Integrating Educational Technology into Teaching: Transforming Learning Across Disciplines [RENTAL EDITION] [9 ed.] 0137544677, 9780137544677

Table of contents :
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
BEP
Dedication
About the Authors
Preface
Pedagogical Features of This Text
Breif Contents
Contents
Part 1 Technology Integration and Leadership in Education
1 Educational Technology in Context: The Big Picture
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
The “Big Picture” of Educational Technology
How This Textbook Defines Educational Technology
Educational Technology Across Time
How What We Have Learned from the Past Shapes our Future
Established and Emerging Educational Technology Trends
Trends in Hardware and Software Innovation
Educational Trends Leveraging Technology Innovations
Today’s Essential Conditions That Shape Technology Integration
Leadership Conditions
Political Conditions
Infrastructure Conditions
Safety Conditions
Equity and Social Justice Conditions
Chapter 1 Summary
Technology Integration Workshop
2 Theory into Practice: Educational Processes for Transformative Technology Integration
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Learning Theory Foundations of Directed Pedagogical Models
Behaviorist Theories
Information‐Processing Theories
Cognitive‐Behaviorist Theory
Systems Approaches: Instructional Design Models
Theoretical Foundations for Directed Pedagogy and Technology Integration Strategies
Learning Theory Foundations of Social Constructivist Pedagogical Models
Social Activism Theory
Social Cognitive Theory
Scaffolding Theories
Child Development Theory
Discovery Learning
Critical Pedagogy
Social Constructivist Theory Foundations for Technology Integration Methods
Technology Integration Pedagogical Strategies Based on Directed and Social Constructivist Theories
Pedagogy and Assessment in Directed and Social Constructivist Theories
Technology Integration Strategies Based on Directed Models
Technology Integration Strategies Based on Social Constructivist Models
Technology Integration Strategies Useful for Either Model
Today’s Content and Educational Technology Standards
State Standards and Content Standards
ISTE Standards for Students
Chapter 2 Summary
Technology Integration Workshop
3 Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Technology Resources for Teaching and Learning
Hardware Setup for Classrooms
Software Applications in Schools
Configurations of Digital Devices
Alignment of Device Configurations with Pedagogical Approaches
Technology Expertise
The ISTE Standards for Educators
The Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge Framework
Technology Support
Networked Professional Learning Communities For Educators
Technological Resources and Strategies for Networked Learning
Benefits and Challenges of Being Connected Educators
Building a Professional Online Identity
A Professional Rationale For Educational Technology
A Technology‐Use Rationale Based on Transformation
Planning For Educational Technology Integration in Context
A Technology Integration Planning Model
Chapter 3 Summary
Technology Integration Workshop
Part 2 Digital Content for Learning
4 The Web and Web‐Based Content Resources
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Introduction to the Web
Navigating the Web
Downloading Software, Plug‐Ins, and Apps
Basic Web Troubleshooting
Searching the Web for Information
Search Engines
Search Tools and Strategies
Research and Reference Tools
Information Literacy Skill Development
Online Safety and Digital Citizenship
Online Safety and Security Issues
Online Ethical and Legal Issues
Digital Citizenship
Online Educational Content
Archived Online Content
Interactive or Immersive Web Content
Live Web Content
Open Educational Resources
Locating OER
Benefits of OER
Challenges of Using OER
Evaluation and Integration of Web Content For Instruction
Evaluation Framework for Web Content
Integration Strategies for Web Content
Chapter 4 Summary
Technology Integration Workshop
5 Instructional Content Software for Student Learning
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Introduction to Instructional Software
Definition of Instructional Software
Teaching Functions in Instructional Software
Selecting Appropriate Instructional Software
Characteristics of Drill‐And‐Practice Functions
Benefits of Drill and Practice
Challenges Related to Drill and Practice
Integration Strategies and Guidelines for Using Drill and Practice
Selecting Appropriate Drill‐and‐Practice Software
Characteristics of Tutorial Functions
Benefits of Tutorials
Challenges Related to Tutorials
Integration Strategies and Guidelines for Using Tutorials
Selecting Appropriate Tutorial Software
Characteristics of Adaptive, Personalized Learning Functions
Benefits of PLSs
Challenges Related to PLSs
Integration Strategies for Using PLSs
Selecting Appropriate PLSs
Characteristics of Simulation Functions
Benefits of Simulations
Challenges Related to Simulations
Integration Strategies and Guidelines for Using Simulations
Selecting Appropriate Simulations
Characteristics of Game and Gamification Functions
Benefits of Instructional Games
Challenges Related to Instructional Games
Integration Strategies and Guidelines for Using Instructional Games
Selecting Appropriate Instructional Games
Characteristics of Problem‐Solving Software
Benefits of Problem‐Solving Software
Challenges Related to Problem‐Solving Software
Integration Strategies and Guidelines for Using Problem‐Solving Software
Selecting Appropriate Problem‐Solving Software
Chapter 5 Summary
Technology Integration Workshop
Part 3 Digital Resources for Critical Thinking, Creating, Communicating, and Collaborating in Blended and Online Contexts
6 Design, Analysis, and Creation
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Digital Writing and Publishing
Integration Strategies for Writing and Publishing
Instructional Strategies for Writing and Publishing
Benefits of Digital Writing and Publishing
Challenges in Digital Writing and Publishing
Creating Multimodal Representations
Integration Strategies for Digital Representations
Instructional Strategies for Digital Representations
Benefits of Using Digital Representations
Challenges of Using Digital Representations
Data, Analysis, and Assessment
Integration Strategies for Data, Analysis, and Assessment
Instructional Strategies Using Data, Analysis, and Assessment
Benefits of Using Data, Analysis, and Assessment
Challenges of Using Data, Analysis, and Assessment
Chapter 6 Summary
Technology Integration Workshop
7 Communication, Collaboration, and Making
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Digital Communications
E‐mail, Listservs, and Groups
Text and Instant Messaging
Calendar and Scheduling
Audio and Video Communications
Integration Strategies for Digital Communication
Digital Collaboration
Social Networking
Blogs
Microblogs
Content Curation
Wikis
Videoconferencing
Learning Management Systems and Multi‐feature Workspaces
Digital Making
Computer Programming and Coding
Robotics
3D Modeling and Animation
Game and App Design and Development
Building in Virtual Worlds
Building Augmented Reality
Web Design and Development
Integration Strategies for Digital Making
Chapter 7 Summary
Technology Integration Workshop
8 Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Blended Learning
Blended Learning Models
Benefits of Blended Learning
Challenges of Blended Learning
Integration Strategies for Blended Learning
Online Learning
Online Courses and Schools
Benefits of Online Learning
Challenges of Online Learning
Integration Strategies for Online Learning
Teaching Online Courses
Technology Infrastructure and Support Resources for Online Teaching
Management of Online Small‐Group Activities
Designing and Developing an Online Course in an LMS or Workspace
Chapter 8 Summary
Technology Integration Workshop
Part 4 Integrating Technology Across the Disciplines
9 Teaching and Learning with Technology in Special Education
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Introduction to Special Education
Issues and Challenges in Special Education
Special Education and Inclusion Requirements
Policy Drivers of Technology Use in Special Education
Educational Accountability in Special Education
Challenges in Special Education Technology
Technology Integration Strategies to Meet Special Needs
Foundations of Integration Strategies for Special Education
Technology Strategies for Students with Cognitive Disabilities
Technology Strategies for Students with Physical Disabilities
Technology Strategies for Students with Sensory Disabilities
Technology Strategies for Students with Speech and Language Impairments
Technology Strategies for Students with Gifts and Talents
Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Students with Special Needs
Chapter 9 Summary
Technology Integration Workshop
10 Teaching and Learning with Technology in English and Language Arts
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Issues and Challenges in English and Language Arts
Teachers’ Changing Responsibilities for the New Literacies
New Instructional Strategies to Address New Needs
Classrooms’ Increasingly Diverse Learners
Motivating Students to Read and Write
Transitioning to Transformational Learning
Technology Integration Strategies for English and Language Arts
Strategies to Support Word Fluency and Vocabulary Development
Strategies to Support Reading Comprehension and Literacy Development
Strategies to Support Teaching Information and Media Literacies
Strategies to Support Teaching the Writing Process
Strategies to Support Multimodal Communication and Digital Publishing
Strategies to Support Learning Literature
Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies as Literacy Professionals
Chapter 10 Summary
Technology Integration Workshop
11 Teaching and Learning Languages with Technology
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Issues and Challenges for Teaching English Learners in English‐Speaking Contexts
Characteristics of a Growing and Diverse English Learner Population
The Responsibility for Academic and Language Development by Content‐Area Teachers
Integrating English Learners’ Native Languages
The Need to Differentiate Instruction
Selecting Appropriate Technology Tools for Content and Language Learning
Issues and Challenges in Foreign Language Learning
The Need for Authentic Materials and Perspectives
The Need to Create Audience and Purpose
Technology Integration Strategies for EL and FL Instruction
Learning and Assessing Reading and Listening Comprehension Skills Using Authentic Multimedia Resources
Producing, Presenting, and Sharing Multimedia Expressions
Explaining Concepts and Assessing Knowledge
Conferencing and Collaborating Virtually
Modified Language Immersion Experiences
Online Learning
Practicing Language Subskills
Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies
Chapter 11 Summary
Technology Integration Workshop
12 Teaching and Learning with Technology in Science, Engineering, and Mathematics
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Introduction to STEM and STEM Integration
What Is STEM Integration Instruction?
Issues and Challenges in Science Instruction
Accountability for Standards in Science
An Increasing Need for Scientific and Engineering Literacy
Difficulties in Teaching K–8 Science
Designing for Ambitious Teaching and Inquiry
Technology Integration Strategies for Science Instruction
Involving Students in Scientific Inquiry through Authentic Online Citizen Science Projects
Involving Students in Scientific Inquiry through Virtual Experiences
Supporting NGSS: Three‐Dimensional Science Learning
Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Science
Issues and Challenges in Engineering Instruction
The Relationship between Engineering and Technology
Accountability for Teaching Engineering
Difficulties in Teaching K–12 Engineering
Technology Integration Strategies in Engineering Instruction
Developing Technical Communication of Engineering Thinking and Design
Engaging Students in Engineering Thinking through Makerspaces
Engaging Students in Engineering through Programming, Robotics, and Simulations
Supporting Students in Learning to Work on Engineering Teams
Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Engineering
Issues and Challenges in Mathematics Instruction
Accountability for Standards in Mathematics
Challenges in Implementing the State Standards for School Mathematics
Bringing Research‐Based Technology Practices into the Classroom
Technology Integration Strategies for Mathematics Instruction
Visualizing the Abstract with Virtual Manipulatives
Building and Exploring Representations of Mathematical Principles
Supporting Mathematical Problem Solving
Developing Data Literacy
Supporting Mathematics‐Related Communication
Motivating Skill Building and Practice
Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Mathematics
Chapter 12 Summary
Technology Integration Workshop
13 Teaching and Learning with Technology in Social Studies
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Issues and Challenges in Social Studies Instruction
Achieving Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Social Studies
Meeting Standards across Social Studies Areas
Critical Consumption of Online Content
The Need to Consider All Historical Resources as Perspective‐Laden
Setting Instructional Purposes for Technology
Technology Integration Strategies for Social Studies
Videoconferencing for Global Citizenship Education
Using Simulations and Problem‐Solving Environments
Virtual Field Trips
Information Visualization Strategies
Geospatial Analysis Strategies
Accessing Primary Sources
Social Media Integration
Digital Research and Analysis Strategies
Digital Storytelling
Online Learning in Social Studies
Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Social Studies
Chapter 13 Summary
Technology Integration Workshop
14 Teaching and Learning with Technology in Music and Visual Art
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Issues and Challenges in Music Instruction
A Changing Definition for Music Literacy
Preparing Teachers to Meet Music Standards
Ethical Issues for Music Educators
The Intersection of Popular Music, Technology, and Music Instruction
Technology Integration Strategies for Music Instruction
Support for Music Composition and Production
Support for Music Performance
Support for Self‐Paced Learning and Practice
Support for Teaching Music History
Support for Interdisciplinary Strategies
Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Music
Issues and Challenges in Visual Art Instruction
Impact of Technology on the Visual Arts in Education and Society
Meeting Standards in Visual Art Instruction
Design and Innovation in Visual Art Education
Accessing Images Used in Visual Art Instruction
Inclusion of Creations by Marginalized Populations
Integrating Visual Art with Other Disciplines
Technology Integration Strategies for Visual Arts Instruction
Accessing Art Content for Teaching and Learning
Visiting Art and Design Museums Virtually
Producing and Manipulating Digital Images
Supporting Artistic and Design Creation
Creating Films as an Art Form
Supporting Student Creation, Publication, and Sharing
Teaching Visual Arts Online
Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Visual Arts
Chapter 14 Summary
Technology Integration Workshop
15 Teaching and Learning with Technology in Health and Physical Education
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Issues and Challenges in Health and Physical Education
The Link between Physical Inactivity, Diet, and Obesity
National Standards for Health and Physical Education and Barriers for Quality Programs
Accuracy of Web‐Based Information on Health and Physical Education
Handling Controversial Health Topics
Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child Model
Technology Integration Strategies for Health and Physical Education
Improving Instructional Effectiveness in Physical Education
Organizing Teaching to Maximize Practice Opportunities
Providing Feedback and Conducting Assessments
Monitoring Physical Activity, Physical Fitness, and Nutrition
Accommodating Students with Special Needs
Helping Students Obtain Valid Health Information
Influencing Health‐Related Behaviors within and Beyond School
Providing Online Health and Physical Education Opportunities
Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Health and Physical Education
Chapter 15 Summary
Technology Integration Workshop
Appendices
Appendix A ISTE Standards for Educators - Survey
Appendix B Multimedia Presentation Project Checklist Example
Appendix C Rubric Example
Appendix D Likert Scale Assessment Example
Appendix E Semantic Differential Assessment Example
Appendix F Observation Instrument Example
Appendix G Replacement, Amplification, Transformation (RAT) Matrix
Appendix H Technology Impact Checklist
Appendix I Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist
Glossary
References
Name Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Subject Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
Z

Citation preview

Integrating Educational Technology into Teaching: Transforming Learning Across Disciplines 9th Edition

Joan E. Hughes The University of Texas at Austin

M.D. Roblyer Retired

Content Development: Jeffery Johnston Content Management: Rebecca Fox-Gieg Content Production: Yagnesh Jani Product Management: Drew Bennett Product Marketing: Krista Clark Rights and Permissions: Jenell Forschler Please contact https://support.pearson.com/getsupport/s/ with any queries on this content Cover Image by Lisegagne/E+/Getty Image. Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2016 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, 221 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. All Rights Reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. For information regarding permissions, request forms, and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights and Permissions department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/. Acknowledgments of third-party content appear on the appropriate page within the text. PEARSON are exclusive trademarks owned by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates in the U.S. and/or other countries. Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks, logos, or icons that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners, and any references to third-party trademarks, logos, icons, or other trade dress are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates, authors, licensees, or distributors. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Hughes, Joan E., author. | Roblyer, M. D. author. Title: Integrating educational technology into teaching : transforming learning across disciplines / Joan E. Hughes, M.D. Roblyer. Description: 9th edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Pearson, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2021062829 | ISBN 9780137544677 (paperback) Subjects: LCSH: Educational technology--United States. | Computer-assisted instruction--United States. | Curriculum planning--United States. Classification: LCC LB1028.3 .R595 2023 | DDC 371.330973--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021062829

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For all educators, including those in my family: my mother Judith Hughes (retired middle school teacher and vice-principal); siblings Deidre Hughes (community college professor), Thomas Hughes (high school teacher), Eileen Hughes (former high school teacher), and brotherin-law Craig Holliday (high school teacher); niece Margaret Hughes (paraprofessional); and parents-in-law Diane Stehr (retired all-grades special education teacher) and Paul Klancher (retired high school teacher). —JEH

For Bill and Paige Wiencke, whose love is, as Arthur Clarke said of advanced technology, indistinguishable from magic. —MDR

About the Authors Joan E. Hughes has been a technology-using educator and contributor to the educational technology field for nearly 30 years and has authored or coauthored more than 100 publications, including books, book chapters, journal articles, proceedings, and research and practitioner conference papers worldwide. After earning a bachelor of arts degree in English from Pomona College, she began working in the educational technology field as an elementary and middle school computer teacher in the Silicon Valley area of California in the early 1990s. As a classroom teacher, she presented often at the CUE Conference (known then as Computer Using Educators) and coauthored (with Terry Maxwell) her first book, The CompuResource Book, a collection of technology-supported lessons. Later, she pursued her doctorate in educational psychology with emphasis on cognition and technology at Michigan State University where she taught courses for preservice teachers in Michigan and inservice teachers internationally in Korea, Japan, Thailand, and England. Her earliest doctoral research developed the concept of technological pedagogical content knowledge, a theory generated from case studies of English teachers’ learning and use of technologies in schools. This theory has been adapted and adopted widely. Currently, Dr. Hughes is Associate Professor of Learning Technologies at The University of Texas at Austin where she conducts research and instructs on how teachers and K–12 students use technologies in and outside the classroom for subject-area learning; how school leaders support classroom technology integration; and how educators are technological innovators and valuable contributors in the edtech ecosystem. She serves on editorial and review boards for several teaching and technology journals and has contributed to leadership of technology-related special interest groups. She is highly supportive of her students’ educational objectives and has guided 56 doctoral and 56 master of arts and master of education degree students to complete dissertations, theses, or reports. She is married to Lee Klancher, a writer, photographer, and publisher (Octane Press). They spend time exercising their dog (currently, an adopted German shorthaired pointer named Red Cloud), running, biking, cooking, eating, and camping in Austin and around the world. M. D. Roblyer was a technology-using professor and contributor to the field of educational technology for 35 years. She authored or coauthored hundreds of books, monographs, articles, columns, and papers on educational technology research and practice. Her other books for Pearson Education include Starting Out on the Internet: A Learning Journey for Teachers; Technology Tools for Teachers: A Microsoft Office Tutorial (with Steven C. Mills); Educational Technology in Action: Problem-Based Exercises for Technology Integration; and the most recent text, Introduction to Instructional Design for Traditional, Online, and Blended Environments (2015). Dr. Roblyer began her exploration of technology’s benefits for teaching in 1971 as a graduate student at Pennsylvania State University, one of the country’s first successful instructional computer training sites, where she helped write tutorial literacy lessons in the Coursewriter II authoring language on an IBM 1500 dedicated instructional mainframe computer. While obtaining a doctorate in instructional systems at Florida State University, she worked on several major courseware development and training projects with Control Data Corporation’s PLATO system. In 1981–1982, she designed one of the early microcomputer software series, Grammar Problems for Practice, for the Milliken Publishing Company. Dr. Roblyer retired in 2015 after having served as a teacher, professor, graduate student mentor, doctoral student dissertation chair and committee member, and leader in shaping educational technology’s changing role since 1969. She lives in Chattanooga, Tennessee, and is completing work on a memoir of her early life. She is married to fellow Florida State alumnus Dr. William R. Wiencke and a proud mother of daughter Paige Roblyer Wiencke.

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Preface About This Book During a time when nearly everything else is changing rapidly and radically, the mission of this textbook has remained steady and consistent: to reflect the burgeoning, evolving role of technology in education. The book’s 25-year history has always documented new and significant transitions in the role of technology in education, and the ninth edition continues that work. This edition continues its commitment to developing teachers as technology leaders, prioritizing transformative technology integration in the classroom, emphasizing unique affordances of technology for 12 content-area disciplines, and positioning all practices in relation to contemporary educational research perspectives. This edition also launches keen attention to the current issues of digital inequity in our society that influence children’s educational success. The text includes four sections that position the reader as a teacher learner and leader of transformative technology integration. The first section provides a definition of educational technology and the historical underpinnings of the field that inform our current practices, the learning theories that shape pedagogy, and a technology integration planning model that guides teachers to design technology-supported pedagogy that is responsive to instructional, curricular, or learning challenges. It provides the foundation for teachers to problem-solve, learn and lead through online networks, build a compelling online professional identity, and employ a professional rationale for using technology in all decision making. The second and third sections introduce the technological resources that support teaching and learning. The second section focuses on the digital content teachers and students use for learning. It reviews the content available on the web as well as within instructional software. These chapters also provide helpful evaluation criteria for use in reviewing and selecting digital content for adoption. The third section presents the digital resources that facilitate critical thinking, design, analysis, creation, communication, and collaboration. Ultimately, educators use all these digital resources to build blended or online learning lessons or curricula. The fourth section continues this book’s commitment to technology integration in content-area disciplines with a chapter specific to the following content areas: special education; English and language arts (ELA); second and foreign languages; science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM); social studies; music and art; and physical and health education. We go well beyond describing the technical features and capabilities of 21st-century digital resources to focus steadfastly on the research-based teaching and learning strategies that these resources can support in content areas. The purpose of this book is to show how teachers can shape the future of technology in education. How teachers respond to this challenge is guided by how the authors see it helping educators accomplish their own informed vision of what teaching and learning should be. Our approach to accomplishing this rests on four premises: 1. Integrating educational technology should be based in learning theory, teaching practice, and curriculum.  There is no shortage of innovative ideas in the field of educational technology; new and interesting methods come forth about as often as new and improved gadgets. Those who would build on the knowledge of the past should know why they do what they do as well as how to do it. Thus, various technology-based integration strategies are linked to well-researched theories of learning, and we have illustrated them with examples of successful practices based on these theories. 2. A combination of technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge optimizes technology integration.  This textbook maintains that teachers not only need to

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Preface vii

know the content they are teaching and good pedagogical strategies for connecting students with content, but also must recognize how to integrate technology into pedagogy to achieve the greatest impact on desired outcomes. In other words, teachers need what the field now refers to as technological pedagogical content knowledge, TPCK, or TPACK (described in Chapter 3). 3. Uses of technology should match specific teaching and learning needs.  Some technology resources have the power to improve teaching and learning. Therefore, each resource should be examined for its unique qualities and potential benefits for teachers and students. Teachers should not use a tool simply because it is new and available; each integration strategy should be matched to a recognized need. Teachers should absolutely experiment as long as they begin with a problem of practice and carefully evaluate the outcome. The T ­ echnology Integration Planning model introduced in Chapter 3 guides teachers in this process. 4. Old integration strategies are not necessarily bad; new strategies are not necessarily good.  As technologies change and evolve at lightning speed, there is a tendency to throw out older teaching methods with older machines. Sometimes this is a good idea; sometimes it would be a loss. Each of the integration strategies and technology resources recommended in this book are based on methods with proven usefulness to teachers and students toward solving learning needs rather than its age. The goal of this edition is for teachers to see more clearly their leadership role in shaping the future of technology in education. This book illustrates that great education means employing technologies to fulfill the vision they make possible—a worldwide social network and a global community that learns and grows together.

What’s New in the Ninth Edition Best known for its technology integration strategies grounded in strong research, the ninth edition of Integrating Educational Technology into Teaching: Transforming Learning Across Disciplines offers a total technology integration framework across all content areas. It also gives teachers practice with technology resources as they learn how to incorporate technology to support curriculum in ways that transform instruction and learning. And as usual, this edition includes additions that reflect changes in the field of educational technology. • A NEW Focus on Digital Equity.  Each chapter includes a key feature highlighting a digital equity issue relevant to the chapter’s thematic content, such as definitions of digital equity and justice; ways to use technology for equitable learning practices; an overview of the universal design for learning framework; current statistics on Internet access in students’ homes; ways to move from inequitable, passive digital practices to humanized and empowered digital learning in classrooms; and examinations of the representation of minoritized children (e.g., girls, students of color, students with learning needs, and students of lower socioeconomic means) in digital innovation learning contexts like makerspaces and in online learning opportunities. We also provide practical suggestions for teachers to take action to examine each issue in locally relevant ways. • A NEW Commitment to Social Constructivism.  In Chapter 2, the text provides an exhaustive review of both directed and social constructivist theories and beliefs and describes how these contribute to differing pedagogical strategies with technology because both approaches exist within K–12 schools. Yet, throughout the text, the authors predominantly exemplify technological pedagogy in alignment with social constructivism because these approaches situate children in agentic,

viii Preface active, and hands-on learning with technologies. All chapters open with a richly described Technology Integration in Action scenario and include several Technology Integration Example lessons throughout, all aligned with the chapter’s thematic content and crafted to help teachers discern the value of social constructivism in digital learning. • A NEW Acknowledgment on Technology’s Role in Local and Global Disasters.  Chapters highlight how technology can exacerbate or ameliorate educational challenges during global disasters, such as our current COVID-19 pandemic, and during local disasters, such as forest fires, hurricanes, tornados, floods, and earthquakes. Examples describe how the pandemic illuminated the entrenched digital inequities in our society, such as lower access to broadband Internet and home computing devices by many families in our communities, that decreased their access to education when separated from physical school buildings. On the other hand, access to digital technologies, high-speed Internet, and high-quality online learning experiences help maintain children’s access to education during such physical separations. The overall goal of the text is to prepare teachers to be pedagogically ready to plan and teach in blended and fully online modalities, while also anticipating and advocating for students who may experience issues with digital access. • NEW Research Perspectives.  Every topic in every single chapter reflects the newest educational research perspectives since 2016, when the last edition of this text was published. We conduct comprehensive reviews of the research literature to ensure that our practical recommendations for teachers are research based. This research directly informs the chapters’ sections that review the benefits, challenges, integration strategies, and selection or evaluation criteria related to the myriad of digital resources included in the text. While the idea of “research” may seem distant to classroom practitioners, it is important to remember that all educational research occurs in classrooms in collaboration with children and their parents and teachers and school leaders. Research allows us to understand educational practice and perspectives in collective and organized ways so teachers can glean insights from those who have come before them. • NEW Examples and Videos.  This text reflects real educational technology practices in real schools. Chapters include numerous new technology integration ideas, lessons, perspectives, and videos exemplifying the reviewed digital resources and pedagogical approaches. These depicted technology integration practices are sourced from practitioner magazines, conferences (such as ISTE), teacher blogs and tweets, and from the research literature. New videos are organized to match the chapter’s thematic content and are sourced from real classrooms and from YouTube videos published by nonprofit organizations, schools and teachers, and educational technology companies.

Key Content Updates by Chapter • Chapter 1.  Updated the definition of educational technology and the integrating educational technology framework that aligns with the Technology Integration Planning (TIP) model introduced in Chapter 3 and used throughout the book; added the digital justice era into the depiction of educational technology across time; updated the emerging digital resources and trends in blended and online learning, games and gamification, personalized learning, maker and DIY, computational thinking, and immersive learning; added information about digital privacy, health and wellbeing, digital identity, and digital equity and justice in the conditions that influence the environment for using technology.

Preface ix

• Chapter 2.  Reorganized the learning outcomes to align with the first triangle of the integrating educational technology framework that focuses on educational processes—learning theories, pedagogy, and curriculum/content—as introduced in Chapter 1; removed multiple intelligences theory; added a description of critical pedagogy and its implications for practice and for technology integration; added descriptions of each of the most current ISTE Standards for Students (2016); and added new Technology Integration Examples. • Chapter 3.  Reorganized the first learning outcome to align with the second triangle of the integrating educational technology framework that focuses on technology resources–technology tools, technology expertise, and technology support–as introduced in Chapter 1; added an author-designed survey for teachers to gauge their expertise based on the most current ISTE Standards for Educators (2017); updated sections on how teachers can become and the value of being connected learners through online networks; updated the TIP model (previously in ­Chapter 2), which guides teachers in planning technology-integrated lessons from an ­asset-based ­orientation and includes the RAT assessment model for determining relative advantage of technology in lessons. • Chapter 4  (previously Chapter 6). Relocated as the first chapter of Part 2, Digital Content for Learning; added lateral reading as a strategy for online information literacy; added a digital well-being section to safety and security; added digital justice issues related to use of online proctoring software; updated all technological resources to the most current. • Chapter 5.  Reordered the instructional software by its predominant alignment with directed (learning outcome 5.2) or with social constructivist learning theories (learning outcome 5.3); added a new Technology Integration in Action scenario at chapter opening; updated all technological resources to the most current; described perspectives that frame some instructional software as deficit-based and dehumanizing; included a comparison table of aspects of humanized and dehumanized personalization built into instructional software; added cautionary information related to use of simulations or games that involve content involving racial and social oppression. • Chapter 6  (previously Chapter 4). Relocated as the first chapter of Part 3, Digital Resources for Critical Thinking, Creating, Communicating, and Collaborating in Blended and Online Contexts; reframed the learning outcomes to be about the learning activity (e.g., writing, representing, analyzing) rather than the technological software; added a table summarizing how a design process is involved in the digital learning activities under focus; updated all technological resources to the most current; added new Technology Integration Examples; updated and integrated assessment activities into a data collection, analysis, and assessment section (learning outcome 6.3) • Chapter 7.  Updated learning outcomes to focus on the digital activities of communicating, collaborating, and making; added a table summarizing how a design process is involved in the digital learning activities under focus; updated all technological resources to the most current; added new Technology Integration Examples; added parent communication and collaboration strategies; added multifunction workspaces (e.g., Slack, Microsoft Teams); updated information on learning management systems; updated section on digital making, including computer programming, robotics, 3-D modeling and animation, game and app development, virtual world and augmented reality development, and web design and development. • Chapter 8.  Added a representation of the key terms used across the continuum of in-person learning to blended and online learning modalities; updated the descriptions of the seven blended learning models; described ways in which low

x Preface home access to digital resources impedes access to blended and online learning; updated the online course models; added a section on the varied combinations of in-person, blended, and online learning (sometimes called “hybrid”) that schools implemented during the pandemic; added an author-created list of discussion forum content category tags that support student metacognition and rich online discussions; updated all technological resources to the most current. • Chapter 9.  Updated the number of students with disabilities currently being served for special education across schools; updated the laws and policies that impact the use of technologies for special education purposes; added a section on the universal design for learning framework and how it can be used to guide design of online learning; acknowledged how the COVID-19 pandemic’s reliance on online learning negatively impacted many students with disabilities; added a digital equity and justice issue concerning how technologies can limit accessibility to digital information; updated the Top Ten Must-Have Special Education Technologies; updated Twitter hashtags to follow for networked learning; updated all technological resources to the most current. • Chapter 10.  Updated the competencies of digitally literate learners; added a digital equity and justice issue concerning income-based online reading achievement gaps; updated all statistics related to print and digital reading patterns; updated the Top Ten Must-Have Technologies for English and Language Arts; added new Technology Integration Examples; updated Twitter hashtags to follow for networked learning; updated all technological resources to the most current. • Chapter 11.  Clarified terms related to English learners who may already speak multiple languages, thus learning English is not necessarily their second language; updated the characteristics and diversity of the English learner population and described four groups of learners; updated the importance of involvement of ­content-area teachers in students’ academic and language development; added a digital equity and justice issue concerning inclusion of parent perspectives from new immigrant families in school- or home-based technological adoptions; updated the Top Ten Must-Have Technologies for Language Learning; added a section on online learning; updated Twitter hashtags to follow for networked learning; updated all technological resources to the most current. • Chapter 12.  Updated opening section that distinguishes STEM content, context, and tool/application integration instruction; added a digital equity and justice issue concerning inequitable outcomes on a national assessment of eighth-grade students’ technology and engineering literacy; updated section on using technology to support NGSS-aligned scientific discovery; updated the Top Ten Must-Have Technologies for STEM Instruction; updated approaches to engineering education through makerspaces, programming, robotics, and simulations; updated recommendations for teachers to use mathematical action technologies in alignment with social constructivism; added section on developing students’ data literacy; updated Twitter hashtags in science, engineering, and mathematics for teachers to follow; updated all technological resources to the most current. • Chapter 13.  Added a new section on the need for and challenge of achieving diversity, equity, and inclusion in social studies; added new lesson resources for helping students assess quality of informational sources; added a digital equity and justice issue concerning how extended reality technology resources, such as virtual and augmented reality experiences, may introduce barriers for students with some disabilities; updated the Top Ten Must-Have Technologies for Social Studies; new Technology Integration Examples; new section on online learning in social studies; updated Twitter hashtags for teachers to follow for networked learning; updated all technological resources to the most current.

Preface xi

• Chapter 14.  Added a digital equity and justice issue concerning the need for greater inclusion of musical and visual art content genres beyond the canons of “fine art” in education; added a section about ethical issues for music educators; updated the Top Ten Must-Have Technologies for Music and Visual Arts Instruction; added a new section that situates the impact of technology on the visual arts in education and society; added a new section on design and innovation in visual art education along with a design process for students to pursue projects in the visual arts; added a new section about the need for inclusion of creations by marginalized populations; added a new section on integrating visual art with other disciplines; added new Technology Integration Examples; updated section on artistic and design creation; added section on teaching visual arts online; updated Twitter hashtags in music and visual arts for teachers to follow for networked learning; updated all technological resources to the most current. • Chapter 15.  Updated physical activity, diet, and obesity trends to reflect the most recent data; updated section on national standards and barriers to quality health and physical education programs; Added a digital equity and justice issue concerning hunger and food insecurity, with practical suggestions for using digital tools for community walks and equity audits of the food landscape so teachers can best advocate for learners; updated the Top Ten Must-Have Technologies for Health and Physical Education; reorganized integration strategies into sections about improving instructional effectiveness, maximizing practice opportunities, providing feedback and assessment, monitoring physical activity and nutrition, accommodating students with special needs, helping students find valid online information, influencing health behaviors beyond school, and providing online modalities for health and physical education; updated Twitter hashtags for teachers to follow for networked learning; updated all technological resources to the most current.

Teaching and Learning with Technology in Social Studies Pedagogical

of This Text

Features

By Todd S. Hawley and Joan E. Hughes

Learning Outcomes For the ninth edition, the authors maintain a cohesive, comprehensive technology integration framework that builds on strong research and numerous integration strategies. Explain the current issues challenges that social studies teachersFramework achieves the following goals: ThisorTechnology Integration face that influence technology integration planning. (ISTE Standards

After reading this chapter and completing the learning activities, you should be able to: 13.1

for Educators: 1—Learner; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator)

Introduces Teachers to Technology Integration 13.2 Select technology integration strategies that can meet learning and

instructional needs in social studies. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst)

 Technology Integration in Action examples located at the beginning of each chapter are school-based scenarios that match the chapter’s thematic content. Beginning in Chapter 4 and continuing through Chapter 15, each Technology Integration in Action Table 4.2 Information Literacy Activities,on Reasoning, and Skills (McGrew, 2020) opening scenario focuses a teacher’s selection Goal and Activity Reasoning Skills Information Literacy Skills and use of specific technology within a classroom Goal: Identification of Explain which source is more Who is behind the information in Advertisements reliable. the source material? environment to solve a specific problem of practice. Provide two online articles, one that is a reputable news story and Each scenario walks the reader through the steps of one that is a sponsored content story. the Integration Planning (TIP) Goal:Technology Lateral Reading Explain if this is a reliable source Who is behindModel the information in of information about the topic, the source material? Provide a website on a topic in using evidence. your subject area. RATification What do other sources say? and lesson using the Replacement, What is the evidence? Amplification, andExplain Transformation Assessment Goal: Evidence Analysis if this post shows strong (RAT) What is the evidence? evidence about the topic. Provide a social media post that includes a photographic image model introduced at the end of Chapter 3. These about a topic in your subject area. Goal: Claim Research Explain if you believe the claim Who is behind the information in classroom-based scenarios are tied specifically to the using evidence from websites you the source material? Provide a claim about a topic in consulted. Describe the sources your subject area. learning outcomes. What do other sources say? chapter’s (websites) and why they are What is the evidence?

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN ACTION:

Producing Authentic Historical Interviews GRADE LEVEL: 8–12 CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: U.S. History

108 Chapter 4

LENGTH OF TIME: Two weeks

Phase 1 Lead from Enduring Problems of Practice Step 1: Identify problems of practice (POPs) Like many social studies teachers, Mr. Engle sought to create learning experiences where students could make meaningful connections between the past and present. In past years, students had read accounts of the Holocaust and Rwandan genocides, but he was not sure that his students really understood the experiences of people during these

400

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strong and appropriate.

 Digital Equity and Justice features highlight a digital equity issue relevant to the chapter’s thematic content and provide practical suggestions for teachers to take action to examine each issue in locally relevant ways.

BOX 4.1

DIGITAL EQUITY AND JUSTICE

Internet Access The COVID-19 pandemic blatantly illustrated the breadth of digital inequities in the nation. It is a significant injustice for teachers to assume that all students have access to computers and Internet in their homes and communities. The U.S. Census estimates 82.7% of households have a broadband Internet subscription (U.S. Census, 2019), and Table 4.3 shows a snapshot of Internet availability in 2021 by race and income characteristics. Several trends in

the data from the U.S. Census, as shown in the table, are important. ■

■

Some portion (11% or more) of households, across all races, ethnicities, or income levels, do not have Internet always available. With the exception of census respondents identified as Asian, people of color have less consistent always available access to Internet in their households than White respondents.

Table 4.3 Availability of Internet for Educational Purposes in Households with Children in Private or Public Schools (U.S. Census Bureau Household Pulse Survey, Week 24, 2021)

Race and Ethnicity

Income

xii

M04_ROBL4677_09_SE_C04.indd 108

Always available

Usually available

Sometimes available

Rarely available

Never available

Total, All (n = 50,522,411)

74.8%

17.8%

3.2%

0.9%

0.6%

Asian alone, not Hispanic

83.9%

12.7%

1.4%

0.1%

0.1%

White alone, not Hispanic

77.5%

16.5%

2.7%

1.0%

0.3%

Black alone, not Hispanic

70.6%

16.9%

3.9%

1.0%

2.5%

Hispanic or Latino (may be of any race)

69.6%

22.2%

3.9%

0.8%

0.3%

Two or more races + Other races, not Hispanic

67.5%

22.0%

5.9%

1.3%

0.2%

Less than $24,999

64.0%

24.0%

7.2%

2.8%

1.2%

$25,000–49,999

67.0%

26.6%

4.5%

1.5%

0.2%

$50,000–99,999

78.2%

18.2%

2.6%

0.5%

0.1%

$100,000–149,999

83.5%

14.1%

2.1%

0.2%

0.1%

$150,000 and above

88.2%

8.8%

1.0%

0.7%

1.3%

04/01/22 16:19

Pedagogical Features of This Text  xiii 378 Chapter 12

Table 12.2 Top Ten Must-Have Technologies for STEM Instruction Technology

Description

Desmos

Desmos is a free online or iPad graphing calculator. Students can save their graphs, equations, tables, and pictures on it. The tool is available in over 20 languages.

EcoLearn

EcoLearn is an educational research group at Harvard that offers a suite of immersive technologies to support learning about the environment (ecoMUVE, ecoMOBILE, ecoXPT, and ecoMOD). These technologies are virtual environments that are appropriate for students in grades 6–12.

GeoGebra

GeoGebra is a dynamic, interactive, online mathematics software package for STEM learning that is appropriate for upper elementary through high school students. It includes a dynamic 2-D and 3-D geometry environment with a spreadsheet, a computer algebra system including statistics and calculus tools, and scripting.

Notability

Notability is an iOS/OSX app that allows students to take multimedia notes and perform PDF annotations. This application is wonderful for notebooking in STEM. Notability enables students to take notes with handwriting by their finger or a stylus, type notes, highlight text, import PDFs and other images, audio-record notes, link audio recordings to written notes, share documents, and sync notes to Dropbox, Google Drive, or Box.

PhET

Free virtual simulations for mathematics and science content. These simulations cross a wide variety of topics and work on many platforms.

Scratch 2/Scratch Jr.

Scratch 2 (web-based) and Scratch Jr. (iPad or Android app) are tools that allow students of all ages to learn to code. It is a block-based computer programming language that allows students to develop and share interactive stories, animations, and games.

Tinkercad

Tinkercad is a free, 3-D modeling computer-aided design software program appropriate for educators and hobbyists. It allows for translation of designs to be actualized through 3-D printing. It is a fun and fairly intuitive program for students to make their design ideas come to life.

TinkerPlots

TinkerPlots is an interactive data visualization and modeling tool for students in upper elementary grades through high school. It is an appropriate tool for any subject in which data need to be analyzed. It allows students to create colorful visual representations that allow for patterns in the data to emerge.

Vernier interfaces and probeware

Vernier interface and probeware sets provide students active hands-on science, engineering, and mathematics learning through a combination of multiple probeware sensors and data loggers for gathering real-time data for experiments and graphical analysis. These are appropriate for students in upper elementary grades through high school.

WISE: Web-based Inquiry Science Environment

WISE is a digital learning platform that allows students to observe, analyze, conduct experiments, and reflect on their learning as they work within WISE projects. Projects are mostly written for middle school students, but a few of them are appropriate for high school. WISE includes the student learning environment as well as many course-management tools and assessments from which teachers can choose.

 Top Ten Must-Have Technologies identify and describe the most recent and helpful educational technologies in the disciplinary content areas in Chapters 9–15, as selected by the disciplinary expert authors.

be shared between and among students around the globe with cloud computing. Classroom teachers can also have professional scientists interact with students in their classroom via e-mail or blogs or by participating in webcasts, which are live video broadcasts of an event sent over the web. See Table 12.2 for the top ten technologies for STEM, many of which support scientific inquiry.

Helps Teachers Plan for Effective Technology Integration Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Science

Theory into Practice

37

 Technology Integration Examples In the future, teachers should be able to expand and strengthen their capabilities to TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION Example 2.1 understand emerging scientific issues, generate possible solutions, and address technol(TIEs) in Chapters 2–15 offer ogy integration in science. Review the rubric in Table 12.3, which measures a teacher’s progress in integrating technology in science. TITLE: Digital Literacies for Social Justice Inquirers numerous technology lesson ideas CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Literacysuch as Teachers should become involved in science professional organizations, the NSTA and the American the Advancement of Science. that reflect the thematic content in Association for GRADE LEVELS: Middle schoolTeachers should follow policy developments, such as changes in NGSS. These resources, along ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 1—Empowered Learner; Standard 2—Digital Citizen; Standard 3—Knowledge each chapter and can lesson like NASA and the withinspire science organizations National Oceanic and Atmospheric Constructor; Standard 6—Creative Communicator; Standard 7—Global Collaborator offer teaching resources, advocacy ideas, professional development, planning across theAdministration curriculum. Each CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.6-8.1, CSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.6-8.4, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.6-8.8 and collaboration opportunities. Teachers can CCSS: also use the web for assistance seeking DESCRIPTION: a community of social justice inquirers who seek to learn about local issues knowledge and professional learning opportunitiesStudents that maycan notbecome be availlesson suggestion iscontent correlated to for the and advocate for social change. These New York City students began by identifying important topics and chose to able locally. Exchanging ideas and teaching strategies with other teachers in learning investigate their community’s poverty may and crime. Students brainstormed their own knowledge and their questions about ISTE National Educational communities Technology such as in Twitter can be beneficial. The following Twitter hashtags topic using Answer Garden, #physics, a collaborative brainstorming tool. They watched a film documentary that revealed the be useful: #stem, #science or #scichat, #NGSS, the #pbl or #pblchat, #inquiryed, Standards for Students (2016) and social construction of class in their neighborhood and other wealthier neighborhoods, after which they explored and #geology, #anatomy, #ecosystems, #genetics, #chemistry, #biology observed their neighborhoods, capturing and sharing digital photographs and notes within a collaborative Google Doc. Common Core State Standards, as They used curated information on Flipboard to further develop their background knowledge. Then, students began expressing their developing knowledge as counter-stories about race, class, and crime by creating memes using Meme applicable. Generator. In class discussions, they culminated the unit by generating ideas for solution-oriented actions they might take in their community.

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206 Chapter 6

CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY The following is a summary of the main points covered in this chapter. 1. Design, Analysis, and Creation • Teachers and students engage in design and transmediation processes when using digital resources to express their ideas, concepts, or knowledge. 2. Digital Writing and Publishing • Digital writing and publishing activities can be accomplished with word processing and desktop publishing software. • Written and artistic expressions can be published online or created in digital stories or books. Integration ideas include content-related creations, such as cookbooks, field guides, or creative writing. • Word processing and desktop publishing software can save teachers time, improve document appearance, and allow easy exchange and collaboration on written tasks. Uses of word processing and desktop publishing software include creating handouts, instructional materials, lesson plans and notes, reports, forms, letters to parents and students, flyers, and newsletters.

SOURCE: Based on Price-Dennis, D., & Carrion, S. (2017).12/01/22 Leveraging 19:07digital literacies for equity and social justice. Language Arts, 94(3),

190–195.

Social Constructivist Theory Foundations for Technology Integration Methods  Summaries at the end of each Figure 2.4 shows how these six theories contribute to strategies for social constructivist technology integration. 3. Creating Multimodal Representations These theories were designed to address a problem that John Seely Brown (1940– ) inert knowledge, ahelp termteachers introduced Whitehead in 1929 to mean skills that • called Digital representations andby students students but did not knowtext, howimages, to transfer later to problems that required their display learned information, including graphapplication (Brown et video, al., 1989). saidtothat inert knowledge resulted from learnics, symbols, audio, andBrown websites demoning skills in isolation from each other and from real-life application; thus, he advocated strate concepts or developed knowledge. cognitive apprenticeships, or activities that called for authentic problem solving, that • is,Teachers use representations to enhance the impact solving problems in settings that are familiar and meaningful to students (Cognition of spoken information, multimedia-rich and Technology Group atenable Vanderbilt, 1990). Theseconideas were based on the theories of tent depictions, make content polished and profesDewey, Bandura, Vygotsky, Piaget, and Bruner. sional, organize thinking about aenvironments topic, and create Today’s technology-enabled are designed to provide learning enduring learning artifacts. Usescognition, include demonenvironments that reflect situated or instruction anchored in experiences strating content concepts, illustrating that learners considered authentic becauseproblems they emulate the behavior of experts in and solutions,and presenting informational summaries, the disciplines are often related to local issues that are meaningful for students. usingkinds multimedia assessment, creatingtotutorials or These of materials were intended assist teachers in helping students build game-based reviews, and developing interactive on or “scaffold” from experiences they already had to generate their own knowledge inlessons. an active, hands-on way rather than receiving it passively. Today’s social construcintegration often focus on having students use data-gathering tools • tivist Students create strategies representations for collaboration (e.g., mobile learning technologies) to study problems and issues in their locale, on creating on content and knowledge, book reports multimedia their new knowledge and insights, on immersing or research,products creationto ofrepresent interactive storybooks, and themselves in simulated inquiry-based environments, on communicating with othmultimedia products. ers around the globe, and on questioning harmful dynamics built into technological • systems. Students and teachers should design digital representations with considerations related to type size, text and background colors, amount of text, design simplicity versus complexity, graphics and clip art,

chapter tie back to the learning outcomes and act as study aids by condensing and reviewing critical chapter content.

Pearson eText Video Example 2.2 5th grade STEM teacher, Dee Lanier, describes how he and his students use virtual reality to explore global places unavailable locally and create 360 photographs.

476 Chapter 15 video footage of athletic events. Recent research established that musical elements such as sound effects and music were crucial to students’ engagement while playing xiv  Pedagogical Features of This Text educational games (Rosenblum, 2014). The sounds provided clues to game playing CHAPTER 15 SUMMARY strategy and the game’s narrative story and developed characters. More schools are Themusical followingelements is a summary the maintopoints covered in teaching game design and development, and areofcrucial effective this chapter. games.

Helps Teachers Practice Technology Integration 1. Issues and Challenges in Health and Physical Education—Teachers in health and PE face the following issues:

Teacher Growth in Technology Integration • Physical inactivity and an unhealthy diet are linked Strategies for Music to an increase in childhood obesity in our society.

Screentime, levels, dietary choices These sections have introduced the issues, challenges, andactivity strategies forand integrating to children contribute to thisdevelissue. technology into music instruction and learning. Inavailable the future, teachers can begin • understand Resources to develop a high-quality physical and oping expanded and strengthened capabilities to emerging issues, generate health education program exist, but barriers to possible solutions, and address technology integration in music education. Review the implementation also exist, such as inadequate rubric in Table 14.3, which can guide a teacher’s instructional progress in time, integrating technology large class sizes, and in lack of music instruction. equipment. In the mid-2010s, the National Coalition for Core released • Young peopleArts need Standards skills in locating, evaluating, usingand accurate information updated standards for dance, media arts, music, and theater, visualweb-based arts. These stand- on and PE. with the arts: creating, ards are shaped around fundamental processes health of interacting • Different states have different policies for inclusion performing/presenting/producing, responding, and connecting. The standards in and coverage of controversial health topics in the music vary in their usefulness, but it is important to note that, in the 2014 version of curriculum. the music standards, there is a strand of music• technology standards. Music teachers Implementing a Whole School, Whole Community, wishing to integrate technology into their teaching may look to thiscanset of standards Whole Child approach provide the infrastructure to bring together all school and community for high-level guidance. resources to address such health issues suchin as obeIn addition to resources from this chapter, teachers can become involved sity, social and emotional health, and other health music professional organizations, such as NAfME and TI:ME, both of which offer risks. teaching resources, advocacy ideas, professional development, and collaboration 2. Technology Integration Strategies for Health and opportunities. The American MathematicalPhysical SocietyEducation—Technology-enabled is another organization that strategies offers specific resources for connecting mathematics and music. Finally, teachers include the following: • Improving instructional effectiveness in PE through sharing class content via projection devices

 A Technology Integration Workshop located at the end of every chapter includes hands-on, interactive activities that connect chapter content to real-life practice. Each contains the following:

and video models and using active gaming or gamification.

• Organizing teaching to maximize practice opportunities by using apps that reduce time for taking attendance, groupingSection or picking teams, and transiTeacher Growth located tioning between activities.

A at the end of each discipline-specific • Providing feedback and conducting assessments via chapter (Chapterstechnologies, 9–15) offers strategies video-recording apps, and websites. • Monitoring physical activity and fitness and nutrifor continued teacher learning and tion with a range of wearable hardware devices and leadership in content-specific technology specialized tracking devices and analysis software. integration. It alsostudents includes a rubric that • Accommodating with assistive devices to support and participation for chilteachers cancommunication use to self-assess and direct dren with disabilities. their growth in technology integration • Helping students develop the skills to search, find, and suggests Twitter hashtags and evaluate web-based informationto forfollow. accuracy and applicability for their health-related decision making. • Influencing health-related behavior within and beyond school by capitalizing on four points of intervention: (1) physical activity before and after school, (2) physical activity during school, (3) staff involvement, and (4) faculty and community engagement. • Providing high-quality online health and PE opportunities as another flexible mode for instruction and learning. • Teachers should continue learning technology integration strategies through immersion in the health and PE professional organizations and through online communities of practice.

06/01/22 17:50 TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

Apply What You Learned In this chapter, you learned about teaching and learning with technology in health and PE. Now apply your understanding of these concepts by doing the following activities:

activity, optimizing healthy eating, and engaging in the scientific method. Using your knowledge about technology integration strategies for health and PE introduced in this chapter, generate at least one new technological possibility for targeting Mr. Martinez and Ms. Floyd’s problem of practice.

• Reread Mr. Martinez’s lesson Developing an Interest-Based, Personal Physical Activity Plan at the beginning of this chapter. Pay close attention to Step 3 of the Technology Integration Planning (TIP) model when they identify the technological possibilities for their problem of practice: increasing students’ physical

• Review how Mr. Martinez and Ms. Floyd RATified the lesson in Step 5 of the TIP model, as represented in Table 15.1. Use the RAT Matrix to analyze the role(s) and relative advantage that your new technological possibilities (identified in the preceding step) would play in the lesson. You must reflect on the

• Apply What You Learned exercises, which call for students to reread the Technology Integration in Action example that opened the chapter; identify another, different technology resource possibility to solve the problem of practice set within the example; and complete a RAT matrix analysis to determine the new technology resource’s potential for changing instruction, learning, and/or curriculum. • Technology Integration Lesson Planning: Evaluating Lesson Plans exercises provide students the opportunity and resources to evaluate a set of technology integration lessons. • Technology Integration Lesson Planning: Creating Lesson Plans with the TIP model activity asks students to create a new technology-supported lesson plan that employs a technology resource introduced in the chapter to solve a problem of practice. Students do so by implementing the TIP model and are encouraged to share their lessons. • Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist and the RAT matrix introduced in Chapter 3 are used throughout the workshop activities.

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Pedagogical Features of This Text  xv

Pearson eText, Learning Management System (LMS)–Compatible Assessment Bank, and Other Instructor Resources Pearson eText The Pearson eText is a simple-to-use, mobile-optimized, personalized reading experience. It allows you to easily highlight, take notes, and review key vocabulary all in one place–even when offline. Seamlessly integrated videos and other rich media will engage you and give you access to the help you need, when you need it. To gain access or to sign in to your Pearson eText, visit: https://www.pearson.com/pearson-etext. Features include:

415

 Video Examples Each chapter includes Video Examples that illustrate principles, concepts, strategies, or challenges aligned pedagogically with the chapter. These clips enable students to know how teachers and their students are using educational technologies in their classrooms. They are for students to reflect on and take into account as part of their education. -

90 Chapter 3 •

•

Pearson eText Video Example 13.6 A secondary student and his teacher describe the benefits of using primary sources for searching to learn.

• Artifacts The text includes in-depth supports for enacting the Technology Integration Planning process (introduced in Chapter 3), such as self-assessments, the RAT Matrix, a Technology Impact Checklist, and a Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist. Other artifacts like the Multimedia Checklist and the Online Discussion Rubric can be adopted or adapted into lessons. These artifacts are linked in the eText as PDFs. Guiding questions provide the reader with an opportunity to think and make decisions like a teacher. -

-

•

Pearson eText Artifact 3.7: Technology Impact Checklist

• Interactive Glossary All key terms in the eText are bolded and provide instant access to full glossary definitions, allowing you to quickly build your professional vocabulary as you are reading.

LMS-Compatible Assessment Bank With this new edition, all assessment types—quizzes, application exercises, and chapter tests— are included in LMS-compatible banks for the following learning management systems: Blackboard (9780137544455), Canvas (9780137544486), D2L (9780137544523), and Moodle (9780137544530). These packaged files allow maximum flexibility to instructors when it comes to importing, assigning, and grading. Assessment types include: • Learning Outcome Quizzes Each chapter learning outcome is the focus of a Learning Outcome Quiz that is available for instructors to assign through their LMS. Learning outcomes identify chapter content that is most important for learners and serve as the organizational framework for each chapter.

•

xvi  Pedagogical Features of This Text The higher-order, multiple-choice questions in each quiz will measure your understanding of chapter content, guide the expectations for your learning, and inform the accountability and the applications of your new knowledge. Each multiple-choice question includes feedback for the correct answer and for each distractor to help guide students’ learning. • Application Exercises Each chapter provides opportunities to apply what you have learned through Application Exercises. These exercises are usually shortanswer format and are based on the Technology Integration in Action opening scenarios at the beginning of Chapters 4–15. The exercises draw students to consider how the teacher in the opening scenario engages with the Technology Integration Planning model to design a technology-integrated lesson. Students engage with the TIP steps to identify the problem of practice, technology possibilities, integration strategy, technology-related assets, and the RATification (relative advantage) within the lesson. After deep analysis of that lesson, students are called upon to use the broader content from the chapter to propose alternative technological possibilities to solve the problem of practice and how they would RATify the lesson. Finally, students will use resources from the text to evaluate other lesson plans related to the content of the chapter to determine if they would or would not use them through the RATification process to determine relative advantage. A model response written by experts is provided to help guide learning. • Chapter Tests Suggested test items are provided for each chapter and include questions in multiple-choice and short-answer/essay formats.

Instructor’s Manual (9780137544431) The Instructor’s Manual is provided as a Word document and includes resources to assist professors in planning their course. These resources consist of chapter overview concepts to emphasize, chapter activities, group activities, and assessment activities.

PowerPoint® Slides (9780137544554) PowerPoint slides are provided for each chapter and highlight key concepts and summarize the content of the text to make it more meaningful for students. Note: All instructor resources—LMS-compatible assessment bank, instructor’s manual, and PowerPoint slides—are available for download at www.pearsonhighered.com. Use one of the following methods: • From the main page, use the search function to look up the lead author (i.e., Hughes), or the title (i.e., Integrating Educational Technology into Teaching: Transforming Learning Across Disciplines). Select the desired search result, then access the “Resources” tab to view and download all available resources. • From the main page, use the search function to look up the ISBN (provided above) of the specific instructor resource you would like to download. When the product page loads, access the “Downloadable Resources” tab.

Acknowledgments Both the goal and challenge of this book have been to provide the reader with the most up-to-date foundations, theory, research, and practices in educational technology across the disciplines. We believe this goal has been achieved. As in any project, realizing this goal would not have been possible without the assistance of numerous individuals who helped sharpen the focus of this edition. These individuals include the reviewers for

Pedagogical Features of This Text  xvii

this edition: Mark Viner, Eastern New Mexico University; Mark Ortwein, University of Mississippi; J. Michael Blocher, Northern Arizona University; Eileen Ariza, Florida Atlantic University; Dennis Beck, University of Arkansas; Chad Seals, The University of Southern Mississippi; and Chih-Hsiung Tu, Northern Arizona University. The vibrancy of this new edition is partly due to the contributors for the current edition, who all engage in researching and using the latest technology-supported teaching and learning approaches in their discipline areas. The contributors include the following:

Chapter 9 Teaching and Learning with Technology in Special Education Min Wook Ok, Assistant Professor of Special Education Daegu University, South Korea College of Education

Chapter 11 Teaching and Learning Languages with Technology Veronica G. Sardegna, Adjunct Faculty Duquesne University School of Education

Chapter 10 Teaching and Learning with Technology in English and Language Arts Robin Jocius, Associate Professor of Literacy Studies The University of Texas at Arlington College of Education Chapter 12 Teaching and Learning with Technology in Science, Engineering, and Mathematics Tamara J. Moore, Professor of Engineering Education Purdue University School of Engineering Education

Chapter 13

Chapter 14

Teaching and Learning with Technology in Social Studies

Teaching and Learning with Technology in Music and Visual Art

Todd S. Hawley, Professor of Social Studies Teacher Education Kent State University School of Teaching, Learning, and Curriculum Studies

Jay Dorfman, Associate Professor and Coordinator of Music Education Kent State University Hugh A. Glauser School of Music

Chapter 15 Teaching and Learning with Technology in Health and Physical Education Jingwen Liu, Assistant Professor of Physical Education Teacher Education California State University, Fullerton Department of Kinesiology College of Health and Human Development

Robin Vande Zande, Professor of Art Education Kent State University School of Art

xviii  Pedagogical Features of This Text The degree of support from the Pearson Education staff is impossible to measure. The logistical challenges of this edition would not have been manageable without the professional oversight and personal direction of our Developmental Editor, Jeffery ­Johnston. Jeff, you’re always so organized; it is a blessing! We would also like to thank Rebecca Fox-Gieg, Senior Content Manager, and Yagnesh Jani, all of whom made this version of the book useful, attractive, and meaningful. Thank you for your indispensable contributions to this text. From JEH: Being able to collaborate on this book with M. D. Roblyer is a highlight of my career, which has always focused on technology integration in the K–12 classroom. I would like to recognize the guidance and love of my husband, Lee Klancher, during the more-than-a-year-long-during-COVID revision process. As an author of many books and decades of experience in publishing, he provides me the sagest advice which I should always follow. He also provided me countless breakfasts and dinners and ordered me to exercise across the year I wrote, edited, and updated this book. Tremendous thanks and gratitude also go out to an amazing doctoral student and former teacher, Anna R. Oliveri, who assisted me with library research as well as many organizational tasks. Most important, I extend heartfelt and generous respect for schools and teachers who choose to participate in research studies. Such participation is the only way the education field begins to understand which innovations work and which do not. Behind every research study mentioned in this book is at least one or more classrooms of students and teachers who opened up their classrooms! From MDR: In this, the last edition of this textbook to reflect my name as author, I acknowledge ineffable gratitude to retired Pearson editor Debbie Stollenwerk, who first saw the book’s potential for transforming perceptions about technology’s uses in education and took a chance on a virtually unknown author; and to my family, Bill and Paige Wiencke, whose support enabled me to create the first edition published in 1996, all subsequent ones, and indeed, everything I have been able to accomplish throughout my professional career. I would also like to continue to remember and acknowledge the influences of family who are with us now only in memory: our parents Servatius Lee Roblyer and Phrona Catherine Roblyer and Raymond and Marjorie Wiencke. Finally, my thanks go to Joan Hughes who took over work on this text so it might continue its usefulness in classrooms around the world. From both authors: We would like to acknowledge all the educators whose perseverance and commitment to their students remains a constant we can count on, especially during the recent COVID-19 pandemic. —Joan E. Hughes and M. D. Roblyer

Brief Contents PART 1  Technology Integration and Leadership in Education

1 Educational Technology in Context: The Big Picture

1

2 Theory into Practice: Educational Processes for Transformative Technology Integration

22

3 Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration

51

PART 2  Digital Content for Learning

4 The Web and Web-Based Content Resources 5 Instructional Content Software for Student Learning

95 133

PART 3  D  igital Resources for Critical Thinking, Creating, Communicating, and Collaborating in Blended and Online Contexts

6 Design, Analysis, and Creation

172

7 Communication, Collaboration, and Making

209

8 Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments

244

PART 4  Integrating Technology Across the Disciplines

9 Teaching and Learning with Technology in Special Education

279

10 Teaching and Learning with Technology in English and Language Arts

305

11 Teaching and Learning Languages with Technology

332

12 Teaching and Learning with Technology in Science, Engineering, and Mathematics

363

13 Teaching and Learning with Technology in Social Studies

400

14 Teaching and Learning with Technology in Music and Visual Art

420

15 Teaching and Learning with Technology in Health and Physical Education

451

xix

Contents PART 1  Technology Integration and Leadership in Education 1 Educational Technology in Context: The Big Picture

1

LEARNING OUTCOMES 1 INTRODUCTION 2 THE “BIG PICTURE” OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 3 How This Textbook Defines Educational Technology 3 Educational Technology Across Time 5 How What We Have Learned from the Past Shapes our Future 8 ESTABLISHED AND EMERGING EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY TRENDS 9 Trends in Hardware and Software Innovation 10 Educational Trends Leveraging Technology Innovations 11 TODAY’S ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS THAT SHAPE TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION 13 Leadership Conditions 13 Political Conditions 15 Infrastructure Conditions 17 Safety Conditions 17 Equity and Social Justice Conditions 18 CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

20 20

2 Theory into Practice: Educational Processes for Transformative Technology Integration

22

LEARNING OUTCOMES 22 INTRODUCTION 23 LEARNING THEORY FOUNDATIONS OF DIRECTED PEDAGOGICAL MODELS 24 Behaviorist Theories 25 Information-Processing Theories 26 Cognitive-Behaviorist Theory 27 Systems Approaches: Instructional Design Models 28 Theoretical Foundations for Directed Pedagogy and Technology Integration Strategies 29 LEARNING THEORY FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST PEDAGOGICAL MODELS 30 Social Activism Theory 30 Social Cognitive Theory 31 Scaffolding Theories 32 Child Development Theory 33 Discovery Learning 34 Critical Pedagogy 35 Social Constructivist Theory Foundations for Technology Integration Methods 37

xx

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION PEDAGOGICAL STRATEGIES BASED ON DIRECTED AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES 38 Pedagogy and Assessment in Directed and Social Constructivist Theories 38 Technology Integration Strategies Based on Directed Models 39 Technology Integration Strategies Based on Social Constructivist Models 41 Technology Integration Strategies Useful for Either Model 44 TODAY’S CONTENT AND EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY STANDARDS 46 State Standards and Content Standards 46 ISTE Standards for Students 47 CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

49 50

3 Learning and Leading for

Transformative Technology Integration 51

LEARNING OUTCOMES 51 INTRODUCTION 52 TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING 53 Hardware Setup for Classrooms 53 Software Applications in Schools 54 Configurations of Digital Devices 56 Alignment of Device Configurations with Pedagogical Approaches 59 TECHNOLOGY EXPERTISE 61 The ISTE Standards for Educators 61 The Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge Framework 62 TECHNOLOGY SUPPORT 64 NETWORKED PROFESSIONAL LEARNING COMMUNITIES FOR EDUCATORS 65 Technological Resources and Strategies for Networked Learning 66 Benefits and Challenges of Being Connected Educators 69 Building a Professional Online Identity 69 A PROFESSIONAL RATIONALE FOR EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 72 A Technology-Use Rationale Based on Transformation 73 PLANNING FOR EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN CONTEXT 76 A Technology Integration Planning Model 77 CHAPTER 3 SUMMARY TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

92 93

Contents xxi

PART 2 

Digital Content for Learning

4 The Web and Web-Based Content

Resources 95

LEARNING OUTCOMES 95 INTRODUCTION 99 INTRODUCTION TO THE WEB 99 Navigating the Web 100 Downloading Software, Plug-Ins, and Apps 101 Basic Web Troubleshooting 102 SEARCHING THE WEB FOR INFORMATION 102 Search Engines 103 Search Tools and Strategies 103 Research and Reference Tools 105 Information Literacy Skill Development 106 ONLINE SAFETY AND DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP 109 Online Safety and Security Issues 110 Online Ethical and Legal Issues 113 Digital Citizenship 114 ONLINE EDUCATIONAL CONTENT 116 Archived Online Content 116 Interactive or Immersive Web Content 117 Live Web Content 122 OPEN EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES 123 Locating OER 124 Benefits of OER 126 Challenges of Using OER 127 EVALUATION AND INTEGRATION OF WEB CONTENT FOR INSTRUCTION 128 Evaluation Framework for Web Content 128 Integration Strategies for Web Content 129 CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

5 Instructional Content Software for Student Learning

130 131

133

LEARNING OUTCOMES 133 INTRODUCTION 136 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL SOFTWARE 136 Definition of Instructional Software 136 Teaching Functions in Instructional Software 137 Selecting Appropriate Instructional Software 137

CHARACTERISTICS OF DRILL-AND-PRACTICE FUNCTIONS 139 Benefits of Drill and Practice 140 Challenges Related to Drill and Practice 141 Integration Strategies and Guidelines for Using Drill and Practice 142 Selecting Appropriate Drill-and-Practice Software 143 CHARACTERISTICS OF TUTORIAL FUNCTIONS 143 Benefits of Tutorials 144 Challenges Related to Tutorials 145 Integration Strategies and Guidelines for Using Tutorials 146 Selecting Appropriate Tutorial Software 147 CHARACTERISTICS OF ADAPTIVE, PERSONALIZED LEARNING FUNCTIONS 148 Benefits of PLSs 149 Challenges Related to PLSs 150 Integration Strategies for Using PLSs 151 Selecting Appropriate PLSs 151 CHARACTERISTICS OF SIMULATION FUNCTIONS 153 Benefits of Simulations 153 Challenges Related to Simulations 156 Integration Strategies and Guidelines for Using Simulations 157 Selecting Appropriate Simulations 158 CHARACTERISTICS OF GAME AND GAMIFICATION FUNCTIONS 158 Benefits of Instructional Games 160 Challenges Related to Instructional Games 160 Integration Strategies and Guidelines for Using Instructional Games 162 Selecting Appropriate Instructional Games 163 CHARACTERISTICS OF PROBLEM-SOLVING SOFTWARE 164 Benefits of Problem-Solving Software 166 Challenges Related to Problem-Solving Software 167 Integration Strategies and Guidelines for Using Problem-Solving Software 167 Selecting Appropriate Problem-Solving Software 169 CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY

169

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

171

PART 3  D  igital Resources for Critical Thinking, Creating, Communicating, and Collaborating in Blended and Online Contexts 6 Design, Analysis, and Creation LEARNING OUTCOMES

172 172

INTRODUCTION 175 DIGITAL WRITING AND PUBLISHING

175

Integration Strategies for Writing and Publishing 177 Instructional Strategies for Writing and Publishing 182 Benefits of Digital Writing and Publishing 182 Challenges in Digital Writing and Publishing 183

xxii Contents CREATING MULTIMODAL REPRESENTATIONS Integration Strategies for Digital Representations Instructional Strategies for Digital Representations Benefits of Using Digital Representations Challenges of Using Digital Representations DATA, ANALYSIS, AND ASSESSMENT Integration Strategies for Data, Analysis, and Assessment Instructional Strategies Using Data, Analysis, and Assessment Benefits of Using Data, Analysis, and Assessment Challenges of Using Data, Analysis, and Assessment CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

7 Communication, Collaboration, and Making

185 188 193 194 195 195 199 204 204 205 206 207

209

LEARNING OUTCOMES 209 INTRODUCTION 213 DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 213 E-mail, Listservs, and Groups 214 Text and Instant Messaging 215 Calendar and Scheduling 216 Audio and Video Communications 216 Integration Strategies for Digital Communication 219 DIGITAL COLLABORATION 220 Social Networking 221 Blogs 223 Microblogs 225 Content Curation 227 Wikis 228 Videoconferencing 229 Learning Management Systems and Multi-feature Workspaces 230

PART 4 

DIGITAL MAKING 232 Computer Programming and Coding 232 Robotics 234 3D Modeling and Animation 236 Game and App Design and Development 236 Building in Virtual Worlds 236 Building Augmented Reality 237 Web Design and Development 238 Integration Strategies for Digital Making 240 CHAPTER 7 SUMMARY TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

8 Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments

241 242

244

LEARNING OUTCOMES 244 INTRODUCTION 247 BLENDED LEARNING 249 Blended Learning Models 249 Benefits of Blended Learning 251 Challenges of Blended Learning 252 Integration Strategies for Blended Learning 253 ONLINE LEARNING 256 Online Courses and Schools 256 Benefits of Online Learning 259 Challenges of Online Learning 260 Integration Strategies for Online Learning 261 TEACHING ONLINE COURSES 266 Technology Infrastructure and Support Resources for Online Teaching 267 Management of Online Small-Group Activities 271 Designing and Developing an Online Course in an LMS or Workspace 271 CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

276 277

Integrating Technology Across the Disciplines

9 Teaching and Learning with

Technology in Special Education

279

LEARNING OUTCOMES 279 INTRODUCTION 282 INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL EDUCATION 282 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN SPECIAL EDUCATION 283 Special Education and Inclusion Requirements 283 Policy Drivers of Technology Use in Special Education 284 Educational Accountability in Special Education

285

Challenges in Special Education Technology 286 TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION STRATEGIES TO MEET SPECIAL NEEDS 287 Foundations of Integration Strategies for Special Education 287 Technology Strategies for Students with Cognitive Disabilities 291

Technology Strategies for Students with Physical Disabilities 297 Technology Strategies for Students with Sensory Disabilities 298 Technology Strategies for Students with Speech and Language Impairments 300 Technology Strategies for Students with Gifts and Talents 300 Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Students with Special Needs 301 CHAPTER 9 SUMMARY TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

302 303

10 Teaching and Learning

with Technology in English and Language Arts

305

LEARNING OUTCOMES 305 INTRODUCTION 308

Contents xxiii

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN ENGLISH AND LANGUAGE ARTS 309 Teachers’ Changing Responsibilities for the New Literacies 309 New Instructional Strategies to Address New Needs 311 Classrooms’ Increasingly Diverse Learners 313 Motivating Students to Read and Write 313 Transitioning to Transformational Learning 314 TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR ENGLISH AND LANGUAGE ARTS 315 Strategies to Support Word Fluency and Vocabulary Development 315 Strategies to Support Reading Comprehension and Literacy Development 317 Strategies to Support Teaching Information and Media Literacies 320 Strategies to Support Teaching the Writing Process 320 Strategies to Support Multimodal Communication and Digital Publishing 324 Strategies to Support Learning Literature 326 Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies as Literacy Professionals 327 CHAPTER 10 SUMMARY

329

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

330

11 Teaching and Learning Languages with Technology

332

LEARNING OUTCOMES 332 INTRODUCTION 335 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FOR TEACHING ENGLISH LEARNERS IN ENGLISH-SPEAKING CONTEXTS 336 Characteristics of a Growing and Diverse English Learner Population 336 The Responsibility for Academic and Language Development by Content-Area Teachers 337 Integrating English Learners’ Native Languages 337 The Need to Differentiate Instruction 338 Selecting Appropriate Technology Tools for Content and Language Learning 338 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING 339 The Need for Authentic Materials and Perspectives 340 The Need to Create Audience and Purpose 340 TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR EL AND FL INSTRUCTION 342 Learning and Assessing Reading and Listening Comprehension Skills Using Authentic Multimedia Resources 342 Producing, Presenting, and Sharing Multimedia Expressions 346 Explaining Concepts and Assessing Knowledge 350 Conferencing and Collaborating Virtually 352 Modified Language Immersion Experiences 354 Online Learning 356 Practicing Language Subskills 356

Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies

358

CHAPTER 11 SUMMARY

360

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

361

12 Teaching and Learning with

Technology in Science, Engineering, and Mathematics

363

LEARNING OUTCOMES 363 INTRODUCTION 367 INTRODUCTION TO STEM AND STEM INTEGRATION 367 What Is STEM Integration Instruction? 368 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 370 Accountability for Standards in Science 370 An Increasing Need for Scientific and Engineering Literacy 371 Difficulties in Teaching K–8 Science

372

Designing for Ambitious Teaching and Inquiry 372 TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 373 Involving Students in Scientific Inquiry through Authentic Online Citizen Science Projects 373 Involving Students in Scientific Inquiry through Virtual Experiences 374 Supporting NGSS: Three-Dimensional Science Learning 375 Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Science 378 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN ENGINEERING INSTRUCTION 379 The Relationship between Engineering and Technology 379 Accountability for Teaching Engineering 381 Difficulties in Teaching K–12 Engineering 382 TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION STRATEGIES IN ENGINEERING INSTRUCTION 383 Developing Technical Communication of Engineering Thinking and Design 383 Engaging Students in Engineering Thinking through Makerspaces 383 Engaging Students in Engineering through Programming, Robotics, and Simulations

384

Supporting Students in Learning to Work on Engineering Teams

385

Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Engineering 386 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION 387 Accountability for Standards in Mathematics 387 Challenges in Implementing the State Standards for School Mathematics Bringing Research-Based Technology Practices into the Classroom TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION Visualizing the Abstract with Virtual Manipulatives

388 389 389 389

xxiv Contents Building and Exploring Representations of Mathematical Principles Supporting Mathematical Problem Solving Developing Data Literacy Supporting Mathematics-Related Communication Motivating Skill Building and Practice Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Mathematics CHAPTER 12 SUMMARY TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

13 Teaching and Learning with

Technology in Social Studies

391 393 394 395 395 396 397 398

400

LEARNING OUTCOMES 400 INTRODUCTION 404 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN SOCIAL STUDIES INSTRUCTION 404 Achieving Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Social Studies 404 Meeting Standards across Social Studies Areas 405 Critical Consumption of Online Content 406 The Need to Consider All Historical Resources as Perspective-Laden 407 Setting Instructional Purposes for Technology 408 TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR SOCIAL STUDIES 409 Videoconferencing for Global Citizenship Education 409 Using Simulations and Problem-Solving Environments 411 Virtual Field Trips 411 Information Visualization Strategies 412 Geospatial Analysis Strategies 413 Accessing Primary Sources 414 Social Media Integration 415 Digital Research and Analysis Strategies 415 Digital Storytelling 415 Online Learning in Social Studies 416 Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Social Studies 417 CHAPTER 13 SUMMARY TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

418 418

14 Teaching and Learning with

Technology in Music and Visual Art 420

LEARNING OUTCOMES 420 INTRODUCTION 423 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN MUSIC INSTRUCTION 424 A Changing Definition for Music Literacy 424 Preparing Teachers to Meet Music Standards 425 Ethical Issues for Music Educators 426 The Intersection of Popular Music, Technology, and Music Instruction 426 TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR MUSIC INSTRUCTION 427 Support for Music Composition and Production 428 Support for Music Performance 430

Support for Self-Paced Learning and Practice 432 Support for Teaching Music History 433 Support for Interdisciplinary Strategies 433 Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Music 434 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN VISUAL ART INSTRUCTION 435 Impact of Technology on the Visual Arts in Education and Society 436 Meeting Standards in Visual Art Instruction 437 Design and Innovation in Visual Art Education 437 Accessing Images Used in Visual Art Instruction 439 Inclusion of Creations by Marginalized Populations 439 Integrating Visual Art with Other Disciplines 439 TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR VISUAL ARTS INSTRUCTION 440 Accessing Art Content for Teaching and Learning 440 Visiting Art and Design Museums Virtually 442 Producing and Manipulating Digital Images 443 Supporting Artistic and Design Creation 444 Creating Films as an Art Form 445 Supporting Student Creation, Publication, and Sharing 445 Teaching Visual Arts Online 446 Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Visual Arts 447 CHAPTER 14 SUMMARY TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

449 449

15 Teaching and Learning with

Technology in Health and Physical Education 451

LEARNING OUTCOMES 451 INTRODUCTION 455 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 455 The Link between Physical Inactivity, Diet, and Obesity 455 National Standards for Health and Physical Education and Barriers for Quality Programs 456 Accuracy of Web-Based Information on Health and Physical Education 458 Handling Controversial Health Topics 458 Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child Model 458 TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 461 Improving Instructional Effectiveness in Physical Education 461 Organizing Teaching to Maximize Practice Opportunities 464 Providing Feedback and Conducting Assessments 464 Monitoring Physical Activity, Physical Fitness, and Nutrition 466 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 467 Helping Students Obtain Valid Health Information 468

Contents xxv

Influencing Health-Related Behaviors within and Beyond School 470 Providing Online Health and Physical Education Opportunities 473

Teacher Growth in Technology Integration Strategies for Health and Physical Education

473

CHAPTER 15 SUMMARY TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

475 476

APPENDICES

A ISTE Standards for

Educators - Survey

B Multimedia Presentation Project Checklist Example

C Rubric Example D Likert Scale Assessment

478

E Semantic Differential Assessment

Example488

F Observation Instrument Example 485 G Replacement, Amplification, 486

Example487

Transformation (RAT) Matrix

H Technology Impact Checklist I Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation

489 490 492

Checklist493

GLOSSARY  495 REFERENCES  508 NAME INDEX  544 SUBJECT INDEX  548

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CHAPTER 1

Educational Technology in Context THE BIG PICTURE

Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter and completing the learning activities, you should be able to: 1.1 Analyze how (a) the definition for educational technology and

integrating educational technology and (b) the history of digital technology shapes opportunities for integrating educational technology in classrooms. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 5—Designer) 1.2 Characterize trends in established and emerging technologies and

describe how they shape educational innovations. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 5—Designer) 1.3 Articulate the impact of leadership, politics and policies, infrastruc-

ture, safety, and equity and social justice conditions on current uses of technology in education. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 2— Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer)

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN ACTION:

Then and Now Then . . .  Ms. Thomas was almost as proud of her new classroom computers as she was of her new teaching degree. She had high hopes for the 1985 school year in her first teaching position, especially because the principal had asked her whether she could use two brand-new Apple computer systems that had been donated to the school. Ms. Thomas also found MECC software, such as Oregon Trail, and successfully lobbied the principal to buy it. With Oregon Trail, students were transported to 1848 as pioneers traveling from Missouri via wagons to resettle in Oregon. She also discovered Apple Logo, with which students could engage in computer programming that controlled a turtle icon that moved and drew lines on the screen. All the students wanted to use the computers, but with only two machines, Ms. Thomas quickly managed the activities to allow everyone to have turns. By the end of the year, she was convinced that these computers led her students to experience learning in different ways, such as through simulated historical experiences or building logic and control with Logo. She expected computers to become an integral part of everyday teaching activities, and she planned to be ready for the future. (Continued)

1

2  Chapter 1

Now . . .  As Ms. Thomas begins another school year, she reflects on her first pioneering work with her Apple computers more than 35 years ago and the technology possibilities available now. She has an interactive whiteboard, a device that allows her to project information from a computer to a screen and then manipulate it either with special pens or hands. Ms. Thomas and all her students use tablet computers as part of the school district’s one-to-one computing initiative for student-centered, hands-on learning. With these devices, her students access science simulations and online math manipulatives, engage in makerspace projects, and participate in citizen science with others around the state to gather and compare data on local environmental conditions. Students use graphing calculators to solve problems, use online programs to learn foreign languages, and take virtual field trips in science and social studies. A video project to interview war veterans has drawn a lot of local attention, and the student projects displayed on school digital displays are ablaze with websites and images students had taken with digital cameras. Ms. Thomas and her teacher colleagues also communicate via email or online chats, and many use a schoolapproved learning management system (LMS) for learning—Google Classroom or Schoology—so that students and parents can get up-to-date information on school and classroom activities and communicate with each other and the teacher. The LMS and the tablets were crucial to continue learning during emergency situations, such as the pandemic, forest fires, and hurricanes. There were still problems, of course. Computer viruses and spam sometimes slowed the district’s network, and the firewall that had been put in place to prevent students from accessing undesirable websites also prevented access to many other perfectly good sites. Teachers reported intermittent problems with cyberbullying and inappropriate postings on social network sites despite the school’s acceptable use policies. Some teachers complained that they had no time for innovative technology-based projects because they were too busy preparing students for the state tests that would determine students’ progress, their school’s rating, and their own effectiveness scores as teachers. Despite these concerns, Ms. Thomas is amazed at how far educational technology has come from those first, exciting, exploratory steps she took back in 1985 and how much more there still is to examine. She knows other teachers her age who retired, but she’s too interested in what she’s doing to retire yet. She’s helping with an online program for homebound students and leading a professional development project to support other teachers in using technologies that positions all learners as empowered and agentic. Ms. Thomas is looking forward to the future.

Introduction Today’s educators may think of educational technology as devices or equipment—such as computers, mobile phones, and tablets. But educational technology is not new at all, and it is by no means limited to a list of technical devices or software. Contemporary tools and techniques are simply the latest innovations in a field that is as old as education itself. This chapter introduces our definition of educational technology and the historical perspectives that have contributed to it, the emerging trends that may inspire you, and the conditions that influence the role these innovations may play in the schools you work in today or in the future. In this chapter, you will learn by doing the following: • Reviewing key terminology. Talking about a topic requires knowing the vocabulary and concepts relevant to that topic. We break down the idea of “educational technology” as a resource and a process educators implement in practice. • Reflecting on the past. Showing where the field began helps us understand where it is headed and why. Over time, changes in goals and methods in the field cast new light on the challenges and opportunities of today’s technologies. • Looking ahead to the future. Technology resources and societal conditions change so rapidly that today’s teachers must be futurists who critically analyze emerging trends. • Considering the conditions. Available technologies may provide possibilities, but a combination of leadership, political, infrastructural, safety, equitable and socially just issues influence the current uses of educational technology. This text provides you a guided journey through the process of integrating educational technology, as defined in the next section. This chapter provides the big picture, including

Educational Technology in Context 3

key definitions, concepts, and processes involved in integrating educational technology. That process is broken down further in Chapters 2 and 3 where we outline the three parts of our definition of integrating educational technology. Chapter 2 introduces the importance of learning theories, pedagogy, and curriculum. Chapter 3 introduces the roles for technology tools, support, and expertise, culminating with the Technology Integration Planning (TIP) model that teachers use to design technology-integrated lessons for their own classrooms. The TIP model is demonstrated in a Technology Integration in Action scenario that begins all subsequent chapters and is the focus of the workshop activities that close each chapter. Chapters 4–7 provide in-depth reviews of digital content resources for learning, communicating, designing, analyzing, creating, and making. Chapter 8 culminates with guidance in using all the resources and planning guides introduced in Chapters 1–7 to build out blended and online learning experiences. The latter half of the book, Chapters 9–15, provide key issues and technology integration strategies for content areas, including special education; English and language arts; English as an additional language and foreign languages; science, engineering, and mathematics; social studies; music and art; and physical and health education. All the technology integration strategies are grounded in strong educational research.

The “Big Picture” of Educational Technology Learning Outcome 1.1   Analyze how (a) the definition for educational technology and integrating educational technology and (b) the history of digital technology shapes opportunities for integrating educational technology in classrooms. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 5—Designer) The big-picture review in this section introduces a definition of the term educational technology that is built on decades of work in this field. Saettler (1990) says that the earliest references to educational technology were made by radio instruction pioneer W. W. Charters in 1948. Across the last seven decades, unique outlooks on what technology in education is and should be have emerged from different professional organizations, but definitions commonly encompass both technological resources and educational processes. We refer to education technology as the ethical and just practice of leveraging technology resources to support the educational processes involved in teaching and learning. Educational technology is an active, engaged practice; it is not a singular technology tool. It has been built on decades of research and development.

How This Textbook Defines Educational Technology In this section, we introduce the fundamental processes and resources that contribute to an informed practice of educational technology. • Educational technology refers to the ethical and just practice of leveraging resources to support the educational processes involved in teaching and learning. • Educational processes include a set of three knowledge areas through which to consider the role of technological resources, including (1) learning theories based on the sciences of human cognition, (2) pedagogical or instructional practices that complement learning theories, and (3) curriculum standards or content knowledge that inform our learning objectives or goals. Chapter 2 reviews these educational processes in depth. • Technology resources in this textbook are viewed as technology tools and technology support and expertise. We choose the term resource to capture the supply of both technological tools and human technological support or expertise that exists within people or in resources (e.g., a website or online community) built by knowledgeable others. A technology tool is a device such as a clicker or software application

4  Chapter 1 such as a word processor or Twitter that accomplishes a specific task. Technological support and expertise exist among school personnel. For example, librarians, media specialists, and other teachers in your school might provide ideas and expertise for using technologies in lessons. Principals might provide special funding for projects you develop. Chapter 3 introduces these resources and describes how teachers can build a community of support for developing and accessing technological expertise. Chapters 4–7 provide even more coverage of available technology tools. • Integrating educational technology refers to an individual or collaborative process of (1) identifying problems of practice (POPs) (e.g., learners’ needs or misconceptions, lack of culturally relevant curricular materials, difficult teaching topics), (2) accessing technological resources as possible solutions, (3) leveraging the resources in your learning context, and (4) assessing whether the educational technology solves the target POP in ways that replace, amplify, or transform teaching and learning. Chapter 3 introduces the Technology Integration Planning (TIP) model to help guide teachers through the process of integrating educational technology. Figure 1.1 visualizes the processes and resources in a framework for integrating educational technology.

Figure 1.1  A Framework for Integrating Educational Technology Learning Theories

Educational Processes Curriculum/ Content

Pedagogy

Learning Theory

(a) Identify problems of practice. Identify problems of practice (POPs; e.g., learners’ needs or misconceptions, lack of culturally relevant curricular materials, or difficult teaching topics) by consulting the educational processes with which teachers engage every day.

Technology Expertise

Technology Support Technology Resources

Technology Tools (b) Identify technology possibilities. Identify possible technological solutions for your POPs by reviewing the technology resources available at your school.

Technology Expertise

Technology Support Educational Technology Curriculum/ Content

Pedagogy

Technology Tools

C o n t ex t s (c) Use and assess educational technology. Once you choose a technology resource to tackle the target POP in ethical ways that are equitable and empowering for students, you are enacting educational technology. Once you’ve harnessed educational technology for teaching or learning, you will want to assess its effectiveness in solving the target POP.

Educational Technology in Context 5

Educational Technology Across Time Our current approaches to integrating educational technology into classrooms have been shaped by decades of developments in digital technologies. The six eras in the history of digital technologies, shown in Figure 1.2, are described in this section.

Figure 1.2  Digital Technologies in Education: A Timeline of Events That Shaped the Field Mainframe Computer Era 1950 First computers are used for instruction Computer-driven flight simulator trains MIT pilots

1959 First computer is used with school children IBM 650 teaches binary arithmetic in New York City

1960s University time-sharing movement begins Mainframes used for programming and shared utilities

Early 1970s Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) movement begins Schools use university-based mainframes/ mini-computers

Mid-to-late 1970s Schools begin using computers for instruction and administration CDC announces PLATO system

1980s Computer movements begin Software publishing, teacher authoring, LOGO problem solving get underway

1980s-early 1990s Networking computers begin ILS marks a shift to networks and away from desktop computers

1998 Google is founded Google will grow to dominate the search engine market

1999 Wi-Fi standards are developed Schools begin to install Wi-Fi to connect to the Internet

Computer Era 1967 Logo programming language developed Seymour Papert is part of team to produce first version of Logo

Late 1970s Arthur Luehrmann coins term computer literacy Andrew Molnar warns: non-computer-literate students are a risk

1977 Computers enter schools Teachers begin to control instructional applications

Internet Era 1993 World Wide Web is born First browser (Mosaic) transforms Internet, and teachers enter information superhighway

1994 Internet use explodes Distance learning increases in higher education

1995 Virtual schooling begins Online courses begin being offered in high schools

Mobile Technologies, Social Media, and Open Access Era 2001 Wikipedia begins Crowdsourcing movement gains momentum

2005–06 Social networking begins Facebook and Twitter are invented

2007 Books go digital and mobile Amazon releases first Kindle e-book reader

2010 Mobile tablets become available Apple releases first iPad tablet computer

2016 MIT celebrates 15th anniversary of their opencourseware initiative MIT has more than 2,200 courses available free of charge to support knowledge sharing

Personalized, Adaptive Learning Era 2008 Adaptive learning engine emerges Knewton adaptive learning platform founded

2009 USDOE emphasizes data systems “Race to the Top” program funded systemic change involving data innovations to support student growth and instruction

2014 “Breakthrough” schools funded Next Generation Learning Challenges (NGLC) allocates $7.2 million toward personalized, competency-based schools

2016 Facebook’s Zuckerberg joins education efforts Chan Zuckerberg Education Initiative build personalized learning technologies, Summit Learning

2019 Skepticism about personalized adaptive learning grow Knewton is sold (at a loss) to Wiley Publishers & Summit Learning’s platform and curriculum critiqued

2020 COVID Relief Bill 2020 Opens Doors for Digital Equity Funds were allotted for households’ emergency internet service, tribal connectivity, and broadband expansion in underserved communities

2021 Infrastructure Act and Digital Equity Act signed into law $65 billion provided for broadband expansion and digital equity and inclusion programs

Digital Justice Era 2019 Federal Government focuses on ed tech equity NCES identify data collection priorities on technology resources and support, integration of technology, and tech knowledge, skills, and attitudes

2020 Pandemic emergency remote teaching (ERT) reveals enduring inequities Children and parents have no or inadequate internet, devices, and low digital literacy skills

2020 Online Proctoring Software Raises Equity Issues Some argue these systems have discriminatory consequences or privacy issues

6  Chapter 1 MAINFRAME COMPUTER ERA  In the 1950s–1970s, companies like IBM developed

instructional mainframes, or large-scale computers that were often the size of a room. Researchers used these systems to develop CAI materials that schools used via longdistance connections to the mainframe. CAI was instructional software designed to help teach information and/or skills related to a topic. Companies such as the Computer Curriculum Corporation (CCC) and the Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations (PLATO) system (developed by Control Data Corporation) dominated the field for about 15 years. COMPUTER ERA  In contrast to mainframes, in the late 1970s and 1980s, small, stand-

alone desktop computers, designed for use by only one person at a time, became available. School districts placed them directly into the hands of teachers and schools. An educational software publishing movement quickly sprang up to provide teachers and students software to use on computers. Researchers realized both teachers and students required skills in using the computer, and researcher Arthur Luehrmann coined the term computer literacy. MIT researcher Seymour Papert contributed to developing Logo, a programming language, and used it as an aid to teach problem solving. Networked integrated learning systems (ILSs), which provided computer-based instruction and summary reports of student progress, also were developed to help teachers address required standards.

Pearson eText Video Example 1.1 In this video, students give advice for teachers and students who might want to teach in a virtual school.

INTERNET ERA  The World Wide Web (WWW), now simply known as the web, was invented in the 1990s. This was a system within the Internet that allowed graphic displays of websites through hypertext links, pieces of texts or images that allowed users to jump to other locations connected by the links. Teachers and students used browser software to explore information on the web, and by the beginning of the 2000s, email, web-based multimedia, and videoconferencing became standard tools of web users. Websites became a primary form of communication for educators, and web-based distance education became a more prominent part of instructional delivery at all levels of education. The meaning of “online” changed from simply being on the computer to being connected to the web. Virtual schools, which facilitate learning when K–12 students and teachers are physically separated and instruction is synchronous or asynchronous, began a steady growth that has endured in public, charter, and private education. THE MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES, SOCIAL MEDIA, AND OPEN ACCESS ERA  In

the early 2000s, portable devices such as smartphones and tablets made web access and computer power more ubiquitous. More and more individuals made texting and social networking sites, such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, part of their everyday lives. The ease of access to online resources and communications drove several movements. • Distance learning. A dramatic increase in the number and type of distance learning offerings came about first in higher education and then in K–12 schools. • Electronic books (e-books or e-texts). Texts in digital form on computers, e-book readers, and smartphones became increasingly popular alternatives to printed texts. • Open access. Initiatives began to gather learning materials and make them available “open” online, which means that anyone can access them for free and modify, remix, and reuse the content with appropriate attribution and without fees for others’ use. OpenCourseWare (OCW) and open-access university offerings called Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) became available. • Mobile access. One-to-one laptop programs (and later tablet programs) as well as Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) programs allowed students to use their own handheld devices for learning activities and accelerated the move to bring computer and Internet access into all classrooms.

Educational Technology in Context 7

As ubiquitous communications and social networking defined social practices in modern life, educators struggled to create appropriate policies and uses that could take advantage of this new power while minimizing its risks and problems. THE PERSONALIZED, ADAPTIVE LEARNING ERA  Innovators began building personalized, adaptive learning software that is similar to, yet more powerful than, the CAI and ILS systems of the mainframe and computer eras. By recording every click of a mouse, this adaptive learning software can adjust to learners’ needs through sophisticated analysis of learner behaviors and interactions with resources or content. This software adapts immediately by changing content, activities, and assessments to create a personalized learning path for each student. Most textbook publishers and app developers are building adaptive technology into their new products. For example, Dreambox Learning is adaptive math software with game-based elements. In many cases, a data dashboard is available for the teacher and school leaders and sometimes for the learner and parent. Teachers can use the dashboard to examine individual student progress and provide further interventions as needed. School leaders can use dashboards to discover patterns in students’ learning needs. However, some controversy has emerged about these innovations, such as parents and students expressing dissatisfaction with Summit Learning personalized platform and curriculum in their districts (Bowles, 2019). THE DIGITAL JUSTICE ERA  With growing educational commitments to social justice,

the work of many researchers and practitioners to identify more equitable, inclusive, and antiracist or anti-oppressive educational technology is becoming an imperative. This work raises critical questions regarding the content and functionality of software and hardware; the access to digital connectivity and resources; and the ways resources are used by teachers, students, and parents. For example, some worry that the vast data collected about learners might be harmful (Shulman, 2016), and concerns have arisen regarding ownership, control, access, use, security, and privacy of the data.

BOX 1.1

DIGITAL EQUITY AND JUSTICE

Definitions and Goals

3. Digital literacy training

As a nation, we have not yet achieved digital equity, which is “a condition in which all individuals and communities have the information technology capacity needed for full participation in our society, democracy and economy. Digital Equity is necessary for civic and cultural participation, employment, lifelong learning, and access to essential services” (National Digital Inclusion Alliance, n.d.). Visit the U.S. Census’ latest American Community Survey to explore your state’s digital equity gap in terms of the percentage of households (1) lacking wired home broadband connections, (2) having no home Internet of any kind, and (3) having an Internet subscription by income level (e.g., below $20,000 and above $50,000/year). As educators, we must work toward achieving digital equity, through digital inclusion, which are activities we can do to ensure all individuals and communities, especially groups that have been identified as having endured digital inequities, have access to and use technology. Five important elements of inclusion are:

4. Technical support

1. Affordable, robust broadband Internet service 2. Internet-enabled devices

5. Applications and online content that enable selfsufficiency, participation, and collaboration (National Digital Inclusion Alliance, n.d.). In terms of schools and children, educators must constantly monitor the degree to which all children have access to Internet-ready device(s), high-speed Internet, and just-in-time technical support so they can develop applicable digital literacy competencies and use apps and digital content that privilege high-quality learning experiences that involve participation, collaboration, and student agency in the activities. These elements of digital inclusion have been argued to be a human right (Cancro, 2016), a civil rights issue (Krueger & James, 2017), and instrumental for societal progress (Gonzales, 2016). Thus, as an expression of social justice, our nation’s schools and educators must actively seek digital justice wherein we identify and eliminate historical, institutional, and structural barriers to access and use technology for learning in classrooms, schools, homes, and communities.

8  Chapter 1 National and state emergencies that closed schools brought attention to enduring digital ­inequities, such as lack of access to high-speed Internet, digital devices, and software for online learning within children’s homes and communities. Others question if software is anti-oppressive and supports humanizing pedagogy, such as considering software that compels teachers to rate students’ behaviors or online test proctoring that introduces surveillance into learners’ homes as forms of oppression.

How What We Have Learned from the Past Shapes our Future To help us become more equitable and effective technology users today, we can apply what we know about the past to future decisions and actions. Developments in digital technologies along with societal changes have shaped the history of educational technology. The following points are among the most important. No technology is a panacea for education.  Great expectations for products such as Logo, online MOOCs, and adaptive technologies have taught us that even the most current, capable technology resources offer no quick, easy, universal, or equitable solutions. Computer-based materials and strategies are usually tools in a larger system and must be integrated carefully with other resources and teacher activities. Planning to integrate educational technology must always begin with the question, What specific needs do my students and I have that (any given resource) can help meet? Teachers usually do not develop technology materials or curriculum.  Teaching is one of the most time- and labor-intensive jobs in our society. With so many demands on their time, most teachers do not develop software or create complex technology-based teaching materials. Publishers, software companies, school or district developers, researchers, and most recently, philanthropic organizations have provided the majority of this assistance. Yet, teachers have the important responsibility to vet these materials for appropriateness and equity. “Technically possible” does not equal “desirable, feasible, or inevitable.”  Technology can bring undesirable—as well as desirable—changes. For example, increased access to cell phones and tablets in classrooms means that online communication and information are increasingly available. But communication always comes with caveats, and readily available information is not always reliable or helpful. New technological horizons require teachers to analyze carefully the implications of each implementation decision. Better technology demands that we become critical consumers of its power, capability, and inequity. We are responsible for deciding just which educational technology becomes reality in our classrooms. Technologies change faster than teachers can keep up.  The history of educational technology has shown that resources and accepted methods of applying them will change, often quickly and dramatically. The need to continue learning new resources and to change instructional methods places a special burden on already overworked teachers. Educators might not be able to predict the future of educational technology, but they know that it will be different than it is in the present; that is, they must anticipate and accept the inevitability of change and the need for continual learning. Many technologies do not change educational practices.  Technology in education is an area especially susceptible to fads. The past has shown that teachers must be careful, analytical consumers of technological innovation, looking to what has worked in the past to guide their decisions and measure their expectations in the present. Educational practice tends to move in cycles, and “new” digital methods are often old methods in new guise. In short, teachers must be as informed and analytical to ensure new digital resources offer advantages over current instructional practices.

Educational Technology in Context 9

Teachers will always be more important than technology.  The developers of the first instructional computer systems in the 1960s foresaw them replacing many teacher positions; some advocates of today’s online learning methods and personalized learning systems envision a similar impact on future education. Yet good teachers are more essential now than ever. We need more teachers who understand the role that technology plays in society and in education, who are prepared to take advantage of its power, and who recognize its limitations. In an increasingly technological society, we need more teachers who are technology savvy, critically aware, and child centered.

Established and Emerging Educational Technology Trends Learning Outcome 1.2   Characterize trends in established and emerging technologies and describe how they shape educational innovations. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 5—Designer) Visions of the future are suffused with images of technologies that may seem magical and far-fetched. Figure 1.3 is most likely attributed to French artist Jean-Marc Côté, who envisioned that a century later, in the year 2000, a technology could grind books’ content and insert information and knowledge directly into students’ heads. While this invention has never come to be, we know that future education may have access to innovations that leverage current technical inventions. Educators must identify how to take advantage of their capabilities to bring about the future education systems that advance a democratic society.

Figure 1.3  A postcard from circa 1901 depicting how French artist Jean-Marc Côté envisioned education a century later in the year 2000. The image connotes a teacher who pushes content information from books through a machine that transports the information into students’ heads via wired ear/head caps while they sit passively at tables in rows in a classroom. Public Domain: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:France_in_XXI_Century_(fiction)#/media/ File:France_in_XXI_Century._School.jpg

10  Chapter 1

Trends in Hardware and Software Innovation Hardware and software developers are capitalizing on ever-expanding computing power and high-speed Internet to create a range of innovations applicable for schools. Since schools have widely varied infrastructure, the following trends reflect technical innovations that are nearly established as well others that more emergent in K–12 educational systems. TREND 1: MOBILE COMPUTING  The trend toward mobile devices in education is

already widespread and having a great impact on K–12 education. The portability of tablet devices facilitates instant off/on, ubiquitous Internet access, rapid communication, and access to digital content. Thriving app development for tablets is driving this trend and increasing the options they enable. Cloud-based storage and communications also enable this trend. Some schools allow students who already own personal technology devices to use them in classes, creating a BYOD environment. Then these schools invest in mobile devices only for students who don’t have them. Concerns about curriculum, privacy, classroom management, and equitable access abound. In the Coachella Valley Unified School District in California, many students live in rural sections of the district where the local cable company would not install fiber optic cables to support Internet access. The district outfitted their school buses with solar-powered Wi-Fi and parked many of the buses overnight near the Internet-poor zones to maximize students’ use of mobile technologies. During the COVID-19 pandemic, districts across the United States implemented Wi-Fi buses to increase Internet access. TREND 2: DIGITAL AND OPEN CONTENT  Although digital resources have been

available for decades, their technical sophistication continually improves and teachers can consider them more often, especially when students have access to mobile devices. Publishers of textbooks are quickly generating digital-content options for schools, and libraries are purchasing access to more e-books. Open educational resources (OER) are materials created to be shared, adapted, and used by others without fees but with required attribution to the creator of the materials. Some open content is created as small modular formats that allow flexible incorporation into learning experiences; there are also open textbooks with a full curriculum. This trend also means the availability of more free content that can be adapted for K–12 teachers and students. The student in the accompanying photograph is reading an e-book on her tablet. TREND 3: LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS  Learning manage-

ment systems (LMSs) have been in use for decades in higher education and are now becoming more ubiquitous within K–12 schools. LMSs, such as Google Classroom, Blackboard, Canvas, Schoology, and Seesaw, are online “classrooms” that live on the web for students. Teachers can use tools within these systems, such as digital file storage, quizzes, discussion forums, wikis, and collaborative documents, to build modules of instruction or supplementary materials for their classes. TREND 4: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND LEARNING ANALYTICS  With more learners using a myriad of online or digital learning

E-book reading via mobile device

resources, every click of a mouse can be recorded and stored. This amassed data is referred to as big data because it can be immense. Innovators are building new instructional and administrative platforms that use machine learning, a type of artificial intelligence, to analyze big data and predict the content and instruction needed to support learners’ progress. This process is called learning analytics, or the ability to detect trends and patterns from sets of performance data across large numbers of students. The goal is to find ways to apply findings across students to create a personalized approach to learning for each student.

Educational Technology in Context 11

TREND 5: ROBOTICS AND CODING  Affordable hardware, such as Arduinos,

Raspberry Pi, and some 3-D scanners, have enabled more schools to adopt a robotic engineering curriculum to support learning in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) for K–12 students as an after-school extracurricular activity or as part of a STEM discipline. Students engage in a range of activities from computer programming, using robot controllers, switches, sensors, motors, and LEGO kits to design, build, and program robots—often for competitions. For Inspiration and Recognition of Science & Technology (FIRST) is a nonprofit organization that offers LEGO-based robotics programs and competitions for children ages 6–14 who research real-world scientific problems and offer prototypes of innovative solutions. NASA also supports robotics education through the Robotics Alliance Project. It provides a list of curriculum, competitions, and internships appropriate to K–5, 6–8, and 9–12 grade levels and higher education. TREND 6: AUGMENTED, VIRTUAL, AND MIXED REALITY  Augmented reality (AR)

refers to a combined hardware and software platform that creates a computer-generated environment in which a real-life scene is overlaid with information that enhances our uses of it. In virtual reality (VR), a person wears a headset and sometimes a data glove through which they are immersed into and can interact with a computer-generated 3-D, lifelike simulated environment. Mixed reality combines both AR and VR systems to interact in a person’s real world. Versions of these systems are available to schools on mobile devices.

Pearson eText Video Example 1.2 Notice how nonprofits, like FIRST, offer opportunities for children to engage in robotics and engineering challenges. https://youtu.be/1rxq4znDPQ8

Educational Trends Leveraging Technology Innovations Educators and educational technology developers are leveraging these hardware and software innovations as well as ever-expanding computing power and high-speed Internet to build educational innovations for schools. These trends are very specifically focused on educational goals. Table 1.1 illustrates the connections between the hardware and software trends and the educational trends described in this section. TREND 1: BLENDED AND ONLINE LEARNING  As mobile devices and high-speed connections become more readily available in schools and homes, more students are accessing online content and courses. Teachers are blending the use of digital content, OER, and instructional software with the support of LMS in their face-to-face classroom instruction. Furthermore, the enrollments in online schools operating in states is increasing (Digital Learning Collaborative, 2019), and some schools and districts offer a completely online path to earn a diploma. Although controversies such as funding and quality exist, online learning options for K–12 students may reshape schools to offer more flexible learning paths.

Table 1.1  Influence of Hardware and Software Innovations on Current Educational Trends Hardware and software trends

Educational Trends Blended and Online Learning

Games and Gamification X

Mobile computing

X

Digital and open content

X

Learning management systems

X

Artificial intelligence and learning analytics

X

Maker and DIY

Computational Thinking

Immersive Learning

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

Robotics and coding Augmented, virtual, and mixed reality

Personalized Learning

X

X

12  Chapter 1 TREND 2: GAMES AND GAMIFICATION  In terms of digital content, games have

been found to profoundly engage learners and lead to learning gains in subject matter, a key aspect of what researchers call a serious game. Gamification, or incorporating the motivational aspects of games (e.g., leaderboards and badges awarded for success) into nongame activities, is attracting more attention from both software developers and educators. The hope is that driving interest and rewarding student achievement can increase the time spent on learning activities. TREND 3: PERSONALIZED LEARNING  Learning analytics has driven a fast-growing

trend toward personalized learning systems (PLS), or computer-based instructional and management programs, that (1) assess individual student learning needs using complex algorithms and collections of data across students and (2) provide a customized instructional experience matched to each student, often via software offered on mobile computing devices. TREND 4: MAKER AND DIY  A culture of making things and “do it yourself” has led schools to establish makerspaces, physical spaces in libraries and other available spaces with digital and mechanical tools and materials where students learn to design, tinker with, and build tangible objects. Multidisciplinary activities can draw from computer and technical education, home economics, STEM disciplines, art, and music. 3-D printers, often found in makerspaces, build physical models in plastic or other material one layer at a time from 3-D modeling or CAD software. Some makerspaces are full of mobile computing devices and technologies such as Arduinos, Raspberry Pi, and scanners; others repurpose items such as newspaper and cardboard. Making is less about the specific outcome and more about the process of design, inquiry, and creating. TREND 5: COMPUTATIONAL THINKING  With recent emphasis on STEM, robotics,

computer programming, and making, educators have begun to coalesce around the value of having students learn computation thinking skills. Definitions of computational thinking vary but the aim is to develop students with knowledge and skills in problem solving, design, inquiry, abstraction, quantitative reasoning, data analysis and interpretation, modeling, computer programming, pattern identification, conditional logic, algorithms, and symbol systems. Students use creative ways of thinking in computer science to break down, model, and explore phenomena and to identify explanations or solutions through the use of computers. The Computer Science Teacher Association (CSTA) is a resource for current concepts, curricula, and assessments regarding computational thinking, but all teachers should learn about it because being a “computational thinker” is one of the 2016 ISTE Standards for all students. Figure 1.4 shows a girl and a boy involved in STEM activities that develop their computational thinking skills.

Figure 1.4  Girls and boys learning through robotics

Educational Technology in Context 13

TREND 6: IMMERSIVE LEARNING  New environments and mobile digital tools that

use augmented, virtual, and mixed reality are being created to integrate the physical world with virtual elements to engage learners in understanding conceptual or hard-toreplicate phenomena. For example, students use an AR app to hover their tablets over images of famous paintings, which calls up audio and text about the artist’s techniques. EcoMUVE, a project from Harvard University, employs virtual reality technologies to support middle school students’ research of ecosystems. SimBio is a virtual biology lab offering simulated open-ended experiments. Virtual reality has become more mainstream in society, which is demonstrated by the availability of low-cost Google Cardboard viewing devices that pair with mobile phones. News agencies, such as National Geographic and the New York Times, publish AR and VR extensions to many of their news stories. Google Arts & Culture help teachers take students on virtual field trips (Google, 2021). NASA also offers several free AR and VR apps (NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, n.d.).

Today’s Essential Conditions That Shape Technology Integration Learning Outcome 1.3   Articulate the impact of leadership, politics and policies, infrastructure, safety, and equity and social justice conditions on current uses of technology in education. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer) Educators must recognize that teaching, including efforts in technology integration, occurs within a myriad of contexts from communities to the classroom to cities, states, and nations. These contexts with their subtleties and complexities influence what educators can accomplish. The following sections describe these contextual conditions organized within five areas—leadership, policies, infrastructure, safety, and equity and justice—that influence technology adoption and integration in schools today, as summarized in Table 1.2.

Leadership Conditions Educational leadership is a primary condition that influences school-based technology integration. Leaders should be involving educational stakeholders in all technology planning and visioning activities. The vision affects all the ways that technology is used in teaching and learning in a school.

Table 1.2  Conditions That Shape the Environment for Using Technology Conditions

Implications for Educators, Students, and Their Families

Leadership Technology vision

• Educators, students, and parents should be involved in shared leadership.

Community engagement

• Technology vision should be learner-focused and community-informed.

Digital literacy/digital citizenship needs

• All students must develop digital literacy to become digital citizens.

Student-centered, technology-based pedagogy

• Students become engaged in active, inquiry-based technology-supported lessons.

Political Technology policies

• National, state, and local technology plans and policies guide schools.

Teacher and student accountability requirements

• Accountability emphases often drive technology use.

Consistent and adequate funding

• Schools and district must be creative funders for technology hardware, software, and professional learning.

Infrastructure Internet and devices

• Schools must establish strong Internet Wi-Fi and access to digital devices in school and in students’ homes and communities.

Software and digital content

• Schools and teachers must review software and content to ensure it is high-quality.

Technology support

• Teachers require human support for technical problems, lesson design, technology selection, and professional learning.

14  Chapter 1

Table 1.2  (Continued ) Conditions

Implications for Educators, Students, and Their Families

Safety Data and privacy

• It is incumbent on schools to safeguard students’ data and privacy.

Online safety

• Acceptable use policies are required.

Health and well-being

• Technology overuse can cause unhealthy ailments.

Digital identity

• Colleges, universities, and employers examine students’ and teachers’ digital footprints.

Equity and Justice Digital equity

• It is inequitable and socially unjust when technology use by many student subgroups is limited to remedial rather than empowering learning purposes. • Schools and teachers should advocate for digital equity.

Students with special needs

• Methods to allow equal access for learners with special needs are often built into software and devices.

TECHNOLOGY VISION  Research demonstrates that effective technology leadership is a significant predictor of teachers’ and students’ use of technology in schools (Hughes et al., 2016; Schrum & Levin, 2013). Administrative leaders such as superintendents and principals are effective technology leaders when they lead collaborative processes for technological goal setting and visioning with stakeholders, such as teachers, staff, parents, students, and community members. Furthermore, research shows more success with technology in classrooms when the technology visions of schools or districts are learning focused, curricular focused, and preplanned (Dexter, 2011; Warschauer et al., 2014). Implementation of a technology vision should involve all stakeholders, such as parent information meetings, administration of ongoing surveys, systematic teacher professional learning, and evaluations of progress. Formal leaders should empower teachers and others to be part of a distributed leadership network that collectively shares responsibility for achieving goals. Teachers should seek out their own technology leadership contributions, such as serving on technology committees and engaging with peer colleagues (Dexter, 2011). (See Chapter 3 for more ideas.) COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT  Social connections with a school’s community base are fundamental in identifying and then attaining the school’s technology goals and vision. Explicit outreach and information sharing with the community, including parents, elders, and business owners, can build a vision and goals that reflect community needs. Noguerón-Liu (2017) describes how schools considering 1:1 computing initiatives must realize that nondominant parents’ (such as new immigrant families) understandings of digital tools may be in conflict with school-based assumptions of how tools should be used at home. All viewpoints should be considered. We also recommend that the technology plans of teachers, schools, and districts be live, online, interactive sites where goals, accomplishments, and needs are clearly articulated and available to the public when possible. DIGITAL LITERACY AND DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP  The increasing role that technol-

ogy plays in all areas of our society makes it ever more essential that students become critical consumers of technology resources and demonstrate digital citizenship, the use of technology resources in safe, responsible, and legal ways. As more digital resources are created, students need to develop digital literacy skills, which enable them to (1) access, evaluate, and manage information, (2) analyze digital media for their underlying message and purposes, (3) use media creation tools for expression, and (4) understand legal and ethical uses of digital technology. A national survey of eighth-graders indicate disparity in technology literacy by race/ethnicity, eligibility for school lunch, disability status, and English language learning status (National Assessment of Educational Progress, 2018). It is a socially just responsibility for all teachers to begin developing all students’ digital literacy within their instructional courses.

Educational Technology in Context 15

STUDENT-CENTERED TECHNOLOGY-BASED PEDAGOGIES  Educators continue

to debate the roles of traditional, teacher-directed methods versus student-centered, constructivist methods. Long-used and well-validated teacher-directed uses of technology can address content standards, but we advocate for inquiry-based, studentcentered, constructivist methods. Research reveals that constructivist approaches can lead to higher learning gains and builds long-term, flexible knowledge. For example, in a comparison of a story-based and game-based curriculum to teach persuasive writing, learning gains and engagement for students were significantly higher in the gamebased curriculum (Barab et al., 2012). Chapter 2 thoroughly reviews how learning theories lead to different technology-based pedagogy.

Political Conditions We all live in a political world with frequent changes in national, state, and local governance. Public schools were established based on democratic ideals of free, universal, and nonreligious schooling available for all. Federal governance through the U.S. Department of Education and state and local governance have varying responsibilities toward the organization, funding, and curriculum of public schools. VISIONARY TECHNOLOGY POLICIES  Technology integration is influenced by national, state, and local policies and priorities. The U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Educational Technology creates a national educational technology plan (NETP) about every 4 to 6 years. The 2016 National Educational Technology Plan, Future Ready Learning: Reimagining the Role of Technology in Education (Office of Educational Technology, 2016), set forth the vision and plan for the nation for learning with technology. This plan positions leadership, teaching, and assessment as crucial elements to ensure visionary learning with technology that is enabled through accessible digital devices and resources for everyone with connectivity (see Figure 1.5). Each state has an educational technology plan, and districts create technology plans that assist in setting local goals and securing grants and other funding. As an educator, you can also create a classroom technology plan to help guide your own technology integration efforts. TEACHER AND STUDENT ACCOUNTABILITY FOR QUALITY AND PROGRESS  The

federal-level Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) offers more decision-making authority to the states. States can adopt the Common Core State Standards or other challenging academic standards. States still must test students in reading and math in grades 3 through 8 and once in high school, but there is more latitude in regard to which tests to use. Schools may be able to use some Title 1 funds for schoolwide programs, which include educational technology. A strong trend toward using technology in ways that help students pass tests and meet required standards rather than support more innovative teaching strategies continues. Teachers might be influenced to use technologies only if they address accountability goals. CONSISTENT AND ADEQUATE TECHNOLOGY FUNDING  Educational funding

is not consistent nor equitable across schools, which means that funds are not always available for technology hardware, software, and professional learning. Funding should be considered an ongoing expense in the budget, and it should prioritize technology resources that support enacting the vision and meeting the goals set in a district technology plan. The federal E-rate program provides discounts for high-speed, wireless Internet connectivity for schools and libraries, especially those in rural areas or with large student populations qualifying for free or reduced-price lunch. To lower costs, some technology advocates suggest shifting from textbooks to OER, or eliminating computer laboratories and copy machines, creating partnerships to leverage purchasing discounts or share infrastructure or staff, or reconsidering staff responsibilities to streamline roles and avoid new staff costs. Considerable care needs to be taken to ensure that teacher workloads are not expanded when lowering costs. For example, in a case

16  Chapter 1

Figure 1.5  U.S. National Educational Technology Plan Infographic Office of Educational Technology (2016). Future ready learning: Reimagining the role of technology in education. U.S. Department of Education. http://tech.ed.gov/ netp/

study of a high school special education teacher using one-to-one iPads in her classroom, Ok and colleagues (2017) found that a shift from textbooks to open educational resources essentially shifted the responsibility to the teacher to find, research, choose, and request purchases of apps. The teacher reported this responsibility to be prohibitively time-consuming.

Educational Technology in Context 17

Infrastructure Conditions The availability of technology is a necessary condition for teachers to be able to integrate it into their curricula. Schools can establish a technological environment for teaching and learning, but such environments are not always equal given the leadership and political conditions previously described. INTERNET AND DEVICES  For educators to use technologies in their classrooms,

schools must build a robust technological infrastructure. The elements in this infrastructure should be driven by the vision and goals of a technology plan. At a minimum, schools should establish ubiquitous, strong Internet Wi-Fi connectivity and access to digital devices for teaching and learning. The goals of each individual school or district should guide the specificity of the infrastructure. For example, some schools provide Internet connectivity for children at home. Some schools allow students to bring their own devices and others provide one-to-one tablet or laptop environments, both increasing mobile-supported learning. SOFTWARE AND DIGITAL CONTENT  Schools must make available high-quality

digital software and content. Some schools are using open educational resources or purchasing digital textbooks and other apps to support teaching and learning. Teachers can advocate for content resources that have accurate, current, rigorous content with a wide scope to meet a range of learners’ needs. Software should involve learners with agency in their decision-making regarding content and learning paths, should prioritize minds-on activities such as puzzles or inquiries, and should offer interactivity where learners build and create knowledge. TECHNOLOGY SUPPORT  Educators also need support staff to assist with technical

difficulties, technology-supported lesson design, technology selection, and professional learning opportunities focused on technology. Some schools have dedicated technology specialists who contribute to meeting all these responsibilities. Some schools must share support staff across one or more other schools. Large schools, in contrast, could have multiple staff in these support roles. Librarians and media specialists can also offer technical assistance. Finally, some support could be outsourced to companies that provide infrastructural resources to the school; these companies could accommodate technical inquiries via phone calls, emails, web chats, or videoconferencing.

Safety Conditions Technology is not neutral; it may have both positive and negative impact within schools. Educators must recognize the conditions described in this section that may threaten the safety and well-being of teachers, students, and their families. Every school can begin to address these conditions through sound policies and a planned, ongoing education program to make teachers and students aware of these concerns and to ensure safety. PROTECTING PERSONAL DATA AND PRIVACY  As more and more digital data are

generated in the daily activities of educators and learners, data use policies ensure the appropriate safeguarding of student data. Typically, the protected data might be in Student Information System (SIS) software or might be personally identifiable information, such as a student name or picture, in online software like blogs or wikis. Several federal laws have protections for student education records and personal information, such as the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA), the Protection of Pupil Rights Amendment (PPRA), the confidentiality provisions in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), and the Children’s Online Privacy Protection

18  Chapter 1 Act (COPPA). A data use policy helps educators understand what data are acceptable to access and use and in what ways. Furthermore, schools install firewalls, software that blocks unauthorized access to classroom computers and require authenticated log-in to all computers. Schools and districts must constantly educate teachers and students on strategies to prevent phishing attempts, which are emails that falsely claim to be from a legitimate source in order to glean private information. For example, a teacher could receive a message purporting to be from the school district’s information technology department asking all users to update their records with passwords and other information. If the teacher supplies this information, the phisher can access the teacher’s account, which could contain a great deal of private information. Educators should always check email addresses carefully before opening attachments, never log in to a site or provide private information when an email requests it, and download software only from reputable company websites. ONLINE SAFETY  The federal Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA) requires

school districts that accept E-rate funds to build their Internet infrastructure, which includes most districts, to block or filter children’s access to obscene, pornographic, or harmful pictures on the Internet. Filters are not 100% accurate, so students also need to be educated as to what information is acceptable to access. To address these concerns, schools are requiring students, parents, teachers, and staff to sign an acceptable use policy (AUP) that outlines appropriate use of school technologies for students and educators. HEALTH AND WELL-BEING  Potential problems such as hearing loss from head-

Pearson eText Video Example 1.3 In this video, 7th grade teacher, Chris Gammon, talks about the proactive steps his school leaders, the teachers, the parents, and the students take to prevent cyberbullying.

phone use or eye strain from gazing too long at digital screens have been identified and continue to be studied. Time spent at video games and computer work is time taken away from actual physical activity, which can contribute to obesity and decline in fitness. Online harassment in digital environments, known as cyberbullying is defined as involving aggression, repetition, and imbalance of power, and technology enables the online persistence and visibility of acts of cyberbullying (Boyd, 2014). It mirrors similar bullying on school campuses. DIGITAL IDENTITY  Students and educators build a digital footprint as they use pub-

lic online systems, such as social networking. Students are often unaware that college and university admissions personnel and prospective employers review and consider available web-based information about students. Teachers who have their own social networking sites have encountered criticism or even been fired for ill-advised personal posts and contact with students. Many schools now have social media policies that outline rules regarding educators’ use of social media.

Equity and Social Justice Conditions Technology is a double-edged sword, especially for education. It presents obvious potential for changing education and empowering teachers and students but can also further divide members of our society based on race, ethnicity, or national origin; sex; sexual orientation or gender identity or expression; disability; English language ability; religion; socioeconomic status; and geographical location. Teachers lead the struggle to make sure that their technology use promotes rather than conflicts with the equitable, socially just goals of a democratic society. DIGITAL EQUITY  Originally when discrepancies in access to technology resources occurred among groups of different socioeconomic, race, or gender distributions, it was referred to as a digital divide. More recently, the term digital inequity has expanded the concept from solely unequal access to the unequal educational

Educational Technology in Context 19

opportunities involving technologies. Educators must be sure that subgroups of students do not have disproportionally different access to active versus passive technology-supported learning opportunities in schools. For example, Hughes and colleagues (2015) discovered inequities in home and school technology use according to students’ race and school urbanicity. Figure 1.6 exemplifies that passive and active digital uses are very different, and we must ensure that all students engage in active technological uses. Inequities result in women and people of color earning far fewer degrees in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) areas (Musu-Gillette et al., 2016) and entering STEM careers at lower rates than men and White people. Programs such as Black Girls Code or Girls Who Code enable young girls to learn computer programming and meet women role models. Teachers can best battle inequity by involving all your students in inquiry-based, empowering digital activities. EQUITY FOR STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS  There is an increasing emphasis on accessibility in the development of technological hardware, software, apps, learning environments, and digital content using universal design. Technology is intended to be used universally by all learners including students who have disabilities, are English learners, or are in locations with low availability of Internet or electricity. For example, technological resources can have built-in text-to-speech capabilities; variable font size, color, and type manipulations; screen zooming; multimedia output (video, audio, text); translation capabilities; high-performance rechargeable batteries; and built-in Wi-Fi. Students with disabilities who have individualized education programs (IEPs) could have even more specific assistive technology resources included in the program; if so, providing these resources is guaranteed by federal laws.

Figure 1.6  Digital Divide Infographic Office of Educational Technology (2016). Future ready learning: Reimagining the role of technology in education. U.S. Department of Education. http://tech.ed .gov/netp/

20  Chapter 1

CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY The following is a summary of the main points covered in this chapter. 1. The “Big Picture” of Educational Technology • This chapter’s big-picture review provides an important framework for viewing the field and consists of key terminology, reflections on the past, considerations about the present, and a look ahead to the future. • Important definitions in the field are: • Educational technology—Technology resources leveraged to support educational processes involved in addressing teaching and learning. • Integrating educational technology—The process of identifying educational problems of practice and matching those with technological resources as possible solutions, using the resources as educational technology in the classroom, and assessing impact on the identified problems.

2. Established and Emerging Educational Technology Trends • Trends leveraged by hardware and software innovation include mobile computing, digital and open content, learning management systems, artificial intelligence and learning analytics, robotics and coding, and augmented, virtual, and mixed reality systems. • Educational trends leveraging hardware and software innovations include blended and online learning, games and gamification, personalized learning, maker and DIY, computational thinking, and immersive learning. 3. Today’s Essential Conditions That Shape Technology Integration • The following shape technology integration: • Leadership conditions such as technology vision, community engagement, digital literacy and digital citizenship, student-centered technologybased pedagogy.

• The educational computing/technology past comprises six eras: the mainframe era (1950–late 1970s); the microcomputer era (late 1970s–1993); the Internet era (1990s); mobile technologies, social media, and open access (2001 and continuing); the personalized, adaptive learning era (2008 and continuing); and the digital justice era (2019–onward).

• Political conditions such as national, state, and local technology policies; teacher and student accountability for quality and progress; and consistent and adequate technology funding.

• We have learned the following from the history of technology in education: No technology is a panacea for education; teachers usually do not develop technology materials or curricula; “technically possible” does not equal “desirable, feasible, or inevitable”; technologies change faster than teachers can keep up; many technologies do not change educational practices; and teachers will always be more important than technology.

• Infrastructure conditions including Internet and devices, software and digital content, and technology support. • Safety conditions related to data and privacy, health and well-being, and digital identity. • Equity and social justice conditions including digital equity and equity for students with special needs.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP Apply What You Learned This workshop helps you connect more deeply with the content and concepts introduced in this chapter. An important part of the workshop is for you to personalize the ideas from your own experience as well as consider them in terms of the teaching scenario that opens the chapter. • Prior to reading this chapter, consider how might you have explained the concept educational technology to a classmate or your professor. Try to capture in words,

a picture, or a figure what your definition might have been. Now, review the definition introduced in this chapter, as summarized in Figure 1.1, and identify the overlaps and gaps between your definition and ours. Any identified gaps are opportunities for you to consider and expand the concept of educational technology. • Re-review the opening Technology Integration in Action scenario. Based on how Ms. Thomas describes her technology-supported practices across her career,

Educational Technology in Context 21

try to capture in words, a picture, or a figure what you infer her definition of educational technology might have been. Identify the overlaps and gaps between Ms. Thomas’s inferred definition and ours. How might any identified gaps impact her technology-supported practices? • Generate a few examples of Ms. Thomas’s practices that have been influenced by the established or emerging technological and educational innovations, as summarized in Table 1.1.

• Conjecture about the unsaid backstory of Ms. Thomas’s technology-supported practices across her career. First, re-review the conditions that shape how technology can be integrated into practice, as summarized in Table 1.2. Next, identify (1) some elements across these conditions that would have been required for Ms. Thomas’s success and (2) some elements across these conditions that you would want to ask her questions about. For these latter areas, state your queries in question form.

CHAPTER 2

Theory into Practice EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES FOR TRANSFORMATIVE TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter and completing the learning activities, you should be able to: 2.1 Identify the theorists and beliefs associated with directed and social

constructivist learning theories and how these theories contribute to pedagogy and technology integration strategies. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 5—Designer) 2.2 Contrast directed, social constructivist, or combined technology

integration pedagogies. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 5—Designer) 2.3 Identify content and technology standards that guide teachers’

design of curriculum and technology integration strategies for ­student learning and growth. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator)

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN ACTION:

The Role of Learning Theory Strategy A: Preparing Students for State Tests One of Mr. Ng’s responsibilities as mathematics department chair was helping all teachers make sure their students did well on the mathematics portion of the state’s Test of Essential Skills for Success (TESS-M). Mr. Ng and the other math teachers were determined that every student in the school would pass the TESS-M. They also decided that they would not just “teach to the test.” They wanted the students to have a good grounding in math skills that would serve them well in their future education. From practice test scores he had seen, Mr. Ng realized that too many students needed help to provide individual coaches or tutors for each one, and he disliked the idea of making all students work on skills only some of them needed. At a school he had visited in another district, Mr. Ng was impressed with how teachers relied on a computerbased system that included drills, tutorials, simulations, and problem-solving activities that they could access in their classrooms and the computer lab.

22

Theory into Practice 23

One of the benefits of the system was that students could solve math problems and teachers could get a list of skills with which each student was having trouble. Then the system would recommend specific activities, on and off the system, matched to each child’s needs. The activities ranged from practice in very basic math skills to solving real-life problems that required algebra and other math skills. Mr. Ng persuaded his principal to purchase a year’s subscription to this system, and he and the other math teachers agreed on ways they would use it to support their classroom instruction. That year, almost every student at the school passed the TESS-M. The math teachers agreed that the computerbased activities had played a key role in students’ preparation. They liked the way those activities helped target students’ specific needs more efficiently without overemphasizing test taking. Mr. Ng asked the principal to make the system a permanent part of the school’s budget.

Strategy B: A Simulated Family Project Ms. Rodriguez’s middle school math students are usually fairly good at mathematics skills, although based on various practice tests, some would have trouble passing the state’s TESS-M. She liked to do at least one ongoing project each year to show students how their math skills apply to real-life situations. Ms. Rodriguez also wanted them to learn to work together to solve problems just as they would be doing in high school and college and in work situations when they graduate. The first activity Ms. Rodriguez implemented at the beginning of each year was to have her students work in small groups to simulate “families.” The groups designed the families—including deciding on the family size, type of family members (i.e., children, parents, grandparents, caregivers), number of wage earners and the jobs they hold— and created a monthly budget in a spreadsheet template. Ms. Rodriguez designed a template to show income earned from the jobs and estimated monthly expenses for each of them and for the designed family. To select jobs, the groups consulted online newspaper Help Wanted sections, websites for job-seekers, and adults they knew to get an idea of what positions were available and how much they paid. To estimate expenses, they researched online newspaper and real estate ads to see how much it cost to rent a house or an apartment in an area where their simulated family would live. Throughout the year, Ms. Rodriguez gave each group unexpected expenses (e.g., the dog gets sick, the roof leaks); the students then adjusted their spreadsheet budget to compensate for the extra expenses. If a group either had a surplus or went into debt, she made the students consider a range of investments, loans, and relocation or selling of assets, which they did by researching available interest rates and prices and adding their choices to their spreadsheet budgets. Toward the end of the year, Ms. Rodriguez had students calculate estimated taxes on their earnings. Finally, they prepared a report using presentation software that showed charts of their spending and what they learned about “making ends meet.” The students always told her this was the most meaningful math activity they had ever done.

Introduction This chapter introduces three types of educational processes that impact how technologies may support instruction and learning. These are learning theories based on the sciences of human behavior, pedagogical or instructional practices that complement learning theories, and the curriculum standards or content knowledge that inform learning objectives or goals. These three areas form the first triangle of our Framework for Integrating Educational Technology (see Figure 2.1), as introduced in Chapter 1. In this text, learning theories and their corresponding pedagogies are grouped into two categories: (1) directed and (2) social constructivist. Theorists and practitioners reflect two contrasting views of how instruction and learning should take place: • Directed. Teachers should transmit a predefined set of information to students through teacher-organized activities. This view is based on objectivism, a belief system grounded primarily in behaviorist learning theory and the information-processing branch of the cognitive learning theories. • Social constructivist. Teachers should build inquiry, discovery, and experiential learning into their instruction so that learners can generate their own knowledge

24  Chapter 2

Figure 2.1  Educational Processes: A Framework for Integrating Educational ­ echnology. This chapter provides more information on the three educational processes: T learning theories, pedagogy, and content/curriculum. Attending to these educational ­processes help teachers identify problems of practice that can serve to guide the ­lesson designs that involve the use of technology. This is the first part of the framework for ­integrating educational technology.

Learning Theories

Educational Processes Pedagogy

Curriculum/ Content

through experiences while teachers serve as facilitators. This view is based on ­constructivism, which evolved from other branches of thinking in cognitive learning theory, and social theories that acknowledge the importance of how learners are situated in the world, such as prioritizing all students’ culturally rich knowledge and skills. Both directed instruction and social constructivist–based instruction approaches are based on the work of respected learning theorists and psychologists who have studied both the behavior of human beings as learning organisms and the behavior of students in schools and classrooms. Curriculum and technology standards differ by grade level and subject areas, and each state may adopt different standards. Familiarity with the curriculum enables teachers to identify potential areas of need that available technologies may support.

Learning Theory Foundations of Directed Pedagogical Models Learning Outcome 2.1  Identify the theorists and beliefs associated with directed and social constructivist learning theories and how these theories contribute to pedagogy and technology integration strategies. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 5—Designer) Directed models of integrating technology were derived primarily from a combination of four theorists and theories—behaviorist, information-processing, cognitive-­ behaviorist, and instructional design theories. This section summarizes the basic concepts associated with these theories and their implications for pedagogical practices and technology integration.

Theory into Practice 25

Behaviorist Theories These theories, among the earliest explanations for how people learn new things, are based primarily on the work of B. F. Skinner (1904–1990). Before Skinner, theories of learning were dominated by classical conditioning concepts proposed by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who proposed that behavior is largely controlled by involuntary physical responses to outside stimuli (e.g., dogs salivating at the sight of a can of dog food). By contrast, Skinner’s operant conditioning theory asserted that people can have voluntary mental control over their responses (e.g., a child reasons that he will be praised if he behaves well in school). Skinner’s work showed that observable behaviors are controlled by the consequences of actions rather than by events that precede the actions. A consequence is an outcome (stimulus) after the behavior, which can influence future behaviors. Skinner’s work made him a highly influential figure in education. Skinner reasoned that the internal processes inside the mind involved in learning could not be seen directly. Scientific work had not advanced sufficiently at that time to observe brain activity. Therefore, he concentrated on cause-and-effect relationships that could be established by observation. He found that human behavior could be shaped by contingencies of reinforcement or situations in which reinforcement for a learner is contingent on a desired response. He identified three kinds of situations that can shape behavior: • Positive reinforcement. A situation is set up so that an increase in a desired behavior will result from a stimulus. For example, to earn praise or good grades (positive reinforcement), a learner studies hard for a test more often (desired behavior). • Negative reinforcement. A situation is set up so that an increase in a desired behavior will result from avoiding or removing a stimulus. For example, a student dislikes going to detention (negative reinforcement), so to avoid detention again, she is quiet in class more often (desired behavior). • Punishment. A situation is set up so that a decrease in a desired behavior will result from undesirable consequences, such as when a student is given a failing grade (punishment) when he cheats on a test (undesirable behavior), so he is less likely to cheat in the future (desired behavior). IMPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIORIST THEORIES FOR PEDAGOGY  Skinner’s influen-

tial book The Technology of Teaching (1968) presented a detailed theory of how classroom instruction should reflect these behaviorist principles. Many of his classroom management and instructional techniques still are widely used today. Skinner believed that teaching is a process of arranging contingencies of reinforcement effectively to bring about learning. He believed that even such high-level capabilities as critical thinking and creativity could be taught in this way; doing so was simply a matter of establishing chains of behavior through principles of reinforcement. Skinner felt that programmed instruction was the most efficient means available for learning skills. Educational psychologists such as Benjamin Bloom also used Skinner’s principles to develop what became known as mastery learning: • We know when people learn only by observing changes in their behavior. • Behavior is shaped by stimulus-response connections. • Reinforcement strengthens responses; if people do something and are reinforced for it, they learn to respond in predictable ways. • Chains of behavior become skills. IMPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIORIST THEORIES FOR TECHNOLOGY ­INTEGRATION 

Most original drill-and-practice software was based on Skinner’s reinforcement principles, such as when students knew they would receive praise or an entertaining graphic if they gave correct answers. Much tutorial software is based on the idea

26  Chapter 2

Figure 2.2  Three Kinds of

Memory. This model demonstrates that the mind first has sensory inputs, such as information that is seen, heard, felt, or tasted. Second, the mind stores this new information into short-term memory temporarily. Third, if the information is used and retained, it becomes part of long-term memory.

Sensory Registers

of programmed instruction. Because the idea behind drill-and-practice software is to increase the frequency of correct answers in response to stimuli, these packages are often used to help students memorize important basic information, whereas tutorial software gives students an efficient path through concepts they want to learn.

Information-Processing Theories Educators found Skinner’s stimulus–response view of learned behavior insufficient to guide all types of learning, so during the 1950s and 1960s, the first cognitive (as opposed to behavioral) learning theorists began to hypothesize about processes inside the brain that allow human beings to learn and remember but could not be observed directly. Although no single, cohesive information-processing theory of learning summarizes the field, the work of the information-processing theorists is based on a model of memory and storage originally proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968): The brain contains certain structures that process information much like a computer. This model of the mind as computer hypothesizes that the human brain has three kinds of memory or “stores,” as represented in Figure 2.2: • Sensory registers. The part of memory that receives all the information a person senses. • Short-term memory (STM). Also known as working memory, the part of memory where new information is held temporarily until it is either lost or placed into long-term memory.

Short-Term Memory

Long-Term Memory

• Long-term memory (LTM). The part of memory that has an unlimited capacity and can hold information indefinitely. According to the model of memory and storage, learning begins when information is sensed through receptors: eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and/or hands. This information is held in the sensory registers for a very short time (perhaps a second) after which it either enters STM or is lost. Many information-processing theorists believed that information could be sensed but lost before it gets to STM if the person is not paying attention to it. According to these theorists, anything that people pay attention to goes into working memory where it can stay for about 5 to 20 seconds. After this time, if information is not processed or practiced in a way that causes it to transfer to LTM, then it, too, is lost. Information-processing theorists believed that for new information to be transferred to LTM, it must be linked in some way to prior knowledge already in LTM. Once information does enter LTM, it is there essentially permanently, although some psychologists believed that even information stored in LTM can be lost if not used regularly. IMPLICATIONS OF INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORIES FOR P ­ EDAGOGY 

Although subsequent studies have indicated that learning could be more complicated than this model of memory would explain (Schunk, 2012), information-processing views have become the basis for many common classroom practices. Teaching practices based on these concepts include the use of: 1. Interesting questions and eye-catching material to help students pay attention to a new topic, such as a photographs or graphs 2. Mnemonic devices, such as remembering that HOMES stands for the first letters of the five Great Lakes: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior 3. Instructions that point out (or cue) important points in new material to help students remember, such as linking them to information they already know 4. Visual explanations of abstract concepts, such as from virtual manipulatives or simulations 5. Practice exercises to help transfer information from STM to LTM, such as drill and practice or tutorials.

Theory into Practice 27

IMPLICATIONS OF INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORIES FOR TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION  Computer programs provide ideal environments for the highly structured

cueing, attention-getting, visualization, and practice features that information-­processing theorists found so essential to learning and remembering. Information-processing theories have also guided the development of artificial intelligence (AI) applications, an attempt to develop computer software that can simulate the thinking and learning behaviors of humans. Much of the drill-and-practice functions available within learning software is designed to help students encode and store newly learned information into LTM.

Cognitive-Behaviorist Theory Robert Gagné (1916–2002) was a renowned educational psychologist who translated principles from behaviorist and information-processing theories into practical instructional strategies that teachers could employ with directed instruction. He is best known for three of his contributions in this area: Events of Instruction, types of learning, and learning hierarchies. Gagné used the information-processing model of internal processes to derive a set of guidelines that teachers could follow to arrange optimal “conditions of learning.” His set of Nine Events of Instruction was perhaps the best known of these guidelines (Gagné et al., 1992): 1. Gaining attention 2. Informing the learner of the objective 3. Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning 4. Presenting new material 5. Providing learning guidance 6. Eliciting performance 7. Providing feedback about correctness 8. Assessing performance 9. Enhancing retention and recall. Gagné identified several types of learning as behaviors that students demonstrate after acquiring knowledge. These differ according to the conditions necessary to foster them. He showed how the Events of Instruction would be carried out slightly differently for the five domains of learning outcomes (Gagné et al., 1992): 1. Intellectual skills • Problem solving • Higher-order rules • Defined concepts • Concrete concepts • Discriminations 2. Cognitive strategies 3. Verbal information 4. Motor skills 5. Attitudes. The development of “intellectual skills,” Gagné believed, requires learning that is akin to a building process. Lower-level skills provide a necessary foundation for higherlevel ones. For example, to learn to solve long division problems, students first would have to learn all the prerequisite math skills, beginning with number recognition, n ­ umber facts, simple addition and subtraction, multiplication, and simple division. Therefore, to teach a skill, a teacher must first identify its prerequisite skills and make sure students possess them. Gagné called this list of building block skills a learning hierarchy.

28  Chapter 2 IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORIST THEORY FOR PEDAGOGY  ­ Instruction based on this theory provides “conditions for learning” by offering activities matched to each type of skill. Students had to demonstrate that they had learned prerequisite skills by demonstrating the type of behavior appropriate for the skill. For example, if the skill was using a grammar rule, students had to demonstrate that they could correctly apply the rule in situations that required it. Gagné’s Events of ­Instruction and learning hierarchies have been widely used to develop systematic instructional design principles. Although his work has had more impact on designing instruction for business, industry, and the military than for K–12 schools, many school curriculum development projects still use a learning hierarchy approach to ­sequencing skills. IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORIST THEORY FOR TECHNOLOGY ­INTEGRATION  Computer-based methods such as drills and tutorials were deemed

useful because they could consistently provide the ideal events and conditions for learning. Gagné and colleagues (1981) showed how Gagné’s Events of Instruction could be used to plan lessons using each kind of instructional software function (drill, tutorial, simulation). These authors said that only a tutorial could “stand by itself” and accomplish all of the necessary events of instruction; the other kinds of software required teacher-led activities to accomplish events before and after software use.

Systems Approaches: Instructional Design Models There are many versions of the systematic design process and many views on what constitutes instructional design (Roblyer, 2015). Saettler (1990) pointed out that modern instructional design models and methods have their roots in the collaborative work of Robert Gagné and Leslie Briggs. These notable educational psychologists developed a way to transfer “laboratory-based learning principles” gleaned from military and industrial training to create an efficient way to develop curriculum and instruction for schools. Gagné specialized in the use of instructional task analysis to identify required subskills and conditions of learning for them. Briggs’s expertise was in systematic methods of designing training programs to save companies time and money in training their personnel. When Gagné and Briggs combined their two areas of expertise, the result was a set of step-by-step processes known as a systems approach to instructional design, or systematic instructional design, which came into common use in the 1970s and 1980s. Designers created an instructional system by stating goals and objectives; analyzing a task to decide on learning conditions; aligning assessment and instructional strategies with goals and objectives; creating materials that deliver strategies; and testing and revising materials before finalizing them. Theorists and ideas associated with the development of the instructional design process include Mager (instructional objectives), Glaser (criterion-referenced testing), and Cronbach and Scriven (formative and summative evaluation). Other major contributors to modern instructional design models include Merrill (component display theory) and Reigeluth (elaboration theory). IMPLICATIONS OF SYSTEMS APPROACHES FOR PEDAGOGY  Systems approaches

to designing instruction have had great influence on training programs for business, industry, and the military but somewhat less on K–12 education. However, performance objectives and sequences for instructional activities are still widely used. Most lesson planning models call for performance objectives (sometimes called behavioral objectives) to be stated in terms of measurable, observable learner behaviors. IMPLICATIONS OF SYSTEMS APPROACHES FOR TECHNOLOGY I­ NTEGRATION 

Most directed models for using technology resources are based on systems approaches; that is, teachers set objectives for a lesson and then develop a sequence of activities.

Theory into Practice 29

A software package or a web activity is selected to carry out part of the instructional sequence. For example, the teacher could introduce a principle of genetics and then allow students to experiment with an online simulation to “breed” cats to see the principle in action. To those who espouse this approach, a system of instruction must be structured and sequential and continually monitor student progress. Computer-based instruction is well suited to delivering such an instructional system in a consistent and reliable way while monitoring and giving fast feedback on student progress.

Theoretical Foundations for Directed Pedagogy and Technology Integration Strategies Figure 2.3 shows how these four theories contribute to directed pedagogical strategies based on mastery learning approaches, or sequences of objectives that, once met, define mastery of a subject. A considerable body of research indicates that directed methods work well to foster this kind of approach. For example, Clark and colleagues (2010) argue that directed instruction is more effective and efficient than minimally guided instruction when learners do not have enough prior knowledge to be self-guided. They say that minimally guided instruction ignores the fundamentals of human cognition and overloads working memory. Liao and Lai (2018) tracked research meta-analyses concerning the use of computer-aided instruction (CAI), which offer directed computerbased instruction, between 2007 and 2017 and found that students, especially those in fourth through eighth grades, who learned with CAI performed better cognitively than without CAI.

Figure 2.3  Theoretical Foundations for Directed Pedagogy and Technology Integration. Using the theories of directed instruction, teachers may deduce the kinds of directed technology integration strategies they might implement in practice.

Information-processing theories (Atkinson & Shiffrin) Attention-getting, repetitive, individual practice

y Integration Strate nolog gies h c Te Behaviorist theories (Skinner) Consistent presentation of stimuli and reinforcement

Choose directed technology integration strategies when the goal is mastery learning: • Skills and content to be learned are clearly defined, concrete, and unambiguous, and when a specific behavioral response (test performance) must be used to indicate learning has occurred. • Students need individual tutoring and practice to learn and to demonstrate prerequisite skills. • Students need to acquire specific skills as quickly and efficiently as possible.

Te c h

n olog

y Integration Strate

Systems approaches to instructional design Consistent presentation of new information, practice, and assessment

gie

s

Cognitive-behaviorist theories (Gagné) Consistent presentation of sequences to fulfill events of instruction

30  Chapter 2

Pearson eText Video Example 2.1 7th grade mathematics teacher, Kadean Maddix, assigns review problems on the computer for students to prepare for end of grade exams. He checks-in and provides help, as needed.

Objectivists focus primarily on technology integration strategies for systematically designed, structured learning products, such as drills, tutorials, and adaptive or personalized learning systems. When they do use other materials such as simulations and some kinds of problem-solving software that have no innate structure, integration strategies are very structured, providing a step-by-step sequence of learning activities matched to specific performance objectives. When objectivists evaluate these products, they typically look for a match among objectives, methods, and assessment strategies and how well they help teachers and students meet curriculum standards. To reflect objectivist principles, materials and integration strategies must have clearly defined objectives and a set sequence for their use.

Learning Theory Foundations of Social Constructivist Pedagogical Models Social constructivist beliefs and methods were derived from a combination of six theories, each of which contributed essential qualities and procedures: social activism theory, social cognitive theory, scaffolding theory, child development theory, discovery learning and child development, and critical pedagogy. This section summarizes the basic concepts associated with each of these theories and their implications for education practices and for technology integration.

Social Activism Theory John Dewey (1859–1952) is considered a philosopher and an educational writer. Most of his contributions to education predated those of the learning theorists described previously. Dewey’s beliefs were very much shaped by his direct involvement in the social and cultural issues of the time. As an early proponent of racial equality and women’s suffrage, he was a radical in his political views and helped found a third American political party for liberals. His beliefs about education reflected this radical activism. Although he did not originate the Progressive Education Movement, a reform initiative popular in the first half of the 1900s, Dewey was identified closely with it; the movement survived his death in 1952 by only a few years. His philosophy of education, which he was able to see implemented at the turn of the century in a laboratory school established at the University of Chicago, focused on principles and concepts in direct opposition to those in education during that period. Dewey believed the following: • Curricula should arise from students’ interests. Dewey deplored standardization. He felt curriculum should be flexible and tailored to the needs of each student, where the children are central rather than the institution. He advocated letting each child’s experiences determine individual learning activities. • Curricula topics should be integrated rather than isolated from each other. Dewey felt that isolating topics from one another prevented learners from grasping the whole of knowledge and caused skills and facts to be viewed as unrelated bits of information. • Education is growth rather than an end in itself. Dewey did not share the common view of the time that education is preparation for work. He found that this view served to separate society into social classes and promote elitism. Rather, he looked on education as a way of helping individuals understand their culture and develop their relationship to society and their unique roles in it. • Education occurs through its connection with life rather than through participation in curriculum. Dewey felt that social consciousness was the ultimate aim of all education. To be useful, all learning had to be in the context of social experience.

Theory into Practice 31

However, he found that school skills such as reading and mathematics were ­becoming ends in themselves, disconnected from any meaningful social context. • Learning should be hands-on and experience based rather than abstract. Dewey objected to commonly used teaching methods characterized by teacher-to-student communication channels and prioritized memorization and recall. He believed that meaningful learning resulted from students working cooperatively on tasks that were directly related to their interests. Dewey’s writings (e.g., The School and Society, 1899; The Child and the Curriculum, 1902; How We Think, 1910; Schools of Tomorrow, 1915; Democracy and Education, 1916; Experience and Education, 1938) spanned an era of monumental change in America’s cultural identity and helped reform the country’s education system to reflect those changing times. IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL ACTIVISM FOR PEDAGOGY  Today’s interdiscipli-

nary curriculum and hands-on, experience-based learning are very much in tune with Dewey’s lifelong message. However, it also is likely that he would deplore the current standards movement and the use of testing programs to determine school promotion and readiness for graduation. IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL ACTIVISM FOR TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION 

Dewey would likely have approved of technologies such as use of the web to help ­students communicate with each other and learn more about their society (Bruce, 2000). Dewey’s emphasis on the need for cooperative learning would mesh well with technologies used for developing group projects and presentations. However, as Dewey himself recognized, the central problem with all these resources is combining them into a curriculum that encourages intellectual challenge.

Social Cognitive Theory The work of Albert Bandura (1925–2021) challenged some of the major premises of conditioning theories that were most popular at that time. He said that contrary to the behavioral theories of reinforcement, students learned a great deal through observation (which he called vicarious learning) rather than through their actions (which he called enactive learning) (Schunk, 2012). Bandura found, for example, that one of the most powerful ways students learned was by observing the behaviors modeled by those around them. Bandura also found there was a difference between learning and behaviors that showed learning. Learning was acquiring new information or concepts, but he found that students often learned information and concepts in social settings that they did not reflect in any immediate behavior. Although he acknowledged that enactive learning was learning from one’s own actions, his ideas differed from Skinner’s view that behavior changed automatically (i.e., without intention) as a result of reinforcement. Instead, Bandura found that students’ beliefs and judgments as social beings determined whether or not their actions changed; their internal cognitive processes shaped their actions rather than being solely a result of external consequences resulting from reinforcement. Motivation to learn also played a central role in Bandura’s social cognitive theory. He found that students who were innately capable sometimes did not learn because they lacked self-efficacy, or the belief in their abilities to accomplish the actions necessary to learn. Self-efficacy beliefs can be shaped by teachers and others and can affect whether students even try to learn as well as how long they persist at learning tasks. Schunk (2012) reported a series of studies showing that students’ self-efficacy and achievement increased from watching videos of their own or peers’ performance. Self-efficacy differs from self-concept in that self-concept is a general self-perception of one’s overall abilities; self-efficacy is a belief specific to a certain area of learning.

32  Chapter 2 IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY FOR PEDAGOGY  Educators’ practices acknowledge the importance of modeling. They frequently try to shape student behaviors and grow motivation to learn by showing other students of similar age and backgrounds exhibiting these behaviors. Teachers also provide models, though sometimes inadvertently. Students tend to imitate what teachers do rather than attending to what teachers say. IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY FOR TECHNOLOGY ­INTEGRATION  Video examples can provide many examples of models that teachers

would not otherwise have at their disposal. In addition, studies have shown that selfmodeling videos in which students watch examples of their own successful p ­ erformance can increase their self-efficacy in the area.

Scaffolding Theories Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896–1934) was a Russian philosopher and educational psychologist whose ideas had more influence on the development of educational theory and practice in America than in his own country (Davydov, 1995). Vygotsky felt that cognitive development was directly related to and based on social development (Eggen & Kauchak, 2016). What children learn and how they think are derived directly from the culture around them. Children learn by scaffolding, or building what they need to know on what they know with the help of adults. An adult perceives things much differently than a child does, but this difference decreases as children gradually translate their social views into personal, psychological ones. Vygotsky’s theories with their emphasis on individual differences, personal creativity, and the influence of culture on learning were discordant with the socialist state of the USSR. Vygotsky referred to the difference between these two levels of cognitive functioning (adult/expert and child/novice) as the zone of proximal development (ZPD). He felt that teachers could provide good instruction by finding out where each child was in his or her development and building on the child’s experiences. He called this building process “scaffolding.” Ormrod (2014) stated that teachers promote students’ cognitive development by presenting some classroom tasks that “they can complete only with assistance, that is, within each student’s zone of proximal development” (p. 39). ­Problems occur when the teacher leaves too much for the child to do independently, thus slowing the child’s intellectual growth. IMPLICATIONS OF SCAFFOLDING THEORIES FOR PEDAGOGY  Davydov (1995,

p. 13) found six basic implications for education from Vygotsky’s ideas: 1. Education is intended to develop children’s personalities. 2. The human personality is linked to its creative potential, and education should be designed to discover and develop this potential to its fullest in each individual. 3. Teaching and learning assume that students master their inner values through some personal activity. 4. Teachers direct and guide the individual activities of the students, but they do not force their will on them or dictate to them. 5. The most valuable methods for student learning are those that correspond to their individual developmental stages and needs; therefore, these methods cannot be uniform across students. 6. Vygotsky’s works were very much in tune with constructivist concepts of pedagogy based on each child’s personal experiences and learning through collaborative, social activities.

Theory into Practice 33

IMPLICATIONS OF SCAFFOLDING THEORIES FOR TECHNOLOGY ­INTEGRATION 

Many constructivist models of technology use the concepts of scaffolding and developing each individual’s potential. Many of the more visual tools, from Logo, a programming language designed to let young students solve design problems with an on-screen cursor or small robot called a “turtle,” to virtual reality, are used under the assumption that they can help develop the student from their level of understanding to a higher level by showing graphic examples and by giving them real-life experiences relevant to their individual needs.

Child Development Theory French biologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980) explored early stages of development in children and the role of environment in these stages. Piaget’s examination of how thinking and reasoning abilities develop in the human mind began with observations of his own children and developed into a career that spanned some 60 years. He referred to himself as a “genetic epistemologist,” or a scientist who studies how knowledge begins and develops in individuals. Both believers in and critics of Piagetian principles agree that his work was complex, profound, sometimes misunderstood, and usually oversimplified. However, at least two features of this work are widely recognized as underlying all of Piaget’s theories: his stages of cognitive development and his processes of cognitive functioning. Piaget believed that all children go through four stages of cognitive development. Whereas the ages at which they experience these stages vary somewhat, he felt that each child developed higher reasoning abilities in the same sequence: • Sensorimotor stage (from birth to about 2 years). Children explore the world around them through their senses and through motor activity. In the earliest stage, they cannot differentiate between themselves and their environments (if they cannot see something, it does not exist). Also, they begin to have some perception of cause and effect; they develop the ability to follow something with their eyes. • Preoperational stage (from about age 2 to about age 7). Children develop greater abilities to communicate through speech and to engage in symbolic activities such as drawing objects and playing by pretending and imagining; develop numerical abilities such as the skill of assigning a number to each object in a group as it is counted; increase their level of self-control and are able to delay gratification but are still fairly egocentric; and are unable to do what Piaget called conservation tasks (tasks that call for recognizing that a substance remains the same even though its appearance changes; e.g., shape is not related to quantity). • Concrete operational stage (from about age 7 to about age 11). Children increase in abstract reasoning ability and ability to generalize from concrete experiences and can do conservation tasks. • Formal operations stage (from about age 12 to about age 15). Children can form and test hypotheses, organize information, and reason scientifically; they can show results of abstract thinking in the form of symbolic materials (e.g., writing, drama). Piaget believed a child’s development from one stage to another was a gradual process of interacting with the environment. Children develop as they confront new and unfamiliar features of their environment that do not fit with their current views of the world. When this happens, a disequilibrium occurs that the child seeks to resolve through one of two processes of adaptation. The child either fits the new experiences into the existing view of the world (a process called assimilation) or changes that schema or view of the world to incorporate the new experiences (a process called ­accommodation). Although recent research has raised questions about the ages at which

34  Chapter 2 children’s abilities develop and it is widely believed that age does not determine development alone, Ormrod (2014) summarizes Piaget’s basic assumptions about children’s cognitive development in the following way: • Children are active and motivated learners. • Children’s knowledge of the world becomes more integrated and organized over time. • Cognitive development depends on interaction with one’s physical and social environment. • The processes of equilibration (resolving disequilibrium) help to develop increasingly complex levels of thought. • Children learn through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. • Cognitive development can occur only after certain genetically controlled neurological changes occur. • Cognitive development occurs in four qualitatively different stages. IMPLICATIONS OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY FOR PEDAGOGY  One fre-

quently expressed instructional principle based on Piaget’s stages is the need for concrete examples and experiences when teaching abstract concepts to young children who may not yet have reached a formal operations stage. Piaget himself repeatedly expressed a lack of interest in how his work applied to school-based education, calling it “the American question,” but today’s early childhood and elementary curricula reflect many of Piaget’s beliefs about children’s developmental levels. Piaget pointed out that much learning occurs without any formal instruction as a result of the child’s interacting with the environment. However, constructivist educators tend to claim Piaget as the philosophical mentor who guides their work. IMPLICATIONS OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY FOR TECHNOLOGY ­INTEGRATION  Piaget’s pupil, mathematician Seymour Papert (1928–2016) of the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, used Piaget’s theories as the basis of his work with Logo. This environment provided the vital link that Papert felt would allow children to move more easily from the concrete operations or earlier stages of development to more abstract (formal) operations. Papert’s 1980 book, Mindstorms, challenged then-current instructional goals and methods for mathematics and became the first constructivist statement of educational practice with technology. Many technology-using teachers feel that using visual resources such as Logo and simulations can help raise children’s developmental levels more quickly than would have occurred through maturation. Thus, children who use these resources can learn higher-level concepts that they normally would not have been able to understand until they were older. Other educators feel that young children should experience things in the “real world” before seeing them represented in the more abstract ways they are shown in software, for example, in computer simulations.

Discovery Learning Educational theorist Jerome Bruner (1915–2016) was interested in children’s stages of cognitive development and believed that children go through three stages of intellectual development (Schunk, 2012): • Enactive stage (from birth to about age 3). Children perceive the environment solely through actions that they initiate. They describe and explain objects strictly in terms of what they can do with them. The child cannot tell how a bicycle works but can show what to do with it. Showing and modeling have more learning value than telling for children at this stage.

Theory into Practice 35

• Iconic stage (from about age 3 to about age 8). Children can remember and use information through imagery (mental pictures or icons). Visual memory increases and children can imagine or think about actions without actually experiencing them. Decisions are still made on the basis of perceptions rather than language. • Symbolic stage (from about age 8). Children begin to use symbols (words or drawn pictures) to represent people, activities, and things. They have the ability to think and talk about things in abstract terms. They can also use and understand what Gagné would call “defined concepts.” For example, they can discuss the concept of toys and identify various kinds of toys rather than defining them only in terms of toys they have seen or handled. They can better understand mathematical principles and use symbolic idioms such as “Don’t cry over spilt milk.” IMPLICATIONS OF DISCOVERY LEARNING FOR PEDAGOGY  Jerome Bruner was

very concerned that school instruction builds on the stages of cognitive development. Bruner’s theories are associated with unstructured learning activities that he called discovery learning. Discovery learning is “an approach to instruction in which students construct their own knowledge about a topic through firsthand interaction with an aspect of their environment” (Ormrod, 2014, p. G-4). They do this “by randomly exploring and manipulating objects or perhaps by performing systematic experiments” (Ormrod, 2014, p. 405). Bruner felt that students were more likely to understand and remember concepts they had discovered in the course of their own exploration. ­However, research findings have yielded mixed results for discovery learning, and the relatively unstructured methods recommended by Bruner have not found widespread support (Eggen & Kauchak, 2013; Ormrod, 2014). Teachers have found that discovery learning is most successful when students have prerequisite knowledge and undergo some structured experiences. IMPLICATIONS OF DISCOVERY LEARNING FOR TECHNOLOGY ­INTEGRATION 

Many of the more “radical constructivist” uses of technology employ a discovery learning approach suggested by Bruner. For example, rather than telling students how logic circuits work, a teacher might allow students to use a simulation that lets them discover the rules themselves. Most school uses of technology, however, are what Eggen and Kauchak (2016) call a guided discovery learning approach. For example, a teacher may introduce a video-based problem scenario and then help students develop their approaches to solving the problem.

Critical Pedagogy Brazilian philosopher Paulo Freire (1921–1997) developed a theory that describes education as humanizing and liberatory. His book Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970) is considered the seminal work describing critical pedagogy, though the term emerged in Giroux’s (1983) Theory and Resistance in Education. Freire described praxis and historicity as fundamental features of being free and human. Praxis has three components: 1. Naming. Identifying and accurately describing issues from the perspective of those oppressed, marginalized, or harmed so the issues become visible. 2. Critically reflecting. Engaging in dialogue with people for whom the issue is most impactful so as to understand the issue from fuller historical and human contexts as well as from perspectives beyond one’s own. 3. Taking meaningful action. Taking action, often collective action, to eliminate unjust practices, structures, systems, rules, and processes. Historicity is the idea that humans can shape history and culture at the same time as they are being shaped by that very history and culture. Freire argued that oppression

36  Chapter 2 occurs when people are prevented from freely contributing toward shaping history and culture. This occurs through dominant social, economic, political, and ideological systems and structures that often are framed as neutral in stance but result in dehumanization of individuals or groups and, ultimately, creates unjust societies. It is through praxis and historicity that critical consciousness, or conscientização, can arise. Such consciousness leads individuals to recognize harmful systems and conditions that, without such critical work, might have gone unseen, remained invisible, and continued to oppress. With awareness, individuals can work together to transform these systems so all humans can be free. IMPLICATIONS OF CRITICAL PEDAGOGY ON PRACTICE  Educators must work

toward critical consciousness as individuals themselves as well as in co-liberatory processes with their students. Freire’s theories still maintain the importance of teachers’ depth of knowledge in their content disciplines so that they may design learning environments and opportunities for students to critically engage in their own learning, their history, and their culture. Teachers must consider education as a sociopolitical activity that necessitates interrogating all aspects of the curriculum, the pedagogy, and students’ educational outcomes. For example, they must analyze and evaluate learning resources, the curriculum, and pedagogical practices to determine if any elements are coercive or oppressive toward individuals or groups of students, especially for students that may not be perceived as part of the dominant elites. Furthermore, while teachers can develop and enact critical consciousness personally, they also should develop co-liberatory learning practices with students. Freire emphasized dialogue, which is not simply taking turns in a conversation but, instead, is collaboratively creating and partnering with trusted others toward collective action. Freire aligned the concept of “banking education” with schooling wherein students are framed as empty vessels waiting to be filled with knowledge transferred from teachers. He felt this transfer was dead knowledge because it is created by others and imposed on learners. In contrast, his idea of “problem-posing education” frames schools as “locations of possibility” (hooks, 1994) where teachers engage in “posing of the problems of human beings in their relations with the world” (Freire, 1970, p. 79) and teacher and students collaboratively explore and ask questions to identify how oppression is coded into everyday life and its inequitable status quo. Through this critical pedagogical process, students begin to understand themselves historically, culturally, and institutionally and ultimately seek justice for themselves and others. Teachers need to be caring educators with high expectations for all their students. They should aim to situate learning as connected to the students’ lives and experiences, to the issues within local communities, and to paths of possible transformation. IMPLICATIONS OF CRITICAL PEDAGOGY FOR TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION 

Critical pedagogies are difficult to align with many educational technologists’ goals for efficiency, efficacy, cost effectiveness, and scalability because these goals often ignore the context of learners and communities. Bradshaw (2017) argues these goals often emerge from the dominant culture and are considered neutral, yet she questions if these goals could ever support efforts for justice, equity, and inclusion. Importantly, critical pedagogy leads us to ask difficult questions and reflect upon technology and its affordances only as far as it maintains humane and inclusive practices. For example, teachers and learners might analyze the human and cultural representation(s) within common software games or content. Critical pedagogues would question the student enrollment patterns in technology-related courses by racial, economic, gender, language, and special student characteristics. In both examples, one would ask, “Who is there? Who is not there? What implications does this have for a just society?” Teachers would position learners as active inquirers in their own lives and select technological resources that support these efforts.

Theory into Practice 37

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 2.1 

TITLE: Digital Literacies for Social Justice Inquirers CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Literacy GRADE LEVELS: Middle school ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 1—Empowered Learner; Standard 2—Digital Citizen; Standard 3—Knowledge ­Constructor; Standard 6—Creative Communicator; Standard 7—Global Collaborator CCSS: CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.6-8.1, CSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.6-8.4, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.6-8.8 DESCRIPTION: Students can become a community of social justice inquirers who seek to learn about local issues and advocate for social change. These New York City students began by identifying important topics and chose to investigate their community’s poverty and crime. Students brainstormed their own knowledge and their questions about the topic using Answer Garden, a collaborative brainstorming tool. They watched a film documentary that revealed the social construction of class in their neighborhood and other wealthier neighborhoods, after which they explored and observed their neighborhoods, capturing and sharing digital photographs and notes within a collaborative Google Doc. They used curated information on Flipboard to further develop their background knowledge. Then, students began expressing their developing knowledge as counter-stories about race, class, and crime by creating memes using Meme Generator. In class discussions, they culminated the unit by generating ideas for solution-oriented actions they might take in their community. SOURCE: Based on Price-Dennis, D., & Carrion, S. (2017). Leveraging digital literacies for equity and social justice. Language Arts, 94(3),

190–195.

Social Constructivist Theory Foundations for Technology Integration Methods Figure 2.4 shows how these six theories contribute to strategies for social constructivist technology integration. These theories were designed to address a problem that John Seely Brown (1940– ) called inert knowledge, a term introduced by Whitehead in 1929 to mean skills that students learned but did not know how to transfer later to problems that required their application (Brown et al., 1989). Brown said that inert knowledge resulted from learning skills in isolation from each other and from real-life application; thus, he advocated cognitive apprenticeships, or activities that called for authentic problem solving, that is, solving problems in settings that are familiar and meaningful to students (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1990). These ideas were based on the theories of Dewey, Bandura, Vygotsky, Piaget, and Bruner. Today’s technology-enabled environments are designed to provide learning environments that reflect situated cognition, or instruction anchored in experiences that learners considered authentic because they emulate the behavior of experts in the disciplines and are often related to local issues that are meaningful for students. These kinds of materials were intended to assist teachers in helping students build on or “scaffold” from experiences they already had to generate their own knowledge in an active, hands-on way rather than receiving it passively. Today’s social constructivist integration strategies often focus on having students use data-gathering tools (e.g., mobile technologies) to study problems and issues in their locale, on creating multimedia products to represent their new knowledge and insights, on immersing themselves in simulated inquiry-based environments, on communicating with others around the globe, and on questioning harmful dynamics built into technological systems.

Pearson eText Video Example 2.2 5th grade STEM teacher, Dee Lanier, describes how he and his students use virtual reality to explore global places unavailable locally and create 360 photographs.

38  Chapter 2

Figure 2.4  Theoretical Foundations for Social Constructivist Technology Integration Strategies. Using the theories of social constructivism, teachers may deduce the kinds of technology integration strategies they might implement in practice.

Social Cognitive Theories (Bandura) Seeing others successfully modeling behaviors increases students’ selfefficacy to learn behaviors

Scaffolding Theory (Vygotsky) Students learn from experts by building on what they already know; each learner’s background shapes how they learn

y Integration Strate nolog gie h c s Te Social Activism (Dewey) Promote social interaction among students on problems and issues of direct interest to them

Choose inquiry-based technology integration strategies when the goal is teaching inquiry/thinking skills • Concepts to be learned are abstract and complex; hands-on, visual activities are seen as essential so students can see how concepts apply to real world problem solving. • Teachers want to promote social collaboration and allow a variety of ways of learning and showing competence. • Time permits students learning through unstructured exploration and discovering their own interest. • Students need modeling to develop self-efficacy in order to increase their motivation to learn.

Te c h

n o lo g

Discovery Learning (Bruner) Children learn and remember concepts better when they learn them through exploration

y Integration Strate

Child Development Theory (Piaget) Learner abilities differ at each developmental level; children progress through stages through exploring their environment

gie s

Critical Pedagogy (Freire) Children are empowered to learn when experiences are connected to their lives and communities

Technology Integration Pedagogical Strategies Based on Directed and Social Constructivist Theories Learning Outcome 2.2  Contrast directed, social constructivist, or combined technology integration pedagogies. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 5—Designer) These theorists view learning and the kinds of problems (or different aspects of the same problems) confronting teachers and students in today’s schools differently. This section compares common approaches with pedagogy and assessment and technology integration strategies that reflect each theoretical approach.

Pedagogy and Assessment in Directed and Social Constructivist Theories Table 2.1 summarizes and compares how objectivists and social constructivists view directed and social constructivist instructional needs, methods of instruction ­(pedagogy), and assessment strategies differently. Instructional problems identified by both objectivists and social constructivists are common in most schools and classrooms regardless of grade level, type of student, or content.

Theory into Practice 39

Table 2.1  Directed and Social Constructivist Instructional Needs, Pedagogy, and Assessment Directed Models

Social Constructivist Models

Instructional Needs • Accountability: All students must meet required education standards to be considered educated. • Individualization: This helps meet individual needs of students working at many levels. • Quality assurance: The quality of instruction must be consistently high across teachers and schools in various locations. • Convergent thinking: All students must have the same skills.

• Deeper learning skills: All students must be able to think critically and ­creatively and solve problems to transform society. • Cooperative group skills: Students learn to work with others to solve problems. • Increase relevancy: Students must have active, visual, authentic learning experiences that relate to their own lives. • Divergent thinking: Students must think on their own and solve novel problems as they occur.

Methods of Instruction (Pedagogy) • Stress individualized work. • Have specific skill-based instructional goals and objectives that are the same for all students. • Transmit a set body of skills and/or knowledge to students. • Have students learn prerequisite skills required for each new skill. • Provide sequences of carefully structured presentations and activities to help students understand (process), remember (encode and store), and transfer (retrieve) information and skills. • Use teacher-directed methods and materials: lectures, skill worksheets.

• Stress group-based, cooperative work. • Have high-level goals such as problem solving and critical thinking that sometimes differ for each student. • Have students generate their own knowledge through experiences anchored in real-life situations. • Have students learn lower-order skills in the context of higher-order ­problems that require them. • Provide learning through problem-posing activities (e.g., “what if” ­situations); visual formats and mental models; rich, complex, learning ­environments; and exploration. • Use materials to promote student-driven exploration and problem solving.

Assessment Strategies • Assessments (e.g., multiple choice, short answer) emphasize knowledge recall with specific expected responses; student products (e.g., essays) are graded with checklists or rubrics.

• Assessments (e.g., group products such as web pages, multimedia ­projects) emphasize application of knowledge with varying contents or portfolios; student products are graded with self-report instruments, rubrics.

Teachers may use some directed pedagogy as the most efficient means of teaching required skills while implementing motivating, cooperative learning activities to ensure that students want to learn and that they can transfer what they learn to problems they encounter. Teachers may design and implement directed and/or social constructivist pedagogy based on (1) their own view of knowledge and learning, (2) the dominant theoretical views within their school, or (3) views built into premade curriculum or other materials. As teachers design technology-supported lessons, they must consider the tenets of directed instruction and social constructivist approaches to select technology resources and integration methods that are best suited to their specific needs. In summary, • Directed instruction could be best for providing a foundation of skills. Systematic approaches ensure that specific prerequisite skills are learned. • Social constructivist learning may be best for developing the ability to build and apply experience-based knowledge to unique problems. Figure 2.5 shows examples of four technology integration strategies based primarily on directed models, four based on social constructivist models and four strategies used to address either model. These are described in more detail in the following sections.

Technology Integration Strategies Based on Directed Models The four integration strategies based on directed methods primarily address individual instruction and practice (see Table 2.2). INTEGRATION STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP IDENTIFIED WEAK AREAS  Students need to learn prerequisite skills required to advance their knowledge in deeper ways. However, experienced teachers know that even motivated students do not always learn skills as expected. These challenges occur for a variety of reasons, some related to the

40  Chapter 2

Figure 2.5  Technology Integration Strategies for Directed, Social Constructivist, or Both Models Directed Models

Social Constructivist Models

Both Integration to develop identified weak areas Integration to promote skill fluency or automaticity Integration to support efficient, self-paced instruction Integration to support learning and review of concepts

Integration to foster creative problem solving and metacognition

Integration to generate motivation to learn

Integration to help build mental models and increase knowledge transfer

Integration to optimize scarce personnel and material resources

Integration to foster group cooperation

Integration to remove logistical hurdles to learning

Integration to allow for culturally responsive knowledge and skills

Integration to develop digital citizenship and literacy

topic and materials or the teachers’ instruction. When the absence of prerequisite skills presents a barrier to higher-level learning, directed instruction may be the most efficient way of providing these skills. In addition to human interventions such as tutoring, materials such as drill and practice and tutorial software have proven to be valuable resources for providing this kind of individualized instruction. Some students who need more instruction to learn required skills may find technology-based materials more motivating and less threatening than teacher-delivered instruction. INTEGRATION STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE SKILL FLUENCY OR AUTOMATICITY 

Some prerequisite skills must be applied quickly and without conscious effort in order to be most useful. Gagné (1982) and Bloom (1986) referred to this automatic recall as automaticity. Students need rapid recall and performance of a wide range of skills throughout the curriculum, including simple math facts, grammar and usage rules, and spelling. Some students acquire automaticity through repeated use of the skills in practical situations, whereas others acquire it more efficiently through isolated practice. Drill and practice, instructional games, and, sometimes, simulation courseware can provide practice ­tailored to individual skill needs and learning pace. INTEGRATION STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT EFFICIENT, SELF-PACED LEARNING  When students are self-motivated and have the ability to structure their own learning, the most desirable method is often the one that offers the fastest and most efficient path.

Table 2.2  Technology Integration Strategies Based on Directed Teaching Models Integration Strategy

Needs and Challenges Addressed

Example Activities

To develop identified weak areas

• Students need individual instruction and practice. • Students fail parts of high-stakes tests.

Tutorial or drill-and-practice software is used to target identified skills.

To promote skill fluency or automaticity

• Students need to be able to recall and apply lowerlevel skills quickly and automatically. • Students need to review for upcoming tests.

Drill-and-practice or instructional game software lets students practice math facts, vocabulary, or spelling words.

To support efficient, self-paced learning

• Students are motivated and able to learn on their own. • No teacher is available for the content area.

Use tutorial software or distance learning courses for subjects.

To support learning and review of concepts

• Students need help studying for tests. • Students need make-up instruction for missed work.

Use tutorial, drill and practice, podcasts, or video ­recordings to cover or review specific concepts.

Theory into Practice 41

Sometimes these students are interested in topics not being covered in class or for which there is no instructor available. Directed instruction for these students can frequently be supported by well-designed, self-instructional tutorials and self-paced distance learning workshops and courses. When students cover a number of topics over time, they usually need a review prior to taking a test to help them remember and consolidate concepts. Sometimes students are absent when in-class instruction was given or need additional time going over the material to understand and remember it. In these situations, drill and practice, tutorial software, podcasts, or video materials are good ways to provide these self-paced reviews. INTEGRATION STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT LEARNING CONCEPTS  Teachers often

teach extensive content concepts through teacher-directed lectures. Some could use digital materials to support such teaching, such as using digital presentations, pictures, videos, and other digital materials that help represent the content to students.

Technology Integration Strategies Based on Social Constructivist Models

Pearson eText Video Example 2.3 In this video, world history teacher Mr. Page, uses an interactive whiteboard to project digital information and visuals to support his lecture-based history lesson.

This section reviews the four integration strategies identified with constructivist methods. The strategies are summarized in Table 2.3. INTEGRATION STRATEGIES TO FOSTER CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING AND METACOGNITION  Many people believe that our world is too complex and technical

for students to learn everything they might need for the future. Thus, our knowledge society is beginning to place a high value on the ability to solve novel problems in creative ways. If students are conscious of the procedures they and others use to solve problems, they often can more easily improve on their strategies and become more effective, creative problem solvers. Consequently, teachers often try to present novel problems (sometimes with unknown solutions) to students to solve and to get them to analyze how they learn to solve them. Resources such as problem-solving simulations

Table 2.3  Technology Integration Strategies Based on Social Constructivist Models Integration Strategy

Needs and Challenges Addressed

Example Activities

To foster creative problem ­solving and metacognition

• Students need to be able to solve complex, novel problems as they occur. • Teachers want to encourage students’ selfawareness of their own learning strategies.

• Video-based scenarios illustrate problems and help support student problem solving. • Concept mapping tools illustrate concepts and support student manipulation of variables. • Reflective thinking through blogging helps build metacognition. • Simulations allow exploration of how complex systems work.

To help build mental models and increase knowledge transfer

• Students have trouble understanding complex and/or abstract concepts. • Students have trouble seeing where skills apply to real-life problems.

• Video-based scenarios illustrate problems. • Serious games and simulations combine skill and knowledge building to solve lifelike challenges. • Virtual field trips and problem-solving software illustrate and let students explore complex environments or systems.

To foster group cooperation skills

• Students need to be able to work with others to solve problems and create products.

Students communicate and collaborate to: • Do effective Internet research. • Learn from diverse sources locally and globally. • Create multimedia expressions of learning. • Design solutions.

To allow for culturally responsive knowledge and skills

• Students need inquiries to be connected to their own lives and communities to experience academic success.

• Use digital content that is inclusive of your students’ cultures and ethnicities. • Use collaborative communicative online tools to facilitate group activities and draw in knowledge from community experts. • Incorporate digital tools that draw students to inquire into local issues. • Accept a range of multimodal expressions of learning. • Knowledge expressions are built and distributed across group members.

42  Chapter 2 and multimedia applications are often considered ideal environments for getting students to think about how they think and for offering opportunities to challenge their creativity and problem-solving abilities. INTEGRATION STRATEGIES TO HELP BUILD MENTAL MODELS AND INCREASE KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER  The problem of inert knowledge is believed to arise when

Pearson eText Video Example 2.4 In this video, a teacher and his students use inductive logic to discover the centroid of a quadrilateral. Students use Geometer’s Sketchpad software and cardboard to test what they think is the centroid.

students learn skills in isolation. When they later encounter problems that require the skills, students do not realize how the skills could be relevant. Problem-solving materials in highly visual, interactive, and sometimes immersive formats allow students to build rich mental models of problems to be solved. For example, serious games, which teach skills and build knowledge in these highly visual, problem-solving environments, help ensure that students build higher-order skills, retain understandings over time, and transfer knowledge to other problem contexts. These technology-based methods are especially desirable for teachers who work with students in areas such as mathematics and science whose concepts are abstract and complex and whose inert knowledge is a frequent focus. INTEGRATION STRATEGIES TO FOSTER GROUP COOPERATION SKILLS  S ­ tudents need the ability to work cooperatively in a group to communicate and collaborate, construct knowledge, solve problems, and design solutions (Lynch et al., 2013; Schul, 2011; Wirth, 2013). Although schools certainly can teach cooperative work without technology resources, a growing body of evidence documents students’ appreciation of cooperative work as both more motivating and easier to accomplish when it uses technology (Chin, 2013; ­Vargas, 2013). In Figure 2.6, three boys work cooperatively toward a shared learning goal. INTEGRATION STRATEGIES TO ALLOW FOR CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE ­KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS  ­Teachers must commit to reviewing all software and

digital content to ensure it is inclusive of students’ cultural and ethnic backgrounds and, most important, it has no harmful or deficit-based ideologies built in. Integration strategies with group cooperative activities also give teachers a way to allow students of widely varying backgrounds to make valuable contributions on their own terms.

Figure 2.6  Illustrating a social constructivist technology integration strategy, three boys learn and work together with tablets. They can simultaneously edit or add content to their project on their respective tablets while also coming together to discuss.

Theory into Practice 43

BOX 2.1

DIGITAL EQUITY AND JUSTICE

How Do Teachers Use Technology for Equitable Learning? In a review of research literature of how K–12 ­teachers ­conceptualize the idea of equitable learning with ­technology in their practices (Cheah et al., 2020), we found four approaches: 1. Identifying deficits 2. Attending to individual learning needs 3. Empowering civic participation 4. Providing equal learning opportunities. First, a majority of the research approached t­echnology integration from a standardized, colorblind, and deficit-based view. Teachers identified students who lacked achievement at certain levels and used ­technology to facilitate knowledge acquisition through learning ­software. This approach did not take into account ­historical, political, social, or economic contexts that ­differentially afforded or limited learning opportunities of different groups of students.

Second, some research described technology integration as a way of meeting individual learning needs by positioning students as active participants where their social and cultural experiences were assets for learning. Teachers used technology to connect to students’ everyday experiences or cultural knowledge, such as designing personal graphic novels or podcasts. Third, some research highlighted how teachers cultivate learners as empowered civic participators. Teachers created opportunities for reflective and critical thinking through engaging in social change and in social commentary, such as using blogs or social media to recognize and act on issues in society. Fourth, the fewest research studies framed technology integration around issues of equality. For example, teachers used student response systems to try to offer ubiquitous participation for all students, while other schools provided video-based access to language teachers who were not available at the school site. While most of the current literature framed learning with technology from deficit perspectives, we encourage teachers to adopt technologies in ways that focus on empowering all students with agency and meaningful connections in their learning experiences.

A range of digital tools can facilitate centering local knowledge and issues, such as interviewing community elders, examining museum digital artifacts, or data gathering for local inquiries. Because each student is an important member of the group in these activities, the activities themselves are viewed as challenges for group—rather than individual—solutions. This strategy foregrounds students’ assets; engages peer-, teacher-, and media-based scaffolding as a way for students to accomplish tasks; and produces knowledge distributed across the group expressed in multimodal formats.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 2.2 

TITLE: Multimedia Storytelling for Civic Participation CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Social studies GRADE LEVELS: High school ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 1—Empowered Learner; Standard 3—Knowledge Constructor; Standard 6—Creative Communicator; Standard 7—Global Collaborator NCSS THEMES: Thematic Standards: 6—Power, Authority, and Governance; 10—Civic Ideals and Practices; Disciplinary Standards: 3—Civics and Government DESCRIPTION: Students who have immigrated to the United States and their classmates explore how immigration policy affects young people. Students research and analyze current U.S. immigration policies or those under consideration for legislation by accessing a range of sources, including policy briefs, government documents, broadcast and online media, and news sources. They develop interview questions to guide conversations with people in their communities. Students are encouraged to use languages other than English, such as their native or heritage languages, to converse with community members. They are able to conduct in-person or online interviews, which facilitates more global perspectives because they can access people across the world. They use these interviews and their analyses to create a multimedia story, as a video documentary, and share them via blogs and social media that lead to authentic feedback. SOURCE: Based on Lam, W. S. E. (2012). What immigrant students can teach us about new media literacy. Phi Delta Kappan, 94(4), 62–65.

44  Chapter 2

Technology Integration Strategies Useful for Either Model We highlight four technology integration strategies that support instructional needs in both directed and social constructivist models as summarized in Table 2.4. Integration strategies to generate motivation to learn.  Teachers say that capturing students’ interest and enthusiasm is key to success; frequently, they cite it as their greatest challenge. Some educators assert that today’s entertainment-immersed students are increasingly likely to demand more motivational qualities in their instruction than students in previous generations did. Social constructivists argue that instruction must address students’ affective needs as well as their cognitive ones, saying that students will learn more if what they are learning is interesting and relevant to their needs. They recommend the highly visual and interactive qualities of Internet and multimedia resources as the basis for student-centered, active strategies. Proponents of directed methods make similar claims about highly structured, self-instructional learning environments. These individuals say that some students find learning at their own pace in a private environment very motivating because they receive immediate feedback on their progress. It seems evident that appropriate integration strategies to address motivation problems depend on the needs of the student; either social constructivist or directed integration strategies can be used to increase motivation to learn. Integration strategies to optimize scarce resources.  Current resources and numbers of personnel in schools are rarely optimal. Computer-based courseware and web-based materials can help make up for the lack of required resources—from

Table 2.4  Technology Integration Strategies to Support Either Model Integration Strategies

Needs and Challenges Addressed

Example Activities

To generate motivation to learn

• Students need motivation to learn. • Students need to see the relevance of new concepts and skills to their lives. • Students need to be active rather than passive learners.

• Visual and interactive qualities of the Internet and ­multimedia resources draw and hold students’ attention. • Drill-and-practice/tutorial materials give students private environments for learning and practice. • Video-based scenarios and simulations show relevance of science and math skills. • Hands-on production work (e.g., multimedia, web pages) gives students an active role in learning.

To optimize scarce ­personnel and material resources

• Schools have limited budgets; therefore, they must save money on consumables or content materials. • Teachers are in short supply in some subject areas. • Students cannot travel to places to learn about them. • Learning materials lack representation of all students’ ­cultures, languages, and ethnicities.

• Simulations allow repeated science experiments at no additional cost. • Online distance courses can offer subjects for which schools lack teachers. • Virtual tours allow students to see places that they could not go physically. • Rich content materials available on the web (e.g., NASA images, digital libraries) can extend textbook-based materials.

To reduce logistical hurdles

• Students find repetitive tasks (handwriting, calculations) boring and tedious. • Some design prototypes are too costly or time-­ consuming to produce. • Some social and physical phenomena occur too slowly, too quickly, or at too great a distance to allow observation.

• Word processing makes quick, easy revisions and ­corrections to written work. • Calculators and spreadsheets do low-level calculations involved in math/science problem solving. • 3-D printers can be used to develop prototypes. • Simulations allow study of social systems (e.g., voting) and physical systems (e.g., chemical reactions).

To develop digital ­citizenship and literacy

• Students must understand and manage their digital identity. • Students must honor intellectual property of digital materials. • Students need to learn methods for communicating respectfully and safely online. • Digital content has varying quality and accuracy.

• Students should track their digital identities, ensuring that no personal identifying information is available. • Research reports as multimodal products or web pages must use copyright-free or Creative Commons digital content. • Methods for evaluating the accuracy, credibility, and ­relevance of online information should be implemented.

Theory into Practice 45

consumable supplies to qualified teachers—in the school or classroom. For e­ xample, drill-and-practice programs can replace worksheets, a good online distance program can offer instruction in topics for which local teachers are in short supply, an online field trip can allow global visits, a simulation program can let students repeat experiments without depleting chemical supplies or other materials, and digital books or content can expand age-appropriate and developmentally appropriate learning resources for language learners or students who are non-White, who have less ­representation in texts. Integration strategies to reduce logistical hurdles.  Some technology tools offer no instructional sequence but help students complete learning tasks more efficiently than other tools. For example, word processing programs do not teach students how to write, but they let students write and rewrite more quickly without the labor of handwriting. Computer-aided design (CAD) software does not teach students how to design structures, but it allows them to try out designs and features to see what they look like before building models. A calculator lets students do lower-level calculations so they can focus on the high-level concepts of math problems. A website might contain only a set of pictures of sea life, but it lets a teacher illustrate concepts about sea creatures more quickly and easily than with books.

Pearson eText Video Example 2.5 In this video, 5th grade teachers, Ms. Couch and Ms. Eisler, use classroom response systems (clickers) for formative assessment, which can motivate students by providing them immediate feedback on their learning.

Integration strategies to develop digital citizenship and literacy.  Many teachers recognize the need for students to develop responsible, legal, and ethical digital practices in order to live and work in our digital, global world. As teachers adopt directed and social constructivist technology integration strategies, they can inherently provide opportunities for students to practice and demonstrate digital citizenship and digital literacy. For example, when students develop digital, multimedia presentations, they must consider copyright and attributions for materials they incorporate. When using technology to communicate and collaborate with others near or far, students must develop positive and safe interactions online. As they use and create digital materials, students need to become aware of and manage their growing digital identity that is tied to everything they do online.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 2.3 

TITLE: Engaging with Digital Citizenship and Restorative Justice Circles CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Social emotional learning (SEL) GRADE LEVELS: Middle school ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 1—Empowered Learner; Standard 2—Digital Citizen DESCRIPTION: At Hope Street Elementary School in the Los Angeles School District, they embed learning about digital citizenship within their already-established Restorative Justice Circle time. They frame digital citizenship through three roles: (1) digital self, (2) digital interactor, and (3) digital agent. Teachers work with students to learn about their digital self, including their digital footprint, self-image, and identity. As a digital interactor, students learn to be ethical and empathetic when they collaborate and communicate online. As a digital agent, students develop themselves to be stewards of collective ethical and responsible activity online. Teachers integrate lessons to develop these three roles as part of the Restorative Circles as well within learning experiences within the Schoology LMS. If and when a person within the school community does digital harm, they use the Restorative Circle time to unpack the impact on the person(s) hurt (digital interactor), the community (digital agent), and the person doing harm (digital self). SOURCE: Based on Zurita, E. (2020, November). Supporting a positive school culture through the new digital citizenship and restorative ­practices. Presentation at the ISTE 20 Live Conference. (Conference moved online.)

46  Chapter 2

Today’s Content and Educational Technology Standards Learning Outcome 2.3  Identify content and technology standards that guide teachers’ design of curriculum and technology integration strategies for student learning and growth. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator) In the 2020s new technology resources and educational innovations mean new and different ways of accessing and processing information needed for teaching and learning. Both teachers and students must have the skills and knowledge that will prepare them to meet these new challenges and use these new and powerful strategies. Content and technology standards for students can assist teachers in building a comprehensive curriculum that involves integrating technology into the classroom while also achieving content coverage.

State Standards and Content Standards

Pearson eText Video Example 2.6 In this video, 5th grade STEM teacher, Dee Lanier, describes the role of standards in the innovative planning and instruction offered at his school.

Each state adopts grade-level standards that guide teachers’ curricular practices. Some states use the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) (Common Core State ­Standards Initiative, n.d.) developed by the National Governors Association Center for Best ­Practices and the Council of Chief State School Officers, but teachers need to check and understand what student standards guide teaching in their state. The CCSS English Language Arts standards in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and language guide the English language arts but also guide the literacy activities in history/social studies, science, and other technical subjects. Overall, the CCSS recognize the importance of critical reading skills due to “the staggering amount of information available today in print and digitally” (p. 3), which involve research and media skills. The seventh anchor standard for Reading acknowledges students being able to integrate and evaluate content in diverse formats, which infer visual, textual, and quantitative formats (CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.CCRA.R.7). The sixth and eighth anchor standards for Writing put forward students using technology and the internet “to produce and publish writing and to interact and collaborate with others” (CCSS.ELA-LITERACY. CCRA.W.6), with expectations for keyboarding skills for Grades 6-12, and the ability to “gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources” (CCSS.ELALITERACY.CCRA.W.8). The grade-level standards mention digital resources and technologies more often, so be sure to review the standards for your grade level. The CCSS mathematics standards predominantly frame technology for understanding and visualizing math concepts, particularly graphs and statistics. The fifth Standard for Mathematical Practice acknowledges that students need to choose appropriate tools strategically to solve a mathematical problem (CCSS.MATH.PRACTICE.MP5). In terms of technologies, these tools might involve a calculator, spreadsheet, computer algebra system, statistical software, or geometry software like GeoGebra. The mathematical content standards have more specific instances of the role for technologies, such as drawing geometric shapes with technology (Grade 7, geometry), interpreting scientific notations when generated through technologies (Grade 8, expressions and equations), and graphing functions with technologies (High School, algebra, representing and solving equations and inequalities graphically). Again, teachers need to review the detailed standards for mathematical content area by grade level. For more guidance on technology’s role in helping students develop content knowledge, teachers should also examine content-area standards, including the following: • Next Generation Science Standards • National Curriculum Standards for Social Studies

Theory into Practice 47

• Standards for the English language arts by the National Council of Teachers of English and the International Literacy Association • Principles and Standards for School Mathematics by the National Council of ­Teachers of Mathematics • National Standards for Art Education • National Association for Music Education • National Standards for Learning Languages • SHAPE America’s National Standards for Physical Education. Chapters 9–15 in the latter half of this text provide more detailed introduction to the role for technologies in each of these subject areas.

ISTE Standards for Students Although the CCSS and content standards include some framing for students’ technological knowledge and skills, the professional organization International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) has developed standards specifically about technology in education. The 2016 ISTE Standards for Students are considered a framework to be used in conjunction with other content standards to help guide your strategies for technology integration for students. All Technology Integration examples in this text acknowledge applicable ISTE standards for students. The seven student standards emphasize positioning learners as empowered learners, digital citizens, knowledge constructors, innovative designers, computational thinkers, creative communicators, and global collaborators. EMPOWERED LEARNER  This standard outlines how students have agency to decide

how and when to achieve progress toward their learning goals and to consider the use of digital technologies for their learning. For example, teachers can provide a range of lesson-related goals or projects from which children may choose to focus, while also considering their already-developed knowledge and skills in the topic area. Within these activities, teachers can involve peer-teaching opportunities where students can be empowered to share their knowledge to help assist others’ development. Near the end of a lesson, students can also reflect on what they learned. Teachers can involve a range of technologies to support these processes, such as organizational checklists or spreadsheets for task management; collaborative online spaces for groups or project area materials; interactive simulations that offer immediate feedback on complicated concepts, systems, or processes; and digital portfolio assessment processes with formative assessments using online rubrics or video feedback. Most important, teachers and students can continually seek the optimal digital resources to support the learning process, knowledge expression and transfer, and assessment for students’ empowered work. DIGITAL CITIZEN  This standard frames how students must develop the knowledge

and skills to use digital tools and resources in respectful, legal, and ethical ways. It emphasizes the importance of digital identity management, safe and ethical behaviors with networked technology and in online spaces, the legal rights and intellectual property of online materials, and digital privacy. For example, it is important to help students understand their digital footprint and the potential permanency of one’s online activity. Teachers can facilitate students in developing and monitoring their own online behavior guidelines. Other teachers give students opportunities to develop skills in writing positive feedback in online environments, as opposed to simply clicking a “like” or “thumbs-up” icon. Students need to understand copyright and attribution as a form of intellectual property protections, both as a process they must consider when using materials, such as photographs or music, from the web but also as a protection for their own digital creations. Finally, as students use more devices and online software

48  Chapter 2 and systems, they must become aware of the aptitude for many of these tools to ­collect private data, such as pictures, geolocations, video, and even voice memos, and the importance of monitoring the terms and conditions of each digital tool they use. KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTOR  This standard articulates how students use digi-

tal resources in their own hands to create and express their developing knowledge about meaningful issues as multimodal artifacts. Students must develop substantive research methods to distinguish opinion versus facts in order to advance their intellectual goals. Working toward this, students develop information evaluation skills to determine accuracy, relevancy, and credibility of information. Teachers and librarians can guide students to information and research resources and databases that are more efficient than simple Google searches. Digital tools are essential in helping students curate, organize, and connect information in ways that reflect their growing knowledge on a topic, project, or subject area. For example, some students use concept map tools, bookmarking or curation software, or bibliography software to organize information; others have developed digital books or portfolios as culminating artifacts in a project. Finally, students can build knowledge when they explore issues that are authentic to their own community to identify problems and generate and test possible solutions. INNOVATIVE DESIGNER  This standard describes how students engage in design

thinking processes that compel them to identify problems and propose, test, and rework solutions. They can select appropriate digital tools to assist in the cyclical design processes and ultimately learn through data they collect and analyze. While design is often thought of as a scientific or engineering activity, design thinking can be integrated across any subject area when teachers introduce open-ended problems that require inquiry and creative solutions. Students might use data collection technologies, such as spreadsheets, surveys, observation tools, cameras, or microscopes; data analysis and presentation tools, such as charts, figures, and infographics; and prototype technologies, such as 3-D printers, CAD, robots, graphic editors, word processors, and printers. COMPUTATIONAL THINKER  This standard outlines how students engage in com-

putational thinking, which is a process of breaking complex problems into a series of problem-solving steps, often using technological tools such as data and analysis or coding or modeling to support finding solutions. Computational thinking can clearly support the goals of being an innovative designer (see previous standard). Teachers have taught students about algorithms through a process of designing a new dance that a robot will emulate. Students choreograph a dance and its individual moves and then program a series of steps that a robot will execute. They learn that their plan and its steps is the algorithm, and they can test it repeatedly with the automated robot. Other learning activities can involve data collection to solve problems or create models of complex systems. CREATIVE COMMUNICATOR  This standard frames how students choose appropriate digital media to represent or communicate ideas to specific audiences. Because students may create original multimedia expressions or use or remix others’ creative materials, the Digital Citizen standard is often intertwined with activities that call upon students to communicate creatively. For example, one teacher engaged students in exploring literary elements in a story they read through a choice of creative expressions, such as through creating memes, digital books, video-based movies, or stop animation. Another teacher emphasized the importance for students to develop respectful analysis and acknowledgment of how other people’s artistic expressions inspire one’s own creations. Some students have used Minecraft Education Edition to build visualizations of historical places or landmarks to deepen their sense of place. Others have built augmented reality museums or school tours.

Theory into Practice 49

GLOBAL COLLABORATOR  This standard emphasizes opportunities for students to use digital tools to support local and global teams for collaborative learning and exchange. Digital resources might include access to archived, online, or live content that opens learning into other cultures. For example, exploring a virtual tour of an art museum in other countries situate native artifacts from which to connect. Game-cams allow children to monitor and observe natural environments and animal movements. Live, synchronous technologies, such as audio or videoconferencing, offers students a chance to share or collaborate on collective inquiries that reflect transnational challenges or collective interests. Students who work together in teams may choose to use online collaboration tools, such as Google Workspace for Education, including Gmail, Google Calendar, Google Docs, and Google Drive, to facilitate effective synchronous and asynchronous work.

Some states have adopted the ISTE Standards for Students as their technologyrelated standards, but other states have developed their own technology standards. Check with your state agencies to identify what technology standards should guide your lesson design work.

CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY 1. Directed integration models are shaped by objectivist theories. Leading theories included behaviorist (Skinner), information-processing (Atkinson and Shiffrin), cognitive-behavioral (Gagné), and systems theories. Directed technology integration strategies are typically systematically designed, structured learning products such as drills, tutorials, and adaptive or personalized learning systems. 2. Social constructivist integration strategies are based on constructivist learning theories. Prominent theories include social activism (Dewey), social learning (Bandura), scaffolding (Vygotsky), child development (Piaget), discovery learning (Bruner), and critical pedagogy (Freire) theories. Social constructivist integration strategies call for solving problems in settings that are familiar and meaningful to students; they often focus on having students use data-gathering tools to study problems and issues in their locale, on creating multimedia products to present their new knowledge and insights, on immersing oneself in simulated inquirybased environments, and on communicating with others around the globe. 3. Technology integration strategies differ based on the learning theories guiding teachers. Directed integration strategies aim to develop identified weak areas; to promote skill fluency or automaticity; to

support efficient, self-paced learning; and to support self-paced review of concepts. Social constructivist integration strategies aim to foster creative problem solving and metacognition; to help build mental models and increase knowledge transfer; to integrate and foster group cooperation skills; and to integrate allowing for culturally responsive knowledge and skills. ­Integration strategies common to both directed and social constructivist models include generating motivation to learn, optimizing scarce resources, removing logistical hurdles to learning, and developing digital citizenship and digital literacy. 4. Curriculum and lesson design should be guided by content and technology standards. Each state adopts content standards for grade levels and subject areas, such as the Common Core State Standards, or other standards, such as the Next Generation S ­ cience ­Standards or National Standards for Art Education. Teachers must review the standards adopted for their state to assess the role for technology in contentarea teaching and learning. ISTE also has developed ­technology-specific standards for students that can be considered along with other content standards to guide technology integration and lesson design. Again, some states have adopted the ISTE standards for students, but others have developed their own technology-related standards.

50  Chapter 2

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP Apply What You Learned This workshop helps you connect more deeply with the content and concepts introduced in this chapter. An important part of the workshop is for you to consider the ideas in terms of the teaching scenario that opens the chapter as well as to personalize the ideas from your own experience. You have read in this chapter how technology integration activities vary according to directed and constructivist views of learning and pedagogy. Now apply your understanding of these concepts by doing the following activities: a. Reread Mr. Ng and Ms. Rodriguez’s lessons in ­Technology Integration in Action: The Role of Learning Theory at the beginning of the chapter. Reflect on each lesson’s approach to teaching and learning and determine which one reflects a directed or a social constructivist approach. Identify how the respective theories underlie the pedagogy in the lessons (see ­Figures 2.3 and 2.4 for assistance). b. Consider your own position toward directed or social constructivist theory and their implications for pedagogy and technology integration strategies. Reflect on your experiences (1) as a learner and (2) as a developing educator. • Summarize an example technology-supported learning activity from your own experience. • Articulate its basis in learning theory, its pedagogical approach, and its main technology integration

strategy (see Figures 2.3–2.5 and Tables 2.3–2.4 for guidance). • Identify at least one content standard and one technology standard that your example activity meets. c. Interview a current teacher or student in a school about the types of technology-supported learning activities they teach or experience, respectively. Explore one activity in depth with your interviewee, so you can again: • Summarize the example technology-supported learning activity from the field. • Articulate its basis in learning theory, its pedagogical approach, and its main technology integration strategy (see Figures 2.3–2.5 and Tables 2.3–2.4 for guidance). • Identify at least one content standard and one technology standard the field-based example activity meets. d. As an educator, you should work toward developing a professional rationale for the use of technology in your practices. Reflect on the educational processes (learning theories, pedagogy, and content) (see Figure 2.1) described in this chapter. Express in words, a picture, a figure, or other representation how you currently position yourself in terms of theory-into-practice. How do you translate these educational processes as having practical value for technology integration in classrooms?

CHAPTER 3

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter and completing the learning activities, you should be able to: 3.1 Identify how the technology tool, technology expertise, and

t­ echnology support resources available within school contexts contribute and limit options for classroom technology integration. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 5—Designer) 3.2 Illustrate how educators are becoming networked learners and

leaders; explain strategies to build a compelling, consistent, and safe professional online identity; and generate a ­professional rationale for using technology in teaching based on history, ­emergent trends, learning theories, educational standards, ­contextual conditions, and recent research. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator) 3.3 Employ the steps in the Technology Integration Planning model to

design technology-supported classroom lessons. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst)

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN ACTION:

Professional Challenges that Call for Continuous Teacher Learning Mr. Holliday recently graduated from college, earned his professional teaching certificate, and began his teaching career in Lincoln, Nebraska. In his preparation program, his professors modeled use of various technologies for teaching and learning, and he used these examples to begin integrating technology in his lessons when his school had the resources. Occasionally, Mr. Holliday’s school had professional learning opportunities that introduced common tools available, but he noticed these sessions (1) often taught how to use the tool without much explanation of how or why it should (Continued)

51

52  Chapter 3

be used pedagogically and (2) were designed for all the teachers so the integration examples, when provided, did not ­always match his subject area. He felt he was at an impasse—wondering what other technological options might exist for his subject area and how they could positively impact his teaching and his students’ learning. Mr. ­Holliday ­realized no one was going to magically solve this professional challenge for him; ultimately it was his responsibility to find strategies to build a personal path of continuous learning that would help him be a more adroit and knowledgeable instructional leader for technology integration. Surely, there must be some organized ways to think through the ever-expanding technological resources in education and plan ways to use them in support of teaching and learning.

Introduction Teachers must be learners and leaders in their work to integrate technology. This chapter introduces three types of technology resources that impact a teacher’s choices when designing technology-supported instruction. These resources include the available technology tools, the technology expertise within oneself and other collaborators, and the available technology support in one’s school, district, or online. These three areas form the second triangle of our Framework for Integrating Educational Technology (see Figure 3.1), as introduced in Chapter 1. Because these collective technology resources are always changing, teachers are continually learning to keep pace. To keep this pace, we explain how teachers can continually learn and develop their expertise and seek support from others as a “connected educator” who joins supportive offline and online communities and builds an online teacher identity. Ultimately, teachers become technology leaders when they can make sound decisions about educational technology for teaching and learning in the classroom. The latter half of this chapter introduces a technology integration planning (TIP) process to help guide teachers in designing and implementing technology-based lessons. The TIP guides teachers through consideration of the educational processes (see Chapter 2) and the technology resources (this chapter) that situate what is possible to do with technology in specific educational contexts. We conclude by encouraging all teachers to establish a professional rationale for educational technology. Such a rationale sets the tone for what you believe in and what you are working toward achieving with the use of technology in teaching. To make the teaching profession stronger and create even more possibilities for student learning, teachers can lead and collaborate to create positive, strategic, inclusive, equitable, and critical innovations with technology within education.

Figure 3.1  Technology Resources: A Framework for Integrating Educational ­Technology. This chapter provides more information about the three technological resources: technology tools, technology expertise, and technology support. A ­ ttending to these technology resources helps teachers identify potential technological ­possibilities for problems of practice in your curriculum or your students’ learning. Technology Expertise

Technology Support Technology Resources

Technology Tools

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration 53

Technology Resources for Teaching and Learning Learning Outcome 3.1  Identify how the technology tool, technology expertise, and technology support resources available within school contexts contribute and limit options for classroom technology integration. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 5—Designer) In order to be productive with technology, a teacher must first identify the hardware and software tools available in the school and classroom. This section introduces a range of fundamental configurations of hardware devices for teaching and learning and software tools that support instruction and student learning. Chapters 4–7 offer more in-depth coverage of web-based and instructional resources that can inform your blended and online learning designs.

Hardware Setup for Classrooms Eight types of technology hardware are commonly used in today’s classrooms. These include: 1. Internet network. While often invisible in the classroom, your school has a wired or wireless network that provides computing devices with access to the Internet. Computers can connect to a wired outlet in a wall using a cable, or they can be connected wirelessly via the computer’s Wi-Fi settings. Networks can vary in signal strength and speed. 2. Computers. Desktop and laptop computers are options for classroom computing. Computers operate through an operating system (OS), and Windows OS, Mac OS, or Chrome OS are common. Computers can also serve as network servers, which send out information to others on the Internet, commonly run by district staff for schools or classrooms. 3. Handheld technologies. Small devices, such as cell phones, tablets (e.g., iPads, Microsoft Surface, Samsung Galaxy, Amazon Fire tablets), e-books or e-text readers (e.g., Amazon Kindle, Barnes & Noble Nook, Kobo), calculators, smartpens (e.g., Livescribe, Neo Smartpen), and student response systems (SRSs) offer mobile computing for teaching and learning. The devices’ computing power and capabilities vary. 4. Display technologies. These devices support whole-class or large-group demonstrations of information from a computer. You can display computer and handheld technologies in your classroom on a television screen using a cable or remote connection with an Apple TV, on a digital projector often mounted on a ceiling, or on an interactive display (e.g., SMART Board, Promethean) that can be mobile or secured to a wall. Interactive displays allow teachers and students to manipulate information with a special pen, your hand, or other mobile devices. These systems also allow drawings or notes from a given session to be saved, shared, or reused later. Some of these displays can be used with devices such as SRSs, which are wireless devices used for interactively polling student answers to teacher questions in face-to-face classes, and with learning management systems (LMSs). 5. Imaging technologies. To make teaching and learning more visual, you might have access to digital cameras, video cameras, scanners, or head-mounted displays (HMDs) (e.g., Google Cardboard or Oculus headsets) that allow the development and use of images ranging from still photos to full-motion videos and virtual reality. 6. Peripherals. These are the input devices to get information and requests into the computer for processing, such as a keyboard, mouse, stylus, scanner, and

54  Chapter 3 microphone. Output devices interpret the computer’s information into visual or auditory ­formats, such as printers, synthesizers, and earphones. Peripherals make computers even more functional for a range of user needs. 7. External storage device. Computers store data, including applications and documents inside the computer on a hard drive, and can access data stored on storage media (e.g., flash drive, hard drive). Sometimes an external storage device such as an external hard drive is needed to hold large files, such as video recordings, that won’t fit easily on storage media or inside the computer. 8. Online storage and computing. Often referred to as cloud computing, storage of applications and documents can live on and through the Internet. Sometimes this service is fee based, and sometimes sites such as Google make it available as a free service. The latter is referred to as Google Drive, although it is not really a hard drive device in the traditional sense. Users can upload documents to storage either as a backup copy or as an alternate to storing items on one’s own computer hard drive. Many software applications are also available online “in the cloud,” such as Google Docs.

Software Applications in Schools Schools carry out many types of activities in addition to teaching, such as administrative and instructional planning, and software has been designed to support these. ­Application (app) software refers to any program specifically designed to run on computing devices. Apps are often designed exclusively for a given platform (e.g., ­Windows, Macintosh, iOS, Android) unless they are cloud based, in which they run on the Internet through web browsers, such as on Chrome, Firefox, or Safari. “There’s an app for that” has quickly become a catchphrase as people have become dependent on their handheld devices to go online. We group the educational technology software and apps in school settings into three categories: • Instructional. Software or content designed to teach skills or information through demonstrations, examples, explanations, and problem solving.  Subject-matter ­content is described in Chapter 4. Functions of instructional software include drill and practice, tutorials, personalized learning simulations, games, and problem based, which have built-in sequenced curricular material (described in Chapter 5). • Creation. Software designed to help teachers and students plan, develop materials, record and analyze data, communicate, collaborate, and make. These include word processing, spreadsheet, database, data collection/analysis, graphics, email programs, and research and reference tools. These programs do not have curricular material built into them. These are described in Chapters 6 and 7. • Administrative. Software that administrators, teachers, students, and parents use to support record keeping and information exchange. These include student records, such as grades, attendance, individualized education plans, and other private data. Sometimes schools use student information software (SIS) to maintain this information. These are described throughout the book. The next sections describe common software applications available in schools that are used for instructional, creation, and administrative tasks. SOFTWARE SUITES  Word processing, spreadsheet, and presentation software is

available as a software suite for all platforms. Apple’s iWork suite for computers, iPads, and iPhones includes Pages, Keynote, and Numbers. Similarly, Microsoft Office, a software suite for both Macintosh and Windows-based systems, includes Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, and Excel. Google Workspace (formerly G Suite) includes Docs, Slides, and Sheets.

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration 55

Figure 3.2  LibreOffice’s Impress Presentation Software SOURCE: Fabio Pesari. https://www.libreoffice.org/discover/screenshots/ Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 License.

Apache Open Office and LibreOffice are free, open source software (OSS) suites that offer Writer, Impress, Calc, and software for drawing, databases, and mathematical formula creation. These suites function on Windows, Macintosh, and Linux operating systems. There’s also a Collabora Office app for Android and iOS devices. NeoOffice, a low-cost, OSS suite specifically for Macintosh computers, is adapted from OpenOffice. See Figure 3.2 for a view of LibreOffice’s presentation software. CLOUD-BASED SOFTWARE  Most new software is being developed to run on the

Internet via a web browser or app, which is referred to as cloud computing. It eliminates the need for storing data or software on a computer hard drive or finding the right software version for a specific computer’s operating system. Google Workspace for Education Fundamentals and Microsoft Office 365 are prominent cloud-based productivity software. Google Workspace offers gmail, docs, sheets, slides, meet, chat, calendar, forms, classroom, assignments, sites, groups, drive, and admin. All of the Google apps are accessible through web browsers. Microsoft 365 Education offers cloud-based apps including Word, Excel, PowerPoint, OneNote, Outlook email, Teams (videoconferencing), SharePoint (website development), OneDrive (file storage), Sway (presentations), Forms (survey creator), and Exchange (calendaring). Because Office 365 also offers local installation that could be on a teacher’s computer (determined by the school’s account type), it facilitates working without Internet access. Anyone with an .edu email account can obtain Office 365 for Education free from Microsoft. SPECIALITY SOFTWARE  For teachers who want to create complex print or web

publications, Adobe’s Creative Cloud offers monthly licenses for access to its suite of high-end desktop and mobile software, such as Adobe InDesign (page design and publishing), Photoshop (image editor), Illustrator (graphics and illustration), Acrobat Pro (portable document software), Premier Pro (video editing), Dreamweaver (website design), XD (UI/UX design tool), and Spark (graphics and video stories). SMART Technologies offers SMART Learning Suite Online (SLS) where teachers can create interactive lessons that can be delivered to whole class, small groups, or individual students. Promethean offers ActivInspire and ClassFlow software for building lessons.

Pearson eText Video Example 3.1 Pay attention to how Google Apps use cloud computing technologies. https://youtu.be/doHnLiAzQ5M

56  Chapter 3 MOBILE SOFTWARE  Handheld devices such as tablets, mobile phones, and laptops have made computing even more portable and accessible to teachers and students. All of the software suites discussed previously are available on tablets and handheld devices. iWork’s Pages, Numbers, and Keynote (and iMovie and GarageBand) apps are available for download at no cost on qualifying devices. iWork for iCloud allows users with an iCloud account to use these apps via the Safari, Chrome, and Internet Explorer web browsers on any device. A feature allows real-time collaborative editing of files. OSS such as OpenOffice and LibreOffice offer apps that allow document ­viewing. Google Workspace is installed at no cost on all Google Chromebooks and functions natively in the Chrome operating system (ChromeOS). Google Workspace can be accessed through downloadable mobile apps for iPad, iPhone, iPod, Android devices, and Windows devices or through a web browser. Microsoft Office 365 can be accessed through web browsers on any device and via mobile apps for Windows, Apple (iOS), and Android devices. FILE EXCHANGE COMPATIBILITY  Even when different schools (or even classrooms) adopt different software and devices, today’s software tools—computer, app, and cloud based—are designed to be compatible across software and computer platforms or types of computer operating systems (e.g., Macintosh vs. Windows), making transfer of documents and collaboration on projects much easier for teachers and students. Most of the files, or products created in one program, can be exchanged with people using other software or devices. In some cases, files created in one program, such as a Macintosh version of Microsoft Word, can be seamlessly exchanged and opened in a Windows version. All software allows exporting or saving as a different file type. For example, Google Workspace users could download a copy of their Google Sheet as an Excel spreadsheet, an OpenDocument format (ODF) document, a web page, or a portable document format (PDF). iWork users could export their keynote presentation as a PowerPoint or a PDF document. In some instances, a file might not retain all its formatting features exactly the way they were designed in the original software, so users should always check through a new file before submitting it as final when turning it in for an assignment or using it for a presentation to a group. Technology integration strategies described in this text focus primarily on instructional and creation software that teachers and students use. However, some administrative applications are also described. All of these resources are described more fully in Chapters 4–8, and content-specific resources are described in Chapters 9–15.

Configurations of Digital Devices All schools and learning spaces serve widely different learners for a range of learning purposes. Therefore, devices in every school and learning space need to be deliberately configured or arranged with pedagogical goals in mind. In this section, we describe a variety of physical arrangements designed for computing hardware that serve specific pedagogical goals. Because there are no perfect configurations, we note the benefits and limitations of the designs for teaching and learning. CENTRAL CLASSROOM COMPUTING HUB  Some schools install one semimobile or immobile central computing hub in each classroom that contains a central input/ output touchscreen hub where a user can control a computer or laptop, document camera, auxiliary inputs, audio microphone input and output speaker levels, mounted projector, and screen. These hubs provide standardized equipment across classrooms, but the resources can be underutilized if teachers do not need all the equipment. If students use the hub’s computer for presenting or other work, the teacher could arrange for the students to have a computer log-in code that differs from the teacher’s to prevent students’ access of teacher-specific software and materials such as gradebook software, handouts, and tests. If the school does not already have individual student log-ins, it

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration 57

is recommended that schools create one student log-in code that is easily remembered for the central computer. THE ONE-COMPUTER CLASSROOM  One computing device, such as a computer,

tablet, slate, or phone, in a classroom tends to enable teacher productivity uses and whole-class, teacher-directed instruction if the device is connected with display technology. In this arrangement, the computing device often is placed on the teacher’s desk or as the central computing station. Without display technology in the classroom, teachers can use the device solely for their own productivity, such as recording attendance, grades, and material development, although some teachers share content on a laptop or tablet in small groups or pass a mobile device around (Brown, 2012). Other teachers may dedicate the computing device as a center or station for students. To facilitate equitable use by students, some teachers choose popsicle sticks labeled with student names to assign each available computer time until all the sticks (i.e., students) have been selected. Another approach is creating five color-coded groups, whose computer time aligns with days of the week or to group-based projects. To facilitate optimal student use of time while at a computer, teachers should organize materials that students need during computer time and place them near the computer in advance. For example, a teacher can laminate the step-by-step instructions for logging in and for a particular learning task, such as what software to use, what websites to visit, and where to save materials. CLASSROOM COMPUTERS  Some classrooms have several, such as three to five,

computing devices. These are more convenient and accessible to both teachers and students than a separate computer lab. Teachers tend to use them in a center where students cycle through technology activities throughout a day or week. Some teachers plan the same activity that all students can perform at all computing stations; other teachers set up each computer as a content-specific center, such as writing, math, or music/art. If the computing devices are physically far from each other, teachers could develop collaborative activities with up to three children at each station. Fewer available computers limit the number of learners who can have hands-on use at one time. ­Teachers recommend placing computer screens toward the class so that they can monitor computer activity. Teachers who plan to implement collaborative computing activities need to separate the computers far enough to accommodate several children around each device. Teachers can implement fair access to devices with name sticks or preset rotation schedules (Brown, 2012). Some teachers use computing access and time as a reward for unrelated behaviors, such as following directions or good behavior in other school-based activities. ­Unfortunately, these reward approaches do not provide all children access to computing or technology-based learning activities, undermine the tenets of equitable technology integration, and reduces some portion of students from developing digital literacy. MOBILE CARTS  Some schools establish mobile carts containing computing devices,

typically laptops, tablets, e-book readers, or devices such as clickers, graphing calculators, and data probes. These carts are sometimes called “computers on wheels,” or COWs. Most carts have electrical power that supports device charging and syncing while devices are not in use. The carts’ mobility enables resources to be shared among teachers’ classrooms. However, teachers still must schedule access to the carts, and the number of teachers sharing one cart determines its availability. Some schools or teachers use shared online calendars to schedule cart usage, allowing teachers to know the location and availability of the carts. Each computing device on a cart should have a unique ID visible to students and teachers. Teachers must create systems to reduce congestion around carts when getting or putting them away. Some teachers assign a student device monitor from each row or

58  Chapter 3 group of desks to pick up and return devices to the cart’s slot labeled with each device’s ID. Alternatively, a visible sign on the classroom door can direct each student to pick up devices on “computing days” upon entering the classroom. If students save their work directly on a device, as opposed to on a cloud-based storage area, students must access the same device every work period. Carts are heavy and sometimes difficult to get through doors and up ramps and require elevators to move to other floors of a building. Unlike labs, the mobile devices require wireless Internet connectivity, can be more easily stolen or broken because of their mobility, lose power while in use, and if they are not properly connected to electricity in the cart are not recharged. COMPUTER LABORATORIES  Computer laboratories, which are easier to maintain

and secure than carts, tend to be arranged in a centralized space often with desktop computers that can be wired or wirelessly connected to the Internet and a teaching station that connects to a digital projector. General-use labs tend to be scheduled for whole-class use, and students must leave their classrooms to use them. Teachers often must schedule time for lab activities (sometimes weeks) in advance. Networking software installed on an instructor computer can allow teachers to visibly monitor students’ computer activity. Special-purpose computer labs can be arranged to meet special course needs and tend to have specific imaging or peripheral technologies. For example, some labs are designed for: • Computer programming, game design, and technical courses • Technology and business education or vocational courses that use computer-aided design and drafting, robotics, or desktop publishing stations • Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) music creation • Language learning • Audio and video multimedia production. There should be sufficient demand for these specialty resources to create a permanent lab because these configurations tend to isolate resources by course topics and usually exclude many learners who do not qualify for or require the resource. Computer labs can be in library/media centers or a school’s learning commons. These labs can serve drop-in use by students, teacher’s classes at scheduled times, and students who have designated library time. Recently, the library/media center has become a popular place in K–12 schools to establish makerspaces, which are physical spaces with digital, mechanical, and nondigital tools and materials that enable people to design, tinker, and build hands-on tangible products. Typically, permanent library or media staff oversee the space and provide ready access to all materials to promote integration of computer and noncomputer resources. Spaces such as these need to establish or change expectations regarding noise levels in them because most activities require talking and sounds that might bother other learners. To maximize student computing time, many teachers provide instructions for a computing activity, such as websites or software to use, and assign students to specific computers before the class enters the lab so students can start work immediately. They also can display instructions in the lab. If computers are large and obscure teachers’ view of children, systems to alert teachers about questions or problems include students moving a tethered, bright red plastic cup or plate on the top of computer. For younger children, different-colored stickers on the bottom right and left of the screen can assist when giving computer instructions to reference areas of the screen. STUDENT-SUPPLIED DEVICES  Some schools allow students to bring your own device (BYOD), including laptops, tablets, and phones, to school to use for learning. With enough BYOD devices to supplement mobile carts or classroom computers,

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration 59

teachers could be able to adopt integration strategies that require a device for each ­student. However, teachers can be challenged by technical issues when students’ devices and software differ. In addition, schools must establish strong Internet Wi-Fi infrastructure and BYOD acceptable use policies. Many teachers set expectations for computing use at the beginning of each class session verbally and/or with a sign. With planned use, students should have their devices on their desks ready. When the devices aren’t needed, students should have their devices put away and on silence mode. Yet, some teachers require all devices to be on desks, not in students’ laps at any time. SCHOOL-SUPPLIED ONE-TO-ONE COMPUTING PROGRAMS  Many schools

are working to supply all students a computing device, commonly referred to as a one-to-one computing program. When all teachers and learners have computing access all the time, it enables integration strategies that require a device for each student. A meta-analysis of one-to-one laptop programs found that they had a positive impact across science, writing, math, English, and reading skills, but sometimes the impact did not appear until the second year of use (Zheng et al., 2016). One-to-one programs are expensive to purchase as well as maintain and renew. In terms of classroom management when students do not take the devices home, Wetzel and Marshall (2012) described how the teacher reduced laptop retrieval and put-away by physically separating her computer carts to reduce aisle crowding by her sixth-grade students. Students retrieved the same numbered computer, and she taught them to carry or cradle the laptops like a baby. Some teachers need techniques to recall all students’ attention away from their devices for a moment. Strategies tend to involve an initial physical indicator, such as a clap or a raised hand, followed by all students mimicking the signal. One additional step some teachers use involves students placing their devices downward, with the screens facing down on their desks. GENERAL COMPUTING MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES  In addition to specific strat-

egies for special configurations, teachers have developed a range of techniques to help manage the use of technology among students that can be applicable to all arrangements. Some strategies include: • Preparing instructional handouts (with pictures and/or text) for common computing operations, such as printing, saving, and accessing photos or art; laminating the sheets, connecting them on a circle ring, and tethering them to the computer or computing area • Developing class expectations for computing use in different situations, such as during teacher instruction, student presentations, and collaborative activities • Using timers as needed to structure equitable access to computer devices • Hanging headsets/headphones on a hook attached to computers or computing areas • Teaching students who are having difficulties at the computer to “ask two peers before the teacher” for help

Alignment of Device Configurations with Pedagogical Approaches Device configurations support different pedagogical approaches, as summarized in Table 3.1. We know teachers to be truly inventive, so they should certainly be open to using technological devices in ways that deviate from those described here. WHOLE-CLASS INSTRUCTION VIA LECTURE OR DEMONSTRATION  All device configurations support direct instruction in the form of technology-supported lecture or demonstration assuming that each configuration includes a dedicated device for the presenter and a way to project the technology materials so that all students can see and

Pearson eText Video Example 3.2 Consider the factors this superintendent’s district uses to lead their technology resource selections. Do you see evidence of such considerations in districts and schools you have visited?

60  Chapter 3

Table 3.1  Device Configurations by Pedagogy Pedagogical Approach Device Configurations

Whole Class: Lecture or Demonstration

Whole Class: ­Simultaneous ­Independent Work

Flipped/Inverted

Centers, Small Group

Collaboration

Independent Work

Computing Hub

Yes

No

No

No

No

No

One-Computer classroom

Yes

No

No

Yes

Possibly

Yes

Classroom ­computers (3–5)

Yes

No

No

Yes

Possibly

Yes

Mobile carts

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Computer laboratories

Yes

Yes

Yes

Possibly

Possibly

Yes

Student-supplied devices

Yes

Possibly

Yes

Yes

Possibly

Yes

School-Supplied devices (1:1)

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

hear. The presenter could be the teacher, a guest, a student, or a group of students as long as their presentation materials can be easily accessed from the device connected to the projection technology. Sufficient Internet bandwidth and access to videoconferencing software such as Zoom or Google Meet enable remote guests. WHOLE-CLASS SIMULTANEOUS, INDEPENDENT WORK  Some teachers plan lessons in which all their students complete independent technology-related activities simultaneously, such as taking a test, practicing or reviewing concepts in tutoring software, researching information online or in library databases, and using software for writing. Mobile carts, computer laboratories, and school-supplied one-to-one device configurations enable this simultaneous, independent work, assuming that each student has one device. When they share a mobile cart of devices, teachers need to have access to enough devices for all the students. Student-supplied BYOD configurations might not work for this type of lesson because of inconsistency in software and functionality across the many different types of devices students could have. FLIPPED OR INVERTED PEDAGOGY  Some teaching repertoires include the use of

flipped pedagogy or inverted pedagogy. Students are required to engage with content concepts, for example via video-based lectures, before coming to class, and then they spend class time in learning activities that help them apply the concepts. These models tend to use online materials for prestudy, so students require access to a computing device and the Internet in most cases to complete their preclass activities. Therefore, the configurations that afford each student computer and Internet access support flipped pedagogy. If school computer laboratories provide adequate drop-in before- or afterschool access for all students, then teachers may be able to implement flipped pedagogy. As long as student-supplied or school-supplied devices allowed out-of-class Internet access or the ability to download Internet-specific, prestudy resources while at school for use later, then these configurations can support flipped learning. CENTERS OR STATIONS  Teachers who have access to a few digital devices, such as

three to five classroom computers, often organize student learning with them in a center for small-group activities. Three to five students can work at a technology center while the rest of the class rotates among other centers. These activities should be accomplished independently with explicit instructions provided because the teacher is usually facilitating another center at the same time. For example, five scientific probeware devices could be distributed among five small groups of learners to support data collection.

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration 61

Other device configurations, such as mobile carts, BYODs, and one-to-one programs that have up to one device per learner, can be appropriate for center or small-group learning activities. In addition, a monitored computer laboratory, such as one in the library, could support centers, but the students would require travel time and would not be near their teacher. COLLABORATION  We distinguish collaborative learning as a situation in which students work together in a structured or unstructured activity with the goal of shared exploration and understanding of knowledge concepts and building a digital artifact that represents such knowledge. Because students are working together, they need access to devices and software that are compatible. Thus, we find that school-supplied devices, such as those in mobile carts or distributed in one-to-one programs, best facilitate collaborative efforts to examine a concept and build a digital artifact, such as a paper, presentation, poster, or video, that represents their development. With fewer devices, such as with one computer, collaborative progress would be slower but still possible. INDEPENDENT LEARNING  A range of pedagogies can be used simultaneously. In some contexts, individual students pursue independent learning activities while other students work in groups or with the rest of the class. Teachers can organize independent learning activities for a range of reasons, including addressing students who have special needs, who need to make up missed work, or others who are pursuing online coursework. All device configurations that allow devices in the hands of students support this pedagogy, but Zheng et al. (2016) noted that one-to-one laptops offer students more control of their learning and teachers more ability to individualize instruction.

Technology Expertise Educators must consider the technological expertise they possess in order to understand what they bring to the technology integration design process. Having a clearer sense of your own expertise allows identifying potential areas for further development or seeking assistance and support from others on unfamiliar topics.

The ISTE Standards for Educators The 2017 ISTE Standards for Educators (ISTE, 2017), outline the knowledge, skills, dispositions, and actions that educators need to support instruction and student learning with technologies. These standards have been adopted by many states to guide the preparation of new teachers. The seven educator standards position an educator as an empowered professional and learning catalyst who is a: 1. Learner. Teachers should continually seek to understand research-based perspectives on technology-supported teaching and learning to help guide their own professional learning and design decisions about the use of digital technologies in their classrooms. 2. Leader. Teachers should develop their own vision for empowered digital learning that advocates for equitable student access, agency, and engagement in high cognitive digital learning activities. 3. Citizen. Teachers should model ethical, respectful, and critical digital literacy practices in their technological resource adoptions, their lessons, and their local and global communication and collaborations. 4. Collaborator. Teachers can collaborate with local and distant (i.e., online) colleagues for professional learning, with their students to model lifelong learning, and with virtual local and global experts to augment content topics.

62  Chapter 3 5. Designer. Teachers explicitly design new technology-supported lessons in alignment with their vision for empowered digital learning in ways that maximize attention to students’ learning needs and that advance equitable learning for all students. 6. Facilitator. Teachers develop the knowledge and skills to facilitate students’ achievement of the ISTE Standards for Students. As teachers design new lessons, they consider how the lesson enables students to have agency in their own digital learning experiences. 7. Analyst. Teachers use a range of digital resources to expand formative and summative assessments of students’ learning. Teachers learn to use available assessment data to reflect upon and redesign lessons, as needed. Pearson eText Artifact 3.1: ISTE survey for Educators

The downloadable ISTE Survey for Educators, available in Pearson eText Artifact 3.1, may help you identify areas of lower and higher expertise based on the ISTE Standards for Educators. The entirety of this text’s content supports educators’ development as an empowered professional and catalyst for technology-supported learning, with aims to develop readers in each of these seven areas. The learning outcomes at the beginning of each chapter in this book indicate which ISTE Standards for Educators aligns with the content in each respective chapter. ISTE also has technology-related standards for school administrators, technology coaches, and computer science educators in addition to the Standards for ­Students described in Chapter 2.

The Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge Framework While the ISTE Standards tend to frame the active roles and activities educators can take up toward their technology integration work, another framework focuses more on the knowledge inside teachers’ minds that are called upon when teachers make decisions. Teaching is a complex combination of what teachers know about the content they teach, how they decide to teach that content, and the tools they use to carry out their plans. Historically, teacher education has centered on content knowledge and pedagogy as separate concerns. But Shulman (1986) was the first to stress the importance of how these “knowledge components” work together rather than separately with development of the concept of pedagogical content knowledge (see Table 3.2). Hughes (2000) extended Shulman’s concept by adding and emphasizing technology as another component of knowledge needed by teachers. The result is a combination of technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge, referred to as TPCK. Over the years, other scholars have referred to this concept as information and communication technology (ICT)–related pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) (Angeli & Valanides, 2005), technology-enhanced PCK (Niess, 2005), and technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge (TPACK) (Thompson & Mishra, 2007). Scholars have not agreed on one term, but TPACK is often referred to within teacher professional learning events. TPACK describes knowledge inside educators’ minds that they access to help make decisions, such as when they design lessons. Not all educators will have the same TPACK, and we expect teachers’ knowledge, including TPACK, to develop with more teaching experience. The seven knowledge areas are described in Table 3.2. Figure 3.3 illustrates how these areas of knowledge can converge in a teacher’s mind. When teachers develop and use TPACK (the center of the figure), they are optimally considering the subject-matter content, the instructional pedagogy, the students’ learning, and the technology simultaneously to design and integrate technologies into content-based teaching in their particular classroom and school context (Kelly, 2008). The six knowledge areas surrounding the center (PK, TK, CK, TPK, PCK, TCK) are building blocks contributing to one’s TPACK. When teachers consider their own TPACK when designing technology-supported lessons, they can be attentive to how the technology in a lesson uniquely contributes to support instruction, student learning, or

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration 63

Table 3.2  TPACK Knowledge Definitions and Use in Practice Type of Knowledge

Definition

Example of Knowledge in Practice

Pedagogical knowledge (PK)

Knowledge about the processes and practices or ­methods of teaching and learning

Using scaffolding to help students’ meaning making and knowledge construction

Content knowledge (CK)

Knowledge of subject-matter concepts or principles

Knowing properties of geometric shapes

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)

Knowledge of how to teach and represent subject ­matter to students; generating content-specific learning goals; identifying and ­addressing student subject-­specific misconceptions or mistakes; and content-specific assessment strategies

Using analogical skills to teach math concepts

Technological knowledge (TK)

Knowledge of technology hardware and software and their operation

Using social media (e.g., blogs, Wiki, Facebook)

Technological pedagogical ­knowledge (TPK)

Knowledge of how technology can support general teaching and learning activities

Using an online quiz for assessment at the end of a lecture

Technological content knowledge (TCK)

Knowledge of content-specific technologies (hardware and software) or content representations (animations or simulations)

Using virtual math manipulatives for mathematics ­curriculum topics Using Google Docs to support collaborative writing processes

Technological pedagogical content ­knowledge (TPCK or TPACK)

Knowledge, decision making, and design of ­teaching subject matter to students with content-based ­technology tools or representations and/or ­using ­content-specific, technology-based ­assessment ­strategies in ways that meet content-specific ­learning goals and address student subject-specific ­misconceptions or mistakes

Using a lab for students to study velocity and speed by building a ramp, selecting a moveable object, and ­collecting velocity and speed data from ­motion ­detectors as the object rolls down the ramp, then graphing the resulting data and interpreting the ­relationship between velocity and speed

the curriculum (Hughes, 2005, 2013). More transformative lessons tend to put the technology in the students’ hands, are content rich, and use technology to situate learning or instruction in ways unattainable without it. The more opportunities educators have to actively design, redesign, and enact technology-supported lessons will increase their

Figure 3.3  TPCK/TPACK Framework

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)

Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK)

Technological Knowledge (TK)

Pedagogical Knowledge (PK)

Technological Content Knowledge (TCK)

Content Knowledge (CK)

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)

C o n t ex t s

64  Chapter 3 TPACK and technology integration skills (Voogt et al., 2013). The technology integration planning process described later in this chapter can serve as a guide for designing technology-supported lessons. In that process, you will be monitoring your knowledge and activating your expertise to make design decisions. The TPACK framework is useful for providing teachers a common language for talking about the knowledge they are seeking to develop and/or use.

Technology Support Classroom teachers likely need support from others when integrating technology. While teachers need some level of their own expertise, there will always be areas where other people’s knowledge, as well as existing policies and procedures, can complement and support the teacher’s goals. Fishman and Dede (2016) argue that the historical isolation of teachers is no longer sustainable and teachers must network connections among students, parents, teachers, and global contacts along with expansive resources. Common sources for support and access to additional expertise have often been found through: • Technology integration/media specialists. These support staff typically focus on working individually with teachers to identify ideas and ways to use the available technology hardware and software tools in the classroom for teaching and learning. These individuals often offer their own past teaching experience along with technological expertise to co-plan and sometimes co-teach with a classroom teacher. Their titles vary and could include Tech Integration Mentor, Innovative Teaching Specialist, Instructional Technology Specialist, Ed Tech Coach, Tech Facilitator, or others (Ritter, 2021). • IT support personnel. Sometimes instructional technology staff are often responsible for establishing and fixing technical infrastructure, such as computers, printers, or software. In some cases, these staff may not have teaching experience, so their assistance rests on the technical side. • School leaders. It is helpful to meet the instructional technology and educational technology directors for your district who might oversee technology purchasing, distribution, and professional learning opportunities. Some schools have two different people assume these roles, but some only have one person to direct both the technical and learning facets of educational technology leadership. School and district librarians are expanding their role as technology leaders; many have begun makerspaces in their libraries, and they thrive on collaborations with teachers. Your school principal or assistant principal is involved in setting policies and could have access to funding. Curriculum specialists also may offer valuable content-specific expertise. • Parents and students. Parents might be interested in volunteering to assist with ­technology-related projects, or they could have specialized industry knowledge that could be an asset for the school. Students can possess a great deal of experience with current recreational technologies. Teachers can learn from and be supported by students in their own classrooms. • Technology policies. Teachers should investigate the existing policies involving technologies at their school, which could include acceptable use policy (AUP), website and intranet policy, student use of personal electronic device policy, and bullying prevention policy. It is important for teachers to understand the expectations for students’ technology use and that their own technology-related behavior is also governed by school and district policies. • Technology procedures. School districts and individual schools and their staff likely have procedures related to access to and use of technologies, such as the frequency

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration 65

each teacher can check out and use a computer lab or set of laptops. Colleagues can also share valuable strategies for classroom management of technology specific to your school. • Technology professional development. Your state likely requires a certain number of continuing education units to sustain your teaching credential. Your school or district, regional education centers, state organizations, local universities, and other organizations may offer professional learning opportunities that involve ­technology integration topics. Unfortunately, not all schools and districts have robust technology support resources for their teachers. Teachers often must assume the responsibility of supporting themselves, not by amassing all the knowledge they need, but instead by building and connecting with others online, which is described in the next section.

Networked Professional Learning Communities for Educators Learning Outcome 3.2  Illustrate how educators are becoming networked learners and leaders; explain strategies to build a compelling, consistent, and safe online professional identity; and generate a professional rationale for using technology in teaching based on history, emergent trends, learning theories, educational standards, contextual conditions, and recent research. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator) When teachers take steps to learn and engage with other professionals online, they are enacting the Learner and Leader stances set forth in the ISTE Standards for ­Educators. Teachers are sometimes referred to as connected educators because they drive their own professional learning through networked connections with other educators (­Nussbaum-Beach & Hall, 2012; Team ISTE, 2018). Teachers should have agency and autonomy to identify and pursue important educational challenges, but these challenges often require further learning to develop creative solutions to important problems (Albion & Tondeur, 2018). Professional development has been criticized as something teachers receive from others at certain times or days, whereas professional learning frames teachers as agents involved in their own learning and who have input on topics, forms, and activities of learning (Calvert, 2016; Kennedy, 2016; Prestridge & Main, 2018; Stevenson et al., 2015). New web-based technologies, which are more fully described in Chapters 4–8, are changing the nature of professional learning by enabling meaningful collaboration and authentic collegiality through online relationship building (Prestridge & Main, 2018; Stevenson et al., 2015). There is also an advantage to using web-based technologies—the same technologies that we use to help students learn within the classroom—in professional learning because doing so models web-based learning at the adult learning level that teachers can then adopt and adapt for K–12 learning (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2012). This section describes the ways teachers are learning and leading through networked communities of practice that offer teachers more control of their learning. Educators learn through networked professional learning communities (­Nussbaum-Beach & Hall, 2012; Prestridge & Main, 2018; Trust, 2012), which combine the benefits of four offline and online sources for professional learning: 1. Conferences and meetings. Teachers access free, short events such as Edcamps and meetups that are often advertised through social media. Edcamps use a format that positions voluntary attendees to self-organize, collaborate, and identify the content and learning needs and teach sessions through participation. Some virtual

66  Chapter 3 Edcamps have also been held using collaborative technologies such as Google Docs, Twitter, or videoconferencing. Furthermore, participant-identified sessions often focus on technology (Carpenter & Krutka, 2014; Wake & Mills, 2014). In a study of 22 Edcamps, Carpenter and Linton (2016) found that participants highly valued collaboration and discussion, the autonomy and participant-driven format, and the networking opportunities. Another event is a meetup, an interest-based group that meets physically across the globe. The Meetup website offers social technologies to organize meetups. No academic research has been conducted on the value of meetups, but Allen (2016) suggests meetups can reduce teacher isolation. Pearson eText Video Example 3.3 In this video, Samone Graham, a high school biology teacher, describes how fellow teachers and her students compose a crucial “learning team” in her school’s focus to improve teaching with technology.

2. Professional learning communities (PLCs). Teachers learn in these school-based, typically face-to-face groups that include teachers, administrators, and sometimes students and parents committed to continuous school improvement efforts. PLC activities can be grade level, department level, or schoolwide and typically focus on improvement goals that optimally, although not always, include teacher input. Some PLCs have used videoconferencing to expand membership and offer increased flexibility, which participants felt was effective when overcoming distance and time barriers (McConnell et al., 2013). 3. Professional learning network. Professional learning networks (PLNs) are professionally based networks designed personally by educators to assist with professional learning and growth (Trust, 2012). Educators use PLNs to pursue self-identified goals or learning needs and to share their own knowledge. The network consists both of face-to-face connections, such as meetings in a local area and conferences, and online connections. For example, a teacher who follows particular educators on Twitter is beginning to form a PLN. 4. Communities of practice. Communities of practice (COP) are special-interest groups that are distributed knowledge networks for practitioners. COP members share an interest area, practice or purpose, and collective expertise (Wenger, 1999). The ISTE conference is a face-to-face COP, but the Discovery Education Network is a blended COP (Trust & Horrocks, 2019). Outcomes from COP activity are co-created knowledge in which the sum of knowledge has more value than that of the individual components. In networked learning communities, the social element that is crucial to creativity is expanded to include the global society accessed through web-based technologies.

Technological Resources and Strategies for Networked Learning There are ever-expanding web-based technology resources that assist in the networked learning community’s efforts to support professional learning, such as socially connecting and collaborating with other professionals and documenting, archiving, and creating information (Booth, 2012; Trust, 2012). Many of the following web-based technologies can support multiple activities, such as socially connecting people and ­archiving information: • Email • Microblogs, such as Twitter and Instagram • Social networking sites (SNSs), such as Facebook and LinkedIn • Educator-specific networking sites, such as Discovery Learning Network • Video sharing, such as YouTube, TeacherTube, Teaching Channel, and Vimeo • Blogs • Wikis

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration 67

• Podcasts • Videoconferencing, such as Zoom, Google Meet, Microsoft Teams, and Skype • Discussion forums • Google Docs • Curation tools, such as Pinterest. CREATING SOCIAL CONNECTIONS FOR COLLABORATION  Collaboration

involves individuals connecting to construct knowledge together. Personal knowledge building helps individuals contribute new ideas to others. Collaboration involves educators trustfully giving and taking knowledge for various purposes (Whitaker et al., 2015). A prerequisite step of collaborating is connecting with other people (Trust, 2012). Web 2.0 technologies, such as blogs, microblogs, and SNSs, allow users to create an identity and connect with other users by following or adding them to a user’s network. For example, use of Twitter, a microblogging service, is rising among teachers (­Carpenter, 2015; Visser et al., 2014). Preservice teachers who used Twitter indicated that it supported connecting, communicating, and resource sharing with educators (Carpenter, 2015; Trust et al., 2020). Once connected, teachers can collaborate in various ways (Booth, 2012; Krutka, Carpenter, et al., 2017; Rodesiler, 2015; Trust, 2012), including: • Providing support • Receiving feedback and support • Sharing information and resources • Finding resources, ideas • Developing skills and habits of mind and practice. During the coronavirus pandemic, many teachers used two Twitter hashtags, #RemoteTeaching and #RemoteLearning, to create and access a space for practitioners to find support as they transitioned to teach in new, remote ways. Research by Trust and colleagues (2020) discovered that these hashtags created spaces to support teachers’ cognitive, social, and affective needs. Within a 1-month period between March and April 2020, there were more than 36,000 tweets to these new hashtags. Their analysis showed that educators turned to Twitter predominantly to support their cognitive growth in terms of finding resources and approaches to remote pedagogy, but they also used it to serve their affective and social needs, such as voicing encouragement to others, personal accomplishments, or humor. In terms of sentiment, they found less than 5% of tweets to have a negative sentiment. Rodesiler (2015) examined the nature of English teachers’ online professional learning activities and found that the teachers prominently supported and sought support from other teachers. For example, teachers provided classroom-based models, such as tweeting a picture of the teacher’s classroom library and student work samples or posting a YouTube video of a student writing celebration (note that student-related information should be shared only if it is unidentifiable or parent permission has been given). Teachers also asked for support from online colleagues, such as posting a blog seeking book suggestions for specific genres or tweeting a request for music related to the American Dream theme. As reported by Ostashewski and colleagues (2011), teachers joined an online social networking community to learn about teaching robotics in the classroom. The SNS provided teacher flexibility and control, promoted network development, and increased technology experience. To collaborate, teachers used many built-in features in the online social networking community, such as user-created groups and forums, personal and group blogs, calendars, content sharing, and messages. Research indicated that the flexibility for learning was of greatest value along with the content and SNS experience.

Pearson eText Video Example 3.4 In this video, Tara Gander, a technology facilitator, explains how she follows blogs to keep her learning fresh and keep updated on new web-based resources.

68  Chapter 3 Teachers are joining existing networked communities, such as edWeb.net (Trust, 2012) and Discovery Education Network (Trust & Harrocks, 2018). Sustaining knowledge, sharing activities, and trust among educators within online communities were found to be significant challenges. Successful online communities have established (1) clear identity and purpose for the community, (2) multiple learning opportunities that facilitate personalized learning for each teacher, (3) inclusion of a moderator or leaders, (4) guidelines for and modeling of appropriate or expected online behavior, (5) learning rooted in social practice, and some have (6) organizational sponsorship (Booth, 2012; Trust & Horrocks, 2018). Technology Integration Example 3.1 highlights a student teacher who is developing as a networked learner and leader. CREATING, DOCUMENTING, CURATING, AND ARCHIVING INFORMATION 

Connected educators also create new content and curate and archive information (­Nussbaum-Beach & Hall, 2012; Rodesiler, 2015). For example, Cindy, a sixth-grade English teacher, used a blog to co-facilitate collection and redistribution of content written from several educators interested in the topic of reading (Rodesiler, 2015). Teachers used Twitter to redistribute links that connected to articles, websites, blogs, and videos using the hashtag #engchat. Teachers wrote original content, posted it on a professional blog, and then promoted its consumption by others by tweeting links to it. Such shared content often led to uptake, discussion, and problem solving with others. To support early career teachers’ professional learning, Kim and colleagues (2012) described how they used wiki technology to collect and share lesson plans and resources and collaborate on a group project. VoiceThread, a voice annotation tool, similarly allows teachers to collect and share student work samples among teachers and facilitates reflection and analysis within a professional learning community (Bates et al., 2016). For example, an elementary school teacher initially posts a work sample and then voiceannotates the sample to provide context and identify issues for discussion. In return, her colleagues review it and add comments and suggestions or even provide other samples.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 3.1 

TITLE: Virtual Induction CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Mathematics GRADE LEVELS: 9–12 ISTE STANDARDS FOR EDUCATORS: Standard 1—Learner; Standard 4—Collaborator NCTM: The Teaching Principle DESCRIPTION: Alexa, a student teacher, begins to develop a professional online network to support her professional learning as she transitions from student teacher to novice teacher, a time frame referred to as induction. She anticipates that mentors with expertise in mathematics or mathematics education might assist her in becoming a better teacher. In the last semester of Alexa’s preservice preparation when she is student teaching, she begins using Twitter in earnest to make connections with educators, amassing at least 30 math-related connections. She begins connecting and ­collaborating with these online colleagues by requesting information, sharing news and resources, showing appreciation, and responding to those who tweet her. Alexa’s use of Twitter continues after certification, during job hunting for a teaching position, and through her first year of teaching. A subgroup of mentors including three secondary mathematics teachers, a secondary-level science teacher, and a university-based educator engage with her most often. As a novice teacher, Alexa recognizes that the mentors are helpful in different ways. For example, one math teacher provides resources and lessons that help students learn difficult mathematics concepts. Another mentor is the one she goes to for best practices in using educational technologies in the classroom. The science educator reminds Alexa to consider ways she could collaborate with other subject areas. SOURCE: Based on Visser, R. D., Evering, L. C., & Barrett, D. E. (2014). #TwitterforTeachers: The implications of Twitter as a self-directed ­ rofessional development tool for K–12 teachers. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 46(4), 396–413. https://doi.org/10.1080/ p 15391523.2014.925694.

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration 69

STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING AS A CONNECTED EDUCATOR  Several strate-

gies for developing as a connected educator include those from Whitaker et al. (2015): • Invest time in developing your professional network. • Schedule time to network and take time off from networking. • Promote other people. • Respond to connected people in your network. • Assume and offer trust. • Build relationships. • Model connected learning.

Benefits and Challenges of Being Connected Educators According to researchers (e.g., Booth, 2012; Carpenter, 2015; Ertmer et al., 2012; Marin-Diaz, 2014; Sie et al., 2013; Trust & Horrocks, 2016, 2019; Visser et al., 2014), connected educators working within networked professional learning communities have reported overwhelmingly positive benefits, including: • Motivation to learn, engage, and grow in the education profession • Increased innovation with new technologies and digital tools and pedagogy • Connecting to classroom partners for collaborative learning • Access to different perspectives and inspiration • Feedback on ideas • Engagement with intelligent, insightful people • Access to meaningful relationships, knowledge, attitudes, and values • Autonomy and agency (self-direction) for what they want to learn, when they want to learn, and how they want to learn • Individualized, personalized learning • Flexible scheduling of learning activities • Increased status and reputation. Carpenter (2015) and McLean et al. (2014) found that the challenges of being a connected educator focused primarily on reliance on Internet access and the already high workload as a teacher, which leaves little time in the day for more. Krutka et al. (2016) warn that networked learning can sometimes limit one’s perspectives. They encourage educators to consider the degree to which they (1) connect and interact only with educators that are similar to oneself, such as with similar cultures or ideologies, and (2) neglect to critically evaluate the content of materials before adoption or re-sharing.

Building a Professional Online Identity As teachers inevitably do more work online, such as networking through professional learning communities but also interacting with students, parents, and others online, they develop a digital footprint. Teachers must consider how to share information online in a way that reveals their expertise, credentials, and passion in a compelling and consistent way. Research (Kimmons & Veletsianos, 2014) recognized that teachers’ SNS activities are held to higher standards than those of other professionals, so teachers must be strategic in how they share different fragments of their identity, such as information for teaching contexts versus a family context. This section presents information to help teachers develop, manage, and maintain a positive professional online

Pearson eText Video Example 3.5 In this video, Chris Gammon, a seventh-grade social studies teacher, describes how he and his colleagues benefit from accessing online learning communities as one part of many approaches to professional learning.

70  Chapter 3 reputation, which leads to relationship building and meaningful collaborations with colleagues with similar interests. Chapter 4 describes digital citizenship concerns for students. SCHOOL POLICIES FOR ONLINE ACTIVITY  All teachers in every school must exam-

ine the existing school or district policies that will govern all online activity. The schools or districts are likely to have an AUP, website and intranet policy, and possibly a social media policy. You must read and consider all of these carefully as you engage in networked activities. In these policies, you should find important guidelines governing the following topics that likely will intersect with your online activity: • Data privacy (concerning confidential personal information, such as names, pictures, and work of students and teachers) • Copyright of information (regarding content that you create, use, post, or share) • Information security (pertaining to spam and malware, for example) • Netiquette (relating to online behaviors) • Employee–student relationships (concerning connections with students on social media). The following sections highlight important guidelines for teachers’ online activity. An overarching guideline for all teachers is consider that everything you post in online spaces (even if it is marked or set as private) is publicly available information. DATA PRIVACY  Data privacy is of great concern to children, parents, teachers, schools, and districts to ensure a safe educational environment. Personally identifiable information, such as names, birthdays, and addresses, are confidential, and sharing them in any public communication is never permissible. In some cases, parents or guardians might provide consent for pictures or other materials to be shared; however, without consent from them and the school’s administration, teachers should never post any studentidentifiable work or information online. DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP  Prominent people in society demonstrate negative models

of online communication to children every day, so teachers must model good digital citizenship for students (Sackstein, 2017). Sackstein (2017) suggests the following strategies for teachers: • Communicate online in the same ways you would in person. • Use positivity in communication. • Always post respectful comments. • Never post online when you are angry. ONLINE TEACHER–STUDENT CONNECTIONS  Schools are moving toward pro-

viding learning experiences via a range of networked environments, such as Google ­Classroom, that are private within the school’s network. However, some teachers introduce lessons in which students use publicly available social media such as Twitter (Schulten, 2013). Thus, students are becoming social media users themselves and may seek online connections with their teachers in public social media sites. Before connecting, teachers should first consult school policies that might apply to student–teacher online connections. In absence of such policies, researchers provide some strategies for teachers when making decisions related to connecting with students in online environments: • Connect with either all or no students known to you, which avoids the appearance of favoritism (Gribble, n.d.). • Connect only with students who have an educational purpose for connecting, such as a group that will be supplementing classroom learning with social media activity (Kuo et al., 2017).

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration 71

• Do not connect with students unknown to you (Gribble, n.d.; Kuo et al., 2017). • If privacy settings allow, put all students into a separate group, which facilitates posting to them as a group and prevents them from receiving other communications. • If privacy settings allow, remove the ability for students to send direct messages, which are private, to you in online platforms. This channels all communication on the public side. For example, if a teacher blocks a student from sending direct private messages in Twitter, the student would need to communicate on the public Twitter using a callout to the teacher’s handle, such as @techedges. PROFESSIONAL ONLINE TEACHER IDENTITY  As you develop as a connected edu-

cator, you can be proactive in managing and shaping (or reshaping if needed) your online activities to build a positive online reputation and professional online identity that represents you in the way you desire. Doing so will benefit you in multiple ways (Gallagher, 2015; Kilbane & Milman, 2016; Luehmann & Tinelli, 2008; Nussbaum-Beach & Hall, 2012). Kilbane and Milman (2016) and Gallagher (2015) describe building your online identity as building your teacher brand; the branding concept is meant to encourage focus and identity, not self-promotion. Kinser (2013) reiterates that branding is meant to publicize the good work that teachers and their students do and contributes to a larger collaborative conversation. Creating a professional online teacher identity assists teachers in becoming self-aware, reflective, confident, and knowledgeable about their strengths and facilitates sharing such strengths with others. A teacher identity helps distinguish one teacher from another. Kilbane and Milman (2016) describe the overall steps to building a teacher identity as the following: 1. Determine your strengths. Although your identity is generated through your online activities, considering your strengths and the nature of your interests in advance could lead you to ideas or themes of focus for your online professional activity. 2. Choose a focal digital platform. Monitor the digital landscape and choose the digital platform(s) where you would like to share content. For example, teachers use blogs, Twitter, Pinterest, websites, wikis, and more to generate and share content. Initially, choose to share your expertise on one digital platform, such as a web page or blog, both of which allow users to add lengthy content contributions. Many SNS sites like Twitter allow only a few words. However, the choice is yours. Post on topics about which you are knowledgeable. 3. Build a consistent and professional digital presence. Consistent, frequent activity is important for building followers and an online presence. Professionalism is required; do not mix personal posts on your professional platforms or you will undermine your identity (Kilbane & Milman, 2016). For example, don’t tweet dog and cat photos on your Twitter account if it is focused on English language arts. If you use multiple digital platforms to build your identity, ensure that there is coordination in the identity of each, such as using the same name for all accounts. You may use your own name or the theme or focus that you identified in Step 1 to help identify and represent yourself. 4. Expand your presence using social networking. Begin using other SNSs, such as Twitter, Pinterest, and LinkedIn, to share or cross-post your content to relevant audiences. 5. Publicize expertise. Use of SNSs will disseminate your content to multiple viewers. As you build presence, you may offer to write guest posts for other blog sites or practitioner magazines. Gallagher (2015) encourages teachers with a digital identity to make presentations at educational conferences so they can meet followers in person and make new connections. Teachers can also track themselves or monitor ideas of interest using Google Alerts. This requires only adding their name or the

72  Chapter 3

Table 3.3  Professional Learning Network Enrichment Framework Questions for Reflection and Setting Intentions People (e.g., educators, authors, scholars, organizations, others)

Who are the people in my PLN? Which people or perspectives most contribute to or are missing from my PLN? How often and in what ways do I interact with people in my PLN? With which people should I deepen or decrease my interactions?

Spaces (e.g., face-to-face, online, blended, formal, informal)

In what spaces do I engage in PLN activities? Which spaces best contribute to meaningful engagements, relationships, and community? Which spaces are missing that might enrich my learning? How do the affordances and design of the spaces hinder or support my learning? How should I change my investment of time within these spaces?

Resources (e.g., materials, skills, ideas, ­teaching strategies, ­curriculum materials, websites, philosophies, habits)

What resources do I acquire by engaging in PLN activities? How do I evaluate and organize the resources I learn about? How do these resources have an impact on my students’ learning? What resources should I target to learn about or from that will best meet my learning goals and advance my students’ learning in the classroom?

SOURCE: Krutka et al. (2017), p. 249.

ideas, and Google Alerts will email them when new content that matches their criteria is added to the web. 6. Engage with others.—Whitaker et al. (2015) note the importance of connected educators being responsive online. Gallagher (2015) indicates that more interaction increases the potential for learning. Teachers tend to begin engaging in networked professional learning activities prior to considering their digital identity. Gallagher (2015) described how her focus shifted over time as she assumed new educational positions. Thus, it is natural for your identity to evolve during your career. MONITORING THE VALUE OF PROFESSIONAL NETWORKED LEARNING  Krutka

and colleagues (2017) offer a useful set of questions from which educators can continually monitor how the people, spaces, and resources within one’s professional learning communities contribute to professional growth and goal attainment (see Table 3.3), especially as they grow within their profession. They suggest these questions be used flexibly and recursively so teachers might engage in continuous monitoring of the value of their networking efforts and identify action steps for refinement and enrichment.

A Professional Rationale for Educational Technology As a teacher engages in the practices of integrating educational technology, the teacher should begin to develop and continually refine a professional rationale for educational technology. This rationale reflects what teachers believe about educational ­technology, which will influence the specific technologies they explore as possibilities to solve educational challenges for the classroom. Ultimately, cogent rationales help convince ­others—whether their own students or other teachers, parents, students, superintendents, taxpayers, government agencies, or private foundations—to support technology-based instruction or learning innovations. A professional rationale for educational technology supports the teacher in: • Investigating technological possibilities for educational problems of practice by using the TIP model • Establishing oneself as a connected educator • Working as a leader on projects that involve educational technology.

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As a teacher and teacher leader, what you believe in and what you are working toward achieving in education is your vision for transformative change (Blair, 2016). A sound rationale can be built by considering the influences on educational technology ­integration in the classroom such as the following: • History of educational technology • Recent trends in emerging technologies • Learning theories of directed and social constructivist pedagogy • Educational standards for digital literacy and subject areas • Contextual conditions influencing integration • Current research findings related to educational technology. Thus, rationales acknowledge what the field has learned in the past to situate a research-based, theory-supported explanation of how teaching or learning in a particular school context will (or will not) benefit from educational technology. R ­ ationales also maintain focus on pedagogy and learning as the ultimate focal areas for any technology integration efforts (Kimmons et al., 2020). A sound rationale helps answer the question, Why should the teacher or students use technology? Fishman and Dede (2016) emphasize that technological infrastructure, pedagogy, and context are strong factors determining how technology can be used. Teachers’ rationales directly influence their instructional choices regarding the integration of technology. Rationales for educational technology can be refined as teachers experience and learn new ideas during their careers.

A Technology-Use Rationale Based on Transformation Research-based perspectives on educational technology inform the development of rationales for its use. Fishman and Dede (2016) argue that the field should move beyond considering how technology can support industrial-era education and instead consider how technologies play a role in transforming the way that education occurs in the participatory, knowledge-based, global 21st century. This necessitates a shift from the questions Does technology help learning? and Does technology improve educational outcomes over an alternative approach? to How does technology help learning? and Under what conditions can technology be used to meet important educational challenges? The case for using technology in teaching is one that must be made not just by isolating variables that make a difference (Clark, 1983, 1985, 1991, 1994) but also by combining them. Educators and researchers have established a number of ways that integrating technology into teaching can support learning. When these contributions are combined to tackle learning needs and interests for individual students and to create more equitable and just technology-supported learning opportunities, technology seems to make the greatest difference. HOW DOES TECHNOLOGY MOTIVATE AND ENGAGE STUDENTS?  Technology in and of itself does not create motivation, but the interaction between technological media’s unique attributes, such as symbol systems or processing capabilities, and the learning situations do (Fishman & Dede, 2016; Kozma, 1991, 1994). Educational technologies have been observed to motivate and engage students by:

• Gaining their attention. Teachers say that technology’s visual and interactive qualities can direct students’ attention toward learning tasks. • Supporting manual operations during high-level learning. Students are more motivated to learn complex skills (e.g., writing compositions and solving algebraic equations) when technology tools help them do the low-level skills involved (e.g., making corrections to written drafts or doing arithmetic).

74  Chapter 3 • Illustrating and situating real-world relevance. When students can see video and online examples of high-level math and science skills being used in real life or when assignments are situated in students’ real-world communities, they no longer consider the skills as being just for “schoolwork” but are more willing to learn them because of the clear value to their future life and work. • Engaging students through production work. Students who learn by creating their own products with technologies such as word processing and multimedia report higher engagement in learning and a greater sense of pride in their achievements. • Connecting students with audiences for their writing. Educators say that students are much more motivated to write and do their best writing when they publish it online because others outside the classroom will see it. • Providing support for collaborative learning. Although students can do smallgroup work without technology, teachers report that students are often more motivated to work collaboratively on creation projects. HOW DOES TECHNOLOGY SUPPORT STUDENTS’ LEARNING NEEDS?  The fol-

lowing are ways that technologies can support students’ learning by providing access to sources and ways of learning that they would not otherwise have: • Visualizing underlying concepts in unfamiliar or abstract topics. Simulations and other interactive software tools have unique abilities to illustrate science, engineering, and mathematics concepts. Many highly abstract principles become clearer and easier to understand through visual representations. • Studying systems in unique ways. Students use tools such as spreadsheets and simulations to answer “what if” questions that they would not be able to do easily or would not be feasible at all without the benefits of technology. • Giving access to unique information sources and populations. The web connects students with ever-expanding global information, research, data, and expertise. • Supplying self-paced, personalized learning for students. Students can learn on their own with software tutorials and/or virtual learning materials. They can surge ahead of the class, learn about topics that the school does not offer, or spend more time on topics that have proven more difficult. • Turning disabilities into capabilities. Students with disabilities related to vision, hearing, cognition, and/or manual dexterity depend on technological assistance to read, to interact in class, and to do projects to show what they have learned. Many of these technological tools serve nondisabled students as well. • Saving time on production tasks. Software tools such as word processing, ­desktop publishing, and spreadsheets allow quick and easy corrections to reports, ­presentations, budgets, and publications. • Assessing and individualizing student learning. Personalized learning systems and mobile, handheld technologies help teachers quickly assess and track student progress, giving teachers and students the rapid feedback they need to make adjustments to students’ learning paths. • Supporting effective skill practice. When students need focused practice in order to comprehend and retain the skills they learn, drill-and-practice software offers the privacy, self-pacing, and immediate feedback that make practice most effective. • Providing faster access to information sources. Students use the web and email to do research and collect data that would take much longer to gather by other methods.

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HOW DOES TECHNOLOGY PREPARE STUDENTS FOR THE FUTURE?  The 2016

ISTE Standards for Students, the Common Core State Standards (CCSS), and other subject-specific national standards identify skills that students will need in the future, such as creative thinking, multimodal communication, research skills, problem solving, and effective reasoning. To learn these skills, students will need the following: • Digital literacy. As technologies are increasingly used to store and convey information, digital literacy, or skills in using both technologies and the information they carry, is essential. For many library/media experts, digital literacy is becoming an umbrella term that encompasses information literacy. Also, images and video are increasingly replacing text as communication media, requiring students to learn visual literacy. Because images are usually carried digitally, visual literacy can be considered a subset of digital literacy. • Digital citizenship. Schools are tasked with teaching students how to use technology resources in safe, responsible, and legal ways. • New literacies. New literate practices shift from consumption of text-based media to engagement with and creation of multimodal media. Based on Fishman and Dede’s (2016) research, five general digital technologies are particularly apt to transform teaching and learning environments assuming that a teacher’s technological infrastructure, pedagogy, and classroom context are sufficient and complementary. In these innovations, all of which are described more fully later in this text, consider the earlier answer to the question, How does technology help learning?: 1. Collaboration tools. These include a spectrum of tools, such as wikis, blogs, and social media, that leverage social constructivist learning to support problem-based learning, knowledge building, distributed knowledge networks, communities of practice, and authentic assessment. 2. Online and blended learning. Courses that include online learning and blended learning reduce reliance on place-based and time-based learning, and their inclusion is growing rapidly within K–12 education. These approaches to learning can vary from directed to social constructivist, but courses in which a teacher interacts prominently with students and that involve teacher and social presence contribute to increased meaningful practice. 3. Making and creating. Making and creating activities draw learners to engage in computer programming, which develops computational thinking skills. Often learners engage in self-directed learning, employing their own creativity to make shareable artifacts. 4. Immersive environments. These environments, such as multiuser-virtual environments (MUVEs), augmented reality, and virtual reality, engage users in the sense of “being there,” drawing them into the virtual realism being depicted. In these environments, users face ill-structured challenges that can be solved by learning, applying knowledge, and problem solving. 5. Games and simulations. Nonimmersive serious games and simulations approximate real phenomena and allow users some level of control and interaction with the phenomena, including its representations and processes, that might not be observable in real life. Consider these research perspectives on using technology in teaching in addition to the research you read about in this text to help you form a cogent, powerful rationale for why technology must become as commonplace in education as it is in other areas of society.

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Planning for Educational Technology Integration in Context Learning Outcome 3.3  Employ the steps in the Technology Integration Planning model to design technology-supported classroom lessons. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst) In Chapter 1, we referred to educational technology as the ethical and just practice of leveraging technology resources to support the educational processes involved in teaching and learning. In Chapter 2, we described these educational processes, and in this chapter we have explained the technological resources to consider. Ultimately, educational technology is an active, engaged practice during which teachers consider all these processes and resources (see Figure 3.4) in context to make decisions for its use for teaching and learning. The next section of this chapter introduces the Technology Integration Planning model, which is a process for lesson planning that leads teachers through a series of steps that involve all components of educational technology described in Figure 3.4. This planning process is grounded in the individual context in which teachers work so your lesson planning becomes personalized to the conditions within yourself, your classrooms, communities, cultures, district, state, and the nation that influence educational technology integration. Cuban (2013) acknowledges no less than 13 political, governmental, business, and educational external influences on the classroom, such as federal and state governments, the economy, business leaders, the news media, and reform organizations. These external influences connect with the internal social system in schools that involve (1) students and teachers, (2) parents and community adults, and (3) school- and district-level decision makers. All of these intertwined contextual influences may intersect with educational technology. Research has shown a variety of conditions that are supportive of or create barriers for technology integration. For example, teachers’ philosophies of education, beliefs and knowledge about technology, pedagogical approaches, and time availability for

Figure 3.4  Educational Technology’s Component Considerations

Learning Theory Technology Expertise

Technology Support Educational Technology Curriculum/ Content

Pedagogy

Technology Tools

C o n t ex t s

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TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 3.2 

TITLE: Video-Based Lesson Study CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: English language arts GRADE LEVELS: K–2 ISTE STANDARDS FOR EDUCATORS: Standard 1—Learner; Standard 4—Collaborator IRA/NCTE: Standard 4 DESCRIPTION: A group of K–2 teachers needed to learn more about using guided reading practices with their students to develop early literacy. The group thought that guided reading could help provide differentiated support for meeting the needs of all of the students, who had a range of reading abilities. The second-grade teacher, Lorena, was more familiar with guided reading practice and suggested that the group start a video-based lesson study group. In lesson study, the teachers conduct cycles of identifying learning challenges, planning lessons to tackle them, observing and discussing the lesson and analyzing students’ work on it, revising the lesson, and reteaching it. Lorena adapted the lesson study process to use video-based observations, which allowed all the teachers to virtually observe, analyze, and provide feedback about the lessons. The school had an account with FlipGrid, and the teachers decided to use it to support their video-based lesson study. After working for a year to hone their guided reading practices, Lorena and the other teachers began a second phase in which they started to examine how educational technologies might extend their work with guided reading. Sam, the first-grade teacher, wanted to examine how the use of video self-monitoring techniques—by which students would film themselves reading a page of text with fluency—might support their development. The video would also be added to each student’s SeeSaw portfolio that is accessible by the student, parents or guardians, and even next year’s teacher. SOURCE: Based on Bates, C. C., Huber, R., & McClure, E. (2016). Stay connected: Using technology to enhance professional learning communities. The Reading Teacher, 70(1), 99–102. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1469

learning and planning influence technology integration (Ertmer et al., 2012). In the classroom, technology integration is influenced by the class size; the students’ demographics, interests, and needs (Kelly, 2008; Watkins, 2018); the grade level and subject matter being taught; and the materials and resources available (An & Reigeluth, 2011; Hew & Brush, 2007; Zhao & Frank, 2003). In the school building and district, technology integration is influenced by administrator/leader support, technology support, professional learning opportunities, collegiality among staff, teacher scheduling, school budgets, school philosophies, high-stakes assessment pressures, schoolwide learning cultures, parent involvement, and community needs and involvement (Avci et al., 2020). State and federal agencies select curriculum and content standards, set funding priorities, and determine annual student assessment and teacher evaluation. Due to these complex, multilayered, and changing historical, political, economic, societal, and community conditions, no two teachers will experience the exact same educational technology opportunities and practices. It also means that teachers should pay attention to and influence their context to be more attenable toward technology integration efforts. Taking actions to influence the school context positions teachers as leaders (Wenner & Campbell, 2017). Technology Integration Example 3.2 illustrates how a teacher leader supported colleagues in using a video-based lesson study to examine guided reading practices.

A Technology Integration Planning Model The answer to the question of which kind of technology integration strategy works best is “it depends on the context.” Ethical and just technology integration practices call for a well-planned match of instruction and learning needs with technology resources with consideration to unique contexts. This section introduces a model to help teachers plan their technology integration efforts. Any well-designed lesson takes planning. The Technology Integration Planning (TIP) model in Figure 3.5 is a guiding process that is useful when teachers decide that they would like to try to use digital technologies for teaching or if they face requirements to use technology. TIP is a systematic and recursive

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Figure 3.5  The Technology Integration Planning Model Phase 1: Lead from Enduring Problems of Practice Step 1: Identify problems of practice (POPs). Step 2: Assess technological resources of students, families, teachers, the school, and the community. Step 3: Identify technological possibilities and select an integration strategy. Phase 2: Design and Teach the Technology Integration Lesson Step 4: Decide on learning objectives and assessments. Step 5: Assess the relative advantage: RATify the planned lesson. Step 6: Prepare the learning environment and teach the lesson. Phase 3: Evaluate, Revise, and Share Step 7: Evaluate lesson results and impact. Step 8: Make revisions based on results. Step 9: Share lessons, revisions, and outcomes with other peer teachers.

form of teacher inquiry and practice that supports selecting the optimal pedagogical strategies and technological resources to solve instructional challenges. Each step in the model’s three phases helps ensure that technology use will be meaningful and successful in meeting learning needs through the process of building a lesson that engages all students deeply and equitably. Teachers who innovate to engage learners and their parents characterize highly effective schools (Fullan, 2016; James et al., 2006; McLaughlin & Talbert, 2001). We encourage the TIP model to be used collaboratively with colleagues, such as in teacher research networks or teacher inquiry groups (Hughes & Ooms, 2004; Kamler & Comber, 2005), because when more school or district stakeholders are involved in innovation and change, there is more likelihood for sustaining transformations (Penuel et al., 2011). However, teachers can also use the TIP model individually to plan technologysupported lessons. For new teachers or those just beginning to integrate technology, the TIP model provides a helpful guide on procedures and issues to address. As teachers become more experienced in using technology, they often think through these TIP steps intuitively. The following sections discuss each of its component steps and give examples of tasks and products involved in each step. As you read about the TIP model, we illustrate the phases through a classroom example of a teacher, Ms. Mian, building an online multicultural project. PHASE 1: LEAD FROM ENDURING PROBLEMS OF PRACTICE  In this phase of

technology integration, teachers analyze teaching and learning problems, identify current technological assets, and determine the possible technologies that might address the problems. This section describes Phase 1 analysis steps and explains why each is necessary. Step 1: Identify Problems of Practice (POPs).  Every teacher has topics—and sometimes whole subject areas—that have proven challenging to teach. Some concepts are so abstract or foreign to students that they struggle to understand them; some students find some topics so boring, tedious, or irrelevant that they have trouble attending to them. Some learning requires time-consuming tasks that students resist doing. Some instruction involves students passively, and teachers may want to center students as

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration 79

agentic learners. Good teachers try to meet these challenges by making concepts more engaging or easier to grasp, making tasks more efficient to accomplish, or completely rethinking curriculum goals. The first step in planning for technology integration is to identify problems in your practice that need changing. • What is a meaningful problem of practice? To make sure a technology application is a good solution, begin with a clear statement of the teaching and learning problem. This is sometimes difficult to do but is essential to ensure that technology adoptions solve problems. Use the following guidelines when answering the question, What is a meaningful problem of practice? • Focus on discipline-specific knowledge, skills, or dispositions that reveal difficulty in students’ learning or the teacher’s instruction of important disciplinary concepts. These problems would significantly impair students from successful progression in the discipline. • Assess the nature and frequency of the disciplinary learning activities for real-world relevancy and deep learning, often achieved through inquiry, critical thinking, complex problems, collaboration, and creative solutions. • Examine the students’ roles in learning, determining whether students have some level of agency, autonomy, and engagement in learning activities. • Determine the local authenticity of content and learning activities to explore if more community connections may bring relevancy and context to children’s everyday learning tasks. • Look for observable inequities in the classroom or school that reveal systemic injustices that should be resolved. Step 2: Assess Technological Resources of Students, Families, Teachers, the School, and the Community.  A successful technology-enhanced lesson requires leveraging students’ technological strengths, the teacher’s technology knowledge and skills, and school- and community-based technological resources (i.e., hardware, software, other media, and support) to tackle a meaningful problem or practice identified in Step 1. First, teachers must understand the technological experiences of their students, their families, and the communities in which the school is located. Second, teachers need to take stock in their own technological expertise, such as considering their depth of knowledge of TPCK (review Figure 3.2). Third, teachers must assess the technological support and tools available in their school and classroom. You will garner more success if you plan technology integration with supporting conditions in mind. That means asking the following questions: • Question 1: Who are my students as digital technology users and what are they capable of doing with technology? To help you design technology-supported lessons, knowing the nature of digital practices that your students engage in is worthwhile. You can come to understand their digital capabilities and access to technology equipment, software, and the Internet in and out of school. Your students could have a range of technological activity sites, including their homes, their parent’s workplaces, community libraries or centers, and homes of other family members or friends in addition to what occurs in school. The digital knowledge they possess are assets that you can capitalize on in lesson planning, and the digital knowledge they lack can also inform you about digital literacy practices that will need to be taught in advance of or during a lesson. We suggest the following sources for assessing this information: • Surveys or questionnaires. Check with your school to determine whether it collects any information on digital practices of students or parents through surveys or questionnaires, such as participation in ED School Climate Surveys (EDSCLS), Project Tomorrow’s annual Speak Up survey, nonprofit YouthTruth’s STEM

Pearson eText Video Example 3.6 Notice how the teacher is committed to using technology when it has an explicit purpose within the lesson. This purpose is linked to a problem of practice.

80  Chapter 3 survey, or other state or local surveys. As a teacher, you could create a questionnaire specific to your interests using free survey software and access to a range of survey questions, such as those in Speak Up or the Pew Research Center’s Internet and Tech surveys. • Home/community visits. If time was available, teachers have found home visits or community walks to be immensely valuable in understanding more about the students they teach. Cremin and colleagues (2012) called these “learner visits” (p. 104) and found that they challenged teachers’ preconceived perceptions of the students and their families. Likewise, the students in your classroom could hail from a range of communities, so taking walks and observing life in these areas proves informative. Be sure to visit the libraries and ­community centers. • Student Share. Teachers can also invite students to select digital artifacts they have created outside of school and teach the class about its creation. ­Alternatively, teachers could set up a collaborative online sharing space, such as a cloud-based storage area or folder in a learning management software to which students could upload and annotate their digital artifacts. • Question 2: What are my technical knowledge, skills, and attitudes? ­Teachers must self-assess their own technological knowledge, skills, and attitudes in order to identify strengths and weaknesses as they begin to plan for technology integration. Your identified strengths are a source for technological ideas for lessons. In  the case of identified weaknesses, the assessment can lead to areas for further professional learning or opportunities for collaboration with other teachers, librarians, and media specialists who might have more expertise. As an example, Shelby-Caffey and colleagues (2014) highlight the process that a teacher, ­Bethany, undertook to turn around her technophobic beliefs and practices and embrace digital storytelling as a way to transform her teaching and the students’ learning. As part of a grant that provided classroom technologies, she received training and ongoing support that pushed her out of her technophobic comfort zone. • Question 3: What technology resources exist in my school? Remember that this text defines technology resources as technology tools (e.g., media, software, and hardware) and technology support and expertise. As you join a school, assess the resources available. You can obtain this information from school leaders, librarians, media specialists, and your peer teachers. Consider the following: • Computers and Internet. Are there enough computers available to support individual computing, pairs, small groups, or whole class? Is there a computer laboratory? Are there mobile carts of computers or tablets? What is the availability of access to these computing resources, and how can you reserve them? How robust is the Internet in your classroom? • Software and media. What software, media packages, or apps are available? Remember to check with your IT staff if you want to use a new app or software to ensure it protects students’ privacy. • Peripherals. What is the access to printers, paper, and other special peripherals such as scanners, digital cameras, video cameras, and headphones? • Technology support. Who do you ask for help when you have technical difficulties, such as crashing computers, printer errors, or projector malfunctions? How is best to contact these individuals—through the phone, email, or a help center? • Technology integration expertise. Who has expertise with technology integration that might be available for idea brainstorming, lesson plan development, or co-teaching? What is the availability of these experts and how can you schedule time with them?

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Step 3: Identify Technological Possibilities and Select an Integration Strategy.  In Step 3, you need to identify technological possibilities for solving the problem of practice. Technology-based strategies offer many benefits to teachers as they look for instructional solutions to this problem. Being able to recognize specific instances of these problems in a classroom context and knowing how to match them with an appropriate technology solution require knowledge of classroom problems, practice in addressing them, and an in-depth knowledge of the characteristics of each technology. With the problem of practice that you have identified in your own classroom, use your knowledge of learning theories, technology resources at your school from Step 2, and integration strategies described in Tables 2.3–2.5 in Chapter 2 to identify possible technology solutions to your problem of practice. When considering the possibilities, you will determine whether your new methods should be primarily directed or social constructivist: • Use directed strategies when students need an efficient way to learn specific skills that must be assessed with traditional tests. • Use social constructivist strategies when students need to develop deeper skills and insights over time (e.g., cooperative group skills, approaches to solving novel problems, mental models of highly complex topics) and when learning may be assessed with alternative measures, such as portfolios or group products. We recommend judicious use of directed strategies, especially if they tend to focus mainly on accumulating knowledge or skills, as learners may have difficulty in transferring and applying such knowledge to novel tasks and more complicated problems (National Academies of Sciences, 2018). We encourage adopting social constructivist strategies as much as possible, as these strategies align with how people learn best (National Academies of Sciences, 2018), which acknowledges the important role of learners’ and teachers’ cultural contexts as they engage in learning activities across home, school, and community. Consider each of the following implementation decisions to narrow down your integration strategy: • Question 1: What kind of content approach do I need to use? Should the approach be a single subject or interdisciplinary? Sometimes school or district requirements dictate this decision, and sometimes teachers combine subjects into a single unit of instruction as a way to cover concepts and topics they may not otherwise have time to teach. Most often, however, interdisciplinary approaches are used to model how real-life activities require the use of a combination of skills from several c­ ontent areas. • Question 2: What grouping approach should I use? Should the students work as individuals, in pairs, in small groups, as a whole class, or a combination of these? This decision is made in light of how many computers are available, the instructional problem you are tackling, and the following common purposes for grouping types: • Whole class—For demonstrations or to guide whole-class discussion prior to student work. • Individual—When students have to demonstrate individual mastery of skills at the end of the lesson or project. • Pairs—For peer tutoring when higher-ability students work with those of lower ability or for collaboration in dyads. • Small group—To model real-world work skills by giving students experience in cooperative group work. At the end of Phase 1, you will have identified the problem of practice you seek to solve, the educational technology to use, and a rough idea of the integration strategy. Read how Ms. Mian, the teacher, moves through the steps in Phase 1 of TIP in Technology Integration Example 3.3.

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TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 3.3 

TIP Phase 1  Lead from Enduring Problems of Practice Ms. Mian wanted to include more meaningful multicultural activities in the social studies curriculum because she and the other social studies teachers in her school focused primarily on studying various holidays and foods from other cultures. The teachers sponsored an annual international foods smorgasbord that was very popular with the students, but she doubted that it taught them much about the richness of other cultures or why they should respect and appreciate cultures different from their own. Ms. Mian sometimes overheard her students making disparaging comments about people in other ethnic or racial groups and felt a better approach to multicultural education might help. Ms. Mian remembered a workshop she had attended the previous summer in which teachers in another school district described an online project with partner schools in countries around the world. One teacher told about her partners in Israel, Spain, Mexico, and Kenya and said that students exchanged information with designated partners and answered assigned questions to research each other’s backgrounds and locales. Then the students worked in groups to make travel brochures or booklets to email to each other. They even took digital photos and videos of themselves to send. It sounded like a deeper way for children to learn about other cultures in a meaningful way in the context of geography and civics. Ms. Mian knew her school had robust Internet and tablet access with a range of media software. Most of her students had used email and multimedia software outside of school. Even though she had not seen the lesson modeled, she felt she could structure a good curriculum around these activities in which students worked primarily in pairs and small groups. Next, Ms. Mian designed the integration strategies. She knew that her students would not achieve the insights and changed attitudes she had in mind using the strategy of telling them information and testing them on it. They would need to draw their own conclusions by working and communicating with people from other cultures.

Phase 1  Analysis Questions 1. What is the problem of practice Ms. Mian wants to address? 2. What evidence does she have that there is a problem? 3. What technological assets do students possess that could be used in a lesson? 4. What technology resources exist at the school that might support technological solutions to the problem? 5. What technological possibility does Ms. Mian identify to solve this problem of practice? 6. What special skills or resources does Ms. Mian need to implement such a project? 7. Is Ms. Mian’s lesson strategy primarily directed or social constructivist?

PHASE 2: DESIGN AND TEACH THE TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION LESSON  This

phase requires teachers to make decisions about the learning objectives and how they will be assessed, how the technology lesson provides a relative advantage over past approaches, and how to teach the lesson in the classroom. Step 4: Decide on Learning Objectives and Assessments.  Writing learning objectives is a good way to set clear expectations for what technology-based methods will accomplish (i.e., outcomes) and to allow later measurement of how much these expectations have been met (i.e., assessment). For example, teachers may expect that a new method will improve student behaviors, which will result in better achievement, more on-task behavior, or improved attitudes. Sometimes changes in teacher behaviors are important—for example, saving time on a task or helping to re-engineer curriculum. In either case, objectives should focus on outcomes that are observable (e.g., demonstrating, writing, completing, re-engineering) rather than on internal results that cannot be seen or measured (e.g., being aware, knowing, understanding, or appreciating). After stating learning objectives, teachers create ways to assess how well outcomes have been accomplished. Sometimes, they can use existing assessment instruments. In other cases, they have to create instruments or methods to measure the behaviors. Here

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are a few example outcomes, objectives (which are used to state outcomes in a measurable form), and assessment methods matched to the outcomes: • Higher achievement outcome. Overall average performance on an end-of-chapter test will improve by 20%. (Assess achievement with a test.) • Cooperative work outcome. All students will score at least 15 of 20 on the cooperative group skill rubric. (Use an existing rubric to assess skills.) • Attitude outcome. Students will indicate satisfaction with the simulation lesson by an overall average score of 20 of 25 points. (Create an attitude survey to assess satisfaction.) • Improved motivation. Teachers will observe better on-task behavior in at least 75% of the students. (Create and use an observation sheet.) Table 3.4 offers a range of technology resource suggestions for conducting assessment activities. This step in Phase 2 requires answering two questions about outcomes and assessment strategies: • Question 1: What outcomes do I expect from using the new methods? Think about problems you are trying to solve and what would be acceptable indications that the technology solution has contributed to resolving them. Use the following guidelines: • Focus on results, not processes. Think about the end results you want to achieve rather than the processes to help you get there. Avoid statements that focus on a process that students use to achieve an outcome, such as “Students will learn cooperative group skills.” Instead, state what you want students to be able to do as a result of having participated in the multimedia project—for example, “90% of students will score 4 of 5 on a cooperative group skills rubric.” • Make statements observable and measurable. Avoid vague statements that cannot be measured, for example, “Students will understand how to work cooperatively.” It is also appropriate to expect mastery among your students. In such cases, your goal is for 100% of students to master the focal outcome. • Question 2: What are the best ways to assess these outcomes? The choice of assessment method depends on the nature of the outcome. Note the following guidelines: • Use tests to assess skill achievement outcomes. Cognitive tests (e.g., short answer, multiple choice, true/false, matching) and essay exams remain the most common classroom assessment strategy for many formal knowledge skills. • Use evaluation criteria checklists to assess complex tasks or products. When students must create complex products, such as multimedia presentations, reports, or web pages, teachers can give students a multimedia checklist like the one shown in Pearson eText Artifact 3.2, which is a set of criteria that specify the requirements

Table 3.4  Assessment Resources for Teachers Assessment Activity

Resources

Online surveys (most have a free, limited-feature option as well as a fee-based option)

• Qualtrics • Google Forms • SurveyMonkey • Kahoot!

Rubric makers and free prepared rubrics

• Kathy Schrock’s Guide to Everything • Most LMS, such as Canvas and Google Classroom • iRubric app

Test and quiz makers

• Most LMS, such as Canvas and Google Classroom • Engageform

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Pearson eText Artifact 3.2: Rubric Example

Pearson eText Artifact 3.3: Likert Scale Assessment Example

Pearson eText Artifact 3.4: Semantic Differential Assessment Example

Pearson eText Artifact 3.5: Observation Instrument Example

each product must meet, to guide their project. The teacher uses the criteria to award points for meeting each criterion. • Use rubrics to assess complex tasks or products. Rubrics like the one shown in ­Pearson eText Artifact 3.2 fulfill the same role as evaluation criteria checklists and are sometimes used in addition to them. A rubric is an instrument consisting of a set of elements that define important aspects of a given performance or product and provide ratings that describe levels of quality for each element. Rubrics’ added value is giving students descriptions of various levels of quality. Teachers usually associate a score with each level of quality. • Use Likert scale–type surveys or semantic differentials to assess attitude outcomes— When the desired outcome is to improve attitudes, teachers design a survey in Likert scale format or with a semantic differential. A Likert scale as shown in Pearson eText Artifact 3.3 is a series of statements that students use to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement. A semantic differential as shown in Pearson eText Artifact 3.4 requires students to respond to a question by checking a line between each of several sets of bipolar adjectives to indicate their level of feeling about the topic of the question. The teacher sums the item scores on these surveys or semantic differentials to obtain a measure of student perceptions. • Use observation instruments to measure frequency of behaviors, such as the one shown in Pearson eText Artifact 3.5. For example, if teachers wanted to see an increase in students’ use of scientific language, they could create a chart to keep track of this use on a daily basis so they could track baseline performance and improvement over time. Some technologies, such as drill-and-practice software or adaptive learning software, have built-in formative and summative assessments of students’ knowledge. Step 5: Assess the Relative Advantage: RATify the Planned Lesson.  Once you have identified the integration strategy and learning objectives for your lesson, you are ready to consider the benefits of new technology methods compared to past instruction and decide whether there will be improved pedagogy or learning. Everett ­Rogers (2003), an expert on why and how people adopt innovations, called this seeing a ­relative ­advantage. Hughes (2000, 2005) developed the Replacement, Amplification, and Transformation (RAT) assessment model to help teachers assess, or RATify, the relative advantage of technology-supported lessons. During the assessment, a teacher examines the following three aspects of the lesson in which the technology use will be embedded: (1) instructional method, (2) student learning processes, and (3) curriculum/content goals. Hughes developed three use categories from educational theory, classroom observations, and interviews with teachers. They include: • Replacement. Technology used as replacement replicates and does not change established instructional practices, student learning processes, or content goals. The technology serves merely as a different, technological means to the same instructional end. The technology is not solving or improving enduring problems of practice (Kimmons et al., 2020). Think of technology as a proxy, stand-in, or surrogate. • Amplification. Technology used as amplification increases efficiency or intensifies productivity in current instructional practices, student learning, or content goals (Cole & Griffin, 1980; Pea, 1985). The focus is effectiveness or streamlining rather than change. Cuban (1988) described this as a first-order change for which technology is used to “try to make what exists more efficient and effective without disturbing the basic organizational features . . . ” (p. 93). Fishman and Dede (2016) refer to this as “doing conventional things better” (p. 1269). Kimmons et al. (2020) describe it as “incrementally improv[ing] teachers’ practice” (p. 187). Think of technology as enlargement (larger, greater, stronger), addition of detail (fuller, clearer), or increase in magnitude.

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration 85

• Transformation. Technology used for transformation shifts, restructures, or reorganizes instructional methods, the students’ learning processes, and/or the actual subject matter in ways unavailable without the inclusion of the technology (Pea, 1985). Transformation is akin to Cuban’s (1988) notion of second-order changes that produce “new goals, structures, and roles that transform familiar ways of doing things into novel solutions to persistent problems” (p. 94). Fishman and Dede (2016) frame this as “doing better things” (p. 1269) by completely rethinking how learning and instruction may occur with technologies. Kimmons et al. (2020) write that in the transformational level, “taking away the technology would eliminate the pedagogical strategy” (p. 188). Think of technology as change, conversion, revolution, renovation, restructuring, and reorganization. The RAT categories are not a linear path to technology integration, such as starting with R activities, then moving to A, and ultimately to T. Research shows that teachers will have an array of R, A, and T technology integration practices in their teaching but transformative practices are sometimes elusive (Blanchard et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2011; Hughes, 2005; Kimmons et al., 2015; Russell & Hughes, 2014). Transformative technology integration emerges from planning processes that privilege subject matter content as when subject-area teachers explore subject problems of practice and explore digital technology as possible solutions (Hughes & Ooms, 2004). To RATify a technology’s contribution to a lesson, a teacher can use the RAT matrix, as shown in Pearson eText Artifact 3.6, to guide consideration of how an instance of technology use impacts instructional methods, student learning processes, and curriculum goals, each of which can be further articulated by identifying more specific dimensions within each. Hughes developed the RAT model and matrix for use by teachers who are planning or have taught technology-supported lessons. Individual digital technologies (e.g., PowerPoint, a tablet, Kahoot!) cannot be assessed using the RAT model without the rich instructional information about the context of a digital technology’s use in teaching and learning. The model supports teacher assessment of lessons because the rich instructional information is typically known only by the teacher or someone who co-planned, co-observed, or co-teaches with the teacher. We exemplify using the RAT matrix (see Table 3.5) to assess the role of technology in a lesson richly described by Conn (2013). In this lesson, a first-grade teacher integrated the use of live web-cam video of animals living in captivity and wild habitats for a unit on habitats. For 5 weeks, students used iPads to observe animals daily, note characteristics, and research habitats. The lesson culminated with an illustrated report. In our analysis, this lesson had many uses of technology across all three use categories: R, A, T. With three transformative aspects to this lesson, we would consider this quite robust in terms of its technology integration strategies.

Pearson eText Artifact 3.6: Replacement, Amplification, Transformation (RAT) Matrix

Table 3.5  RATifying the Conn (2013) Lesson with the Replacement, Amplification, Transformation (RAT) Matrix Instruction Replacement Technology is different means to same end.

Learning

Curriculum

• Read magazines online • Drew habitat in a drawing app • Wrote report about habitat in ­writing app

• Met first-grade science ­standards of observing and comparing habitats

Amplification Technology increases or ­intensifies efficiency, productivity, access, and capabilities, but the tasks stay ­fundamentally the same.

• More efficient everyday access to video streams with iPads versus computer lab • Increased variety of live habitats

• Customized habitat sorting activity in app

Transformation Technology redefines, restructures, reorganizes, changes, or creates novel solutions.

• Changed length of time habitats could be observed (5 weeks)

• Created a real-world, authentic observational experience for learners

• Lesson became interdisciplinary with science, research, reading, writing, and technology

86  Chapter 3 Table 3.6 lists several kinds of learning problems and technology possibilities with potential for high relative advantage. The degree to which these possibilities might replace, amplify, or transform your practice depends on your specific teaching context. RATifying your technology-­ supported lessons enables you to understand the technology’s advantage relative to past practices. If you are not satisfied with the ways in which your technology-­supported lesson will provide a relative advantage, you can go back to Step 3 to reconsider other technological possibilities and continue through the TIP steps in sequence again. Step 6: Prepare the Learning Environment and Teach the Lesson.  This step requires answering two questions about preparing an environment that will support technology integration: Pearson eText Video Example 3.7 Pay attention to how Tara Gander identifies technologies used to differentiate learning. What are the relative advantages of these technologies for the targeted literacy skills she describes?

• Question 1: How should resources be arranged to support instruction and learning? Guidelines here include: • Meeting all students’ needs. For students with visual, hearing, physical, or cognitive differences, consider software or adaptive devices created especially to address these needs. Consider identifying multiple ways to tap into students’ interests to build motivation, providing multiple types of learning content, and offering multiple ways for students to express what they have learned. You can

Table 3.6  Technology Possibilities with Potential for High Relative Advantage Problems of Practice

Technology Possibilities

Relative Advantage

Concepts are unfamiliar (e.g., mathematics, physics principles)

Graphic tools, simulations, video-based problem scenarios

Visual examples introduce curricular concepts in real-world contexts.

Concepts are abstract, complex (e.g., ­physics principles, biology systems)

Math tools (Geometer’s SketchPad or ­Geogebra, simulations, problem-solving software, ­spreadsheet exercises, graphing calculators)

Graphics displays make abstract concepts more concrete; students can manipulate systems to see how they work.

Time-consuming manual skills (e.g., ­handwriting, calculations, data ­collection) interfere with learning high-level skills

Tool software (e.g., word processing, ­spreadsheets, and probeware)

Takes low-level labor out of high-level tasks; ­students can focus on learning high-level ­concepts and skills.

Students find practice boring (e.g., ­basic math skills, spelling, vocabulary, test preparation)

Drill-and-practice software, instructional games

Attention-getting displays, immediate feedback, and interaction combine to create motivating practice.

Students cannot see relevance of concepts to their lives (e.g., history, social studies)

Simulations, community-based data or ­interviewing activities, video-based problem scenarios

Visual, interactive activities help teachers demonstrate relevance.

Skills are “inert” (i.e., can do them— e.g., mathematics, physics—but do not see where they apply)

Simulations, problem-solving software, video-based problem scenarios, student ­development of web pages, multimedia products

Project-based learning using these tools ­ stablishes clear links between skills and e real-world problems.

Students dislike preparing research reports

Student development of web-based or ­multimodal artifacts

Students engage in creating multimodal ­representations of their knowledge.

Students need skills in working collaboratively, opportunities to demonstrate learning in alternative ways

Student development of cloud-based publishing and web page/multimedia products

Students can work together virtually; they make different contributions to one product based on their strengths.

Students need technological competence in preparation for life

All software and productivity tools; all ­communications, presentation, and multimedia software; information literacy strategies

Illustrates and provides practice in skills and tools students will need as critical digital citizens.

Teachers have limited time for correcting students’ individual practice items

Drill-and-practice software, computer-based assessment

Immediate feedback to students; frees teachers for work with students.

No teachers available for advanced courses

Self-instructional multimedia, online courses

Provides structured, self-paced learning environments.

Students need individual reviews of missed work

Tutorial or multimedia software

Provides structured, self-paced environments for individual review of missed concepts.

Schools have insufficient consumable ­materials (e.g., science labs, workbooks)

Simulations, e-books, websites, LMS

Materials are reusable; saves money on purchasing new copies.

Students need quick access to information and people not locally available

Internet and email projects; virtual guest speakers; multimedia encyclopedias and atlases

Information is faster to access; people are easier, less expensive to contact.

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration 87

meet all students’ needs by adopting universal design for learning. For more on this, see the Digital Equity feature in Box 3.1. • Privacy and safety issues. Ensure you uphold technology use policies. You may need to remind students of guidelines for acceptable technology use, especially when you use the Internet. These policies hold students accountable for equipment and their actions while using technology. • Classroom management. You need to anticipate and develop strategies to manage students’ behavior when technology is in use. Your knowledge of how much time is required to teach particular technologies and how many of your students will need technology instruction will reveal students who may need different assigned tasks. Furthermore, the more you can envision or anticipate potential student challenges with the technologies, the more focused supporting materials you can provide. • Supporting materials. Prepare, copy, post, or model necessary support materials. You can consider creating summary sheets to remind students how to do basic operations, create or link to “how-to” videos, or be prepared to model and explain technology procedures. Allow enough time for demonstrating the tools to students and allowing them to become comfortable using them before they do a graded product. • Question 2: What steps are required to make sure technology resources work well? Guidelines here include: • Troubleshooting. Computers, like all machines, occasionally break down. Learn simple diagnostic procedures so you can correct some problems without

BOX 3.1

DIGITAL EQUITY AND JUSTICE

Universal Design for Learning Universal design for learning (UDL) is a framework that has important implications for technology use in the classroom. UDL proactively addresses academic diversity through strategies that offer students multiple ways to access, engage, and demonstrate their mastery of the learning outcomes. One of the mantras of UDL is that instructional design deliberately created for individuals with disabilities often provides significant benefits to all students. The essence of UDL involves providing three components: ■

■

■

Multiple means of engagement to tap into learners’ interests, to challenge them optimally to persist in the activities, and to generate personal beliefs and coping strategies for learning Multiple means of representation to give learners various ways of acquiring information and knowledge through options for perception (visual, auditory), language and symbols, and comprehension Multiple means of action and expression to provide learners with alternatives for demonstrating what they know, ensuring options for physical actions, options for communication and expression with scaffolding supports, and assistance toward goal setting and managing and monitoring progress.

Ultimately, the goal is to develop learners who are purposeful and motivated, resourceful and knowledgeable, and strategic and goal-directed (CAST, 2018).

Technology tools often facilitate implementing these UDL principles. Students often have strong interest and experience with technology that can serve as a means of engagement. Many technology systems also have built-in scaffolding that provides hints and helps when challenges get too difficult. In terms of representation, technologies often have built-in settings that can accommodate a range of auditory, visual, language, and physical needs. For example, when educators fail to recognize that 25–50% of the students in their classroom might not read at grade level, they distribute reading materials that have a readability level above grade level. However, using the principle of multiple means of representation, an educator plans instruction to provide access to digital text so that students can manipulate the physical nature of the text (e.g., change the font size, color contrasts), as well as alter the cognitive difficulty using text-to-speech in computers’ operating systems or the Natural Reader website. There are a wide range of technological tools (see Chapters 4, 6, 7, and 9) that support multiple means of action and expression. Sometimes students’ physical limitations require alternate ways to engage with technology, such as with joysticks, switches, or adapted keyboards. Students may express themselves with media-rich options, such as in text, drawing or art, video, music, annotations, animation, or storytelling. Learn more about UDL in order to understand its applications for your own classroom by visiting the Center for Applied Special Technology website.

88  Chapter 3 assistance. Know whom to contact and how to receive technical support in your classroom. • Test runs. Spend time learning and practicing using resources before students use them, but also retry the resources just before class begins. Consider inviting a student (or dyad) to assist you in testing so you build a knowledgeable peer for the class. Be sure to have enough opportunities for all students to serve in this role. Students who have no experience with the technology will provide invaluable perspective on the needs of the class, so they may be more valuable than a student you perceive to be already technology-savvy. • Backup alternatives. Have a backup plan in case something goes wrong at the last minute. With knowledge of your learning objectives, prepared assessments, chosen integration strategies, and prepared instructional environment, you are ready to teach your technology-supported lesson! Read how Ms. Mian, the teacher, engaged in designing her integration framework for her multicultural unit in Technology Integration Example 3.4.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 3.4 

TIP Phase 2  Design and Teach the Technology Integration Lesson Ms. Mian reflected on the problems she saw with her current multicultural goals and what she wanted her students to learn about other cultures that they didn’t seem to be learning. She decided on the following three learning outcomes: better attitudes toward people of other cultures, increased learning about similarities and differences among cultures, and k­ nowledge of facts and concepts about the geography and government of the other country they would study. So that Ms. Mian could measure the success of her project later, she created objectives and instruments to measure the outcomes: ■

■

■

Attitudes toward cultures. At least 75% of students will demonstrate an improved attitude toward the culture being studied with a higher score on the post-unit attitude measure than on the pre-unit measure. Instrument: She knew a good way to measure attitudes was with a semantic differential. Before and after the project, students would answer the question, “How do you feel about people from ________?” by marking a line between sets of adjectives to indicate how they feel. Knowledge of cultures. Each student group will score at least 90% on a rubric evaluating the brochure or booklet that reflects knowledge of the cultural characteristics (both unique and common to our own) about the people being studied. Instrument: After listing characteristics she wanted to see reflected in the products, she found a product rubric to assess them. She decided they should get at least 15 of the 20 possible points on this rubric. Factual knowledge. Each student will score at least 80% on a short-answer test on the government and geography of the country being studied.

Next, Ms. Mian took time to identify the relative advantage of the proposed online project by using the RAT model. When she thought deeply about the role(s) technology played in the lesson, she RATified it in the following way: Instruction

Learning

Replacement Technology is a different means to same end.

• Teach facts about geography and government.

Amplification Technology increases or intensifies efficiency, productivity, access, and capabilities but the tasks stay ­fundamentally the same. Transformation Technology redefines, restructures, reorganizes, changes, and creates novel solutions.

Curriculum

• Collaborate with teachers in other countries to co-teach a lesson.

• Use the Internet to research facts about countries.

• Teach about digital citizenship: email communication and Internet research.

• Use video, pictures, and email communication to build and share cultural knowledge. • Use team-based work. • Produce digital products.

• Move beyond culture simply as addressing food and holidays. • Experience and exchange ­cultural knowledge with cultural insiders in other countries.

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration 89

Based on her RATification of the lesson, Ms. Mian felt this online project was worthwhile, so she began to prepare her instructional environment. She signed up on the project website and obtained a partner school assignment. The project website suggested setting up groups of four with designated tasks for each group member. Ms. Mian examined the timeline of project activities so she would know when her students needed to use computers. Then she began the following planning and preparation activities: ■

■

Supports for students. To make sure that groups knew the tasks each member should do, Ms. Mian created handouts specifying timelines and what should be accomplished at each stage of the project. She also made a checklist of information that students were to collect and made copies so that students could check off what they had done as they went along. Ms. Mian wanted to make sure everyone would know how she would grade their work, so she made copies of the assessments (the rubric and a description of the country information test) that she would hand out and discuss with the students. Computer schedule. Ms. Mian had five Internet-connected computers, so she set up a schedule for small groups to use the computers. She knew that some students would need to scan pictures, download image files from the digital camera, and process those files for sending to the partner schools, so she scheduled some additional time in the computer lab for this work. Ms. Mian thought that students could do other work in the library/media center after school if they needed more time.

The project gets underway with Ms. Mian demonstrating the project site and preparing her students to use the browser, search engine, and email responsibly. Students select working groups and make initial email contacts/chats and introduce themselves with their cultural partners and set their goals. Working independently collaboratively, the students amass new insights and build representations of this knowledge into a final product that is shared with both classes. The teacher assesses student work.

Phase 2  Analysis Questions 1. What are Ms. Mian’s learning objectives for the lesson? 2. What kinds of assessments is Ms. Mian using to assess the outcomes of her lesson? 3. What grouping strategy did Ms. Mian choose? Why? 4. Do you see any other relative advantages of the online project she is proposing: Are there other ways this lesson replaces, amplifies, or transforms practice? 5. Ms. Mian was concerned about students revealing too much personal information about themselves to people in their partner schools. What guidelines should she give them about information exchanges to protect their privacy and security?

PHASE 3: EVALUATE, REVISE, AND SHARE  This section gives a detailed description

of Phase 3 steps and an explanation of why each is necessary. As teachers complete a technology-supported project with students, teachers begin reviewing evidence of how successful the strategies and plans were in solving the identified problems. Teachers use this evidence to decide what should be changed with respect to objectives, strategies, and implementation tasks to ensure even more success next time. Their results can be shared with colleagues. Step 7. Evaluate Lesson Results and Impact.  To do a post-instruction evaluation, teachers look at the following issues: • Were the objectives achieved? This is the primary criterion of success of the activity. Teachers review achievement, attitude, and observation data they have collected and decide whether the technology-based method solved the problem(s) they had identified. These data help them determine what should be changed to make the activity work better. • What do students say? Some of the best suggestions on needed improvements come from students. Informal discussions with them yield a unique student perspective on the activity.

90  Chapter 3 • Could improving instructional strategies improve results? Technologies in themselves do not usually improve results significantly; it is the way teachers use them that is critical. Look at the design of both the technology use and the learning activities surrounding it. • Could improving the environment improve results? Sometimes a small change, such as better scheduling or access to a printer, can make a big difference in a ­project’s success.

Pearson eText Artifact 3.7: Technology Impact Checklist

• What is the contribution of the technology to instruction, student learning, or curriculum content? How well has the technology integration strategy worked? Refer to how you RATified your lesson during Step 5. Did the technology replace, amplify, or transform instruction, learning, and curriculum as you expected? You can also use the Technology Impact Checklist to determine how the activity has added relative advantage as compared to what you have done before. Check the available data you have: • Achievement data. If the problem was low student achievement, do data show that students are achieving better than they were before? If the goal was improved motivation or attitudes, are students achieving at least as well as they did before? Is higher achievement consistent across the class, or did some students seem to benefit more than others? • Attitude data. If the original problem was students’ low motivation or refusal to do required work, are there indications that this behavior has improved? Has it improved for everyone or just for certain students? • Students’ comments. Be sure to ask both lower-achieving, average-achieving, and higher-achieving students for their opinions. Even if achievement and motivation seem to have improved, what do students say about the activity? Do they want to do similar activities again? • What could be improved to make the technology integration strategy work ­b etter? The first time you engage in a technology-based activity, you can expect that it will take longer and you will encounter more challenges than you will in subsequent uses. The following areas are most often cited as needing improvement: • Scheduling. If students request any change, it is usually for more time. This may or may not be feasible, but you can review the schedule to determine whether additional time can be built in for learning software and/or for production work. • Technical skills. It usually takes longer than expected for students to learn the technology tools. How can this learning be expedited or supported better? • Efficiency. From the teacher’s point of view, the activity took longer than expected to plan and carry out. If the impact on outcomes is significant, the extra time may be worth it. Step 8. Make Revisions Based on Results.  Based on the results from Step 7, teachers make adjustments to materials, logistics, and/or strategies. Revision activities are on a continuum ranging from making small changes in how materials are used to going back to Step 1 and re-analyzing the problem–solution match. Evidence in the form of student outcomes must drive these decisions. As a planning tool, the TIP model makes concrete the questions that teachers need to think through when designing instruction that uses technology. The combination of

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration 91

theory foundation and thoughtful planning make technology integration purposeful, effective, and meaningful for teachers and students alike. Step 9. Share Lessons, Revisions, and Outcomes with Other Peer Teachers.  All of your hard work planning and implementing a technology-supported lesson could have a significant impact on the students in your classroom. You can extend that impact by sharing your original or revised lesson with colleagues near and far. Collaboration with colleagues to share innovations in teaching and learning can powerfully motivate and engage teachers in the teaching profession (Fullan, 2016). McLaughlin and Talbert (2001) identified the fact that teachers were more persistent in innovating when they shared resources and practices collaboratively with colleagues. Your school or district may have digital spaces for sharing lessons with other teachers; you could share with content-area organization sharing areas (e.g., listserv or websites) or you can post it online and share a link to others on social networking sites such as Twitter. Read how the teacher, Ms. Mian, evaluated the results of her lesson and shared outcomes with her peers in Technology Integration Example 3.5.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 3.5 

TIP Phase 3  Evaluate, Revise, and Share Ms. Mian was generally pleased with the results of the multicultural project. According to the semantic differential, most students showed a major improvement in how they perceived people from the country they were studying. Students she had spoken with were very enthusiastic about their chats and email exchanges. Some group brochures and booklets were more polished than others, but they all showed good insights into the similarities and differences between cultures, and every group had met the rubric criteria on content. The web searches they had done seemed to have helped. One thing that became clear was that production work on their published products was very time-consuming; in the future, Ms. Mian would have to either assign a simpler product or change the schedule to allow more time. She also realized that she had to create more explicit time management. Students would have searched for and taken digital photos forever. The searching activity put them behind on making their products and left little time to discuss their findings on comparisons of cultures. Results varied on the short-answer test on the government and geography of the country being studied. Only about half of the students met the 80% criterion. Ms. Mian realized she would have to schedule a review of this information before she gave the test. She decided to make this a final group task after the production work was finished. Ms. Mian revised her planning documents with these results in mind so that she could implement this project again next year. She met with her grade-level team to share the results and discuss the lesson. They seemed intrigued by the project and in the shift in students’ knowledge and attitudes. She also shared a revised version of her lesson with her media specialist who added it to a district online collaboration area for teachers that has a space to upload technologysupported lessons.

Phase 3  Analysis Questions 1. If Ms. Mian found that only five of the seven groups in the class were doing well on their final products, what might she do to find out more about why this was happening? 2. Although all of Ms. Mian’s groups did well on content overall, rubric scores revealed that most groups scored lower in one area: spelling, grammar, and punctuation in the products. What steps could she take to revise the production work checklist that might improve this outcome next time? 3. What benefits might Ms. Mian experience by sharing her lesson with others?

92  Chapter 3

CHAPTER 3 SUMMARY 1. Technology Resources for Teaching and Learning • Eight types of technology hardware are commonly used in or support today’s classroom, including (1) Internet network, (2) computers, (3) handheld technologies, (4) display technologies, (5) imaging technologies, (6) peripherals, (7) external storage, and (8) online storage and computing. Educators often use three types of software applications, instructional, creation, and administrative, for teaching and learning activities. Common software include suite, cloud­ omputing based, specialty, and mobile software. C hardware can be configured in different ways, including a central classroom computing hub, one-computer classroom, several classroom computers, mobile carts or COWs, computer laboratories, student-supplied hardware (BYOD), and school-supplied devices (one-to-one computing). Computing device configurations can support whole-class instruction, whole-class independent work, flipped pedagogy, centers or stations, ­collaboration, and independent learning. • Teachers must identify the technological expertise they possess. The ISTE Standards for ­Educators address expected technological knowledge, skills, and attitudes for teachers and can serve as an important guide. The Technological Pedagogical and Content (TPACK) framework provides educators a common vision and language for the technological knowledge inside teachers’ minds that is accessed to guide the design and integration of technology in the classroom. • Common sources for technology support and additional expertise can be found among technology integration/media specialists, IT support personnel, school leaders, and parents and students as well as in technology policies and procedure documents and through technology professional development. 2. Networked Professional Learning Communities for Educators • Connected educators are teachers who engage in learning with other professionals online via networked technologies. Networked professional learning communities facilitate professional learning through four offline and online sources: (1) ­conferences and meetings, (2) professional learning communities, professional learning networks, and communities of practice.

• A range of technologies support networked learning for socially connecting and collaborating with other professionals and documenting, archiving, and creating information. Strategies to become a connected educator include investing time in developing a professional network, scheduling time and time off from networking, promoting other people, responding to connected people, trusting others, building relationships, and modeling connected learning. • Benefits of being a connected educator outweigh the challenges. Benefits include motivation to learn, inspiration, autonomy and agency, innovation, status, feedback, access to others, personalized learning, and relationships. Challenges of being a connected educator include the need for the ­Internet and time. • Teachers develop a digital footprint when using networked technologies and need to manage their online activities to create a consistent and compelling online identity. Teachers must consult their school’s policies related to technology and online activity to understand important guidelines affecting their online activity. Special attention should be given to data privacy, digital citizenship, and teacher–student connections. Connected educators can manage and shape their online activity to build a professional online identity by determining their strengths; building a consistent, professional digital presence; and using social networking to publicize their expertise and engage with others. • Teachers should build a professional rationale regarding educational technology to guide decision making concerning technology integration. To build a rationale, consider the history of educational technology, emergent technologies, learning theories, educational standards, contextual conditions, and educational technology research. Educational technology research answers questions related to what unique impact technology has on student achievement and the conditions under which technology can be used to meet important educational challenges. Educational technology research has identified how technology helps learning. These include ways in which it motivates learners, helps address learning needs, and prepares students for the future. These insights can be used to build a rationale for educational technology based on transformation.

Learning and Leading for Transformative Technology Integration 93

3. Planning for Educational Technology Integration in Context

• Phase 2, Design and Teach the Technology Integration Lesson, involves the following three steps: Step 4: Decide on learning objectives and assessments.

• The Technology Integration Planning model is designed to help teachers design and teach successful and transformative technology-supported classroom lessons. The model consists of nine steps within three phases. • Phase 1, Lead from Enduring Problems of Practice, involves the following three steps: Step 1: Identify problems of practice.

Step 5: Assess the relative advantage: RATify the planned lesson. Step 6: Prepare the learning environment and teach the lesson. • Phase 3, Evaluate, Revise, and Share, involves the ­following three steps:

Step 2: Assess technological resources of students, families, teachers, the school, and the community.

Step 7: Evaluate lesson results and impact.

Step 3: Identify technological possibilities and select an integration strategy.

Step 9: Share lessons, revisions, and outcomes with other peer teachers.

Step 8: Make revisions based on results.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP Apply What You Learned

Preparing to Be a Connected Educator

You have read in this chapter about how teachers must consider the technology resources (tools, expertise, and support) available in their school context as these may ­bolster or constrain a teacher’s efforts to ­integrate ­technology. In low-technology resource contexts, ­teachers can become connected educators who ­professionally learn and lead toward the goal of t­ ransformative t­ echnology ­integration through networked activities ­o nline. Now a­ pply your understanding of these concepts by ­completing the following activities:

Many teachers in low-resourced schools will need to become connected educators who can learn and lead through networked learning activities online. Complete the following exercises to begin exploring the expectations and actions of connected educators.

• Reread Mr. Holliday’s experience at the beginning of the chapter. Reflect on his experience as a ­novice teacher and determine the ways in which ideas from this chapter could help him design a path of ­continuous learning for technology integration. • To what extent could Mr. Holliday assess the ­technology resources (i.e., tools, expertise, and support) in his school? • How would such an assessment impact his future technology integration effort? • What activities and actions could Mr. Holliday pursue to become a connected educator? What networked learning communities could he access? What benefits or challenges of being a connected educator might he experience? • How could a professional rationale for integrating educational technology in teaching and learning help him answer the question, Why should teachers or students use technology?

a. Locate acceptable use policies (AUP) governing webbased activities such as an AUP, a social media p ­ olicy, or website policies of your university or teacher education program you attend or the school where you teach. Read them. How do they help you think about your responsibility as a digital citizen when you engage in networked learning now or in the future? b. (Note: A Twitter account is necessary for this exercise.) Go to the Twitter website home page and click in the “Search Twitter” (a magnifying glass embedded in an open bar). Choose a hashtag (see the following for ideas) related to an educational interest and search for it. • Some hashtags to consider using include #edtech, #edchat, #sschat, #engchat, #makered, #mathchat, #scichat, #ell, #arted, and #specialneeds. • The default results will show you the “top” posts, but you can click on the menu options along the top to find the “latest” posts, or “people,” “­photos,” or “videos” related to the hashtag. Examine the content of the posts. What type of content are people sharing on this hashtag topic? Characterize the information.

94  Chapter 3 • Find three posts made by teachers using the hashtag you chose (hover your mouse over the account name that posted and more information about the account owner will pop up) and characterize the nature of what they are sharing. What type of content are teachers sharing on this hashtag? c. Locate a free online community of practice or professional learning community that matches your interest area, such as a subject or pedagogical approach. C onsider COPs or PLCs sponsored by content­ area organizations, such as the National Council of ­Teachers of English, National Council of Teachers of ­Mathematics, National Council for the Social Studies, or National Science Teachers Association (membership may be required); visit edWeb.net; or seek suggestions from your instructor. • Choose a topical strand within the online ­community that interests you and read the posts that occurred over a week’s time. • Describe the week’s discussion that you examined. Based on your observations, what are the benefits or challenges for teachers participating in this community? • How might you benefit from making a networked learning community, such as the one you examined in this activity, a part of your professional learning activities as an early career teacher?

Preparing to be a Technology Leader A teacher’s commitment to continuously learn about new technologies through networked experiences may position them to be a technology leader in their classroom and school. Review the ideas you sketched in the Chapter 2

Workshop regarding initial development of a professional rationale for the use of technology in your practices. In that workshop, you focused on how educational processes (i.e., learning theories, pedagogy, and curriculum) had value for technology integration. Now, consider the totality of the Framework for Integrating Educational Technology (see Figure 1.1 in Chapter 1), including the technology resources (i.e., tools, expertise, and support) in the context of PK–12 education. In reference to all the history, innovations, and research related to educational technology shared in Chapters 1 and 2 and in this chapter, further develop your professional rationale for technology integration by doing the following exercises. • The TPCK framework is a key concept in teacher preparation programs that seeks to develop growth in the ability to integrate technology into content-area instruction. Review Table 3.2 that provides definitions and examples of the TPCK knowledge areas. Generate a new example for the six types of knowledge (e.g., CK, TK, PK, PCK, TPK, TCK) that you feel you possess at this point in your development. Your ability to reflect on and measure your own growth in TPCK is important. What knowledge areas do you feel need growth before you begin your teaching career? • Expand the representation of how you currently position yourself in terms of theory-into-practice (see Chapter 2 exercise) to also consider how technology resources (i.e., tools, expertise, and support) play a role in your professional rationale. How do these technological resources relate to the educational processes and have practical value for technology integration in the classroom? • Write a Letter to the Parents of your future students in which you describe your rationale for the use of technology in teaching and learning.

CHAPTER 4

The Web and Web-Based Content Resources Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter and completing the learning activities, you should be able to: 4.1 Develop navigation and information literacy practices that

allow teachers and students to conduct targeted online search ­strategies and information analysis. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 3—­Citizen; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator) 4.2 Explain how learning digital citizenship skills helps teachers and

students address each of the safety, security, and privacy ­challenges they are likely to encounter in an online environment. (ISTE ­Standards for Educators: 3—Citizen; 6—Facilitator) 4.3 Describe the benefits and challenges of locating and using archived,

immersive, or live web content and open educational resources (OER) in educational contexts. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator) 4.4 Apply evaluation criteria to determine the ease or difficulty

of ­integrating web content in instruction. (ISTE Standards for ­Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 5—Designer)

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN ACTION:

A Research Paper GRADE LEVEL: High school CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Research, information literacy skills LENGTH OF TIME: Nine weeks (Continued)

95

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Phase 1  Lead from Enduring Problems of Practice Step 1: Identify problems of practice (POPs) Ms. Almon is the library media specialist at Werebest High School. One of her tasks is to help all teachers and ­students use the library and web resources effectively for student research. Over the years, she has compiled a substantial collection of handouts, lists of sources, and assessment materials, which she copied, placed in notebooks, and updated periodically. However, Ms. Almon and the teachers agreed that getting students to use these notebooks was difficult. Students and teachers wanted a more digital approach that allowed more simultaneous and all day, ­every day (24/7) guidance for the use of research resources.

Step 2: Assess technological resources of students, families, teachers, the school, and the community Ms. Almon recently attended a district workshop on the learning management system (LMS) website resources for the district and schools. She noticed that many of the teachers were developing websites for their classes where they made announcements, posted links and homework, and even communicated with parents. The district had recently provided tablet devices for all students to support their learning. They all had begun to navigate these emerging school resources for compiling online content for teaching and learning.

Step 3: Identify technological possibilities and select an integration strategy As she and the teachers talked about this situation, they agreed that it would be optimal to have research support ­materials available on a website that students could access 24/7 and could be easily updated and would be consistent across all classes. They also decided that they would use this site and a set of video tutorials to structure a series of teaching activities to help students complete upcoming research assignments. The district IT specialist agreed to help Ms. Almon design and create the site on the district LMS, Google Classroom. She wanted to organize the ­website content around the “Big6” information literacy skills (Big6 Skills Overview, n.d.). Ms. Almon and the teachers worked together to determine what they would place on the resource website and how students would use it. They organized the site by each of the six Big6 skills. For each skill area, they included: ■

■ ■

Short video tutorials on key aspects of the skill (e.g., how to select and narrow a research paper topic, how to use a graphic organizer to create a visual outline) Links to district-owned resources (e.g., library catalog, online databases, applicable software) Links to other helpful sites (e.g., Library of Congress).

The website and the tutorials aimed to make the teaching process more consistent across classes. The ­assembled online resources could be used independently for directed instruction but the teachers also planned guided ­activities and collaborative work sessions together in class. Therefore, the integration strategy was a hybrid of directed and social constructivist approaches.

Phase 2  Design and Teach the Technology Integration Lesson Step 4: Decide on learning objectives and assessments Ms. Almon and the teachers decided they would also structure their assessments around the Big6 ­information literacy skills. To make sure that all teachers structured students’ learning in the same way, they agreed on ­objectives for each of these skill areas and created assessment methods to measure each. They also decided to measure student attitudes toward research and writing. The outcomes, objectives, and assessments they decided on included:

Big6 information skills 1–3: task definition; information-seeking strategies; location and access Outcome: Define, search for, and acquire information. ■

■

Objective: Students will identify a topic for a research paper, use the library website to identify and select optimal sources for information related to the topic, and acquire the items of information. Assessment: Checklist of required tasks and products from information searches

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Big6 information skills 4–6: use of information, synthesis, evaluation Outcome: Use, synthesize, and evaluate information. ■

■

Objective: Students will write a summary analysis of the information in each item they locate, write a synthesis of all information, and prepare an outline of the points they will emphasize in their research papers. Assessment: Checklist of required tasks and products from information analyses; final paper

Outcome: Write a research paper. ■ ■

Objective: Students will achieve a rubric score of at least 15 of 20 possible points on an assigned research paper. Assessment: Rubric on research paper content, structure, mechanics, and creativity

Attitudes toward writing and research Outcome: Demonstrate positive attitude toward research and writing. ■

■

Objective: Students will demonstrate a good attitude toward the writing approach and research used in the project by reporting a rating of at least 45 of 50 possible points on an attitude survey. Assessment: Likert scale attitude survey

Step 5: Assess the relative advantage: RATify the planned lesson After designing the new website and integration approach, Ms. Almon and her teaching colleagues determined the relative advantage by RATifying the research paper assignment with the new research website. See Table 4.1 for the aspects of instruction, student learning, and curriculum that the teachers felt would be impacted by students using the research website and its resources. They recognized that the curricular goal of writing a research paper remained the same but identified how the website would amplify resource access for students and teachers and explicitly ­expand the curriculum to include digital information literacy. They felt there was relative advantage in creating the website and completing the lesson.

Table 4.1  Ms. Almon’s RATified Lesson Instruction

Learning

Replacement Technology is a different means to same end. Amplification Technology increases or ­intensifies efficiency, ­productivity, access, ­capabilities, but the tasks stay ­fundamentally the same.

Curriculum • Research paper assigned to students.

• Research resources easily updatable. • All teachers and students can obtain similar research experience.

• Students access research resources 24/7.

Transformation Technology redefines, restructures, ­reorganizes, changes, and creates novel solutions.

• More awareness of available ­information sources for research.

• Development of digital information literacy skills.

Step 6: Prepare the learning environment and teach the lesson The main preparation task for the project was creating the website and video tutorials and deciding what to include in each. However, Ms. Almon also had to coordinate the students’ trips to the library media center. Preparation tasks included: ■

■

Creation of LMS website content. Ms. Almon and the teachers searched for the best resources to include, created links to these sites in the LMS module, and wrote the content of each of the six Big6 sections on the site. Ms. Almon compiled the materials into the LMS website with the district IT specialist’s help. Video development. The teachers also decided on six initial brief video tutorials to align with each Big6 stage: (1) how to select a research paper topic, (2) how to identify and use optimal library media center resources, (3) how to create search queries, (4) how to critically analyze information, (5) how to create a graphic organizer, and (6) strategies for presenting a research paper. For most of these, they identified already existing videos that were licensed for reuse. They worked with the district to create one video specifically about their library resources. All the videos were embedded within the LMS module. (Continued)

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■

■

PDF handout. To make sure that students understand the assignment and have access to all resources, Ms. Almon created a PDF document that all teachers could give their students digitally. She also posted this handout in the module so that students could download it whenever they wished. Library media center and computer lab scheduling. Before students began work on the projects, the teachers scheduled time for their students in the lab and in the library media center. They decided to recommend the following time frame for the research paper project: Week 1: Introduce the project and identify a topic. All teachers introduce the research paper project by ­displaying the website to the whole class on an interactive whiteboard. They review the steps, discuss the process (displaying some of the links at each step), show the first video tutorial, and help students select their research paper topics. Weeks 2–3: Help students obtain information. The teachers show them how to use website links to optimally search for information related to their topic. One of the activities is deciding which type of resource to use. For resources that can best be found in the library, Ms. Almon shows students how to access them in the library media center as well as provides a video tutorial overview. Students use the website resources on their own school devices or in the library. Weeks 4–6: Help students analyze and synthesize information. The teachers help students critically review their information and make decisions on how to structure their paper and what to include in it. They facilitate small-group sharing and discussion of planned structures. They show videos on graphic organizers and let students practice using these techniques. Weeks 7–8: Write the papers. During this time, students complete most of the writing on their papers at home or in the library media center after school. Some teachers allocate class time for students to work in class and to review and give feedback on students’ word-processed drafts. Week 9: Make presentations. Students present their papers using the strategy selected by their teacher. Some prepare PowerPoint presentations to accompany their oral presentations; others create a video or a webpage.

Phase 3  Evaluate, Revise, and Share Step 7: Evaluate lesson results and impact After all students completed their research papers, the teachers met to review the data they had collected. Students did moderately well on both sets of information skills. Student attitudes toward the writing process were moderate: About 75% of students rated it 20 points or more. Comments volunteered by students on their surveys indicated they would like more in-class time to revise their writing and more individual assistance with the revision process. Rubric scores on research papers were also generally good with noticeable improvement in the areas of structure and ­content. Scores on mechanics were lowest.

Step 8: Make revisions based on results The teachers decided to create a set of writing exercises to give students more concentrated practice on critical analysis and synthesis skills before having them write summaries. The teachers also decided to target one or two mechanics skills for special practice with word-processed exercises. All the teachers agreed that the LMS website and video tutorials had been critical focal points in making instruction across classes more consistent and easier to follow. They planned to add more resources and supports to increase students’ information literacy skills even more.

Step 9: Share lessons, revisions, and outcomes with other peer teachers Ms. Almon met with the librarians from the elementary and middle schools in the district to share her resources and explain the lesson’s outcomes. The district decided to duplicate the resources for each library, and Ms. Almon was hired to lead a summer workshop for the librarians and some teachers on how to identify key research resources matched to their students’ developmental needs. SOURCE: Based on concepts from “So You Have to Do a Research Project?” from East Greenwich Public Schools.

The following Pearson eText artifacts support completion of the Application Exercises, if assigned by your instructor. Pearson eText Artifact 4.1: The RAT Matrix

Pearson eText Artifact 4.2: Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist

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Introduction In the rapid environment of technological evolution, remarkable changes in communications have come about with incredible speed. Some resources have gone from possible to pervasive in only a few years. These changes are not slowing down. The primary reason for this breathtaking revolution in communications is society’s recognition of the importance of ready access to people, resources, and information. Communication is freedom—freedom for people to reach information they need in order to acquire knowledge that can empower them. This heady freedom permeates the atmosphere of a 21st-century information and knowledge society. The development that made this revolution possible is the emergence of the Internet and online, web-based environments. This chapter reviews how the online web environment emerged and how teachers and students can harness it to find and use subject-area content. By becoming more knowledgeable about the Internet, web, digital literacy and information literacy, and web content, teachers can facilitate digital inclusion for students in their community. Inclusionary practices can involve monitoring students’ access to Internet and Internet-enabled devices; providing explicit, high-quality digital literacy preparation; and scaffolding solutions to technical problems. Such digital inclusion contributes toward students’ online self-sufficiency. Online self-sufficiency is more important than ever to participate and contribute to our society. Students are almost exclusively relying on online information sources (Schiffl, 2020). Yet, they need fundamental understandings of how the Internet is ­structured and the range of available online source materials in order to best develop information literacy skills and strategies (Kohnen et al., 2020) in order to be critical consumers of information.

Introduction to the Web Learning Outcome 4.1  Develop navigation and information literacy practices that allow teachers and students to conduct targeted online search strategies and information analysis. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 3—Citizen; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator) We inherited our online world from a U.S. Department of Defense project that developed the first version of the Internet called ARPANET during the 1970s. Although most people think of the Internet as synonymous with the Web, the web was invented by English scientist Sir Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 as an Internet service that links sites around the world through hypertext, texts that contain links to other texts. Web ­browsers, such as Chrome, Safari, Firefox, Internet Explorer, and Opera, allow users to load websites. Other services, such as email and most mobile apps, also use the Internet to function. The web’s capabilities and characteristics in the years since invention have evolved and expanded in the following ways: • Read-only web. Users read web content that experts created. It significantly changed access to information for people with Internet access. • Read/write web. Any user could create content for the web through social media technologies. Users engaged in participatory, interactive activity that generated content. • Semantic web. Connected data increased knowledge sharing across platforms or devices. Smart systems used data to understand users’ personal likes/dislikes and make in-system and across-system recommendations.

100  Chapter 4 • Internet of Things (IoT). Physical things became “smart objects” when information was collected by embedded processors or sensors and communicated via the Internet to other things, resources, or people. • Artificial intelligence (AI). Web software applications use artificial intelligence to analyze the data users generate to adapt the interface, content, and experience for users. Mobile devices have further accelerated this trend toward ubiquitous web use. Anyone with a device such as a tablet, smartphone, or wearable technology can communicate with individuals in other locations and can access course spaces from wherever they are.

Navigating the Web Places you “visit” on the web have unique addresses called uniform resource ­locators (URLs). Look at the example URL shown in a browser window in Figure 4.1. Each address must be entered exactly with every punctuation mark in place or it will not work. You can navigate from website to website by using many different options, described in the following sections. NAVIGATING WITH LINKS  You can move through the web by clicking or tapping links (also known as hot links or hot spots), text or images that have been programmed into the website to send your browser to another location on the web either within the site or to another website. As a user moves the mouse over linked text or images, it provides some visual, textual, or auditory feedback, such as change of color, a dropdown menu, or alternative embedded text. Use the following techniques to keep track of valuable site links:

• Adding a bookmark or favorite. You can organize website links by adding them in a browser-based list called a Bookmarks file (in Firefox, Safari, Chrome) or Favorites file (in Internet Explorer), which are in the browser’s menu.

Figure 4.1  Parts of a Website Address, the Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

1. Each web page address begins with an http://, which stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. Secure websites begin with an https:// to designate a secure server. When typing in a URL, you do not need to type the http:// prefix into the address bar. Some browsers, like Chrome, may not even show the http:// prefix. Only submit sensitive information on websites that are secure, with https:// at the beginning. 2. The location, or domain, of the site is next: www.nasa.gov. This is a unique address for a computer or server connected to the Internet using easily remembered words that have meaning. The www. is often present for websites; some browsers or sites do not require this to be typed in but show them after the site loads. 3. Next, the domain includes nasa., which shows that it belongs to the National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA). 4. Last, you will find the domain designator, a suffix that sometimes hints at what kind of site it is. This site is .gov, a website of the U.S. government. With the demand for websites, there are now numerous suffixes or endings for websites, such as .org, .com, .tv, .us, available for purchase. 5. As you move through this website, the URL will change by adding a slash (/) after the .gov followed by more letters (typically words) that indicate the names of content pages, such as: https://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery.

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• Organizing bookmarks or favorites. For optimal usefulness, organize your bookmarks/favorites into folders or subfolders. This can be done as you add them or at a later time. • Using an online organizer. Websites such as Google Bookmarks, Bookmark Ninja, Instapaper, Historious, Symbaloo (for early learners), Diigo, and Evernote allow users to access their favorite sites at any location by saving the website URLs online in one place. NAVIGATING WITH BUTTONS  Forward and Back buttons are available on browser

menu bars. This has been the most common way to navigate backward and forward to a previously viewed page. NAVIGATING WITH BROWSER “HISTORY”  Every browser keeps a list of sites the user has visited under the “History” menu. The History menu will show you all sites visited chronologically since the last time (if ever) you cleared the history. You can click and hold down the Back button to see the last few sites visited, select a site name on the list, and navigate to it quickly. NAVIGATING WITH QUICK RESPONSE (QR) CODES  With mobile device cameras,

users can scan small, two-dimensional barcode-like images called Quick Response (QR) codes, which immediately navigate to a website embedded within. For example, the QR code in Figure 4.2 will take you to the author’s Twitter account. Teachers in one-to-one device settings have used them to help students go quickly to online educational materials. To create QR codes, users can go to a free code-generator site such as QR Code Monkey.

Downloading Software, Plug-Ins, and Apps The web provides downloadable resources such as software, apps, extensions, and plug-ins that allow you to interact with multimedia websites. Some of these resources are usable with plug-ins already installed in your web browser. However, you might need to download updates to plug-ins or other resource materials. Computer viruses are spread through software downloads and installation from nonreputable sources, so it is extremely important to verify the source for your downloads. We recommend you always check with your school’s IT staff before downloading new software. DOWNLOADING COMPUTER SOFTWARE  Most new computers come with a

browser program already installed. However, browsers update frequently, adding new features, capabilities, and security protocols. Your computer or the browser often alerts you to a needed update. You should download newer versions of browsers from the Apple, Firefox, Microsoft, Google, or other browser websites directly. Most computer software is now downloaded from the web for installation. Before downloading software, be sure you are downloading content from a reputable website. Review the parts of the URL, as shown in Figure 4.1, and ensure that the domain parts are recognizable and that the website functions. Beware of URLs that are a series of numbers or webpages that have spelling errors or do not have professional quality. DOWNLOADING MOBILE APPS  App is an abbreviation for application software and

refers to any program specifically designed to run on mobile devices such as smartphones or tablets. Apps are designed exclusively for a given platform (e.g., Apple, Android, and Windows). People use keyword or app name searches to locate apps in an app-finding program on their smartphone or tablet or by using software such as Apple Music. Schools and districts that want their teachers to have access to apps identified as especially useful can use Apple’s Volume Purchase Program (for Apple apps) and Google Play (for Android). Once downloaded and installed, some apps interface with web-based databases to store or retrieve information about the user and the user’s activity.

Figure 4.2  QR Code. Scan this QR code with your mobile device’s camera to be directed to an embedded website. This QR code will take you to the author’s Twitter account.

102  Chapter 4 DOWNLOADING PLUG-INS, EXTENSIONS, OR ADD-ONS  Plug-ins, extensions,

or add-ons add functionality specifically for your web browser. Many add a menu or button in the menu area of your browser or allow functions to occur in the background. Extensions are browser specific, so find the one for your browser. Some example extensions include: • Google Translate or gTranslate—Translates web content in other languages to your primary language (a setting in the browser). • Adobe Acrobat Reader—Renders Adobe PDF files viewable within the web browser. • Peardeck, Nearpod, and Slido—Add-ons that increase interactive content in Google Slides • AdBlock Plus—Blocks video ads, Facebook ads, banners, and more advertisements. • LastPass—Manages passwords and logs-in to password-protected websites. • OneTab or TabCloud—Saves and restores groups of browser window tabs as a set. • Grammarly—Checks all typed content for spelling and grammar. • Bitly and Firebase Dynamic Links—Makes custom links with shortened URLs and QR codes, respectively. Installing plug-ins, extensions, and add-ons can make users more vulnerable to security risks, so you should always check with your school’s IT staff before installation.

Basic Web Troubleshooting Like most technologies, when using the web, you could face errors and problems. Two of the most common difficulties for web users are discussed here. PROBLEM TYPE 1: SITE CONNECTION FAILURES  After entering the URL, the site

won’t come up on the screen. Several reasons for this problem are listed below. • URL syntax errors. Each dot, punctuation mark, and letter in a URL has to be correct, or the site will not load. Check how you typed the URL for spelling or punctuation errors. • Local or domain server down. If you have checked the URL syntax and are positive it is correct, it could be that the server that hosts the website is not working temporarily, could have a technical problem, or could simply be down for regular maintenance. Wait some time, and try it again. • Server traffic. A rarer cause of connection failures is that the server handling web traffic for the network or for users in the geographic region is not working properly. • Bad or dead links. If a URL repeatedly fails to connect and you are sure the syntax is correct, the site could have been taken off the web. This is known as a bad or dead link. Pearson eText Video Example 4.1 Many students and educators may need assistance with technologies. In this video, a technology director describes their creative approach to offering troubleshooting support for students and teachers.

• Firewalls. Sometimes a site will not connect because a network’s firewall blocks it. If you think that your school network’s firewall is blocking your access to a site in error, contact your IT staff and request adjustment. PROBLEM TYPE 2: FEATURE ON THE SITE WILL NOT WORK  If a website’s feature does not work, it could be that your browser does not have the correct plug-in or extension. Search for the appropriate software for your browser.

Searching the Web for Information There is so much information on the web that companies have developed special searching programs to help us locate items. These searching programs are called search engines. Some popular search engines, databases, and resource sites are described here.

The Web and Web-Based Content Resources 103

We also describe how to use them. Students also need to interpret the information they find; this skill is called information literacy.

Search Engines Search engines, such as Google, Bing, Yahoo!, AOL Search, and WebCrawler, use algorithms to “crawl” the web, searching for new information that is then indexed in a database based on the content found on the page. When someone searches using a search engine, the software retrieves matched content with a relevancy score, which is determined based on the database terms and the user’s search terms. These engines, like Google, have not created any of this content; it just finds the web ­content for the user. At most search engines, marketers and advertisers can pay for sponsored content to appear at the top of search results, which are distinguished differently across search engines. In many cases, the first few links shown are not the most relevant; they are paid advertisements.

Search Tools and Strategies Search engines can be used in several ways, depending on how the user wants to narrow a search. These strategies are important beginning skills for students to become discerning consumers of search engine results (Breakstone et al., 2018). KEYWORD OR PHRASE SEARCHES  While Google uses natural language searching and can accommodate queries such as full sentences, we recommend teachers encourage students to identify keywords rather than using whole sentences or questions to search for content in order to increase the applicability of the search results. The content links listed as results of the search are sometimes called hits. Searches can be strengthened by using the following strategies:

• Limit searches by including a minus sign immediately preceding a keyword you want to avoid, such as Christopher Columbus –Spain. • To search a phrase, use quotes, such as “Christopher Columbus.” The engine will search for the words in the exact order within the quotes, making results more precise. ADVANCED SEARCHES  We advocate that all students use Advanced Search func-

tions because it scaffolds the search query process; allows delimitation by language, geographic region, time, site/domain, file type, and usage rights (copyright); and provides better results. For example, in Google, a student wants to know about literary criticism of the novel Showboat by Edna Ferber. A keyword search with Edna, Ferber, and Showboat yields about 95,000 hits on the music and the movie. However, the student wants to know only about criticism of the book. To be more precise, the student can conduct an advanced search (see Figure 4.3) doing the following: • After typing anything into the Google search engine site, click on Settings and select Advanced Search. • In the “all these words” box, fill in the terms Showboat and Edna Ferber. • In the “this exact word or phrase” box, fill in the terms literary criticism. • In the “none of these words” box, fill in the terms musical, theater, and movie. This advanced search provides about 800 results that primarily give hits on criticism of the book Showboat. This search, if conducted in the plain Search Box, would look like this: Edna Ferber Showboat “literary criticism” –musical –theater –movie, which Google shows in the resulting Search Box along with the results. Once students learn the advanced search skills, they can implement them in the search box directly.

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Figure 4.3  Google’s Advanced Search

NARROW RESULTS  Teachers and students can also use the Advanced Search func-

tion to narrow results even more as in Figure 4.4. In this case, they could set the language to “English” and indicate the terms appearing as “in the text of the page” and choose the SafeSearch as “hide explicit results.” These additional search choices narrow the results to about 350. This advanced search removed more than 99% of the original 95,000 hits in the original keyword search to 350 focused hits. If students tend to use only the first page of Google results, as Maloy (2016) found, the query must be as specific as possible to make those top few results the most applicable. The language narrowing also allows students to search for content in other languages, which is useful for multilanguage learners.

Figure 4.4  Google Advanced Search for Narrowing Results

Figure 4.5  Google Advanced Search for Images

To find an image related to this search, click on the Images option just above the results list. Once images appear, teachers and students can filter them for copyright usage by clicking on Tools and then clicking Usage Rights and choosing “­Creative ­Commons licenses” as shown in Figure 4.5. In this example, none of the original images that matched the search have ­Creative Commons licenses so they cannot be downloaded and used legally. Teachers and students can also set this criterion in “usage rights:” option in the Advanced Search.

The Web and Web-Based Content Resources 105

After students receive research results, teachers should encourage click restraint whereby students do not click haphazardly or even sequentially on the results but use judgment skills in examining the URLs and any abbreviated content in the linked result to choose the best content to pursue (­Breakstone et al., 2018). Further information literacy skills are described later in this chapter.

Research and Reference Tools Research and reference tools include online databases, encyclopedias, atlases and mapping tools, and dictionaries. These reference tools may also be available as apps. ONLINE DATABASES  Online databases aggregate information from a range of

resources, including magazines, newspapers, encyclopedia entries, biographies, and sometimes images and video. Examples include the following: • Explora: Kids/Teens (EBSCO) • Kids InfoBits (Gale) • Primary Search (EBSCO) • MAS Ultra—School Edition (EBSCO) • Opposing Viewpoints in Context (Gale) • Gale In Context: Science. Biography, Opposing Viewpoints, Research, Middle School (Gale, Cengage) • PebbleGo and PebbleGoNext (Capstone). Online databases can be accessed through school and public libraries and their online portals. These library databases can yield manageable, pertinent, and verified resource content for students. Barack (2014) summarized how students as early as ninth grade have increased success in higher education if they have explicit, modeled research experiences using online databases with teachers and librarians, repeated research trainings, and practice researching. ONLINE ENCYCLOPEDIAS  Digital encyclopedias help learners research topics by

locating specific content or all reference materials on a given topic, and they usually offer multimedia formats that include sound and/or film clips as well as hypertext links to related information on any topic. Prominent encyclopedias include: • Britannica School Edition: Elementary School/Middle School/High School/­Escolar Online (Spanish) • World Book: Kids/Student/Advanced/Estudiantil Hallazgos (Spanish) • Wikipedia. Wikipedia is an online, open encyclopedia that anyone can edit. Okoli et al.’s (2014) review of research indicates that Wikipedia has been one of the top visited websites in the world and the top reference resource. Blikstad-Balas (2016) found high school students tended to use Wikipedia due to its ease of use in finding helpful information while 96% of the students also acknowledge the information could be wrong. Many studies encourage librarians, teachers, and students to use Wikipedia as an opportunity to teach about information literacy skills, collaborative information sources, and its use as a gateway to more advanced research skills (Okoli et al., 2014; Polk et al., 2015). Despite widespread use of Wikipedia, many studies indicate that scholars, teachers, and students rate it as less trustworthy than other encyclopedias and use caution when using it (Blikstad-Balas, 2016; Hilles, 2014; Okoli et al., 2014). Many librarians encourage its use for building background information on a topic, and facts should be triangulated as accurate with other sources. DIGITAL ATLASES AND MAPPING TOOLS  Atlases and mapping tools help stu-

dents learn about and use local, national, world, and extraterrestrial geography.

106  Chapter 4 They summarize geographic and demographic information ranging from population statistics to national products and often are interactive, such as playing national songs. Students can either see information on a specific country or city or gather information on all countries or cities that meet certain criteria. Mapping sites such as MapQuest also help teach geographic concepts by showing distances between points. Following are common tools: • Google Maps • Mapquest • Google Earth • Worldatlas • Rand McNally • The National Map from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) • Digital Universe (American Museum of Natural History). DIGITAL DICTIONARIES  Digital dictionaries and thesauruses give pronunciations,

Pearson eText Video Example 4.2 In this video, the teacher guides a word study session of the root word “tract,” after which she invites students to use online references to continue their word exploration.

definitions, example uses, synonyms, and antonyms for each word entry. They also offer many search and multimedia features similar to those of encyclopedias and atlases. Most can play an audio clip of the pronunciation of any desired word, which helps young users and others who cannot read diacritical marks. • Thesaurus.com • Merriam-Webster • Dictionary.com.

Information Literacy Skill Development Locating and using information from online sources for learning purposes has become a key part of classroom learning. Growth in digital information requires that students have opportunities to learn to use web resources to locate information they need efficiently, what Rieh and colleagues (2016) refer to as “learning to search,” also referred to as information literacy. Teachers’ modeling and scaffolding information skills is key to improving students’ information literacy (Schiffl, 2020). In the last decade, false or misleading information rapidly spread on the web and social media and claims of “fake news” are alleged frequently against mainstream journalist sources and individuals. In a large study of young people’s reasoning about web-based information, results were “bleak” (Stanford History Education Group, 2016), indicating low information literacy skills. Researchers have found that learners have difficulty in building appropriate search queries, evaluating resulting information, and focusing on the task through completion (Barack, 2014; van Deursen & van Diepen, 2013). Allison et al. (2016) suggests that practical research projects with teacher guidance and scaffolding are more effective than teaching decontextualized search and information literacy skills, and McGrew (2020) showed that a series of explicit instructional activities in the context of a social studies class led students to gain reasoning skills in evaluating online information. SEARCHING TO LEARN  Teachers can facilitate students’ abilities for searching to

learn (Rieh et al., 2016), which emphasizes the inquiry task that involves information searching, knowledge development, and sense making. Kingsley and Tancock (2014) provide a teacher-friendly approach to developing the following four crucial competencies that support searching to learn. Teacher or librarian modeling within all the activities is critical: 1. Generate high-quality inquiry topics. Students identify a topic and learn to generate key questions to investigate in their information searches.

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2. Search for effective and efficient information. The teachers model generating keywords and search techniques as described earlier. Students learn that searching and understanding is a recursive process that takes time. Teachers must ensure that enough time is provided for effective searching and learning to occur. Students must consider what their final product from learning will be; if it is multimedia focused, search techniques could be different than if the product is data or text focused. 3. Critically evaluate web resources. Teachers model evaluation strategies, such as triangulating information with other sources, author credentials, bias of website, and timeliness of information. Researcher Don Leu suggests that teachers require students to include short descriptive rationales explaining why online sources in their reference lists were chosen and are credible (Herold, 2016). 4. Connect ideas across resources. Students must synthesize two or more sources of information, find connections and meaningfulness, and communicate new knowledge. Software such as NoodleTools or Scrible supports the process that Kingsley and Tancock (2014) describe in the preceding list with an online environment that scaffolds research-based inquiry with tools for citing, annotating, and archiving source materials; note taking, organizing, and outlining content; and collaborating and sharing with peers and instructors. LATERAL READING  Many sources, such as Common Sense Media and the ­American Library Association, suggest the use of checklists to evaluate trustworthiness of websites and their content, such as the downloadable CRAAP checklist created by the ­California State University, Chico Meriam Library available at https://library.csuchico .edu/sites/default/files/craap-test.pdf. Checklists often focus on criteria, such as the currency, relevance, authority, accuracy, and purpose of the website and its content. ­Checklists lead students to read vertically through the whole website, but as websites become more slick, readers are often manipulated by the outward polished appearance of the site that convince them the content is from a reputable source. Wineburg and McGrew (2017, 2019) suggest students should instead become lateral readers of websites, which mimics what professional fact-checkers do as they try to answer the following questions:

• Who is behind this information? • What is the evidence? • What do other sources say? Lateral readers quickly scan a website of interest and attempt to identify its author or sponsoring organization. Then, they open other tabs in their browser to investigate what other resources, such as reputable news or research articles, might reveal about the originators of the target website. They also suggest using advanced search skills such as searching for the author or organization name in quotes with the words “funding” or “bias” (McGrew, 2020). Importantly, students need to engage in and explain their reasoning. Students need to learn and practice their information literacy skills across all their subjects. Students often struggle with evaluating sources even after explicit instruction (Allison et al., 2016; Kohnen et al., 2020; McGrew, 2020). Thus, teachers of all subject areas and grade levels must design subject-specific activities that draw students to practice these skills with online content common to students’ experience. In Table 4.2, we summarize a set of activities developed by McGrew (2020) that teachers can adapt for subject specificity. Teachers must scaffold students in learning strategies to conduct efficient online searches, to understand the types of websites that exist (e.g., original research, journalistic, advocacy, cloaked, and fact checking), to discern who is behind the information, to read laterally, and to use question or criteria common to the subject areas to analyze evidence.

108  Chapter 4

Table 4.2  Information Literacy Activities, Reasoning, and Skills (McGrew, 2020)

BOX 4.1

Goal and Activity

Reasoning Skills

Information Literacy Skills

Goal: Identification of Advertisements Provide two online articles, one that is a reputable news story and one that is a sponsored content story.

Explain which source is more reliable.

Who is behind the information in the source material?

Goal: Lateral Reading Provide a website on a topic in your subject area.

Explain if this is a reliable source of information about the topic, ­using evidence.

Who is behind the information in the source material? What do other sources say? What is the evidence?

Goal: Evidence Analysis Provide a social media post that includes a photographic image about a topic in your subject area.

Explain if this post shows strong evidence about the topic.

What is the evidence?

Goal: Claim Research Provide a claim about a topic in your subject area.

Explain if you believe the claim using evidence from websites you consulted. Describe the sources (websites) and why they are strong and appropriate.

Who is behind the information in the source material? What do other sources say? What is the evidence?

DIGITAL EQUITY AND JUSTICE

Internet Access The COVID-19 pandemic blatantly illustrated the breadth of digital inequities in the nation. It is a significant injustice for teachers to assume that all students have access to computers and Internet in their homes and communities. The U.S. Census estimates 82.7% of households have a broadband Internet subscription (U.S. Census, 2019), and Table 4.3 shows a snapshot of Internet availability in 2021 by race and income characteristics. Several trends in

the data from the U.S. Census, as shown in the table, are important. ■

■

Some portion (11% or more) of households, across all races, ethnicities, or income levels, do not have Internet always available. With the exception of census respondents identified as Asian, people of color have less consistent always available access to Internet in their households than White respondents.

Table 4.3  Availability of Internet for Educational Purposes in Households with Children in Private or Public Schools (U.S. Census Bureau Household Pulse Survey, Week 24, 2021)

Race and Ethnicity

Income

Always available

Usually available

Sometimes available

Rarely available

Never available

Total, All (n = 50,522,411)

74.8%

17.8%

3.2%

0.9%

0.6%

Asian alone, not Hispanic

83.9%

12.7%

1.4%

0.1%

0.1%

White alone, not Hispanic

77.5%

16.5%

2.7%

1.0%

0.3%

Black alone, not Hispanic

70.6%

16.9%

3.9%

1.0%

2.5%

Hispanic or Latino (may be of any race)

69.6%

22.2%

3.9%

0.8%

0.3%

Two or more races + Other races, not Hispanic

67.5%

22.0%

5.9%

1.3%

0.2%

Less than $24,999

64.0%

24.0%

7.2%

2.8%

1.2%

$25,000–49,999

67.0%

26.6%

4.5%

1.5%

0.2%

$50,000–99,999

78.2%

18.2%

2.6%

0.5%

0.1%

$100,000–149,999

83.5%

14.1%

2.1%

0.2%

0.1%

$150,000 and above

88.2%

8.8%

1.0%

0.7%

1.3%

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■

Families with lower incomes have less consistent always available access to Internet in their households than higher-income respondents. Some high-income households (1.3%) do not have Internet available.

Based on these data, there are important actions teachers can take to support digital equity and justice: 1. Survey your students to gauge their access prior to assigning computer or Internet-based homework to students. An ill-informed assumption of universal access may prevent some students from completing their homework, which is referred to as the homework gap. Some households also experience transient ­Internet access, whereby they may have access for some periods of time but lose access at other times.

2. Approach students from an asset-based ­perspective on digital use and experience. While many students may have low or intermittent ­Internet access, most have used the Internet. Determine and center their current skills as you plan Internet-based activities that can build upon these in meaningful ways. 3. Critically monitor your and your school’s digital “­gatekeeping” practices so as to not penalize or hold back students with fewer resources from digital access. Policies that limit access to school computers or require explanations for digital needs, such as printing, disproportionally impact and require more private disclosures of low-resourced students (Robinson & Bran, 2018). Empower all students with ample digital access at school as all their digital experiences contribute to building digital literacy, a foundation for self-sufficient futures.

Online Safety and Digital Citizenship Learning Outcome 4.2  Explain how learning digital citizenship skills helps teachers and students address each of the safety, security, and privacy challenges they are likely to encounter in an online environment. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 3—Citizen; 6—Facilitator) Federal legislation provides some protections for students and youth in terms of their online practices. The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) protects students’ personally identifiable information and educational records through access rules for parents, students, and third parties (such as software companies). The Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA), established in 1998 and amended in 2012, aims for companies to give notice and consent for parents of children age 13 or younger as to the privacy practices of information collected about children under the age of 13. Companies who collect information from children in their online or app-based software must comply with the policy. The Protection of Pupil Rights Amendment (PPRA) gives parents rights regarding the administration of surveys and data collection for marketing purposes that query several types of personal information, such as politics, sexual behavior, and religious affiliations, among others. The Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA), signed into law in 2000, is designed to ensure that libraries receiving federal e-rate funds take measures to keep children away from Internet materials that could be harmful to them, typically through web filters. In 2014, a Student Privacy Bill of Rights developed by the Electronic Privacy Information Center (2014) gives students more control of their data, privacy, and security in ways that the federal legislation does not. This bill of rights focuses on allowing students (or parents) to access, amend, and limit data collection. It also expects that companies will use secure data collection practices, use data solely for educational (not marketing) purposes, provide transparent privacy policies, and hold schools and companies accountable for these rights. States are beginning to introduce and pass data privacy laws. For example, in 2019 New York passed a law temporarily prohibiting use of biometric identifying technologies (e.g., facial ­recognition) in schools and requiring the commissioner of education to conduct a study on its use (New York State Assembly Bill, 2019). California’s and New Hampshire’s Student Online Personal Information Protection Act (SOPIPA), which went into effect in 2016, is being used as a model in other states. These laws focus on companies that

110  Chapter 4 provide mobile or online services for K–12 education to prevent them from (1) using student information for targeted advertising, (2) creating student profiles for commercial purposes, and (3) selling student information. All of these laws shape policies and practices within schools in regard to safety and digital citizenship.

Online Safety and Security Issues The web has its share of safety and security challenges, six of which are discussed here along with strategies that educators can use to make the online environment a safer place for teaching and learning. ACCESSING SITES WITH INAPPROPRIATE MATERIALS  The web has materials that

parents and teachers might not want students to see either because they are inappropriate for an age level or because they contain information or images that some consider objectionable. Most schools prevent access to sites with inappropriate materials through firewall hardware and/or filtering software on individual computers or on the school or district network that connects them to the Internet. Firewall software protects a computer from attempts by others to gain unauthorized access to it and prevents access to certain sites. Filtering software (e.g., Bark, Net Nanny) allows content filtering with parent controls to limit access to sites on the basis of keywords, a list of off-limit sites, or a combination of these. In schools, firewalls and web filtering are set up by the IT staff. As mentioned previously, students can use the SafeSearch option in the Google search engine, if it is not already enabled by the IT system. Although there are software and hardware to prevent students from accessing inappropriate material in schools, nothing is foolproof, so students also need to learn to self-monitor web content. SAFETY AND SECURITY  Social networking sites (SNSs) are online locations that

allow users to upload their own content, meet and connect with friends from around the world, and share media and interests. Although many schools block SNSs, especially for students younger than age 13, their dominance outside of school and children’s lack of experience increase safety and security risks, such as the following: • Phishing and social engineering. Teachers and students must be vigilant against phishing or social engineering attacks, which are emails, texts, or calls that claim to be from a legitimate organization, business, or government agency that ask for personal information that is actually used for information theft or urge you to open an email attachment that is actually malware. For example, you receive an email from your school, possibly even showing the name of a staff person you know, ­saying that your email or other school account has been hacked or compromised; they send you to a site to change your password. If you follow their instructions, they will gain access to your password as you try to change it. No reputable organization asks its members to do this; all such requests should be viewed as phishing attempts and deleted or forwarded to your IT staff for their review. The following features are common in phishing and social engineering attempts: • Generic salutations, such as “Dear Teacher” or “Dear Student” • An extreme sense of urgency, often with dire consequences for inaction (e.g., accounts being locked) • Grammar, spelling, or other language-based errors • Included attachments that you were not expecting • Requests for personal information, passwords, or banking information. • Marketing and data mining aimed at children. Many websites have colorful, compelling images that entice people to act (e.g., buy things, complete surveys, sign up for newsletters). For example, some educational websites and apps, especially those that are free to use, have extensive ads targeted toward children. Others may collect data about users that are used for marketing. These are all nefarious actions

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that policies like FERPA, COPPA, and SOPIPA aim to eliminate. Schools and teachers must also be sensitive to these sites and make students aware of the marketing messages implicit in them and possibly avoid their use. • Online predators. Young people may not realize that other people they meet in online environments may not represent themselves accurately, such as a 12-year-old named “Mary” could actually be a 50-year-old man. Adult predators groom children by pretending to be their age and have similar interests, using fake profile photos, and offering gifts. After a friendship is established, the adult steers the conversation toward sex, often asking for explicit photographs or, less often, to meet in person. Students need to learn to never provide their full names, addresses, telephone numbers, the school they attend, or other community-based information to any people they “meet” on the web, and they should report to teachers any people who try to get them to do so or who ask for explicit materials. • Cyberbullying. The practice of using technology to harass, threaten, embarrass, or target another person has become a serious problem, with 20–40% of adolescents having been perpetrators or victims (Aboujaoude et al., 2015; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2020; Kessel Schneider et al., 2015). Cyberbullying is different than face-to-face bullying because of the increased incidence of individuals being both bully and victim, the ability for bullying to occur 24/7, and the permanence of online bullying activity. Several studies (Aboujaoude et al., 2015; Barlett & Coyne, 2014; CDC, 2020; Guo, 2016; van Geel et al., 2014) indicate the following patterns: • Girls and sexual minorities (e.g., LGBQT) are at higher risk of being victims. • Bullies are more likely to be male. • Children with higher web activity are more likely to be involved in cyberbullying. • Both offline bullies and offline victims are more likely to be both online bullies and online victims. • People with serious psychological phobias, narcissism, and hostility have a high likelihood of being a bully, and negative self-beliefs are related to victimization. • Negative school climates influence more cyberbullying activity. • Cyberbullying has been linked to suicide. Several sites, such as those sponsored by Stop Bullying (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services) and the Cyberbullying Research Center, have been set up to document and combat this problem, but the first line of defense remains school-based programs to teach responsible use of technologies (i.e., digital citizenship) within a safe and respectful school climate, to raise awareness among students of what constitutes bullying and cyberbullying, and to teach appropriate responses if they observe or are a victim of this online mistreatment (Hinduja & Patchin, 2021). School-based cyberbullying programs in various forms have been shown to prevent or intervene in cyberbullying (Aizenkot & Kashy-Rosenbaum, 2021; Tanrikulu, 2018). Parent training, peer-support interventions, and establishment of a positive school climate are also helpful (DeSmet et al., 2015; Guo, 2016). Some schools offer students anonymous reporting tools, such as MySafeSchool. Teachers should advocate for cyberbullying prevention programs, such as the Digital Future Initiative’s cyberbullying curriculum (https://dfinow.org) or Common Sense’s digital citizenship curriculum at their schools. DATA PRIVACY  Many children develop an online presence at birth when their parents post on social media and begin to use digital technologies as toddlers. While the COPPA law increases the likelihood companies get explicit consent from parents before collecting data from children under 13 years old, children should be taught to monitor privacy policies and settings for online environments they join, especially for “free” sites that they join outside of school with or without parent approval. They need to learn about how their personal data are being collected in various ways and can affect them

Pearson eText Video Example 4.3 Watch this video to understand how this principal and his teachers help teach students that appropriate use of technology is a 24/7 task.

112  Chapter 4 in unknown ways in the future. Another privacy issue surrounds the use of cookies, or small data files that track a user’s web browsing. The purpose of cookies is to provide the server with information that can help personalize web activity to the visitor’s needs, but cookies can also track behavior on the web in ways that violate privacy, such as to target advertising based on your browsing history. Students and teachers can learn how to manage cookies in ways that prevent unwanted tracking, such as using browsers like Firefox or Safari, and most recently Chrome, that block third-party cookies. When teachers sign up for new online, cloud-based products, if they click “agree” without reading the legal text, they could unknowingly agree to Terms of Service and a privacy policy with an online software vendor that violates student data privacy by allowing data to flow out of the school and into these software companies (Abilock & Abilock, 2016). Some of this data could include personally identifiable data, biometric data, academic progress or grades, students’ geolocation data, IP addresses, and web browsing history. Therefore, teachers should always check with their school’s IT staff to ensure new software adheres to current data privacy laws. Schools can also work to develop more transparent privacy policies and rationales for online software use to increase parents’ knowledge. DIGITAL WELL-BEING  Digital media and technologies are ubiquitous in most

Pearson eText Video Example 4.4 Teachers can consider screentime as they make decisions regarding the use of technology. Notice that younger children should not have large amounts of screentime.

children’s lives. On average, children from birth to age 8 use screen media for about 2.5 hours each day, 8- to 12-year-olds access entertainment media on screens for nearly 5 hours each day, and teens access entertainment media for over 7 hours daily, and this does not include additional screen time during school and for homework (Rideout & Robb, 2019, 2020). Teachers, children, and their families need to monitor how daily use of digital technologies impacts individuals’ sense of well-being. Research has identified some levels of addictive online behavior among children, the fallacy of multitasking, and relationships between high digital media use and lower empathy, happiness, and social well-being (Felt & Robb, 2016; Twenge, 2019). Calls for more balanced media and technology use begin with teacher and family modeling, digital self-monitoring, and unplugging (Brown & Kuss, 2020; Felt & Robb, 2016; Roberts & Koliska, 2014). ­Teachers should also prioritize intentional, active, social, and creative uses of technology for children as opposed to passive consumption of content, such as the very common television and video viewing. Such uses rely not only on what technology resources are selected but also on how the teacher incorporates them pedagogically with other online or offline classroom-based activities. DIGITAL FOOTPRINT AND ONLINE IDENTITY  The same online features that make

information and media so easy to store and share also mean that, once shared, they have a permanent online presence. As many students, teachers, public officials, and others have learned to their distress, shared messages and media establish an online identity that, although perhaps is misleading, is difficult to change. For example, someone can post a selfie, or a self-taken photo, that reflects an undesirable image. A digital footprint is the trail that people build as a result of their social media interactions and websites’ data capture. Because colleges and employers often review an individual’s digital footprint before making decisions on applications, students’ decisions that create their digital footprint can have negative consequences for future higher education, employment, or even with the law. In light of this, teachers have to instruct students to evaluate carefully the potential impact of their digital actions on their online reputation. COMPUTER MALWARE AND HACKING  Malware are programs written for malicious

purposes. Common ways that malware affect your computer from the web are through email attachments and downloaded files, and computers can be hacked by others when a person connects with an insecure network. • Email attachments with viruses. Email attachments can be malware but look like or be attached to a regular document. When opened, a virus can infect your computer,

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wreaking havoc like deleting your files, modifying applications, or disabling your computer. Do not open any unexpected attachments. • Downloaded files and programs with viruses. As with email attachments, ­malware can attach themselves to files and programs and be received along with the item being downloaded. Download files and programs only from reputable websites. • Connecting to insecure networks. As people move around the world with mobile devices, there is a constant stream of available Wi-Fi networks. Optimally, users should always connect to secured Wi-Fi networks that require a password. By connecting to free Wi-Fi hot spots, people provide access to their device and data, such as everything they type or do while connected to the Wi-Fi network. A fourthgrader in Texas conducted a science experiment where more than 50% of people who connected to his free, mobile hot spot accepted atrocious data use terms and conditions (Cargile, 2016). He concluded they did not read the terms, and he could have monitored all their data and use while connected to his free network. • Hacking. Hacking incidents, when someone illicitly gains access to your computer or to your web accounts, results from weak or shared passwords, major security hacks where passwords are obtained, or from social engineering manipulation. In a recent study, 36% of middle school students reported having shared their passwords with friends (Martin et al., 2020). Passwords should be long, hard to guess, and different for each of your accounts. Teachers and students can consider using a password manager, such as LastPass or Dashlane. For online accounts, users should set up two-step verification, if available, which generates a one-time password typically sent via text message or email.

Online Ethical and Legal Issues Some online behaviors are risky not because they endanger students’ safety or reputation but because they violate ethical and legal rules that could result in reprimand or even legal action. Two of these are academic dishonesty and piracy. ONLINE PLAGIARISM AND CHEATING  Online plagiarism and cybercheating involve academic dishonesty in which someone uses another’s work obtained from the web as their own. In an environment in which information is so readily available and easily copied, students seldom realize that they cannot use text or images that are copyrighted. Teaching students when and how to quote, paraphrase, attribute, and cite their sources has become an essential skill for teachers to include in their instruction on how to do online research. Software such as TurnItIn is available to check students’ work to ensure that they have not engaged in plagiarism. These programs can also identify essays that students purchase and reuse. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of online proctoring software, such as Respondus, ProctorU, Proctorio, Examity, and Honorlock, to monitor students’ test-taking activity expanded quickly. Yet, there are significant privacy concerns inherent in these plagiarism detection and proctoring solutions. Use of plagiarism detection removes students’ agency over their own work, creates a hostile, nontrusting, policed environment, and violates privacy (Morris & Stommel, 2017). Proctoring software surveils and collects private information, such as video, audio, keystrokes, and biometric eye, facial, and movement data of the test taker, and analyzes it with AI for markers of cheating. Furthermore, issues of racial bias have emerged when students of color with more melanin have difficulty using the proctoring software (Asher-Schapiro, 2020). ONLINE PIRACY  The free-flowing nature of online information and the ease with which students can locate it leads many students to the erroneous conclusion that everything they find online should be free. To ensure compliance with copyright laws, schools are making teachers and students aware of policies about copyright, Creative Commons, acceptable usage policy (AUP), and guidelines for fair use of

114  Chapter 4 published materials. Creative Commons expands the ways that creative works can be shared and legally used through a range of licenses that vary in users’ ability to copy, distribute, and remix content for various types of use. However, illegally downloading music, videos, books, and documents remains a widespread problem. These practices are all considered online piracy.

Digital Citizenship In light of the safety issues, privacy challenges, and personal risks presented by online use and because schools are increasingly requiring students to use technology tools and go online, it is crucial for students to develop the responsible, civil, safe, and productive use of digital technologies, including communication and interactions via email, texting, social media, and the web, which fall under the general heading of fostering digital citizenship. ISTE’s Standards for Students include Standard 2, Digital Citizen, which are described in Video Example 4.3. The scope of digital citizenship is broader than the ISTE Digital Citizen standard and includes the following areas: • Information literacy. Identifying, locating, evaluating, and using information effectively; evaluating the quality, credibility, and validity of websites; and giving proper credit. • Privacy and security. Managing online information and keeping it secure by creating strong passwords, avoiding scams and schemes, and analyzing privacy policies. (Aligned with ISTE Digital Citizen Standard 2d) • Digital footprint and identity. Protecting privacy, respecting others’ privacy, and becoming aware of the relationship between one’s different online personas and one’s sense of self, reputation, relationships, and digital footprint. (Aligned with ISTE Digital Citizen Standard 2a) • Media use and well-being. Monitoring digital media use and its relationship with happiness, well-being, and mental health. • Respectful relationships and communications. Using intrapersonal and interpersonal skills to build and strengthen positive online communication and communities. (Aligned with ISTE Digital Citizen Standard 2b) • Cyberbullying. Handling cyberbullying situations and building positive, supportive online communities. • Copyright, intellectual property, and attribution. Addressing plagiarism, piracy, copyright, and fair use. (Aligned with ISTE Digital Citizen Standard 2c) Teachers can develop knowledge and adopt or adapt instructional resources regarding digital citizenship from the following sources: • Common Sense Education offers a K–12 Digital Citizenship Curriculum with lessons geared for grades K–2, 3–5, 6–8, and 9–12. These target media balance and wellbeing, privacy and security, digital footprint and identity, relationships and communication, cyberbullying and hate speech, and news and media literacy. They also offer a Digital Compass interactive game for grades 6–8 in which students become one of eight characters who are facing digital citizenship dilemmas. This game is only available on desktop or laptop browsers to ensure accessibility for all learners. • iKeepSafe’s “Privacy Curriculum Matrix K–12” provides a curriculum for grades K–3, 4–8, and 9–12 that focuses on online/offline balance, ethical use, privacy, relationships, reputation, and online security. • The Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University developed interactive curricular materials for students in grades 1–3 called “The Internet and You,” which focus on digital privacy, search engines, advertising, and building positive online experiences. These are available on the Digital Citizenship+ Resource

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Platform (Berkman Klein Center, n.d.), which collects tools to teach all students about online safety, privacy, creative expression, and information quality. These are excellent resources for curriculum and can assist students in developing a broad overview that could be helpful if teachers choose to develop a Digital Citizen Code (see Figure 4.6). We encourage teachers to (1) focus on select digital citizenship topics that can be integrated within current subject-area content lessons, (2) use active learning pedagogy to situate students’ learning in authentic contexts, and (3) assess students’ learning and behaviors as an outcome (Jones et al., 2016). For example, Ciccone (2019) describes how middle school students developed online communication skills by engaging in cycles of reflection about how their actions in past digital conversations informed, persuaded, or contributed to positive movement among the participants. This cyclical reflection facilitated students to practice participating in and responding to challenging online conversations. Technology Integration Example 4.1 illustrates a lesson plan to use at the beginning of the school year to have students think about their digital footprint or the kind of online presence they establish when they use social media and the web.

Pearson eText Video Example 4.5 Jemma Conley, a third grade teacher, explains how her students can easily learn the importance of acknowledging (or thanking) sources of webbased content they use in their digital creations.

Figure 4.6  Building a Digital Citizen Code for the Classroom Kayla Delzer (@TopDogTeaching) promotes seven digital citizenship commitments for the ­classroom community. The following code (or variation thereof, preferably co-developed with your students) could be shared as classroom posters, desktop backgrounds for school ­computers, and simply as valuable discussion starters: 1. I am building my digital footprint every day. 2. I will make safe and appropriate choices while on my device. 3. I will keep my private information private. 4. I will be respectful of myself and others while on my device. 5. I will never share my passwords. 6. I will report any and all bullying I see while on my device. 7. I will always give credit to sources I use. (Duckworth & Delzer, 2016)

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 4.1 

TITLE: Online Safety: What Would You Do? CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Digital literacy and citizenship GRADE LEVELS: Middle school ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 2—Digital Citizen CCSS: CSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.6.2, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.6.3, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.7.4, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY. SL.8.1.D DESCRIPTION: Students begin learning how to behave safely online by discussing how they know that someone on the phone is who they say they are. Then they talk about how this is different online and focus on why someone might pretend to be someone they aren’t. They go over the basic rules for staying safe online. Next, the teacher divides the class into small groups and gives each a scenario about someone they “meet” online in a range of online environments. They are to discuss and decide how they would react and why. As groups share their scenarios and responses, the class discusses the reactions and use the reasoning to collectively generate its own “Online Communication and Safety Code.” SOURCE: Based on an idea from the lesson plan Be Street Smart on the Google Digital Literacy and Citizenship Curriculum website.

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Online Educational Content Learning Outcome 4.3  Describe the benefits and challenges of locating and using archived, immersive, or live web content and open educational resources (OER) in educational contexts. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator) Transformative, technology-supported teaching and learning cannot occur only with technological infrastructure, such as Internet access and computing devices; it requires accurate subject-area content that supports learning. As more districts adopt one-to-one computing, some abandon print and digital textbooks in favor of online educational content. This typically transfers a significant responsibility to teachers to identify online content and develop curriculum using it, sometimes without the provision of additional time or curriculum development preparation (Hughes et al., 2016; McShane, 2017; Molnar, 2016b; Ok et al., 2017). However, many teachers see opportunities to use online content as supporting the professionalization of teaching by allowing them more control and design of teaching (Kimmons, 2016). The following sections introduce three types of online educational content: archived, immersive, and live.

Archived Online Content Pearson eText Video Example 4.6 In this video, a principal talks about how video clips are used within lessons across the curriculum that help students stay engaged in learning.

Archived content remains fairly static and often resides in online archives from governmental agencies or on organization websites, such as universities. No master list of online content exists, so teachers must use strategic searching techniques or their knowledge of organizations that might offer accurate content applicable to the curriculum and learning levels of students being served. Such archived online content tends to be oriented toward consumption by which learners read, watch, listen, or view the content. Yet learners can also synthesize and develop meaning across multiple sources as described as a culminating step of information literacy or searching to learn. Teachers use archived content as content representations to illustrate content concepts for instruction. Some archived content examples include: • Library of Congress (LOC)—The largest library in the world with 162 million ­ igital holdings, the LOC offers a rich array of its resources available online in its D Collections. For example, the collection “African-American Band Music and Recordings, 1883–1923” highlights historical documents that represent the experiences of African American musicians. • The Wayback Machine—November (2016) describes how The Internet Archive, a nonprofit, has been archiving the web since 1996. He suggests that teachers can use this to engage students in temporal online research by examining websites as events occurred, such as the September 11 attacks (by examining archived news sites on that day). • HippoCampus—This is an archive (hippocampus.org) of 7,000 free high-quality, multimedia learning objects (e.g., videos, simulations, websites, Google Docs, PDFs) across 13 subject areas, such as mathematics, natural science, social studies, and humanities, for middle and high school levels. Teachers can create a playlist of learning objects organized under one URL to share with students. Objects are also tagged by Common Core and California State Standards. • Digital Library of Georgia—An extensive archive of artifacts relating to the history and culture of Georgia, amassed from collaborating libraries, archives, and museums. Materials include legal and government materials, archaeological images, financial papers, letters, diaries, books, cartoons, photographs, and more. Research your state’s holdings or consult a local librarian.

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• NASA STI Repository—NASA provides this public archive of all peer-reviewed research generated from NASA-funded research. This resource is an example of archives that require teachers to review the content prior to student use because much of the content could require a high level of scientific knowledge. • GizaCARD—A web of archival records related to Egyptian excavation projects dating from the 1800s to current work. Developers attempt to connect related artifacts to make exploring a topic more efficient. This resource also offers some 3-D objects and tours. Technology Integration Example 4.2 exemplifies how students access archived historical material to develop an understanding of westward expansion.

Interactive or Immersive Web Content Web content can also have interactive or immersive qualities that typically involve the user in some actions, such as making choices, moving, or involving multiple senses. Simulations; virtual field trips; and virtual, augmented, and mixed reality environments have these interactive and immersive characteristics. Although some of this web content is available online via web browsers, some is available only via mobile apps that must be downloaded from the Internet and could require Wi-Fi for full functionality. SIMULATIONS  A simulation is a computerized model of a real or theoretical sys-

tem designed to teach how the system works. As instructional software, simulations contain sequenced content designed for learning. Learners using simulations usually must choose the tasks to do and the order in which to do them to explore how changing input variables impacts outcomes within the simulated system. The simulations can represent physical things or processes, can slow down or speed up events that are difficult to understand in real time, can teach procedures or sequences of steps, and can be situational problem-solving tasks. Some online simulations include: • The National Gallery of Art—Offers the NGAkids Art Zone iPad app with several art-making simulation tools that situate learners in art history, such as drawing portraits or creating a still life painting, and sharing their creations online. A version for the computer can be accessed by emailing [email protected]. • Web-based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE)—Provides interactive simulations and models as one feature of its learning environment. • PhET Interactive Simulations—Developed by Nobel Laureate Carl Wieman, this site offers free interactive simulations for physics, chemistry, earth science, biology, and math. • OASIS—Includes over 2,300 interactive simulations in its database. 3-D OBJECTS AND MODELS  A 3-D object is created using mathematical modeling,

image capture technology, and 3-D design software to represent real-world artifacts or locations that are manipulable (rotating, flipping, turning, zooming, slicing). Sometimes 3-D objects are also incorporated into other interactive experiences, such as games and virtual and augmented reality. A virtual manipulative, or replica of real manipulatives accessed, is one of the most popular types of 3-D models. Some 3-D object collections include: • The Smithsonian 3D—Explore more than 2,500 3-D objects rendered from digitized museum artifacts at https://3d.si.edu. Objects source from across a range of museums, in a diversity of topics, with the most frequent related to animals, anthropology, anthozoa, and paleogeneral. Be sure to read how to use the 3-D viewer to access the tools, such as more articles, annotations, changing materials, ­environment and lighting, measuring, and slices.

118  Chapter 4 • Google Earth—Examine 3-D buildings and terrain anywhere on Earth. • Giza 3D—Enter and interact within a 3-D model of a 5,000-year-old tomb and other 3-D reconstructions of pyramids. • Wolfram Demonstrations Project—Access a large collection of these 3-D manipulatives to support math, science, business, engineering, geography, and create arts topics. Virtual manipulatives support inquiry learning through hands-on manipulation of objects to explore concepts within critical mathematics skills, such as ­numbers and operations, algebra, geometry, and measurement. • Didax Virtual Manipulatives—Access ad-free browser-based virtual manipulatives for mathematics. They have some supporting instructional activities and embed codes that allow teachers to embed the objects into a LMS, such as Canvas, Google Classroom, or Schoology. VIRTUAL FIELD TRIPS  A virtual field trip allows a virtual visit to a real place or a

historically accurate representation without physically leaving a learning space. V ­ irtual field trips eliminate travel expenses and extensive travel time and increase global perspectives through place-based learning (Klippel et al., 2020; Zwickert, 2017). These activities explore unique locations around the world, sometimes involve learners at remote sites, and can explore experiences rather than places, such as women describing their careers and showing what kinds of work they do (Ravipati, 2017). Successful virtual field trips often involve the following elements: • Clear objectives for the field trip • Logical and timely connections to the curriculum • Substantive conversations between students and field experts

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 4.2 

TITLE: Westward Expansion CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Social studies, history GRADE LEVELS: 9–12 ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 1—Empowered Learner; Standard 3—Knowledge Constructor; Standard 5—­Computational Thinker; Standard 6—Creative Communicator; Standard 7—Global Collaborator CCSS: CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.6-8.1, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.6-8.5, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY, RH.9-10.2, CCSS. ELA-LITERACY.RH.9-10.8, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.9-10.9, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.11-12.6 NCSS THEMES: 2—Time, Continuity, and Change; 3—People, Places, and Environments; 4—Individual, Groups, Institutions; Disciplinary Standards: 1—History, 2—Geography, 4—Economics DESCRIPTION: Begin by asking the class to hypothesize why Americans might have wanted to move west in the middle of the 19th century. ■

■

■

■

Discuss general reasons why humans leave one place to move to another and what the cultural and political climate of the United States was during this era. Have students work in pairs researching, examining, and discussing primary source documents and images from this time period available online through the National Archives. Using tools available at the National Archives Docs Teach website (https://www.docsteach.org) or a collaborative online tool such as Google Docs or Google Sites, students then choose 5–10 documents to share with the class and place their documents in chronological sequence, compiling a list of possible reasons why Americans moved westward during this era. Have groups share their findings with the class.

SOURCE: Based on ideas from the lesson Reasons for Westward Expansion at the National Archives Experience Docs Teach website.

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• Inquiry- or problem-based instruction to support higher-order thinking • Site-provided teacher materials • Media that enhance the curriculum • Requirement that students prepare for the field trip and debrief afterward to build knowledge • Teacher collaboration with field trip site personnel to enhance student learning (Stoddard, 2009). When virtual field trips do not offer all these elements, especially access to experts, field site personnel, or teacher materials, teachers must supplement and adapt them to ensure an effective learning experience for students. LaScala (2020) describes 42 virtual fields trips, and a few notable virtual field trips include the following: • Google Arts & Culture—Presents virtual adventures into museums, artworks, and places. The Google Expeditions content (shut down in 2021) migrated into Google Arts & Culture. • Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History—Offers room-by-room virtual tours of the museum’s permanent, current, or past exhibits as well as their research stations. A teacher can likely use just one part to connect with a lesson topic. • U.S. White House—Allows students to join a virtual 360-degree tour of the White House (Stracqualursi, 2017). • Animal habitats—Many zoos, aquariums, and sanctuaries offer live webcam access to viewing animals and habitats. Check out Zoo Atlanta’s PandaCam (YouTube), The Maritime Aquarium, Monterey Bay Aquarium, and Explore.org’s live cams in African countries. VIRTUAL, AUGMENTED, AND MIXED REALITY ENVIRONMENTS  In 1989, Jaron

Lanier coined the term virtual reality, but only recently has the potential for virtual and augmented reality in education grown in science (Chen et al., 2016; Civelek, 2014), social studies (Lisichenko, 2015), and foreign languages (Solak & Erdem, 2015). Yaakov (2017) described the differences between these digital modalities as follows: • Virtual reality (VR) shuts out the real world, typically with a physical head-mounted display (HMD), and the user enters another reality, such as traveling inside a human cell.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 4.3 

TITLE: Exploring the Shape of a Parabola CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Mathematics, Algebra GRADE LEVELS: Middle or high school ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 3—Knowledge Constructor; Standard 5—Computational Thinker; Standard 6—­Creative Communicator CCSS (Mathematics): CC.2.2.HS.C.1, CC.2.2.HS.C.2, CC.2.2.HS.C.4, CC.2.2.HS.D.7 DESCRIPTION: Students explore the relationship between the quadratic equation and the shape of a parabola. They use augmented reality technologies in the GeoGebraAR app in iOS to fit an augmented reality parabola around a physical object in the classroom or school environment by adjusting the x- and y-parts of the quadratic equation. Students snap photos of their shaped parabola and note the successful equation. In small groups, students share their photos and explain how adjusting the x- and y-parts affected their parabola shape. SOURCE: Based on Barnabei, C. (2018). Augmented reality and parabola challenge. OER Commons. https://www.oercommons.org/ authoring/50586-augmented-reality-and-parabola-challenge

120  Chapter 4 • Augmented reality (AR) involves a layer of virtual entities often accessed with a mobile app that are set atop the real world, such as physical coloring pages that come to life with the virtual layer. • Mixed reality (MR) involves augmented entities in interaction with the real world, such as playing/building within an augmented representation of Minecraft in the middle of one’s living room. Extended reality (XR) is a term encompassing all the real-and-virtual combined technologies, such as VR, AR, and MR. Yaakov (2017) emphasized that these virtual modalities move the Internet of information to an Internet of experience, and such experience is shaped deeply by feelings of presence/co-presence, embodiment, agency, and empathy. Presence is a feeling of being there, and co-presence is being there together (Fowler, 2015). Embodiment, a representation of the user in the world, can occur naturally in immersive VR or through an avatar in virtual worlds. Agency, a desire to take action, and empathy, an understanding of another’s perspective, are facilitated within VR, though competition can undermine perspective taking (Herrera, 2017). Yaakov and Herrera (2017) found that as virtual environments mature, there will be a need for more educational content and more social aspects within the environments. Virtual Reality Environments.  In 3-D full immersion systems, the user places a headset, such as Google Cardboard, Samsung Gear VR, HTC Vive, Oculus Quest 2, or Oculus Rift S, over their eyes. Known as a head-mounted display (HMD), this headset is the channel through which the wearer experiences the virtual environment, which can represent real or simulated worlds. The headset fills the mind with views of the virtual environment, and whole-body senses create the illusion that the wearer is actually in the environment that the system displays. See Figure 4.7 for the photo of a boy wearing an HMD who is engaged in a VR activity. Other devices for full immersion systems include sound and tactile or haptic interfaces Figure 4.7  Example of a Virtual Reality such as a data glove. Immersion Educational content for virtual reality exists and is expanding Leah-Anne Thompson/Shutterstock rapidly. Following are prominent resources with content available for PK–12 teachers: • Google Earth VR • Google Arts & Culture App Cardboard VR tours of art museums and cultural locations • Apollo 11 VR Experience • New York Times VR • YouTube 360 videos. To use these, teachers need access to HMDs and mobile devices if they are using Google Cardboard or Samsung Gear VR. Google ­Cardboard is the most economical cardboard viewer, and Google also offers instructions for making a viewer with everyday items. A current challenge is the lack of learner interaction with objects or other people within virtual reality environments because many experiences are photos or videospheres in which the viewer is passive except for being able to view in 360 degrees of direction (Fowler, 2015; Yaakov, 2017). Semi-immersive virtual environments are not whole-body immersive (Fowler, 2015) but allow users’ avatars to meet in webbased, 3-D VR environments on a computer screen, as in multiuser virtual environments (MUVEs). In them, users create an avatar to represent their digital presence; then they explore the digital world to connect and collaborate with others. Educational MUVEs include Quest Atlantis where students from various physical locations use

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their avatars to solve various problems posed in educational scenarios (see ­Figure 4.6). EcoMUVE is a virtual environment in which students learn about ecosystems. Chen et al. (2016) found that middle school students’ interest in science increased with use of EcoMUVE. Augmented Reality Environments.  Augmented reality refers to a combined hardware and software platform that creates a computer-generated environment in which a real-life scene is overlaid with information that enhances its uses. National Geographic designed an AR-enabled cover, accessed using Instagram Spark AR, through which students can explore what 12 global cities’ climate will feel like 50 years from now. An AR app, Layar, is used to enhance print materials, and QuiverVision works with coloring book pages. The National Science Foundation has funded a project in which students will engage in AR with their mobile devices to inquire into local historical sites in present-day and different time periods and from different social perspectives as well as another project, EcoMOBILE, that allows students to examine the ecological aspects of a local pond using phones and AR technology. A NASA mobile app, SpaceCraft AR or 3D, uses augmented reality for learners to explore spacecraft, including rockets and robots, that explore our solar system. Choose a flat spot to project the augmented 3-D spacecraft models, as shown in Figure 4.8. Mixed Reality Environments.  Mixed reality allows people to engage with complete virtual objects or worlds while functioning within the real world. For example, AR and VR can be overlaid in wearable technologies like eyeglasses to allow access to augmented, virtual content. Other developers are using HMDs to access holograms, such as Microsoft’s HoloLens or Meta’s Meta 2. The latter allows tactile interaction with virtual objects.

Figure 4.8  NASA Spacecraft AR, projecting the Curiosity Mars Rover SOURCE: https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/21543/spacecraft-ar/. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

122  Chapter 4 The major advantages of interactive and immersive educational content are experiential learning, problem solving and inquiry, spatial understandings, and gaining empathy for others (Aubrey et al., 2018). Teachers should favor VR, AR, or MR resources that position learners with agency, rather than as only passive consumers of the content. Take care to design lessons that support equity, such as ensuring culturally relevant and diverse content, offering these immersive experiences to all students (not only for subgroups like Advanced Placement, International Baccalaureate, or gifted classes), and considering how to accommodate language, physical, social emotional, and cognitive barriers to participation (Hughes et al., 2020). However, some virtual environments involve significant preparation for students to learn to do simple tasks such as walking around or designing their avatar, so weigh the learning and curricular advantages of the immersive experience against similar experiences in the real world. Some virtual environments, such as those with virtual and mixed reality technologies, require expensive hardware and Wi-Fi connectivity outside for GPS-based AR.

Live Web Content Another source for online educational content are live-sourced experiences. Obviously, live content is more difficult to use because of timing constraints, but some live content can eventually become archived. In this section, we describe how videoconferencing, webinars, livestreaming, and citizen science all leverage live content for learning. VIDEOCONFERENCING, WEBINARS, AND LIVESTREAMING  This form of

interactive visual communication allows multiple parties to see, hear, and interact with each other. For videoconferencing, each party typically has a camera, an audio input device such as a noise-canceling microphone, an output device such as speakers, and a videoconferencing app, such as Zoom, Skype, Google Meets, Google Hangouts, Microsoft Teams, and Adobe Connect. Many of these apps offer areas for video, visuals (e.g., presentations or graphics), a list of participants, question posting, closed captioning, and other features. Videoconferences tend to be smaller in size with collaborative participation by all attendees. Webinars typically involve a host and/or panelists sharing their video and other materials with an audience that is view-only. A livestream or webcast is streamed live over the Internet, often to large view-only audiences. You can use Vimeo, YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, and Twitch to livestream events. Successful use of videoconferencing, webinars, and livestreams requires familiarity with the technology, clear teaching and learning objectives, and pedagogical strategies appropriate for the medium. These events work well in one-computer classrooms with a projector. Multiple participants joining from the same physical classroom should all wear headphones and be muted unless speaking. Some educational examples include: • Students can speak and listen in languages they are learning with peers in other countries. ePals is a source for finding language partners for classrooms. • Expert scientists and explorers from around the world offer live broadcasts at ExploringByTheSeat.com that are then archived on their YouTube channel. • Book authors or guest speakers can speak on curricular topics. Two environmental science teachers host the annual National BioDiversity Teach-In in February when experts offer webinars on topics related to ecology and biodiversity. The webinars are archived in their YouTube channel. In addition, Skype in the Classroom facilitates finding volunteer guest speakers. CITIZEN SCIENCE  Citizen science is a form of crowdsourcing in which the pub-

lic can participate in scientific research activities. The scientific research is authentic, not a simulation, so the data collected and submitted by citizens become part of the

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project’s analysis and findings. The following citizen science projects offer K–12 educator resources to support classroom learner participants: • Galaxy Zoo (astronomy) • Project Noah (wildlife, plants, science) • iNaturalist (botany, environmental science) • DiskDetectives (astronomy). See Technology Integration Example 4.4 for a lesson that involves rearing mosquito eggs to adulthood for identification. Citizen science projects situate learners in inquiry-based science, data analysis, and use of evidence to support claims. Various research studies show positive outcomes from participating in citizen science, some of which include increases in science content knowledge, understanding of the scientific method, scientific thinking, scientific analysis, scientific observation skills, and motivation and interest in science (Haywood, 2014; Hiller & Kitsantas, 2014). Barron and colleagues (2016) caution that teachers need to prepare students in scientific data collection procedures and should move beyond the data collection stage to support optimal learning. Lamb (2016a, 2016b) provides a comprehensive list of citizen science projects applicable for classrooms.

Pearson eText Video Example 4.7 In this video, NASA invites the general public to become disk detectives. Using NASA imagery, a disk detective searches for dusty debris and gas-rich primordial disks, which are the early indicators of planet formation. The data and tools are located at http:// diskdetective.org. https://youtu.be/bR89llnvtR0

Open Educational Resources A subset of web-based educational resources is referred to as open educational resources (OER). These are educational materials in the public domain or aligned with copyright provisions, namely licensing with Creative Commons, that allow for the 5Rs: 1. Retaining (keep a copy) 2. Reusing (use in multiple ways) 3. Revising (modify a resource) 4. Remixing (combine multiple resources) 5. Redistributing (share again with others).

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 4.4 

TITLE: Mosquito Project CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Science, biology, environmental science GRADE LEVELS: Middle and high school ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 5—Computational Thinker; Standard 6—Creative Communicator NGSS: Science & Engineering Practices (HS-LS4-6; HS-LS2-7; HS-LS2-6; HS-LS2-8); Crosscutting Concepts (HS-LS21; HS-LS2-2; HS-LS2-6); Disciplinary Core Ideas (HS-LS2-1; HS-LS2-2; HS-LS2-6; HS-LS2-7; HS-LS2-1-8) DESCRIPTION: In this citizen science mosquito project, students collect mosquito eggs from their home communities and rear them to adulthood for identification using a microscope. Once students identify the mosquito species, they can also determine the disease and health risks for people in proximity to the mosquito breeding area. Discussion questions focus on the local-, city-, and state-level impacts of the mosquito data. Each student communicates their data to a national mosquito species study, and the collective national data is then available to all mosquito submitters for further analysis. Teachers who run the experiment annually can have students further engage in year-to-year quantitative analyses and interpretation. Students come to understand how diseases are spread from mosquitos to humans and pets and can educate others about health and safety measures. SOURCE: Based on Cohnstaedt et al. (2016) and the Invasive Mosquito Project at http://www.citizenscience.us.

124  Chapter 4

Table 4.4  Open versus Free versus Proprietary Learning Resources Type

Cost

License

Flexibility

Example

Openly licensed educational resources

Free or minimal cost (i.e., nonelectronic print costs)

Open license (Creative Commons or other similar)

Yes, generally licensed to ­allow free use and ­repurposing by others (some restrictions and ­exceptions apply)

OER Commons Metropolitan Museum of Art public domain images

Free digital learning resources

Free

Copyright restricted

Varies; limited ability to use and repurpose without permission from owner/creator

Smithsonian Education

Proprietary textbooks

Variable costs

Copyright restricted

No, copyright owner has the right to control the ­copying and dissemination of an ­original work

Holt McDougal ­Environmental Science Student Edition eTextbook

SOURCE: OpenVersus Free table by OET, used under CC-BY-3.0/Modified, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/us/. Report is in public domain (U.S. Department of Education, 2017), https://tech.ed.gov/files/2017/01/GoOpenLaunchPacket_v1_2.pdf.

Popular types of OER include videos, simulations, e-textbooks, images or photographs, assessments, tests, infographics, games, lectures, lesson plans, podcasts, and full or parts of courses (de los Arcos et al., 2016). Open educational resources are free, but not all free resources offer the license for the 5Rs. Table 4.4 summarizes some of the differences between open-licensed, free, and proprietary educational resources (U.S. Department of Education, 2017). The U.S. Department of Education began a #GoOpen campaign aimed at school districts and states to innovate teaching and learning with the use of open educational resources. The resources can vary from open textbooks that inform an entire year’s curriculum to supplemental resources applicable to just one lesson.

Locating OER When schools and districts begin building OER into their curriculum, they tend to use three sources for locating OER: online searches, OER repositories, and curated OER content. ONLINE SEARCHES FOR OER  As described in earlier sections of this chapter, teachers can use search engines to search for subject-specific content and use filtering tools within advanced search options to identify content that is open licensed (review ­Figures 4.3 through 4.5). Individual content creators, separate from organizations, may openly license their materials. Even when filtering by Creative Commons licenses, teachers should verify that the resource on its website has been labeled as open licensed or public domain. OER REPOSITORIES AND METAFINDERS  Educational agencies, schools, states, and nonprofit organizations are building OER repositories. There is no limit to the amount of content in them, and they typically have filtering tools to search by grade level, subject area or topic, curricular standards, and other criteria. Repositories differ in who adds content and whether content is reviewed or vetted. For example, Wisconsin, a #GoOpen state, developed the WISELearn educator portal where teachers can explore resources, professionally learn, and share successes and strategies with other teachers. The following examples include repositories and metafinders that search across sources that predominantly offer individual content bits, not curricular-sequenced OER content. Some of these, such as YouTube and TED Talks, were identified as most used by surveyed teachers from 72 countries (de los Arcos et al., 2016). Not all content in the following repositories is openly licensed. Therefore, it is always incumbent on the user to check the licensing on all resources or filter by Creative Commons licenses.

• YouTube. Offers video content, video sharing, and video editing tools. • TED Talks. Offers video content.

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• Creative Commons. Offers definitions of various open licenses and a CC search tool to find open content. • OER Commons. Offers a searchable OER repository and tools to create OER by building lessons, collections, or libraries individually or collaboratively with others. • National Science Digital Library. Offers searchable access to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics content contributed by educational, nonprofit, and government providers, such as USGS and the Smithsonian. • CK–12 Foundation. Offers various OER resources, such as simulations and flexbooks, and various instructional tools for teachers and study tools for students. • Khan Academy. Offers access to instructional videos and interactive exercises. • Share My Lesson. Offers more than 420,000 lessons and activities. • International Music Score Library Project. Offers a library of sheet music and scores. • Wikimedia Commons. Offers more than 37 million media (image, sound, video) files. • OASIS. Searches across 117 sources to facilitate finding OER. It offers a search by subject, such as biology, composition, history etc., or filtered by type of OER, such as videos, textbooks, courses, books, and more. • Mason OER Metafinder. Helps users find OER by simultaneously searching across 22 different sources, such as many noted above but also other sites that might be less known. Follow @OerMason on Twitter to keep up with this very valuable tool. Some of these repository resources, such as the National Science Digital Library and OER Commons, also offer collections of materials curated by digital librarians from the organization. However, these tend to be resources collected about a topic and still lack instructional and pedagogical framing for the resources. McShane (2017) argues that repositories of individual open educational content, such as lessons, images, or videos, can number in the thousands (even when using a subject-area filter) and quickly become overwhelming because an individual piece of content still requires (1) quality assessment, (2) integration into or development of a lesson aligned with curricular standards, (3) learner activities, and (4) teacher resources for instruction. CURATED CURRICULAR OER CONTENT  Because of the time-intensive effort to find OER content, districts, schools, and teachers seek curated OER content. As opposed to collections of resources by topic or subject area, curated curricular OER is created by individuals with content and pedagogical expertise who sequence OER to build a curriculum aligned to standards and supported with teacher resources, such as assessments, lecture supports, and learning activities, all of which take time to create and is a type of intellectual property. Teachers, curriculum developers, nonprofits, and forprofit companies, some of which expect compensation (McShane, 2017), are participating in curating OER content into sequenced curriculum. McShane (2017) points out that although open resources are free to use, curated curricular content is not created for free because it requires human expertise and significant time and resources. The following list includes sources of curated curricular content:

• Utah’s Open Textbook Projects. Part of the Utah Education Network, experts have developed open textbooks, often circulated through the CK–12 Foundation, such as third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade science, chemistry, and secondary English language arts textbooks. • Michigan Open Book Project. Curricular-sequenced open textbooks across K–12 levels in social studies discipline.

126  Chapter 4 • OpenStax. Affiliated with Rice University, this resource offers a few high school– level textbooks in science, history, and mathematics. • Open Up Resources. This organization offers free full-course curricula in ­mathematics and English language arts authored by experts and checked by teachers. These examples tend to offer full-year curricula or textbooks as an open resource; the degree to which they include multimedia-based OER within the curriculum varies greatly. Other online platforms allow teachers to curate customized learning units from OER or from already existing lessons by remixing or revising. Examples of these platforms include: • Gooru. A nonprofit online platform where teachers can assess students to identify learning needs and search for and remix open, multimedia content, such as websites, videos, games, and images, into learning assignments that students pursue at their own pace. • OpenEd. This is a resource library of assessments, homework, videos, and lesson plans that can target learning needs. Teachers can create classes or integrate OpenEd resources within a school-based LMS. The site uses machine learning to curate content by content standards confirmed by subject-matter experts. • CK–12. This nonprofit foundation has developed many free tools to support collecting online resources; create online textbooks (i.e., flexbooks), simulation apps, and content practice apps; and provide collaboration capabilities. States, school districts, and teachers who build curated curricular content engage in a lengthy process summarized in the #GoOpen District Launch Packet (U.S. ­Department of Education, 2017) that involves: • Setting goals and selecting a strategy Pearson eText Video Example 4.8 In this video, classroom teacher Chris Perkins talks about how his use of CK–12 has allowed him to meet a wider range of learner needs without stress and how he’s excited to teach each day. https://youtu.be/q-S24Y9PdPw

• Selecting and organizing an implementation team • Putting in place a robust infrastructure for learning • Ensuring accurate and effective learning resources • Designing professional learning opportunities. For example, North Kansas City Public Schools worked toward district-wide, one-to-one device ubiquity and used the CK–12 platform and Diigo for content curation. A Blackboard LMS facilitated online and blended learning with OER and ­copyrighted materials (U.S. Department of Education, 2017).

Benefits of OER The following range of benefits of using OER in education was generated from teachers who participated in professional development of OER (Kimmons, 2016; Mason & Kimmons, 2018; Tang, 2020): • Meet students’ learning needs. By adapting, remixing, or revising OER, teachers can supplement or remove content, simplify difficult reading, translate content into other languages, and make content more culturally responsive to students in their geographic areas. • Engage teachers in digital information literacy. Teachers can use the information literacy activities described earlier in the chapter to identify, cull, and adopt OER to tackle identified problems of practice.

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• Improve access to resources without budget constraints. OER typically does not require accounts or paid subscriptions to use resources. Some subject areas, such as science, technology, and social studies, change so much that teachers believe that print textbooks are not up-to-date. • Increase educational equity. Inequity in resources across schools, districts, and states can be reduced with OER. Teachers can use the same resources as anyone else in the world with Internet access. • Share lessons and curated materials. Teachers express delight in working with colleagues, such as in a professional learning community, to develop OER-based lessons and to immediately share their work back out to the profession to be used by other teachers. • Increase teachers’ awareness of and adherence to copyright laws. Use of OER increases teachers’ knowledge of fair use and open-licensed resources and can serve as models for their students. • Save money. Many argue that OER reduces costs by eliminating expensive textbooks.

Challenges of Using OER The following challenges have been reported by school districts and teachers (de los Arcos et al., 2016; Kimmons, 2016; Mason & Kimmons, 2018; McShane, 2017; Tang, 2020): • Difficulty finding or knowing where to search for current OER for specific subject area and local context. Teachers require professional development or resources, such as those shared in this chapter, to support the integration of OER. • Lack of time to search for OER or experiment with OER. Teachers’ long working hours reduce some teachers’ inclination to investigate OER. Teachers indicate that there are no legislated incentives to support adoption and development of OER. • Technical difficulties in downloading or using OER. Teachers mention lack of Internet bandwidth, use of old devices, broken links within the textbooks, and lack of technical support or training as preventing their abilities devoted to OER adoption. • Lack of knowledge of reuse/adaptation rules for OER. Teachers require knowledge of copyright and open licensing to adopt educational resources legally. • Lack of alignment of OER to academic standards. Schools and teachers need OER that support meeting goals specified by standards and/or school improvement plans, which reduces flexibility or “openness” of choice. • Lack of adoption or support for OER among colleagues or school leaders. ­Administrators must buy in to OERs and provide time and support for planning and collaboration. • Lack of OER adherence with privacy laws and equal access under IDEA. Schools and teachers must ensure that no educational resources used within the classroom violate federal policies regarding privacy of student information and that they meet accessibility requirements for students with disabilities. • Increased costs. As districts commit to OER, they must also invest financial resources to support time for teacher research and professional development and/ or district-sponsored curricular development processes to ensure quality and effectiveness of OER.

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Evaluation and Integration of Web Content for Instruction Learning Outcome 4.4  Apply evaluation criteria to determine the ease or difficulty of integrating web content in instruction. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 5—Designer) This section introduces an evaluation framework that teachers can use to consider the challenges that web content might introduce if adopted. The framework suggests instructional design options that can either reduce or increase the ease of use of web content. It also introduces integration strategies for web content in the classroom.

Evaluation Framework for Web Content When web content is not evaluated by other trusted entities, teachers must decide whether it is applicable for their teaching purposes. Wallace (2004) identified five affordances of web resources: boundaries, authority, stability, pedagogical context, and disciplinary context. When taken into account, these affordances can assist teachers in analyzing the usefulness of resources and identifying any supplementary design work that a teacher might need to do to make the web content usable. As teachers design activities with web content, these five affordances will vary on a spectrum from not available to maximally available. It is more challenging to use web content when the affordances are not available, but teachers can make design decisions that increase the affordance’s availability. This section describes these five affordances and discusses how teachers can make instructional design decisions in relation to these affordances. BOUNDARIES  Boundaries are the intellectual and physical boundaries or scope of web

content. Print textbooks provide maximal intellectual and physical boundaries. On the web, students physically access web content on digital devices, in web browsers, and in apps, and different access could show web content differently. Students’ intellectual web work could occur on any website or web-based app. To set more physical and intellectual boundaries, teachers can assign specific devices through which to access specific web content. Teachers can increase intellectual boundaries by assigning content topics versus student-generated topics, but this approach can still lead to massive content. Teachers can introduce intellectual boundaries by limiting sources for information, such as using K–12-oriented library databases, so the resulting content will be at students’ reading and intellectual levels. AUTHORITY  Authority is the relevance and accuracy of the web content. Unlike text-

books that are developed and authorized for classroom use, content on the web typically is not. Teachers and students must take critical stances on establishing relevancy and accuracy of web content. Some teachers engage in such critical analysis and provide a set of “vetted,” known, authoritative content sites for students to use. Other teachers have students find and evaluate information, but in doing so, teachers must ensure that students have deep information literacy skills. STABILITY  Stability relates to whether the web content will change or disappear

within the timeframe for use. Some teachers ignore issues of instability by allowing students to search all websites, but this approach introduces the need for students to determine authority of the content. Most teachers find that the most stable web content emerges from websites sponsored by reputable, professional organizations, such as governments, nonprofits, and universities. PEDAGOGICAL CONTEXT  Pedagogical context is the existence of built-in framing for

teaching and learning in web content. Framing could include online materials to support teacher scaffolding, instruction, and assessment as well as to support students’

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learning processes. If web content has no built-in pedagogical context, teachers could have a difficult time knowing what and how students are learning. For example, students doing open web research on any website might need scaffolding to capture their learning processes and knowledge development, such as using NoodleTools software. When web content provides pedagogical context, teachers should consider using it if deemed appropriate. For example, some Virtual Tours provide narrative descriptions that can be read to the class, the ability to mark aspects in the field to be examined in more detail, and assessment questions. DISCIPLINARY CONTEXT  Disciplinary context is the existence of carefully sequenced

subject-area curricular content (e.g., mathematics, science, English language arts disciplines) that is age and developmentally appropriate. Unlike textbooks, most web content has not been created with subject-area curriculum and learner needs in mind. In most cases, teachers must decide and design how web content will fit within their subject-area curriculum. Some teachers design web content to replace exactly what they have done in the past (replacement), expand content resources (amplification), or enable completely new experiences (transformation). In other cases, teachers use web content as an add-on to textbook-based instruction. If students do not see coherence with other activities, the web content could be peripheral to deep learning. Wallace (2004) argues that web content activities that make all affordances maximally available could inhibit students from critical thinking or synthesis. On the other hand, web content activities that make affordances unavailable will be unsuccessful because students will be overwhelmed with content and/or teachers will need to do significant design work to focus the learning activity. Teachers must work within these affordances to design more successful use of web content. For example, a teacher can identify a battery simulation (the web content) on the CK–12 website, which is tagged with curricular topics and standards that the simulation meets (high disciplinary context). CK–12 is a reputable nonprofit foundation in existence since 2007 (high stability) with science experts as authors of the content (high authority). The battery simulation is focused on electrochemical concept (high intellectual boundary) and is accessible via any web device or browser (low physical boundary). CK–12 does not provide any pedagogical context for its use (no pedagogical context). The affordances of this web content are more available, but the teacher is called on to design how to pedagogically use the simulation within their teaching to support learning.

Integration Strategies for Web Content Once teachers have identified subject-area web content, they can consider the following strategies that address a variety of learning and teaching needs; it is this match of activity types with needs that defines and shapes integration strategies. The web content and lessons described previously can be used with more than one of the integration strategies discussed next. Student research and information literacy skill development.  Students frequently use web content to gain insights into topics they are studying and to locate information from online sources for research papers and presentations. Growth in students’ digital literacy skills requires that they have opportunities to learn how to use web resources to locate the content that they need efficiently. Possible activities include individual and cooperative research projects. Visual learning with problems, models, and solutions.  The real-world data, images, animations, and videos available online can help students better understand complex problems and visualize possible solutions. Currently, 3-D modeling is experiencing increased use in education as a way to help students visualize mathematics and science concepts. Activities that work for this strategy include teacher demonstrations, individual or cooperative research, and problem-based learning.

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Pearson eText Video Example 4.9 In this video, a 5th grade teacher emphasizes the importance of considering what and when to use technology. He explains a difference between passive and interactive use and monitors how much he, the teacher, is engaged with the students while they use particular technologies. How could this teacher’s perspectives influence the integration strategies you choose for using web content?

Multicultural, global awareness.  Much web content can broaden students’ perspectives on their own culture and that of others in addition to providing insights into how their culture relates to others in the world. For example, teachers use virtual field trips to locations or experiences not accessible to students. Archived content from museums and government organizations provide historical artifacts from across the globe. ­Teachers should explicitly seek additional content to represent diverse cultural, gender, and linguistic backgrounds to increase inclusion and sense of belonging for many students. Immersive exploration, collaboration, and problem solving.  In education, immersive and semi-immersive 3-D worlds, such as virtual reality and MUVEs, are expanding in K–12 education. Virtual reality is emergent with some K–12 content, such as that offered through Google Arts & Culture. MUVEs can be used to conduct social constructivist lessons to allow students to work together to explore content and solve problems. For example, the Quest Atlantis MUVE positions students as scientist avatars who must solve a water-quality problem in a park. Semi-immersive 3-D worlds have capacity for multiuser collaboration, whereas virtual reality needs to expand its social capabilities in the future.

CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY The following is a summary of the main points covered in this chapter. 1. Introduction to the Web • The Internet began as a U.S. Department of Defense project called ARPANET. Today’s web was invented in 1989. The web’s capabilities are constantly evolving and penetrate into our daily lives. • Internet addresses are called uniform resource locators, or URLs. There are parts of a URL that determine its address. • Methods of navigating the web include navigating with links, buttons, browser history, and QR codes. Links can be organized using bookmarks, favorites, and online organizers. • The web provides the ability to download computer software, mobile apps, web extensions, addons, and plug-ins. These resources often need to be updated to ensure optimal functionality for and security against new threats. • Basic Internet troubleshooting includes solving two kinds of problems: site connection failures and features on the site that will not work. 2. Searching the Web for Information • Search engines are online programs that allow keyword searches to locate websites. • Search strategies include keyword or phrase searches, advanced searches, and narrowing results.

• Research and reference tools let students look up information in online databases, encyclopedias, atlases and mapping tools, and dictionaries for research projects and other learning activities. • Information literacy involves building appropriate search queries, evaluating resulting information critically, connecting ideas across resources to build knowledge, and implementing lateral reading strategies. 3. Online Safety and Digital Citizenship • Many federal laws govern policies and practices within schools regarding online safety and digital citizenship. • Online safety and security issues for teachers and students include accessing sites with inappropriate materials, safety and security, data privacy, digital well-being, digital footprint and online identity, and computer malware and hacking. • Online ethical and legal issues for teachers and students include online plagiarism and cheating and online piracy. • Digital citizenship concepts include information literacy; privacy and security; digital footprint and identity; media use and well-being; respectful relationships and communications; cyberbullying; and copyright, intellectual property, and attribution.

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4. Online Educational Content • Archived content remains fairly static and often resides in online archives from governmental agencies or on organizations’ websites. Teachers and students must use strategic searching techniques or their knowledge of organizations to find archived web content. • Four types of web content with interactive or immersive qualities include simulations; 3-D objects and models; virtual field trips; and virtual, augmented, and mixed reality environments. • Live web content occurs in real time and includes videoconferencing, webinars, livestreaming, and citizen science. 5. Open Educational Resources • Open educational resources (OER) are web resources either in the public domain or Creative Commons licensed to allow the 5Rs: retain, reuse, revise, remix, and redistribute. • Educators use three sources for OER content: online searches for open-licensed content, OER repositories, and curated OER content. • Teachers have identified many benefits of using OER, including meeting students’ learning needs, engaging in digital information literacy, improving access to accurate OER, increased educational equity, sharing curated lessons, increased awareness of copyright, and saving money.

• Teachers have identified several challenges in using OER, including difficulty finding OER, lack of time to search or experiment with OER, technical difficulties in using OER, lack of knowledge about OER, lack of curricular alignment with OER, lack of support for using OER, lack of adherence to laws regarding privacy and equal access, increased costs for professional development, and curricular development. 6. Evaluation and Integration of Web Content for Instruction • Teachers should evaluate web content in terms of the availability of five affordances: boundaries, authority, stability, pedagogical context, and disciplinary context. Teachers can make design decisions in how they use the web content that can accommodate the availability of these affordances, which can impact the success of web content use in teaching and learning. • Integration strategies that leverage archived, interactive, immersive, or live web content include student research and development of information literacy skills; visual learning with problems, models, and solutions; multicultural, global awareness; and immersive exploration, collaboration, and problem solving.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP Apply What You Learned In this chapter, you learned about finding web-based content resources. Now apply your understanding of these concepts by completing the following activities: • Reread Ms. Almon’s A Research Paper lesson at the beginning of this chapter. Pay close attention to Step 3 of her TIP where she identifies the technological ­possibilities for her problem of practice: getting students to learn about and use research resources. Using your knowledge about finding web-based content resources introduced in this chapter (navigating the web, searching the web, online safety and digital citizenship, online educational content, open educational resources, and evaluating web content for instruction and integration), generate at least one new technological possibility for targeting Ms. Almon’s problem of practice. • Review how Ms. Almon and her colleagues ­RATified the lesson in Step 5 of her TIP as represented in Table 4.1. Use the RAT Matrix to analyze the role(s) and relative advantage that your new technological possibilities

(identified in the last step) would have in the lesson. You must reflect on the roles that your identified technological possibilities play as replacement, amplification, and/ or transformation of instruction, student learning, and/ or curriculum. Do you feel that your proposed technology would provide relative advantage? Pearson eText Artifact 4.1: The RAT Matrix

Technology Integration Lesson Planning: Evaluating Lesson Plans Complete the following exercise using Technology ­Integration Examples 4.1–4.4, any lesson plan you find on the web, or one provided by your instructor. a. Locate lesson ideas—Identify three lesson plans that focus on any of the web-based content resources you learned about in this chapter. For example: • Archived web content • Simulations

132  Chapter 4 • 3-D objects or models • Virtual field trips • Virtual, augmented, or mixed reality environments • Videoconferencing, webinars, or livestreaming • Citizen science. b. Evaluate the lessons—Use the Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist and the RAT Matrix to evaluate each of the lessons you found. Based on the evaluation and your RATification of the lessons, would you adopt these lessons in the future? Why or why not? Pearson eText Artifact 4.2: Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist

Pearson eText Artifact 4.1: The RAT Matrix

your community could bring as assets to the lesson? • What are the technological possibilities for helping to solve the identified problem of practice? Identify the technology(ies) you will integrate into the lesson to ensure that you have the skills and resources you need to solve the problem. What integration strategies are used in this lesson plan? b. Describe Phase 2, Design and Teach the Technology ­Integration Lesson: • What are the objectives of the lesson plan? • How will you assess your students’ accomplishment of the objectives? • What integration strategies will you use in this ­lesson plan? • What is the relative advantage of using the technology(ies) in this lesson? • How would you prepare the learning environment? c. Describe Phase 3, Evaluate, Revise, and Share:

Technology Integration Lesson Planning: Creating Lesson Plans with the TIP Model Review how to implement the TIP model (see ­Figure 3.4) for technology integration planning and use Ms. ­Almon’s lesson, A Research Paper, in this chapter as a model. ­C reate your own technology-supported lesson that uses web-based content by completing the following activities: a. Describe Phase 1, Lead from Enduring Problems of Practice: • What is the problem of practice or main content challenge in your lesson? • What are the technology resources that your ­students, their families, you, your school, and

• What strategies and/or instruments would you use to evaluate the success of this lesson in your classroom, in order to determine any needed revision? • Create descriptors for your new lesson (e.g., grade level, content and topic areas, technologies used, ISTE standards for students). • Save your lesson plan with all its descriptors and TIP model notes and share with your peers, teacher, and others. When you use your new lesson with students, be sure to assess it using the Technology Impact Checklist. Pearson eText Artifact 4.3: Technology Impact Checklist

CHAPTER 5

Instructional Content Software for Student Learning Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter and completing the learning activities, you should be able to: 5.1 Identify characteristics, sources, roles, and selection criteria for

instructional content software in order to evaluate them to facilitate adoption. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst) 5.2 Describe the benefits, challenges, integration strategies, and

s­ election criteria of drill-and-practice, tutorial, and adaptive, ­personalized learning functions that support directed instructional situations. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst) 5.3 Describe the benefits, challenges, integration strategies, and

s­ election criteria of simulation, game and gamification, and ­problem-solving functions that support social constructivist instructional situations. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst)

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN ACTION:

Rescuing Aliens GRADE LEVEL: Middle school CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Earth and space science LENGTH OF TIME: Two weeks

Phase 1  Lead from Enduring Problems of Practice Step 1: Identify problems of practice (POPs) Ms. Igwe was a middle school science teacher whose students seemed disinterested in science. She wanted ­students to experience science as an inquiry process that yields findings that have important contributions to the world and its (Continued)

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inhabitants. She had a unit focused on Earth and space science that, in the past, she had difficulty teaching using an inquiry-based approach. Furthermore, Ms. Igwe felt her past students had achieved superficial knowledge of Earth and space science that likely was not sustaining.

Step 2: Assess technological resources of students, families, teachers, the school, and the community Ms. Igwe knew that most of her students had Internet access and used the web to play games or used social media at home on computers, tablets, or smartphones. A few students did not have computers or tablets at home but still had access to phones. Ms. Igwe’s classroom had 10 computers that she often used for center-type activities or individual computing activities. If needed, she could check out some tablets from the library. She knew of a local astronomy group that offered star-gazing events and International Dark Sky Week was coming up, both of which she might connect.

Step 3: Identify technological possibilities and select an integration strategy While perusing a local university’s website, Ms. Igwe learned of Alien Rescue, an immersive, problem-based learning environment, aligned with sixth-grade space science. It is an intentionally open environment for students to learn through inquiry, experimentation, analysis, reflection, and justification to solve a problem. She thought that this environment might just stir students’ interest in her science instruction more than just seeing diagrams and examples of space. Thus, Ms. Igwe knew her integration strategy would be social constructivist, in that students would work in small teams, exploring and building their knowledge of space science through the environment’s big problem: six displaced alien species are orbiting Earth and need help. The students are scientists on the International Space Station called upon to find new homes for them on planets or moons in our solar system.

Phase 2  Design and Teach the Technology Integration Lesson Step 4: Decide on learning objectives and assessments Ms. Igwe wanted her students to achieve more with this experience than just learning scientific knowledge. She wanted the experience to be interesting and challenging in ways that would change their attitudes about science. She developed the following outcomes, objectives, and assessments. She set modest objectives because she was ­unfamiliar with the ill-structured, problem-based science environment. Outcome: Visually represent the solar system. ■ ■

Objective: All students will identify the correct placement of the sun, planets, moons, and orbits. Assessment: Visual rubric from NASA

Outcome: Identify scientific concepts that distinguish different planets and moons in our solar system. ■ ■

Objective: All students will demonstrate knowledge of at least 50% of the space science concepts. Assessment: A researcher-designed science concepts test

Outcome: Enjoy learning scientific problem-solving. ■ ■

Objective: At least 50% of students will demonstrate a positive attitude toward scientific inquiry. Assessment: A teacher-designed, 10-item survey that students complete anonymously

Step 5: Assess the relative advantage: RATify the lesson After planning her integration approach but before teaching it, Ms. Igwe took the time to determine the relative advantage of using Alien Rescue to meet the learning needs of her science learners. So, she RATified her proposed lesson using her knowledge of teaching earth and space science in the past, the educator materials available on the site, and her experience exploring the environment. Refer to Table 5.1 for the aspects of instruction, student learning, and curriculum that Ms. Igwe felt would be impacted by her students working on the Alien Rescue problem. She was pleased to find that the lesson held many transformative elements and felt there was much relative advantage to do the lesson.

Step 6: Prepare the learning environment and teach the lesson Ms. Igwe created small groups of students who would work together for the duration of the investigation. She ­followed the recommended activity sequence: Day 1: As a whole class, Ms. Igwe plays the opening scenario, which draws students into the problem and task challenge. Student groups then explore the virtual environment, allowing each member to control the exploration for 5 minutes. At the end of class, a group representative orally shares a significant discovery within the environment. Day 2: As a whole class, Ms. Igwe facilitates discussion of the problem at hand, the causes of it, and the possible investigative tools. She allows student groups time for exploration to discover the broader issues the aliens and the scientists are grappling with and share again.

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Table 5.1  Ms. Igwe’s RATified Lesson Instruction Replacement Technology is a different means to same end. Amplification Technology increases or ­intensifies efficiency, ­productivity, access, ­capabilities, but the tasks stay fundamentally the same.

• Computers and tablets facilitate individual and small-group, problem-based inquiry in the environment.

Transformation Technology redefines, ­restructures, reorganizes, changes, and creates novel solutions.

• Scaffolded through hints, tutorials, and examples within Alien Rescue. • Student centered and ­student led.

Learning

Curriculum

• Students write and submit scientific rationales.

• Aligns with current NGSS standards (e.g., MS-Space Systems). • Aligns with ISTE standards.

• Situates learners as scientists. • Students apply scientific concepts to simulated crisis to find new homes for alien species. • A real problem on which to apply developing knowledge.

• Provides an immersive solar system in which to conduct scientific inquiry. • Provides virtual scientific tools.

Days 3–5: Students identify the problem, identify the needs of each alien species, and develop a plan to investigate and solve the problem. Ms. Igwe provides an overview of the inquiry process of collaborating, investigating, hypothesizing, testing, and sharing. Student groups can use the environment to investigate the alien species and the solar system. Topics of temperature, gravity, atmosphere, and spectra may arise. If weather cooperates, Ms. Igwe organizes a star viewing with the astronomy club at the library for students and families on a Friday evening. Days 6–11: Students will investigate possible homes for the aliens by creating hypotheses and designing probe launches to gather information. Collective sharing of probe successes and malfunctions as a whole group occurs. Days 12–14: Students complete their data analysis, finalize their decisions, and write rationales for the new homes for the alien species. Student groups discuss each alien species sequentially, briefly summarizing their suggested new homes. The teacher and peers can provide feedback regarding optimal and less optimal homes for the alien species.

Phase 3  Evaluate, Revise, and Share Step 7: Evaluate lesson results and impact Ms. Igwe’s students accurately represented the solar system. All her students also successfully developed knowledge of at least 60% of the science concepts, such as gravity, atmosphere, orbits, scale, magnetic fields, and geological features. She intended to use the concepts not understood to lead follow-up activities. She was delighted that more than 80% of the students expressed a positive attitude toward scientific problem solving in the context of Alien ­Rescue. A few students expressed discomfort with the ill-structure and lack of didactic lecture by Ms. Igwe.

Step 8: Make revisions based on results Ms. Igwe made a note to remember to make the following changes: ■

■ ■

Develop some follow-up lessons in which students could transfer their developing scientific knowledge to a different space context. Add a learning outcome related to practices of scientific inquiry. Use a wiki or Google Doc collaborative note-taking area where groups can archive their take-aways each day.

Step 9: Share lessons, revisions, and outcomes with other peer teachers Ms. Igwe felt that the lesson had successfully improved students’ knowledge of space science in the immersive space environment. She tweeted out a link to the Alien Rescue website and pinned it on Pinterest for her science teacher followers. She followed up with the school librarian who added the site to her website that logged useful content ­resources for future teacher consultations. SOURCE: Based on lessons and resources at https://alienrescue.education.utexas.edu and from Liu et al. (2020).

The following Pearson eText artifacts support completion of the Application Exercises, if assigned by your instructor. Pearson eText Artifact 5.1: The RAT Matrix

Pearson eText Artifact 5.2: Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist

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Introduction This chapter introduces you to some of the oldest and most well-researched ­technology-based strategies in the field. Each decade gives these strategies a fresh face using the newest technologies, yet their underlying functions and benefits remain the same. Instructional content software is a general term for computer programs or apps used specifically to deliver content-based instruction or assist with the delivery of instruction on a topic. Instructional software includes designed content material that often is instructionally sequenced for specific K–12 content areas and learner developmental levels. Thus, instructional software is used solely to support instruction and/or learning. In this chapter, instructional software is introduced by its teaching function: drill and practice, tutorial, simulation, games and gamification, problem solving, and personalized learning. However, remember that these teaching functions meet certain learning needs, so a specific software app could include more than one function. For example, an app can offer a tutorial sequence on chemical compounds and then let students safely simulate making the compounds. Integrating instructional software products means matching their underlying teaching functions to what and how students need to learn. In the first section, we introduce the teaching functions and provide a general set of selection criteria to support teacher decision making. In the subsequent sections that group teaching features by the integration approaches of directed and social constructivist, read about the defining characteristics, selection criteria, benefits, challenges, and integration strategies of each function of instructional software. The web-based content reviewed in Chapter 4 may or may not incorporate these teaching functions. When they do not, it is incumbent on the teacher to provide the instructional sequencing and pedagogic placement of web-based content within lessons. The software highlighted in this chapter are predesigned with these features. Not surprisingly, many products are fee based due to the required expertise and development costs. We encourage teachers to advocate for a role in district or school decision making for technology and software product adoptions.

Introduction to Instructional Software Learning Outcome 5.1  Identify characteristics, sources, roles, and selection criteria for instructional content software in order to evaluate them to facilitate adoption. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst) In the 1960s and 1970s, educators and software developers alike began to pursue the idea that computers could be programmed to teach. Some believed that education would be more efficient if computers took over the traditional role of teachers. Some 60 years later, we talk less about computers replacing teachers and more about helping teachers transform the teaching process. This chapter shows how software empowers teachers rather than replaces them. We begin with some basic definitions and terms for instructional software and the functions that these products can play in teaching and learning.

Definition of Instructional Software Instructional software is a general term for computer programs or apps used specifically to deliver instruction or assist with the delivery of instruction on a topic through demonstrations, examples, and explanations. Instructional software includes pre-­programmed curricular material that often is instructionally sequenced. ­Instructional software is used solely to support instruction and/or learning.

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In the early days—when the purpose of instructional software was primarily t­utoring—it was called computer-assisted instruction (CAI) or courseware. These terms are still in common use, but some kinds of instructional software such as simulations, instructional games, and problem-solving software are designed with more constructivist and socio-constructivist purposes in mind; they support rather than deliver instruction. Therefore, teachers also can hear instructional software referred to as computer-based instruction (CBI), computer-based learning (CBL), or computer-assisted learning (CAL), or in more generic terms, such as software learning tools.

Teaching Functions in Instructional Software Software serves the following teaching functions: drill and practice, tutorial, personalized learning, simulation, game or gamification, and problem solving. Many of today’s software packages fulfill several different functions. For example, a languagelearning system could have a number of drill activities and also have problem-solving and game functions. Although software teaching functions are distinct, developers tend to use the terms for these functions interchangeably. Some developers refer to a drill program that gives extensive feedback as a tutorial. Others refer to simulations or problem-solving functions as games. In light of current trends toward multiple-function software systems, teachers must analyze software carefully to determine which instructional function(s) it employs to ensure that it supports their specific teaching and learning needs. It is possible and desirable to identify whether software provides, for example, science vocabulary skill practice (drill-and-practice function) and/or opportunities for studying plant growth in action (simulation function). Each software function serves a different purpose during learning and, consequently, has its own appropriate integration strategies to coordinate with other activities within the blended or online course. Some software functions (e.g., drill and practice, tutorial) remain focused on directed strategies, delivering information to help students acquire and retain information and skills. Other instructional software is designed to support more constructivist or social constructivist aims of helping students explore topics and generate their own knowledge independently or with others. Therefore, some software functions (e.g., simulation, games) can be used in either directed or social constructivist ways, depending on how they are designed or used.

Selecting Appropriate Instructional Software It can be difficult for teachers to identify new instructional software options or to know which ones that are available are worthwhile. The following section describes sources that help review software and introduces evaluation criteria for teachers to use to determine whether specific software is appropriate for classroom needs. SOFTWARE REVIEWS  The number of commercial instructional software prod-

ucts has grown so much that new sites have emerged to help teachers, parents, and schools select ones that meet criteria for quality and alignment to Common Core State ­Standards (CCSS) or state standards. Some sites include edshelf, EdSurge ­Product Index, Common Sense Education’s EdTech Reviews, Digital Promise’s EdTech Pilot Study Briefs, and What Works Clearinghouse. LearnPlatform and Learning List are district-level solutions that support ongoing evaluation of products and usage. We  ­recommend using these review sites along with our recommendations for ­evaluating instructional software. CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING SOFTWARE  When you start to search for instructional software to meet your teaching or student learning needs and find some possibilities, you will need to determine whether it is appropriate. Using a range of resources that

138  Chapter 5 provide suggestions for finding and evaluating software and apps (Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2015; Karolcík et al., 2015; Lee & Cherner, 2015; Lubniewski et al., 2018; Ok et al., 2016), we have developed the following selection criteria that may assist you in determining the instructional strength of the resources you have discovered, especially as you consider technology possibilities (Step 3 of the Technology Integration Planning [TIP] model) and when you RATify a proposed technology-integrated lesson (Step 5 of the TIP model). • Content. The software should contain rigorous disciplinary content aligned with content standards that matches your students’ learning needs at their developmental level. Ask whether the content is accurate and current, is culturally inclusive, and has enough content to meet a range of learner levels to provide differentiated instruction across the time frame of use. • Instruction. Aim for meaningful learning to be accomplished, such as learning that is purposeful, is personally relevant, connects with learners’ prior knowledge, and provides practice that applies knowledge to authentic, real-life situations (Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2015). Assessment elements should track student progress and provide meaningful information that assists in determining students’ learning gains, needs, and progress and that is accessible to both the student and teacher (and sometimes parents). • Integration model. Consider the underlying instructional model within the software, such as directed or social constructivist instructional approaches, and determine whether that approach matches or complements how you will integrate the software within your intended instruction and overall lesson. • Differentiation features. Ok et al. (2016) developed an extensive rubric for selecting apps for students with learning disabilities. These authors emphasize seven research-based elements that contribute to effective instruction: inclusion of clear objectives, strategies for developing skills and subskills, three or more examples for each skill, five or more skill practice opportunities, error feedback with correct answer, error analysis, and progress tracking. • Learner involvement. Examine the extent of student agency by determining how learners are involved in the software. Software should be responsive to users’ actions, but Hirsh-Pasek et al. (2015) distinguish different types of active learning, such as mind-off physical activity (swiping or tapping), mind-on mental activity (solving puzzles), and interactivity with a resource (choosing a character or path or using an in-game microscope). • Learner engagement. Software features can impact engagement through a range of elements including behavioral (motivating persistence and effort in activities), emotional (generating affective reactions to the experience), cognitive (offering problems that challenge but do not frustrate), assessment (providing immediate and differentiated feedback and positive praise for achievement), and instructional (providing open-ended tasks) (Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2015). Monitor closely for gratuitous use of engagement that has no clear connection to learning. • Technical and implementation aspects. Determine the software’s technical ease of use for both the learners and the teacher. Will learners understand and navigate through the software successfully and is it accessible for all learners? Hirsh-Pasek et al. (2015) found that younger learners control learning better on touchscreens because they reduce the need for mouse motor control skills. Determine whether the software functions within your existing technical resources, such as compatibility with a learning management system (LMS), such as Schoology. What user support or documentation exists? Can teachers try it for some period of time for free to ensure its applicability?

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• Design and aesthetics. Examine the multimedia elements, such as graphics, text, and sound, to determine whether they are connected to the learning tasks, not gratuitous additions. The graphic elements and design need to match the developmental age and interests of target learners to ensure that they find the resource engaging. • Evidence of effectiveness. Investigate whether strong evidence exists that this instructional resource leads to the learning gains in the knowledge areas that you are targeting. Is the evidence from an independent source, not the product developer? These criteria can assist with your initial review of instructional resources. In the following sections, you will find additional criteria to consider when reviewing instructional products that have one or more of the specific functions: drill and practice, ­tutorials, adaptive and personalized learning, simulations, games and gamification, and problem solving.

Characteristics of Drill-and-Practice Functions Learning Outcome 5.2  Describe the benefits, challenges, integration strategies, and selection criteria of drill-and-practice, tutorial, and adaptive, personalized learning functions that support directed instructional situations. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst) Drill-and-practice software provides exercises that have students work example items, usually one at a time, and receive feedback on their correctness. Programs vary considerably in the kind of feedback that they provide in response to student input. ­Feedback can range from a simple “OK” or “No, try again” to elaborate animated displays or verbal explanations. Some programs simply present the next item if the student answers correctly. Types of drill and practice are sometimes distinguished by the way the program tailors the practice session to student needs. Common types of drill functions follow: • Flash card activity. This is the most basic drill-and-practice function, arising from the popularity of real-world flash cards. A student sees a set number of questions or problems presented one at a time and chooses or types an answer, and the program responds with positive or negative feedback depending on whether the student answered correctly. • Chart fill-in activities. In this kind of practice, students are asked to complete a whole set of answers (e.g., multiplication facts) by filling in a chart, usually on a timed basis to test for fluency. Then they receive feedback on all the answers at once. • Branching drill. In this more sophisticated form of drill-and-practice function, a branching drill moves students to advanced questions after they get a number of questions correct at some predetermined mastery level; it can also send students back to lower levels or review questions if they answer a certain number of questions incorrectly. Students probably will not realize that branching is happening because the program does it automatically. Sometimes the program can congratulate students on good progress before proceeding to the next level, or it can allow them to choose their next activities. • Extensive feedback activities. In these drills, students get more than just correct/ incorrect feedback. Some programs give detailed feedback on content students

Pearson eText Video Example 5.1 In this video, a superintendent advocates for teachers to be active in reviewing new technology resources to determine their potential contributions. How might the criteria for evaluating software assist in such a process?

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Figure 5.1  Vocabulary Practice Uses Drill

and Practice

SOURCE: Images reprinted by permission of BrainPop, http:// www.brainpopesl.com. BrainPop © 1999–2011. All rights reserved.

incorrectly answered. This feedback is sometimes so thorough that the software function is often mistaken for a tutorial. (See the next section for a description of tutorial functions.) However, the function of a drill is not instruction but practice after instruction. Figure 5.1 shows a screen of a software that has a drill-and-practice function in which learners practice word identification by dragging each word into the correct category.

Benefits of Drill and Practice The benefits of drill-and-practice software have been well established by research. Indeed, their effects were so well documented in the early days of computer-based learning that little current research focuses on it. It became clear long ago that drill activities can provide the effective rehearsal that students need to establish newly learned information into long-term memory (Merrill & Salisbury, 1984; Salisbury, 1990). To help them master higher-order skills more quickly and easily, students must have what Gagné (1982) and Bloom (1986) call automaticity, or automatic recall of lower-order prerequisite skills. Teachers of students with learning disabilities have found drill programs useful (Graham et al., 2007). Roschelle et al. (2016) conducted a large, randomized field trial with seventh-grade mathematics students and found that students who used ASSISTments online homework, which offered mathematics problem sets with assessment and feedback, achieved higher end-of-year assessment scores than students whose homework practice went unchanged. They also found that students with lower mathematics achievement experienced greater gains. Schoppek and Tulis (2010) found that fluency in basic math skills is essential for mathematical problem solving. Their results with third-graders showed that even a moderate amount of individualized practice with drill software greatly improved both arithmetic skills and problem solving, an impact that continued in follow-up testing 3 months later. The researchers felt that individualized practice with drill software was a more efficient use of time than other kinds of practice. Drill software has been found to yield equivalent or better benefits when compared to paper-and-pencil practice, and drill software is both more efficient and often more appealing to students. Focus on educational accountability and meeting standards in the Every Student Succeeds Act has led to more use of directed teaching strategies. Teachers assign students practice for many skills to help them learn and remember correct procedures. Drills support directed strategies that prepare students for skill building or tests. The following are acknowledged benefits of drill software as compared to paper exercises: • Immediate feedback. When students practice skills on paper, they often do not know until much later whether they did their work correctly. If they continue to provide incorrect answers, students could be memorizing the wrong skills or information. Drill-and-practice software informs them immediately of whether their responses are accurate so that they can reconsider their answers. This helps both “debugging” (identifying errors in their procedures) and retention (placing the skills in long-term memory for future access). The drill-and-practice online app shown in Figure 5.2 provides learners immediate feedback if they are identifying the correct chord when practicing chord progression by ear. • Increased motivation. Computer-based practice can motivate students to do the practice they need. Computers don’t get impatient or give any looks when a student gives a wrong answer.

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Figure 5.2  Chord Progression Ear Training Software Uses Drill and Practice SOURCE: From http://musicdrill.com.

• Saving teacher time. Because teachers do not have to present or grade drill-and-practice activities, students can practice on their own while the teacher addresses other students’ needs. The curriculum has dozens of areas in which the benefits of drill and practice apply, for example: • • • • • •

Math computation Typing skills English and foreign language vocabulary Place-based knowledge, for example, about countries and capitals Preparation for SAT, ACT, and other high-stakes tests Understanding musical keys and notations.

Challenges Related to Drill and Practice Although drill and practice can be extremely useful to both students and teachers, it is also frequently criticized for three reasons: • Instructional overuse or misuse. Some criticize teachers for presenting drills for overly long periods or for teaching functions that drills are ill suited to accomplish. For example, Beserra et al. (2019) found that second-graders’ use of an educational drill-and-practice mathematics software become more off-task after 20 minutes, so teachers might monitor to determine optimal time on task for their students. ­Teachers might errantly give students drill-and-practice software as a way of introducing new concepts rather than for their optimized function of practicing and reinforcing concepts already taught. • Isolated skills. Introducing isolated skills and directing students to practice them contradicts the trend toward restructured curriculum in which students engage in deeper learning by using skills in an integrated way within the context of their own projects that specifically require the skills (Office of Educational Technology, 2016; U.S. Department of Education, 2013). • Inequity in use. Researchers have found that drill-and-practice software is often used more by students of color and/or who are in low-income families. For example, in a 7-year longitudinal study of Florida schools, Hohlfeld and colleagues (2017) found that students in low-income schools were more likely than their peers in affluent schools to use software for directed instruction, such as those with drill-and-practice features.

Pearson eText Video Example 5.2 In this video, a principal describes classroom uses of drill-and-practice software across many content areas. She describes teachers’ use of drill-and-practice software when students need to practice math skills that are prerequisites for higher learning, which saves classroom time.

142  Chapter 5 Teachers should seek to identify needs that practice and feedback can meet and use the software in ways that take advantage of its capabilities.

Integration Strategies and Guidelines for Using Drill and Practice Teachers mainly take advantage of drill-and-practice software to give students practice using skills. Strategies for integration of drill and practice software include the following: • Supplement and/or replace worksheets and homework exercises. Use when students lack automaticity in skills that are prerequisite to higher-order ones. The motivation, immediate feedback, and self-pacing can make practicing skills on the computer more productive for students than on paper. • Prepare for tests. Use when students need to prepare to demonstrate mastery of specific skills in important examinations. Common Sense Education (2015) noted the seven best apps from its independently rated and reviewed learning resources for students to prepare for standardized tests, some of which included IXL Math Practice (PK–12) and Spelling City (K–6). Figure 5.3 shows software with a drill-and-practice function in which learners practice creating correct chemical formulas by filling in the missing information. The learners control how quickly they answer the questions. Consider the following four guidelines for instruction as you integrate software into your teaching: 1. Use only after teaching the concepts. Never use drill to introduce new topics. Use only for students to practice and assess their understanding and help them retain their grasp of familiar concepts. Follow up with in-class activities in which students apply the concepts. 2. Set time limits. Limit the time for drill assignments to 10–15 minutes per day to ensure that students will not become bored and that the drill-and-practice strategy will retain its effectiveness. Also, teachers should be sure that students have been introduced previously to concepts underlying the drills. 3. Assign individually. Take advantage of self-pacing and personalized feedback by allowing individual use rather than group use. If technology resources are limited and all students in a class will benefit from practice in a skill, make the software available at several learning centers so that all students can cycle through.

Figure 5.3  Chemistry Formulas Software Uses Drill and Practice SOURCE: Images reprinted by permission of Meta-Synthesis, http://www.chemistry-drills.com.

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TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 5.1 

TITLE: Using Ratios CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Mathematics—Ratios and Proportions GRADE LEVELS: 6-8 ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 1—Empowered Learner; Standard 3—Knowledge Constructor CCSS: Math.Content.4.NF.A.1, Math.Content.5.NF.A.1, Math.Content.6.RP.A.1 DESCRIPTION: After students learn about ratio and proportion concepts in the classroom, the teacher has students access Math Games on the site on classroom computers. Teachers or students can select a drill game to practice their knowledge and application of ratios and proportions. Students get a 10-minute period to practice the concepts by completing the items, and they check their own answers by clicking an on-screen tab to reveal each correct answer. SOURCE: Based on games available at the Math Games website at https://www.mathgames.com.

4. Use learning stations. If not all students need the kind of practice that a drill provides, assign the software to serve those with identified weaknesses in one or more key skills while others can be assigned other learning tasks. An example integration strategy for drill functions is shown in Technology ­Integration Example 5.1.

Selecting Appropriate Drill-and-Practice Software In addition to meeting general criteria for instructional software, well-designed drill-and-practice programs should also meet specific criteria: • Control over the presentation rate. Unless questions are part of a timed review, students should have as much time as they wish to answer and examine the feedback before proceeding to the next questions. Students usually signal their readiness to go to the next one by simply pressing a key. • Answer judging. If programs allow students to enter a short answer rather than simply choosing one, a good drill program must be able to discriminate between correct and incorrect answers. • Appropriate feedback for correct and incorrect answers. If students’ responses are timed or if their session time is limited, learning can be undermined if students find more motivation in simply moving quickly to the next question to meet time demands rather than reading information about the correctness of the response. When drills do give feedback, they must avoid two common errors. First, avoid elaborate displays for feedback, which cease to motivate students over time. Instead, feedback should be simple and display quickly. Second, some programs inadvertently motivate students to get wrong answers by giving more exciting or interesting feedback for wrong answers than for correct ones. • Characteristics tailored to young learners. Luik (2011) offers advice specific to programs for young learners. Recommendations from her study focus primarily on keeping instructions and procedures simple and avoiding screen elements that could distract students.

Characteristics of Tutorial Functions Tutorial software provides a complete instructional sequence on a topic similar to a teacher’s classroom instruction. This instruction is usually expected to be a self-­contained instructional unit rather than a supplement to other instruction. The software should

144  Chapter 5 enable students to learn the topic without any other help or materials. Unlike other types of instructional software, tutorials are complete teaching materials. Gagné and colleagues (1981) said that good tutorial software should address all Nine Events of Instruction. Instructional software tutorials require instructional sequencing of content and practice and feedback capabilities. Today’s technologies (e.g., Camtasia, YouTube) make possible video demonstrations, which are often referred to as tutorials. However, demonstrations alone do not fulfill software tutorial functions. For example, when Sal Khan first began making content explanation videos, they were not tutorials but were archived instructional content available on the web. When Khan Academy expanded to include practice questions and feedback in addition to the instructional content videos, the software became a tutorial. A well-designed tutorial sequence emerges from extensive research of content knowledge and how to teach the topic well. Designers must know what learning tasks the topic requires, the best sequence for students to follow, how best to explain and demonstrate essential concepts, common errors that students are likely to make, and how to provide instruction and feedback to correct those errors. Some people confuse tutorial and drill activities for two reasons. First, drill software can provide elaborate feedback that reviewers could mistake for tutorial explanations. Even software developers sometimes claim that a package is a tutorial when it is, in fact, a drill activity with detailed feedback. Second, a good tutorial should include one or more practice sequences to check a student’s understanding. Because this kind of checking is a drill-and-practice function, teachers reviewing tutorial software can become confused about its primary purpose. Tutorials often are categorized as linear or branching (Alessi & Trollip, 2001): • Linear tutorial. A simple, linear tutorial gives the same instructional sequence of explanation, practice, and feedback to all learners regardless of differences in their performance. • Branching tutorial. A more sophisticated version, a branching tutorial directs learners along alternate paths depending on how they respond to questions and whether they show mastery of certain parts of the material. Branching tutorials can range in complexity according to the number of paths they provide and how fully they diagnose the kinds of instruction a student needs. Complex tutorials can also have computer-management capabilities; teachers can place each student at an appropriate level and get progress reports as each goes through the instruction. Cognitive Tutor is a tutorial for mathematics learning in grades 9–12 that has many layers of branching within content instruction and feedback features. An intelligent tutoring system (ITS) also refers to a sophisticated branching tutorial that adapts the sequence of instruction to the needs of each learner. Tutorials are usually geared toward learners who can read fairly well and who are older students or adults. Because tutorial instruction is expected to stand alone, it is difficult to explain or give appropriate on-screen guidance to a nonreader. H ­ owever, some tutorials aimed at younger learners have found clever ways to explain and demonstrate concepts with graphics, succinct phrases or sentences, or audio/video directions and illustrations. Figure 5.4 shows a screen from a tutorial software for trigonometry concepts, which shows linear sequences of screens that provide information on concepts such as the Pythagorean Theorem followed by practice items with feedback.

Benefits of Tutorials Because a tutorial includes drill-and-practice activities, helpful features include the same ones as for drills (immediate feedback, motivation, and time savings) plus the additional benefit of offering a self-paced instructional experience. Many successful

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Figure 5.4  Trigonometry Challenge Tutorial SOURCE: Images reprinted by permission of ETCAI Products, http://www.etcai.com.

uses of tutorials have been documented over the years (Criswell, 2011; Ellington & Hardin, 2008; Gobert et al., 2015; Offner & Pohlman, 2010; Wilson & Wilson, 2013). Steenbergen-Hu and Cooper (2013) conducted a meta-analysis that examined 26 studies on ITS. They found that student use of ITS had no negative and a small positive impact on mathematical learning. They also found more positive learning outcomes when students used ITS for less than a year and with students who were not low achieving. Xu et al.’s (2019) meta-analysis found ITS in reading comprehension had a small positive impact when compared to human tutoring, but a larger impact when compared to traditional instruction. Another meta-analysis (Fang et al., 2019) investigated the ITS Assessment and Learning in Knowledge Spaces (ALEKS) and found it was as effective, but not better, than teacher-based classroom instruction. It also found it was more effective when used for shorter learning periods. These studies recommend teachers consider a cost–benefit analysis, the intensity (minutes per week) and duration (number of weeks) ITS will be used, and the other supports (e.g., human tutors, teachers) that may or may not be available. Some tutorial software is using artificial intelligence and data mining to improve instructional sequencing of content and assessment practices. For example, Gobert et al. (2015) developed an inquiry ITS that uses data mining to assess students’ science inquiry skills, specifically designing and conducting experiments. Critical thinking skills, such as inquiry, have been more difficult to teach and assess in tutorial software, but technological advancements are expanding the possibilities to do so. Many research-based software with tutorial functions, such as ALEKS, have been expanded to include personalized learning functions, which are described in the next section. Figure 5.5 shows one of a sequence of screens in a tutorial that provides instruction in physics concepts such as Newton’s Laws of Motion followed by practice items. Included animated demonstrations are appropriate because they fulfill an instructional purpose.

Challenges Related to Tutorials Tutorials can fulfil many much-needed instructional functions but, like drill and practice, they have their share of criticism, including: • Use of directed instruction. Constructivists criticize tutorials because they deliver directed instruction rather than allowing students to generate their own knowledge through hands-on inquiry.

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Figure 5.5  Laws of Motion Tutorial SOURCE: Images reprinted by permission from The Physics Classroom, http://www.physicsclassroom.com.

• Lack of well-designed products. The difficulty and expense of designing and developing true tutorial functions make such programs more scarce than other kinds of software. Although programs identified as “video tutorials” have emerged in recent years, most are demonstrations and explanations that are or are not well researched, and few contain practice and feedback elements. • Preset instructional approach. Tutorial programs may not align with what teachers believe should be taught for a given topic, how to teach it most effectively, and in what order to present the learning tasks. • Ill-defined domain content. Some content areas, such as literacy and writing instruction, are ill-defined domains in which there may be multiple correct answers to problems. New technological innovations, such as natural language processing, are assisting in the development of ITS in these areas (Jacovina & McNamara, 2016).

Integration Strategies and Guidelines for Using Tutorials Tutorial software can serve several classroom needs. This section describes integration strategies to meet each of these needs and offers guidelines and practical tips on how to integrate these strategies in the classroom. Self-instructional tutorials are becoming more useful in light of new strategies such as the flipped classroom model, the need for credit recovery to support student advancement, preferences for online learning, and for continuance of instruction during emergencies. These tutorials are easier to develop as the result of new technologies such as screencasting or video captures of actions on a computer screen, usually accompanied by narration (Stagg et al., 2013) and assessment and feedback. The tutorial’s unique capability of presenting an entire interactive instructional sequence can assist in several classroom situations. Three strategies for integration of tutorial software include: • Self-paced reviews of instruction. These are most appropriate for students who need to review or spend more time learning concepts or learn better in a selfpaced mode rather than a whole-class pace. Technology Integration Example 5.2 ­illustrates a teacher’s use of tutorials for students’ review of concepts.

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Example 5.2 

TITLE: Newton’s Laws of Motion CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Physics GRADE LEVELS: 9–12 ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 1–Empowered Learner; Standard 3–Knowledge Constructor CCSS: ELA/Literacy RST.11-12.7, WHST.9-12.7, Mathematics MP.2, Math.Content.HSN.Q.A.1, Math.Content. HSA-CED.A.4 NSTA: HS-PS2-1, HS-PS2-4 DESCRIPTION: After introducing the topic in the classroom through a hands-on demonstration, the teacher assigns the Newton’s Laws, Lessons 1–4 at the Physics Classroom website for students’ initial instruction on the topic. Students complete the assigned online materials as homework or classwork and self-check their understanding as they move through the lessons. The teacher then assigns one or more of the online labs to illustrate application of Newton’s Laws and uses a scoring rubric provided to assess students’ write-up(s) of their results. SOURCE: Based on The Physics Classroom materials developed by Tom Henderson, http://www.physicsclassroom.com.

• Alternative learning strategies. Tutorial software should be used when students at advanced levels prefer to structure their own learning activities and proceed at their own pace or before meeting with a teacher for assessment and/or further work assignments. • Instruction when teachers are unavailable. Tutorial software is used when ­students surge ahead of their class and the teacher cannot leave the rest of the class to provide advanced instruction; when no teacher is available for the comparatively few students who need a lower-demand course or to repeat a course that is not being taught; or when students are learning in an online course. When teachers decide to adopt a tutorial for use in their classroom, they should consider the following guidelines: • Assign to individuals. Like drill-and-practice functions, tutorial functions are designed for use by individuals rather than for groups of students. • Use at learning stations for individual assignments. Because tutorials should be used individually, they can be used by individual students on a classroom computer or on their individual devices or teachers can cycle individual students through learning stations to review previously presented material as they work with other students.

Selecting Appropriate Tutorial Software To fulfill tutorial functions, teaching is exactly what tutorials are designed to do. In addition to meeting general criteria for good instructional software, well-designed tutorial programs should meet the following standards: • Extensive interactivity. Tutorials should give frequent and thoughtful responses to questions and supply appropriate practice and feedback to guide students’ learning. The most frequent criticism of tutorials is that they are “page-turners”—that is, they ask students to do very little other than read, click, or swipe. • Thorough user control. Students should always be able to control the rate at which text appears on the screen. A program should not go on to the next information or activity screen until the user has signaled readiness. The program also should offer students the flexibility to review explanations, examples, or sequences of

148  Chapter 5 instruction; to move ahead to other instruction; and to have frequent opportunities to exit the program. • Appropriate pedagogy and content. The program’s structure should provide a suggested or required sequence of instruction that builds on concepts and covers the content adequately. It should provide sufficient explanation and examples in both original and remedial sequences. In sum, it should compare favorably with an expert teacher’s presentation sequence for the topic. • Adequate answer-judging and feedback capabilities. When possible, programs should allow students to answer in natural language and should accept all correct answers and possible variations of correct answers. Tutorials should also give appropriate corrective feedback as needed after only one or two tries rather than frustrating students by having them keep trying to answer indefinitely. • Appropriate graphics and/or video. Most experts say that graphics should be used sparingly and not interfere with the purpose of the instruction. When graphics are used, they should fulfill an instructional, aesthetic, or otherwise supportive function. Video-based tutorials should provide clear, uncluttered demonstrations of procedures. • Adequate record keeping. Depending on the purpose of the tutorial, teachers might need to track student progress. If the program keeps records on student work, teachers should be able to get progress summaries quickly and easily.

Characteristics of Adaptive, Personalized Learning Functions A personalized learning system (PLS) is a multifunction computer-based learning program that (1) assesses individual student learning needs using complex algorithms and collections of data across many students and (2) provides a customized and adaptive instructional experience matched to each student’s needs. The PLS evolved from the integrated learning system (ILS), a product introduced in the early 1970s that provided assessment, instruction, and reports on student progress. Recent software developments have combined adaptive testing, content, and databases of instructional strategies to enable systems that can personalize a given student’s path through a sequence of instruction based on performance. The accountability emphasis within education created a demand for products such as PLS that can help teachers assess needs and assign instructional solutions quickly and efficiently. Many software companies now claim that their products support personalized learning, but some claims are simply part of firms’ marketing strategies (Molnar, 2016a). How PLS programs work varies widely, but six characteristics are currently common to them: • Student centered. The student is the center of the PLS and should have a learning profile that helps both the student and teacher contribute to learning and instructional decisions. Students should have some level of choice in their learning pathway. • Adaptive assessment. Adaptive assessment strategies are the heart of the PLS approach. Students use digital devices (e.g., computers, tablets) to take tests in a given topic, and teachers get results that enable them to decide what to do next to support learning or enable the software’s next instructional step for the learner. • Curriculum matched to Common Core State Standards (CCSS) or state standards. Each report that the PLS generates ties to performance on CCSS or state standards. Software uses various ways, such as color coding, to show strengths and to reveal students’ mastery of standards.

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• Competency or mastery based. Many PLS programs are designed for students to show proficiency, mastery, or competency and then move to more advanced topics. This approach supports learners working in different time frames with the necessary amount of time needed to master the content. • Multiple learning media. School leaders prefer PLS products because they can vary according to the type of instruction offered, multimedia materials, instructional modes, and feedback (Data Dive, 2016). Many PLSs integrate all the functions described in this chapter—drill and practice, tutorials, simulations, games and gamification, and problem-based learning—in order to meet the multifunction goal of personalizing learning. • Data reports on individual and group progress—PLSs products can give summary reports on progress according to standards for any designated student, which helps teachers know which student has or has not mastered standards and to make decisions on the next instructional steps for the topic. Data-based information about student progress should be available to students and their parents. Examples of PLSs include Amplify, Lexia Learning Core5, Renaissance Learning, Edgenuity, Read 180, Edmentum’s courseware, and Reading Assistant Plus.

Benefits of PLSs PLSs are becoming popular in school districts because of their ability to use a wealth of available data on student performance to produce personal learning solutions related to standards and their ability to provide achievement information for students, teachers, classes, and schools. This approach to diagnosing and selecting materials targeted to learning needs frees teacher time for guiding student learning in small groups. A well-designed PLS can provide the following benefits: • Accurate assessments based on formative, summative, and longitudinal test data across groups • Progress linked to curriculum and standards • Personalized instructional prescriptions matched to student needs • Summary progress data that help meet teacher/district accountability requirements. Promising classroom-based research of PLSs are emerging. A 3-year longitudinal study of kindergartners from low-income backgrounds who used the Lexia Core5 ­Reading PLS discovered that students made significant gains each year, and the majority of students who began kindergarten scoring below average on the reading measure had achieved at average or better levels by the end of second grade (Macaruso et al., 2019). Several studies show children achieving higher comprehension and reading fluency after using Read 180 (What Works Clearinghouse, 2016). In Chicago, LEAP Innovations (2016) identified promising educational technology products that personalized literacy learning for students in K–8, matched them to schools’ and students’ needs in each, and evaluated their impact across a year. The pilot results showed statistically significant growth in literacy learning among the students using the products as compared to a control group. The researchers argue these results indicate the products can contribute to reducing the achievement gap for students living below the poverty line and students of color. Two of the products that led to achievement gains were Lexia Reading Core5 and ThinkCERCA. Figure 5.6 shows a student working within the ThinkCERCA software. The student is engaged with the text in an eighth-grade lesson, “Can Machines Learn Morality?” Arnett (2016) suggests that technological developments such as PLSs are key contributors to enhancing teachers’ work, not threatening it. He describes how ­technological innovations can (1) assist less-effective teachers when the product contains high-quality content and instruction, (2) assist all teachers in reaching students’

Pearson eText Video Example 5.3 This video shows how a PLS can assess a student’s learning needs and provide a customized instructional experience for the student. https://youtu.be/6oLNLCO0vfI

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Figure 5.6  ThinkCERCA Software

wide-ranging learning needs, and (3) support coverage of nonacademic skills that contribute to overall success.

Challenges Related to PLSs There are proponents and critics of PLSs. Proponents say that technology has enabled personalized instruction to be delivered to every student at an affordable cost, and critics say that teachers already match a student’s strengths and weaknesses to appropriate strategies and materials (Fletcher, 2013). For those implementing a PLS into their classroom or school, several challenges exist: • Obtaining support from the school community. Teachers need support from their principals and community, including students and parents, for any PLS adoption to succeed. Teachers must be able to provide extensive information on what is ­working or not working, and principals need to hear and respond to needs. • Recognizing that the PLS is part of a broad strategy, not a panacea. LEAP ­Innovations (2016) suggests that schools situate the PLS as one part of a broader set of strategies working toward personalized learning. The researchers identified teaching and learning practices within which the PLS activity is situated as being crucially important. The researchers recommend practices that allow the learner to lead the focus, direction, and pace of learning. • Obtaining extractable data. Data amassed within the PLSs is not always extractable and available to teachers or to schools in usable ways. • Identifying research-based impact. Although many products have been carefully designed with rich content that aligns with standards and honors the research-based findings related to learning in specific subject areas, continued research is needed within classrooms to gauge the outcomes and impact of PLSs on learning achievement. • Dehumanizing learners. Many products center the technology and deficit-based perspectives of learners as “behind” or suffering from “learning loss,” especially after the COVID-19 pandemic. Products isolate learners on personalized “tracks” and quantifies them as scores in dashboards.

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Integration Strategies for Using PLSs There are three main integration ways in which teachers can implement a PLS: 1. Stations or centers. In this format, the teacher creates centers of instruction where small groups of students cycle through using a PLS. One center could involve instruction with the teacher, and another center could have a computer where individual students engage with the PLS. In LEAP Innovations’ (2016) pilot testing of personalized learning software for English language arts, most classrooms used this integration approach. 2. Whole-class one-to-one or lab rotation instruction. In this approach, teachers can guide instruction while all students in the class access the PLS via their computing devices in one-to-one computing settings or on computers in a lab. 3. Supplementary one-to-one instruction. Teachers use this approach when they create time outside the core instruction for students to choose their own activities (including the use of a PLS) and for students identified as needing additional work in areas that the PLS program can provide, sometimes with assistance from a teacher or an aide. Kazakoff et al. (2018) found both English learners and non-English learners demonstrated significant learning gains in reading skills when using Lexia Reading Core5 blended with specific offline skill-building instruction matched to students’ needs. Schools used either the station or lab rotation integration strategies. LEAP Innovations (2016) found that whole-class one-to-one and supplementary oneto-one instruction with PLSs were more effective in improving student achievement than the station or centers integration approach. However, the company noted that the supplementary one-to-one approach involved more instructional time for learners. Both studies emphasized the PLS as part of broader classroombased instructional strategies as well as the importance of following recommended ­duration of PLS use.

Selecting Appropriate PLSs One way to ensure the appropriate use of PLSs is to have a careful, well-planned initial review and selection process that involves both teachers and school administrators. Because PLSs provide a new way of thinking about assessment and curriculum, the selection process should consider the ease of implementation, the amount of company support and professional development offered, and the degree to which the PLS approach supports district and state priorities. According to Molnar (2016a), the following aspects of the PLS product should be considered: • Student agency. Determine whether students have some level of control over setting learning goals and whether learning and activity feedback is understandable and contributes to forward progress. • Content depth and quantity. Examine the content and lessons. Is the content aligned with content standards that you follow? Will the product meet the needs of both beginning learners and advanced learners in the content area? Is there sufficient instructional content to support learning across an academic year? • Meaningful data. PLS products track and mine a significant amount of data but consider carefully whether the data are meaningful. Data dashboards for students and teachers must contain easily understandable information that can be directly transformed into actions within the system. For example, a teacher might see alerts about a student’s progress and then be able to choose instructional interventions available within the software to assign to the student.

152  Chapter 5 • Aligned and validated assessments. PLSs function heavily on their embedded assessments because they should gauge the needs of learners and move them to meaningful content. But consider carefully how these assessments align with the standards and the standardized tests your students will ultimately take. These products assessments might not have been externally validated. • Evidence of impact. As with other instructional products, ask whether independent research studies have examined PLSs’ impact on student achievement and other student outcomes such as motivation and engagement. • Integration approach. Consider whether the PLS typical directed instructional approach matches the expected or preferred instruction in your school and classrooms.

BOX 5.1

DIGITAL EQUITY AND JUSTICE

Humanizing Digital Learning In addition to existing inequities in students’ ­computer access and reliable Internet service at home, researchers also have identified unequal and inequitable technology-supported practices in schools and classrooms for ­children of color and lower socioeconomic means (Cohron, 2015; Gonzales, 2016; Hohlfeld et al., 2008; Noguerón-Liu, 2017). Teaching and learning divides are measured by the frequency and purpose of technology use in instructional activities. For example, researchers have reported that schools with student-family ­populations of high SES had significantly greater percentage of ­teachers using technology for both delivery of instruction and administration purposes than those in schools with ­populations with lower SES (Hohlfeld et al., 2008, 2017; Reinhart et al., 2011). In terms of purposes of ­technology use, in a 7-year longitudinal study of Florida schools, researchers found that software was used for directed instruction, such as software with drill-and-practice, ­tutorial, or adaptive and personalized functions, more

often by students of color and/or who are in low-income families than their peers of affluence (Hohlfeld et al., 2017) who used technologies to support social constructivist ­instruction, such as inquiry and ­creation purposes. This distinction becomes important when ­considering how technologies and their adoption may (de)humanize learners. France (2020, 2021) argues that many personalized learning software products center the technology as solutions to deficit-based perspectives of learners who are “behind” or suffering from “learning loss.” He shares a useful comparison of humanized and dehumanized personalization (see Table 5.2), breaking down a myth that personalization must be individualized and technology driven. He advocates for concern and awareness for how our adopted uses of technology may harm students. We recommend teachers become more attentive to humanization in their technology integration decision ­making and lesson design, especially when you serve ­students of color or from lower socioeconomic means.

Table 5.2  Aspects of Humanized and Dehumanized Personalization (France, 2021) Humanized Personalization

Dehumanized Personalization

Powered by humans

Powered by technology

Connects learners through collaboration, vulnerability, and human connection

Isolates students through individualized tracks, competition, and ­cultures of shame

Uses assessment as a tool for knowing learners

Uses assessment to compare and categorize

Curates a high-interest curriculum that exposes learners to new and relevant topics to broaden experiences and schema

Relies on interest-driven curriculum, limiting learners to preferred ­learning topics and narrowing experiences and schema

Leverages whole-group, small-group, and individualized practices

Leverages technology tools that individualize curriculum

Understands individual learner’s needs in the context of the collective learning community

Values individual needs without considering the collective learning community

Promotes agency and autonomy through social emotional learning and structured choice

Limits agency and autonomy through automated, didactic curriculum delivered through digital technology

Uses technology to preserve or enhance human connection

Uses technology to accelerate dissemination of curriculum

Considers identity, advocates for representation, and promotes equity

Ignores identity, limits representation, and proliferates inequity

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Characteristics of Simulation Functions Learning Outcome 5.3  Describe the benefits, challenges, integration strategies, and selection criteria of simulation, game and gamification, and problem-solving functions that support social constructivist instructional situations. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst) A simulation (sim) is a computerized model of a real or theoretical system designed to teach how the system works. Unlike tutorial and drill-and-practice activities in which the teaching structure is built into the package, learners using simulations usually must choose tasks to do and the order in which to do them to explore how changing input variables impacts the outcomes within the simulated system. Simulations can be used to teach about concepts or teach how to do tasks, such as the following: • Explore the physical and natural world. These allow users to manipulate earth processes such as the use of three-dimensional models of plate tectonics (Kim, 2006). BeeSmart (Center for Connected Learning, n.d.; Guo & Wilensky, 2014) simulates honeybees’ hive-finding behavior, which represents a complex system concept (see Video Example 5.3). Students can observe, hypothesize, and verify conjectures. This model uses free software called NetLogo, and there are hundreds of scientific and social science models in the NetLogo Models Library (Wilensky, n.d.). • Run iterative trials. These speed up or slow down processes that usually happen either so slowly or so quickly that students cannot see them unfold. For example, a simulation can show the effects of changes in demographic variables on population growth over decades (see Figure 5.7) or the effects of environmental factors on ecosystems. Students can run it over and over again with different values and observe the results each time. • Learn procedures. These teach the appropriate sequences of steps required to perform certain procedures. For example, students might see selections of chemicals with instructions on how to combine them to see the result or how to build an electrical circuit. • Problem-solve hypothetical situations. Some simulations allow for various successful strategies, such as letting students play the stock market using Stock ­Market Simulation (National SMS, n.d.), operate businesses, or use mathematics in an architecture-themed simulation (Ke, 2019). Simulations are more prevalent in science than any other area, but they are also popular in teaching social science topics. Simulations are currently available across content areas. The image in Figure 5.7 is part of a simulation that allows learners to explore demographic changes across time. In this example, students explore how a policy change allowing three children per woman might change the population of China.

Benefits of Simulations Many researchers find that scientific simulations help students learn abstract, scientific concepts, such as forces and energy in chemical bonds (Zohar & Levy, 2019), force and movement (Arici & Yilmaz, 2020), resonance (Chekour, 2018), chemical–gas behavior (Correia et al., 2019), and genetics (Gelbart et al., 2009). Iannou et al. (2009) reported that a problem-based simulation designed to teach world issues made students more motivated to learn social studies than did text-based materials. The review of research by D’Angelo et al. (2013) found that the use of science-based simulations led to increased student science achievement in comparison to instruction without s­imulations. ­Furthermore, simulations with scaffolding or feedback enhancements showed even

Pearson eText Video Example 5.4 In this video, observe how this simulation supports learners’ understanding and exploration of insects’ physical activity that would be difficult for a class to observe in real life because of limited access to and danger of bees. https://youtu.be/wwJuLxbjLg8

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Figure 5.7  Imagine the Population of Tomorrow Simulation (Rowell, n.d.) SOURCE: https://www.ined.fr/en/everything_about_population/population-games/tomorrow-population/

Pearson eText Video Example 5.5 In this video, a principal describes how a biology teacher uses a simulated lab to supplement physical labs.

more learning effects. In a study of a simulation of environmental concepts, Eskrootchi and Oskrochi (2010) report that for simulations to be effective, a teacher must provide instructional structure for students’ use. Indeed, one common finding is that simulations work best when combined with nonsimulation activities. Urban-Woldron (2009) found that physics simulations were most useful as a follow-up to hands-on activities, and Jaakkola and Nurmi (2008) reported that simulations in electrical concepts had more positive benefits with elementary school children when accompanied by hands-on learning. A meta-analysis (­Merchant et al., 2014) also found that students learned more from simulations when they were used for practice after having already learned content concepts than when used as a stand-alone instructional approach. Roschelle et al. (2010) used SimCalc software as part of a specific instructional approach that involves student action, teacher explanation, and teacher-led discussion to engage math learners in observing animations of motion, building mathematical functions to control animated characters’ motion, observing results, and writing stories to coordinate with animations. Their research demonstrated that SimCalc contributed to learning gains in advanced mathematics in a wide variety of settings with hundreds of teachers. Magana et al. (2019) found that teacher feedback was crucial scaffolding for the simulation to help students refine their design processes and knowledge development.

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Depending on the topic and the way it is used, a simulation has potential to provide one or more of the following instructional benefits: • Compress time. This feature is important when students study the growth or development of living things (e.g., pairing animals to observe their offspring’s characteristics) or other processes that take a long time (e.g., movement of the sun across the sky). A simulation can make lengthy processes happen in seconds. • Slow down processes. Conversely, a simulation can also model processes normally invisible to the human eye because they happen so quickly. For example, physical education students can study the slowed-down movement of muscles and limbs as a simulated athlete throws a ball or swings a golf club. • Visualize abstract or microscopic concepts. Many abstract concepts can be visualized through a simulation. For example, in physics, students explore force, movement, friction, and speed in PheT simulations (Arici & Yilmaz, 2018) (see Figure 5.8). Biological simulations, such as those on genetics, are popular because they help students experiment with natural processes. Chemical simulations help students learn gas laws (Correia et al., 2019). • Involve students. Simulations can capture students’ attention by placing them in charge and asking, “What would you do?” They interact with the options and the results of their choices can be immediate and graphic. • Make experimentation safe. Students can experiment with strategies in simulated environments that might result in personal injury to themselves or others in real life (D’Angelo et al., 2013). They might learn to drive vehicles, handle volatile substances, or react to potentially dangerous situations. In OpenSciEd, students can use a virtual microscope to explore human tissue. • Make the impossible possible. Very often, teachers simply cannot give students access to the resources or situations that simulations can. For example, simulations can show students what it would be like to walk on the moon or how to react to emergencies in a nuclear power plant. They can see cells mutating or hold country-wide elections. They can even design new societies or planets and see the results of their choices. Journalist Anderson Cooper attempted to do his daily work while listening to an audio simulation of hallucinated voices that a person experiencing schizophrenia might hear (Sedor, 2014). The NGSS standards acknowledge that data generated in simulations can play a role in allowing students to provide evidence and explanations across many contentarea standards. • Save money and resources. Monetary resources may be slim for scientific equipment and supplies and field trips. Depending on the subject, a simulated experiment can be just as effective a learning experience as an actual experiment is but at a fraction of the cost. • Allow repetition with variations. Unlike real-life situations, simulations let students repeat events as many times as they wish and with unlimited variations. They can pair any number of fruit flies or make endless spaceship landings in a variety of conditions to compare the results of each set of choices. • Allow observation of complex processes. Real-life events often are so complex that they are confusing—especially to those seeing them for the first time. When many things happen at once, students find it difficult to focus on the operation of individual components. Simulations can isolate parts of activities and control background noise. This makes it easier for students to see what is happening when, later, all the parts come together in an actual activity.

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Figure 5.8  Force and Motion Simulation SOURCE: https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/forces-and-motion-basics/latest/forces-and-motion-basics_en.html

Challenges Related to Simulations There are some concerns as to the instructional usefulness of simulations related to the following: • Use of virtual lab as supplements. Although modern simulation software makes it possible to complete simulated labs for topics in biology and chemistry and is encouraged and supported by science organizations (National Science Teachers Association [NSTA], 2016) and within standards (NGSS Lead States, 2013), the American Chemical Society (2014) and Davis, 2009) have come out strongly against replacing hands-on, in-class labs with virtual ones, saying that simulations should be used only as supplements to, not substitutes for, regular labs. The College Board has specifications for hands-on lab requirements for Advanced Placement courses although virtual, interactive labs that simulate investigative practices similar to practicing scientists tend to qualify. • Accuracy of models. When students see simplified versions of systems in a controlled situation, they could have inaccurate or imprecise perspectives on the systems’ complexity. For example, students could think that they know all about how to react to driving situations because they have experienced simulated versions of them. Many educators feel strongly that such simulations must be followed at some point by real experiences, a position with which organizations such as the NSTA and the American Chemical Society concur. In addition, many teachers of very young children believe that learners at early stages of their cognitive development should experience things first with their five senses rather than on computer screens. • Instructional misuse. Sometimes, simulations are used to teach concepts that could just as easily be demonstrated on paper, with manipulatives, or with real objects.

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Integration Strategies and Guidelines for Using Simulations Simulations are considered among the most potentially powerful computer software resources. Most simulations position learners as active agents who make decisions related to the system under study. Strategize how your instructional sequence of simulation and nonsimulation activities come together to enact social constructivist integration approaches. The following are strategies for integrating simulations: • Replace or supplement lab experiments. Use as replacements for labs when adequate lab materials are not available or for experiments that would be unmanageable or too dangerous in person. Use as supplements to prepare students for actual labs or as follow-ups with variations of the original experiments without using consumable materials. Iterative simulations allow for repetitive experiments with changing variables or conditions for hypothesis testing. • Use for role-playing or hypothesis testing. A level of masking students’ identification within a simulation can facilitate learning for experiencing unfamiliar roles. Use extreme caution or preferably avoid simulations related to slavery, war, the Holocaust, or other events that involved trauma, oppression, and violence (­Gonzalez, 2019) because teachers can reintroduce inequity, racism, White supremacy, and trauma in the classroom. • Introduce and/or clarify a topic. Use to provide a nonthreatening (ungraded), get-acquainted look at a new topic and build students’ initial interest in it. Some software helps students see how earlier learning relates to the topic. Technology Integration Example 5.3 shows how a teacher uses simulations for students to be introduced to relationships of force and motion. • Foster exploration and process learning. Use to emulate in-class science labs and to illustrate and provide practice in using scientific methods. • Encourage cooperation and group work. Use to interest students in working together on a project. For example, a simulation on immigration or colonization might launch a group project in a social studies unit.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 5.3 

TITLE: Force and Motion CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Science - Physics GRADE LEVELS: Middle and high school ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 1–Empowered Learner; Standard 3—Knowledge Constructor; Standard 4—Innovative Designer; Standard 6—Creative Communicator; Standard 7—Global Collaborator NGSS: S&EP6, Constructing explanations; DCI:PS2 Motion and stability: Forces and interaction; CC 2: Cause and effect; CC 4: Systems and system models. DESCRIPTION: Use the 5E model—Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate—to guide the lesson on force and motion. The teacher introduces the key questions for the inquiry into force and motion. Then, the teacher integrates four PhET simulations, including friction, movement-speed resultant force-speed, balanced and unbalanced forces on object movement (net force), during the explore step. The teacher demonstrates the simulations to the whole class after which small groups of students are assigned to one of the four simulations. During this exploration, group members develop understandings and questions related to the concepts under study. During the explain step, small groups can show their simulation, explain the processes at play, and pose unresolved questions, which can lead to whole-group class discussion. Follow-up with applicable elaboration activities that allow students to apply the concepts again in a new, unfamiliar context. Finally, evaluate the students’ understanding with an assessment of your choice. SOURCE: Based on a research-based intervention described by Arici and Yilmaz (2020).

158  Chapter 5 Consider the following guidelines when integrating simulations into your teaching: • Provide usage instruction and guidelines. Because simulations are unstructured, students need to know how to make them work and what they are to do with them. Carefully plan how to integrate the simulation’s content into your curriculum. Explaining the purpose of the simulation is important to avoid students treating it like a game, clicking only to see reactions but without a focused educational goal (Arici & Yilmaz, 2020). • Use with either groups or individuals. Because they can prompt discussion and collaborative work so well, simulations usually are considered more appropriate for pairs and small groups than for individuals. However, individual use certainly is not precluded; Merchant et al. (2014) did not find any significant learning differences when students used simulations with cooperative groups or individually. Arici and Yilmaz (2020) recommend that results should always be discussed in groups.

Selecting Appropriate Simulations Simulations vary so much in type and purpose that a uniform set of criteria is not possible. For some simulations, a realistic and accurate representation of a system is essential, but for others, knowing only what the screen elements represent is important. Because the screen often presents no set sequence of steps, simulations need good accompanying documentation or scaffolding—more than most software. These help the teacher learn how to use the program quickly and then to show the students how to use it. In a study of a projectile motion simulation, Tsai et al. (2013) found that scaffolding provided before and during simulation use led to more learning than if no scaffolding was provided or was provided only during actual use. Lee and Guo (2008) believe that real systems are often preferable to simulations, but a simulation is useful when the real situation is too time-consuming, dangerous, expensive, or unrealistic for a classroom presentation.

Characteristics of Game and Gamification Functions Technology-based games bridge the worlds of entertainment, gaming, and education in an attempt to deliver motivating and effective learning. Young et al. (2012) define digital learning games as those that focus on the acquisition of knowledge or higherorder skills and are academically useful. More simply defined, instructional games are software products that combine game rules and/or competition to learning challenges. They often have the following features: • An artificial game environment with objects, tools, and characters • Game mechanics designed to govern rules of game play • A content-based conflict, contest, or challenge sometimes situated within a narrative story assigned to or chosen by the user • Feedback and assessment that marks progress toward resolution of the learning challenge sometimes including awarding of badges. Instructional games are also referred to as digital games, digital game-based learning, computer games, video games, serious games, and educational games. General digital games emphasize play, such as Farmville or PlayerUnknown’s Battleground (Pubg). Serious games have explicit instructional content and sequencing carefully infused into a game play experience through thoughtful pedagogy (Tsekleves et al., 2016). Many serious games involve collaborative features in which other learners are involved in the game play.

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Instructional games now come in many digital forms, such as computer-based games; console games; mobile computing games; 3-D, augmented reality, and virtual reality games; and web-based games. Some software or nongame experiences also incorporate gamification in which motivational aspects of games, such as levels of play and badges, are included. Although many writers and researchers tend to conflate the use of games and simulations, games are considered a separate software function because they involve structured rules, an explicit goal to win (or lose), mechanisms to compare player performance (such as a leader board), and entertaining formats (Tokac et al., 2019; Young et al., 2012). These elements generate a set of mental and emotional expectations in students that make game-based instructional activities different from nongame ones. Students expect a fun and entertaining activity because of the challenge of the competition and the potential for winning. Adoption of video games in schools has been slow. One reason is that effective educational video games take a long time to develop, few good models are available for teachers to see and try out, and there is no central repository for them (Tsekleves et al., 2016). However, video games of various kinds are emerging for elementary school to high school levels, all designed to immerse young people in games and alternate worlds for the purpose of learning various content and skills, such as Dig-It! Games about ancient civilizations; 3-D virtual world games such as Atlantis Remixed, Variant:Limits (calculus), and ARTé Mecenas (art appreciation and history); and games for subject areas such as Virtual Cell (science), Civilization and Oregon Trail (history), and S ­ atisfraction (mathematics) from BrainPop. Video games are important learning resources when they are designed with compelling educational content and immersive and interactive features. It is important to note that our definition of instructional games excludes some games that do not include learning about content topics as an explicit goal in the game, such as the popular game Minecraft, which is a multiplayer 3-D sandbox game that allows players to explore landscapes and create structures with blocks. Because teachers or learners must bring instructional context and content to Minecraft, we define it as a web-based creativity tool, described further in Chapter 6. However, Minecraft: Education Edition has some predesigned lesson activities and supports a secure ­classroom environment with a role for teacher support (“Minecraft in the classroom,” 2017). Gamification applies gameful design and mechanics (e.g., aesthetics, storytelling or narrative context, reward systems like leader boards or badges, competition, rules of play) in nongame contexts, such as in classroom activities or learning challenges, with the intent of attitude and behavior changes, such as increased motivation, problem solving, and learning. Some technologies such as Class Dojo and ClassCraft employ these elements. Recent studies are showing that gamification elements have a small-to-moderate positive impact on student achievement in technology and nontechnology-based lessons (Yildirim & Sen, 2019) and across school levels, even with children age 6–10 (Fadhli et al., 2020). For example, students in a secondary chemistry classroom used a digital badge system within their Canvas LMS during a unit of redox chemistry yielded higher achievement as compared with students who had nonbadging grading (Boesdorfer & Daugherty, 2020). The badge section allowed reattempts with a 70% or better requirement, which may have led students to engage with the content more than the nonbadge sections. Other teachers have used badges, such as those created in Credly, for acknowledging satisfactory chemistry lab skills with video-based evidence (Hennah & Seery, 2017), on-task behaviors using Class Dojo (Homer et al., 2018), and self-efficacy toward English learning performance (Yang et al., 2016). Be attentive to gamification approaches built on theories of behaviorism, which may only develop extrinsic motivation (reward from external sources, like points) than build intrinsic motivation that is more self-sustaining over time.

Pearson eText Video Example 5.6 In this video, a principal describes how game software can help teach complex algebra skills. As he describes why students liked a particular game, listen for some of the criteria he used to select it.

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Benefits of Instructional Games Many research studies have established significant, positive relationships between game use and learning achievement across multiple content areas, such as language learning, mathematics, and science (Biagi & Loi, 2013; Chen et al., 2020; Tokac et al., 2019; Tsekleves et al., 2016). Yet, instructional game software attributes are very diverse in terms of type (e.g., role-play, strategy, puzzle, problem solving, action, drill and practice), duration of play (minutes or hours to days), aesthetics (2-D, 3-D, immersive), and content goals (simplistic to complex), so it is difficult to offer conclusive evidence reflective of all game attributes. The collective research about the use of serious games in education has identified prominent benefits for learning from the inclusion of: • Problem-based learning • Collaborative learning • Realistic and immersive environments. They also identified learning benefits from the game design mechanics, including: • Motivation and competition • Interactivity and feedback • Achievement and rewards • Playfulness. Successful uses of games have been reported in many content areas, including mathematics (Bai et al., 2012; Tokac et al., 2019) and language learning, history, and physical education (Young et al., 2012). Merchant et al. (2014) found that student learning in games was retained beyond a short time frame. The competition feature in games was found to be effective for student learning in math, science, and language games and for puzzle, role-playing, and strategy games (Chen et al., 2020). Yet, some studies do not reveal a learning advantage from games; one experimental study found no evidence that students’ learning of biology in a biotechnology-based computer game exceeded that of students learning the content in a nongame instructional approach (Sadler et al., 2015). Yet, even when studies show no difference in learning impact, the instruction through games could be more appealing to students by centering on their desire to compete and play. Some educators and observers feel strongly that video games hold special promise for improving classroom teaching strategies and making learning more engaging and motivational (Ash, 2011a; Corbett, 2010), especially in serious games that tend to be problem based and collaborative or have abilities to foster what Herold (2013) calls “noncognitive skills” or abilities such as empathy, attention, and tenacity. For example, in Crystals of Kaydor, the game’s goal is to foster empathy and ability to pay attention while students must successfully interact with aliens (Figure 5.9).

Challenges Related to Instructional Games Some teachers believe that any time they can sneak in learning under the guise of a game, it is altogether a good thing. However, games have been criticized for several reasons: • Focus on learning versus having fun. Although students obviously find many computer games exciting and stimulating, it is sometimes difficult to pinpoint their educational value. Some schools forbid any use of games because they believe that games convince students that they are escaping from learning, thus drawing attention away from the intrinsic value and motivation of learning. Some critics believe that winning the game becomes a student’s primary focus and that the instructional purpose is lost in the pursuit of this goal. These perceived problems

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Figure 5.9  Crystals of Kaydor Game SOURCE: Crystals of Kaydor image. © Learning Games Network, http://www.gameslearningsociety.org.

tend to be promulgated by adopting games that are branded as educational but do not support learning, which some refer to as “edutainment” (Van Eck, 2009). The issue of fun versus learning was one of three prominent barriers to the use of serious games in education based on a literature review by Tsekleves et al. (2016). • Correspondence between game goals and learning objectives. The goals of some games do not correspond with learning objectives. This can create a problem in which the player can work to win the game but not learn anything (Tsekleves et al., 2016; Young et al., 2012). • Transfer of learning. Some teachers observe students having difficulty transferring their learning from games to later nongame situations. Tsekleves et al. (2016) identified this lack of short- or long-term transfer as a top barrier to the use of serious games and explain that lack of transfer can occur if the game lacks correspondence between rules and learning objectives, if the game does not involve players in cognitive processes similar to those that they will apply in a nongame situation that requires application of the knowledge, or if the game pedagogy does not support gradual learning from simple to complex concepts. • Alignment with the curriculum and teaching practices. Research suggests that the learning objectives of serious games are not presented in ways that assist in meeting school curricular goals and pedagogy (Tsekleves et al., 2016; Young et al., 2012). Tsekleves et al. (2016) suggest that educators choose to use serious games when they align well with curricular goals and can be used in concert with faceto-face pedagogy and other learning resources, such as books or laboratory activities. Many serious games can conflict with directed instructional approaches, so teachers and schools may need to modify curriculum and instruction to teach with serious games. • Barriers to use. Barriers to widespread classroom implementation include negative teacher perceptions toward video games, lack of access to technology resources required to run video games, cost, short class periods that hindered long-term engagement in complex games, alignment with state standards, schools’ emphasis on standardized test results, and difficulty gaining approval for use of games as instructional materials (Millstone, 2012; Sansing, 2014; Tsekleves et al., 2016).

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Integration Strategies and Guidelines for Using Instructional Games Instructional games can serve several classroom needs. Strategies for integration of instructional games include the following: • To encourage problem- or inquiry-based learning. Many serious games use ­problem-based learning as their pedagogical framework. Learners, the players, become characters who must find solutions to content-connected challenges. These games support social constructivist integration strategies. • To encourage lifelong playing. Sansing (2014) encourages teachers to reintroduce playful learning to children’s learning in the classroom by using games that reflect meaningful challenges in content areas or topics that are difficult to teach but to avoid games that spotlight trivial tasks. • To teach “noncognitive skills.” Some newer games are designed especially to teach skills such as attention, perseverance, and prosocial behaviors, which are useful across content areas. • To teach cooperative group work skills. Many instructional games serve as the basis for or introduction to group work. In addition, some games can be played collaboratively over the Internet. A game’s competitive qualities can present opportunities for competition among groups. Consider the following guidelines when you choose to integrate a game into your teaching. • Align and integrate serious games with curriculum. Tsekleves et al. (2016) advise that serious games not be used as an isolated add-on but that they be chosen for their connection to curriculum and be carefully incorporated into broader instructional activities occurring in the classroom. Students also need guidance (Chen, Shih & Law, 2020). Technology Integration Example 5.4 exemplifies using an online game blended with other in-class learning activities. • Identify and assess your own learning objectives. Not all games have sufficient assessment tools to approximate a learner’s content learning. Thus, Tsekleves et al. (2016) suggest that after careful review of games and choosing one to adopt, teachers

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 5.4 

TITLE: Do I Have a Right? CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Civics—The Bill of Rights GRADE LEVELS: 8–10 ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 1—Empowered Learner CCSS: ELA-LITERACY.RH.6-8.3 ELA-LITERACY.RH.9-10.6, ELA-LITERACY.RH.11-12.5 NCSS: Theme 6-Power, Authority, and Governance DESCRIPTION: Using a packet of materials on the Bill of Rights, the teacher reads a scenario in which the world has been destroyed and a “Pamphlet of Protections” must be created to define the rights people will have. Students identify their “top-ten” rights from a checklist, and the teacher polls the class to see which were selected. The teacher compares this task to the challenge that the framers of the Constitution faced and reviews each of the Bill of Rights the students created. After review and discussion, students apply what they learned with “Do I Have a Right?” online game software. They become lawyers who must decide whether potential clients “have a right.” The more clients they serve and the more cases they win, the faster the law firm grows. SOURCE: Based on ideas from a lesson plan at the iCivics free lesson plans website.

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develop learning objectives and assessments external to the game for students who will use the game for learning, which corresponds with Step 4 of the TIP model. • Involve all students. Make sure that all students—girls and boys, English language learners, students with varying achievement levels or with disabilities—are participating and that all students have a meaningful role in game playing. The single most common use of games is to reward completion of other unrelated classwork, but this approach often does not involve all students, limits games as a behaviorist tool to accomplish other tasks, and undermines the power of games to be instructional. Therefore, we do not recommend using games as rewards. • Avoid simulating oppression through gaming. Games, such as Mission US: Flight to Freedom, that explore facets of U.S. history involving racial and social oppression can undermine the needs of African American and indigenous children if they reproduce racial and ethnic stereotypes, entrenched ideologies of race and racism, and dominant historical narratives. As teachers consider adopting games, Acosta and Denham (2018) recommend that educators center on African American students’ needs for critical and emancipatory learning experiences, explicitly contextualize and scaffold game use within broader curricular goals, and critically question the legitimacy of games. • Support individual game playing. Some meta-analyses (Clark et al., 2016; ­Merchant et al., 2014) have found that students who play games learn better when they play individually versus collaboratively. • Emphasize the content-area skills. Before students begin playing, make sure that they know the relationship between game rules and content-area (e.g., math) objectives. Students should recognize the knowledge and skills that they will be developing in the game to use (transfer) in other curricular work.

Selecting Appropriate Instructional Games Several researchers have worked to develop criteria, categorizations, and rubrics for assessing the quality of games or serious games for education (Acosta & Denham, 2018; Borji & Khaldi, 2014; De Lope & Medina Medina, 2016; Hong et al., 2009). With these assessment and categorization approaches in mind, we developed the following criteria that teachers can use to choose effective instructional games: • Game development. Who developed a game can give clues to its longevity and the developer’s commitment to learning. Does the developer or company have a long history of creating educational products? Who is involved in development? From what content, ideological, and social perspectives was the game developed? Pay special attention to whether developers involve content and teaching experts, such as professors or teachers, in the design process. Has any independent research (i.e., not sponsored by the company) been conducted about the game? • Curricular value. Teachers should examine instructional games carefully for their educational value. Is learning the curricular content central to the game’s objectives? By playing the game, will students learn high-quality content and be able to apply it in nongame situations? Are there timely feedback and scaffolding mechanisms to support the players’ learning? Do the content and its representations match the learning level of target students? Is the content topic meeting a curricular need that other learning resources cannot? • Pedagogical framework. Determine whether the game is built on directed or constructivist instructional theories. Are the learning objectives explicit and observable through modeling? Does the game acknowledge learners’ existing knowledge on the topic? Does it assist learners in moving from simple to more complex ideas? Does it adapt based on learner actions (e.g., have branching)?

164  Chapter 5 • Assessment capabilities. Consider how assessment is built into the game and how it helps the learner and the teacher. What types of assessment, such as formative, summative, individual, or group, are involved? Do built-in assessments provide indicators of learning progress to the player? Does the game track information about the player/learner and provide that to teachers? Is tutor scaffolding available in the form of a pre-programmed pedagogical agent or an in-game character that the teacher assumes? • Social, societal, and cultural considerations. Games may be inappropriate for children if they are not designed with a respectful and humanizing outlook. For instance, games that call for violence or combat require careful screening. In addition, games should be avoided if they present girls and various ethnic, cultural, or ability groups in stereotypical ways. Ask yourself, What racial, ethnic, gender, language, and physical ability stereotypes exist in the game? • Playfulness and motivation. The most popular games include elements of adventure and uncertainty as well as levels of complexity matched to learners’ abilities. Does the game elicit different emotional states within the player? Does the game use applicable, age-appropriate graphics, sounds, and scenarios to immerse the learner within the game? Do interactive elements stimulate the learner manually and intellectually? Is the player motivated to pursue challenges and achieve them? Does the game have re-playability? Does it offer multiplayer capability? • Technical considerations. Teachers should ensure that the game is technically optimal for their computer settings. What are the computing system requirements for the game, such as specific operating systems, required plug-ins, special hardware or peripherals, or software installation? • Physical dexterity. Teachers should ensure that students will be motivated rather than frustrated by the activities. Unless the object of the game is to learn physical dexterity (e.g., for students with physical challenges or in physical education disciplines), the game’s focus should be on learning content-area knowledge so all students are able to manage the level of physical dexterity.

Characteristics of Problem-Solving Software Although many instructional software programs often include problem-based learning and problem-solving skills, problem-solving software is designed especially for this purpose. Such software can focus on fostering component skills in general problem solving and provide opportunities to practice solving various kinds of content-area problems. According to Mayes (1992), problem solving is cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal when the solution is not obvious. One way to think about problem solving is through three of its most important components: • Recognition of a goal (an opportunity for solving a problem) • Process (a sequence of physical activities or operations) • Mental activity (cognitive operations to pursue a solution). Although most problem-solving literature focuses on skills related to mathematical problems, research on the topic covers a wide variety of desired component behaviors. The literature mentions varied subskills such as metacognition, observing, recalling information, sequencing, analyzing, finding and organizing information, inferring, predicting outcomes, making analogies, and formulating ideas. Although there are many opinions about the proper role of instructional software in fostering

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Figure 5.10  Alien Rescue Problem-Solving Scientific Environment SOURCE: Dr. Min Liu https://alienrescue.education.utexas.edu/

these abilities, there seem to be two main approaches to integrating these problemsolving skills in software: • Content-area problem-solving skills. Some problem-solving software focuses on teaching content-area problem solving, primarily in mathematics and science. Some software programs are what might be called problem-solving “environments,” with a variety of tools that allow students to create solutions to complex problems presented by a scenario. One of these is Alien Rescue (Liu et al., 2020), which helps students solve problems in science environments (see Figure 5.10). Other programs designed to practice solving specific kinds of math or science problems include Crazy Machines (see Figure 5.11) in which learners recognize

Figure 5.11  Crazy Machines for Problem Solving SOURCE: Crazy Machines 2: The Wacky Contraptions Game © FAKT. Published by Viva Media. Reprinted by ­permission. http://www.encore.com.

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Figure 5.12  Memory Challenge for Problem Solving SOURCE: Memory Challenge. Reprinted by permission of the Critical Thinking Co., http://www.criticalthinking .com.

math situations in word problems and use graphic organizers to understand and plan solutions. • Content-free problem-solving skills. Some educators feel that general ­problem-solving ability can be taught directly by specific instruction and practice in its component strategies and subskills (e.g., recalling facts, breaking a problem into a sequence of steps, predicting outcomes). Others suggest placing students in problem-solving environments and, with some coaching and guidance, letting them develop their own heuristics for attacking and solving problems. In Memory Challenge (see Figure 5.12), learners engage in practice exercises to improve visual memory skills required for reading and math activities. The purposes of the two approaches overlap somewhat, but the first is directed more toward motivating students to attack problems and recognizing problem solving as an integral part of everyday life, whereas the second aims to help students practice component skills in specific kinds of problem solving.

Benefits of Problem-Solving Software Research and practice indicate that problem-solving software can help students in at least three different areas: • Visualization in mathematics and science problem solving. Research into mathematical problem-solving skills tends to show that software programs that rely on graphical displays, such as Geometer’s Sketchpad or GeoGebra, help students visualize abstract concepts and, thus, better understand how to solve problems and transfer those concepts to real-world phenomena (Çekmez, 2020). In science, ­seventh-graders used Scratch to computationally model simulated force and motion concepts related to physical phenomena (Aksit & Wiebe, 2020). The Scratch visualizations facilitated concept building through hands-on problem solving. • Interest and motivation. Students are more likely to practice solving problems in activities that they find interesting and motivating. Some educators believe that students will become more active, spontaneous problem solvers if they experience success in their initial problem-solving efforts. • Inert knowledge. Content-area problem-solving environments can make knowledge and skills more meaningful to students because they illustrate how and where information applies to actual problems. Students learn both the knowledge and its

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application at the same time. Also, they gain opportunities to discover concepts themselves, which they frequently find more motivating than simply being taught concepts through lecture.

Challenges Related to Problem-Solving Software Software programs with problem-solving functions are very popular; however, the following issues are still of concern to educators: • Multiple, imprecise problem-solving labels. Software marketing use many terms to describe problem solving, and their exact meanings are not always clear. Terms that appear as synonyms for problem solving include thinking skills, critical thinking, higher-level thinking, higher-order cognitive outcomes, reasoning, use of logic, and decision making. Because of this diversity in language, teachers must identify the skills that software addresses by looking at its activities. For example, assessing software that claims to teach inference skills would involve seeing how it defines inference by examining the tasks it presents, which can range from determining the next number in a sequence to using visual clues to predict a pattern. • Software claims versus research-based effectiveness. Attempt to confirm if software that claims to foster problem solving actually does by using it yourself or finding independent research about it. When students play a game that requires skills related to problem solving, they do not necessarily learn them. They could enjoy the game thoroughly—and even be successful at it—without learning any of the intended skills. • Lack of skill transfer. Although some educators feel that general problem-solving skills, such as inference and pattern recognition, will transfer to content-area skills, scant evidence supports this view. In general, research tends to show that skill in one kind of problem solving will transfer primarily to similar kinds of problems that use the same solution strategies. Researchers have not identified “general thinking skills” except in relation to IQ variables. For example, the Federal Trade Commission investigated two “brain-training” software producers for making inappropriate claims regarding their products’ abilities to improve memory, focus, and academics, among other benefits (Sparks, 2016), and levied settlement judgments against them. Many hoped such brain-training software products would yield improved cognitive abilities, but research indicates that they improve short-term working memory but do not yield sustained or transferable cognitive abilities (Max Planck, 2014; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016). These investigations emphasize the need to examine whether products’ promises for transferability are based on verifiable, independent research.

Integration Strategies and Guidelines for Using Problem-Solving Software Problem-solving functions can serve several classroom needs. This section describes integration strategies to meet each of these needs and offers guidelines and practical tips on how to integrate these strategies in the classroom. Strategies for integrating problem solving include the following: • To teach component skills in problem-solving strategies. Many problem-solving software programs provide good, hands-on experience using one or more of the skills required to use a problem-solving approach. These include understanding the problem, identifying and following a logical sequence, identifying relevant information to solve problems, remembering relevant information, not jumping to conclusions too quickly, and evaluating the process and outcomes.

168  Chapter 5 • To provide support in solving problems. Most problem-solving software programs are specifically designed to scaffold students as they practice solving complex problems. For example, GeoGebra helps students draw objects and investigate their mathematical properties. • To encourage group problem solving. Some software provides environments that lend themselves to solving problems in small groups. For example, graphic organizers, concept maps, flowcharts, timelines, spreadsheets, and charts provide opportunities for collaborative problem solving. Pearson eText Video Example 5.7 Mr. Patterson describes mathematics as a form of communication and explains how problem-based software and activities require students to apply and communicate their mathematics knowledge.

• To provide practice in solving problems. Some software provides opportunities to practice applying problem solving in ways to make it more likely that the skills will transfer to real-life situations. The following steps can help to integrate problem-solving software for teaching: • Identify focal problem-solving skills or general capabilities. Ensure that the software will help you build or foster skills in (1) solving one or more kinds of contentarea problems (e.g., building algebra equations), (2) using a scientific approach to problem solving (i.e., identifying the problem, posing hypotheses, planning a systematic approach), and (3) identifying the components of problem solving, such as following a sequence of steps or recalling facts. • Ensure that software fits in the teaching sequence. For social constructivist instruction, you might need to allow students sufficient time to explore and interact with the software but provide some structure in the form of directions, goals, a work schedule, and organized times for sharing and discussing results. • Build in transfer activities. Make students aware of the skills they are using in the software; one approach is to have students talk and reflect about the methods they use in the software and its relationship with other learning activities. The teacher might need to point out the relationship between software activities and other kinds of problem solving. Technology Integration Example 5.5 exemplifies a problem-based lesson with Geometer’s Sketchpad that aligns with a social constructivist instructional integration approach.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 5.5 

TITLE: Wait for a Date: Calculating Probability with Geometer’s Sketchpad CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Mathematics—Precalculus GRADE LEVELS: 8–10 ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 1—Empowered Learner; Standard 5—Computational Thinker CCSS: MATH.CONTENT.HSS.CP.A.1, CCSS.MATH.PRACTICE.MP5 DESCRIPTION: The teacher presents students with this scenario: “You and a friend arrange for a lunch date next week between 12:00 and 1:00 p.m. However, neither of you remembers the exact meeting time. Each of you arrives at a random time between 12:00 and 1:00 p.m. and waits exactly 10 minutes, then leaves if the other person has not arrived. Under these circumstances, what is the probability that you two will meet?” Students work in small groups and use a premade Sketchpad model (available at the Geometer’s Sketchpad site) to gather sample data and, by viewing data as points in a plane, they uncover a geometric pattern that allows them to compute a precise probability. Sketchpad also supports activities called “black box tasks” for students with more sophisticated knowledge of the software. In these activities, students use the software to re-create a given figure or deduce underlying properties that two or more objects have in common. SOURCE: Based on a lesson plan idea at the Geometer’s Sketchpad website.

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Selecting Appropriate Problem-Solving Software The qualities to look for in problem-solving software depend on its purpose. In general, problem formats should be interesting and challenging, and software should have a clear link to developing a specific problem-solving ability. Software documentation should state clearly which specific skills students will learn and how the software fosters them.

CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY The following is a summary of the main points covered in this chapter. 1. Introduction to Instructional Software • Instructional software (or computer-assisted instruction or courseware) is a computer program or app designed specifically to deliver instruction or assist with the delivery of instruction on a topic through pre-programmed curricular materials that are instructionally sequenced. • Functions provided by instructional software include drill and practice, tutorial, personalized learning, simulation, games or gamification, and problem solving. • Websites have emerged to help educators select well-designed instructional software products aligned to standards. These include edshelf, EdSurge Product List, and Common Sense’s EdTech Reviews. • Evaluation criteria to determine the strength of instructional software include examining the content, instruction, integration model, special needs features, learner involvement, learner engagement, technical and implementation aspects, design and aesthetics, and evidence of effectiveness. 2. Drill-and-Practice Functions • These provide exercises in which students work examples, usually one at a time, and receive feedback on the correctness of their responses. • Types of drill and practice include flash card activities, chart fill-in activities, branching drills, and extensive feedback activities. • Benefits include learning gains, immediate feedback, increased motivation, and teacher efficiencies. • Challenges include instructional misuse, skill isolation, and inequity in use. • Integration strategies for drill and practice software primarily use directed instruction, including as a supplement to or replacement for worksheets and homework exercises and to prepare for tests.

• Selection criteria for drill-and-practice include considering control over the presentation rate, assessment flexibility, appropriate feedback for correct and incorrect answers, and simplicity of screen elements tailored to young learners. 3. Tutorial Functions • Tutorials provide an entire instructional sequence on a topic similar to a teacher’s classroom instruction. • Types of tutorials include linear and branching. • Benefits include all the same benefits of drill and practice as well as self-paced instruction. • Challenges include use of directed instruction, the lack of well-designed products, preset instructional approach, and use with ill-defined domain content. • Integration strategies for tutorial software primarily use directed instruction and include self-paced reviews of instruction, alternative learning strategies, and instruction when teachers are unavailable. • Selection criteria for tutorials include interactivity, user control, pedagogy and content, answerjudging and feedback capabilities, graphics and/or video, and record keeping. 4. Adaptive, Personalized Learning Functions • These systems assess individual student learning needs by using complex algorithms and collections of data across students and provide an adaptive, customized instructional experience matched to each student. • Characteristics of PLSs include student centeredness; adaptive assessment; curriculum matched to standards, competency, or mastery base; multiple learning media; and data reports on individual and group progress. • Benefits include accurate assessments based on formative, summative, and longitudinal data; progress linked to curriculum and standards; personalized instructional prescriptions matched to student needs; and data for meeting teacher and district accountability requirements.

170  Chapter 5 • Challenges for PLSs include the lack of buy-in from the school community, considering PLSs as a total solution, data that are not extractable from the system, nascent research-based impact evidence, and dehumanization of learners. • Integration strategies primarily use directed instruction and include using PLSs in stations or centers, in whole-class one-to-one or lab rotation instruction, or supplementary one-to-one instruction. • Selection criteria for PLSs include student agency, content depth and quantity, meaningful data, aligned and validated assessments, evidence of impact, and an integration approach aligned with the teacher’s instruction. 5. Simulation Functions • Simulations provide computerized models of a real or theoretical system designed to teach how the system works. • Simulations teach about concepts or teach how to do tasks, including exploring the physical and natural world, running iterative trials, learning procedures, and problem-solving hypothetical situations. • Benefits include compressing time, slowing processes, visualizing abstract or microscopic concepts, involving students, making experimentation safe, making the impossible possible, saving money and resources, allowing repetition with variations, and allowing observation of complex processes. • Challenges include criticism of virtual lab software, accuracy of models, and misuse. • Integration strategies for simulation software primarily use social constructivist instruction and include replacing or supplementing lab experiments, role-playing, hypothesis testing, introducing and/or clarifying topics, fostering exploration and process learning, and encouraging cooperation and group work. • Selection criteria for simulations include adequate documentation or scaffolding and use in conjunction with hands-on activities. 6. Game and Gamification Functions • Instructional games add game rules and/or competition to learning challenges. • Types of instructional games include products that have an artificial game environment, game mechanics that govern rules of game play, content-based conflict, contest or challenge often situated in a narrative story, and feedback and assessment that marks progress.

• Gamification applies gameful design and mechanics to nongame learning contexts to impact learners’ behaviors. • Benefits include inclusion of problem-based learning, collaborative learning, realistic and immersive environments, motivation and competition, interactivity and feedback, achievement and rewards, and playfulness. • Challenges include learning versus having fun, lack of correspondence between game rules and learning objectives, transfer of learning, alignment with curriculum and teaching practices, and classroom barriers. • Integration strategies for instructional game software primarily use social constructivist instruction and include encouraging lifelong playing and problem- or inquiry-based learning, teaching “noncognitive skills,” and teaching cooperative group working skills. • Selection criteria for instructional games include game development by teams of developers and content and teaching experts; curricular value; a pedagogical framework; assessment capabilities; social, societal, and cultural considerations; playfulness and motivation; and technical and physical ease of use. 7. Problem-Solving Functions • These are designed especially for the purpose of practicing solving various kinds of content-area problems or teaching component skills in problem solving. • Benefits include abilities to promote visualization in mathematics and science problem solving, improve interest and motivation, and prevent inert knowledge. • Challenges revolve around multiple, imprecise problem-solving labels, software claims versus research-based effectiveness, and lack of skill transfer. • Integration strategies for problem-solving software primarily use social constructivist instruction and include teaching component skills in problemsolving strategies, providing support in solving problems, encouraging group problem solving, and providing problem-solving practice. • Selection criteria for problem-solving programs include interesting and challenging problems and clear links between the activities to development of specific problem-solving abilities.

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TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP Apply What You Learned In this chapter, you learned about instructional software resources. Now apply your understanding of these concepts by completing the following activities: • Reread Ms. Igwe’s lesson Rescuing Aliens at the beginning of this chapter. Pay close attention to Step 3 of her Technology Integration Planning (TIP) model, in which she identifies the technological possibilities for her problem of practice: engaging students in space science by immersing themselves in a simulated space environment. Using your knowledge about instructional software functions introduced in this chapter (drill and practice, tutorials, adaptive and personalized learning, simulations, games and gamification, and problem solving), generate at least one or more new technological possibilities for targeting Ms. Igwe’s problem of practice. • Review how Ms. Igwe RATified the lesson in Step 5 of her TIP as represented in Table 5.1. Use the RAT Matrix to analyze the role(s) and the relative advantage that your new technological possibilities (identified in the last step) would play in the lesson. You must reflect on the roles that your identified technological possibilities play as replacement, amplification, and/or transformation of instruction, student learning, and/or curriculum. Do you feel your proposed ­technology would provide relative advantage? Pearson eText Artifact 5.1: The RAT Matrix

Technology Integration Lesson Planning: Evaluating Lesson Plans Complete the following exercise using the sample ­Technology Integration Examples 5.1–5.5, any lesson plan you find on the web, or one provided by your instructor. a. Locate lesson ideas—Identify three lesson plans that focus on any of the instructional software functions you learned about in this chapter, for example: • Drill and practice • Tutorial • Personalized learning • Simulation • Game or gamification • Problem based. b. Evaluate the lessons—Use the Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist and the RAT Matrix to evaluate each of the lessons you found. Based on the evaluation and your RATification of the lessons, would you adopt these lessons in the future? Why or why not?

Pearson eText Artifact 5.2: Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist

Pearson eText Artifact 5.1: The RAT Matrix

Technology Integration Lesson Planning: Creating Lesson Plans with the TIP Model Review how to implement the TIP model (see Figure 3.4) for technology integration planning and use Ms. Igwe’s lesson Rescuing Aliens in this chapter as a model. Create your own technology-supported lesson that uses instructional software by completing the following activities: a. Describe Phase 1, Lead from Enduring Problems of Practice: • What is the problem of practice or main content challenge in your lesson? • What are the technology resources that your students, their families, you, your school, and your community could bring as assets to the lesson? • What are the technological possibilities for helping to solve or help the identified problem of practice? Identify the technology(ies) you will integrate into the lesson and ensure you have skills and resources you need to carry it out. What integration strategies will you use in this lesson? b. Describe Phase 2, Design and Teach the Technology ­Integration Lesson: • What are the objectives of the lesson plan? • How will you assess your students’ accomplishments of the objectives? • What is the relative advantage of using the technology(ies) in this lesson? • How will you prepare the learning environment? c. Describe Phase 3, Evaluate, Revise, and Share: • What strategies and/or instruments would you use to evaluate the success of this lesson in your classroom to determine any needed revision? • Create descriptors for your new lesson (e.g., grade level, content and topic areas, technologies used, ISTE standards for students). • Save your lesson plan with all its descriptors and TIP model notes and share it with your peers, teacher, and others. When you use your new lesson with students, be sure to assess it using the Technology Impact Checklist. Pearson eText Artifact 5.3: Technology Impact Checklist

CHAPTER 6

Design, Analysis, and Creation Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter and completing the learning activities, you should be able to: 6.1 Select integration strategies for digital writing and publishing

that meet teaching and learning needs in the classroom and reflect learning sciences research. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 4—Collaborator, 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator) 6.2 Select integration strategies for multimodal representation of

content concepts or developed knowledge that meet teaching and learning needs in the classroom and reflect learning sciences research. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst) 6.3 Select integration strategies for data collection, analysis, and assess-

ment that meet teaching and learning needs in the classroom and reflect learning sciences research. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 3—Citizen; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst)

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN ACTION:

Plant Life GRADE LEVEL: Elementary or middle school CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Science LENGTH OF TIME: 2 weeks

Phase 1  Lead from Enduring Problems of Practice Step 1: Identify problems of practice (POPs) Ms. Anand knew that she needed a better approach to teaching her fourth-graders about the basic parts and functions of plants as well as pollination and fertilization of flowers in her science class. The students historically had difficulty understanding these scientific concepts related to plants because the science text seemed to offer inadequate coverage of these ecology topics.

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Step 2: Assess technological resources of students, families, teachers, the school, and the community Ms. Anand had just polled students to identify their technological access at home, and she was surprised that only three of her class of 30 students had broadband Internet connectivity. Many families lived in more rural areas that she suspected might not have high-speed options. Interestingly, all students had access to mobile devices through a family member but also had school-provided iPad tablets. As a teacher, Ms. Anand’s science pedagogy mainly used direct instruction, including lecture, problem worksheets, quizzes, and tests. She had a classroom website where she posted notes and slide decks.

Step 3: Identify technological possibilities and select an integration strategy Despite her unfamiliarity, Ms. Anand felt that a hands-on approach might work best to engage students in science because her current pedagogy and text didn’t seem to be meeting all the students’ learning needs adequately. The photo and video capabilities of mobile devices would allow the students to leave the classroom and engage in authentic data collection on the school grounds. Ms. Anand was excited and felt her students would leverage their expertise with mobile devices. With so many students lacking high-speed Internet at their homes, she also felt it was important for them to develop some online data literacy skills, such as data collection, organization, storage, and analysis in cloud-based apps. This lesson was more aligned with a social constructivist approach because students would work in small groups and build scientific knowledge through a data-based inquiry in a field-based, experiential setting of a school garden.

Phase 2  Design and Teach the Technology Integration Lesson Step 4: Decide on learning objectives and assessments Ms. Anand had some specific outcomes in mind to measure the success of this lesson. The outcomes, objectives, and assessments he decided on were as follows. Outcome—Identify parts and functions of a flower. ■ ■

Objective—All students will photograph a flower and accurately annotate at least 90% of its parts and functions. Assessment—Rubric list of flower parts and functions

Outcome—Conceptually describe pollinators, pollination, and fertilization in scientific notebook. ■ ■

Objective—All students will achieve 90% accuracy on conceptual understandings. Assessment—Graded items on open-ended conceptual questions

Outcome—Demonstrate mastery on a conceptual test of concepts related to parts of a flower, pollinators, pollination, and fertilization. ■ ■

Objective—All students will achieve a passing score (85% or more) on the test. Assessment—Graded test with close-ended items

Step 5: Determine relative advantage: RATify the planned lesson Ms. Anand determined the relative advantage by RATifing the new unit. Table 6.1 shows the aspects of instruction, student learning, and curriculum that she felt would be impacted by having students collect data in the field. Ms. Anand recognized students’ learning and the curriculum had potential amplified and transformative impact. She felt there was relative advantage to the plant life unit.

Step 6: Prepare the learning environment and teach lesson Ms. Anand designed the lesson with the following activities: Day 1: Provide an overview. Ms. Anand introduces the inquiry project, the field trips to the garden, the process of collecting data with photos and video on their iPad tablets, note taking in their scientific journal using the ­Notability app. She also reviews how to incorporate video, photos, text, and audio-recording in the Notability app and ­downloading and sharing artifacts into a Google Drive for each group. Days 2–3: Review textbook and supplemental content materials and begin data collection in garden. As an artifact of learning, each student selects one of their flower photos, annotates all the parts of the flower with numbers, creates a legend, and orally describes the function of the flower parts. Groups review all the digital artifacts in their group and discuss and reidentify missed parts. (Continued)

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Table 6.1  Ms. Anand’s RATified Lesson Instruction

Learning

Curriculum

Amplification Technology increases or ­intensifies efficiency, productivity, access, capabilities, but the tasks stay ­fundamentally the same.

• Students can access and rewatch their recorded data. • Photographic and video data enhances ­students’ memory and recollections. • Oral narration of video-based ­representations facilitates reflective observation.

• Photo and video ­recording scaffolded concrete ­experience of data collection.

Transformation Technology redefines, restructures, reorganizes, changes, and creates novel solutions.

• Photographic and video data captures real-world phenomena accurately. • Access and re-access to digital ­observations allow for extended time with the phenomena under study and opportunities to re-see the data with fresh eyes.

Replacement Technology is different means to the same end.

Days 4–5: Review textbook and supplemental content materials regarding pollination. Group members develop hypotheses regarding possible pollinators in the garden. Students visit the garden to collect more data and return to develop a learning artifact, a list of identified pollinators with visual data evidence, and an oral description of the process of pollination. Days 6–7: Students return to the garden to further investigate reproduction and fertilization, seeking evidence that flowers have been pollinated. They create a learning artifact that lists such evidence, with an oral description of reproduction, how it works, and its importance for life. Day 8: Students take pollinator test. Before beginning the unit, Ms. Anand prepared the following: ■

■

■

Content representations. Ms. Anand selected the background content in the science textbook and also pulled supplemental simulations and diagrams from the USDA website. Conceptual questions and test. Ms. Anand adapted conceptual questions from the textbook for the unit test and developed a template for each of the learning artifacts. Technology. Ms. Anand created shared Google Drive folders for each group’s work and uploaded the templates into the folders.

Phase 3  Evaluate, Revise, and Share Step 7: Evaluate lesson results and impact After the unit, Ms. Anand reviewed the results. Across the three learning artifacts, 94% of students demonstrated ­accurate conceptual understandings. In terms of the unit test, 90% of the students achieved 90% or better on the test.

Step 8: Make revisions based on results Ms. Anand felt that the supplemental materials from the U.S. Department of Agriculture were more helpful to students’ learning than the science text. She planned to search for additional open educational resource options to provide more background content for students. Reviewing all the artifacts took a long time, so she might implement more peer review than she already included the next time.

Step 9: Share lessons, revisions, and outcomes with other peer teachers After completing the project, Ms. Anand told her principal about the results and planned to do a demonstration for an upcoming teacher professional development day in the district. SOURCE: Based on Zacharia, Z. C., Lazaridou, C., & Avraamidou, L. (2016). The use of mobile devices as means of data collection in supporting elementary school students’ conceptual understanding about plants. International Journal of Science Education, 38(4), 596–620. https:// doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2016.1153811

The following Pearson eText artifacts support completion of the Application Exercises, if assigned by your instructor. Pearson eText Artifact 6.1: The RAT Matrix

Pearson eText Artifact 6.2: Technology Lesson Evaluation Checklist

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Introduction In this chapter, we delve more deeply to understand web-based resources that support teaching and learning activities that involve design, analysis, and creation. This chapter focuses on the digital resources that teachers and learners take up to create and build their own content-based knowledge. A key feature of the digital resources reviewed in this chapter is what they lack: the instructional content material common to the web-based content of Chapter 4 and the instructional software reviewed in Chapter 5. The power and applicability of these creation resources lies in teachers’ and students’ bringing academic content or needs to these resources in order to enhance instruction or learning. Teachers and learners do this work alike, often using the same tools, but for different purposes. Teachers use these resources to build instructional materials and digital experiences for their students, while learners use them to engage with content ideas and build evidence of their knowledge development. In this context, students seek meaning across a range of media, such as text, videos, images, sounds, animations, and interactive elements, that are built into web-based resources they interact with daily. Teachers now can expand opportunities for learners to widen the range of creative self-expressions that reflect and build students’ multimodal literacy. In doing so, teachers are upholding the universal design of learning principles of multiple means of expression and representation. Learners typically create expressions of knowledge to represent what they have developed through learning activities and engage in the process of transmediation in which learners translate information content from one sign system, such as an oral lecture and reading a text, into others, such as an infographic and film. Park (2017) summarizes several benefits for learners who create multimodal expressions through transmediation: • Better understanding of the content under study • Engagement in complex cognitive processes, such as comprehension, mental representations, transfer, and application • Analytic oral conversations between collaborating students about the known content and new multimodal representations of the content. The multimodal creative expressions in this chapter range in their complexity and involvement of digital technologies, although all involve learners engaging in a design process when they create and make. Table 6.2 summarizes the six steps of the design process with descriptions of the process for each type of creative activity described in this chapter. Teachers and students use many digital resources to engage in writing, representation, and analysis activities. The following sections describe common software that might be available in your classroom or school. Think about how you will put each of these resources to work to become a more productive and powerful teacher and empower your students to design and construct deep knowledge.

Digital Writing and Publishing Learning Outcome 6.1  Select integration strategies for digital writing and publishing that meet teaching and learning needs in the classroom and reflect learning sciences research. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 4—Collaborator, 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator) Most written documents and some digital products such as digital books are created with word processors and desktop publishing software. Word processing software allows the production and revision of text-based information as well as the addition of many kinds of graphics, tables, and other features to text products. Perhaps

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Table 6.2  Design Process in Writing, Representing, Data Analysis, and Assessment Activities for Students Six-Step Design Process 3. Brainstorm and analyze ideas

4. Develop preliminary solutions

5. Gather feedback from others

Research the topic or generate ideas (if creative writing).

Storyboard and outline; write script if using audio narration.

Initial ­production using digital software.

Online or face-to-face presentations of stories or books for feedback.

Revision and final online publishing (or print publishing for books).

Determine the ­content task that will be represented.

Research the topic and/or actively listen or read the content with care.

Sketch the skeleton of the ­representation you will develop ensuring it fits with the collected information.

Develop the ­representation with media elements as necessary.

Share and receive feedback.

Revise final ­representation based on feedback.

Data generation and analysis

Identify the data-based inquiry or experiment.

Build a way to collect data (e.g., a survey, ­observation, data-generating device) or identify a source of existing data.

Discuss data ­cleaning, ­organization, and analysis approaches.

Analyze the data using identified methods and ­create ­appropriate visualization of results.

Present initial ­findings and gather peer and teacher feedback.

Revise analyses or conduct ­additional analyses to ­satisfy any critique or ­suggestions. ­Finalize report.

Digital portfolio assessment

Determine ­portfolio requirements, such as required ­evidence areas, technological ­medium to use, and criteria to meet.

Plan for and select learning artifacts that meet evidence criteria.

Create the ­portfolio structure on the medium (e.g., ­portfolio software, web, Acrobat).

Add and link ­learning artifacts to the portfolio and begin cyclical commentary and reflection.

Receive periodic feedback from teachers or others and add reflective ideas across time.

Add or ­revise ­evidence ­components as needed based on ongoing reflection and feedback.

1. Define the problem or task

2. Collect information

Digital ­writing, ­publishing, ­storytelling, and book making

Identify the topic of the story or book.

Creating multimodal representations

Activities

6. Improve through revision

no other technology resource has had such penetration into educational activities as word processing. Software like Notability and Microsoft’s One Note are conducive to note-­taking, with options for handwritten or typed digital notes. Individual or social annotation is facilitated in dedicated resources like Hypothesis and NowComment, but is also available within many reading tools, such as Kindle and Adobe Acrobat, and in content curation tools like Diigo. Desktop publishing uses a combination of software, computers, and printers to control the form and appearance of content and to allow individuals to be their own publishers. Most desktop publishing software now supports design for print and digital layout of content, which can allow creation of apps, e-books, or digital magazines and newspapers. Table 6.3 identifies various software programs, their functions, and the products that teachers and students can make with them. Desktop publishing software is designed to create documents that have separate pages linked as an entire product. Pages can be viewed separately and as part of a complete layout. The software provides flexibility and precision in the placement and format of both text and graphics on individual pages. In contrast, text and graphics in word-processed documents “flows” in a continuous stream, which makes precise placement of text and graphics difficult if new content is added. Portable document format (PDF) file software created by Adobe permits viewing and sending documents in a general format that displays all of the formatting and design elements (e.g., margins, graphics) of the original document without requiring access to the software used to create it. Teachers can create a PDF using most software by choosing to save the document in the PDF format. The resulting PDF files can then be shared exactly as formatted and viewed by anyone with the free Adobe Acrobat Reader DC. The Acrobat Pro DC app allows users to edit, create, convert, and sign PDF files.

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Table 6.3  Writing and Publishing Resources, Software, and Functions Resources

Example Software

Functions

Sample Products

Word processing, note taking, and annotation

• Microsoft Word • Google Docs • Apple Pages • OpenOffice Writer • Notability • Hypothes.is

Creates documents consisting of pages with text, outlines, graphics, tables, charts, marked-up or annotated documents

Teacher: Newsletters, letters, lesson plans, and planning or revision notes, guided reading questions Students: Compositions, poetry, ­reports, flyers, book reports, notes, reading or literature annotations

Desktop publishing and PDF

• Print Shop Deluxe • Canva • Buncee • Adobe Acrobat Pro DC • Microsoft Publisher • Book Creator • Adobe InDesign

Creates publishable print or digital ­content using graphic design, content editing and layout, and production

Teacher and students: Letterhead, brochures, flyers/posters, newsletters, newspapers, and books

Integration Strategies for Writing and Publishing Both teachers and learners can write and publish. Teachers tend to create documents for instruction and administrative tasks. Learners write and publish to represent their developing knowledge across all discipline areas. The digital writing opportunities teachers develop are important to expand children’s writing repertoires because few tweens and only 5% of teens report writing on digital devices during their time using media for entertainment (nonschool) (Rideout & Robb, 2019). Table 6.4 describes common features and benefits of technological resources that support writing and publishing. WRITING AND PUBLISHING STRATEGIES FOR TEACHERS  Teachers write and

publish classroom materials every day of every year. Teachers might want to keep templates or model documents they can easily update and reuse. The following is a list of reusable digital documents that teachers might want to develop or find templates or samples from other teachers or the school. • Letters: Beginning-of-year welcome, field trip permission, fundraising, student progress, teacher letterhead template • Class decorations: Flyers, announcements, rules poster

Table 6.4  Features of Writing and Publishing Resources Resource and General Benefits

Common Features

Writing, note-taking, and annotation software—Saves time writing text; makes changes easier and more flexible; in-text comments and notes

Formatting—Change alignment, margins, fonts, type size, colors, line spacing, shading, borders; set headers, footers, watermark Graphics and interactivity—Add graphics, shapes, callouts, tables, charts, text boxes, live URLs Templates—Use preformatted models of resumés, newsletters, brochures Language—Use spelling and grammar check, thesaurus; sets custom language Voice typing and speech—Enter oral text; read words as typed Mail merge—Create document template with fields; merge data from spreadsheet into preset fields Export—Publish to web; save as PDF, Rich Text Format (RTF), graphic files, and EPUB

Desktop publishing—Creates professional-quality products that combine text, graphics, and interactivity

Precise page layout—Use master layout, frames, ruler for precise and consistent ­placement of all content elements Template—Create documents produced by professionals for use as a guide for specific design tasks Style sheets—Set a format and repeat it throughout a document as needed Customized graphics—Adjust size, rotate, flip, zoom, stroke, fill, arrange, group/­ ungroup, transform; add lines and shapes

178  Chapter 6 • Lesson materials: Lesson plans and instructional notes, worksheets and exercises, activity handouts, name tags • Reports: Newsletters, annual reports required by the school Cloud-based word processors, such as Google Docs, offer online accessibility and real-time collaboration with multiple users, allowing teachers many affordances. Cloud-based word processing features support teacher productivity by allowing teachers to: • Share files and collaborate synchronously for: • Lesson planning with colleagues • Staff/grade-level meeting notes (written by and/or shared with everyone at close of meeting) • Curricular lesson repository (e.g., staff share a folder of their lesson plans on an institutional Google account) • Handouts to distribute to students and/or teacher monitoring of students’ progress. • Publish documents on the web. • Translate materials in different languages (we advise checking the results with a native speaker prior to distribution). • Easily add equations to handouts by using EquatIO. • Provide student feedback orally using the Kaizena add-on (only appropriate for students without hearing impairments). • Highlight information and make comments to provide formative feedback without paper or digital file submission. • Monitor student contributions and progress with the revision history in each document. Word processing and desktop publishing resources offer many general relative advantages for teachers’ work: • Saves time. Resources help teachers use preparation time more efficiently by letting them modify materials instead of creating new ones. Writers can make corrections to digital documents more quickly than they could on a typewriter or by hand. • Enhances document appearance. Materials look more polished and professional than handwritten materials. The use of many software templates makes this possible. • Allows document sharing. Materials can be shared easily among writers. Teachers can exchange lesson plans, worksheets, and other materials and modify them to fit their specific needs. • Allows collaboration on documents. Especially since the release of products such as Google Docs, teachers can now create, edit, and share documents synchronously. WRITING AND PUBLISHING STRATEGIES FOR STUDENTS  Students can also use

word processing and desktop publishing for producing a range of digital products. Teachers can prioritize social constructivist integration approaches that position learners as active creators who may collaborate with each other to design, learn, and create. Technology resources like word processors and desktop publishing are the actual tools that professional writers and designers use, so students will be immersed in work with authentic tools. Engaging in writing with word processing helps students make corrections more efficiently; this can motivate them to write more and take more interest in expressing themselves through writing. Desktop publishing is the strategy of choice to produce elaborate, graphic-oriented documents (e.g., flyers and posters, brochures,

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newsletters and magazines, and booklets and books) and can boost students’ self-esteem when they publish their own work, heighten interest in writing and increase motivation to write for audiences outside the classroom, develop language skills, and improve learning through small-group collaboration. A list of common classroom ­projects and ideas for implementing word processing and desktop publishing follows: • Projects supporting writing processes. Students can use word processing and desktop publishing to outline, write, edit, and illustrate stories, to produce reports in content areas, to keep notes and logs on classroom activities, and for any written assignment. Using word processing in the classroom can make it easier for students to get started writing and to revise and improve their writing. ­Outlining is built into various word processing software that is designed to prompt users as they develop outlines by automatically indenting and/or supplying the appropriate number or letter for each line in the outline. Teachers and students can make good use of the track changes feature in Microsoft Word or suggesting feature in Google Docs, which allows readers to edit written work, which appears as colored text, to guide revision. Teachers and students can also use comment boxes that allows inserting written notes in margins. AbuSeileek (2013) found that students who received corrective feedback using such features were more likely to eliminate targeted writing errors (e.g., sentence fragments and run-ons) than those who did not. • Projects using collaborative group approaches. Teachers can assign group poems or letters to various students, allowing them to add and change lines or produce elements of the whole document in a word processing program. The use of such programs facilitates sharing and collaboration, and students find it easier to share, exchange, annotate, and contribute to drafts. Students also work together on written projects at a distance. Technology Integration Example 6.1 illustrates the use of word processing for collaborative writing.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 6.1 

TITLE: Writing Together Online CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: English language arts GRADE LEVELS: Middle and high school ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 1—Empowered Learner; Standard 2—Digital Citizen; Standard 3—Knowledge ­Constructor; Standard 6—Creative Communicator; Standard 7—Global Communicator CCSS: CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.6-8.1, CSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.6-8.4, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.6-8.5, CCSS. ELA-LITERACY.W.6-8.6, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.6-12.2, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.6-8.8 & 9, DESCRIPTION: Students collaborate together to research and write a source-based argumentative essay. For example, students might pursue answering the question, What is the true cost of the farm-to-table movement? They conduct research and find applicable source materials that represent different perspectives on the topic. They use Google Docs to collaboratively compose their argumentative essay. The teacher guides students in prewriting to develop an outline, followed by drafting and revising with their coauthors. Students access their Google Docs via individual Chromebooks to compose, comment, and edit/suggest. To monitor the individual contributions to this collaborative writing project, students also use DocuViz, a free Chrome add-on extension that creates a visualization of the revision history in Google Docs. Students analyze the visualization to reflect on their individual and collective contributions and editing over time. They access the visualization to visibly see their and their peers’ contributions, which can motivate more writing or discussions relating to peer efforts and cooperative work. SOURCE: Based on Krishnan, J., Cusimano, A., Wang, D., & Yim, S. (2018). Writing together: Online synchronous collaboration in middle school. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 62(2), 163–173.

180  Chapter 6 • Projects assigning individual language, writing, and reading exercises. Specific word processing exercises allow for meaningful, hands-on practice in language use as individual students work to combine sentences; add, delete, or correct punctuation; or write sentences for spelling words. Word processing can also make possible a variety of reading-/language-related activities ranging from decoding to writing poetry and enjoying literature. Identifying and correcting errors becomes a visual process. • Projects encouraging writing across the curriculum. Writing across the curriculum emphasizes integrated, interdisciplinary, and thematic curricula by encouraging writing skills in courses and activities other than those designed to teach English language arts. Word processing and desktop publishing can encourage these integrated activities. Font and graphic features allow students to represent concepts in mathematics, science, and other content areas. Word processors are also available in other languages to support foreign language learning. • Projects supporting student writing and language learning. Adaptive keyboard and voice recognition capabilities make writing more accessible for students with physical challenges. Word processors also have optional features that support writing in many languages, complete with appropriate spell-checking and diacritical marks. • Projects providing methods to report research findings. Students write and publish culminating reports on their research include creating travel brochures that report on student exploration during field trips, descriptions of the local region, and information about organizations or activities. Sometimes this type of activity represents the culmination of a large project, such as a series of science experiments or a social studies research unit; sometimes it is a way for every student to contribute writing to a class project. • Projects drawing students to digital storytelling. Storytelling is the process of using images and audio to tell the stories of lives, events, or eras. The StoryCenter site indicates that a digital story is a narrative someone tells in the first person in video format. The StoryKit app (ICDL) helps users write, illustrate, narrate, add sounds, design the layout, and share a story. Users also have access to children’s books in the public domain to adapt or remix. The Storybird app allows users to write stories and poetry, use presupplied art to illustrate their books, share them, and comment on other books. Students can also use word processors and desktop publishing resources and audio and video resources described later in this chapter for digital storytelling. StoryCorps and its StoryCorps app inspires a culture of listening and sharing. Creative contributions to StoryCorps are archived in the Library of Congress. Students from primary to high school levels who engaged in digital storytelling have been shown to spend more time on writing composition or other disciplinary content; to generate story ideas from their life experiences and social issues; to develop digital multimodal literacies; to contribute to a class culture of story sharing, listening, reading, and interacting; and to engage and center formerly marginalized students (Demény, 2020; González Mesa, 2020; Staley & Freeman, 2017; Vu et al., 2019). • Projects offering opportunities for creative digital publishing. When students submit their written or artistic products to a website, such as an online magazine, they are digital publishing. They can use web tools such as wikis and blogs or websites for student authors, such as Fan Fiction, KidPub, or Student News Net, or host their own K–12 newspaper with SNO, which charges an annual fee. It offers free templates modeled on actual newspapers that schools can use for their own designs. The KidPub website (Figure 6.1) hosts student work samples from around the world. Projects such as these reap benefits for students of all abilities. Teachers report that “getting published” increases students’ pride in their work and makes them want to spend more time on it (Encheff, 2013).

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Figure 6.1  KidPub Website SOURCE: KidPub website. Copyright 1995, 2013 KidPub Press LLC. Reprinted by permission. http://www.kidpub.com.

• Projects leading to digital book making. Book making involves designing and producing e-books or printed books using book development software, such as Apple Pages, Book Creator, and Adobe InDesign. For example, a fifth-grade teacher worked with her students to publish science-related e-books using iBooks (Encheff, 2013). In 2012, Mr. Smith’s fifth-grade special education class at Gibbs E ­ lementary School wrote and published The Two Kids and Desert Town, freely available on iTunes. Another iTunes book, Creatures, Plants and More!: A Kid’s Guide to Northwest Florida was created by seventh-graders in 2012, and sixth- and seventh-graders created the Wild Wonders of Science in 2014. Writing and publishing offers great versatility and flexibility for use across contentarea subjects. For example, teachers and students can consider the following digital publishing, storytelling, and book creation: cookbooks (science, social studies, health), field or nature guides (science, social studies), creative writing (English language arts), and textbooks (all areas). In Technology Integration Example 6.2, a teacher combines modeling (reading mysteries), teaching structure (mystery genre), and the writing process with word processing.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Pearson eText Video Example 6.1 Notice how this sixth grade teacher has created a paperless environment with Chromebooks that supports students developing typing skills, writing fluidity, and writing across the curriculum.

Example 6.2 

TITLE: Mystery Writers! CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Language arts, creative writing GRADE LEVELS: 3–5 ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 1—Empowered Learner; Standard 6—Creative Communicator CCSS: CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RL.3.3, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.3.3, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.3.6, CCSS.ELALITERACY.W.4.3.D, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.4.10, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RL.5.9, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.5.3.A DESCRIPTION: Students assume the identity of private investigators as they read, solve, and write mysteries in order to learn about the genre and encourage creative writing. The teacher helps students outline the critical elements of a mystery story and allows them to map a sample mystery to illustrate these elements and a story line. Then the teacher introduces nursery rhymes as mystery story starters (e.g., Why did Humpty Dumpty fall off that wall? How did Mother Hubbard’s cupboard become empty?). Students organize their stories with sticky-note story maps in Google’s ­Jamboard or using outlines in word processors, then write their stories and complete drafts with teacher and peer feedback. SOURCE: Based on a concept in an EducationWorld.com lesson.

182  Chapter 6

Instructional Strategies for Writing and Publishing Students new to writing and publishing with digital resources must have adequate time to develop skills to create. Some schools have technology or business teachers who teach students these skills. Classroom teachers should coordinate with these teachers to ensure that their students have the needed skills prior to a lesson involving digital writing or publishing or should be prepared to teach the required skills. Online tutorials are available for teaching various software packages, and some teachers create their own video tutorials, but these can serve best as supplementary learning sources because not all learners have the ability to learn by using self-instructional methods. Teachers might have to introduce their students to the features and uses of the digital resources and be sure to not overestimate students’ skills in digital writing and publishing. Teachers should review the features of word processing and desktop publishing as summarized earlier in Table 6.4 to guide their instruction for students. Word-processed and desktop-published products have increased impact and communicate the author’s intent more clearly if they reflect some fairly simple and effective design criteria. These include: • Use a limited number of typefaces (fonts). Unusual typefaces or fonts can help direct the eye toward text, but too many different fonts on a page can be distracting, and some fancy fonts are difficult to read. • Use a different font for title and text. To aid the reader, use a serif typeface (one with small curves or “hands and feet” that extend from the ends of the letters) for text in the main body of the document. Use a sans serif typeface, a font without extensions, for titles and headlines. • Use appropriate sizes for type. Make the type large enough to be read easily (e.g., younger readers usually need large point sizes) but not too large to dominate the page. • Avoid overuse of type styles. Breaking up text with too many font styles interferes with reading. Avoid excessive underlining, boldfacing, and italics. • Match text and background colors. Use white or yellow type on a black block to add drama. Avoid color combinations that can be difficult to read (e.g., orange on green or red on blue). • Use visual cues. Attract reader attention to important information on the page by using frames or boxes around text, bullets or arrows to designate important points, shading of the part of the page behind important text, different text styles (e.g., boldface or italic type), and captions for pictures and diagrams. • Use white space well. There is a saying in advertising that “white space sells.” Don’t be afraid to leave areas in a document with nothing in them at all to help focus attention on areas that do contain information. • Create and use graphics carefully. Use pictures and designs to focus attention and convey information but remember that too many elaborate pictures or graphic design elements can be distracting. • Avoid common text format errors. Common design pitfalls include using irregularly shaped text blocks and angled type, both of which are difficult to read. • Avoid common text break errors. Use desktop publishing software features to control for widows and orphans (leftover single words and phrases at the tops or bottoms of pages) and excessive hyphenation.

Benefits of Digital Writing and Publishing Research indicates that word processing can improve aspects of the writing process and attitudes toward writing only if it is used in the context of good writing instruction and if students have enough time to learn word processing procedures before beginning

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their work. Several meta-analyses, which represent hundreds of studies (Goldberg et al., 2003; Morphy & Graham, 2012; Snyder, 1993; Zheng et al., 2016), indicate that students who use word processing showed better writing quality, more writing, fewer mechanical errors, increased engagement in revision, and more frequent publishing of their work. Some studies identified better attitudes toward writing. Recent research on collaborative group writing, such as conducted in Google Docs, shows that group-written work may be lengthier and score higher in comparison to individually written essays (Krishnan et al., 2018). However, use of word processing is not a magic cure-all; a study by Graham and Perrin (2007) showed that word processing had a positive impact on students’ skills in sentence construction, inquiry, prewriting activities, and process approaches but found that the instructional techniques of strategy instruction, summarization, peer assistance, and setting product goals had more impact on students’ writing skills. Thus, teachers must integrate optimal writing strategy instruction including strategies for peer revision with the use of word processing for maximal impact. Much peer feedback and students’ revisions primarily concern surface-level corrections, such as spelling and grammatical errors, and word processors seem to have had limited effect on promoting global revision or overall improvements in depth and quality of written communication (Dave & Russell, 2010; Yim et al., 2017). Thus, using a word processor likely will not change a students’ perception of writing without a teacher explicitly teaching and emphasizing global revision as a process (Yim et al., 2017). Some research indicates that weaker writers’ writing quality benefits more from word processing use than stronger writers (Morphy & Graham, 2012). Examples of teacher use of desktop publishing portray highly motivational, authentic projects. For example, Ash (2011) describes students in eighth grade or beyond who interviewed and photographed people to contribute to published books created in desktop publishing. The students published and sold books about Wisconsin women and another on Holocaust survivors as part of an oral history project.

Challenges in Digital Writing and Publishing Educators seem to agree that although digital writing and publishing is valuable, its use in education involves some challenges regarding the following: • The age at which students should start word processing. Word processing software designed for young children is available, and schools can introduce it to students as young as 4 or 5 years old (Dinehart, 2015). Some educators feel that word processing will free students from the physical constraints of handwriting, allowing them to develop written expression skills. Others worry that it will make students unwilling to spend time developing handwriting abilities and other activities requiring fine-motor skills. Dinehart (2015) indicates that Common Core State Standards (CCSS) encourage students in first grade to use digital tools to write. Yet, research with English learners in grades 1 and 2 discovered they achieved higher writing scores when taking handwritten paper tests as compared with a keyboarded computer response (Kim et al., 2019). • The need to teach keyboarding skills. Discussion is ongoing about whether students need to learn keyboarding (“10-finger typing” on the computer) either prior to or in conjunction with word processing activities. Some recommend teaching keyboarding to children 10 years of age because their hand span is wide enough for keyboards (Armstong, 2014), and the CCSS expect that by grade 4, students can type one page in one sitting (Poole & Preciado, 2016). Some educators feel that students will never become really productive on digital devices until they learn 10-finger keyboarding and that keyboarding ability influences writing quality. Other educators feel that they do not have time to teach keyboarding instruction

184  Chapter 6 given the heavy demands of addressing curriculum standards (Poole & Preciado, 2016). Researchers have shown that use of a developmentally based curriculum, such as Keyboarding without Tears, leads to improved accuracy and speed by students in K–5 as compared to learning keyboarding from free, web-based drill programs (Donica et al., 2018). • The effects of word processing on handwriting. Cursive writing, long a staple in elementary school curriculum, is not included in the CCSS (Supon, 2009; ­Wollscheid et al., 2016). Debate still swirls, however, around the question of whether typing should replace cursive writing (Vacek & Fuhrhop, 2013). Recent studies indicate that cursive writing exercises fine-motor control skills and activates multiple areas of the brain that contribute to self-regulation and executive functioning and leads to better letter recognition in ways that typing does not (Armstrong, 2014; ­Dinehart, 2015; Mayer et al., 2020). Another study found that students with poor handwriting who feel behind “typical achievers” kept up with them when they typed on a keyboard (Bisschop et al., 2017). Ultimately, researchers recommend a balanced approach in early grades, teaching both handwriting and keyboarding skills (­Mangen, 2016; Mangen & Balsvik, 2016), but have also found the least desirable writing tool for learning letters and words to be the stylus on touchscreen (Mayer et al., 2020). • The impact of word processing on assessment. Some organizations have students choose between word processing and handwritten formats for answering essay-type test questions, but there is an increasing tendency toward requiring students to take all tests on a computer. This practice introduces several issues. First, some researchers have found that essay graders tend to discriminate against word-processed papers, consistently giving them lower scores than handwritten ones (Mogey et al., 2010). Educational institutions that must be careful to establish guidelines and special training to ensure that raters are not biased by response type. Second, schools that require word processed writing for tests must ensure that students are experienced enough with the software so that a lack of word processing skill does not affect the quality or quantity of their written expression. Third, time limitations may impact students’ achievement if they are unfamiliar with the digital writing platform or device (Tate et al., 2019). • Peer feedback and revision in collaborative writing. When students become peer reviewers of others’ writing, they may focus their feedback on micro, ­surface-level features, such as grammar and mechanics, that are not substantively helpful for student authors. Yim et al. (2017) recommend teachers train students how to engage in peer feedback and scaffold such work with a peerreview rubric that guides their responses on macro-level areas, such as content and organization, as well as consider anonymous peer review to encourage more critically constructive feedback (Woodrich & Fan, 2017). Furthermore, teachers may consider explicit guided revision activities so that students develop strategies to reflect on and revise in response to peer and teacher feedback (Neumann & Kopcha, 2019).

Pearson eText Video Example 6.2 Teacher, Gust Abdallah, explains how he uses collaborative documents early in the year to help ease students into the practice of seeing and eventually providing feedback on each other’s work.

• Group dynamics within collaborative writing. Olesen (2020) conceptualizes Google Docs as a hybrid learning space that combines group and individual activities in both digital and in-person social contexts. He recommends teachers consider how the digital spaces may draw students to interact or avoid interaction, and to lead, contribute, or observe. Teachers should use their knowledge of group members’ social dynamics to introduce cooperative learning strategies to maintain involvement of all members in collaborative writing activities. Teachers and administrators should monitor these challenges and weigh them against the affordances and benefits within their classrooms and school contexts.

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Creating Multimodal Representations Learning Outcome 6.2  Select integration strategies for multimodal representation of content concepts or developed knowledge that meet teaching and learning needs in the classroom and reflect learning sciences research. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst) Teachers and students often need to represent content concepts to others for instruction or to demonstrate developed knowledge. Depicting, illustrating, or demonstrating concepts, ideas, and knowledge can be done by speaking, describing, illustrating, and performing that are often represented digitally as graphics, symbols, text, audio, or video. Representations that combine these multimodal elements include drawing or painting, images, multimedia productions, infographics and presentations, and websites. There is much need for teachers to guide students in developing content representations because only 5–6% of children age 8–18 report creating digital art or graphics during their time using digital media for entertainment (Rideout & Robb, 2019). Of those who do, they put effort into it, spending an average of 1 hour 18 minutes toward content creation. Table 6.5 summarizes functions and digital representation products that can be created with the example software. Drawing and painting software tools help users create their own graphics to insert into any digital products or web pages. In simpler draw/paint programs, such as Kid Pix 5: The S.T.E.A.M. Edition, users select graphics components (e.g., colors, shapes, lines) from menus and toolbars to create an image in a matter of minutes. Higher-end programs, such as Adobe Illustrator, make creating complex drawings possible but require knowledge of art and graphic techniques. SketchUp facilitates drawing 3-D content; such programs are usually used in high school–level communications and technology education courses. Figure 6.2 shows a secondary-level student developing original artwork on-screen. Image editing programs allow modification of any graphical image. This software is often used to enhance and format photos that are later imported to other software to create presentations or web pages. Image editing programs such as Adobe Photoshop are known for their sophistication and wide-ranging capabilities and can require considerable time to become familiar with all their facets, but new tools such as Instagram, VSCO, Prisma, and Snapseed, which work on mobile devices, make

Figure 6.2  Sample Draw/Paint Software at the Secondary Level (Photo by W. Wiencke)

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Table 6.5  Digital Representation Resources, Software, Functions, and Products Resource

Example Software

Software Functions

Sample Product

Draw/Paint software

• KidPix 5: The S.T.E.A.M. Edition • Clip Studio Paint • Adobe Illustrator or Fresco • TuxPaint • Krita • SketchUp • Google Drawings

Draw or paint original artwork.

Teacher and students: Visual ­(drawing or painting) representations of content concepts

Image editors

• GIMP • Adobe Photoshop • Nik Collection by DxO • Adobe Lightroom Photo Editor

Create, modify, and combine ­images, such as photographs, clip art, and line drawings.

Teacher and students: Visual ­(photography or images) representations of content concepts

Media collections

• Freepik • UnSplash Images and Pictures • Clker Clipart • Open Clipart Library (OCAL) • Classroom Clipart • AudioMicro Music and Sound Effects

Download clip art, drawings, ­cartoons, photos, animations, sound, and video.

Teacher and students: Audio or visual ­representations of content concepts

Infographic software

• Piktochart • Canva • Venngage • Infogram • EdWordle • Tagxedo

Create graphical visual representations of multimedia information or data to improve understanding of trends or patterns.

Teacher and students: Timelines, charts, maps, data visualization

Concept mapping

• LucidChart • Kidspiration • Inspiration • SmartDraw • Bubbl.us

Helps teachers and students ­ rganize their ideas in a visual o ­concept map form.

Teacher: Curriculum mapping Students: Flowcharts, mind or concept maps, networks, cycles, systems, family trees

Presentation software

• Microsoft PowerPoint • Google Slides • Apple Keynote • OpenOffice Impress • Prezi • PowToon • Pear Deck • Genial.ly

Combine, order, and display text, graphics, animations, audio, and video in an automated or untimed presentation.

Teacher: Demonstrations and support for lectures, tutorials, representations, or ­animations of content concept Students: Support for oral reports, ­animated hypertextual books

Websites

• Google Sites • Wix • Weebly for Education • Square Space • WordPress

Combine, order, and display text, graphics, animations, audio, and video to share or archive information on a website.

Teacher: Classroom news, activities, and resources; web-based lessons Students: Multimedia reports, essays, and journals for public sharing

Interactive lessons

• Nearpod • SMART Learning Suite Online • Promethean ActivInspire and ClassFlow

Combine subject-area content r­epresentations with interactive ­features for students.

Teacher: Teacher or self-guided ­interactive lessons for live in-class or online use; ­collaborative whiteboard Students: Narrated explanations of knowledge

image editing more accessible. Gran (2013) writes about these tools primarily from the standpoint of teaching photography and the arts, but image editing can also be used in all subject areas. Several image formats, or ways of storing images, have been developed over the years to serve various purposes. Images most commonly are in JPEG or GIF format. Downloading images from the web is easy by right-clicking and selecting “Save Image As,” but remember that most images found on web pages are copyrighted. Their legal use is determined by applicable copyright law and the owner of the image or the website. Teachers who are not sure whether they can use the media legally should contact the website owner to request permission. Users who want to adapt or change an image need to bring it into an image manipulation program (e.g., Adobe Photoshop). When users cannot create original graphics, they turn to web-based media ­collections that include fonts, clip art, drawings, cartoons, photos, animations, sounds, or videos that are copyright free or available at a modest cost. For example, high-quality

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photos, illustrations, and videos can be found at sites listed in Table 6.5. Most software can import these media. Infographic software allows users to create a visual representation of information or data that aids in communicating, learning, and understanding content. I­ nfographics tend to visually highlight patterns in data, such as frequency of words using word clouds, numerical patterns in charts, chronology in timelines, and historical trends. Although infographics can be designed in desktop publishing or image software, the specialized infographic software summarized in Table 6.5 makes the process far simpler. Glogster allows students to create a multimedia digital poster. Concept mapping software resources are designed to help people think through and explore ideas or topics through visual representation, as represented in Figure 6.3. Concept maps are exportable to many formats including interactive websites and can offer collaboration. Concept mapping tools help students learn writing skills, order their thoughts prior to writing, and visualize systems such as those in science or a series of steps in computer programming or the order of historical events. Inspiration is one of the most popular of these tools. Kidspiration is a version of this software designed for younger users. Concept mapping can contribute to students’ development of metacognition (Zohar & Barzilai, 2013) and support project-based learning projects for problem scoping, collaborative project planning, and vocabulary maps (Rye et al., 2013). Hartmeyer et al. (2018) recommend teachers frequently model concept mapping as a whole-class instructional activity that fosters collaborative discussions and students individually create concept maps to increase enduring knowledge development. Presentation software is designed to display information, including text, images, audio, and video, that often includes sequencing. Many presentation tools such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Google Slides, or Apple Keynote are slide based and some, such as Pear Deck, have live, interactive student polling features. A user creates slides or frames that can be presented sequentially or in any order the user sets. Teachers and students are also using nonlinear tools like Prezi or animation tools like PowToon, Vyond, or Voki. Websites display multimedia and interactive elements. Computer code underlies every web page and website. Although educators and others can create web pages and websites using programming languages, such as hypertext markup language (HTML), it is easier and faster to use web design software. Also known as web page editors, these tools allow people to create web pages in the same way they would use word processing to create documents. They insert text, graphics, and hypermedia links to create the

Figure 6.3  Sample Concept Map in Inspiration SOURCE: Mindmap created using Inspiration® by Inspiration Software, Inc.

188  Chapter 6

Figure 6.4  Student Using an Interactive Whiteboard (Photo courtesy of W. Wiencke)

Pearson eText Video Example 6.3 In this video, notice how the students open a graphic organizer on their computers to capture evidence and information about characters’ traits within a story they read. They use the story and a previously completed character study to help with the task.

pages, and the software automatically creates the HTML code in the background that allows the pages to be linked and available on the web. These what you see is what you get (WYSIWYG) web design tools include Google Sites and Wix. Teachers have access to a range of software to produce digital representations in the form of interactive digital lessons. The most popular interactive displays offer lesson design software to build and display interactive lessons, such as collaborative workspaces and game-based lesson activities, using a resource bank of images, graphics tools, and text tools. For example, teachers can use whiteboard activity software to develop a lesson that allows students to move objects around on the display or touch the screen to select or enter an answer to a mathematics problem (see Figure 6.4). ­Nearpod also supports interactive lessons, with the teacher importing content, such as slides, graphics, virtual reality, videos, or simulations, and then add close- or openended formative assessment.

Integration Strategies for Digital Representations Digital representations often are harnessed to support speakers (teachers and students) as they present information to listeners or share information in print or web-based products. The act of creating the representation often aligns with social constructivist integration approaches, as students engage in hands-on, transmedia practices, often with other peers, to express their developing knowledge as a multimodal representation. Teachers should also model and scaffold strategies for the resulting digital representations to be accessed in ways that engage all students cognitively and actively as much as possible. At times, teachers may use digital representations as a form of direct instruction, such as in a flipped pedagogy approach. The available software for creating digital representations have multipurpose features, as summarized in Table 6.6. TEACHER USE OF DIGITAL REPRESENTATIONS  Teachers use representations

because they offer the following benefits: • Enhance the impact of spoken information. When a representation is well designed, it supports and supplements what the teacher says by using graphics and multimedia to give illustrations and emphasize points with images and sound. • Enable multimedia-rich content representations. Teachers can build or integrate visual, textual, and auditory representations of content concepts that target common misconceptions or difficult areas of the curriculum. For example, Perry (2012), a speech teacher, described how she used word clouds to help students understand the importance of repetition, style, and focus in their speeches.

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Table 6.6  Features of Software for Digital Representations Digital Representation ­Resource Software/General Benefits

Description of Common Features

Draw/paint—Assists in designing and drawing visual images.

Autoshape—Add shapes, blocks, arrows, callouts, stars, flowcharts, text Paint—Add 3-D effects, shadows, transparency, textures, gradients Layer—Build an image with layers, each of which can be independently altered Customization—Choose line style, thickness, brushes, arrowhead ends, patterns, colors, fill effects, rotation, flip Clip art and template—Start with template design and add clip art, cartoon stamps Exportable—Save as a range of graphic file formats

Image editing—Allows users to edit and manipulate images, pictures, photographs, and other graphic files.

Image enhancement—Correct color hue, brightness, red eye, sharpness, contrast, zoom, size, cropping Selection—Manipulate parts (as small as the pixel) or a whole image Layer—Build an image with layers, each of which can be independently altered Image change—Remove elements, change color, rotate or flip, sharpen or blur, merge images, add special effects Export—Save as a range of graphic file formats

Media collections—Provides online access to image, audio, and video resources.

Browse, watch, listen, or download—View or download media resources for use Embed—Provide easy embed codes for resources for use in web-based products or learning tools interoperability integration with learning management systems Playlist—Allow users to create custom playlists of resources Usage rights—Check usage rights (e.g., public domain, Creative Commons, or copyrighted) prior to use

Infographics—Allow users with non-design backgrounds to design and create data-based messages.

Infographic template—Start a project by choosing a design template that matches needs of message Chart and graph template—Using numerical data, choose appropriate charts or graphs to input data or use built-in software spreadsheet to build data and then chart or graph it Pictogram maker—Build visual representations of data that use icons and colors to represent patterns Ready-made images and icons—Use copyright-free images or icons to build visual aspects of infographics Image editing—Allow limited editing of user’s or built-in software’s images Customization—Add colors, fonts, layout of elements Exportable—Publish to web or export as PDF, graphic files

Concept Mapping—Facilitates visual representations of concepts, ideas, and relationships.

Templates—Use predesigned concept maps, cause and effect, family trees, processes, and others Text and visual—Toggle between textual outline view and graphical diagram view Rapid idea capture—Use brainstorming features to add ideas quickly Customization—Add colors, fonts, layout of elements Exportable—Publish to web or export as PDF, Word, PowerPoint, graphic files

Presentation—Allows display of information in a defined sequence or layout.

Organization of information—Use frames or slides for information units with sequencing, customized layouts Formatting—Allow text variation in font, size, frame background Graphics and interactivity—Insert images, clip art, shapes, videos, animations, charts, graphs, buttons, live URLs Templates—Add information to already formatted files that come with themed graphics already on each slide Audience viewing option—Provide modes for presenter-controlled viewing, autoplaying presentations for ­independent viewing, publishing to a website, exporting in various formats (e.g., PDF, ODP, JPG, MP4) or print Oral presentation support—Add speaker notes to slides played as each frame is presented

Websites—Allow users with a ­nontechnical background to build web pages and websites.

Templates—Edit stylized webpage templates to match communication goals Simple editing—Drag and drop elements into your pages, such as videos, images, text Development and hosting—Design, develop, and host your website all on the same provider Security—Keeps the server updated with the most recent security to prevent website hacking Accessibility—Use guides to ensure your content is accessible to users with hearing or visual impairments

Interactive lessons—Create lesson content and activities in advance of instructional moments.

Rich content and lesson resource banks—Find and add content representations or adopt/adapt predesigned lessons Simple editing—Drag and drop elements into your lessons, such as videos, images, text Flexible availability—Assign lessons in class as a whole group or as an online component for individuals

• Help make content more polished and professional. Media artifacts, whether original or downloaded, offer valuable resources that help illustrate and build polished representations. • Help organize thinking about a topic. When teachers create a presentation, it helps them think through what they will say and in what order they should present information. Although using infographic or presentation software does not ensure an organized, coherent message, its emphasis on sequencing and breaking information

190  Chapter 6 into component parts can promote a more organized approach. Using presentation software also allows teachers to model information organization skills. • Serve as enduring, persistent learning artifacts. The flexible audience-viewing formats allow teacher-created representations to become enduring resources for learners when they are published on a website or exported as movies, graphics, or document formats such as PDF and shared with students. Because digital representations can be created to support instruction in any content area, the literature reflects many examples of effective uses. For large classes and other groups, presentation or slide decks are typically projected onto a wall screen. For small groups or individuals, slides can be shared at interactive or self-running kiosk displays or on individual devices. Current integration strategies for representation software include the following: • Demonstrations of content concepts. The teacher displays a complex concept such as an electrical circuit or light spectrum or a series of examples such as works of art, types of animals, or instruments in an orchestra. This is an ideal way to focus student attention while explaining and visually demonstrating important concepts or pointing out essential features. Technology Integration Example 6.3 illustrates how a teacher amasses visual examples of cave drawings to illustrate a historical artifact. • Illustration of problems and solutions. This is useful when the whole class or individual students need to see example problems or challenges and how to solve them. This representation can be used before students work on their own problems or as a just-in-time resource. • Presentation of information summaries. Teachers use presentations to strengthen whole-class lectures and focus student attention and guide note taking. • Automatically repeating presentations. Many teachers set up automatic presentations of spelling or vocabulary words, objects to identify (e.g., lab equipment, famous names or places), and simulated processes (e.g., butterfly metamorphosis) to display in the classroom to draw students’ eyes to the moving slides. • Assessment. Teachers create representations using pictures, text, or sounds of items (e.g., leaves, bird calls, artwork) for students to identify. Some teachers have used presentation slides to scaffold students’ scientific writing by ­providing

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 6.3 

TITLE: Cave Drawings CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Social studies (history), art GRADE LEVEL: 6–8 ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 6—Creative Communicator CCSS: CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.6-8.3, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.6-8.7 NCSS THEMES: Thematic Standards: 1—Culture and Diversity; 2—Time, Continuity, and Change; 3—People, Places, and Environments; Disciplinary Standards: 1—History DESCRIPTION: Students learn about prehistoric humans and the messages they left in caves. The teacher makes a presentation that displays example cave drawings selected from various museum archives. Students discuss the messages being communicated in pictures. Then, they try their hand at “drawing messages” using Google Drawings. The lesson wraps up with a discussion on similarities between cave drawings and television, magazines, and newspapers. Students can also create a newspaper advertisement using only pictures and/or symbols and then see whether others can guess the topic of the advertisement. SOURCE: Based on a concept in the cave drawing lesson plan on the Teachnology website at http://www.teachnology.com.

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content-focused pictures with prompts from which students responded. The student-­generated writing can then be exported into a word processor for revision or more drafting (Hitchcock et al., 2016). • Drill and practice or tutorials. Teachers can create brief tutorials or practice sessions with presentation software. These can be used for reviews of concepts and “how-to” procedures (e.g., steps in a lab procedure) that allow students to work independently for either in-class work or make-up work. Full tutorials are complete instructional sequences that usually have an explanation followed by practice items for which interactive buttons are especially useful. The program can then branch to provide different feedback depending on the answer the user selects. Teachers can design drill-and-practice opportunities with PowerPoint. For example, Erwin (2016) describes teachers making computer-based, timed, sight-word displays for supplemental guided or independent practice for word recognition. • Game-based reviews. Interactive representations based on popular games such as Jeopardy! are used to review skills or content. See Figure 6.5 for an example review game. Selecting buttons inserted on-screen send users to various items and to slides with answers and feedback. The Super Teacher Tools site has a large collection of games in a Jeopardy! format that reviews content for a variety of content topics, ranging from mathematics to history. STUDENT USE OF DIGITAL REPRESENTATIONS  When developing assignments that

require students to create representations, teachers should ensure that students focus more on content learning than on design elements in the representation. F ­ urthermore, teachers should prioritize the use of representation software for multimedia and hypertextual expressions of learning over linear progression of texted bullets. With this in mind, some current representation integration strategies include the following: • Collaborative representations. Working together on representations of project work or research results gives students important practice in collaborative skills. It also allows students to contribute to the product in a variety of ways rather than just with writing; for example, some students can focus on text message design and some on selecting and creating appropriate graphics. Collaboration can occur face-to-face in classrooms or be facilitated through cloud-based resources, Google Slides or Office 365, or in creating websites, such as on Google Sites. • Book reports. Instead of presenting book reports verbally or as written summaries, it is becoming increasingly common for students to report on their reading using

Figure 6.5  Jeopardy! Review Game Created with Presentation Software

192  Chapter 6 presentation slideshows. Teachers often design a standard format or template that serves as a scaffold for students who fill in the required information and add their own graphics. • Interactive storybooks. With this strategy, students build on existing stories or write their own that can be read interactively by others. Those reading these hypermedia stories can click on various hotlinks on the screen to hear or view parts of a story or to follow branches of stories. This strategy reinforces and enhance children’s literacy skills (Candreva, 2010; Thesen & Kira-Soteriou, 2011). Technology Integration Example 6.4 illustrates the use of these digital storybooks with interactive talking features. • Multimedia literacies. Some teachers feel that students are more motivated to learn content when they can also engage with it through multiple media. Students are able to build or manipulate content representations using text, drawing, graphics, sound effects, and video clips. Taylor (2018) describes students developing their skills in disciplinary (geometry) literacies, specifically proving and explanation discourses, by building multimodal arguments in PowerPoint slides. • Representations of research. Another strategy for integrating representation software is for students to create individual or small-group presentations, such as those with infographics, to document and display results of research they have done and/or to practice making persuasive infographic representations. Having learners become the designers and experts of content and present their work to the class can serve as a powerful technology integration lesson for any domain of ­learning. ­Students have created representations of a chemical element (Franklin, 2008), animal behavior (Henson, 2008), interpretation of poems (McVee et al., 2008), capstone research (Schwebach, 2008), and new vocabulary words (O’Hara & Pritchard, 2008). The commonality among these examples is the focus on having students represent new information they have researched that could be unknown to the teacher or other students as opposed to summarizing textbook information. Digital representations have become so popular for classroom projects that many assessment rubrics for them are now available online (see especially Kathy Schrock’s [n.d.]

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 6.4 

TITLE: Talking Books Enhance Literacy for Learners with and without Special Needs CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Language arts, literacy GRADE LEVELS: Elementary and middle school students ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 1—Empowered Learner; Standard 4—Innovative Designer; Standard 6—Creative Communicator; Standard 7—Global Collaborator CCSS: CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RF.K.1.A, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RF.2.3, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RF.3.4, CCSS.ELA-­ LITERACY.RL.3.1, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.4.2, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.5.5 DESCRIPTION: When students cannot read independently because of their physical or cognitive difficulties, their reading development is often delayed. The students may not be able to turn the pages of a book or turn back to reread a page that they enjoy, so they have to ask someone else to do this for them. Some students might not understand word usage or meanings. This results in less reading and poorer overall literacy. Middle school and elementary school students can team up to re-create popular children’s books or write their own books in a digital, hypertextual, multimedia format using presentation, digital storytelling, or website resources. The resulting books can support students’ reading through pop-up pictures, animations, and talking text. These students can turn “pages” and click on hyperlinked definitions or further explanations by activating a switch with whatever part of their body has the best voluntary control. Students also learn to build digital representations that are accessible to people with varying cognitive, physical, and sensory abilities.

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Figure 6.6  Students’ Presentation Based on Original Research (Photo by W. Wiencke)

list of presentation rubrics for different grade levels). Figure 6.6 shows students and their presentation based on original, research-based information that students presented to their class.

Instructional Strategies for Digital Representations Students must have adequate time to develop skills before creating representations. Teachers can combine direct instruction, software exploration, and student sharing of their knowledge of representation features. Teachers who would like to use resources to build representations in classroom lessons should review the features summarized in Table 6.6. Teachers could decide to teach other features of representation software gradually over time, depending on the needs of the specific lessons. The effectiveness of representations depends largely on the design elements that teachers or students incorporate. Teachers and students should create digital representations with the following key design guidelines in mind: 1. Use large type in projected representations. Use at least a 32-point font; however, if the audience is large and far away from the presenter, a larger type size could be needed. Small type (no less than a 20-point font) can be used to provide citations, references, and sources, which are typically positioned in the lower-left or -right corner of the appropriate slide. 2. Use colors to show contrast between the text and background. The audience cannot see text that is too similar in hue to the background on which it appears. Use text with high contrast to the background (e.g., dark text on light-colored backgrounds, white text on dark-colored backgrounds). 3. Minimize the amount of text. Use text to focus attention on main points, not to present large amounts of information. Use the representation to enhance, strengthen, and expand on conceptual points. 4. Keep representations simple. Designs should be simple, clear, and free of distractions. Too many items can interfere with reading, especially if some items are in motion. In addition, try to employ photographs and images in place of lengthy text when describing context or an event. Finally, try to minimize the number of bullet points (not to exceed three to five) on each individual slide in presentations. 5. Avoid using too many “fancy” fonts. Many fonts are unreadable when projected on a screen. Use a plain sans serif (straight lines with no “hands” and “feet”) font

194  Chapter 6 for titles and a plain serif font for other text. Avoid using more than three different fonts throughout the representation to maintain consistency of headings, body text, and pull-out text. 6. Avoid using gratuitous graphics and clip art. Graphics interfere with communication when used solely for decoration. Use them only to help communicate and expand on the content, not for the sake of using graphics alone. 7. Avoid using gratuitous sounds. Sounds interfere with communication when used solely for effect. They should always help communicate the content, not be used as a transition effect. 8. Use graphics, not just text. Well-chosen graphics can help communicate messages. Text alone does not make the best use of the capabilities of representation software. However, with the ever-increasing ease of finding and downloading images and media from online sources, it is important for teachers to introduce concepts of copyright, attribution, and fair use. Require students to document where materials come from and teach them how to cite the sources in their representations properly. 9. Design for a light room. Visuals can fade away if the room is too bright, but sometimes it is not possible to present in a dark room. Test representations that will be projected to ensure that all elements are visible in such cases. 10. Avoid reading text aloud in oral presentations. Do not read what the audience can read for themselves. Use text to guide the main points of discussion. This will help focus on presenting to the audience as opposed to speaking at the screen. Remember that the presenter—not the presentation—is delivering the information.

Benefits of Using Digital Representations Teachers have identified instructional and assessment benefits of representation software. For example, Roscoe and colleagues (2013) described a process of using ­backward design that first identifies expected student learning outcomes in science and then builds interactive formative assessments and instructional content in presentations. Teachers found that integrating interactive assessment with content representations (e.g., content-related diagrams, pictures) effectively shared content information, engaged and focused students, and allowed informed and immediate adjustments to instruction. Similarly, Hitchcock et al. (2016) found students achieving higher writing fluency when they followed a structured guide, built in a series of PowerPoint slides, to engage in the writing process. Other studies found significantly better learner achievement and learner satisfaction among fifth-grade students who learned English as a second language with multimodal, interactive representations (e.g., interactive language materials) (Kuo et al., 2013). Researchers also have studied the impact of creating content representations on students. Cause and Chen (2010) claim that for young children, drawing is a representational form of communication that is a precursor to writing and recommend using drawing software on a tablet computer for drawing software’s versatility. Walker-­Dalhouse and Risko (2008) agree that children’s digital drawings exemplify their understandings of textual content and represent learned concepts. O’Hara and Pritchard (2008) found that students who created interactive representation products to illustrate their learning were more active and engaged than students who did not and demonstrated increased understanding of the words and concepts that they studied. Elliott and Gordon (2006) believe that presentation software can support constructivist activities, promote higher-level thinking, and engender content-rich understandings. Schul (2010) exemplifies this tenet when describing a teacher who integrated desktop documentary making in which high school students created a brief museum exhibit to interpret historical artifacts, which supported the teacher’s constructivist, inquiry-based pedagogy for teaching history.

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Challenges of Using Digital Representations Creating and using representation software effectively requires substantial background in communication and visual design principles. Ultimately, the biggest challenges in building effective representations related to message content, visual design, and teaching format include the following: • Lack of focus on message content. Tufte (2003) is among those who feel that presentation software makes people focus on slides rather than the message, concluding that presentations (specifically those created with PowerPoint) become a substitute for rather than a supplement to informational representations. Jordan and Papp (2013) also noted that sometimes students focused so much on the slide features that they neglected important information or sources. Furthermore, Jordan and Papp noted the potential for a loss of “connection” between the person presenting the slides and the listeners when the focus is on reading the slide content rather than building on the concepts behind it. Using teacher-provided templates may scaffold students’ focus on and prioritization of content. • Lack of coherent visual design. Jordan and Papp (2013) found that many people who create slideshows do not have a good grasp of visual design principles that would help them achieve their desired results. For example, these researchers identified overuse or improper use of bullets and lists that cause problems for learners as they process the information they are hearing. • Tendency toward a singular presentation format. There are also complaints about the impact slide-based software has on teaching. Adams (2006) reported that using slide presentations makes educators reshape what they present in a linear way that is inconsistent with developing higher-level skills. Jordan and Papp (2013) saw slideshows being used the same way across all audiences, leading to a single teaching style that might not be appropriate for everyone. Challenges with using representation software seem best addressed by teachers and students becoming more aware of the most effective design for representations as summarized earlier in the design guidelines. In brief, these design guidelines include showing only a few concepts at a time before having learners apply the information, using less text and more images or diagrams, having eye contact with the audience, and not giving out hard copies of the information.

Data, Analysis, and Assessment Learning Outcome 6.3  Select integration strategies for data collection, analysis, and assessment that meet teaching and learning needs in the classroom and reflect learning sciences research. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 3—Citizen; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst) Teachers and students are now collecting and analyzing data often in schools. Teachers and students can access data corpuses or engage in their own data-generating activities. Various resources assist in collecting data and making sense of them, including online surveys; spreadsheet, statistical, and database software; and charting, graphing, and visualization. Table 6.7 summarizes commonly used data, analysis, and assessment resources and their functions for teachers and students. A number of online survey tools, such as Google Forms, enable teachers and ­ ollecting students to design and implement their own surveys and questionnaires. C data online has become increasingly popular because it eliminates the need for postal mailings and for respondents to be in any particular location to complete the survey.

Pearson eText Video Example 6.4 In this video, a principal talks about the expectation for students in a one-to-one computing environment to speak and present using data, pictures, video, and other media to communicate their project work.

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Table 6.7  Data, Analysis, and Assessment Resources, Software, Functions, and Products Resource

Example Software

Software Functions

Sample Product

Online surveys

• Google Forms • Qualtrics • LimeSurvey • SurveyMonkey

Design multiple types of questions, deploy online for anonymous or ­identifiable responses, collect range of informational data.

Teacher: Formative and summative ­assessment surveys, tests, parent and student surveys Students: Social science research surveys

Spreadsheets

• Microsoft Excel • Google Sheets • Apple Numbers • OpenOffice Calc

Put numerical, textual, and ­graphical information in row–column format; allow numerical and statistical ­calculations/analysis; support charts and graphs.

Teacher: Gradebook, mathematic ­representations, data analysis, chart creation Students: Data exploration or analysis, budgets, mathematical computation

Charting, graphing, and visualization

• Spreadsheets • Word processor charts, SmartArt • TinkerPlots • Plotly • Desmos, Graphing Calculator • SmartDraw • Tableau Desktop (free student licenses)

Create images, charts, graphs, diagrams, and visualizations to ­communicate a meaning or message, especially from a corpus of data or information.

Teacher: Conceptual content ideas ­(migration, population change, boiling point, motion and speed, word usage) Students: Charts and graphs to illustrate data (census, sports, health, steps walked)

Statistical

• Fathom • NCSS • R, R Commander • Minitab • SPSS

Perform specialized statistical ­analysis of data; create charts, plots, and graphs of data.

Teacher: Statistical analysis of experiments and action research studies, statistics instruction Students: Statistical analysis (typically in a statistics course)

Database

• Claris FileMaker • Microsoft Access • MySQL • Quickbase

Collect, organize, manage, query, and report on data to facilitate data-driven decision making.

Teacher: Content topic for business and technology classes, backend for website development Students: Use of library databases such as ProQuest; creation of ­searchable ­database of oral history collection (e.g., ­interviews and photos) completed in school

Student response systems

• Kahoot! • Poll Everywhere • Turning Point • Quizizz • Socrative • ActiVote

Display assessment questions or problems, collect and analyze data, and display individual or collective results immediately.

Teacher: Formative assessments Students: Immediate feedback

Computer adaptive testing systems

• iReady • SuccessMaker • ALEKS • Achieve (Macmillan) • Edgenuity

Administer tests on the computer or online, compile data for grading and decision making.

Teacher: Formative or summative ­assessments, support for personalized learning Students: Timely feedback, supports ­personal learning pathway choices

Student information ­systems (SIS) and ­curriculum analytics

• Infinite Campus • PowerSchool • Synergy • CorePlanner • Chalk • Common Curriculum • MyLessonPlanner

Track attendance and grades, create reports, facilitate parent and student communication, plan lessons, track standards, and collaborate with teachers.

Teacher: Data patterns related to ­attendance, curriculum/lesson topics mapping, grading and achievement, ­individualized education plans, and ­Response to Intervention Students: Grade and attendance records

Portfolio systems

• SeeSaw • DIGIcation • Mahara • Adobe Acrobat Pro DC • LiveBinder • Google Sites • Portfolium (in Canvas)

Capture and collect evidence of learning, facilitate deep reflection over time, and engage others, such as teachers or parents, in interactive communication.

Teacher: Formative or summative assessments Students: Longitudinal progress and self-reflection, work archive

Spreadsheets are programs designed to organize and manipulate primarily numerical data. A spreadsheet helps users manage and analyze information, which can be in numerical, textual, and graphical forms. The term spreadsheet can refer either to the program itself or to the product it produces. Spreadsheet products are sometimes also called worksheets. The information in a spreadsheet is stored in rows and columns. Each row–column position is called a cell and can contain numerical values, words or

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character data, and formulas or calculation commands. One spreadsheet file can contain a number of sheets of data, each of which is represented by tabs along the bottom of the file. Spreadsheets also have built-in formatting processes for preparing visual representations of data in charts and graphs. Google Forms, an online survey tool, dynamically and immediately transfers inputted survey data into a linked Google Sheet. Charting, graphing, and visualization tools automate visual data analysis. The skills involved in reading, interpreting, and producing graphs and charts are useful both to students in school and people in the world and workplace. Visualization software makes producing these useful “data pictures” more efficient and elegant. Teachers and students use visualizations to understand the meaning of the data. Ruthven et al. (2009) are among those who view graphing as an essential tool to enhance algebra and other mathematics instruction and who believe that visualization activities in all subject areas benefit from applications of such software tools. Statistical software packages allow users to enter data and perform calculations needed to accomplish specialized analysis, such as descriptive statistics (e.g., means and standard deviations) and inferential statistics (e.g., t-tests and analyses of variance). Although spreadsheets also can perform many of the same calculations, statistical software includes preprogrammed analysis tools to perform calculations with just a few clicks. Teachers can use such software when teaching statistical procedures in a business education course or statistics course. Although teachers must have considerable knowledge of the proper applications of various statistical procedures, the software can save considerable time in making calculations. Databases allow users to store, organize, and manipulate information, including both text and numerical data, in a way that makes it easy to locate later. This capability has become increasingly important as society’s store of essential information increases in volume and complexity. Database software can perform some calculations, but its real power lies in allowing people to locate information through keyword searches. Most often compared to a file cabinet, a database program stores one item of data in a location usually called a field (such as a name, address, or age). Although each field represents one type of information, perhaps a more important unit of information is a record (such as that of a student), which stores all fields of information related to a particular record. Databases, such as MySQL, are often used in complex, interactive website development. Although database construction is still taught in some classes (e.g., business and technology), users more often access existing databases, such as library databases, than create them. Student response systems (SRS) support formative assessment via handheld clickers or on computers or mobile devices. Each student in a classroom answer posed questions simultaneously (Figure 6.7). SRS also permit the teacher to see and display a summary of results immediately. Examples of SRS uses range from vocabulary games to comprehension checks during a classroom presentation that offer an easy way to engage all students during whole-group instruction. Successful SRS uses have been reported in science (Binek et al., 2016; Moss & Crowley, 2011), mathematics (Popelka, 2010), second language communication (Agbatogun, 2014), and English language arts (Moratelli & DeJarnette, 2014). Studies and use cases of SRS in K–12 classrooms have reported improved student engagement, increased active learning, and greater achievement (Mccrea, 2014; Moratelli & DeJarnette, 2014; Waight et al., 2014). Moratelli and DeJarnette (2014) found that clicker-based review sessions for fifth-grade urban students led to improved test scores for all students, including those with lower achievement. Stowell et al. (2010) also found that students were less likely to conform to the group’s opinion and felt more comfortable responding with this tool than raising their hands when questions being discussed were controversial. Computer adaptive testing are a feature of instructional software that assesses each student’s responses and presents more or less difficult questions based on the performance (Barla et al., 2010). Student data and progress is typically available to

198  Chapter 6

Figure 6.7  Students Responding by Using a Clicker (Photo by W. Wiencke)

teachers in a data dashboard to support instructional decisions for complementary lessons. It is important for teachers to gain data literacy skills to understand and make actionable use of the data displays these software programs produce. While research shows students make achievement gains with use (Kazakoff et al., 2018; Macaruso et al., 2019), critiques that these systems dehumanize learners as a set of scores (France, 2021) and could cause increased test anxiety in some students (Fritts & Marszalek, 2010) should encourage teachers to create complementary humanizing learning experiences. Student information systems (SIS) are software tools that help educators track student, class, and school data (e.g., attendance, assignment and test scores, special education processes) to maintain records and support decision making. The systems can do any or all of the following: • Track and report attendance. • Maintain records on student demographic data (e.g., birth date, address). • Track and report student achievement by objective. • Facilitate special education individualized education plans and Response to ­Intervention processes. • Allow parents and students online access to student grades and attendance information via portal. Figure 6.8 is an example screen from a SIS. Another feature is curriculum or lesson analytics that can be built into an SIS, such as Infinite Campus, or function in a separate program, such as CorePlanner or Chalk. These support curriculum mapping and analytics to identify instructional or learning gaps for change efforts. A digital portfolio is a collection of work in a multimedia format on a website or other multimedia product as an assessment strategy for cumulative achievement. ­Students’ work products are arranged over time so that students and others can see how their skills have developed and progressed in relation to learning goals or outcomes. Most teachers emphasize student reflection in portfolios so learners build deeper understandings about their development. Teachers usually provide the structure and criteria for selecting and judging content and advise students how to place items in the portfolio. Students can create portfolios with portfolio software with predesigned structure, such as SeeSaw, DIGIcation, or Mahara. Other flexible multimedia software listed in Table 6.7 offer features that allow a combination of files (e.g., students’ artifacts) that were created in different applications (e.g., documents, e-mail messages, spreadsheets, videos, and presentations) into an interactive portfolio.

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Figure 6.8  Sample Screen from PowerSchool From Pearson Education, Inc. PowerSchool. Copyright © 2000–2014, Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s) Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Integration Strategies for Data, Analysis, and Assessment With ample data and analysis tools available (see Table 6.8), teachers and students have a wide latitude regarding which tools to adopt. The following section describes how teachers and students are using these tools to support their instruction and learning. TEACHER USE OF DATA, ANALYSIS, AND ASSESSMENT  Teachers engage in data

collection and/or analysis to help them prepare classroom materials, organize information, and assess students. Common uses of data and analysis include keeping budgets for classrooms, school clubs, and field trips; preparing performance checklists for assessment purposes; grading tests; and teaching mathematical or analytical topics. Teachers seek data and analysis tools for the following: • Polling students. Looney (2008) identifies online surveys as an ideal way to obtain students’ feedback on any given topic, such as how they liked a classroom activity, their reactions to a poem, or to formatively gauge learning. • Saving time. Users complete essential data collection or calculations quickly and accurately. Data entries, calculations, and visualizations also can be changed, added, or deleted easily with formulas or preset syntax that automatically reconfigures output with new information. Data dashboards do calculations and prepare charts so teachers can interpret the data and take action. • Organizing displays of information. Spreadsheets, databases, and some charts can store information in columns and rows, making them ideal tools for designing textual information such as schedules and attendance lists that can contain few numbers and no calculations at all. • Examining student quantitative and qualitative achievement data. With adequate analysis skills, teachers who have timely access to student achievement data can analyze it to determine learning gaps and proficiencies among students. For example, a teacher could analyze the results of practice or interim tests to help target subsequent instruction on high-need areas. If teachers engage in action research, they often collect and analyze data on student learning. These activities can be accomplished by using spreadsheets, statistical software, and analysis and visualization tools built in to SRS and SIS. Teachers can analyze qualitative evidence of learning in student digital portfolios.

Pearson eText Video Example 6.5 In this video, a high school mathematics teacher describes how she uses data from student response systems to inform her teaching and students’ areas of study.

200  Chapter 6

Table 6.8  Data, Analysis, and Assessment Benefits and Features Resource/General Benefits

Description of Common Features

Online surveys—Assist in collecting data.

Question formats—Choose multiple choice, true/false, text box, ranking, rating/Likert, matrix, scales Dynamic and interactive programming—Add branching, piping of responses, video, audio, and ­image elements Instant tracking—Use e-mail invitations, reminders; track responses Multilingual support—Translate surveys into other languages Data analysis and reporting—Use built-in software tools to generate, share, and export reports and graphs of data Data download—Download survey data in spreadsheet-ready formats

Spreadsheets—Facilitate data analysis, graphing, and visualizing numerical concepts.

Organization of information—Format row–column information for easy reading, digesting Calculations—Use formulas for arithmetic; mathematical, statistical, trigonometric, logical, and financial functions; automatic recalculations when information is changed Data format—Define alignment, color, style, fill Templates—Adapt preformatted models of worksheets (e.g., budgets, checkbooks, gradebooks) Graphics and interactivity—Insert graphics, movies, shapes, callouts, live URLs Collaboration—Enables multiple users to work concurrently on a spreadsheet Charts and graphs—Created automatically from data Interoperability—Read, use other data files such as those produced by statistical software; add data collected in a Google Form immediately to a linked Google Sheet Exportability—Publish to the web or export as a PDF or data file

Charts, graphs, visualizations—Create graphical representations of data to visualize mathematical concepts or engage in inquiry tasks.

Graphic creation—Use tools to build a range of graphic charts, plots, graphs, visualizations from data Collaboration—Access tools simultaneously with multiple users (only in some cloud-based apps) Data analysis—Link, import, manually enter data Templates—Use professionally designed preformatted document to guide development of visualizations Sharing—Export graphics in multiple formats such as PDF or image files, embed graphics on web pages, build presentations or dashboards

Statistical analysis software—Performs complex mathematical and statistical calculations.

Graphical user interface—Use menus, dialog to analyze data Extensive statistical tool—Run standard to advanced analyses such as tabulations, ANOVA, linear regression, power analysis, multilevel models Analysis—Use embedded analysis syntax to perform calculations Graphic creation—Use graph editor to create a range of graphic charts, plots, graphs from data

Databases—Organize information for easy retrieval.

Desktop database—Enter data to build relational database of information Autocomplete data—Reduce errors by using drop-downs, recommendations based on typing, macros Template—Use professionally designed document for databases, apps Integration—Import data from SIS for customized reports Custom app development—Create browser-based applications allowing queries and reports for end users with existing database

Student response systems—Provide ­formative assessment data.

Data analysis and reporting—Use built-in software tools to import or manually enter data and ­generate, share, and export reports and graphs of data

Computer adaptive testing systems— Assess learners and adaptively tweak ­instructional pathways.

Data download—Download survey data in spreadsheet-ready formats Charts and graphs—Created automatically from data Integration—Import or export data across information and learning systems

Student information systems—Track ­student and curricular data and show progress. Portfolio systems—Support creation of learning archive and reflection for formative and summative assessment.

Templates—Use professionally designed portfolios based on goals Integration—Import multimedia artifacts from common creation software Collaboration—Enables multiple users to provide feedback

• Building visual teaching demonstrations. When concepts can be clarified by concrete representation, spreadsheets, charts, graphs, and visualizations contribute to effective teaching demonstrations by illustrating abstract concepts and providing graphic illustrations of what the teacher is trying to communicate. This can offer an efficient way to demonstrate numerical concepts such as multiplication, percentages, and numerical applications. For example, a teacher used a survey tool and spreadsheet to teach about the concept of electoral votes and popular votes, as described in Technology Integration Example 6.5.

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TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 6.5 

TITLE: How the Electoral College Works—A Visual Demonstration CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Civics, elections GRADE LEVEL: 9 ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 1—Empowered Learner; Standard 3—Knowledge Constructor; Standard 5—­Computational Thinker; Standard 7—Global Collaborator CCSS: MATH.CONTENT.HSS.ID.A.2, CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSS.ID.A.3 NCSS THEMES: Thematic Standards: 6—Power, Authority, and Governance; Disciplinary Standards: Civics and Government DESCRIPTION: Each class holds a mock election using Google Forms in which the electoral votes of each class in the school are based on enrollment numbers. The election data immediately appears in a linked Google Spreadsheet as students vote. The teacher displays the spreadsheet on a large monitor so the whole class can see the results as they are entered. Using a copy of the original data, students then work in small groups to explore response patterns and conjecture if a very few of the popular votes in key areas are changed, would the results of the election be reversed. The class discusses these results as well as the possibility that a candidate could win the popular vote and lose the electoral vote. SOURCE: Based on a concept from the Getting into the Electoral College lesson at the NCTM Illuminations site at http://illuminations.nctm.org.

BOX 6.1

DIGITAL EQUITY AND JUSTICE

Empowered Digital Learning It is not enough to only ensure our schools and classrooms provide students access to digital technologies and ­Internet. To achieve digital justice, teachers need to commit to offering empowered digital learning opportunities that position students with agency to select digital technologies to pursue personally and culturally meaningful learning goals that call upon and expand individuals’ ­background experiences, languages, and interests (Martin et al., 2018; Noguerón-Liu, 2017). This chapter and the next provide a plethora of technology integration examples that position learners as active and hands-on with the technology for design, inquiry, communication, collaboration, and creation of new knowledge. When empowered, learners become part of the participatory digital culture of learning that may position them as activists for social change to better themselves and others now and into their futures (Ito et al., 2013; Price-Dennis & Carrion, 2017). These empowered experiences build digital literacy skills and knowledge that enable students to secure and contribute to social, educational, economic, and political benefits of society (Robinson et al., 2015; Vuorikari et al., 2016). Students’ digital empowerment is a crucial step to move

schools and society toward socially just and equitable digital learning. To begin being an advocate and ally for digital justice, teachers can start asking the following questions: ■

■

■

■

■

■

Is there a fair distribution of digital resources for learning across all students and subgroups (e.g., race/ethnicity, grade level, language abilities, special needs) in the classes I teach? Is there equal opportunity for empowered digital learning for all students and subgroups (e.g., race/­ethnicity, grade level, language abilities, special needs) in the classes I teach? What and how can I learn more to support the design of empowered digital learning in my classes? What is the school and district visions for technology use in education? Does it align or contradict with the goals of empowered digital learning? What do students, parents, and community members envision for technology use in education? Does it align or contradict with the goals of empowered digital learning? How can I support local movement (and eventually state, national, and global) toward a vision of ­empowered ­digital learning?

202  Chapter 6 STUDENT USE OF DATA, ANALYSIS, AND ASSESSMENT  Teachers can incorporate data and analysis in many ways to enhance learning effectively in all subject areas. ­Following are current integration strategies that allow students to benefit from data and analysis activities:

• To collect and analyze data. When students must track data from classroom experiments or online surveys, spreadsheets or databases help organize these data and allow students to perform required mathematical or descriptive statistical analyses on them. Technology Integration Example 6.6 highlights young students who track and graph data from a schoolwide food drive. • To develop personalized learning plans. Using a portfolio or personalized learning plan, students may develop a growth mindset through goal setting, evidence gathering, and reflection. Nagle and Taylor (2017) provide multiple examples of how seventh- and eighth-graders in Vermont used Google Drive, Drawings, and Sites and Blogger to plan their learning and receive continuous feedback. • To support mathematical problem solving. Spreadsheets take over the task of performing arithmetic functions so that students can focus on higher-level concepts.

Pearson eText Video Example 6.6 In this video, the teacher starts a new geography unit on movement by having students complete a survey about their own movements in time and space to kick off the inquiry of “what is movement?”

• To support posing and testing hypotheses. By answering “what if” questions in a highly graphic format, spreadsheets and databases help teachers encourage logical thinking, develop organizational skills, and promote problem solving. They also help students visualize the impact of changes in numbers. Because values and linked charts or graphs can be automatically recalculated or redrawn when changes are made in a worksheet, a user can play with numbers and immediately see results. For example, a Magic Squares exercise can engage students in exploring number patterns. A Magic Square is a square grid of numbers in which all numbers in each row, each column, and each forward and backward diagonal add up to the same number. Figure 6.9 highlights spreadsheet features used to create a Magic Square in which the numbers add to 260. Students insert formulas to discover this principle and then create their own, smaller Magic Square version assigned by the teacher. • To identify sources of data. Students need skills in locating and organizing information to answer questions and learn new concepts. Much of the world’s information is stored in datasets that are becoming more available and students use search skills to find data-based information. Many organizations provide free access to data, including bird sightings (Cornell University), U.S. census reports, teens’

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 6.6 

TITLE: Engaging Special Education Students in Math Concepts CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Mathematics, special education GRADE LEVEL: 2 ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 1—Empowered Learner; Standard 3—Knowledge Constructor; Standard 4—­Innovative Designer; Standard 5—Computational Thinker; Standard 6—Creative Communicator CCSS: CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.2.MD.D.10, CCSS.MATH.PRACTICE.MP5 DESCRIPTION: In a 2-week project that emphasizes authentic problem solving, students collect data about the success of their school’s food drive and use software to graph the information. They enter data into a spreadsheet, generate a bar graph, and hang the graph in the room as a focal point of discussion. The activity especially benefits students with challenges such as autism by preventing frustration with graphing by hand and keeping them focused on the concepts that the data illustrate. SOURCE: Based on Ward, R. (2006). Engage students with graphing software. Learning and Leading with Technology, 34(1), 35.

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Figure 6.9  Sample Spreadsheet from a Lesson on Magic Squares

Information is entered in numbered rows and columns labeled with letters

Formulas automatically add rows and columns (or other numbers)

Each rowcolumn position in a worksheet is a cell

Formulas can be easily copied from one cell to others

use of technology (Pew Research Center), health and disease (Centers for ­Disease ­Control and Prevention), and sports (baseball databank). Students develop ­computational thinking skills as they analyze and interpret data (­Southworth et al., 2010). ­Technology Integration Example 6.7 shows how s­ tudents can obtain and analyze data from two cities to build data-based r­ easoning for differences in climate.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 6.7 

TITLE: Comparing the Weather in Two Locations CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Science, weather GRADE LEVEL: 8 ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 1—Empowered Learner; Standard 3—Knowledge Constructor; Standard 4—­Innovative Designer; Standard 5—Computational Thinker; Standard 6—Creative Communicator; Standard 7—Global Collaborator CCSS: CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.8.SP.A.1, CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.8.F.B.5, CCSS.MATH.PRACTICE.MP5 NSTA: MS-ESS2-1, MS-ESS2-5, MS-ESS3-5 DESCRIPTION: Students work in small groups to gather weather data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Weather Service website on two cities that the teacher assigns them or the students choose. They enter the data on a spreadsheet and do calculations to determine temperature and rainfall averages for given periods of time. They compare the two cities’ weather patterns and analyze them to determine the reasons for the differences they found. Finally, they report on their findings to the class.

204  Chapter 6 • To support visualization. Students can use data and analysis tools to create graphical representations of data, such as timelines, charts, and graphs, to visualize mathematical concepts or engage in inquiry tasks. Students can build an understanding of the persuasive power of information and pattern discovery with data. • To increase motivation and engagement. Many teachers feel that data and analysis tools make working with numbers more engaging by making related concepts graphic. Response systems call upon students to attend to queries and receive instantaneous feedback. • To provide timely feedback. Digital systems that support teacher assessment also assist students (and their parents) in tracking achievement and performance over time.

Instructional Strategies Using Data, Analysis, and Assessment Students new to data and analysis must have adequate time to develop skills in using the tools before teachers can integrate them into student activities. Some schools have technology or business teachers who teach students these skills and with whom classroom teachers can collaborate. Online tutorials are available for teaching various software, and some teachers create their own video tutorials, but tutorials serve best as supplementary learning sources because not all learners have the ability to learn using self-instructional methods. Teachers can combine direct instruction, software exploration, and student sharing of their knowledge of data and analysis. Teachers should review the features summarized in Table 6.8. Teachers could decide to teach other features of data and analysis gradually over time, depending on the specific needs of lessons. Teachers can develop their own and their students’ data literacy in the following ways: 1. Situate data literacy development in hands-on, project-based learning with real-world data. 2. Obtain real-world data through student-led data collection or sourced from a public data repository. 3. Scaffold students’ data search strategies. 4. Develop analysis skills by evaluating visualizations, charts, and graphs from public media sources, such as magazines, newspapers, and social media. 5. Establish data organization techniques. 6. Model data analysis and interpretation. 7. Build data-based graphs and charts that are interpretable as stand-alone visualizations. 8. Facilitate assessment check-ins so students have focused time and skills to monitor their grades and learning.

Benefits of Using Data, Analysis, and Assessment Spreadsheets help students visualize concepts better than other, less dynamic tools. Researchers have compared students’ digital data collection and analysis with analog approaches and found that spreadsheet simulations improved the comprehension of highly abstract concepts in biology (Ray, 2013) and mobile-based data collection of flower and pollinator data led to better conceptual understanding by fourth-graders (Zacharia et al., 2016). There is also considerable evidence that spreadsheets have proven useful for teaching concepts in many areas, including calculus (Benacka, 2016a), modeling and probability (Beigie, 2010; Benacka, 2016b), climate change (Krall, 2010),

Design, Analysis, and Creation 205

ocean acidification (Perera & Bopegedera, 2014), physics and electricity (Benacka, 2010; Kota et al., 2019), and sports (Bennett et al., 2011). The literature contains numerous testimonials by teachers who have used spreadsheets and databases successfully to teach topics ranging from mathematics to social studies. Bargagliotti (2014) argues that both teachers and students need data literacy skills, specifically the ability to view charts and graphs presented by news media, extract information, and build understanding. In a study of teachers’ data literacy skills, Means and colleagues (2011) found that teachers working in small groups expressed more accurate responses to data scenarios than did individual teachers. Thus, collaborative work with data from SIS or computer adaptive systems might lead to increased interest and accuracy among teachers. Increased emphasis is being placed on developing students’ information and data literacy, especially to develop students as citizens in a democratic society. Philip and colleagues (2016) argue for expanded opportunities for students to interpret and create data visualizations. From their research that examined high school classroom discussions and interactions, Philip et al. argue that visualizations from public media sources should be used in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) learning to inquire into data regarding racial literacy and race and power. All real world, data-based visualizations are bound by social, economic, political, and racial contexts.

Challenges of Using Data, Analysis, and Assessment Although data and analysis offer utility and versatility in teaching, teachers and ­students face challenges when using them, including the following: • Limited teacher confidence and proficiency. Teacher preparation does not always enable new teachers to know how and where to find data, how to understand and interpret it, and how to use it for posing questions and decision making (­Bargagliotti, 2014; Means et al., 2011), yet teachers are often expected to analyze and use student data to make instructional decisions. Furthermore, textbooks tend to obscure scientific graphs as data when graphs are presented with missing scales and/or a lack of textual interpretation of the data (Egger & Carpi, 2013). • Establishment of optimal learning conditions. Best practices for teaching data ­literacy include hands-on, project-based learning using real-world data and problems that are interesting and significant to learners (Ridsdale et al., n.d.). It can be difficult for teachers to identify content-specific challenges with available data about which students can inquire (Egger & Carpi, 2013). If teachers choose to pursue an original student research project involving data collection, projects may require longer time to complete and might not correspond with fast-paced content coverage common to current emphasis on standardized testing preparation. • Misconceptions that students are technologically or data knowledgeable. ­Societal messages promote the idea that younger generations are “digital natives,” yet research indicates that K–12 students and recently certified teachers have a lack of breadth in technological abilities, which tend to focus only on social media capabilities (Hughes, 2013; Thompson, 2013). Thus, both teachers’ and students’ technological and data skills should not be overstated or assumed. For example, students commonly perceive data-based graphics as pictures rather than as data that are interpretable, which is reinforced by the graphics and photographs dominating textbooks (Egger & Carpi, 2013). In addition, students who conducted experiments with data probes and analyzed real-time graphs tended to focus on less important graph features, so it is crucial that teachers support students’ focus on the relevant representations within graphs and make connections back to the experiment’s inquiry goals (Ingulfsen et al., 2018).

Pearson eText Video Example 6.7 In this video, notice how ubiquitous assessment comes in many data forms but always reflects the child and their learning.

206  Chapter 6

CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY The following is a summary of the main points covered in this chapter. 1. Design, Analysis, and Creation • Teachers and students engage in design and transmediation processes when using digital resources to express their ideas, concepts, or knowledge. 2. Digital Writing and Publishing • Digital writing and publishing activities can be accomplished with word processing and desktop publishing software. • Written and artistic expressions can be published online or created in digital stories or books. ­Integration ideas include content-related creations, such as cookbooks, field guides, or creative writing. • Word processing and desktop publishing software can save teachers time, improve document appearance, and allow easy exchange and collaboration on written tasks. Uses of word processing and desktop publishing software include creating handouts, instructional materials, lesson plans and notes, reports, forms, letters to parents and students, flyers, and newsletters. • Students learn writing processes, language, and multimedia production. Word processing and desktop publishing software can enable sharing and collaborating on written projects; engaging in language, writing, and reading exercises; writing across the curriculum; reporting research findings; and digital storytelling, publishing creative works, and book making. • Students and teachers should use effective design criteria relating to fonts, type size, type style, colors, graphics, and text formatting when engaging in digital writing and publishing. • Research shows positive benefits of the use of word processing on writing, revision, and publishing, but writing strategy instruction is equally important. Examples of desktop publishing uses portray highly motivational, authentic projects. • Challenges related to word processing and desktop publishing software include the age at which students should start word processing, the necessity to teach keyboarding skills, the effects of word processing on handwriting and on assessment, and peer feedback, revision, and group dynamics in collaborative writing activities.

3. Creating Multimodal Representations • Digital representations help teachers and students display information, including text, images, graphics, symbols, audio, video, and websites to demonstrate concepts or developed knowledge. • Teachers use representations to enhance the impact of spoken information, enable multimedia-rich content depictions, make content polished and professional, organize thinking about a topic, and create enduring learning artifacts. Uses include demonstrating content concepts, illustrating problems and solutions, presenting informational summaries, using multimedia assessment, creating tutorials or game-based reviews, and developing interactive lessons. • Students create representations for collaboration on content learning and knowledge, book reports or research, creation of interactive storybooks, and multimedia products. • Students and teachers should design digital representations with considerations related to type size, text and background colors, amount of text, design simplicity versus complexity, graphics and clip art, and sounds. • Research indicates that effective content representations shown to students can engage and focus their attention on content learning, and students’ digital drawing helps them to learn content concepts. • Challenges include a lack of focus on the message content, a lack of coherent visual design, and a tendency toward a linear, slide-based presentation format. 4. Data, Analysis, and Assessment • Teachers and students engage with data and analysis to learn and assess knowledge using a range of resources, such as online surveys; spreadsheets; charting, graphing, and visualization; statistical and database software; and student response systems, computer adaptive testing, student information systems, and portfolio systems. • Teachers engage in data collection and analysis to prepare classroom materials, organize information, and assess students. Uses of these tools include polling students, performing calculations quickly, examining student data trends, and building visual teaching demonstrations.

Design, Analysis, and Creation 207

• Student uses include collecting and analyzing data, mathematical problem solving, testing hypotheses, finding publicly available data for analysis, visualizing data, and receiving timely feedback. • Research indicates that students comprehend abstract concepts better when they are engaged in data analysis or data visualization. However,

students and teachers have low data literacy skills that need emphasis in K–12 education. • Challenges include limited teacher proficiency with data literacy; difficulty in establishing handson, project-based, real-world data activities; and overestimation of students’ technological and data skills.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP Apply What You Learned In this chapter, you learned about digital resources for design, analysis, and creation of multimodal expressions. Now apply your understanding of these concepts by completing the following activities: • Reread Ms. Anand’s Plant Life lesson at the beginning of this chapter. Pay close attention to Step 3 of the technology integration planning (TIP) model where she identifies the technological possibilities for her problem of practice: getting students to learn about plant parts, function, pollination, and reproduction. Using your knowledge about writing, publishing, representing, data collection and analysis, and assessment resources introduced in this chapter, generate at least one new technological possibility for targeting Ms. Anand’s problem of practice. • Review how Ms. Anand RATified the lesson in Step 5 of the TIP model as represented in Table 6.1. Use the RAT Matrix to analyze the role(s) and relative advantage that your new technological possibilities (identified in the last step) would have in the lesson. You must reflect on the roles that your identified technological possibilities play as replacement, amplification, and/or transformation of instruction, student learning, and/or curriculum. Do you feel that your proposed technology would provide relative advantage? Pearson eText Artifact 6.1: The RAT Matrix

Technology Integration Lesson Planning: Evaluating Lesson Plans Complete the following exercise using Technology ­Integration Examples 6.1–6.7, any lesson plan you find on the web, or one provided by your instructor. a. Locate lesson ideas—Identify three lesson plans that focus on any of the resources you learned about in this chapter, such as: • Writing or publishing • Digital publishing, storytelling, or bookmaking • Representing concepts, ideas, and knowledge

• • • • •

Interactive lesson design Data, analysis, and visualization Organizing ideas and concepts Assessing student progress Digital portfolios.

b. Evaluate the lessons—Use the Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist and the RAT Matrix to evaluate each of the lessons you found. Based on the evaluation and your RATification of the lessons, would you adopt these lessons in the future? Why or why not? Pearson eText Artifact 6.2: Technology Lesson Evaluation Checklist

Pearson eText Artifact 6.1: The RAT Matrix

Technology Integration Lesson Planning: Creating Lesson Plans with the TIP Model Review how to implement the TIP model (see Figure 3.4) for technology integration planning and use Ms. Anand’s lesson Plant Life in this chapter as a model. Create your own technology-supported lesson that uses digital resources for design, analysis, and creation by completing the following activities: a. Describe Phase 1, Lead from Enduring Problems of Practice: • What is the problem of practice or main content challenge in your lesson? • What are the technology resources that your students, their families, you, your school, and your community could bring as assets to the lesson? • What are the technological possibilities for helping to solve the identified problem of practice? Identify the technology(ies) you will integrate into the lesson to ensure that you have the skills and resources you need to solve the problem. What integration strategies will you use in this lesson? b. Describe Phase 2, Design and Teach the Technology ­Integration Lesson: • What are the objectives of the lesson plan? • How will you assess your students’ ­accomplishment of the objectives?

208  Chapter 6 • What is the relative advantage of using the technology(ies) in this lesson? • How would you prepare the learning environment? c. Describe Phase 3, Evaluate, Revise, and Share: • What strategies and/or instruments would you use to evaluate the success of this lesson in your classroom in order to determine any needed ­revision needs? • Create and add descriptors for your new ­lesson (e.g., grade level, content and topic

areas, ­technologies used, ISTE standards for students). • Save your lesson plan with all its descriptors and the TIP model notes and share with your peers, teacher, and others. When you use your new lesson with students, be sure to assess it using the Technology Impact Checklist.

Pearson eText Artifact 6.3: Technology Impact Checklist

CHAPTER 7

Communication, Collaboration, and Making Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter and completing the learning activities, you should be able to: 7.1 Identify the features and uses of communication resources that

solve teaching and learning needs or challenges. (ISTE ­Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator) 7.2 Select digital collaboration resources and strategies that respond

to teaching and learning needs or challenges and reflect learning ­sciences research. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator) 7.3 Select digital making strategies that respond to teaching and learn-

ing needs or challenges and reflect learning sciences research. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst)

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN ACTION:

Creative Writing and Making GRADE LEVEL: Middle School CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: English language arts LENGTH OF TIME: 4 weeks

Phase 1  Lead from Enduring Problems of Practice Step 1: Identify problems of practice (POPs) Ms. Alkhouri had been teaching English language arts (ELA) at Honnely Middle School for nearly 6 years. Honnely ­Middle School is in an urban area and serves a diverse student body: 60% Black, 20% Latino/a, 15% White, and 5% Asian; (Continued)

209

210  Chapter 7

60% are eligible for free/reduced-price lunch; 30% are English learners; and 30% are receiving special e ­ ducation ­services. In the last few years, most of the students in Ms. Alkhouri’s seventh-grade ELA class were just passing the state test for writing and reading. Ms. Alkhouri struggled to engage many of the students in language arts, especially writing. In past years, the district had purchased a learning system that allowed her students to work on reading comprehension. She was able to take the English classes to the lab about once a month, but every week she also used a ­rotation model with the Chromebooks as one station in which students worked on the reading comprehension software. Ms. Alkhouri had read the ELA standards and was familiar with the International Society for Technology in ­Education (ISTE) Standards for Students as well. She felt that her students were mainly developing text-based literacy, rather that digital literacy. For example, the students learned passively through the reading comprehension program but were not learning to actively express themselves across aural, linguistic, spatial, and visual means with different media such as video, audio, and graphics. They needed these communication skills now and for the future. The software for reading comprehension seemed like it might be helping the students a little, but Ms. Alkhouri honestly wasn’t able to use it as often as she was supposed to because of limited technological access. But even if she were able to, she wasn’t sure the students would maintain engagement with it; it wasn’t a digital technology they really sought. In a recent district-wide professional development day, Ms. Alkhouri had talked with some of the ELA teachers in other schools who had expressed a similar frustration with the limited technology access at their schools and the desire to move beyond the one passive learning system. This situation reminded Ms. Alkhouri of research she had read about. The research showed a pattern of digital inequity for students of color, lower socioeconomic status, and/ or lower achievement in using technologies (if at all) for passive, lower-order cognitive activities such as drill and practice whereas students of more affluent means and higher achievement have opportunities to use technologies for creation, collaboration, and communication activities. Ms. Alkhouri wanted to shift toward more active, creative uses of technology for ELA.

Step 2: Assess technological resources of students, families, teachers, the school, and the community The school had good Internet connectivity and a few computer labs, and each classroom had about four Chromebooks. Sometimes one classroom would share them with another class. Ms. Alkhouri was growing somewhat impatient as the years passed because the increases in technological access were modest but not enabling changes in her teaching and students’ learning. Outside of class, many of these students were playing lots of games; some played console, handheld, or webbased games. Recently, Minecraft and Sims had become quite popular among them. Ms. Alkhouri knew some students had weekend game nights together. Other students had begun to use social networking apps as well. Then there were a few students who had very little access to technology at home, primarily via a parent’s mobile phone. She felt responsible for developing those students’ technological access and experiences as well.

Step 3: Identify technological possibilities and select an integration strategy Ms. Alkhouri set her mind to thinking about this challenge. She blogged about the issue and shared it with fellow teachers on Twitter #elachat and received many ideas to add to her class activities. Ms. Alkhouri attended a Saturday Edcamp conference at a high school nearby. Besides meeting many fabulous local educators, she learned about a new idea—making. It intrigued her. The idea is that students use their own creativity to make shareable products such as sewing projects, cardboard cities, programmed robots, books, and digital games. Ms. Alkhouri immediately started following #makered on Twitter and was intrigued that not many English teachers were using the making concept to engage students in writing and reading. Then she found #makewriting, another hashtag with more ideas. She saw an approach to inspiring poetry by having students build Jenga poetry using wood blocks that have permanent words on them. The students assembled blocks together to make a poem. Another teacher had students represent important settings of stories they read by creating physical layouts, such as a courtroom, in cardboard with the option to use programmable elements, such as littleBits—modular electronics that snap together with small magnets for prototyping and learning—to add interactivity such as flashing lights. Ms. Alkhouri also was interested in print and digital bookmaking, something she thought the students would really like, but she thought she might start with a multimedia poetry project. Ms. Alkhouri worked with the librarian and her principal, who had begun to recognize the lack of active technology use by students, to build a mini makerspace that could support literary arts and visual and oral expressions, such as making films, podcasts, and vodcasts and eventually bookmaking. They set up a couple making spaces: ■

Storybook-making, including digital storytelling tools (e.g., Voki, PowToon, Storybird, VoiceThread), book-making tools such as iBooks Author and BookCreator, and digital fabrication tools such as paper cutters and design software

Communication, Collaboration, and Making 211

■

Media production–making, including tools for creating films, podcasts, vodcasts, stop-motion animation, ­screencasting, and web development. Ms. Alkhouri designed the following sequence of activities for the 4-week project: Days 1 and 2: The teacher reads a high-interest, action-filled print text. As the students listen, the students write down words or phrases they like from the text. Students write the words/phrases on a whiteboard, and the teacher models writing a found poem from the word array. Students will work in dyads to begin writing their own found poems. The second day, the teacher models a revision after the class provides feedback and asks questions. Then the dyads revise their poems. Days 3–5: The teacher models creating a found poem from a nonprint “text,” such as a local theater production she attended. While attending the play, the teacher took pictures, wrote down words and phrases, and recorded sounds that she had heard. In class, the teacher shows the array of print and nonprint artifacts and models the process of building a multimodal poem from these artifacts. Using VoiceThread, the teacher builds the multimodal poem. Students provide feedback, and the teacher revises. Students brainstorm high-interest experiences from which they would like to build multimodal found poems such as playing or attending sports games, playing video games, hiking, swimming, and going to the beach. Students check out from the school library various mini-­makerspace media production tools such as voice recorders, video cameras, and digital cameras to collect their artifacts. Week 2: Students read two additional print texts and write two found poems based on the texts. They add them to a class blog. The class provides feedback on two students’ poems, and then the students revise poems based on feedback from the teacher and their peers. Throughout the week, students will continue using media ­production– recording tools to capture artifacts to produce a multimodal found poem. Week 3: With the support of the librarian and media specialist, students work individually to produce their nonprint, multimodal found poem. They will be able to choose the medium (visual, aural, tactile) and appropriate digital technology tools, such as Prezi, VoiceThread, PowerPoint, audio editing, video editing, and so on, to help build their found nonprint poetry. ­ tudents Week 4: Students present their multimodal poetry to the class with time for student and teacher feedback. S engage in revision and then publish the poems to a web page on the school’s website.

Phase 2  Design and Teach the Technology Integration Lesson Step 4: Decide on learning objectives and assessments Ms. Alkhouri’s unit is focused on creative writing and poetry, specifically helping students create found poems. Students first learn to create found poems based on focal text and later build them based on experiences, environments, or contexts that inspire them. These latter poems are to be expressed in multiple media formats, such as graphically, visually, or aurally. The outcomes, objectives, and assessments they developed were as follows: Outcome: Students will use five different writing process elements (planning, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing). ■ ■

Objective: 100% of students will engage in the five elements of writing process as they create poems. Assessment: Use an observational rubric to assess participation in elements of process writing.

Outcome: Students will gather data from a variety of sources (e.g., print and nonprint texts, artifacts, people) to create and communicate original ideas. ■ ■

Objective: 100% of students will create an original print and nonprint found poem. Assessment: Use a checklist of submitted poetry and a rubric to assess the types of artifacts included in found poems (e.g., text, pictures, video, audio).

Outcome: Students will use a variety of technological resources to create and communicate. ■ ■

Objective: 100% of students will use a digital technology tool appropriate to their poetry creation needs. Assessment: Use a technology use log.

Step 5: Assess the relative advantage: RATify the planned lesson With the creative digital writing project planned, Ms. Alkhouri determines the relative advantage by RATifying the new unit. Table 7.1 shows the aspects of instruction, student learning, and curriculum that she felt would be impacted by the found poetry project. Ms. Alkhouri could see the transformative potential of this project, and she felt there was relative advantage. (Continued)

212  Chapter 7

Table 7.1  Ms. Alkhouri’s RATified Lesson Instruction

Learning

Amplification Technology increases or ­intensifies efficiency, productivity, access, ­capabilities, but the tasks stay ­fundamentally the same.

• Blog entries and updates reveal writing process steps.

• Various digital production tools facilitate multimodal poetry creation.

Transformation Technology redefines, restructures, reorganizes, changes, and creates novel solutions.

• Teacher models through ­creation on VoiceThread. • Multimodal artifacts for poems inspired by students’ own experiences.

• Students publish poetry to audiences outside the school via school website. • Students engage in peer ­feedback on blog. • Students create multimodal poems.

Curriculum

Replacement Technology is a different means to same end.

• Engages ­students in new literacies—­ creating ­multimodal poems.

Step 6: Prepare the learning environment and teach the lesson Ms. Alkhouri was ready to inaugurate the first maker-supported lesson. She completed the following tasks to prepare: ■

■

■

■

■

Selected stories and gathered artifacts. She chose a high-interest, high-action book and gathered data from a community event, an art opening for artist Ai Weiwei, for the first week’s activities. Scheduled library. Ms. Alkhouri needed the library for a 2-day period for students to select books for the second week’s activities. Created blog and website. She worked with the media specialist to create the classroom blog where students would post their final poems and receive feedback from peers and the web page on the school’s site where the final nonprint found poems would be published. Scheduled media specialist. The media specialist was planning to assist throughout the third and fourth weeks. She had already been orienting the students to many of the media production and storytelling tools, but she knew they’d need hands-on assistance. Prepared assessments. Ms. Alkhouri created the rubrics and checklists.

Phase 3  Evaluate, Revise, and Share Step 7: Evaluate lesson results and impact Although tentative at the beginning of the first lesson on found poetry, the students became extremely engaged in creating their multimodal found poems. Reviewing the rubrics and checklists, Ms. Alkhouri found that nearly all students had engaged in the full writing process but that a few students had not edited their work prior to publishing. They had used an appropriate technological tool; most had used multiple tools to create their poem. The media specialist revealed that the poetry web page had the most hits on the entire district website for several weeks. Most important, she heard positive feedback from parents and her students.

Step 8: Make revisions based on results The area with the biggest improvement was technical support for students’ poetry creations. It was not surprising that the students were unfamiliar with many of the resources in the maker centers because they had not done hands-on technology activities prior to this project. The media specialist was creating help guides and videos on web pages to support individual just-in-time learning and was changing the computer class curriculum to move from teaching only word processing and presentation to focus on activities that the maker tools could support.

Step 9: Share lessons, revisions, and outcomes with other peer teachers Ms. Alkhouri tweeted links to the poems on #makered and #elachat. She began developing the teacher professional learning resources, including a series of webinars that highlight the possibilities for each maker center (made with the media production–making resources!), a district-wide professional learning community focused on making in content areas built on the district’s Google Classroom site, and 3 days of onsite, professional making experiences for teachers spread across the first year.

The following Pearson eText artifacts support completion of the Application Exercises, if assigned by your instructor. Pearson eText Artifact 7.1: The RAT Matrix

Pearson eText Artifact 7.2: The Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist

Communication, Collaboration, and Making 213

Introduction In this chapter, we delve more deeply to understand how teachers and students engage in digital communication, collaboration, and making in support of a range of teaching and learning activities. Communication options range from e-mail to texting to videoconferencing: ways to get your messages across. But it is collaboration resources like blogs, twitter, wikis, and social networking sites that make the global local and the local global. Finally, we introduce making activities in which students typically build physical or digital products. Similar to Chapter 6, the digital activities in this chapter tend to support empowered digital learning and can involve a design process (see Table 7.2). This chapter provides the final foundations for blended and online learning strategies, which you learn about in Chapter 8. We end the chapter by describing the maker and making movement. While most digital creative efforts qualify as making, making also includes nontechnological creative expressions, such as sewing, carpentry, and jewelry-making, that may or may not include digital elements like programmable flashing lights.

Digital Communications Learning Outcome 7.1  Identify the features and uses of communication resources that solve teaching and learning needs or challenges. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator) Digital communications have nearly replaced traditional channels such as sending letters and making telephone calls. The tools described in this section are considered primarily for one-to-one or one-to-many communications rather than social collaboration and networking among many people or groups, which is the topic of the next section about digital collaboration. However, the line between the two is becoming increasingly blurry. Communications options are available in both synchronous (intended to be seen immediately) and asynchronous (left for people to read later) formats. For example,

Table 7.2  Examples of the Design Process in Communicating, Collaborating, and Making Six-Step Design Process 3. Brainstorm and analyze ideas

4. Develop preliminary solutions

5. Gather feedback from others

Identify the audio or video content required.

Storyboard audio/ video sequences. Begin audio or video recording.

Develop audio or video using editing and sequencing software.

Share with ­audience who needs or will ­consume the ­target audio or visual effect.

Revise as needed, going back to ­collect more audio and video or more editing, as needed.

Describe the ­collaborative ­context for ­connecting via video.

Identify the available ­videoconferencing technologies and any ­required ­supports (e.g., headsets, displays).

Determine ­participants, the available time, and the interactivity components.

Host a test s­ ession with the main ­leaders and facilitators.

Identify audio, ­visual, ­connectivity, or facilitation problems.

Revise the plan, as applicable, and then run the videoconference.

Identify ill-defined authentic ­problem or game goals (meaningful beyond school context).

Develop ideas and potential solutions to the problem.

Sketch framework for computational artifact; develop component parts.

Orchestrate ­individual elements or features into an initial, external artifact.

Gather ­public ­feedback from ­authentic ­audiences (e.g., peers, teachers, programmers).

Revise artifact in response to feedback.

1. Define the problem or task

2. Collect information

Audio and video development

Articulate the need for an audio or visual artifact.

Videoconferencing

Computer programming

Activities

6. Improve through revision

214  Chapter 7

Table 7.3  Communication Resources, Software, Functions, and Products Resource

Example Software

Software Functions & Features

Sample Products

E-mail

• Gmail • Groups.io

Asynchronous multimedia messages

Teacher: Updates for parents and students, inquiries to colleagues or administrators Students: Assignment clarifications, ­inquiries of experts

Messaging

• iMessage (Mac/iOS) • WhatsApp • Signal • Remind • Snapchat

Synchronous short messages, preferably with end-to-end encryption

Teacher: Updates for parents and students Students: Assignment clarifications, discussion

Scheduling and Calendar

• Doodle • Signup Genius • Google Calendar • Calendly

Individual, group, and shared calendars; collaborative scheduling

Teacher and Students: Set calendar ­appointments, set collaborative meeting times, office hour sign-up

Audio

• Anchor • Audacity • GarageBand (Mac/iOS) • Soundtrap • SoundCloud • Swivl Synth

Recording, editing, and distribution of audio files

Teacher: Podcasts, morning messages, coaching Students: Podcasts, stories, audio exit tickets

Video

• YouTube • WeVideo • Flipgrid • Narakeet • Vimeo • iMovie • Adobe Premier Pro

Video editing, such as trimming, cutting, adding music, blurring faces, and adding closed captioning Video hosting and distribution

Teacher: Prerecorded content lessons, ­parent messages Students: Films, public service ­announcements, media-based ­assessments, daily school news or announcements

e-mails, listservs, group messaging, and audio/videos are considered asynchronous, whereas text and instant messaging is usually considered synchronous. The available software programs for digital communication are summarized in Table 7.3.

E-mail, Listservs, and Groups E-mail is a common way to exchange multimedia messages between individuals or small groups via a software app (e.g., Microsoft Outlook, Apple Mail) or through a web browser on computers, smartphones, and tablets. Students and teachers have an e-mail account set up by their schools (often with an .edu address) or contracted through commercial services (e.g., Gmail). All e-mail uses the Internet for message delivery. Teachers have used e-mail to communicate directly with students, parents, and other educators. We recommend that teachers have at least two e-mail accounts: a personal e-mail address they use for friends and family and a professional e-mail address, preferably the district-sponsored e-mail account, for communications with teachers, parents, students, and the community. Consider everything you write in district-sponsored e-mail to be publicly available information. E-mail is an insecure technology that can be easily hacked, so do not write about confidential matters; instead, talk about confidential matters in person or via the phone. E-mails can also be easily forwarded to other people that the original sender did not intend messages to go to, so again, consider deeply what you write—only write messages that would be appropriate to be shared with all the faculty at your school. Listservs are programs that store and maintain mailing lists of e-mails and make possible ongoing e-mail “conversations” among groups who belong to an organization or share common interests. When an e-mail message is addressed to a listserv mailing list (one e-mail address), it is automatically duplicated and sent to everyone who is a member of the list. Only those on the list can send a message to a listserv. Replies to a listserv message often are programmed to go to all list members, so again be careful to check who your reply message is being sent to. It is a common (and often embarrassing)

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mistake to send a reply e-mail intended for one person to an entire listserv. Your school may or may not host listservs, so check with the IT staff if you want to set up a listserv for a group. A group e-mail functions the same way as a listserv. An online group is established that stores and maintains members’ e-mails and offers a mailing list function that allows messages to be sent simultaneously to everyone in the group via the Internet. For example, teachers can set up a discussion group in Google Groups or Groups.io, the latter of which is free for up to 100 users. E-mail, listserv, and discussion group functions may also be built into district-­ sponsored systems, such as a student information system (SIS) or a learning management system (LMS), such as Schoology, Edmodo, Moodle, Blackboard, and Canvas. Read the “Digital Collaboration” section for more information on these resources.

Text and Instant Messaging Text messaging (texting) allows for synchronous and asynchronous exchange of textual communications between people on mobile phones using a technology. Texting has become such a primary means of communication that it has overtaken voice communications on mobile phones in frequency of use. On any given day, 78% of teens (age 13–18) report texting an average of 39 messages (Rideout & Robb, 2019). There has been large growth of Internet-based instant messaging (IM), which allows users to send multimedia messages (e.g., text, images, videos, emojis, GIFs, links) immediately via an Internet-connected desktop or mobile app such as iMessage, WhatsApp, GroupMe, Telegram, Google Chat, Snapchat, and Kik. This kind of messaging is typically free and uses an Internet connection, not a phone service. Social networking apps, such as Facebook Messenger, and online games have built-in IM functions. IMs are exchanged instantaneously, but they also may remain as messages to be read later if the recipient is not online. Some messaging apps, such as Snapchat, autodelete content. Some of these tools also offer voice messaging and other features. We recommend teachers consider these messaging technologies for communicating with adults they already know; children should use them very cautiously and implement good data privacy strategies (described in Chapter 4) when interacting with users they do not know (e.g., during in-game chat). There are several education-specific messaging apps. The Remind app is a private messaging platform designed specifically for educational contexts that support communication between teachers, administrators, parents, and students. The ­TalkingPoints app supports family engagement in their children’s education through multilingual messaging. Teachers and parents can use their preferred language(s) as the app translates mobile app or text message communication across 100 languages. Backchannel chat is a live chat tool for classrooms, with integration into Edmodo and Schoology LMSs and Google apps and full teacher controls to support positive online discussions. Users of these kinds of messaging make frequent use of textese/textisms, such as RUOK for “Are you okay?” and CUL for “See you later.” More recently, message systems offer predictive text as users type. Many educators worry that textisms could negatively impact students’ oral or written literacy. Research by van Dijk et al. (2016) with children age 10–13 suggests that texting is a separate register that is context-sensitive, and thus might not negatively impact the academic written register. They did find a correlation between dropped words in texts and increased grammar proficiency, indicating that crafting shortened texts might strengthen students’ grammar. Waldron et al. (2017) did not find a link between use of predictive text and primary and secondary students’ use of textisms in their text messages, nor was there evidence that predictive text usage affected students’ standardized spelling or grammar scores. Chat-based messaging is becoming a common practice for synchronous and asynchronous communications and

216  Chapter 7 is built into many other web-based resources, such as LMSs, and the research results might suggest that the use of textisms and predictive text options are not negatively harming students’ academic literacy.

Calendar and Scheduling Several kinds of tools help teachers and students organize, schedule, and communicate about their time availability and commitments. Many schools and teachers are using Google Calendar to schedule daily, weekly, and monthly events, appointments, and notes. Teachers can create calendars with different sharing settings including a collaborative calendar that can be shared or embedded on websites. For example, events can be shared with students or parents and then reminders can be sent before the events occur. Use of allocated appointment slots allows other teachers, parents, and students to book appointments. Because Google Calendar is cloud-based, teachers can access it on any Internet-accessible device. Many calendar templates preloaded with significant events are available for printing or digital use. Scholastic and Education World provide such tools. Educators have used apps such as SignUpGenius to organize classroom and field trip volunteers. Calendly and Doodle allow multiple people to indicate their availability for an event. Some schools are adopting learning management system that has built-in calendars and assignment scheduling.

Audio and Video Communications Once the exclusive domain of media professionals, audio and video content can be produced by anyone; stored on free websites including YouTube, TeacherTube, Vimeo, Flipgrid, and SoundCloud; and easily shared out to a remote audience. Teachers are taking advantage of students’ desire to produce and use online audio and video content by both including it in their own lessons and allowing students to create their own videos that communicate what they have learned. As Rudd and Rudd (2014) observed, video, in particular, is becoming much more prevalent in online and blended courses. Review Table 7.2 for an example of a design process involved with audio and video development. PODCASTS, VODCASTS, VLOGS  Podcast, a term that combines “iPod” and “broad-

cast,” originally meant broadcasting audio via a website, such as iTunes. Vodcasts can also mean posting video on an online site such as YouTube or into a blog, called a vlog, in which posts are video clips instead of text entries. Audio and video have evolved into a new form of multimedia publishing used around the world by people of all ages. For example, students at Sayre Middle School in Lexington, Kentucky, won National P ­ ublic Radio’s student podcast challenge with a story about their school’s unsung heroes, the maintenance staff (Turner & Carrillo, 2021). Other entries told stories about family bonding during the pandemic, a century-old murder, and lovable slugs (Carrillo & Drummond, 2021). To create a podcast, teachers or students record, edit, and share the resulting audio files as podcasts on a website. Anchor is free; offers recording, editing, and distribution; and allows users to maintain all content rights. Audacity is also a free editor, and files could be distributed through Soundcloud. Soundtrap integrates with Google Classroom, Canvas, Schoology, and Musicfirst. Vodcasts or vlogs are similarly designed as episodic broadcasts but they use video. These have become much easier to create with built-in photo and video cameras to mobile devices, along with entry-level editing apps such as YouTube Creator Studio, WeVideo, and Windows 10 Photos’ video editor. EdPuzzle allows teachers to use their own or other videos (e.g., from YouTube or Khan Academy) to build self-paced or interactive video lessons. While not always enacted, podcasts, vodcasts, and vlogs are intended to be episodic in that new episodes are released frequently and often on a schedule.

Communication, Collaboration, and Making 217

FILMS  In some contexts, teachers or students may prefer to communicate through

a longer, nonepisodic video format, such as the production of a film or other creative video. They may also choose to use higher-end video editing software, such as iMovie, Adobe Premiere Pro, Filmora, or Open Movie Editor (see Figure 7.1) that allows digital videos to be edited and combined with special effects, such as titles, screen fades, transitions, and voice-over audio/sound effects. Audio and video files can be imported into video editors from a source, such as a phone, digital camera, or webcam, in several formats (e.g., Audio Video Interleave [AVI] format, Moving Picture Experts Group [MPEG or MP4] format, QuickTime movie [MOV] format). Additional audio layers can be added. The top of the screen in Figure 7.1 offers video editing options, and the bottom part allows users to manipulate the audio track. By sliding markers on these tracks and dragging the video clips to their intended destinations in the file, students can cut, copy, and/or paste sections of a video and/or combine them with special effects such as fades or background music. Depending upon the video-based project students or teachers are pursuing, a classroom might create mini-filming studios or green screens to facilitate recording. In Figure 7.2, students have created a set for film production. Green screens are used to produce a visual effect that layers one object (such as a person) in front of another still or video background. A common use of green screen allows a news meteorologist to float in front of a series of weather maps. Ultimately, the resulting video products, such as a film, can then be uploaded to a website such as YouTube and Vimeo. Gran (2015) positions filmmaking as applicable across the K–12 arts curriculum, but it is also well positioned to support cross-curricular projects (Burn, 2016). Meager (2017) describes how children as young as 10 years old can engage in observational filmmaking, which helps them to build new understandings about their own lives, a type of participatory video pedagogy. Researchers have illustrated that filmmaking engages students in collaborative, multimodal literacy practices (Burn, 2016; Husbye & V ­ ander Zanden, 2015). Secondary students have developed historical documentary films (Schul, 2014). Lorenzi (2012) suggested six genres for student films, including (1) the interview, (2) field (trip) correspondent, (3) the sequel to a story, (4) a commercial or pub­ cClanahan lic service announcement, (5) historical reenactment, and (6) tour guide. M (2020) describes how a middle school film festival puts students in creative, agentic roles to advocate for topics of personal importance and passion. Students  take on

Figure 7.1  Open Movie Editor SOURCE: Open Movie Editor. Reprinted by permission. http://www.openmovieeditor.org.

Pearson eText Video Example 7.1 This video shows how to create an inexpensive green screen, which facilitates the use of a chroma-key, a visual effect that involves layering one object (such as a person) in front of another still or video background. https://youtu.be/Kclldwox6HE

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Figure 7.2  Film Set in a Classroom (Photo by W. Wiencke)

roles of director, videographer, sound engineer, writer, video editor, and music editor. ­Filmmaking aligns with speaking, listening, and writing standards. For longer projects, core-curricular area teachers might need to collaborate with the arts and/or computer teachers. In Technology Integration Example 7.1, students extend a book’s story as a film. Watch a moving interview-based student film in Video Example 7.2. SCREENCASTS  Another way to produce videos for instructional or explanatory use is through screencasting software, such as Screencast-o-Matic, Screencastify, ­Camtasia, and TechSmith Capture, that allows recording of on-screen activity (e.g., typing and cursor motions) and accompanying voiceovers, annotation (e.g., circling or highlighting certain words or actions), editing, and sharing. Once created, teachers and students can upload videos to YouTube, TeacherTube, Google Drive, Edmodo, TechSmith ­Screencast, or other syndication or LMS. You can also screencast with interactive

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 7.1 

TITLE: Students as Documentary Filmmakers CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Language arts GRADE LEVELS: Middle to high school ISTE STANDARDS•S: Standard 4—Innovative Designer; Standard 6—Creative Communicator CCSS: RL.6.2., W.6.6, SL.6.1, SL.7.1(c), W.8.3, CCSS. ELA-LITERACY, SL.8.5 DESCRIPTION: Students engage in five steps of documentary development. First, they engage in the foundational work of identifying a topic or problem that has a story that needs telling. They analyze and deconstruct mentor d ­ ocumentaries and then begin storyboarding the big ideas of their video story. If working in small groups, they identify roles for each member. Second, they engage in preproduction planning where they identify (as applicable) people to interview, locations to be filmed, and a shoot schedule. They develop interview questions or scripts and gather their equipment. Third, they do production. After testing their equipment, they film interviews and other story event content. Fourth, they engage in postproduction in which they download the video on a hard drive and organize it in WeVideo. After reviewing the video content, they build a multirow script of verbal and visual content for the film, discerning which verbal content comes from the interviewee(s) or a narrator; audio-record necessary narration; and assemble the elements in WeVideo, adding the title, credits, subtitles, and other needed elements. Fifth, they end with reflection and distribution. They use rubrics to gauge its craft: cool factor, reason, audience, featuring, and take-away. After any necessary revisions, they submit their films to the festival and attend the debut. SOURCE: Based on McClanahan, L. (2020). More than just a middle school film festival: Encouraging voice, self-expression, and e ­ mpowerment through film. Voices from the Middle, 27(4), 35–43.

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whiteboards, such as Explain Everything or ShowMe. These apps have drawing tools and can import graphics, video, and files. Teachers use whiteboards to prepare content representations for advance viewing before teaching, explanation videos to visualize or work with ideas extemporaneously in class, and media-based assessment feedback for student work. Students can also use these tools primarily to create representations of their knowledge.

Integration Strategies for Digital Communication Communication technologies can facilitate interpersonal exchanges in which students communicate with other students, teachers, or experts and teachers communicate with parents. While teachers will use these digital communication resources often, they become crucial in blended learning and online learning pedagogical approaches. For example, teachers who use flipped pedagogy often introduce students to content concepts via vodcast or screencasts before coming to class and then spend class time on other learning activities. Some other integration example activities include: • Pen pal writing exchanges. Teachers link each student with a chat partner or pen pal in a distant location to whom the student writes, such as quotidian morning/ afternoon messages, creative writing, or language practice. WhatsApp provides a free global communication medium. Teachers can find partners at the ePals and OneWorld Classrooms websites. • Mentoring. Students can link with mentors in the form of other students, parents, or individual experts in a given field. For example, teachers put students in touch with scientists who volunteer to answer questions about their areas of research and recent findings. Conversations could occur in messaging apps or in a Backchannel chat. Mentored Pathways is a source for finding mentors. • Parent communication. Chat messaging has been shown to increase parents’ awareness of, participation in, and impact on their child’s learning and achievement. Text messaging was an important part of “add-on” programs that support, educate, and involve parents of preschool and elementary students to improve children’s learning (Magnuson & Schindler, 2016). For example, sending text messages with language-rich math content to parents of Head Start preschool students was effective in increasing Spanish-speaking children’s math and literacy interests, vocabulary, and knowledge of print (Baroody et al., 2018). When text messages were personalized and differentiated for students’ development, Doss et al. (2019) found students read at a higher level than students whose parents received more general text suggestions. Luesse et al. (2018) found parents open to text messaging from authority role models who could share healthy living and eating suggestions to promote behavior changes in their families and children. • Interpersonal discussions. Students can engage in more enduring discussion (beyond the limits of classroom time) in content-related topics. For example, ­secondary students who used WhatsApp to read and discuss an online political news story (versus just reading the story) developed stronger affective response and higher content-specific politics knowledge on the topic of the story (­Vermeer et al., 2021). • Demonstrations of frequently performed procedures. For activities that are frequently repeated (e.g., procedures for science experiments), teachers can film themselves or others completing the steps. These short clips, which provide demonstrations that can be viewed and repeated as many times as desired by students, are useful across curriculum areas, such as demonstrating fitness and sports skills and methods (Shumack & Reilly, 2011), reminding students with cognitive disabilities of frequently used steps (Brown, 2010), and for video modeling, which has been used successfully to build social and communication skills in students with emotional

Pearson eText Video Example 7.2 Teacher Maggie Martin scaffolds students in using Notability app to record their own expressive reading after she has introduced strategies, such as paying attention to punctuation, that clue readers into expressions. Students then listen to each other’s recordings and provide peer feedback.

220  Chapter 7

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 7.2 

TITLE: Archived Webcam Video Brings Weather to Life CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Science, physical sciences GRADE LEVELS: High school ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 3—Knowledge Constructor; Standard 4—Innovative Designer; Standard 6—Creative Communicator NSTA: HS-ESS2-4, HS-ESS2-5 DESCRIPTION: Teachers who want a vivid and engaging way for students to examine physical science and weather concepts can create classroom activities around copyright-free webcam images and archived video of local or distant locations. For example, students can examine and download flood cam video from various locations, which provides readings of a river’s height along with corresponding weather data. Students then design a film illustrating key scientific physical weather concepts and the resulting impact on the physical world. Gathering local and distant weather events, students can understand how physical science concepts apply to real-world events. SOURCE: Based on a concept from A Study in Natural Disasters at the Education World website.

and behavioral disorders (Hong et al., 2016; Losinski et al., 2016). Sharing video demonstrations on the web allows other teachers to use them, saving both money and time (Ehrmann, 2011). • Student-created audio-visual presentations. Students can create videos that illustrate real-life examples of concepts they have learned (e.g., showing how algebra applies to everyday situations) or make documentaries of events and conditions around them. Bedrossian (2010) described how students interviewed, recorded, and made podcasts of oral histories of people who lived during important scientific and technological discoveries. Criswell (2013) described making video recordings of students’ musical performances as a way to help them selfassess their work. Ezquerra and colleagues (2014) found that secondary students who made documentary videos of kinematics increased both their digital literacy and scientific knowledge. In addition, with careful review of copyright, students could be able to use video content from local or distant webcams to explore phenomena in their own video production, as illustrated in Technology Integration Example 7.2.

Digital Collaboration Learning Outcome 7.2  Select digital collaboration resources and strategies that respond to teaching and learning needs or challenges and reflect learning sciences research. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator) The web facilitates people in any geographic location to come together for the purpose of interacting with other people, often with common interests, around shared content that may be user-created or sourced from others. While there is naturally overlap between digital communication and collaboration activities, this section focuses on activities that are built and shared within spaces that typically generate connections, dialogue, and some degree of collaborative work among users. Such work can range in its intensity and outcomes; from cooperative dialogue around an issue to collaboratively creating a shareable digital product. Social networking sites, in particular, have brought together communities from around the world whose

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members can be diverse in nearly every way except for a shared interest in a topic or activity, and they have enabled wide-ranging communal endeavors. These resources, which include social media, blogs, microblogs, content curation, wikis, and photosharing communities, allow not only faster widespread adoption than most previous technologies but also have had unprecedented impact on society and civilization through the expansion of participation in interactions that create user-generated content that is easily shareable. Educators and learners have taken up these general social networking and media resources as well as videoconferencing, LMSs, and multifeature workspaces for digital collaboration activities. This next section focuses on the most powerful educational uses (see Table 7.4) and integration strategies for digital collaboration.

Pearson eText Video Example 7.3 This teacher describes how she creates authentic learning experiences for early learners through live video feeds and videoconferencing.

Social Networking Social networking sites (SNSs) are websites that give members a space in which they can create a personal profile; contribute multimedia content such as text, images, and videos; and connect and interact with other users. SNSs come in varied forms with a range of features. Facebook is still one of the most commonly used SNS with 69% of American adults reporting having used it (Pew Research Center, 2021). In terms of children, 13% of tweens (age 8–12) report using social media for an average of 1 hour 17 minutes per day, while 61% of teens (age 13–18) report using social media for an average of 1 hour 56 minutes daily, mostly on smartphones (Rideout & Robb, 2019). Facebook’s requirement for users age 13 and older makes it applicable for use among secondary students only, assuming that school or district policies allow it to be used. LinkedIn tends to be used by professionals (rather than adolescents), such as teachers, to network with others. Schools can set up more private SNS communities with educational sites such as Ning and ClassDojo and open source sites such as Elgg. There are also environments, such as Participate, with more intentional goals to develop communities of practice. Fanschool recently expanded its social networking features. Many of these environments offer features, such as profiles, messaging, content feeds, forums, blogging or microblogging, filesharing, learning objects or courses, and events. These educational SNSs focus more on community-building, which distinguishes them from LMSs, described later in this section.

Table 7.4  Collaboration Resources, Software, Functions, and Products Software Functions and Features

Resource

Example Software

Sample Products

Social networking and ­media sharing

• Facebook, LinkedIn, Edmodo, Ning, Class Dojo, Fanschool • Blogs: Blogger, Edublogs, ­WordPress, Kidblog • Microblogs: Twitter, Tumblr, ­Instagram, TikTok • Content Curation: Pinterest, Diigo

Develop an online identity, connect and build networks or relationships with other users, create, share, and learn from short- and long-form content.

Teacher: Updates for parents and students, inquiries of colleagues or administrators, lesson resource ­sharing, professional networks Students: Assignment clarifications, inquiries of experts, book clubs, homework help, multimedia writing

Videoconferencing

• Zoom • Skype • Google Meet • Adobe Connect

Synchronous audio and visual ­ eetings with supportive ­interaction m and collaboration tools, such as ­polling, whiteboard, slide sharing, chat.

Teacher and students: ­Online s­ ynchronous class sessions, small-group or 1:1 meetings, ­project meetings, office hours, expert ­presentations or Q&A

Multifunction workspaces and learning management systems

• Google Classroom • Schoology • Canvas • Seesaw • Participate • Discipline • Slack • Microsoft Teams

One space or environment that ­ ffers multiple teaching and learning o resources from which teachers can design experiences and students and parents can interact.

Teacher: Lesson design and delivery, calendar of activities, assignments and grading, group discussions Students: Assignment submissions, discussion posts, learning artifact creation or submission, assessment feedback

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Pearson eText Video Example 7.4 In this video, a principal tells how teachers use SNSs to communicate with students and coordinate their work.

Overall, social networks like Facebook may have limited instructional use in K–12 settings (Dennen et al., 2020). Kirschner (2015) argued that Facebook is inappropriate for argumentation and knowledge construction because it favors narcissistic contributions, tends to connect like-minded people, and has a linear structure. For this reason, it may not be as optimal for teacher-led activities. However, Facebook groups established by secondary students functioned as an important third space, combining school and personal life, and were used for peer help on educational tasks and facilitated social bonding and learning (Aaen & Dalsgaard, 2016; Muls et al., 2020). High school students saw Facebook as assisting peer-to-peer learning that they designed and configured, as contrasted with teacher-controlled activities within an LMS (Dalsgaard, 2016). Schools and teachers have successfully used Facebook to establish groups for parents to increase their participation in homework assistance and in sports education (Bernabé-Martín & Fernandez-Rio, 2020; Fernandez-Rio & Bernabé-Martín, 2019). However, Willis and Exley (2018) caution that teachers need to conceptualize and guide the kinds of desired parent participation. For example, in their research with parents of early-elementary children, teachers aimed for parents to engage in inquiry with their children in the social network, but parents tended to only post complimentary messages. Researchers recommend educators “friend” students extremely cautiously. While such connections may strengthen student–teacher relationships, teachers have noted it also may lead to invasions of teacher privacy, extended work commitments, exposure to students’ improper behaviors or information, and inequity toward non-social-networked students (Forkosh-Baruch & Hershkovitz, 2019). We recommend teachers connect with students in school-sponsored social networks, if they exist. ­ClassDojo may be considered a community-building social network for teachers, students, and parents, but it tends to be used primarily for behavior surveillance and tracking, with a few studies showing it leads to increased positive on-task behavior (Bahçeci, 2019); however, c­ oncerns exist that this surveillance dehumanizes students (France, 2021; Manolev et al., 2019; Williamson, 2021). As described extensively in Chapter 3, social networking offers teachers a space to engage in professional learning with colleagues through online edcamps, professional learning networks, and communities of practice. Teachers collaborate, interact, and build knowledge with peer teachers by joining interest-driven, participatory social networks (Hughes et al., 2015; Nussbaum-Beach & Hall, 2012; Trust et al., 2016; Trust & Prestridge, 2021). Lantz-Andersson et al.’s (2018) extensive review of online teacher communities reveals that formal communities, such as those created in a school or district for employed teachers in a custom Ning site, are avenues for collegial support and increased visibility of teachers’ individual and collective work and accomplishments. Informal communities, such as those teachers join on social networks, provide teachers avenues to share and learn new ideas and garner professional support. Time and scheduling is a consistent barrier to participation (Trust & Prestridge, 2021). SNS INTEGRATION STRATEGIES  The highly social nature of SNSs makes them ideal

for keeping in touch with parents and carrying out collaborative and constructivist, discussion-based strategies. The more common of these strategies include: • Communicating with parents and community members. Schools can invite parents and other community members to join their SNSs and keep apprised of school events, achievements, and student activities. SNSs also provide stakeholders an additional way to keep communication lines open with educators about issues of mutual concern. Daren (2016) suggests creating a closed classroom Facebook group for parents and secondary students as another way to share materials and reminders and answer questions. Research has found that social networking has increased parental involvement in students’ learning (Bernabé-Martín & Fernandez-Rio, 2020; Willis & Exley, 2018).

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• Collaborating and commenting on student work. SNSs are frequently used as collaborative spaces for teachers and students to work together. For example, ­Hammett (2013) describes a project in which ninth-graders studied Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet and created collaborative digital projects that included e-zines, presentations, digital videos, and photo-stories. They used an SNS called Ning to share their products and to communicate about them throughout the unit. • Professional learning and sharing. Rodesiler (2015) examined five English teachers’ self-directed digital SNS activities and found that their SNS participatory activity involved supporting other teachers, seeking support from others, collecting and curating ideas, and sharing and promoting their developed web-based resources. Schools may also develop formal professional learning networks to support ongoing teacher development.

Blogs A blog is a type of web page that began as personal journals, but their use rapidly expanded to become sites where a blogger posts content and where others can post responses to the content. Blogs are created, designed, managed, and updated by an individual with regular entries of event descriptions, opinions, narratives, and commentaries added over time. Blog authors can upload images, video, links, and other documents to support their content. Most blogging sites, such as Edublogs and Blogger, provide a system that consists of easy-to-use forms in which users enter their text, images, and content and publish content online immediately or at a scheduled time. Melly (2018) emphasizes the importance of blogging being an intentional, meaningful practice rather than busywork. Toward that end, the decision to implement a blog-supported activity rested upon its ability to engage students in (1) exploring content-related ideas, (2) practicing formal writing in a low-stakes context, and/or (3) responding to peers’ writing. BLOG INTEGRATION STRATEGIES  Blogs have supported a variety of instructional, learning, and administrative purposes. Some of these are:

• Support for engaged writing. The most high-profile and sustained use of blogs has been to encourage more frequent, engaged writing among students in content areas. Teachers who used blogs for 8 weeks with struggling writers felt it was effective in improving students’ writing skills, though they noted students need strong keyboarding skills (Carver & Todd, 2016). With choice, the majority (60%) of elementary students chose to use a blog for reading responses, as opposed to a response notebook. Rubric scores indicated blog responses were higher than written notebook responses (Cease & Wilmarth, 2016). Freeman and colleagues (2016) found the use of a blog for elementary school–age students beneficial for mathematical sense making as long as notes and content were assessed. They also found that these students used pictures for sense making, so inclusion of multimodal writing was important. Scaffolds, such as prompts and assessment feedback, has been found to be crucially important to support productive writing and strategy use (Petko et al., 2014; Stover et al., 2016). • Collaboration in content-area topics. Blog activities have been reported in a wide range of content areas to improve collaboration skills in ways that enhance content learning. In advanced-level English language learning courses, students kept personal blogs and were encouraged to read and comment on each other’s work and to use their peers’ comments to edit and improve their writing (Vurdien, 2013). Paroussi (2014) reports on a cross-classroom blog collaboration in which students engaged in writing tasks and shared them on a common blog. Students felt that the real audience increased motivation to write; they learned to be critical readers examining meaning over form; teachers observed all students showing

224  Chapter 7 improvement. Hossain and Wiest (2013) used blogs in a middle school geometry classroom to increase students’ collaboration on mathematics problems. Still other teachers have their students follow blogs of professionals in various areas, analyzing their content and even posting comments, thus becoming a part of a professional community while still in school. See Technology Integration Example 7.3 for an example of students collaborating to produce a blog about their communitybased geographic and historical research. • Alternative, formative assessments. Teachers can use blogs’ affordances for reflection as formative assessment, which supports identifying differentiated needs. For example, Stover et al. (2016) describe how third-graders’ participation in blogging book clubs assisted the teacher in assessing reading comprehension using a rubric that was also shared with students prior to blogging activities. The teacher used her formative assessment to build feedback posted to students’ blogs and conversations. Shapland (2018) felt blogging was superior to reading quizzes because it supported close reading of Jane Eyre by her high school students but also centered their voices and contributed to building a classroom community. • Communication among teacher communities of practice. Teachers also get involved in blogs as a professional development strategy, from generating ideas for lesson plans to gaining new skills in their content area. By following others who teach their grade level, topic, or population, teachers become part of a thriving community of practice that helps them reflect on and develop skills and solve problems with the help of knowledgeable peers. • Increased interaction with parents and community members. Some schools keep blogs for certain areas, such as the school library/media center, to communicate with stakeholders. The schools post notices of events and hold discussions about how to get funding, solve problems, and make the best use of school resources. These uses keep open lines of communications and forge working partnerships between school and community. • Updates and insights on education topics. Educators of all kinds, including school administrators, follow blogs for the same reasons that they read education

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 7.3 

TITLE: Discovering Local Histories CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Social studies, history GRADE LEVELS: Middle school ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 3—Knowledge Constructor; Standard 6—Creative Communicator; Standard 7— Global Collaborator NCSS THEMES:1 – Culture and Cultural Diversity, 3 – People, Places, and Environments, 4 – Individual Development and Identity, 5 – Individuals, Groups, and Institutions; Disciplinary Standards: 1 – History, 2 – Geography, 3 – Civics and Government, 4 – Economics DESCRIPTION: Students engage in a research project to inquire into the geography and history of their own town or community. They work in small groups to build a multimedia historical narrative, produced for a public audience. First, these are published on a closed blog just for the class to facilitate reading and peer/teacher review of the narratives. After review and revision, their final narratives are scheduled using blogging tools to release once per week during the last quarter of the school year on the school blog. Students practice numerous research skills, such as interviewing and document analysis, while acquiring an understanding of how the history of the region they studied is connected to their lives. SOURCE: Based on ideas from the Local History Project lesson at the iEARN website.

Communication, Collaboration, and Making 225

newsletters, columns, and professional journals. They get insights and timely updates on topics ranging from education issues to free resources for technology integration. Some significant blogs that educators can follow include M ­ indShift (KQED), Discovery Education, The Innovative Educator, Edutopia, and PBS ­Teachers Lounge blogs.

Microblogs A microblog is social media technology that allows users to express short-form multimedia messages (i.e., 280-character tweet on Twitter, photos on Instagram, messages on Tumblr, video on TikTok, and messages on Snapchat) that can include web links, hashtags, video, pictures, and photos. On these sites, users can create an identity, follow other users, and determine privacy settings. Many also use hashtags (i.e., #) that allow users to identify topics and create their own messages on the same topic. For example, those interested in educational technology can use the hashtag #edtech to find posts related to that topic. Tweetdeck is a dashboard app to organize multiple Twitter accounts or follow particular users or hashtags. This can be useful to organize and follow several class hashtags. Apps like Preview or Planoly support Instagram post planning, organization, and scheduling, and Pintok organizes videos on TikTok. An increasing number of young people are using microblogs, though most simply describe them as social media. Of U.S. teens, 72% use Instagram, 69% use Snapchat, 32% use Twitter, and 9% use Tumblr (Pew Research Center, 2018). Wang (2017) found that large school districts and some superintendents were using Twitter but mostly for one-way broadcasting type announcements, and Wang encouraged more conversational, twoway communication activities. Teachers must uphold privacy of students in social media use. In one elementary school teacher’s journey in learning how to tweet, she created a classroom Twitter account that used only first names of her students, avoided tagging anyone in pictures, and selectively followed other classroom or educational accounts (Marich, 2016). A second-grade teacher did a check-in routine before posting her students’ contributions to check for privacy-revealing information and digital writing skills (Chapman & Marich, 2021). Teachers should create a class account controlled by the teacher, rather than individual accounts, if students are under the age of 13. For older students who can create their own accounts, Taylor and Weigel (2016) advise teachers show their own professional account as a model for students, have students use an abbreviated form of their name for their handle, limit biographical information with no personally identifiable information, know how to block other accounts, and practice conventions for replying to others. Time is required to guide setup of student accounts, scaffold expectations for use, and practice using the technology (Loomis, 2018). Establishing rules, including three useful ground rules, is helpful: 1. Keep communication professional and positive, and all school rules still apply. 2. Do not click on links sent by users unknown to you. 3. Immediately block a user who bothers you and report this to the teacher. Use of Twitter enables students to engage in traditional literacy and new multimodal literacies across content-area learning that offer new disciplinary communication modes, offers authentic audiences for student-created content in these open social media environments, inspires students to connect content concepts to their own lives, and develops students’ digital citizenship and critical information literacy skills (Becker & Bishop, 2016; Chapman & Marich, 2021; Kunnath & Jackson, 2019). The other platforms have less research base, but Fidan et al. (2021) suggest Instagram may assist in knowledge acquisition and collaboration with its tools for multimedia storytelling, content sharing, polling, and commenting.

226  Chapter 7 MICROBLOG INTEGRATION STRATEGIES  Consider the following integration strat-

egies that teachers and researchers have developed or documented for K–12 students: • Sharing classroom learning. Both teachers and students can share learning moments with a class hashtag. For example, Katie, an elementary school teacher, mentored her students to share the “what” and “why” of their learning (Marich, 2016) and Ryan’s eighth-grade students tweet pictures or video illustrating scientific concepts under study (Becker & Bishop, 2016). • Contemporary resource collections. Tweets by students on topics of study to a specific hashtag or from current NASA science missions or reputable science programs can be collected into a news stream for everyone to access and use (Becker & Bishop, 2016; Taylor & Weigel, 2016). • Mentor and experts. Students can connect with professionals in an area of study, follow their postings, and interact with them to get inspiration and tips on careers (Basu, 2013; Becker & Bishop, 2016). Second-graders can even use Twitter to connect to those beyond their small town (Chapman & Marich, 2021). #SciStuChat is a monthly chat between high school students and science professionals that creates an authentic context for students to formulate questions about scientific phenomena of interest and engage in scientific discourse, both NGSS Science and ­Engineering practices (Taylor & Weigel, 2016). • Following current events. Ryan, a high school teacher, guided his students’ use of Twitter to find, follow, and interact with people experiencing significant global, history-making events. Students gain insight into others’ experiences and develop strategies of information literacy to discern bias, fake news, and ideologies (­Chapman & Marich, 2021). For significant global atrocities or calamities, teachers should consider how such interactions might create potential trauma for students and implement strategies to minimize or eliminate them. • Formative assessment. Teachers can have students tweet answers (along with a specific hashtag) to occasional content-related questions to gauge understanding (Becker & Bishop, 2016; Loomis, 2018; Taylor & Weigel, 2016). The archive of the hashtag allows the teacher to examine responses in more detail at a later time. • Bulletin boards. Teachers can make quick, important announcements by setting up hashtags that students and parents can check for late-breaking news or reminders. Van Vooren and Bess (2013) found a significant positive correlation between a teacher’s after-school tweet reminders of homework and tests with middle school students’ academic achievement in science class. • Twitter walls. This use requires users to download an app that makes a visual display of Tweets on a given topic or by Twitter accounts that the user follows. This “wall display of tweets” supports analysis of comments on a given topic, promotes discussion, and helps learners see the applicability of what they are learning in everyday life (Basu, 2013; Marich, 2016). • Support for role playing. Basu (2013) described educators live-tweeting as famous historical figures, and anyone can follow their “events.” For example, the ­Massachusetts Historical Society live-tweeted the life of John Quincy Adams. This makes history come alive for students and encourages discussion. A high school teacher had his students blog and tweet as Enlightenment philosophers, and students reported going beyond memorization by engaging with questions from a global audience (Krutka & Milton, 2013). • Professional learning. As described in Chapter 3, teachers are becoming teacher leaders through networked learning opportunities supported by many social networking and media technologies. Teachers can connect with other teachers

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using their social media handles or following interest-driven hashtags, such as ­#Kinderchat and #STEAM, forming or augmenting their professional learning ­networks (Becker & Bishop, 2016).

Content Curation Social bookmarking, curation, sharing, and aggregator tools allow teachers and learners to collect and organize Internet-based information from various sources into a personal account. Each user creates an online, networked identity and stipulates privacy settings. Most curation resources offer collaboration features in which groups of people can contribute or subscribe to others’ repositories or curated information. All these content curation tools allow for collecting information, but curation activities necessitate that users critically analyze the information to create coherent topical or thematic collections, much like a museum curator. With some guidance by the user, aggregators, such as Pocket and FlipBoard, collect web-based information in one reading area. Teachers use these social curation resources for curriculum, lesson, and activity planning (Schroeder et al., 2019), which reflects teachers’ tendency to turn to colleagues for professional support (Torphy et al., 2020). Research indicates teachers should critically consider the resources they curate. For example, Sawyer et al. (2019) examined the top 500 elementary mathematics pins on Pinterest and found only 2% of the resources involved high cognitive demand activity. Gallagher et al. (2019) and Rodriguez et al. (2020) recommend teachers curate resources with a “pause” for teacher reflection and critical analysis, especially to evaluate resources for their multicultural, racial, and justice orientations. Users can do the following activities with popular curation, bookmarking, and aggregation tools: • Pinterest—Collect (i.e., pins) visual images and organize such pins on a pinboard. • Wakelet—Organize collections of multimedia content and share with students, other teachers, or in private communities. • Pocket—Save web resources from any device to read or review later. • Pearltrees—Organize, explore, and share interest-based web content, photos, videos, files, and notes. • Diigo—Socially catalog and collaborate by adding links, screenshots, and pages; highlighting or adding sticky notes; and tagging information. • FlipBoard—Aggregate digital content into a magazine-type product. • SymbalooEDU—Visually organize web resources and sequence them into lessons using the Symbaloo Learning Paths. CURATION INTEGRATION STRATEGIES  Curation provides a range of integration options for teachers and learners, including the following:

• Content collections. Teachers of all content areas can curate content-specific materials, including yearbook or photography resources (Taylor, 2014), mathematics lessons or related resources (Hu & Torphy, 2016; “Pinterest pages,” 2016), ideas for maker activities (Scheer, 2017), and reading lists. • Photo curation. Parenti (2016) describes the use of curating digital images as comprehension support for struggling readers as they read narrative and informational texts. Through a modeled self-monitoring process, students find images specific to the text type and reading task focus (e.g., character, plot, setting in narrative or people/inventions in informational texts) that will aid the learners’ comprehension that is assessed through a retelling activity. Rosenbloom (2012) describes curating photos of the world in Pinterest to then share them with her students to inspire mathematical inquiries and develop a mathematical lens for examining the world.

228  Chapter 7 • Student research. Students collect and curate web resources as an additional aspect of informational research processes, such as background information, or to collect inspiration for art or photography projects. • Lesson resource planning. Teachers can use tools such as BlendSpace, Symbaloo, Pinterest, and Wakelet to curate learning resources for web-supported, digital lessons. These are helpful for flipped or independent learning pedagogies.

Wikis A wiki is a collection of web pages that encourages collaboration and communication of written ideas by having users contribute or modify content. Wikipedia is the most wellknown wiki with a mission to produce a free encyclopedia that is created, constantly updated, and self-monitored by its users. Students often use Wikipedia for its convenience but realize its inherent credibility issues (Blikstad-Balas, 2016), and teachers and librarians understand the need for explicit instruction regarding the use of Wikipedia as an informational resource (Polk et al., 2015). Librarians often recommend students use Wikipedia to develop background knowledge on a topic before doing more detailed research. Beyond the use of Wikipedia, teachers can establish their own wikis for collaboration in K–12 settings using MediaWiki, which is free open source wiki software available for installation on web servers by IT specialists for those familiar with PHP scripting language. Many LMSs, such as BlackBoard, Canvas, and Moodle, have wikis as one of the resource options built in or as an available learning tool. Collaborative writing apps, such as Google Docs, enable the same kind of collaborative writing functionality of wikis, including revision history and commenting. Research indicates that wiki use in K–12 contexts often involves constructivist pedagogies involving peer writing, comments, and revision activities (Hew & Cheung, 2013) and supports inquiry-based science projects (Lau et al., 2017). For example, ­Portier and Peterson (2016) conducted action research with fifth- and sixth-graders who collaboratively conducted research, jotted notes, and wrote paragraphs about a social studies topic. The researchers/teachers discovered that students were open to revision, revision occurred often (average 72 revisions), and most revision was at the word or phrase level rather than the sentence or paragraph level, but there was imbalance in students’ engagement in revision. In another study, wiki usage was shown to increase motivation, perceived usefulness, and ease of use of wiki for writing among English as a second language (ESL) students (Chen, Chuan, et al., 2015). Research emphasizes the importance of teacher presence in wiki activities, meaning that teachers need to lead students through the student-centered activities with enough support, guidance, assistance, and encouragement toward collaboration (Alghasab, 2016; Eteokleous et al., 2014). WIKI INTEGRATION STRATEGIES  Wikis support multimodal content, such as text,

video, audio, and images, so their uses are quite varied. The following list highlights some common integration approaches: • Collaborative student workspaces. Most integration with students involves them in collaboratively building knowledge toward a common task, such as crossnational, scientific research among high school students (Chia & Pritchard, 2014) and raising awareness of challenges that sea lions face in a Global Classroom ­Project (Devine, n.d.). Some studies, though, show low social presence among learners, meaning that they did not feel the need to cooperate or collaborate online (­Eteokleous et al., 2014; Portier & Peterson, 2016). Teachers should teach students how to use the discussion and commenting tools in the wiki as well as articulate substantive reasons for their use. • Student portfolios. Wikis can support student portfolio development with its easy editing, commenting, and discussion features, which can assist student reflection as well as reviewer feedback.

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• Teacher resource-sharing sites. Teachers have used wikis to collaboratively build new lessons and ultimately share them with teacher peers (e.g., Chen, Jang, et al., 2015). Technology Integration Example 7.4 illustrates a lesson in which students co-create a hypertextual story using wiki technology.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 7.4 

TITLE: Wiki Tales CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Language arts, literacy GRADE LEVELS: 6–8 ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 6—Creative Communicator CCSS: RL.6.2, SL.6.1, SL.7.1(c), W.8.3. DESCRIPTION: Divide students into groups of two or three. Using wikis (your school may have a wiki and there are free wiki sites available, such as MediaWiki), have each group begin by creating a page and collaboratively writing an introduction to a story. The introduction must include enough unique characters so that each group member can focus on at least one. Students should discuss what will happen to these characters and how their stories will diverge and then weave their stories together at the end. Each group member will create individual pages about their chosen character(s) linked to the collaborative group introduction. Encourage students to brainstorm with their group members for ways that they can link back to common pages where their characters interact with each other. Groups can also include images and outside links within their stories that help convey their tale and the personalities of their characters. The project can be extended by having groups try to link their stories to other groups’ stories within the class and/or by having groups comment on each other’s work. SOURCE: Based on the lesson Collaborating, Writing, Linking: Using Wikis to Tell Stories Online at the readwritethink website at http://www .readwritethink.org.

Videoconferencing Videoconferencing is multiway live, web-based communication medium allowing those involved to see, hear, and interact with each other. In Chapter 4, we described how videoconferencing contributes to the development of live web-based content that can be archived. It also facilitates synchronous, communicative, and collaborative interactions between students and others. For example, videoconferencing is often used in the context of language learning programs in which hearing the spoken language is an essential component of instruction (Perez-Hernandez, 2014). Hopper (2014) described using videoconferencing to complete cross-cultural, project-based learning activities with students in Japan, Belarus, and Kenya. Videoconferencing apps, such as Zoom, Skype, Google Meets, Google Hangouts, Microsoft Teams, and Adobe Connect, offer areas for visuals (e.g., presentations, graphics, whiteboard), a list of participants, question posting, closed captioning, and other features. Videoconferences tend to be smaller in size with collaborative participation by all attendees. Videoconferencing is becoming more common when high-speed Internet is available in schools (Raths, 2015). The reliance on it during the COVID-19 pandemic raised equity issues when some families did not have enough Internet bandwidth or connectivity to support it and lost access to learning opportunities. VIDEOCONFERENCING INTEGRATION STRATEGIES  Communication technologies can facilitate interpersonal exchanges in which students communicate with other students, teachers, or experts. Some example activities include:

• Field trips. The Denver Museum of Nature & Science hosts a virtual science academy in which classes using interactive videoconferencing can explore and learn from museum assets without physically visiting.

230  Chapter 7 • Classrooms without walls. Teachers are expanding curriculum activities to involve other communities across the globe. Raths (2015) describes teachers in Alaska who began videoconferencing their classrooms and expanded to larger collaborative activities that involve classrooms in Afghanistan, Israel, Yemen, Palestine, and Ghana. Empatico is another web resource to connect to other classrooms. • Access to courses. Videoconferencing as part of a fully online course allows students, such as those in small or remote districts and who are unable to attend school, access online courses, such as German (Raths, 2015). • Parent–teacher conferences. In the busy lives of parents, options to videoconference can increase communication, sharing, and collaboration between parents and teachers (VCDaily, 2016).

Learning Management Systems and Multi-feature Workspaces To assist teachers in designing and teaching with technologies and communicating and collaborating with colleagues and parents, multifunction systems and workspaces offer students, teachers, administrators, and parents one space, with one password, to access multiple tools and resources that fit their needs. One of the challenges of using a range of different technology resources on different websites, such as those described here and in Chapters 4–6, is the need for students to set up multiple accounts and remember passwords. In contrast, LMSs and multifeature workspaces have one account but offer multiple resources within one system. However convenient, they might not offer a technology resource in their system that matches your problem of practice. Thus, teachers may still have good reason to use resources available separately, outside the system or workspace. LMSs, such as Canvas, Schoology, Seesaw, Edmodo, and Moodle, have been built specifically for educational purposes and many integrate (behind the scenes, invisible to users) with another technology, a student information system (SIS), that holds administrative information such as names of teachers and students, class rosters, and grade sheets. A school or district usually buys a license for an LMS and SIS, and its faculty uses the system’s features to design and deliver instructional activities. School IT staff can set up classes in an LMS with student members for the teachers. ­Information teachers upload, such as assignment grades, can flow into the SIS automatically to create progress reports and report cards. Teachers can also set up courses in an LMS on their own, but for privacy issues it is best if schools and districts oversee them. Google Classroom, a popular environment in K–12 schools, is not technically an LMS, so we call it a multifunction workspace because its environment connects all the Google Workspace resources (e.g., Google Docs, Slides, Sheets, Meet, Calendar, Gmail, Drive, etc.) in one space. It does integrate with some SISs, and Google consistently adds new features. These educational systems and workspaces have become very common, especially after there was widespread adoption during the COVID-19 pandemic. They are useful to support both blended and online learning (see Chapter 8). These online spaces contain many resources for teaching and learning, many of which support collaboration between teachers and students, such as: • Instruction: Creation, organization, and sharing of any type of digital files such as graphics, video, PDFs, websites, and presentations; assignment creation • Assessment: Grading, tests or quizzes, polls, badges, rubrics, portfolio, and ­student-tracking features • Communication: E-mail, discussion forums

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• Collaboration: Videoconferences, wikis, or collaborative writing areas, such as integration with Google Docs, whiteboards, groups • Planning and organization: Calendar, reminders, announcements. In addition to the resources built in to the system or workspace, there may be additional external apps that integrate within the respective systems using a technology called application program interface (API) to connect functionality and data from one program with another. There are hundreds of external apps available for Google Classroom and Canvas. For example, a teacher can share content or activities from the CK–12 website (described in Chapter 4) into their Google Classroom as an assignment or announcement. With other resources, you may share your Google Classroom or Canvas roster with an external app, such as Actively Learn or Flipgrid, and information from those apps will flow back into Google Classroom. Every system or workspace functions differently. For example, Edmodo has features akin to many LMSs but with the aesthetics and some functions of a social network. In a study by Batsila et al. (2014), junior high school teachers used Edmodo frequently, felt that it was easy to use, was motivating for students, and helped teachers greatly with their work. Teachers identified “excellent” features of Edmodo as including a library, online assignments, message posting, quizzes, online interactions, and text/ e-mail. Disadvantages included students forgetting their access codes and their high motivation to use Edmodo leading to other missed responsibilities. In another study, teachers using Edmodo led to the emergence of flipped pedagogy with incorporation of video content (Wallace, 2014). As another example, Seesaw foregrounds students’ abilities to express their learning in multimodal ways that build a student portfolio along the way. Families are invited to support a connected learning community. Seesaw is often used with early learners but not exclusively. Other multifeature collaboration workspaces, such as Slack, Discord, and ­Microsoft Teams have emerged for business settings but may have applicability or uptake in educational contexts. Google recently opened up Google Workspace and Chat to all users, and along with that is evolving an area called Spaces, similar to a Google Chat Room, but with flexible use of Google tools (Bohn, 2021). Common features of these workspaces include: • Instant-messaging chats • Voice calls • Videoconferencing • Topic channels or people-based groups • Calendars • Integration with apps like Google Drive, Microsoft Office, or Box • Filesharing. These workspaces offer flexible, collaborative environments that can support informal groups, such as a school club or book clubs, or more formal groups, like a class community. Moran (2018) followed the development of a digital third space in Slack for ninth-graders and preservice teachers who co-developed multimodal video remixes without meeting face-to-face. Not only did students develop digital literacy, they also developed strong relationships with the teachers. During the COVID-19 pandemic, there was also widespread use of these tools for remote communication and collaboration between colleagues (Michalak & Rysavy, 2020), so they could be used for synchronous and asynchronous support or professional learning in schools. Integration strategies involve both blended and online learning, which is described in Chapter 8.

Pearson eText Video Example 7.5 Notice the ways communication and collaboration with parents has shifted from sending paper newsletters home to inviting parents to see their child’s accomplishments in digital environments.

232  Chapter 7

Digital Making Learning Outcome 7.3  Select digital making strategies that respond to teaching and learning needs or challenges and reflect learning sciences research. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst) In school makerspaces, students learn to design, tinker, inquire, experiment, and build physical and digital complex artifacts, which is referred to as making. Makerspaces have often been established by school libraries as a stationary location for making activities, but they can also be mobile or temporary makerspaces that can be set up in teachers’ classrooms or other school and community locations. The types of materials and technologies in a makerspace also vary widely. They might involve digital fabrication such as 3-D printers and laser cutters, textile materials such as sewing machines or digital embroidery, computing and electronics resources such as computers and circuits, and physical materials such as cardboard, and other found objects. Makerspaces and making activities can be organized as (1) open access where students are free to engage on their own, (2) curriculum-aligned where teachers guide activities that align with the curriculum, or (3) scripted where a maker program leader guides all students in a set project, or any combinations of these (Mersand, 2021). Making lends itself to interdisciplinary activities, but alignment with curriculum and standards and integration into core curriculum has been shown to be difficult (Harron & Hughes, 2018). The heart of making is facilitating students to collaborate, create, innovate, and learn. While there are a host of “unplugged” approaches to making that use no-tech or low-tech (Huang & Looi, 2021), this section focuses on digital making. The benefits of most digital making activities are their ability to support the development of computational thinking, such as skills in abstraction, algorithms, logical thinking, data representations, and problem solving. They also often involve a design process, such as design–make–share (Ajima, 2013), and engage in critical and imaginative thinking (Aldenbashi, 2021). Despite the availability of digital devices and their affordances for creation, children report expending very little time to creating or making their own content (Rideout & Robb, 2019). Watkins (2018) argues that school is often the only place for Black and Latinx youths to develop digital media expertise. Review Table 7.2 for an example design process involved with computer programming. The available resources for digital making are summarized in Table 7.5.

Computer Programming and Coding Code underlies all computational objects, and in some makerspaces, students make physical and digital artifacts that involve computer programming. A growing emphasis for all children to engage in computer programming has surged, possibly because of the perception that coding skills can bring economic prosperity when youth enter the workforce and that it enables youth to use technologies more creatively and critically (Burke, 2016). Yet, only 3–4% of children age 8–18 report enjoying coding “a lot” and only 2–3% report “often” spending time coding. Of those who do code, they code for an average of about 1 hour 15 minutes daily, which is a substantive effort (Rideout & Robb, 2019). Therefore, there is ample need for teachers to create meaningful, enjoyable, and substantive coding opportunities for students. In considering the last 30 years of research and news articles related to efforts to integrate computer science (CS) into K–12 schools, Burke (2016) identified three metaphors representing how schools introduce computer programming, including: 1. As a practical approach to mathematics with roots in Papert’s Logo programming in the 1970s and 1980s (Papert, 1980) 2. As a new literacy, such as computational literacy or simply as another language (coding) for creative expression

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Table 7.5  Digital Making Resources, Software, Functions, and Products Software/Hardware Functions and Features

Resource

Example Software

Computer programming

• Scratch • Tynker • CodeMonkey • Arduino

Drag-and-drop coding, code ­visualizer, user communities

Teacher: Demonstrations, visualizations Students: Representations, games, etextiles

Robotics

• Sphero • LittleBits • Ozobot • Sphero

Programmable, digital, and unplugged versions, modular electronics

Teacher: Demonstrations, examples Students: Robots, digital storytelling

3-D modeling and animation

• FramebyFrame • Blender • iMotion

Computer-aided design, exportable to formats for 3-D printing or web

Teacher: Demonstrations, examples Students: Physical 3-D printed objects, animated films or videos, digital storytelling

Game and app development

• GameMaker Studio 2 • Gamestar Mechanic • Ren’py

Script languages, drag and drop ­coding, tutorials, user communities

Teacher: Demonstrations, examples, simulations Students: Animated games, interactive storytelling, simulation games

Virtual world and augmented reality development

• Minecraft Education Edition • CoSpaces Edu • Metaverse

Drag-and-drop coding, open ­environments, user communities

Teacher: Virtual communities, augmented objects Students: Mathematics concepts, place-based representations, virtual ­objects, augmented tours

Web design and development

• HTML or HTML5 • Java • Python

Script languages

Teacher and students: interactive ­websites, portfolios, mobile apps

3. As technical skills that move learners beyond Microsoft Office to understand how design, computation, and modeling contribute to making computers and the web function. Burke (2016) encourages teachers and schools to monitor the metaphors used in their community and possibly to combine them if doing so is advantageous. For example, a school could begin introductory computer programming using metaphor 1 by introducing a practical application such as Scratch, a drag-and-drop visual programming software program, and metaphor 2 by embedding computer programming within activities such as storytelling and art, which have shown success (Kafai & Burke, 2014). They may then transition to metaphor 3, technical perspectives, by teaching game design and development, as learners become more sophisticated in programming. A prominent finding from research is the deep level of collaboration that occurs among learners as they code, create, and make (e.g., Fields et al., 2015; Wernholm & Vigmo, 2015). For example, extensive online networks exist where students share the same interests and collaboratively work on specific computer programming challenges, such as Scratch’s website and Minecraft YouTube videos. Thus, computer programming should not be perceived as an individual process but as a collaborative, problem-solving learning process. A significant challenge for schools is deciding where to place computer programming in the curriculum, which has remained unresolved (Burke, 2016); thus, it often occurs within a dedicated computer course or as an after-school club or camp (e.g., Alexander & Ho, 2015; Javidi & Scheybani, 2014). This section reviews prominent strategies for introducing K–12 students to computer programming. CODING  Hour of Code is a project to introduce all students to computer science by

engaging them in a 1-hour activity involving coding. Its website has hundreds of tutorials and activities for teachers to adopt to introduce computer science concepts, some of which are “unplugged” and do not even require computers. The global Hour of Code typically occurs in December during Computer Science Education Week (#CSEdWeek), but anyone can host an Hour of Code event at any day or time. Other organizations including Girls Who Code and Black Girls Code encourage girls and girls of color to

Sample Products

234  Chapter 7 learn computer programming. Many organizations or companies, such as Tynker, Khan Academy, MineCraft, and CodeMonkey, also have coding activities that support the goals of Hour of Code with coding games, simulations, drawing, webpage development, and database coding. This event aims to broaden access to coding experience, but it is also optimal for students to have more sustained experiences with computer programming over time. BLOCK-BASED VISUAL PROGRAMMING  Scratch is free, visual-based, drag-anddrop programming software developed at the Massachusetts Institute of T ­ echnology (MIT). It allows those new to coding or computer programming easy entry and scaffolds learners to build interactive stories, games, or animations and share them within a large online community. Students can learn statements, conditions, loops, Boolean logic, variables, random numbers, sequences, operators, parallelism, and lists (­Benton, 2015; Fagerlund et al., 2020). Fields et al. (2015) examined high school students engaged in programming music videos using Scratch and emphasized that the social and collaborative nature of media design and development contributed to students’ learning, evidenced in their designs, in interactive feedback, and in their completed music videos. In another study, Javidi and Scheybani (2014) described high school students who coded in Scratch to build a project that interacts with a Picoboard, a hardware device that allows Scratch coders and their projects to interact with the outside, physical world (as opposed to virtual games or simulations built within Scratch and played on the web). Javidi and Scheybani found that the project led students to increase their understanding of computer programming and gain positive attitudes toward computing. ELECTRONICS AND PROGRAMMING  Several technological platforms, such as

Pearson eText Video Example 7.6 In this video, the teacher describes how students become part of the robotics team. Consider how this school could make changes to make the participation more inclusive.

Arduino, Raspberry Pi, and Makey Makey, allow students to program microcontrollers to respond with programmed actions/outputs. For example, Casey Korder’s third-grade students used an open source Arduino microcontroller circuit board to illuminate an LED light, and fifth-grade students created calculators, mixed color lamps, and a smart nightlight (“Cracking the code,” 2016). Students have developed Arduino-based electronic textiles with the Lilypad Arduino kit (Buechley et al., 2008; Burke, 2016). The Raspberry Pi, a low-cost (~$25), credit card–sized, single-circuit board computer, can be used like any computer and with computer programming activities. For example, Michael Geyer (2014), a high school chemistry teacher, programmed a Raspberry Pi to count by 1s for his lesson demonstrating the magnitude of a mole by estimating the time a computer takes to count to 6.0223. Raspberry Pis boot up from a secure digital card, so students can decide what operating system and other software, such as a web browser, to use to design a customized computing system (Strycker, 2015). Makey Makey circuit boards allow everyday objects to become computer-based input devices (i.e., a touchpad), which interact with the web and can be mashed up with other programming tools, such as Scratch programming, to integrate elements off- and on-screen. Watkins (2017) described students using Makey Makeys to create musical instruments that then provided background sounds or sound effects to correspond with content in literature books. Sánchez González et al. (2017) described how middle school and high school girls designed and created an interactive cell using a Makey Makey; when a learner pressed on a physical organelle (made with recycled materials and circuits), the computer provided more information about the organelle functions.

Robotics As mentioned in Chapter 1, many K–12 schools are establishing a robotics engineering curriculum as an after-school extracurricular activity, part of a science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) curriculum, or an activity within makerspaces.

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BOX 7.1

DIGITAL EQUITY AND JUSTICE

Making Equity Educational innovations that are committed to deeper forms of engaged learning with technologies, such as making and makerspaces, are still susceptible to forms of inequity when put into practice. Most spacemakers, leaders who create makerspaces in K–12 schools, hold goals of creating an inclusive environment for all children, such as exposing girls to coding and engineering, providing opportunities for hands-on making activities for students with disabilities, and increasing making participation by multilingual learners and students with lower achievement (Harron & Hughes, 2018; Martin et al., 2018). However, teachers and school leaders recognize inequitable enactments in practice, such as historically male-heavy enrollment in computing and engineering classes, hands-on making activities reserved only for advanced courses, or making offered and makerspaces open only as an after-school enrichment opportunity. Equity practices should be developed locally with a community of students, teachers, leaders, parents, and community members (Martin et al., 2018). Practitioners have tried to design more equitable practices through the following strategies in their local contexts: ■

Establishing early exposure to hands-on making, such as in elementary school, in order to develop creative interests and experience using materials, tools, and digital resources as early as possible.

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■

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Developing a range of thematic contexts for making, such as a coding and fashion club where children can make etextiles. Varying access points to making so as to avoid systemic exclusion; for example, if making only occurs in sixth grade, students in seventh and eighth grade are likely to stay out of the space, which limits continuity. If making is only a reward for completing assigned schoolwork, students who use all their time to diligently do required work may be systematically excluded. Supporting heterogeneous integration of thematic clubs or groups. Some schools have established ­gender-based clubs, such as a circuit girl club, but create opportunities for such groups to have crossover challenges or experiences with other students, such as boys or children from robotics and textile-themed groups. Positioning hands-on practices as assistive to communicative expression, as it can support language expansion for multilingual learners and nonverbal expressions through tactile or digital work. Diversifying the types of projects and roles student makers can do in makerspaces; for example, a long, big project may dissuade some students, so allow and encourage smaller projects. Some students may prefer supportive roles like helping or observational roles to begin participating.

Students assemble robots, program them with code, and control them via various mobile technologies. Integrations between programming, circuit boards (e.g., Arduino), and robots (e.g., Hummingbird robots, LittleBits) are common. Although robotics often is situated as an extracurricular school activity, Bill Burton (2014), a science teacher, provided a detailed description of the engineering practices his fourthgrade students engaged in to solve a “tightrope” problem in which they had to build a robot to move along a rope and retrieve and drop a suspended ball. Thus, robotics activities can be situated within STEM curricular areas. There are many resources, such as VEX robotics programs, for curriculum, products, and challenges or competitions. Using robotics and sensors, students can build a system to analyze water supply quality through data analysis. Sphero and Ozobot provide entry-level experiences to robotics and coding. Regarding increased inclusive participation of girls in robotics, Veltman and colleagues’ (2012) youth outreach activities yielded the following strategies: • Focus on themes rather than challenges • Combine art and engineering • Support storytelling • Offer exhibitions rather than competitions. NASA supports robotics education through the Robotics Alliance Project, which includes a list of curriculum, competitions, and internships appropriate to K–5, 6–8, and 9–12 grade levels.

Pearson eText Video Example 7.7 As students program a robot to drive along a path they set, a teacher discusses with them the mathematical angles of the turns the robot will be required to make.

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3D Modeling and Animation Students can begin to engage in computer-aided design with BlocksCAD, webbased, 3-D modeling computer-aided design (CAD) software for designing 3-D objects to be printed on 3-D printers. SketchUp Make is another free 3-D modeling software for developing models for 3-D printers or for building digital games and environments. There are also warehouses of 3-D objects to inspire or adapt into new creations. Blender is an open source 3-D creation software program for building models and animation. Lee (2015) examined how fifth-grade students used high-speed cameras and stop-motion animation, such as FramebyFrame, to understand human biomechanics, and results indicated that the students developed more accurate scientific representations. Other animation tools include Stop Motion Studio, Clayframes, iMotion, Life Lapse, I Can Animate, and PicPac Stop Motion & TimeLapse.

Game and App Design and Development Some teachers create opportunities for students to design and create their own video games or apps using software such as GameMaker Studio 2, Gamestar Mechanic, Scratch, and Alice. The design process involves students in using multiliteracies, such as storytelling, script writing, drawing, animating, developing computer programming skills, and engaging in computational thinking. For example, Chen and Chuang (2021) followed high school students who created digital story games in the context of civics education using Ren’py visual game engine software. Students who worked in small groups developed critical thinking, communication, problem-solving, and media literacy skills. Ren’py employs a script language as well as Python. Alexander and Ho (2015) describe a 2-week summer program in which secondary students engaged in handson, experiential learning to create a 3-D game using tools including Adobe ­Photoshop, Maya, and Unity. At the program’s completion, researchers found that students had learned the complexity and multidisciplinarity of game design and development, storytelling elements such as narrative and character development, working with 2-D and 3-D art, peer communication and collaboration, gaming theory and technical skills, problem solving, and conceptual framing. Developing a detailed process for making games is important for teachers and students, alike (Alexander & Ho, 2015; Watkins, 2018). Watkins (2018) describes a lost opportunity for Black and Latinx students to engage in deep learning when they were enrolled in a game design and development elective course in a high school because the school created a low-resourced context with low-level game design tools and no coding or computer science courses and the teacher, though supportive and enthusiastic, created a curriculum-poor learning environment with no curriculum, plan, handouts, lectures, textbooks, or expectations. An interestdriven game design experience does not mean students can learn independently with no instructional or curricular guidance.

Building in Virtual Worlds Games, such as Sims or Minecraft, allow learners to build virtual worlds within a multiplayer, online game environment. Sims 4 is a life simulation game in which users design their life and can explore the virtual community. In Minecraft, often referred to as a digital 3-D sandbox, players place square blocks to build objects in the world and use graphics, images, and symbols to enhance the world they built. Minecraft is an open environment with few rules and devoid of traditional game features such as ­levels and points. Minecraft: Education Edition is a similar environment with features supportive of school-based learning and offers a Code Builder extension that allows

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students to create even more through coding. Youths’ creations in Minecraft have been shown to be social and collaborative based on the examination of the profuse knowledge making and knowledge sharing that occurs within SNSs, especially on YouTube (Wernholm & Vigmo, 2015). The educators in this video as well as in other studies (e.g., Marcon & Faulkner, 2016) emphasize how games like Minecraft bridge interests from outside school to inside school. A review of studies reveals that students who use Minecraft have increased motivation, employ creativity, develop digital literacy, use communication and collaboration skills, and assume leadership roles (Baek et al., 2020; Hewett et al., 2020). Similar to the issue with game development, the teacher’s role in preparedness to guide students is crucial for successful use of Minecraft for deep and curricular-related learning (Baek et al., 2020; Callaghan, 2016). Few research studies have examined the educational impact of Sims. However, Méndez and colleagues (2014) examined 12- to 13-year-olds who played Sims 3 along with reflective writing in an online community, which researchers found supported collaborative learning, such as identifying and developing solutions to problems. M ­ onjelat et al. (2012) found that secondary students who used Sim City Creator engaged in problem-solving processes with support of their teacher and in-game scaffolds, facilitating their abilities to create in-game representations. Both studies emphasized the importance of collaboration, teacher presence, and scaffolding. There are also student-friendly programming environments for creating virtual reality (VR) that can be used with head-mounted displays (HMDs) or desktop computers. A-Frame is an HTML programming environment. CoSpaces Edu allows VR (and AR) creation on the web or tablets with or without programming. With these tools, students can program 360 photos, 3-D scenes, architecture or scenes, visual experiments, and interactive VR. A 360-degree camera can be useful for VR development. The following ideas for integrating virtual world building games into the curriculum (Minecraft, 2017) include: • Exploring geometric shapes or algebraic patterns • Replicating famous historical places that no longer exist • Creating visual poems that players can walk through • Recreating literary scenes (e.g., The Outsiders) and personalized textual analysis (Marlatt, 2018a, 2018b).

Building Augmented Reality Augmented reality (AR) refers to the combined hardware and software platform that creates a computer-generated environment in which a real-life scene is overlaid with information, such as images, videos, sounds, 3-D models, animations, or text, which enhances our uses of it. Mobile phone apps can engage with the AR elements. Studies reveal that the use of AR-enhanced learning experiences has increased or maintained learning outcomes, such as in vocabulary learning (Santos et al., 2016), geometry (Lin et al., 2015), ecological education (Huang et al., 2016), skill tasks for students with autism (Cihak et al., 2016), and place-based social studies (Johnson et al., 2017). Yet learners can move from consuming AR to designing and making AR, which yield multimodal creations that develop higher-order thinking (Bower et al., 2014). Designing and building AR is supported through systems including Metaverse, ARIS, Apple’s Reality Composer and Converter, Adobe Aero, Overly, ZapBox, AR Makr, Zapworks WebAR, and Blippbuilder. The biggest challenge is that teachers must have expertise in developing or leading students to develop AR (Bower et al., 2014). Technology Integration ­Example 7.5 introduces students’ learning through designing AR for a sculpture garden.

Pearson eText Video Example 7.8 In this video, educators describe the educational benefits of using Minecraft in education. https://youtu.be/hl9ZQiektJE

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TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 7.5 

TITLE: Augmented Reality Sculpture Park CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Art, technology, science GRADE LEVELS: Middle to high school ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 3—Knowledge Constructor; Standard 4—Innovative Designer; Standard 5—­Computational Thinker; Standard 6—Creative Communicator; Standard 7—Global Collaborator NATIONAL VISUAL ARTS STANDARDS: Presenting, responding NGSS SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PRACTICES: Ask questions (S&EP1); develop and use models (S&EP2); use computational thinking (S&EP5); design solutions (S&EP6); communicate information (S&EP8). STL STANDARDS: Engineering design (STL9); the role of troubleshooting, research, and development; invention and innovation; experimentation in problem solving (STL10); application of the design process (STL11) DESCRIPTION: Collaborate with a local sculpture garden or other outdoor arts-based environment. Students work in dyads or small groups and choose a sculpture (or other artwork) on which to focus their augmented reality enhancements. Students then examine the physical sculpture and research the artist, history, and sculpture development. After an introduction to AR technologies and the types of the enhancements that they might use, such as videos, animations, audio, links, surveys, or commentaries, the group creates a design prototype for the AR overlays. After presenting the prototype to the class and sculpture garden directors, the group revises the design and confirms the AR overlay features. The group develops the AR multimedia elements, such as videos, images, and text, using a range of other technical tools, such as iMovie and PhotoShop. Using Aurasma, they finalize their AR overlays that are then available to the general public who visited the sculptures. SOURCE: Based on Bower, M., Howe, C., McCredie, N., Robinson, A., & Grover, D. (2014). Augmented reality in education – Cases, places and potentials. Educational Media International, 51(1), 1–15.

The following is a range of curricular integration ideas that emerged from an array of resources that position the students as AR creators: • Create science games with TaleBlazer Editor from MIT (Klopfer & Sheldon, 2010). • Create a school-based simulated mystery that requires investigation with QR-coded augmented clues, similar to School Scene Investigators or Mystery at the Lake (ARIS Technologies) (Bressler, 2015; Media Cognition & Learning Research Group, 2017). • Create overlays for significant objects (e.g., sculptures in a garden) (Bower et al., 2014) • Make AR picture books or visual poems with Layar.

Web Design and Development In addition to website development described in Chapter 6, students can engage in more complex web design and development. While professional programs like Adobe Dreamweaver generate code automatically, students can learn web authoring languages in order to design beyond WYSIWYG apps. Programming languages often used in web development include Hypertext Markup Language (HTML and HTML 5), Java, and others. Programming languages for coding apps are Java and Python. WEB PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES  Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is the

Internet standard for formatting and displaying web pages. HTML 5 is the latest revision of the HTML standard. Java is a high-level programming language developed by Sun Microsystems. A language similar to C++, it was originally developed for general use but has become popular because of its ability to allow users to create interactive graphic and animation activities on web pages. Java was once extremely popular because it made web page features such as animations and special effects, graphics and buttons, interactive displays, and web data collection forms possible. JavaScript is an

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object-oriented scripting language that is client side, meaning that it is implemented as part of a web browser. JavaScript and other programming languages, such as Java and C++, are used to create dynamic websites. With the explosion of mobile devices, many computer science courses have begun app development. Depending on the device on which the mobile app will run, it can be programmed in Python, Java, C++, Ruby, JavaScript, or combinations of these. WEB DEVELOPMENT STEPS  The following seven steps offer guidance for efficient

website authoring for content and design. 1. Review existing websites. Review other websites to look for design ideas. This is an important part of the learning process of communicating digitally. Even experienced designers spend a great deal of time viewing websites to learn and understand how to display information effectively. 2. Wireframe or storyboard. Planning and designing a website is the most difficult and important—and most frequently neglected—of all the steps. Most people want to get right to the fun of development, but professional media creators have learned that this kind of planning, such as wireframing, storyboarding, or mocking up a blueprint for what should appear on each page and how the pages will work together, saves time in the long run. To do this step, map out the pages in terms of functions, giving a general idea of content on each page and showing how users navigate from one page to another. A useful resource for accomplishing this step is cognitive mapping software such as Inspiration or sticky notes in Jamboard to represent the web pages. Storyboards should include sketches of information, navigation elements, photos, and details on other graphic elements on each page. 3. Develop pages and media elements. Using the wireframe, develop your individual pages and create all media sources by inserting the interactive elements, media, links, and any other features you want on your site. 4. Add navigation links. After developing individual pages, add navigation links that connect pages together into a functional site. The use of storyboards is also helpful at this stage. 5. Preview and revise. Developers should always test how the website looks in multiple web browsers and on mobile devices as they develop it. Many development programs have a built-in preview system, but it is essential to preview the site to observe how it will work when it is published on the web. 6. Publish. For others to see the newly created website, upload your web content to a web hosting server. Everyone remembers website URL addresses that are simple and reflect the content of the website. Website developers can purchase a domain name that is simple and easily remembered and reflects the website’s content. Website domain names can be purchased at numerous places, such as Network Solutions, GoDaddy, and Register.com. 7. Monitor, revise, and maintain the site. The best websites are those that are updated regularly based on user feedback and the continuing insights of the developer. User feedback can be obtained from interactive forms built into the page, through inviting e-mailed comments, and through data analytics, such as Google Analytics. MULTIMEDIA RESOURCES FOR THE SITE  Websites may need media resources for

aesthetic or content purposes. Many of the media resources introduced in this book, such as audio, video, photographs or images, and text, can be used within websites such as the following: • Audio: Background music, sound effects, podcasts, music examples • Video: Live webcams, screencasting, demonstrations, lectures, videoconferences

240  Chapter 7 • Photographs and images: Original photographs, stock photos, Creative Commons licensed photos, historical graphics or photos, illustrations, cartoons, infographics, animations, charts, visualizations • Text: Composed text, documents, graphics, titles, definitions, links. Teacher and student web developers can leverage perspectives from multiple ­disciplines to contribute to better websites. Visual arts and music play major roles in the effectiveness of websites. As teachers and students gain more knowledge in the theory and the aesthetics of music, sound, and art, they will use these resources more productively in the authoring process, ultimately enhancing the quality of their media development. Many principles of desktop publishing also apply to web design. When students first see the array of graphics and sound options available, they typically use so many colors, graphics, and sounds that they overshadow the message. For video products, skills are needed in effective ways to illustrate concepts by using motion and camera effects. Authors also learn how to edit video sequences and apply print and animated effects in their video projects. WEB HOSTING SITES  Once complete, a website requires hosting on a web server. The documents containing the code must be uploaded to a web server, a computer connected to the Internet that uses software, such as Apache, to send the coded files out to the web and respond to user requests, such as interactive features like playing videos or collecting information from web forms. A school or district can have a web server or contract with a web hosting company to provide this service, such as GoDaddy hosting or DreamHost. Some hosting platforms, such as Wix, also provide web development tools.

Integration Strategies for Digital Making Common qualities of making and makerspaces include the commitment to interestdriven, playful, and collaborative learning that is tolerant of trial, error, and revision (Oliver, 2016a). Yet, such learning does not always align with the formal, standardsdriven, and assessment-heavy curriculum and instruction existing in K–12 schools (Harron & Hughes, 2018; Oliver, 2016a, 2016b). Given this context, we suggest the following integration strategies as teachers build making into their repertoires: • Develop a vision. Suggest school leaders, classroom teachers, parents, students, and community members develop a vision and understanding of the goals for the makerspace to be developed. How open will it be? How aligned with curriculum? What kinds of resources and materials will exist in it and how will they be replenished? Who is the leader of the makerspace(s)? Ensure your makerspace location and materials match the vision. • Bridge out-of-school experiences with in-school makerspaces. Teachers and ­leaders should take great strides to understand students’ out of school interests and digital experiences so as to lay a foundation for creating in-school making contexts as aligned as possible to the inherent informal, interest-driven goals of making culture. While the content may be academic and standards aligned, the context for its use can be a maker project that connects with students’ home and community interests, such as bicycling, playing computer games, or photography and art. • Interdisciplinary learning. Merge humanities, STEM, and the arts in interestdriven making activities. Use problems of practice within subject areas to guide the design of an interdisciplinary lesson. For example, students in English language arts can develop stop-motion animated original stories or interpretations of published stories they have read. Students in science can build models of earthquakes using LittleBits vibration, buzzers, and a range of sensors.

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• Offer leveled experiences. Develop a plan that engages learners at ­introductory (e.g., LittleBits) to more advanced levels (e.g., 3-D printing or programming ­Raspberry Pis), depending on their needs and interests. • Establish sustainable sources of materials. Many making projects can take advantage of used materials, such as old electronics or computers, to deconstruct for learning or use for testing apps or materials for building and creating. • Guide and facilitate learning. Create opportunities for students to learn ­individually but also establish guided and collaborative learning by knowledgeable others that could involve teachers, peers, parents, or community members. • Adopt multiple approaches to assessment. Making involves such a wide range of skills, competencies, and outcomes that teachers will need to diversify their assessment approaches and topics. Some can include portfolio, reflection, checklists, data and data visualizations, designs, and rubrics. Topics can include physical skills with materials; soft skills such as collaboration efforts, planning and design, and persistence; and content knowledge in aligned subject areas.

CHAPTER 7 SUMMARY The following is a summary of the main points covered in this chapter. 1. Digital Communications • E-mail exchanges are multimedia messages between or among individuals or small groups; listservs and group e-mails store all group members’ e-mails as one mailing list and members use one e-mail to communicate with everyone simultaneously. • Text and instant messaging allow users to send and receive textual and multimedia messages immediately in several kinds of Internet-enabled programs or devices for general use or specifically for educational purposes. • Calendar and scheduling apps allow asynchronous communication and reminders of appointments. • Audio and video communication can be developed, stored, and shared in the form of pod- and vodcasts, films, and screencasts. 2. Digital Collaboration • Social networking and media sharing websites give members a space in which they can create a personal profile, contribute content, and connect and interact with others. Integration strategies include communicating with parents and community members, collaborating and commenting on student work, and professional learning and sharing. • Blogs are websites for discussing a topic or issue. Integration strategies include engaged writing, collaboration in content area topics, formative

assessments, communication among teacher communities of practice, increased interaction with parents and community members, and updates and insights on education topics. • Microblogs are social media, short-form communication, and collaboration channels. Integration strategies include sharing classroom learning, resource collections, mentors or experts, following current events, formative assessment, bulletin boards, ­Twitter walls, role playing, and professional learning. • Content curation tools facilitate collection, organization, and sharing of Internet-based information. Integration strategies include content collections, photo curation, student research, and lesson resource planning. • Wikis are modifiable web pages. Integration strategies include collaborative student workspaces, student portfolios, and teacher resource sharing. • Videoconferencing is a multiway interactive communication medium that allows those involved to see, hear, and interact with each other. Integration strategies include field trips, learning beyond the walls of the classroom, access to specialized courses, and parent–teacher conferences. • Learning management systems (LMSs) and multifeature workspaces offer users one online environment that offers multiple tools and resources for communication, collaboration, and learning. ­Integration strategies include both blended and online learning.

242  Chapter 7 3. Digital Making • Making involves students designing, tinkering, inquiring, experimenting, and building physical and digital artifacts. Making often uses a design process and develops computational thinking skills. • Computer programming allows students to ground mathematics learning, learn new literacies, and develop technical, computational thinking, and design skills. Common approaches to introducing K–12 students to computer programming include coding, visual programming, and combining electronics and programming. • Robotics involves students building physical robots and coding instructions to control the robots’ functions. • Students can design 2-D and 3-D models using computer-aided design, graphics programs, and

animation or 3-D software. Some 3-D objects can be printed as physical objects using 3-D printers. • A range of programming apps support the development of video games, playful mobile apps, virtual worlds, and virtual and augmented reality. • Websites can be developed by programming in HTML and HTML 5, Java, JavaScript, VRML, Python, C++, Ruby, or a combination. Websites include a range of media resources and developers can leverage perspectives from music and art, graphic design principles, and video design for web design. • Integration strategies for digital making include developing a vision, bridging out-of-school and in-school experiences, supporting interdisciplinary learning, offering leveled experiences, establishing a supply of materials, guiding and facilitating learning, and adopting multiple assessment approaches.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP Apply What You Learned In this chapter, you learned about resources for digital communication, collaboration, and making. Now apply your understanding of these concepts by completing the following activities: • Reread Ms. Aklhouri’s Creative Writing and Making ­lesson at the beginning of this chapter. Pay close attention to Step 3 of the Technology Integration Planning (TIP) model where she identifies the technological possibilities for her problem of practice: getting students to engage in active, creative, and collaborative language learning. Using your knowledge about communication, collaboration, and making resources introduced in this chapter, generate at least one new technological possibility for targeting Ms. Aklhouri’s problem of practice. • Review how Ms. Aklhouri RATified the lesson in Step 5 of the TIP model as represented in Table 7.1. Use the RAT Matrix to analyze the role(s) and relative advantage that your new technological possibilities (identified in the last step) would have in the lesson. You must reflect on the roles that your identified technological possibilities play as replacement, amplification, and/or transformation of instruction, student learning, and/or curriculum. Do you feel that your proposed technology would provide relative advantage? Pearson eText Artifact 7.1: The RAT Matrix

Technology Integration Lesson Planning: Evaluating Lesson Plans Complete the following exercise using Technology ­Integration Examples 7.1–7.5, any lesson plan you find on the web, or one provided by your instructor. a. Locate lesson ideas—Identify three lesson plans that focus on any of the resources you learned about in this chapter, such as: • E-mail or listservs • Text and instant messaging • Calendar or scheduling • Audio and video development • Social networking and media sharing • Blogs and microblogs • Content curation • Wikis • Videoconferencing • Learning management systems and multifeature workspaces • Computer programming • Robotics • 2-D animation and 3-D models • Video games, mobile apps, virtual worlds • Virtual and augmented reality • Website design and development. b. Evaluate the lessons—Use the Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist and the RAT Matrix to evaluate each of the lessons you found. Based on the evaluation

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and your RATification of the lessons, would you adopt these lessons in the future? Why or why not? Pearson eText Artifact 7.2: The Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist

Pearson eText Artifact 7.1: The RAT Matrix

Technology Integration Lesson Planning: Creating Lesson Plans with the TIP Model Review how to implement the TIP model (see Figure 3.4 in Chapter 3) for technology integration planning and use Ms. Aklhouri’s lesson Creative Writing and Making in this chapter as a model. Create your own technology-­ supported lesson that uses web-based resources for communication, collaboration, design, creation, and making by completing the following activities: a. Describe Phase 1, Lead from Enduring Problems of Practice: • What is the problem of practice or main content challenge in your lesson? • What are the technology resources that your students, their families, you, your school, and your community could bring as assets to the lesson? • What are the technological possibilities for helping to solve the identified problem of practice? Identify the technology(ies) you will integrate into the lesson to ensure that you have the skills and

resources you need to solve the problem. What integration strategies will you use in this lesson? b. Describe Phase 2, Design and Teach the Technology ­Integration Lesson: • What are the objectives of the lesson plan? • How will you assess your students’ accomplishment of the objectives? • What integration strategies will you use in this lesson plan? • What is the relative advantage of using the technology(ies) in this lesson? • How would you prepare the learning environment? c. Describe Phase 3, Evaluate, Revise, and Share: • What strategies and/or instruments would you use to evaluate the success of this lesson in your classroom in order to determine any needed revision needs? • Add lesson descriptors—Create descriptors for your new lesson (e.g., grade level, content and topic areas, technologies used, ISTE standards for students). • Save your lesson plan with all its descriptors and TIP model notes and share with your peers, teacher, and others. When you use your new lesson with students, be sure to assess it using the Technology Impact Checklist. Pearson eText Artifact 7.3: Technology Impact Checklist

CHAPTER 8

Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter and completing the learning activities, you should be able to: 8.1 Describe the characteristics, benefits, challenges, and integration

strategies of blended learning models for relevant instructional ­situations. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—­Facilitator; 7—Analyst) 8.2 Describe the characteristics, benefits, challenges, and ­integration

strategies of online learning models for relevant instructional ­situations. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—­Facilitator; 7—Analyst) 8.3 Identify tools, strategies, and procedures to teach and build an

online course. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—­Facilitator; 7—Analyst)

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN ACTION:

Virtual Health GRADE LEVEL: High school CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Health Education LENGTH OF TIME: One semester

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Phase 1  Lead from Enduring Problems of Practice Step 1: Identify problems of practice (POPs) One state’s department of education recently mandated that all eighth-graders take a health education course. It ­provided a scope and sequence for the curriculum, standards and objectives, and a written exam each student had to pass to receive credit. However, it left the format of the course up to individual school districts. District administrators contacted Ms. Haas, the district’s health and physical education curriculum specialist, to discuss this ­challenge; they knew they didn’t have enough teachers in each district middle school certified to teach health ­education, ­especially in the rural schools, and many of the smaller schools had few eighth-grade students.

Step 2: Assess technological resources of students, families, teachers, the school, and the community The district was large in that it covered 3000 square miles and had a number of rural schools with few students. In the last decade, the district had used federal funds to establish high-speed Internet access and robust computer labs in all its schools. The community was also supportive of web access, so the district established mobile Wi-Fi hot spots on buses that were parked overnight in rural communities, but not all students had Wi-Fi-supported digital devices. Ms. Haas had taken two online courses in her master’s-degree program and knew other teachers in the district who had taken other online courses. Most of the PE/health teachers were moderately technology-savvy but tended to not use much technology in their courses.

Step 3: Identify technological possibilities and select an integration strategy Ms. Haas had never developed an online course, but she thought that it might be a possibility for this new required course. They could combine students from across schools into online courses taught by the two certified health educators in the district. They planned to offer it as a supplemental online course using an interactive, asynchronous online model, and students could access the course either at home or in school and could have maximum flexibility on when they finished it. The district agreed and asked Ms. Haas to oversee the task of locating or creating the online health education course. She reviewed three such courses available from various virtual school providers. She especially liked one that had been created by a well-known virtual school in the United States, but it did not exactly match the state’s required curriculum. The district gave Ms. Haas a small budget to have teachers work with her on revising the course, so she selected two science teachers who had taught courses for the virtual school and who were familiar with the health education curriculum. She knew she would be learning a lot in this project, but she felt confident that her team could develop a quality course. Ms. Haas and her team compared the online course from the course provider with the state-mandated health education course curriculum and found that two of the five units would have to be modified to match the state’s ­requirements. They liked the social constructivist–based interactive activities in all the units, which included: ■ ■ ■

■ ■

Small-group discussions on health-related issues Exercises to do after viewing brief videos of guests including health experts, doctors, and other children A collaborative wiki-building activity for students to gather and analyze various kinds of information for children and young people from online sites Apps to download and use to support healthy lifestyles A final small-group project to develop healthy living plans.

Their revisions would require developing some additional activities and posting them in the course as well as changing course grading criteria to meet the new assessment strategies.

Phase 2  Design and Teach the Technology Integration Lesson Step 4: Decide on learning objectives and assessments The state had already provided standards, objectives, and an end-of-course assessment. Ms. Haas and her team decided that in addition to ascertaining the number of students dropping or completing the course and failing or passing the final exam, they also wanted to gauge progress in various parts of the course so they could determine which (Continued)

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topics presented the most difficulties. They also wanted to measure student and teacher attitudes toward the class and its online format. The outcomes and measures that they decided on were as follows: Outcome: Students will achieve passing grades on the end-of-course exam. ■ ■

Objective—At least 90% of all students taking the course will achieve a passing score (70% or better) on the final exam. Assessment—Graded exams.

Outcome—Students will achieve passing grades on unit tests. ■ ■

Objective—At least 90% of all students taking the course will achieve a passing score (70% or better) on each unit test. Assessment—Graded tests

Outcome—Teachers will have positive attitudes toward teaching the course. ■ ■

Objective—A majority of teachers will have a positive attitude toward teaching this online course. Assessment—Likert-scale attitude survey

Outcome—Students will have positive attitudes toward the course. ■ ■

Objective—A majority of the students will have a positive attitude toward learning course material in an online format. Assessment—Likert-scale attitude survey

Step 5: Determine relative advantage: RATify the planned lesson Ms. Haas and her team determined the relative advantage by RATifing the new course plan. Table 8.1 shows how offering the online supplemental course impacted aspects of instruction, student learning, and curriculum. The video guests and the apps were aspects that could be implemented in a blended course, but they noted them in the RAT matrix. They felt the online course did not change the curriculum but would amplify students’ learning and require restructuring the teacher’s role. The team members were interested to see whether the online health course was successful, and they felt there was enough relative advantage to offer it.

Step 6: Prepare the learning environment and teach lesson Ms. Haas knew that preparing parents and students as well as schools for the requirements of the course would be key to the success of the program. The team’s preparation tasks included: ■

■

■

■

■

Development of new activities. New learning activities were created, field-tested with students, and added to the course space. Preparation for parents. Ms. Haas wrote a letter to the superintendent to sign and send out to principals for distribution to parents of eighth-grade students who would be taking the health course. It described the reason for the course, the new online format, and how the district would prepare and support the students to be successful in the course. Preparation for students. The teachers created an orientation to online learning that all eighth-grade students would take prior to being allowed to register for the course. The team based their orientation on others they had located and tailored it to review the online course space they would be using. Course handbooks. To make sure everyone had a summary of course content, procedures, and FAQs in a format they were used to (i.e., print), the team developed a handbook and e-mailed copies to each teacher and principal. They also posted it on the online course space and sent printed copies to each of the computer labs. Computer lab scheduling. The team decided that schools should provide a class period in their computer labs dedicated to students who were taking the course. Facilitators would staff each lab to help students with

Table 8.1  Ms. Haas’s RATified Lesson Instruction

Learning

Replacement Technology is a different means to same end.

Curriculum • Online curriculum meets required standards-based health content.

Amplification Technology increases or ­intensifies efficiency, productivity, access, ­capabilities, but the tasks stay ­fundamentally the same.

• Expert guests on video re-reviewable 24/7

• Students have 24/7 access to course activities. • Students interact with students outside their school (but within the district).

Transformation Technology redefines, restructures, reorganizes, changes, and creates novel solutions.

• One teacher teaches more students

• Students use real-life apps to implement health choices.

Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments 247

■

any problems they might encounter. Students would also be required to take the end-of-course exam in the school’s computer lab. Personnel training. Teachers and lab facilitators were brought in for hands-on training on how to support ­students and troubleshoot common problems they would encounter.

Phase 3  Evaluate, Revise, and Share Step 7: Evaluate lesson results and impact The first time that the course was offered, students were asked to complete a required midcourse feedback instrument to gather comments on what was and was not working well. From these comments, it became apparent that some students were not prepared for the amount of time they had to spend completing some assignments and had not allocated their time very well. Also, some links were not working consistently, and some students experienced problems that facilitators seemed ill prepared to handle. Links were corrected immediately. At the end of the semester, the team gathered and reviewed the midsemester comments, unit test results, and end-of-course evaluations.

Step 8: Make revisions based on results From the midcourse comments and attitude surveys, it was apparent that facilitator training had been inadequate, so adjustments were made to the instructor and facilitator preparation to allow additional hands-on training. The two online teachers reported positive attitudes but also expressed the need for good facilitators because the teachers had about 60 students in each class. The single greatest problem was that approximately 25% of all students had either not entered the course space or had stopped posting and completing assignments after the first unit; these students either dropped or failed the course. Of those students who persisted, unit test grades met the specified criteria in all but the final unit, where it was clear that additional time had been needed. The design team felt that more emphasis and preparation on time management requirements had to be added to the orientation to prepare students for taking an online course. They also decided to have a follow-up procedure in place for students who did not “appear” by the end of the first week or failed to post any required assignment. Teachers were to e-mail students, call them at home if they received no reply within a week, and report all follow-up procedures and results to Ms. Haas.

Step 9: Share lessons, revisions, and outcomes with other peer teachers The design team met with the online teachers, a few students, and administrators to share what they had learned in the first semester. All felt the course was worth continuing, and they decided to implement the new measures for the second semester and review data again at that time.

The following Pearson eText artifacts support completion of the Application Exercises, if assigned by your instructor. Pearson eText Artifact 8.1: The RAT Matrix

Pearson eText Artifact 8.2: Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist

Pearson eText Artifact 8.3: Technology Impact Checklist

Pearson eText Artifact 8.4: Maneliski RATification

Pearson eText Artifact 8.5: Maneliski Lesson Evaluation

Introduction All the collective knowledge developed from Chapters 1–7 prepares a teacher to design ­technology-supported instruction and digital learning opportunities for the classroom. This chapter provides the framework for such design work. We introduce two forms of digital learning: blended learning and online learning, also known as virtual learning. Many terms have been used to describe different types of online or partly online educational contexts in schools. This terminology is confusing because the same terms are often used to refer to different approaches (Molnar et al., 2021). See Table 8.2 for the range of terms used across the continuum of instruction. The digital resources described in this text—such as web-based content, instructional software, and resources for design, analysis, creation communication, collaboration, and making—provide the digital content or online modalities for blended or online learning experiences. The designs for blended or online learning that are most likely

248  Chapter 8

Table 8.2  Key Terms Across the Continuum of In-Person, Blended, and Online Instruction and Learning Continuum

Instruction/Learning Description

Other Terms Used

In-Person Learning

Students attend a physical school and classroom full time (5 days/week) and do not use any online materials in their learning.

Face-to-face learning Nondigital learning Traditional instruction Brick-and-mortar

Students attend a physical school and classroom full time (5 days/week) and use some online materials in their learning.

Digital learning Hybrid learning Inverted learning Flipped classroom

Some portion of students attend a physical classroom using some online materials in their learning with Teacher “A” physically ­present; simultaneously, another portion of students located ­physically ­distant from the school classroom learn through fully online ­resources with Teacher “A” who is physically distant from the online learners.

HyFlex model Remote learning Hybrid learning Concurrent teaching Co-seating

Students take all online courses that are taught 100% fully online with an online instructor who is physically distant from the student. The online instruction can be synchronous or asynchronous and teacher guided or self-paced.

Distance education Virtual learning (Emergency) Remote learning/teaching Cyber learning

Blended Learning

Fully online learning

to transform learning prioritize social constructivist and student-centered instruction (­Powell et al., 2015). Some designs capitalize on ways in which technology can personalize, differentiate, and individualize learning for competency and mastery (Loschert et al., 2018; McRae, 2015). Table 8.3 offers a summary of the general differences between blended and online learning in terms of educational dimensions. This chapter introduces teachers to both blended and online digital learning and the strategies to design and build them.

Table 8.3  Blended and Online Instructional Models Educational Dimensions

Blended Instruction

Online Instruction

Digital instructional materials

Digital online materials expand or enhance curriculum.

Digital online materials are required to teach content, curriculum, and instruction.

Assessment

Instruction combines classroom-based and online assessments.

Instruction involves mostly online assessments, some of which provide immediate data for students and teachers to guide instruction.

Communication among ­students and teachers

Instruction mixes synchronous and asynchronous ­communication in the classroom or beyond.

Instruction uses primarily asynchronous online ­communication except in case of a synchronous online course model.

Attendance

Students attend physical school 5 days a week and sometimes work online.

Students tend to have no or flexible physical ­attendance requirements.

Student role

Teacher controls context of blended learning, but students may have some control over the pace and timing of online learning components.

Student assumes more active role in learning by ­setting pace and sometimes has flexibility with digital content.

Individualization

Students have some individually targeted content or may control consumption of content.

Students have multiple pathways through content; curriculum can be competency based and not tied to academic calendars.

Instructional model

Teacher is director or facilitator of student learning with some use of digital resources.

Teacher is the guide or coordinator of student ­learning with exclusive reliance on digital resources.

Instruction schedule

Instruction is provided in physical and online venues, typically within the brick-and-mortar school hours.

Instruction is flexibly scheduled in online course area available 24/7.

Academic support

Teacher supports learning during school hours and ­occasionally after hours.

Multiple modes of instructional and technical support are available 24/7.

Technology infrastructure

Instruction uses school technologies during school day and requires occasional home-based technologies.

Instruction requires 24/7 school-based online course environment and home-based technological access.

Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments 249

Blended Learning Learning Outcome 8.1  Describe the characteristics, benefits, challenges, and integration strategies of blended learning models for relevant instructional situations. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst) Blended learning combines online and face-to-face instruction. Since most educational technologies are now web based, in practice, teachers strategically blend online ­components, such as web-based content, instructional software, or activities like digital collaboration or creation, with their face-to-face instructional components. Thus, there is a wide continuum of subtly different blended models in operation in teachers’ classes. This section describes characteristics of seven blended learning models and reviews the benefits, challenges, and integration strategies for blended learning. Patrick and ­Chambers (2020) advocate for blended learning to serve as an entry step toward innovation in education, and many teachers are taking these steps toward innovation of instruction and learning. Avery et al. (2018) suggests teachers begin with a trial or pilot test of blended learning, focusing on just one curriculum unit rather than an entire course.

Blended Learning Models There are seven blended learning models for K–12 classes and programs: (1) station rotation, (2) lab rotation, (3) individual rotation, (4) flipped classroom, (5) flex, (6) à la carte, and (7) enriched virtual (BLU, n.d.; Christensen Institute, n.d.; Horn & Staker, 2014; Powell et al., 2015). These models vary in terms of the following: • Physical location of online learning (e.g., in the classroom; out of the classroom, often in a student’s home) • Amount of online instruction/learning (e.g., from occasional to nearly 100% online) • Presence of the teacher during online learning (e.g., none, physical, virtual, or synchronous) • Schedule of online learning (e.g., fixed, flexible, teacher driven, student driven). STATION ROTATION  In this model, all students rotate through all the stations

(at least one of which includes online learning activities) in a classroom on a fixed schedule. Horn and Fisher (2017) indicate this is one of the most popular and increasingly used approaches to blended learning. A student can engage in some online or web-based learning activity followed by small-group learning, whole-group class discussions, hands-on activities, or individual classwork. This model typically integrates any of the digital learning resources already described in this book within a face-to-face course. For example, a 10th-grade chemistry teacher could set up four stations in his classroom, cycling students through an online simulation, a physical experiment, smallgroup discussion, and a quiz. Tucker (2017) has designed three stations into his high school class. The first station is for teacher-led, small-group instruction where learners speak up, ask questions, and engage, and the teacher explains, models, coaches, or gives feedback. Second, his online station provides need-focused, personalized practice. Third, his offline station is a generative space for learners to communicate, collaborate, and problem-solve through games, challenges, or making projects. LAB ROTATION  In this model, students go to a computer lab for the online learn-

ing portion of the rotation on a fixed schedule. This is practical for teachers who have access to a computer lab that may be overseen by another teacher who guides students in the lab. The lab could be specialized, such as a language learning lab, engineering, computing, or makerspace. As more schools offer one-to-one ubiquitous computing, they may reduce lab settings.

Pearson eText Video Example 8.1 In this video, a principal describes the blended learning rotation model.

250  Chapter 8 INDIVIDUAL ROTATION  This model provides students with an individualized rota-

tion schedule determined by the teacher, the student’s learning pathway, or computing algorithms (i.e., those built into adaptive or personalized learning technologies). Students will have different rotations, with some students not rotating to all stations. Horn and Fisher (2017) describe a school that uses station rotation but at the station for online learning, students can participate in different activities based on their teacher’s analysis of completed student work. FLIPPED CLASSROOM  In this model, students complete the online learning rotation

off the school site, typically as homework outside of class time. The online learning portion is typically the main delivery of content, and the time in the physical classroom engages students in teacher-guided, hands-on activities in which students apply the content or student collaborative activities. Lo and Hew (2017) argued that the use of audio or video materials that include instruction pertaining to concepts in advance of face-to-face class meetings is a necessary element of a flipped classroom. For example, Avery et al. (2018) described how high school biology and history teachers developed their own flipped homework videos, and students liked how the recordings occurred in many locations such as the teacher’s own homes or in the community. Preclass activity does not need to be a video but, instead, can center around any of a number of learning objects or self-contained, single-purpose instructional components that can be reused a number of times in different learning contexts, such as online simulations, virtual or augmented reality experiences, online field trips or expeditions, or collaborative online experiences supported by Google Docs or learning management systems (LMSs) like Google Classroom or Edmodo (Bergmann & Sams, 2014; Bond, 2020). Bond (2020) found the most frequent technologies used for flipped learning were teacher-made videos (e.g, screencasts and filmed teacher), other videos, self-assessment quizzes, and LMS-based interactions. FLEX MODEL  In the flex model, online learning is the main learning modality for

students, but the learning occurs in a face-to-face setting with a teacher present to help, oversee projects, or lead discussions. Students progress through the online learning individually based on their own learning needs. This model typically integrates online personalized learning systems, described in Chapter 5. For example, in a physical school classroom, eighth-grade students can independently take an online English language arts course using ThinkCERCA software while occasionally participating in teacher-led activities and accessing help from the teacher as needed. Many flex models are school district operated with contracted online curriculum or managed as full-time blended schools by for-profit education management organizations (EMOs), such as Stride K12, Connections Academy, and Edison Learning, or by nonprofits, such as Rocketship Education, often as charter schools (Miron et al, 2018). À LA CARTE MODEL  With an à la carte model, students take a fully online course

with an online teacher along with their other face-to-face courses at a brick-and-mortar educational setting or off-site. For example, a student might take an online course in Chinese at home and then attend his high school for the rest of his courses. Horn and Fisher (2017) describe an Indiana high school that turned around failing students by implementing an à la carte model that allowed students to achieve credit recovery by enrolling in the needed online course at any time and progressing at their own pace instead of waiting to enroll the next semester or year. Some refer to this as taking supplemental online courses. ENRICHED VIRTUAL MODEL  In an enriched virtual model, students learn pre-

dominantly through fully online coursework but also may have required face-to-face, rich content learning experiences with a teacher. In this model, students meet face-toface less often than in the flipped classroom model. For example, a 10th-grade student enrolls in a virtual school to take her fully online courses but meets face-to-face with

Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments 251

other students and her teacher at a physical location occasionally for content-rich learning experiences, such as a field trip or to meet with her teacher individually to learn through minilessons (Davis, 2012). Davis (2012) noted that these events inject a personal connection that helps keep students engaged.

Benefits of Blended Learning There is so much variability in the implementation of each blended model and the ever-expanding online resources available for integration that there is no definitive, large-scale research study on the comparative impact of blended learning and more research is needed (Miron et al., 2018). However, several reviews of literature have examined the flipped classroom model and show students increase their academic learning and performance. Lo and Hew (2017) reviewed 15 studies of the flipped classroom model, mostly set in high schools, in which audio or video preclass activity was required. All the studies found either positive or no impact on student achievement, although not all the studies were methodologically robust. They found that students liked learning from video and appreciated their ability to repeatedly view it and use the on-demand stop-and-start functions, both of which assisted note taking. Bond (2020) found that 93% of the studies of flipped learning revealed a positive effect on at least one dimension of student behavioral, affective, or cognitive engagement, such as positive experiences with collaboration, peer learning, and student–teacher relationships. Blended learning maximizes class time for active learning (Avery et al., 2018; Bond, 2020; Fulton, 2014; Lo & Hew, 2017), student-centered learning (Clark, 2015; Powell et al., 2015), and individual assistance (Lo & Hew, 2017). Stevens (2016), who describes the ways blended learning changed his classroom spaces, believes that his middle school students learned to self-regulate their learning and behaviors and become more analytical and more interested in content. McRae (2015) emphasizes the need for blended learning to create learning opportunities for learners to be active, relational, inquiry oriented, and empowered and warns of blended learning approaches that could decrease opportunities for learners to engage with each other, such as when students use adaptive learning systems independently all the time. Within the rotation models, teachers often implement the online resources already described, and thus teachers can revisit those sections to review specific resources, benefits, and challenges for their use. Advancements in computing algorithms and learning analytics underlie adaptive learning software’s key benefits of instructional personalization, differentiation, and individualization. In terms of the blended learning approaches that take advantage of adaptive learning software, such as the individual rotation or flex models, studies show that teachers using them are able to move students toward higher academic proficiency. For example, A 3-year longitudinal study of kindergartners from low-income backgrounds who used the Lexia Core5 Reading personalized learning system in a blended learning model discovered that students made significant gains each year, and the majority of students who began kindergarten scoring below average on the reading measure had achieved at average or better levels by the end of second grade (Macaruso et al., 2019). Schechter et al. (2015), who conducted a comparative study, found significantly improved reading abilities among grade 1 and 2 students in the teacher-led and technology-based blended learning group versus students in a teacher-led-only group. The lowest-performing multilingual learners had the highest gains in reading comprehension. A meta-analysis by Gerard et al. (2015) found the automated, adaptive feedback was more productive in reaching learning gains than typical teacher-led guidance in face-to-face instruction, especially for those students with low or moderate prior knowledge. The studies in this meta-analysis typically involved mathematics, science, and literacy content in grades 5–8.

Pearson eText Video Example 8.2 In this video, the teacher, Kadean Maddix, describes how he set up a series of stations for a review day and the benefits of this instructional design.

252  Chapter 8

Challenges of Blended Learning There are student, faculty, and institutional challenges to establishing blended learning approaches within schools and districts. Student challenges include the following: • Student self-regulation and accountability. For success with blended learning, students need self-discipline, self-regulation, and accountability measures to encourage completion of the outside-of-class activities, especially in the flipped classroom (DeSantis et al., 2015; Fulton, 2014; Rasheed et al., 2020). Raths (2013) notes the importance of teaching students how to watch videos for instructional purposes, which is far different than viewing for entertainment. In a flipped classroom model, not completing the preclass activities negatively impacted in-class activities (Chen, 2016). Rasheed et al. (2020) identified students’ self-regulation as the biggest challenge in blended learning. • High workload and steep technological learning curve. Some students report that out-of-class required activities were time-consuming and overwhelming, involved activities for which they were unprepared technologically, or used technologies that were overly complex (Avery et al., 2018; Lo & Hew, 2017; Rasheed et al., 2020). • Disinterest in video lectures. Lo and Hew’s (2017) review of literature of flipped classrooms with video lectures found some studies in which students reported videos being too lengthy, boring, or unable to draw their attention. Bond’s (2020) review of literature also revealed that videos that were not created by the students’ teachers, such as those embedded from other sources like YouTube or Khan ­Academy, more likely contributed to student disinterest and task incompletion. • Motivation. Even with an in-class rotation model, Stevens (2016), a middle school teacher, described the challenges he faced motivating students to engage with well-planned online activities, only to discover the students were motivated by ­collaborative activities, not independent online work. • Poor performance. Recent research of full-time blended learning schools (excluding blended learning programs in physical districts) indicates that the flex model of blended learning underperforms academically in comparison to face-to-face learning in national public schools (Miron & Gulosino, 2016; Miron et al., 2018). The data reveal that only 43% of blended schools received acceptable performance ratings. Teacher challenges include the following: • Technology skills and access. Teachers need adequate technology skills and knowledge (e.g., technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge, TPACK) in order to support lesson design, and they need access to applicable technology resources that match their instructional needs (Akçayir & Akçayir, 2018; Rasheed et al., 2020). • Openness to instructional change. Some teachers express skepticism that online activities improve students’ learning (Rasheed et al., 2020). Horn and Fisher (2017) note that teachers who are accustomed to delivering content through lectures are less prone to become blended teachers. Stevens (2016), the middle school teacher referred to earlier, initially thought that learning technical skills was the most difficult part of becoming a blended teacher but later realized that learning to notice and meet the students’ learning needs was the most difficult shift in his work and also the most rewarding. • Poor pedagogy becomes poor blended learning. Blended learning is not inherently good instruction. Poor instruction simply moved online reveals itself rapidly (Plough, 2017). It is always important to implement a blended learning model that matches an instructional need in the classroom.

Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments 253

• Resources and time for blended learning. Creating or finding web-based materials to support blended learning is time-consuming, especially the production of online video content (Akçayir & Akçayir, 2018; Lo & Hew, 2017; Rasheed et al., 2020). Institutional challenges include the following: • Vision for blended learning. Researchers emphasize the importance of developing and communicating a coherent vision for blended learning for students, teachers, staff, and the community (Loschert et al., 2018; Powell et al., 2015). Communication with the community and stakeholders, including students and parents, is key to success (Bond, 2020; Raths, 2013). • Increased class sizes. McRae (2015) warned that blended learning models can be used to introduce adaptive learning software that McRae argues shifts instructional expectations away from the value of small class sizes and of certified teachers for improving student learning. This concern reinforces the need for clarity of vision for blended learning. • Technological constraints and digital equity. The blended models have d ­ ifferent technological demands for students’ homes and classrooms or schools. Thus, along with a clear vision, schools need to ensure targeted professional learning ­opportunities for teachers and adequate access and resources to technological infrastructure and software in the school and community (Lo & Hew, 2017; Powell et al., 2015; Rasheed et al., 2020). Without this assurance, issues of digital inequity will arise. • Accessibility. As with all digital learning resources, it is necessary to ensure that all learning resources are accessible to all learners. For example, videos used in a flipped classroom model should provide closed captioning for the hearing impaired and should be transcribed to support screen readers for visually impaired students.

Integration Strategies for Blended Learning This section provides an overview of integration strategies that can be instituted within the district/school, by the teacher, and in the classroom. DISTRICT/SCHOOL INTEGRATION STRATEGIES  Teachers interested in integrating

blended learning models should connect with the school or district technology specialist to assess the district’s or school’s context for blended learning. Based on reviews of several blended learning approaches across schools and school districts (Bond, 2020; Lo & Hew, 2017; Powell et al., 2015), consider the following four supports for success with blended learning: 1. A school climate for continuous improvement. Optimally, a district-wide blended learning initiative and a climate geared toward continuous improvement of teaching and learning exists. In support of this climate, the district would offer parent education on blended learning pedagogy and technologies. 2. Defined blended learning goals. Blended learning is a continuum of practices, so the teacher’s district or school should define what the model means for the school’s learning environment and goals, such as personalized learning for academic achievement, increased student engagement, credit recovery or optional electives or Advanced Placement courses, and/or student-centered curriculum. These goals should optimally have been collaboratively developed within the school/district community, and at the very least, explained to the teachers, p ­ arents, and students. 3. Teacher professional development and design time. Although blended learning can provide teachers new flexibility and creativity to meet students’ needs, teachers can be unfamiliar with new pedagogical approaches and new technologies. Without clear expectations, learning goals, and professional support, teachers

254  Chapter 8 can become discouraged. They need reductions in teaching responsibilities in order to optimally prepare flipped learning instruction, due to its high time requirements. 4. Reduced barriers to implementation. Districts or schools should conduct a needs analysis to identify barriers and then reduce problematic technological access, infrastructure, and software issues, or low-quality online content both in the school district and for students with limited access. Lo and Hew (2017) suggest the use of a LMS with gamification elements to support and track online learning, and Rasheed et al. (2020) suggest the value of integrating social networking sites or features with LMSs to create collaborative online communities. A teacher should use these four support areas to learn more about the school’s or district’s commitment (or lack thereof) to blended learning. CLASSROOM INTEGRATION STRATEGIES  Hamdan et al. (2013) suggest “four pil-

lars of F-L-I-P” (pp. 5–6) to remind teachers how blended learning can achieve the goal of revitalizing and improving instructional methods. We have integrated other integration strategies for blended learning models (i.e., those suggested by Bond, 2020; Bruno & Kennedy, 2016; Plough, 2017; Rasheed et al., 2020) within the four pillars of FLIP, so teachers should consider the following FLIP pillars as broadly applicable to all blended learning models: Pearson eText Video Example 8.3 Second grade teacher, Monica Miller, describes how she takes the time to prepare video-based flipped content for her students for advance preparation.

1. Flexible learning environments with scaffolding that support student agency. Students have some degree of autonomy in learning, such as choosing the time, place, pace, or path of their learning, and teachers acknowledge that the learning environment will not necessarily be orderly and quiet (Bruno & Kennedy, 2016). Teachers allow for flexibility in learning and assessment timelines, and they measure progress in ways that are most meaningful for them and their students. • Teachers should support student self-regulation and help seeking when working online with peer and teacher assistance using social technologies, such as discussion boards, instant messaging, group or listserv e-mails, peer-recorded videos, or wikis. Teachers could assemble advice from students experienced with blended learning for those students new to it. • Frequent formative assessment, badges, check-ins, and note taking also scaffold self-regulated learning, and embedding quizzes has been found to be crucial to success of flipped learning (Van Alten et al., 2019). • Provide content in multiple formats and places (e.g., online and offline, closed captioning, PDFs) that aligns with universal design for learning. 2. Learning culture shift. There must be a transition from objectivist principles to more social constructivist ones: moving from students as passive receivers of knowledge to students’ active, social involvement in their own learning and assessment paths with scaffolding from what they already know to higher skill levels. Plough (2017) emphasizes the importance of learner interactions and suggests creating communities of inquiry for discussion and debate and project-based activities with high levels of teacher interaction and feedback. Teachers need to communicate, introduce, and demonstrate the new pedagogy with students before implementation (Avery et al., 2018; Lo & Hew, 2017). • Social interaction and the feeling of being present and seen in both face-to-face and online components of blended learning are crucial. In in-class contexts, teachers should offer social interaction and communication opportunities so students come to know each other, especially if a majority of their learning will be online as part of the blended model.

Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments 255

• Online social components facilitate students’ interaction with peers and their teacher, which enhances relationship-building and comfort both online and in face-to-face settings (Rasheed et al., 2020). Adopt LMSs that have collaborative features and functions. 3. Intentional and connected online and offline content. Bruno and Kennedy (2016) emphasize starting with clear educational goals and choosing sound instructional practices. Teachers must continually analyze and carefully consider what activities and content lend themselves for the selected blended content portion of classroom activities and ensure it connects with offline learning experiences. • Any video-based content should be about 6 minutes in length; be teacher created, if possible; use a conversational, informal, first-person format; and emphasize key ideas that are related to class instruction. Narrated slide decks or screencasting are optimal (Lo & Hew, 2017). Teachers can create slide decks, then narrate while using ExplainEverything or Screencast-o-Matric and add built-in questions using EdPuzzle (Farah & Barnett, 2019). • Depending on the grade level and topic, classroom activities should be active instructional methods such as problem-based learning, mastery learning, or Socratic methods with the Parlay app. • Use preclass or beginning-of-class quizzes or questions for reflection. 4. Professional educators and lifelong learning. Finally, this pillar calls for an acknowledgment of the indispensable role of teachers in instruction and asserts that professional educators are reflective, collaborative, and know how to accept suggestions that can improve their practice (Bruno & Kennedy, 2016). • Teachers can join communities, such as iNACOL, ISTE-affiliated organizations, Twitter, and the Flipped Learning Network, to access a wealth of classroom materials, lesson ideas, and other teachers. • Teachers can advocate for professional learning to be offered by the district or school when blended learning is expected. See Technology Integration Example 8.1 for an example of a flipped classroom lesson.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Example 8.1 

TITLE: Student-Generated Flipped Review Exercises CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Social studies GRADE LEVELS: 5 ISTE STANDARDS • S: Standard 3—Knowledge Constructor; Standard 6—Creative Communicator CCSS: CCSS.ELA-LITERACY, RH.6-8.1, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY, RH.6-8.4 CCSS, ELA-LITERACY, RH.6-8.7 DESCRIPTION: To help students prepare for social studies end-of-semester or end-of-course final exams, organize small groups and assign each group a part of the content that will be examined. Each group is to use available movie equipment and software, such as FlipGrid, to make a movie (or series of brief clips) about the assigned content. The class watches each video at home the night before the review, and students post questions of the other groups. In class, they discuss what they learned from the videos and the questions that were posted about them. Make sure that the directions clearly state that the video lessons should cover main ideas instead of incidental ones. SOURCE: Based on ideas in George Phillip’s flipped classroom blog, “Reversing Instruction in Social Studies.”

256  Chapter 8

Online Learning Learning Outcome 8.2  Describe the characteristics, benefits, challenges, and integration strategies of online learning models for relevant instructional situations. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst) Online learning is a form of distance education, which in its earliest form was courses completed by postal mail between a student and teacher. Now students take courses that are taught fully online by an online instructor who is physically distant from the student, and the students have some or complete control over the time, place, path, and pace of learning. These online courses are offered through online schools, also referred to as virtual schools (Saultz & Fusarelli, 2017); in this text, we use the term online school and occasionally virtual school when a source uses that term. The latest data indicate there were 332,379 students enrolled in 477 full-time virtual schools across 29 U.S. states in 2019–2020 (Molnar et al., 2021), which reflects continuous growth since 2000 (Miron & Gulosino, 2016) but is small in comparison to the 50 million students attending public schools. However, many more students enroll in online learning in courses or programs that are not full-time virtual schools. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, about 21% of public schools reported offering online courses, and a majority of these (59%) offered one or a few courses (U.S. Department of Education, 2019). This section describes types of online learning and reviews the benefits, challenges, and integration strategies for online learning.

Online Courses and Schools Students who engage in online learning do so by enrolling in online courses, which are offered through online programs and online schools. An online course is a full educational course, such as biology, English I, or Algebra II, taught by a certified teacher. In these courses, all instruction and learning experiences take place online in an online course space enabled by an LMS, such as Moodle, Canvas, Google Classroom, ­Schoology, or Blackboard. K–12 students can take supplemental online courses, which involve about one or two online courses per year that complement or extend their enrollment in face-to-face courses in a brick-and-mortar school. Supplemental courses can assist with credit recovery when a student has failed a class, can offer a course topic or advanced course not available at the student’s brickand-mortar school, or can offer a different learning modality to meet students’ needs or preferences. Other students are full-time online students whose educational courses are all online. Full-time online students represent proportionally more students at ­secondary levels and fewer at primary and middle levels (Molnar et al., 2021). ONLINE COURSE MODELS  Just like any face-to-face course, online course ­formats vary based on the teacher, the content, and the available resources. Consider the ­following online course structure models from which to broadly categorize online courses:

1. The noninteractive, asynchronous online model. This is the most basic online course model, which consists of content presentations with built-in assessments. Students read and study the information in the form of text, links to online sites, videos, simulations, and/or self-led exercises, often all contained within an LMS, and then take online tests or submit other assessments to demonstrate mastery of the material. Although students in noninteractive courses do interact with content designed by content experts (who could be instructors), they have little to no interaction with instructors or other students during learning activities. Students can choose to learn at their own pace and timing, and it may not require high bandwidth or screen time (depending on the nature of the assigned work). Students may

Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments 257

need high self-regulation and organization skills to work independently through tasks and a sense of classroom community is low. 2. The interactive, asynchronous online model. Students meet and interact with their instructor and often with other students in the LMS or meeting area. The nature of activities in interactive online models varies, but many include whole-class and/or small-group discussion boards, individual and/or smallgroup assignments, materials to read and study, practice exercises to complete, and assessments of various kinds. All activities are completed asynchronously. This has the same advantages of flexible pacing and timing, low screen time, and bandwidth but may increase students’ sense of community with the interactivity with peers and teacher. 3. The interactive, synchronous online model. Some online courses have interactive, synchronous, real-time class meetings. The synchronous learning activities occur in the LMS with the aid of webcams and microphones or in online videoconferencing tools, such as Zoom, Google Meet, or Microsoft Teams. In this model, students and the teacher either see each other using cameras connected to the computer or only hear each other through the computer. This model tends to be as similar as possible to in-person classroom learning. The teacher can immediately support students via the video, and it may maintain a sense of community through visibly seeing peers, but it requires sustained high bandwidth and screen time across the day. It also can be recorded and distributed for asynchronous viewing. 4. The interactive, asynchronous + synchronous online model. This model combines the #1 and #3 models. Teachers still plan out the week’s learning activities to be completed asynchronously by students, but they also offer synchronous, often video-based, check-ins as whole-class instruction, small-group meetings, or virtual office hours. Table 8.4 offers characteristics of another classification system based on the types of communicative and modality elements and their potentiality for peer and student interaction (Simonson et al., 2012). Schools and school districts can develop and offer their own online courses, but more often online courses are purchased from for-profit or nonprofit EMOs that provide (1) the instructional content; (2) the instructional management and tracking software, such as an LMS; (3) student data and administrative tools, such as a student information system (SIS); and (4) services, such as professional development for online teachers. Furthermore, the instructional content developed and offered by EMOs now typically uses learning analytics to adapt to the learner, such as the personalized learning software described in Chapter 5. Teachers also could be called on to build, teach, or review online courses.

Table 8.4  Classification System for Online Learning by Interaction Least interactive

Most interactive

Communicative Structures

Delivery Modality

• One way, print based • Recorded or broadcast audio • One-way, synchronous audio from instructor to students • Recorded or broadcast video (no ­synchronous interaction with instructor) • Two-way, synchronous audio between students and instructor • Text and multimedia interactions • Live video from instructor to students (with synchronous audio interaction) • Two-way synchronous video between instructor and students

• Correspondence courses (via postal mail or print packets) • Broadcast radio • Broadcast television • Prerecorded audio (e.g., online podcasts) • Audioconferencing telephone systems • Chat messaging or texting • Learning management systems • Videoconferencing

Pearson eText Video Example 8.4 This video demonstrates a synchronous online course in which a student presents her learning followed by a whole-class survey.

258  Chapter 8 VARIATIONS IN ONLINE (VIRTUAL) + BLENDED LEARNING  Particularly during the lengthy COVID-19 pandemic, schools implemented many approaches to education in order to continue instruction and meet students’ learning needs. In particular, in addition to online learning, they also began combining fully online learning and in-person learning. Adding to the already complex terminology, some schools called these combinations hybrid models (Hooker, 2020). Below is a descriptive summary of the combinations of in-person, blended, and online learning.

• Online/in-person “hybrid” model. The instruction occurs through a fully online modality using any of the already described online models that vary in terms of their interactivity and synchrony. All students have a device to access the online course. Some portion of students choose to engage in the online course from home or another location, while another portion of students choose to travel to the brickand-mortar school site where they engage in the same online course on their device. The online instructor may be located virtually or physically in the classroom. If not in the physical classroom, a facilitator or room monitor would be needed to oversee the children at the physical site. This model involves elements of, but is not the same as, the à la carte and enriched virtual blended learning models. • Staggered “hybrid” model. With a goal of reducing the number of people in a classroom, this model staggers the physical attendance of students into two groups, A and B. Group A attends the brick-and-mortar school with their teacher who teaches in-person with nondigital or blended learning activities. Group B attends in the afternoon after a mid-day break to sanitize the physical environment. When each group is at home (i.e., Group B in morning, Group A in afternoon), they engage in either the noninteractive or interactive asynchronous online learning model, as described earlier. In the case of the interactive model, the teacher would not be able to be engaged in online learning during the school day, but peers could interact with each other asynchronously. • Gapped “hybrid” model. This model maintains the reduction of people in the physical space, replicates the grouping from the staggered hybrid model, but increases the time for sanitization. Students attend school in-person for 2 full days, such as Group A on Monday and Tuesday and Group B on Thursday and Friday. The teacher teaches in-person with nondigital or blended learning activities. Wednesday is used to sanitize. Students who are not being physically taught in-person engage in either the noninteractive or interactive asynchronous online learning model, as described earlier. • Alternating “hybrid” models. These models simply change the “stagger” of the inperson groups, including alternating whole days or whole weeks for each group’s in-person and online learning. These “hybrid” combinations require a lot of complex scheduling and communication with parents, students, and teachers to make them effective. The demands on the teachers are immense (CREDO, 2020). With the online/in-person hybrid, teachers are teaching all students online but also simultaneously monitoring the children in the physical location. With the staggered, gapped, and alternating models, teachers are effectively teaching both in-person and online full time. ONLINE (VIRTUAL) SCHOOLS  Online courses are offered through a range of entities, which are broadly called online or virtual schools. Online schools have no physical facilities and teachers and students are physically distant from each other, but the teachers have responsibility for students’ education, including overseeing state assessments and granting course credit. Online course providers can include the following types:

1. Single-district virtual schools. These are created by a district and serve only that district’s students. Large districts are more likely to own their own LMSs and create

Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments 259

their own course content. They might offer supplemental or full-time coursework. These are growing in numbers but are not the majority of virtual schools. 2. Full-time online charter schools. Online students attend online charter schools, most of which are run by for-profit EMOs, such as Stride K12 and Connections Academy, the two largest EMOs who, together, enroll 29% of virtual school students (Molnar et al., 2021). Online charter schools account for the majority (75%) of full-time online students, and their number is increasing (Miron et al., 2021; Molnar et al., 2021). 3. Multidistrict, fully online schools. These schools are the primary providers for their students who might (but need not) attend a physical school for part of their education. 4. Consortia. Two or more schools or districts can create a consortium that combines resources in order to serve their students more efficiently by offering online learning. Some operate regionally, statewide, or nationally. 5. State-supported online schools. These include two different subcategories of online options: (1) state-run virtual schools (e.g., the Florida Virtual School) that serve students both inside the state and elsewhere and (2) course options that allow students in the state to take courses from any of a number of different providers. 6. Private/independent schools. These are nonpublic schools that develop online options with private funds or endowments. 7. University online high schools. These are accredited high schools connected to universities, such as the University of Texas at Austin High School, that provide full-time and supplemental online courses. 8. Blended/hybrid schools. In these schools, many of which are charter schools run by EMOs, attendance is required at a physical site during the school year, but the curriculum is delivered using the flex model or enriched virtual blended model. Blended schools and the enriched virtual model are described in the previous section. Students participate in virtual school courses from various locations. For example, some students take them from home or a library, whereas others attend a school computer lab for a regularly scheduled session each day to access their online courses.

Benefits of Online Learning Much of the rhetoric among school advocates in the popular literature and in some research about online learning (e.g., Fitzpatrick et al., 2020; Kamenetz, 2015; Picciano et al., 2015; Toppin & Toppin, 2015) identify the following potential advantages for students, teachers, and schools: 1. Path to credit recovery and graduation. For students who have not completed courses due to failure, illness, mobility, or other scheduling conflicts, supplemental online courses provide a popular path for credit recovery. If completed, these courses can contribute to students graduating on time. 2. Bridge to advanced or elective coursework. Online courses also increase logistical access to university-level elective coursework for advanced students. Some students can earn up to a year’s worth of college credits before even graduating from high school. For rural or inner-city schools, students are accessing online courses to expand their elective or advanced placement course options. 3. Cost-effectiveness. With streamlined, scalable online curriculum, some consider that larger enrollments are possible, resulting in the need for fewer teachers. In addition, virtual schools do not have a physical plant with maintenance costs. Finally, small classes can be combined online with students from other schools or districts.

260  Chapter 8 4. Student agency in learning. Many students seek online learning for the ability to work at their own pace and have more control and agency in their own learning than in face-to-face courses. 5. Learning continuity during emergencies. Schools or districts that face emergencies that require closure of physical campuses or for students that have challenges preventing attendance at a brick-and-mortar school can employ online learning modalities to ensure continuity of learning for students, assuming they have adequately prepared teachers, students, staff, and IT resources. Pearson eText Video Example 8.5 In this video, students enrolled in an online school share why they wanted to attend a virtual school and how their online courses allow them flexibility and control.

6. A school alternative when none other exist. In rural areas or other locations where school choices do not exist, online schools may provide a set of alterative educational options for children and families. 7. Safer schooling. Some parents and children may feel an online school offers lower risk of bullying or other safety risks at physical schools. In terms of effectiveness of online learning, there is some evidence that online schools outperform brick-and-mortar schools. For example, students enrolled in both supplemental courses and fully online programs in the Florida Virtual School, the oldest statewide virtual school in the United States, outperformed the state average achievement in end-of-course Biology 1, civics, and U.S. history exams in 2015 (­Evergreen Education Group, 2015). However, the most recent and comprehensive research studies (CREDO, 2015; Fitzpatrick et al., 2020; Miron & Gulosino, 2016; Miron et al., 2018, 2021) indicate significant challenges to online learning, which are outlined in the next section.

Challenges of Online Learning During the past two decades, hopes were high that online learning would mean better access to quality education for all students regardless of location and economic status. As comprehensive and long-term research studies have been conducted, these hopes have not been universally realized, and challenges have emerged: poor academic performance, high student–teacher ratios, high withdrawal and low graduation rates, uncertain funding, unclear family expectations, and widening social justice issues. Because online schools are having an increasing impact on the operations of all schools, teachers should understand each of these issues. POOR ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE  Several recent studies have indicated that overall school performance for online schools is not as successful as that of traditional public schools, outcomes that are even referred to as “poor” and “abysmal,” and have not improved over time (Molnar et al., 2021, p. 10). Molnar et al. (2021) report that only 43% of full-time virtual schools had “acceptable” performance ratings. More specifically, 51% of schools operated by districts met acceptable performance as compared with 35% of charter-operated schools. Furthermore, acceptable performance was achieved by 64% of nonprofit EMO schools, 44% of independent schools, and 37% of for-profit EMOs. This and other past research show a sustained pattern of poor performance by for-profit EMOs (CREDO, 2015; Miron et al., 2013, 2018; Miron & Gulosino, 2016; Miron & Urschel, 2012). Molnar et al. suggest that their data and results to be cautiously considered because data was limited in availability and states are changing accountability systems. Fitzpatrick et al. (2020) identified that students in Indiana who switched into virtual charter schools run by EMOs had a multiyear negative impact on their achievement in math and English language arts. The poor performance of online schools is also not universal, as the state-level Florida Virtual School is relatively successful. Furthermore, this data reflects only full-time online/ virtual schools, so the success of smaller online courses or programs is unknown due to lack of research.

Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments 261

HIGH STUDENT–TEACHER RATIOS  Student–teacher ratios are also higher in online

schools. Molnar et al. (2021) found 27:1 ratio in fully online schools, 26:1 in schools run by nonprofit EMOs, and 29:1 in schools run by for-profit EMOs, whereas the ratio in public schools is 16:1. In another study, virtual charter schools in Indiana tended to teach 101 students, while teachers taught 24 students in the traditional public school and 22 students in traditional public charter schools (Fitzpatrick et al., 2020), HIGH WITHDRAWAL AND LOW GRADUATION RATES  There is also no doubt that

online students tend to withdraw at higher rates than students in face-to-face courses (Breslow et al., 2013; Molnar et al., 2021). CREDO (2015) found that on average, students stayed in online charter schools for 2 years; about 40% of students left after the first year, often returning to traditional public schools. Overall, students of all race/ethnicity subgroups enrolled in public online charter schools showed high mobility rates, indicating more instability after enrolling in online schools. Ultimately, the 4-year graduation rate for virtual schools was 54.6% whereas the national average for brick-and-mortar schools was 85% (Molnar et al., 2021). UNCERTAIN FUNDING  Full-time virtual schools (and blended schools) receive full funding for offering a full school experience. However, they serve fewer students with high needs, have higher student–teacher ratios, and little to no physical infrastructure like buildings and busing as compared to brick-and-mortar public schools. These lower costs may lead to larger profits. Two funding issues researchers cite are the need to tie funding to actual virtual school costs and the need to prevent “profiteering” by for-profit EMOs, which serve a majority of full-time virtual school students (Saultz & Fusarelli, 2017). Researchers recommend a greater state-level role in auditing online course use and allocating funds according to actual costs (Miron et al., 2018; Molnar et al., 2021). UNCLEAR FAMILY EXPECTATIONS  The Stanford study found a positive correlation with academic growth when parents verified seat time; in other words, when they made sure that their child was engaging in their online courses(s) (CREDO, 2015). However, some online charter schools’ expectations that parents take a role in instruction had significant negative correlations with student growth. Thus, online schools should not expect parents to assume instructional roles for which they might not be prepared. WIDENING SOCIAL JUSTICE ISSUES  In terms of student demographics, online schools enroll fewer students of color, in poverty, with special education needs, and who are learning the English language than do national public schools (Mann, 2019; Miron & Gulosino, 2016; Molnar et al., 2021). For example, only 10% of virtual school students are Black, as compared with 25% in our nation’s public schools (Molnar et al., 2021). Children from underserved populations (i.e., low-income and some minority students) still have far less access to these computing and Internet resources at home, which may contribute to barriers to enrollment. In addition, online schools must adhere to the ­Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), such as providing web site accessibility as well as appropriate accommodations for students with disabilities (­Samuels, 2016), which is a significant commitment for all online schools. Persisting gaps could signal future problems in providing equitable access to the resources that online learning offers, especially when the rhetoric of online learning is its benefits for at-risk students (Archambault et al., 2016; Mann, 2019; Molnar et al., 2021).

Integration Strategies for Online Learning Despite the challenges in online learning, it continues to expand in K–12 schools. Thus, teachers need to have the knowledge to guide their activities related to online learning, such as advising students, considering opportunities to teach online, and reviewing online courses. This section introduces information about the characteristics of students, teachers, and online courses that increase success in online learning contexts.

262  Chapter 8

BOX 8.1

DIGITAL EQUITY AND JUSTICE

Inclusion in Online Learning Research shows that fully online schools do not have equal proportional enrollment of students of color, students with special needs, students learning English as another language, and students experiencing poverty, as compared with enrollment in brick-and-mortar public schools. White students and students with economic advantage are overrepresented in online school enrollment. More equity and inclusion are in order, but simply recruiting students with more diverse demographics is not a sufficient solution (Kim & Padilla, 2020; Mann, 2019). Mann (2019) suggests considering the embedded norms within the online learning structures, spaces, and pedagogy, especially as they relate to socioeconomic norms of Whiteness and power. ­Fundamentally, can online learning schools serve a diversity of students? Consider the following reflection questions to probe critical concerns of diversity and inclusion in online schools: ■

What structures exist to ensure online learners will have a computer/device and reliable high-speed Internet in their homes or learning spaces?

■

■

■

■

■

■

What structures or supports exist to ensure online ­learners have a quiet, focused space within which to learn? How language-friendly are the online learning resources and software to support both learners and parents with no or emergent English language proficiency? In what ways can the technologies support multilanguage learners? What are the expectations of parental/caregiver support and oversight for student success in online schools? How user-friendly and accessible are the online learning resources and software to support both learners and parents with no or emergent technology skills or with physical, cognitive, sensory, speech and language, or other special needs? What communication channels exist and are maintained for teacher–parent communication, especially among immigrant parents with non-English proficiencies? To what extent is the pedagogy and content of the online school culturally relevant for all students?

STUDENTS’ READINESS FOR ONLINE LEARNING  Some researchers have tried to

identify student capabilities or other factors that could predict whether a student might drop out, be less satisfied, or not perform as well in an online activity. No single theory can fully explain student attrition in online learning; students likely drop out because of a combination of variables, and Wladis and Samuels (2016) found that readiness surveys can have low predictive validity and more important, if used, could dissuade students who might benefit from learning online. Geiger and colleagues (2014) examined variables related to student readiness and their impact on student success in a well-designed online course (specifically one that met the Quality Matters Standards that are described later in this chapter) and taught by an experienced online teacher. Only typing ability and reading rate/recall were correlated with completion. Thus, good design of the course and highly experienced teachers can be more important than identification of student characteristics that might dissuade students from pursuing online learning opportunities. Therefore, consider the following characteristics only as possible contributors toward a student’s readiness to learn online: • Desire to learn online. Self-motivation and the ability to structure one’s own learning is important (Robinson & Sebba, 2010), so students should have a choice in pursuing online courses. • Technological competence and self-efficacy. Previous experience with technology can assist online students, and studies support a correlation between increased computer self-efficacy and improved outcomes in online courses. For example, Alshare and colleagues (2011) found that students’ level of comfort with online learning and selfefficacy in using the web could predict their satisfaction in online courses. Yet, students can also learn to use new technological tools while they engage in an online course. • Interest in subject content. A good attitude toward course subject matter can assist online learners (Hung et al., 2010). • Internal locus of control. Online learners who believe they can control events that affect them can assist in developing intrinsic motivation (Vandewaetere & C ­ larebout, 2011).

Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments 263

COMPETENCIES OF SUCCESSFUL ONLINE TEACHERS  Effective online teachers not

only need to know how to teach an online course but also need to have personality traits and communication skills that lend themselves to online work. For example, teachers must know techniques for communicating well with students whom they never see and knowing which students need special assistance. Stansbury (2014) noted that hiring online teachers is different from hiring traditional ones. In addition to the usual characteristics of good teachers, online teachers must be even more self-directed and possess extremely strong technology and people skills. Teachers must also have frequent professional development to build their online skills. Diehl (2016) reviewed the ample research on online instructor and teaching competencies. A comprehensive source is the research-based National Standards for Quality Online Teaching (2019) that describe comprehensive knowledge, understandings, and abilities that online teachers should develop in order to support success in student online learning. The standards include eight overarching standard categories describing knowledge in the following areas: 1. Professional responsibilities—Demonstrates best practices in support of online learning 2. Digital pedagogy—Supports and facilitates teacher, cognitive, and social presence for optimal digital learning 3. Community-building—Deploys interactive, collaborative, and active learning 4. Learner engagement—Interacts with learners to increase meaningful learning and success 5. Digital citizenship—Models and guides legal, ethical, and safe digital behaviors 6. Diverse instruction—Personalizes instruction in response to learners’ needs 7. Assessment and measurement—Creates, selects, uses, and/or analyzes reliable and valid assessments to measure learning and make instructional decisions 8. Instructional design (applicable only to teachers who design their own online courses)— Creates or assembles instructional content, resources, and experiences in a logical flow or sequence in support of learning. Review the full standards to examine their indicators, explanations, and examples. This chapter and all the contents in this text prepare teachers with the knowledge, understanding, and abilities identified in these standards for online teachers. COURSE CHARACTERISTICS THAT AFFECT SUCCESS  The majority of studies

focus on how course characteristics affect attitudes of students who complete online learning courses. Researchers agree that the following factors are the major contributors to course satisfaction (Beauchamp & Kennewell, 2010; Robinson & Sebba, 2010): • High interaction. The single greatest determinant of satisfaction across studies is the amount of interaction between teacher and students (Beauchamp & Kennewell, 2010; Clayton et al., 2010; Ravenna et al., 2012). Lacking face-to-face contact with engaging teachers, students need hands-on activities that require frequent interaction (Stansbury, 2014). A study examining a statewide virtual high school conducted by Oliver et al. (2009) indicated that online students value high levels of interaction and feedback from teachers, content that is delivered in multiple modalities, and a mix of opportunities to communicate both synchronously and asynchronously with others. An in-depth study of K–12 virtual school teachers’ beliefs and practices conducted by DiPietro (2010) indicated that increased interaction with the teacher and others leads to increased perceptions of students’ engagement with the content and, ultimately, a more positive learning experience. • Preparation for the course. The practice of required course orientations is becoming more common to increase retention in online courses (Blumenstyk, 2011). ­Training students in how to use the course technology and making sure that they

264  Chapter 8 know what they have to do to pass the course can make the difference between success and failure (Stansbury, 2014). Also, Colucci and Koppel (2010) suggest that meeting students face-to-face for the first class meeting helps establish a rapport that can lead to better interaction throughout the course. • Support during the course. Many studies show that students value and profit from teacher and other support, both technical and logistical, during their course experiences from registration through course activities and evaluation. DiPietro (2010) observed that supportive interactions help establish a sense of community among learners, resulting in both increased engagement and motivation. Conversely, McBrien and colleagues (2009) found that feelings of isolation or disconnectedness from the teacher and classmates, as well as frustration with technology problems, can negatively affect course satisfaction.

Pearson eText Video Example 8.6 In this video, online learners explain the value of teacher communication and self-discipline for students.

• Minimal technical problems. Consistent evidence exists that technical problems can doom the best-planned course (Kerr, 2011; Ko & Rossen, 2010; McBrien et al., 2009). Successful courses are those that minimize technical problems so that the student can focus on the learning rather than on computer and technical issues. Not having to mediate technology problems also frees the teacher to spend more time on instruction and accommodating student needs. Later sections of this chapter describe ways to ensure that the preceding characteristics exist in online courses. ASSESSING THE QUALITY OF ONLINE COURSES  Given the research indicating poor performance of online schools and the continuing increase in K–12 online courses and schools, the need for quality, well-designed online courses has never been more important. Several rubrics are available to guide design and assess the quality of online courses. Given the importance of high interaction in online courses, Roblyer’s rubric in Figure 8.1 focuses on five characteristics to promote interaction: social/rapport-building designs, instructional designs for interaction, interactivity of technology resources, evidence of learner engagement, and evidence of instructor engagement.

Figure 8.1  Rubric for Assessing Interactive Quality of Online Courses RUBRIC DIRECTIONS: The rubric shown below has five (5) separate elements that contribute to a course’s level of interaction and ­interactivity. For each of these five elements, circle a description below it that applies best to your course. After reviewing all elements and circling the appropriate level, add up the points to determine the course’s level of interactive qualities (e.g., low, moderate, or high). Low interactive qualities

1–9 points

Moderate interactive qualities

10–17 points

High interactive qualities

18–25 points

Scale (see points below) Low Interactive Qualities (1 point each)

Element #1: Social/ Rapport-Building Designs for Interaction

Element #2: Instructional ­Designs for Interaction

Element #3: ­Interactivity of ­Technology Resources

Element #4: ­Evidence of Learner Engagement

Element #5: ­Evidence of ­Instructor Engagement

The instructor does not encourage ­students to get to know one ­another on a personal basis. No activities ­require social ­interaction, or activities with social ­interaction are limited to brief ­introductions at the ­beginning of the course.

Instructional activities do not require two-way interaction between the instructor and students; they call for one-way delivery of information (e.g., instructor lectures, text delivery) and student products based on the information.

Web pages or other technology resource allows one-way delivery of information (text and/ or graphics).

By the end of the course, most students (50–75%) reply to messages from the instructor, but only when required; messages are sometimes unresponsive to topics and tend to be either brief or wordy and rambling.

Instructor responds only randomly to student queries; responses usually take more than 48 hours; feedback is brief and provides little analysis of student work or suggestions for improvement.

Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments 265

Element #1: Social/ Rapport-Building Designs for Interaction

Element #2: Instructional ­Designs for Interaction

Element #3: ­Interactivity of ­Technology Resources

Element #4: ­Evidence of Learner Engagement

Element #5: ­Evidence of ­Instructor Engagement

Minimum ­Interactive Qualities (2 points each)

In addition to brief ­introductions, the ­instructor requires one other exchange of personal ­information among students (e.g., written bio of ­personal background and experiences).

Instructional activities require students to communicate with the instructor on an ­individual basis only (e.g., asking/responding to instructor questions).

E-mail, listserv, conference/bulletin board, or other technology resource allows two-way, asynchronous exchanges of information (text and graphics).

By the end of the course, most students (50–75%) reply to messages from the instructor and other students, both when required and on a voluntary basis; replies are usually responsive to topics but often are either brief or wordy and rambling.

Instructor responds to most student queries; responses usually are within 48 hours; feedback sometimes offers some analysis of student work and suggestions for improvement.

Moderate ­Interactive Qualities (3 points each)

In addition to ­providing for exchanges of personal information among students, the instructor provides at least one other in-class activity designed to ­increase ­communication and social rapport among students.

In addition to ­requiring students to ­communicate with the instructor, instructional activities require ­students to communicate with one another (e. g., discussions in pairs or small groups).

In addition to technologies used for two-way asynchronous exchanges of information, instant messaging, social networking sites, or other technology allows synchronous exchanges of primarily written information.

By the end of the course, all or nearly all students (90–100%) are replying to messages from the instructor and other students, both when required and voluntarily; replies are always responsive to topics but sometimes are either brief or wordy and rambling.

Instructor responds to all student queries; responses usually are within 48 hours; feedback usually offers some analysis of student work and suggestions for improvement.

Above-Average Interactive Qualities (4 points each)

In addition to ­providing for exchanges of personal ­information among students and encouraging ­communication and social interaction, the instructor also interacts with students on a ­social/personal basis.

In addition to requiring students to communicate with the instructor, instructional activities require students to develop products by working together cooperatively (e.g., in pairs or small groups) and sharing feedback.

In addition to technologies used for two-way synchronous and asynchronous exchanges of written information, additional technologies (e.g., teleconferencing) allow one-way visual and two-way voice communications between the instructor and students.

By the end of the course, most students (50–75%) both reply to and initiate messages when required and voluntarily; messages are detailed and responsive to topics, and usually reflect an effort to communicate well.

Instructor responds to all student queries; responses usually are prompt (i.e., within 24 hours); feedback always offers detailed analysis of student work and suggestions for improvement.

High Level of Interactive Qualities (5 points each)

In addition to ­providing for exchanges of information and encouraging student–student and instructor–student interaction, the instructor provides ongoing course structures designed to promote social rapport among students and the instructor.

In addition to requiring students to communicate with the instructor, instructional activities require students to develop products by working together cooperatively (e.g., in pairs or small groups) and share results and feedback with other groups in the class.

In addition to technologies to allow two-way exchanges of text information, visual technologies such as two-way video or videoconferencing technologies allow synchronous voice and visual communications between the instructor and students and among students.

By the end of course, all or nearly all students (90–100%) both reply to and initiate messages, both when required and voluntarily; messages are detailed, responsive to topics, and are well-developed communications.

Instructor responds to all student queries; responses are always prompt (i.e. within 24 hours); feedback always offers detailed analysis of student work and suggestions for improvement, along with additional hints and information to supplement learning.

Scale (see points below)

Total Each:

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TOTAL:

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Copyright © by M. D. Roblyer. Reprinted by permission.

The National Standards for Quality Online Courses (2019) and the aligned Quality Matters K–12 Rubric (2019) are useful for reviewing online courses. These standards assess a course in relation to its: • Course overview and support. The course design, course materials, support ­services, and course instructions are introduced at the launch of the course. • Content. Multiple means of content are provided for students to learn the ­standards-based content.

pts.

266  Chapter 8 • Instructional design. The design supports active learning responsive to individual learning needs and promotes communication among teachers and students. • Learner assessment. The course has multiple options for showing progress and optimizes frequent feedback. • Accessibility and usability. Resources are user-friendly, selected to match content and learning needs, and meet all accessibility, legal, and data privacy requirements. • Technology. Resources support active learning and do not create barriers to learning progress. • Course evaluation. Courses are consistently evaluated for redesign, content updates, and technology upgrades. The Quality Matters K–12 Rubric (2019) has developed a set of 43 elements that are distributed across the following eight general standards. The course design rubric is applicable for courses created locally or that have been significantly modified from publishers: 1. Course Overview and Introduction 2. Learning Objectives (competencies) 3. Assessment and Measurement 4. Instructional Materials 5. Course Activities and Learner Interaction 6. Course Technology 7. Learner Support 8. Accessibility and Usability.

Teaching Online Courses Learning Outcome 8.3  Identify tools, strategies, and procedures to teach and build an online course. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst) Even though the research to date shows low performance outcomes for students enrolled in online courses (especially those that are run by for-profit EMOs), online courses provide valuable access to education. The more knowledgeable teachers are about designing and teaching online courses, the more likely online course outcomes will improve over time. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, schools engaged in emergency remote teaching (ERT), a special context of online learning, when teachers and students were not necessarily well prepared but were required to teach and learn online to reduce the spread of the virus. The goal of this chapter is to develop teachers’ skills in designing and teaching meaningful online experiences and coursework so teachers are well equipped to teach online. Decisions about the design of an online course space are intertwined with decisions on how the course will be taught in relation to the content topics of the course. For example, setting up communications, assignments, assessment strategies, and paths students should take through the course determine in large part how instruction will take place. Then the teacher’s role becomes one of managing the interactive activities set up in the course space. To teach online, teachers must understand required technology infrastructure and support resources and how to work with small groups because high interaction is an important factor in online courses. Some teachers have the ability to design and develop their own online courses. Other online teachers use predeveloped coursework but still should bring critical perspectives to determine if the online instruction is optimal and meaningful. Each of these topics is discussed in this section.

Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments 267

Technology Infrastructure and Support Resources for Online Teaching Online teachers must ensure they have access to all necessary elements of infrastructure and support to teach online courses. Some of these resources deliver content and allow an online space in which students and teachers can interact. Others are designed to ensure that learners have as trouble-free an online learning experience as possible. LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND WORKSPACES  LMSs and multifeature workspaces, described in Chapter 7, have become the most common means to design and deliver online courses. A school or district usually buys a license for an LMS, and its faculty uses the system’s features to design and deliver online courses. These systems, such as Google Classroom, Canvas, Schoology, SeeSaw, Moodle, and Blackboard, provide an online environment that contains tools for teaching an online course, including supports for instruction, assessment, communication, collaboration, planning, and organization. Teachers build and sequence the learning activities within the LMS or workspace. When a school or district purchases content or a predesigned course from a vendor, such as a publisher or EMO, the instructional content and learning activities are often already designed within an LMS that a teacher and students would access. The degree to which a teacher can adapt or change a course is district dependent. THE ROLE OF COMMUNICATION SUPPORT RESOURCES  When planning for online courses, awareness and use of communication tools to enhance teacher–student, teacher–parent, and student–student communication is vital. Most LMSs and workspaces include or can embed communication tools, described in Chapter 7, such as e-mail, messaging, videoconferencing, and calendars. Videoconferencing allows groups of individuals to hear and see each other and exchange information such as presentations or group meetings. Synchronous audioconferencing and asynchronous lecture recordings, such as screencasts, have shown significant positive correlations with learning growth in reading and mathematics (CREDO, 2015). Some online courses also use social networking sites (SNS) such as blogs, microblogs, wikis, and other social media tools that can be in or outside the LMS. Calendar and scheduling apps can assist in students’ self-regulation and organization as well as communication with parents. THE IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL SUPPORT FOR ONLINE TEACHING  Research on what makes online courses successful has indicated that providing continuous technical support and troubleshooting are as important as knowledgeable teachers and students who are ready to learn in the less-structured environment of online courses. The teacher needs to ensure that all links and features work for students. Optimally, organizations provide a help call center that students and instructors can contact in the event of problems with any aspect of the online course environment. Schools or districts can consider creating teacher leaders who are technology specialists who split time between online teaching and supporting other teachers. Research conducted in New York during the transition to ERT during COVID-19 found that schools aptly focused on technical resources and support, including purchasing equipment and software and providing Internet access, devices, and technical training for students, families, and teachers (CREDO, 2020). It is essential for all students to learn how to use new required technologies for online learning, but it is especially vital for students who may have special needs that limit their communication forms, such as a visually impaired student knowing how to use screen reader technology. If students do not know how to use or find help in using online resources, they will not participate in the online course. RESOURCES TO MONITOR STUDENT PROGRESS  Because teachers in asynchro-

nous online courses cannot rely on a student’s verbal responses or body language to indicate difficulties, monitoring tools must be in place to indicate when students are

Pearson eText Video Example 8.7 In this video, an online English teacher, who teaches supplemental online courses, describes her virtual classroom set within an LMS and her daily schedule.

268  Chapter 8 having problems with assignments. This is crucial because studies have shown that students who fall behind are more likely to drop the course. One feature available in most LMSs is a data dashboard, or a location that summarizes course data in ways that allow instructors to track student participation and progress, that may be built into specialized tools, such as Formative. For example, a data dashboard summarizes statistics about each student and assignment completion, discussion participation, frequency of system log-ins, content access, and sometimes learning analytics, such as analysis of learning–content interactions with suggested learning pathways. Macfadyen and D ­ awson (2010) and Stansbury (2014) found that data dashboards are valuable for tracking progress and task completion and to predict learning problems and help instructors identify which students might need extra help. For example, a data dashboard can identify lurkers, or students who sign on to and spend time in a course space but never post anything. If there are expectations for interaction and contributions, only lurking may be nonproductive and signals to the instructor that teacher check-in communication with that student is in order. Online teachers can use diversified formative and summative assessments frequently to monitor student progress, such as the following assessments facilitated by suggested technology resources (Ng et al., 2020): • Online polling, comprehension checks, or quizzes: Google Forms, EdPuzzle, Kahoot!, Poll Everywhere, Quizizz, Survey Hero • Chat-based check-ins or exit tickets: Backchannel chat, LMS or videoconferencing chats, Twitter, Chatzy • Video-based reflective commentary: Flipgrid, Animoto • Brainstorming: AnswerGarden, Mural, Jamboard, Coggle, Conceptboard, Miro, Padlet • Narrated or annotated explanations: AudioNote, Google Docs, Microsoft Word, Adobe Acrobat, ShowMe, SeeSaw drawing tools • Presentations or in-presentation feedback: Buncee, Pear Deck, Spiral • Discussions: LMS discussion boards, Google Classroom question feature. STRATEGIES TO FACILITATE INTERACTION  The most successful online courses

are interactive, meaning students interact with peers, with their teacher, and possibly with other people such as guests, experts, or distant collaborators (see Figure 8.1). Highly interactive online courses are structured to promote social rapport between class members and the teacher, involve dyad or small-group activities or projects, promote both asynchronous and synchronous communications, and involve high student and teacher engagement. Many teachers use a range of asynchronous or synchronous online discussions to meet many of these goals. LMSs or workspaces offer tools to host a discussion or pose questions to students. Open-ended polls or other formative feedback mechanisms may engender some level of perspective gathering but may not support as much back-and-forth asynchronous discussion, but if the comments are shared to the whole class, dyads or small groups could break out synchronously to consider the input. Consider the following discussion-leading strategies: • With students, co-develop discussion expectations and a rubric for assessment; share both with students to guide their discussion contributions. • Consider Hughes’s metacognitive strategy in which students categorize and tag their contributions according to a co-created set of response types (see Table 8.5). This leads them to avoid simplistic responses and work to write generative contributions. • Create thought-provoking questions or scenarios that require students to apply their developing knowledge. Questions with discrete answers will not provoke meaningful discussion, as all students will reply with the same content.

Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments 269

Table 8.5  Discussion Forum Content Contribution Category Tags To guide the content and meaningfulness of online discussions, consider the following types of content contributions. Students use metacognition to monitor their own contribution to the discussion and tag their contribution explicitly. The tag also serves as an advance cue or organizer to help readers anticipate the nature of the discussion contribution. Category or Tag

Description of Contribution

Reflection

Comments and initial thoughts, especially when asked to initially reflect about a topic, experience, or course material

Expansive Question

Question about the content read or ideas posted by others (i.e., questions that spur others to think about or explore deeply the content or other ideas perhaps by using comparisons or metaphors)

Essential Understanding

Original contribution about the content read, including reinterpretations with the use of personal/outside examples

Friendly Challenge

Query on the content read or ideas posted by others (i.e., disagreement with specific support for another’s perspective with new, alternative support offered)

Personal A-ha

Explanation of a significant shift in a perspective on the topic due to the topic, experience, course material, or discussion

Clarification Question

Respondent requests clarification before being able to respond further.

Support

Confirm ideas that peer or teacher has posed, including reasons why the respondent agrees with or affirms the ideas

Connection

Link to other peers’ or the instructor’s posts; direct readers to another post with similar ideas and content as your own or make a comment that connects or extends another person’s ideas while explicitly acknowledging the connection

Restatement

To clarify the meaning of a post, restate back to the peer what you think is meant, then ask to check if your interpretation correctly captures the intended meaning

Summary/Wrap-Up

Summarize or bring together ideas across the discussion or part of the discussion

• Be present and guide contributions by students through expansive queries; do not dominate the discussion yourself as the teacher but also ensure you contribute. • Summarize or assign one or two students to summarize the discussion in their own words. RESOURCES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING STUDENTS  Although monitoring tools

can provide feedback, teachers and mentors are the ones who must interact with students to address their needs. Districts often have on-site mentors who can help students with everything from how to log in to how to use the technology required to take the class. For example, one administrator reported that her district provides three tiers of support—an online teacher, a content teacher or learning mentor, and an online tutor— available around the clock every day (Stansbury, 2014). But many teachers may not teach in high-resourced contexts and the support will fall on the teacher. The following suggestions may prevent or remediate student struggles: • Create learning activity routines in the daily schedule. • Strive for consistency in the class materials and assessments. • Ensure students know how to navigate the class, see the schedule, find lesson materials, and seek help. • Scaffold self-regulated learning through modeling strategies such as scheduling work and break times; using a timer to meet time-on-task goals; setting learning or activity goals; developing and using checklists; and finding quiet spaces for work time. • Check-ins with students and their families to develop positive rapport, understand the students’ or parents’ or caregivers’ points of view on emerging struggles, and gauge home-based stressors. RESOURCES TO SUPPORT STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS  Online courses must be accessible to students with special needs such as those with vision, hearing, and physical impairments. Federal law requires all agencies receiving federal funds to demonstrate compliance with web accessibility standards. Teachers must

Pearson eText Video Example 8.8 In this video, a teacher provides the benefits of using discussion boards.

270  Chapter 8 design web elements to consider the needs of individuals with disabilities such as the following: • Ability to enlarge text • High contrast (or adjustable) between text and background colors • Alternatives to mouse controls, such as special switches and joysticks for students with mobility issues • Alternative keyboards • Alternatives to videos (e.g., podcast descriptions, text descriptions, or live captioning) for students with visual deficits • Alternatives to audio (e.g., transcripts or closed captioning) for students with hearing impairments • Alternatives to text presentation (e.g., podcasts or text readers) in all areas for students with visual deficits. All online courses must include these capabilities to meet universal design for learning (UDL) requirements, as described in Chapters 3 and 9. Equitable access is denied to individuals with disabilities when they are prevented from accessing the information that is available to their peers who do not have special needs. RESOURCES AND STRATEGIES TO ENSURE ACADEMIC HONESTY  Academic

honesty is one of the main concerns with online courses. Instructors and administrators want tools in place that can help ensure that the students who are signed up for a course are actually the ones submitting work and taking tests. Some common strategies for ensuring this integrity are given here. Some programs use a combination of all these methods: 1. Honor codes. Some courses include an honor code, noted in the course syllabus and discussed or even co-developed with students. Students must agree to uphold the honor code before beginning the course. The instructor asks students to sign and submit a signed honor code as a beginning assignment. 2. Information about plagiarism. It is imperative to include in the class/syllabus information and to create a learning experience that describes and provides examples of plagiarism and indicates the repercussions for students who commit it. Students do not always know what is and is not permitted, so this information often proves instructive. This knowledge contributes to becoming a digital citizen, described thoroughly in Chapter 4. 3. Student discussions about academic honesty. Some courses have an initial online discussion about the importance of academic honesty. The discussion could be for the whole class or small groups and can pose a question such as Who does cheating cheat? or What does honesty mean in school? 4. Online proctoring systems. Some technologies, such as Respondus and ProctorU, monitor test taking and the identity of individuals who complete assessments for online courses, as described in Chapter 4. These often implement biometric ­monitoring systems, tools that take physical readings from a student’s body to ascertain identity. Concerns regarding privacy intrusion and racial bias exist in relation to these systems’ use (Asher-Schapiro, 2020; Morris & Stommel, 2017), so online teachers and administrators should consider these with a critical stance. 5. Plagiarism detection software. Some online schools make software such as ­Turnitin or iThenticate available for teachers to check that student work is original. Some LMSs have detection software built in to automatically check all assignments. Again, there are privacy concerns with these systems as they often integrate students’ work that is being checked for plagiarism into their databases without

Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments 271

permission from the student. Another simple way in which teachers can check for text copied directly from online resources or some books is to copy the text from a student’s paper, enclose it in quotes, and search for it in Google’s search engine. If the text is verbatim from another source, it is likely you will find it. 6. Original assignments. The very best nontechnical approach to increasing academic honesty is to spend time creating new, creative assignments that draw students to apply the concepts in a generative, knowledge-building approach.

Management of Online Small-Group Activities Small-group work is a frequently used strategy in interactive online courses, but it is often challenging. Some students dislike it because other students in their group could have incompatible schedules or work at a pace that differs from their own. Several practices support group work in ways that make this efficient and productive. The ­following recommendations are based on Roblyer (2015): 1. Assign the group a clearly stated problem and show them (or co-create a rubric with them) how their final work will be assessed. 2. Assign roles and specific responsibilities for each group member. For longer projects, students could cycle through these roles. 3. Have groups begin by agreeing on some “norms” (e.g., how they will resolve issues such as someone not doing their “job” and when to ask an instructor for help). 4. Encourage group cohesion by asking the group members to agree on a group name. 5. Monitor all group activities but intercede in group work only when necessary. If one of the course objectives is for students to learn how to work collaboratively to solve a problem or produce a product, several instruments are available to assess this ability. Visit Collaboration Rubrics at the website or Kathy Schrock’s Guide to Everything: Assessments and Rubrics (Schrock, n.d.).

Designing and Developing an Online Course in an LMS or Workspace Designing online environments takes considerable expertise in applying a variety of different strategies for presenting instruction and assessing learned skills. As with the Technology Integration in Action example that opened this chapter, sometimes those who teach the course have little to no control over the course design. When they are able to design “from scratch,” designers can use the following recommended 10-step sequence, based on Roblyer’s (2015) recommendations. STEP 1: SELECT THE ONLINE MODEL  Review the types of online courses described

earlier. Each model, such as a noninteractive, asynchronous online course, will have a far different design than an interactive one. Thus, the decision on which model or combination of models to use has a far-reaching impact on other choices related to course structure and design. STEP 2: DESIGN AND DOCUMENT LEARNING ACTIVITIES  This step also calls for

making a critical set of decisions on the instructional design of the course: what students will need to do to achieve course objectives. There is no cookbook-type strategy for completing this set of activities. If a course is being transferred from in-person to online format, it will likely retain some of the structural aspects (e.g., objectives, how many content units there are, and the order in which students will go through them), but most actual learning activities to support learning in the online format change substantially. After activities are designed, they are documented in a detailed class plan or course syllabus, which provides an overview of course structure, requirements, and

Pearson eText Video Example 8.9 In this video, a virtual school principal explains that academic honesty in online learning environments is an ongoing concern.

272  Chapter 8 expectations. For K–12 students, this plan may be constructed within the LMS as a resource area but can also be shared with parents as an e-mail, single document, or webpage, depending on their access to the LMS or workspace areas. A comprehensive course plan usually explains: • Teacher name and best communication channels (e.g., e-mail, phone, messaging) • Teacher synchronous office hours • Daily, weekly, or monthly class schedule • Course description, topics, and objectives • Required and recommended course materials, including required technology resources • Learning activities and assessment formats • Assessment criteria, scale, and rubrics or description of how these will be co-­c onstructed together • Policies governing academic honesty, privacy, and digital citizenship in the course space • Help and support resources. STEP 3: CREATE COURSE SPACE STRUCTURE  In this step, the decisions made in

Step 2 take shape in the course space, such as in Canvas or Google Classroom. ­Studies show that the single most important quality of an effective course space is how it encourages and manages interaction (Roblyer & Wiencke, 2004). Moore (1986) was the first to identify three kinds of interaction: learner and content, learner and teacher, and learner and learner. In noninteractive models, interaction is exclusively learner–­ content. Moore also reported that activities must be structured to address what he called transactional distance, or the potential gap in communications between teachers and learners that must be bridged for most students to learn successfully. Online courses bridge this distance by using the following types of communication and information posted in the course space. Learner–content interaction.  The course space must be designed to require and support students to engage with materials that convey the course content. This usually means that students cannot merely read text or view videos; they must do activities that show they have understood them, such as creating multimodal content representations. The course space must communicate clearly what the activities are, where they are located in the course space, and what students are required to do with them. This is the only type of interaction that is required for all course models. One popular way to begin students’ engagement with the content is through an online scavenger hunt that requires them to locate items such as words or images in various parts of the course space. As they locate items, they also learn the course space structure and where various kinds of resources are located. Their first assignment in this activity would be to create a representation that shows the scavenger hunt answers and submit it in the required area. Learner–teacher interaction.  In most online or blended courses, learners also interact with teachers. The course space must provide locations for this to occur (e.g., discussion boards, e-mail, instant messaging, blogs, video reflections) and make sure that students know where these are and how to use them. Some courses also announce virtual office hours during which the instructor is available (usually within the course space, such as in a videoconference) to answer questions immediately. To keep from having to answer the same question multiple times for different students via e-mail, it is a good idea to have an asynchronous area of the course, such as a discussion board, where students and teachers can interact with posted messages, such as an “Ask the Teacher” space. In this space, when a student asks a question, everyone sees both the

Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments 273

question and the teacher’s answer. If a student e-mails a question instead of posting it in the course space, the teacher thanks the student for the question and asks the student to post it in the designated “Ask the Teacher” space so that everyone will see the question and answer. Learner–learner interaction.  The final kind of interaction is not required in every course but has become more popular as studies have confirmed the power of student learning with and from each other. Opportunities for social interaction in course spaces are also important because non–online students often learn from each other in situations outside class such as libraries and coffee shops. Online courses are often designed to emulate and promote this social interaction. It is important to clearly define expectations regarding participatory activities; such clarity has been positively correlated with learning growth in reading (CREDO, 2015). The following are some ways to accomplish learner–learner interaction: • “Introduce yourself” forum. Just as in-person courses sometimes open with an activity to help students get to know each other, effective course spaces provide an engaging opening activity that encourages students to talk to each other on a social level. See Figure 8.2 for example introduction strategies. They give students nonthreatening, hands-on experiences in how an online discussion works. • A “learner lounge” forum. This is a location for social talk on anything of interest to the students, such as movie reviews, music, television, other topics of interest, and comments about what they are learning. Students can post items of interest there throughout the course. It is a space just for students, though it should be monitored by the teacher for any inappropriate contributions. • Discussion groups. With the exception of social forums such as the learner lounge, it is difficult to engage in a whole-class discussion because threads can get very long and hard to follow. Instead, effective courses break up students into small groups of three to six and post discussion topics there. An assigned or volunteer can summarize the discussion and bring those summaries back to the whole group in a synchronous discussion or in another discussion forum or collaborative document that compiles each group’s summaries.

Figure 8.2  Example Icebreakers to Promote Social Interaction in Online Courses Icebreakers are used to allow students and teachers to get to know each other. They are ­especially useful in asynchronous courses if students do not already know each other. Ask students to post their responses (as a textual, graphical, and/or video-based response if students do not have any hearing or audio impairments). Each of these suggestions should be followed by students responding to each other, noting shared experiences, commonalities, or slight differences with the other student. • Make an acrostic with the letters of their first name. Each word should be something that could describe them. • Students introduce themselves providing some details about their past, present, and future in one paragraph. • Post a photo of themselves (or an image or cartoon character they want to represent them) and give a paragraph of personal background. • Post a photo of their pet(s) and tell a little about them. • Create a photo collage that introduces themselves (can be created in Google Slides). • Post two things they feel are most important to know about them. • Describe their proudest (or scariest, most inspiring, etc.) moment. • Name their favorite book and why they liked it.

274  Chapter 8 STEP 4: CREATE LEARNING MODULES  Teachers can create modules with activi-

ties and assignments organized by a certain time frame, such as a day or week, or for a content unit, such as a lesson or chapter. In a module, teachers create a step-bystep sequence of activities that communicates to students the course structure and the required activities. As teachers continue developing materials in the following steps, they should add them to the requisite module. For example, they might create a course that has 15 modules with each one matching the 15 content topics covered in the course or a module for each week of the class. STEP 5: CREATE ASSESSMENT MATERIALS  All products and activities for which students are assessed must have an instrument, such as an assessment rubric, that lets students know the expectations; this includes discussion assignments. Review ­Chapter 3 for background on assessments and Chapter 6 for data and analysis technologies that support assessment. All instruments must be placed in course space locations that are clearly labeled so students will know where to locate them. Figure 8.3 is an example rubric for assessing student performance in online discussion forums. Note that the ROLE model at the bottom of the figure provides helpful netiquette guidelines for posting messages online to demonstrate courtesy and regard for other users. ­Chapter 4 includes thorough information on digital citizenship. STEP 6: CREATE CONTENT REPRESENTATION MATERIALS  This step involves

developing ways to represent content information. In online courses, new information can be presented in written or published web documents; content representations, such as graphics, images, and presentations; data representations; instructional software; online archived, interactive, synchronous, and educational content; demonstration through web-based communication, collaboration, and creation; and offline resources, such as textbook reading assignments. Consult Chapters 4–7 for thorough information on creating or finding content and representations. Engaging curriculum is one that keeps students interested and provides a variety of methods of delivering content (Stansbury, 2014). STEP 7: CREATE SMALL-GROUP ACTIVITIES  Discussion activity has already been

mentioned as a way to promote learner–learner interaction. Other small-group activities (e.g., research, representation, or creation projects) can be placed in appropriate modules. These can be designed to be seen only by group members in their own area or they could be set up so that all groups are free to see each other’s work. Each group’s area must be clearly labeled with tasks and responsibilities for each group and group member. STEP 8: CREATE AND ORGANIZE RESOURCE LINKS AND OTHER MATERIALS 

Resource links to websites outside the course space can be added to modules as needed. Most assignments can be built into the LMS or workspace by adding the generated link to the module. For example, an assignment that requires a student to upload a file can be created and added to the module. When submitted, the document is added immediately to the LMS gradebook and is ready for feedback or assessment. Many resources, such as OER content or technological resources, such as Flipgrid or Google Docs, may be embeddable or linkable into the LMS or workspace so students do not need to leave the course space to use the resources. STEP 9: DECIDE ON AND SIGNAL THE COURSE PATH  To a student who enters a course space for the first time, nothing is self-evident; every course space is like entering a new town for the first time. Students who have used previous course spaces can usually figure out what to do, but there is no such thing as a course space that is too clear. To help students navigate, the instructor must signal a clear path by telling the student where to go first and how to learn where materials and activities are

Teaching and Learning in Blended and Online Environments 275

Figure 8.3  Online Discussion Participation Rubric Rubric for Guiding and Assessing Online Discussion Participation Dimension #1: Timeliness of Interaction

Dimension #2: Frequency of Interaction

Dimension #3: Direction of Interaction

Dimension #4: ­Language Quality and Voice

Dimension #5: Quality of Contribution

Level 1: Basic (Assign 1 point for each dimension at this level)

Joins discussion later than deadline.

Posts only one comment.

Posts only own comment(s); does not respond to anyone else’s comments.

Comment(s) are poorly written and difficult to understand, too wordy, too terse, and/ or at least one does not observe the ROLE model.*

Comments are general and/or unrelated to discussion topic (e.g. “I agree!” or “I hear what you’re saying.”).

Level 2: Low (Assign 2 points for each dimension at this level)

Joins by the deadline, but late enough that it does not leave time for good participation in the discussion.

Posts two comments but only at the beginning or end of the discussion period.

Posts own comments and responds once to another person’s comment.

Comments are sometimes poorly written and difficult to understand or are too wordy and rambling or terse.

Offers comments related to the topic but do not clearly reflect knowledge of topic or required content.

Level 3: Medium (Assign 3 points for each dimension at this level)

Joins by the deadline but is late in responding to others’ postings.

Posts more than two comments but only at beginning or end of discussion period.

Posts own comments and responds more than once to others’ comments or questions.

Comments are usually understandable but at least one is either wordy and rambling or terse.

Offers comments related to the topic and required content, but comments are not always very logical or helpful.

Level 4: High (Assign 4 points for each dimension at this level)

Posts well before the deadline to leave time for good participation in the discussion; responds fairly promptly to others’ postings (within a day).

Posts more than two comments interspersed throughout the discussion period.

Posts own comments and responds more than once to others’ postings and to any other directed questions.

Comments are always well formulated and articulate.

Offers comments that are directly related to the topic and content and are helpful and logical.

Total =         /20 ­possible points

Timeliness of ­Interaction Level =          of 4 points

Frequency of ­Interaction Level =          of 4 points

Direction of ­Interaction Level =          of 4 points

Language Quality and Voice Level =          of 4 points

Quality of ­Contribution Level =          of 4 points

*The Rules of Online Learning Etiquette (ROLE) Model 1. Make postings and responses friendly and helpful. 2. Allow for differences of opinion; disagree in a respectful way. 3. Always assume good intentions; request clarification when necessary. 4. Avoid sarcasm, which can often be misinterpreted.

Grading Scale 18–20 points = Very good, A work 16–17 points = Good, B work 14–15 points = Average, C work Under 14 points = Work below standards

5. Never use profanity or “flaming” language, regardless of the situation. Copyright © by M. D. Roblyer. Reprinted by permission.

located in the space. This is usually done with an introductory e-mail, announcement, or screencast. An introductory e-mail can be sent to students a week or two before the class starts and welcomes them and explains where to get a username and password, how to sign on and where to go first, and how to get technical assistance for sign-on issues. An announcements page appears automatically when the student signs on and gives detailed instructions on what to do. A screencast can provide students a narrated, video-based tour of the space. STEP 10: DETERMINE AND DOCUMENT COURSE LOGISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS  Finally, decisions must be made and documented about how to deliver the

course. These include: • Timetable for displaying course components. Decisions that must be made at this point include: • Should the entire course be shown all at once or should a specific part be shown at a determined time? For many K–12 students, having the entire course visible may be overwhelming so teachers may choose to release a week or two at a time.

276  Chapter 8 • After one part (e.g., a unit or discussion) is complete, should it be locked or removed from student view to prevent further comments or work? • Should discussion boards require student posts prior to showing the contents of the discussion? • Midcourse and frequent feedback. Anonymous feedback from students gathered using LMS or other survey tools and solicited during the course helps to spot problems or issues that could help avoid students from struggling and requiring intervention. • Requirements to visit course space. Students must know how often and when they are expected to visit the course space. Decisions on this requirement depend on the content and the assignments that require interaction with other students.

CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY The following is a summary of the main points covered in this chapter. 1. Blended Learning • Blended learning combines online and face-to-face learning activities in a brick-and-mortar (physical) classroom. • Blended learning models include station rotation, lab rotation, individual rotation, flipped classroom, flex, à la carte, and enriched virtual. • Benefits include increased student e­ ngagement, the ability to review learning materials on demand,  maximization of active learning during class time, student-centered learning, individual assistance, and personalized learning. • There are challenges for students, teachers, and the institution. Student challenges include self-­regulation and accountability, high workload and steep technological learning curve, disinterest in video lectures, low motivation, and poor performance. Teacher challenges include technology skills and access, openness to instructional change, pedagogical approaches, and time for finding resources. Institutional challenges include creation of a vision, increased class sizes, technological constraints and digital equity, and accessibility. • Integration strategies involve the district and classroom. District/school strategies include establishing a climate for continuous improvement, defining blended learning goals, providing professional development and time for design, and reducing implementation barriers. Classroom teachers following the F-L-I-P integration strategies include creating a flexible learning environment with scaffolding that supports student agency, developing a constructivist learning culture beginning with intentional and connected online and offline

content, and being a reflective and collaborative professional educator who continuously seeks new learning. 2. Online Learning • Online learning is a form of distance education in which students take fully online courses taught by an online instructor who is physically distant from the student. • Online courses can be supplemental or full time. Course models include (1) the noninteractive, asynchronous online model, (2) the interactive, asynchronous online model, (3) the interactive, synchronous online model, and (4) the interactive, a­ synchronous + synchronous online model. In  emergency contexts, some variations of combined online and blended learning models include online/in-­person, staggered, gapped, and alternating “hybrid” models. Online course or school providers include single-district virtual schools, full-time online charter schools, multidistrict fully online schools, consortia, state-supported online schools, private/­ independent schools, university online high schools, and blended/hybrid schools. • Benefits of online learning include a path to credit recovery and graduation, a bridge to advanced or elective coursework, cost-effectiveness, and student agency in learning, learning continuity during emergencies, school alternatives when none other exist, and potentially safer schooling. • Challenges include poor academic performance, high student–teacher ratios, high withdrawal and low graduation rates, uncertain funding, unclear family expectations, and widening social justice issues. • Integration strategies involve students, teachers, and courses. Possible contributors to

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student readiness include a desire to learn online, t­echnological c­ ompetency or self-efficacy, interest in the subject content, and internal locus of control. The integration strategy for teachers is to develop the knowledge, understanding, and abilities ­outlined in the national standards for quality online teaching. Online courses should involve high interaction, prepare students for the course, offer technical and logistical support, and minimize technical problems. Online courses should be reviewed for quality using one of several available rubrics. 3. Teaching Online Courses • Teaching online requires an understanding of required technology infrastructure and support resources, facilitation of small groups, and the ability to design and develop a course or course elements. • Technological infrastructure and supports include (1) learning management systems and multifeature workspaces, (2) communication support resources, (3) technical support, (4) resources to monitor student progress, (5) strategies to facilitate student and teacher interaction, (6) support for struggling

students, (7) support for students with special needs, and (8) resources and strategies to ensure academic honesty. • Managing small-group work in online courses requires the following: assigning the students a clearly stated problem and showing them how they will be assessed, assigning roles and specific responsibilities for each group member, having groups begin by agreeing on some “norms,” encouraging group cohesion by asking the group members to agree on a group name, instructor monitoring of all groups, and instructor intervention in group work only when necessary. • Designing and developing an online course in an LMS involves 10 steps: Step 1: Select the online model, Step 2: Design and document learning activities, Step 3: Create course space structure, Step 4: Create learning modules, Step 5: Create assessment materials, Step 6: Create content representation materials, Step 7: Create small-group activities, Step 8: Create and organize resource links and other materials, Step 9: Decide on and signal the course path, Step 10: Determine and document course logistics and requirements.

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION WORKSHOP Apply What You Learned In this chapter, you learned about blended and online learning. Now apply your understanding of these concepts by completing the following activities: • Reread Ms. Haas’s Virtual Health lesson at the beginning of this chapter. Pay close attention to Step 3 of the Technology Integration Planning (TIP) model when she identifies the technological possibilities for her problem of practice: teaching a newly required health course. Using your knowledge about blended and online learning models introduced in this chapter, generate at least one new technological possibility for targeting Ms. Haas’s problem of practice. • Review how Ms. Haas RATified the lesson in Step 5 of the TIP model as represented in Table 8.1. Use the RAT Matrix to analyze the role(s) and relative advantage that your new technological possibility (identified in the previous step) would play in the lesson. You must reflect on the roles your identified technological possibilities play as replacement, amplification, and/or transformation of instruction, student learning, and/or curriculum. Do you feel your proposed technology would provide relative advantage?

Pearson eText Artifact 8.1: The RAT Matrix

Technology Integration Lesson Planning: Evaluating Lesson Plans Complete the following exercise using Technology ­Integration Example 8.1, any lesson plan you find on the web, or one provided by your instructor. a. Locate lesson ideas—Identify three lesson plans that use any of the blended or online learning models you learned about in this chapter, for example: • Blended models (station rotation, lab rotation, individual rotation, flipped classroom, flex, à la carte, enriched virtual) • Online: Noninteractive asynchronous, interactive asynchronous, interactive synchronous, or interactive asynchronous + synchronous. b. Evaluate the lessons—Use the Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist and the RAT Matrix to evaluate each of the lessons you found. Based on the evaluation and your RATification of the lessons, would you adopt these lessons in the future? Why or why not?

278  Chapter 8 Pearson eText Artifact 8.2: Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist

Pearson eText Artifact 8.1: The RAT Matrix

Technology Integration Lesson Planning: Creating Lesson Plans with the TIP Model Review the way to implement the TIP model (see ­Figure 3.4 in Chapter 3) for technology integration planning and use Ms. Haas’s lesson Virtual Health in this chapter as a model. Create your own technology-­supported lesson that uses blended or online approaches by ­completing the following activities: a. Describe Phase 1, Lead from Enduring Problems of Practice: • What is the problem of practice or main content challenge in your lesson? • What are the technology resources that your students, their families, you, your school, and your community could bring as assets to the lesson? • What are the technological possibilities for helping to solve the identified problem of practice? Identify the technology(ies) you will integrate into the lesson to ensure that you have the skills and resources you need to solve the problem. What integration strategies will you use in this lesson?

b. Describe Phase 2, Design and Teach the Technology ­Integration Lesson: • What are the objectives of the lesson plan? • How will you assess your students’ accomplishment of the objectives? • What integration strategies will you use in this lesson plan? • What is the relative advantage of using the technology(ies) in this lesson? • How would you prepare the learning environment? c. Describe Phase 3, Evaluate, Revise, and Share: • What strategies and/or instruments would you use to evaluate the success of this lesson in your classroom to determine any needed revision? • Create descriptors for your new lesson (e.g., grade level, content and topic areas, technologies used, ISTE standards for students). • Save your lesson plan with all its descriptors and TIP model notes and share with your peers, teacher, and others. When you use your new lesson with students, be sure to assess it using the Technology Impact Checklist. Pearson eText Artifact 8.3: Technology Impact Checklist

CHAPTER 9

Teaching and Learning with Technology in Special Education By Min Wook Ok and Joan E. Hughes

Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter and completing the learning activities, you should be able to: 9.1 Explain current issues and challenges related to providing services

for students with disabilities that influence teachers’ plans for ­technology integration. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner, 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 7—Analyst) 9.2 Select technology resources and plan integration strategies

that meet the diverse needs of all students. (ISTE Standards for ­Educators: 1—Learner; 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 4—Collaborator; 5—Designer; 6—Facilitator; 7—Analyst)

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN ACTION:

Mitosis GRADE LEVELS: High school CONTENT AREA/TOPIC: Mitosis (Life Sciences) LENGTH OF TIME: 6 days

Phase 1  Lead from Enduring Problems of Practice Step 1: Identify problems of practice (POPs) Ms. Ravenscroft, a high school biology teacher, noticed that some students with learning disabilities were doing poorly on content-area tests in comparison with the rest of her class. She was becoming frustrated because the strategies she had tried were clearly not sufficient for her students with cognitive disabilities. She decided to collaborate more directly (Continued)

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with Ms. Ethelbart, the special education resource teacher for the high school. Ms. Ethelbart and Ms. Ravenscroft decided to focus on ways they could enhance explicit instruction on content-area concepts, skill, and strategies with special attention to provide multiple representations of content and multiple expressions of mastery of content, core principles within universal design for learning. Research has shown that students with learning disabilities benefit from these instructional strategies because they accommodate varied ways of making meaning and provide explicitness around difficult scientific concepts and processes. Ms. Ravenscroft wanted to focus on an upcoming cell biology unit.

Step 2: Assess technological resources of students, families, teachers, the school, and the community Ms. Ravenscroft’s high school had many computer laboratories, but most were reserved for specialty classes such as computer science and photography/film. She had five computers in her classroom, and she had a central computing hub from which she could display digital materials to the whole classroom. Because no students in her class had physical, sensory, or communicative disabilities, her computers did not have any assistive hardware or software beyond what was built into the operating system. Based on a survey Ms. Ravenscroft gave, most of her students had extensive computer-based experience with social media, web searching, and software use for productivity activities like word processing and presenting. She also knew that all her students had computer access in their homes. The school’s library was also available for computer use before and after school and during lunch, and the community library had resources for after school. Ms. Ravenscroft felt that she was an expert technology user because many of her colleagues came to her to ask for advice. She also had confidence in Ms. Ethelbart’s extensive knowledge in ­special education and assistive technologies. She was known to find creative solutions to learner needs.

Step 3: Identify technological possibilities and select an integration strategy The two teachers began researching online resources and assistive technologies to find key solutions for Ms. ­Ravenscroft’s students with learning disabilities. To target instruction on content concepts, they focused on ­expanding beyond the textbook-based reading to incorporate other content representations, including: ■ ■ ■

A computer simulation of mitosis A filmed student role play of mitosis, which would then be an additional learning resource A video recording of the teacher-lecture portions of instruction, which would then be provided as a learning resource with closed captioning.

Ms. Ravenscroft also planned to encourage students to use StudyBlue to create vocabulary flash cards for ­review activities. For the final assessment, instead of a text-based test assessment, the teachers decided to offer multiple ways for the students to show mastery of the content. They provided support for students to create a: ■ ■ ■ ■

Graphic organizer Oral recitation Digital presentation Written essay.

The teachers decided to combine directed and constructivist instructional approaches in the lesson while providing the multiple content representations and multiple ways for students to show mastery of the content.

Phase 2  Design and Teach the Technology Integration Lesson Step 4: Decide on learning objectives and assessments The teachers based their objectives on Next Generation Science Standards in the high school life science disciplinary core idea, “From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes” (HS-LS1): Outcome: Students understand the role of cellular division (mitosis) and differentiation in producing and ­maintaining complex organisms. ■

■

Objective: At least 95% of the students will achieve at least 80% on their oral recitation, graphical display, digital presentation, or written explanation of mitosis as scored by a teacher checklist. Assessment: Use a checklist of component variables involved in a model of mitosis.

Outcome: Students integrate technical vocabulary expressed in words with a visual version of the same information. ■ ■

Objective: All students will use at least five technical vocabulary terms in their final presentation. Assessment: Use a checklist of technical vocabulary words and rubric.

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Step 5: Assess the relative advantage: RATify the planned lesson In thinking about the challenge associated with raising scientific understanding and achievement among students with learning disabilities, Ms. Ravenscroft and Ms. Ethelbart together RATified her proposed lesson. Table 9.1 shows the aspects of instruction, student learning, and curriculum that they felt would be impacted by this technology-based lesson. They were satisfied with the replacement, amplification, and transformation, especially for student learning in the lesson. They felt there was relative advantage to conduct the lesson as planned.

Step 6: Prepare the learning environment and teach the lesson The key to the lesson’s success was setting up the environment with appropriate materials. Ms. Ravenscroft and Ms. Ethelbart identified the mitosis simulation in advance. They planned for Ms. Ravenscroft to use Google Slides with closed captioning to produce the teacher lecture videos. The teachers made sure the five classroom computers had software for creating presentations, graphic organizers, and word processing. They uploaded an explanation of the unit to the classroom website so that parents would see the lesson goals, activities, and the videos (when produced) for all students. Their plan involved the following: Day 1: The teacher introduces the unit, uses the lectures (prerecorded), and encourages the use of StudyBlue to generate vocabulary flashcards. Day 2: The teacher shows the computer simulation. The video lecture and simulation become available on the teacher’s website. The students form groups and plan how to enact mitosis. Day 3: Student groups role-play the process of mitosis, which they film and then upload to a private media site. Day 4: The role-play videos are added to the teacher’s website. Students begin developing their final projects. Day 5: Students complete work on final presentations. Day 6: Students enact oral recitations in class followed by peer review. Those who completed graphic organizers, presentations, or written essays submit their presentations to the teacher who assigns peer review as homework.

Phase 3  Evaluate, Revise, and Share Step 7: Evaluate lesson results and impact At the end of the lesson, the teachers reviewed the students’ work. Ms. Ravenscroft found that the results for most of her science students were at or above those in previous years for the same content topic. Results for the students with special needs were much improved as compared with those of past years. She and Ms. Ethelbart discovered that all students with learning disabilities demonstrated understanding of the mitosis process and integrated at least five scientifically technical words in their final work.

Step 8: Make revisions based on results Ms. Ravenscroft and Ms. Ethelbart felt that it might help students with learning disabilities to make faster progress if there was a more structured sequence of steps that they could follow to complete the final evidence of mastery. The teachers planned to create templates for presentations, graphic organizers, oral recitations, and written essays so these students could focus more on presenting their knowledge and understandings and less on the logistics of

Table 9.1  Ms. Ravenscroft’s and Ms. Ethelbart’s RATified Lesson Instruction Replacement Technology is a different means to same end. Amplification Technology increases or ­intensifies ­efficiency, productivity, access, ­capabilities, but the tasks stay ­fundamentally the same. Transformation Technology redefines, restructures, ­reorganizes, changes, and creates novel solutions.

Learning

Curriculum

• StudyBlue allows vocabulary quizzing.

• Mitosis simulation provides another ­representation of ­content concept.

• Video lecture provides more and repeated access to teacher instruction and knowledge. • Instruction offers multiple ways for students to show mastery of content. • Filmed student role-play of mitosis makes students’ enactment part of the content resource materials.

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creating the digital materials. They decided to implement these ideas in future lessons to see the impact of these modifications on their outcomes.

Step 9: Share lessons, revisions, and outcomes with other peer teachers Ms. Ethelbart was delighted to collaborate with Ms. Ravenscroft and see so much successful learning among all students and those with learning disabilities. Ms. Ethelbart felt she could get support for expanding these instructional changes to science and other content areas. The two teachers planned to share their lesson and its success in an upcoming team meeting with science teachers. SOURCE: Based on ideas from Grumbine, R., & Brigham Alden, P. (2006, February 23). Teaching science to students with learning disabilities. National Science Teaching Association. http://www.nsta.org/publications/news/story.aspx?id=51706

The following Pearson eText artifacts support completion of the Application Exercises, if assigned by your instructor. Pearson eText Artifact 9.1: The RAT Matrix

Pearson eText Artifact 9.2: Technology Lesson Plan Evaluation Checklist

Introduction This chapter is unique in that it cuts across teaching and learning activities of all school content areas. It has three major sections. It begins with background information about special education that gives readers a context and framework for reading about this topic. Next, the chapter reviews major issues and challenges in the field that shape how technology can be integrated. Finally, it describes the integration strategies specific to teaching special education topics and discusses how teachers can improve their knowledge and skills in integrating technology most effectively in this important area. The chapter provides a helpful rubric for self-assessment of growth in how well a teacher is able to integrate technology in special education called “Rubric to Measure Teacher Growth in Technology Integration for Teachers of Students with Disabilities.” For a person with a disability, technologies transform lives because they make living and learning richer. Technologies continue to improve the quality and reach of assistive devices and expand access to learning opportunities for all individuals with special needs. In this chapter, notice the way that technologies improve access to quality of life and learning. Pay special attention to concepts such as universal designs for l­earning (UDL).

Introduction to Special Education Learning Outcome 9.1  Explain current issues and challenges related to providing services for students who have special needs that influence teachers’ plans for technology integration. (ISTE Standards for Educators: 1—Learner, 2—Leader; 3—Citizen; 7—Analyst) In the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; 2004), the federal law protecting the rights of children and youth with a disability and their parents, special education is defined as “specially designed instruction, at no cost to parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability” (Section 602, p. 10). Special education is reserved for students whose needs cannot be satisfied in general education because of their disabilities (Turnbull et al., 2010). All children and youth with disabilities, no matter how severe, have the right to free appropriate public education. According to the National Center for Education Statistics (Hussar et al., 2020), approximately 7.1 million students with disabilities are served under IDEA for special education. Students with disabilities may be identified as having one or more of the following 13 categories listed

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in IDEA: specific learning disability (33%), speech language impairment (19%), other health impairment (15%), autism (11%), developmental delay (7%), intellectual disability (6%), emotional disturbance (5%), multiple disabilities (2%), hearing impairment and deafness (1%), deafness and blindness (