 2 th c en tu ry AD . T he l a te 1th c en tu ry -e a r ly 1 2 th c en tu ry AD d a te i so f

G reen , B rown a nd Y e l low G lazed : T he s i x s he rd s o f t h is t y pe o f w a re w e re p roduced i n I f r iq iya i n t h e 1l t h -12 th

i mpo r tance a s Ma laga w a s c onque red b y t h e A lmo rav id s i n AD 1 090 , a nd t h e c onnec t ion s b e tween G ao a nd t h e A lmo r av id s a re w el k nown a nd a r e d i scu s sed f u r the r i n

c en tu r ie s AD . T he u se o fb rown a nd g reen t ot h e e xc lus ion o f o t he r c o lou r s i sc ha rac ter is t ic o f t h e c ra f t smen o f t h e O cc iden ta l Mus l im w o r ld ( Robe r t -Cha le ix 1 983 :280 ) , a nd

s e c t ion 5 . 7a .

t h is t y pe o fg reen g l azed w a re i sn o t f ound f u r the re a s t t h an

L u s t re w a r es f r om t h e 9 th c en tu ry AD , a nd 6 5

m en t ion s t h a t A lme r ia a nd Ma laga w e r e f amou s a s c en t re s o fg l a s s m anu f a c tu r e i nt h e 1 3 th c en tu ry AD ( F ro th ingham 1 963 :13 ) , b u t u n fo r tuna te ly t h i s r ema ins a l i t t le -known i n du s t ry . T he e x i s t ence o fp ubl i shed a s semb lage s f r om s i te s s u ch a s F u s ta t ( F inde r -W i l son a nd S can lon 1 973 , 1 987 ) , w h ich h a s b e en m e t icu lou s ly e xcava t ed o ve r an umbe r o f y ea r s ( S can lon 1 965 , 1 966 , 1 967 ) , h a s p roved o fg r ea t u s e f o rc ompa ra t ive p u rpo se s .

I f r iq iya ( A l lan , p e r s . c omm . ) . T h i s i s p r ob ab ly f r om t h e s ame s ou r ce a st h ey e l low a nd b rown g l azed w a r e . O l ive G reen a nd B rown G lazed : T he t wo s h e rd s o ft h i s w a r ew ou ld a l so a ppea rt oh ave b een p roduced i nI f r iq iya i n t h e 11t h -12 th c en tu r ie s AD ( Wa rd , p e r s . c omm . ) . A s h a s a l ready b een n o ted a bove , g r een g l a ze s w e r ec ommon ly u s ed i nN o r th A f r ica a nd S pa in . F l igh t ( 1 974 , 1 978 ) r e co rd s t h a t o ne o ft h et h ree s he rd so fg l a zed p o t te ry h e f o und o n as po i l h eap i n t h e G ao -Saney c eme te ry w a s g r een g l a zed , a nd Mauny ( 1951 :849 ) a l so m en t ion s t h a t f o u r t i ny ( l cm 2) s h e rd s o f g reen g l azed p o t te ry w e re r e cove red f r om h i s e xcava t ion si nG ao A nc ien . Wh i te -S l ipped : O ne o f t h e t wo i d en t if iab le s h e rd s o f i mpo r t ed p o t te ry c ole c ted f r om t h e s u r f a ce o ft h e mound a t G ao -Saney a ppea r s t ob e f r om aw h i te s l ipped w a r e , s e ve ra l s he rd s o f w h ich w e re r e cove red f r om t h e e x cava t ion s a t T egdaou s t , f r om l e ve l s d a ted t ot h e e nd o ft h e 9 t h c en tu ry b eg inn ing o ft h e 1 3 th c en tu ry AD ( Vanack e r 1 979 :156 ) . C h ine se P orce la in : O ne s he rd w a s c ole c ted f r om t h e s u r f a ce o ft h e t e l l a tG ao -Saney , a nd i s , a c co rd ing t oK r ah l ( p e r s .c omm . ) : " Mo s tp robab ly S ou th -Ch ine se ,p o s s ib ly f r om G uangdong , b u t i ti sd i f f icu l t t ov i sua l ize ac omp le te p i e ce , w h ich m eans i ti sq u i te ar a re t y pe . I ti sm o s t p r obab ly l a te M ing ( 16 th -17 th c en tu ry AD ) , b u t t h e e xa c t f o rm i sn o t k nown . T he s he rd d o e s n o t b e long t o t h e m o s t c ommon e xpor t w a re c a tego r ie s , p rov inc ia l b l ue -and -wh i te o r c e ladon s . T he c r a ck le l o ok s d e l ibe ra te a nd i ts e em s m o s t c l o se ly r e la ted t ot h e l a te M ing i m i ta t ion s o f" impe r ia l " G e w a r e o ft h e 1 3 th -14 th c en tu r ie s AD . T he se , h oweve r , w e r e n o tn o rma l ly e xpo r ted ( a s f a r a sw e k now ) " . I ti sl i ke ly t h a t i tr e a ched G ao a f te r t h e Mo ro ccan s h ad c onque red t h e G ao a r ea i nt h el a te 1 6 th c en tu ry AD ( I n so l l 1 995 :12 ) .

T he G ao g l a s s a s s emb lage d i v ided i n to e i gh t w a re t y p e s ; l u s t red , m a rve red , p ink /pu rp le , t h i ckened , s c ra t ched , c u t , t r a i led a nd e name l led , a nd t h e c a tego ry , m i scelaneou s a nd u n iden t if i ed . A s w i th t h e i mpo r t ed p o t te ry , t h e b a ckg round t o , a nd d a te o f , e a ch w a re t yp e i s d e scr ibed h e re ( s e e A ppend ix 3f o r ad e s c r ip t ion o ft h ef a b r ic ,c o lou re t c ) . L u s tred G la s s : T he s i x f r agmen t s a r e F a t im id E gyp t ian i n o r ig in , d a t ing f r om t h e 1 0 th -1 1t hc en tu r ie s AD (Wa rd , p e r s . c omm . ) . T he t e chn ique o fl u s t re -pa in t ing o n g l a s s w a s f i r s t p r a c t ised i n E gyp t i n t h e l a te B yzan t ine o r e a r ly I s lam ic p e r iod ( F inde r -W i l son 1 968 :101 ) , a nd i st h e s ame a s t h a t u s ed t o d e co ra te l u s t r e p o t te ry , e xamp le s o f w h ich w e re d i scu ss ed a bove ,t h ough i ti sp robab le t h a tl u s t re -pa in t ing o n g l a s s p r eda te s t h a t o n p o t t e ry (Wh i tehou se 1 991 :43 ) . T he l u st r e e f f ec t , at h in f i lm i mpe r cep t ib le t ot h e t o uch ( F inde r W i l son 1 968 :10 1 ) , i so b ta ined b yp a in t ing t h e s u r f a ce o ft h e g l a s s w i th as u sp en s ion o ff i ne ly p owd e r ed s i lve r o rc oppe r o x ide , t h i s i s t h en f i red . T he u sua l c o lou r s f ound a r e t r an s lucen t b rown , y e l low , g r een o r r e d (Wh i tehou s e :M id , a nd s e eL amm 1 941 : P la te 5f o re xamp l e s o fE gyp t ian l u s t re p a in ted g l a s s p roduced b e tween t h e 9 t h -e a r ly 1 2 th c en tu r ie s AD ) . L u s t re p a in t ing c ou ld b e i n as i ng le t o ne o n o ne s i de ,a so n t h eG ao s he rd s ,o ro n b o th s i de s i nt wo t o ne s ( F inde r -W i l son a nd S can lon 1 987 :70 ) . T he p roduc t ion o fl u s t re -pa in ted g l a s s i nE gyp te nded a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h e A yyub id p e r iod ( AD 171) , L amm ( 1 941 :36 ) a t t r ibu te s t h i s t o t h e o r thodox S unn i sm o f S a lad in , w h ich m ade h im h o s t i le t o t h e u se o f g o ld a nd s i lve rv e s s e l s ,h ence t h e u s eo fl u s t re v e s s e l s , w i th t h e i rt h in g o ld en f i lm ,c ea sed .

5 . 5a i i )G las sf rom G ao : I n t o ta l , 1 66 f r agmen t s o f i mpo r ted g l a s s w e r e r e cove r ed , 1 49 f r om t h ee xcava t ion sa tG ao A nc ien ( t wo f r om P e r iod 1 , 1 42 f r om P e r iod 3 ,f ou r f r om P e r iod 4a nd o ne f r om P e r iod 5 ) , f ou rf r om t h e e xcava t ion sa tG ao -Saney ,a nd 1 3f r om t h e s u r f a ce a tG ao -Saney . O f t h e se , 3 5 o f t h e G ao A nc ien ( a l l f r om P e r iod 3 c on tex t s e xcep t f o r a s i ng l e s h e rd o f p ink /pu rp le g l a s sf r om P e r iod 4 ) ,a nd n one o ft h eG ao -Saney f r agmen t s p roved i d en t i f iab le . A l though g l a s s b ead s w e r e p roduced i n t h e G ao r e g ion , g l a s s v e s s e l s w e r e n o t ; a l l t h e f r agmen t s f ound h ad b e en i mpo r t ed v i a t h e t r an s -Saha ran t r ade r ou te s . T he p rob lem s d e sc r ibed a bove , w h ich w e r e e ncoun te r ed d u r ing t h e a na ly s i s o f t h e i mpo r ted p o t t e ry a s semb lage w e re n o t o fs u ch i mpo r tance d u r ing t h e a na ly s i s o ft h ei mpo r ted g l a ss .

Mar vered G la s s : T he s i x f r agmen t s o fm a rve red g l a s s a l so a ppea rt ob eE gyp t ian i no r ig in ,a nd d a te f r om t h e l th 12 th c en tu r ie s AD ( Wa rd , p e r s . c omm . ) . T he t e chn ique o f m a rve r ing w a sc ommon ly u s ed i nE gyp ta nd S y r ia ,w he r ei t s u s e f l ou r i shed b e tween t h e l th -13 th c en tu r ie s AD ( Ha s son 1 979 :10 ,C la i rmon t 1 977 :58 ) . Ac o lou red b a se g l a s s ,u sua l ly d e ep p u rp le ,b l ue o rg r een ,w a sd eco ra ted w i th o paque w h i t e t r a i ls , w h ich w e re w rapped a r ound t h e v e s s e l . T he se t h r ead s w e r e m a r ve red o n to t h e g l a s s b y r o l l ing t h e p l a s t ic g l a s s o n ap o l i shed s l ab o fm a rb le o ri r on ( H a s son 1 9 79 :10 ) . T he z i g z ag s w i r led p a t te rn s w e r e a ch ieved b y d r agg ing t h e t r a i l w i th ac omb l ik ei n s t rumen t( Wh i tehou se 1 991 :44 ) .

T he g l a s sp roduc t ion o fI f r iq iya ,a nd m en t ion i sm ade o ft h e " g la ss q ua r te r " i nK a i rouan ( Tun i s ia ) a tt h e e nd o ft h e 8 t h c en tu ry AD ( Sm i th 1 957 :92 ) , w a s i n f luenced b y t h a t o f F u s ta t ( O ld C a i ro ) , w he re p roduc t ion b egan a s s oon a s t h e c i ty w a s f ounded i nt h e m id -7 th c en tu ry AD ( F ind e r -W i l son a nd S can lon 1 973 :16 ) .T h i sm eans t h a tt h e r e a r e s im i la r i t ie s i nt h et ype so fg l a s sb e ing p roduced t h roughou tN o r th A f r ica a nd t h e N ea r E a s t . T he o n ly a r ea w he r e i n fo rma t ion o n t h e g l a s s i n du s t r ie s i s l a ck ing i s Mu s l im S pa in . I b n S a ' id

P ink /Purp le G la s s : T he f o u r f r agmen t s o f t h e t y p e o f p i nk /purp le g l a s s f o und i nG ao A nc ien a r e u sua l ly r e ga rd ed a s e a r ly i n d a t e , p e rhap s t h e 1 0 th c en tu r y AD . I tw ou ld a ppea r t h a t t h e f r agmen t f o und i n aP e r iod 4 c on tex t i so f t h i sd a te .T h i si n f e r ence c a nb e made f r om t h ea s so c ia t ion o f t h e f r agmen t a nd t h e C 14 d a te o f AD 8 45+ -165 . L i t t le b a ckg round d e ta i lc an b ep rov ided o n t h i s w a r e t y pe . H a s son 6 6

r e g ion o f S enega l ( Mauny 1 949 :72 ) , f r om l e ve l s d a ted t o

( 1 983 :112 -113 ) m en t ions t h a t p u rp le t r a i led g l a ss w a s p roduced i nE gyp t a nd t he N ea r E a s t b e tween t h e 8 th -13 th c en tu r ies AD . Whe the r t he G ao A nc ien s he rd s c ome f r om v e s se ls o nce d eco ra ted w i th t r a i l s ,w ed on o tk now . T h ickened G las s : T he o r ig in o ft h e e i gh t f r agmen t s i sn o t

b e tween t h e 1l t h -14 th c en tur ie s AD a t K oumb i S a leh ( Be r th ie r 1 983 :177 ) , a nd f r om t h e 9 th -10 th c en tu ry AD s i te o f I gbo -Ukwu i n S ou ther n N ige r ia ( Shaw 1 970 :237 -8 ) . B ead s mo re l o o se ly t e rmed " aga te s " , a l ong w i th m anu f ac tu r ing d eb r i sh ave b een c o l le c ted f r om t h es u r face a t

k nown . I n it ia l ly i tw a s t hough t t ha t t h ey m igh t b e r ock

G ao A nc ien ( Mauny 1 951 :851) , a nd t h e a u tho r e xam ined

c r y s ta l , b u t a na ly s is u s ing l i gh t -po la r i s ing p l a tes a nd t h e s p ec if ic g rav i t ie s o ft he s amp le s s howed t ha t t h e f r agmen t s w e re g la ss ( Lau r ie , p e r s . c omm . ) . G la s s o f t h i s t h ickne ss i s u nusua l i n t h e 1l t h -12 th c en tu r ies AD , b u t t h ey m ay b e p roduc ts o ft h ec u tg la s si ndu s t ry ,w h ich i sd i scu s sed b e low .

s ome c a rne l ian b ead s , p rev iou s ly u nmen t ioned i n t h e l i t e ra tu re , w h ich w e re r e cove red f r om t h e c eme te ry a tG ao S aney d ur ing t h e L e P on to i s e xcava t ion s ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 . 7a ) . T hese a r e o n d i sp lay i n t h e Mu se d es A r t s 0 c6an i ens e t A f r ica ins i n P a r i s . F u r the r e xamp les t o b e f ound i n t h e Musge d e l ' Homme w e re c olec ted b y D esp lagne s f r om A te l i er s i te s a l ong t h e N ige r B end , a nd f r om h i s e xcava t ion s a t K i l l i a nd E l -Oua lad j i i n t h e l a ke s

S cra tched G las s : T he t h ree f r agmen t s w e re r e cove red w e r e p r obab ly p roduced i n Ka i rouan a nd d a t ing f r om t h e 1 0t h 1t h c en tu r ies AD (Wa rd , p e r s . c omm . ) . G la s s d eco ra ted b y s c ra tch ing , p o s s ib ly u s ing a d iamond , w a s u sua l ly

r e g ion o f Ma l i . As t udy o ft h e e xamp les i nP a r i s , a nd t h o se f r om t h e 1 993

or namen ted w i th g eome tr ic o r v ege ta l p a t ter n s , s ome t ime s a c compan ied w i th i n sc r ip t ion s (Wh i tehouse 1 991 :41 ) .

e xcava t ion s i n G ao A nc ien , r a i se s t h e q ue s t ion o f w h ich b ead s w e re i mpo r ted , a nd w h ich w e re made l o caly . C ar ne l ian b ead s f a l l i n to t wo t y pe s , w el -shaped e xamp les ,

C u t G la s s : T h is s i ng le h and -cu t f r agmen t p robab ly a l so d a tes f r om t h e 1 0 th -1 1t h c en tu r ie s AD , a nd wa s p roduced e i the r i n K a i rouan o r F u s ta t (Wa rd , p e r s . c omm . ) , w he re s im i la rs ma l lf a ce ted f l a sk sh ave b een r e cove red ( s ee F inde r -

s u ch a s af a ce ted b ead r e cove red f r om G ao A nc ien , a nd s imp le r c r ude ly -wo rked t ype s ( t he m a jo r i ty ) . I t s e em s p robab le t h a t t h e re w a s at r an s -Saha ran t r ade i n e spec ia l ly f i ne c a rne l ian b ead s ,b u tt hough a sy e tl i t t le u nde r s tood , i ti s

W i lson a nd S can lon 1 987 :66 , f i g 1 3 a nd Ma r ca i s a nd P o insso t 1 952 :393 ) . C u t g la s s w a s p roduced i nF us ta t f r om a se a r ly a st h e 8 th c en tu ry AD ,a nd h exagona l s haped f l a sk s a r e o ne o f t h e r a re r s hape s manuf a c tu red ( F inde r -W i l son

p o s s ib le t h a t t h e b u lk o f t h e c a rne l ian b ead s f ound i n G ao a nd e l sewhe re i n t h e We s ter n S ahe l w e re p roduced l o caly ( s ee C hap te r6 ,s e c t ion 6 . 2g ) .

a nd S can lon 1 973 :24 , 1 987 :66 ) . A ma jo rc en t re o fc a rnel ian b ead p roduc t ion w a s t h e t own o f C ambay ( I nd ia ) , w he re p roduc t ion p robab ly b egan a t t h e

T ra i led G la s s : T h is t y pe o f g l a s s w a s p roduced i n b o th E gyp t a nd t h e N ea r E as t , t h e p robab le o r ig in o f t h e s even f r agmen t s r e cove red f r om G ao A nc ien . T ra i led g l a ss h a s b een f ound a tF us ta tw he re p roduc t ion p robab ly b egan i nt h e 8 t h c en tu ry AD ( F inde r -W i lson a nd S can lon 1 973 :23 ) . H a sson ( 1 983 :112 -13 ) , make s t h e p o in t t ha t t h e p roduc t ion o fp u rp le t r a i led g la ss i n J erusa lem d e c l ined f r om t h e l a te 1 3 th c en tu ry AD o nwa rd s , w hen i t w a s s up e r ceded b y e name l led g la ss .

b eg inn ing o ft h e i s t M i l lenn ium AD , b u t w a s a ti t s g rea tes t b e twe en AD 1 300 -1800 . T he C ambay b ead t r ade h a s b een e xam ined b y A rkel ( 1 936 ) i ns ome d e ta i l , a nd i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t s ome o ft h e f a ce t ed r ed c a rne l ians f ound o n s i t e s i nt h e We s te rn S ahe lw e re p roduced i nI nd ia ,a nd w en tv i at h e R ed S ea t oE gyp t ( / b id :298 -9 ) . C a rne l ian i sa l so f ound i nE gyp t , a nd E gyp t i t se l f m ay h ave b een a s ou r ce o f s ome o f t h e c a rne l ian b ead s .

E name l led G lass : As i ng le f r agmen t w a s r e cove red f r om a P er iod 3 c on tex t . Wa rd ( pe r s . c omm . ) h a s d e sc r ibed t h e s i ng le f r agmen t f ound a s b e ing e a r ly i n d a te , b u t o f a n u nknown t y pe . E name l led g l a ss p roduc t ion f l ou r i shed i nt h e N ea r E as t i nt he 1 3 th -14 th c en tu r ie s AD , b u t t h e f r agmen t f r om G ao A nc ien b ea r s n o r e la t ion t o t h e h i gh ly o rna te g i lded a nd e name l led g l a s se s b e ing p roduced i n t h e wo rk shop so fS y r ia ,f o re xamp le ,a tt h is t ime .

G la s sB eads : T he s oc a l led " t rade w ind " b ead sa r e f ound o n m any s i t es i ns ub -Saha ran A f r ica , e spec ia l ly i nE a s te rn a nd S ou the rn A f r ica . T h i s g roup o f b ead s c ha rac te r is t ica l ly c on ta in sb ead s made o fo paque r ed g la s s , " I nd ian r ed s " , a nd y e l low ,g r een a nd b l ue g l a ss o fm any s hade s ( Van d e r S leen 1 956 :28 ) . T he m a jo r i ty a r e d rawn " cane " , w i th f ew b e ing w ound ( s ee A ppend ix 4 ) . V i sua l i n spec t ion s how s t ha t a l l t h e se t y p e s o f b ead s a r e p res en t i n t h e

G ao A nc ien

5 .5b )B eads :

a s semb lage , w i th t h e d i agnos t ic s ma l l " I nd ian r ed s " b e ing f ound i nP e r iod 3 l e ve ls . T he s im i la r i t ies b e tween t h e G ao m a te r ia l a nd t h e I gbo lUkwu b ead s , w he re " t rade w ind "

B ead s w e r e b o th p roduced l o ca l ly i n t h e We s tern S ahe l

b ead s o fp robab le I nd ian o r ig in h ave b een i d en t if ied i n t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD , f u r the r s uppo r t s t h i s i d en t if i ca t ion f o r

( d iscu s sed i n C hap te r 6 , s e c t ion 6 . 2g ) , a nd , a s t h e A rab ic

s ome o f t h e G ao b ead s . B e s ide s t h e p o s s ib le I nd ian o r ig in

s ou rce s t e l l u s , i mpo r ted t h e re i nl a rge n umb e r s f r om N or th A f r ica . C a rne l ian a nd g la s s b ead s w e re t h e t wo ma in c a tego r ie si mpo r ted .

f o r s ome o f t h e b ead s , i ti sa l so p robab le t ha t many w e r e m ade i nt h e o the rb ead manuf ac tu r ing c ent re s o ft h e e a r ly m id 2 nd m i l lenn ium AD , n ame ly Mo rocco , E gyp t , S y r io P a le s t ine a nd V en ice ( Mauny 1 961 :372 , F ranc i s 1 990 :19 2 0 ,I n so l la nd S haw 1 996 ) .

C arne l ian B eads : B ead s made f r om c a rne l ian , a r e w ide ly f ound o n s i tes i n t h e Wes ter n S ahe l a nd S udan , a nd w i th in

Monoch rome g l a s s b ead s h ave b een h ave b een f ound o n m any s i te s i n We s t A f r ica , i n c lud ing K oumb i S a leh , w he re

Wes tA f r ica i ng ene ra l . E xamp le sh ave b e en r e cove red f r om t umu l i s i t e so ft he e a r ly 2 nd M i l lenn ium AD i nt h e S tL ou i s 6 7

c ha r t ,f o re xamp le ,t h e Munsel S o i lC o lou r C ha r t , a s aw ide

v a r ious s hade s o f b lue , g reen a nd y elow g l a s s b ead s ( Thoma s sey a nd Mauny 1 956 :137 ) , a l ong w i th l e s se r

r a nge o fs hades a r eo f ten e ncoun t e red w i th in e ach b ead t ype .

q uan t i t ies o f w h i te , b lack a nd r ed b ead s w e re f ound ( Be r th ie r 1 983 :182 ) . Mono ch rome g l a ss b ead s w e r e a l so r e cove red f r om t umu l i i n S enega l ( Mauny 1 949 ) , a nd f r om E l -Oua lad j i , w he re t r ans lucen t b l ue g l a ss b ead sa r er e co rded a s h av ing b een f ound ( Desp lagnes 1 907 :60 ) . Y e l low , b l ue g reen , a nd wh i te g l a ss b ead s w e re r e cove red f r om

T he v a s t m a jo r i ty o ft h e g l a ss b ead s w e re manuf a c tu red b y b e ing d rawn , at e chn ique w he reby ag l a ss ma t r ix w h ich h a s b een b lown i n to ah o l low b a l l i sd r awn o u t when h o t t of o rm al o ng t u be , w h ich i st h en b roken o r " s napped " i n to s hor t l e ng ths ( Ch i t t ick 1 974 :461 ) . On ly s i x b ead s a ppea r t oh ave

T egdaous t , w i th t h e y elow b ead s c om ing f r om l e ve l s d a ted t ob e tween t h e l a te 9 th -l a te 1 0 th c en tu r ie s AD ( Vanacke r 1 979 :168 ) .A tJ enne jeno f i ve monoch rome g l a s sb ead s w e r e

b een m anuf ac tu red b yb e ing wound r ound amand r i l . Whe re a ppl icab le , t h e c l a s s if ica t ion o f t h e b ead s hap e s f o l low s C h i t t ick ( 1 974 :463 ) .F o rg rea te rd e ta i l o n b ead c l a s s if i ca t ion

f ound d ur ing t h e 1 977 s ea son ( S . a nd R . Mc In to sh 1 980 :164 ) , w i th o ne t r an s lucen t l i gh t b lue g l a s s b ead b e ing

s cheme s t h e r e ade r i sr e f e r red t oB eck ( 1928 ) a nd V an d e r S l een ( 1967 ) . F o r t h e p u rposes o f d escr ip t ion t h e b ead

d a ted t o AD 6 00 . T en g l a ss b ead s w e re r e cove red d ur ing t h e

a s s emb lage h a s b een d i v ided u nde r t wo ma in s ubhead ings ,

1 981 s ea son ( S .K . Mc In to sh 1 995d :247 ) .

c a rne l ian a nd g la s s . D e ta i led d e scr ip t ions o fe ach b ead t y pe a r et ob ef o und i nA ppend ix 4 .

5 . 5b i ) T he B eads f rom Gao : 5 . 5b i i )B ead C hrono logy a nd D is tr ibu t ion : I n t o ta l , 2 64 i d en t if iab le b ead s a nd b ead f r agmen t s o fs t one , g l a s sa nd c l ay w e re r e cove red f r om G ao A nc ien , 1 2 f r om t h e

B ead s w e r e f ound t h roughou t a l l t h e l e ve ls a t b o th G ao A nc ien a nd G ao -Saney ( Tab les App .4 .3 a nd 4 .4 ) . T h i s i so f l e s s s i gn i f icance a tG ao -Saney , a s a l l t h e d epo s i t s a r e o ft h e s ame d a te , t h e 11 t h -13 th c en tu r ie s AD , h oweve r a t G ao A nc ien t h e p a t tern ing o f b ead d i s t r ibu t ion i s o f s ome

e xcava t ion s , a nd 8 2 f r om t h e s u r f a ce a tG ao -Saney . A l l t h e b ead f r agmen t s h ave b een e xam ined t oe nsu re t h ey w e re n o t p a r t o f t h e s ame b eads . B e s ide s t h e i d en t if iab le b ead s , 8 4 p i e ce s o f u n iden t if iab le g l a s s b ead d eb r is w e re r e cove r ed f r om G ao A nc ien , a nd t wo p i ece s f r om G ao -Saney . T h i s d eb r i s r e su l t s e i the r f r om b ead manuf ac tu r ing p ro ce ss e s , o r

s i gn if i cance a nd h ence w i l lb e d is cu s sed i ng rea te rd e ta i l .

f r om b ead s w h ich h ave e roded a nd b roken u p d ue t o c hem ica lp ro ces se s d ur ing d epo s i t ion ,a nd i sn o t i n c luded i n t h es t a t i s t ica la na lys i s( s ee A ppend ix 4 a nd T ab le sA pp .4 .1 4 .4 ) .

G ao Anc ien : S ix teen b eads w e r e r e cove red f r om t h e d i s tu rbed P e r iod 1 d epo s i t s , wh ich c on ta ined b o th t h e e xamp le s o f mode rn f a ience /wound b ead s f ound , a l ong w i th t h e t wo mod e rn p l a s t ic b ead s ( Tab le s A pp .4 .1 a nd 4 . 2 ) . B y f a rt h e g r ea te s t c oncen t ra t ion o fb ead sc ame f r om t h eP e r iod

An e x tens ive l i te ra tu re e x i s t s w h ich d e sc r ib e s b ead s f o und

3d epo s i t s a tG ao A nc ien , 2 18 o u t o ft h e t o ta l o f2 64 b ead s , a nd 1 60 w e re r e cove red f r om t h e i mpo r tr i ch 5 cm d eep l a ye r (MM 9 3 A2 1 , 2 2 ) , d a ted t o t he 1l t h -12 th c en tu r ie s AD .

o n a r chaeo log ica l s i tes i n s ub -Saha ran A f r ica ; h oweve r i t s s ho r tcom ings b e come a ppa ren t o nce t h is l i t e ra tu re i s c on su l ted , f o r t h e b ead s a r e o f t en p oo r ly d e scr ibed a nd

W i th in t h i s l a ye r w e re f i ve o f t h e s i x w h i te c a rne l ians

i lu s t ra ted . T he a u tho r h a s f ound t ha t t h e mo s t u s ef u l

r e cove r ed , t h e s o le mu l t i -f ace t ted r e d c a rne l ian , t h e s o le m u l t i -co lou red c ane , t h ree o u t o f t h e f ou r b l ack a nd w h i t e

c ompa r ab le p ubl i shed a s semb lage s w e re f r om t h e s i te s o f I gbo -Ukwu i n N iger ia ( Shaw 1 970 , 1 977 ) , t h e b e s t d ocumen ted Wes t A f r ican g roup , a nd K i lwa i n T anzan ia , t h e b e s t A f r ican t ypo log ica l s t udy o f ac on tempo ra ry g roup ( Ch i t t ick 1 974 ) . I ts hou ld a l so b e n o ted t h a t s im i la rt y pe s o f b ead s w e re p roduced o ve r l o ng p e r iod s o f t ime , h ence t h e

w ound g l a s s b ead s , a l l t h e r ed g la ss b ead s a nd n ine o u t o f t h e 1 0b l ack g l a ss b ead s ( Tab les App .4 .1 a nd 4 .2 ) . I nP e r iod 4 ( 10 th -1 l t h c en tu r ies AD ) 2 8 b ead s w e re f ound , t h e m a jo r i ty o f w h ich w e re g l a s s , w i th h a lf a w h i te c a rne l ian b ead a l so r e cove red . An o tewor thy p o in t i st h e r e cove ry o f t h ree e xamp le so f mu l t i -segmen ted e a r the rnwa re b ead sf r om as ha l low r ubb i sh p i t o f P e r iod 4 d a te ( MM 9 3 A 2 6R ) , w h ich a r e d i s cu s sed f u r the ri nC hap te r6 ,s e c t ion 6 .2g . O n ly

a s semb lage s a re o n t h e w ho le n o t v e ry u se fu l f o r d a t ing p u rpo se s ( s ee D eC o r se 1 989b f o r ad i scus s ion o ft h i s i s sue ) . F ur thermo re , s i nce , " sound c onc lus ion s a bou t t h e o r ig ins o f b ead s c an o n ly b e b ased o n c on ten t a na ly s i s , n o t o n m e r e

t wo b ead s w e r e r e cove red f r om t he P e r iod 5 d epo s i t s ( p re 1 0 th c en tu ry AD ) ; b o th o fb l ue g la ss a nd f r om t he t o p o ft h e

a ppea rance " ( Har r i son 1 965 q uo ted i nS haw 1 970 :237 ) , a nd n o c hem ica l a na lys i s o f t h e b ead s f r om G ao h a s b een

d epo s i t s ( MM 9 3 A3 1 ) .

u nder taken ,t h i sd i s cuss ion i sb a sed u pon p ub l i shed d a ta a nd as t udy o ft h ec olec t ions i nP a r i s .

G ao -Saney : D i f f e r ence s c an b e s een i n t h e t ypes o f b ead s r e cove red f r om t h e e xcava t ions a t G ao -Saney ( T ab le s A pp .4 .3 a nd 4 . 4 ) . On ly o ne b lue g la s s b ead w a s f ound , w h i l s t e i gh t e a r thenwa re b ead s w e re r e cove red , s even o f

T he a s semb lage c an b e d iv ided i n to 1 7 d i f f e ren t b ead t y pe s ; y elow g l a ss ( YG ) , d a rk b lue g l a ss ( DBG ) , b l ue g l a s s ( BG ) , g reen g la ss ( GG ) , p u rp le g l a s s ( PG ) , r ed g l a ss ( RG ) , g rey i sh -wh i te

g la ss

( G WG ) ,

b l ack

g la ss

w h ich a r e s egmen ted b ead s o f at ype n o t p resen t a t G ao A nc ien ( t wo s ma l l e a r thenwa re r i ng b ead s , r e su l t ing f r om a

( BLG ) ,

mu l t ico lou red c ane g l a ss (MCG ) , b l ack a nd w h i te w ound g l a ss ( BWW ) , modern f a ience /wound g l a s s ( MF W ) , g l a s s p owde r( GP ) , s t one ( S ) ,r ed c a rne l ian ( RC ) , w h i te c a rne l ian

s egmen ted b ead h av ing b een c u t u p w e r e f ound a t G ao A nc ien , o ne i nP e r iod 1d epo s i t s , a nd t h e o t he r i n P e r iod 3

(WC ) , e a r thernwa re ( EW ) ,a nd o ne c a tego ry , m i scelaneous .

d epo s i t s ) . Al a rge w h i te s t one b ead o f at y p e n o t f ound a t G ao A nc ien w a sa l so r e cove red f r om G ao -Saney ,a sw e r et h e

N o a t t emp t h a s b een made t o ma tch t h e b ead s t o ac o lou r

o n ly g l a s sp owde rb ead sf ound . T he t wo w e r ep robab ly m ad e

6 8

l o ca l ly , a s w e r e t h e e a r thenwa r e b ead s , a nd t h e l a rge s t one b ead .

T he s ou r ce o f t h e l e ad i so f i n te r e s t . A n a nonymou s 1 0 th c en tu ry AD P e r s ian s ou r ce , t h e ' Hudud a l 'a lam , m en t ion s t h a tm e r chan t sf r om E gyp tt r an spo r ted s a l t ,g l a s sa nd l e ad t o t h eB i lad a lS udan , a nd i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e l e ad i n go t w a s o r ig ina l ly f r om E gyp t , s i nce o t he r i t ems o fE gyp t ian o r ig in a r e f o u nd i nG ao . T he m e r chan t s a r e s a id t oh ave f olowed

T he 8 2b ead s w h i ch w e re c ole c ted f r om t h e s u r f a ce a tG ao S aney a dded l i t t le t o t h i s s t udy , e xcep t f o r al a rge t h re e s e gmen t e a r thenwa re b ead s im i la r t o t h o se f r om G ao A nc ien .T he t y p e so fg l a s sb ead sr e cove r ed ,y e l low ,b l ue a nd g r een a r e t h e s ame a s t h o se f r om G ao A nc ien . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a tt h es u r f ace c o l le c ted s amp le i sb i a s ed a sb ead sa r e t h e m a in o b je c t s s ough t b y t h e l o o te r s w ho h ave s y s t ema t icaly d e s t royed much o f t h e h ab i ta t ion m ound a t G ao -Saney ( I n so 1 1 1 993a , 1 994b ) . T he s u r f a ce -co l le c ted b ead s f r om G ao -Saney h ave n o t b een i n c luded i n t h e s t a t i s t ica la na ly s i s( Tab le sA pp .4 .1 -4 . 4 ) .

t h e r o u t e t oG ao p a s s ing b y Ma rende t ( G rebena r t 1 985 :377 q uo t ed i nG a renne - Ma ro ta nd H u r te l 1 993 :327 ) . A na ly s i s o f t h e c r u c ib le s f ound a t Ma r ende t s howed c opp e r a nd l e ad , w i th a l e ad c on ten t o fb e twe en 1 0 -60 .5% ( Ga r enne - Ma ro t a nd H u r t e l 1 993 :327 ) . Ma rende t , o r Ma randa wa s am a jo r c en t r eo fc oppe rm e ta l lu rgy ,o ve r4 0 ,000 c r uc ib le a nd m ou ld f r agmen t s b e ing f o und b y L ho te ( 1 972 :450 -453 ) , w i th t h e s i t e r a d io ca rbon a nd t h e rmo lum ine s cence d a ted t ob e tw een t h e 6 t h 1 1t h c en tu r ie s AD ( I b id . C raddock a nd P i c ton 1 986 :6 ) .

5 . 5c ) Me ta l s :

Al e s s f e a s ib le a l ter na t ive i st h a t t h e l e ad c ou ld h ave b een

Me ta l s a nd f i n i shed m e ta lwo rk a ppea r t o h ave b e en e x t en s ive ly t r aded t h roughou t t h e We s t e rn S ahe l a nd S udan , t h ough d i s t ingu i sh ing t h o se p i e ce s o b ta ined v i a t r ans S aha ran t r ade i sd i ff i cu l tw i thou ta na ly s ing t h ec ompo s i t ion , f u nc t ion , s t y le a nd manu f ac tu r ing t e chn ique s o fe a ch p i e ce i n d iv idua l ly , w h ich i sb eyond t h e s cop e o ft h i s v o lume . T he b u lk o fi mpor ted m e ta lwo rk a ppea r s t oh ave b e en i t ems o f c opp e r -a l loy r a the rt han i r on , i ft h ed e sc r ip t ion so ft h i s t r ade c on ta ined i n t h e A rab ic s ou r ce s a r e t o b e b el ieved . A n umbe ro fr e f e r ence s t ot h ee xpo r to fc opp e ra nd b ra s s ,b o th i n go t s a nd f i n i shed i t ems , e x i s t ( L ev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :38 -9 ,95 ,128 ,148 ) , w h i l s t o n ly o ne e xpl ic i t r e f e r ence ( A l Id r i s i , m id -12 th c en tu ry AD ) t ot h e e xpor t o f , " t oo l s o f w o rked i r on " f r om A ghma t , s i tua t ed s ou thea s to f Ma r rake sh ( I b id :128 ) ,t ot h e S udan w a sf ound .

o b ta ined f r om We s tA f r ica i t se lf . L ead s ou r ce s e x i s tc l o se t o G ao , f o r e xamp le a tT e ssa l i t i n t h e A d ra r d e s I f o ra s , w he r e c oppe r ,l e ad a nd z i nc a r e f ound . H oweve r ,t h e c h rono logy o f l e ad e xp lo i tat ion a t T e s sa l i t i s n o t k nown , a nd i tw ou ld a ppea r t h a t z i nc w a s n o t m ined u n t i l t h e l a te 1 8 th c en tu ry AD ( M auny 1 96 1 :319 ) . L ead i sa l so f ound t ot h e s ou th o f G ao , f o re xamp le i nE a s te rn N ige r ia ( Shaw 1 970 :86 ) . I gbo U kwu w a s p robab ly b e ing s upp l ied w i th l e ad f r om as ou r ce 1 00km e a s t o ft h e s i t e ( Su t ton 1 991 :147 ) , i nt h e B enue R if t r e g ion ( Ch ikwendu e ta l 1 989 :35 ) , b u t i ti su n l ik e ly t h a t l e ad w a sb e ing b rough tn o r th t oG ao f r om t h i sr e g ion .

B ra s s w a s c e r ta in ly i mpo r t ed v i a t h e t r an s -Saha ran t r ade , a l though C raddo ck , w ho h a s a na ly sed m ed ieva l I s lam ic c oppe r -aloy s i n d e ta i l ( 1979 , 1 985 ) , h a s p o in ted o u t t h e d i ff i cu l t ie s o f t r y ing t o p rovenance m e ta l s w i th in We s t A f r ica ( 1 985 :17 ) . H oweve ri tc an b es t a ted t h a ta l l t h eb r a s s w h ich i sf ound i n t h e We s te rn S ahe l w a s f r om t h e I s lam ic w o r ld d u r ing t h e p e r iod u nde r c on s ide ra t ion ; b ra s s w a s n o t p roduced i n s ub -Saha ran A f r ica p r io r t o t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry AD . T oq uo te S .K . a nd R . J . Mc In to sh ; " B r a s s i st h e re fo r e a r el iab le i n d ica to r o f t r ade f r om N or th o r N o r thea s t A f r i ca " ( 1 988b :113 ) . I ti sp robab le t h a t b r a s s w a s i mpor ted b o th i n i n go t f o rm ( a s t h e s pec ta cu la r Mad en I j a f en c a che a t te s t s t o i n t h e w e s t ) a nd a s f i n i shed i t em s , s u ch a s b r a ce le t s a nd r i ng s ( wh ich w e re p r esen t w i th in t h e G ao a s s emb lage a nd r e co rded a si t ems o ft r ade i nt h eA r ab ic s ou r ce s ) .

C opp er a nd C opper -Aloy s : C oppe r a nd c opp e r -a l loy m e ta lwo rk w a s r e cove r ed f r om t h e e xcava t ion s i n G ao A nc ien a nd G ao -Saney : 6 6 i t ems f r om G ao A nc ien a nd s i x f r om G ao -Saney . T he se v e ry f r ag i le i t ems a r e i nt h e p ro ce s s o f b e ing c on s e r ved , a nd o w ing t o t h e i r c u r ren t i n ac ce s s ib i l i ty , i th a s n o t p roved p o s s ib le t o i t em ize e a ch i nd iv idua l o b je c t a c co rd ing t o f unc t ion . H oweve r t h e a s semb lage c on ta ined b o th u t i l i ta r ian a nd d eco ra t ive p i e ce s , i n c lud ing a s ma l l c ha in , e a r -r ings , af i nge r -r ing , i n go t s , c oppe rs t r ip a nd t h r ee c i r cu la rt o kens .

Me ta lwo rk w a s b o th p roduced l o ca l ly i n G ao a nd i mpo r ted ( l oca l ly p roduced m e ta lwo rk i sd i s cus s ed i n t h e c on t ex t o f i n te r reg iona l t r ade i nC hap te r6 ,s e c t ion 6 . 2b i ) . I nt o ta l 2 23 i r on a nd c oppe r i t ems w e re r e cove r ed f r om t h e e xcava t ion s i nG ao A nc ien a nd 1 4f r om G ao -Saney .

A l l f o u r o ft h e c oppe r -a l loy i t em s f r om G ao A nc ien w h ich w e re a na ly sed i n t h e S edgw i ck Mu seum i n C amb r idge p roved t ob e b ra s s ( Append ix 6 ) . T he se o b jec t s , t wo i n go t s , a nd t wo f i n i shed i t ems , ap i e ce o fs t rapwo rk a nd ab r a ce le t , w e r e f r om t h e i mpo r t r ich P e r iod 3l a ye r (MM 9 3 A2 2 a nd 2 5 ) . H ow m any o f t h e o t he r c oppe r o r c opp e r -a l loy i t em s f r om G ao A nc ien a r e o fb r a s s , a nd h ence i mpo r ted , w i l l n o t b e k nown u n t i l a l l t h e o b je c t s h ave b een s pec t rog raph i ca l ly a na ly s ed . R e -ca s t ing a nd " wa te r ing d own " o f b r a s s m igh t h ave t a k en p l a ce w i th in G ao , a s o ccu r r ed i n t h e M idd le S enega l V a l ley ( S .K . Mc In to sh 1 995b :389 ) , a nd m o r e p robab ly a tG ao -Saney w he re 1 4 mou ld f r agmen t sa nd s e ven c r uc ib le f r agmen t s w e re r e cove r ed f r om t h e e xcava t ion s o n t h e t e l l ( n one w a s f o und i n G ao A nc ien , t h ough Mauny [ 1 953 :34 ] r e po r t sf i nd ing s ome w i th in t h a ta r ea p r ev iou s ly ) .

L ead : A s i ng le i n go t o f l e ad w a s r e cove red f r om G ao A nc ien i n aP e r iod 3c on tex t ( MM 9 3 A2 2 ) ( s ee A ppend ix 5 ) , a nd c ou ld h ave b een d e s t ined t o b e u sed i n c opp e r m e ta l lu rgy e i the r f o r e a s ie r c a s t ing o r f o r s i lve r e x t ra c t ion ( H e rb e r t 1 984 :65 ) .

I r on : T he t r ad e i ni r on ( o b je c t sa nd b l oom s ) , i sd i s cu s sed i n C hap t e r 6 , s e c t ion 6 . 2b i . I t h a s n o t p roved p o s s ib le t o a na ly se t h e c a rbon c on t en t o f a ny o f t h e p i e ce s f r om G ao a nd h ence i ti sn o t k nown i fs t ee l w a s u s ed . I ti sp r obab le t h a t at r an s -Saha ran t r ade i n w eapon s e x i s ted ; t h e t e x tua l

5 . 5c i ) Me ta l sa nd Me ta l Ob jec t sf r om G ao :

6 9

e xamp le w a se xam ined f r om Maf ia I s land , T anzan ia , i nt h e B r i t i sh I n s t i tu t e i n E a s te rn A f r i ca ' s N a i rob i H eadqua r te r s . 7 7 d e co ra ted s c h i s t p l aque s f r om K oumb i S a leh s hou ld a l so b e m en t ioned . T hough l o ca l i n o r ig in , t h e se i t ems a r e i n sp i red b y N o r th A f r ica i n t h e d e co ra t ive mo t i f s e mp loyed a nd t h e K o ran i c v e r se s i n A r ab i c f ound o n 5 3 e xamp le s ( Thoma s sey a nd Mauny 1 956 :127 -8 ) .

r e f e rence t o as wo rd b e ing s e n tt oG ao b yt h eC ommande ro f t h e F a i th fu l ( p robab ly f r om a l -Anda lus ) h a s a l r eady b een r e f e r red t o , a nd t h e l o ng d i s tance t r ade i ni r on a nd s t ee l , o r s t ee l -edged s wo rd b l ade s , i sw e l l a t te s ted t oi n t h e I s lam ic w o r ld ( Bo swo r th 1 992 ) . S wo rd b l ade s w e r e n o tr e cove red i n G ao , b u t o t he r w eapon s , i n c lud ing l a ncehead s , k n i f e b l ade s a nd as pea rp o in t ,w e re f ound .

5 . 5d i i i ) C ow r ie S he l l s : T he r e a r e n ume rou s r e f e r ence s t o t h et r ade i nc ow r ie s hel sa nd t h e i ru se i nt h e We s ter nS udan i n t h e A rab i c s ou r ce s . A l -Bak r i , w r i t ing i n t h e m id -11 th c en tu ry AD , m en t ion s t h a t t h ey w e re i mpo r ted i n to t h e t own o f K ugha , s i tua ted t o t h e w e s t o f G hana , ( Koumb i S a leh? ) , a nd t h a t t h ey w e re much i nd emand t h e r e ( Mauny 1 96 1 :420 ; L ev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :83 ) . H oweve r , i ti s p robab le t h a tt h ey w e r eo n ly i mpo r t ed a sd eco ra t ive i t ems a t t h i s d a te , t h e i r u se a s c u r rency i sn o t m en t ioned u n t i l t h e 1 4 th c en tu ry AD w hen A l -Uma r i r ema rk s o n t h e i r u se a s c u r r ency i t em si nK anem a nd T ak r u r ( L ev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 : 2 60 ,269 ,386 ) . I b n B a t tu ta r e co rded t h a t 1 , 150 c ow r ie s w e r ew o r th o ne g o ld d i na ra tJ aw jaw ( Gao ) i nt h e m id -14 th c en tu ry AD .

5 . 5d ) O ther Ma ter ia l s : T he A rab ic s ou r ce s r e co rd t h a t a w ide v a r ie ty o f m is celaneou s o b je c t s a nd m a te r ia l s w e r e i mpo r ted i n to t h e We s t e rn S ahe lf r om N o r th A f r ica . 5 . 5d 1 )F ood s tuf f s : I ns e c t ion 5 . 4a i i tw a sm en t ioned t h a t t h e A rab ic h i s to r ica l s ou rce s r e co rd t h a t av a r i e ty o f f o od s tuf f s w e re i mpor t ed i n to t h e We s t e rn S ahe l v i a t r an s -Saha ran t r ade . T he se i n c lude c o lo ca s ia , s ou r o range s a nd l i me s , a nd p o s s ib ly A s ia t ic r i ce a nd s uga r c ane (Wa t son 1 983 :82 ) . A t N ian i t h e s e ed s o fa l ien p l an t s , n ame ly c abbage a nd l e n t i l s , w e re r e cove r ed f r om al a ye r d a ted t ot h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD ( F i l ipow iak 1 977 :33 ) . I ta l so a ppea r s t h a tc e r ta in v ege tab le s w e r eo n ly g rown f o rf o re ign m e r chan tc ommun i t ie s , s u ch a s t h e c abbage , t u rn ip a nd a ube rg ine r epo r ted b y A l -Oman a s g row ing i n Ma l i i nt h e 1 4 th c en tu ry AD ( L ew ick i 1 974 :62 ) . U n fo r tuna t e ly s u ch e v iden ce i sl a ck ing i n t h e G ao R eg ion , a si tw a sn o t p o s s ib le t ot a ke t h en e ce s sa ry s amp le s . 5 . 5d i i ) S tone ( O ther t han B ead s ) : P o s s ib ly t h e m o s t r ema rkab le i t em s i nt h i s c a tego ry a r e t h e f i v e w h i te m a rb le f une ra ry s t e lae ( o fA lme r ian o r ig in ) f ound i nt h ec eme te ry a t G ao -Saney . T he se u n ique o b jec t s m u s t h ave b een t r an spo r ted b y c a ravan , p o s s ib ly i n t h e s ame w ay t h a t s a l t b a r s( o fs im i la rd imen s ion s ) ,a r ec a r r ied s l ung o nc ame l s . A l so i n G ao A nc ien , f i ve p i e ce s o f w o rked a l aba s t e r o r g yp sum w e re f ound i nP e r iod 3c on t ex t s (MM 9 3 A2 1 , 2 2 ) . N o c ompa rab le e xamp le s a r e r e po r ted i n t h e l i t e r a tu r e . T he se h ad b een b o th c a rved a nd e ng raved ,a nd i nt wo c a se s , d r i l led , a nd a r e o bv iou s ly d eco r a t ive . O ne p i e ce ( M IN I 9 3 A 2 1 .77 ) , a ppea r s t ob e ar im s he rd , p o s s ib ly f r om as ha l low d i sh o rb ow l . T he d r i l led p i ece sc ou ld h ave f o rmed p a r to fa s c reen o r af i l te r , a s t h e d r i l l ing i s r e gu la r i n p a t te rn . A laba s te r , am i snome r f o r s eve ra l v a r ie t ie s o fc a rbona te o r s u lpha te o fl ime , w a s much w o rk ed i n t h e C la s s ica l p e r iod ( Fow l e r a nd F ow le r 1 952 :29 ) a nd i sw e l l s u i ted t oc a rv ing . T he s ou r ce o ft h ep i e ce si sn o tk nown ,i ti sp o s s ib le t h a tt h ey w e re p roduced l o ca l ly , o r c ou ld h ave b een i mpo r t ed f r om E gyp t o r S pa in . U n fo r tuna te ly , t h e h i s to ry o f a l aba s te r w o rk ing i nE gyp to rS pa in i nt h e 1 0 th -13 th c en tu r ie s AD i s n o t k nown . H e s te r a nd H e ize r ( 1 981 :15 ,25 ) i n t h e i r e t hnoa r chaeo log ica l s t udy o f mod e rn a l aba s t e r w o rk ing i n E gyp t ,a r gue t h a to rgan i zed a l aba s te rw o rk ing d i dn o tr e v ive i nE gyp tu n t i lt h e 1 9 th c en tu ry AD ,t os upp ly t h e d eve lop ing t ou r i s tm a rke t . D ev i s se ( 1992 :197 ) r e po r t s t h a t c u t g a rne t o f Magh reb ian o r ig in w a s f ound a tT egdaou s t , a nd T homa s sey a nd Mauny ( 1956 :130 ) as ch is t l amp , " d 'un m ode l e i n connu j u squi c i ä m ac onna i s sance a uS ud d uS aha ra " , a tK oumb i S a leh . T h i s l amp i so f i n te re s t a s i ti so f at y p e f ound a t m ed ieva l S wah il i t r ade c en t re s o n t h e E a s t A f r i can c oa s t . As im i la r

7 0

C ow r ie s h ave b een w ide ly f ound t h roughou t t h e We s te rn S ahe l a nd S udan , a nd t h e c ow r ie s he l l , e spe c ia l ly t h e C ypr ea m one ta v a r ie ty ,w a se x t en s ive ly u sed b o th a sa n i t em o fc u r rency a nd f o r o rnamen ta l p u rpo s e s i n many a r ea s o f We s t A f r ica ( Mc M ilan 1 975 :2 19 ) . E xamp le s h ave b een r e po r ted f r om K oumb i S a leh ( Thoma ssey a nd Mauny 1 951 :451 ) , T egdaou s t( Dev i s se 1 992 :208 ) , t h e t umu l i o fE l O ua lad j i a nd P ehe i n t h e L ake s r e g ion ( D e sp lagne s 1 951 :1172 ; Mauny 1 961 :97 -8 ) , A ze l ik i nN ige r ( Hogendor n a nd J ohnson 1 986 :104 ) , a nd f r om t h e s ou th o f G ao . D e B eauchene ( 1 969 :54 ) d e s cr ibe s aj a r f u l l o f c ow r ie s w h ich w a s f ound i n t h e D a l lo l B o s so v a l ley i n t h e R epubl i c o f N ige r . A l l t h e se f i nd s d a te f r om t h e e a r ly 2 nd m i l lenn ium AD . T ogo la a nd Macdona ld ( p e r s . c omm . ) h ave a l so r epo r t ed c ow r ie s h e l l s , d a ted t ob e tween AD 6 00 -800 , f r om t h e s i t e o f A kumbu i n t h e Mema , t h e i mpo r tan t r e g ion l o ca ted b e twe en t h e I n land N ige r D e l ta a nd K oumb i S a leh . T he m o s ts pe c tacu la re v idence f o rt h et r an s -Saha ran t r ade i n c ow r ie s he l l s w a s f ound i n Mau r i tan ia . T heodo r e Monod ( 1 969 ) d i scove red a c ons ignmen t o f s eve ra l t h ou sand c ow r ie s , c omp r i s ing a v a r ie ty o f s p ec ie s , i n c lud ing Mone tar ia m one ta , a tt h e " l o s t c a ravan " s i te i n t h e I j a f en d une s . T h i s h oa rd o fs h e l l s w a s p l aced i ns a ck s a nd , a l ong w i th 2 085 b a r s o fb ra s s , h ad b een b u r ied i n t h e d une s a nd n eve r r e cove red . T he c on s ignmen t o f s h e l l s , w h ich a r e o f d i ve r se o r ig in , h ave b e en d a t ed t o t h e 1 2 th c en tu ry AD ( Monod 1 969 :309 -10 ) . A l though s eve ra lA f r i can s p ec ie s w e re u s ed , C yprea m one ta s h e l l sw e r ei mpor t ed f r om t h e Ma ld ive I s lands i nt h e I nd ian O cean , v i a t h e m a rke t s o f N or th A f r ica , t o t h e We s t e rn S udan ( Lov e joy 1 985 :669 ) . T he d i s tr ibu t ion a nd t r ade i n c ow r ie s h a s b e en s t ud ied i n d e ta i l b y H ogendo rn a nd J ohn son , w ho s u gge s t ( 1 986 :9 ) , t ha t t h e p opu la r i ty o f t h e Ma ld ive s m one ta s he l l s m igh t b e d ue t ot h e i r s ma l le r a nd s t anda rd ized s i ze , w h ich m ean t t h a t g r ea te r n umb e r s c ou ld b es h ipped f o rl e s s w e igh t , t h e r eby i n c r ea s ing t h e m e r chan t s p ro f i t _

A s i ng le c ow r ie s he l l w a s f ound i n t h e d i s tu rb ed P e r iod 1 c on tex t s a tG ao A nc ien ( MM 9 3 A2 0 ) . A no the r e xamp le w a s c olec ted f r om t he s u r fa ce a t t h e s i te o f K o ima . T he c ow r ie f r om G ao A nc ien i sm i s s ing t h e r ea r p o r t ion o f t h e s he l l , r a ther t han a c c iden ta l d amage t h i s a pp ea r s t o b e a d e l ibe ra te e xamp le o f b a ck g r ind ing . H i ske t t ( 1966b :34 4 ) m en t ions t h a t t h i s w a s t h e c ommon m e thod o f p repa r ing

f i n ished i t ems , s uch a s g o ld j ewele ry , w e re a b sen t f r om G ao , b u t h ave b een r epor ted a t o the r s i te s , T egdaou s t f o r e xamp le . G a r ra rd ( 1982 :459 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t G ao m ay h ave s upp l ied B yzan t ine N o r th A f r ica w i th g o ld a s e a r ly a s t h e 5 t h c en tu ry AD . T h i s i sa n i n te re s t ing s ugges t ion , b u t n o e v idence e x i s t s t o s uppo r t i t . T he q ue s t ion o f w he re G ao

c ow r ie s , p r io r t o s t r ing ing , i n t h e We s te rn S udan . B o th c ow r ie sa ppea rt ob e C ypr ea m one ta .

o b ta ined g o ld f r om mu s t a l so b e a dd re ssed . H unw ick ( 1985a :4 ) r a i se s t h i s i s sue w hen h e s t a te s , " a t f i r s t s i gh t t h e e me rgence o f G ao a s a c omme rc ia l e mpo r ium o f i n te rna t iona lf ame d oe s n o t s e em e a sy t oe xp la in t h e e a r ly e xp lo i ted a u r if e rous r eg ion s l a y f a r t o t h e w e s t o fG ao " . I n

5 . 6 )S ou thern E xpor ts f rom Gao a nd t he Wes tern S ahe l : 5 . 6a ) Go ld :

a n swe r t ot h i s p rob lem , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e S i rba V aley G o ld w a s a n e x t r eme ly i mpor tan t t r ade c ommod i ty , s upp ly ing t h e m in t s o f N o r th A f r ica . P r io r t o t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD , t h e e x ten t t ow h ich g o ld c o ins w e re m in ted i n N o r th A f r ica i ss ub jec t t o s ome d eba te ( Ga r ra rd 1 982 :452 ; D ev is se 1 992 :195 ) ,b u ta f te rt h i sd a te , an umbe ro fm in ts a r e k nown t oh ave b een i n o pe ra t ion . T he F a t im id s o f I f r iq iya a nd t h e Umayyad s o f S pa in b o th m in ted c o in s i n t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD , b u t i tw a s w i th t h e M mo rav id s ( AD 1 056 157 )t h a tg o ld m in t ing e xpanded d rama t ica l ly ,a nd D ev i s se ( 1992 :199 ) m ake s t h e p o in t t ha t a l l t h e se m in t s w e re s i tua ted i n t h e w e s t , t h e Magh reb a nd A l -Anda lu s , m in t s w e re a b sen ti nt h ee a s t .

g o ld w o rk ings s upp l ied p a r t o f t h e g o ld r equ i remen t s o f G ao . T h i s w ou ld h e lp i n e xp la in ing t h e i mpo r tance o f B en t iya /Kuk iya , i t s d eve lopmen t a s ac omme r c ia l c en t re , a nd w hy i tw a s c on s ide red b y t h e T imbuk tu c h ron ic le r s a s t h e , " c rad le o ft h e S ongha i n a t ion " ( Lange 1 994 :299 ) , f o r i t w a s l o ca ted c l o se r t o t h e se d epo s i t s t han G ao . T he c h rono logy o f t h e S i rba w o rk ings r ema ins l i t t le k nown . D ev i s se ( 1993 :346 ) h a s s ugges ted t ha t i fg o ld w a s e x t rac ted b e tween t h e 8 th a nd 1 4 th c en tu r ie s AD t h i s wou ld a f f ec tt h e r o le p l ayed b yG ao i nt r an s -Saha ran t r ade , wh ich i st r ue , b u t t h e s i ng le C 14 d a te o b ta ined s pans t h e p e r iod AD 1 375 1 445 ( I b id : 3 57 ) . A t p r esen t , t h e r o le o ft h e S i rba V a l ley a s s uppl ie r o fg o ld t oG ao b e tween AD 9 00 -1250 r ema ins o n ly af e a s ib le h ypo the s i s .

T he g o ld u sed i n Nor th A f r ica w a s o b ta ined f r om an umbe r o fw o rk ing s i n We s t A f r ica . T he B u r e g o ld d epo s i t o n t h e U ppe r N ige ri so ne among an umbe r i nt h e We s te rn S udan , o t he r ma jo r d epos i t s i n c lude B ambuk a t t h e c onf luence o f

5 . 6b )I vory :

t h e S enega l a nd F a leme r i ve r s , L ob i a l ong t h e b ank s o ft h e B lack V o l ta , t h e Akan f o res t d epo s i t s s ou th o f t h e V o l ta B end , a nd t h e r e cen t ly d i scove r ed S i rba v a l ley g o ld w o rk ings i n N ige r ( Lev tz ion 1 985 :157 ; L ove joy 1 985 :655 ; R egnou l ta nd B o rey K adey 1 992 ; D ev i s se 1 993 :345 ) ( F igu re 5 . 1 ) . T he re a r e a l so n ume rous s ma l le r d epo s i t s . T he Akan d epo s i t s w e re n o t e xp lo i ted u n t i l t h e 1 4 th C en tu ry AD ( L ev tz ion / b id ) , a nd e xcava t ions a tP ou ra i n t h e L ob i f i e ld p rov ided s even C 14 d a te s f r om t h e 1 5 th -19 th c en tu r ies AD

B o th e l ephan ta nd h i ppopo tamus i v o ry w ou ld a ppea rt oh ave b een e xpo r ted n or th . T he e xpor t o f e l ephan t t u sk s i s r e co rded i n t h e A rab ic h i s tor ica l s ou r ce s , b u t n o a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h e i r e xpor t h a s y e t b een f ound . H ippopo tamu s i v o ry , w h ich i sn o t m en t ioned i n t h e A rab ic s ou r ces , w a s u ncove r ed i n aP e r iod 4 c on tex t i nG ao A nc ien ( s ee C hap te r 3 , s e c t ion 3 . 3cv f o r t h e c on tex t o f t h e d i s cove ry ) ,a nd i tw ou ld a ppea r t h a t t h i s c ache w a s d e s t ined f o rt h ei vo ry w o rk shop so fI f r iq iya ,a nd E gyp t .

( K ie thega 1 983 , Mc In to sh a nd Mc In to sh 1 986 :432 ) , w h ich s ugge s tt h a t t h e se d epo s i t s w e re n o t e xp lo i ted u n t i l t h e l a te r i r on a ge .

A r i tua l e xp lana t ion f o r t h e p re sence o f t h e c ache i s

N o g o ld d us t , w i re , i n go t s , c r uc ib le s , mou ld s , c o in s , o r i n s cr ibed o ru n inscr ibed I s lam ic s t anda rd g l a s s w e igh t s u sed f o r w e igh ing g o ld , w e re f ound d ur ing t h e r e cen t e xcava t ion si n Gao ,a l though t h ed i scovery o fg o ld c o ins a nd g l a ss w e igh t s h ave b een f ound a tG ao A nc ien i nt h ep a s t . A

i n app rop r ia te . N o e v idence o f s uch k i nd w a s f ound d u r ing t h e e xcava t ions , n ob u r ia l o ro the ri nd ica t ions o fr i tua l , a nd , a t p re sen t , t h e re i s n e i the r a r chaeo log ica l n o r h i s to r ica l e v idence f r om t h i s r e g ion t o i nd ica te t ha t t h e b u r ia l o f h ippopo tamu s t u sk s f o rmed p a r t o f aw ide r r i tua l s y s tem . Y e t t h e v a r ie ty o f e v idence i nd ica t ive o f p a r t ic ipa t ion i n

g o ld m i thqa l c o in d a ted t o AD 9 52 -975 , o f N o r th A f r ican o r ig in , w a sf ound i nG ao Anc ien ( as u r f a ce f i nd ) ,o the r g o ld c o in s h ave s i nce d i sappea red , i n c lud ing a c ache d i s cove r ed i n s ide a p o t ( La t ruf f e 1 953 :102 -3 ) . A f r agmen t o f a

t r an s -Saha ran t r ade w h ich w a s f ound a bove t h e c ache , t h e d a te o ft h e c ache ( l a te 9 th -e a r ly 1 0 th c en tu ry AD ) , a nd t h e a dd i t iona l f a c t t h a t o n ly t h e i n c iso r s a nd c an ine s , t h e t e e th o fu se t oa ni vo ry w o rke r ,w e re p r esen t( K rzyszkow ska ,p e r s .

t r anspa ren t g reen g l a ss w e igh t ( 2 .5g ) w a s f ound a t G ao -

c omm . ) , s ugge s t s t h a t a n a l te rna t ive h ypo the s i s t o ar i tua l e xp lana t ion f o r t h e p re sence o ft h i s c ache c an b e p ropo sed ;

S aney , a nd as im i la r f r agmen t ( 3 .85g ) w a s r e cove r ed f r om G ao A nc ien ( Thoma ssey a nd Mauny 1 956 :138 -9 ) . N o d i s cove ry o fg o ld i ni n go t f o rm h a s e ve rb een r epo r ted f r om G ao , u n l ike T egdaou s t , w he re g o ld w i re a nd t h e d raw ing s t one s u sed t o p roduce i tw e re d i s cove red , a l ong w i th f i ve h a l f ingo t s o f g o ld ( we igh ing b e tween 1 05 -120g [ Robe r t

t h a tt h et u sk sr ep res en t as h ipmen to fi vo ry ,c a refuly b u r ied , a nd l a te rn o tr e t r ieved ( I nso l l 1 995b ) .

1 970a :67 ] ) , wh ich D ev i sse ( 1992 :200 ) h a s a r gued m igh t h ave b een e xpo r ted n o r th i n ar e ady to -m in t f o rm . S im i la r ly ,

b yt h e S o rko ,a nd A l B ak r i p rov ide s u s w i th ad e sc r ip t ion o f ah un t , w i thou tr e f e r r ing t ot h eh i ppopo tamus b yn ame :

T he S o rko c onnec t ions w i th G ao h ave a l ready b een m en t ioned o n s eve ra l o cca s ions . H ippopo tam i w e re h un ted

7 1

"I n t h e N i l [ N ige r ] . . . , a n a n ima l i s f ound l i v ing i n t h e w a te r , w h ich r e semb le s t h e e l ephan t i n t h e g rea t s i ze o fi t s b ody a s w e l l a s i t s s nou t a nd t u sk s T hey r e cogn ize i t s whe reabou t s i n t h e N i l b y t h e movemen t o f w a te r o ve r i t s b ack , a nd h a s ten t h e re , a rmed w i th s hor t j ave l in s w h ich

p rone t os p l i t t ing t han e l ephan t i vo ry ( Penn iman 1 952 :23 ; R i tch ie 1 969 :35 ; Kr zy szkowska 1 988 :213 ) . T he s hape a nd s i ze o f t h e t u sk make s i tb e s t s u i ted t o s ma l l wo rk , f o r e xamp le s ma l l f l a t i t ems s uch a s i n lays , d i scs o r l i d s

h ave r i ngs a t t h e b lun t e nd w i th l ong r ope s t i ed t o t h em .

s e c t ion s o f i v o ry , o b ta ined b y c u t t ing t h e t u sk d i agona l ly ,

T hey t h row many o f t h e se j avel in s a t t h e a n ima l w h ich s ubme rge s a nd s t rugg le s a tt h e b o t tom o f t h e N i l . When i t d i es i tf l oa t s t ot h e s u r f ace o ft h e w a te r a nd t h ey d rag i to u t . T hey e a ti t s f l e sh a nd f r om i t s h ide make t ho se w h ip s c a l led

c an b e u sed f o r b a s r e l ief , c u t -ou t s o r d ip tychs ( R i tch ie 1 969 :35 ,48 ) . A f te r t h e m id -1 l t h c en tu ry AD , t h e C h r is t ian k ingdoms o f t h e N or th o f S pa in b ecame p rom inen t i n i vo ry c a rv ing

s urr iyaqa t w h ich a re c a r r ied f r om t h e re t oo the r c oun t r ie s"

( F inde r -W i l son 1 960 :202 ) , t hough t h e i ndus try c on t inued i n Mu s l im S pa in u nde r t h e A lmo rav id s , who c onque red

( Dw ived i

( Lev tz ion a nd Hopk in s 1 981 :78 ,456 ) . T h i s p a ssage i lus t ra tes t ha t h ippopo tamu s h un t ing w a s a w e l l e s tab l i shed p rac t ice u s ing s pec ia l i sed t e chn ique s i n t h e 11t h c en tu ry AD , a nd t h e m e thod s u sed a r e i d en t ica l t o t ho se w i tne ssed b y R ouch ( 1948 ) d ur ing a S o rko h ippopo tamu s h un t d own r i ve r f r om G ao i n t h e 1 940 s ( s ee a l so L ige r s [ 1 964 :109 -137 ] f o r ad escr ip t ion o fS o rko h ippo h un t ing a nd a s soc ia ted r i tua l ) . T he S o rko a nd t h e h ippopo tamu s a r e l i nked t o ge the r , a nd a S o rko o r ig in t r ad i t ion r e la te s t ha t t h e p owe r o f F a ran Makan B o te , t h e S o rko h ero , w a s l i nked w i th t h e s l ay ing o f ah i ppopo tamu s t e r ror i s ing t h ep opu la t ion ( Hodgk in 1 988 :109 ) . W i th in G ao ,

1 976 :3 ;

K r zy szkow ska

1 990 :46 ) ,

b u t

w ide r

A nda lu s ia a tt h e e nd o f t h e 11t h c en tury AD , a nd u nde r s ub sequen t A lmohad a nd N a s r id r u le . S im i la r ly , t h e l o ng t r ad i t ion o f p r e Is lam ic i v o ry w o rk ing i n E gyp t c on t inued i n to t h e I s lam ic p er iod ( F inde r -W i lson 1 960 :200 ) , a nd w a s a l so p rac t is ed i no the r a r ea s o fN or th A f r ica , f o r e xamp le a t a l - Man su r iya , t h e F a t im id c ap i ta l n ea rK a i rouan i nI f r iq iya , a nd i n S i c i ly . Mus l im c ra f t smen w o rk ing i n S i c i ly i n t h e 1 2 th c en tu ry AD p roduced c omb s a nd r e c tangu la r c a ske t s a nd c y l ind r ica lb oxes made o u to ft h in s hee t so fi vo ry . A s w e h ave s e en ,a l l t h ese a r ea s , b a r S i c i ly , w e re c onnec ted t oG ao b yt r ade . T he Ummayad s o f A l -Anda lu s h ad a c ce s s t o as upp ly o f i v o ry c hanne l led f r om s ub -Saha ran A f r ica v ia T un is ia , a nd

G ade i wou ld h ave b een a n i d ea l l o ca t ion f r om w h ich t oh un t h ippopo tam i , a nd i ti s p robab le t h a t h ippopo tam i w ou ld h ave b een e spec ia l ly n ume rou s w hen t h e t u sk s w e re c ached .

H o lod a r gue s t h a t t h e s upp l ies o f i vo ry t oA l -Anda lu s w e r e f u r the r g ua ran teed b y t h e c l ose r e la t ions w h ich w e r e ma in ta ined b e tween C o rdoba a nd T aher t ( 1992 :43 ) . T he

C ond i t ion s i nt h eR ive r N ige r , b o th u p a nd d own r i ve r f r om G ao , wou ld h ave b een i d ea l f o r t h e h ippopo tamus , a sh um id c ond i t ions w e re p ronounced c a .AD 7 00 -1100 . S u rvey b y S .

p o s s ib le l i nk s w h ich e x i s ted b e tween T aher t , u n t i l i t s d es t ruct ion i n AD 9 09 , a nd G ao h ave a l ready b een m en t ioned . I b n H awqa l s t a tes t ha t i v o ry " t usks " w e r e a cqu i red f r om t h e e dge s o ft h e S aha ra d e ser t a nd w e re t h en w o rked i nt h e r oya l c i t ie s o fA l -Anda lu s i nt he 1 0 th c en tu ry AD ( G raba r 1 992 :6 ) . A l -Zuh r i , w r i t ing p robab ly i nt h e m id -

a nd R . Mc In to sh ( 1986 : 3 16 -7 , 1 988 : 1 45 ) , o n t h e N ige r b end t o t h e n or th o f G ao a tG ounna -Rha rou s ( F igu re 5 . 1 ) , r evea led many l a rge p ermanen ts e t t lemen t sd a t ing t ot h ee nd o ft h e i s t m i l len ium AD l o ca ted o n t h e e dge o f d ry w ad i s , i nd ica t ing a h ighe r w a te r tab le o r f a r h i ghe r a nd l onge r N ige rf l ood s .

h ippopo tamus a nd t h e e l ephan t a r e a l l m en t ioned i n t h e A rab ic s ou rce so ft h e 1 0 th -14 th c en tu r ie s AD w h ich r e f e r t o

1 2 th c en tu ry AD , d e scr ibe s t h e i nwa rd f l ow o f i vo ry a nd e l ephan t t u sk s t ot h e t r ade c en t res o fN or th A f r ica ( Lev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :95 -7 ) , t h e u se o f b o th t e rms i nd ica t ing , p e rhap s , t h a t t h e c a t ego ry i v o ry i n c ludes a w ide r r ange o f m a te r ia ls t han j u s t t ha t f r om t h e e l ephan t . A l -Zuh r i a l so

We s t A f r ica , b u t u nfo r tuna te ly t h ey d o n o t t e l l u s i f

c i te s e l ephan t t u sk s a s b e ing e xpo r ted f r om t h e t own o f

h ippopo tamu s t u sk s w e re e xp lo i ted a s as ou r ce o fi v o ry . I n g ene ra l , l i t t le i n fo rma t ion e x i s t s w h ich d e sc r ibe s t h e i v o ry t r ade , p o s s ib ly b ecause i t w a s f r owned u pon b y mo r e o r thodox Mu sl ims ; t h e u se o ff e a the r s , h o rns , h oo f s o rt u sk s d e r ived f r om a n ima ls w h ich w e re n o t r i tua l ly s l augh te red

K awkaw ( Gao ) ,t oE gyp ta nd S yr ia ( I b id :97 ) .

I vo ry

( und i f f e ren t ia ted

i n A rab ic

a s i n E ng l i sh ) ,

t h e

Why i sh ippopo tamus i v ory n o tm en t ioned s pec if ica l ly i nt h e A rab ic s ou rce sw hen i tc ou ld h ave b een a n i d ea l ma te r ia l f o r t h e w o rk shop s o f Nor th A f r ica? A v a r ie ty o f d i f f e ren t e xp lana t ion s c an b e p ropo sed t o a ccoun t f o r t h i s . T he

b e ing d i sapp roved o f( Lev tz ion a nd Hopk in s :55 ) . T he N or th A f r ican j ur i s t I bn Ab i Z ayd a l -Qay rawa rt i ( d .996 AD ) s pec if ica l ly men t ion s t ha t t h e u se o f e l ephan t 's t u sk i s e xp res s ly d i sapp roved ( Hunw ick 1 994b : 1 ) .

g ene ra l l a ck o f i n fo rma t ion r ega rd ing t h e i vo ry t r ade , a nd t h e p o s s ib le r e l ig ious r ea son ing b eh ind i th ave a l ready b een d i scu s sed . D e sp i te i t s o bv iou s s u i tab i l i ty a s at r ans -Saha ran t r ade i t em , i tm ay h ave b een t h e c ase t h a t h ippopo tamu s i v o ry w a s n o t a c tua l ly u sed i n Nor th A f r ica a nd S pa in . A b r ie f e xam ina t ion o f 1 2 p ie ce s f r om t h e S cu lp tu re a nd

Howeve r , as ubs tan t ia l i vo ry t r ade b e tween We s t a nd N o r th A f r ica d id e x i s t . S ubs tan t ia l q uan t i t ies o fi vo ry w e re u sed i n t h e wo rkshop so ft h e Magh reb a nd E gyp t .T he w o rk shop so f

I s lam ic g a l le r ie s i n t h e V ic to r ia a nd A lbe r t museum , f ound

•A l -Anda lus a r e j u s t ly f amou s f o r t h e i n la id a nd c a r ved c a ske t s a nd i vo ry i n crus ted mo sque f u rn i tu re w h ich w e r e p roduced i n c i t ie s s uch a s C o rdoba , a nd l a te r i n t h e n e ighbou r ing Mad ina t a z -Zahra i n t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD . I vo ry c ube s , o f t en a long w i th b lo ck s o f e bony a nd o t he r

n o e v idence o f h ippopo tamus i vo ry u se , t hough n o i n la id p i e ce s h ave y e t b een e xam ined , f o r w h ich h ippopo tamu s i v o ry w ou ld h ave b een mo s t s u i ted . A s ys tema t ic e xam ina t ion o fS pan i sh a nd N o r th A f r ican i n la id i vo r ie s i s p l anned f o rt h ef u tu re .

w ood s , w e re u sed t oc r ea te i n la id p a t ter n s a nd i ti sf o r t h i s wo rk t ha th ippopo tamus i vo ry w ou ld h ave b een mo s t s u i ted . H ippopo tamus i vo ry i s b o th w h i te r a nd d en se r a nd l e s s

d i s t ingu i shed c l ea r ly f r om e l ephan t i vo ry , o r t ha t i tc ame

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7 2

p o s s ib le

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i vo ry

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u nde r ag ene ra l t e rm " i vo ry " , a s t h e d e sc r ip t ion b yA l -Zuh r i m ay s ugges t . I n a dd i t ion , t h e d e scr ip t ion s o f h ippopo tam i

t h e se p i t s w i th in G ao A nc ien s ugge s ts t ha t t h ey w e re u s ed f o rd i spo s ing o fn on - Mus l ims ( s lave s? ) , a s t h ey a r e d i f f e ren t

w h ich a re f ound i n t h e A rab ic s ou r ce s s e em t o i nd ica te a l a ck o f f am i l ia r i ty w i th t h e a n ima l w h i l s t e l ephan t s w e r e w e l l k nown a nd p resen t i n Nor th A f r ica u n t i l t h e 6 th o r7 th c en tu r ies AD ( Cu t ler 1 987 :445 ) . I ndeed , h ippopo tam i w e r e m i s taken f o r e l ephan t s b y I bn B a t tu ta w h i ls t t r ave l l ing i n

t o t h e

Ma l i i n t h e m id -14 th C en tu ry AD ( I b id :297 ) . T he refo re , t h e re may h ave b een n o e xpl ic i t d i s t inc t ion made b e tween e l ephan t a nd h ippopo tamu s i vo ry a s t h e c oncep t o f t h e

o r thodox

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a nd

s u r round ing G ao A nc ien . I ti sp robab le t h a t t h e ma jo r m a rke t s f o r s l ave s f r om G ao b e tween AD 9 00 -1250 w ou ld h ave b een A l -Anda lu s a nd a r ea s o f t h e Magh reb , s uch a s I f r iq iya . E gyp t c ou ld m o re e a s i ly r e ce ive N eg ro s l ave s f r om F a s t A f r ica ( Zan j ) a nd D a r fu r a nd K o rdofan , a s w e l l a s S lav s l ave s f r om E a s te rn

h i ppopo tamus w a sa nu nfam i l ia ro ne .

E u rope ( Lomba rd 1 975 :197 ,202 ) . T he h i s tor ica l e v idence f o r t h e e x ten t o f s l ave ry d ur ing t h e p e r iod o f t h e S ongha i e mp i re ( l a te 1 5 th -16 th c en tu r ies AD ) i s d i scus sed b y

5 . 6 c ) S lave s :

H unw ick ( 1985c ) , w hen i ta ppea r s t oh ave b een o n al a rge s ca le .

T he t h i rd m a jo r " commod i ty " w h ich w en t n or th f r om t h e We s tern S ahe l a c ro s s t h e S ahara w e r e s l aves . Two Ma l ik i t e x t s ,t he R i sa la o fI bn A b iZ ayd ( 10 th c en tu ry AD ) , a nd t h e Mukh tasar o f K ha l i l I bn I s haq ( 14 th c en tu ry AD ) d i scu s s

5 . 7 ) G ao a s aC a se S tudy : T rade P ar tner s , I s lam iza t ion a nd E conom ic F unc t ion : 5 . 7a )T rade P ar tner sa nd I s lam iza t ion : T he v a r ie ty o f l o ng -d i s tance t r ade p a r tne rs o f G ao a r e n o t o n ly s i gna l led b y t h e g l azed p o t te ry a nd g l a ss o f d i ve r se o r ig ins , b u t a l so b y t h e g rea t v a r ie ty o f c a ll igraph ic s t y le s f ound i nt h ec eme tery a tG ao -Saney ,a nd b y t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l s t y le s f ound i nG ao . W i th in t h e t r ade p a r tne rs i ti sp o s s ib le , u s ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , t o i s o la te a r ea s o f

t h e t r ea tmen to fs l ave s ( F i she ra nd F i she r 1 971 :6 -7 ) . Wi th in t h eK oran ,s l ave ry i sr ega rded a s ar e cogn ized i n s t i tu t ion ( E l F a s i 1 992 :20 ) , a nd t h e Ko ran p rov ide s g u idance f o r w ho m ay b e e ns laved ; n on - Musl ims , e spe c ia l ly t ho se n o t " p eop le o f t h e b ook " ( an im i s t s /pagans ) . T ho se e n s laved w e re c ommon ly r ega rded , a s F a r ia s ( 1985 :38 ) e mpha s i se s , a s ; " ba rbar ians o u t s ide c i v i l ised l i f e i fn o t o u t s ide h uman i ty " .

e spe c ia li mpo r tance .

H unw ick ( 1985a :6 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e s l ave t r ade w i th t h e We s t er n S ahe l a nd S udan m igh t h ave b een o f e spec ia l i mpo r tance a st h e I s lam iza t ion o ft h e N or th A f r ican B e rbe r s b yt h ee a r ly 9 t hc en tu ry AD r emoved t h i ss ou rce o fs l ave s .

O ne s uch r eg ion w a s I s lam ic S pa in , A l -Anda lu s , e spe c ia l ly d u r ing t h e A lmo rav id p e r iod ( c a .AD 1 088 -1147 ) . H unw i ck ( 1980 :423 ,425 ) h a s s ugge s ted t ha t ; " T rad ing l i nk s e x i s ted a l lt h ew ay f r om G ao t oA lme r ia " . . . (& t ha tt he ) . . . . "p ro spe r i ty o fA lme r ia w a s p a r t ly d ue t oi t s t r ad ing l i nks w i th G ao m ay

T he Wes ter na nd C en t ra l S udan w a s ar i ch s ou r ce o fs l ave s , a s t he A rab ic h i s to r ica l s ou r ce s m ake a ppa ren t i n t h e i r

n o t b e t hough t i mp lau s ib le " , b a sed u pon a n a na ly s i s o ft h e o u tpu t o f g o ld -m in t s i n S pa in a nd Mo roc co d ur ing t h e A lmo rav id p e r iod . T he s u rv iva l r a tes o f A lmo rav id g o ld c o in s a t te s t t ot h e h igh p roduc t ion o f t h e m in t a tA lme r ia ;

r epea ted m en t ions o ft h e s l ave t r ade . A n e xamp le o ft h i s i s p rov ided b y I bn B a t t u ta i n t h e m id -14 th c en tu ry AD w ho r e co rd s t h a t h e w a s g i ven as l ave b oy a to ne o ft h e v i l lage s h e v i s i ted o n t h e N ige r B end ( Bov i l l 1 968 :96 ; L ev tz ion a nd H opk ins 1 981 :300 ) ,a nd ,o n h i sj ou rney h ome f r om T akedda

5 8 c o in s o u t o f at o ta l o f 4 23 s u rv iv ing A lmo rav id g o ld c o in s w e re f r om A lmer ia , a nd 1 04 o u t o f t h e t o ta l o f 1 73 s u rv iv ing c o in s f r om t h e w ho le o f A lmo rav id A l -Anda lus c ome f r om t h ec oa s ta lr eg ion , i nw h ich A lme r ia i ss i tua ted .

t oF ez ,j o ined ac onvoy i nw h ich t h e r e w e re 6 00 s l ave g i r l s ( L ev tz ion a nd Hopk in s 1 981 :303 ) . I n t h e Magh reb , E gyp t a nd A l -Anda lus , s l ave s w e re u sed f o r av a r ie ty o f t a sk s ; a s d ome s t ic s e rvan t s , a g r icu l tu ra l l a bou re r s , s o ld ie r s , c oncub ine s , a nd , when c a s t ra ted , a s H a rem a t tendan t s a nd f o rv a r iou sg overnmen ta lp o s t s .

When t h is i sc on s ide red w i th t h e o the r e v idence f r om G ao ; t h ef i ve ma rb le t omb s tones i mpo r ted f r om A lme r ia ,t h ee a r ly S pan i sh l u s t rewa re s f r om Ma laga a nd C o rdoba , t h e p o s s ib le S pan i sh o r ig in o f t h e d eco ra ted a l aba s te r , i vo ry a s at r ade c ommod i ty p o s s ib ly d es t ined f o r t h e wo rk shop s o f S pa in , a nd t h e u se o f f i red -b r ick a r ch i tec tu re , t he h ypo the s i s t h a t c onne c t ion s , a l be i ti nd i re c t , b e tween A lmo rav id A l -Anda lus

U nfo r tuna te ly t he s l ave t r ade i sv e ry d i ff i cu l t t or e con s t ruc t f r om a r chaeo log ica le v idence .I nd i re c te v idence f o rt h e t r ade i ns l ave s m igh t b e p re se rved , s uch a ss l ave b u rden w e igh t s , s hack le s , o rp r isons , a s h a s b een f ound a ts i te s o n t h e We s t A f r ican c oa s t( s ee S immond s 1 973 :267 ; D e C o r se 1 991 :92 ) ,

a nd G ao w e r e o f e spec ia l i mpo r tance d ur ing t h e b oom p e r iod o f t h e 1t h a nd 1 2 th c en tu r ies AD , i sf e a s ib le . G ao

b u t d i re c t e v idence f o r t h e s l ave t r ade i s u n l ike ly t o b e r e cove red o nt he S aha ran r ou tes .

p l ug ,o fB obo o rL ob it ype f r om G ao A nc ien ,t h is i t em c ou ld

c ou ld h ave c on t r ibu ted d i rec t ly t o t h e b r i l l iance o f I s lam ic A l -Anda lu s b y s upp ly ing g o ld , s l ave s a nd i v o ry . T h i s e conom ic r e la t ionsh ip a l so h a s i mpl ica t ion s f o r t h e p redom inance o f Ma l i l c i r e l ig iou s i nf luence a nd d oc t r ine s i n t h e G ao R eg ion , as ub jec t w h ich i s d i scus sed f u r the r i n

h ave c ome f r om a s l ave . F a r ia s ( p e r s . c omm . ) h a s r e co rded

C hap te r7 .

l a rge m a s s g rave s , a t p res en t u nda ted , o n t h e e a s te rn p er ime te r o f Gao A nc ien . T hese p i t s s ugge s t w a s te d i spo sa l r a ther t h an b u r ia l , w i th b od ie s b e ing t h rown i n w i thou t

B e s ide s A l -Anda lu s , I f r iq iya a l so a ppea r s t o h ave b e en a n

P o s s ib le i nd i rec t e v idence f o r t h e p r e sence o fs l ave s i nG ao h a s b een f ound ; Mauny ( 1961 :321 ) m en t ion s al abre t , o rl i p

i mpo r tan t t r ad ing p a r tne r o f G ao , i lus t ra t ing t h e e a s ter n o r ien ta t ion o ft h e l o ng d i s tance t r ad ing c onne c t ion s o fG ao . I tc an b e s ugge s ted t h a t I f r iq iya b enef i ted f r om t r ade w i th

t hough t a s t o o r ien ta t ion . A l though c ommuna l b u r ia l w a s r e co rded b y D awa a t p ro to -Songha i s i te s , t h e c on tex t o f 7 3

Wh i l s tu nder tak ing t h ea na lys is o ft h ee conom ic r o le o fG ao , p a ra l le l s b e tween t h e We s ter n S ahe l ian t r ade c en t res a nd t hose f ound o n t h e Swah il ic oa s th ave b e come a ppa ren t . T he Swah il i t r ade c en t re s n o t o n ly o pe ra ted a t t h e s ame t ime ( 10 th -14 th c en tu r ies AD ) , b u t a l so s upp l ied t h e I s lam ic w o r ld a nd b eyond w i th a s im i la r r ange o f c ommod i t ie s

G ao , b o th d i rec t ly b y b e ing s upp l ied w i th g o ld , s l ave s a nd i v o ry , b u t a l so i nd i rec t ly b y a c t ing a s ac ondu i t f o r t h e o nwa rd f l ow o f t r ade c ommod i t ie s t o A l -Anda lu s . G lazed p o t t e ry a nd g l a ss o fI f r iq iyan o r ig in w a s f ound i nG ao , a nd c l o th w a s r e co rded a s b e ing i mpor ted f r om I f r iq iya . H oweve r , I f r iq iya a s a ma rke t f o r t r ans -Saha ran g ood s

( go ld , s l ave s , i v o ry ) , a nd r e ce ived a s im i la r r a nge o f p roduc t s i n r e tu rn ( g lazed p o t te ry , g l a s s , m e ta l , c l o th ,

a ppea r s t oh ave d ec l ined i n t h e m id -11 th c en tu ry AD w i th t h eF a t im id e m ig ra t ion t oE gyp ta nd t h er i se o ft h e S u l tana te o f Mo ro cco ( Bre t t 1 969 :364 ) . A s a l ready m en t ioned i n

b ead s ) . S im i la rp rob lems e x i s ti ns t udy ing t he e conom ic r o le o ft h et wo g roup so ft r ade c en tres ( I nso 1 1F or thcom ing ) .

s e c t ion 5 . 3 , t h e g rea t m idd lemen o ft r an s -Saha ran t r ade , t h e I b ad i me r chan t s , r ema in l i t t le u nde r s tood a r chaeo log ica l ly ,

T he n a tu re o f t h e Ea s t A f r ican t r ade c en t res v a r ied o ve r t ime . T hey d eve loped f r om o ne e conom ic f o rm t o a no the r a nd f l uc tua ted i nt h e i re x i s tence . T he s e t t lemen t s o ft h e 8 t h 1 0 th c en tu r ie s AD o n t h e E a s t A f r ican c oa s t w ou ld mo s t s e em t o s u i t t h e t e rm g a teway c ommun i t ie s , w i th f uly f l edged e n t repö t s o r p or t s o f t r ade d eve lop ing i n t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD . T hese e n t repö t s w e r e n o t a l ien m echan ism s w h ich w e r e i mp lan ted o n to E a s t A f r ica , t h ey w e re n o t c o lon ie s b u t w e re i nd igenou s i n o r ig in , a s w a s G ao . T hey a l so ,a sw i th S ahe l ian t r ade c en t res s u ch a sG ao , i lu s t ra te a

a nd t h e i r r o le i n t h is t r ade b e tween t h e 1 0 th -13 th c en tu r ie s AD i su nc lea r . A n E gyp t ian ma rke t f o rg o ld ,i vo ry a nd l e s s s o , s l aves , f r om t h e N ige rB end a r ea m igh t a l so h ave b een c on s ide rab le . T he e x i s tence o f ap o s s ib le d i rec t r ou te t o E gyp t r unn ing v i a Ma randa , a nd t h e p re sence o f t h e l u s t red a nd m arve red g l a s s , a s w e l l a s t h e g la ss b ead s a nd l e ad o f p o s s ib le E gyp t ian o r ig in a t G ao a f f irm t h e e x i s tence o f t h is t r ade b e tween t h e t wo a r ea s , e spec ia l ly i nt h e 1l t h -12 th c en tu r ie s AD . C e r ta in ly b yt h e 1 4 th c en tu ry AD ,c omme r c ia lr e la t ion s

c oncer nw i th p r es t ige g ood s ,C h inese p o t te ry f o re xamp le .

b e twe en E gyp ta nd t h e Emp i r e o f Ma l i w e re i mpor tan t , a nd T oa t temp tt op l a ce G ao w i th in t h e w ide rI s lam ic w o r ld , a nd

L ev tz ion a nd H opk ins ( 1981 :253 ) make t h e p o in t t h a t , " t he re w e re a t l e a s t a s many o ppo r tun i t ie s t o o b ta in

t oa s se s s i t s e conom ic r e la t ionsh ips w i th i t s f o re ign t r ad ing p a r tne r s ,s im i la r ly r equ i re sd i f f e ren tc omponen t s o f av a r ie ty o f mode l s t ob e u sed , f o ri ti sd i ff icu l tt ot r y a nd r e c rea te t h e e conomy o f m ed ieva l G ao s t ruc tu red b y c oncep t ion s a nd l o g ic v e ry d i f f e ren t t oo u r o wn . P o lany i ( 1957 :257 ) s ums u p

i n fo rma t ion a bou t Ma l i i nE gyp t a si n t h e Magh r eb " . I n t h e 1 8 th c en tu ry AD , ag rea t c en t ra l ma rke t a nd c a ravans e ra i , t h e Waka la t a l-G a l laba , s pec if ica l ly f o r g ood s a nd m e rchan t s f r om t h e B i lad a lS udan e x is ted i n C a i ro (Wa lz 1 977 :217 ) ,a t tes t ing t ot h el a te rv o lume o ft r ade .

s uch c ha l lenges w hen h e m akes t h e i mpor tan t p o in t t h a t w e s hou ld n o t , " C rea te a s t e reo type o f t h e e conom ie s o f l e s s f am i l ia r t i me s a nd p lace s , s ome th ing i n t h e w ay o f a n

E ven t s i n N o r th A f r ica a nd A l -Anda lu s mu s t h ave h ad a n i nd i rec te f ec tu pon t h e p ro ces se s o fI s lam iza t ion i nG ao f o r t h e t r ans -Saha ran t r ad ing p a r tne r s o f G ao w e re n o t

a r t if i c ia l l a nd scape w i th o n ly l i t t le o rn o r e semb lance t ot h e o r ig ina l " .

u nchang ing . B e tween AD 9 00 -1250 t h e i n hab i tan ts o f G ao c ou ld h ave b een i n c on ta c t w i th a n umbe r o f I s lam ic movemen t s ( a s r e f lec ted i n t h e e ng raved t omb s tone s , a r ch i tec tu ra l s t y le s a nd i mpor ted g la s s a nd p o t t e ry ) . K ha r i j ir i te ( l bad i ) i n f luence h a s a l ready b een d i scu s sed ( s ec t ion 5 . 3 ) , S unn i te Ma l ik i i n f luence s a r e r ep re sen ted b y A l -Anda lus (Ma l ik i s i nce t h e 9 th c en tu ry AD ) a nd

T he mo s ts t r ik ing p o in ti st h a tp re s t ige i t ems , s uch a sg l azed p o t te ry a nd g l a s s , a r e f ound o n ly w i th in G ao A nc ien a nd

e spec ia l ly b y t h e A lmo rav id s b e tween t h e m id -11 th a nd m id -12 th c en tu r ie s AD . S h i ' i te b e l ief s w e re r ep re sen ted b y t h e F a t im ids , w i th t h e i r b r ie f c on tro l o f I f r iq iya ( AD 9 09 9 72 ) , a nd s ub sequen t s h if t o f c ap i ta l t o C a iro ( AD 9 69 -

c on t ro l l ing t h e s upp ly , a nd e v idence f o r t h is i n t h e G ao

171) . S im i la r ly , Mand i sm w a s r ep re sen ted b y t h e A lmohad s ( AD 130 -1269 ) , w i th t h e i r r ea c t ion a ga ins t

p re s t ige g ood s .

A lmo rav id d oc tr ine s . A l l t h e se v e r s ion s o fI s lam mu s t h ave b een f e l t s ou th o ft h e S aha ra p r io r t ot h e r i se i nd om inance o fS unn i Ma l ik ism , w i th S uf iu nde rcu r ren t s , w h ich i sf ound t o day .

E xo t ic i mpo r ted g ood s c ou ld b e u sed a s s ymbo l s o f s t a tus , h oweve r , t o f unc t ion i n t h i s manner , a cce s s t o s uch i t ems

G ao -Saney , n one h ave y e t b een f ound o u t s ide o f t h e se t wo p r ima ry c en t re s w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion . A s R en f rew ( 1975 :33 ) a r gue s , t h e i nwa rd f l ow o f e xo t ic p res t ige g ood s f r om l o ng d i s tance e x te rna l t r ade c onf e r r ed s t a tu s o n t h o se R eg ion i sp rov ided b yt h e e ng raved t omb s tone s o fA lmer ian o r ig in f r om G ao -Saney , w h ich F a r ia s ( 1990 :76 ) h a s i n te rp re ted a s a n i n s tance o f r oya l monopo ly o f i mpo r ted

wou ld h ave t o b e c on t ro l led , a nd t h i s a ppea r s t o h ave h appened b o th i nG ao , a nd t h roughou tt h e We s ter nS ahe l . I t s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t t h e m a jo r i ty o f s i te s f r om w h ich p o t te ry a nd g l a ss o fN or th A f r ican a nd S pan i sh o r ig in h ave b een r e cove r ed w e re i n vo lved i n t h e t r an s -Saha ran t r ade . F u r the rmo re , a s ide f r om S in th iou B am a nd t h e c on t rove r s ia l

5 . 7b ) E conom ic F unc t ion a nd R o le Wi th in I s lam ic T rade S y s tems :

s i te o fN ian i ,a l lt h es i te s w e re e i the rr aw m a te r ia l p rov ide r s , s uch a s T eghaza ( s a l t ) , a nd A ze l ik ( c oppe r ) , o r m a jo r e n t repö t s ,t h ey w e re p r ima ry l o ca t ions . I mpo r ted p o t te ry a nd

H av ing c ons ide red t h e s pec if i c s o f t r ans -Saha ran t r ade a nd t h e We s ter n S ahe l , i ti sn ece ssa ry t oc on s ide r t h e e conom i c

g l as s i se i the r a bsen t , o r o n ly p resen t i ns ma l l q uan t i t ie s , a t t h e c en t re s w h ich w e re i n vo lved i n i n te r reg iona l , r a the r

r o le o f G ao , a nd i t s p lace w i th in t h e w ide r I s lam ic t r ade s y s tems ( i n te r -reg iona l s y s tem s a r e c on s ide red i n t h e n ex t c hap te r ) .

t han t r ans -Saha ran , t r ade , e g . J enne jeno , w he re i nt h e 1 981

7 4

s e a son o n ly 1 2 g l a s s f r agmen t s w e re r e cove red , 1 0 o fw h ich w e re b ead s ( S ee S .K . McIn to sh 1 995d :247 ) . T he

q ua l i ty

o f t h e

a ssemb lage

o f i mpor ted

t h e l o ca lp ro to -Songha i e l i tes w e re a d ju s t ing t ot h e p r e sence o ft h e n ew r e l ig ion ( I s lam ) a nd i d ea s b rough t b y t h e t r ade r s . W i th t h e d eve lopmen t o fI s lam ized G ao A nc ien i nt h e 1 3 th c en tu ry AD , t h i s w ou ld a pp ea r t oh ave b een l e s s r e s tr ic ted ,

ma ter ia l

r e cove red f r om G ao i s e xcep t iona l . T he m a jo r i ty o f t h e i mpor ted g l a s s f r agmen t s a nd p o t te ry s he rd sr e cove red f r om

a nd c e r ta in ly b y t h e t ime I bn B a t tu ta v i s i ted t h e We s ter n S udan i n t h e m id -14 th c en tu ry AD , i n te rcou r se b e tween f o re ign m e r chan t s a nd t h e i nd igenou s p opu la t ion w a s

G ao Anc ien a r e f r om g ood q ua l i ty w a r e s , a nd n o t m e re ly o rd ina ry e xpor t w a re s . S im i la r ly t h e v a r ie ty i sa s tound ing , t h e g la s swa r e f o r e xamp le , i sr ep re sen ta t ive o f mo s t o f t h e m a jo rc a tego r ie s o fg la sswa re b e ing p roduced i nt h e I s lam ic

c ommon , a nd h e d oe s n o t r e co rd t h a t r e s t r ic t ions w e r e p l aced u pon h i s t r ave l s . H oweve r , d i s t inc t ions b e tween t h e t wo c ommun i t ie s , t h e m e r chan t s a nd t h e l o ca l p eop le , w e r e

w o r ld a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e p resen t m i l lenn ium . T he

s t i l l t o ac e r ta in d eg r ee ma in ta ined , a sB a t tu ta d oe s r e fe r t o t h e e x is tence o f a" mo sque o f t h e w h i t es " i n G ao , w h ich

c on sume r s o ft h e se wa re s i n G ao h ad d eve loped e xpens ive t a s tes , j udg ing b y t he r ange o f w a re s f ound , a nd b y t h e q uan t i t ie s r e cove red f r om t h e s ma l l a r ea e xcava ted . T h i s i nd ica te s t h a t s ome o f t he i nhab i tan t s o f G ao A nc ien w e re e i the r o f h i gh s t a tus , a nd /o r v e ry w ea l thy , a nd i ts ugges t s

i n f e r s t h a t o ne f o r t h e b l acks a l so e x i s ted 1 966 :126 ;L evt z ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :300 ) .

( Hunw ick

G ao -Saney a ppea r s t o h ave b e en h ome t o a mo re d i ve r se p opu la t ion t han o ne c ompo sed ma in ly o f Nor th A f r ican A rab a nd B e rbe r m e r chan t s , a nd i tc an b e a rgued t ha t G ao f u lf iled t h e f unc t ion o fa n e mpo r ium ( s ome t ime s r e f e r red t o a s ag a teway c ommun i ty ,o rp o r to ft r ade ) ,b e tween t h e 1 0 th 1 2 th c en tu r ie s AD . Wi th in t h e se c ent re s w h ich e x i s t a t

t h a t l e ve l s o ft r ade a bove t h e p u re ly m e rcan ti l e w e re b e ing c onduc ted a tG ao ,p o ss ib ly i n vo lv ing a mba ssado r ia l a nd g i f t e xchange ( d i scu s sed f ur the ri nC hap te r7 ) . I ti sa l so p robab le t h a t a v a r ie ty o f d i f f e ren t t ype s o f e xchange w e re i n o pe ra t ion a tt h e s ame t ime , i nvo lv ing e l emen t s o fP o lany i ' s ( 1 957 :263 ) d ef ined c r i te r ia f o r a dm in is te red , g i f t a nd

p a ss age p o in t s i n to a r eg ion , t r ade a nd e xchange c an t a ke

m a rke tt r ade .

p l ace b e twe en t wo o r mo re d i f f e ren t g roup s i n a n i ndependen t o r n eu t ra l , a nd o f t en c on t ro l led , a tmo sphe re ( Po lany i 1 957 :263 ; Hodge s a nd Wh i tehouse 1 983 :92 ; H odge s 1 988 :52 ) . O bv iou s ly , n o t a l l t h e c r i te r ia a pp ly t o

I ta l so a pp ea r s t ha t t he c ommod i t ie s e xpo r ted f r om G ao , a s f r om t h e We s ter n S ahe l a s aw ho le , w e re r aw ma te r ia ls o f h i gh v a lue i nt h e I s lam ic wo r ld .T rade i nt h e se c ommod i t ie s

( i ao , i tm ay n o t h ave b een n eu t ra l b u t i tw a s p l aced a t a c r i t ica l p o in t , t h e j unc t ion b e tween t h e r i ve r ine a nd d e se r t

w a s r e s t r ic ted t o af ew l a rge e n t repo t s , s uch a s G ao a nd K oumb i S a leh , a s ac onsc ious d e c i s ion o n t h e p a r t o f t h e

t r ade r ou te s , a s w e l l a s b e ing a t t h e i n ter f ace b e tween n omad ic a nd s eden ta ry l i f e s ty le s . T h i s f a c to r , a l l ied w i th t h e a ppa ren t a tmo sphe re o f c on t ro l led t r ade w h ich e x i s ted i n G ao , c e r ta in ly u n t i l t h e m id -12 th c en tu ry AD , s ugge s t s t h a t t h e t i t le o f " empo r ium" mo s t c l o se ly f i t s t h e G ao s i tua t ion , t h ough i ts hou ld a ga in b es t re ssed t h a to n ly a spe c t s o fs uch a d ef in i t ion a pp ly .

l o ca l a u tho r i t ies t o monopol i se t h e t r ade , a nd t o r e s t r ic t a c ce s s t o t h e f o re ign m e rchan t s a nd t h e i r p r e s t ige g ood s . C on t ro l o fp r es t ige g ood s , a nd o f a c ce s s t o t h e me r chan t s t h emse lve s , w ou ld a ppea r t o h ave b een i mpor tan t ( f o r t h e p ol i cy o fr e s tr ic t ing a cce s s t ot h e f o re ign m e r chan t s t ow o rk , t h e i rn umbe r s mus th ave b een r e la t ive ly s ma l l ) . I ti sd i ff i cu l t t o s ugge s t t h e n umbe r s i nvo lved , b u t f o re ign me rchan t s p robab ly n eve r t o ta l led mo re t han a c oup le o f h und red i n

F ina l ly , t h e r o le o f G ao w i th in t h e I s lam ic w o r ld s y s tem s hou ld b e m en t ioned . T o t h o se i nt h e n or th r e l ian t u pon t h e g o ld o ft h e We s ter n S udan , t r ade c en t re s s uch a s G ao w e re

G ao . A long s id e t h e s pa t ia l r e s t r ic t ion o fe xpor t a nd i mpo r t t r ade

o f p a ramoun t i mpo r tance a nd , a s s u ch , e f fo r t w ou ld h ave b een e xpended t o ma in ta in g ood r e la t ion s , a sr ep re sen ted b y t h e h igh -qua l i ty g l a zed p o t te ry , g la s s , a nd t h e i mpo r ted s t e lae . G ao f o rmed a n i mpo r tan t p a r t o f t h e I s lam ic e conomy , h oweve ri tw a s v e ry much o n t h e p e r iphery o ft h e I s lam ic w o r ld , a ga in e xh ib i t ing s im i la r i t ies w i th t h e t r ade c ent re so ft h eS wah i l ic oa s t .

w h ich c an b e s een a tG ao , t h e e x is tence o fd ua l s e t t lemen t s i lus t ra te s t h a t a n e l emen t o f c on t ro l e x is ted . T he re a r e r e f e rence si nt h e A rab ic h i s tor ica l s ou rce s w h ich i mp ly t ha t t h e movemen to fA rab a nd B e rbe r m e r chan t s w a s r e s tr ic ted . Y aqu t ( d .AD 1 229 ) i n t h e c on t ex t o f d esc r ib ing t h e i n hab i tan t s o f a n u nspec i f ied a r ea o f t h e Wes ter n S udan w he re g o ld w a s e x t rac ted , makes t h e p o in t t ha t , " Th is i s h ow t h e i r manner s a re r epo r ted t hough t ho se p eop le n eve r a l low a m e r chan t t o s ee t h em " ( Lev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :170 ) . D ev i s se ( 1992 :204 ) a rgue s t h a t t h e l o ca l r u le r s d id n o t l e t t h e No r th A f r ican A rab a nd B e rbe r me r chan t s

E x ten s ive a r cha eo log ica le v idence f o r t h e o pera t ion o ft r ans -

t r ave la r ound f r ee ly d u r ing t h i sp e r iod .

S aha ran t r ade b e tween t h e 1 0 th -13 th c en tu r ie s AD h a s b een

T he e x i s t ence o fr e s t r ic t ion s wou ld h ave s e rved t om in im i se

t h eh i s tor ica ls ou r ce sh as i lus t ra ted t h a tG ao w a sc onne c ted , d i rec t ly a nd i nd i re c t ly , t om any a r ea s o f t h e I s lam ic w o r ld . H ence , t h e I s lam i c i nf luence s e xer ted u pon G ao w e re a l so n ume rou s . T he se w e re n o t s t a t ic a nd u nchang ing , a nd i th a s

5 . 8 )C onc lus ions :

f ound i nG ao . T he e xam ina t ion o ft h i s e v idence a l l ied w i th c on tac t b e tween t h e l o ca l p opu la ce a nd t h e Musl im m e r chan t s ( t he p o l i t ica l i mpl ica t ion s o fI s lam a r e d i scussed i n d e ta i l i nC hap te r 7 ) . C on tac t s w e re p o s s ib ly c onf ined t o t ho se b e tween t h e me rchan t s a nd t h e u ppe r e che lons o f

p roved p o s s ib le t ob eg in t oi s o la te t h e v a r iou s b ranche s a nd s e c t s o fI s lam w hose i nf luence c ou ld h ave b een f e l t i n G ao o ve r t h e c ou r se o f t h e f ou r c en tu r ie s u nde r d i scuss ion . O f

s o c ie ty . A l Idr is i ( ca .AD 154 ) m en t ions t h a t i n K awkaw ( Gao ) , t h e n ob les , e m inen t p e r son s a nd m e r chan t s m ixed t oge the r( Lev tz ion a nd Hopk ins 1 981 :113 ) . T h i s m igh t h ave b een o fi mpor tance d ur ing t h e f i r s t p ha se o fc on tac t , w hen

e qua li mpo r tance i nf u r the rs p read ing I s lam w a sl o ca l , i n te r r e g iona l t r ade , t h e o pe ra t ion o fw h ich , i tc an b e s ugge s ted , 7 5

l e d t o t h e d eve lopmen t o f G ao i n t h e f i r s t p la ce . T he G ao R eg ion a nd i n te r reg iona l t r ade w i l ln ow b ed i scus sed .

7 6

i nb l ock s s l ung o n c ame l s . O u r k now ledge o f t h e t r ade i n s a l t o nwa rd s f r om t h e ma jo r e n t repö t s r ema ins l a rge ly c on jec tu ra l , b u t i tc an b e s ugge s ted t ha t ar e ady ma rke t f o r s a l t w ou ld h ave e x i s ted i n a l l a r ea s , a nd t h a t f r om t h es e c en t re s s a l t w a s t r an spo r ted b y av a r ie ty o f means ; r i ve r ine , a nd h uman a nd a n ima l p o r te rage ( s ee s ec t ion 6 . 3b ) . T he

C hap ter 6 :T he G ao R eg ion a nd I n ter -Reg iona lT rade .

6 . 1 ) G enera lI n troduc t ion :

s ca le o f t h e d emand f o r s a l t i s b rough t h ome b y a n o b se rva t ion r e co rded b y Mungo P a rk ( 1807 :418 ) w ho s aw , " ac h i ld s uck ap i ece o fr ock -sa l t , a si fi tw e re s uga r " .

I n t e r -reg iona l t r ade ( t rade b e tween t h e d i f f e ren t r e g ion s o f t h e We s te rn S ahe l , s avanna a nd d e se r t ) w a s t h e p r ima ry m eans b y w h ich I s lam s p read b eyond t h e u rban c en t re s o f t h e Wes te rn S ahe l a nd a way f r om t h e n omad ic p opu la t ions

A l -Qazw in i ( c a .AD 1 275 ) make s t h e g ene ra l s t a temen t , " Sa l t i sv e ry p re c iou s i n t h e l a nd o f t h e S udan " ( Lev tz ion

( d i scus sed f u r the r i n C hap te r 7 ) . T he re fo re i ti se s sen t ia l t h a t i n ter reg iona l t r ade i sc on s ide red w i th in t h i s s t udy a s i t w a s a s l e a s t a s i mpor tan t a s t r an s -Saha ran t r ade f o r t h e d eve lopmen to f G ao ,f o rt h eb u lk o fi n te r reg iona lt r ade w a s i n l o ca l h and s ; N or th A f r ican A rab a nd B e rbe r m e rchan t s w e re n o ti n vo lved .

a nd H opk ins 1 981 :178 ) . I ti se ven r e co rded t ha t g o ld w a s t r aded w e igh tf o rw e igh t f o r s a l t . G ao b enef i ted g rea t ly f r om t r ade i n t h i s v a luab le c ommod i ty , Y aqu t ( AD 1 224 ) s t a te s t ha t , " t he K ing 's t r ea su re -house s a r e s pac ious , h i s t r ea su r e c ons i s t ing p r inc ipa l ly o f s a l t " ( I b id :174 ) a nd A l -Ba l c r i ( AD 1 068 ) t ha t , " t he p eop le o ft h e r eg ion o fK awkaw t r ade w i th

I th a s a l ready b een s ugge s ted i n C hap te r 3 ,s e c t ion 3 . 2bü i t h a t G ade i , a s t h e p os s ib le e a r l ies t o ccupa t ion s i te w i th in G ao , m igh th ave b een i nvo lved i nr i ve r ine t r ade p r io r t ot h e d eve lopmen t o f t r ans -Saha ran t r ade . S . a nd R . Mc In to sh ( 1 980 , 1 988b , 1 995 ) , a t t h e s i te o f J enne jeno , h ave c onv inc ing ly s hown t ha t i n te r reg iona l t r ade d eve loped i n t h e I n land N ige rD e l ta a r ea i nt h e 1 s tm i l lenn ium AD ,p r io r

s a l t w h ich s e rve s a s t h e i r c u r rency . T h is s a l t i s o b ta ined f r om a n u nde rg round m ine a tT u tak , i nB e rbe r c oun t ry , a nd t r an spo r ted t oT adma l cka a nd t h ence t oK awkaw " ( I b id :87 ) . T u tak h a s b een i d en t if ied w i th T aoden i i n t h e Ma l ian S aha ra , b u t i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a t G ao w a s s upp l ied w i th s a l t f r om T eghaza , t h e T a tan ta l o f t h e m ed ieva l A rab ic s ou r ce s , w he re t h e h ouse s a nd e ven t h e mosque w e re m ade o f b lo ck s o f s a l t . E xcava t ions a t T eghaza v e r if ied t h a t

t o t h e d eve lopmen t o f l ong d i s tance t r an s -Saha ran t r ade . A l though e ven t s i n t h e G ao R eg ion a r e l e s s c l ea r , i ti s

b l o ck s o fs a l t w e re u sed a s ac on s t ruc t ion ma ter ia l , b u t t h e r e su l t s w e re n eve r f uly p ubl i shed a nd t h e e a r ly c h rono logy r ema ins u nc lea r ( Te r ra sse 1 938 ; Monod 1 938 ; 1 940b :249 ; Mauny 1 961 :116 -17 ) . G ao w ou ld h ave b een t h e r ed i s t r ibu t ion c en t re f o rs a l t , ar o le l a te rf i l led b yT imbuk tu .

p robab le t h a t s im i la r d eve lopmen t s h ad o ccu r red , a nd t ha t h e re a l so t r ans -Saha ran t r ade w a s g ra f ted o n to a l ready e x is t ing t r ade a nd e xchange n e two rk s , a nd i t w ou ld b e t h rough t h e se n e two rk s t ha t i d ea s , i n c lud ing r e l ig iou s o ne s , s p read .

6 . 2b ) Me ta l s : T h is c hap te r w i l l f i r s t ly a s se s s t h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd h i s to r ica le v idence f o ri n t e r reg iona l a nd l o ca lt r ade ,p r io rt o e xam in ing

i t s

o pe ra t ion

( r ou te s ,

m e rchan t s ,

m eans

C oppe r a nd i r on m e ta lwo rk , a nd p os s ib ly o re s , w e r e i mpor tan t c ommod i t ie s o f i n te r reg iona l t r ade t h roughou t

o f

t h e Wes te rn S ahe l a nd S udan . T h i s w a s c e r ta in ly t h e c a se a t T egdaous t , w h ich D ev i s se ( 1992 :193 ) h a s a rgued w a s a

t r anspor t )i nt h eG ao R eg ion .

c en t re o f c opp e r -a l loy m e ta l lu rgy , b o th f o r l o ca l u se a nd e xpo r t . T he s im i la r i t ies s ha red b e tween c er ta in o ft h e c opp e r o b jec t s f r om T egdaou s ta nd t h e M idd le S enega l V a l ley , s uch a s t h e s ma l l b e l l s ( Rob e r t -Cha le ix 1 989 :251 ; S .K . Mc In to sh

6 . 2 )T he C ommod i t ies o fI n ter -Reg iona lT rade : D u r ing t h e p e r iod c a .AD 9 00 -1250 aw ide v a r ie ty o fg ood s

1 995b :387 ) , h ave a l ready b een r e f e r red t o ( Chap te r 5 ,

a nd c ommod i t ies , b o th a r chaeo log ica l ly d e te c tab le a nd i n v i s ib le , w e re p robab ly t r aded t oa nd f r om a l l p o in t s o ft h e c ompa s s . U nfo r tuna te ly , a sr ega rd s i n te r reg iona l t r ade , a nd p e rhap s a s i st o b e e xpec ted , t h e A rab ic h i s to r ica l s ou r ce s a r el e ss i n fo rma t ive t han t hey a r eo nt r ans -Saha ran t r ade .

s e c t ion 5 . 5c ) . 6 . 2b i ) Me ta ls a nd Me ta l Ob jec t sf rom Gao : C opper : T he a s semb lage o f c oppe r a nd i r on o b je c t s r e cove red f r om t h e e xcava t ion s i n G ao A nc ien h as a l ready b een d i scus sed ( Chap te r 5 ,s e c t ion 5 . 5c i ) . T o t h e e xcava ted ma ter ia l c an b ea dded t h e 1 25 c opp e r -a l loy " cu r rency i t em s " c ole c ted f r om t h e s u r f ace o f t h e t e l l a t G ao -Saney b y A la s ta i rL amb i n1 971 a nd b y t h ea u tho ri n 1 993 ( P la te 6 . 1 ) . T he i ri d en t if i ca t ion a sc u r rency i t ems a ppea r s t h e mo s t a p t ,

6 . 2a ) S a l t : P o s s ib ly t h e mo s t i mpor tan t c ommod i ty t r aded i n te r r eg iona l ly , b o th w i th in t h e N ige r B end a r ea a nd e l sewhe re i n t h e Wes te rn S ahe l a nd S avanna , w a s s a l t . D i rec t a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h e s a l t t r ade i su n l ike ly t oe ve r b e f ound , e xcep t a t p roduc t ion s i te s ( A lexande r 1 993 ) , w h ich o f c ou r se , G ao w a s n o t . H oweve r , t h e A rab ic h i s to r ica l s ou r ce s p rov ide u s w i th i n f o rma t ion o n s a l t p roduc t ion a nd t r ade b e tween t h e S aha ran p roduc t ion

t h e se o b je c t s a r e t o o o rna te t oh ave b een me re ly i ngo t s , a nd w e re a l so w e l l c a red f o r -o ne i n go t b ea r s t he t r a ces o f t h e c l o th i n w h ich i tw a s w rapped . N o c ompa rab le c u r rency i t ems h ave b een r epo r ted i n t h e l i t e ra tu re ( Qu igg in 1 963 ; L ebeuf 1 970 ) , a nd

c en t re s a nd t h e ma jo r e n t repö t s s u ch a s G ao . S a l t w a s s h ipped f r om t h e S aha ran s ou r ce s t ot h e m a jo rt r ade c en tr e s

t h e o n ly g ener ic p a ra l le l s ( i n t h e

b roade s t s en se o f t h e t e rm ) a r e s ugge s ted b y t h e l a te r N iger ian man i l la s ( s ee J ohans son 1 967 ) .

7 7

T he se i t ems p rov ide e v idence o f i n te r reg iona l t r ade a nd d i f f e r f r om t h e f ou r b ra s s s amp les p rev iou s ly d i s cu s sed ( Chap te r5 ,s ec t ion 5 . 5c i ) . T h ree o ft h e f ou r c u r rency i t em s

E v idence f o ri r on -wo rk ing i nt h e f o rm o fs l ag w a sr e cover ed f r om b o th G ao A nc ien ( 2450g i nP e r iod 1 , 4a nd 5c on tex t s , b u t n one i n 2o r 3 ) a nd G ao -Saney ( 2 700g ) . I ti sn o t y e t k nown w he the r t h e s l ag r e su l t s f r om s m i th ing o r s me l t ing .

a na ly sed a r e n o t b ra s s , b u t c oppe r , w i th a n t imony p r esen t ,

( Dawa [ 1 985 ] d oe s n o t m en t ion f i nd ing a ny s me l t ing o r s m i th ing d eb r i s i n t h e G ao R eg ion d ur ing h i s s u r vey ) . A t T egdaou s t , t h e r ema ins o f as m i thy c omp le te w i th t u ye r e s w a s f ound , a nd a s im i la r d i scove ry h a s b een r epo r ted f r om K oumb iS a leh ( Robe r t 1 970a67 ; B e r th ie r 1 983 :169 ) .

a nd i n t wo c a se s l e ad . T he f ou r th e xamp le ( SA S /C 3 ) i s p o s s ib ly b ra ss b u t t h e re a r e r e serva t ion s a bou t t h i s i d en t if i ca t ion ( s ee Append ix 6 ) . T he u se o fc oppe ri nv a r ious f o rms a sa n i t em o fc u r rency i s k nown e l sewhe re i n t h e Wes te rn a nd C en t ra l S udan . A t K oumb i S a leh , c oppe r w i re a ppea r s t o h ave b een u sed

I r on -wo rk ing i n t h e N ige r B end r e g ion h a s n eve r b een

( Ber th ie r 1 983 :150 ) , o n a ve rage mea su r ing 3 -4cm i nl e ng th

p rope r ly i n ve s t iga ted ( i n fo rma t ion o n o r e s ou rce s i sl a ck ing

a nd 2mm i n t h ickne ss ( Thoma ssey a nd Mauny 1 951 :456 ) . A t S i la , A l -Bakr i r e co rd s t ha t c oppe r r i ng s w e re u sed a s c u r rency , a nd i n Kan im , w he re f i ve t ype s o fc u r rency i t em s c o -ex i s ted , c oppe r d i s cs o r b a l ls ( r ound p i e ce s ) w e re u sed

f o r e xamp le ) , b u t ah ypo the s is c an b e p ropo sed b a sed u pon t h e c u r ren t ly a va i lab le e v idence . S .K . M c In to sh ( 1995b :384 ) p o in t s o u t t h a t , f r om t h e l a te r i s t m i l lenn ium AD , o nwa rds i r on w a s i mpor ted i n to t h e Mema , t h e I n land N ige r D e l ta a nd t h e L ake sR eg ion , a sb looms o r i n go ts , w he re i t wa sr e w o rked b y l o ca l s m i ths O n ly o n t h e B ou le l R idge i n t h e Mema w a s i r on s me l ted o n al a rge s c a le f o r as ho r t p e r iod , p o s s ib ly t os upp ly t h e Emp i re o f Ghana ( Haa land 1 980 :44 6 ) . As im i la r s c ena r io c an b e p ropo sed f o r t h e G ao r e g ion , w i th i r on b e ing b o th p roduced i n t h e c i ty , a nd a s a

( Lev tz ion a nd Hopk ins 1 981 :78 ,260 ) . A t G ao a s im i la r c o e x is tence o f c u r rency i t ems h a s a l ready b e en men t ioned ( Chap te r 4 ,s ec t ion 4 .2b i i ) . E v idence f o r c oppe r m e ta l lu rgy h a s b een f ound a tG ao -Saney , a nd p r ev iou s ly r epo r ted f r om G ao A nc ien (Mauny 1 953 ) . I ti sp robab le t h a t c oppe r a nd c oppe r -a l loys w e re t r aded f r om G ao , i n b o th f i n ished a nd

s upp lemen tt ol o ca lp roduc t ion o na n " i ndu s t r ia l s ca le " a way f r om t h ec i ty .E ven i n ap e r iod o fg rea te rh um id i ty ( a sa tt h e e nd o ft h e i s t m i l lenn ium AD ) , i ti su n l ike ly t ha t t r e e c ove r w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion w a s e ve r s u ff i c ien t t o s upp ly t h e

u nf in i shed f o rms . C oppe r j ewe l le ry a nd i n go t s c ou ld h ave b een t r aded t oa l l t h e r eg ions w i th w h ich G ao w a s i n vo lved i ni n te r reg iona l t r ade . A ma tch f o r t h e c oppe r -an t imony m ix c an b e f ound a tt h e

r equ i remen t s o f al a rge s ca le i r on -sme l t ing i ndu s t ry , i n

c oppe r m e ta l lu rg ica l c en t re o f Ma rende t i n N ige r . S .K .

a dd i t ion t o f i r ing b r ick s , d omes t ic u se a nd a l l t h e o t her d emand s f o r f u e l made b y t h e s ubs tan t ia l p opu la t ion w h ich

Mc In to sh ( 1995b :387 ) s umma r i ses c oppe r -a l loy c ompo s i t ions i n t h e We s ter n S udan , a nd s t a te s t h a t a n t imony i s p resen t i n t h e Ma rende t c oppe r -a l loy s , b u t a b sen t a t A ze l ik ( Takedda ) , a l so i n N ige r ( F igu re 5 . 1 ) .

G ao a ppea r s t o h ave s uppor ted b e twe en t h e c en tu r ie s AD .

1 0 th -12 th

S im i la r ly t h e a l loy s f r om T egdaous t , K oumb i S a leh a nd t h e Mema c on ta in ing a r sen ic d i f f e r t o t ho se f r om Ma r ende t . T ha t Ma rende t w a s o ne o f t h e s ou rce s o f t h e c opp e r a nd

O ne o ft h e t wo r eg ions w h ich m igh t h ave s upp l ied G ao w i th i r on b loom s a nd i n go t s i s t h e Go rwo l r e g ion i n N ige r

c opp e r -a l loy s f ound i n G ao i s f u r the r s uppo r ted b y t h e r e cove ry a tt h is s i te o f a mou ld f r agmen t b y L ho te ( 1972 ) , w h ich c ou ld h ave b een u sed t oc a s t s im i la r i n go t s t o t h o se f ound a tG ao -Saney . C oppe r -a l loy , c oppe r ( a nd l e ad ) , c ou ld h ave a l lb een i mpor ted f r om Ma rende t t oG ao ( t he s ou r ce o f

c h imney f u rnace s w o rked b y t h e S ongha i t o s upp ly t h e T ua reg w i th i r on , u sed i n l a nce a nd t o o l p roduc t ion , w e re s i tua ted i n t h e c ompa ra t ive ly w el -wood ed G o rwo l r e g ion ,

( F igu re 6 . 1) . D e G i roncou r t ( 1920 :270 -71 ) r e co rd s t h a t

t h e Ma rende t o re s i ss t i l l u nc lea r ) . A no the r p o s s ib le s ou r ce

a l ongs ide t h e R ive r N ige r . D ev i s se a nd V erne t ( 1993 :35 ) r epo r t t h a t l a rge a r chaeo log ica l s i tes c ompo sed o fb anco o r s t one s t ruc tu r es , d a t ing f r om t h e e nd o ft h e i s t m i l lenn ium

o f t h e c oppe r a t G ao i sT e ssa l i t , t hough t h e c h rono logy o f m e ta ls e x t ra c t ion a t t h i s s i te r ema ins l a rge ly u nc lea r . T h i s s ou r ce d ese rve s f u r the r i nve s t iga t ion , a s d oe s A ze l ik /Takedda , w he re w e h ave ar e f e rence b y I bn B a t tu ta t o c oppe r b e ing s en t f r om T akadda t o J aw jawa ( Gao ) ( Lev tz ion a nd H opk ins 1 981 :302 ) , b u t l a ck a ny p hys i ca l

AD t oc a .AD 1 400 , a r e f ound i nt h e G o rwo l r eg ion a nd t h e a d jacen t D a rgo l a nd S i rba a r ea s ( F igu r e 6 . 1 ) . T hese s i t e s , w h ich r ema in l i t t le u nde r s tood , w e re u ndoub ted ly l i nked w i th g o ld e x t ra c t ion , a nd p o s s ib ly i r on p roduc t ion a s w e l l . F rom h e re , i r on c ou ld h ave b een s en t n or th t ob e r e -wo rked i n G ao , a nd t r aded o n i n to t h e S aha ra -t oT admekka f o r

e v idence f o rs uch t r ade .

e xamp le , w he re t h e a bsence o f t r ee c ove r may h ave p rec luded a ny th ing e xcep ts m i th ing a c t iv i t ie s .

I ron : 1 57 i r on i t ems w e r e r e cove red f r om G ao A nc ien a nd T o t h e n o r th o fG ao , e x tens ive e v idence f o r i r on p roduc t ion h as b een f ound . S .K . a nd R .J . Mc In to sh r epo r t t ha t l a rge

e i gh t f r om G ao -Saney . 1 03 i r on i t ems a tG ao A nc ien c ame f r om t h ei mpo r tr i ch P e r iod 3c on tex ts ( MM 9 3 A2 1 ,22 ,25 ) .

q uan t i t ie s o f s me l t ing s l ag w a s d i scove red a t s i te s o f a l l

I ti sp robab le t h a te xcep t ing c e r ta in c l a s se so fs pec ia l i s tt o o l s a nd w eapon s ( tweeze r s , s c i s so r s , s wo rd s ) , t h e b u lk o f t h es e i t ems w e re n o t i mpor ted t h rough t r an s -Saha ran t r ad e , b u t p roduced a nd t r aded l o ca l ly . T he a ssemb lage o f i r onwo rk w a s p r ima r i ly c ompo sed o f u t il i ta r ian i t ems : k n if e b l ade s , s pea rp o in t s , l a nce h ead s , ah oe b l ade , p a r t o fw ha t a ppea r s

p e r iod s i nt h e G ourma R ha rous a nd T imbuk tu a r ea s o n t h e N ige r B end . T hey p rov i s iona l ly d a t ed t h e max imum p roduc t ion o f i r on t o w ha t t h ey t e rm t h e m idd le p e r iod , c a .AD 9 00 -1200 ( 1986b :315 ) . T hey s ugge s t t h a t s me l t ing o n t h i ss ca le h ad p ro found i mpl ica t ions f o rt h e e nv i ronmen t ,

t o b e ad oo r l o ck a nd n a i ls , r i ve t s a nd h ook s . S im i la r

w i th ma s s ive d e fo res ta t ion i n t h is a r ea o f l ow t r ee c ov e r .

a s semb lage s w e re r e cove red f r om K oumb i S a leh a nd T egdaous t ( Thoma ssey a nd Mauny 1 951 :456 -7 , 1 956 :134 ;

O n ly o ne s a t isf ac to ry e xp lana t ion

c an

b e p ropo sed t o

a c coun tf o rt h is " i ndu s t r ia ls ca le " i r on p roduc t ion ( e spe c ia l ly f o r t h e G ou rma -Rha rou s a r ea ) ; t ha t i tw a s u nde r taken t o

B er th ie r 1 983 :158 -68 ; R obe r t 1 970a67 ) . 7 8

t e rms L a i n /am ,D amdam , Am ima a nd B arba ra w e r e u s ed i n t h e A rab ic s ou r ce s b e twe en t h e 1 th -14 th c en tu r ie s AD t o d eno te c oun t ry i n hab i ted b y " pagan c ann iba l s " ( Lev tz ion 1 985b :185 ) . S l ave r a id s w e r e l a unched i n to t h e se a r ea s , t h e r e su l tan t c ap t ive s a nd p r i sone r s f r om m i l i ta ry c ampa ign s p rov id ing s l ave s f o ri n te rna l u se a nd t r an s -Saha ran t r ade . I t i sp robab le t h a t t h e d emand f o r s l ave s a tG ao m ean t t h a t t h ey w e re t a ken w he r eve r p o s s ib le , t h ough e spe c ia l ly f r om a r ea s t ot h e s ou th a nd w e s t ; p o s s ib ly f r om Mo s s i , L ob i a nd

s upp ly G ao w i th b l oom s a nd i n go t s t o s upp lemen t l o ca l p roduc t ion a nd s upp l ie s o b ta ined f r om t h e s o u th ( wh ich a l so h e lp s i ne xp la in ing t h e s im i la r i t ie s i nl o ca l p o t te ry b e tween t h e t wo a r ea s ) . T he ma rg ina l ( i n t e rm s o f a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t iv i ty ) a r ea s n or th o f G ao o n t h e N ige r B end w e r e s p ec if i ca l ly e xp lo i ted f o ri r on p rodu c t ion . G o ld : T he r o le o fG ao i nt h e g o ld t r ade , t h e g o ld s o u r ce s o f t h e We s t e rn S udan , a nd t h e i r e xp lo i ta t ion b e tween c a .AD 9 00 -1250 h a s a l r eady b een d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 5 ,s e c t ion 5 . 6a .

B obo c oun t ry i nB u rk ina F a so a nd D ogon c oun t ry a l ong a nd a r ound t h eB and iaga ra E sca rpmen ti n Ma l i( F igu r e6 . 1 ) .

6 . 2c ) S lave s :

6 . 2d )I vory :

T he e conom ic i mpor tance o ft h e s l ave t r ade i ng ene ra l , i t s r o le i n t r an s -Saha ran c omme r ce , a nd t h e a s so c ia ted p rob lems o fi t s a r chaeo log ica l v i s ib i l i ty , h ave a l ready b een d i scus sed ( Chap te r5 ,s e c t ion 5 . 6c ) . S l ave s w ou ld h ave b een o fs im i la r i mpo r tance f o r i n te r reg iona l t r ade , a s t h ey w e re i nt r ans -Saha ran t r ade . T he r o le o fs l ave s i ng ov er nmen t i n t h e We s te r n S udan h a s b e en d i s cu s sed b y L ev tz ion ( 1 985 :154 ) , w ho m ake s t h e p o in t t h a t s l ave s w e re o f i mpo r tance i n a l l s phe r e s ; e conom ic , a dm in i s t ra t ive , p o l i t ica l a nd m il i ta ry . H ence b y t h e 9 t h c en tu ry AD , i n a dd i t ion t o t h e l a rge n umbe r s e xpo r ted n o r th a c ro s s t h e S aha ra , t h e r e w ou ld h ave b een ar e ady m a rke t f o r s l ave s a s l a bou r w i th in t h e We s te rn S ahe l . T he s ou r ce o ft h e se s l ave s i sd i ff icu l t t or e con s truc t f o r t h e p e r iod AD 9 00 -1250 . T he

I v o ry a s at r an s -Saha ran t r ade c ommod i ty h a s a l ready b een d i s cu s sed ( Chap te r 5 ,s e c t ion 5 . 6b ) , b u t t h e s ou r ce s o fb o th h i ppopo tamu s a nd e l ephan t i v o ry s hou ld b e b r ief ly m en t ioned . I ta ppea r s t h a t w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion e l ephan t i v o ry w a s n o t a s r e ad i ly a va i lab le a s h i ppopo tamu s i v o ry , w h ich c ou ld b eo b ta ined f r om t h e R ive rN ige r . T he t r ade i n , a nd c o l lec t ion o f , t h e h i ppopo tamu s i v o ry w ou ld p robab ly h ave b e en i nl o ca l S o rko h and s , w i th s upp l i e s c om ing f r om B en t iya /Kuk iya , a nd t h e s t r e tch o fr i ve r i mmed ia te ly n o r th o fG ao ( I n se l ! 1 995b ) . E lephan t i v o ry w ou ld h ave c ome f r om f u r the r a f ie ld . A n a du l t e l ephan t ' s d i e tc ons i s t s o fu p t o2 00 -300 k g o ff o l iage , a nd 1 60 l i t r e s o f w a te r ad ay , a nd i ft h e se a nd s hade a r e

A

B ourem G ourma R ha rous

1 00k m

L ake sR eg ion

• B en t iya /Kuk iya

GOR WO L AYOROU T ERA DARGOL

THE " I V" • O uagadougou

F i gu re 6 . 1 . P r inc ipa l t own sa nd r e g ion s m en t ioned w i th in t h e c on tex to fi n te r reg iona l t r ade ( a dap ted f r om R ouch 1 9 54 : e ndp ie ce ) .

7 9

a va i lab le , t h e e l ephan t w i l l n o t v en tu re f a r . H oweve r , i f t h e se r e sou rce s a re s ca r ce , l a rge -sca le movemen t s o fs e ve ra l h und red km m ay o ccu r ( Nowak 1 991 :1283 ) . E ven i n a p e r iod o f mo re h um id c ond i t ions i ti s u n l ike ly t h a t t h e e nv i ronmen t i n t h e Gao R eg ion w a s s u i tab le f o r s uppo r t ing s i zeab le e l ephan t p opu la t ion s a l l y ea r r ound . A t p resen t a h e rd o fa pp rox ima te ly 5 00 e l ephan t s e x i s t s i n t h e G ou rma a r ea , b u t t o s u rv ive t h i s h e rd s e asona l ly m ig ra tes n ea r ly 1 000 km f r om t he R ive rN ige r t ot h e Ma l ian a nd B u rk inab e f r on t ie r ( Brad shaw 1 994 , I nsol 1 995b ) . A s ma l l h e rd o f

H unw i ck ( 1985 :5 ) h a s a rgued t h a t t r ade i n s t ap le f ood s ; g ra in , s o rghum a nd r i ce , f o r d r ied m ea t , c heese , a nd c l a r if i ed b u t te r s , b e tween s e t t led a gr icu l tu ra l is t s a nd n omad s , w a s o ne o ft h e r eason s f o r t h e e s tabl i shmen t o ft h e o r ig ina l s e t t lemen t i n t h e v i c in i ty o f G ao . F rom t h e s ou th , g ra in s , f r u i t a nd r i ce c ou ld h ave b een i mpor ted t o s upp lemen t l o ca l p roduc t ion a nd a s a means o f o b ta in ing o t he rw i se u nob ta inab le f ood s tuf f s . T he Gou rma a r ea t ot h e w e s to fG ao w ou ld a ppea r t oh ave b een o fg rea t i mpo r tance i n s upp ly ing a g r icu l tu ra l p roduce t o G ao . T he r ema in s o f

e l ephan t s w a s a l so r e co rded a s l i v ing b e tween G ao a nd Menaka a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h i s c en tu ry , t h e l a s t o f t h e se

e x ten s ive u nda ted " t ra vaux h yd rau l ique s " ,

n e two rk s o f

e l ephan t s b e ing k i l led b y F rench s o ld ie r s b e tween 1 910 -12 AD ( Manny 1 956 :262 ) . H ence t hough s ome e l ephan t i v o ry m igh t h ave b een s porad ica l ly a va i lab le w i th in t h e N ige r

t h eG ou rma ( Ga l la is 1 975 :172 ) , w h ich w e re p o s s ib ly u sed t o c on t ro l d ra inage f o r r i ce c u l t iva t ion ( Hodgk in 1 987 :118 ) . I mpo r ted a nd l o ca l ly p roduced v ege tab le f ood s tu f f s w ou ld b e t r aded o nwa rd s , t o t h e s e t t lemen t s i n l e s s p roduc t ive a r ea s n o r th o f G ao o n t h e N ige r B end , a nd mo s t i mpo r tan t ly t o

c i s te rn s ,d yke s ,a nd c hanne ls h ave b e en r e co rd ed t h roughou t

B end a r ea , t h e b u lk o f i t mus t h ave c ome f r om t h e F o r e s t Z one ,f u r the rs ou th .

E s sukrTadmekka i n t h e Ad ra r d e s I f o ra s , a nd p o s s ib ly t o Ma rende ta nd A ze l ik /Takedda .

S haw ( 1970 : 2 84 -5 , 1 977 :106 ) , h a s a r gued , o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e e v idence f r om t he s i te o f I gbo -Ukwu , t h a t N ige r ia m ay h ave b een a ni mpo r tan ts ou rce a r ea o ft h e m ed ieva le l ephan t

6 . 2e i i ) An ima l F ood s tuf f s a nd P ack -An ima ls : We d o n o t k now

i v o ry t r ade , a s e l ephan t s w e re t h en u ndoub ted ly mo r e p l en t ifu l i n t h e Wes t A f r ican f o res t r e g ion t han t h ey a r e

f o r c e r ta in

w he the r

a n ima ls

w e re

t r aded

i n te r -

r eg iona l ly , b u t i ti sp robab le t ha t s uch t r ade e x i s ted ; w i th p a s to ra l is t s t r ad ing l i ve s to ck f o r o the r p roduc t s , a nd at r ade i np a ck -an ima l s ,c ame l s ,h or ses , e t c ,a l so t a k ing p la ce .

t o day . I tc an b e s ugge s ted t ha t G ao w a s t h e d es t ina t ion o f s ome o ft h is i vo ry , wh ich w a s s h ipped n o r th f r om S ou ther n N iger ia u p t h e R ive r N ige r , a nd t h en t r an spo r ted a c ro s s t h e S aha ra b yc ame lc a ravan . I tc an b e f u r the rh ypo the s ized t h a t G ao w a st h es ou rce o f many o ft h e g l a ss a nd c a rne l ian b ead s

F auna l r ema ins w e re r e cove red f r om b o th G ao -Saney a nd G ao A nc ien a nd a r e d i scus sed i n d e ta i l i n Append ix 9 .T he s p ec ie s p re sen t i nd ica te t h a t t h e d i e t i n G ao w a s f a i r ly

f ound a t I gbo -Ukwu ( t hough n o t t h e c opp e r -a l loy s , w h ich h ave b een s a t is fa c to r i ly p roven t o b e l o ca l i n o r ig in . S e e C h ikwendu e ta l [ 1989 ]) , a nd t ha t t h e se w e re s en t s ou th i n r e tu rn f o r t h e e l ephan t i vo ry ( I ns° 1 1 a nd S haw i n

c on serva t ive c ompa red t oo ther s i tes o fc ompa rab le d a te i n t h e We s te rn S ahe l a nd S udan , f r om w h ich f auna l r ema in s h ave b een r e cove red a nd a na lysed . D omes t ica te s ( c a t t le , s heep , g oa t s ) p redom ina te a nd t h e re i s ag ene ra l s c a r c i ty o f

p repa ra t ion ) .

w i ld t am , f i sh a nd r ep t i le r ema ins a tG ao . Whe the rt h i s w a s d ue t ot a phonom i c o r c u l tu ra l f a c to r s i sn o t c e r ta in ( Hu t ton MacDona ld a nd MacDona ld , p e r s . C omm . , a nd s e e A ppend ix 9 ) . Al a rge rs amp le i sr equ i red t of uly u nde r s tand

6 . 2e )F oods tuf f s : F ood s tu f f s wou ld h ave b een e x ten s ive ly t r aded i n t e r r eg iona l ly . " The n a tu ra l e co -zona t ion o f t h e S ubcon t inen t w ou ld h ave e ncou raged e xchange o f f o od s tu f f s a nd s a l t b e tween a d jacen t z one s f r om v e ry e a r ly o n " ( S .K . a nd R . J . Mc In to sh 1 988b :123 ) . S e t t lemen ts , s uch a s T admekka ,

t h e p a t tern ing d i sp layed , b u t i tc an b e t e n ta t ive ly s ugge s t ed t h a t c u l tu ra l f a c to r s , s uch a s t h e p re sence o f t h e Mu sl im c ommun i ty , m igh t h ave h ad a n i nf luence u pon t h e s pe c ie s r ep r esen ted . N o i n fo rma t ion o n t r ade w a s d e r ived f r om t h e e xam ina t ion o ft h e f a una la s semb lage .

s i tua t ed i n a r ea s o fl ow a gr icu l tu ra l p roduc t iv i ty mu s t h ave i mpor t ed a l o t o ft he i r v ege tab le f ood s tuf f s . A l -Bakr i ( 1068 AD ) r e co rd s t ha t , a l ongs ide t h e c o l lec t ion o fw i ld g ra in s a t T admekka , " so rghum a nd o the r g ra in s a r e i mpor ted f o r

T he A rab ic h i s to r ica l s ou r ce s d o p rov ide s ome i n fo rma t ion o n a n ima l f ood s tu f f s i nt h e G ao R eg ion . Y aqu t ( d .AD 1 229 ) r e co rded t h e p r e sence o f h erd s o f c a t t le a t Kuku ( Gao ) ,

t h em f r om t h e l a nd o f t h e S udan " ( Lev t z ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :85 ) .

w h ich i s c o r robo ra ted b y L eo A f r icanu s , w ho a dd s t h a t s heep w e re k ep ti nt h eG ago ( Gao ) s t a te ,a nd t ha t t h e i rs k in s w e re w or nb yp a s to ra l is t s . T he e x is tence o f" many c h icken s "

6 . 2e 1 ) V ege tab le F ood s tuf f s i n t he G ao R eg ion : I td id n o t p rove p o s s ib le t o r e cove r s amp les o f b o tan ica l ma te r ia l d ur ing t h e 1 993 s eason . Howeve rt h e u se o f , a nd t r ade i n , a w ide v a r ie ty o f v ege tab le f ood s tu f f s i n t h e G ao R eg ion i s r e co rded i nt he h i s to r ica ls ou r ce s . A l -D ima shq i ( d .AD 1 327 )

a nd f i sh i n G ao i s a t te s ted b y I bn B a t tu ta ( Lew ick i 1 974 :80 ,84 ,90 ) . T he u t i l isa t ion o f w i ld a n ima ls i n t h e G ao R eg ion i sa l so r e co rded ; h ippopo tamu s h un t ing h a s a l r eady b een m en t ioned ( Chap te r 5 ,s e c t ion 5 . 6b ) , a nd t h e h un t ing o ft u r t les a tT i rekka t ot h e n or th o fG ao i sm en t ioned b yA l B a la i ( c a .AD 1 068 AD ) ( I b id :97 ) ( af r agmen t o ft u r t le s h e l l

r e co rd s t ha t whea t a nd u nspe c if ied g ra in s w e re g rown a t G ao , w h i l s t I bn B a t tu ta ( AD 1 355 ) s peak s o f t h e p ro fu s ion o fr i ce i n K awkaw ( Gao ) , a nd t h e S pan i sh a u tho r Ma rmo l

w a sf ound a tG ao -Saney ) .

( AD 1 573 ) w r i tes o f t h e c u l t iva t ion o f b a r ley ( Lew ick i 1 974 :23 ,36 ,41 ) . A longs ide g ra in s , A l -Zuh r i ( AD 137 )

6 . 2f )C lo th a nd C lo th ing :

r e f e r s t ot h e u se o fl e gum inous p lan t s ( p ea s , l e n t i l s , k idney C lo th w a s a l so am a jo ri n te r reg iona l t r ade c ommod i ty . I ti s p o s s ib le t h a t c l o th a nd c l o th ing a lway s h ad s t a tu s a s soc ia t ion s , a nd a mongs t t h e I s lam ized a nd t ho se w ho

b ean s ) , a nd s e same i n K awkaw , a nd L eo A f r icanu s ( AD 1 525 ) t o t he g row th o f c a laba she s , a nd I bn B a t tu ta t o c ucumbe r s( I b id :5 5 ,63 , 6 4 ,110 ) . 8 0

w i shed t o e mu la te t hem i t w a s o f i mpo r tance , a s t h e

We s te rn S udan , J enne jeno f o r e xamp le [ s ee Ga r ra rd 1 975 :66 ; S .K . a nd R . J . Mc In to sh 1 980 :161 ; S .K . Mc In to sh

a s soc ia t ion b e tween I s lam a nd c l o th a nd c l o th ing i sw el k nown . Wa t son ( 1983 :41) m en t ions h ow , " i n p r ac t ice i fn o t i n d oc tr ine - . the f a i thfu l s hou ld b e c l o thed , p r ef e rab ly f r om t he n eck t ot he a nk le s , w i th o n ly t h e f a ce , n eck , h and s a nd f ee t s how ing " . I ti sa l so h i gh ly p robab le t ha tc o t ton w a s i n t roduced i n to t he Wes te rn S udan f r om E gyp t v i a t h e

1 995c :217 ] ) . T he t r an s -Saha ran t r ade i n c l o th a nd c l o th ing t o G ao h a s a l ready b een d i scu ssed i n C hap te r 5 , s e c t ion 5 .4a i . T h i s a ppea r s t oh ave b een i nb o th l u xu ry ma te r ia ls , s uch a s s i lk a nd f i ne c o t ton g auze , w h ich c ou ld h ave b een u sed b y

Magh reb ( I b id :82 ) . Mauny ( 1961 :59 ) p ropo sed t h a t AD 8 00 i s t he e a r l ie s t p os s ib le d a t e f o r t h e i n t roduc t ion o f t h e s p ind le w ho r l i n to t he We s te rn S udan . T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence a pp ea r s t o c on f i rm t h e c onne c t ion b e twe en N o r th A f r ican i nf luence o r I s lam ic i n f luence , a nd c o t ton p roduc t ion . S .K . a nd R .J . Mc In to sh ( 1988b :112 ) s how t h a t s p ind le w ho r l s a ppea r o n t h e M idd le N ige r a nd S enega l

i nd igenou s n ob il i ty a nd r oya l ty , a s i s s ugge s ted b y t h e d e scr ip t ion o ft h e c l o th ing i nt h e c our t o f Ma l i b y A l -Uma r i i nt h e f i r s t h a l fo ft h e 1 4 th c en tu ry AD , a nd more u t i l i ta r ian c o t ton a nd w oo l len c l o th a nd c l o th ing , w h ich c ou ld h ave b e en p roduced i na nd t r aded f r om G ao i t se lf . E f f ah -Gyamy i

H oweve r , t h e a s soc ia t ion b e tween I s lam a nd c l o th i s n o t

( 1974 :224 -5 ) p rov ide s a n i n te res t ing l a te r e xamp le o f p o s s ib le l o ng -d i s tance c l o th e xpo r t s f r om G ao . T he c l o th s u sed b y r oya l ty i n t h e B ono K ingdom w e re k nown a s " Gagaoga " , an ame p robab ly d e r ived f r om t h e s ou r ce o ft h e c l o th , G aoga o r G ao . S t r ips o f f i ne c o t ton c l o th w e re a l so u sed a sc u r rency , a sa tS i la o n t h eR ive r S enega l , a nd N ub ia o nt h eR ive rN i le .

a lway s c l ea r . B edaux 's e xcava t ion s a t T e l le rn s i te s i n t h e B and iaga ra e sca rpmen t u ncove red e v idence ( t ex t i le f r agmen t s ) i n d ica t ing t ha t t h i s a n im i s t g roup w a s u s ing

6 . 2g ) B eads :

b e tween t h e 11t h -13 th c en tu r ie s AD , a nd p rov ide a s umma ry o f f md -spo t s , w h ich i n c lude O go a nd R ao i n S enega l a nd Mop t i -Seva re a nd J enne jeno o n t h e N ige r . T o w h ich c an b ea dded Gao .

c o t ton i nt h e 1t h c en tu ry AD ( Bedaux a nd B o l land 1 980a , 1 980b ; B o l land 1 991) , r a is ing t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e u s e

B ead s o f g l a ss a nd s em i -p rec iou s s t one s w e re p robab ly

a nd p roduc t ion o f c o t ton c l o th ing a nd N o r th A f r ican i n f luence w e re n o t a lway s c onnec ted . A s w i th t h e c o r re la t ion b e tween s qua re o r r e c tangu la r h ou se s a nd I s lam d i scus sed i nC hap ter 4 , s e c t ion 4 . 3a , c a tego r ies o fe v idence i nd ica t ive o f Nor th A f r ican o r I s lam i c i nf luence c an e x i s t w i thou tc onve r s ion t oI s lam t a k ing p la ce .

i mpor tan t i n te r reg iona l t r ade i t ems , b o th t h ose i mpo r ted b y t h e t r ans -Saha ran t r ade , a nd b ead s m ade i n t h e m a jo r S ahe l ian t r ade c en t re s . B ead s w e re u sed f o r av a r ie ty o f p u rpo se s . A l Id r is i r e co rded i n t h e m id -12 th c en tu ry AD t h a t b ead s w e re u sed a s a dor nmen ts i n t h e " Land o f t h e S udan " ( Lev tz ion a nd H opk ins 1 981 :108 ) , a nd t h i s m ay w el h ave i n c luded ,a si th a si nr e cen tt ime s ,s t a tus i nd ica t ion a nd r oya l r ega l ia . P agan w omen i n T akru r a r e s a id t o h ave c ove r ed t h e p ub is w i th g l a ss b ead s , a nd i n Kan im , i n t h e 1 4 th C en tu ry AD , b ead s ( a long w i th a v a r ie ty o f o the r

6 .2f i ) C lo th i n t he Gao R eg ion : C lo th w a s c e r ta in ly w o rn i n G ao , A l -Bak r i d e sc r ibe s t h e i n hab i tan t s o f K awkaw a s w ea r ing r o be s , t he ma te r ia l i su nspe c if ied , a nd ; " a g a rmen t o f s k ins o r s ome o the r ma te r ia l " , a nd A l -D ima shq i ( AD

i t em s ) ,w e re u sed a sc u r r ency ( I b id :179 ,260 ) .

1 256 -1327 ) r e co rds t ha t c o t ton w a s o b ta ined b y " Be rb e r s " f r om K awkaw ( Lev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :78 ,87 ,210 ) . I t w as a l so p roduced i nG ao , n ine c e ram ic s p ind le w ho r l s w e r e f ound .O ft h e se , f i ve w e re r e cove red f r om t h e e xcava t ion s a t G ao -Saney , t h ree f r om t h e s u r f a ce a tG ao -Saney , o ne f r om t he s u r f a ce o f Gao Anc ien a nd n one f r om t h e e xcava t ion s i n G ao A nc ien . T he s p ind le w ho r l s f a l l i n to t wo t y pe s , s i x manuf a c tu red f r om p o t s he rd s , a nd t h ree s p ec i f ica l ly manufa c tu red a ss p ind le who r l s .

6 . 2g i ) The B eads f r om G ao : T he b ead s r e cove red f r om G ao h ave a l ready b e en d es c r ibed ( Chap te r 5 , s ec t ion 5 . 5b a nd A ppend ix 4 ) , w he re t h e e mpha s is w a s u pon d i s cus s ing t h e i r r o le i n t r an s -Saha ran t r ade ; i n t h e c on tex t o f i n ter reg iona l t r ade , f u r the r p o in t s n eed t o b e made . G ao w a s ap r ima ry c en t re i nt h e i r s upp ly , a nd a s t h ey w e re e a s i ly t r anspo r tab le , b ead sc ou ld b et r aded a nywhe re , a nd h ence a r e w ide ly f ound i n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s i n t h e G ao R eg ion a nd b eyond . L oca l p roduc t ion o fc a rne l ian , c e ram ic a nd g la ss b ead s t o ok

T he t h r ee e xamp les o f s pec if i ca l ly manuf a c tu red s p ind le who r l s w e re a l l s u r f ace f i nd s . T he G ade i e xamp le ( G .A .G . S /C 8 )h a s ab u rn ished r ed s l ip a nd i sd e co ra ted w i th c omb

p l ace i nG ao . C arne l ian : C a rne l ian b ead s w e re d i scove red b y L ho te ( 1942 :291) a t aL a te S tone A ge s i te c l o se t o t h e v i l lage o f I nGangabe r t o t h e n o r th o f G ao i n t h e T i lems i V a l ley . Whe the r t h e se b ead s w e re manuf a c tu red f r om l o ca l ly a va i lab le s ou rce s o f c a rne l ian i s u nknown , a s o u t s ide o f E gyp tt h e re a r e n o o the rv e r if ied s ou r ce s o fc a rne l ian w i th in A f r ica ( K .C . MacDona ld p e r s .comm . ) . H oweve r , A l -Bak r i ,

d eco ra t ion w h ich i s a lmo s t i d en t ica l t o t h a t u sed o n t h e l o ca l ly m anufac tu red g eome t r ic d eco ra ted w a r e s f ound a t b o th G oo A nc ien a nd G ao -Saney . O ne o f t h e G ao -Saney s p ind le w ho r ls i sa l so c omb d e co ra ted , b u t o n ab u rn i shed b lack s u r f ace , a nd a ga in r e semb le s t h e l o ca l ly m ade p o t te ry r e cove r ed f r om t he e xcava t ion s ( G .Saney H .S /C 3 1 ) . T he t h ird e xamp le h as a s imp le r s hape a nd i su ndeco ra ted . T he o the r s i x s p ind le who r ls a r e much c rude r a nd h ave b een

w r i t ing i nt h e m id -1 1t hc en tu ry AD , m en t ions t h e e x is tence o f am ine , p robab ly o f a ga te , b e tween T admekka i n t h e Ad ra r d e s I f o ra s a nd G hadame s ( Lev tz ion a nd Hopk in s

made f r om p o ts he rd s , wh ich h ave b een c rude ly c h ipped i n to c i rcu la rs hapes , a nd h ad ah o le b o red t h rough t h e i rc en tr e s .

1 981 :86 ) , a nd D e B eauchene ( 1969 :56 ) r e co rded t h e p re sence o f aj a spe r m ine i n t h e "W " r eg ion o f N ige r ,

( The se a r e s p ind le w ho r ls a nd d o n o t a ppea r t ob e t h e c r ude p o t t e ry d i sc w e igh t s , c onfo rm ing t oI s lam ic w e igh t s y s tem s ,

l o ca ted t ot h e s ou th o fG ao , w he the r c a rne l ian a l so e x is t s a t

wh ich h ave b een r epo r ted f r om G ao a nd e l sewhe re i n t h e

e i the r s ou r ce i s n o t k nown . L amb ( p e r s . c omm . ) f ound 8 1

o b ta ined b y a n e a s t -we s t t r ade r ou t e ( I n sol a nd S haw i n

e v idence a t G ao -Saney o f t h e m anufac tu re o f c a rne l ian b ead s , i n c lud ing l ump s o f r aw m a te r ia l a nd w o rked b ead b lank s . T hese b lank s w e re , h e c ons idered , w o rked i n " t he t r ad i t ion o f t h e C ambay c a rne l ian t e chn ique o f I nd ia , i lus tra t ing t ha t t h e re w e re a t G ao -Saney , c a rne l ian b ead make r s , w o rk ing i na n I nd ian O cean t r ad i t ion" . H e s t re sse s

p repa ra t ion ) .

6 . 2h ) M i sce l lany :

t ha t t h e se b ead -maker s w e re n o t I nd ians . T he c a rne l ian

6 . 2h i ) S tone ( O ther t han B eads ) : I ti s p robab le t h a t a v a r ie ty o f p roduc ts m ade f r om s t one w e re t r aded i n te r -

d eb r is a nd b ead b lank s w e re d epo s i ted i n t h e C or n ing Museum o fG las s ,N ew Y o rk S ta te .

r eg iona l ly . F rom t h e S aha ra c ou ld h av e c ome c a rne l ian a nd o the r s em i -p r ec ious s t one s ; s t ea t i te , g r an i te , c h lo r i t e s ch i s t , m ica a nd o ch re . T he t r ade i nm inera l c o lou ran t s m igh t h ave

C eram ic : T he s egmen ted c eram ic b ead s r e cove red f r om

b een q u i te s i gn i f ican t ; t h e p resence o f y elow o ch re f r om B ou rem f ound i n G ao A nc ien h a s a l r eady b een m en t ioned

b o th G ao Anc ien a nd G ao -Saney a r e w ide sp read i n t h e Wes ter n S udan . S im i la r s egmen ted b ead s , b o th o ft h e l a rge a nd s ma l l v a r ie t ies w e r e f ound a t T egdaou s t , a l ong w i th

( Chap te r 4 , s e c t ion 4 . 3bv ) . A t Koumb i S a leh a v a r i e ty o f s uch ma ter ia ls , c ha lk , k ao l in i te a nd j a ro s i te w e re r e cove red , o f t h e t y pe p o s s ib ly u sed t o d eco ra t e t h e s ch is t p l aques a l ready d es c r ibed ( Ber th ie r 1 983 :189 ) .

mou ld f r agmen ts i n l e ve l s d a ted t o t h e e nd o f t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry -e a r ly 11t hc en tu ry AD b y V anacke r ( 1979 :168 ) , a nd w e re made l o ca l ly . I ti sa l so p o s s ib le t ha t p roduc t ion o f s egmen ted b aked c l ay b ead s w a s t a k ing p l ace a tG ao w he r e b o th u ncu t a nd c u t e xamp le s s u rv ive ( Append ix 4 ) . T he

Two f r agmen ts f r om a s t ea t i te d i sh w e re c ole c ted f r om t h e

b ead s c ou ld b et r anspo r ted j o ined t o ge the r , a s t h ey c ame o u t o f t h e mou ld , a nd t h en s awn u p w hen n eeded . T he s i ng le r i ng b aked c l ay b ead sr e cove red f r om P e r iod 1a nd P e r iod 3 c on tex t s a tG ao A nc ien c ome f r om as ma l l s egmen ted s t r ip o fb ead sh av ing b een c u tu p .

s u r f ace o f t h e t e l l a t G ao -Saney . T h i s i so f i n te re s t a s t h e D epar temen t d 'Af r ique Nord i n t h e Mu se e d e l ' Homme i n P a r i s h a s s t ea t i te b ra ce le t f r agmen t s f r om t h e H ogga r ( Acc .No . 4 5 .3 .6 -2 t o 6 -5 ) , s im i la r t o t h e G ao -Saney b ow l f r agmen t s . S aha ran t r ade r ou tes o pe r a t ing v ia T admekka c ou ld h ave s e rved t ob r ing t h em t oG ao .

D e B eauchene ( 1966 :7 , 1 969 :57 ) m ent ions f i ne ly m ade s egmen ted b aked c l ay b ead s f ound i n t h e Go rwo l r e g ion o f N ige r , w h ich s ound s im i la r t ot h e G ao e xamp le s . T he se , h e s ays , s e em t o b e p ecul ia r t os i t es l o ca ted a l ong t h e Ma l ian b o rde r . U nfo r tuna te ly , n oi lus tra t ion o ft h es egmen ted b ead s a r e p rov ided ( and n one w e re f ound i nt h e P a r is c o l lec t ion s ) . I ti sp o s s ib le i nt h e c on tex to ft h e o the r G o rwo l c onne c t ion s

B ra ce le t s made f r om g ran i te , ma rb le a nd s t ea t i te a ppea r t o h ave b e en w id e ly t r aded i n t he G ao R eg ion . A f r agmen t f r om a s t one ( g ran i te ) b race le t wa s c olec ted f r om t h e s u r f a ce o f t h e t e l l a t G ao -Saney . Hombo r i w as , a nd i s , a r e nowned c en t re o fs t one b ra ce le t manu f a c ture (MacDona ld

t h a tt h ese b ead sw e re t r aded f r om G ao t ot h e Gorwo l .

1 994b ) , a nd b r ace le t s f r om Hombo r i c ou ld h ave b een t r aded t o G ao . I n t h e P ou ra R eg ion o f B u rk ina Fa so , m a rb le b race le t s f r om Hombo r i , a ppa ren t ly d a t ing f r om 1 4 th

G las s : Wh i ls t mo s t o f t h e g l a s s b ead s w e r e p robab ly i mpo r ted , l o ca l p roduc t ion o fg l a ss b ead s a l so t o ok p l ace i n

c en tu ry AD c on tex t s , w e re r e cove red a l ong w i th s t ea t i te b ra ce le t s s ou r ced f r om F as t o ft h e A i r ( K ie thega 1 983 :105 ) .

G ao . L amb ( pe r s . c omm . ) c on s ide r s i tl i ke ly t ha t b l ue g la s s b ead sw e re made i nG ao f r om s c rap g l a s s ,w h ich w ou ld h e lp e xp la in t h e p re sence o f s ome o f t h e g l a s s d eb r i s r e cove r ed f r om G ao A nc ien . N o mou ld f r agmen t s w e re f ound i n 1 993 t hough t h e i r p rev iou s d i scove ry a tG ao -Saney wa s r epo r ted t ot h ea u tho rb yl o ca lp eop le .

T he G ourma t r ade r ou tes f r om Gao w e re t h e p robab le r ou te b y w h ich t h eb ra ce le t so fS aha ran o r ig in r e ached P ou ra . 6 . 2h i i ) C owr ie S he l l s : T he t r ade i n ,a nd u s eo fc owr ie s h e l l s h a s a l ready b een d i scu ssed i n d e ta i l i n C hap te r 5 , s e c t ion 5 . 5d i i i . G ao w ou ld h ave a c ted a s a c en t re o f t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion .

6 . 2g i i ) B ead D i s tr ibu t ion : B ead s a r e o ne o f t h e f ew c a tego r ie s o f l u xu ry o b jec t b rough t s ou th b y t r an s -Saha ran t r ade t ob e f ound o u t s ide o ft h e m a jo r t r ade c en tre s . T h i s i s p a r t ly d ue t o t h e p or tab i l i ty a nd d u rab i l i ty o f b ead s . C o lou red monoch rome g l a s s

6 . 2 1 )L oca l ly Manufac tured P o t tery : I ti sn o t k nown i fl o ca l ly manufac tu red p o t t e ry w a s a n i t em

b ead s f r om t h e s o ca l led

o f i n te r reg iona l

" A t e l ier s " s i tua ted b e tween R he rgo a nd L abbezenga o n t h e N ige rB end ( s ee C hap ter 2 ,s ec t ion 2 . 3c ) w e re p r esen t i nt h e

t r ade

( i f

t h e

p o t te ry

i t se l f

wa s

n o t

d e l ib e ra te ly t r aded i ti sh igh ly l i ke ly t h a t t h e re w a s a n i n t e r r e g iona l t r ade i n c ommod i t ie s wh ich w ou ld h ave b een

D esp lagnes c o l lec t ion i n t h e Mu se e d e l ' Homme i n P a r i s ( Lebeuf a nd P aque s 1 970 :51 , a nd p e r sona l o b se rva t ion s o f

t r an spo r ted i n l o ca l ly manuf ac tu red p o t te ry , f ood s tuf f s , o i l s e t c , b u t f o r w h ich w e h ave n o a r chaeo log ica l e v id ence ) . H oweve r , t h e a na lys is o f t h e e x ten s ive a s semb lage s

t h e c o l le c t ion ) . T he se a r e mo re i r ide scen t t han t h e G ao e xamp le s , wh ich m igh t b e ar e su l t o fd i f f e ren t d epo s i t iona l

r e cove red

f a c to r s , b u t i ti sp o s s ib le t ha t t h e se b ead s w e re t r aded f r om G ao a l ong t h e N ige r B end . S u rp r i s ing ly , n one a r e r e po r ted

f r om

t h e

e xcava t ions

i n

G ao ,

a nd

t h e i r

c ompa r i son w i th t h o se f r om e l sewhe re o n t h e N ige r B end a nd b eyond , h a sp rov ided i mpo r tan t i n fo rma t ion o n p o s s ib le i n te r reg iona lc onnec t ions .

b y S . a nd R . Mc In to sh ( 1984 ,1986 ) f r om t h e T imbuk tu R eg ion . I th a s a l so b een s ugge s ted t h a t s ome o ft h e 1 65 ,000 g l a s s a nd c a rne l ian b ead s f ound a t I gbo -Ukwu c ou ld h ave c ome s ou th f r om G ao a l ong t h e N ige r , i f s o r e ve r s ing

I n t o ta l , 8 083 s he rd s o f l o ca l ly manufa c tu r ed p o t tery w e r e r e cove red f r om t h e e xcava t ion s i n G ao A nc ien , a nd 4 872

S u t ton 's ( 1991 ) h ypo thes is t h a t t h e b ead s a tI gbo -Ukwu w e r e

8 2

s ub sequen t ly p roved t o b e i d en t if iab le ( a l l s he rd s w e r e r e co rded ) . A tG ao -Saney , 8 80 s he rd sw e re r e co rded a nd 6 54 w e re i d en t if iab le ( f rom a5 0% n on -p re jud ic ia l s amp le ) . N ine g ene ra l c l a s se s o f l o ca l ly p roduced p o t te ry w e re i d en t if i ed ; r ed s l ipped ( RS ) , c hanne l led ( Chan ) , g eome t r ic d e co ra ted

h eavy t h ick p o t i sc ha rac ter is t ic o ft h e Anzu ru , Go rwo l a nd D a rgo l r eg ion s a l ong t h e R ive r N ige r , a s f a r a s t h e S i rba v a l ley . T he s he rd p rof i le p rov ided o f t h is t h ickened p o t te ry ( I b id :68 ) i sn o t s im i la r t oa ny o ft h e G ao p rof i le s . S im i la r ly t h e t h ree i lus t ra t ions o fw ha ta ppea r t ob e i n c ised a nd t w ine d e co ra ted s he rd s ( I b id :63 ) , r e cove r ed f r om t h e s i te o f T ond ikwa r ey b y T ouce t ( 1960 ) , b ea r l i t t le r e semb lance t o

( GD ) , b l ack b u rn i shed g eome t r ic d e co ra ted ( BBGD ) , b rown b u rn i shed ( BrB ) , b lack b u rn i shed ( BB ) , c o rd a nd t w ine d e co ra ted ( CT ) , p a in ted ( P ) , d ra inp ipe s ( DP ) , a nd o ne c a tego ry , m i scelaneous . F ou r ma in c a tego r ies o f r im w e r e i s o la ted ; t h ickened , s imp le , e ver ted a nd o t he r s . T he se h ave b een f u r the rd iv ided i n to a no the r 2 0 s ub -ca tego r ie s . Ap o in t o fi n te re s t w h ich h a s a l ready b een m en t ioned i st h e l a ck o f

t h e p o t te ry c l a s se s p r esen t i n G ao . T he i n c i sed d e co ra ted s he rd s w e re d a ted t o b e tween t h e 1 4 th a nd e a r ly 1 7 th c en tu r ie s AD ( Gado 1 993 :370 ) . L a rge q uan t i t ies o fc l ay f i gu r ines a nd a n th ropomo rph ica l ly

ma jo r c hange o ve r t ime i n e i the r t h e G ao A nc ien o r G ao S aney a s semb lage s ( s ee A ppend ix 7f o r af u l l d esc r ip t ion o f t h e p o t te ry c l as se s a nd r ims , a nd a d i scu s s ion o f t h e i r s i gn if i cance ) .

d eco ra ted p o t te ry h ave b een r e cove red f r om s i tes i nt h e B u ra a r ea o fN ige r , w h ich e ncompa s se s t h e Anzu ru , Go rwo l a nd D a rgo lr eg ion s . A t t h e f une ra ry s i te o fA s inda -S ika ,d a ted t o b e tween AD 2 00 -1050 , f une ra ry j a r s , f i gu r ines , a nd a n th ropomo rph ic d eco ra ted p o t te ry , w e re f ound ( Gado 1 993 :365 -8 ) , a nd t h e p roduc t ion o f a n th ropomo rph ica l ly

6 . 2 1 i )R eg iona l C ompar i sons . The N iger B end :

d eco ra ted p o t te ry a ppea r s t o h ave c on t inued i n t h e B u ra r eg ion u n t i l t h e e a r ly 1 5 th c en tu ry AD , w i th d eco ra ted c l ay p l a te s b e ing f ound a t K a reygo rou d a t ed t o b e tween AD 1 280 -1405 ( I b id :370 ) . N o f i gu r ines o r a n th ropomo rph ica l ly d e co ra ted p o t te ry h ave y e t b een f ound i n t h e G ao R eg ion . T he p r e sence o ft h e f i gu r ine s a nd a n th ropomo rph ic p o t t e ry , w i th t h e i r s nake m o t if s a nd e ff ig ie s o f p eop le , c e r ta in ly s ugge s t s t h a t I s lam ic p ene t ra t ion i n t h e se s ou ther n r e g ion s w a s w eak , a t l e a s t u n t i l t h e 1 5 th c en tu ry AD ( d is cu s sed f u r the r i nC hap te r 7 ) , a nd i ng enera l i ts e ems p robab le t h a t

T he s i tua t ion h a s i mp roved s omewha t s i nce B edaux ( 1978 :148 ) l amen ted t h e l a ck o f p ubl i shed ma te r ia l f r om e xcava t ion s c onduc ted i n t h e We s te rn S ahe l a nd S avanna w i th w h ich t oc ompa re h i s ma te r ia l f r om t h e I n land N ige r D e l ta ( Hence fo r th I ND ) s i te s o f T ogue r es D oupw i l a nd G a l ia , b u t w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion c ompa rab le a s semb lage s a r e a bs en t . F ew s he rd so fl o ca l ly -manuf ac tu red p o t te ry w e r e f ound b y C ol in F l igh t d ur ing h i s e xcava t ion s a tG ao -Saney ( F l igh t , p e r s . c omm . ) , a nd t h e p o t te ry f r om Mauny ' s

s im i la r i t ie sw i th t h eG ao a s semb lage d id n o te x is ti nt h e w ay

e xcava t ion s i n G ao w e re n eve r f uly d esc r ibed . Mauny ( 1951 :849 ) d oe s , h oweve r , d e sc r ibe s he rd s f r om c omb i mp re s sed w a r e s , d eco ra ted i ng eome t r ic p a t terns , a nd l o ng n e cked b o t t les , wh ich a r e s im i la r t om a te r ia l f r om t h e 1 993 e xcava t ion s .

i td id w i th t h e n or thwe s tern r e g ions ( s ee b e low ) .

6 . 2 1 i i ) R eg iona l C ompar i son s . T he L akes R eg ion , t he I n land N iger D e l ta a nd t he w ider We s tern S ahe l :

E lsewhe r e o n t h e N ige r B end , c ompa rab le a s semb lage s a r e

S im i la r i t ie sa r es t i l lf ound b e tween t h ep o t tery f r om G ao a nd

a l so f ew . T he n o tab le e xcep t ion b e ing t h e p o t t e ry c olec ted b y R . J . a nd S .K . Mc In to sh f r om G ourma R ha rou s a nd T imbuk tu ( 1984 , 1 986 ) . T he many s im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h i s ma te r ia l a nd t h e G ao a s semb lage h ave a l ready b een d i s cu s sed i nC hap ter 3 ,s e c t ion 3 . 3d .

a s semb lage s f r om a l ong t h e R ive r N ige r , b eyond G ou rma R ha rou s a nd T imbuk tu , b u t t h e r ange o f d i rec t s im i lar i t ie s d ec rea ses . T he G ao e xcava ted a s semb lage s , a nd t h o se f r om t h e L ake s R eg ion t umu l i s i tes o f K i l l i , d a ted t o t h e 11t h c en tu ry AD b y o r a l t r ad i t ion , a nd E l -Oua lad j i , w he re a

D a ta o n t h ep o t tery f r om t h ea rea st ot h es ou th o fG ao o n t h e N ige r B end i ss pa r se . N o d e ta i led a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch h a s b een u nder taken i n t h e v i c in i ty o f B en t iyafKu l c iya , s o n o th ing i sy e t k nown a bou t t h e p o t te ry f r om t h i s i mpo r tan t a r ea . T he s i tua t ion p er ta in ing t o t h e a r ea b e low B en t iya /Kuk iya i s al i t t le b et te r ,b u tt h e d a ta i ss t i l l f a r f r om

c a l ib ra t ed r ad io ca rbon d a te o f AD 1 030 -1220 w a s o b ta ined ( Fon te s 1 991 :265 ) , a l l c on ta in r ed -s l ipped b o t t le n e ck s a nd o t he rr ed -s l ipped w a re s , s ma l lj a r s a nd f l a sk s , s ome b ea r ing g eome t r ic p a t ter n s o fc omb d eco ra t ion , w h ich a r e i d en t ica l t ot h o se f r om G ao . ( Ob serva t ions b a sed u pon t h e p ubl i shed s ou rce s ; D e sp lagne s 1 951 ,L ebeuf a nd P aques 1 970 , B edaux a nd R a i rnbau l t 1 993 ,a nd t h e e xam ina t ion o ft h e C o l lec t ions

a dequa te .A rchaeo log ica lr e sea r ch h a sb e en c onduc ted i nt h e R epubl i c o f N ige r , a l ong t h e b ank s o ft h e N ige r a nd u p t o t h e f r on t ie r w i th Ma l i ( Rouch 1 953 ; D e B eauchene 1 966 , 1 969 ;

G ado

i n fo rma t ion

1 980 , a bou t

1 993 ) . t h e

H oweve r ,

p o t te ry

l i t t le

r e cove red

D esp lagne s h e ld i nt h e Depar t emen t d ' Af r ique No i r e i n t h e Mu see d e l ' Homme i n P a r i s ) . T he s im i la r i t ies i n f o rm a nd d e co ra t ion c an b e e xp la ined b y t h e f a c t t h a t b road ly g ene r ic c l a s se s o f l o ca l p o t t e ry w e re b e ing p roduced a l l a l ong t h e m idd le N ige r i n t h e e a r ly s e cond m i l lenn ium AD a nd

d e ta i led

f r om

t h e

e xcava t ion s a nd s u rvey s c onduc ted i nt h i s a r ea h a s y e t b een p ub l i shed , a nd n one w a s f ound i n P a r i s ( I t h a s n o t y e t p roved p o s s ib le t oe xam ine p o s s ib le c ompa ra t ive c ole c t ion s i nN iamey o r Daka r , f o re xamp le ) .T he d a ta w h ich h a s b een p ubl i she d d oe s n o t s how t h e s ame s t rong s im i la r i t ies w h ich e x i s t b e tween t h e G ao a nd G ou r rna -Rha rou s m a te r ia l . D e

s im i la r i t ies c an b e s e en i nt h e s imp le c l o sed v e s se l s , p o t l id s a nd l e dged a nd r o l led e ve r ted r ims ( Bedaux 1 978 :197 ,205 ,206 ) , f ound a tT ogue r e D oupw i l n ea r Mop t i , a nd T ogue re G a l ia n ea r D jenne , d a ted t o t h e 1l t h -15 th c en tur ie s AD ( I b id :123 , 1 991 :95 ) .

B eauchene ( 1969 :57 ) d e s cr ibe s t h e p o t te ry f r om t h e G o rwo l r eg ion c l o se t o t h e Ma l ian b o rde r a sb e ing b l a ck b u rn ished a nd c o rd d eco ra ted , a nd G ado ( 1980 :69 ) m en t ion s t ha t a 8 3

C e r ta in s im i la r i t ies c an a l so b e s e en i n t h e J enne jeno m a ter ia l d a t ing f r om p ha se 4 ( ca .AD 9 00 -1400 ) , a nd t h e G ao ma te r ia l . T he se i n c lude f o r e xamp le ; t h e u se o f t w ine

d e co ra t ion , t h e p re sence o fb o t t le n e ck s , p o t l id s , a nd a f ew

f r om s ou th o ft h e B en t iya /Kuk iya a r ea a nd t h a t f r om G ao . I t c an a l so b e s e en f r om t h e s im i la r i t ies i nv e s se l f o rms s ha red

s he rd s f r om c a r ina ted b ow l s . H oweve r t h i s i sn o t m ean t t o s ugge s t t ha t f a r reach ing c on tac t s w e re b e ing ma in ta ined , r a the rt ha t , " t he N ige rR ive rc on s t i tu ted ama jo r a x is f o r t h e

b e tween t h e G ao a s semb lage a nd t ho se f r om o t he r s i te s a l ong t h e m idd le N ige r , a nd b eyond i n to Mau r i tan ia , t h a t t h e m a te r ia l f r om G ao b e longs t o t h e a p t ly n amed w ide r " Sou the rn S aha ran /Sahe l ian p o t te ry t r ad i t ion " o f 1 0 th t o e a r ly 1 5 th c en tu ry AD d a te , w h i l s t r ema in ing i n c er ta in r e spec t s ,d i s t inc t .

t r ansm is s ion o fs t y le s , t r end s a nd i nf luence " ( S .K . Mc In to sh 1 995b :370 ) . I ti s u n l ike ly t ha t d i rec t l i nk s w e r e ma in ta ined b e tween K oumb i S a leh , T egdaou s t a nd G ao , b u t e ven h e r e s im i la r i t ie s c an b e s e en i nt h e r a nge o ff o rms b e ing u sed a t t h e t h ree s i te s . S imp le o pen b ow l s , b eake r s a nd b o t t le s w e r e p resen t a t Koumb i S a leh , i n l e ve l s d a ted t o t h e 1l t h -14 th c en tu r ie s AD , a nd a tT egdaou s t ( Be r th ie r 1 983 :41 ,99 , F ig s

6 . 3 ) Gao a sa n I n ter -Reg iona lT rade C en tre : T he t own o fG ao i si d ea l ly s i tua ted a tt h e j unc t ion o fd e se r t a nd r i ve r ine t r ade r ou te s , a nd o f r ou t e s l e ad ing t ot h e w e s t

1 8 a nd 1 9 ) , a nd r im s he rd s f r om s im i la r v es se l s h ave b een r e cove red f r om t h e e xcava t ion s i n G ao . I ts hou ld b e n o t ed

i n to t h e G ou r rna . T o q uo te I r oko ( 1974 :69 ) , " Ce s on t l ä

t h a t n one o f t h e l o ca l p o t te ry f o rm s f ound i n G ao , o r e l sewhe r ei nt h e Wes te rn S ahe la nd S udan , o we t h e i ro r ig in s t o I s lam ic i n f luence , a s w a s o nce t hough t ( e g . Mauny 1 96 1 :60 ) . T he e xcava t ions a t J enne jeno h ave s hown t h a t

a u tan t d ' ar t eres d e c ommun ica t ion q u i , äl e ur f onc t ion , c ons t i tuen t u ne f orme d ' un i te e conom ique q ue f a i te d ' e lemen t s v ar ie s " . B e s ide s i t s g eog raph ica l l o ca t ion f o r r e g iona l t r ade , G ao i sn ea r t h e n o r thernmos t a r ea w he re e x ten s ive f l oodp la in c u l t iva t ion o fr i ce i sp o s s ib le , a f te r t h e

f o rms s u ch a s b o t t le s a nd c a r ina ted p o t s p r e -da te I s lam ic c on tac t s( S .K . Mc In to sh 1 995 ) .

n a r row c u l t ivab le s t r ip b e tween T imbuk tu a nd T ond ib i ( Hodgk in 1 987 :111 ) . H ence , e ven i n ap e r iod o f g r ea te r h um id i ty w h ich e x is ted i n t h e i s t m i l lenn ium AD , e spe c ia l ly b e twe en c a .AD 7 00 -1100 , G ao w ou ld h ave h ad a mo re a g r icu l tu ra l ly p roduc t ive b a se t han a r ea s t ot h e n or th . T h i s w ou ld h ave m ean t t ha t ar e la t ive ly l a rge p opu la t ion

T he s im i la r i t ie si nt h e f o rms f ound i nt h e Wes tern S ahe l a r e c ommen ted u pon b y S .K . a nd R . J . Mc In to sh ( 1980 :453 ) , w he re t h ey r e fe r t o a " gene ra l ized S ou the rn S aha ran /Sahe l ian p o t t ery t r ad i t ion " , i n vo lv ing t h e u se o f c a r ina t ion , p edes ta l led b a se s a nd b o t t les . T he s im i la r i t ie s

c ou ld b e s uppo r ted i nG ao , a tt h e a pex o ft h e t r ade r ou te s . I t c an b e p ropo sed t h a t G ao w a s f ounded a s a n i n te r reg iona l t r ade c en t re t o e xp lo i t t h is a gr icu l tu ra l p o ten t ia l a nd i t s p rox im i ty t o t r ade r ou tes r unn ing n or th u p t h e T i lems i V a l ley , n o r thwes t a nd s ou thea s t a long t h e R ive r N ige r , w e s t i n to t h e G ou rma a nd e a s t t o t h e c oppe r -p roduc ing r e g ions n ow i nN ige r .

b e tween s ome o f t h e f o rms a nd w a r es b e ing p roduced i n G ao , a nd t h o se o f t h e I ND a nd t h e w ide r w e s te rn S ahe l s how s t h a tt h e l o ca l ly p roduced p o t te ry f r om G ao a l so f o rm s p a r to ft h i sw ide rt r ad i t ion . O the r a spe c t s o f t h e G ao a s semb lage i lu s tra te t h e d i s t inc t ivene s s o f s ome o f t h e m a te r ia l b e ing p roduced i n G ao . F o r e xamp le , t h e a b sence o f c er ta in c ha ra c ter is t ic v e s se l t y pe s a tG ao w h ich w ou ld b e e xp ec ted t ob e f ound i f

6 . 3a )T he Mer chan t s :

c l o se c onnec t ions e x is ted b e twe en G ao a nd t h e I ND . T he f oo ted c up h a s n o t y e t b een f ound a t G ao , b u t i s f ound w ide ly e l sewhere i nt h e We s t ern S ahe l a nd S udan ; N ian i i n

T he m e r chan t s i n vo lved i n i n te r -reg iona l t r ade i nt h e N ige r B end w ou ld i n mo s tc a se s h ave b een l o ca l . T he e xcep t ion t o

G u inea ,w he re i tw a sr e cove red f r om l e ve l s d a ted t ob e tween t h e 6 th -17 th c en tu r ies AD , a nd a t E l -Oua lad j i , K oumb i S a leh , Y a tenga i n B u rk ina F a so a nd o n t h e B and iaga ra e s ca rpmen t ( Bedaux 1 978 :184 -5 , 1 991 :91 -2 ; B edaux a nd L ange 1 983 ; B edaux a nd R a imbau l t 1 993 ) . N e i the r o f t h e t wo t ype s o ff oo ted c up , t h e N ian i s t y le o r t h e T e l le rn s t y le

t h i s p a t tern a ppea r s t o b e r ep re sen ted b y t h e m e r chan t c ommun i ty a t B en t iya/Kuk iya ( d iscus sed i n C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 . 3b ) . H e re a mound s i te a tE gef -n -Tawaqqa s t w a s t h e p robab le h ome o f t h e Mus l im m e r chan t c ommun i ty r ep re sen ted b y t h e i n scr ibed s t e lae . Wi th in t h i s c ommun i ty t h e r e w e re p r e sumab ly m er chan t s o f N o r th A f r ican A rab

f r om t h e B and iaga ra e s ca rpmen t , h ave y e t b een f ound i n G ao . T h i s a ga in i lus t ra te s t h e e a s ter n o r ien ta t ion o f G ao , a l ready r ema rked u pon i nt h e c on tex to ft r an s -Saha ran t r ade ( Chap te r 5 , s ec t ion 5 . 4b ) . T he o t he r n o t iceab le a b sence i n t h e G ao a s semb lage s ( and t h roughou t t h e G ao R eg ion ) , a r e

a nd B e rbe r o r ig in . L oca l t r ade r s wou ld a l so h ave o pe ra ted , t h ough a tt h i s e a r ly d a te ( AD 9 00 -1250 ) t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s a s a gen t s o f I s lam iza t ion a nd c onver s ion w ou ld h ave b een l im i ted .

t e r raco t ta f i gu r ines a nd z oomo rph ic a nd a n th ropomo rph ic d eco ra ted p o t te ry . T he i r r e cove ry f r om s i t es s ou th o f B ent iya /Kuk iya h a s a l ready b e en c ommen ted u pon a bove , a nd s uch ma te r ia l i s a l so f ound a t I ND s i tes d a t ing p r edom inan t ly f r om AD 9 00 -1400 ( S .K . Mc In to sh 1 995b :369 ) .

6 3b ) Me thod so fT ranspor t : A v a r ie ty o f m e thod s o f t r an spo r t w ou ld h ave b een u s ed f r om G ao a si ts e rved a s at r an s -sh ipmen t p o in t f o rS aha ran , R ive r ine a nd S avanna g ood s . C ame l c a ravans w e re u sed t o t a ke g ood s t oa nd f r om S aha ran a r ea s . A longs ide t h e c ame l i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a t s l ave s w e re u sed a s p o r te r s t oc a r ry g ood s i n to t h e S aha ra f o r a s Hodgk in ( 1988 :74 ) s ay s , t h ey c ou ld t h en b e s o ld a t t h e e nd o f t h e t r ade r ou te s . H uman

I ns umma ry , i tc an b e s e en t h a t t h e p o t t e ry f r om G ao s ha re s d i re c t s im i la r i t ies w i th t h e ma te r ia l f r om G ounna -Rha rous . F u r the rr e sea r ch t ot h e s ou th o fG ao , i nt h e B en t iya /Kuk iya

p o r t e rage w ou ld a l so h ave b een u sed e x ten s ive ly o n a l l o t he r l a nd r ou te s , p o s s ib ly a l ong w i th d onkey s a nd o xen ( u sed

a r ea may a l so s how d i rec t s im i la r i t ie s i n t h e p o t t e ry o f t h e t wo a r ea s ,h oweve rf ew s im i la r i t ie se x is tb e tween t h ep o t te ry 8 4

c ow r ie s he l ls , a nd mo s t i mpor tan t ly , s a l t . I n r e tu rn g o ld f r om t h e S i rba V a l ley , i r on f r om t h e G orwo l , i vo ry f r om t h e

t o day ) , h o r se s b e ing t oo v a luab le t o u se a s p ack -an ima l s ( Mauny 1 961 :394 -7 ; Hodgk in 1 988 :72 -4 ) .

f o re s tz one , f ood s tu f f sa nd a n ima l p roduc t s , a nd s l ave s f r om a l l a r ea s a l ong t h e r i ve r c ame n or th u p t h e N ige r . T hese

R ive r t r anspor t w ou ld a l so h ave b een o f i mpo r tance a nd c anoe s o fa l l s i ze s mus t h ave b een u sed . T he T ar ikhs r e co rd t h a t t h e l a rges t c anoes , t h e k ance s , h e ld 2 0 -30 t on s , a nd a l ongs ide t h e se a r ange o f s ma l le r c anoe s e x i s ted . I n AD 1 591 , f o l low ing t h e b a t t le o fT ond ib i , t h e re w e re s a id t ob e 1 000 k ance a nd 6 00 -700 s ma l le r c anoe s i n K o ima a nd

r i ve r ine t r ade n e two rk s c ou ld h ave b een o pe ra ted b y S o rko b oa tmen a nd r e la ted g roup s f u r the r s ou th , u s ing t h e R ive r N ige ra sa na x i so ft r ade . 6 . 3c i i ) We s to fG ao ( The Gourma ) :

G ade i ( Hodgk in 1 988 :62 ) . I ti sp robab le t ha t t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h ec anoes i nt h eG ao r eg ion w ou ld h ave b een m ade o fs ewn p l anks , a s t h ey a re t oday . G eog raph ica l s i tua t ion a nd e conom ic n ece s s i ty d ic ta te t h e u se o f s ew ing a s a c on s t ruc t ion t e chn ique a s t h e re i s al a ck o fl a rge t r ee s i nt h e S ahe l s u i tab le f o ro ne o rt wo p i e ce c anoe c on s truc t ion . S ewn

T he G ou rma a r ea t o t h e w e s t o f G ao b eyond t h e r i ve r r ema ins l i t t le e xp lo red a r chaeo log ica l ly ( F igu r e 6 . 1 ) , b u t p a r t s o f t h i s v a s t a r ea c ou ld h ave f o rmed t h e h i n te r land o f G ao . Hodgk in ( 1987 :136 ) m ake s t h e p o in t t ha t t h e l i nk s o f H ombo r i ; " i n t r ade r ou te s a nd l i ngu i s t ica l ly a r e w i th G ao

c anoe s c an b e r e la t ive ly e a s i ly made o u to fl o ca l ly a va i lab le ma te r ia l s ,s uch a st he wood o ft h ed oum ie ro rd um -pa lm ,t h e p a lm f i b re s t i t ch ing b e ing c au lked w i th B ou rgou g ra ss . S ewn c anoe s a r e s t i l l c ommon ly b u i l t t o day i n S ongha i v ilage s , a sa tK o ima a nd Magmadoye ,a nd i nG ade i q ua r te r

r a ther t han T imbuk tu " , a nd t h i s a ppea r s t ob e s uppo r ted b y t h e s im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h e E a r ly I r on A ge p o t te ry c o l le c ted a tK o ima a nd t h a t f r om T ongo Maa re D iabe l i nt h e We s te rn G ourma .

o fG ao ( I n sol 1 993c :346 -7 ) .

T he S ongha i c onnec t ion s w i th H ombo r i i n t h e C en t ra l G ou rma a r e w e l l k nown , a nd a s d i scu ssed i n C hap te r 1 , s e c t ion 1 . 3a , S ongha i c ommun i t ies a r e t o b e f ound i n t h e

Mu l t ip le m e thod so ft r anspor tm igh th ave b een u sed t o move g oods . T o t h e s ou th o f G ao t h e re a r e i mped imen t s t o r i ve r ine n av iga t ion b y a ny th ing b u t s ma l l c ano e s , a s a tt h e B u ssa R ap id s w he re Mungo P a rk l o s t h i s l i f e . H e re , R ouch ( 1950 :37 ) r e co rd s , ap ropo r t ion o f c a rgo w a s o f t en o f -

e as ter n G ourma a t A r ib inda , F i l iyo a nd K ubo ( Hodgk in 1 987 :116 ) , a s w e l l a s i n t h e G o rwo l a nd D a rgo l . T he p o s s ib le s upp ly o fa gr icu l tu ra l p roduce f r om t h e G ou rma t o G ao h a s a l so a l ready b een d i scus sed ( s ec t ion 6 . 2e i ) , t o t h i s

l o aded b e fo re t h e r ap ids w e re a t temp ted , a nd l a te r r e tu rned f o r b y l a nd . S im i la r ly , c ame l s c ou ld n o t b e u s ed b e low a c er ta in l a t i tude w here r a infa l l w a s t o o h eavy ( a s i n t h e ( ou rma , w he re Hombo r i f o rms t h e s ou the rn l im i t a s i ti s u pon t h e5 00mm I sohye t [ Hodgk in 1 988 :116 ] ) .

c an b e a dded s t one b ra ce le t s f r om H ombo r i , s l ave s f r om t h e S ou ther n G ourma ( whe re i t b o rde r s t h e Mo s s i s t a te s ) , e l ephan t i v o ry , a nd p o s s ib ly g o ld f r om t h e w o rk ings i n B u rk ina F a so ( pu re ly h ypo the t ica l a t t h is e a r ly d a te ) . A s w i th t h e i n te r reg iona l t r ade t ot h e s ou th , as im i la r r ange o f f i n ished g ood s , p lu s s a l t , c ou ld h ave b een s en t w e s t t o t h e G ou rma f r om G ao i nr e tu rn ( F igu re 6 . 1) .

6 . 3c )T rade R ou te s : 6 . 3c i i i ) N or th o f G ao ( Gourma Rharous a nd t he N iger B end ) :

63c i ) S ou th o f Gao ( The N iger a nd i t sT r ibu tar ie s ) : O ne o f t h e m o s t i mpor tan t r eg ion s w i th w h ich G ao w a s i n vo lved i n i n te r -reg iona l t r ade w e r e t h e a r ea s t ot h e s ou th

T he e x ten s ive s im i la r i t ie s w h ich e x i s t b e tween t h e l o caly m anuf a c tu red p o t te ry a s semb lage s f r om G ao a nd f r om G ou rma -Rha rou s h ave a l r eady b e en m en t ioned , a nd f u r the r s im i la r i t ie s w i th t h e L ake s ma te r ia l c an a l so b e s een . I ti s p robab le t h a t i n te r reg iona l t r ade c onnec t ions b e tween t h ese a r ea s a l ong t h e N ige r B end w e re ma in ta ined b y r i ve r t r anspo r t . I bn B a t tu ta t r ave l led f r om T imbuk tu t oG ao a l ong t h i s r ou te i nt h e m id -14 th c en tu ry AD . H ippopo tamu s i v o ry , i r on b looms , a nd p o s s ib ly s a l t , c ou ld h ave b een s h ipped s ou th t o G ao , w i th , mo s t i mpo r tan t ly , f ood s tuf f s , a nd

o n t h e R ive r N ige r ( F igu re 6 . 1 ) . " Gao w a s t h e t e rm inus o f t h e i n te rna t iona l Mus l im t r ad ing n e two rk ; t h e r ou te f r om G ao d own s t ream t o Kuk iya wa s s t r i c t ly ar e g iona l o ne . We k now o fn oi n te r -reg iona lt r ade r ou te w h ich l e df r om K uk iya t oa ny o the r t r ad ing c en t re b eyond i ta l ong w h ich a gen t s o f I s lam m igh th ave p as sed " ( Hunw ick 1 985 :12 ) . T he f i r s ts e t t lemen to fi mpo r tance e ncoun te red s ou th o fG ao i st h e B en t iya /Kuk iya c omp lex , w h ich a ppea r s t oh ave b een a me rcan t i le o u tpo s t w i th a n a s so c ia ted Mu s l im m e r chan t

c ow r ie s , manuf ac tu red g oods e t c , g o ing n or th i n r e tu rn . A p ropo r t ion o f t h e f ood s tu f f s c on sumed a t T i rekka , t h e ma rke t t own d e sc r ib ed b y A l -Bak r i , c ou ld a l so h ave b een

c ommun i ty u nde r t he i nf luence o f G ao . I t w a s p os s ib ly s i tua ted t of o rwa rd t he g o ld f r om t h e wo rk ing s i n t h e S i rba V a l ley n or th t o ( l ao . A l though n o th ing i sk nown o f t h e

s upp l ied f r om G ao .

p o t te ry s equence f r om B en t iya /Ku l c iya i tc an b e s ugge s ted t h a t i tm igh tb ea rs im i la r i t ie s w i th t h e G ao a s semb lage s , b u t t h a t s ou th o f t h is l im i t ( a s a l r eady s hown ) , p o t te ry s im i la r i t ies d e crea se . B en t iya /Ku l c iya w a s t h e f r on t ie r b e tween a r ea s u nde r t h e i n f luence o f G ao a nd t h e w o r ld

6 . 3c iv ) N or th o f G ao ( Tadmekka a nd t he Adrar d e s I f oras ) : I n te r reg iona lt r ade b e tween G ao a nd T admekka w ou ld h ave b een o f g r ea t i mpo r tance ( i t w a s s ugge s ted i n C hap te r 4 , s e c t ion 4 .2b i i , t h a tG ao A nc ien m ay h ave b een f ounded a si t w a s mo re c onven ien t ly l o ca ted t op a r t ic ipa te i n t h is t r ade ) . T admekka s e rved a s t h e s t a t ion o n t h e t r ans -Saha ran t r ade r ou te f r om G ao , v i at h e T i lems i V a l ley ( F igu re 6 . 1) , a nd t h e

b eyond . S ou thwa rd sf r om Gao w en t av a r ie ty o fi t ems , m anufa c tu red g ood s , c oppe rm e ta lwo rk , c l o th , g l a s s a nd b aked c l ay b ead s , 8 5

t r an s -Saha ran t r ade i n C hap te r 5 . I n r e tu rn a v a r ie ty o f p roduc t s i n c lud ing s a l t w e re c hanne l led s ou th f r om T admekka .

f r om t h e u r ban a rea , a gg lomera t ions o fb anco r oundhou se s a nd i mp e rmanen t t e n ted s t ruc tu re s w ou ld h ave b een c ommon . I nt h is r e spec t G ao c an b e s a id t od i sp lay c er ta in " monopo l i s t ic t e ndenc ie s " , a s d ef ined b y Sm i th ( 1976 ) , w he reby o ne l a rge c en tre e x is t s a m id s t ar u ra l h i n te r land . C on t ro l o ve re x terna l t r ade , a no the r d ef in ing c ha rac te r i s t ic , a l so a ppea r s t oh ave b e en e xer ted , b u t t h e e x ten t t ow h ich c on t ro l o ve r a r t i san p roduc t ion w a s e xe r c ised i s n o t y e t

E x ten s ive t r ade wou ld a l so h ave b een c onduc ted w i th t h e

k nown . I ti sa l so d i ff i cu l t t oa s se s s w he the r G ao ma in ta ined a monopo ly o ve r a dm in i s t ra t ion , t r an spo r t a nd ma rke t ing ,

r e la t ion sh ip b e twe en t h e t wo s e t t lemen t s i sw e l l d ocumen ted i n t h e A rab ic h i s tor ica l s ou r ces . G ao w a s t h e p robab le s ou r ce o ft h e v ege tab le f ood s tu f f s i mpor ted i n to T admekka f r om t h e " l and o ft h e S udan " d e scr ibed b yA l -Bak r i , a s w el a s t h e s l ave s a nd o the r p roduc t s d e scr ibed i n t h e c on tex t o f

a l l f u r the r c r i te r ia o f monopo l i s t ic o r s o la r c en t ra l p l aces ,

n omad ic p a s to ra l g roup s i nhab i t ing t h e a r ea s s u r round ing ( l ao , p r ima r i ly t o t h e n or th a nd e a s t o f t h e c i ty . H odgk in ( 1988 :437 ) c o r rec t s p opu la r m is in te rp re ta t ions o f n omad ic l i f e s ty le s w hen s he s ay s , " The T ua r eg h ave r a re ly , i fe ve r , b e en p u re n omad s l i v ing e n t i re ly o f t h e p roduce o f t h e i r h e rd s " . D ie ta ry s upp lemen t s a nd a h o s t o f o t he r p roduc t s

P o s s ib ly t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t c ommod i ty i n i n te r reg iona l

w e re o b ta ined f r om n e ighbou r ing s eden ta ry g roup s , w i th

t r ade

G ao p o s s ib ly f u lf il ing ac en t ra l ma rke t ing r o le w i th in t h i s

c on t ro l l ing t h e s upp ly a nd ma rke t ing o f s a l t , t h e f l ow o f

t r ade . 6 . 3cv ) E as to f Gao :

o the r c ommod i t ie s i n to G ao , c ruc ia l t ot r an s -Saha ran t r ade ( go ld , i v o ry e t c ) , a nd h ence t o o b ta in ing l u xu ry i t ems u sed i nt h e ma in ta inence o fs t a tus , c ou ld b e a s sured . E v idence t o

T h i s r eg ion r ema ins t h e l e a s t u nde r s tood i n t e rms o f b o th

s uppo r t t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion s eems t ob e p rov ided b y Y aqu t w hen h e r e co rded i n AD 1 224 t h a t t h e K ing o f G ao 's

b u t i tc an b e s ugge s ted t h a t t he e l i te s i n G ao p robab ly d id e xe r t s uch c on t ro ls a s r ega rds i mpor tan t c ommod i t ie s s uch a ss a l t , i vo ry a nd g o ld .

o ve r w h ich

c on t ro l

w a s

e xe r ted

w a s

s a l t .

B y

t r ea su re -hou ses w e re s pac ious , a nd h i s t r ea su re c on s i s ted p r inc ipa l ly o fs a l t . S a l t w a s o bv iou s ly a n i t em o fs ome v a lue t o w a r ran t e spec ia l s t o rage u nde r r oya l c ont ro l , a nd I r oko ( 1974 :123 ) t e rms i t" un m onopo le r oya l " . As im i la rp roce s s c an b e s e en o n t h e o the r s i de o f t h e c on t inen t w i th t h e

i n te r reg iona l a nd t r an s -Saha ran t r ade c onnec t ion s . T he e x i s tence o fe a s t -wes tt r an s -Saha ran t r ade r ou te s h a s a l ready b e en m en t ioned ( Chap te r 5 , s e c t ion 5 . 4b ) , a nd t h e p robab il i ty e x i s t s t h a t t h e re w a s a l so e x ten s ive e a s tern o r ien ted i n te r reg iona l t r ade f r om G ao . C oppe r h as b e en

I nd ian O cean t r ade c en tre s , w he re H odge s ( 1988 :69 ) m ake s

s ugge s ted a s a n i mpo r t f r om t h e e a s t , h o r se s m igh t h ave b een a no the r . T her e i sa l so a r e f e rence b y A l Id r i s i t o t h e e xpor t o f a l um f r om K awa r , a n e a s te rn n e ighbou r o f K awkaw ( Lev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :123 ) ,b u tw he the rt h is

t h e p o in t ; " I n terna t iona l t r ade wa s r i gou rous ly c on t ro l led b y t h e l o ca l g ove rnmen t s , a nd o n ly a f r ac t ion o f t h e w ea l th t r i ck led o u t t ot h e r eg ions i n wh ich e a ch ( empo r ium ) w a s s i tua ted " .

e xpor t w a s t oG ao i sn o t k nown . E xpo r t s f r om G ao t ot h e e a s t c ou ld h ave i n c luded f ood s tuf f s , s l ave s a nd s a l t . U n fo r tuna te ly , a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i s l a ck ing . Mauny

T he g eog raph ica l p o s i t ion o f G ao s hou ld n o t b e u nde r -

( 1961 :436 ) p rov ide s e v idence o f a n e a s t -we s t t r ade r ou te r unn ing G ao -Kouk iya -K ano -K anem -D a r fu r , w he re i t l i nk s i n to t h e D a rb a l -A rba in t oA ss iu t , b u t q u i te r i gh t ly h e a sc r ibe s t h i s al a te r 1 5 th -16 th c en tu ry AD d a te . T he re i sn o

e s t ima ted i n t h e e va lua t ion o f t he i mpo r tance o f i t s r o le i n i n te r reg iona l t r ade . T he l o ca t ion a tt h ej unc t ion o fn omad ic a nd s eden ta ry l i f e s ty le s , a gr icu l tu ra l i s t a nd p a s to ra l i s t e conom ies , r i ver ine , d e ser t a nd s avanna t r ade r ou te s , a l l s e rved t or e info r ce t h e p r imacy o f G ao a nd f a c i l i ta te t r ade a nd e xchange b e twe en t h e d i f f eren t g roups i n t h e r e g ion .

e v idence o fi t se a r l ie re x i s tence .

6 .4 ) T he E conom ic F unc t ion a nd R o le o f Gao i n I n ter R eg iona lT rade :

S a te ll i te c en t re sc ou ld h ave s e rved t op a s sc ommod i t ie su pt o G ao , a s a ppea r s t o b e s ugge s ted b y t h e s e t t lemen t a t B en t iya /Kuk iya , t h e o r ig ina l p ro to -Songha i c ap i ta l w h ich ,

I n t h e d i scus s ion o f t r an s -Saha ran t r ade i n t h e p r ev iou s

f o l low ing t h e s h if t t oG ao , w a s as ou thern t r ade o u tpo s t , b u t w he the r s u ch a r rangemen ts w e re l i nea r o rd end r i t ic , w e d o n o t a tp resen tk now . S im i la r ly i ts hou ld n o t b e a s sumed t h a t

c hap te r , i tw a s s ugge s ted t ha t G ao f u lf iled c e r ta in o f t h e c r i te r ia o f a n empo r ium , g a teway c ommun i ty , o r p o r t o f t r ade . G ao c ou ld a l so h ave f unc t ioned a s ac en t ra l p l ace w i th in t h e n e two rk o f i n te r reg iona l t r ade r ou te s o n t h e N ige rB end .R icha rd H odge s ( 1982 ,1988 ) d i scu sse s i nd e ta i l t h e a pp l icab i l i ty o fe conom ic mode l s , s uch a s c en t ra l p l ace

t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween G ao a nd t h e r e s t o ft h e N ige r B end w a s p u r e ly p a ra s i t ica l a nd o ne -s ided . Ac en t ra l p l ace o f t en b enef i t s i t s h i n te r land b y p rov id ing o t herw i se u nob ta inab le g ood s a nd s e rv ices , a nd p rov id ing a n o u t le t f o r s u rp lu s ( J .Co l l i s ,p er s .c omm . ) .

t h eo ry , i n h i s e xam ina t ion o f e a r ly m ed ieva l e conom ic s . E lemen t so ft h ev a r iou s mode l so u t l ined h e lp i ni n te rp re t ing t h e r o le o fG ao w i th in i t s r eg ion i n t h e p e r iod c a .AD 9 00 -

T he d i scu s s ion

o f i n te r reg iona l

t r ade a l so

r a i se s t h e

1 250 , b u t , a s w i th t r ans -Saha ran t r ade , i ti si mpo ss ib le t o a pp ly o ne e conom ic mode l t o t h e G ao d a ta , d i f f e r en t

q ue s t ion o ft h et ypes o fe xchange w h ich w e re i no pe ra t ion i n t h e N ige r B end a tt h i s t ime . Hodge s ( 1982 :197 ) r a i se s t h e i n te res t ing q ue s t ion a st ow he the rt h es t imu la t ion o fr e g iona l

c omponen ts o f av a r ie ty o f mode l s h ave t ob e c omb ined a s

e xchange o n as em i -comme rc ia l s c a le c an n eces s i ta te t h e

a na i dt oi n te rp re ta t ion .

d eve lopmen t o f u n i t s o f e xchange . I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t

T he a va i lab le s u rvey d a ta h a s s hown t ha t G ao w a s n o t r ep re sen ta t ive o fo the r s e t t lemen t s w i th in t h e r eg ion . Away

e l emen ts o f mone ta ry a nd b ar te r e xchange w e re b o th i n o pe ra t ion . T he c o -ex is tence o f v a r ious c ur r enc ie s a t t h e s ame t ime w i th in t h e We s tern S ahe l h a s a l ready b een 8 6

r ema rked u pon ; me ta l i ngo t s , c l o th , b ead s , s a l t , c ow r ie s , c o in s . T he p a t te rn ing o f s uch i t ems i n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s w i th in t h e N ige r B end R eg ion m igh t h e lp i n a s ses s ing t h e i mpac t f e l t , o u t s ide o ft h e u rban e nv i ronmen t , o ft h ed eve lopmen to fc omme rc ia le xchange . U nfo r tuna te ly , t h e l e ve l s o f d a ta p re sen t ly a va i lab le ( ar e su l t o f t h e p oo r s e cu r i ty s i tua t ion ) , d oe s n o t a l low a d e ta i led e va lua t ion o f s u ch i s sues . S u ff ice t o s ay t ha t c omme r c ia l e ven t s w i th in G ao wou ld h ave h ad a n i mpor tan t i n f luence f a r b eyond t h e c onf ines o ft h ec i ty . Ap o in t c once rn ing e thn ic i ty s hou ld b e m ade o f d i scus s ing i n te r -reg iona l t r ade ( b ea r ing s t a temen t m ade i n Chap te r 1 , s e c t ion 1 . 1 ) . e a s tern a nd n o r thea s te rn o r ien ta t ion o f G ao

i nt h e c on tex t i n m ind t h e T he a ppa ren t d oe s n o t l e nd

s uppo r t t ot h e Mande a s soc ia t ion s f o r t h e c i ty a rgued f o rb y L ange ( 1994 :276 ) , On t h e c on t ra ry , t h e p re sence o f t h e h i ppopo tamu si v o ry a nd t h ef a c tt h a tt h e S o rko a r ek nown t o h ave s pe c ia l i sed i n t h e h un t ing o f t h e h ippopo tamu s , s ugges ts

t h e

i n fe rence

t h a t

G ao

w a s

o ccup ied

b y

a

S o rko /p ro to -Songha i c omponen t , a nd s im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h e l o ca l p o t te ry f r om G ao a nd G ourma -Rha rous , a n a r ea l y ing w i th in t h e z one i nhab i ted b y t h e S ongha i , f u r the r s uppor t s aS o rko /p ro to -Songha ir a the rt h an Mande p r e sence a t Gao . T he r o le o fi n t e r reg iona l t r ade a s ad i spe r sa l a gen tf o ri d ea s a nd r e l ig ion ( I s lam ) mu s t a l so b e c on s ide red . A s a l ready s t a ted , n o th ing c ompa rab le t ot h e e f e c t s o ft h e l a te r Mande t r aders i n s p r ead ing I s lam w e re f e l t b e tween c a .AD 9 0° 1 250 i n t h e r e g ion . Du r ing t h i s p e r iod t h e i mpac t o f I s lam o u t s ide o f t h e u rban a r ea o f G ao a ppea r s t o h ave b een l a rge ly u n impor tan t , e spec ialy a mong s t t h e p ro to -Songha i . T he e xcep t ion t o t h is p a t te rn a ppea r t o b e r ep re sen ted b y e l emen t s o ft h e n omad i c p opu la t ion s ,b u t t h e i r I s lam iza t ion m igh th ave b een ar e su l to fc on ta c tw i th t r an s -Saha ran t r ade p rocesse s ( r o les a s g u ide s e t c ) , r a the r t h an i n te r reg iona l t r ade .

6 , 5 ) Conc lu s ions : I th as b een s hown t ha t i n te r reg iona l t r ade i n av a r ie ty o f c ommod i t ie s w as c ruc ia l t o t h e d eve lopmen t o f G ao , a nd h e lped i tb ecome o ne o f t h e p r ima ry e n t repo t s i n t h e Wes ter n S ahe l . T he e conom ic a nd m a te r ia l c onsequence s o f t h e p re sence o f I s lam i n t h e G ao R eg ion , a nd o f t r ade i n g enera l , h ave b een d i scus sed , b u t t h e i mp l ica t ion s o f t h e n ew r e l ig ion a s r ega rds i t s e f f e c t u pon e x i s t ing p o l i t ica l s t ruc tu r e s h as n o t y e t b een c on s ide red i n a ny d ep th . T h i s i s sue w il n ow b ea dd re ssed .

8 7

I n t h e 1l t h -12 th c en tu r ies AD t h e re w as a b oom i n t r ans S aha ran t r ade , f o r w h ich e v iden ce i s f ound a t b o th G ao

Chap ter 7 : P o l i t ic s a nd R el ig ion ; T he e f ec t o f I s lam i n t he Gao R eg ion .

A nc ien , a nd i n l e s se r q uan t i t ie s a tG ao -Saney . D i rec t a nd i nd i rec t e v idence f o r I s lam i s f ound a t b o th s i te s , a nd i t c anno tb ea rgued t ha t as epa ra t ion o n r e l ig iou s g round s w a s ma in ta ined b e tween t h e t wo c ommun i t ies f r om t h e e a r ly 1 2 th c en tu ry AD o nwa rd s , ( AD 130 b e ing t h e d a te o n o ne

7 . 1 ) G enera lI n troduc t ion : T he e f e c t s o fI s lam u pon t h e e x i s t ing p o l i t ica l s t ruc tu res i n t h e G ao R eg ion , a nd t h e p roce s se s o fI s lam iza t ion i n We s t

o ft h eG o rongobo s t e lae ) ,a nd p o s s ib ly f r om t h e l th c en tu ry AD o nwa rd s ( wh ich i st h e d a te o ft h e b u lk o f t h e i mpo r ted

A f r ica i n g ene ra l , h ave b een s t ud ied b y an umbe r o f s cho la r s ( Tr im ingham 1 959 , 1 962 ; I r oko 1 974 ; L ev tz ion 1 973 , 1 979 , 1 985 ; H unw ick 1 966 , 1 980 , 1 985a ) . T he

p o t te ry a nd g l a s s f r om G ao A nc ien ) . Mus l im f une ra ry i n s cr ip t ion s b ecome mo re c ommon f r om t h e m id -13 th c en tu ry AD o nwa rd s , a nd w i th t h e c on s t ruc t ion o ft h e f i red b r ick b u i ld ing a nd t h e mo sque i n co rpo ra t ing t h e f i r ed -b r ick

s ou rce s u sed i nt h e se a na lyses a r e p r ima r i ly h i s to r ica l , b o th A rab ic s ou r ce s w r i t ten n o r th o f t h e S aha ra ( wh ich h ave a l ready b een e x ten s ive ly u t i l ised a nd d i scu s sed i n t h e p r ev ious c hap te r s ) , a nd i nd igenou s w r i t ten s ou r ce s , a l so i n A rab ic , n o tab ly t h e T ar ikh a l -Sudan a nd t h e T ar ikh e lF e t tach ( E s -Sa 'd i 1 900 ; K a t i 1 913 ) . N oa t temp tw a s m ade t o i n teg ra te a r chaeo log ica l e v idence w i th in t h e se i n te rp r e ta t ive f r amewo rk s , p r ima r i ly d ue t ot h e p auc i ty o fs uch d a ta . T he r e su l t s o f t h e 1 993 f i e ldwo rk a nd a n ew s yn the s i s o f t h e e a r l ie r e v idence a l low a n a t t emp t i n i n tegra t ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd h i s to r ica l e v idence i n ar e -eva lua t ion o f

m ih rab d ur ing t h e l a te 1 2 th -13 th c en tu r ies AD , w e s e e t h e d eve lopmen t o f G ao A nc ien a s t h e I s lam ized Q uar t ie r , e xh ib i t ing t h e c ha ra c te r i s t ics o f as ma l l I s lam i c u rban c en t re . T h is , i t i s p roposed , w a s h ome t o a Musl im c ommun i ty o f b o th l o ca l a nd N or th A f r ican o r ig in , s u r rounded b y t h e m a jor i ty n on - Mu s l im p opu la t ion b o th i n G ade i , a nd a t t h e v a r iou s o the r s i t e s i d en t if ied b y D awa ( 1985 ) .

t h e e f ec t o f I s lam u pon t h e p o l i t ica l a nd s oc ia l s t ruc tu re s

7 . 26 ) H i s tor ica l E v idence : T he h i s to r ica l e v iden ce f o r c onve r s ion t o I s lam a nd I s lam iza t ion i n G ao h a s b een

w h ich e x i s ted i nt h eG ao R eg ion .

s t ud ied i n d e ta i l b y an umber o f s c ho la r s , mos t n o tab ly b y J ohn H unw ick ( 1985a ) , a nd w he r e n eces sa ry b o th t h e

T h is c hap te r w i l l f i r s t ly s umma r i se t h e e x i s t ing i n te rp re ta t ions o fI s lam iza t ion a nd i t s e fe c t s w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion u p t o c a .AD 1 200 , p r io r t o p resen t ing t h e r e e va lua t ion o u t l ined a bove .

s ou r ce s a nd t h e v a r ious e x i s t ing a na lyses s umma r ised a nd e va lua ted i nt h is s e c t ion .

w i l l

b e

T he f i r s t h i s tor ica l s ou r ce w h ich m en t ions t ha t a r u le r o f K awkaw ( Gao ) c onve r ted t o I s lam i s ar e f e rence b y A l Muha l lab i ( c a .AD 9 75 -985 ) . H e r e co rd s t ha t , " t he i r K ing p r e tend s b e fo re t h em t o b e a Mu s l im a nd mo s t o f t h em p r e tend t o b e Mu sl im s t oo " ( L ev t z ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :174 ) , w h ich s ugge s t s t ha t I s lam h ad n o t p ene t ra ted v e ry d eep ly a tt h i s t ime . T h i se a r ly r e f e r ence i si nc on t ra s t t o t h e d a te o f AD 1 009 -10 p rov ided b y E s -Sa sd i i n t h e T a r ikh

7 . 2 ) I s lam iza t ion i nt he Gao R eg ion c a .AD 9 00 -1200 : 7 . 2a ) A rchaeo log ica l E v idence : T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h e p re sence o f I s lam w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion h a sa l ready b een d i scu s sed i nd e ta i li nt h ep r ev iou sc hap te r s . G ao -Saney w ou ld a ppea r t o h ave b e en t h e h ome o f a m e r can t i le a nd manufac tu r ing c ommun i ty , a nd i ti sf e a s ib le

a l -Sudan , a s t h e d a te o f c onve r s ion f o r a Z a r u le r o f K awkaw n amed K os so i , t o I s lam . H oweve r H unw ick ( 1985a :9 ) r i gh t ly a rgues t h a t t h is d a t e i sb ased u pon o ra l t r ad i t ion d a t ing f r om t h e m id -17 th c en tu ry AD a nd c an b e

t h a t t h is s i te w a s t h e S a rnah o fa l - Muha l lab i , a nd w a s h ome t o Mu s l im r oya l ty o r n ob i l i ty i n t h e e a r ly 1 2 th a nd 1 3 th c en tu ry AD . N o d a ted i n scr ip t ion s a r e f ound a f te r t h e l a te

e xp ec ted t ob e i n accura te ( t he r oya l c ap i ta l i sa l so m ean t t o h ave b een t r an sf e r red f r om K u l c iya t oG ao a tt he s ame t ime ,

1 3 th c en tury AD i nt h eG ao -Saney c eme te ry ,w h ich s ugge s t s e i the r t ha t i tw a s n o l onge r u sed a f te r t h i s d a te o r t ha t

AD 1 010 , n o a r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce wa s f ound w h ich

r e l ig iou sf a sh ion h ad c hanged .

c onf i rms t h is ) .

N o d i re c t ( e g . i n scr ip t ion s ) , o r i nd i rec t ( e g . t r ade g ood s ) ,

A l -Ba l c r i w r i t ing c a .AD 1 068 p rov ide s f u r the r i n fo rma t ion ,

e v idence h a s y e t b een u ncove red w h ich w ou ld i nd ica te t ha t

h e r e co rd s t ha t t h e K ing ( a nd o n ly a Mu s l im c ou ld r u le ) ,

Mu s l ims w e re p re sen ti nG ao b efo r et h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD . I t i sp o s s ib le t h a t Musl ims w e re c onf ined t oG ao -Saney d ur ing

r e ce ived as i gne tr i ng , as wo rd a nd ac opy o ft he K o ran f r om

t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD , b u t w e c an n e i the r c onf irm o r d eny t h i s s t a temen t f r om t h e c u r ren t ly a va i lab le a r chaeo log ica l e v idence . H oweve r , i ti s u nl ike ly t h a t aw holy Mu sl im c ommun i ty e i the rf ounded t h et e l l s e t t lemen t ,o rm ade u p a l l t h e p opu la t ion o ft h e t e l l . I tm ay a l so b e t h a t G ao w a s t h e

1 981 :87 ) , i n te rp re ted a s t h e Ummayad r u le r o f A l -Anda lu s b y F l igh t ( Unda ted b :2 ) , w h ich i s f e a s ib le i n v i ew o f t h e

t h e " Commande r o f t h e F a i thfu l " ( Lev t z ion a nd H opk in s

a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r A nda lus ian c onnec t ion s . A l B a l ch a l so r e co rd s t ha t t h e ma jo r i ty o f t h e p eop le w o r sh ipped i do l s " a sd o t h e o ther S udan " , a nd t ha t w hen t h e K ing w a s e a t ing , w omen d anced a nd n one c ou ld g o a bou t

s i te o ft h e l o ca lr oya l c ap i ta l , a nd i ti st e n ta t ive ly s ugge s ted t ha t t h e o r ig ina l s e t t lemen t w a s i n G ade i , b u t w i th t h e g row th i nl a nd -ba sed t r ade ( d i rec ted n or th a nd p e rhap se a s t ) an ew s e t t lemen t , G ao A nc ien , w a s f ounded i n a mo r e c onven ien tl o ca t ion f o rt h i st r ade .

t h e i r b us iness u n t i l h e h ad f i n ished a nd t h e r emnan t s o fh i s m ea l w e re t h rown i n to t h e N i le ( N ige r ) . T h is t e l l s u s t h a t d iv ine k ingsh ip w a si no pe ra t ion a nd t h a t t h e ma jo r i ty o ft h e p opu la t ion w e r e s t i l l n o t Mus l im . T h i s f u s ion o f I s lam a nd

8 8

t r ad i t iona l p rac t ices i s r ep re sen ta t ive o f w ha t L ev tz ion ( 1973 :184 ) t e rms t h e , " symb io t ic r e la t ion sh ip b e tween I s lam a nd t h et r ad i t iona lr e l ig ion r ep resen ted b yG ao " .

m any o f t h em t o I s lam " ( Lev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :98 ,333 ) . A s t a temen t b y L ev tz ion ( 1 973 :186 ) t y p if i e s t h e " conque s t " s choo l o ft hough t , " i t n eeded t h e A lmo rav id s ' c onque s t t o d e s t roy t h e p ol i t ica l a nd m i l i ta ry p owe r o f

T he n ex t ma jo r s ou r ce o f i n fo rma t ion i sA l Id r is i ( c a .AD

G hana ,w h ich h ad s t i f f ened o ppo s i t ion t oI s lam" .

154 ) w ho s t a tes t ha t t he K ing o fK awkaw h ad t h e K hu tba H oweve r , t h is w ou ld a ppea r t ob e at o o l i t e ra l a ccep tance o f

d el ive red i n h i s own n ame ( Lev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :113 ) . T hus c la im ing i ndependen t s t a tus i n t h e c onven t iona l I s lam ic w ay . H unw ick ( 1985a :10 ) m ake s t h e p o in t t h a to the r t han t h is o ne s ou r ce , " t he re i sl i t t le w e c an d educe a bou tt h es t a te o fI s lam i nG ao b e tween t h e m id -12 th a nd m id -15 th c en tu r ie s" ( AD ) .

t h e A rab ic s ou rces , w h ich w e re b ia sed , a nd e xagge ra ted I s lam ic Nor th A f r ican a nd B e rbe ri n f luence . Ar e -eva lua t ion o f b o th t h e A rab ic a nd l o ca l o ra l s ou r ce s b y C on rad a nd F i she r( 1982 , 1 983 ) h a sc onv inc ing ly s hown t h a tG hana w a s n o t c onque red b y t h e A lmo rav id s ( s ee a l so Ma sonen a nd F i she r 1 995 ) . F ur the rmo re , t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence

T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence d oe s n o t a sy e ta l low t h e l e ve l s o fp re c i s ion r equ i red t o a nswe r t h e q ue s t ion s r a ised b y t h e A rab ic h i s to r ica l s ou rce s a s t o t h e p re c i se d a te a t w h ich a

d oe s n o t a pp ea r t o s uppo r t t h e c onque s t h ypo the s i s . T he e v idence f o rt h e d es t ruc t ion , w h ich s uppo sed ly w en th and i n h and w i th t h e c onque s t i sn o t f ound a tK oumb i S a leh . T he

r u le ro fK awkaw f i r s tc onve r ted t oI s lam , a nd t h e i d en t i ty o f t h is r u le r . H oweve r , t he g enera l p rocess e s a r e a ppa ren t , a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i si n b road a g reemen t w i th t h e A rab ic s ou r ce s , i n t ha t t h e p re sence i n G ao o f a Mu sl im c ommun i ty d oe s n o t p reda te t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD , a nd t ha t d i rec t e v iden ce f o r b o th t h e p re sence o f Mu sl ims i n G ao , a nd c on tac t s w i th t he I s lam ic w o r ld i n c rea se s i n t h e 1t h 1 2t h c en tu r ies AD ( s ee C hap te r 5 , s e c t ion 5 . 7a f o r a

o n ly n o t iceab le c hange o fa ny r e levance i st h e a l te ra t ion o f t h e mo sque d imens ion s , b u t r a the r t han b e ing a r e su l t o f A lmo rav id d es truc t ion , a s h a s b een p roposed ( Dev i s s e 1 992 :186 ) , t h i s mo re p robab ly r ef l ec t s a n i n c rea se i n c ong rega t ion n umbe r s , o r t h e r ebu i ld ing o f t h e mo sque t o e r ad ica te l bad ii n f luence ,w h ich w a sr e ga rded a sh e re t ica lb y t h e A lmo rav id s . H rbek a nd E l -Fa s i ( 1992 :40 ) s ugge s t t h a t t h i s s uppo sed c onve r s ion o f t h e p eop le o f Ghana t o I s lam

d i scu ss ion o ft h er el ig iou sc ompo s i t ion o ft h i sc ommun i ty ) .

w a s i n f a c t , " me re ly a n i mpo s i t ion o f o r thodox Ma l ik i te I s lam o n ap rev iou s ly I b ad i te c ommun i ty " .

7 . 2c ) C ompara t ive P roces ses o fI s lam iza t ion , T a leur a nd Ghana :

I tc an b e s e en t h a tc onve r s ion t oI s lam w i th in t h e i nd iv idua l p ol i t ies w h ich e x is ted i nt h e Wes tern S ahe l a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h e c u r ren t m i l len ium w a s n o t au n ifo rm p ro ce s s . T he

I n t h e We s tern

S ahe l ,

a t t h e

b eg inn ing

o f t h e

2 nd

m i l lenn ium AD , I s lam ic c onve r s ion a nd I s lam iza t ion t o ok d i f f e ren t f o rm s . L ev t z ion ( 1973 :183 -4 , 1 985 :160 ) a rgue s t ha t i n c on t ra s t t o t h e p rocesse s s e en a t G ao , w he re a c omp rom i se b e tween t r ad i t iona l r e l ig ion a nd I s lam e x i s ted , I s lam ic a dhe rence i n T akru r w a s mo re z ea lou s . H e re t h e k ing h ad c onve r ted t oI s lam i n AD 1 040 -1 , a nd h ad s p read I s lam b eyond h i s b o rde r s , t o t h e n e ighbou r ing K ingdom o f S i l la f o r e xamp le . I n O ld Ghana , a t h i rd v a r ian t o f I s lam iza t ion a nd I s lam ic c onve r s ion e x i s ted , " t ha t o f Mu sl ims w ho l i ve u nde r t h e a u sp ice s o fp agan r u le r s " ( I b id

d eg ree a nd p a ce a t w h ich I s lam w a s a ccep ted v a r ied , a nd t h is i n t u rn h ad a v a ry ing e f ec t u pon p o l i t ica l a nd s oc ia l s t ruc tu res . W i th in t h e G ao R eg ion a n a t temp t c an b e m ade t oa na ly se t h e r e a sons b eh ind c onve r s ion t oI s lam , w hy t h i s o ccu r red , a nd t h e r e su l t ing c hanges a nd b enef i t s c onve r s ion b rough t .

7 . 3 ) I s lam iza t ion i nt h e G ao R eg ion c a .AD 9 00 -1200 . T he E f f ec to fI s lam u pon E x i s t ing S oc ia l S truc ture s :

1 973 :186 ) . T he A rab ic h i s to r ica l s ou rce s r e co rd t h a t t h e

7 . 3a ) D iv ine K ingsh ip a nd T rad i t iona l R e l ig ion : D u r ing

of i c ia l r e l ig ion i n Ghana w a s a n im i sm , a nd u n l ike t h e r u le r s o f K awkaw o r T a l c rur , t h e K ing o f Ghana h ad n o t e ven n om ina l ly c onve r ted t oI s lam b y t h e m id -1 l t h c en tu ry AD . T he d e ta i led a nd o f t -c i ted d esc r ip t ion b y A l -Bakr i o f t h e c ap i ta l o f Ghana g i ve s u s a n i n s igh t i n to r e l ig iou s

t h e p e r iod u nde r c on s ide ra t ion ( ca .AD 9 00 -1200 ) , i tw ou ld a ppea r t ha t t h e s y s tem o fp ol i t ico re l ig iou s a u thor i ty w h ich e x i s ted i n t h e G ao R eg ion a mong t h e p ro to -Songha i , w a s o ne o f D iv ine K ingsh ip . T h is i sd ef ined b y V ans ina e ta l ( 1964 :87 ) a s , " t he b el ie f , e xp re ssed i nr i tua l a nd m y ths , t h a t c e r ta in p e r son s h ave ad i v ine o r ig in f r om w h ich t h ey d e r ive c on t ro l o f n a tu ra l p henomena b y s upe rna tu ra l m ean s " .

p rac t ice st h e re . S p i r i tg roves a nd s h r ine se x i s ted ,a nd " i do l s " w e r e w o r sh ipped , y e t Musl ims w e re t o le ra t ed a nd e mp loyed i n v a r iou s a dm in is tra t ive c apac i t ie s ( Lev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :79 -80 ) .

N ume rou s o b serva t ion s u pon t h e b ehav iou r o f i nd igenou s r u le r s a r e c on ta ined i nt h e A rab ic s ou rce s , w h ich a ppea r t o i lus t ra te t ha t d iv ine k i ngsh ip e x is ted n o t o n ly a tG ao , b u t

When a nd h ow t he c onve r s ion t o I s lam b y t h e r u le r a nd

a l so e l sewhe r e i n t h e We s tern S ahe l . T hese c ha ra c te r is t ic s i n c luded s pec ia l b u r ia l c us toms , t h e t a k ing o f m ea ls i n p r iva te , s peak ing t h rough a " mou thp ie ce " , t h e manne r s o f

p eop le o f Ghana a c tua l ly t ook p lace h a s b e en t h e s ub je c t o f much d eba te b y h i s to r ians . I t w a s w id e ly h e ld t ha t c onve r s ion wa sf o rc ib le ( s ee T r im ingham 1 962 ; B ov i l l 1 970 ; L ev tz ion 1 973 ; D av id son 1 990 ) . A l -Zuh r i ( c a .AD 137 154 ) r e co rded t ha t t h e p eop le o fG hana t u rned Mu s l im i n AD 1 076 -7 d ue t o t h e a c t ions o f t h e A lmo rav id s , a nd I bn K ha ldun ( d .AD 1 406 ) r e la te s t h a t " t he v e i led p eop le " ( A lmo r av ids ) , " ex tended t h e i r d om ina t ion o ve r t h e S udan ,

g iv ing a ud ience , i n c lud ing p ro s t ra t ion b e fo re t h e mona r ch , a nd t h e v a r ie ty o fi n s ign ia w h ich w e re e mp loyed ( Lev tz ion 1 973 :107 -9 , 1 985 :155 ) . T he k ing a c ted a s af o cu s f o r s o c ie ty , a nd a s a n a rb i te r b e tween t h e s p i r i t a nd m a ter ia l w o r ld s . We a r e l e s s c l ea ro n t h e t r ad i t iona l r e l ig ious b el i ef s a nd p ra c t ices e x tan t i n t h e

a nd p i l laged , i mposed t r ibu te a nd p o l l tax , a nd c onver ted 8 9

7 3b )T he B ene f i t so fC onver s ion :

G ao R eg ion a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e c u r ren t m i l lenn ium , h oweve r , i ti sl i ke ly t h a t t h e se w e re p r ima r i ly r i tua l a nd p o s se s s ed , i nt h e w o rd s o fT r im ingham ( 1959 :6 ) , " ad oub l e a sp e c t , t h e c u l t o fa nce s to r s p i r i t s a nd t h e c u l t o ft h e s p i r i t f o r ce so fn a tu r e " . H unw ick ( 1966 :128 ) m en t ion st h a ts h r ine s w i th c u s tod ian s e x i s ted d u r ing t h e t ime o f S unn i A l i ( AD 1 464 -92 ) , " t he m ag ic ian K ing " . I t i s a l so p o s s ib le t h a t t r ad i t iona l r e l ig iou s b el i ef s a nd p ra c t ice s r e semb led t h o s e r e co rded b y R ouch a mong s t t h e S ongha i o f N ige r ( 1 953 ,

7 . 3b i ) G enu ine B e l ief : T he f i r s t f a c to r w h ich m u s t b e c on s ide r ed i st h a tt h eR u le ro fK awkaw h ad ag enu ine b el ie f i nI s lam i c d oc t r ine s . A l though p i e ty i sd i ff i cu l t t oe va lua te , i tc an b es ugge s ted t h a tt h ea ppea lo fa na f te r l if e , t h e I s lam ic g a rden o f p a rad i se ( Sura 3 : 15 ) , m igh t h ave b e en s t rong . S e cond ly ,L ew i s ( 1 980 :6 1 ) make s t h e p o in t t h a t i nS ongha i r e l ig ion t h e r e i sn o d i s t inc t p r e I s lam i c n ame f o r as up reme d e i ty , n o th ing c ompa rab le t oA l lah . H ence t h e e x i s tence o f o ne s up r eme d e i ty , a s i n I s lam , m igh t a l so h ave b e en a n a t t ra c t ion a s ac en t ra lf i gu r ehead a nd f o cu sf o rb e l i e f .

1 954 , 1 960 ) ; w a te r a nd o the r s p i r i t s w e r e p a c if ied w i th s a c r if ice s ( Cu l t e d es Z in ) , a nce s to r a nd s p i r i t c u l t s a nd p o s se s s ion d ance s o p e ra ted ( Ho ley ) ; ac a s te o f m ag i c ian s , t h e S ohan tye o r S ohanc i e x i s ted , a nd a v a r i e ty o f r i tua l a ppa r a tu s wa su sed ( Rouch 1 954 :60 -64 ) .

7 . 3b i i ) Mag ic , R i tua l a nd P res t ige : Af u r the r f a c to r , a nd p o s s ib ly o ne o f t h e m o s t i mpor tan t f a c to r s i n t h e p r ima ry a c cep tance o f I s lam b y t h e r u le r o f K awkaw , w a s t h e a dd i t ion i t c ou ld m ak e t o t h e p anop ly o f r i tua l , i n s t r eng then ing m ag ica l p owe r , a nd i n c rea s ing p r es t ige . Q ue s t ion s o f p r e s t ige a r e o f t en n eg lec ted , b u t i n c e r ta in a r ea si tw a sa n i mpor tan t f a c to rb eh ind c onve r s ion t oI s lam , a s a mong s t t h e S wah il i o n t h e E a s t A f r i can c oa s t , w he r e b e ing aMu s l im h ad s t a tu s c onno ta t ion s ( D .Ph i ll ip son p e r s . c omm . ) . L ev t z ion ( 1 979b :214 ) m ake s t h e i mpo r tan t p o in t t h a ta mong Mu s l im s w i th l i t t le o rn oI s lam i c e duca t ion , " t he r i tua l r a the r t h an t h e l e ga l a spec t s o fI s lam w e re o fg r ea t e r i mpor tance . "

T he a pp ea rance o f I s lam w i th in t h e We s ter n S ahe l w ou ld h ave o f f e red ac ha l lenge t or u le r s ;t ob a lance t h e d emand so f t h e o l d a ga ins t t h e o ppo r tun i t ie s a nd b enef i t s o f f e r ed b yt h e n ew . T o t h i s e nd af o rm o fd ua l i sm , o r s ync r e t i sm , b e tween t r ad i t iona l b el i e f s a nd p ra c t ice s a nd I s lam d ev e lop ed a s a m ean s o f p r es erv ing t r ad i t iona l a u tho r i ty . P r io r t o t h e f ul d eve lopmen t o f t h i s d ua l i sm , i ta ppea r s t h a t c on t ro l o ve r a c ce s s t o Musl ims w a se xe r c ised w h i l s t t h e p o ten t ia l t h rea t o f f e r ed b y t h i s n ew r e l ig ion w a s c on s ide r ed ( s ee C hap te r 5 , s e c t ion 5 . 7b ) . W i th in t h e s o c ia l a nd p ol i t ica l s phe r e t h e p r e sence o fI s lam m ean t a sT r im ingham ( 1959 :140 ) a r gue s , t h e e x i s tence o fa s y s t em w h ich c omp e t ed w i th d iv ine k ing sh ip , i n t h a t i t c ou ld b e p ro f e s sed b y a nyone f r om k i ng t o s l ave . T he u n ive r sa l i s t ic a nd e ga l i ta r ian n a tu re o f I s lam c ou ld p o se a r e a l t h rea t t o t r ad i t iona l a u tho r i ty b a sed u pon a c en t ra l d i v ine f i gu re .T o q uo te L ew i s ( 1966 :38 ) , ab a lance h ad t ob e a ch ieved b e tween , " t he f o r ce s o f Mu s l im i n nova t ion , t r ad i t iona l c onserva t i sm , a nd t h e f l uc tua t ing a t ta chmen t s o f t h e i r s ub jec t s " , a nd L ev tz ion ( 1985 :162 ) a r gue s t h a t t h e a n swe r t o t h i s p rob lem o r d i lemma , " wa s f o r r u le r s t o m a in ta in a m idd le p o s i t ion b e tween I s lam a nd t h e t r ad i t iona l r e l ig ion , s o t h a t mo s t o ft h em w e r e n e i the r r e a l Mu sl ims n o rc omp le te p agan s " . A tG ao i tw ou ld a ppea rt h a t t h e f i r s t c on ta c t s w i th I s lam w e re h e s i tan t ; e ven a ccep t ing t h e s t a temen t b y A l - Muha l lab i t h a t t h e r u le r o f K awkaw c onve r ted t oI s lam i nt h e l a t e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD ,i ti su n l ik e ly t h a t I s lam s p read b eyond t h e i nne rc our tc i r c le u n t i l a tl e a s t t h em id -ll th c en tu ry AD .

A ne xamp le o ft h e a ppea l o fI s lam i ns t r eng then ing m ag i ca l p owe r , a u tho r i ty a nd p r e s t ige i s p rov ided b y t h e A rab ic s c r ip t w h ich c ou ld b e e mp loy ed i n w r i t ing a mu le t s a nd c ha rm s , i n a dd i t ion t o a dm in i s t ra t ive p u rpo se s ( d i s cu s s ed b e low ) . Mungo P a rk ( 1 807 :57 ) r e co rd s t h a t , " a l l t h e n a t ive s o ft h i sp a r to fA f r ica c on s ide r t h e a r to fw r i t ing a sb o rde r ing o nm ag ic : a nd i ti sn o t i nt h e d oc t r ine so ft h e p rophe t ,b u ti n t h e a r t s o f t h e m ag ic ian , t h a t t h e i r c onf id ence i sp l a ced " . G oody ( 1 971 :46 4 ) g o e s f u r the r w hen h e s t a te s t h a t t h e i n i t ia l a ppea l o f I s lam w a s o f t en m ag ica l o r m ag ico r e l ig iou s , w i th w r i t ing v a lued m o re f o r i t s r o le i n s upe rhuman , r a the r t h an h uman , c ommun ica t ion , a nd t h e K anka r ey p o td i s cove r ed i nG ade i i se v id en ce f o r t h e u s e o f A rab ic i ns u ch ac on tex t( s ee C hap te r3 ,s e c t ion 3 . b iü ) . T he i mpo r tance o fI s lam i n ar i tua l c on tex t i nt h i s p r ima ry p ha se a ppea r st ob es i gna l led b yt h e K o ran a nd s wo rd g i ven t o t h e r u le r o f K awkaw , s ymbol i s ing a n ew v a r i e ty o f r e l ig iou s a nd s e cu la r p owe r . A n i n s ta nce o f w ha t L ew i s ( 1 966 :35 ) t e rms , " t he a dop t ion o f Mu s l im r i tua l a nd r e ga l ia e l emen t s f o r a dded l u s t r e a nd s uppo r t " . T he a dop t ion o f e l emen t so f Mu s l im c e remon ia la nd r i tua lc ou ld h ave s e rved t oe mbel i sh t r ad i t iona l p owe r ,b a sed u pon r e a l o rp e r ce iv ed d i s tance f r om t h e m a s so ft h e p opu la t ion . F or tes a nd E van s P r i t cha rd a r gue t h a t t h e c hange o f r e l ig ion t o I s lam o r C h r i s t ian i ty n eed n o t o bl i te ra te w ha t t h ey t e rm t h e , " my s t ica l v a lue s o f p o l i t ica l o ff i ce " ( 1 967 :21 ) , i fk i ngsh ip e ndu r e s ( wh ich i td i d i nt h e G ao R eg ion ) i tw i l l c on t inue t o

C on s ide r ing t h e p o s s ib le t h rea t p o sed b y I s lam , w hy t h en d i dt h er u le ro fK awkaw c onve r tt oI s lam? T h i s i s ad i ff i cu l t q ue s t ion t oa nswe r a s r el ig iou s c onve r s ion i sn o t a lway s a r a t iona l p ro ce s s , b u t a n a t temp t c an b e m ade t o o f e r s ugge s t ion s . B e ing aMu s l im c ou ld h ave c on f e r red av a r ie ty o f b enef i t s ( i nc lud ing t h o se o f t h e n ex t w o r ld ) , a nd t oa n a s tu t er u le r i tc ou ld r e in fo r ce r a the r t h an d e t ra c t f r om , t h e i r a u tho r i ty i fm anaged c o r re c t ly . T o q uo te D raman i I s s i fou ( 1 992 :54 ) , " up t o ac e r ta in p o in t , I s lam w a sa b le t oe xa l tt h e a nc ien t p owe r s a nd e ven t h e a u tho r i ty o f k i ngsh ip " . T he b enef i t s w h ich c ou ld b e r e a l ised b y c onve r s ion t oI s lam o f t h e r u le r o f K awkaw c an b e s e en i n t h e a r ea s o f g enu ine b el i e f , m ag ic , r i tua l a nd p re s t ige , a nd t r ade a nd a dm in i s t ra t ion .

b et h ef o cu so fs u ch v a lue s . A n umbe r o f t h e t omb s tone s r e cove red f r om G ao -Saney w ou ld a ppea r t ob e r e p r e sen ta t ive o ft h e d e s i r e f o r p r e s t ige , a nd t h e i n co rpo ra t ion a nd u s e o f t h e s ymbo l i c a nd r i tua l

9 0

a spe c t s o f I s lam . F l igh t ( Unda ted :! ) m ake s t h e p o in t t h a t t h ree o f t h e K ings c ommemo ra ted o n s t e lae d a ted t o t h e e a r ly 1 2 th c en tu ry AD w e re r e cen t c onve r t s t oI s lam , s i nce

[ W i ll i s 1 985 :18 ] ) , c onve r s ion t o I s lam b y t h e r u ler m igh t h ave b rough t t r ade b enef i t s . F i r s t ly b y o f f e r ing Mu sl im m e r chan t s , e ven n om ina l ly , ag rea ter s en se o f s e cu r i ty , a nd

t h ey s howed p i e ty b y a dop t ing t h e n ame o f t h e p rophe t ,

h ence e ncou rag ing t r ade a nd t h e i nwa rd f l ow o f l u xu ry

Muhammad , a nd t h e f i r s t t wo c a l iph s , A bu B a la a nd Uma r . T he s t e lae b ea r ing t he n ame s Muhammad a nd A bu B a la w e r e a mong t hose i mpor ted f r om A nda lu s ia . R a the r t h an s o le ly a dop t ing t h e se n ames f o rp iou s r e a sons , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h is i s af u r the r e xamp le o f t h e a dop t ion o f Mu sl im r i tua l a nd r ega l ia ( name s a nd t omb s tone s ) f o r a dded l u s t re

g ood sa nd t h eo u twa rd f l ow o ft a xab le e xpo r t s .

a nd s uppo r t . T he e x terna l t r ad ing p a r tne r s o f t h e n ob i l i ty

A longs ide t h e v i s ib le e conom ic b enef i t s w h ich c onve r s ion t o I s lam m igh t h ave b rough t , t h e re w e re a l so o the r r e la ted b enef i t s . One o fp r ima ry i mpo r tance w a s t h e d eve lopmen to f b e t te r a dm in i s t ra t ive s y s tems t h rough t h e u se o f t h e A rab ic l a nguage a nd Mu s l im o ff i c ia ls . T o q uo te D raman i I s s ifou

a nd r oya l ty i n G ao mus t h ave r e a l i sed t h e a dvan tage s o f n ur tur ing s uch f e e l ings ; t h e s upp ly o f t h e s t e lae f r om A nda lus ia w a s , a s F a r ia s ( 1990 :76 ) s ay s , " A d i sp lay o f t h e p o l i t ica l r e cogn i t ion a nd s uppor t g ran ted b y a n e x ter na l

( 1992 :57 ) , r u le r s t o ok f r om Mus l im s o c ie ty , " wha t w a s c onven ien t a nd e f e c t ive f o r t h e a dm in is t ra t ion o f t h e i r Emp i r e " . I n G hana , M-Bak r i r e co rded t ha t , " t he K ing ' s i n te rp re te r s , t h e of i c ia l i n c ha rge o f h i s t r ea su ry a nd t h e

Mu s l im p owe r , mean tt o ma tch a nd s u rpa ss o the rd i sp lay so f e x terna l Mus l im s uppor t made b ye a r l ie rl o ca lr u le r s " . O ne f u r the rp o s s ib le e xamp le o ft h e u se o fI s lam ic m a ter ia l c u l tu re f o r a dded s uppo r t b y t h e n ew ly I s lam ized n ob i l i ty a nd r oya l ty i nG ao i sp rov ided b yc on s t r uct ion i nf i red -b r ick . F i red -b r ick t e chno logy h as a l r eady b een d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 4 , s e c t ion 4 .3b i i i , w he re i tw a s c onc luded t h a t i t s

m a jo r i ty o f h i s m in i s te r s a r e Musl ims " ( L ev tz ion a nd H opk in s 1 981 :80 ) . U nfo r tuna te ly , s im i la ri n fo rma t ion o nt h e a dm in i s t ra t ive s y s tem s i no pe ra t ion i nt h e G ao R eg ion p r io r t ot h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e S ongha i Emp i re i sl a ck ing ( s ee H unw i ck 1 985b :347 -50 f o r ad escr ip t ion o f a dm in is t ra t ion a nd b u r eauc racy d u r ing t h e S ongha i Emp i re ) . H oweve r , i t c an b e p ropos ed t ha t Mu sl ims may h ave h e ld s im i la r p o s i t ion s a tG ao i n t h e 11t h c en tu ry AD , t ha t A rab ic w a s

u se i n G ao i si nd ica t ive o fc on tac t s w i th N or th A f r ica a nd t h e a ccep tance o f I s lam ic c u s toms . T he e conom ic e x t ravagance o fu s ing t h i s t e chn ique i nt h e f u e l -poo r S ahe l

u sed o n al im i ted s ca le f o ra dm in is t ra t ive p u rpo se s , a nd t h a t af i xed c a lende r b ased o n t h e l una r c y c le w a s i n t roduced , w h ich G oody ( 1971 :460 ) h a s a rgued o f t en a ccompan ied t h e

w a s a l so m en t ioned . T h roughou t t h e Wes te rn a nd C en tra l

i n t roduc t ion o fA rab ic l i t e racy .

S ahe l i t s u se w a s s ho r t l ived a nd i tc an b e p ropo sed t h a t i t w a so n ly u sed a s ab r ie fs ymbo lo f s t a tu s ,p owe r , a nd n ew ly e s tab l ished Mu s l im i d en t i ty . 7 . 3b i i i ) T rade a nd Adm in i st ra t ion : I th a s a l ready b een d i scuss ed h ow s t a tus m ay h ave b e en e nhanced b y t h e i mpo r t ing o fl uxury p res t ige g ood s , a nd h ow a cce s s t ot h es e i t ems w a s c on t ro l led ( Chap te r 5 , s e c t ion 5 . 7b ) . B e ing a Mu s l im i s l i ke ly t o h ave c onf e r red a dvan tage s i n t r ade , t h e reby f a c i l i ta t ing t he f l ow o f s uch i t ems . Wi th in I nd ian O cean t r ade s ys tems , t a x r u le s w e re l e s s s t r ingen t i n a r ea s r ega rded a s b e ing w i th in t h e Dar a l I s lam , w h i ls t d i f f e ren t r u le s a pp l ied t og ood s f r om p o ly the i s t a r ea s ( Dar a l -Ha rb ) , a nd t oC hr is t ian a nd J ew i sh me rchan t s ( Tampoe 1 989 :128 -

T he n e tr e su l to ft h is i n i t ia l e xposu re o fI s lam t ot h e r u le r o f K awkaw a nd h i s i mmed ia te c our t c i rc le i n t h e 1 0 th -1 1t h c en tu r ie s AD w a s t ol e ad t ot h e g radua l a ccep tance o fI s lam a nd t h e a b so rb ing o f I s lam i c r i tua l s a nd c us toms . H oweve r t h i s w a s s t i l l o n al im i ted s ca le , a nd s uperf ic ia l i n n a tu re . I r oko ( 1974 :119 ) make s t h e p o in t t ha t l o ca l r u le r s a t t h is t ime e xh ib i ted , " une c er ta ine i n cer t i tud e r e l igeuse ä l e ur n i veau " , a nd t h e a va i lab le s urvey d a ta ( a s d i scu ssed i n C hap t e r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 . 4 a nd C hap te r 3 ,s e c t ion 3 . 2e ) c er ta in ly s ugge s t s t h a t c onve r s ion t o I s lam w a s o n av e ry l im i ted s ca le , h av ing l i t t le i mpa c t o u t s ide o ft h e u rban e nv i ronmen t a nd a way f r om t h e n omad ic p opu la t ion ( t he e xcep t ion b e ing t h e Mu s l im c ommun i ty a tB en t iya /Ku l c iya w h ich a ppea r s t o h ave b een e s tabl i shed b yt h el a te 1 2 th c en tu ry AD ) .

9 ) . Mus l im t r ade w i th in t h e B i lad a l -Sudan w a s c on t ro l led , a nd B re t t ( 1983 :440 ) d e s c r ibe s h ow af a twa ment ion s t h a t a n o ver see r o r "Wa tchman " w a s a ppo in ted w i th a u tho r i ty o ve r t h e Mus l im c ommun it ies i n t h i s r eg ion . I tc an b e s ugge s ted t ha t t h is "Wa tchman " m igh t h ave h ad a s im i la r

7 . 3 c )T he App ea lo fI s lam : T o b eg in t oa nswe r t h e q ue s t ion o fw hy c onve r s ion t oI s lam w a s s o l im i ted , w e n eed t oc ons ide r i ft h e a ppea l o f I s lam

f unc t ion t o t h e " Rep res en ta t ive o f Me r chan t s " ( Tampoe 1 989 :128 ) , w ho w a s s t a t ioned i n t h e m a jo r I nd ian O cean t r ad ing c en t res o nt he o the rs i de o ft h ec on t inen t . T h is i s n o t t o s ugge s t t ha t G ao w a s p e r ce ived a s b e ing

v a r ied b e tween d i f f e ren ts oc ia l a nd e conom ic g roup s . A ga in t h i s i s ad i ff i cu l t q ue s t ion t oa sse ss , e spe c ia l ly a s t h e a u tho r i sb o th an on - Mus l im a nd n on -A f r ican , b u t s ugges t ions c an

w i th in t h e Dar a l -I s lam a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e c u r ren t

b e

m i l len ium . I tw a sp a ten t ly n o t , a nd L ev t z ion ( 1973 :146 ) h a s made t h e i n te res t ing s ugges t ion t h a tt h e i n i t ia l s e t t lemen tb y N or th A f r ican A rab a nd B e rbe r m e r chan ts i nB e rbe r t own s s uch a sT egdaou s t a nd T admekka w a s ac on sc ious d e c i s ion , a s t h e se w e re c ons ide red a s b e ing w i th in t h e Dar a l I s lam w h i l s t s e t t lemen t s s uch a s Koumb i S a leh a nd G ao w e re n o t .

a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie s o f I s lam i n We s t A f r ica a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f r om t h er eg ion . 7 .3 c i ) T he T own -Dw e l ler : T he c onne c t ion b e tween I s lam a nd t h e u rban e nv i ronmen t h a s a l r eady b een d i scu ss ed ( Chap te r 4 , s e c t ion 4 . 2b i ) . I t wou ld a ppea r t ha t t h e s p read

A p e r ce ived d i f f e rence wh ich h e a r gue s w a s n o t r e laxed

a nd

u n t i l t h e 1 3 th c en tu ry AD . E ven i fG ao w a s n o tr ega rded a s w i th in t h e Dar a l -I s lam i nt h e 1 0 th -1 l t h c en tu r ie s AD ( i ti s l i s ted a s s uch b y A hmed B aba i n t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry AD

e nv i ronmen t . I t a ppea l s t o t h e u rban m ind , b e ing u n ive r sa l is t ic i n o u t look , a nd h a s t h e p owe r t o b r ing t o ge the r t h e d i f f e ren t e t hn ic g roup s w h ich make u p t h e 9 1

m ade

b ased

a ccep tance

u pon

b o th

o f I s lam

e x is t ing

s oc io log ica l

i s f a c i l i ta ted

i n

t h e

a nd

u rban

b een f ound d a t ing f r om t he 1 5 th c en tu ry AD a t T ogue r e D oupw i l , n ea r Mop t i -Seva re ( Bedaux 1 976 :41 ) . T h i s l e d B edaux ( 1979 :34 ) t o c onc lude t h a t , " I s lam ic i n f luence d i d

p opu la t ion o ft h e t own ( T r im ingham 1 959 ) . W i th in t h e G ao R eg ion , i th a s a l ready b een s hown h ow t h e a r chaeo log ica l p a t te rn ing c onf irms t h a tI s lam w a s p r ima r i ly c onf ined t ot h e u rban e nv i ronmen t a nd a ppea r s t o h ave h ad l i t t le i mpa c t

n o t p ene t ra te f a r b eyond t h e w e l l -known c en t re s " . T he p roduc t ion o fa n th ropomo rph ic t e r r aco t ta f i gu r ine s a l so f i r s t a ppea r s i n t h e I n land N ige r d e l ta i n t h e 11t h c en tu ry AD ,

a mongs tt h e ma jo r i ty o ft h ep ro to -Songha i b e tween AD 9 00 1 250 ( s ee C hap te r2 ,s e c t ions 2 . 3b a nd 2 . 3c ) .

a nd e xpand s d rama t ica l ly i n t h e 1 2 th -15 th c en tu r ie s AD ( S .K .M c In to sh p e r s c omm ) . A t J enne jeno , w he re t h ey w e re

7 .3c i i ) T he Nomad : T he s e cond g roup t o w h ich I s lam a pp ea l s a r e n omad s . T r im ingham ( 1959 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t

c ompa ra t ive ly f r equen t u n t i l c a .AD 1 200 -1350 , t h ey w e r e

I s lam a ppea l s t o n omad ic p opu la t ions f o r i t s l a ck o f a h i era rch ica l p r ie s t ly s y s tem , a nd t h e e a se o f w or sh ip I s lam e n joy s , ap o in ta mpl if i ed b yL ew i s ( 1966 :35 ) w ho c onc lude s t ha t t h e n omad c an a dap t a nd s e lec t c omponen t s o f I s lam o nce " t he f i ve p i l la r s " a r e a ccep ted ( s ee C hap te r 1 ,s e c t ion

f ound a s so c ia ted w i th f unera ry u rn s a nd w ha t a r e t e rmed " r a in -mak ing a l ta r s " , a s w e l l a s b e ing u sed a s p ro tec t ive f i gu re s b u r ied i n w a l ls o r n ea r h ou se e n t rance s ( R .J . a nd S .K . Mc In to sh 1 988 :156 ) . O b jec t s s uch a st h e t e rr a -co t ta f i gu r ine s a r e n o t i nd ica t ive o f I s lam ic b e l ief s ( t he l a te r f u s ion o f We s t A f r ican f i gu ra t ive a r t a nd I s lam ic b el i ef s a r e d i scu s sed i nd e ta i l b y B ravmann [ 1 974 ] ) . A l though t he re a r e n o s pe c if i c e a r ly p ronouncemen t s b y t h e p rophe t o n f i gu ra l a r t s , t h e K o ran

1 . 6b ) . L ew i s ( 1980 :24 ) a l so s ugge s t s t h a t t h e u sua l p a t tern o f e a r ly c onve r s ion t o I s lam b y n omad ic p opu la t ion s w a s b ecau se t h ey , " f ound i nl ong -d i s tance t r ade a n a t t ra c t ive a nd p rof i tab le s upp lemen t t o p a s to ra l i sm" . T h i s i n te rp re ta t ion h e lp s e xp la in t h e s e t t lemen t p a t ter n ing s e en i n t h e N ige r

b eg inn ing o f t h e c u r ren t m i l lenn ium , b e ing t h e f i r s t t o b e

s t a te s t h a t A l lah i st h e t r ue f a sh ione r ( Sura l i x , 2 4 ) , a nd a h ad i th c od if i ed t h e o ppo s i t ion t o r ep resen ta t iona l a r t ( E t t inghausen 1 992 :62 ) . S uch r ep resen ta t iona l a r t i sf ound i na r chaeo log ica l c on tex t so n t h e b o rde r s o ft h e G ao R eg ion ; at e r ra -co t ta h ead ( unda ted ) w a s f ound c l o se t o Menaka ( Gaus sen e t a l 1 994 :102 ) , a nd t h e f i gu r ines a nd a n th ropomo rph ica l ly d eco ra ted p o t te ry w h ich h ave b een

e xposed t o I s lam t h rough t h e i r i n te ra c t ion w i th Mu sl im t r ade r sa sg u ides a nd i n te rp re te r s .

r e cove r ed f r om t h e B um a r ea i n N ige r h ave a l ready b een d i scus sed ( Chap te r 6 , s e c t ion 6 .2 1 i ) . Wi th in t h e i mmed ia te

7 .3c i i i ) T he S eden tary Ag r icu l tura l i s t : T he a ppea l o f

G ao r eg ion n o s u ch f i gu r ines o rp o t te ry h ave y e tb e en f ound d a t ing f r om t h e i s t o r 2 nd M i l lenn ia AD , t hough

B end a r ea , w h ich h a s a l ready b een d i s cus sed i n C hap te r 2 , s ec t ion 2 . 3b . C eme te r ie s c on ta in ing Mu s l im b u r ia ls w i th i n scr ib ed t omb s tone s a r e c l u s te r ed a l ong t h e t r ade r ou te s a nd i na r ea s c ur ren t ly i n hab i ted b y n omad s . T he h ypo the s i s c an b ea dvanced t ha tI s lam w a sa dop ted mo re r ap id ly b yt h e n omad ic p opu la t ion s i n t h e N ige r B end a r ea a t t h e

I s lam

t o

t h e

t h i rd

ma jo r

g roup ,

t h e

z oomo rph ic

s eden ta ry

a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s , n eed s e xam in ing , p a r t icu la r ly a s t h i s g roup made u p t h e b u lk o f t h e p opu la t ion l i v ing a l ongs ide t h e N ige r i n t h e G ao R eg ion a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e c u r ren t m i l lenn ium , t e n ta t ive ly n amed t h e " p ro to -Songha i " . I th a s a l ready b een s ugge s ted t h a t I s lam d id n o t s p read w ide ly among s tt h i s g roup d ur ing t h i s p er iod ,p ar t ly a s ar e su l t o fa c ons c iou s d ec i s ion o n t h e p a r t o f t h e r u l ing a u tho r i t ie s i n G ao t o r e s t r ic t a cce s s t o I s lam t o p reserve t r ad i t iona l p a t te rns o f a u thor i ty , a nd , p o s s ib ly mo re i mpo r tan t ly , a s a r e su l to ft h el a ck o fi n te re s t s hown i nc onve r s ion t oI s lam b y t h es eden ta ry a g r icu l tu ra l is ts t h emse lves .

a nd

a n th ropomo rph ic

t e r ra -co t ta s

w e r e

r e cove r ed f r om t h e l a te S tone A ge s i t e s o f K a rka r ich inka t N o r th a nd S ou th i nt h eT i lems i Va l ley ( Sm i th 1 978 :223 ) . T hus i tc an b e s e en t ha t t h e a ppea l o fI s lam , a nd t h e r a te o f I s lam i c c onve r s ion v a r ied amongs t d i f f e r en t s oc ia l a nd e conom ic g roup s : T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence a g ree s w i th t h e a n thropo log ica l a nd s oc io log ica l mode l s w h ich i n voke t h e d i f f e r ing " s ta te o f m ind " f ound i n t h e v a r ious s o c io e conom ic g roup s ; t own -dwe l le r , n omad a nd s ed en ta ry a g r icu l tu ra l i s t ,a s ac ruc ia lf a c to r i nt h er a te o fc onve r s ion t o I s lam . T h i s i s c on tra ry t o N iezen ( 1987 :25 , 2 99 ) w ho d i sag ree s w i th s uch a n a pp roach a s u nde res t ima t ing I s lam . H oweve r , N iezen i s p e rhaps b e ing t o o s imp l is t ic , a s h i s

T r im ingham ( 1959 :25 ) h a s made t h e i mpor tan t p o in t t h a t I s lam d oe s n o t f i t i n e a s i ly w i th a f a rme r s ' l i f e w h ich t u rn s

c r i t ic i sms a r e b a sed u pon v e ry r e cen t p ro ces se s ( t wo d ecade s ) , a nd u se d a ta s pec if icaly c oncerned w i th r e fo rm ing ,p u r i tan ica l I s lam . I tw a s n o t u n t i l t h e n ex tp ha se o f I s lam iza t ion ( ca .AD 1 200 -1600 ) t h a t t h e s ed en ta ry a g r icu l tura l is tb egan t ob e a f f ec ted , a nd a ccep tance o fI s lam

a round t h e t e nd ing o f c rop s , l i ves to ck a nd c h i ld r en , I s lam h a s n o n a tu ra l s ub s t i tu te f o r t h is i n teg ra ted s t ruc tu re . A n im ism a nd t r ad i t iona l r e l ig iou s c u l t s f u rn i sh t h e m ean s b y w h ich t h e p re s s ing p rob lems o f e x i s tence c an b e c omp rehended a nd r e so lved ( Bravmann 1 974 :31) , a nd D raman i I ss ifou ( 1992 :55 ) a rgues t h a t b reak ing t h e

b ecame mo re g ene ra l .

p e r ce ived s a cr ed b ond w i th t h e w a te r , s o i l a nd b u sh w ou ld h ave d es t royed t h e e n t i re b a lance o f l i f e . H ence c onve r s ion t o I s lam b y s eden ta ry a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s i n vo lve s mo re o f a

7 . 4 ) I s lam iza t ion i nt he Gao R eg ion c a .AD 1 200 -1600 :

f undamen ta l w rench a way f r om o lde r b el i ef s t h an t ha t

i n G ao b e twe en t h e m id -12 th a nd m id -15 th C en tu r ie s AD

e xpe r ienced b y t h e o the rg roup s . I tc an b e s ugge s ted t h a t t h e g rea t ma ss o f t h e p opu la t ion , t h e v i l lage d wel ing c u l t iva to r s ,r ema ined e ssen t ia l ly a n im i s t .

h a s a l ready b een men t ioned , t h ere i s as im i la r l a ck o f a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h i s p e r iod , ow ing t o t h e

T he l a ck o f d o cumen ta ry e v idence r e la t ing t o I s lam iza t ion

d i s tu rbed n a tu r e o ft h e r e levan tP er iod 1d epo s i t s i nt h e G ao A nc ien s equence . H ence , i nc on t ra s t t ot h e s epa ra t ion o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd h i s tor ica l e v idence w h ich w a s u nde r taken i ns e c t ions 7 .2a a nd 7 . 2b , t h e t wo c a tego r ie s o f

T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence s ugge s t s t ha t t h e se p a t tern s e x is ted n o t o n ly i n t h e G ao R eg ion b u t a l so i n t h e I n land N ige r D e l ta w he re e v idence f o r n on Is lam ic ur n b u r ia l h a s

e v idence w i l lh e re b ea ma lgama ted . 9 2

I ti sa ppa ren t t h a t , b y t he l a te 1 2 th -ea r ly 1 3 th c en tu ry AD , I s lam h ad s p read w ide ly w i th in t h e u rban c on t ex t , w i th t h e d eve lopmen to fG ao Anc ien a st h eI s lam i zed Q ua r t ie r ,a nd i t i sp o s s ib le t h a t , b y t h is t ime , c on t ro l s o n t h e c i rcu la t ion o f t h e Mu s l im m e r chan t s h ad b een s omewha tr e laxed . B e tween c a .AD 1 300 -1400 AD , t h e p e r iod i nw h ich t h e G ao R eg ion

T he e x ten t t o w h ich I s lam h ad s p read , b y t h e l a te 1 5 th e a r ly 1 6 th c en tu r ie s AD , a way f r om t h e ma in s e t t lemen t s n eed s t ob er e -eva lua ted . T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i sn o t p a r t icu la r ly i n fo rma t ive , a nd H unw ick ( 1966 :134 ) s ugge s t s

w a s u nde r Ma l ian r u le , H unw ick ( 1985a :11 ) s ugge s t s G ao t o ok o n amo re Mus l im c ha rac te r . T he d es c r ip t ion o fG ao b y I bn B a t tu ta a nd h i s r e f e rence t o t h e e x i s tence t h e re o f a " mo sque o f t h e w h i tes " i n t h e m id -14 th c en tu ry AD h a s

a r gued t h a t i tw a s f r om t h i s t ime t ha t I s lam b egan t os p read o u t s ide o f t h e u rban e nv i ronmen t a nd t h e n omad ic p opu la t ion s , a lbe i t o n as ma l l s ca le . T h i s w a s d ue t o t wo f a c to r s ; f i r s t ly , t h e e me rgence o f i nd igenous g roup s o f Mus l im t r ade r sa nd t h e i ra s soc ia ted h o ly m en , a nd s e cond ly ,

a l ready b een q uo ted ( Chap te r 5 , s e c t ion 5 . 7b ) . A l though a Mu s l im c ommun i ty a l so e x i s ted a t B en t iya /Kuk iya , t h e s p read o f I s lam a mong t h e s eden ta ry a g r icu l tu ra l is t p ro to S ongha i w a sp robab ly s t i l l v e ry s l ow , f o r , " I s lam iza t ion o fa s o c ia lo re t hn ic g roup i sn o t as i ng le a c to fc onve r s ion b u ta l o ng p roce s s t owa rd g rea te r c onfo rm i ty a nd o r thodoxy " ( Lev tz ion 1 979 :21) .

t h a tI s lam w a s s t i l lo n ly r ea l ly c onf ined t ot h e m a jo rc en t re s , w he r ei t s i nf luence w a so n ly p a r t ia l . H oweve r , i tc an a l so b e

t h e d eve lopmen t o f ab l end o f I s lam e ncompa s s ing b o th I s lam ic a nd t r ad i t iona l r e l ig ious e l emen t s , w h ich i tc an b e s ugge s ted a ppea led t o t h e s eden ta ry a gr icu l tu ra l i s t s . T hes e t wo f a c to r sw il n ow b ed i scus sed .

7 . 4a ) I nd igenous Merchan t s a s A gen t s o f I s lam . ( The Mande T rader s ) :

F olow ing t h e o ver th row o f Ma l ian r u le , t h e G ao R eg ion w a s r u led b y t h e S unn i o r S onn i d yna s ty ( s e e C hap te r 1 , s e c t ion 1 . 5 ) . T he r e l ig iou s c ha rac te r o ft h i s d yna s ty a nd i t s m o s tn o tab le m embe r , S onn i A h B e r , h a s b een e xam ined b y

B eg inn ing i nt h e 1 5 th c en tu ry AD , t r ad ing f r a te rn i t ie s , s u ch a s t h e Mande ( s ome t ime s r e f e r red t o a s t h e D yu la o r Wanga ra [ Boach ie A n sah 1 985 :65 ] ) , w e re i n s trumen ta l i n

a n umbe r o f s cho la r s , a nd H unw i ck ( 1966 :128 -31 , 1 985a :23 ) h a s d i spu ted t h e p opu la ra ccep tance o fS onn i A l i

s p read ing I s lam b eyond t h e u rban c en t re s o f t h e We s te rn S ahe l . T hey e s tab l i shed l i nk s b e tween t h e t e rm in i o f t h e t r an s -Saha ran t r ade r ou t es i n t h e S ahe l a nd t h e s avannah a nd f o res tz one s . T hey a l so s e t t led a mong t h e p eop le s o ft h e s ou the rn f o re s t a nd s avannah a r ea s i n t h e s ame w ay a s t h e B e rb e r a nd A rab m e r chan t s h ad s e t t led i n c en tre s s u ch a s K oumb i S a leh a nd G ao 5 00 y ea r s e a r l ie r ( Dav id son 1 990 :81 ) . T he Mande t r ade r s d ea l t i n a v a r ie ty o f c ommod i t ie s , b u t a mong t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t w e re g o ld a nd

a sm e re ly a n " an im is t mag ic ian K ing " a nd a p e r secu to r o f Mu s l im s . H eh a s a rgued , c onv inc ing ly , t h a t S onn i A h ( AD 1 464 -92 ) e ndeavou red t o ma in ta in t h e e qu il ib r ium b e tween t h e i n c rea s ing p owe ro fI s lam a nd t h e i nd igenou s s y s tem s o f r e l ig ion a nd s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion u pon w h ich t h e S ongha i r u le r s h ad t r ad it iona l ly r e s ted t h e i r a u tho r i ty . T he u nf la t ter ing l i gh t i n wh ich S onn i A l i w a sp o r t rayed r e su l ted f r om t h ef a c tt h a th i s f o r ce s c ap tu red T imbuk tu i n AD 1 468 , t h e g rea t c en t re o f I s lam ic s cho la r sh ip , f o r w h ich h e w a s c a s t iga ted i nt h e T ar ikh a l -Sudan , ac h ron ic le i mpo r tan t i n

k o la n u t s . S epa ra te m e r chan t q ua r te r s , o r e ven t ownsh ip s , w e re e s tab l i shed a l ongs ide t h ev ilages o rt owns i nhab i ted b y t h e p r inc ipa l p agan r u le r s ( Fage 1 989 :40 ) , a na logou s t ot h e d ua l s e t t lemen t s w h ich t h e N or th A f r ican A rab a nd B e rb e r

t h e f o rmu la t ion o f o p in ions a bou t t h e S onn i d yna s ty . I t t h e refo re a ppea r s r ea sonab le t o c onc lude t h a t S onn i A l i , t h ough n o t a n o r thodox Mus l im , w a s n o t o n ly a " ma i tr e t y ran , c e s c e lera t c e lebre " ( E s -Sad i 1 900 :103 ) , b u t a p rac t ica l p o l i t ic ian who b a lanced t r ad i t iona l r e l ig ion w i th I s lam .

t r ade r s h ad f ounded n ex t t o t own s s uch a s G ao s eve ra l h und r ed y ea r sb efo re . H ence b yt h e 1 5 th c en tu ry AD , t h e s ou thwa rd d i s sem ina t ion o f I s lam w a s i n t h e h and s o f i nd igenou s Mu s l ims , w ho e mp loyed i d en t ica l m e thod s t o t h o se f i r s t u sed b y N or th

F rom c a .AD 1 500 -1600 , t h e l a te r S ongha i ( A sk ia ) D yna s ty i su sua l ly c on t ra s ted w i th t h e S onn i D yna s ty f o r t h e

A f r ican A rab a nd B e rbe r m e r chan t s i n t h e l a t e 9 th c en tu ry AD . Af u r the ra id i nt h e s u cce s s o ft h e Mande i ns p read ing I s lam w a s t h e f a c t t h a t , t oq uo te B ravmann ( 1974 :6 ) , " t he

p u rpo se s o f u nde r s tand ing I s lam iza t ion . Ab r ief o u t l ine o f t h e A sk ia d yna s ty h a s a l ready b e en p rov ided ( Chap te r 1 ,

e xpan s ion o ft h e f a i th w a s c ha ra c ter ised b y t o le rance a nd a h i gh ly p ragma t ic a pp roach t ot h e p rob lems a s soc ia ted w i th

s e c t ion 1 . 5 ) ,a nd Hunw ick ( 1966 , 1 985a , 1 985b ) p rov ide s a n i n te re s t ing i n te rpre ta t ion o f I s lam iza t ion a nd t h e r o le o f I s lam d u r ing t he p e r iod o f t h e A sk ia s . A sk ia Muhammed ( AD 1 493 -1528 ) p resen t s at o ta l c on tra s t t oh i s p r ed ece s so r S onn i A l i . H unw ick a rgue s t ha t A sk ia Muhammed u s ed I s lam a s a n i n s trumen t o f s t a te p o l icy , b y a s sum ing p owe r w i thou tc l a im ing a ny t r ad i t iona l r i gh t t oa u tho r i ty . H e t o ok ,

Wi th in t h e G ao R eg ion , i ti su n l ike ly t h a t t h e Mande h ad much e f ec t u pon p ro ces se s o f I s lam iza t ion , b u t i tc an b e s ugge s ted t h a t h e re , a sw i th e l sewhe re i nt h e We s te rn S ahe l

c u l ture c on ta c ta nd c hange " .

" advan tage o f I s lam a s ap o s i t ive f a c to r i n g ove rnmen t ,

a nd S avanna , r e spons ib il i ty f o r t h e s p read o fI s lam f r om t h e

u s ing t h e Mus l im e s tabl i shmen t t o g i ve h i s r o le p opu la r l e g i t ima cy " ( 1985a :27 ) , a nd s ough t t h e a s s is tance o f t h e ' U lema a s ameans o f s uppo r t ing h i s a u tho r i ty . T h i s w a s a ma jo rb r eak w i th t r ad i t iona l p a t te rns o fd iv ine k ingsh ip , a nd a ppea r s ad ec is ive c hange i n t h e f o r tunes o f I s lam i n t h e

l a te 1 5 th c en tu ry AD w a s l a rge ly i nt h e h and s o fi nd igenou s m e r chan t sa nd h o ly m en .

7 . 4b ) T he Mod if ica t ion o fI s lam :

G ao R eg ion . N iezen ( 1987 :67 ) c la s se s t h e p e r iod i n w h ich A sk ia Muhammed r u led a so ne o fr e newa lo rr e inv igo ra t ion o f t h e I s lam ic f a i th , e v idenced b y A sk ia Muhammed ' s c on tac tw i th t h ej u r i s tA l - Mag i l ia nd h i sg o ing o n t h e Ha j j .

T he s e cond i mpo r tan t f a c to r i n t h e s p read o f I s lam o u t s ide o f t h e ma jo r s e t t lemen ts o f t h e Wes ter n S ahe l w a s t h e d eve lopmen t o f d ua l i s t ic a nd s ync re t ic v a r ian t s o f I s lam 9 3

u n ique t o Wes t A f r ica . T he ma te r ia l c u l tu re c o r re la t e s o f t h i s h ave b een e xam ined i n s ome d e ta i l b y B ravmann ( 1974 :28 -35 ) , w ho a rgue s t ha t We s tA f r ican I s lam , " i s n o t a p u re o rp a ren t t y pe ( o f t h e o r thodox t h eo logy o f Mecca ) b u t a r el ig ious c u l tu re t ha t h a s u nde rgone c on t inuou s mod if ica t ion " . A dap ta t ion h ad t o t ake p lace t o m ake i t a ppea lt ot h es eden ta ry a g r icu l tu ra l i s t . I s lam i su n ive r sa l i s t ic i no u t look a s i ti sc once rned w i th e t e rn i ty r a the r t han t o day s o t h a tt h e i n co rpo ra t ion o f ma sked c u l ts , s h r ines , a nd o t he r e l emen t s o f t r ad i t iona l r e l ig ion , " t he t r u s ted mode s o f b ehav iou r " ( Bravmann 1 974 :35 ) , p rov ided s o lu t ions t o t h e e ve ryday p rob lems e ncoun te red b y a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s , s uch a s

( 1966 :140 -2 ) i sr i gh t t o p o in t o u t t h a t t h is e ven t p robab ly a f f e c ted p eop le ' s p e r cep t ions o f I s lam a s af o re ign r e l ig ion i d en t if ied w i th t h e i nvader s . I t h a s b een a r gued t ha t I s lam iza t ion i n Wes t A f r ica i n t h e p er iod AD 1 600 -1800 ( a bou t w h ich w e k now a lmos t n o th ing a r chaeo log ica l ly ) , w a s c ha ra c te r ised b y w ha t T r im ingham ( 1962 :141) t e rms , " I s lam ic s t agna t ion a nd P agan r e ac t ion " . T he m a jo r s t a te s h ad d i sapp ea r ed , t ob e r ep laced b y n ume rous p e t ty p ol i t ie s , a nd , a s ide f r om t h e a c t iv i t ies o ft h e Mande t r ade r s a sa gen t s o f I s lam iza t ion , t h e p rog re s s o f I s lam w a s l a rge ly h a l ted . T h i s v i ew o f" I s lam ic s t agna t ion " c an b e c ha l lenged , a nd i t i sp robab le t h a t I s lam ic c onve r s ion d i d c on t inue , b u t a s i t w a s al a rge ly i n d igenou s ly i n i t ia ted p roce s s i tw a s n o t r e co rded .

t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h ep ro to -Songha i . Wi th in t h e G ao R eg ion , i tc an b e s ugge s ted t ha t I s lam h ad b egun t o s p read i n to t h e c oun t ry s ide f r om t h e l a te 1 5 th e a r ly 1 6 th c en tu r ie s AD , b u t t h i s w a s o n as ma l l s ca le .

I n g ene ra l , t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry AD w a s at ime o f I s lam ic

R e cen t e t hnog raph ic r e sea rch ( Rouch 1 954 , 1 960 , S tole r a nd O lke s 1 987 , S to l le r 1 992 ) h a s i lus tra ted t h e d ua l i s t ic

r e v iva l i n t h e Wes tern a nd C en t ra l S udan , a nd a l so o f i n c r ea s ing m i l i tancy a nd i n to le rance . A n o b serva t ion m ade

n a ture o f t h e k ind o f I s lam w h ich i st o b e f ound a mong s t s e c t ion s o f S ongha i s o c ie ty t oday , mos t n o tab ly t h e r u ra l

b y B a r th ( 1 965 :201 ) i so f s i gn if i cance i n t h is c on tex t . H e r e co rded t h a t t h e t own o fT umpenga w a s i nhab i ted b y b o th F u lan i ( Mu sl ims ) a nd p agans u n t i l ; " t he a c t iv i t ie s o f t h e

a g r icu l tu ra l is t s s ou th o f Ansongo . I n o u twa rd a ppea rance t h e ma jo r i ty o ft h eS ongha i a r e f uly I s lam ized ,p ray ing f i ve t ime s ad ay , o b serv ing t h e f a s t o fR amadan , a nd p rac t ic ing

J i had i c aus ed t h em t o f i gh t " . T h i s w a s t h e e r a o f J ihad , w hos er ep e r cus s ion sw e re f e l tt h roughou tt h e r eg ion ,i nF u ta

Mu s l im b u r ia l . Y e t a s a n u nde rcu r ren t , a nd n o l e s s i mpor tan t , r un p a ra l le l t r ad i t iona l r e l ig iou s p ra c t ice s ,

T o ro a nd F u ta J a l Ion , Ma s ina a nd H au sa land . T heoc ra t ic s t a te s w e re e s tab l i shed w h ich o wed m uch t ot he a s cendancy o f l a rge ly F u lan i r e l ig ious movemen t s . Amongs t t h e mo s t i mpor tan t o ft h e se w a s t ha t i n sp i red b y U thman d an F od io ,

i nvo lv ing s p ir i tp o s se s s ion d ance sa nd ah os to fo t he rr i tua l s . ( The i mpo r tance o f a n im ism amongs t t h e S ongha i i n t h e G ao r e g ion t oday i sd i spu ted b yN iezen [ 1987 :86 ] w ho s t a te s

w ho p rea ched J i had f r om AD 1 786 , a nd f ounded t h e d ua l

t ha t I s lam i s mo re i mpo r tan t t ha t t r ad i t iona l r e l ig ion , a nd t ha t w he re a n im i sm s u rv ive s i t i s d eep ly p ene t ra ted b y

e mp i re o fS oko to a nd Gwandu . F u r the r t ot he We s t , S ekou H amadou f o unded t h e s t a te c en t red o n Ma s ina ( whe r e t h e c ap i ta l H amda l lah i , s i tua ted 2 1 1 cm s ou thea s t o f Mop t i h as b een p a r t ia l ly e xcava ted [ Huysecom 1 991 , 1 992 ; H uy secom a nd Mayo r 1 991 ] ) . I n t h e s e cond h a lf o f t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry AD e ven l a rge r movemen t s w e re i n i t ia ted b y A l -Ha j j ' Uma r

I s lam . T he se a r e v a l id p o in t s i n t h e c on tex t o f as t udy o f I s lam ic r e form w i th in t h e l a s t f ew d e cades , b u t c anno t b e p ro je c ted b a ck i nt ime , w hen a n im i sm w a sc er ta in ly o fo ve r r i d ing i mpo r tance i nt h ed ua l i s t ic I s lam o ft h ec oun t ry s ide ) . B e s ide s

t h e p ragma t ic

I s lam

w h ich

d eve lop ed

7 . 6 ) I s lam iza t ion i nt he Gao Reg ion c a .AD 1 780 -1890 :

i n t h e

a nd t h e Mand inka S amo r i ( T r im ingham 1 962 :160 -192 ,L a s t 1 974 :1 -29 ) . I s lam ic e xpans ion a tt h is t ime w as a ch ieved , t o

c oun t ry s ide , a more o r thodox I s lam w a s p rac t iced i n t h e

q uo te T r im ingham ( 1962 :155 ) , " by m eans o ft h e a l l iance o f t h e s wo rd a nd t h e b ook " . C onve r s ion s t oI s lam w e re o n a n u np receden ted s ca le d ur ing t h is p e r iod , a nd N iezen

t own s . T imbuk tu b ecame t h e ma jo rc en t re o fI s lam ic s oc ie ty i nt h e Wes te rn S ahe l , a nd b y t h e 1 5 th c en tu ry AD a t t rac ted s cho la r s f r om t h e w ho le r eg ion ; i ti sd i f f icu l t t ob el ieve t h a t

( 1987 :63 ) m ake s t h e p o in t t h a t t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry AD J i had s ,

p ra c t ices s uch a s ma sked d ance s w ou ld h ave b een t o le ra ted i n s uch a n e nv i ronmen t . E ven A s l c ia Muhammed

" i ncrea sed t h e p res t ige o f I s lam ic l e a rn ing a nd p u r i tan mode l o f w o r sh ip a nd r e fo rm " . I n e s sen ce c hang ing t h e c ha rac te ro fI s lam i nt h e N ige rB end .

d emons tra ted h i s p i e ty b y g o ing o n p i lg r image i n AD 1 496 a nd o n h i s r e tu rn i n i t ia ted aJ i had a ga ins t t h e Mo s s i i n AD 1 498 -9 ( Sk inne r 1 980 :173 , H unw ick 1 985b :344 ) , i lu s t ra t ing t ha t t h e p rocesse s o f I s lam iza t ion d u r ing t h i s p e r iod w e re n o t n ece ssa r i ly a lway s p eacefu l . I n s umma ry ; i t

T he e v iden ce f o r I s lam iza t ion i nt h e G ao R eg ion d u r ing t h is p e r iod , b o th a r chaeo log ica l a nd h i s to r ica l , i s a lmo s t

c an b e s ugge s ted t ha t a n umbe r o f " va r ian t s " o f I s lam d eve loped a nd w e re i ne x is tence i nt h e G ao R eg ion a nd t h e w ide r Wes te rn S ahe l a nd S avanna s . I s lam h ad b egun t o

n onex is ten t . B a r th f ound G ao t ob e i n as o r ry s t a te w hen h e v i s i ted i ti n t h e m id -19 th c en tu ry AD . H oweve r i tc an b e a s sumed t h a t t h e p opu la t ion o f G ao w a s Mus l im , a s B a r th d oe sn o tr ema rk t ot h ec on tra ry .

s p read i n to t h e c oun try s ide b y t h e l a te 1 6 th c en tu ry AD , a l though t h e ma jo r i mpac t o f I s lam o u t s ide o f t h e u rban e nv i ronmen tw a s n o tt ob e f e l t u n t i l t h eJ ihad ip e r iod o ft h e l a te 1 8 th -19 th c en tu r ie s AD .

T he a r r iva lo fE u ropean , n ame ly F rench ,r u le i nt h e We s te rn S ahe l a nd S udan a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h i s c en tu ry b rough t f u r the r d i s rup t ion a nd a tt h i s p o in t o u r r ev iew o f t h e e f ec t o fI s lam i nt h eG ao R eg ion e nd s .

7 . 5 )I s lam iza t ion i nt he Gao R eg ion c a .AD 1 600 -1780 : T he Mo roccan i nva s ion o fS ongha i i n t h e l a te 1 6 th c en tu ry AD , a nd t h e s ub sequen t c o l lapse o f t h e S ongha i Emp i re , mu s t h ave w rough t c onfus ion t h roughou t t h e G ao R eg ion a nd d i srup ted t h e

p roces se s

o f I s lam iza t ion .

H unw i ck 9 4

c on s truc t ion t e chn iques . F ur the rmo re , Ma l ik i a nd I b ad i i nf luence s w e re a l so r e cogn ized . T h i rd ly , a nd o f p a r t icu la r

C hap ter 8 :C onc lus ions .

i mpo r tance , t h e e a s te rn o r ien ta t ion o f G ao w a s d i s ce rned . T he l a rge -s ca le a b sence o f f i red -b r ick , a nd t o ta l a b sence o f f une ra ry e p ig raphy , a tt h e w e s te r ly s i te s s ugge s t s t h a t G ao h ad a d i s t inc t c ha rac te r a nd w a s l i nked i n to a d i f f e ren t

8 . 1 ) G enera lI n troduc t ion : T he a r chaeo log ica l r esea r ch wh ich h a s b een c onduc ted i n

t r ad ing o rb i t ,a nd p o s s ib ly s t ruc tu red b y ad i f f e ren te t ho s , t o c on tempo ra ry w e s te rn e n t repö ts s uch a s Koumb i S a leh a nd

t h e G ao R eg ion i n t he l a s t 9 0 y ea r s h a s v a r ied i n b o th q ua l i ty a nd m e thodo log ica l a pp roa ch . H oweve r , r e e xam ina t ion o f t h e r esu l ts f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l s u r vey s a nd e xcava t ion sh a s p rov ided i mpo r tan tn ew i n fo rma t ion o n

T egdaou s t .

b o th t h e s p read a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f I s lam , a nd t h e m a te r ia l

8 3 )T he E vo lu t ion o f Gao a nd E thn ic I den t i ty :

c u l tu re r ema ins wh ich s u rv ive i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd t o d eno te t h e p resence o f I s lam w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion . D ive r s i ty w a sa ppa ren t i nt h e a r chaeo log ica lr ema ins f ound , i n t h e d eg ree t o wh ich I s lam iza t ion w a s f e l t b y d i f f e ren t e t hn ic a nd s o c ia l g roup s , p ro to -Tua reg a nd p ro to -Songha i , t own o r c oun t ry dwele r , a nd i n t h e m any i n f luence s b e ing e xe r ted u pon G ao .

I th a s b e en s hown t h a t t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e c i ty o fG ao w a s n o t ah omogeneous p ro ce ss , i tw a s made u p o fd i f f e ren t c omponen t s w i th d i f f e ren tc ha rac ter is t ics r e cogn izab le i ni t s d i f f e ren t q ua r te r s . I s lam ized G ao A nc ien , f a c ing t h e t r ade r ou te s , w i th i t s monumen ta l a r ch i tec tu re ,l uxury i mpor t sa nd Mu s l im c eme te r ies , a nd G ade i w i th i t s s ugges t ion s o f a d i f f e ren t s t ruc tu r ing e t h ic a nd S o rko o r ig ins . Away f r om

8 . 2 ) Ma ter ia l D ivers i ty :

G ao t h e r e i sK o ima , w i th i t s a n im i s t a s soc ia t ion s , a nd G ao S aney , ac en t re o f t r ade a nd manufa c tur ing . G ao a nd i t s s a te l l i te s e t t lemen t s f o rmed a v i b ran t mu l t i -fa ce ted c ommun i ty . I th a s a l so b e en s ugge s ted , o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e

Cu l ture ,

A rchaeo logy

a nd

I s lam ic

T he a na ly s i s o f t he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence s ugge s ted t h a t

a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , t h a t ,

I s lam w a s l a rge ly c onf ined t o t h e u rban a r ea s a nd t o t h e m a jo rt r ade r ou te sb e tween c a .AD 9 00 -1250 ,b o th w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion a nd t he w ide r Wes te rn S ahe l . I nd i re c t e v idence f o r t h e p r e sence o f I s lam ( t rade g ood s ) f i r s t a ppea r s i n t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD , wh i ls t d i rec t e v iden ce ( d a ted i n sc r ip t ions ) i sn o t f ound u n t i l t he l a te 1 t h c en tu ry AD . D ive r s i ty w a s

d i scu ss ion , G ao w a s o ccup ied b y aS o rko /p ro to -Songha i

d ur ing t he p e r iod u nde r

c omponen t , a nd t h a t e t hn ic l i nks w i th t h e Mande w o r ld c ou ld n o tb es uppo r ted .

8 . 4 ) T he I mpor tance o fT rade :

a ppa ren ti nt h e d eg ree t ow h ich I s lam iza t ion v a r ied b e tween e t hn ic g roup s . Amongs t t h e p ro to -Songha i a way f r om t h e u rban a r ea t h e re i s l i t t le a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h e p re sence o fI s lam , b u r ia l c u s toms a nd a r ch i te c tu re r ema ined l a rge ly u na f f ec ted a nd t r ad i t iona l p a t te rns o f l i f e w e r e ma in ta ined . No r ec tangu la r h ou se p l ans o r f i red -b r ick w e r e f ound ,a nd Mus l im b ur ia l w a sa bsen t . I nc on t ra s t ,t h e e f ec t s

T rans -Saha ran t r ade w a s t h e c ause o f t h e i n i t ia l s p read o f I s lam i n to t h e t r ade c en t re s o ft h e N ige r B end a nd We s te rn S ahe l . L ink s w h ich d eve loped t e n ta t ive ly i n t h e 9 th c en tu ry AD , e xpanded i n t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD , f l ou r ished i n t h e 11t ha nd 1 2 th c en tu r ie s AD , a nd c on t inue t o o pe ra te u n t i l t o day . T he n ew a r chaeo log ica l e v idence h a s i nd ica ted mo re o ft h e c ommod i t ie s w h ich w e re t r aded f r om b o th e nd s o ft h e t r ade r ou te s , a nd t h e s ou r ce a r ea s a nd d es t ina t ions o f t h ese i t ems . T he h i s tor ica l d e scr ip t ions o f t h is t r ade h ave a mp l if i ed o u r u nde r s tand ing a nd i lus t ra ted t h e i mpo r tance o ft h e t r an s -Saha ran t r ade t ot h e e conom ie s o fv a r iou s a r ea s o f Mus l im N or th A f r ica a nd A l -Anda lus . G ao , a nd t h e o t he r

o f I s lam u pon t he n omad ic p opu la t ion s w e re n o t iceab le . B ur ia l , t h ough s ome t ime s i nf luenced b y o lde r mode l s , w a s I s lam ized ,a nd i tc an b e s ugge s ted t h a t , e ven i nr u ra l a r ea s , t h e e fe c t s o fI s lam u pon d e se r t dwele r s , s uch a st h e p ro to T ua reg ,w e r e much s t ronge r . T he l e ga cy l e f t b eh ind b y t h e f i r s t c on ta c t s w i th t h e I s lam ic w o r ld i nt h e Gao R eg ion a nd t h e w ide r Wes te rn S ahe l w a s a s ses sed t h rough t he d e ta i led e xam ina t ion o ft wo c a tego r ie s

m a jo r e n t r epö t s o f t h e Wes t ern s i gn if ican t ly t ot h e Da ra l I s lam .

S ahe l ,

c on tr ibu ted

o f e v idence , a rch i tec tu r a l a nd f une r a ry r ema ins , w h ich c an i nd ica te t h e p resence o fI s lam i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd .

I tw a s a l so s e en t h a t i n te r reg iona l t r ade w a s o fi mpor tance i nt h e i n i t ia l d eve lopmen to fG ao , a nd G ao a ppea r s t oh ave d eve loped a s ar ed is t r ibu t ion c en t re f o r t he w ho le o f t h e

I tw a s c onc luded t ha t av a r ie ty o ff e a tu re s a r e a t t r ibu tab le t o I s lam i c i nf luence a nd Nor th A f r i can c on tac t s i n t h e G ao R eg ion .T he se i nc lude ,a r ch i tec tu re i nf i red -b r ick , t h e u se o f d eco ra t ive p las terwo rk , r e c tangu la r o r s qua re h ousep lan s , t h e mo sque a nd Mus l im i n te rmen t .

N ige r B end r e g ion . T he i n te r reg iona l t r ade l i nk s c ove red h uge d i s tance s , a nd a l be i t i nd i rec t ly , a ppea r t o h ave s t re tched f a r i n to t h e f o re s tz one . D i rec t c on t ro l o ft h e t r ade i n v a luab le c ommod i t ies , s uch a s s a l t , i vo ry a nd g o ld , r e in fo r ced t h ep o s i t ion o fG ao a st h e c en t ra l p l ace w i th in t h e

I tw a sa ppa ren tt ha t amu l t ip l ic i ty o fi n f luence s w e r e e xe r ted

N ige r B end r eg ion a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e c u r ren t m i l lenn ium . T he i mpo r t a nd e xpor t o f av a r ie ty o f f i n i shed g ood s a nd c ommod i t ie s t oa l l d i rec t ions o ft h e c ompa s s w a s u nde r taken , b u t t h i s w a s n o t a ccompan ied b y t h e s p read o f I s lam t ot h e s e t t led a g r icu l tu ra lp opu la t ion .

u pon G ao f r om t h e w ide r I s lam ic w o r ld . A r ch i te c tu ra l e l emen t s w e re d e r ived f r om A nda lu s ia , I f r iq iya a nd t h e Mzab , a nd i t was s hown t ha t aN ige r B end s t y le o fI s lam ic r e l ig iou s a r ch i tec tu re h ad b egun t o d eve lop , f u s ing b o th i mpor ted a nd i nd igenous a r ch i te c tu ra l s t y le s a nd 9 5

8 . 5 )I s lam ic C onver s ion : I ti s i n te re s t ing t o n o te t h a t t h e e v idence f r om t h e G ao R eg ion a g re e s w i th t h e t h ree s tage mode l f o r I s lam ic c onve r s ion p ropo sed b y F i she r ( 1 985 ) a nd e xam ined i n d e ta i l b y T ho ro ld ( 1 987 :18 -19 ) i n h i s d i scu s s ion o f Y ao c onve r s ion t o I s lam i n Ma law i . T he m ode l i n vo lve s t h ree p ha se s o f I s lam i c a c cep tance . T he f i r s t s t age i s o ne o f " Qua ran t ine " w h ich i s s i gna l led b y c l e r i c s o r t r ade r s e n te r ing a na r ea ,w ho i n i t ia t ec onve r s ion t oI s lam i nt h eh o s t p opu la t ion t h ough o n av e ry i n s ign if i can t s ca le . T he s e cond s t age i so ne o f" M ix ing " ,w h e r eby t h ei n d igenou sp opu la t ion b eg in si ni n c rea s ing n umbe r st oc onve r tt oI s lam ,w h i l s ta l so c omb in ing t r ad i t iona l p r e I s lam ic b el i ef s a nd p r a c t ice s w i th t h e p rof e s s ion o f I s lam ( F i she r 1 985 c i ted i n T ho ro ld 1 987 :19 ) . T he t h i rd , a nd f i na l , s t age i s t e rmed o ne o f " Re fo rm " , w h ich o c cu r s u sua l ly a f te r t h e s pa ce o f af ew c en tu r ies , a nd w he r eby i n am ixed m e tapho r , " t he c and le o f I s lam ic r e fo rm s we ep s t h rough t h e r a nk s o f t h e c onve r ted " ( I b id ) . P ha se O ne , " Qua ran t ine " , c an b e s e en t o b r oad ly e qua te w i th e ven t s i n G ao b e tween AD 9 00 -1200 , t h e f i r s t h e s i tan t c on tac t s . P ha se t wo , "M ix ing " , w i th t h e p e r iod b e tween c a .AD 1 200 -1780 , a nd p ha s e t h ree , " Re fo rm " , w i th t h e J i had s w h ich s wep t t h rough t h e w ho le a r ea i n t h e l a te 1 8 th -19 th c en tu r ie s AD .

8 . 6 )F ina lP o in t s : Much a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch r ema ins t o b e d one . T he o r ig ins o f t h e S ongha i , t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween B en t iya /Kuk iya a nd G ao , a nd t h e o r ig ins o f G ao , a l l n e ed f u r the r i nve s t iga t ion , a nd w e s t i l l k now a lmo s t n o th ing o f t h e a r chaeo logy o f G ao , b o th t own a nd r e g ion d ur ing t h e p e r iod o f t h e S ongha i Emp i r e . Much o f t h i s r e sea r ch h a s b een , t o q uo t e H odde r ( 1 986 :170 ) , " mo r e a n a sk ing o f q ue s t ion st h an ap rov i s ion o fa n swe r s " . H oweve r ,i th a sb een s hown t ha t s y s tema t ic a r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch , a l ied w i th a r e -exam ina t ion o ft h eo ra la nd w r i t ten h i s to r ica ls ou r ce s ,h a s p rov ided n ew i n s igh t s i n to t h e d eve lopmen t o f G ao , i t s f u nc t ion a nd e conom ic r e la t ion sh ip s , a nd i n to t h e b road p r oce s se so fI s lam ic c onve r s ion a nd I s lam iza t ion i nt h e G ao R eg ion . S pe c if i ca l ly i nt h i s r e spe c t , i tc an b e s ugge s ted t h a t " I s lam ic a r chaeo logy " s hou ld n o t b e r e ga rded a s as ub d i s c ip l ine o f a r t -h i s to ry , c once rned w i th a r t s ty l e s a nd a r ch i tec tu ra lt e chn ique s . T he e f e c t s o fI s lam u pon p o l i t ica l , e conom ic a nd s o c ia l s t ruc tu r e s w i th in t h e G ao R eg ion a nd t h roughou t t h e We s te rn S ahe l a nd S udan w e r e f a r rea ch ing a nd d eep ly f e l t , a nd i ti sp o s s ib le t oa pp roa ch a nd b eg in t o r e con s t ruc tt h e se p roce s se st h rough a r chaeo logy .

9 6

P la te 2 . 1 . Mo sque o fA sk ia Muhammed i nG ao ,w rong ly i d en t if ied a st h e Mo sque o f Ma r i sa Mu sa b y D e sp lagne s( f rom D e sp lagne s 1 907 :f ig .7 9 ) .

P la te 3 . 1 .B u r ia la tK o ima ( KO 6 ) . 9 7

P la t e 3 . 2 . C ache o fh i ppopo tamu st u sk su ncove r ed i nG ao A nc ien .

P la te 6 . 1 .C oppe ri n go tf r om G ao -Saney ( S /C ) .

9 8

APPEND ICES

P l eas eN o te :

i )A l l p l a te a nd f i gu re r e f e rence n umbe r s a r e l i s ted l e f t t o r i gh t . i )T he u sua l s i t e c od e s u sed a r e : G .A . -G ao A nc ien ,G .S . G ao -Saney , G .S . (S /C ) -G ao -Saney ( Su r f a ce C ole c t ion ) , K .0 . (S /C ) -K o ima ( Su r f a ce C ole c t ion ) . i i ) I n c e r ta in c a se s t h e o r ig ina l s i te r e f e r ence c od e s a r e u s ed . F o r e xamp le , M 1 v 1 9 3 A2 1 .73 . MM -Mansa Mus a ( Gao A n c ien ) ,9 3 -t h e y ea ro fe xcava t ion , A -t r ench A , 2 1 t h e c on tex tn umbe ra nd 7 3 t h e u n ique o b je c t n umb e r . S A i s t h e o r ig ina l s i te r e f e r ence c od e u sed f o r G ao -Saney , o t he rw is et h es y s tem i st h es ame .

9 9

Append ix 1

1 7 . K o igou ro . L a t . 1 6 9 '5 0 " N . L ong . 0 4 '2 0 " W . U nd . S e t t & C em .

L is t o f S i tes i n t he C erc le d e Gao R ecorded b y S eydou D awa ( 1985 ) .

1 8 . T ondo -Bon T iedo . L a t . 1 6 9 'N . L ong . 0 2 '3 "W . U nd . C e rn? &p o s s ib le mo sque .

A ) No tes :

1 9 . A go ra .L a t . 1 6 7 'N . L ong .0 1 'E . (W ) ?Und . C e rn?

1 ) T he s i te n umbe r s l i s ted a r e a s s igned t o t h e s i te s b y D awa

2 0 . H a lo -Hu ra .L a t . 1 6 1 2 'N . L ong . 04 'W . Und . C em .

( 1985 ) . T he se a re a l so r e f e r red t o a f t e r t h e s i te n ame s whe re t h ey a r ed i scu s sed i nC hap te r2 .

2 1 .K ad j i -T iedo . L a t . 1 6 1 3 'N . L ong . 04 '2 "W . R ec . S e t t .

2 ) T he q ue s t ion ma rk p l aced a f te r f ou r map r e f e rence s i n t h e f olow ing s i te l i s t i nd ica te s t h a t t h e se r e f e rence s a pp ea r t o b e w rong .

2 2 . S a r u -T iedo .L a t . 1 6 1 '5 9 " N . L ong . 06 'W . U nd . S e t t . 2 3 . Go rom . L a t . 1 6 1 4 'N . L ong . 07 '2 "W . Und . S e t t .

3 ) T he map s h ave b een p roduced u s ing t h e I n s t i tu t G gograph ique

2 4 .A za .L a t . 1 6 1 3 '5 8 "N .L ong . 08 '3 0 "W . L SA? S e t t .

Na t iona l 1 : 200 0 00 s hee t s , G ao ( NE -30 -V I ) , G ao -E s t ( NE -31-1) , a nd A n songo ( ND -31-X IX ) . A l l map r e f e rence s c i ted c an b e

2 5 . A za -Hondo .L a t . 1 6 1 6 'N . L ong .01 2 'W .L sa? Wo rk shop?

p lo t ted o nt h e se s hee t s . 2 6 . A do rdo r .L a t . 1 6 1 9 'N . L ong . 05 'W . Mo d ? C em . 4 ) T he c ode s u sed a r e : Med = Med ieva l , S e t t =S e t t lemen t , R ec = 2 7 . T in -D ib i r i . L a t . 1 6 1 5 '5 0 "N . L ong . 09 '3 0 " W . L SA? C em & S e t t .

R ecen t ,C em = C eme te ry ,U nd = Unda t ed . 5 ) Aq ue s t ion ma rk i sp l aced a f t e r t h e f unc t ion a nd o r d a te o ft h e s i te w he r e , f olow ing D awa ( 1985) , t h e se t wo a t t r ibu te s a ppea r q ue s t ionab le .

2 8 . Mou lay e -Bango . L a t . 1 6 S e t t .

1 9 ' N . L ong . 0 8 'W . Med . C em &

2 9 .A guad ida . L a t . 1 6 1 8 '5 8 "N . L ong . 06 'W . Med? C em . B ) S i tes : 3 0 . K ogou ro .L a t . 1 6 2 8 'N . L ong . 04 'W . Med? S e t t . 1 . Ch i r f ey -Hondo . L a t 1 6 l 'N . L ong . 08 'E . Med . S e t t . 3 1 .G oungou -Be r i . L a t . 1 6 2 9 'N . L ong . 06 'W . Med? C em . 2 . F ou l lod j i -Ko lo . L a t 1 5 Mo sque .

5 8 ' N .

L ong . 0 8 'E . Med . S e t t & 3 2 .S oya rne .L a t . 1 6 2 4 'N .L ong . 02 'W .L SA? C em & S e t t .

3 .A r igan . L a t . 1 6 3 'N . L ong . 01 2 '3 0 "E .R ecen t ?C em & S e t t .

3 3 .K o i -Gou rou . L a t . 1 6 2 3 'N . L ong . 03 '1 5 "W . Mo d? S e t t .

4 .T ianame .L a t . 1 6 2 'N . L ong . 07 '3 "E .U nd . Wo rk shop /Tomb .

3 4 . A n -Saname . L a t . 1 6 2 5 ' N . L ong . 0 3 '1 5 " W . Mo d? C em & S e t t .

5 .H aus sa -Fou lane .L a t . 1 6 l 'N . L ong . 07 '5 5 "E .R ec .C em . 6 .T a l ind j ie . L a t . 1 6 l 'N . L ong . 0 l '2 "E .L SA ?S e t t .

3 5 . A l camb e -Gound iame . L a t . 1 6 2 5 ' N . L ong . 0 2 '2 "W . U nd . S e t t .

7 .A rou -Nda Wande .L a t . 1 6 4 'N . L ong . o6 '3 "E . Und .S e t t .

3 6 . S o ra . L a t . 1 6 2 2 '5 8 "N . L ong . 03 '1 0 "W . Med . S e t t .

8 . H aama -Fo jo jo . L a t . 1 6 I n scr ip t ion s .

3 7 . G a r ey -Gangano . L a t . 1 6 2 8 'N . L ong . 04 'W . ?Med? S e t t .

8 ' 1 6 " N . L ong . 0 5 'E . U nd . R o ck

3 8 . Mou touney -Gangano . L a t . 1 6 2 2 ' N . L ong . 0 3 1 ' 5 "W . Mo d ? 9 .D aama Hondo .L a t . 1 6 9 'N . L ong .06 'E .U nd . C em?

C em .

1 0 . D aama T ondo .L a t . 1 6 9 'N . L ong . 04 'E .R ec .C em .

3 9 . H u r ey -Bango . L a t . 1 6 2 1 ' 5 5 " N . L ong . 02 '5 "W . Mo d? C em &S e t t .

1 .T acha rane .L a t . 1 6 9 '2 "N . L ong . 05 '1 "E . Und . Wo rk shop . 4 0 . H u r ey -Bango -T iedo .L a t . 1 6 2 3 'N . L ong . 0 l 'W . L SA & Med 1 2 .T ondey Hondo . L a t . 1 6 9 '3 0 "N . L ong . 05 'E . ?Und .S e t t .

S e t t .

1 3 . Hombo r i -Tondo . L a t . 1 6 S e t t .

4 1 . A l iB o ro . L a t . 1 6 2 2 'N . L ong . 0 1 'W . Med? C em & S e tt

1 0 ' N . L ong . 0 5 'E . Med? C em &

4 2 .G ao -Saney C eme te ry . L a t . 1 6 1 8 'N . L ong .02 'E . Med . C em . 1 4 .T acha rane . L a t . 1 6 9 '2 "N . L ong . 05 '1 "E . Med? S e t t . 4 3 . G ao -Saney T e l l . L a t . 1 6 1 6 'N . L ong . 03 'E . Med . S e t t . 1 5 .B i la -Ka l lo . L a t . 1 6 1 5 ' 1 "N . L ong .03 'W . U nd . S e t t &C em . 4 4 . G ao A nc ien Mo sque . L a t . 1 6 Mo sque .

1 6 .H a s sey G anga ra . L a t . 1 6 1 0 ' 1 "N . L ong . 03 'W . U nd . C em .

1 00

1 7 ' N . L ong . 0 2 'W . Med .

4 5 . Mo sque a nd T omb o fA sk ia Muhanuned . L a t . 1 6 1 7 ' N . L ong . 02 '3 0 "W . Med . Mo sque . 4 6 . I n Gangabe r . L a t . 1 6 Wo rk shop .

2 0 ' N . L ong . 0 6 'E . L SA . S e t t &

4 7 .G adaou i . L a t . 1 6 2 1 'N . L ong . 05 'E .L SA . Wo rk shop . 4 8 .L ag re ich -Pa leo . L a t . 1 6 5 2 'N . L ong . 02 7 ' E . MSA . S e t t? 4 9 .L ag re ich -Neo .L a t . 1 6 5 2 'N .L ong . 02 7 'E .L SA . Wo rk shop . 5 0 .K a rka r ichnka t -Sud .L a t . 1 6 5 2 ' 3 0 " N .L ong . 0 1 ' 3 0 " E . L SA . S e t t . 5 1 . K a rka r ichnka t -No rd . L a t . 1 6 5 4 ' N . L ong . 0 1 2 ' 3 0 " E . L SA S e t t . 5 2 .I nB egouan .L a t . 1 6 5 6 'N .L ong . 01 6 3 0 "E .L SA . S e t t . 5 3 . G ao -Hyd ro C a rbu re s . L a t . 1 6 1 5 'N . L ong . 05 '3 0 " W . ?L SA . S e t t . 5 4 .K a re B and ia G our ia . L a t . 1 6 3 6 'N .L ong .05 8 'W . Und .C em . 5 5 .B a l le s sad j ie . L a t . 1 6 3 4 'N .L ong . 01 'W . Und .C em? 5 6 .K ochaka reme .L a t . 1 6 2 5 '5 5" N . L ong . 05 7 'W .U nd . C em . 5 7 .A gu inaou i -Aou i . L a t . 1 6 2 4 'N . L ong . 05 6 'W .U nd .C em? 5 8 . K anga . L a t . 1 6 C ommuna lG rave .

2 2 ' 5 6 " N . L ong . 0 5 7 ' 1 2 " W . U nd . C em -

5 9 . D je . L ai 1 6 2 8 'N . L ong . 05 'W . U nd .C em .

1 0 1

V es se lF orm : N o tk nown .

Append ix 2 Impor ted G lazed P o t tery F rom t he E xcava t ion si n Gao Anc i en .

5 ) G reen , B rown a nd Y e l low G laz ed ( P la te App .2 .1 , 2 nd r ow , 4 a nd 6 ) . 1 ) Lu s tred Wares ( P la te App .2 .1 , i s tr ow 1 4 , 2 nd r ow , 1 ) . F abr ic : ( S ix s he rd s , G .A . ) . F ine y e l low i sh -wh i te f ab r ic . S ome a i rho le s a nd s ma l li n c lu s ion s ( 0 .5nun ) . S im i la r f ab r i c t ot h e y elow a nd b rown g l azed s he rd d e scr ibed a bove .

F abr ic : ( 1 1 s he rd s , G .A . ) . V e ry f i ne f a b r ic w i th n o v i s ib le i n c lu s ion s , s ome t i ny ( 0 .1r run ) a i rho le s c an b e s een . F ab r ic c o lou r v a r ie sf r om o f f -wh i te t op a le b e ige a nd p ink .

D ecora t ion : B r igh t g reen a nd o range b rown , p a t chy , s l igh t ly D ecora t ion :

T e rmed

r educed -p igmen t

l u s t re

c r a ck led g l aze o n t h e e x te r io r . C lea r -g laz e u t i l iz ing t h e y elow i sh -

( Ca ige r -Sm i th

1 985 :84 ) . G reen i sh ( o l ive ) g o ld l u s t re o n w h i te g l aze o n e x te r io r ,

wh i te f ab r ic c o lou r o n t h e i n ter ior , w h ich i sa ga in s im i la r t o t h e

p la in w h i te g l aze o nt h e i n te r io r . T he s p ira ld e s ign a pp ea r s t oh ave b een s c ra t ched i n to t he b roade r ( lcm ) h o r izon ta l b and s o f

b rown a nd y e l low g l azed w a r e .T he r ema in so fa na ppl ied r i dge a r e f ound o nt wo c on jo in ing s he rd s . T h i s r i dge i sr em in i scen t o f af oo t

d eco ra t ion , wh ich a r e p o s s ib ly c omb ined w i th h ea r t shaped d e co ra t ive p a t te rn s . Ap a le r g reen i sf ound o nt h ree s he rd s , b u tt h e

r i ng f ound o n s ha l low b ow l s , b u t i sn o t s uch , a s t h e w ay i ti s a ppl ied w ou ld h ave mean tt h a tt h ev e s se lw a s of b a lance .

s ame d eco ra t ive p a t te rn so fh o r izon ta lb and ing a r ee mp loyed . Manuf ac tur ing T echn ique : Whee l -mad e . Manuf ac tur ing T echn ique : I tw ou ld a ppea r t h a t a l l t h e g l azed p o t te ry s he rd sa r ef r om v e s se l s t h a tw e re whee l -made .

V es se lF orm : B ow l?

V es se l F orms : On ly t wo r im s he rd s wh ich g i ve a n i nd ica t ion o f v e s se l f o rm w e re r e cove red . T he se a r e f r om ab ow l w i th s ha l low

6 ) Ol ive G reen a nd B rown G lazed ( No t i lu s t ra ted ) .

s l op ing s i de s .

2 ) Cuerda S eca ( P la te App .2 .1 , 2 nd r ow , 2a nd 3 ) .

A l though t h e t wo s he rd s ( G .A .) o f t h i s w are t ype d i f f e r i n a n umbe ro fr e spec t s ,w hen a l l t h e i rc ha r ac te r i s t ic s a r e c on s ide red , i t c an b e s e en t h a tt h ey b e long t ot h e s ame g ene r ic w a r e t y pe .

F abr ic : ( Two s he rd s , G .A . ) . V e ry f i ne b r ick -red f ab r ic w i th n o

F abr ic :

i n c lu s ion s .

s he rd i s mo re f i n e ly p o t ted a nd h a s av e ry f i ne b rown f a b r ic

O ne s he rd h a s av e ry f me b r ick r ed f ab r ic . T he o t he r

r educed d u r ing f i r ing t o ad a rk g rey i nt h ec en tr e . D ecorat ion : T he s he rd s f ound h ave wh i te g l aze o n e x ter io r , w i th b rown g l aze d e co ra t ion ( f lo r a l? ) o u t l ined i n b l ack . I n ter io r i s b rown g l azed . T he b lack " co rd s" a r e t h e r ema in s o ft h e w ax a nd c o lou r ing a gen t p u t o n p r io r t o f i r ing t o p reven t t h e d i f f e r en t c o lou r ed g l az e sm ing l ing ( F ro th ingham 1 951 :9 ) .

D ecora t ion : A n o l ive g reen , f i ne ly c ra ck led g l aze i sf ound o n t h e e x te r io r o fb o th t h e s he rd s . Af a in t g o ld s h imme r c an b e s e en i n t h e o l ive g r een g l aze o fo ne e xamp le . T he i n te r io r o ft h i s s he rd i s d eco ra ted w i th ac l ea rg l aze wh ich u t i l ize s t h eb r ick r ed f a b r ic ,b u t r ende r s i t mo re o f al i gh te r , t e r ra co t ta c o lou r . T he i n te r io r o ft h e

Manufac tur ing T echn ique : Whee l -made .

o the rs he rd i sb rown g l azed .B o th s he rd s a r er i bbed o nt h e i n t e r io r ,

V es se lF orms : No tk nown ,p re sumab ly ab ow l .

a nd t h e u ng lazed a r ea s f ound o n b o th s he rd s a ppea r t oh ave b een w he re t h in h and le sw e re o nce a t tached . Manufac tur ing T echn ique : Whee l -mad e .

3 )B rown G lazed ( P la te App .2 .1 ,2 nd r ow , 7a nd 8 ) . V es se lF orm : J ug? F abr ic : ( Th ree s he rd s , G .A . ) . F ine b r ick red f a b r i c r educed t o d a rk g rey i nt h em idd le . 7 ) Misce l laneou sa nd Un ident if i ed ( No ti lu s t ra ted ) : D ecora t ion : T he s he rd s ( two c on jo in ing ) h ave t h ick c r ack led b rown g laze ,s peck led w i th g o ld o nb o th t h ei n te r io ra nd e x t e r io r .

S ix s he rd s ( G .A . ) f a l l i n to t h i s c a tego ry a nd a r e e i the r t o o e roded o rt oo s ma l lt ob ei d en t if iab le .

Manufac tur ing t echn ique : Whee l -mad e . V ess e lF orm : No tk nown .

4 )B rown a nd Y elow G lazed ( No ti lu s t ra ted ) . F abr ic : ( One s he rd , G .A . ) . F ine y e l low i sh -wh i t e f a b r ic . S ome a i rho le s a nd s ma l l i n c lu s ion s ( 0 .5 r run ) . S l igh t ly t h icke r b ody t h an t h eo the rs he rd so fi mpo r ted p o t te ry . D ecora t ion : T he s he rd h a s b rown g laze o n t h e e x te r io r a nd c l ea r g laze u t il i s ing t h e y e l low i sh -wh i t e f ab r ic c o lou r o n t h e i n t e r io r . P rom inen tr i b sc an b es een o nt h ei n te r io r . Manufac tur ing T echn ique : Whee l -made .

1 02

D escr ipt ion : ( 1 10 f r agmen t s , G .A . F ou r , G .S . 1 3 , G .S . ( S IC ) . T he u n iden t if ied s he rd s w e re c l a s sed a s s uch i f t h ey w e re e i the r u nd iagno s t ic ( p la in ) , o r d amaged . C la i rmon t ( 1977 :105 ) m ake s t h er e levan tp o in tt h a t t h e s c a r c i ty o fi n fo rma t ion o np la in g l a s s i n t h e I s lam ic w o r ld i sd ue t o t h e l a ck o f u se o f g la ss t a b lewa re a s

A ppend ix 3 I mpor ted G las sF rom Gao .

1 )L us tred G las s( P la te App .3 .1 ,2 nd r ow , 6 ,3 rd r ow , 1 ) .

c ompa red t ot h e p r eced ing R oman p e r iod . T he l a ck o fi n fo rma t ion i si ndeed n o t iceab le a nd i th a s n o t p roved p o s s ib le t o i d en t i fy t h e

D escr ipt ion : ( S ix f r agmen t s , G .A . ) . T h in ( 0 .7 mm ) , c l ea r b ubb led g l a s s , o ve rpa in ted w i th a y elow l u s trous s l ip , p o s s ib ly i n f l o ra l

ma jo r i ty o f t h e p l a in s he rd s . Two u n iden t if iab le s he rd s w e re r e cove red f r om P e r iod 1 l e ve l s , 1 04 f r om P er iod 3 , t wo f r om

p a t te rn s .

P e r iod 4 a nd t wo f r om P e r iod 5 . A l l t h e s he rd s f r om G ao -San ey w e re u n iden t if i ab le .

2 ) Marvered G las s( P la te App .3 .1 ,2 nd r ow , 1a nd 2 ) . D e scr ip t ion : ( S ix f r agmen t s , G .A . ) . Two t yp e s f ound . F ive f r agmen t s o f a2m rn t h ick d a rk b lue g l a s s d e co ra ted w i th s w i r l s o f w h i te g la ss , a nd as i ng le f r agmen t o f l run t h ick b lue g reen g l a s s d e co ra ted w i th v e ry f i ne wh i te t r a i l s .

3 )P ink /Purp le G las s( P la t e A pp .3 .1 , 2 nd r ow ,5 ) . D escr ip t ion : ( Fou r f r agmen t s , G .A . ) . l nun t h i ck p ink i sh p u rp le g l a s s w i th o cca s iona l s ma l lb ubb le s .

4 )T h ickened G las s( P la te App .3 .1 ,2 nd r ow ,4 ) . D escr ipt ion : ( E igh t f r agmen t s , G .A . ) . 5mm t h ick , c l ea r , g ood q ua l i ty ,g la s s .

5 )S cra tched G las s( P la te App .3 .1 , i s tr ow , 1a nd 2 ) . D escr ipt ion : ( Th ree f r agmen t s , G .A . ) . 2 . 5mm t h ick c l ea r b ubb led g l a s s , d eco ra t ed w i th s c ra tched o n p a t ter n s made u p o f l i ne s a nd d o t s .

6 )C u tG la s s( P la te App .3 .1 , i s tr ow ,3 ) . D escr ipt ion : ( On e f r agmen t , G .A . ) . 1 . 5 -3 nun t h ick , c l ea r g la ss . D e co ra ted w i th f a ce t s c u t i n to t h e b ody o f t h e v e sse l , wh ich a pp ea r st oh ave b een as ma l lh exagona l ly f a ce ted b o t t le .

7 )T ra i led G las s( P la te App .3 .1 , i s tr ow ,4 , 5 ,6 ) . D escr ipt ion : ( Seven f r agmen ts , G .A . ) . 2 -2 . 5mm t h ick , c l ea r , s l igh t ly b ubb led g l a ss d eco ra ted w i th a dded t r a i l s o fe i the rc l ea ro r b l ue g la s s . O ne s he rd i sd eco ra ted w i th a f i sh mo t if ( s ee L amm 1 928 :67 ,f i gN r 177 f o rs im i la ru se o f af i sh mo t i f ) .

8 )E name l led G lass ( P la te App .3 .1 ,2 nd r ow , 3 ) . D escr ip t ion : ( One f r agmen t , G .A . ) . l nu r tt h i ck m id -b lue g la s s , t h e s u r f ace i sd e co ra ted w i th l i gh tb lue ,r ed a nd wh i te e name l .

9 ) Misce l laneous ( P la te App .3 .1 ,4 th r ow , 1 , 2 ,6 ) . D escr ipt ion : ( Four f r agmen t s , G .A . ) . T he se f r agmen t s i n c lude a h and le i nc l ea ry e l low i sh g la ss , ab a se? , f o rmed o u to fr oled d a rk b l ue g la s s f r om P e r iod 3c on tex t s , a nd as i ng le b lue g l a s s p endan t ( j ewe l? )f r om aP er iod 4c on tex t( N M 9 3 A2 6 ) .

1 0 ) Un iden t if ied ( No ti lu s t ra ted ) .

1 0 3

C ) O ther s :

Append ix 4

1 6 ) E ar thenwar e ( EW ) . ( P la te App .4 .1 , 4 th r ow , 6 -8 ) . P a le o ch r e

T he B eads F rom Gao .

e a r thenwa r e . Sma l l s i x , f i ve a nd t h ree s egmen ted b ead s , l a rge r t h ree s egmen t b ead s a nd s i ng le r i ngs r e su l t ing f r om t he s male r A ) G las sB ead s :

s egmen ted b ead s b e ing c u tu p . One d a rke rb rown b a r re l . G .A . =5 ( two s ma l l s i ng le s , t h ree l a rge s egmen ted ) , G .S . = 8( one b a r re l , s even s ma l ls e gmen ted ) ,G .S . (S /C ) = 1( one l a rge s egmen ted ) .

1 ) Y e l low G las s ( YG ) . ( P la te App .4 .1 , 3 rd r ow , 5 -8 ) . O paque y elow g la s s . C y l inde r , r i ng a nd b a r re l s hape s f ound . G .A . =4 1 ,

1 7 ) M isc e l laneous (M isc ) ( No t i lus t ra ted ) . One r ed p la s t ic b a r re l

G .S . (S /C ) =1 2 .

b ead a nd o n e w h i te a nd s i lve r p la s t ic s phe r ica l b ead . T h ree s he l l o r f o s s i l b ead s ( Lau r ie , p e r s . c omm . ) , o ne a b raded r i ng , o ne

2 ) D ark B lue G las s ( DBG ) . ( P la te A pp .4 .1 , 3 rd r ow , 1) . D a rk b lue o paque a nd s em i o paque ( t ran s lucen t ) g l a s s . P r edom inan t ly c y l inde r a nd s hor t b a r re l s , o ne l a rge t r an spa ren t s phe ro id a l so

a b raded e l l ip so id? , o ne c y l inde r . T h ree S tone? b ead s , t wo l o ng b a r re l s a nd o ne e ll ip so id . O ne d rawn b lue a nd w h i te g la s s s ho r t b a r re l( See P l a te 7 ) . A l lG .A .

f ound .G .A . =1 7 . 3 ) B lue G las s ( BG ) . ( P la te A pp .4 .1 , 3 rd r ow , 9a nd 1 0 , 4 th r ow , 3 ) . B lue o paque a nd s em i -opaque g la ss . S ho r t a nd med ium b a r re l s a nd c y l inde r s .G .A . =5 0 ,G .S . =1 ,G .S . (S /C ) =6 7 . 4 ) Gr een G la ss ( GG ) . ( P la te A pp .4 .1 , 3 rd r ow , 2 -4 ) . O paque a nd s em i -opaque g r een g la ss . S ho r t , med ium a nd l o ng c y l inde r s a nd b a r re l s . G .A . =7 5 ,G .S . (S /C ) =2 . 5 ) P urp le G la s s ( PG ) . ( P la te A pp .4 .1 ,4 th r ow , 4a nd 5 ) . O paque t o s em i -opaque p u rp le g l a s s . S ho r t a nd med ium b a r re l s a nd c y l inde r s . G .A . =8 . 6 )R ed G la s s ( RG ) . ( P la te App .4 .1 ,4 th r ow , 1a nd 2 ) . Opaque r ed g l a s s . S ho r tb a r r e l s a nd c y l inde r s . G .A . =6 . 7 ) G rey ish - Wh i te G las s ( G WG ) . ( P la te A pp .4 .1 , 2 nd r ow , 1 3 ) . O f f -wh i te t og r ey i sh -wh i te o paque a nd s em i -opaque g la s s . D i sc s , r i ng s ,s ho r ta nd med ium c y l inde r s a nd b a r re l s . G .A . =2 7 . 8 )B lack G las s( BLG ) ( No ti lu s t ra ted ) . Opaque b l ack g la s s . S ho r t c y l inde r s a nd b a r re l s .G .A . =1 0 . 9 ) Mu l t i -Co loured C ane G las s (MCG ) ( No t i lu s t ra ted ) . L igh t b lue , g reen ,y e l low , p u rp le -b rown , b lack , w h i t e , o f f -wh i te a nd r ed g l a s s . E l l ip so id s hape . G .A . =1 . 1 0 )B lack a nd Wh i te Wound G la s s ( BWW ) . ( P la te A pp .4 .1 ,2 nd r ow ,4 ) .B la ck a nd wh i te o paque g la ss . One f r agmen ta l so c on ta in s s t reak s o fr ed g l a s s . S ho r tB a r r e l .G .A . =4 . 1 1 ) Modern F a ience / Wound G las s ( N IF W ) ( No t i lus t ra ted ) . One b lue a nd g r ey c y l ind r ica lf a ience ,o ne y e l low a nd d a rk g r eeny b lue m i sfo rmed med ium b a r re lw ound .G .A . =2 . 1 2 ) G las s P owder ( GP ) ( No t i lus t ra ted ) . V e ry p a le b lue o paque g la s s . Med ium b a r re ld iv ided i n to f ou rs egmen t s .G .S . =2 .

B ) S tone B ea d s : 1 3 ) Un iden t if ied S tone ( S ) . ( P la te A pp .4 .1 , 2 nd r ow , 5 ) . O ne l a rge g rey a nd b l ack e ll ip so id ( G .A . ) . On e l a rge wh i te f l a t t ened c one ( G .S . ) . 1 4 ) R ed C arnel ian ( RC ) . ( P la te App .4 .1 , i s tr ow ,4 ,2 nd r ow , 1 ) . One p ink i sh -o range mu l t i -f ace ted ,o ne r ed l o ng b i cone .G .A . =2 . 1 5 ) Wh i te C arne l ian (WC ) . ( P la te A pp .4 .1 , i s t r ow , 1 3 , 5 ) . Wh i te

b i cone s

a nd

s phe ro id .

G .A

=

6 .

1 04

8 8 8 8 E c " W CL

0

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0

0 t ,

0

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0

0 • — •

B EAD T YPES

W C L

o N

0 u p

o

• e -

c n

T ab le A pp . 4 . 4

E f

W CL

GAO ANC IEN AND GAO S ANEY : TOTAL B EAD P ERCENTAGES

c T

B EAD T YPES

W CL

T ab le A pp . 4 . 2

E

. -

S 3OVIN : 33U3d

S 3DVIN33 1 : 1 2 1d

8 8 8 8 E r C L

C L

c e B EAD T YPES

Me g /M e D Z IN 1 D 1S 9 = 1 9 : 1 E D 0 3 930 0 O D

0 N

0 C O

0 i n

0

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S 1 : 13( 1 1 AW IN O tr 3 1 3

S I : 13 1 3 1N r IN O ng

1 0 5

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T ab le A pp . 4 . 3

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GAO ANC IEN B EAD T YPES : B EAD NUMBERS

C L

Append ix 5 Ana lys is o f aL ead B lock ( Ingo t ) , f rom Gao Anden . C ommen t s b y S teven L au r ie , S edgw ick Mu seum o f G eo logy , C amb r idge ,2 6 /8 /94 .

T h i s S pec imen (We igh t =2 56 .2g ) i sc e r ta in ly P b b u t i ta ppea r s t o c on ta in s mal a moun t s o fa no the re l emen t . No b el i evab le m a tch t o t h et wo s ma l lp eak s ( F igu re App .5 .1) r i gh to ft h e ma in P b l i ne w a s f ound . CPo , p o lon ium , wa s ag ood ma tch f o r o ne a t 2 . 640kev , w h i le T h ,t ho r ium ,w a s ama tch f o rt h eo ne a t3 .060kev . I na na ly s i s 2( F igu re App .5 .2 ) t h e t wo s ma l lp eak st ot h e l ef to ft h e ma in P b l i ne a r e m ino r P b p eak s , t h e l a rge p eak o n t h e e x t r eme l e f t i s ap roduc t o f t h e e qu ipmen t a nd d oe s n o t r ef l ec t t h e c ompo s i t ion o ft h es p ec imen . As ma l la moun to ft h ec ru s tw a s a na ly sed b u t s howed o n ly P b . I fC w e re p re sen t i tw ou ld n o t b e s een t h rough t h e c a rbon c oa t o n t h e s pec imen , Sw ou ld b e h idden b y t h e P b p eak s . C a rbona t e a nd s u lpha te a r et h e mo s tl i ke ly r eac t ion p roduct s i n t he c rus t _

(

1

t 3,

_ . > a

4 4 = , 7 . 1: •

5 . ; z

7 . 4 "

. 7 2% . r . " 1,• ad . P b

7 .3 =

1 • •

h

-

2 .77c !

1 7 . 7

F ig . App . 5 .1

F ig . App . 5 .2

1 06

r ! ng :

A ppend ix 6

l a rge a moun t s o f l e ad ( Pb ) . T he re i s a l so s i gn i f ican t a n t imony ( Sb ) , a nd t h e r e may b e c h lo r ine ( C l ) . T he s ma l l p eak l a beled

Ana ly s is o fE igh tC opper -Aloy A r t if ac ts F rom Gao .

s i l icon ( S i )i sp robab ly am ino rp eak o fl e ad ( F igu re A pp .6 .1) .

C ommen t s b y S t even L au r ie , S edgw ick Mu seum o f G eo logy ,

S amp le G .S . ( S /C ) 2 :T he d om inan te l emen ti sC u w i th s ome P b ,

C amb r idge ,2 2 /3 /95 .

S ba nd C l( F igu re App .6 .2 ) .

1 )I n troduc t ion :

S amp le G .S . ( S /C ) 3 : T he d om inan t e l emen t i s C u w i th l a rge a moun t so fz i nc ( Zn ) . Z ni st h eb e s ta n swe rb u t t h e re i sr e serva t ion

T he s amp le s w er e a na ly sed u s ing a L ink S y s tem s L Z -5 e ne rgy

c au sed b y t h e l a ck o ft h e e xpec ted p eak s a t 1 . 009 a nd 1 . 032 k eV ,

d i spe r s ive d e te c to r w i th a n AN 10000 a na ly se r o n aJ eo l e l ec t ron

t owa rd s t h e l ef te nd o ft h e p r in tou t ( F igu r e A pp .6 .3 ) . T he se w ou ld

m ic ro scope . B ecau se t he s amp le s w e re me ta l l ic , w i th c o r ro s ion

p ar t ia l ly o ve r lap w i th t h e l e f t -hand C u a nd w ou ld b e e xpec ted t o

c r u s t s , t h ey w e re n o t c oa ted b u t e a r thed t o t h e s t ub w i th c a rbon d ag .T he b ery ll ium w indow w a s l ef tc l o sed ,h ence e l emen t s l i gh te r

make i tb road e r . T he re i s as mal a moun t o f s u lphu r ( S ) , t h ough t h i sm ay b e mo lybden ium ( Mo ) ( F igu re App .6 .3 ) .

t h an f l ou r ine w ou ld n o t h ave b een d e tec ted . T he ma in e l emen t s e f e c ted w e re c a rbon a nd o xygen .

S amp l e G .S . ( S /C ) 4 : T he d om inan te l emen ti sC u , t h e o n ly o t he r o ne d e t ec ted i sS b( F igu re App .6 .4 ) .

O ne p rob lem w i th t h i s me thod o fa na ly s i si st h a ta nX ray p eak c an s ome t ime s b e g ene ra ted b y mo re t han o ne e l emen t a nd s o i ns ome c a se s aj udgemen th a st ob e made a st o wha ti st h e mo s tl i ke ly o ne . T h i s c an b e p a r t icu la r ly d i ff i cu l t i n a r t if ic ia l m ix tu re s s uch a s t h e se .

B ) G ao A nc ien ( Excava ted ) :

B ecau se t h e s amp le s w e re n o t p e r f ec t ly f l a t a nd p o l i shed t h e

S amp le G .A . (M M 9 3 A2 5 ) B race le t : T he ma in e l emen t i sC u w i th s i gn if ican t a moun t s o f P b a nd Z n . T he re i sp robab ly s ome p ho spho rou s ( P ) , a nd a s ma l l a moun t o f S b ( F igu re s A pp .6 .5 -

r e su l t s a r e n o tt r u ly q uan t i ta t ive b u t t h e r e la t ive s i ze s o ft h e p eak s

6 . 7 ) .

g i ve a n a pp rox ima t ion t o t h e p ropo r t ion s o f t h e e l emen t s ( The p e rcen tage s o f z i nc i n a l t h e b ra ss a l loy s h ave s i nce b een r e c hecked w i th Mr L aur ie a nd a l l f a l l b e low 2 5% ) . F rom t h e S .E .M .

S amp le G .A . (M M 9 3 A 2 2 ) L arge " C igar" B ar : T he ma in e l emen t w a s C u w i th Z n a l so p re sen t . P b s howed i n b o th s p ec t ra

i mage i tw a s o bv ious t ha t s ome s amp le s w e r e n o t h omogeneou s ,

t h ough i n v a ry ing a moun t s . One p r in tou t a l so s hows S b w i th a

a nd t h is , t o ge the r w i th t h e v a ry ing amoun t s o fa l te ra t ion e xp la in s

s ugge s t ion o fs i lve r( Ag ) ( F igu r e s A pp .6 .8 a nd 6 . 9 ) .

s ome o f t he v a r iab i l i ty b e twe en a na ly se s o f t h e s ame s pe c imen ( F igu r es App .6 .1 -6 . 13 ) .

S amp le G .A . (M M 9 3 A 2 2 ) S quare S ec t ion B ar : T he m a in e l emen ti sC uw i th s i gn if ican ta moun t s o fZ n ,P b ,C i a nd i r on ( Fe ) .

2 ) Ana lys is R esu l ts :

O ne o f t h e p r in ted s pec t ra w a s n o t v e ry g ood , a n I mpr in ted o ne c onf i rmed t h eF e ( F igu r e s A pp .6 .10 a nd 6 . 11) .

A ) Gao -Saney ( Surface C o l lec ted ) S amp le G .S . ( S /C ) 1 : T he d om inan te l emen t i sc oppe r ( Cu ) , w i th

S amp le G .A . (M M 9 3 A2 2 ) C ros sed S tr ips : T he ma in e l emen t i sC ut h ough t h e re i sa l so Z na nd wha ta ppea r s t ob eC l , t h ough t h e C lp eak i sn o tp r e sen ti na l l a na ly se s ( F igu re s A pp .6 .12 a nd 6 . 13 ) .

G .S . S /C 2

G .S . S /C 1 t.

L ive: R eal:

— C I

0 — 1 0 kA l ) = J O ,. Prezet: ' . 05 R emaining: 9 4z 4 7% D ead

0 — 1 0 ke l ) P rezet: 5 0z R emaining: 9 41 4 7% D ead

= 7 . C i 9 1 : 1

7 .

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h

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F ig . App . 6 . 2 1 0 7

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G .S . S /C 4

0 - 1C Ik . 9 0 z P rPset: 5 0s R ema in inQ: 9 1s 4 5% D ead

0e .

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0 - 1 0 I < PU 9 0s P rg zet: s Pr nai ni 9 4s 4 7% D ead

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F ig . A pp . 6 . 3

MM . 9 3 A2 5 ( b race le t ) X -RAY: L ive : R eal:

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A ppend ix 7

o r g r i t t emp e r ed . T he l a rge r , mo re t h ick ly p o t ted s he rd s h ave a c oa r se rf a b r ic ,c on ta in ag r ea t e rq uan t i ty o fo rgan ic i n c lu s ion s , a nd

AD escr ip t ion o ft he L oca l ly Manufac tured p o t tery a s semb lage r ecover ed f rom t he e xcava t ions i n G ao Anden a nd Gao -Saney a nd c o l lec ted f r om t he s urf ace a t Ko ima a nd Gorongobo .

w e re p o s s ib ly b o th c haf f a nd g r i t t empe red . I ti s p o s s ib le t h a t g round u pp o ts he rd s w e re a l so r e -u sed a s t empe r . F ab r ic c o lou ri s e x t reme ly v a r iab le a nd r ange s f r om b l ack r educed c o re w i th r edd i sh b rown o r p a le p ink o x id i sed o u te r z one s t o y elow a nd l i gh tb rown i ff uly o x id i sed .

A ) Me thodo logy : D ecorat ion : A l l s he rd s i nt h i s c l a s s a r e r ed s l ipped , t h e c o lou r o f A l l s he rd s r e cov e red f r om t h e G ao A nc ien e xcava t ion s w e re r e co rd ed ( 8083 s he rd s ) , e xcep tf o rt h o se f r om l e ve l 1 9 , aP e r iod 1 d epo s i t , wh ich w e re a cc iden t ly l o s td ur ing s o r t ing a nd w a sh ing . A 5 0% s amp le o fs he rd s w a s r e co rded f r om t h e e xcava t ion s a tG ao S aney ( 880 s he rd s ) . T he 5 0% s amp le w a s s e le c ted b y t h o rough ly

wh ich v a r ie s f r om ap a le b rown r ed t or ed (Mun sel l OR 5 /6 ) , t o d a rk r ed ( Mun sel 2 . 5y r 3 / 6 ) ( P la te App .7 .1) , a nd e xh ib i tn oo t he r f o rm o fd eco ra t ion . T he c hanne l led a nd g eome t r ic d e co ra ted w a re s a nd t h e p a in ted w a re s m ay a l so b e d eco ra ted w i th r ed s l ip , a nd t h e se w a r et y pe s may b er e la ted . Good q ual i ty o rf i newa r e .

m ix ing t he p o t t e ry b yh and a nd t h en d iv id ing t h er e su l t ing p i le i n to t wo e qua l h eap s . T h is me thod o f n on -p r e jud ic ia l s amp l ing o f s h e rd s wa s s u cce s sfuly e mp loyed b y S .K . a nd R .J . Mc In to sh d u r ing t he i r e x cava t ion s a t J enne jeno . T he t e rm " l o ca l ly m anuf ac tu red "h a s b een u sed t od if e ren t ia t e t h i s a s semb lage f r om t h ei mpor ted g l azed p o t te ry a l ready d e sc r ibed .

Manufac tur ing T echn ique : C o i l made . Whe the r t o o l s w e re u sed t of o rm t h eb a se si sn o tk nown , a so n ly ac oup le o fb a se s he rd s a nd o ne v e ry s mal ,n ea r ly c omp le te p o tw e re f ound .

T he ma in p o t t e ry c l a sses h ave b een d e f ined o n s u r face t r ea tmen t ( s l ipped /un s l ipped , c o lou r , d eco ra t ive t r ea tmen t ) , a nd i tc an b e s e en t ha t w i th in t h i s s chema t h e c r i t e r ia e mp loyed i n d e f in ing c l a s se s d i f f e r s , f o r e xamp le , t h e g eome t r ic -de co ra ted c l a ss w e re d e f ined o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e d om inan t mo t if w h i l s t t he c o rd a nd t w ine d eco ra t ed c l a s s w e re d ef ined o n t h e t e chn ique o fd eco ra t ion . T h e se b a s i c c l a sse s w e re c rea ted f o r s impl i c i ty , a nd i ts hou ld b e m ade c l ea r t h a t t h e l o ca l p o t te ry s t udy i s n o t i n tended t o b e

F abr ic : C oa r se , a nd c haf f tempe r ed . F abr ic c o lou r v a r ie s f r om a r educed b l ack o rd a rk g r ey s andw iched b y p ink i sh r ed t op ink a nd r edd i sh b rown . C oa r se .

2 )C hanne l led ( Chan ) :

D ecora t ion : D eep h o r izon ta l c omb ing . U sua l ly r ed s l ipped , w h i ch i si nv e ry f ew e xamp le s b u rn i shed . T he u sua l d e co ra t ion u pon t h e r ed s l ip c on s i s t s o f v e r t ica l w avy o r s t ra igh t p a in ted w h i te l i ne s , d ema r ca ted i n to b and s b y f u r the r s t r ipe s o f b l ack p a in t . T he r ed s l ip v a r ie sf r om al i gh tr ed ( Mun se l l l OR 5 /6 ) t od a rk r ed ( Mun se l l

e xhau s t ive , b u t o n ly o f ap r e l im ina ry n a tu re , i ti sa l so r e cogn iz ed t h a t amo re d e ta i led s t udy o ft h i s ma t er ia l w i l l b e n ece s sa ry i nt h e n ea rf u tu re , at a sk wh ich w il b ef a c i l i ta ted a f te rf u r the rf i e ldwo rk .

l OR 3 / 6 ) ( P la t e App .7 .2 ) . Manufac tur ing T echn ique : C o i l made .

F ab r ic s h av e b een d iv ided i n to t h ree c a tegor ie s ; f i ne , med ium a nd c oa r se . F ab r ic t y pe h a s b een d ef ined o n t h e b a s i s o f t empe r s i ze a nd f r equen cy ( h e re mean ing a ny n on -p la s t ic i n c lu s ion s ) . F ine i s d e f ined a sc on ta in ing i n c lu s ion s o fs and ( i e . q ua r tz ) , g r i t( a l l o t he r

3 )G eome t r ic D ecora ted ( GD ) :

n on -p la s t ic s ) o r o rgan ic ma ter ia l o f l e s s t h an 0 . 5 mm i n s i ze . Med ium i sd ef ined a sc on ta in ing i n c lu s ion s o fs and , g r i to ro rgan ic m a te r ia lo fb e tween 0 . 5 -2 rnm , a nd c oa r se a sc on ta in ing i n c lu s ion s o fo ve r2 rnm . F ab r ic c o lou rh a s b een f ound t ob e v e ry v a r iab le a nd n oa t temp t h a s b een made t os t anda rd i se f a b r ic c o lou rd e scr ip t ion , f o r e xamp le w i th a Mun sel S o i l C o lou r C ha r t , a s t h e r ange o f v a r ia t ion s e en i n t h e f ab r ic c o lou r s w hen w e t a nd t h en w hen d ry r e nder s s uch a t a sk l a rge ly w o r th le s s ( A lexande r , p e r s . c omm . ) . H oweve r , t h e Mun sel s o i l c ha r t h a s p roved o f s ome u se i n c l a s s i fy ing s l ip a nd p a in t c o lou r s a nd t h e refo re i t s u se i n t h i s

F abr ic : T he G ao A nc ien s he rd s a r e p redom inan t ly made f r om a f i ne , s and /g r i t t empe red f a b r ic , w i th s ome s he rd s made f r om a med ium , s and /g r i t t empe red f a b r ic . T he f a b r ic c o lou r v a r ie s f r om v e ry p a le b rown t o m id b rown . T he G ao -Saney GD s he rd s a r e s omewha t r oughe r a nd m ade f r om a m ed ium t o c oa r se , g r i t

c apac i ty w i l lb er e f e r red t oo cca s iona l ly b e low .

d u sky r ed ( Mun sel 1 OR 3 / 4 ) , f ound o n t h e G ao -Saney s he rd s

t empe red f a b r ic c on ta in ing al o t o fo rgan ic i n c lus ion s . T he f a b r ic c o lou ri su sua l ly au n ifo rm l i gh tr edd ish b rown . D ecora t ion : B u rn i shed r ed s l ip , v a ry ing i nc o lou r f r om am id r ed ( Mun sel 7 . 5 r 4 /6 ) , f ound o n t h e G ao An c ien s he rd s , t o a mo r e ( P la te A pp .7 .3 ) . T he d e co ra t ion o n t h e G ao A nc ien s he rd s i s u sua l ly f i ne r t h an t h a t o n t h e G ao -Saney s he rd s , a nd c omp r i se s f i ne ly m ade g eome t r ic p a t te rn so fh or izon ta lb and s a nd o ve r lapp ing s em i -c i r c le s , e xecu ted w i th c omb , o r p o s s ib ly c o rd w rapped c o rd

F ou r ma in c a tego r ie s o fr im h ave b een i s o la ted ; t h ickened , s imp le , e ver ted a nd o the r s . T he se h ave b een f u r the r d i v ided i n to a no the r 2 0s ub -ca tego r ie s . Ar ep re sen ta t ive i lu s t r a t ion o fe ach o ft h e se r im t y pe s i s p rov id ed i n F igu re s App .7 .1 - 7 . 4 . A s n o c omp le t e e xamp le s o fv e s se l s w e re r e cove red f r om t h e e xcava t ion s a te i the r s i te , i th a s n o t p roved p o s s ib le t o r e con s truc t t h e v e sse l t ype s ,

o r w i re ( Ma cDona ld :pe r s c omm ) . I mp r e s sed d eco ra t ion i su sua l ly f ound j u s t b e low t h e r im , a nd a tf u r the r i n terva l s d own t h e p o t . O the r G ao A nc ien e xamp le s e mp loy d i agona l l i ne s o f c omb i mp re s s ion o ve rf i e ld so f mo r e s halow i mp re s s ion s ( P la t e A pp .7 .3 , 2 nd r ow , 2 ) . T he G ao -Saney s he rd s emp loy t h e s ame d e co ra t ive mo t i f s , b u t a r e e xecu ted mo re c r ude ly , o f t en w i th al a rge r s qua re

u n le ss t h e i r f o rm s w ere p l a in ly a ppa ren t f r om t h e amoun t o f t h e s he rd l ef tb e low t h er im . I nt h i s c on tex ti ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e r im s he rd s w e re r im a l on e , l e s s c ommon ly r im a nd s hou lder , a nd i n f requen t ly s he rd s w i th r im , s hou lde r , a nd p a r t o f t h e b ody p re sen t . S im i la r ly , t h e f unc t ion s o ft h e v e sse l t ype s w i l l

t oo thed c omb . O n o cca s ion t h e d e co ra t ion i si n f i l led w i th wh i te p a in t( SA 9 3 A5 . 26 )( P la te A pp .7 .3 , i s tr ow , 1 ) . F ine w a re .

n o tb ec on s ide red i nd e ta i l . Manufac tur ing T echn ique : C o i l Made . B )D e scr ip t ion O fC las ses o fL oca lP ot tery :

4 )B lack B urn ished G eome tr ic D ecora ted ( BBGD ) :

1 )R ed S l ipped ( RS ) .

F abr ic : F ine ,b l ack s and /gr i t tempe red f ab r ic .

F abr ic : V a r ie s a cco rd ing t o t h e s i ze o f t h e v e s se l , b u t p r edom inan t ly f i ne , c on ta in ing f ew o rgan ic i n c lu s ion s , a nd i ss and

D ecora t ion : T he b l ack f a b r ic i sh i gh ly b u rn i shed a nd i si mp re s sed w i th v e ry f i n e ly e xecu ted g eome t r ic c omb d e co ra t ion e mp loy ing 11

o ve r lapp ing d iamond , z i z -zag a nd h o r izon ta l l i ne mo t i f s ( P la te

T he p a in t i so f ten a pp l ied o n to a s u r fa ce wh ich h a s b een r ed

App .7 .4 ) .F ine w a re .

s l ipped a nd i n c er ta in e xamp le s , b u rn i shed p r io r t o p a in t ing . O cca s iona l ly s he rd s a r e a l so f ound w i th w h i te p a in t u pon ab l ack

Manuf ac tur ing T echn ique : C o i l made .

F abr ic : F ine ,b rown s and /gr i t temp e red f ab r ic .

s l ipped a nd b u rn i shed s u r f ace , t hough t h i s c ou ld r e su l t f r om t h e s he rd sh av ing b een b u rn t ,r e su l t ing i nd i sco lou ra t ion o ft h eo r ig ina l r ed s l ip . Do t s ,o ve r lapp ing l i ne s ,c i r c le s ,w avy l i ne s , a nd g eome tr ic p a t te rn s made u p o ft h icke r b and s o fb l ack p a in t a nd t h inne r l i ne s o f w h i te p a in t a r e mo t i f s wh ich a r e c ommon ly e mp loyed ( P la te A pp .7 .6 ) .

D ecora t ion : B urn i shed d a rk r edd i sh b rown s l ip ( Mun sel H ue

Manuf ac tur ing T echn ique : C o i l made .

5 )B rown B urn ished ( BrB ) :

2 . 5y r 3 / 4 -2 . 5 /4 ) , One s he rd i sd eco ra ted w i th t r iang le s o f f i ne c omb i mp re ss ion s ( P la te App .7 .4 , i s tr ow ,4 ) . Good q ua l i ty w a r e . 9 )D ra in p ipes ( DP ) :

Manufac tur ing T echn ique : C o i l made .

F abr ic : C oa r se ,g r i t temp e red f ab r ic , al o to fo rgan ic i n c lus ion s . 6 )B lack Burn ished ( BB ) : D ecora t ion : T race s o f d r ibb led r ed s l ip /pa in t f ound o n c e r ta in e xamp le s ,o the rw i se u ndeco ra ted ( No ti lu s t r a ted ) .

F abr ic : F ine ,b lack g r i t t empe red f ab r ic . D ecora t ion :

F unc t ion : T he p re c i se f unc t ion o f t h e se p i ece s i s n o t k nown ,

Bu rn i sh ing o n t h e u n s l ipped s u r f ace , o t herw i se

h oweve rt h ey a r e s im i la ri ns hape t o modem d ra in p ip e ( c hanne l s )

u nde co r a ted ( P la te A pp .7 .4 ,2 nd r ow , 3 ) . G ood q ua l i ty w a r e .

u sed t or un e xce s s w a te ro ft h e f l a tr oo f s o ft h e h ou se s i nt h e G ao R eg ion .

Manufac tur ing T echn ique : P robab ly c o i l mad e .

Manufac tur ing T echn ique : No tk nown . 7 )C ord a nd Tw ine D ecora ted ( CT ) : 1 0 )M isce l laneou s :

F abr ic : T he f ab r ic t ype v a r ie s f r om a f i ne , s and /g r i t tempe red f ab r ic c on ta in ing s ome o rgan ic i n c lu s ion s ( vo id s ) ( M M93 A 1 5 .67 ) , t o t h e mo s t c ommon f ab r ic t ype e ncoun te red , wh ich i s c oa r se , a nd c haf ft empe red ( SA 9 3 A4 . 150 ) . T he f a b r ic c o lou r i s e x t reme ly v a r iab le , a nd r ange s f r om s andy y elow t od a rk b rown a nd b la ck . T he ma jo r i ty o f t h e s he rd s a r e f r om c oa r se u t i l i ta r ian

T h i s c a t ego ry c on ta in s aw ide v a r ie ty o f t y p e s o f ma t e r ia l ; b ung s a nd s t opp e r s , h and le s , b a se s a nd o dd b ody a nd r im s he rd s ( No t i lus t ra ted ) . Ow ing t ot h e w ide r ange o fm a t er ia l c on ta ined i n t h i s c a tego ry i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t og i ve a d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e f a b r ic t ype , c o lou ra nd d eco ra t ion o fe a ch p i ece .

v e s se l s . D ecora t ion : Wh i ls t t h e r ange o f d eco ra t ive e f ec t s u sed i sw ide , t h et e chn ique s emp loyed a r el im i ted .T he mo s tc ommon t e chn ique s e ncoun te red a r e c o rd a nd t w ine r ou le t te s , o rw ha tS op e r( 1985 :31 )

C )R im T ypes :

t e rm s , f l ex ib le s t r ing r ou le t te s a nd c ompo s i te r ou le t t e s , w h ich a r e

1 )T h ickened :

d ef ined a s c omp r i s ing t wo o r mo re e l emen t s ; as i ng le o r mu l t ip le , r e la t ive ly r i g id v er t ica lc omponen t , a nd f l ex ib le e l emen t s ( s t r ing o r

R im s he rd s w h ich a r e n o t iceab ly t h ickened t owa rd s t h e r im . S ix

s t r ip ) w rapped , woven o r k no t ted r ound i t , f o r e xamp le t h e c o rd w rapped s t ick ( i b id 3 9 ) . S he rd s w i th i mp re s sed c o rd a nd t w ine d eco r a t ion a r ea l so f ound ( SA 9 3 A4 . 130 ) ( P la t eA pp .7 .5 ) .

d i s t inc t t y pe s w e re f u r the r i d en t if ied w i th in t h is c a t ego ry . T he t h ickened a r ea o f t h e r im c an b e t u rned i nwa rds , w i th t h e v e s se l b e ing e i the r o p en ( T ITO ) o r c l o sed ( T ITC ) , o r t u rned o u twa rd s w i th t h e v e s se l a ga in b e ing e i the r o pen ( TOTO ) o r c l o sed ( TOTC ) . E xamp le s o f v e s se l s w i th t h ickened o u t t u rned s t ra igh t

T he c o rd a nd t w ine r ou le t te d eco ra t ion i so f t en u sed i na s soc ia t ion w i th c o lou r t o f u r the r e nhance t h e d e co ra t ive e f f ec t . R ou le t te

r im s a r e a l so f ound a sa r e v e s se l s w i th t h ick ened o u t t u rned r oled r im s ( TOTO RO ) . Mo re s imp le t h ickened r im s w i thou t o u t - o r i n -

d eco ra t ion u pon b u rn i shed o r u n -bu rn i shed r ed s l ip i s mo s t c ommon , b u t t h e u se o f wh i te a nd b l ack p a in t a nd c o rd d eco r a t ion

t u rn ing w e re a l so i d en t if ied a s c om ing f r om o pen v e s se l s ( TO ) ( F igu re A pp .7 . 1) .

u pon r ed s l ip i sa l so f ound . Manufac tur ing T echn ique : C o i l made .

2 )S imp le : 8 )P a in ted ( P ) :

A s t h e t i t le s ugge s t s , t h i s c a tego ry c on ta in s t h e s imp le s tr im t ype s . T he mo s t s imp le t y pe e ncoun te red a r e r im s o f e ven t h icknes s

F abr ic : Med ium a nd c oa r se , g r i t - a nd o rgan ic temp e red f ab r i c . F ab r ic c o lou r v a r ie s f r om a d a rk g r ey o r b l ack r e su l t ing f r om r educ t ion d u r ing f i r ing ,t o al i gh tr edd i sh b rown o rr edd i sh y elow . P redom inan t ly g ood q ua l i ty .

wh ich c ome f r om b o th o pen ( SO ) a nd c l o sed ( SC ) v e s se l s . S imp le o u t tu rned r im s w e re a l so f ound , o fe ven t h i cknes s a nd f r om o pen

D ecora t ion : T he d eco ra t ive mo t i f s a nd t e chn ique s u sed v a ry . Wh i te , b lack a nd r ed a r e t h e c o lou r s wh ich a r e mo s t c ommon ly

3 )E ver ted :

( OTO )a nd c l o sed ( OTC )v e s se l s ( F igu r eA pp .7 .2 ) .

T h ree t ype s o f e ve r t ed r im w e r e i d en t if ied , p la in e ver ted ( E ) ,

e ncoun te red , t hough y elow w ou ld a l so a ppea r t oh ave b een u sed .

12

r o l led e ve r ted ( RE ) a nd t h e c ompa r a t iv e ly r a re t a pe r ing e ve r ted

r im s h a s b een a t temp ted . I t s hou ld a l so b e n o ted t h a t t h e

( TAE )r im t yp e ( F igu re App .7 .3 ) .

p o s s ib i l i ty e x i s t s t h a t s ome o f t h e c hanne l led w a re s w i th s imp le r im s a r e i n r ea l i ty f r om e ve r ted v e s se l s . Howeve r , t h e c r uc ia l

4 ) O thers :

s hou lde r j o in t wh ich w ou ld h ave a lowed t h e i r p o s i t ive i d en t if ica t ion a s e ve r ted r im s , w a s o f t en m i ss ing , h en ce t h e i r

T h i s c a tego ry i n c lude s f ou r r im t ype s w h ich w e re f ound i n v e ry s ma l l q uan t i t ie s , n ame ly b o t t le n eck s a nd r e cogn i sab le f r agmen t s

c l a s s if i ca t ion a ss imp le r im s .

f r om b o t t le n eck s , a nd c a r ina ted , l e dged a nd f l a t r im s ( F igu re

T he mo s t c ommon ly f ound r im i n a l l c l a s se s o f ma t er ia l a r e t h e s imp le r im s ( Cha r t s A pp .7 .5 a nd 7 .6 ) . O n t h e who le n o p a t ter n s o f s i gn if i cance a r e e v iden t i n t h e q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i s o f t h e r im c a t ego r ie s f ound . As im i la r r ange o f v e s se l s w i th s imp le , e ve r ted a nd t h ickened r im s o fd i f f e ren t s i ze s w e re b e ing made t h roughou t t h ep e r iod o fo ccupa t ion a tG ao Anc ien .T h i sf a i r ly l im i t ed r ange o f r im s i s f ound i n a l l t h e ma jo r c l a sse s e xcep t f o r ah i ghe r

A pp .7 .4 ) .

D ) Quan t i ta t ive Ana lys is . D iscus s ion a nd I n terpre tat ion o f Char t s App .7 .1 -7 . 24 . 1 )C la sses :

o ccu r rence o f t h ickened r im s i n t h e R S a nd P . a t 1 35 s he rd s o r 3 7 .6% a nd 1 0 s he rd s o r 2 9 .4% r e spec t ive ly . T h i s c o r re la t ion

i ) Gao And en : T he mo s t c ommon c l a ss f ound i nG ao A nc ien a r e r ed s l ipped s he rd s , ( hencefo r th R S ) , a t1 851 s he rd s o r 3 8% o ft h e t o ta l i den t if ied a s semb lage , a nd c o rd a nd t w ine d e co r a t ed s he rd s ,

b e tween h i ghe rq ua l i ty ma t e r ia l a nd mo re c ompl ica ted r im s i sn o t f ound i n t h e BBGD a nd GD c l a s ses wh ich a r e e i the r t o taly , a s w i th t h e BBGD a tn ine s he rd s o r 1 00% , o rn ea r ly a l l s imp le r im s , a sw i th t h e GD a te i gh ts he rd so r8 8 .9% . E ve r ted r im s a r e f o und i n

( h encefo r th CT ) , a t 1 822 s he rd s o r 3 7 .4% o f t h e t o ta l i d en t if ied f a i r ly c ommon ( 580 s he rd s o r 1 .9% ) , t h e se a r e f olowed i n

s ma l l q uan t i t ie s , a nd r im s c l a s sed a s " o the r s " , i n c lud ing c a r ina ted s hape s , l o dged r ims a nd b o t t le n eck s , i n e ven s male r q uan t i t ie s

f r equency b y p a in ted s he rd s ( 330 s he rd s o r 6 . 7% , h en cefo r th P ) ,

( s ee C h a r t s A pp .7 .5 a nd 7 . 6 ,7 . 7 -7 . 14 f o r ad e ta i led b reakdown ) .

a s semb lage . C hanneled d eco ra t ed s h e rd s , ( h encef o r th C ) , a r e a l so

( Cha r t s A pp .7 .1 a nd 7 .2 ) . A s im i la r p a t te rn c an b e s e en i n t h e a s semb lage s f r om P e r iod s 1 , 3 ,4 a nd 5 ( Cha r t s A pp .7 .3 a nd 7 . 4 ) . R S a nd CT a r e a ga in t he mo s t c ommon ly f ound c l a sse s , w i th s im i la r p e r cen tage s o fe ach c l a s s b e ing f ound i ne a ch p e r iod . T he o n ly n o t iceab le c hange s a r e ad rop i n f r equency o fR S f r om 1 099

i ) G ao -Saney : T he s imp le r im i st h e mo s t f r equen t i n t h e R S , C , GD a nd CT c l a s se s , b u t i se xce eded b y t h ickened r im s i n t h e P c l a s s ( Cha r t s A pp .7 .15 a nd 7 . 16 ) . T he t h ickened r im s a r e a ga in

s he rd s o r4 1 .7% i n P er iod 1t o3 09 s he rd s o r 3 2 .9% i nP e r iod 4 ,

f ound i ns i zeab le q uan t i t ie s i nt h eh ighe rq ua l i ty c l a sse s , R S a nd P . a tn ine s he rd s o r 3 1% a nd f i ve s he rd s o r 3 8 .4% r e spec t ive ly . T h i s

a nd ad rop i nn umbe r s o f CT f r om 1 047 s he rd s o r3 9 .8% i nP e r iod 1t o9 2 s he rd so r2 5 .3% i nP e r iod 5 .T h i s c hange i nf r equency d o e s n o t a ppea r t o b e o f a ny s i gn if icance . T he a ppea r an ce o f t h e d ra inp ip e ( h encef o r th DP ) f r agmen t s i so fi n te re s t ( Cha r t s A pp .7 .3 a nd 7 .4 ) . T he se a r e o n ly f ound i n P e r iod s 4a nd 5 a nd w e re u ndoub ted ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h eP er iod 4p udd led mud s t ruc tu r e s .

c o r re la t ion b e tween t h e t h ickened r im s a nd t h e h i ghe r q ua l i ty c l a s se s i ss im i la r t ot h a t s e en a tG ao A nc ien . As im i la r p a t ter n i s n o ts een i nt h e mo re u t i l i ta r ian c l a sse s a te i the r o ft h e t wo s i t e s . A t G ao An c ien o n ly 4 0 s he rd s o r 1 .1 % o f t h e C c l a ss , a nd f ou r s he rd s o r 1 3 .8% o f t h e CT c l a s s h ave t h ickened r im s , w h i l s t a t G ao -Saney 2 5 s he rd s o r 1 3 .6% o ft h e Cc l a s s , a nd n one o ft h e CT

When t h e G ao A nc ien a s semb lage i sv i ewed a s aw ho le , i tc an b e s e en t ha t al a rge p ropo r t ion o ft h e ma t er ia l i so fg ood q ua l i ty , 2 355 s he rd s o r 4 8 .3% o f t he t o ta l a s semb lage , n ame ly t h e R S , GD , BBGD , BB ,B rB , a nd t he ma jo r i ty o ft h e Pc l a s s . T he c r ude r mo re u t i l i ta r ian CT a nd C c la sse s n umbe r2 402 s he rd s o r4 9 .3% . T h i s i s i nc on t ra s tt ot h ep a t te rn ss e en a tG ao -Saney . i ) Gao -Saney : T he mo s t c ommon ly f ound c l a s s a tG ao -Saney a r e

c l a s s h ave t h ickened r im s ( Cha r t s App .7 .5 , 7 .6 , 7 . 15 , 7 . 16 ) . T he f a i r ly s t ra igh tfo rwa rd r im s f ound a t G ao -Saney c oncu r s w i th t h e s imp le r , l e s s d ive r se r a nge o f c l a s se s f ound a t t h i s s i te i n c ompa r i son t ot ho se r e cove red f r om G ao A nc ien . T he s imp l i c i ty i n r im sp r e sen ti sr ef lec ted i nt h et o ta l a b sence o ft h e " o the r " c a tego ry r im s a tG ao -Saney .

3 )R im D iame ter s ( Ve s s e l S i ze ) :

Cs he rd s ,2 29 s he rd so r3 5% . T he se a r ec l o se ly f o l lowed b y t h e CT c l a s s a t2 19 s he rd s o r 3 3 .4% . B o th o ft h e se c l a sse s a r e u t i l i ta r ian w a r e s . T he h ighe r q ua l i ty R S c l a s s i s f ound i n much s male r q uan t i t ie s a t 19 s he rd s o r 1 8 .2% ( Cha r t s A pp .7 .1 a nd 7 . 2 ) . ( I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t t h i s f i gu re h a s b een p a r t ly i n f luenced b y t h e f a c tt h a t

i ) Gao Anc ien : T he mo s t c ommon r im s i ze s f al b e tween 6 -30cm i nd iame te r , w i th t h e h i ghe s t p eak s b e tween 1-20 . cm . T ak ing R S a nd C a se xamp le s , 1 57 s he rd s o r4 3 .6% o ft h e R S c l a s s a r e i nt h e 1 -20cm r im d iame t e r r a nge a nd 2 46 s he rd s o r 6 7 .8% o f t h e C c l a ss a r e s im i la r ly i n t h e 1 -20cm r im d iame te r r ange ( Cha r t s

as ma l l n umbe r o f t he s he rd s r e cove red f r om t h e G ao -San ey m idden d epo s i t s w e re v e ry b ad ly b u rn t a nd c ou ld o n ly b e c l a ssed a su n iden t if iab le ,t hough t h ey m igh to n ce h ave b een R S ) .

A pp .7 .17 -7 . 20 ) . T he f r equen tp roduc t ion o fp o t te ry i nt h e 6 -30cm r im d i ame te r s i ze r ange i sr e f lec ted i n a l l c la sse s , w i th t h e GD ,

s he rd s o f BBGD , BB o r B rB w e re f ound a nd n o DP f r agmen t s w e re r e cove red . T he a s semb lage i s much s imp le r a nd l a ck s t h e

BBGD , B rB , BB , CT a nd P a l so c ommon ly f ound i n t h e se s i ze s . T he re i s as i gn if ican t d ec l ine i n t h e n umbe r s o f r im s he rd s w i th d i ame t e ro fg rea te rt h an 3 0 cm a nd l e s s t h an 6 cm ( Cha r t s A pp .7 .17 a nd 7 . 18 ) . T he o n ly c l a s s m ade i ns i ze s l a rge r t h an 4 0cm , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fo ne s he rd o f CT ,a r et h eR Sc l a s s .

d i ve r s i ty o ff i ne r ma ter ia l f ound a tG ao A nc ien . I ti su n l ike ly t h a t d epo s i t iona lf a c to r sh ad a ny th ing t od ow i th t h i s , a si ti sl i ke ly t h a t a l l r ubb i sh w ou ld h ave e nded u p o n t h e m idden a tG ao -Saney . I t

A ni n t e rp r e ta t ion o fw hy t h e R S c l a ss a l one w a s made i n av a r ie ty o fs i ze s c an b e s ugge s ted . I ti sp o ss ib le t h a t t h e h i ghe rq ual i ty R S

A s c an b e s een i n c ha r t s A pp .7 .1 a nd 7 . 2 t h e r ange o f c l a s se s r e cove red f r om G ao -Saney i s much s ma l le rt h an a tG ao A nc ien . N o

c an t h e refo re b es ugges ted t h a ti ti sp robab le t h a tt h ei nhab i tan t s o f

c l a s s w a s made i n t h i s w ide r a nge o f s i ze s a s i tw a s u sed f o r s e rv ing f ood t o g ue s t s o r t o h i ghe r s t a tu s i nd iv idua l s , p e rhap s

t h e o ccupa t ion mound a t G ao -Saney w e re u s ing f ewe r h i ghe r q ua l i ty w a re s t han t ho se i n G ao A nc ien ( s ee C hap t e r 4 , s e c t ion

w he re f ood w a s c on sumed f r om a c ommuna l p la te ( a s i s t h e c u s tom a mong t h e S ongha i t o day ) , wh ich m igh th e lp i ne xp la in ing t h e l a rge r s i ze s f ound . F u r the rmo r e i tc ou ld a l so h ave b een u sed f o rv i s ib le d i sp lay a nd s t o rage p u rpo se s , w he re i tw a s u sed t os t o re v a luab le a nd t r ea su red c ommod i t ie s a nd p e r sona l p o s se s s ion s . A

4 . 2bü f o r ad i scu ss ion o ft h i s i s sue ) . 2 )R im ( Ves s e l ) Ca tegor ies :

s ma l l p o t r e cove red f r om t h e p e r iod 3 d epo s i t s m igh t h ave b een u sed t os t o re p e r fumed o i l s o ri nk , s ub s tance s p o s s ib ly p re s t ig iou s

i ) Gao A nc ien . P leas e No te : A s a l r eady s t re ssed a bove , n o a t temp t a tc on je c tu ra l r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e v e s se l t y pe s f r om t h e

13

L a rge r

s t ick r ou le t te ( KO 9 3S /C 2 2 ) , s im i la rt o at y pe f ound i nt h e Mema

q uan t i t ie s o f v a lued c ommod i t ie s ( po s s ib ly s ou rced f r om t r an s -

r e g ion t ot h e w e s t o fT imbuk tu wh ich h a s b een d a ted t ob e tween

S aha ran t r ade ) ,m igh th ave b een s t o red i nt h e b igge rv e sse l s a ga in

l a rge

4 00 -800 AD , a nd a s he rd d eco ra ted w i th s imp le i n c i s ion s a nd r ough c omb ma rk s o ve rf i e ld s o ft w ine ( KO 9 3 S /C 1 5 ) , s im i la r i n r im f o rm a nd d eco r l a you t t o at ype wh ich h a s b een d a ted t o b e tween 2 00 -600 AD a tt h e s i te o fT ongo Maa re D iabe l i n t h e f a r

q uan t i t ie s o fw a re s b e tween 6 -30 cm s i ze , a nd e spec ia l ly b e tween

w e s to ft h eG ou rma a r ea ( MacDona ld p e r sc onun . MacDona ld e ta l

t o d i sp lay , h ence t h e u se o f a n a trac t ive c on ta ine r .

m ak ing u se o ft h eR S c l a s s a sa t t rac t ive c on ta ine r s . A n i n te rp re ta t ion c an a l so b e s ugge s ted t o e xp la in w hy

1 994 :13 ) ( P la te A pp .7 .9 ) . O the r a s y e t u nda ted s he rd s wh ich a r e

1 -20cm w e re p roduced . T he se v e sse l s w e re u sed f o r e ve ryday p u rpo se s a nd a r e n e i the r t o o s ma l l t ob e i mp rac t ica l , n o r t oo l a rge

d i f f e ren t t ot ho se f r om G ao -Saney a nd G ao Anc ien i n c lude av e ry f i ne ly made s he rd d eco r a ted w i th c hanne l l ing ( KO 9 3 S /C 6 )( P la te

t ob e c umbe r some , h eavy o r f r ag i le . T he p roduc t ion o f 1 -20 cm s i zed v e s se l s f o r u t il i ta r ian e ve ryday p u rpo se s c an b e s een i n t h e

A pp .7 .9 , i s tr ow , 1 ) .

c l u s te r ing o ft h e Cc l a s s , 2 46 s he rd s o r 6 7 .8% o f wh ich a r e f o und i n t h e se s i ze s . I n te r e s t ing ly , t h e d rama t ic p eak s o f t h e C c l a s s r e in f o rce s t h e p ropo sa l t h a t i tw a s au t i l i ta r ian w a r e , w he rea s t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f t h e h i ghe r q ua l i ty R S c l a s s i s mo re e ven ly s p read

F )S ummary o f Ana lys i s :

o ve r t h e s i ze r ange ( Cha r t s A pp .7 .17 -7 . 20 ) . P rac t ica l e ve ryday v e s se l s a r e a l so mo re l i ke ly t o h ave b een p roduced i n g rea te r q uan t i t ie s . T h i s c an b e s een i n t h e n umbe r s o f r im s he rd s f ound ; v e s se l s s male r t h an 5 cm a nd l a rge r t h an 3 0cm a r e f ound i n

T he a na ly s i s o f t h e a s semb lage s o f l o ca l ly manuf a c tu red p o t te ry r e cove red f r om t h e e xcava t ion s i nG ao A nc ien a nd G ao -Saney h a s s hown t h a ti ng ene ra l , s im i la r c l a sses a nd s i ze s w e re b e ing u sed a t b o th s i te s . T he ma in d i f f e rence i si n t h e w ide r r ange o f ma t er ia l f ound a tG ao A nc ien , b o th i n t e rm s o fr im t ype a nd s i ze , a nd b y

r e la t ive ly s ma l l q uan t i t ie s , p robab ly a s l e s s o f t h em w ou ld h ave b een n eeded a nd t h ey m igh t h ave b een c u ra t ed l onge r , e spe c ia l ly

i n f e rence v e s se lt ype , a nd i nt h e l a rge r q uan t i t ie s o fh i ghe r q ua l i ty

t h o se f r om t h eh ighe rq ua l i ty c l a s se s .

ma te r ia l f ound a tt h i s s i te .

i ) G ao -Saney : As im i la r p a t ter n t o t h a t s een i n t h e G ao A n c ien a s semb lage i s e v iden t . T he ma jor i ty o f t h e r im s he rd s c l u s te r b e tween t h e 6 -30 cm r ange w i th a ga in t h e p eak b e tween 1 -20cm , t h ough o n al e ss e v iden t s ca le t h an a t G ao A n c ien ( Cha r t s A pp .7 .19 -7 .24 ) . T he a b sence o f v e s se l s w i th r im s i ze s o f l e s s

T he a na ly s i s o f t h e s u r f ace c o l lec ted p o t t e ry h a s i lus t ra ted t h e i n t r a -s i te d ive r s i ty wh ich e x is t s i n t h e G ao R eg ion . T h i s n eed s t o b e e xp lor ed i n g rea te r d e ta i l b y e xcava t ion a nd f u r the r s u rvey i n o rde r t h a t t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e p o t te ry c l a s se s f r om s i te s

t h an 6 c -m a nd g rea te r t h an 5 1cm i sn o t iceab le , a ga in i lu s t ra t ing

f r om G ao A nc ien a nd G ao -Saney ,c an b e mo re f uly u nde r s tood .

s u ch a s K o ima a nd Go rongobo , a nd t h e e xcava t ed a s semb lage s

t h a t t h e a s semb lage a tG ao -Saney i s mo re u t i l i tar ian a nd s imp le t h an a t G ao Anc ien . I tc an b e s ugge s t ed t h a t t h e w a re s a t G ao S aney w e re b e ing p roduced f o re ve ryday u se ,a nd n o tf o rd i sp lay o r p re sen ta t ion p u rpo se s .

E )T he S ur fac e C olec ted P o t tery : G ao Anc i en , Gao -Saney a nd Gorongobo : C er ta in d i f f e rence s a r e n o t iceab le i n t h e c l a s se s o f l o ca l p o t t e ry c o l le c ted d u r ing t h e J anua ry a nd O c tobe r 1 993 s u rvey s a nd t h e a s semb lage s r e cove red f r om t h e e xcava t ion s i n G ao Anc ien a nd G ao -S aney . T he p o t te ry c o l le c ted f r om t h e s u r f ace o f G ao Anc ien i s t h e s ame a s t h a t r e cov e red d u r ing t h ee xcava t ion s , h oweve rd i f f e rence s c an b e s e en i n t h e s u r face c o l le c ted a nd e xcava t ed p o t te ry f r om G ao -Saney . T he a b sence o fs he rd s d eco ra ted i n ap a t ter n , s ome t ime s o fc heck s a nd s ome t ime s o fl i ne s o fs l ipped a nd u n s l ipp ed a r ea s , d e l inea ted b yc omb i mp re s s ion a nd o fd i amond h a tched b u rn i shed r ed s l ipped ( RS ) s he rd s w a s n o ted ( P la te A pp .7 .7 ) . B o th t h e se c l a s se s w e re c o l le c ted f r om t h e s u r face o fG ao -Saney ( I n so l l 1 993 :42 ) ,b u t w e re a b sen tf r om t h ee xcava ted a s semb lage . T h i s a b sence c an b e e xp la ined b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h ey w e re c o l le c ted f r om t h e d i s tu rbed r e s iden t ia l a r ea s o ft h eh ab i ta t ion mound w he re t h e l a ye r s f r om w h ich t h ey o r ig ina te w ou ld a ppea r t o b e o f a d i f f e r en t d a te t o t h e m idden d epo s i t s . I t i s p robab le t h a t t h e d epo s i t s c on ta in ing t h e se s he rd s p re -da te t h e m idden a s semb lage . Whe the r t h e se d epo s i t s a r e s i gn i f ican t ly e a r l ie r t han t h e m idden d epo s i t s , wh ich a r ep rov i s iona l ly d a ted t ot h e 1 0 th -1 3 th c en tu r ie s AD i sn o tk nown . S im i la r s he rd s o fs l ipped a nd u n s l ipp ed p o t te ry w e re f ound a tt h e s i te o f Go rongobo l o ca ted i n t h e mou th o f t h e T i lem s iv a l ley ( P la te A pp .7 .8 ) ,b u t a ga in t h e s i te h ad b een e n t i r e ly r obbed

o u t

s o

t h e i r

c h rono log ica l

p l acemen t

i s n o t

f uly

u nde r s tood , t o c l a r i f y t h i s i s sue , e xcava t ion o f a n u nd i s tu rbed s equen ce i sr equ i red . Ko ima : Av a r ie ty o fd i f f e ren tt yp e s o fp o t te ry w e re c o l le c t ed f r om t h e s u r f ace o f Ko ima . S he rd s o f t h e CT c l a s s wh ich a ppea r t ob e e a rl ie rt h an t ho se s o f a r f ound a tG ao Anc ien a nd G ao -Saney w e re c olec t ed ) . T he se i n c lude a s he rd d e co ra ted w i th a c o rd w rapped 14

t %

5 cm

0

5 cm TO ,P , SA 9 3 ( A )3 . 42 ,D iam 3 8cm .

7 1

TOTC , Chan , SA 9 3( A )4 . 93 ,D iam 1 6cm .

) \ 0

0

5 cm

T ITC , RS , MM 9 3( A )1 8 .9 , D iam 3 8cm .

5 cm TOTO , RS ,MM9 3( A ) 2 5 .37 ,D iam 5 2cm .

S

0

2

5 cm

T ITO , R S ,MM9 3 ( A )2 6 .49 ,D iam 3 1cm .

1 0

5 cm

TOTO RO , RS , MM9 3 ( A ) 2 6( R ) 6 9 ,D iam 3 4cm .

F ig . App . 7 .1 T h ickened r im t ypes ( codes u sed a re e xp la ined i n Appendi x 7 ) .

15

1

OTO , GD S A 9 3 ( A )3 . 41 ,

0

D iam 1 2cm .

5 cm

1 P P

5 cm

0

SC , RS ,MM9 3( A ) 1 . 17 ,D iam 8 cm .

0

5 cm

OTC ,R S ,MM 9 3 ( A )9 . 7 , D iam 6 . 2cm .

SO , GD , SA 9 3 ( A )4 . 59 ,D iam 1 6cm .

F ig . App . 7 .2 S imp le r im t ype s ( codes u sed a re e xp la ined i n Append ix 7 ) .

0

RE , RS ,MM9 3( A )3 2 .56 ,D iam 5 0cm .

5 cm

0

5 cm

TAE , RS ,S A9 3( A )1 . 1 ,D iam 1 2cm . 0

5 cm

E ,R S , MM9 3 ( A )3 0 .1 ,D iam 3 6cm .

F ig . App . 7 .3 E ver ted r im t ypes ( codes u sed a re e xp la ined i n Append ix 7 ) .

0

5 cm

5 cm

F la t , RS ,MM9 3( A )2 7 .2 ,D iam 2 6cm .

B o t t leneck , RS , MM9 3( A ) 2 6( R )7 5 ,D iam 6 cm . 5 cm

0

L edged , RS ,M M9 3 ( A )2 . 14 ,D iam N .K .

5 cm

C ar ina ted , RS ,MM9 3( A )2 6 ( R ) 7 2 ,D iam N .K .

F ig . App . 7 .4 " O ther s" r im t ypes .

16

GAO ANC IEN AND GAO SANEY WARE T YPES :TOTAL

58 P ERCENTAGES

40

36 32 -

o w

28 24 20 ( . 2 16 12 8 4 0

a -

GAO A NC IEN GAO S ANEY

C ha r t App . 7 . 1 1

2

WARE T YPES

GAO ANC IEN AND GAO S ANEY WARE T YPES :TOTAL SHERD N U 1 4 1 3ERS

S HERD NUMBERS

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C ha r t App . 7 .24

A ppend ix 8 G ao : B r ick t h in -sec t ion s . C ommen t s b y D r L . Sm i th a nd D r K . K r i shnan , V i s i t ing S cho la r s , D ep t . o fA r chaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge , 1 6 /8 /95 .

T h ree t h in s e c t ion s w e re e xam ined u nde r aN ikon " op t ipho t " p o la r i s ing m ic ro scope , a t magn if i ca t ion s b e tween 5 0 xa nd 2 00 x . T he ma in c onc lu s ion s w e h ave c ome t o a r e t h a t M M93 ( Gao A nc ien

s amp le )

a nd

SA -Q

( Gao -Saney ,

s t ruc tu re

Q )

a r e

s u ff ic ien t ly c l o se i n t e rm s o f t h e t ype s a nd p ropo r t ion s o f t h e i n c lu s ion s t o make i tv e ry l i ke ly t h a t t h ey a r e f r om t h e s ame s ou rce . I n b r ief ( t he mo re d e ta i led f a b r i c d e sc r ip t ion s a r e i n manu scr ip tf o rm i n t h e p o s se ss ion o fL . Sm i th ) , M M93 a nd SA -Q h ave f r equen t v o id s p robab ly r e su l t ing f r om c oa r se v ege tab le t empe r ; v e ry f r equen t q ua r tz ; s pa r se q ua r t z i te ; s pa r se p l ag ioc la se ; s pa r se t o f r equen t i r on o x ide s ; r a re o paque s ; r a re t o s pa r se i r on s tone ; s pa r se p y roxen e ; r a re a mph ibo le ( hor nb lende ) ; r a re t o s pa r se b io t i te ; r a re t o s pa r se mu scov i t e ; r a re t o s pa r se m ic ro l ine , a nd v e ry r a re e p ido te , z i r con , t o u rma l ine a nd r u t i le . S A -Q h a s a s pa r se o ccu r r ence o fc ha lcedony o r , mo s tp robab ly ,g yp sum ( we a r e i n deb ted f o ra dv ice o nt he i d en t if i ca t ion o fc e r ta in m ine ra l st oD rL F ree s tone ) , wh i l s t M M93 h a s ar a re o ccu r rence o f t h e s ame m ine ra l . I n b o th s e c t ion s t h i s m ine ra l o ccu r s ma in ly w i th in i regu la r l i nea r v o id s i n t h e f ab r ic . T he re a r e r a re b i o c la s t s , i n c lud ing t ype s o f f o ramen if e ra . T he f i na l i n c lu s ion s n o t ed a r e s pa r se g ra in s h av ing a c u t an s t ruc t ur e , t o ge the r w i th s pa r se t o f r equen t s ponge s p icu le s . SA -CE ( Gao -Saney c eme te ry ) h a s a g ene ra l ly s im i la rr ange o fm ine ra l t ype sp re sen tt ot h a ti nt h eo the r t wo . D e sp i te t h i s , t h e re a r e t h ree t ype s o fi n c lu s ion s , t h e g yp sum , t h eg ra in s w i th t h ec u tan s t ruc tu re a nd t h e s ponge s p icu le s , t h a t a r e r a r eo rv e ry r a re i no c cu r rence i nr e la t ion t ot h eo the rt wo s e c t ion s , s ot h a ti td oe sn o ta pp ea rt ob ea sc l o se t o M M93 a nd SA -Q a st h ey a r e t oe ach o the r . We wou ld s ugge s t t h a t a l l t h ree w e re made f r om a c l ay f r om a s im i la r g eo log ica l e nv i ronmen t , b u t t h a t S A -CE w a s n o t f r om t h e s ame l o ca t ion a s M M93 a nd SA -Q . O f c ou r se , w i thou t k now ing t h e g eog raph ica l s ca le o ve r wh ich t h e c ompo s i t ion o fc l ay s v a r ie s w i th in t he r eg ion i n wh ich t h e b r ick s o r ig ina ted , i ti sn o tp o s s ib le t os ay h ow f a ra pa r tt h et wo l o ca t ion s may b e ,o r may h ave b een .

1 23

A ppend ix 9

t han s wampy e nv ironmen t s pr ov ided t h e p r ima ry s ou rce f o r G ao

AP re l im inary R epor t o n t he F auna l R ema ins R ecovered f r om

c ho sen n o t t oa cqu i r e c a tf i sh a nd o the r b o t tom -f eede r s f o rc u l tu ra l

Gao Anden a nd Gao -Saney ( 1993 S ea son ) .

r ea son s .

B y R . Hu t ton MacDona ld a nd K . C . MacDona ld , T he I n s t i tu te o f

Ga l lu s . g a l /u s ( dome s t ic c h icken ) w a s p o s i t ive ly i d en t i f ied f olow ing t h e mo rpho log ica l c r i te r ia o u t l ined b y MacDona ld

f i sher fo lk . A l te rna t ive ly , t h e i nhab i tan t s o f G ao -Saney m ay h ave

A rchaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon ,S ep t embe r 1 995 .

( 1992 ) , a l though a g roup o f P ha s ian id ma ter ia l r ema ined wh i ch c ou ld e qua l ly w e l l b e long t o G u inea fow l ( Num ida m e l eagr i s ) . A f ew r ema in s i d en t if iab le t o a n i nde te rm ina t e d uck s pe c ie s w e re a l so r e cove red .

I n troduc t ion a nd Me thodo logy : T he m idden a t G ao -Saney p roduced w e l l o ve r 9 00 i d en t if iab le

R ept i le s a r e s t r ik ing ly r a re a tG ao -Saney wh en c ompa red t oo the r

b one s , wh i l s t t h e f i ve p hase s o fo ccupa t ion a tG ao A nc ien y i e lded l e s st h an 2 00 i d en t i f iab le e l emen t s .

k nown We s t A f r ican med ieva l f auna l a s semb lages . S ix c a rapace a nd p la s tron f r agmen t s a s s ignab le t o f r e shwa te r t e r rap in s ( Pe leomedu sa s p . ) a nd t h e S enega l s of t she l l t u r t le ( Cyc lanorb is s enega l ens i s )f o rm t h et o ta l i ty o ft he r ep t i le a s semb lage .

T he a n ima lb one s f r om G ao -Saney w e re e xam ined b y t h e a u tho r s i nB a rnako , Ma l i u s ing av e ry l im i ted a nd i n comp le t e c ompa ra t ive c o l lec t ion wh ich c on s is t ed o fo n ly d ome s t ic a n ima l s pec ie s . T h i s , c omb ined w i th s eve ra l y ea r s o fo s teo log ica l e xpe r ien ce w i th w i ld

E v idence f o r b u tche ry w a s n o ted o n s ome o f t h e d ome s t i c b ov id b one s p re sen ti nt h e SA 9 3 a s semb lage ; t h i s w a s l a rge ly c on s i s t en t

A f r ican f auna ,w a s s uf f ic ien tt oi d en t ify t h eb u lk o ft h e a s semb lage w h ich c on s i s ted l a rge ly o fo v icapf ine s . A ny p u ta t ive w i ld ma te r ia l

w i th s k inn ing , d i smembe rmen t a nd f i l le t ing a s e v idenced b y c u t a nd c hop ma rk s (M i l fo rd 1 981) . T he d e l ibe ra te r emova l o f t h e

w a s e xpo r ted f o r l a te r i d ent if i ca t ion . T he f auna l a s semb lage f r om G ao A nc ien w a s e xpo r ted i nt o ta l i ty b yt h ee xcava to r ,a nd t h i s w a s i d en t if ied b yt h e a u tho r s ,a long w i th t h ep u ta t ive w i ld s pe c ie s f r om

h om s hea th f r om b o th O v i s a r ies , a nd mo re c ommon ly C apra h i rcus w a sn o ted b yc u t sa tt h eb a se o ft h eh omco re , a nd m ay b eo f

G ao -Saney , b y r e f e rence t o c ompa ra t ive ma ter ia l h ou sed a t t h e

mo re i n te re s t . H o rn i s au sefu l s e conda ry a n ima l p roduc t t h a t c an b eu sed f o rt h ep roduc t ion o fo rnamen t s a nd o t he ro b jec t s ,a nd t h i s

I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon a nd s t anda rd

may h ave c on s t i tu ted a ni mpo r tan tr e source a tG ao -Saney ,o ne t h a t

t e x t s ( eg . P e te r s 1 986a a nd b ) ( a l l r e f e rence s a r e w i th in t h e ma in

w ou ld n o tb ep r e se rved a r chaeo log ica l ly .

b ib l iog raphy ) . S ome t r ace s o fc a rn ivo re g naw ing ( comp re s sed p unc tu re s o fg r een b one a nd s co red e p iphy s i s ma rg in s ) , a nd r oden tg naw ing w e re a l so n o ted . T h i s w ou ld s uppo r t t h e p re sence o f aC an id i n ad ome s t ic s e t t ing , a nd a dd s g rea t e r p robab i l i ty t o t h e p r e sence o f d ome s t ic

R ema in sf rom Gao -Saney ( SA 9 3 ) : P re se rva t ion o f t h e a n ima l b one r e cove r ed f r om G ao -Saney w a s g ood , a nd i ts e em s p robab le t h a t t h i s r ep re sen t s as i ng le , o r r ap id

d og i nt h ea s semb lage .

s e r ie s o fd epo s i t iona l e ven t s . T he a s semb lage c on s i s ted l a rge ly o f o v icap r ine s , w i th b o th O v i s a r ies ( dome s t ic s heep ) a nd C apra h i rcu s ( dome s t ic g oa t ) b e ing i d en ti f ied i ndependen t ly , u s ing t h e

R ema ins f rom Gao Anc ien (M M 9 3 ) :

mo rpho log ica l c r i te r ia o u t l ined b y B oe s sne ck ( 1969 ) ( s ee T ab le A pp .9 .1) . Me tr ica l ly i t wou ld a ppe ar t h a t t h e s heep w a s al a rge

T he p re serva t ion o f t h e a n ima l b one r e cove red f r om G ao A n c ien w a s v e ry p oo r ,w i th mo s tr ema in s b e ing b ad ly l e ached a nd e r oded .

v a r ie ty , s im i l ar t o modem Moo ra nd F u lan i s heep , wh i l s t t h e g oa t

T h i s w ou ld s ugge s tt h a tb one w a s e i the r e xpo sed t oe nv i ronm en ta l

w a s o f as ma l l ( bu tn o t dwar v ine ) b reed . C a t t le ( Bo ss p . ) w a s a l so

f a c to r s f o rs ome t ime , r a the r t h an b e ing r ap id ly b u r ied , a nd /o rt h a t t h ey w e re d epo s i ted i n p oo r ly d ra ined s o i l s o f r i ch c l ay c on ten t _

p re sen t i n t h e a s semb lage i n l a rge n umb e r s . F ew c a t t le r ema in s w e re measu rab le , b u t f r om t h e s pec imen s a va i lab le i ta ppea r s t h a t t ho se a tG ao w e re l a rge r i n s i ze t h a t t ho se k nown f r om J enne jeno

C on sequen t ly ,n o t much ma t er ia l w a s i den t i f iab le , a nd t h e s u rf ace o f t h e b on e w a s u sua l ly t o o e roded t o s ee e v idence o f b u tche ry .

a nd Akumbu , b e ing p robab ly o f aw i the r s h e igh t e qu iva len t w i th mod e rn S anga b reed s . I t i s p robab le , o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e i d en t if iab le ma ter ia l t ha t mo s t o f t h e l a rge i nde te rm ina te b ov id ma te r ia li sc a t t le ,a nd t ha t mo s to ft he s ma l l med ium i nde te rm ina te b ov id i so v icap r ine .

Mo s to ft h e i d en t i f iab le ma t e r ia l c ame f r om t h e mos tr e cen tP er iod 1d epo s i t s ( l a te 1 3 th /ea r ly 1 4 th -2 0 th C en tu r ie s AD ) ,t h er e su l t s o f wh ich c an b es een i nT ab le A pp .9 .2 . O nce a ga in t h e a s semb lage i s mo s t ly d ome s t ic , a nd i n c lude s c a t( a p u ta t ive d ome s t ica te i nA f r ican Med ieva lc on t ex t s ) a s w e l l a sd og .

C an id r ema in s w e re r e cove red i n s ma l l q uan t i t ie s f r om t h e s i te ;

O f p a r t icu la r i n te re s t i s t h e p re sen ce o f ah o rn c o re o f K obu

t h e se a r e mo s t l i ke ly t o b e f r om d ome s t ic d og ( Can i sf am i l iar i s

e l l ips ip rymnu s ( wa te rbuck ) , wh ich h a s b een s awn of a ti t s b a se . ' T h i s may b e f o rt h e r emova l o fh or n , a sh a s a l so b een r e co rded o n

f . lupus ) ,b u tw i th t h ee l emen t sr ep re sen ted i ti sn o tp o ss ib le t or u le o u t t h e p re sence o f j a cka l s ( Can i s a ur eu s , o r C an i s a dus tus ) . K obu sk ob ( t he k ob ) a nd R edunca r edunca ( t he r e edbuck )w e re t h e

t h eh omco re so fC apra h i rcu s , a nd may i nd ica t e as im i la rt r ad i t ion o f h o rn -wo rk ing a s s een a t G ao -Saney . A d i s ta l t i b io ta r su s

o n ly a n t e lope t a xa wh ich w e re d ef in i te ly i d en t if ied f r om t h e s i te , a l though t h e l a rge med ium s i ze c l a s s ma ter ia l s hou ld r ep re sen t

a s s ignab le t o a n a s y e t u nde te rm ined C rane s pec ie s ( Gru idae ) i s a l so p re sen t .

w i ld b ov id s ( e g . k ob , w a te rbuck , e t c . . ) . T he a b sence o f g azele r ema in s i s i n t er e s t ing a nd w ou ld i mp ly a h un t ing r eg ime mo re

P e r iod 3 a t G ao Anc ien ( 1 1 th -12 th C en t u r ie s AD ) y i e ld ed v e ry

f ocu sed o nt h er i ve r -bank st han o nt h ed e se r tt ot h en o r th .

l i t t le i d en t if iab le a n ima lb one ( s ee T ab le A pp .9 .3 ) .

I n s p i te o fc a refu l s c reen ing a tt h e s i te , t h e re w e r e o n ly r e la t ive ly

P e r iod 4 a tG ao Anc ien ( l a te 9 th -11 t hC en tu r ies AD ) a l so y i e lded v e ry l i t t le f auna l ma ter ia l ( s ee T ab le App .9 .4 ) ,b u t t he p r e sen ce o f

s ma l l q uan t i t ie s o f f i sh . T he se i n c lude many e l emen t s d ef in i te ly i d en t if iab le t o N i le p e r ch ( La te s n i lo t icu s ) , a nd " c a rp " ( T i lap ia

3 8 f r agmen t s o f H ippopo tamu s amph ibu s ( h ippo ) i v o ry i s o f

s p . ) , w i th o n ly af ew e l emen t s i d en t if iab le t oC a tf i sh ( C /ar ias s p . )

i n te re s t . T he se f r agmen t s w e re v e ry s ma l l , a nd c ou ld h ave d e r ived

a nd G ymna r chu s r ü lo t icu s . No d e ta i led a na ly s i s o f t h e f i sh f auna w a s u nder taken d ue t o al a ck o fs u i tab le c ompa ra t ive c o l le c t ion s .

f r om a s i ng le p o r t ion o f as i ng le t u sk . N one o f t he f r agmen t s s howed a ny s i gn o f w o rk ing b y h uman s . I ti sa s sumed t h a t t h e se

F rom s uch o b se rva t ion s a s c ou ld b e made , d eep c hanne l s r a the r

f r agmen t s m ay b e f r om p a r t o f t h e g rea t e r " h ippo t u sk h oa rd " 1 24

r e cove r ed ( I n sol : p e r s c omm ) . Un fo r tuna te ly , t h e f i sh r ema in s f r om t h i s p e r iod a re t oo f ew i n n umbe r t o s e rve a s amean ingf u l c ompa r i son w i th G ao -Saney , b u t i ts hou ld b en o ted t h a t o n ly L a res a nd T i lap ia w e re p re sen t _ P e r iod 5( 9 th C en tu ry AD )y ie lded n oi d en t if iab le f auna lr ema in s .

C onc lu s ion s : T he f auna l a s semb lage s e xam ined f r om G ao -Saney a nd G ao Anc ien a r e s u rp r i s ing ly c on s i s ten t i n t h e i r c ompo s i t ion . C a t t le , s heep a nd g o a t s p r edom ina t e , w i th l e s s n ume rou s b u t c on s i s ten t o ccu r rences o f aC an id ( p robab ly d ome s t ic d og )a nd d ome s t ic f ow l . Wi ld b ov id s ,w a te rfow l ,r ep t i le s a nd f i sh a r e s ca rce , wh i l s t E qu id s a nd c ame l a re e n t i re ly a b sen t i n t h e ma t er ia l s t ud ied . D e sp i te t h e a ppa ren t n o rma l i ty o f t h i s s u i te o f t a xa when c ompa red , f o r e xamp le , t o t yp ica l E u ropean R oman o r Med ieva l f a una l a s semb lage s ,i ti si n cong ruou si n aWe s tA f r ican Med ieva lc on tex t _ T hough t h e p auc i ty o f w i ld b ov id r ema in s i s ap h enomenon n o t u n common a tf u l ly -deve loped We s tA f r ican u rban s i te s ( e g . J enne j eno a nd D ia p o s t AD 8 00 ) , t he c omp a ra t ive s c a rc i ty o f f i sh r ema in s a t G ao i s w i thou t p a ra l le l . I ndeed , f i sh make u p t h e n umer ica l ma jo r i ty o f a n ima l r ema in s r e cove red f r om J e r ine jeno ( MacDona ld 1 995 , V an Nee r 1 995 ) , Akumbu ( MacDona ld a nd V an N ee r 1 993 ) , C uba le l a nd S iou r e ( Ma cDona ld a nd MacDona ld n .d . ) , a nd T u le l F obo ( Van Nee r a nd B ocoum 1 991) . R ep t i le s ( s of t shel t ule s ,c ro cod i le s ,a qua t ic l i za rd s a nd s nakes ) , w h ich a r e c ommon a s soc ia te s o ff i she s i nk nown We s t A f r ican a s semb lage s , a r e p a r t icu la r ly c on sp icuou s b y t h e i r r a r i ty . F re shwa t e r f ood r e sou rce s i tw ou ld s eem p layed o n ly am ino r r o le i n t h e e conomy o fG ao -S a u cy a nd e ven l e s s s o a tG ao A n c ien — i fw e may t a ke t h e l im i ted s amp le s o n h and a s r ep re sen ta t ive . Wi th t h e p rox im i ty o f t h e N ige r t o G ao e ven t oday , i tc an o n ly b e a r gued t h a t e i the r s eve r e t a phonom ic o rc u l tura l f a c to r s w e re a t wo rk i nc r ea t ing t h e s kewed r ep re sen ta t ion a s semb lage s .

o f

l o ca l

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t h e se

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2 5

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2 66

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7 0

C an is s p .

1 5

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3

R edunca r edunca

3

L a rge B ov id L a rge /Med ium Bov id

6 7 2

Sma l l /Med ium Bov id G a l lu sg a l lus

3 11 2 4

G a l lus /Num ida i nde t . A na t inae

5 2

I nde te rm ina te B i rd P e l eomedu sa s p .

1 2 2

C yc lanorb i ss enega len s i s

4

F i sh O the r Wi ld B ov id

1 07 7

T ab le A pp .9 .1 .I d en t if iab le f a una lr ema in sf r om G ao -Saney ( SA 9 3 ) .

1 2 5

S PECIES O v i sa r ies C apra h i rcu s B os s p .

N ISP 6 3 4

C an is s p .

2

F e l i ss p .

2

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1 1 7 3 4 6

G ru i c lae I nde te rm ina te B i rd

1 1

T ab le App .9 .2 . I den t i f iab le f auna lr ema in sf r om G ao A nc ien ( MM 9 3P er iod 1 ) .

S PECIES

N ISP

O v is a r ies L a rge B ov id L a rge /Med ium B ov id

1 1 9 /

Smal /Med ium Bov id

5

G a l lu s INum ida i nde t .

1

T ab le App .9 .3 . I den t if iab le f auna lr ema in s f r om G ao A nc ien (MM 9 3P e r iod 3 ) .

S PECIES O v is a r ies Ov icap r ine B o s s p . H ippopo tamus a mph ibus L a rge B ov id L a rge /Med ium B ov id Sma l l /Med ium B ov id G a l lu s INum ida i nde t . F i sh

N ISP 1 1 6 1 3 8 1 7 3 0 1 8

T ab le App .9 .4 . I den t if iab le f auna lr ema in sf r om G ao A nc ien (MM 9 3P e r iod 4 ) .

P l a te A pp .2 . 1 .E xamp le so fi mpo r ted g l a zed p o t t e ry .

P la t eA pp .3 . 1 .E xamp le so fi mpo r t ed g l a s s .

1 27

1 60

1 00

P la te A pp .4 . 1 .S e le c t ion o fb ead sf r om G ao .

P la te A pp .7 . 1 .R ed -s l ipp ed p o t t e ry .

1 28

1 70

1 80

1

P l a te A pp .7 . 2 .C hanne l led p o t te ry .

P l a te A pp .7 . 3 .G eome t r ic d e co ra ted p o t te ry .

1 29

P l a te A pp .7 . 4 .B lack b u rn i shed g eome t r ic d eco r a ted ,b r own b u rn i shed a nd b l a ck b u rn i shed p o t te ry .

P la t eA pp .7 . 5 .C o rd a nd t w ine d e co ra t ed p o t te ry .

1 30

P l a t eA pp .7 . 6 .P a in ted p o t te ry .

•

i Z

P l a te A pp .7 . 7 .S u r f a ce c ole c ted p o t te ry f r om G ao -Saney .

1 3 1

P l a te A pp .7 . 8 . S u r f a ce c o l le c ted p o t t e ry f r om G o rongobo .

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P l a te A pp .7 . 9 . S u r f a ce c ole c ted p o t te ry f r om K o ima .

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B IBLIOGRAPHY

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B oland , R . ( e d . ) . 1 991 . T e l le rn T ex t i les ; A rchaeo log i ca l F ind sf rom B ur ia l C aves i n Ma l i ' s B and iaga ra C l if f . Ams te rdam : R oya lT rop ica lI n s t i tu te . B o swo r th , E . 1 992 . A rm ies o f t h e P rophe t . ( I n ) , L ew i s , B . ( ed . ) , T he Wor ld o fI s lam . p p .201 -212 . L ondon :

Wadda i .K ush 2 :5 -18 . B a r th , H . 1 965 . T rave ls a nd D i scover ies i n N or th a nd C en t ra lA f r ica . L ondon : F rank C a ss . B eck , H .C . 1 928 . C la ss if i ca t ion a nd N omenc la ture o fB ead s

T hames a nd H udson . B oyd ' , E .W . 1 933 . C aravans o ft h e O ld S aha ra . L ondon :

a nd P endan t s .A rchaeo log ia 7 7 : 1 76 . B edaux , R . 1 976 . Ma l i ( No te o n E xcava t ion s a t T ogue re s D oupw i la nd G a l ia ) .N yame A kuma 8 :4 0 -3 .

O xfo rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s . B ov il , E .W . 1 968 . T he G o lden T rad e o f t h e Moor s . L ondon : O xfo rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s . B rad shaw ,J .1 994 . E ncoun ter s : T he E lephan t s o fT imbuk tu .

B edaux , R . 1 979 . A r chaeo log ica l R e sea r ch i n t h e B an i N ige rR eg ion ( Ma l i ) .N yame A ku r na 1 4 : 3 4 -5 . B edaux , R . 1 991 , D e s T e l le rn a ux D ogon : R e che r che s A r cheo log ique sd ans l aB ouc le d u N ige r ( Ma l i ) .

L ondon : T ig re s sP roduc t ion sL td .

Da l l ' A rcheo log ia a l l ' a r t e t r ad i z iona le A f r icana . R ome : C en t ro S tud io A rcheo log ia A f r icana . B edaux , R . e ta l . 1 978 , R e che rche s A r cheo log ique s d ans l e D e l ta I n te r ieu r d u N ige r ( Ma l i ) . P a leoh i s tor ia 2 0 : 9 2 -220 . B edaux , R . a nd B o l land , R . 1 980a . T e l le rn , R econna i s sance

B ra s seu r , G . 1 968 . L es E tab l i ssemen t s H uma ins a u Ma l i . Dakar : I n s t i tu tF ondamen ta ld el ' A f r ique N o i re . B ravmann , R .A . 1 974 . I s lam & T r iba l A r t i n We s t A f r ica . C amb r idge : C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty P res s . B re t t , M . 1 969 . I f r iq iya a s a Ma rke t f o r T rans -Saha ran T rade f r om t h e T en th t o t h e Twe lf th C en tu ry AD .J ourna lo fA f r i can H i s tory 1 0 : 3 47 -64 .

A r cheo log ique d ' une C u l tu re d el ' Oues tA f r ica in a u Moyen -Age : L e s T ex t i le s . J ourna l d e s A f r ican i s te s5 0 : 9 -23 . B edaux , R . a nd B o l land , R . 1 980b . Med ieva l T ex t i le s f r om t h e T e l le rn C ave s i nC en t ra l Ma l i , We s t A f r ica . T ex t i le Museum J ourna l 1 9 -20 : 6 5 -74 . B edaux , R . a nd L ange , A .G . 1 983 . T e l le rn , R econna i ssance

B re t t , M . 1 983 . I s lam a nd T rade i nt h e B i lad a l -Sudan , 1 0 th -1 t h C en tu ry AD . J ourna l o fA f r ican H i s tor y 2 4 : 4 31-40 . C a ige r -Sm i th , A . 1 985 , L us t re P o t tery . L ondon : H e rbe r t P re s sL td . C h ikwendu , V .E . , C raddock , P .T . , F a rquha r , R .M . , S haw , T . a nd Ume j i , A .C . 1 989 . N iger ian S ou rce s o f C oppe r , L ead a nd T in f o r t h e I gbo -Ukwu B ronze s .A r chaeome t ry 3 1 : 2 7 -36 . C h i t t ick , N . 1 974 . K i lwa , a n I s lam i c T rad ing C i ty o n t h e E as t A f r ican C oa s t . Memo i r N o . 5 . N a i rob i : B r i t ish I n s t i tu te i nE a s te rn A f r ica .

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l ' Appar i t ion d es D ia a l -Yaman . U npubl i shed

P e rpus takaan N egar a Ma lays ia .

manuscr ip t . T imbuk tu .

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1 33

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G ao : l e sE p i taphe sd u P r ince Y ama K u r i e td u r o i F . n .da ( X I I Ie s i èc le ) . B u l le t in d e l ' I ns t i tu t F ondamen ta ld el ' Af r ique N o i re ( B )3 6 :5 11 -24 . F a r ia s , d e Mo rae s , P .F . 1 985 . Mod e l s o f t h e Wo r ld a nd C a tego r ia l m ode l s : T he " En s lavab le B a rba r ian " a s a Mob i l e C la s s if i ca to ry L abe l . ( I n ) , W i l l i s , J . R . ( e d . ) ,S l ave sa nd S la ver y i n Mus l im A f r ica . V o lume 2 , T he S e rv i le E s ta t e , p p .27 -46 . L ondon :F rank C a s s . F a r ia s , d e Mo rae s , P .F . 1 986 . S ome R e cen t F ind ing s C once rn ing E p ig raph ic E v idence f r om t h e N ige r V a l ley a nd t h e S aha ra . A c tes d u I V e C o l loque E u ro -Af r i ca in s u r l ' H i s to i r e d u S ahara . p p .79 -109 . P a r i s & B e rgamo : C en t r e I n te rna t iona l d e R eche r che s S aha r ienne s e t S ahe l ienne s . F a r ia s ,d e Mo rae s ,P .F . 1 990 .T he O lde s tE x tan t Wr i t ing i n We s t A f r i ca . J ou rna l d e s A f r ican i s te s 6 0 ( 2 ) : 6 5 -113 . F a r ia s , d e Mo ra e s , P .F . 1 992 . A L e t te r f r om K i -To ro Mahamman G aan i , K ing o f B u sa . S udan i c A f r ica 3 :1 09 -32 . F a r ia s , d e Mo rae s , P .F . 1 995 . Med ieva l A rab ic I n sc r ip t ion s f r om E s suk , G ao , S aney a nd B en t ia . S aha ran S t ud i es A s soc ia t ion N ew s l e t te r 2( 2 ) :7 -8 . F il ipow iak ,W . 1 977 .R e su l t so fA r chaeo log ica lR e sea r ch a t N ian i .N yam eA kuma 1 :3 2 -3 . F i l ipow iak ,W . 1 979 .E tud e sA r cheo log ique ss ur l aC ap i ta le Mdd ieva l e d u Ma l i . S zczec in : Muzeum N a rodowe . F i l ipow iak , W . 1 981 . L e C omp lexe d u P a la i s R oya l e d u Ma l i . ( I n ) , L e S o l , L a P aro le e t LEcr i t . Mé lange s e n H ommage a R aymond Mauny . p p .71 -89 . P a r i s : S o c ie te F ran p i se d 'H i s to i r e d 'Ou t r e Me r . F i she r ,A . a nd F i she r ,H . 1 971 .S l avery a nd Mu s l im S oc i e ty i nA f r i ca .N ew Y o rk :D oub leday . F i she r ,H . J . 1 985 .T he J ugge rnau t 's A po log ia : C onve r s ion t o I s lam i nB la ck A f r ica .A f r i ca 5 5 (2 ) : 1 53 -73 . F l igh t , C . U nda ted a .T hough t s o n t h e C em e te ry a t S ane . U npub l i shed P ape r . C en t r e o f Wes t A f r ican S t ud ie s :U n ive r s i ty o fB i rm ingham . F l igh t ,C .U nda ted b .T en ta t iv eO u t l ine C hrono logy f or G ao t o 1 500 . U npub l i shed P ape r . C en tre o f We s t A f r ican S t ud ie s :U n ive r s i ty o fB i rm ingham . F l igh t , C . 1 972 . U npub l i shed F i e ld N o t e s . C en t re o f We s t A f r ican S t ud ie s :U n ive r s i ty o fB i rm ingham . F l igh t , C . 1 974 . U npub l i shed F i e ld N o tes . C en t re o f We s t A f r ican S t ud ie s :U n ive r s i ty o fB i rm ingham . F l igh t , C . 1 975a . G ao 1 972 : F i r s t I n te r im R epo r t : A P r el im ina ry I nve s t iga t ion o f t h e C eme te ry a t S ane . W e s tA f r i can J ourna l o fA rchaeo logy 5 : 8 1 -90 . F l igh t , C . 1 975b .E xcava t ion s a tG ao ( Republ i c o f Ma l i ) i n 1 974 .N yam eA kuma 7 :2 8 -9 . F l igh t , C . 1 978 . U npub l i shed F i e ld N o te s . C en t re o f We s t A f r ican S t ud ie s :U n ive r s i ty o fB i rm ingham . F l igh t , C . 1 978a . G ao 1 974 : S econd I n ter im R epor t . E x cava t ions i n t h e C eme tery a t S and . U npub l i shed P ape r . C en t r e o f We s t A f r ican

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a t J enne jeno , H a rnba rk e to lo , a nd K an iana ( I n land N iger D e l ta , Ma l i ) , t h e 1 98 1 S ea son . p p .214 -18 . L o s A nge le s : U n ive r s i ty o f C a l i for n ia P re s s . Mc In to sh , S .K . 1 995d . S tone , G la s s a nd B one . ( I n ) , S .K . Mc In to sh , ( ed . ) , E x cava t ions a t J enne f eno , H amba rk e to lo , a nd K an iana ( I n land N ige r D e l ta , Ma l i ) , t h e 1 98 1 S ea son . p p .246 -56 . L o s A nge le s : U n ive r s i ty o fC a l i fo rn ia P re s s . Mc In to sh , S .K . a nd R .J . 1 980 . P reh i s tor ic I nve s t iga t ions i n t h e R eg ion o f J enne , Ma l i . C amb r idge Monog r aphs i nA f r i can A r chaeo logy ,2 .O xfo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s . Mc In to sh , S .K . a nd R .J . 1 984 . A r chaeo log ica l R econna i ssance i n t h e R eg ion o f T imbuk tu , Ma l i . F ina l R epo r t t ot h e N a t iona l G eog raph ic S o c ie ty .H ou s ton : T exa s . Mc In to sh , S .K . a nd R .J . 1 984b . T he E a r ly C i ty i n We s t A f r ica : T owa rd s a n U nd e r s tand ing . T he A f r i can A r cha eo log i ca lR ev iew 2 :7 3 -98 . Mc In to sh , S .K . a nd R . J . 1 986b . A r chaeo log ica l R e conna i s sance i n t h e R eg ion o f T imbuk tu , Ma l i .N a t iona lG eograph i cR e sear ch 2 :3 02 -19 . Mc In to sh , S .K . a nd R . J . 1 988b . F rom S tone t o Me ta l : N ew P e r spe c t ive s o n t h e L a t e r P r eh i s to r y o f We s t A f r ica .J ou rna lo f Wor ld P r eh i s tor y2 :8 9 -133 . Mc In to sh , S .K . a nd R . J . 1 993 . F i e ld S u r vey i nt h e T umu lu s Z one o f S enega l . T he A f r i can A r chaeo log ica l R ev i ew 1 :7 3 -107 . McM i l lan , N .F . 1 975 . R epo r t o n t h e C ow r ie S he l l s . ( I n ) , C onnah , G , ( e d . ) , T he A r ch aeo logy o fB en in . p p .218 -20 . Ox fo rd : C la r endon P r e s s . Me r c ie r , M . 1 922 . L a C iv i l i sa t ion U rba ine a u M zab . A lg ie r s : U n ive r s i ty o fA lg i e r s . Me r c ie r , M . 1 928 . N o te s s u r u ne A r ch i te c tu r e B er n e re S aha r ienne .H e sper i s8 :4 13 -29 . M i lbu rn , M . 1 981 . We s te rn A i r a nd T ime r so i : A C on t r ibu t ion t o S tone Monumen t T ypo logy . ( I n ) , 2 000 A ns d 'H i s to i r e A f r i ca ine : L e S o l , L a P aro le e t l ' Ecr i t . Mé lange s e n H ommage ä R aymond Mauny . V o l 1 . p p .47 -64 . P a r i s : S oc ie te F rança i se d ' h i s to i r ed 'Ou t r e Me r . M ine r , H . 1 953 .T he P r im i t ive C i ty o fT i r nbuc too . P r ince ton : P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P r e s s . Mohamed i , A . 1 980 . I n fo rma t ion s u r l e s D e couve r te s R ecen te s e n C e r am ique Med ieva le E f f e c tuee s ä S e t i f ( A lge r ie ) . ( I n ) , L a C&am ique Mid iiva le e nMM i t er range O cc id en ta l e . p p .2 19 -20 .P a r i s : E d i t ion sd u CNRS . Mohammed ,I .M . 1 986 . T he A r chaeo logy o fC en t ra l Da rf u r ( S udan ) i n t h e i s t M i l len ium AD . C amb r idge Monog raphs i n A f r i can A r chaeo logy 1 4 . O xfo rd : B r i t i sh A r chaeo log i ca lR epo r t s . Mone s , H . 1 992 . T he C onque s t o fN o r th A f r ica a nd B e rbe r R e s is tance . ( I n ) , H rbek , I( e d . ) , U ne sco G enera l H i s to ry o fA f r ica . V o lum e 3 . A f r ica f r om t h e S ev en th t o t h e E leven th C en tu ry . ( Ab r idged E d i t ion ) .p p .118 -29 .L ondon : J ame sC u r r ey . Monod , T . 1 932 . L 'Ad ra r A hne t . C on t r ibu t ion ä l ' E tud e A rc Uo log ique d ' un D i s t r i c t S ahar i en . P a r i s :

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S haw , T . 1 96 1 . E xcava t ion a t Dawu . L ondon : T homa s N e l son a nd S on s . S haw , T . 1 970 . I gbo -Ukwu , a n A ccoun t o fA r chaeo log ica l D i scover ies i nE a s tern N iger ia . L ondon : F abe r a nd F abe r . S haw , T . 1 977 . U nea r th ing I gbo -Ukwu . I b adan : O xfo rd U n ive r s i ty P res s . S id ib e , S . 1 991 . R e conna i s sance s A rcheo log ique s a ux E nv i ron s d e D i r e ( 1 986 ) . ( I n ) , R a imbau l t , M . a nd S anogo , K . ( e d s . ) , R e cherche s A r chgo log iques a u Ma l i . p p .190 -202 . P a r is : K a r tha la . S immond s , D . 1 973 . A N o te o n t h e E xcava t ion s i n C ape C oa s t C a s t le . T ran sac t ions o f t h e H i s tor i ca l S oc i e ty o fG hana 1 4( 2 ) : 2 67 -69 . S k inne r , E .P . 1 980 . I s lam i n Mo s s i S oc ie ty . ( I n ) , L ew i s , I .M . ( e d . ) , I s lam i n T rop ica l A f r i ca . ( 2nd E d i t ion ) . p p .173 -93 .L ondon : H u t ch inson . Sm i th , A .B . 1 974 . P re l im ina ry R epo r t o f E xcava t ion s a t K a rka r ich inka t N o rd a nd K a rka r ich inka t S ud , T i lem s i V a l ley , R epubl i c o f Ma l i , S p r ing 1 972 . W es tA f r i can J ourna lo fA r chaeo logy 4 :3 3 -55 . Sm i th , A .B . 1 975 . A N o te o n t h e F lo ra a nd F auna f r om P o s t -Pa leo l i th ic S i te s o f K a rk a r ich inka t N o rd a nd S ud . We s tA f r ican J ourna l o fA r chaeo logy 5 :2 01-4 . Sm i th , A .B . 1 978 . T e r ra co t ta s f r om t h e T i lems i V a l ley , Ma l i . B u l le t in d e l ' I ns t i tu t F ondam en ta l d e l ' Af r ique N o i re ( B )4 0 : 2 23 -28 . Sm i th , A .B . 1 980 . T he N eol i th ic T rad i t ion i n t h e S aha ra . ( I n ) , W il iams , M a nd F au re , H . ( e d s . ) , T he S aha ra a nd t h e N i le . p p .451-65 . R o t te rdam : A .A . B a lkema . Sm i th , A .B . 1 992 . O r ig ins a nd S p read o f P a s to ra l i sm i n A f r ica . A nnua l R ev iew o f A n thropo logy 2 1 : 1 25 -41 . Sm i th , C . 1 976 . ( e d . ) , R eg iona l A na ly s i s . L ondon : A cadem ic P re s s . Sm i th , R .W . 1 957 . N ew F ind s o f A nc ien t G la s s i n N o r th A f r ica .A r sO r i en ta l i s2 :9 1 -117 . Sm i th , S .E . 1 980 . T he E nv i ronmen ta l A dap ta t ion o f N omad s i n t h e We s t A f r i can S ahe l : A K ey t o U nde r s tand ing P reh i s to r i c P a s to ra l i sm . ( I n ) , W il iams , M .A .J . a nd F au re , H . ( e d s . ) , T he S ahara a nd t h e N i l e . p p .467 -87 . R o t te rdam : A .A .Ba lkema . S to l le r , P . 1 992 . T he C inema t i c G r io t . T he E thnography o f J ean R ouch . C h icago : U n ive r s i ty o f C h i cago P r es s . S to l le r , P . a nd O lke s , C . 1 987 . I n S or cery ' s S hadow : A Memo i r o fA ppr en t i ce sh ip a mong t h e S onghay o fN iger .C h icago : C h icago U n ive r s i ty P re s s . S u t ton ,J . E .G . 1 991 .T he I n ter na t iona lF ac to ra tI g bo -Ukwu . T he A f r i can A rchaeo log i ca lR ev iew 9 :1 45 -60 . S w i f t , J .1 975 . P a s to ra l N omad i sm a s aF o rm o fL and -U se : T he T ua reg o ft h e A d ra r -n Ifo ra s . ( I n ) , Monod , T .( e d . ) ,P as tora l i sm i nT rop ica lA f r i ca . p p .443 5 4 .L ondon : I n ter na t iona lA f r ican I n s t i tu te . S zumow sk i , G . 1 955 . F ou ile s aK am i e tD ecouve r t e s d an s l aR eg ion d e Mop t i ( Soudan ) . N o t es A f r ica ine s

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P ar i s :

CA MBRIDGE M ONOGRAPHS I N AFRICAN ARCHAEOLOGY

BAR S 75 , 1 980 BAR S 89 , 1 980

BAR S 97 , 1 981

T he N iger D e l ta : A spe c ts o f i t s P reh i s tor ic E conomy a nd C u l ture b y Nwanna Nzewunwa . C amb r idge Monog raph si nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 1 .I SBN 08 6054 0 83 9 P reh is tor ic I nve s t iga t ion s i n t he R eg ion o f J enne , Ma l i : A S tudy i n t h e D eve lopmen t o f U rban i sm i n t h e S ahe l b y S u san K eech Mc In to sh a nd R oder ick J . Mc In to sh . C amb r idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 2 . I SBN 08 6054 1 03 7 Of f—S i te A rchaeo logy a nd Human A dap ta t ion i n E as tern A f r ica : A n A na ly s is o fR eg iona l A r tef ac t D en s i t y i nt h e Ambo se l i , S ou the rn K enya b y R ober t F o ley . C amb r idge Monog raph s i n

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C amb r idge Monog raph si nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 4 . I SBN 08 6054 1 34 7 S e t t lemen t P a t terns i nt he I ron A ge o fZ u lu land . A nE co log ica lI n terpre ta t ion b y Ma r t in Ha l l .

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C amb r idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A rchaeo logy 5 . I SBN 08 6054 1 43 6 T he N eo l i th ic P er iod i n t he S udan , c . 6 000-2500 B .C . b y A bba s S . Mohammed—Al i .

BAR S 195 . 1 984

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C amb r idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 6 . I SBN 08 6054 1 70 3 H is tory a nd E thnoarchaeo logy i nE as tern N iger ia A S t udy o fI gbo—Iga la r e la t ion s w i th s pec ia l r e f erence t o t h e A namb ra V a l l ey b y P h i l ip A d igwe O g uagha a nd A lex I k echukwu Okpoko . C amb r idge Monog raph si nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 7 . I SBN 08 6054 2 49 1 Mero i t ic S e t t lemen t i n t he C en tra l S udan A n A na ly s i s o fS i tes i n t h e N i le V a l ley a nd t h e W es te rn B u tana b yK h id i rA bde lka r im A hmed . C amb r idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 8 .

BAR S 20 1 , 1 984

I SBN 08 6054 2 52 1 E conomy a nd T echno logy i n t he L a te S tone A ge o f S ou thern N a ta l b y C ha r le s C ab le .

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BAR S 215 , 1 984

8 6054 2 68 8 A rchaeo logy a nd H is tory i nS ou thern N iger ia T he a nc ien tl i near e ar thwork s o fB en in a nd I s han b yP . J . D a r l ing . C amb r idge Monog raph si nA f r ican A rchaeo logy 1 . I SBN 08 6054 2 75 0

BAR S 213 , 1 984 BAR S 254 , 1 985 BAR S 285 , 1 986 BAR S 293 , 1 986 BAR S 318 , 1 986 BAR S 32 1 , 1 987 BAR S 338 , 1 987

BAR S 339 , 1 987 BAR S 350 , 1 987

T he L a ter S tone A ge o f S ou thernmo s t A f r ica b y J ane t te D eacon . C ambr idge Monog raph s i n A f r ican A r chaeo logy 1 2 . I SBN 08 6054 2 76 9 F i sher—Hun ter s a nd N eo l i th ic P a s tora l is ts i n E a s t T urkana , K enya b y J ohn Web s te r B a r the lme . C amb r idge Monog raph si nA f r ican A rchaeo logy 1 3 . I SBN 08 6054 3 25 0 T he A rchaeo logy o f C en tra l D ar fur ( Sudan ) i n t he i s t M i l lenn ium A .D . b y I b rah im Musa Mohammed . C ambr idge Monog raphs i nA f r ican A rchaeo logy 1 4 . I SBN 08 6054 3 67 6 S tab le C arbon I s o tope s a nd P reh i s tor ic D ie t s i n t he S ou th— We s tern C ape P rov ince , S ou th A f r ica b yJ ud i th S ea ly . C ambr idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 1 5 . I SBN 08 6054 3 76 5 L 'ar t r upe s tre p reh is tor ique d e s mas s if s c en traux s ahar iens b y A lf red Muzzo l in i . C ambr idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 1 6 . I SBN 08 6054 4 06 0 S pher iods a nd B a t tered S tone s i n t he A f r ican E ar ly a nd M idd le S tone A ge b y P ame la R . W i l loughby . C amb r idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A rchaeo logy 1 7 . I SBN 08 6054 4 10 9 T he R oya l C rowns o f K ush A s t udy i nM idd le N i le V a l ley r e ga l ia a nd i c onography i nt h e i s t m i l lenn ia B .C . a nd A .D . b y L äz lö T ö rök . C ambr idge Monog raph s i n A f r ican A r chaeo logy 1 8 . I SBN 08 6054 4 32 X T he L a ter S tone A ge o ft he D raken sberg R ange a nd i t s F oo th i l l s b y H . Opperman . C amb r idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 1 9 . I SBN 08 6054 4 37 0 S oc io—Econom ic D if f eren t ia t ion i n t he N eo l i th ic S udan b y R and i Haa land . C amb r idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 2 0 . I SBN 08 6054 4 53 2

BAR S 351 , 1 987

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L a ter S tone A ge S e t t lemen t P a t tern s i nt he S andve ld o ft he S ou th— We s tern C ape P rov ince , S ou th A f r ica b y A n thony Manh i re . C amb r idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A rchaeo logy 2 1 . I SBN 0 8 6054 4 54 0 L 'ar t r upe s tre d u F ezzan s ep ten tr iona l ( L ibye ) W idyan Z r eda e tT aru t ( Wad i e sh—Sha t i ) b y J ean—Lo i cL eQ ue l lec .C amb r idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A rchaeo logy 2 2 . I SBN 08 6054 4 73 7

BAR S 368 , 1 987

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A rchaeo logy a nd E nv ironmen t i nt he L ibyan S ahara T he e x cava t ion s i nt h e T ad ra r t A cacu s , 1 978-1983 e d i ted b y B a rba ra E . B a r ich . C amb r idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A rchaeo logy 2 3 . I SBN 08 6054 4 74 5 T he E ar ly F armer s o fT ranske i , S ou thern A f r ica B ef or e A .D . 1 870 b y J .M . F ee ly . C amb r idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 2 4 . I SBN 08 6054 4 86 9

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BAR 523 . 1 989 BAR S 537 , 1 989 BAR S 54 1 , 1 989

BAR S 640 , 1 996

L a te r S tone A g e H un ter s a nd G a the rer s o f t he S ou thern T ran svaa l S o c ia l a nd e co log i ca l i n te rp r e ta t ion b yL yn Wad ley .C amb r idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 2 5 . I SBN 08 6054 4 92 3 P reh i s tor ic C u l ture s a nd E nv ironmen t s i n t h e L a te Qua te rnary o f A f r ica e d i ted b y J ohn B owe ra nd D av id L ub e l l . C amb r idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 2 6 . I SBN 08 6054 5 20 2 Z ooarchaeo logy i nt he M idd le N i le V a l ley A S t ud yo ffo ur N eo l i th i cS i t e sn ea rK har toum b yA l i T igan iE l Mah i .C amb r idge Monog raph si nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 2 7 . I SBN 08 6054 5 39 3 L 'Anc ienne Me ta l lurg ie d uF er aMadaga scar b yC han ta lR ad im i lahy . C amb r idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 2 8 .I SBN 08 6054 5 44 X E l G e i l i T he H i s to ry o f aM idd l e N i l e E nv i ronmen t , 7 000 B .C .—A .D . 1 500 e d i ted b y I .C aneva . C amb r idge Monog raph si nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 2 9 .I SBN 08 60 54 5 48 2 T he E thnoarchaeo logy o f t h e Z aghawa o f D ar fur ( Sudan ) S e t t lemen t a nd T ransc ience b y N a ta l ie T ob e r t .C amb r idge Monog raph si nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 3 0 . I SBN 08 6054 5 74 1 S he l lf ish i n P reh i s tor ic D ie t E land s B ay , S .W . C ape C oa s t , S ou th A f r i ca b y W .F . B uchanan . C amb r idge Monog raph si nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 3 1 .I SBN 08 60 54 5 84 9 H ou louf IA r ch e 'o log ie d e s s o c ii ti s p ro toh i s to r ique s d u N o rd—Came roun b y A ugu s t in H o l l . C amb r idg e Monog raph si nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 3 2 .I SBN 08 60 54 5 86 5 T he P redyna s t ic L i th ic I ndu s tr ie s o f U ppe r E gyp t b y L ian e L . H o lme s . C amb r idge Monog raph si nA f r ican A r cha eo logy 3 3 . I SBN 08 6054 6 0 1 2( t wo v o lume s ) F i sh ing S i te s o fN or th a nd E a s t A f r ica i n t h e L a te P l e i s tocene a nd H o lo cene E nv ironmen ta l C hange a nd H uman A dap ta t ion b y K a th lyn Moo r e S t ewa r t . C amb r idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 3 4 . I SBN 08 6054 6 62 4 P lan t D ome s t ica t ion i nt h e M idd le N i le B a s in A nA r chaeoe thnobo tan i ca lC ase S t udy b y A nwa r A bde l—Mag id .C amb r idge Monog raph si nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 3 5 .I SBN 08 6054 6 64 0 A rchaeo logy a nd S e t t lemen t i n U ppe r N ub ia i n t h e i s t M i l lenn ium A .D . b y D av id N . E dwa rd s .C amb r idge Monog raph si nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 3 6 . I SBN 08 6054 6 82 9 P reh is tor ic S e t t lemen t a nd S ub s i s tence i n t h e K aduna V a l ley , N iger ia b y Ko lawo le D av id A iyedun a nd T hu r s tan S haw . C amb r idge Monog raph s i nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 3 7 . I SBN 08 6054 6 84 5 T he A rchaeo logy o ft he Mero i t ic S ta te N ew p e r spe c t ive so ni t ss o c ia la nd p o l i t ica lo rgan i sa t ion b yD av id N .E dwa rd s . C amb r idge Monog raph si nA f r ican A r chaeo logy 3 8 . I SBN 08 60 54 8 25 2