Edmund Burke’s International Politics

Citation preview

FORDHAM UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL

May 15

19.50

This dissertation prepared under my direction by Gaetano L. V in c ito r io

entitled

WMMD BDRKE, S DCTRMATIONAL POLITICS........................

has been accepted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Ooptore o f P hilosophy

Dr. Ross Hofftnan (Faculty Adviser)

L

EDMUND BURKE »S INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

BY GAETANO L . VINCITORIO B . S . , S t . J o im f s U n i v e r s i t y , *42 M. A. , Pordham U n i v e r s i t y , *43

DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL. FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AT FORESAW UNIVERSITY

NEW YORK 1930

ProQuest N um ber: 10993025

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n

TABLE OF CONTENTS

t C h a p te r

Page PREFACE.

. . . . . . . . . ........

v

1 . INTRODUCTION... • • .................

1

I I . SEEING THE WORLD FROM LONDON ................. 1. The Law a n d L i t e r a t u r e • ................ • • • • • • 2♦ B u rk e V iew s t h e S e v e n Y e a r s 1 War • • • • • 3 . The End o f th e W a r- a n d t h e B r i t i s h T rium ph • * • « « • . . • • » • • • • • • • • • • • . . • • # M . 4* The D u b lin E p i s o d e , 1 7 6 1 ^ 1 7 6 4 ...............

20 20

26

45 59

I I I . T IE BOURBON ALLIES AND THE BALANCE OF €5 P01EB, 1 7 6 3 1 7 8 3 1 • The P o s t-W a r W o rld . 2* The C r i t i c o f B r i t i s h F o r e i g n P o l i c y . 3* The R u ss o * T u rk w ar a n d t h e E u ro p e a n ........... ........ E q u ilib riu m * 4* The D e m o r a l iz a t i o n o f t h e " G r e a t R e p u b li c " i n P o la n d a n d G erm any i . • • • . 103 5* E u r o p e f s -R e v e n g e on B r i t a i n a n d t h e ..................... . . . . A m e ric a n W a r .

-

,....^...,,........,.,,..

I V . THE IMPERIAL PATRIOT AND THE AMERICAN AND

IRISH" GRISES, 1 ^ 3 - 1 7 8 2 * . , . 1* 2.

3• 4« 5#

.............. 129

B urke *s I d e a o f an Emp i r e • . I m p e r i a l D ogm atism an d A m e ric a n D i s c o n t e n t s . . The B r i t i s h O i v i l W a r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I r e la n d an d th e Im p e ria l C r i s i s . . . . . . The R e s t o r a t i o n o f I r e l a n d . . . . . . . . . . .

129

133 147 163 17©

V . BRITISH IMPERIALISM IN IN D IA ,.............................. 1§3 1 . The Grown a n d t h e E a s t . I n d i a Com pany. 183 2 . The Com pany’ s C h a r t e r e d R i g h ts v . th e I n d i a n s * Human R i g h t s . . . . • • • . • • • • 199 3 w a r r e n H a s t i n g s B e f o re t h e C o u r t o f t h e E t e r n a l L a w .. 213

.

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1

TABLE OF CONTENTS C h a p te r

Page

V I. THE GOMQNWEALTH OF CHRISTIAN N A T I O N S . . . . . . . 1 . The B a la n c e o f ; P ow er a f t e r 1 7 8 3 ........... 2 . T he A g g r e s s io n o f R u s s i a . . • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • 3 . The R e Y o lu tio n i n F r a n c e . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 4 . The War a g a i n s t J a c o b i n F r a n c e . . . . .............. 3 , T he C h r i s t i a n R e p u b l i c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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232 232 242 248 274 284

APPENDICES .............. I . C h a r le s L u c a s , Edmund B u rk e , Thomas G ordon a n d t h e D is p u te d A u th o r s h ip o f c e r t a i n P o l i t i c a l W ritin g s p u b lis h e d i n D u b lin I 748- I 7 3 0 ............ I I . T he H i s t o r i c a l A r t i c l e i n t h e A n n u a l R e g i s t e r . ............................................ « . . . ..................... I I I . E m e ric d e V a t t e l . .....................

308

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

555

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308

344 351

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"i PREFACE B u rk e n e v e r w r o te a t r e a t i s e

on i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o c i e t y ,

b u t h i s w r i t i n g s a n d s p e e c h e s ab o u n d w i t h s a g e o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h i s a s p e c t o f th e p o l i t i c a l o r d e r ; an d a lth o u g h th e l i ­ t e r a t u r e on h i s c a r e e r a s p a r l i a m e n t a r i a n , p o l i t i c a l p h i l o ­ s o p h e r , a n d man o f l e t t e r s i s c o p i o u s , i t c o n t a i n s n o s t u d y d i r e c te d e x c lu s iv e ly upon t h i s im p o rta n t p ro d u c t o f h i s m in d * s w o rk .

To s u p p l y t h a t d e f i c i e n c y i s t h e p u r p o s e o f

t h is d is s e rta tio n * B u rk e * s th o u g h t on i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t y i s l i k e a g r e a t sym phony, i n w h ic h s e v e r a l th e m e s a r e b l e n d e d h a r m o n io u s ly t o p r o d u c e one g r a n d e f f e c t *

The s e p a r a t e m ove—

m e n ts v a r y a n d i n t e r p r e t t h e th e m e s i n o r d e r t o e x p r e s s c h a n g in g d e p t h s a n d m oods; t h e c o m p o s it i o n i s one*

And i n

i t s f u l l n e s s we f i n d a p h i l o s o p h y o f p o l i t i c s d e r i v a t i v e f ro m a n d p e r f e c t l y c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y o f C h r is te n d o m . B u rk e * s I r i s h o r i g i n s a n d m ix e d C a t h o l i c a n d A n g lic a n a n c e s t r a l b a c k g ro u n d a r e h e r e e x am in e d anew f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f d i s c o v e r i n g how t h e y g e n e r a t e d t h a t p e c u l i a r m e n t a l a n d m o ra l f o r m a tio n - in g r a in e d w ith a s e n s e o f th e u n i ty o f m a n k in d a n d t h e P r o v i d e n t i a l n a t u r e o f Cod - w h ic h e n a b l e d h im i n l a t e r y e a r s t o c o n t e m p l a t e , w i t h u n iq u e p e n e t r a t i v e i n s i g h t , t h e norm s o f i m p e r i a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n d u c t a n d

L

t h e t e x t u r e o f C h r is te n d o m .

Our f i r s t v ie w , t h e r e f o r e , i s

o f a w a r m - h e a r te d I r i s h b o y ; a n d a T r i n i t y c o l l e g i a n a r d e n t f o r t h e im p ro v e m e n t o f t h e s e o b j e c t s o f h i s a f f e c t i o n .

A

p a t r i o t i c p i e t y , u n c o r r u p t e d b y t h e m o d ern h e r e s y o f n a t i o n ­ a l i s m , was e a r l y i n h im a n d e n d u re d a s a p e rm a n e n t p a r t o f h i s p s y c h i c c o n s t i t u t i o n , so t h a t t h e lo v e o f I r e l a n d was n e v e r e x tin g u is h e d i n th e B r i t i s h im p e r ia l p a t r i o t o r th e p r o t a g o n i s t o f C h r is te n d o m ; a lt h o u g h i t d o e s seem l i k e l y t h a t b e in g a n I r i s h m a n i n E n g la n d s h a r p e n e d B u rk e * s r e f l e c ­ t i v e a t t e n t i o n t o much t h a t n a t i v e E n g lis h m e n to o k f o r g r a n ­ t e d w ith o u t n o t ic i n g . I n l e a v i n g I r e l a n d a n d g o in g t o L ondon i n s e a r c h o f a c a r e e r , h e d i d n o t s u d d e n ly i d e n t i f y h i m s e l f w i t h h i s new c o u n t r y o r h e r e m p ir e .

The y o u n g h i s t o r i a n o f t h e A n n u a l

R e g i s t e r d e s c r i b e d t h e c o u r s e o f w o r ld a n d i m p e r i a l h i s t o r y i n a d e t a c h e d m a n n e r.

He w as n o t im m e d ia te ly a n d p e r s o n a l ­

l y c o n c e r n e d i n t h e S e v e n Y e a rs* W ar.

H is w o rld w as n o t

b e in g d e s t r o y e d ; i t w as m e r e ly e x p e r i e n c i n g a n o t h e r p e r i o d i ­ c a l s h o c k , o r so i t se e m e d .

From h i s L ondon v a n t a g e - p o i n t

h e a s s e s s e d t h e a m b i t i o n o f t h e p o w e rs , t h e i r v i g i l a n c e an d r e g a r d f o r t h e b a la n c e o f po w er w h ic h h e saw a s a p r i n c i p l e o f l i b e r t y i n t h e E u ro p e a n s y s te m .

H ot u n t i l l a t e r y e a r s

w o u ld h i s p a s s i o n s becom e e x c i t e d a n d h i s m in d b e s t i m u l a t e d t o a d e e p e r p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h i s w o r ld o f s t a t e s t h a t w as s u b j e c t t o s u c h r e c u r r e n t c r i s e s *

H is a t t e n t i o n was p r i m a r i l y commanded by e v e n t s i n B r i t a i n an d h e r c o l o n i e s , an d a s h i s r e s i d e n c e i n E n g la n d le n g t h e n e d a n d h e fo u n d h i s way i n t o p a r t y p o l i t i c s an d t h e H ouse o f Commons t h e r e a r o s e i n him a s e n s e o f b e lo n g ­ in g t o t h e B r i t i s h c o m m u n ity .

H is a d o p te d c o u n tr y h e l d

sway o v e r I r e l a n d a n d A m e ric a , a d o m in io n he w is h e d to p r e s e r v e a n d e n n o b le .

He c o n c e iv e d t h e e m p ire a s a com­

m union o f f r e e m en, b a s e d n o t u p o n f o r c e b u t upon n a t u r a l r e s e m b l a n c e s , common a n c e s t r y an d f r e e i n s t i t u t i o n s .

As a n

i m p e r i a l p a t r i o t , h e d e n o u n c e d t h o s e who w ere u n d e rm in in g i t by i n s i s t i n g

on i m p e r i a l t a x a t i o n i n t h e A m erican c o l o ­

n i e s an d d e p r i v i n g f e l l o w c i t i z e n s o f fre e d o m .

To p r e s e r v e

a g r e a t i m p e r i a l s t r u c t u r e m o d e r a tio n an d com prom ise w e re e s s e n tia l.

S i m i l a r l y , h e d e p r e c a t e d t h e P r o t e s t a n t A sce n ­

d a n c y i n I r e l a n d w h ic h d e p r i v e d C a t h o l i c s o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e c o m m u n ity , an d t h e s y s te m o f t r a d e la w s w h ic h d e n ie d to th e I r i s h n a tio n th e r i c h e s o f th e e a r t h l i b e r a l l y b e s ­ to w ed b y P r o v id e n c e f o r t h e e n jo y m e n t o f a l l .

Wn&t B u rk e

a t t a c k e d was t h e ty r a n n y o f man o v e r m an, c a m o u fla g e d by a n a l l e g e d a tt a c h m e n t t o a c e r t a i n schem e o f r e l i g i o u s , p o l i ­ t i c a l o r im p e ria l b e l i e f s . S in c e d o m in io n o f man o v e r man was a D iv in e d i s p e n s a ­ t i o n , i m p e r i a l c o u n t r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y C h r i s t i a n o n e s , w e re bo u n d t o a c t w i t h j u s t i c e , c h a r i t y an d p r u d e n c e .

B rita in ’s

a g e n t i n t h e O r i e n t , t h e E a s t I n d i a Company, was c h a r a c t e r ­ i z e d , h o w e v e r, by i n j u s t i c e ,

s e l f - i n t e r e s t an d r a p a c i t y .

viii r

c H e n c e , B urke l e d im p e ac h m en t p r o c e e d i n g s a g a i n s t W arren H a s t i n g s , whom h e c o n s i d e r e d t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f i m p e r i a l v i c e s an d a s c o f f e r a t t h e d i v i n e l y - i n s t i t u t e d m o ra l la w . The g o v e rn o r g e n e r a l o f I n d i a c o u ld n o t p l e a d n e c e s s i t y o r t h e e x i g e n c i e s o f w ar t o j u s t i f y m is c o n d u c t, f o r h e to o was b ound by t h e m o ra l la w w h ic h b i n d s a l l m en.

B urke was

t h e i m p l a c a b le enemy o f t h o s e who th o u g h t t h a t i m p e r i a l d o m in io n , g iv e n by a n in c o m p r e h e n s ib le d i s p e n s a t i o n o f D iv in e P r o v i d e n c e , p r o v id e d a n o p p o r t u n i t y o f g r a t i f y i n g th e lo w e s t o f th e p a s s io n s . E u ro p e a g a i n b e c k o n e d t o B u rk e , who la m e n te d th e u n b r i d l e d a m b i t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n c e n t r a l an d e a s t e r n E u r o p e , w h ic h was t e a r i n g a s u n d e r t h e s t a t e s - s y s t e m and p r o d u c in g i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n a r c h y . R e v o lu tio n . le .

T hen came t h e F re n c h

A r e v o l u t i o n was n o t o b j e c t i o n a b l e i n p r i n c i p ­

Had h e n o t a p p la u d e d t h e nG l o r i o u s M R e v o lu t i o n i n

E n g la n d a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r , an d ch am p io n ed t h e A m e ric a n , C o r s i c a n and P o l i s h r e s i s t a n c e s t o t y r a n n y ?

I n th o s e c a s e s

a w h o le com m unity u n d e r n a t u r a l l e a d e r s s t r o v e t o r e t a i n o r re c o v e r a n c ie n t l i b e r t i e s a g a in s t ty r a n n ic a l in n o v a to rs ; b u t t h e J a c o b i n s d e s i r e d t o rem ak e F r a n c e , E u ro p e an d th e w o rld .

They h a d ta m p e re d w i t h t h e a l l e g i a n c e o f t h e c i t i ­

z e n t o h i s c o u n tr y by h o l d i n g o u t in d u c e m e n ts t o him t o d e s ­ t r o y i n s t e a d o f im p ro v in g t h e h i s t o r i c o r d e r .

In o rd e r to

a s s e s s t h e im p a c t o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n , B urke e x am in e d t h e f o u n d a t i o n s an d m ea n in g o f t h e W e s te rn w o r ld , w h ic h was

m o u ld e d b y C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d a common l i f e t h r o u g h t h e c e n tu rie s .

D e s p ite i n d iv i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , th e s t a t e s o f

E u ro p e h a d a common d e n o m in a to r s

t h e y w e re com p o n en t p a r t s

o f t h e h i s t o r i c C h r i s t i a n R e p u b l i c , now u n d e r a t t a c k b y th e r e v o lu tio n a r ie s .

By i g n o r i n g t h e r o l e o f P r o v id e n c e

i n h i s t o r y , a n d b y r e n o u n c in g t h e a c c u m u la te d w isdom o f t h e a g e s a n d t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o c i e t y o f C h ris te n d o m , t h e P a r i s t h e o r e t i c i a n s w e re g u i l t y o f a n i h i l i s t i c

h o s tility

to w a rd a l l t h e g o o d t h i n g s t h a t men h a d , u n d e r God, a c q u i r e d and c h e r is h e d .

And y e t , i n t h e f a c e o f t h i s F re n c h h e r e s y ,

t h e s t a t e s o f E u ro p e s o u g h t m e r e ly t o c o n t i n u e t h e i r p l a n s o f a g g ra n d iz e m e n t an d t o i g n o r e t h e d a n g e r s t o t h e f o u n d a ­ t i o n s o f t h e w o r ld t h e y knew a n d w is h e d t o p r e s e r v e .

It

w as B u r k e ’s t a s k t o t e a c h th em w h a t w e re th e r e a l i s s u e s a n d t h e r e a l d a n g e r s , b y sh o w in g t h e r e a l n a t u r e o f t h e w o rld w h ic h t h e y w e re so s t u p i d l y u n a b le t o d e f e n d .

A s t u d y o f t h i s m an’ s m in d a t w ork i n t h i s s p h e r e o f t h o u g h t i s t i m e l y n o t o n ly b e c a u s e o f t h e r e n a i s s a n c e o f B u rk e s t u d i e s t o d a y , b u t b e c a u s e t h e w e s t e r n w o r ld i s now e x p e r i e n c i n g a c r i s i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t F re n c h R e v o l u t i o n w h ic h c a l l e d f o r t h h i s p r o f o u n d e s t v i s i o n s a n d ju d g m e n ts , t h e ‘’j a c o b i n i s m ” t h a t B u rk e d e t e s t e d r e a p p e a r s i n t h e c o n te m p o ra r y n e g a t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s i n th o u g h t a n d s o c i e t y ,q a n d t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f a t y r a n n i c a l a n d u n i v e r s a l schem e t h a t s e e k s t h e r e d u c t i o n o f m an k in d t o s e r v i t u d e and l i f e l e s s u n if o r m ity .

The su p rem e t a s k b e f o r e men i n

X

r

n

t h i s c e n tu ry i s th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f in te r n a t i o n a l p eace i n h arm o n y w i t h human f re e d o m , t h e m o r a l la w , a n d a r i g h t e x p re s s io n o f th e n a t u r a l v i r t u e o f p a t r i o t i s m .

N e ith e r

t h e le a g u e o f N a tio n s n o r t h e U n ite d H&tfoyss- t o s a y n o t h i n g o f t h e H i t l e r i a n a n d B o l s h e v i s t sch em es o f w o r ld o r g a n i z a t i o n - w as fo u n d e d u p o n t h e m o r a l i t y , t h e p e r c e p t i o n , t h e a n a l y s i s a n d h i s t o r i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t p e rm e a te d B u rk e ’s p h ilo s o p h y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o c i e t y .

So t h a t h a r d

and c r u e l e x p e rie n c e i n d ic a t e s t h a t i n t h i s s p h e re o f t h o u g h t , no l e s s t h a n i n o t h e r b r a n c h e s o f p u b l i c a n d p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y , B u r k e ’s w isdom i s n e e d e d t o d a y . BSy g r a t e f u l a c k n o w le d g m e n t f o r a s s i s t a n c e a n d e n c o u ra g e m e n t i s d u e t o P r o f e s s o r J . B u r to n C o n f r e y , a n d Bar. W illia m G i l l a r d , A c tin g D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s , S t . J o h n ’ s U n i v e r s i t y , t o P r o f e s s o r Thomas W . C o p e la n d o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o , a n d t o M r. H. A . C . S t u r g e s s , L i b r a r i a n a n d K e ep e r o f t h e R e c o r d s , t h e H o n o u ra b le S o c i e t y o f t h e M id d le T em p le , L on d o n , E n g la n d .

L

EDMUND BURKE’S INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION; BURKE’ S IR ISH ORIGINS Edmund B u rk e w as b o r n i n D u b lin o n J a n u a r y 1 2 , 1 7 2 9 , th e seco n d so n o f th e f o u r te e n o r f i f t e e n c h ild r e n o f R ic h a r d a n d M ary N a g le B u rk e .

H is f a t h e r w as a n a t t o r n e y 1 i n t h e C o u rt o f E x c h e q u e r, I r e l a n d , and an a d h e re n t o f

t h e E s t a b l i s h e d C h u rc h , w h ile h i s m o th e r a n d h e r r e l a t i v e s w e re Roman C a t h o l i c s .

He was m ore o f a N a g le t h a n a B u rk e

f o r fro m c h il d h o o d t o o l d a g e , h e r e t a i n e d a v e r y g r e a t lo v e f o r h i s m o th e r a n d a warm a tt a c h m e n t f o r h e r r e l a ­ t i v e s , e s p e c i a l l y h i s u n c le s Jam es9 P a t r i c k , and above 2 a l l , G a rre t, who s u p p l i e d t h e t e n d e r n e s s a b s e n t i n h i s w e ll- m e a n in g b u t i r a s c i b l e f a t h e r .

1.

L e t t e r fro m M r. H. A . C . S t u r g e s s , L i b r a r i a n a n d K e e p e r o f t h e R e c o r d s , The H o n o u ra b le S o c i e t y o f t h e M id d le T e m p le , L o n d o n , O c to b e r 2 5 , 194-9* B u rk e t o l d h i s f r i e n d , R i c h a r d S h a c k le to n t h a t h i s f a t h e r p r a c t i c e d i n t h e s u p e r i o r c o u r t s a n d was t h e v e r y f i r s t man o f h is p r o f e s s io n i n p o in t o f p r a c tic e and c r e d i t . O c t­ o b e r 2 8 , 1 7 6 6 , The L e a d b e a te r P a p e r s ( e d . M ary L e a d b e a t e r ) , 2 v o l s . , L o n d o n , B e l l a n d D a ld y , 1 8 6 2 , I I , 102.

2.

B u rk e w r o te h i s u n c l e , tfT he#e a r e v e r y few p e r s o n s i n t h e w o r ld f o r whom I h a v e s o g r e a t a r e s p e c t , o r w hose g o o d o p i n i o n I s h o u l d b e m ore g l a d t o h a v e t h e n y o u r s . 1* A p r i l 1 7 , 1759* He t o l d h i s c o u s i n t h a t u fac le G a r r e t was t h e p e r s o n he w is h e d t h e m o st t o r e ­ s e m b le . M arch 6 , 1 7 6 0 . " O r i g i n a l L e t t e r s o f B u r k e ," New M o n th ly M a g a z in e . XIV (1825k 3 8 0 -3 8 1 , 3 ^ 6 .

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1 The d e t a i l s o f h i s e a r l y l i f e a r e o b s c u re *

S in c e

h e was s i c k l y a n d was a f f e c t e d b y t h e f l o o d i n g o f h i s h o u s e on A r r a n Quay b y t h e L i f f e y R i v e r , h e was s e n t t o s t a y w i t h t h e N a g le s f o r f i v e y e a r s a t B a l l y d u f f , n e a r C a s tle to w n - R o c h e , i n C o u n ty C o rk .

T h e re h e p l a y e d w ith

h is c o u s in s , and s p e n t h o u rs in th e r u in s o f th e P re ­ c e p t o r y o f t h e K n ig h ts o f S t . J o h n a t Monanimy a n d i n t h e A bbey o f t h e C anons R e g u la r o f S t . A u g u s tin e a t 2 B a llin d ro d . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t h i s c o u s in a n d c o n te m p o r a r y , Nano N a g le , becam e t h e f o u n d r e s s o f 3 t h e P r e s e n t a t i o n O rd e r i n I r e l a n d . W h ile among t h e N a g le s h e l e a r n e d G a e l i c , a l i t t l e

o f # iie h he r e ta in e d

1 . B u rk e w as r e t i c e n t a b o u t h i s a f f a i r s fro m c h i l d h o o d . He t o l d S h a c k le t o n on F e b r u a r y 1 5 , 1 7 4 6 : **We l i v e i n a w o r ld w h ere e v e r y one i s on t h e c a t c h , a n d t h e o n l y way to be s a f e i s to be s i l e n t ; s i l e n t in any a f f a i r o f con­ s e q u e n c e ; a n d I t h i n k i t i s n o t a b a d r u l e f o r e v e r y m an t o !k e e p w i t h h im w h a t h e t h i n k s o f o t h e r s , o f h i m s e l f , a n d o f h i s own a f f a i r s . 1* L e a d b e a te r P a p e r s . I I , 6 3 - 6 4 . E v en a s a p u b l i c f i g u r e o f e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g la n d , h i s d e e p - s e a t e d f e a r t h a t t h e l i v e s o f h i s im m e d ia te f a m i l y w o u ld b e d a r k e n e d b y p o l i t i c a l o p p o n e n ts d i s ­ p o s e d him t o s e e r e c y c o n c e rn in g : f a m i l y p a r t i c u l a r s . He w as m o m e n ta r ily a n g r y a t S h a c k l e t on w hen t h e l a t t e r i n ­ a d v e r te n tly r e v e a le d in fo rm a tio n to th e p r e s s . V id e i b i d . , I I , 1 0 9 -1 2 1 , o r A r t h u r P . I . S a m u e ls , The E a r l y L i f e . C o r r e s p o n d e n c e . a n d W r i t in g s o f t h e R t . H on. Edmund B u r k e . C a m b rid g e , 1 9 2 3 * p p . 3 9 ^ - 4 0 4 . 2 . R o b e r t H* M u rra y , Edmund B u r k e . L ondon. O x fo rd , 1931 p . 7* 3* W illia m 0 * B r i e n , Edmund B u rk e a s a n I r i s h m a n . D u b l i n , M.H. G i l l , 1924, p . 12.

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H is e a r l i e s t f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n w as d i r «

e c t e d b y a h e d g e - s c h o o l m a s t e r , OfH a l l o r a n , i n t h e r u i n e d 2

e a s t l e o f Monanxmy*

A c lo s e a s s o c i a t io n w ith I r i s h

C a th o lic s d u r in g th e s e im p re s s io n a b le y e a r s l e f t i t s d e l i b l e m ark o n B urke-*s t h o u g h t s a n d e m o tio n s .

in ­

He re n e w ­

ed h i s a f f e c t i o n d u rin g h is p e r i o d i c a l v i s i t s to th e s o u th o f Ire la n d *

I n a poem w r i t t e n w hen h e w as s i x t e e n y e a r s

o l d , h e d e s c r i b e d t h e b e a u t i f u l r e g i o n a ro u n d t h e 3 B l a e k w a te r o r H a g le s* C o u n tr y :

1* I n a n i n t e r v i e w i n c . 17 8 7 B u rk e s a i d , **I c o u l d s p e a k a l i t t l e of i t ( liI r i s h t*) w hen I w as a b o y , a n d I c a n r e ­ m em ber a fe w w o rd s a n d p h r a s e s s t i l l . ** Jam es P r i o r , M emoir o f t h e L i f e an d C h a r a c t e r o f t h e R t . H on. Edmund B u r k e . 2 v o l s . , B o s to n , T ie k n o r , H eed a n d F i e l d s , l 8 j 4 ( s e c o n d e d i t i o n ) , I , 498* 2 . S a m u e ls , o p * c i t . , p* o* The h e d g e - s c h o o l s w e re t h e \ r e s u l t o f t h e b a n n in g o f t h e C a t h o l i c s c h o o l m a s t e r b y t h e P r o t e s t a n t m i n o r i t y . A lth o u g h t h e la w p r o h i b i t e d him t o t e a c h , h e c o n t i n u e d , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t o i n s t r u c t s e c re tly . The f i r s t s c h o o l s w ere o u t d o o r s , a t t h e su n n y s i d e o f a h e d g e o r b a n k . When t h e la w s w e re l e s s s t r i c t l y e n f o r c e d , c l a s s e s w e re c o n d u c te d i n a c a b i n o r i n a n y b u i l d i n g , a n d t h e nam e, ‘^ e d g e - s c h o o l,* * r e m a in e d . ¥ i d e P a t r i c k J o h n B o w lin g , The H edge S c h o o ls o f I r e l a n d . L o n d o n , L ongm ans, 1935? P* 46 % 3* S a m u e ls , o p * c i t * * p . 1 1 1 . W illia m C * B rie n d e s c r i b e s B u rk e * s a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e s o u t h c o u n t r y i n t h e c h a p t e r **0n M u lla * s S h o r e . 11

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Ye b e a u t e o u s nymphs t h a t h a u n t t h e d u s k y w ood, W hich h a n g s r e c u m b e n t o ' e r t h e c r y s t a l f l o o d , Or r i s e n fro m w a t e r , a s t h e w a te r f a i r , 'Mong t h e c l e f t r o c k s d i v i d e y o u r am ber h a i r ; O f t , a s d e l i g h t e d w i t h my r u r a l l a y , E a r n e s t y o u l i s t e n ' d a l l t h e S u m m er's d a y , N or t h o u g h t i t l o n g ; - W ith f a v o u r h e a r my vow , And w i t h y o u r k i n d a s s i s t a n c e h e l p me now . And y o u , w hose m id n i g h t d a n c e i n m y s t ic r o u n d , W ith a g r e e n c i r c l e m ark s t h e f l o w 'r y g r o u n d , Ohl a i d my v o i c e , t h a t I may wake o n c e m ore T he s lu m b e r in g e ch o on t h e M u l l a 's s h o r e . T hou c h i e f o f f l o o d s , B l a c k w a te r , h o a r y s i r e l W ith a l l t h y b e a u t i e s , a l l my b r e a s t i n s p i r e , To t r a c e t h e w in d in g c h a n n e l o f t h y c o u r s e , And f i n d t h e h i d d e n w o n d e rs o f t h y s o u r c e . H is h e a l t h im p ro v e d , h e r e t u r n e d t o B u b l i n , w h e re h e a t t e n d e d a s c h o o l u n d e r a M r. Ja m es F i t z g e r a l d f o r a y e a r , a n d was t h e n s e n t , w i t h h i s b r o t h e r i n May 1 7 4 1 , t o B a l l i t o r e S c h o o l, c o n d u c te d s i n c e 1726 b y a Q u a k e r, A braham S h a c k le to n .

A c c o r d in g t o h i s a d v e r t i s e m e n t , t h e l a t t e r

d e c l i n e d t o t e a c h a u t h o r s "who recom m end i n s e d u c i n g l a n g ­ u a g e t h e i l l u s i o n s o f l o v e , a n d t h e a b o m in a b le t r a d e o f w a r . 11 P e r h a p s B u r k e 's a b h o r r e n c e f o r w ar may h a v e h a d i t s o r i ­ g in a t B a llito re .

N ot o n ly d i d h e r e c e i v e e x c e l l e n t p r e *

p a r a t i o n f o r c o lle g e t h e r e , b u t he fo u n d l i f e - l o n g f r i e n d s , among th em t h e s c h o o l m a s t e r 's s o n , B i e h a r d , who w as tw o o r 2 t h r e e y e a r s o l d e r t h a n B u rk e .

1 . S a m u e ls , op,, c i t . « p . 13* 2* Thomas Mae K n i g h t , H i s t o r y o f t h e L i f e a n d T im es o f Edmund B u r k e . 3 v o l s . , L o n d o n , Ckapman a n d H a l l , HST58-* i8 6 0 , I , 19.

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5 When h e l e f t B a l l i t o r e a f t e r t h r e e h a p p y y e a r s t o e n t e r T r i n i t y C o l l e g e , B u b l i n , h e c o r r e s p o n d e d w ith R i c h a r d S h a c k l e t o n , a n d t h u s o p e n e d h i s m in d t o him i n a s e r i e s o f l e t t e r s t e s t i f y i n g t o t h e y o u n g s c h o l a r *s p r e c o e io u s n e s s .

T hey w e re com posed b y a s i n c e r e b o y , e a g e r

to f in d l i g h t and to d i f f u s e , i t , b ecau se th e r e i s i m p l a n te d i n u s , d o u b t l e s s f o r a g o o d e n d , a n i n ­ s a t i a b l e d e s i r e o f t r u t h ; we s p a r e no p a i n s i n s e a r c h o f i t ; a n d w hen we h a v e fo u n d i t , o r a t l e a s t i t s a p p e a r a n c e , we a r e a g a i n a s u n e a s y t o c o m m u n ic a te t h e f r u i t o f o u r l a b o u r s t o o t h e r s * T h e re i s no one m ore t r o u b l e d w i t h t h i s f a i l i n g th a n m y s e lf. I t i s a g a i n s t my n a t u r e t o s e e p e o p le i n a n o p i n i o n t h i n k w i t h o u t e n d e a v o u r in g t o u n d e c e iv e 'e m . I ' d w i l l i n g l y w in t h e w h o le w o rld t o my own way o f t h i n k i n g ; a f a i l i n g i t i s , y e t s u c h a one a s w i t h a l l my e f f o r t s I c a n 't g e t r i d o f . 1 B u rk e saw a u n i v e r s e o f o r d e r c r e a t e d b y G od: 2 W hat g r a n d e r i d e a c a n t h e m ind o f m an fo rm t o i t ­ s e l f t h a n a p r o d i g i o u s , g l o r i o u s , a n d f i e r y g lo b e h a n g in g i n t h e m id s t o f a n i n f i n i t e a n d b o u n d l e s s s p a c e , s u r r o u n d e d w i t h b o d i e s o f whom o u r e a r t h i s s c a r c e l y a n y t h i n g i n c o m p a r is o n , m o v in g t h e i r ro u n d s a b o u t i t s b o d y , and h e ld t i g h t to t h e i r re s p e c tiv e o r b its by th e a l l a t t r a c t i v e fo rc e in ­ h e r e n t t o i t ; w h ile t h e y a r e e x p e n d e d i n t h e sam e s p a c e b y t h e f o r c e o f t h e C r e a t o r fs a lm i g h ty arm ! I n t h i s u n i v e r s e o f la w a n d o r d e r , man w as G o d 's s p e c i a l c re a tu re .

B u t h e was n o t a u to n o m o u s a n d s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t .

The l a d who e x c la im e d , *how u n c e r t a i n i s hum an g l o r y , how u n s t a b l e i s t h e g r e a t n e s s o f m o r t a l s ! '1* ^ w o u ld s c a r c e l y

1 . F e b r u a r y Q O j , 1744—1 7 4 5 , L e a d b e a te r P a p e r s , I I , 3 8 . 2 . Ju n e 14, 1744, i b i d . I I , i f l 3 . May 2 9 , 1 7 4 4 , i b i d . I I , 8 .

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b e d i s p o s e d t o t h a t v ie w o r to th e one t h a t man c o u ld 1 rem ak e t h e w o rld a n d h i s d e s t i n y ,

B urke t o l d S h a c k le to n :

I c o n s i d e r e d how l i t t l e man i s , y e t i n h i s m in d , how g r e a t ! He i s L o rd an d M a s te r o f a l l t h i n g s , y e t s c a r c e c an command a n y t h i n g . He i s g i v e n a Freedom o f h i s w i l l , b u t w h e r e f o r e ? Was i t b u t t o to r m e n t an d p e r p l e x him t h e m o re? How l i t t l e a v a i l s t h e fre e d o m , i f t h e o b j e c t s h e i s t o a c t upon be n o t a s much d i s p o s e d to o b e y a s h e i s to command. What w e l l l a i d an d w h a t b e t t e r e x e c u te d schem e o f h i s i s t h e r e , b u t w h a t a s m a ll c h a n g e o f n a t u r e i s s u f f i c i e n t t o d e f e a t an d e n t i r e l y a b o lis h ? I f b u t one e le m e n t h a p p e n s to e n ­ c r o a c h a l i t t l e on t h e o t h e r , w h a t c o n f u s i o n may i t n o t c re a te in h is a f f a i r s ! . . . S h a ll I ra g e , f r e t , and a c c u s e P r o v id e n c e o f i n j u s t i c e ? No, l e t me r a t h e r la m e n t t h a t I do n o t w h a t i s a lw a y s r i g h t ; w h a t d e p e n d s n o t on t h e f o r t u i t o u s c h a n g e s o f t h i s w o r ld , n o r th e b l i n d s p o r t o f f o r t u n e b u t r e m a in s u n a l t e r a b l y f i x e d i n th e m in d ; u n to u c h e d th o u g h t h i s s h a t t e r e d g lo b e s h o u ld f a l l i n p i e c e s , and b u ry me i n th e r u i n s . Though I ' d o l e a d a v i r t u o u s l i f e , l e t i t show me how low I am, and o f m y s e lf how w eak ; how f a r f r o m a n in d e p e n d ­ e n t b e i n g ; g i v e n a s a s h e e p i n t o t h e h a n d o f th e G r e a t S h e p h e rd o f a l l , on whom . l e t u s c a s t a l l o u r c a r e s , f o r He e a r e t h f o r u s . As a s i x t e e n - y e a r o l d y o u t h , h e d i s c u s s e d r e l i g i o n w i t h h i s q u a k e r f r i e n d , e m p h a s iz in g th e im p o r ta n c e o f C h u rch u n i t y .

He was d i s p o s e d to w a rd th e c o n c e p ti o n o f

t h e c h u rc h a s a s u p r a n a t u r a l , u n i v e r s a l , c a t h o l i c b o d y . I t was a m e la n c h o ly t h i n g , h e a v e r r e d , to c o n s i d e r th e d i v e r s i t i e s o f s e c t s an d o p i n i o n s .

He was s u r e t h a t men

1 . J a n u a r y 2 5 , 1 7 4 5 -1 7 4 6 , S a m u e ls , o p . c i t . , p . 8 4 ,

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i s h o u l d n o t f o r a s m a l l m a t t e r com m it s o g r e a t a c rim e a s b r e a k i n g t h e u n i t y o f t h e c h u r c h . . . • C t f the*} s p i r i t o f h u m i l i t y , t h e g r e a t e s t o f t h e C h r i s t i a n v i r t u e s , w as o u r g u i d e , o u r s e c t s a n d o u r r e l i g i o n s w o u ld h e much f e w e r . 1 He lo o k e d f o r a i d a n d c o m f o r t th r o u g h s u p e r n a t u r a l m eans* W illia m B e n n i s , h i s ro o rn a te a t T r i n i t y , t o l d S h a e k l e t o n t h a t B u rk e f s o l d p a i n i n t h e h i p a n d t h e d e s i r e t o t r a v e l s t i r r e d t h e i r m u tu a l f r i e n d t o p l a n a p i l g r i m a g e t o Our L ady o f L o r e t t o , b u t h i s d r e a d o f b e i n g i n c a p a c i t a t e d 2 f o r c e d a p o s tp o n e m e n t* B u rk e m a n i f e s t e d l i t t l e

a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e H u g u en o t

y o u t h s a t t e n d i n g B a l l i t o r e , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e t h e y w e re u p ­ r o o t e d p e r s o n s who r e p r e s e n t e d a b r e a k i n t h e u n i t y o f th e c h u rc h .

T hey u n d o u b te d ly a p p e a r e d “d i f f e r e n t 1* fro m

h is I r i s h frie n d s *

R e f e r r i n g t o t h e r e s i g n a t i o n o f tw o 3 F r e n c h b o y s fro m S h a e k le to n * s s c h o o l , h e w r o t e : So t h e tw o b o o b i e s h a v e l e f t B a l l i t o r e , a s t h e y d i d I d e n d e r r y , a s i t *s p r o b a b l e w i l l s o o n q u i t P o r t a r l i n g t o n fa c o lo n y o f H u g u e n o ts a b o u t tw e lv e m i l e s fro m B a l l i t o r e /], a n d t h e n w h ere t h e d e v i l w i l l t h e y g o ? T h e i r t r a v e l s a r e t h u s . The b o o b ­ i e s f i n d i n g F r a n c e t o o h o t f o r , em , t h e y r e t i r e d t o H o l l a n d , fro m t h e n c e t o L on d o n , t h e n c e t o B u b lin , th e n c e to R d e n d e rry , th e n c e t o B a l l i t o r e , t h e n c e t o P o r t a r l i n g t o n , - a n d w h e re n e x t?

1 . O c to b e r 1 ? , 1 7 4 4 . L e a d b e a t e r P a p e r s * I I , 31* 2 . A u g u s t 2 2 , 1 7 4 7 , S a m u e ls , o p . c i t . , p . 1 4 9 . 3 . d u n e 1 1 , 1 7 4 4 , L e a d b e a te r P a p e r s . I I , 1 8 .

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i A lth o u g h he was a g o o d s t u d e n t a n d a p p l i e d h i m s e l f c l o s e l y t o h i s w ork a t T r i n i t y C o l l e g e , h e w as c o n c e rn e d w ith e v e n ts o f th e d a y .

C o n d i t i o n s w e re e s p e c i a l l y u n ­

s e t t l e d i n I r e la n d a f t e r th e B r i t i s h re c o n q u e s t and th e d e f e a t o f th e S tu a r ts in 1689.

B e s p ite th e J a c o b ite a t ­

m o sp h e re a t T r i n i t y , B u rk e w as no f o l l o w e r o f t h e d e p o s e d d y n a s t y ; f o r h im P r i n c e C h a r l e s Bdw ard was a lw a y s t h e * * P re te n d e r. ® n e v e r t h e l e s s , h e s y m p a th iz e d w i t h t h e J a c o b ite s . b a ttle

On A p r i l 2 6 , I f 46 a f t e r t h e i r d e f e a t a t t h e

o f C u llo d e n , B u rk e la m e n te d t h e f a t e o f t h e u n ­

h a p p y g e n tle m e n who s t a k e d t h e i r l i v e s , f o r t u n e s a n d 1 . f a m i l i e s i n w h a t t h e y t h o u g h t a ju s t c a u s e . T r i n i t y C o l le g e s t u d e n t s f e l l i n t o tw o g r o u p s ; one w as i n t e r e s t e d i n s t u d y a n d s e l f - i m p r o v e m e n t , w h ile t h e o t h e r was n o t - ^ l i v i n g f o r t h e p r e s e n t t h a t t h e f u t u r e m ig h t n o t f i n d th e m w i t h o u t a p a s t . ®

The l a t t e r d i v i d e d

i n t o n u m ero u s c l u b s , s u c h a s t h e H e l l - f i r e , t h e S w e a t e r s , t h e C h e r o k e e s , t h e P i c k i n i n d i e s , e t c . , w h ic h r e g u l a r l y p a r t i c i p a t e d i n to w n -a n d -g o w n b r a w ls o f a r e l i g i o u s a n d 2 p o l i t i c a l n a tu re .

1 . S a m u e ls , o p . c i t . , p p . 9 0 -9 1 # I n a “Club® d e b a te B u rk e was a s s i g n e d t a s k o f a t t a c k i n g l e n i e n c y f o r t h e J a c o b i t e s . V id e i b i d . , p . 2 4 4 . 2 . S o g e r McHugh. H e n ry G r a t t a n . Hew Y o rk , S h e e d a n d W ard, 1 9 3 7 , p p . 17-T T .

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Young B u r k e 's s y m p a th ie s a n d i n c l i n a t i o n s ; w ere w i t h t h e f i r s t g ro u p *

I n A p r i l 174-7 h e h e l p e d fo u n d t h e

fam o u s d e b a t i n g s o c i e t y ,

“The C l u b , 1* a t T r i n i t y .

The

d e b a t e s a r e r e c o r d e d i n h i s own h a n d f o r t h e m o s t p a r t * T hey r e i t e r a t e h i s i n t e r e s t i n I r e l a n d *

F o r on e who p r e ­

v i o u s l y , d u r i n g h i s m o t h e r 's i l l n e s s , t r i e d

" to g e t a 2

little

i n t o t h e a c c o u n ts o f t h i s , o u r own p o o r c o u n t r y , "

t h e C lu b c o u l d b e a s o u n d in g b o a r d o f h i s o p i n i o n s . I r e l a n d ' s c o m m e r c ia l a n d p o l i t i c a l s u b o r d i n a t i o n was d i s c u s s e d .

D u r in g B u r k e 's y o u t h , I r e l a n d was t h e

s c e n e o f r e l i g i o u s p e r s e c u t i o n , econom ic s t a g n a t i o n a n d p o l i t i c a l c h ic a n e r y ..

The v a s t m a j o r i t y o f t h e p e o p le

Wdre t r a m p le d down u n d e r t h e h e a v y h e e l o f t h e P e n a l C o d e, d e v i s e d t o b u r y I r i s h C a t h o l i c s i n a m ire o f o p p r e s s i o n and f r u s t r a t i o n .

T h e i r C h u rc h was v i l l i f i e d a s t h e 3 so u rc e o f e v i l and s c a n d a l. C a t h o l i c s w e re e v e n m ore

d e s p i s e d b y t h e P r o t e s t a n t d i s s e n t e r s , who i n t u r n , w e re h a t e d m ore r o u n d l y t h a n t h e f o r m e r b y t h e d o m in a n t C h u rc h o f I r e l a n d m i n o r i t y , o n l y h a l f a s n u m ero u s a s t h e i r P ro te s t a n t eo - r e l i g i o n i s t s .

! • V id e S a m u e ls . B a r I v L i f e a n d C o rre s p o n d e n c e o f Edmund B u rk e . p p . 225- 2 9 7 * 2 . J u l y 1 2 , 174-6, I b i d . . p . 9 8 . 3* e* g . H e n ry B ro o k e , The F a r m e r 's S i x L e t t e r s t o t h e P r o t e s t a n t s o f I r e l a n d (1 7 4 5 1 , L o n d o n , r e p r i n t e d 1 7 5 6 , M. C o o p e r, # 2 7 p* 1 0 .

E c o n o m ic a lly , I r e l a n d w as s u b j e c t e d t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f 'm e r c a n t i l i s m w h ic h r e d o u n d e d t o t h e a d v a n ta g e o f t h e m o th e r c o u n t r y .

In a c c o rd a n c e w ith t h i s p h ilo s o p h y ,

I r i s h m e n w ere d e n i e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n v i r t u a l l y a l l i n ­ d u s t r y e x c e p t l i n e n a n d hemp m a n u f a c t u r in g a n d w o o l - r a i s ­ in g .

A lr e a d y com m anding v o i c e s h a d p r o t e s t e d t h e i n i q u i t y .

B e an S w i f t , f o r e x a m p le , recom m ended i n 1 7 2 0 , " L e t a f i r m r e s o l u t i o n b e t a k e n b y m a le a n d f e m a le n e v e r t o a p p e a r w i t h one s i n g l e s h r e d o f c l o t h t h a t com es fro m E n g la n d , a n d l e t a l l t h e p e o p le s a y , AME1.*1 ^ I r e l a n d w as j u r i d i c a l l y a s e p a r a t e k in g d o m u n d e r t h e B r i t i s h C row n, b u t i n p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y , a c o lo n y a n d a n appendage o f th e B r i t i s h P a rlia m e n t.

H e r d e p e n d e n c y was

t h e c a r d i n a l p o l i t i c a l a x io m o f t h e L o rd L i e u t e n a n t . B r i t a i n s o o n l e a r n e d , h o w e v e r, t h a t s h e d i d n o t r e s p o n d o b s e q u i o u s l y t o b r u s q u e m e th o d s .

T h e re u p o n , B r i t a i n r e ­

s o r t e d t o m a n ip u la tio n and b r i b e r y , o f th e I r i s h P a r l i a ­ m en t ( c h o s e n i n 1 7 2 7 ) t h r o u g h t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y o f t h e g r e a t b o ro u g h -m o n g e rs o r " u n d e r t a k e r s " , who b o u g h t u p t h e H ouse o f Commons s o t h a t i t w o u ld c o n s t i t u t e a d e a d - w e ig h t on a p a r t i c u l a r is s u e i n r e t u r n f o r pow er and re w a rd s .

1 . Q u o te d i n E . C o u p la n d , The A m e ric a n R e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e 8B r i t i s h E m p ire . L o n d o n , L ongm ans, 193®* PP* 90-91*

11 f“

“I On May 29* 174*7* B u rk e • i n t r o d u c e d 1 a m e a s u re i n t h e C lu b t o t a x a b s e n t e e I r i s h l a n d l o r d s t e n p e r c e n t o f t h e i r e s t a t e s , b e c a u s e i t w as t h e o n ly way o f h o l d i n g a l i t t l e money xn I r e l a n d .

i n a n o t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o n J u n e 2*

1747* c o n c e r n i n g t h e E a r l o f C h e s t e r f i e l d , t h e V ic e ro y * who h a d r e t u r n e d t o E n g la n d * B u rk e e x p o s t u l a t e d t h a t “Love f o r o u r c o u n t r y i s t h e L i f e o f e v e r y g e n e r o u s b r e a s t . 11 Man r o s e a b o v e b r u t e c r e a t i o n b y f a v o r i n g t h e p u b lic good o v er p r iv a te c o n c e rn s.

C h e s t e r f i e l d was

p r a is e d f o r n o t e n ric h in g h im s e lf o r d r a in in g I r i s h p u r­ s e s t o f i l l h i s own* a n d f o r b e s to w in g som e “s w e e t s “ upon I r e la n d .

R u le a n d a u t h o r i t y i n h a n d s s u c h a s h i s

c o u ld c o n f e r t h e g r e a t e s t b e n e f i t s o n t h e c o u n t r y .

W h ile

money b r o u g h t m o m en tary p r o f i t o r r e d r e s s , o n ly p o w e r, s u c h a s t h a t w i e ld e d b y t h e v ic e r o y * c o u ld b e s to w f r e e tr a d e and l i b e r a l o p p o r tu n itie s .

How t h a t C h e s t e r f i e l d

w as i n E n g la n d a n d i n a n o t h e r p o s i t i o n * h i s c a r e s w e re i n ­ c r e a s e d * a n d h i s t h o u g h t s w o u ld b e o c c u p ie d b y h i s own c o u n tr y * ^ h o s e i n t e r e s t s o o f t e n c l a s h e s w i t h o u r s . 1*

2

T h e re i s no e v id e n c e t h a t B urke t h o u g h t i n te rm s o f i n t e r h a t i o n a l s o c i e t y i n h i s y o u th .

The d e b a t e s o f t h e

1 . S a m u els* o p . c i t . p p . 2 5 1 - 2 5 2 . B u rk e o p p o se d a t e n p e r c e n t I r i s h l a n d t a x w hen i t was p r o p o s e d i n 1773* 2 . a i d . , p p . 2 6 3 -2 6 4 .

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r C lu b do r e v e a l , h o w e v e r, t h a t t o p i c s c o n c e r n i n g B r i t i s h f o r e i g n p o l i c y w ere d i s c u s s e d * was H o l l a n d .

P a ra m o u n t i n t h a t p o l i c y

B o th c o u n t r i e s h a d moved s t e a d i l y t o g e t h e r

i n th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry .

I n 1709 B r i t a i n h a d g u a r a n ­

t e e d t o H o lla n d t h e h a r r i e r l i n e o f f o r t r e s s e s a t N i e u p o r t , L i l l e , T o u r n a i , F a m u r, e t c . , w h ic h i n 1713 w ere c o m m itte d t o B u tc h g a r r i s o n s ,

t h e B u tc h j o i n e d t h e

Q u a d ru p le A l l i a n c e ( U n ite d P r o v i n c e s , B r i t a i n , A u s t r i a a n d S a x o n y - P o la n d ) , h u t r e f u s e d t o a i d t h e A u s t r i a n s t o t h e l i m i t i n 17*5-

I n s t e a d t h e y d i s c h a r g e d o n ly t h e a b -

s o l u t e l y b i n d i n g te r m s o f t h e A l l ia n c e * I n a C lu b d e b a t e , B u rk e w as a s s i g n e d t h e t a s k o f d e f e n d i n g t h e D u tc h c o n d u c t .

A f t e r n o t i n g t h e w id e

d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n c o m m u n itie s a n d p r i v a t e m en, y o u n g B u rk e d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e i n t e r e s t o f o n e t s c o u n t r y w as t h e b e s t m o tiv e f o r a l l i a n c e .

I t was e q u a l l y d a n g e r o u s f o r

t h e D u tc h w h e th e r t h e F r e n c h o r t h e A u s t r i a n s t i p p e d t h e B a la n c e o f p o w e r.

The B u tc h r e f u s e d t o s u p p o r t t h e

A u s t r i a n s w h o l e h e a r t e d l y , a n d s e n t o n ly a b o d y o f t r o o p s . I n s t e a d , t h e y s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e m s e lv e s b y t r a d e .

The d e ­

b a t e r a d d e d , i f t h e B r i t i s h w ere so e a r n e s t i n d e f e n d i n g 1 t h e B a r r i e r , t h e y h a d some i n t e r e s t i n i t .

1 . A p r i l 2 8 , 17*7, I b i d . . p . 2 3 2 .

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On a n o t h e r o e e a s i o n B u r k e 1s a s s ig n m e n t w as t o s t a t e t h e b e n e f i t s a c c r u in g to B r i t a i n b y th e e l e c t i o n o f th e P r in c e o f O ran g e a s S t a d h o l d e r o f t h e U n ite d P r o v i n c e s .

The y o u t h

p o s t u l a t e d t h e u n i o n o f E n g l i s h an d B u tc h i n t e r e s t s .

S in c e

t h e B u tc h b a r r i e r s t o o d b e tw e e n E n g la n d a n d t h e c o n t i n e n t , its

c a p t u r e b y P r a n c e w o u ld n o t o n ly l e a d t o t h e o v e r ­

ru n n in g o f th e c o n ti n e n t b u t a ls o th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f E n g lis h tra d e .

The P r i n c e f s e l e c t i o n w o u ld u n i t e t h e B u tc h a n d

e l i m i n a t e t h e d i s s e n s i o n s among th em w h ic h i n t r o d u c e d t h e F r e n e h , a n d w o u ld r e s u l t i n t h e s a f e t y o f t h e p e o p le andth e p e a c e o f E u ro p e. ^ W h ile B u rk e was a t T r i n i t y , h e u n d e r t o o k t h e p u bli** c a t i o n o f The R e f o r m e r a l i t t l e fro m J a n u a r y t o A p r i l 1 7 4 8 .

w e e k ly r e v i e w , i s s u e d

H o ld in g t h a t t a s t e a n d v i r t u e

w e re i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c te d , t h e you n g w r i t e r w is h e d t o r e f o r m t a s t e b e f o r e im p ro v in g t h e m o r a ls o f t h e p e o p l e . H is t a s k was t h e c l o s e s e r u t i n i z a t i o n o f p l a y s . 2 p la in e d :

He ex*-

1 . May 19* 1 7 4 7 . i b i d . . p . 2 4 3 . The F r e n c h h a d d e c l a r e d w ar o n t h e U n ite d P r o v i n c e s on A p r i l 1 7 , 1747* 2 . J a n u a r y 2 8 , 1 7 4 7 -1 7 4 8 , q u o te d i n S a m u e ls , o p . c i t . , P- 297.

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14 PLAYS a r e t h e f a v o u r i t e D i v e r s i o n o f t h e P e o p le o f F a s h i o n , a n d e v e r y one i s s e n s i b l e how much t h e y i n f l u e n c e t h e i r T a s te a n d M a n n e rs; i f t h e S o u rc e t h e n b e c o r r u p t e d , w h a t a D e p r a v a ti o n m u s t we e x p e c t o f b o t h : The P e o p le c o p y fro m t h e G e n t r y , a n d b a d A u th o r s fro m t h e P e o p l e : T hus V ic e a n d F o l l y , l i k e M i l t o n 's SIM a n d DEATH g o r o u n d t h e H a t io n h a n d i n h a n d , a n d d o u b t l e s s w i l l c o n t i n u e t o do s o , u n l e s s some P e o p le a r e f o u n d p u b l i c - s p i r i t e d e n o u g h t o o p p o se th e m : f o r t h e s e R e a s o n s we s h a l l h a v e a w a t c h f u l EJye o v e r t h e T h e a tre , to p r e v e n t, i f p o s s ib le , su ch P ro d ig ie s o f B u ln e s s a n d I m m o r a lity a s we h a v e b e e n e n t e r t a i n e d w i t h t h i s W in t e r ; o r , t o p u t th em i n t h e i r p r o p e r L i g h t , when r e p r e s e n t e d . The im m o ra l p l a y s Thomas S h e r i d a n , m a n a g e r o f t h e T h e a t e r R o y a l, was p r o d u c i n g , d i s g r a c e d I r e l a n d 's h o n o r . B u rk e p r o p o s e d t o c l e a r h i m s e l f o f a n i n d i s p e n s a b l e d e b t h e owed t o I r e l a n d b y ^ r e s t o r i n g T a s te t o i t s

lo n g u s u r p ­

e d R i g h t s , a n d t o d i s c o u n t e n a n c e d o m e s tic P e t u l a n c e , a n d a l l f o r e i g n I m m o r a lity a n d B u l n e s s . “ Many g o o d men l e f t I r e l a n d t o s e e k a b e t t e r l i f e a b ro a d .

I r o n i c a l l y , w h a t t h e c o l l e g i a n s a i d i n The

R e fo rm e r w as a p p l i c a b l e t o h im l a t e r .

T h e s e m en, “t h e

Moment t h e i r P a r t s b e g a n t o r i p e n , “ w ere f o r c e d t o

0

le a v e I r e l a n d f o r m ore i n d u l g e n t r e g i o n s a n d d e p r i v e d t h e i r c o u n t r y o f t h e b e n e f i t a n d o rn a m e n t i t o u g h t t o h a v e e n jo y e d fro m t h e i r r e s i d e n c e .

2

1 . F e b r u a r y 4 , 174 7 -1 7 4 8 * I b i d . . p . 2 9 8 . 2 . Ib id .

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in I r e la n d and to e n c o u r-

l i t e r a t u r e and m a n u fa c tu re s , b e c a u se

t h e g r e a t e s t h i n d r a n c e t o t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e l a t t e r 1 was l a c k o f e n c o u r a g e m e n t. I f t h e D u b lin S o c i e t y p e r» fo rm e d s u c h s i g n a l s e r v i c e t o I r e l a n d , one m ig h t a n t i c i ­ p a t e g r e a t e r a c h ie v e m e n ts fro m t h e c o m b in e d e f f o r t s o f 2 th e n o b i l i t y , g e n tr y and p e o p le , ih e p a t r i o t i c p u r­ p o s e o f t h e p e r i o d i c a l was r e a f f i r m e d : t h e c e n s u r e o f v ic e and f o l l y and th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a s p i r i t o f 3 b e n e v o l e n c e , g o o d s e n s e a n d r e l i g i o n i n D u b lin , The r e f o r m a t i o n was i n t e n d e d f o r a l l , n o t m e r e ly f o r th e r u lin g m in o rity .

The d o w n tro d d e n C a t h o l i c

p e a s a n t r y w e re i n c l u d e d .

S in c e t h e r i c h e s o f a c o u n t r y

w ere ju d g e d b y t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e p e o p l e , n o t b y t h e a f f l u e n c e o f t h e g e n t r y , t h e y o u n g w r i t e r la m e n te d t h e p e a s a n t s u f f e r i n g t h e ^ u tm o s t p e n u ry i n t h e m id s t o f a ric h s o i l , H e

p en n ed a c l a s s i c d e s c r i p t io n o f th e de­

g r a d e d p e a s a n t to o p o o r t o p a y h i s t a x e s o r t o h a v e t h e 4 b a re s t e s s e n tia ls :

1 . The R o y a l D u b lin S o c i e t y d i d S t a t e w ork i n s t i m u l a t i n g a n d d e v e l o p in g a g r i c u l t u r e a n d o t h e r i n d u s t r i e s i n Ire la n d . ' 2 . F e b r u a r y 1 8 , 1 7 4 7 -1 7 4 8 , S a m u e ls , o p . c i t . , p . 3 0 7 . 3 . F e b r u a r y 4 , 1747- 1 7 4 8 , I b i d . . p . 3 0 2 . 4 . M arch 1 0 , 1747- 1 7 4 8 , I b i d . , p . 3 1 5 .

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As f o r t h e i r F o o d , i t i s n o t o r i o u s t h e y se ld o m t a s t e B re a d o r M e a t; t h e i r M e t i n Summer, i s Po­ t a t o e s a n d s o u r M ilk ; i n W in te r , when s o m e th in g i s r e q u ir e d c o m fo rta b le , th e y a re s t i l l w o rse, l i v i n g on t h e sam e R o o t , made p a l a t a b l e o n ly b y a l i t t l e S a l t , a n d a c c o m p a n ie d b y W a te r: T h e i r C lo a th s so ra g g e d , t h a t th e y r a t h e r p u b lis h th a n c o n c e a l t h e W re tc h e d n e s s i t was m e a n t t o h i d e ; n a y , i t i s no uncommon S i g h t t o s e e h a l f a d o z e n C h i l d r e n r u n q u i t e n a k e d o u t o f a C a b in , s c a r c e l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e fro m a D u n g h i l l , t o t h e g r e a t D is ­ g r a c e o f o u r C o u n tr y w i t h F o r e i g n e r s , who w o u ld d o u b t l e s s r e p o r t th em S a v a g e s , im p u tin g t h a t t o c h o i c e w h ich o n ly p r o c e e d s fro m t h e i r ir r e m e d ­ i a b l e P o v e r t y , L e t a n y one t a k e a S u rv e y o f t h e i r C a b in s , a n d t h e n s a y , w h e th e r s u c h a R e s id e n c e c a n b e w o r th y * o f a n y t h i n g t h a t c h a l l e n g e s t h e T i t l e o f a hum an C r e a t u r e , You e n t e r , o r r a t h e r c r e e p i n , a t a D oor o f H u r d l e s p l a i s t e r e d w ith D i r t , o f w h ic h t h e I n h a b i t a n t i s g e n e r a l l y t h e F a b r i c a t o r ; w i t h i n - s i d e y o u s e e ( i f t h e Smoke w i l l p e r m i t y o u ) t h e M en, Women, C h i l d r e n , D o g s, a n d Sw ine l y i n g p r o m is c u o u s ly ; f o r t h e i r O p u le n c e i s s u c h t h a t t h e y c a n n o t h a v e a s e p a r a t e H ouse f o r t h e i r C a t t l e , a s i t w o u ld t a k e to o m uch fro m t h e C a r d e n , w hose p r o ­ d u c e i s t h e i r o n ly S u p p o r t . T h e i r F u r n i t u r e i s much f i t t e r t o b e la m e n te d t h a n d e s c r i b e d , s u c h a s a P o t , a S t o o l , a fe w w ooden V e s s e l s , a n d a b r o k e n b o t t l e : I n t h i s m an n e r a l l t h e P e a s a n t r y , t o a M an, l i v e : a n d I A p p e a l t o a n y o n e , who know s t h e Coun­ t r y , f o r t h e J u s t n e s s o f t h e P i c t u r e . Who, a f t e r h a v in g s e e n t h i s , com es t o Town a n d b e h o ld s t h e i r su m p tu o u s a n d e x p e n s iv e E q u ip a g e s , t h e i r T r e a t s a n d D iv e rs io n s , can c o n ta in th e h ig h e s t In d ig n a tio n ? S u ch F o l l i e s c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e m s e l v e s , a r e b u t r i d i c u l o u s ; b u t w hen we s e e t h e b i t t e r c o n s e q u e n c e s o f th e m , * tw e re I n h u m a n ity t o l a u g h . The g e n t r y * s p a g e a n t r y w o u ld b e q u i e k l y t a r n i s h e d i f t h e i r g i l t c o a c h e s w e re a c c o m p a n ie d b y t h e m i s e r a b l e w r e tc h e s w hose l a b o r s u p p o r t e d th e m .

So g r e a t a d i s p r o p o r t i o n i n

t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e f r u i t s o f t h e s o i l w as a b la s p h e m y on P ro v id e n c e .

B u rk e p r a i s e d a g e n tle m a n o f h i s a c q u a in ­

t a n c e , h e l d up a s a m o d e l, who im p ro v e d h i s e s t a t e , e n c o u r ­ a g e d i n d u s t r y a n d lo w e re d r e n t s .

I f t h i s man w e re e m u la te d ?

17 1 I r e l a n d w o u ld f l o u r i s h , th o u g h sh e l a b o r e d u n d e r d i s ­ a d v a n ta g e s . ^

I t i s t o b e rem em b ered t h a t among t h e

d o w n tro d d e n w e re B u r k e f s k in s m e n a n d f r i e n d s , t o whom h e w as a lw a y s d e v o t e d .

Ho man was h i s f r i e n d , h e

w r o te many y e a r s l a t e r , who w as n o t s o t o t h o s e h e 2 lo v e d . D u rin g B u rk e t s l a s t y e a r s a t T r i n i t y , D u b lin was ro ck e d by p o l i t i c a l a g ita tio n .

The s t r u g g l e f o r c o n ­

s t i t u t i o n a l in d e p e n d e n c e was b o r n p a r a d o x i c a l l y o f t h e same P r o t e s t a n t A s c e n d a n c y o r A n g l o - I r i s h c l a s s w h ic h h a d p r o f i t e d fro m t h e g e n e r a l c o n f i s c a t i o n a n d n a t i o n a l d e g ra d a tio n o f th e I r i s h in th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y . I t w as a n e f f o r t t o t r a n s f e r c o n t r o l o f t h e i s l a n d fro m th e s m a ll c liq u e d o in g th e B r i t i s h m in is tr y * s w i l l to a l a r g e r ( b u t u n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f I r e l a n d ) g ro u p o f P r o t e s t a n t f r e e m e n , who w e re c h a f i n g u n d e r E n g l i s h s u p e r ­ v is io n .

The a im w as n o t t h e a m e l i o r a t i o n o f t h e f o r ­

g o t t e n p e a s a n t r y la m e n te d b y B u rk e , b u t t h e s u p p l a n t i n g o f t h e g o v e r n i n g c l i q u e a t D u b lin C a s t l e , t h e c i t a d e l o f B r i t i s h p o w e r.

1 . I b i d . . p p . 3 1 6 -3 1 7 . 2 . S e p te m b e r 3 0 , 1 7 7 2 , Edmund B u rk e t o C h a r l e s 0 * H a ra . The c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n t h e s e tw o f r i e n d s h a s r e ­ c e n t l y come t o l i g h t . T hese p a p e rs a r e th e p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y o f M r. B o n a l P . 0 * H a ra . o f A nnaghm ore, C o u n ty S l i g o , I r e l a n d , a n d w e re m ic r o f il m e d f o r P r o f e s s o r R o ss H offm an o f F ordham U n i v e r s i t y . A M i c r o f ilm o f th em i s i n t h e L i b r a r y o f Fordham U n i v e r s i t y . I n th e t h e s i s , t h e y w i l l b e r e f e r r e d t o a s B u rk e -0 * H a ra C o r r e s p o n d e n c e ,

18

D i s c o n t e n t w as e x p l o i t e d b y a D u b lin a p o t h e c a r y , C h a r le s L u c a s (1 7 1 3 -1 7 7 D * who in fla m m e d t h e c i t y u n t i l h e f l e d i n 17?©.

A v i r u l e n t p a p e r w ar b e tw e e n h i s su p ­

p o r t e r s a n d t h o s e o f t h e g o v e rn m e n t e n s u e d .

F o r many

y e a r s , t h e r e was a t r a d i t i o n t h a t B urke o p p o se d L u c a s ; o n ly r e c e n t l y , h a s i t b een m a in ta in e d t h a t he fa v o re d 1 th e a p o th e c a ry . L u cas* v ie w s w ere to o n a r r o w , t o o b i g o t e d a n d im p r u d e n t t o a t t r a c t y o u n g B u rk e , who d e ­ s i r e d t h e im p ro v e m e n t o f t h e w h o le I r i s h p e o p l e . B u rk e r e c e i v e d t h e B . A . fro m t r i n i t y C o lle g e o n F e b ru a ry 2 8 , 1748.

I n c o m p lia n c e w i t h h i s f a t h e r ‘s

w i s h e s , h e was e n r o l l e d on A p r i l 2 3 , 1747 a t t h e M id d le te m p l e , L o n d o n , t o s t u d y la w i n 1 7 ? 0 .

A g r e a t a d v e n tu re

w as i n t h e m a k in g . H is r e s i d e n c e i n I r e l a n d f o r o v e r a s c o r e o f y e a r s l e f t a m ark t h a t a much l o n g e r s t a y i n E n g la n d c o u l d n o t o b lite ra te .

D id n o t h i s C o rk i n t o n a t i o n - among o t h e r

t h i n g s - re m in d h i s l i s t e n e r s o f h i s I r i s h o r i g i n ? E ven w i t h o u t t h i s , h i s d e e p a f f e c t i o n f o r I r e l a n d w as m a n ife s t,

i n t h e t w i l i g h t o f h i s l i f e , he s p o k e t e n d e r l y

o f t h e n a t a l s o i l p o s s e s s i n g a s w e e tn e s s b e y o n d t h e h a r 2 mony o f v e r s e . He h a d n o t v e e r e d fro m h i s h o p e ,

1. 2.

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t h i s q u e s t i o n i s d i s c u s s e d i n A p p e n d ix I . J u n e ? , 1 7 9 4 , W orks ( e d . B o h n ), V I I , 1 4 1 -1 4 2 .

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e x p r e s s e d i n 1 7 5 0 , " I s h o u l d l i k e t h a t my d u s t s h o u ld m in g le w i t h k i n d r e d d u s t ,

th e good o ld e x p re s s io n ,

1F a m ily b u r y i n g - g r o u n d , ' h a s s o m e th in g p l e a s i n g i n i t , 1 a t l e a s t f o r me.** B e fo re h i s a lle g ia n c e to th e B r i t i s h B m pire a n d t h e Com m onwealth o f C h r i s t i a n N a t i o n s , t h e r e w as h i s a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e l a n d o f h i s b irth .

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f o M a tth e w S m ith . F r i o r . L i f e o f B u rk e (2 n d e d i t i o n ) . X, 6 8 .

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CHAPTER I I SEEING THE WCRLD FROM LONDON 1• The Law a n d L i t e r a t u r e A g r e a t w o r ld w ar b e tw e e n t h e A n g l o - A u s tr i a n a n d F r a n c o - P r u s s i a n a l l i e s h a d j u s t e n d e d when B u rk e a r r i v e d i n L ondon i n 17JO*

The P e a c e o f A i x - l a - C h a p e l l e o f 1 JAB

t e r m i n a t e d h o s t i l i t i e s b u t d i d n o t a b a t e d o m e s tic e x ­ c ite m e n t and c o n fu s io n .

M id - c e n tu r y L ondon was im m e rsed

i n e v i l s and v ic e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f p o s t-b e llu m s o c ie ty * R e ig n in g o v e r B r i t a i n w as G e o rg e I I , a m o n arc h i n t e r e s t e d a s much i f n o t m ore i n H an o v er t h a n i n E n g la n d .

The

r u l e r s o f t h e c o u n t r y w e re i n r e a l i t y t h e b r o t h e r s H e n ry P e lh am a n d t h e Duke o f N e w c a s tl e , t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e om ni­ p o t e n t W hig o l i g a r c h y . Young B u rk e w as s a d d e n e d b y t h e t h o u g h t o f h i s f r i e n d s whom h e h a d l e f t b e h in d i n D u b l i n . a n c e o f E n g la n d c h e e r e d h im .

B ut th e p le a s in g a p p e a r­

The s i g h t o f c o u n t r y s e a t s

n e a r h u m b le y e t n e a t c o t t a g e s i n v i l l a g e s ,

“a s c o m p a c t

a n d g a y a s a b e e - h i v e r e s o u n d i n g w i t h t h e b u s y hum o f i n ­ d u s t r y , “ e v o k e d t h e r e m a r k , “What a c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n o u r p o o r c o u n t r y , w h e re y o u *11 s c a r c e f i n d a c o t t a g e o r n a ­ m e n te d w i t h a c h im n e y 1 m He w as p l e a s e d t o o b y t h e p r o ­ g r e s s o f a g r i c u l t u r e , - h i s f a v o r i t e s t u d y an d p u r s u i t , “ i f P r o v id e n c e h a d b l e s s e d (h im ] w ith a fe w p a t e r n a l a c r e s . 11

T h e re was m uch t o s e e i n t h i s new c o u n t r y .

B u rk e

v i s i t e d W e s tm in s te r A b b ey , a n d t h e moment h e e n t e r e d i t

M s m in d w as f i l l e d w i t h a k i n d o f awe h e c o u ld n o t e x p la in . H is o s t e n s i b l e p u r p o s e i n E n g la n d w as t o t a k e h i s t e r m s a t t h e Tem ple B a r .

T h e re was a c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n

b e tw e e n T r i n i t y C o lle g e a n d t h e M id d le T em p le .

A fte r

g r a d u a t i o n fro m t h e c o l l e g e , n o t o n ly B u rk e , b u t a l s o J o h n P . C u r r a n , H e n ry G r a t t a n a n d I s a a c C ory s t u d i e d a t t h e M id d le T e m p le .

R i c h a r d B u rk e S r . e x p e c te d t h a t

Edmund w o u ld r e t u r n t o D u b lin w i t h a C e r t i f i c a t e o f S t a n d i n g , E x e r c i s e s p e rf o r m e d a n d Commons k e p t , a n d b e c a lle d to th e b a r i n I r e l a n d .

2

B urke k e p t h i s te r m s

fro m E a s t e r 1750 t o H i l a r y 1752 *^ B u t h e c o n s i d e r e d t h e s e l e g a l s t u d i e s n a rro w a n d c o n f i n i n g , a f a c t t h a t h i s f a t h e r so o n l e a r n e d .

H is

d e l i c a t e h e a l t h , e n d a n g e r e d b y t h e i n h o s p i t a b l e L ondon c l i m a t e , c o m p e lle d him t o v i s i t t h e w e s t c o u n t r y - m uch to h is lik in g .

He w a s , a s h e s a i d ,

Ma n i n v a l i d a n d a

tr a v e lle r." *

1 . P r i o r , L i f e o f B u rk e , 2 n d e d i t i o n , I , 6 5 -6 8 2* A r t h u r R o b e r t I n g p e n , The M id d le Tem ple B ench B ook, London, 1912, p . 4 6 . 3 . L e t t e r fro m M r. H. A. C. S t u r g e s s , L i b r a r i a n a n d K e e p e r o f t h e R e c o r d s , t h e M id d le T em p le , d a t e d O c to b e r 2J* 19 4 9 • O th e r I r i s h s t u d e n t s who a p p e a r t o h a v e t a k e n t h e i r te r m s w i t h B urke w e re C h a r le s D a v id B r u c e , N a t h a n i e l C a s t l e t o n , a n d H e n ry B in d o n . 4 . To S h a e k l e t o n , A u g u s t 31* 1751* C o rre s p o n d e n c e ( e d . F itz w illia m ), I , 24.

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B i t t e r p a t e r n a l r e m o n s tr a n c e s a g a i n s t l i t e r a r y p r e ­ o c c u p a t i o n s , u n d e r t a k e n a t t h e e x p e n s e o f la w s t u d i e s , w e re f o r g o t t e n .

B u rk e c o n t i n u e d t o f r e q u e n t t h e G r e c ia n

c o f f e e - h o u s e a n d o t h e r h a u n ts o f l e s s e r men o f l e t t e r s , i n t h e com pany o f h i s k in s m a n a n d c o m p a n io n , w i l l i a m B u rk e . D u r in g t h e s e e a r l y y e a r s i n London., B urke c o n ti n u e d h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l and m o ral f o r m a tio n .

L ite ra ry p u r s u its ,

r a t h e r t h a n t h e la w , e n g a g e d h i s t a l e n t s .

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In h is f i r s t

p u b l i s h e d w o rk i n 1 7 5 6 , 4 V i n d i c a t i o n o f M a tu r a l s o c i e t y , h e a l i g n e d h i m s e l f w i t h t h e f o r c e s o f t r a d i t i o n an d r e l i g i o n , b y s a t i r i c a l l y i m i t a t i n g L o rd B o l in g b r o k e .

He

d e m o n s tr a te d t h a t t h e same a rg u m e n ts u s e d b y B o lin g b r o k e t o d e s t r o y r e l i g i o n m ig h t a l s o b e a p p l i e d t o s u b v e r t g o v e r n m e n t.

A l l u d i n g t o men o f B o lin g b r o k e * s te m p e r , h e

asked. ^ Do t h e y p r e t e n d t o e x a l t t h e m in d o f m an, b y p r o v ­ i n g him no b e t t e r t h a n a b e a s t ? Do t h e y t h i n k t o e n f o r c e t h e p r a c t i c e o f v i r t u e , b y d e n y in g t h a t v ic e and v i r t u e a re d is tin g u is h e d by good o r i l l f o r t u n e h e r e , o r b y h a p p in e s s o r m is e r y h e r e a f t e r ? Do t h e y im a g in e t h e y s h a l l i n c r e a s e o u r p i e t y , a n d o u r r e l i a n c e on G od, b y e x p lo d in g h i s p r o v i d e n c e , and i n s i s t i n g t h a t he i s n e ith e r j u s t n o r good? t h e s a t i r i s t m a i n t a i n e d t h a t w ar was t h e m a t t e r f i l l i n g a l l h i s t o r y , t h a t t h e f i r s t a c c o u n t s o f m an k in d w e re so 2 many a c c o u n t s o f t h e i r b u t c h e r i e s 5 and c h arg ed th e

1 . I n t h e p r e f a c e t o a l a t e r e d i t i o n o f h i s b o o k i n w h ic h h e a c k n o w le d g e d h i s a u t h o r s h i p . W orks ( e d . B o h n ), I , 3 . 2 . I b i d . « I , 1 0 -1 1 . L

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23 d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h i r t y - s i x b i l l i o n p e r s o n s who d i e d a s a r e s u l t o f w ar t o p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t y .

W ars w e re a t t r i b ­

u t a b l e n o t t o t h e h a u g h t i n e s s a n d f i e r c e n e s s i n hum an n a t u r e , h e c o n t i n u e d , b u t t o s o c i e t y w h ic h s u p p l i e s l a r g e b o d i e s o f men who hew t o some d e s i g n a n d p r o v i d e s t h e i n s t r u m e n t s o f d e a t h w h ic h h a v e b e e n p e r f e c t e d s i n c e 1 t h e dawn o f h i s t o r y . B u rk e r e j e c t e d t h e d o c t r i n a i r e v ie w t h a t t h e

‘a r t i ­

f i c i a l d i v i s i o n s 1 o f m an k in d i n t o s e p a r a t e s o c i e t i e s p e r ­ p e tu a lly g e n e ra te s h a tr e d and d is s e n s io n . 2 s a tire :

He s a i d i n

The nam es w h ic h d i s t i n g u i s h (men3 a r e enough t o b lo w up h a t r e d a n d r a g e . E xam ine h i s t o r y ; c o n ­ s u l t p r e s e n t e x p e rie n c e ; and you w i l l f i n d t h a t f a r t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e q u a r r e l s b e tw e e n s e v e r a l n a tio n s , had s c a rc e an y o th e r o c c a s io n , t h a n , t h a t t h e s e n a t i o n s w ere d i f f e r e n t c o m b in a ­ t i o n s o f p e o p l e , a n d c a l l e d b y d i f f e r e n t n a m e s; t o a n E n g lis h m a n , t h e name o f a F re n c h m a n , a S p a n i a r d , a n I t a l i a n , m uch m ore a T u rk , o r a T a r ta r , r a i s e s o f c o u rs e id e a s o f h a tr e d and c o n te m p t. I f y o u w o u ld i n s p i r e t h i s c o m p a t r i o t o f o u r s w i t h p i t y , o r r e g a r d , f o r one o f t h e s e , w o u ld y o u n o t h i d e t h a t d i s t i n c t i o n ? You w o u ld n o t p r a y him t o c o m p a s s io n a te t h e p o o r F re n c h m a n , o r t h e u n h a p p y G erm an. F a r fro m i t ; y o u w o u ld s p e a k o f him a s a f o r e i g n e r ; a n a c c i ­ d e n t t o w h ic h a l l a r e l i a b l e . You w o u ld r e p r e -

1 . I b i d . . I , 1 7 -1 9 . 2 . I b id . . I , 20.

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s e n t h im a s a m an: one p a r t a k i n g w i t h u s o f t h e sam e common n a t u r e , a n d s u b j e c t t o t t h e sam e law* T h e re i s s o m e th in g s o a v e r s e fro m o u r own n a t u r e • i n th e s e a r t i f i c i a l p o l i t i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s , t h a t we n e e d no o t h e r tr u m p e t t o k i n d l e u s t o w ar a n d d e s tru c tio n * B u t t h e r e i s s o m e th in g s o b e n ig n a n d h e a l i n g i n t h e g e n e r a l v o i c e o f h u m an ity * t h a t , m augre a l l o u r r e g u l a t i o n s t o p r e v e n t i t , t h e s im p le name o f m an, a p p l i e d p r o p e r l y , n e v e r f a i l s t o w ork a s a l u t a r y e f f e c t . l h a t B u rk e m e a n t was t h a t th o u g h men p o s s e s s e d t h e sam e n a t u r e , a n d h e n c e w ere b o u n d b y t h e same la w , t h e y w e re 1 n o t o rd a in e d to c o n s t i t u t e a s in g le s o c ie ty . 2 H is f a m i l y co m m itm en ts s tre n g th e n e d h is r e s o l u ti o n t o w in a p l a c e i n t h e w o r l d .

JL p a l l o f o b s c u r i t y c lo u d s

1 . N e x t B u rk e r e v i s e d a n e s s a y t h a t h e h a d w r i t t e n i n T r i n i t y C o lle g e a s a n i n e t e e n - y e a r o l d y o u t h , a n d p u b ­ l i s h e d i t i n 175^ a s A P h i l o s o p h i c a l I n q u i r y i n t o Our I d e a s o f t h e S u b lim e a n d t h e B e a u t i f u l . T he m e r i t s o f t h e y o u n g w r i t e r w e re e x t o l l e d , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t h e becam e a m in o r l i t e r a r y f i g u r e . 2 . W h ile b e i n g a t t e n d e d d u r i n g a n i l l n e s s i n B a th b y Be*. C h r i s t o p h e r N u g e n t, a n e m in e n t I r i s h p h y s i c i a n a n d Roman C a t h o l i c , B u rk e becam e en am o u red o f t h e d o c t o r f s d a u g h t e r , J a n e M ary N u g e n t, whom h e m a r r i e d i n t h e w i n t e r o f 1756* The m a r r i a g e was a v e r y h a p p y o n e , a n d o f i t t h r e e c h i l d r e n w e re b o r n , R i c h a r d , C h r i s t o p h e r a n d Edmund, o f whom o n ly R i c h a r d s u r v i v e d . K in d ly D r . N ugent a s s i s t e d B u rk e , an d s u p p lie d th e u n d e rs ta n d in g a n d e n c o u ra g e m e n t l a c k i n g i n R ic h a r d S r . B u rk e a t t ­ e s t e d t h a t h e w as “a f a t h e r , a f r i e n d , a n d a P h y s i c i a n i n o n e . 11 Novem ber 1 0 , 1 7 7 1 , B u r k e - 0 *Kar a C o rre s p o n d ­ e n c e . H is f r i e n d D e n n is b e l i e v e d B u rk e w ro te p a m p h le ts f o r Mlt h e G r e a t O n e s ,rt p e r h a p s f o r L o rd EJgmont, a n d w as w e ll-k n o w n t o L o rd G r a n v i l l e . To S h a c k le t o n , A u g u s t 5* 1757, S a m u e ls , E a r l y L i f e a n d C o rre s p o n d e n c e o f Edmund B u rk e , p . 2 11.

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S h a c k le to n f o r n e g l e c t i n g t o a n sw e r h i s l e t t e r s , B u rk e 1 e x p la in e d : What a p p e a r a n c e t h e r e may h a v e b e e n o f n e g l e c t , a r o s e fro m my m an n er o f l i f e : c h e q u e r e d w i t h v a r i o u s d e s i g n s : so m e tim e s i n L ondon, s o m e tim e s i n r e m o te p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y ; so m e tim e s i n F r a n c e , a n d s h o r t l y , p l e a s e G od, t o b e i n A m e ric a . When t h e c o n s u l s h i p a t M a d rid l a y o p e n , h e a p p l i e d f o r th e p o s itio n .

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w a rd t h e a p p l i c a t i o n , B u rk e w as n o t a p p o i n t e d .

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A lth o u g h h i s t h o u g h t s w e re on a d v e n t u r e a n d p o s i ­ t i o n i n o t h e r l a n d s , B u rk e c o u ld n o t f o r g e t h i s n a t i v e Ire la n d .

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c o n c e r n e d h im .

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b o y s w o u ld b e b e t t e r s t i l l i f t h e y w e re r u n n i n g 3 4 a ro u n d t h e baw n a t B a lly d u ffe a s he u se d to d o . D u rin g t h e s e , “h i d d e n y e a rs ® B u rk e a n d h i s c o u s i n W i l l w ro te f o r t h e b o o k s e l l e r s .

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Edmund c o n t r i b u t e d a r t i c l e s t o t h e G e n tle m a n * s M a g a z in e .

1 . A u g u s t 1 0 , 1 7 5 7 , C o rre s p o n d e n c e ( e d . F i t z w i l l i a m ) , I , 3 1 -3 2 * 2* M u rra y , Edmund B u r k e , p . 8 7 . 3 . A la w n , o r a n e n c l o s u r e . 4 . O c to b e r 1 1 , 1759» To U n c le G a r r e t , Hew M o n th ly M a g a z in e . x i v (1 8 2 5 ), 3 8 1 -3 8 2 .

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A t a n y r a t e , h e r e v i s e d W i l l f s An A c c o u n t o f t h e E u ro p e a n S e t t l e m e n t s i n A m e ric a , p u b l i s h e d b y R o b e r t D o d s le y i n tw o v o lu m e s .

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e v e n t s a n d l i t e r a t u r e , t h e A n n u a l R e g i s t e r . w h ic h h a s con«» t i n u e d p u b l i c a t i o n fro m 1758 t o th e p r e s e n t .

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o p e n ly a c k n o w le d g e d h i s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e p e r i o d i c a l , 1 th o u g h h e was e d i t o r f o r o v e r t h i r t y y e a r s . The s m a l l s t i p e n d w as a n e c e s s a r y s u p p le m e n t t o a n e v e r - i n s u f f i c i e n t incom e • 2 . B u rk e v ie w s t h e S e v e n Y e a r s 1 War The g r e a t w ar w h ic h b r o k e o u t i n 1756 o f f e r e d him a n o p p o rtu n ity o f d is p la y in g h i s h i s t o r i c a l a b i l i t i e s in an annual a r tic le .

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m en t t o t h e a b i l i t y a n d p e r s p i c a c i t y o f a man o f t w e n ty 2 n in e . T hey a r e i m p a r t i a l , s u r p r i s i n g l y m o d e ra te i n to n e a n d w e l l - i n f o r m e d , a n d show t h a t B u rk e h a d no r e a l p e r s o n a l c o n c e r n i n t h e e v e n t s h e was r e l a t i n g ?

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p r e h e n s i o n t h a t t h o s e e v e n t s m ig h t d i s t u r b h i s l i f e t h e s o c i e t y h e to o k f o r g r a n t e d .

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c e r n i n g a n d u n e m o tio n a l o b s e r v e r , s i t t i n g o n t h e h e i g h t s , who

1 . - V id e . A p p e n d ix I I . 2 . D o d s le y p u b l i s h e d t h e s e s e p a r a t e l y i n 17&3 a s 4 C o m p le te * H i s t o r y o f t h e L a te W ar, o r A n n u a l R e g i s t e r o f i t s R i s e . P r o g r e s s , a n d E v e n t s , i n E u r o p e . A f r i c a , a n d A m e ric a .

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d e s c r i e d a n d a n a l y z e d t h e c o n t e s t t h a t w as b e i n g w aged on t h e p l a i n s b e lo w .

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s h a l l be v e ry s p a rin g ly in te rp o s e d . and n o t a d v o c a te s .*

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War i s w o r th y o f c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r i t o f f e r s i n ­ s i g h t s i n t o t h e w o rk in g o f h i s m ind a n d h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f in te rn a tio n a l a f f a ir s . W h ile t h e F r e n c h a n d B r i t i s h q u a r r e l l e d o v e r u n ­ d e f i n e d s t r e t c h e s o f N o r th A m e ric a a n d l u c r a t i v e t e r r i ­ t o r i e s i n I n d i a , t h e P r u s s i a n s an d A u s t r i a n s f o u g h t o v e r t h e r i c h p r o v i n c e o f S i l e s i a , w h ic h F r e d e r i c k t h e G r e a t h a d w r e s t e d fro m M a ria T h e r e s a o n ly a d e c a d e b e f o r e . The B r i t i s h d e c i s i o n t o s e n d a n e x p e d i t i o n a r y f o r c e o f s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d m en u n d e r G e n e r a l B ra d d o c k t o A m e ric a i n O c to b e r 1 75^ was a n s w e re d b y a F r e n c h o r d e r t o move a l a r g e arm y t o t h e New W o rld i n t h e f o l l o w i n g May.

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t h e F r e n c h w e re 'p r e v e n t e d fro m l a n d i n g t h e i r t r o o p s b y A d m ira l B o scaw en .

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b y W illia m P i t t , t h e Duke o f C u m b e rla n d a n d H e n ry F o x , p r e s s e d f o r w a r , t h e m o d e r a te s u n d e r t h e Duke o f N e w c a s tle h e s i t a t e d u n t i l c o n t i n e n t a l a n d P r o t e s t a n t a l l i a n c e s w e re c o n s o lid a te d .

The A n g lo - B u s s ia n t r e a t y o f S e p te m b e r 1755?

1 . A n n u a l R e g i s t e r T 1 7 6 1 , H i s t o r i c a l A r t i c l e , p . 19* H e re ­ a f t e r , u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e s p e c i f i e d , c i t a t i o n s fro m t h e A nnual R e g is te r r e f e r to th e H i s t o r i c a l A r t i c l e a t th e b e g i n n i n g o f e a c h v o lu m e . L

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o b v io u s ly t h r e a te n in g P r u s s ia n s e c u r i t y , v i r t u a l l y b la c k ­ m a ile d F r e d e r i c k i n t o a B r i t i s h a l l i a n c e .

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s o u g h t P r u s s i a b e c a u s e s h e c o u ld p r o t e c t H a n o v e r.

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C o n v e n tio n o f W e s tm in s te r w as s u b s e q u e n t l y c o n c lu d e d w i t h P r u s s i a i n J a n u a r y 175&, b r i n g i n g h e r a n d B r i t a i n t o ­ g e t h e r f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f p e a c e i n Germany* F r e d e r i c k h a d w r e s t e d S i l e s i a fro m t h e I m p r e s s , who w as d e te r m i n e d t o r e c o v e r h e r l o s t p r o v i n c e .

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s a i d o f F ra n ce an d h e r l o s t A ls a c e -L o rra in e a f t e r th e F r a n c o - P r u s s i a n W ar, m ig h t t r u l y a p p l y t o A u s t r i a 's l o s s . F r e d e r i c k h a d s e v e r e d a lim b a n d t h e wound w o u ld n o t h e a l . A u s tr ia a lr e a d y had a d e fe n s iv e a l l i a n c e w ith R u s s ia , and soon su cceed ed i n b r in g in g F ra n c e to h e r s id e .

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a li g n m e n t o f p o w e rs u p s e t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a l l i a n c e s y s te m and c o n s t it u t e d a d ip lo m a tic r e v o lu tio n .

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May 1756 b e tw e e n B r i t a i n a n d F r a n e e , a n d s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s t h e w o r ld w as e n v e lo p e d b y b a t t l e . B u rk e saw a s t h e c a u s e s o f t h e w ar t h e u n c e r t a i n lim ­ its

o f t h e A n g lo - F r e n c h t e r r i t o r i e s

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m u tu a l c la im s o f A u s t r i a a n d P r u s s i a i n t h e d u c h y o f S ile s ia .

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v i o l a t i o n o f t h e r i g h t o f t h e n a t u r a l i n h a b i t a n t s , w ere n o t i n c l i n e d t o a n a m ic a b le s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e i r own d i s p u t e . R ig h t w as v a l u e d f a r l e s s t h a n c o n v e n i e n c e .

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h a n d , F ra n ee and B r i ta i n h ad n e g o tia te d f o r a s e ttle m e n t o f t h e i r c l a i m s , b u t w ere p r e p a r e d t o c u t t h e g o r d i a n k n o t w i t h l

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an d exchanged r e c i p r o c a l p r o f e s s io n s o f f r i e n d s h i p and 1 g o o d w i l l , w h ic h d e c e i v e d n e i t h e r p a r t y . 11 He t h o u g h t t h e r e v e r s a l o f a l l i a n c e s a n e x t r a o r d i n ­ a r y r e v o l u t i o n t h a t c h a n g e d t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e E u ro p e a n p o l i t i c a l s y s te m .

M a r ia T h e r e s a h a d r e a l i z e d B r i t a i n w o u ld

n o t a i d h e r i n h e r a m b itio n t o r e g a in S i l e s i a , a p r o j e c t d e s t r u c t iv e o f th e s e t t l e d o rd e r o f t h in g s , and h e n c e , sh e t u r n e d t o F r a n e e , who saw i n h e r a p p l i c a t i o n a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o u p s e t G erm any.

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F r e n c h a m b i t io n made t h e w ar g e n e r a l , 3 a n d h e r r e v e n u e m a in ly s u p p o r t e d i t . B r i t a i n w as d raw n i n b e c a u s e F r a n c e w o u ld n o t h a v e r e ­ m a in e d n e u t r a l o r h a v e a b s t a i n e d fro m j o i n i n g P r u s s i a i n a tta c k in g H anover and re d u c in g A u s tr ia .

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so j o i n e d w o u ld h a v e u n d o u b te d ly a c h ie v e d t h e i r e n d s , u n ­ l e s s t h e y w ere s t o p p e d b y B r i t a i n , w hose i n t e r v e n t i o n was i n e v i t a b l e i f s h e w is h e d t o p r e v e n t F r a n c e a n d h e r a l l i e s fro m g i v i n g la w s t o E u r o p e .

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P r u s s i a o r A u s t r i a , B u rk e a r g u e d , a n d i n e i t h e r e a s e , t h e u n i o n was a t h r e a t t o t h e common l i b e r t y , a n d n e c e s s a r i l y , had to be d is s o lv e d .

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t h e t r o u b l e s o f Germ any a s lo n g a s s h e w as p o w e r f u l i n E u ro p e*

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a n d s t r a t e g y o f t h e co m m an d e rs, t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e cam­ p a i g n s , t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t e r r a i n , t h e p ro b le m o f s u p p l y , a n d t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e s e v e r a l a r m ie s a r e p a i n s t a k i n g l y d e lin e a te d *

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a s b e i n g t o t a l l y d e f e a t e d ttb y one o f t h o s e a c c i d e n t s w h ic h so f r e q u e n t l y i n t e r p o s e t o t h e d i s g r a c e o f human w isd o m , a n d w h ic h d e m o n s tr a te s t h a t s h e ( i .

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o v e rw h e lm in g v i c t o r y a c t e d a s d e f e a t e d o n e s , w h ile o t h e r s f o l l o w i n g a c r u s h i n g d e f e a t to o k t h e o f f e n s i v e a n d r e a p e d th e f r u i t s o f v ic to ry *

Of s u c h a c h a r a c t e r w as F r e d e r i c k * ^

r e c o v e r y a f t e r h i s d e f e a t a t C o l in i n J u n e 1758 w hen h e r e t r i e v e d h i s l o s s e s b y a m a z in g s t r o k e s o f g e n i u s a n d h e r o ­ ism*

ltThe s m i le s o f f o r t u n e m akes c o n q u e r o r s ; i t i s h e r 1 m a l i c e w h ic h d i s c o v e r s h e r o e s • ** 1 W ars w ere t o b e c o n f i n e d w i t h i n t h e fra m e w o rk o f r e a s o n a b l e l i m i t a t i o n , a n d w ere n o t t o assum e t h e n a t u r e o f w h a t i s now c a l l e d t o t a l w a r . s t a t e s w ere n o t a t d e c i d e d b y w ar*

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The y o u n g I r i s h a d v e n t u r e r , r e l a t i n g t h e

w ar fro m h i s L ondon v a n t a g e - p o i n t , p e r c e i v e d no e q u a t i o n o f b a r b a r i t y a n d w a r, th o u g h t h e l a t t e r o c c a s i o n e d t h e d i s ­ p l a y o f t h e f o r m e r ; a n d h e l a u d e d s p o r ts m a n s h ip w h ile d e s ­ c ry in g v i l l a i n y . I n n a r r a t i n g B a ro n L au d o h n * s r e m in d e r t o C o u n t T a n e n z ie n i n A u g u s t 1 7 6 0 , c o n c e r n i n g t h e l a t t e r r s p r o p o s e d d e f e n s e .of t h e m e r c a n t i l e to w n o f B r e s l a u , t h a t t h i s a c t i o n c o n s t i t u t e d a v i o l a t i o n o f t h e la w s o f w a r , B u rk e o b s e r v e d th a t th e s e r u le s re d u c ed honor to a c t , n o t by i t s i n g s , b u t a c c o r d i n g t o o u tw a rd c ir c u m s ta n c e s *

1 . I b i d . , 1 7 5 8 , p . 18 L

own f e e l ­

T hese r u l e s

a l s o a t t e m p t e d t o d i s c r i m i n a t e a c c u r a t e l y c o u r a g e fro m ra sh n e ss.

T hey w e re e lo q u e n t t e s t i m o n y o f t h e g a p b e tw e e n 1 a n c i e n t a n d m o d ern i d e a s o f w a r f a r e . A g a in , on t h e o c c ­ a s i o n o f t h e B o u rb o n o f f e n s i v e i n May 17&2 a g a i n s t O p o rto i n P o r t u g a l , h e la m e n te d t h e c r u e l t i e s i n f l i c t e d f i r s t

u p o n t h e S p a n is h p r i s o n e r s , a n d l a t e r r e t a l i a t e d u p o n t h e P o rtu g u e s e .

T h e se p e o p le h a d n o t b e e n s u f f i c i e n t l y i n u r e d

t o w ar t o m o d e r a te i t s f u r y a n d t o r e d u c e i t u n d e r la w s . T hey **hated m u t u a l l y , a n d t h e y g a v e a f u l l - s e o p e t o t h e i r h a tr e d ; th e y d id n o t se e each o th e r a s s o l d i e r s , b u t a s e n e m ie s . *

2

He h a d h i g h p r a i s e f o r t h e S p a n i a r d s a t

B u en o s A i r e s , who t r e a t e d w i t h h u m a n ity c e r t a i n E n g l i s h seam en who h a d e s c a p e d fro m a b u r n in g s h i p e n g a g e d i n a tta c k in g th e c i t y . ^

The h i s t o r i a n h a d h a r s h w o rd s f o r

t h e i r r e g u l a r w ar w aged b y t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , who r e v e a l e d t h e i r ig n o r a n c e o f t h e la w s o f h u m a n ity o r o f arm s b y m u r d e r in g B r i t i s h s o l d i e r s when t h e y m et t h e 4 E n g l i s h aw ay fro m t h e i r a rm y . A lth o u g h h e was rem o v e d f ro m t h e b lo o d y s c e n e , B u rk e w as r e p e l l e d b y i t s d e f o r m i t i e s .

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o f man was t o o

p r e c io u s to be s a c r i f i c e d in a v a in c a u s e , o r u n n e c e s s a r­ i l y i n a j u s t w a r.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Ib id . . Ib id . . Ib id . . Ib id . ,

He r e p o r t e d h a p p i l y t h a t t h e B r i t i s h

1 7 6 0 , p . 18 1762, p . 3 0 . 1763, p . 18. p . 9*

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e x p e d i t i o n t o M a n ila s u f f e r e d no l o s s o f l i f e . a r y l o s s e s w e re t o b e b o r n e p a t i e n t l y , h o w e v e r.

1

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M eeess*H e fe rrin g

t o F r e d e r i c k s v i c t o r y a t T o rg a u i n 1760 a t t h e c o s t o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 c a s u a l t i e s , B u rk e com m ented t h a t i t w as a n a d v a n ta g e w e ll p u rc h a s e d , b e c a u se i t s e c u re d w in te r q u a r t e r s and 2 g a in e d a s iz e a b le p a r t o f Saxony. I t w as t r u e t h a t a m an’ s l i f e w as s a c r e d ; b u t i t w o u ld b e r i d i c u l o u s f o r a c o u n try to th in k o f s p a r in g an even g r e a t e r e f f u s io n o f b lo o d i f t h a t w e re n e c e s s a r y t o s e c u r e p r e s t i g e f o r i t s 3 arm s a n d e x p e r i e n c e f o r o f f i c e r s a n d m en. War was a l i m i t e d c o n t e s t w aged b y s o l d i e r s on t h e b a t t l e f i e l d , n o t b y c i v i l i a n s a t hom e.

B urke s y m p a th iz e d

w i t h t h e S a x o n s c o n q u e r e d b y F r e d e r i c k , who f o r c e d th em t o make h e a v y c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n a f a s h i o n u n w o rth y o f a l a w f u l s o v e re ig n .

The k i n g c o m p e lle d th e m e r c h a n ts t o d ra w b i l l s

on t h e i r f o r e i g n c o r r e s p o n d e n t s .

B u rk e o b s e r v e d t h a t w hen

S ax o n y was c o n q u e r e d t h e r i g h t o f w ar c e a s e d , a n d t h e S a x o n s h a d a c l a i m t o "be r u l e d i n a m an n er b e f i t t i n g a j u s t p r i n c e , e s p e c i a l l y w hen no e x tre m e m i l i t a r y n e c e s s i t y c o m p e lle d t h e c o n q u e r o r t o com m it d e e d s o f im m o d e ra tio n * F o r F r e d e r i c k t o a v e n g e t h e b a r b a r i t i e s o f th e R u s s i a n s

!♦ I b i d . . p . 8 . 2* I b i d . . 1 7 6 0 , p . 4 8 ., 3 . Ib id . . p . 38.

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(who c o u ld n o t b e r e s t r a i n e d ) on t h e m i s e r a b l e S a x o n s , 1 was c r u e l a n d o d io u s * E ven t h e B r i t i s h d e s t r u c t i o n o f C h e rb o u rg w as l a m e n t a b l e , a n d w as j u s t i f i e d o n ly on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e 2 p o r t c o u l d c a u s e g r e a t a la r m s i n t h e f u t u r e . From t h e s e i l l u s t r a t i o n s , i t may b e s e e n t h a t a t r o c i t i e s w e re d a m n a b le i n B u r k e 's v ie w .

B u t h e was a r e a l i s t t o o a n d d i d n o t ex­

p e c t e x a l t e d c o n d u c t i n c o n q u e r in g a r m i e s .

F o r e x a m p le ,

a l t h o u g h some s h o c k in g a c t s o c c u r r e d a f t e r t h e c a p t u r e o f B e r l i n b y t h e A u s t r i a n s i n O c to b e r 1 7 6 0 , B u rk e w as h a p p y t o r e c o r d t h a t a f a r m o re e x a c t d i s c i p l i n e was o b s e r v e d t h a n c o u l d b e e x p e c te d o f t r o o p s m o t i v a t e d b y t h e l i c e n s e 3 o f c o n q u ero rs. He c o n d o n e d r e t a l i a t i o n i n w ar a g a i n s t e n e m ie s b l i n d t o t h e la w s o f w a r .

I h e n C o lo n e l M ontgom ery was s e n t a g ­

a i n s t t h e C h e ro k e e I n d i a n s , h e b u r n e d t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e lo w e r C h e ro k e e s a n d o t h e r v i l l a g e s a n d i n f l i c t e d many d e a t h s b y w a g in g w ar a f t e r t h e i r own m a n n e r.

I t w as com -

m e n te d , “Ho o t h e r w o u ld h a v e b e e n e f f e c t u a l . w 1 . A n n u a l R e g i s t e r . 1 7 5 8 , p . 6 4 . Com pare t h i s v ie w w i t h h i s o p i n i o n on t h e c o n f i s c a t i o n o f p r o p e r t y on S t . E u s t a t i u s . V id e , c h a p t e r 3* 2. Ib id . . p . 68. 3 . I b i d . . 1760, p . 4 4 . 4 . Ib id . . p . 62.

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The R u s s ia n mode o f w ar was w o rth y o f d i s d a i n .

In

e n t e r i n g D u c a l P r u s s i a t h e y “m ark ed t h e i r p r o g r e s s b y a t h o u s a n d inhum an c r u e l t i e s . *

T hey r u i n e d e v e r y p l a c e

t h e y o c c u p ie d a n d seem ed t o make w ar a g a i n s t human n a t u r e 1 its e lf. I n b e s i e g i n g C u s t r i n i n 1758* R u s s i a n t r o o p s “ s c a r c e l y em erg ed fro m b a rb a ris m ® u n s k i l l f u l l y s to rm e d th e c i t y and d is p la y e d a b o u n d le s s f e r o c i t y and an i n d i s - . 2 c rim in a te n e g le c t o f l i f e . T h e i r a r t i l l e r y was d a m a g in g s I n e f f e c t , t h e y th r e w s u c h a m u l t i t u d e o f bombs and r e d - h o t b a l l s in to t h a t u n fo rtu n a te c i t y , t h a t i n a s h o r t tim e i t w as on f i r e i n e v e r y q u a rte r. Gf t h e w r e tc h e d i n h a b i t a n t s , some w ere b u r n e d , some b u r i e d i n t h e r u i n s , some k i l l e d b y th e b a l l s , t h a t f e l l l ik e h a i l in th e s t r e e t s : th e s u rv iv in g m a jo r ity , s a f e n e ith e r w ith in n o r w ith o u t t h e i r h o u s e s , abandoned t h e i r h o u se s a n d t h e i r s u b s t a n c e , a n d f l e d , many o f th em a l ­ m o st n a k e d , o u t o f t h e c i t y , on t h e s i d e w h ic h was n o t i n v e s t e d . N e v er was b e h e l d a m ore d e ­ p l o r a b l e s p e c t a c l e J - n o r was i t e a s y t o s a y w h ic h fo rm e d t h e m ore w r e tc h e d a p p e a r a n c e , t h o s e who p e r i s h e d , o r t h o s e who e s c a p e d . P r u s s i a was r e a d y t o f a l l u n d e r on e o f t h e s e v e r e s t s c o u r g e s w i t h w h ic h P r o v id e n c e h a d c h a s t i s e d a n a t i o n .

The

c a m p a ig n s o f 1758 w i t n e s s e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n b y t h e R u s s i a n s o f o p e n a n d d e f e n s e l e s s v i l l a g e s , a n d l e f t th e

le g a c y o f

c o n te m p t f o r t h e R u s s i a n i n c a p a c i t y a n d h o r r o r f o r t h e i r

1 . . I b i d . . 1758, p p . 2 0 , 4 8 2* I b i d . « p . 51*

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r* c ru e lty .

I n b e i n g s o l d i e r s , t h e R u s s ia n s f o r g o t t h a t f i r s t

t h e y w e re m en.

Y e t, th e t e n a c i t y o f th e R u s s ia n i n f a n t r y

w as a d m i r a b l e .

I n one b a t t l e , t h e “M u s c o v ite f o o t , ra w ,

a n d u n e x p e r i e n c e d , s u s t a i n e d a s l a u g h t e r t h a t w o u ld h a v e 1 c o n fo u n d e d a n d d i s p e r s e d t h e e o m p l e t e s t v e t e r a n s . 1* W h ile t h e o b s e r v e r fro w n e d on F r e d e r i c k s p o l i t i c s , he la u d e d h i s m i l i t a r y t a l e n t s .

On one o c c a s i o n t h e

P r u s s i a n s n u m b ered o n ly 2 5 ,0 0 0 , “b u t t h e n t h e y w ere 2 P r u s s i a n s , a n d l e d on b y t h e K in g o f P r u s s ia .* * The G erm ans w ere s o a c c u s to m e d t o w ar t h a t t h e y w ere v i r t u ­ a l l y b o rn s o l d i e r s .

T hey w e re s u p e r i o r t o t h e F r e n c h ,

b e c a u s e F r e n c h o f f i c e r s d i d n o t e x e r c i s e t h a t “w h o le ­ some s e v e r ity * * o n w h ic h t h e e f f i c a c y o f m i l i t a r y d i s c i ­ p lin e d ep en d s.

The F r e n c h n e e d s i n t h e f i e l d w e re d e t r i ­

m e n ta l to t h a t r e g a r d due to n e u t r a l an d f r i e n d l y s t a t e s , a n d t u r n e d aw ay w h a te v e r G erm an a i d t h e y m ig h t h a v e e x ­ p e c te d .

I n s p i t e o f t h e s e i z u r e o f m a t e r i e l , t h e F re n c h

e n jo y e d l i t t l e

s u c c e s s a s a r e s u l t o f in c a p a b le le a d e r -

s h ip and d i s o r d e r l y c o n d u c t.

3

B u rk e m a rk e d t h e im p a c t o f d o m e s tic e v e n t s o n t h e m i l i t a r y c o n d u c t o f th e w a r.

P o l i t i c a l d iv is io n in

B r i t a i n p ro d u c e d a g e n e r a l u n s te a d in e s s and i n s t i l l e d a la n g u o r in th e f i e l d .

1 . I b i d . , p p . 51-59. 2 . I b id ., p. 22. 3. Ib id ., 1759, p . 6.

M i l i t a r y l e a d e r s show ed no f i r m n e s s

37

or s te a d in e s s .

“T he a t t a c h m e n t o f m o s t men t o t h e i r p a r * 1 t i e s , w e ak e n ed t h e i r a f f e c t i o n t o t h e i r c o u n t r y . I n a s m uch a s i t was i m p e r a t i v e f o r t h e g o v e rn m e n t t o s e c u r e p o p u l a r s u p p o r t , h e v ie w e d w i t h f a v o r t h e p a r a d e o f b r a s s c a n n o n s a n d m o r t a r s c a p t u r e d a t C h e rb o u rg t h r o u g h t h e s t r e e t s o f London.

T h o se who t h o u g h t t h e p a r a d e t o b e t o o

o s t e n t a t i o u s f a i l e d t o c o n s i d e r “how f o r c i b l y t h i n g s o f t h i s n a t u r e s t r i k e u p o n o r d i n a r y m in d s , a n d how g r e a t l y t h e y c o n t r i b u t e t o k e e p t h e p e o p le i n g o o d hum our t o s u p ­ p o r t t h e many c h a r g e s and l o s s e s t h a t a r e i n c i d e n t t o t h e * ^ m o st s u c c e s s f u l w a r .“ The F r e n c h t h r e a t t o in v a d e E n g la n d o n ly s t r e n g t h e n ­ ed h e r .

Mot o n ly w as t h e B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t

a u g m e n te d , b u t a l s o P a r l i a m e n t e x p r e s s e d t h e m o s t p e r f e c t and u n p re c e d e n te d u n io n .

The d i s p u t e b e tw e e n t h e a d h e r ­

e n t s o f a s t r o n g c o n t i n e n t a l s y s te m a n d t h o s e who f a v o r e d a p o w e r f u l m a rin e was s e t t l e d b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e s t r e n g t h o f arm y a n d n a v y ,

l e v e r b e f o r e h a d B r i t a i n so many

t r o o p s a t hom e, i n A m e ric a a n d i n E u r o p e , a n d n e v e r b e f o r e h ad she f i t t e d

so many f o r m i d a b l e f l e e t s t o sw eep t h e s e a s .

The A n n u a l R e g i s t e r c o n c lu d e d ;

3

1 . I b id . , 1758. p . 28. 2. I b id . . p . 68. 3 . I b i d . , 1759, p . 7.

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S uch i s t h e e f f e c t w hen pow er a n d p a t r i o t i s m u n i t e ; when l i b e r t y a n d o r d e r k i s s : a n d when a n a tio n s i t s w ith a h appy s e c u r i t y u n d e r th e s h a d e o f a b i l i t i e s w h ic h s h e h a s t r i e d , a n d v i r t u e s i n w h ic h s h e d a r e s t o c o n f i d e . The b e s t tim e f o r c o n c l u d in g p e a c e w as 1 7 5 8 , b u t no 1 p r o p o s i t i o n s w e re o f f e r e d t h e n . The f o l l o w i n g y e a r was a l s o f a v o r a b l e , f o r a t t h e en d o f t h e c a m p a ig n s , t h e f o r ­ t u n e o f t h e w a r r in g p o w e rs seem ed m ore n e a r l y u p o n a b a l a n c e t h a n i t h a d b e e n a t t h e c l o s e o f t h e p r e v i o u s cam­ p a ig n s .

As tim e e l a p s e d , i t becam e e v i d e n t t h a t t h e w ar 2 w o u ld n o t b e d e c i d e d b y a s i n g l e s t r o k e s The p r i z e w as r e s e r v e d f o r t h e p l a y e r o f t h e s k i l ­ f u l gam e; f o r t h e m o st a t t e n t i v e p a t i e n c e ; f o r t h e g r e a t e s t d e p th o f r e s o u r c e s . An e q u a l i t y o f t h i s k i n d seem ed a t l a s t t o p ro m is e E u ro p e some r e p o s e . A l l s i d e s m ig h t now g i v e a n d r e c e i v e h o n o u r a b le a n d e q u i t a b l e t e r m s ; a n d p e a c e m ig h t b e s e t t l e d on t h a t f o o t i n g , on w h ic h i t h a s b e e n u s u a l l y m ade, f o r some tim e p a s t , i n o u r p a r t o f t h e w o r ld . B u t t h e g r e a t d e s i g n s e n t e r t a i n e d b y e a c h p o w e r; r e v e n g e e m b i t t e r e d b y t h e b lo w s w h ic h a l l h a d f e l t in t h e i r t u r n s ; th e c o n s id e r a tio n o f t h e v a s t e x p e n s e s t h a t f e l l u p o n a l l , a n d w h ic h a p e a c e a t t h a t tim e w o u ld h a v e made f r u i t l e s s ; ev en t h e h o p e s a r i s i n g fro m t h e e q u i v o c a l a p p e a r a n c e s o f t h e l a s t c a m p a ig n s e s t r a n g e d e v e r y c o u r t fro m th e d i s p o s itio n to p e a c e . Insom uch t h a t t h e r e w ere no te r m s d i r e c t l y o f f e r e d b y a n y o f t h e b e l ­ l i g e r e n t p o w e rs ; n o r d i d a n y o f t h e n e u t r a l i n t e r ­ p o s e t h e i r m e d i a t i o n . B e s id e s t h e s e , a n o t h e r c a u s e o p e r a t e d p o w e r f u l l y ; a g r e a t e v e n t w as h o u r l y e x ­ p e c t e d a b o u t t h i s tim e ; a n e v e n t w h ic h t h r e a t e n e d t o i n v o l v e t h e S o u th e r n p a r t s o f E u ro p e i n t h e c a l a m i t i e s o f t h a t w a r , t h a t h a d so lo n g w a s te d t h e n o r t h e r n ; a n d w h ic h , w h e n ev e r i t s h o u ld t a k e p l a c e , t h r e a t e n e d t o r e n d e r p o l i t i c a l s y s te m i n f i n i t e l y m ore i n t r i c a t e , a n d p r o b a b l y t o g i v e t h e w ar q u i t e a new t u r n .

i b i d * . 17& i, P* 2 . 2* i b i d . , 1 7 | 9 , P* 2 . L

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-i T h a t im p e n d in g e v e n t w as S p a i n 's e n t r y i n t o t h e w a r. S in c e t h e c a m p a ig n s o f 1760 b r o u g h t s u c c e s s t o B r i t a i n , s h e s e i z e d t h e moment o f v i c t o r y t o p r o p o s e a n a c c o m m o d a tio n , w h ic h F r a n c e , A u s t r i a a n d R u s s i a p r o m p tly re je c te d .

The F r e n c h w e re n o t e x p e e te d t o a c c e d e t o a

p a c i f i c a t i o n a t t h e moment o f t h e i r s u b s t a n t i a l f a i l u r e s i n a l l t h e a t e r s o f w a r; w h ile t h e y a b a n d o n e d t h e b a t t l e i n A m e ric a a n d I n d i a , t h e y w ere d e te r m in e d t o w in i n G erm any,

The s t r e n g t h a n d p e r s e v e r a n c e o f b o t h e m p r e s s e s ,

t h e w e a k n e ss o f F r e d e r i c k , a n d t h e h e a v y e x p e n d i t u r e s b o r n e b y B r i t a i n w ere f a c t o r s i n F r a n c e 's d e c i s i o n t o s t a y i n t h e w ar a n d p r e v e n t a h u m i l i a t i o n .

The F r e n c h

r e s o l v e d t o w a i t u n t i l t h e y h a d a c h ie v e d s u p e r i o r i t y o r a t le a s t e q u a lity .

A t r e a t y n e g o t i a t e d a t t h e moment c o u ld

n o t m e e t a n y o f t h e c la im s o f A u s t r i a o r h e r a l l i e s .

So

h i g h w e re M a ria T h e r e s a 's a n d h e r a l l i e s ' h o p e s t h a t t h e y c o u ld b e s a t i s f i e d o n ly i f t h e y d i c t a t e d t h e p e a c e .

E ven

t h e c e s s i o n o f S i l e s i a t o t h e E m press c o u ld n o t b r i n g peace.

R u s s i a w o u ld n o t r e l a x h e r g r i p on D u c a l P r u s s i a ,

h e r o n ly re c o m p e n s e i n a c o n f l i c t s h e e n t e r e d n o t f o r g lo r y o r re v e n g e b u t f o r g a in .

F r e d e r i c k w o u ld s u b m it t o

t h e s e l o s s e s o n ly i n t h e e v e n t o f u t t e r d e f e a t .

C o u ld h e

f o r g e t t h a t S i l e s i a was t h e g l o r y o f h i s r e i g n a n d t h e , p r o v i d e r o f n e c e s s a r y r e v e n u e s , o r t h a t D u c a l P r u s s i a w as th e so u rc e o f h i s r o y a l t i t l e

L

a n d o f c o m m e rc ia l a n d n a v a l

-I

40 1 p o w e r? Many a d j u s t m e n t s w e re r e q u i r e d .

P o la n d who s u f f e r e d

t h e g r e a t e s t c a l a m i t i e s dem anded i n d e m n i f i c a t i o n .

How

m ig h t A u s t r i a e x p e c t s u c h a n a l l y t o r e m a in f a i t h f u l i f sh e r e t a i n e d a l l th e t e r r i t o r i a l g a in s and l e f t h e r f r i e n d s n o t h i n g h u t t h e e v i l s o f a w ar w h ic h w as u n i q u e l y h e rs?

I t w as c l e a r , t h e n , t h a t A u s t r i a was b o u n d t o a d ­

v a n c e t h e c la im s o f h e r a l l i e s .

B u t t h i s w o u ld make a

p e a e e s e t t l e m e n t d i f f i c u l t i n v ie w o f t h e m a n i f o ld c la im s t o b e s a t i s f i e d fro m t h e P r u s s i a n k i n g f s l a n d s .

The c i r ­

c u m s ta n c e s w h ic h a p p e a r e d t o o f f e r hope o f s e t t l e m e n t , i n 2 r e a l i t y in c re a s e d th e d i f f i c u l t i e s . I f p e a c e w e re t o b e c o n c lu d e d , B u rk e s a i d , c o n c e s ­ s i o n s w e re o b l i g a t o r y .

The g a i n s o f t h e F r a n c o - A u s t r o -

R u s s i a n com bine on t h e c o n t i n e n t e o u ld b e b a l a n c e d a n d o f f s e t b y th e a d v a n ta g e s o f B r i t a i n i n th e c o lo n ie s . B r i t a i n h a d t o d i m i n i s h h e r o v e r s e a s 1 d em an d s, a n d t h u s p u r c h a s e m o d e ra te te r m s f o r P r u s s i a .

On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

A u s t r i a h a d t o s u r r e n d e r S i l e s i a , i n q u e s t o f w h ic h s h e b r o u g h t a w ar u p o n h e r s e l f , a l i e n a t e d h e r t r a d i t i o n a l a n d n a t u r a l a l l i e s , and lin k e d h e r f o r tu n e s w ith th o s e o f F r a n c e a t t h e c o s t o f t e r r i t o r i e s w h ic h many w a rs s o u g h t to p r e s e r v e f o r th e H a p sb u rg s.

B u t w h a te v e r w as s a i d ,

I* A n n u a l R e g i s t e r . 1 7 6 0 , p p . 3 - 4 . 2 . Ib id . L

41 1

r 1 A u s t r i a w o u ld n e v e r g i v e u p S i l e s i a . The o n ly h o p e f o r p e a c e i n 1 /6 0 r e s t e d i n t h e p o s s i b l e d e f e c t i o n o f a n e x h a u s te d s t a t e .

T h is w o u ld c o n fu s e t h e

o t h e r s t a t e s i n t h e a l l i a n c e , who h a d t o r e a c h a n u n d e r ­ s ta n d in g .

A l l r e m a in i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s w o u ld b e i g n o r e d , b y

now a l l o w i n g tim e t o w e ig h a n d s t u d y w h a t c o u ld b e e i t h e r g a in e d o r l o s t .

Two s i t u a t i o n s b r o u g h t p e a c e , e q u a l i t y

o r n e c e s s i t y , o r w h a t t h e m o d e rn w o r ld l a b e l s a n e g o t i a ­ te d peaee o r a t o t a l v ic to r y . s ta te s ,

In th e f i r s t c a s e , th e r i v a l

f a tig u e d and d is illu s io n e d by th e f r u s t r a t i o n o f

t h e i r h o p e s , i g n o r e i n t r i c a c i e s a n d accom m odate t h e m s e lv e s ; o r , h a v in g won o r l o s t e q u a l t h i n g s , c o n c lu d e m u tu a l e x ­ chan ges.

To a c c e p t te rm s on n e c e s s i t y , h o w e v e r, a n a t i o n

m u st b e so b r o k e n t h a t i t g r a s p s f o r p e a c e a t t h e c o s t o f d e g ra d in g an d e n e r v a tin g te rm s .

P eaee on t h i s b a s is i s a

w i l d c h im e r a , p u r s u e d v i g o r o u s l y a g a i n s t t h e v e r d i c t o f h is to ry .

M embers o f t h e E u ro p e a n com m onw ealth, who a r e

v i t a l l y c o n c e r n e d i n t h e t r a n s p o s i t i o n o f pow er fro m one s t a t e t o a n o th e r , a r e r u f f l e d b y th e re p la c e m e n t o f a g r e a t s ta te

a n d t h e a u g m e n ta tio n o f i t s r i v a l .

In o rd in a te

s t r e n g t h m ig h t a s r e a d i l y b e l e v i e d a g a i n s t th em a s i t was a g a i n s t th e d e fe a te d c o u n try .

W hat t h e v a n q u is h e d c e d e s

t o t h e c o n q u e r o r i n a m e a s u re i s l o s t b y t h e s p e c t a t o r n a t i o n s , who m u s t now i n t e r c e d e o n t h e i r own b e h a l f t o r e -

1. Ib id . . p. 5 L,

42 p

n e s t a b l is h th e e q u ilib riu m .

A b a la n c e i s th e n s tr u c k u p ,

a n d t h e p e a c e o f c o n q u e s t b eco m es a d e l u s i o n .

‘B u rk e com­

m e n te d t h a t i f t h e w ar c o n t i n u e d , one s t a t e a f t e r a n o t h e r w o u ld b e draw n i n t o t h e v o r t e x , u n t i l t h e w h o le o f E u ro p e 1 w as i n v o l v e d . I n d e e d , p ru d e n c e d i c t a t e d p e a c e u p o n t h e u n p o p u la r b a s is o f e q u a lity .

T h is w as i n a e e o r d w i t h t h e c o n c e p t

o f lim ite d w a r, w ith l im i te d o b j e c t s , an d w ith th e r e a l i ­ z a t i o n o f t h e f u t i l i t y o f s t r i v i n g f o r i n o r d i n a t e p o w e r. P e a e e b o r n o f e q u a l i t y was t h e - b e s t a l t e r n a t i v e , B u rk e e x ­ p l a i n e d , on t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t **the s h o r t e s t f o l l i e s a r e t h e b e s t ; a n d t h a t no i n j u r e d p r i d e i s l e f t t o b r o o d o v e r

2 a ’f u t u r e w a r . 1* W ith t h e d i s c i p l e s o f t h e E n lig h te n m e n t, B u rk e w as r e p e l l e d by w a r.

H is c o n te m p o r a r y , Ange G o u d a r, b e l i e v e d

w ar w o u ld d i s a p p e a r w i t h t h e m arc h o f p r o g r e s s , a s h a d o t h e r s c o u r g e s o f m an k in d s u c h a s l e p r o s y , t h e p la g u e a n d 3 f a m in e . A n o th e r F r e n c h w r i t e r e x p o s t u l a t e d : L ik e t h o s e p o is o n o u s g e rm s w h ic h , f l o a t i n g i n t h e a i r , c a u s e e p id e m i c s , f a l s e p o l i t i c a l s y s te m s g ra d u a lly in f e c t a l l n a tio n s . C lo u d s g a t h e r ; d e ­ s o l a t i o n a n d d e a t h s o o n f o l l o w . War b r e a k s u p o l d . a l l i a n c e s , new o n e s p u t a n en d t o i t o n ly t o be b r o k e n up i n t h e i r t u r n . T r e a tie s a re n o t th e p r o -

X. I b i d . T 1 7 6 1 , p . 2 . 2. Ib id . 3 . C i t e d b y E l i z a b e t h V. S o u le y m a n , The V i s i o n o f W orld P e a c e i n S e v e n te e n t h a n d E i g h t e e n t h - C e n t u r v F r a n c e . Hew Y o rk , P u t n a m 's , 1 9 4 1 , p p . 9 6 , 1&8.

43

r

i d u e t o f r e a s o n f r e e fro m c o s t l y e r r o r s n o r a r e t h e y t h e m eans o f j u s t i c e s i n c e w ar c a n b r e a k them u p ; t h e y a r e b u t t h e p r o o f o f w e a r i n e s s . B u rke s h a r e d i n t h e a s p i r a t i o n s o f h i s a g e t h a t w ar b e e l i m i n a t e d , y e t h e p e r c e i v e d t h a t w ar w as n o t a n a l i e n f o r c e i n t h e E u ro p e a n w o r ld , b u t a n i n s t r u m e n t t o c h e c k t h e a m b i t io n s o f r i v a l s t a t e s w i t h i n t h e s y s te m a n d t o r i g h t t h e b a la n c e o f p o w e r. 1 He e x a m in e d t h e b a la n c e o f pow er i n t h e s e w o rd s : • • . t h e p r i d e o f m o d e rn p o l i c y , a n d o r i g i n a l l y in v e n te d to p re s e rv e th e g e n e ra l p e ae e a s w e ll a s t h e fre e d o m o f E u r o p e , h a s o n l y p r e s e r v e d i t s lib e rty . I t h a s b een th e o r i g i n a l o f in ­ n u m e ra b le a n d f r u i t l e s s w a r s . T hat p o l i t i c a l t o r t u r e b y w h ic h p o w e rs a r e t o b e e n l a r g e d o r a b rid g e d , a c c o rd in g to a s ta n d a r d , p e rh a p s n o t v e r y a c c u r a t e l y im a g in e d , e v e r h a s b e e n a n d i t i s t o b e f e a r e d w i l l a lw a y s c o n t i n u e a e a u s e o f i n f i n i t e c o n t e n t i o n a n d b l o o d s h e d . The f o r e i g n a m b a s s a d o rs c o n s t a n t l y r e s i d i n g i n a l l c o u r ts , th e n e g o tia tio n s in c e s s a n tly c a rry in g o n , s p r e a d b o t h c o n f e d e r a c i e s a n d q u a r r e l s so w id e , t h a t w h e n e v e r h o s t i l i t i e s com m ence, t h e t h e a t r e o f w ar i s a lw a y s o f a p r o d i g i o u s e x t e n t . A l l p a r t i e s i n th o s e d i f f u s i v e o p e r a tio n s have o f n e c e s s i t y t h e i r s t r o n g a n d w eak s i d e s . What t h e y g a i n i n one p a r t i s l o s t i n a n o t h e r ; a n d i n c o n c l u s i o n , t h e i r a f f a i r s becom e so b a l a n c e d , t h a t a l l t h e p o w e rs c o n c e r n e d a r e c e r t a i n t o l o s e a g r e a t d e a l ; t h e m o st f o r t u n a t e a c q u i r e l i t t l e ; a n d w h a t t h e y do a c q u i r e i s n e v e r i n a n y r e a s o n ­ a b le p r o p o r tio n to c h arg e and l o s s . S e r i o u s l o s s e s s u s t a i n e d i n w a r o u g h t t o b e one o f t h e s t r o n g e s t m o tiv e s f o r E u ro p e a n p e a c e . s t a t e g a in s l i t t l e s p i r i t o f in trig u e ,

in p ro p o rtio n to i t s

c o s ts .

Y et th e

“t h e p o l i t i c a l d i s t e m p e r o f t h e t i m e , 11

1. A nnual R e g is te r . 1?60, p . 2 . L

The m o st f o r t u n a t e

44 o v e rc o m e s t h e d e s i r e f o r p e a c e .

T r a n q u i l l i t y was n o t e n ­

c o u r a g e d b y p e a c e t r e a t i e s , p r o d u c t s n o t o f m o d e r a tio n b u t o f n e c e s s ity *

T h o se e n g a g e m e n ts a r e

c o n t r a c t e d w hen a l l t h e p a r t i e s a r e w e a r i e d a n d n o n e s a t i s f i e d , w h e re n o n e c a n p r o p e r l y b e c a l l e d c o n q u e r o r s o r c o n q u e r e d , w h ere a f t e r h a v in g s o u g h t i n v a i n t o c o m p e l, t h e y a r e c o n t e n t t o o v e r r e a c h th em i n t h e v e r y moment t h e y a r e f o r ­ m ed, a n d fro m t h e v e r y a c t o f fo r m in g th e m , w i t h t h e s e e d s o f new d i s s e n s i o n , m ore im p la c a b le a n i ­ m o s i t i e s a n d m ore c r u e l w ars* F o r i f t o f o r w a r d t h e w ork o f p e a e e a n y member i n t h e s e a l l i a n c e s s h o u l d a c q u i r e a c e s s i o n o f a n y im p o r ta n c e i n i t s f a v o u r , t h i s a f t e r w a r d s becom es a g ro u n d f o r a n o t h e r a l l i a n c e , a n d f o r new i n t r i g u e s - t o d e ­ p r i v e th em o f t h e i r a c q u i s i t i o n . To s e t t l e t h e p e a c e o f G erm any, S i l e s i a was y i e l d e d i n 174-5 t o t h e K in g o f P r u s s i a , a n d t h a t c e s s i o n g a v e o c c a s i o n f o r t h e w ar o f 175& C o n f l i c t i n g c la im s a n d c h a r g e s m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t p a c ific a tio n .

Y e t t h e l o n g e r t h e w ar d ra g g e d o n , t h e

m ore in s u r m o u n ta b le w o u ld b e t h e o b s t a c l e s .

B urke

p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e f i r s t o v e r t u r e s f o r p e a c e w o u ld b e la u n c h e d b y B r i t a i n a n d F r a n c e , f o r “t h e y n e v e r t h i n k 2 o f p e a c e i n G erm any.*1 F r e n c h p r o p o s a l s f o r p e a c e w e re a c t u a l l y m e a s u r e s le a d in g to a n o th e r c o n f l i c t .

A t t h e same t i m e , th o u g h

m o t i v a t e d b y m ore g o o d f a i t h , B r i t a i n a l s o r e t a r d e d an a d ju s tm e n t.

U n p a r a l l e l e d s u c c e s s i n t h e f i e l d w h ic h

h u r l e d t h e a m b i t io n s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l enemy i n t h e d u s t c o n tr ib u te d to B r ita in * s h ig h e x p e c ta tio n s .

In

t r u t h , t h e B r i t i s h m i n i s t r y was i n a q u a n d a ry b e tw e e n 1* I b i d . , p . 3* 2 . I b i d . , p . 5*

45 f"

-I

n a t i o n a l a n t i c i p a t i o n on one s i d e , a n d t h e r e a s o n a b l e e x p e e ta tio n s o f E n g lis h a l l i e s 3*

on t h e o th e r *

l

The e n d o f t h e w ar a n d t h e B r i t i s h tr iu m p h D ire c t F ra n c o -B ritis h n e g o tia tio n s p re c e d e d g e n e ra l

ta lk s .

B r i t a i n t r i e d t o s o l v e t h e p ro b le m o f m a tc h in g

h e r g a in s in th e c o lo n i a l sp h e re a g a in s t h e r r i v a l * s s u c c e s s e s on t h e c o n t i n e n t .

She p u r s u e d t h e w ar v i g o r ­

o u s ly i n th e hope o f p u rc h a s in g c o n c e s s io n s f o r P r u s s ia w ith h e r a c q u i s i t i o n s .

N e g o t i a t i o n s r e s t e d on two a s ­

s u m p t io n s , t h a t t h e tw o cro w n s w o u ld r e t a i n w h a t e a c h h a d c o n q u e r e d fro m t h e o t h e r o n t h e p r i n c i p l e o f u t i p o s s e d i t i s - no " b e t t e r g ro u n d t o t r e a t u p o n " - a n d t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n s i n w h ic h F r a n c e an d B r i t a i n s to o d a t c e r ­ t a i n p e r i o d s w o u ld b e t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t w o u ld s e r v e a s th e b a s is f o r th e t r e a t y . 2 d e te r m i n e d .

B u t e x a c t p e r i o d s w ere n o t

D i s c u s s i o n o f t h e l i m i t s o f A m e ric a n p o s s e s s i o n s a n d t h e r e v i s i o n o f E u ro p e a n f r o n t i e r s e x a c e r b a t e d p r o ­ c e e d in g s .

C o rd ia lity ,

"so n e c e s s a r y to w a rd s s m o o th in g

a n d c l e a r i n g a r o a d , w h ic h a lo n g h o s t i l i t y h a d b r o k e n u p , a n d so many i n t r i c a t e t o p i c s h a d c o n t r i b u t e d t o em­ b a r r a s s ," v a n is h e d .

D i f f i c u l t a s i t w as t o s e t t l e t h e

s e p a r a t e i n t e r e s t s o f F r a n c e a n d B r i t a i n , i t w as " th e

1 . I b i d . t 1761, p . 6 . 2 * i b i d . . p . 13. L

J

h a r d a n d a lm o s t i n e x t r i c a b l e p a r t o f t h e k n o t 1* t o a g r e e on t h e c o n c e r n s o f t h e i r m u tu a l a l l i e s *

N e g o tia tio n s

w ere b r o k e n o f f when a n im p a s s e was r e a c h e d on two q u e s ­ tio n s .

One c o n c e rn e d p o s t b e llu m r e l a t i o n s o f F r a n c e a n d

B r i t a i n w ith t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e a l l i e s , and th e o th e r th e r e s t i t u t i o n o f t h e P r u s s i a n r e g i o n s o f W e s e l, G u e ld r e s and o th e r p la c e s s e iz e d by F re n c h a rm ie s .

B u rk e s a i d t h e

a rg u m e n ts o f b o t h s i d e s w e re p l a u s i b l e , b u t i n t h e a b ­ s e n c e q£ a n a u t h o r i z e d j u d g e , t h e w e ig h t o f t h e p r e t e n 1. s i o n s d e p e n d e d u p o n t h e pow er o f t h e c o n te n d in g s t a t e s . F r a n c e s u p p o r t e d S p a n is h c l a i m s .

I f th e o b je c t o f

n e g o t i a t i o n w a s ‘p a c i f i c a t i o n , t h e l a s t m eans o f a c h i e ­ v i n g t h i s was th r o u g h a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e num ber o f s u b ­ j e c t s o f d e b a te .

R e c o g n iz in g t h e n e c e s s i t y o f l i m i t i n g

t h e s u b j e c t s , F r a n c e p r o p o s e d d i v o r c i n g A n g lo -F r e n c h d i s ­ p u t e s fro m t h o s e o f t h e Germ an p o w e rs , a n d t r e a t i n g them 2 s e p a ra te ly . Y e t n o t h i n g w as d o n e . W h ile t h e s e f u t i l e a t t e m p t s o c c a s i o n e d new q u a r r e l s

and a n im o s ity , th e y had

some v a l u e , b e c a u s e m a t t e r s w h ic h a r e once s e t t l e d u n ­ a v o i d a b l y sta m p t h e i r i m p r e s s i o n u p o n s i m i l a r d i s c u s 3 s io n s i n th e f u t u r e . B u rk e c o n s i d e r e d t h e B o u rb o n P a c te de F a m i l l e . c o n ­ c lu d e d A u g u s t 1 5 , l ? 6 l ,

two d a y s b e f o r e t h e r u p t u r e o f

F r a n c o - B r itis h t a l k s , th e b e te n o ir e o f E n g lis h f o r e ig n

£ b i d . . PP- 3 8 - 4 0 .

2 . Ib id :

L 3 . I b id " ., 1762, p . 54.

p o lic y .

I t p r o v i d e d f o r m u tu a l n a t u r a l i z a t i o n a n d a

p o l i t i c a l u n i o n , w h e re b y e a c h pow er h a d t o d i s c l o s e t o th e o th e r i t s a l l i a n c e s and n e g o tia tio n s .

I t w a s, i n h i s

o p in io n , a n a c t o f in c o r p o r a tio n r a t h e r th a n an a l l i a n c e . By i t s

te rm s S p a in w o u ld s u p p o r t F r a n c e i n German

a f f a i r s i f a m a r itim e p o w er p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e w a r, o r i f h e r a l l y w e re a t t a c k e d a t hom e.

T h is p a c t w a rn e d

E u ro p e a n p o w e rs t o a v o i d a j u n c t u r e w i t h B r i t a i n i f t h e y 1 w o u ld a v o id S p a n is h e n m ity . I t was d a n g e r o u s , b e in g fo u n d e d on f a m i l y i n s t e a d o f n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s , a n d o m ittin g to d e lin e a te i t s

o b j e c t s (w h ic h c o u ld b e made 2 j u s t w hat th e s ig n a to r i e s d e s ir e d ) . P i t t p r o p o s e d a n a t t a c k on S p a in i n S e p te m b e r 1761", b u t t h e c a b i n e t r e f u s e d t o f o l l o w t h e m i n i s t e r o f w ar and p r e c ip ita te d h is r e s ig n a tio n . c l a im s r a n w i l d .

N a t i o n a l e m o tio n s a n d

. S p a i n fs dem and f o r r i g h t s t o t h e

N e w fo u n d la n d f i s h e r i e s w as u n d e r s c o r e d b y t h e F r e n c h f o r e ig n m in is te r C h o is e u l.

P i t t ’ s s u c c e s s o r , L o rd B u te ,

r e q u e s t e d a d e c l a r a t i o n o f w ar a g a i n s t S p a in i n J a n u a r y 1762.

A l l o f s o u t h e r n E u ro p e a n d L a t i n A m e ric a w ere draw n

in . The a g g r e s s i v e B o u rb o n w ar u p o n P o r t u g a l b e g a n i n A p ril 1762.

I t w o u ld h a v e b e e n 'm o r e p r u d e n t f o r t h e

1. I b id ., p. 4 . S a i d .% 1761, p . 5 1 *

48 r

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F r a n c © - S p a n is h a l l i e s t o h a v e j u s t i f i e d t h e i n v a s i o n a s a “p i e c e o f c o n v e n i e n t i n j u s t i c e 11 r a t h e r t h a n t o h a v e i s s u e d a d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t p r o v e d t h a t t h e i n v a s i o n was a d e l i b e r a t e a n d avow ed p a r t o f t h e i r p o l i t i c a l sy stem * The im p r u d e n t d e c l a r a t i o n a v e r r e d t h a t t h e K in g o f P o r tu g a l o u g h t to have b e e n happy b e c a u se th e in v a s io n c o m p e lle d h im t o em ploy h i s r e a s o n a n d t o t r a v e l t h e r o a d o f g l o r y a n d common i n t e r e s t .

T h ese p o w e rs t h r e a ­

te n e d P o r tu g a l b e ca u se h e r a l l i a n c e w ith B r i t a i n p e r m it­ t e d th e l a t t e r t o u se P o rtu g u e s e p o r t s .

B u rk e s a i d t h a t

t h e s i t u a t i o n o f a c o u n tr y w as n e v e r b e f o r e g i v e n a s a n o u tw a rd r e a s o n f o r w a r , th o u g h i t may h a v e b e e n a s e c r e t m o tiv e f o r d e c l a r i n g w a r .

I t w as n o v e l t h a t “t h e common

a d v a n t a g e s o f t r a d e , d e r i v e d fro m a n e u t r a l n a t i o n , c o u ld 1 b e deem ed a n a c t o f h o s t i l i t y . 11 A lth o u g h he r e s p e c t e d t h e i r m i l i t a r y a b i l i t i e s , B u rk e d o u b te d w h e th e r t h e P r u s s i a n s w ere p r o p e r a l l i e s .

R e­

p o r t i n g t h e a rg u m e n ts o f t h e d e b a t e s i n E n g la n d o f 1760 c o n c e r n i n g t h e G erm an w ar a n d P r u s s i a n a l l i a n c e , h e summed up t h e i s s u e r e a l i s t i c a l l y :

“i t w as o n e e u n ­

d o u b t e d l y a q u e s t i o n v e r y f i t t o b e d i s c u s s e d w ith g r e a t

1. Ib id ..

L

1 7 6 2 , p p . 9- 1 0 .

c a r e ; b u t h a v in g e h o s e n o u r p a r t y , i t i s a t p r e s e n t l i t t l e m ore t h a n a m a t t e r o f p o l i t i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n . ** F r e d e r i c k w as n o t B r i t a i n ’ s n a t u r a l a n d i n d i s p e n s a b l e a l l y . f o r t u n e im m e d ia te ly c o n c e rn e d h e r . lis h

B ut h is

I t was n o t i n t h e Eng­

i n t e r e s t t o s e e h im e n t i r e l y c r u s h e d b y a c o n t i n e n t a l

c o m b i n a t i o n , f o r s u c h a d e f e a t w o u ld n e c e s s a r i l y p ro d u c e a t o t a l r e v o l u t i o n i n t h e E u ro p e a n s y s te m .

As i t h a d b e e n

p r u d e n t t o p r e v e n t t h e b a l a n c e i n G erm any fro m b e i n g u p s e t a g a i n s t F r e d e r i c k i n 1 7 6 1 , so i t was p r u d e n t t o p r e v e n t him fro m o v e r t u r n i n g i t

in P r u s s ia ’s fa v o r in 1762. B r ita in

was p l a y i n g a d e l i c a t e a n d d a n g e ro u s game i n a t t e m p t i n g t o p r e v e n t h i s e n e m ie s fro m c r u s h i n g h im , a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t o im pede him fro m m a s t e r i n g E u ro p e .

T h e re were no. p e rm a n ­

e n t f r i e n d s i n t h e c o m p e t i t i v e E u ro p e a n s t a t e s - s y s t e m . The w ar w e n t b a d l y f o r t h e P r u s s i a n s .

O n ly t h e d e a t h •

o f t h e E m press o f B u s s i a i n J a n u a r y 1762 s a v e d th em fro m irre trie v a b le d is a s te r.

As t h e d a u g h te r o f P e t e r t h e

G r e a t , a d e s c e n d a n t w o rth y o f t h e i l l u s t r i o u s f o u n d e r o f t h e R u s s ia n E m p ire , w hose i n s t i t u t i o n s d rew v a s t a r e a s o u t o f b a r b a r i s m , t h e E m p re ss h a d u n d e r t a k e n t h e w ar n o t o n ly fro m m o tiv e s o f r e s e n t m e n t , b u t fro m t h o s e o f so u n d est p o lic y .

O n ly P r u s s i a c o u ld h a v e c h e c k e d h e r

p o w e r, a n d o n ly fro m F r e d e r i c k w o u ld i t h a v e b e e n i n t h e E m press* i n t e r e s t t o make c o n q u e s t s . 1 . I b i d . .. 1 7 6 0 , p . 55 2 . I b i d . . 1 7 6 2 , p . -2 .

H er e f f o r t s i n t h e

50 r

w ar h a d b e e n c ro w n e d b y t h e c a p t u r e o f P r u s s i a a n d C o u r la n d , t h a t i s , a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e B a l t i c c o a s t w h ic h w o u ld f u r n i s h t h e E m p re ss w i t h t h e i n s t r u m e n t f o r t r a n s f o r m i n g R u s s i a i n t o a g r e a t m a r itim e s t a t e .

From

t h i s c o n q u e s t sh e c o u ld e s t a b l i s h u n r e s t r a i n e d pow er o v e r P o la n d a n d a f e a r f u l f o r c e o v e r D enm ark, Sw eden a n d 1 G erm any. A u s tr ia had p e r m itte d re s e n tm e n t o f P r u s s ia to b l in d h e r t o t h e d a n g e r s o f R u s s i a n n e ig h b o rh o o d i n G erm any. T h a t c o n d i t i o n w o u ld e n c o u r a g e t h e Germ an p o w e rs t o a c t m ore i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f A u s t r i a , a n d w o u ld c o n t r i v e t o r e n ­ d e r t h e e m p ire i n H a p sb u rg h a n d s i n s e c u r e b y e n t i c i n g t h e m in o r p o w e rs t o s u p p o r t a f e e b l e p r i n c e f o r t h e i m p e r i a l th ro n e .

R u s s i a n n e ig h b o r h o o d w o u ld l e a d t o t h e d e p e n d e n c e

^of t h e G erm anic b o d y on R u s s i a .

H e n c e , A u s t r i a w o u ld

p ro m o te t h e e r e c t i o n o f a m ore e f f e c t i v e b a r r i e r t o h e r p r e - e m in e n c e i n Germ any t h a n e i t h e r F r a n c e o r Sweden w ere i n th e p a s t .

I n h u m b lin g P r u s s i a , A u s t r i a w as e n d in g h e r 2 own in d e p e n d e n c y a s w e l l . P e t e r I I I o f R u s s i a w ith d r e w h i s a r m ie s i n M arch 1 7 6 2 , a n d t h e S w e d ish m o n arc h f o l lo w e d s u i t i n M ay.

The

C z a r’s fo rm e r a l l i e s p r a is e d h i s p ro c la m a tio n f o r p e a c e a n d h i s d i s i n t e r e s t e d n e s s a n d h u m a n ity , b u t com m ented t h a t a n o th e r

v a l u a b l e r o y a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w as f i d e l i t y

to t r e a t i e s ;

and th e y r e f u s e d to p u rc h a se p eace f o r

1. I b id ., p.

11.

L 2. I b i d . , p.

12.

th e m -

s e l v e s b y c e d i n g a l l a d v a n ta g e s a l r e a d y , o r e x p e c te d t o b e , won*

%

F r e d e r i c k n o t o n ly l o s t a n enem y, h e g a in e d a f r i e n d , f o r P e t e r s o o n h u r l e d h i s a r m ie s a g a i n s t h i s f o r m e r a s s o ­ c ia te s *

T h is u n f o r t u n a t e e v e n t c o m p lic a te d m a t t e r s , b e ­

c a u s e t h e C z a r h a r b o r e d d e s i g n s on S c h le s w ig , w h ic h w o u ld e n l a r g e t h e num ber o f d i s p u t e s a n d t h r e a t e n D enm ark a n d t h e M o r th e r n p o w e rs .

The d e m e n te d r u l e r was d e p o s e d b y

t h e C z a r i n a , who w ith d re w t h e a r m ie s a n d o b s e r v e d a s t r i c t n e u tra lity .

F r e d e r i c k m u st h a v e r e g a r d e d t h i s a s 2 w o n d e r f u l a n e s c a p e a s was P e t e r * s o r i g i n a l w i t h d r a w a l . W h ile t h e y e a r 1762 saw t h e e n d o f b a t t l e i n E u ro p e , i t w as f i l l e d w i t h w ar b e y o n d t h e s e a s .

A B r i t i s h "ex ­

p e d i t i o n w as d i s p a t c h e d t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , w h e re i t e n ­ c o u n t e r e d t h e s a v a g e I n d i a n m eth o d o f w a r.

The a t t e m p t

t o t a k e M a n ila w as r e t a r d e d b y s t u b b o r n S p a n is h r e s i s ­ ta n c e .

B u rk e condem ned t h e p h i lo s o p h y o f w ar a n d r e s i s ­

ta n c e a t any c o s t.

A lth o u g h no law o f h o n o r o r a p r o s ­

p e c t o f s u e e e s s r e q u ir e d f u r t h e r r e s i s t a n c e , th e S p a n ia rd s r e s o l v e d on a s u l l e n o b s t i n a c y n o t g ro u n d e d on a n y t r u e 3 m ilita ry s k i l l . M a n ila f i n a l l y c a p i t u l a t e d t o G e n e r a l D r a p e r , who, i n e x c h a n g e f o r a ra n s o m o f one m i l l i o n s t e r l i n g , p e r -

i* I b i d . . p . 1 4 . 2 . A nnual R e g i s t e r . 1762, p p . 3 . I b i d . . 1763, PP. 9 -1 2 .

1 4 -1 5 , 2 3 .

m i t t e d t h e i n h a b i t a n t s t o e n jo y t h e i r l i b e r t i e s a n d p r o ­ p e r t i e s , and to a d m in is te r l o c a l a f f a i r s .

T h is sum ex­

c e e d e d t h e c o s t o f t h e e x p e d i t i o n , ma c ir c u m s ta n c e n o t 1 v e r y u s u a l i n o u r m o d ern w a r s . 8 The ra n s o m l e f t a bone o f c o n t e n t i o n b e tw e e n S p a in a n d B r i t a i n t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d e n d le s s ly to f u t u r e a n im o s ity . B r i t i s h v i c t o r y i n th e P h i l i p p i n e s e l i m i n a t e d th e S p a n i a r d s fro m A s ia a n d l a i d them o p e n t o f u r t h e r i n ­ j u r i e s , i f i t h a d b e e n E n g l a n d ^ t r u e i n t e r e s t t o p r o lo n g t h e w ar w h ic h t h e c a l a m i t i e s o f m an k in d l o u d l y c a l l e d

2 upon th e B r i t i s h to en d .

U nbounded s u c c e s s r e s u l t e d

f ro m E n g li s h c a m p a ig n s a g a i n s t t h e F re n c h i n A m e ric a a n d in In d ia .

I n t h e f o r m e r , t h e F r e n c h w ere s i d e d b y t h e

I n d i a n s , w hose m eth o d o f w a r f a r e was in h u m a n .

Com m enting

o n t h e w ar a g a i n s t th e m , f o l l o w i n g th e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e F r e n c h fro m N o r th i m e r i e a , B u rk e w r o t e , ^ d e c o ru m s, w h ic h a r e a s n e c e s s a ry a t l e a s t i n d e a lin g w ith b a rb a ro u s a s

3

w i t h c i v i l i z e d n a t i o n s , w e re n e g l e c t e d . 11 He s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w o u ld s o f t e n t h e i r f e r o c i t y a n d s a v a g e r y i f th e y re c e iv e d k in d tr e a tm e n t.

B r ita in * s f i r s t s te p

i n t h i s p r o c e s s o f h u m a n iz a tio n w o u ld b e com m erce, a n d 4 l a t e r , s e t t l e m e n t among th e m .

1* 2. 3. 4.

I b i d . , p . 14. Ib id . I b id ., p . 22. l l l c b , p . 32.

r

53

, .

M i l i t a r y l a u r e l s u s h e r e d i n a new p e r i o d o f B r i t i s h i m p e r i a l d e v e lo p m e n t. b e e n w on.

A v a s t A m e ric a n w i l d e r n e s s h a d

B u rk e s a i d t h a t t h e e m p ire w as l i k e l y one

d a y t o a c h i e v e t h e pow er e i t h e r o f . th e R u s s ia n o r o f t h e 1 C h in e s e e m p ir e s . P e a c e n e g o t i a t i o n s w e re re n e w e d i n 1 7 6 2 .

The

P r u s s i a n s s t r o v e f o r m i l i t a r y s u p re m a c y , k n o w in g t h a t t h e s e a r r a n g e m e n ts w ere a lw a y s f a c i l i t a t e d b y t h e o p e r a ­ t i o n s o f a c a m p a ig n a n d t h a t a s u c c e s s f u l one o f t e n h a s 2 te n s th e d e c is io n o f a c o n te s te d a r t i c l e . B r ita in d e s ire d p e a e e i n 17&2 , b e c a u s e t h e c o s t o f t h e w ar was d r a i n i n g n a tio n a l re so u rc e s.

T h e re h a d b e e n d i f f i c u l t y i n r e c r u i t ­

in g and m a in ta in in g tr o o p s .

A t any r a t e , B r i t a i n had

a c h i e v e d h e r g o a l s , a n d s h e was moved b y t h e a rg u m e n ts 3 o f h u m a n ity . The A n n u a l R e g i s t e r e x p l a i n e d : I t was tim e t o c l o s e t h e w a r, when e v e r y en d we c o u ld r a t i o n a l l y p r o p o s e to o u r s e l v e s i n c a r r y i n g i t o u t w as a n s w e r e d ; we h a d enough i n o u r h a n d s t o a n sw e r a l l o u r d em an d s, a n d a lm o s t a l l o u r e x p e c t a t i o n s ; a n d a s i t i s g row n i n t o a s o r t o f m axim , t h a t n a t i o n s g r e a t l y v i c t o r i o u s m u st c e d e s o m e th in g i n a p e a c e , t h e d i f f i c u l t y o n o u r s i d e was o n l y w h a t a n d how m uch we s h o u ld re ta in . D i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n th e B r i t i s h p e a c e d e l e g a t i o n , e x p l o i t e d b y t h e w i l y C h o i s e u l , s o f t e n e d w h a t w e re o t h e r w i s e h a r d te rm s .

The T r e a t y o f P a r i s o f 17&3 l i f t e d B r i t a i n t o

1. I b id . , p . 15. 2 . X b id . » 1 7 6 2 , p . 2 8 . 3 . I b i d . , 1762, p p . 45- 4 7 . L

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1

i m p e r i a l h e i g h t s a n d h u r l e d F r a n c e down t o a c o l o n i a l ab y ss. The young w r i t e r c o n t i n u e d t h e n a r r a t i o n i n t h e y e a r ly a r t i c l e , b u t w ith in c r e a s in g c o n c e rn i n th e i n j u s ­ t i c e s and choas i n i n te r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s .

W nlle t h e s e

h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n ts r e f l e c t i m p a r t i a l i t y , t h e y no lo n g e r b ear th a t a ir o f s e re n ity .

D u rin g t h e w ar B u rk e o b s e r v e d

t h e ’ E u ro p e a n p o l i t y v e r y much l i k e a s u r g e o n e x a m in e s a body*

B u t now h e b e g a n t o i d e n t i f y h i m s e l f w i t h a member

o f t h a t body p o l i t i c , an d p e r s o n a lly f e l t th e d re a d e f f e c t s o f th e d i s e a s e s c o n v u l s i n g E u ro p e . S c a n n in g E u ro p e , h e saw c a lm a n d r e p o s e a t t h e mom­ e n t.

The T r e a t y o f H u b e r tu s b u r g r e s t o r e d A u g u s tu s I I I ,

K in g o f P o la n d a n d E l e c t o r o f S a x o n y , t o h i s h e r e d i t a r y , d o m in io n s w i t h n o t h i n g t o show f o r h i s e f f o r t s i n t h e w a r. H is d e s i g n s h a d b e e n d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o h i s a b i l i t y . He h a d e n g a g e d i n a t y p e o f a l l i a n c e i n w h ic h t h e s m a l l e r s ta te

i n v a r i a b l y s u f f e r e d m o st i n w ar a n d g a in e d l e a s t

by p eace.

To w o rs e n m a t t e r s , F r e d e r i c k h a d s e i z e d p a r t

o f h i s la n d s .

G erm any was -the s c e n e o f d e s o l a t i o n a n d

r e s t e d u n e a s i l y i n th e p r e s e n c e o f tw o p o t e n t r i v a l s , P ru s s ia and A u s tria .

The w ar h a d n o t a l t e r e d t h e im 1

p e r i a l s t r u c t u r e , w h ic h B u rk e a n a ly z e d i n t h e s e w ords?

i . & i a . , 1763, pp. 4 3 -4 5 .

L

Jl

55 I n r e a l i t y , t h e G erm an c o n s t i t u t i o n i s a s n e a r l y p e r f e c t a s c a n b e e x p e c te d i n a com m onw ealth o f s o v e r e ig n p r i n c e s , o r f e d e r a l u n io n o f s e v e r a l m o n a r c h ie s a n d r e p u b l i c s u n d e r a common h e a d . S u ch a n u n i o n , c o n s i d e r e d i n i t s e l f , m ig h t in * d e e d , se.em v e r y u s e l e s s , o r , i n some r e s p e c t s , d a n g e r o u s ; b u t t h e e x tr e m e i n e q u a l i t y o f t h e s o v e r e i g n t i e s , w h ic h com pose t h e G erm an ic b o d y , m akes i t a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y t o t h e fre e d o m o f a l l t h e l e s s e r m em b ers, t h a t t h e r e s h o u ld b e a c o n ­ s i d e r a b l e pow er v e s t e d i n t h e c h i e f o f t h e u n i o n , a c t i n g b y t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e w h o le , t o p r e v e n t th e v io le n c e and i n j u s t i c e o f th e s tr o n g e r . T h is pow er i s , p e r h a p s , to o w eak p e r f e c t l y t o accom ­ p l i s h i t s e n d s ; b u t s t i l l i t i s o f some u s e . I n t h e s o u t h o f E u ro p e , t h e C o r s i c a n s c o n ti n u e d t h e i r s t r u g g l e f o r t h e i r l i b e r t i e s a g a i n s t t h e i r G en o ese m a s te r s w ith b ra v e ry and p e rs e v e ra n c e .

T h is Ms m a l l b u t g a l l a n

n atio n * * s o u g h t fre e d o m Mw h ie h e v e r y p e o p le d e s e r v e s t o e n j o y , who know s i t s v a l u e so w e l l 1 t h i n g t o o b t a i n it.* *

as

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e v e ry

The B o u rb o n a l l i e s p r e s e n t e d g r a v e p r o b le m s . A lth o u g h t h e b a l a n c e s t r u c k among t h e p o w e rs a n d s e r i o u s i n t e r n a l p ro b le m s d i m i n i s h e d t h e p r o s p e c t o f w a r, t h e r e w ere s e v e r a l d a n g e r s t o p e a c e .

O b v io u s ly r e f e r r i n g t o

t h e M a n ila ra n s o m , B u rk e h o p e d t h e B o u rb o n s w o u ld com ply w i t h B r i t a i n * s j u s t dem ands a n d n o t c o m p e l h e r , fro m m o tiv e s o f h o n o r a n d i n t e r e s t , t o wage a n o t h e r c o n f l i c t . T h e ir l i t i g i o u s d i s p o s i t i o n w o u ld w a r r a n t a m ore c ir c u m ­ s p e c t a n d n a rr o w c o n d u c t i n f u t u r e d e a l i n g s .

T h is r e l u c ­

t a n c e t o m e e t t h e s e dem ands m ig h t e x o n e r a t e i n t h e e y e s o f E u ro p e a n E n g l i s h p o l i c y o f c l o s e a t t e n t i o n t o n a t i o n a l

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1* f f a id . > P« 4 9 .

i n t e r e s t w h ic h w o u ld h a v e o r d i n a r i l y o f f e n d e d o t h e r p o w e r s , who w o u ld c o n c lu d e t h a t th e p o l i c y a c c o r d e d w i t h 1 th e a c c e p te d p r i n c i p le s o f s e lf - p r e s e r v a tio n # I n t h e N o rth B u rk e p e r c e i v e d no im m e d ia te d a n g e r t o p e a c e fro m R u s s i a .

N e i t h e r w as s h e e n d a n g e re d b y r i v a l s .

A lth o u g h t h e E u ro p e a n p o w e rs f e a r e d h e r g r e a t s t r e n g t h a n d h e r o c c a s i o n a l d i s p l a y o f m ig h t , t h e y h a d c o n te m ­ p l a t e d no p l a n f o r r e d u c i n g h e r s i n c e t h e d a y s o f C h a r le s X I I * s e f f o r t t o su b m e rg e P e t e r t h e G r e a t* s i n f a n t s ta te .

R u s s ia ’s c o r d i a l i t y h ad b een so u g h t and l i b e r a l l y

re c o m p e n se d .

The w ar e n h a n c e d h e r s u b s t a n t i a l s t r e n g t h

a n d r e s o u r c e s , a n d endow ed h e r w i t h p e r v a d i n g i n f l u e n c e o v er h e r n e ig h b o rs .

P e a c e w as n o t d i s t u r b e d b y Sweden

o r D enm ark, who h a d r e n o u n c e d p r u d e n t l y - a t l e a s t f o r t h e moment - t h e r o l e o f m a r t i a l s t a t e s , a n d i n s t e a d d i r e c t e d t h e i r t a l e n t s t o d e v e l o p in g d o m e s tic p r o s p e r i t y . “T h is w is e p l a n o f c o n d u e t w i l l one d a y p ro v e t h e m o st

2 s o l i d b a s i s o f t h e i r p o w e r .M The JpOf s a n d 6 0 f s h a d r e c a s t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a l l i ­ an ce s and a n tip a th ie s .

No l o n g e r w e re th e H a p sb u rg a n d

B o u rb o n s v i e i n g f o r hegem ony o f t h e c o n t i n e n t , a t l e a s t - ‘ n o t o p e n ly . c o n v e n ie n c e .

The r i v a l s w e re now j o i n e d i n a m a r r i a g e o f I n a l i t e r a l s e n s e , t h e p ro u d o l d h o u s e s

1 . - S b ifl., 1 7 6 5 , p . 2 . 2 . I b i d . . p p . 2 -5 ; 1766, p . 6 .

57 r

1

m in g le d t h e i r b l o o d i n t h e u n io n o f t h e s e c o n d s o n o f t h e E m p eror a n d t h e S p a n is h i n f a n t a , t o whom t h e S p a n is h m o n a rc h b e q u e a th e d h i s T u sc a n d o m in io n s ,

d u rin g th e l i f e ­

s p a n o f t h e p r i n c e l y a r c h i t e c t s o f t h i s m a r r i a g e , th e a l l i a n c e w o u ld n o t a g i t a t e E u ro p e .

B u t, th e w is e a u t h o r

o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l a r t i c l e w a rn e d : I n t i m e , no d o u b t t h e s e m a r r i a g e s a n d c e s s i o n s w i l l g i v e r i s e t o t r o u b l e s , f i l i a l lo v e a n d r e s ­ p e c t g i v i n g way t o t h e m ore p o w e r f u l p a s s i o n s o f a m b i t io n a n d a v a r i c e ; a n d m an k in d may a g a i n s m a r t f o r t h e h o n o u r , w h ic h some s o v e r e i g n s do t h e i r s u b j e c t s , o f m a k in g them o v e r t o e a c h o t h e r w ith o u t t h e i r c o n c u rre n c e , lik e b e a s ts o f th e fie ld . I t was p o s s i b l e t h a t a f u t u r e H a p sb u rg em p e ro r w o u ld c o n ­ s i d e r h i m s e l f p o s s e s s e d o f T u s c a n y , w h i l e a S p a n is h k i n g w o u ld n a t u r a l l y d e s i r e t o p r o t e c t a s i s t e r o r a r e l a ­ tiv e

i n t h e e n jo y m e n t o f a d o m in io n p r o c u r e d a t a c o n s i ­

d e ra b le ex p en se.

T h is w o u ld b e b u t a f r a c t i o n o f t h e

, i m b r o g l i o s w h ic h w o u ld f o l l o w t h e s e i n e l u c t a b l e e v e n t s , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e c o m p l i c a te d c la im s o f S p a in a n d Parm a t o t h e t h r o n e o f th e Two S i c i l i e s , a n d t h a t o f Don L o u is t o ■1 P arm a i t s e l f . The P r o t e s t a n t p o w e r s , **whose s t r e n g t h m u st e v e r b e i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e w e a k n e ss o f t h o s e i n t h e o p p o s i t e i n t e r e s t , w e m u la te d t h e i r o p p o n e n ts .

M a r r ia g e s w e re c o n ­

t a c t e d b e tw e e n t h e s i s t e r o f t h e B r i t i s h k in g a n d t h e h e r e d i t a r y p r i n c e o f B ru n s w ic k -L u n e n b u rg , b e tw e e n th e

1 . I b i d . , 1765, p . 3 . L

58 r

i

l a t t e r * s s i s t e r a n d t h e nephew o f t h e K in g o f P r u s s i a , a n d b e tw e e n a n o t h e r s i s t e r o f t h e B r i t i s h m o n a rc h an d t h e P r i n c e r o y a l o f Denmark*

B u t a s no c e s s i o n s o r t r a n s 1 f e r s w ere i n v o l v e d , no s e e d s o f d i s s e n s i o n w ere sow n. B u rk e n e v e r s u b s c r i b e d t o a d o c t r i n a i r e p o s i t i o n t h a t r e l i g i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s o r i d e o l o g i e s d e te r m in e d p e r ­ m anent a n t i p a t h i e s .

The P r o t e s t a n t a n d C a t h o l i c s y s te m s

w e re n o t , a n d w o u ld n e v e r be, m u tu a l ly e x c l u s i v e . I r r e g u l a r b o d ie s te n d e d p o l i t i c a l l y to t h e i r o p p o s ite r e l i g i o u s g ro u p .

P r o t e s t a n t Sw eden l e a n e d to w a rd F r a n c e ,

w h ile C a t h o l i c P o r t u g a l s o u g h t r e f u g e w i t h P r o t e s t a n t 2 B rita in . S t a t e s , l i k e m en, w e re g o v e rn e d b y t h e i r i n ­ te re s ts . The v i r u s o f P r u s s i a n s u c c e s s p ro d u c e d a n t i - t o x i n s i n t h e E u ro p e a n b o d y - p o l i t i c .

I n t h e f a c e o f a common

enem y, t h e o l d F r a n c o - A u s t r i a n r i v a l s c o a l e s c e d .

To

a u g m e n t h e r s t r e n g t h a n d t o m e e t B r i t a i n on h e r own t e r m s , F ra n c e f o s t e r e d th e m a rin e .

The w o rld was now

d i v i d e d i n t o tw o s y s t e m s , w h ic h h a v e , i n r e a l i t y , b u t l i t t l e n e c e s s a r y c o n n e c t i o n w i t h one a n o t h e r ; th o u g h , w h e n e v e r t r o u b l e s s h a l l b r e a k o u t , t h e r e i s no d o u b t b u t t h e p o w e rs w h ich com pose b o t h w i l l b e .a s e f f e c t u a l l y en g ag ed , a s i f th e y had a c au se i n commoii.3 No w ar c l o u d s , h o w e v e r, d a r k e n e d th e h o r i z o n .

A

b r i g h t r a y a u g u re d t r a n q u i l l i t y , f o r t h e l i g h t o f i n v e n !• I b id . 2. Ib id ., p. 4. 3- IW d . L

t i o n , i n d u s t r y a n d im p ro v e m e n t was s c a t t e r i n g t h e d a r k n e s s 1 o f c o n q u e s t , r a p a c i t y a n d w a r. 4.

The D u b lin E p is o d e . 1 7 6 1 -1 7 6 4 The y o u n g a d v e n t u r e r h a d n o t won t h e p o s i t i o n h e

t h o u g h t h i s a b i l i t i e s c o u ld command.

He r e c e i v e d a n o t h e r

o p p o r t u n i t y i n 1759 when t h e E a r l o f C h a r le m o n t, a n I r i s h p e e r , i n t r o d u c e d him t o W illia m G e ra rd H a m ilto n , a w is e a n d t a l e n t e d member o f t h e H ouse ~of Commons.

B u rk e was

p r o f e s s i o n a l l y r e t a i n e d a s s e c r e t a r y t o H a m ilto n f o r s i x y e a r s i n a ty p e o f a s s o c i a t i o n common i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y b e tw e e n p r o m in e n t p e r s o n s a n d a b l e g e n tle m e n o f m id d lin g b i r t h . When t h e E a r l o f H a l i f a x was a p p o i n t e d L o rd L i e u t e n a n t o f I r e l a n d i n 1 7 6 1 , H a m ilto n becam e C h ie f S e c r e t a r y o r w h a t was r e a l l y p rim e m i n i s t e r .

A tta c h e d to

H a m ilto n , B u rk e a c c o m p a n ie d b y h i s f a m i l y , w e n t t o I r e l a n d I a n d to o k q u a r t e r s j i n D u b lin C a s t l e . He m et t h e l e a d i n g p o l i t i c i a n s s u c h a s H e n ry F l o o d , H e r c u le s L a n g r i s h e , Monk M ason, Edmund P e ry , a n d t h e P r im a te S t o n e ; a n d w id e n e d th e c i r c l e

o f f r i e n d s h i p s made b e f o r e 175^*

B u rk e was now i n a p o s i t i o n t o h e l p h i s own p e o p l e . I n h i s v ie w , t h e y c o u ld n o t b e h e lp e d b y t h e e f f o r t s o f a c l i q u e o f nu n d e r t a k e r s H o r o f I r i s h p r o t e s t a n t “P a t r i o t s 1* who w e re i n d i f f e r e n t o r e v e n i n i m i c a l t o t h e

1. Ib id ., p . 8 .

6o . r

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C a th o lic m a j o r it y .

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o f t h e B r i t i s h e m p ir e , h u t w as d i s h e a r t e n e d b y h e r i n c o n ­ g ru o u s r o l e .

A lth o u g h h e was h a l f - a n g l i c i z e d a f t e r a

d e c a d e 's r e s i d e n c e i n E n g la n d , h i s s y m p a th ie s an d r e a s o n \

s c a r c e l y p e r m i t t e d him t o b e h o ld w i t h e q u a n im ity t h e n e ­ f a r i o u s s u b j u g a t i o n o f t h e b u l k o f I r i s h m e n , among whom w ere k in s m e n a n d f r i e n d s , b y a h a n d f u l o f m a g n a te s an d p o l i t i c i a n s e m p lo y in g t h e P e n a l Code t o d e n y them p a r t i ­ c i p a t i o n i n th e l i f e

o f t h e c o m m u n ity .

C o u ld h e c o n te m ­

p l a t e t h e i n f l i c t i o n o f t h e s tig m a o f a p a r i a h b y a s u p p o s e d ly C h r i s t i a n a n d e n l i g h t e n e d s t a t e o n I r i s h C a t h o l i c s w i t h o u t t h i n k i n g o f h i s m o th e r , s i s t e r , U n c le G a r r e t a n d t h e r e s t o f t h e M a g les? The r e l i g i o n o f t h e I r i s h p e o p le w as made a p r e t e x t f o r o p p re s s io n .

E n g la n d d e v i s e d t h e P e n a l Code a s a n i n ­

s t r u m e n t t o su b d u e t h e I r i s h n a t i o n a n d t o p e r p e t u a t e t h e c o n q u e s t.

T h is i n s t r u m e n t o f d o m in io n v i o l a t e d t h e law

common t o a l l m en.

I r e l a n d w as a n u n h a p p y c o u n tr y w i t h

h u n d r e d s o f th o u s a n d s r e d u c e d t o a c o n d i t i o n o f s l a v i s h i a b a s e m e n t. The sam e u n i v e r s a l law w h ic h a p p l i e s t o a l l m en a n d a t a l l t im e s o u g h t t o b e in v o k e d i n f a v o r o f I r e l a n d , B u rk e r e a s o n e d .

B r i t i s h sy m p a th y f o r v i c t i m s o f f o r e i g n

1 . T r a c t s , R e l a t i v e t o t h e Laws A g a i n s t P o p e ry i n I r e l a n d , f o r k s Ced. B o h n ), V I, 1 9 - 2 6 . T h e y .a r e d a t e d 1765 i n "kke f o r k s th o u g h b o t h P r i o r ( L i f e o f B u rk e , 2nd e d i ­ t i o n , I , 2 2 ) a n d M u rra y (Edmund B u rk e p . 9 7 ) d a t e them u 1761. -

6i

o p p r e s s i o n was l u d i c r o u s a n d i r o n i c a l i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e o p p re s s io n o f th e I r i s h . i s la u d a b le .

C o m m is e ra tio n f o r t h e o p p r e s s e d

Y et

To t r a n s f e r h u m a n ity fro m i t s n a t u r a l b a s i s , o u r l e g i t i m a t e a n d h o m eb red c o n n e x io n s 5 t o l o s e a l l f e e l i n g f o r t h o s e who h a v e g row n u p b y o u r s i d e s , i n o u r e y e s , o f t h e b e n e f i t o f w hose c a r e s a n d l a b o u r s we h a v e p a r t a k e n fro m o u r b i r t h , and m e r e tr ic io u s ly to h u n t a b ro a d a f t e r f o r e i g n a f f e c t i o n s i s su ch a d is a rra n g e m e n t o f t h e w h o le s y s te m o f o u r d u t i e s , t h a t I do n o t know w h e th e r b e n e v o le n c e so d i s p l a c e d i s n o t a lm o s t t h e sam e t h i n g a s d e s t r o y e d , o r w h a t e f f e c t b i g o t r y c o u ld h a v e p r o d u c e d t h a t i s m ore f a t a l t o s o c i e t y . T h is no one c o u ld h e lp o b s e r v i n g , who h a s s e e n o u r d o o r s k i n d l y a n d b o u n t i f u l l y th ro w n o p e n t o f o r e i g n s u f f e r e r s f o r c o n s c i e n c e , w h i l s t th r o u g h t h e same p o r t s w ere i s s u i n g f u g i t i v e s o f o u r own, d r i v e n fro m t h e i r c o u n t r y f o r a c a u s e w h ic h t o a n i n d i f ­ f e r e n t p e r s o n w o u ld seem t o b e e x a c t l y s i m i l a r , w h i l s t we s t o o d b y , w i t h o u t an y s e n s e o f t h e im p ro p rie ty o f t h i s e x tr a o r d in a r y s c e n e , a c c u s ­ in g , and p r a c t is in g i n j u s t i c e . . . . I I t w as in fa m o u s t o a s s e r t t h a t t h e Code w as u l t i ­ m a te ly a im ed a t t h e g o o d o f I r e l a n d .

P r e t e n c e s may

a lw a y s b e fo u n d w hen one t a k e s i t u p o n h i m s e l f t o d e c id e o n t h e m e th o d t o a c h i e v e t h e h a p p in e s s o f o t h e r s .

By

d e s t r o y i n g t h e I r i s h p e o p le f o r g e n e r a t i o n s , t h e P o p e ry Laws n e g a t e d t h e p r im a r y en d o f c i v i l s o c i e t y t o s e c u r e

1 . I b i d . . V I, 2 7 .

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1 th e n a tu r a l r ig h ts * The H a l i f a x a d m i n i s t r a t i o n saw t h e f i r s t s t r e a k s o f l i g h t d i s p e ll i n g th e d a rk n e ss i n p o s t-R e v o lu tio n a ry 2 Ire la n d . The r e l a t i v e b e n i g n i t y was due i n p a r t t o B r i t a i n ’s d e s i r e t o p l a c a t e t h e I r i s h d u r i n g a g r e a t w ar w h ic h c o u l d b r i n g a F r e n c h i n v a s i o n o f J a c o b i t e t e r r i ­ to rie s .

O ver t h r e e h u n d r e d I r i s h C a t h o l i c m e r c h a n ts h a d

s e n t G e o rg e I I I a D e c l a r a t i o n o f A l l e g i a n c e i n 1759$ a n d

I* I b i d . . V I, 29* B u rk e m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e E n g l i s h P a r ­ l i a m e n t o u g h t t o h a v e r e s p e c t e d t h e p le d g e g i v e n t o t h e I r i s h i n t h e T r e a t y o f L im e ric k c o n c e r n in g t h e p ra c tic e of th e ir r e lig io n . I t s r e a s o n w as t h a t th e p le d g e l a c k e d i t s s a n c t i o n . B u rk e im p o se d a h y p o ­ th e tic a l s itu a tio n . S u p p o se P a r l i a m e n t was n o t i n s e s s i o n a t a moment o f g r a v e n a t i o n a l d a n g e r . Would i t n o t b e p r u d e n t f o r t h e K in g t o t r e a t w i t h t h e enemy i n o r d e r t o s a v e l i v e s a n d p e r h a p s t h e n a t i o n its e lf? T h is c o n d u c t w o u ld s h o r t e n t h e w a r, a n d h e n c e c o n fo rm t o t h e d i c t a t e s o f t h e law o f n a t i o n s t h a t t h e d e f o r m i t i e s o f w ar o u g h t t o b e m in im iz e d a n d e n d e d e x p e d i t i o u s l y . I b i d . . V I, 4 0 - 4 1 . 2 . H a l i f a x recom m ended some t o l e r a t i o n f o r t h e C a t h o l i c s ; h i s C h ie f S e c r e t a r y a n d M r. B u rk e w e re ’’c h a r g e d w i t h c o r r u p t i o n i n f a v o u r i n g t h e c a t h o l i c s . ” M atth ew O’C o n o r, The H i s t o r y o f t h e I r i s h C a t h o l i c s fro m t h e S e t t l e m e n t i n l o 9 1 . D u b l i n . J . S t o c k d a l e , 1 8 1 3 , p p • 2 8 1 , 2 9 ^ -2 9 7 * B u r k e ’s b i o g r a p h e r s c r e d i t him w i t h i n s p i r i n g H a m il­ t o n ’ s p r o p o s a l s t o r e c r u i t s i x r e g i m e n t s o f Homan C a t h o l i c s t o s e r v e i n t h e S e v e n Y e a r s ’ W ar. (M u rra y , Edmund B u r k e , p . 97^* H a l i f a x r e c o r d e d a c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h L o rd T r i m l e s t o n , a C a t h o l i c , who a s s u r e d him t h a t t h e C a t h o l i c g e n t r y w is h e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e w a r. The p r o p o s a l was f a v o r a b l y r e c e i v e d i n E n g la n d . A lth o u g h T r i m l e s t o n w en t t h e r e t o n e g o t i a t e a n d L o rd K enm are p r o ­ m is e d t o r a i s e t r o o p s , t h e I r i s h H ouse o f Commons, a r o u s e d by t h e o l d b o g e y o f a n t i - p o p e r y , o b j e c t e d . H a lif a x r e p o r te d an o b s t i n a t e and f a n a t i c a l d i s l i k e by P r o t e s t a n t s o f a n y f a v o r show n t o C a t h o l i c s . H a l i f a x E g rem o n t C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , 1 7 6 2 , 3 P 0 ,~ "q u o ted i n Jam es F r o u d e , The E n g l i s h i n I r e l a n d . ^ v o l s - Hew Y o rk . S c r i b n e r ’ s . 1 8 5 5 , I I , ' 15^18: L

a p e rm a n e n t c o m m itte e o f C a th o l i c s * h e a d e d b y D r. C u r r y , a tte m p te d to e f f e c t a ra p p ro c h e m e n t an d t o d i s p e l P r o te s ­ t a n t s u s p i c i o n , a n d w as i n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h B u rk e . B u r k e ’ s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h H a m ilto n e x a s p e r a t e d him b e 2 c a u s e i t p r e c l u d e d a n i n d e p e n d e n t c a r e e r , a n d w as s e v e r e d i n F e b ru a ry 1765* B u rk e was i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e M a rq u is o f R o ck in g h a m , who h a d j u s t b e e n n o m in a te d t o h e a d t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The n o b le m a n was im p r e s s e d b y t h e k e e n I r i s h m a n an d a p p o i n t e d him p r i v a t e s e c r e t a r y .

B u rk e d e s c r i b e d h i s new

1 . D i s c o n t e n t a n d v i o l e n c e , i n t h e fo rm o f t h e f h i t e b o y r i o t s , e ru p te d i n th e s o u th o f I r e l a n d . H a l i f a x was c o n v in c e d t h e y h a d b e e n e n c o u ra g e d b y t h e u l t r a P r o t e s t a n t f a c t i o n to r e v iv e th e t e r r o r s o f p o p e ry a n d .to d e f e a t th e p r o p o s a ls f o r C a th o lic re g im e n ts f o r f o r e i g n s e r v i c e . ; a n d t h a t t h e y w ere p u r p o s e l y e x a g g e r a t e d , b u t w ere now a t a n e n d . ( A p r i l 1 7 6 2 ) , F r o u d e , The E n g l i s h i p I r e l a n d . IX , 2 6 . I t may b e s u r m is e d t h a t B u rk e u s e d h i s i n f l u e n c e t o c o n v in c e H a lif a x o f th e b la m e le s s n e s s o f th e C a th o lic s . He b e lie v e d t h a t th e r i o t s had o r ig in a te d a s a r a d i c a l m ovem ent a im e d a t l a n d l o r d s , C a t h o l i c a n d P r o t e s t a n t a l i k e . He d e n ie d t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e d i s o r d e r s w e re e f f e c t s o f a r e a l r e b e l l i o n r a i s e d i n f a v o r o f B r i t i s h e n e m ie s a n d w e re s u p p o r t e d l i b e r a l l y b y f o r e i g n f u n d s . An i n n o c e n t p e o p le was c a l u m n i a te d a n d p e r s e ­ c u te d . I f t h e r e h a d b e e n a p l o t b y a f o r e i g n pow er t o r a i s e r e b e l l i o n i n I r e l a n d , B r i t a i n s h o u ld h a v e r e s e n t e d i t w i t h t h a t n a t i o n , a n d s h o u ld n o t- h a v e t r i e d t o i n ­ c i t e and j u s t i f y r e b e l l i o n by d r iv in g th e I r i s h to m a d n e ss a n d d e s p a i r . U n fin is h e d p a p e r r e g a r d in g th e d i s t u r b a n c e s i n I r e l a n d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e R e ig n o f G e o rg e I I I - ( w r i t t e n e . 1768- 1 7 6 9 ) , C o rre s p o n d e n c e (e d . F itz w illia m ) , I , 4 2 -4 4 . 2 . H a m i l t o n 's “c l a i m o f s e r v i t u d e tr made l i t e r a r y ren o w n o r f u t u r e a d v a n c e m e n t i m p o s s i b l e . B urke t o H e ly H u tc h in ­ s o n . c . May 1 8 , 1 7 6 5 , C o rre s o o n d e n c e ( e d . F i t z w i l l i a m ) , I , 67* H a m i l t o n 's m a l i g n a n t - a t t a c k s on h i s fo r m e r s e ­ c r e t a r y a n d l i t e r a r y c o m p a n io n r e f l e c t e d t h e m a g n itu d e o f h is l o s s .

a s s i g n m e n t , “I h a v e g o t a n em ploym ent o f a k i n d hum ble e n o u g h ; b u t w h ic h may b e w o rk ed i n t o some s o r t o f c o n ­ s i d e r a t i o n , o r a t l e a s t a d v a n t a g e , 1* a n d r e p o r t e d t h a t i t w as s a i d t h a t i t was n o t d i f f i c u l t t o l i v e w i t h H o c k in g 1 ham . T h is c o n n e c t i o n a p p e a r e d t o h im , l i k e t h e o t h e r s b e f o r e . i t , a s a n o th e r a d v e n tu re and a n o th e r s te p . was t o

It

l a s t , h o w e v e r, u n t i l t h e M a rq u is* d e a t h i n 1 7 8 2 ,

a n d o f f e r e d h im t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f b e c o m in g a s t a te s m a n and th o ro u g h ly i d e n t i f y i n g h im s e lf w ith B r i t a i n an d h e r e m p ir e .

T h ro u g h t h e i n f l u e n c e o f h i s c o u s i n W i l l , s

p a t r o n , L o rd V e rn e y , b o t h B u rk e s w ere r e t u r n e d t o t h e H ouse o f Commons - Bdmund fro m th e b o ro u g h o f W endover in 1765*

T h u s, a t th e age o f t h i r t y - s i x , w ith a v a r ie d

c a r e e r b e h in d h im , B u rk e e n t e r e d B r i t i s h p o l i t i c s . l a s t h e w as one o f t h o s e , a s h e s a i d ,

At

“w hose a m b i t i o n , 2 o r n e c e s s i t i e s o b l i g e th em t o l i v e i n t h e s t o r m . tf

1 . J u l y 1 1 , 1765? B u r k e -0 *H ara C o rre s o o n d e n c e T 2 . J u ly 9 , 1765? i b i d .

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CHAPTER I I I THE BOURBON ALLIES AND THE BALANCE OF POWER, I 7 6 3 - I 783 1*

The P o s t-W a r W orld The y e a r s f o l l o w i n g B u rk e * s e n t r y i n t o B r i t i s h p o l i - . ■t

t i c s w itn e s s e d h i s p e r s o n a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith h i s a d o p te d c o u n t r y .

He w as r e t u r n e d a g a i n t o P a r l i a m e n t

fro m t h e b o ro u g h o f W endover i n 1768 .

Now t h a t h e h a d

b e e n i n E n g la n d e i g h t e e n y e a r s a n d d e s i r e d t o * c a s t a 1 l i t t l e r o o t lf t h e r e , he p u r c h a s e d t h e G r e g o r i e s e s t a t e n e a r t h e p e a c e f u l v i l l a g e 'o f B e a e o n s f i e l d , some tw e n ty m i l e s fro m L o n d o n .

B u t h e c o u l d n o t th ro w o f f t h e n o s ­

t a l g i a f o r h is n a ta l s o i l .

The h a p p y s c e n e s o f h i s

c h ild h o o d i n th e s o u th o f I r e l a n d and th e f u l l y e a r s s p e n t a t B a l l i t o r e a n d T r i n i t y C o lle g e w e re a s much a s p a r t o f h i s m ak e -u p a s t h e h e a r t i s o f t h e body* n o t h i n g e l s e , f a m i l y t i e s b o u n d him t o I r e l a n d .

If -On t h e

o c c a s i o n o f h i s m o th e r * s l a s t i l l n e s s , h e w r o t e , **here w i l l I f e a r one o f my s t r o n g e s t l i n k s t o I r e l a n d b e s n a p 2 ped o f f . n P a rlia m e n ta ry d u tie s an d w r itin g f o r th e A nnual R e g is te r d i r e c t e d h i s a t t e n t i o n to a c o n te m p la tio n o f e v e n t s o n t h e c o n t i n e n t a n d i n t h e New W o rld .

The d e ­

ta c h e d an d s e r e n e ly i m p a r t i a l a t t i t u d e d is p la y e d i n th e a c c o u n ts o f t h e S e v e n Y e a r s 1 War i s g r a d u a l l y r e p l a c e d

1* L e a d b e a te r P a p e r s . I , 4 7 . l 2 . To 0 * H a ra , u n d a te d l e t t e r , B u rk e -0 * H a ra C o r r e s p o n d e n c e . -1

66 1,

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b y a n x io u s c o n c e r n a s h e v ie w e d w ith a la r m t h e c o n s e q u e n ­ c e s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l la w le s s n e s s . U n d e r ly in g h i s o u t lo o k w as t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p ­ t i o n o f man a n d h i s p l a c e i n th e u n i v e r s e .

W h ile men d i d

n o t p o s s e s s p e r f e c t i o n , t h e y h a d much t h a t w as v i r t u o u s and a d m ira b le -

B u rk e e x p r e s s e d t h e i r i n s u f f i c i e n c y i n

t h a t aw fu l p h ra s e , 1 we p u r s u e . tf

^w hat shadow s we a r e , a n d w h a t shadow s

M ankind w as d i v i d e d i n t o s t a t e s w h ic h s t r o v e f o r s e c u r ity and fo r g a in .

As B u rk e lo o k e d o u t on th e w o r ld

o f th e 6 0 fs an d 7 ^ * s, he p e rc e iv e d t h a t th e a n a r c h ic a l t e n d e n c i e s s p r a n g ‘fro m t h e b a s e a n d p e r v e r t e d i n c l i n a ­ t i o n s o f f a l l e n hum an n a t u r e .

T h ese i n c l i n a t i o n s a c t e d

th e p a r t o f v o lc a n o e s , t h r e a te n in g to in u n d a te th e s t a t e s s y s te m i n a s e a o f m a r t i a l l a v a an d t o o b l i t e r a t e

e v i­

dences o f p ro g re ss and r e lig io n . Was t h e r e t h e n no s a f e g u a r d a g a i n s t c a l a m i t y ?

The

C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n a n d t h e m u tu a l v i g i l a n c e o f s t a t e s m ig h t i n a c t i v a t e t h e s e v o l c a n o e s a n d t h u s i n s u r e i n t e r n a ­ tio n a l tr a n q u illity .

As t h e d e e p l y - r o o t e d j e a l o u s i e s o f

r i v a l b o d i e s , w hose i n t e r e s t a n d f e e l i n g w e re d i s t i n c t fro m t h o s e o f t h e g r e a t b o d y o f t h e p e o p l e , w o u ld a c t t o s a f e g u a r d t h e d o m e s tic c o n s t i t u t i o n , so to o w o u ld t h e m u tu ­ a l v i g i l a n c e o f i n d i v i d u a l s t a t e s i n t h e r e a lm o f f o r e i g n

1 . S p e e c h a t B r i s t o l , S e p te m b e r 171. L

1 ? 8 0 , W orks ( e d . B o h n ), -J

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a f f a i r s c o n trib u te to th e p re s e rv a tio n o f in te r n a tio n a l o rd e r . C h r i s t i a n E u ro p e was t h e c e n t e r o f B u rk e * s w o r ld .

The

s m a l l g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n r e i g n e d suprem e b e c a u s e o f t h e \

e x t r a o r d i n a r y e n e r g y o f i t s m en, p a s t a n d p r e s e n t • I t d e 1 e i d e d w ar a n d p e a c e . I n t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s , E u ro p e a n d its

o v e r s e a s d e p e n d e n c ie s w e re t h e a x i s on w h ic h t h e i n ­

t e r n a t i o n a l w o r ld w o u ld r e v o l v e . I n s u r v e y i n g p o s t - b e l l u m E u r o p e , h e d i s c e r n e d some v e r y i n d i g e n t y e t b e l l i e o s e n a t i o n s who t r a v e l l e d t h e r o a d o f w ar t o r i c h e s a n d p o w e r, b u t i g n o r e d t h e e v i l s a c c o m p a n y in g th e m .

To a d m o n ish th em was t o c a u t i o n th o s e

a g a i n s t d a n g e r , i n j u r y a n d d e a t h , who c o u ld l i v e o n ly b y e n c o u n t e r i n g th e m .

T hey w ere f o r t u n a t e l y c ir c u m s c r i b e d

b y P r o v id e n c e w i t h i n v e r y n a rro w b o u n d s , a n d l i k e b i r d s a n d b e a s t s o f p r e y w e re few i n n u m b er.

I n w e ig h in g t h e

c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e w a rs o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , he c o u ld f i n d no n a t i o n a g a i n e r b y th e m .

^ A m b itio n in d e e d i s

n o t v e r y a t t e n t i v e t o c a l c u l a t i o n s , ,r h o w e v e r.

O nly one

p r in c e , a p p a r e n tly F r e d e r ic k th e G re a t, a p p e a re d to g a in ; b u t e v e n F r e d e r i c k p a i d m ore f o r t h e l u c r e o f t h r e e w a rs 2 t h a n i t w as w o r th . F o r t h e moment E u ro p e a p p e a r e d q u i e t .

D e s tru c tio n

a n d c o n q u e s t h a d b e e n r e p l a c e d b y i n v e n t i o n a n d im p ro v e m e n t.

1. A nnual R e g is te r . 1783? p . 2 . I b i d . . 1 7 6 6 , p p . 3- 4 . L

114.

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P r i n e e s - p e r c e i v e d v a s t e r r i c h e s and pow er i n t h e p e a c e f u l p u r s u i t s o f t h e i r s u b j e c t s t h a n i n w a r, a n d t h e r e f o r e e n 1 c o u r a g e d a g r i c u l t u r e an d com m erce. The s p i r i t o f l i b e r t y , w h ic h n e v e r l e a v e s hum an b e i n g s , m a n i f e s t e d i t s e l f i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d , i n t h e c o l o n i e s , i n S p a in an d i n h e r o v e r s e a s d o m in io n s .

C o n c e rn in g t h e l a t t e r , t h e

o v e r th r o w o f S p a n i s h pow er w o u ld c o n s t i t u t e a r e v o l u t i o n o f t h e g r e a t e s t m a g n itu d e .

C o m m e rcia l p o w e rs w o u ld now

s t r i v e f o r t h e l u c r a t i v e t r a d e h i t h e r t o d e n ie d th em b y S p a in .

N ot o n ly w e r e t h e

tfw e s t e r n p a r t s o f t h e o l d a n d

new w o r ld 1* a f f e c t e d b y l i b e r t y , b u t a l s o e a s t e r n a r e a s , 2 l i k e G e o r g ia . I n 1767 E u ro p e e n jo y e d f r i e n d l y f r a t e r n i t y a n d u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g a n d f r e e c o m m u n ic a tio n o f k n o w le d g e among t h e 3 in te llig e n s ia . B u rk e r e f l e c t e d : T h is l i b e r a l i n t e r c o u r s e , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c o n ­ t i n u a l t r a n s l a t i o n o f b o o k s fro m one la h g u a g e t o a n o th e r w i l l b y d e g r e e s b r i n g m an k in d i h some m e a s u re a c q u a i n t e d , a n d i t i s t o b e h o p e d , w ear o f f a g r e a t p a r t o f t h a t h e a r t y i l l - w i l l w h ic h th e y bone to e ac h o th e r a s s tr a n g e r s . T he m a r t i a l i m p u l s e , t h e n a t u r a l r e s u l t o f t h e s t r o n g b o d ­ i e s a n d a l e r t , f e a r l e s s m in d s o f w e s t e r n a n d n o r t h e r n

1 * I b i d . . 1765, p . 6 . 2* I b i d . . 1 7 6 0 , p p . 1 -2 B u rk e h a d b e f r i e n d e d a p e n n i l e s s A rm e n ia n a d v e n t u r e r , J o s e p h S n in , who o n c e jo u r n e y e d t o G e o r g ia t o s o l i c i t t h e a i d o f P r i n c e H e r a c l i u s a g ­ a i n s t t h e i r common T u r k is h enem y. 3 . I b i d . , 1767, p . 7 .

L

69

1

n a t i o n s , w h ic h lo n g h a d i n v o l v e d i n w ar “t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e g r e a t E u ro p e a n c o m m o n w e a lth ,“ w as r e p l a c e d f o r t h e tim e b y a g e n e r a l t r a n q u i l l i t y a n d t h e s p i r i t o f im p ro v e m e n ts i n t h e a r t s . flic ts

S e v e ra l c a u se s f o r p a s t con­

s u c h a s r e l i g i o u s c o n t r o v e r s y w h ic h “s e t m an k in d

to th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f each o t h e r 's b o d ie s , f o r th e s a lv a ­ t i o n o f t h e i r s o u l s “ no lo n g e r e x i s t e d .

S u c c e s s io n s ,

b o u n d a r i e s , a n d r i g h t s o f g o v e rn m e n t w e re r e g u l a r i z e d . C o m m e rc ia l c o u n t r i e s l e a r n e d a b e t t e r a n d m ore p e a c e f u l way o f w in n in g g o l d t h a n b y d i g g i n g f o r i t o r w r e s t i n g i t fro m t h o s e who h a d . T h ese h a p p y c h a n g e s fro m w ar a n d d e s t r u c t i o n a u ­ g u r e d g r e a t e r t r a n q u i l l i t y f o r h u m a n ity t h a n was p r e v i o u s ­ ly th e c a s e .

B u t B u rk e w as no i d e a l i s t , f o r , a s h e s a i d ,

“a l l s p e c u l a t i o n s o f t h i s k i n d “ w e re u n c e r t a i n b e c a u s e o f th e

“n a t u r a l i n c o n s t a n c y o f m a n k in d 1* a n d t h e

“s p o r t

w h ic h f o r t u n e seem s a t some t im e s to make o f e v e r y s y s te m .* ' The p e r f e c t i b i l i t y o f man w as r e f u t e d b y t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e p a s t a n d t h e k n o w led g e t h a t m an k in d c o u ld n e v e r re tire

one e v e n in g w i t h a l l i t s

a m b i t i o n s , an d aw ake t h e

f o l l o w i n g m o rn in g r e c o n c i l e d t o i t s c o n d i t i o n .

The g l a r d

o f a p p a r e n t g o o d r e l a t i o n s d i d n o t o b s c u r e om inous f e a ­ tu re s *

The d e s i r e f o r n a v a l m ig h t t h a t o b s e s s e d so many

n a t i o n s w o u ld g e n e r a t e c o u n t l e s s d i s p u t e s a n d f u r n i s h p r o ­ lific

so u rc e s o f s t r i f e .

X. i b i d . , 1 7 6 7 , p . 3

S uch w a rs w ere e s p e c i a l l y h a z a r d o u s , f o r , u n l i k e c o n t i n e n ­ t a l w a rs w h ic h w e re l i m i t e d i n t h e i r s c o p e , t h e y w o u ld a f f e c t t h e r e m o t e s t n a t i o n s b e c a u s e t h e g r e a t m a r itim e 1 p o w e rs h a d t e r r i t o r i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r ld . I n d e e d , t h e T r e a t y o f P a r i s o f 17&3 d i d n o t u s h e r i n t h e m il l e n i u m . w ere u n r e l a x e d .

N a t i o n a l t e n s i o n s h e i g h t e n e d b y w ar B r i t a i n , f o r e x a m p le , f e a r e d t h e c o n ­

t i n u e d B o u rb o n t h r e a t .

Had n o t F re n c h p o w e r b e e n r e ­

v i v e d b y t h e w i l y C h o i s e u l , who r e b u i l t t h e arm ed f o r c e s a n d c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e e x t e r n a l p o s i t i o n by m a r r ia g e a llia n c e s ?

B r i t a i n r u b b e d e lb o w s n o t w i t h a d e f e a t e d

f o r e , b u t w i t h a p o t e n t r i v a l , r e a d y t o r e v e r s e w h a t was c o n s id e re d th e u n ju s t and c a p r ic io u s d e c is io n o f th e S e v e n Y ears* W ar. I n B u rk e * s m in d , t h e B o u rb o n h o s t i l i t y w as t h e p r i n ­ c i p l e ax io m o f B r i t i s h f o r e i g n p o l i c y .

B ut s ta te s m e n

a p p a r e n t l y i g n o r e d t h i s f a c t , w h ile t h e B r i t i s h g o v e r n ­ m en t w as e n g a g e d i n u n h in g in g t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e M id d le s e x e l e c t i o n s , t h e p r i n t e r s *

l i b e l c a s e s , an d th e

c o n q u e s t o f th e m in i s t r y by th e C o u rt.

B u rk e c a s t i g a t e d

l a i s s e z - f a i r e a t t i t u d e w h ic h t h e m i n i s t e r s a d o p te d a s a p r i n c i p l e o f a c t i o n , a n d i n i t s p l a c e a d v o c a te d a f o r c e f u l f o r e ig n p o lic y t h a t s tr e s s e d th e r e a l i t i e s of t h e B u rb o n t h r e a t .

The a p p e a r a n c e o f g o o d u n d e r s t a n d i n g

b e tw e e n B r i t a i n a n d h e r n e ig h b o r s was a m ark o f s t a g n a -

!.

I b i d . , 1771, P re fa c e

t i o n r a t h e r t h a n one o f t r a n q u i l l i t y , a n d was due n o t so much t o t h e s u c c e s s o f n e g o t i a t i o n s a b r o a d a s t o t h e a b ­ s o l u t e a n d e n t i r e s u s p e n s i o n o f them f o r a v e r y e o n s i d e r 1 a b le t i m e . The im m e d ia te d a n g e r t o p e a c e w as p r e s e n t e d b y w h a t h e c o n s i d e r e d a n u n n a t u r a l B o u rb o n -H a p sb u rg e n t e n t e . T h e re w as c o n s o l a t i o n i n t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t a p p e a r a n c e s w e re d e c e p t i v e : a c o n j u n c t u r e b e tw e e n t h o s e

^ a n c ie n t and

h e r e d i t a r y e n e m ie s ” w as n o t a s f o r m id a b le a s i t a p p e a r e d . A g re a t'

w e ig h t i n t h e n o r t h e r n b a l a n c e w o u ld p r o b a b l y

p r e v e n t t h e E u ro p e a n b a l a n c e fro m b e in g t i p p e d m a rk e d ly i n f a v o r o f th e o th e r c o m b in a tio n . t o s t a b i l i z e t h i s u n io n .

B u t s t e p s w e re t a k e n

M a r r ia g e s b e tw e e n t h e Duke o f

Parm a a n d t h e A rc h d u c h e s s A m e lia , a n d t h e K in g o f M ap les a n d t h e A rc h d u c h e s s C a r o l i n e b o d e d i l l t o h o p e s o f c u r ­ t a i l i n g B o u rb o n p o w e r.

Too m uch h o w ev er c o u ld n o t b e e x 2

p e c te d o f th e s e u n io n s : The t i e s o f b l o o d b e tw e e n p r i n c e s a r e h o w e v e r so l i t t l e a t t e n d e d t o , w hen t h e y a t a l l i n t e r f e r e w ith t h e i r p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s , t h a t n o th in g co n e l u s i v e c a n b e d raw n fro m a s p e c u l a t i o n o f t h i s n a t u r e . E x p e r ie n c e sh ew s t h a t no s y s te m fo u n d e d u p o n so u n c e r t a i n a g ro u n d i s a t a l l t o b e d e ­ pended on. D y n a s tic m a r r i a g e s i n t h e m s e lv e s do n o t o b l i t e r a t e n a t i o n ­ a l i n t e r e s t , w h ic h i n t h e lo n g r u n i s t h e d e t e r m i n a n t o f fo re ig n p o lic y .

1 . Novem ber 2 4 , 17 6 7 , F a r l i a m e n t a r y H i s t o r y . XVI, 3^9* 2 . A n n u a l R e g i s t e r , 1 7 6 7 > P » 3 , 1 7 6 8 , p . 35*

B u rk e r e v ie w e d t h e S e v e n Y e a r s 1 War an d i t s

le g a c y

i n a p a m p h le t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 7 6 9 > O b s e r v a ti o n s o i ' a L a te P u b lic a tio n I n t i t u l e d

fThe S t a t e o f t h e N a t i o n * 1

In an

a n a l y s i s o f t h e T r e a t y o f P a r i s , B u rk e saw t h r e e r e q u i ­ s i t e s f o r a good p e a c e s s t a b i l i t y , in d e m n if ic a tio n , and 2 a l l i a n c e , a l l o f w h ic h t h e 1763 s e t t l e m e n t l a c k e d . F i r s t , i t f a i l e d t o b r i n g s t a b i l i t y , f o r t h e F a m ily P a c t was s t i l l e x c e e d i n g ly d a n g e r o u s .

When S p a i n e n t e r e d t h e w ar

i n 1 7 6 1 , t h e f o r e m o s t m o tiv e f o r G r e a t B r i t a i n was no l o n g e r t h e s e c u r i t y o f N o rth A m e ric a , b u t t h e d e f e a t o f a n o d io u s c o n s p i r a c y t h r e a t e n i n g th e l i b e r t i e s o f B u ro p e . T hat a c t changed th e p r i n c i p a l and o r i g i n a l cau se o f th e c o n flic t.

T h is o u g h t t o h a v e b e e n u p p e rm o s t i n th e m in d s

o f B r i t i s h m i n i s t e r s when t h e y n e g o t i a t e d p e a c e , a n d t h e y o u g h t t o h a v e a im ed a t s e c u r i t y a g a i n s t t h e F a m ily P a c t . I n s t e a d o f d e m o lis h in g i t ,

th e y c o n s o lid a te d i t by d e a lin g

w i t h S p a n is h a n d F r e n c h p l e n i p o t e n t i a r i e s a s i f t h e y w e re e m i s s a r i e s o f a s i n g l e m o n a rc h . n u llifie d ?

How was t h e P a c t t o b e

A p r u d e n t d ip lo m a t w o u ld h a v e d i s s o l v e d i t

b y g r a n t i n g S p a in c o n c e s s i o n s , i f a n y w ere t o b e g i v e n , a n d

1 . T h is w as a - r e p l y t o a n o th e r p a m p h le t i n s p i r e d by G eo rg e G r e n v i l l e w h ic h a tt e m p t e d t o p ro v e t h a t B u te a n d G r e n v i l l e w ere t h e o n ly g o o d m i n i s t e r s s i n c e t h e a c c e s s i o n o f G eorge I I I , a n d t h a t K ockingham h a d f a i l e d i n h i s m in is tr y o f 1765- 1766. 2* W orks ( e d B o h n ), I , p p . 2 0 3 -2 0 8 .

p l a c a t i n g h e r , w h ile c o m p e llin g F r a n c e t o b e a r t h e b r u n t o f d e fe a t.

As i t w a s, b y s e v e r i n g F l o r i d a fro m S p a i n ,

B r i t a i n p r e p a r e d t h e way f o r F r a n c e ’ s c e s s i o n o f L o u is ia n a to h e r a l l y and

s im u lta n e o u s ly th e s tr e n g th e n in g

o f th e

F a m ily P a c t a n d

t h e e n c o u r a g in g o f odium a g a i n s t

B rita in .

S e c o n d , t h e t r e a t y f a i l e d t o b r i n g a d e q u a te com pen­ s a t i o n to B r i t a i n f o r th e h eav y e x p e n d itu re s in c u r r e d i n th e w a r.

I t p r o v i d e d f o r t h e e x c h a n g e b e tw e e n B r i t a i n

a n d F r a n c e o f t h e W est I n d i a n i s l a n d s o f M a r t in i q u e an d G u a d a lo u p e f o r G re n a d a a n d t h e G r e n a d in e s ; a n d b e tw e e n B r i t a i n a n d S p a in o f H avana f o r F l o r i d a .

B u rk e th o u g h t

t h a t w h a t B r i t a i n h a d a c q u i r e d , nam ely t h e i s l a n d s o f S t . V i n c e n t , D om inee, T o b ag o , G re n a d a a n d t h e G r e n a d i n e s , c o u ld n o t r e d u c e t h e w ar d e b t ; b u t t h a t t h e r e t e n t i o n o f G u a d a lo u p e o r M a r t in i q u e o r a r e n e w a l o f t h e A s s i e n t o was m ore a d v i s a b l e . Nor d i d t h e P e a c e b r i n g a l l i a n c e .

W h ile F r a n c e h a d

k e p t h e r a l l y , B r i t a i n g a in e d n e ith e r th e a f f e c t i o n o f a new f r i e n d , n o r

t h e c o n f i d e n c e o f a n o l d one - a

lam en ­

ta b le s ta te fo r

a c o u n t r y t h a t h a d g ro w n g r e a t i n t h e p a s t

b y m eans o f g r e a t E u ro p e a n a l l i e s .

I n b r i e f , B u rk e * s c r i ­

t ic i s m c e n te r e d a b o u t B r ita in * s f a i l u r e to a s s e s s th e r e a l i t y o f B o u rb o n h o s t i l i t y w h ic h m ig h t e a s i l y b e t r a n s ­ fo rm e d i n t o w ar i n a w o r ld f i l l e d w i t h a m b i t i o n . 2.

The c r i t i c

o f B r i t i s h f o r e ig n p o lic y

As one o f t h e p r i n c i p a l l e a d e r s o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e g o v e rn m e n t, B u rk e s c r u t i n i z e d e x t e r n a l a f f a i r s , a n d p e r c e i v e d a p u s i l l a n i m o u s p o l i c y i n t h e C o r s i c a n an d F a lk la n d I s la n d s a f f a i r s .

C o r s i c a was a p e r e n n i a l s c e n e

1 . I n v ie w o f t h e g i g a n t i c B r i t i s h c o n q u e s ts i n t h e w ar t h e B r i t i s h p u b l i c w as i n d i g n a n t a t t h e r e l a ­ t i v e m o d e r a ti o n o f t h e T r e a d y . I t w as w id e ly b e ­ l i e v e d t h a t t h e E a r l o f B u te h a d b e e n b r i b e d b y F ra n c e . The p e a c e n e g o t i a t i o n s w ere c l o s e l y f o l ­ lo w e d . An a r t i c l e i n t h e G e n tle m a n * s M a g a z in e . 1 7 6 2 , p . 4 3 2 , r e f l e c t s c u r r e n t v ie w s : "The p u b l i c h a s b y no m eans f o r g o t t e n t h e o r i g i n a l c a u s e s o f th e w a r, n o r th e f i r s t d e s ig n i n u n d e rta k in g i t . S e c u r i t y w as t h e n , a n d i s now , t h e i r g r e a t e s t ob­ j e c t . B u t i f i n t h e p r o s e c u t i o n o f t h i s d a n g e ro u s a n d e x p e n s iv e w a r, i t h a s p l e a s e d t h e A lm ig h ty t o c ro w n u s w i t h s u c h c o n q u e s ts a s h a v e p u t b o t h s e c u r i ­ t y and- i n d e m n i f i c a t i o n i n t o o u r h a n d s , t h e p u b l i c s e e s no r e a s o n why we s h o u l d n o t make s u r e o f b o t h ; e s p e c i a l l y w ith s o m uch e x p e r i e n c e o f t r e a ­ c h e ry and e v i l d e s ig n i n o u r a d v e r s a r ie s , and w i t h t h e s u r e k n o w le d g e t h a t we a l l h a v e , o f i t s b e i n g t h e f i r s t maxim o f t h e i r p o l i c y t o r u i n a n d a n n ih ila te u s. S a fe ty , th e r e f o r e , a s w e ll as p r o s p e r ity , a re th e p re c io u s o b je c ts o f our r e g a r d : f o r i f t h e p e a c e s h o u ld n o t p ro v e a s e c u r e o n e , we a l l know , a s w e l l a s t h e l e t t e r w r i t e r , whom I am now a n s w e r in g , t h a t we a r e i n g r e a t d a n ­ g e r o f b e i n g u n d o n e . We f e e l t h e w e ig h t o f p u b ­ l i c d e b t s ; we a r e s e n s i b l e how g r e a t l y t a x e s a f ­ f e c t com m erce; a n d t h e r e f o r e know how a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y i t i s , t o make s u r e o f a p e a c e t h a t w i l l b e b o t h l a s t i n g a n d a d v a n t a g e o u s ."

75 o f w ild d is o r d e r and r e b e l l i o n .

n

I n 1755 G e n e r a l P a s q u a l e

d e f P a o l i . w a s c h o s e n l e a d e r o f t h e C o r s i c a n s ; h e becam e p r e s i d e n t u n d e r a l i b e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n t h a t r e s t o r e d law and o rd e r and enhanced m a t e r i a l p r o s p e r i t y .

But th e

i s l a n d w as a r i c h p r i z e f o r n e i g h b o r i n g s t a t e s s t r i v i n g f o r hegem ony o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n .

D e sp ite th e s e d e s ig n s ,

C o rs ic a b eg an to ap p ear l i k e an e s ta b lis h e d and in d e * 1 p e n d e n t com m onw ealth. I t was j u r i d i c a l l y a G e n o e s e p o s s e s s i o n .

But th e

L ig u r ia n c i t y e x p e r ie n c e d d i f f i c u l t y i n su b d u in g th e s p i r i t e d i s l a n d f o l k , and p e r m i t t e d th e F re n c h t o occupy it.

The A n n u a l R e g i s t e r s a i d t h a t F r a n c e was i n t e r e s t e d

n e i t h e r i n l i b e r a t i n g t h e C o r s i c a n s n o r i n e n s l a v i n g th e m , b u t i n k e e p i n g them i n a n u n c e r t a i n s t a t e , t h u s f o r c i n g Genoa t o m o r tg a g e t o h e r a n e x c e l l e n t k e y t o I t a l y a n d 2 a fle e t. The C o r s i c a n s w ere n o t t o b e s u b j u g a t e d e a s i l y , and F ren ch a id s tre n g th e n e d th e d e te rm in a tio n o f th e p e o p le to r e s i s t . S oon pow er t r i u m p h e d o v e r r i g h t . title

F r a n c e * s g o a l was

t o C o r s i c a , w h ic h sh e r e c e i v e d i n 1 7 6 8 .

and l i t t l e

n a t i o n *1 was d i s p o s e d o f w i t h o u t i t s

" lik e th e t r e e s of an e s t a t e . "

A "poor consent

The c e s s i o n v i o l a t e d t h e

! • A n n u a l R e g i s t e r . 17 6 7 , P* 35* 1763* P* 2 . I b i d . . 1765* p . 4 .

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was p a r t i c u l a r l y g a l l i n g was t h a t F r a n c e h a d p r e v i o u s l y m e d i a t e d a t r e a t y o f p e a c e b e tw e e n t h e R e p u b l i c o f Genoa and th e C o r s ic a n s , th u s t a c i t l y

a c k n o w le d g in g them a s

Ma d i s t i n c t , a n d i n g r e a t m e a s u r e , a n i n d e p e n d e n t p e o p l e . tr U nder t h e s a n c t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p a n d m e d i a t i o n , F r a n c e h a d p r e v e n t e d th em f r o m p r o p e r l y e x p l o i t i n g t h e i r o p p o r 2 tu n itie s . “So e x t r a o r d i n a r y a s t e p 11 t h a t w o u ld o n o t h e r o c c a 3 s i o n s , h a v e d ra w n t h e r e s e n t m e n t o f h a l f o f E u r o p e , p r o ­ d u c e d no e f f e c t i v e p r o t e s t f r o m t h e s i g n a t o r i e s . B urke r e m o n s tr a te d i n P a r lia m e n t a g a i n s t th e govern m en t f o r i t s a c q u ie sc e n c e on th e ground t h a t th e c e s s io n d e stro y e d t h e E uropean b a l a n c e .

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I b i d . . 1768, p . 2 . I b i d . . 1768, p . 5 9 . I b id . , pp. 2-3 . November 8 , 1 7 6 8 , S i r H e n rv C a v e n d i s h D e b a t e s o f t h e H ouse o f Commons ( e d . J . W r ig h t 1, 2 v o l s . , L o ndon, L ongm ans, 1 8 4 1 - 1 8 4 3 , I* 4 0 . The A n n u a l R e g i s t e r e c h o e d t h e s e w o r d s : “The i s l a n d o f C o r s i c a was o f v e r y l i t t l e c o n s e q u e n c e w h i l e i n t h e h a n d s o f G e n o a. As a n i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e , i t c o u l d b e no o b j e c t o f j e a l o u s y o r d a n g e r t o a n y o th e r. As a n a c q u i s i t i o n o f F r a n c e , i t may b e r e g ard ed a s an o b je c t of c o n s id e r a tio n , e s p e c ia lly t o t h e m a r i t i m e p o w e rs .® 1 7 6 8 , p . 2 .

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He j u d g e d t h e a c q u i s i t i o n d e t r i m e n t a l t o B r i t i s h i n t e r e s t s i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , a v i t a l s e a whose i m p e r i a l i m p o r ta n c e he had f a i l e d to a s c e r t a i n in w r itin g th e h i s t o r y o f t h e S e v e n Y e a r s 1 War,

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a l a r g e s e g m e n t o f t h e I t a l i a n c o a s t a n d h a r b o r s fro m w h ic h sh e c o u l d d i s p a t c h p r i v a t e e r s . S a rd in ia ,

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b a la n c e i n I t a l y , r e a l i z i n g th e s ig n ific a n c e of th e c e s ­ s i o n , d e s i r e d t o a c t i n u n io n w ith a g r e a t pow er, p r e ­ s u m a b ly B r i t a i n , t o p r e v e n t i t .

B u t h e was a l o n e an d 1 h e l p l e s s , u n a b le t o p r e v e n t th e lo s s o f th e i s l a n d . The I t a l i a n b a l a n c e was m enaced b y t h e B o u rb o n H a p s b u r g c h a i n e m b r a c in g s o u t h e r n E u r o p e .

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t h i s gro up p u rsu e d a u n ifo rm p o lic y i n th e c o n tr o v e r s i e s b e tw e e n t h e P o p e , C le m e n t X I I I , a n d Duke F e r d i n a n d VI o f P a rm a , a member o f t h e F a m il y P a c t .

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t o g r a n t Parm a t h e same c o n c e s s i o n s r e c e i v e d b y S p a i n i n h e r c o n c o r d a t , Duke F e r d i n a n d s e i z e d th em w i t h o u t p e r m i s - . sio n .

The Pope now c o u n t e r e d w i t h a s t e r n m o n i t o r i u m .

w h ic h a f f i r m e d h i s f e u d a l r e l a t i o n o v e r t h e d u c h y and t h r e a t e n e d t h e Duke a n d h i s m i n i s t e r s w i t h excom m unica­ tio n .

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a n d e x p u l s i o n o f t h e J e s u i t s , a n d dem anded t h e w i t h d r a w a l o f t h e m o n i t o r i u m . N e x t F r a n c e o c c u p i e d A v ig n o n , a n d t h e Kingdom o f t h e Two S i c i l i e s s e i z e d B e n e v e n to a n d P o n t e c a r c o , p a p a l p o s s e s s io n s i n N a p les, and t h r e a te n e d C a s tro , a f o r m e r f i e f o f Parm a i n t h e S t a t e s o f t h e C h u r c h .

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P o p e f s p l e a s t o M a r ia T h e r e s a f e l l on d e a f e a r s , f o r t h e E m press d e s i r e d t o m a r r y h e r d a u g h t e r t o F e r d i n a n d o f N a p le s , and hence d i d n o t d e s i r e to i n t e r v e n e . I n t h i s m a tte r , th e A nnual R e g is te r a d v ise d B r i t a i n n o t t o b e b l i n d e d by p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t t h e P o p e , b u t t o rem em b er i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t ,

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p r o t e s t a n t s we may b e g l a d o f a n y e v e n t t h a t r e d u c e d t h e pow er o f t h e Boman P o n t i f f , y e t a s g o o d p o l i t i c i a n s we m u s t r e g r e t , t h a t a n y a c c i d e n t s s h o u l d t h r o w so n o b l e a c o u n t r y a s t h a t o f I t a l y i n t o t h e h a n d s o f so f o r m i d 1 a b l e a n a l l i a n c e . tf B u rk e m a i n t a i n e d i t was t h e d u t y o f t h e H ouse o f Commons t o e x am in e e v e r y a c t i o n o f n e i g h b o r s a n d t o 2 i n t o t h e i r C a b i n e t s . ** He w a r n e d :

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T h e re n e v e r w as a t i m e when t h e b a l a n c e o f p o w er i n E u ro p e r e q u i r e d m ore w a t c h f u l a t t e n t i o n . The F a m il y Com pact o u g h t t o b e , d a y a n d n i g h t , b e f o r e th e eyes of a d m in is tr a tio n . E v e r y moment t h e y s le e p i s ta k e n from th e s e r v ic e of t h e i r c o u n try . They s h o u l d h a v e v i g i l a n c e t o d i s c o v e r e v e r y one of i t s d e sig n s. T hat d r e a d f u l s c o r p io n f th e P a c t3 i s ab o u t to occupy a l a r g e r space i n our p o l i t i c a l h o riz o n . From b e i n g m o n a rc h s a l l i n d e p e n d e n t o f one a n o t h e r , t h e y a r e becom e a f a m i l y , p o s s e s s i n g a c o u n try s t r e t c h i n g o u t, and c irc u m s c rib in g th e M e d ite rra n e a n . 1. I b i d . , 1768, p . 4 . 2 . November 8 , 1 7 6 8 , C a v e n d i s h D e b a t e s . I , 4 0 .

79 B r i t a i n c o u l d n o t t u r n h e r b a c k on t h e c o n t i n e n t a n d i s o ­ la te h e rse lf*

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b u l l y i n g , a s i t i s c a l l e d , we a r e i n d e b t e d f o r o u r g r e a t 1 e st d ig n ity .M The g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d n o t c o n c e r n i t s e l f w i t h v i t a l f o r e i g n p r o b l e m s a t a moment when G eo rg e I I I was c o n t r o l ­ l i n g t h e c a b i n e t t h r o u g h t h e C o u r t a n d was e n h a n c i n g t h e ro y a l p re ro g a tiv e . d isc o n te n t.

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The b i t t e r p e n o f “J u n i u s * condem ned t h e

d e b i l i t y , c o r r u p t i o n a n d odium f o s t e r e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t. B u rk e a s c r i b e d t h e h e s i t a n c y a n d f e a r o f t h e m i n i s t r y t o

1 . November 1 5 , 1 ? 6 8 , I b i d . . I , 6 0 . E f f e c t i v e B r i ti s h o p p o sitio n never m a te ria liz e d . The g r o u n d was c u t ftom u n d e r t h e p r o t e s t s when l o r d Mans­ f i e l d , who w as i n P a r i s , d i v u l g e d t h e f a c t t h a t B r i t a i n w o u ld n o t go t o w a r o v e r C o r s i c a . M a c k n i g h t , L i f e a n d Time a o f Edmund B u r k e . I , •3 0 3 . B u rk e a l l u d e d t o t h e g o l d e n o p p o r t u n i t y a f f o r d e d t o t h e F r e n c h b y t h e s y s te m o f t h e “d o u b l e c a b i n e t 11 i n h i s sage p a m p h l e t , T h o u g h ts o n t h e C au se o f t h e P r e s e n t D i s c o n t e n t s . The j e a l o u ­ s i e s i n h e r e n t i n - t h e m i n i s t r y r e n d e r e d common c o u n ­ s e l im p ra c tic a b le . The i n i t i a t i v e o f one m i n i s t e r o n ly r e v e a l e d th e m eanness and d is c o r d o f th e r e s t , who w o u ld t h e n d is o w n h im . T h u s , when L o r d R o e h f o r d , th e am bassador t o F ra n c e , r e c e iv e d o r d e r s f r o m L o rd S h e l b u r n e , s e c r e t a r y o f f o r e i g n a f f a i r s , to p r o t e s t th e a n n e x a tio n , P a r i s r e a d i l y u n d e rsto o d t h a t th e r e s t of th e a d m in is tr a tio n d id n o t su p p o rt th e o r d e r s and hence ig n o re d R o ch fo rd . The l a t t e r r e t u r n e d t o L ondon; S h e l b u r n e s u r r e n d e r e d t h e s £ a l s o f o f f i c e : a n d R o c h f o r d r e c e i v e d them J V id e Works ( e d . B o h n ), I , 338 -339 *

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safeguard British interests to doubts that it commanded pt h e c o n f i d e n c e o f t h e p e o p l e , so v i t a l i n w a r .

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n o t m ean , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e m i n i s t e r s m a n i f e s t a n y o f t h a t p i o u s f e a r w h ic h i s b a c k ­ w a rd t o com m it t h e s a f e t y o f t h e c o u n t r y t o t h e d u b i o u s e x p e r i m e n t o f w a r . S u ch a f e a r , b e i n g th e te n d e r s e n s a tio n of v i r t u e , e x e ite d , as i t i s r e g u l a t e d , b y r e a s o n , f r e q u e n t l y show s i t ­ s e l f i n a s e a s o n a b l e b o l d n e s s , w h ic h k e e p s d a n g e r a t a d i s t a n c e , b y s e e m in g t o d e s p i s e i t . T h e ir f e a r b e tr a y s t o th e f i r s t g la n c e o f th e eye, i t s tr u e c a u s e , and i t s r e a l o b j e c t. F o r e i g n p o w e r s , c o n f i d e n t i n t h e k n o w le d g e o f t h e i r c h a r a c te r , have not sc ru p le d to v i o l a t e t h e m o s t s o le m n t r e a t i e s , a n d , i n d e f i a n c e o f th e m , t o make c o n q u e s t s i n t h e m i d s t o f a g e n e r a l p e a c e , and i n th e h e a r t o f E urope. S u ch was t h e c o n q u e s t o f C o r s i c a , b y t h e p r o ­ f e s s e d e n e m ie s o f t h e f r e e d o m o f m a n k in d , i n d e f i a n c e o f t h o s e who w e re f o r m e r l y i t s p r o ­ f e s s e d d e f e n d e r s . . We h a v e h a d j u s t c l a i m s u p o n t h e same p o w e r s ; r i g h t s w h ic h o u g h t t o h a v e b e e n s a c r e d t o th e m a s w e l l a s t o u s , a s th e y had t h e i r o r i g i n i n our l e n i t y and g e n e r ­ o s i t y t o w a r d s F r a n c e an d S p a i n i n t h e d a y o f t h e i r g re a t h u m ilia tio n . S u ch I c a l l t h e ra n s o m o f M a n i l l a , a n d t h e demand o n F r a n c e fo r th e E ast In d ia p r i s o n e r s .1 The a n n e x a t i o n o f C o r s i c a was a f a i t a c c o m p l i , b u t s t i l l th e C o rsic a n s r e s i s t e d f e r o c io u s ly , and f u r n is h e d “r e p e a t e d p r o o f s t h a t t h e y w e re n o t u n w o r th y o f p r o t e c ­ t i o n . 1*

The c o s t l y e f f o r t s a t s u b j u g a t i o n d i d n o t r e ­

f l e c t th e t r i f l i n g

im m e d ia te v a l u e o f t h e i s l a n d , b u t 2 i t s v i t a l f u t u r e im p o rta n c e .

1 . Works (e d . B o h n ) , I , 3 3 8 . 2* A n n u a l R e g i s t e r . 1 7 6 9 ? PP* 4-1* 4 6 . G e n e r a l P a o l i f o u g h t v a l i a n t l y , b u t s o o n was c o m p e l l e d t o end th e unequal f i g h t . He s e t t l e d i n E n g l a n d , w h e re h e was a member o f t h e fa m e d l i b e r a r y c l u b , p r e s i d e d o v e r b y D r. J o h n s o n , a n d a t t e n d e d b y B u r k e .

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isla n d .

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i n pow er a s t h e y h a d i n h o n o r*

Time

d i d n o t r e c o n c i l e t h e C o r s i c a n s , who c o n t i n u e d t o wage i r r e g u l a r w ar.

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t u r n , e n g e n d e r e d m ore i n k i n d .

The F r e n c h w e re b l a m e a b l e .

W h ile t h e s a v a g e f e r o c i t y o f t h e i s l a n d e r s d i s r e g a r d e d t h e la w s e r e c t e d b y m a n k in d t o s o f t e n t h e r i g o r s o f w a r , t h e y c o u l d b e e x c u s e d on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e i r a c t i o n s w ere o c c a s i o n e d b y a l e g i t i m a t e d e s i r e t o d e f e n d t h e i r n a t u r a l r i g h t s and l i b e r t i e s . B u rk e a l s o p e r c e i v e d c a l c u l a t e d B o u rb o n hcs t i l i t y i n th e F a lk la n d I s la n d s c o n tro v e rs y .

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i s l a n d s B r i t a i n w as n o t s e e k i n g p r e c i o u s m e t a l s b u t s o l i d co m m ercial b e n e f i t s .

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l u c r a t i v e p r o s p e c t s i n comm erce a n d f i s h e r i e s

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i n t e r m e d d l i n g w i t h t h e g o l d m in e s o f C h i l i ,

or i n te r f e r 2 i n g w i t h t h e r i g h t s a n d l i b e r t i e s o f t h e n a t i v e s * 1? Row

t h e S p a n i s h g o v e r n o r a t B u e n o s A i r e s s e i z e d W est F a l k ­ l a n d i s l a n d i n 17&9, c o m p e l l i n g t h e B r i t i s h g a r r i s o n a t P o r t Egmont t o e v a c u a t e a n d d e t a i n e d t h e f r i g a t e F a v o u r i t e f o r t w e n t y d a y s i n a t i m e o f “p r o f o u n d p e a c e . 11 War was im m i n e n t .

By i n v o l v i n g t h e p r i n c i p a l m a r i t i m e p o w e r s , 3 i t w o u ld h a v e d ra w n i n a l l E u r o p e .

1. 2. L 3*

I b i d . . 1771, P. 94; 1774, p . 34. I b i d . . 1771? p . 4* I b i d . . 1 7 7 0 , P* 95 1 7 7 1 , p r e f a c e .

S p a i n was p r e p a r e d t o s t a n d f i r m ; s h e f o r t i f i e d t h e W est I n d i e s a n d t h e h o m e la n d , a n d l a i d p l a n s f o r t h e s e i g e of G ib ra lte r.

P e a c e was p r e s e r v e d n o t t h r o u g h t h e p a c i ­

f i c d i s p o s i t i o n of S p a in , b u t th ro u g h th e i n a b i l i t y of h e r B o u rb o n p a r t n e r t o a i d h e r b e c a u s e o f c i v i l d i s t r a c ­ t i o n s , f a m in e a n d t h e c o l l a p s e o f p u b l i c f i n a n c e i n F rance,

I f F ra n c e had n o t p ro m is e d t o h e lp h e r , S p a in ,

s t i l l n u r s i n g h e r w ounds f r o m t h e l a s t w a r , w o u ld n o t h a v e c h a l l e n g e d B r i t a i n a n d r i s k e d w ar f o r a m in o r p r i z e .

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B o u rb o n s b o r e a n i n v e t e r a t e h a t r e d f o r B r i t a i n a n d d e s i r e d t o i m i t a t e t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e R u s s i a n s who w ere t h e n a tta c k in g th e P o r te .

In th e fa c e o f h o s t i l i t y , B r ita in 1 was u n p r e p a r e d f o r r e c o u r s e t o a r m s . B urk e c h a r g e d t h a t th e m in is te r s r e s te d i n su p in e s e c u r ity u n t i l t h e i r F a lk ­ l a n d g a r r i s o n was t u r n e d o u t .

W h ile t h e y c r i & d f o r w a r ,

th e y begged p e ac e; th e y th r e a te n e d ; th ey su b m itte d ; th e y opened n e g o ti a t i o n s .

He d i d n o t recommend w a r , b e c a u s e 2 B o u rb o n pow er o u g h t n e v e r t o b e u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , c i v i l d i s s e n s i o n b e tw e e n t h e A m e ric a n c o l o n i e s a n d t h e m o th e r c o u n t r y d i s t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f th e p e o p le from f o r e i g n a f f a i r s ; a n d p ro v id e d u n p a r a l l e d o p p o r t u n i t y f o r h e r e n e m ie s t o d i s p l a y t h e “known s y s ^

! • I b i d . . 1770? P* 30 . N e a r l y B 1 , 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 was a d d e d t o t h e n a v a l e s t i m a t e s b y P a r l i a m e n t , a n d a f l e e t was c o lle c te d a t S p ith e a d . 2 . November 1 3 , 1 7 7 0 , C a v e n d i s h D e b a t e s . I I , 4 8 .

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te m s o f p o l i c y , e s t a b l i s h e d a n d p r a c t i s e d among r i v a l 1 s t a t e s . M I n a w o r ld f i l l e d w i t h a m b i t i o n , i t was t h e d u t y o f a s t a t e to m a in ta in v i g il a n c e and f r i e n d s . E an y E n g li s h m e n c o n s i d e r e d t h e d e v a s t i n g c o n f l a g r a ­ t i o n s a t th e P o rtsm o u th and P e te r b u r g h d o c k y a rd s and f a l s e r u m o r s t o b e t h e h a n d iw o r k o f t h e i r o l d r i v a l , ttw hose a m b i t i o n h a d e v e r b e e n b o u n d l e s s , a n d h a d i n g e n e r ­ a l been b u t l i t t l e

r e s t r a i n e d e i t h e r b y t h e la w s o f

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S p a i n , n u m e ro u s d e b a t e s o c c u r r e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e a d v i s ­ a b i l i t y o f w ar.

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t h a t f o llo w e d w ar; b u t t h e m a j o r i t y ,

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t h e m s e l v e s i n a n y c o u n t r y a b o u t c o n s e q u e n c e s , ** w e re e a g e r f o r w ar.

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f o r e v e n t h e w i® s t p e r s o n s w e re i n d i g n a n t a t t h e g l a r i n g i n s u l t o f f e r e d b y S p a i n - a p o w er who w as r e c e n t l y a t B r i t a i n ’s m ercy.

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o f t h o s e who s a i d t h e b e n e f i t s o f a g r e a t v i c 1 t o r y w e re b a r t e r e d f o r a h a z a r d o u s t r u c e . I n 1771 S p a i n n o t i f i e d B r i t a i n t h a t s h e w o u ld r e t u r n P o r t E g m on t, s e i z e d on J u n e 1 0 , 1 7 7 0 .

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To a n o i s y H ouse o f Commons,

B u rk e e x c l a i m e d t h e d a y w o u ld come when t h o s e c o n c e r n e d i n t h a t b u s i n e s s w o u ld h a v e t o a c c o u n t t o t h e i n j u r e d 1 n a t i o n f o r t h e i r m i s c o n d u c t i n t h i s Md a r k a f f a i r . He s a i d t h a t t h e A n g l o - S p a n i s h t r e a d y was u n j u s t i ­ f i a b l e , u n s u b s ta n t ia l and u n p ro fita b le *

The g o v e rn m e n t

h a d i n t r o d u c e d a new d o c t r i n e i n t o t h e law o f n a t i o n s b y e x p e c t i n g t h e H ouse t o fo rm a p r e v i o u s ju d g m e n t o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n b e f o r e i t c o u l d e x am in e t h e m eans b y w h ic h i t had been a c q u ire d .

S i n c e S p a i n was a m a r i o n e t t e whose

s t r i n g s w ere p u l l e d b y P a r i s i a n m a s t e r s , i t was m a t e r i a l t o know i f t h e s e i z u r e was o r i g i n a l l y u n d e r t a k e n i n c o n ­ c e r t w ith , and in L o n fo rm ity to th e ends and p u rp o se s o f I t h e F a m il y P a c t , a n d t h e n d r o p p e d . B r i t a i n h a d t o d e t e r ­ m in e i f i t was a n e r u p t i o n o f t h e P a c t , i f p o s tu le t h a t has b roken in a l i t t l e

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be t r a c e d i n th e v i t a l p a r t s o f th e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f E u r o p e .w I n h e lp in g S p a in r e a c h a n u n d e rs ta n d in g , F ran ce was n o t a b o n a f i d e m e d i a t r i x , b u t a n i n t e r e s t e d p a r t y .

I . J a n u a r y 25? 1771? P a r l i a m e n t a r v H i s t o r y . XVI, 1345-1346*

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B u rk e a s s e r t e d t h e s t r o k e u p o n P o r t Egmont was p a r t o f a p r e m e d i t a t e d p l a n j a n d t h a t e o n e e s s i o n s w ere p r o f f e r r e d l a t e r b e c a u s e F r a n c e was w e a k e n e d b y t h e s t r u g g l e o v e r t h e p a r l e m e n t s a t home a n d was f r i g h t e n e d b y t h e e n t r y o f R u s s ia n f l e e t in to th e M e d ite rra n e a n . v e n i e n c e p r o m p te d t h e a c c o r d .

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F a m il y P a c t j u s t i f i e d i n q u i r i e s by t h e B r i t i s h m i n i s t r y b e f o r e c o n c lu d in g a c o n v e n tio n c o n c e rn in g F ran ce* s r o l e in a l l th is .

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B o u r b o n s a r e s p i t e u n t i l t h e y w ere a b l e t o c o p e w i t h B rita in .

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m u s t know w h a t t h e p o w e r s i n t e n d t o d o , b y w h a t th e y have done, by w hat i t i s t h e i r i n t e r e s t to d o ; n o t f ro m w h a t i s s a i d i n t h a t o s t e n s i b l e p a l t r y d e c l a r a t i o n . r,My c o u r t h a s t h e m o s t p a c i ­ f i c i n t e n t i o n s , *r s a y s t h e o n e ; a n d tfMy c o u r t h a s t h e m o s t p a c i f i c i n t e n t i o n s , ,f s a y s t h e o t h e r . We a r e n o t b e h i n d i n r e c i p r o c i t y o f s e n t i m e n t s . A r e s p e c t f o r th e s a n c t i t y o f t r e a t i e s , how ever, d i c t a t e d , a c q u i e s c e n c e t h e moment t h e c o n v e n t i o n was r a t i ­ fie d .

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l i c f a i t h g u a ra n te e d i t s p erfo rm an ce. m i n i s t e r s , B u rke s n e e r e d ,

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“I g n o r a n t o r t r e a c h e r o u s m i n i ­

s t e r s , b y 'd h e im p r o p e r o r w i c k e d a c t , i n h a l f a n h o u r , may s i n k t h e h o n o u r a n d g l o r y o f E n g la n d .

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a n d w ax, s o f t a s i t i s , may undo a n a t i o n more t h a n a t h o u s a n d s h i p s o f t h e e n e m y .w F o p e * s l i n e f l a s h e d i n h i s

1 . F e b r u a r y 4 , 1771? C a v e n d i s h D e b a t e s . I I , 2 4 0 - 2 4 1 . T here a r e s i m i l a r v iew s a b o u t F r a n c e 's p o s i t i o n i n t h e A n n u a l R e g i s t e r . 1771? P* 45•

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memory, “There's nothing poisons Csic3 like the ink of As h e saw i t ,

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r e s t i t u t i o n of th e o b je c t.

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c a l l e d i t a r e t u r n o f P o r t E gm ont, w h ic h i s n o t sy n o n y ­ mous w i t h t h e i s l a n d s .

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r e s to r e d under B r i t a i n 's t i t l e

to th e F a lk la n d s .

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s h e s h o u l d h a v e dem anded t h e p u n i s h m e n t o f p e r s o n s r e s ­ p o n s ib le f o r th e i n ju r y . B u rk e p r o d u c e d t h e a u t h o r i t y 2 o f E in e ric de V a t t e l t h a t t h e J u s g e n ti u m r e q u i r e d h e r t o g e t th e o f f e n d e r i n t o h e r h an d s i f sh e d i d n o t w ish t o e s t a b l i s h a dangerous p r i n c i p l e by p e r m ittin g o ffe n d e rs to escap e.

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h a v e a c t e d b e n e a t h h e r d i g n i t y t o p u n i s h h im .

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t i o n a l s o l a c k e d s a t i s f a c t i o n i n t h e way o f damages a n d r e ­ p a r a t i o n i n ho n o r.

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u n f a v o r a b le tr e a tm e n t o f E n g lis h m erc h an ts i n P o r tu g a l, who f o r g o t t h a t t h e t r e a t i e s b e t w e e n h e r a n d h e r o l d E n g lis h a l l y red o u n d ed to t h e i r m u tu a l a d v a n ta g e . w as v i o l a t i n g t h e la w o f p r e s c r i p t i o n .

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t h e g o v e rn m e n t t o l o o k t o t h e n a t i o n a l a n d i m p e r i a l i n ­ t e r e s t , he n e v e r th e le s s a tta c k e d s ta n d in g a rm ie s .

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n o n s e n s i c a l t o d ra w t h e sw o rd b e f o r e t h e d a y o f b a t t l e and t o e x h a u st upon th e p a ra d e w hat i s r e s e r v e d f o r th e fie ld .

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t h e army i m i t a t i v e o f A u s t r i a a n d P r u s s i a , who w e re g r a d u ­ a l l y w a s t i n g t h e i r s t r e n g t h b y a n a rm ed p e a c e .

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in g th e t r a d i t i o n a l B r i t i s h p o l i c y , he p ro p o se d t r u s t i n g 1 n a t i v e b r a v e r y and th e s t r o n g i n s u l a r p o s i t i o n . W ith men o f th e E n lig h te n m e n t, he c o u ld a s s e n t to M o n tesq u ieu * s 2 ju d g m e n ts A new d i s t e m p e r h a s s p r e a d i t s e l f o v e r E u r o p e ; i t h a s i n f e c t e d o u r p r i n c e s , a n d i n d u c e s them t o k e e p up a n e x o r b i t a n t num ber o f t r o o p s . . . o f n e c e s s i t y G t 3 becom es c o n ta g io u s . P o r a s so o n a s one p r i n c e a u g m e n ts w h a t he c a l l s h i s t r o o p s , t h e r e s t o f c o u r s e do t h e sam e; so t h a t n o t h i n g i s g a in e d th e re b y b u t th e p u b lic r u in . ...a n d t h e y g a v e t h e name o f p e a c e t o t h i s g e n e r a l e f f o r t of a l l a g a in st a l l . When P a r l i a m e n t c o n v e n e d i n t h e w i n t e r o f 17 7 2 , B u rk e s a i d th e m i n i s t e r ' s la n g u a g e a b o u t t h e p e a c e f u l a s p e c t s o f f o r e i g n a f f a i r s a n d h i s r e q u e s t f o r b i g g r a n t s f o r arm s

1 . I b i d . . X V II, 5 0 1 - 5 0 2 . 2* I h e S p i r i t o f L aw s, t r a n s l a t e d b y Mr. N u g e n t , 2 v o l s . , L o n d o n , J . b o u r s e a n d P . V a i l l a n t , 2nd e d i t i o n c o r ­ r e c t e d 1752, I , bk x i i i , c h . 17, p p . 310- 3 1 1 .

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o f a r b i t r a r y po w er i n m o s t c o u n t r i e s . The P o l e s w ere 1 p o l i t i c a l l y and p e r s o n a lly s l a v e s . I n 17&3 a sse rte d t h e y w e re g o v e r n e d i n t h e i r v i t a l c o n c e r n s n o t b y t h e i r own c o u n c i l s , b u t b y p o w e r f u l a n d a m b i t i o u s n e i g h b o r s . The i n t e r p o s i t i o n o f A u s t r i a i n f a v o r o f t h e S a x o n c a n d i ­ d a t e f o r t h e v a c a n t P o l i s h t h r o n e w o u ld s u p p l y a m o t i v e f o r P r u s s i a t o o p p o se i t .

The l a t t e r w o u ld n o t c o u n t e n ­

an ce s t r e n g t h e n i n g h e r Saxon n e ig h b o r b y p e r m i t t i n g h e r 2 t o t a k e t h e P o l i s h c ro w n . S t a n i s l a u s P o n i a t o w s k i , C a t h e r i n e t h e G r e a t ’s f o r ­ m er p a r a m o u r , s u c c e e d e d A u g u s tu s I I I a s K in g o f P o l a n d . The R u s s i a n s s e t up a K in g v e r y much a s t h e y a p p o i n t e d a Duke o f C o u r l a n d .

R e l i g i o u s f r i c t i o n b e tw e e n th e d i s ­

s i d e n t s a n d Roman C a t h o l i c s s u p p l i e d a wedge f o r R u s s i a n i n t e r f e r e n c e on t h e p r e t e x t o f p r o t e c t i n g t h e r i g h t s o f

1 . V i n d i c a t i o n o f N a t u r a l S o c i e t y , Works ( e d . B o h n ) , 1 , 2 6 . 2i A nnual R e g is te r . 1763, p . 47.

91

r

1 R u ssian c o - r e l i g i o n i s t s .

These r i g h t s had b een g u a ra n te e d

on th e o c c a sio n o f th e fo rm a tio n of th e R e p u b lic , b u t w e re p e r i o d i c a l l y v i o l a t e d , B u rk e r e p o r t e d , a s a r e s u l t o f th e p e rv e r s e d i s p o s i t i o n o f a lm o st e v ery d e n o m in a tio n o f m a n k in d t o d e s p o i l a n d o p p r e s s a l l o t h e r s , w h i c h , when a c c o m p a n ie d b y p o w e r , a lw a y s d i s c o v e r e d w o rd s t o i g n o r e 1 e x p lic it g u a ra n te e s. V io len c e fo llo w e d a s a m a tte r o f co u rse. I n F e b r u a r y 1768 a s p o n t a n e o u s i n s u r r e c t i o n o c c u r r e d i n P o d o lia .

The C o n f e d e r a t i o n o f B a r was a n n o u n c e d t o

r e g a i n n a t i o n a l freedo m . try ,

P o la n d ,

" t h a t u n fo r tu n a te coun­

now saw t h e m o s t m a l i g n a n t a n d c o m p lex o f w a rs on

h e r s o i l , p a r t l y c i v i l , r e l i g i o u s and f o r e i g n .

The

R u s s i a n s , w i t h o u t shadow o f r i g h t e n t e r e d a s p r e t e n d e d f r i e n d s t o d i c t a t e t o t h e P o l e s . The A n n u a l R e g i s t e r com2 m e n te d s I t i s n o t t o b e w o n d e re d a t , t h a t t h e P o l e s , a b r a v e an d h a u g h t y n a t i o n , l o n g n u r s e d i n i n d e ­ p e n d e n c e , a n d w hose n o b l e s h a d e x e r c i s e d i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e d i s t r i c t s an a lm o st u n l im i te d s o v e r e ig n ty , s h o u ld i l l b ro o k a su b m iss io n to s u c h u n n a t u r a l a c t s o f f o r e i g n p o w e r. 1 P o l a n d was r e d u c e d t o a p r o v i n c e o f t h e R u s s i a n em­ p i r e , w ith a l l i t s lic

sp le n d id t i t l e s

c o n v e r t e d i n t o m o c k e ry a n d

o f Kingdom a n d R epu b­

i n s u l t on i t s h u m il i a t i o n .

I t b ecam e a v a s t f i e l d o f c a r n a g e , a n d i t s k i n g was r e l e ­ g a te d .to an im p o te n t w itn e s s u n d e r o b l i g a t i o n f o r h i s

1 . I b i d . . 1 7 6 9 , p . 65 1 7 6 7 , p . l 2 . I b i d .. 1768, p . 4 .

17. -j

1 d e f e n s e t o h i s enemy*

S u rro u n d in g s t a t e s r e s o l v e d to p r e ­

v e n t P o l a n d fro m e m e rg in g fro m t h i s w r e t c h e d n e s s .

P er­

h a p s t h e wu n h a p p y c o u n t r y 1* w o u ld h a v e f a r e d b e t t e r a s a p r o v i n c e o f one o f h e r n e i g h b o r s . w o u ld o c c u r i n t h e

Sooner or l a t e r , t h i s

^ n a t u r a l c o u r s e o f t h i n g s . w The l o s s

o f P o l i s h f r e e d o m w o u ld be a h a p p y e x c h a n g e f o r t h e 2 a n arch y i t had p r e s e n te d . The i n s u r r e c t i o n i n F o d o l i a p r e c i p i t a t e d new a n i m o s i ­ tie s.

F o r th e sake o f E uropean p e a c e , th e A nnual R e g is te r

h o p e d i t w o u ld soom b e s u p p r e s s e d .

B u t some o f t h e P o l e s

made t h e i r way t o T u r k i s h t e r r i t o r y , whence t h e y w ere p u r s u e d by t h e R u s s i a n s .

The P o r t e ,

i n c i t e d by th e F rench

f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r C h o is e u l t o p ro v id e a d i v e r s i o n on th e R u s s i a n f l a n k a t t h e moment o f f e v e r i s h A n g l o - F r e n c h f e n ­ c i n g i n t h e w e s t , d e c l a r e d w ar on R u s s i a i n O c t o b e r 1 7 6 8 . P o l a n d p a r a d o x i c a l l y l o o k e d t o T u rk e y f o r p r o t e c t i o n , w ith th e S u lta n c a s t i n th e r o l e o f th e g u a rd ia n o f P o lis h freedom .

The C a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n f l e d f o r p r o t e c 3 t i o n t o t h e s t a n d a r d o f Mohammed* T u rk e y was t h e o n l y s t a t e

i n E u ro p e t h a t was d i s ­

t i n c t from and i r r e c o n c i l a b l e to a l l th e o t h e r s b e c a u se o f h e r r e l i g i o n and p o l i t i c s .

A la rg e p o p u la tio n , e n th u ­

s i a s t i c a l l y s e r v i l e t o t h e S u l t a n , made h e r a d a n g e r o u s

1. I b i d . . p p . 4 - 6 . 2 . I b i d . , 1769^ P P . 5 - 6 . 3- J b i d . , 1 7 6 8 , C h r o n i c l e , p . 79> 1 ? 6 8 , H i s t o r i c a l A r t i c l e , p . 2.

n e ig h b o r to th e C h r i s t ia n pow ers.

B u rk e * s Btfbpe was n o t

a re g io n b u t a c o n c re te p o l i t i c a l - c u l t u r a l - r e l i g i o u s o r­ g a n i s m , f o rm e d b y a l o n g h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s .

The Moslem

T u r k s , o r i e n t a l i n r e l i g i o n a n d o u t l o o k , w e re a l i e n t o w e s t e r n t r a d i t i o n a n d w e re t h e "common enemy o f C h r i s t e n 1 d o m ." T u rk e y h a d p r o d i g i o u s p o t e n t i a l i t i e s *

I f le a rn in g

w e re i n t r o d u c e d , g r e a t r e v o l u t i o n s i n t h e m a n n e rs o f t h e p e o p l e a n d i n t h e r o l e o f t h e s t a t e m ig h t be a n t i c i p a t e d . I n t h e w ar w i t h h e r a n c i e n t enemy, s h e e n j o y e d t h e a d ­ v a n ta g e s o f th e t e r r a i n and u n s ta b le c h a r a c te r o f th e R u ssian th ro n e .

B u t h e r r e s o u r c e s w e re u n e q u a l t o t h e

m ag n itu d e o f t h e t a s k .

B e sid e s , th e p e rio d o f g e n e r a l

l e t h a r g y f r o m w h ic h s h e w as e m e r g in g was p o o r p r e p a r a ­ t i o n f o r a m a j o r c o n f l i c t w i t h a f o r m i d a b l e enem y, a n d v i o l a t e d th e v i t a l p r i n c i p l e o f h er s t r e n g th .

As a

m i l i t a r y e m p ir e f o u n d e d b y t h e sw o rd , T u r k e y c o u l d m a in ­ t a i n pow er o n l y b y a s e v e r e d i s c i p l i n e .

A repose of

t h i r t y y e a r s was i n i m i c a l t o t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e p e o p l e a n d s u b v e r s i v e o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n w h ic h was i n c o m p a t i b l e 2 w ith s e r e n i t y and th e a r t s . I n t h i s P o lis h a f f a i r , th e P o rte a c te d a " tr u ly n e i g h b o u r l y p a r t . 1* Was i t

n o t r e g r e t t a b l e t h a t no o t h e r

s o v e r e i g n , so d i s p o s e d , g r a c e d E u r o p e , " w h ere r u l e r s

1. I b id ., 2. Ib id ..

1 7 6 5 , p* ?5 1 7 6 6 , C h r o n i c l e , p . 53* 1767r P- H i 1 7 6 9 , p p . 4 -5 *

w e re e d u c a t e d i n p r i n c i p l e s i n f i n i t e l y b e t t e r c a l c u l a t e d 1 t o form i t * ? B e s id e s , th e S u lta n c o u ld n o t p r u d e n tly b e h o ld w ith o u t c o n s t e r n a ti o n th e e x p an sio n o f th e a lr e a d y f o r m i d a b l e R u s s i a n e m p ir e i n t o P o l a n d , f o r i t s hegem ony i n t h e n o r t h was an o b j e c t o f s e r i o u s a p p r e h e n s i o n t o a c lo s e n e ig h b o r. When t h e P o l i s h c o n f e d e r a t e s f l e d i n t o T u r k i s h t e r ­ r i t o r y a n d w e re a t t a c k e d t h e r e i n J u l y 1 7 6 8 , t h e P o r t e had a lre a d y d e te rm in e d upon w ar.

The R u s s i a n R e s i d e n t

a t C o n s t a n t i n o p l e was s e i z e d i n v i o l a t i o n o f i n t e r n a ­ t i o n a l cu sto m .

I n t h i s m a t t e r t h e T u rk s f a i l e d t o ob­

se rv e th e r u l e s e s ta b lis h e d by n a tio n s .

^ T h is b a r b a r o u s

a n d u n j u s t m e th o d , o f c o n f i n i n g t h e R e s i d e n t s o f t h o s e p o w e r s w i t h whom t h e y b r e a k , i s p e c u l i a r t o t h e T u r k s , who 2 k e e p no J h n b a s s a d o u rs a t C h r i s t i a n C o u r t s . * R u s s i a w o u ld h a v e c h o s e n t o p r e s e r v e t h e p e a c e i f s h e c o u l d d o m in a te P o l a n d w i t h o u t w a r.

She p r e t e n d e d t o

o b se rv e t r e a t i e s , p r o t e c t th e o rth o d o x d i s s i d e n t s , and sa fe g u a rd th e e le c tio n .

But th ese s u p e r f i c i a l c a u se s, ap­

p r o p r i a t e f o r m a n i f e s t o s , m i g h t a lw a y s b e a d d u c e d t o m a i n t a i n a n arm y i n a n y c o u n t r y on o s t e n s i b l y b e n e v o l e n t p r i n c i p l e s , and to c o n v e rt t h a t la n d i n t o a conquered p ro v in c e .

I* I b i d . . 2. I b id ..

F o llo w in g t h i s

l o g i c , s i m i l a r g r o u n d s m ig h t

1765, p . 6 . 1768, pp. 3 -6 , 2 9 .

95 r

-I

j u s t i f y d is p a tc h in g a R u ssia n fo rc e to C o n sta n tin o p le i n o r d e r -to m a i n t a i n r e g u l a r i t y a n d t o r e s t o r e t h e a n c i e n t 1 and tr a n s g r e s s e d r i g h t s o f C h r is tia n s . I n t h i s c o n t e s t "between t h e s e wr u d e b u t e x t e n d e d e m p ire s, n R u s s ia d e s ire d a fa v o ra b le r e c t i f i c a t i o n of th e f r o n t i e r i n o r d e r t o w in m ore p e o p l e s , t e r r i t o r i e s and m ilita ry stre n g th .

As i n 173&> s h e d e s i r e d a p o r t a n d

t h e r i g h t t o t r a d e upon th e B lac k Sea and t o sen d h e r v e s s e l s th ro u g h th e S t r a i t s .

T h is s o l u t i o n o f t h e

^ S tra its

Q u e s t i o n *1 i n v o l v e d i n s u p e r a b l e b a r r i e r s , f o r t h e f r e e r i g h t o f t r a d e was ,ra n i n n o v a t i o n o f s u c h a n a t u r e , a n d p re g n a n t w ith su ch c o n se q u e n c e s, a s c a n n o t f a i l to be s e r i o u s l y a l a r m i n g t o m o st o f t h e c o m m e r c ia l s t a t e s o f E u r o p e . w The T u r k i s h e m p ir e w o u ld e x i s t no l o n g e r when 2 t h e R u s s i a n becam e m i s t r e s s o f t h e B l a c k S e a . I n v i e w o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n o f M e d i t e r r a n e a n p o w e rs t o R u s s i a n p r e s e n c e i n t h a t s e a , i t was d o u b t f u l i f R u s s i a c o u l d be t o o i m p l a c a b l e i n p r o s e c u t i n g t h e w a r. When R u s s i a d i s p a t c h e d a n a v a l e x p e d i t i o n t o t h e M e d i t e r ­ ra n e a n , F rance r e f l e c t e d u n e a sin e ss by s tr e n g th e n in g her p o rts.

I n t h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e , t h e B o urb o n s* o l d

r i v a l , B r i t a i n , w o u ld b e d raw n i n a s a p r i n c i p a l , a n d so©n

1. Ib id . , p . 7 . I b i d . . 1770, p . 6 .

L

96 r

t

1 a l l E u ro p e w o u ld b e i n v o l v e d .

F ra n c e d id n o t , h ow ever,

e l e c t t o i n t e r f e r e i n a n a c t i o n t h a t w o u ld be f o l l o w e d b y 2 th e e n try o f th e E n g lish f l e e t .in to th e M e d ite rra n e a n . I t i s n o t t o b e im ag in ed t h a t th e E u s s ia n a c t i o n d isp le a se d B r ita in .

S i t u a t e d i n e a s te r n E urope, th e

R u s s i a n s a t t h e moment w e re l e s s o f a t h r e a t t h a n t h e B o u rb o n p o w e rs i n t h e w e s t .

H ence, B r i t a i n ig n o r e d

R u ss ia n d e s ig n s , and r e c e iv e d and a s s i s t e d th e R u ssia n f l e e t i n home a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n p o r t s .

T h is, s a id th e

A nnual R e g i s t e r , honored B r i t a i n * s f a i t h a s an a l l y . knew R u s s i a c o u l d b a l a n c e t h e

She

Mp r o t e s t a n t s c a l e ** a g a i n s t

t h e p r e p o n d e r a n t B o u r b o n - H a p s b u r g u n i o n , t o w h ic h e v e n Sweden a n d p o s s i b l y P o r t u g a l h a d a c c e d e d .

I t was w i s e

f o r t h e m a r i t i m e p o w e rs t o c u l t i v a t e a n d c e m e n t t h e c l o s e s t a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h R u s s i a , th o u g h t h e y w e re n o t b l in d to th e d an g ers o f R u ssia n p rep o n d eran ce i n th e M e d i t e r r a n e a n t o t h e i r i n t e r e s t s . , M ig h ty s t a t e s w e re n o t e x p e c te d to re m a in a p a t h e t i c s p e c t a t o r s to a n in c r e a s e 3 o f an a lr e a d y f e a r f u l pow er. The R u s s i a n e x p e d i t i o n t o t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n e n v e l o ­ p e d a l l E u ro p e fro m t h e B a l t i c t o t h e S t r a i t s , a n o c c u r -

I* I b i d . . 1 ? 6 q . p p . 4 0 , 2 . I b i d . . 1770, p . 3 . 3 . T 7G9 , p p . 3- 5 , 1 0 .

L

1 1 , 4 -5 *

97

r

r e n c e t h a t w o u ld n e v e r h a v e b e e n c o u n t e n a n c e d i n t h e p a s t . E u r o p e a n c o m m e r c i a l p o w e rs h a d t o l e r a t e d ho new r i v a l t o s h a re t h e i r ad v an tag es,

f o r w h ic h t h e y h a d waged r e p e a t e d

w a r s ; a n d t h e y d e s i r e d t o c o n f i n e R u s s i a n pow er t o t h e 1 B a ltic . I t was e x p l a i n e d : The p a r t i c u l a r j e a l o u s y w i t h w h ic h t h e M e d i t e r r a n ­ e a n p o w e rs h a v e a t a l l t i m e s r e g a r d e d e v e r y i n t r u ­ s i o n on t h a t s e a , w h ic h b e i n g s u r r o u n d e d b y t h e i r d o m i n i o n s , t h e y seem i n some m e a s u r e t o c o n s i d e r a s t h e i r p e c u l i a r p r o p e r ty , w o u ld i n any o t h e r c ir c u m s ta n c e s o f p u b l ic a f f a i r s , have p ro v e d an in su p e ra b le b a r r i e r to t h is e n te r p r iz e . Hor i s t h i s a t t e m p t m ore r e p u g n a n t t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s a d o p t e d b y t h e c o m m e r c ia l s t a t e s , t h a n i t i s t o t h e g e n e r a l p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m o f E u r o p e , w h ic h h a s b e e n so lo n g and so e a g e r l y p u r s u e d , and w h ic h t o p r e s e r v e a due e q u i l i b r i u m i s t o t a l l y a v e r s e t o t h e m a k in g o f g r e a t c o n q u e s t s , o r t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a new d o m in io n . To a l l t h e s e s t a n d i n g i m p e d im e n ts t o a n a t t e m p t o f t h i s n a t u r e , may b e a d d e d , t h e g e n e r a l d r e a d e n t e r ­ t a i n e d o f t h e o v e r - g r o w n pow er o f R u s s i a , a n d a c o n v ic tio n o f th e consequences t h a t have a l r e a d y e n s u e d fro m t h a t su p re m e a s c e n d a n t w h ic h she so a r b i t r a r i l y d i s p l a y s i n a l l t h e a f f a i r s o f th e n o rth . As t h e m i l i t a r y c a m p a ig n s r e v e a l e d t h e i n e p t i t u d e o f t h e T u r k s , t h e p o w e r s w a tc h e d e v e n t s w i t h e v e n g r e a t e r ap p re h en sio n .

The German s t a t e s w o u ld p l a y a r o l e d e ­

p e n d in g upon f u t u r e c o n tin g e n c ie s and e v e n ts r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e c o u r s e rto f a g r e a t f i r e , a t th e ir d o o rs. *

t h a t has b een k in d le d

P r u s s i a se e m in g ly s a n c tio n e d R u s s i a ,

b e c a u s e R u s s i a was s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d r e a d f u l a n d e s s e n t i a l 2 to h e r. R u s s ia n g a in s a t th e expense o f T urkey, e s -

1. Ib id .. 2 . Ib id ..

1770, p . 3 . 1 7 6 8 , p . 7-

p e c i a l l y a p o s s i b l e f o o t h o l d n e a r t h e D an u b e, p r e s e n t e d im m e d ia te p e r i l s t o A u s t r i a , who w o u ld n a t u r a l l y a t t e m p t t o m e d i a t e b e tw e e n t h e c o n t e s t a n t s *

I f R u s s i a n arm s

w e re c h e c k e d , i t w o u ld b e t h e r e s u l t o f t h e i n t e r v e n ­ t i o n o f t h e two m i g h t y German c o u n t r i e s , who e x p e r i e n ­ c in g r a t i o n a l a la rm s , chose n o t to s ta n d by i d l y and o b s e r v e R u s s i a becom e t h e m i s t r e s s o f P o l a n d a n d t h e a n i h i l a t o r o f t h e T u r k i s h e m p i r e , l4o u t o f whose r u i n s 1 s o m e th i n g t r u l y f o r m i d a b l e m i g h t a r i s e i n tim e.** The f i g h t i n g was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by e v e n t s dem on2 s t r a t i n g war i n i t s m o st p e r n i c i o u s and o d io u s a s p e c t s . The G r e e k - T u r k c o n f l i c t , a p h a s e o f t h e g r e a t e r R u s s o T u rk w a r , was f i e r c e a n d c r u e l , an d u n l i k e t h o s e o f w e s te rn and c e n t r a l E urope.

-The G re e k i n s u r r e c t i o n u n ­

le a s h e d a n o rg y of b a se and e ffe m in a te rev e n g e to th e d i s g r a c e o f h u m an ity an d th e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n .

No

g e n e r o s i t y a n d h u m a n i t y t e m p e r e d an d c o n c e a l e d t h e d e ­ f o r m i t i e s o f w ar, a s i n th e e n m itie s o f ^ p o lis h e d 3 n a tio n s. M R u ss ia n su c c e ss e s tip p e d th e b a la n c e in h e r f a v o r . B ut she d e cid ed n o t to e x p lo it h e r g a in s f u r t h e r nor to h o l d t h e D a n u b ia n a r e a s , t h u s a l l a y i n g t h e f e a r s o f n e ig h b o rin g s t a t e s .

1. 2. 3.

The P o r t e Ts E u r o p e a n p o s s e s s i o n s

I b i d . . 1 7 6 9 , p . 65 1 7 7 0 , p . 3 . I b i d . , 1769, p i ; 1770, p p . 12, 2 3 . I b i d . , 1 7 7 0 , p p . 29 - 3 0 , 3 2 .

b r o u g h t T u rk e y i n c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e w i t h i n t h e

Ms y s t e m

o f t h e g r e a t E u r o p e a n r e p u b l i c , 11 a f o r t u i t o u s e v e n t a t th is c r i t i c a l ju n c tu re .

P o s se ss io n s in G reece, A s ia tic

T u r k e y , E g y p t, M e d i t e r r a n e a n i s l a n d s , a n d s i g n i o r y o f t h e B l a e k S e a w o u ld h a v e b r o u g h t , u n d e r o t h e r a u s p i c e s a n d o t h e r g o v e r n m e n t s , r i c h e s a n d com m erce, a n d p e r h a p s , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f t h e g r e a t e s t e m p ire i n t h e w o r l d .

A

p a r t i t i o n o f t h e s e l a n d s w o u ld b e r e v o l u t i o n a r y , w o u ld a l t e r E u r o p e a n a f f a i r s , a n d p o s s i b l y w o u ld b e c o m p a ra b le t o t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e Mew W orld i n s o f a r a s w e a l t h , t r a d e a n d pow er a r e c o n c e r n e d . t h e i r b l e s s i n g s , h ow ever,

The T u r k s d i d n o t u t i l i z e

The r e s t o f E u ro p e was c o n t e n t

t o see th o s e r i c h e s i n su c h im p ro v id e n t h a n d s.

rrI n a n y

o t h e r , s u c h pow er w o u ld h a v e b e e n d a n g e r o u s , i f n o t f a t a l * O n ly a n im m e d ia te p a c i f i c a t i o n m i g h t s a v e t h e P o r t e . B ut even p eace d id n o t g u a ra n te e re p o s e .

As l o n g a s a

p a r t of th e p o s s e s s io n s la y u n d iv id e d , T u rk is h d e b i l i t y 2 w o u ld o c c a s i o n e n c r o a c h m e n t s b y o t h e r p r e t e n d e r s . R ussoT u rk n e g o t i a t i o n s i n 1772 w e re c o n d u c t e d u n d e r t h e a u s ­ p ic e s of m e d ia to rs.

I t was s u r m i s e d t h a t t h e l a t t e r d i d

n o t w i s h a n im m e d ia te p e a c e , b e c a u s e f ro m tra f u l l s e n s e o f t h e i n e f f i c a e y o f c o m p a c t when t h e im m e d ia te c a u s e s u p o n w h ic h t h e y w e re f o u n d e d c e a s e t o o p e r a t e , ” t h e y wan­ t e d R u s s ia o c cu p ied u n t i l t h e i r p la n s f o r a P o lis h p a r t i ­ t i o n w e re c o m p l e t e d .

1 . I b i d . , p . 7* L 2 . I b i d . . 1771, p . 8 0 .

100

r

!

T he R u s s i a n s c o m p e lle d t h e T a r t a r s o f t h e C rim e a t o c o n c lu d e a t r e a t y p l a c i n g th e m se lv e s u n d e r t h e C z a r i n a ’s p ro te c tio n .

S i n c e t h e T a r t a r s w e re a l r e a d y c o n q u e r e d , t h e

d ocum ent s u p p l i e d t h e " p l a u s i b l e p r e t e n c e s a n d a p p e a r a n c e s o f J u s t i c e , w h ic h e v e n c o n q u e r o r s , w o u ld w is h t o im p o se u p o n m a n k in d ” f o r . u s e i n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e F o r t e . 3’ Y e t R u s s i a ’ s s t r e n g t h w as a w e a k n e s s .

Ho p l a n f o r a

t h o r o u g h r e d u c t i o n o f T u r k e y was t o l e r a b l e t o a s t a t e s m a n . The e t e r n a l b o u n d a r i e s b e tw e e n t h e tw o e m p i r e s , t h e v a s t d i f f e r e n c e s i n c l i m a t e , m anners and r e l i g i o n , t h e g r e a t d is ta n c e s , d ic ta te d a sa p a ra tio n .

D o m e s tic d i s c o n t e n t s

h i n d e r e d R u s s i a fr o m e x p l o i t i n g t h e w e a k n e s s o f h e r v i e t i m . 2 T he r e v o l t o f t h e Don C o s s a c k s e l i c i t e d t h e comment: The d e s p o t i s m o f t h e R u s s i a n g o v e rn m e n t, c a n o n l y se c u re o b e d ie n c e , w h ile th e ro d s and th e axes a r e im m e d ia te ly b e f o r e t h e e y es o f t h e p e o p le ; b u t a s soon as d i s t a n c e , o r any o t h e r c irc u m ­ s t a n c e , s c r e e n s th e m f ro m t h e im m e d ia te e x e r t i o n o f p o w e r, a l l d i s c i p l i n e , o r d e r , a n d s u b m i s s i o n a r e a t a n e n d , a n d t h o s e who w e re i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e i t s m o s t a b j e c t s l a v e s , become a t o n ce t h e m o s t a r r o g a n t c o n te m n e r s o f a l l la w s a n d o b lig a tio n s . C o n c e r n o v e r t h e j e a l o u s y o f t h e p o w e rs a l s o d i c t a t e d m o d e r a t i o n , • a n d R u s s i a , a n " o v e r grow n e m p ir e " was com­ p e l l e d t o make p e a c e i n o r d e r t o p r e p a r e t o c o n f r o n t new

1 . I b i d . . 1772, PP. 13, 1 6 -1 7 . 2 . T b ld . . 1773, PP. 4 -5 . L

-J

101 r

t

n e i g h b o r s , whose e n e r g i e s w e re v a s t a s t h e i r a m b i t i o n s 1 w e re b o u n d l e s s . To c e l e b r a t e v i c t o r y , t h e C z a r i n a g r a n t e d a g e n e r a l p a rd o n t o a l l o f f e n d e r s , e x c e p t to th o s e c o n v ic te d o f h i g h t r e a s o n , a n d o r d e r e d a l l t h o s e who, a s t h e A n n u a l R e g is te r p u t i t ,

^ l a n g u i s h e d unknown a n d u n p i t i e e t i n

t h e f r o z e n w i l d s o f S i b e r i a lr - t h a t r,n a t u r a l p r i s o n , w h i c h , l i k e t h e o t h e r w o r l d , a d m i t s o f no e s c a p e 1* — t o 2 be freed* T u r k i s h g l o r y was e n d e d , h a v i n g b e e n d e s t r o y e d b y l u x u r y , d e g e n e r a t e m a n n e r s a n d weak a n d v e n a l g o v e r n 3 m e n t. T h i s d e f e a t was s t r i k i n g : A v a s t e m p ire t u m b l i n g t o p i e c e s , u n d e r t h e w eig h t o f i t s v ic e s and p r o f l ig a c y , e x h ib i t s a le s s o n o f aw eful i n s t r u c t i o n . The g r e a t e m p i r e s o f t h e w o r l d , h a v e , h o w e v e r, f a l l e n i n t h i s m anner, i r i t h o u t any b e n e f i t t o t h e i r s u c ­ c e s s o r s fro m t h e e x a m p le . R u s s i a n v i c t o r y was a m ix e d b l e s s i n g .

Money a n d

b l o o d m i g h t h a v e b e e n m ore w i s e l y s p e n t i n g r e a t p u r p o s e s o f p o p u l a t i o n a n d d o m e s t i c a d v a n c e m e n t.

The q u e s t i o n

r e m a i n e d u n a n s w e r e d w h e t h e r i t was p r u d e n t t o i n c r e a s e th e e m p ire , b o u n d le s s and i l l - c u l t i v a t e d a s i t w as, w h ic h m i g h t b e t o o l a r g e f o r a s i n g l e g o v e r n m e n t t o r u l e a t t h a t tim e .

B e s i d e s , i n a c q u i r i n g a B l a c k S ea p o r t ,

! • I b i d . . 1774* PP* 2 - 4 . 2 . I b i d . . p p . 8 -9 3. I b i d . « p. 6 . L

102 r

*i

R u s s i a w o u ld e x c i t e j e a l o u s y among h e r r i v a l s *

T here w as,

t o o , t h e u p h e a v a l i n t h e ’“e s t a b l i s h e d s y s t e m o f t h e N o r t h 11 w ith th e consequent p re c e d e n ts f o r v io la tin g a l l f a i t h and a l l i a n c e , and th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f d a n g ero u s and u n ­ n a t u r a l a g re e m e n ts.

A l l t h e s e c o n s e q u e n c e s w e re s c a n t

re m u n e ra tio n f o r g r e a t e f f o r t s .

W h a te v e r may b e s a i d , 1

R u s s i a g a i n e d pow er a n d p r e s t i g e : She s i t s su p re m e b e tw e e n E u ro p e a n d A s i a , a n d lo o k s a s i f she in te n d e d to d i c t a t e to b o th . We s e e i n h e r a g r e a t b u t s t i l l g r o w i n g e m p i r e , w h ic h n o t h a v i n g r e a c h e d t h e su m m it o f h e r d e s ­ t i n e d pow er, f e e l s l i f e and v ig o u r g lo w in g i n every p a r t . B u rk e h a d o b s e r v e d t o a P r u s s i a n g e n t l e m a n t h a t R u s s i a s t i l l r e t a i n e d , u n d e r E u r o p e a n f o rm s a n d n a m e s, t o o much o f t h e ‘^ A s i a t i c s p i r i t 11 i n h e r g o v e rn m e n t a n d m a n n e rs t o b e w e l l p o i s e d f o r a n y l e n g t h o f t i m e o r t o b e 2 s e c u r e w i t h i n h e r s e l f . And h e a d d e d : I t i s n o t now l i k e l y t h a t my p a r a d o x i c a l w i s h s h o u ld be answ ered o r t h a t I s h o u ld l i v e to see th e T u rk ish b a r b a r ia n c i v i l i z e d by th e R u ssian . I d o n ft w i s h w e l l t o t h e f o r m e r p o w e r. Any p e o p l e b u t t h e T u r k s , so s e a t e d a s t h e y a r e , w o u ld h a v e b e e n c u l t i v a t e d i n t h r e e h u n ­ d r e d y e a r s ; b u t t h e y g ro w more g r o s s i n t h e v e ry n a tiv e s o i l o f c i v i l i t y and re fin e m e n t.R u s s i a was n o t a r e f i n e d n a t i o n o f t h e w e s t , b u t s h e was u n d e rg o in g h e r e d u c a tio n .

I n com m enting o n t h e d i s i n ­

t e r e s t e d n e s s o f a R u s s i a n c a p t a i n , who, a f t e r h a v i n g

1 . X feid-, 1 7 7 3 , PP . 3 , 6 ; 1 7 7 5 , P- 1 54 . 2 . 1772, C o rresp o n d en ce ( e d . F i t z w i l l i a m ) , I , 403.

r

r e s c u e d a r i c h C h r i s t i a n p r i z e fro m a f o r t i f i e d p i r a t i c a l h arb o r i n B arb ary , re fu s e d a l l b e n e f it to h im s e lf or h is 1 m en, t h e A n n u a l R e g i s t e r s i g h e d . : P e rh a p s t h e r e i s an i n t e r m e d i a t e p e r i o d , b e tw e e n th e ro u g h n ess of b a rb a ris m , and a r e f i n e d s t a t e o f c u l t i v a t i o n , i n a l l b r a v e n a t i o n s , when t h e m an n e rs, and g e n e r a l c a s t o f t h i n k i n g , te n d to p r o d u c e t h a t p e c u l i a r c h a r a c t e r , w h ic h c o n s t i ­ t u t e s and d i s t i n g u i s h e s what i s u n d e rs to o d a s a n a g e o f c h i v a l r y o r heroism. 4.

The d e m o r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e a n d Germany

trG r e a t R e p u b l i c H i n P o l a n d

R u s s i a won n o t o n l y v i c t o r y o v e r T u r k e y , b u t h e g e ­ mony o v e r P o l a n d .

T h i s t r i u m p h a r o u s e d P r u s s i a n and

A u s tr ia n a m b itio n s to seek e q u iv a le n ts f o r R u ss ia n g a in s . The o ld ' schem e f o r a P o l i s h p a r t i t i o n was r e v i v e d i n F e b ru a ry 1772, i n o rd e r to s a t i s f y t h e s e a s p i r a t i o n s , r e l e a s e d by th e T u rk is h d e f e a t , w ith P o lis h t e r r i t o r i e s . A p a r t i t i o n o f T u r k i s h l a n d s w ou ld n o t s a t i s f y t h e tw o German t i t o n s , b u t a d i v i s i o n o f P o l a n d w o u ld a d d u s e ­ f u l n e ig h b o rin g p r o v in c e s .

Hence P o l a n d was s e l e c t e d

t o b e a r t h e b r u n t o f t h e P o r t e fs d e f e a t . The f o r e i g n a i d , a n t i c i p a t e d by t h e C o n f e d e r a t e s o f B ar, f a i l e d to m a t e r i a l i z e , and l e f t P o lan d h e l p l e s s . The w e a k n e s s o f h e r v i t a l p r i n c i p l e a n d h e r r e l i a n c e o n t h e g r a n d e u r o f t h e p a s t was l a m e n t a b l e .

T h a t s h e was

i n n o c u o u s a n d s u b s e r v i e n t w e re p o o r p l e a s i n f a v o r o f n a tio n a l su rv iv a l.

Li .

1776, p . 189.

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104

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a f o u r th pow er u n a b le th re e

to g e th e r.

to r e s i s t any

I f P o la n d h ad n o t

1. I b i d . . p p . 2 4 -2 5 $ 1 7 7 4 , p . 2 1 . 2. T h o u g h ts o n F re n c h A f f a i r s , D ecem ber 1791? L (e d . B o h n ), I I I , 359 .

W o rk s

b e en th e v ic tim , to

th o se

f in d a d isc h a rg e

p le th o ric trie s

in

h a b its

in

n a tio n s

f o r th e th e

’’m i g h t h a v e b e e n o b l i g e d

su p e rflu o u s

d e stru c tio n

stre n g th

of th e f in e s t coun­

The p a s t w as d is h e a rte n in g ; 1 w as fo re b o d in g :

fu tu re

of th e ir

E u ro p e. n

T h ese p o w e r^ w ill c o n tin u e arm ed . m u s t h a v e e m p lo y m e n t a n d P o la n d w b r e a k f a s t, an d th e re a re n o t m any b e fo u n d . W here w i l l t h e y d in e ? o u r lo v e o f t r a n q u i l l i t y , an d a l l to p re se rv e i t , a la s , p o o r P eacei

th e

T h e ir arm s as b u t a P o la n d s to A fte r a l l e x p e d ie n ts

T he P o le s w e re a b a n d o n e d b y th e r e s t o f m a n k in d , a n d 2 b e h e ld E u ro p ean a p a th y . HT o m a k e a p a r t i t i o n o f P o l a n d , fo rm e rly p u t a l l E u ro p e in •k in g s, a n d a l l E u ro p e i s H ouse

a fe rm e n t; now i t h a s fo u r 3 q u i e t . * On th e f l o o r o f th e

o f C om m ons, B u rk e d e n i e d t h a t n a t i o n a l h o n o r d i d

n o t c o n s is t in b e in g b u sy m e d d le rs in q u a rre l.

C o rsic a w as s e iz e d .

" w ith th e m o st to r p id “a

little

P o la n d w as d ism e m b e re d

in d iffe re n c e ."

of th a t busy s p ir it

e v e ry E u ro p ean

Y et if

B rita in had

o f in te rm e d d lin g ," b o th

c rim e s m ig h t h a v e b e e n p r e v e n te d b y m ere f o r c e tia tio n

if

o f E n g la n d ,

o f nego­

th e E u ro p ean p o w ers h ad an y r e s p e c ta b le once th e re fu g e

sed c o u n trie s .

and p ro te c to re ss

He w arn ed th a t th e

1. To a P r u s s i a n G e n tle m a n , F itz w illia m ) , I , 4 0 1 -4 0 3 * 2 . A n n u a l R e g i s t e r . 17 7 2 , p . 3 . To J o h n S te w a r t, O c to b e r v e r s i t y M a g a z in e . I (J a n u

17 7 2 ,

id e a

of d istre s­

tim e w o u ld com e w h en

C o rresp o n d en ce« (ed .

36 • 3 0 , 17 7 2 , T h e D u b l i n U n i ­ a ry -Ju n e 1833 5^2.

th e

n o v e l sy ste m

o f n o n -in te rfe re n c e

a ll its

in c o m p e te n c e a n d f o l l y .

tu rn e d ,

its

w o u ld b e r e v e a l e d

W hen t h e b a l a n c e w a s o v e r -

,1

p r e s e r v a t i o n w o u ld th e n b e a p p r e c i a t e d .

M any p e rs o n s j u s t i f i e d g ro u n d s th a t th e

B ritish

a c q u ie sc e n c e

je a lo u s ly b e h e ld th e

la tte r,

and

In th e p a s t B rita in

and p a ssiv e ly

c o n te m p la te d

d e v e lo p m e n t o f c o n t i n e n t a l p o w e rs who m ig h t b eco m e

F ren ch r iv a ls , expense b y th e

th o u g h th e

d e v e lo p m e n t o c c u rre d a t th e

o f s m a lle r p o w e rs w ho w o u ld n o t b e s a f e g u a r d e d E u ro p ean b a la n c e .

th a t th e P o lis h p a r titio n fo r

on th e

a g g ra n d iz e m e n t o f R u s s ia , A u s tr ia

P ru s s ia d im in ish e d F ra n c e fs p r e s tig e .

th e

in

The A n nual R e g is te r a s s e rte d su p p lie d m a te ria ls

a th o ro u g h r e c o n s id e r a tio n

a ttitu d e o ffered

of th is

to

p o lic y .

B rita in W h a te v e r

B r ita in a d o p te d , to

none c o u ld a p p ro v e th e v io le n c e 2 h u m a n ity a n d j u s t i c e b y th e p a r t i t i o n . In

o th e r w o rd s, n a tio n a l e x p e d ie n c e

never ju s tifie d

p u b lic

c rim e . I t w as u n w ise f o r R u s s ia an d P o la n d to ill-c u ltiv a te d

to

a n a lr e a d y v a s t e m p ire areas,

p o sse ssio n

c u rre d d isa d v a n ta g e s .

A u th o rity

am ong th e

ad d se g m e n ts o f T u rk e y o f b o u n d le ss an d

o f a p a r t o f P o la n d i n ­ th e re h ad to

be

d iv id e d

t r i u m v i r s , w ho w o u ld p r e v e n t R u s s ia fro m

re ta in ­

1 . M ay 1 8 , 1774, P a r l i a m e n t a r y H i s t o r y . X V II, 1 3 4 1 . 2 . 1 7 7 2 , p . 0. v id e D. B . H o rn , B r i t i s h P u b lic O p in io n an d th e F i r s t P a r t i t i o n o f P o la n d , E d in b u rg h , O liv e r and Boyd, 1945.

108 r

in g m o re th a n h e r

sh are.

A c o n tin u a l c o n tro v e rsy th a t

w o u ld k e e p G erm an y a n d th e w a s c r e a t e d "by t h e v o le n t sta te sm a n b a rrie r

p a rtitio n .

th a n P o la n d , to p re v e n t th e

co rd have is

“T he w is e s t a n d m o st b e n e ­

c o u ld n o t h a v e w ish e d f o r a h a p p ie r

G erm an a n d M u s c o v ite

it

N o rth i n tu r m o il a n d s t r i f e

e m p ire s;

th ro w n o u t b i t t e r e r

now l i k e l y The d ir e

to

c la sh in g

n o r c o u ld th e seeds

o f th e dem on o f d i s ­

o f c o n te n tio n ,

th a n

1 p r o d u c e . M'

im p lic a tio n s w ere

le g io n .

A u str© -P ru ssia n

c o o p e r a t i o n h e r e m ay* h a v e b r o u g h t t h e m r u i n .

P o la n d

m ig h t b e th e ro a d b y w h ic h th e R u s s ia n s w i l l e n te r G erm an y .

B e s id e s , w h ile

th e V is tu la

a n d th e w h o le co m m erce o f P o la n d a s a r e s u l t

o f th e p a r titio n , to

F ren ch

th e P ru s s ia n s becam e m a ste rs o f

F ran ce s u sta in e d

in te re st,

th e

a rev erse.

d ism e m b e rm e n t w as d e c id e d u p o n

w ith o u t h e r p a r tic ip a tio n ,

and th re a te n e d to 2 a n c i e n t G erm an a n d n o r t h e r n s y s te m . M e a n w h ile e n o rm o u s a r m ie s

P o la n d .

p re te x ts

m u tu a l c h e e k s upo n th e th a t a n c ie n t c o u n try

fo r c ru e lty . e n o rm itie s

( “W h a te v e r i t

e n jo y e d a n e g a tiv e g o o d f o r tu n e .

1. A nnual R e g is te r . 1773, PP* 2 . I b id .. 1772, p p ..4 -5 . L

u p s e t th e

o f o c c u p a tio n flo o d e d

In e lim in a tin g n a tio n a l o p p o sitio n ,

rem o v ed th e ir

C o n tra ry

3 -4 .

th e y a lso

T he a rm ie s becam e

o f each o th e r.

P o la n d ,

w as th e n c a lle d * ) , D iso rd e r an d v io le n c e

w ere e n d e d , an d th e

tu r b u le n t n o b le s w ere r e s t r a i n e d b y

su p e rio r

u n d e rta k in g

fo rce

fro m

th a t had b ro u g h t ru in 1 p erso n s. P ru s s ia , R u ssia

to

th e ir

c o u n try an d to

and A u stria

up o n re m a in in g P o lis h

te rrito ry

in te rp re ta tio n

tre a tie s.

fered

o f th e

"th o se d e s p e ra te

c o n tin u a lly

th e ir

en cro ach ed

by m eans o f a fo rc e d The im p o te n c e t h a t s u f ­

o p p re s s io n a lw a y s b ro u g h t new c a la m itie s

in

F o rtu n a te ly ,

th e m o d e r a tio n a n d e x a m p le o f R u s s ia 2 ed th e p o lic y o f th e o th e r p o w ers. The p a r titio n

f o r th e d u tie s

free

c ity

d id n o t s a tis f y F r e d e r ic k s o f D a n z ig ; h e n c e h e s e iz e d

a n d c u sto m h o u se

d e p riv e d

in

17 ? 2 .

o f th e ir p riv ile g e s

g ers

fe rrin g

o f so c o n sid e ra b le

The s e iz u re

tre a ty

and p ro p e rty , t r a r y . h a n d s . tf n o t th e

in to

such g ra sp in g ,

D a n z ig fs f a te

a b su rd ity

of tre a tie s

d e sire

o f 1707. th e

show ed th e

ex posed, by th e

a sh are

so fte n

E n g lis h m e rc h a n ts w ere

u n d er th e

to w h ic h co m m erce w i l l b e

tu rn .

th e p o rt

W h ile E n g lis h g r ie v a n c e s w o u ld b e r e d r e s s e d , dam age w as irre m e d ia b le .

e ffo rts

re a l "dan-

tra n s­

o f m a ritim e p o w er o p p re ssiv e ,

re v e a le d th e

" fu tility ,

o f g u a ra n te e s

1 . I b i d . , 1773, p . 2 ; 1 7 7 5 , P - 1 5 3 . 2 . I b i d . , 1774, p . 1 7 ; 1775, p . 154. 3 . I b i d . . 1772, p . 4 0 .

and a rb i­ if

of se c u rity .

110 r

ri

The p o w ers c lo a k e d th e ir p re te n sio n s

to

a m b itio n s i n

c e rta in te rrito rie s

c la im s w ere b a s e d

and rig h ts .

on a n c ie n t g ro u n d s,

la te d p re s c rip tio n ,

th e

tra n sp a re n t T h e ir

and th e re b y v io ­

fo u n d a tio n o f in te r n a tio n a l o rd e r.

T hese p re te n sio n s, d is tu rb e d

th e

lo n g a n d u n im p e d e d p o s s e s s io n a c k n o w le d g e d b y u n i v e r s a l c o n s e n t o f m a n k in d a s th e m o st c e r ­ t a i n a n d e q u i t a b l e t i t l e , b y w h ic h a r i g h t c a n b e c la im e d i n a n y t h i n g , a n d w o u ld b e i n i t s e l f s u f f ic ie n t to p re c lu d e an y c la im s, s e t up in th e d a rk n e s s, and fo u n d ed upon th e ru b ­ b ish of a b lin d a n tiq u ity . T h is te n d e n c y w as i l l u s t r a t e d te rrito rie s?

a p art

o f th e

w h ic h h a d b e e n s e iz e d fro m th e

d is tric t

fro m

th e

title s ta g io u s to

to in

r,e v i l o f t h e te rrito rie s e x a m p le .

to

P o lis h - h e ld duchy o f P o m e re lia , th e

d u k es o f P o m e ra n ia , an d

N ew M a rc h , w h ic h h a d b e e n w r e s t e d 1 o f D a n z ig .

a s s e rt A u stria n

F re d e ric k

in sist

a g e 11 -

o f re su rre c tin g

- w as f a t a l in

a n c ie n t

im p lic a tio n and con­

I t w as in v o k e d b y C o u n t S ch o m b erg c o n t r o l o v e r H am b urg , a n d a g a in b y on th e paym ent b y th e

d eb t of over fo u r m illio n flo rin s

D u tc h o f a

w h ic h h a d s to o d f o r o v e r

1. I b i d . , p . 31* Ih e d u k es o f S t e t t i n w ere th e le g a l a n d n a t u r a l h e ir s o f th e d u k e s o f D a n z ig .

L

to t& o

o f th e

dukes

T h is

in F r e d e r ic k ’s c la im

a c e n tu ry c itie s

now a p a r t o f th e R e p u b lic .

th e p la n in g s

and had o rig in a lly b een in c u rre d by s e v e ra l

o f e x c h a n g in g h i s

e lse w h e re , w eaker s ta te s

a c c e p t e q u iv a le n ts

sy ste m , a s

it

The f r e e of lib e rty ,

p le x io n

th e

a rts,

th a t i t g a te to

p ro b a b le

s u ffi­ com ­

To m ake m a tte rs w o rse , th e

are

trS u c h v i o l a ­

now g ro w n so f a s h io n a b le , th e

slo w a g g re ­

o f t h e w isd o m a n d e x p e r ie n c e

o f m a n k in d

o f w ar, w ill b e to ta lly

I t w a s com m on f o r a m ig h ty s t a t e

p re te x t u n se ttle d

b ad tim e s.

t h a t w o u ld c h a n g e th e

th a t a n tie n t code,

le s s e n th e m is e rie s

p e tty

wt h e n u r s e r i e s

w as a lo n e

V e n e tia n D a lm a tia .

la w o f n a t i o n s

and re s u lt

a t e d . tr

and P ru ssia

o f E u ro p ean a f f a i r s .

is

p o lic y

la n d s;

a n d o p u l e n c e , 11 f e l l i n t o

e ffe c t a re v o lu tio n

o f th e

th is

w o u ld b e c o m p e lle d

a n d to w n s i n G erm an y ,

A u s tr ia n s m arch ed in to tio n s

If

th e h o ld ­

a n d th e G erm an 1 w as th e n c o m p o se d , w o u ld b e d o o m ed . c itie s

fo r th e ir

The c o m b in a tio n o f A u s tr ia c ie n t to

to y e d w ith

d u c h y o f C le v e s f o r

o f th e D uke o f M e c k le n b u rg -S c h w e rin .

w ere fo llo w e d to

F re d e ric k

u n til it

to

o b lite r­

le a v e a

c o u ld b e ren ew ed a t a

p r o p itio u s m om ent w hen an a p p a re n t r i g h t th e

e n o rm ity to b e p e r p e tr a te d M u tu a l v ig ila n c e

c o u ld o b sc u re 2 on th e w eaker c o u n try .

an d je a lo u s y and th e

E u ro p ean s y s ­

te m d id n o t p r o t e c t th e G erm an a n d n o r t h e r n b a la n c e .

1 . I b i d . . 1773, p p . 8 -9 2 . I b i d . « 1774, p . 2 3 .

The

112 r

"i

tw o l e a d i n g G e rm a n p o w e rs s a t i s f i e d expense

o f th e

le s s e r p o w ers

in

th e ir

d e fia n c e

a m b itio n s a t th e o f th e

la w s o f

in te rn a tio n a l so c ie ty , T hese a n a rc h ic a l e v e n ts B u rk e; fo r

th e

o f th e

E u ro p ea n sy ste m

e a rly J O !s d is tu r b e d 1 w as to r n a s u n d e r:

T he b r e a c h t h a t h a s b e e n now m ad e, i n th o s e c o m p a c ts t h a t u n i t e s t a t e s f o r t h e i r m u tu a l b e n e f it, e s ta b lis h e s a m ost d an g ero u s p re c e ­ d e n t; i t d e p riv e s , in a g re a t m easu re, ev ery s e p a ra te pow er in E u ro p e, o f th a t s e c u rity w h ic h w as fo u n d e d i n t r e a t i e s , a l l i a n c e s , com m on i n t e r e s t , a n d p u b l i c f a i t h . I t seem s to th ro w n a tio n s c o l le c t iv e ly in to th a t s t a t e o f n a t u r e , i n w h ic h i t h a s b e e n s u p p o s e d , t h a t m a n k in d s e p a r a t e l y a t o n e tim e s u b s i s t e d , w hen th e s e c u rity of th e in d iv id u a l depended s in g ly u p o n h i s ow n s t r e n g t h , a n d n o r e s o u r c e w as l e f t w hen i t f a ile d . The f a te b e rty ,

o f C o rs ic a , P o la n d ,

w h ic h h a d d i s t i n g u i s h e d

E u ro p e, no lo n g e r

e x iste d ;

lo s t

v ig o r.

its

p ris tin e

The sto rm s

la sh in g

o c c a sio n e d a n a n a ly s is fo r g ra n te d .a s e x p e rie n c e

te rin g . th e

2. L

a v e ry few n a tio n s

or at

le a st,

th a t

in

lib e rty

S u c h d is o r d e r s w o u ld n o t h a v e 2 a t an e a r lie r p e rio d .

been to le ra te d

to

a n d D a n z ig p ro v e d t h a t l i ­

th e

in te rn a tio n a l s tru c tu re

of its

a y o u th in

n a tu re .

The w o rld h e to o k

L o n d o n , a n d a b o u t w h ic h h e b e g a n

s e rio u s m isg iv in g s

in th e 60fs w as t o t ­

The im m o ra litie s he saw d u rin g h is F re n c h v i s i t ,

an arch y

e x h ib ite d

in th e

I b i d . . 1772, p r e f a c e . I b i d . , 177 4-, p . 3 0 .

s e ttlin g

o f th e

E a ste rn

113 r

~i Q u e s tio n , th e i n t e r n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s e x p e rie n c e d i n Sw eden, F r a n c e a n d D enm ark, and t h e g a l e l a s h i n g t h e B r i t i s h c o n s t i t u t i o n , s e t him p o n d e r i n g . E u ro p e was a v a s t com m onw ealth:

**"

The i d e a o f c o n s i d e r i n g E u ro p e a s a v a s t common* w e a l t h , o f t h e s e v e r a l p a r t s b e i n g d i s t i n c t an d s e p a r a t e , th o u g h p o l i t i c a l l y a n d c o m m e r c ia lly u n i t e d , o f k e e p i n g them in d e p e n d e n t th o u g h u n ­ e q u a l i n p o w er an d o f p r e v e n t i n g a n y o n e , b y a n y m e a n s , fro m b e c o m in g to o p o w e r f u l f o r t h e r e s t , was g r e a t a n d l i b e r a l . T h is s y s te m was t h e r e s u l t o f b a r b a r i s m , b u t was fo u n d e d u p o n t h e m o st e n l a r g e d p r i n c i p l e s o f p r u d e n t p o l i c y . From i t w as d e r i v e d E u ro p e a n s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r ld .

A s i a t i c n a t i o n s , th o u g h p o t e n t a n d c i v i ­

l i z e d , p e r i s h e d f o r l a c k o f a n y u n io n o r s y s te m o f t h i s s o rt.

B e h o ld in g t h e a n n i h i l a t i o n o f t h e i r n e ig h b o r s

w ith m a lig n a n t p le a s u r e and s u p in e n e s s , th e y f a i l e d to r e a l i z e t h a t t h e w eapons a n d pow er d e r i v e d fro m t h i s d e s t r u c t i o n w o u ld s o o n b e t u r n e d t o t h e i r d e f e a t .

1 . I b i d . . 1 7 7 2 , p . 2 . W r i t e r s o f t h e E n lig h te n m e n t a c c e p t e d t h e u n i t y o f E u ro p e a s a n a x io m . V o l t a i r e sp o k e o f C h r i s t i a n E u ro p e ( w i t h o u t R u s s i a ) a s ltA s o r t o f g r e a t r e p u b l i c d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e r a l s t a t e s , some m o n a r c h i c a l , o t h e r s o f a m ix e d c h a r a c t e r ; t h e f o r m e r a r i s t o c r a t i c , t h e l a t t e r p o p u l a r , b u t a l l i n harm ony w i t h e a c h o t h e r , a l l h a v in g t h e sam e s u b s t r a t u m o f r e l i g i o n , a l t h o u g h d i v i d e d i n t o v a r i o u s s e c t s ; a l l p o s s e s s i n g t h e same p r i n c i p l e s o f p u b l i c a n d p o l i t i c a l la w , unknow n i n o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld . I n o b e d ie n c e t o t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s t h e E u ro p e a n n a t i o n s do n o t make t h e i r p r i s o n e r s s l a v e s , t h e y r e s p e c t t h e i r e n e m ie s 1 a m b a s s a d o r s , t h e y a g r e e a s t o t h e p r e - e m in e n c e a n d r i g h t s o f c e r t a i n p r i n c e s . . . . And ab o v e a l l , t h e y a r e a t one i n t h e w is e p o l i c y o f m a i n t a i n i n g among th e m s e lv e s a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e a n e q u a l b a l a n c e o f p o w e r. 11 Age o f L o u is X IV. 17?1> t r a n s l a t e d by ^ M a rty n P . P o l l a c k , L on d o n , D e n t, ^ jl9 2 6 l, p p . 5 - 6 . J

114 r

“i I n c o n f o r m i ty w i t h n a t u r e , s t a t e s l i k e i n d i v i d u a l s needed s o c ie ty *

I t was t h e ^ la n g u a g e o f a f r i v o l o u s a n d

v o l u p tu o u s a g e *1 t h a t th o u g h a c o u n t r y was p r o s p e r i n g a n d e n d u re d no im m e d ia te a b u s e fro m o t h e r s t a t e s , i t h a d t h e r e f o r e no g r o u n d s f o r c o n c e r n i n t h e d i s a s t e r s o f n e ig h b o rs : A s i n g l e m an, c a s t o u t fro m t h e la w s , t h e pro** t e e t i o n , a n d t h e com m erce o f h i s w h o le s p e c i e s , m ig h t i n t h a t s o l i t a r y s i t u a t i o n , w ith a s r a t i o n a l a n d w e l l- g r o u n d e d a p r o b a b i l i t y * p r o ­ p o s e t o h i m s e l f c o n v e n ie n c e s and s e c u r i t y , a s a n y s i n g l e s t a t e , i n t h e p r e s e n t p o l i t i c a l an d p h y s i c a l s t a t e o f E u r o p e , c o u ld e x p e c t i n ­ d e p e n d e n c e a n d s a f e t y , u n c o n n e c te d w i t h a l l t h e o th e r s * I n t e r n a t i o n a l s o c i e t y d i d n o t e l i m i n a t e s t r i f e , h ow ever* W ars - e v i l th o u g h t h e y w e re - w ere i n e v i t a b l e i n e v e r y s ta te

o f hum an n a t u r e .

T hey c o u l d b e p o s tp o n e d ; b u t t h e y

c o u l d n o t b e a v o id e d .

To p u r c h a s e ^ p r e s e n t q u i e t , a t t h e 1 p r i c e o f f u t u r e s e c u r i t y ” was h u m i l i a t i n g p u s i l l a n i m i t y . H ow ever h e m ig h t d e n o u n c e a n d d e p l o r e e v e n t s , a n arm ed p e a c e g r i p p e d E u ro p e*

P u b l i c o r d e r was c o m p ro m ised

b y t h e o v e rw h e lm in g f o r c e , a n d t h e envy o f t h e c o n t i n e n t a l s ta te s *

War was a v e r t e d n o t th r o u g h a d e s i r e f o r p e a c e o r

a lo v e o f r i g h t , b u t t h r o u g h m u tu a l s u s p i c i o n an d a sh re w d v i g i l a n c e t h a t was w a i t i n g f o r f a v o r a b l e m om ents a n d cir** 2 c u m s ta n c e s . The u n e a s y p e a c e l i n g e r e d o n :

1 . A n n u a l R e g i s t e r . 1772, pp. 2-3* 2 . I b i d . , 1773, p . 2 ; 1775, P- 143* L

115 The g r e a t p o w e rs a r e so n e a r l y p o i s e d , a s n e i t h e r w a n to n ly t o s e e k , n o r much t o d r e a d a r u p t u r e * Thus a g e n e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t r e n g t h i s c a p a b le o f p r o d u c in g th e - s a m e e f f e c t s , w h ic h a g e n e r a l i m b e c i l i t y h a s o f t e n d o n e . E u r o p e , h o w e v e r, h a s t h e s e e d s o f c o n t e n t i o n a t a l l t im e s p l e n t i f u l l y lo d g e d i n h e r b o so m , a n d h e r f e r t i l e s o i l , i n a f a v o r a b l e s e a s o n , m akes th em s h o o t w i t h w o n d e r­ f u l l u x u r i a n c e . A s m a l l c h a n g e i n t h e c irc u m ­ s t a n c e s o f a n y o f t h e l e a d i n g p a r t i e s , w o u ld s o o n i n v o lv e t h e r e s t i n i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s , a n d m ig h t , w i t h o u t t h e c o n c u r r e n c e o f a n y i m p r o b a b le , o r e v e n e x t r a o r d i n a r y e v e n t s , g i v e a new f a c e t o t h e p r e s e n t p o l i t i c a l s y s te m . As a Whig a n d a s y m p a th i z e r w i t h th e a s p i r a t i o n s o f t h e e n li g h t e n m e n t f o r u n i v e r s a l p e a c e , B u rk e n e v e r c o u n ­ te n a n c e d la r g e s ta n d in g a rm ie s .

He c o m p la in e d t h a t

n a t i o n s h a d becom e s o l d i e r s a n d h a d t o s e e k e m p lo y m en t. A u s t r i a a n d P r u s s i a , f o r e x a m p le , w e re p o s s e s s e d b y t h e r a g e f o r m a k in g o v e r i n t o s o l d i e r s a l l m a n k in d . w ere t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d .

A rm ies

R e v i e w s , e n c a m p m e n ts, w i t h t h e

c o n t i n u a l m a r c h in g a n d m a n e u v rin g o f t r o o p s , a r e g ro w n e q u a l l y f a m i l i a r ; t h e y a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s common o c c u r 1 r e n c e s , a n d p a s s e d o v e r w i t h o u t n o t i c e o r o b s e r v a t i o n . 1* Om inous c lo u d s h o v e r e d o v e r G erm any.

A u s tr ia and

P r u s s ia m a in ta in e d huge f o r c e s in a p o lic y i n c o n s is te n t w i t h th e w e l f a r e o f t h e i r s u b j e c t s , f o r w hose t r a n q u i l l ­ i t y t h e a r m ie s w ere o s t e n s i b l y m a i n t a i n e d . m om ent t h e b a l a n c e o f pow er k e p t t h e p e a c e .

For th e A m b itio n

w as f r u s t r a t e d b y m u tu a l s u s p i c i o n ; b u t t h e t e r r i t o r i a l a p p e t i t e o f A u s t r i a a n d P r u s s i a was n o t s a t i a t e d a t t h e

1 . $ b i d ., 1773, p . 42; 1775, p . 142. L

116 “i

r P o lis h b a n q u et o f 1772.

T h e ir s h a re s

w o u ld h a v e seem ed w e l l c a l c u l a t e d t o a p p e a s e t h e i n s u p p o r t a b l e c r a v i n g s o f a m b i t io n , i f lo n g e x ­ p e r i e n c e h a d n o t d e m o n s tr a te d , t h a t t h e a p p e t i t e i n t h a t d i s t e m p e r becom es m ore i n s a t i a t e , i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e g r e a t e r q u a n t i t y o f f o o d w h ic h i s a d m in is te re d to i t s s u p p ly . S in c e t h e l e s s e r i n d e p e n d e n t p r i n c i p a l i t i e s a n d c i t i e s o f Germany no lo n g e r fo rm e d a f o r c e s u f f i c i e n t t o c o u n t e r ­ b a la n c e A u s tr i a , th e y re g a rd e d P r u s s ia a s to t h e i r c h a m p io n .

O ddly e n o u g h , A u s t r i a was a n e c e s s a r y r e s t r a i n t

on t h e g r e a t po w er o f P r u s s i a .

By p i t t i n g t h e a m b i t io n o f

on e a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r , t h e s e c u r i t y o f a l l c o u ld b e main** 2 ta m e d . The Annua 1 R e g i s t e r e x p l a i n e d : B e tw e e n b o t h , t h e l e s s e r s t a t e s , b y a p r u d e n t a n d w a tc h fu l a t t e n t i o n to th e p r e s e r v a tio n o f t h a t b a la n c e o f pow er i n G erm any, w h ic h h a s s o u n ­ a c c o u n t a b l y , a n d p e r h a p s f a t a l l y , b e e n w o rn o u t . o f memory i n t h e g e n e r a l s y s te m o f E u r o p e , may s t i l l lo n g c o n t i n u e t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r in d e p e n d e n c e . A n e g le c t o f t h i s p o l i t i c a l p r in c ip le , w i l l p r o b a b l y o c c a s i o n one o f t h o s e s c a l e s t o p r e p o n d ­ e r a t e , w h ic h , i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s , m u st p r o v e d a n g e ro u s, i f n o t r u in o u s , to th e In d ep en d en cy o f t h e G erm an ic b o d y . The b a l a n c e o f p o w er was c l e a r l y a p r i n c i p l e o f l i b e r t y i n E u ro p e • I f t h e two Germ an r i v a l s j o i n e d t o g e t h e r t o e n r i c h th e m s e lv e s a t t h e e x p e n s e o f G erm an l i b e r t i e s , no f o r c e c o u ld p r e v e n t t h e c a ta s tr o p h e :* ^

1 . I b id . . 1778, p . 2 . 2. I b id . . p p . 2 -3 . 3. Ib id . L

117 r

1 P o la n d h a s a f f o r d e d a r e c e n t i n s t a n c e , t h a t q u ie tn e s s , an i n a b i l i t y to o ff e r in ju ry o r w ro n g , w i t h many u s e f u l a n d v a l u a b l e p ro p e r-* t i e s o f g o o d n e ig h b o u r h o o d , a f f o r d no p r o ­ t e c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e l u s t o f p o w e r , an d t h e ra g e o f a m b itio n ; w h i l s t B a n tz ic k p r e s e n ts a y e t l i v i n g ex am p le t o t h e f r e e c i t i e s , t h a t t h e r u s t o f p a r c h m e n ts , a n d t h e v e n e r ­ a b l e a n t i q u i t y o f im m u n i ti e s , o f f e r no b e t t e r d e f e n c e s a g a i n s t s u c h e n e m ie s . I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , G erm any m ig h t owe t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f its

l i b e r t i e s a n d in d e p e n d e n c e t o R u s s i a . A u s t r i a a n d P r u s s i a cam e t o b lo w s i n 1778 o v e r t h e

v a c a n t th ro n e o f B a v a ria .

War - ttt h a t i n s a t i a t e m o n s t e r n

- was t h e f i n a l r e s o r t i n c o n t r o v e r s i e s b e tw e e n s u c h n a tio n s .

I t was a w o r t h l e s s w a r , b e c a u s e i f t h e d u c h y

w e re s o l d a t t h e m a r k e t p r i c e o f o t h e r e s t a t e s , i t w ould n o t b r i n g e n o u g h money t o p a y t h e e x p e n s e s o f h o s t i l i t y 1 fo r a y e ar. F o r P r u s s i a t h e w ar was n o t d i c t a t e d b y c h o i c e , b u t b y p ru d e n c e and p o l i t i c a l n e c e s s i t y .

F r e d e r ic k a p p e a re d

a s t h e g e n e r o u s p r o t e c t o r o f t h e r i g h t s o f t h e G erm an ic body.

O b v io u s ly , h e d i d n o t w is h h i s r i v a l t o a d d t o

n a t i o n a l s t r e n g t h o r t o e s t a b l i s h a p r e c e d e n t o f in n o v a ­ t i o n a n d d ism em b erm en t i n t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f B a v a r i a , F ra n c e p la c a te d th e b e l l i g e r e n t s .

She was a l r e a d y

e n g a g e d i n a w o r ld w ar a g a i n s t B r i t a i n , a n d a s A u s t r i a f s a l l y , f e a r e d in v o lv e m e n t i n a Germ an w a r.

F u rth e rm o re ,

1 . i b i d . . p p . 1 9 , 235 1784- 1 7 8 5 , p . 1 2 5 . L

-I

118 1

sh e d id n o t d e s i r e to g o ad P r u s s ia i n t o a c o n n e c tio n w i t h h e r E n g l i s h a rc h -e n e m y .

Of c o u r s e , sh e was

im m e d ia te ly c o n c e rn e d b y a n i n f r a c t i o n o f t h e G erm an ic s y s te m c r e a t e d b y t h e T r e a t y o f W e s t p h a li a . 1 The tw o b e l l i g e r e n t s w e re b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r a t t h e C o n g re s s o f T e s c h e n i n 1779? w here t h e B a v a r i a n i s s u e was s e t t l e d a n d n a t i o n a l h o n o r was p a l l i a t e d . 5.

E u ro p e *s r e v e n g e on B r i t a i n a n d t h e A m e ric a n W E v e n ts i n C e n t r a l a n d E a s t e r n E u ro p e w ere o v e r ­

sh ad o w ed b y t h e g r e a t w o r ld w ar o c c a s io n e d b y t h e r e v o l t o f t h e A m e ric a n c o l o n i e s .

T h is “f a t a l c i v i l co m m o tio n 11

f u r n i s h e d u n iq u e o p e n in g s f o r B r i t a i n ’ s n a t u r a l e n e m ie s a n d e v e n f r i e n d s t o g r a s p f o r some o f t h e s o l i d a d v a n ­ t a g e s t h a t s h e h a d b e e n e n jo y i n g a lm o s t a lo n e s i n c e t h e end

o f t h e S e v e n Y e ars* W ar.

S he s t o o d a lo n e b e c a u s e s

No a l l i a n c e , no t i e s o f p o l i t i c a l f r i e n d s h i p fo u n d e d upon m u tu a l i n t e r e s t an d s a f e t y , (a n d no o t h e r c a n s u b s i s t b e tw e e n s t a t e s ) a r e c a p ­ a b l e o f r e s i s t i n g t h e a l l u r e m e n t s o f com m erce, w i t h i t s c o n c o m it a n ts w e a l t h and p o w e r, when t h e s e , e v e n a p p r o a c h i n raLue, t o t h a t o f t h e b a n d s w h ic h c e m e n te d t h e u n i o n . The c o l o n i a l d i s c o n t e n t s p r e c i p i t a t e d a u n io n o f t h e com­ m e r c i a l w o r ld a g a i n s t E n g la n d a n d h e l d o u t a t e m p t a t i o n t o 2 m a n k in d t o f i g h t . I f B r i t a i n ’ s f r i e n d s s t r u c k , h e r e n e m ie s c o u ld h a r d l y

1. I b i d . . 1780, p p . 2 -4 . 2 . I b i d . . 1 7 7 6 , p p . 182- 1 8 3 . L

119 r

"i b e e x p e c te d t o i g n o r e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y .

V e rg en n e s, th e

F r e n c h f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r , a d ju d g e d t h e A m e ric a n d i s c o n ­ t e n t s a r e a d y w eapon t o d e l i v e r a c r u s h i n g b lo w t o t h e e m p ir e .

U n o ffic ia lly a t f i r s t ,

th r o u g h t h e R o d r ig u e s

H o r t a l e z co m p an y , h i s g o v e rn m e n t f u r n i s h e d t h e c o l o n i s t s w ith m a t e r i e l .

B u rk e b e l i e v e d A m e ric a was h e l p e d u n d e r -

h a n d e d ly i n a m an n er t h a t w o u ld do h e r no g o o d ; ^ a n d h e e x p e c te d t h e B o u rb o n s t o d e c l a r e o p e n w ar b e f o r e 2 J u n e 1 777* H e n c e , t h e F ra n c o -A m e r ic a n a l l i a n c e o f 1 7?8 was no s u r p r i s e t o him f o r he f e l t i t w as p e r ­ f e c t l y n a t u r a l f o r r e v o l t e d s u b je c ts to j o i n a c o u n try t h a t was m i m i c a l t o t h e m o th e r c o u n t r y .

3

B u r o p e t s c o l d n e s s a n d h o s t i l i t y was d i s h e a r t e n i n g . E ven P o r t u g a l - B r i t a i n ^ t r a d i t i o n a l a l l y - was u n ­ f r i e n d l y a n d v i r t u a l l y a c c e d e d t o t h e F a m ily C o m p ac t, th o u g h s h e h a d n o t f o r m a l l y j o i n e d .

The l e s s o n was

c le a rs

^ N a tio n s a r e g o v e rn e d i n t h e i r c o n d u c t b y s i t u a 4 t i o n a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e , n o t b y wax o r b y s i g n a t u r e s . n

A m ore s e r i o u s t h r e a t was p r e s e n t e d b y t h e o t h e r I b e r i a n

1 . To R i c h a r d C ham pion, J a n u a r y 1 5 , 1 777 9 Hugh Owen, Two C e n t u r i e s o f C e ra m ic A r t i n B r i s t o l . P r i n t e d p r i v a t e l y ,

1873, p . 208*.

2 . To D r. R o b e r ts o n , J u n e 1 0 , 1777> C o rre s p o n d e n c e ( e d . F itz w illia m ) , I I . 164. 3 . D ecem ber 1 4 , 1 7 7 8 , P a r l i a m e n t a r v H i s t o r y . XX, 8 4 . 4 . A n n u a l R e g i s t e r . 17 7 7 , p . 1 8 4 .

L

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120 r

n s t a t e ; , w hose d e s i g n s w ere h o s t i l e t h r o u g h o u t t h e H er q u a r r e l w i t h t h e B a r b a r y S t a t e s

p r o v i d e d h e r w ith

c

a n e a s y p r e t e x t f o r m i l i t a r y an d n a v a l p r e p a r a t i o n s . S p a in p r o h i b i t e d f o r e i g n s h i p s fro m e n t e r i n g h e r p o r t s , a n i d e a a t v a r i a n c e w i t h a m ity a n d g o o d n e ig h b o r h o o d , 2 a n d a s t e p a c t u a l l y a im e d a t B r i t a i n . I n May 1779 B u rk e no lo n g e r c o n s id e r e d S p a in a s n e u tr a l;

in r e a l i t y

s h e was le a g u e d w it h F r a n c e t o t u r n

th e s c a le a g a in s t B r it a in .

I f B r i t a i n w ere u n i t e d , h e r

c o u n s e l s p r u d e n t l y and r i g o r o u s l y c o n d u c t e d , and t h e s p i r i t o f t h e p e o p l e summoned, s h e n e e d n ot d e s p o n d , f o r s h e c o u l d v a n q u is h t h e h o s t i l e c o m b in a t io n o n h e r p r o p e r 3 e le m e n t - t h e o c e a n . A lth o u g h S p a in s u p p o r te d t h e

A m e ric a n r e b e l s r e l u c t a n t l y b e c a u s e a n ex am p le o f s u c ­ c e s s f u l r e v o l u t i o n w o u ld f u r n i s h a c o n v e n i e n t p r e c e d e n t f o r h e r own f a c t i o u s c o l o n i e s , sh e was p r e v a i l e d u p o n b y h e r B o u rb o n p a r t n e r t o e n t e r t h e w ar a n d t h u s f u l f i l l t h e 4 F a m ily P a c t a n d h e r d e s i r e f o r G i b r a l t a r and F l o r i d a . D e p r iv e d o f h e r n a t u r a l s t r e n g t h a n d h a n d ic a p p e d b y

1 . I n 1774 a S p a n is h a rm y , l e d b y G e n e r a l A le x a n d e r 0*R e i l l y , u n s u c c e s s f u l l y t r i e d t o s to r m A l g i e r s . 2 . A n n u a l R e g i s t e r , 1773» PP* 5 2 -5 3 3 . May 3 1 , 1779* P a r l i a m e n t a r y H i s t o r y , XX, 8 2 6 . 4 . A nnual R e g is te r , 178o, p , 16.

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121

a g r e a t p a r t o f h e r b e in g t u r n e d a g a i n s t h e r , B r i t a i n w as i s o l a t e d i n a n u n e q u a l c o m b a t.

Many s t a t e s g l e e ­

f u l l y c o n te m p la te d t h e p r o s p e c t o f f o r c i n g h e r t o h e r k n e e s l e s s t h a n a s c o r e o f y e a r s a f t e r sh e h a d tr iu m p h e d i n t h e S e v e n Y e a r s 1 War w h ic h h a d b e e n f r a u g h t w i t h 1 h u m i l i a t i o n f o r t h e B o u rb o n p o w e r s :

A l l a n c i e n t s y s te m s o f p o l i c y , r e l a t i v e t o a n y schem e o f e q u a l i t y o r b a l a n c e o f p o w e r, seem ed f o r g o t t e n i n E u r o p e . F r i e n d s a n d a l l i e s w e re no m ore w i t h r e s p e c t t o u s . On t h e c o n t r a r y , w h e th e r i t p r o c e e d e d f ro m o u r f a u l t , o r w h e th e r i t was m e r e ly o u r m i s f o r t u n e , m an k in d seem ed t o w a i t , w i t h a n a s p e c t w h ic h a t b e s t b e s p o k e i n ­ d i f f e r e n c e , f o r t h e e v e n t o f t h a t r u i n w h ic h was e x p e c te d t o b u r s t u p o n u s . War e n e r v a t e d B r i t i s h i m p e r i a l a n d n a v a l s t r e n g t h . The o n c e im p r e g n a b le p o s i t i o n i n t h e M e d i te r r a n e a n was ^ g o n e , a n d t h e v i t a l f o r t r e s s e s a t M in o rc a a n d G i b r a l t a r w ere a t th e m e rc y o f t h e enem y, f o r no f o r c e c o u ld b e d i s » p a t c h e d t o r e i n f o r c e th em - u n l e s s i t w ere sm u g g led “i n a 2 rum p u n c h e o n o r a b r a n d y c a s k . “ I h e f a l l o f M in o rc a s y m b o liz e d t h e l o s s o f n a v a l s u p e r i o r i t y i n a v i t a l s e a . V e rg e n n e s s u c c e s s f u l l y a l i g n e d t h e n e u t r a l c o u n t r i e s a g a i n s t E n g l i s h m a r itim e p r a c t i c e s o f t h e “r i g h t 11 o f s e a r c h a n d o f t h e p a p e r b l o c k a d e , and u s e d t h e moment o f B r i t a i n * s e m b a rra s s m e n t t o d e c l a r e t h e p r i n c i p l e o f f r e e b o tto m s make f r e e t r a d e , t h r o u g h t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y o f

1 . I b i d . . 1 7 7 9 ) P* 5 ° an d p r e f a c e , v . 2 . May 3 1 , 1 7 7 9 ) P a r lia m e n t a r v H i s t o r y . XX, 8 2 7 . L

122. r

i

t h e L eag u e o f Armed N e u t r a l i t y , t o w h ic h D enm ark, S w eden, R u s s i a , P r u s s i a , t h e E m p ir e , P o r t u g a l , t h e Two S i c i l i e s a n d t h e U n ite d P r o v i n c e s s u b s c r i b e d i n o r d e r t o a n n i h i l ­ a t e B r i t i s h n a v a l s u p re m a c y .

S in c e t h e L eag u e c o u l d n o t

b e d i r e c t l y c o n tr a v e n e d b y B r i t a i n , i t s p r i n c i p l e t h a t f r e e s h i p s make f r e e g o o d s se em ed t o b e s e t t l e d a s a p a r t 1 o f t h e la w o f n a t i o n s . Now t h e D u tc h a llo w e d A m e ric a n a n d F r e n c h s h i p s t o r e f i t i n t h e i r p o r t s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e C a r ib b e a n i s l e o f S t . E u s t a t i u s , a n d t h e r e b y g a i n e d t h e e n m ity o f B r i t a i n . A r u p t u r e b e tw e e n t h e S t a t e s o f H o lla n d a n d E n g la n d , “t h o s e a n c i e n t , n a t u r a l , a n d P r o t e s t a n t a l l i e s 1* came a s a m a tte r o f c o u rs e .

T h is r u p t u r e was d e b a t e d i n t h e H ouse

o f Commons, w h e re B u rk e d e c l a r e d t h a t g o in g t o w ar was a v e r y s e r i o u s m a t t e r w h ic h o n l y o v e rw h elm in g n e c e s s i t y c o u ld ju s tify .

The p r u d e n c e a n d p o l i c y o f t h e w ar w e re a s im­

p o rta n t as i t s ju s tic e .

B r ita in was f r i e n d l e s s , o w in g t o a

s p i r i t o f a rro g a n c e in h e r c o u n c ils .

R u s s ia and a l l th e

o t h e r n e u t r a l p o w e rs w o u ld c o a l e s c e a g a i n s t h e r , b e c a u s e t h e w ar a g a i n s t H o lla n d w o u ld t u r n t h e Armed N e u t r a l i t y i n ­ t o a l e a g u e a g a i n s t E n g la n d .

E v e n ts o f t e n a u g u re d r u i n ,

b u t b o r e s a l u t a r y e f f e c t s , B u rk e s a id «

I n t h i s c o n n e c tio n ,

p e r h a p s t h e Armed N e u t r a l i t y , h o s t i l e i n a p p e a r a n c e , m ig h t

A n n u a l R e g i s t e r . 1 7 8 0 , p . 205•

L

J

123 r

"i i n t e r p o s e i n t h e c a s e o f e x tr e m e n e c e s s i t y t o r e s c u e B r i t a i n a n d p r e s e r v e a p r o p e r b a la n c e o f pow er*

T h e re ­

f o r e , a p r e c i p i t o u s a t t a c k on t h e B u tc h w o u ld i n v i t e o t h e r n a t i o n s t o a i d th e m .

The B u tc h m a i n t a i n e d a k in d

o f g e n e r a l m a r k e t i n w h ic h a l l s t a t e s o f E u ro p e w ere m o re o r l e s s c o n n e c t e d .

T h e i r com m erce was l i k e a

c o m m e rc ia l n e u t r a l i t y , b e c a u s e i t s u p p l i e d a l l .

The

c a u s e o f a n a t i o n s o u n i v e r s a l l y u s e f u l w o u ld b e a 1 common o n e . S h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s , R odney s e i z e d t h e i s l a n d o f S t* - E u s ta tiu s .

B u rk e m o u rn ed t h e a c t i o n , f o r t h e i s l a n d e r s

r e c e i v e d no i n t i m a t i o n o f h o s t i l i t i e s b u t w e re c o n f r o n t ­ e d w i t h a dem and f o r s u r r e n d e r w i t h i n t h e h o u r .

A

g e n e r a l c o n f i s c a t i o n o f p r o p e r t y , p u b lic and p r i v a t e , fo llo w e d .

T h is h e te r m e d a n u n h e a r d - o f - c r u e l t y i n

E u r o p e , a n u n j u s t i f i a b l e a n d o u tr a g e o u s s e i z u r e , a v i o l a ­ t i o n o f t h e la w s o f n a t i o n s .

E v en t h i s e n o r m ity was e x ­

cee d ed b y th e s e iz u r e o f a l l l e t t e r s and p r i v a t e p r o p e r ty , a n d t h e p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h e J e w s , w ho, n o t h a v in g a n a t i o n , g o v e rn m e n t o r a rm y , w ere th ro w n upon t h e b e n e v o le n c e o f 2 o th e r n a tio n s f o r p r o te c tio n .

1 . J a n u a r y 2 5 . 1 7 8 1 , P a r l i a m e n t a r y H i s t o r y . X X I, 1 0 7 8 ,1 1 0 5 * 2 . May 1 4 , 1 7 8 1 , I b i d * . X X II, 2 2 1 -2 2 4 .

L

124r

"I The e y e s o f E u ro p e w e re f o c u s s e d on P a r l i a m e n t . B u rk e u r g e d t h a t w ar b e n o t p u s h e d t o e x tr e m e s , b u t m o d e r a te d and lim ite d to d e p re d a tio n s e s s e n t i a l to p u b lic s u c c e s s o r c o n tr ib u to r y to n a ti o n a l g lo r y .

The h u r r i c a n e t h a t r e c e n t ­

l y r a v a g e d t h a t p a r t o f t h e w o r ld was t h e s c o u r g e o f P r o v id e n c e and was i n t e n d e d t o p u n i s h v i c e a n d h um ble p r i d e . In a sm u c h as i t a p p e a r e d t o b e a v i s i t a t i o n fro m H e av e n t o c h e c k t h e f u r y o f m an a g a i n s t man an d t o r e c o n c i l e th em b y a s e n s e o f t h e i r common n e c e s s i t i e s , was i t i r r a t i o n a l t o e x p e c t th e d e a d l y s e r p e n t s o f w ar t o b e m o m e n ta r ily h u s h e d ? 1 He c o n t i n u e d : * S u r e l y , when hum an p r i d e was l e v e l l e d i n t h e d u s t , a n d we saw w h a t worms we w ere b e n e a t h t h e h a n d o f O m n ip o te n c e , i t becam e u s t o c r a w l fro m o u r h o l e s w i t h a f e e l i n g o f b r o t h e r l y lo v e t o e a c h o t h e r ; t o a b a t e a l i t t l e o f p u r r a n c o u r , an d n o t t o a d d t h e d e v a s t a t i o n s o f w ar t o t h o s e o f t h e h u r r i c a n e . He o p p o s e d t h e c o n f i s c a t i o n o f p r o p e r t y b e c a u s e i t v i o ­ l a t e d t h e la w o f n a t i o n s a n d t h e s y s te m r e c e n t l y i n t r o d u c e d by th e c o n s e n t and p r a c tic e o f c i v i l i z e d s t a t e s .

T h e re

w e re p o s i t i v e la w s o f n a t i o n s , fra m e d a n d s e t t l e d b y a c t s i n w h ic h e v e r y s t a t e h a d a v o i c e .

U n lik e t h e la w s o f

B r i t a i n , t h e y w e re n o t i n s t a t u t e a n d r e c o r d , b u t w ere j u s t a s f ir m , c l e a r , b in d in g and n e c e s s a r y .

I t was u n i v e r s a l l y

r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e r i g h t s o f w ar w ere l i m i t e d b y c i v i l i z e d

X. I b id . . XXII, 218 -2 2 0 .

L

-I

s t a t e s a n d t h e p r a c t i c e o f “E n l i g h t e n e d E u r o p e • “

The

l i m i t a t i o n s o r i g i n a t e d i n r e a s o n a n d w e re fo rm e d b y con*® v e n t i o n o f p a r t i e s a n d w e re s e t down b y w r i t e r s on t h e la w o f n a t i o n s , among whom E n e r i c d e V a t t e l was t h e l a t 1 e s t and b e s t . T hey o r i g i n a t e d i n n e c e s s i t y , i n r e a s o n and in th e f i e l d .

S o l d i e r s th e m s e lv e s i n t r o d u c e d th e m ,

h a v in g b e e n t a u g h t b y n e c e s s i t y t o r e s t r a i n t h e e x c e s s e s o f w a r. C o n v e n tio n s e x e m p te d p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y fro m c o n f i s c a ­ t i o n a f t e r a c o n q u e s t.

Ho p r e c e d e n t o f c o n f i s c a t i o n h ad

b een g iv e n f o r f i f t y y e a rs*

S in c e a s t a t e w aged w ar

a g a i n s t a n o th e r s t a t e , n o t i n d i v i d u a l s , i t m ig h t s e i z e p u b lic , not p r iv a te , p ro p e rty : The K in g who s h o u ld r e c e i v e t h e s u r r e n d e r o f a p e o p l e , t h e r e b y a d m i t t i n g th e m w i t h i n t h e p a l e o f h i s g o v e rn m e n t, a n d a f t e r w a r d s s t r i p s th e m o f t h e i r p r o p e r t y , m u st i n so d o i n g , f o r f e i t h i s r o y a l a u t h o r i t y and be c o n s id e r e d o n ly a s a ro b ­ b e r. “Shew me a g o v e rn m e n t, “ B u rk e e x c la im e d , “ an d I w i l l shew y o u a t r u s t . 1*

I f t h e K ing a b a n d o n e d t h a t t r u s t , h e s u r ­

r e n d e r e d h i s r o y a l t y a n d h i s g o v e rn m e n t w i t h t h e s e i z u r e o f th e p ro p e rty o f h is s u b je c ts .

1 . I b i d . . X X II, 2 2 8 - 2 2 9 . 2 . I b i d . , X X II, 2 3 0 -2 3 1 .

2

I t was w rong t o c o n f i s c a t e . B r i t i s h p r o p e r t y i n S t . E u s t a t i u s , th o u g h t h e com m ander a s s e r t e d t h e i s l e was a d e p o s i t f o r t h e s u p p l y o f t h e enem y.

I f th e l a t t e r c h a rg e

w ere t r u e , i t was a g o o d c a u s e f o r w a r .

B u t i t was a

u n i v e r s a l l y a c k n o w le d g e d maxim t h a t o n ce w ar was d e c l a r e d a n d b e g u n , t h e b e l l i g e r e n t s m u t u a l l y h a d j u s t i c e on t h e i r s i d e u n t i l t h e i s s u e w as d e c i d e d .

W h ile t h e p e r f i d i o u s ­

n e s s o f t h e D utch w as a j u s t c a u s e f o r w a r , i t was no j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r a g g ra v a tin g th e h o r r o r s o f w a r.

B u rk e

b e l i e v e d i t h a d b e e n p r o p e r t o make t h e i s l e a p o i n t o f d e p o s it.

I n t h e s p i r i t o f t r a d e , i t c o u ld n o t be;

w i t h o u t a l s o b e in g a m a r k e t .

a d e p o s it

A m e rc h a n t c a r r i e s h i s w a re s

t o a p l a c e n o t t o s t o r e , b u t t o s e l l th e m .

S t. E u s ta tiu s

was a m a r k e t f o r a l l t h e w o r l d , an d t h e r e f o r e , i t w as u s e ­ f u l n o t o n ly t o t h e enemy b u t t o B r i t a i n a s w e l l . 1 V i c t o r y was n o t t h e a l p h a a n d omega f o r B r i t a i n .

To

a c h i e v e s u c c e s s t h a t was w o r t h y , h o n o r a b le an d m o r a l m eans o n l y w e re t o b e u t i l i z e d . we m u s t f a l l ,

B u rk e a d m o n ish e d t h e H o u s e , “ I f

l e t u s a t l e a s t p e r i s h w ith h o n o u r .“

O th e r

s t a t e s w o u ld n o t p e r m i t B r i t a i n t o b e c r u s h e d i f s h e p r e ­ se rv ed h er v i r t u e .

J u s t i c e w o u ld tr iu m p h s

“P r o v i d e n c e ,

a p p r o v in g o f o u r e x e r t i o n s , w i l l s t r e t c h f o r t h t h e pow er­ f u l arm , t o s a v e ; a n d i f we f a i l , we s h a l l d i e la m e n te d ;

1 . I b i d . . X X II, 232-233

127 r

~i

e v e n o u r e n e m ie s w i l l do j u s t i c e ; a n d h i s t o r y w i l l a p p la u d o u r nam e. w ^ The w ar w e n t b a d l y f o r h e r e v e ry w h e re - i t was " t h e m o st l o s i n g a n d u n f o r t u n a t e w ar i n w h ic h E n g la n d h a d 2 e v er, b e e n i n v o l v e d . 11 B u rk e u s e d h i s i n f l u e n c e t o en d t h e A m e ric a n p h a s e o f t h e w a r , f o r h e d e n ie d t h a t b y p r o s e c u t i n g t h a t p h a s e , B r i t a i n was f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t F r a n c e , h e r n a t u r a l enem y.

Peace n e g o tia tio n s soon opened.

The

ru m o r t h a t G i b r a l t a r w o u ld b e c e d e d t o S p a in o c c a s io n e d h i s r e m in d e r t h a t t h e f o r t r e s s was i n v a l u a b l e b e c a u s e o f its

im p r e g n a b ility and i t s

M e d ite rra n e a n .

i n d i s p u t a b l e command o f t h e

W ith i t B r i t a i n m ig h t h o l d t h e a s s i s t a n c e

o f o t h e r p o w e rs i n t h e f u t u r e a n d r e n d e r t h e F a m ily P a c t 4 d e l u s i v e a n d w e ak . The f i g h t i n g was o v e r i n 1 7 8 2 , b u t i t s r e s u l t s w ere e c u m e n ic a l.

The A n n u a l R e g i s t e r a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e w ar

I* I b i d . . X X II, 2 6 2 . The A n n u a l R e g i s t e r fs a c c o u n t o f t h e S t . E u s t a t i u s a f f a i r was u n f r i e n d l y t o B r i t a i n : " I t i s p a i n f u l t o go t h r o u g h a l l t h e c ir c u m s ta n c e s o f a b u s i ­ n e s s , w h ic h d re w u p o n u s ( w h e th e r t h e a c t s w e re d e f e n s ­ i b l e o r n o t ) t h e odium o f a l l E u r o p e . S u f f i c e i t t o s a y , t h a t a l l t h e h o r r o r s o f so u n i v e r s a l a n h a v o c k o f p r o p e r t y , w h ic h m ig h t b e e x p e c te d , w ere f u l l y r e a l i z e d . 11 1781, p . 105. 2* A n n u a l R e g i s t e r . 1 7 8 2 , p . 1 1 4 . 3 . F e b r u a r y 2 2 , 1 7 b 2 , P a r l i a m e n t a r y H i s t o r y . X X II, IO3 7 . 4 . D ecem ber 5 , 1 7 8 2 , I b i d . , X X IIT , 262- 2 6 3 .

L

h a s a l r e a d y o v e r t u r n e d t h o s e f a v o u r i t e s y s te m s o f p o l i c y a n d com m erce, b o t h i n t h e o l d a n d i n t h e new w o r l d , w h ic h t h e w isdom o f t h e a g e s , a n d t h e pow er o f t h e g r e a t e s t n a t i o n s , h a d i n v a i n e n d e a v o u re d t o r e n d e r p e rm a n e n t; a n d i t seem s t o h a v e l a i d t h e se e d s o f s t i l l g r e a te r r e v o lu tio n s i n th e h i s to r y an d m u tu a l r e l a t i o n s o f m a n k in d .

1 . 1782, p re fa c e , i i i .

129

CHAPTER IV THE IMPERIAL PATRIOT AND THE AMERICAN AND IR ISH CRISES

1763«1782

1 . B u r k e 1s I d e a o f a n e m p ire T h a t B u rk e was c o n c e rn e d i n t h e a f f a i r s o f E u ro p e g o e s w i t h o u t s a y in g *

B u t h e was m ore i n t i m a t e l y a f f e c t e d b y

B r i t a i n r s own i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n ity , a n d he s t r o v e t o h a v e i t r e f l e c t t h e h i g h e s t i d e a l s o f a f r e e a n d m u tu a l ly b e n e f i c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n b e tw e e n m o th e r c o u n t r y a n d d e p e n d ­ e n c ie s * The g l o b a l c o n f l i c t e n d in g i n 1763 b r o u g h t B r i t a i n s u p e r i o r i t y , a d d e d i l l i m i t a b l e r e g i o n s t o h e r d o m a in , a n d s o l i d i f i e d h e r h o l d o n N o rth A m e ric a ; b u t a t t h e same t i m e , c o m p e lle d h e r t o m e e t o n e ro u s c h a r g e s o f w ar a n d o f im­ p e r i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a n d t o s e e k a i d fro m h e r c o l o n i e s in s h o u ld e rin g th e s e b u rd e n s . I n t h e m i d s t o f t h a t w ar G eo rg e I I I h a d s u c c e e d e d t o th e th r o n e , and d e s ir e d to d i r e c t th e c o u rse o f a f f a i r s a t home a n d a b ro a d *

I n B u rk e * s v ie w , t h e s h a t t e r i n g o f

t h e W hig a r i s t o c r a c y , now d i s p l a c e d b y t h e K in g * s F r i e n d s , a n d t h e j e o p a r d i z i n g o f l i b e r t i e s i n t h e W ilk e s , W o o d f a ll, a n d p r i n t e r s c a s e s , a n d t h e m e a s u re s p u r s u e d i n c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a im e d a t d ra w in g m a t t e r s c l o s e r t o L ondon, w ere a l l s t r a n d s o f t h e same c o r d t o s t r a n g l e t h e B r i t i s h c o n s titu tio n #

L

130 r

i

I n d e c r y i n g t h e a t t e m p t o f t h e c ro w n t o u s e t h e c o l « o n ie s t o enhance o r r e s t o r e th e r o y a l p r e r o g a tiv e and i n c o n te m p l a ti n g c o l o n i a l d i s c o n t e n t s , B u rk e f o r m u l a t e d a c o n c e p t o f i m p e r i a l d o m in io n .

The e m p ire was a g r e a t

t r u s t an d a d i g n i t y t o w h ic h D iv in e P r o v id e n c e

had c a lle d

B r i t a i n ; i t was a g r e a t i n t e r n a t i o n a l u n i o n o f c o m m u n itie s u n d e r one common h e a d , w h e th e r t h e l a t t e r was a m o n arc h o r p r e s i d i n g r e p u b l i c , ( w i t h t h e com p o n en t o r s u b o r d i n a t e p a r t s e x e r c i s i n g n u m ero u s p r i v i l e g e s a n d im m u n itie s 1 a c c o rd in g to c irc u m s ta n c e s . B etw een t h e p r i v i l e g e s o f t h e p a r t s a n d t h e su p rem e common a u t h o r i t y i n t h e e m p ire t h e r e was a n i m p e r c e p t i b l e d i v i s i o n . The i d e a o f s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f com p o n en t p a r t s ex­ c lu d e d a n y n o t i o n o f s im p le a n d u n d i v id e d u n i t y .

A lth o u g h

t h e w h o le a u t h o r i t y r e s i d e d i n E n g la n d b y t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s , i t d i d n o t make h e r t h e h e a d a n d t h e m em bers t o o 2 o f t h e e m p ir e . B r i t a i n was o n ly p a r t o f t h e g r e a t em» 3 p ire . B ut sh e h ad th e t a s k o f p r e s id in g o v e r and d i r « e c t i n g t h e v a s t m ass o f h e te r o g e n e o u s a n d g e n e r a l l y f r e e an d p o p u l a r g o v e r n m e n ts , a n d o f k e e p in g them i n p e a c e an d . 4 o u t o f c o n s p i r a c y w i t h on e a n o t h e r . B r i ti s h s o v e re ig n ty

1 . S p e e c h on C o n c i l i a t i o n , W orks ( e d . B o h n ), I , 4 7 6 - 4 7 7 , 5 0 8 -5 0 9 ; L e t t e r t o t h e S h e r i f f s o f B r i s t o l . I b i d . . II 17* ——— 2 . I b l d . / l . 501- 5 0 2 . 3 . Novem ber 3 , 1 7 7 4 , I b i d . , I , 4 4 7 - 4 4 8 . 4 . O b s e r v a ti o n s on a L a te P u b l i c a t i o n . . . . I b i d . . I , 2 7 8 . L

w as i m p e r a t i v e if* u n i t y a n d s u b o r d i n a t i o n w ere t o b e p r e ­ se rv ed . The B r i t i s h P a r l i a m e n t t h e n was b o t h a l o c a l a n d a n im p e ria l l e g i s l a t u r e .

In th e

l a t t e r c h a r a c t e r , i t g u id e d

and c o n tr o lle d th e c o o rd in a te p r o v i n c i a l l e g i s l a t u r e s , w i t h o u t d e s t r o y i n g th e m .

I t s s o v e r e i g n pow er w as e x t r a ­

o r d i n a r y : e x i s t i n g t o s a t i s f y t h e e n d s o f ttp r u d e n t a n d b e n e f i c e n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n c e 11 i n tim e s o f n e c e s s i t y i n o r d e r t o p r o d on t h e n e g l i g e n t , r e s t r a i n t h e v i o l e n t , a n d s u c e o r 1 t h e w e ak . The A m e ric a n c o l o n i e s i n p a r t i c u l a r h a d g r a d u a l l y e x ­ e r c i s e d p r i v i l e g e s o f a l o c a l c h a r a c te r w ith o u t th in k in g o f t h e e f f e c t o n P a r l i a m e n t 's l e g i s l a t i v e a u t h o r i t y .

The

l o c a l c o l o n i a l a s s e m b l i e s r e s e m b le d P a r l i a m e n t an d im b ib e d 2 th e l a t t e r * s o p in io n o f a u t h o r i t y . I t was im p ru d e n t t o tu r n b ack h i s t o r y , and hence th e p r iv ile g e s o u g h t n o t be c u ta w a y , B u rk e t h o u g h t .

O ver t h e s e c o l o n i e s B r i t a i n o u g h t

s t i l l t o r e t a i n t h e t a x i n g pow er a s a n u l t i m a t e c o n t r o l , th o u g h i n f a c t t h e c o l o n i e s w > u ld t a x t h e m s e l v e s . I t was n o t e a s y t o d e v i s e a s im p le f o r m u la o f im p e r i a l sw ay .

To m erge p r i v i l e g e a n d a u t h o r i t y w as c o m p le x :

1 . S p e e c h on T a x a t i o n , I b i d . . I , 4 3 4 -4 3 5 • 2 . L e tte r to S h e r if f s o f B r i s t o l , i b id . . I I , 3 . O b s e r v a t i o n s o n a L a te P u b l i c a t i o n . . . , i b i d . . I , 279-2& 0 .

132 “i

r

W h eth er a l l t h i s c a n b e r e c o n c i l e d i n l e g a l s p e ­ c u l a t i o n , i s a m a t t e r o f no c o n se q u e n c e * I t is re c o n c ile d i n p o lic y 5 and p o l i t i e s ought to be a d j u s t e d , n o t t o human r e a s o n i n g s , b u t t o hum an n a t u r e ; o f w h ic h t h e r e a s o n i s b u t a p a r t , a n d b y no m eans t h e g r e a t e s t p a r t . A b s t r a c t t h e o r i e s w ere p e r i l o u s g u i d e s t h r o u g h t h e r e e f s o f im p e r ia l c o n d u c t,

E x p e r ie n c e was a s a f e r

p i l o t a n d show ed t h a t l o c a l p r i v i l e g e s a n d s a l u t a r y n e g l e c t w e re m ore c o n fo r m a b le t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c o lo n i s t s and th e im p e r ia l s h ip o f s t a t e .

G o v ern m en t

m u st a c c o r d w i t h t h e c ir c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e s e v e r a l p e o p l e s c o m p r is in g t h e w h o le .

wThe te m p e r o f t h e p e o p le a m o n g st

whom he p r e s i d e s , * w r o te B u r k e , f o u g h t t h e r e f o r e t o b e th e f i r s t s tu d y o f a s ta te s m a n .*

Ho s i n g l e m e th o d c o u ld

s e r v e f o r I n d i a , f o r V i r g i n i a , o r f o r M a s s a c h u s e tts . G o v e rn m e n t was “a p r a c t i c a l t h i n g , made f o r t h e h a p p i ­ n e s s o f m a n k in d , a n d n o t t o f u r n i s h o u t a s p e c t a c l e o f u n i f o r m i t y , t o g r a t i f y t h e sch em es o f v i s i o n a r y p o l i -

2 t i e i a n s . 1* B r i t a i n ' s t a s k w as t o r u l e , n o t t o w r a n g le . I t w as t h e t e s t o f s t a t e s m a n s h i p t o r e c o n c i l e t h e u n w ie ld y h a u g h t i n e s s o f a g r e a t r u l i n g n a t i o n , a c c u s ­ to m ed t o command, s o f t e n e d b y w e a l t h , a n d c o n f i d e n t fro m a lo n g c o u r s e o f p r o s p e r i t y a n d v i c t o r y , t o t h e e b u l ­ l i e n t s p i r i t o f t h e f r e e d e p e n d e n c i e s , now i n t h e bloom

1 . T h o u g h ts on t h e C ause o f t h e P r e s e n t D i s c o n t e n t s ,

IbM -, 1, 307. 2 . l e t t e r t o S h e r i f f s o f B r i s t o l , i b i d . t I I , 28- 2 9 . L

o f youth who were assum ing to them selves a s a b ir t h - r some p a r t o f t h e p r i d e t h a t w as o p p r e s s i n g th e m .

A

2 b a l a n c e b e tw e e n t h e tw o c o u ld b e s t r u c k , h o w e v e r: A l l g o v e rn m e n t, i n d e e d e v e r y human b e n e f i t a n d e n jo y m e n t, e v e r y v i r t u e , a n d e v e r y p r u d e n t a c t , i s fo u n d e d on co m p ro m ise a n d b a r t e r . We b a la n c e i n c o n v e n i e n c e s ; we g i v e a n d t a k e ; we r e m i t some r i g h t s t h a t we may e n jo y o t h e r s ; a n d we c h o o s e r a t h e r to be happy c it i z e n s th a n s u b tle d is ­ p u t a n t s . As we m u s t g i v e away iom e n a t u r a l l i b e r t y , t o e n jo y c i v i l a d v a n t a g e s ; so we m u st s a c r i f i c e some c i v i l l i b e r t i e s f o r t h e a d v a n ta g e s t o b e d e r i v e d fro m t h e com m union a n d f e l l o w s h i p o f a g r e a t e m p ire* B u t, i n a l l f a i r d e a l i n g s , t h e t h i n g b o u g h t m u s t b e a r some p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e p u r c h a s e p a i d , h o n e w i l l b a r t e r aw ay t h e im m e d ia te j e w e l o f h i s s o u l . T hough a g r e a t h o u s e i s a p t t o make s l a v e s h a u g h ty , y e t i t i s p u r c h a s i n g a p a r t o f t h e a r t i f i c i a l im p o r ta n c e o f a g r e a t e m p ire to© d e a r , t o p a y f o r i t a l l e s s e n t i a l r i g h t s , and a l l th e i n t r i n s i c d ig n ity o f hum an n a t u r e , h o n e o f u s who w o u ld n o t r i s k h i s l i f e r a t h e r t h a n f a l l u n d e r a g o v e rn m e n t p u re ly a r b i t r a r y . B u t a lt h o u g h t h e r e a r e some a m o n g st u s who t h i n k o u r c o n s t i t u t i o n w a n ts . many im p ro v e m e n ts , t o make i t a c o m p le te s y s ­ tem o f l i b e r t y ; p e r h a p s n o n e who a r e o f t h a t o p i n i o n w o u ld t h i n k i t r i g h t t o - a i m a t s u c h im p ro v e m e n t, b y d i s t u r b i n g h i s c o u n t r y , a n d r i s k i n g e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s d e a r t o h im . I n e v e r y a rd u o u s e n t e r p r i s e , we c o n s i d e r w h a t we a r e t o l o s e a s w e l l a s w h a t we a r e t o g a i n ; a n d t h e m ore a n d b e t t e r s t a k e o f l i b e r t y e v e r y p e o p le p o s s e s s , t h e l e s s t h e y w i l l h a z a r d i n a v a i n a t t e m p t t o make i t m o re , t h e s e a r e t h e c o r d s o f m an. Man a c t s fro m a d e q u a te m o tiv e s r e l a t i v e t o h i s i n t e r e s t a n d n o t on m e t a p h y s i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n s . A r i s t o t l e , t h e g r e a t m a s te r o f r e a s o n i n g , c a u t i o n s u s , a n d w i t h g r e a t w e ig h t and p r o p r i e t y , a g a in s t t h i s s p e c ie s o f d e lu s iv e g e o m e t r i c a l a c c u r a c y i n m o r a l a r g u m e n ts , a s t h e m o st f a l l a c i o u s o f a l l s o p h i s t r y .

1.

x x , 3 1 -3 2 .

2 . S p e e c h o n C o n c i l i a t i o n , i b i d . , X, 5 0 0 -5 0 1 *

134 r

“I

The e m p ire w as a f e l l o w s h i p o f f r e e m en, b o u n d t o g e t h e r b y t h e lo v e f l o w i n g fro m common n a m e s, k i n d r e d b l o o d , s im ila r p r i v il e g e s and e q u a l p ro te c tio n *

T h e se t i e s ,

th o u g h l i g h t a s a i r , w e re i n r e a l i t y m ig h ty l i n k s o f u n io n * I m p e r i a l s u b j u g a t i o n w as no bond*

C o l o n i s t s c o u ld o b t a i n

s l a v e r y fro m S p a i n , P r u s s i a o r a n y o t h e r n a t i o n , b u t fro m B r i t a i n t h e y o u g h t t o e x p e c t freed o m *

D u rin g t h e 1 A m e ric a n --R e v o lu tio n , B u rk e w a rn e d E n g lis h m e n s D eny th e m t h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f f r e e d o m , a n d y o u b r e a k t h e s o l e b o n d , w h ic h o r i g i n a l l y m ad e, a n d m u s t s t i 11 p r e s e r v e , t h e u n i t y o f t h e e m p ire • Do n o t e n t e r t a i n s o w eak a n i m a g i n a t i o n , a s th a t your r e g i s te r s and your b o nd s, your a f f i ­ d a v i t s and y o u r s u f f e r a n c e s , y o u r c o c k e ts an d y o u r c l e a r a n c e s , a r e w h a t fo rm t h e g r e a t s e c u r i ­ t i e s o f y o u r com m erce. Bo n o t d rea m t h a t y o u r l e t t e r s o f o f f i c e , a n d y o u r i n s t r u c t i o n s , an d y o u r s u s p e n d in g c l a u s e s , a r e t h e t i l i n g s t h a t h o ld to g e th e r th e g r e a t c o n te x tu r e o f th e m y s t e r i o u s w h o le . T h e s e t h i n g s do n o t make y o u r g o v e rn m e n t* Dead i n s t r u m e n t s , p a s s i v e to o ls a s th e y a r e , i t i s th e s p i r i t o f th e E n g l i s h com m union t h a t g i v e s a l l t h e i r l i f e a n d e f f i c a c y t o them* i& t h e s p i r i t o f t h e E n g l i s h C o n s t i t u t i o n * w h ic h i n f u s e d t h r o u g h t h e m ig h ty m a s s , p e r v a d e s * f e e d s * u n i t e s * i n v i ­ g o ra te s , eg. e y e ry, p&r.t o f %he empi r e , e v e n down t o t h e m i n u t e s t m em ber* B u t t h e B r i t i s h g o v e rn m e n t w as n o t d i s p o s e d t o p l a n its

i m p e r i a l c o n d u c t on t h e b a s i s o f t h i s c o n c e p t o f

e m p i r e ; a n d i n t h e A m e ric a n a n d I r i s h c r i s e s i t to o k m e a s u r e s t h a t n o t o n ly f a i l e d t o a c h ie v e t h e i n t e n d e d en d o f t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e e m p ire b u t a l s o w ere

I b i d * * I , 508- 5 0 9 . L

U n d e r s c o r in g m in e

135 d e s tr u c tiv e o f l ib e r ty and a rig h tly -o rd e re d in te r n a tio n a l c o m m u n ity . 2.

i m p e r i a l D ogm atism a n d A m e ric an d i s c o n t e n t s B r i t a i n • s v i c t o r y o v e r t h e B o u rb o n s i n 1763 w as no

u n m ix ed b l e s s i n g .

The I n d i a n o u tb r e a k i n t h a t y e a r

a n d t h e a n t i c i p a t e d F r e n c h r i v a l r y e m p h a s iz e d t h e n e e d f o r p e rm a n e n t g a r r i s o n s o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 men i n A m e ric a .

L o rd

B u t e 's s u c c e s s o r i n 1 7 6 3 > G e o rg e G r e n v i l l e , d e te r m in e d t o h a v e t h e A m e ric a n s s h o u l d e r a p a r t o f t h e c o s t o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e s t a n d i n g a rm y ,

The S u g a r a n d Stam p

A c ts o f 1 7 6 4 -1 7 6 5 a n d t h e s t r i n g e n t e n fo r c e m e n t o f t h e A c ts o f T ra d e t h a t e m b o d ie d t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f m e rc a n ­ t i l i s m , a n d t h e r e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e c u sto m s s e r v i c e w e re i n t e n d e d t o r a i s e r e v e n u e .

The e n d o f s a l u t a r y

n e g l e c t n a t u r a l l y r a i s e d a s to r m o f a n g r y p r o t e s t i n A m e ric a . B u rk e a t t r i b u t e d t h e d i s c o n t e n t s i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s t o t h e s e im p ru d e n t m e a s u r e s . s o v e r e i g n t y w as a m i s t a k e .

To e x e r c i s e u n l i m i t e d C o m m e rcia l r e s t r i c t i o n s im ­

p o s e d o n t h e c o l o n i s t s w e re a l i e n t o men o f h i g h s p i r i t . 1 he a d v is e d :

1 . O b s e r v a ti o n s on a L a te P u b l i c a t i o n . . . . i b i d . . I ,

277 -2 7 6 . .

L

•J

To h o l d o v e r th em a g o v e rn m e n t m ade u p o f n o t h i n g h u t r e s t r a i n t s and p e n a l t i e s , and ta x e s in th e g r a n t i n g o f w h ic h t h e y c a n h a v e no s h a r e , w i l l n e i t h e r h e w i s e , n o r lo n g p r a c t i c a b l e . P e o p le m u st b e g o v e rn e d i n a m an n er a g r e e a b l e t o t h e i r te m p e r a n d d i s p o s i t i o n ; a n d men o f f r e e c h a r a c ­ t e r an d s p i r i t m ust b e r u l e d w ith , a t l e a s t , some c o n d e s c e n s io n t o t h i s s p i r i t a n d t h i s c h a r a c ­ te r. The R o ck in g h am G o v e rn m e n t r e p e a l e d t h e Stam p A c t i n M arch 1766 o n t h e b a s i s o f e x p e d ie n c y , e q u i t y a n d l e n i t y , b u t s im u lta n e o u s ly a ff ir m e d th e u n lim ite d l e g i s l a t i v e r i g h t o f B r i t a i n o v er th e c o lo n ie s i n th e D e c la ra to ry A c t.

The pow er o f l e v y i n g t a x e s was t o b e r e t a i n e d ,

B u rk e s a i d , a s a s a c r e d t r u s t a n d a n u l t i m a t e e o n t r o l o v e r t h e c o l o n i e s , b e c a u s e B r i t a i n w as t h e h e a d a n d t h e a r b i t e r o f t h e w h o le e m p ir e .

A m e ric a n fre e d o m a n d 1

B r i t i s h s o v e r e i g n t y w e re r e c o n c i l a b l e i n p r a c t i c e . The s u c c e e d i n g m i n i s t r y o f G r a f to n a n d C hatham r e t u r n e d t o t h e s y s te m o f l,1 7 6 4 M o r r a i s i n g r e v e n u e s i n A m e ric a b y s p o n s o r i n g t h e T ow nshend A c ts o f 1 7 6 7 , im­ p o s i n g d u t i e s o n g l a s s , r e d a n d w h ite l e a d , p a p e r a n d t e a , a n d a m ore r i g i d e n fo r c e m e n t o f t h e r e v e n u e a c t s . The i s s u e o f p a r l i a m e n t a r y t a x a t i o n w id e n e d t h e b r e a c h b e tw e e n t h e c o l o n i s t s a n d t h e m o th e r c o u n t r y , a n d a r g u ­ m e n ts r a g e d a c r o s s t h e s e a s .

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1* I b i d . T £ . 2 7 9 -2 6 0 . I t w as p o l i t i c a l l y n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e R o ck in g h am g o v e rn m e n t t o s p o n s o r t h e D e c l a r a t o r y A c t i n o r d e r t o w in s u p p o r t f o r t h e r e p e a l o f t h e Stam p A c t .

o f $ P e n n s y l v a n ia F a r m e r t f o r e x a m p le , d e n ie d P a r l i a m e n t ^ r i g h t to le v y e v en a n e x t e r n a l t a x .

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v i r t u a l b o y c o tt o f B r i t i s h goods t h a t b ro u g h t s u b s t a n t i a l lo sses t o E n g l i s h m e r c h a n ts a n d t h e r e b y p r o v i d e d a n i n f l u e n t i a l b o d y o f o p i n i o n i n E n g la n d f o r m o d e r a ti o n . B u rk e m a i n t a i n e d t h a t i n t h e m a t t e r o f t a x a t i o n , t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t s o f E n g lis h m e n h a d b e e n in v a d e d a n d m oney h a d b e e n r a i s e d w i t h o u t t h e s u b j e c t ’s c o n s e n t . W h ile h e r e c o g n i z e d t h e l e g a l i t y o f s u c h t a x e s , h e r e a s o n e d t h a t wa 11 t h a t i s

la w fu l i s n o t e x p e d ie n t. "

I f t h e t a x i n g p o w e r w e re s u r r e n d e r e d , t h e c o l o n i s t s w o u ld h a v e no r e a s o n a b l e p r e t e n c e t o s h a k e o f f t h e i r d e 1 pendence. J±e r e a s o n e d on g r o u n d s o f p o l i t i c a l p r u d e n c e . B r i t a i n c o u ld n o t a f f o r d a c i v i l c o n f l a g r a t i o n i n t h e f a c e o f h o s t i l e n e ig h b o rin g s t a t e s , f l e x i n g t h e i r m use

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a n d t h r e a t e n i n g t o l a n d a b lo w

a t B rita in . L o rd N o r th becam e C h a n c e l l o r o f t h e E x c h e q u e r i n 1767 a n d P rim e M i n i s t e r i n 1770 a s a r e a d y t o o l f o r r o y a l w is h e s .

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w ith d r a w in g a l l t h e fo w h sh e n d d u t i e s , e x c e p t t h e t a x o n

1 . J a n u a r y 9* 1 7 7 0 , P a r l i a m e n t a r y H i s t o r y . X V I, 7 22-725«

te a i n o rd e r to m a in ta in th e p r i n c i p l e o f p a rlia m e n ta r y ta x a tio n .

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S o o n th e h e w as t h e B o s to n M a s s a c re i n M arch 1 7 7 0 , a n d t h e B o s to n T ea P a r t y t h a t w as o c c a s i o n e d b y t h e a t t e m p t t o s e l l s u r p l u s E a s t I n d i a t e a i n 1773«

R e s is ta n c e le d

t o i m p e r i a l c o e r c i o n t h r o u g h t h e i n t o l e r a b l e A c ts o f 17 7 4 ; a n d a s p i r i t o f u n io n to o k ho I d o f t h e c o l o n i e s , who m e t i n t h e F i r s t C o n t i n e n t a l C o n g r e s s . The A m e ric a n s c o n s i d e r e d t h e Q uebec A c t o f 1774 a n i n t o l e r a b l e m e a s u re a l s o , f o r i t e x te n d e d t h e b o u n ­ d a r i e s o f C anada s o u t h t o t h e © h io , t h u s c l o s i n g o f f t h e W est t o c o l o n i z a t i o n .

The A c t e s t a b l i s h e d t h e

C a t h o l i e C h u rc h a n d F r e n c h c i v i 1 law i n C a n a d a .

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m e a s u re w as u n w is e , b e c a u s e i t d e p r i v e d le w Y o rk o f c e r t a i n la n d s an d h e lp e d t o d r iv e t h a t p i v o t a l s t a t e - w h ic h h a d r e m a in e d l o y a l t o t h e c ro w n - t o o p p o s i ­ tio n . B u rk e d i s a g r e e d w i t h m any o f i t s p r o v i s i o n s , s e e i n g i n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f b o u n d a r i e s b y t h e c ro w n a n o th e r m a n if e s ta tio n o f th e a tte m p t t o t i l t th e

1 b a la n c e o f th e B r i t i s h C o n s titu tio n .

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e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f F r e n c h la w on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t i t w as a rb itra ry .

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2 c a n k e e p a n o t h e r c o u n t r y i n s l a v e r y . ** He recom m ended t h e u s e o f j u r i e s f o r t h e C a n a d ia n s - a t l e a s t t h e t h r e e h u n d r e d a n d s i x t y E n g l i s h f a m i l i e s i n C anada d e se rv e d th e i n s t i t u t i o n .

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p o w er t o d e te r m in e b o u n d a r i e s w ere a d a n g e r o u s com­ b in a tio n .

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f r o n t i e r s i n t h e f u t u r e , t h e y c o u ld p l a c e a g r e a t p a r t o f t h e s u b j s e t s o f E n g la n d u n d e r la w s t h a t w e r e n o t

1 . He w as a p p o i n t e d c o l o n i a l a g e n t f o r t h e A sse m b ly o f Hew l o r k i n 1 7 7 1 . I t w as h i s d u t y t o r e p o r t t o t h e A sse m b ly on m a t t e r s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p ro v in c e . I n d i s c u s s i n g t h e Q uebec B i l l , h e d i d n o t w is h t o a la r m t h e A m e ric a n s ; i n s t e a d , h e p l a c a t e d th em h o p in g t h e r e b y t o p r e s e r v e t h e e m p ir e , i h e r e w as a p o s s i b i l i t y " t h a t i n t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e b o u n d a r y , 1m i n i s t e r s w o u ld n a t u r a l l y l e a n t o e x te n d t h o s e l i m i t s t h e m o s t, w h ere t h e r o y a 1 p r e r o g a t i v e w as m o st e x te n s iv e , an d c o n s e q u e n tly t h e i r pow er th e h i g h e s t . * f h e n , n o t t o a la r m , h e a d d e d , tfI do n o t mean t o c h a r g e th em w i t h t h a t i n t e n t i o n . " qL USMJ a r X H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , S e c o n d S e r i e s , I I , Hew l o r k , 1 8 4 9 , p . 222. 2 . May 3 1 , 1774* S i r H e n ry C a v e n d is h , D e b a te s o f t h e H ouse £ f Commons i n t h e I e a r 1774 on t h e B i l l f o r M aking More E f f e c t u a l P r o v i s i o n s f o r t h e G o v e rn m e n t o f t h e P r o v i n c e o f Q u e b ec . ( e d . # . W r i g h t ) , L o n d o n , B id g w a y , 1 8 3 9 , p . 8 9 .

140

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A m e ric a n s , h e a p p ro v e d o f t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e C a t h o l i c C h u rc h i n C a n a d a , s a y i n g : I lo o k u p o n t h e p e o p le o f C anada a s c o m in g , b y t h e d i s p e n s a t i o n o f C od, u n d e r t h e B r i t i s h g o v e rn m e n t* I w o u ld h a v e u s g o v e r n i t , i n t h e sam e m an n er a s t h e a l l - w i s e d i s p o s i t i o n o f P r o v id e n c e w o u ld g o v e r n i t . A s t h e s u n s h i n e s on t h e r i g h t e o u s a n d u n r i g h t e o u s , s o B r i t a i n o u g h t t o p e r m i t a l l c l a s s e s t o e n jo y e q u a l l y t h e r i g h t o f w o r s h ip p in g God a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l i g h t t h a t i t p l e a s e d Him t o g r a n t them*

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e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e C h u rc h i n C anada a n t e d a t e d t h e T r e a t y o f P a r i s o f 1 7 6 3 , a n d h e n c e no g o v e rn m e n t h a d

2 th e r i g h t t o su sp en d i t . B urke* s i n t e r e s t i n A m e ric a n a f f a i r s d i d n o t f a l t e r , a n d w as v o i c e d i n t h e c e l e b r a t e d s p e e c h on A m e ric a n t a x a t i o n on A p r i l 19, 1774, i n w h ic h h e c o n ­ t e n d e d t h a t i t was im p r u d e n t t o r e t a i n t h e t a x o n t e a and r e p e a l th e o th e r s .

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c o m m e rc ia l r e s t r i c t i o n s h a d b e e n o r i g i n a l l y a im e d a t p e rm ittin g th e c o lo n ie s to c o n tr ib u te to th e s tr e n g th

1. June 10, 1 7 7 4 , dune 6 , 1774, i b i d . . p p . 2 8 8 , I f 6 . 2 . June 7 , 1774, i b i d . . p . 222-223.

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v e n t i o n , p r a c t i c e , a c c i d e n t , a n d t h e h o n o r o r g e n iu s o f t h e g o v e r n o r s o r g o v e rn e d - a l l m o d if ie d t o i n f i n i t y # A lth o u g h i t s po w er w as u n b o u n d e d , P a r l i a m e n t o u g h t t o h a v e l e a r n e d fro m t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e c o l o n i e s t o l i m i t t h e e x e r c i s e o f t h a t pow er#

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may do i n t h e o r y e x c e p t T h e o ry b e t h e O b j e c t : when one t a l k s o f p r a c t i c e , t h e y m u s t a c t a c c o r d i n g t o c ir c u m 1 s t a n c e s # ** W ould B r i t a i n c o n c e d e t h e pow er o f t a x a t i o n t o t h e c o l o n i s t s '?

laord M a n s f i e l d , t h e C h i e f J u s t i c e , p r o ­

v i d e d a p o p u l a r an sw er#

P a r l i a m e n t c o u ld make law s f o r

t h e w h o le e m p ire a n d c o u ld b i n d e v e r y p a r t a n d s u b j e e t 2 w i t h o u t d i s t i n c t i o n b e c a u s e i t r e p r e s e n t e d t h e w h o le . B u r k e 's g o o d f r i e n d , t h e T o ry Dr# J o h n s o n , s a i d p i t h i l y , 3 **In s o v e r e i g n t y , t h e r e a r e no g r a d a t i o n s . 1* On t h e

-1. To C h a r le s OlH a r a , J u l y 2 6 , 1775? B u r k e -0 *H ara C o r r e s p o n d e n c e T Pordham U n i v e r s i t y M i c r o f i l m s . 2 . H a n d o lp h G. A dam s, P o l i t i c a l I d e a s o f t h e A m e ric a n ^ e v o l u t i o n , B urham , B .C ., T r i n i t y C o lle g e , 1922, p . 24. 3# I n h i s p a m p h le t, x a S fitiftfl M 1774* c i t e d b y Adam s, o p . c i t #, p . 9*

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f r e e m e n , i n G r e a t B r i t a i n , d is e m b a r k , s l a v e s i l l A m e ric a ? "

i h e b o n d b e tw e e n A m e ric a n s a n d B r i t o n s was

a common c ro w n , a “u n i o n o f a l l e g i a n c e ” t h a t n a t u r a l l y b r i n g s a " u n io n o f h e a r t s . 1* i h e co m p o n en t p a rt© o f t h e e m p ire w ere d i s t i n c t i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s , j o i n e d 1 t o g e t h e r b y t h e c ro w n . W ils o n ’ s c o n te m p o r a r y , dam es I r e d e l l , a s s e r t e d t h e k i n g w as t h e e x e c u t i v e o f many c o - e q u a l l e g i s l a t u r e s o f a s many c o - e q u a l p o l i t i c a l

2 e o m m u n itie s c o m p r is in g t h e e m p ir e . when t h e K in g d i s s o l v e d P a r l i a m e n t i n O c to b e r 1774* B o ck in g h am o f f e r e d B u rk e / t h e s e a t r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e f a m i l y b o ro u g h o f M a lt o n .

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who a p p la u d e d h i s A m e ric a n e f f o r t s , r e q u e s t e d him t o r u n f o r a s e a t fro m t h e i r c i t y , t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t m uni­ c ip a lity in B rita in .

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e f f o r t s “to w a r d t h e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f B r i t i s h s u p e r io r s i t y a n d A m e ric a n l i b e r t y .

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1 . C o n s i d e r a t i o n s on t h e M a tu re a n d E x t e n t o f t h e ; L e g is la tiv e A u th o rity o f th e B r i ti s h P a rlia m e n t, Wor k s o f t h e H o n o u rab l e d.amss I l l s OS , L k J h , P h i l a d e lp h ia , J v o l s , . 1804, Ix x , 222, 243. 2 . A dam s, o p . c i t . y p . $6.

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i n t e r e s t s , a n d i n t u r n B r i t a i n was b u t a p a r t o f t h e e m p ire .~

The in te r e s ts

o f a l l th e s e g r o u p s h a d t o b e 1 c o n s i d e r e d , c o m p a re d a n d r e c o n c i l e d . B u r k e ’ s p o l i t i c a l s t a t u r e i n c r e a s e d im m e a s u re a b ly a s a r e s u l t o f h i s s u c ­ c e s s a t t h e p o l l s , a n d h e w as now r e g a r d e d a s a n a s s o ­ c i a t e r a t h e r t h a n a c l i e n t o f B o ck in g h am . L o rd h o r t h a t t e m p t e d c o n c i l i a t i o n i n F e b r u a r y 1775 b y o f f e r in g to w ith h o ld p a rlia m e n ta r y t a x a t i o n , i f t h e c o l o n i e s w o u ld make a d e q u a te p r o v i s i o n f o r r e v e n u e . B u rk e to o k u p t h e p ro b le m o f c o n c i l i a t i o n i n a d i s ­ t i n g u i s h e d o r a t i o n o n M arch 2 2 , 1775* h e s o u g h t a n a d ­ j u s t m e n t t h a t w as f r e e fro m t h e 11j u r i d i c a l d e te r m i n a ­ t i o n o f p e r p l e x i n g q u e s t i o n s , o r t h e p r e c i s e m a rk in g o f t h e shadow y b o u n d a r i e s o f a com plex g o v e r n m e n t.1* The im p e ria l p a tr io t p le a d e d fe v e ris h ly in g

to

re sto re

th e

fo r u n ity ,

c o lo n is ts 1 fo rm er u n su sp e c tin g

seek­ con­

"Peace i m p l i e s r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , ** h e

fid e n c e

in B rita in .

arg u ed ,

a n d “w h e r e t h e r e h a s b e e n a m a t e r i a l d i s p u t e ,

re c o n c ilia tio n sio n

on th e

does in

one p a r t o r on th e

m ent w as p re fe ra b le w eapon fo rc e

a m a n n er a lw a y s im p ly c o n c e s ­

to

o th e r . M

P ru d e n t m anage­

fo rc e , b ecau se a s an im p e ria l

w as te m p o ra ry an d u n c e r ta in i n

e ffe c t,

a n d w o u ld im p a ir A m e ric a w h ic h h a d to b e k e p t w h o le . T h ere w as no e x p e rie n c e , b e s id e s ,

to

fav o r its

use as

1 . N ovem ber 3 , 1 7 7 4 , W orks ( e d . B o h n ), I , 4 4 8 . L

-i

1 an in s tru m e n t to r u l e B r i t i s h c o lo n ie s . The A m e ric a n s w ere p o s s e s s e d o f a f i e r c e s p i r i t o f l i b e r t y a s a r e s u l t o f t h e i r E n g l i s h e x t r a c t i o n , fo rm o f g o v e rn m e n t, t h e c h a r a c t e r o f r e l i g i o n i n t h e n o r t h e r n a n d m a n n e rs i n t h e s o u t h e r n p r o v i n c e s , e d u c a t i o n , an d re m o te n e s s o f t h e i r l o c a t i o n ,

th ro u g h th e v e in s o f

A m e ric a n s f lo w e d t h e H o o d o f fr e e d o m , a n d t h e y c o u ld n o t b e p e r s u a d e d t h a t t h e o p p o s i t e was t h e c a s e .

‘"An

E n g lis h m a n i s t h e u n f i t t e s t p e r s o n on e a r t h t o a r g u e 2 a n o t h e r E n g lis h m a n i n t o s l a v e r y . " t h e d i s t a n c e b e tw e e n t h e c o l o n i e s a n d B r i t a i n w as s i g n i f i c a n t .

"Mo c o n ­

tr iv a n c e can p re v e n t th e e f f e c t o f t h i s d is ta n c e in w e a k e n in g g o v e r n m e n t . H i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e r e i n f o r c e d 3 th is tru th ; I n l a r g e b o d i e s , t h e c i r c u l a t i o n s o f p o w er m u st b e l e s s v i g o r o u s a t t h e e x t r e m i t i e s . M a tu re has s a id i t . The T u rk c a n n o t g o v e rn E g y p t, a n d A ra b ia , and C u r d is ta n , a s he g o v e rn s T h ra c e ; n o r h a s h e t h e same d o m in io n i n C rim e a a n d A l g i e r s , w h ic h h e h a s a t B ru s a a n d S m y rn a. D e s p o tis m i t s e l f i s o b l i g e d t o t r u c k a n d h u c k ­ s te r. The S u l t a n g e t s s u c h o b e d ie n c e a s he c a n . He g o v e r n s w i t h a l o o s e r e i n , t h a t he may g o v e r n a t a l l ; a n d t h e w h o le o f t h e f o r c e a n d v ig o u r o f h i s a u th o r ity in h is c e n tr e i s de­ r i v e d fro m a p r u d e n t r e l a x a t i o n i n a l l h i s b o rd e rs. S p a in , i n h e r p r o v in c e s , i s , p e rh a p s , n o t so w e ll obeyed a s you a re i n y o u r s . She c o m p lie s t o o ; s h e s u b m i t s ; s h e w a tc h e s t i m e s . T h is i s t h e im m u ta b le c o n d i t i o n , t h e e t e r n a l la w , o f e x t e n s i v e a n d d e ta c h e d e m p ir e .

1. I b i d . , 1 , 4 5 3 -4 5 5 , 4 6 3 -4 6 4 . 2. ib id . T I , 474. 3* I b i d . . I , 4 0 8 - 4 6 9 .

B r. F ra n k lin

a llu d e d to t h i s t r u th

in h i t t e r sa rc a sm in

h i s R u l e s b v w h ic h ^ C r e a t B m pire May b e R e d u ce d t o & S m a ll U ne. m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t A g r e a t e m p ir e , l i k e a g r e a t c a k e , i s m o st e a s i l y d i m i n i s h e d a t t h e e d g e s . T u rn y o u r a t t e n t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , f i r s t to y o u r re m o te s t p r o v i n c e s ; t h a t a s y o u g e t r i d o f th e m , t h e n e x t may f a l l o w i n o r d e r • 1 C o n c i l i a t o r y m e a s u r e s , B u rk e a f f i r m e d , w e re w e l l fo u n d e d i n B r i t i s h h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e ,

in Ire la n d ,

f o r e x a m p le , o n ly a p a r t o f t h e c o u n t r y w as a t f i r s t made a p a r t a k e r o f E n g l i s h la w s a n d l i b e r t i e s ,

a n g lis h

a u t h o r i t y a n d a n g l i s h l i b e r t i e s t h e r e f o r e h a d t h e same b o u n d a r i e s , f o r a u t h o r i t y c o u ld n o t b e e x te n d e d w i t h o u t lib e rty .

C i t i n g t h e o p i n i o n o f S i r J o h n D a v ie s , t h e

S o l i c i t o r - t i e n e r a l o f Jam es i , h e c la im e d t h a t t h e f a i l ­ u r e t o c o m m u n ica te B r i t i s h l i b e r t i e s was t h e r e a l r e a s o n why i t to o k f i v e h u n d r e d y e a r s t o s u b d u e I r e l a n d . “I t w as n o t E n g l i s h a rm s , b u t t h e E n g li s h c o n s t i t u -

2 t i o n , t h a t c o n q u e re d I r e l a n d . ”

I n l i k e m anner p o l i ­

t i c a l o r d e r was e s t a b l i s h e d i n W ales o n ly a f t e r t h e 3 e x te n s io n o f E n g lis h l i b e r t i e s to th e i n h a b i t a n t s . 4 F o r t h e p e o p le o f W a le s , C h e s t e r a n d D urham , a c t u a 1 r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n P a r l i a m e n t w as n e c e s s a r y , b e c a u s e

A u to b io g r a p h y w i t h S a v in g s o f P o o r R i c h a r d , n o a x e s . B a g a t e l l e s , a s s a y s a n d b e t t e r s ^ i e d . C a r l Van B o r e n ) , hew r o r k , 1 9 4 0 . p . 293* 2 . w o rk s l e d . B o h n ), I , 4 o 3 -4 8 4 . 3* I b i d . , I , 4 8 6 . l4 . C o u n t ie s P a l a t i n e .

v i r t u a l - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n w o u ld n o t s a f e g u a r d t h e fr e e d o m o f p er so n s l iv in g in su ch n earby t e r r i t o r i e s .

D ir e c t r e p r e ­

s e n t a t i o n w as n o t f e a s i b l e f o r t h e A m e r ic a n s , b e c a u s e o f t h e “e t e r n a l b a r r i e r s o f c r e a t i o n , 1* t h a t i s , d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n them and t h e m oth er c o u n t r y .

th e g r e a t , In ste a d

o f a c t u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , B urk e w is h e d t o g r a n t t o t h e c o l o n i a l a s s e m b l i e s l e g a l c o m p e te n c y t o s u p p o r t t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t i n p e a c e and t o g r a n t p u b l i c a i d s i n w a r . Me d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e c o l o n i s t s i n an y “c o o l h o u r 1' 2 w o u ld a s k f o r m ore th a n im m u n ity i n t a x a t i o n . B urke c o n c e i v e d an em p ir e o f f r e e d o m , and w is h e d t o g r a n t t h e A m e r ic a n s , a s h e p u t i t ,

"bur own c o n s t i t u t i o n

3

.1 .

The w ar a f f e c t e d t h e w h o le B r i t i s h p e o p le #

I t w as

la m e n t a b le t o s h e d hum an, C h r i s t i a n , E n g l i s h b l o o d , a n d t o c o n q u e r co u n try m en #

A

s y s t e m o f d e p e n d e n c e , w h ic h l e a v e s n o s e ­ c u r i t y t o th e p e o p le f o r any p a r t o f t h e i r fr e e d o m i n t h e i r own h a n d s , c a n n o t b e e s t a b ­ l i s h e d i n a n y i n f e r i o r member o f t h e B r i t i s h e m p ir e , w i t h o u t c o n s e q u e n t i a l l y d e s t r o y i n g t h e fr e e d o m o f t h a t v e r y b o d y i n f a v o u r o f w h o se b o u n d le s s p r e t e n s i o n s s u c h a sch em e i s a d o p te d # B u rk e r e m in d e d t h e M orth A m e r ic a n c o l o n i s t s -

'’r a t i o n a l

c r e a t u r e s , f r e e a g e n t s , a n d men w i l l i n g t o f o l l o w an d a b l e t o d i s c e r n t h e i r own t r u e i n t e r e s t 11 - t h a t t h e y w ere n o t a t w ar w i t h B r i t a i n b u t w i t h t h e i r o p p r e s s o r s 5 an d h e p l e d g e d h i s p a r t y * s s u p p o r t t o w in f o r th e m , i n t h e e v e n t o f m i l i t a r y d e f e a t , t h e sam e p r i v i l e g e s t h a t t h e y w e r e c o n ­ t e n d in g f o r #

I t w ere p r e f e r a b le f o r th e c o l o n i s t s t o b e

t o t a l l y in d e p e n d e n t o f t h e crow n a n d k in gd om t h a n t o b e l i n k e d t o th em b y a n u n n a t u r a l c o n j u n c t i o n o f fr e e d o m a n d s e r v itu d e #

I n p u r s u in g l i b e r t y , t h e A m e r ic a n s w ere n o t

r e b e ls and t r a i t o r s ;

B u rk e r e g a r d e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f

t h e c o l o n i e s o n p r i n c i p l e s o f fr e e d o m a s a q u a l i t y t h a t w o u ld make t h e k in gd om fam ou s i n t h e f u t u r e #

Freedom w ith in th e e n t ir e d id n o t p reclu d e one p r in c i1

p ie o f enm ity and fr ie n d s h ip and o f war and peace* S in c e t h i s was a c i v i l war, th e in te r fe r e n c e o f o u ts id e fo r c e s was lam entable «

I t was sh ock in g f o r th e

government to con clud e a c o n tr a c t w ith th e p r in c e lin g s o f Germany, " tra d ers in human f l e s h , H f o r th e u se ©f 2

,

H essia n and oth er m ercen aries t o subdue th e c o lo n is t s * The conduct o f th e H essia n s was d e p lo r a b le , f o r th ey were in ca p a b le o f form ing any d i s t i n c t i o n b e - . tween ra v a g in g and d e str o y in g an enem y's coun­ t r y , where no p r e s e n t b e n e f it was in ten d ed b u t p lu n d er, nor no fu tu r e advantage exp ected b u t t h a t o f weakening th e f o e , and th e red u cin g o f a m aleconten t p e o p le , (who, though i n a s t a t e o f r e b e l l i o n , were s t i l l to be re cla im e d , n o t d estro y e d ) t o a due* se n se o f obedience t o the: la w fu l so v ereig n * The K n glish attem pt to e x c it e in s u r r e c tio n in two sou­ th ern c o lo n ie s among th e s la v e s was co n tra ry t o common and s t a t u t e law and t o th e g e n e r a l law o f n a tio n s* t a in a ls o employed In d ia n s a g a in s t th e c o lo n is t s *

B r i­ This

p r a c tic e b lem ish ed her r e p u ta tio n as a c i v i l i z e d n a tio n and f r u s tr a te d th e purpose o f r e c o n c ilin g th e minds o f th e Americans to H is M a je sty 's government*

4

1 . A d d r e s s t o t h e K in g , 1 7 7 7 , ib id * y V, 4 7 1 - 4 8 1 . Novem ber 2 6 , 1 7 7 7 , P a r lia m e n t a r y H i s t o r y * X IX , 459 * 3* A n n u a l B e g i s t e r * 1 7 7 7 , P* 11* 1* February o , 177© , P arliam entary H is to r y * X IX , 6 9 8 *

2.

L

B r i t a i n w as bound b y t h e la w s o f w a r , w h ic h w e re la w s of lim ita tio n .

War was e v e r t o b e l i m i t e d b y n e c e s s i t y .

T he e x tr e m e s o f w ar an d t h e d e s o l a t i o n o f a c o u n tr y e x c e e d ­ ed a l l l i m i t a t i o n .

As no n e c e s s i t y c o u ld s a n c t i o n them so

no a rg u m e n t c o u ld e x c u s e th e m .

The l i m i t a t i o n s a n d t h e *

e x tr e m e s o f w ar w ere d i s t i n c t .

The f i r s t p e r m i t t e d a

b e l i g g e r e n t t o b u r n an y f o r t , g a r r i s o n o r to w n t h a t c o n t r i ­ b u t e d t o t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e enem y a n d e n a b le d th em t o an n o y t h e o p p o n e n t; w h i l e t h e s e c o n d w o u ld i n c l u d e su c h t h i n g s a s t h e b u r n i n g o f a n y to w n o r h o u s e t h a t m ig h t a t a f u t u r e d a te g iv e s tr e n g th to th e 1 y w ro n g .

enem y.

The e x tr e m e s w ere o b v i o u s -

i

T he h o r r i b l e b a r b a r i t i e s c o m m itte d b y t h e I n d i a n s a n d B r i t i s h t r o o p s a t P o r t K in g s to n r e v o l t e d B u rk e . T he A n n u al ‘ . 2 R e g i s t e r p r e c e i v e d a d i d a c t i c p u r p o s e i n r e l a t i n g th e m : i t h e y s e r v e to p r o d u c e a d i s l i k e o f t h a t p r o m p ti ­ t u d e o f e n t e r i n g w a r s , w h ic h i s b u t t o o n a t u r a l t o p e o p l e , a s w e l l a s t o p r i n c e s , w hen t h e y s e e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s , w h ic h t h e i r p a s s i o n , o f t e n f o r t r i v i a l a n d c o n t e m p t i b l e o b j e c t s , so f r e q u e n t l y p r o d u c e ; an d b y w h ic h t h e y a r e l e d g r a d u a l l y , n o t o n l y t o g r e a t c r im e s an d g r e a t m i s f o r t u n e s , b u t e v e n t o a t o t a l change and d e g ra d a tio n o f t h e i r n a tu r e .

1 . D ecem ber 4 , 177 8 , i b i d . . X IX , 1 4 0 0 . 2 . 1779, p . 14.

The Bourbon powers e x p lo ite d th e c i v i l d isc o n te n ts* The im p e r ia l p a t r io t n a tu r a lly r e se n te d th e in te r fe r e n c e o f th e arch-enem ies i n a c o n tr o v e r sy o cca sio n ed b y th e freedom o f E n g lish su b je c ts*

A ctiv e p a r t ic ip a t io n by th e

i?Tanco-Spanish combine widened th e c o lo n ia l war in to an1

o th e r g lo b a l c o n f lic t * Boom hung over th e B r it is h I s l e s in 1779 - 178 O5 th e enemy swept th e Channel, and h is arm ies were m om entarily ex p ected in one or more r e g io n s o f th e isla n d s*

In view

o f t h i s p e r i l , Burke urged t h a t B r it is h tro o p s n o t be em­ p lo y ed a g a in s t th e Americans in a c h im e r ic a l war*

But

th e r e were f o r c e s opposed to a s e ttle m e n t, such a s th e war c o n tr a c to r s who resem b led , Burke s a id , ravens and b ir d s o f p rey who w ished to suck B r it a in 's inm ost v i t a l s r,and t o f e a s t on h er e n t r a i l s , and f i n a l l y g l u t t h e ir a l l 2

d evou rin g maws on her l i f e l e s s cadaver*”

These were

p e r ilo u s tim e s , c a l l i n g f o r th e immediate r e tu r n o f tro o p s s e r v in g iu th e c o l o n ia l th e a te r *

I f America would n o t

n e g o tia te upon a p o l i t i c a l co n n ectio n w ith B r it a in , she would a t l e a s t d e s i s t from enm ity and ign ore p a s t in j u r ie s when sh e p e r c e iv e d t h a t th e Bourbons were leagu ed f o r E ngland's t o t a l d e str u c tio n *

1* V id e s u p r a . c h a p t e r 3* 2* l a y 3 1 , 1 7 7 9 , P a r lia m e n t a r y H i s t o r y . XX, 8 2 4 .

T h ey w o u ld f e e l a l l t h e e m o tio n s o f a c h i l d f o r t h e m is e r ie s o f a h a r s h and m is le d p a r e n t*

I h e w ar w as n o

lo g g e r a s tr u g g le f o r c o l o n i a l l i b e r t y , h u t a p la n con ­ c e r t e d b e t w e e n B r i t a i n 1s n a t u r a l e n e m ie s t o r u i n t h e 3o n c e k in d a n d i n d u l g e n t p a r e n t * O p p o s it io n w as f r u i t l e s s *

2

The W higs s to o d b y a s t h e

p a r ty o f" c o n c ilia tio n *

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1 . I b i d . , 2X 17, 1 2 7 2 -1 2 7 3 . 2 . riI am a man and n o t h i n g hum an I c o n s i d e r f o r e i g n t o m e ." 5 . W orks (ed* B o h n ), I I I , 1 2 5 - 1 2 6 .

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s h o r t w as s e t t i n g a l o f t y e x am p le i n 2 t h e t r i a l , a n d h e s a i d a s m uchr To c h a s t i s e t h e g u i l t o f t h o s e who h a v e b e e n in-* s t r u m e n t s o f i m p e r i a l sw ay o v e r o t h e r n a t i o n s , by t h e h i g h s u p e r i n t e n d i n g j u s t i c e o f t h e s o v e r ­ e i g n s t a t e , h a s n o t many s t r i i c l n g e x a m p le s among a n y p e o p l e . H i t h e r t o we h a v e n o t f u r n i s h e d o u r c o n t i n g e n t to t h e r e c o r d s o f h o n o u r . We h a v e b e e n c o n fo u n d e d w ith t h e h e r d o f c o n q u e r o r s . O ur dom­ i n i o n h a s b e e n a v u l g a r t h i n g . B ut we b e g in t o e m e rg e ; and I h o p e t h a t a s e v e r e i n s p e c t i o n o f o u r s e lv e s , a p u r i f ic a t i o n o f our o f f ie e n c e s , a l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e e x o r b i t a n c e s o f o u r own p o w e r, i s a g lo r y r e s e r v e d to t h i s t im e , to t h i s n a t i o n , a n d t o t h i s a u g u s t t r i b u n a l , [ th e H ouse o f l o r d s ] .

1* . 2.

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23

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CHAPTER V I T H E COM MONWEALTH O F C H R I S T I A N N A T IO N S 1«The B a la n c e o f Pow er A f t e r 178^ A f t e r t h e d e a t h o f R o c k in g h a m , B u rk e * s i n f l u e n c e i n p u b lic l i f e d e c lin e d .

B u t h i s ju d g m e n t a n d p e r c e p t i o n o f

i n t e r n a t i o n a l q u e s t i o n s n o t o n l y r e m a in e d a c u t e , b u t d e e p e n e d a s e v e n t s v i r t u a l l y c o m p e lle d h im t o c o n te m p la te t h e n a t u r e o f t h e w o r ld fro m w h ic h h e h a d d raw n h i s p r i n c i p l e s a n d i n s p i r a t i o n a n d w h ic h w as t h e n u n d e r a t t a c k . C a la m ity d i d n o t s u d d e n ly d e s c e n d w ith th e f a l l o f th e B a s t i l l e in 1789*

u p o n C h ris te n d o m The a n a r c h i c a l

t e n d e n c i e s o f t h e E u ro p e a n s y s te m h a d b e e n . c l e a r l y d e l i n e a t e d b y B u rk e , who p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e v i g o r o f t h e w e s t e r n w o rld h a d b e e n s a p p e d b y i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w l e s s n e s s a n d b y p r a g m a ti c c o m p ro m ise s w i t h i n j u s t i c e i n t h e 7 ® 's a n d 8 o * s . The A n n u a l R e g i s t e r h a d o b s e r v e d i n 1779 t h a t th o u g h E u ro p e a n s w e re f i l l e d w i t h a v i g o r o u s a n d v e n t u r o u s s p i r i t t h a t e n a b l e d th em t o t r a d e a n d a s s o c i a t e w i t h f a r - o f f l a n d s , t h e y n u l l i f i e d t h e s e a d v a n t a g e s b y t h e e n m ity t h e y e x h i b i t e d to each o th e r .

T h e se a n i m o s i t i e s a f f e c t e d t h e i r c o l o n i a l

p o s s e s s i o n s a n d o v e r th r e w t h e b e n e f i t s w h ic h t h e f r e e c o m m u n ic a tio n o f l i b e r a l i d e a s w o u ld o r d i n a r i l y b e s to w u p o n t h e s e c o m m u n itie s .^

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t o t h e d o u b le m a r r i a g e s b e tw e e n h e r a n d S p a in *s r o y a l h o u s e s . B o th I b e r i a n s o v e r e i g n s h a d a c t e d m e r e ly a s p r i v a t e p e r s o n s i n d i s p o s i n g o f t h e i r h e i r s 5 a n d t h e y o v e r lo o k e d t h e w e l f a r e a n d s a f e t y o f t h e i r s u b j e c t s t o whom t h e y owed a l l .

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p o l i t i c a l a x io m o f t h e g r e a t e s t w e ig h t w as v i o l a t e d b y t h e P o r t u g u e s e who f o r g o t t h e d a n g e r o f a w e a k e r p o w e r* s e n t e r ­ in g i n t o a n a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h a m ore p o w e r f u l n e ig h b o rs '* The w e a k e r s t a t e , f o r t h e p r e s e n t s u n s h in e o f a t r a n s i t o r y sum m er, f r e q u e n t l y e n t a i l s u p o n i t s e l f a l l th e r i g o u r s o f a lo n g , s e v e r e , and p e rh a p s e te r n a l w in te r . P o rtu g a l h as a lre a d y , by u n d e r­ g o in g a d e g r e e o f r u i n fro m w h ic h sh e c a n n e v e r e n t i r e l y r e c o v e r , m o st d e p l o r a b l y e x p e r i e n c e d t h e t r u t h o f t h i s p o s i t i o n . S p a in h e r s e l f c a n a tte s t i t s tru th . . . . How d e a r l y h a s C o u rla n d p a i d f o r t h e h o n o u r o f a M ay-day w e d d in g w i t h a d a u g h te r o f P e t e r t h e G r e a t? A n o th e r i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e d e c l i n e o f s m a ll n a t i o n s w as f u r n i s h e d b y t h e A u s t r i a n N e t h e r l a n d s . im b u ed w i t h t h e r a t i o n a l i s t i c

J o s e p h I I w as

s p i r i t t h a t r e a s o n m u st dom i­

n a t e t h e w o r ld a n d t h a t t h e s t a t e i s t h e a g e n t o f r e f o r m ; he th e r e f o r e p la y e d th e r o l e o f r o y a l r e v o lu tio n a r y i n h i s B e l g i a n .d o m a in s, b y i s s u i n g a s e r i e s o f e d i c t s fro m 1781

A nnual R e g is te r , 1786,

p . 41.

234

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n t o 1787 a im e d a t t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e c h u rc h a n d t h e

re p la c e m e n t o f th e v a r i e d p r o v i n c i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n s by a s y s te m i n s u r i n g e q u a l l i b e r t y a n d u n i f o r m i t y .

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A u s tr ia n N e th e rla n d s r o s e i n c o n s e r v a tiv e r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e i r r o y a l in n o v a to r.

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t r i e d to m a in ta in t h e i r l i b e r t i e s -

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r e l i c s a r e now l e f t u n e x t i n g u i s h e d i n E u ro p e M - a g a i n s t t h e s e d e s p o t i c a n d a r b i t r a r y re fo rm s .^ *

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i l l u s t r a t i o n s i n S c a n d i n a v i a , w h e re t h e N o rw e g ia n s w e re r u l e d b y t h e i r B a n is h m a s t e r s h a r s h l y a n d u n s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y a n d w e re t r e a t e d a s a l i e n s r a t h e r t h a n a s e q u a l m em bers o f t h e sam e g e n e r a l d o m in io n a n d g o v e r n m e n t.2 The S t a t e s o f H o lla n d h a d a n a m b i t io u s n e ig h b o r i n E m p ero r J o s e p h I I , who i n 1781 w is h e d t o en d t h e B a r r i e r , t h a t i s , t h e r i g h t o f t h e B u tc h t o g a r r i s o n s t r o n g p o i n t s on B e l g i a n s o i l . h is d e s ig n .

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1. 2. 3.

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I n th e f a l l o f 1 7 8 4 , t h e B m p e r o r a n n o u n c e d h i s demand f o r th e o p e n in g o f t h e S c h e l d t t o B e lg i a n n a v i g a t i o n , i n v i o l a ­ t i o n o f e x i s t i n g t r e a t y and th e p r i n c i p l e o f p r a s e r i p t io n in in te r n a tio n a l a f f a i r s >

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t h e w o r l d , he a r g u e d , i t o u g h t to be o p e n t o n a v i g a t i o n • The A n n u a l R e g i s t e r s n e e r e d , « a s i f i t s b e a u t y c o u ld h $ v e a n y * t h i n g t o do w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f r i g h t , o r o f p o l i t c a l n e c ­ e s s ity ."

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fro m p r i n e e s who w ere a c c u s to m e d t o b a r ­

t e r m a n k in d f o r m o n ey . Y e t th e B u tc h s t a t e s d id n o t w a n t w a r , a n d h e n c e f o r g o t t h a t th e la w s o f n a t i o n s , n a t u r e , j u s t i c e an d r e a s o n bound them too®Dse a v i o l a t i o n o f t h e i r m o st s a c r e d 2 an d i n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t s . B o th A u s t r i a a n d H o l l a n d d e s i r e d ;o u t s i d e b e l p v The f o r m e r lo o k e d t o R u s s i a , t h o u ^ i R u s s i a h a d " s o l a t e l y

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ex am p le o f P o la n d w as a l e s s o n t o t h o s e p r i n c e s vfoo, th o u g h o u t o f im m e d ia te d a n g e r , f a i l e d t o g u a rd th e m s e lv e s a g a i n s t 1 t h e ”f i r e w h ic h w as c o n su m in g t h e i r n e ig h b o u r 1s h o u s e . ” The F r e n c h w e re i n d i f f i c u l t s t r a i t s . A lth o u g h A u s t r i a f s a l l i e s , t h e y s o u g h t t o p r e v e n t t h e r u i n o f t h e D u tc h and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a g g ra n d iz e m e n t o f t h e E m p e ro r. T h ro u g h t h e i r m e d i a t i o n , a m odus v i v e n d i was f o u n d i n t h e T r e a t y o f F o n ­ t a i n e b l e a u o f N ovem ber 1 7 8 3 *

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s e v e r e d t h e t i e s b e tw e e n t h e D u tc h and t h e B r i t i s h b a s e d 2 o n common r e l i g i o n , d a n g e r , d e f e n s e , v ie w s and i n t e r e s t . F u r t h e r h a r d s h i p s w e re i n s t o r e f o r th e D u tc h .

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3

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r i g h t o f e g r e s s th r o u g h t h e B o s p h o ru s and th e D a r d a n e l l e s . A T u r k i s h s u r r e n d e r m ig h t b e co m p ared t o g i v in g up th e b e n e f i t s , n a v i g a t i o n and f i s h e r i e s o f a f i n e l a k e , l y i n g i n th e c e n t e r o f a n o l d e s t a t e , i n t o th e h a n d s o f a p o w e r f u l and l i t i g i o u s n e ig h b o u r , who w as w a tc h ­ in g o n ly f o r th e m eans and o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o g r a s p i t a t e v e r y p a r t o f th e w h o le m a n o r. 2 S u c c e ss had sh a rp e n e d R u s s ia ’ s a p p e t it e f o r T u rk is h m o r s e ls • " S h e s e e m e d t o r i s e fro m a b a n q u e t o f v i c t o r y , " com m ented th e A nnua l R e g i s t e r , * t o w h ic h s h e m ig h t r e t u r n , wh m e v e r le is u re

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p r o v i d i n g f o r th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f th e o t h e r s i g n a t o r y i n th e - e v e n t t h a t one p o w e r w as a t t a c k e d b y a n o th e r " ( i* e . T u rk e y ).

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d e b a te d th e R u s s ia n t h r e a t , p o n d e r i n g th e i s s u e s o f t h e R u s s i a n f l a g i n T u r k is h w a te r w a y s , t h e h a u g h ty la n g u a g e o f t h e B u s s ia n m i n i s t e r , t h e

s u f f e r i n g e n d u re d b y th e T a r t a r s ,

a n d t h e d a n g e r o f th e R u s s ia n f l e e t t h e n b e in g fo fm e d a t C h e r so n on t h e B la c k S e a .

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r e a s o n s f o r e n t e r i n g a w a r ( t h e v a l i d i t y o f w h ic h c o u ld n o t be d i s p u t e d ) . * B u t th e u n s e t t l e d s t a t e o f p u b l i c a f f a i r s .. , . . . 1 m d S ‘ w ar im p ru d e n t* Now i n 1784> w i t h o u t w a i t i n g f o r A us­ tria n

h e l p , C a th e rin e th e G r e a t s e i z e d the C r im e a • F r a n c e , P r u s s i a a n d A u s t r i a w ere p e r t u r b e d a t th e i n ­

c r e a s e o f R u s a i a n ?p o w e r a t T u r k e y *s e x p e n s e . v i s e d th e S u l t a n ,

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t h e O rim ea and t h e end o f R u s s ia n c o n t r o l i n G e o r g i a , F a i l ­ i n g to r e c e i v e su c h s a t i s f a c t i o n , T u rk e y d e c l a r e d w ar i n 1 A u g u s t 1787 f o r m o tiv e s th a ;t d i d n o t l a c k p o l i c y o f j u s t i c e • M e a n w h ile , fo rc e s

t h e R u s s i a n s and A u s t r i a n s h a d c o n s p i r e d t o j o i n

a g a in s t h e r ,

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a l l y , th e T u rk s d i s c o u n t e d a n a c t i v e A u s t r i a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n b e c a u s e ’ th e y t r u s t e d th e p u b l i c f a i t h o f n a t i o n s ; a n d t h e y c o u n te d on t h e E m p e ro r t s g r a t i t u d e to w a rd them f o r n o t h a v ­ i n g e x p l o i t e d A u s t r i a n v u l n e r a b i l i t y i n 1 7 4 © when h i s m o th e r M a r ia T h e r e s a , a s c e n d e d t h e t h r o n e . 2

No t r u e p o l i t i c i a n

N e v e r th e le s s , th e A u s t r i a n s , a d h e rin g t o t h e i r a l l i a ­ n c e w i t h R u s s i a , s t r u c k a n d c a p t u r e d B e l g r a d e v f h e i r E m per­ o r f l a t t e r e d : h i m s e l f t h a t a l l c o u r t s h o p e d f o r h i s sue c e s s a g a i n s t th e common enem y o f C h r is te n d o m ,

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t h a t i n t h i s w a r , C h r i s t i a n and Mohammedan r e v e r s e d n a t u r e s and p r in c ip le s .

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o f w ar^ a f a s s i o n f o r g l o r y and a n e n t h u s i a s t i c e a g e r n e s s 1 f o r p r e s e r v i n g t h e i r c o u n tr y * The d w in d lin g o f T u r k is h p o s s e s s i o n s h a d b e e n e n c o u r ­ a g e d by t h e p r e c e d e n t o f t h e P o l i s h p a r t i t i o n , w h ich E u ro p e had re g a rd e d

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s u b v e r s i o n o f T u rk e y , o n e o f

t h e o l d e s t a n d e x t e n s i v e e m p i r e s , w ould- b e v ie w e d w ith t h e sam e? i n d i f f e r e n c e w h ic h m et t b e P o l i s h dism em berm ent •

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s t a t e o f ^ a f f a i r s and t h e m in d s o f m en h a d c h a n g e d i n th e i n ­ te rim *

N a t io n s w e re n e i t h e r a s l e e p n o r e n t i r e l y o c c u p ie d

w ith p e t t y c o n c e r n s o r s e l f i s h d e s i g n s ; and t h e y w ere m in d 2 f u l o f th e g r a v i t y o f th e s i t u a t i o n . B r i ta i n w as s u s p ic io u s to o .

I t w as f e l t t h a t R u s s ia

h a d n o t r e p a i d E n g l i s h iMe n d s h ip o f 1768-1774> b u t i n s t e a d h a d l e d t h e A rm ed N e u t r a l i t y o f 1780 - t h e g r e a t e s t c o m b in a ­ tio n of h o s tile

p o w e r a g a i n s t a s i n g l e s t a t e i n m odern tim e s •

I t w as im p ru d e n t t o e n c o u r a g e o r c o u n te n a n c e R u s s ia n e x p a n ­ s i o n i n th e B a l t i c a t t h e e x p e n s e o f © © urland o r i n t h e s o u t h . The g r o w th o f R u s s i a to w a rd th e M e d i te r r a n e a n p e r m i t t e d h e r to in te r f e r e

i n t h e a f f a i r s^ o f o t h e r s t a t e s v * T ra d e h a d b een

a c o m p e ll i n g f o r c e d r i v i n g B r i t a i n and R u s s i a t o g e t h e r * B u t ,

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I b i d . i 2 9 , 35* A p e a e e b e tw e e n A u s t r i a and T u rk e y w as m ade a t s i s t o v a i n 1 7 9*♦ I b i d . , p# 59.

i t w as a r g u e d , B r i t a i n c o u ld r e c e i v e s i m i l a r c o m m e rc ia l a d ­ v a n ta g e s fro m th e A m e ric a n s - " o u r c o u n try m e n and o l d f e l l o w 1 s u b j e c t s . ” I n 1787 C a t h e r i n e t h e G r e a t r e f u s e d t o re n e w t h e c o m m e rc ia l t r e a t y w i t h E n g la n d , y e t c o n c l u d e d f-one w i t h F r a n c e , g r a n t i n g F ren ch m en a s f a v o r a b l e te rm s a s th o s e w h ic h h a d b e en r e c e i v e d by B r i t i s h c o m p e t i t o r s . t h e A n n u a l R e g i s t e r , t h a t E n g la n d -1 2 d upe t o h e r a m b itio n *

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T u rk e y w as n o t t h e o n ly c o u n t r y t o f e e l t h e w e i g h t o f R u s s i a n p o w e r.

I n 1 7 8 6 ‘" C a th e r in e .'m arch ed ' t r o o p s i n t o G o u r-

l a n d on th e p r e t e x t o f s a f e g u a r d i n g th e fr e e d o m o f e l e c t i o n i n c a s e o f th e d e m ise o f th e d u k e .

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f i c i e n t to e x c i t e th e r i s i b i l i t y o f th o s e who a r e n o t to o s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d b y t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n th e c o u n tr y to la u g h 3 a t b e i n g re m in d e d o f i t s c o n d i t i o n . ” R u s s ia a ls o c a s t

1.

I b i d . , 1 7 8 6 , p . 143 • B r i t a i n had tim e to c o n s i d e r , a n d a d ­ e q u a t e r e a s o n t o r e j e c t ; th e s h o r t - s i g h t e d p o l i c y b y w h ic h sh e h a d made an u n c e r t a i n f r i e n d and e v e r - t o - b e s u s p e c t e d a l l y " f ro m th e b o tto m o f th e B o th n ic g u l p h , t o e s t a b l i s h a new n a v a l e m p ir e i n th e M e d i te r r a n e a n an d A r c h i p e l a g o .? I f t h i s new e m p ire w e re e f f e c t e d , i t w o u ld n o t o n l y be r u i n ­ o u s t o B r i t a i n , b u t w o u ld in v o lv e a l l th e v a s t s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a s o f E u r o p e . A s i a a n d A f r i c a i n b r o i l s , t r o u b l e s and w a rs. I b i d . , 1788, p . 59• 2 . I b i d . . 1 7 8 8 . p* 6 l . P i t t s u p p o r t e d T u rk e y , and l a t e r mo­ b i l i z e d th e f l e e t . B u rk e o p p o se d h i s p o l i c y b e c a u s e th e F r e n c h R e v o lu t i o n h a d m a t e r i a l l y a l t e r e d th e c o m p le x io n o f E u ro p e * 3 . I b i d . . 1 7 8 6 . , - 5 . 151»

e n v io u s g l a n c e s a t S w e d is h - h e ld F i n l a n d .

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S to c k h o lm , C ount R a z a m o n s k i, m a n i f e s t e d a h a u g h ty s p i r i t 1 w h ic h c h a r a c t e r i z e d h e r c o n d u c t w i t h w e a k e r n e i g h b o r s . War b r o k e o u t b e tw e e n R u s s i a a n d Sw eden i n 1 7 8 8 .

It

w as f o r t u n a t e f o r t h e l a t t e r t h a t o t h e r p o w e rs w e re c o n ­ c e rn e d i n th e c o n seq u en ces o f h e r d e fe a t a t th e han d s o f t h e R u s s o -D a n is h c o m b in e .

A S w e d ish r o u t w o u ld h a v e d e ­

s t r o y e d , t h e b a la n c e o f p o w e r i n t h e N o r th .

H e re t h e T r i p l e

A l l i a n c e w as a p o w e r f u l c o u n t e r p o i s e t o t h e p e r i l o u s u n io n o f A u s t r i a a n d R u s s i a ; i t s o u g h t t o p r e s e r v e Sw eden and t h e O tto m an E m p ire i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e b a l a n c e .

At

t h e sam e t im e t h e T r i p l e A l l i a n c e was a s s u m in g F r a n c e Ts r o l e i n t h e N o r th b y s u p p o r t i n g h e r a l l i a n c e s w h ic h s h e w as u n a b le t o u p h o ld b e c a u s e o f i m b e c i l i t y , a n d w as b eco m in g t h e a r b i t e r o f p e a c e and t h e p r o t e c t o r o f l i b e r t i e s .

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i n t e r v e n t i o n o f P r u s s i a , H o lla n d an d B r i t a i n s a v e d Sw eden fro m d e s t r u c t i o n an d a f f o r d e d a new a n d e m in e n t i n s t a n c e o f t h e u t i l i t y o f t h a t w a tc h fu l a t t e n t i o n i n s t a t e s t o t h e a f f a i r s a n d s i t u a t i o n o f t h e i r n e ig h ­ b o u r s , w h ic h o p e r a t e s t o p r e v e n t t h e g r e a t fro m s w a llo w in g up t h e s m a l l , a n d any com­ b i n a t i o n o f p o w er fro m e n t i r e l y c r u s h i n g an i n d i v i d u a l . To t h i s v i g i l a n t s p i r i t a n d d i s ­ p o s i t i o n , t h i s f o r w a r d lo o k i n t o f u t u r i t y , a s w e l l a s w is e p r e c a u t i o n a g a i n s t n e a r d a n g e r , E u ro p e h a s p r e s e r v e d f o r s e v e r a l a g e s , th o u g h a t d i f f e r e n t p e rio d s in a l e s s o r g r e a te r d e g re e , some r e a s o n a b l e b a l a n c e o f p o w e r, b e tw e e n i t s r e s p e c tiv e s t a t e s , and th e re b y escap ed t h a t

1.

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248 r

g e n e r a l d e s i jo t i s m , w h ic h h a s so o f t e n o p p r e s s ­ ed an d e n s la v e d t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f m a n k in d . To t h i s a l s o , a r t s , s c i e n c e , l i t e r a t u r e , c i v i l i z a ­ t i o n , and h u m a n ity , owe t h e g r e a t e s t o b l i g a ­ tio n s 3 . The R e v o lu t i o n i n F r a n c e , F ra n ce had re a c h e d h e r n a d ir in th e y e a r s j u s t b e fo re th e R e v o lu tio n .

H er i n f l u e n c e i n f o r e i g n a f f a i r s d i ­

m in is h e d a s a r e s u l t o f a c q u i e s c e n c e i n th e d e s p o ilm e n t o f T u rk ey by A u s t r i a

( n o m in a lly a B ou rb o n a l l y I) an d R u s s i a ,

an d i n t h e p u s i l l a n i m o u s n e g l e c t o f t h e P a t r i o t s i n H o lla n d .

The d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f c r e d i t an d f i n a n c i a l i n ­

s t a b i l i t y h e ig h t e n e d t h e f e e l i n g o f d e b i l i t y an d f a i l u r e . I n t h i s moment o f w e a k n e s s , c r i t i c s o f t h e m o n arch y an d t h e g o v e rn m e n t sp o k e o u t b o l d l y .

I t was o b s e r v e d by t h e

A nnual R e g is te r t h a t a s i n g u l a r r e v o l u t i o n seem s t o be t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e m in d s o f m en; an d t h e s p i r i t o f l i b e r t y a p p e a rs to be r e v iv in g w ith g r e a t e n e r g y , i n c o u n t r i e s w here i t h a d lo n g b e e n deem ed n e a r l y e x t i n c t . I t has a l r e a d y p ro d u c e d s u c h e f f e c t s i n F r a n c e , a n d i n d i c a t e s o t h e r s so much g r e a t e r , a s to r e n d e r t h a t c o u n tr y ( t h r o u g h c a u s e s v e r y d i f f e r e n t fro m t h o s e w h ic h drew t h e a t t e n ­ t i o n o f m an k in d u p o n i t d u r in g t h e l a s t two c e n t u r ie s ) th e g ran d t h e a t r e o f p o l i t i c a l s p e c u la tio n .' B e c a u se o f t h e n a t u r a l j e a l o u s y b e tw e e n r i v a l n a t i o n s an d wt h e d e s i r e t h a t t h e m i s f o r t u n e s o f o u r e n e m ie s s h o u ld seem b y a s o r t o f p r o v i d e n t i a l j u s t i c e t o grow o u t o f t h e i r

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1* L o rd J o h n R u s s e l l , M e m o r ia ls ..and C o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f C h a r l e s Jam es F o x . 4 v o l s * , P h i l a d e l p h i a , B l a n c h a r d and L ea, 1853, I I , 361. 2 . . To L o rd C h a r l e m o n t , A u g u s t 9 , 1 7 8 9 , P r i o r , L i f e o f B u r k e . 2nd e d i t i o n , I I , 1 3 8 . 3 . V id e C o p e la n d , Our E m in e n t F r i e n d Edmund B u r k e , pp. 190-245. 4 . O c to b er 1789, C o rre s o o n d e n c e . (e d . F i t z w i l l i a m ) , I I I , I I 4- I I 5 .

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1 . F e b r u a r y 9 , 1 7 9 0 , W o rk s ( e d . B o h n ), I I I , 2 7 0 - 2 7 1 . T h is w as th e f i r s t tim e t h a t B u rk e p u b lic ly co n d em n ed th e R e^ v o lu tio n . S in c e F o x s u p p o rte d th e l a t t e r , th e re w as a sc h ­ i s m i n t h e W h ig P a r t y . B u r k e a n d F o x f i n a l l y p a r t e d w a y s in 1791. 2 . B u r k e t o l d M . d e C a l o n n e , ® I n r e a l i t y . m y o b j e c t v /a s n o t F r a n c e , i n th e f i r s t i n s t a n c e , b u t t h i s C o u n try .® O c to b e r 2 5 , 1 7 9 0 , T h e T i m e s . L i t e r a r y -S u p p l e m e n t . L o n d o n , J a n u a r y 1 0 , 1 9 2 9 , p .2 8 . I am i n d e b t e c L t o P r o f e s s o r R o b e r t L a c o u r G a y e t o f S t;. J o h n ’ s U n i v e r s i t y , B r o o k l y n , f o r t h i s r e f e r e n c e . The R e f le c tio n s w as one o f th e m o st i n f l u e n t i a l ^ p a m p h le ts e v e r w r itte n , an d i t c r y s ta l li z e d o p p o s itio n to th e R e v o lu tio n .

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1 . W o rk s ( e d . B o h n ). I I , 2 8 4 2 . To M. D u p o n t, O c to b e r 1 7 8 9 , C o rre s p o n d e n c e F itz w illia m ), I I I , 114-

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tru th s.

T he te m p e r h e h a te d m o st w as t h a t e x e m p lif ie d b y A n a c h a rs is c lo o ts

(1 7 5 5 -1 7 9 4 ), who g l o r i e d

in

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" sa v a g e ry ” o f th e p a s t an d e n v isa g e d a u n iv e r s a l c o n fe d e r­ a tio n

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c o u n try ,

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w as a lie n

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B u r k e 1s b e i n g .

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se n ti­ so rt of

W o r d s w o r th 1s l i n e s

th a t B u rk e

D e c la re s th e v i t a l pow er o f s o c ia l t i e s E n d e a re d b y C u sto m ; a n d w i t h h ig h d is d a ih , E x p lo d in g u p s t a r t T h e o ry , i n s i s t s 3 U pon th e a l l e g i a n c e to w h ic h m en a r e b o rn -

1 . W o rk s ( e d . B o h n ), IX , 3 6 8 - 3 6 9 . 2. S o u le y m a n , T he V is io n o f W o rld P e a c e i n S e v e n te e n th and E ig h te e n th -C e n tu ry F ra n c e , p p . 1 8 9 -1 9 2 . C lo o ts p r e p a r e d a d r a f t o f a d e c l a r a t i o n w h ic h h e w a n te d th e N a tio n a l C o n v e n tio n to m ak e. I t read s: A r tic le 1 . T h ere i s no o th e r s o v e re ig n th a h th e hum an ra c e . A r t i c l e 2 . E v e ry i n d i v i d u a l , e v e r y c o m m u n ity w i l l i n g to r e c o g n iz e t h i s lu m in o u s a n d im m u ta b le p r i n c i p l e w i l l e n jo y th e r i g h t to becom e a m em ber o f o u r b r o th e r ly A s s o c ia tio n , o f th e R e p u b lic o f M an, G erm an s, U n iv e rsa ls. A r t i c l e 3* T he a d m is s io n to m e m b e rs h ip o f re m o te com ­ m u n itie s and la n d s i s p o stp o n e d on a c c o u n t o f d is ta n c e a n d t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f m a r i t i m e c o m m u n ic a tio n s '/ Ib id . . p. 196. 3 . Q u o te d fro m T he P r e l u d e , b o o k v i i , 5 1 9 , b y B a s i l W ille y , L T h e E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y B a c k g r o u n d , N ew Y o r k , C h a t t o a n d J H i n d u s , £ '9 4 6 ', p T T f f f S . ------ •

254

r

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h im se lf a c itiz e n

o f th e w o rld an d

re m e m b e r e d t h e g e n e r a l c o m m u n io n o f m a n k in d , h e d i d n o t l o s e h i s n a t u r a l sy m p a th y i n S u rv e y in g

th e a tte m p t o f th e N a tio n a l A sse m b ly to w ip e aw ay

a l l th e d iv is io n s p lic a tio n ,

to

in

F ren ch p o litic a l

am ong n a t i o n s

v in c ia l lin e s th u s

l o c a l a n d a c c i d e n t a l c o n n e c tio n s .-^

to o )

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by e ra sin g

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com m unes an d d e p a rtm e n ts an d i

se n tim e n t w ith T

lo v e f o r F ra n c e ,

B u rk e c o m m e n te d :^ B u t in s te a d o f b e in g a l l F ren ch m en , th e g r e a te r lik e lih o o d i s , th a t th e in h a b ita n ts o f th a t r e g io n w i l l s h o r tly h a v e no c o u n try * No m an w as- e v e r a t t a c h e d b y a s e n s e o f - p r i d e , p a r tia lity , o r r e a l a ffe c tio n , to a d e sc rip ­ t io n o f s q u a re m e a su re m e n t. He n e v er, w i l l g lo ry in b e lo n g in g to th e ' ch eq u er N o. 7 1 , o r to any o th e r b a d g e - tic k e t. I t w as to be e x p e c te d who lo v e d h i s k in sm a n an d in h is

o ld

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Irish

boy

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a g e , a s he d id d u rin g

th e

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H a stin g s N ext to th e lo v e o f p a re n ts fo r th e ir c h ild re n , th e s tr o n g e s t i n s t i n c t b o th n a t u r a l a n d m o ra l t h a t e x i s t s i n m an is th e lo v e o f h is c o u n try : - an i n s t i n c t , in d e e d , w h ic h e x te n d s e v e n to th e b r u t e c re a tio n . A ll c re a tu re s lo v e th e ir o f f ­ s p r in g ; n e x t to t h a t th e y lo v e , t h e i r h o m es;

1.

To M. D u p o n t, O c to b e r 1 7 ^ 9 , C o rre sp o n d e n c e w illia m ), I I I , 113, 108. 2 . W o rk s ( e d . B o h n ), II., 4 6 7 . 3. June 5, 1794, ib id .. V II, 1 4 1 -H 2 . L

(ed . F itz -

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“i th e y h a v e a fo n d n e ss f o r th e p la c e w h ere th e y h a v e b e e n b r e d , fo r th e h a b ita tio n s th e y h a v e d w e l t in > f o r t h e s t a l l s i n w /h ic h t h e y h a v e b e e n f e d , th e p a s tu r e s th e y h av e b ro w sed i n , a n d th e w ild s i n w h ic h th e y h a v e ro a m e d . We a l l k n o w t h a t t h e n a t a l , s o i l h a s a s w e e t ­ n e s s in i t b e y o n d th e h arm o n y o f v e r s e . T h is i n s t i n c t , I s a y , th a t b in d s a l l c r e a tu r e s to t h e i r c o u n t r y , n e v e r-.b e c o m e s i n e r t i n u s , n o r e v e r s u f f e r s u s t o w a n t a m em ory o f i t . P a trio tism to

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to

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schem e fo r a u n iv e r s a l a lle g ia n c e

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sw o rd s w ere o f honor and

T he a g e o f c h iv a lr y w as g o n e , h o w e v e r:^

I b i d . . I I , 3 2 0 . "O ur c o u n tr y i s n o t a th in g o f m ere p h y sic a l lo c a lity . I t c o n s is ts , in a g r e a t m easu re, i n th e a n c ie n t o r d e r in to w h ic h we a r e b o r n . We m ay h a v e th e sam e g e o g r a p h ic a l s i t u a t i o n , b u t a n o th e r c o u n tr y ; a s we m ay h a v e th e sam e c o u n tr y i n a n o th e r s o il. The p la c e th a t d e te rm in e s o u r d u ty to o u r c o u n try i s a s o c i a l , c i v i l r e l a t i o n . ” An A p p e a lfro m t h e N ew t o t h e O ld W h ig s , 1 7 9 1 , i b i d . » I I I , § 0 . 2. Ib id ., II, 352. 3 . i b i d . . I I , 34-8, B u r k e v i s i t e d F r a n c e i n 1 7 7 3 , w h e n h e d e lig h te d in th e v is io n o f th e Q ueen, th e n th e young d a u p h in e ss , " g litte r in g lik e th e m o rn in g -s ta r, f u l l o f- j l i f e , an d s p le n d o u r, and jo y .”

257

T h at o f s o p h is te r s , e c o n o m ists, an d c a l­ c u la to r s , h a s su c c e e d e d ; and th e g lo ry o f E u ro p e i s e x tin g u is h e d f o r e v e r. N ev er, n e v e r m ore s h a l l we b e h o ld t h a t g e n e ro u s lo y a l t y to r a n k an d s i x , t h a t p ro u d su b m is­ s io n , th a t d ig n if ie d o b e d ie n c e , th a t su b ­ o r d in a tio n o f th e h e a r t , w h ic h k e p t a l i v e , ev en in s e rv itu d e i t s e l f , th e s p i r i t o f an e x a lte d freed o m . The u n b o u g h t g ra c e o f l i f e , t h e c h e a p d e f e n s e o f n a t i o n s , t h e ’n u r s e o f m a n ly s e n tim e n t a n d h e r o ic e n t e r ­ p ris e , is gone I I t is gone; th a t s e n s ib ility o f p r i n c i p l e , t h a t c h a s t i t y o f h o n o u r, w h ic h f e l t a s t r a i n l i k e a w o und, w h ic h in s p ir e d c o u ra g e w h i l s t i t m itig a te d f e r o c i t y , w h ic h e n n o b le d w h a te v e r i t to u c h e d , a n d u n d e r w h ic h v ic e i t ­ s e lf lo s t h a lf i t s e v il, by lo sin g a ll i t s g r o s s h e 's s . T h is m ix e d s y s te m in

o f o p in io n and se n tim e n t,

a n c ie n t c h iv a lry , gave i t s

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reaso n and in s tin c t, 1 added:

of c iv il

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T h is a th e is m

II,

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and th e

v io la te d

a n d c o u ld n o t lo n g p r e v a i l .

B u t i f , in th e m om ent o f r i o t , an d in a d ru n k e n d e lir iu m fro m th e h o t s p i r i t d raw n o u t o f th e a le m b ic o f h e l l , w h ic h i n F r a n c e i s now so f u r io u s ly b o i l i n g , we s h o u ld u n ­ c o v e r o u r n a k e d n e s s , b y th ro w in g o f f t h a t C h r is tia n r e l i g i o n w h ic h h a s h i t h e r t o b e e n o u r b o a s t and c o m fo rt, a n a one g r e a t so u rc e o f c i v i l i z a t i o n am o n g st u s , an d am o n g st m any o th e r n a tio n s , we a re a p p re h e n s iv e (b e in g w e l l a w a re t h a t th e m in d v i l l n o t e n d u r e a v o id ) t h a t som e u n c o u th , p e r n i c i o u s , a n d d e g ra d in g s u p e r s t i t i o n m ig h t ta k e th e p la c e of it. 1 Ib id .. L

second

B u rk e

I n a d d i t i o n t o d e s t r o y i n g t h e m a n n e rs and p r i n c i p l e s w h ic h c i v i l i z e d E u r o p e , t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s w o u ld a im , h e t h o u g h t , a t t h e en d o f l i m i t e d o r c i v i l i z e d w a r f a r e , w h ic h a b o v e a l l e l s e , h a d c h a r a c t e r i z e d i t i n t h e p a s t .

1

-The u p h e a v a l was n o t m e r e l y a F r e n c h e r u p t i o n , b u t a c a ta c ly sm o f c a t h o li c p r o p o r tio n s .

E u ro p e was one s o c i e t y .

I f F r a n c e w e re d e g r a d e d , E n g la n d a n d o t h e r n a t i o n s m u st n e c e s s a r il y be a f f e c t e d .

A l l E u r o p e , t h e r e f o r e , was v i t a l 2 l y co n cern ed i n th e e v e n ts o f P a r i s . By h e r p r o x i m i t y t o B r i t a i n , F r a n c e was a lw a y s o f i n t e r e s t e i t h e r b e c a u s e

o f a c t u a l p o w e r, o r i n f l u e n c e and e x a m p le .

In o th e r ag es,

d e s p o t i c L o u is XIV e n c o u r a g e d C h a r l e s a n d Jam es t o em ul­ a t e h i s e x a m p le .

Mow t h e r e was t h e d a n g e r o f t h e c o n ­

t a g i o n o f a n a r a c h y , f r a u d , v i o le n c e and a th e is m o f a 3 t y r a n n i c a l F re n ch dem ocracy. Mo n e i g h b o r i n g s t a t e was s e c u r e w h i l e ” t h i s s t r a n g e , n a m e l e s s , w i l d e n t h u s i a s t i c t h i n g ” was E u r o p e .^

i n th e h e a r t o f

As t h e u n i t e d m o n a rc h s h a d p r e v e n t e d L o u is XIv

f ro m s w a llo w in g up t h e i r l a n d s , so B u rk e w a rn ed t h e y m u s t now c h e c k t h e a d v a n c e o f ^ p o l l u t e d a n a r c h y , ”

F ran ce

was weak a t t h e m oment; b u t s h e w ould e x p l o i t i n t e r n a l d i s s e n s i o n s e l s e w h e r e , p r o f i t f r o m c i r c u m s t a n c e s and

1 . I b i d . , I I , 542-543. 2 . I b i d . . I I , 352. 3 . To R i c h a r d B urke J r . , A u g u s t 1 6 , 1 7 9 1 , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e (e d . F i t z w i l l i a m ) , I I I , 2 7 1-272. 4 . To J o h n T r e v o r , J a n u a r y 1 7 9 1 , i b i d . . I l l , 1 8 3 - 1 8 5 .

259 r s t r i v e to p ro m u lg a te th e p r i n c i p l e s o f th e R e v o l u t i o n . l Members o f t h e E u r o p e a n b o d y owed a i d t o t h e d i s t r e s s e d p a r t s , i f o n l y f o r t h e m o ti v e o f p r e v e n t i n g c o n t a g i o n . They o u g h t t o a i d F r a n c e p u r g e h e r s e l f .

S i n c e F r a n c e was

n o t a n enem y, t h e y w e re n o t t o a im a t h e r d e s t r u c t i o n . E ven i f a C a r t h a g i n i a n d e f e a t c o u l d be i n f l i c t e d on h e r , it

w ould b e o f d u b i o u s b e n e f i t t o B r i t a i n B u rk e was b o t h a s t o n i s h e d and a n n o y e d a t t h e b l i n d n e s s

o f t h e s t a t e s o f E u r o p e , who c o n t e n d e d w i t h e a c h o t h e r f o r t r i v i a l i t i e s , w o r n - o u t p r i n c i p l e s and t o p i c s o f p o l i c y when t h e i r e x i s t e n c e was m enaced b y a new e v i l w h ic h n o n e o f t h e i r o l d maxims was c a p a b l e o f d i s s i p a t i n g . - ^ The y a r d s t i c k f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e s u c c e s s o f a n y f o r e i g n p o l i c y i n t h e s e d a y s was t h e F r e n c h d e v o l u t i o n . H e n c e , when P i t t a t t e m p t e d t o b o l s t e r T u rk e y a g a i n s t R u s s i a i n 1 7 9 1 , B u rk e t h o u g h t i n t e r m s o f t h e r e p e r ­ c u s s i o n s o f t h i s p o l i c y on R u s s i a ’ s r o l e i n c o o p e r a t i n g to e li m i n a t e th e F re n c h t h r e a t to th e E uropean sy s te m . To

s u g g e s t t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e P o r t e was a d i r e c t

on

th e l i b e r t y o f R u s s ia .

A s i a t i c , he a sk e d .

¥vere n o t t h e T u r k s

a tta c k

w h o lly

Had t h e y n o t f a i l e d to s e n d r e s i d e n t

m i n i s t e r s to t h e c o u r t s o f t h e T r i p l e A l l i a n c e m em bers?

I - Works ( e d . B o h n ) , I I , 5 3 0 . 2 . I b i d .". I I , 5 3 1 . 3 . To C h e v a l i e r de l a B i n t i n n a y e , M arch 1 7 9 1 , C o r r e s p o n d ­ e n c e ( e d . F i t z w i l l i ' a m ) , I I I , 204* L

j

260 r

n D id t h e y n o t d e s p i s e a l l C h r i s t i a n p r i n c e s ? t i a n pow er was p r e f e r a b l e

Any C h r i s ­

to th e s e ^ d e s t r u c t i v e sa v a g e s* ”

T h e re was no p a r a l l e l , h e j u d g e d , b e tw e e n B r i t a i n ’ s, r e s c u e o f H o l l a n d fro m F r e n c h pow er a n d P i t t ’ s d e l i v e r ­ a n c e o f T u rk e y f r o m R u s s i a *

H o l l a n d was a l m o s t a s much

a p a r t o f B r i t a i n a s was t h e c o u n t r y o f K e n t , w h i l e T u rk e y was n o t *

The l o s s b y t h e T u rk s o f a " l i t t l e a rea* n e a r

Ocksakow - f o r w h ic h t h e R u s s i a n s w ere c o n t e n d i n g - w ould n o t u p s e t th e b a la n c e , j u s t as P r u s s i a ’ s s e iz u re o f S i l e s i a and P o lan d d i d n o t d e s t r o y th e b a la n c e .

R u s s i a was

E n g l a n d ’ s n a t u r a l a l l y , a n d t h e m o st u s e f u l c o m m e r c ia l frie n d .1 T h e re i s a s l i g h t s h i f t i n h i s v ie w s tow ard : t h e E a s te r n Q u e stio n a t t h i s p o i n t .

A p p ro v in g o f n e i t h e r

R u s s i a n e x p a n s i o n a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e T u rk s n o r t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n t h a t was d e s t r o y i n g E u r o p e , h e c h o s e t h e l e s s e r o f t h e e v i l s a n d h o p e d t h a t R u s s i a w ould th r o w i n h e r m i g h t t o s te m t h e t i d e o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y s u c c e s s e s . R e s e n tm e n t a t R u s s i a n i n g r a t i t u d e and a g g r a n d i z e m e n t o ught n o t b l in d B r i t a i n to g r e a t e r c a t a s t r o p h i e s .

B urke

f e l t t h a t i t was n o t t h e p r u d e n t moment t o c h a l l e n g e

1.

L

M arch 2 9 , 1 7 9 1 , P a r l i a m e n t a r y H i s t o r y . XXIX, 75 -79*

261 r

-i

R u s s i a when h e r s t r e n g t h was n e e d e d t o p r e s e r v e E u r o p e .

1

B u rk e was c o n v in c e d t h a t t h e n a t i o n a l A sse m b ly d i d n o t p r o m is e u n i v e r s a l p e a c e a n d c o n c o r d , h u t t h a t t h e a g ­ g r e s s iv e d e s ig n s i t h a rb o re d a g a in s t n e ig h b o rin g t e r ­ rito rie s

s u c h a s A v ig n o n a n d t h e C p m ta t, C a v a i l h o n a n d

C a r p e n t r a s w e re p r o o f t h a t w ar and s e d i t i o n w ere p l a n n e d a g a i n s t o t h e r g o v e r n m e n ts f o r , t h e p u r p o s e o f e r e c t i n g F r a n c e a t t h e h e a d o f a c o n f e d e r a t i o n o f w i l d and m i s ­ c h ie v o u s r e p u b l i c s . ^ L o u is XVIf s a t t e m p t e d f l i g h t a n d a r r e s t a t V a r e n n e s B u rk e r e g a r d e d a s a j u s t c a u s e f o r i n t e r v e n t i o n i n F re n ch a f f a i r s by th e P r in c e s o f E u ro p e*

But th ey d id

n o t s h a r e h i s c r u s a d i n g z e a l ; t h e y w e re s u p i n e , f e e l i n g b o t h f e a r f u l a n d s e c u r e , u n a w a re t h a t t h e v e r y p r i n c i p l e o f m o n arc h y was a t s t a k e d

The R e v o l u t i o n o b s e s s e d h im .

I t was t h e s t a n d a r d f o r j u d g i n g n o t o n l y p o l i t i c a l b u t p erso n al frie n d s h ip s to o .

So g r e a t was h i s a b h o r r e n c e

t h a t i t l e d h im t o b r e a k w i t h h i s o l d Whig p a r t y f r i e n d ,

1 . Members o f t h e T r i p l e A l l i a n c e : B r i t a i n , t h e U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s , a n d P r u s s i a , who h a d c o n c l u d e d a l l i a n c e s i n 1790 w i t h t h e 'P o l e s and T u r k s ) , m e d i a t e d t h e A u s tr o - T u r k is h c o n f l i c t and e f f e c t e d th e p eace o f S is to v a i n A ugust 1791, and a R u ss o -T u rk ish peace was s i g n e d a t J a s s y i n J a n u a r y o f t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r . 2* An A p p e a l fr o m t h e New t o t h e Old W h ig s, V’/o r k s ( e d . B ohn), I I I , 10 . 3 . To M a r q u is d e B o u i l l 6 , J u l y 13 > 1 7 9 1 . C o r r e s p o n d e n c e ed. F itz w illia m ) , I I I , 21S.

L

-I

C h a r l e s F o x .^ The p o w e rs w ere u n e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t r e s t o r i n g t h e l e g i t i m a t e m o n arch y i n F r a n c e and o v e r t h r o w i n g t h e r a d i c a l s . F r a n c e Ts i n t e r n a l t r o u b l e s a p p e a r e d a s o p p o r t u n i t i e s fo r her r iv a ls .

T h e re was t a l k o f E u ro p e a n a c t i o n , h o w e v e r.

B u rk e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e a l l i e s o u g h t t o a im a t t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f t h e k in g a n d n a t i o n fro m t h e o ty ra n n y of th e u su rp in g f a o t i o n . I n A u g u s t 1791 F r e d e r i c k W il l ia m I I o f P r u s s i a a n d L e o p o ld I I o f A u s t r i a , M a rie A n t o i n e t t e ^ b r o t h e r , m et a t P i l l n i t z

to is s u e a

d e c l a r a t i o n p ro m is in g i n t e r v e n t i o n i f th e y r e c e iv e d th e u n a n im o u s c o n s e n t o f t h e p o w e r s .

I t was no m ore t h a n a

g e stu re . Y e t i t was i n t e r p r e t e d a s a n o p e n t h r e a t by t h e F ren ch .

I n F e b r u a r y 1792 A u s t r i a a n d P r u s s i a c o n c l u d e d a n

a llia n c e a g a in s t F rance.

A m o n th l a t e r F r a n c i s I I s u c c e e d ­

ed t o t h e t h r o n e i n A u s t r i a .

F r a n c e d e c l a r e d w ar a g a i n s t

h im i n A p r i l , p u t t h r e e a r m i e s i n t o t h e f i e l d , fered i n i t i a l lo sse s.

and s u f ­

I n J u l y t h e Duke o f B ru n s w ic k

i s s u e d h i s m a n if e s to t h r e a t e n i n g d i r e p u n ish m en t f o r th e F ren ch r e b e l s .

T h is f o r e i g n t h r e a t h e l p e d t h e P a r i s com­

mune a n d J a c o b i n c l u b s t o w r e s t pow er fro m t h e L e g i s l a ­ t i v e A ssem b ly and t a k e b l o o d y m e a s u r e s a g a i n s t d i s s i d e n t s 1 . The Whigs a s a p a r t y f a v o r e d F o x , a n d w is h e d B u rk e t o r e s i g n . B urke s e n t h i s s o n B i c h a r d t th e c o u rt e s t a b l i s h ­ ed b y t h e F r e n c h e m i g r e s a t C o b le n z t o a c t a s h i s p e r ­ sonal re p re s e n ta tiv e s . , 2 . To H i c h a r d B u rk e J r . , A u g u s t 5 , 1 7 9 1 , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e ( e d . F itz w illia m ) , I I I , 271. J

263

i n t h e S e p tem b er M a s s a c r e s . C a t h a r i n e t h e G r e a t w is h e d t o d i r e c t A u s t r i a a n d P r u s s i a to v /a rd F r e n c h v e n t u r e s so t h a t s h e w ould h a v e a f r e e hand i n P o la n d .

She w r o t e B u r k e , who i m p l o r e d h e r

i n h i s r e p l y to a n im a te an d e x p e d ite th e e x e r t i o n s o f o th e r so v e re ig n s.

O th e r s t a t e s would t h e n l e a r n t h a t

i f t h e y w a i t e d u n t i l a l l t h e pow ers w e re i n m o t i o n , t h e y w ould n e v e r move a t a l l .

R e v e a lin g h i s u n d e rly in g

p h i l o s o p h y t h a t E u r o p e a n p e o p l e s w ere f o rm e d by s i m i l a r f o r c e s a n d t h a t s t a t e s w e re m e r e l y c om po nent p a r t s o f C h risten d o m , he rem in d ed h e r t h a t t h e d e b t , w h ic h y o u r I m p e r i a l M a j e s t y 1s a u g u st p re d e c e s s o rs have c o n tr a c te d to t h e a n c i e n t m a n n e r s o f E u r o p e , b y m eans o f w h ic h t h e y c i v i l i z e d a v a s t e m p i r e , w i l l be n o b l y r e p a i d b y p r e s e r v i n g t h o s e , m a n n e rs fro m t h e h i d e o u s c h a n g e w i t h w h ic h t h e y a r e now m e n a c e d . By t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f R u s s i a t h e w o r l d w i l l be p r e s e r v e d f ro m b a r b a r ­ ism and r u i n . 1 He a t t e m p t e d t o a l i g n a l l t h e f o r c e s o f l a w , r e l i ­ g io n a n d t r a d i t i o n a g a i n s t th e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s ; and so u g h t to e f f e c t A n g lo -P a p al c o o p e r a tio n i n th e M e d ite rra n e a n . The Pope was a ”p r i n c e o f g r e a t r a n k among s o v e r e i g n s a nd among p r e l a t e s , w h o l l y u n l i k e i n t h i s a s i n e v e r y ­ t h i n g e l s e , t o t h o s e who o p p r e s s t h e i r c o u n t r y a n d w ould d e stro y i t s n e ig h b o u rs .”

B urke w o u l d . r e s p e c t him th o u g h

h e was weak i n m i l i t a r y p o w e r, f o r th e Pope owed h i s a u t h o r i t y a t home a n d h i s i n f l u e n c e a b r o a d t o o p i n i o n and a 1 . November 1 , 1 7 9 1 , Works ( e d . B o h n ), 7 , 436 . L

264 r

n rev eren ce f o r h is p o s itio n .

He s a i d t o t h e P o p e f s envoy:^*

We s h a l l h a v e no enemy h u t t h e common enem y; t h a t enemy w h ic h w ould d e b a s e o u r n a ­ t u r e , o u r c h a r a c t e r , and make u s m ore m i s ­ e r a b l e th a n th e b e a s t s le a v in g u s w hat th e y c a n n o t t a k e fro m u s , rem em bran ce a n d a n t i c i p a ­ t i o n ; b u t d e p r iv in g our d i g n i f i e d b u t a n x io u s e x i s t e n c e o f a l l ' i t s c o n s o l a t i o n s and a l l i t s hopes. I n h i s T h o u g h ts on F r e n c h A f f a i r s , p u b l i s h e d i n Decem­ b e r 1 7 9 1 , B u rk e a r g u e d t h a t t h e R e v o l u t i o n was b e co m in g m ore d a n g e r o u s t o t h e s t a t e s o f E u r o p e .

I t was i m p o s s i b l e

f o r th e s o v e r e ig n s o f C h risten d o m to p r e te n d ig n o r a n c e o f t h e g r a v i t y o f t h e m om ent, f o r t h e y h a d b ^ e n i n f o r m e d by t h e F r e n c h m i n i s t e r o f f o r e i g n a f f a i r s , M. de M o n tm o rin , p t h a t a t o t a l r e v o l u t io n had o c c u rre d i n F ra n c e .. They

1.

To t h e A r c h b i s h o p o f N i s a b i , Decem ber 1 4 , 1 7 9 1 , h i t h e r ­ t o u n p u b l i s h e d l e t t e r , H .V .F . S o m e r s e t , ^Edmund B u r k e . E n g la n d , a n d t h e P a p a c y , ” D u b l i n R e v ie w . CCII ( 1 9 3 $ ) , p p . 1 3 9 - 1 4 2 . B urke condem ned t h e s e i z u r e o f p a p a l l a n d s a t A v ig non an d s a i d t h a t h e a lw a y s c o n ­ s i d e r e d t h a t t h o s e p r o c e e d i n g s a m o u n ted t o a d e c l a r a ­ t i o n o f war a g a i n s t a l l E u r o p e , i b i d . . l o c . e i t . , p . 1 3 9 . 2 . Works ( e d . B o h n ) , V, 4 3 7 . The F r e n c h i n f o r m e d B r i t a i n t h a t L o u is XVI was m e r e l y t h e f i r s t o f t h e m i n i s t e r s , a n d t h e p o w e rs t h a t t h e k i n g h a d a c c e p t e d t h e c o n ­ s t i t u t i o n o f 1 7 9 0 . B urk e c l a i m e d t h e s e n o t i f i c a t i o n s a b o u t t h e i n t e r n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s o f a c o u n t r y w ere a n u n u s u a l p r a c t i c e among n a t i o n s . B u t s i n c e F r a n c e w as a d i v i d e d k in g d o m , t h e a u t h o r i t y o f V a t t e l and t h e la w o f n a t i o n s p e r m i t t e d B r i t a i n and o t h e r s t a t e s t o t a k e a n y p a r t t h e y ?d.shed i n t h e s t r u g g l e , i b i d . . V, 4 3 7 - 4 3 $ . He t r i e d t o p e r s u a d e P i t t - a n d G r e n v i l l e t o i n t e r v e n e . A f t e r s e e i n g them s e v e r a l t i m e s i n - t h e summer o f 1 7 9 1 , he t o l d h i s s o n t h a t t h e y h a d n o t com­ p r e h e n d e d t h e e f f e c t o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n on E n g l a n d . S e p te m b e r 2 6 , 1 7 9 1 , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e ( e d . F i t z w i l l i a m ) , I I I , 3 4 4 . P i t t ’ s b i o g r a p h e r o b s e r v e s t h a t i t was d i f ­ f i c u l t f o r a p r a c t i c a l s ta te s m a n to ta k e th e o r a t o r s e r i o u s l y . J . H o l l a n d R o s e , W i l l i a m - P i t t and t h e N a t i o n l a l R e v i v a l . L ondon, B e l l , .1911, p . 5 5 9 . _i

s h o u l d h a v e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e a im s o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n ­ a r i e s w e re n o t r e s t r i c t e d

to F rance*

What was b e i n g e s ­

p o u s e d i n P a r i s was a new s p e c i e s o f g o v e rn m e n t on new p r i n c i p l e s , w h ic h p r o d u c e d a r e a l c r i s i s i n E u r o p e a n p o litic s .

The R e v o l u t i o n c l a i m e d u n i v e r s a l a l l e g i a n c e

and r e l i g i o u s a t t a c h m e n t ; l i k e t h e R e f o r m a t i o n , i t was a n u p h e a v a l o f d o c t r i n e an d t h e o r e t i c dogma, w h ic h i n ­ tro d u c e d i n t o a l l s t a t e s o t h e r i n t e r e s t s th a n th o s e flo w ­ i n g fro m l o c a l i t y a n d n a t u r a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s * n a t u r e , i t c o u l d n o t b e c o n f i n e d to i t s o rig in *

By i t s

c o u n try o f

F o r t h e f i r s t . t i m e i n m odern h i s t o r y , i t r e ­

v e a l e d t h e s p i r i t o f p o l i t i c a l f a c t i o n sw e e p in g l i k e r e l i g i o n a c r o s s n a t i o n a l l i n e s and c o n s t i t u t i n g a p r i n c i p l e o f u n i o n among p a r t i s a n s i n t h e s e v e r a l c o u n t ­ rie s .1 The F r e n c h p r o s e l y t i z e d t h r o u g h o u t E u ro p e l a r g e l y t h r o u g h t h e p r o p a g a n d a o f n e w s p a p e r s , w h ic h w e re f o r many p e r s o n s t h e s o l e r e a d i n g m a t t e r and s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a ­ tio n .

R e p e t i t i v e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o p a g a n d a was e f f e c t i v e .

1 . Works ( e d . B o h n ), I I I , 3 .4 9 -3 5 1 . The dogma u n i t i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t f a c t i o n s i n v a r i o u s n a t i o n s w as, ”T hat th e m a j o r i t y , t o l d by t h e h e a d , o f th e t a x a b le p e o p le i n e v ery c o u n try , i s th e p e r p e t u a l , n a t u r a l , u n c e a s ­ in g , in d e f e a s ib le so v e re ig n ; th a t t h i s m a jo rity i s p e r f e c t l y m a s te r of th e fo rm , a s w e ll as th e a d ­ m i n i s t r a t i o n , . ' o f t h e s t a t e ; and t h a t t h e m a g i s t r a t e s , u n d e r w h a t e v e r names' t h e y a r e c a l l e d , a r e o n l y f u n c ­ t i o n a r i e s to obey th e o r d e r s ( g e n e r a l a s la w s , o r p a r t i c u l a r a s d e c r e e s ) w h ic h t h a t m a j o r i t y may m ake; t h a t t h i s i s t h e o n l y n a t u r a l g o v e rn m e n t; t h a t a l l o th e r s a re ty ran n y and u s u r p a t io n .* i b i d . . I l l , 352.

266

”L e t u s o n l y s u f f e r a n y p e r s o n t o t e l l u s h i s s t o r y , m o rn in g a n d e v e n i n g , b u t f o r one tw e lv e m o n th ,*1 B urke o b served,

Ifand h e ~ w i l l become o u r m aster.**

The l e a d i n g f e r t i l e

g ro u n d f o r t h e s e e d o f F r e n c h

p r o s e l y t i s m l a y i n I t a l y - , S w i t z e r l a n d a n d Germany, t h a t is,

i n c o u n t r i e s l o o s e l y j o i n e d by some f e d e r a l c o n ­

s t i t u t i o n , p o s s e s s i n g s m a l l m em bers, and g r e a t l y d i v e r ­ s i f i e d fo rm s o f g o v e r n m e n t and t i t l e s .

The German

e c c l e s i a s t i c a l e l e c t o r a t e s s u c h a s T r e v e s w e re p a r t i ­ c u l a r l y f a v o r a b l e s o i l a n d l i k e l y t o be a f f e c t e d f i r s t . t h e R e v o l u t i o n s u c c e e d e d t h e r e , i t was a l l o v e r w i t h t h e G erm an ic b o d y a s i t was t h e n c o n s t i t u t e d .

B u rk e d e ­

c la re d :^

A g r e a t r e v o l u t i o n i s p r e p a r i n g i n G erm any; and a r e v o l u t i o n . . . l i k e l y t o be m ore d e c i ­ s iv e upon th e g e n e r a l f a t e o f n a t i o n s th a n t h a t o f F ran ce i t s e l f ; o th e r th an a s in F ra n c e i s to ' be fo u n d t h e f i r s t s o u rc e o f a l l t h e p r i n c i p l e s w h ic h a r e i n a n y way l i k e l y t o d i s t i n g u i s h th e t r o u b l e s and con­ v u lsio n s of our ag e. I f E u ro p e d o e s n o t c o n ­ c e i v e t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e and t h e e q u i l i b r i u m ’ o f t h e e m p ir e to b e i n t h e v e r y e s s e n c e o f t h e s y s t e m " o f p u b l i c l a w , o r m ass o f l a w s , u p o n w h ic h t h a t i n d e p e n d e n c e and e q u i l i ­ b r iu m a r e f o u n d e d , b e o f no l e a d i n g c o n ­ sequence a s th e y a r e p re s e rv e d o r d e s t r o y ­ e d , a l l t h e p o l i t i c s o f E u ro p e f o r m ore t h a n two c e n t u r i e s h a v e b e e n m i s e r a b l y e r r o n e o u s .

1. Ib id .. Ill* 2. Ib id ., I l l ,

L

356-357. 3 57-358.

If

26? r P r u s s i a an d A u s t r i a d i d n o t s e e t h e d a n g e r s .

As g r e a t

p o w e rs who d e s i r e d a g g r a n d i z e m e n t , t h e y d i d n o t p o s s e s s a s o c i a l i n t e r e s t w h ic h i s a lw a y s e x p r e s s e d b y weak, o r m e d i o c r e s t a t e s who n a t u r a l l y a p p r e h e n d f o r c e s t h a t may d e s t r o y th e m .

G erm any’ s l i b e r t i e s w ere s e c u r e a s lo n g

a s t h o s e two p o w ers w ere a t o d d s ; a n d t h e y w e re m enaced t h e moment P r u s s i a a n d A u s t r i a a g r e e d u pon m u t u a l a u g ­ m e n ta tio n and d i v i s i o n o f s p o i l .

The e x a m p le o f P o l a n d show -

e d t h a t t h e p a r t i t i o n o f Germany was p o s s i b l e .

A lt h o u g h

B r i t a i n was c o n c e r n e d i n t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e German b a l a n c e , i t was F r a n c e who was p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i t s m ain ten a n ce .

B ut t h e R e v o l u t i o n u p s e t F r a n c e ’ s v i t a l

f u n c tio n i n th e p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t y o f E urop e.

T hat d u ty

was a w e i g h t y r e a s o n f o r p r e s e r v i n g F r a n c e a s a p o w e r f u l 1 n a tio n . B u rk e e x p l a i n e d : Though a t one t im e t h r o u g h F r a n c e t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f E u ro p e was e n d a n g e r e d , i t i s , a n d e v e r w a s , t h r o u g h h e r a l o n e t h a t t h e common l i b e r t y o f Germany c a n b e t s e c u r e d a g a i n s t t h e s i n g l e o r t h e com b in ed a m b i t i o n o f ^ a n y o t h e r p o w e r . I n t r u t h , w i t h in t h i s c e n tu r y th e a g g ra n d iz e m e n t of o th e r so v e re ig n h o u ses h as been such t h a t 't h e r e has b e e n a g r e a t c h a n g e i n t h e w h o le s t a t e o f E u r o p e ; a n d o t h e r n a t i o n s a s w e l l a s F r a n c e may become o b j e c ts o f je a lo u s y and a p p re h e n s io n . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r e w e re no p e r m a n e n t f r i e n d s h i p s o r a n t i ­ p a th ie s .

M u tu a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t s e r v e d a s a h a n d y c h e c k on

t h e a m b i t i o n s o f member s t a t e s o f t h e E u r o p e a n s y s t e m .

1. Ib id .. L

Ill,

3 5 S -3 6 0

268

Now t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s d i s c a r d e d t h e T r e a t y o f W e stp h a l i a A and t h e r e f o r e w o u ld d e s t r o y i t s c o n s i d e r e d wrong a n d t y r a n n i c a l .

s y s t e m , w h ic h t h e y

They w ou ld show t h e i r

f a v o r a n d d i s f a v o r by t h e s a m e .m e th o d : f r i e n d s h i p by com­ m u n i c a t i n g p e a c e a b l y t h e r i g h t s o f m an, and h o s t i l i t y by c o m p e l l i n g t h e s o v e r e i g n s t o s u b m it t o t h o s e r i g h t s . S i n c e t h e i r schem e aim ed a t t h e d i s r u p t i o n o f t h e e m p i r e , A u s t r i a n o r P r u s s i a n s t a t e s m e n who saw o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r a g g r a n d i z e m e n t a t t h a t moment w o u ld u n w i t t i n g l y e s t a b l i s h p r i n c i p l e s a n d s t r e n g t h e n a t t i t u d e s among t h e p e o p l e t h a t w ould make i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e i r m o n a re h s t o h o l d e i t h e r t h e new a c q u i s i t i o n s o r t h e i r p a t r i m o n i a l l a n d s . A t s t a k e w ere n o t o n l y t e r r i t o r i e s b u t t h e p r i n c i p l e s and b a s e s o f t h e E u r o p e a n p o l i t i c a l w o r l d . The F r e n c h h ad i n a u g u r a te d t h e i r program by s e i z i n g th e p a p a l t e r ­ r i t o r i e s o f A v ig n o n a n d t h e C o m tat on t h e g r o u n d s o f a n a n tiq u a te d t i t l e

o f t h e F r e n c h Crown.

They t r i e d u n ­

s u c c e s s f u l l y to . t a k e G e n ev a ; a n d h o p e d t o a c h i e v e t h e u n io n o f a l l th e p r o v in c e s o f a n c i e n t G a u l.^ An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e c r i s i s

c o n v in c e d h im t h a t no

c o u n t e r r e v o l u t i o n - fro m i n t e r n a l c a u s e s a l o n e - c o u l d be e x p e c t e d i n F r a n c e ; t h e l o n g e r t h e F r e n c h s y s te m r e ­ m a i n e d , t h e g r e a t e r w ould be i t s

s t r e n g t h a n d power t o

r e s i s t ; a n d , a s l o n g a s i t r e m a i n e d , i t W'ould be i n t h e 1. Ib id ., L

I I I , 36 0 -3 6 1 .

in te re s t of i t s

l e a d e r s , and th e v e ry e sse n c e o f t h e i r

sc h em e , t o c o n f u s e a n d d i s t u r b o t h e r g o v e r n m e n t s . W hile B urke a c k n o w le d g e d t h a t t h e p r i n c e s o f E u ro p e t o o k d e ­ fe n s iv e m easu res, th e y f a i l e d m in e n t d a n g e r .

t o p r o v i d e a g a i n s t im­

The F r e n c h a t t a c k w ould o p e r a t e a g a i n s t

t h e i r s t a t e s n o t e x t e r n a l l y , b u t b y ”a n i n t e r n a l c o r r u p -! t i o n (a s o r t o f d r y r o t ) . ” B urke summed up a c a r d i n a l p r i n c i p l e - t h e s t a t e o f

! • I b i d . . I l l , 3 7 5 - 3 7 6 . The, d a n g e r t o B r i t a i n was m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e " a l l i a n c e ” b e tw e e n t h e F r e n c h A ssem b ly a n d a g r o u p o f f r a n c o p h i l e s , who m et i n a t a v e r n i n F r i t h S t r e e t , L o n d o n . B u rk e c a l l e d i t ” t h e d e l i r i u m o f a lo w , d r u n k e n , a l e h o u s e . c l u b . ” The A sse m b ly o r d e r e d t h i s f o r m a l a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e people* o f E n g la n d p r e s e n t e d t o L o u is XVI. To B u r k e f s m in d , t h i s was a d d i t i o n a l ' e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e F r e n c h w ould c o u n t e n a n c e a n d a b e t B r i t i s h c o n s p i r a t o r s . " T h is a l l i a n c e c o n s t i t u t e d a h i g h m is d e a m e n o r f o r t h o s e i n E n g l a n d , an d p l a i n a g g r e s s i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e A s se m b ly , f r w h ic h t h e B r i t i s h C o u r t c o u ld demand a d i r e c t d i s a v o w a l . I b i d . . I l l , 37 8-388. The A r c h b is h o p o f T r e v e s an d o t h e r R h e n i s h p r i n c e s who w ere h a r b o r i n g F r e n c h e m i g r e s w e re t h r e a t e n ­ ed by t h e F r e n c h A s se m b ly i n a d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t s t a t e d t h e p r i n c i p l e s t h a t w ould be f o l l o w e d i n d i s p u t e s 'w i th o th e r s t a t e s . F i r e a n d sw o rd w ould b e r e p l a c e d by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f l i b e r t y . The F r e n c h w ould f i g h t o n l y a g a i n s t t h e m a s t e r s , n o t t h e p e o p l e . B u rk e f e l t t h a t t h e t e r r o r o f F r a n c e h a d f a l l e n on a l l n a t i o n s , th o u g h o n l y t h e German p r i n c e s h a r b o r i n g e m i g r d s w e re i m m e d i a t e l y a f f e c t e d . And h e o b s e r v e d t h a t ”i f a n y o f t h e l a w f u l , acknow ­ l e d g e d s o v e r e i g n s o f E u ro p e h a d p u b l i c l y o r d e r e d s u c h a m a n i f e s t o t o b e c i r c u l a t e d i n t h e d o m in i o n s o f a n o t h e r , t h e a m b a s s a d o r o f t h a t power w ould i n ­ s t a n t l y be o r d e r e d t o q u i t e v e r y c o u r t w i t h o u t an a u d ie n c e .” i b i d . . I l l , 389-390 .

F r a n c e was t h e f i r s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n E u r o p e a n p o l i t i c s f o r b o t h i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l a f f a i r s . The ^ a m b a s s a d o r s fro m t h e r i g h t s o f man, a n d t h e i r a d m i s s i o n i n t o t h e d i p l o m a t i c system .1* c o n s t i t u t e d a new e r a i n t h i s b u s i ­ ness. The e x p a n s i o n i s t - m i n d e d G i r o n d i n s , t h e d o m in a n t g r o u p i n P a r i s , moved f o r w ar w i t h A u s t r i a a n d P r u s s i a i n A p ril 1792.

B u rk e r e j e c t e d t h e c o n t e n t i o n o f t h e

E n g l i s h f r a n c o p h i l e s t h a t one s t a t e d i d n o t .h a v e t h e r i g h t to i n t e r f e r e i n th e i n t e r i o r a f f a i r s o f a n o th e r . I t was n e c e s s a r y t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n r e b e l l i o n and s e d i t i o n i n a n e ig h b o r in g c o u n tr y and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e d iv is io n of a s t a t e .

To i n t e r f e r e i n d o m e s ti c d i s ­

se n sio n s r e q u ir e d p ru d en c e, c irc u m sp e c tio n , a j u s t r e ­ g a r d t o r i g h t a n d t h e n a t i o n a l an d E u ro p e a n p o l i c i e s ; b u t i t d id n o t v i o l a t e p u b l ic law , th e w r i t i n g s o f a u t h o r i t i e s on t h e la w o f n a t i o n s o r t h e p r a c t i c e o f c iv iliz e d s ta te s .

A n o th e r power c e r t a i n l y was j u s t i ­

f ie d in n o tic in g v io le n c e , o p p re ssio n or a tro c io u s t y r a n n y i n a n o t h e r s t a t e a n d i n e x t e n d i n g a i d t o t h e down-

1.

Ib id ..

Ill,

392

271 r

~i

t r o d d e n . ' 1' To p r e p a r e f o r i n t e r v e n t i o n , B r i t a i n o u g h t t o e l i ­ m i n a t e a l l p u b l i c an d p r i v a t e a n i m o s i t i e s , t h e d i s ­ s e n s i o n i n t h e r o y a l f a m i l y , p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s and I r e la n d ." -

Then s h e w ould b e a b l e t o l e a d t h e c o n t i n e n t a l

f r o n t to f r e e t h e F r e n c h k i n g a n d n a t i o n fro m t h e u s u r p ­ i n g r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s and t o d i s c l a i m d e s p o t i s m and an y g o v e rn m e n t s a v e a m o n a rc h y a c t i n g u n d e r f i x e d l a w .^ I t was e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e p o w ers t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t e v e ry th in g h in g e d upon th e t u r n of e v e n ts i n F ra n c e , f o r t h e R e v o l u t i o n was t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t c r i s i s t h a t ev er o c c u rre d i n th e w o rld .

B urke t o l d h i s c o u s i n

W ill:4

The f i r e i s c o n s t a n t l y a t w ork; i t some­ tim e s b la z e s o u t . I t i s so m e tim e s s m o t h e r e d , o r r a t h e r c o v e r e d , by t h e a s h e s ; - b u t th e r e i t i s , and th e r e i t w i l l b e. The w h o le e d i f i c e o f a n c i e n t E u ro p e i s s h a k e n by t h e e a r t h q u a k e c a u s e d by. t h e f i r e . One p a r t o f t h e b u i l d i n g o n l y i s l e v e l w ith th e g ro u n d ; b u t a l l i s im p a ire d v e ry c o n sid e ra b ly .

1.

A ugust 18, 1792. C o rresp o n d en ce (e d . F i t z w i l l i a m ) , I I I , 5 1 1 . B urke o p p o s e d a d d r e s s i n g t h e F r e n c h l e a d e r s , b e ­ cause^ t h a t a c t i o n w ould g i v e d i r e c t s a n c t i o n t o t h e i r a u t h o ' r i t y 7 I b i d . , I I I , 5 0 4 - 5 0 5 . t)n F o x 1 s ' m o ti o n t o send a m i n i s t e r to P a r i s to t r e a t w ith th e p r o ­ v i s i o n a l g o v e rn m e n t of F r a n c e , h e i n q u i r e d , t!m i g h t n o t t h e F r e n c h ' i n s u l t t h e m i n i s t e r by s a y i n g , !Who s e n t y o u ? The k i n g o r t h e p e o p le o f E n g l a n d ? * ” Dec­ ember 1 5 , 1 7 9 2 , P a r l i a m e n t a r y H is t o r y . XXX, I I I . 2 . To R i c h a r d B u rk e J r . , ”p r o b a b l y Tr~Septem ber 29 o r 3 0 , 1792 J C o r r e s p o n d e n c e ( e d . F i t z w i l l i a m ) , ' I V , ' 9 . 3 . To sam e, A u g u s t 5 , 1 7 9 1 , i b i d . . I l l , 2 2 6 - 2 2 7 . 4 . S e p te m b e r 1 7 9 2 , i b i d . , I I I , 5 1 4 .

272 'A lth o u g h t h e Duke o f B r u n s w ic k h a d v i c t o r y i n h i s g r a s p , h e r e t r e a t e d b e f o r e t h e F r e n c h a t Valmy i n S e p te m b e r 1792.

Soon S p e i e r , M a in z , F r a n k f o r t , N ic e a n d Savoy

f e l l b e fo re th e t r i c o l o r . tio n .

T h e re was a n im m e d ia te r e a c ­

A c o n g r e s s o f a l l E u r o p e a n p o w e rs was p r o p o s e d i n

o r d e r t o fo rm a g e n e r a l d e f e n s i v e a l l i a n c e t o r e c o g n i z e and c o n c l u d e p e a c e w i t h F r a n c e a n d t o p r o v i d e a g a i n s t o p en a g g re s s io n o r p ro p a g a tio n o f F rench p r i n c i p l e s . saw t h i s p r o p o s a l a s f u t i l i t y .

B urk e

A nl e a g u e o f p r i n c e s

a g a i n s t b a d s y l l o g i s m s I ,« h e s c o f f e d . 1

A d e fe n siv e a l l i a n ­

c e , com posed o f d i s c o r d a n t i n t e r e s t s a n d no p o i n t e d o b ­ j e c t , r e q u i r e d u n r e m itte d v i g i l a n c e to m a in ta in , and h e n c e was i m p r a c t i c a l .

What was n e e d e d was n o t a c o n ­

g r e s s , b u t t h e e x t i r p a t i o n o f t h e m enace fro m t h e h e a r t o f E u r o p e , w h ic h was r a d i a t i n g m i s c h i e f .

2

To p o i n t o u t

th e n e c e s s i t y of j o in i n g and a n im a tin g th e a l l i e s ,

at

t h e moment when t h e F r e n c h w e re p e n e t r a t i n g Germany and t h r e a t e n i n g t h e N e t h e r l a n d s a n d S w i t z e r l a n d , B u rk e w r o t e H eads f o r C o n s i d e r a t i o n on t h e P r e s e n t S t a t e o f A f f a i r s , p u b l i s h e d i n November 1 7 9 2 . He t r i e d t o t e a c h t h e c ro w n e d h e a d s o f E u ro p e t h a t by h e r g e o g r a p h ic a l p o s i t i o n , F ra n ce a f f e c t e d e v ery s t a t e .

1 . To R i c h a r d B u r k e , J r . , O c t o b e r 1 7 , 1 7 9 2 , i b i d . . IV , 2 1 . 2 . Works ( e d . B o h n ) , I I I , 4-09. L

J

What was e q u a l l y d a n g e r o u s was h e r n a v a l e f f o r t t o c o n ­ t r o l th e M e d ite r r a n e a n , and hence f o r c e I t a l y i n t o d e ­ p e n d e n c e b y c o m p e l l i n g h e r t o a d m i t F r e n c h com m erce, a s a p re p a ra to ry s te p to th e in te rc o u rs e of a f f i l i a t e d r e ­ v o lu tio n a ry s o c i e t ie s .

By r e t a i n i n g M in o rc a a n d G ib ­

r a l t a r a t a heavy c o s t , B r i t a i n had p r e v e n te d th e F r e n c h f l e e t fro m d o m in e e r i n g t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d f o r c ­ in g I t a l y t o te rm s i n t h e p a s t .

B u t no?/ B r i t a i n p e r m i t t e d

F r a n c e t o b u i l d u p h e r a rm am en t a t T o u lo n t o t h r e a t e n S p a in .

The l a t t e r was i n p e r i l , f o r sh e was n o t a s u b ­

s t a n t i v e p o w e r, b u t one who h a d t o l e a n on F r a n c e o r B rita in .

S i n c e S p a i n w o u ld b e a t h r e a t t o B r i t a i n a s

a n a l l y o f F r a n c e , s h e m u s t n o t be b u l l i e d i n t o a s u b ,

.

m is s iv e peace*

1

B urke s u g g e s t e d t h a t B r i t a i n a l l y h e r s e l f w i t h S p a i n , renew th e a n c i e n t c o n n e c tio n s w ith A u s t r i a , a n im a te t h e S w i s s , S a r d i n i a n s , a n d t h e D u tc h , a n d e n d a l l d i s p u t e s w ith R u ssia by m u tu a lly f o r g e t t in g

th e p a s t .

B ritish

s u p p o r t o f R u s s i a w ou ld t e n d t o s t e a d y P r u s s i a , who - n o t p o s s e s s i n g a s i n g l e E u r o p e a n a l l y - could, n o t f u l f i l l h e r a m b i t i o n th o u g h s h e m ig h t b e d i s p o s e d to do s o .

A

N aval sq u ad ro n i n th e M e d ite rra n e a n and a n o th e r i n t h e p C h a n n e l w ould u n d e r s c o r e E n g l i s h i n t e n t i o n s . J

Ib id ., 2. Ib id ..

I l l* 398. I l l , 407.

4.

The War a g a i n s t J a c o b i n F r a n c e E v e n t s moved r a p i d l y . The R e p u b l i c w a s p r o c la i m e d i n

P a r i s a n d L o u is XVI w a s e x e c u t e d i n J a n u a r y 1 7 9 3 .

F rench

a r m i e s o v e r r a n B e lg iu m an d t h r e a t e n e d H o l l a n d i n t h e w i n t e r o f 1792-1793.

A lth o u g h th e S c h e ld t had been c lo s e d to

commerce b y t r e a t y , i t was o p e n e d by t h e F r e n c h i n 1792 t o u n r e s t r i c t e d com m erce, a s t e p i n j u r i o u s t o t h e B r i t i s h , on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e r i g h t s o f n a t u r e a n d t h e p r i n ­ c i p l e s o f l i b e r t y and j u s t i c e s a n c tio n e d th e r e p u d i a t i o n o f form er t r e a t i e s .

By c l a i m i n g t h a t t r e a t i e s e x t o r t e d

by a v a r i c e a n d a p p r o v e d by d e s p o t s w e re n o t b i n d i n g , t h e F r e n c h s w e p t away t h e l a w o f n a t i o n s and t h e o b l i g a t i o n s o f c o n v e n tio n s . 1 War came i n F e b r u a r y 1 7 9 3 .

B urke i t e m i z e d t h e c r i m e s

c o m m itte d b y t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s a g a i n s t B r i t a i n :

th ey

s t r o v e f o r a u n i v e r s a l e m p ire u n d e r t h e g u i s e o f f r a t e r ­ n i t y ; t h e y d e v is e d ^ a new la w o f n a t i o n s t o e x p e d i t e t h i s and t h e n a c t e d on t h a t l a w ; t h e y d i r e c t e d t h a t la w a g a i n s t B r i t a i n ; and l a s t l y , th e y e s t a b l i s h e d a h o r r i b l e ty ra n n y in F rance.

I f n o th in g e l s e , th e u tte r a n c e o f th e m in is te r

Gambon t h a t t h e l i m i t s o f t h e new F r e n c h e m p ir e w ere t h o s e of n a tu re , th a t i s ,

t h e n a t u r a l f r o n t i e r s , was h o s t i l i t y

in i t s e l f .^

1. 2.

December 2 8 , 1 7 9 2 . P a r l i a m e n t a r y H i s t o r y . XXX, 1 8 5 - 1 8 6 . He a i d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e o p e n in g o f t h e S c h e l d t o u g h t to be c o n s id e re d th e r e a l cau se o f w ar. F e b r u a r y 1 2 , 1 7 9 3 , i b i d . . XXX, 3 8 4 - 3 8 5 .

275 r

i

He a f f i r m e d t h a t war was d r e a d f u l , b u t t h a t p e a c e ?d.th F r a n c e was w o rse*

The B r i t i s h m i n i s t e r s w ere d r a g g e d i n t o

w ar by o v e r r u l i n g n e c e s s i t y *

And h e e x c l a i m e d , « I p o s s e s s

a s d e e p a s e n s e o f t h e s e v e r e i n f l i c t i o n s o f w ar a s a n y man c a n p o s s i b l y do - » T r e m b lin g I t o u c h i t , b u t w i t h h o n e s t z e a l* ™

I f B r i t a i n h a d n o t waged war t h e n , sh e w ou ld h a v e

b e e n o b l i g e d t o e n c o u n t e r i t a t a much g r e a t e r d i s a d v a n t a g e w i t h i n a s h o r t time*'*'

The w a r was r e a l l y a c i v i l c o n f l i c t ,

f o u g h t on a s c a l e and f o r o b j e c t s o f v a s t e r im p o rta n c e th a n th o se of th e p a s t .

I n r e a l i t y B r i t a i n h a d t a k e n t h e s i d e of

t h e F r e n c h r o y ya l i 's t s .

Q ‘

The r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s f a c e d many p r o b l e m s . o f La V e n d /e r o s e u p a g a i n s t t h e R e p u b l i c .

The p e a s a n t s

D u m o uriez d e ­

s e r t e d to t h e a l l i e s . ; A l t h o u g h a v a s t c o a l i t i o n was fo rm ed i n t h e summer o f 17-93 c o n s i s t i n g o f A u s t r i a , P r u s s i a , t h e E m p ire, B r i t a i n , H o lla n d , S p a in , N a p le s, S a r d i n ia and T u s c a n y , i t w a s .,n o t u n i t e d i n a common p u r p o s e t o r e s t o r e th e F re n c h m onarchy.

And t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s f o u n d i n

a l l i e d d i s u n i t y t h e m eans o f s a l v a t i o n . A u s t r i a , P r u s s i a and R u s s i a w ere i n t e r e s t e d l e s s i n th e R e v o lu tio n th a n i n th e o p p o r t u n it i e s i t p re s e n te d f o r s a tis fy in g th e ir t e r r i t o r i a l a s p ira tio n s .

1. 2.

And a g a i n P o la n d

I b i d . , XXX, 383* To S i r G i l b e r t E l l i o t , S e p te m b e r 1 7 9 3 , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e ( e d . F i t z w i l l i a m ) , IV , 1 5 1 . ' -'

276 r

i was t h e i r o b j e c t *

The P o l e s h a d r e f o r m e d t h e i r c o n s t i t u ­

t i o n i n May 1791 b y a b o l i s h i n g t h e l i b e r u m v e t o * e s t a b l i s h ­ i n g a n h e r e d i t a r y m o n a rc h y i n t h e Saxon l i n e and a tw o h o u s e l e g i s l a t u r e a n d a c a b in e t* '* ' a la rm o f t h e i r n e ig h b o rs *

T h is o c c a s io n e d th e

R u ss ia e x p lo ite d th e a tta c h m e n t

o f c e r t a i n P o l i s h n o b l e s t o t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n by p a t r o n i z i n g th e C o n f e d e r a tio n o f T arg o w ica. w e re n o t t o be o u td o n e *

The P r u s s i a n s

R e p u d ia tin g t h e i r r e c e n t a l l i a n c e

w ith th e P o le s , th e y c o n clu d ed p la n s f o r th e p a r t i t i o n o f th e ir a lly .

T h e r e u p o n t h e y rem oved t r o o p s f ro m t h e F r e n c h

f r o n t t o s e n d them t o w e s t e r n P o l a n d .

A fte r a b rave

s t r u g g l e , t h e P o l e s w e re c o m p e ll e d t o c o n s e n t t o d ism e m b e r­ m ent i n S e p te m b e r 1 7 9 3 .

By e x c l u d i n g A u s t r i a fro m t h e

s p o i l s , t h e p a r t i t i o n i n g p o w e rs w eakened t h e A u s t r o P ru ssia n a llia n c e fo r u n ite d a c tio n in F ran ce. t i o n o f t h e p o w e rs was d i v e r t e d fro m P a r i s , in g th e J a c o b in s a b r e a th in g

The a t t e n ­

th e re b y a f f o r d ­

s p e l l i n w h ic h t o p r e p a r e f o r

th e e x p e c te d o n s la u g h t. B urke j u d g e d t h a t B r i t a i n w as n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o a i d t h e P o l e s e m a n c i p a t e t h e m s e l v e s f ro m R u s s i a n c o n t r o l , f o r s h e d i d n o t p o s s e s s t h e m eans o f w ag in g w ar a g a i n s t t h e c o u n tr i e s p r i n c i p a l l y o r s e c o n d a r ily co n cern ed w ith th e

1.

l

B urk e p r a i s e d t h e P o l i s h r e v o l u t i o n b e c a u s e - e v e r y t h i n g '■“was k e p t i n i t s p l a c e a n d o r d e r ; b u t i n t h a t p l a c e an d o r d e r e v e r y t h i n g was b e t t e r e d . ” B o th s t r i v i n g f o r l i b e r t y , th e F re n ch w ent from o rd e r to a n a rc h y , w h ile t h e P o l e s p r o c e e d e d fro m a n a r c h y t o o r d e r . Works ( e d . ^ B o h n ), I I I * 1 0 1 - 1 0 3 .

-i

277 p a r t i t i o n t h a t was a n a c t o f c r y i n g i n j u s t i c e .

H er n a t u r a l

s t r e n g t h c o u l d n o t h e b r o u g h t t o b e a r on t h o s e p o w e r s , and t h a t d e f i c i e n c y h a d to b e s u p p l i e d by a l l i a n c e s . Sweden a n d Denmark w e re a v a i l a b l e .

Y et o n ly

Assum ing t h a t t h e y

w o u ld a i d , t h e i r i n t e r v e n t i o n w o u ld b e b e l a t e d a n d i n c a p a b l e o f se cu rin g P o lis h in d ep en d en ce. T h e re was i t

seem ed a s i n i s t e r p u r p o s e i n t h e p r o -

P o l i s h s e n t i m e n t s i n B r i t a i n , 3'

From a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f new s­

p a p e r a r t i c l e s , B u rk e b e l i e v e d t h e r e a l o b j e c t was j o i n i n g t h e F r e n c h , f o r o n l y F r a n c e was on i l l t e r m s w i t h t h e u n i t ­ ed s o v e r e i g n s .

I t was a p l a n t o b r i n g i n t h e F r e n c h e v i l

b y a b a c k d o o r , on t h e p r e t e n c e o f a i d i n g t h e B o l e s ,

A l­

t h o u g h h e l a m e n t e d t h e f a t e o f t h e ; ^ b r a v e and g e n e r o u s P o l e s 11,

B urke p r e f e r r e d t o l e t a f f a i r s t a k e t h e i r c o u r s e

an d h o p e f o r b e t t e r t h i n g s , t h a n t o e s t a b l i s h t h e F r e n c h sy ste m .

E u ro p e was o b l i g e d t o A u s t r i a a n d P r u s s i a who h a d

a s s e r t e d th e c a u se o f h u m a n ity a g a i n s t th e F re n c h s a v a g e s .

2

1 . Thomas E r s k i n e , l a t e r , L o rd C h a n c e l l o r , a n d D e n n is C ^ B r ie n , a F o x i t e , r a i s e d a s u b s c r i p t i o n f o r a w ar w i t h R u s s i a . B u rk e d o u b t e d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d p o l i t i c a l p r o p r i e t y o f p r i v a t e men g r a n t i n g s u b s i d i e s t o a n y o f t h e b e l l i g e r e n t p o w e rs o f E u r o p e , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e m e r i ts o f th e c a u s e , w ith o u t th e s a n c tio n o f th e g o v ern ­ m e n t . He b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e a im s o f F o x 1s f o l l o w e r s , a s r e v e a l e d i n the" M orning C h r o n i c l e , w ere a n a l l i a n c e w i t h th e J a c o b in s f o r th e p re te n d e d p u rp o se o f u p h o ld in g th e F o i e s . C o n d u c t o f a M i n o r i t y , 1 7 9 3 , Works ( e d . B o h n ), I I I , 4B 3. ' ' 2 . To R i c h a r d B u rk e J r . , J u l y 2 9 , 1 7 9 2 , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e ... ~Xed. F i t z w i l l i a m ) , I I I , 4 7 2 - 4 7 4 .

L

278 r

i

I f F r a n c e w as t o a i d i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e E u r o p e a n b a l a n c e , s h e m u st f i r s t be a p a r t o f i t ,

a n d n o t a n avowed enem y.

B u rk e a g a i n f a c e d t h e p r o b le m o f c h o o s in g t h e l e s s e r o f two e v i l s , a s h e h a d i n t h e Bus s o - T u r k c r i s i s . e v i l s g r e a t e r th an p a r t i t i o n :

T h e re w ere

no g o v e rn m e n t c o u l d be

s a f e w h ile th e R e v o lu tio n su cceed ed i n F r a n c e .

I t was

r i d i c u l o u s t o a s s e r t , h e s a i d , t h a t t h e b a l a n c e o f power was d e s t r o y e d b y t h e p a r t i t i o n .

F ran ce had d e s tro y e d th e

b a la n c e and h ad t r e a t e d i t a s a m is c h ie v o u s c h im e ra .

Had

s h e n o t r e n o u n c e d e v e r y i n t e r p o s i t i o n i n a c o u n t r y 1s i n t e r ­ n al a ffa irs?

F i r s t t h i n g s come f i r s t .

I f th e b a la n c e

w e re l o s t f o r a p e r i o d , i t c o u l d be r e c o v e r e d .

On t h e

o t h e r h a n d , i f t h e s p i r i t a n d p r i n c i p l e s o f E u ro p e w e re r u i n e d , th e y c o u ld n o t be r e v i v e d . 1 The F o l i s h i s s u e was d i s c u s s e d i n th e H ouse o f Com­ m o n s, w h ere B u rk e no l o n g e r w as a c e n t r a l f i g u r e .

He

n o t e d t h a t P r u s s i a n a n d R u s s i a n a c q u i s i t i o n s w ere n o t a s n e a r n o r a s p re s s in g to B r i t a i n a s F ren ch a g g re s s io n .

Na­

t i o n s c o u l d n o t s i t l i k e a j u d g e t o a c t w i t h p e r f e c t im­ p a r t i a l i t y to th e e x c lu s io n of a l l p e rs o n a l c o n c e rn s . f i r s t d u t y o f a s t a t e was t o i t s e l f .

The

B r i t a i n had to s c ru ­

t i n i z e F r e n c h a g g r a n d i z e m e n t , b e c a u s e F r a n c e was n e a r and P r u s s i a a n d P o l a n d w e re f a r a w ay .

U n l e s s t h e r e was d a n g e r

t h a t t h e i n j u r y t o P o l a n d w ould u l t i m a t e l y r e a c h h e r , i t

1. L

Ib id . I l l ,

477-478.

was n o t e x p e d i e n t t o i n t e r v e n e d R e g a r d l e s s o f h i s p e r s o n a l s e n t i m e n t s , h e th o u g h i t p r u d e n t to h o ld h i s tongue.

I t w & s im p o ssib le f o r B r i ta i n

t o go t o w ar w i t h t h e t r i n i t y o f E u r o p e a n p o w e rs a n d t h e r e ­ f o r e t a k e t h e s i d e o f J a c o b i n F r a n c e , She o u g h t n o t t o abandon h e r a l l i e s , o r f o r g e t t h e i r h e l p i n th e d e fe n s e o f H o l l a n d , w h e re B r i t a i n p o s s e s s e d a g r e a t i n t e r e s t . a m b i t i o n o f the- s o v e r e i g n p o w e rs was o b v i o u s . t i c a l q u e s tio n re q u ir e d a p ru d e n t answ er,

The

But a p ra c ­

W hich pow er

p o s s e s s e d t h e a m b i t i o n m o s t l i k e l y t o p r e s s on B r i t a i n ?

2

B u rk e was d i s c o n c e r t e d b y t h e o p p o s i t i o n o f F o x , whom h e t h o u g h t c l o u d e d t h e r e a l i s s u e s o f t h e w a r . • l h a t was a t s t a k e , h e r e p e a t e d , was n o t t r a d e , t e r r i t o r i a l b o u n d a r ­ i e s o r t h e b a l a n c e among r i v a l s t a t e s . ence o f E u ro p e .3

I t.w a s th e e x i s t ­

T h e re w e re e v i l s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e c a l a ­

m i t i e s o f w a r , w h ic h i n c o m p a r is o n m i g h t a p p e a r a s b l e s s ­ in g s d

I n r e p l y i n g t o F o x f s t e n d e r n e s s a n d c o m p a s s io n f o r

t h e p o o r who w ere a f f e c t e d a d v e r s e l y b y w q r, h e m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e g r o u n d s o f a p o l i t i c a l war c o u l d n o t b e u n d e r ­ sto o d by th e l a b o r e r and a r t i s a n .

They knew t h a t t h e y s u f ­

f e r e d , f o r t h a t was a m a t t e r o f f e e l i n g ; b u t t h e y d i d n o t know t h e c a u s e s o f w a r , w h ic h a r e m a t t e r s o f r e a s o n a n d 1. 2. 3. 4.

F e b r u a r y 1 8 , 1 7 9 3 , F a r l i a m e n t a r y H i s t o r v XXX, 433-4-34'* J u n e 1 7 , 1 7 9 3 . i b i d . . XXX. 1 0 0 9 - 1 0 1 0 . C o n d u c t o f a M i n o r i t y , Works ( e d . B o h n ) , I I I , 4 6 8 . To W i l l i a m Windham, A u g u s t 2 3 , 1793* C o r r e s p o n d e n c e ( e d . F i t z w i l l i a m ) , IV , 1 3 5•

f o r e s i g h t a n d a r e n o t o f t e n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e t o men e v e n o f th e h ig h e s t c la s s e s As t h e w ar p r o g r e s s e d , B u rk e commented on t h e p r i n ­ c i p l e s and c o n d u ct o f th e a l l i e s .

A l t h o u g h w ar was ?/aged

f o r n o b l e p u r p o s e s , i t was i m p e r a t i v e t o p r e v e n t am b i­ t i o n o r im p r u d e n c e fro m n o t o n l y f r u s t r a t i n g

th o se e n d s,

b u t fro m p r e c i p i t a t i n g o t h e r c o n f l i c t s . The a l l i e s o u g h t t o a c t , he r e p e a t e d , n o t a s g e n e r a l e n e m ie s o f F r a n c e , b u t as a l l i e s o f th e F ren ch k in g .

2

I t was v i t a l t o o t o

re c o g n iz e th e fu n d a m e n ta lly m o n a rc h ic a l c h a r a c t e r o f th e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t.

N a t i o n s h a d a r i g h t d e r i v e d fro m t h e

p u b l i c la w o f E u ro p e t o know w i t h w h a t g o v e rn m e n t t h e y w e re t o d e a l w i t h i n F r a n c e a n d w h a t t h e y w e re t o a d m i t i n to th e f e d e r a tiv e s o c ie ty o r d ip lo m a tic r e p u b lic o f E u r o p e .^ {

S i n c e t h e i r en d w as n o t t h e r e d u c t i o n o f F r a n c e , t h e y o u g h t not c o u n t e n a n c e t h e schem es t h e n b e i n g c o n s i d e r ­ ed f o r p a r t i t i o n i n g t h e F r e n c h b o r d e r t e r r i t o r i e s .

It

was e s s e n t i a l t o p r e s e r v e F r a n c e , who t h o u g h a d a n g e r t o B r i t a i n was n o t e q u a l l y d r e a d f u l t o o t h e r p o w e r s .

E ur­

o p e ’ s l i b e r t i e s .c o u ld b e p r e s e r v e d o n l y b y t h e m a i n t e n a n c e 1 . Works ( e d . B o h n ), I I I , 4-92-4-93. 2 . B u rk e r e j o i c e d . t h a t t h e B r i t i s h i n s i s t e d o n t h e acknow ­ l e d g m e n t o f t h e F re n c h , r o y a l g o v e rn m e n t a s a c o n d i t i o n o f r e c e i v i n g T o u lo n , a n d t h e n h o i s t e d t h e w h i t e B o u rb o n f la g o v er th e c i t y . To S i r G i l b e r t E l l i o t , S e p te m b e r 1793. C o rresp o n d en c e , (e d . F itz w illia m ).,IV , 154 -155. 3 . R em arks on t h e P o l i c y o f t h e A l l i e s w i t h R e s p e c t t o F r a n c e . Works ( e d . B o lin ), I I I , 4 1 3 - 4 1 6 .

281

r

i o f F r a n c e Ts r i g h t s .

F o r B r i t a i n to r e s o l v e t o s t r i p h e r

o f c o l o n i e s , commerce o r m a r i n e , o r f o r A u s t r i a t o d e s i r e t o d e s p o i l h e r o f t h e f r o n t i e r fro m S w i t z e r l a n d t o D u n k ir k ♦

was d a n g e r o u s .

F r a n c e w ould n e v e r a b a n d o n h e r s e c u r i t y ,

and i n h e r a t t e m p t t o r e g a i n i t , w ar f o r a h u n d r e d y e a r s .

w ould i n v o l v e E u ro p e i n

F u r t h e r , w h a t a g g r a n d i z e d A us­

t r i a , on t h e p r e t e n c e o f s e c u r i t y , d i s g r u n t l e d a n d a la r m e d P ru ssia .

F r a n c e h e r s e l f m ig h t b e p a r t i t i o n e d ;

i n w h ic h

I

e v e n t , i f A u s t r i a g a i n e d m o re , P r u s s i a wouldjdemand i n I d e m n i t y a t t h e e x p e n s e o f Germany; o r f a i l i n g t o r e c e i v e t h i s , P r u s s i a w ould j o i n F r a n c e a n d S p a i n and p e r h a p s o t h e r n a t i o n s a s w e l l , f o r t h e r e d u c t i o n o f Austria.*** J e a l o u s y a n d a m b i t i o n w ere n e v e r p r e s e n t i n t h e i n t e r ­ n a t i o n a l c o m m u n ity .

H ence, th e j u s t b e l l i g e r e n t had to

s c r u t i n i z e h i s m o tiv e s to p re v e n t s e l f - d e c e p t io n or n a ­ t i o n a l a g g ra n d iz e m e n t.

As a c a s e i n p o i n t , B u rk e b e l i e v e d

i t was i m p r u d e n t f o r B r i t a i n to become t o o p o w e r f u l a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e w ar a g a i n s t t h e J a c o b i n s .

O th er n a -

v

t i o n s w o u ld j u d g e h e r by h e r c o n d u c t r e s p e c t i n g r i t o r i e s w h ic h f e l l t o h e r f o r c e s .

th e t e r ­

She was n o t t o b e .

sw ayed by c o n s i d e r a t i o n s 'of s i n i s t e r . a d v a n t a g e .

I f sh e

w e r e , S p a n i a r d s , P r u s s i a n s a n d o t h e r p e o p l e s w o u ld p u t h e r under c o n trib u tio n .

T h en , i n s t e a d o f b e i n g t h e l e a d e r

o f t h e g r e a t a l l i a n c e and t h e a r b i t r e s s o f E u r o p e , s h e

L

I f r i d *. I l l , 4 4 6 -4 4 8 •

.

282 r

i

w o u ld d e m o l i s h t h e c o n f e d e r a c y and r e d u c e i t little

to a t h o u s a n d

s e l f i s h q u a r r e l s , a n d t h u s p e r m i t t h e enemy t o

triu m p h I n t h e m a t t e r o f T o u lo n , w h ere t h e B r i t i s h h a d u n ­ r i g g e d t h e F r e n c h f l e e t , h e r p o l i c y h a d "been i m p r u d e n t * F ren ch r o y a l o f f i c e r s o ugh t to have been p la c e d i n charge 2 o f t h e f l e e t u n d e r B r i t i s h s u p e r v i s i o n .* E n g la n d h a d c o n ­ f o u n d e d t h e F r e n c h a l l y a n d t h e F r e n c h enemy, t h o u g h b o t h o e g u p i e d t h e same g e o g r a p h i c a l t e r r i t o r y *

N ot t o d e c l a r e

T o u lo n a r o y a l F r e n c h c i t y was t o g i v e S p a i n c a u s e f o r fe a rin g

t h a t B r i t a i n a im e d a t b e co m in g t h e a b s o l u t e m i s ­

t r e s s o f th e M e d ite rra n e a n .

F a t a l consequences a w aited

B r i t a i n i f s h e m a n i f e s t e d e x tr e m e s e l f - p a r t i a l i t y a n d a t o t a l d i s r e g a r d o f w h a t o t h e r 's f e a r e d o r h o p e d f o r .

The

b a l a n c e o f p o w e r, e s p e c i a l l y t h e m a r i t i m e and c o m m e r c ia l e q u i l i b r i u m i n E u ro p e a n d t h e W est I n d i e s , h a d t o b e p r e ­ se rv e d .^ I t was d r e a d f u l t o b e d r e a d e d .

”We a r e men a n d a s

men we w i l l w i s h t o a g g r a n d i z e o u r s e l v e s i n some way o r th e o th er® .

B u rke t h o u g h t B r i t a i n - o u g h t t o h a v e r e m a in e d

c o n t e n t , f o r s h e p o s s e s s e d a l m o s t a l l t h e commerce a n d a g r e a t I n d i a n e m p ir e - 11a n a i r f u l t h i n g . ®

She c o u l d n o t

1 . I b i d . I I I . 4 3 8 -439. 2 . ®They t h a t p a y , a n d f e e d , an d e q u i p , m u s t d i r e c t . ® ib id . 3 . I b i d . . I l l , 440-441.

283 r

n c l a i m t h a t s h e w o u ld n o t a b u s e p o w e r .

O t h e r n a t i o n s w ould

n o t t h i n k s o , and e v e n t u a l l y t h e y w ould c o n t r i v e a com1 b i n a t i o n a g a i n s t h e r t h a t m ig h t r u i n h e r . B u r k e d p a m p h l e t on t h e P o l i c y o f t h e A l l i e s i n c l u d e d e x t r a c t s fro m E m e ric d e V a t t e l t h a t w e re i n t e n d e d t o show t h a t p e rs u a d in g s u b je c ts to r e v o l t a g a i n s t - r a t h e r th an t o o b ey - t h e i r k i n g v i o l a t e d t h e la w o f n a t i o n s .

N a tio n s

co u ld j o i n th e i n j u r e d p a r t y t o re d u c e th e a m b itio u s group and t o p r e v e n t i t fr o m o p p r e s s i n g i t s n e i g h b o r s .

It

was n o t o n l y l a w f u l , t h e r e f o r e , b u t p r a i s e - w o r t h y t o h e l p th e o p p ressed or v ic tim s o f a g g re s s io n .

T h is n a t u r a l l y

f o l l o w e d f r o m B u rk e * s g e n e r a l c o n c e p t i o n o f C h r is te n d o m t h a t h e e x p r e s s e d many t i m e s .

N a t i o n s w e re n o t a to m ic

u n i t s , b u t p a r t s o f a g r e a t h i s t o r i c e n t i t y , w ith m u tu a l o b lig a tio n s and r i g h t s .

V a tte l* s d e s c r i p t i o n of t h a t

s o c i e t y c o n fo rm e d t o B u r k e * s c o n c e p t i o n : E u ro p e f o r m s a p o l i t i c a l s y s te m , a b ody w here t h e w h o le i s c o n n e c t e d b y t h e r e l a t i o n s an d d if f e r e n t i n t e r e s t s of n a tio n s in h a b itin g th is p a r t o f th e w o rld . I t is " n o t, as a n c ie n tly , a c o n fu sed h eap o f d e ta c h e d p i e c e s , each o f w h ic h th o u g h t i t s e l f v e r y l i t t l e c o n c e r n e d i n t h e f a t e o f o t h e r s , ah d se ld o m r e g a r d e d , t h i n g s w h ic h d i d n o t i m m e d i a t e l y r e l a t e t o i t . The c o n t i n u a l a t t e n t i o n of s o v e r e i g n s t o w h a t i s on t h e c a r p e t , t h e c o n s t a n t r e s i d e n c e o f m in ­ i s t e r s , and t h e p e r p e t u a l n e g o t i a t i o n s , made E u ro p e a k i n d o f r e p u b l i c , t h e members o f w h ic h ,"th o u g h in d e p e n d e n t, u n i t e , th ro u g h t i e s o f common i n t e r e s t , f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f

! • I b id , . I l l , 448. 2 . A p p e n d ix , i b i d . , I l l , L

4 6 O-4 6 4 .

284

r

i o r d e r and l i b e r t y * H ence a r o s e t h a t fam ous schem e o f t h e p o l i t i c a l e q u i l i b r i u m , o r b a l a n c e o f p o w e r; by w h ic h i s u n d e r s t o o d s u c h a d i s p o s i t i o n o r t h i n g s , a s no pow er' i s a b l e a b s o lu te ly to p red o m in ate , or to p r e s c r ib e la w s t o o t h e r s . To p r e s e r v e t h e e q u i l i b r i u m a n d l i b e r t y o f n a t i o n s , V a t t e l recom m ended c o n f e d e r a c i e s , i f a l l t h e p r i n c e s knew t h e i r i n t e r e s t s and r e g u l a t e d t h e i r c o n d u c t f o r t h e g o o d o f t h e s ta te .^

-5 ~

The . C h r i s t i a n R e p u b l i c The w e l f a r e o f t h e g r a n d s o c i e t y o f E u ro p e was a f ­

f e c t e d b y t h e h e a l t h o f c o m p onen t p a r t s .

The r e l a t i o n s

o f t h e s o c i e t y o f I r e l a n d a n d B r i t a i n w ere s t r a i n e d a s a r e s u l t o f t h e t w i n f o r c e s " C a th o lic e m a n c i p a t i o n and F r e n c h ra d ic a lism in Ire la n d .

A f t e r C a t h o l i c s r e c e i v e d some

1* I b i d . D u rin g t h e d e b a t e o n F o x ’ s m o t i o n t o r e e s t a b ­ l i s h p e a c e w i t h F r a n c e , B u rk e c i t e d V a t t e l t o show t h a t i t was a d e l u s i o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t n a t i o n s w e re n o t to i n t e r f e r e w ith each o th er* I f one s t a t e t r i e d to v i o l a t e o r d e s p is e th e r i g h t s o f o th e r s , th e i n ­ t e r e s t s o f human s o c i e t y demanded t h a t a l l s h o u l d jo in a g a in st' I t . June 17, 1793, P a rlia m e n ta ry H i s t o r y . XXX, 1 0 1 2 . 2 . B u rk e ’ s i n t e r e s t i n I r i s h a f f a i r s had n o t a b a te d a f t e r 1 7 8 2 . He t o o k u p w i t h v i g o r t h e p r o p o s i t i o n o f P i t t to g u a ra n te e f r e e tr a d e f o r I r e la n d i n ex­ c h a n g e f o r I r e l a n d ’ s s h a r i n g _of t h e b u r d e n s o f im­ p e r i a l d e f e n s e . B u rk e f a v o r e d c o m m e r c ia l a d v a n t ­ ag es f o r h e r b u t opposed p e r m ittin g h e r to sh a re th e c o sts of d efen se. An a t t e m p t t o g e t a c o n t r i b u t i o n fro m h e r was s i m i l a r ;t o t h e f o l l y o f e x t r a c t i n g a r e v e n u e .from A m e r ic a . May 1 9 , 1 7 8 5 , P a r l i a m e n t a r y H i s t o r y . XXV, 6 4 7 - 6 4 8 . E n g la n d a l o n e p o s s e s s e d p r e ­ e m in e n c e a n d d i g n i t y ; s h e a l o n e m u st b e a r t h e w e i g h t and b u rd e n of e m p ire , and p o u r o u t “ th e o cean of w e a l t h n e e d e d f o r i t s d e f e n s e . He a r g u e d : ^ I r e l a n d L

-i

28 5

r

i r i g h t s d u r i n g t h e A m e ric a n i m p e r i a l c r i s i s , t h a t m ore w ould f o l l o w ,

th e y e x p e c te d

B u rk e h a d h o p e d t h a t t h e i r

a s p i r a t i o n s w ou ld b e r e a l i z e d , f o r h e s a i d i n 1782 t o t h e A n g lo -Iris h ,

wYou a r e now a s k e d t o g i v e , i n some m o d e r­

a t e m ea su re , to y o u r f e l l o w - c i t i z e n s , w hat G re a t B r i t a i n g a v e t o y o u , w i t h o u t a n y m e a s u r e a t a l l . 11 ta n ts*

The P r o t e s -

e x c l u s i v e l i b e r t y was n o t f r e e d o m , b u t d o m in io n .

§

By 1793 t h e C a t h o l i c s w e re g r a n t e d t h e i r e l e c t o r a l r i g h t s . B u t more s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n s w e re to b e s e t t l e d .

2 . and o t h e r p a r t s m i g h t em pty t h e i r l i t t l e u r n s t o s w e l l t h e t i d e ; t h e y m i g h t w i e l d t h e i r puny t r i d e n t s ; b u t t h e g r e a t t r i d e n t t h a t was t o move t h e w o r l d , m u st b e g r a s p e d b y E n g la n d a l o n e , a n d “ d e a r l y i t c o s t h er to h o ld i t . And h e c o n te n d e d t h a t B r i t a i n c o u l d n o t g r a n t I r e l a n d any o t h e r in d ep e n d en c e w ith o u t r e v e r s in g th e o rd e r and d e c re e of n a tu r e . Ire la n d c o u ld n e i t h e r be s e p a r a t e d from , n o r e x i s t w ith o u t E n g l a n d , an d mus't f o r e v e r r e m a in u n d e r h e r p r o t e c ­ t i o n a s u n d e r a g u a r d i a n a n g e l . D u rin g t h e R eg en cy c r i s i s , B u rk e e m p h a s iz e d t h e f a c t t h a t b o t h ' c o u n t r i e s w e re g o v e r n e d by d i s t i n c t a n d i n d e p e n d e n t ' l e g i s l a ­ t u r e s , b u t w e re k e p t t o g e t h e r by t h e , u n i t y o f t h e c ro w n . F e b r u a r y 2 , 1 7 8 9 , i b i d . . XXVII, 1 1 5 1 - 1 1 5 2 . 1 . To H e r c u l e s L a n g r i s h e , January * 3 , 1 7 9 2 , Works (€fd.r B o h n ), I I I , 5 2 4 . 2. To G r a t t a n , March 8 , 1 7 9 3 , G r a t t a n , M em o irs, IV , 113.

L

The o u t b r e a k o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n g a v e I r i s h s e p a r a t i s t s t h e i r o p p o r t u n i t y t o p r e s s f o r t h e c o m p le te sev eran ce o f th e bonds lin k in g I r e la n d to B r i t a i n .

The

F r o t e s t a n t D is s e n t e r s s u p p lie d th e f o r c e and r a d i c a l i s m i n a r e v o l u t i o n a r y g ro u p ,.

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m en, w h ic h a im e d a t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a r e p u b l i c t o in c lu d e a l l Irish m en . B urke f e a r e d t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f r e p u b l i c a n a s p i r a ­ t i o n s w i t h C a t h o l i c e m a n c i p a t i o n . The g r i e v a n c e s o f '" 'i

C a t h o l i c s d i d n o t s p rin g lf ro m E n g la n d , b u t fro m t h e a s ! cendancy t h a t I r i s h f a c t i o n s a c q u ire d i n th e B r i t i s h g o v e rn m e n t.

He s a i d s'1*

The s u b j e c t , a s a s u b j e c t , i s a s f r e e i n I r e l a n d a s h e i s i n E n g l a n d . As a member of th e e m p ire, an Irish m a n has ev ery p r i v i ­ l e g e o f a n a t u r a l - b o r n E n g li s h m a n , i n e v e r y p a r t o f i t , i n e v e ry " o c c u p a tio n , and i n e v e ry b r a n c h o f com m erce. . . . I r e l a n d . . . a s ' I r e l a n d , w h eth er i t be ta k e n c i v i l l y , c o n s t i t u t i o n ­ a l l y , o r c o m m e r c i a l l y , s u f f e r s no g r i e v a n c e . The C a t h o l i c s , a s C a t h o l i c s , d o ; an d w h a t c a n b e g o t by j o in i n g t h e i r r e a l c o m p la in t to a c o m p l a i n t w h ic h i s f i c t i t i o u s , b u t t o make t h e w h o le p a s s f o r f i c t i o n and g r o u n d l e s s p re te n c e ? . . . I r e l a n d , c o n s t it u t io n a l ly , i s in d e p e n d e n t; p o l i t i c a l l y , she n e v e r can be s o . I t i s a s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t n a t u r e . She m u s t be p r o t e c t e d , and t h e r e i s no p r o t e c t i o n t o be f o u n d f o r h e r , b u t e i t h e r fro m F r a n c e o r E n g la n d .

1 . To R e v . D r . H u s s e y , May 1 8 , 1 7 9 5 , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e ( e d . F i t z w i l l i a m ) , IV , 3 10 -3 1 3 * S i m i l a r e x p r e s s i o n s a r e con ­ t a i n e d i n h i s l e t t e r t o h i s s o n , o f November 2 , 1 7 9 2 , q u o t e d i n R. T h e r r y , A L e t t e r - t o t h e R i g h t H on. G eorge C a n n in g , on t h e P r e s e n t S t a t e o f t h e C a t h o l i c Q u e s t i o n . t o w h ic h a r e a n n e x e d S ix L e t t e r s o f t h e R i g h t H on. E . B u rk e . . . , L on d o n , 1 8 2 6 , p . 54*

He t r i e d k i e s p e r a t e l y t o p r e v e n t t h e a t t r a c t i o n o f F r e n c h f '

r a d i c a l i s m fro m d e s t r o y i n g t h e s o c i e t y o f two c o u n t r i e s w i t h w h ic h h e h a d i d e n t i f i e d h i m s e l f *

He e o u l d n o t c o n ­

c e i v e , h e c o n f e s s e d , how a man c o u l d be a g e n u i n e E n g l i s h ­ men w i t h o u t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y b e i n g a t r u e I r i s h m a n - 11th o u g h f o r t u n e s h o u l d h a v e made h i s b i r t h on t h i s s i d e o f t h e 1 w a te r„ R The w ar w e n t b a d l y f o r B r i t a i n .

She f a i l e d

to

s u p p o r t t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e p e o p le o f P o i t o u a n d s h e l o s t T o u lo n i n December 1793 - d e f e a t s t h a t i n d u c e d many E n g lis h m e n t o f a v o r p e a c e .

B u rk e was a d a m a n t;

th e

J a c o b i n o r d e r h a d t o b e e x t i r p a t e d o r i t w o u ld d e s t r o y a l l . B e s i d e s , i t was i m p r a c t i c a l t o n e g o t i a t e w i t h F r a n c e : RNo one i n F r a n c e c a n a n s w e r ' f o r h i s h e a d to - m o r r o ? 7. R

He

saw i n t h e g e n e r a l c o m b i n a t i o n a g a i n s t F r a n c e a t l e a s t v e r y s t r o n g p r e s u m p t i o n t h a t s h e d e s e r v e d t h e e n m i t y ¥/hich 2 sh e h a d e x c i t e d . When t h e e n l i s t m e n t o f F re n ch m e n i n B r i t i s h a r m i e s was p r o p o s e d , S h e r i d a n , t h e f l u e n t spok esm an f o r th e F o x i t e s , m a i n t a i n e d t h a t s u c h p e r s o n s w o u ld l o s e t h e i r l i v e s i n t h e e v e n t t h e y w e re c a p t u r e d by t h e r e v o l u ­ tio n a rie s.

Was B r i t a i n t h e n t o r e v e n g e t h e i r f a t e a n d

1 . To Thomas K eogh , November 1 6 , r e s p o n d e n c e o f t h e R i g h t H on. F r e n c h L a w r e n c e , Works ( e d . L B o s t o n , 1 8 3 9 , IX , 6 3 3 . 2 . A p r i l 1 1 , 179-4, P a r l i a m e n t a r y

1 7 9 6 ; E p i s t o l a r y C o r­ Edmund B u rk e a n d D r. i t t l e , ' B ro w n ), 9 v o l s . , ' ' H i s t o r y . XXXI, 424.-4 2 6 .

r e t a l i a t e .a g a i n s t F ren ch p r i s o n e r s , he a s k e d ,

B u rk e

a n s w e r e d a f f i r m a t i v e l y . The F r e n c h who m i g h t s e r v e w i t h t h e E n g l i s h w o u ld h e p a r t o f H i s M a j e s t y ’ s f o r c e s .

If

t h e y w e re m u r d e r e d , t h e a u t h o r s o f t h e m u r d e r o u g h t t o f i n d i t r e c o i l on t h e i r h e a d s .

P o l i c y and t h e la w o f n a ­

t i o n s p e r m i t t e d r e t a l i a t i o n f o r a n y s e v e r i t y w h ic h t h e enemy p r a c t i c e d .

But th e a p p lic a tio n , as a m a tte r o f

p o l i c y , w ould d e p e n d u p o n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , an d h e n c e u p o n p ru d e n c e ,. ( I n th e e v e n t of m a ltre a tm e n t o f th e s e v o lu n ­ t e e r s , t h e a l l i e s w e re bound t o r e t a l i a t e .

B u rk e s a i d : 1

I t i s a c a l l o f j u s t i c e , and a s su c h a n i n t e g r a l o f h u m a n i t y , w i t h o u t w h ic h man w ould c e a s e t o b e a b e a u t i f u l p a r t o f t h e g e n e r a l com m unity o f t h e w o r l d . J u s t i c e i s the* g ro u n d w o rk o f w h ic h h u ­ m a n i t y i s t h e s u p e r - s t r u c t u r e , an d c a n n o t s u b ­ s i s t w ith o u t i t .

!•

I b i d . , XXXI, 3 7 7 , 4 2 2 . D u rin g t h e H a s t i n g s t r i a l , B u rk e c l a i m e d t h a t t h e D iv in e - Wisdom and G o o d n e ss m o u ld e d up r e v e n g e i n t o t h e fra m e a n d c o n s t i t u ­ t i o n o f m an. ’’He t h a t ha sjaa d e u s w h a t we a r e h a s made u s a t o n c e r e s e n t f u l a n d r e a s o n a b l e . In stin c t t e l l s a man t h a t h e o u g h t t o r e v e n g e a n i n j u r y ; r e a s o n t e l l s a man t h a t h e o u g h t n o t b e a j u d g e i n h i s own c a u s e . From t h a t moment r e v e n g e p a s s e s fro m t h e p r i v a t e to th e p u b l ic h a n d ; b u t i n b e in g t r a n s ­ f e r r e d i t i s f a r fr o m b e i n g e x t i n g u i s h e d . ” He c i t e d L o rd B acon t o show t h a t r e v e n g e was a k i n d o f w i l d j u s t i c e . . ”I t i s s o , and w i t h o u t t h i s w i l d a u s t e r e s t o c k , t h e r e w ould b e no j u s t i c e i n t h e w o r l d . B u t when b y t h e s k i l f u l h a n d o f m o r a l i t y a n d w i s e j u r i s p r u d e n c e a f o r e i g n s c i o n , b u t o f t h e v e r y same s p e c ie s , i s g r a f te d upon i t , i t s h a rs h q u a li t y be­ comes c h a n g e d , i t s u b m i t s t o c u l t u r e , a n d l a y i n g a s i d e ' i t s sav ag e n a t u r e i f b e a r s f r u i t s and f l o w e r s . . . . ” May 2 $ , 1 7 9 4 / Works ( e d . B o h n ) , V I I , 470 -4 7 1 /

W ith W i l l i a m Windham a n d G i l b e r t E l l i o t , B u rk e w i t h ­ d rew fro m t h e Whig C lub and c o l l a b o r a t e d w i t h P i t t i n t h e w a r , b u t he d i s a g r e e d w i t h h im on t h e mode o f c o n d u c t i n g it.

The^ m i n i s t r y s e n t him d e s p a t c h e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o n ­

t i n e n t a l w ar a s i f h e w e re a m i n i s t e r .

B u rk e’ s r o l e i n

P a r l i a m e n t was s m a l l , a n d h e r e m a in e d o n l y t o c o n c l u d e th e H a stin g s t r i a l ,

f i n a l l y w i t h d r a w i n g on J u n e 2 0 , 1794*.-

The Duke o f P o r t l a n d , w i t h t h e ft01d I h i g s ” who a d h e r e d t o B u r k e ’ s v i e w s , f o r m a l l y j o i n e d t h e p a r t y o f t h e m in ­ i s t r y i n J u l y 1 7 9 4 , and becam e t h e t h i r d S e c r e t a r y o f S ta te .

E a r l F i t z w i l l i a m a c c e p t e d t h e L o rd L i e u t e n a n c y

o f I r e l a n d , w h i l e Windham t o o k t h e S e c r e t a r y s h i p f o r W ar. The m u t u a l s u s p i c i o n o f t h e a l l i e s f u r n i s h e d t h e o p ­ p o r t u n i t y to th e F ren ch t o c o n s o l id a te t h e i r g a i n s .

The

P r u s s i a n s w i t h d r e w t r p o p s fr o m t h e F r e n c h t h e a t e r t o co pe w i t h t h e u p r i s i n g o f K o s c i u s k o i n 1794*

The D u tc h w e re

o v e r r u n i n J a n u a r y 1795* a n d w e re fo rm ed i n t o t h e B a t a ­ v i a n R e p u b lic m o d e lle d on F re n ch r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r i n c i p l e s . B urke - ’’p e r f e c t l y w e l l v e r s e d i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f E urope” - r e g r e t t e d t h a t th e la n d o f G r o t i u s , th e c r a d l e o f t h e la w o f n a t i o n s , and one o f t h e r i c h e s t r e p o s i t o r i e s o f a l l l a w , was t o be t a u g h t a new c o d e by t h e i g n o r a n t f lip p a n c y o f P a in e and th e p re su m p tio u s fo p p e ry o f L a f a y e t­ te .1

The P r u s s i a n s d r o p p e d o u t o f t h e c o a l i t i o n i n 1795

L1 7 Works ( e d . B ohn) , V, 1 5 0 .

J

2?0

a n d w ere i m i t a t e d by S a x o n y , H a n o v e r , a n d H e s s e - C a s s e l . S p a i n t o o made p e a c e , a n a s h e e x c h a n g e d H i s p a n i o l a f o r F r e n c h con quests.-!* F a i l u r e m e t P i t t ! s p l a n f o r , a n a t t a c k a t Q u ib e ro n Bay i n B r i t t a n y i n t h e summer o f 1795*

N e v e rth e le ss,

B urke c o n t i n u e d t o u r g e a f r o n t a l a s s a u l t , w here t h e E u r o p e a n c i v i l war c o u l d be f o u g h t w i t h a d v a n t a g e .

So

f e r v e n t was h i s a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e c a u s e , t h a t t h o u g h h e was s i c k l y an d o l d , h e v o l u n t e e r e d . v e n t e d h i s m o u n tin g a h o r s e .

H is i n f i r m i t i e s p r e ­

^H ow ever, I am n o t s u r e ,

t h a t i n s u c h a c a s e , I c o u l d n o t r i d e . 11 O h i s way t o h e a v e n o n fo o t* '*

One c o u l d f i n d

A d d i t i o n a l f a i l u r e was e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h e © vacua­ 's t i o n o f C o r s i c a ,* ' a n d h e n c e i n t h e d e c l i n e o f E n g l i s h p re s tig e in I ta ly .

Many E n g lis h m e n d i d n o t w i s h t o a i d

1 . B u rk e sp o k e o f S p a i n a s a m ig h t y b u t u n w i e ld y p o w e r, " v a s t i n b u l k , b u t i n e r t i n s p i r i t - a w h a le s t r a n d e d , u p o n t h e s e a s h o r e o f E u r o p e . ” Q u oted fro m t h e Duke de L ev is i n P r i o r , L if e o f B u rk e . 5 t h e d i t i o n , p .

506 .

2 . To Windham, November 2 9 , 1 7 9 5 , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f Edmund B u r k e , & W i l l i a m W indham , ( e d . J . P . G i l s o n ) . C a m | ) r l ^ e ^ vU n i y e r s i t ; y P r e s s , t 1 9 1 0 , p . 1 7 9 . B u rk e to o k L d e e p . c o n c e r n i n t h e w e l f a r e o f F r e n c h r e f u g e e s , by p e r s o n a lly c o n tr ib u tin g to and u rg in g h i s f r i e n d s to s u p p o r t th e f u n d - r a i s i n g c am p aig n s. 3 . G e n e ra l P a o l i h a d - r e t u r n e d to C o rs ic a i n 1790, and h e was made P r e s i d e n t o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t . Y e t h e was so o n d i s i l l u s i o n e d when h e r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e w e l f a r e o f h i s p e o p l e was n o t i n t e n d e d . The R e p u b l i c p r o ­ c l a i m e d him a t r a i t o r ; a n d i n 1794 he c e d e d t h e is la n d to B r i t a i n . He d i e d i n E n g la n d i n 1 8 0 7 . L

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Z91 r

th e Pope.

B u rk e a s s u r e d P r o t e s t a n t s t h a t 1Tt h e t h r e a d

of th e ir lif e

i s c lo se tw is te d in to t h a t o f t h e i r g re a t

e n e m y ,w a n d h e n c e t h e y w ere c u t t i n g t h e i r own t h r o a t s i n w i s h i n g r e v e n g e o n t h e P o n t i f f who 'was t h e o b j e c t o f t e r r o r and p e r s e c u t i o n .

B u rk e h a d l a u d e d S i r J o h n

Coxe H i p p i s l e y f o r p r o c u r i n g s u p p l i e s f o r t h e M e d i t e r ­ r a n e a n f l e e t f ro m t h e P o p e . ^ Hobody c a n b e so v e r y s q u e a m is h a s t o r e f u s e B e n e f its (n o th in g e l s e w i l l e v er be o f f e r e d by H is H o l i n e s s ) b e c a u s e t h e y come fro m t h e P o p e . He w o u ld b e a n A d m ir a l o f p e r h a p s w onderful T h e o lo g ic a l T a le n ts , b u t of n o t q u i t e s u c h s p l e n d i d M i l i t a r y Q u a l i t i e s , who sh o u ld s c r u p le th e r e c e i p t of th e s e I n d u l ­ g e n c e s c a l l e d M u n i t i o n s d e G u e rr e e t de Bouche fro m a p r i h c e - p r e l a t e t h a t b e l i e v e s in P u rg a to ry . T h e re w ere m ore b a s i c r e a s o n s f o r n o t d e s i r i n g t h e d e f e a t o f th e P o p e:^ X.

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t h o s e who w ash f o r t h e o v e r t h r o w o f t h e C a t h o l i c B e l i g i o n know n o t h o w d a n g e r o u s a 'wish t h e y make I i t i s a s i f t h e y w i s h e d t o make a B o n f i r e o r a h o u s e i n w h ic h *N ,v •

1 . To Windham, - O c t o b e r 3 ^—1 7 9 3 , Burke-W indham C o r­ r e s p o n d e n c e . n . 6 3 . B u rke was c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e l o s s o f I t a l y a n d t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n . W it h o u t " , C o r s i c a , I t a l y was lo st;"" h e n c e h e f e l t i t was v i t a l t o fo rm a n ~ . I t a l i a n l e a g u e an d t o r a i s e a n army i n tfie P a p a l S t a t e s i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e “f o r " t h e d e fe n se o f C o rs ic a ,-a n d l a t e r fo r s e rv ic e e l s e ­ w h e r e . December 3 0 , 1 7 9 a . C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , ( e d . F i t z w il l ia m ) I V , 255. 2 . B. M. M i l n e s , ^ E x t r a c t s fro m Mr. B u rk e * s T a b l e - T a l k , a t Crew H a l l . W r i t t e n down b y M rs. C rew e, ^ M i s c e l l a n i e s o f t h e P h i l o b i b l o n S o c i e t y . V II ( l a S I ^ J T T L o n d o n , I h i t t i n g h a m an d W i l k i n s , P« 9 . L

t h e i r . own g o o d s w ere c o n t a i n e d . C a l v i n r e f i n e d on L u t h e r , a s L u t h e r r e f i n e d on P o p e r y - P r e s b y t e r i a n s h a v e r e a s o n e d away much o f t h a t w holesom e e n t h u s i a s m w h ic h h a s lo n g b e en c h e r is h e d i n th e B r e a s t s o f b o t h go od C a t h o l i c s a n d go od P r o t e s t a n t s . HowAjLs i t p o s s i b l e t o s u p p o s e t h a t i f t h e C a th o lic R e lig io n 'w e r e d e s tr o y e d , th e P r o t e s t a n t R e l i g i o n c o u l d a l o n e be a b l e t o sup p o rt C h r is tia n ity ! The num bers a r e on t h e s i d e o f C a t h o l i c s i n E u ro p e - J a c o b i n s , t h e r e ­ f o r e p e r s e c u t e C a t h o l i c s m ore t h a n an y o t h e r s e c t , t h e y know th a t; t 6 he?/ down t h e T ru n k out- o f w h ic h t h e b r a n c h e s s h o o t , i s t h e i r b e s t P o lic y ! F a i l u r e and a p a t h y g e n e r a t e d e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r a p e a c e s e ttle m e n t.

P i t t h im s e lf d e s ir e d peaee to reco u p th e

s t r e n g t h o f h i s g o v e rn m e n t.

A lth o u g h h e was i n t e r e s t e d

i n c o n ta in in g F rance w ith in bounds and i n r e s to r i n g t h e b a l a n c e , h e was n o t wedded t o B u r k e f s p u r p o s e o f e r a d i c a t i n g th e J a c o b in s and r e s t o r i n g th e B ourbons. P e a c e - f e e l e r s w e re v o i c e d i n t h e S p e e c h fro m t h e T h ro n e i n 1795.

A f t e r p r e l i m i n a r y t a l k s , L o rd M alm esbury i n

O c to b e r was s e n t t o P a r i s t o n e g o t i a t e . I t a l y was l o s t ;

S p a i n was h o s t i l e ; P o r t u g a l was b e i n g

s e c u r e d b y a n i n c o m p e t e n t g e n eral.-* R e v o lu tio n !

And now p e a c e w i t h t h e

I t was a l l o v e r , s a i d B u r k e .^

t i o n was D i v i n e p u n i s h m e n t f o r m a n k in g .

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i t was u n f i t t h a t a n y g o o d s h o u l d h a p p e n t o *!t h i s enorm ous

1. 2.

M a jo r G e n e r a l C h a r l e s S t u a r t . To Windham, Movember 2 5 , 1 7 9 6 ; Burke-W indham C o r r e s p o n d e n c e . p . ’’ 2 1 0 .

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Mass o f c o r r u p t i o n , p e c u l a t i o n , o p p r e s s i o n , B o b b e r y , p r e ­ v a r i c a t i o n i n J u d g m e n t, a n d d i r e c t p e r v e r s i o n o f J u d g ­ m e n t . 11

The ways o f God w e re u n s e a r c h a b l e , b u t t h e b o l t

w ould f a l l ,

a n d i t was f i t t h a t i t s h o u l d f a l l on him

among t h e rest.** *’ He e x p r e s s e d h i s o p p o s i t i o n t o a n a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h F r a n c e , now u n d e r t h e D i r e c t o r y , a n d d e l i n e a t e d h i s p h ilo so p h y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s i n th e L e t t e r s on a R e g i c i d e P e a c e « t h e f i r s t o f w h i c h a p p e a r e d in 1796.

He w a rn e d t h a t i f p e a c e w ere made on a r a d i ­

c a l l y e r r o n e o u s f o u n d a t i o n i t m ig h t o n l y be c o r r e c t e d nby some o f t h o s e u n f o r e s e e n d i s p e n s a t i o n s , w'hieh t h e a l l ­ w i s e b u t m y s t e r i o u s G o v e rn o r o f t h e w o r l d s o m e tim e s i n ­ t e r p o s e s , t o s n a t c h n a t i o n s fro m r u i n . 11^ B urke p o i n t e d o u t t h a t n a t i o n a l h o n o r was a comp e l l i n g m o tiv e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s . ^

The s t a t e s m a n

who h a d e m p h a s iz e d t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r B r i t a i n t o b e h a v e l i k e a P r u d e n t b u t s t r o n g l e a d e r o f a n e m p ire w o u ld n a t u r a l l y s a y now t h a t no g r e a t s t a t e c o u l d s u f f e r h u m i l i a ­ tio n w ith o u t lo sin g i t s

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Pow er and e m i n e n c e , a n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n , a r e t h i n g s n o t t o b e b e g g e d . They m u s t be com­ m anded: and t h e y , who s u p p l i c a t e f o r m ercy fro m o t h e r s , c a n n e v e r h o p e f o r j u s t i c e t h r o u g h th e m se lv e s.

1 . M arch 6 , 1 7 9 6 , i b i d . . p . 1 8 9 .,. 2 . R e g i c i d e P e a c e I I , Works -(erl* B o h n ), V, 2 3 6 . 3* R e g i c i d e P e a c e I , i b i d V, '

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A p p lied t o th e m a tte r a t h a n d , t h i s p r i n c i p l e d i c t a t e d t h a t B r i t a i n o u g h t to a c t h o n o ra b ly and ? /ith o u t r e g a r d x X

to th e lo s s e s o f w e a lth . poor in r e a l it y .^ .

I f r i c h e s r u l e h e r , sh e w i l l be

The J a c o b i n s n e v e r r e g a r d e d t h e s t r u g ­

g l e a s a m e a s u r i n g a n d w e ig h in g o f p u r s e s ; t h e y w ere more t e m p t e d by* h e r w e a l t h a s b o o t y , t h a n t h e y ?/ere t e r r i f i e d by i t s pow er. bounds i t s

^Humanly s p e a k i n g , t h a t p e o p l e w h ic h

e f f o r t s o n l y w i t h i t s b e i n g , m u st g i v e t h e law

t o t h a t n a t i o n 'which w i l l n o t p u s h i t s 2 i t s c o n v e n i e n c e . IT I t was a p r o l i f i c

o p p o s i t i o n bey o n d

e r r o r t o b e l i e v e t h a t p e a c e was

p o s s i b l e w ith su ch a m o n ster a s th e F ren ch R e p u b lic . T h i s w ar was n o t a s t r u g g l e w i t h a n o r d i n a r y com m unity w h ic h waged h o s t i l i t i e s w i t h p e r v e r s i t y a n d t h e n l e f t th em t h r o u g h l a s s i t u d e .

I t was a war w i t h a s y s te m

w hose e s s e n c e was i n i m i c a l t o a l l g o v e rn m e n ts a n d w h ic h made w ar o r p e a c e a c c o r d i n g a s e i t h e r b e s t c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e i r s u b v e rs io n .^

1 . I b i d . V, 15Sr 159* C o n c e r n in g t h e i n j u r y t h a t B r i t i s h Commerce w o u ld r e c e i v e by t h e w a r , B u rk e h a d d e c l a r e d t h a t t h o u g h B r i t a i n was a c o m m e rc ia l n a t i o n , so was e v e r y o t h e r c o u n t r y a s f a r a s i t c o u ld b e . B e in g a c o m m e r c ia l n a t i o n d i d n o t im p ly t h a t commerce /was t h e u l t i m a t e e n d . T ra d e was a s u b s e r v i e n t i n s t r u m e n t t o E n g l a n d ’ s g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t s , ? /h ic h w e r e h e r s e c u r i t y , h o n o r a n d r e l i g i o n . 'M arch 2 2 , 1 7 9 3 . P a r l i a m e n t a r y H i s t o r y . XXX, 6 4 5 . “ ~ 2 . R e g i c i d e P e a c e I , Works ( e d . B o h n ), V, 1 5 9 -1 6 0 3 . I b i d . . V, 1 6 4 - 1 6 5 . L

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s e a ls , b u t by re se m b la n c e s, 2 c o n fo rm itie s and sy m p a th ie s: I t is w ith n a tio n s a s w e ll a s w ith in d iv id u a ls . 'N o t h i n g i s so s t r o n g a t i e o f a m ity b e tire e n n a tio n an d n a tio n a s c o rre s p o n d e n c e in la ? /s, c u sto m s, m a n n e rs, an d h a b its o f l i f e . T hey h a v e m ore, t h a n f o r c e o f t r e a t i e s i n t h e m s e l v e s . They a re o b lig a tio n s w r itte n in th e h e a r t. They a p p ro x im a te m en to m en, w ith o u t t h e i r know ­ le d g e , an d so m e tim e s a g a i n s t t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s . . The s e c r e t, u n s e e n , b u t ir r e f r a g a b le bond o f h a b i t u a l i n t e r c o u r s e h o l d s th e m t o g e t h e r , ' e v e n w hen th e ir p e rv e rs e an d l i t i g i o u s n a tu re s e ts th e m to e q u i v o c a t e , s c u f f l e , a n d f i g h t , a b o u t th e te rm s o f t h e i r w r itte n o b lig a tio n s .

1 . I b id .. V, 2 0 0 -2 0 1 . 2 . I b i d :; V , 213- 2 1 4 . L

296 T h e se v ie w s r e f l e c t h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f e m p ire a s h e , d e v elo p ed i t i n th e 7 0 ! s .

I n t h e B r i t i s h e m p ir e a s i n t h e

s o c i e t y o f E u ro p e t h e t i e s k e e p i n g t h e b o d y t o g e t h e r w ere common c u s to m s and v a l u e s , t i e s th o u g h a s l i g h t a s a i r b u t as stro n g as s t e e l .

B u rke saw t h a t t h e g e n e r a l c o n ­

f o r m i t y o f c u s to m s i n E u ro p e was i n c a p a b l e o f p r e s e r v i n g p e r f e c t ^ t r u s t and t r a n q u i l l i t y , y e t i t

ten d ed to f a c i l i ­

t a t e a c c o m m o d a tio n and t o p r o d u c e a g e n e r o u s o b l i v i o n o f t h e r a n c o r of q u a r r e l . " 1' At b o t t o m t h e r e l i g i o n , la w s and m a n n e rs o f E u ro p e w e re t h e ..same.

E c h o in g w h a t h e h ad s a i d a n d i m p l i e d

i n th e h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n ts o f th e A nnual R e g is te r o v er a q u a r t e r o f a c e n tu r y befo re-, he b ro u g h t i n t o

sharp r e ­

l i e f t h e i d e a o f E u ro p e a s a v a s t co m m o n w ealth : 2 I t i s v i r t u a l l y one g r e a t s t a t e h a v in g t h e same b a s i s o f g e n e r a l l a w , w i t h some d i v e r ­ s i t y f p r o v i n c i a l c u s to m s a n d l o c a l e s t a b l i s h ­ m en ts. The n a t i o n s o f E u ro p e h a v e h a d t h e v e r y same C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n , a g r e e i n g i n th e fu n d a m e n ta l p a r t s , v a ry in g a l i t t l e i n t h e c e r e m o n i e s and i n t h e s u b o r d i n a t e d o c ­ trin e s . The w h o le o f t h e p o l i c y a n d t h e economy o f e v e r y c o m t r y i n E u ro p e h a s b e e n d e r i v e d fro m t h e same s o u r c e s . I t was draw n fro m t h e o l d G erm anic o r G o t h i c c u s t u m a r y , fro m t h e f e u d a l i n s t i t u t i o n s w h ic h m u st be c o n s i d e r e d a s a n e m a n a t i o n fro m t h a t c u s t u ­ m a ry ; and t h e w h o le h a s b e e n im p ro v e d an d

1 . I b i d . . V, 2 1 3 - 2 H . 2 . I b i d . . V, 2 1 4 - 2 1 5 .

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d i g e s t e d i n t o s y s te m a n d d i s c i p l i n e b y t h e Homan l a w . From h e n c e a r o s e t h e s e v e r a l o r d e r s , w i t h d r w i t h o u t a m o n a rc h , (w h ic h a r e c a l l e d s t a t e s , ) i n e v e ry E uropean c o u n t r y ; t h e s t r o n g t r a c e s o f w h ic h , w here m o n a rc h y p r e d o m i n a t e d , w e re n e v e r w h o l l y e x ­ t i n g u i s h e d o r m erg ed . i n d e s p o t i s m . A s y s te m o f m a n n e rs and e d u c a t i o n h a d d e v e l o p e d t h a t was t h e same t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o n t i n e n t .

No c i t i z e n o f

E u ro p e was a l t o g e t h e r i n e x i l e i n any p a r t o f i t .

But

t h e J a c o b i n s b r o k e away fro m t h e s e h i s t o r i c c o n c e p t s and e f f e c t e d a v i o l e n t b r e a c h i n t h e com m unity o f E urope.

T hey d e l i b e r a t e l y w r e c k e d t h e w h o le bo dy o f

ju ris p ru d e n c e t h a t F rance sh a re d w ith o th e r c i v i l i z e d n a tio n s.

T hat j u r is p r u d e n c e c o n ta in e d th e e le m e n ts and

p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e law o f n a t i o n s , t h e l i g a m e n t o f man­ k i n d - t h e v i o l a t i o n s o f w h ic h i n t h e 7 0 * s and 8 0 f s w ere lam en te d by B u rk e. I n s t e a d o f b a s i n g t h e i r g o v e rn m e n t on r e l i g i o n a n d la w b y w h ic h F r a n c e was i n p o l i t i c a l communion w i t h C h risten d o m , th e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s c o n s tr u c te d t h e i r r e ­ p u b l i c on t h r e e f u n d a m e n t a l l y o p p o s i t e b a s e s , r e g i c i d e , 1 ‘ " J a c o b i n i s m and a t h e i s m . They h a d d i v o r c e d t h e m s e l v e s

1 . H e g i c i d e l a i d down a s a T,f i x e d la w o f n a t u r e , and a . f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t o f man1* t h a t a l l g o v e rn m e n t w h ic h Ytas n o t a .d e m o c rac y was a u s u r p a t i o n . J a c o b i n i s m was t h e ^ r e v o l t o f "the“ e n t e r p r i s i n g t a l e n t s o f a c o u n t r y a g a i n s t i t s p r o p e r t y . * And a t h e i s m by e s t a b l i s h m e n t was t h e f a i l u r e o f a s t a t e t o acknow ­ l e d g e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f God a s m o r a l g o v e r n o r o f t h e w o r l d , o r t o o f f e r Him a n y r e l i g i o u s o r m o r a l w o rL sh ip . R e g i c i d e P e a c e I . i b i d . . V, 2 0 6 - 2 0 8 .

298 r

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fro m t h e i r c o m t r y *

B u rk e d e c l a r e d : ^

The p r e s e n t s y s te m i n F r a n c e i s n o t t h e a n c i e n t F rance* I t i s n o t th e a n c i e n t F r a n c e w i t h o r d i n a r y a m b i t i o n and o r d i n a r y m e a n s . I t i s n o t a new power o f a n o l d k in d . I t . i s a new pow er o f a new s p e c i e s . When s u c h a q u e s t i o n a b l e s h a p e i s t o b e a d ­ m i t t e d f o r t h e f i r s t t im e i n t o t h e b r o t h e r ­ h o o d o f C h r i s t e n d o m , i t i s n o t a m ere m a t t e r o f i d l e c u r i o s i t y , t o c o n s i d e r how f a r i t i s i n i t s n a tu r e a l l i a b l e w ith th e r e s t , o r w h e th e r ”th e r e l a t i o n s o f p e a c e a n d a m i t y ” w i t h t h i s new s t a t e a r e ^ l i k e l y t o b e o f t h e same n a t u r e w ith -" th e u s u a l r e l a t i o n s o f th e s t a t e s o f E urope. The J a c o b i n s y s te m o f m a n n e rs was a t w ar w i t h a l l o r d e r l y a n d m o r a l s o c i e t y , a n d t h e r e f o r e c o n s t i t u t e d a m enace t o i t s n e ig h b o rh o o d .

T h a t s o c i e t y was l i k e

t h a t o f a den o f o u tla w s upon a d o u b tf u l f r o n t i e r ; o f a le w d t a v e r n f o r t h e r O v e l s and d e b a u c h e s o f b a n d i t t i , a s s a s s i n i s , b r a v o s , s m u g g l e r s , a n d t h e i r more d e s p e r ­ a t e p a r a m o u r s , m ix e d ? f i t h b o m b a s ti c p l a y e r s , th e r e f u s e and r e j e c t e d o f f a l o f s t r o l l i n g t h e a t r e s , p u ffin g o u t i ll - s o r t e d " v e rs e s a b o u t v i r t u e , m ix e d w i t h l i c e n t i o u s and b la s p h e m o u s s o n g s , p r o p e r t o t h e b r u t a l and h a r d e n e d course o f l i f e b e l o n g i n g t o th a t s o r t of w re tc h e s .£ I f g r e a t b o d i e s o f t h a t k i n d w ere i n a b o r d e r i n g t e r r i ­ t o r y , a p e r s o n w o uld h a v e t h e r i g h t t o demand t h a t h i s g o v e rn m e n t s u p p r e s s t h e n u i s a n c e . ' T h e n B u rk e a s k e d , fll h a t a r e we t o do i f

t h e g o v e rn m e n t a n d t h e w h o le com3 m u n it y i s o f t h e same d e s c r i p t i o n ? ” T h e r e was a p a r ­ a l l e l , h e a n s w e r e d , b e tw e e n t h e la w o f c i v i l v i c i n i t y

l

1. R e g ic id e Peace I I , V» 244* 2 . R e g i c i d e P e a c e I . ~ i P i a 7.~ V, 213* 3. Ib id .

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300

was n o t i n f e c t i o u s and h e r m i s c h i e f s w e re c a l c u l a b l e He was u n d e r s c o r i n g a n o t h e r q u a l i t y o f h i s t h i n k i n g on im p e r ia l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s s u e s , th e i m b e c i l it y of s t r i v i n g f o r ”g e o m e t r i c a l a c c u r a c y i n m o r a l a r g u m e n t s ” and t h u s i g n o r i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e ^ t h a t ”man a c t s fro m a d e ­ q u a te m o tiv e s r e l a t i v e

t o h i s i n t e r e s t a n d n o t on p m e ta p h y s ic a l s p e c u l a t i o n s . ” I n i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o c i e t y w ar was n o t a n a l i e n f o r c e . B urke b e l i e v e d t h a t i f i t be t h e m eans o f wrong a n d v i o l e n c e , i t i s t h e s o l e m eans o f j u s t i c e a m o n g s t n a tio n s. N o th in g c a n b a n i s h i t fro m t h e w o rld . They who s a y o t h e r w i s e , i n t e n d i n g t o im p o se u p o n u s , do n o t im p o se up on them ­ se lv e s. B u t i t i s one o f t h e g r e a t e s t ob­ j e c t s o f human wisdom t o m i t i g a t e t h o s e e v i l s w h ic h we a r e u n a b l e t o re m o v e .3 O b v i o u s l y , i t m u st n e v e r b e waged f o r c a l c u l a t i o n .

The

b l o o d o f m a n m u st be s h e d f o r n o b l e p u r p o s e s , f o r f a m i l y , f r i e n d s , God, c o u n t r y a n d m a n k in d . th e r e s t i s c r i m e . O f

!• 2. 3. 4*

L

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c o u rse, p rudent d e lib e r a tio n

I b i d . . V, 2 2 3 - 2 2 5 . S p e e c h on C o n c i l i a t i o n , i b i d . . I , 5 00- 5 0 1 . . R e g i c i d e P e a c e I , i b i d . , V, 2 1 4 . I b i d . . V, 2 0 3 -2 0 4 * ”To s a y t h a t i n w ar no man m u s t b e k i l l e d , i s t o s a y t h a t t h e r e o u g h t t o be no w a r . T h is t h e y may s a y , who w i s h t o t a l k i d l y , a n d who w ould d i s p l a y t h e i r h u m a n i t y a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e i r h o n e sty , or t h e i r u n d e rsta n d in g . I f m ore l i v e s a r e l o s j t i n t h i s war t h a n n e c e s s i t y r e q u i r e s , t h e y a r e . l o s t b y m i s c o n d u c t or, m i s t a k e ; b u t i f t h e h o s t i l i t y b e j u s t , t h e e r r o r i s t o be c o r r e c t e d , t h e w ar i s n o t t o b e a b a n d o n e d . ” R e g i c i d e . P e a c e I I I , i b i d . . V, 3 1 9 .

301 r

m u s t d e c i d e when w ar i s

t o b e w aged.

A p p ly in g t h e s e

p r i n c i p l e s to th e m a tte r a t h a n d , he n a t u r a l l y b e lie v e d w ar was n e c e s s a r y t o c o m b a t t h e J a c o b i n e v i l . The war c o u l d n o t be t r i e d f o r a y e a r o r tw o , and t h e n d r o p p e d , f o r w ar was n o t a m a t t e r o f e x p e r i m e n t *

I t w&s a n i n ­

s t r u m e n t l e a d i n g t o a s u r e a n d f i x e d j u d g m e n t, a n d m u st n o t be abandoned w ith o u t v a l i d r e a s o n . T h e re w ere many g r o u n d s f o r a j u s t war a g a i n s t t h e F r e n c h R e p u b l i c b y t h e c i t i z e n s o f t h e g r e a t common­ w e a lth of C h risten d o m .

I f i t h a d b e e n j u s t t o s t o p L o u is

XIV fro m u n i t i n g two c r o w n s , i t was a l s o r i g h t t o p r e ­ v e n t t h e J a c o b i n s fro m t e a r i n g a l l c r o i m s fro m t h e h e a d s of th e ir le g itim a te p o s s e s s o r s I f

t h e w ar t o p r e v e n t

t h e G rand M onarch f ro m im p o s in g h i s r e l i g i o n was j u s t , t h e one t o s t o p t h e J a c o b i n s fro m p r o p a g a t i n g t h e i r i r r e l i g i o n was l i k e w i s e e q u i t a b l e . s y s te m t h a t m akes l i f e

A s t r u g g l e t o end a

w i t h o u t d i g n i t y and d e a t h w i t h ­

o u t h o p e , and t o p r e s e r v e n a t i o n a l i n d e p e n d e n c e , p r o ­ p e r t y , l i b e r t y , h o n o r and l i f e

fro m c e r t a i n h a v o c was a 1 j u s t , n e c e s s a r y , m an ly and p i o u s w a r. B urke a n a l y z e d t h e g r o u n d s f u r t h e r .

I t was t o be

rem em b ered t h a t on e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t s o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n i n f o r e i g n a f f a i r s was n o t t o f r e e F r a n c e b u t t o make h e r f o r m i d a b l e .

1.

R e g ic id e Peace I ,

To a c h i e v e t h i s ,

i b i d . , V, 2 03 -205

s h e was n e w ly

m o d e lle d *

The r u l i n g p r i n c i p l e o f t h o s e who a c t e d a s

s t a t e s m e n i n t h e R e v o l u t i o n was t h e e x t e r i o r a g g r a n d i z e ­ m en t o f F r a n c e .

The d i s c o n t e n t e d and d i p l o m a t i c p o l i ­

t i c i a n s had a c c u se d th e o ld F re n ch c a b i n e t s o f con­ trib u tin g

t o t h e d e c a y o f n a t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e , and t h e

m o n arc h y o f b e i n g t o o v a r i a b l e a f o r m . o f g o v e rn m e n t f o r an y r e g u l a r p l a n o f a g g r a n d i z e m e n t * ^

T hey b a s e d t h e i r

c la im s f o r th e n a t u r a l f r o n t i e r s o f F ra n c e upon p o l i ­ t i c a l c o n v e n ie n c e and p h y s i c a l n a t u r e . The R e v o l u t i o n d e s t r o y e d t h e b a l a n c e , t h e known and u n q u e s t i o n e d common la w o f E u ro p e a t a l l t i m e s and t h e p r i n c i p l e o f - l i b e r t y i n t h e E u ro p e a n s y s t e m .

It

was t h i s p r i n c i p l e t h a t B u rk e h a d e x a m in e d i n t h e 7 0 f s and 8 0 * s .

How h e f o u n d f o u r p r i n c i p a l p a r t s o f t h e

g e n e r a l E u r o p e a n b a l a n c e , n a m e ly , t h e G r e a t M id d le B a la n c e ( B r i t a i n , F r a n c e a n d S p a i n ) > t h e N o r t h , t h e i n ­ t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l b a l a n c e o f Germany, an d I t a l y . .

It

was B r i t a i n * s d u t y t o w a tc h o v e r t h e b a l a n c e t h r o u g h o u t th e C h r is tia n w o rld .

o

F r a n c e h a d a g r e a t r o l e d n t h e b a l a n c e , f o r sh e was n e c e s s a r y t o t h e German and i n some m e a s u re t o t h e

1 . R e g i c i d e P e a c e I I , i b i d . . V, 2 4 4 - 2 4 5 , 2 4 7 - 2 4 9 . 2 . R e g i c i d e P e a c e H I T ( 1 7 9 7 ; , i b i d . . V. 3 0 3 , 3 1 1 . " Amer­ i c a was i n t h e E u r o p e a n b a l a n c e , b e c a u s e sh e was o f E uropean o r i g i n and had n o t - l i k e F ra n ce - d e s ­ t r o y e d t h e p r i n c i p l e s sh e h a d draw n fro m E u r o p e , an d b e c a u s e ' some A m e ric a n r e g i o n s w e re c o n t r o l l e d by E u r o p e a n s t a t e s . - i b i d . . V, 2 9 0 .

305 r

i

I t a l i a n e q u ilib riu m .

S in c e she had a v i t a l f u n c t i o n , to

d ism em b er F r a n c e w o uld e n d a n g e r t h e g e n e r a l l i b e r t y a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e C h r i s t i a n com m onw ealth.

The p a r t i ­

t i o n o f F r a n c e w o u ld b e p r o b a b l y f o l l o w e d b y t h e d ism e m b e rm e n t o f e v e r y o t h e r c o n s i d e r a b l e c o u n t r y i n Europe.^* The J a c o b i n s h a d e x p l o d e d a l l s o r t s o f b a l a n c e s , b e c a u s e t h e y p l a n n e d t o e s t a b l i s h a new d e s c r i p t i o n o f u n i v e r s a l e m p ir e by a u n i v e r s a l r e v o l u t i o n - na s o r t o f i m p i o u s h i e r a r c h y ” - w h ic h F r a n c e w ould l e a d a n d 2 g u ard . The u n p r o v o k e d a g g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t H o l l a n d , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e b a l a n c e , a n d t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f war a g a i n s t B r i t a i n w e re o u tw a r d e v i d e n c e t h a t r e v e a l e d t h e t r e a s o n a b l e J a c o b i n m in d . 3 th o se a c t s :

H ow ever, B u rk e l o o k e d b e y o n d

Long b e f o r e t h e i r a c t s o f a g g r e s s i o n , an d t h e i r d e c l a r a t i o n o f w ar, th e f a c t i o n i n F r a n c e h a d assu m e d a f o r m , h a d a d o p t e d a bo d y o f p r i n c i p l e s and m axim s, a n a ’ h a d r e g u l a r l y a n d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a c t e d u pon th e m , by w h ic h sh e v i r t u a l l y h a d p u t h e r s e l f i n a p o s t u r e , ¥/hich ?/as i n i t s e l f a d e c l a r a t i o n o f w ar a g a i n s t m a n k in g . F r a n c e was no l o n g e r a s t a t e b u t a f a c t i o n . The m ere e x i s t e n c e o f t h e J a c o b i n s y s te m was h o s t i l i t y .

I t was a

g e n e r a l e v i l whose s p i r i t l a y d e e p i n t h e c o r r u p t i o n o f

1 . I b i d . . V, 3 0 3 , 3 1 1 . 2 .- I b i d . . V, 3 0 5 . 3 . R e g i c i d e P e a c e I , i b i d . , V, 2 2 6 . L

j

" o u r common n a t u r e . " v/as i t s

I t e x i s t e d e v e r y w h e r e , an d F r a n c e

common h e a d . E u ro p e and w h e r e v e r t h e r a c e o f

E u ro p e may h e s e t t l e d w e re g r i p p e d h y a n a p p a l l i n g

c iv il

w ar i n w h ic h human p r e s u m p t i o n o f t h e J a c o b i n s t h r e a t e n ed t o o v e r t h r o w a n d t h e n r e c a s t t h e s o c i e t y which, d e v e l o p ­ ed and m a t u r e d u n d e r D i v i n e P r o v i d e n c e *

B u rk e e x am in e d

t h e n a t u r e ox t h e w ar i n t h e s e w o r d s , " I t i s n o t F r a n c e e x t e n d i n g a f o r e i g n e m p ir e o v e r o t h e r n a t i o n s ; i t i s a s e c t a im in g a t u n i v e r s a l e m p i r e , a n d b e g i n n i n g w i t h the. c o n q u e s t o f F r a n c e . " In th e fa c e o f th e s e dan g ers and e v i l s , B r i ta in and h e r a l l i e s h a d n o t c o n d u c t e d t h e m s e l v e s i n a c c o r d ­ a n c e w i t h t h e r e a l d a n g e r s i n t h e w o r l d . When t h e y c o u l d e x t i r p a t e th e F rench e v i l ,

t h e y w ere m o t i v a t e d by t h e

s p i r i t o f a g g ra n d iz e m e n t, and t h e r e f o r e , o f m u tu a l j e a l ­ ousy.

C o u ld t h e r e b e a t i e

o f h o n o r , B u rk e a s k e d ,

among members o f a n a l l i a n c e o r s o c i e t y d e d i c a t e d t o 2 p illa g e ? Y e t h e i m p l o r e d B r i t a i n t o r e m a i n i n t h e war and wage i t f o r p r i n c i p l e . B u t t h e o u t l o o k was d a r k :

A u s t r i a came t o t e r m s

w i t h t h e D i r e c t o r y i n A p r i l 1797;, N a p le s q u i t t h e w a r; an d B r i t a i n v i r t u a l l y a b a n d o n e d t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n . B u rk e r e p e a t e d l y s u g g e s t e d a f r o n t a l a s s a u l t on F r a n c e and

1 . R e g ic id e Peace I I , 2. V, 2 3 6 .

i b i d . . V, 2 3 1 - 2 3 4 .

a s o l i d a l l i a n c e w ith A u stria *

And h e w is h e d t h a t B r i t a i n

w o u ld g i v e a s s u r a n c e s t o t h e p o w e rs t h a t sh e s t i l l a d ­ h e r e d t o ”t h e c o l l e g e o f t h e a n c i e n t s t a t e s o f E u r o p e ” a n d w ould t h e r e f o r e p l e d g e h e r f i d e l i t y an d f o r t i t u d e a g a i n s t t h e common menace.'*' He d i d n o t l i v e t o s e e 11t h e u n r a v e l l i n g o f t h e i n ­ t r i c a t e p l o t , w h ic h s a d d e n s a n d ' p e r p l e x e s t h e a w f u l dram a o f P r o v i d e n c e , now a c t i n g o n t h e m o r a l t h e a t r e o f t h e w o r l d , ”^ . f o r h e d i e d i n J u l y 1797*

On h i s d e a t h - b e d he

b r e a t h e d u n d y in g h o s t i l i t y t o t h e R e v o l u t i o n , c a l l i n g o u t to h i s f r ie n d s H e v e r su ccu m b . I t i s a stru g g le f o r e x is t­ ence a s a n a t i o n . I f y o u m u st d i e , d i e w i t h t h e sw ord i n y o u r h an d ^ B u t I h a v e no f e a r s w h a t e v e r f o r t h e r e s u l t . T h e re i s a s a l i e n t l i v i n g p r i n c i p l e o f energy i n th e p u b l i c m in d o f E n g l a n d , w h ic h o n l y r e q u i r e s p r o p e r d i r e c t i o n t o w i t h s t a n d t h i s , o r any o th e r fe ro c io u s fo e . P ersev ere, th e re fo re , t i l l t h i s ty ra n n y be o v e rp a st* 1* I n h i s p h i l o s o p h y off. i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s , B urke e n v i s a g e d a g e n e r a l communion o f men s p r i n g i n g fro m a "common n a t u r e and d e s t i n y .

W ith in t h i s u n i v e r s a l k in g ­

dom - a l i n k i n t h e g r e a t c h a i n o f e t e r n a l o r d e r - t h e r e was C h r i s t e n d o m , com posed o f s t a t e s w h ic h h a d b e e n fo rm e d b y s i m i l a r f o r c e s , r e l i g i o u s i n f l u e n c e s a n d a common l i f e th ro u g h th e c e n t u r ie s .

S i n c e member s t a t e s s t r o v e t o

1 . R e g i c i d e P e a c e I I I , i b i d *. V, 2 9 0 . 2 . R e g i c i d e P e a c e I . i b i d . . V. 1 5 2 . ' 3 . Mac K n i g h t . "Edmund B u r k e . I l l , 7 0 S .

306 r

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f u l f i l l t h e i r a m b itio n s a t th e expense of t h e i r n e ig h b o rs and o f t h e e q u i l i b r i u m o f t h e g r e a t E uropean r e p u b l i c , i t was t o t h e m u t u a l a d v a n t a g e o f t h e s e v e r a l p o w e rs t o s c r u t i n i z e t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e o t h e r s a n d t o make common c a u s e a g a i n s t t h e i n o r d i n a t e a im s o f t h e a g g r e s s o r .

The

w ise s ta te s m a n so u g h t t h e r e f o r e to n e u t r a l i z e th e an ­ a r c h i c a l f o r c e s t h r e a t e n i n g th e g e n e r a l o rd e r t h a t sprang fro m f a l l e n human n a t u r e . Men owed t h e i r im m e d ia te a l l e g i a n c e n o t t o t h e g e n e r a l u n i v e r s a l king dom o f m ank in d o r t o t h e E u r o p e a n com m onw ealth, b u t t o i n d i v i d u a l c o u n t r i e s . tis m to w ard th e

1l i t t l e

T h eir p a t r i o ­

p la to o n s o f so c iety *

s tre n g th e n ­

ed t h e i r a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e g r a n d u n i v e r s a l s o c i e t y b e ­ c a u s e i t g a v e th em a n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f i t s

c om pon ent p a r t s .

By D i v i n e d i s p e n s a t i o n some c o u n t r i e s w e re j o i n e d i n a p o l i t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h i n t h e E u r o p e a n c o m m unity . Such was t h e s o c i e t y o f t h e B r i t i s h e m p ir e o r t h e f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n o f E n g lis h - s p e a k in g co m m u n ities.

To b e

w o rth y of th e h i g h c a l l i n g o f a r b i t r e s s and d i r e c t r e s s o f t h e co m p lex m ass o f . p e o p l e s and c o m m u n i ti e s , B r i t a i n hadt o b e m o t i v a t e d by t h e d e s i r e t o i n s u r e t h e i r w e l f a r e , to g o v ern p r u d e n tly and to p r o t e c t th e e m p ire .

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APPENDIX 1 CHARLES LUCAS, EDMUND BURKE , THOMAS GOHDGIC AND^^M DISPUTED AUTHORSHIP OF CERTAIN POLITICAL WRITINGS PUBLISHED IN DUBLIN

The c i t y o f D u b lin w as a c l o s e d o l i g a r c h y . p riv ile g e s of

The a n c i e n t

b y t h e a ld e rm a n •

D i s c o n t e n t w as c h a n n e l i z e d by a D u b lin a p o t h e c a r y , C h a r l e s L ucas

(If 1 3 - I f f ! ) ,

who h a d b e e n c h o s e n a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e f o r

h i s c o r p o r a t i o n i n t h e Comm b u t b o t h o f th e m w ere u n s e a t e d . L u c a s becam e enm esh ed i n J a n u a r y 1747

th e d is tu r b a n ­

c e s f o l lo w in g th e d i s g r a c e f u l c o n d u c t o f a Mr . N e l l y

in

S h e r i d a n i s t h e a t e r * b y d e f e n d i n g t h e m a n a g e r *s c o n d u c t o f t h e t h e a t e r a n d a t t a c k i n g K e l l y a n d h i s p a r t y o f ,“ G e n tle m e n .” When some T r i n i t y C o l le g e s c h o l a r s w e re a b u s e d i n t h e t h e a t e r b y K e l ly p a r t i s a n s , to w n -a n d -g o w n r i o t s o c c u r r e d , w i t h L u c a s ^ * s u p p o rtin g t h e S h e r i d a n - T r i n i t y c o m b in e , a n d D r l P e u l H i f f e r n a n ( "The T i c k l e r ” ) d e n o u n c in g i t . By th e- en d of~fch e y e a r , th e E a r l o f H a r r in g to n su p p ­ l a n t e d L ord' e h e s t e r f i e l d a s Y i e e r o y , and on D ecem ber 2 5 , Luc a s p r e s e n t e d h im w i t h t h e Co m p la in t s o f Dub1 i n , an d r e a l i z e d h e h ad i n c u r r e d t h e L ord L i e u t e n a n t ’ s d i s p l e a s u r e .

T e n s io n i n t h e c l t y m ou n ted when a p a r lia m e n ia r y v a c a n c y f o r D u b lin o e c u r r e & o n A u g u st 1 6 , 1 7 4 8 , an d b o t h L u c a s and La T o u c h e , t h e f a r m e r a l l i e s , c o n t e n d e d f o r th e s e a t . Twe’vd a y s ''la ie ^ ^

is s u e d th e f i r s b o f t w e n b y a d d r e s s e s ,

To t h e F r e e - C i t i z e n s . and F r e e - H o l d e r s . o f t h e C i t y o f D u b lin , t o f o r w a r d h i s * c a n d id a c y . He l a t e r p u b l i s h e d a s o r t o f n e w s p a p e r , The C e n s o r , i n t e r m i t t e n t l y frpm 1748 to 1750. %

He w as a g r e a t r o i d e s h a l l e s an d p a n d e r e d t o t h e m ob, h i s b e lo v e d an d h o n o r e d b r e t h r e n , b e g g in g th em t o b e l i e v e h e w as and e v e r w o u ld b e

t h e i r s " w ith t h e u t ­

m o s t S i n c e r i t y , t r u e R e s p e c t . u n f e ig n e d j o v e . and b o u n d 2 ' l e s s G r a t it u d e ." He c o n f e s s e d t o t h e n o b l e s t i n t e n t -

—

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io n s: Ho m an, l e t h i s F r e t e n s i o n s , o r h i s P l a c e s , b e w h a t t h e y w i l l , l o v e s h i s C o u n t r y ,b e t t e r th a n I , i t i s t h i s t h a t p ro m p ts me t o a t ­ tem p t t h e R e s t o r a t i o n o f h e r C o n s t i t u t i o n t o i t s n a tu r a l* s t r e n g t h a n d Y i g o r . He d e n o u n c e d L a T o u c h e , u n t i l a n o t h e r p a r l i a m e n t a r y

v a c a n c y p r o v i d e d a n o t h e r s e a t on May 1 2 , 1749 a n i n ­ s u r e d t h e e l e c t i o n o f th e tw o p o p u l a r c a n d i d a t e s . La T o u c h e , he s a y s h ad k e p t h i s f r i e n d s h i p w it h t h e a l d e r ­ m en, w h i l e h e f o r f e i t e d a l l f r i e n d s h i p . L u ca s c o n s o le d

l f Jam es W i l l s , L i v e s o f I l l u s t r i o u s and D i s t i n g u i s h e d I r is h m e n .P u b l i n .M a c G r e g o r , P o i s e n . I v o l s . , I 8 4 3 ,

Y, IS!.

2 . To t h e F r e e - c i t i z e n s . . . o f D u b l i n , # 1 9 , S e p te m b e r 2 5 , ----— ’ T749T------ -------- TTT— ' — 3 . I b i d . , # 5 , O c to b e r 21, 1 7 4 8 , p . 1 1 .

310 h i m s e l f t h a t a lt h o u g h t h e y

m et I f k e b i m , h e e n j o y e d

" th e t e e ^ r e s s f h i e ^amd e m d le s s C o m fo r ts o f a s e l f - a p p r o v i n g C o n s c f e n c e , a t t h e L o s s o f some o f t h e s o r d id p e r i s h ­ i n g T r a sh o f t h i s W o rld ." He avow ed t h a t L o c k e , C oke a m d A c h e r le y w ere h i s '2 '^ p o 1 i t l c a l g u id e s • 1 i b e r t y , h e s a i d , w a s t h e n a t u r a l r i g h t o f e v e r y human b e i n g , who w as bo rn t o i t s e x e r e i s e t h e

3 ■

moment h e a t t a i n e d th e u s e o f h is : r e a s o n • i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e t h e m s e lv e s a g a i n s t t h e i l l - b o u n d e d p a s s i o n s l e a d i n g t o v i o l e n c e and b r e a c h e s i n t h e la w o f n a t u r e , men fo rm ed . s o c i e t y and f o r m u la t e d th e r u l e s o f g o v ern m en t f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e w h o le co m m u n ity . s o c i e t y w as g ood g o v e r n m e n t.

5

4

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The s t a t e o r a n y o f i t s

o r g a n s d e r i v e t h e i r a u t h o r i t y fro m t h e p e o p le and h o ld i t i n t r u s t f o r th em , who a r e t h e o r i g i n o f s o v e r e i g n p o w e r . I n B r i t a i n t h i s p o w er w as e o m m itte d t o th r e e e sta te s^

th e j o in t hands o f

d e s ig n e d t o be m u tu a l c h e c k s , t h e K in g ,

L o r d s and Commons i n P a r lia m e n t a s s e m b le d w h ich e o n s t i t u t e

6

t h e g r e a t c o r p o r a t i o n o r b o d y p o l i t i c ; The K in g g o v e r n s fr e e m e n b y t h e i r own e l e c t i o n

an d la w s and i s t h e f i r s t

I * I b i d . , # 1 4 , M hreh 7 v 1 7 4 8 , p . 7* 2 . J g g i , # 4 » S e p te m b e r 1 5 , 1 7 4 8 ,. 1 ♦1 2 . 3 . C h a r le s L u c a s , The B r i t i s h P r e e H j e l d e r * s P o l i t i c a l C a t e c h is m . D u b lin , Jam es K elb u rrt, 0 c t o h e r 7 > 1 7 4 8 • 4 . To th e F r e e ^ C i t l z e n s . . . o f D u b lin , # 4 , S ep tem b er 1 5 , 17481 P*4« 5 * I b id .* , # 8 , N ovem ber 3 0 , 1 7 4 8 , p . l 8 . 6 . i b i d . , # 4 , p. 6 .

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311 and g r e a t e s t s e r v a n t o f t h e s t a t e . He who im p o s e s h i s a r b itr a r y w i l l ,

i n v i o l a t i o n o f th e la w o f n a t u r e , d i s r e ­

g a rd in g * t h e eommon w e l f a r e , w it h o u t t h e c o n s e n t o f t h e 1 p e o p le , i s a ty r a n t• L u c a s a s s e r t e d I r e l a n d w as n o t a c o n q u e r e d c o u n t r y , c o m p l e t e l y dependen^^ upon th e g o v ern m en t o f B r i t a i n •

H e i t h e r w as t h e I r i s h p a r l i a m e n t sub s e r v i e n t t o th e B r i t i sh 2 . p a r lia m e n t. The i s l a n d w as a f r e e and p e r f e c t s t a t e , a n n e x e d t o t h e crow n o f E n g la n d ,b u t u n d er a s e p a r a t e 3 1 'H e w is h e d t o a n im a te t h e e i t i s e n s ? o f D u b lin t o 4 a c h ie v e m e n t s a s g r e a t a s t h o s e o f A th e n s o r Romp. T hey had s le p t to o lo n g .

WKeh p e o p l e f o r g e t t h e i r r i g h t s and

d u t i e s , c r a f t y men e n r i c h t h e m s e l v e s , and t h e i r

s la v e s

and p r o s t i t u t e s o f p o w er and k n a v e s o f f o r t u n e a r e c h o s e n 5 o v e r men o f a b i l i t y and c h a r a c t e r . I~f~ t h e f r e e h o l d e r s w ere u n i t e d i n r e l i g i o n , l i b e r t y , v i r t u e an d l o y a l t y n e ith e r

th e g a te s o f h e l l ,

6

L u c a s e x c la im e d , w o u ld p r e v a i l a g a i n s t them :

LG. J a n u a r y 1 3 , 1 7 4 8 , p . 9*

p . 8*. p . 1 0 ; and # 1 2 , F e b r u a r y 1 8 , 1 7 4 8 , p . # 5 , p . 15* , N ovem ber 3 0 , 1 7 4 8 , p . 1 9 * , p . 16.

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m o v e# r a p M I y y ^ s ^ e e i a l l y a f t e r t h e se c o n d ■ p a rlia m e n ta ry * v a c a n c y M a y y 1749,

L u c a s p re s e n te d a

le n g th y * r e m o n s tr a n c e b e f o r e t h e L o rd 'Jus t i e e s f o r t r a n s * m is s i o n to. t h e K in g i n w h ic h h e -a f f ir m e # i n dep e n d e n c e u n d e r t h e G r e a f c h a r t e r a n d I r i s h -c o n s t i t u t i o n .

The

a ld e r m e n d e t e r m i n e d t o s u p p r e s s t h e dem ogogne, f o r h i s 1 p o p u l a r i t y w as a n o h j e e t t o b e f e a r e d , i h e H o u s e o f C o m m M S a d ju d g e d 'h im -.a n ' enemy o f I r e l a n d ' on O c to b e r 1 6 , 1 7 4 9 * 'a u d t h e *C om m on-O ouncil v o i e e d a p p r o v a l a n d th a n k e d 2 t h e a u th o r* o f t h e p a m p h le t , L u c a s d e t e c t e d . The H ouse i n d i c t b d -L u e a e o n N ovem ber ^ ^ a n d o r d e r e d h im c o n f i n e d t o

3

N ew g ate p r i s o n . The a g i t a t o r s e n t h i s s e r v a n t t o t h e

1 * W illem opy c i t . ^ v , 1 5 0 . 2 . B u rk e w as nsm ed th e ^ :a u th o r o f t h a t t p a m p h l e t by R ic h a r d B o b e r t M adden i n T h e H i s t o f y o f l r i s h B e r i o d j c a l L i t e r a t u r e #2 *v o l s . , L ondon>; Newbyy 1^ 6 7 , I , ^355*336 • The e x c e r p t s :q u o te d do n o t r e s e m b ie B u r k e r a w o rk . The ■ author i n re a lity * * 'w a s -ffio ^ s ^ -fa y lo ry " 'a w e ll-k n o w n b r e w e r a n d m em ber o f t h e Common C o u n c i l . A r t h u r B . I . S a m u e ls , T he E a r l y L i f e , C o rre s p o n d e n c e and W r i t in g s o f t h e R t . M oni Bamund B u rk e L L P . . Cam br i d g e . 1923 Tp .1 8 2 3 . ■la m e s *D i g g i s L a Tone he w r o t e t n a c c o u n t o f t h e d i s t u r b a n c e i n a p a m p h le t p u b l i s h e d i n 0 e c e m b e r l 759 > c a l i ® (3. A S h o r t b u t T ru e H i s t o r y o f t h e R i s e . P r o g r e s s , an d Hap p y S u p n r e i s l ^ o f s e v e r a l l a t e ' i n s u r r e c t i o n s commonly c a l l e d T R e p e i l i o i i s T l I r e l a n d , ( r e p r i n t e d in L o n d o n ,1 7 b Q ) ♦ He s p e a k s o f t h e ^ r e b e l l i o n ” o f 1749 a s a r e s u l t o f t h e D u b lin e l e c t i o n s * , " T h i s , t h e h o u se o f commonsy w i t h o u t . t h e / i n t e r p o s i t i o n o f t h e m i l i t a r y p o w e r , q u e l l e d , by p r u d e n t l y p r e v e n t i n g t h e c i t y ' s c h o o s i n g 4 h e r own r e p r e ­ s e n t a t i v e s : f o r th e f i r s t f a v o u r ite o f t h e p e o p le , th e y b a n i s h e d , b r a n d e d w i t h t h e c h a r g e o f b e in g a m asked a g e n t f o r t h e P r e t e n d e r , a n d a n enemy t o h i s c o u n t r y . And t h e s e c o n d i n f a v o u r w ith th e p o p u l a c e , a f t e r he i n g m o st f a i r l y a n d i n c o n t e s t a b l y e l e c t e d a n d r e t u r n e d , an d sw orn i n t o h i s p l a c e , w as d i s m is s e d h i s s e a t f o r no b e t t e r r e a s o n , t h a n b e c a u s e he h a d h a d c o n n e x io n s w i t h

k e e p e r w i t h a r e q u e s t f o r a room t o he p r e p a r e # : f o r h im , h u t he w as o r d e r e d t o he eo n f i t t e d i n t h e common room w ith fe lo n s *

F e a rin g f o r h i s h e a lth and a p o s s ib le in s u r r e o t1 io n , h i s f r i e n d s a d v is e d f l i g h t . He e s c a p e d t o t h e I s l e o f M fn, th e n c e t o L o n d o n , a n d

o n t o L ey d en on t h e c o n t i n e n t w here he. s t u d i e d med i c i n e a n d r e c e i v e d t h e M.©. d e g re e on D ecem ber 2 0 , 1 7 5 2 . R e tu r n ­ in g t o E n g la n d , h e c o n d u c te d a s e r i e s o f e l a b o r a t e p u b l i c e x p e r i m e n t s , a n d - p r a c t i c e d m e d ic in e i n L o n d o n . I n .1756 h e p u b 1 i s h e d M E s s a y on W a te rs , r e v ie w e d by © r; Jo h n so n , who s y m p a th iz e d w i t h t h e :^ f r i e n d o f I r e l a n d " a n d h o p e d t h a t t h e t o o l s o f po w er w o u ld he t a u g h t t h a t th o u g h t h e y r o b b e d ,

2 t h e y c o u ld n o t i m p o v e r is h ; a d m itte d to a l i c e n t i a t e

T h re e y e a r s l a t e r , h e w as

o f t h e C o lle g e o f P h y s i c i a n s o f

L o n d o n , a n d he a g a i n t u r n e d h i s t h o u g h t s t o I r i s h p o l i t i c s i n 1760 b y p u b l i s h i n g a p a m p h le t d i r e c t e d t o ' t h e e l e c t o r s

t h e f i r s t ; a n d w as e l e c t e d u p o n th e same i n t e r e s t t h a t w o u ld h a v e s u p p o r t e d t h e e l e c t i o n o f t h e o th e r * h a d h e n o t h e e h d i s q u a l i f i e d i n b e in g s t i g m a t iz e d ; b y t h e h o u s e a s b e f o r e m e n tio n e d . T h u s e n d e d one r e b e l l i o n b y t h e p u t t i n g o f f o f o n ly tw o .m em ber s , a n d g i v i n g new , o r e n l a r g i n g t h e sum a n d te r m o f t h e o l d , p e n s i o n s o f t h e t h e n L*L* a n d a few u s e f u l l o y a l s e r v a n t s F r o m 1749 th e l o w e s t tra d e s m e n c a l l e d th e m s e lv e s f r e e c i t i z e n s , " w i t h m ore t h a n Roman a r r o g a n c e v " p p *3 , 6 . 1 * . E x t r a c t s fro m s e v e r a l l e t t e r s show t h a n a n "uncommon s p i r i t o f p e r s e c u t i o n ^ p r e v a ile d * a g a i n s t L u c a s . T he g e n tl e m a n ♦s M a g a z in e , IX { 1 7 5 GT» P* 58* 2 . Ja m es B o s w e ll, L i f e o f J o h n s o n , f e d . C . B « H i l l ) , 6 v o l s . , Hew Y o r k , B ig e lo w and Brow n, n . d . Q1887 j , I , 360.

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tu r n e d t o D u b lin on M arch 15» 1761 am id g r e a t p o p u la r r e j o i c i n g , and w as s o o n f r a n c h i s e d an d e l e c t e d t o t h e H ouse o f Commons.

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p a r l i a m e n t s , w h ic h w as a c c o m p lis h e d i n 1 7 6 8 . I t w as d i f f i c u l t t o p l e a s e h im , m e a su r e r e c e i v e d h i s a p p r o b a t io n .

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w h en he a s k e d a member w h a t t h e ©ommons h ad b e e n d i s c u s s ­ i n g i n h i s a b s e n c e a n d w as in fo r m e d i t h ad r e s o l v e d an a d d r e s s - t o t h e V i c e r o y p r a y in g h im t o p r o v id e f o r t h e 2 c h a p la in . L u ca s r e p l i e d , "Oh, oh J M ost a t r o c i o u s Iv dem ogogism w as u n a b a te d .

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S e e l e t t e r s o f L u c a s t o L o rd C h a r le m o n t, H i s t o r i c a l Man­ u s c r i p t s C o m m issio n , The . M a n u s c r ip t s and G o r r e sp o n d e n o e o f la m e s , F i r s t B a r l..oy-T6 f ia r ie ^ Q n t »'i' ^ s I f t h . R e p o r t , A |^ eh eL ix , p a r t X, L o r ilo n , 2 v o l s , , 1 8 9 1 , 1894 > 1 2 6 5 ,

2.

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ance are o n ly h a lf-b o n e e a le d by th e ep ita p h whieh i s cu t on h i s tombstone in S t . M ich a el’s Churchyard, D ub lin . read s in p a r t:

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fir m in th e s e n a te , stea d y t o h is t r u s t , Unmoved b y f e a r , a n d o b s t i n a t e l y j u s t .

Edmund Burke and th e L ucasian C ontroversy A v ir u le n t p a i^ h le t war en grossed D ublin in 1 7 4 8 - 1 7 4 9 . Opposed to Lucas was S ir B ichard Cox, Dr .P aul H iffern a n and James T aylor .

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supported him. p u z z lin g o n e. B i s s e t , P r io r , L u cas.

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I b id .. I , 24, G r a t t a n , o p . e i t . , 1 .9 1 # D u b lin P en n y J o u r n a l ) I ( 1 8 3 2 - 1 8 3 3 ) , 3 9 1 . Jam es P r i o r w r i t e s , "At t h e p e r i o d i n q u e s t i o n , t h e p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h e C a s t l e , . . . , h a d sh a r p e n e d h i s Q )r . C h a r le s L u ca s} z e a l i n t o seme d e g r e e o f in te m p e r ­ a n c e i n h i s c o n d u c t an d w r i t i n g s , when- MT. B urke a s s a i l e d h im s a r c a s t i c a l l y a s E p am in on d as; and b y p u s h ­ i n g h i s p o l i t i c a l d o c t r i n e s , t o % h eir u l t i m a t e r e s u i t s , a s he a f t e r w a r d s d i d a d i f f e r e n t s e t o f o p i n i o n s b y L o r i B o l l h g b r o k e , a im ed a t th r o w in g o v e r th em an a i r o f a b s u r d i t y *n M emoir o f t h e L i f e an d C h a r a c te r o f t h e R ig h t H on. Edmund D u r E e 2 v o l s . , B o s t o n , T ic k n o r , R eed i l a F i e I S s , 1 8 5 4 , 1 , 63'!

n o t on ly was Burke not th e opponent of Lucas, but t h a t v e ile d in anonym ity, lie was incomparably the a b le s t ad vocate o f the p r in c ip le s fo r which Lucas contended, and an admirer of th e h o n esty and dis e t f e r "~to^ h e H f i f i z e n s 1 o^ f u h l l a 7 an d A S e c o n d i e t t e r t o t h e g i f t z e n s o f D u b lin ; a n o t h e r o f t h e same y e a r , A P a t r i o t ^ s A d v ic e t o t h e Duke o f D o r s e t W r it t e n i n t le ~ Y e a r l 7 f l w it h a S i d l c a t l b n t o t i e fcork *S u rgeon S i r R ic h a r d Cox o f t l e T e a r ^ I? !? ; and f i v e C o n t r ib u t io n s t o L u ca s* J o u r n a l . The C e n s o r . fr o m J u ly 2 2 , 1 7 4 9 t o May 3 , 1 7 5 0 . S e e S a m u e ls , o p , c i t . , p p . 1 8 0 - 2 0 2 , 2 ♦ A rth u r p . I . S a m u e ls d i e d i n t h e G r e a t War ( 1 9 1 4 * 1 9 1 5 ) b e f o r e h e c o u l d c o m p le t e t h e b o o k . He w as c o n v in c e d t h a t th e t r a d i t i o n a l v ie w t h a t B urke w as a n t i- L u c a s w as i n c r e d i b l e . F o llo w in g t h i s s u g g e s t i o n , h i s f a t h e r , A r th u r Y/arren S a m u e ls , r e a d th r o u g h t h e m ass o f L u ca­ s i a n e c u t r o v e r s y p a m p h le t s , and made t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s ib id • , p p . x -x i • L3* F r e e B r i t o n ' s Advice # 1 * S a m u e ls , op . c i t . , p . 3 3 2 # _j

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o f h i s i m p r e s s i o n s o f E n g la n d , o f th e n e a t c o t t a g e s a n d B u sy v i l l a g e s h e saw. t h e r e , and e x c la im e d , " f h a t a c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n o u r p o o r c o u n try * -.w h e re you T1il s c a r c e f i n d a , c o t t a g e o rn a m e n te d w i t h a c h im n e y r T In n e w ly -d is c o v e re d 2 l e t t e r s , we f i n d h im i n 1761 c a s t i g a t i n g th e a g i t a t o r in 5 ' h i t t e r la n g u a g e r I own I am som ew hat o u t o f hum our w ith p a t r i o t i s m r an d can t h i n k h u t m e a n ly o f su c h Pub l i c k s p i r i t , a s l i k e th e f a n a t i c a l s p i r i t , b a n ­ i s h e s common s e n s e ; t do n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h a t s p i r i t , w h ic h c o u ld r a i s e s u c h h a c k n e y e d p r e t e n c e s , & s u c h c o n t e m p t i b l e T a l e n t s , a s t h o s e o f D r . i u c a s t o so g r e a t e o n i i d e r a t i o n , n o t o n l y among th e m ob, b u t , a s I h e a r , on a l l h a n d s , among v e r y many o f r a n k an d f i g u r e . I f a n y o f them do i t •t h r o u g h P o l i c y one may p r e d i c t w i t h r a s h n e s s , t h a t h e w i l l g iv e th em room t o r e p e n t i t , • • • A$ t o t h e f i g u r e h e m akes i n t h e m e d ic a l w ay I do n o t a t a l l w o n d e r , a t i t ; t h a t P ro fe s s io n i s th e p ro p e r sp h e re o f P r e t e n d e r s ; & i t i s n o t odd t h a t p e o p le s h o u ld be im p o sed u p o n i n w h a t t h e y do n o t u n d e r s t a n d , & i n d e e d w e l l c a n n o t , vfoen t h e y d i s t i n g u i s h Non se n se & A b s u r d i t y i n a common a d v e n t u r e r .

1. 2,

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I b i d . , u . 219# : The Edmund B u r k e - C h a r le s 0 t H a ra C o rr e s p o n d e n c e b r o u g h t t o l i g h t b y P r o f e s s o r B o ss H offm an o f F o ra h a m U n i v e r s i t y . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e O’H a ra ow ner o f t h e l e t t e r s r e c o r d e d t h e f a c t t h a t A r t h u r P . S a m u e ls i n f m ir e d a b o u t th em on F e b r u a r y 1 7 , 1914* I f S a m u e ls h a d r e c e i v e d p e r m i s s i o n t o s e e th e l e t t e r s b e f o r e h i s u n t im e ly d e a t h , he w o u ld h a v e a v o id e d th e e r r o r o f i d e n t i f y i n g B urke w i t h th e F r e e B r i t o n . J u ly 3 , 17 6 1 , it> ia . •J

32?

I f t h e l a t t e r M o u n te b an k Q Lueas) s h o u ld now d e s c e n d fro m h i s S t a g e , i t w o u ld b e o f g r e a t s e r v i c e t o h i s C h a r a c t e r , w h ic h , i f he [$£ss• i l l e g i b l e : r e t u r n s ? ] t o th e u s u a l u n h e a l t h y s o u n d n e s s o f h i s i n t e l l e c t s , w i l l i n f a l l i b l y come t o be known b y th e d u l l e s t o f h i s a d m i r e r s ; & t h u s h i s m e d ic a l q u a c k e r y w i l l c o v e r t h e B lu n d e r s o f h i s p o l i t i c a l ; B u rk e so o n h a d am ple opp o r u n i t y t o o b s e r v e In© a s a t c lo s e q u a r t e r s ,

B o th men r e t u r n e d to D u b lin i n 1 7 6 1 .

The f o r m e r a e c om panied W illia m G e ra r d H a m ilto n , t h e C h ie f S e c r e t a r y f o r l o r d H a l i f a x , t h e n e w ly a p p o i n t e d T ic e r o y o f Ire la n d *

As p r i v a t e s e c r e t a r y f o r a man who w as

r e a l l y t h e 1p r im e 4m i n i s t e r o f I r e l a n d ' fro m T 7 6 1 -1 7 6 4 » B u rk e u n d © u b te d ly h a d o c c a s i o n t o la m e n t t h e D o c t o r ’ s 2 d e m a g o g !sh u Cn fru eas* d e a t h , Jlovem ber 5 , 1 7 7 1 , B urke .

com m ented:

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I r e a d w i t h s u r p r i s e o f th e pom pous f u n e r a l o f D r. L u c a s* By t h e a c c o u n t one w ould t a k e i t f o r th e f u n e r e a l o f a P r i n c e * Was h i s f a m i l y i n a c o n d i t i o n t o a f f o r d t h i s p i e c e o f V a n i ty - o r w as i t a k i n d o f C a e s a r s f u n e r c n l mad© b y t h e o p p o s i t i o n t o keep a l i v e t h e S p i r i t s ’ o f th e P o p u la c e ?

1. 2*

J u ly 1 0 , 1761, ib id ; I t i s l i k e l y t h a t B urke ’ s an d L u ca s* p a t h s c r o s s e d i n B a th a n d L ondon b e f o r e t h e Doe; t o r ’ s r e t u r n t o D u b lin * B u rk e may h a v e g o t t e n h i s o p in io n o f h i s m e d ic a l a b i l i t y fro m h i s f a t h e r - i n - l a w , an e m in e n t I r i s h C a t h o l i c p h y s i c i a n , D r . N u g e n t who p r a c t i s e d i n B a th a n d i n lo n d o n * ' 3* B u rk e t o O 'H a r a , N ovem ber 2 0 , I 7 7 I . She A n n u a l R e g i s ; * t e r , e d i t e d by B u rk e , r e f e r r e d t o t h e d e a t h o f " th e ' c e l e b r a t e d p a t r i o t , Dr* L u c a s" * l ^ f l , C h r o n i c l e , p * 1 5 J* T h a t e n t r y i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e one i n t h e g e n tl e m a n ’ s M a g a z in e , 1 7 7 1 , X fri, a n d w as p r o b a b l y t a k e n fro m t h e * l a t t e r fey B u r k e ’ s a s s i s t a n t s , who p r e p a r e d th e day-by** d ay c h r o n ic le o f e v e n ts * •L

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R e f u t a t i o n o f t h e Samuels* t h e o r y o f B urke*s a u t h o r s h ip becomes f i n a l and c o m p le te i f th e r e a l au th or can be i d e n t i f i e d , and i t

i s now s u b m itte d t h a t th e a u th o r o f th e

anonymous p r o -L u c a s w r i t i n g s was Thomas Gordon ( 1 6 8 4 - 1 7 5 0 ) . He was born i n K ir k u d b r ig h t , S c o t l a n d , th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f an a n c i e n t f a m i ly d e sc en d e d from th e Gordons o f Kenmare 1 and p r o p r i e t o r o f G a ir l o c h , an e s t a t e l y i n g i n K e l l s . He s e t t l e d in 1717 i n London, and soon became a s s o c i a t e d w ith S i r John T renehard ^ 1 6 6 9 -1 7 2 3 ), commissioner of th e f o r f e i t e d I r i s h e s t a t e s and member o f P a r lia m e n t f o r Taunton i n S o m e rse tsh ire ,

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th e H igh Church i n 1 7 2 0 , The In depend en t Whig, which went through s e v e n e d i t i o n s from 17 22 to 1747 i n B r i t a i n , two 3 in America i n 1724 and 1 7 4 0 , and one in France i n 1 7 6 7 . .

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Upon the d e a th o f T ren eh a rd , h e m a rr ied h i s widow, and 1 . Thomas Murray, The L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y o f u-alloway, Edinburgh, Waugh and I n n e s , 1 8 2 2 , p p . 2 1 5 - 2 1 4 . 2 . j . M. B u l l o c h , "Thomas Gordon, th e in d e p e n d e n t w h ig ," Aberdeen u n i v e r s i t y L ib r a r y B u l l e t i n , I I I (November 1 9 1 5 May 1 9 1 8 ) , 5 9 8 - 6 1 2 i 3 . C h a rle s d . R e a l e y , The London j o u r n a l and I t s A u thors 1 7 2 0 - 1 7 2 3 , B u l l e t i n o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f K a n sa s, XXXVT, December 1 , 1 9 3 5 , Law rence, K ansas, p p . 3 , 6 .

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p r e p a r ed a memoir o f h i s . d e c e a s e d c o l l e a g u e i n th e 1 c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e i r w orks, C a to ’ s L e t t e r s . Gordon had t h r e e c h ild r e n .

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Gordon was a p r o l i f i c p a m p h le te e r , and was em ployed i n th e r e i g n o f Q u e en .im ie by the E a r l o f O xford, and l a t e r by 3 S i r R obert W a lp o le . In a d d i t i o n , he was an e n t h u s i a s t i c 4 5 L a t i n i s t , t r a n s l a t i n g the ?/orks o f T& citus and S a l l u s t , th e form er t r a n s l a t i o n b e in g d e d i c a t e d to W a lp o le.

He was

a p p o in t e d C om m issioner o f Wind L i c e n s e s by h i s p a t r o n .

H is

income was su p p lem en ted by a l a r g e f o r tu n e he r e c e i v e d from 6 a s i l e n t a d m ir e r , a c e r t a i n Dr. W alsh. His p r i n c i p l e s were embodied i n extrem e Whiggism and d o c t r i n a i r e r a d i c a l i s m i n church and s t a t e . E ren ch , a n t i - J a c o b i t e , and a n t i - p a p i s t .

He was a n t i -

The Roman C a t h o li c

1 . 4 v o l s . , t h i r d e d i t i o n , London, 1 7 3 3 , W. W ilk in s e t » _ a l . . The i n i t i a l s nGn or In d ic a te th e ir r e s p e c tiv e co n tr ib u tio n s. 2 . rhe e l d e s t s o n , Thomas, o f a p r e v i o u s m a rr ia g e ( B u l l o c h , l o c . c i t . , p . 7 4 8 .) was a d m itte d to the M iddle Temple on A p r i l 2 4 , 1740 and was c a l l e d t o the bar on O ctober 2 4 , 1 7 4 6 . He went t o Ja m aica, and su r r e n d e r e d h i s chambers from t h e r e . ( L e t t e r from H. A. C* S t u r g e s s , L ib r a r ia n and Keeper of t h e R e c o r d s , th e H onourable S o c i e t y o f th e M iddle Tem ple, d a te d March 2 0 , 1 9 5 0 . ) There h e became a m e m b e r o f t h e A s s e m b l y i n 1 7 6 1 , A tt o r n e y G en eral i n 1 7 6 6 , and was c a l l e d t o t h e C o u n c il t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r . (W. A. E e u r ta d o , u f f i c i a l & Other R e r s o n a g e s o f J a m a ic a , from 1655 to 1 7 9 0 , Jam aica, 1 8 9 6 , p . 3 9 . j He d ie d i n 1 7 7 1 . ( G e n t le m a n s M ag azin e, 1 7 7 1 , p. 5 5 2 .) 3 . Murray, L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y o f G a llo w a y , p . 2 2 1 . 4 . 2 v o l s . , London, 1 7 2 8 - 1 7 3 1 . 5 . London, 1 7 4 4 . 6 . R e a l e y , rhe London j o u r n a l and I t s A u t h o r s , p . 3*

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C h u rc h was "a n o l d w i t h e r e d H a r l o t , t h e M o th e r o f A bom in­ a t i o n s and W horedom s, a n d d ru n k w ith t h e B lo o d o f t h e 1 .. S a i n t s . 11 He d e f e n d e d t h e r i g h t o f p r i v a t e ju d g m e n t a g a i n s t 2 t h e " a b s u r d and w ic k e d s t a n d a r d o f a u t h o r i t y . " T h e se a r e 3 h i s c o n v i c t i o n s on c h u r c h an d s t a t e : •

.

The f i r s t P r i n c i p l e s o f o u r P r o t e s t a n t C h u rc h , a r e t h e P r i n c i p l e s o f t h e R e f o r m a tio n ; n a m e ly , t h e s p i r i t u a l S u p re m ac y o f t h e C row n; t h e R ig h t o f t h e L a i t y t o ju d g e f o r t h e m s e l v e s ; t h e f o r m in g o f a l l E c c l e s i a s t i c a l P o l i t y b y t h e L e s i g l a t u r e ; and c o n s e q u e n t ly , t h a t o f c r e a t i n g C lerg y m en b y t h e C i v i l P o w e r, f o r g o t b y to o m any o f t h e C l e r g y , a n d rem em bered C sie} a g a i n s t t h e i r W i l l s b y t h e L a i t y . W hoever w ould m a i n t a i n t h e R e­ f o r m a t i o n , m u st m a i n t a i n t h e s e P r i n c i p l e s o r e m b ra ce P o p e r y , i f h e d e s e r t s th e m . I t w as t o t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e E n g lis h c l e r g y t o s u b m it t o t h e e a s y a n d g e n t l e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e P r i n c e an d t h u s r e s t u n d e r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e i r c o u n tr y * s l a w s .

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a M o n a rc h , t h a n a M onk?"

T he J a c o b i t e s w e re t o P a t r i o t i s m TAhat p a p i s t s w e re t o r e lig io n .'

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g o s p e l t o t h e " c r u e l m e rc y o f a t o o l o f t h e P o p e " and t h e

1. 2. 2* 4.

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A S erm on P r e a c h e d b e f o r e t h e L e a rn e d S o c i e t y o f L i n c o l n ys I n n , on J a n u a r y } 0 % b y a Laym an, 3bh e d i t i o n , L ond o n , J . P e e T e , 1732* pp* 2 2 . I b id ., p . 4. The I n d e p e n d e n t W hig. P h i l a d e l p h i a , S . K e im e r, 1 7 2 4 , i n th e " D e d ic a tio n " , u n p ag ed . I b id . . unpaged.

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a t t a c k on t h e P r e t e n d e r i s d o n e i n t h e m a n n e r o f t h e F r e e 2 B rito n : W ith t h e same I n c o n s i s t e n c e and Im p o te n c e , h e t a l k s , o f t h e m i s e r a b l e S i t u a t i o n o f t h e Kingdom a t home a n d A b ro a d . Who h a t h c o n t r i b u t e d s o h i g h l y a s h i m s e l f t o m ake i t m i s e r a b l e ? B e f o r e h e e m b r o ile d u s , we r i o t e d i n B ase and P l e n t y ; t h i s g a u le d h i s g r e a t P a t r o n , who t h e r e f o r e s e n t him t o r e d u c e F r e e B r i t o n s t o t h e c o n d i t i o n o f h i s own S u b j e c t s , who a r e h u n g ry S l a v e s ; now i s t h e r e so s u r e a way t o e x a l t F r a n c e . a s t o s i n k a n d e n s l a v e B r i t a i n . W ith o u t t h i s D e s ig n , we s h o u ld n o t h a v e h a d t h i s v i s i t . . I t i s th e i n te r e s t o f F r a n c e t o un d o u s . T h i s i s t h e U se s h e m eans t o make o f t h e P r e t e n d e r ; i t , i s t h e u s e s h e made o f K in g C h a r le s and K in g l a m e s ; who fro m p o w e r f u l I n d e p e n d e n t S o v e r e i g n s , dem eaned th e m s e lv e s t o b e t h e D e p u tie s a n d C o a d ju t o r s o f t h e F r e n c h K ing t o e n t h r a l E u r o p e ; a T ask n e v e r t o be e f f e c t e d t i l l th e y had e n th r a ll e d t h e i r P e o p le . I n h i s n u m ero u s p o l i t i c a l p a m p h l e t s , G ordon p r e f e r r e d t h e h i s t o r i c a l m e th o d . i n t h e Way . . .

He s e t down B u ie s f o r t h e u s e o f N o v ic e s

l e s t t h e l a u d a b l e A r t o f D e fam in g a n A d m in is -

t r a t i o n s h o u ld b e l o s t , a n d e l a b o r a t e d t h e " a l l e g o r i c a l m o d e, " t h e

" i r o n i c a l o r mock p a n e g y r i c k ” and a v a r i e t y o f 3u s e s o f h i s t o r y o f " d ra w in g p a r a l l e l s . ” The l a t t e r m ethod

w as em ployed i n h i s p a m p h le ts , The C o n s p i r a t o r s ; o r t h e C ase

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B u l l o c h , A b e rd e e n U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y B u l l e t i n , I I I , 7 4 2 . L e t t e r s T ak e n fro m t h e G e n e r a l E v e n in g P o s t R e l a t i n g t o t h e P r e s e n t R e b e l l i o n . 1 7 4 5 , L e t t e r $4-, p p . 3 2 - 3 3 . T h is w as p u b l i s h e d i n D u b lin a s T he F r e e B r i t o n * s A nsw er t o t h e P r e t e n d e r * s D e c l a r a t i o n , b y , la m e s E s d a l l , & p a g e s . A P h o t o s t a t - c o p y o f t h i s p a m p h le t i s . i n my p o s s e s s i o n . . (T he o r i g i n a l i s i n t h e H a l l i d a y C o l l e c t i o n , D u b lin , v o l . 1 8 6 ). From G o rd o n * s The H u m o u r is t. e s s a y on L i b e l s , q u o te d i n W illia m T . L a p r a d e , P u b l i c " O p in i o n a n d .P o l i t i c s i n E i g h t e e n t h C e n tu r y E n g la n d . New Y o rk , M a c m illa n , 1 9 3 6 , p . 281.

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D r . W alsh w h ic h h e i n h e r i t e d may h a v e b e e n i n I r e l a n d .

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l i k e l y , G ordon h a d i n h e r i t e d T r e n c h a r d f s p r o p e r t y an d f o r t u n e a s a r e s u l t o f h i s m a r r i a g e t o M rs . T r e n e h a r d . c o n te m p o ra r y I r i s h p a m p h le t l i s t s

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i n g c o n s t a n t l y a b r o a d and d ra w in g in c o m e s fro m I r e l a n d “T r e n e h a r d , C o u n ty o f L im e r i c k , Y e a r l y v a lu e o f e s t a t e 2 1500 £ . ” .The p a m p h l e t e e r was i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e m o tio n m ade i n t h e I r i s h P a r l i a m e n t i n 1719 i n f a v o r o f t h e P r o t e s 3 ta n t d is s e n te rs . I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o n o te t h a t H e n ry B ro o k e * s d i a t r i b e s a g a i n s t C a t h o l i c s , The F a r m e r Ts S i x L e t t e r s to th e P r o t e s t a n t s o f I r e l a n d , f i r s t p u b lis h e d in

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w o u ld know t h a t b o th P r i s c u s a n d M on tan u s a r e m e n tio n e d i n 3 t h a t h i s t o r i a n ’ s w o rk s . He h a d a p p e a le d t o t h e e l e c t o r a t e b e f o r e t h e d a y s o f

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B r i t o n f s b i r t h r i g h t ” t o s p e a k f o r f r e e d o m and t o s u p p o r t th e a p o th e c a ry , began to v a n is h . it

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a p r o s p e c t w h ic h e v e r y g e n e r o u s s o i r i t w i l l c o n te m -

p la te w ith d e l i g h t .” S i m i l a r i t i e s o f th o u g h t b e tw e e n G o rd o n 1s w o rk s and t h e anonym ous w r i t i n g s a r e t o o nu m ero u s t o b e d i s m i s s e d . F o r e x a m p le , t h e r e i s a g re e m e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e p u r p o s e o f g o v e rn m e n t.

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The Good o f t h e G o v e rn ed b e in g t h e s o l e End o f G o v e rn ­ m e n t, t h e y m u st b e t h e g r e a t e s t and b e s t G o v e r n o r s , who m ake t h e i r P e o p le g r e a t a n d h a p p y ; and t h e y t h e w o r s t who m ake t h e i r P e o p le l i t t l e , w ic k e d , a n d m i s e r a b l e . P ow er i n a f r e e s t a t e , i s a T r u s t com­ m i t t e d b y A l l t o One o r a Few , t o w a tc h f o r t h e S e c t o r i t y , a n d p u r s u e t h e I n t e r e s t o f A l l : A nd, w hen t h a t S e c u r i t y i s n o t s o u g h t , n o r t h a t I n t e r e s t o b t a i n e d , we know w h at O p in io n t h e P e o p le w i l l h a v e o f t h e i r G o v e rn o rs.

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^ io w t h e s u p re m a c y o f t h e p e o p le , an d r e ­

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some o t h e r p e r s o n .

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1 I f t h e r e f o r e t h i s i n t u r e S u r r e n d e r o f E i g h t s "by* a P e o p le , he com pared t o t h e S e d u c ti o n o f a P a r t i c ­ u l a r i n t o P r i v a t e S e r v i t u d e , we s e e t h a t i t can n o t he a b s o lu te , i t c a n n o t h in d t h e i r P o s t e r i t y : I f i t is n o t a b s o l u t e , t h e Moment t h e G r a n te e b e g i n s - t o t r a n s ­ g r e s s t h e L i m i t s w h ic h a r e t a c i t l y s e t t o t h e G r a n t, t h e y h a v e a l l a R ig h t t o r e s i s t a n d c a l l him t o a c ­ c o u n t: B u t t o whom i s t h i s A c c o u n t t o b e g i v e n ? Why, no o n e , a s t h e G r a n te e a c k n o w le d g e s no s u p e r i o r ; c o n ­ s e q u e n t l y w i t h R e g a rd t o him t h e P e o p le a r e r e d u c e d i n t o a S t a t e o f H a t u r e , t h e i r G overnm ent i s d i s s o l v e d and p e r p e t u a l C o n f u s io n a n d S e d i t i o n i n t r o d u c e d .

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show n: I come now t o s p e a k a w ord o f C o n s p i r a c i e s a g a i n s t a C om m onw ealth, o r P e o p l e . T h e s e , a s I h a v e b e f o r e h i n t e d , a r e c o n c e r t e d .and c a r r i e d o n - w i t h l e s s D a n g er an d H a z a rd t o t h e C o n s p i r a t o r s ; b u t a t t h e same .t i m e , a r e a t t e n d e d w ith g r e a t e r c ir c u m s ta n c e s o f v i l l a n y i n i n t h e A c t o r s . F o r t h e p e o p le c a n n o t i n j u r e p a r t i c u ­ l a r Men a s a P r i n c e m ay, n o t h a v in g t h e P ow er i n t h e i r H a n d s; a n d i n t h o s e S t a t e s , w h e re t h e P e o p le h a v e a n y

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S a m u e ls . , o p . c i t . , p p . > 6 5 -3 6 6 . A F r e e B r i t on *s A d v ic e , j f l , I b i d . , p . 333* The C o n s p i r a t o r s ; o r t h e - C a s e o f C a t a l i n e . . . , L o n d o n , 1721, pp. 5 - 6 .

339

s h a r e i n t h e G o v e rn m e n t, i t i s t o b e o b s e r v f d , t h a t th e y a r e v e ry te n d e r of p r i v a t e P r o p e r ty • B ut th e y who g e n e r a l l y c o n s p i r e a g a i n s t t h e p e o p l e , a r e P e r ­ s o n s who h a v e t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o v e r th e m ; w ho, p e r ­ h a p s , a r e b a c k ’d w i t h a s t a n d i n g arm y commanded and l e d b y t h e i r own C r e a t u r e s , an d m a i n t a i n ’ d a t t h e C h arg e o f t h a t P e o p le whom t h e y a r e e m p lo y f d t o d e s t r o y . T hus t h e t r e a s o n b e i n g a c t e d a g a i n s t no P r i n c i p a l ( f o r t h e P e o p le a r e n o t h i n g v d t h o u t a H ead) m e e ts w i t h v e r y l i t t l e D i f f i c u l t y i n t h e b r i n g in g , a b o u t . T r e a s o n a g a i n s t - t h e P r i n c e i s e x e c u te d e i t h e r b y P o y s o n , o r t h e S w ord; b e c a u s e i n many C a se s h i s P ow er e n d s n o t b u t w i t h h i s L i f e : B u t t h e r e i s no, s u c h t h i n g i n e x ­ e c u t i n g T r e a s o n a g a i n s t t h e P e o p le b y t h e same i n s t r u ­ m e n ts , b e c a u s e i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o m a s s a c r e d o r p o i s o n a w h o le N a t io n : T h e r e f o r e i t i s p e r p e t r a t e d b y som e F r a u d : when i t i s a g a i n s t t h e i r W e a lth ; o r b y T e r r o r , when i t i s a g a i n s t t h e i r L i b e r t i e s . B u t, i n e i t h e r ’ o f t h e s e C a s e s , w h e re t h e P e r s o n s c o n s p i r i n g h a v e t h e R e in s o f G overnm ent i n t h e i r H a n d s , and h a v e s t a n d i n g T ro o p s a t t h e i r D e v o tio n , t h e y i n c u r no g r e a t D a n g e r o f P u n is h m e n t. I n . c o u n t r i e s , w h e re t h e G o v e rn ­ m en t i s m i x t , a s i t was t h a t o f S p a r t a , wrho h a d b o t h a K in g a n d t h e i r E p h o r i: i f t h e g o v e rn in g Men s h o u ld h a v e once v e n tu r fd to d e s tr o y ' th e L ib e r ty o f th e P e o p le , i t i s p r o b a b l y t h e y w ould n o t h a v e s t o p p ’d t h e r e ; b u t w o u ld l i k e w i s e h a v e r u i n ’ d t h e P r i n c e # o r made h im a T o o l t o - t h e i r A r b i t r a r y S ch em es; B o th w h ic h t h e y m ig h t h a v e e a s i l y b r o u g h t t o p a s s , b e in g so s t r e n g t h fd w i t h P o w e r, a n d t h e r e b y m ade c a p a b le o f s e c u r i n g th e m s e lv e s fro m P u n is h m e n t. The anonym ous p r o - L u c a s w r i t i n g s p o s t u l a t e t h e a b i l i t y o f o n e man b y s i n g u l a r v i r t u e s t o r e v i v e a d e c l i n i n g g o v e r n 1 m e n t a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n , and t h e y f u r n i s h e x a m p le s o f c l a s s i ­ c a l h e r o e s who p e r s e v e r e d i n t h e l i g h t . w as c a l l e d fro m a l i t t l e

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H o n e s ty an d V a in n e s s go a lw a y s t o g e t h e r , and t h e M a k ers a n d M u l t i p l i e r s o f M y s t e r i e s , i n t h e p o l i t ­ i c a l Way, a r e s h re w d ly t o b e s u s p e c t e d o f d a r k D e s ig n s . O i n e i n n a t u s w as t a k e n fro m t h e P lo u g h t o sa v e and d e fe n d t h e Roman S t a t e ; a n o f f i c e w h ich h e e x e c u te d h o n e s t l y a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y , w i t h o u t G rim ace and G a in s o f a S ta te s m a n . N or d id he a f t e r w a r d s c o n t i n u e o b s t i n a t e l y a t t h e H ead o f A f f a i r s , t o fo rm a P a r t y , r a i s e a F o r t u n e , an d s e t t l e h i m s e l f i n P o w e r: As he came i n t o i t w i t h u n i v e r s a l C o n s e n t, he r e s i g n e d i t w i t h u n i v e r s a l A p p la u s e . I t seem s t h a t a G overnm ent w as m o t i n t h o s e D ays becom e a T r a d e , - a t l e a s t a g a i n f u l T ra d e - H o n e s t G i n c in n a tu s w as b u t a F a r m e r ; And h a p p y h a d i t b een f o r t h e R om ans, i f , when t h e y w ere e n s l a v e d , t h e y c o u ld h a v e ta k e n t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o u t o f t h e H ands o f t h e E m p e ro rs , a n d t h e i r r e f i n e d P o l i t i c i a n s , an d c o m m itte d i t t o su c h F a r m e r s , o r a n y F a r m e r s . . . The anonym ous p a m p h le ts co m p are b o d i e s p o l i t i c w ith n a t u r a l , b o t h o f w h ic h h a v e t h e i r p e r i o d s o f s i c k n e s s and 3 in d o le n c e . G ordon s i m i l a r l y co m p ared a com m onw ealth t o a hum an b o d y .^

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p . 3 2 4 . A r t h u r W* S a m u e ls a l l u d e s t o a r t i c l e s i n # 8 ,1 0 , a n d 23 o f t h e C e n s o r w h ic h a r e s ig n e d HBfl - w h ic h ,h e t a k e s t o be B u r k e ’ s i n i t i a l . (B u rk e had. u s e d ?IB” , MjU5,f a n d “U*1. i n The R e f o r m e r . ). I n t h e l i g h t o f h h e c o n t e n t i o n th at? G o rd o n i s t h e anonym ous a u t h o r , ”BTf c o u ld s t a n d f o r B r i t o n o r B r u t u s . The l a s t c o n t r i ^ b u t i o n o f ”B fl w as i n #23 o f May 3> 1 7 5 0 . G ordon d ie d on J u l y 2 8 ,. 1730 - t h e same d a y t h a t t h e l a s t num ber w as p u b l i s h e d . C a to ’ s L e t t e r s . # 3 0 , M ay 20, 1 7 2 1 , I , 2 3 1 -2 3 6 . # £ '2 ,-A p ril 28 , 1 7 3 0 . The C ensor is . in c lu d e d in C h arles L ucas, P o litic a l C o n s titu tio n of B r ita in an d I r e lan d , I , 517. C a t o ’ s L e t t e r s , #33* D e c e m b e r 2 , 1 7 2 1 , I I I , 1 6 7 *

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l a r g e s s t h a t m o st men w i t h h o ld - " i t i s b u t th e b r e a t h o f men, an d t h a t b r e a t h i s u s u a l l y a t r i b u t e p a i d t o t h e memory o f 2 3 th e B ead. One m eth o d o f g e t t i n g i t i s t o i g n o r e i t : When a man geem s s o l i c i t o u s f o r i t , a n d on a l l o c c a s i o n s th r o w s o u t b a i t s f o r a l i t t l e i n c e n s e , t h e w o r ld i s i n c l i n e d t o s u s p e c t t h e m o tiv e s o f h i s a c t i o n s , and f e e l s no l i t t l e g r a t i f i c a t i o n i n m o r t i ­ fy in g h is p r id e . . . . P r e f i x e d t o G o rd o n ’ s t r a n s l a t i o n s o f T a c i t u s ’ w o rk s a r e n u m ero u s " D i s c o u r s e s " , on e o f w h ic h i s on Fam e.

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1 . I b i d . . # 5 6 . D ecem ber 9 , 1 7 2 1 , H I , 1 7 2 -1 9 2 . 2 . P 3 7 A u g u st 2 6 , 1 7 4 9 , L u c a s , P o l i t i c a l C o n s t i t u t i o n o f B r i t a i n a n d I r e l a n d . I , ' 3 1 7 , 51-9* 3 . I b i d . . I , 320. ’4 . D i s c o u r s e V I I I , The W orks o f T a c i t u s . 2 v o l s . , L o n d o n , Thom as Woodward a n d J o h n P e e l e , 1 7 2 8 , I. 3 . I b i d . . I , 1 0 0 . T id e G o rd o n ’ s The H u m o r is t. L on d o n , W. B oreham , 1720,. e s s a y on F l a t t e r y . "THAT A p p e t i t e f o r P r a i s e , w i t h v tiic h a l l men a r e m ore o r l e s s t r a n s p o r t e d , i s t h e G round-W ork o f t h e P a r a s i t e ’ s T r a d e ." p . 1 8 8 .

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s t a t e m e n t t h a t B u rk e " c la im s p a r t i c u l a r r e g a r d fro m u s a s h a v in g b e e n , d u r i n g t h e s p a c e o f o n e - a n d - t h i r t y y e a r s , t h e p r i n c i p a l c o n d u c to r o f t h e p r e s e n t u n d e r t a k i n g . "

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V id e R a lp h S t r a u s , R o b e r t B ods l e v . P o e t . P u b l i s h e r & P l a y w r i g h t * L o n d o n , J o h n L a n e , 1910. 2* A n n u a l R e g i s t e r . 1797? 4 5 6 . T h is w as p u b l i s h e d o f c o u r s e a f t e r B u rk e * s d e a t h .

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t h a t i t w as w r i t t e n b y B u rk e o r fro m h i s im m e d ia te d i c t a t i o n f o r a b o u t t h i r t y y e a r s , ^ a n d Thomas M a c k n ig h t says t * The h i s t o r i c a l s e c t i o n o f t h e A n n u a l R e g i s t e r w as f o r many y e a r s w r i t t e n b y B u rk e . I h a v e no h e s i t a t i o n i n d e c l a r i n g t h a t , fro m t h e com m encem ent o f t h a t p u b l i c a t i o n u n t i l a t l e a s t t h e c l o s e o f t h e A m e ric a n w a r , h i s g u i d i n g s p i r i t may b e d i s t i n c t l y t r a c e d i n e a c h v o lu m e . T h a t e v e r y p a r a g r a p h , o r e v e n e v e r y c h a p t e r , o f t h o s e p a g e s on c o n te m p o ra ry h i s t o r y w as h i s c o m p o s it i o n , i t w o u ld b e t o o much t o a f f i r m . T h a t , h o w e v e r, w h a t he d i d n o t w r i t e , h e s u p e r i n t e n d e d , X t h i n k t h e r e c a n b e no d o u b t . T h ro u g h o u t a l l t h a t p e r io d , c o n s c ie n tio u s ly i m p a r tia l a s th e h i s t o r i a n o r t h e A n n u a l R e g i s t e r m ig h t e n d e a v o r t o b e , t h e g e n e r a l i m p r e s s io n h e le a v e s upon th e r e a d e r , i s in fa v o u r o f th e c o u r s e o f p o l i c y w h ic h t h e R ockingham p a r t y p u r s u e d , a n d w h ic h B u rk e i s known t o h a v e reco m m en d ed . ... I t i s in d e e d m o st c u r i o u s l y i n s t r u c t i v e , t o com pare h i s avow ed s e n t i m e n t s i n h i s s p e e c h e s an d l e t t e r s w i t h t h o s e o f t h e anonym ous c r i t i c a n d h i s t o r i a n . The c o i n c i d e n c e s i n s t y l e a r e n u m e ro u s . The c o in c id e n c e s i n p r i n c i p l e and o p in io n a re in v a ria b le .

1. 2.

L i f e o f B u rk e T 5th e d i t i o n , p . 55* Edmund B u rk e , o p . c i t . , I , i x - i x .

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T h e re a r e i n t h e s e A n n u a l R e g i s t e r s some v i v i d i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f d e b a t e s w h ic h a r e u n re p o rte d i n e v e ry o th e r p e r i o d i c a l p u b l ic a t i o n o f t h a t d a y . In fo rm a tio n w h ic h c o u ld o n ly come fro m one w i t h B u r k e 's o p p o r tu n itie s o f o b s e rv a tio n , i s f r e q u e n tly s u p p lie d * The h i s t o r i c a l s k e t c h e s , th o u g h h a s t i l y th ro w n o f f , a n d w i t h o u t r e c e i v i n g t h e p o l i s h o f B u r k e 's avow ed c o m p o s it i o n s , a r e so m e tim e s im b u ed w i t h t h e l o f t i e s t a t t r i b u t e s o f h i s g e n i u s . From t h e n a tu re o f th e s e f u g i t i v e p ro d u c tio n s , co m b in ed w i t h h i s p e c u l i a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i t w as i m p o s s i b l e t h a t h i s nam e, a s t h e a u th o r o f th e h i s t o r i c a l p o r tio n s o f th e A n n u a l R e g i s t e r , w o u ld e v e r b e p r o c l a i m e d . B u t w h o ev er m ig h t b e g i v e n o u t a s t h e anonym ous w r i t e r , o r w h o e v er m ig h t r e c e i v e t h e money i n p a y m e n t fro m Bods l e y f o r t h e s e c o n t r i b u t i o n s , t h e g e n e r a l i m p r e s s io n o f B u rk e * s c o n te m p o r a r ie s w a s, i n my o p i n i o n , p e rfe c tly c o rre c t. ... The v a l u e , t h e r e ­ f o r e , o f t h e A n n u a l R e g i s t e r s t o one who s h o u ld u n d e r t a k e t o w r i t e B u rk e * s p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y , c a n n o t be e x a g g e ra te d . R o b e r t M u rra y d e c l a r e s t h a t t h e p e r i o d i c a l **is a v a l u a b l e s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e g ro w th o f h i s t h o u g h t fro m 1758 t o 1 7 9 1 , a n d a s o u r c e h i t h e r t o b u t l i t t l e

tapped.**-

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i n c r e a s e d , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o d e l e g a t e some o f t h e l a b o r . I n 1766 Thomas E n g l i s h , who becam e B u rk e *s d i s c i p l e , w as re ta in e d .

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th e A nnual R e g is te r.

He a lw a y s n e e d e d t h e s m a l l s t i p e n d p a i d t o h im b y D o d s le y . As t h e y e a r s r o l l e d b y , h i s r o l e t a p e r e d o f f , and b y 1789 w hen h e o f f i c i a l l y r e s i g n e d t h e p o s t , h i s d u t i e s h ad

becom e m e r e ly n o m in a l.

Y e t h i s i n f l u e n c e w as s t r o n g . 2 P r o f e s s o r C o p e la n d h a s s u r m is e d :

° u r E m i n e n t F r i e n d E d m u n d B u r k e , p p . 1 0 2 -1 1 4 . 2. Ib id .. p. lij.

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348 I f h i s s u b o r d i n a t e s w ere y o u n g men v e r y c l o s e t o h im , o f t e n i n h i s h o u se a n d a t h i s t a b l e , l o o k in g a t h im a s a p a r t y l e a d e r fro m whom t h e y m ig h t e x p e c t a d v a n c e m e n t, a n d b o u n d t o him a s d i s c i p l e s t o t h e i r m a s t e r , fro m whom t h e y w e re t o a b s o r b e x p e r i e n c e a n d p o l i t i c a l w isdom - i t i s n o t h a r d t o s e e t h a t B u rk e c o u l d c o n t i n u e t o h o l d t h e n o m in a l a n d th e r e a l h e a d s h i p o f t h e i r j o i n t e n t e r p r i s e w i t h h a r d l y m ore e x e r t i o n o n h i s own p a r t t h a n i t w o u ld t a k e t o g i v e f r i e n d l y a d v ic e t o h i s a t t e n t i v e j u n i o r s . The e d i t o r e x p r e s s e d t h e im p o r ta n c e o f t h e H i s t o r i c a l A r t i c l e i n t h e P r e f a c e s , s a y i n g i n 177® t h a t h e r e g r e t t e d t h e w@ x tr o a o r d in a r y b u l k o f o u r H i s t o r y , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g o u r u tm o s t e n d e a v o u rs ( b o t h f o r o u r own s a k e a n d t h a t o f o u r H e a d e r s ) t o c o m p re ss i t w i t h i n m ore m o d e ra te l i m i t s , w ^ a n d a g a i n t h a t t h e s t a t e o f pub l i e a f f a i r s i n 178© c o n t i n u e d t o r e n d e r t h e h i s t o r i c a l p a r t " t h e p r i n c i p a l a n d m o st i n t e r e s t i n g p a r t o f o u r w o r k .M ^ The f a c t t h a t t h e p u b l i c a t i o n w as u s u a l l y l a t e

in ap p ea r­

i n g w as due p e r h a p s t o t h e n e c e s s i t y o f h a v in g t h e b u s y e d i t o r e x am in e a n d r e v i s e i t . I n 1787 i t i s

l i k e l y t h a t th e e d it o r re m in is c e d in

d i s c u s s i n g t h e c a r e e r o f t h e P r i n c e o f B ru n s w ic k , who h a d f i g u r e d i n t h e S e v e n Y e a rs '

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1. p. ii. 2. p . l v . 3 . p . 42* T h is v o lu m e w as p u b l i s h e d O c to b e r 1 3 , 1 7 8 9 * C o p e la n d , p p . p i t . p* 1 1 7 .

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As we w e re t h e e a r l y h i s t o r i a n s o f t h i s p r i n c e f s e x p l o i t s , so h i s coining a g a i n w ith in our o b s e rv a tio n , a ff o r d s t h a t s o o t h i n g s a t i s f a c t i o n , w h ic h a r i s e s fro m t h e r e v i v a l o f d e a r a n d e a r l y h a b i t s lo n g s u s p e n d e d , an d fro m r e c o v e r i n g t h e m e r i d i a n s p l e n d o r o f v i r t u e s we a d m ire d i n t h e i r daw n. A lth o u g h th e A n nual R e g is te r f o r th e m ost p a r t was a w ork o f c o m p ila tio n ,

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O n e f e a t u r e a n d o n l y o n e i n t h e A n n u a l I; R e g is te r seem s s ig n if ic a n t enough to have c o n tin u e d to a t t r a c t B urke s tro n g ly a f t e r he had becom e in v o lv e d in p o l i t i c s . The fam ous H is to r ic a l A r tic le m ig h t s t i l l h av e a p p e a le d to h im a s a c r e a tiv e o u t l e t , an d he m ig h t w e ll have f e l t r e lu c ta n t to resig n i t en tire ly . A fte r B urke c e a s e d to

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c o n trib u te s m ore ev id en ce to b u ttr e s s

th e c o n t e n t i o n o f B u r k e ’s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th o s e a rtic le s.

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w i t h B u r k e 's a c k n o w le d g e d u t t e r a n c e s i n t h e H ouse o f 1 Commons o r i n h i s w r i t i n g s * To r e c a l l t o m in d a fe w o f t h e p a r a l l e l a c c o u n ts i s t o s e e h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n a t a g la n c e .

The p o l i s h , C o r s i c a n , a n d F a l k l a n d I s l a n d s

q u e s t i o n s , t h e r e f e r e n c e s t o E u ro p e a s a g r e a t R e p u b lic a r e t r e a t e d t h e r e a s t h e y w ere d i s c u s s e d b y B u rk e i n h i s known w orks#

The a l l u s i o n s t o t h e M a rq u is d e B o u i l l ^ ,

t h e F r e n c h com m ander i n t h e w e s t I n d i e s d u r i n g t h e A m e ric a n W ar, a s " t h a t e m in e n t com m ander" a n d "m agnanim ous enem y" 2 i n t h e p a g e s o f t h e p e r i o d i c a l f o r e s h a d o w B u r k e 's l e t t e r i n 1771 t o t h e n o b lem an t h a t s a i d ,

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y o u r v i c t o r y , we fo u n d y o u a m o d e r a te , j u s t , hum ane, a n d d i s i n te r e s te d c o n q u e ro r.

You h a v e m e r i t e d a n e x p u l s i o n 3 fro m t h e F r a n c e o f t h i s d a y . " E v id e n c e s o f s i m i l a r i t y and i d e n t i t y a re le g io n .

V id e c h a p t e r s 2 ,3 * 4 * a n d 6 ab o v e. 2 . I T o l , p . 34* a g a i n i n t h e vo lu m e f o r 1 7 8 2 , p p . 1 9 4 -1 9 5 3* C o rre s p o n d e n c e (e d . F itz w illia m ), I I I , 216.

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A PPEN D IX I I I EM ER IC DE VATTEL E m e ric de V a t t e l was b o r n a t C o u v e t i n th e p r i n c i p a l ­ i t y o f N e u c h a te l i n S w i t z e r l a n d on A p r i l 2 5 , 1 7 1 4 , t h e so n o f a C a l v i n i s t c le r g y m a n .

He a t t e n d e d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f

B a s le and s t u d i e d t h e p h i lo s o p h y o f L e i b n i t z an d C. W o lf f . I n 1741 h e w ro te D e fe n s e d u sy s td m e l e i b n i t z i e n . a n d i n 1757 M e la n g e s d e l i t t d r a t u r e

e t de p o e s i e .

H is c e l e b r a t e d

Law o f N a tio n s ^ fo u n d e d on t h e w o rk s o f W o lff a p p e a r e d i n th e fo llo w in g y e a r .

I n 1762 t h e r e a p p e a r e d h i s Q u e s tio n s

d e d r o i t n a t u r e l o u o b s e r v a t i o n s s u r l e t r a i t 6 de l a n a t u r e p a r M. W o lf f .

V a t t e l w as P r i v y C o u n c i l l o r o f th e

C a b in e t f o r t h e K ing o f S a x o n y , A u g u s tu s I I I , whom h e r e ­ p re s e n te d a t B e rn e.

He d i e d on D ecem ber2 8 , 1 7 6 7 .

The Law o f N a tio n s e n jo y e d g r e a t i n f l u e n c e a n d was g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e s t a n d a r d a u t h o r i t y on t h a t s u b j e c t i n th e l a t e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y . 1.

2.

2

V a tte l b e lie v e d t h a t

V a t t e l , E m e ric d e . The Law o f N a tio n s o r t h e P r i n c i p l e s , o f N a t u r a l Law A p p lie d t o t h e C o n d u ct a n d to th e A f f a ir s o f N a tio n s a n d o f S o v e r e i g n s , 3 v o l s . , C a r n e g ie I n s t i t u t i o n o f W a s h in g to n , 1 9 1 6 , V ol I I I i s a t r a n s l a ­ t i o n by C h a r le s G. F e n w ic k o f t h e e d i t i o n o f 1756. R o lf K nubben w r i t e s , " V a t t e l 1s s u c c e s s i s to b e a t t r i b u t ­ ed t o h i s e c l e c t i c i s m . He r e j e c t e d t h e e x tre m e c la im s o f th e n a t u r a l la w o f n a t i o n s w h ic h w e n t b a c k t o A q u in a s , r e t u r n i n g r a t h e r t o Z o u c h e , w hohad r e g a r d e d i n t e r n a t i o n ­ a l la w a s a .jus i n t e r g e n t e s . He r e c o g n i z e d , h o w e v e r, t h a t t h e u n i v e r s a l la w o f n a t u r e m ig h t h a v e s u b s i d i a r y f o r c e when c u s to m a ry o r c o n s e n s u a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l law was s i l e n t . V a t t e l 1s t h e o r y was c l e a r l y i n c l o s e r h a r ­ mony w i t h t h e p r a c t i s e o f s t a t e s m e n . " a r t . " V a t t e l , " E n c y c lo p a e d ia o f S o c i a l S c i e n c e s . XV, 2 3 2 .

352 ~i

r s i n c e a s t a t e was i n t e n d e d f o r t h e h a p p in e s s o f t h e p e o p l e , t h e n a t i o n c o u ld a l t e r t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n to r e a l i z e

th a t end.

A t th e same t i m e , t h o s e who d i s s e n t e d h a d t h e r i g h t t o le a v e th e s t a t e .

E a c h s t a t e p o s s e s s e d th e r i g h t o f s e l f -

p r e s e r v a t i o n , y e t w as o b l i g a t e d t o h e l p p r e s e r v e t h e o t h e r s o v e re ig n e n t i t i e s .

I h i l e h e saw t h a t w ar was p e r m i s s i b l e

t o e n f o r c e r i g h t s a n d d u t i e s f lo w in g fro m c u s to m a ry i n t e r ­ n a t i o n a l la w , h e e m p h a s iz e d th e n e c e s s i t y t o s o f t e n t h e h a rsh fe a tu re s o f h o s t i l i t y . B urke c o n s i d e r e d V a t t e l t h e b e s t c o m p ile r * o f t h e la w s g o v e r n in g i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o c i e t y , an d h e u s e d h i s b o o k a s a r e f e r e n c e w o rk t o s u b s t a n t i a t e v ie w s an d t o c h e c k d a t a . On s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s a t l e a s t , B urke a c k n o w le d g e d h i s i n ­ d e b t e d n e s s , t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e m e n tio n e d i n t h i s t h e s i s b e in g F e b r u a r y 1 7 7 1 .

J u d g in g fro m a l i s t o f B u rk e ’ s b o o k s ,

h e h a d i n h i s l i b r a r y t h e f o l l o w i n g v o lu m e s on i n t e r n a t i o n ­ a l la w :

V a t t e l ’ s D r o i t d e s G e n s. 2 v o l s . i n 1 , 1 7 5 8 , and

a n E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n , Law o f N a t i o n s . 2 v o l s i n 1 , 1 7 6 0 , G r o t i u s 1 On War a n d P e a c e ( e d i t e d b y B u r b e y r a c ) , 1 7 3 1 , a n d P U f e n a o r f ’ s Law o f N a tu r e a n d N a t i o n s . 2 v o l s * , 17 -49. 1

1.

L

A C a ta lo g u e o f t h e L i b r a r i e s o f t h e L a te R t . H on. Edmund B u rk e , and a n e a r H e l a t i v e o f . t h e l a t e S i r 11. B. C l a r e . M. D ., i n t h e New~York P u b l i c L i b r a r y .

353

PRIMARY SOURCES: B a r i n g . M rs. H e n ry , The D ia r y o f t h e R i g h t H on. W illia m Windham 1784 t o lB lO . L o n d o n , L ongm ans, G re e n , l 86&. A B r i t o n , The H i s t o r y o f t h e D u b lin E l e c t i o n i n t h e Y e a r 1 7 4 9 . L o n d o n , J o h n Sw an, 175*3• B ro o k e , H e n ry , The F a r m e r 's S i x L e t t e r s t o t h e P r o t e s t a n t s o f I r e l a n d £1741?], r e p r i n t e d 17J 6 , L o n d o n , M. C o o p e r. B u r k e , Edmund, ( e d i t o r 175® -1?89)» The A n n u a l R e g is te r. C o rre s p o n d e n c e o f Edmund B u rk e & W illia m W indham, ( e d . G .P . G i l s o n ) , C a m b rid g e , U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1910. C o rr e s p o n d e n c e o f t h e R i g h t H o n o u ra b le Edmund B u r k e ; b e tw e e n t h e Y e ar 1 7 4 4 . & t h e P e r i o d o f h i s D ecease, i n 1797. (e d d . E a r l F itz w illia m a n d L i e u t e n a n t - G e n e r a l S i r R i c h a r d B o u rk e , K .C .B .) , 4 v o l s . , L o n d o n , E i v i n g t o n , 1 8 4 4 . " E p i s t o l a r y C o rr e s p o n d e n c e o f t h e R i g h t H on. Edmund B u rk e a n d D r. F r e n c h L aw rence p u b l i s h e d fro m t h e o r i g i n a l m a n u s c r i p t s , 11 The Works o f Edmund B u rk e , 9 v o l s . , B o s to n , L i t t l e B row n,

18397“lX7~4l7-650.

"L e t t e r fro m Edmund B u rk e , t o t h e C o m m ittee o f C o rre s p o n d e n c e f o r t h e G e n e r a l A sse m b ly o f Hew Y o rk , R e s p e c t in g t h e E f f e c t o f t h e Q uebec B i l l u p o n t h e B o u n d a ry o f Hew Y o rk ? C o l l e c t i o n s o f t h e ' Hew Y ork H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y . S eco n d S e r i e s .

Rew^Ybrk7T$49, H , 219-225. L e t t e r s t o C h a r l e s O 'H a r a . F ordham U n i v e r s i t y M ie ro film s • "An O r i g i n a l L e t t e r o f Edmund B u rk e t o Jo h n . S t e w a r t , E s q . , " The D u b lin U n i v e r s i t y M agazine I (Ja n u a ry -* J u n e 1 8 3 3 ) , 5&1-5&2. " O r i g i n a l L e t t e r s o f B u r k e ." Hew M o n th ly M a g a z in e , XXV ( 1 8 2 5 ) , 3 8 0 - 3 8 6 7 ^ 5 J - 4 6 2 , 529-5335 X7i ( 1 8 2 6 ), 153- 1 6 1 . L

Jl

354 r

n

BIBLIOGRAPHY ( C o n tin u e d ) MAn U n p u b lis h e d L e t t e r o f B u r k e 's , " The T im es % L i t e r a r y S u p p le m e n t, L on d o n , J a n u a r y 1 0 , 1 9 2 $ , p . 28. The Works o f t h e R i g h t H o n o u ra b le Edmund B u rk e . 6 v o l s . , L o n d o n , G e o rg e B e l l a n d S o n s , 1886 ( B o h n 's S t a n d a r d L i b r a r y ) ; V o l s . V I I a n d V T li: S p e e c h e s o n t h e Im p each m en t o f W arren H a s t i n g s , L o n d o n , 1870 ( B o h n 's B r i t i s h C l a s s i c s ) . C a lo n n e , C h a r le s A le x a n d r e d e , Be l ' 6t a t d e l a P r a n c e P r e s e n t & k v e n i r . London. S p ils b u r y , 1790. 4 C a ta lo g u e o f t h e L i b r a r i e s o f t h e L a te B t . Hon. ~ Edmund B u r k e , a n d a n e a r R e l a t i v e o f t h e l a t e S i r M .B. C l a r e . M .D .. f n . p . , n . d . J (Hew York P u b lie L ib r a r y ) . C h a rle m o n t, E a r l o f , The M a n u s c r ip ts a n d C o rr e s p o n ­ d e n c e o f J a m e s . F i r s t E a r l o f C h a r le m o n t. 2 v o l s . , L o n d o n , H i s t o r i c a l M a n u s c r ip ts C om m ission, T w e lf th R e p o r t , A p p e n d ix , P a r t X*} 189*. E m le y , L o rd ( e d . ) , " U n p u b lis h e d C o rre s p o n d e n c e o f B u rk e , G r a t t a n , a n d o t h e r s , w i t h Edmund S e x to n P e r y , V i s c o u n t P e r y , w The I r i s h M o n th ly . L u b lin , VI ( 1 8 7 8 ) , 1 8 1 -2 0 2 .

M&mxst .ag ai n s t p o p e r y , s l a v e r y , a n d a r b i t r a r y p o w e r. p u b lis h e d d u r in g th e l a t e u n n a tu r a l R e b e llio n i n t h e Y e a rs 1745 a n d 1 7 4 6 ." M a n c h e s te r . W hitworth. [17SfQY] . F o n e r , P h i l i p S . ( e d . ) , The C o m p lete w r i t i n g s o r Thomas P a i n e . Hew Y o rk , C i t a d e l P r e s s , 19%%. F r a n c i s , B e a t a , a n d E l i z a K e a ry ( e d d . ) , The F r a n c i s L e t t e r s . 2 v o l s . , Hew Y o rk , B u t to n , ~ p -9 ° l? ] • F r a n k l i n , B e n ja m in , A u to b io g r a p h v w i t h S a v in g s o f P oor R ic h a rd . H o ax es. B a g a te lle s . E ssay s and L e t t e r s ( e d . C a r l Van B o r e n ) , Hew l o r k , 1 9 4 0 . A G e n tle m a n o f t h e M id d le T e m p le , A C r i t i c a l R e v ie w o f t h e L i b e r t i e s o f B r i t i s h S u b j e c t s • • • , 2nd e d i t i o n c o r r e c t e d , L o n d o n , W a tk in s , 175®. R em arks o n t h e E x a m in a tio n a n d E x a m in e r o f t h e C r i t i c a l R e v ie w o f t h e L i b e r t i e s o f B r i t i s h S u b j e c t s . & c. * L o n d o n , C a r p e n t e r , 17J 0 I

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BIBLIOGRAPHY ( C o n tin u e d ) L e a d b e a t e r , M ary ( e d . ) , t h e L e a d b e a te r P a p e r s . 2 v o l s . , L o n d o n , B e l l a n d D a ld y , 1 8 6 2 . L u c a s , C h a r l e s , The B r i t i s h F r e e - B o l d e r *s P o l i t i c a l C a te c h is m : A d d r e s s e d a n d Recommended t o t h e F r e e C itiz e n s . and F re e -H o ld e rs . o f th e C ity o f D u b lin , a t t h i s c r i t i c a l C o n j u n c t u r e . D u b lin , Ja m es K e lb u r n , 17451 ( e d . ) The C e n s o r . D u b lin , J u n e 3 , 1 7 4 9 - J u ly 2 8 , 17? 0 . The P o l i t i c a l C o n s t i t u t i o n o f G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d I r e l a n d A s s e r t e d a n d V i n d i c a t e d . 2 v o l s . , L ondon 17*1. To t h e F r e e - C i t i z e n s . a n d F r e e - H o l d e r s . o f t h e C i t y o f D u b l i n . 20 n u m b e rs , D u b lin , N o s. 1 -1 1 Ja m es K e lb u r n ; N os. 1 2 -2 0 Jam es E s d a l l , A u g u s t l 8 , 1 7 4 8 - [S e p te m b e r */] 1749# M i l n e s , R . M. ( e d . ) , E x t r a c t s fro m Mr. B u rk e * s T ablet a l k , a t Crewe H a l l . W r i t t e n down b y M rs. Crewe£ M i s c e l l a n i e s o f t h e P h i l o b i b l o n S o c i e t y . V o l. VXl L o n d o n , W h ittin g h a m a n d W i l k i n s , 1 8 6 2 -I 0 6 3 , p* 6 2 e t sea. M o n te s q u ie u , B a ro n d e , The S p i r i t o f L aw s, ( t r a n s l a ­ t e d b y M r. N u g e n t) , 2 v o l s . , L ondon, J . N o u rse a n d P . V a i l l a n t , 2nd e d i t i o n c o r r e c t e d , 1 7 5 2 . P a rlia m e n ta rv H is to r y o f E n g lan d fro m th e E a r lie s t P e r i o d t o t h e Y e a r l 8o i . L o n d o n . T. 0 . H a n s a r d , 1813. R u s s e l l , L o rd J o h n ( e d . ) , C o rre s p o n d e n c e o f J o h n . F o u r t h Duke o f B e d f o r d . 3 v o l s . . L o n d o n . Lonsm ans m '2 - 1 8 5 5 7 - ----------------------M e m o ria ls a n d C o rre s p o n d e n c e o f C h a r le s Ja m es Fox 4 v o l s . , P h i l a d e l p h i a , B la n c h a r d a n d L e a , 1 8 5 3 1857. R u t l a n d , Duke o f , T he M a n u s c r ip ts o f H is G ra c e t h e Duke o f R u t l a n d . K .G .. p r e s e r v e d a t B e l v o i r C a s t l e . L o n d o n , H i s t o r i c a l M a n u s c r ip ts C om m ission T w e lf th R e p o r t , A p p e n d ix , P a r t V, 1 8 8 9 .

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x h o m as, u e o rg e , E a r l o f A lb e m a rle , M em o irs o f th e M a rq u is o f R o ck in g h am (1 7 6 0 -1 7 8 2 ), 2 v o l s . , London, B en tley , 1852. V a t t e l j E m e ric de , x h e Law o f Ifa tio n s o r th e P r i n c i p l e s o f N a t u r a l Law A p p l i e d t o t h e C o n d u c t a n d t o th e A f f a irs o f N a tio n s and o f S o v e re ig n s , 3 v o ls ,, W ash in g to n , C arn eg ie i n s t i t u t i o n , 1916, v o l. I l l (T ra n s la tio n o f th e E d itio n o f 1758 by C h arles C. F en w ick ). V o l t a i r e , A ge o f L o u is XXV, ( t r a n s l a t e d b y M a rty n P . P o l l a c k ) , L o n d o n , c e n t , 0 .9 2 6 3 . ( E v e ry m a n 's E d itio n ). W ils o n , Ja m e s , W orks o f t h e H o n o u rab le: Jam es W ilso n , L L .D ., 3 v o l s ., P h ila d e lp h ia , B ronson and Chauneey, 1804. ‘ w in d h am , w i l l i a m , T he w in d h am P a p e r s ^ 2 v o l s . , H erb ert Jen k in s, 1915.

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G en eral:

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1 7 4 0 -1 7 6 3 , Mew

D o w lin g , P a t r i c k J o h n , The H edge S c h o o ls o f I r e l a n d * L o n d o n , L ongm ans, G r e e n , 193J* D u n lo p , " C h a r le s L u c a s ," D i c t i o n a r y o f n a t i o n a l B io g r a p h y XLL, 2 3 1 -2 3 4 . F e u r t a d o , w. A *, O f f i c i a l & O th e r P e r s o n a g e s o f J a m a i c a * fro m 1655 t o 1 7 9 0 * J a m a i c a , W- A. F e u r t a d o * s S o n s , 1895. F o r r e s t , S i r G e o rg e , C . I . E . , The L d fe o f L o rd C l i v e * 2 v o l s . , London, C a s s e l l, 1918." F r o u d e , Ja m e s A n th o n y , The E n g l i s h i n I r e l a n d * 3 v o l s . , Mew Y o rk , S c r i b n e r * s 1 8 0 5 . G a l t , J o h n , T he L if e * S t u d i e s * a n d W orks o f B e n ja m in W est* E s q . . L o n d o n , C a d e l l a n d D a v i e s , 182O. ~ G e rs h o y , L e o , From D e s p o tis m t o B e v o l u t i o n 1 7 6 3 -1 7 8 9 * Mew Y o rk , H a r p e r , 1 9 4 4 . H a l k e t t , S am u el a n d J o h n L a i n g , D i c t i o n a r y o f Anonymous a n d P seudonym ous E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e Cedd. D r. Jam es L K e n n e d y , w. A . S m ith , A . F . J o h n s o n ) , 7 v o l s . , E d in b u r g h , O l i v e r a n d B o y d , 192 9 .

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H u tc h in s o n , J o h n , A C a ta lo g u e o f M o ta b le M id d le T e m p la rs * L o n d o n , The H o n o u ra b le S o c i e t y o f t h e M id d le T e m p la r s , I n g p e n , A r t h u r R o b e r t , The M id d le T em ple B ench B ook* L ondon, C h is w ic k P r e s s , 1 9 1 2 . L a p r a d e , W illia m T hom as, E n g la n d a n d t h e F r e n c h R e v o lu ­ t i o n 1 7 8 9 -1 7 9 7 * B a l t i m o r e , J o h n s H o p k in s P r e s s , P u b lic O p in io n and P o litic s in E ig h te e n th C en tu ry E n g l a n d t o t h e F a l l o f W a l p o l e * M ew Y o r k , M a c m i l l a n , m S7 L eck y , W illia m E dw ard, A H is to r y o f I r e la n d i n th e E i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r v T Mew Y o rk , 5 v o l s . , A p p le to n , A L i s t o f t h e A b s e n t e e s o f I r e l a n d * an d t h e Y e a r ly V a lu e o f t h e i r E s t a t e s and in c o m e s s p e n t ab raod * D u b lin * it

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M a e a sse y Q m c o c a s s e y J , S i r ly n d e n L i v i n g s t o n Q tlv i n g s 1 0 n e j , The M id d le T e m p le ’ s C o n t r ib u t io n t o t h e N a t i o n a l L if e * L o n d o n , The S o l i c i t o r ’ s Law S t a t i o n e r y S o c i e t y , 1930. Mac Cunn, J o h n , The P o l i t i c a l P h ilo s o p h y o f B u r k e * Mew Y o rk , L ongm ans, C r e e n , 1913* Me D o w e ll, R . B . , I r i s h P u b l i c O p in io n 175Q -1S 00. London F a b er an d F a b e r , 1 9 4 4 . Me. H ugh, R o g er J . , H enry Or a t t a n * Mew Y o rk , S h e e d & Ward, 1937. M a c k n ig h t, Thom as, H i s t o r y o f t h e L i f e and T im es o f Edmund Burke* 3 v o l s . , L ond on , Chapman and H a l l , l 8 5 B - l 8 6 o . ~ M acM evin, T hom as, The H i s t o r y o f t h e V o lu n t e e r s o f 1 7 8 2 * D u b lin , Jam es D u f fy and S o n s , (1 8 8 2 e d i t i o n ) .

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