506 71 5MB
English Pages 137 Year 1986
The Pennsylvania State University
= The Graduate School Department of Mathematics
Generalizations of Dyson‘s Rank
A Thesis in Mathematics
by
Francis Gerard Garvan
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy May 1986
()1986 Francis Gerard Garvan
ABSTRACT
In this thesis we find combinatorial interpretations of congruence results for partitions and other rela ted combinatorial objects. Our combinatorial interpretations are anal ogous to Dyson's 'rank' results for partitions modulo 5 and 7.
In particular we find 'rank-type' res ults, for what we call vector partitions, which are new combinatoria l interpretations for the classical congruences for partitions modulo 5, 7 and 11. The existence of such a result modulo 11 was firs t conjectured by Dyson.
We also find a 'rank—type' result for generalized Frobenius parti— tions. The existence of such a result was conjectured by Andrews who discovered and proved the correspond ing congruence result modulo 5. We also find new analytic and combinatoria l results for colored and uncolored generalized Frobenius par titions. _ Finally we find the correct ranks for t— and three-line partitions which were asked for by Atkin. Thes e ranks yield combinatorial interpretations of Gordon and Cheema's congruence results modulo 3 and
5.
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ..........................................................
iii
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................
vi
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................... viii Chagter
1
INTRODUCTION ...............................................
1
2
DYSON'S CRANK FOR VECTOR PARTITIONS ........................
9
2 1 2 2
2.3. 2.4. 2.5. 2 6
2 7
3
Some ResuTts for Vector Partitions ModuTo 5... ....... Some Results for Vector Partitions ModuTo 7 .......... Some ResuTts for Vector Partitions ModuTo 11 .........
29 31 34
An Identity from Ramanujan's 'Lost' Notebook .........
23
4O
GENERATING FUNCTIONS FOR GENERALIZED FROBENIUS PARTITIONS..
51
Introduction.......................................... 51 Jacobi's TripTe Product Identity ..................... 54 The Analytic Proof ................................... . 59 Two-colored F-Partitions; ............................ 60 CombinatoriaT Proof of the General Case .............. 65
THE RANK FOR THO-COLORED F-PARTITIONS,,_,.___,,,,,; ________
69
4.1 4.2. 4.3.
69 71 73
4.4 4.5 5
9 18
A Second Identity from the 'Lost' Notebook and Some InequaTities for the Rank Moduio 5 ...................
3.1 3.2 3.3. 3.4. 3.5 4
Introduction ......................................... A Direct Proof of the Main Resuit ....................
Introduction ......................................... An ExampTe ........................................... The Generating Function for the Rank .................
Proof of Theorem (4.1.6) .............................
Generating Functions for Rank Differences ............
75 76
CONGRUENCE AND COMBINATORIAL RELATIONS BETWEEN COLORED AND UNCOLORED F-PARTITIONS .....................................
82
5.1
82
Introduction ...........- ..............................
5.2
A CombinatoriaT Proof of ¢p_1(n) s c¢p_l(n) ;(mod n).
85
5.3.
An AnaTytic Proof of CoroTTary (5.1.10) .............. A Proof of Theorem (5.1.6) ..........................._
86 88
5.4
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
ChaEter
Page
5.5 6
A Comb1nator1a1 Interpretation of ¢2(5n+3)=‘ 0 (mod 5) ...............................................
93
THE RANK FOR PLANE PARTITIONS ..............................
95
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4
Introduction ......................................... Generating Functions for the Ranks ................... Proof of the Ma1n ResuTt ............................. Cheema—Gordon's Correspondence and an ATternative Rank for Two— Line Part1t1ons ......................... Comb1nator1a1. Interpretations for Gandhi' s 1 ‘Congruences ..........................................
119
REFERENCES. ......................................................
125
6.5
95 97 108 110
vi
LIST OF TABLES TabIe 4,1
The Rank and d1(n) for the 2-Co1ored F~Partitions of 3 ......
Lag: 72
5.1
Color Table of an F-Partition ...............................
90
LIST OF FIGURES
10
Bijecting an m-skew-F-partition where m 3 0 ................
56
Graph of an m-skew-F-partition where m z 0 .................
57
Graph of an m-skew—F-partition where m < 0 .................
58
Bijecting an m-skew-F-partition where m < 0 ................
59
Bijecting an F-Partition with 2 Coiors .....................
64
The Hook H23 ...............................................
98
Zigzag Path 2(p) ...........................................
100
Return Path W(p1,v) ........................................
102
01-p
(.0
Ferrers Graph ............................................i..
|—I
0503030)!»
Page
n-wrx:
comes;
Figure
Sagan‘s Decomposition of a k-Line Partition into
Hooklengths ................................................
105
Cheema-Gordon Correspondence for 2eLine Partitions .........
112
Ferrers Graphs of the Rows of a Plane Partition ............
115
BorderaDiagram of a Piane Partition ........................
116
The BOrder-Diagram of a Conjugated Piane Partition .........
117
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
In this thesis we show how various congruences for partitions and other related combinatorial objects can be interprete d combinatori-
ally.
and
The classical congruences for the partition func tion, p(n), are
.
p(5n + 4)
E 0
(mod 5),
(1.1)
p(7n + 5)
E
0
(mod 7)
(1.2)
p(11n + 6)
s
0
(mod 11),
(1.3)
which were discovered and proved by Ramanujan . Dyson conjectured how
(1.1) and (1.2) could be interpreted combinatoria lly. He defined the rank of a partition as the largest part minus the number of parts. Dyson conjectured that
N(0,5,5n+4) = N(1.5,5n+4) % and
N(0,7,7n+5) = N(1,7,7n+5) =
= N(4,5,5n+4) = 9(5n + 4) 5
= N(6,7,7n+5) = p(7n + 5) , 7
(1.4)
.
(1.5)
_ where N(m,t,n) denotes the number of partitions of n with rank congruent to m modulo t. Clearly (1.1) and (1.2) follow from (1.4) and (1.5), respectively. (1.4) and (1.5) were prove d by Atkin and Swinnerton-Dyer. Dyson also conjectured the existence of an identity
analogous to (1.4) or-(l.5), but involving a different rank for ordinary partitions, from which one could deduce (1.3) . In Chapter 2 we do find a combinatorial result from which one can deduce (1.3);
however, our result is in terms of what we call vecto r partitions
rather than in terms of ordinary partitions. It may well be true that there is a result solely in terms of ordinary partitions .
A vector'partition,? , is a 3-tuple, (1T 19 Tl'z! Tl'3 ), where “1 is a partition into distinct parts and w 2 and “3 are ordinary partitions.
We say n is a vector partition of n.if the sum of the parts of the individual components of ¥ is n. We count such objects according to
the weight, w , given by
we? ) = (—1)#('"1). where #(n1) is the number of parts of H1. we define the rank of
(n1,n2,n3) as the number of parts of n2 minus the number of parts of “3 and let NV(m,t,n) be the number of vector partitions of of n,
counted according to the weight above, in which the rank is congruent to m modulo t. The main result of Chapter 2 is
NV(0,11,11n + 6) = NV(1,11,lln + 6) = ...
NV(10,11,11n + 6)
'elllnII 6) .
(1.6)
which is the desired combinatorial interpretation of (1.3). As well we obtain new combinatorial interpretations of (1.1) and (1.2),namely,
NV(0,5,5n + 4) = NV(1,5,5n + 4) =
= NV(4,5,5n + 4)
= "(5n'+"4 _
(1.7)
= NV(6,7,7n + 5) = 9§7n +'5) .
(1.8)
5
and
NV(0,7,7n + 5) = NV(1,7,7n + 5) =
7
Also in Chapter 2 we calculate the generating functions for
Nv(a,t,tn + k) - Nv(a,t,tn + k) for
t=5,7,11
and all possible values
of a, b and k. This yields many interesting identities of which
the following is a representative sample:
NV(1.5,5n).= NV(2,5,5n),
(1.9)
and
Nv(0,7,7n + 1) + NV(1,7,7n +1) = 2_NV(2,7,7n + 1)
(1.10)
NV(0,11,11n + 4) = NV(2,11,11n + 4) = NV(4,11;11n + 4).
(1.11)
We-show how (1.4) and (1.7) can be deduced from two identities that appear in Ramanujan's 'Lost! Notebook. We prove the identity
corresponding to (1.7) and-show that (1.4) is equivalent to a theorem
of Atkin and Swinnerton-Dyer. Finally in Chapter 2 we prove the following two inequalities for the rank of ordinary partitions:
N(1,5,5n) > N(2,5,5n) and
for n > 0,
N(2,5,5n + 3) > N(0,5,5n + 3)
for n > 2.
(1.12) (1.13)
Chapters 3,4 and 5 are concerned with generalized Frobenius
partitions. A generalized Frobenius partition (or an F—partition) of n is a two-rowed array of integers
a1 a2 .
.
.
. ar
b1 b2 .
.
.
. br
where algae: ... garzo, blgbzz ... gbrzo, such that
Let ¢k(n) denote the number of F-partitions of n in which in each row
each part is repeated at most k times and let c¢k(n) denote the number of F—partitions of n with k colors. Here the entries are distinct and
are taken from k copies of the nonnegative integers ordered as follows:
01a2-1>... >ar—130, b1>b2> ... >b530, r - 5
E
that satisfies
and
r + ((al-l) + ... + (ar-1)) + (b1 + ... + bS ) = N.
This motivates the foiiowing definition. For m 6 l and N30 an m-skew-F-partitioIn
of N is an object of the form
b2’. ...1..339§)
.I(a1-, ael, ... ., 'a.r;. b1 that satisfies a1>a2>
.nn
>ar20,
b1>b2>
and
no:
>b5203
r
s
i=1
1=1
Y‘
_
S
=
m
N = r + E a,i + 2 b1 F— If m=0 then r=s and a 0—skew-F-partition of N corresponds to an
[4] has 'partition of N with strict decrease aiong each row. Andrews ry partie shown that such objects are in 1 1 correspondence with ordina
tions of N.
aient In view of the discussion above we see that (3.2.2) is equiv to showing that the number of m—skew—F-partitions of n is
the set of p(n - m(m+1)/2). We do this by constructing a bijection from ions of m- skew- F- partitions of n onto the set of ordinary partit
56
(n - m(m+1)/2). We distinguish two cases: CASE (I! Given
m g 0.
(a1,a2, .., ; af; bl’ b2, ... , b8) an-meskew—F-partition of n
we form a graph of dots as follows. Firstly we form a diag0nal at r"
dots (see Figure 3.2). Secondly we form r rows of dots in which the leftemost dot is just to the right of the diagonal, and the k-th row
consists of ak dots. Finally we form 5 columns of dots in which the highest dot is just below the diagonal. the k-th column consists of bk
dots and the first column is placed under the (m+1)-th dot on the diagonal. This gives rise to a diagram that we illustrate in Figure 3.2.
Deleting the triangle (see Figure 3.2) of 1 + 2 +
--- + m =
m(m+1)/2 dots gives rise to a Ferrers graph and hence an ordinary parti-
-
tiIon of (n — m(m+1)/2). Clearly this- process can be reversed Iand' we. have the desired bijection. This is illustrated in Figure 3.1 for
(5.3,2,0;2,1) which is a 2—skew—F-partition of 17.
(5533250,;291)
_9
_; 4+3+3+2+2 (which is a partition of 17 — 2(2+1)/2 = 14)
Figure 3.1 Bijecting an méskew-F-partition where m z 0
57
the We note that if s=0 then r=m and an m-skew-F—partition takes
form (a1,a2, ... , ar;¢) and it is seen that under the bijection described above.the image of (m-l, ... , 1;¢) is the empty partition
CASE (II)
I
I
I
I
I
' of zero.
m < 0.
Given (a1,a2, ... ,ar;b1,b2, ... ,bs) an m-skew-F-partition of n we form a graph of dots as foliows. Firstiy we form a diagonai of 1ength
(see '5 whose first -m piaces are empty and whose 1ast r piaces are dots Figure
3.3; empty p1aces are represented by "X" 's). Secondiy we form
.
{}———al dots
'
39-“ra2 dots
~XL——————a
triang1e of
m
dots
m(m+1)/2 dots
: ar dots_
diagonai of r dots '53
b5 dots
b1 dots-———~9M b2 dots
Figure 3.2 Graph of an m—skew-F-partition where m 3 0
58
5 rows of dots in which the ieft-most dot is just to the right of the diagonai and the k-th row consists of bk dots. Finaiiy we form r c01—
umns of dots in_which the highest dot is just beiow the diagona], the_
k-th coiumn eohsists 6f ak-dots and the highest ddt ih-the first c01umn is beiow the ( (-m) + 1)-th dot on the diagonai. This gives rise to a diagram which we i11ustrate in Figure 3.3.
\~\
I
- j};n_bl dots
g
-
/\
j§——-b2 dots
jkL———5 b_m dots
.triangie of
mem¥1)/2 d6£§3~
bS dots
diagona] of 1ength s with r dots
-
_ g
'.a2'dots
a .dots _ -
'
a1 dots
Figure 3.3 Graph of an m-skew-F-partition where m < 0
59
DeTeting the triangTe (see Figure 3.3) of 1 + 2 + ... + (-m - 1) = (-m)(em-1)/2 = m(m+1)/2 dots gives rise to a Ferrers graph and hence a. partitio-n of (n - m(m+1)/2L C1ear1y this_ process can be reversed
and we have the desired bijection. -This' is 111ustrated in Figure 3. 4
for (3,2;6,5,3,1,0) which is a (-3)-skew—F-part1tion of 22.
(3’2;5,5,3’1,0)__fl,___€>
--~ _;;__55 -4 + 4 +'3 +“2 4 2-+ 2 + 2 (which is a partition of 22 — 3 = 19) Figure 3.4 Bijecting an m-skew-F-partition where m < 0
We note that if r=0 then s=m and an m-skew—f—partition takes the form (¢;bi,b2,
...
’b5) and it is seen that under the bijection de-
lscribed_above the image of (¢;-m—1,-m-2, ... ,1,0)-1s the empty part1-tion of zero.
3.3 The AnaTytic Proof
we now give an anaTytic proof of (3.1.14). It is c1ear that from
the definitions (3.1.11) - (3.1.13) that C¢k(t1.t2, ... ,tk_1;q) is the coefficient of 20 in
60
k-l
_m
m
2c." 1111+ z 1a“) + 21 3 q" 1111+ czt.)3 1q")TT(1+ = T‘H—m n=0 J=1 n=0
=17 1t q J
m
w
m (m +1)/2
m
m
m
k-l
mk —m
J“1 mj—-m
m (m +1)/2
2%“ k
(q)m
(q)m (by Jacobi's trip1e product (3.2.2))
E Zm1+...+ mk tmltmk_1m1(m1+1)/2+....+ mk(mk+1)/2
= ( )—k
qw
1 m1,
tk— 1 q ...-— mk_ 1 so t hat. _
The ceeffieient of 20 ariseS'When mk =5; C¢ (t ,t ,
_k
= (q)m =
...
,t
;q)
E tm 1
.
tmk 1 ( 2
w
+
1 tk- 1 q ”1’ "' ’mk—l" m Z
(q);k "11,
-
’mk_-w
.n-
"' + (
m t11.tk11 qQ(m1,
-
2
...
+
(
2
—
,mk'1)s
,mk_1='°°
which is-(a.1.14). 3.4 Two-co1ored F-Partitions
For the case k=2 (3.1.13) is _ on
C¢2(t;q) =. 2-“ n§0c¢2(m;,n) tm
_
(3.4.1)
where c¢2(m;n) is the number of F-partitions of n with two co1ors 1n
61
r 1 in the first row minus the which the number of occurrences of coio
d row is m. (3.1.14) is number of occurrences of c010r 1 in the secon
w X = ) jC¢2(t;q
' m=-w °°
.
.2 -tm qm
TTM-q
'
. '. ~'
-
' '-
'.
(3;4.2)- ,.
n2
n=
). It is enough In this section we give a combinatorial proof of (3.4.2
to consider mgo since
C¢2(m;n) = C¢2(—m;n) and second by considering the transformation that interchanges first
rows. So we fix mgo and consider Objects of the form i = (n1,n2) ? a 2-vector where n1 and n2 are unrestricted partitions. Ne shail cail
'n'parti tion of N if
N
I
.
o(n1) + 0(n2) where 0(n1) is the sum of the parts of Hi. For exampie,
=(3+3+3,2+2+1) r of 2-vector is a Z-vector partition of 14. Let p_2(n) denote the numbe
partitions of n. It is ciear that p_2(n) has the foiiowing generating function:
..
"20 p_.2(-n) Q"
' ._ ._'(3.4.3)-.
TTu - q“)2 n=1
a bijection In view of (3.4.2) and (3.4.3) our goai is to construct the 2-vector partibetween the Fjpartitions enumerated by c¢2(m;n) and
tions,¥ = (n1,n2), of (n — m2).
62
Let
be an F-partition enumerated by c¢2(m;n). That is,
n = r +
IIM'S
al>a2>... >ar30, b1>b2>...>br30, (3.4.4)
(a.i + bi)
i 1
and the number of occurrences of color 1 in the first row minus the number of occurrences of coior 1 in the second row is m. For i=1,2 1et 5i = the number of occurrences of co1or i in the first row of n ti = the number of occurrences of coior i in the second row of n
.
_
- so that . 51
t1
m,
. .
. .
(3...5)
51 + 52 = t1 + t2 = r
(3.4.6)
t2 - 52 = 51 - t1 = m.
(3.4.7)
and
Now 1et
ai>aé> ..
>a' >0 be the entries in the first row of n coiored 1, s1
the entries in_ the second row Of. n coiored 1, .... >Ib£ 1 30 be _ _ bi>bé>
ai>a§> 1.1>a;230 be the entries in the first row of n -co1ored 2,
bi>b"> ... >b; 30 be the entries in the second row of n co1ored 2. 2
We now form the pair of objects:
'), n" = (a",a§,...,a;2; i,...,b% ). 2 htl n' is an m-skeq-partition of
“bi, n' = (ai,aé,...%$1
From (3.4.7)
63
k
1
= s
+
1
E1 a' i=1 1
E1 b i=1 1
+
'and w" is an (-m)askew-qartition of
k
2
= s
+
2
22
E?
a? +
i=1 ‘
b”.
i=1 i
Let n1,w2 be the image of n',n" (respectiveiy) under the bijection described in §3.2, so that n1 is a partition of (k1 — m(m+1)/2) and n2
is a partition of (k2 - m(m-1)/2). Hence the 2-vector partition associated with n is E = (n1,n2) which is a 2-vector partition of
(k1 - m(m+1)/2) + (k2 - m(m-1)/2) _
2
'kl'l'kz-m
= s
+ s
1 = r +
+
2
r E i=1
= n - m2
[51
a' + -
1=1
1
E2 1 [Eli .
-i%1
r a
+
a”
+
."
Eb] 2
' +
E
1-". 1-.=1'_T
m
1=1
2 b1 - m
(by (3.4.6))
i=1
(by (3.4.4)),
as required. We iiiustrate this correspondence and the steps needed to obtain
it with an exampie. Consider
_'. 5.1.3231 22.2 1
0
1
52 32 21 12 11 02 which is an F-partition of n=33 with 2 coiors in which m=4-2=2.The
bijection with this n is given in Figure 3.5.
64
F=
51 32 31 22 21 01
_ 52 32 21 12 11 02
(""“") ‘ ((51’31’21’01;21’11)’ (32’Zzi52*32’12’°2))
‘*'5’
—->
__.—ee€> __ _
? = (4 + 3 +_3 + 2 + 2,.4_+_3 + 2fl+ 2 + 2_+ 2).
(which is a 2LveCtOr partition of n---m2 .33I-'4-:329101.' Figure 3.5 Bijecting an F—Partition with 2 Colors
The process above can be reversed. Starting with a 2-vector parti-
tion, i = (n1,n2) of n-m2 we wish to reconstruct the F-partition, n, enumerated by c¢2(m;n) from which it came. With mzo fixed. suppose we '
are given a.2¢vector partition $2= ("1’V2);°f n-mZ; Then n1 is a parti-
I tion of say n1-= (n1 + m(m+1)/2) - m(m+1)/2 and “2.15 a partition of -
say n2 = (n2 + m(m-1)/2) — m(m-1)/2 where n1 + n2 = n - m2. Let n', respectiveiy n" be the inverse image of n1,n2 under the bijection de—
scribed in §3.2, so that n' is an m—skew-F-partition of n1 + m(m+1)/2 and n" is an (-m)-skew-F-partition of n2 + m(m-1)/2. We reconstruct n by coioring the entries of n' 1_and the entries of w“ 2 and forming an
65
Fupartition by placing the entries that come from the 1eft—hand side of
n',n" in the top row and by placing the remaining entries in the bot-
tom row. This can be done in on1y one way_because of the ordering on .the parts. It is easi1y seen that n is an Fepartition of-
(nl + m(m+1)/2) + (n2 + m(m-1)/2) = n1+ n2 + m2 = n — m2 + m2 = n, in which d1(n) = m, as required. Hence we have a bijection between the
F-partitions enumerated by c¢2(m;n) and the Z-vector partitions of 2 n - m .
3.5. Combinatorial Proof of the General Case
We write (3.1.14) in the fo110wing form: c¢k(t1’f"’tkf1;g)
,
(3.5.1)
where C¢k(t1,...,tk_1;q) is defined in (3.1.13). In this section we give a combinatoria] proof of (3.5.1). The proof is a1ong the same lines as that given in the_previous.section. We sha11 cOnsider objects ?‘= (n1,n2....,nk)'where the a.'s are
are unrestricted partitions and we sha11 c311 such a ? a k—vector partition of n if
k
n = _Z ”("i)’ 1=1
where 0(ni) is the sum of the parts of "i' Let p_k(n) denote the number of krvector partitions of n. We have.the fo11owing generating function:
66
Z p_k(n) q” =
n>0
1
l ._ f qn)k TflTi n=1
.
(3.5.2). ‘
m
.II
By considering (3.5.1) and (3.5.2) we see that our goai is to construct-
a bijection between the F-partitions enumerated by c¢k(m1,---.mk_13") and the k-vector partitions of
n — {(m1Z1)+ ...' + ("k-1:1) + (“1' “'2' '“k-1+1)}Here c¢k(m1,...,mk_1;n) is defined in (3.1.12). Let (m1,...,mk_1) e 2k-l be fixed. Let a1 E12
ar
b 1 b 2 "' b r j be ah repertition enumerated.by c¢k(m1,;§g,mk41;n),_ That is,
a1>a2>. . . >ar30,
b1>b2>. . .>br30,
E
n = r +
'
(ai + bi)
(3.5.3)
i 1 and
(d1(17),...,dk_1(1f)) = (m1:---smk._1)-
Here the d1.(17)'s are defined in (3.1.11). For 15 1‘ 5 k 1et the number of occurrenCes ocoior i in-the first row of n and
t1 = the number of occurrences of color 1 in the second row of n so that ($1
and
'
t1,lII’Sk-‘1
"
tk'l)
=
("119...3mk-1)
(3.5.4)
67
k
2
k
i=1
i=1
.Hence,
(3.5.5)
ti = r.
2
Si =
-
-
ki1< "') kit"
_ s
=
_
5,
-
t
t_
=
“1.,
(I) 3.5.6
We 1et mk
=
-
Sk
(3.5.7)
tk.
Now far 1 f i f k 1et agi)>a§i)> ... >agT)30 be the entries in the first row of t coiored i, 1
and 1et
b§1)>bé1)> ... >b£i)30 be the entries in the second row of n coiored i. 1 we now decompose n into skew-F-partitions according to coior. That is,
ewe-form the ketupie
. ’fl(k));
("(1)’f(2)
..H -'H
where for 1 f i 5.k
“(i) = (agj). ... ,agi);b§i). --- ,b£:)).
(3-5-3)
From (3.5.4),(3.5.6) and (3.5.7) we see that fi(i) is an mi—skew-F— k 1
partition for 1 5 i f k-1 and a (— X m1)-skew-F—partition for i - k.
.
we note that either side of t (1)
i=1
in (3.5.8) is possibiy empty depending
on whether the coior i.appears in the corresponding row of t or not.
For 1 f i 5 k iet
' Si
ti
11 _- Si + 2 a.(i) + X bj(i) ,
i=1 3
i=1
(3.5.9)
so that «(1) is a skew-F-partition of £1. We note that the 1eft—hand side of «(i) is empty when Si = 0 and the right—hand side of «(1) is empty when ti = 0.
68
For 1 f i f k let "i be the image of «(1) under the bijection de—
. m.+1 scribed in §3.2 so that ni is a partition of (Ei ( 12 )). Hence the . k- vector partition we associate with n is n = (n1_,n2, ... ,nk) whithis a k- vector partition of
m.+1
E (L-
(ki1(m 1+1) ) '
_
i=1
2
+
(mk+1 )
2
m
V
‘n—l
w
0'!
A
A D" *
0
'
2 p_2(k n) zk q“
=-m.
'
m
1
,
_
.
.
(4.3.3)
=l(1 e Zq“)(1 «'Z-lq").'
n=1'
--
-
'
Hence, (4.3.1) is equivalent to'
NF(k[m,n) = p_2(k,n — m2).
(4.3.4)
It is enough to consider m'g 0 since the transformation that inter— changes first and second rows leaves the rank unchanged. We prove
(4.3.4)b showing that under our bijection nh+ ? = (n1.n2) the rank of
74
n corresponds to the 1argest part of «1 minus the 1argest part of NZ. As in §3.4 we 1et
-a1_lai2 ._
.
. .tlar
b2 .
.
.
. br
be an F—partition enumerated by c¢2(m;n). That is,
a1>a2> ... >ar30,
b1>b2> ... >br30’
r n = r + 121 (a1 + b1).
(4.3.5)
Now iet the si,ti,a%,a$,b%,b¥ be defined as on page 62 so that
51 - t1 = m,
_(4.3.6)
51 + 52 = t1 + t2 = r,
(4.3.7)
Now Suppose the'rank of n is k and'iet k' be the 1arge$t part of 3' n1 minus the 1argest part of we. We distinguish five cases: CASE (I) m > 0.
From (4.3.8) we note that neither t2 nor s1 is zero so that
k' = (ai — (m-1)) - (bi - (m-1)) = ai — bi = k.
_
Ik' =.(ai +.1) — (b; + 1) = ai - b; —
I
_
CASE-(IIIQ'm e.t1 =-52 e'o;.
' ‘
r
CASE fllI) m = 0, t1 > O, 52 > 0.
'
k' = 0 = k. CASE (IV) m = 0, t1 > 0, $2 = 0. In this case there are no biues in either row so that we have
k l=l (a1 + 1)
_
0
='__
a1
( 1)
=
k.
I
CASE (V) m = t1 = 0. 52 > 0. In this case there are no reds in either row so that we have
75
k' = 0 — (b; + 1) = (-l) - b; = k.
In a1] cases we have k' = k, as required.
E]
' 4.4. PrOof of Theorem-(4.1.6) ' Suppose that n0 3 0 and n0 i m2 and (m2+1)
(mod 5). By picking
out those terms involving 22 on both sides of (4.3.1 ) we have
m E
E
m2
n>0 k=-m
NF(k|m,n) zk qn =
q
.
w
'
“:1
(4.4.1)
(1 - zq")(1 - 2-1q")
After substituting z = C = exp(2ni/5) into (4.4.1) and coiie cting powers of C we find that
m2
4
2 c" z NF(k,5|m,n)qn=
k=0'.
'
n30, .
'
-.
.
.
'
.
'
‘.m '
q
_-
"n
-- __-_1 n
.
T_T(1'- :q JC;.‘ 6 q )9_ n=1 " '
“ '
'
-
(4.4.2) -
-
"'
From Lemma (2.3.5) we note that in the power serie s expansion of
1
T:I(1 — :qn)(1 - c'lq") n: - the oniy powers of q that occur are congruent to either 0 or 1 moduio 5. Hence the oniy powers of q with nonzero coefficients on the right-hand
'-Side,0f (4.4.2) are congruent to either m? or (m2+1) modulo 5.'The reé_ n
_ fore picking out the coefficient of q 0 on both sides of (4.4.2) yieids
4
kZO NF(k,5lm,n0) c since n0 2 rn2 and (m2+1)
k
= U,
.
' (4.4.3)
(mod 5). It foliows that
NF(0:5[m,n0) = NF(1,5|m.n0) = ... = NF(4,5|m,n0), since the coefficients invoived are rational integers.
(4.4.4)
76
4
FinaTTy,
c¢2(m;n0) = kZO NF(k,5|m,n0) = 5 NF(0,5|m,n0), tbgether with (4.4.4) yields (4.1.7). as reqUired, ‘-
(4.4.5) E]
.
4.5. Generating Functions for Rank Differences
s . The main resuTt of this section is TheOrem (4.5.13). The method the fol— that we use are anaTogous to those of Chapter 2. The proof of
Towing Lemma is compieteiy ana1090us to that of Lemma (2.3.5). Lemma £4.5.1).
qn = T_T(1 _ qSOn) TET(1 + q50n425)2
2
-
n=1
n=-w
n=1
.
n.
-
h
-
- "
+ 2q4 i’lru + q5°“'5)(1 + q50n'45) . (4.5.2) n:
The folTowing Lemma foTTows from Lemmas (2.3.5) and (4.5.1). Lemma {4.5.3}. If C = exp(2ni/5), then 2
E q". n=.m
w
T’Til - :qn)(1 - cglqn) n=1
=fi 0 times, “i appears gi > 0 times so that
f1+1’2+.-..+1‘J.=Vgl+gz+...+gk
(5.2.1)
86
This can be colored in
C’éDC’é) - _- (”%:>,-, (2:) w 'ways. 'Henoe if We 1et 3ibe the Set of F-part§ti0ns enumerated by ¢p_1(n) then we have
A I ._| U
M
III
2 (-1)
Xfi’ri 91
(5.2.3)
'
'
cop"1(n) = “gem
(mod D) (by (5.2.2))
2m
(mod p) (by (5.2.1))
111-2;
(mod p)
E 1
flefii
5.3. An Analytic Proof of Coro11ary (5.1.10)
From (3.1.7) we have
L(m1,m2,...,mp_2)qQ(m1,m2,...,mp_2)
§
m ,m ,...,m _ = -m
_
"30
1
p 2
2 ¢p-1(n) Q" = 1 2
_ _ (5.3.-1). ' - '
( 1, we let
p- 1 = T (p.). 'Finally p = p and it is easily seen, by using 1v1._1 '1 1
(6.2.11), that this is the inverse of the previous process. E] We illustrate the processes described above in Figure 6. 4.
hk= -6 and we read from_ left to right and tOp to bettom.
Here
Dottedilines i
represent zigzag paths.
From Figure 6.4 we see that p corresponds
to (v1,v2, . . . ,vg).
We note that each pivot v comes from a zig-
zag path and each zigzag path intersects the diagonal of p exactly
once.
It follows that the number of pivots in the correspondence
corresponds to the sum of entries on the diagonal of p.
observation that leads to (6.2.4).
It is this
We can deal with Theorem (6.2.1)
' in a similar fashion.
Proof of (6.2.2). Let S be the shape {(i,j)] 1 f i
f 2,
j 3 1 } and let
= {(1.3) e s | j 3 1_} “for i = 1, 2. (i.e. 31 is the ith row of s) Now,we rewrite the right-hand side of (6:2.2) in termsrof hooklenghts: anmin(i,2)(1_ . . _
1-7 1=1j=1
h , _
_
h ,, _
-2325'q‘)1=T_‘|'(1-zq")1 ‘l—T(1-zlq")1 v‘eS1 v"eS (6.2.17)
105
=p'=
4 3 3 ~-2--1--} m-"m
p1
3 3—3-w-—w-’
-_-3'21-
-———**€)
_ v1=(5.?)f
4 3 3 1n}3221'r “.9 2_-2-'-2—i |_
1
£21
1
2 1
-
4-3-3-
2
v2.='('5,5_)' . .
1 “-
1
322 3-2-52 111
1
v7=(2,2)
1
—--—-9
1
v8=(1,1)
H-..—|-|--...._|.-
-4—n
v4=(2,3)
v9=(4,1)
Figure_6.4 Saganfs Decomposition of a k-Line-Partition into HookIengths
106
we see that the coefficient of zmqn in the right-hand side of (6.2.17) is the number of objects of the form:
.
(v1,'u2, ii'.‘ a on) with pi 3'02'2‘. . . :“vg e S,'
E hvi: n, and in which the number of the v1 in the
_
(6.2.18)
first row minus the number in the second row is m. Hence our result wil] fo11ow if we can show that the number of objects
described in (6;2.18) is the same as the number of 2-1ine partitions of n in which the sum of the entries on the diagonai minus twice the 1argest entry on the second row is m.
This is done via the corres-
pondence that arises in the proof of Theorem (6.2.12).
Let (v1, v2, . . . , v2) be an object that satisfies (6.2.18), and suppose p is the 2—1ine partition to which it corresponds.
'-iSay,,c a11 a12 a13 . . .
a21 a22 . . . Now as noted before each vi comes from a zigzag path and the
first coordinate of vi corresponds the to-the row in which the zigzag path terminates.
Hence the number of zigzag paths that terminate
in the first row minus the number that terminate in the second row is
'm.'
for i.= 1,'2 1et pj.be_the number of zigZag paths that terminate ,
in row i.
A11 zigzag paths move down or to the 1eft so that any zig-'
zag path must pass through one of (1,1), (2,2) and we have
'
p1 + p2 = a11 + aZZ'
-
(6.2.19)
A150 any zigzag path terminating in the second row must pass through
(2,1) F0 that we have
"p2 = a21.
(6.2.20)
107
Hence,
=“’1'F’2=p1+p2'2"’2=‘3‘11+a‘22'2121' I A
Simi1ar1y we 1et S be the shape {(i,J)| 1 _
Si={(i,j)e5|j§1}
for
_ 3, j 5 1 } and
A
I I
[j
._
--. _
p
_
.
1'
-
5444411
532 (iii) 5444411 532111
Figure 6.5 Cheema-Gordon Correspondence for 2-Line Partitions
113
We now define another rank, which we caTT rank*, for Z-Tine partiThe rank* of a 2-Tine partition is the number of parts in the
tions.
first row minus the Sum of the number of parts in the second row and . Thus the rank* of ”4 2 1 3 1
the number of 1's in the second row. ' .
'k
3 ~ (2 + 1) = 0.
is
Let N2L(m,n) denote the number of 2—1ine partitions -
n
of n with rank* m and let N2L(m,t.n) denote the number of Beline parti*
tions of n with rank* congruent to m moduTo t.
The foTTowing theorem
is a consequence of the Cheema-Gordon correspondence.
Theorem (6.4.2).
For Iql < 1
lql < 12! < lql'l,
Z N;L(m,n)zmqn = T_T (1 - zqi)'1(1 - 2'1qi+1)_1.
E
=-w n30
(6.4.3)
i=1
It is c1ear that the coefficient of zmqn in_the right-hand side .
- REESE;
-of (6.4.3) is the number Opartitions.of n taken frOm A in which-the'. number of unprimed parts minus the number of primed parts is m.
Let
the Cheema-Gordon bijection be given by e: A-———————e> {Z-Tine partitions of n}. We are done if we can show that for n a A the rank* of o(w) is the number of unprimed parts of n minus the number of primed parts of n.
II
2
ll
7:
1
7C
n! 3 a.
7':
0
n,
the number of primed parts of
the number of parts in the first row of o(«),
ll
77
1
"the-number of unprimed parts of n,_
the number of parts in the second row of ¢(n),
II
7?
_ 0
II
n e A, and let
the number of 1's in the second row of ¢(n).
Fix
114
We now examine what happens to Re and k1 in each stage of algo-
rithm C.
In Cl we see that k0 is the number of parts of ¢(n) with
'subscript 51.= Let, Isubscript ;1.
Let,
t0 = the number of primed parts with subscript 0 and
t_1= the number of primed parts with subscript -1,
so that
(6.4.4)
to + t_1 =.k1.
Now in C3 k0 unprimed parts and t0 primed parts are piaced in the first row so that
(6.4.5)
K0 = k0 + t0
and t_1 primed parts, each greater than 1, together with to 1‘5 are
_
I'piaced in the Second row so-thatg'I' "
K1 = to + t-1 = k 1
(6.4.6)') '"
K2 = to.
(6.4.7)
and
Hence,
The rank* of ¢(n) = K0 - Kl — K2 = k0 + to - k1 - t0 = k0 - k1, E]
as required.
_
- Coroilarg (6.4.8)._ For n 3 0,
_ (6.4.9)
N2L(m,n) = N2L(m,n). '
*
Proof. -Frdm (6.2.2) and (6.4.3) we can easily see that N2L(m,n) and N2L(m;n) have the same generating function and the resuit foiiows.
By combining (6.4.9) and (6.3.5) we have the foiiowing aiternative
combinatoria) interpretation of (6.1.1).
115
Coroiiarv (6.4.10).
For n
3 or 4
(mod 5),
N;L(O,5,n) = N;L(1,5,n) = . . . = N;L(4,5,n) = 1221 .
(6.4.11)
There are interesting combinatoriai reasons why (6.4.9) is true.'
iBefore we give a combinatorial proof of (6.4.9) we need some preiim naries.
Firstly we give a characterization of piane partitions in .
terms of the Ferrers graph of the rows. Consider the plane partition
5 4 4 2
4 4 3 2 4 4 2 2 3 3 2 1
(6.4.12)
In Figure 6.6 we iliustrate the Ferrers graph of each row beginning
with_the_first and we notice that the nodes of each Ferrers graph are
inc1uded in the-previous Ferrers graph:
_Figure 6.6 Ferrers Graphs of the Rows of a Plane hartition‘
This observation 1eads to the fo110wing 1emma.
partition, n, we denote its Ferrers graph byé*(n).
For an ordinary
116
Lemma (6.4.13).
If n1, n2, . . . , wk are partitions then the object
whose rows are the «1 is a plane partition if and only if
;(11I354(1r)_12.2.?(11k)1". '
..
.
(6.414)-
We note that a chain of Ferrers graphs as in (6.4.14) could be
represented in one diagram by first drawing the Ferrers graph of «1
and then drawing a border to represent the edge of each successive Ferrers graph.
We call such a diagram, a border—diagram.
In Figure
6.7 we illustrate the border-diagram of the plane partition given in
(6.4.12).
Figare 6.7 Border-Diagram of a Plane PartitiOn'
In this way it is clear that condition (6.4.14) is equivalent to the condition that each vertical section of border touches or is to the left of any Vertical section of the previous border, or equivalently,
each horizontal section of border touches or is above any horizontal
section of the previous border.
117
Now, suppose p is a plane partition with rows n1, n2, . . . We write
We define the conjugate of p, 5, by
5 =
.
(5.4.15)
"whére'each-n; is the Conjugate'of hf; ‘The borderddiagram of 6 can bE' obtained from the border—diagram of p by refiection in the main diag—
ona].
In Figure 6.8 we i11ustrate the border-diagram of 5, where p is
the piane partition given in (6.4.12).
(
Figure 6.8 The Border—Diagram of a Conjugated P1ane Partition
118
Thus
5 5 4 3 1
"_~
'.
5.5 3_3
(6.4.16);
44 3'1
'
2 1
It is ciear that this operation does not disturb the condition that verticai sections of a border cannot lie to the right of a verticai
section of a previous border.
Hence, by Lemma (6.4.13), we see that
p is aiso a piane partition and we have
Lemma (6.4.17). For k,n 3 1, the action of conjugation, defined by (6.4.15), is an invoiution on the set of k-1ine partitions of n.
"-_ 5Now.we_can:COmpiete the combinatoriai proOF of (6,4;9), :1n_yiewll1i of Lemma (6.4.17) we wiii be done if we can show that rank(p) = rank*(6) for any 2—iine'partition p.
We write,
9 (1:) where “i is the ith row of p for i = 1,2.
It is ciear that
the 1argest part of ti = the number of parts_of n1 . for i s 1,2' V
and
V
I
I I
'
I
(the 1argest part of “2) - (the second part of «2) = the number of 1's of né.
Hence,
rank(p) = (iargest part of al) + (the second part of Hz)
- 2(the 1argest part of n2)
119
(Iargest part of WI) — {(the 1argest part of we)
— (the second part of n2)} - (largest part-of #2) (the number of parts of hi) — (the number of 1's of n é) - (the number of parts of né) *
rank (6), as required. Remark.
Simiiariy, an alternative rank for 3-1ine partitions, p,
can be defined by
rank*(p) = rank(6) or (the number of parts in the first row) - (the number of 1's in the second row) - (the number of 2’s in the third row) - (the number of
parts in the third row).
6.5 Combinatoriai Interpretations oi Gandhiis Congruences
Gandhi [1)] has obtained the foiiowing congruences:
t3(3n)' t4(4n) E t4(4n + 1)
Ill
t2(2n) a t2(2n + 1) (mod 2) (5.5.1) t3(3n + 1) (mod 3)
(6.5.2)
t4(4n + 2) (mod 2)
(6.5.3)
t4(4n + 3) e 0
(mod 2)
(6.5.4)
t5(5".+ 1) E t5(5n + 3) (mod 5)
(6.5.5)
7 t5(5n"+ 2) s t5(-5h + mm 5)
(6.5.6)
In this section we give combinatoriai interpretations of (6.5.1) through (6.5.4) in terms of ranks.
One shouid be able to do the same
for (6.5.5) and (6.5.6) but as yet I have been'unabie to come up with the goods.
120
_N2L(0’432n+1)
I!
Theorem (6.5.7). (6.5.8)
N2L(2.4,2n+1)
; (6 5.9)
N2L(ls4.2n).= N2L(3.4.2n) ._=
N2L(0,4,2n) + N2L(3,4,2n+1) = N2L(1,4,2n+1) + N2L(2,4,2n).
(6.5.10) Proof. 3
.k
1
After substituting z = i in (6.2.2) we find
N
kéo .ngo 2L
(k,4,n)q
n
1 + iq = -———————a--
(mu-m)“,
_ (1 +1'q)(q)‘,‘,(-q)‘,o
(q)m(-q)m(iq)m(-iq)m
--- .
- .(qzsqzhu
-
4-1;." 1"”. - -—-.-
,1 -
(O_
(5.5.15)
_(q ;q_)m
$1m116r1y we find (q) n20(NZL(1,4,2n+1) N2L(3,4,2n+1))qn. = _____::__ -
(5.5.15)
'
(qz-qz)
so that
ML(O 4 ,2n)— N2L((2, 4 ,2n)= N2L(1,4,2nf1) - N2L(3,4,2n+1), (6.5.17)
[:1
which is (6.5.10).
The foTTowing is our combinatoriaT interoretation of (6.5.1). It f01_1ows 1mmed1ate1y from Theorem. (6. 5. 7).
"c6r611arx (5. 5. '15)N2L(1,4,2n) + N2L(2’ 4,2n) + N2L(0,4,2n+1) + N2L(1,4,2n+1)
= N2L(0,4,2n) + N2L(3,4,2n) + N2L(2’452n+1) + N 2L(3,4,2n+1)
(5.5.19)
= %(t2(2n) + t2(2n + 1)). Theorem (6.5.20).
N3L(1,3,3n) = N3L(2,3,3n),
(5.5.21)
N3L(0,3,3n+1) - N3L(1,3,3n+1)
ll
N3L(o,3,3n+1)_ N3L(2,5,3n+1).' ' N3L(1,3,3n)
-
.(5.5.22)
N3L(O,3,3n) -
(6.5.23) Proof.
From (6.3.7) we have
2
mk1 n>0 z N3L(k.3.n)q") = k'O
1+ mq
X,
-
.
(55153)”
(6.5.24)
122
where m = exp(Zni/3), from which we have
2
1
E mk( f N3L(k,3,3n)qn) = ———~————
- 370: nio-
-.
(qziq)®~-
(6.5.25)
3
-
.
and -
2
k
n
m
2 w ( Z N3L(k,3,3n+l)q ) = -——————-. k=0
“:0
-
(6.5.26)
(q2.q)
(6.5.21) and (6.5.22) easiiy foiiow from (6.5.25) and (6.5.26) respec— tiveiy.
The appearance of
in both (6.5.25) and (6.5.26)
(q2;q)m yields:
.{2 w k N3L(k,3,3n+1) = g2 m k+1.N3L(k,3,3n) I.k=o"
.'
i
f
' _
- k505
.
I
.-l
'1.
. .
, .'
and (6.5.23) easily foTTows.
(6.5.27) . .l '
1
'
"-'
E]
The foiiowing is our combinatoriai interpretation of (6.5.2). It foiiows immediateTy from Theorem (6.5.20).
Coroilarz (6.5.28). N3L(1,3,3n) - N3L(0,3,3n+1) = 1 /3(t3(3n) - t3(3n+1)). We define the rank of a 4-1ine partition to be twice the sum of
is 2(4+2) - (3+2+2+1) = 4. partitions of n with rank m.
mmm
Hmmh'
diagonaT. [Thus the rank of
NN'-'
the entries on the diagonai minus the-sum of the entries beiow the
Let N4L(m,n) denote the number of 4—1ine Let N4L(m,t,n) denote the number of 4—”
Tine partitions of n with rank congruent to m modulo t. ing theorem can be proved using the methods of 56.2.
The foiTow-
123
Theorem (6.5.29).
For |q|_< 1, and lql < [2) < [ql—l,
T‘TTT”TTI
X“N4L m Wu):
E
'=-oo _n)0
23'jq1+j 1) i).
(6.5.30)
Theorem (6.5.31). N4L(2,4,4n) + N4L(2,4,4n+1),(6.5.32)
N4L(1,4,4n) + N4L(1’4’4n+1)
N4L(3,4,4n) + N4L(3,4,4n+1),(6.5.33)
ll
N4L(0,4,4n) + N4L(O,4,4n+1)
N4L(0,4,4n) + N4L(3,4,4n+2)
N4L(1,4,4n+2) + N4L(2,4,4n).(6.5.34)
N4L(1,4,4n) + N4L(0,4.4n+2)
N4L(2,4,4n+2) + N4L(3,4,4n),(6.5.35)
N4L(0,4,4n+3) = N4L(2,4,4n+3),N4L(1,4,4n+3) = N4L(3,4,4n+3)
(6.5.36)
After substituting z = 1 in (6.5.30) we find
Proof.
T k=0
-
+iq)(1eq2)(1+1q?)(1+iq3) __ ‘ E 1-.k' 2“” (k 4in)qn.5-(l-q)(1*iq)(1 ' ‘ 4L- ’ ’._'
'
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(6.5.37)
(1 - q4)(1- q)(1+1q2)(1 +1q3) (cf‘ufl).° (1 - q + iq2)(1 - 1q4)
(qgm‘h.° (The rest-of the proof is anaTogous to that of Theorem (6.5.7). [:1 The foTTowing are our combinatoria) interpretations of (6.5.3)
and (6.5.4).
They foTTow immediateTy from Theorem (6.5.31).
CoroTlarz (6.5.38).
N4L(0,4,4n) + N4L(1’4’4") + N4L(O’4’4“+1) + N4L(1,4,4n+1) = N4L(2’4’4“) + N4L(3,4,4n) + N4L(2’4’4"+1) + N4L(3,4,4n+1)
124
= %(t4(4n) + t4(4n + 1)).
(6.5.39)
N4L(0,4,4n) + N4L(1,4,4n) + N4L(0,4,4n+2) + N4L(3,4,4n+2) = N4L(2,4.4n) i N4L(3,4;4n) + N4L(1.4,4n+2) +.N4L(2,4,4n+2)j'_
= %(t4(4n) + t4(4n + 2)),
(6.5.40)
N4L(0,4,4n+3) + N4L(1,4,4n+3) =.N4L(2,4;4n+3) + N4L(3,4,4n+3)
= %(t4(4n + 3)).
(6.5.41)
125
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'18.
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21
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'23; '
24.
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127
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