Curriculum Perspectives and Development 1536183334, 9781536183337

Table of contents :
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1
Lumping and Splitting in Curriculum Design: Curriculum Integration versus Disciplinary Specialism
Abstract
Introduction
Incommensurable Worldviews
Teachers as Conservatives
The Curriculum as a Collection of School Subjects
What Is It Important to Learn?
The Centrality of Values
Education for Society?
Where Do We Teach Transferable Skills?
Education to Support Student Aspirations?
An Authentic Science Education Engages with, But Should not Be Primarily Defined in Terms of, Science Content
Education for Cognitive Development
Cognitive Development Beyond Formal Operations
Science Curriculum for Promoting Intellectual Development
Education for Citizenship
A Liberal Curriculum for Holistic Development
Academic Disciplines
Contingent Disciplines
The Insidious Influence of Custom and Practice
School Science Subjects - Splitting and Lumping
Conceptualising Science as a School Subject
Reflecting Student Development
The Demands on the Teacher
Comparing the National Standards Across a Range of Countries
Environmental, Social and Health Issues
Integration of Science and Technology
Core Ideas
Learning as Progression
Overview of Curriculum Content within some National Systems
Brazil
China
Germany
Israel
Japan
Russia
United States
Challenges of Curriculum Design: The Case of the English National Curriculum for Science
Establishing ‘Science’ as a Unitary Curriculum Subject
Rejecting a Reformed Curriculum for Science
Science and the Disciplines
Implications of Curriculum Policy for Teacher Recruitment and Development
Systemic Inertia Resisting Reforms
Interpreting Curriculum Documents
Conclusion
References
Chapter 2
A Re-Interpretation of Kantian Aesthetic Theory to Contemporary Arts Curriculum: The Case of Hong Kong
Abstract
Introduction
An Extended Model of Kantian Arts Education
The Hong Kong Arts Curricula
Evaluation of the Proposed Kantian Model on Arts Education: A Case Study of Hong Kong
Conclusion
Recommendations
References
Chapter 3
Strategies for Effective Portfolio Writing
Abstract
Introduction
Proper Environment
Evidence
Documenting Reflective Practice
Writing
What Experience Has Taught Us
References
Chapter 4
Transformational Learning with Spirituality in the Classroom
Abstract
Introduction
References
Index
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EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD

CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES AND DEVELOPMENT

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EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD Additional books and e-books in this series can be found on Nova’s website under the Series tab.

EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD

CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES AND DEVELOPMENT

ALEXANDER BACHMEIER EDITOR

Copyright © 2020 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. We have partnered with Copyright Clearance Center to make it easy for you to obtain permissions to reuse content from this publication. Simply navigate to this publication’s page on Nova’s website and locate the “Get Permission” button below the title description. This button is linked directly to the title’s permission page on copyright.com. Alternatively, you can visit copyright.com and search by title, ISBN, or ISSN. For further questions about using the service on copyright.com, please contact: Copyright Clearance Center Phone: +1-(978) 750-8400 Fax: +1-(978) 750-4470

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Bachmeier, Alexander, editor. Title: Curriculum perspectives and development / Alexander Bachmeier, (editor). Description: New York : Nova Science Publishers, 2020. | Series: Education in a competitive and globalizing world | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Identifiers: LCCN 2020031479 (print) | LCCN 2020031480 (ebook) | ISBN 9781536183337 (Paperback) | ISBN 9781536183955 (Adobe PDF) Subjects: LCSH: Curriculum planning--Cross-cultural studies. | Education and globalization--Cross-cultural studies. Classification: LCC LB2806.15 .C6956 2020 (print) | LCC LB2806.15 (ebook) | DDC 375/.001--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020031479 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020031480

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

CONTENTS Preface Chapter 1

Chapter 2

vii Lumping and Splitting in Curriculum Design: Curriculum Integration versus Disciplinary Specialism Keith S. Taber and Louise T. K. Vong A Re-Interpretation of Kantian Aesthetic Theory to Contemporary Arts Curriculum: The Case of Hong Kong Manfred Man-fat Wu

Chapter 3

Strategies for Effective Portfolio Writing John L. McAfee, Elaine F. Dannefer and Richard A. Prayson

Chapter 4

Transformational Learning with Spirituality in the Classroom Richard Prayson

Index

1

67 99

119 131

PREFACE Curriculum Perspectives and Development considers how the school curriculum should be organised in terms of subjects, considering the relative merits of seeking to integrate different traditional areas of knowledge rather than organising the curriculum to reflect disciplinary structures. The authors propose an extended Kantian model of arts education, presenting its verification through a survey of the Hong Kong arts education curriculum as a case study. In order to maximize growth and facilitate evaluation, it is suggested that students strive to demonstrate higher-level reflective writing. As such, this compilation describes the portfolio-based evaluation system one program employs. Lastly, the authors explore the relationship between spirituality and transformational learning, examining what spirituality may look like in a classroom setting and how it may potentially facilitate transformational learning. Chapter 1 - This chapter considers how the school curriculum should be organised in terms of subjects, and, in particular, considers the relative merits of seeking to integrate different traditional areas of knowledge rather than organising the curriculum to reflect disciplinary structures. In many national contexts, school curriculum has traditionally been organised around subjects such as mathematics, language(s), science, history, and so forth.

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However, there has been much variation in the precise range and demarcation of these subjects, including attempts to organise new school subjects by combining cognate areas of knowledge, as for example integrated humanities. There have been shifts between ‘separate’, ‘coordinated’, and ‘integrated’ approaches to teaching the sciences, and attempts to subsume science, with technology and mathematics, under the ‘STEM umbrella’ (and even extend this to incorporate others areas, such as the creative arts). Some science courses seek to teach through contexts considered to engage learners (e.g., food, textiles, transport), rather than in terms of traditional academic topics (such as digestion, acids, electromagnetism), and indeed there have been approaches to collapsing the full school curriculum and employing topic based-learning that draw upon diverse areas of knowledge on a ‘need-to-know’ basis. This issue is explored here in terms of a number of themes, including the purposes of education (which provide the rationale for constructing a curriculum), child and adolescent development, learning theories, the structure of disciplinary knowledge, and the supply and development of teachers. This analysis is applied to the example of ‘the science curriculum’ to suggest how judgements should be reached about how and when the science disciplines should be lumped together or split into discrete school subjects. Chapter 2 - This chapter proposes an extended Kantian model on arts education and presents results of verification through surveying the Hong Kong arts education curriculum as a case study. The aim of the proposed model is to resolve the incompatibilities of the Kantian model with contemporary theories on arts education and the demands of the modern world. A secondary aim is to examine the features of the Hong Kong arts education. The proposed model contains disinterestedness and subjectivity as the affective aspect, free-play of imagination with lawfulness, and purposiveness of form as the cognitive aspect, and finally public assent, morality, extension of arts education to skills that are transferable to other areas of life and future career development as the objective aspect. A case study was then made to verify the proposed model. Results of content analyses of curriculum documents of Hong Kong indicate that most components in the proposed model could be found in the Hong Kong arts

Preface

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education curriculum. However, some elements only receive indirect support and most elements identified are not coherently linked. The Hong Kong arts curricula, on the other hand, is characterized by an emphasis on subjectivity, creativity, imagination, critical thinking, training of arts forms, knowledge between art and technology, awareness of the world and different cultures. They also teat arts as a means for all round development of students and a means for equiping students with practical skills that can be transferred to other areas of their daily life, and is a means for further studies and preparing for careers. The Kantian elements of disinterestedness and morality only play a peripheral role. The results of preliminary verification indicate the plausibility of the proposed model, and further empirical validation of the model and theoretical refinements are recommended. Chapter 3 - Modern medical education employs various modes of student assessment. Over the past several decades, numerous institutions have turned away from traditional exam-based systems to more holistic assessment models. Written portfolio assessments are an example of such an alternative assessment approach. The authors’ institution adopted a completely portfolio-based evaluation system at its inception more than fifteen years ago. Students receive written feedback on individual assignments or learning experiences. They work with an advisor to identify patterns in their performance and set specific learning goals with respect to established competencies and milestones. Students produce a written document describing their progress toward meeting these goals, citing their written evaluations as evidence. This system promotes academic growth and also helps to build skills in reflective writing. The literature describes different levels of written reflection. In order to maximize growth and facilitate evaluation, students should strive to demonstrate higher-level reflective writing. In this chapter, the authors describe the portfolio-based evaluation system the authors’ program employs. The authors then discuss strategies for effective portfolio writing, including attributes of lower- and higher-level reflection. These strategies may help students when writing portfolios and may also help inform educators who are considering developing, implementing, or evaluating portfolio-based assessments.

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Chapter 4 - According to Jack Mezirow, transformative learning is marked by critical reflection which results in a change in the learner’s frame of reference by either a point of view or a set of assumptions that act as a filter for interpreting the meaning of experience. It represents an internal dialogue which affords the learner an opportunity to examine beliefs and assumptions and to determine their validity in light of new information. This is dependent on reflective discourse with others. Spirituality may have a role in transformational learning, both for the learner as well as the teacher. Spirituality focuses on one’s personal beliefs and the experience of a higher power or purpose; this is not to be confused with religion which is an organized community of faith with codes regulating behavior. This chapter will explore the relationship of spirituality and transformational learning. It will examine what spirituality may look like in a classroom setting and how it can potentially facilitate transformational learning.

In: Curriculum Perspectives and Development ISBN: 978-1-53618-333-7 Editor: Alexander Bachmeier © 2020 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

LUMPING AND SPLITTING IN CURRICULUM DESIGN: CURRICULUM INTEGRATION VERSUS DISCIPLINARY SPECIALISM Keith S. Taber* and Louise T. K. Vong Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

ABSTRACT This chapter considers how the school curriculum should be organised in terms of subjects, and, in particular, considers the relative merits of seeking to integrate different traditional areas of knowledge rather than organising the curriculum to reflect disciplinary structures. In many national contexts, school curriculum has traditionally been organised around subjects such as mathematics, language(s), science, history, and so forth. However, there has been much variation in the precise range and demarcation of these subjects, including attempts to organise new school subjects by combining cognate areas of knowledge, as for example integrated humanities. There have been shifts between ‘separate’, ‘coordinated’, and ‘integrated’ approaches to teaching the sciences, and attempts to subsume science, with technology and mathematics, under the *

Corresponding Author’s E-mail: [email protected].

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Keith S. Taber and Louise T. K. Vong ‘STEM umbrella’ (and even extend this to incorporate others areas, such as the creative arts). Some science courses seek to teach through contexts considered to engage learners (e.g., food, textiles, transport), rather than in terms of traditional academic topics (such as digestion, acids, electromagnetism), and indeed there have been approaches to collapsing the full school curriculum and employing topic based-learning that draw upon diverse areas of knowledge on a ‘need-to-know’ basis. This issue is explored here in terms of a number of themes, including the purposes of education (which provide the rationale for constructing a curriculum), child and adolescent development, learning theories, the structure of disciplinary knowledge, and the supply and development of teachers. This analysis is applied to the example of ‘the science curriculum’ to suggest how judgements should be reached about how and when the science disciplines should be lumped together or split into discrete school subjects.

Keywords: school curriculum, school subjects, academic disciplines, curriculum integration, teaching science, STEM subjects, science and values, science for citizenship

INTRODUCTION There are inherent tensions in designing curriculum. One of these concerns the tension between conservative and progressive tendencies. Part of the purpose of schooling is to induct young people into society, that is, into the traditions and norms of that society. To the extent that we believe that we live in a fair and decent society embracing institutions that are democratic and which protect and nurture all members of society, we might wish schools to reflect that society, and support education as a means to reproduce society. However, to the extent that we may feel that society falls short of our ideals - perhaps with institutions that maintain inequalities, we might prefer a critical approach to education, and seek a curriculum that can help to challenge, rather than maintain, the status quo. This is an incredibly important matter because the status quo tends by its nature to be the default condition, and because institutions (both those formally established and codified in legislation, and those other informal cultural institutions that grow organically) can operate in insidious ways. This is not only true in dystopian Orwellian societies that are recognised as

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oppressive. Even in societies with long-held and much valued democratic traditions, which espouse social justice and toleration, there is a taken-forgranted background to everyday life which is subconsciously assumed and not readily even noticed (Schutz & Luckmann, 1973). This ‘truth’ is reflected in the joke about the two young fish swimming along who pass an older, wiser fish. The older fish says ‘good morning to you, what’s the water like today’. The young fish mumble politely back, and swim on. A little further on one of the young fish turns to his companion and asks: ‘what is water?’

Incommensurable Worldviews This is reflected in different areas of scholarship. So, for example, Geertz (1973/2000) has noted how it is the very nature of being human to be encultured - that a human formed without culture is an oxymoron. Kuhn has used the notion of incommensurability (T. S. Kuhn, 1970) to argue how it is not possible to find an objective, neutral position from which to compare two worldviews. The notion of incommensurability derived from mathematics, when comparing - for example - the diameter and circumference of a circle (T. S. Kuhn, 1976/2000). The diameter and circumference can be compared, but are incommensurable in the sense that any kind of measuring stick which readily offers a length for one, will not do the same for the other. (The diameter and circumference are of course related by π, which is an irrational number, so if the diameter of a circle can be given as a definite multiple of any given unit, the circumference cannot, and vice versa.) In the same way, Kuhn argues that it is not possible to fully understand beliefs from earlier historical times - such as the geocentric universe, or the use of phlogiston theory in chemistry - from our current standpoint, and nor is it possible to find some value-neutral position (cf. Geertz) from which to objectively compare two such theoretical systems (such as phlogiston theory and the ‘new’ chemistry developed by the Lavoisiers). When we look back at long abandoned scientific schemes (such as phlogiston) we may find it

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difficult to understand why so many intelligent and rational people seem to have adopted what seem to us such flawed and inadequate theories - because the sets of background assumptions which we take for granted and those which they took for granted are so different. We may be able to overcome our biases and learn to see the world in the ways of the other (which Kuhn feels is largely a kind of language learning, even when we are dealing with people who nominally speak the ‘same’ language), as historians and ethnographers, and indeed some researchers into students’ scientific thinking, have shown - but this requires immersion and considerable effort to step back from what we take for granted.

Teachers as Conservatives Teachers are perhaps guiltier than most. Indeed it has been said that “the only group more conservative than teachers is their students” (Parslow, 2012, p. 337). Most school teachers are, in our experience, decent people who (even if not without self-interest) work in education for the good of society to support the development of the young, and commonly tend to be concerned about issues that might be seen as progressive: environmental issues, issues of equity and rights, fairness, toleration, and so forth. On the other hand, teachers tend to be well inducted into the norms of schools and formal education systems, and the taken-for-granted assumptions that they reflect - teachers have usually both done well at school, and done well out of the existing school system. So, on the whole, new teachers tend to be happy to go along with the status quo, much of which they may not even notice is just one alternative among several. Of course (a teacher would think) children must work alone when completing tests. Of course, homework is a positive thing. Of course, setting students according to ability is more effective than mixed ability teaching. Of course, it is valuable to learn about the periodic table, Newton’s laws, and Shakespeare’s sonnets. It is not that new teachers always reflect deeply about these matters, and after some deliberation come to these conclusions - rather they are often part of the background of taken-for-

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granted assumptions they bring to their preparation for teaching, and which their early experiences in schools as teachers do nothing to challenge. Preparation for (‘training’), and induction into, teaching may be the most demanding and intense learning challenge that many new entrants have experienced, and the background of taken-for-granted assumptions about the nature and rituals of schooling may even provide crucial psychological support by anchoring the demands of teaching within a familiar milieu. Teachers tend to welcome the official introduction of more progressive ideas in education, and readily adopt the language of innovations. Yet, this is often little more than ‘pedagogic doublethink’ (Taber, 2018b), as - in some contexts we are familiar with at least - it is in ‘the back of the mind’ that the innovation will never be fully resourced, and obviously (sic) the policy does imply fundamental change. (‘Obviously’, as it is taken-for-granted that, as Paul Simon has pointed out, “after changes upon changes, we are more or less the same”.) So, for example, teachers can adopt the nomenclature of constructivist teaching knowing that as long as that veneer is in place and ‘the talk is talked’, and the school policy documents present the expected magical terms conspicuously, then we can all carry on with business (much) as usual. As long as the fashionable incantations are ritually expressed - be they ‘differentiation’, ‘well-paced lessons’, ‘dialogic learning’, or ‘meeting the needs of the gifted’ - the spell need not be broken.

The Curriculum as a Collection of School Subjects Perhaps one of the most insidious taken-for-granted norms in schools in most contexts is the subject-based school curriculum. The school curriculum is composed of subjects. Indeed, as far as many people are concerned, the school curriculum is synonymous with a list of subjects. ‘School subjects’ are what get taught in schools. Subjects may be identified with academic disciplines, so (it may be taken-for-granted) school geography is geography; school mathematics is mathematics; school physics is physics; and so forth. The implicit starting point for designing the school subject is then the

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academic discipline. So, although many decisions need to be made, the ‘degrees of freedom’ available in making those choices are constrained, In constructing a curriculum, there are issues of selection and simplification. There is a need to decide what is included, and the level of treatment to be covered. Selection may be understood at two levels – deciding what falls under the remit of the subject of the course being taught, and then deciding what specific material should be included. (Taber, 2019b, p. 200)

Even accepting that this identify is subject to some necessary selection and simplification, it is still considered that, for example, school chemistry is essentially chemistry, even if somewhat like the free or discounted student version of some commercial software which omits some of the functionality of the expensive ‘professional’ package. We consider this ‘school subject as cut-down academic discipline’ identity is a norm widely taken for granted by students, their parents, the public generally, and indeed teachers; although, we suggest, it is an identity that invites more critical engagement. This norm links to a second major tension in the curriculum, and that is the tension between a top-down and bottom-up perspective on curriculum. Should we be designing curriculum from the viewpoint of the learner, or from the viewpoint of the disciplines. That is to say, does it make more sense to think about curriculum primarily in terms of (a) the mature state of academic disciplines as these have evolved historically, and as currently established in academia; or (b) the current (immature) state of leaners’ knowledge, understanding and cognitive skills, the interests that might motivate them, and the pool of experiences they have as a resource-base to make sense of new learning? We are not suggesting this is posed as a binary: as an all or nothing choice. Rather, something of both might be indicated. However, we suggest that when the question is posed in the terms we have just set out in the previous paragraph it would be perverse for anyone working in education to seriously suggest that the successful education of the masses is likely to have better outcomes if our starting point is the current state of the academy rather than the current states of the learners. And, we would quickly point out, the

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current states of the learners clearly means something different when those learners are five-year-old children entering school for the first time, elevenyear-olds transferring to secondary schools, or seventeen-year-olds on elective courses studying for university entrance examinations.

WHAT IS IT IMPORTANT TO LEARN? A good starting point in thinking about school curriculum is what it is we might most want the young of society to learn about, and, indeed, to learn. One response might be along the lines of characteristics such as kindness, tolerance, empathy, gentleness, self-discipline, and the like. Now, two possible objections to such curricular aims might be, firstly, that such characteristics are personality traits which could be largely under genetic rather than environmental control; and secondly that, in any case, these are things to be taught in the home, not in school. The first argument seems largely speculative, but without getting into the controversies of ‘nature’ versus ‘nurture’ in any depth, we would note that it seems pretty clear that the ‘versus’ debate here is hollow - that no matter how influential genes, environment also matters. To ignore environmental factors, then, is akin to the obese person who, being concerned about their weight, follows a strict diet during daylight hours, because they are aware what you eat when the sun is up affects your weight - but feels that this then justifies overindulgence after sunset. If environment has some effect (even if seen as an ‘interaction’ with genetics) then the school environment will influence character development.

The Centrality of Values The second argument certainly has potentially more merit - there might reasonably be seen as some division in responsibilities between home and school, and some limit on the legitimate realm of school (i.e., societal) influence. Yet, is it not important that even when the ‘right’ values are taught

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within the home these must be seen to be reinforced outside? Moreover, as always in a democratic society, we run into the paradox of wishing to allow others to have freedom to be different from us - but not so different that they reject those values that we take to be fundamental, even essential, to the kind of society we wish to live in (such as wishing to allow others to have the freedom to be different). We might think that if a parent that wished to bring up a son to believe that he should have dominion and control over a wife, and that if he could afford to acquire slaves, then deciding whether to do so should just be an economic calculation (how much would it cost, what benefit would there be?), then we would wish school to have a countering influence. If that seems a little fanciful, there is no doubting that not only are sexist, and indeed racist, beliefs common, but there is recognised to be much modern slavery out-of-sight - of course, as those subject to it have neither the physical freedom nor the psychological power to be visible (Bales, 2002) in some of the supposedly most advanced, democratic, nations. Schools therefore have dual roles, reinforcing those values society encourages for those from (we shall use the term, if in ‘scare quotes’) ‘good homes’, whilst challenging the assumptions children may bring to school from families that do not share these values. (Of course, that leaves open the very question of which values are considered ‘consensual’, or values of a ‘moral majority’, and there will no doubt be some obvious candidates, and some more debatable ones - setting out an account of which values schools should be espousing is outside the remit of this chapter.) A more nuanced question is how this relates to curriculum. One response may be that, of course, schools should exemplify values, and it will do this in a wide variety of ways (by teachers showing respect for pupils, and expecting the same back; by teachers always being honest with pupils, and expecting the same back; etc.) but outside of the formal curriculum. This will be part of what has been called a hidden curriculum (Lempp & Seale, 2004): but not the explicit curriculum, which (it is taken for granted) will be made up of school subjects. Our core focus in this chapter will be ways of understanding and organising the science curriculum, which provides a rich case study. This

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discussion of values may seem something of a diversion in an essay about science in the curriculum: after all, science may often be seen to be valueneutral. Even if we are looking to teach values in the formal school curriculum, within the school curriculum subjects, it might be argued that science lessons should teach about the natural world - and values are for the humanities. We would reject such a suggestion, partly because science is itself a value-based activity (aspirational values in relation to seeking truth, objectivity, openness, self-critique, weighing evidence above authority, and so forth), but mainly because there is a strong argument (discussed below) that an authentic science education must engage learners with socioscientific issues that can only be addressed by considering scientific knowledge in conjunction with different value positions espoused when science is applied in the wider society.

Education for Society? Another line of attack for our question is that we want young people to learn what is needed for them to contribute economically to society: we want to provide them with the basis for seeking employment. Whilst, perhaps, not the noblest educational aim, it is certainly an important one. But what will young people need to know, and to be able to do, to be employable and employed in the future? The more senior author was at school at a time when many young people (these were almost exclusively young women) stayed on at school to learn skills such as shorthand and typing. Later the same author worked in a college of further education where there was a whole department teaching such ‘secretarial and office skills’ to young (and again, at that time, nearly always female) students. It is within living memory then that a young person who had a high speed and good accuracy in shorthand and typing could expect to be employable for life: every office had a pool of office assistants (informally, if inaccurately, known as ‘secretaries’) taking dictation and typing-up letters and other documents. As readers will appreciate, this role has virtually disappeared. Offices still sometimes needs to produce bespoke

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letters - but few clerks expect someone else to help them do the typing, and in any case much of the everyday business correspondence is completed (more accurately and quickly) by automated systems. Perhaps accurate typing skills should still be formally taught, but to all, not just those taking up office work. Yet, one does wonder if in 20 years it will only be mavericks who insist on using a keyboard to compose text. If one was looking for a skill set today that was likely to assure vocational success one might guess at programming skills, and indeed it is increasingly recognised that schools should teach this aspect of computing (MorenoLeón, Robles, & Román-González, 2016). Yet, even here, it is not clear that anything taught today will be directly useful in the job market in 20 years. Surely, if there is one area where work that is done ‘manually’ will be increasingly automated it is in relation to computers and IT. People can now tell their televisions which programme to display, so how long before we can tell computers what we need programmed? These examples could be multiplied many times, but suffice to make the general point. It is very hard to see what specific skills that can be learnt in school are going to be directly useful for 40 years of productive work. In science there are many skills that might have once been part of practical courses - using graduated pipettes for example - that are now usually automated in industry: just as virtually no one today would use log tables or a slide rule to carry out a scientific calculation. Indeed, one of the authors who was taught to use log tables and slide rules in school - remembers the slow acceptance of using calculators in school examinations against the counter-argument that this avoided the important skill of employing log tables to complete calculations.

Where Do We Teach Transferable Skills? Of course, there are some generic skills that will, surely, never be outdated. We might think of communication skills, group-work skills (and perhaps increasingly, virtual-group-working skills), interpersonal skills, metacognitive skills… These are very important, and seem likely to remain

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so. However, it also seems pretty obvious that they are somewhat contentneutral: their development depends upon the kinds of learning activities students are assigned, and there is a myriad of potential contexts where such activities might be located. So, for example, the ability of science education to support the development of critical thinking does not depend upon whether the curriculum includes study of molluscs, transformers or the halogens - but whether the learning activities that students undertake give them opportunities to engage critically with knowledge. It is the kind of thinking encouraged, not the subject matter thought about, that is critical (sic) here. A devil’s advocate might argue that teaching literature can be more valuable in this context because (when taught well) this involves seeking and evaluating different interpretations, whereas science education has too often involved the presentation of a rhetoric of conclusions (Niaz & Rodriguez, 2000; Schwab, 1958) - a rational reconstruction divorced of all the argumentation which is so fundamental to scientific practice (Erduran, 2019). That is, too often school science has been akin to a presentation of history that offers a single narrative of fact and dates, failing to offer any sense that history is actually, necessarily, an interpretive activity (Gardner, 2010). Any authentic history education has a flavour of enquiry, rather than simply fact-acquisition - and the same must be true for an authentic science education.

Education to Support Student Aspirations? Now a reader might make a very good point that this analysis has so far ignored something rather important about our young people’s success in entering a field. If we imagine our student wishes to become a research scientist, or an engineer, or a medical doctor, then they will need to gain entrance to university courses, which will require passing school science examinations with good scores. So, in practice, someone who does not understand Newton’s laws, who does not know the difference between ionic and covalent bonding, who cannot explain how the four chambers of the

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mammalian heart support blood oxygenation and circulation, and so forth, will not do well in terminal school science examinations and so will likely be unable to enter their chosen profession. This is a fair point. However, we would argue, that this is how things are (the status quo, the taken-forgranted) and need not be the case. That is not to say we would not wish such things to be taught in school, but just that it is quite likely much of what is specified in school science courses could be removed (if it was not tested in the terminal examinations) and could then be readily acquired on undergraduate courses if need be. This is not an argument for a content-free science curriculum - but just a comment that as science teachers we too easily think (i.e., take for granted) ‘they need to know THAT’ when most of the students will get by in life pretty well without doing so, and any that might find it useful could easily learn about it later. There is a virtual infinity of things that could be taught in science classes, nearly all of them could conceivably be useful to some students one day, but most of them could be lost without doing any more than mildly inconveniencing the few who later find they had good reason to learn the topic. Perhaps as part of science teacher education, all candidates should be asked to undertake a comparative study of school science curricula across different national contexts to see that what is taken for granted as essential or desired can vary considerably (see for example, Comparing the national standards of various countries, below).

An Authentic Science Education Engages with, But Should not Be Primarily Defined in Terms of, Science Content As one example: consider a student of biology had demonstrated that she was capable of learning about the functions of the kidney, and how the kidneys worked as part of a larger system, and how the structure of the kidney supported (and inherently in some senses limited) kidney function, and about the role of the kidneys in homeostasis, and so forth, yet this student had not been taught anything about the liver because it was not specified in their particular course. Would it not be reasonable to assume this student had

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demonstrated the potential to learn about the liver when the need arose assuming of course this student had learnt good study skills (thus our earlier reference to metacognition as an essential area among generic skills important for all students). Chemistry teachers of a certain vintage may be nodding wisely here: many years ago it was decided in some national contexts that rather than expect senior school students to complete a survey of the properties, trends and reactions of all the main groups of the periodic table (as had sometimes been custom and practice), it would suffice to learn about just a couple of the groups given that the overarching principles at work could be learnt equally well from a few examples, and that, once these general principles were acquired, the specifics could readily be discovered (if ever needed) from a standard text. This would allow more time to focus on understanding and applying principles, rather than seeking to cover a vast amount of material.

Education for Cognitive Development It can be argued that part of what education needs to support - and perhaps science education is especially valuable here - is not so much conceptual development (the understanding of particular abstract concepts), but cognitive development - the acquisition of higher-level thinking skills: those intellectual skills that support problem-solving (and indeed problem identification and characterisation), critical thinking, and creative thinking. We do think that this is a very important purpose of education, and that science education has very important role to play in this regard. The way in which curriculum responds to this imperative is less about specific content than about the way student learning activity is organised. There will still be a need to select some science content as the context for learning, but more of the focus should be on the transferable skills to be learnt and the opportunities to encourage cognitive development, than on the acquisition of specific details of a wide range of science topics. Most practising scientists never have reason to use much of the science they learnt

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at school in their professional work, but they all use skills of critical thinking, logical analysis, collaboration, clear communication, planning-ahead and scheduling activity, and so forth. Of course, science teachers will (rightly) ague that science helps us understand the world, and there are many fascinating topics that can be taught. This is certainly so, but if we want students to find those topics fascinating we need to offer them sufficient engagement to master the complex ideas and to feel that they can really apply the key principles. That means being selective about topics: as the science curriculum as a quicksurvey-of-as-many-science-topics-as-possible (as has sometimes been the case) is too often experienced as a confusing blur - and anything but fascinating (Cerini, Murray, & Reiss, 2003; Osborne & Collins, 2000). This argument reflects theoretical perspectives on intellectual development. For example, in the work of Piaget (1970/1972) the learner interacts with the environment and this supports the development of new cognitive structures. The development of formal operations requires engagement in a certain kind of thinking. Research suggests that this process can be ‘accelerated’ by providing the right kind of learning experiences (Adey & Shayer, 1994), and that science and mathematics in particular can offer the kinds of contexts that support these experiences. The abstract nature of many scientific concepts and the type of activities needed to investigate these concepts lend themselves to supporting cognitive development. Within science, there are a great many potential contexts that could be employed for this purpose. Similarly, Vygotsky’s (1978) model of learning and development suggests certain types of activity are likely to support the development of higher-level intellectual skills, and again scientific contexts can provide opportunities for the kinds of activities expected to be productive (Taber, In press-b). And, again, there is a choice from a wide range of science concept areas that could be employed. From this perspective, it is less important what science is being taught, than how it is being taught. Rote learning of complex lecture notes on a highly abstract science topic is unlikely, of itself, to promote conceptual development any more than it is likely to promote enthusiasm for the subject matter.

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Whilst Vygotsky’s schemes may be judged as theoretical, his fundamental assumption, that ways of thinking that are taken for granted among human adults in modern literate societies may be dependent upon education and so do not develop spontaneously without particular kinds of cultural mediation, gained support from his colleague Luria’s (1976) fieldwork in societies in Asia that were only then being ‘modernised’ as part of the Soviet Union project. (Whilst this work has to be seen as subject to some ideological bias, and is open to various criticisms, it responded to a unique natural experiment and offered insights from contexts within societies in transition that are not readily studied.) Another important theorist is Perry (1985) who’s scheme of intellectual and moral development conflated what had been termed the cognitive and affective domains (Taber, 2015) by considering the fundamental cognitive processes that support the development of a coherent system of personal values, to be common with those that are responsible for developing the reasoning skills valued in disciplines such as physics or mathematics. Although Perry’s scheme was developed in a somewhat normative fashion by seeking to describe the stage of development of undergraduates (the qualification ‘somewhat’ seems justified given these students were from elite colleges), he also noted how the average level at which students were admitted to degree courses seemed to have changed over time in a way that was correlated with increased sophistication of the tasks set in examinations - that is, changes in a key feature of the environment, education, seemed to have accelerated the intellectual development of young people. Although Perry’s evidence was somewhat anecdotal, it seems consistent with the way outcomes on IQ tests had been found to improve substantially during the twentieth century (Flynn, 1987). Now Perry’s work offers an interesting complement to that of Piaget, which also offered a kind of normative model of development of the ‘everyperson’ epistemic subject, when considering implications for science curriculum. Piaget’s highest level of cognitive development, formal operations, is both facilitated by experience with the abstract nature of, and ways of representing, scientific modes of thinking - and is also necessary for the lone epistemic subject to successfully engage in that type of thinking. If

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that seems something of a paradox (a version of the learning paradox, i.e., that development was supported by experience that only becomes possible after that development has occurred), the successful programme of conceptual acceleration referred to above was not only informed by Piagetian stage theory, but also Vygostky’s notions of how such development could be mediated by working with others (Adey, 1999).

Cognitive Development Beyond Formal Operations In Piaget’s scheme the highest level of cognitive development allows a person the carry out mental operations on mental representations - that is, not only abstracting from phenomena to form mental representations, but then to be able to mentipulate (e.g., do thought experiments on, and with), those mental representations. However, it is assumed that these operations will be logico-mathematical. So, as an example, a person might form a theoretical concept to explain some phenomenon; be able to deduce a testable hypothesis that is entailed by the theory; imagine how an empirical test of the hypothesis could be carried out; and then consider the logical range of potential outcomes of that test, and determine which outcome(s) should be considered to support, or throw doubt upon, the hypothesis and, consequently, on the theoretical construction. This is indeed an impressive competence for a mature human to acquire when we consider what is possible for the neonate. However, some commentators have suggested that this is not the highest level of cognitive development people need or reach (Arlin, 1975; Kramer, 1983; Sternberg, 2009). It can explain problem-solving, but perhaps not problem identification; it can explain how we make decisions logically when we have sufficient data, but not how we proceed rationally when there is insufficient data for a definitively justifiable decision, or when we have to balance multiple opposing considerations that are incommensurable. As one example, questions about siting power plants, industrial complexes or airports may have clear economic cases - but there may also be aesthetic considerations - or environmental costs which cannot be simply

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represented in monetary terms. How much additional economic cost is it appropriate to incur to avoid losing a vista that the local people consider a beauty spot? Of course, there is no ‘right’ answer to such questions as it is matter of applying a set of personal values. This is where Perry discovered many young people struggle in their educational careers. A learner used to having been set tasks where there is a preferred answer (a single ‘right’ answer), then meeting situations where the teacher cannot tell you what the ‘right’ answer was meant to be, may experience a shift to relativism - that is, the view that it is all a matter of opinion or taste, and one person’s preference is as good as another’s (Taber, In Press-a). Over time, a student may pass through such a relativist stage to build up their personal value system, which would support them in making choices which they appreciate could not be seen as objectively or universally ‘right’ but which they could nonetheless commit to and justify. Traditionally school science has been very good at offering experiences that can support (and indeed require) formal operational thinking: tasks working with conceptual schemas and mathematical analysis and leading to definitive answers. But, if we take the work of Perry and others (e.g., D. Kuhn, 1999) seriously, such a science education is leaving engagement with the highest stages of intellectual development to other curriculum subjects (considering issues such as the relative merits of Beethoven or Brahms; or of Tolstoy or Hardy?; should Nietzsche’s philosophy be considered fascist?; how might the French revolution have developed had Louis XVI been in more robust mental health?…).

Science Curriculum for Promoting Intellectual Development Such a judgement reflects a particular traditional vision of the science curriculum - perhaps even an often taken-for-granted vision: science has provided us with definitive, straightforward answers that can be readily applied through technology. Yet, there are different notions of what should appear in the science curriculum. There have been strong recommendations that the science curriculum should include much more emphasis on the

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nature of science (Clough, 2017; Hodson, 2014; Taber, 2016b) and socioscientific issues (Levinson, 2007; Sadler, 2011). The nature of science offers perspectives that can undermine some of the apparent objective certainty about science. For example, all theories may be considered under-determined. That is, no matter how much data is collected, and no matter how well that data appears to fit a theory under consideration, it is always possible to construct another theory which would also be consistent with the data. Thus, choice between theories is never purely down to the available data. (So here scientific values may be invoked: preferences for simplicity, symmetry, elegance, potential to integrate disparate material under a common scheme, and so forth.) Another principle is that all experiments are actually tests of compounds of the hypothesis that it is intended to test plus the assumptions built into the instrumentation used to collect and analyse data (perhaps the metre rule is not precise, perhaps the small angle approximation does not apply in this case, perhaps the method of preparing samples for examination under the electron microscope changes the structures being examined; perhaps the computer simulation of the degradation of the particle detector is not accurate…). Another pertinent principle is how all observation is necessarily theoryladen. It is never possible to adopt a totally neutral viewpoint as this would be to revert to experiencing the world as a ‘blooming, buzzing confusion’ à la William James (1890). (Just as this is true in anthropology or history, see above, it is also true in science.) Deductions from experiments assume we have identified and can control all the variables pertinent to a particular test - but there are well-described examples where anomalies have been investigated and found to be due to some variable that was not controlled because it was not imagined to have conceivably had any relevance (Alger, 2020) - such as the sex of the scientist handling animals used as test subjects. Whilst it could be felt that introducing such complications into school science could risk undermining student faith in science, arguably science teachers should not be asking students to believe in scientific theories and models in the first place, but rather to understand them, and appreciate the grounds on which they are entertained (Taber, 2016a). This means

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appreciating both strengths and limitations of the theories that are taught in school science.

Education for Citizenship Moreover, if science education is to support preparation for citizenship in democratic societies that take scientific evidence seriously, then young people have to both (i) appreciate the strengths and limitations of science in order to make sense of the science, and (ii) be able to maintain a critical attitude to reports of science in the media when engaging in the kinds of everyday political action important for civic engagement (voting, joining or supporting pressure groups, making consumer choices, adopting recycling and other ‘sustainable’ behaviour, and so forth). A similar argument can be made about including socio-scientific issues in the science curriculum. Only a small proportion of school children will go on to engage in professional activity as scientists where they will be asked to think like researchers. But most people will be faced with decisions about healthcare and medical treatment for themselves or their families. This might be in relation to fairly trivial issues: should one pay more for dental fillings that match natural tooth colour but are technically no better than amalgam fillings? Yet, often, it may concern much more serious matters: should a person with terminal cancer undertake chemotherapy that will likely extend their life by a few months if that requires frequent attendance at the clinic and has serious side effects which reduce quality of life in the meantime? There are clearly no right or wrong answers to such questions. Whether you value the more ‘natural’ looking fillings might depend upon various non-scientific factors (how much expendable income do you have? are you looking for a romantic partner? is the tooth visible whenever you smile or only under close, intrusive, inspection?) Whether extra time alive is seen as more important than comfort in the meantime is a personal decision that may be impacted by idiosyncratic considerations (e.g., would a few more months mean you will likely live long enough to see your first grand-child?; will it give you time to finish writing that magnum opus?; would rejecting the

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therapy allow you to go on that trip to Florence that you always intended to take?) Socio-scientific issues relate to scientific topics and draw upon scientific ideas and data (how robust are different dental filling materials; how much is it expected this medical treatment would typically extend the life of someone with this kind of tumour when it is this far advanced?) but are matters that cannot be decided based upon the scientific evidence alone as extra-scientific values need to be considered as well (Sadler, 2011). A person who has a strong personal, perhaps religious, conviction that life is so precious it should be extended whenever possible and another person who has a strong personal, again perhaps religious, belief that a ‘natural’ life with minimal medical intervention is inherently of higher quality and value than medicated experience, may make very different choices given the same scientific understanding and data. Moreover, these would both be rational decisions given the extra-scientific considerations. A science education that only concerns the science, and not questions of its application (in relation to such matters as weapon technology as well as in areas such as agriculture and medicine) and limits itself to the logical, and ignores the ethical, or indeed the aesthetic, does not prepare people for the kinds of science-related decisions they are likely to face in adult life. Moreover, a science education that includes engagement with socioscientific issues not only provides experience of navigating this kind of scenario, but also supports development towards the kinds of post-formal thinking that reflects the highest levels of intellectual development (Taber, 2016b).

A Liberal Curriculum for Holistic Development Before turning to consider how the science curriculum might be organised, we examine one other perspective on curriculum, this is the idea that schooling supports the development of the whole person by introducing the young to the different forms of life that make up their culture. We might link this to notions of a liberal curriculum (Hirst, 1974) that supports

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aspiration to a good life, and to the European notion of education supporting Bildung (Hansen & Olson, 1996) as a holistic form of personal development. So, if literature, music, dance, fine arts, and so forth, are valued cultural activities, then they need to be included in schooling. The same goes for philosophy, or history, or science, and so forth. That is, we do not expect everyone to be able to compose symphonies, write epic poems, publish philosophical treatises and discover new biochemical pathways in order to be considered fully members of the culture: but if someone left school never having listened to a symphony, never having been asked to think about some poetry, not having heard of Plato and Popper, and having no idea what the electromagnetic spectrum is, we might consider that schooling as deficient. (And we are writing this whilst based in a country where we suspect that a good many children may pass through formal schooling without being asked to listen to a symphony, or being told anything about the thought of Plato or Popper!) The precise things to be put into such a list is, of course, moot. This raises the question of how culture is understood. Perhaps we are talking about high culture, but it still depends on what is meant. If by high culture one thinks of those elements of culture which have been valued over an extended time, and have taken their place in the canon, and so become institutionalised (whilst recognising that this needs to be a shifting canon with permeable borders), then that seems inherently a reasonable basis for making curriculum judgements. So, this might be high culture as in that which is influential and widely engaged with. We would be much less comfortable with a notion of high culture as being that of the elite (the ‘rich and powerful’) such that opera and ballet are in, reggae and ballroom are kept out. We are wary here, as clearly there is a potential for those with most influence to make judgements on behalf of everyone: judgements that can either inadvertently, or perhaps deliberately (even if paternalistically) decree what culture counts. Inevitably, it takes time for some œuvre or activity to be recognised as high culture, but it would seem very suspicious if the Beatles (certainly influential in popular music) or Ballroom dancing (certainly widely engaged with in performance, and especially as an entertainment) were not considered important aspects of British culture

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today. (This reflects permeability: it might be noted that two decades ago it would have been widely considered that ballroom dancing was no more than a passé and clique minority interest, and indeed perhaps an anachronism, whereas today it occupies prime-time Saturday evening television viewing.) There are clearly important debates to be had there, but what does seem clear is that culture necessarily becomes institutionalised when it reaches a professional status. In particular this happens in the academy in terms of the disciplines. In one notion of a liberal education the role of the disciplines as frameworks for thinking about and planning curriculum is seen as central (Hirst, 1974), but even those who have never knowingly engaged with such considerations will often take-for-granted that the school curriculum needs to be organised by subjects, and that these will largely reflect the academic disciplines.

ACADEMIC DISCIPLINES By their very nature, institutions tend to formalise, and protect and reproduce, aspects of a status quo. Academic disciplines have hierarchies. Those who are recognised as being the ‘top’ people in the field are asked about, and so have influence in such matters as, employment and promotions, publications, grants and awards (the very things that allowed those top people to themselves reach the top). There is therefore often a bias to those ways of doing things, and ways of thinking, that are adopted by those who are most senior in the field. We do not suggest bias is inherently a bad thing, and it need not imply prejudice. Judgements have to be informed from somewhere, and asking those with the greatest esteem in a field to bring their successful experience to bear as the basis for making judgements is a sensible policy, although it may tend to be a conservative one. Disciplines develop traditions (T.S. Kuhn, 1970), and those traditions which are well-established and retained tend to be those which are judged most fruitful and productive (Lakatos, 1970). Yet, of course, they can also become taken-for-granted, and may be retained beyond the point where an

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original rationale no longer applies. There is much that could be said here on this theme, but we will offer just a few examples.

Contingent Disciplines Firstly, it should be recognised that contingency plays a substantial role in the development of disciplines. Disciplines that are well-established develop identities, and to some extent boundaries around what is included, or not, within those disciplines. If we consider scientific disciplines such as chemistry, biology, physics, geology, astronomy, or so forth, then these are certainly not arbitrary traditions - random collections of topics and concepts. Yet it is also true that there is nothing inevitable about them. It would have been possible for a science to develop which covered much of the area that we think of as chemistry plus geology; or for physical chemistry to have developed as a part of physics and not been seen as chemistry at all, or for biochemistry, pharmacology, and physiology to have developed from within one unitary parent academic discipline. As a thought experiment, we may think of other worlds much like our earth and subject to the same universal laws, and perhaps even with very similar geology and biota, where somewhat different ways of fragmenting science might have occurred. We can imagine one of these worlds has intelligent creatures that have their own version of the Academy. Perhaps in their culture, a version of alchemy was accepted as a respectable activity for natural philosophers, and their Newton openly (rather than covertly) worked in proto-chemistry as well as physics - and a unified physical science developed. This would clearly not make any difference to the chemical and physical phenomena this science engaged with, but discrete chemical and physical phenomena as such would not exist. Science may focus on natural phenomena, but is itself a social phenomenon. Disciplines evolve - so fields grow and sometimes disappear, and new specialisms come into existence (T. S. Kuhn, 1991/2000) and some of these are at the boundaries between existing disciplines. Disciplinary boundaries are not then set in stone as they have a degree of permeability. Yet this

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permeability, and the associated plasticity of the identity, of a discipline is limited. And such changes never start from a tabula rasa: but rather an existing typology of sciences. The sociologist of education, Basil Bernstein, saw that this is reflected in schooling where subjects such as the sciences tend to have more rigid boundaries: There is always a boundary. It may vary in its explicitness, its visibility, its potential and in the manner of its transmission and acquisition. It may vary in terms of whose interest is promoted or privileged by the boundary…the issue is how is the boundary acquired. (Bernstein & Solomon, 1999, p. 273)

The references here to explicitness and visibility are interesting, for when students who have studied years of school physics, chemistry and biology are asked about the demarcation of these subjects they may only have the vaguest ideas of, for example, what makes a particular collection of topics ‘physics’ (Taber, 2014). Nonetheless, the implicit identity of physics, and the notion that it includes some topics but not others has become taken-for-granted.

The Insidious Influence of Custom and Practice The philosopher Bachelard (1940/1968) considered that science retains ontological obstacles to progress in the form of how now anachronistic perspectives have been ‘fossilised’ within the way concepts are understood and are represented in texts (and so teaching). An extreme example is the concept of atom, where aspects of the notion of indivisible solid bodies still permeates popular perceptions and the school curriculum (Taber, 2003). This is akin to the way learners have such trouble overcoming some aspects of their alternative conceptions (Chi, 1992) - for example, in coming to think of circuits in terms of fields that act throughout the system rather than as linear chains of cause and effect. It is also seen in the way students struggle to move between models at different levels of study - for example moving

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from electron orbits to orbitals (Taber, 2005a). However, even mature ‘experts’ may fall back into classical ways of thinking when relativistic or quantum-mechanical patterns of thought are needed to make sense of phenomena according to current scientific models. T. S. Kuhn (1970) described how the education of scientists involved paradigmatic induction into a disciplinary matrix that was largely a kind of intellectual apprenticeship, where much learning took place implicitly through exemplars; and how this could be a barrier to shifting our ways of thinking when that becomes appropriate. Lakatos (1970) described how science is organised through research programmes, each with its own set of taken-for-granted hard core assumptions, and a well-established positive heuristic guiding work. When working in such a tradition it is often sensible to ‘quarantine’ anomalies rather than abandon an established programme. We reiterate, we are not suggesting that such conservative tendencies are necessarily malign: scientific practice requires a certain degree of stability and so a high standard of evidence is a sensible requirement for overthrowing ideas or norms that have served well. Yet we note that once a way of doing things is well-established, it may easily become the taken-forgranted: it may be more obvious to ask why we should change something than to question why it should stay the same.

SCHOOL SCIENCE SUBJECTS - SPLITTING AND LUMPING Typologies are models which put things into categories. Science involves the construction of typologies of natural things: types of star, types of rock, types of infectious disease, types of subatomic particle, and so forth. When we develop typologies, we have choices to make about the degree of differentiation we wish to represent. Perhaps the paradigm case of ‘typologising’ occurs in biology with taxonomy, where historically there have often been debates about the best ways of classifying organisms - for example distinguishing between when two very similar but slightly different specimens should be classed as different varieties of the same species, or actually different species. Ever since Darwin (1859/1968) it has been clear

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there are no absolutes in such matters: it is not a question of whether X and Y are, or are not, specimens of the same species, but whether they are best considered as such. The terms ‘splitter’ and ‘lumper’ therefore refer to people who tend to prefer to either (respectively) focus on differences and populate more types, or focus on similarities and limit the number of groups populated. Arguably, the existence of scientists with different instincts in this regard is healthy as it ensures such decisions are subject to critique and debate, and Darwin is said to have considered that “it is good to have hair-splitters and lumpers” (Endersby, 2009). In the case of chemistry, for example, we might detect a ‘lumping’ tendency in how the definition of acid has shifted over time to give an increasingly more inclusive category (Taber, 2019c).

Conceptualising Science as a School Subject This brings us to consider science in the school curriculum. If the school curriculum is composed of school subjects, then one option is that there should be a school subject called ‘science’ that collectively represents the different disciplines of natural science. However, this is clearly not the only possibility, as if there are distinct scientific disciplines, then an alternative is not to lump them altogether in one school subject called science, but rather to represent them in separate school subjects - so perhaps as separate timetable slots labelled as biology, chemistry, physics. However, this by no mean exhausts the possibilities. So, considering the choice of a single curriculum subject of science, it is possible to organise this so that as far as the students are concerned it is a unitary subject - with different topics that are just considered ‘science’ topics. But it also possible to identify different disciplinary streams within the school subject, so that although the school timetable shows ‘science’ the learners are aware that at any time this particular science topic is part of, say, physics. In the former case it may be that the topics making up the science curriculum are largely recognised by the teachers as being ‘biology’ or ‘chemistry’ or ‘physics’ although this is not made explicit for the students.

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However, it is also possible that topics are organised in ways that often move across those disciplinary boundaries - an approach sometimes called ‘integrated science’. If separate sciences are taken as the named school subjects, then this need not be biology, chemistry and physics. Earth sciences (or more specifically, geology) could appear (or astronomy or electronics or…). Or the sciences could be divided, but into life and environmental science, and physical science. There are clearly many possibilities - and probably most we could suggest have been enacted at some time or other (see Comparing the national standards of various countries, below, for some current practices). However, it is also possible that the school subject(s) could ‘lump’ differently. It used to be the case in England, before the introduction of a National Curriculum, for example, that schools could work with examination boards to develop examination subjects that were considered to be especially suited for particular groups of students (Misselbrook, 1972a) such as rural studies for schools in rural settings where agriculture was a major economic activity. The senior author taught in a school where the higher achieving group of students were offered a subject labelled physics; but the average achieving groups were instead offered a physics-based examination course in ‘engineering science-applied science’, considered to be more engaging to that group of students; whilst another group of students took ‘engineering science - automotive science’ (which largely contextualised the science in terms of motor car maintenance). A recent trend in many educational contexts is to consider ‘STEM’ as a curriculum area (Chesky & Wolfmeyer, 2015; Freeman, Marginson, & Tytler, 2015) that encompasses science, technology, engineering and mathematics - with various degrees of integration (Taber, 2018a). Whilst these areas are certainly ‘cognate’ to some degree, they are very different in nature (arguably much more so than integrated humanities). There have even been moves to include other subjects with STEM (Colucci-Gray, Burnard, Gray, & Cooke, 2019; Sumida, 2018).

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Reflecting Student Development A further consideration besides the ‘horizontal’ dimension of degree of clumping/splitting across disciplines is the ‘vertical’ dimension of learner development. This needs to reflect what learners are ready to learn, and has at least two distinct aspects. One is in terms of cognitive development clearly what is suitable as curriculum for a child starting school is different to what is most suitable for a 17-year-old. Therefore ‘science’ in the early years of schooling should act as a preparation for meeting, and not just be a watered-down version of, secondary school science. That is, the best preparation may need to focus more on enquiry skills, attitudes to and wonder in nature, and scientific values and attitudes, rather than particular knowledge (Taber, 2019b). The other aspect of preparation reflects the constructivist principle that learning is interpretive, incremental and iterative (Taber, 2014), which suggests that (even leaving cognitive developmental level aside) the degree of complexity students can engage with evolves as learning progresses. A clear pattern one would expect, then, is that the curriculum experience will become more differentiated as the learner progresses through schooling.

The Demands on the Teacher What this discussion has ignored to this point is that whatever is prescribed in the curriculum policy, it will only be the basis of student learning to the extent that teachers are able to effectively teach it. The more we clump disciplines into a single school subject, the broader the requirements for the teacher. If a coordinated approach is taken (the school subject is science, but within this teaching modules are based around topics from within the distinct science disciplines), specialist teachers can operate as a team within a single school subject (with the added timetabling complexities this involves) - but this increases the extent to which the teaching of ‘a’ subject (‘science’) could appear disjointed to the student.

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If, on the other hand, one teacher is expected to teach across (and perhaps even beyond) the sciences, then we are expecting a wide breadth of expertise - with the knock-on consequences for teacher preparation and development. Even if we think that science learning is not primarily about topics and concept areas, but broader concerns such as enquiry skills, we still need to recognise that these are also differentiated to some degree across scientific disciplines. And, certainly, when we move to such umbrella subjects as ‘STEM’ we may be expecting teachers to model a range of disciplinary practices that no single disciplinary specialist would ever have to master. What all this suggests is that, even when just focusing on science, there are a good many possibilities for how the discipline(s) may be represented in the structure of the school curriculum. Having considered a wide range of issues that impinge upon the decision about how to frame science in the school curriculum, we now turn to consider how curriculum authorities across a range of different educational contexts have attempted to ‘square the circle’.

COMPARING THE NATIONAL STANDARDS ACROSS A RANGE OF COUNTRIES The previous sections have argued that the goals for a science curriculum can be manifold. The Japanese Course of Study emphasises the cultivation of skills and knowledge to prepare students for proactive, independent learning in order to open the way for the future in a complicated, unpredictable world and cope with social changes such as globalisation, rapid ageing and very low birth rate (MEXT, 2017c). Similarly, the Brazilian Base Nacional Comum Curricular (BNCC, the common core curriculum) highlights the need to equip students with the capacity to exercise citizenship by being able to apply their scientific understanding, skills, attitudes and values in order to engage in discussions concerning a wide range of issues (MEC, 2017). In contrast, the Chinese national standard was constructed

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around the theme of enhancing students’ scientific literacy. That includes four elements: ‘scientific knowledge’, ‘scientific enquiry’, ‘scientific attitude’ as well as ‘science, technology, society and environment’ (MOE, 2011, 2017a, 2017b). At high school level, each discipline also has its own disciplinary goals. For instance, the chemistry syllabus aims to develop ‘chemical literacy’ which includes themes: ‘macroscopic identification and microscopic analysis’, ‘the concept of change and balance’, ‘evidence-based reasoning and modelling’, ‘scientific inquiry and creativity’ and ‘scientific attitude and social responsibility’ (MOE, 2017a). One way in which these curriculum standards achieve their aims is the creation of an integrated science curriculum, particularly at the primary level. The Chinese national standard notes that an integrated curriculum, one in which various scientific disciplines are combined as a single school subject, presents a holistic view of science and prepares students for solving ‘real life’ problems, which commonly requires utilising knowledge and methods drawn from several disciplines (MOE, 2017b). On the other hand, the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) from the United States suggest that an expert knowledge base develops better through establishing interdisciplinary connections, rather than working in isolated contexts (NGSS, 2013, Appendix G). Sometimes an integrated curriculum brings together social and science studies to introduce students to various perspectives for understanding the world. Often themes such as environmental, social and health issues form an overarching nexus relating the materials in the separate scientific disciplines. Within so-called STEM education in English speaking countries there is a common trend for these standards to integrate science and technology education so that students appreciate the nature of the applications of science in the world. Many of the curricula are planned from a ‘vertical’ perspective, taking into account the cognitive development of the students (as discussed above). Hence in many countries, the primary curriculum is theme-based and concerns objects and phenomena in students’ lives and disciplinary boundaries are then introduced at the secondary level. Here we briefly review the science curriculum standards of a selection of countries: Brazil, China, Germany, Israel, Japan, Russia and the United

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States. In reviewing these standards, several themes relating to the content chosen for integrating science curriculum and its arrangement emerge. They are: 1) environmental, social and health issues, 2) integration of science and technology, 3) core ideas, and 4) learning as progression. A brief discussion of these themes illustrates how different national standards can employ integration across content materials in science. An overview of curriculum content then describes how each country constructs its science curriculum.

Environmental, Social and Health Issues Social, environmental and health issues are important themes in many national standards across grade levels. For instance, in the primary science curriculum in the Brazilian BNCC, when students learn about energy, they also learn about the history of human exploitation of energy resources, and electricity generation and its relationship with society and technology; while in the ‘earth and universe’ unit, students may study the greenhouse effect, how humans gain autonomy in agriculture, and the historical shift between heliocentric and geocentric models. In the ‘life and evolution’ theme, the characteristics of, and the importance of preserving, biodiversity; and the participation of humans in food chains, and as a modifying element of the environment; as well as sustainable habitats, may be discussed (MEC, 2017). There is also instruction about the idea of excessive consumption and the role of state policies (e.g., vaccination campaigns, research investment) in promoting individual and collective health (MEC, 2017). Likewise, the Japanese Course of Study highlights the necessity for environmental conservation and encourages students to think about how to create a sustainable society through observations from everyday life, to the scale of society, along with other topics such as recycling, GPS, solar energy, natural disasters and their prevention, and the body clock (MEXT, 2017c). In the Brazilian BNCC, it is set out that for students to understand health in a comprehensive way, they not only need to understand the functioning of their own bodies, but also related topics such as basic

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sanitation, energy generation, and environmental impacts, as well as the use of medicine and its effects on the body (MEC, 2017). Across the national standards of a range of countries (e.g., Israel, Japan, China and Brazil), within the discussion of these issues, there is also teaching about human values such as developing a loving and protective attitude towards nature, as well as the importance of ethics in conducting research.

Integration of Science and Technology All of these countries also draw together the disciplinary traditions of science and technology within their curricula. In the NGSS (the United States), the learning of engineering design and scientific inquiry are combined as it is argued that this allows students to appreciate the important applications of science in everyday life; as science pursues understanding of the natural world, in part at least, to satisfy intellectual curiosity, whereas technology and engineering are means of accommodating human needs and aspirations (NGSS, 2013, Appendix F). Similarly, within the Chinese national standards, an important theme is ‘science, technology, society and the environment’ in which students learn about technology in everyday life, and how technology is changing the world and advancing the development of human society and civilisation (MOE, 2017b). In Germany, an emphasis is put in the idea of MINT education (Mathematics, Informatics, Natural Sciences, Technology), which is popular in Europe and comparable to STEM in English speaking countries (EC, 2019b). Israeli curriculum policy takes the STS (science, technology, and society) approach which draws attention towards the cultivation of scientific and technological literacy. Based on a programme developed through the educational reforms in the 1990s, it presents students not only with facts, concepts, principles and theories in the science and technology areas, but also encourages them to understand the processes, the limitations, and the potential contributions of science and technology to society (Ministry of Education, 2016).

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Core Ideas Many national standards point out cross-disciplinary ideas as a way to develop relationships between the disciplinary ideas and facilitate the development of a coherent knowledge base. For the US, seven core ideas from science and engineering are selected: ‘patterns’, ‘cause and effect’, ‘scale, proportion, and quantity’, ‘systems and system models’, ‘energy and matter: flows, cycles and conservation’, ‘structure and function’ and ‘stability and change’ (NGSS, 2013, Appendix G). Similar cross-domain ideas are also noted in the Israeli standards, and teachers are encouraged to explicitly reference them in lessons (Ministry of Education, 2016). They are: ‘patterns’, ‘models’, ‘systems’, ‘structure and function’, ‘size and ratio’, ‘cause and effect’, ‘stability and changes’, ‘materials and energy’ and ‘forces’ (Ministry of Education, 2016). For instance, the idea of ‘stability and changes’ is involved in understanding the feedback processes that maintain the thermoregulation system as well as the processes that provide homeostasis in living cells. In the Chinese curriculum, the core ideas in science are: ‘matter, motion and their influence on each other’, ‘energy’, ‘information’, ‘system, structure and function’, ‘evolution’, ‘balance’, and ‘conservation’ (MOE, 2011).

Learning as Progression All of these standards structure curricula in accord with the cognitive development of the students. For instance, the American NGSS is arranged around the notion of learning as a developmental progression (NGSS, 2013, Appendix E). Hence students can continually build on and revise ideas, initially starting from those they have obtained in everyday life and proceeding to the construction of a scientifically coherent knowledge base that integrates ideas from natural sciences and engineering. Hence, students begin studying science in elementary school with an emphasis on making observations of the natural world, and they are taught basic concepts from

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life sciences, physical sciences and earth and space sciences (TIMSS & PIRLS, 2015d). As we shall see below, in general, all of the standards follow a similar approach where the primary science curriculum is highly integrated and involves phenomena close to students’ everyday lives. Disciplinary boundaries are then introduced in the lower or upper secondary level. Many of these standards are also structured around several selected core ideas that form the basis of the primary and lower secondary curriculum. For instance, In Japan, it is explained in the Course of Study how the contents within basic physics, basic chemistry and basic biology in the upper secondary level relate to the four thematic pillars (energy, particles, life, and earth) that form the foci for the science curriculum for primary and lower secondary levels (MEXT, 2017b, 2017c, 2017d). In the Israeli standard, the learning progression is described as a spiral (cf., Bruner, 1960) where students advance through each level in increasing sophistication, with new material added in from various contexts and perspectives at each grade level (Ministry of Education, 2016). In the high school curriculum of China, there are also explicit pedagogical suggestions on how to structure lessons based on central disciplinary ideas (MOE, 2017a). For instance, the principle that a substance’s structure determines its properties, and that the properties of a substance reflect its structure, is a central idea in chemistry. This idea can be taught, and then consolidated and developed, through several stages. During the learning of periodic trends in the compulsory chemistry courses, students can learn how the position of an element in the periodic table relates to the structure and the properties of a substance formed by this element. Then, in electives where students are taught about chemical bonds and matter, they can learn how the features of chemical bonds can be used to predict and explain the properties of a substance. Finally, in the elective of ‘organic chemistry foundation’, they can explore how functional groups also allow predictions of the properties of a substance.

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OVERVIEW OF CURRICULUM CONTENT WITHIN SOME NATIONAL SYSTEMS Brazil The Ministry of Education of Brazil established the BNCC for primary and lower secondary education (MEC, 2017). For the primary syllabus, there is a focus on phenomena in the students’ immediate experience. The Brazilian primary science syllabus is divided into three themes: ‘matter and energy’, ‘life and evolution’, and ‘earth and universe’. In addition, contexts from historical, social, cultural, environmental, health and technological aspects are also included in each theme (MEC, 2017). The standard suggests a continuation of these thematic units in the lower secondary schools (MEC, 2017). For instance, the exploration of energy can be extended to a wider scope concerning its production systems and impacts on the environment (MEC, 2017). A new theme, ‘the life, earth and cosmos’, results from the aggregation of two thematic units (‘life and evolution’ and ‘earth and universe’) developed in elementary school. This relates learning in biology (e.g., the origin and evolution of life and the metabolism of living things), astronomy (e.g., the planet, stars and cosmos), physics (e.g., applications of nuclear reactions) and chemistry (e.g., the greenhouse effect and climate change). Within the science curriculum guide for upper secondary level published by the Brazilian State of Sao Paulo, there are many examples of connecting the learning of natural science with the human sciences (SEDUC-SP, 2011). For instance, it describes how historical periods are guided by technical and scientific knowledge applied in economic activities; and how, often, commercial trade, international disputes and territorial domains are dependent on the development of productive forces closely associated with scientific knowledge (SEDUC-SP, 2011). Also reflected, is how some fields of scientific research (e.g., cosmology and evolution), are informed by philosophical scholarship. The science curriculum here is divided into

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traditional disciplines of physics, chemistry and biology (SEDUC-SP, 2011).

China The Chinese standard suggests primary science is to be constructed based on four key areas - ‘materials science’, ‘life science’, ‘earth and universe science’ and ‘technology and engineering’ - through focusing on objects or natural phenomena in students’ everyday lives (MOE, 2017b). Across these four content areas, there is an overarching theme of ‘science, technology, society and the environment’ which highlights that these four areas are interrelated and reinforces the integrity of the natural world (MOE, 2017b). In addition, for the primary curriculum, a concept map was created for each content area to note relationships between the concepts (MOE, 2017b). For ‘life science’, the concept map (MOE, 2017b, pg, 34) is redrawn (translated) as Figure 1. The lower secondary curriculum builds on the same four key areas (MOE, 2011). However, the sub-themes are different. In contrast to the integrated curriculum in the primary and the lower secondary level, the high (i.e., upper secondary) school science curriculum is divided into the discrete disciplines of physics, chemistry and biology (MOE, 2017a; Yang, 2009). For each discipline there are compulsory courses that teach the foundations of the discipline, as well as a range of electives to meet the interests and needs of different students (MOE, 2017a): although some of these are actually required pre-requisites for progression onto related university courses. For instance, for the chemistry curriculum, the compulsory elements are: ‘chemistry and experiential inquiry’, ‘common inorganic materials and their applications’, ‘foundations of the structure of materials and principles of chemical reactions’, ‘simple organic materials and their applications’, and ‘chemistry and societial development’. The electives which must be chosen for progression to university, and which are set-up based on major chemical

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research areas are: ‘principles of chemical reactions’, ‘material structures and properties’ and ‘organic chemistry foundations’. Other available electives are: ‘experiential chemistry’, ‘chemistry and society’ and ‘chemistry in development’. These integrate chemical knowledge with societal development and contemporary issues, as well as promote chemical literacy and aim to stimulate interest and curiosity. Throughout the national standard, there are also many suggestions for ways of relating content between disciplines. For instance, in teaching about organic molecules, teachers are given pedagogical suggestions for how to link the chemistry to life and material sciences.

Figure 1. Concept map showing the core themes of the Chinese school science area: life science.

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Germany In Germany, at primary level, integrated science (Sachunterricht, which is an integrated subject of natural and social sciences) is a compulsory subject in all 16 states, but there is no national federal standard (TIMSS & PIRLS, 2015a). The curriculum guide for the primary level set by one state, North Rhine-Westphalia, suggests teachers should plan lessons for Sachunterricht that bundle together the scientific, technical, nature-related, social and cultural, historical and economic aspects in areas such as (QUALiS NRW, 2008):     

nature and life technology and the world of work space, environment and mobility people and community time and culture

There is an emphasis on interacting with nature (as in Japan, see below), as well as having environmental and health education for primary students in order to develop a sense of responsibility and positive attitude to nature, life and society. Importance is also placed in teaching the geographical features in local and more distant areas; ethics and culture, and skills development; as well as science concepts, in topics such as (QUA- LiS NRW, 2008):     

substances and their transformation heat, light, fire, water, air, sound magnetism and electricity, body, senses, nutrition and health animals, plants, habitats

After successful completion of primary school, students are assigned to different secondary school tracks depending on their abilities - based on

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prior achievement and predicted academic aptitude (EC, 2019a, 2019b). The three different educational tracks (Hauptschulbildungsgang, Realschulbildungsgang, Gymnasialer Bildungsgang) qualify students for different destinations such as vocational training or tertiary education. They have different lengths of completion and teach different content, with variations in depth of treatment and coverage within topics. For most states at the secondary level, science is taught as separate disciplines: biology, chemistry, physics and geography (TIMSS & PIRLS, 2015a). Yet some states offer science as an integrated subject in certain secondary school tracks, covering some or all of the disciplines (mostly at Hauptschulen or Gesamtschulen). The German national standard for secondary level supports systematic knowledge-building from several fundamental concepts. In physics, four basic concepts are identified which are ‘systems’, ‘matter’, ‘energy’ and ‘interaction’ (KMK, 2004c). For Biology, the basic concepts are ‘systems’, ‘structure and function’ and ‘development’ while those for chemistry are ‘chemical reactions’ (KMK, 2004b), ‘structure-property relationships’, ‘substance-particle relationships’ and ‘energetics’ (KMK, 2004a). The standards documentation also describes how these concepts relate to each other across disciplines.

Israel In Israel, in general, the curriculum content is divided into three main areas: material science, which relates mainly physics and chemistry topics, as well as life sciences, and technology (Ministry of Education, 2016). These areas include sub-topics that concern environmental issues and the applications of science in everyday life and within the society. This results in six main domain areas for primary level: ‘matter’, ‘energy’, ‘the manmade world’, ‘systems and processes in living organisms’, ‘ecosystems’, and ‘the earth and the universe’ (which includes astronomy). The lower secondary level consists of similar domains as the primary levels (TIMSS & PIRLS, 2015b). However, the topic of ‘the earth and the universe’ is then

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located under the geography curriculum and replaced by ‘cell structure and function’ (TIMSS & PIRLS, 2015b). In Israel, science remains a compulsory subject only until lower secondary level, but attempts have been made to encourage students to choose to continue studying science (TIMSS & PIRLS, 2015b). In the upper secondary level, students can choose between two different ‘tracks’: the general track or the technology track (Nuffic, 2017). Regardless of the selected track, students must complete the general components (where science is not compulsory) set by the Ministry of Education. As in China (see above) and the US (see below), upper secondary students enjoy a wide range of electives depending on their interest and aspirations including academic subjects such as geography, physics, biology, computer science, as well as technical and more integrated subjects such as electrical / mechanical / civil engineering, and microbiology (Nuffic, 2017).

Japan In Japan, science instruction begins in the third grade as a compulsory subject. The primary science curriculum involves learning from two content areas, ‘matter and energy’, as well as ‘life and earth’ (MEXT, 2017d). Here a heavy emphasis is put on encouraging children to develop a loving and protective attitude towards nature and cultivating thinking skills. The subject living environmental studies which coalesces social studies and science was also established as early as 1977 (Nakayasu, 2016). It was argued that it would be effective for 1st and 2nd grade students to understand both social and natural phenomena through experiential learning activities. Similarly, in the 1998-1999 revision of the Course of Study, the lesson period for integrated studies was also established, which aims to enable students to apply materials they have learnt and to think independently about life through cross-disciplinary and enquiry studies (Nakayasu, 2016). Each school is given the freedom to develop and conduct the period for integrated studies as considered best suited for its students and may include themes such as information or environmental education (Nakayasu, 2016). This

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remains a compulsory subject for all levels from primary to upper secondary level. For lower secondary level, the science curriculum is divided into two fields: physical sciences, and biology and earth sciences (MEXT, 2017b). Physical education is combined with interdisciplinary health education as a subject while home economics is integrated with technology education since both concern everyday life and are thus considered best taught through experiential learning (MEXT, 2017a). The latter combines learning in fields such as material science, biotechnology, the technology of energy conversion, and information technology. For the upper secondary level, students can choose from studying (a) ‘science and our daily life’ and two options from ‘basic physics’, ‘basic chemistry’, ‘basic biology’ and ‘basic earth science’, or (b) three among ‘basic physics’, ‘basic chemistry’, ‘basic biology’ and ‘basic earth science’ (MEXT, 2017c). While the latter option may seem to imply less integration among the disciplines, each subject includes topics linking with everyday life and the latest technological developments to form overarching themes. The most recent revision also introduces a new area ‘enquiry-based study of science and mathematics’ in the upper secondary level that aims to combine ‘mathematical thinking’ and ‘scientific thinking’ into science learning (MEXT, 2017c). Students who choose to do this enquiry-based option are motivated to think in various ways and draw together knowledge and skills from several disciplines.

Russia Like the German curriculum, at the primary level (grade 1-4) in Russia, science learning is founded in an integrated programme of social and natural science studies under the course ‘surrounding world’ (which has approximately 70% natural science content) (TIMSS & PIRLS, 2015c). The Federal State Education Standards for Primary Education aim to expand, organise and deepen students’ ideas about natural and social phenomena and are intended to equip students with a perspective for viewing these two areas

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as components of a unified world (Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, 2015). For the science side, students study biology-related topics (e.g., ‘nature’, ‘plants’, ‘animals’, ‘the unity of living and non-living nature’ and ‘the human body’), geography-related topics (e.g., ‘earth’s structure’), astronomy (e.g., ‘stars and planets’) and chemistry related topics (e.g., ‘solids, liquids and gases’) (Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, 2015). In grades 5 through 9, students learn through an integrated course nature study in grade 5, followed by separated science disciplines: biology (Grade 6-9), geography (grades 6-9), physics (Grades 7-9) and chemistry (grades 89) (TIMSS & PIRLS, 2015c). There is no strong emphasis on crossdisciplinary learning (e.g., for physics, students are required to learn about mechanical phenomena, heat phenomena, electromagnetic phenomena and quantum phenomena), but there are components related to everyday contexts and themes such as technology and environmental protection (Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, 2017; TIMSS & PIRLS, 2015c).

United States In the United States, students begin studying science in elementary school with an observational emphasis and cover basic concepts from life sciences, physical sciences and earth and space sciences (TIMSS & PIRLS, 2015d). In most states, content in these topics will continue to be taught in the middle school, but in greater sophistication, and the specific content area taught may differ across the grades (TIMSS & PIRLS, 2015d). For instance, for California, it is suggested that grade 6 focuses on earth and space sciences, grade 7 on life sciences, grade 8 on physical sciences, while engineering, technology and application of science is taught throughout grades 6-8 (CDE, 2019). However, to graduate from high school, students must study science, including biological and physical sciences, for two years, and there are options to study more science subjects from electives such as geology, astronomy and environmental sciences (CDE, 2020).

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CHALLENGES OF CURRICULUM DESIGN: THE CASE OF THE ENGLISH NATIONAL CURRICULUM FOR SCIENCE This brief survey from selective national contexts presents curriculum as represented in official documentation, which may not always reflect the interpretations and priorities of teachers or the perceptions of the learners experiencing the curriculum as enacted. To illustrate this, we consider some of the issues that have arisen in relation to curriculum policy and implementation in one national context. England has a national curriculum that offers some insight into the complexities regarding how curriculum policy impacts upon, and may be subverted by, custom and practice. A detailed account of the development of the English National Curriculum for Science (ENCS) in its wider educational context (e.g., policies relating to assessment and teacher ‘training’ and official guidance on pedagogy) would necessarily be quite nuanced, and we necessarily limit ourselves to some brief comments. These, whilst not comprehensive, offer some sense of the challenges that faces curriculum developers and policy makers in devising curriculum to meet diverse educational and societal needs (as discussed earlier in this chapter) and against a background of implicit, taken-for-granted, assumptions. England has a strong and proud tradition of science education, and indeed was influenced at the end of the nineteenth century by ideas that became widely discussed globally only much later - such as enquiry learning (Jenkins, 1979). It had a long tradition of active teacher associations, curriculum development (in particular, teacher-led development) and curriculum reform work, such as the Nuffield curriculum projects (Nuffield Currculum Centre, 2006), as well as teacher involvement in the development of diverse examination specifications (Misselbrook, 1972b).

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Establishing ‘Science’ as a Unitary Curriculum Subject Much of this changed with the implementation of a national curriculum (Statutory Instrument, 1989) at the start of the 1990s, when for the first time the government decided to tell science teachers what to teach, to whom, and, later, even suggested how. Science became a compulsory school subject for the first time, for all students aged from 5 to 16 years - and biology, chemistry and physics officially ceased to be school subjects in the compulsory school years. (This continued to be so for a period of over two decades.) Previously, the only school subject that had been legally required was religious education, although in custom and practice secondary students studied science to age 14, and many schools expected most students to then continue with at least one science option. The ENCS’s ‘programme of study’ was organised into four sections, or ‘attainment targets’, Sc1-4, one of which (Sc1) related to the generic area of scientific investigations. The other three (Sc2-4) were in effect, although not explicitly labelled as, biology, chemistry and physics (DfEE/QCA, 1999). The curriculum was intended to offer a broad and balanced science education (Jenkins, 1998), but, officially at least, biology, chemistry and physics ceased to be formal school curriculum subjects (Taber, 2005b). It should be acknowledged that in part this approach was motivated by the phenomena of gender imbalance in uptake of the science subjects at age 14 and, in particular, that of most girls electing not to study any physics (Kelly, 1981; Taber, 1991). The curriculum was subject to a range of tweaks over a period of some years. It was recognised that, as enacted, the intended inclusion of a perspective on the nature of science (in particular a focus on ideas and evidence) was not being widely fulfilled, and Sc1 was strengthened both by modification of the programme of study (expanded to scientific enquiry rather than just scientific investigations), and by changes to the associated the official assessment regime (QCA, 2002).

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Rejecting a Reformed Curriculum for Science The most significant revision of the ENCS involved a major reworking of the curriculum structure and content in response to scholarship that argued that a traditional, content-heavy curriculum did not meet the need to develop scientific literacy for all learners (Millar & Osborne, 1998). A revised secondary level ENCS (QCA, 2007b, 2007c) offered a greater balance between specific scientific content and more generic aspects of a scientific education such as transferrable skills (thinking skills, communication skills) and an understanding of the nature of science and its place in society (QCA, 2005, 2007a). Despite bold claims about how this new curriculum would raise standards, it was subject to a good deal of public criticism - much along the lines that less prescribed content and more focus on societal issues meant a less rigorous education (which from an educational perspective appears as considering that extensive rote learning should be valued over understanding concepts and engagement in thinking through complex and nuanced issues). A more conservative curriculum was re-instated, one that sought to “develop scientific knowledge and conceptual understanding through the specific disciplines of biology, chemistry and physics” (DFE, 2015). Whilst the broader aims that had influenced the earlier revision had certainly not been rejected, it seemed that there were widespread implicit (taken-forgranted) beliefs that a high-quality science curriculum needs to be organised in terms of formal disciplinary knowledge, and that the quality of a scientific education is proportional to the amount of science content squeezed into it. Thus, although the broad aspirations of the ENCS are certainly akin to those inherent in other national standards discussed earlier, in this national context any progressive elements that might be intended to support such aspirations were treated with distrust. Any curriculum context is likely to be complex. This is certainly the case in England. As one example, although something like 93% of students attend state-funded schools, those schools are designated in a wide range of (sometimes overlapping) ways as a result of successive policies of various governments (community schools, subject-specialist schools, academies, free schools, comprehensive schools, voluntary-aided schools, voluntary-

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controlled schools, university technical colleges…) and an increasing proportion of state schools (currently over a third) are not actually required to follow the statutory National Curriculum! Despite this, the recognised system of national examinations, which are taken by most students in most schools, are regulated, and are required to follow specifications closely based on the ENCS. Indeed, the respect for the official representation of science in the ENCS is such that it has been shown that where the curriculum specification has been poorly drafted so as to suggest teachers should teach scientifically dubious principles, the questionable wording is nonetheless directly copied from the curriculum documents, through guidance for examination boards, to examination specifications, and even on to guidance for students and parents published on school websites (Taber, 2019a). This might be expected in a society with a special reverence for authority, but in the case of England it seems more to be cult of identifying educational standards with ‘teaching to the test’: that is, valuing a clear statement of what is to be learnt (regardless of its educational or scientific merits) that can act as target knowledge and which teachers then know will be the basis for evaluating their students and their own professional effectiveness.

Science and the Disciplines With the introduction of the original version of the ENCS the status of biology, chemistry and physics as school subjects became fuzzy. As the school subject was science, the standard school examination was in science, which - for the majority of students - was treated as a double subject (that is, leading to two grades when counting the number of school examination passes) taught to students aged 14-16 years. There was a facility for a single award (i.e., with the same weighting as other subjects such as mathematics or geography, based on reduced subject content) which was primarily intended for low achievers and to allow some students to study several languages and spend less curriculum time on science. There was also a facility for a triple science award, which did offer separate grades for

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biology, chemistry and physics, based on an examination syllabus that augmented the ENCS with extra topics from each discipline. Yet schools were not required to offer this - so whilst some schools did, many did not. It is common for there to be unintended consequences of any government policy, and this is certainly what is found with curriculum policy. The matter of whether the separate science disciplines were timetabled as formal school subjects (given the prescribed curriculum) could seem to be an administrative matter, or simply a choice about presentation, but in practice it had substantive effects (Taber, 2006). Where schools did not have to offer the triple science option, many did not. Independent schools catering for those who prefer to pay for their children to be taught outside the state system, that is, by definition, people with the means to afford private education, were generally likely to maintain discrete departments of biology, chemistry and physics and to offer the triple science option. This is not just a matter of the labelling of school subjects and examinations, as those taking triple science were being taught more science, and so were inevitably (on average) better prepared to commence advanced science courses in post-compulsory education when compared with students only able to take ‘double award’ science. State schools that included sixth-forms (for students aged 16-19 years) where biology, chemistry and physics were taught as separate elective subjects were also likely to retain discrete departments and offer the triple science option to (all or some of) their students aged 14-16. Often in urban contexts, however, the state schools only take students to age 16, at which point the young people apply for courses in post-compulsory colleges. Many 11-16 schools, especially those in areas of serving people of modest socioeconomic status, judged that they did not have the resources to offer the optional triple science course, and so denied this as an elective to their students. (Some schools offered the option to their highest achieving students, but without increasing the amount of teaching – so increasing the breadth of content, but diluting the depth of study.) This was eventually recognised as an equity issue, a form of discrimination against those students living in areas of relative deprivation, and the then Prime Minister decreed that all state schools would have to

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provide the option of studying triple science to students who performed well on national science tests at age 14 (Blair, 2007). Even then, in some schools, alternative triple science combinations were considered to meet this expectation - as the school subject was just science, it was possible to consider triple science as biology, chemistry and psychology, for example.

Implications of Curriculum Policy for Teacher Recruitment and Development This response makes sense when considering the effect of the ENCS on teacher preparation and recruitment. Schools with discrete biology, chemistry and physics departments clearly needed to seek to maintain staffing across these areas. Those schools that adopted a unitary science department, and looked to recruit science teachers per se, did not necessarily manage to maintain a balance across science specialisms - even if this was felt desirable, it was not considered strictly necessary given the school subject was ‘science’. This mattered because, although there was not a severe shortage of qualified science teachers looking for posts, schools often found the field applying for a ‘science’ teaching position consisted predominantly of biology specialists. In part, this related to the teacher ‘training’ regime - as when the ENCS made science the school subject, departments of teacher education did not need to look to recruit a balance between the different science specialists, as their task was to attract good science graduates and prepare them for science teaching. Some university education departments maintained a strong distinction between disciplines in their recruitment and formed specialist subgroups within science teaching courses, and so - at least - set out to maintain a balance between biology, chemistry and physics. Yet, given that many more life scientists were seeking entry to ‘training’ courses, it was largely the more elite institutions (where the number of applications from qualified applicants well exceeded places available on courses) that could hold to such a policy. So, for much of the early period of the ENCS, the

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system was preparing cohorts of science teachers that were strongly biased towards biology, and against physics. This imbalance was not just a matter of a glut of biology graduates, or a higher demand for physical science graduates to enter other employment areas such as finance, but also the way that the ENCS made preparing for teaching less attractive to many physicists and engineers. Pre-ENCS, someone completing a degree in physics or mechanical engineering (for example) who wished to teach would likely consider they were best suited to just teach physics, or to teach physics and mathematics. For that matter, a chemistry graduate might choose to prepare to teach chemistry and physics (as the senior author did), or a life sciences graduate might choose to teach biology and chemistry. Yet, when the ENCS was imposed, this was no longer possible - an applicant had to prepare for teaching a school curriculum subject - such as mathematics or ‘science’ - and if they took the latter option they then had to (at least during the training year) teach across the science curriculum (TTA, 1998). Schools were allowed to recruit someone who had completed initial teacher education in science (but with no specific preparation for mathematics teaching) to teach physics with some mathematics, or someone who had completed initial teacher education in mathematics (but with no specific preparation for physics teaching) to teach some physics as well as mathematics - but the general expectation was that new teachers would teach in the curriculum subject for which they had ‘trained’. The official adoption of science as a school subject, and the associated decision to avoid labelling of biology, chemistry and physics material within the ENCS documentation, was therefore not just a matter of presentation, but something that had real effects on school staffing, teacher preparation, and so (in many schools) student opportunities to be taught science topics by disciplinary specialists.

Systemic Inertia Resisting Reforms Whilst this did serious damage to science education in England over a period of over two decades, it should also be pointed out that many science

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teachers in post at the time the ENCS was introduced saw themselves as primarily biology teachers, chemistry teachers, or physics teachers, and that tradition remains to this day in many, but not all, schools. So, even when all the official apparatus of curriculum, assessment, teacher preparation and professional development presented science as the school subject to be taught by science teachers, many in the profession continued to take for granted that actually science consisted of discrete disciplines that, at least for the older children, were best taught by subject (i.e., science discipline) specialists. So, the case of the ENCS both reflects how policies can have unintended, damaging effects, and also how the conservative tendency to assume the status quo, can to some extent resist policy changes through continuing traditions of practice that are only changed superficially by apparently radical shifts. That is, the conservative nature of traditions can not only resist progressive change, but also, to some extent, mitigate the potential damage of ill-advised reforms. Before leaving the issue of the representation of the disciplines in the science curriculum it is worth noting that the division of the ENCS into sections that were based on (if not labelled as) the disciplines of biology, chemistry and physics led to issues about how to include material that did not readily fit these areas. Material about earth and space sciences moved into, and out of, the curriculum. Material from earth sciences, best identified with geology, was pushed into Sc3, in effect the chemistry section (Wilson, 2012), although it was not well received by many science teachers. Teaching these topics was not part of most science teachers’ preparation - and this material was treated as unfamiliar chemistry by many of those considering themselves primarily as biology or physics specialists, whilst also being considered to not actually be authentic chemistry by many chemistry specialists.

Interpreting Curriculum Documents Curriculum documents themselves are simply representations of ideas and intentions (of policy-makers, of curriculum developers), and before they

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can influence practice they need to be interpreted by teachers and others who mediate between the document and classroom implementation. When the ENCS was revised and the content-heavy programme of study was replaced by a much more lightly-specified outline of a more limited range of topics to be covered (QCA, 2007b, 2007c) this was intended to give teachers more flexibility, and should have allowed a reduction in the weight of content to be ‘covered’: yet many teachers considered that they were still expected to teach what had been previously specified, even when it did not actually appear in the new curriculum. This revision offered a chance for greater emphasis on the nature and processes of science, yet in practice most teachers continued to focus on subject matter content (and a lot of it) expecting the assessment regime to be largely unchanged. Not surprisingly then, although the curriculum documentation might reflect quite sophisticated understanding of aspects of the nature of science, this was seldom further reflected in student learning (Taber, Billingsley, Riga, & Newdick, 2015). Indeed, although, in common with global trends, curriculum documents might explicitly ask for an emphasis on enquiry within science, the formal subject-based structure of the curriculum (arranged around traditional clumps of disciplinary knowledge, not scientific practices) implicitly gave another message (Taber, 2018b). Some other national standards suggest key concepts that can provide a core anchoring point for developing student understanding in science (see ‘Overview of curriculum content within national systems’ above). This provides an opportunity to suggest to teachers where the key emphasis of science teaching should be, by selecting process-based (e.g., theory change) or interdisciplinary (e.g., feedback in natural systems) themes. In the ENCS, it was suggested that the five key scientific ideas around which teaching could be planned were cells, interdependence, particles, forces, and energy (Key Stage 3 National Strategy, 2002a) - which largely aligned with disciplinary subject matter (even if energy and interdependence certainly offered potential for much interdisciplinary work). The short-lived ‘content-lite’ version of the curriculum potentially offered an opportunity to engage with topics in detail, and so to seek to ensure secure conceptual understanding of key concepts. Again, teachers

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were certainly officially encouraged to teach for understanding, and indeed constructivist pedagogy was recommended (Key Stage 3 National Strategy, 2002b). Yet teachers were prepared for adopting constructivist pedagogy by a training regime based on sets of centrally prepared professional development sessions, presented to groups of teachers by consultants following a published script. If ever there was an example of “do not do as I do, do as I tell you” (or exemplification of the cruel jibe, that “those who can, do, and those who can’t, teach; and those who can’t teach, train teachers”) this officially sanctioned modelling of poor teaching practice carried a strong implicit message (Taber, 2010).

CONCLUSION In this chapter we have considered the question of organising a curriculum through timetabled subjects, with particular focus on the example of science / the sciences. We set out considerations for curriculum in terms of the different perspectives on the purposes of education (and so of curriculum as a means to respond to such purposes). The different options we discuss are not necessarily conflicting - one can seek to do many things in a curriculum - but the balance of imperatives and priorities adopted will have implications for the content, organisation and presentation of the curriculum. We offered a brief survey of how science curriculum is organised and presented across a number of major nations. We also discussed in a little more detail the case of the ENCS as an example of how curriculum can be a challenging matter for those charged with its design and implementation. Our brief survey only highlights some of the ‘headline’ points from a small range of national educational systems (and even there, the extent to which curriculum is prescribed at a national, rather than more local, level varies). However, it seems that even within this modest overview there is much variation in how science is presented within the curriculum. One fairly common theme is building progression into the science curriculum in the sense that, in general, curriculum is often more integrated

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in the early years, and the traditional disciplines of biology, chemistry and physics are more likely to be explicit school subjects for older students (in some cases, even taught in different grade levels). There are, however, different models in terms of whether curriculum is differentiated for different groups within an age cohort, and when, and how much, choice is given to students in the science(s) they study. Offering some level of choice (whether in curriculum subject, topics, or simply examples and case studies within a topic) is not only a means to support the development of personal autonomy and responsibility, but something that can engage and motivate science learners (Taber, 2007). Different decisions have also been made in terms of how and when to show the links between science and other curriculum areas, and in terms of how the applications of science, the social context of science, and the treatment of socio-scientific issues are presented. In some national systems the traditional disciplinary identities are still represented as school subjects, but with a range of ways of embedding science content in broader contexts, and of integrating content across and beyond the sciences, either at the level of the school subject, or in terms of key themes or core ideas around which the content within subjects is organised. Even limiting our focus to the example of science / the sciences demonstrates the wide range of choices that can be made. There is not a clear boundary around what science is. So, we see science being conflated with technology in some contexts, where it would be seen as a related but quite different set of practices elsewhere. A parallel point could be made about science and mathematics. Mathematical ideas and tools are applied in science - but mathematics as a discipline is quite distinct. Geography and psychology may at times be seen as part of science - although more generally they are seen as quite separate: geography is often seen as a humanities subject and psychology as such may not be recognised as belonging in the compulsory school curriculum. Both splitters and lumpers are faced with options concerning how to break up, or fit together, curriculum elements. There is something of a tension between what may be considered a more student-centred approach (perhaps favouring topics and themes based on applications met in everyday life, or deriving from broad issues of wide

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concern such as health, the environment, and sustainable development) and what could be considered a more academic approach based around disciplinary structure - certainly in the case of the ENCS much public and political opinion (even if likely due to the efforts of a relatively small but vocal range of people with strong concerns) reflected an assumption that issues-based science teaching was less rigorous than teaching based around traditional science topics deriving from disciplinary sub-fields. When so much cutting-edge scientific research is based on work which is described variously as cross-disciplinary, trans-disciplinary or inter-disciplinary, this may seem to suggest a popular image of science which is itself out of date. Yet it is also the case that in national contexts where most undergraduate training produces graduates in chemistry or electrical engineering or astrophysics or biochemistry - and so forth - disciplinary structure may actually both map onto much of what university departments are looking for in applicants to such courses, and also reflect where potential recruits to teaching, graduating with such degrees, have strengths. Certainly, expecting teachers to model the disciplinary practices across STEM subjects, or even across just biology, chemistry and physics, may be unrealistic when most new graduates only have a modest experience of practice within one major disciplinary tradition. This makes strong conclusions or recommendations difficult. Our main take-away points are that: 



there are a range of educational aims that offer different priorities for planning and organising curriculum, which might suggest that a ‘mixed economy’ of integrated and specialist learning experiences is most useful, especially when customised for different groups of students (Taber, 2018); but there is also a range of constraints in terms of what can reasonably be expected of teachers and the complexity of timetabling in schools; however, it is common to look to modify the nature of the curriculum experience as students develop and progress: such that formal disciplinary structures can become more apparent in senior

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years, building upon more integrated and contextualised learning of science in the early years; there should be a balance in science curriculum learning objectives between specific science content, and wider aspects of science learning (process skills, etc.), but that this will likely fail (as seen in England) unless it is explicitly reflected in curriculum organisation and, in particular, high-stakes assessment.

Figure 2. One possible outline for thinking about science in the school curriculum.

Perhaps science education should best move from enquiry-directed nature study based upon close and extended observation, question-posing and other process skills (Taber, 2019b); through a more formal science curriculum experience based around disciplinary structure, that introduces the key concepts from the science disciplines (but offering deep engagement with some carefully selected science topics, rather than a comprehensive survey); to a science education that engages with socio-scientific issues, and

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encompasses cross-disciplinary work with other curricular areas (see Figure 2). As a final point, we would suggest that given the wide diversity in how science curriculum is structured, described, and organised internationally, there is scope for a research programme looking at how these different alternatives are understood by teachers, implemented in classrooms, and experienced by students. Ultimately, we want students to understand, appreciate, value, and wish to engage with, science, and so perhaps what is most important is not how we may choose to split or clump curriculum elements but rather the degrees of coherence, relevance and engagement perceived by the learners.

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on Science Education for the Gifted: Key issues and challenges (pp. 94105). Abingdon, Oxon.: Routledge. Taber, K. S. (2018a). Knowledge sans frontières? Conceptualising STEM in the curriculum to facilitate creativity and knowledge integration. In K. S. Taber, M. Sumida, & L. McClure (Eds.), Teaching Gifted Learners in STEM Subjects: Developing talent in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (pp. 1-19). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. Taber, K. S. (2018b). Pedagogic Doublethink: Scientific Enquiry and the Construction of Personal Knowledge Under the English National Curriculum for Science. In D. W. Kritt (Ed.), Constructivist Education in an Age of Accountability (pp. 73-96). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. Taber, K. S. (2019a). Conceptual confusion in the chemistry curriculum: exemplifying the problematic nature of representing chemical concepts as target knowledge. Foundations of Chemistry. doi:https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10698-019-09346-3. Taber, K. S. (2019b). Exploring, imagining, sharing: Early development and education in science. In D. Whitebread, V. Grau, K. Kumpulainen, M. M. McClelland, N. E. Perry, & D. Pino-Pasternak (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Developmental Psychology and Early Childhood Education (pp. 348-364). London: Sage. Taber, K. S. (2019c). The Nature of the Chemical Concept: Constructing chemical knowledge in teaching and learning. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. Taber, K. S. (In Press-a). Developing intellectual sophistication and scientific thinking - The schemes of William G. Perry and Deanna Kuhn. In B. Akpan & T. Kennedy (Eds.), Science Education in Theory and Practice: An introductory guide to learning theory: Springer. Taber, K. S. (In press-b). Mediated learning leading development – the social development theory of Lev Vygotsky. In B. Akpan & T. Kennedy (Eds.), Science Education in Theory and Practice: An introductory guide to learning theory: Springer. Taber, K. S., Billingsley, B., Riga, F., & Newdick, H. (2015). English secondary students’ thinking about the status of scientific theories: consistent, comprehensive, coherent and extensively evidenced

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explanations of aspects of the natural world – or just ‘an idea someone has’. The Curriculum Journal, 26(3), 370-403. doi:10.1080/ 09585176.2015.1043926. TIMSS & PIRLS. (2015a). Germany. Overview of Education System. Retrieved from https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/ content/organisation-general-lower-secondary-education-14_en. TIMSS & PIRLS. (2015b). Israel. The Science Curriculum in Primary and Lower Secondary Grades. Retrieved from http://timss2015.org/ encyclopedia/countries/israel/the-science-curriculum-in-primary-andlower-secondary-grades/ TIMSS & PIRLS. (2015c). Russia. The Science Curriculum in Primary and Lower Secondary Grades. Retrieved from http://timss2015.org/ encyclopedia/countries/russian-federation/the-science-curriculum-inprimary-and-lower-secondary-grades/ TIMSS & PIRLS. (2015d). United States. The Science Curriculum in Primary and Lower Secondary Grades. Retrieved from http://timss 2015.org/encyclopedia/countries/united-states/the-science-curriculumin-primary-and-lower-secondary-grades/ TTA. (1998). Initial teacher training National Curriculum for secondary science (Annexe H of DfEE Circular 4/98): Teacher Training Agency. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Wilson, E. (2012). Earth science. In K. S. Taber (Ed.), Teaching Secondary Chemistry (2nd ed., pp. 343-368). London: Hodder Education. Yang. (2009). Woguo kexue kecheng biange 60 nian [60 Years of Science Curriculum Reform in My Country]. HKIEd APFSLT, 10(2).

In: Curriculum Perspectives and Development ISBN: 978-1-53618-333-7 Editor: Alexander Bachmeier © 2020 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 2

A RE-INTERPRETATION OF KANTIAN AESTHETIC THEORY TO CONTEMPORARY ARTS CURRICULUM: THE CASE OF HONG KONG Manfred Man-fat Wu Research Office, The Open University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

ABSTRACT This chapter proposes an extended Kantian model on arts education and presents results of verification through surveying the Hong Kong arts education curriculum as a case study. The aim of the proposed model is to resolve the incompatibilities of the Kantian model with contemporary theories on arts education and the demands of the modern world. A secondary aim is to examine the features of the Hong Kong arts education. The proposed model contains disinterestedness and subjectivity as the affective aspect, free-play of imagination with lawfulness, and 

Corresponding Author’s E-mail: [email protected].

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Manfred Man-fat Wu purposiveness of form as the cognitive aspect, and finally public assent, morality, extension of arts education to skills that are transferable to other areas of life and future career development as the objective aspect. A case study was then made to verify the proposed model. Results of content analyses of curriculum documents of Hong Kong indicate that most components in the proposed model could be found in the Hong Kong arts education curriculum. However, some elements only receive indirect support and most elements identified are not coherently linked. The Hong Kong arts curricula, on the other hand, is characterized by an emphasis on subjectivity, creativity, imagination, critical thinking, training of arts forms, knowledge between art and technology, awareness of the world and different cultures. They also teat arts as a means for all round development of students and a means for equiping students with practical skills that can be transferred to other areas of their daily life, and is a means for further studies and preparing for careers. The Kantian elements of disinterestedness and morality only play a peripheral role. The results of preliminary verification indicate the plausibility of the proposed model, and further empirical validation of the model and theoretical refinements are recommended.

Keywords: Kant, subjectivity, disinterestedness, free lawfulness of imagination and understanding, universal assent, morality, arts education, Critique of the Power of Judgment, Hong Kong

INTRODUCTION It has been more than 200 years since Kant proposed his aesthetic theory. Despite placing the foundation of modern aesthetic theory, its incompatibilities with the demands of contemporary world has been suggested1, and subsequent adaptations and extensions of Kantian aesthetic theory have been made. An earlier effort in applying Kant’s aesthetic theory to arts education was undertaken by Mandoki2. Based on Kant’s aesthetic

1

2

For example, Douglas Burnham, An Introduction to Kant’s Critique of Judgement (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000); Brent Kalar, The Demands of Taste in Kant’s Aesthetics (New York: Continuum, 2006); Eva Schaper, Studies in Kant’s Aesthetics (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1979). Katya Mandoki, “Applying Kant’s Aesthetics to the Education of the Arts,” The Journal of Aesthetic Education 34, no. 2 (2000): 65–79, https://doi.org/10.2307/ 3333577.

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theory, she developed four models, the featural model, categorical model, faculty model, and processual model that provide accessible guidelines for teaching practitioners. However, these models are only loosely related to Kant’s aesthetic theory. An example is that the featural model is based on the non-Kantian schools which treat features as the criteria for the distinction between aesthetic and non-aesthetic. Another example is that the categorical model is based on the ideas borrowed from Kant’s Categories which was not found in Kant’s aesthetic theory. Mandoki proposes that quality, quantity, relation, and modality are the cognitive structure beneath aesthetic understanding. Katz-Buonincontro3 made another attempt to complement the inadequacies of Kant’s model of the non-teacheability of arts by proposing the additional concept of creative identity for practical arts teaching. These attempts are based on selective concepts in the Kantian aesthetic theory, and the major tenets of Kant’s aesthetic theory are not included. The aim of this study is to extend Kant’s aesthetic theory to enhance its compatibility of contemporary arts education theories and the demands of the contemporary world. This is partly a response to the contemporary aesthetic theories that are based on concepts contrary to Kant’s. Some examples are the cognitive turn since the 1950s4, the rise of political arts with ends attached5, arts aiming at morality6 and science promotion7. Unlike earlier attempts described above, a non-selective perspective will be adopted in this attempt, i.e., the proposed extended model is based on Kant’s Jen Katz-Buonincontro, “Implications of Kant’s Theories of Art for Developing Creative Identity in Students,” Journal of Aesthetic Education 49, no. 4 (2015): 1–18, https://doi.org/10.5406/jaesteduc. 9.4.0001. 4 See, for example, Manon van de Water, Mary McAvoy, and Kristin Hunt, Drama and Education: Performance Methodologies for Teaching and Learning (London & New York: Routledge, 2015). 5 For example, Claire Bishop, “The Social Turn: Collaboration and its Discontents,” Artforum International 44, issue 6, (Feb 2006): 178–83; Kia Lindroos and Frank Möller, ed. Art as a Political Witness (Opladen, Berlin, and Toronto: Verlag Barbara Budrich, 2017). 6 Greta T. Cullen, “Moral Education through Art,” Journal of Moral Education 3, no. 2 (1974): 143–150, https://doi.org/10.1080/0305724740030205. 7 Martin Braund and Michael J. Reiss, “The ‘Great Divide’: How the Arts Contribute to Science and Science Education,” Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education 19 (2019): 219–36, https://doi.org/10.1007/s42330-019- 00057-7. 3

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aesthetic theory as a whole. A preliminary verification of the proposed model will then be made by using the Hong Kong arts education curricula as an example to evaluate the applicability of the extended Kantian aesthetic model to contemporary arts education. Therefore, a secondary aim of this study is to identify the features of the Hong Kong arts curricula through an evaluation from a Kantian perspective. Although the rationale for arts education is explicitly stated in most curriculum documents in Hong Kong8, no reference is made on the justifications of these aims. As the Hong Kong arts curricula share many similarities with those of other countries, for example, Singapore9 and the U.K.10, the results of this endeavor may shed light on the arts education of other countries. Compared to other aesthetic theories, two prominent features of Kant’s theory are that arts are unrelated to utility and have moral functions. Kant distinguished between aesthetics, beauty and utility and placed disinterestedness as one of the key features of taste. The overarching question of his major work on aesthetics, The Critique of the Power of Judgment (CPJ)11, is to explore how judgment of beauty is possible, which is an extension of his Critique of Practical Reason12 that focuses on moral 8

For example, Curriculum Development Council, Arts Education: Key Learning Areas Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Secondary 3) (Hong Kong: Education Department, HKSAR, 2002a); Curriculum Development Council, Basic Education Curriculum Guide: Building on Strengths (Primary 1 to Secondary 3) (Hong Kong: Education Department, HKSAR, 2002b); Curriculum Development Council, Arts Education Key Learning Area: Music Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Secondary 3) (Hong Kong: Education Department, HKSAR, 2003a); Curriculum Development Council, Arts Education Key Learning Area: Visual Arts Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Secondary 3) (Hong Kong: Education Department, HKSAR, 2003b); Curriculum Development Council, Curriculum and Assessment Guide: Music (Hong Kong: Education Department, HKSAR, 2007a); Curriculum Development Council, Curriculum and Assessment Guide: Visual Arts (Hong Kong: Education Department, HKSAR, 2007b); Curriculum Development Council, Senior Secondary Curriculum Guide: The Future is Now: From Vision to Realisation (Secondary 4 - 6) (Hong Kong: The Education Department, HKSAR, 2009). 9 Student Development Curriculum Division, Art Teaching and Learning Syllabus: Primary & Lower Secondary (Singapore: Ministry of Education, 2008). 10 Department for Education, National Curriculum in English: Art and Design Programmes of Study (UK: Department of Education, 2013). 11 Immanuel Kant, Critique of the Power of Judgment, trans. and ed. Paul Guyer and Eric Matthews (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). 12 Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason, trans. Lewis White Beck (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merril, 1978).

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judgments, with the main ideas originated from his groundbreaking work, Critique of Pure Reason13. Thus, Kant includes art in his transcendental system. According to Kant, beauty is a symbol of morality, and provides individuals the sensible form and feelings to moral ideas. Despite the availability of other aesthetic theories, such as those of Deleuze, Bourdieu, Foucault, and Dewey, their theories either originated or are responses to Kant’s theories, or in other words, many contemporary aesthetic theories are in one way or another based on Kant’s theory, which is based on his solid philosophical basis. Some remarks on the methodology of this discussion should be given. Since the aim of this chapter is to propose an extended Kantian model of arts education and to verify this model, secondary literature on the analyses and interpretations of Kant’s aesthetic theory will be excluded. The elements which constitute the framework of this attempt were selected mainly from the First Book (Analytic of the Beautiful), First Section (Analytic of the Aesthetic Power of Judgment) of the First Part of the CPJ. Ideas related to taste as mentioned in the four Moments of the section were listed, interpreted and re-interpreted before adopted. An outline of this chapter is given below. In the next section Kant’s aesthetic theory related to taste will be reviewed and an extended Kantian model of arts education will be proposed. This is followed by a summary of the key ideas of arts education as recommended by the Education Bureau in Hong Kong and the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. Efforts will then be put on verifying the proposed model. The chapter ends with a conclusion.

AN EXTENDED MODEL OF KANTIAN ARTS EDUCATION According to Kant, judgment of taste, or the faculty for judging something as beautiful, is subjective instead of being cognitive and logical. It is because in regarding something as beautiful, a feeling is involved with 13

Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Norman Kemp Smith (London: Macmillan, 1929).

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reference to a particular object. According to Kant, the “judgment of taste is (therefore) not a cognitive judgment, hence not a logical one, but is rather aesthetic, by which is understood one whose determining ground cannot be other than subjective”14. In his discussion of the method of deduction of judgments of taste, Kant also adds that “critique of taste itself is only subjective, with regard to the representation by means of which an object is given to us …”15. The cognitive movement in arts education theory emerged in the 1950s16 strongly advocates arts as being cognitive in nature. More recent research has confirmed that there are complex cognitive process in learning through arts17 However, Kant’s theory reminds us that aesthetics contains affective and subjective elements that cannot be entirely removed. The central property of taste is that it involves a disinterested satisfaction rather than involving interest. Taste also excludes using an object as a means to achieve certain ends. In Kant’s words, “(t)aste is the faculty for judging an object or a kind of representation through a satisfaction or dissatisfaction without any interest. The object of such a satisfaction is called beautiful”18. Kant distinguishes between free beauty and adherent or dependent beauty. In the former a pure judgment of taste is involved, and in the latter an impure judgment of taste is involved. In Kant’s theory, there are two types of beauty in which an impure judgment of taste is involved. They are the agreeable (which pleases the senses in sensation) and the good (with usefulness). The good belongs to the faculty of desire which is determined by reason. The judgment of taste, or the beautiful, must be distinguished from the agreeable 14

Kant, Critique of the Power of Judgment, 89. Ibid, 166. 16 See, for example, van de Water, McAvoy, and Hunt. Drama and Education: Performance Methodologies for Teaching and Learning. 17 For example, Kevin Niall Dunbar, “Arts Education, the Brain, and Language,” in Learning, Arts, and the Brain: The Dana Consortium in Report on Arts and Cognition, ed. Carolyn Asbury and Barbara Rich (New York: Dana Press, 2008), 81–91; Michael Gazzaniga, “Arts and Cognition: Findings Hint at Relationship,” in Learning, Arts, and the Brain: The Dana Consortium in Report on Arts and Cognition, ed. Carolyn Asbury and Barbara Rich (New York: Dana Press, 2008); Ellen Winner, Thalia Goldstein, and Stephan Vincent-Lancrin, Art for Art’s Sake: The Impact of Arts Education (OECD Publishing, 2013); Bruce McConachie, Evolution, Cognition, and Performance (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015). 18 Kant, Critique of the Power of Judgment, 96. 15

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and the good, which is not grounded on concepts belonging to cognition and understanding nor aimed at them. Despite there is purposiveness in desire, there are purposiveness without an end in the judgment of taste, which Kant refers to as the purposiveness of form. Only the judgment of taste that is based on purposiveness of form can be regarded as pure judgment of taste. As Kant mentioned, beauty “is the form of the purposiveness of an object, insofar as it is perceived in it without representation of an end”19, and beautiful art “is a kind of representation that is purposive in itself and, though without end, nevertheless promotes the cultivation of the mental powers for sociable communication”20. This view already gives the clue that beauty is social and collective in nature. Kant adds that judgment of taste is based on a priori ground, meaning that it is not based on any empirical evidence and the use of categories such as causality of the understanding. In Kant’s term, the “claim of an aesthetic judgment to universal validity for every subject, as a judgment that must be based on some principle a priori, ...”21 As mentioned, in addition to subjectivity, disinterestedness and apriority, another feature of the judgment of taste is universal assent, which refers to the wishes that everyone should approve and declare an object to be beautiful. Kant points out it is through the “common sense” (sensus communis), a subjective principle of responding to empirical objects that is the same in all subjects, that universality can result. Kant regards “common sense” as “a subjective principle, which determines what pleases or displeases only through feeling and not through concepts, but yet with universal validity”22. The beautiful is the object of a universal satisfaction. In order to be universally valid, the judgment of taste must be combined with a claim to subjective universality. While everyone has his own taste, Kant distinguishes between two kinds of taste, the taste of the senses (which is private) and the taste of reflection (which involves a public assent). The subjective universal communicability involved in the public taste of reflection is a free play of the imagination and

19

Ibid, 120. Ibid, 185. 21 Ibid, 160. 22 Ibid, 122. 20

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the understanding which belongs to the faculty of cognition. This free play is characterized by a feeling of harmony. In Kant’s words, the “powers of cognition that are set into play by this representation are hereby in a free play, since no determinate concept restricts them to a particular rule of cognition. Thus the state of mind in this representation must be that of a feeling of the free play of the powers of representation in a given representation for a cognition in general”23. At the same time, since all individuals have the same cognitive capacities, the free play of our cognitive faculties can result in a “common sense.” Kant also points out the importance of harmony between sensibility and understanding in taste that results in common sense. In taste there is a balance between the form and artists’ free play of imagination. Diagram 1. An extended Kantian model on arts education Affective aspect  

Subjectivity Disinterestedness* (not for immediate utility) |______________________|

Cognitive aspect  

Free play of imagination and understanding Lawfulness

  

Purposiveness of form Training of transferable skills Awareness of relationships between arts and social environment (i.e., society, traditions, and history)

Student engagement

Participation in arts education

Outcomes of arts education: Integration of affective and cognitive aspects    

Public assent Morality Transferable life skills Further studies and career development

* The Kantian elements are indicated in italics. 23

Ibid, 102.

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In relation to public assent, Kant in his second section of the CPJ, The Dialectic of the Aesthetic Power of Judgment also mentioned beauty is a symbol of morality, or what the morally good, a duty that we can expect of everyone else. In Kant’s words, “… the beautiful is the symbol of the morally good, and also that only in this respect (that of a relation that is natural to everyone, and that is also expected of everyone else as a duty) does it please with a claim to the assent of everyone else, in which the mind is at the same time aware of a certain ennoblement and elevation above the mere receptivity for a pleasure from sensible impressions, and also esteems the value of others in accordance with a similar maxim of their power of judgment”24. Kant is of the view that taste should be used to promote morality, for the reason that it involves rationality, universal assent and the moral feeling shared by individuals caused by sublimity. The experience of beauty is similar to moral feeling, that “taste is at bottom a faculty for the judging of the sensible rendering of moral ideas (by means of a certain analogy of the reflection on both), from which, as well as from the greater receptivity for the feeling resulting from the latter (which is called the moral feeling) that is to be grounded upon it, is derived that pleasure which taste declares to be valid for mankind in general, not merely for the private feeling of each, it is evident that the true propaedeutic for the grounding of taste is the development of moral ideas and the cultivation of the moral feeling; for only when sensibility is brought into accord with this can genuine taste assume a determinate, unalterable form”25. In his discussion of the sublime, Kant also added that the sublime can cultivate “moral culture” which is the highest possible stage of civilization. In addition to universal assent Kant regards aesthetic judgment has another similarity to moral judgment, with the example that both do not involve interest26. Leung proposes that linguistic arts are particularly effective in moral enhancement as arts form such as poetry allows the highest degree of imagination and can articulate thought. The result, according to her, is the cultivation of the capability for

24

Kant, Critique of the Power of Judgment, 227. Ibid, 230. 26 Ibid. 25

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the fulfillment of imperfect duties as proposed by Kant which requires moral judgments27. In summary the following elements are more salient in Kant’s theory of taste: subjectivity, disinterestedness, purposiveness of form, apriority, universal assent and moral enhancement. Based on these elements, an extended Kantian model on arts education is proposed as in Diagram 1 above. In the proposed model, the Kantian elements of subjectivity and disinterestedness are categorized as an affective aspect of arts education as prescribed by Kant. These two affective elements lead to student engagement. Similarly, the Kantian elements of ‘free play of imagination and understanding’, ‘lawfulness’, and ‘purposiveness of form’ are categorized as belonging to the faculty of cognition. What are important in these two aspects is that disinterestedness is conceptualized as not related to any achievement of immediate ends and embraces future personal goals such as further studies and career development. In the cognitive aspect the training of transferable skills in arts education and the enhancement of students’ awareness of the relationships between arts and social environment such as culture, traditions, and history are included. These two aspects are at work when students participate in arts education activities. The expected outcomes of arts education are Kant’s public assent that involves the sense of beautiful and moral assent as proposed by Kant and practical skills that can be transferrable to other life aspects such as further studies and career development. The latter aspect is cognitive in nature and more and more empirical support in this aspect has been collected in recent research28. As suggested in the introductory section, the additional elements (non-italicized items in Diagram 1) in this model aim to resolve incompatibilities of Kant’s aesthetic theory to contemporary arts education theories such as that proposed by Dewey which emphasizes the applicability of arts to daily life

Wing Sze Leung, “The moral significance of art in Kant’s Critique of Judgment: Imagination and the performance of imperfect duties,” Journal of Aesthetic Education 52, no. 3 (2018): 87–106. https://doi.org/10.5406/jaesteduc.52.3.0087. 28 See, for example, McConachie, Evolution, Cognition, and Performance. 27

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and participation in arts29. In the next section, a brief survey of the documents on arts education of Hong Kong and the results of content analyses of these documents will be provided to determine the validity of the proposed model.

THE HONG KONG ARTS CURRICULA Past efforts on the analysis of the arts curricula of Hong Kong have been based on traditional curriculum models such as Posner30 and Glatthorn31, with examples such as Li32, Leung33, and Hui34. Li35 adopted the model of Posner and identified a broadening of scope of arts education in Hong Kong from the 1950s to the 1990s as a move to being multidimensional. She also identified a more recent trend of treating arts as an academic subject instead of a past-time, arts education as related to students’ duties to the society and arts education as preparation for their future careers. Leung36 also adopted Posner’s framework in his analysis of the primary music curriculum of Hong Kong and reported that the music curriculum of Hong Kong primary schools was characterized by an emphasis of students’ involvement in musical

John Dewey, “Art as Experience,” in John Dewey: The Later Works, 1925-1953, ed. Jo Ann Boydston (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1989), 1–400. 30 George J. Posner, Analyzing the Curriculum. 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995). 31 Allan A. Glatthorn, Curriculum Renewal (Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Department, 1987). 32 Vanessa Lok Wa Li, “The Aims of Art Education in Junior Secondary Schools: Changes in the Past 40 Years,’ in School Curriculum Change and Development in Hong Kong, ed. Yin Cheong Cheng, King Wai Chow, and Kwok Tung Tsui (Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 2000), 31–45. 33 Bo Wah Leung, “Review and Analysis of the Educational Purposes of Primary Music Curriculum,” in School Curriculum Change and Development in Hong Kong, ed. Yin Cheong Cheng, King Wai Chow, and Kwok Tung Tsui (Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 2000), 425–44. 34 Ming Fai Hui, “A Critical Review of the Content, Methods, and Assessment of Junior Secondary Art Curriculum,” in School Curriculum Change and Development in Hong Kong, ed. Yin Cheong Cheng, King Wai Chow, and Kwok Tung Tsui (Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 2000), 1–29. 35 Li, “The Aims of Art Education in Junior Secondary Schools: Changes in the Past 40 Years.’ 36 Leung, “Review and Analysis of the Educational Purposes of Primary Music Curriculum.” 29

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experience. Hui37, on the other hand, employed Glatthorn’s framework in his review of the junior secondary art curriculum of Hong Kong. More recent discussions on arts education in Hong Kong are multifarious, covering topics such as the development of post-colonial dance education38 and the use for documentary photographs for social solidarity in terms of knowledge, affection and value39. There have been few attempts on the evaluation of the Hong Kong arts curricula from philosophical perspective, which might provide insights on the enhancement of arts education both locally and internationally. Kant laid the foundation of modern aesthetic theory, and is often regarded as the most influential philosopher on modern aesthetic judgment40. In this chapter, the documents selected for a survey of the arts education of Hong Kong are mainly the curriculum guides published by the Education Department of the Hong Kong Government. They will be supplemented by the syllabuses. Materials published by the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority were also selected for the survey of arts examinations of senior secondary level. The selection of documents is by no means exhaustive, and the survey focused on the aims of arts education rather than the details of curriculum, teaching and learning. In Hong Kong, after completing kindergarten education at around six, children begin their primary education that lasts six years. Upon the completion of primary education, pupils are allocated a place in a secondary school. The six–year secondary education is divided into junior secondary and senior secondary, each lasts three years. A total of 12 years of primary and secondary compulsory education is freely provided by the Government. Almost all primary and secondary schools in Hong Kong are whole-day schools. Regarding the teaching subjects, mainly nine (English, Chinese, Hui, “A Critical Review of the Content, Methods, and Assessment of Junior Secondary Art Curriculum.” 38 Vertinsky, McManus, and Sit, “‘Dancing Class’: Schooling the dance in colonial and postcolonial Hong Kong,” Sport, Education and Society 12, 1 (2007): 73–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573320601081575. 39 Kim Ping Yim, “Implementing “Care for Others” in the Hong Kong Arts Education Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 – Secondary 6): Prospects and Direction,” Asia-Pacific Journal for Arts Education 16, no. 3 (2017): 72–105. 40 McConachie, Evolution, Cognition, and Performance. 37

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Mathematics, General Studies, Computer Studies, Putonghua, Music, Visual Arts and Physical Education) are provided to primary school pupils and additional subjects on humanities and science such as History, Geography, Biology, and Chemistry are provided to junior secondary school students. Senior secondary students have to sit for the public examination of Diploma of Secondary Education (DSE), a city-wide annual public examination for tertiary education entrance at the end of their sixth form. Most senior secondary students are expected to select two to three elective subjects (with a maximum of four subjects) in addition to the four compulsory subjects of Chinese, English, Mathematics, and Liberal Studies. Music and Visual Arts are two of the 21 elective subjects. In a typical primary and junior secondary class in Hong Kong, about 1.5 hours each week are allocated to arts lessons. Only senior secondary students who opted for Music and Visual Arts as their public examination subjects have arts lessons. The Government recommends 10% of the annual lesson time (approximately 250 lesson hours), an equivalent of about three hours each week, to be allocated to the subjects of Visual Arts and Music as all other elective subjects of the DSE41. According to the key curriculum document of arts education of Hong Kong, Arts Education: Key Learning Area Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 – Secondary 3)42 for pre-senior secondary levels, arts education can develop students’ aesthetic development, is one of the most effective means to nurture creativity, and is an important area for all-round development of students. Other areas for all-round development are ethics, intellect, physique, and social skills. In the same document, the Education Department suggests 10–15% (238–356 hours) and 8–10% (220–276 hours) of the annual lesson time to be allocated to arts education for primary and junior secondary school levels respectively43. There are four aims of arts education

41

42

43

Curriculum Development Council and Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, Arts Education Key Learning Area: Visual Arts – Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4 - 6) (Hong Kong: The Education Department, HKSAR, 2007). Curriculum Development Council, Arts Education: Key Learning Areas Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Secondary 3). Curriculum Development Council, Basic Education Curriculum Guide: Building on Strengths (Primary 1 to Secondary 3).

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as described in the key document44. Three aims are developmental in nature that arts education should aim at the development of: 1) creativity, critical thinking, aesthetic sensitivity, cultural awareness and effective communication; 2) skills, knowledge, positive values and attitudes in arts; and 3) a life-long interest in arts. The last aim of arts education is to allow students to obtain enjoyment through the participation of activities related to arts. In the same document, it is mentioned that arts education contributes to the all-round development of students as arts education can facilitate the learning of other Key Learning Areas (KLAs)45. The same emphasis is restated in the same document: “As arts education contributes significantly to the all-round development of students, the significant role of arts education in the overall development of the child should be stressed”46. An example of how arts education contributes to the all-round development of students is that the value of perseverance can be nurtured in the process of mastery of art forms, which can be applied to other KLAs such as physical education. Arts can also facilitate the inheritance, transmission and reflection of students’ own and other others’ cultural traditions and values. These are just two of the many examples how arts education can contribute to students’ allround development suggested in the document47. The above aims are originated in the “Generic Skills” which are developed through the learning and teaching of different subjects of eight KLAs, which include collaboration, communication, creativity, critical thinking, information technology, numeracy, problem solving, selfmanagement and study skills48. They are to be developed through the 44

Curriculum Development Council, Arts Education: Key Learning Areas Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Secondary 3). 45 Ibid, 12. 46 Ibid, 51. 47 Ibid. 48 Curriculum Development Council, Basic Education Curriculum Guide: Building on Strengths (Primary 1 to Secondary 3).

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subjects of arts among other subjects of the Chinese language, the English language, Mathematics, Science, Technology, Personal, Social and Humanities, and finally Physical Education. It is also described in a key document49 that the recommended framework for arts education is an open and flexible one, and schools are encouraged to design their own school-based arts curriculum, as well as to re-structure, streamline and diversify it. Emphases are also given to a balanced arts curriculum, different approaches such as an integrative approach in learning, use of IT (for example, experimentation of different tone colors generated by the computer) and assessment. The art forms included in the KLAs are music, visual arts, drama, dance, media arts and other emerging art forms. The inclusion of different forms aims at developing students to express themselves and communicate with each other through different media such as light, sound, and bodily movements. For senior secondary students, among the seven goals mentioned in the curriculum document50, one is related to aesthetics. The goal is to enable students to develop a healthy life-style through active participation in aesthetic activities. This goal is further broken down into the expected outcomes of developing students’ creativity, aesthetic sensitivity, artsappraising ability, a respect for different values and cultures, and a life-long interest in the arts. In the assessment framework of the DSE Examination subject of Music51, the requirements of the abilities of identifying and responding critically to diverse music genres in relation to the historical and cultural contexts, to perform different types of music accurately with appropriate styles, and to create and arrange music through appropriate compositional devices are included52. The assessment objectives of the subject Visual Arts include the ability to describe, analyze, interpret and evaluate artwork, select and use appropriate visual language, media, 49

Curriculum Development Council. Arts Education: Key Learning Areas Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Secondary 3). 50 Curriculum Development Council, Senior Secondary Curriculum Guide: The Future is Now: From Vision to Realisation (Secondary 4 - 6). 51 Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, Assessment Framework for 2018 HKDSE – Music (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2015a). 52 Ibid.

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materials, tools and techniques in creative expression and communication or solving a problem53. The above features indicate that the senior secondary arts curriculum is a direct extension of that for primary and junior secondary students, except that the two public examination subjects Music and Visual Arts emphasize on analytical and interpretive capabilities as well as the techniques in arts creation. Li54 compared the aims of arts education for junior secondary schools recommended by the Government between 1950s and 1990s. Through content analysis of the official documents such as syllabuses and reports published by the Government, she identified a shift in paradigm. She treated 1997 as the watershed, and described three major changes in the aims of arts education. First, despite the core role assigned to personal experience, there was a broadening of scope with cognitive and affective developments added. The second change was a move from a single dimension of students’ personal development before 1997 to multi-dimensional aims of personal development, socialization, economic productivity, and further learning. The third change was that after 1997 arts has become a subject, instead of just past-times before 1997. What is also important is that since the 1960s, cultivation of a sense of responsibility to the society has been included as an aim of arts education. In addition to socialization, the 1997 and post-1997 documents made references to the economic value of arts education in students’ future careers and studies. An example is that, a later document focusing on music education55 points out one important aim of music education is for students to build a foundation for pursuing further studies and preparing for careers. This is in stark contrast to the earlier syllabus for junior secondary Art and Design subject, which stated explicitly that the majority of the students would not make their career in the field of art and design56. Regarding the change that arts were treated as a proper school 53

Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, Assessment Framework for 2018 HKDSE – Visual Arts (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2015b). 54 Li, “The Aims of Art Education in Junior Secondary Schools.” 55 Curriculum Development Council, Curriculum and Assessment Guide: Music. 56 Curriculum Development Committee, Syllabus for Art and Design (Form I – III) (Hong Kong: Government Printer, 1982).

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subject, a more comprehensive aim which covers a variety of aspects was found in the 1997 and post-1997 documents. The areas include artistic vision for responding intellectually and affectively to visual form, expression of complex and abstract concepts in arts, critical thinking, evaluation, problemsolving, decision-making, understanding of the interrelationships between art, technology, and society, awareness of unique cultural, social, economic, and political situation of Hong Kong, appreciation of diverse cultures of mankind, creativity and aesthetic development, basic knowledge and skill for further studies and future careers. Her observation is that except the attainment of interest and attitude which are affective in nature, all the above aims are cognitive in nature. This feature highly echoes the contemporary cognitive turn in arts education theories. One of the conclusions of Li is the prevalence of an essentialist view in the junior secondary arts curriculum. The essentialist view prescribes four criteria in arts education, namely aesthetic, art history, art criticism, and art making. Another change she identified is the shift from a fully developmentalist to a combination of instrumental and essentialist view. This indicates the inadequacy of the pure non-utilitarian theory of Kant in meeting the demands of contemporary society. Regarding the orientation of arts teachers, Wong and Cheung57 found that the humanistic orientation, among the other three common orientations, namely, academic, society-centered, and technological orientation received strong supports by arts teachers of Hong Kong secondary schools. This shows that teachers believe that arts education should aim at encouraging students to observe the world freely and use different materials for creation to achieve self-expression. This humanistic orientation echoes that of the Government58. This finding also confirms the observation of Li59 that personal experience has been a core element in the arts curriculum since the subject was introduced in Hong Kong schools. So-lan Wong and Derek Cheung, “Hong Kong Art Teachers’ Orientation to Curriculum,” Educational Research Journal 17, no. 1 (2002): 137–60. 58 Curriculum Development Council, Arts Education Key Learning Area: Visual Arts Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Secondary 3). 59 Li, “The Aims of Art Education in Junior Secondary Schools.” 57

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Focusing on a comparison of two historical syllabuses, Yu-Wu and Ng60 identified several trends in the arts education in Hong Kong that are relevant to this discussion. Firstly, the emphasis of the subjective personal experience of students has been the core focus in both the 196861 and 197662 syllabuses. This, again, confirms the observations of Li63. The second trend is that the aim of cultivation of taste appeared as early as in the 1968. While there had been a stronger emphasis on the cognitive and pragmatic aims in the 1976 syllabus64, the cultivation of taste remains a core foundation in the philosophy of music education of Hong Kong. The third trend is the emergence of child-centeredness in the 1976 syllabus. It is well-recognized among contemporary arts educators that arts experience is a core element in arts education65. This is especially true for arts type which involves embodiment heavily66. Leung67 identified arts experience as the key focus of the Hong Kong music education at the primary school level. He also pointed out that arts experience is accompanied by raising awareness of musical elements and knowledge. Music education at the primary level is also treated as a means for students’ development in terms of morality, health, intelligence, aesthetic, and social education. Despite conducting his analysis based on Posner’s model instead of Kant’s, his results indicate that arts education has moral in addition to aesthetic and social functions.

Ruth Yuet Wah Yu-Wu and Daniel Chun Hoi Ng, “The Underlying Educational Notions of the Two Earliest Official Primary Music Syllabi,” in School Curriculum Change and Development in Hong Kong, ed. Yin Cheong Cheng, King Wai Chow, and Kwok Tung Tsui (Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 2000), 483–503. 61 Education Department, Suggested Syllabuses for Primary Schools: Music (Hong Kong: Government Printer, 1968). 62 Curriculum Development Committee, Suggested Syllabuses for Primary Schools: Music (Hong Kong: Government Printer, 1976). 63 Li, “The Aims of Art Education in Junior Secondary Schools.” 64 Curriculum Development Committee, Suggested Syllabuses for Primary Schools: Music. 65 See, for example, Robin Kingston, “Art Study Tours: Education, Experience, and Values,” The International Journal of Arts Education 13, no. 3 (2018): 27–37; Vertinsky, McManus, and Sit, “‘Dancing Class’: Schooling the Dance in Colonial and Post-colonial Hong Kong.”; Elliot Eisner, “Does Experience in the Arts Boost Academic Achievement?” Art Education 51, no. 1 (1998): 7–15. 66 Vertinsky, McManus, and Sit, “‘Dancing Class’: Schooling the Dance in Colonial and Postcolonial Hong Kong.” 67 Leung, “Review and Analysis of the Educational Purposes of Primary Music Curriculum.” 60

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In the next section, the extent to which the proposed model is applicable to Hong Kong arts education will be explored.

EVALUATION OF THE PROPOSED KANTIAN MODEL ON ARTS EDUCATION: A CASE STUDY OF HONG KONG Direct evidence is found in the emphasis of subjectivity in the Hong Kong arts curriculum. The curriculum documents repeatedly emphasize the subjective, personal experience of students. It is obvious that Kant’s element of subjectivity can be identified in the arts education of Hong Kong, and has been one of the core elements since the first curriculum document prescribed by the Hong Kong Government in as early as 196868. Because of the importance of subjectivity, a flexible framework is suggested in the Hong Kong arts curriculum, and Hong Kong arts teachers are given a high degree of freedom to tailor made their teaching to cater the needs of different groups of students. The finding of the humanistic views held by the Hong Kong arts teachers in their teaching mentioned in the last section by Wong and Cheung69 that arts education should aim at self-expression of students is consistent with Kant’s element of subjectivity. Curriculum documents show the existence of disinterestedness as opposed to the good, value, and purpose. One important aim of arts education in Hong Kong is students’ development of positive values and attitudes and a life-long interest in arts70, which is not attached with any ends. Although no reference is made in the documents that the interest is to be distinguished from the agreeable and the good as suggested by Kant, we can infer that the aim refers to interest other than sensual enjoyment and immediate utility. A comparison shows that this aim of a development of a

Yu-Wu and Ng, “The Underlying Educational Notions of the Two Earliest Official Primary Music Syllabi.” 69 Wong and Cheung, “Hong Kong Art Teachers’ Orientation to Curriculum.” 70 Curriculum Development Council, Arts Education: Key Learning Areas Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Secondary 3), 23. 68

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life–long interest in arts is non-existent in the arts curriculum document in the U.K.71 Creativity and imagination, which belong to the faculty of cognition, have been consistently included as the core elements in the Hong Kong arts curriculum. As we have seen from the previous section, it has been repeatedly stated in the Hong Kong arts curricula that a major aim of arts education in Hong Kong is to develop the creativity and imagination of students72. Thus, we can find indirect evidence on the element of the free play of imagination and understanding in Kant’s theory. The support is indirect because despite the emphasis of creativity, there has been a lack of reference to the “free play” and “lawfulness” which form the main thrust of Kant’s aesthetic theory. There is a need for more elaboration in the curriculum on these two aspects as in the present curriculum only scattered sentences on imagination and creativity are found, and their importance seems not to be emerged from a well-grounded theory. This is despite the importance of creativity that Hong Kong professional composers and curriculum planners attached to music education of Hong Kong73. Another observation by Lai and Yip74 is that music textbooks for Hong Kong primary schools mostly contain activities on the performance of different forms of music. The extremely little coverage devoted to creating music is in stark contrast to the emphasis of creativity in the official curriculum documents.

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Department for Education, National Curriculum in English: Art and Design Programmes of Study. 72 Curriculum Development Council, Arts Education: Key Learning Areas Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Secondary 3); Curriculum Development Council, Basic Education Curriculum Guide: Building on Strengths (Primary 1 to Secondary 3); Curriculum Development Council, Senior Secondary Curriculum Guide: The Future is Now: From Vision to Realisation (Secondary 4 - 6); Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. Assessment Framework for 2018 HKDSE – Visual Arts; Li, “The Aims of Art Education in Junior Secondary Schools.” 73 Bo Wah Leung and Gary E. McPherson, “Professional Composers’ and Curriculum Planners’ Perception about Creativity in Hong Kong School Music Programs,” International Journal of Music Education 40 (2002): 67–77. 74 May Tan Lai and Rita Lai Chi Yip, “Content Analysis of Primary Music Textbook Series,” in School Curriculum Change and Development in Hong Kong, ed. Yin Cheong Cheng, King Wai Chow, and Kwok Tung Tsui (Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 2000), 411–423.

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There is a need for further explorations in this area to resolve this seemingly paradox of emphasizing on art form at the expense of developing creativity. Regarding Kant’s element of the purposiveness of form, the curriculum documents make direct reference to different art forms for “sociable communication” as suggested by Kant. In the documents, the use of different forms of art, i.e., music, visual arts, drama, dance, media arts and other emerging art forms are recommended both for primary and junior secondary pupils75 and senior secondary students76. However, no reference is made on the element of “purposiveness without ends” as prescribed by Kant. This is expected given the philosophical nature of this Kantian notion. Other cognitive elements in the proposed model are found to be prevalent in more contemporary arts curriculum documents in Hong Kong. Examples are transferable skills which include critical thinking, evaluation, critical responses, sensitivity and problem-solving, and knowledge on art, understanding of the interrelationships between art and technology, and cultural awareness77. These cognitive goals can be found in the list of generic skills and all– round development, and they are different from Kant’s cognitive element (i.e., free lawfulness of creativity and imagination) in his aesthetic theory as all these skills involve the use of concepts or Categories in Kant’s terminology. These skills are essential in the modern society, and together with the instrumental aim of arts for further studies and career development, the plausibility of the proposed model can be established. In fact, scholars such as Katz-Buonincontro78 has extended Kant’s notion of reflective judgment as critical thinking and problem-solving skill in order that Kant’s 75

Curriculum Development Council, Arts Education: Key Learning Areas Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Secondary 3). 76 Curriculum Development Council, Senior Secondary Curriculum Guide: The Future is Now: From Vision to Realisation (Secondary 4 - 6). 77 Curriculum Development Council, Arts Education: Key Learning Areas Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Secondary 3); Basic Education Curriculum Guide: Building on Strengths (Primary 1 to Secondary 3); Arts Education Key Learning Area: Music Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Secondary 3); Arts Education Key Learning Area: Visual Arts Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Secondary 3). 78 Katz-Buonincontro, “Implications of Kant’s Theories of Art for Developing Creative Identity in Students.”

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theory can be compatible with the demands of contemporary society and education. Another trend is the increasing importance of popular arts both in the society and in curriculum documents79. One feature of popular art is that they result in pleasure related to the senses. What was included in a later official curriculum document is that arts education should allow students to acquire knowledge and skills that are useful for further studies and future careers80. This view also extends to dance education81. Universal assent is indirectly identified in the Hong Kong arts curricula. It is an outcome of students’ development of global and diversified views on the world and different cultures. The evidence is indirect because views on the world and different cultures only imply what are beautiful are communicable and the same views of others can be expected. Raising students’ cultural awareness and facilitating the inheritance, transmission and reflection of students’ own cultural traditions and values as stated in a more recent document82 also provide indirect evidence to this element. Examples of objectives of visual arts education described in the curriculum documents which are related to universal assent are students’ capability of expressing opinions and listening to others’ ideas and communicating, and students “should be able to appraise and respond to issues in arts”83. One of the contributions of arts education as stated in the curriculum document is by helping students to “inherit, transmit and reflect upon their own and others’ cultural traditions and values”84. This aim is based on the assumption that taste is communicable and is based on the expectations of others so that universal assent can be achieved as Kant suggested. Awareness of music genres in relations to historical and cultural contexts of the senior secondary students is also included in the assessment framework of the DSE subject 79

Curriculum Development Council and Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, Arts Education Key Learning Area: Visual Arts – Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4 - 6). 80 For example, Curriculum Development Council, Curriculum and Assessment Guide: Music. 81 For example, see Vertinsky, McManus, and Sit, “‘Dancing Class’: Schooling the Dance in Colonial and Post-colonial Hong Kong.” 82 Curriculum Development Council, Arts Education: Key Learning Areas Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Secondary 3). 83 Ibid, 25. 84 Ibid, 12.

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Music85. Li86 points out the aim of arts education to provide cultural knowledge to students has been included in the curriculum documents since the early years. Yim also proposes that documentary photography can allow students to connect their personal knowledge with that of the community, nation, and the globe thus enhancing social solidarity, at the same time is a means for value education and fostering care for others87. The cultivation of a sense of responsibility towards the society as stated in the contemporary aim is consistent with the Kantian aim of arts in achieving morality. In a curriculum document the Government suggests “the use of social and moral issues as themes for study” 88 in arts education. The emphasis of the role of arts in multi-cultural cohesion and social harmony as suggested in the same document is also consistent with Kant’s view that arts have the function of cultural bonding, as beauty like morality involves feeling that is shared by all individuals. The goal of raising students’ awareness of unique cultural, social, economic, and political situation of Hong Kong, and understanding arts in context89 are also indirectly related to morality, as they aim to achieve a common goal of understanding of selves to the outer environment, including expectations of others. Therefore, arts education of Hong Kong has the aim of raising the awareness of students on the relationships with the social environment, particularly in terms of their moral responsibility towards the society.

CONCLUSION This chapter proposes an extended Kantian model on arts education and presents results of a survey of the Hong Kong arts education curriculum as a case study. The aim of the proposed model is to resolve the 85

Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, Assessment Framework for 2018 HKDSE – Music. 86 Li, “The Aims of Art Education in Junior Secondary Schools.” 87 Yim, “Implementing “Care for Others” in the Hong Kong Arts Education Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 – Secondary 6): Prospects and Direction.” 88 Curriculum Development Council, Arts Education: Key Learning Areas Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 to Secondary 3), 45. 89 Ibid.

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incompatibilities of the Kantian model with contemporary theories on arts education and the demands of the modern world. A secondary aim is to examine the features of the Hong Kong arts education. The proposed model contains disinterestedness and subjectivity as the affective aspect, free-play of imagination with lawfulness, and purposiveness of form as the cognitive aspect, and finally public assent, morality, extension of arts education to skills that are transferable to other areas of life and future career development as the objective aspect. Official curriculum documents on Hong Kong arts education indicate that most components in the proposed model could be found in the Hong Kong arts education curriculum. However, some elements only receive indirect support and most elements identified are not coherently linked. The Hong Kong arts curricula, on the other hand, is characterized by an emphasis on subjectivity, creativity, imagination, critical thinking, training of arts forms, knowledge between art and technology, awareness of the world and different cultures. They also treat arts as a means for all round development of students and equip students with practical skills that can be transferred to other areas of their daily life, and is a means for further studies and preparing for careers. The Kantian elements of disinterestedness and morality only play a peripheral role. Hui90 provides several suggestions which resonate well with the conclusion of this chapter. According to him, the aim of arts education should be the development of students’ aesthetic intelligence, to foster their creativity, to promote an awareness of culture and civilization, and finally to form values, vision and judgment. These views align well iwth the proposed model. More specifically, the first aim of Hui is related to Kant’s subjectivity or subjective personal experience, the second creativity or free lawfulness of imagination and understanding, and Hui’s third and fourth aims are related to Kant’s concepts of public assent, social responsibility, and morality.

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Hui, “A Critical Review of the Content, Methods, and Assessment of Junior Secondary Art Curriculum.”

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RECOMMENDATIONS This analysis has generated some results that might be useful both for enhancing the existing arts education in Hong Kong and extending Kant’s aesthetic theory. They are briefly described below. First and foremost, despite the preliminary documentary support for the proposed model from the Hong Kong arts education curricula, further discussions and collection of empirical support for validating the proposed model are necessary. Students’ subjective personal experience has always been a major pillar of the philosophy of arts education in Hong Kong since the appearance of the first official curriculum document. This emphasis is highly consistent with Kant’s aesthetic theory and therefore should remain to be a core element in the Hong Kong arts curricula. However, as mentioned earlier, subjective personal experience needs to be further defined and justified. Despite the repeated mentioning of the importance of students’ subjective personal experience, more explanations and details on this element should be provided in the future curricula. Given the predominantly cognitive nature of the Hong Kong arts curricula, elements related to Kant’s morality in the Hong Kong curriculum, for example, the cultivation of a sense of responsibility towards the Hong Kong society and China should be further strengthened and expanded. There is also a need to raise students’ awareness of the value of cultural heritage and the value of arts in social cohesion and harmony which is only briefly pointed out in the current documents. In Kant’s theory feeling is an element that has universal assent and allows beauty to achieve its moral functions. More emphasis should be given to the affective elements. As mentioned in the introductory section, Katz-Buonincontro91 proposed two elements in arts education. Her proposal embraces both Kantian aesthetic theory and the demands of contemporary education. The first is the training of form. The training of form provides students exposure

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Katz-Buonincontro, “Implications of Kant’s Theories of Art for Developing Creative Identity in Students.”

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to exemplary work of art which can cultivate their taste, and it also perfects students’ ability to communicate with others and understand their relationships with the audience and the public. The second element is to develop students’ creative identity, which is achieved by encouraging students to build up their confidence in their artistic creativity. This is achieved by using a “hands-on approach” for student to explore art media freely, and make students more knowledgeable about the creative process and develop Kant’s idea of “reflective judgment,” or critical thinking. His proposal is a response to the inadequacies of Kant’s view that arts are exclusive for geniuses and not accessible to everybody who has imagination based on the genius/non-genius dichotomy. By cultivating the creative identity of students, students are empowered of their artistic talent and creativity. The instrumental goal of Hong Kong arts education for students’ further studies and career development is not emphasized in Kant’s aesthetic theory and is even antithetical to Kant’s notion of disinterestedness. This reflects that there might be a need to extend the Kantian theory of aesthetics as proposed in this chapter so that there is a wider coverage of not only skills but areas of arts such as popular arts and arts related to technology. The inclusion of arts that are related to daily living has been proposed by Dewey and contemporary arts educators have responded to this demand by making a cognitive turn. There is also a need to revise and extend Kant’s strict demarcation between fine art, agreeable art and craft, given the trend of the blurring boundaries between the three types of beauty caused by modern media and communication technologies. Treating art as a commodity is no longer a new description92, and in post-modern treatment serious and classical arts are always mixed with popular arts. The inclusion of product design in the content of arts syllabus for primary and lower secondary school levels in Singapore93 is an example which reflects the influence of

Walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” in Illuminations (London: Fontana, 1968), 217–51. 93 Student Development Curriculum Division, Art Teaching and Learning Syllabus: Primary & Lower Secondary. 92

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commercialism on arts education. These are some directions that aesthetic theorists can consider for future discussions. Finally, the terminologies in the curriculum documents both in Hong Kong and countries discussed in this chapter need to be more specifically defined. Some examples are “subjective personal experience,” “enjoyment” (as Kant distinguishes between sensual and reflective pleasures), “creativity,” and more details on the aims are necessary. These refinements can facilitate the implementation and future enhancement of arts education and research on arts education. Justifications for the aims should also be stated, and the justifications for the rationale on a more theoretical level are recommended.

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Student Development Curriculum Division. Art Teaching and Learning Syllabus: Primary & Lower Secondary. Singapore: Ministry of Education, 2008. van de Water, Manon, Mary McAvoy, and Kristin Hunt. Drama and Education: Performance Methodologies for Teaching and Learning. London and New York: Routledge, 2015. Vertinsky, Patricia, Alison McManus, and Cindy Sit. “‘Dancing Class’: Schooling the Dance in Colonial and Post-colonial Hong Kong.” Sport, Education and Society 12, 1 (2007): 73–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 13573320601081575. Winner, Ellen, Thalia Goldstein, and Stephan Vincent-Lancrin. Art for Art’s Sake: The Impact of Arts Education. OECD Publishing, 2013. http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264180789-en. Wong, So-lan, and Derek Cheung. “Hong Kong Art Teachers’ Orientation to Curriculum.” Educational Research Journal 17, no. 1 (2002): 137– 60. Yim, Kim Ping. “Implementing “Care for Others” in the Hong Kong Arts Education Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 – Secondary 6): Prospects and Direction.” Asia-Pacific Journal for Arts Education 16, no. 3 (2017): 72–105. Yu-Wu, Ruth Yuet Wah, and Daniel Chun Hoi Ng. “The Underlying Educational Notions of the Two Earliest Official Primary Music Syllabi.” In School Curriculum Change and Development in Hong Kong, edited by Yin Cheong Cheng, King Wai Chow, and Kwok Tung Tsui, 483–503. Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 2000.

In: Curriculum Perspectives and Development ISBN: 978-1-53618-333-7 Editor: Alexander Bachmeier © 2020 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 3

STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE PORTFOLIO WRITING John L. McAfee, MD, Elaine F. Dannefer 1, PhD and Richard A. Prayson, MD Cleveland Clinic Department of Anatomic Pathology and Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, US

ABSTRACT Modern medical education employs various modes of student assessment. Over the past several decades, numerous institutions have turned away from traditional exam-based systems to more holistic assessment models. Written portfolio assessments are an example of such an alternative assessment approach. Our institution adopted a completely portfolio-based evaluation system at its inception more than fifteen years ago. Students receive written feedback on individual assignments or 1

Dr. Elaine Dannefer, PhD, contributed significantly to the original version of this chapter which has been used as a resource for medical students and faculty in portfolio writing. Dr. Dannefer was a key figure in designing and implementing the portfolio assessment system at the Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine. Sadly, she passed away in 2016.  Corresponding Author’s E-mail: [email protected].

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John L. McAfee, Elaine F. Dannefer and Richard A. Prayson learning experiences. They work with an advisor to identify patterns in their performance and set specific learning goals with respect to established competencies and milestones. Students produce a written document describing their progress toward meeting these goals, citing their written evaluations as evidence. This system promotes academic growth and also helps to build skills in reflective writing. The literature describes different levels of written reflection. In order to maximize growth and facilitate evaluation, students should strive to demonstrate higher-level reflective writing. In this chapter, we describe the portfolio-based evaluation system our program employs. We then discuss strategies for effective portfolio writing, including attributes of lower- and higher-level reflection. These strategies may help students when writing portfolios and may also help inform educators who are considering developing, implementing, or evaluating portfolio-based assessments.

INTRODUCTION Modes of assessment in medical education have evolved over the last several decades. For many years, medical schools have relied on instruments like multiple choice exams and standardized clinical encounters to evaluate student knowledge and ability. These methods offer relative objectivity, especially since their reliability and reproducibility may be measured (Norcini et al., 2011; Schuwirth & van der Vleuten, 2004). Nevertheless, exam-based assessment systems have attracted criticism. Tests may lead students and administrators to overemphasize numerical outcomes. They may also draw focus away from learning and onto fears of punishment or failure. They also do not capture all aspects of student learning and development (Schuwirth & van der Vleuten, 2004; Van Der Vleuten, 1996). In more recent years, such modalities have been supplemented by or even supplanted by competency-based evaluation. These newer approaches entered the undergraduate medical education arena after being introduced in graduate medical education programs (Epstein, 2007). ‘Competence’ has been defined as habitual actions in areas that are essential for clinical practice (Epstein, 2007; Miller, 1990). Thus, in addition to testing knowledge or technical skills, competency-based systems also evaluate abilities in areas like communication, teamwork, and clinical reasoning

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(Epstein, 2007). Rather than relying on the validity of a single assessment instrument, competency-based systems often draw from multiple assessment sources. This allows a broader and more comprehensive view of a student’s progress (Vleuten & Schuwirth, 2005). However, competence in such areas is more difficult to capture in numerical form. Documenting habitual or repeated behavior also requires more longitudinal observation (Holmboe et al., 2010). As a result, programs increasingly shifted toward written evaluations. These allow assessors to capture a student’s performance with a more nuanced view. They also capture details and observations that may help contextualize or interpret particular actions and their root causes (Holmboe et al., 2010). However, one of the main challenges with written evaluation is that it is harder to aggregate and present as a summative evaluation. As medical schools’ views on evaluation have shifted, novel ideas about adult learning have also taken root. Traditional academic environments emphasize order and organization, where instructors deliver a prespecified set of material to their students. However, adults have been shown to learn best in ways that take their existing knowledge, experience, and opinions into account. Thus, they prefer learning in a self-directed and problemoriented fashion (Kaufman, 2003; Mukhalalati & Taylor, 2019). Additionally, a significant portion of what adults learn is accomplished through reflection on prior experiences. Learners process these experiences, learn lessons from them, and modify behavior accordingly (Kaufman, 2003; Taylor & Hamdy, 2013). This reflective thought in action process permeates adult learning in both home and work environments. Although adult learning theory has been well described for several decades, its practical application has lagged behind (Kaufman, 2003). Incorporating adult learning theory in medical education would be expected to have numerous benefits. As a physician, the ability to implement the reflective process in one’s day-to-day work environment is crucial for continued learning. Promoting such behavior early in one’s career, at the medical school level, affords one an opportunity to develop this skill (Mann et al., 2009; Taylor & Hamdy, 2013). Moreover, it can give one a window into one’s ability to reflect en route to developing this skill. The practice

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enables physicians and physicians in training to better understand themselves and what motivates their actions and reactions. By better understanding themselves, one hopes that medical students and later physicians come to a better appreciation of the complexity of patients and the patient-physician relationship. This would allow the physician or student physician to be aware of how their behavior, feelings, and motivations can have an impact on patients. Reflection on this process should also help students and physicians appreciate that their patients are also processing experiences in a reflective manner in much the same way as they are. In the face of changing assessment strategies, reflective practice can play a key role in medical education programs. As competency-based evaluation and written assessments are implemented, medical students have increased opportunities to reflect. Students may glean a more detailed and longitudinal view of their performance, spread out over multiple areas (Harris et al., 2017; Holmboe et al., 2010). By observing trends in their performance, students may set specific learning goals and then track their implementation (Epstein, 2007). Reflection emerges as a key step between receiving written feedback and acting on it. Although written assessments may indicate problem areas, it is up to the student to determine a root cause and create a workable plan to change them (Sargeant et al., 2009). By iteratively engaging in this process, students may see the outcomes of reflective practice take effect. If the system works appropriately, they will notice trends in the effectiveness of their reflection itself. They may then make additional plans to improve their process of improvement itself. As noted previously, it may be difficult to aggregate written evaluations into a summative assessment of student performance. One method for accomplishing this goal is through a portfolio (Challis, 1999; Epstein, 2007). Considered broadly, a portfolio is a collection of individual assessments that represent a student’s achievements. Numerous approaches to portfolio writing have been described. Some include all available individual assessments, while others only include carefully selected assessments that pertain to specific competencies or requirements. Especially in the latter model, students integrate various assessments and experiences and write a reflective commentary on their performance and progress (Webb et al.,

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2002). Portfolios may be useful for both formative assessment (helping students grow and change in response to feedback) as well as summative assessment (ensuring that students are meeting program goals and progressing appropriately) (Driessen et al., 2007). Portfolio assessments have attracted criticism from some sources, emphasizing that they must be introduced in a highly intentional manner to ensure fairness and reproducibility. This includes ensuring that portfolio assessors are well trained and take a standardized approach to reviewing the portfolios (Driessen et al., 2007; Roberts et al., 2002). However, when applied appropriately, portfolio assessment provides an official outlet for reflective writing. Indeed, the reflective process may be approached from a highly analytical standpoint, to ensure it is adequate and maximize its impact (Nguyen et al., 2014). Such a method of assessment represents a programmatic approach that may help institutions shift from an “assessment of learning” system to an “assessment for learning” system. All evaluation instruments have been shown to promote learning. However, integrating reflective practice as a part of the learning process lowers the stakes of assessment and involves the learner as a partner, rather than a subject, of evaluation (Schuwirth & van der Vleuten, 2011). The Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine (CCLCM) is a fiveyear program that aims to train physician investigators (Fishleder et al., 2007). This program features competency-based assessment utilizing a portfolio assessment system, which was designed and implemented from the program’s inception (Dannefer & Henson, 2007). In short, students are assessed in nine competencies throughout their five years in training. Standards/milestones are defined for the students at various levels of their education. The primary goal of the CCLCM assessment system is to assist students in becoming reflective in the clinical, basic science and research arenas. Students regularly receive feedback from a variety of sources related to their activities. Examples of such feedback include: faculty and peer evaluation from small group/problem-based learning sessions; narrative feedback on research and journal presentations; feedback from their clinical experiences; as well as many others. The program does not employ graded exercises. Students, in conjunction with a physician advisor, regularly

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review their feedback. They monitor their assessments in light of competency standards appropriate for their stage of training. Students are required to regularly assemble a portfolio, which is a personal narrative written by the students, reflecting and self-assessing on their progress with regard to competency standards/milestones, self-identifying both strengths and weakness. Where target areas of improvement are identified, students are required to construct a learning plan. In this document, students set goals, make plans for implementing those goals, and identify specific outcomes that can reflect their progress. This process allows them to strategically alter their behavior and subsequently monitor the feedback they receive in order to appreciate the impact - or in some instances the lack of impact - their plan has had. Figure 1 provides an overview of CCLCM’s assessment process.

Figure 1. Reflective Practice Cycle (modified from Kolb, D.A. (1984) Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall).

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Table 1. Original competencies addressed in portfolio assessment (modified from Dannifer; E.F & Henson, L.C. (2007).) 1. Research Demonstrate knowledge base and critical-thinking skills for basic and clinical research and skill sets required to conceptualize and conduct research. 2. Basic and Clinical Sciences of Medical Knowledge Demonstrate and apply knowledge of human structure and function, pathophysiology, human development, and psychosocial concepts to medical practice. 3. Communication Demonstrate effective verbal, nonverbal, and written communication skills in a wide range of relevant activities in medicine and research. 4. Clinical Skills Perform appropriate history and physical examination in a variety of patient care encounters, and demonstrate effective use of clinical procedures and laboratory tests. 5. Clinical Reasoning Diagnose, manage, and prevent common health problems of individuals, families, and communities. Interpret findings and formulate action plan to characterize the problem and reach a diagnosis. 6. Professionalism Demonstrate knowledge and behavior that represents the highest standard of medical research and clinical practice, including compassion, humanism, and ethical and responsible actions at all times. 7. Personal Development Recognize and analyze personal needs (learning, self-care, etc.), and implement plan for personal growth. 8. Health Care Systems Recognize and be able to work effectively in the various health care systems to advocate and provide quality patient care. 9. Reflective Practice Demonstrate habits of analyzing cognitive and effective experiences that result in identification of learning needs, leading to integration and synthesis of new learning.

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Student portfolios are of two types: formative and summative. Students prepare formative portfolios several times throughout the academic year, and present a summative portfolio at the end of the year. Formative portfolios allow the student to regularly review and reflect on their performance in conjunction with their physician advisor and construct a learning plan for the next interval of time. The summative portfolio, in addition to having the goals of the formative portfolios, also serves as an instrument to assess student performance over an extended period of time. The summative portfolios are reviewed by a promotions committee (MSPRC), which consists of physicians and scientists. The committee reviews the summative portfolio, determines how the student is progressing, and decides whether the student can be promoted to the next level. MSPRC members receive specific training and discuss portfolios as a group in order to promote standardized review. If a student’s performance is lacking in a particular competency, the committee may mandate that the student, in conjunction with their advisor, devise a more rigorous learning plan to address the deficiency (remediation/performance improvement plan). The portfolio model, as constructed and described, mirrors the reflective practice cycle itself (Figure 1). Students generate an evidence bank of narrative feedback from peers, faculty, and themselves. The feedback serves as documentation of their experiences. Students reflect on the feedback in order to assess their performance as measured against competency standards. The student’s physician advisor serves to externally validate this reflective process during both formative and summative portfolio preparation. Where the student and advisor identify targeted areas for improvement, the student prepares a learning plan, as previously noted. In the next portfolio, the student evaluates new feedback to assess the impact that the altered behavior has had on their performance. In our experience with implementation of this portfolio approach to assessment, a number of strategic factors clearly are important in being able to successfully complete this task. The four major factors to be considered include: 1) creating the proper environment, 2) choosing evidence, 3) reflective ability, and 4) writing issues.

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PROPER ENVIRONMENT Creating the proper environment is important soil in which the portfolio seed germinates. The expectations need to be clearly defined for all parties involved in the process - students, physician advisor, mentors, administration, faculty, and promotions committee. To be most successful, students must buy into and take ownership of the process; students who are resistant or reluctant to do so struggle with the process. Instrumental in facilitating a student taking ownership of the process is an appreciation that the goals of the portfolio are of value. Although students come to medical school with a variety of backgrounds and previous experiences in documenting reflective practice in writing, most students require some direction and guidance, particularly at the start. Additionally, it is critical that students feel free to explore their weaknesses and failures without fearing retribution. In all but the most egregious of situations, failures and shortcomings must be tolerated and treated as opportunities for growth and improvement.

EVIDENCE The second key strategic component in this process is the quality of evidence (i.e., feedback) the student receives and the student’s ability to appropriately process the evidence, selecting the best evidence to support his or her arguments. Many of us are too familiar with evaluation forms that ask the evaluator to circle a number that corresponds to a level of performance. Such approaches, although conducive to generating a numeric value, provide little guidance in terms of how one can alter or better one’s behavior. Detailed narrative feedback with illustrative examples is much more useful to students in writing a portfolio.

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This type of feedback allows the student to more readily appreciate their strengths as well as their weaknesses in a concrete way. Given the quality feedback, the student then is faced with the tasks of reading the evaluations, reflecting on their significance, and choosing those that most accurately and appropriately support their arguments. Evidence selected to support an argument needs to be pertinent to the argument. Evidence needs to be balanced; students are encouraged to document both positive as well as negative behaviors, giving a proper balance to their portfolio and thereby generating a portfolio that is truly reflective of their performance. Many students, particularly when they begin writing portfolios, tend to be overly harsh on themselves and to focus on weaknesses and areas for improvement rather than on the many good things that they are doing. Less frequent, and more problematic, is the situation in which a student may tend to ignore the negative feedback and present an overly positive view of their performance. As previously mentioned, the evidence selected in writing a portfolio needs to represent the student’s true performance; this is best accomplished by citing evidence from a spectrum or range of sources. For example, citing evidence from oral research presentations, a journal club presentation, small group sessions, and from an outpatient clinical preceptor, collectively provides a much stronger argument supporting good oral communication skills versus a citation from just one of these venues.

DOCUMENTING REFLECTIVE PRACTICE The third major component in developing a successful portfolio is a student’s ability to reflect and document his or her reflection in writing. Levels of reflection can range over a spectrum of descriptive to evaluative (see Table 2) (Kember et al., 2008). Although some degree of description and narrative regarding performance is required, the goal is for the student to be able to analyze their experience and evaluate the significance of that experience to his or her self.

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Table 2. Levels of Reflection (see note below) DESCRIPTIVE: describes without ownership of implications, relays factual information (what happened) without any interpretation or reflection Describes experiences in general terms (absence of details or context) Describes own behavior without reference to thoughts or emotions     

Fails to identify patterns or trends in feedback States opinions without supportive examples or evidence Fails to identify weaknesses or attributes weaknesses to others Documents performance with extensive quotes and very little analysis or reflection Documents with insufficient or inappropriate evidence or with emphasis on quantity (laundry list)

ANALYTICAL: analyzes experiences without providing evaluation of the whole picture    

Provides descriptions of experiences that include context (situation, what others were doing, own thoughts and emotions) Explains opinions with supportive evidence Articulates relationships among pieces of evidence Demonstrates an awareness of weaknesses and strengths and begins to identify patterns of behavior

EVALUATIVE: describes and analyzes experiences and evaluates what they mean to self and profession     



Provides detailed descriptions of experiences that include both a context and links between experiences and between competencies Recognizes dynamic role of external and personal factors in shaping experiences and own behaviors Analyzes and evaluates experiences and patterns of behavior and their implications for themselves and their profession Demonstrates self-monitoring and adjustment of own behaviors to modify experiences and patterns of behavior Demonstrates standing back to reflect on own behaviors, re-evaluation of approaches and planning of alternative approaches (documenting the entire reflective practice cycle) Assesses motivations behind behaviors and actions.

Note: These guidelines were adapted from the Dundee Test of Reflective Ability Rubric (2004) based on experience and review of the literature.

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To illustrate this point, let us consider three examples of how a student might approach a targeted area for improvement. The following three scenarios illustrate different levels of reflection. The scenario presented is that of a student who has received feedback from his peers as well as faculty preceptor indicating that he is quiet in the setting of small group, problembased learning sessions. Below are three examples of how a student may choose to write and reflect about their experience. Scenario 1: I have received feedback from a number of my peers indicating that I should speak up more in the small group setting. One student indicated “we would like to hear more from him.” Another student indicated that I am “often quiet and sometimes it is hard to know whether he is able to follow the discussion the group is having.” A third classmate expressed concern about whether or not I am even adequately prepared for the sessions and that I don’t tend to say much. My faculty preceptor likewise has indicated that he would like to see me speak up more; “he has great ideas. The group benefits tremendously when he does speak up, but he seems to be reluctant to do so.” This feedback indicates that I need to make an effort to speak up more in the problem-based learning sessions. Scenario 2: Since the last portfolio, a number of students and faculty have noted that I tend to be quieter in small group, problem-based learning setting. This seems to have been a change from my previous feedback which indicated “you are very participatory in the problem-based learning setting and contribute greatly to the functioning of the group.” My peers have commented that “you tend to be quiet in the small group setting,” “we would like to hear more from him,” and “you seem much quieter this time around than in previous group in which we were together.” Some peers questioned whether I am keeping up with the material. When I do participate, my comments seem to be valued and contribute to the group, according to my faculty preceptor. Perhaps my decrease in participation is related to my being uncomfortable with the material we covered in this organ block, which focused a lot on neuromuscular disease. I found mastering the neuroscience material particularly challenging. I need to make an effort to increase my participation and improve my feedback from faculty and fellow students. Scenario 3: One significant change from my last portfolio is my decreased level of participation in the small group, problem-based learning

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setting. A number of my peers have commented on this; “he has been very quiet. I am unsure whether he has difficulty with material or is not prepared for this session.” Other students have made similar comments. Likewise, my faculty preceptor indicated that “he has been very quiet in the group. When he does speak up, he has great ideas. The group benefits tremendously when he does speak up, but he seems reluctant to do so.” My decreased participation in this small group setting is a change from my previous group where I felt much more comfortable in speaking up in the group, as evidenced by the faculty preceptor who indicated “he is a very active participant in the group process. He frequently contributes important information to the group discussion and keeps the group on task.” This difference in my level of participation may be related to two things: 1) I feel that the current group I am involved with is dominated by three individuals who don’t give the rest of the members of the group as much time to speak up and 2) I do not feel as comfortable with the material in this organ block. The neuromuscular physiology is particularly difficult for me to get a good handle on, since this is brand new material. I’ve noticed that when I am less comfortable with this material, I am less likely to speak up because I am afraid to say something that is incorrect. Going forward, my plan is to try and spend more time preparing for my problem-based learning sessions so that I am more comfortable with the material and, therefore, more likely to participate. I am also going to plan to meet with the small group faculty preceptor to discuss the group dynamics and see what suggestions he might have for me to participate more. I will also ask him to specifically comment in his next evaluation how I am progressing in this area. I realize that as a future physician, I need to find a way to be able to contribute information and voice my opinion in such group discussions, particularly when patient care is at stake. I also realize that I need to take responsibility for making sure that I have the necessary background information to be informed and therefore confident in participating in such settings.

These scenarios are examples of different levels of reflection. The first scenario is primarily descriptive; it relays factual information with appropriately cited evidence, but does not indicate that the writer has assumed ownership of the implications of the feedback he received.

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The second scenario is somewhat more analytical. It likewise describes the situation with appropriate evidence and attempts to make some general analysis of the experience without providing an evaluation of the whole picture. The third scenario is more evaluative. In addition to describing the scenario, it also includes an analysis of motivation for behavior, a clear plan of action, and some appreciation for why the behavior is important to alter because of implications as a future physician. The third scenario very nicely demonstrates reflective practice.

WRITING The fourth component which is important in producing a successful portfolio is the writing itself. The most effective portfolios are wellorganized, demonstrating a progressive flow of ideas. In these portfolios, the student demonstrates the interrelatedness of competencies (another manifestation of reflective practice). The student supports arguments with effective citation of evidence and documentation of reflective practice. Organization is critical, at the individual competency level as well as individual paragraph level. The fundamentals of writing that we all learned in middle school and high school, where each paragraph has a topic sentence followed by evidence sentences and a summary sentence, still holds true. Additionally, the presentation from a grammatical, syntax, and spelling standpoint is also important. A poorly written or poorly presented portfolio can considerably detract from the substance of the student’s argument. A poorly written portfolio provides evidence of poor written communication skills. Most importantly, the poorly written portfolio can make it very difficult to assess the student’s ability to reflect and to evaluate a student’s performance.

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WHAT EXPERIENCE HAS TAUGHT US Experience has delineated several areas in which students are likely to have problems with portfolio writing. A small number of students have demonstrated problems with writing. This most commonly manifests itself as problems with grammar, syntax and spelling. Inappropriate or ineffective word choice can sometimes color nuances of meaning. Some students write too little to argue their points effectively; others write too much for the reviewer to digest. As noted previously, poor quality of writing can make it difficult to assess the portfolio. A poorly organized and written portfolio may make it challenging to determine whether or not a student has met a certain standard or competency challenging. Interestingly, the promotions committee often scrutinizes, by necessity, the poorly written portfolio more closely. In the process of doing this, they sometimes uncover deficiencies that otherwise may have been “overlooked” in a cogently written portfolio. On one hand, providing limits or a target range for word count may help. However, many of the students who have ended up in remediation for a poorly written portfolio simply did not put the requisite amount of time and effort in doing a proper job up front – a matter of professionalism. Students must invest the necessary time to do the job. One would not expect a journal peer reviewer to accept a research paper that was poorly organized and grammatically riddled with errors; the same holds true for a portfolio. Students occasionally demonstrate an inability or unwillingness to reflect. As previously mentioned, the student who fails to appreciate the presence of any targeted areas for improvement poses a particular challenge. Occasionally, one encounters a situation where the student may be reflective at a descriptive level, but is unable to effect change in behavior or unable to take their level of reflection to a more evaluative level. There may be differences in the level of reflection one is comfortable expressing in a written format. Some students feel particularly uncomfortable in writing about themselves. The portfolio experience provides the opportunity to work on improving this skill. In either case, the physician advisor must help the student recognize the problem. With varying levels of guidance, the student may then work to identify the source of the difficulty and devise a plan to

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address it. Future portfolios should reflect changes in these practices. If not, the student may need to remediate. Some students struggle with citing evidence. They may cite too much evidence, or not enough. Students must regularly review evidence when it becomes available, and take time to reflect on its implications in the moment. They may then organize their evidence for future use, flagging high quality assessments that pertain to the various competencies. These practices help with keeping track of one’s own performance and setting aside the “best” evidence for each competency. When writing, students must ensure that an assessment citation accompanies each statement they make about their performance. However, it also best to avoid providing long strings of citations for an argument. This practice not only makes it more difficult to review a portfolio, it also calls into question whether a student can select the most robust evidence available for a given competency. Students also need not embed large quotes from their evidence in the body of the portfolio. Our system at CCLCM allows for original documents to be attached or linked to the written portfolio. Thus, a reviewer can view the original source in its entirety anyway. Including large quotes distracts from the student’s own statements. The words and space are better used for reflect on the evidence cited. It is essential that students integrate their evidence into a cogent discussion. This way, they can fully engage in and demonstrate reflective practice. Much as in a research paper, making sure that the evidence cited really does support the written argument is important. Interpreting and contextualizing the evidence, rather than simply providing it for the reader to interpret, is essential for the document to be complete. Success in utilizing the portfolio for reflective practice and assessment from a student’s standpoint is dependent on a number of factors. Again, the milieu in which reflective writing is promulgated needs to be supportive in order to create an environment where one feels safe to honestly self-assess and share reflections with others. The portfolio provides opportunities to develop a sense of the importance of honest self-assessment, affording students opportunities to practice and develop skills in self-reflection in a setting that provides continued feedback and reality checking in the form of narrative feedback as well as their physician advisor coach. Not all students

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enter medical school in possession of the ability to self-reflect in an evaluative level. That is perfectly acceptable. The goal is to work on developing this skill. Students must be patient, be open to the process, and ask for help if they need it.

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summative purposes? Medical Education, 36(10), 899–900. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2923.2002.01288.x. Sargeant, J. M., Mann, K. V., van der Vleuten, C. P., & Metsemakers, J. F. (2009). Reflection: A link between receiving and using assessment feedback. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 14(3), 399–410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-008-9124-4. Schuwirth, L. W. T., & van der Vleuten, C. (2004). Merging views on assessment. Medical Education, 38(12), 1208–1210. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1365-2929.2004.02055.x. Schuwirth, L. W. T., & van der Vleuten, C. P. M. (2011). Programmatic assessment: From assessment of learning to assessment for learning. Medical Teacher, 33(6), 478–485. https://doi.org/10.3109/0142159X. 2011.565828. Taylor, D. C. M., & Hamdy, H. (2013). Adult learning theories: Implications for learning and teaching in medical education: AMEE Guide No. 83. Medical Teacher, 35(11), e1561–e1572. https://doi.org/10.3109/ 0142159X.2013.828153. Van Der Vleuten, C. P. M. (1996). The assessment of professional competence: Developments, research and practical implications. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 1(1), 41–67. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/BF00596229. Vleuten, C. P. M. V. D., & Schuwirth, L. W. T. (2005). Assessing professional competence: From methods to programmes. Medical Education, 39(3), 309–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2929.2005. 02094.x. Webb, C., Endacott, R., Gray, M., Jasper, M., Miller, C., McMullan, M., & Scholes, J. (2002). Models of portfolios. Medical Education, 36(10), 897–898. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2923.2002.01318.x.

In: Curriculum Perspectives and Development ISBN: 978-1-53618-333-7 Editor: Alexander Bachmeier © 2020 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 4

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEARNING WITH SPIRITUALITY IN THE CLASSROOM Richard Prayson, MD, MEd Department of Anatomic Pathology, Cleveland Clinic and Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, US

ABSTRACT According to Jack Mezirow, transformative learning is marked by critical reflection which results in a change in the learner’s frame of reference by either a point of view or a set of assumptions that act as a filter for interpreting the meaning of experience. It represents an internal dialogue which affords the learner an opportunity to examine beliefs and assumptions and to determine their validity in light of new information. This is dependent on reflective discourse with others. Spirituality may have a role in transformational learning, both for the learner as well as the teacher. Spirituality focuses on one’s personal beliefs and the experience of a higher power or purpose; this is not to be confused with religion which is an organized community of faith with codes regulating behavior. This chapter will explore the relationship of spirituality and transformational 

Corresponding Author’s E-mail: [email protected].

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INTRODUCTION To attain meaning from one’s work and life is a human quality. Experiences inform meaning and therefore inform learning. After all, learning, according to Mezirow, is “the process of using a prior interpretation to construe a new or a revised interpretation of the meaning of one’s experience in order to guide future action (Mezirow, 2000, p.5). Transformative learning, according to Mezirow’s psychocritical approach, occurs when there is a change in one’s frame of reference, either their “habits of mind” or “point of view”. Habits of mind are “a set of assumptions – broad, generalized, orienting predisposition that acts as a filter for interpreting the meaning of experience” (Mezirow, 2000, p.17). Points of view, according to Mezirow, are “sets of immediate, specific beliefs, feelings, attitudes, and value judgements” (Mezirow, 2000, p.18). Mezirow outlines 10 phases of meaning to his transformational learning theory, which can be distilled down to four main components of the learning process: a disorienting dilemma or experience, critical reflection, a reflective discourse and a resulting action. Learners engage in an internal dialogue which provides an opportunity to examine assumptions and beliefs in order to determine their validity in light of new information provided (Piercy, 2013). In teaching for transformation, there are a number of perspectives or dimensions that one may consider. Tolliver and Tisdell assert that transformative learning is grounded in one’s self or in one’s entire being and that “learning is more likely transformative if it permeates one’s whole self” (Tolliver and Tisdell, 2006). This involves use of all of an individuals’ dimensions, the rational (which is where classroom teaching has traditionally focused), as well as affective, imaginative, somatic, sociocultural and spiritual (Tolliver and Tisdell, 2006). There is a growing literature acknowledging the role of spirituality in transformational learning, both focused on the educator and the learner. The

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notion of what exactly spirituality represents has been difficult to precisely define. There are, however, several tenants that are generally agreed upon (Tisdell, 2003, pp. 28-29). First, it is not to be confused with religion. Spirituality is about one’s personal belief and experience of a higher power or purpose in contrast to religion, which represents an organized community of faith with written codes regulating behavior (Tisdell, 2001). It is part of life’s journey which leads each of us toward wholeness (Tisdell, 2008). Spirituality is one of the ways in which people construct knowledge and meaning. It authenticates identity by focusing on awareness, wholeness and interconnectedness. It is always present in the learning environment and spiritual experiences may happen by surprise. A safe and trusting learning environment provides opportunities for individuals to honestly reflect on the strengths and weaknesses of their own personal and others frames of reference. Such an environment allows learners to engage in a discourse with individuals whose perspectives may be quite different without feeling too uncomfortable. “As adult learners develop compassion and empathy for one another, the mutual and emotional support provides a safety net for critical reflection and for transformative learning as emotions are often the catalysts for promoting transformative learning” (Piercy, 2013). Spiritual development results in a movement toward a more authentic self. Tisdell and Tolliver strongly believe that spirituality is enmeshed with cultural identity (Tisdell and Tolliver, 2003). Lawrence and Dirkx, in linking spirituality and transformative learning, discuss the concept of spiritual experience (Lawrence and Dirkx, 2010). Spiritual experience represents a lived experience that supports the development of the individual in a broad sense, engaging the person in the symbolic experience of a reality that is greater than the self. It often reflects a sense of the sacred, mystery or awe and is deeply connected with our emotions and our bodies. Lawrence and Dirks suggest that transformative learning evokes the kinds of questions, issues and concerns that parallel features with regard to the meaning of spiritual experience. The implication is that spirituality naturally dovetails with transformative learning. Within the classroom venue, spirituality can be used to serve a number of functions. It can be instrumental in the construction of knowledge. It can

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be used as a tool in addressing religious pluralism. Lerner discusses an “emancipatory spirituality”, which recognizes the value of diversity in the spirituality arena within the contexts of different cultures, religions, rituals and traditions (Lerner, 2000, p.174). Knowledge of this can inform education environments and facilitate dialogue between individuals with different perspectives, recognizing their spirituality, but without necessarily promoting a religious agenda. As previously suggested, spirituality can play a role in meaning-making in adults. In attending to the spiritual dimension of the learner, Vella suggests that the teacher is honoring the learner as “subject” and author of her or his own life in the search for meaning-making (Vella, 2000). This does not necessarily mean that the subject of spirituality needs to be directly addressed in the classroom and the goal is not necessarily to teach it. The intent is to recognize its existence in the learner and teacher in order to acknowledge and respect its presence in the learning environment. Palmer underscores the importance of attending to it in teaching, when it does become evident, rather than ignore or stifle it (Palmer as cited in Tisdell, 2001). Vella suggests that there are four principles and practices for instructors to implement for developing a learner-centered adult education program: 1) dialogues – via dialogues, the instructor provides guidance to discussions and assistance to learners in facilitating the acquisition of new knowledge; 2) respect – the instructor must respect each learner’s contexts, experiences and perspectives; 3) accountability – the instructor is responsible for the learning design and a learning covenant of mutually agreed upon learning objectives and implementation of useful strategies; and 4) equal partnership – between the instructor and learning (Vella, 2000). In setting the tone or environment to employ spirituality as a means to facilitate transformational learning, one needs to consider the development of spirituality, which defines the learner’s and teacher’s current frame of reference. In 1981, Fowler presented a stage theory of faith development based on a study of 359 white adults, who mostly came from a JudeoChristian tradition (Fowler, 1981). Fowler asserts that faith development is strongly associated with cognitive and moral development. He underscores the notion that imagination plays a role in knowing and that symbolic

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processes and their role in the unconscious structuring of processes are important; knowledge can be constructed by utilizing imagery and symbols. Whether spiritual development is a linear staged process or not is debated and may depend in part on how one chooses to define spirituality. In contrast to Fowler’s linear approach, Wilbur suggests that “spiritual development unfolds in overlapping and interweaving levels resulting in a meshwork or dynamic spiral of consciousness unfolding” (Wilbur as cited in Tisdell, 2001). Either way, one moves toward a greater integration or a more authentic identity by building upon previous experiences and knowledge. Recognition that one’s spirituality is an important aspect of one’s authentic identity or self is a critical premise in employing it for purposes of transformational learning. English proposed that there are three components to authentic spiritual development as it relates to adult education: 1) a strong sense of self; 2) caring, concern and outreach to others; and 3) continually constructing meaning and knowledge (English, 2000). Similar to spirituality, transformational learning is grounded in one’s self and “one’s entire being” (Tolliver & Tisdell, 2006). In the transformational learning setting, whether in the classroom or not, the goal is to engage the entire-being and its multiple dimensions, including spirituality. Part of the challenge of engaging spirituality in our learning is the multifaceted nature of an individual’s spirituality, its “linguistic, scientific, cultural, and religious antecedents” (Steingard, 2005). The sentiment that spirituality is additionally tied to culture and social justice in the community setting is a strongly held belief by some (Tisdell & Tolliver, 2003). Although thinking about the multiple aspects of spirituality in the context of the work environment, Pierce believes that spirituality and the pragmatism to better the self and world are one in the same: “No spirituality is legitimate that does not incorporate social justice in some form, for otherwise spirituality becomes individualistic navel-gazing or piety that does not address the context in which the spiritual is practiced. This is even more true, I believe, if we are trying to practice a spirituality based on our daily work” (Pierce as cited in Steingard, 2005). The role of spirituality in emancipatory education clearly has its roots in these sentiments.

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In the classroom setting, though, how does a teacher go about employing spirituality as part of a holistic approach in setting the stage for transformational learning? Miller outlines three interrelated principles of holistic education which includes connectedness, inclusion and balance (Miller as cited in Lawrence and Dirkx, 2010). Connectedness refers to an integration of rational and intuitive learning, mind and body, and spirit and soul. Inclusion stipulates that the curriculum should be designed with student diversity in mind. Balance dictates that all of the complementary energies that a teacher can bring to bear be employed. From a teacher’s perspective, presence or the process of being authentically human with one’s student is important (Kornelsen, 2006). This may necessitate abandoning one’s planned teaching agenda in order to connect with the students in the moment. “The teacher and the group may feel a heightened feeling of consciousness and synergy and a sense of physical and emotional well-being” (Kornelsen, 2006). Senge et al. describes the teacher’s role as one of “deep listening and being able to let go of old ways of seeing and the need to be in control” (Senge et al. as cited in Lawrence & Dirkx, 2010). Hart uses the word “inspiration” to describe an extra-rational way of knowing that allows the student to access deeper levels of meaning (Hart, 2000). Engendering this may be transcendent (connecting to the “self”) or ascendent (connecting to the “other”) for the student and making such connections may be spontaneous or unanticipated. Both teacher and student need to be open and receptive to the experience or be able to at least accommodate a state of not knowing. Ortega y Gasset suggests both teacher and learner should pay attention to the taken for granted knowledge (Ortega y Grasset as cited in Lawrence & Dirkx, 2010). “When we discover these [evident truths] for the first time, it seems to us that we have always known them, but had not noticed them;… therefore it is true that truth is discovered; perhaps truth is no more than discovery, the lifting of a veil or cover from what was already there” (Ortega y Grasset as cited in Lawrence & Dirkx, 2010). Transformational learning, as previously mentioned, starts with a disorienting dilemma, which causes one to critically reflect and engage in reflective discourse. How does one accomplish this in the classroom setting? Tisdell and Tolliver refer to teaching techniques as “spiritual technologies”

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(Tisdell & Tolliver, 2003). The goal of these technologies is “to help raise consciousness, stimulate awareness, foster creativity and imagination, connect us with grander issues of purpose and meaning, and facilitate connection with that which animates us” (Tisdell & Tolliver, 2003). Such techniques can help learners reflect by connecting with and giving voice to the emotional dimension of experiences that guide learning. They go on to describe a number of approaches they have used in the classroom. In a course that helps students plan their academic program, class commences with a celebration, including food and decorations; the goal is to create a festive environment, which sends the message that the teacher honors who the students are and encourages the students to acknowledge and celebrate themselves. Proverbs and stories can be shared to facilitate students’ reflections on their understandings of their relationship with themselves or the world. The class can start with a centering exercise, utilizing relaxation and guiding visualization that may be either meditative in nature or stress reducing; this is done without reference to spirituality or religion in order to not offend anyone. Use of a lit candle as a symbol for enlightenment and clarity can be employed. This may be accompanied by a written (a poem or story), visual (a symbolic representation or image), musical or kinesthetic piece; these allow for recognition of cultural traditions and acknowledgement that these are valued ways of knowing and learning. One can begin the session with a “check-in” of joys and difficulties, allowing students to share those aspects of their learning lives since the last class. Reflective writing, including the sharing of personal stories, can allow for expression of the self. Creative or artistic projects permit the learner to move from the cognitive domain to a more symbolic one, where spiritual and transformational learning are more likely to transpire. Other techniques have been suggested. de Souza, in discussing strategies one can use in the setting of educating children and teens, offers dance, drama, games, chanting and rap songs as other possible activities (de Souza, 2009). An example is provided about approaches one could employ in teaching about war; one of the suggestions offered includes evocation of the senses with smoke and firecrackers to simulate a battlefield. Additionally, it is suggested that more conventional methods of classroom teaching, such as

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research assignments, prepared talks and debates can be employed. Good class discussion is important to capturing responses and thoughts, which may further trigger additional ideas; time must be allotted for reflection or contemplation, allowing students to accommodate the new learning. Teachers “need to become aware of and recognize the role of the feelings and intuition in the learning process” (de Souza, 2009). Emotions, in particular, are tied to spirituality and are in and of themselves “an integral part of how we interpret and make sense of the day-to-day events in our lives” (Dirkx, 2001). Similar to spirituality, emotions arise from more than the rational and give voice to our fundamental sense of the irrational (Chodorow as cited in Dirkx, 2001). Ultimately, teachers and students need to trust the process and mentors have to be willing to put aside their fears of being ridiculed by traditional academia (Shahjahan, 2004), since many of these methods are considered unorthodox in the classroom setting. The results of employing “spiritual technologies” may be myriad and unexpected. Not all activities elicit the desired learning outcomes. Actions taken by the learner in response to the activity may include “immediate action, delayed action or reasoned affirmation of an existing pattern of action” (Mezirow, 2000, p. 24). The learning that occurs may be emotionally charged, difficult or even threatening. The teacher needs to be vigilant and prepared to manage the consequences. The mentor must be ready to deal with issues of confidentiality, sexuality/attraction, burnout, transference and countertransference. The learner may feel emotionally vulnerable, embarrassed or stressed. A teacher also needs to watch for unintentional transitional learning; a teacher’s goals of simply raising consciousness, providing information or engaging in dialogue may inadvertently trigger transformational learning. In a classroom setting, a teacher often does not know all his or her students well enough to recognize who might be more at risk. The teacher must also be aware of his or her own feelings about what is happening; transformational learning can work in both directions. In reflecting on how one might employ this strategy in the medical school classroom, small group sessions during the third year clerkship rotations might represent a good opportunity. At many schools, the course curriculum attempts to address some of the particularly challenging issues

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students confront in their core clerkships including such topics as dealing with difficult patients and colleagues, dealing with death and dying, handing stress, delivering bad news, managing medical mistakes, and mistreatment. These sessions often start with an introductory or seed talk. Students then break into small groups with a faculty preceptor to allow further discussion of the talk topic and to share experiences and stories. Having participated as a faculty preceptor, the subjects broached for discussion often include emotionally and spiritually charges topics. In creating a learning environment, which would support spirituality toward potential transformational learning, a number of possible approaches could be employed. Again, of foremost importance would be creating a safe environment, which would allow students to openly share not only their experiences but their feelings and reflections. The sharing of perspectives is critical in providing ideas and in challenging ways of thinking. Commencing the session with time to share reflections on any of the topics previously discussed by the group is important; given time to think, these discussion significantly enrich the student’s previous dialogue. This may also lead to a spontaneous sharing of new experiences, which may or may not be related to the original topic of discussion. The students should be given permission to drive the agenda. As preceptor, one might interject with a point for consideration or share a story from one’s own experience if it might add a different perspective. A further prompt would include asking students to briefly reflect in silence about their clinical/professional experiences since the group last met and think about those which were particularly positive and why they think that happened, as well as situations they found challenging and why that was the case. A few students would be asked to share their narratives with goal of engendering a reflective discourse. In reflecting on her teaching in a course on Spirituality in the Workplace, Janet Groen frames her discussions around Parker Palmer’s six paradoxical tensions for creating a teaching and learning space (Groen, 2008). Parker suggests that teaching and learning require a high degree of awareness, which in turn places us in a creative tension or paradox (Palmer as cited in Groen, 2008). Palmer’s paradoxical tensions posit that “the space should be bounded and open, … [it] should be hospitable and ‘charged’, … [it] should

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invite the voice of the individual and the voice of the group, … [it] should honour the ‘little’ stories of the individual and ‘big’ stories of the disciplines and tradition, … [it] should support solitude and surround it with resources of community, and [it] should welcome both silence and speech” (Palmer as cited in Groen, 2008). Palmer’s paradoxical tensions set the milieu for transformational learning driven by spirituality in the classroom. Creating the opportunity and an environment conducive to the process increases the likelihood of it happening.

REFERENCES deSouza, M. (2009). Rediscovering the spiritual dimension in education: promoting a sense of self and place, meaning and purpose in learning. In M. deSouza, L.J. Francis, J. O’Higgins-Norman, D.G. Scott (Eds.). International handbook of education for spirituality, care and wellbeing. (pp. 1127-1139) Dordrecht, Netherlands. Springer Science and Business Media B.V. Dirkx, J.M. (2001). The power of feelings: Emotion, imagination, and the construction of meaning in adult learning. In S.B. Merriam (Ed.). The new update in adult learning theory. No. 89 (pp. 63-72). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. English, L.M. (2000). Spiritual dimensions of informal learning. In L.M. English, M.A. Gillen (Eds.). Addressing the spiritual dimensions of adult learning: what educators can do. New directions for adult and continuing education. No. 85 (pp. 29-38). San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass. Fowler, J. (1981). Stages of faith. San Francisco, CA: Harper and Row. Groen, J. (2008). Paradoxical tensions in creating a teaching and learning space within a graduate education course on spirituality. Teaching in higher education, 13(2), 193-204.

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Hart, T. (2000). Inspiration as transpersonal knowing. In T. Hart, P. Nelson and K. Puhakka (Eds.). Transpersonal knowing. New York, NY: Suny Press. Kornelsen, L. (2006). Teaching with presence. In P. Cranton (Ed.) Authenticity in teaching. New directions for teaching and learning. No. 111 (pp. 73-82). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Lawrence, R.L., & Dirkx, J.M. (2010) Teaching with soul: Toward a spiritually responsive transformative pedagogy. Retrieved September 26, 2012, from https://www.msu.edu/.../Lipson-LawrenceDirkx-MR2P2010.pdf. Lerner, M. (2000). Spirit matters. Charlottesville, VA: Hampton Roads Publishing Company. Mezirow, J., & Associates (2000). Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Piercy, G. (2013). Transformational learning theory and spirituality: A whole person approach. Journal of Instructional Research, 2, 30-42. Shahjahan, R.A. (2004). Centering spirituality in the academy. Toward a transformative way of teaching and learning. Journal of Transformative Education, 2(4), 294-312. Steingard, D.S. (2005). Spiritually-informed management theory. Toward profound possibilities for inquiry and transformation. Journal of Management Inquiry, 14, 227-241. Tisdell E.J. (2001). Spirituality in adult and higher education. ERIC digest. Retrieved September 23, 2012, from http://www.ericdi gests.org/20023/adult.htm Tisdell, E.J. (2003). Exploring spirituality and culture in adult and higher education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Tisdell, E.J. (2008). Spirituality and adult learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 119, 27-36. Tisdell, E.J. & Tolliver D.E. (2003). Claiming a sacred face: The role of spirituality and cultural identity in transformative adult higher education. Journal of Transformative Education, 1(4), 368-392.

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Tolliver, D.E., & Tisdell, E.J. (2006). Engaging spirituality in the transformative higher education classroom. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 109, 37-47. Vella, J. (2000). A spirited epistemology. In L. English & M. Gillen (Eds.), In addressing the spiritual dimensions of adult-learning. New directions for adult and continuing education, No. 85 (pp. 7-16). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

INDEX

A academic disciplines, 2, 5, 6, 22 academic growth, ix, 100 accountability, 65, 122 adolescent development, viii, 2 adult education, 122, 123 adult learning, 101, 116, 117, 128, 129 adulthood, 56 adults, 15, 101, 122 aesthetic, 16, 20, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92 agriculture, 20, 27, 31, 63 airports, 16 alternative conceptions, 24 anchoring, 5, 51 anthropology, 18 applications of science, 30, 32, 39, 53 argumentation, 11, 58 arts education, vii, viii, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84,

85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97 assessment, ix, 43, 44, 50, 51, 55, 62, 70, 71, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 86, 88, 89, 90, 93, 94, 95, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 114, 115, 116, 117 assessment for learning, 103, 117 assessment in medical education, 100, 115 assessment models, ix, 99 astronomy, 23, 27, 35, 39, 42 attitude to nature, 38 attitude towards nature, 32, 40 authentic science education, 9, 11, 12 awareness, ix, 68, 76, 80, 83, 84, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 109, 121, 125, 127

B Bachelard, Gaston, 24, 56 background information, 111 balance, 16, 30, 33, 45, 48, 52, 55, 63, 74, 108, 124 Base Nacional Comum Curricular, 29, 60

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behaviors, 108, 109 benefits, 101, 110, 111 Bernstein, Basil, 24, 56 Bildung, 21, 58 biochemistry, 23, 54 biodiversity, 31 biology, 12, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 34, 35, 36, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 59, 62, 79 biotechnology, 41 birth rate, 29

C cancer, 19 career development, viii, 68, 76, 87, 90, 92 challenges, 43, 65, 101 chemical, 23, 30, 34, 36, 39, 65 chemical bonds, 34 chemical literacy, 30, 37 chemical reactions, 36, 39 chemistry, 3, 6, 13, 23, 24, 26, 27, 30, 34, 35, 36, 39, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 58, 59, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 79 children, 4, 7, 8, 19, 21, 40, 47, 50, 63, 78, 125 choice, 6, 14, 18, 26, 47, 53, 64, 100, 113 citizenship, 2, 19, 29 classroom, vii, x, 51, 62, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 130 climate change, 35 cognition, 73, 74, 76, 86 cognitive capacities, 74 cognitive development, 13, 14, 15, 16, 28, 30, 33, 56, 60 cognitive process, 15, 72 cognitive skills, 6 coherence, 56 colleges, 15, 46, 47 communication, 10, 45, 82, 92, 105, 108, 112

communication skills, 10, 45, 105, 108, 112 communication technologies, 92 community, x, 38, 45, 89, 119, 121, 123, 128 compassion, 105, 121 competence, 16, 100, 116, 117 competency-based evaluation, 100, 102 computer science, 40 conceptual acceleration, 16 conceptual development, 13, 14 conceptualization, 59 confidentiality, 126 connectedness, 124 consciousness, 123, 124, 125, 126 conservation, 31, 33 construction, 16, 25, 33, 121, 128 constructivist teaching, 5 core assumptions, 25 creative process, 92 creative thinking, 13 creativity, ix, 30, 65, 68, 79, 80, 81, 83, 86, 87, 90, 92, 93, 125 critical thinking, ix, 11, 13, 14, 59, 68, 80, 83, 87, 90, 92 criticism, 45, 83, 100, 103 cross-disciplinary ideas, 33 cross-disciplinary work, 56 cultivation, 29, 32, 73, 75, 82, 84, 89, 91 cultural heritage, 91 cultural tradition, 80, 88, 125 culture, 3, 20, 21, 22, 23, 38, 58, 75, 76, 90, 123, 129 curricula, ix, 12, 30, 32, 33, 63, 68, 70, 77, 86, 88, 90, 91 curriculum, vii, viii, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 70, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 93, 124, 126 curriculum development, 43

Index curriculum documents, viii, 46, 50, 51, 68, 70, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 93 curriculum integration, v, 1, 2, 58

D dance, 21, 78, 81, 87, 88, 125 disciplinary boundaries, 23, 27, 30, 34 disciplinary practices, 29, 54 disciplinary structure, vii, 1, 54, 55 disciplines, viii, 2, 6, 15, 22, 23, 26, 28, 29, 30, 36, 37, 39, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 53, 55, 128 disinterestedness, viii, 67, 68, 70, 73, 76, 85, 90, 92 dissatisfaction, 72 diversity, 56, 122, 124

E earth and space sciences, 34, 42, 50 earth science, 27, 41, 50, 66 economic activity, 27 economic status, 47 economics, 41 education, vii, viii, ix, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 30, 32, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 48, 49, 52, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 99, 100,101, 102, 103, 115, 116, 117, 122, 123, 124, 128, 130 educational aims, 54 educational career, 17 educational system, 52 educators, ix, 84, 92, 100, 128 electives, 34, 36, 40, 42 electricity, 31, 38 electromagnetic, 21, 42 electromagnetism, viii, 2

133 electron, 18, 25 electronics, 27 elementary school, 33, 35, 42, 60 emancipatory spirituality, 122 emotional well-being, 124 emotions, 109, 121, 126 empathy, 7, 121 employment, 9, 22, 49 energy, 31, 33, 34, 35, 39, 40, 41, 51 engineering, 27, 32, 33, 36, 40, 42, 49, 54, 63, 65 engineering design, 32 engineering science - automotive science, 27 English National Curriculum for Science (ENCS), 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 65 enquiry learning, 43 environment, 7, 14, 15, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 38, 54, 89, 106, 107, 114, 121, 122, 125, 127, 128 environmental, 4, 7, 16, 27, 30, 31, 35, 38, 39, 40, 42 environmental control, 7 environmental education, 40 environmental factors, 7 environmental impact, 32 environmental issues, 4, 39 environmental protection, 42 environmental sciences, 42 environmental, social and health issues, 30, 31 environments, 101, 122 equal partnership, 122 everyday life, 3, 31, 32, 33, 39, 41, 53 evidence, ix, 9, 15, 19, 20, 25, 30, 44, 73, 85, 86, 88, 100, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114 evolution, 31, 33, 35, 62, 64 exam-based assessment systems, 100 examinations, 7, 10, 11, 12, 15, 46, 47, 78 experiential learning, 40, 41, 104

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Index

extra-scientific values, 20

F faith, x, 18, 119, 121, 122, 128 faith development, 122 families, 8, 19, 105 feedback, ix, 33, 51, 99, 102, 103, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 114, 117 feelings, 71, 102, 120, 126, 127, 128 filling materials, 20 formal operational thinking, 17 formal operations, 14, 15, 16, 59 formative, 103, 106 free lawfulness of imagination and understanding, 68, 90

G generic skills, 10, 13, 80, 87 geography, 5, 39, 40, 42, 46, 53, 79 geology, 23, 27, 42, 50 graduate education, 128 greenhouse, 31, 35 growth, vii, ix, 100, 105, 107 guidance, 43, 46, 62, 107, 113, 122 guidelines, 69, 109

H habits of mind, 120 harmony, 74, 89, 91 health, 30, 31, 35, 38, 41, 54, 84, 105, 116 health care, 105 health care system, 105 health education, 38, 41 health problems, 105 high school, 30, 34, 42, 112 higher education, 128, 129, 130 higher-level intellectual skills, 14

higher-level thinking skills, 13 history, vii, 1, 11, 18, 21, 31, 58, 62, 76, 83, 105 holistic education, 124 home economics, 41 homeostasis, 12, 33 Hong Kong, v, vii, viii, 67, 68, 70, 71, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97 human, 3, 15, 16, 31, 32, 35, 42, 105, 120, 124 human body, 42 human development, 105 human sciences, 35 human values, 32 hypothesis, 16, 18

I ideas and evidence, 44 identification, 13, 16, 30, 105 identity, 6, 24, 69, 92, 121, 123, 129 imagination, viii, 67, 68, 73, 75, 76, 86, 87, 90, 92, 122, 125, 128 inclusion, 44, 81, 92, 124 independent learning, 29 individuals, 71, 74, 75, 89, 105, 111, 120, 121, 122 information technology, 41, 62, 80 inheritance, 80, 88 initial teacher education, 49 inspiration, 124, 129 institutions, ix, 2, 22, 48, 99, 103 integrated curriculum, 30, 36 integrated humanities, viii, 1, 27 integrated science, 27, 30, 38 integrated studies, 40 integration, 2, 27, 31, 41, 58, 65, 105, 123, 124 integration of science and technology, 31 intellectual and moral development, 15

Index intellectual curiosity, 32 intellectual development, 14, 15, 17, 20 intelligence, 63, 84, 90 interdependence, 51 interdisciplinary connections, 30 interpersonal skills, 10 interrelatedness, 112 IQ tests, 15, 58 Israel, 30, 32, 39, 40, 66 issues, 4, 6, 9, 17, 18, 19, 20, 29, 30, 31, 32, 37, 43, 45, 50, 53, 55, 60, 65, 88, 89, 106, 121, 125, 126

J Japan, 30, 32, 34, 38, 40, 62

K Kant, Immanuel, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 78, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96 kindergarten, 78

L laboratory tests, 105 learner development, 28 learner progress, 28 learners, viii, 2, 6, 9, 24, 26, 28, 43, 45, 53, 56, 64, 121, 122, 125 learning, vii, viii, ix, x, 2, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 25, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 51, 54, 55, 57, 58, 62, 63, 65, 72, 78, 80, 81, 82, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 110, 111, 115, 116, 117, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130 learning activity, 13 learning as a developmental progression, 33

135 learning as progression, 31 learning environment, 121, 122, 127 learning objectives, 55, 122 learning outcomes, 126 learning paradox, 16 learning process, 103, 120, 126 levels of reflection, 108, 110, 111 liberal curriculum, 20 liberal education, 22, 58 life science, 34, 36, 37, 39, 42, 49 life sciences, 34, 39, 42, 49 light, x, 38, 70, 81, 104, 119, 120 literacy, 30, 32, 37, 45 living environment, 40 living environmental studies, 40 lumpers, 26, 53, 58 Luria, Alexander, 15, 60

M majority, 8, 46, 82 management, 80, 129 material sciences, 37 materials, 30, 31, 33, 36, 40, 82, 83 materials science, 36 mathematics, vii, 1, 3, 5, 14, 15, 27, 32, 41, 46, 49, 53, 57, 58, 60, 63, 65, 69, 79, 81, 93 matter, iv, 2, 7, 11, 14, 17, 18, 33, 34, 35, 39, 40, 47, 49, 51, 52, 113 media, 19, 81, 87, 92 medical, ix, 11, 19, 20, 60, 99, 100, 101, 102, 105, 107, 115, 116, 117, 126 medicine, 20, 32, 105 mental representation, 16 Ministry of Education, 32, 33, 34, 35, 39, 40, 42, 61, 70, 97 MINT education (Mathematics, Informatics, Natural Sciences, Technology), 32 mixed economy, 54 models, 18, 24, 25, 31, 33, 53, 69, 77

136

Index

moral development, 15, 122 moral judgment, 71, 75 morality, viii, 68, 69, 71, 75, 84, 89, 90, 91 motivation, 112 multidimensional, 77 music, 21, 77, 81, 82, 84, 86, 87, 88

N narrative feedback, 103, 106, 107, 114 narratives, 127 natural disasters, 31 natural science, 26, 32, 33, 35, 41, 63 nature of science, 18, 44, 45, 51, 57, 64 nature study, 42, 55 neutral viewpoint, 18 next generation science standards, 30 Nuffield curriculum projects, 43

O objectivity, 9, 100 observation is necessarily theory-laden, 18 ontological obstacles, 24 operations, 14, 15, 16, 59 opportunities, 11, 13, 14, 49, 102, 107, 114, 121 organ, 110, 111 organize, 114 outpatient, 108 outreach, 123 ownership, 107, 109, 111

P paradoxical tensions, 127, 128 patient care, 105, 111 pedagogic doublethink, 5, 65 pedagogy, 43, 52, 64, 129 Perry, 15, 17, 62, 65

personal autonomy, 53 personal development, 21, 82, 105 personal goals, 76 personal stories, 125 personal value system, 17 personal values, 15, 17 physical chemistry, 23 physical education, 80 physical phenomena, 23 physical science, 23, 27, 34, 41, 42, 49 physical sciences, 34, 41, 42 physics, 5, 15, 23, 24, 26, 27, 34, 35, 36, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 59, 63, 64 physiology, 23, 111 Piaget, Jean, 14, 15, 16, 62 Piagetian stage theory, 16 points, 52, 54, 73, 82, 89, 113, 120 policy, 5, 22, 28, 32, 43, 47, 48, 50, 58, 59 portfolio, v, vii, ix, 99, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116 portfolio assessment, ix, 99, 103, 105 post-compulsory education, 47 post-formal thinking, 20 preparation, iv, 5, 19, 28, 49, 50, 77, 106 preparing for teaching, 49 primary school, 38, 63, 77, 79, 84, 86 principles, 13, 14, 32, 36, 46, 62, 122, 124 private education, 47 problem identification, 13, 16 problem-based learning, 103, 110 problem-solving, 13, 16, 83, 87 process skills, 55 professional development, 50, 52 professional educators, 116 professionalism, 113 program features, 103 programming, 10 programming skills, 10 proper environment, 106, 107 psychology, 48, 53, 56, 58, 63, 65 purpose of schooling, 2

Index purposes of education, viii, 2, 52

Q quality of life, 19 quantum phenomena, 42

R rational reconstruction, 11 reactions, 13, 35, 37, 102 reasoning, 15, 30, 100 recommendations, iv, 17, 54, 116 reflective practice, 102, 103, 106, 107, 109, 112, 114, 116 reflective practice cycle, 104, 106, 109 reflective thought in action, 101 religion, x, 119, 121, 125 religious education, 44 remediation, 106, 113 requirements, 28, 81, 102 research programmes, 25, 60 resources, 31, 47, 128 respect, ix, 8, 46, 75, 81, 100, 122 response, 7, 8, 45, 48, 69, 92, 103, 126 rhetoric of conclusions, 11, 62 rural studies, 27

S Sachunterricht, 38 scholarship, 3, 35, 45 school, vii, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 36, 37, 38, 40, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 55, 59, 62, 69, 78, 79, 81, 82, 83, 92, 100, 101, 107, 112, 115, 126

137 school curriculum, vii, 1, 2, 5, 7, 9, 22, 24, 26, 29, 34, 44, 49, 53, 55, 62, 77, 84, 86, 95, 96, 97 school science curricula, 12 school science curriculum, 36, 61, 62 school subject as cut-down academic discipline, 6 school subjects, viii, 1, 2, 5, 8, 26, 27, 44, 46, 47, 53 schooling, 2, 5, 20, 21, 24, 28 science, iv, vii, 1, 2, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 69, 79, 81, 93, 103,128 science and values, 2 science curriculum, viii, 2, 8, 12, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20, 26, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 40, 41, 45, 49, 50, 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 66 science for citizenship, 2 science, technology, society and the environment, 32, 36 scientific and technological literacy, 32 scientific concepts, 14 scientific enquiry, 30, 44, 65 scientific investigations, 44 scientific knowledge, 9, 30, 35, 45 scientific literacy, 30, 45 scientific practice, 11, 25, 51 scientific understanding, 20, 29 scientific values, 18, 28 secondary education, 35, 78 secondary school students, 79 secondary schools, 7, 35, 60, 78, 82, 83 secondary students, 40, 44, 65, 79, 81, 82, 87, 88 seed, 107, 127 self-discipline, 7 self-expression, 83, 85 senses, 12, 38, 72, 73, 88, 125

138

Index

sensitivity, 80, 81, 87 social context of science, 53 social development, 65 social environment, 76, 89 social justice, 3, 123 social psychology, 56 social responsibility, 30, 90 society, 2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 30, 31, 32, 36, 37, 38, 39, 45, 46, 77, 82, 83, 88, 89, 91 socio-scientific issues, 9, 18, 19, 20, 53, 55, 60 specialist teachers, 28 specialists, 48, 49, 50 specifications, 43, 46 spiritual development, 121, 123 spiritual experience, 121 spirituality, v, vii, x, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130 splitter, 26 STEM education, 30, 57 STEM subjects, 2, 54, 63, 65 structure, viii, 2, 12, 29, 33, 34, 36, 39, 40, 42, 45, 51, 54, 55, 59, 69, 81, 105 structuring, 123 STS (science, technology, and society), 32 student-centred approach, 53 subject-based school curriculum, 5 subjectivity, viii, 67, 68, 73, 76, 85, 90 summative assessment, 102 sustainable development, 54

technological developments, 41 technology, viii, ix, 1, 17, 20, 27, 30, 31, 32, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 53, 63, 65, 68, 83, 87, 90, 92 tertiary education, 39, 79 the disciplines, 6, 22, 39, 41, 50, 128 therapy, 20 thermoregulation, 33 thoughts, 109, 126 traditions, 2, 3, 22, 23, 32, 50, 76, 88, 122 training, ix, 5, 43, 48, 49, 52, 54, 68, 76, 90, 91, 102, 103, 106, 115 transferable skills, 10, 13, 76, 87 transference, 126 transformation, 38, 120, 129 transformational learning, vii, x, 119, 120, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128 transformative learning, x, 119, 120, 121 transmission, 24, 80, 88 treatment, 6, 19, 20, 39, 53, 92 typologies, 25

U United States, 30, 31, 32, 42, 66 universal assent, 68, 73, 75, 76, 88, 91 universe, 3, 31, 35, 36, 39 university education, 48

V T teacher preparation, 29, 48, 49, 50 teacher training, 66 teachers, viii, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, 13, 14, 18, 26, 28, 29, 33, 37, 38, 43, 44, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 56, 58, 62, 83, 85, 126 teaching science, 2, 59 teaching to the test, 46 techniques, 82, 124, 125

vision, 17, 62, 83, 90 visualization, 125 vocational training, 39 Vygotsky, Lev, 14, 15, 65, 66

Index W work environment, 101, 123 writing, v, vii, ix, 19, 21, 99, 100, 102, 106, 107, 108, 112, 113, 114, 125

139 Y young people, 2, 9, 11, 15, 17, 19, 47 young women, 9