Cultural psychology of immigrants 9781315820934, 1315820935, 0805853146, 0805853154

Table of contents :
Content: Pt. 1. Immigration, globalization, and transnationalism : theoretical perspectives --
pt. 2. Immigration and race --
pt. 3. Immigration, self, gender, and narratives --
pt. 4. Immigration and family.

Citation preview

C ultural Ps y c h o l o g y o f Im m ig r a n t s

Edited by

Ramaswami Mahalingam

Culturad Psychology of Immigrants

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Cultural Psychology of Immigrants

E d ite d by

Ramaswami Mahalingam University o f Michigan

O

Routledge Taylor&FrancisGrou

NEW YORK AND LONDON

Copyright © 2006 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microform, retrieval system, or any other means, without prior written permission of the publisher. First published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers 10 Industrial Avenue Mahwah, New Jersey 07430 T his edition published 2011 by R outledge

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, 0X14 4RN Routledge is an im print of the Taylor & Francis Group, an inform a business

Cover design by Tomai Maridou Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data C u l t u r a l p s y c h o l o g y o f i m m i g r a n t s / e d i t e d by Ramaswami Mahalingam p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8058-5314-6 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN 0-8058-5315-4 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Immigrants—Psychology. 2. Emigration and im migra­ tion—Psychological aspects. 5. Assimilation (Sociology) 6. Culture an d globalization. I. Mahalingam, Ram JV 6225.C85 2006 3 0 5 .0 '0 6 9 12—dc22 2005044675 CIP

To my school teachers Vijaya, Kalyani, Subbulakshm i, Chandra, Padm a, D alsi, Venkatram an, Rarichankunju, N atarajan, R am asw am i

& students Cheri, Eleanor, Hiro, Jan, Jana, Jennifer, Joel, Mandy, Mark, M elita, R avishankar, 81 Sundari

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Contents

1

Preface

xi

C o n tr ib u to r s

xv

C u ltu r a l Psychology of I m m ig ra n ts : An I n tro d u c tio n R a m a s w a m i Mahalingam

1

Part I: Im m ig ra tio n , G lo b a liz a tio n , and T r a n sn a tio n a lism : T h e o r e tic a l P e r sp e c tiv e s

2

W hith er T h o u G oest: An E v o lu tio n a ry Perspective on M igration B o b b i S. L o w

15

3

A ssim ilation o r T r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m ? C o n c e p tu a l M odels of the I m m ig r a n t E x p e rie n c e in A m e ric a S i lvi a P e d r a z a

33

4

T h e Dialectic of Recognition a n d D is p la c e m e n t in a G lobalized World E. V a l e n t i n e D a n i e l

55

5

T r a n s n a tio n a l Ties a n d M ental H ealth E l e a n o r J. M u r p h y

79

vii

viii

CONTENTS

Part II:

Im m ig ra tio n and R ace

6

A Two-Level A p p r o a c h to A n ti-Im m ig ra n t P re ju d ic e a n d D is c rim in a tio n T h o m a s F. P et t i gr e w

7

T h e Role of Pre ju d ic e in the D isc o u n tin g of I m m ig r a n t Skills Victoria M. E s s e s , J o e r g Diet z , a n d A r j u n B h a r d w a j

113

8

B lack I m m ig r a n ts to th e U nited S tates: C o n fro n tin g a n d C o n s tr u c tin g E th nic ity a n d Race T e c e ta T h o m a s T o r m a l a a n d K a y D e a u x

131

9

C u ltu r a l Psychology a n d Marginality: An E xp lo rative S tu d y of In d ia n D ia s p o ra R a m a s w a m i M a h a l i n g a m , Cheri Philip, and Sundari Balan

151

Part III:

95

Im m ig ra tio n , S e lf, G ender, and N arratives

10

R acing T r a n s a tla n t ic Passa ge s: J a m e s B a ld w in ’s A frican “A m e ric a ” a n d I m m ig r a n t S tu d ie s M a g d a l e n a J. Z a b o r o w s k a

169

11

M odel M inority a n d M arital Violence: S o u th A sian I m m ig r a n ts in the U nited S ta te s Margaret A b ra h a m

197

12

Refugees a n d G e n d e r e d C itizensh ip Patricia R. P e ss a r

21 7

13

G ender, Sexuality, Language, a n d M igration Oliva M. E s p i n

241

14

C u ltu r a l Psychology of G e n d e r a n d I m m ig ra tio n R a m a s w a m i M a h a l i n g a m a n d J a n a H a ri t a t os

259

CONTENTS

Part IV:

Im m ig ra tio n an d Family-

15

C o n c e p tu a l a n d R e se a rc h C o n s id e ra tio n s in the D e te r m in a n ts of C hild O u tc o m e s A m on g E n g lis h - S p e a k in g C a rib b e a n I m m ig r a n ts in th e U nited S tates: A C ultu ral-E co lo gical A p p r o a c h J a i p a u l L. R o o p n a r i n e a n d A m b i k a K r i s h n a k u m a r

277

16

On the D e v elo p m e n t of Identity: P erspe c tiv e s F ro m I m m ig r a n t Fam ilies K a r e n Kisiel Dion

299

17

Negotiating C u ltu re a n d Ethnicity: In te rg e n e ra tio n a l R e la tio n s in C h in e se I m m ig r a n t Fam ilies in the U nited S ta te s Min Z h o u

3 15

18

A c c u ltu ra tio n o r N egotiation? W h at J a p a n e s e A ca de m ic M ig rants Teach Us A b o u t Family P r o c e s s e s a n d G e n d e r e d E x p e rie n c es of C u ltu ra l A d a p ta tio n Izumi Sakamoto

337

A u th o r Index

3 65

S u b je c t Index

3 75

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Prefacc

Ram asw am i Mahalingam

Two ped agogical m o m e n t s s h a p e d the g e n e sis of the b o o k . Six y e a rs ago, I w a s te a c h in g a n u n d e r g r a d u a t e c o u r s e on c u ltu r a l psychology. I notic e d t h a t m o s t of m y s t u d e n t s w e re c h ild re n of im m ig r a n ts . In the en tire c o u rse , I allocated one w eek for the top ic of im m ig ra tio n . At the e n d of the te rm , sev eral s t u d e n t s w ro te in th e ir e v alu atio n f o r m s th a t th is c o u r s e h e lp e d them to u n d e r s t a n d th e ir p a r e n t s better. C o n s id e r ­ ing ho w little I covered im m ig ra tio n in m y cla ss, I w o n d e r e d w h e th e r c u ltu r a l psychology c ou ld in d e e d h elp u s to u n d e r s t a n d the p s y c h o l­ ogy of im m ig r a n ts . If c u ltu r a l psychology of im m ig r a n ts w ere to b e a different d iscip line, w h a t it m ig h t look like? I realized th a t I n e e d e d to g r o u n d c u ltu ra l psychology in a n in te r d is c ip lin a r y f ra m e w o rk to m a k e it re lev a n t to th e s tu d y of im m ig r a n ts . To get m y intellectual feet wet, I ap p lie d for a D istin g u is h e d Faculty G r a n t a t the U niversity of Michigan to develop a n i n te r d is c ip lin a r y g r a d u a te s e m in a r on c u ltu r e a n d i m m i­ gra tio n. As p a r t of the c o u r s e , I en v isio n e d a “sm all" s p e a k e r se rie s w h e re e m in e n t s c h o la r s from the fields of sociology, a n th r o p o lo g y a n d A m e ric a n c u ltu r e c o u ld give ta lk s to the g r a d u a te s t u d e n t s a b o u t their w o rk . In the m id d le of te a c h in g the c o u rse , a n exciting id ea c r o s s e d m y m in d . W ouldn't it be w o n d e rfu l to invite all the p e op le we r e a d d u r in g the c o u r s e for a con fe ren ce to initiate a n in te r d is c ip lin a r y dialogue on im m ig r a n t r e s e a r c h ? With the help of g e n e r o u s fu n d in g from several u n its a t the U niversity of Michigan, I w a s able to e x p a n d m y “s m a ll” s p e a k e r s e rie s into a full-fledged con fe re n ce o n i m m ig r a n t psychology. M eanw hile, I also m a n a g e d to develop an u n d e r g r a d u a t e c o u rs e on c u ltu r a l psychology of im m ig ra n ts . T h e c o n fe re n ce w a s h eld a t the e n d

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of the se m e s te r. As p a r t of the c o u rse , the u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s a t ­ te n d e d the con feren ce. Having r e a d the w o r k s of all the s p e a k e r s d u r ­ ing the te rm , the s t u d e n t s w ere a m o n g the m o s t w ell-inform ed peop le in the a u d ie n c e . T he c o n fe re n ce w a s a s exciting a s I th o u g h t it w ou ld be, a n d it g e n e r ­ a te d several s tim u la tin g c o n v e rsa tio n s. We h a d s p e a k e r s from the d i s ­ cip lines of psychology, sociology, a nthropology, social w o rk , A m e ric a n c u ltu re , a n d Asian A m e rica n s tu d ie s . A lthough th e s e s c h o la r s w e re fa­ m iliar with each o th e r 's w o rk , th is w a s the first tim e they w ere able to get to gether to s h a r e th e ir w o rk . T r a n s c e n d in g th e d is c ip lin a ry a n d m e th o d o lo g ic a l b o u n d a r i e s , several th e m e s a b o u t th e c o m p le x d i m e n ­ sio n s of im m i g r a n t s ’ ex p erience e m e rg e d . In te rs e c tio n s of race, class, gender, sexuality, a n d c u ltu re s h a p e the c u ltu ra l psychology of i m m i ­ g ra n ts . I m m ig r a n ts negotiate th e ir social s ta t u s in a n ew c u ltu re u s in g a variety of p e r s o n a l, social, a n d c u ltu ra l re s o u r c e s . T r a n s n a tio n a l tics play a n i m p o r t a n t role in the m a k i n g of im m ig r a n t selves. I m m ig ra n ts are e x p o sed to d u a l w orldview s, c u ltu r a l p ra c tic e s, a n d beliefs while negotiating th e ir social p o sitio n in g in the new c u ltu r a l context. So far, th e s e c o m p le x d i m e n s i o n s of im m ig r a n ts have n o t b e e n a d e q u a te ly ex­ a m in e d in c u ltu ra l psychological re s e a r c h . T h is v olu m e a d d r e s s e s this gap. Given the im p o r ta n c e of im m ig ra n t stu d ie s to a variety of disciplines, this volu m e p ro vides a fresh in te r d is ­ ciplinary perspective on u n d e r s ta n d in g the c u ltu ra l psychology of im ­ m ig ra n ts. D isting uished s c h o la r s from the fields of behavioral ecology, psychology, sociology, A m erican cultu re, p ublic h ealth, social w o rk, a n d an th ro p o lo g y exam ine the v a rio u s c u ltu ra l psychological c o n se q u e n c e s of d is p la c e m e n t a m o n g different im m ig ra n t a n d refugee c o m m u n itie s in the U nited S tates, C a n a d a a n d E u ro p e . T h e re a re four s e c tion s in the book: (a) Im m igration , G lobalization, a n d T ra n s n a tio n a lis m : T h e o re ti­ cal Perspectives, (b) Im m ig ration a n d Race, (c) Im m ig ration , Self, G e n ­ der, a n d N arratives, a n d (d) Im m ig ra tio n a n d Family. T h e c h a p t e r s in th e I m m ig r a tio n , G lo b a liz a tio n , a n d T r a n s n a tio n lis m s e c tio n p r o v id e a v ariety of th e o r e tic a l p e r s p e c tiv e s on i m ­ m ig r a tio n . B o b b i Low's c h a p t e r p r o v id e s a b e h a v io r a l ecological p e rs p e c tiv e to s t u d y im m i g r a n ts . Silvia P e d r a z a ’s c h a p t e r offers a h is to r ic a l overview of sociological r e s e a r c h on i m m i g r a n t s . U sing re f ­ ugee n a r r a ti v e s , V alentine D a n ie l d i s c u s s e s the c o m p le x p h e n o m e n o ­ logical p r e d i c a m e n t s of re fuge e s. U sing C a r ib b e a n im m i g r a n t s a s an e x a m p le , E l e a n o r M u r p h y 's c h a p t c r m a k e s a s t r o n g c a s e for u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g the sig nific a nc e of t r a n s n a t i o n a l ties in s h a p i n g i m m i g r a n t h e a lth . T o g e th e r th e s e fo u r c h a p t e r s p r o v id e d iv e rs e t h e o r e tic a l p e r ­ sp e c tiv e s to s t u d y im m i g r a n t s a n d refu gees. T h e c h a p te r s in the Im m ig ra tio n a n d Race section e x a m in e racial d is c r im in a tio n of im m i g r a n ts a s well a s im m i g r a n t s ’ d is c r im in a to r y a ttitu d e s to w a rd African A m e ric a n s . T h o m a s Pettigrew ’s c h a p te r o v e r­ views r e s e a r c h on a n ti- im m ig ra n t p re ju d ic e a n d d is c rim in a tio n in E u ­ ro p e a n d in th e U nited S ta te s . Victoria E s s e s , J o e r g Dietz, a n d A rjun

P RE F ACE

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B h a r d w a j’s c h a p t e r investigates the role of p re ju d ic e in d i s c o u n tin g im m ig r a n t skills in C a n a d a . Teceta T h o m a s T o r m a la a n d Kay D e a u x ’s c h a p tc r e x a m in e s the c o m ple xitie s of racial a n d eth n ic iden tity c o n ­ s tr u c tio n a m o n g Black im m ig r a n ts . R a m a s w a m i M ah a lin g a m , C h eri Philip, a n d S u n d a r i B alan c o m p a r e first- a n d s e c o n d -g e n e ratio n In ­ d ia n A m e r ic a n s ' a ttitu d e to w a rd African A m e ric a n s. All the c h a p te r s in this se c tio n e x a m in e how ra cia liz atio n a n d racial p o sitio n in g of im m i g r a n ts s h a p e d is c r im in a to r y a ttitu d e s of d o m i n a n t a s well as im m ig r a n t g r o u p s . T h e c h a p te r s in the s ectio n Im m ig ra tio n , Self, G ender, a n d N a r r a ­ tives investigate how in te rs e c tio n s of rac e , ethnicity, gender, social class, a n d sexuality influence the m a k i n g of self a m o n g d ifferent i m m i­ g r a n t g r o u p s . M ag d a le n a Z a b o r o w s k a inv estigates the im p lic a tio n s of J a m e s B a ld w in ’s c o n s tr u c tio n of racial a n d c u ltu r a l id en titie s in a tr a n s a tla n tic im m ig r a n t c on tc x t to the s tu d y of im m ig r a n t n a rra tiv e s . M a rg a re t A b r a h a m e x a m in e s the social a n d psychological c o n s e ­ q u e n c e s of m o d e l m in o r ity m y th for S o u th A sian im m ig r a n t w o m e n w ho a re in a d o m e s tic violence situ a tio n . Patricia P e s s a r 's c h a p te r p r o b e s th e c o m p le x realities of c itiz en sh ip m a k in g a m o n g refugee w o m e n . Oliva E s p in ’s c h a p te r h ighlights th e role of language in m a k in g se n s e of g e n d e r a n d sexuality a m o n g im m ig r a n t w o m e n . R a m a s w a m i M ah a lin g a m a n d J a n a H a r ita to s e x a m in e the c u ltu r a l psychological a s p e c ts of g e n d e r so c ia liz a tio n a m o n g s e c o n d -g e n e r a tio n In d ia n A m e ric a n w o m e n . Together, th e se c h a p te r s illu stra te the p o w erfu l role of n a r r a tiv e s in the m a k in g of self at the v a r io u s in te r s e c tio n s of im m ig r a n t a n d refugee identities. T h e c h a p t e r s in the se c tio n I m m ig r a t io n a n d Fam ily d o c u m e n t the pivo tal ro le of fam ily c o n te x ts in s h a p i n g v a r io u s a s p e c ts of c h ild d e ­ v e lo p m e n t, id e n tity f o r m a tio n , a n d n e g o tia tio n . U sing In d o - C a rib b e a n fa m ilie s a s a n e x a m p le , J a i p a u l R o o p n a r in e a n d A m b ik a K r i s h n a k u m a r p r o v id e a c u ltu ra l-e c o lo g ic a l f r a m e w o r k to s t u d y v a r i ­ o u s d e t e r m i n a n t s of child d e v e lo p m e n ta l o u tc o m e s . K aren D ion's c h a p t e r e x a m in e s th e in tr ic a te r e la t io n s h ip a m o n g g e n d e r, interg e n e r a tio n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d id e n tity d e v e lo p m e n t in i m m i g r a n t fam ilies. Min Z h o u 's c h a p t e r e x a m in e s th e i n te r a c tio n b e tw e e n soc ia l c o n te x t a n d fam ily in s h a p i n g i n te r g e n e r a tio n a l r e la ti o n s a n d e th n ic id e n tity n e g o tia tio n s . Iz u m i S a k a m o t o p r o p o s e s a c o m p le x m o d e l for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the i m p o r t a n t role of fa m ilie s in id e n tity n e g o tia tio n a m o n g J a p a n e s e a c a d c m ic m ig r a n t s in the U n ite d S ta te s . All th e se c h a p t e r s hig hlig ht the p ivo ta l role of fam ilie s in s h a p i n g id e n tity f o r­ m a ti o n , n e g o tia tio n , a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s h a p e d by the in te r s e c ti o n s of ra c e , c la ss, g e n d e r, a n d ethnicity. T h is v o lu m e p ro v id e s a rich in te r d is c ip lin a ry p e rsp e c tiv e to f u r th e r o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c u ltu ra l psychology of im m ig r a n ts . Its c h a p t e r s also exemplify the very in te r d is c ip lin a ry n a t u r e of im m ig r a n t r e ­ s e a r c h . T h e se c h a p te r s illu stra te the c o m m o n a litie s a n d differences a m o n g eth n ic im m ig r a n ts a n d refugees in the w ays in w hich they e m ­

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body, c o n s tr u c t, negotiate, a n d m a k e s e n s e of th e ir n ew fo u n d selves in th e d is p la c e d context. C u ltu ra l psychology n e e d s to identify different tr a je c to rie s of s u c h m e a n in g - m a k in g p r o c e s s e s a n d th e ir psy c h o lo g i­ cal c o n s e q u e n c e s , s u c h a s ho w th e se tra je c to rie s are influ enced by in ­ te rs e c tio n s of race, class, ethnicity, gender, a n d sexuality a n d by the social c o n te x t of th e im m ig r a n t a n d refugee c o m m u n itie s . T h is collec­ tion of es sa y s c o n tr ib u te s to w a r d d e veloping a n in te r d is c ip lin a ry fra m e w o rk to f u r th e r o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of th e c u ltu r a l psychology of i m m ig ra n ts . T h is v o lu m e is lim ited in t h a t it fo c u se s p r im a r ily on i m ­ m ig ra n ts to W estern in d u s tr ia liz e d n a tio n s . F u tu re r e s e a r c h on the psychology of im m ig ra tio n s h o u ld in clu d e th o s e w ho im m ig ra te w ith in regions, in c lu d in g th o se p e r m a n e n tly d is p la c e d by w a r or n a tu r a l d is a s te r s , a n d o th e r s w h o c r o s s b o r d e r s s e e k in g safety o r o pp ortu nity . I t h a n k the follow ing u n i t s a t the U n iv e rsity of M ich ig a n for th e ir g e n e r o u s fin a n c ia l s u p p o r t , w i th o u t w h ic h m y in te lle c tu a l v e n tu r e w o u ld n o t ha v e b e e n p o s s ib l e : Office of th e Vice P r e s i d e n t for R e s e a r c h , Office o f Vice P r o v o s t, LSA, I n s tit u t e for R e s e a r c h on W o m e n a n d G e n d e r , W o m e n 's S t u d i e s , R e s e a r c h C e n te r for G r o u p D y n a m ic s , C e n te r for S o u t h A sia n S t u d i e s , L a tin o /a s t u d i e s , A s ia n A m e r ic a n P sy cho lo gy S t u d e n t A s s o c ia tio n , L atin A m e r ic a n a n d C a ­ r i b b e a n S t u d i e s P r o g r a m , R a c k h a m G r a d u a t e S c h o o l, C u l t u r e a n d C o g n itio n P r o g r a m , a n d th e D e p a r t m e n t o f Psychology. I t h a n k J o a n D e C o sta , S h e rry M aso n , V enece W illia m s, a n d W enda R ic h m o n - M o r to n for th e ir h e lp w ith o r g a n iz in g th e c o n f e re n c e . I a ls o a p p r e c i a t e th e s e c r e t a r i a l a s s i s t a n c e of K r is ti C o p p in g a n d Ken K u k lo c k . I greatly a p p r e c ia te J e n n if e r Yim's cfficicncy in c o o r d in a tin g v a rio u s a s p e c ts of the co n ference. My s pecial t h a n k s to Ann Lin, Abigail S tew ­ a rt, J a c q u e ly n n Eccles, a n d L o r r a in e G u tie rre z for th e ir s u p p o r t a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t d u r in g v a rio u s sta g e s of th is p rojec t. I t h a n k the fol­ lowing review ers for p ro v id in g a d d itio n a l g u id a n c e in dev eloping the project: G len n A d a m s, University of K a n s a s ; Anton Allahar, U niversity of W estern O n ta rio ; a n d Fab ie n n e D oucet, U niversity of C o n n e c tic u t. I t h a n k the following g r a d u a te s t u d e n t s for th e ir u n e n d in g e n th u s ia s m a n d s u p p o r t t h r o u g h o u t this project: M a rk A kiyam a, S u n d a r i B alan, M a n d e e p G rew al, J a n a H a rita to s, J a n x i n Leu, E le a n o r M urphy, C heri Philip, V isw a n a th a n R a v is h a n k a r, J o e l R odrigu ez, Hiro Saito, Melita Vas, a n d J e n n if e r Yim. I w h o le h e a rte d ly th a n k e d ito r D e b r a Riegert for h e r e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d p e r s e v e ra n c e . Finally, I am deeply grateful to L a u r e n U n g a r a n d J e e v a M uhil for b eing a p e r e n n ia l s o u rc e of s u p p o r t a n d love d u r in g m a n y stre s s f u l p h a s e s of th is project.

Contributors

A b raham , M argaret, P r o fe sso r a n d Chair, D e p a r tm e n t of Sociology, H o fs tra U niversity B a la n , S u n d a ri, D o c to ra l S tu d e n t, D e p a r tm e n t of Psychology, U n iv er­ sity of Michigan B hardw aj, A rjun, D o c to ra l S tu d e n t, D e p a r tm e n t of Psychology, U ni­ versity of W estern O n ta rio , R ic h a r d Ivey Sc h o o l of B u s in e s s D a n ie l, V a len tin e, Professor. D e p a r t m e n t of A nthropology, C o lu m b ia University, New York D ea u x , Kay, Professor, D e p a r t m e n t of Psychology, City U niversity of New York, G r a d u a te C e nte r D ie tz , J o e r g , D o c to ra l Fellow, D e p a r tm e n t of Psychology, U niversity of W estern O n ta rio , R ic h a r d Ivey Sc h o o l of B u s in e s s D io n , K aren, Professor, D e p a r t m e n t of Life Sc icn c c s (Psychology), U niversity of T o ro n to at S c a r b o r o u g h E sp in , O liva, Professor, D e p a r tm e n t of W om en's S tu d ie s, S a n Diego S ta te U niversity E s s e s , V ictoria, Professor, D e p a r t m e n t of Psychology, U niversity of W estern O n ta rio H a rita to s, J a n a . P o s td o c to ra l Fellow, C e n te r for H ealth a n d C o m m u ­ nity, University of C a lifornia S a n F ran cisco. K rish nak um ar, A m b ik a. A sso ciate Professor, D e p a r tm e n t of Family S tu d ie s , S y ra c u s e University

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CONTRIBUTORS

Low, B ob b i, Professor, U niversity of Michigan Sc h o o l of N a tu ra l R e­ s o u r c e s a n d E n v ir o n m e n t M ah alin gam , R a m a sw a m i, A s s is ta n t Professor, D e p a r t m e n t of Psy­ chology, U niversity of M ichigan M urphy, E lea n o r, P o s td o c to ra l Fellow, D e p a r tm e n t of Epidemiology, M a ilm a n S c h o o l of Public H ealth, C o lu m b ia University P ed ra za , S ilv ia , A sso ciate Professor, D e p a r t m e n t of Sociology, U n i­ versity of M ichigan P essar, P atricia, Professor, D e p a r tm e n t of A nthrop ology a n d A m e r i­ c an C u ltu re , Yale U niversity P ettigrew , T h o m a s, P rofessor, D e p a r t m e n t of Psychology, University of C alifornia, S a n ta C ruz P h ilip , C heri, P o s td o c to r a l Fellow, H o w a rd U niversity R o o p n a r in e , J a ip a u l, Pro fesso r, D e p a r tm e n t of Family S tu d ie s , S y r a ­ c u se U niversity S a k a m o to , Izu m i, A s s is ta n t Professor, S c h o o l of Social Work, U n iv e r­ sity of T oro nto T orm ala, T eceta. Visiting Professor. D e p a r tm e n t of Psychology, I n d i­ a n a U niversity Z ab orow sk a, M agdalen a, A ssociate Professor, D e p a r tm e n t of A m e r i­ ca n C u ltu re , U niversity of Michigan Z hou, M in, Professor, D e p a r tm e n t of Sociology, a n d Chair, D e p a r tm e n t of Asian A m erican S tu d ie s, University of California, Los Angeles

1

Cultural Psychology of Immigrants: An Introduction R a m a s w a m i M a h a lin g a m Un iversity o f Mi ch iga n

C u ltu r a l psychological r e s e a r c h h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d the c o n s titu e n t role of c u ltu re in h ow we th in k , ho w we feel, a n d ho w we perceive o u r social e x p erien ce (Cole, 1996; M a r k u s & K itayam a, 1991; N isbett, 2 0 0 3 ; Rogoff. 2 0 0 3 : S h w e d e r & Sullivan. 1990; S p e rb e r, 1996). The m a jo r s t r a n d s of r e s e a r c h in c u ltu r a l psychology have g enerally ig­ n o r e d im m ig r a n ts , w ith a few ex ceptio ns, s u c h a s r e s e a r c h on p s y c h o ­ logical a c c u ltu r a tio n (Berry, 1995), b ic u ltu r a lis m (Hong, M o rris, C hiu, & B enet-M artinez, 2 0 0 0 ), a n d iden tity negotiatio n ( S u a re z -O ro zc o & S u a re z -O ro z c o , 2 0 0 1 ). Interestingly, c u ltu r a l psychology, a s a d is c i­ pline, d o e s n o t g enerally tr e a t im m ig r a n t s a s a n in trin sic ally i n t e r e s t­ ing o r w o rth y ob ject of study. In fact, m o s t r e s e a r c h on c u ltu ra l psychology tr e a ts im m ig r a n ts a s a c o n tro l g r o u p (e.g., N isbett, 2 0 0 3 ). T h is r e s e a r c h pla c e s th e m on a c o n tin u u m b e tw e en p a r ti c ip a n ts in th e ir " h o m e ” c u ltu r e a n d th e ir "h o s t” c u ltu re . A lthough th is a p p r o a c h h a s s o m e m e rit, c u ltu ra l psychology n e e d s to ta k e into a c c o u n t the d i s ­ tin ct a s p e c ts of im m i g r a n t s ’ social location a n d its i m p a c t on th e ir p s y ­ chological well-being. B h a tia a n d R am (2001). highlight s o m e m a j o r g a p s in how c u ltu ra l c o nte xt is c o n c e p tu a liz e d in c u ltu ra l p sychological s t u d ie s on im m i ­ g ra n ts . In p a r tic u la r i s s u e s of power, tr a n s n a tio n a l ties, a n d social m a rg in a lity have n o t b e e n a d e q u a te ly a d d r e s s e d in c u ltu r a l p sy c h o lo g ­ ical r e s e a r c h on im m ig ra n ts . In s u m m a r y , th e r e a r e a t le a st two m a jo r s h o r tc o m in g s in c u ltu r a l psychological a p p r o a c h e s to th e s tu d y of i m ­

2

MAHALINGAM

m ig r a n ts . T h e first is re la te d to insufficient th e o riz a tio n of h ow im m i ­ g r a n t s “r e p r e s e n t th e ir c u l tu r e .” T h e s e c o n d is in a d e q u a te e x p lo ra tio n of ho w p o w e r a n d social m a rg in a lity s h a p e im m i g r a n t s ’ r e p r e s e n t a ­ tion s of c u ltu re . To a d d r e s s th e se la c u n e in r e s e a r c h on im m ig r a n ts , th is c h a p te r p ro v id e s a c u ltu r a l psychology f r a m e w o r k to s tu d y c u l­ tu r a l psychology of im m ig r a n ts . Inte gra ting c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h on social m a rg in a lity a n d idealized c u ltu r a l n a r r a tiv e s , I identify the following th re e in te r r e la te d a s p e c ts of an i m m ig r a n t’s social ex p e rie n c e a s the core of the p r o p o s e d c u ltu r a l psychology f r a m e w o rk : (a) r e p r e s e n t a ­ tio n s of c u ltu re, (b) social location a n d marginality, a n d (c) idealized c u ltu r a l identities. In the following se c tio n s, I d i s c u s s th e im p o r ta n c e of e ach of th ese fe a tu r e s in d etail before p r o p o s in g a c u ltu r a l identities m o d e l to s tu d y im m ig ra n ts .

IMMIGRANTS AND REPRESENTATIONS OF CULTURE I m m ig r a n ts a re e x p o s e d to d u a l w orldview s, c u ltu ra l p ra c tic e s , a n d beliefs. I m m i g r a n t s ’ “h o m e c u ltu re " alone m ay n o t be sufficient to help u s u n d e r s t a n d the c u ltu ra l psychology of im m ig r a n ts . U nlike pe op le in th eir “h o m e c u ltu re ," th e c o m p a r a tiv e s o c io c u ltu r a l con te x t of i m m i ­ g r a n t s in fluences how they " r e p r e s e n t” th e ir “h o m e c u l tu r e ” while try ­ ing to m a k e se n s e of their “h o s t culture ." I m m ig r a n ts a re b o th f o l k a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a n d i n f o r m a n t s at the s a m e time. T he r e la tio n a l c o n ­ text of th e ir d is p l a c e m e n t m a k e s th e m a w a re of the c o m p a r a tiv e n a ­ tu r e of th e ir c u ltu r a l identity, a n d they a re challeng ed to develop a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of th e ir own c u ltu re . Th ey develop a n e w e r a p ­ p re c ia tio n of c u ltu re n o t m e re ly a s a se t of p ra c tic e s a n d s h a r e d values, b u t a s s o m e th in g t h a t n e e d s to be reflected on a n d e x plained . A new im m ig r a n t, like an a n th r o p o lo g is t in an “exotic c u ltu r e ,” trie s to m a k e s e n s e of the h o s t c u ltu r e — its m o r e s a n d p ra c tic e s a n d the m e a n in g a n d g r a m m a r of v a r io u s social c a r to g ra p h ie s . As “aliens," im m ig r a n ts a re c o n sta n tly a s k e d to explain v a rio u s a s ­ p ec ts of th e ir “c u lt u r e ” to th e “n a tiv e s”— r a n g in g from food c u s t o m s to foreign policy is s u e s to lip s on the b e s t eth n ic r e s t a u r a n t in town. In the p r o c e s s , they try to d e c ip h e r v a rio u s m e a n in g s a s s o c ia te d with the new identities t h a t a re forced on th e m . While m a k i n g s e n s e of the r a ­ cial a n d social a r r a n g e m e n t s of the h o s t society, they also e m b o d y the n ew e r f o r m s of ra cia l a n d e th n ic id e n tities t h a t codify th e ir social a n d h isto ric a l e x p e rie n c es (Kim, 1999). T h e d u a l role of in fo rm in g a n d a b ­ s o rb in g the new c u ltu r e u n iq u e ly p o s itio n s an i m m ig r a n t to be a w a re of social h i e r a r c h ie s a n d p o w e r a m o n g v a r io u s social g ro u p s. A lthough th e r e are s im ila ritie s b etw e e n im m ig r a n ts a n d a n t h r o p o l ­ ogists, th e re a re so m e in te re s tin g differences. I m m i g r a n t s ’ a ttitu d e s to w a rd the d o m i n a n t c u ltu re often r e m i n d m e of A n t i a m , a k in d of sw a n th a t is believed to have a m y th ic a l ability to s e p a r a te the good from the b a d . For in sta n c e , if you give A n n a m a m ix tu re of w a te r a n d m ilk , it will d r in k the m ilk a n d leave the w a te r in the bowl. Im m ig r a n ts

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3

often view A m e ric a n c u ltu r a l e x p erience is a m ix tu re of m ilk a n d water, a n d like A n n a m s , they believe they can ta k e the “m i l k ” (good A m e ric a n v alues s u c h as in d c p c n d c n c c , h a r d w o rk ) a n d leave the “w a t e r ” (the u n d e s ir a b le a s p e c ts of the c u ltu re , s u c h a s dating, violence, a n d d ru g s). They also expect th e ir c h ild re n to im b ib e the q u alitie s of A n n a m s . I m m i g r a n ts often m a k e “valu e j u d g m e n t s ” a b o u t th e ir “h o m e ” a n d “host" c u ltu re s . As Daniel (this volum e) p o in ts ou t, a l­ th o u g h im m ig r a n ts s h a r e the s a m e p r e d i c a m e n t a s a n th ro p o lo g is ts in the w ays they e x p erien ce the d is r u p tio n of th e ir “c u ltu r e ,” im m ig r a n ts do n o t have the s a m e c u ltu r a l privileges a s s o c ia te d with a W estern a n ­ th ro p o lo g is t w ho s tu d ie s a n on-W estern c u ltu re . T h u s , th e ir m a rg in a liz e d social location co lo rs im m i g r a n t s ’ r e p r e s e n ta tio n s of “h o s t ” a s well a s “h o m e ” c ultu re .

SOCIAL LOCATION AND MARGINALITY A c c o rd in g to M a h a lin g a m (in p r e s s ) , so c ia l lo c a tio n r e f e r s to i n t e r ­ se c tin g id e n titie s s u c h a s r a c e , c a ste , c la ss , g end er, a n d se x u a lity e m ­ b e d d e d in a soc ial con te x t, w h e r e the p o w e r d iffe re n tia l a m o n g t h e se axe s of id e n titie s lo c a te s a n im m i g r a n t in a c o m p le x field of ra c ia l p o ­ sitio n in g (Kim, 1999). D o m i n a n t g r o u p m e m b e r s e s se n tia liz e so c ia l c a te g o rie s in o r d e r to legitim ize ex istin g so c ia l h i e r a r c h ie s . In c o n ­ tr a s t , a m a r g in a liz e d so c ia l lo c a tio n h e ig h te n s o n e ’s a w a r e n e s s of s o ­ cial p o w e r a n d of c o n te x tu a l in flu e n c e s on id e n tity (Fiske, 1993; M a h a lin g a m , 2 0 0 3 ) . M a rg in a liz e d g r o u p s h a v e to c o n t e s t s u c h e s s e n ti a lis t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , b e c a u s e th e y b e c o m e t r o p e s for d i s ­ c r i m i n a t o r y ideologies t h a t ju s tify the m a r g in a liz e d s t a t u s of im m i ­ g r a n ts . To ne g a te s u c h h e g e m o n ic so c ia l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , p e o p le a t m a r g in a liz e d lo c a tio n s feel a s t r o n g e r n e e d to c re a te a po sitive i d e n ­ tity th a n d o m e m b e r s of a d o m i n a n t g r o u p . B ecause m a n y im m ig r a n ts lack the social a n d c u ltu ra l capital n e c e s ­ s a ry to s u c c e ssfu lly negotiate th eir social s t a t u s , they a re often m arg in alized (Portes & R u m b a u t, 1996). Like o th e r m arginalized g ro u p s, im m ig r a n ts se e k a positive c u ltu ra l identity by locating their ro o ts in a m ythical p a s t a n d claim ing a legacy as in h e rito rs of a "ric h e r” civilization. As folk a n th ro p o lo g is ts, im m ig r a n ts c o n s tru c t a n arrative of th e ir c u ltu ra l heritage in o r d e r to develop a reflective u n d e rsta n d in g , m a k in g se n s e of th eir c u ltu ra l p ractices. S u c h selective invocation of c u ltu ra l heritage p rov id es an in te re stin g c o u n te r p o in t to the d e nigrating d o m in a n t c u ltu ra l a c c o u n ts of r e p r e s e n ta tio n s of i m m ig r a n ts — also k n o w n a s e th n o p h a u lis m s (see Mullen, 2 0 0 1 , for a review). S u c h idealized id e n titie s play a significant role in c re a tin g a n d s u s ­ ta in in g a n e sse n tia liz e d se n s e of “c o m m u n ity ,” devoid of in te r n a l c o n ­ t r a d ic tio n s (A nd erso n, 1991). A lthough m u c h sc h o la rly a tte n tio n h a s f o c u se d on the h is to ric a l a n d social c o n tin g e n c ie s of s u c h “im agined c o m m u n iti e s , ” th e d isc ip lin e of psychology h a s ra re ly e x a m in e d the role of m a rg in a liz e d social location in a c c e n tu a tin g o u r g en e ra l p s y ­

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c h o lo g ic a l n e e d to c r e a te a n “i d e a liz e d ” po sitiv e id e n tity (Tajfel, 1 98 1) a n d th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f s u c h id e a liz a tio n s .

CULTURAL NARRATIVES AND ID EA LIZED CULTURAL ID E N T ITIE S C u l t u r a l n a r r a t i v e s o f th o s e o n the s o c ia l m a r g i n s often a re th e c o m ­ m u n a l m e m o r y o f re s ilie n c e a n d re so lv e u n d e r o p p r e s s i v e a n d m a r ­ g in al loc a le s (M a h a lin g a m , in p r e s s ) . T h e y v a lo riz e th e t r i u m p h o f in d iv id u a ls w h o s u c c e e d a g a in s t all o d d s a n d in th e face o f so c ia l d i s ­ c r i m i n a t i o n . T h r e e c u l t u r a l n a r r a t i v e s ex em p lify th e v a lo r iz a tio n of se lf a m o n g m a r g in a liz e d g r o u p s . An e x a m p le fro m I n d ia is th e s t o r y of E k a la iv y a , a D alit (fo rm e r ly t r e a t e d a s “U n t o u c h a b l e ”). He w a s a g r e a t a r c h e r w h o is v a lo r iz e d for b e in g a n id ea l s t u d e n t . At th e r e q u e s t of h is t e a c h e r (w ho w a s a B r a h m i n ) , E k a la iv y a gave u p h is r ig h t- h a n d t h u m b a s G i i r u d a k s h i n a (gift to a g u r u ) , k n o w i n g v ery w ell t h a t h e c o u ld n e v e r p r a c ti c e a r c h e r y a g a in . E k a la iv y a is still view ed a s th e e m b o d i m e n t of a n id e a l s t u d e n t for giving u p all h is l e a r n i n g for h is t e a c h e r (see M a h a l in g a m , in p r e s s ) . In a s t u d y o f slave n a r r a t i v e s , S a n g e r ( 1 9 9 5 ) f o u n d t h a t slave folk s o n g s re v e a le d t h a t s la v e s b e lie v e d t h a t they h a d a m o r e priv ile g e d r e ­ la t i o n s h i p w ith G o d th a n d id W hites. Spirituals contained descriptions of the rew ards the slaves envisioned as a result of their s ta tu s as God's chosen ... For instance, in the song, "Hold the w in d”, the slaves sang 'when I get to heaven, gonna be ease,' Me and my God gonna do as we please’ and ’gonna chatter with the Fa­ ther. and argue with the Son Tell them abou t the world I ju s t come from ...’ Slaves implicitly claimed for themselves a relationship with God more person al and m ore privileged than tha t experienced by Whites. (Sanger, 1995, pp. 188-189) A n o th e r e x a m p le is th e s t o r y o f J o h n Henry, a n A fric a n A m e r ic a n s h a r e c r o p p e r w h o w o r k e d h i m s e l f to d e a t h w h ile c o m p e t i n g w ith a p o w e r drill. H is n a r r a t i v e p r e s e n t s a n id e a liz e d p r o t o t y p e sy m b o liz in g s t r e n g t h a n d p e r s i s t e n c e of A fric a n A m e r ic a n s . T h e s e e x a m p l e s s u g g e s t th e p o w e r o f i d e a l i z e d n a r r a t i v e s a n d th e a c u t e n e e d fo r m a r g i n a l i z e d c o m m u n i t i e s to c r e a t e s u c h i d e a l i z e d n a r r a t i v e s to f o s t e r a p o s i tiv e s e lf id e n tity . H o w e v e r, th e y a r e a ls o s t a r k a n d o m i n o u s r e m i n d e r s o f th e h e a v y c o s t o f a s s e r t i n g a g e n c y from an u n p riv ile g e d lo catio n . T h e s e c o s ts a re b o th p h y sic a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l . In s t u d y i n g th e h e a l t h d i s p a r i t i e s o f A f r i c a n A m e r i ­ c a n s , J a m e s ( 1 9 9 4 ) f o u n d t h a t A f r ic a n A m e r i c a n s w h o i n t e r n a l i z e th e v a l u e s s ig n if ie d by th e J o h n H e n r y m y t h ( h a r d w o r k , e x c e lle n c e ) , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s a r e n o t e c o n o m i c a l l y s u c c e s s f u l , a r e m o r e lik e ly to s u f f e r f r o m h y p e r t e n s i o n , e v e n a f t e r c o n t r o l l i n g for th e e ffec ts o f i n ­ com e and educatio n .

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CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY OF IMMIGRANTS: AN IDEALIZED CULTURAL IDENTITIES MODEL T h e se th re e e x a m p le s of n a r r a tiv e s of idealized selves of m a rg in a liz e d g r o u p s s u c h a s D alits a n d A frican A m e r ic a n s suggest the a c u te need to c rca tc a n d believe in s u c h id e a liz a tio n s b c c a u s c the se id e a liz a tio n s help th e m to negate d o m i n a n t g r o u p s ’ view t h a t they la c k “c u l t u r e ” (e.g., “deficit c u ltu ra l" m o d e ls ; for a review, see O gbu, 1981). As e m p i r ­ ical r e s e a r c h on J o h n H e n ry ism sugg e sts, th e re a r e c o s ts a n d b en efits a s s o c ia te d with s u c h idealized views of self. S u c h id ea ls c ou ld h elp in ­ div id u a ls to cope, to a s s e r t a n d to feel p r o u d of th e ir identity. T h e ir s a ­ lience in defining self-w orth a lso b e c o m e s especially significant as th e s e c u ltu r a l n a rr a tiv e s play a vital ro le in the c o n s tr u c tio n of id e a l­ ized g r o u p identities. E x te n d in g the r e s e a r c h on social m a rg in a lity a n d idealized c u ltu ra l id en titie s to the s tu d y of im m i g r a n ts a n d refugees, I a rgu e t h a t im m i ­ g r a n t s m a y feel the n e e d to idealize th e ir iden tities. T h e d u a l role of i m ­ m ig r a n ts in a new c u ltu r a l m ilie u —a s folk a n th r o p o lo g is ts a n d as in f o r m a n ts — also fo rces th e m to r e th in k th e ir a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t th e ir c u ltu re a n d identity. S u c h r e th in k in g p r o f o u n d ly in flue n c e s their n e e d to “im agine" o r “project" a n idealized c u ltu r a l identity in o r d e r to a s s e r t, negotiate a n d m a k e s e n s e of th e ir social position in g. In s u m m a r y , m a rg in a liz e d s t a t u s c o n tr ib u te s to the idealization of o n e ’s identity. In te rn a liz atio n of s u c h id e a liz atio n s h a s positive a n d negative c o n s e q u e n c e s . In te r s e c tio n s of race, class, gender, a n d s e x u ­ ality (S te w a rt & M c D e rm o tt, 2 0 0 4 ) a n d t r a n s n a t io n a l ties (Foner, 2 0 0 2 ; M u r p h y & M a h a lin g a m , 2 0 0 4 ) also play a critical role in the a p p r o p r ia tio n of th e se ideals.

In te r se c tio n s o f R ace, C lass, G ender, an d Id ea lized C ultural Id e n titie s I n t e r s e c t i o n s of e thnicity, c la s s , g e n d e r, a n d s e x u a lity p la y a c r itic a l ro le in th e p r o d u c t i o n a n d a p p r o p r i a t i o n of th e s e id e a ls . I d e a liz e d c u l t u r a l i d e n tit ie s s e rv e m u ltip le f u n c tio n s . B c c a u s c g e n d e r is a m a ­ j o r site for i n s c r i b i n g id e a liz e d c u l t u r a l id e n ti tie s , e n g e n d e r e d i d e ­ a liz e d c u l t u r a l i d e n t itie s affect e th n ic w o m e n 's lives in c o m p le x w ay s. S e v e r a l c u l t u r a l t h e o r i s t s h a v e p o i n t e d t h a t in m a n y c u l t u r e s w o m e n a r e b e liev e d to e m b o d y th e e s s e n c e of t h e i r c u l t u r e a n d g r o u p id e n tity a n d a r e t h o u g h t to be r e p o s i t o r i e s of fam ily h o n o r (D u b e , 2 0 0 1 : O r tn e r, 1 9 7 4 ). R e s e a r c h on g e n d e r s o c ia liz a tio n a m o n g i m m i g r a n t s in d i c a t e s t h a t i m m i g r a n t s view w o m e n a s the p u r v e y o r s of " c u l t u r e ” ( D a s g u p ta & D a s g u p ta , 2 0 0 0 ; D io n, t h i s vol­ u m e ; E s p i r i t u , 2 0 0 1 ; Gill & V asq u e z , 19 9 6 ). T h e r e is m o r e p r e s s u r e on f ir s t- a n d s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n w o m e n t h a n t h e r e is o n m e n to u p ­ h o ld id e a liz e d c u l t u r a l id e n ti tie s . G e n d e r - s p e c i fic c u l t u r a l id e a ls v a lo riz e c th n ic w o m e n a s m o r e “c h a s t e ” a n d “f a m i l y - o r i e n t e d ” t h a n

6

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" W h ite ” w o m e n ( E s p í r i t u , 2 0 0 1 ; M a h a l i n g a m & H a r i t a t o s , t h i s v o l­ u m e ) . S e v e r a l v a r i a n t s o f f e m a le i d e a l s a r e c u l t u r e s p e c if i c . For i n ­ s t a n c e , th e n o t i o n o f P a t i v i r d a (th e d e v o t e d wife) h a s a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e in h o w first- a n d s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n i m m i g r a n t s view h o w a n I n d i a n A m e r i c a n w o m a n “o u g h t ” to b e h a v e , a n d t h e i r e v e r y d a y lives a r e i n f l u e n c e d b y s u c h i d e a l s ( A b r a h a m , t h i s v o lu m e ) . S i m i ­ l a r ly G il a n d V a s q u e z ( 1 9 9 6 ) a r g u e d t h a t th e n o t i o n o f M a r i a n i s m o h a s a m a j o r i m p a c t o n L a t i n a w o m e n 's m e n t a l h e a l t h . B a s e d o n t h e i r c lin ic a l w o r k , th e y d e s c r i b e s o m e sp e c if ic M a r i a n i s t a b e lie fs: (a) a good wife m u st always provide her h usband and children with a good meal which she p repares herself (b) a good m other should not a r ­ gue with her h usband before her children (c) a good wife m u st put up with her h u s b a n d ’s relatives, no matter how offensive or inconsiderate they are (d) a good wife m u st have an impeccable home and preferably m u st keep it that way herself (e) a good Latina m u s t obey traditions al pie de la letra, to the letter of the law (f) a good mother should take care of her children herself or with the help of very trustworthy relatives. (Gil & Vasquez, 1996, p. 184) T h u s , e n g e n d e r e d c u l t u r a l id e a ls n o t on ly c o n s t r i c t e th n ic w o m e n 's lives b u t a ls o i m p ly th a t th e y s h o u l d striv e to a c h ie v e t h e s e id e a ls in o r ­ d e r to b e d iff e r e n t a n d s u p e r i o r to “W hite w o m e n ” (M a h a lin g a m & Leu, 2 0 0 5 ) . In a d d i t i o n , th e first- a n d s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n i m m i g r a n t w o m e n a r e e x p e c te d to b e m orally, a c a d e m ic a lly , a n d p r o f e s s io n a lly b e t t e r t h a n W hite w o m e n (M a h a lin g a m & Leu, in p r e s s ) . I n te r n a liz a ti o n of id e a liz e d c u l t u r a l id e n titie s h a s se v e ra l c o n s e ­ q u e n c e s . An id e a liz e d c u l t u r a l id e n tity m a y po sitiv e ly c o n t r i b u t e to a p o sitiv e s e n s e o f self, b u t it m a y a ls o b e c o m e a s o u r c e o f s t r e s s (M a h a lin g a m & H a r ita t o s , 2 0 0 5 ) . In a s t u d y c o n d u c t e d in In d ia , M a h a lin g a m a n d J a c k s o n (2 0 0 5 ) f o u n d t h a t I n d ia n w o m e n fr o m c a s te g r o u p s t h a t c o m m i t fem a le in fa n tic id e (w h e re th e sex r a t i o s c a n be a s d r a m a t i c a s 6 1 4 g irls fo r every 1 0 0 0 b o y s) t e n d to v a lo riz e t h e ir g e n d e r id e n tity a n d s tr o n g ly believe in th e p o w e r o f c h a s t e w o m e n a n d m a c h o m e n (M a h a lin g a m & J a c k s o n , 2 0 0 5 ) . S u c h e s s e n ti a l is t b eliefs a b o u t g e n d e r id e a ls , a lth o u g h c o n t r i b u t i n g to s t r o n g se lf-e ste e m , a lso c o n ­ t r i b u t e i n c r e a s e d feelings o f s h a m e a n d d e p r e s s i o n . M a h a lin g a m a n d H a r i t a t o s ( 2 0 0 5 ) e x a m in e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n in t e r n a l i z a t i o n o f a m o d e l m i n o r i t y m y th a n d p s y c h o lo g ic a l w e ll-b e in g a m o n g A sia n A m e r ic a n s . T h e y f o u n d t h a t i n te r n a li z a tio n of A s ia n A m e r i c a n w o m e n id e a ls c o n t r i b u t e d b o t h to p r i d e in b e in g a m o d e l m i n o r ity a n d to p r e s ­ s u r e to b e a m o d e l m in o rity . I n d iv id u a l d iff e r e n c e s m ig h t p lay a ro le in h o w p e o p le n e g o tia te th e p r i d e a n d p r e s s u r e a s s o c i a t e d w ith believing to be p a r t o f a n id e a liz e d g r o u p . I d e a liz e d c u l t u r a l id e n titie s a lso h e lp i m m i g r a n t s to feel th a t they o c c u p y a h ig h e r so c ia l p o s it io n w ith in th e r a c ia l h i e r a r c h i e s in the U n ite d S ta te s . K im (1 9 9 9 ) a r g u e d th a t id e a liz e d c u l t u r a l id e n titie s , s u c h a s m o d e l m in o r ity m y th , t r i a n g u l a te A sia n A m e r i c a n id e n titie s

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vis-a-vis a W h ite - B la c k c o n t i n u u m a n d p o s it io n i n g A sia n A m e r i c a n s ab o v e A fric a n A m e r i c a n s in t e r m s of a c h i e v e m e n t. A c c o r d in g to P r a s h a d ( 2 0 0 0 ) , I n d ia n i m m i g r a n t s a ls o s e e k a n “a u t h e n t i c ” id e n tity to feel c lo s e r to W hite A m e r ic a n s . Desis [Indians] seek out an “authentic culture” for complex reasons, am ong them the desire not to be seen as fundamentally inferior to those who sec themselves as “white” and superior. To be on a par with or at least not beneath these people, desis, like other subordinated peoples, revel in those among them who succeed in white terms. There is a sotto voce knowledge am ong nonwhites of their various forms of greatness. Parents instruct their children to recognize all kinds of people valued by Europe, (p. 157) In a s t u d y of s e c o n d - g e n e r a tio n I n d ia n A m e r i c a n p r o f e s s i o n a l s , D h in g r a ( 2 0 0 3 ) f o u n d t h a t m a n y o f th e m felt t h a t th e y w e r e n o t m o d e l m i n o r i t i e s b u t “m o d e l A m e r i c a n s . ” T h u s , i m m i g r a n t s m a y a t t im e s u s e i d e a l i z e d i d e n t i t i e s to d i s t a n c e t h e m s e l v e s f r o m o t h e r m a r g in a liz e d g r o u p s b y a s s ig n in g t h e m s e l v e s in a n i n t e r m e d i a t e s t a ­ tu s w ith in th e r a c ia l h ie r a rc h y . A n o th e r i m p o r t a n t fa c to r th a t c o n t r i b u t e s to th e p r o d u c t i o n a n d th e s a lic n c c o f id e a liz e d c u l t u r a l id e n titie s is t r a n s n a t i o n a l tics. S e v e ra l s o c io lo g ists ha v e p o i n t e d to the in c re a s in g ly t r a n s n a t i o n a l n a t u r e o f th e i m m i g r a n t e x p e r ie n c e (Foner, 2 0 0 2 ; P o r te s , G u a r n i z o & L a n d o lt, 19 99 ). T r a n s n a t i o n a l ties h e lp i m m i g r a n t s to m a i n t a i n c u l t u r a l a n d so c ia l l in k s w ith th e ir h o m e c o u n t r i e s . O ften, th e y a ls o lo b b y for th e ir h o m e c o u n t r y w ith th e U.S. g o v e r n m e n t (Foner, 2 0 0 2 ) . T r a n s n a t i o n a l ties c a n m a k e i m m i g r a n t s v a lu e t h e i r e th n ic identity, w h ic h m ig h t le a d to n e w f o r m s of i d e a liz a tio n s . In s u m m a r y , th e c u l t u r a l p s y c h o lo g y o f i m m i g r a n t s is s h a p e d by th e ir m a r g i n a l iz e d so c ia l lo c a tio n a n d by h o w th e y r e p r e s e n t t h e ir c u l ­ tu r e a n d id e a liz e d c u l t u r a l id e n titie s (see Fig. 1.1). I n t e r s e c t i o n s o f e t h ­ nicity, g e n d e r, a n d c la s s a n d t r a n s n a t i o n a l tics a lso in flu c n c c the v a r io u s w a y s in w h ic h c u l t u r a l id e a ls a r e a p p r o p r i a t e d . T h e follow ing h y p o t h e s iz e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s n e e d to b e f u r t h e r e x a m ­ in ed . Ide a liz e d c u l t u r a l i d e n titie s re la te p ositive ly to p r i d e a n d p r e s ­ s u r e b u t th e y will a lso p ositive ly r e la te to in d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e f a c to rs , s u c h a s re s ilie n c e . P rid e in b e in g p a r t of a n id e al g r o u p will b e p o s i ­ tively re la te d to p r e s s u r e to live u p to th e e x p e c ta tio n s o f b e in g a m o d e l m in o rity . P r id e will p ositiv e ly r e la te to r e s ilie n c e , a n d p r e s s u r e will negatively re la te to p e r s o n a l re s ilie n c e (L u th a r, C ic c h e tti, & Becker, 2 0 0 0 ) . R e silie n c e will p ositiv e ly r e la te to m e n t a l a n d p h y s ic a l h e a lth a n d negatively r e la te to p e r c e iv e d s t r e s s a n d p e r c e iv e d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n (Barry, 2 0 0 2 ; B a r r y & G rilo, 2 0 0 3 ; M o s s a k o w s k i , 2 0 0 3 ) . R e silie n c e w ill a l s o p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e to a c h i e v e m e n t ( S u a r e z - O r o z c o & S u a r e z - O r o z c o , 2 0 0 1 ) . T h e s e h y p o th e s i z e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s m a y differ by g e n d er, by g e n e r a t io n a l s t a t u s , a n d by th e g e n d e r e d n a t u r e of id e a l ­ ized id e n titie s . H e n c e it is c ritic a l to id entify th e c u lt u r e - s p e c if ic n a t u r e

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FIG. 1.1. Cultural psychology of immigrants: An idealized cultural identi­ ties model.

a n d s a lie n c e of c u l t u r a l id e a ls (e.g., M a r i a n i s m o , P a tiv ird a , m o d e l m in o r ity ) s o t h a t th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l i m p a c t o f e n d o r s e m e n t of th e s e id e a ls c a n b e a s c e r t a i n e d .

IM PLICATIONS AND FU TU R E DIR EC TIO N S I p r o p o s e d a f r a m e w o r k fo r a c u l t u r a l p s y c h o lo g y o f i m m i g r a n t s t h a t s u g g e s ts id e a liz e d c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s h a v e d u a l effects. W h e t h e r “s e lf - im a g in e d " o r “i m p o s e d " by th e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e , id e a liz e d c u l ­ t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s affect i m m i g r a n t s ' lives in c o m p l e x w a y s. It is c r itic a l to id e n tify w h a t a s p e c t s o f c u l t u r e a r e s a l i e n t to a n i m m i g r a n t a n d h o w th e y b e c o m e a n in te g r a l p a r t o f a n id e a liz e d e t h n i c id entity. E t h ­ n ic o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d r e l ig io u s i n s t i t u t i o n s p la y a n i m p o r t a n t ro le in a f f i r m in g c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of e t h n i c i d e n t i t i e s (K u rie n , 1 9 9 9 , 2 0 0 3 ) . In a d d i t i o n , c u l t u r a l m y th o lo g i e s in th e fo r m o f m y t h s a n d l i t e r a r y o r p e r s o n a l n a r r a t i v e s m i g h t a ls o c o n t r i b u t e to th e c r e a t i o n o f n e w c u l ­ t u r a l id e a ls . P a r t i c i p a t i o n in r e lig io u s a n d e t h n i c i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d e x ­ p o s u r e to e t h n i c l i t e r a t u r e will h ig h lig h t u n i q u e a s p e c t s o f o n e ’s “c u l t u r a l r o o t s ” t h a t m i g h t le a d to a g r e a t e r a c c e p t a n c e o f id e a liz e d c u l t u r a l id e n tit ie s .

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T h e s a lie n c e of id e a liz e d c u l t u r a l id e n t itie s m ig h t a lso c h a n g e over o n e ’s lifetim e. L o n g i tu d in a l s t u d i e s a r e n e e d e d to e x a m i n e the sh if ts in e n d o r s e m e n t o f id e a liz e d c u l t u r a l id e n titie s a n d th e ir p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d th e m e d i a t i n g ro le o f v a r i o u s life e v e n ts. In a d d i ­ tion, so c ia l c o n te x ts (e.g., g r o u p c o m p o s i t i o n o r fam ily c o n te x t) m a y a lso p r i m e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f id e a liz e d c u l t u r a l i d e n titie s . For i n ­ s ta n c e , a sp ecific i m m i g r a n t c o n te x t (e.g., e th n ic e n c la v e s vs. p r e d o m i ­ n a n tly W hite s u b u r b s ) m ig h t in te n sify o r w e a k e n th e s a lie n c e o f id ea liz e d id e n titie s . P e r h a p s e th n ic e n c la v e s a n d s u b u r b s m a y le a d to d iff e re n t w a y s of in te r n a liz in g c u l t u r a l i d e a ls, b e c a u s e th e y offer d iffe r­ e n t v a n ta g e p o i n t s for so c ia l c o m p a r i s o n s b e tw e e n a n d w ith in so c ia l g r o u p s . In a d d itio n , it is c ritic a l to e x a m in e th e role o f v a r i o u s fam ily a n d p a r e n t a l p r a c t i c e s in th e s o c ia liz a tio n o f th e s e id e a liz e d b eliefs a b o u t e th n ic id e n tity in th e s e d iv e r g e n t i m m i g r a n t s e ttin g s . D iffe re n t k i n d s o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l tics, s u c h a s c u l tu r a l, p olitica l, a n d f in a n c ia l c o n t a c t s w ith th e h o m e c u ltu r e , a lso sig n a l th e p o w e r a n d a u ­ th o r ity o f c u l t u r a l i d e n titie s ( M u r p h y & M a h a lin g a m , 2 0 0 4 ) . C u ltu r a l c o n ta c ts in th e fo r m o f to u r i n g e th n ic m u s i c o r d a n c e g r o u p s m i g h t r e ­ m i n d th e i m m i g r a n t s o f th e r i c h n e s s of th e ir c u l t u r a l h e rita g e . S u c h c o n ta c ts o p e n u p p o s s i b ilit ie s for d e v e lo p in g a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c u lt u r e , w h ic h m ig h t lea d to in te r n a liz a tio n of id e a liz e d c u lt u r a l id e n titie s . Political tie s m a y h e lp i m m i g r a n t s to re c o g n iz e th e c u l t u r a l c a p ita l of t h e ir e th n ic id e n titie s . M a ny first- a n d s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n i m ­ m i g r a n t s offer fin a n c ia l h e lp to t h e ir re la tiv e s b a c k h o m e . H e lp in g e x ­ te n d e d fa m ilie s m a y s t r e n g t h e n c u l t u r a l b o n d s . H e n c e it is c ritic a l to u n d e r s t a n d th e m e d i a t i n g ro le o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o n t a c t s in th e e n d o r s e m e n t o f id e a liz e d c u l t u r a l id e n titie s . T h e p r o c e s s o f id e a liz a t io n o f c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s m i g h t a ls o b e a f­ f e c te d b y t r a n s n a t i o n a l m i g r a t o r y e x p e r ie n c e . For e x a m p le , I n d o C a r i b b e a n s in New York a r e “tw ice" r e m o v e d f r o m th e i r “c u l t u r e . " M o s t o f t h e m a r e d e s c e n d e n t s o f e a r ly I n d i a n m i g r a n t s w h o c a m e to th e C a r i b b e a n a s i n d e n t u r e d l a b o r s d u r i n g th e c o lo n ia l p e r i o d ( R o o p n a r i n e & K r i s h n a k u m a r , t h i s v o lu m e ) . T h e I n d o - C a r i b b e a n vi­ s io n o f I n d i a n c u l t u r e is t e m p e r e d b y th e i r d i a s p o r i c e x p e r ie n c e a n d th e ir d e s i r e to b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m A f r o - C a r i b b e a n s . T h i s c o m p l e x so c ia l c o n t e x t m a y c o n t r i b u t e to a n i n t e n s e n e e d to id e a liz e I n d i a n c u l t u r e . A fter b e in g “tw ice r e m o v e d ” f r o m t h e i r " o r ig in a l” c u l t u r e , th e y a r e for th e f i r s t tim e in d i r e c t c o n t a c t w ith a la r g e n u m b e r o f I n ­ d ia n i m m i g r a n t s a n d f in a n c ia lly c a n a f fo rd to m a k e a tr ip to th e ir “m o t h e r l a n d , " I n d ia . In c o n t r a s t , d i r e c t i m m i g r a n t s f r o m I n d ia b e ­ lieve t h a t th e i r c o n c e p t i o n o f I n d i a n c u l t u r e is m o r e “a u t h e n t i c ” t h a n th e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f I n d o - C a r i b b e a n s ( R o o p n a r i n e , p e r s o n a l c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n , 2 0 0 5 ) . H ow ever, b o t h g r o u p s d e p lo y a n a r r a t i v e o f a n “a n c i e n t a n d g lo r io u s " I n d i a n c u l t u r e to n e g a te th e d o m i n a n c e o f “A m e r i c a n ” c u l t u r e . A c o m p a r i s o n o f I n d i a n i m m i g r a n t s a n d

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I n d o - C a r ib b e a n im m i g r a n t s in the U n ite d S t a te s will h e lp u s to u n ­ d e r s t a n d w h e t h e r the s a lie n c e of id e a liz ed c u ltu r a l id e n titie s is s t r o n ­ ger for I n d o - C a r i b b c a n i m m i g r a n t s th a n it is for In d ia n im m ig r a n t s . F u tu re r e s e a r c h s h o u ld investigate the c o m p le x c o n s e q u e n c e s of in ­ te rn a liz a tio n of idealized c u ltu r a l id e n titie s a t the in te r s e c tio n s of s o ­ cial id e n titie s a n d social contexts: 1. How do in te rs e c tin g m a rg in a liz e d id e n titie s s u c h a s gender, social c lass, a n d im m ig r a n t s t a t u s affect th e psychological c o sts a n d ben efits of negotiating idealized c u ltu ra l id e n titie s? 2. Do idealized c u ltu ra l id e n titie s help m arg in a liz e d g r o u p s to cope with v a r io u s f o rm s of social d is c r im in a tio n a n d life s tr e s s o r s ? 3. D oes p r e s s u r e from idealized id e n titie s ad ve rse ly affect a c a ­ d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t? 4. Arc th e re c h a n g e s a c r o s s life s p a n in the in te rn a liz a tio n of c u l­ tu r a l id ea ls? 5. Do different k i n d s of t r a n s n a tio n a l ties influence in te r n a liz a ­ tion of idealized c u ltu r a l id e n titie s? 6. Do tw ice-rem ov ed im m ig r a n ts (e.g., I n d o -C a r ib b e a n s ) idealize th e ir identity in a way different from o th e r im m i g r a n ts ? An in te r d is c ip lin a ry a p p r o a c h is n e c e s s a r y to a n s w e r th e s e q u e s ­ tions. In a d d itio n , a c o m b in a tio n of qualitative a n d q u an tita tiv e m e t h ­ o d s s h o u l d be u s e d to in v e stig a te th e c o m p le x r e l a t i o n s h i p of n a r r a tiv e s , social m arginality, a n d idealization of identities.

CONCLUSIONS T h e c u ltu r a l psychology of im m ig r a n t s fo r e g r o u n d s the u n iq u e social p o sitio n in g of im m i g r a n t s a n d h ow they r e p r e s e n t th e ir “cu lture" in o r ­ d e r to p ro je c t an idealized self a n d eth n ic identity. V arious social in te r ­ s e c tio n s iniluc nc c the p ro d u c ti o n , in te rn a liz a tio n , a n d a p p r o p r i a tio n of the se id e a ls while im m ig r a n t s try to negotiate th eir s ta t u s w ithin the social hierarchy. D eveloping a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c u ltu r a l p s y ­ chology of im m ig r a n t s n e c e s s ita te s a n in te r d is c ip lin a r y a p p r o a c h in te ­ g ra tin g in sig h ts from d is c ip lin e s s u c h a s sociology, anthropo lo gy , a n d e th n ic s t u d ie s (Foner, R u m b a u t, & Gold, 2 0 0 0 ). A lthough c u ltu ra l p s y ­ chology h a s a p ro d u c tiv e intellectual e n g a g e m e n t with a nthropology, its ties to sociology o r eth n ic s tu d ie s have b e e n t e n u o u s o r virtually n o n e x iste n t. S tu d y of im m ig r a n ts p ro v id e s an exciting o p p o r tu n ity for c u ltu r a l psychology to d ra w from the ric h sociological a n d e th n ic s t u d ­ ies lite ra tu r e on im m ig ra tio n . T h e p r o p o s e d idealized c u ltu r a l id e n ti­ ties m o d e l p ro v id e s a fr a m e w o r k to look a t how c u ltu ra l, h istorical, a n d sociological fa cto rs s h a p e how im m ig r a n ts r e p r e s e n t, p r o d u c c , a n d a p p r o p r i a t e idealized selves a n d eth nic id e n titie s a n d the im p a c t th is h a s on im m i g r a n t s ’ m e n ta l a n d p hy sical well-being. T he c u ltu ra l psychology of im m ig r a n ts h a s g r e a t p o te n tia l to c o n tr ib u te to o u r u n ­

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d e r s ta n d in g o f c u ltu re , pow er, a n d so cial lo c a tio n a n d h o w in te r s e c ­ t i o n s o f v a r i o u s i d e n t i t i e s a f f e c t i m m i g r a n t s ’ liv es.

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M a halin gam , R. (2003). E s s c n tia lis m , c u ltu r e a n d pow er: r e th in k in g social c lass. J o u r n a l o f S oc ial I ss ue s, 59(4), 7 3 3 - 7 4 9 . M a halingam , R. (in p re ss). C u ltu re , e s s e n t ia lis m , a n d psychology of m a r g in a l­ ity. A d e v e lo p m e n ta l p e rspective. In A. Fuligni (Ed.), S oci al i d e n ti t y a n d a c ­ a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t . New York: R u ssell Sage. M a halin gam , R., & H a rita to s , J. (2005). Cu lt ura l p s y c h o l o g y a n d g e n d e r : A cul tu ra l ecological i n t e rs e ct io n a l i ty p e r s p e c t i v e . M a n u s c r ip t s u b m itte d for p ub lic a tio n . M a halingam , R.. & J a c k s o n . B. (2005). I d e a l i z e d cul t u ra l b e l i e f s , self-app r a i s a l s . a n d m e n t a l h eal th: T h e i d e a l i z e d cul t ur al i d e nt i t ie s m o d e l . U n­ p u b lis h e d m a n u s c r i p t. M a halin gam , R., & Leu, J. (20 05 ) C u ltu re , e s s e n tia lis m , im m ig ra tio n a n d r e p ­ r e s e n ta tio n s of gender. T he o r y a n d P sy chol ogy , 15(6), 8 4 1 - 8 6 2 . M a r k u s , H., & K itayam a, S. (1991). C u ltu re a n d self: im p lic a tio n s for cogni­ tion, e m o tio n a n d m o tivation. P sy chol ogi cal R e v i e w , 98, 2 2 4 - 2 5 3 . M o ss a k o w sk i, K. N. (2003). C o ping with perceived d is c r im in a tio n : D oes e t h ­ nic identity p ro te c t m e n ta l h e a lth ? J o u r n a l o f He a lt h a n d S oc ial Behavior, 44(3), 3 1 8 - 3 3 1 . Mullen, B. (2001). E t h n o p h a u l i s m s for eth nic im m ig r a n t g ro u p s. J o u r n a l o f S oc ia l I s su e s. 5 7(3), 4 5 7 - 4 7 5 . Murphy. E. J., & M a haling am . R. (2004). T r n a s n a t io n a l ties a n d m e n ta l h e a lth of C a r ib b e a n im m ig r a n ts . J o u r n a l o f I m m i g r a n t He alt h, 6(4), 1 6 7 - 1 7 8 . Nisbett, R. (2003). G e o g r a p h y o f t hought : H ow A s i a n s a n d W e s t e r n e r s t h i n k d i f f e r e n t ly ... a n d w h y . New York: Free P re ss. O gbu, J. U. (1981). O rigins of h u m a n c o m p e te n c e: A c ultural-ecological p e r ­ spective. Child D e v e l o p m e n t , 52, 4 1 3 - 4 2 9 . O rtner, S. (1974). Is m ale to female as n a tu r e is to c u ltu r e ? In M. R o sa ld o & L. L a m p h e r e (Eds.), W o m a n , cult ure, a n d s o c i et y (pp. 6 7 -8 8 ). S ta n fo rd , CA: S ta n fo r d University Press. Portes, A., G u arnizo , L. E., & Landolt, P (1999). T he stu d y of tra n sn a tio n a lism : Pitfalls a n d p r o m is e of a n e m e rg e n t r e s e a r c h field. E t h n i c a n d R ac ial S t u d ­ ies R e v ie w . 22(2), 2 1 7 - 2 3 7 . P ortes, A., & R u m b a u t, R. G. (1996). I m m i g r a n t A m e r i c a : A port rait . B e r k e ­ ley: University of California Press. P r a s h a d , V. (2000). T h e k a r m a o f b r o w n f o l k . M inn eapolis: U niversity of M in­ n e s o ta Press. Rogoff, B. (2003). T h e cul t u r al n a t u r e o f h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t . New York: Ox­ ford University Press. Sanger, K. (1995). Slave re s is ta n c e a n d r h e to r ic a l self-definition. West ern J o u r n a l o f C o m m u n i c a t i o n , 59, 1 7 7 - 1 9 2 . S hw eder. R. A., & Sullivan, M. A. (1990). T h e se m io tic s u b je c t of c u ltu ra l p s y ­ chology. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.). H a n d b o o k o f p e r s o n a l i t y : T h e o r y a n d re­ s e a r c h (pp. 3 9 9 - 4 1 6 ) . New York: G uilford. S p c rb c r, D. (1996). A nth ropo lo gy a n d psychology: T o w a rd s an epidem iology of r e p r e s e n ta tio n s . In D. S p c r b c r (Ed.), E x p l a i n i n g culture: A na tr ua l is t i c a p p r o a c h (pp. 5 7 - 7 6 ) . C a m b rid g e , MA: Blackwell. S te w a rt, A. J., & M cD erm o tt, C. (2004). G e n d e r in psychology. A n n u a l R e v i e w P sy ch ol og y, 55, 5 1 9 - 5 4 4 . S u a re z -O ro z c o , C., & S u a re z -O ro z c o , M. M. (2001). Chil dren o f i m m i g r a n t s . C a m b rid g e , MA: H a rv a rd University P ress. Tajfel, H. (1981). H u m a n g r o u p s a n d s ocial cat egori es : S t u d i e s in soci al p s y ­ chology. New York: C a m b rid g e U niversity P ress.

Im m igration, G lo b alization , and T ra n sn ation alism : T h eo retica l P er sp e ctiv es

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Whither Thou Goest: An Evolutionary Perspective on Migration Bobbi S . L o w Un iversity o f Mi ch iga n

THE “WHAT AND WHY” OF MIGRATION A n th ro p o lo g ists , biologists, a n d sociologists are all in te re s te d in the p a t te r n s , c a u s e s , a n d effects of m ig ra tio n . T h e focus of each of th e se g r o u p s of s c h o la r s differs, a n d they identify v a rie d c a u s e s a n d effects, at different levels. However, th e ir findings a re n o t co n tra d ic to ry , b u t r a t h e r c o m p le m e n ta ry . H ere I h o p e to c o n n e c t the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of several of th ese fields, lo o k in g at m ig ra tio n at several levels, p e r h a p s to s p a r k so m e in te rd is c ip lin a r y c ross-fertilizatio n. T h e re is s o m e th i n g of a gap in the lite ra tu re . In p a r t , m o s t of th e s o ­ ciological lite r a tu r e on m ig ra tio n in h u m a n s c o n c e r n s im m ig r a n ts ' fates a f te r m ig ra tio n —b u t biologists, for ex a m p le , a r e in te r e s te d p r i ­ m a rily in the p r e c ip ita tin g fa c to rs t h a t l e ad to m ig ra tio n . A nd so m e s tu d ie s look a t aggregate p a tte r n s , w h e r e a s m u c h r e m a i n s to be le a rn e d from s tu d y in g in d iv id u a l va ria tio n (e.g., sex, o r b ir th o r d e r p a t t e r n s in m ig ration ). H ere I su g g e st t h a t a new p ersp e c tiv e , b e h a v ­ ioral ecology, m a y h elp c o n n e c t e xisting s tu d ie s in two ways. F irst, b e ­ ha v io ral ecology h a s b e e n very fruitful in analy zing m ig ra tio n in o th e r sp e cie s, help in g u s u n d e r s t a n d a n d te st p r e d ic tio n s a b o u t the ro le s of pre d ic ta b ility a n d v a ria tio n in the e n v ir o n m e n t a s they fo ste r different k in d s of m ig ra tio n . S e c o n d , w h e n we a s k a b o u t h u m a n m ig ratio n , we often carc a b o u t very su b tle i s s u e s —b u t u n le s s we u n d e r s t a n d the very ba sic , s h a r e d p a tte r n s , we m a y m is in te r p r e t w h a t we see. Finally, 15

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be h a v io ra l ecology fo c u se s on the re p r o d u c tiv e c o s ts a n d benefits of b e h a v io rs, in c lu d in g m ig ra tio n ; a n d a lth o u g h m a n y s t u d ie s do n o t ex­ a m in e th e se a s p c c ts , for m a n y m o d e r n d is p u te s (e.g., conflicts over m ig r a n t v e r s u s n ative fertility, s u p p o r t s y s te m s for m ig ra n ts ), we n e e d to u n d e r s t a n d the r e l a tio n s h i p s b e tw een m ig ra tio n a n d re p ro d u c tiv e p a t te r n s . P e r h a p s b eh a v io ra l ecology can a d d new d im e n s i o n s to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of m ig ra tio n in o u r own species. We u s e th e te rm m i g r a t i o n to m e a n a n u m b e r of d ifferent things, w h e th e r we a re d is c u s s in g h u m a n o r n o n - h u m a n p a tte r n s . At the la rg ­ e st scale, we s o m e t im e s m e a n the d i s p e r s a l o f p o p u l a t i o n s o ve r e v o l u ­ ti o n a ry t i m e . T h u s , C avalli-Sforza a n d colleagues (Cavalli-Sforza, Menozzi, & Piazza, 1996) m a p p e d the long-term p a t t e r n s of h u m a n d is p e r s a l over the globe, u sin g genetic a n a ly se s. M ost u s e s of the te rm m i g r a t i o n c o n c e rn a s m a lle r scale, in b oth tim e a n d sp a c e ; th e r e are th re e m a in s u c h u se s. We m a y m e a n r e g u la r m o v e m e n t of in d iv id u a ls or p o p u la tio n s b etw een a r e a s t h a t r e p e a te d ly a n d reg ularly differ in h a b ita t quality ( s e a s o n a l m i g r a t i o n )— like African w ild e b e est, a n d p e op le in a n u m b e r of tra d itio n a l societies. We m a y m e a n m u c h less defined, b u t still r e p e a te d , m o v e m e n t (e.g., n o m a d i c m o v e m e n t), as a m o n g th e Cree peo ple, a n d s o m e Arctic c a rib o u . Finally, we m a y m e a n sim p ly leaving o n e ’s b ir th a r e a (n a t a l m i g r a t i o n )— a s B e ld in g ’s G r o u n d s q u ir r e ls , wolves, a n d w o m e n in m a n y so cieties do. All of th e se k in d s of m ig ra tio n o c c u r in b o th n o n h u m a n s a n d h u ­ m a n s , b u t for s o m e sp ecies, a n d in so m e p a r t s of the globe, ce rta in k i n d s of m ig ra tio n m a y be m o r e c o m m o n , o r less. O ne a d v an tag e to a d d in g a b eh a v io ra l ecological p e rsp ec tiv e is th a t it b o th p o in ts o u t s im ila ritie s (usually of ecological a n d r e s o u r c e c o n d itio n s ) b etw een s tu d ie s on n o n h u m a n s a n d s tu d ie s on h u m a n s , a n d s e rv e s to link th e m . At its m o s t b a s ic level, m ig ra tio n is s h a p e d by ecological c o n d i­ tion s, a n d how th e se affect survival a n d r e p r o d u c tio n . B ut o u r in d iv id ­ ual c o s ts a n d b en efits in m ig ra tin g o r n o t d e p e n d n o t only on ecological c o n d itio n s , b u t on o u r age, o u r sex, o u r s o c io e c o n o m ic s c o n d itio n , o u r c onspecific c o m p e tito rs , o u r r e s o u r c e s ... a n d m o re . Biologists, w ho are p e r h a p s m o r e sa n g u in e th a n o th e r s c h o la r s a b o u t h u m a n s a s biological c r e a tu r e s , a rgu e th a t the s a m e b a sic r u le s th a t a p ply to o th e r spe c ie s also a p ply to the c o s ts a n d b en efits of h u ­ m a n m ig ra tio n . Along with the gen e ra litie s of “b ein g a m a m m a l ” a n d the ccological v ariation wc e n c o u n te r, we also have s o m e tr a its th a t a rc p a rtic u la r ly h u m a n ; th e se help set the stage for the th in g s we can do in o u r lives, a n d for the specific p a t t e r n s of m ig ra tio n we see. S o c io lo ­ gists, d e m o g r a p h e r s , a n d g e o g r a p h e rs (e.g., Grigg, 1977; Moffitt, 2 0 0 3 , 2 0 0 5 ) have “p u s h v e r s u s pull" th e o rie s, w h ich analyze “p r o x i­ m a te" d riv e rs ( d e sc rib e d later) of all th re e k in d s of m ig ra tio n . T h e p u s h e s a n d p u lls m a y be r e s o u r c e s , family c o n n e c tio n s — th e re can be m a n y quite different d r iv e r s —a n d th is is p a r t of w h a t I w a n t to e xplore h ere . A nalyses of h u m a n m ig ra tio n rare ly m a k e explicit th e r e la t io n ­ s h i p s b e tw een ind iv id u a l survival a n d fertility, a n d the m o s t im p o r t a n t

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d riv e r of m ig ra tio n in all o th e r species: ecological c o n d itio n s . Fro m an evo lu tio n a ry p e rsp e c tiv e (e.g., b e h a v io ra l ecology a n d ev o lu tio n a ry a n ­ thropology), all of the m e a n in g s of “m ig ration " reflcct ccological influ­ e n ce s of b e t t e r v e r s u s w o r s e c o n d itio n s for in d iv id u a l survival a n d r e p r o d u c t io n (e.g., C la rk e & Low, 2 0 0 1 ). Natal, se a s o n a l, a n d n o m a d ic m ig ra tio n all o c c u r to da y in b o th h u ­ m a n a n d n o n h u m a n species: a s n o te d earlier, fro m a n evolutio nary a n d ecological view, all th re e a r e p r o m p t e d by s im ila r (ecological) c o n ­ ditio n s. E v o lu tio n a ry /b e h av io ral ecology a p p r o a c h e s to the s tu d y of m ig ra tio n , loo k in g a t very b as ic ecology, c o m p le m e n t sociological a n d p sy c h o lo g ic a l a p p r o a c h e s t h a t a n a ly z e m o r e specifically h u m a n m ig ra tio n factors.

WHAT EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY CAN ADD All a p p r o a c h e s a s k "why m ig r a te ? ” or " u n d e r w h a t c o n d itio n s is m i­ g ra tio n m o r e likely, a n d by w h o m ? ” b u t th e r e is diversity in focu s b e ­ yo nd th ese issu e s . Social s c ie n tists, like m o s t of u s informally, te n d to th in k a b o u t ho w we f e e l a n d t h i n k a b o u t m igrating , a b o u t o u r c o n ­ s c io u s de c isio n s . Yet u n d e r n e a t h the a lm o s t e n d le s s p o ss ib le c o n ­ s c io u s o p in io n s a b o u t why you o r I decid e to m ig rate, to w h a t place, a n d w hen, th e re are ecological influences, a s well. A nd the se a re m o r e p a tte r n e d ; lo ok in g carefully a t a w ide s p e c t r u m of sp e c ie s for these c o r r e la te s c a n be useful. T h e fa m o u s eth olog ist Niko T in b e rg en (1 963 ) n o te d d e c a d e s ago t h a t th e r e a r e m a n y ways to a s k “w h y ? ” Until we c o n n e c t th e v a rio u s a p p r o a c h e s , we can m is s i m p o r t a n t p a t te r n s . C o n sid e r: Why do s o m e in d iv id u a ls in s o m e b ir d s pe c ie s m ig ra te re gularly? T h e r e are four b io ­ logical k in d s of a n s w e r s (H o le k a m p & S h e r m a n , 1989; T in b e rg e n , 1963), a n d they can easily be g r o u p e d , for o u r p u r p o s e s , into two m a in c ategories: u l t i m a t e a n s w e r s (explaining w hy a p a r tic u la r m ig ra tio n p a tte r n is re p ro d u c tiv e ly a d v a n ta g e o u s — h e lp s the in d iv id u a l survive o r r e p r o d u c e better), a n d p r o x i m a t e a n s w e r s (explaining the a c tu a l “ho w it h a p p e n s ”— the trigger). So, w hy do so m e b i r d s m ig ra te ? One a n s w e r m ig h t be " b e c a u se of c h a n g in g day le n g th ,” a n o th e r “b c c a u s c of c h a n g in g h o r m o n e levels” (Charnov, 1980). B oth of th e se a n s w e r s are, like m o s t sociological a n d psychological e x p la n a tio n s , p r o x i m a t e e x p la n a tio n s; they d eal with d isc o v e rin g the i m m e d ia te “trig ger” for m ig ra tio n . T hey do n o t explain, in t e r m s of r e p r o d u c tiv e c o sts a n d b enefits, why m ig ra tin g b ir d s p e ­ cies have e v o l v e d to r e s p o n d to c h a n g e s in d aylength by c h a n g in g h o r ­ m o n a l levels a n d m igrating. P ro x im a te a n s w e r s do n o t explain why, in m a n y spe c ie s, so m e in d iv id u a ls m ig ra te b u t o th e r s do no t, or why s o m e in d iv id u a ls m ove e a rlie r o r later th a n o th e rs . T h o s e q u e s tio n s a re th e focus of b e h a v io ra l ecology, w hich d e a ls with u ltim a te c a u se s: U n d e r w h a t c ir c u m s ta n c e s will m ig ra tin g in d iv id u a ls profit g e n e ti­

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cally? And w hy is m ig ra tio n costly for so m e in d iv id u a ls, in so m e c ir c u m s ta n c e s , b u t beneficial for o th e r s ? T he u l t i m a t e c a u s e of s e a s o n a l m ig ra tio n , a s w ith o th e r b e h a v io rs, alw ays c o n c e r n s r e p ro d u c tiv e s u c c e ss . W h en ever we see s e a s o n a l geo­ g r a p h ic shifts in foraging a n d n e s tin g a r e a s , for ex a m p le , we u n d e r ­ s t a n d t h a t i n d iv i d u a ls th a t s e e k the ( p r e d ic ta b ly tim e d ) b e t te r c o n d itio n s, shifting seasonally, leave m o r e d e s c e n d a n t s th a n tho se w h o r e m a in in one a re a . T h is is w hy we e xpect n e c ta r-e a tin g b ir d s , like h u m m i n g b i r d s , to m ig ra te in m a n y e n v ir o n m e n ts , b u t we expect th a t se e d -e a tin g b i r d s (m a ny finches) a n d s o m e inse c t-e a ting b i r d s (w oo d­ p e c k e r s ) m a y r e m a in in n o r t h e r n clim a te s over th e winter. T h e logic a b o u t u ltim a te c a u s a tio n d o e s n o t vary, b u t th e p r o x im a te triggers m a y vary. W hen day length is th e m o s t reliable p r e d ic to r of s e a s o n a l shifts, for ex a m p le , in d iv id u a ls w ho u se day length a s a cue will do m u c h b e tte r th a n th o se w h o u se s o m e o th e r p ro x im a te cue, or w h o fail to m ig ra te . We also ex pect v aria tio n in w hich in d iv id u a ls of a p o p u la tio n m ig ra te, b e c a u s e the b e n efits a n d c o s ts of m ig ra tio n (in t e r m s of s u r v iv a l a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n ) ty p ic a lly differ for o ld er, p rim e -a g e b i r d s , c o m p a r e d with y earlings. P ro x im a te a n d u ltim ate (selective) a p p r o a c h e s c o m p l e m e n t each o th e r b e c a u s e they a sk “why?" a t two very d ifferent levels— a n d if we w ish fully to u n d e r s t a n d “why," we n e e d b o th levels. Im p o rta n tly , s u c h ecological p r e d ic tio n s a r e s t a t i s t i c a l , n o t u n i ­ v ersa l, a n d d iffe re n t k i n d s of in d iv id u a ls m a y e x p e r ie n c e d iffe re n t c o s ts a n d b e n e fits to m ig r a tio n . T h a t is, n o t only w o u ld we p r e d i c t th a t h u m m i n g b i r d s s h o u l d m ig r a te w hile s e e d e a t e r s a re le ss likely to, b u t we a ls o re c o g n iz e t h a t older, b e t te r n o u r i s h e d in d iv id u a ls m a y have d iffe ren t m ig r a tio n o p tio n s t h a n a d o le s c e n t, n o t-y e t-e s ta b lis h e d in d iv id u a ls , for e x am p le . Finally, n o th in g p r e v e n ts in d iv id u a ls fro m m a k i n g s u b o p t i m a l , p e r s o n a ll y (re p ro d u c tiv e ly ) c o stly c h o ice s; th is is e sp e c ia lly tr u e in a n intelligent, co m p le x , highly so c ia l sp e c ie s like h u m a n s . A s t u d e n t on c e a s k e d m e , w h e n we w e re ta lk in g a b o u t m ig r a tio n , h o w e v o lu ­ tio n a r y th e o r y w o u ld e x p la in h e r c h o ic e to se rv e o v e r s e a s in th e Peace C o r p s , for e x a m p le . T h e r e a r e m a n y s u b tle a n s w e r s , w ay s in w h ich s u c h a n e x p e rie n c e , in o u r highly soc ia l s p e c ie s , m ig h t a c tu a lly have a po sitive effect on h e r su rv iv a l a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n — b u t in fact th e s i m ­ p le s t p o s s ib ility is t h a t sh e , a s a c o n s c io u s h u m a n , can m a k e any ch oice s h e d e s ir e s , i n d e p e n d e n t of its likely i m p a c t in o u r e v o lu tio n ­ a r y p a s t. All th a t ecological, b e h a v io r a l, a n d e v o lu tio n a r y th e o ry can tell u s is this: B e h a v io rs t h a t a re r e p r o d u c tiv e ly costly (like celibacy, for e x a m p le ) will n ev e r b e c o m e a n d r e m a i n over g e n e r a tio n s the m o s t c o m m o n form of b e h a v io r in any p o p u la tio n . No p o p u la t io n will evolve to be c o m p r i s e d p r im a r ily of p e o p le like M o th e r T e re sa , w ho

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r e m a i n e d c e lib a te t h r o u g h o u t h e r life, a n d c a r e d exclusively for ( n o n r e la te d ) o th e r s , w ith n o r e t u r n to h e r fam ily for th is sacrifice.

THE BEHAVIORAL AND EVOLUTIONARY ECOLOGY OF MIGRATION W hat, t h e n , do we k n o w a b o u t the ecology, a n d r e p r o d u c tiv e im p a c t, of m ig r a tio n ? For o t h e r s p e c ie s , we c a n m a k e te s ta b le p r e d ic tio n s a b o u t key q u e s tio n s . W h a t a re the c o n d it io n s t h a t will fo s te r o r d e ­ p r e s s m ig r a tio n ? W h a t k in d of m ig r a tio n d o we e x p e c t to see u n d e r p a r t i c u l a r c o n d itio n s ? W h a t k i n d s of m ig ra tio n will be c o m m o n o r r a r e ? For h u m a n s , a s I a lr e a d y n o te d , we a lso a r e c o n c e r n e d with th e c o n s e q u e n c e s of m ig r a ti o n : h o w olde r, y o u n g e r, m a le , fe m a le , wealthy, poor, w e ll- e d u c a te d a n d p o o rly e d u c a te d , m i g r a n t s a r e likely to fare. F ig u re 2.1 s u m m a r i z e s th e g e n e ra l p rin c ip le s ; I r e t u r n to it la te r to e x a m in e p a r t i c u l a r c a se s . E ven if we fo cus only on “u lti m a te ” c a u s e s ( im p a c t on re p r o d u c tiv e su c c e s s of ecological b e tte r -v e rsu s-w o rs e c o n d itio n s), th e re a re comC u rre n t E n v iro n m e n t

N ew E n v iro n m e n t

Family

Family Personal traits

Social

Social

1 -----Structural

Structural

’Ecology

Ecology

Resource patchiness, predictability

Resource patchiness, predictability

*

Individual Resource Access Compared to O ld environm ent Natives here

Reproduction Probability

FIG. 2.1. Human migration is a dynamic process. An individual's costs and benefits of staying versus leaving an area are influenced by family, so­ cial, societal, and ecological conditions. For an emigrant, the important pat­ terns in the new location must be compared not only to nonemigrants, but to natives of the new area.

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plic a tio n s. "M igration” is n o t a s in g u la r p h e n o m e n o n . T h e m o s t c o m ­ m o n k in d s of m ig ra tio n in o th e r spe c ie s a re n a ta l m ig ra tio n (leaving h o m e to d i s p e r s e a n d find a m ate) a n d s e a s o n a l m ig ra tio n . B oth have s tr o n g ecological c o rre la te s . Very few s p e c ie s a re fully n o m a d ic w a n ­ d e r e r s , with no p a tte r n to th e ir m o v e m e n t. T h e se p a t t e r n s in o th e r spe c ie s p ro b a b ly have a fam iliar ring; they sh o u ld , b e c a u s e until relatively recently, th e s e w ere also th e m o s t c o m ­ m o n types of h u m a n m ig ra tio n . We a d d a d d itio n a l layers of c o m p le x ­ ity. M igration p a t te r n a n d type have ecological influences, b u t differ a c r o s s t ra d itio n a l h u n te r - g a th e r e r societies, h isto ric a l societies (e.g., n in e te e n th - c e n tu r y E u r o p e a n a g ric u ltu ra l a n d p r o to - i n d u s tr ia l s o c ie t­ ies), a n d m o d e r n n a tio n - s ta te s . S e a s o n a l m ig ra tio n , for e xam ple, is m o r e c o m m o n in tr a d itio n a l h u n te r - g a th e r e r s th a n in the o th e r two c a s e s — a n e n tir e g r o u p m a y m ov e s e a s o n a lly ( d i s c u s s e d la te r), w h e r e a s in b o th h is to ric a l a g ric u ltu r a l a n d m o d e r n societies, only a s u b g r o u p (m ig ra n t a g ric u ltu r a l w o r k e r s ) regu larly m oves. A nd m o d ­ e r n n a tio n - s ta te s sh o w a n o t h e r k in d of m ig ra tio n : in d iv id u a ls forced to m ove for w h a t a p p e a r to b e s t r u c t u r a l r e a s o n s , u n r e l a te d to in d iv id ­ ual c o s ts a n d benefits. We have political im m ig r a n ts , for ex a m p le , w ho m a y have c r o s s e d n a tio n a l b o r d e r s . B e c a u se we a re c o n s c io u s , a n d th in k a b o u t p r o x im a te r e a s o n s for m ig ra tio n , we c o n s id e r the ecological a n d e v o lu tion ary a s p e c ts of h u ­ m a n m ig ra tio n le ss th a n we do for o th e r sp ecies. How i m p o r t a n t are s t r u c t u r a l (e.g., political, w a rfa re) v e r s u s "m ic r o ” (e.g., familial: sex, b ir th o rder, so c io e c o n o m ic sta tu s ) f a c to rs? How a re in d iv id u a ls in v a r ­ io u s societies a c c u l tu r a te d to th in k a b o u t m ig r a tio n ? How can we u n ­ d e r s t a n d political m ig ra tio n ? B eh avioral ccologists a n d evo lu tion ary a n th ro p o lo g is ts a re in te r e s te d in ho w m ig ra tio n m a y influence a c c e s s to m a r ria g e p a r t n e r s , degree of genetic in b re e d in g , lifetime r e p r o d u c ­ tive p a t t e r n s (e.g., family f o rm a tio n a n d fertility), a n d s u b s e q u e n t p o p ­ u la tio n grow th. We c a re n o t only a b o u t m ig r a n t family fo rm a tio n ( c o m p a r e d b o th to th o s e w h o stayed h o m e , a n d t h o s e native to the place m ig r a n ts have arrived ), b u t a lso a b o u t how m ig ra n ts th in k a b o u t m ig ra tio n , family, a n d life roles. It is w o rth e x plorin g the e x ten t to w h ich the s a m e ecological forces influence o u r m ig ra to ry p a t t e r n s a s well a s th o se of o th e r sp ecies. In tra d itio n a l a n d h is to ric a l societies, n a ta l d is p e r s a l (which in c lu d e s leaving h o m e specifically to m a rry ) a n d s e a s o n a l m ig ra tio n a re the m o r e c o m m o n f o r m s of m ig ra tio n . We u s e the t e r m s n o m a d a n d n o ­ m a d i c p r im a r ily for societies th a t m u s t d e p e n d on r e s o u r c e s th a t do sh o w f lu c tu a tio n s in tim e a n d s p a c e —b u t for w h ich the flu c tu a tio n s are u n p re d ic ta b le , r a t h e r th a n s e a s o n a l (e.g., Low, 1990a). T r a d itio n a l society d a t a com e p rim a r ily from societies th a t still ex­ isted w h e n E u r o p e a n s m a d e c o ntact. S u c h societies s ee m far r e m o v e d from to d ay 's c o m p le x itie s— a n d in so m e ways, they a re. H istoric a l s o ­ cieties p ro v id e a link. M o st w ere a m ix of a g ric u ltu re a n d m a n u f a c t u r ­ ing (or p r o to - m a n u f a c tu rin g ) ; se v e ra l a re well d o c u m e n te d ; a n d

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p a rtic u la r ly in the c a se of n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry d a ta , we can look a t how m ig ra tio n a n d fam ily-fo rm atio n p a t t e r n s c h a n g e d with i n d u s tr ia li z a ­ tion. H isto ric a l d e m o g r a p h ic d a t a a rc p a rtic u la r ly usefu l in p a r t b e ­ c a u se the m o v e m e n ts of in d iv id u a ls e ith e r can be r e c o n s tr u c t e d fro m a variety of p o p u la tio n s o u r c e s (Towner, 2 0 0 1 ) o r a re explicitly r e c o r d e d w ithin original r e c o r d s (e.g., C la rk e & Low, 1992; Low, 1989; 1990b; Voland & D u n b a r, 1997). A s m a ll n u m b e r of s tu d i e s have foc u se d on d is p e r s a l p a t t e r n s from an ev o lu tio n ary p ersp e c tiv e . A lthough th e re a r e s o m e d iffe re n c es a c r o s s the p o p u la t io n s s tu d ie d , i m p o r t a n t gen e ra litie s em erge.

MIGRATION PATTERNS IN NONHUMANS, TRADITIONAL AND HISTORICAL SOCIETIES Natal M igration M o st v e r t e b r a t e s p e c i e s s h o w n a ta l m i g r a t i o n — o f f s p r in g leave the fam ily in w h ic h th e y w e r e b o r n to e s t a b l i s h a n d b r e e d e ls e w h e r e . In a n u m b e r of s p e c i e s , w h e t h e r a n d w h e n o f fs p rin g leave h o m e d e ­ p e n d s in larg e p a r t o n w h e t h e r / w h e n ecological c o n d i t i o n s a r e fa ­ v o r a b le for fa m ily f o r m a t i o n (e.g., r e s o u r c e - r i c h ) , o r s t r e s s e d . R e s o u r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d the p a r t i c u l a r u tility of r c s o u r c c s th u s s tr o n g ly affect n a t a l m ig r a ti o n . E ith e r b o th se x es o r only o n e sex m a y leave th e n a ta l g r o u p . B iolo­ g ists have su g g e s te d th is t h a t p a t t e r n lo w e rs th e p o te n tia l for inb re e d in g , a n d m a y r e d u c e local r e s o u r c e c o m p e titio n (Devillard, Allaine, G a illa r d , & Pontier, 2 0 0 4 ; M cN utt, 1 99 6; Negro, H ira ld o , & D o n a z ar, 1 9 9 7 ; P e rrin , 2 0 0 0 ; Taylor, Morley, Rico, & B a ls h in e , 2 0 0 3 ). In s o m e sp e c ie s , p a r tic u la r ly w h e n leaving is r is k y o r d a n g e r ­ o u s a n d c o n d i tio n s a r e highly c o m p e titiv e (i.e., te r r i t o r i e s o r m a t e s a r e h a r d to find; it is difficult to get e s ta b lis h e d ) , a p h e n o m e n o n k n o w n a s “h e lp e r s a t th e n e s t ” o c c u r s : P re v io u s o ffsp rin g r e m a in w ith th e ir p a r e n t s a n d h e lp r a is e th e ir p a r e n t s ' c u r r c n t o ffsp rin g (E m le n , 1 9 9 1 , 1 997 ; Koenig & D ic k e n s o n , 2 0 0 4 ) . 1 V a ria tio n s in e c o ­ logical c o n d iti o n s affect ho w likely p o te n tia l h e l p e r s a re to sta y a n d h e lp o r to d i s p e r s e (e.g., Koenig & D ic k e n s o n , 2 0 0 4 ; a lso see E m le n , 19 84 , 1 9 9 5 , 1997). Interestingly, in s o m e h u m a n so c ie tie s ( in c lu d ­ ing, e.g., s e v e ra l n i n e te e n th - c e n tu r y E u r o p e a n on es), the “h e lp e r" p h e n o m e n o n o c c u r r e d ; u s u a lly an o ld e r d a u g h t e r sta y e d . A m o n g o u r c lo s e s t re la tiv e s, th e p r i m a t e s , th e r e is p a t t e r n e d v a r i a ­ tion in w h e th e r m a le s , o r fe m a le s, o r b o th , d is p e r s e . With n o ta b le ex­ c e p tio n s , d i s p e r s a l is m a le b i a s e d in po ly g y n o u s sp e c ie s: M ales leave to find new t e r r i to r i e s , o r n ew g r o u p s in w h ic h to c o m p e te for m a te s . *Oflen h e lp e rs are the full siblings of the c u rre n t offspring, b u t the degree of re la te d ­ n e ss m ay vary. The m ore closely related h e lp e rs are to the c u rre n t offspring, typically the m ore they help (e.g., Reyer, 1980).

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In c o n tr a s t , in m o n o g a m o u s p r i m a t e s , b o th se x e s typically d i s p e r s e (P usey & Packer, 1987). A m o n g the p r o s i m i a n s (le m u r s , lo ris e s , tars i c r s , a n d g a la g o s), th e r e a r c no c o n f ir m e d e x a m p le s of m a le p h ilo p a tr y : M ales, o r b o th se x e s, d i s p e r s e , b u t m a le s d o n o t r e m a i n in th e n a ta l g ro u p (Strier, 2 0 0 3 ). A m o n g th e C e r c o p it h e c in e s (Old W orld m o n k e y s w ith c h e e k p o u c h e s , like m a c a q u e s ) , d i s p e r s a l is m a le b ia s e d , a n d fem ale m a tr ili n e s r e m a i n together. In th e o th e r m a ­ j o r g r o u p of Old World m o n k e y s , th e C o lo b in e s ( c o lo b u s m o k e y s a n d th e ir k in), b o th se x e s d is p e r s e . In the c e b id s (New W orld m o n k e y s ) a n d th e G r e a t A p e s ( h o m in o i d s , like c h im p a n z e e s , o r a n g u t a n s , a n d gorillas), a b o u t h a lf of th e ta x a s h o w fe m a le - b ia s e d d i s p e r s a l . In th e o th e r half, b o th se x e s d is p e r s e . In all h o m in o id s , a n d all b u t one g ro u p of New World m o n k e y s (c a p u c h in s ), it is fem a le s w ho leave th e ir n a ta l g ro u p , a n d m a le s w ho stay (m ale p h ilo p a try ). T h u s it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g th a t h u m a n societies, in w hich n a ta l d is p e r s a l is c o m m o n , te n d to follow the h o m in o id p a t ­ te rn : M ost h u m a n societies a re p a trilo c a l o r m a le -p h ilo p a tric . Of the 5 6 3 t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s i n c l u d e d in th e E t h n o g r a p h i c A l l a s ( M u rd o c k , 1967), m o r e th a n 3 0 0 a r e p r im a rily pa trilo c a l: A c ou ple r e ­ s id e s with o r n e a r th e h u s b a n d ’s p a trilin e a l relatives, o r they are virilocal (eq uivalen t to pa triloc a l, except t h a t the h u s b a n d ’s p a tr ik i n a re n o t a ggregated in patrilo c a l, p a trilin e a l k in g ro u p s). T h u s , w o m e n leave h o m e to live aw ay from th e ir own kin, with o r n e a r th e ir h u s ­ b a n d 's kin, in m o s t t ra d itio n a l societies. In Fig. 2.1, we w o u ld see a p a t h with influ e nc e s of “in d iv id u a l c h a r a c te r is ti c s ” (being female), a n d p e r h a p s “fam ily” (in m a n y societies, a w o m a n is d e s tin e d to m a r r y a m a n of a c e rta in r e la ti o n s h ip — e.g., f a t h e r ’s b r o t h e r ’s s o n — so th a t family r e l a ti o n s h ip s w o u ld dictate). M ost tr a d itio n a l societies a r e s e d e n ta r y (n = 3 64 ) o r s e m i s e d e n ta r y (66), so th a t w o m e n , after leaving h o m e , have few to no o p p o r tu n itie s to m ove b a c k a n d fo rth to th e ir own m a trilin e a l kin. E v o lu tio n a ry a n ­ th r o p o lo g ists suggest th a t this in flue n ce s the s tr e n g th of so m e sex d if­ fe re n c es in c o a lition -b uild in g a n d r e s o u r c e b e h a v io r s (Low, 1989, 1 990 a, 1 9 9 0 b , 1993, 1994, 2 0 0 0 ; Low, C lark e , & L ockridg e, 1992). T h is c o m b in a ti o n of f e m a le - b ia s e d n a ta l d i s p e r s a l a n d polygyny h a s im p lic a tio n s for w o m e n ’s s t a t u s in m a n y t r a d i t i o n a l so c ie tie s . In m a n y s o c ie tie s, co-wives a r e n o t r e la te d ( n o n s o r o r a l polygyny), a n d a w o m a n ’s in t e r e s t s c o in c id e n e ith e r w ith th o s e of h e r h u s b a n d n o r w ith th o s e of h e r co-wives. N o n e th e le s s , d e s p ite th e s e i n h e r e n t p o ­ te n tia l co nflicts of i n t e r e s t in polygyny, w o m e n s o m e t i m e s c a n d o well in t e r m s of f in d in g o th e r w o m e n allies (Yanca & Low, 2 0 0 4 ). In p a r t th is a p p e a r s to a r is e fro m th e d iffe re n tia l ability o f w o m e n to find a l­ lies a n d form c o a litio n s in diffe re n t s y s te m s . D a n Sellen a n d h is c o l­ le a g u e s (Sellen, B o rg e rh o ff M ulder. & Seiff. 2 0 0 0 ) fo u n d th a t a m o n g D a to g a p a s t o r a l i s t s of E a s t Africa, w o m e n in m a r r i a g e s w ith a single co-wife p r o d u c e d fewer su rv iv in g o ffs p rin g th a n w o m e n w ith m o r e co-wives; fu rth e r, th e ir c h il d r e n g rew m o r e p o o rly d u r i n g th e i r f irst 3

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y e a r s . R e s o u r c e s p la y a p a r t in th is p a t t e r n ; S e lle n e t al. n o t e d t h a t a m o n g th e r ic h , n u m b e r o f c o -w iv e s is i r r e l e v a n t , b u t t h a t in o t h e r m a r r i a g e s , w o m e n ’s d i r e c t a c c e s s to c r it ic a l r c s o u r c c s is c r u c ia l. A m o n g th e s w i d d e n a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t Y a n o m a m o o f th e O r i n o c o valley in S o u t h A m e r ic a , t h e r e is little in th e w a y o f w e a l th o r h e r i t a b l e r e ­ s o u r c e s . H e r e , a m a n o f h ig h s t a t u s (w ho a ls o is likely to h a v e m o r e w iv es a n d m o r e c h i l d r e n t h a n o t h e r m e n ) w o u l d re c e iv e m o r e fo od gifts f r o m o t h e r s in th e village t h a n p o o r e r m e n . H is w ives t h u s ha v e m o r e food a v a ila b le ( H a m e s , 1 9 9 6 ). C ro ss -c u ltu ra lly , w o m e n ca n s o m e t i m e s have sig n ific a n t allies in t r a ­ d itio n a l po ly g y n o u s s y s te m s (Yanca & Low, 2 0 0 4 ), m o r e often w h e n th e polygyny is s o r o r a l (wives a r e sis te r s ) . W hen co-wives a r e s is te r s , fem ale co a litio n s c a n e x e rt c o n s id e r a b l e in flu ence in the k in g ro u p ; w h e n w o m e n live close to th e ir n a ta l fam ilies, a s well, they have n e a r b y allies. T h u s , th e r e l a tio n s h ip b e tw e e n w o m e n 's i n te r e s ts a n d p o ly g y n o u s/ n o n - p o ly g y n o u s s y s te m s is n o t a o b v io u s one; a s B o r g e r h o f f M u ld e r ( 1 9 9 2 ) n o te d , w o m e n a d o p t str a te g ie s in the face of conflicts of in te r e s t a n d f e m a le - f e m a le c o m p e titio n , a n d t h e r e is a h ie r a r c h y o f q u e s ti o n s t h a t n e e d to b e a d d r e s s e d . In h i s t o r i c a l s o c i e t i e s , n a t a l m i g r a t i o n r e m a i n e d c o m m o n . N ot s u r p r i s i n g l y , in 19 t h - c e n t u r y S w e d e n a n d I r e l a n d , p e o p l e w e r e m o s t lik e ly to leave a r e a s in w h i c h t h e q u a n tit y , q u a lity , o r d e p e n d a b i l i t y o f r e s o u r c e s w a s p o o r ( C l a r k e & Low, 1 9 9 2 ; Low, 1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 0 a , 1 9 9 0 b ; L ow & C l a r k e , 1 9 9 1 ; S t r a s s m a n n & C l a r k e , 1 9 9 8 ) . M i g r a ­ t i o n a l s o v a r i e d w i th i n d i v i d u a l a c c e s s to r e s o u r c e s , a n d h e r e th e p a t t e r n is m o r e c o m p l e x ; f o r e x a m p l e , b o t h s o n s a n d d a u g h t e r s o f p o o r m e n w e r e lik e ly to le a ve th e p a r i s h o f t h e i r b i r t h l o o k i n g for e m ­ p l o y m e n t (re vie w in Low, 2 0 0 0 ) ; s o n s a n d d a u g h t e r s o f w e a l t h i e r m e n t e n d e d to r e m a i n in th e b i r t h p a r i s h , w h e r e th e y w e r e w e l l - s i t u ­ a t e d in t e r m o f r e s o u r c e a c c e s s . In Fig. 2 .1 , b o t h “e c o lo g y ’’ a n d “f a m ­ ily” w o u l d be i m p o r t a n t d r i v e r s . T h e s t r e a m of n a ta l m i g r a n t s w a s c o m p o s e d o f two t ie r s in b o th n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y S w e d e n (C la rk e & Low, 1 9 9 2 ) a n d n in e t e e n th - c e n t u r y New E n g la n d (Towner, 2 0 0 1 ) . T h e u p p e r c l a s s e s p o s s e s s e d r e ­ s o u r c e s a n d s k ills t h a t w e r e in t h e m s e lv e s m o b ile , a llo w in g th e s e p e o p le to ta k e a d v a n ta g e of o p p o r t u n i t i e s e ls e w h e r e , e sp e c ia lly in c o m p a r i s o n to th e l a n d - b a s e d r e s o u r c e s o f f a r m e r s . H ow ever, p o o r p e o p le left to find e m p l o y m e n t a n d m a t e s . For th e wealthy, m ig r a tio n w a s p r o b a b l y m o r e often a m a t t e r o f c h o ic c t h a n for the p oo r. A lth o u g h b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n left th e i r p la c e o f b i r t h , a h ig h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f w o m e n m i g r a t e d in b o t h S w e d e n ( C la r k e & Low, 1 9 9 2 ) a n d New E n g l a n d (Tow ner, 2 0 0 1 ) . M en t e n d e d to d o m i n a t e l o n g - d i s ­ t a n c e m i g r a t i o n , s u c h a s f r o m S w e d e n to th e U n i te d S t a t e s (C la rk e , 1 9 9 3 ; C l a r k e & Low, 1 9 9 2 ) . A lth o u g h u n m a r r i e d p e o p l e d o m i n a t e d th e m i g r a n t s t r e a m in 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y S w e d e n ( C la r k e & Low, 1 9 9 2 ), t h e o p p o s i t e w a s t r u e d u r i n g th e s a m e tim e p e r i o d in New E n g l a n d (Tow ner, 2 0 0 1 ) . We c a n u n d e r s t a n d d i s p e r s a l b e s t in t h i s c a s e a s a

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f a c u lta tiv e d e m o g r a p h i c r e s p o n s e to s o c ia l, e c o lo g ic a l, a n d r e p r o ­ d u c tiv e o p t i o n s in th e lo ca l a r e a a n d b e y o n d (Fig. 2 .1 ; C la r k e , S a c th c r , & R o s k a f t , 1 9 9 7 ). M ig r a ti o n i n t r o d u c e s u n c e r t a i n t y w ith r e g a r d to fa m ily f o r m a t i o n a n d e v e n t u a l fe rtility ; s u c c e s s f u l m i g r a n t s to a n e w p l a c e , if it is r i c h e r in r e s o u r c e s , m a y h a v e m o r e c h i l d r e n t h a n c o m p a r a b l e “s t a y e r s " (Fig. 2 . 1 ) — b u t it is a l s o t r u e t h a t in m a n y c a s e s , a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f m i g r a n t s , c o m p a r e d to s t a y e r s , fail to m a r r y a n d e s ­ t a b l i s h f a m il ie s , a n d fe r tility m a y b e d e l a y e d . F e rtility a n d n u m b e r o f s u r v i v i n g c h i l d r e n d e c r e a s e d w ith a n i n c r e a s e in t h e n u m b e r of lif e tim e m o v e s m a d e in t h e S k e l l e f t e á r e g io n o f 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y S w e ­ d e n ( C l a r k e , 1 9 9 3 ; C l a r k e & Low, 1 9 9 2 , 2 0 0 1 ) . W o m e n w h o m o v e d d e l a y e d t h e i r f i r s t b i r t h b y m o r e t h a n t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f a y ear. S i m i ­ larly, w o m e n m o v e r s in 1 8 th - a n d 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y K r u m m h o r n , G e r ­ m a n y , m a r r i e d a b o u t 1 y e a r l a t e r t h a n n o n m o v e r s (V ola nd & D u n b a r , 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e u n c e r t a i n o u t c o m e s o f m i g r a t i o n l e a d to i n ­ c r e a s e d v a r i a n c e in f a m ily f o r m a t i o n ( d i s c u s s e d la te r ) .

S e a s o n a l M igration S e a s o n a l m i g r a tio n is a lw a y s a s s o c i a t e d w ith a p r e d i c t a b l e a lt e r n a t i o n o f b e t t e r a n d w o r s e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i tio n s . S o m e m i g r a t i o n s c a n b e q u i t e d r a m a t i c ; c o n s i d e r t h e fall s o u t h w a r d m i g r a t i o n o f r u b y - t h r o a t e d h u m m i n g b i r d s , w h ic h d e s p i t e th e ir size (4 in c h e s long, 1/100 o u n c e ) have o n e of th e lo n g e s t m ig r a tio n p a t h s o f a n y h u m m i n g ­ b i r d . T h e y b r e e d a s far n o r t h a s p a r t s o f C a n a d a , b u t w i n t e r in C e n tr a l A m e r ic a . E a r ly r e s e a r c h e r s c o n c l u d e d t h a t m i g r a n t s c o u ld n o t c r o s s th e G u lf of Mexico b e c a u s e th e e n e rg y d e m a n d s o f a 5 0 0 - m ile j o u r n e y w e r e b e y o n d th e c a p a b ilitie s of s u c h a s m a l l b i r d . It n o w a p p e a r s th a t a t l e a s t s o m e o f the p o p u l a t i o n m a k e s th e flight d ir e c tly f r o m F lo r i d a to Y ucatán, a lth o u g h m o s t b i r d s m ig r a te a r o u n d the G u lf o f Mexico t h r o u g h T ex as a n d n o r t h e r n Mexico to w in t e r in C e n tr a l A m e r i c a a s far so u th as Panam a. In t r a d i t i o n a l h u m a n s o c ie tie s, s e a s o n a l m i g r a t i o n follow s p a t t e r n s s i m i l a r to t h o s e in o t h e r s p e c ie s : H u n t e r s follow s e a s o n a l m i g r a t i o n s o f p r e y s p e c ie s , fo r e x a m p le . In h is to r ic a l d a t a , f r e q u e n tl y c la s s ( r e ­ s o u r c e a c c e s s ) d iff e re n c e s a r e e v id e n t in s e a s o n a l m ig r a tio n . F a r m w o r k e r s , w ith n o r ig h t to la n d , often h a d little c h oice: T h e y h a d to m o v e in s e a r c h of b e t t e r w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s (review in Low, 2 0 0 0 ), s o m e t i m e s se a so n a lly , s o m e t i m e s s im p ly in r e p e a t e d m o v e s w ith no c le a r t e m p o r a l p a t t e r n .

M O DERN SO C IE T IE S In o t h e r s p e c ie s , a n d in tr a d i t i o n a l a n d h i s to r ic a l so c ie tie s, m o s t m i ­ g r a t i o n s fall in to a lim ite d n u m b e r o f c a te g o r ie s , a n d m o s t a r e in f lu ­

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en c e d by the ecology of r e s o u r c e s . M ost m ig ra tio n p a t t e r n s fall into n a ta l m ig ra tio n (leaving th e n a ta l a r e a to m a r r y a n d r e p r o d u c e ) a n d s e a s o n a l m ig ra tio n (following p r e d ic ta b le , s e a s o n a l flu c tu a tio n s in i m ­ p o r t a n t r e s o u r c e s like food). Today, however, we have a d d e d new c a u s e s , a n d p r o d u c e d new p a tte r n s , of m ig ra tio n ; analyzin g m ig ra tio n for m o d e r n c o n d itio n s is c o m p lic a te d . S o m e t im e s m ig ra tio n is the r e ­ su lt of inten tion : We p r o d u c e w h a t we in te n d . S o m e tim e s , however, policy o r exigencies p r o d u c e u n e x p e c te d p a t t e r n s of m ig ra tio n . In the m o d e r n e q u iv a le n t of in te r n a l w a rfa re (a m o n g g r o u p s w ithin political b o u n d a r ie s , e.g., S o m a lia , R w a n d a ), s o m e peo ple b e c o m e p o ­ litical e m ig r a n ts . Local im p a c ts can p r o d u c e rip p le effects, a s w hen political e m ig ra n ts m a n a g e to leave th e ir h o m e c o u n tr y a n d m ove to, for e xam ple, S w e d e n or G erm an y. E c o n o m ic d o w n t u r n s also p r o m p t pe op le to move, s e e k in g jo b s , a n d th e r e m a y be re s u ltin g im p a c ts on a r e a s n o t originally affcctcd. H ere, the line is b l u r r e d b e tw een “p u r e ly ” ecological f a c to rs (e.g., p l a n t prod uctivity ) a n d e c o n o m ic facto rs; b o th a r e f u n c ti o n a lly s im ila r , b e c a u s e th e y b o t h c o n c e r n a c c e s s to r e s o u r c e s . H ere is a n i m p o r t a n t a r e a for fu tu re re s e a r c h .

S tru ctu ra l C a u ses o f M igration in M odern S o c ie tie s M igration p a t t e r n s a n d r a te s a r e of gro w ing c o n c e r n in the m o d e r n w o rld , yet m ig ra tio n is extre m e ly difficult to s tu d y in m o d e r n p o p u l a ­ tions, b e c a u s e a lth o u g h for m a n y th in g s we have excellent r e c o r d s , in the c a s e s of m o s t in te re st, o u r ability to tr a c k in d iv id u a ls m a y be least develop ed . In this re g a r d , h is to ric a l d a ta s e ts ( d e s c rib e d earlier) offer th e r a r e o p p o r t u n it y to s tu d y c o rr e la te s a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s of m ig r a ­ tion. B u t we do have c u r r e n t a n d r e c e n t e x a m p le s with relatively good d a ta ; h e r e I review th re e cases. In each, political d e c isio n s, n o t even n e c e s sa rily a im e d a t c re a tin g m ig ra tio n , w ere ex trin sic s tr u c t u r a l forces (Ogbu, 1981) th a t h a d huge im p a c ts on p e o p le ’s m o v e m e n ts a n d s o m e tim e s th e ir fertility.

In d o n esia In r e s p o n s e to in c r e a s in g p o p u la tio n p r e s s u r e , dev elo ping c o u n tr ie s a r o u n d the w o rld a re e n c o u ra g in g p o p u la tio n r e d i s tr ib u tio n , often th r o u g h g o v e r n m e n t- s p o n s o r e d r e s e ttle m e n t p r o g r a m s s u c h a s the w ell-publicized p r o g r a m s in B razil a n d I n d o n e s ia (D e sb a re ts, 1990; Ilc h m a n , Lasswell, Montgomery, & Weiner, 1975). O 'C o n n o r (2004) analyzed the s itu a tio n in In d o n e sia . I n d o n e s ia ’s p o p u la tio n , c u r re n tly a r o u n d 23 5 m illion (CIA, 20 0 3 ), is quite u neven ly d is tr ib u te d . I n d o n e ­ sia's p o p u la tio n policy h a s foc use d on r e d is tr ib u tio n — m ov in g peop le a r o u n d . T h is w ell-in tentio ned p r o g r a m in te r a c ts with a n o t h e r policy, in te n d e d to in c re a s e fo re st p r o d u c tio n for e c o n o m ic r e a s o n s . As a r e ­ sult, in c r e a s in g p o p u la tio n p r e s s u r e s a n d c u ltu ra l d is p la c e m e n t have

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led to e n v ir o n m e n ta l d e g r a d a tio n (Fearnside, 1997; L u m b r a n r a j a et al., 1998) a n d e th n ic conflicts t h r o u g h o u t tr a n s m i g r a n t a r e a s . H ere is a e a se in w hich two cc n tra lly p la n n e d policies, s e p a ra te ly a im e d al effi­ cient logging a n d p o p u la tio n r e d is tr ib u tio n , have negative affected e c o ­ logical c o n d itio n s , eth n ic conflict levels, a n d p e o p le 's family fo rm a tio n (O’C onnor, 20 04 ).

M ao’s C hina In M a o’s c u ltu r a l re vo lu tion a n d the la te r “O ne C h ild ” Policy, we are m o r e a w a re of c e n tra l d e c is io n s a b o u t p e o p le ’s fertility th a n a b o u t m i ­ gra tio n, b u t in fact forced (extrinsic o r in vo lu ntary; e.g., Ogbu, 1981) m ig ra tio n h a d significant im p a c ts on p e o p le ’s family f o rm a tio n , a n d even survival (Fig. 2.1; Ting, 2 0 0 4 b ) . T he p a r tic u la r ly violent first p h a s e of the C u ltu ra l R evolution (CRI) s p a n n e d from 19 66 to 1969 (S c h o p p a , 2 0 0 2 ; review in Ting, 2 0 0 4 a , 2 0 0 4 b ). Mao u s e d the Red G u a r d s to s h a t te r the p a r ty o rg a n iz a tio n , to re k in d le re v o lu tio n a ry e n ­ t h u s i a s m , a n d to d e s tr o y so - c a llc d c o u n t e r r e v o l u t i o n a r y v a lu e s (W orden, S a v a d a , & Dolan, 1987). E s t a b l is h e d c a d r e s a n d p r o f e s s io n ­ als w ere r e m o v e d from th e ir p o s itio n s a n d r e p la c e d with w o r k e r s , p e a s a n ts , a n d s o ld ie r s (Lin & Xie, 1988). A new “s e n t dow n" m o v e ­ m e n t d ra fte d in tellectuals a n d s c h o la r s for m a n u a l la b o r in o r d e r to r e e d u c a te th e m . Large n u m b e r s of u r b a n y ou th w ere s e n t aw ay for “r e ­ e d u c a tio n .” A c o u n te r in g r u r a l - to - u r b a n m ig ra tio n , by an e s tim a te d 16 m illion peop le, s u p p lie d m ilita ry s u p p o r t a n d factory w o r k e r s in cit­ ies. T he r e s u l ts w ere d r a m a t ic c ro s s o v e rs in social s tra tific a tio n a n d mobility, with little c o rre la tio n b e tw e e n e d u c a tio n a n d o c c u p a tio n a l a t ­ t a in m e n t d u r in g 1 9 6 6 - 1 9 7 6 (e.g., Lin & Xie, 1988). Over 20 m illion university, high school, a n d m id d le sc h o o l s t u d e n t s w ere s e n t to the c o u n tr y s id e a n d b o r d e r re gion s (Lin & Xic, 1988), c a u s in g t r e m e n d o u s d is r u p t io n in the lives of yo u n g u r b a n people. S o m e d i s r u p t i o n s affected n o t only h ow pe o ple felt, b u t ho w th e ir life h is to rie s p r o c e e d e d . For ex a m p le, S h a n g h a i w o m e n w ho w ere in th e ir early tw e n tie s d u r in g the early p h a s e of th e C u ltu r a l R evolution h a d lower m a rtia l fertility a t age 2 0 - 2 4 y e a rs th a n w o m e n in th e o ld e r c o ­ h o r t s , in c lu d in g th o se w h o w e n t th r o u g h the G r e a t Leap F o rw a rd F am ine a t the s a m e age (Ting, 2 0 0 4 b ). D espite th e egalitarian a i m s of M ao's C h in a, the “c u ltu r a l capital" of the p a r e n t s —th e n o n m a te r i a l b e n e fits p a r e n t s c o uld give th e ir ch il­ d r e n (know ledge, c o n n e c tio n s to p ow erful people; "social” in Fig. 2.1; Ting, 2 0 0 4 a , 2 0 0 4 b ) —w a s an i m p o r t a n t factor. W hite-collar c o u p le s te n d e d to have fewer, b u t b e tte r e d u c a te d , c h ild r e n th a n b lu e -c o lla r c o u p le s in the u r b a n a r e a s ( c o m m o n in m a n y societies). T h is m e a n t th a t, d e sp ite sta te policies a im e d a t m ov in g people a b o u t specifically to i n t e r r u p t the in te rg e n e ra tio n a l in h e r ita n c e of c u ltu r a l capital, p a r e n t s ’ e d u c a tio n a n d o c c u p a tio n still affected the a tta i n m e n ts of th e ir c h il­ d r e n . A ca d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t still exerted significant im p a c ts on the

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life c o u r s e of the yo uth. D u rin g the tim e of e c o n o m ic c o n stric tio n (be­ gin ning in the early 1 9 6 0 s, rig ht after the G r e a t Leap F orw ard ), c h il­ d r e n of b lu c -c o lla r b a c k g r o u n d with p o o r a c a d c m ic p e r f o r m a n c e w ere the first s e n t to the c o u n try s id e by the g o v e rn m e n t, in h o p e s of alleviating the grow ing u n e m p l o y m e n t p r o b l e m s in u r b a n China.

T h e S o v ie t C o lla p se an d th e K am ch atk an P e n n in su la Finally, in th re e a r e a s of the c e n tra l valley of the K a m c h a tk a n P e n in ­ su la (in the e a s t of the ex-Soviet Union), H itztaler ( 2 0 0 4 a , 2 0 0 4 b ) fo u n d s tr ik in g r e s p o n s e s in fertility a n d m ig ra tio n to r e s o u r c e c h a n g e s p re c ip ita te d by the c ollapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. T h is w a s an a r e a in w hich the Soviets h a d s u b s id iz e d fo re stry efforts; pe o ple ( p a r ­ ticularly yo u n g m e n a n d youn g c ou ple s) m ig ra te d th e r e with th e in te n t of m a k in g good money, then r e tu r n i n g to Moscow, for ex a m p le , able to afford good h ou sin g. With the collapse, s u b s id i e s d is a p p e a r e d . T he re m o v a l of s u b s id ie s for fo re stry re d u c e d p e o p le 's r e s o u r c e a c cess; r c d u c c d fertility, in ­ c r e a s e d m ortality, a n d o u t-m ig ra tio n followed. O u t-m ig ra tio n i n ­ c r e a s e d n o t only in c e n tr a l K a m c h a tk a , b u t also t h r o u g h o u t the R u s s ia n Far E a st. T h is lo ss of s u b s id y in te r a c te d with local so c io e c o ­ no m ic , ecological, a n d h is to ric a l c o n d itio n s in the th re e ( ru ra l a n d r e ­ s o u r c e - d e p e n d e n t) localities H itztaler e x a m in e d . Villages fa c in g a local n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e c ris is (e.g., w h e re fo re stry h a d r e m o v e d m o s t easilyh a r v e s te d tim b e r) s h o w e d ea rlie r a n d g re a te r n e t negative m ig ra tio n th a n th o se with a relatively in ta c t r e s o u r c e ba se . P e o p le ’s d e c i s i o n s to m ig r a te a r e c le a rly c o m p le x , a n d affected by s o c i o - e c o n o m ic , p o litic a l, ecolog ical, a n d h i s t o r i c a l c o n d iti o n s . M ore d r a m a t i c fertility d e c li n e s , m o r t a l i t y i n c r e a s e s , a n d o u t - m i ­ g r a ti o n o c c u r r c d w h e r e th e s o c i o - c c o n o m i c c r is is c o in c id c d w ith a local n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e c r is is . F u r th e r, m ig r a tio n r e s p o n s e s of in d ig ­ e n o u s a n d n o n i n d i g e n o u s w o m e n diffe re d : in d i g e n o u s w o m e n w ere le s s likely to m ig r a te . In su m m a ry , s t r u c tu r a l factors a re an i m p o r ta n t c o n trib u to r to the ad d itio n a l c o m p lic a tio n s of m igration p a tt e r n s in to d a y ’s w orld. S t r u c ­ tu ra l forces, s u c h as political shifts, m ay c o m b in e with o th e r cau se s: we have “ecological refugees” a n d “political refugees" a n d can p r o d u c e u n ­ foreseen a n d u n d e s ira b le c o n se q u e n c e s . In m a n y c ases, a lthough both ecology (asp ects of r e s o u rc e d e stru c tio n a n d availability) a n d political p r e s s u r e s a n d a ction s are c o m b in e d , we are less aw a re of the ecological fac to rs—yet they are often the re s u lt of the s tr u c tu r a l changes.

AFTER MIGRATION O nce a p e r s o n h a s m ig r a te d , th e n w h a t ? M u c h of o u r i n te r e s t, a n d m u c h of w h a t we m u s t u n d e r s t a n d if we a re to in flu e n c e c o n d itio n s

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for th e b e tte r , a r i s e s f r o m t h i s q u e s t i o n . M ig r a tio n r e p r e s e n t s t r a d e - o f f s — w h i c h d iffe r for d if f e r e n t k i n d s o f i n d i v i d u a l s . M o s t s t u d ­ ies t h a t c o n s i d e r b o t h m i g r a n t s a n d c o m p a r a b l e g r o u p s t h a t d id n o t m i g r a t e fin d t h a t m i g r a n t s ' s u c c e s s is m o r e v a r i a b l e ( w h e t h e r o n a v ­ e r a g e b e t t e r o r w o r s e ) t h a n th e s u c c e s s o f t h o s e w h o s t a y e d h o m e . R e ­ s o u r c e a c c e s s is a k e y d e t e r m i n a n t , b o t h fo r p r o x i m a t e s u c c e s s (e.g., g e ttin g a g o o d jo b ) a n d for s u c c e s s in e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r m s ( fo r m in g s u c c e s s f u l f a m ilie s ). A lth o u g h th e s e t e n d to c o r r e l a t e , for m i g r a n t s , th e v a r i a t i o n in fa m ily f o r m a t i o n c a n b e c o n s i d e r a b l e , a n d s h o u l d be o f i n t e r e s t to m a n y s c h o l a r s . T h e tr a d e - o f f s s h o w n in Fig. 2 .1 , b o t h b e fo r e a n d a fte r m ig r a tio n , a r e c e n tr a l. H av in g m ig r a te d , is a n i m m i g r a n t b e t t e r off t h a n b e f o r e in t e r m s o f r e s o u r c e a c c e s s a n d jo b o p p o r t u n i t i e s (e.g., Boyle, 2 0 0 1 ) , h e a lth , a n d fa m ilia l a n d s o c ia l s u p p o r t ? H ow d o e s th e m i g r a n t fare, c o m p a r e d to n a tiv e s o f th e n e w a r e a , a fte r we c o n tr o l for age, g e n d e r, e d u c a t i o n , a n d sk ill? W h a t affects i m m i g r a n t fertility, a n d d e p e n d e n c e o n w e lfa re ? H ow d o th e c h i l d r e n o f m i g r a n t s f a re (Van H o o k , B r o w n , & K w e n d a , 2 0 0 4 ) ? A re th e r e s t r u c t u r a l p h e n o m e n a (e.g., p o litic a l p o li­ c ies a b o u t m i g r a n t s , e n t r e n c h e d r a c i s m ) t h a t affect m i g r a n t s , o r a r e the in f lu e n c e s largely th o s e o f i n d iv id u a l fa m ilia l a n d so c ia l s u p p o r t n e t w o r k (Fig. 2 .1 ) ? T h e s e a r e c o m p le x , a n d often p olitically c h a r g e d , q u e s t i o n s . M a n y o f th e follow ing c h a p t e r s e x p lo r e th e s e i m p o r t a n t c o n c e r n s —w ith w e lc o m e n e w d a t a a n d a n a ly s is . W h e t h e r m i g r a t i o n is v o l u n t a r y o r f o r c e d c le a rly m a t t e r s (e.g., L a lib e r te , B e n o it, & P ic h e , 2 0 0 3 ) . A g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t , f r o m p e r h a p s t h e I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t , in e n g i n e e r i n g in th e U n ite d S t a t e s m a y d e ­ c id e to s t a y in th e U n ite d S t a t e s r a t h e r t h a n r e t u r n . H is o r h e r e m ­ p l o y m e n t o p t i o n s , o n c e th e legal r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e s a ti s f ie d , a r e r e la tiv e ly g o o d . C o n t r a s t t h i s w ith th e s i t u a t i o n fa c in g a l m o s t a n y f o r c e d m i g r a n t : lik e ly a b r u p t t r a n s i t i o n to a p la c e n o t o f h is o r h e r o w n c h o o s in g , p e r h a p s n o a b ility to t a k e fu n g ib le r e s o u r c e s u s e f u l in th e n e w l o c a tio n , a n d w ith s k i l l s o n ly a c c i d e n ta ll y r e l e v a n t to th e n e w c o n d i t i o n s . T h e s e tw o i n d i v i d u a l s w o u l d be m o s t s t r o n g ly i n f lu c n c c d by d if f e r e n t s e g m e n t s in Fig. 2 .1 . G e n d e r m a t t e r s . A lth o u g h w o m e n have b e e n the m a jo r ity of n a t a l m i ­ g r a n t s in h u m a n e v o lu tio n a ry history, th is fact d o e s n o t m e a n th a t to d ay they w o u ld find m ig r a tio n e a s ie r th a n m e n . H ow d o m e n v e r s u s w o m e n , a n d b o y s v e r s u s girls, h a n d le th e p r o c e s s o f fitting in to a n e w a n d differ­ e n t society? H ow d o e s th e ir s e n s e of self, th e ir identity, c h a n g e ? In m a n y c a s e s , it m a t t e r s h o w c lose the s o c i e t a l v a l u e s a re , w h e n th e a r e a o f o r i ­ gin a n d th e a r e a of r e s e t t l e m e n t a r e c o m p a r e d . C o n s id e r a y o u n g girl h av in g m o v e d to th e U n ited S ta te s w ith h e r fam ily fro m a society in w h ic h fem ale c lito rid e c to m y is c o m m o n , a n d p r e f e r r e d . In th e U nited S ta te s , th is is n o t a legal o p e r a tio n ; th e fam ily’s social v a lu e s m a y c o m e into s h a r p conflict w ith U.S. legal a n d so c ia l n o r m s . H ow life p r o c e e d s for i m m i g r a n t s d e v e lo p s fr o m th e in te r a c tio n of th e s e c o n s t r a i n t s . F ro m th e soc io lo g ica l li t e r a t u r e we k n o w th a t th e d e ­

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lib e rate fertility of c o u p le s is influen ced by ho w well they perceive th e m se lv e s to b e doing, c o m p a r e d to th e ir p a r e n ts , a n d w h a te v e r p ee r g ro u p is relev ant. C o u p le s w ho sec th e m se lv e s a s “d o in g well" te n d to begin, a n d c o n tin u e , families. For m ig r a n ts , w ho is the re le v a n t p e e r g ro u p ? People b a c k in th e ir place of origin? People in th e ir n ew h o m e ? Im m i g r a n t fam ilies m a y be b e tte r off th a n the f o r m e r g ro u p , a n d less well off th a n the la tte r— b u t h e re p e rc e p tio n , r a t h e r th a n reality, a p p e a r s to m atter. In s u m m a r y , h u m a n m ig ra tio n is a c o m p le x a n d d y n a m ic p h e n o m e ­ n o n t h a t we a re only b e g in n in g to u n d e r s t a n d — a n d we m u s t u n d e r ­ s t a n d it, for its im p lic a tio n s are huge, a n d m a y go well b e y o n d o u r c u r r e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g of “a c c u ltu r a tio n .” T h e r e a re ecological c o m ­ plexities: ch a n g e s, p e r h a p s im p o s e d ch an g e s, of r e s o u r c e availability. T h e re a re g e n d e r is s u e s . T h e r e a r e social a n d societal c o m p lic a tio n s, a n d i m m i g r a n t s ’ r e s p o n s e s , a s im m i g r a n ts m u s t define (or redefine) th e m se lv e s in light of th e ir self-generated social iden tity a n d w h a te v e r social iden tity is s u p e r i m p o s e d on th e m .

FUTURE DIRECTIONS M o st p r io r r e s e a r c h h a s lo o k e d a t b r o a d p a t t e r n s (e.g., aggregate p a t ­ t e r n s in t r a n s n a ti o n a l m ig ra tio n , a n a ly sis of s t r u c t u r a l factors). Yet r e ­ s e a r c h a t a finer scale r e m i n d s u s t h a t in d iv id u a l r e s o u r c e s (physical, social, a n d e d u c a tio n a l) a n d in d iv id u a l s tra te g ie s can m a k e a huge d if­ ference in o u tc o m e s . W h at we n e e d now is m ig ra tio n r e s e a r c h t h a t b e ­ gins to tease a p a r t the i m p o r t a n t fa c to rs — ecological, s t r u c tu r a l, c o m m u n ity , familial, p e r s o n a l — th a t s h a p e h u m a n m ig ra tio n p a t t e r n s in all th e ir complexity, a n d to follow carefully the c o n s e q u e n c e s of m i ­ g ra tio n on ind iv id u a l a ttitu d e , psychology, re p r o d u c ti o n , a n d d e m o g ­ raphy. Only th e n c a n we u n d e r s t a n d the d e p th of c om plexity in h u m a n m ig ra tio n . T he c h a p te r s in this b o o k offer u s a n excellent in te r d is c i­ p lin a ry a n d integrative s ta r t, ta k in g ecological c o n s id e r a ti o n s a n d in ­ d ividual v a ria tio n seriously.

BO BBI LOW I grew u p d u r in g a p e rio d of in te r n a l m ig ra tio n in th e U nited S ta te s, af­ ter the S e c o n d World War; m y g r a n d f a th e r w a s an e c o n o m ic in te rn a l m ig r a n t d u r in g the G r e a t D e p re s s io n , w h e n the sc h o o l for w hich he w a s p rin c ip a l c losed. Later, I se ttle d with a s e c o n d - g e n e ra tio n A m e r i­ can of L ith u a n ia n d e sc e n t; he c a m e from a family with an iconic family legend of fo r b id d e n love a c r o s s c lass a n d w e a lth lines, m id n ig h t e lo p e ­ m e n t, a n d m ig ra tio n to the U nited S ta tes. I w a s alw ays d r a w n to the sto r ie s a n d feelings of in te rn a l a n d t r a n s n a t io n a l im m ig ra n ts , a n d th e se in te ra c te d w ith m y fo r m a l tr a in in g a s a n ecologist a n d e v o lu tio n ­ ary biologist, to c re a te a focus on the ecology of m ig ra tio n , a n d the

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w a y s in w h i c h w e h u m a n s , a s w e ll a s o t h e r s p e c i e s , a r e s h a p e d a n d m o v e d b y th e ir e n v ir o n m e n ts : p h y s ic a l, b io tic , a n d so cial.

REFERENCES B o rg erho ff Mulder, M. (1992). W om en’s stra te g ie s in polygynous m arriag e: Kipsigis, Datoga, a n d o th e r E a s t African c a se s. H u m a n N a tu r e, 3, 4 5 - 7 0 . Boyle, P. (2001). A c ro s s n a tio n a l c o m p a r is o n of the i m p a c t of family m ig ra tio n on w o m e n s e m p lo y m e n t s ta tu s . D e m o g r a p h y , 38(2), 2 0 1 - 2 1 3 . Cavalli-Sforza, L.. Menozzi, P.. & Piazza, A. (1996). T h e hi st or y a n d g e o g r a ­ p h y o f h u m a n g e n e s . P rinc e ton , N J: P rin c e to n University P ress. Charnov, E. L. (1980). Vole p o p u la tio n cycles: A c a se for k in-selectio n? Oecologia. 45, 1-2. CIA. (2003). T h e w o rl d f a c t b o o k , Uni te d S t a t e s C e n tr a l I nt el li ge n c e A g e n c y . R e trie v e d M arch 6, 2 0 0 4 , from h ttp ://w w w .c ia .g o v /c ia /p u b lic a tion s/fa c tb o o k /g e o s/id .h tm l C lark e, A. L. (1993). W omen, r e s o u r c e s , a n d d is p e r s a l in 1 9 th -ce n tu ry S w e ­ den . H u m a n N a t ur e , 4(2), 1 0 9 - 1 3 5 . C lark e, A. L., & Low, B. (1992). Ecological c o r r e la te s of h u m a n d is p e r s a l in 19th c e n tu ry S w e d e n . A n i m a l B e ha vi ou r, 44, 6 7 7 - 6 9 3 . C lark e, A. L., & Low, B. (2001). Testing e v olutio na ry h y p o th e s e s with d e m o ­ g r a p h ic d a ta . Popul at ion a n d D e v e l o p m e n t R e v i e w , 27(4), 6 6 3 - 6 6 0 . C larke, A. L., Saeth er, B. E., & R oskaft, E. (1997). Sex b ia s e s in avian d i s ­ p e rsa l: A re a p p r a is a l. Oikos, 79(3), 4 2 9 - 4 3 8 . D e s b a rc ts , J . (1990). Po pu la ti on r e s e t t l e m e n t p r o g r a m s in c o m p a r a t i v e p e r ­ s p e ct iv e: A r ev ie w. A u stralian N ational University, C a n b e r r a . Devillard, S., Allaine, D., G aillard , J.-M., & Pontier, D. (2004). D oes social com plexity lead to sex -biased d is p e r s a l in polygynous m a m m a l s ? A te st on g ro u n d -d w e llin g sc iu r id s . B e h a v i o r a l Ecology, 15(1), 8 3 - 8 7 . E m le n , S. T. (1984). C ooperative b re e d in g in b i r d s a n d m a m m a l s . In J . R. K re bs & N. B. Davies (Eds.), B e h a v i o u r a l ecology: A n e v o l u t i o n a r y a p ­ p r o a c h (2 nd ed., pp. 3 0 5 - 3 3 5 ) . O xford. UK: Blackwell Scientific. E m le n , S. T. (199 1). Evolution of coo perative b re e d in g in b i r d s a n d m a m m a ls . B e h a v i o r a l Ecology: A n E v o l u t i o n a r y A p p r o a c h (3 rd ed.. pp. 3 0 1 - 3 3 7 ) . E m le n , S. T. (1995). An evolutio nary theory of the family. P r o c e e d i n g s o f the N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s USA, 9 2 (1 8 ), 8 0 9 2 - 8 0 9 9 . E m le n , S. T. (1997). P re d ic tin g family d y n a m ic s in social v e r te b r a te s . In J. R. K re bs & N. B. Davies (Eds.), B e h a v i o u r a l ecology: A n e v o l u t i o n a r y a p ­ p r o a c h (4th ed., pp . 2 2 8 - 2 5 3 ) . Oxford, UK: Blackw ell Scientific. F e a rn sid e , P (1997). T r a n s m ig r a tio n in In d o n e sia : L e s s o n s from its e n v ir o n ­ m e n ta l a n d social im p a c ts. E n v i r o n m e n t a l M a n a g e m e n t , 21, 5 5 3 - 5 7 0 . Grigg, D. B. (1977). E. G. R av enstein a n d the "laws of m ig ra tio n .” J o u r n a l o f Hi st or y a n d G e o g r a p h y , 3, 4 1 - 5 4 . H a m e s , R. (199 6). C o s ts a n d b e n e fits of m o n o g a m y a n d polygyny for Y ano m am o w o m e n . E t h o l og y a n d Soci obi ology, 17, 1 8 1 - 1 9 9 . Hitztalcr, S. (2004a). C h an ging h u m a n p o p u la tio n s in p o st-Soviet K a m c h a tk a : An inte g ra te d s tu d y of shifts in fertility a n d n et p o p u la tio n . Po pu la ti on a n d E n v i r o n m e n t , 2 5(4), 3 3 5 - 3 5 4 . Hitztaler, S. (2 004 b). T h e r e la tio n sh ip betw een r e s o u r c e s a n d m igration p a t ­ te r n s in c e n tra l K a m c h a tk a d u r in g the post-Soviet p e rio d . Popul at ion a n d E n v i r o n m e n t , 25(4), 3 5 5 - 3 7 5 .

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H o le k a m p , K. E., & S h e r m a n , P. W. (1989). Why m ale g r o u n d s q u ir r e ls d is ­ p e rs e . A m e r i c a n Sci en ti st , 77, 2 3 2 - 2 3 9 . Ilc h m a n , W., L assw ell, H., Montgomery, J., & Weiner, M. (Eds.). (1975). Policy s c i e n c e s a n d p o p u l a t i o n . Lexington, MA: Lexington B ooks. Koenig, W. D., & D ic k e n so n . J . L. (Eds.). (2004). E col ogy a n d e v ol ut ion o f c o­ o p e r a t i v e b r e e d i n g in birds. C a m b rid g e . UK: C a m b rid g e U niversity P ress. Laliberte, D., Benoit. L., & Piche, V. (2003). T he i m p a c t of forced m ig ra tio n on m a r it a l life in C h a d . E u r o p e a n J o u r n a l o f Popul at ion, 19, 4 1 3 - 4 3 5 . Lin. N., & Xie. W. (1988). O c c u p a tio n a l prestige in u r b a n C hina. A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f Soci ol ogy. 93, 7 9 3 - 8 3 2 . Low, B. (1989). O c c u p a tio n a l s t a t u s a n d re p r o d u c tiv e beh a v io r in 19th c e n ­ tu ry S w ed en : Lockncvi p a r is h . S oc ia l B i o l o g y , 36, 8 2 - 1 0 1 . Low, B. (1990 a). Sex, power, a n d re so u r c e s : Ecological a n d social c o r re la te s of se x d if f e re n c e s. I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f C o n t e m p o r a r y S o c io lo g y, 2 7 ( 1 -2 ), 4 9 - 7 4 . Low, B. (1 99 0b). O c c u p a tio n a l s ta tu s , la n d o w n e r s h ip , a n d re p r o d u c tiv e b e ­ havior in 1 9 th -c e n tu ry S w eden: T u n a p a r is h . A m e r i c a n An th ro p o l og i st , 92(2), 4 5 7 - 4 6 8 . Low, B. (1993). Ecological d e m o g ra p h y : A synthetic focus in e v olutio na ry a n ­ thropology. E v o l u t i o n a r y A n t hr o po l og y , 2, 1 7 6 - 1 8 7 . Low, B. (1994). H u m a n sex differences in b e h a v io ra l ecological p erspective. A n a l y s e u n d Kritik, 16, 3 8 - 6 7 . Low, B. (2000). W h y s e x m a t t e r s : A D a r w i n i a n look a t h u m a n behavior. P rinc e ton, N J: P rin c e to n U niversity Press. Low, B., & C lark e, A. L. (1991). Family p a tte r n s in 19 th - c e n tu r y Sw eden: Im ­ p a c t of o c c u p a tio n a l- s ta t u s a n d l a n d o w n e r s h ip . J o u r n a l o f F a m i l y History, 16(2), 1 1 7 -1 3 8 . Low, B.. C la rk e , A. L.. & L ockridge. K. A. (1992). T ow ard a n ecological d e m o g ­ raphy. Popul at ion a n d D e v e l o p m e n t R e v i e w , 18(1), 1-3 1. L u m b r a n r a ja , J.. S yam , T., Nishide, H.. Mahi. A., U tom o, M., K im u ra , S., & K im u ra . M. (1998). D e te rio ra tio n of soil fertility by la n d u s e c h a n g e s in S o u th S u m a t r a , In d o n e s ia from 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 9 0 . H yd ro lo gi cal Proc ess es, 12, 2003-2013. McNutt, J. W. (1996). Sex-biased d i s p e r s a l in African wild dogs, Lycaon pictus. A n i m a l B eh av io u r, 52, 1 0 6 7 - 1 0 7 7 . Moffitt, R. (2003). C a u sa l a n a ly sis in p o p u la tio n r e s e a r c h : An e c o n o m is t’s p e r ­ spective. Popul at ion a n d D e v e l o p m e n t R e v i e w , 29(3), 4 4 8 - 4 5 8 . Moffitt, R. (2 00 5). R e m a r k s on the a n a ly s is of c a u s a l re l a tio n s h ip s in p o p o u la tio n r e s e a r c h . D e m o g r a p h y , 42(1), 9 1 - 1 0 8 . M u rd o c k , G. P. (1967). E t h n o g r a p h i c at l as . P ittsb u rg h : U niversity of P itts ­ b u rg h P ress. Negro, J. J., H irald o, F., & D onazar, J. A. (1997). C a u s e s of n a ta l d i s p e r s a l in the le s s e r kestrel: in b r e e d in g avo id a n c c o r r e s o u r c e c o m p e titio n ? J o u r n a l o f A n i m a l E cology, 66(5), 6 4 0 - 6 4 8 . O ’C onnor, C. (2004). Effects of c e n tra l d e c isio n s on local livelihoods in I n d o n e ­ sia: Potential syn ergies b etw een the p r o g r a m s of tr a n s m ig r a tio n a n d in d u s ­ trial fo re s t c o n v e rsio n . P op ul at i on a n d E n v i r o n m e n t , 25(4), 3 1 9 - 3 3 3 . Ogbu, J. U. (1981). O rigins of h u m a n c o m p e te n c e: A cultural-ecolog ical p e r ­ spective. Child D e v e l o p m e n t , 52, 4 1 3 - 4 2 9 . P errin , N. (2000). Local C o m p e titio n . Inbreed in g, a n d E vo lution of Sex-Biased D isp e rsa l. T h e A m e r i c a n N a tu r al i s t, 155(1), 1 1 6 -1 2 7 .

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Puscy, A. E., & Packcr, C. (1987). D is p e rsa l a n d philopatry. In B. B. S m u t s , D. L. Cheney, R. M. S eyfarth, R. W. W ra n g h a m , & T. T. S t r u h s a k e r (Eds.), Pri­ m a t e s o ci et ie s (pp. 2 5 0 - 2 6 6 ) . Chicago: U niversity of Chicago P ress. Reyer, H.-U. (1980). Flexible h e lp e r s t r u c t u r e a s an ecological a d a p ta t io n in the pied kingfisher. B e h a v i o r a l Ecology a n d Soci obi ol ogy, 6, 2 1 9 - 2 2 7 . S c h o p p a , R. (2002). R e v o l ut i o n a n d its p a st : I d e nt it ie s a n d c h a n g e in b o d e r n C h i n e s e history. Englew ood Cliffs, N J: P rentice Hall. Sellen, D., B orgerh off Mulder. M., & Seiff. D. (2000). Fertility, offspring quality, a n d w e a lth in D a to g a p a s t o r a l i s t s : T e s tin g e v o l u tio n a r y m o d e l s of in te r s e x u a l selection. In L. C r o n k , N. C h ag n o n , & W. I ro n s (Eds.), A d a p t a ­ tion a n d h u m a n be hav ior : A n a n th r op o lo gi c al p e r s p e c t i v e (pp. 9 1 - 1 1 4 ) . H a w th o rn e , NY: Aldinc dc Gruytcr. S t r a s s m a n n , B. I., & C larke, A. L. (1998). Ecological c o n s tr a in ts on m a rria g e in r u r a l Irelan d. E vo lu ti on a n d H u m a n Behavi or, 19(1), 3 3 - 5 5 . Strier, K. B. (2003). P r i m a t e b e h a v i o r a l ecology (2 n d ed.). B oston : Allyn a n d B acon. Taylor, M. I., Morley, J. I., Rico, C., & B alsh in e. S. (2003). E vid ence for genetic m o n o g a m y a n d fe m a le-b iased d is p e r s a l in the b ip a r e n ta l m o u th b r o o d in g cichlid E r e t m o d u s c y a n o s t i c t u s from Lake T angany ik a. Mol ec u l ar Ec o l­ ogy. 12(11), 3 1 7 3 - 3 1 7 7 . T in b e rg e n , N. (1963). On the a im s a n d m e t h o d s of ethology. Ze i ts c hr i f t f u r T ie rp sy ch ol ogi e, 20, 4 1 0 - 4 6 3 . Ting, T.-F. (20 04a). R e so u rc e s , fertility, a n d p a r e n t a l in v e s tm e n t in M a o ’s C h in a. P op u lati on a n d E n v i r o n m e n t , 25 (4 ), 2 8 1 - 2 9 7 . Ting, T.-F. (2 00 4b ). Shifts in re p r o d u c tiv e p a tte r n s in China. Po pu la ti on a n d E n v i r o n m e n t , 24(4), 2 9 9 - 3 1 7 . Towner, M . C. (2001). L inking d is p e r s a l a n d r e s o u r c e s in h u m a n s : Life h isto ry d a t a fro m O a k h a m . M a s s a c h u s e tts ( 1 7 5 0 - 1 8 5 0 ) . H u m a n N a t u r e , 12(4), 321-349. Van H ook, J ., B row n , S. L., & K w enda. N. (2004). A d e c o m p o s itio n of tr e n d s in p overty a m o n g c h ild re n of im m ig r a n ts . D e m o g r a p h y , 41(4), 6 4 9 - 6 7 0 . Voland, E., & D u n b a r, R. I. M. (1997). T he im p a c t of social s t a t u s a n d m ig r a ­ tion on fem ale age a t m a rria g e in an h isto ric a l p o p u la tio n in North-W est G erm any. J o u r n a l o f Biosocial S ci e n c e, 29, 3 5 5 - 3 6 0 . W orden, R., Sav a d a , A., & D olan, R. (1987). Chi na: A c o u n t r y s t u d y (4th ed.). W ashington, DC: L ib ra ry of C o ng ress. Yanca, C., & Low, B. (2004). Female allies a n d female pow er: A c r o s s - c u ltu ra l a n alysis. E vo lu ti on a n d H u m a n Behavior, 25, 9 - 2 3 .

3 A ssim ilation or T ransnationalism ? C onceptual M odels of the Immigrant E xperience in A m erica Silvia Pedraza University o f Michigan

A m e r i c a n s a re i m m i g r a n t s — p e o p le w h o s e o r ig in s a r e v a r i o u s b u t w h o s e d e s tin ie s m a d e th e m A m e r i c a n . I m m i g r a t i o n —v o lu n ta r y o r i n ­ v o lu n t a r y — is w h a t c r e a t e d all m u l t i r a c i a l a n d m u l t i c u l t u r a l n a t io n s . T h e U n ite d S t a t e s is a p r i m e e x a m p le . S o m e t i m e s th e m i g r a n t s m o v e d freely fr o m the a r e a o f orig in to th e a r e a of d e s t i n a t i o n . S u c h w a s th e e x p e r ie n c e o f th e E u r o p e a n im m i g r a n t s . S o m e t i m e s th e ir m o v e m e n t w a s c o e r c e d a n d r e s u l t e d f ro m p r o c e s s e s n o t of th e ir o w n m a k in g . T h i s w a s th e e x p e r ie n c e o f e n s la v e d A fric a n s, a s well a s o f M ex ic a n s, Native A m e r ic a n s , a n d P u e r to R ic a n s , w h o s e h is to r y b e g a n w ith c o n ­ q u e s t a n d a n n e x a ti o n . S o m e t i m e s th e i r m o v e m e n t w a s s e m i c o e r c e d a n d s e m i f r e e — th e e x p e r ie n c e o f i n d e n t u r e d s e r v a n t s (w h e t h e r J a p a ­ n e s e , C h in e s e , Irish , o r G e r m a n ) in th e 1 9 th c e n t u r y a n d o f refug ees, s u c h a s J e w s a t th e t u r n of th e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y a n d C u b a n s , C a m b o d i a n s , G u a t e m a l a n s , a n d S a l v a d o r a n s in th e la tt e r p a r t of th e 2 0 t h century. T h e m a j o r q u e s t i o n s in im m i g r a t i o n r e s e a r c h c a n b e s u m m a r i z e d briefly a s follow s: W h a t led p e o p le to m a k e th e d e c is i o n to m o v e — w h a t “p u s h ” a n d “p u l l ” f a c to r s im p e lle d th e m to d i s p la c e a n d u p r o o t t h e m ­ se lv es (see Lee, 1 9 6 6 )? W h a t is the n a t u r e of the c r o s s i n g — n o t only lit­ erally b u t also , m o r e a b s tra c tly , the p o lic ie s o f two g o v e r n m e n t s th a t 33

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c a n , in so c ie tie s t h a t h a v e d e v e lo p e d lo n g h i s t o r i e s of e m i g r a ti o n a n d i m m i g r a t i o n , r e s u l t in th e ir d e v e lo p in g s y s t e m s o f e c o n o m ic a n d p o lit­ ical m ig r a t io n (see B uraw o y, 1 9 7 6 : P cdraza-B ailcy, 1 9 8 5 ) ? a n d . W h a t c a n p e o p le a tta i n a f t e r w a r d ? A r e c u r r e n t q u e s t i o n in s t u d i e s of i m m i ­ g ra tio n is: H ow d o we b e s t d e s c r i b e t h a t p r o c e s s — a s a s s i m i l a t i o n , a d ­ ap ta tio n , in teg ratio n , in c o rp o ra tio n , or tra n s n a tio n a lis m an d d i a s p o r i c c iti z e n s h i p ? T h is c h a p t e r t r a c e s th e d e v e l o p m e n t of th e s e c o n c e p t s o v e r tim e a s so c ia l s c i e n t i s t s s tr u g g le d to e x p la in th e s e i m ­ p o r t a n t so c ia l p r o c e s s e s . B e fore d o in g so, w e t u r n to a b r i e f h is t o r y o f i m m i g r a t i o n to A m e r ic a .

H ISTO RY OF IMMIGRATION As P h ilip M a r t i n a n d E l i z a b e t h M idgley ( 2 0 0 3 , p. 11) u n d e r s c o r e d , E u r o p e a n c o l o n i z a t i o n o f t h e N ew W o r l d e n t a i l e d t h r e e p r o ­ c e s s e s — co lo n izatio n , co ercio n , a n d im m ig ra tio n — th a t s u p e r i m ­ p o s e d a n e w p o p u l a t i o n o n th e n a tiv e p e o p l e s o f th e A m e r i c a s . C o lo n iz a tio n to o k p la c e in th e 1 7 th a n d 1 8 th c e n t u r i e s w h e n E n g lis h c o l o n i s t s e s t a b l i s h e d th e c u l t u r a l a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l f o u n d a t i o n s of w h a t b e c a m e th e U n ite d S t a t e s . T h e y a ls o s e iz e d c o n t r o l o f v a r i o u s D u t c h , F r e n c h , a n d S p a n i s h s e t t l e m e n t s , a n d e s t a b l i s h e d E n g li s h a s th e p u b l i c la n g u a g e a n d E n g l i s h c o m m o n law a s th e b a s i s for th e legal s y s t e m . In a d d i t i o n , M a r tin a n d M idgley u n d e r s c o r e d , tw o ty p e s of c o e r c io n w e r e inv olved in th e p e o p l i n g of A m e r ic a : th e i m p o r t a t i o n of s la v e s f r o m A frica (19% o f th e p o p u l a t i o n in 1 7 9 0 ) a n d th e i n c o r p o r a ­ tio n o f A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s , F r e n c h , M e x ic a n , P u e r t o R i c a n s , a n d o t h e r p o p u l a t i o n s “t h r o u g h p o litic a l d e a l s , w a r s e t t l e m e n t s , o r p u r c h a s e of t e r r i t o r y a s th e U n ite d S t a t e s e x p a n d e d w e s t w a r d , ” s u c h a s th e L o u i­ s i a n a P u r c h a s e ( 1 8 0 3 ) , th e T r e a ty o f G u a d a l u p e H id a lg o a t t h e e n d o f the w a r b e tw e e n M exico a n d th e U n ite d S t a t e s ( 1 8 4 8 ) , a n d th e S p a n is h - A m e r i c a n W ar ( 1 8 9 8 ) . T h e t h i r d s o u r c e of A m e r i c a n s , a n d th e la r g e s t, w a s i m m i g r a t i o n . O v e r t h e c o u r s e o f s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s , i m m i ­ g r a n t s to th e U n ite d S t a t e s c a m e in w a v e s — a n im a g e t h a t d e n o t e s t h a t th e n u m b e r o f i m m i g r a n t s c o u l d b e s e e n to s t a r t , r is e , p e a k , d e ­ clin e , a n d e v e n tu a lly d i s a p p e a r o n to o u r s h o r e s . F o u r w a v e s o f m i g r a tio n t r a n s f o r m e d A m e r ic a ov er th e c o u r s e of h is t o r y (M uller & E s p e n s h a d e 1 9 8 5 ). In th e f ir s t w ave, n o r t h w e s t e r n E u r o p e a n s im m i g r a t e d to th e U n ite d S t a t e s u p u n til t h e m i d - 1 9 t h c e n ­ tury; in th e s e c o n d , s o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e a n s a r r iv e d a t th e e n d of th e 1 9 th a n d the b e g i n n in g o f th e 2 0 t h c e n tu r ie s ; in the th ir d , p r e c i p i t a t e d by two w o r l d w a r s , A frican A m e r i c a n s , M e x ic a n s, a n d P u e r to R ic a n s m o v e d fro m the S o u t h to the N o rth ; a n d in th e fo u rth , i m m i g r a n t s m o s tly fr o m L a tin A m e r ic a a n d A sia a r r iv e d , f r o m 1 9 6 5 in to th e p r e s e n t . E a c h w ave h a s b e e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a d iff e r e n t ra c ia l o r e th n ic c o m p o s i t i o n a n d c o i n c id e d w ith p r o f o u n d c h a n g e s in th e n a ­ tu r e of A m e r ic a n society. T h e i m m i g r a n t s o f th e fir s t w ave c a m e to a n e s s e n tia lly c o lo n ia l, a g r a r i a n society; t h o s e o f th e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d

3.

A S S I M I L A T I O N O R T R A N S N A T I ON A L I SM ?

35

w a v e s c a m e to a n u r b a n so c ie ty w h e r e th e y s u p p l i e d th e c h e a p l a b o r e s s e n t ia l to in d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n a n d e x p a n s io n ; a n d th o s e of th e f o u r th w ave a r c c o m in g to a n in c r e a s in g ly p o s t i n d u s t r i a l , s c r v i c c - o r ic n tc d s o ­ ciety. B e c a u s e im m i g r a t i o n is A m e r ic a n h istory, y e s te r d a y a s well a s t o ­ day, im m ig r a tio n is c e n tr a l to th e id e n tity of its p e o p le a s h y p h e n a t e d A m e r ic a n s ; it is a lso c e n t r a l to A m e r ic a ’s id e n tity a s a n a ti o n o f i m m i ­ g r a n t s . T h i s is w h a t is d is tin c tiv e a b o u t th e A m e r ic a n e x p e r ie n c e . In 1 8 9 0 , 86% of th e fo r e ig n -b o r n in th e U n ite d S t a t e s c a m e fro m E u ­ r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s — G r e a t B r ita in , I r e la n d , G e r m a n y , S c a n d in a v i a , a n d F r a n c e b e in g th e le a d c o u n t r i e s — p l u s 11% c a m e fro m C a n a d a (U.S. B u r e a u o f th e C e n s u s , 2 0 0 1 ) . In 1 9 1 0 , a t th e p e a k o f i m m i g r a t i o n fro m s o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e , t h e r e w e r e 13.5 m illio n f o re ig n - b o r n r e s i d e n t s , n e a r ly 15% o f th e to ta l p o p u l a t i o n o f th e U n ite d S t a te s . In 2 0 0 2 . of th e to ta l p o p u l a t i o n of ov er 2 8 1 m illio n , the f o re ig n - b o r n p o p ­ u la tio n r e a c h e d a n a ll-tim e h ig h of 3 2 .5 m illio n , a c c o r d i n g to the C u r ­ r e n t P o p u la t io n S u r v e y (CPS), b u t they a lso c o n s t i t u t e d a r o u n d 15%. M o s t n o ta b le w a s th e s h if t in o rig in s, a s n o w m o s t c o m e fr o m L a tin A m e r ic a a n d A sia (M a rtin & Midgley, 2 0 0 4 ) . T h i s la rg e n u m b e r of i m ­ m i g r a n t s a t th e t u r n of b o t h c e n t u r i e s m o s tly s e tt le d in C a lifo rn ia , New York, F lo r id a , Illinois, a n d T exas. In th e e a rly 1 9 0 0 s , n a tiv is m w a s e x­ p r e s s e d in c a r t o o n s in le a d in g m a g a z in e s , s u c h a s Li fe, t h a t d e p ic te d I r is h m e n a s b r u t e s a n d d r u n k a r d s a n d J e w s a s v u lg a r so c ia l c l i m b e r s a n d a ls o e x p r e s s e d a n ti- C a th o lic p r e j u d i c e (see H ig h a m , 19 5 5 ). In 1 9 9 4 , th e s a m e n a tiv is m w a s e x p r e s s e d in C a lif o r n ia ’s P r o p o s i tio n 18 7, w h ic h s o u g h t to d e n y s c h o o lin g a n d th e u s e of s o c ia l s e r v ic e s to u n d o c u m e n t e d w o r k e r s a n d th e ir c h ild r e n . F aced w ith d e t e r i o r a t i n g e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s a n d n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s , s u c h a s e a r t h q u a k e s , the p e o p le o f C a lifo rn ia a t t r i b u t e d th e ir s o c ia l ills to th e p r e s e n c e o f a larg e n u m b e r of illegal a lie n s. High r a t e s o f i m m i g r a tio n , c o u p le d w ith th e hig h b i r t h r a t e s o f m a n y m in o r ity g r o u p s , s u c h a s A fric an A m e r i c a n s a n d H is p a n ic A m e r ic a n s , a r e a lso c h a n g i n g th e c o m p o s i t i o n o f th e U n ite d S ta te s . At th e d a w n of th e 2 1 s t c e n tu ry , H i s p a n i c s s u r p a s s e d A frican A m e r i c a n s a s th e la r g ­ e s t m i n o r ity p o p u l a t i o n . F o r e c a s ts p u t t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f W hite A m e r i ­ c a n s a t le s s t h a n h a lf of th e p o p u l a t i o n by th e m i d d l e o f th e c en tu ry . At t h a t p o in t, th e t r a d i t i o n a l " m i n o r i t i e s ” will, to geth er, c o n s t i t u t e th e m a ­ jo r it y (M a rtin & Midgley, 2 0 0 3 ) . H e n c e , th e U n ite d S t a t e s is o n c e again b e in g t r a n s f o r m e d . S u c h p r o f o u n d d e m o g r a p h i c s h if ts c a n b e e x ­ p e c te d to g e n e r a te con flict a n d r e s i s t a n c e , w h ic h will b e m o s t k e e n ly felt in th e a r e a s w h e r e “m i n o r i t i e s ” a r e m o s t c o n c e n t r a t e d : C a lifo rn ia , th e s o u t h w e s t e r n s ta te s , T exas, F lo r id a , Illinois, a n d New York.

T h e F irst W ave T h e f irs t w ave o f im m i g r a t i o n c o n s i s t e d of th o s e w h o a r r iv e d p r i o r to 1 8 8 0 , w h e n th e n a tio n w a s p r e d o m i n a n t l y a c o lo n ial, a g r i c u l t u r a l s o c i ­ ety. In 1 7 9 0 , th e E n g lis h c o n s t i t u t e d 60% of th e p o p u l a t i o n . E n t r i e s b e ­

36

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g an to b e r e c o r d e d only in 1 8 2 0 . B e tw e e n 1 8 2 0 a n d 1 8 8 0 , ov er 10 m illio n i m m i g r a n t s a r r i v e d , m o s t ly fr o m n o r t h w e s t e r n E u r o p e a n n a ­ tio n s s u c h a s E n g la n d , S c o tl a n d , G e rm a n y , th e N e t h e r l a n d s , F r a n c e , S p a in , Norway, S w e d e n , a n d I r e la n d . In 1 8 9 0 . o f th e 7 .3 m illio n in the U n ite d S t a t e s w h o w e r e b o r n in n o r t h e r n a n d w e s t e r n E u r o p e , 1.25 m illio n c a m e fr o m G r e a t B r ita in (E n g la n d , S c o tla n d , a n d Wales), 1.87 m illio n c a m e fro m Ir e la n d , 2 .8 m illio n c a m e fr o m G e r m a n y , a n d close to h a l f a m illio n c a m e fro m S c a n d i n a v i a (U.S. B u r e a u of th e C e n s u s 2 0 0 2 ) . T h e s e i m m i g r a n t s w e r e m o tiv a te d by politic al, e c o n o m i c , a n d re lig io u s fa c to rs. T h e i n v o lu n ta r y m i g r a t i o n s of A fr ic a n s fr o m W est Africa a s s la v e s, th e s u b o r d i n a t i o n of th e A m e r i c a n I n d ia n s , a n d the a n n e x a t i o n of a large p a r t of M e x ic o ’s te rrito ry , w h a t is to d a y th e A m e r i c a n S o u t h w e s t (C a lifo rn ia , A riz o n a , Texas, a n d p a r t s o f New Mexico, C o lo r a d o , a n d U tah ), a lso s h a p e d th e p e o p le of the U n ite d S ta te s . In a d d it io n , th e free m o v e m e n t o f M e x ic a n s to “el N o r t e ” b e g a n a s a s e a s o n a l l a b o r tr e k (C o rw in , 19 7 8 ). B e c a u s e tra v e l w a s e x p e n siv e a n d e n ta ile d a long, p r e ­ c a r i o u s voyage, m a n y E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s i n d e n t u r e d th e m s e lv e s to p a y for th e p a s s a g e . Few i m m i g r a n t s w e re a s im p e lle d to m o v e a s th e I r is h , w h o w e r e “p u s h e d " n o t only by th e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f th e p e a s a n t r y t h a t w a s th e r e ­ s u l t o f th e t r a n s i t i o n fr o m f e u d a li s m to c a p i ta lis m ta k in g p la c e t h r o u g h o u t w e s t e r n E u r o p e th e n (cf. B o d n a r, 1 9 8 5 ), b u t a lso by th e f a m in e t h a t r e s u l t e d fr o m th e p o ta to b lig h t a t m id c e n t u r y . It is e s ti­ m a t e d t h a t o n e - t h i r d of th e to ta l p o p u l a t i o n o f I r e la n d e m ig r a te d t h r o u g h o u t th e 1 9 th c e n tu ry , a b o u t 4 m illio n p e o p le . In 1 9 1 4 , th e p o p ­ u la tio n o f I r e la n d w a s h a lf w h a t it h a d b e e n in 1 8 4 0 (D iner, 1 98 4). M o s t o f t h e e a rly i m m i g r a n t s c a m e lo o k in g for l a n d — for security, for w o r k , to s u p p o r t t h e ir w ay of life a s f a r m e r s . T h e H o m e s t e a d Act of 1 8 6 2 t h a t P r e s i d e n t L in c o ln s ig n e d m a d e it p o s s ib le for t h e m to o b ta in the d e e d to the la n d th ey h a d w o r k e d . It a ls o p r o m o t e d th e s e t t l e m e n t o f th e West, th e f r o n t ie r e x p a n s i o n t h a t F r e d e r ic k J a c k s o n T u r n e r ( 1 8 9 3 / 1 9 2 0 ) a r g u e d w a s w h a t s h a p e d th e A m e r ic a n e x p e r ie n c e of s u b ­ s t a n t i a l u p w a r d m o b ility ; it a ls o fo rg e d th e c o r e A m e r ic a n v a lu e of r u g ­ ged in d iv id u a lis m . B o th c o n s t i t u t e d a n A m e r ic a n e x c e p t i o n a l i s m .

T h e S e c o n d W ave B e tw e e n 1 8 8 0 a n d 1 9 2 4 , d u r i n g th e s e c o n d m a j o r wave of i m m i g r a ­ tio n , o ver 2 7 m illio n i m m i g r a n t s a r r iv e d in th e U n ite d S t a te s ; a b o u t 81 % w e r e fr o m th e s o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s , s u c h a s It­ aly, G re e c e , A u s tr ia - H u n g a r y , P o la n d , a n d R u s s i a . In 1 9 1 0 , of th e 4 .5 m illio n p e o p le w h o h a d b e e n b o r n in s o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s , ov er 1.3 m illio n c a m e fro m Italy, 1.2 m illio n fro m th e Soviet U n io n (m o stly J e w s ) , n e a r ly 1 m illio n fr o m P o la n d , a n d clo se to h a lf a m illio n fr o m H un gary . D u e to th e se v e re r e s t r i c t i o n s i m p o s e d o n A sia n i m m i g r a t i o n — th e C h in e s e E x c l u s io n Act ( 1 8 8 2 ) a n d th e J a p a n e s e

3.

ASSIMILATION OR TRANSNATIONALISM?

37

G e n t l e m a n ’s A g r e e m e n t ( 1 9 0 6 ) — o nly 1 2 4 ,5 0 0 c a m e fro m C h in a a n d J a p a n (U.S. B u r e a u of th e C e n s u s 2 0 0 2 ) . To th is day, the p e a k n u m b e r of i m m i g r a n t s to the U n ite d S ta te s a r ­ riv e d in the y e a r s 1 9 0 7 - 1 9 0 8 . As th e s e g r o u p s p a s s e d t h r o u g h the p r o ­ c e s s in g c e n te r t h a t w a s largely a w e lc o m in g c e n t e r a t E llis I s la n d . New York, s ig n ific a n t n u m b e r s of i m m i g r a n t s fr o m C h in a a n d J a p a n w e r e a r r iv in g on th e W est C o a s t, w h e r e th e y w e r e p r o c e s s e d t h r o u g h th e d e ­ te n tio n c e n t e r a t Angel I s la n d , C a lifo rn ia . O n b o th c o a s t s , m o s t of th e s e m i g r a n t s w e r e r u r a l , w ith very low levels o f literacy, a n d u n ­ s k i lle d — p e a s a n t s w h o s e id e n tif ic a tio n w a s , f ir s t a n d f o r e m o s t, w ith t h e ir village a n d th e ir p a r i s h . By th e e a rly 1 9 0 0 s , th e f r o n t ie r w a s c lo s e d , a n d m o s t n e w c o m e r s f o u n d j o b s in E a s t e r n a n d M id w e s te r n cities. M a ny b e c a m e th e i n d u s ­ tr ia l w o r k i n g c la s s t h a t fueled the e c o n o m i c g ro w th t h a t a t t e n d e d i n ­ d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n a n d the g r o w th o f c a p ita l is m . I m m i g r a n t s m a d e u p m o r e t h a n h a lf o f th e o p e r a tiv e s in th e key i n d u s t r i e s o f steel, m in in g , a n d m e a t p a c k i n g (M a rtin & Midgley, 2 0 0 3 ) . A m o n g th e E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s w e r e th e J e w s , w h o fled E u r o p e b e c a u s e of th e a n ti- S e m iti c violence they e n c o u n t e r e d in th e p o ­ g r o m s — a n t i - J e w i s h r i o t s — a t th e e n d o f th e 1 9 th c e n tu ry . C o n t r a r y to m o s t o f th e o t h e r i m m i g r a n t s a t th e tim e , th e J e w s w e re a lr e a d y u r b a n a n d v ery often lite r a te a n d sk ille d , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e n e e d le t r a d e s . It is e s t i m a t e d t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e - t h i r d o f all J e w s in E a s t e r n E u ­ r o p e m ig r a te d to th e U n ite d S t a t e s b e tw e e n 1 8 8 0 a n d 1 9 2 4 . P u s h e d by c i r c u m s t a n c e s b e y o n d th e ir c o n tr o l, th e y fled vio le n c e a n d p e r s e c u ­ tio n a n d c a m e s e a r c h i n g for p e r s o n a l a n d re lig io u s liberty. T h e i r s to r y in th e U n ite d S t a t e s w a s c le arly a s t o r y of s u c c e s s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in c o m ­ p a r i s o n to th e o t h e r i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s w h o c a m e a t th e s a m e tim e (G old & P h illip s, 19 9 6 ). Clearly, they w e re re fu g e e s , a lth o u g h i m m i g r a ­ tio n law a t th is tim e d id n o t re c o g n iz e re fu g e e s a s a s e p a r a t e type o f i m ­ m ig r a n t. T h e legal c a te g o ry of refu g e e d id n o t b e g in to d e v e lo p u n til a fte r W orld War II, w ith th e 1 9 4 8 D is p la c e d P e r s o n s Act a n d a s e r i e s o f R efugee R elief A cts a n d Refugee A s s i s ta n c e A cts in th e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 19 6 0 s t h a t w e re largely b r o u g h t a b o u t b y th e C u b a n e x o d u s a n d u n d e r w h ic h th e V ie tn a m e s e a n d o t h e r I n d o c h i n e s e re fu g e e s w e re a d m i t t e d . O nly in 1 9 8 0 d id th e U n ite d S t a t e s finally p a s s a Refugee Act, s h o r tl y b e fo r e th e a r r iv a l o f 1 2 5 ,0 0 0 M a r i e l i t o s fro m C u b a ’s M a rie l h a r b o r a n d 1 0 ,0 0 0 H a it ia n s w h o w a s h e d a s h o r e o n to th e b e a c h e s o f F lo r i d a a n d its Keys ( P e d r a z a , 1 9 9 6 b ). In th e b e g in n in g , U.S. i m m i g r a t i o n law h a d b a r r e d th e e n tr y of only th o s e p e r s o n s c o n s i d e r e d u n fit, s u c h a s p r o s t i t u t e s , c o n v ic ts, l u n a ­ tics, id io ts , a n d th e very ill. B u t p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f W orld War I, n a tiv is m p e a k e d in th e 1 9 2 0 s . N a tivism in vo lv es the fear m a n y feel of the t h r e a t — c u l t u r a l a n d e c o n o m ic b o t h — th a t i m m i g r a n t s p o s e . T h i s led to f u r t h e r r e s t r i c t i o n s . With t h e 1 9 2 4 I m m i g r a tio n a n d N a tio n a lity Act, th e d o o r to f u r t h e r i m m i g r a t i o n w a s c lo s e d . N a tio n a l-o r ig in s q u o t a s w e r e s e t t h a t fa v o re d i m m i g r a t i o n fr o m n o r t h e r n a n d w e s t e r n E u r o ­

38

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p e a n n a t i o n s w hile c u r t a ilin g im m i g r a t i o n fr o m s o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s . At th e s a m e tim e , all im m i g r a t i o n fro m A sia w a s b a n n e d . T h e s e q u o t a s r e m a i n e d in p la c e u n til th e y w e r e a b o l i s h e d by th e 1 9 6 5 a m e n d m e n t s to the 1 9 5 2 I m m ig r a tio n a n d N a tio n a lity Act. Yet even a s i m m i g r a t i o n fro m s o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e w a s b e ­ in g c u r ta ile d , a n e x c e p tio n w a s m a d e for Mexico. A g r ic u ltu r a l g r o w e r s s u c c e s s f u lly a r g u e d to C o n g r e s s t h a t th ey n e e d e d M e xican w o r k e r s b e ­ c a u s e W orld War I h a d c a u s e d a l a b o r s h o r t a g e . T h e W e ste rn H e m i ­ s p h e r e E x e m p t i o n c o n s t i t u t e d a n e n o r m o u s “p u l l" to M e x ic a n im m i g r a n t s . B u t a lth o u g h g r o w e r s e x p e c te d t h e M e x ic a n s to r e t u r n h o m e , “like a h o m i n g p ig e o n ,” m a n y d id n o t go b a c k b u t i n s t e a d p u t d o w n r o o t s a n d c r e a te d c o m m u n i t i e s on th is s id e o f th e b o r d e r (Pedraza-B ailey, 1 98 5).

T h e T h ird W ave A fter th e c lo s in g o f th e d o o r to E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a t i o n in 1 9 2 4 , th e t h i r d m a j o r w ave of m i g r a t i o n w a s m o s t l y i n t e r n a l . T h e m i g r a t i o n o f A fric a n A m e r i c a n s , M e x ic a n s , N ative A m e r i c a n s , a n d P u e r t o R ic a n s f r o m th e S o u t h to th e N o r t h t r a n s f o r m e d r u r a l p e o p l e in to u r b a n d w e ll e r s . T h i s e n ta il e d a d r a m a t i c s o c ia l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , a s la rg e a s th e o n e o f i m m i g r a n t s w h o c r o s s e d th e o c e a n s . F or e x a m p l e , a t th e b e g i n n i n g o f th e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y m o s t A fric a n A m e r i c a n s lived in th e a g ­ r i c u l t u r a l S o u t h ; by 1 9 6 0 , a b o u t h a l f w e r e living in th e i n d u s t r i a l N o r th . T h e y w e r e a t t r a c t e d b y th e e m p l o y m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s g e n e r ­ a t e d b y th e in d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n of th e N o r th a n d b y W orld W ar I. B e tw e e n 1 9 4 0 a n d 1 9 6 0 , w h e n a g r i c u l t u r e in th e S o u t h d e c lin e d f u r t h e r a n d W orld W ar II c r e a t e d y et m o r e e c o n o m i c e x p a n s i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e N o r t h e a s t a n d th e M id w e s t, it is e s t i m a t e d t h a t m i l l i o n s o f A fric a n A m e r i c a n s , M e x ic a n s , N ative A m e r i c a n s , a n d P u e r t o R i c a n s left the r u r a l a r e a s o f th e S o u t h to lo o k for w o r k in c itie s a n d in fa c to r i e s . T h i s u r b a n i z a t i o n s e t th e sta g e fo r th e Civil R ig h ts M o v e m e n t (Piven & C l o w a r d , 1 9 7 9 ). T h e Civil R ig h ts M o v e m e n t i n s p i r e d o t h e r so c ia l m o v e m e n t s , s u c h a s th e M e x ic a n A m e r i c a n m o v e m e n t L a C a u s a . T h e s e s o c ia l m o v e m e n t s b r o k e d o w n th e s y s t e m a t i c e x c lu s io n i m ­ p o s e d b y “J i m C ro w " legal s e g r e g a tio n . W orld War II a lso gave ris e to th e B r a c e r o P r o g r a m (fro m th e S p a n ­ is h w o r d b r a z o s , a r m s ) , w h ic h w a s in itia te d t h r o u g h th e in flu e n c e of a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o w e r s , w h o o n c e a g a in a r g u e d to C o n g r e s s t h a t i n s t i t u t ­ ing th is c o n t r a c t - l a b o r p r o g r a m w a s a b s o lu te ly n e c e s s a r y , given th e w a r t i m e s h o r t a g e of l a b o r in C a lif o r n ia ’s fields. D u r in g th e c o u r s e of m o r e t h a n 2 2 y e a r s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 .7 m illio n b r a c e r o s c a m e to w o r k in C a lifo rn ia , th e n th e le a d in g a g r i c u l t u r a l s ta te . W h a t w a s s u p p o s e d to b e a n em e rge nc y , w a r t i m e m e a s u r e la s t e d a full g e n e r a tio n , u n til s u b s t a n t i a l l a b o r d i s p l a c e m e n t o f A m e r ic a n w o r k e r s led to its t e r m i ­ n a tio n (G a la r z a , 1 9 6 4 ; M a s s e y e t al., 1 98 7). T h e B r a c e r o P r o g r a m a lso gave r is e to s u b s t a n t i a l illegality (cf. S a m o r a , 1 9 7 1 ). A r e n e w a l of th is

3.

ASSIMILATION OR TRANSNATIONALISM?

39

p l a n h a s n o w b e e n p r o p o s e d by P r e s i d e n t G e o rg e W. B u s h a s a w a y of c u r b i n g exce ssiv e u n d o c u m e n t e d m i g r a tio n fr o m M exico a n d of p r o ­ v id in g for the ord erly , a d m i n i s t e r e d i m p o r t a t i o n of t e m p o r a r y h e lp . In th e 1 9 4 0 s a n d 1 9 5 0 s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 to 40% of i m m i g r a t i o n c a m e f r o m th e W e ste rn H e m i s p h e r e (M a rtin & Midgley, 2 0 0 3 ) , a lth o u g h a s u b s ta n tia l n u m b e r of J e w is h re fu g e e s fro m th e h o lo c a u s t p e r p e t r a t e d by N azi G e r m a n y a lso a r r i v e d .

T h e F o u rth W ave T h e f o u r t h w a v e o f m i g r a t i o n b e g a n in th e i m m e d i a t e p o st-W o rld W ar II p e r i o d . It g a in e d p a r t i c u l a r i m p e t u s fr o m th e 1 9 6 5 a m e n d m e n t s to th e M c C a r r a n - W a l t e r I m m i g r a t i o n a n d N a tio n a lity A ct o f 1 9 5 2 t h a t a b o l i s h e d th e n a t i o n a l o r i g i n s q u o t a s o f 1 9 2 4 . In s o d o in g , it r e ­ o p e n e d th e d o o r to i m m i g r a t i o n to th e U n ite d S t a t e s . T h e m a j o r c r i t e ­ r i a for legal a d m i s s i o n to th e U n ite d S t a t e s in t h i s p e r i o d a r e still th e o n e s in p la c e a t th e b e g i n n i n g o f th e 2 1 s t c e n tu r y : o c c u p a t i o n a l c e r t if ­ i c a tio n (giving p r e f e r e n c e to i m m i g r a n t s w h o s e o c c u p a t i o n s w e r e in a “re la tiv e s h o r t a g e " in th e U n ite d S t a l e s ) a n d fa m ily r e u n i f i c a t i o n (giv­ in g p r e f e r e n c e to i m m i g r a n t s w h o s e i m m e d i a t e fa m ily h a d b e e n d i ­ v id e d b y th e m i g r a t i o n ) . In 2 0 0 2 , m o r e t h a n h a l f o f th e f o r e i g n - b o r n r e s i d e n t s w e r e b o r n in L a tin A m e r i c a — 3 0 % f r o m M exico a l o n e — w h e r e a s 2 6 % w e r e b o r n in A sia , 14% in E u r o p e , a n d 8% in A frica a n d o t h e r r e g i o n s ( M a r tin & Midgley, 2 0 0 4 ) . In 1 9 9 0 , o f th e 8 .4 m illio n i m m i g r a n t s w h o w e r e b o r n in L a tin A m e r ic a , 4 .3 m i llio n c a m e fr o m M exico, 1.9 m illio n f r o m th e C a r i b b e a n ( C u b a a n d H a iti le a d in g ), 5 .4 m illio n f r o m C e n t r a l A m e r i c a (El S a l v a d o r a n d N ic a r a g u a le a d in g ), a n d 1 m i llio n f r o m S o u t h A m e r ic a ( C o lo m b ia a n d P e r u le a d in g ), w ith C a n a d a c o n t r i b u t i n g a n a d d i t i o n a l t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f a m illio n . A m o n g the 5 m illio n i m m i g r a n t s w h o w e r e b o r n in A sia , C h i n a a n d I n d ia w e r e th e l e a d i n g s o u r c e s , e a c h c o n t r i b u t i n g c lo s e to h a l f a m i llio n (U. S. B u r e a u o f th e C e n s u s , 2 0 0 2 ) . T h e r e h a v e a lw a y s b e e n tw o i m m i ­ g r a n t A m e r i c a s — a w o r k i n g - c l a s s i m m i g r a n t A m e r ic a a n d a m i d ­ d l e - c l a s s i m m i g r a n t A m e r ic a (cf. B o d n a r , 1 9 8 5 ). O u r p r e s e n t - d a y a d m i s s i o n s c r i t e r i a c o n t r i b u t e to th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f b o t h . In r e c e n t d e c a d e s , o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e f e r e n c e h a s b e e n given b o t h to v e ry p o o r i m m i g r a n t s , s u c h a s M e x ic a n s , P u e r t o R i c a n s , D o m i n i c a n s , a n d J a ­ m a i c a n s , w h o w e r e ofte n c o n t r a c t e d to w o r k in th e fie ld s, in c o n s t r u c ­ tio n , a n d in o t h e r m e n i a l se r v ic e j o b s , a n d to v e ry s k il le d i m m i g r a n t s , s u c h a s C o l o m b i a n s , F ilip in o s , A s ia n I n d i a n s , K o r e a n s , T a iw a n e s e , a n d E c u a d o r i a n s , w h o w e r e o fte n c o n t r a c t e d to w o r k a s d o c t o r s , a c ­ c o u n ta n ts , c o m p u te r tech n ician s, a n d n u rs e s . T h e E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s tr u g g l e a t th e t u r n of th e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y w a s s h a p e d by th e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m f e u d a l, a g r a r i a n s o c i e tie s to i n d u s ­ tr ia l m a n u f a c t u r i n g c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e tie s in th e O ld W orld a n d th e New. J o h n B o d n a r ( 1 9 8 5 ) u n d e r s c o r e d t h a t " t r a n s p l a n t e d by f o r c e s b e ­ y o n d t h e i r c o n tr o l ," th e i m m i g r a n t s w e r e “in d e e d c h i l d r e n o f c a p i t a l ­

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i s m . ” At th e t u r n o f th e 2 0 t h c e n tu r y , th e a r t i s a n s , c r a f t s m e n , a n d illite r a te , u n s k i l l e d p e a s a n t s f r o m th e f e u d a l s o c ie tie s o f G e r m a n y , I r e l a n d , P o la n d , Italy, a n d M cxico w e n t o n to b e c o m e th e A m e r i c a n w o r k i n g c l a s s a n d to s u p p l y th e c h e a p l a b o r t h a t m a d e p o s s i b l e th e e n o r m o u s e c o n o m i c g r o w th o f t h i s d e v e lo p in g , i n d u s t r i a l , c a p i t a l i s t society. At th e t u r n of th e 2 1 s t c e n tu ry , th e i m m i g r a n t s t r u g g le is n o t on ly th e c h ild o f c a p i t a l i s m b u t a ls o th e c h ild o f c o m m u n i s m , in th e c a s e o f C u b a n s , V i e tn a m e s e , C a m b o d i a n s , C h i n e s e , a n d S o v ie t J e w s . It is e s t i m a t e d t h a t o v e r th e c o u r s e of 4 5 y e a r s o f C u b a ’s c o m m u n i s t r e v o l u t i o n , m o r e t h a n 12% o f t h e C u b a n p o p u l a t i o n left th e i s l a n d , t u r n i n g t h e i r b a c k s o n th e l a n d o f t h e i r b i r t h . M o s t of t h e s e e m i g r a n t s w e n t o n to live in th e U n it e d S t a t e s . To u n d o c u m e n t e d w o r k e r s of w o r k in g - c la s s o rig in fr o m L a tin A m e r ic a , th e 1 9 8 6 I m m ig r a tio n R e fo rm a n d C o n tr o l Act (IRCA) b r o u g h t a f r e s h s t a r t , a s it b o t h o ffered a m n e s t y for illegal a lie n s w h o h a d lived a n d w o r k e d in the U n ite d S t a l e s a s u p r i g h t c o n t r i b u t o r s to t h is n a t i o n ’s ec o n o m y , a n d p la c e d th e b r u n t o f th e p r o b l e m o n e m p l o y ­ e r s w h o k n o w in g ly h i r e d illegal a lie n s. T h e M e xic an c o m m u n i t y e s p e ­ cially b e n e f ite d fr o m IRCA, a s d id m a n y w o r k e r s fr o m C e n tr a l a n d S o u t h A m e r ic a . M a n y of th e n ew i m m i g r a n t s w h o c o m e to th e U nited S t a t e s b r i n g s u b s t a n t i a l s o c ia l r e s o u r c e s w ith th e m (of s o c ia l c la s s , c a p ita l, e d u c a t i o n , i n s t i t u t i o n a l k n o w - h o w ) . As a r e s u l t, th e s e n e w i m ­ m i g r a n t s c a n q u ic k ly i n s e r t t h e m s e lv e s a t r a t h e r h ig h levels in th is s o ­ ciety—w h a t Ivan Light ( 1 9 8 3 ) ca lle d “le a p f r o g m i g r a t i o n .” At th e s a m e tim e , th e p r o s p e c t s for w o r k in g - c l a s s i m m i g r a n t s g ro w in c r e a s in g ly d im . T h e s e b e a r th e b r u n t o f th e e c o n o m ic r e s t r u c t u r i n g of A m e r ic a , of the d e c lin in g n u m b e r of g o o d j o b s in m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r i e s , a s well a s o f p e r s i s t e n t a n d g r o w in g poverty. Clearly, t h e r e a r e two A m e r ic a s . In fact, a m o r e a c c u r a t e im a g e m a y be t h a t o f a t h ir d A m e ric a , a s J o r g e R a m o s ( 2 0 0 4 ) r e c e n tly a r g u e d . T h e t h i r d A m e r ic a e n c o m p a s s e s th e u n d o c u m e n t e d w o r k e r s — n o t only M ex ic a n b u t a lso C e n tr a l a n d S o u t h A m e r i c a n , C a r i b b e a n , A sia n , a t ti m e s even E u r o p e a n — w h o a re th e m o s t v u ln e r a b le a n d p o w e r l e s s i n h a b i t a n t s o f o u r n a ti o n yet d o m u c h of th e la b o r o t h e r s do n o t w a n t to do.

ASSIM ILATIO N T h e s t u d y of i m m i g r a n t s w a s closely w e d d e d w ith th e b e g in n in g s of s o ­ cial scie n c e in A m e ric a a t th e t u r n of th e 2 0 th c e n t u r y (Po rtes 1978). I m ­ m i g r a n t s a n d th e ir plig ht w e re the focus of vivid s t u d i e s fro m the early d a y s of “the C hicago s c h o o l,” w h o s e w o r k o n im m ig r a tio n , e th n ic , a n d u r b a n s tu d i e s laid the very f o u n d a t i o n s of A m e r ic a n sociology (e.g., P a r k & B u r g e s s , 1 9 21; P a r k , 195 0 . 1 9 28 ; T h o m a s & Z n a n ic c k i, 1927). D e s p ite v ary in g e m p h a s e s , they s h a r e d th e e x p e c ta tio n t h a t th e o u t ­ c o m e to th e p r o c e s s of in te g ra tin g th o s e w h o a rr iv e d a t its s h o r e s w o u ld b e a p r o c e s s of a s s im ila tio n . Yet from the o u ts e t th e r e w a s a n a m b ig u ity in th e idea th a t P a rk h im s e lf ( 1 9 1 3 /1 9 5 0 ) u n d e r s c o r e d . T h a t am b ig u ity

3.

AS SI MI LATI ON OR T RANS NAT I ON AL I S M?

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r e m a in e d until Milton G o rd o n (1964) d istin g u ish e d between types of assim ilatio n: c u ltu ral v e r s u s s tr u c tu ra l. B u t the f u n d a m e n ta l c h a r a c ­ teristic of a ssim ila tio n theory w as a lre a d y evident: A ssim ilation w as ex­ pected to be a one-way p r o c e s s th a t w o uld also be n a tu r a l an d evolutionary, w hich a s tim e p a s s e d w ould yield the inevitable o u tc o m e of the a d a p ta tio n of m in o rity ethnic g r o u p s to the m a i n s t r e a m cu lture. A very different c o n c e p t—tr a n s c u ltu r a tio n —a ro se in C ub a, the peopling of which th ro u g h c o n q u e s t a n d im m ig ration re se m b le d th a t of the United S tates. F e rn a n d o Ortiz (19 6 3 /1 9 8 3 ), one o fC u b a 's leading social scien tists, p r o p o s e d the no tion of t r a n s c u ltu r a tio n to signify how one c u ltu re c o m e s to e x p re ss itself in another, as w as the case of S a n t e r í a , the p o p u la r religious e x p re ssio n in C u b a th a t b le n d e d West African b e ­ liefs with S p a n is h C atholicism . Even in the U nited States, a n o th e r im ­ p o r t a n t text of the tim e, N ath a n G lazer a n d Daniel Patrick Moynihan's (1963) B e y o n d the Melting Pot, e x a m in e d the in c o rp o ra tio n of B lacks, P u e rto R icans, J e w s , Italians, a n d Irish in New York City a n d fou nd s u b ­ sta n tia l ethnic m alleability a n d p e rsiste n c e . But the leading influence w as th a t of the a ssim ila tio n school, a m a jo r e x p o n e n t of which w as G lazer (1971), w ho a rg u e d th a t while B lacks did n o t seem to be a s s i m i ­ lating to the m a i n s t r e a m , d u e to the S o u th e rn experience of slavery a n d “J i m Crow," in the N orth their experience m o r e closely re s e m b le d th a t of o th e r im m ig ra n ts, a n d , in d u e tim e, they w ould also achieve a s s im ila ­ tion. As G o rd o n (1 96 4) defined it, c u ltu ra l a s s im ila tio n entailed a p r o ­ c e ss of a c c u ltu r a tio n on the p a r t of th e im m ig r a n ts , of b e c o m in g “lik e ” in c u ltu ra l p a tt e r n s , s u c h a s language, behavior, a n d values; while s t r u c t u r a l a s s im ila tio n r e s u lte d only w h e n the im m i g r a n t s h a d b e en “ta k e n u p a n d i n c o r p o r a t e d ” a n d en ta ile d the full in te g ra tio n of the i m ­ m ig r a n t s a n d th e ir d e s c e n d a n t s into the m a jo r in s titu tio n s of the so c i­ ety (ed u ca tio n a l, o c c u p a tio n a l, political) a n d into the social cliques, c lu b s, a n d in s titu tio n s of the c ore society th a t lead to in tim a te p r i m a r y r e la tio n s h ip s , in c lu d in g in te r m a r ria g e . T h is d is tin c tio n a im e d to p r o ­ vide a m o r e e x a c t c o n c e p t u a l tool to g a uge the r e a lity o f th e a s s im ila tio n of im m ig r a n ts a n d ra c ia l m in o r itie s in A m erica. T h e Chicago s c h o o l in th e early p a r t of th e c e n tu ry also e m p h a s iz e d th e " n a tu r a l history" of e th n ic re la tio n s , as b e s t e x p r e s s e d in P a rk 's race re la tio n s cycle. P a rk (1 9 1 3 /1 9 5 0 ) evolved h is th e o ry of the race r e ­ latio n s cycle a s stag e s of in te ra c tio n th r o u g h w h ich im m ig r a n t or r a ­ cial g r o u p s p r o g r e s s e d ir r e v e r s ib ly : c o n ta c t, c o m p e t i t i o n , a n d a c c o m m o d a tio n , c u lm in a tin g in e ve n tu a l a s s im ila tio n (pp. 1 3 8 - 1 5 8 ) . B e c a u se a t the r o o t of his t h in k in g w a s the ecological e m p h a s i s on race re la tio n s a s sp a tia l re la tio n s th a t d efined the Chicago sc h o o l of u r b a n sociology, P a rk expected th a t the n o tio n of a s s im ila tio n a n d the stag es of the r a c e r e la tio n s cycle c o uld be e x te n d e d to im m ig r a n ts a n d racial m in o ritie s alike. F ro m h is p o in t of view, b o th E u r o p e a n im m ig r a n t s a n d A m e ric an B la ck s c a m e from r u r a l, p e a s a n t b a c k g r o u n d s a n d , on m ig ra tio n to the u r b a n ghetto, c o n f ro n te d a s im ila r c la s h of c u ltu re s .

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T h u s , i m m i g r a t i o n a n d r a c e a n d e th n ic r e l a t i o n s c o u ld b o t h b e view ed w ith in th e s a m e f r a m e o f re f e re n c e . T h i s p e r s p e c t iv e w a s c le a rly a p p a r e n t in a n o t h e r of th e c la s s ic s o f th e C h ic ag o sc h o o l: W. I. T h o m a s a n d F lo r i a n Z n a n i e c k i 's T h e Polish P e a s a n t in E u r o p e a n d A m e r i c a (1 9 2 7 ). D r a w in g fr o m th e w o r k of T h o m a s , P a r k a lso w a s r e s p o n s i b l e for d i s s e m i n a t i n g th e t h e o r y o f the “m a r g i n a l m a n . ” P a r k ( 1 9 2 8 ) s t r e s s e d th a t m a r g i n a l h u m a n b e ­ i n g s — th o s e w h o , a s a r e s u l t o f m i g r a ti o n , e n d e d u p living s i m u l t a ­ n e o u s ly in tw o s e p a r a t e w o r l d s —w e r e n o t on ly m a r g in a l, n e v e r fully b e lo n g in g to o n e w o r l d o r th e other, b u t a lso e n o r m o u s l y c re a tiv e a n d intelligen t, a s e x p e r ie n c in g m o r e t h a n o n e s o c ia l w o r ld h a d s h a r p e n e d t h e ir v isio n a n d s e n s ib ilitie s . Again P a r k e x t e n d e d th e c o n c e p t of th e m a r g in a l m a n from its o r ig in s in the n o tio n of th e h u m a n b e in g c a u g h t b e tw e e n two c u l t u r e s — th e i m m i g r a n t , th e m ix e d - b l o o d p e r s o n ( E u r ­ a s ia n , m e s tiz o , o r m u l a tto ) , th e o u t c a s t a n d s t r a n g e r (the J e w ) — to e n ­ c o m p a s s th e e x p e r ie n c e o f A m e r ic a n B la c k s w h o s h a r e d th e s a m e n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e b u t lived a t the m a r g i n s o f s o ciety in soc ia l, r a t h e r t h a n c u l t u r a l o r e th n ic , m a rg in a lity . T h u s , it w a s left to E. F r a n k lin F r a z ie r ( 1 9 5 7 ) , s t u d e n t of the C h icago s c h o o l a n d B la c k so c io lo g ist, to d e m a r c a t e th e d iffe ren c e b e tw e e n ra c e r e l a t i o n s a n d e t h n ic re la tio n s . He u n d e r s c o r e d t h a t A m e r ic a n B la c k s h a d e x p e r i e n c e d s u c c e s s iv e f o r m s o f e c o n o m i c s u b o r d i n a t i o n (slavery, th e p l a n t a t i o n society, “J i m C row ") w ith th e o u t c o m e o f e x ten siv e c u l t u r a l a s s im i la tio n b u t, r a t h e r t h a n final s t r u c t u r a l a s s i m i l a t i o n , c o m p le te so c ia l a n d i n s titu tio n a l s e g r e g a tio n . S o c io lo g is ts, th e n , in th e e a rly p a r t of th e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y w e r e c o n c e r n e d w ith w h a t th e e x p e r ie n c e of im m i g r a t i o n h a d d o n e to th e i m m i g r a n t s ’ lives t h e m s e lv e s a n d w ith th e o u t c o m e s to t h e p r o c e s s o f in te g r a tin g th o s e w h o a r r iv e d a t its s h o r e s , o u t c o m e s t h a t w e r e u s u ­ ally c o n c e p tu a li z e d a s a c c u l t u r a t i o n a n d a s s i m i l a t i o n — b e c o m i n g like the d o m i n a n t p o p u l a t i o n , w h ic h a t th e t u r n o f the c e n tu r y clearly m e a n t c o n f o r m ity to A n g lo -S a x o n w a y s ( G o r d o n , 19 64 ). R e s e a r c h o n i m m i g r a n t s a n d th e e v e n t u a l o u t c o m e s o f th e p r o ­ c e s s e s o f i m m i g r a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , w a s a t th e v e ry f o u n d a t i o n s o f A m e r i c a n sociology. B u t t h a t e m p h a s i s b e g a n to w a n e u n til, in th e 1 9 6 0 s , it all b u t d i s a p p e a r e d . S e v e r a l d if f e r e n t t r e n d s p r o m o t e d its d i s a p p e a r a n c e . F ir s t , th e I m m i g r a t i o n a n d N a tio n a lity A ct o f 1 9 2 4 c u t t h e m a s s i v e w a v e s of E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a t i o n to th e U n ite d S t a t e s . S e c o n d , u n d e r th e p r e s s u r e s o f A n g lo -c o n fo rm ity , t h e c h i l d r e n o f t h o s e E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s w e n t o n to a s s i m i l a t e in A m e r i c a n s o c i ­ ety a t a ti m e w h e n th e p r i c e o f s u c c e s s w a s ofte n o n e ’s e t h n ic ity a n d identity. Like P a u l C o w a n ( 1 9 8 2 ) , w r i t e r for T h e V i l l a g e Voice w h o s e real n a m e s h o u ld have been S a u l C ohen, m a n y su c c e ssfu l A m e ric a n s b e c a m e o r p h a n s in h is to ry , h a v in g lo s t th e ir e t h n i c le g a c ie s. T h i s c a n b e s e e n in h o w o fte n th e o ld i m m i g r a n t s h a d to c h a n g c th e ir n a m e s , to A nglicize t h e m . L o o k in g a t th e f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n o f H o lly w o o d m o v ie s t a r s , for e x a m p le , K irk D o u g la s ( f a th e r o r o u r M ic h a e l D o u g l a s t o ­ d ay ) w a s r e a lly th e E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n J e w i s h I s s u r A n ie lo v itc h ; R ita

3.

ASSIMILATION OR TRANSNATIONALISM?

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H a y w o r th , th e love g o d d e s s , w a s r e a lly S p a n i s h — M a r g a r i t a C a r m e n C a n s i n o ; a n d D e a n M a r tin w a s r e a lly D in o C r o c e t ti (B altzell, 1 9 6 4 ). A n d th i r d , a s P o r t e s ( 1 9 7 8 ) s t r e s s e d , th e r e s e a r c h f o c u s o n i m m i ­ g r a n t s a n d i m m i g r a t i o n w a s a ls o lo s t a s a r e s u l t o f th e a r r i v a l o f the r a c i a l d e m a n d s a n d m i lit a n c y o f t h e Civil R ig h ts M o v e m e n t, so t h a t th e a n a ly t ic a l f o c u s s h if te d to t h a t o f r a c i a l a n d e t h n i c r e l a t i o n s . In th e p r o c e s s , w h a t is r e a lly d is t in c ti v e a b o u t i m m i g r a n t s w a s lo s t. W h a t is d is tin c tiv e a b o u t i m m i g r a n t s ? At th e m i c r o level, it is t h a t th e y h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d a n o t h e r w h o le life in a n o t h e r c o u n t r y a n d c u l t u r e , w h ic h th e y b r i n g w ith t h e m a n d w h i c h d e c isiv e ly c o n t i n u e s to in f lu e n c e t h e m ; a t th e m a c r o level, it is t h a t th e s t a t e in tw o s o c ie ti e s p e r m i t s th e i m m i g r a n t s to e xit a n d e n te r. As g a te k e e p e r , th e s t a t e r e g u l a t e s a n d d i r e c t s m i g r a t i o n t h r o u g h a b o d y o f law. F r o m th e th e o r e tic a l v a n ta g e p o in t, i m m i g r a n t s a r e a lso d i s tin c t in th a t they b r i n g w ith th e m a w h o le h o s t o f so c ia l r c s o u r c c s (th e ir so c ia l c la s s , e d u c a t io n , o c c u p a t i o n , c u ltu r e , v a lu e s) fro m a n o t h e r society, a n d th e ir o u t c o m e s in A m e r ic a n so c ie ty will b e p a r t ly a f u n c tio n of th o s e in itia l r e s o u r c e s , p a r t ly a f u n c tio n o f th e n a t u r e of th e ir m i g r a ­ tio n ( w h e th e r th ey a r e p o litic a l o r e c o n o m ic i m m i g r a n t s , v ic tim s of g e n o c id e , s e t t l e r s o r s o j o u r n e r s ) , a n d p a r t l y a f u n c tio n o f th e so cial c o n te x t t h a t g r e e te d t h e m , o f th e a m o u n t of o p p o r t u n i t y a v a ila b le to th e m in t h e i r n e w s o c ie ty (in th e p a r t i c u l a r cities a n d i n d u s t r i e s w h e r e th e y b e c a m e c o n c e n t r a t e d , a n d in th e n a t u r e of th e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o r e x c lu s io n th e y a f te r w a r d faced).

INTERNAL COLONIALISM In sociolog y th e m a j o r c h a lle n g e to a s s i m i l a t i o n th e o r y c a m e fr o m the p r o p o n e n t s of the in t e r n a l c o lo n ia lis m m o d e l, th e th e o r e ti c a l effort to d e lin e a te in w h a t w a y s th e e x p e r ie n c e s o f th e ra c ia l m i n o r i t i e s (B la c k s, P u e r to R ic a n s , M e x ic a n s, Native A m e r i c a n s — s o m e of its o ld e s t i m m i ­ g r a n t s a n d m o s t in d ig e n o u s n a tive s o n s a n d d a u g h t e r s ) d iffe re d sig n if­ ic a n tly f r o m th e e x p e r ie n c e s a n d e v e n tu a l a s s i m i l a t i o n o f th e W hite E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s a t t h e t u r n o f th e c entury. T h e i n t e r n a l c o l o n ia l­ is m m o d e l u n d e r s c o r e d t h a t th e e x p e r ie n c e o f th e s e g r o u p s w a s d iffe r­ e n t in t h a t th e y h a d s u f f e r e d a p r o c e s s o f i n t e r n a l c o lo n iz a tio n d u e to th e ir p la c e a n d ro le in th e s y s te m of p r o d u c t i o n , p la c e a n d ro le th ey c a m e to o c c u p y b e c a u s e o f t h e i r color, th e ir r a c e ( B a r r e r a , 1 9 79 ; B la u n e r, 1 9 6 9 ). P r o p o n e n t s of th e i n t e r n a l c o lo n ia lis m m o d e l u n d e r ­ s c o r e d t h a t th e E u r o p e a n m ig r a tio n h a d b e e n v o lu n ta ry , th e r e s u l t of d e c i s i o n s th e i m m i g r a n t s th e m s e lv e s h a d t a k e n , w h e r e a s th e m i g r a ­ tio n o f th e ra c ia l m i n o r i t i e s h a d b e e n in v o lu n ta ry , th e r e s u l t of slavery, a n n e x a t i o n , c o n q u c s t — p r o c e s s e s th a t invo lv ed s u b s t a n t i a l violence. M oreover, they s t r e s s e d , the E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s h a d c h a n g e d th e ir c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s a t will, g r a d u a ll y o ver th e c o u r s e o f g e n e r a t i o n s , w h ile c u l t u r a l c h a n g e h a d b e e n i m p o s e d on th e ra c i a l m in o r i tie s . E ven m o r e , th e g h e tto h a d b e e n only a o n e - o r tw o - g e n e r a tio n p h e n o m e n o n

44

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for th e E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s a n d th e ir d e s c e n d a n t s , w h e r e a s for the r a c ia l m i n o r i t i e s it h a d b e c o m e a n e a r ly p e r m a n e n t c o n d itio n . L a st, th ey s t r e s s e d , th e E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s h a d s u b s t a n t i a l c o n t r o l o f th e ir ow n c o m m u n i t i e s , t h r o u g h t e a c h e r s , p olic e officers, s m a l l b u s i ­ n e s s o w n e r s , a n d s o cia l w o r k e r s , w h e r e a s th e ra c ia l m i n o r i t i e s ’ c o m ­ m u n i t i e s h a d b e e n m a n n e d a n d c o n tr o l le d by o u t s i d e r s . H e n ce , th e r a c ia l m i n o r i t i e s h a d s u f fe r e d fro m a p r o c e s s o f c o lo n iz a tio n u n l ik e a n y th i n g e x p e r ie n c e d by th e E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s . An i m p o r t a n t c o r r e c tiv e to th e a s s i m i l a t i o n m o d e l , th e i n t e r n a l c o ­ l o n i a l i s m m o d e l its e lf s u f f e r e d f r o m s t r e t c h i n g th e c o lo n ia l a n a lo g y o v erly far, n o t r e c o g n i z in g th e e s s e n t i a l d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e d o ­ m e s t i c s i t u a t i o n o f r a c e r e l a t i o n s in t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a n d w h a t h a p ­ p e n e d in A fric a a n d A sia . T h e r e a f te r , J o e Feagin ( 1 9 7 8 ) s o u g h t to t r a n s c e n d th e s h o r t c o m i n g s o f b o t h th e a s s i m i l a t i o n a n d i n t e r n a l c o ­ l o n i a l i s m m o d e l s by f o c u s in g o n th e v a r y in g w a y s in w h ic h d if f e r e n t e t h n i c g r o u p s w e r e i n c o r p o r a t e d , b e c a m e a p a r t of th e society, by p a y ­ in g a t t e n t i o n to th e in itia l a n d c o n t i n u i n g p l a c e m e n t a n d a c c e s s of v a r i o u s g r o u p s w ith i n th e e c o n o m i c , p o litic a l, a n d e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i ­ t u t i o n s o f th e society. Still, a s a c e n tr a l c o n c e p t t h a t g u id e d r e s e a r c h , in c o r p o r a t i o n , like its p r e d e c e s s o r , a s s i m i l a t i o n , a s s u m e d a o n e - w a y p r o c e s s , failing to t a k e in to a c c o u n t t h a t i m m i g r a n t s n o t only b e c o m e in c o r p o r a t e d into a n e w society, th e y a lso t r a n s f o r m it. I m m i g r a n t s d i d n o t j u s t b e c o m e i n ­ c o r p o r a t e d in to A m e r ic a n society; th e y m a d e a n d r e m a d e A m e r ic a a n d a r e f a s h io n in g h e r still. D e s p ite th e c h a l le n g e s th e c o n c e p t o f a s s i m i l a t i o n a n d a c c u l t u r a ­ tio n re c e iv e d f r o m o t h e r c o n c e p t s , s u c h a s i n t e r n a l c o l o n i a l i s m , i n ­ c o r p o r a t i o n , a n d m o r e r e c e n tly t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m a n d d i a s p o r i c c i t i z e n s h i p , R i c h a r d A lb a a n d V icto r Nee ( 2 0 0 3 ) a r g u e d in R e m a k i n g t h e A m e r i c a n M a i n s t r e a m t h a t it is still a n e c e s s a r y c o n c e p t . In th e i r view, a s s i m i l a t i o n is a g r a n d n a r r a t i v e t h a t s e r v e d to d e s c r i b e w ell the e x p e r ie n c e o f th e s o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s , a s w ell a s th e A s ia n i m m i g r a n t s w h o a r r i v e d a t th e t u r n o f th e 2 0 t h c e n ­ t u r y a n d , o v e r th e c o u r s e o f s e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s , w e n t o n to j o in th e m a i n s t r e a m o f A m e r i c a n life in t e r m s o f t h e i r levels o f e d u c a t i o n a l a t ­ t a i n m e n t , p a t t e r n s o f s u b u r b a n i z a t i o n , a n d i n t e r m a r r i a g e . As A lba a n d Nee e m p h a s i z e d , th e p r o c e s s b y w h ic h th e y a c h i e v e d p a r i t y in t e r m s o f th e i r life c h a n c e s w a s p a r t l y h is t o r i c a l l y c o n t i n g e n t — d e ­ p e n d e n t on tw o W orld W a rs, th e GI Bill, a n d th e lik e . It w a s a ls o r a c i a l i z e d — t h a t is, e x c lu s iv e to t h o s e w h o h a d b e c o m e “W hite" in th e p ro c e ss. B a n k s, o th e r cre d it le n d e rs, a n d real estate dev elo p ers k e p t B la c k s , M e x ic a n s . P u e r t o R ic a n s , a n d N ative A m e r i c a n s f r o m j o i n i n g the m a i n s t r e a m o f life in s u b u r b i a d u e to th e ir ra c e . Still, ev e n for t h o s e f o r m e r l y e x c l u d e d g r o u p s , t h e r e h a s b e e n p r o g r e s s . R e y n o ld s F arle y a n d R i c h a r d A lb a , in “T h e New S e c o n d G e n e r a t i o n in th e U.S." ( 2 0 0 2 ) , e x a m i n e d th e p a t t e r n o f o c c u p a t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n for o l d e r i m m i g r a n t s a n d fo r th e n e w s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n in th e U n i te d S t a t e s in

3.

ASSIMILATION OR TRANSNATIONALISM?

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1 9 9 8 - 2 0 0 0 . T h e y s h o w e d t h a t even for t h o s e g r o u p s d o m i n a t e d b y lo w -w age l a b o r i m m i g r a n t s in th e f ir s t g e n e r a t i o n ( s u c h a s M e x ic a n s, C en tral A m e ric a n s, a n d A fro -C arib b can s), th ere h a s been c o n s id e r ­ a b le i m p r o v e m e n t in th e a v e r a g e o c c u p a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n in th e s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n , a l t h o u g h n o t to th e p o i n t o f p a r i t y w ith n a t i v e - b o r n w h i te s , a s is t h e c a s e for A s i a n s a n d S o u t h A m e r i c a n s , i m m i g r a n t s w h o a r r i v e d w ith h ig h levels o f h u m a n c a p ita l. H e n c e , it w o u l d s e e m t h a t for all t h e c h a lle n g e s to th e c o n c e p t s o f a s s i m i l a t i o n a n d a c c u l ­ t u r a t i o n o v e r tim e , th e c o n c e p t s a r e still u s e f u l in e x a c tly th e w a y G o r d o n i n t e n d e d t h e m to be: a s a c o n c e p t u a l y a r d s t i c k w ith w h i c h to m e a s u r e th e e x t e n t to w h ic h v a r i o u s g r o u p s h a v e j o i n e d t h e A m e r i c a n m a i n s t r e a m o v e r th e c o u r s e o f tim e .

TRANSNATIO NALISM As a r e s u l t o f th e f o u r t h w ave o f A m e r i c a n im m i g r a t i o n t h a t we a r e still living t h r o u g h , so ciolog y r e f o c u s e d its r e s e a r c h o n i m m i g r a n t s a s a s o ­ cial c a te g o ry d i s t i n c t fro m r a c ia l a n d e th n ic m i n o r i t i e s a n d o n i m m i ­ g r a tio n a s a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o c c s s th a t r e s h u f f le s p e r s o n s a n d c u l t u r e s a c r o s s n a t i o n s , u n til we n o w fin d o u r s e l v e s a m i d a v e rita b le e x p lo s io n o f im m i g r a t i o n r e s e a r c h a s well a s a s e a r c h for ne w c o n c e p t s s u c h a s th o s e o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m a n d d i a s p o r i c c i tiz e n s h ip w ith w h ic h to d e s c r i b e th e n e w re a litie s. T h e c o n c e p t of t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m a r o s e w h e n s o c ia l s c i e n t i s t s n o ­ ticed t h a t u n d e r the i m p a c t of c h a n g e s in the n a t u r e of m o d e r n c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n s a t th i s c e n t u r y ’s e n d , m a n y i m m i g r a n t s failed to s h e d t h e ir old i d e n titie s a n d to ta lly a s s im ila te . I n s te a d , th e y d e v e lo p e d new b i c u l t u r a l id e n titie s a n d lived th e ir lives a n d w e r e q u ite involved in m o r e t h a n o n e n a tio n , m o r e t h a n o n e w o r l d — in effect, m a k i n g th e h o m e a n d a d o p t e d c o u n t r i e s b o t h o n e lived so c ia l w o r ld . In h is s tu d y of M ex ican w o r k in g - c l a s s i m m i g r a n t s living in R e d w o o d City, C a lifo r­ n ia, R o g e r R o u s e (1 9 9 2 ) f o u n d t h a t “w hile th ey lived in R e d w o o d City, th ey w e r e a lso living d e e p in w e s t e r n M exico ” (p. 4 5 ) a n d w e r e o bliged to b a la n c e two q u ite d iff e r e n t w a y s o f life, w h ic h r e s u l t e d in “c u l t u r a l bifocality," a s h e e x p r e s s e d it. B a s c h a n d c o lle a g u e s (B a s c h , Schiller, & B lan c , 1 9 9 4 , p. 7) f o r m a l ­ ized th e d e fin itio n o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m n o w in u s e : th e p r o c e s s by w h ic h i m m i g r a n t s “forge a n d s u s t a i n m u l t i - s t r a n d e d s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s t h a t lin k to g e th e r th e ir so c ie tie s of origin a n d s e t t l e m e n t . ” T h u s , th ey u n d e r s c o r e d , i m m i g r a n t s “t a k e a c tio n s , m a k e d e c i s io n s , a n d de v e lo p s u b je c tiv itie s a n d id e n titie s e m b e d d e d in n e t w o r k s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s th a t c o n n c c t th e m s i m u l t a n e o u s l y to two o r m o r e n a t io n s " ( B a s c h ct al., 1 9 9 4 , p. 7). L ik e all so c ia l p r o c e s s e s , th is h a s e c o n o m ic , po litic a l, a n d s o c ia l d i m e n s i o n s , b o t h in its c a u s e s a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s . However, s o o n t h e r e a f t e r th e c ry a r o s e t h a t t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m is n o t new, a l ­ t h o u g h m u c h of th e l i t e r a t u r e s o u n d s a s if it is (Foner, 1 9 9 7 ; Moya, 2 0 0 4 ; W aldinger, 2 0 0 4 ) . C o m p a r i n g i m m i g r a n t s a t th e t u r n o f th e c e n ­

46

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tu r y w ith c o n t e m p o r a r y i m m i g r a n t s to New York— th e q u i n t e s s e n t i a l i m m i g r a n t city— F o n e r ( 1 9 9 7 ) s h o w e d th a t m a n y t r a n s n a t i o n a l p a t ­ t e r n s a c tu a lly h a v e a lo n g history. At the t u r n o f the la s t c c n tu ry , m a n y i m m i g r a n t s w e r e involved in w h a t is n o w c alle d t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m . For e x a m p le , Ita lia n a n d R u s s i a n i m m i g r a n t s a ls o k e p t tie s of s e n t i m e n t a n d fam ily alive w ith th o s e b a c k h o m e by living in w h a t to d a y a r e c a lle d “t r a n s n a t i o n a l h o u s e h o l d s ” w ith m e m b e r s s c a t t e r e d a c r o s s h o u s e ­ h o ld s ; by s e n d i n g r e m i t t a n c e s b a c k h o m e ; a n d by m a k i n g po litical c o n t r i b u t i o n s for p a r t i c u l a r c a u s e s , s u c h a s th e I r is h s u p p o r t for th e n a t i o n a l i s t c a u s e b a c k h o m e . M oreover, w ith th e e x c e p tio n of R u s s ia n J e w s w h o fled fro m p o litica l a n d re lig io u s p e r s e c u t i o n , th e r e t u r n r a t e s for m a n y i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s , like th e Ita lia n s , w e r e e x tre m e ly h igh, a r o u n d o n e - t h i r d , even h i g h e r th a n t o d a y ’s. A lth o u g h t h e s e c r i t i q u e s a r e v a lid , m y o w n view is t h a t , n o n e t h e ­ le s s , m u c h is d is tin c tiv e a b o u t o u r c u r r c n t t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m . In to ­ d a y 's g lo b a l e c o n o m y , c h a n g e s in th e t e c h n o lo g ie s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n (jet a ir tra v e l, fa x e s, e le c tr o n ic m a il, th e I n t e r n e t , v id e o s) ha v e c h a n g e d th e q u a lita tiv e e x p e r i e n c e o f i m m i g r a t i o n . T h e s e m o d e r n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s (o r a r e th e y p o s t - m o d e r n ? ) h a v e e n ­ a b l e d i m m i g r a n t s to m a i n t a i n m o r e f r e q u e n t a n d c l o s e r c o n t a c t w ith th e ir h o m e c o u n t r y a n d to p a r t i c i p a t e r e g u l a r l y — b o t h a c tu a lly a n d vi­ c a r i o u s l y — in th e life t h e y o n c e left b e h i n d . B a s e d o n s u b s t a n t i a l p a r ­ t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n in v a r i o u s i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t i e s , a s w ell a s o b s e r v i n g th e c h a n g e s o v e r t im e in m y o w n t r a n s n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p to m y c o u n t r y o f o r ig in , I a r g u e t h a t a l t h o u g h i m m i g r a n t s in th e p a s t a ls o le d t r a n s n a t i o n a l lives, t h e r e is a q u a l ita tiv e d if fe r e n c e in the t r a n s n a t i o n a l c x p c r i c n c c s i m m i g r a n t s live today. B c c a u s c th e n e w t e c h n o l o g i e s a llo w i m m e d i a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n , i m m i g r a n t s c a n e x p e r i e n c e t h e w o r l d th e y left b e h i n d a s if th e y w e r e still t h e r e . F or e x ­ a m p l e , to d a y C o s t a R i c a n s c a n e a s ily a n d r a p i d l y tr a v e l b e tw e e n “h o m e " a n d “h o s t ” s o c i e tie s , r a t h e r t h a n s p e n d i n g m a n y m o n t h s a t s e a , a s w a s th e voyage t h a t I ta lia n s t o o k to r e t u r n to Italy in th e 1 9 th c e n tu r y ; lik e w is e , c a b le te le v isio n h a s b r o u g h t G r e e c e , w ith its c o l o r ­ ful fe stiv a ls a n d O ly m p ic s , r i g h t in to th e living r o o m o f G r e e k i m m i ­ g r a n t s . M o re o v e r, a l t h o u g h in th e p a s t c o m m u n i c a t i o n w a s n o t re l ia b le a n d w a s p a in f u lly slow, to d a y it is n e a r l y c e r t a i n a n d fast. For e x a m p l e , th e “o v e r s e a s C h i n e s e ” t h a t lived s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t th e S o u t h e a s t A s ia n n a t i o n s in th e e a r ly p a r t of th e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y o ften p a i d a “le tte r w r i t e r ” to w r ite th e l e tt e r th e y c o u l d n o t, so a s to s e n d t h e i r m e s s a g e s b a c k to th e i r f a m ilie s in C h in a . H ow ever, th e le tte r of­ te n d id n o t r e a c h t h o s e in th e r u r a l a r e a s , o r it t o o k a m o n t h o r tw o to r e a c h t h e m , s o t h a t th e n e w s h a d g r o w n old, w h e r e a s t o d a y a fax s e n t to a t e m p l e o r a b e n e v o l e n t a s s o c i a t i o n will p e n e t r a t e d e e p in C h in a a n d a r r iv e im m e d ia te ly . E v e n C u b a n A m e r i c a n s , w h o s e tr a v e l is s o r e s t r i c t e d by th e p e r e n n i a l c o n f lic ts b e tw e e n th e U n ite d S t a t e s a n d C u b a n g o v e r n m e n t s , n o w c o m m u n i c a t e r e g u l a r l y w ith r e la tiv e s a n d f r i e n d s b a c k in th e i s l a n d t h r o u g h e l e c tr o n ic m a il, s i n c e a f r ie n d w h o

3.

ASSIMILATION OR TRANSNATIONALISM?

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w o r k s for a s t a t e c o r p o r a t i o n w ith a c c e s s to e - m a il c a n in v a r ia b ly b e f o u n d . A lth o u g h I r is h i m m i g r a n t s in th e e a r ly p a r t o f th e 19 t h c e n t u r y h e a r d t h a t a n e w b a b y h a d b e e n b a p t i z e d in I r e l a n d lo n g a f te r th e e v e n t, to d a y M ex ic a n i m m i g r a n t s c a n q u ic k ly se e th e b a p t i s m t h a t j u s t t o o k p la c e b a c k in th e i r village o n v id e o . R a t h e r t h a n b e i n g s u b ­ s t a n t i a l l y c u t off f r o m th e p a s t , to d a y 's i m m i g r a n t s live— e x is te n tia lly s p e a k i n g — b o t h in th e p a s t a n d th e p r e s e n t a t o n c e . A s t r o n g e m o ­ tio n a l t h r e a d n o w tie s th e tw o r e a li tie s , a s n e v e r b e fo re . I m m i g r a n t s to d a y a r e t h e r e n o t j u s t in t h e i r m e m o r i e s a n d i m a g i n a ­ tio n s , b u t vicariou sly, in t h a t very m o m e n t ; th e y a r e a b le to p a r t i c i ­ p a t e — e c o n o m ic a lly , politically, socially, e m o tio n a lly — in a reg ular, c o n s t a n t way, often c r e a tin g two " h o m e s ” t h a t r e s t o n th e p illa r of a n id e n tity (or id e n titie s) th a t in c o r p o r a t e two o r m o r e n a t i o n s , so c ia l w o r l d s , a t th e s a m e tim e. T h is is tr u e even w h e n , a s W a ld in ge r ( 2 0 0 4 ) p o in te d o u t, d u a l lo yalties c a n be con flicting. My p o i n t is n o t to e m p h a ­ size a p a s t / p r e s e n t d iv e rg e n c e , a s W ald in ger p u t it, b u t to e m p h a s i z e t h a t we d o n o w live in a b ra v e n e w w o r ld t h a t is b o t h v a stly m o r e i m p e r ­ s o n a l a n d p e r s o n a l a t o n c e . We k n o w th e w a y s in w h ic h o u r n e w w o r ld is m o r e i m p e r s o n a l — for e x a m p le , te le p h o n e m e n u s n o w a n s w e r m o s t o f o u r q u e s t i o n s a u to m a tic a lly , w it h o u t o u r h e a r i n g a h u m a n voice; c lo th in g is b o u g h t a n d s o ld o n lin e via th e c o m p u t e r w it h o u t o u r ever to u c h i n g th e c lo th in o u r h a n d s for its feel. B u t o u r n e w w o r ld is a lso far m o r e p e r s o n a l a c r o s s v ery g r e a t d i s t a n c e s t h a n it o n c e w a s , a s th e n e w te c h n o lo g y a llo w s u s im m e d i a t e in te lle c tu a l a n d e m o tio n a l c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n w ith th o s e we love t h a t r e m a i n e d b e h i n d . T h o s e s u s t a i n e d affective, e m o t i o n a l lin k a g e s a ls o c o n s titu te a fo r m o f t r a n s n a t i o n ­ a l is m , a s E liz a b e th A r a n d a a n d E le n a S a b o g a l ( 2 0 0 4 ) a r g u e d . T h e y give e v id e n c e o f th e s o c ia l n e t w o r k s a c r o s s v a r i o u s n a t i o n s th a t i m m i ­ g r a n t s a r e e m b e d d e d in, even t h o u g h th e y d o n o t e n ta il s u s t a i n e d c r o s s - b o r d e r e x c h a n g e s , a s P o rte s e t al. (P o rte s, G u a r n i z o , & L a n d o lt, 1 9 9 9 ) i n s i s t e d on. For m a n y i m m i g r a n t s in t h e ir n e w “h o m e ," th is c o m m u n i c a t i o n w ith th e ir fa m ilie s a n d f r i e n d s b a c k in t h e i r old “h o m e ” r e p r e s e n t s th e f o u n d a t i o n of th e ir e m o tio n a l a n d e c o n o m ic w ell-being. As W ald in ger ( 2 0 0 4 ) c o n c lu d e d , "H is to ry involves c h a n g e , w h ic h is w h y a n y p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r ic a l c o n s te ll a tio n is d i s t i n c t fro m o t h e r like d e v e l o p m e n t s e n c o u n t e r e d b e f o r e .” T h u s , we d o w a n t to k n o w h o w a n d w h y “n o w ” diffe rs f ro m “t h e n . ” However, a s b o t h D avid H o llin g e r ( 1 9 9 5 ) a n d J o s e M oya ( 2 0 0 4 ) s t r e s s e d , th e m a j o r d iffe r­ e n c e s a r c n o t n e c e s s a r i ly b e t w e e n “t h e n ” a n d “n o w ,” b u t b e tw e e n g r o u p s w h o s h o w r e m a r k a b l e v a r i a t i o n in th e d e v e l o p m e n t of d i a s p o r i c id e n t itie s a n d p o litic a l a n d so c ia l in v o lv e m e n t. Like all s o c ia l f o r m s , t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m c a n ha v e b o t h p o sitiv e a n d n e g a tiv e i m p a c t s — e c o n o m ic a lly , p o litic a lly , a n d so c ia lly . T r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m is n o t on ly s a l u t a r y fo r th e m e n t a l h e a lth o f i m m i ­ g r a n t s , b u t is a lso s a l u t a r y for th e e c o n o m ic h e a l th o f th e u n d e r d e v e l ­ o p e d n a t i o n s th ey c a m e fro m . A r e c e n t s u rv e y of r e m i t t a n c e s e n d e r s c o n d u c t e d b y B e n d ix e n a n d A s s o c ia te s for th e I n te r - A m e r ic a n D evel­

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o p m e n t B a n k (2 0 0 1 ), b a s e d on 1 ,0 0 0 in te r v ie w s d o n e w ith L a tin A m e r ic a n i m m i g r a n t s in th e U n ite d S ta te s , a s k e d th e m w h e t h e r th e y h a d ever s e n t m o n e y to th e ir fam ily in th e ir h o m e c o u n try . T h e r e s u l t s s h o w e d t h a t 65 % of M e x ic a n s h a d d o n e so , a s h a d 6 7% of C u b a n s , 74% of S o u t h A m e r i c a n s , 78% o f D o m i n i c a n s , a n d 82% of C e n tr a l A m e r ic a n s . T h a t in itse lf c o n s t i t u t e s a g o o d m e a s u r e o f th e e x te n t to w h ic h i m m i g r a n t s to d a y a r e inv olved in t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m . In m a n y L atin A m e r ic a n c o u n t r i e s today, i m m i g r a n t r e m i t t a n c e s r e p r e s e n t m i l ­ lio n s , even b illio n s o f d o l l a r s a y e a r — th e s e c o n d o r t h i r d la r g e s t s o u r c e o f foreign e x c h a n g e , q u ite c ritic a l to th e s u r v iv a l of th o s e s o c ie t­ ies (L ora, 2 0 0 3 ) . T h i s is t r u e w ith r e s p e c t to n o t o n ly Mexico, G u a t e ­ m a l a , E l S a lv a d o r, D o m in ic a n R e p u b lic , a n d V enezuela, b u t a ls o C u b a . D e s p ite th e i n s is te n c e o f a very vo cal p a r t of th e C u b a n A m e r ic a n exile c o m m u n ity , w h o s e p o litic a l t a s k is to i n s i s t t h a t n o d o l l a r s b e s e n t b a c k to C u b a b c c a u s c t h a t p r o p s u p F id e l C a s t r o 's re g im e , a n o t h e r s i z ­ a b le p a r t of th e C u b a n A m e r ic a n exile c o m m u n i t y i n s i s t s o n p u tti n g th e ir fa m ilie s b a c k in C u b a f ir s t— a n d q u ie tly s e n d s d o l l a r s b a c k to th e ir f a m ilie s left b e h i n d , w h o n e e d it— a m o r a l t a s k in w h ic h w o m e n a r e c e n tr a lly involved (cf. P e d r a z a , 19 91 ). N ot on ly d o e s m ig r a t io n r e s u l t in r e m i t t a n c e s , b u t r e m i t t a n c e s a lso r e s u l t in m ig r a tio n . In h e r s t u d y o f th e c u m u la ti v e c a u s a t i o n of m i g r a ­ tio n fro m C o s ta Rica, th e D o m in ic a n R e p u b lic , N ic a ra g u a , Mexico, a n d P u e r to Rico to th e U n ite d S ta t e s , E liz a b e th F u sse ll (2 0 0 4 ) f o u n d t h a t in all c o m m u n i t i e s in t h e s e c o u n t r i e s , e x c e p t P u e r t o R ico , l a r g e r a m o u n t s of r e m i t t a n c e s s e n t to h o u s e h o l d s in a given y e a r w e r e a s s o c i ­ a te d w ith h ig h e r m ig r a ti o n p r e v a le n c e r a t i o s th e follow ing year, e s p e ­ cially in p la c e s w ith o ld e r m ig r a tio n s t r e a m s , s u c h a s Mcxico a n d the D o m i n i c a n R e p u b lic . As F u ss e ll u n d e r l i n e d , i m m i g r a n t s w h o s e n d b a c k r e m i t t a n c e s d e m o n s t r a t e th e r e w a r d s to m ig r a tio n , t h u s e n tic in g m o r e m e m b e r s o f th e s e n d i n g c o m m u n i t y to go to th e U n ite d S ta te s . P u e r to Rico w a s a n e x c e p tio n b e c a u s e , a s U.S. c itiz e n s , P u e r to R ic a n s m ig r a te freely to a n d fro — so m u c h so t h a t J o r g e D u a n y ( 2 0 0 0 ) in v e s ti­ g a te d h o w a “n a tio n o n th e m o v e ” c o n s t r u c t s its id e n tity in P u e r t o Rico (w h e re 61% o f P u e r t o R ic a n s live) a n d th e d i a s p o r a (w h e re fully 39 % of P u e r t o R ic a n s n o w live). A lth o u g h la n g u a g e ( S p a n i s h ) a n d c u l tu r e (Latin A m e r ic a n ) u s e d to b e th e c u l t u r a l m a r k e r s o f th e P u e r to R ican identity, s u c h a larg e d i a s p o r a , m a n y o f w h o m d o n o t s p e a k S p a n i s h a n d a r e r a t h e r A m e r ic a n , c h a lle n g e s th e very m a r k e r s of t h a t identity. M oreover, a lth o u g h ov e ra ll th e i m p a c t of i m m i g r a n t r e m i t t a n c e s is po sitiv e for b u o y in g th e s in k i n g e c o n o m ie s b a c k h o m e , it c a n a ls o c r e ­ ate c e r ta in i m b a l a n c e s . S a r a h B lu e 's ( 2 0 0 4 ) s u r v e y o f C u b a n fa m ilie s in H a v a n a w h o re c e iv e d r e m i t t a n c e s fr o m th e ir re la tiv e s a b r o a d s h o w e d t h a t th e r e m i t t a n c e s w e r e r e l i n k i n g th e fam ily t h a t b o t h th e C u b a n g o v e r n m e n t a n d th e exile c o m m u n i t y h a d t o r n a s u n d e r , a n d t h a t they c e r ta in ly p r o v id e d s o m e m e a s u r e of m a t e r i a l c o m f o r t for t h o s e left b e h i n d , im p r o v i n g th e ir lives; how ever, th e y a lso s e r v e d to e x­ a c e r b a t e r a c ia l inequality . B e c a u s e th e f i r s t tw o w a v e s of th e C u b a n e x­

3.

ASSIMILATION OR TRANSNATIONALISM?

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o d u s (from 1 9 5 9 to 1 9 7 4 ) w e r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y W hite (cf. P e d r a z a , 1 9 9 6 a ), B la c k a n d M u la tto C u b a n s in the i s la n d ha ve few er i m m i g r a n t n e t w o r k s a b r o a d th ey c a n rely on to s e n d r e m i t t a n c e s to i m p r o v e th e ir h o u s e h o l d c o n s u m p t i o n o r to s p o n s o r th e ir e m ig r a tio n . T r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m h a s c l a s s a s w ell a s r a c i a l d i m e n s i o n s . H a r r i e t t R o m o ’s ( 2 0 0 4 ) s t u d y o f th e t r a n s n a t i o n a l liv e s o f th e M e x ic a n elite in S a n A n to n io , T e x a s , d e s c r i b e d th e m a j o r in f l u e n c e th e y h a d o n th e c u l t u r a l a n d a r t i s t i c life in th e city o f S a n A n t o n i o itse lf, a s w ell a s th e r o l e o f " b r o k e r ” th e y p la y e d b e t w e e n th e M e x ic a n c o m m u n i t y , on t h e o n e h a n d , a n d th e A ng lo e lite , o n t h e o th e r , o n b e h a l f o f th e M e x i­ can co m m u n ity .

D IA SPO R IC C ITIZENSH IP It is a lso i m p o r t a n t to r e c o g n iz e t h a t y e s t e r d a y a s well a s today, th e i m ­ m i g r a n t s ’ r e t u r n m i g r a t io n a n d th e ir in v o lv e m e n t w ith life in th e c o u n ­ trie s th ey left w a s d u e n o t o nly to t h e ir b o n d s of love a n d loyalty for th e fam ily a n d n a ti o n left b e h i n d , b u t a lso to t h e ir la c k o f a c c e p ta n c e in A m e r ic a . M ichcl L a g u c r r c ( 1 9 9 8 ) p r o p o s e d the b r o a d e r c o n c c p t o f d i a s p o r i c c i ti z e n s h i p — “a s e t o f p r a c t i c e s t h a t a p e r s o n is e n g a g e d in, a n d a s e t o f r ig h ts a c q u i r e d o r a p p r o p r i a t e d , t h a t c r o s s n a t i o n - s t a t e b o u n d a r i e s a n d t h a t in d ic a te m e m b e r s h i p in a t l e a s t tw o n a tio n s t a t e s ” (p. 190). L a g u e r r e u n d e r l i n e d t h a t t h e r e b y H a itia n i m m i g r a n t s in th e U n ited S t a t e s to d a y " e s c a p e c o m p le te m i n o r it iz a tio n s in c e th e lin k w ith th e h o m e l a n d a llo w s o n e to en jo y th e m a jo r i ty s t a t u s o n e c a n ­ n o t e x e rc ise in th e a d o p t e d c o u n t r y ” (p. 192). T h u s L a g u e r r e u n d e r ­ s c o r e d the d iffe re n c e t h a t r a c e — b e in g B la c k a n d i m m i g r a n t — m a k e s . M oreover, a s a so cial p ra c tic e , d ia s p o r ic c itiz e n sh ip is a h e a d of its le­ gal e x p r e s s io n . L a g u e r r e a r g u e d th a t a new c o n c e p tio n of d u a l c itiz e n ­ s h ip is d e v e lo p in g th a t is d u a l in two s e n s e s : first, in the s e n s e it h a s a lw ays b e e n for m a n y i m m i g r a n t s — th a t while they a r e in the h o m e c o u n t r y (Italy, Haiti) th ey a r e its citizens, w hile w h e n they a re in th e U nited S t a te s they a r e A m e r ic a n s ; s e c o n d , in the n e w s e n s e t h a t th e d i ­ a s p o r a — th o s e w h o are, a s th e etym ology of th e w o r d in d ic a te s , s c a t ­ te r e d a s u n d e r like s e e d s — c a n n o w p a r t ic i p a t e fully in th e social a n d p olitical life o f b o th c o u n tr ie s , e x e rtin g q u ite a n in fluence on th e c o u r s e of th e political life in th e h o m e c ountry. F o n e r p r o v id e s a telling ex a m p le . In th e l a s t D o m in ic a n p r e s id e n tia l election, m a n y D o m in ic a n s r e s id in g in New York q u ic k ly flew to the is la n d to vote. In th e n e x t e lection s, the trip will be u n n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e , d u e to e le c to ra l r e f o r m s , it will b e p o s ­ sible to vote w hile r e m a in in g in New York. T h is gives th e d i a s p o r a (w h e th e r H a itia n, D o m in ic a n , M cxican) a ro le in h o m e l a n d po litic s th a t is m u c h la rg e r th a n ever b efo re. Moreover, a s L a g u e r r e u n d e r s c o r e d , it r e m o v e s th e fu tu r e of c itiz e n sh ip fro m its m o d e r n - d a y lo c ation in the n a tio n - s ta te . With H a iti’s lon g h is to ry of p olitical r e p r e s s i o n , the d i a s ­ p o r a m a y well b e play in g th e ro le of th e m is s in g p olitical c e n te r — b e ­ tw een th e a r m y a n d th e g o v e r n m e n t , s id in g w ith th e p e o p le , t h u s

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h e lp in g th e d e v e lo p m e n t of civil society a n d d e m o c r a c y in Haiti. Inci­ dentally. th a t is p re c ise ly the role t h a t th e C u b a n d i a s p o r a h a s n ev er b e e n ab le to play with r e s p e c t to C u b a , a t le a st in p a r t b c c a u s c b o th the A m e r ic a n a n d C u b a n g o v e r n m e n ts have d ra s tic a lly c u r ta ile d its involve­ m e n t w ith life in C u b a , its t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m , m u c h le ss its d ia s p o r ic citi­ z e n s h ip . As D avid H ollinger (1 9 9 5 ) u n d e r s c o r e d , th e n ew im m ig r a tio n , like th e old, “d is p la y s a variety of d e g r e e s of e n g a g e m e n t w ith th e U n ited S t a t e s a n d w i t h p r i o r h o m e l a n d s , a n d it y i e l d s s o m e s t r o n g a s s im ila t io n i s t im p u l s e s a lo n g vivid e x p r e s s i o n s o f d ia s p o r ic c o n ­ s c i o u s n e s s ” (p. 153). G o v e r n m e n t s will try to r e s t r i c t th e flows of c o m ­ m u n i c a tio n involved in t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m . As of th e S u m m e r o f 2 0 0 4 , P r e s i d e n t G eorge W. B u s h d r a s tic a lly c u r ta ile d th e in v o lv e m e n t o f Cub a n - A m e r ic a n s w ith th e ir fam ily a n d f r ie n d s in th e is la n d b y re s tr ic tin g th e ir travel (only o n c e every 3 y e a r s now ) a n d th e a m o u n t of m o n e y they m a y s e n d b a c k a s r e m i t t a n c e s t h r o u g h f o r m a l c h a n n e l s , s u c h a s W est­ e r n U n io n , a s well a s th e g o o d s they m a y s e n d to th e is la n d . T h e s e r e ­ s tr i c tio n s will only te m p o r a r ily r e d u c e th e flow o f p e o p le , g o o d s, a n d m oney, however. C u b a n i m m i g r a n t s , like all o th e r i m m ig r a n ts , will find a w ay to get a r o u n d th e g o v e r n m e n t’s r e s tr ic t io n s . T ry a s g o v e r n m e n ts m ig h t to s to p th e i m m i g r a n t s ’ t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m , however, th ey will n o t be a b le to d o so. T r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m is a fact of th e m o d e r n (or p o s t m o d e r n ) w o r ld in w h ic h we live, it is a r e s u l t of the s p r e a d o f the new f o r m s of c o m m u n ic a tio n . L a g u e r r e ( 19 98 ) u n d e r s c o r e d t h a t t r a n s n a t i o n a l H a itia n A m e r i c a n s d e v e lo p e d loyalty to th e ir n e w c o u n t r y a s w ell a s to th e ir h o m e l a n d , loyalties t h a t give r is e “to a f r a g m e n te d b i- p o la r id e n tity t h a t t r a n ­ s c e n d s n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s a n d is c e n t r a l to th e s o c ia l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f th e t r a n s n a t i o n a l c itiz e n ” (p. 173). He a lso s a w s u c h a n id e n tity a s th e r e s u l t o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m . H e re I d is a g r e e w ith L a g u e r r e , for to m e s u c h a n id e n tity ( p re f e r a b ly c a lle d a b i c u l t u r a l id entity) is n o t only f r a g m e n te d b u t a ls o s h a r p e r in its s e n s ib ility — n o t u n lik e t h a t of P a r k ’s " m a r g in a l m a n ” a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e 2 0 t h c e n tu ry . It is a lso b o t h c a u s e a n d c o n s e q u e n c e of t r a n s n a t i o n a l p r a c tic e s . To m y m i n d , a b i c u l t u r a l id e n tity n o t on ly is th e r e s u l t of t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m b u t a lso is t h a t o n w h ic h t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m f ir s t d e p e n d s a n d u ltim a te ly (over th e c o u r s e o f tim e a n d f u r t h e r in v e s tm e n ts ) c e m e n t s . P re c ise ly b e c a u s e t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m d e p e n d s o n s u c h a b i c u l t u r a l identity, it is u n c l e a r a t p r e s e n t w h e t h e r th e s e c o n d g e n e r a tio n , th e c h i l d r e n of i m m i g r a n t s , c a n o r will p a r t i c i p a t e in s u c h a t r a n s n a t i o n a l so c ia l field. A lth o u g h th a t is th e s u b j e c t of f u tu r e r e s e a r c h , I believe t h a t they c a n o r will d o so o nly to a r a t h e r d e lim ite d e x te n t. However, it is p o s s ib le for even a s m a l l g r o u p of th e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d g e n e r a t i o n s to p la y a n in flu e n tia l ro le , a s th e y c a n t r a n s f e r i d e a s a n d r e s o u r c e s t h a t ca n h a v e i m p o r t a n t i m p a c t s in b o th p la c e s. L a st, p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t r a n s n a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s a n d th e e x e rc ise o f a d i a s p o r i c c itiz e n s h ip h a s c o n s e q u e n c e s for th e e x te n t to w h ic h i m m i ­ g r a n t s c a n engage in e th n ic p o litic s in A m e r ic a n life. T h e e m o ti o n a l

A S S I MI L A T I O N O R T R A N S N A T I O N A L I S M ?

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h e a lth th e n e w t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m gives u s m a y well c o m e a t th e p ric e of d o m e s t i c p o litic a l e n g a g e m e n t, o f c r e a t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d l o b b ie s t h a t c a n i m p r o v e t h e i r liv es a s i m m i g r a n t s , w o r k e r s , e t h n i c s . T r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m h a s c o n s e q u e n c e s fo r th e e x te n t to w h ic h i m m i ­ g r a n t s c a n a s s i m i l a t e — b o t h c u ltu r a lly a n d s t r u c t u r a l l y — in A m e ric a . In th e e n d , it m a y still b e u p to th e s e c o n d a n d f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s to pla y th e e th n ic p o litic s g a m e . S u c h , in d e e d , w a s th e ro le th e d e s c e n ­ d a n t s of th e old i m m i g r a n t s p la y e d in th e p a s t , w h e n city-level p olitical “m a c h i n e s ” b u ilt o n th e s u p p o r t of v a r i o u s e th n ic g r o u p s t r a d e d v o te s for city j o b s a n d c o n t r a c t s . H e n c e , it is q u ite likely th a t th e s h ift in c o n ­ c e p t s — fr o m a s s i m i l a t i o n to t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m —will o nly b e u s e f u l to d e s c r i b e th e lived e x p e r ie n c e of th e i m m i g r a n t g e n e r a tio n . T h a t, h o w ­ ever, is a n e c e s s ity a t a tim e like n o w w h e n A m e r ic a is n o t only a “n a ti o n o f i m m i g r a n t s ”— w h o s e h is t o r y w a s w r itte n b y i m m i g r a n t s — b u t is a lso a n i m m i g r a n t n a t i o n — w h o s e p r e s e n t re lie s on i m m ig r a tio n . P e r h a p s in th e b r a v e n e w w o r ld of th is 2 1 s t c e n t u r y m o s t n a t i o n s will a lso b e c o m e i m m i g r a n t n a ti o n s .

A BO UT TH E AUTH O R I w a s a c h ild of th e C u b a n refu g e e e x o d u s . As a c h ild , I lived t h r o u g h b o t h a d i c t a t o r s h i p a n d a re v o lu tio n , b o t h of w h ic h left a m a r k in m y r e s e a r c h . An i m m i g r a n t a t a very y o u n g age, I c o n s i d e r m y s e lf to b e a m e m b e r o f th e 1.5 g e n e r a t i o n — t h a t is, a l th e tim e o f i m m i g r a t i o n I w a s old e n o u g h to h av e a c q u i r e d C u b a n v a lu e s, c u ltu r e , a n d h istory, a n d a lso y o u n g e n o u g h to h a v e b e c o m e A m e r ic a n in v a lu e s , c u lt u r e , a n d history. T h i s h y b r id , b ilin g u a l a n d b i c u l t u r a l id e n tity a llo w s m e to b o t h feel a s e n s e o f b e lo n g in g to b o t h n a t i o n s b u t a ls o to d i s t a n c e m y ­ self. M oreover, I a m th e c h ild o f a fam ily t h a t b e c a m e d e e p ly d iv id e d over th e re v o lu tio n , w h e r e I often p la y e d th e ro le o f t h e " g o -b e tw ee n ” b e tw e e n th o s e w h o left a n d th o s e w h o sta y e d . All th e s e e x p e r ie n c e s ha v e d r iv e n m e to s t u d y im m i g r a t i o n n o t o nly a s a h is to r ic a l, po litical, a n d e c o n o m ic p r o c e s s , b u t a ls o a s a so c ia l p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r o c e s s , in b o t h its c a u s e s a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s .

ACK NO W LEDG M ENTS I w ish to e x p r e s s m y g r a t i t u d e to S te v e n G o ld for h is c o m m e n t s on an e a r lie r d r a f t of th is c h a p te r .

R E FE R E N C E S Alba, R ., & Nee, V. (2003). R e m a k i n g the Ameri can m a i n s t r e a m : A ss imi l a­ tion a nd contemporary immigration. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Aranda, E., & Sabogal, E. (2004. October). Transnational capital a nd e m o ­ tional livelihoods. Paper presented at the meetings of the Latin American Studies Association, Las Vegas, NV.

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Baltzcll, E. D. (1964). “The im m i g r a n t’s p r o g r e s s a n d the th e o ry of the e s t a b ­ lis h m e n t .” In E. O. L a u m a n n , P. M. Siegel, & R. W. Hodge (Eds.), T h e logic o f s oci al hie ra r c hi e s . Chicago: M a r k h a m . B asch , L., Schiller, N. G., & Blanc, C. S. (1994). N a t i o n s u n b o u n d : T r a n s n a ­ t ional proj ect s, p o s t c o l o n i a l p r e d i c a m e n t s , a n d d et e r r i t o r i a l i z ed n at ion s t a t e s . L a n g h o rn e, PA: G o r d o n a n d B reach . B a r r e ra , M. (1979). R a c e a n d c la s s in t he S o u t h w e s t . S o u t h B end, IN: U niver­ sity of N otre D am e Press. Blauner, R. (1969). In te rn a l colo nialism a n d ghetto revolt. S oc ia l Pr ob le ms , 16, 3 9 3 - 4 0 8 . Blue, S. A. (20 0 4 , O ctobcr). T h e s ocial cos t o f r e m i t t a n c e s : R a c e a n d i n c o m e e q u a l i t y in c o n t e m p o r a r y C u b a. P a p e r p r e s e n te d at the m e e tin g s of the Latin A m e rica n S tu d ie s A ssociation, Las Vegas, NV. B o dn ar, J . (1985). T h e t r a n s p l a n t e d : A h i st or y o f i m m i g r a n t s in u r b a n A m e r ­ ica. B loom ing to n: I n d ia n a U niversity Press. Burawoy, M. (1976). The fu n c tio n s a n d r e p r o d u c ti o n of m ig ra n t labo r: C o m ­ pa ra tiv e m a te r ia l from S o u t h e r n Africa a n d the U nited S ta te s. A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f Soci ol ogy, 81, 1 0 5 0 - 1 0 8 7 . C orwin. A. F. (1978). I m m i g r a n t s — A n d i m m i g r a n t s : P e rs p e c t i v e s on M e x i ­ c an l abor m i g r a t i o n to t he Uni te d S t a t e s . W esport, CT: G re e n w o o d . C ow an, P. (1982). A n o r p h a n in history: R e t r ie v in g a J e w i s h l egacy. New York: Doublcday. Diner, H. R. (1984). E r i n ’s d a u g h t e r s in A m e r i c a : Irish i m m i g r a n t w o m e n in t he n i n e t e e n t h c e n t ur y . B altim ore, MD: J o h n s H o p k in s U niversity P ress. Duany, J. (2000). Nation on the move: T he c o n s tr u c tio n of c u ltu r a l id entities in P u e rto Rico a n d the D ia s p o ra . A m e r i c a n Et hn o lo gi s t, 27, 5 - 3 0 . Farley, R., & Alba, R. (2002). T h e new s e c o n d g e n e ra tio n in the U. S. I n t e r n a ­ t ional Mi grati on R e v i e w , 36(Fall), 6 6 9 - 7 0 1 . Feagin, J. R. (1978). Racial a n d ethnic relations. Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice Hall. Foner. N. (1997). W hat’s new a b o u t tr a n s n a t io n a l is m ? New York im m ig ra n ts to d a y a n d a t the tu r n of the century. Di a s po r a. 6, 3 5 5 - 3 7 6 . Frazier, E. F. (1957). R a c e a n d c u lt u re c o n t a c t s in the m o d e r n worl d. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Fussell, E. (2 0 0 4 , O ctober). Migrati on f r o m c e n t r a l A m e r i c a a n d the Ca r i b ­ b e a n to t h e U. S.: T h e Role o f c u m u l a t i v e c a u s a t i o n . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t the m e e ting s of the Latin A m eric an S tu d ie s A ssociation, Las Vegas, NV. G a larza, E. (1964). M e r c h a n t s o f labor: T h e M e x i c an B r ac e ro story. S a n ta B a r b a r a , CA: McNally a n d Loftin. Glazer, N. (1971). B la c ks a n d eth nic g r o u p s: T he difference, a n d the political difference it m a k e s . So ci al P r ob l em s, 18, 4 4 4 - 4 6 1 . Glazer, N.. & M oynihan, D. P. (1963). B e y o n d the m e l t i n g pot: T h e Negroes, Pu e rt o R i c a n s . J e w s , Ital ians, a n d Irish o f N e w York City (2 nd ed.). C a m ­ bridge. MA: MIT Press. Gold, S. J., & Phillips, B. (1996). Mobility a n d c o n tinu ity a m o n g E a s t e r n E u r o ­ p e a n J e w s . In S. P e d ra za & R. G. R u m b a u t (Eds.), Origins a n d d es ti n ie s : I m m i g r a t i o n , race, a n d e t hn i c i t y in A m e r i c a (pp. 1 8 2 -1 9 4 ). B elm o nt, CA: W a dsw orth P ress. G o r d o n , M. M. (1964). A s s i m i l a t i o n in A m e r i c a n life. New York: Oxford U ni­ versity Press.

ASSIMILATION OR TRANSNATIONALISM?

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H igham , J . (1955). S t r a n g e r s in the land: P a t t er n s o f A m e r i c a n n a t i v i s m , 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 2 5 . New B ru n s w ic k , N J: R u tg e rs U niversity Press. Hollinger, D. (1995). P os te t hn ic A m e r i c a . New York: Basic B ooks. Inter-A m erican D ev e lo p m e n t B a n k . (2001). “S urvey of R e m ittan c e S e n d e rs: U.S. to Latin A m e ric a .” B end ix en & A ssociates. W ashington, DC: InterA m eric a n D ev e lo p m e n t B ank . L ag uerre. M. S. (1998). Di as po r ic c i ti z e ns hi p: H a i ti an A m e r i c a n s in t r a n s n a ­ t ional A m e r i c a . New York: St. M artin's P ress. Lee, E. S. (1966). A th e o ry of m ig ra tio n . D e m o g r a p h y , 3, 4 7 - 5 7 . Light, I. (1983). Cities in wo rl d p e r s p e c t i v e . New York: M acm illan. L ora, E. A. (2003). C h a n g in g p a tte r n s in the s u p p ly of labor. In E c o n o m i c a n d s o c ia l p r o g r e s s in L a t i n A m e r i c a 2 0 0 4 (chap. 3). W a sh in gton , DC: Inter-A m erican D e v e lo p m e n t B an k. M artin, P., & Midgley, E. (2003). Im m ig ra tio n : S h a p in g a n d r e s h a p in g A m e r ­ ica. P op ul at i o n Bul let i n, 58, 1 -4 4 . W ashington, DC: P op u la tio n Reference B u re a u . M artin. P., & Midgley, E. (2004). N u m b e r of foreign -b orn r e a c h e s all-tim e high in the U. S. Populat i on R e f e r e n c e B u r e a u . R etrieved J a n u a r y 30, 2 0 0 5 , h ttp ://w w w. p r b .o rg Massey. D. S., A larcón, R.. D u r a n d , J ., & González, H. (1987). R e t u r n to A z t l a n : T h e social p r o c e s s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l m i g r a t i o n f r o m w e s t e r n M e x ­ ico. B erkeley a n d Los Angeles: U niversity of California. Muller, T., & E s p e n s h a d e , T. J. (1985). T h e f o u r t h w a v e : California's n e w e s t i m m i g r a n t s . W ashington, DC: U rb a n In stitute. Moya. J . (2 0 0 4 , N ovem ber). D i a s p o r a s t u d i e s : N e w c on c e pt s, a p p r o a c h e s , a n d r eali ties? P a p e r p r e s e n t e d at the m e e tin g of the Social S cience H istory A ssociation. Chicago. Ortiz, F. (1983). C o n t r a p u n t e o C u b a n o d e l T a b a c o y el A z úc ar . La H a b a n a , C u ba : E d ito ria l de C ien cias S ociales. (Original w o rk p u b lis h e d 1963) P a rk . R. E. (1928). H u m a n m ig ra tio n a n d the m a rg in a l m a n . A m e r i c a n J o u r ­ n al o f S o c i o l o g y , 33, 8 8 1 - 8 9 3 . P a rk , R. E. (1950). R a c e a n d culture. New York: Free P ress. (Original w o rk p u b lis h e d 1913) P a rk , R. E., & B u rg ess, E. W. (192 1). I nt ro d uc t i on to t he s c i e n c e o f sociology. Chicago: U niversity of Chicago P ress. P e d ra za , S. (1991). Women a n d m igra tion : T h e social c o n s e q u e n c e s of gender. A n n u a l R e v i e w o f Sociol ogy, 1 7, 3 0 3 - 3 2 5 . P e d ra za . S. (1996a). C u b a 's refugees: Manifold m ig ra tio n s. In S. P e d ra z a & R. G. R u m b a u t (Eds.), Origins a n d d e st in i e s : I m m i g r a t i o n , race, a n d e t h n i c ­ ity in A m e r i c a (pp. 2 6 3 - 2 7 9 ) . B elm on t, CA: W ad sw o rth P ress. P e d ra za , S. (19 96 b). A m e rica n p a r a d o x . In S. P e d ra z a & R. G. R u m b a u t, (Eds.), Origins a n d d es t i ni e s: I m m i g r a t i o n , race, a n d e t hn i c i t y in A m e r ­ ica (pp. 4 7 9 - 4 9 1 ) . B elm on t, CA: W adsw orth P ress. Pcdraza-Bailcy, S. (1985). Political a n d e c o n o m i c m i g r a n t s in A m e r i c a : C u ­ b a n s a n d M e x i ca n s . A ustin: U niversity of Texas Press. Piven, F. F., & C low ard, R. A. (1979). Poor p e o p l e ' s m o v e m e n t s : W h y t h e y s u c ­ c e ed , h o w t h e y f a i l . New York: R a n d o m . P o rte s, A. (197 8). I m m ig r a n t a s p i r a t i o n s . S o c i o l o g y o f E d u c a t i o n , 51, 241-260.

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Portcs, A., G u a rn iz o , L. E., & L andolt, P. (1999). In tro d u c tio n : Pitfalls a n d p r o m is e of an e m e r g e n t re s e a rc h field. E t h n i c a n d R ac ia l S t u d i e s , 22, 463-478. R a m o s , J . (20 04 , J u ly 19). T he th ree A m eric as. T h e M i a m i Herald. R o m o , H. (2 0 0 4 , O ctober). First class: T r a n s n a t i o n a l lives o j the u p p e r m i d ­ d l e c la s s in S a n A n toni o, Te xas . P a p e r p r e s e n te d at the m e e tin gs of the Latin A m e rica n S tu d ie s A ssociation, Las Vegas. NV. R o use. R. (1992). M aking s e n s e of se ttlem e n t: C la ss tr a n s f o r m a t io n s , c u ltu r a l struggle, a n d tr a n s n a t io n a l is m a m o n g Mexican i m m ig r a n ts in the United S ta te s . A n n a l s o f t he N e w York A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s , 6 45, 2 5 - 5 2 . S pecial issu e in N. G. Schiller, L. B ash , & C. B la n c -S z a n to n (Eds.), T o w a r d s a t r a n s n a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e on mi g ra t io n . S a m o r a , J. (1971). Los Moj ados: T h e w e t b a c k story. N otre D a m e , IN: U niver­ sity of N otre D am e Press. T h o m a s , W. I., & Z n a n iec k i, F. (1927). T h e Polish P e a s a n t in E u r o p e a n d A m e r i c a (2 Vols.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. T urner, F. J. (1920). The significance of the fro n tie r in A m e ric a n history. In T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o j t he f r o n t i e r in A m e r i c a n history. New York: Holt. (Original w o rk p u b lis h e d 1893) U.S. B ureau of the Census. (2001). Region a n d country or area o f birth o f the f o r ­ eign-born population, with geographic detail s h o w n in decennial Ce ns u s publications o f 1930 or earlier: 1850 to 1930 a n d 1960 to 1990. Retrieved J a n ­ u a ry 3 0 , 2 0 0 5 , h ttp ://w w w .c e n su s.g o v /p o p u la tio n /w w w /d o c u m e n ta tio n / tw ps0029/tab04.htm l Last revised J a n u a r y 18, 2001. Waldinger, R. (2 0 0 4 , N ovem ber). I m m i g r a n t t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m a n d the p r e s ­ e n c e o f t he p a s t . P a p e r p r e s e n te d at the m e e tin g of the Social Science H is­ tory A ssociation, Chicago.

4 The D ialectic of R ecognition and D isplacem ent in a G lobalized World E. V alentine D aniel C o lu m b ia University

T h is c h a p te r is less a b o u t a w a r r a n ta b l e c la s s of peo p le n a m e d r e fu ­ gees w h o m we s tu d y t h a n it is a b o u t p e r s o n s w ho a re in a d i s c o u r s e t h a t is b e s t r e p r e s e n te d by the label t he r e f u g e e p r o b l e m . Refugee s tu d ie s a s a field c a p t u r e d a n th ro p o lo g y ’s a tte n tio n w h e n the d is c i­ pline itself b e g a n its d y n a m ic tr a n s f o r m a t io n , w hich c o n tin u e s to th is day. In th is t r a n s f o r m a tio n , so m e sa w a d isciplin e in crisis, o th e rs , a fccun d chang c. In this a p p a r e n t c o n tra d ic tio n , this c h a p tc r fin d s its ju stific a tio n in b e ing b o th d e sc rip tiv e a n d p re scrip tiv e . W ritten for a n ­ th ro p o lo g is ts a s well a s n o n a n th r o p o lo g is ts , n o t everything I have to say will rise u p to th e s t a n d a r d s of a d e q u a c y or even n e ce ssity for all its r e a d e r s , b u t I h o p e th a t th e r e is s o m e t h in g h e re t h a t will engage a n d in ­ form all r e a d e r s , re g a r d le s s .

ANTHROPOLOGY AND REFUGEE STU DIES: A BRIEF HISTORY T h e origin of the te rm r e f u g e e can be tra c e d to its use a s a de scriptiv e label ap p lie d to th e H u g u e n o ts w ho s o u g h t refuge in P r o te s ta n t E n g ­ la n d from the religious p e rs e c u tio n they suffered in R o m a n Catholic F ra n c e (Zolberg, S u h r k e , & Aguayo, 1989, p. 2). Like m o s t c o n c e p ts, its c o n n o ta tio n s have c h a n g e d over the years. Its c u r r e n t u se , d e n o tin g a n official, in te r n a tio n a l, b u r e a u c r a tic , a n d politico-legal category of p e r s o n s , m a y be tr a c e d b a c k to no e a rlie r th a n th e im m e d ia te 55

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post-W orld War II years. In Its c u r r e n t se n s e , the first refugees w ere E u ­ r o p e a n s — especially E u r o p e a n J e w s —w h o w ere d is p la c e d by N azism in p a r t ic u la r a n d the rav ages of World War II in general. Its E u ro -gcn csis a n d c o n s e q u e n t E u r o - c e n t r is m w a s m a d e vivid by the in te r n a tio n a l c o m m u n ity 's failure to even register, on its official r a d a r sc re e n , the d is p la c e m e n t of m o r e th a n 15 m illion p e r s o n s d u r in g the p a r titio n of th e In d ia n s u b c o n tin e n t into In dia a n d P a k is ta n in 1947. T h o s e w ere th e early days. With tim e, no c o n tin e n t w a s to be s p a r e d its "refugee p r o b l e m ”; it w a s to b e c o m e truly global (M alkki, 1995b). A n th r o p o lo g y ’s f o r m a l e n tr y in to re fu g e e s t u d i e s w a s m a r k e d in 1 9 8 2 by th e f o u n d in g of th e C e n te r for R efugee S t u d i e s a t O x fo rd (C R SO ), w h o s e f i r s t d i r e c t o r w a s th e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t , B a r b a r a H a r r e l l- B o n d . T h a t s a m e year, C R SO a lso i n a u g u r a t e d the p u b l i c a ­ tio n of its j o u r n a l , T h e J o u r n a l o f R e f u g e e S t u d i e s (O xford U n iv e r ­ sity P r e s s , O x fo rd ), w h ic h h a s h a d a r o b u s t life s in c e t h e n . Five y e a r s later, “T h e C o m m itte e o n Refugee I s s u e s ... w a s e s t a b l i s h e d ... [ u n ­ d e r] th e G e n e r a l A n th r o p o lo g y D iv ision, a u n i t of T h e A m e r ic a n A n ­ th r o p o lo g i c a l A s s o c ia tio n " (M alkk i, 1 9 9 5 a , p. 24). With th is, the “re fu g e e p r o b le m " h a d finally m o v e d in to th e b i o s c o p e o f a n t h r o p o l ­ ogy's field of inq uiry . T h e refugee p r o b le m w a s se e n e ith e r as one of “n a tio n a l d e v e lo p ­ m e n t," a n d th e re fo re p a r t of d e v e lo p m e n t s tu d ie s , o r a s a social a n d politico-legal p r o b le m re g a r d in g a d m is s io n a n d s e tt le m e n t of a sylum s e e k e r s in W estern c o u n trie s , m a k in g it a c o n c e rn of sociology, p o liti­ cal science, a n d legal s tu d ie s . B oth sid e s of the “p r o b l e m ” entailed E u r o -A m e ric a n goals a n d c o n c e r n s . T h e se d ev elo ped n a t i o n s ’ goal w a s to develop u n d e r d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s a long the lines of c a p ita list d e m o c r a c ie s of E u r o p e t h a t h a d su c c e ssfu lly s t e m m e d th e ir outflows of refug ees o r of N o rth A m erica, w hich never h a d s u c h e m ig ra tio n to d e a l with. T h e q u e s tio n of settling (physical a n d so c io c u ltu ral) asylum s e e k e r s s p a w n e d by p o stc o lo n ia l effects w a s to b e c o m e p a r t of E u r o -A m e ric a n anxieties. C o n tr a r y to c o m m o n a s s u m p t i o n s , u n d e rd e v e lo p e d c o u n trie s of Asia a n d Africa have b o r n e a d i s p r o p o r tio n a te s h a r e of giving refuge to th o s e e s c a p in g violence, c o m p a r e d with th e d ev elop ed c o u n tr ie s of N orth A m erica, E u r o p e , a n d J a p a n . T h e anxieties of th e s e u n d e r d e v e l­ o p e d n a tio n s over se ttling refugees w ithin th e ir b o r d e r s , however, a re far less p o ly m o r p h o u s a s they a re in the d evelop ed o nes. In Africa, a s y ­ lu m s e e k e r s w ere se e n a s fellow t r i b e s m e n in m is f o rtu n e o r a s b o t h e r ­ s o m e n e ig h b o r s p u tti n g a s t r a i n on lim ite d food r e s o u r c e s . In P a k is ta n , the A fghanis w ere se e n a s r e f u g e e -w a rrio rs o r M u a h jirin , e n ­ gaged in a holy w a r ( S h a h a r a n i, 1995). In the m id - 1 9 9 0 s , a n th r o p o lo g y — t h a n k s to its own evolution a s a disc ip lin e — t u r n e d a critical eye on the whole su b je c t of refugees. A n­ th ro p o lo g is ts b e ga n to see refugees a s p a r t of a d is c o u r s e . Politicians h a d s p u n it, s c h o l a r s th e o riz e d it, a n d asy lu m s e e k e r s fo u n d t h e m ­ selves in it. E th n o g r a p h e r s c o n tin u e d to do field re s e a r c h a m o n g

4.

R E C O G N I T I O N AND D I S P L A C E M E N T IN A GL O B A L I ZE D W O R L D

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g r o u p s o f p e o p le a t c lo s e q u a r t e r s , in te n siv e ly a n d for s u s t a i n e d p e r i ­ o d s o f tim e , a s is th e ir w o n t. B a tte r e d it w a s , a n d yet th e c u l t u r e conc c p t p r e d i s p o s e d a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s to a p p r o a c h u n iv e r s a l c la i m s w ith c a u tio n , m a k i n g th e m m o r e a l e r t to d iff e r e n c e s in d i s c o u r s e s a n d d i s ­ c u r s iv e p r a c tic e s . T h e “field,” how ev er, w a s n o t n e c e s s a r ily a p la c e , b u t a m o v e m e n t of p e o p le t h r o u g h s p a c e s t h a t s h a r e d a c o m m o n d i s ­ c o u r s e . By th e m i d - 1 9 8 0 s , th e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f p e o p le s fr o m th e ir p la c e s o f d o m ic ile i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y a n d re fu g ee d i s c o u r s e itse lf b e c a m e a g lob al p h e n o m e n o n . T h i s d i s c o u r s e , a s a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s w e r e to s o o n find o u t, w a s a s ig n if ic a n t p a r t of “d i s p l a c e m e n t . ”

TWO KEY TER M S D is p la c e m e n t T h e m o v e m e n t of p e o p le s fr o m o n e p la c e to a n o th e r , a s g r o u p s o r a s in d iv id u a ls , is n o t new. T h a n k s to n a tio n a l b o u n d a r i e s , n o m a d i s m h a s b e c o m e a n a b e r r a t i o n , a n d m i g r a n t s , re fu g e e s, a n d a s y lu m s e e k e r s h a v e b e e n m a d e c o n s p i c u o u s by t h e ir d i s p l a c e m e n t (or b e in g o u t of p lace). I n d e e d , in late m o d e r n ity , th e refu g e e h a s b e c o m e th e d is p la c e d p e r s o n p a r e x c e l l e n c e . T h e p o ly s e m y in the “d i s ” in “d i s p l a c e m e n t ” is s o fe c u n d t h a t th e ir p e r f u s i o n t h r o u g h o u t refu gee d i s c o u r s e is w o r th y o f r e m a r k a b l e sc ru tin y . W h en "place" in “d isp la c e " fu n c tio n s a s a v e rb , the p refix d i s is a m o r ­ p h e m e th a t pla ys a n a d v e r b ia l fu n c tio n . A c c o rd in g to the O xf or d E n g ­ lish D i ct i o n a r y , its I n d o E u r o p e a n e ty m o n is d w i s , w h ic h m e a n s two. It im p lie s a n a c t o f m a k i n g tw ain, s e p a r a tin g , d r a w in g a p a r t o r d r a w in g away. E ven th o u g h “d is p la c e m e n t" is n o t a widely re c o g n iz e d w o r d in the n o n - E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g w o r l d , its p a r a d i g m a t i c e x e m p l u m — “r e f u ­ gee"—w ith its n e a r- u n iv e r s a l c u r r e n c y c a r r i e s w ith it th e c o n n o ta tio n s o f " d is p lac e m e n t" t h a t e n c o m p a s s it. In th e following la m e n t o f K avitha, a C a n a d ia n asylee fro m S r i L a n k a , o n e c a n see “dis" a t w o rk : The air forcc dropped their bomb right in the middle of the street. Those on this side of the street ran one way; those on that side ran that way. My uncle and his family lived on that side. They ran into the sea and were a r ­ rested by the Navy. We ran into the jungle. The LTTE took us. After that day we never saw my uncle and his two older sons. Before we left for Can­ ada, we found my au n t and my "cousin sisters" and their youngest brother in a camp. After my father paid some money, the officer "dis­ m isse d ” them: "Go to Canada, go to Africa, go anywhere. Don’t come back here.” All three cousins are m arried. One in Sweden. One in Ger­ many. The youngest is in Vancouver. The youngest b ro th e r—he was only nine when we left—nobody knows where he is. He was arrested in Seattle for not having a Canadian visa. He was in detention for one year. The last letter we received from him was from Canada. When the Immigration and Refugee Board there interviewed him he forgot what he had said e a r­ lier, to the Immigration officers in the U.S. At the Canadian border, he

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c h a n g e d his story, a n d w a s a c c u s e d of being m ixed u p with Tiger activi­ ties. So C a n a d a re fu s e d him asy lu m . W hen he w as first interview ed (at the p o r ts of e n try by Im m ig ra tio n officers), he w as a little boy. W hat did he k n o w ? He told them w h a t we a s k e d him to say. Here, we a d u lts c a n ’t r e m e m b e r exactly w h a t we told th e m . So how could he? He w a s a child only. He even w e n t to sch oo l in C a n a d a for awhile. He h a s "b ehavioral p r o b l e m s , ” they told. The sc h o o l d o c to r told th a t he h a d anti-social b e ­ h a viors. My a u n t, sh e never liked C a n a d a anyway. S he u s e d h e r s o n ’s n ot getting a visa a s an excuse a n d w ent b a c k to live with m y o th e r uncle in C o lo m b o. S he said th a t sh e w a s going to m a k e a h o m e for h e r son for w h en he r e tu r n e d . T h a t’s w h a t sh e said. B u t we kn o w sh e d i d n ’t like C a n ­ a d a anyway. Too cold. H ated the food. J a f f n a vegetables, like d r u m stic k s, c a m e only in c an s. S h e d ied last year. They c r e m a te d h e r right th e re in K a n a t t h a .1 S h e w a s n ’t even c r e m a te d in J a ffn a. Now, Tigers o c ­ cupy th eir h o u s e , o u r h o u s e , two o th e r tw o -sto ry h o u s e s on the street. No one is left there. We a re everyw here. We do everything a n d anything. Look a t father, a b a rris te r. Now he is a b a n k cashier. He c a n ’t p ra c tic c law here. M o th e r? A Tam il L ite ra tu re teacher. Who w a n ts to le a rn Tam il lite r­ a tu r e h e r e ? T h a t is why sh e is like this. T h e re , if sh e w ere n o t teach in g at school, sh e w ould be tu to rin g s t u d e n t s privately, a t h o m e . You c ould never see h e r like this, se a te d all by herself, all day. Busy, busy, busy. T hin as a stick. B u t busy. Now sh e is like this. Puffed up like a b o m b . T he d o c to r calls it clinical d e p r e s s io n . B c c a u sc of h e r co n d itio n fa the r is a l­ w ays in a b a d tem per. I have to see m y friend secretly. Fath er will kill m e if he knew. For h im , w hite b o y frie n d s a r e fo rb id d e n . He w a n ts m e to m a r r y a “good T a m il.” “G oo d Tam il!” J o k e ! S ho w m e one. I'll m a r r y him . We a r ­ gue a b o u t th is .2

T h e E n g l is h d i s m i s s t h a t Ka vitha u s e s is qui te a p p r o p r i a t e . Note the sp li t ti n g u p (of the family) a n d the s e p a r a t i o n (from the l a n d of o n e ’s bi rth ). Not j u s t b e e n di vid ed , th e family h a s b e e n s c a t t e r e d or d i s p e r s e d . T h e div idi ng a n d the d i s p e r s a l wer e n o t d o n e v o l u n ­ tarily; they e nt a ile d the u s e of d i r e c t or i n d i r e c t force. In the life of an a s y lu m se eker, d i s p l a c e m e n t is an a ct of force, of s e p a r a t i o n by force, a w r e nc hi ng . The m o r p h e m e dis also m e a n s to deprive, to take away. Her a u n t was deprived of the c u s t o m a r y right to be c r e m a t e d in he r ur ka du s u da la i (the c re m a t i o n g r o u n d s of h e r ur). Instead, she w as c re m a t e d in Kanattha, “w h er e all k i n d s of pe op le ”— irrespective of caste, class or ethnicity are c re m a t e d or b u r i e d —are d i s p o s e d of. Th e right to p r a c ­ tice law h a s been t ak e n away from her father; he h a s been d i s b a r r e d . Her m o t h e r can no longer teach Tamil. Sh e w a s a w o m a n of w o r d s , a teacher, a n d now she is a w o m a n of silence, a b r o o d e r ; w as active, now inactive— "just sits a r o u n d ”—w as thin, is fat; wa s powerful, is disem-

T h e l a r g e s t p u b l i c c e m e t e r y in t h e i s l a n d , l o c a t e d in C o l o m b o . S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 8 . I n t e r v i e w of K a v i th a R a s a n a y a g a m in S e a tt l e . WA. S h e s p o k e in a m i x t u r e o f E n g l i s h a n d T a m i l, w h i c h h a s , for t h e p u r p o s e of t h i s essay, b e e n g l o s s e d e n ­ tir e ly in to E n g li s h . 2

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p o w e r e d . In so m a n y w a ys, s h e h a s b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d into th e o p p o s i t e of w h a t s h e o n c e w a s. S h e h a s b e e n tr u ly d i s a b l e d . T h e r e a r e m o r e a d v e r b ia l f u n c tio n s of dis. T h e y o u n g e s t b o y h a s d i s a p p e a r e d . H e re it b e a r s th e c o n n o t a t i o n of failu re: th e fa ilu re to a p ­ p ear. He h a s failed in yet a n o t h e r way; adjectivally, he is a p r o f o u n d d i s a p p o i n t m e n t . T h e y o u n g e s t b o y ’s privilege of sta y in g in C a n a d a w a s d is a l lo w e d b e c a u s e h e w a s d i s h o n e s t . A lth o u g h th e c h a r g e of d i s h o n ­ e sty t h r e a t e n s every d is p la c e d p e r s o n fro m w i t h o u t th e c o m m u n ity , d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n is th e m o s t c o m m o n s e n t i m e n t d i r e c te d a t th e m fro m w ith in . K a v ith a ’s a u n t w a s d is s a t is f ie d w ith th e w e a t h e r a n d th e food in C a n a d a ; h e r f a t h e r w a s d is s a tis f i e d w ith a n d d i s a p p o i n t e d in th e m a n s h e h a d c h o s e n to b e f r ie n d . As a p re fix for a c ts o f u n d o in g , we find the d i s p l a c e d p e r s o n s d i s p l e a s i n g (K av ith a’s d a t i n g a n A m e r ic a n d i s ­ p l e a s e s the father, th e f a t h e r ’s d i s p l e a s u r e d i s p l e a s e s the d a u g h te r , the t h e r a p i s t 's e t h n o c e n t r i s m d i s p l e a s e s K a vitha , a n d h e r m o th e r , by i s o ­ la tin g h e r s e l f in d e p r e s s i o n , literally d i s j o i n s h e r s e lf fr o m the r e s t c a u s i n g d i s u n i o n in th e family. A n d th e n th e r e is d i s e a s e a n d d i s i n t e ­ g ra tio n . D is in te g r a tio n 's o p p o s ite , in te g r a tio n , is th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t “u n d i s s e d " s ta le s o u g h t by th o s e w h o ha v e th e r ig h t a n d privilege of g r a n t i n g a s y lu m . B u t W e s te rn p sy c h o lo g y e x p e c ts in te g r a tio n to be f o u n d p r in c ip a lly in th e in d iv id u a l, to w h ic h we n o w t u r n .

T h e I n d iv id u a l T h e id e a l refu g e e o r a s y lu m s e e k e r, a s d e fin e d by th e U n ite d N a tio n s a n d w h o s e d e fin itio n h a s b e e n a d o p t e d a n d a d a p t e d by th e v a r i o u s m e m b e r n a t i o n - s t a t e s , is, like t h e s e very s a m e n a t i o n - s t a t e s , i m a g in e d a s b o u n d e d a n d so v e re ig n . T h e U n ite d N a tio n s P r o to c o l on R efugees d e f in e s a re fu g e e as: An individual who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for rea­ sons of racc, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable, or unwilling, to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it. T h i s d e f in itio n is i n t e n d e d to h e lp I m m ig r a tio n a n d N a tu r a liz a tio n Se rv ic e (INS) officials to re c o g n iz e a refug ee. R e c o g n itio n p la y s no s m a ll p a r t in th e g r a n t i n g o f a s y l u m . It is c e n tr a l. In th is p r o to c o l d e fi­ n itio n , d i s p l a c e m e n t m a y b e tacitly a c k n o w l e d g e d , b u t th e w o r d a s s u c h is n o t u s e d , a n d “d i s p l a c e m e n t ” itse lf is n o t p o s e d a s th e is s u e a t h a n d . In fact, m o s t litigation, c o n tr o v e r s ie s , a n d c a s e b o o k e n t r i e s p e r ­ ta in to th e “i n d i v i d u a l .” “F e a r ” its e lf is s e e n a s a n in d iv id u a l e m o tio n a n d th e n a r r a t i v e of th e a s y l u m s e e k e r a s a u n i q u e n a r r a ti v e . G r o u p m e m b e r s h i p m a y be i n d i c a te d , b u t m o s t c a s e s f o u n d e r o n q u e s t i o n s of th e ju s tif ic a tio n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ’s fear o f p e r s e c u t i o n a n d th e i n d i ­

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v i d u a l ’s q u a l i f i c a t i o n s to a s s u m e n e w c i t i z e n s h i p . In s h o r t , d i s p l a c e m e n t is n o t a t i s s u e , b u t th e refug ee a s a n in d iv id u a l is. A n in d iv i d u a l is c x p c c tc d b e well in t e g r a te d , n o t s o m e o n e w h o s e very b e in g is so m u lt ip ly “d t s ”- se d . In c o u r t h e a r i n g s all o ver N o rth A m e r i c a a n d E u r o p e , th e a s y lu m se e k e r, m u s t p ro v e t h a t h e o r sh e , a s a s o v e r e i g n in d iv id u a l, h a s a w e ll- f o u n d e d fe a r o f p e r s e c u t i o n . T h e first te s t of th is id e a l is to e x a m in e the a s y lu m s e e k e r 's n a r r a t i v e itself. W h a t INS officials e x p e c t is a n “in te g ra te d " n a r r a tiv e . It m a t t e r s little h o w d is i n t e g r a t e d th e p e r s o n 's life m a y b e, a s lon g a s th e n a r r a t i v e c o n ­ c e a ls th e latter. An i n t e g r a te d n a r r a t i v e p r o m i s e s , if n o t a n i n te g r a te d in d iv id u a l, t h e n a t le a s t a p e r s o n w ith a r e a l p o t e n tia l for in te g r a tio n . In d e e d , in a f u n d a m e n t a l s e n s e , it w o u ld b e r e d u n d a n t to call s o m e o n e a n in t e g r a te d in d iv id u a l. T h e s e m a n t i c i m p o r t o f th e w o r d , in-"dividua l” ( th a t w h ic h c a n n o t b e d iv id e d ), is s tr o n g l y a s s u m e d a lth o u g h m o s tl y h i d d e n fr o m reflective a w a r e n e s s of m o s t W e s te r n e r s . T h e a s ­ s u m p t i o n t h a t all se lve s a r e b y d e fin itio n in d iv id u a l se lve s g o e s u n ­ q u e s t i o n e d . T h e m y r i a d w a y s in w h i c h th e c o v e r t m e a n i n g o f in d iv id u a l c a u s e s o v e rt c o n f u s i o n a n d m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s m a y b e w it­ n e s s e d in every legal f o r u m in E u r o p e a n d N o r th A m e r i c a w h e r e p e t i ­ tio n s for a s y l u m s e e k e r s a r e a d j u d i c a t e d . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n s b y m a n y T h i r d W orld re fu g e e s f o u n d e r o n the p o i n t o f th e a p p l i c a n t try in g to p ro v e t h a t h e o r s h e h a s r e a s o n to fea r p e r s e c u t i o n , a s a n in d iv id u a l, n o t m e r e ly b e c a u s e h is o r h e r k i n s m a n w a s t o r t u r e d by th e s ta te o f th e c o u n t r y fr o m w h ic h he o r s h e h a d fled, o r b e c a u s e h is o r h e r e th n ic g r o u p o r village h a d b e e n t h r e a t e n e d by a t e r r o r i s t g r o u p . For in s ta n c e , j u s t b e in g a M ayan in G u a t e m a l a , w h e r e th e p e r s e c u t i o n o f M ay an I n d i ­ a n s in g e n e r a l is a s u b i q u i t o u s a s it is well d o c u m e n t e d (M anz, 1 99 5), is in s u ffic ie n t r e a s o n for g r a n t i n g a s y lu m to a M a y a n I n d ia n . T h e a s y ­ lu m s e e k e r m u s t s h o w w h y he o r s h e , p e r s o n a l l y a n d ind iv id ually, h a s a w e ll-f o u n d e d fear o f p e r s e c u t i o n . T h e k illing o f a clo se re lative by a g e n t s o f th e s ta te m a y n o t b e r e a s o n e n o u g h fo r g r a n t i n g h im o r h e r a s y lu m . Q u ite often, th e U.S. S t a te d e p a r t m e n t o r its e q u iv a le n t in o t h e r W e ste rn c o u n t r i e s d e t e r m i n e s w h e t h e r a g r o u p in a c c r ta i n s ta te n e e d fe a r p e r s e c u t i o n by th a t s ta le . T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n is b a s e d on i n t e r s t a t e a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s r a t h e r th a n on h u m a n i n t e r e s ts . At a c u ltu r a lly s u b t l e r level, ta k e th e c a s e o f a T a m il m o t h e r fro m S r i L a n k a s e e k i n g a s y lu m in C a n a d a . H e r o nly s o n , a refu g e e in C a n a d a , d ie s a n d is c r e m a t e d . M a ny y e a r s later, even a f te r h e r two d a u g h t e r s m a r r i e d a n d s o u g h t a n d rece iv e d refuge in A u s tr a l ia , th is m o t h e r s e e k s p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n c e in C a n a d a . W hy? B e c a u s e s h e w i s h e s to live o n th e so il w ith w h ic h h e r s o n 's a s h e s h a v e c o m b i n e d a n d of w h ic h , w h e n s h e d ie s, s h e w is h e s h e r o w n a s h e s to b e c o m e a p a r t . A t t e m p t s by a t t o r n e y s to p e r s u a d e h e r to m a k e h e r c a s e o n o th e r, m o r e “a c c e p t ­ a b l e ” g r o u n d s (e.g., s h e h a d w i t n e s s e d h e r h u s b a n d ’s m u r d e r b y th e a r m e d f o rc c s a n d w a s a p o te n ti a l w itn e s s a g a in s t th e s e a r m e d fo rc e s in a f u tu r e in v e stig a tio n , a n d th e r e f o r e h a d r e a s o n to fe a r t h a t s h e m ig h t be k ille d w e re s h e to r e t u r n ) failed to i m p r e s s her. W h a t w a s c u l­

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tu ra lly “tr u e s t ” to h e r w a s the se n s e of self th a t did n o t e n d a t the b o u n d a r y of the sk in b u t e x te n d e d to a r e la tio n s h ip with the soil—b u t no longer the soil of h e r la n d of b irth , b u t the soil in w hich h e r only m a le p ro g e n y w a s b u r i e d . 3 T h is r e p r e s e n t s a d i v i d u a t e d 4 r a t h e r th a n a n “i n d iv id u a te d ” s e n s e of self, as well a s the c u ltu ra l n e e d to recover a deeply d is e q u ilib r ia te d s e n s e of self by rejo in in g a p a r t of h e r t h a t d ied a lon g w ith h e r so n. It is ea sy to forget t h a t a p e r s o n w h o s e e k s a s y lu m is above all else a h u m a n b e in g w h e th e r o r n o t s/he is a n in d iv id u a l, sov ereign o r o t h e r ­ w ise. T h e r e a r e m a n y w ay s of b e in g h u m a n . B eing a n in d iv id u a l is j u s t o n e of t h e m . 5 T h e ju r id ic o - p o litic a l de fin itio n of a n in d iv id u a l is a p r o d u c t of W estern m o d e rn ity , a r g u a b ly only a s old a s th e m o d e r n n a ­ t io n - s ta te itself, a n d by no m e a n s u n iv e r s a l. T h e s e e l e m e n t s of p r e s e n t i s m a n d E u r o c e n t r i s m a r e of no c o n c e r n to th e officials w h o d e t e r m i n e th e f u tu r e of th e a sy lu m se e k e r, n o r is th e r e d u c t i o n of p e r s o n h o o d to individuality, r e g a r d l e s s t h a t s u c h a r e d u c tio n m a y u n d e r m i n e s s o m e p e o p l e ’s s e n s e of w h a t it is to be h u m a n . T h e h u ­ m a n s c ie n c e s s h o u l d h e lp facilitate the a p p r e c ia tio n of th is fact a n d the c o s t of failing to d o so. S u c h a n in te r v e n tio n w o u ld be a n in s ta n c e o flo c a l k n o w le d g e b e in g b r o u g h t to b e a r on the d ic ta t e s of s u p r a l o c a l k n o w le d g e in a c o u r t r o o m , w h ic h , in th e b e s t of all p o s s ib l e w o rld s , s h o u l d be b o th a local a n d a tr a n s lo c a l site. A n th r o p o lo g is ts have only r e c e n tly b e g u n to u n d e r s t a n d a n d execute in p r a c ti c e s u c h a n a p ­ p r e c ia tio n . T h e very ju r id ic o - p o lit ic a l d e fin itio n — itse lf i n t e n d e d to be b o u n d e d a n d so v e re ig n — of a “r e fu g e e ” is, like th e in d iv id u a l, i n ­ h e r e n tly u n s ta b l e .

ANTHROPOLOGY’S PLACE IN REFUGEE STU DIES: DEVELOPING PRO SPECTS E ven so b r ie f a sk e tc h of the r a n g e of d isc u rsiv e p r a c tic e s t h a t c o n s ti­ tu te the refugee p h e n o m e n o n reveals the com plex ity of th e field, the d e n s e m ic ro le g itim a tio n s in s itu, its m is r e c o g n itio n s a n d m i s u n d e r ­ s ta n d in g s . W h at is or m ig h t be the place of a n th r o p o lo g y in s u c h a field? An a n th r o p o lo g is t b eg in s by o b se rv in g at the level of tiny local events. He o r s h e a s k s the little q u e s tio n t h a t engages with m u ltip le lev­ els of the d isc u rsiv c field. S u c h local events m a y be c n c o u n tc r c d in a R ed C r o s s - r u n refugee c a m p in U ganda, a d r u n k e n b r a w l in a halfway h o u s e in D e n m a r k , a n INS d e te n tio n c e n te r in Seattle, a c o u r t h e a r in g in L o n d o n , a little c h u r c h in th e N e th e rla n d s , a n In te r n e t c h a t g ro u p d is c u s s in g Kosovo, o r a c h a n c e d is c u s s io n a m o n g fellow tra v e le rs on a 3

Sec Daniel (1984, chap. 1) for a discussion of the relationship between one's body a nd soil am o n g Tamils. See McKim Marriott (1976) for a detailed d iscussion of "dividuality." 5See Raym ond Williams (1976. pp. 161-165 ) for a d iscu ssio n of the 17th- and 18th-century origins of the m o d e r n notion of the individual.

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tr a in . It is a t the level o f local e v e n ts t h a t re fu g e e s d i s c o u r s e t a k e s c o n ­ t e n t a n d s h a p e , a n d e v e n tu a lly d e t e r m i n e s t r u t h , ju s tic e , the d e s e r v in g a n d the u n d c r s c r v in g . S u c h local e v e n ts r e v e a l g lo b a l p r e j u d i c e s , b u t to o n e w h o is d e e p ly s te e p e d in the life o f a c o m m u n i t y a n d is a l e a s e w ith its la n g u a g e — in th e w id e s t s e n s e — th e y a ls o re v e a l local p r e j u ­ d ic e s, e m b e d d e d in b a re ly a r tic u la te d s e n t i m e n t s . Life in s u c h s ite s is a c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s o f th e u n i v e r s a l iz a tio n of th e p a r o c h i a l a n d th e p a r o c h ia liz a tio n of th e u n iv e r s a l. It b e c o m e s th e e t h n o g r a p h e r 's t a s k to u n d e r s t a n d , i n t e r p r e t , a n d c o n vey to a w id e r w o r ld th e full i m p o r t of t h is “life,” for d i s p l a c e d i n d iv id u a l s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s . How ever, a s s o o n a s w e in v o k e th e n o t i o n s of “c o m m u n it y " a n d “field,” n ew q u e s t i o n s a r e g e n e r a te d . For w e c a n n o lo n g e r— e s p ec ia lly in refu g e e s t u d i e s — ta k e the m e a n i n g o f c o m m u n i t y for g r a n t e d , w ith s u c h a c o m m u n i t y fixed in tim e o r p la c e . A c o m m u n i t y o f re fu g e e s is q u ite often a c o m m u n i t y in m o tio n , p r e s e n t i n g th e k i n d of field site a n d field w o r k t h a t u n til r e c e n tly w a s n o t p a r t of th e a n t h r o p o lo g i c a l im a g i n a tio n , w ith th e q u a lifie d e x c e p tio n o f th e s t u d y o f n o m a d s . 6 S uch a c o m m u n ity e x p a n d s and co n tracts, c o n c e n tra tes and d is s i­ p a te s , a d j u s t s a n d a d a p t s , all th e w h ile r e d e f in in g itse lf d e m o g r a p h i cally a n d c u ltu r a ll y a c c o r d i n g to th e tim e s , p la c e s , a n d s p a c e s t h r o u g h w h ic h it m o v e s a n d re la tive to th e m o v in g g e n e r a t i o n s . C h ild r e n te n d to ta k e d i s p l a c e m e n t in s t r i d e ; y o u n g a d u l t s ta k e it o n a s a c h a lle n g e to b e o v e r c o m e ; th e e ld e rly e it h e r r e s i s t o r s u r r e n d e r b e c a u s e th ey se e no a lte r n a tiv e . L ik ew ise, m e m b e r s of th e w o r k i n g c la s s m a y a d a p t to d i s ­ p la c e m e n t m u c h m o re su cc e ssfu lly th a n m ig h t p ro fe s s io n a ls ( K n u d s e n , 1 99 5). T h e a n th r o p o l o g i s t , a s fie ld -w o rk e r, c o m m e n t a t o r , t r a n s l a t o r , a n d — if c a lle d on to be o n e — a d v iso r, c a n n o t h a r b o r a n c s s c n ti a liz c d a n d sta tic n o t i o n s of c o m m u n ity , e u l tu r e , o r p e r s o n . He o r s h e m u s t b e a t t u n e d to th e ir s h if ts a n d sh ift a c c ord in gly, u n r e m i t ­ tingly q u e s t i o n i n g a n d re e v a lu a tin g o n e 's “e th n o g r a p h i c a u t h o r i t y ” in light o f th is d y n a m ic c o m m u n i t y a n d sh if tin g field (Clifford, 1981). O ver th e l a s t two a n d a h a lf d e c a d e s , field w o r k a n d th e a t t e n d a n t c la im to e t h n o g r a p h i c a u t h o r i t y by a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a s c o m e u n d e r m u c h c r itic is m . M u c h o f th e c r itic is m w a s ju s tif ie d a n d its s ig n ific a n t effects o n th e d i s c ip lin e s o b e r in g , w h e r e a s s o m e of it h a s m e r e ly h a d th e effect o f th r o w in g o u t th e b a b y o f u n s u b s t i t u t a b l e a s p e c t s o f e t h ­ n o g r a p h y w ith th e b a t h w a te r of e th n o g r a p h i c c o n c e it. Were we to p r e ­ s e rv e th e b e s t of t h e c o n c e iv a b le c o n s e q u e n c e s of e t h n o g r a p h i c field w o r k a s th e s i n e q u a n o n of th e d is c ip lin e — even t h o u g h th e c o n c e p t of “th e fie ld ” in field w o r k its e lf h a s u n d e r g o n e m a j o r c h a n g e s — th e n it s h o u l d b e n o te d th a t in n o o t h e r h u m a n sc ie n c e , in c lu d in g j o u r n a l i s m , c a n o n e fin d th e i m p o r t a n c e given to th e i n ju n c t io n to o b s e r v e a n d lis ­ te n p a in s ta k in g ly , closely, sy m p a th e tic a lly , critically, a n d w h e n e v e r p o s s ib l e , r e p e a te d ly , a n d alw a y s to i n t e r p r e t in c o n te x t. A d d to th is i n ­ In E v a n s - P r i tc h a r d ’s e th n o g ra p h ic classic (1940) on the Nilotic tribe, the Nuer, we see the tensio n b etw een the t r ib e ’s n o m a d i s m a n d the e t h n o g r a p h e r ’s i m p u ls e to situate in place, time, a n d st r u c tu r e .

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ju n c tio n the value given to p a r tic ip a tio n in the life of a c o m m u n ity to th e fullest ex tent p o s sib le , a n d you have in a n u ts h e ll the d istin c tiv e ­ n e s s o f e t h n o g r a p h i c fie ld r c s c a r c h . C a l l i n g s u c h f i e l d w o r k “e th n o g ra p h ic " is n o t to lim it its u s e to c a rd - c a r r y in g a n th r o p o lo g is ts b u t to m a k e it available to w hoever in the h u m a n sc ien c e s is willing to p ra ctic e th e m e th o d of p a r ti c ip a n t o b se rv a tio n to the fullest extent po ssib le . For it is in s u c h a “field” th a t o n e h a s th e possib ility of w it­ n e s s in g the f o rm a tio n of the refugee in his o r h e r n a s c e n t sta te a n d the p r o c e s s of his o r h e r d i s p la c e m e n t a n d re e m p la c e m e n t.

R ea d in g th e F ield If one of th e effect of the c ritiq u e of e th n o g r a p h ic a u th o r ity w a s to p r o d e th n o g r a p h e r s into b e c o m in g m o r e reflective a b o u t w ritin g— its a u ­ thority, veracity, style, respo nsibility , a n d so o n — th e n a n a c c o m p a n y ­ ing, a lth o u g h u n in te n d e d , c o n s e q u e n c e h a s b e en the cultivation of k e e n e r w ays of r e a d in g (D irks, 1996). T h e p r im a r y r e a d in g m a te ria l for the e th n o g r a p h e r is n o t lite r a tu r e in th e co n v en tio n al s e n s e of th a t te rm b u t the text a n d tex tu re of social a n d c u ltu r a l c on texts, callcd the f i e l d , in w h ich he o r s h e im m e r s e s h im - o r h e r s e lf j u s t a s a r e a d e r of a riveting novel m ig h t im m e r s e h im s e lf in his b o o k . Refugee d is c o u r s e is s u c h a text. B u t the text— h e re , refugee d is c o u r s e — is m o s t p r o d u c ­ tively re a d if it is r e a d a s “genealogy”: gray, m e tic u lo u s , pa tie ntly d o c u ­ m en tary, s c r ib b le s on a field of e n ta n g le d a n d c o n fu s e d p a r c h m e n ts , on d o c u m e n ts t h a t have b ee n s c r a tc h e d over a n d re c o p ie d m a n y tim e s, a site w h e re in one e n c o u n te r s th e u n io n of e r u d ite know led ge a n d local m e m o r ie s of h is to ric a l stru ggles, d is s e n tio n s , a n d d i s p a r i ­ ties (Foucault, 1 9 7 1 /1 9 7 7 , p. 139). T h e p sy c h ia tric social w o rker, the e m b a s s y official, o r the im m ig ra tio n j u d g e lo o k s for a c o h e r e n t a u t o ­ b i o g r a p h i c a l n a r r a t i v e f r o m th e r e f u g e e — th e t e s t a m e n t to a n in te g ra te a b le if n o t in te g ra te d in d iv id u a l self. Deviation fro m th is ideal is se e n a s in d ic a tin g u n t r u t h f u lln e s s a n d its s p e a k e r a s u n w o r th y of refuge. T he life of a refugee, following the m o m e n t of the first in v o lu n ­ tary a n d u n w e lc o m e d i s p la c e m e n t, is a lm o s t never a s im p le n a rra tiv e th a t le a d s to a single tr u th . It too is a genealogical: gray, sc r ib b le d over by a m e s s of m e m o r i e s a n d e x p e rie n c es, differently valu ed a n d v a r i­ ou sly a r r a n g e d , a n d s h a d e d over by a r a n g e of e m o tio n s t h a t keep shifting a s twilight s h a d o w s in the w o o d s . Genealogy c a n n o t be d i a ­ g r a m e d a s a n e a t d e s c e n t of a n c e s to r s (causes) a n d p ro g e n y (effects) as in a k in s h ip d ia g ra m or a s a s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d history. Rather, genealogy is m o r e a k in to the c o m b in e d w o rk in g o u t of g e n e tic s —with all its in ­ te r n a l com p lexities, e n v ir o n m e n ta l facto rs, a n d m o r e th a n a to u c h of p u r e c h a n c e (Hacking, 1 990, pp. 2 0 0 - 2 1 5 ; Peirce, 1 8 9 1 - 1 8 9 3 /1 9 9 2 ) . In genealogy, events a re selectively r e m e m b e r e d a n d forgotten a n d in ­ te rp r e ta t io n s selected o u t a n d selected in. T h e agent th a t d o e s the s e ­ lecting is rare ly the in dividual; c u ltu re , history, o r “g o v e rn m e n ta lity ” d o e s it (Foucault, 1994, pp. 7 4 - 7 6 , 2 9 9 — 300).

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Refugee n a r r a t i v e s a r e p r e s e n t e d a s s t o r i e s . B u t to r e a d o n e a s a s to r y w o u ld be to “r e a d ” th e n a r r a t i v e poorly. T h e k e e n e r w a y of r e a d i n g it is to r e a d a g a in s t th e g r a in o f the text, a n d th a t is a lso o n e way of r e a d i n g genealogically. F ro m p o s t s t r u c t u r a l i s m — a n d d e ­ c o n s t r u c t i o n in lite r a r y s t u d y in p a r t i c u l a r — a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s m a y l e a r n to r e a d a g a i n s t th e g r a in , yet w ith p r a g m a t i c i s t r e s t r a i n t so as to a v oid d e s c e n d i n g in to s illi n e s s (M argo lis, 1 9 9 5 ). H ow fa r c a n we p u s h th e a n a lo g y of text a n d r e a d i n g ? T h e te x t t h a t th e fie ld - w o r k e r e n c o u n t e r s is n o t a tex t m a d e u p o f w o r d s on p a p e r — a l th o u g h it m a y i n c lu d e t h a t, to o — b u t a c o m p le x a d m i x t u r e o f s ig n s t h a t a r e e m b o d i e d in a n d s u r r o u n d h u m a n b e in g in p e o p l e ’s o r d i n a r y a n d e x t r a o r d i n a r y lives. T h e s e s ig n s a r e n o t e m p t y sig n if ie rs p a i r e d w ith f lo a tin g s ig n ifie d s. R a th e r, th ey a r e s ig n a ls of a lte r n a te l y a n c h o r e d a n d d i s a n c h o r e d lives (D aniel, 19 95 ). R e a d in g a g a i n s t th e g r a in of re fu g ee d i s c o u r s e is to r e a d the f o r ­ m a t i o n s , f o r m s a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s of d i s p l a c e m e n t , n o t a s d i s ­ p e n s e d for u s by the id e a a n d r e a lity of th e n a t i o n - s t a t e a lo n e b u t a ls o a s re v e a le d to u s in th e tiny lo cal e v e n ts a n d s i d e s h o w s of h i s ­ tory. To r e a d a g a i n s t th e g r a in is to be a b le to s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r e a d a lo n g th e g r a in . It is o n ly th r o u g h s u c h r e a d i n g s t h a t o n e d is c o v e r s th e following: (a) M an y o f th e s t a t u t e s p e r t a i n i n g to r e fu g e e s , e s t a b ­ lis h e d a n d e n f o r c e d by n a t i o n - s t a t e s a n d th e U n ite d N a tio n s , s e rv e s t a t e s ’ r ig h ts ov er h u m a n r ig h ts , (b) All re f u g e e s a r e n o t v ic tim s in t h e i r s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g , (c) S o m e r e f u g e e s c o n s i d e r t h e d e c e n t e r i n g a n d d e n a t i o n a l i z i n g of t h e ir lives a n d id e n titie s l i b e r a t ­ ing. (d) Age, g e n d e r, a n d c la s s p la y a s ig n if ic a n t r o le in th e self-defin itio n of s e lf a n d th e c u ltiv a tio n o f o n e 's life in the h o s t - c o u n tr y , (c) T h e id e a l- ty p ic a l refugee is n e i t h e r id e a l n o r typical. T he fo rm u la u s e d to be s im p le in an th ro p o lo g y : With re s p e c t to o th e r c u ltu r e s a n d societies, r e a d sym pathetically, a lo ng the g ra in of th e ir context; in r e a d in g official d is c o u r s e in o n e ’s o u r own society, r e a d a g a in st the grain. T h e w orld is far m o r e c o m p le x now a n d so is refugee d is c o u r s e itself. It im p lic a te s p o w e r of n a tio n s , sta te s, ra c e s, c la sse s, e th n e s, religions, a n d m o re . T h is calls for a h a b it c ha ng e in o u r own d isc ip lin a ry m ethodology. If th e r e be a ru le of th u m b to be u s e d , b u t with c a u tio n , it w o u ld be to r e a d a g a in st governm entality, a n d to be s u s p i c io u s of all effortless re a d in g s. Even a s we recognize the will to in q u iry in field w o r k — a highly localized a r t — it c a n n o t be p r a c ­ ticed w ith o u t the a c k n o w le d g m e n t of the reality of a th o ro u g h ly g lo b a l­ ized w o rld . To ack n o w le d g e this is to realize th a t “context" is a s m u c h tra n s-lo c a l a s it is local, t r a n s - p r e s e n t a s it is p r e s e n t in the h e re a n d now. For how can one u n d e r s t a n d a K osovar refugee w ith o u t kn o w in g th e h isto ry of e m p ir e , th e h is to r y of World War II, UN p olitics a n d Yugo­ slavian politics, B a lk a n geography, w o rld geography, the S e r b s ' re li­ gion a n d Slav religion, C h ris tia n ity a n d Is la m ? T h e g re a te r p a r t of official d is c o u r s e on refugees h a s b ee n w ritte n by the p e n of po w e r d ip p e d in the in k of s ta tis t in te r e s ts (Aleinikoff, 1995). T h e fuller text

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is, however, th ic k n o t only with w o r d s th a t c o n stitu te definition s a n d p ro to c o ls b u t also with h u m a n suffering a n d t r i u m p h s th a t defy w o r d s or a rc e x p re s s e d in n o n v e r b a l signs th at m a y ra n g e from a g e stu re to the o rg a n iz a tio n of spa c e , a lick to a talent, a path ology to a p o e m , a s tu t te r to the c o m p o s in g of a song. The critical a n th r o p o lo g is t s tu d ie s the fo rm a tio n of a refugee in the con tex t of the dialectic c o n ju n c tio n of locally a n d globally s h a p e d , p o w e r - sh o t-th ro u g h , h u m a n e xp e rie n c es.

DISPLACEM ENT AND PRODUCTIVE H O M ELESSN ESS A d is p la c e d p e r s o n can also be a d e c e n te r e d one. D is p la c e m e n t a n d d e c e n te r in g a re s p a tia l o r ie n ta tio n s relative to a place called “h o m e . ’' H o m e in the c a se of d is p la c e m e n t c o n n o te s s o m e th in g physical, w h e r e a s in th e c a se of dec e n te rin g , it c o n n o te s s o m e th in g p syc h o lo g i­ cal, m o ra l, a n d even sp iritu a l. W hen refugees a re r e p a tr ia te d , they m ay find " h o m e ,” in b o th s e n s e s of the te rm , u n a v a ila b le 7 or m issing . Even if a c h an ge of party, policy, or h e a r t on the p a r t of the g o v e r n m e n t or the in te rv e n tio n of an in te r n a tio n a l o rg a n iz a tio n m a y r e m e d y d is p la c e ­ m e n t, it m a y be m u c h h a r d e r for a refugee to rcco vcr h is o r h e r c c n tc r a n d h o m e , in the m o r a l se n se . T he deficiencies in the ju rid ic o -p o litic al definition a re e x p o sed only w h e n the p r e s e n c e of b o th th e s e s e n s e s of “h o m e " is realized. T h e r e is, however, a n o th e r, m o r e self-affirming sid e to d is p la c e m e n t, d e c e n terin g , a n d “h o m e l e s s n e s s . ” In the e x tre m e in ­ sta n c e , the only " h o m e ” k n o w n to the a sy lu m s e e k e r o r refugee could be "hell" for w hich no nosta lg ia c ould be s tir r e d up, a n d the m o v e m e n t to w a rd , or the settling in, any civil society w o u ld be “h e a v e n ” by c o m ­ p a ris o n . One c a n n o t be in te re s te d only in the h o m e s ic k refugee a s a victim of d is p l a c e m e n t o r in the c o m p la is a n t8 individu al, p ro fo u n d ly grateful for b e ing r e s c u e d from a hell of a h o m e . M uch m o r e c o m m o n is the d is p la c e d p e r s o n w h o find s in d is p la c e m e n t th e s tr e n g th to o v e r­ co m e d e b ilita tin g “h o m e s i c k n e s s ,” a n d in d c c c n tc r c d n c s s a privileged p e rsp e c tiv e on the b lin d s p o t s a t the c e n te r s of power, w h e re v e r they h a p p e n to be. S u c h d is p l a c e m e n t a n d d e c e n te rin g b e c o m e c a ta ly sts of critical creativity. Refugees a re also c r e a to r s of new w o r ld s a n d new p o ssib ilitie s, a n d , a s s u c h , they e m b o d y the “q u ic k e n e d k e r n e l” for a m o r e in te re s tin g w o rld (Fischer, 1995). In c o n v e n tio n a l field w o r k , m o s t a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s s p e n t a y e a r or two of in te n s e r e s e a r c h w o r k w ith a c o m m u n ity t h a t b e lo n g e d to a place, from w h e re they w o u ld r e t u r n h o m e a n d w rite a m o n o g r a p h . S o m e w o u ld m a k e o n e o r m o r e r e t u r n visits to th e s a m e “field .” Few (b u t a s te a d ily in c r e a s i n g n u m b e r ) r e ta in close li n k s w ith th e ir f r ie n d s , a c q u a i n t a n c e s , a n d c o n ta c t s in th e field, a n d r e t u r n fr e ­ 7

In Heidegger’s Z u h a n d e n h e it (usually transla ted as “re a d in e s s to h a n d ” bu t r e n ­ dered as as “unavailableness,” by Dreyfus, 1991, pp. 60 -87). 8In L e v iath an, Hob bs defined his fifth law of n a tu re as “C om ple a sa nce .” Also see George Etherege (1979).

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q u e n tly in o r d e r to k e e p in to u c h w ith the p lace a n d th e p e r s o n s in place. In th is n e w e r k in d of field r e s e a r c h , w h e r e th e i n t e r e s t in a p e o ­ ple p e r s i s t s over s p a c e , tim e, a n d g e n e r a tio n s , o n e fin d s a n u n p r e c e ­ d e n te d d e p t h of c o m m i t m e n t to in q u ir y th a t a lso s e rv e s a s a stay a g a in s t p r e m a t u r e c la im s to e x p e r tis e on a p la c e o r p e o p le . S u c h s t u d i e s c a n n o m o r e h o p e to e sse n tia liz e a “villager," a “t r i b e s m a n , ” or a typical “e th n ic ," t h a n they c o u ld r e d u c e a refugee into a “th in g .” All o n e c ou ld do is p e r s i s t in s k e t c h i n g o u t th e ir p e r p e t u a l m o tio n , p o s it io n in g o n e s e lf a s a d ia le c tic a l r e a lis t (H acking, 2 0 0 2 , p. 13). If “h o m e le s s n e s s " a n d the re s u ltin g s ta te of u n h e l m l i c h of the r e f u ­ gee can b e p ro d u c tiv e , so can th o s e of th e a n th ro p o lo g is t. In a little u n ­ d e r two a n d a h a lf d e c a d e s , a n th ro p o lo g y itself h a s u n d e r g o n e a ce rta in m e a s u r e of d is p la c e m e n t a n d d e centerin g. It h a s be e n forced to give u p the c o m fo r t a n d co nceit of w o r k in g in a s e q u e s te r e d place a m o n g relatively s e q u e s t e r e d p e o p le s a n d sta b le c o m m u n i tie s in a d i s ­ tinctly d e m a r c a te d else w he re called “the field.” In giving u p the co nceit of its own “c e n te r ( s )” of c o m fo rt a n d e x pertise, it too h a s ex p e rie n c e d a ce rta in d e cen tering . Two m a in fa c to rs b r o u g h t a b o u t this c hange. F irst is the re a liz a tio n t h a t all p e o p le s of the w o rld have alw ays b e e n p a r t of th e t r a n s - lo c a l—even if n o t g lobal—a n d have never be e n exclusively lo­ cal, a n d n ow only less so. S e c o n d , a s the c e n tu ry c o m e s to a close, global flows— be they of p e o p le s, go o d s, o r in f o r m a tio n — have d r a m a t ­ ically in c r e a s e d in vo lu m e a n d frequency. T he m a r g in a l— p e o p le s a n d p la c e s — t h a t se rv e d a s a n th r o p o lo g y 's c e n te r s of in te r e s t for over a c e n tu r y a re j u s t a s likely to be fo u n d in the in te rstic e s of th e m e t r o p o ­ lises a n d c o s m o p o lita n c a p ita ls of th e w o rld. T h e refugee h a s b e c o m e the q u in te s s e n tia l "m a r g in a l” in the center. T h e refugee a n d the a n th r o p o lo g is t a re h e ld together, a lth o u g h in very different ways, by w h a t Max Weber called, a n “elective affinity” of d is p la c e m e n t, d e c e n t e r e d n e s s a n d h o m e le s s n e s s . T h e re c ogn ition of globalization, the tr a n s lo c a tio n of “the field," the t r a n s f o r m a t io n of “c o m m u n ity ,” a n d the disco very of th e m a r g in a l in the c e n te r a re s o m e of th e fa c to rs th a t have c o n tr ib u te d to a p ro d u c tiv e h o m e le s s n e s s in anthropology.

DISPLACEM ENT AND THE DIALECTIC OF SPACE AND PLACE More th a n one s o n g re fe rs to a "place called h o m e ." Its c o u n t e r p a r t w o u ld be a “s p a c e called h o u se ." S o m e a n th ro p o lo g is ts w ho began th e ir w o rk a m o n g se ttle d c o m m u n iti e s w itn e s s e d th e ir in te r n a l d i s ­ p la c e m e n t by war, th e ir flight o u t of the c o u n try to e sc a p e t e r r o r a n d tr a n s ie n t lives in refugee c a m p s , a n d th e ir even tu al r e s e ttle m e n t in fo r­ eign la n d s . In a refu gee’s life, s p a c e s u p p l a n t s place. A d e te n tio n c e n te r is a n inte rstitial s p a c e w h e re tiny local events te n d to h a p p e n ; a UNHCR c a m p is a s p a c e w h e re one can find the dialectic b e tw een the local a n d the tra n s -lo c a l a t w o rk . A refugee c a m p is a s p a c e th a t c ould

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s e rv e a s a n “in s t r u c t i o n m a n u a l ” for h o w to “r e a d ” a text o r a life a c ­ c o r d i n g to official d i c ta ts a n d w i tn e s s th e ir c o m in g in to c o n t r a d i c t i o n w ith a l t e r n a t e r e a d i n g s o ffered b y tr a c e s of plac e : local voiccs, local ex ­ p e r ie n c e s , a n d lo cal t r u t h c la im s . T h e r e a r e th o s e w h o c a m e to a h o s t c o u n t r y a s a d u l t s b u t w h o s e f o r m a tiv e y e a r s w e re in th e i r n ative la n d s , a n d t h o s e w h o left th e ir n ativ e c o u n t r i e s a s c h i l d r e n b u t h a d g r o w n u p in th e h o s t c o u n try . For m a n y in th e f ir s t g r o u p , “h o m e " r e m a i n s th e i r p la c e of b i r t h a n d th e ir a d o p t e d c o u n t r y a m e r e sa fe s p a c e . F or m o s t o f th e y o u n g , n e i t h e r c o u n t r y is a p la c e c a lle d h o m e ; n o r a r e th e s e m e r e s p a c e s of h a b i t a t i o n . T h a n k s to th e I n t e r n e t a n d e a s e o f tra v e l in th is high ly g lo b a liz e d w o r ld , th e y live a m i d th e traffic of i n f o r m a tio n b e ­ tw e e n t h e ir c o u n t r i e s o f b i r t h a n d o f a d o p t i o n , a n d t h e r e b y e x p e r ie n c e s p a c e - p l a c e n o t a s a d iffe re n c e in k in d , b u t a s loci o f d e g re e , in a n ever s h iftin g l a n d s c a p e , in re a lity a n d im a g in a tio n . To th e m , h o m e will a l ­ w a y s r e m a i n a n u n c a n n y p lacc. A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s w o r k i n g a m o n g r e f u g e e s ha v e a lso f o u n d it n e c e s ­ s a r y to d o e t h n o g r a p h i e s o f th e s ta t e in s p a c e s s u c h a s th e U.S. INS o r th e B r itis h H o m e Offices, s p a c e s th a t a r e priv ile g e d d o m a i n s o f re fu g e e d i s c o u r s e p r o d u c t i o n (F u g le r u n d , 19 9 9 ). S u c h s t u d i e s a r e still in th e ir infancy. E c o n o m i s t s , p o litic al s c ie n t is ts , a n d s o c io lo g is ts — in d e c r e a s ­ ing o r d e r — ha v e a m u c h lo n g e r h is t o r y o f w o r k i n g in s u c h s p a c e s w h e r e th e y h a ve c o m e to feel m o r e o r le s s a t h o m e . B e in g “a t h o m e , ” how ever, c a n b e b o t h a liability a n d a n a s s e t. T h e a s s e t s a r e o b v io u s. As for liab ilities, s u c h so c ia l s c i e n t i s t s a r e m o r e d i s p o s e d to r e a d i n g refu g e e d i s c o u r s e a lo n g th e g r a in o f h a b i t, s c o r e d o ver b y th e c e n t e r s of p o w e r h o u s e d in s u c h s p a c e s . In s u c h s p a c e s of d i s c o u r s e p r o d u c t i o n , n u m e r o u s k i n d s o f h u m a n b e in g s a n d h u m a n a c ts c o m e in to b e in g h a n d in h a n d w ith o u r in v e n ­ tio n o f th e w a y s to n a m e th e m . Ian H a c k in g ( 2 0 0 2 ) ca lle d th is d o c tr in e “d y n a m i c n o m i n a l i s m " (p. 2). F o u c a u lt, in s e v e r a l b o o k s , d o c u m e n t e d th e w o r k i n g s of d y n a m i c n o m i n a l i s m in histo ry. A lan Young's ( 1 9 9 6 ) w o n d e r f u l a c c o u n t of th e b i r t h o f P T S D ( p o s t - t r a u m a t i c s t r e s s d i s o r ­ d e r) is a n o t h e r p o t e n t il lu s tr a tio n o f th e p o w e r of d y n a m i c n o m i n a l ­ is m , c lo s e r to o u r tim e a n d th e m e . By "b e in g o u t of p l a c e ,” in s u c h s p a c e s , a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a r e b e t t e r p o s i tio n e d to se e th e a s y m m e t r i e s b e tw e e n th e n a m e a n d th e n a m e d t h a t a r e b r o u g h t to g e th e r into n o m in a lis tic s y m m e tr ie s by s u c h fo rce-field s of n o r m a liz a tio n (D re y fu s & R a b in o w , 1 9 8 3 , p p . 2 5 7 - 2 6 1 ) . T h e h u m a n b e in g s n a m e d r e f u g e e s m a y n o t on ly b e a s y m m e t r i c a l to th e n a m e s given th e m b u t m a y in fact be sig n ific a n tly diffe ren t: th e fa ilu re to e x p o s e s u c h d iffe r­ e n c e s is n o t on ly a n e p is te m o lo g ic a l flaw, it is a n e th ic a l failu re.

TH E D ISPL A C E D : SE E K E R OF RECO G NITION? Refugee d i s c o u r s e — th e p a r a d i g m a t i c d i s c o u r s e of d i s p l a c e m e n t — is p r o d u c e d in a v a rie ty of sites: in p a r l i a m e n t s a n d C o n g r e s s , a l e m b a s ­ sie s a n d g o v e r n m e n t offices, a t a i r p o r t c u s t o m s a n d in d e t e n t i o n c e n ­

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te r s , in la w s c o u r t s a n d a c a d e m i c c o n f e r e n c e s , in p u b s a n d in e d ito r ia l r o o m s . In all s u c h s p a c e s o f official a n d n o n o fficia l d i s c o u r s e o n r e f u ­ g ees a n d a s y lu m s e e k e r s , “r e c o g n i tio n ” is th e gavel. R ec o g n itio n is a lso th e c e n te r p ie c e of o n e of the g r e a te s t p h i l o s o p h i ­ cal p a r a b l e s of m o d e rn ity , Hegel's “L o r d a n d B o n d s m a n ” (Hegel, 1977). T h is p a r a b l e a p p e a r s in c h a p t e r IV o f h is P h a n o m e n o l o g i e d e s G e i s l e s (h e n c e fo rth , P h G ), tr a n s l a t e d into E n g lis h a s T h e P h e n o m e n o l o g y o f Spi ri t / Mi nd. PhG is a n a t t e m p t to a n s w e r th e q u e s tio n : W h a t is it to k n o w o r w h a t is k n o w in g ? Its significance in the p r e s e n t a n a ly s is lies in th e claim th a t k n o w le d g e is p o w e r (Foucault, 1994). T h e a n s w e r t r a c k s the dia le ctica l j o u r n e y of th o u g h t from k n o w le d g e c la im s b a s e d on s e n s e c e rta in ty via m a n y i n t e r m e d i a r y s ta g e s a n d c u lm in a t e s in a b s o ­ lute k n o w le d g e o r k n o w le d g e b a s e d o n a w e ll-w o rk e d -th r o u g h scientific p h ilo so p h y . It is a p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l a c c o u n t b a s e d o n E u r o p e a n h i s ­ tory. Not all th e n o te d p h a s e s of k n o w le d g e a r e u n iv e rsa l, e ith e r h i s t o r i ­ cally o r psychologically. However, s e v era l of th e p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l sta g e s w o r k e d on a n d t h r o u g h b y Hegel, w ith m i n o r m o d if ic a tio n s , are re c o g n iz a b le a n d a r e c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s to o u r ow n e x p e rie n c e s in late m o d e rn ity . A lth o u g h m y m a i n i n te r e s t is in th e p h a s e m a r k e d by the L o r d a n d B o n d s m a n p a r a b l e — the stage a t w h ic h o n e b c c o m c s a se lf-c o n sc io u s, so c ia ll y a w a r e b e in g — o n e e n c o u n t e r s d e a r fla sh e s of pre v io u sly s u b l a t e d ” p h a s e s in far le ss e x t r a - o r d in a r y c ir c u m s ta n c e s . C o n s id e r th e following s n i p p e t from a c o n v e r s a tio n b e tw e e n tw o c u s ­ t o m s officers a n d m e 10: Ms. Q: EVD: Ms. Q: EVD: Ms. Q: EVD: Ms. Q: EVD: Ms. Q: EVD:

g

I'd know, right away, can tell, if one of them were to enter this room. Nobody has to tell me a thing. Don't need to have known anything about this person. No previous knowledge? None. You're not saying that someone doesn't have to have any previ­ ous knowledge, say, not even know what or who a refugee is. In a way I am saying that. All that past knowledge doesn't matter really. Each time one of them comcs before m e—or comes into the room even, as I said—I know it’s one of them. By ju st looking at him or her. I don't even have to look at them. You mean from the person’s English. His accent, I mean. They need not say one word. They need not open their mouth. [Light-heartedly, but also goading) It has to be by the smell, then. You are not telling me that, like now, you are facing me with your

T he E nglish t r a n s la tio n of a u j h e b e n . It m e a n s to b o th cancel a n d reta in , lift u p , a s in lifting u p (“d e p o s i n g ”) a r i d e r from his ho rse . The b e s t colloquial analogy is to kick s o m e ­ one u p s t a irs . 10Ms. Q is a re tire d c u s t o m s officer a n d Mr. Z is a re ce n t r e c r u it to c u s t o m s . The o c ca ­ sion is a re ce ptio n given to m e after I delivered an invited lecture on the Sri L a n k a n civil w a r to c u s t o m s officers at th eir Q u e e n s B r a n c h , in New York. E llip ses indic ate w o r d s th a t have been edited out.

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R E C O G N I T I O N A N D D I S P L A C E M E N T IN A G L O B A L I Z E D W O R L D

Ms. Q: Mr. Z:

Ms. Q:

EVD:

Ms. 9 : EVD: Mr. Ms. Mr. Ms. Mr.

Z: Q: Z: Q: Z:

EVD:

Mr. Z: EVD:

Mr. Z:

Ms. Q:

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b a c k to the door. Let's say one of them w alk s in th a t door. Are you saying you will im m e d ia te ly k n o w th a t an illegal alien h a s j u s t e n te r e d the ro o m ? No. I d o n ’t m e a n the sm e ll o r the E n glish o r the c lothes o r a n y ­ thin g like that. I j u s t know. [Having e a v e s d r o p p e d on o u r c o n v ersa tio n , a s he jo in s u s j o ­ vially, with the co m en t] Are we b eing ra c is t h e r e ? Sm ell of re fu ­ gees? [Defensively] I am n o t be in g racist. For C h r is t’s sa k e , m y g r a n d ­ p a r e n ts w ere im m ig r a n ts . On b o th sid e s. [Laughing] I d i d n ’t say “sm ell. [Pointing a t me) He s a id it. No, no. W hat I m e a n is th a t you m u s t be able to tell th a t a n “ille­ gal alien" is p r e s e n t only by one of y o u r five se n s e s . C o rre ct? How else ...? Yeah. T h e n , w hich is it? Sight, h earin g, sm ell, to u c h ... W h at’s the o th e r? Taste. J u s t a feeling. T h a t ’s all. J u s t a sim p le feeling. It’s the sixth se n se. You m ig ht say tha t. It c o m e s from th irty y e a rs of experience. T he s a m e is tru e of a sylum s e e k e r s . Like, I c an sm e ll a lie from a mile. You m e a n it m e ta p h o ric a lly I ho p e . O the rw ise tell m e w h a t a r o m a a lie h a s b e c a u s e I w o uld certainly like to u s e it w h en my s t u d e n t s com e to m e with e xc u se s for why their p a p e r s a re late. [Laughing] You a r e big into sm e lls today, Professor. You a re the one w ho said you cou ld sm e ll a lie from a mile away. You d o n ’t m e a n , sm ell sm ell. Right? Now. j u s t w a n te d to be su re . I am a n a n th r o p o lo g is t a n d we a re n o t allow ed to take an y th in g for g ra n te d . I am o u t h e re to le a rn. We have h e a r d s tr a n g e r s to ­ rie s a n d s o m e tru e too. In c o n siste n c ie s, you know. Like the beginning, the m id d le a n d the end d o n ’t m a tc h up. T h a t’s w h a t I m e a n . By the tim e they s t a n d like before a judge: th a t’s a n o th e r story. By then, they are like well c o a c h e d by their lawyers. T he s a m e thing. Sixth se n se . Even w h en th e sto ry is straight. T r u s t y o u r sixth se n s e . Sixth se n se.

Ms. Q p r e s e n t s h e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s the sensor. The e xt r a or di na ry length to which she goes in o r d e r to avoid n a m i n g any p a rt i c u l a r se nse a p p e a r s to indicate the high value she pl aces on i m m e d i a te knowl­ ed ge . 11 To her, it s e e m s th at even to n a m e a p a rt i cu l a r s en se is to r isk conced ing th at knowledge is med ia ted . Note even H u m e w as t h a t fas­ t i d i o u s . 12 Having decided to ba se h e r knowledge claim on sen sat ion , however (even if only the sixth sense), she h a s b a s e d her knowledge claim on s en se certainty. 1]The history of valorization of unmediated knowledge in dominant Western epistemology would take us too far afield at this time. Its link to “individualism" deserves ex­ ploration. 12 Hume considered the apprehension by the senses to qualify as immediate knowledge.

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EVD: Ms. Q:

EVD:

I am really in te r e s te d in this sixth se n se . W hat else do you call it? S o m e of th e se guys a re j u s t like A m e ri­ c a n s. They s p e a k A m e rica n , they d r e s s A m e ric a n , they look A m e rica n b u t they a re illegal refugees. You j u s t kn o w it. Let’s leave refugees for a m o m e n t. G enerally you guys m u s t be tra in e d to look for c e rta in sign s th a t m a r k a n illegal. Fro m tr a i n ­ ing, ex p erience o r a tra in in g m a n u a l, p e r h a p s ? If you see a n in ­ dividual with th o se signs, you th e n th in k , th a t p e r s o n is likely to be a n illegal. Yeah?

T h e n ca m e the price less senten ce which, I a m su re, the officer did no t m e a n to have c om e out the way it d i d —as a non s eq uit ur — a n d p ro b ab l y did n o t m e a n it either. B ut it t u r n s out to be a perfect ill us tra ­ tion of Hegel’s po in t a b o u t sensor y- ce r tainty a n d p e rc e p tu a l k n o w l ­ edge. Ms. Q:

Dr. Daniel. Let m e tell you this. Even if I did n o t k n o w an ything a b o u t a refugee, even if I did n o t k n o w th a t this p e r s o n w as a ref­ ugee, I can tell you th a t he is a refugee. EVD: You m e a n “illegal,” n o t a “refug ee.” Ms. Q: T h a t's right. Illegal alien. Mr. Z: W hat sh e m e a n s is. OK. yes, we have b o o k s a n d m a n u a l s — th ese k eep c ha ng in g—a n d we m u s t k eep u p . T h e s e tell u s w h a t to look for .... And we look for th e se ... signs. We have to w rite u p o u r r e ­ p o r ts . In the r e p o r t or in c o u r t we c a n ’t say we h a d a feeling .... Law yers ... they are o u t th e re .... By the ru le s .... Always by the b ook . Ms. Q: T h a t is w o rth o u r jo b s. Ms. Q a n d Mr. Z: We play by the law. Mr. Z: B ut a n ex p e rie n c ed officcr ... like Ms. Q, will be able to pick o u t a n illegal, long before .... [W]e d o n ’t even have to get to th a t po in t, a s k in g q u e s tio n s o r say, se a r c h the luggage o r look a t the p a ­ p e rs . None of that. T h a t’s w h a t sh e m e a n s . Not th a t we d o n ’t m a k e m is ta k e s . Everyb od y m a k e m is ta k e s . G od m a k e s m i s ­ ta k es, for cryin’ o u t loud. Ms. Q: We lea rn from o u r m is ta k e s . Mr. Z: But a n exp erienced officer rarely m a k e s a m ista k e . So yes. You can say that. You can. An cxpcricnccd officcr can s e n se an illegal. It is h a r d to say how. B u t he can, w ith o u t any of that o th e r stuff. EVD: O th e r stuff? Ms. Q: Rules, signs, tip-offs a n d stu ff that... EVD: I w a n t to be s u re . We w ere talk in g a b o u t illegal aliens, right? Not a b o u t th o se from o th e r c o u n tr ie s w ho a re see k in g asylum le­ gally. B ec a use earlier, a s we were talking, I n o ticed th a t refugees a n d a sy lu m s e e k e r s were also th ro w n in the re, into the s a m e category. Ms. Q Illegal aliens. & Mr. Z: Ms. Q: We m e a n illegal aliens. EVD: ”Sixth s e n s e ! ” Now th a t is w h a t I w o uld like to k n o w a b o u t. You say, it’s n o t sm ell, ... n o n e of those.

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Mr. Z:

In a se n se , it is like all of th e m w o rk in g together. It is like pulling the s trin g on the B a s m a ti rice b ag like you m e n tio n e d in your lectu re. If you pu ll the rig ht e n d of the string, a n d the righ t first stitch, th e n all the o th e r stitc h e s com e lose; the b a g o p e n s . EVD: You s h o u l d ’ve be e n a writer, Mr. Z. You have a good m in d for m e t a p h o r s a n d im ages. Ms. 9 : He is a C o lu m b ia m a n . Mr. Z: No, NYU. T h e tric k is to pull the right k n o t. S p o t the righ t signal. Ms. 9 : T h a t is right. If you see s o m e th in g u n u s u a l , you will find it to be u n u s u a l. So w h a t? It’s u n u s u a l . N othing m o re . If a tra in e d c u s ­ to m s officer sees s o m e th in g u n u s u a l with his eyes, th e n all his o th e r s e n s e s k ick in; they o pen up; they hear, they sm ell, ... they se n se , everything. If you a s k m e, w hich s e n s e r a ise d my s u s p i ­ cio n? I d o n ’t know. I c o u ld n ’t tell. M ost of the tim e ... I d o n ’t kn o w ... I w o u ld n ’t be able to tell you. I m igh t j u s t pick any one thin g a n d tell you. T h e re , this is w h a t m a d e m e s u s p ic io u s . Do I kn o w for s u r e ? No. As I said, it is n o t one se n se . You can 't even say w hich se n se . As he sa id , all of th e m . And m o re . T h a t’s the sixth se n s e we a re telling you a b o u t. EVD: Very interesting. B u t you se n s e so m a n y thing s all at once. Take th e eye. At a glance you sec so many, p r o b a b ly t h o u s a n d s of things: a re d b lo u se , a b lu e sh irt, faded d e n im je a n s , a n e a rrin g p e r h a p s , a b a c k p a c k , b la c k hair, white c om p le x io n, you n a m e it. You k n o w w h a t I m e a n ? Mr. Z: I k n o w w h a t you m e a n . We see m illion s of thing s b u t we d o n 't n o ­ tice th em all. We register only five or ten th in g s th a t we see. T h e y m atter. T he o t h e r s a re things th a t everybody o r an y b o d y h as. D o n ’t m e a n a thing. EVD: You got it! Exactly! So you s elect from all th e se m illion s of things you see j u s t the five o r ten you m e n tio n e d . Mr. Z: Exactly. T h in g s th a t we use to tell th a t m a r k s a refugee, I m e a n illegal.

In passing, let us note th at Ms. Q ’s a n d Mr. Z ’s tendenc y to conflate illegal aliens, im m ig r a n ts , refugees, a n d asylum se eke rs . This “e r r o r ” that aris es from ignorancc a n d /o r prcju di cc is c o m m o n en oug h a m o n g the general Am e ric an public. For even INS officers to slip u p in this m a n n e r is indicative of the d e p th of ingrained cu ltur al h a b its of thou ght th at it even ove rrides official knowledge of legal categorical distinctions. H o w M s. Q a n d Mr. Z C o m e t o K n o w T h e ir O b j e c t s

At s o m e po in t in this three-way conv ers atio n Mr. Z realizes t h a t the s e n s e s convey to c o n s c i o u s n e s s cong erie s— not a c o h e re n c e —of u n r e ­ lated s e n s o r y qualities. Unrelated s en se data, a s Mr. Z ca me a r o u n d to admitting, tell us nothing. The INS officer’s trai ned c o n s c i o u s n e s s pick s o u t s o m e of those s e ns or y stimuli, p u t s th em together, a n d d i s ­ c a r d s the rest. Behold! They reveal to hi m an object, a n d he k n o w s th at it is an ’ illegal.” With this ac kn ow le dg m e nt , Mr. Z h a s be gun to s u b m i t

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to the a u th o rity of w h a t Hegel called p e r c e p t i o n . In p e rc e p tio n we g ra s p the s a m e s e n s e d a ta t h a t w ere fed to c o n s c io u s n e s s b u t a s r e ­ lated to one a n d the s a m e object, a p a rtic u la r. Now, perceptiv e c o n ­ s c io u s n e s s is a w a re th a t w h a t is p r e s e n t to it at th is level is no m e re collection b u t a c o h e re n c e of s e n s e d a t a th a t c o n s titu te a thing, a p a r ­ ticular. B u t a p a r ti c u la r w h a t? If this a c c o u n t of p e r c e p t u a l k now ledge w ere to be s u s ta i n e d , it is n o t e n o u g h for th e ag e n t to claim th a t the o b ­ je c t s e n s e d is a n in d iv id u a l “th in g ,” a selective b u n d le of p r o p e r tie s with w h ich s h e or he h a s b e c o m e directly a c q u a in te d . As Mr. Z c o n ­ c u rs , h is identification of a b a r e p a r t ic u la r s e n s o r y object— a p a r t i c u ­ lar “illegal”— is only p o ss ib le if th e r e is a s im u lta n e o u s a c q u a in ta n c e with a s e c o n d object, the u n iv e rsa l "illegal" of w h ich the p a rt ic u la r is an in s ta n tia tio n : a p a r tic u la r illegal. Perc e p tio n , th e re fo re , is b a s e d on the n e x u s of two d ifferent o bjects c o m b in e d into one. Ms. Q a n d Mr. Z m a y n o t have p e rceiv ed the n e x u s, b u t they did perceive the p e r c ip ie n t th a t r e s u lt s fro m the u n io n of two d is tin c t “o b je c ts .” T h u s , p e rc e p tio n t u r n s o u t to be the a w a r e n e s s of two types of r e p ­ r e s e n ta tio n s of objects: r e p r e s e n ta ti o n s of p a r tic u la r s a n d r e p r e s e n t a ­ tion of u n iv e rsa ls. B ut p e r c e p tio n c a n n o t explain th is c o m b in a tio n by b a s in g it on w h a t is sim p ly given to p e rc e p tio n . It can only be explained by s o m e th in g o th e r th a n p e rc e p tio n . Hegel calls th is the force of reflec­ tive “u n d e r s t a n d in g ." U n d e r s ta n d in g is b a s e d on the re a liz a tion th a t w h a t w a s ta k e n to be i m m e d ia te o bjects of p e rc e p tio n a r e only o u r r e p ­ r e s e n t a t i o n of p a r tic u la r s a n d u n iv e rs a ls . T h e se r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s c a n ­ n o t be explain ed by e ith e r one of th e m , b u t only by s o m e th in g n o n p e r c e p tib le . T h e latter, we te n d to a ttr ib u te to so m e " s u p e r s e n s ib le e s s e n c e ,”13 a s Ms. Q a tt e m p te d to do rig ht aw ay in h e r claim a b o u t “k n o w in g ” w h e n an “illegal" e n te r s a ro o m . T h e s u p p o s e d tru e e sse n c e of a th in g is n o t directly available to c o n ­ s c io u s n e s s b u t a s m e d ia te d by reflective u n d e r s ta n d in g . “A c u rta in of s o r t s [is d ra w n ] b e tw een u s a n d the w o rld , a n d the ‘u n d e r s t a n d i n g is c a p a b lc of getting b e h i n d the c u r ta in a n d g ain in g the kno w ledg e of | the e sse n c e of things]. If th is c o n c e p tio n is s u s ta in a b le , th e n the k n o w l­ edge th a t w ould be th u s g aine d w o u ld be in d e p e n d e n t of h is to ry a n d social p ractice" (P in k a r d , 1994, p. 38). S e n s e c e rta in ty survives s u b la tio n , a s a n e c e s s a r y b u t h a r d ly sufficient a s p e c t in th is m o r e c o m p le x form of know ing. In reflective u n d e r s t a n d in g , th e re is the d a w n in g of an a w a r e n e s s of o n e 's own c o n s c io u s n e s s playing a p a r t in th e k n o w in g of the object. S e lf - c o n sc io u sn e ss th u s f o rm e d , however, r e m a i n s s e aled w ithin self certainty. In the three-w ay c o n v e rsa tio n , th e re is no a c k n o w le d g ­ m e n t th a t the o bject of know ledge, the d is p la c e d p e r s o n , is also a k n o w in g s u b je c t in his o r h e r own right. As s u c h , kno w ledg e cla im s se e m lim ited to the three sta g e s of Hegel's p h e n o m e n o lo g y of know ing: s e n s e certainty, p e r c e p tio n , a n d u n d e r s ta n d i n g . It is a t this stage th at 13

Hegel calls it the “uncon ditio nal universal.’’

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Hegel u s e s the l o r d - b o n d s m a n d ia le c tic to m o v e the p h e n o m e n o lo g y o f k n o w i n g f o r w a r d w h e r e a s e lf - c o n s c io u s s u b j e c t is c o n f r o n te d b y a n o t h e r s c lf - c o n s c io u s su b je c t.

TH E DIALECTIC OF RECOGNITION H e g e l’s p a r a b l e o f th e L o r d a n d B o n d s m a n is a n a b s t r a c t i o n , a fic­ tio n , a n d " i n to l e r a b ly i n v o l u t e d ” (L a u e r, 1 9 9 3 , p. 8 9 ). It is b u t o n e p h a s e in th e lo n g j o u r n e y fr o m s e n s o r y c o n s c i o u s n e s s to a b s o l u t e k n o w l e d g e , a l t h o u g h a very i m p o r t a n t p h a s e . T h e p a r a b l e r a i s e s m a n y q u e s t i o n s ; s o m e will b e a n s w e r e d , s o m e left u n a n s w e r e d ; s o m e d e e m e d u n a n s w e r a b l e even in th e c o n t e x t o f th e w h o le o f PhG. In H e g e l’s p a r a b l e t h e r e a r e n o m e d i a t i n g s o c ia l i n s t i t u t i o n s in v o lv e d w h e n th e l o r d - to - b e a n d th e b o n d s m a n - t o - b e f i r s t m e e t. T h i s m a k e s th e i m p lie d a n a l o g y b e t w e e n t h e m a s t e r - s l a v e a n d th e r e f u g e e - o f f i­ c ial b o t h s i m p l e r a n d m o r e difficult. Like a n a lg e b r a i c e q u a t i o n o r a n a r c h i t e c t ’s flo o r p l a n , a p a r a b l e r e p r e s e n t s b y s im p lif y in g reality, a n d like t h e m it a ls o f o r e g r o u n d s c e r t a i n s ig n if ic a n t f e a t u r e s t h a t w o u l d h a v e o t h e r w i s e b e e n lo st. A p a g e lim it p r e v e n t s m e f r o m s u p p l y i n g th e e t h n o g r a p h i c a n a l o g u e s in th e p a r a b l e . T h o s e w h o h a v e w o r k e d w ith d i s p l a c e d p e r s o n s will, h o w e v e r, r e c o g n i z e th e m a s t e r - s l a v e in m a n y o ff ic ia l- r e f u g e e i n t e r a c t i o n s . S u c h “m a s t e r s " m a y b e f o u n d a m o n g d e t e n t i o n - c e n t e r g u a r d s , c u s t o m s o f f ic e r s , p r o s e c u t o r s , j u d g e s , U N H CR a n d R e d C r o s s w o r k e r s , n o n g o v e r n m e n t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s (N G O s), a n d c itiz e n s o f th e h o s t c o u n tr y . Briefly, th is p a r a b l e is a b o u t th e c o n f r o n ta tio n o f two i n d e p e n d e n t , s e lf - c o n s c io u s a g e n ts . Let’s call th e m C - l a n d C-2. P r io r to facing e a c h o th e r, th e ir e n c o u n t e r s h a d b e e n only w ith s e n s u o u s o b je c ts; e a c h of w h ic h w a s , a s o b je c t q u a o b je c t, in -itself a n d for-itself, in d iff e re n t to all else. N o n e e x iste d f o r a n o t h e r , n o t even for C - l a n d / o r C-2, a n d e a c h a g e n t’s re la tio n to th e s e o b je c ts w a s p r i m a r i l y p r a c tic a l, n o t t h e o r e t i ­ cal. E a c h h a d r e lie d o n h is o w n cognitive activity— a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h s e n s o ry , p e r c e p t u a l , a n d reflective u n d e r s t a n d i n g — to k n o w h o w th e w o r ld w a s a n d h o w it a c c o m m o d a t e d to h is n e e d s . B ein g s u b je c ts , how ever, th e s e a g e n ts h a d u s e d th e s e o b jc c ts to fulfill t h e ir ow n d e s i r e s by n e g a t i n g (killing, c o n s u m i n g , re co g n iz in g , o r t r a n s f o r m in g ) th e m . T h e objective w o r l d s t h a t they i n c o r p o r a t e d in to c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s b e ­ c a m e , th e reb y , m e r e e x t e n s i o n s of t h e m s e l v e s t h a t d id n o t c h a lle n g e th e ir p riv a te , s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s - a s s u r e d , se lf -c e r ta in tie s . T h e i r s e lf- c e r ta in tie s w e re a d e q u a t e a s lo n g a s th e y w e r e is o la te d s e lf - c o n s c io u s m o n a d s ; th e y w e r e s h a k e n , how ever, w h e n e a c h faced th e o th e r, e q u a lly s e lf -c o n s c io u s b eing , w ith its o w n t r u t h c l a im s a n d w orldview . T h e e n c o u n t e r u s h e r s th e two in to s o c i a l s p a c e . T h e s u b ­ je c t c a n n o t n e g a te th is n e w “o th er," w h ic h is n o lo n g e r a d i s i n t e r e s t e d o b je c t b u t a n e q u a lly willful, i n d e p e n d e n c e - s e e k i n g , i n t e r e s t e d s u b ­ je c t. C - l c a n n o lo n g e r m a k e C-2 a n e x te n s io n o f itse lf a n d vice v e r s a . At s t a k e is e a c h b e i n g ’s in d e p e n d e n c e . To b e s u r e , the m a s t e r - t o - b e

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(say, C - l ) d o e s n o t s e e k th e r e c o g n itio n of h is e x i s t e n c e by th e s la v e -to -b e (C-2)— t h a t w a s a l r e a d y a s s u r e d by s e n s e ce rtainty, p e r c e p ­ tio n , a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g — b u t th e re c o g n itio n of h i s i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m all d e t e r m i n a t i o n s , e sp e c ia lly th e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of C-2. B efo re th e e n c o u n t e r , a s a n o r g a n i s m , C - l a c t e d on th e p r in c ip le t h a t h e w a s to s a tisfy d e s i r e s a n d h is d e s i r e s w e r e given to h im in life. W h a t w a s a u th o r ita tiv e for h im w a s n o t a n y d e s i r e d e t e r m i n e d b y a n o b je c t b u t by h i s o v e ra ll d e s i r e s a b o u t w h a t h e w is h e d to a c c o m p l i s h . He w a s free to a c t o r n o t to a c t o n a n y given d e s ir e . He c o u ld ha v e even c h o s e n d e a t h ov er life. After th e e n c o u n te r , C - l h a s n o s a y in C -2's s e lf-c e rta in tie s ; th e f o r m e r h a s n o c o n t r o l of w h a t th e la t te r th o u g h t of h im . At th is sta g e , given n o c o n v e n tio n s o f n e g o tia tio n a n d c o m p r o ­ m is e , th e only w ay to rc c o v c r h is i n d e p e n d e n c e fr o m a n y p o s s ib le d e ­ t e r m i n a t i o n b y th is i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e o t h e r w a s to kill h i m . T h e o t h e r ’s p r e d i c a m e n t , s e n t i m e n t s , a n d o p t i o n s w e re s y m m e t r i c a l . T h u s b e c a m e a v a ila b le th e s o le o p tio n to “b a ttle u n t o d e a t h ” to se ttle th e q u e s t i o n of w h o w a s th e d e t e r m i n e r a n d w h o th e d e t e r m i n e d . T h e d e ­ cisio n to b a ttle u n t o d e a t h t h r o w s in to c le a r re lie f life’s u l t i m a t e d e s ir e , life itself. By h is w illin g n e s s to r i s k h is very life in b a tt le for h o n o r , d ig ­ nity, a n d f r e e d o m , C - l e s t a b l i s h e d h is i n d e p e n d e n c e fro m all e x te rn a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s , in c lu d in g life. T h e p a r a d o x is t h a t w e r e C-2 to ha v e d ie d in b a ttle , C - l w o u ld ha v e lo s t all p o s s ib ilitie s o f w i n n in g the very re c o g n itio n fr o m th e s e lf - c o n s c io u s b e in g t h a t h e r i s k e d h is life for. T h e only re c o g n itio n h e w o u ld ha v e re c e iv e d w o u ld h a v e b e e n th e r e c ­ o g n itio n o f a c o r p s c . B u t in s o f a r a s C-2 c h o s c life over h o n o r a n d dignity, signified by h i s w illin g n e s s to re c o g n iz e C - l ’s a u th o rity , he h a d b e c o m e C - l ’s slave. P arad ox ically , C -2 ’s s l a v e - c o n s c i o u s n e s s w a s n o lo n g e r a s e lf - d e te r ­ m i n i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d h i s r e c o g n i t i o n — a s l a v e 's r e c o g n i ­ tio n — c o u ld n o t b e a freely w illed o ne . T h e r e f o r e , C - l ’s t r i u m p h d id n o t a s s u r e th e c e r ta in t y t h a t c o m e s fro m t r u e i n d e p e n d e n c e o r fr e e d o m . A slave is p ro p e rty , a v irtu a l o b ject. F r o m C -2 ’s p e r s p e c t iv e , h a d h e d ie d fighting for f r e e d o m , he w o u ld ha v e only b e c o m e th e slave o f th e u l tim a te m a s te r , d e a th . T h e a s y l u m s e e k e r is in C - 2 ’s p o s i t i o n . He h a s c h o s e n life o v e r d e a t h in e s c a p i n g th e p e r s e c u t i o n a t th e h a n d s o f th e r e g im e o f h i s n a ­ tive l a n d . At th e s c r i e s o f “g a t e s ” o f th e h o s t c o u n tr y , h e c h o o s c s life o v e r h o n o r , dignity, a n d s e l f - d e t e r m i n i n g f r e e d o m . T h e g a t e k e e p e r s th e m s e l v e s m a y b e s la v e s to t h e i r o w n g o v e r n m e n t s a n d t r u t h r e ­ g im e s to w h ic h th e y h a v e u n c r i tic a ll y o r u n a v o i d a b l y s u b m i t t e d . T h e i r s u b m i s s i o n s m a y h av e , in t h e i r o w n e q u i v a l e n t s , b e e n a c h o ic e o f life o v e r d e a t h . C o n s id e r , for i n s t a n c e , a n i m m i g r a t i o n j u d g e w h o to ld m e , a f te r I h a d d e s c r i b e d in w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d d e t a il th e c i r c u m ­ s t a n c e s in S r i L a n k a t h a t h a d t h r e a t e n e d th e d e f e n d a n t w h o s t o o d b e ­ fo re h im p l e a d i n g a s y lu m : “T h a n k yo u for e d u c a t i n g th e c o u r t o n th e c o n d i t i o n s in S r i L a n k a . I f o u n d th e fa c ts q u ite p e r s u a s i v e . B u t u n d e r th e c i r c u m s t a n c e s I m u s t a c t o n th e a s s e r t i o n by o u r o w n S t a t e D e ­

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p a r t m e n t t h a t T a m il s h a v e n o fe a r o f p e r s e c u t i o n in S r i L a n k a b e ­ c a u s e o f t h e i r e th n ic ity .” V is-a-vis th e U.S. g o v e r n m e n t , th e j u d g e w a s in th e p o s i t i o n o f C-2. W h e n facin g th e a s y lu m s e e k e r , how ever, th e g a te k e e p e r , a s a r e p r e ­ s e n ta tiv e of th e g o v e r n m e n t, b e c o m e s th e m a s te r . T h e a s y l u m s ee k e r, by try in g to tell a c o n s i s t e n t n a r r a t i v e r a t h e r t h a n a n i n c o n s i s t e n t b u t h o n e s t o n e a b o u t h is e x p e r ie n c e , is s u b m i t t i n g to th e g a t e k e e p e r s ' c e r ­ ta in ti e s a b o u t th e w o r ld in o r d e r to live, in o r d e r to p r e v e n t h im s e lf f r o m b e in g d e p o r t e d b a c k to lite ra l o r figu rative d e a th . T h e m a j o r a p p a r e n t differen ce b e tw e e n Hegel’s m a s te r /s la v e a n d th e g o v e r n m e n t/its official o r th e g a te k e e p e r /a s y lu m s e e k e r is t h a t Hegel’s s e lf -c o n sc io u s a g e n ts first e n c o u n t e r ea c h o t h e r a s eq u a ls ; th e o th e r two a re u n e q u a l p a ir s . However, if viewed a t a level of a h ig h e r m o r a l o rd e r, C - l , th e g a te k e e p e r ’s c h o ic e s a r e n ’t e n c o u r a g in g o n e s either. D enying C-2 a s y lu m c a r r ic s its o w n r i s k s for C - l . T h e r e is th a t r i s k in d e p o r tin g C-2 to h is d e a th . W h a t k i n d o f victory w o u ld th a t b e for C - l ? T h e o th e r r i s k lies in the c o n s e q u e n c e s of w in n in g th e b a ttle s of wills, n a r r a t iv e s , t r u t h c la im s , a n d self-c e rtain tie s; the r i s k of h is o w n m o r a l d e a th . T h e m a s t e r - s l a v e p a r a b l e d o e s n o t e n d th e re , n o r d o e s PhG e n d w ith th e e n d o f the p a r a b l e . B u t I m u s t e n d h e r e for now, leaving b e h i n d a fi­ n al p o i n t w o r th p o n d e r i n g by in te r ro g a tin g Hegelian m o d e r n i t y itself. Do all c u l t u r e s give “re c o g n itio n " s o i m p o r t a n t a p la c e in th e life o f a p e r s o n , a p e o p le , o r a n a t i o n ? R e c o g n itio n , in th e final a n a ly s is , is a b o u t t r u t h c la im s a n d h e n c e t r u t h . H egel's P h e n o m e n o l o g y a s a view o f h is t o r y is s h o t t h r o u g h w ith C h r i s t i a n p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , a m o n g w h ic h th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o n e is th e s t a t u s of t r u t h . C h r is t ia n it y is p a r a d i g m a t i c o f th e s in g le - tr u th ideology. W h e re th e t r u t h is on e, diff e r e n t - t r u t h c la im s h av e n o p la c e , a n d in th e face of d iffe re n c e, th e c o n ­ d iti o n s a r e r ip e on ly for c o n q u e s t , c o n v e r s io n , o r “c o lo n iz a tio n .” I m a g in e a w o r ld in w h ic h w h a t is s o u g h t a fte r is n o t p r i m a r i l y r e c o g n i ­ tion b u t to be left a lo n e , to b e let b e. R e c o g n itio n m a y well b e o f p r a c t i ­ c al i m p o r t a n c e w h e n it c o m e s to th e ga le s g u a r d e d b y g o v e rn m e n ta lity . B u t m a n y w h o a r e given a s y lu m find th e m s e lv e s , a s m i n o r i t i e s , for i n ­ s t a n c e , c o n f r o n tin g g a te s a n d g a t e k e e p e r s w h e r e re c o g n itio n is m a d e in to th e i s s u e r e p e a te d ly w h e n w h a t is a s k e d for by th e a s y le e s a n d m i n o r i t i e s is to b e let be.

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Transnational T ics and M ental Health E le a n o r J . M u rp h y C o lu m b ia University

T he psychological well-being of im m ig r a n ts h a s c o n s iste n tly evoked sc h o la rly investigation in v a r io u s f o r m s — from the e a rlie r w o r k s on E u r o p e a n im m ig r a n ts to the U nited S ta te s to c o n t e m p o r a r y an a ly se s of Latin A m e ric a n , A sian, a n d African im m ig ra n ts . With im m ig ra tio n co n c e p tu a liz e d as a u n iq u e a n d p r o fo u n d s tr e s s o r , ra p id a n d u n c o m ­ plicated a s s im ila tio n into the h o s t society h a s be e n tra d itio n a lly viewed a s the e p ito m e of psychological a d j u s t m e n t (Berry, 1995). C o n ­ sequently, r e s e a r c h e r s have p a id m u c h a tte n tio n to fa c to rs th a t e n ­ h a n c e o r d e te r a s sim ila tio n . Recently, however, the a s s im ila tio n m o d e l h a s e n c o u n te r e d a tw e a k in g of s o r ts , w ith the c o n tr a s tin g of e a rlie r m o d e s of in c o r p o r a tio n into the new country, to th a t of m o r e rc c c n t fo r m s of m ig ra tio n p a t te r n s . A m o n g the n ew e r m o d e s of a s sim ila tio n , t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m —the m a in te n a n c e of social ties a c r o s s n a tio n a l b o r ­ d e r s — h a s be e n in creasingly fe a tu re d by im m ig ra tio n s c h o la rs , w ho have d e m o n s t r a t e d th e n e c e ssity a n d im p o r ta n c e of t r a n s n a tio n a l a c ­ tivities a m o n g r e c e n t im m ig ra n ts . Although m u c h of the p r e v io u s r e ­ s e a r c h h a s e m p h a s iz e d social a n d e c o n o m ic o u tc o m e s , very little a tte n tio n h a s b e e n p a id to m e n ta l or psychological h e a lth a s a fu nction of t r a n s n a t i o n a l ties. In th is chap ter, by d ra w in g on findings from a r e ­ c e n t s tu d y of West In d ia n im m ig r a n ts , in a d d itio n to in c o r p o r a tin g w o r k s from th e o r is ts w ho s tu d y tr a n s n a tio n a lis m , I highlight the role of t r a n s n a tio n a l activities in th e ir psychological a d ju s tm e n t. F u r t h e r ­ m o re , I e m p h a s iz e the ne e d for f u r th e r e m p iric a l a n d th e o re tic a l i n ­ qu iry into t r a n s n a t io n a l is m a s it re la te s to m e n ta l h e a lth a m o n g im m ig r a n ts in g eneral.

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In s tu d y in g i m m i g r a n t s ’ s o c ia l a d j u s t m e n t , r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e fo­ c u s e d o n g e n e r a l p a t t e r n s a n d f a c to r s t h a t m a y e n h a n c e o r h i n d e r a s ­ s im ila tio n in a p a r t i c u l a r i m m i g r a n t g r o u p (Berry, 1 99 5). A c o m m o n d e fin itio n of a s s i m i l a t i o n is the g r a d u a l i n c o r p o r a t i o n in to th e n e w s o ­ ciety via th e a d a p t a t i o n o f th e c u s t o m s a n d v a l u e s of t h a t so c iety w ith a s i m u l t a n e o u s r e l i n q u i s h m e n t o r m o d if ic a tio n o f t r a d i t i o n a l c u s t o m s a n d v a lu e s of th e s e n d i n g society. T h i s c o n s t r u c t h a s a lso b e e n utiliz e d b y m a n y a n a ly s ts in d e v e lo p in g f r a m e w o r k s for u n d e r s t a n d i n g i m m i ­ g r a n t s ’ p a t t e r n s o f g e n e r a l s e t t l e m e n t , th e i r m o d e s o f in c o r p o r a t i o n in to th e h o s t society, a n d th e so c ia l, e c o n o m ic , po litic a l, a n d p s y c h o ­ logical o u t c o m e s for t h e s e i m m i g r a n t s (Berry, 1 9 9 5 ; Foner, 2 0 0 1 ; P o r te s & Z h o u , 1 9 9 4 ; W aters, 1 99 9). M o re recently, how ever, r e s e a r c h ­ e r s ha v e n o t e d th a t th e a s s i m i l a t i o n i s t m o d e l is sig n ific a n tly lim ite d in view o f th e fa c t t h a t c u r r e n t i m m i g r a t i o n a n d s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s a r e d e v ia tin g fro m th e t r a d itio n a l w a y s in w h ic h p r e v i o u s i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s m i g h t h a v e b e e n i n c o r p o r a t e d in th e U n ite d S t a l e s (P o rte s & R a m b a u t , 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 7 ). A lth o u g h a s s i m i l a t i o n m a y ha ve b e e n c o n c e p ­ tu a liz e d a s a l in e a r p r o c e s s a t o n e tim e , w ith in th e l a s t d e c a d e o r so, m a n y r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e b e g u n to a d d r e s s th e n o ti o n o f a m o r e c o m p le x a n d g lo b a liz e d fo rm o f i m m i g r a n t a d a p t a t i o n a n d i n te g r a tio n . For e x­ a m p le , m a n y r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d to r e ta in e x t e n ­ sive ties to th e ir h o m e c o u n t r i e s w hile a t t e m p t i n g to s e ttle a n d d e v e lo p in th e n e w c o u n t r y ( F u r n h a m , 19 8 7 ). C o n s e q u e n tly , v a r i o u s c o n ­ s t r u c t s a r e n o w e m e rg in g , a n d th e s e rela tive ly n e w e r e x p r e s s i o n s h av e b e e n b r o a d e n e d to a c c o m m o d a t e th e c o n t e m p o r a r y f o r m s of m i g r a ­ tion a n d s e t tle m e n t . A highly s a lie n t c o n c c p l th a t h a s e m a n a t e d fr o m th is d i s c o u r s e is t r a n s n a l i o n a l i s m , o r t r a n s n a t i o n a l ties (G lick Schiller, B a s c h , & S z a n t o n B l a n c , 1 9 9 5 ; G o l d r i n g , 1 9 9 6 ; M a h le r , 1 9 9 8 ; P o r t e s , G u a r n i z o , & L a n d o lt, 1 9 9 9 ; S m i t h & G u a r n i z o , 19 98 ). A m o n g th e m a ­ j o r t r a n s n a t i o n a l t h e o r i s t s , P o rte s a n d c o lle a g u e s h a v e d e f in e d t r a n s ­ n a tio n a li s m a s th e m a i n t e n a n c e o f o c c u p a t i o n s o r activ ities t h a t n e c e s s a r i l y r e q u i r e r e g u la r so c ia l c o n t a c t s ov er tim e a c r o s s n a t i o n a l b o r d e r s a n d / o r a c r o s s c u l t u r e s ( P o rte s e t al., 19 99 ). F o r o u n a n d G lick S c h ille r (2 0 0 1 ) a d v a n c e d th e c o n c e p t o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m a s a c o n ­ s t a n t m o v e m e n t d e v e lo p e d a n d s u s t a i n e d by i m m i g r a n t s w h o b u ild e x­ te n siv e n e t w o r k s lin k in g th e n e w c o u n t r y a n d th e c o u n t r y of orig in . T h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s c o n v e y th e i d e a t h a t t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m o c c u r s o n a v a r ie ty o f le v e ls , f r o m fa m i lia l a n d c o m m u n i t y to e c o n o m i c a n d p o liti c a l. I n s t a n c e s o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m c a n b e f o u n d w ith th e S a l v a d o r i a n s liv in g in N ew Y ork, w h o s e n d r e m i t t a n c e s a n d w r ite l e t t e r s to f r i e n d s a n d fa m ily b a c k h o m e ( M a h le r, 2 0 0 1 ) ; th e D o m i n i ­ c a n s w h o e s t a b l i s h p o l i t i c a l p a r l i e s w ith o ffice s t h a t s p a n th e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d th e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c ( G r a h a m , 2 0 0 1 ) ; th e W est I n d i ­ a n s w h o f e a t u r e t h e l a r g e s t a n n u a l e t h n i c a n d c u l t u r a l p a r a d e in New Y ork (F oner, 2 0 0 1 ) ; t h e A s ia n I n d i a n s w h o p r o m o t e i n v e s t ­ m e n t s in b u s i n e s s v e n t u r e s in I n d i a ( L e s s in g e r , 1 9 9 2 ) ; a n d s o f o r t h .

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I n d e e d , r e s e a r c h a n a l y s t s h a v e b e g u n to d e v e lo p t h e o r e t i c a l a n d e m ­ p i r i c a l b o d i e s o f l i t e r a t u r e t h a t t a k e i n to a c c o u n t t h e s e f o r m s o f i n ­ t e r a c t i o n s . A l t h o u g h t r a n s n a t i o n a l p r a c t i c c s h a v e a lw a y s o c c u r r c d , e v e n a m o n g th e e a r l i e s t w a v e s o f i m m i g r a n t s , r e c e n t t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e s ( b o t h in th e h o m e c o u n t r i e s a n d in A m e r ic a ) h a v e f a c ili­ t a t e d th e m o v e m e n t b e t w e e n n a t i o n - s t a t e s , t h e r e b y m a k i n g th e s t u d y o f t h i s c o n s t r u c t n o w m o r e a c c e s s i b l e t h a n ev e r (F oner, 2 0 0 1 ). F o r e x a m p l e , p r e p a i d p h o n e c a r d s a l o n g w ith d e c r e a s i n g r a t e s h a v e a llo w e d i m m i g r a n t s to i n d u l g e in m o r e f r e q u e n t a n d l o n g e r c o n t a c t w ith lo v e d o n e s , o r to c o n d u c t b u s i n e s s t r a n s a c t i o n s via t e l e p h o n e . R a p i d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s in t h e m e d i a lik e t e le v is i o n , v i d e o t a p e s , a n d , m o s t r e c e n tly , th e I n t e r n e t h a v e e x p o n e n t i a l l y b r o a d e n e d th e r a n g e a n d i n t e n s i t y o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l tie s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , v ir t u a l l y e v e ry r e ­ c e n t i m m i g r a n t g r o u p f e a t u r e s m a n y d i f f e r e n t f o r m s a n d le v e ls o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m . In d e s c r i b i n g t r a n s n a t i o n a l a c tiv it ie s , a n i m p o r ­ t a n t c a v e a t is t h a t s o m e o f th e a c tiv i tie s a r e n o t i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r ­ e n t a s t r a n s n a t i o n a l a c tiv i tie s , b e c a u s e th e y m a y s e e m r o u t i n e , u n n e c e s s a r y , a n d c o m m o n to i m m i g r a n t s a n d n o n i m m i g r a n t s a lik e . H o w ev e r, e v e n th e s a m e a c tiv ity m a y w a r r e n t c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r t h e i n d i v i d u a l d o i n g th e a c ­ tivity is a r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t o r n o t . F o r e x a m p l e , a t h i r d - o r f o u r t h g e n e r a t i o n M e x ic a n A m e r i c a n w h o v i s its M e x ic o m i g h t view t h e v is it a s a m o r e l e i s u r e l y o r s y m b o l i c activity, w h e r e a s for a f i r s t - g e n e r a ­ tio n M e x ic a n , t h i s a c tiv ity m a y b e n e c e s s a r y to m a i n t a i n c o n t a c t w ith i m m e d i a t e f a m ily m e m b e r s , o r o t h e r w i s e h a v e a d i r e c t i m p a c t o n h i s o r h e r c u r r e n t life c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

TRANSNATIO NAL T IE S AND MENTAL HEALTH T h e t a s k of se ttlin g in to a n e w c o u n t r y c a n p la c e a n i m m i g r a n t a t i n ­ c r e a s e d o f a n x ie ty d u e to c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e s a n d w o r r i e s a b o u t b e in g a b le to “m a k e it," d e p r e s s i o n a r o u n d u n r e a l i z e d e x p e c ta tio n s , a n d d e ­ c r e a s e d s a tis f a c tio n w ith life a s a r e s u l t o f a h o s t o f c o n c u r r e n t s t r e s s e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith r e a d j u s t m e n t ( B a p ti s te , H a rd y , & L e w is, 1 9 9 7 ; G o p a u l-M c N ic o l & B ric e -B a k e r, 1 9 9 7 ; M u r p h y & M a h a lin g a m , in p r e s s ) . However, i m m i g r a n t s h a ve b e e n s h o w n to rely o n v a r i o u s s t r a t ­ egies t h a t e n a b le th e m to be relatively r e s ilie n t a m i d u n c e r t a i n t y a n d o t h e r difficult c i r c u m s t a n c e s . For e x a m p le , th e m a i n t e n a n c e o f in f o r ­ m a l n e t w o r k s of f r i e n d s a n d k in h a s b e e n s h o w n to be a c o m m o n d e ­ n o m i n a t o r in e n s u r i n g i n s t r u m e n t a l a n d e m o t i o n a l s e c u r ity for West I n d i a n s a n d o t h e r n e w i m m i g r a n t s (Foner, 2 0 0 1 ) . T h e so c ia l i m p l i c a ­ t i o n s o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m a t th e c o m m u n ity , fam ilial, a n d in d iv id u a l levels h a v e b e e n r c c o g n iz c d , d e s p it e the re la tive a m b i g u o u s i t y a r o u n d its d e f in itio n (Foner, 1 9 8 7 ; P e ss ar, 19 9 9 ). I m m ig r a tio n li t e r a t u r e h a s b e g u n to f o c u s o n t r a n s n a t i o n a l ties a n d p r a c t i c e s a m o n g n e w i m m i ­ g r a n t s , w ith th e r e c o g n itio n t h a t th e y m a y s e rv e to socially e n h a n c e th e i m m i g r a n t s ’ lives by d ir e c tly o r in d ir e c tly p r o m o t i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g

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valu able social n e tw o rk s . In fact, c u r r e n t b o d ie s of w o r k s t r e s s the findings th a t tr a n s n a tio n a l ties can p r o d u c e d e s ira b le social a n d e c o ­ n o m ic a m o n g im m ig r a n t g r o u p s , in c lu d in g West I n d ia n s (Bobb, 20 01 ; Foner, 2 0 0 1 ; R ogers, 2 0 0 1 ). A ltho ug h tr a n s n a lio n a lis m h a s ra rely b e e n s tu d ie d in m e n ta l h e a lth , it h a s be e n im plicitly lin k e d to ce rta in fa c to rs s u c h a s social s u p p o r t , eth n ic identity, a n d perceiv ed d i s c r i m i ­ n a ti o n — all of w hich have b e en a ss o c ia te d with psychological health. To d ate, th e r e a re few, if any, s tu d ie s t h a t e x a m in e the w ays in w hich the m a in te n a n c e of t r a n s n a t io n a l ties plays a role in m e n ta l health o u t ­ c o m e s for im m ig r a n ts .

THE INFLUENCE OF TRANSNATIONAL ACTIVITIES ON PSYCHOSOCIAL OUTCOMES One of the b a sic w ays in w hich im m ig r a n ts m a in ta in ties with th e ir h o m e c o u n trie s is th r o u g h c o n ta c t with close relatives a n d /o r frie n d s w h o m they have left b e h in d (Foner, 2 0 0 1 ). T h is type of c o n ta c t u su a lly involves c o m m u n ic a tio n a n d the p ro v isio n of m o n e y a n d g o ods by the im m ig r a n t to the p eople left at h o m e . For in sta n c e , in West In d ia n fa m i­ lies, a p a tte r n of im m ig ra tio n callcd se ria l m ig ra tio n o c c u rs, usu a lly w h e n the h e a d of a h o u s e h o ld , u su a lly a m o th e r o r father, leave the C a ­ rib b e a n to se e k e m p lo y m e n t in the U nited S ta te s . O ccasion ally the family m a y m ig ra te a s o n e unit, b u t in the m a jo rity of fam ilies, at least so m e of th e c h ild re n a r e left b e h in d to c o n tin u e schooling, while the p a r e n t gets e s ta b lis h e d in the new country. T h is p h e n o m e n o n n e c e s s i­ ta te s c o n t in u o u s c o n ta c t b e tw een th e p a r e n t a n d the c h ild re n a c r o s s b o r d e r s , or b etw een the p a r e n t a n d th e p e rs o n (s ) left in ch a rg e of the c h ild re n . T h u s p a r e n t s m a y c o n tin u e to p ro v id e financial s u p p o r t by s e n d in g r e m itta n c e s , o r by s e n d in g m a te r ia l g o o d s to th o se left b e h in d (C raw ford-B row n & Rattray, 2 0 0 1 ; Foner, 20 0 1 ). In a d d itio n , relatives m a y c o m m u n i c a tc with e ach o th e r via te le p h o n e , a irm a il, or even e-m ail. S e n d in g r e m itt a n c e s a n d c o m m u n i c a tin g via le tte rs have been sh o w n to be c o m m o n t r a n s n a t i o n a l activities of S a lv a d o ria n i m m i ­ g r a n t s in s u b u r b a n New York (Mahler, 2 0 0 1 ). A n o th e r way of ac h ie v in g c o n t a c t is by tra v e lin g b a c k to th e h o m e c o u n tr y to visit f r ie n d s a n d relativ es, o r p ro v id in g a s s i s t a n c e for f r ie n d s a n d re la tiv e s to visit. T h e f r e q u e n c y a n d n a t u r e of th is m a y d e p e n d on s e v e ra l fa c to r s s u c h a s a ffo rd a b ility of v a c a tio n s , i m m i ­ g r a ti o n s t a t u s , a n d c o n d i t i o n s in h o m e c o u n t r y (Foner, 2 0 0 1 ; K asin itz, 2 0 0 1 ) . D ue to the i n c r e a s in g av a ilability of a ffo rd a b le a i r ­ line tic k e ts, tra v e lin g b a c k a n d f o rth on a r e g u la r b a s i s h a s b e c o m e relatively ea sy even for the l e ss a ffluent im m i g r a n t s . T h e e a se o f travel in t u r n fac ilita te s b u s i n e s s a n d e c o n o m ic t r a n s a c t i o n s b e tw e e n b o r ­ d e r s . T h e q u e s ti o n r e m a i n s w h e t h e r tra v e lin g to visit s h o u l d be c l a s ­ sified a s a t r a n s n a t i o n a l activity, b e c a u s e a l m o s t e veryone w h o can afford to tra v e ls a t s o m e p o in t in h is o r h e r life. Again, th is m ig h t be s o m e w h a t difficult to te a s e a p a r t , b e c a u s e only a su b je c tiv e a p p r a i s a l

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b y th e i m m i g r a n t m a y d i c t a t e j u s t w h a t type o f tr a v e l a n d v is ita tio n is t a k i n g p la c e . A n o t h e r f o rm o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l tr a v e l o c c u r s w h e n i m m i ­ g r a n t s c o m e to th e U n ite d S t a t e s s e e k i n g t e m p o r a r y e m p l o y m e n t , w o r k in th e U n ite d S t a t e s fo r a few m o n t h s , a n d th e n r e t u r n h o m e . T h i s cy clical e m p l o y m e n t p a t t e r n m a y c o n t i n u e o v e r a p e r i o d o f s e v ­ e r a l y e a r s , u n til th e i m m i g r a n t m a y d e c id e to s ta y p e r m a n e n t l y in th e U n ite d S t a t e s ( H e n k e , 2 0 0 1 ) . E x a m p l e s o f s u c h c a n b e f o u n d w ith h o u s e k e e p e rs , n u r s e 's a id e s, a n d m a n u a l la b o re rs. Fo r m a n y i m m i g r a n t s w h o a r e u n a b l e to t r a v e l fre q u e n tly , th e p r e s ­ e n c e o f a v i b r a n t c u l t u r a l a r e n a in th e h o s t c o u n t r y m a y w a r d off fe e l­ in g s o f a l i e n a t i o n a n d f a c ilita te a d j u s t m e n t . M o s t i m m i g r a n t s t e n d to r e s i d e in n i c h e s o r e n c l a v e s for t h a t r e a s o n (Foner, 2 0 0 1 ; H e n k e , 2 0 0 1 ) . A m o n g C a r i b b e a n s , fo r e x a m p l e , m a n y of th e c u l t u r a l a c tiv i­ tie s t a k e p la c e in th e f o r m o f l e is u r e ly a n d i n f o r m a l g e t- to g e t h e r s , p a r ­ ties, a n d s o c i a l o u tin g s . O t h e r a c tiv itie s s u c h a s c lu b m e e t in g s , c h u r c h s e r v ic e s , a n d c o n c e r t s m a y b e m o r e f o r m e r l y p l a n n e d a n d a t ­ t e n d e d . C u l t u r a l tie s n o t o n ly m a i n t a i n e m o t i o n a l a f f i r m a t i o n , b u t a ls o m a y l e a d to i n s t r u m e n t a l s u p p o r t t h r o u g h c o n t a c t w ith o t h e r i m ­ m i g r a n t s (Foner, 2 0 0 1 ) . A lth o u g h s o m e c u l t u r a l activities m a y be p u r s u e d on a largely i n d i ­ v id u a l a n d i n f o r m a l b a s i s , w ith th e view t h a t th e y a r e p u r e ly so c ia l a n d le is u r e ly o u tle ts , o t h e r s m a y be s e e n a s v e h ic le s for f u r t h e r a g e n c y a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d t h u s r e q u i r e m o r e o r g a n iz e d p la n n in g , in th e fo rm o f g r o u p s o lid a r i ty a n d l e a d e r s h i p . S o m e of th e s e c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s m a y ha v e f u r t h e r i m p lic a tio n s for e c o n o m ic a n d o t h e r so c ia l c o n d i ­ tio n s in th e lives of i m m i g r a n t s a s well a s th o s e r e m a i n i n g in th e h o m e c o u n t r i e s . T h u s a b r o a d a r r a y o f p o litic a l a c tiv ism m a y e m e r g e fro m w hat sta rte d as cu ltu ral p u rsu its I n d iv id u a l s w h o h a v e a c h ie v e d a c e r t a in d e g re e of e c o n o m i c a u t o n ­ o m y m a y u s e th e ir e c o n o m i c s u c c e s s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s to g e n e r a t e a n d m a i n t a i n f u r t h e r e c o n o m ic activity in th e ir h o m e l a n d s (Foner, 2 0 0 1 ; L e ssin g e r, 19 9 2 ). F u r t h e r m o r e , th e y m a y s t a r t b u s i n e s s e s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s t h a t rely on th e i m p o r t i n g o f c o m m o d i t i e s fro m th e i r h o m e c o u n t r i e s . B e c a u s e of th e d e s ir e to c o n ti n u e tr a d i t i o n a l c u s t o m s , i m m i g r a n t s c r e a te a lo cal m a r k e t for t h e s e g o o d s a n d s e r v ic e s t h a t c a n b e o b t a i n e d fro m r e s o u r c e s in th e i r h o m e c o u n t r i e s . C onversely, t h e r e m a y b e i m m i g r a n t s w h o s e n d r e m i t t a n c e s a n d p r o d u c t s f r o m the U n ite d S t a t e s b a c k to t h e ir h o m e c o u n t r i e s to m a i n t a i n g r o c e r y s t o r e s a n d o t h e r b u s i n e s s e s th e r e . O th e r i m m i g r a n t s m a y se e o p p o r t u n i t i e s for i n v e s t m e n t in r e a l e s ta te b a c k h o m e , w hile e s t a b l i s h i n g th e U n ite d S t a t e s a s th e ir p r i m a r y r e s id e n c e .

TRANSNATIO NAL T IE S AND SOCIAL SU PPO R T T r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m h a s b e e n s h o w n to solidify so c ia l n e t w o r k s a m o n g i m m i g r a n t s (B o b b , 2 0 0 1 ) , w h ic h in t u r n h a s i m p l ic a ti o n s for p s y c h o ­ logical well-being. T h is is b e c a u s e th e s o c ia l n e t w o r k s m a y p r o d u c e

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tangible r e s o u r c e s , social c a p ita l a n d e m o tio n a l s u p p o r t th a t m a y off­ se t so m e of the a lie na tin g a n d str e s s fu l effects of im m ig ra tio n . A c o r ­ p u s of r e s e a r c h devoted to investigating the im p a c t of social s u p p o r t h a s r e s u lte d in a large n u m b e r of e m p iric a l s tu d ie s th a t p ro v id e evi­ d e n c e for the p o s tu la tio n th a t social s u p p o r t se rv e s to directly d e ­ c re a se e m o tio n a l d is tr e s s , a n d also fu n c tio n s a s a buffer a g a in st the s t r e s s b r o u g h t a b o u t by trying events (Ritsner, Modai, & Ponizovsky, 2 0 0 0 ). Allen (19 87 ) m a in ta in e d t h a t m o s t first-g eneration a n d even so m e s e c o n d - g e n e ra tio n West I n d ia n s te n d to have a k in d of "so ­ j o u r n e r ” s ta tu s . C onsequ en tly, they ke e p in close c o n ta c t with o th e r West I n d ia n s by r e s id in g in eth n ic enclav es (Regis, 1988), p a r tic ip a tin g in social o rg a n iz a tio n s s u c h a s s p o r ts , ta k in g r e g u la r tr ip s to the C a­ rib b e a n , fu n d in g relatives, a n d s p o n s o r in g social a n d political events in the C a r ib b e a n (Foner, 1987). M ost b o d ie s of social s u p p o r t lite ra tu re ten d to a d v a n c e the g en e ra l view th a t social s u p p o r t a n d social i n te r a c tio n s a re highly beneficial to psychological well-being ( S a r a s o n , Levine, B h a s h a m , & S a r a s o n , 1983). N o n eth e le ss, s o m e s tu d ie s have yielded m ix e d findings on this issu e, a n d p o in t to th e p a r a d o x ic a l n a t u r e of s u c h social activities th a t m a y s e r v e to i n c r e a s e , r a t h e r t h a n d e c r e a s e , e v e r y d a y s t r e s s (A ntonucci, 1998). S o m e s tu d ie s , for in sta n c e , have e lu cid a te d the fact th a t b e c a u s e of th eir m ig ra tio n p a tte r n s , s o m e C a r ib b e a n im m ig ra n ts are obliged to o p e r a te tr a n s n a tio n a lly (Pessar, 1999). U n d e r th o s e c o n ­ ditio n s, tr a n s n a tio n a l ties m a y n o t n e c e ssa rily yield positive c o n s e ­ q u e n c e s . For ex a m p le , c h ild r e n m a y r e m a in in the C a r ib b e a n for schooling, while th e ir p a r e n t s a re in the U nited S ta te s; w o m e n m a y travel b a c k a n d forth to o b ta in te m p o r a r y d o m e s tic w o rk , a n d so forth (Foner, 1987). A lthough th e se activities m ay help th e m to achieve s o ­ cial c o h e sio n , by forcing th e m to re ta in c o n ta c t with c erta in n e tw o r k s or peop le, it m ig h t also p lace a b u r d e n on th o se in the p ro v id e r role. In a d d itio n , it can be s p e c u la te d t h a t a c e rta in type of f r u s tr a tin g n o s t a l ­ gia m a y be in d u c e d via p ro lo n g e d b u t d is ta n t c o n ta c t with loved ones. B e sid e s re la tio n a l b u r d e n s , it h a s b e e n d e b a te d th a t relying solely on tr a n s n a t io n a l c o n n e c tio n s m ig h t be a p o o r p ro fe s s io n a l a n d e c o n o m ic stra te g y in th e long r u n , k e e p in g im m i g r a n t s in low-paying, lo w -sta tu s o c c u p a t i o n s a n d e n h a n c i n g s u s p i c i o n a n d m i s t r u s t o f fellow im m ig r a n ts (Nee & S a n d e r s , 2 0 0 1 ).

TRANSNATIONAL TIES AND ETHNIC IDENTITY B e sid es e n h a n c in g social c o h e sio n a n d a se n s e of social s u p p o r t , tr a n s n a t io n a l ties m a y also h e lp im m ig r a n t s to c o n so lid a te th e ir e t h ­ nic identity a t a time w h e n they m a y find a n u m b e r of different id e n ti­ ties s u d d e n ly t h r u s t on th em . E th n ic identity h a s b e e n d efin ed a s a p e r s o n 's subjective s e n s e of be longing to a c e rta in g ro u p o r c u ltu re (Phinney, 1990). T h is c o n s t r u c t h a s received a g re a t deal of atte n tio n a m o n g social p sych olog ists. Given the m u ltie th n ic society t h a t Am er-

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ica h a s b e c o m e , largely b e c a u s e of im m ig ra tio n , it is a p p a r e n t th a t e t h ­ nic iden tity h a s i m p o r t a n t im p lic a tio n s for the w ay in w h ich p e op le see th e m se lv e s, a n d th e ir p c r c c p tio n of how society r e s p o n d s to th e m , b o th of w h ich i m p a c t p sychological well-being (Phinney, Horenczy, L ie b k in d , & Vedder, 2 0 0 1 ). For C a r ib b e a n im m ig r a n ts of African d e ­ sc en t, eth n ic iden tity c o m e s into play for a n u m b e r of r e a s o n s . Like th e ir E u r o p e a n - d e s c e n d e d im m i g r a n t c o u n t e r p a r t s , West In d ia n s a r ­ rive in the U nited S ta te s with th e h o p e to integrate a n d a ss im ila te into the larger society (Waters, 1999). However, u n like the f o r m e r g ro u p , th e la tte r g ro u p 's ability to a s s im ila te is r e s tr ic te d a long racial lines (Gopaul-M cNicol & Brice-B aker, 1997), like o th e r m in o rity im m i ­ g r a n t s of color. If a n d w h e n they do a s sim ila te , th e ir a s s im ila tio n , by a n d large, is lim ited to the la rge r g ro u p of A frican A m e ric a n s. In the U nited S ta te s , African A m e r ic a n s have b e e n a m o n g the m o s t d is p a r a g e d g r o u p s , even c o m p a r e d to o th e r cthn ic m in o r ity g r o u p s , having a h is to ric a l legacy of slavery a n d o p p r e s s io n (Phinn ey & O n w u g h a lu , 1996; W aters, 1999). C a r ib b e a n im m ig r a n ts a re racially s im ila r to African A m e ric a n s a n d s h a r e ce rta in h isto ric a l e le m e n ts of bein g forcibly r e m o v e d from th e ir h o m e la n d a n d b r o u g h t to a n o th e r c o u n try to w o r k a s slaves. However, im m ig r a n ts from the C a r ib b e a n have b e en able to enjoy relative a u to n o m y in th e ir h o m e c o u n trie s d u e to the a b s e n c e of the c o lo n iz e rs w ho initially ensla v e d th e m . T h e re , B la c k s a re in the m a jo rity a n d the everyday racial p e rs e c u tio n a n d h a ­ r a s s m e n t e n c o u n te r e d by African A m e ric a n s is largely a b s e n t in the C a r ib b e a n (Gopaul-M cNicol, 1993; W aters, 1999). H ence, the i m m i­ g r a n t s e n te r the U nited S ta te s with an o u tlo o k s im ila r to th a t of o th e r im m ig r a n t g r o u p s — one th a t c n c o u r a g c s th e m to believe th a t h a r d w o rk , e d u c a tio n , a n d d e te r m i n a t io n c a n o v e rc o m e all o b s ta c le s — i n ­ clu d in g ra c is m (Portes & R u m b a u t, 1990). P h in n e y a n d O n w u g h a lu (19 9 6 ) c o n d u c te d a s tu d y c o m p a r i n g the effects of ra c ia l identity on th e a ttitu d e s to w a rd A m e ric a n values, a m o n g A frican A m e r ic a n s a n d African i m m ig r a n ts . They fo u n d t h a t for African A m e ric a n s, a racial identity w a s stro n g ly a s s o c ia te d with a negative a ttitu d e t o w a rd A m e r i­ can id eals, b u t positively c o r r e la te d with self-esteem , w h e r e a s for the African im m i g r a n ts th e r e w a s no c o rre la tio n betw een racial identity, a ttitu d e s , a n d self-esteem . It h a s b e e n a rg u e d t h a t West In d ia n im m ig r a n ts have a n identity th a t s t r e s s e s th e ir c o u n try of origin, a n d a lth o u g h they do have a Black r a ­ cial identity, it is p r o d u c e s a different k in d of c o n s c io u s n c s s t h a n th a t of African A m e r ic a n s (Rogers, 2 0 0 1 ). F u r th e r m o r e , im m i g r a n t s with s tr o n g e r t r a n s n a t i o n a l ties te n d to have a s tr o n g e r eth nic identity, w hich s e rv e s a s a p o te n tia l buffer a g a in st ra c ia l p r e ju d ic e (Rogers, 20 0 1 ). T h is “id e n tity ” offers th e m psychological p ro te c tio n in a n u m ­ b e r of ways: F irst, m a in ta in in g th e idea t h a t they c a m e from a c u ltu re w h e re they a re v alu ed a n d a c c e p te d , a n d s e c o n d , th a t they have the o p ­ tion to go b a c k th e r e if th in g s d o n ’t w o r k o u t in the h o s t country, c a n be very c o m fo rtin g to im m i g r a n ts w ho feel a s e n s e of a lie na tio n (Rogers,

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2 0 0 1 ) . It h a s a lso b e e n s u g g e s te d t h a t th is i m m i g r a n t id e n tity m a y b e te s te d a n d t h r e a t e n e d a s th ey s p e n d m o r e tim e in th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d b e c o m e m o r e a w a r e o f th e p e r v a s iv e n a t u r e o f r a c ia l d i s c r i m i n a ­ tion (P h in n e y & O n w u g h a lu , 1 9 9 6 : R o g e rs, 2 0 0 1 : W aters, 1 99 9). T h is m a y le ad to i n c r e a s e d f r u s t r a t i o n a n d d i s s a t is f a c t io n w ith life. As r e s e a r c h s u g g e s ts , e th n ic id e n tity m a y a ls o in flu e n c e th e p e r c e p ­ tio n o f a n d s t r e s s a s s o c i a t e d w ith r a c ia l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n (W aters, 19 9 4 ). A f r o - C a r i b b e a n s w ith a n i m m i g r a n t id e n tity m a y u n d e r s t a n d t h a t r a c i s m e x ists ; th ey m a y h a v e th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l o p ti o n o f n o t view ­ ing it a s th e m o s t d e te r m in a t iv e fa c to r in th e ir lives. I n s te a d , t h e e m ­ p h a s i s is p la c e d o n o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d r e w a r d s for a m b i t i o n a n d h a r d w o r k . E v e n th o u g h th e a b ility to b y p a s s r a c i s m a s a n e x p la n a t io n for p o o r t r e a t m e n t in so c ie ty m a y d e c lin e a s th e i m m i g r a n t s p e n d s m o r e tim e in th e U n ite d S t a t e s (B o b b , 2 0 0 1 ; W aters, 19 9 9 ), it m a y affo rd s o m e p r o te c t io n d u r i n g th e initial y e a r s of s e ttle m e n t.

TH E TRANSNATIO NALISM SCALE In o r d e r to e x a m in e th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t r a n s n a t i o n a l activities a n d p sy c h o lo g ic a l well b e in g a m o n g f ir s t- g e n e r a tio n W est I n d i a n s , a s e lf - r e p o r t q u e s t i o n n a i r e w a s a d m i n i s t e r e d to a c o n v e n ie n c e a n d v e n u e s a m p l e o f 137 a d u l t s aged 18 to 5 4 in u r b a n New York. T h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e in c l u d e d a m e a s u r e t h a t w a s c o n s t r u c t e d to a s s e s s th e ty p e s a n d f r e q u e n c y of t r a n s n a t i o n a l a ctivities, s u c h a s r e g u la r ly p a r ­ tic ip a tin g in c u l t u r a l e v e n ts, a n d active e n g a g e m e n t in p o litica l t r a n s ­ a c t io n s ( T r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m S cale). T w e n ty -o n e ite m s for th e s c a le w e r e d e v e lo p e d by d r a w i n g o n p r e v io u s q u a lita tiv e r e s e a r c h t h a t d e s c r i b e d th e n a t u r e a n d e x te n t o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l activ ities a m o n g v a r i o u s i m m i ­ g r a n t p o p u l a t i o n s in c l u d in g W est I n d i a n s . T h e it e m s w e re g r o u p e d in to f o u r d o m a i n s (family ties, c u l t u r a l ties, e c o n o m ic ties, a n d p o liti­ cal tics) for facc validity. E a c h item d c s c r i b c d a n activity a n d the r e ­ s p o n d e n t s w e re r e q u i r e d to in d ic a te o n a 6 - p o i n t L ik e r t sc a le (0 = h a v e n o l d o n e to 5 = v e r y o f t e n) , th e e x te n t to w h ic h th e y p a r t i c i p a t e d in th e activity w ith in th e p a s t 2 y e a r s . T h i s sc a le , w ith its p s y c h o m e t r i c p r o p e r t i e s a n d fa c to r lo a d in g s for e a c h d o m a i n , a lo n g w ith th e s a m p l e o n w h ic h it w a s v a lid a te d , h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d e xte nsive ly e ls e w h e r e ( M u rp h y & M a h a li n g a m , 2 0 0 4 ) . O n c e th e s c a le h a d b e e n e v a lu a te d for re lia bility a n d validity, th e s a m p l e size w a s i n c r e a s e d to 2 0 0 p a r t i c i ­ p a n t s (77 m a l e s a n d 123 fem a le s). A lth o u g h th e fa c to r-a n a ly tic s t r u c t u r e of th e s c a le w a s g e n e r a lly c o n ­ s i s t e n t w ith th e o r ig in a l g r o u p i n g of d o m a i n ite m s , we w e r e a b le to f u r ­ th e r c la ssify a n d re fin e s o m e of th e d o m a i n s . For in s ta n c e , th e d o m a i n of fam ily ties s h o w e d tw o m a i n g r o u p i n g s o f a ctivities: c o m m u n i c a ­ tio n , a n d travel. In a d d i t i o n , f a m ily -re la te d c o m m u n i c a t i o n rec e iv ed the h ig h e s t s c o r e fr o m the r e s p o n d e n t s . T h i s w a s c o n t r a s t e d w ith p o ­ litical a c tiv is m , w h ic h re c e iv e d th e lo w e st s c o r e o f all th e d o m a i n s ( M u rp h y & M a h a li n g a m , 2 0 0 4 ) . In terestin gly, th e o v e ra ll c o m p o s ite

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sc o re for the scale w a s lower th a n the m i d p o in t of the r a n g e — an u n a n ­ tic ip a te d finding. However, b a s e d on the w ay th a t the scale w a s c o n ­ s tr u c te d , it w a s p o s s ib le th a t the t r a n s n a t i o n a l activities of the r e s p o n d e n t s w as n o t p a rtic u la r ly v aried , even th o u g h they engaged in f r e q u e n t social a n d fam ily-related c o m m u n ic a ti o n a n d m o v e m e n t a c r o s s b o r d e r s . T h is m a y be tru e of West In d ia n s in gen e ra l, b u t m ig h t be d ifferent for o th e r g r o u p s . F u r th e r r e s e a r c h m ig h t help to elu cid a te w h e th e r it w o uld be of s u p e r i o r utility to m e a s u r e tr a n s n a tio n a l activi­ ties w ithin s e p a r a te d o m a i n s , s u c h a s political ties v e r s u s familial a n d social ties, v e r s u s having a m o n o lith ic scale th a t lu m p s the v a rio u s d o m a i n s together. A m o n g the d r a w b a c k s of the scale w a s th a t it a s s e s s e d r e s p o n d e n t s ’ subjective p e r c e p tio n of th e ir p a r tic ip a tio n in v a r io u s activities, a n d w a s n o t held a g a in st a n y e x te rn a l o r objective o b se rv a tio n . T h e re can be significant differences b e tw een p e o p le ’s a p p r a i s a l s a n d th e ir a c ­ tions, d u e to social d e sira b ility th a t is elicited by b r o a d surveys. T h is lim itatio n m ig h t be a d d r e s s e d th r o u g h o th e r c o n c u r r e n t a n d /o r q u a li­ tative a s s e s s m e n t s u s e d in c o n ju n c tio n with the scale.

TRANSNATIONAL TIES AND MENTAL HEALTH: FURTHER DIRECTIONS I n d ic e s of p sy c h o lo g ic a l w ell-being, s u c h a s anxiety, d e p r e s s i o n , a n d life sa tis fa c tio n , w e re m e a s u r e d a n d c o r r e la te d w ith s c o r e s o n th e t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m scale. A lth ou gh t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m w a s re la te d to h ig h e r life s a tis f a c tio n , it w a s also r e la te d to h ig h e r d e p r e s s i o n . D e ­ p r e s s i o n a n d anxiety have b e e n s h o w n to go h a n d in h a n d w ith v a r i ­ o u s ty p e s of lo ss. For m a n y im m i g r a n t s , leaving th e ir h o m e c o u n t r ie s r e p r e s e n t s lo s s on se v e ra l d iffe re n t levels, a n d c o n s e q u e n tl y th e i m ­ m ig r a n t s m a y go th r o u g h a p e r io d of m o u r n i n g (de D e lla r o s s a , 1 978; L ijtm aer, 2 0 0 1 ; M arlin, 1994). T h is m o u r n i n g m a y be a s s o c ia te d w ith negative affect s ta t e s s u c h a s d e p r e s s i o n , b u t it m a y also m o t i ­ vate im m i g r a n t s to try to h o ld on to w h a te v e r they c a n of th e ir p a s t. T h e r e fo re , they m a y engage in a w ide r a n g e of t r a n s n a t i o n a l activities, o r engage in a few activities w ith a high frequency. T h is effect m a y also be b id ir e c tio n a l, for in s ta n c e , w ith im m i g r a n t s w h o call h o m e m o r e often b e in g a t h ig h e r r i s k of feeling d e p r e s s e d . S tu d i e s h a v e s h o w n t h a t im m i g r a n t s w h o a r e in th is p h a s e begin to idealize th e ir h o m e c o u n t r ie s , a n d s p e a k of “b a c k h o m e ” in glow ing t e r m s (Lijtmaer, 2 0 0 1 ). T h is m a y a c tu a lly r e p r e s e n t a n i m p o r t a n t s te p in a c c u l t u r a ­ tion, the n e c e s s ity of grieving a lo ss, b e fo re m o v in g on to f u r t h e r s ta g e s in the p r o c e s s . A lth o u g h t h e o r is ts have ju stifia b ly c a u tio n e d a g a in s t c o n c e p tu a liz i n g the n o sta lg ic s e n t i m e n t s a n d a s s o c ia te d a c ­ tivities of im m i g r a n t s a s t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m (F o ro u n & G lick Schiller, 2 0 0 1), it is still p o s s ib le th a t th e s e s e n t i m e n t s m ig h t p r o p e l a ctio n on a n in d iv id u a l b a s is , w h ic h m a y r e s u l t in a m a s s o rg a n iz a tio n a l-lev e l u n d e r t a k i n g . For in s ta n c e , o n th e t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m scale, political

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ac tivism w a s s h o w n to be sign ificantly c o r r e la te d w ith d e p r e s s i o n . Political a n d e c o n o m ic a ctiv ism m ig h t be view ed a s fu n c tio n a l activi­ ties, w h ic h m a y n o t n e c e s s a r ily yield the e m o tio n a l r e w a r d s t h a t s o ­ cial c o m m u n i c a t i o n d o e s . H e n c e West I n d ia n s w h o a r e very active politically m a y be a t r is k of b u r n o u t a n d o th e r f a c to rs th a t lead to d e ­ p r e s s i o n . T h e y m a y b e a lso m o r e a w a r e of a n d le ss i n s u la te d fro m th e h a r s h e r re a litie s of o v e r c o m in g c u l t u r a l a n d e c o n o m ic b a r r i e r s t h a t p la g u e m a n y im m i g r a n t g r o u p s . It th e r e f o re a p p e a r s t h a t t r a n s ­ n a t io n a l is m m ig h t b e u s e d a s a c o p in g m e c h a n i s m w h e n p e o p le a r e a n x io u s o r d e p r e s s e d , b u t it m ig h t a lso b r i n g a b o u t d e p r e s s iv e a n d a n x io u s s y m p t o m s , d e p e n d i n g on th e m o d a lity th r o u g h w h ic h it o p ­ e ra te s . In o th e r to a d d r e s s i s s u e s of c a u s a lity b e tw e e n activities a n d p sy c h o lo g ica l f a c to rs , it w o u ld be n e c e s s a r y to c o n d u c t f u r t h e r e t h n o g r a p h ic r e s e a r c h to g e n e r a te a d d it io n a l th e o r i e s , a s well a s to c o n d u c t lo n g itu d in a l r c s c a r c h e x p lo r in g p r e c is e ly w h a t f a c to rs m o t i ­ vate im m i g r a n t s to p a r tic ip a t e in s u c h activities. D e m o g r a p h ic fa c to r s in c lu d in g so c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s (SES) a n d o t h e r c o n s t r u c t s s u c h a s e th n ic id e n tity a n d so c ia l s u p p o r t w e re f u r ­ t h e r e x a m in e d . T h e p r i m a r y r e s u l t s from th e s t u d y re v e a le d t h a t t r a n s n a t i o n a l ties w e re po sitively r e la te d to e th n ic identity, a lth o u g h w e a k e r th a n e x p ec te d . T r a n s n s a t i o n a l i s m e n c o m p a s s e s activities t h a t a r e d o n e a n d th e r e fo r e r e p r e s e n t a m o r e f u n c tio n a l a s p e c t of k e e p in g in t o u c h w ith o n e ’s c u ltu r e , w h e r e a s e th n ic id e n tity involves id e a s a n d a t t i t u d e s — in telle c tu a l a b s t r a c t i o n s t h a t m a y o r m a y n o t m i r r o r a c t u a l activities. M ore specifically, r e s p o n d e n t s w h o e n ­ d o r s e d m o r e f r e q u e n t so c ia l a n d fam ily r e la te d c o m m u n i c a t i o n also e n d o r s e d h ig h e r e th n ic identity. A lth o u g h th is w a s n o t s u r p r i s i n g for f ir s t- g e n e ra tio n i m m i g r a n t s , it w o u ld be in te r e s tin g to k n o w w h e th e r th is r e la t io n s h ip h o ld s for s e c o n d - g e n e r a ti o n West I n d ia n s , w ho a re le ss likely to have r e m a i n i n g re la tiv e s a n d / o r f r ie n d s living in th e ir p a r e n t s ’ h o m e c o u n tr ie s . Additionally, it w o u ld be of i n t e r e s t to e x a m ­ ine w h e th e r o th e r im m i g r a n t g r o u p s w ith d iffe re n t e th n ic a n d racial id e n titie s n e c e s s a r ily d erive a n y p a r t i c u l a r b e n e fit o r d r a w b a c k from t r a n s n a t i o n a l ties, w h e r e th e ir e th n ic id e n tity is c o n c e r n e d . Fu rth e r, lo n g itu d in a l r e s e a r c h m ig h t reveal c h a n g e s , a s i m m i g r a n t s s p e n d m o r e tim e in the new cou ntry , in th e p a t t e r n s of th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e ­ tw e e n t r a n s n a t i o n a l ties a n d e th n ic identity. T r a n s n a tio n a lis m w a s also positively re la te d to S E S — a n o t h e r fin d ­ ing th a t w a s cxpcctcd. A lthough the availability a n d affordability of c o m m u n ic a ti o n devices s u c h a s cellular p h o n e s a re n o t a s r e s tr ic te d to the financially well off a s m ig h t have b e e n once the case, th e re a re n o n e th e le s s lim ita tio n s on the r e s o u r c e s of less affluent in dividu als. S E S m a y also d ic ta te the b a c k d r o p u n d e r w h ich tr a n s n a ti o n a l activi­ ties a re c o n d u c te d —for in sta n c e , h aving to s e n d r e m itta n c e s a n d n e c ­ e s s a r y g o o d s to family h a s a different m e a n in g th a n s e n d in g g o o d s to m a i n ta in a s to r e b a c k h o m e . C onsequ en tly, tr a n s n a tio n a lis m m a y be s tre ssfu l, d e p e n d in g on the w ay in w hich it is conte x tu a liz e d . For ex­

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a m p le , s e n d in g m o n e y a n d s u p p lie s to frie n d s a n d relatives in the h o m e c o u n tr y c o uld r e s u lt in financial s tr a in , th e re b y p ro d u c in g anxiety a n d d e p r e s s io n . T r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m w a s a lso s h o w n to be sig nificantly r e la te d to s o ­ cial s u p p o r t . M ore specifically, th e d o m a i n s of so c ia l a n d c u ltu r a l ties, fam ily a n d s o c ia l- r e la te d c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d fin a n c ia l a n d c o m m e r c ia l ties w e re po sitively re la te d to so c ia l s u p p o r t . West I n d i ­ a n s rely heavily on fam ily m e m b e r s a n d in f o r m a l soc ia l n e tw o r k s a m o n g f r ie n d s a n d a c q u a i n t a n c e s . On the o t h e r h a n d , th e y a p p e a r le ss likely to rely on g o v e r n m e n t f u n d e d c o m m u n i t y r e s o u r c e s . A n o ­ tab le r e s u l t w a s t h a t s o cial s u p p o r t w a s positively re la te d to life s a t i s ­ faction , b u t a lso p o s i t i v e l y re la te d to anxiety. Given t h a t m u c h r e s e a r c h on s o c ia l s u p p o r t h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d th e p ositiv e s id e of r e ­ ceiving fam ilial s u p p o r t , it is o b v io u s t h a t th e r e a r e p sy c ho lo gic al b e n e fits d eriv e d from h av in g s u c h c o n n e c tio n s . It m a y be h a r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d ho w re lia n c e on fam ily m e m b e r s c a n a c tu a lly m a i n t a i n a c e rta in level of s t r e s s t h a t c o u ld have b e e n r e d u c e d , w e re o t h e r s o u r c e s of s u p p o r t t a p p e d into. R e s e a r c h n o n e t h e l e s s h a s sh o w n th a t o p p o r t u n i t i e s for family te n s io n s a n d d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s do exist, a n d th e se f a c to r s m a y offset s o m e of the s t r e s s - r e d u c i n g b e n e f its t h a t c o m e fro m fam ilial s u p p o r t . T h is n o tio n is s u p p o r t e d by A n to n u c c i's (1 9 9 8 ) w o r k o n the s tr e s s f u l effects of so c ia l s u p p o r t . T h e c o m p le x p a tte r n of ass o c ia tio n betw een t r a n s n a tio n a lis m a n d the social a n d psychological fa c to rs su g g e sts t h a t this p h e n o m e n o n c o m p r i s e s im p o r t a n t activities, s o m e of w hich m ig h t be th e r e s u l t of c u r r e n t c ir c u m s ta n c e s t h a t im m ig r a n ts find th e m se lv e s in, a n d o th e r s of w hich help to b r in g a b o u t a n d m a in ta in im p r o v e m e n ts in the lives of West In d ia n s . Moreover, it is clear t h a t d ifferent fo r m s of tr a n s n a tio n a l ties a re differentially r e la te d to p sy c h o so c ia l o u tc o m e s . A lthough the stu d y d e s c r ib e d in this c h a p t e r high lighted a form of tr a n s n a tio n a lis m th a t s e e m e d to o c c u r p r im a rily a t the family a n d c o m m u n ity level, o th e r m a jo r f o rm s of t r a n s n a t io n a l ties, s u c h a s la rg e r e c o n o m ic u n ­ d e r t a k i n g s a n d political o rg a n iz a tio n s, s h o u l d be investigated a n d statistically m e a s u r e d a s well. A n o th e r p o in t of in te r e s t w ou ld be to e x a m in e w h a t role, if any, g e n ­ d e r plays in the re la tio n s h ip b e tw een tr a n s itio n a l ties a n d p sy ch o lo g i­ cal o u tc o m e s . Previou s r e s e a r c h h a s sh o w n t h a t th e r e a re g e n d e r e d p a t t e r n s of tr a n s n a tio n a l o p e ra tio n s , especially with re g a r d to ce rta in types of e c o n o m ic a n d social activities (Ho, 1991; H o n d a g n e u -S o te lo , 1994). In this study, a lth o u g h th e re w ere no significant g e n d e r differ­ e n c e s on overall s c o r e s for th e scale, the relative d is trib u tio n of s c o r e s a c r o s s d o m a in s for m e n a n d w o m e n w ere n o t a s s e s s e d . T h a t m a y be a n a re a th a t r e q u ir e s d e e p e r pro bing . T h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m s c a le is a p r e l i m i n a r y s te p in lin k in g tr a n s n a tio n a lis m with b r o a d e r a d a p ta t io n a n d in te g ra tio n stra te g ies. A lthough it r e m a i n s to b e se e n w h e th e r s u c h a sc a le c an be fitted into a m o r e generic te m p la te a n d u s e d a m o n g o th e r i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s , the

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tr a n s n a t i o n a l scale h a s alr ead y d e m o n s t r a t e d s o m e reliability a n d va ­ lidity for use a m o n g E n g l is h - s p ea ki ng C a r ib b e a n im m ig r a n ts . It is ne c c s s a ry to c o n d u c t fu rth er r e s e a r c h that would be i n s t r u m e n t a l in refining this m e a s u r e , thereby i ncr eas in g its overall utility in social an d beha vior al science fields. REFERENCES Allen, E. (1987). West I n d i a n s . Clinical g u i d e l i n e s in c ro s s- cul t u r al m e n t a l he al th . New York: J o h n Wiley & So n s. A ntonucci, T. (1998). T he negative effects of close social re la tio n s h ip s . F a mi l y Rel at ions : I n t e r d i s c ip l i n a ry J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d F a m i l y S t u d i e s : S p e c i a l Issue: T h e f a m i l y a s a c o n t e x t f o r h e a l t h a n d wel l- bei ng. 47(4), 3 7 9 - 3 8 4 . B aptiste, D., Jr.. Hardy. K., & Lewis, L. (1997). Family th e ra p y with English C a­ rib b e a n im m ig ra n t families in the United States: Issu e s of em igration, im m i­ gration, c u lture a n d race. C o n t e m p o r a r y Fa mi l y T h e r a p y , 19(3), 3 3 7 - 3 5 9 . Berry, J. W. (1995). Psychology of a c c u ltu ra tio n . In N. R. G o ld b e rg e r (Eds.), T h e c u l tu r e a n d p s y c h o l o g y r e a d e r (pp. 4 7 5 - 4 8 8 ) . New York: New York U niversity Press. B obb, V. (2001). N either ign o ra n ce n o r bliss: Race, r a c is m a n d the West Ind ian i m m ig ra n t experience. In H. C o r d e r o - G u z m a n . R. S m ith , & R. G ro sfoguel (Eds.), Mi grat ion, t r a n s n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n & r ace in a c h a n g i n g N e w York (pp. 2 1 1 - 2 3 8 ) . P h ila d e lp h ia . PA: T em ple University Press. C ra w fo rd -B ro w n , C.. & Rattray. J. (2001). P a r e n t- c h ild r e la tio n s h ip s in C a rib ­ b e a n families. In Cul tu ra l ly d i v e r s e p a r e n t - c h i l d a n d f a m i l y r e l at ions hi ps : A g u i d e f o r social w o r k e r s a n d o the r p ra c t i t i o n e r s (pp. 1 0 7 -1 3 0 ). New York: C o lu m b ia U niversity Press. De D e lla ro ssa G. S. (1978). T h e p ro fe ss io n a l of i m m ig r a n t d e sc e n t. I n t e r n a ­ t ional J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o a n a l y s i s , 59[ 1), 3 7 - 4 4 . Foner, N. (1987). N e w i m m i g r a n t s in N e w York. New York: C o lu m b ia U niv er­ sity P ress. Foner, N. (2001). West In d ia n m ig ratio n to New York: An overview. In I s l a n d s in t he city (pp. 1-22). Berkeley: University of C alifornia P ress. Foner, N. (2001). T r a n s n a tio n a l is m th e n a n d now: New York i m m ig r a n ts today a n d a t the tu r n of the tw entieth century. In H. C o r d e r o - G u z m a n , R. S m ith , & R. G rosfoguel (Eds.), Migration, t r a n s n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n & rac e in a c h a n g ­ ing N e w York (pp. 3 5 - 5 7 ) . P h ilad e lp h ia , PA: T em ple University P ress. Foroun, G., & Glick Schiller, N. (2001). The generation of identity: Redefining the seco nd generation within a tra n sn a tio n a l social field. In H. C o rde ro -G u zm a n , R. Sm ith , & R. Grosfoguel (Eds.), Migration, t r a n s nat i onali z at ion & race in a c h a ng in g N e w York (pp. 3 5 -5 7 ). Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. F u rn h a m , A. (1988). The a d ju stm e n t of so jo urners. In Y. Kim & W. G u d y k u n st (Eds.), Cross-cultural ada p t at io n: Current a p p r o a c h e s (pp. 4 2-62). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Glick Schiller, N., B asch . L., & S z a n to n Blanc, C. (1995). Fro m im m ig r a n t to t r a n s m i g r a n t : T h eo riz in g tr a n s n a tio n a l m ig ra tio n . A n t h r o p ol o qi c a l Q u a r ­ terly, 68(1), 4 8 - 6 3 . G r a h a m , P. (2001). Political in c o r p o r a tio n a n d rc in c o rp o r a tio n : sim u lta n e ity in the D o m in ic a n m ig r a n t e xperience. In H. C o rd e r o - G u z m a n , R. S m ith , &

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R. G rosfoguel (Eds.), M i g r a t i o n , t r a n s n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n & rac e in a c h a n g ­ ing N e w York (pp. 8 7 - 1 0 8 ) . P h ila d e lp h ia , PA: T em ple U niversity P ress. G oldring, L. ( 1996). B lu rrin g B o rd e rs: C o n s tr u c tin g tr a n s n a t io n a l c o m m u n ity in the p r o c e s s of M exico-US m ig ra tio n. R e s e a r c h in C o m m u n i t y Sociology, 6, 6 9 - 1 0 4 . Gopaul-McNicol, S. (1993). Working w i t h West I n d i a n f a m i l i e s . New York: G u ilford Press. Gopaul-McNicol, S., & B rice-B aker, J. (1997). C a r ib b e a n A m e ric a n s. In S. F r ie d m a n (Ed.), T r e a t m e n t o f a n x i e t y d i s o r d e r s a c r o ss c u l t ur e s (pp. 8 1 - 9 8 ) . New York: G uilford Press. H enke, H. (2001 ). Pa t t e r n s o f m i g r a t i o n to t he U nit ed S t a t e s in t he t w e n t i e t h ce n tu r y. T h e We st I n d i a n A m e r i c a n s . W estport, CT: G re e n w o o d P ress. Ho, C. (1991). S a l t - w a t e r Trinnies: Af ro -Tr i ni da di an i m m i g r a n t n e t w o r k s a n d n o n - a s s i m i l a t i o n in Los A n g e l e s . New York: AMS P ress. H o n d ag n e u -S o te lo , P. (1994). G e n d e r e d t r a n s i ti o n s (pp. 9 8 - 1 4 7 ) . Berkeley: University of California Press. K asinitz, P. (2001 ). Invisible n o m o r e ? West In d ia n A m e ric a n s in the social sc i­ entific im a g in a tio n . In N. Foner (Eds.), I s l a n d s in t h e city. West I n d i a n m i ­ g rat ion to N e w York (pp. 2 5 7 - 2 7 5 ) . New York: C o lu m b ia University Press. Lessinger, J. (1992). Investing o r going h o m e ? A tr a n s n a tio n a l s trategy a m o n g In d ia n im m ig r a n ts in the United S ta te s. In N. Glick Schiller, L. B a sc h, & C. B lan c -S z an to n (Eds.), T o w a r d s a t r a n s n a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e on m i g r a t i o n (pp. 5 3 - 8 0 ) . New York: New York A cadem y of S ciences. L i j t m a e r , R. ( 2 0 0 1 ) . S p l i t t i n g a n d n o s t a l g i a in r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s : P sy c h o d y n a m ic c o n s id e r a tio n s . J o u r n a l o f t he A m e r i c a n A c a d e m y o f P s y ­ c h o a n a l y s i s , 29(3), 4 2 7 - 4 3 8 . Mahler, S. (1998). T h e o re tic a l a n d e m p iric a l c o n t r ib u tio n s to w a rd a re s e a r c h a g e n d a for tr a n s n a ti o n a lis m . In M. P. S m ith & L. E. G u a r n iz o (Eds.), T r a n s ­ n a t i o n a l i s m f r o m b e l o w (pp. 6 4 - 1 0 0 ) . New B ru n sw ic k , N J: T r a n s a c tio n Press. M a h le r, S. ( 2 0 0 1 ) . S u b u r b a n t r a n s n a t i o n a l m i g r a n t s : L o n g I s l a n d ’s S a lv a d o r a n s . In H. C o rd e r o - G u z m a n , R. S m ith , & R. G rosfoguel (Eds.). Mi ­ g r a t i o n , t r a n s n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n & r a c e in a c h a n g i n g N e w York (pp. 1 0 9 -1 3 0 ). P h ila d e lp h ia , PA: T em ple U niversity P ress. M arlin, O. (1994). S p ecial is s u e s in the analytic t r e a t m e n t of im m ig r a n ts a n d refugees. I s s u e s in P s y c h o a n a l y t i c P sy ch o l og y , 16{ 1), 7 - 1 6 . Murphy, E. J., & M a haling am , R. (2004). T r a n s n a t io n a l ties a n d m e n ta l health of C a r ib b e a n im m ig r a n ts . J o u r n a l o f I m m i g r a n t H ea l th , 6(4), 1 6 7 -1 7 8 . Murphy, E. J., & M ah a lin g a m . R. (In p r e ss). Perceived c o n g ru e n c e b e tw een ex­ p e c ta tio n s a n d o u tc o m e s : Im p lic a tio n s for m e n ta l h e a lth a m o n g C a r ib b e a n im m ig r a n ts . A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f O r t h o ps y c hi a t r y . Nee. V., & S a n d e r s , J . (2001). T r u s t in ethn ic ties: S ocial c a p ita l a n d im m i­ g r a n ts . Tr us t in societ y. R u s s e l l S a g e F o u n d a t i o n s e r i e s on t r us t (Vol. 2, pp. 3 7 4 - 3 9 2 ) . New York: R ussell Sage F o u n d atio n . Pessar, P. R. (1999). E n g e n d e r in g m ig ra tio n stu d ie s . A m e r i c a n B e h a v i o r a l Sci en ti st , 42(4), 5 7 7 - 6 0 0 . Phinney, J. S. (1990). E th n ic identity in a d o le s c e n ts a n d a d u lts: Review of r e ­ se a r c h . P sy chologi c al Bull et in, 108, 4 9 9 - 5 1 4 . Phinney, J. S., Horenczy, K., L iebk in d, K., & Vedder, P. (2001). E th n ic identity, im m ig ra tio n , a n d wellbeing: An in te ra c tio n a l p erspective. J o u r n a l o f Social I ss ue s , 57(3), 4 9 3 - 5 1 0 .

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Phinney, J. S., & O n w u g h a lu , M. (1996). Racial identity a n d p e rc e p tio n of A m e ric a n ideals a m o n g African A m e ric a n a n d African s t u d e n t s in the United State s. I nt e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f I n te rc u l tu ra l R el at io ns , 20(2), 1 2 7 -1 4 0 . P ortes, A. (1997). Im m ig ra tio n th e o ry for a new c entury: S o m e p r o b le m s a n d o p p o r tu n itie s . I n t e r n a t i o n a l Mi gr at ion R e v i e w , 3 1{ 4), 7 9 9 - 8 2 5 . P ortes, A., & R a m b a u t, R. (1990). I m m i g r a n t A m e r i c a : A port rai t . Berkeley: U niversity of C alifornia Press. Portes. A., G u ra rn izo , L. E., & Landolt, P (1999). T he stu d y of tra n sn a tio n a lism : Pitfalls a n d p r o m is e of a n e m e rg e n t r e s e a r c h field. E t h n i c a n d R ac ial S t u d ­ ies R e v ie w , 22(2), 2 1 7 - 2 3 7 . P ortcs, A., & Z ho u. M. (1994). S h o u ld im m ig r a n ts a s s im ila te ? Public Interest, 16, 18-34. Regis, H. (1988). A th eo retical f r a m e w o rk for the s tu d y of the psychological s e n s e of c o m m u n ity of E n g lis h - s p e a k in g C a rib b e a n im m ig r a n ts . J o u r n a l o f B l a c k P sy ch o l og y , 15{ 1), 5 7 - 7 6 . Ritsner. M., Modai, I., & Ponizovsky, A. (2000). T h e s t r e s s s u p p o r t p a tte r n s a n d psychological d is t r e s s of im m ig r a n ts . S t r e s s M ed ic in e . 16, 1 2 9 - 1 4 7 . Rogers, R. (2001). "Black like w h o ? ” A fro -C a rib b e a n im m ig r a n ts , African A m e ric a n s , a n d the politics of g ro u p identity. In I s l a n d s in t he city (pp. 1 6 3 - 1 9 2 ). Berkeley: U niversity of California Press. S a r a s o n , I., Levine, H., B a s h a m , R., & S a r a s o n , B. (1983). A s sessin g social s u p p o r t : T h e Social S u p p o r t Q u e s tio n n a ire . J o u r n a l o f Pers on a l it y a n d S oc ial P sy chology , 44(1), 1 2 7 -1 3 9 . S m ith , M., & G u a rn iz o , L. (1998). T r a n s n a t i o n a l i s m f r o m bel ow. New B r u n s ­ wick, NJ: T a n s a c tio n Press. Waters, M. (1994). E th n ic a n d racial identification of s e c o n d -g e n e ra tio n Black i m m i g r a n ts in New York City. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Mi gr at ion R e v i e w 28{4, 108), 795-820. Waters, M. (1999). B l a c k identities: I m m i g r a n t d r e a m s a n d A m e r i c a n reali ­ ties.. C a m b rid g e , MA: H a rv a rd U niversity P ress.

Pari II Immigration and Race

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6 A Two-Level Approach to Anti-Immigrant Prejudice and Discrimination T hom as F. Pettigrew U n i v e r s i t y o f C a li fo r ni a , S a n t a C r u z

M any of u s w ritin g in th is vo lu m e a re first-, se c o n d -, o r at least th ir d - g e n e ra tio n N o rth A m e ric a n s. In m y case, m y m o th e r e m ig ra te d from S c o tla n d with m y g r a n d m o t h e r to the U nited S ta te s a c e n tu ry ago. T he p r o b l e m s of w in n in g a c c e p ta n c e in a s tra n g e la n d w ere c e n ­ tral th e m e s of m y fam ily’s leg end s a n d d y n a m ic s . Let m e s h a r e four vivid e x a m p le s of th e se th e m e s. 1. T h e im m ig ra tio n officer a t Ellis Isla n d trie d to m is s p e ll th e ir s im p le four-letter n a m e of G ibb. My fiery g r a n d m o t h e r in ­ te r p r e t e d th is a s an u n p r o v o k e d h u m ilia tio n a n d c a u s e d a scene over th e slight. My th e n 6-year-old m o th e r w a s b a d ly frig htened for fear they w o u ld n o t be allowed to e n te r the country. In deed, sh e never forgot the t r a u m a . 2. My g r a n d m o t h e r ste a d fastly re f u s e d to b e c o m e a citizen. B u t sh e b e c a m e ex trem ely a n x io u s each J a n u a r y w h e n I a c c o m ­ p a n ie d h e r to a r e q u ir e d a n n u a l visit to re g iste r with im m ig ra tio n a u th o ritie s. 3. My m o t h e r also r e m e m b e r e d the in te n se te a sin g sh e e n ­ d u r e d in sc h o o l c o n c e rn in g h e r s t r o n g S c o ttis h accent. She qu ickly a d a p te d , a n d later de veloped the th ic k e s t Virginian a c ­ c e n t one c ould im agine. 4. Finally, m y m o t h e r c a m e to identify p a s s io n a te ly with the U nited S ta te s. In deed, s h e w o u ld n o t to le ra te a ny critic ism of h e r 95

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a d o p t e d c o u n t r y — a n o t u n c o m m o n f ir s t- g e n e r a tio n r e s p o n s e . “If you d o n ’t like A m e r ic a ,” s h e w o u ld b lu n tly tell a critic, “go b a c k to w h e r e y o u c a m c from !" I w o u ld gently r e m i n d m y m o t h e r th a t m o s t V irg in ia n s w e re n o t i m m i g r a n t s ; th ey w e r e w h e r e “th e y cam e fro m .” B u t th is fam ily h is to r y h a d little i m m e d i a t e m e a n i n g for m e . As a W hite c itizen o f “B ritish " e x t r a c ti o n in th e A n glop hilic a n d r a c i s t V ir­ g in ia o f th e 19 3 0 s a n d '4 0 s , I h a d n o p r o b l e m s o f a c c e p ta n c e . T h e b l a ­ t a n t i n ju s tic e t h a t s u r r o u n d e d m e involved th e e x t r e m e p r e j u d i c e a n d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n e n d u r e d by B la c k V irg in ia n s. C o n s e q u e n tly , I ha v e s p e n t m o s t o f m y life c o m b a t i n g r a c i s m a n d s tu d y in g w h a t so c ia l s c i ­ e n c e e u p h e m is ti c a lly ca lls “B la c k - W h ite r e la tio n s ." T h i s p e r s o n a l in t r o d u c t i o n e x p la in s w h y I lo ng r e g a r d e d r a c i s m a n d th e p r o b l e m s faced b y i m m i g r a n t s a s m a r k e d l y d iffe r e n t p h e n o m e n a in b o t h in te n s ity a n d fo rm . T h i s e r r o n e o u s view g re w n a t u r a l l y o u t o f m y s p e c ia l e x p e r ie n c e g r o w in g u p in a S c o ttis h - A m e r ic a n i m m i g r a n t fam ily in th e r a c i s t s o u t h e r n U n ite d S ta te s . It w a s n o t u n til the 1 9 8 0 s th a t I q u e s t i o n e d th is m is c o n c e p t i o n . S t a r t i n g in 1 9 8 4 , I b e g a n to c o n ­ d u c t s y s te m a tic r e s e a r c h w ith D u tc h a n d G e r m a n c o lle a g u e s o n th e r e ­ a c ti o n s o f w e s t e r n E u r o p e a n s to th e m illio n s o f n ew i m m i g r a n t s (e.g., M e e r te n s & Pettigrew, 1 9 9 7 ; Pettigrew, 1 9 9 7 , 1 9 9 8 b , 2 0 0 0 a , 2 0 0 0 b ; P ettigrew & M e e r te n s , 1 9 9 5 , 1 9 9 6 , 2 0 0 1 ; Pettig rew e t al., 1 9 9 8 ; van D ick e t al., 2 0 0 3 ; Wagner, v a n D ick, Pettigrew, & C h r is t, 2 0 0 3 ) . It w a s c le a r fr o m t h i s w o r k t h a t p r e j u d i c e a n d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t ra c ia l a n d i m m i g r a n t m in o r i t i e s a r e n o t n e a r ly a s d iff e re n t a s I h a d th o u g h t.

TWO R E SEA R C H T R A D IT IO N S ON ANTI-IM M IGRANT A T T ITU D ES A r a p id ly g r o w in g N o r th A m e r i c a n a n d E u r o p e a n r e s e a r c h lit e r a tu r e in th e so c ia l s c ie n c e s f o c u s e s on p r e j u d i c e a n d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t n e w im m i g r a n t s . (See, for e x a m p le , a n e n tir e is s u e o f th e J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l I s s u e s d e v o te d to im m i g r a t i o n , e d ite d by E s s e s , Dovidio, & D ion, 2 0 0 1 .) F in d in g s fr o m th is w o r k d iv id e in to tw o r e a s o n a b l y d i s ­ tin c t c a te g o rie s. 1. At th e in d i v id u a l a n d i n t e r g r o u p levels of a n a l y s e s , so c ia l p s y c h o l o g is ts s h o w t h a t f o r m s of a n t i - i m m i g r a n t p r e j u d i c e a n d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n clo sely r e s e m b l e th e g e n e r a l l i t e r a t u r e o n th e s e s u b j e c t s for n o n i m m i g r a n t ta r g e ts (e.g., J a c k s o n , B r o w n , B ro w n , & M a r k s , 2 0 0 1 ; Pettigrew & M e e r te n s , 1 9 9 5 ; Pettigrew et al., 19 9 8 ). In b a s ic o u tlin e , th e s e a n t i- im m ig r a tio n f in d in g s t r a c k m o s t of the p h e n o m e n a d o c u m e n t e d by G o r d o n A llp o rt ( 1 9 5 4 ) in h is c la s s ic v o lu m e T h e N a t u r e o f P r e j u d i c e . At th is level, a n ti - i m m i g r a n t p r e j u d ic e a n d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h a r e m a n y f e a tu r e s in c o m m o n w ith o u tg r o u p p r e ju d ic e a n d d i s ­

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crim in a tio n in general. We note th a t p reju dice ag ainst o u tg r o u p s — w h e th e r im m ig r a n t o r n o n im m ig r a n t— is typically p a tte r n e d in sim ilar ways from A u stralia a n d S o u th Africa to N orth A m crica a n d E u ro p e . T h u s, c o rre la tio n s betw een p re ju d ic e a n d d e m o ­ grap hic, political, a n d psychological variab les at the individual level of analysis are r e m a r k a b ly sim ila r a c r o s s the globe. 2. At the c u ltu ra l a n d s tr u c tu r a l levels, however, a n t h r o p o lo ­ gists, political s c ie n tists a n d sociologists d e m o n s tr a t e th a t r e s is ­ tance to im m ig r a n ts often reveals s h a r p ly different p a tte r n s from p re ju d ic e a n d d is c rim in a tio n a g a in st o th e r o u tg ro u p s. For e x a m ­ ple, societies tr e a t new im m ig r a n ts in c o n tra stin g w ays as a fu n c ­ tion of s u c h v ariables as p r io r h istory with im m igratio n, p rio r re la tio n s h ip with the im m ig r a n t g ro u p , laws re g a rd in g citizenship, the e m p lo y m e n t situation , the sp e e d of e n try of the n e w c o m e rs, a n d the size a n d spa tia l d istrib u tio n of the im m ig ra n t group. Interestingly, sev eral a p p a r e n t d is c r e p a n c ie s em erge in the r e s u lts of th e two r e s e a r c h tr a d itio n s . T h e se o ste n s ib le in c o n s is te n c ie s can lead to conflicting p r e d ic tio n s a n d policy im p lic a tio n s. T h is c h a p te r tr a c e s briefly each of th e s e r e s e a r c h tr a d itio n s . T h e n it a t t e m p t s to b rin g th e two r e s e a r c h lite r a tu r e s to g e th e r a n d offers s u g g e stio n s for resolving th e ir a p p a r e n t conflicts in re su lts .

THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF ANTI-IMMIGRANT PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION Social psychology h a s s h o w n re p e a te d ly th a t the b a s ic d y n a m ic s of p re ju d ic e a re s im ila r a c r o s s a b r o a d ra n g e of o u tg r o u p ta rg e ts a n d o u tg ro u p s itu a tio n s . Of c o u rs e , th e re a re u n iq u e a s p e c ts of each type of in te r g r o u p p re ju d ic e re la te d to different h is to r ie s a n d s itu a tio n s . B u t the o v e r a r c h in g d is c ip lin a ry finding d o c u m e n t s the c o m p a ra b ility a c r o s s a w ide ran ge of ta rg e ts a n d a r e a s . Moreover, s ta r tin g w ith the c la s sic r e s e a r c h on the a u t h o r i t a r i a n p e r s o n a lity in the 1 9 4 0 s (A dorno, F re n k e l-B ru n sw ik , Levinson, & S a n f o rd , 1950), social p s y ­ c ho lo gists also have fo u n d th a t p re ju d ic e a g a in s t one o u tg r o u p typi­ cally c o r re la te s positively w ith p r e ju d ic e s a g a in s t o th e r o u tg ro u p s . At the in d iv id u a l level of ana ly sis, a n ti- im m ig r a n t p r e ju d ic e is no ex c e p ­ tion to th e s e g e n e ra l findings. W estern E u r o p e ’s re a c tio n s to the new im m ig r a n ts in th e ir m id s t a re b e s t d o c u m e n te d by one of the la rg e s t su rve y s t u d ie s of eth n ic p r e j ­ u d ice ever c o n d u c te d with p ro b a b ility s a m p le s . In 1 988, th e E u r o p e a n U n io n ’s E u r o b a r o m e t e r su rv e y ( n u m b e r 30) a s k e d seven p ro b a b ility s a m p l e s in four n a tio n s a wide r a n g e of p re ju d ic e m e a s u r e s a b o u t a v a ­ riety of m in o r itie s (for details, see Reif & Melich, 1991). In w h a t w as th e n West G erm any , the surve y a s k e d 9 8 5 m a jo rity r e s p o n d e n t s a b o u t T u rk s . In F ran ce, it a s k e d 4 5 5 m a jo rity r e s p o n d e n t s a b o u t N o rth Afri­ c a n s a n d 4 7 5 a b o u t s o u t h e a s t e r n A sians. In th e N e th e rla n d s , it a s k e d

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4 6 2 m a j o r it y r e s p o n d e n t s a b o u t S u r i n a m e r s a n d 4 7 6 a b o u t T u r k s . A n d in G r e a t B rita in , it a s k e d 4 7 1 m a j o r i ty r e s p o n d e n t s a b o u t W est I n ­ d i a n s a n d 4 8 2 a b o u t A s ia n s (largely P a k i s t a n i s a n d I n d ia n s ; Pettig rew el al., 1 9 9 8 ; Z ic k, 199 7). Two k e y m e a s u r e s d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e tw e e n b l a t a n t a n d s u b tle ty p e s o f p r e j u d i c e (Pettigrew & M e e r te n s , 19 9 5 ). B l a t a n t p r e j u d i c e is th e t r a ­ d itio n a l f o r m ; it is h o t, clo se a n d d ire c t. T h e 10 it e m s t h a t ta p it involve o p e n re je c tio n o f m i n o r i t i e s b a s e d on p r e s u m e d b iolog ical d iffe re n c e s. S u b t le p r e j u d i c e is the m o r e m o d e r n fo rm ; it is cool, d i s t a n t , a n d i n d i ­ r e c t. T h e 10 i te m s t h a t m e a s u r e it a r e n o t r e a d ily r e c o g n iz e d a s i n d i c a ­ t o r s of p r e j u d ic e . T h e y ta p th e p e rc e iv e d t h r e a t o f th e m in o r ity to tr a d i t i o n a l v a lu e s of th e m ajority , th e e x a g g e ra tio n of c u l t u r a l d iffe r­ e n c e s w ith th e m in o rity , a n d th e a b s e n c e o f p o sitiv e feelings to w a r d th e m in o rity . A m e r ic a n r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e s t u d i e d s i m i l a r d i s t i n c t i o n s (Pettigrew, 1 9 8 9 ; S c a r s , 19 8 8 ). A n d , a s v a r i o u s E u r o p e a n w r i t e r s h a d p r o p o s e d e a r lie r (B a rk e r, 1 9 8 2 ; B e r g m a n n & E r b , 1 9 8 6; E s s e d , 19 9 0 ), t h e s u b t l e p r e j u d i c e m e a s u r e p r o v e s e q u a lly u s e f u l in E u r o p e . T h u s , t h e s e e x te n siv e d a t a involve se v e n i n d e p e n d e n t s a m p l e s , f o u r d iff e re n t E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s , six d iv e r s e ta r g e t m in o r itie s , a n d tw o m e a s u r e s o f p r e ju d ic e . We c a n n o w lo ok a t t h e s e 14 (7 s a m p l e s x 2 p r e j u d i c e s c a le s ) t e s ts o f th e c o r r e l a t e s o f E u r o p e a n p r e j u d i c e a g a in s t i m m i g r a n t s (Pettigrew & M e e r te n s , 1 9 9 5 ) a n d c o m p a r e t h e m w ith th e s t a n d a r d fin d in g s o f N o r th A m e r i c a n s u r v e y d a t a (A llport, 1 9 5 4 ; H o o d & M o r r is , 1 9 9 7 , 1 9 9 8 ; S c h u m a n , S te e h , B o b o , & K r y s a n , 1997). In a d d itio n , th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l S o c ia l S u r v e y (ISS) of 1 9 9 5 p r o v id e d r e le v a n t d a t a on 17 c o u n t r i e s t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e (K un ov ich, 2 0 0 2 ) . N ine o f th e c o u n t r i e s a rc in W e s te rn E u r o p e , a n d eig ht a r c in E a s t e r n E u r o p e . It u s e d a s th e d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le for a 6 -ite m s c a le t h a t d i ­ r e c tly m e a s u r e s a t t i t u d e s to w a r d i m m i g r a n t s a n d refu g e e s. It a s k s if r e s p o n d e n t s believe i m m i g r a n t s “i n c r e a s e c r im e ," “ta k e j o b s aw ay f r o m p e o p le ," a n d a r e “b a d for th e e c o n o m y .” T h e s c a le a ls o t a p s policy i s s u e s by a s k i n g if “th e n u m b e r of i m m i g r a n t s s h o u l d be r e d u c e d ” a n d if “re fu g e e s s h o u l d n o t b e a llo w e d to stay."

D e m o g r a p h ic C o r rela te s o f P r e ju d ic e : A ge a n d E d u c a tio n N o r th A m e r i c a n s t u d i e s o f p r e j u d i c e r o u t i n e l y s h o w t h a t p r e j u d i c e i n c r e a s e s w ith th e age of th e r e s p o n d e n t s . T h e s e c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n s o c c u r w h e t h e r th e t a r g e t g r o u p is A fric a n A m e r i c a n s ( S c h u m a n e t al., 1 9 9 7 ) o r L a t in o - A m e r ic a n a n d A s ia n - A m e r ic a n i m m i g r a n t s (H o o d & M o r r i s , 1 9 9 7 ). T h i s n e a r - l i n e a r effect a ls o e m e r g e s in th e W e s te rn E u ­ r o p e a n d a t a in all b u t o n e o f o u r 14 t e s t s . T h e m e a s u r e s o f b o t h b l a ­ t a n t a n d s u b t l e p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t i m m i g r a n t s r e v e a l th is t r e n d (Pettigrew , 2 0 0 0 a ; P e ttig re w & M e e r te n s , 1 9 9 5 ). In th e IS S d a t a of 1 9 9 5 , age is s ig n if ic a n tly a n d p o s itiv e a s s o c i a t e d w ith a n t i - i m m i g r a n t a t t i t u d e s in b o t h W e s te r n a n d E a s t e r n E u r o p e , b u t n o t in all c o u n ­ t r i e s (K u n o v ic h , 2 0 0 2 ) .

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Similarly, N o rth A m eric a n r e s e a r c h c o n s iste n tly find s th a t m e a ­ s u r e s of social class, p a rtic u la rly e d u c a tio n , relate negatively to p r e j u ­ dice a g a in st B lacks, L atinos, a n d A sian s. An cxccption o c c u r r e d m o r e th a n a ha lf-c e n tu ry ago w h e n s o m e s u rv e y s s h o w e d g re a te r an ti-S em itism a m o n g the b e tte r e d u c a te d (Allport, 1954). T h is fin ding sug ge sts th a t we will find g re a te r p r e ju d ic e a m o n g th o se in th e social s t r u c t u r e w ho perceive the g r e a te s t t h r e a t from th e o u tg r o u p in q u e stio n . For all b u t u p p e r s t a t u s im m ig r a n ts (su ch a s H o ng Kong im m ig r a n ts to Van­ couver, C a n a d a ), the p erceived t h r e a t p o s e d by im m ig r a n ts is g re a te s t a t the lower so c io e c o n o m ic levels of the h o s t society. O nce again, th is p a tte r n e m e rg e s in E u r o p e . T h e 1988 E u ro b a r o m e t e r surve y s h o w e d th a t for b o th b la ta n t a n d s u b tle p re ju d ice the w ell-e d u c a ted w ere m o r e to le r a n t of im m i g r a n t s a n d m o r e often fa­ vo red g re a te r rig h ts for the new a rriv a ls (Pettigrew, 2 0 0 0 a ; Pettigrew & M cc rtcn s, 1995; Pettigrew ct al., 1998). A nd the 1995 d a t a from th r o u g h o u t E u r o p e sh o w the s a m e tr e n d for e d u c a tio n in b o th W estern a n d E a s t e r n E u r o p e (Kunovich, 20 02 ).

P o litic a l C orrelates o f P reju d ice: P o litica l C o n serv a tism , N a tio n a lism , G roup R ela tiv e D e p r iv a tio n , an d In ter est in P o litic s N o rth A m e rica n su rv e y s c o n siste n tly sh o w t h a t political c o n s e r v a ­ tism , n a tio n a lis m , a n d a s e n s e of g ro u p d e p riv a tio n relative to targ et o u tg r o u p s a re positively c o rr e la te d with p r e ju d ic e of m a n y types (Pettigrew, 2 0 0 0 a , 2 0 0 1 b ; Pettigrew& M ee rte n s, 1995). M o re o v e r,g en ­ e ral in te r e s t in po litics is a ss o c ia te d with o u tg ro u p to le ra n c e . E a c h of th e se p r e d ic t o r s o p e r a te s in the s a m e m a n n e r in th e E u r o b a r o m e t e r r e s u lt s in all seven s a m p le s for b o th b la ta n t a n d su b tle p re ju d ic e (Pettigrew, 2 0 0 0 a ; Pettigrew & M e erte ns, 1995). T h e se v a ria b le s are n o t te ste d in the r e p o r t on the ISS d a ta (Kunovich, 200 2).

P er so n a lity C orrelate o f P reju d ice: A u th o rita ria n ism E ver sin c e the classic s tu d y of a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m at the U niversity of C a lifornia a t B erkeley (A dorno, ct al., 1950), r c s c a r c h in N o rth A m e r ­ ica h a s c o n siste n tly fo u n d a s tr o n g positive re la tio n b e tw een th is p e r ­ s o n a l i t y s y n d r o m e a n d p r e j u d i c e . N ot s u r p r i s i n g l y , th e s a m e r e la tio n s h ip h o ld s in E u r o p e a n d a t a on p r e ju d ic e a g a in s t im m i g r a n ts (Pettigrew, 2 0 0 0 b ).

E x p e rien tia l C orrelate o f P reju d ice: C o n ta ct W ith th e O utgroup O p tim a l in te r g r o u p c o n ta c t is one of th e reliable m e a n s of re d u c in g p re ju d ic e in th e social psychological r e s e a r c h lite ra tu re (Pettigrew,

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1 99 8a; Pettigrew & T r o p p , 2 0 0 0 , in p re s s ). R e se a rc h a r o u n d the globe reveals its value, a n d r e s e a r c h on a ttitu d e s to w a r d im m ig r a n ts is no exception. H ood a n d M o rris (1 997) fo u n d th a t living in a r e a s with A sian a n d L atino im m ig r a n t p o p u la tio n s re la te s to significantly r e ­ d u c e d levels of pre ju d ic e . Similarly, the E u r o b a r o m e t e r 3 0 d a ta sh ow th a t c o n ta c t with im m ig r a n t s t h r o u g h o u t W estern E u r o p e — especially c o n ta c t t h a t involves f r ie n d s h ip — is a m a jo r in d ic a to r of low ered p r e j ­ ud ic e (Pettigrew, 1997; Pettigrew & M e e rte n s, 1995). R e s e a r c h on the d is c r im in a to r y b e h a v io r of in d iv id u a ls is less p r e v ­ alent, b u t it also u n c o v e rs c o m p a r a b le findings. In a f a m o u s review, Crosby, Bromley, a n d Saxe (19 80 ) s u m m a r i z e d the r e s e a r c h lite ra tu re on su b tle fo rm s of i n te r p e r s o n a l d is c r im in a tio n often c o m m itte d by White A m e ric a n s on b la c k A m e ric a n s. G u id e d by this early w o r k in the U nited S ta te s, Klink a n d Wagner (19 99) d e m o n s t r a t e d essentially the s a m e p h e n o m e n a of i n t e r p e r s o n a l d is c r im in a tio n by native G e r m a n s ag a in s t im m ig r a n t m in o ritie s .

THE CULTURAL AND STRUCTURAL STUDY OF ANTI-IMMIGRANT R E SPO N SE S At the c u ltu r a l a n d s t r u c t u r a l levels of an aly sis, however, a n t h r o p o l o ­ gists, political s c ie n tis ts, a n d sociologists d e m o n s t r a t e th a t r e s is ta n c e to im m ig r a n ts often reveals s h a r p ly different p a t t e r n s of p r e ju d ic e a n d d is c r im in a tio n a g a in s t o t h e r o u tg ro u p s . C o n s id e r 11 s u c h c u ltu ra l a n d s t r u c t u r a l e x a m p le s.

P rior N a tio n a l E x p e r i e n c e W ith I m m i g r a t i o n . T h e New a n d Old W o rld s h ave d iffe re n t e x p e r ie n c e s w ith im m ig r a tio n . For the New W orld, in - m ig ra tio n fro m t h r o u g h o u t th e w o rld is a c e n tu r ie s - lo n g p a t t e r n . To q u e s tio n th e b e lo n g in g n e s s of a n o t h e r g r o u p c a n ra is e q u e s t i o n s a b o u t y o u r ow n g r o u p . For in s ta n c e , even the m o s t in te n s e A m e r ic a n r a c i s t s , s u c h a s G e o rg e W allace, n e v e r q u e s t i o n th e b e lo n g in g n e s s of A frican A m e r ic a n s . In W estern E u r o p e , by c o n tr a s t, the b e lo n g in g n e s s of th e ne w i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s — from the T u r k s to the V ie tn a m e s e — is often th e fir s t b a r r i e r for im m i g r a n t s to o v e r­ co m e . A lth o u g h th e r e h a s b e e n far m o r e im m ig r a ti o n into W estern E u r o p e in e a r lie r e r a s t h a n c u r r e n t p o p u l a r th in k in g re c o g n iz e s (Poles to G erm a n y , R u s s i a n s to F ra n c e , etc.), th e r e r e m a i n s a v a s t d if­ feren c e b e tw e e n N o rth A m e ric a a n d W estern E u r o p e in p r i o r e x p e r i­ e n c e w ith im m ig r a tio n . D iv e r s e C o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s o f I m m i g r a t i o n a n d C iti z e n s h i p A m o n g H o s t C o u n tr ie s . R e la te d to th e b e lo n g in g n e s s is s u e a re the c o n t r a s t i n g w ays h o s t s o c ie tie s c o n c e p tu a liz e ethnicity, c itiz e n ­ s h ip , a n d im m ig r a tio n . D ifferen t f r a m e s for view ing im m ig r a tio n s h a p e diffe re n t r e c e p tio n s of i m m i g r a n t s (P ra tto & L e m ie u x , 2 0 0 1 ).

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T h u s , in s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t to N o rth A m e ric a , the G e r m a n s a n d B ritish have a n in f o r m a l “b l o o d ” n o tio n of th e ir n a ti o n a l i d e n titie s. T h is c o n ­ c e p tu a liz a tio n m a k e s it difficult for im m i g r a n t s to g ain c itiz e n s h ip in G e r m a n y a n d for im m i g r a n t s even with c itiz e n s h ip to gain full e n try into the d o m i n a n t g r o u p in G r e a t B rita in . It a ls o m e a n s t h a t id e o lo ­ gies of a s s im ila t io n a n d s e g re g a tio n he ld by th e h o s t p o p u l a tio n closely re la te to a t titu d e s to w a r d im m i g r a n t s (Zick, Wagner, van D ick, & Petzel, 2 0 0 1 ).

P rior H i s t o r y o f H o s t C o u n tr y W ith th e O u tg r o u p . T h e r e is a s h a r p difference b e tw een Fre n c h a ttitu d e s to w a rd V ie tn a m e se a n d Al­ ge rian im m ig r a n ts . F ra n c e lost colonial w a r s to b o th p e o p le s, b u t the F re n c h h a r b o r far g re a te r p re ju d ic e a g a in s t th e A lgerians (Pettigrew & M eerte n s, 1 995; Pettigrew et al., 1998). O ne p o s s ib le e x p la n a tio n is t h a t the F re n c h c o n s id e r e d Algeria a d e p a r t m e n t — a n integral p a r t of F rance itself. T hey did n o t re g a rd I n d o c h in a in th is m a n n e r. By vio­ lently b r e a k in g from the m o t h e r la n d , A lgerians b e c a m e a spe c ial t a r ­ get of a b u s e for J e a n -M a r ie Le Pen a n d his N a tio n a list Front. M u ltip le D i s t i n g u i s h i n g C h a r a c t e r i s t ic s . Native E u r o p e a n m in o ritie s, s u c h a s th e B a s q u e s of S p a in , th e S c o ts of G r e a t B ritain, or the F risia n s of the N e th e r la n d s , typically s h a r e a language, religion, a n d even ph y sic a l a p p e a r a n c e with th e ir n a tio n a l m ajo ritie s. B u t new im m ig r a n ts often differ on a m ultiplicity of s u c h tra its. T h e se differ­ en ces m a k e the new im m ig r a n t s a p p e a r c o n s p ic u o u s a n d far m o r e n u ­ m e r o u s th a n they actually are. T h e E m p l o y m e n t S i t u a t i o n . T im e s of m a s s u n e m p lo y m e n t a re clearly n o t o p tim a l for the a rriv a l of im m ig r a n ts . Both the U nited S ta te s a n d C a n a d a c u t b a c k severely on in -m ig ra tio n d u r in g the G re a t D e p r e s s io n of th e 1 93 0s. B u t the E u r o p e a n situ a tio n of r e c e n t y e a rs p r e s e n t s a lm o s t th e o p p o s ite p ic tu re . A c c o rd in g to E u r o s t a t, th e E u r o ­ p e a n U nion (EU) sta tistic a l office, th e re w ere in 2 00 1 m o r e d e a t h s th a n b ir th s in 43% of the 211 reg io n s t h a t c o m p r is e d the EU. Even w h e n th e new im m i g r a n t s a re in c lu d e d , o n e -fo u rth of the E u r o p e a n U nion's re g io n s lo st p o p u la tio n in 20 01 (Fuller, 20 0 2 ). Moreover, W est­ e r n E u r o p e 's native p o p u la tio n s a r e ra p id ly aging. R a th e r th a n a g e n ­ e ral p ic tu r e of u n e m p lo y m e n t, the a b s e n c e of y o u n g w o r k e r s severely th r e a te n s E u r o p e a n pro sp e rity . In fact, W estern E u r o p e r e q u ir e s i m ­ m ig ra tio n to c o m p e n s a te for the d ecline a n d aging of its la b o r force ( S t a u b h a a r & Z i m m e r m a n , 1993). G e r m a n y a n d o th e r W estern E u r o p e a n n a t io n s reco gn ized this p r o b le m in the 1 9 5 0 s w h e n the lo ss of m e n in World War II w a s a m a jo r factor. T h e so -called “g u e st w o r k e r ” a n d o th e r p r o g r a m s to en c o u ra g e in -m ig ratio n w ere d ire c t r e s u lt s of th is m o u n ti n g p r o b le m . In d e e d , the d r a m a tic rise in W estern E u r o p e 's e co n o m ic f o r tu n e s in the la st th ir d

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of the 2 0 th c e n tu r y w o u ld n o t have b e e n p o ss ib le w ith o u t the a rriva l of th e m illio n s of new im m ig r a n ts ( T h r a e n h a r d t, 1992). T h e ir la b o r p r o v e d e s s e n ti a l for the i n d u s t r i a l e x p a n s io n a n d the G e r m a n “e c o n o m ic m ira c le .” To be su re , th is e c o n o m ic fact is n o t widely reco gnized in E u r o p e . T h e c o sts, r a t h e r th a n g ains, of im m ig ra tio n receive p r im a r y atte n tio n . H ence, w h e n r e c e s s io n s c o m e a n d u n e m p lo y m e n t ris e s, Le Pen, Heider, a n d o th e r a n ti- im m ig r a n t po liticia n s have a r o u s e d e m p lo y ­ m e n t fears a m o n g th e ir native p o p u la tio n s . “Two m illion u n e m ­ ployed," s h o u te d Le Pen in a fa m o u s r e m a r k , “t h a t ’s two million im m i g r a n ts too m a n y ” (G u nn, 1998, p. 23). S u c h x e n o p h o b ic a p p e a ls are especially effective a m o n g th o s e in the h o s t society w ho h o ld zeros u m beliefs a b o u t how r e s o u r c e s a re allocated to g r o u p s (E sses, Dovidio, J a c k s o n , & A rm s tro n g , 2 0 0 1 ). Im agine the c o u n tc rfa c tu a l. W hat m ig h t have b e en the deg ree of r e ­ sis ta n c e to the new im m ig r a n ts of W estern E u r o p e h a d the sh o r ta g e of yo u n g w o r k e r s n o t b e e n so a c u te ? E u r o p e a n g o v e r n m e n ts w o uld n o t have initiated the g u e s t w o r k e r p r o g r a m s . A nd im m i g r a n t s w ho w o uld have a rriv e d w o u ld have faced even m o r e hostility.

T h e S p e e d o f E n t r y . Perceived t h r e a t s — to j o b s , h o u s in g , e d u ­ cation, a n d social b e n e fits —u n d e r lie p re ju d ic e a g a in s t m a n y m i n o r i ­ ties ( S t e p h a n & S t e p h a n , 1 99 6). An i m m i g r a n t g r o u p a rr iv in g su d d e n ly in the h o s t c o u n tr y can in c r e a s e s u c h th r e a ts dram atically. Italy w itn e s se d th is p h e n o m e n o n in th e y e a r s b etw een 1989 a n d 1992 (Pettigrew et al., 1998). Im m ig ra tio n into Italy s p ik e d d u r in g the se y e a rs, closely followed by a s u d d e n rise in a n ti-im m ig r a n t o p in io n s. T h e C u ltu r a l A f f i n i t y B e t w e e n th e H o s t S o c i e t y a n d th e New I m m i g r a n t s . C u ltu ra l conflicts, o r th e a b s e n c e of s u c h conflicts, b e ­ tw een the h o s t a n d im m ig r a n t p o p u la tio n s is also im p o r ta n t. In his s tu d y of e th n ic s lu r s , M ullen (2 0 0 1 , p. 47 2) c o n c lu d e d “t h a t sm aller, less familiar, a n d m o r e foreign e th n ic i m m ig r a n t g r o u p s te n d to be cognitively r e p r e s e n te d in a s im p listic a n d negative m a n n e r .” E s p e n s h a d e a n d C a lh o u n (1993) s t u d ie d the a ttitu d e s of s o u th e r n C a lifo rn ia n s to u n d o c u m e n t e d w o r k e r s in th e ir m id s t. They fo u n d only w e a k s u p p o r t for a la b o r m a r k e t c o m p e titio n e x p la n a tio n . Rather, c u ltu r a l affinity p ro v e d to be an i m p o r t a n t p r c d ic t o r of a ttitu d e s to ­ w a rd illegal im m ig r a n ts . Latino A m e ric a n s, w ho s h a r e c u ltu r a l lies with the m a jo rity of th e illegals in s o u th e r n C alifornia, w ere c o n s i d e r ­ ably m o r e a c c e p tin g of the new arriv als. L anguage is an especially im p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t of c u ltu ra l affinity. E a s te r n E u r o p e a n im m ig r a n ts to G erm any, for ex a m p le, have an a d ­ vantage over T u rk is h im m ig r a n ts in often h aving h a d s o m e p r io r e x p e ­ rie n c e with the G e r m a n language. C lem e n t, Noels, a n d D e n e a u lt (20 0 1 ) d e m o n s t r a t e d the c e n tra l role of s e c o n d -lan g u a g e c o m m u n i c a ­

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tion for s h a p in g the effects of in te r g r o u p co n ta c t, e th n ic identity, a n d psychological c o m m u n ic a tio n .

T h e P o litic a l S t r u c t u r e s o f t h e R e c e iv in g C o u n tr ie s . K o o p m a n s (19 95 ) inv estigated the s u b s ta n ti a l differences in violence d ir e c te d a l im m ig r a n ts a c r o s s W estern E u r o p e a n n a tio n s . U sing social m o v e m e n t theory, h e sh o w s th e im p o r ta n c e of political elites in legiti­ m iz in g th e violence by p o rtr a y in g the new im m ig r a n ts a s “u n b e a r a b le b u r d e n s . ” K o o p m a n s a rg u e d t h a t e x tre m e -rig h t political p a r tie s a c t as safety valves by p ro v id in g a lte rn a tiv e s to violence for the e x p r e s s io n of a n ti- im m ig r a n t feelings. T h u s , h e m a in ta in e d , violence r a te s a r e low ­ e s t in c o u n tr ie s with s tr o n g a n ti-im m ig ra tio n p a r tie s (France, D e n ­ m a r k , a n d Norway) a n d h ig h e st in c o u n tr ie s w h e r e s u c h p a r tie s have failed to develop s tr e n g th (G e rm a n y a n d the U nited K ingdom ). B u t K o o p m a n s ’s th e s is is p ro b le m a tic . E u r o p e ’s ex p e rie n c e b e ­ tw een th e World Wars p ro v id e s c o u n te re x a m p le s . Fascist p a r tie s a n d political violence d ev elo ped tog ether d u r in g the se tu r b u le n t y e a rs. A r i­ val e x p la n a tio n easily fits h is d a ta on differential violence a c r o s s E u ­ ro pe . T h e right-wing p a r tie s of G e r m a n y (the C h r is tia n D e m o c ra ts ) a n d the U nited K ingdom (the C o nservatives) in c o r p o r a t e d the a n ti- im ­ m ig r a n t a g en d a . T h is action h a d th re e r e s u lts . It allow ed th e se c o n s e r ­ vative p a r tie s to w r e s t w o rk in g -c la ss votes aw ay from th e ir left-wing o p p o s itio n ( T h r a e n h a r d t, 1996). It also s t u n t e d the g ro w th of the far-right R e p u b lic a n e r s in G e r m a n y a n d the N ation al F r o n t m o v e m e n t in th e U nited K ingdom . Finally, the r a c is t s t a n d s of th e se e s ta b lis h e d right-wing p a r tie s len t far g re a te r legitim ization to a n ti-im m ig r a n t vio­ lence th a n the e x tre m e p a r tie s of France, D e n m a r k , a n d N orw ay c ould m a n a g e . T h is la st effect h e lp s to explain the g re a te r violence d ire c te d ag a in s t im m ig r a n ts in G e r m a n y a n d G re a t B ritain . In any event, the u n iq u e political p a r ty a lig n m e n t of e a c h h o s t n a tio n is an i m p o r ta n t s t r u c t u r a l e le m e n t in the re c e p tio n a c c o r d e d new im m ig r a n ts .

T h e O p p o r tu n itie s f o r O p tim a l In te r g r o u p C o n ta ct A c r o s s H o u s ­ ing, Work, E d u c a tio n a l, a n d R ec r e a tio n a l S e t t i n g s . O p p o r t u n i ­ ties for in tc rg r o u p in te ra c tio n a rc an ob viou s s t r u c t u r a l p re r e q u is ite for o p tim a l i n te r g r o u p c o n ta c t (Pettigrew, 1998a). S e greg ation a n d d i s ­ c r im in a tio n in h o u sin g , e m p lo y m e n t, a n d s c h o o ls a re w i d e s p r e a d in W estern E u r o p e , yet th e re is w ide v a ria n c e in th e s e f a c to rs a c r o s s n a ­ tio n s (Pettigrew, 1998b).

T h e P o ten tia l f o r a n d A c tu a l E x is te n c e o f In te g r a tiv e A s s o c i­ a tio n s o f Im m ig r a n ts a nd N o n im m ig ra n ts. D a rb y (1986), V arshney (2 002) a n d o t h e r s have e m p h a s iz e d the i m p o r t a n c e of m u l t i ­ e th n ic a s s o c ia tio n s with c o m m o n in te r e s ts in re d u c in g in te rg ro u p vio­ lence. T h is l ite r a tu r e h a s d e v e lo p e d in e c o n o m ic s a n d political science, a n d it largely ign ore s in te rg r o u p c o n ta c t th e o ry in social p s y ­

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chology. B u t th e se two quite s e p a r a te th e o re tic a l d o m a in s neatly d ov e­ tail with one a n other. T he S ize a n d C oncentration o f the I m m i g r a n t Group. In ag­ gregate a n a ly se s, the size of the i m m i g r a n t p o p u la tio n is typically p o s i ­ tively r e l a t e d to a n t i - i m m i g r a n t a t t i t u d e s — e s p e c ia lly in p o o r e r c o u n tr ie s . H ence, Q uillian (199 5) fo u n d th a t the in te ra c tio n of high n o n - E u r o p e a n U nion m in o rity p e rc e n ta g e a n d low g r o s s n a tio n a l p r o d u c t a c c o u n ts for 70% of the v a ria n c e in a n ti-im m ig r a n t p re ju d ic e m e a n s a c r o s s 12 E u r o p e a n Union n a tio n s (see also Fu ch s, G e r h a r d s , & Roller, 1993). T h e c o n c e n tr a tio n of im m i g r a n ts in p a r ti c u la r u r b a n a r e a s — s u c h a s F r a n k fu r t, M arseilles, a n d R o t t e r d a m — e n h a n c e s th is effect. T h is r e s u lt coin c id e s w ith s im ila r aggregate findings c o n c e rn in g anti-B lack p re ju d ic e , d is c r im in a tio n , a n d voting a c r o s s c o u n tie s in the A m e ric a n S o u t h (e.g., Pettigrew & C a m p b e ll. 1960; Pettigrew & C ra m e r, 1959). However, th e r e are, we sh a ll note, significant ex c e p ­ tions to this tre n d in a r e a s w h e re the im m ig r a n t m in o r itie s c o n stitu te sm a ll p e rc e n ta g e s of the p o p u la tio n .

COMBINING THE TWO RESEARCH TRADITIONS E a c h of the se r e s e a r c h lite r a tu r e s offers in valuable insig hts, a n d b o th are e sse n tia l to o b ta in a r o u n d e d p e rsp e c tiv e on th e p r o b le m of a n ti- im m ig r a n t r e s p o n s e s of native p o p u la tio n s . Note ho w each r e ­ s e a r c h tra d itio n s u p p lie s w h a t th e o th e r la c k s. Aggregate d a ta on s t r u c t u r a l a n d c u ltu ra l fa c to rs r e q u ire lin k s with in te r g r o u p a n d in d i ­ vidual d a ta to avoid the ecological fallacy of a s s u m i n g m ic r o p r o c e s s e s from aggregate d a t a alone. Similarly, in d iv id u a l a n d in te r g r o u p d a ta re q u ir e lin k s with th e b r o a d e r aggregate d a ta ta p p in g c u ltu r a l a n d s t r u c t u r a l co n te x ts to avoid the c o m p o s itio n a l fallacy of a s s u m i n g m a c r o - p r o c e s s e s from in d iv id u a l d a ta alone. T h is two-level p e rsp e c tiv e a p p lie d to im m ig r a tio n a ttitu d e s is, of c o u rs e , a sp cc ia l ease of the b r o a d e r is su e for social scien ce generally in c o m b in in g s t r u c t u r a l (or contextual) effects with in d iv id u a l effects. T h e re is a n extensive lite ra tu r e th r o u g h o u t the social sc ie n c e s a d ­ d r e s s in g th is c e n tr a l is s u e — especially a m o n g political s c ie n tis ts (e.g., Fo rbes, 1997; G laser, 1994; Hood & M o rris, 1997; Stein, Post, & R in d e n , 2 0 0 0 ) a n d so ciologists (e.g., Blau, 1960; Davis, S p a e th , & H u so n , 1961; T a n n e n b a u m & B a c h m a n , 1964; Taylor, 1 998 , 2 0 0 0 ). Psychological social p sy c h o lo g ists have ra re ly c o n s id e r e d the is s u e in d e p th . T h is c h a p te r d o e s n o t a t t e m p t to s u m m a r i z e th is m e th o d o lo g i­ cal lite ra tu re . I n ste a d , it d r a w s on th is w o r k to h elp with o u r a p p lic a ­ tion of th is f u n d a m e n ta l issu e to th e specific topic of a ttitu d e s to w a rd im m ig r a n ts a n d im m ig ra tio n . Investigators have employed a great variety of m e th o d s to b e a r on this pro blem . One of the m o s t direct a n d a m b itio u s te c hniqu e s involves the dev elopm ent of a d a ta file th a t m erges both c e n su s an d o ther str u c tu r a l

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d a ta with survey d a ta on individuals (Glaser, 1994; Kunovich & H o dson, 2 002; Taylor, 1998, 2000). T his a p p ro a c h req u ire s knowledge of the p r e ­ cise geographic sa m p lin g poin ts of the survey data. T a y lo r ( 1 9 9 8 , 2 0 0 0 ) p r o v i d e s a p o i n t e d e x a m p l e o f s u c h a n a n a l y ­ sis. U s in g h i e r a r c h i c a l r e g r e s s i o n , s h e te s te d th e effect of r a c ia l c o m p o s i t i o n s of lo cal p o p u l a t i o n s o n w h ite A m e r i c a n s ' r a c ia l a t t i ­ tu d e s . C o n s i s t e n t w ith th e r e s u l t s o f e a r lie r a n d le s s e le g a n t d e ­ s ig n s , T a ylor ( 1 9 9 8 , p. 5 1 2 ) fo u n d for an a r r a y o f d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s t h a t “w h ite negativ ity sw e lls a s th e lo cal b l a c k p o p u l a t i o n s h a r e e x p a n d s . ” T h i s s t r u c t u r a l effect is s iz a b le . A m e r e 10% i n ­ c r e a s e in th e b la c k p o p u l a t i o n s l e a d s to a la r g e r in c r e a s e in w hite p r e j u d i c e t h a n 3 y e a r s of e d u c a t i o n d e c r e a s e s p r e j u d ic e . M oreover, c o n tr o lli n g for th is c o m p o s i t i o n a l v a r ia b le r e d u c e s b y a b o u t h a lf the S o u t h / n o n - S o u t h r e g io n a l d iffe re n c e in W hite r a c ia l a t t i t u d e s . U sing the s a m e a p p r o a c h a n d s im ila r h ie r a rc h ic a l r e g re s s io n so ft­ w are, K unovich a n d H o d s o n (20 02 ) s e a r c h e d for the c o r re la te s of e t h ­ nic bigotry in B o s n ia a n d C ro a tia j u s t b efore the b r e a k u p of the old Yugoslavian re p u b lic . Unlike Taylor's ra c ial r e s u lts for th e s o u th e r n U nited S ta te s, they fo u n d eth n ic d iversity w a s a ss o c ia te d with d e ­ c r e a s e d p re ju d ic e a c r o s s a r e a s. M ediation al a n a ly se s u s in g s t r u c t u r a l e q u a tio n m o d e ls offer a n ­ o th e r a p p r o a c h (B aro n & Kenny, 1986). H ere c u ltu r a l a n d s t r u c t u r a l v a ria b le s a c t a s d ista l p r e d ic to r s of a n ti- im m ig ra n t a ttitu d e s a n d b e ­ hav io r w h o s e effects a re m e d ia te d by in d iv id u a l a n d i n te r g r o u p v a ri­ a b le s a c tin g a s p r o x i m a l p r e d i c t o r s . A c r o s s d iv e r s e E u r o p e a n societies, social psychological v a r ia b le s ac t in s im ila r w ays a s they m e ­ diate the cffccts of c o n tr a s tin g c u ltu ra l a n d s t r u c t u r a l c o m p o n e n ts on a ttitu d e s to w a rd im m ig r a n ts (Pettigrew, 2 0 0 1 a ).

A p p aren t D iv er g en ces in F in d in gs o f th e Two A p p roach es T he m o s t in te re stin g a n d i m p o r ta n t feature of the two-level a p p r o a c h is th at it allows u s to se ek r e a s o n s for a p p a r e n t d is c re p a n c ies in findings a c r o s s the two levels. Indeed, the two levels of analysis often arrive at w h a t first a p p e a r to be strikingly different c on c lu sion s. T h e se differ­ ences lead to c o n tra stin g im p lic a tio n s for effective p ublic policy. C o n ­ sid e r the a p p a r e n t d isc re p a n c y betw een the two re se a r c h lite ra tu re s c o n c e rn in g the differential effects of the size of the m ino rity p o p u la tio n on m ajo rity prejud ice. On the one h a n d , a s Taylor’s w o rk indicates, p o ­ litical science a n d sociological theory a n d r e s e a r c h have long held th a t the larger a m in o rity ’s p o p u la tio n ratio, the g r e a t e r the th re a t to an d p re ju d ic e of the m a jo rity (e.g., Pettigrew & C am pb ell, 1960; Pettigrew & C ram er, 1959; Fuchs, G e r h a r d s , & Roller, 1993; Taylor. 1998, 2000). B u t g r e a te r n u m b e r s of im m ig r a n ts a lso s h o u ld lead to m o r e c o n ­ tact b e tw een the h o s t p o p u la tio n a n d the new a rriv a ls. T h u s , this ag­ gregate finding s e e m s al v a ria n c e with the r e s e a r c h r e s u lts a t the in d iv id u a l level. It conflicts with the s t a n d a r d social psychological

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f in d in g t h a t m o r e i n t e r g r o u p c o n t a c t typically l e a d s to r e d u c e d p r e j u ­ d ice (Pettigrew & T r o p p , 2 0 0 0 , in p r e s s ) . H ow c a n we e x p la in th is a p p a r e n t th e o r e tic a l con flict? To s t a r t , we s h o u l d n o te t h a t th e d i s c r e p a n c y d o e s n o t a lw a y s e m e rg e . T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s i n s t a n c e s w h e r e , j u s t a s c o n ta c t th e o r y w o u ld p r e d ic t, s m a l l e r p o p u l a t i o n r a t i o s o f th e ta r g e t g r o u p a r e a c t u ­ ally a s s o c i a t e d w ith i n c r e a s e d p r e j u d i c e a g a in s t th e m . T h e s t a t e s th a t f o r m e r ly c o n s t i t u t e d E a s t G e rm a n y , for e x a m p le , ha v e sign ifican tly s m a l l e r p e r c e n t a g e s o f i m m i g r a n t s b u t c o n s i s te n tly m o r e a n t i - i m m i ­ g r a n t p r e j u d i c e t h a n th e f o r m e r W est G e r m a n y . A nd r e s t r i c t e d i n t e r ­ g r o u p c o n t a c t in th e E a s t e x p la in s th e d iffe re n c e (W agner e t al. 2 0 0 3 ) . S im ilarly , Z ic k ( 1 9 9 7 ) f o u n d t h a t G e r m a n cities (as o p p o s e d to s ta te s ) w ith la rg e r i m m i g r a n t p o p u l a t i o n s te n d e d to have o n a v e ra g e le s s p r e j ­ u d ic e . We n o t e d t h a t th e s a m e effect w a s f o u n d for a r e a s w ith in B o s n ia a n d C r o a t ia (K u no vich & H o d s o n , 2 0 0 2 ). In N o r th A m e r ic a n r e s u l t s , T a y lo r ( 1 9 9 8 ), u s i n g th e s a m e two-level m e t h o d s n o t e d earlier, f o u n d t h a t larg e local c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of A sia n a n d L a tin o A m e r i c a n s d id n o t e n g e n d e r h e ig h te n e d W hite a n t i p a t h y to w a r d th e s e g r o u p s . Sim ilarly , H o o d a n d M o r r is ( 1 9 9 7 ) r e p o r t e d th a t E u r o p e a n A m e r i c a n s w h o live in a r e a s w ith m o r e A sia n a n d L a tin o i m ­ m i g r a n t s h a v e m o r e fa v o r a b le a t t i t u d e s to w a r d i m m i g r a t i o n a n d th e s e i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s . T h e ir la te r w o r k s h o w e d t h a t th is fin d in g h e ld only for d o c u m e n t e d , legal i m m i g r a n t s (H o od & M o r r is , 19 9 8 ). For th e u n ­ d o c u m e n t e d illegals, h ow ever, la r g e r p r o p o r t i o n s w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w ith g r e a t e r Anglo p r e ju d ic e . H o o d a n d M o r r is ( 1 9 9 8 ) th e o r iz e d t h a t th is d iffe re n c e re fle c ted th e c o n t r a s t i n g ty p e s of i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t legal a n d illegal i m m i g r a n t s w e r e likely to ha v e w ith A nglos. As is often th e c a se , we c a n glean a clue to o u r p u z z le fro m th e s e a p ­ p a r e n t “e r r o r c a s e s . ” T h e s e e x c e p tio n s typically involve relatively s m a ll n u m b e r s of the m in o r ity ta rg e t g r o u p . E a s t G e rm a n y , for e x a m p le , h a s only a b o u t 2% fo re ig n e rs, c o m p a r e d w ith West G e r m a n y ’s 10% (Wagner et al., 2 0 0 3 ). T h is s itu a tio n a lso typifies m o s t s i t u a t i o n s for B o s n ia a n d C ro a tia . Sim ilarly, in th e U nited S ta te s w ith few e x c e p tio n s, A sian a n d L a tin o A m e ric a n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e s m a l l e r th a n A frican A m e ric a n c o n c e n t r a ti o n s in the S o u th . W h e re th is is n o t th e c a se , th e d o m i n a n t t h r e a t p a t t e r n often r e t u r n s . T h u s , H o o d a n d M o r r is ( 1 9 9 7 ) f o u n d th a t E u r o p e a n A m e r ic a n s r e s id in g in C alifo rn ia, w h ic h receives a lion’s s h a r e of all A sian a n d L a tin o im m ig r a tio n to th e U n ite d S ta te s , h a r b o r m o r e critical views of b o t h im m ig r a tio n a n d i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s . At th is p o in t, a s im p le a n d s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d s o lu t io n to the p u z z le s u g g e s ts itself. It a p p e a r s a s if i n t e r g r o u p c o n ta c t a n d t h r e a t a r e c o m ­ p e t i n g in f lu e n c e s o n a t t i t u d e s to w a r d im m i g r a n t s . In lo w - d e n s ity a r ­ e a s , m a x i m i z e d c o n t a c t g a i n s a c c e p t a n c e f o r i m m i g r a n t s . In h ig h - d e n s it y a r e a s , h e ig h te n e d t h r e a t o v e r c o m e s c o n t a c t effects a n d trig g e rs i n c r e a s e d p r e ju d ic e a g a i n s t i m m i g r a n t s . B u t f u r t h e r e x p lo r a tio n re v e a ls th is tr a d e - o f f view b e tw e e n c o n ta c t a n d t h r e a t is too s im p le . T h e in t e r p l a y o f th e tw o p r e d i c t o r s is fa r m o r e

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c o m p le x for a t le a s t two r e a s o n s — o n e a t th e m a c r o level o f a n a ly s is , th e o t h e r a t th e m i c r o level. At the m a c r o level, th e d e g r e e o f g r o u p s e p a r a t i o n g o v e r n s the b o u n d a r i e s of p o s s ib le i n t e r g r o u p in te r a c tio n . S e g r e g a tio n s everely r e ­ s t r i c t s th e o p e r a t i o n o f i n t e r g r o u p c o n t a c t p r o c e s s e s . An a r e a m a y ha v e a la rg e m in o r i t y p e r c e n t a g e — s u c h a s th e B la c k B e lt c o u n t i e s o f th e D e e p S o u t h — a n d still h a v e r e a s o n a b l y little i n t e r g r o u p c o n t a c t if th e r e is s t r i c t g r o u p s e g r e g a tio n in w o r k , r e s id e n t ia l, a n d e d u c a tio n a l s e t t i n g s . 1T h e c r o s s - g r o u p i n te r a c t io n t h a t d o e s o c c u r is u n lik e ly to o c ­ c u r u n d e r o p t i m a l c o n d i tio n s . S u c h a r e a s h e lp to a c c o u n t for th e a p ­ p a r e n t in c o n s is te n c y of th e fin d in g s b e tw e e n th e two levels o f a n a ly s is . T h i s s e g r e g a tio n fa c to r a lso e x p la in s in large p a r t w h y s tr u c tu r a l - le v e l s t u d i e s o f W hite S o u t h e r n a t t i t u d e s to w a r d B la c k A m e r i c a n s o ften d if­ fer in th e ir r e s u l t s fro m s i m ila r s t u d i e s involving a t t i t u d e s to w a r d A sia n a n d L a tin o A m e r ic a n s , w h o s e s e g re g a tio n in d ic e s fro m W h ite s a r c c o n s i d e r a b l y s m a l l e r (M a sse y & D e n to n , 19 9 3 ). T h is s t r u c t u r a l e x ­ p l a n a t i o n is m o r e p a r s i m o n i o u s t h a n th e s t a n d a r d th e o r y in p o litic a l s c ie n c e t h a t c u l t u r a l d iff e r e n c e s b e tw e e n m i n o r i t y g r o u p s c a u s e th e s e d iv e r s e r e s u l t s ( F o rb e s, 1 9 9 7 : G u rr, 1 9 9 3 ; H ec h te r, 1 97 5). R e su lts from a statew id e te le p h o n e su rv ey of Texas a d u lts su g g est a m i c r o f a c to r (S te in e t al., 2 0 0 0 ) . T h i s s t u d y u n c o v e r e d a s t r o n g i n ­ t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n c o n t a c t a n d L a tin o p o p u l a t i o n p e r c e n t a g e s in T e x as c o u n t i e s . D e f in in g c o n t a c t a s “h o w m a n y d a y s d u r i n g l a s t w e e k d id yo u s p e a k w ith a H i s p a n i c p e r s o n , ” t h e s e in v e s t i g a t o r s n o t e d , a s e x p e c te d , t h a t c o n t a c t a n d m i n o r i t y c o n t e x t w e r e p o sitiv e ly c o r r e ­ la te d (r = + .30). T h e y a ls o s h o w e d t h a t c o n t a c t c o r r e l a t e d w ith m o r e p o s itiv e a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d L a tin o s , w h e r e a s h i g h - d e n s i t y L a tin o c o u n ­ tie s p r o v i d e d m o r e n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e s t h a n lo w - d e n s ity a r e a s . W h a t is m o s t n o t e w o r t h y is th e h ig hly s ig n ific a n t i n te r a c t io n b e ­ tw e e n th e two v a r ia b le s . T h i s i n t e r a c tio n r e fle c ts th e fa c t t h a t th o s e E u ­ r o p e a n A m e r i c a n s w h o r e s i d e d in heavily p o p u l a t e d L a tin o a r e a s a n d h a d th e m o s t c o n t a c t w e r e e sp e c ia lly fa v o ra b le in th e ir view s o f L a ti­ n o s . T h i s led the in v e s tig a to r s to c o n c lu d e t h a t the two p r e d i c t o r v a r i ­ a b l e s — c o n ta c t a n d c o n te x t— “c o m p l e m e n t r a t h e r t h a n c o m p e t e w ith e a c h o t h e r ” (S tein et al., 2 0 0 0 , p. 2 9 0 ) T h e c o n v e r s e o f th is in te r a c tio n is t h a t t h o s e w h o live in h ig h - d e n s it y a r e a s b u t w h o h a v e s c a n t c o n ta c t w ith th e ta r g e t g r o u p a r e th e m o s t h o stile. F ro m t h e s e in t e r e s t i n g fin d in g s, we c a n d e d u c e t h a t b o t h in d iv id u a l a n d s t r u c t u r a l f a c t o r s a r e critic a lly i m p o r t a n t . In a d d it io n , th e s h a r p b if u r c a t io n in th e a t t i t u d e s f o u n d in h ig h - d e n s ity c o u n ti e s s u g g e s ts th e r e le v a n c e o f a t h e o r e tic a l c o n t r i b u t i o n b y T e s s e r ( 1 9 8 0 ) t h a t h a s n e v e r re c e iv e d th e a tte n t io n it d e s e r v e s (see a ls o B a c k , 1 9 9 2 ; Flay, 1 9 7 8; S t e w a r t & Peregoy, 1 983 ). U sin g c a t a s t r o p h e th e o r y fr o m m a t h e m a t 'E x c e p ti o n s to this p rin ciple s o m e ti m e s o c c u r in those in s t a n c e s w h e re a p a r ti c u l a r eth nic g r o u p carve s o u t a seg regated a n d specialized o c cu p a tio n a l niche. For an ex am ple from B o sn ia a n d Croatia, see Kunovich a n d H o dson (2002).

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ics, T e s s e r m o d e l e d th e b e h a v io r of i n d iv id u a ls w h o a r e c a u g h t in c o n ­ flict b e tw e e n th e ir in d i v id u a l d i s p o s i t i o n s a n d so c ia l p r e s s u r e . T h i s is p r c c is c ly th e s i t u a t i o n o f to le ra n t, c q u a l i t a r i a n A nglo-T cxans living in h ig h - d e n s it y L a tin o c o u n t i e s w ith a n ti-L a tin o n o r m a tiv e s t r u c t u r e s . T e s s e r 's m o d e l p r e d i c t s t h a t th is con flict b e tw e e n p e r s o n a l d i s p o s i ­ tio n s a n d s o c ia l p r e s s u r e will r e s u l t in b i m o d a l r e s p o n s e s — a n d th is fits th e T ex as s u r v e y fin d in g s. T h e m o d e l f u r t h e r s h o l d s t h a t s h if ts in d i s p o s i t i o n s in s i t u a t i o n s w ith high so c ia l p r e s s u r e will r e s u l t in s u d ­ d e n , d i s c o n t i n u o u s , “c a t a s t r o p h i c ” c h a n g e s in b e h a v io r. A n d w h e n t h e r e a r e i n c r e a s e s in s o c i a l p r e s s u r e w ith h ig h d i s p o s i t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n s t o w a r d to le r a n c e , b im o d a lity in r e s p o n s e s will e m e rg e . A p p lie d to th e T ex as d a t a , we p o s tu la te , th e n , t h a t lo w - d e n s ity L a ­ tino c o u n t i e s la c k s t r o n g p r e s s u r e s to c o n f o r m to a n ti- L a tin o n o r m s . T h i s a llo w s th e ir Anglo r e s i d e n t s to follow th e ir d i s p o s i t i o n s t o w a r d p r c j u d i c c o r to lc r a n c c . B u t in h i g h - d e n s i ty L a tin o a r e a s , a n ti- L a tin o A ng lo s receiv e n o r m a t i v e s u p p o r t for th e ir d i s p o s i t i o n a l t e n d e n c ie s . T h e y a r e j o i n e d by s o m e w ith le s s p r e ju d ic ia l o r i e n t a t i o n s w h o s im p l y av oid L a tin o c o n t a c t a n d b e n d to th e n o r m a t i v e p r e s s u r e s o f th e c o u n ­ ties in w h ic h they r e s id e . B u t s o m e t o l e r a n t Anglo T e x a n s in th e s e c o u n t i e s d e v ia te fro m th e n o r m s , e x p lo it th e o p p o r t u n i t y for in c r e a s e d c o n t a c t w ith L a tin o s a f f o r d e d by th e ir c o u n tie s , a n d e m e r g e a s th e m o s t t o l e r a n t g r o u p of all. S u c h a p o s s ib ility fits th e T ex as s u r v e y d a t a o f S te in , P o st, a n d R in d e n (2 0 0 0 ). A n d it a d d s to th e p r e s e n t a u t h o r ’s c o n t e n t i o n s a d v a n c e d a h a lf c e n t u r y ago t h a t c o n f o r m ity is a critic al p a r t of a n t i m i n o r i t y p r e j u d i c e in a r e a s w ith high c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f m in o r ity p o p u l a t i o n (Pettigrew, 1 9 5 8 , 1 9 5 9 , 1961).

A FINAL W ORD I h a v e e x p lo r e d in d e ta il th is a p p a r e n t d i s c r e p a n c y in f in d in g s b e tw e e n th e tw o levels for s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . F ir s t, it is i m p o r t a n t b o t h t h e o r e t i ­ cally a n d e m p ir ic a lly to u n ta n g le th is p u z zle. S e c o n d , t h e s u g g e s te d s o ­ lu tio n s a r e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e p r a c t i c a l a n d so c ia l p olicy signific a nc e . Finally, th is e x e rc is e u n d e r l i n e s th e s ig n ific a n c e of th e c e n t r a l c o n t e n ­ tio n o f th is c h a p t e r : nam ely , t h a t th e o r e tic a l a n d p r a c tic a l a d v a n c e s in u n d e r s t a n d i n g r e s i s t a n t r e s p o n s e s to th e w o r l d 's n e w i m m i g r a n t s c a n b e s t b e m a d e by fo c u s in g f u t u r e r e s e a r c h o n th e l in k s b e tw e e n th e m a c r o a n d m i c r o levels o f a n a ly s is .

R E FE R E N C E S A d o r n o , T. W., F r e n k e l - B r u n s w i k . E ., L e v in s o n , D. J .. & S a n f o r d . R. N. ( 1 9 5 0 ) . T h e a u th o r ita r ia n p e r s o n a lity . New York: H a r p e r , 1 9 5 0 . A llp o r t, G. W. (1 9 5 4 ) . T h e n a tu r e o j p re ju d ic e . R e a d in g , MA: Addison-W csley. B a c k , K. W. (1 9 9 2 ) . T h i s b u s i n e s s o f topology. J o u r n a l o f S ocia l Issu e s , 4 8 ( 2 ) , 5 1-66. B a r k e r , M. (1 9 8 2 ) . T h e n e w racism : C o n s e r v a tiv e s a n d the ideology o j the tribe. F r e d e r i c k , MD: A letheia.

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7 T he R ole of Prejudice in the D iscounting of Im m igrant S k ills V ic to r ia M. E s s e s J o e r g Dietz Arjun B hardw aj U n i v e r s i t y o f W e s t e r n O nta r io

A t t i t u d e s t o w a r d i m m i g r a n t s a n d o b s t a c l e s to t h e i r s u c c e s s f u l i n t e ­ g r a t i o n in to r e c e iv in g s o c i e t i e s h a v e e m e r g e d a s i m p o r t a n t a r e a s of in v e s t i g a t i o n fo r th e 2 1 s t c e n tu r y . I m m i g r a t i o n r a t e s h a v e r i s e n to u n p r e c e d e n t e d le v e ls glob ally, a n d W e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s i n c r e a s i n g l y d e p e n d o n i m m i g r a n t s to m a i n t a i n t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n siz e a n d l a b o r fo r c e (UN D e p a r t m e n t o f E c o n o m i c a n d S o c ia l A ffa irs , 2 0 0 4 ) . As a r e s u l t , t h e r e a c t i o n s o f m e m b e r s o f r e c e iv in g s o c i e t i e s to i m m i ­ g r a n t s a n d i m m i g r a t i o n a r e o f i m p o r t a n c e b o t h for th e a c h i e v e m e n t a n d w e ll- b e in g o f i m m i g r a n t s , a n d fo r th e e c o n o m i c a n d s o c ia l w e l l- b e i n g o f th e re c e iv in g s o c ie ti e s . In N o r th A m e r ic a , s o m e negative beliefs a n d a t t i t u d e s to w a r d i m m i ­ g r a n t s a r e e v id e n t. P re v io u s r e s e a r c h i n d ic a t e s t h a t i m m i g r a n t s a r e a t ti m e s s e e n a s c o m p e tin g w ith m e m b e r s of th e h o s t n a ti o n for e c o n o m i c r e s o u r c e s a n d for c u l t u r a l d o m i n a n c e , a n d a s a t h r e a t to th e h o s t s o c i­ ety (e.g., E s s e s , H o d s o n , & D o v id io , 2 0 0 3 ; E s s e s , J a c k s o n , & A r m s t r o n g , 1 9 9 8 ; S t e p h a n , R e n fro , E s s e s , S t e p h a n , & M a r tin , 2 0 0 5 ; S t e p h a n , Y b a r r a , & B a c h m a n , 1 9 9 9 ). S u c h b eliefs c a n le a d to negative a t t i t u d e s to w a r d i m m i g r a n t s a n d im m i g r a t i o n th a t ha ve i m p o r t a n t i m ­ p li c a tio n s for th e t r e a t m e n t o f im m i g r a n t s . In t h i s c h a p te r , we f o c u s o n o n e d o m a i n in w h ic h a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d i m m i g r a n t s m a y p la y a p a r tic u 113

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larly im p o r t a n t r o le — the inte g ratio n of im m i g r a n ts into the h o s t c o u n ­ try ’s la b o r force. In p a rtic u la r, we e x a m in e th e role of a ttitu d e s to w a rd im m ig r a n ts in the d e v a lu a tio n o r d is c o u n tin g of i m m i g r a n ts ' skills (e.g., e d u c a tio n a l c r e d e n tia ls a n d w o r k experience). T he c h a p te r is o rg a n iz e d a s follows: Following an overview of im m i ­ g r a n t p a rtic ip a tio n in the N o rth A m e ric a n la b o r force, we review a n a ly ­ se s of c e n s u s a n d su rv e y d a ta t h a t have p r o v id e d evidence of the d is c o u n tin g of i m m i g r a n t s ’ sk ills a n d t h a t have sug gested t h a t racial m in o rity im m ig r a n t s m a y be p a r tic u la r ly likely to ex p e rie n c e skill d i s ­ co unting. Next, we d e sc rib e the c o n te x t in w hich th e a s s e s s m e n t of fo r­ eign c r e d e n tia ls ta k e s place a n d su g g e st a f r a m e w o r k for e x a m in in g the role of p re ju d ic e in th is p r o c e s s . We th e n p r e s e n t o u r e x p e rim e n ta l r e s e a r c h th a t h a s b e g u n to investigate the role of p re ju d ic e in im m i ­ g r a n t skill d isco u n tin g . We c o n c lu d e by d is c u s s in g the p ra c tic a l a n d th e o re tic a l im p lic a tio n s of th is r e s e a r c h .

IMMIGRANT PARTICIPATION IN THE NORTH AMERICAN LABOR FORCE T h e s u c c e ssfu l in te g ra tio n of im m ig r a n t s into a h o s t c o u n try 's la b o r force is of c o n s id e r a b le im p o r ta n c e . From the p e rsp ec tiv e of i m m i ­ g ra n ts , s u c c e s s in the la b o r m a r k e t is c ru c ia l for e c o n o m ic a n d p s y ­ chological well-being. U n e m p lo y m e n t a n d u n d e r e m p l o y m e n t c an lead im m ig r a n ts to exp e rie n c e poverty, f r u s tr a tio n , a n d p o o r psychological well-being (e.g., Aycan & Berry, 1996; Reitz, 2 0 0 5 ). From the p e r s p e c ­ tive of the h o s t society, it is e s se n tia l to ta k e a d v a n ta g e of im m i g r a n t s ’ sk ills a n d ex p e rie n c e so th a t they c o n tr ib u te to th e e c o n o m ic b a s e w ithin a n a tio n a n d c o n tr ib u te to the n a ti o n ’s ability to c o m p e te s u c ­ cessfully in the global e co no m y . In C a n a d a , im m ig r a n t s have recently a c c o u n te d for over 70% of la b o r force g ro w th , a n d c o m p r is e a p p r o x i­ m a tely 20% of th e total w o r k force (S ta tistic s C a n a d a , 2 0 0 4 ). S im i­ larly, in th e U nited S ta te s, im m ig r a n ts a c c o u n te d for a p p r o x im a te ly 60% of la b o r force g ro w th in the la st 4 y e a rs, a n d c u r r e n tly c o m p r is e a p p r o x im a te ly 15% of the total la b o r force (S u m . Fogg, K ha tiw a da , & P alm a, 2 0 0 4 ; see also Dietz & Pugh, 2 004 ). D esp ite the im p o r ta n c e of im m ig r a n t p a rtic ip a tio n in the la b o r force, th e re is evidence th a t im m i g r a n ts to C a n a d a a n d the U nited S ta te s ex p e rie n c e lower levels of e a r n in g s a n d of labor-force p a r t i c i p a ­ tion t h a n do n a tiv e -b o rn in d iv id u a ls (e.g., Li, 2 0 0 1 ; Reitz, 2 0 0 1 a , 2001 b, 2 0 0 3 a , 2 0 0 3 b ). One i m p o r t a n t factor c o n trib u tin g to this gap in e a r n in g s a n d e m p lo y m e n t for im m ig r a n ts is the lack of recognition of foreign c re d e n tia ls . T h a t is, the fo re ig n -a c q u ire d e d u c a tio n a l a n d e x p e rie n c e - b a s e d sk ills of im m ig r a n ts te n d to be d is c o u n te d relative to th o s e of locally tr a in e d e m p lo y e es (e.g., Li, 2 0 0 1 ; Reitz, 2 0 0 3 a , 2 0 0 3 b , 2 0 0 5 ). T h is p h e n o m e n o n h a s b e e n te r m e d skill d i s c o u n t i n g . Skill d is c o u n tin g m a y involve the d e v alu a tio n of foreign e d u c a tio n (e.g., d eg re e s a n d d ip lo m a s ), foreign p r o f e s s io n a l tr a in in g (e.g., a p ­

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p r e n tic e s h ip s ), foreign w o r k exp erien ce, a n d o th e r w o rk -re la te d skills th a t im m i g r a n t s m a y b r in g with th e m (see Reitz, 2 0 0 5 ) . Skill d is c o u n tin g h a s negative c o n s e q u c n c e s for im m ig r a n ts in m a ­ terial a n d psychological t e r m s , a n d also lim its the ex te n t to w h ich a c o u n try can benefit from im m i g r a n t s ’ k now led ge a n d exp erience. It r e ­ s u lts in s u b o p tim a l p ro d u c tiv ity of the im m ig r a n t w o rk force in the e c o n o m y (the so -c a lle d b r a in w aste). For e xam p le, in C a n a d a , Reitz in ­ d ic a te d t h a t "the C a n a d ia n e c o n o m y is losing u p to $ 2 .4 billion b e ­ c a u se im m i g r a n t s ’ sk ills a re u n d e r u tiliz e d a n d u p to $ 1 2 .6 billion b e c a u s e they a re u n d e r p a i d ” ( q u o te d in Toye, 2 0 0 2 ). It h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t skill d is c o u n tin g is especially likely to o c c u r for im m ig r a n ts w ho a re racial m in o r itie s (e.g., B a k e r & B e n ja m in , 1997; H u m & S im p s o n , 1999; Li, 2 0 0 1 : M etro po lis C o n ­ v e rsa tio n S e rie s, 2 0 0 1 ; Reitz, 2 0 0 3 b , 2 0 0 5 ; S w id in sk y & Sw idinsky, 20 0 2 ). B c c a u sc of in c r e a s in g p r o p o r t i o n s of new im m i g r a n ts w ho arc ra cia l m in o ritie s , the negative effects of skill d is c o u n tin g can be ex­ pe c te d to b e c o m e even m o r e severe in N o rth A m e ric a in the c o m in g y e a rs (C itizenship a n d Im m ig ra tio n C a n a d a , 2 0 0 4 ; H a n s o n , 2 0 0 4 ). In a d d itio n , the fact th a t racial m in o r itie s a re p a r tic u la r ly likely to e x p e ri­ ence skill d is c o u n tin g su g g e sts th a t p r e ju d ic e m a y play an im p o r t a n t role in the p r o c e s s . Before tu rn in g to th is possibility, however, we briefly review surve y a n d c e n s u s - b a s e d evidence of skill d isc o u n tin g .

PREVIOUS EVIDENCE OF SKILL DISCOUNTING A nalyses of c e n s u s a n d s u rv e y d a ta in C a n a d a have p ro v id e d c o n s i s ­ te n t evidence of the d is c o u n tin g of im m i g r a n t skills. In h is a n a ly s e s of c e n s u s d a ta , Reitz ( 2 0 0 1 a , 2 0 0 1 b . 2 0 0 3 a , 2 0 0 3 b , 2 0 0 5 ) d e m o n ­ s tr a te d th a t recently a rriv e d im m i g r a n ts c o n s iste n tly e x p erien ce lower r a te s of labor-force p a r tic ip a tio n a n d lower levels of e a r n in g s relative to the n a tiv e -b o rn p o p u la tio n . F u r th e r a n a ly se s in d ic a te th a t a signifi­ c a n t p r o p o r ti o n of th e se differences can be a ttr ib u te d to the lower value in the C a n a d ia n la b o r m a r k e t of im m ig r a n t skills o b ta in e d o u t ­ side the c o u n tr y (e.g., y e a rs of e d u c a tio n , u n iv e rsity degree) relative to th e value of th e sk ills of n a tiv e -b o rn in d iv id u a ls o b ta in e d in C a n a d a (Reitz, 2 0 0 1 a , 2 0 0 1 b , 2 0 0 3 a , 2 0 0 3 b , 2 0 0 5 ). In a d d itio n , a s e d u c a tio n a n d k n o w le d g e -b a se d sk ills have b e c o m e in creasin gly e m p h a s iz e d in em p lo y m e n t, the ex te n t of th is d is c o u n tin g h a s a lso in c r e a s e d , s u c h th a t C a n a d ia n e m p lo y e rs se em to be m a k in g s h a r p e r d istin c tio n s b e ­ tween sk ills o b ta in e d o u ts id e the c o u n tr y a n d th o se o b ta in e d locally (see Reitz, 2 0 0 5 ). In d e e d , the a n a ly s e s su gg est th a t the c u r r e n t la ­ b o r - m a r k e t value in C a n a d a of im m i g r a n t s ’ foreign w o r k ex p erience is virtually zero (Reitz, 2 0 0 1 a ). T h a t is, C a n a d ia n e m p lo y e r s p lace little or n o value on w o r k e x perien ce o b ta in e d o u ts id e the country. T he e m p lo y m e n t e x p e rie n c e s of skilled im m i g r a n ts to the U nited S ta te s se e m to be sim ila r (Reitz, 2 0 0 3 a ). In the United S ta te s , im m i ­ g r a n t e d u c a tio n is also d is c o u n te d . In a d d itio n , a s in C a n a d a , a s the

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value of e d u c a tio n h a s in c re a s e d in the U nited S ta te s, th is h a s b e n e ­ fited p r im a r ily th e n ativ e -b o rn p o p u la tio n , in c re a s in g the d is p a r itie s b e tw e e n im m ig r a n ts a n d n o n im m ig r a n t s (Reitz, 2 0 0 3 a ). Also of note, in b o th C a n a d a a n d the U n ited S ta te s, skill d is c o u n tin g is p a rtic u la rly evid ent for racial m in o rity im m ig r a n ts (Reitz, 2 0 0 la , 2 0 0 3 a , 2 0 0 3 b ). O ne m ig h t a s s e r t, of c o u rse , t h a t s o m e of the d evalu in g of foreign sk ills m ig h t be a tt r ib u te d to th e ir tr u e lower quality relative to skills o b ta in e d in N orth A m erica. However, a s Reitz (2 00 1a ) a rg u e d , e c o ­ no m ic d e v e lo p m e n t in m a n y a r e a s o u tsid e E u r o p e , p a rtic u la rly in p a r t s of Asia, h a s a d v a n c e d c o n s id e r a b ly in r e c e n t y e a r s a n d , a t least in s o m e of th e se places, p r o f e s s io n a l s t a n d a r d s a re q u ite high, a n d c o m p a r a b le to th o se of C a n a d a . N ev ertheless, the e a r n in g s d i s a d v a n ­ tage for im m ig r a n ts from th o se a r e a s h a s c h a n g e d little. T h e d ir e c to r of World E d u c a tio n Services, th e a u th o riz e d c re d e n tia l evalu atio n s e r ­ vice of the G o v e r n m e n t of O n ta rio , s ta te d , "The fact is th a t over 75% of foreign c r e d e n tia ls in the en gineering, h e a lth c a re a n d IT fields we eval­ u a te d in the p a s t year a re e q u iv a le n t to o r exceed C a n a d ia n s t a n d a r d s " (Owen, 2 0 0 2 , a s q u o te d in H u m a n R e so u rc e M a n a g em e n t, 2 0 0 2 ). T h is su g g e sts th a t fa c to rs o th e r th a n th e tr u e value of s k ills a re operating . In d e e d , im m ig r a n ts m a y b r in g quite d istinctive q u a litie s with th e m to th eir new country, s u c h a s k n ow ledge of foreign lan gu ag es, w hich m a y in c r e a s e th e ir sk ills b a s e (Reitz, 2 0 0 1 a ). In s u m m a r y , p r io r r e s e a r c h h a s p ro v id e d significant evidence of skill d isc o u n tin g , p a r tic u la r ly for racial m in o rity im m ig ra n ts . T h e re is a lack of kn ow ledge, however, a b o u t the p r o c e s s e s th a t drive skill d i s ­ co unting. C o m p le m e n tin g the r e s e a r c h c o n d u c te d by o th e r social sc i­ e n tis ts th a t e x a m in e s e c o n o m ic a n d sociological im p lic a tio n s of skill d isc o u n tin g , we ta k e a psychological a p p r o a c h to u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h y skill d is c o u n tin g o c c u rs . We u s e e x p e r im e n ta l m e t h o d s to d ise n ta n g le w hy in d iv id u a ls w ho m a k e p e r s o n n e l d e c is io n s m a y a tta c h less value to foreign q u alificatio ns th a n they do to d o m e s tic qualifications, p a r ­ ticularly for racial m in o r ity a p p lic a n ts . We focus on th e psychological a n d o rg a n iz a tio n a l fac to rs t h a t m a y play a role, p a rtic u la r ly th e ro le of p re ju d ic e a n d the c o n te x t in w hich the sk ills of fo re ig n -tra in ed w o r k e r s a re e valuated.

PREJUDIC E AND SKILL DISCOUNTING Skill d is c o u n tin g is by its n a t u r e an a m b i g u o u s p h e n o m e n o n with m u ltip le a n t e c e d e n ts . T h e e v aluatio n of th e skills of fore ig n-tra in ed w o r k e r s is a s s o c ia te d with g re a te r a m b ig u ity th a n t h a t of locally tra in e d w o r k e r s b e c a u s e the e v alu ation of the q uality of skills o b ta in e d e lse w h e re is often difficult, forcing decisio n m a k e r s to m a k e j u d g e ­ m e n t calls (Reitz, 2 0 0 3 a , 2 0 0 3 b , 2 0 0 5 ). D ecision m a k e r s m a y n ot have sufficient in fo r m a tio n a b o u t foreign skills to m a k e in f o r m e d d e c i­ sio n s. In a d d itio n , even in the p r e s e n c e of s u c h in fo rm a tio n , decisio n m a k e r s m a y still feel less c o n fid e n t of th e ir d e c isio n s a b o u t fo r­

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eign -tra in ed w o r k e r s th a n a b o u t locally tra in e d w o r k e r s . T h is allows ro o m for subjective fa c to rs to play a significant role, in c lu d in g p r io r beliefs a n d p re ju d ic e s a b o u t im m ig ra n ts , p a r tic u la r ly ra c ia l m in o rity im m ig r a n ts (see also Reitz, 2 0 0 3 b , 20 05 ). Figure 7.1 p r e s e n t s a m o d e l for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the role of p re ju d ic e in im m ig r a n t skill d isc o u n tin g . T h is m o d e l is b a s e d on the ju s tif ic a ­ ti o n - s u p p r e s s i o n m o d e l of the e x p r e s s io n of p re ju d ic e p r o p o s e d by C r a n d a ll a n d E s h l e m a n (20 03 ) a n d on re la te d th e o r ie s of m o d e r n p re ju d ic e (e.g., Dovidio & G a e rtn e r, 1998). A cco rd in g to th e se th e o ­ ries, p re ju d ic e a g a in s t racial m in o r itie s still exists in m o d e r n society b u t is often s u p p r e s s e d by societal a n d p e r s o n a l v alu es a n d n o r m s . As a re su lt, p re ju d ic e is typically n o t o p en ly e x p r e s s e d . T h a t is, in N o rth A m e ric a n society today, in d iv id u a ls a re ta u g h t t h a t it is n o t a p p r o p r i ­ ate to h old o r ac t on p re ju d ic ia l a ttitu d e s . As in d iv id u a ls c o m p ly with or in te rn a liz e th e se n o r m s , they try to s u p p r e s s their p r e ju d ic ia l a tti­ tu d e s (e.g., M onteith, S h e r m a n . & Devine. 1998). As s h o w n in Fig. 7 . 1 , th e s e s u p p r e s s i o n fa c to rs in t e r r u p t the d ir e c t re la tio n b e tw een p r e j u ­ dice a n d d is c r im in a tio n . N o n e th e le ss, the p r e ju d ic ia l a ttitu d e s still r e ­ m a in , a lth o u g h in a m o r e la te n t form (Dovidio & G a e rtn e r, 1998). R e s e a rc h on aversive ra c is m a n d the ju s tif ic a tio n - s u p p r e s s io n m o d e l of th e e x p r e s s io n of p re ju d ic e sug ge sts, however, t h a t in d iv id u a ls will a c t on th e ir p r e ju d ic ia l a ttitu d e s u n d e r c e rta in c ir c u m s ta n c e s . T h e se c ir c u m s t a n c e s in c lu de s itu a tio n s (a) for w hich social n o r m s a b o u t a p ­ p r o p r i a te b e h a v io r a re n o t clear or (b) in w hich ju s tific a tio n s for the b e h a v io r o th e r th a n p re ju d ic e a re re a dily available (e.g., C r a n d a ll & E s h le m a n , 2 0 0 3 ; Dovidio & G a e rtn e r, 1998; Dovidio, G a e rtn e r, &

FIG. 7.1. A ju s ti f ic a t io n - s u p p r e s s io n m o d e l for e xp laining the role of p r e j u ­ dice in im m i g r a n t skill d is c o u n tin g (base d on C ra n d a ll & E s h le m a n , 2 003).

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B a c h m a n , 2 0 0 1 ; for e m p lo y m e n t d is c rim in a tio n e x a m p le s, see Brief, Dietz, C oh e n, Pugh. & Vaslow, 2 0 0 0 ; P e te rse n & Dietz, 20 0 5 ). As sh o w n in Fig. 7.1, ju stific a tio n fa c to rs in c re a se the likelih oo d th a t p r e j u d i c i a l a t t i t u d e s will le a d to d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e c a u s e th e d is c r im in a to r y b e h a v io r can th e n be ex p la in e d aw ay a s d u e to factors o th e r th a n pre ju d ic e . In the c u r r e n t context, a lth o u g h in d iv id u a ls w h o m a k e h irin g d e c i­ sio n s a n d w ho a s s e s s th e quality of a p p lic a n ts for a p o sitio n m a y c o n ­ sc io u sly a t t e m p t to avoid b ia s a n d d i s c r im in a tio n in decisio n m a k in g , th e ir a ttitu d e s a n d beliefs m a y influence a s s e s s m e n t s a n d d e c isio n s n o n e th e le s s . T h e a s s e s s m e n t of im m ig r a n t sk ills is likely to be influ­ en c e d by la te n t p re ju d ic e for several r e a s o n s . F irst, in m a n y cases, ru l e s (i.e., o rg a n iz a tio n a l policies) o r n o r m s do n o t exist for the a s s e s s ­ m e n t of foreign -b ased skills. T he re s u ltin g a m b ig u ity m a y lead to w e a k e r s u p p r e s s i o n effects on the e x p r e s s io n of p re ju d ic e . In o th e r w o r d s , the a s s e s s m e n t of foreign skills often la k e s place in a v a c u u m of explicit r u le s a n d n o r m s , w hich o th erw ise m ig h t have c o u n te ra c te d p re ju d ic ia l te n d e n c ie s to d i s c o u n t foreign skills. S e c o n d , a n d r e l a te d to th e p r e v i o u s r e a s o n , th e f o r e ig n n e s s of i m ­ m i g r a n t s a n d of th e i r f o r e i g n - a c q u ir e d s k ills m a y lead to c o n c e r n s a b o u t a "lack of fit” w ith lo cal w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t s a n d d e m a n d s . T h e n o tio n of “fit” is c o m m o n l y e v o k e d a s a n a n t e c e d e n t of b u s i n e s s p e r ­ f o r m a n c e , a n d it m a y have its v a lid ity if it is well d e f in e d (e.g., fit on sp e c ific o r g a n i z a t i o n a l va lu e s ). In the t r e a t m e n t of i m m i g r a n t s , how ever, the fit a r g u m e n t is o fte n t h o u g h t l e s s l y a n d g e n e r ic a lly a p ­ p l i e d — “i m m i g r a n t s a r e s im p ly c u ltu r a lly d if f e r e n t” (i.e., th e m e r e c a te g o r iz a tio n a s a n i m m i g r a n t b c c o m c s g r o u n d s for d e c l a r i n g a la c k o f fit). E ven if fit c r i te r i a a r e d e f in e d (e.g., f r i e n d l i n e s s w ith c u s ­ t o m e r s ) , i m m i g r a n t s m a y be ju d g e d a s n o t h a v in g th e rig h t fit on th e b a s i s of s t e r e o t y p e s a b o u t i m m i g r a n t s r a t h e r t h a n s u b s t a n t i v e a n d e x p lic it a s s e s s m e n t s of fit c r ite r ia . For e x a m p le , a t t r i b u t i n g v a lu e s to a n in d iv id u a l b a s e d on g r o u p m e m b e r s h i p is s te r e o ty p in g . T h u s , "lack o f fit” a r g u m e n t s c a n b e c o m e s e e m in g ly b u t n o t s u b s t a n t i v e l y le g itim a te r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s o r ju s t i f i c a t i o n s for th e d i s c o u n t i n g of im m i g r a n t s k ill s a n d th e r e s u l t i n g e m p l o y m e n t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n against im m ig ran ts. T a k e n tog ether, th e a m b ig u ity of th e a s s e s s m e n t of fo re ig n s k ills (w hich is sig n ific a n tly g r e a t e r t h a n the a m b ig u it y s u r r o u n d i n g the a s s e s s m e n t of d o m e s t i c sk ills ) a n d fit a r g u m e n t s m a k e it e a s i e r to a t t r i b u t e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a in s t ra c ia l m i n o r ity i m m i g r a n t s to m o ­ tives o t h e r t h a n p r e ju d ic e . As a r e s u l t , p r e j u d i c e d i n d i v i d u a l s can r a tio n a li z e th e i r d i s c r i m i n a t o r y b e h a v io r a s b e in g m o tiv a t e d by s e e m in g ly le g itim a te c o n c e r n s r a t h e r t h a n by p r e ju d ic e . In th e n e x t se c tio n , we d e s c r i b e a n in itia l e x p e r i m e n t t h a t s o u g h t to e x a m in e th e r o le of p r e j u d i c e in th e a s s e s s m e n t of r a c ia l m i n o r i t y i m m i g r a n t jo b a p p l i c a n t s .

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EXPERIMENTAL WORK ON THE ROLE OF PREJUDIC E IN SKILL DISCOUNTING T h e goal of th is s tu d y w a s to e x a m in e the p o te n tia l role of p re ju d ic e in th e d is c o u n tin g of im m ig r a n t skills. To e x a m in e this issu e , we a s k e d o u r p a r ti c ip a n ts to c o m p le te m e a s u r e s of a ttitu d e s to w a rd im m ig r a n ts in a first se s s io n , a n d th e n in a s e c o n d s e ss io n , several w e e k s later, a s k e d th e m to ev aluate a jo b c a n d id a te w ho w a s b o r n a n d tra in e d in C a n a d a , the U nited K ingdom , o r India. B a se d on the p re v io u s lite r a ­ tu r e on foreign skill d isc o u n tin g , a n d the lite r a tu r e on aversive r a c ism a n d ju s t if ic a ti o n - s u p p r e s s i o n of p re ju d ic e , we p re d ic te d t h a t p a r t ic i­ p a n t s w ould d is c o u n t the sk ills of the i m m ig r a n t c a n d id a te s relative to th e sk ills of the C a n a d ia n c a n d id a te , especially w h e n p a r tic i p a n ts held m o r e negative a ttitu d e s to w a rd im m ig r a n ts . T h a t is, we expected to ob tain an in te ra c tio n b e tw e e n a ttitu d e s to w a rd im m ig r a n ts a n d the a p ­ p lic a n t’s locatio n of b irth /tr a in in g on the evaluatio n of the a p p lic a n t. We also expected th a t th is d is c o u n tin g w o u ld be m o s t likely to o c c u r for the im m ig r a n t a p p lic a n t b o r n a n d tra in e d in In dia b c c a u s c the “fo r­ e ig n n e s s ” of the a p p li c a n t’s q u a lific a tio n s a n d c u ltu r e w o u ld p ro v id e an easy a n d seem ing ly legitim ate ju stific a tio n for skill d isc o u n tin g .

A ttitu d e s Toward Im m igran ts In the first se ssio n , we a s s e s s e d a ttitu d e s to w a rd im m ig r a n ts in two ways. First, we u s e d a r a t h e r stra ig h tfo rw a rd m e a s u r e th a t a s k e d p a r ­ tic ip an ts to ra te their a ttitu d e s to w a rd im m ig r a n ts a n d im m ig ra tio n on several scales (E sses, Dovidio, J a c k s o n , & A rm stron g, 2001 ; e.g., “How positive or negative do you feel tow ard im m ig r a n ts ”; a lp h a = .92). In a d ­ dition, we a d a p te d the m o d e r n r a c ism scale to a s s e s s m o d e r n p re ju d ic e to w a rd im m ig r a n ts (McConahay, 1986; e.g., “I m m ig ra n ts a re getting too d e m a n d in g in their p u s h for eq ual rig h ts ”; a lp h a = .79). In b o th cases, the s cales w ere s co re d so th a t higher n u m b e r s indic a te d m o r e n e g a t i v e a ttitu d e s. T he se scales w ere e m b e d d e d in a larger q u e s tio n n a ire th a t w as a d m in is te r e d to several h u n d r e d p a rtic ip a n ts. T he co rre la tio n b e ­ tween the m o r e stra ig h tfo rw a rd a ttitu d e to w ard im m ig ra n ts scale an d the m o re s ub tle m o d e r n p re ju d ic e scale w as significant (r = .62). By u s ­ ing b o th m e a s u r e s , we were able to d e te rm in e w h e th e r only the m o re su b tle m o d e r n p re ju d ic e scale w o u ld p r e d ic t ra tin g s of the for­ eign-trained job app lic a n t, or b o th the stra ig h tfo rw a rd a n d s u b tle m e a ­ s u r e s would do so.

P r e se n ta tio n o f R e su m é In th e s e c o n d se s s io n , 89 p a r ti c ip a n ts w h o w ere all C a n a d ia n citizens (72 w o m e n , 17 m e n ) w ere told t h a t the s tu d y w a s a s s e s s i n g differences

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betw een r e c r u i t e r s ’ a n d p o te n tia l jo b a p p l i c a n t s ’ p e r c e p tio n s of jo b r é ­ s u m é s . Th ey w ere f u r th e r in fo rm e d th a t they w ou ld be a s k e d to r e a d th ro u g h a jo b p o s tin g a n d th e n evaluate the r e s u m e of one of the a p p li­ c a n ts for the p ositio n. Both the jo b p o s tin g a n d the r e s u m é were a d a p t e d from “re a l-w o r ld ” m a te r ia ls . P a r tic ip a n ts w ere th e n p r e ­ s e n te d with a jo b p o s tin g for the p o s itio n of a full-time p s y c h o m e tr is t w h o w o u ld w o r k closely w ith a d u lt p a tie n ts , c o n d u c tin g n e u r o ­ psychological tests. T h e r e q u ir e d q u a lific a tio n s w ere d e s c r ib e d a s in ­ c lu d in g a B a c h e l o r ’s deg ree in psychology o r r e la te d d isc ip lin e , p re v io u s e x perien ce with the a d m in i s tr a ti o n a n d s c o rin g of p sy c h o lo g ­ ical te s ts w ith in a h o s p ita l e n v iro n m e n t, a n d d e m o n s t r a t e d ability to develop effective i n te r p e r s o n a l r e la tio n s h ip s with p a tie n ts , families, a n d m u ltid is c ip lin a r y te a m m e m b e r s . P a rtic ip a n ts w ere then a s k e d to evaluate the r e s u m é of one of the a p ­ plica n ts for this position. T he r e s u m e c o n ta in e d in fo rm a tio n indicating th at the a p p lica n t w as b o r n a n d tra in e d either in C a n a d a , in the United Kingdom , or in India. For the a p p lic a n ts b o rn a n d tra in e d in the United Kingdom or in India, it w as in dic a te d th a t the a p p lic a n t w a s a la n d e d im m ig ra n t, eligible to se e k e m p lo y m e n t in C a n a d a , a n d the d a te s for the m o s t re c e n t e m p lo y m e n t a b r o a d indicated th a t she ha d arrived in C a n ­ a d a w ithin the last year. T h e qualifications of the a p p lic a n t w ere held c o n s t a n t a c r o s s c o n d itio n s a n d m e t b u t did n o t exceed the re q u ire d qualifications d e sc rib e d in the jo b posting. In a d d itio n , the n a m e of the a p p lic a n t (Anita Singh) a n d the language proficiency of the a p p lic a n t (English. F rench, a n d Hindi) w ere held co n sta n t. T he a p p lic a n t’s n a m e a n d proficiency in H indi ind icated th a t sh e w as of Asian In dian descent. Wc held a p p lic a n t racc c o n s ta n t to avoid a potential c onfo und of the a p ­ plicant's c o u n try of b irth /tra in in g a n d h e r a s s u m e d race. In particular, we s u s p e c te d th a t m o s t p a rtic ip a n ts w ould a s s u m e th a t the a p p lic a n t w ho w as b o r n a n d tra in e d in India w ou ld be of In dian d escent. T h u s , we e n s u r e d th a t all a p p lic a n ts w ere of the s a m e race. M a n ip u la tio n c h e c k s w e re in clu d e d in th e s tu d y to e n s u r e t h a t p a r ­ tic ip a n ts n otic e d th e b ir th p la c e a n d location of tr a in in g of the a p p li­ c a n t a s a fun ctio n of th e m a n ip u la ti o n of th is in fo rm a tio n . We fo un d th a t 92% of p a r ti c ip a n t s c o rre c tly identified the c itiz e n sh ip of the a p ­ p lic a n t a n d th a t 97% of p a r ti c ip a n t s c orrectly identified w h e th e r the a p p lic a n t w a s tr a in e d in C a n a d a o r e lsew here. T h e a c c u ra cy of the se r e s p o n s e s did n o t differ significantly a m o n g c o n d itio n s. In a d d itio n , a s u b s e t of p a r tic ip a n ts w a s a s k e d to specifically in d ic a te the c o u n tr y of e d u c a tio n a n d w o r k ex p e rie n c e of the a p p lic a n t, if n o t in C a n a d a . Ninety-eight p e r c e n t of th e se p a r ti c ip a n t s p ro v id e d c o rr e c t r e s p o n s e s .

A s s e s s m e n t o f P e r so n -J o b Fit an d o f P er so n -O r g a n iz a tio n F it Following th e ir e x a m in a tio n of the a p p lic a n t’s r e s u m é , p a r tic ip a n t s w ere a s k e d to r e s p o n d to ite m s a s s e s s in g two q u a lities c o n s id e r e d i m ­

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p o r t a n t in the p e r s o n n e l selection p r o c e s s : p e r s o n - j o b fit a n d p e r s o n o rg a n iz a tio n fit (Bowen, L ed fo rd , & N a th a n , 1991; K ristof-Brown, 2 0 0 0 ). As m e n tio n e d earlier, p e r s o n - j o b fit a n d p c r s o n - o r g a n iz a tio n fit m a y be p a rtic u la r ly su s c e p tib le to th e effects of la te n t p re ju d ic e b e ­ c a u se th o se w ho m a k e p e r s o n n e l d e c is io n s m ay view fit a r g u m e n ts a s se em ingly legitim ate “b u s i n e s s ju stific a tio n s" for the d is c o u n tin g of im m ig r a n t sk ills, a n d n o t a s pre ju d ic ially b a s e d r a tio n a le s th a t w o u ld c o n t r a d i c t a n t i d i s c r i m i n a t i o n n o r m s (F ra z e r & W ie rs m a , 2 0 0 1 ; P ete rse n & Dietz, 2 0 0 5 ). We a s s e s s e d p e r s o n - j o b fit a n d p e r s o n - o r g a niz a tio n fit s e p a r a te ly b e c a u s e they a re d istin c t, a lth o u g h re la te d , c o n ­ s t r u c t s (r = .52 in the c u r r e n t stu dy ), a s K ristof-B row n (20 00 ) sh o w e d , a n d likely p r o d u c e a d o u b le b a r r i e r for i m m ig r a n t e m p lo y e e s in the p e r s o n n e l selection p r o c e s s . P e r s o n - jo b fit a d d r e s s e s th e q u e s tio n of w h e th e r a n a p p lic a n t’s sk ills a n d m o tiv atio n are se e n a s m a tc h in g th e r e q u i r e m e n t s of a s p e ­ cific jo b a n d allowing for high jo b p e r f o r m a n c e . Typically, o r g a n iz a ­ tio n s in C a n a d a a n d the U nited S ta te s view locally o b ta in e d sk ills as the p re f e r r e d s t a n d a r d a n d b e n c h m a r k for ju d g in g qualificatio ns, forcing d e cisio n m a k e r s to m a k e j u d g m e n t calls a b o u t the equivalency of fo reig n -o b ta in e d skills. A lthough services are increasing ly available for ev alu atin g sk ills o b ta in e d e lsew h e re (e.g., World E d u c a tio n S e r ­ vices, 2 0 0 5 ), a s d is c u s s e d earlier, the a s s e s s m e n t of foreign s k ills is still an a m b ig u o u s p r o c e s s , potentially s u s c e p tib le to v a rio u s f o r m s of bias. T h e five ite m s we u s e d to a s s e s s p e r s o n - j o b fit w e re d esig n e d to a s s e s s the exten t to w h ic h the a p p lic a n t w as se e n to have s u ita b le e d u ­ cation, e m p lo y m e n t e xp e rie nc e, a n d social sk ills for the p o sitio n , a n d w o u ld b e a g o o d fit fo r th e jo b a n d d e m o n s t r a t e s t r o n g jo b p e r f o r m a n c e (alph a = .81). P e r s o n - o r g a n iz a tio n fit a s s e s s m e n t s a re b a s e d on the extent to w hich a p p lic a n ts a re se e n to m a tc h the b r o a d e r a ttr ib u te s of the o r g a ­ niz a tio n. in t e r m s of s u c h fa c to rs a s c u ltu re a n d p ersonality. B ecau se fore ig n-tra in ed e m p lo y e e s m a y b e se e n a s n o t fitting the profile of o th e r org a n iz a tio n a l m e m b e r s or c lients, th e ir s k ills m a y be d ev a lu e d on the b a s is of a r g u m e n t s s u c h a s p o te n tia l for c o m m u n i c a tio n difficulties, or difficulties w o rk in g with o th e r o rg a n iz a tio n a l m e m b e r s a n d clients d u e to c u ltu r a l differences. T h e four ite m s d e sig n e d to a s s e s s p e r ­ so n -o r g a n iz a t io n fit in the c u r r e n t s tu d y in c lu d e d p e rc e p tio n s of the ex te n t to w h ich th e a p p lic a n t w o u ld b e well liked by c o w o r k e r s a n d cli­ e n ts , a n d the c o m m i t m e n t a n d overall o r g a n iz a tio n a l fit o f the a p p lic a n t (a lp ha = .85).

T h e E ffect o f A ttitu d e s Toward Im m igran ts an d L o ca tio n o f B irth /T rain in g on E v a lu a tio n s o f P e r s o n -J o b F it an d o f P er so n -O r g a n iz a tio n Fit P e r s o n - J o b Fi t. In o r d e r to e x a m in e the jo in t effect of a ttitu d e s to w a rd im m ig r a n ts a n d location of b i r th a n d tr a in in g on e v a lu a tio n s of

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the a p p lic a n t, h ie r a r c h ic a l m u ltip le re g re ss io n a n a ly s e s (e.g., C o h e n & C oh en, 1983) w ere c o n d u c te d . We first lo o k e d a t the effect of a ttitu d e s to w a rd im m ig r a n t s a n d location of b irth a n d tra in in g on p e r c e p tio n s of p e r s o n - jo b fit. T h e v a ria b le negative a t t i t u d e s to w a rd im m i g r a n t s w a s e n te r e d in the firs t ste p , y ield in g a sig n ific an t R 2 of .05, p < .05. L o c a tio n of b ir t h / t r a i n i n g w a s e n te r e d in the s e c o n d s te p w ith two d u m m y - c o d e d v a r ia b le s , y ield in g a n o n s ig n if ic a n t R 2 c h a n g e of .02. In th e t h i r d s te p , we e n te r e d the in te r a c ti o n s b e tw e e n negative a t t i t u d e s to w a r d i m m i ­ g r a n t s a n d the d u m m y - c o d e d v a r ia b le s of loc a tio n of b ir t h / t r a i n i n g (as th e p r o d u c t s of th e s e v a ria b le s ), a n d o b ta in e d a n R 2 c h a n g e o f . 12, p < .0 0 5 . As s h o w n in Fig. 7 .2 , w h e n the a p p l i c a n t w a s b o r n a n d tr a in e d in C a n a d a o r in th e U n ited K in g d o m , negative a t t i t u d e s t o ­ w a r d i m m i g r a n t s did n o t affect e v a lu a tio n s of p e r s o n - j o b fit. W hen the a p p l i c a n t w a s b o r n a n d t r a in e d in Ind ia , how ever, in d iv id u a ls w ith m o r e negative a t titu d e s to w a r d i m m i g r a n t s e v a lu a te d th e a p p l i ­ c a n t a s low er in p e r s o n - j o b fit. We o b ta in e d s i m i l a r effects u s in g th e m e a s u r e of m o d e r n p re ju d ic e to w a r d im m ig r a n t s , in s te a d of a t t i t u d e s to w a r d i m m ig r a n t s . M o d e rn p r e ju d ic e w a s e n te r e d in the first ste p , yie lding a sig n ific a n t R 2 of .05, p < .05. L o c a tio n of b ir t h / t r a i n i n g w a s e n te r e d in th e s e c o n d ste p w ith two d u m m y - c o d e d v a ria b le s , y ie lding a n o n s ig n ific a n t R 2 c h a n g e of .02. In the th ir d ste p , we e n t e r e d the in te r a c tio n s b e tw e e n m o d e r n p r e ju d ic e a n d th e d u m m y - c o d e d v a r ia b le s for lo c a tio n of b ir th /tr a in -

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Negative Attitudes toward Immigrants FIG. 7.2. E v a lu a t io n s of p e r s o n - j o b fit a s a fu n c tio n of negative a tt it u d e s to w a r d i m m i g r a n t s a n d th e loc atio n o f b i r t h a n d t r a in i n g of th e a p p lic a n t.

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ing. T h is s te p yielde d a n R c h a n g e of .05, p < .0 8 9 . As s h o w n in Fig. 7.3, w h e n the a p p l i c a n t w a s b o r n a n d tr a i n e d in C a n a d a o r in th e U n ite d K in g d o m , m o d e r n p r e ju d ic e to w a r d im m i g r a n t s d id n o t play a role in e v a lu a tio n s of p e r s o n - j o b fit. W hen th e a p p li c a n t w a s b o r n a n d tr a i n e d in In d ia , how ever, in d iv id u a ls h ig h e r in m o d e r n p r e j u ­ dice e v a lu a te d the a p p li c a n t a s low er in p e r s o n - j o b fit. P e r s o n - O r g a n i z a t i o n Fit. We next lo ok ed a t the effect of a tti­ tu d e s to w a rd im m ig r a n ts a n d location of b ir th a n d tra in in g on p e r c e p ­ tion s of p e r s o n - o r g a n iz a tio n fit. Negative a ttitu d e s to w a rd im m ig ra n ts w as e n te re d in the first step, a n d yielded a non significant R 2 of .02. The d u m m y - c o d e d variables for location of b irth /tra in in g w ere e n te re d in the se co n d step, a n d yielded a nonsign ificant R 2 change of .02. In the th ird step, we e n te re d the in te ra c tio n s betw een negative a ttitu d e s to ­ w a rd im m ig r a n ts a n d the d u m m y -c o d e d variables for location of birth /train in g, a n d o btained an R 2 chang e of . 17, p < .001. As sh o w n in Fig. 7.4, w h en the a p p lic a n t w a s b o r n a n d tra in e d in C a n a d a , negative a ttitu d e s to w a rd im m ig ra n ts did n o t play a role in e valuations of p e r ­ s o n -o rg a n iz a tio n fit. When the a p p lic a n t w as b o rn a n d tra in e d in the U nited Kingdom , there w a s a te ndency for individuals with m o r e n eg a ­ tive a ttitu d e s to w a rd im m ig r a n ts to rate the a p p lic a n t a s h igher in p e r ­ s o n -o rg a n iz a tio n fit. Of g re a te s t in terest, w h e n the a p p lic a n t w as b o r n a n d tra in e d in India, individuals with m o re negative a ttitu d e s tow ard im m ig r a n ts evaluated the a p p lic a n t a s lower in p e r s o n - o r g a n iz a tio n fit.

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Modern Prejudice toward Immigrants FIG. 7.3. E v a lu a t io n s of p e r s o n - j o b fit a s a fu n c tio n of m o d e r n p re ju d ic e to w a rd i m m i g r a n t s a n d th e location o f b i r t h a n d t r a i n i n g o f the a p p lic a n t.

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Negative Attitude toward Immigrants FIG . 7 .4 . E v a l u a t i o n s o f p e r s o n - o r g a n i z a t i o n fit a s a f u n c t i o n o f n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d i m m i g r a n t s a n d t h e lo c a t i o n o f b i r t h a n d t r a i n i n g o f th e ap p lican t.

We a g a in o b t a i n e d s i m i l a r r e s u l t s u s in g th e m e a s u r e o f m o d e r n p r e ju d ic e t o w a r d i m m i g r a n t s , i n s t e a d of neg ative a t t i t u d e s to w a r d i m ­ m ig r a n t s . M o d e r n p r e j u d i c e w a s e n t e r e d in th e fir s t s te p , a n d y ie ld e d a n o n s ig n i f ic a n t R 2 of .01. T h e d u m m y - c o d e d v a r i a b l e s for l o c a tio n of b i r t h / t r a i n i n g w e r e e n t e r e d in th e s e c o n d s t e p , a n d y ie ld e d a n o n s ig n i f ic a n t R 2 c h a n g e of .02. In th e t h i r d s te p , we e n t e r e d th e i n t e r ­ a c ti o n s b e tw e e n m o d e r n p r e j u d i c e a n d th e d u m m y - c o d e d v a r i a b l e s o f lo c a tio n of b ir th /tr a i n in g . T h i s s t e p y ie ld e d a s ig n ific a n t R 2 c h a n g e of . 11, p < .01. As s h o w n in Fig. 7 .5, w h e n th e a p p l i c a n t w a s b o r n a n d t r a i n e d in C a n a d a , m o d e r n p r e ju d ic e to w a r d i m m i g r a n t s d id n o t play a ro le in e v a lu a t io n s of p e r s o n - o r g a n i z a t i o n fit. W hen th e a p p l i c a n t w a s b o r n a n d t r a i n e d in th e U n ite d K in g d o m , th e r e w a s a te n d e n c y for in d iv id u a ls h ig h e r in m o d e r n p r e j u d i c e to r a te the a p p l i c a n t a s h ig h e r in p e r s o n - o r g a n i z a t i o n fit. O f g r e a t e s t i n te r e s t, w h e n th e a p p l i c a n t w a s b o r n a n d t r a i n e d in In d ia , i n d iv i d u a ls h ig h e r in m o d e r n p r e ju d ic e to ­ w a r d i m m i g r a n t s e v a lu a te d th e a p p l i c a n t a s lo w e r in p e r s o n - o r g a n i z a ­ tion fit. It s h o u l d be n o te d t h a t all o f t h e s e fin d in g s d id n o t c h a n g e a p p r e c i a b l y w h e n we c o n tr o lle d for p a r t i c i p a n t g en d e r. S e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f t h e s e f in d i n g s a r e o f n o te . F i r s t , d e s p i t e th e fa c t t h a t th e a p p l i c a n t 's e t h n i c i t y w a s h e l d c o n s t a n t , w ith t h e a p p l i c a n t of I n d i a n d e s c e n t , n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e s a n d m o d e r n p r e j u d i c e t o w a r d i m m i g r a n t s p r e d i c t e d l e s s f a v o r a b l e e v a l u a t i o n s o f th e a p p l i c a n t o n ly w h e n th e a p p l i c a n t w a s b o r n a n d t r a i n e d in I n d i a . T h i s s u g ­ g e s t s t h a t l a t e n t p r e j u d i c e is o p e r a t i n g s u c h t h a t p r e j u d i c e d p a r t i c i -

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Modern Prejudice toward Immigrants FIG. 7.5. E v a l u a t i o n s of p e r s o n - o r g a n i z a t i o n fit a s a fu n c tio n of m o d e r n p r e j u d i c e t o w a r d i m m i g r a n t s a n d th e lo ca tio n o f b i r t h a n d t r a i n i n g o f the a p p li c a n t.

p a n t s a r e h e s i t a n t to r a te th e I n d i a n jo b a p p l i c a n t a s la c k in g in p e r s o n - j o b fit a n d in p e r s o n - o r g a n i z a t i o n fit u n l e s s t h e r e is a j u s t i ­ fic a tio n o t h e r t h a n p r e j u d i c e for d o in g so , nam ely , q u a lif ic a tio n s fro m In d ia a n d p o t e n t i a l for g r e a te r c u l t u r a l d if fe r e n c e s . R elatedly, for p e r s o n - o r g a n i z a t i o n fit only, i n d i v i d u a l s w h o w e r e h ig h e r in n e g ­ ative a t t i t u d e s a n d m o d e r n p r e j u d i c e to w a r d i m m i g r a n t s s h o w e d a te n d e n c y to e v a lu a te th e a p p l i c a n t b o r n a n d t r a i n e d in th e U n ite d K in g d o m m o r e favorably. P e r h a p s , th e n , th e s e in d iv id u a l s a r e " b e n d in g ov e r b a c k w a r d " n o t to a p p e a r b i a s e d , u n l e s s t h e r e is a r e a d y ju s t i f i c a t i o n for th e ir ne ga tiv e e v a lu a t io n s , a s is th e c a se w h e n th e a p p l i c a n t is b o r n a n d t r a i n e d in In d ia . P e r s o n - o r g a n i z a t i o n fit a s s e s s m e n t s m a y b e s e e n a s p a r t i c u l a r l y su b je c tiv e , a n d t h u s m a y be e sp e c ia lly s u s c e p t i b l e to th is “o v e r c o r r e c t i o n ” for a p p l i c a n t s b o r n a n d t r a i n e d in th e U n ite d K in g d o m . In a d d itio n , it is in te re stin g to note t h a t sim ilar, if n o t stro ng er, ef­ fects w ere o b ta in e d u s in g the m e a s u r e of negative a ttitu d e s to w a r d i m ­ m ig r a n ts v e r s u s the m e a s u r e of m o d e r n p re ju d ic e to w a r d i m m ig r a n ts . T h u s , a lth o u g h the fin dings su g g e st t h a t s u b tle b ia s m a y b e o p e ra tin g in e v a lu a tio n s of the In d ia n a p p lic a n t tr a in e d in India, the initial a s ­ s e s s m e n t of p re ju d ic e d id n o t have to be s u b tle in o r d e r to d e m o n ­ s tr a te th e se effects. T h is is r e a s s u r i n g for the a s s e s s m e n t of a ttitu d e s to w a r d im m ig r a n ts , a s th e m o r e s tr a ig h tfo rw a r d ite m s a re ro u tin e ly utilized in n a tio n a l su rv e y s of p u b lic a ttitu d e s (e.g., E n v iro n ic s, 20 00).

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THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS U n d e r s ta n d in g the p r o c e s s e s u n d e rly in g im m i g r a n t skill d is c o u n tin g h a s b o th th e o re tic al a n d p ra c tic a l im p o r ta n c e . At a th e o re tic a l level, r e s e a r c h on p re ju d ic e a n d skill d i s c o u n tin g a d v a n c e s k n ow led ge of the w ays in w hich s u b tle b ia s m a y o p e r a te in the everyday t r e a tm e n t of r a ­ cial m in o rity im m ig r a n ts . T h is c o n tr ib u t e s to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of su b tle b ia s a n d the re la tio n b e tw een p re ju d ic e a n d behavior. T h e c u r ­ r e n t fin dings su g g e st th a t p re ju d ic e a g a in s t im m ig r a n ts , w h e th e r m e a ­ s u r e d in a s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d o r m o r e s u b tle way, r e s u lt s in a s u b tle be h a v io ra l m a n ife s ta tio n of d is c r im in a tio n . T h a t is, only w h en the a p ­ p lic a n t w as an i m m ig r a n t from a no n-W estern c o u n try w as skill d i s ­ c o u n tin g evident. C o n s is te n t w ith r e s e a r c h on aversive f o r m s of p r e j u d i c e a n d the j u s t i f i c a t i o n - s u p p r e s s i o n m o d e l ( C r a n d a ll & E s h le m a n . 2 0 0 3 ; Dovidio & G a e rtn e r, 1998; Dovidio et al., 20 01 ), th is su g g e sts th a t a p r e ju d ic e d p e r s o n m u s t feel th a t a n o n p re ju d ic ia l r a ­ tionale for d is c r im in a tio n exists before th a t p r e ju d ic e is p u t into a c ­ tion. O u r r e s e a r c h also h a s the p o te n tia l to in fo rm th eory in the a r e a s of p e r s o n n e l selection a n d skill disc o u n tin g . With r e g a r d s to th e o rie s of p e r s o n n e l selection, o u r r e s e a r c h m a y form the b a s is for th e o r e ti­ cally d riv en d e sig n s of selectio n p r o c e d u r e s t h a t re d u c e the likelihood of the e n a c tm e n t of p re ju d ic ia l a ttitu d e s . With re g a rd to skill d i s c o u n t ­ ing, by utilizing a psychological p e rsp e c tiv e to investigate a n issu e p r e ­ viously a d d r e s s e d by o th e r social s c ie n tists s u c h a s socio lo gists a n d e c o n o m is ts , th is r e s e a r c h h a s the p o te n tia l to c o n tr ib u te to the devel­ o p m e n t of th e o ry t h a t b rid g e s d is c ip lin a ry b o u n d a r ie s . At a p r a c t ic a l level, a s we d i s c u s s e d earlier, W estern n a tio n s s u c h a s C a n a d a a n d the U n ite d S t a te s n e e d im m i g r a n t s to m a i n t a i n a s t r o n g a n d globally c o m p e titiv e econ om y , a n d it is e s s e n tia l th a t th e se n a t io n s “a tt r a c t, r e ta in , a n d b e tte r utilize the sk ills of i m m i g r a n t s ” (C itiz e n sh ip a n d I m m ig r a tio n C a n a d a , 2 0 0 3 , p. 26). P ub lic a w a r e ­ n e s s of im m i g r a n t sk ill d is c o u n ti n g m e a n s , however, t h a t th e se n a ­ tio n s m a y have g r e a te r difficulty a ttr a c t in g a n d re t a in in g sk ille d w o r k e r s in th e fu tu r e ( H u m a n R e s o u r c e s D e v e lo p m e n t C a n a d a , 2 0 0 2 ). In a d d it io n to th e e c o n o m ic im p li c a tio n s for th e h o s t n a tio n , sk ill d is c o u n t in g h a s e n o r m o u s negative effects on th e w ell-b eing of im m i g r a n t s (e.g., Aycan & Berry, 1996). A f irst s te p to w a r d e l i m i n a t ­ ing sk ill d is c o u n ti n g is ide ntifying a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g its a n t e c e d ­ e n ts . O u r r e s e a r c h d o e s so by d is e n ta n g lin g the c o m p le x in te r p la y of foreign v e r s u s d o m e s tic q u a lific a tio n s , a n d p r e ju d i c ia l a t t i t u d e s h e ld by th o se w h o m a k e p e r s o n n e l d e c is io n s . It is ea sy to o v erlo o k the role of p r e ju d i c e b e c a u s e of its s u b t le n a ­ tu r e . As s h o w n in o u r r e s e a r c h , p r e ju d ic ia l a t t itu d e s d o n o t alw ays lead to d i s c r im in a t io n to w a rd ra c ia l m in o r it ie s (e.g., th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in o u r s tu d y d id n o t d is c r i m i n a t e a g a in s t ra c ia l m in o r ity a p p lic a n ts b o r n a n d tr a in e d in C a n a d a o r th e U n ite d K ing do m ). We s u g g e s t t h a t th is is the c a se b e c a u s e s u c h d is c r i m i n a t i o n w o u ld be difficult to j u s ­

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tify. W hen se e m in g ly n o n p r e ju d ic ia l ju s tif ic a tio n s a re available, h o w ­ ever, p r e ju d ic ia l a t titu d e s do play a role. T h is w a s the c a s e in o u r r e s e a r c h w h e n the a p p li c a n t w a s b o r n a n d tr a in e d in In d ia . In th is ca se , d is c r i m i n a t i o n c o u ld b e ju s tifie d on the b a s i s of u n f a m ili a r q u a lif ic a tio n s a n d p o te n tia l for g r e a te r c u ltu r a l d iffe re n c es . T h is hig h lig h ts th e i m p o r t a n c e of th e p sy ch o lo g ica l p e r s p e c tiv e for p i n ­ p o in tin g th e c a u s e s o f sk ill d i s c o u n tin g . For e x a m p le , a r e c e n t r e p o r t on im m i g r a n t skill d is c o u n tin g in C a n a d a (Finnie, 2 0 0 5 ) fo u n d t h a t a lth o u g h th e fo r e ig n - a c q u ire d w o r k e x p e r ie n c e a n d e d u c a t io n of i m ­ m i g r a n ts , p a r ti c u la r ly r a c ia l m in o r ity i m m i g r a n t s , a r e heavily d i s ­ c o u n te d , th e w o r k e x p e r ie n c e a n d e d u c a ti o n e a r n e d in C a n a d a by i m m ig r a n ts , in c lu d in g ra c ia l m in o r it y im m ig r a n ts , a r e not. On the b a s i s of th is finding, the a u t h o r c o n c lu d e d t h a t “th e low v a lu a tio n of foreign e d u c a tio n a n d w o r k e x p e rie n c e , r a t h e r t h a n r a c ia l d i s c r i m i ­ n a tio n , r e p r e s e n t s the m a in o b s ta c le to im m i g r a n t s ' full p a r tic i p a tio n in the C a n a d i a n eco n o m y " (Finnie, 2 0 0 5 , p. A14). W h at the a u t h o r failed to c o n sid e r, however, is t h a t th e low v a lu a tio n of foreign e d u c a ­ tion a n d w o r k e x p e r ie n c e itse lf m a y be s u b j e c t to th e in flu e n c e of r a ­ cial p r e ju d ic e . T h u s , th e fa ilu re to d e v a lu e C a n a d i a n sk ills h e ld by r a c ia l m in o r ity im m i g r a n t s d o e s n o t d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t p r e j u d ic e h a s no ro le to play. R a th e r, o u r fin d in g s s u g g e s t t h a t p r e ju d i c e only le a d s to d is c r i m i n a t i o n w h e n it c a n b e e a s ily ju s tifie d by th e se e m in g ly legit­ im a te fa c to r of foreign q u a lific a tio n s . Knowledge th a t skill d is c o u n tin g can be a m a n ife s ta tio n of su b tle p re ju d ic e a n d legitimizing ju s tific a tio n s sug ge sts the types of in te r v e n ­ tio n s th a t m a y be pro fitab ly im p le m e n te d . In p a rtic u la r, o u r r e s u lt s su gg est th a t in a d d itio n to a t te m p tin g to c h a ng e a ttitu d e s in o r d e r to r e d u c e p re ju d ic e , in te rv e n tio n s have to be d e sig n e d th a t delegitimize the u s e of foreign q u alification s a s a r e a s o n for n o t h irin g qualified r a ­ cial m in o rity im m ig r a n ts . T h is m ay involve a w a r e n e s s tr a in in g for o r ­ g a n iza tio n a l d ecisio n m a k e rs , s ta n d a r d iz e d an d en fo rceab le org a n iz a tio n a l policies on the evaluation of foreign qu alification s, a n d the m o r e w id e s p r e a d u se of in te r n a tio n a l c re d e n tia l e v alu atio n s e r ­ vices t h a t p ro v id e "legitim acy” to th e sk ills th a t im m ig r a n t s b r in g with th e m to th e ir new country.

REFERENCES Aycan, Z., & Berry. J. W. (199 6 ). Im p a c t of e m p l o y m e n t -re l a te d e x p e rie n c e s on i m m i g r a n t s ' p sy ch o lo g ica l well-being a n d a d a p t a t i o n to C a n a d a . C a nadian J o u r n a l o f B eha v ioural Science, 2 8, 2 4 0 - 2 5 1 . B aker, M., & B e n ja m in , D. (19 9 7 ). Ethnicity, foreign b ir th a n d ea rn in g s: A C a n ­ ad a /U S c o m p a r i s o n . In M. G. A b bo tt. C. M. B e ach , & R. P. C h a y k o w s k i (E ds.), Transition a n d structural c h a n g e in the North A m eric a n labour m a r k e t (pp. 2 8 1 - 3 1 3 ) . K ing sto n, C a n a d a : J o h n D c u ts c h In s titu te for the S tu d y of E c o n o m i c Policy. B owen, D. E., L e d fo rd , G. R., J r ., & N a th a n , B. R. (1 99 1 ). H iring for th e o r g a n i­ zatio n , n o t the jo b . A c a d e m y o f M a n a g e m e n t E xecutive, 5(4), 3 5 - 5 1 .

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Brief, A. P., Dietz, J ., C ohen, R. R., Pugh, S. D., & Vaslow, J. B. (2000). J u s t d o ­ ing b u s in e s s : M od e rn ra c ism a n d o be die nc e to a u th o rity a s e x p la n a tio n s for e m p lo y m e n t d is c r im in a tio n . O r g a n i z a t i o n a l B e h a v i o r a n d H u m a n D e ­ cision Proc ess es , 81 (1 ), 7 2 - 9 7 . C itiz e n sh ip a n d Im m ig ra tio n C a n a d a . (2003). A n n u a l repor t to p a r l i a m e n t on i m m i g r a t i o n : 2 0 0 3 . O ttaw a, C a n a d a : G o v e rn m e n t of C a n a d a . C itiz e n sh ip & Im m ig ra tio n C a n a d a . (2004). A n n u a l report to p a r l i a m e n t on i m m i g r a t i o n : 2 0 0 4 . O ttaw a, C a n a d a : G o v e rn m e n t of C a n a d a . C o h e n . J .. & C o h e n . P. (1 9 8 3 ). A p p l i e d m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n / c o r r e l a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s f o r t h e b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s . H illsd ale, N J: L a w re n c e E r lb a u m A sso cia te s. C ra n d a ll, C. S.. & E s h le m a n , A. (2003). A j u s ti f ic a t io n - s u p p r e s s io n m o d e l of the e x p re ss io n a n d e x perience of p re ju d ic e . P sy chologi c al Bul let in, 129, 414-446. Dietz, J ., & Pugh, S. D. (2004). I say to m a to , you say d o m a te : Differential r e a c ­ tio ns to E n glish-o nly w o r k p la c e policies by p e r s o n s from im m ig r a n t a n d n o n - im m ig r a n t fam ilies. J o u r n a l o f B u s i n e s s Ethics, 52 (4 ), 3 6 5 - 3 7 9 . Dovidio, J. F.. & G a e rtn e r, S. L. (1998). On the n a t u r e of c o n t e m p o r a r y p r e j u ­ dice: T he c a u s e s , c o n s e q u e n c e s , a n d challen ges of aversive ra c is m . In J. L. E b e r h a r d t & S. T. Fiske (Eds.), Co n f ro n t in g r ac is m: T h e p r o b l e m a n d the r e s p o n s e (pp. 3 - 3 2 ) . T h o u s a n d O a k s, CA: Sage. Dovidio, J. F., G acrtner, S. L., & B a c h m a n , B.A. (2001). Racial b ia s e s in o r g a n i­ z a tio ns: T he role of g ro u p p r o c e s s e s in its c a u s e s a n d c u re s. In M.E. T u r n e r (Ed.), G r o u p s a t work: T h e o r y a n d r e se a r c h (pp. 4 1 5 - 4 4 4 ) . M ah w ah, NJ: L aw rence E r l b a u m A ssociates. E nvironics. (2000). A ttitudes to w ard im m ig ratio n. Focus C a n a d a , 3, 1 1 8 -1 2 5 . E s s e s , V. M., Dovidio, J. F., J a c k s o n , L. M., & A rm s tro n g , T. L. (2001). T he i m ­ m ig ra tio n d ile m m a : T h e role of perceived g ro u p c o m p e titio n , eth nic p r e j u ­ dice, a n d n a tio n a l identity. In V. M. E s s e s , J. F. Dovidio, & K. L. Dion (Eds.), I m m i g r a n t s a n d i m m i g r a t i o n . J o u r n a l o f S oc ia l I ss u es , 57, 3 8 9 - 4 1 2 . E s s e s , V. M.. H o d s o n . G., & Dovidio, J . F. (2003). Public a ttitu d e s to w a rd im ­ m ig ra n ts a n d im m ig ra tio n : D e te r m in a n ts a n d policy im p lic a tio n s. In C. M. Beach, A. G. G ree n , & J. G. Reitz (Eds.), C a n a d i a n i m m i g r a t i o n p o l ic y f o r t he 2 1 s t c e n t u r y (pp. 5 0 7 - 5 3 5 ) . M ontreal, C a n a d a : McGill Q u e e n ’s Press. E s s e s , V. M., J a c k s o n , L. M., & A rm stro n g , T. L. (1998). In te rg ro u p c o m p e ti­ tion a n d a ttitu d e s to w a rd im m ig r a n ts a n d im m ig ra tio n : An in s tr u m e n ta l m o d e l of g r o u p conflict. J o u r n a l o f S oc ial I s s u e s, 54, 6 9 9 - 7 2 4 . Finnie, R. (2 0 0 5 , F e b ru a ry 9). B ringing im m ig r a n ts u p to s p e e d . T h e N a t i on a l Post, p. A14. Frazer, R. A., & W iersm a, U. J. (2001). P rejud ice v e r s u s d is c r im in a tio n in the e m p lo y m e n t interview: We m a y h ire equally, b u t o u r m e m o r i e s h a r b o u r p re ju d ic e . H u m a n R e l a t i on s , 54, 1 7 3 - 1 9 1 . H a n s o n , G. H. (2004). I m m i g r a t i o n policy. R etrieved J a n u a r y 5, 2 0 0 5 from h ttp ://irp sh o in e .u c s d .e d u /fa c u lty /g o h a n s o n /im m ig ra tio n _ p o lic y .p d f H u m , D., & S im p s o n , W. (1999). Wage o p p o r tu n itie s for visible m in o ritie s in C a n a d a . C a n a d i a n Public Policy, 25, 3 7 9 - 3 9 4 . H u m a n R e so u rc e M a n a g e m e n t G u id e C a n a d a . (2002). Ignoring f o r e i g n t a le n t cost s billions. R etrieved J a n u a r y 4, 2 0 0 5 , from h ttp ://w w w .h rm g u id e .n e t/ can ad a/jo b m ark et/fo reig n cred en tials.h tm

7.

R O L E O F P R E J U D I C E IN D I S C O U N T I N G I M M I G R A N T S K I L L S

12 9

H u m a n R c s o u rc c s D e v e lo p m e n t C a n a d a . (2002). K n o w l e d g e m a t t e r s : Ski ll s a n d l ea r ni ng f o r C a n a d i a n s . O ttawa: G o v e rn m e n t of C a n a d a . K ristof-Brown, A. L. (2000). Perceived applicant-fit: D istin g u ish in g betw een recruiters* p e r c e p tio n s of p e r s o n - jo b a n d p e r s o n - o r g a n i z a ti o n fit. P e r s o n­ nel P sy cho log y, 53, 6 4 3 - 6 7 1 . Li. P. S. (2001). T he m a r k e t w o rth of i m m i g r a n t s ’ e d u c a tio n a l c r e d e n tia ls. C a ­ n a d i a n Public Policy, 27, 2 3 - 3 8 . McConahay, J. B. (1986). M o d e rn r a c is m , a m bivalen ce, a n d the m o d e r n r a c ­ ism scale. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. G a e r tn e r (Eds.), Prejudice, d i s c r i m i n a ­ tion, a n d r a c i s m (pp. 9 1 - 1 2 5 ) . O rla n d o , FL: A cadem ic P re ss. M etrop olis C o n v e rsa tio n Se rie s. (2001). E c o n o m i c a n d s ocial p e r f o r m a n c e o u t c o m e s o f r e c en t i m m i g r a n t s : H o w c a n w e i m p r o v e t h e m ? Retrieved A u g u s t 17, 2 0 0 4 , fro m h t t p : / / c a n a d a . m c t r o p o l i s . n c t / r c s c a r c h - p o l i c y / c o n v e ra tio n /c o n v e rsa tio n _ 5 .h tm l M onteith, M. J., S h e r m a n , J. W., & Devine, P G. (1998). S u p p r e s s i o n a s a s te ­ reotype c o n tro l strategy. Personality a n d Soci al P sychology R e vi e w , 2, 6 3 -8 2 . P etersen , L.-E., & Dietz, J. (2005). E n f o r c e m e n t of w o rk fo rc e h o m ogeneity a n d p r e ju d ic e as e x p la n a tio n s for e m p lo y m e n t d is c r im in a tio n . J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d S oci al P sy ch o l og y , 35(1), 1 4 4 - 1 5 9 . Reitz. J. G. (2001a). Im m ig r a n t skill utilization in the C a n a d ia n la b o u r m a r ­ ket: Im p lic a tio n s of h u m a n ca p ita l re s e a rc h . J o u r n a l o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l Mi ­ g ra t io n a n d I nt eg ra t io n, 2(3), 3 4 7 - 3 7 8 . Reitz, J. G. (2 00 1b). Im m ig r a n t s u c c e s s in th e know ledg e econom y: In s titu ­ tional change a n d the i m m ig r a n t e xperien ce in C a n a d a : 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 9 5 . In V. M. E s s e s , J . F. Dovidio, & K. L. Dion (Eds.), I m m i g r a n t s a n d i m m i g r a t i o n . J o u r n a l o f S oc ia l I ss ue s, 57, 5 7 9 - 6 1 3 . Reitz, J. G. (2003a). E d u c a tio n a l e x p a n s io n a n d the e m p lo y m e n t s u c c e s s of i m m i g r a n ts in the United S ta te s a n d C a n a d a , 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 9 0 . In J.G . Reitz (Ed.), Ho s t s oc ie ti es a n d the re ce pt i o n o f i m m i g r a n t s (pp. 1 5 1 -1 8 0 ). S a n Diego. CA: C e n te r for C o m p a ra tiv e Im m ig ra tio n R e se a rc h . Reitz, J. G. (20 03 b). O c c u p a tio n a l d i m e n s io n s of im m ig r a n t c r e d e n tia l a s s e s s ­ m e n t: T r e n d s in p r o f e s s i o n a l , m a n a g e r i a l , a n d o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n s : 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 9 6 . In C. M. Beach, A. G. G reen , & J. G. Reitz (Eds.), C a n a d i a n i m ­ m i g r a t i o n p ol icy f o r t he 2 1 s t c e n t u r y (pp. 4 6 9 - 5 0 6 ) . Kingston: J o h n D e u tsc h In stitute, Q ueen's University. Reitz, J. G. (2005). T a p p in g im m i g r a n t s ’ skills: New d ir e c tio n s for C a n a d ia n im m ig ra tio n policy in the know ledge economy. Choices, 11( 1). S ta tistic s C a n a d a . (2004). T h e c h a n g i n g profile o f C a n a d a ' s l a b o u r f o r c e . R e­ trieved J a n u a r y 17, 2 0 0 5 , from h ttp ://w w w l2 .s ta tc a n .c a /e n g is h /c e n s u s 0 1 / P ro d u c ts/A n a ly tic /c o m p a n io n /p a id /c a n a d a .c fm S te p h a n . W. G., Renfro, L., E s s e s , V. M., S te p h a n , C. W., & M artin, T. (2005). T he effects of feeling th r e a te n e d on a ttitu d e s to w a rd im m ig r a n ts . I n t e r n a ­ t ional J o u r n a l o f In te rc ul tu ra l R e l a ti o ns , 29, 1 -19 . S te p h a n , W. G., Y b a rra , O., & B a c h m a n , G. (1999). P rejud ice to w a rd i m m i­ gra n ts: An integ rated th r e a t theory. J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d S o ci al Ps ychol ogy, 29, 2 2 2 1 - 2 2 3 7 . S u m , A., Fogg, N., K hatiw ad a, I., & Palm a, S. (2004). Foreign i m m i g r a t i o n a n d t he l abor f o r c e o f t he U.S.: T h e c o n t r i bu t i o n s o f n e w f o r e i g n i m m i g r a t i o n

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to t he g r o w t h o f the n at ion' s labor f o r c e a n d its e m p l o y e d p o p u l a t i o n , 2 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 4 . Retrieved J a n u a r y 17, 2 0 0 5 , from http://w w w .nupr.neu.edu/704/im m ig r a n t_ 0 4 .p d f Sw idinsky, R., & Swidinsky, M. (2002). The relative e a rn in g s of visible m in o r i­ tie s in C a n a d a : New e v i d e n c e f r o m th e 1 9 9 6 c e n s u s . R e l a t i o n s I ndus tr iel les , 57, 6 3 0 - 6 5 9 . Toye, S. (2002). I m m i g r a n t “b rai n w a s t e ” w e a k e n i n g e c o n o m y , s a y s p r o f e s ­ sor. R etrieved S e p te m b e r 7, 2 0 0 4 , from h ttp ://w w w .n e w s.u to ro n to .c a/b in 2 / 0 2 0 3 1 8 a .a sp UN D e p a r tm e n t of E c o n o m ic a n d Social Affairs. (2004). World e c o n o m i c a n d s oci al s u r v e y 2 0 04 : I n t e r n a t i o n a l m i g ra t io n . New York: U nited N ations P ub lic a tio n s. W orld E d u c a t i o n S e r v ic e s . ( 2 0 0 5 ) . R e tr ie v e d J a n u a r y 5, 2 0 0 5 , from h ttp ://www. w e s.o rg

Black Immigrants to the United States: Confronting and Constructing Ethnicity and Race Teceta T hom as Tormala In d ia n a University

Kay Deaux C it y U n i v e r s i t y o f N e w York

African A m e ric a n identity (i.e., the m e a n in g s s u r r o u n d i n g b ein g a B lack A m e ric a n , g e n e r a te d b o th by B la c k s a n d by o u tg r o u p m e m b e r s ) h a s gone th r o u g h c o n tin u o u s c o n s tr u c ti o n a n d revision over the p a s t 4 0 0 y e a rs, a c o n s e q u e n c e of the e c o n o m ic , social, political, a n d p s y ­ chological o u tc o m e s afford ed B la ck s in the U nited S ta te s since the c o u n t r y ’s b eg in nings. More recently, c h a n g e s in im m ig ra tio n p a t t e r n s have challeng ed the d e fin itio n s of African A m e ric a n identity. D u rin g the p a s t 40 y e a rs, West In d ia n a n d A frican B la c k s —g r o u p s with differ­ e n t so c io c u ltu r a l a n d h isto ric a l r e la tio n s h ip s to ra c e th a n B lack A m e r ­ ic a n s — have im m ig r a te d to the U nited S ta te s in in c re a s in g n u m b e r s . T h e se im m ig r a n ts a re b r o a d e n in g the social c o n s tr u c tio n of b la c k n e s s in th e U nited S ta te s. In th is c h a p te r we a d d r e s s th e w ays in w h ich i m ­ m i g r a n t s ta tu s , ethnicity, a n d race in te r s e c t for B la ck s living in the U nited S ta te s , a n d how the very m e a n in g of the A frican A m e ric a n or B lack identity is c h a n g in g in the p ro c e s s . T h e h isto ry of im m ig ra tio n in the U nited S ta te s is significantly s h a p e d by the im a g e s a n d realities of ra c e (Deaux, 2 0 0 4 ). In a c o u n try 131

132

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in w h ic h th e d i s c o u r s e of B la c k v e r s u s W hite h a s h a d a lon g a n d p e r v a ­ sive p r e s e n c e , r e a c t i o n s to n e w a r r i v a l s a r e p e r h a p s in e v ita b ly f r a m e d in a d ia lo g u e o f r a c e . 1 T h is c o n j u n c tio n o f im m i g r a t i o n a n d ra c e r e l a ­ tio n s c o m p l i c a t e s the s tu d y o f e th n ic r e l a t i o n s , o f s t e re o ty p in g , p r e j u ­ dice a n d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , o f th e r o le o f so c ia l id e n tity o n o u t c o m e s , a n d of i n t e r p e r s o n a l in te r a c tio n s . B la c k i m m i g r a n t s , 2 in p a r t ic u la r , c h a l ­ lenge u s to c o n s i d e r th e in flu e n c e o f c u l t u r e a n d e th n ic ity o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d th e s tig m a tiz e d “m a s t e r id e ntity" (W aters, 1 9 9 9 a ) of b l a c k ­ n e s s on th e o th e r. In p a r s i n g o u t th e s e v a r i o u s in flu e n c e s, w e m a y gain a fu ller u n d e r s t a n d i n g of th e w a y s in w h ic h im m ig r a tio n is c a u s in g sh ifts in th e p a r a m e t e r s a n d m e a n i n g of ra c e . In th is c h a p te r , w e d e s c r i b e th e p a t t e r n s of B la c k i m m i g r a t i o n to th e U n ite d S t a t e s a n d c o n s i d e r th e i m p lic a t io n s o f th o se p a t t e r n s for o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e i m m i g r a n t e x p e r ie n c e a n d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r a c e a n d e th n ic ity m o r e generally. S e v e r a l q u e s t i o n s a n d t h e m e s g u id e o u r a n a ly s is . F ir s t, we p r e s e n t s o m e g e n e r a l s t a t is tic s o n i m m i g r a t i o n to th e U n ite d S t a t e s of p e o p le of A fric a n d e s c e n t. R e c o g n iz in g th e d i ­ v e rs ity t h a t th is la b e l r e p r e s e n t s , w e n o te s im i la r i tie s a n d d iff e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e c o u n t r i e s o f o rig in t h a t h ig h lig h t th e i m p o r t a n c e o f th e c u l ­ t u r a l c o n te x t of orig in to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a d a p t a t i o n to th e c u l tu r e of entry. With r e f e r e n c e to th e c u l t u r e o f entry, w e lo o k a t th e c o n te x t t h a t B la c k i m m i g r a n t s e n c o u n te r , s pecifically in t e r m s of th e beliefs a n d s te r e o t y p e s h e ld by n a tiv e - b o r n c itiz e n s. We t h e n t u r n to th e b e ­ h a v io r o f i m m i g r a n t s t h e m s e l v e s , d e s c r i b i n g r e s e a r c h t h a t e x p lo r e s h o w B la c k i m m i g r a n t s n e g o tia te s i t u a t i o n s in w h ic h t h e ir ra c e a n d / o r e th n ic ity is p o te n tia lly r e le v a n t a n d th e role t h a t e th n ic id e n tific a tio n p la y s in p e r f o r m a n c e , beliefs, a n d a t t i t u d e s . Finally, we a s s e s s o u r ow n in v o lv e m e n t in th e s e i s s u e s a n d r a i s e a n u m b e r o f q u e s t i o n s for f u tu r e in v e stig a tio n in th e h o p e s o f m o r e fully u n d e r s t a n d i n g th e c o m ­ p lex w a y s in w h ic h c u ltu r e , e thnicity, a n d ra c e in te r tw in e .

PATTERNS OF BLACK IMMIGRATION T h e a r r i v a l o f la r g e n u m b e r s o f B l a c k i m m i g r a n t s to c itie s s u c h a s N ew York, W a s h i n g t o n , DC, a n d M ia m i h a s c h a n g e d th e d y n a m i c s o f in te r a c tio n s b o th w ith in the B lack co m m u n ity , a n d b etw een B la c k s a n d o u t g r o u p m e m b e r s . B la c k i m m i g r a n t s c o n s t i t u t e a b o u t 7% o f t h e f o r e i g n - b o r n p o p u l a t i o n liv in g in t h e U n it e d S t a t e s a n d a b o u t 6% o f t h e B la c k p o p u l a t i o n in th e U n it e d S t a t e s (U.S. C e n s u s , 2 0 0 0 ) . T a ­ b l e s 8 .1 a n d 8 . 2 p r e s e n t p e r c e n t a g e s , i n f o r m a t i o n o n c o u n t r i e s of

*We u se the term ra ce to d e no te d ifferences betw een g r o u p s b a s e d on socially c o n ­ s tr u c te d categories; we do no t a s s u m e any biological b a s is of difference. 2 Black im m i g r a n t s a rc a h e te ro g e n o u s g rou p: the term p rim a rily re fe rs to B lacks i m ­ m ig ra ting from the C a rib b e a n or African c o u n trie s . When we u se the term B la c k i m m i ­ g r a n t s . we m e a n a ny Black w ho h a s i m m ig ra te d to the U nited S ta te s (first generation) or the child of a n im m i g r a n t (second generation).

TABLE 8 .1 C o m p a riso n o f Im m ig ra n ts From th e C arib b ean an d From A frica West I n d ia n / Caribbean Im m ig ra n ts

Af rican Immigrants

P ercentage of total U.S. p o p u la tio n

0.5%

0.2%

Percentage of Black population in the United States

4.6%

1.6%

Top se n d in g c o u n tr ie s of origin, with the n u m b e r of n a tio n a ls living in the U nited S ta te s

J a m a i c a ( 5 5 3 ,8 2 7 ) G u y a n a (2 1 1 ,1 8 9 ) T r in id a d a n d Tobago (1 9 7 ,3 9 8 )

Nigeria ( 1 3 4 ,9 4 0 ) Egypt (1 13,396) E thiopia (69,531)

M e tro p o lita n a r e a s of h ig h e st c o n c e n tra tio n

New York Miami Ft. L a u d e r d a le , FL

W ashington, DC New York Atlanta

Note.

From Logan a n d D eane (2003) a n d U.S. C e n s u s (2000).

TABLE 8 .2 F oreign-B orn B lack p o p u la tio n , 1 9 0 0 - 2 0 0 0

Year

Populat ion

Percent o f total Black population

2000

2 , 1 5 5 ,4 4 3

6.1%

1990

1,1 54 ,18 1

4.0%

1980

8 1 5 ,7 2 0

3.1%

1970

2 5 3 ,4 5 8

1.1%

1960

1 2 5 ,3 2 2

0.7%

1950

1 1 3 ,8 4 2

0.8%

1940

8 3 ,94 1

0.7%

1930

9 8 ,6 2 0

0.8%

1920

7 3 ,8 0 3

0.7%

1910

4 0 ,3 3 9

0.4%

1900

2 0 ,3 3 6

0.2%

Note.

D ata from U. S. C e n s u s (2000).

133

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o rig in , a n d th e d i s t r i b u t i o n of B la c k i m m i g r a n t s w ith in th e U n ite d S t a te s , a s of the y e a r 2 0 0 0 . T he in c re a s in g n u m b e r of B lack im m ig r a n ts h a s b e g u n to shift in tr a r a c ia l politics a n d in te r a c tio n s with A m e ric a n B la c k s a n d h a s se rv e d to re fo cu s th e m e a n in g s a r o u n d th e Black/A frican A m eric an identity. T he p r e s e n c e of West In d ia n s in d e p a r t m e n t s of African A m e r ­ ican S tu d ie s h a s s p a r k e d c o n s id e r a b le d e b a te (Hintzen, 2 0 0 1 ). Two r e c e n t a rtic le s in the N e w York T i m e s (R im er & A re n s o n , 2 0 0 4 ; S w a r n s , 2 0 0 4 ), a s e x a m p le s, d is c u s s e d how the in c re a sin g p r e s e n c e of Black im m i g r a n t s is affecting w h o can claim th e label of African A m e r ic a n (a n d , a s o n e s o c ia l c o n s e q u e n c e , w h o is e n title d to affirm ative action fu n d s s e t a s id e for th a t g ro u p ). T h e grow ing d iversity w ithin the B lack c o m m u n ity in th e U nited S ta te s affects n o t only re la tio n s b etw een A m e ric an a n d im m ig r a n t B lack s, b u t also the p e r c e p tio n s a n d a ttitu d e s to w a r d the two g r o u p s by n o n -B la c k s. P e r c e p tio n s of the g r o u p s are d riv e n in p a r t by th e p e r ­ centages of the g r o u p s in the p o p u la tio n : As the p e rc e n ta g e of a m i n o r ­ ity g ro u p in c r e a s e s , in te rg r o u p conflict a n d m is p e r c e p t io n s also rise (M assey & D e n to n , 1993). U n de rly in g the in c r e a s e in p re ju d ic e a n d d is c r im in a tio n triggered by a n u m e r ic a l in c r e a s e of a g r o u p is the p e r ­ c e p tion of th a t g r o u p a s a t h r e a t to e c o n o m ic livelihood (realistic or e c o n o m ic th re a t) a n d / o r a t h r e a t to v alu es a n d m o r e s (sym bolic th re a t). T h is p r o c e s s h a s b e e n s h o w n to o c c u r b o th for in c re a sin g n u m b e r s of B la c k s (Taylor, 1998) a n d im m ig r a n ts (E ss e s, J a c k s o n , & A r m stro n g , 1998; Z a ra te , G a rc ia , G a rz a , & H itlan, 2 0 0 3 ). T h u s , the low p e rc e n ta g e s of Black im m ig r a n ts in the m ajo rity of A m e ric a n cities m a y be (at le a st te m p o ra rily ) p r o te c tin g th e m from s o m e of the n e g a ­ tive evaluation , stereotyping , a n d d is c r im in a tio n th a t c a n affect B lack A m e ric a n s, a t b o th the i n te r p e r s o n a l level (e.g., h a r a s s m e n t ) a n d the in s titu tio n a l level (e.g., ho using). T he d e m o g r a p h ic s of different g r o u p s w ithin city p o p u la tio n s are also i m p o r ta n t in d e te rm in in g the ease with w hich Black im m ig ra n ts are in c o rp o ra te d into the area. Not only is the percentag e of Black i m m i­ g ra n ts im p o r ta n t; also im p o r ta n t is the p e rcen tage of Black A m e ric a n s, m inorities, a n d im m ig r a n ts in any given city. T he experience of a West In dian im m ig ra n t in New York City, a m e tro p o lita n a re a t h a t h a s b o th a large Black (27%) a n d a large im m ig ra n t p o p u la tio n (indeed, 26% of the Black p o p u la tio n are im m ig ra n ts), is different from the experience of a West In dian in Los Angeles, w h e re there are high n u m b e r s of A sian s a n d L atinos (57% c o m b in ed), b u t a sm a lle r percentage of B lacks (11%), or in a city like Montpelier, V erm ont, w hich is 97% White. T he degree to w h ich B lack im m ig r a n ts a re categ orized into, a n d g ro u p th e m se lv e s a long w ith, a la rge r B lack o r m in o r ity g r o u p o r a la rge r im m i g r a n t g ro u p affects b o th re a c tio n s to w a rd Black i m m i ­ g r a n t s by o u tg r o u p m e m b e r s a n d the id e n titie s a d o p te d by the g ro u p m e m b e r s th e m se lv e s (as im m i g r a n t o r B lack im m ig ra n t, a s minority, a n d / o r a s Black). P e rc e p tio n s of th r e a t affect n o t only W hites' level of

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p r e j u d ic e , b u t a lso th e p r e j u d i c e level o t h e r m in o r i t y g r o u p m e m b e r s a s well (B obo & H u tc h in g s , 19 9 6 ). T h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l d y n a m i c s a t all levels— in tr a c ia l (with B la c k A m e r ic a n s ) , i n t r a g r o u p (with o t h e r m i ­ n o r itie s ) , o r i n t e r g r o u p (with W h ite s)— affect th e p s y c h o lo g y a n d dayt o - d a y lives o f B la c k i m m i g r a n t s . T h e d y n a m i c s o f in t e r - a n d i n t r a g r o u p r e l a t i o n s c a n aid o r i m p e d e th e a d j u s t m e n t o f B la c k i m m i ­ g r a n t s . O n th e o n e h a n d , so c ia l a n d e c o n o m ic a d j u s t m e n t is fa c ilita te d by h a v in g th e s o c ia l c a p ita l, e th n ic n e t w o r k s , a n d fin a n c ia l s u p p o r t o f o t h e r c o - e th n i c s . O n th e o t h e r h a n d , th e p r e s e n c e o f B la c k A m e r i c a n s m a y h a v e p o sitiv e o r negative o u t c o m e s for B la c k i m m i g r a n t s . T h e e x­ is te n c e of th e m u c h m o r e n u m e r o u s g r o u p of A m e r ic a n B la c k s c a n se rv e to a b s o r b s o c ie ta l fo c u s, b u f f e r in g th e e x p e r ie n c e of i m m i g r a n t B la c k s fr o m th e b u l k of neg ative t r e a t m e n t facing U .S .-b o rn B la c k s (Foner, 1 998 ). At th e s a m e tim e , larg e n u m b e r s o f B la c k A m e r i c a n s m a y i n c r e a s e th e p o te n tia l for i n t r a r a c i a l t e n s i o n s , a s well a s the effects o f c a te g o r iz a tio n in to th e la r g e r s tig m a tiz e d g r o u p .

COMPARING CULTURES OF ORIGIN B la c k i m m i g r a n t s h a v e g r e a t c u l t u r a l a n d lin g u istic diversity. B o th b e ­ tw e e n a n d w ith in th e r e g io n s of th e C a r i b b e a n a n d Africa, d if fe re n c e s in la n g u a g e , t r a d i t i o n s , ethnicity, religion, a n d h is t o r y e x ist (see Table 8 .3 fo r a m o r e d e ta ile d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e p a t t e r n s ) . As j u s t o n e ex-

TABLE 8 .3 Contemporary Cultures of Origin for First- and Second-G eneration Black Immigrants and Native-Born Black Am ericans, Show ing Cultural Context in Country of Birth

Foreign countries o f origin: First-generation bla c k im m ig ra n ts

T he United S ta te s context: Second -generation im m ig ra n ts a n d B lack A m eric a n s

B lacks arc n u m e r ic a l m a jo rity 3

B lacks arc n u m e r ic a l m in o rity b

B l a c k s h o ld s i g n ifi c a n t p o s i t i o n s o f power®

B l a c k s l a c k p o litic a l a n d so c ia l pow er3

R a c e is n o t a d i m e n s i o n of stratificatio n “

R a c e is a d i m e n s i o n of stratificatio n 0

A b s e n c e o f r a c i a l i z a t i o n w ith in so c i e ta l i n s t i t u t i o n s (e.g., h o u s i n g , e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m , legal s y s t e m ) 3

R a c ia liz e d a c c o r d i n g to th e c u l t u r a l r a c i a l h i e r a r c h y “1

'‘Waters (1999a). bU.S. C e n s u s (2000). cCrockcr, Major, a n d Stcclc (1998). dO m i a n d W in ant (1994).

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a m p le , N igeria in its e lf is a m u lti lin g u a l a n d m u l t i e t h n i c n a ti o n c o n ­ ta in in g b e tw e e n 2 5 0 a n d 3 5 0 e th n ic g r o u p s t h a t a r e s tr a tif ie d in society, w ith d iff e re n t a c c e s s to r c s o u r c c s , w e a lth , p ow er, a n d s t a t u s (Oyewole & L u c a s , 2 0 0 0 ) . B o th in Africa a n d in th e C a r i b b e a n , th e div i­ s i o n s b e tw e e n s t r a t a a r e a s fixed a n d h i e r a r c h i c a l a s th o s e b a s e d on r a c e in th e U n ite d S t a t e s (W aters, 19 9 9 a ) . A m o n g m o s t p r e d o m i n a n t l y B la c k n a t i o n s , how ever, c e r ta in p a r a l le ls o f histo ry , so c ia l s t r u c t u r e , a n d c u r r e n t s o c ia l h i e r a r c h y r e s u l t in c o m p a r a b l e p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r o ­ c e s s e s a m o n g th o s e w h o i m m i g r a t e to th e U n ite d S ta t e s . T h e s e s i m i ­ la r itie s allow th e d iv e r s e p e o p le s o f A frica a n d th e C a r i b b e a n to ha v e c o m m o n w a y s of p e r c e iv in g a n d in t e r p r e t i n g A m e r ic a n society. T h e s o c io h i s to r i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l d i m e n s i o n s t h a t a r e often c o m p a r a b l e a m o n g f o r e ig n - b o r n B la c k s a r e d i s t i n c t f r o m th o s e o f B la c k A m e r i ­ c a n s , w h o s e p r e s e n t s t a t u s a n d p o w e r w ith in th e U.S. so c ia l s y s te m r e ­ flects th e p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r y o f ra c c in th e U n ite d S ta te s . Two m a i n forces have m a d e the ex perience of B lack im m ig r a n ts to the U nited S ta te s d is tin c t from th a t of B la ck s w ho have lived in th e c o u n try for m a n y g e n e ra tio n s . A lthough b o th the United S ta te s , on th e o n e h a n d , a n d African a n d C a rib b e a n c o u n trie s, o n the other, have h is to rie s of E u ­ r o p e a n c o lonization a n d d o m in a tio n , the legacy of th e se p e r i o d s h a s been different for the two g r o u p s . In the m a jo rity of C a r ib b e a n a n d African n a ­ tions, B la c k s a re the n u m e r ic a l m a jo rity a n d h o ld p o sitio n s of social a n d political power. In the U nited S ta te s, in c o n tr a s t, B la c k s have never held p o s itio n s of p o w e r in p e rc e n ta g e s p r o p o r tio n a l to the g r o u p in the United S ta te s a s a whole. T he social, political, a n d legal in s titu tio n s of the United S ta te s have develo ped along racial lines sin c e the beginning, a n d raceb a s e d h ie r a r c h ie s c o n tin u e into the c u r r c n t d a y (Omi & W inant, 1994). In a d d itio n (and, s o m e th eo ries w ou ld posit, co nsequently; see J o s t & Banaji, 1994), ra c e -b a s e d stereotyping a n d bias are fairly in fre q u e n t in p re d o m in a n tly Black societies. T he association betw een race a n d socio­ eco nom ic o u tc o m e s is low, a s is the existence of stereotyp es th a t link p a r ­ ticular racial g ro u p s with specific negative tra its o r behaviors. In the United S tates, b la c k n e s s is a highly stigm atized category (Crocker, Major, & Steele, 1998); the stereotype a b o u t Black A m e ric a n s is widely held a n d p re d o m in a n tly negative (Devine & Elliot, 1995; Levy, S troessner, & Dweck, 1998; Pious & Williams, 1995) (see Table 8 .4 for a co m p ariso n ). T h u s , r a c e h a s n o t h a d th e e q u i v a l e n t c o n s e q u e n c e in th e m a j o r i t y o f A fric a n a n d C a r i b b e a n n a t i o n s a s it h a s h a d in th e U n ite d S t a t e s . 3 T h e r e la tiv e s u p e r f l u i t y o f th e c o n s t r u c t o f r a c e in th e s o c ia l a n d 3T w o of the th ree c o u n tr i e s of highest e m igration to the United S ta te s (G u yan a a n d T r in id a d ) a r e ne arly evenly divided betw een E a s t Indian a n d Black n a tio n a ls , with 50% a n d 40% E a s t Indian, respectively. T h is diversity (and the conflicts th at arise betw een the racial g r o u p s ) m a y have im p lica tio n s for the ways in w hich these i m m i g r a n t s experience ra cc in the A m e ric an context. B ccausc of the d istin c tio n s m a d e betw een ra c e s in their c o u n tri e s of origin. B la c k n e s s a s a c o n s t r u c t m ay hold m e a n i n g in ways t h a t it d o e s n ot for o th e r C a r ib b e a n i m m ig r a n ts, or for African im m i g r a n t s , w ho c om e from g re ater r a ­ cial homogeneity.

8.

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p o w e r s t r u c t u r e s of B la c k s o c ie ti e s , a s c o m p a r e d to th e U.S. s y s t e m , is e v i d e n t ( B a s h i, 2 0 0 1 ) . S i m i l a r to th e low c o n s e n s u a l m e a n i n g o f W h ite i d e n tity in A m e r i c a n c o n s c i o u s n c s s (Perry, 2 0 0 2 ) , w h e r e W h ite s m a k e u p th e n u m e r i c a l m a jo r ity , r a c i a l id e n tity fo r B la c k s r a i s e d in p r e d o m i n a n t l y B la c k c u l t u r e s m e a n s little u n til th e y a r e e x ­ p o s e d to a so c ie ty w ith a r a c i a l h i e r a r c h y v a stly d if f e r e n t f r o m th e i r o w n . T h e s e i m m i g r a n t s a r e e n t e r i n g th e U n ite d S t a t e s a n d b e c o m i n g B la c k (see S t e p i c k , S t e p i c k , E u g e n e , T e e d , & L a b i s s i e r e , 2 0 0 1 , fo r a d e s c r i p t i o n of th e r a c i a l i z a t i o n o f H a i tia n i m m i g r a n t s ) , in a c o u n t r y w h e r e t h e m e a n i n g s s u r r o u n d i n g th e i r r a c i a l i d e n ti ty a r e m u c h s t r o n g e r a n d fa r m o r e n e g ativ e t h a n th e s o c ia l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a b o u t b l a c k n e s s in th e ir c o u n t r i e s of o rig in .

HOW BLACK IM M IGRANTS ARE VIEW ED IN TH E UNITED STA TES For B la c k s , s k i n c o lo r a c tiv a te s the s t e r e o t y p e s tied to th e g r o u p (M a d ­ d o x & Gray, 2 0 0 2 ) ; a t a u t o m a t i c a n d n o n c o n s c i o u s levels. B lac k i m m i ­ g r a n t s a n d B la c k A m e r i c a n s a r e p e r c e iv e d in th e s a m e way. W h e th e r by p a s s e r s b y , c u s t o m e r s w a l k in g a r o u n d a s to r e , o r d r i v e r s in a n u p ­ p e r - c l a s s n e i g h b o r h o o d , B la c k i m m i g r a n t s will b e c a te g o r iz e d a s B la c k a n d s u b j e c t e d to th e s a m e k i n d s o f r a c e - b a s e d b i a s a n d d i s c r i m ­ in a tio n a s A m e r ic a n B la c k s. R acial h o m o g e n i z a tio n is n o t alw a y s th e r u le , how ever, w h e r e p e r ­ c e p t io n s of W hite A m e r i c a n s a r e c o n c e r n e d . In s i t u a t i o n s in w h ic h i n ­ d iv id u a t in g i n f o r m a t io n is av a ila b le , B la c k i m m i g r a n t s a r e often po sitiv e ly d i s t i n g u i s h e d fr o m n a t iv e - b o r n A fric a n A m e r i c a n s . W aters ( 1 9 9 9 b ) d e s c r i b e d th e p r e f e r e n c e of s o m e W hite e m p l o y e r s for W est I n d i a n w o r k e r s ov er A fric a n A m e r ic a n w o r k e r s . T h i s p r e f e r e n tia l t r e a t m e n t r e s u l t s fr o m th e e m p l o y e r s ' beliefs th a t i m m i g r a n t B l a c k s a r e m o r e h a r d w o r k i n g a n d le ss difficult t h a n A fric an A m e r i c a n s (a b e ­ lief t h a t is e c h o e d in o t h e r r e s e a r c h s h o w in g fa v o ritism for i m m i g r a n t w o r k e r s over A m e r ic a n s ; S h i h , 2 0 0 2 ) . T h i s p r e f e r e n c e in h i r i n g h a s a l s o b e e n t e s t e d e m p i r i c a l l y ( E b e r h a r d t & D e a u x , u n p u b l i s h e d d a ta ). W hite p a r t i c i p a n t s in a n e x ­ p e r i m e n t view ed a v id e o ta p e d in te rv ie w o f a B la c k m a n , w h o w a s i d e n ­ tified by h is s p o k e n a c c e n t a s e ith e r A fric a n A m e r i c a n o r C a r i b b e a n , b u t w h o gave th e id e n tic a l s c r i p t in b o t h c o n d it io n s . In th e la tte r c o n d i ­ tion, p a r t i c i p a n t s r a t e d th e c a n d i d a t e m o r e favorably, s a w h im a s h a v ­ ing b e t t e r i n t e r p e r s o n a l s k ills , a n d b elie v e d h e h a d p e r f o r m e d b e t t e r in the in te rv ie w t h a n d id p a r t i c i p a n t s w h o view ed the A fric a n A m e r i ­ c a n in te rv ie w e e (w hen, in fact, th e s a m e p e r s o n p la y e d b o t h ro le s). T h e s e d o c u m e n t e d p r e f e r e n c e s for B la c k i m m i g r a n t s ov er n a ­ tiv e -b o rn A fric a n A m e r i c a n s in j o b - r e l a t e d c o n te x ts m a y b e d u e to d if­ f e r e n c e s in s t e r e o t y p e s a n d g e n e r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a b o u t th e two g r o u p s in U.S. society. In a r e c e n t s tu d y , T o r m a l a ( 2 0 0 5 ) f o u n d t h a t th e

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ste reo ty p e tra its u s e d by m o r e th a n one th ir d of p a r tic ip a n ts to d e ­ sc rib e B lack A m e r ic a n s w ere b r o a d a n d far m o r e negative th a n p o s i ­ tive. T r a i t s s u c h a s c r i m i n a l , l a z y , a n d t o u g h / a g g r e s s i v e w e re g e n e ra te d a s d e sc rip tiv e of the B lack A m e ric a n ste re o ty p e , w ith a t h ­ letic b e ing the only positive tra it t h a t w a s a s fre q u e n tly g e n e ra te d . T h e ste reo ty p e a b o u t Black im m ig ra n ts , in c o n tr a s t, w a s far n a r r o w e r ; only a single d e s c r i p t o r — h a r d w o r k i n g —w a s g e n e ra te d by m o r e th a n one th ir d of s tu d y p a rtic ip a n ts . T he T o r m a la d a ta also su gg est th a t the stere o ty p e of B lack im m i ­ g r a n t s m a y be differentially d is tr ib u te d a m o n g different r a c ia l g r o u p s . White s t u d e n t s h a d a highly u n d e rd e v e lo p e d ste re o ty p e a b o u t Black im m ig r a n ts , b o th in c o m p a r i s o n to th e ir kno w ledg e of the ste re o ty p e a b o u t Black A m e ric a n s a n d in c o m p a r i s o n to the ste re o ty p e s held by Black A m e ric a n a n d by B lack im m ig r a n t s t u d e n t s (T orm ala, 2 0 0 5 ). T he degree to w hich this r e s u lt h o ld s tru e a c r o s s v a r io u s geog raph ical re g io n s r e m a in s to be te ste d . It is p o ss ib le t h a t in m e tr o p o lita n a r e a s with a high p e rc e n ta g e of Black im m ig r a n ts , like New York, M iami, or W ashington, DC, the s te re o ty p e a b o u t B lack i m m ig r a n ts is m o re devel­ o p e d a m o n g W hites t h a n it w a s for the C alifornia s t u d e n t s in the T o rm a la (2 005) study. As the fin d in g s fro m E b c r h a r d t a n d D c a u x ( u n p u b l i s h e d d a ta ) su g g e s t, th e d iffe re n c e in the c o n t e n t o f the s te r e o ty p e a b o u t B la c k i m m i g r a n t s a n d B la c k A m e r i c a n s h a s c o n s e q u e n c e s for th e g r o u p s ’ o u t c o m e s . J o b h i r i n g is only o n e d o m a i n in w h ic h a p r e f e r e n c e for B la c k i m m i g r a n t s m ig h t r e s u l t in a m o r e p o s itiv e o u t c o m e for t h a t g r o u p ov e r B la ck A m e r ic a n s . In e d u c a t i o n , a p e r c e p t i o n of i m m i ­ g r a n t s a s h a r d w o r k i n g c o u ld le a d t e a c h e r s to favor a first- o r s e c ­ o n d - g e n e r a t i o n J a m a i c a n o r N ig eria n s t u d e n t ov e r a B la c k s t u d e n t of n a tiv e h e rita g e , le a d in g to d if fe r e n tia l r a t e s of s u c c e s s . T h e d i s ­ p r o p o r t i o n a t e p e r c e n ta g e of B la c k i m m i g r a n t s in elite c olleges a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s w a s h ig h lig h te d by R i m e r a n d A r e n s o n (2 0 0 4 ) in a r e ­ c e n t N e w York T i m e s a r tic le , a lo n g w ith th e t u r m o i l t h a t h a s a r i s e n w ith in th e B la c k c o m m u n i t y o n c a m p u s b e tw e e n i m m i g r a n t s a n d “th e d e s c e n d a n t s . ” T he c o m p a r is o n of Black im m ig r a n ts a n d B lack A m e r ic a n s is only one c o m p a r is o n of in te rest; a n o th e r is the d istin c tio n b e tw ee n how Black im m ig r a n ts a re viewed a n d h ow im m i g r a n ts in g e n e ra l a re p e r ­ ceived. T h is c o m p a r is o n allow s u s to e x a m in e w h e th e r B lack i m m i ­ g r a n t s a re se en a s i m m i g r a n t s , or w h e th e r th e ir ra c ia l de sig n a tio n affo rd s th em r e p r e s e n ta ti o n s d istin c t from th o se of im m ig r a n ts a s a g ro u p . A m e ric a n n ativ ism , e th n o c e n t r is m , a n d p e r c e p tio n s of e c o ­ no m ic c o m p e titio n all u n d e rlie th e c u r r e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of a n d a tti­ tu d e s to w a rd im m ig r a n ts (E sse s, Dovidio, J a c k s o n , & A rm stro n g , 2 0 0 1 ; S á n c h e z , 1999; S te p h a n , Y b arra, & B a c h m a n , 1999; Z á ra te , G arcia, G arz a, & Hitlan, 2 0 0 3 ). A p p ro x im a te ly h a lf of th e peo ple r e ­ s p o n d in g to a r e c e n t U.S. su rv e y in d ic a te d th a t im m ig ra tio n s h o u ld be d e c r e a s e d (Mizrahi, 200 5).

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139

F u r t h e r m o r e , a ttitu d e s to w a rd im m i g r a n ts differ by the n a tion ality of the im m ig r a n t: C hinese, K orean, a n d Polish im m ig r a n t s a re m o r e highly re g a r d e d th a n a rc C u b a n s , H aitians, a n d M exicans (L ap in ski, Peltola, Shaw, & Yang, 1997). N ative-b orn A m e r ic a n s believe th a t i m ­ m ig r a n t s s h o u l d ta k e on A m e ric a n c u ltu r e a n d language r a t h e r th a n m a i n ta in th e ir own (Taylor & L a m b e r t, 1996). In g en eral, p e r c e p tio n s of im m ig r a n t g r o u p s a r e fairly negative, a lth o u g h m itigated by the size a n d fam iliarity of the im m ig r a n t g r o u p (Mullen, Rozell, & J o h n s o n , 2 0 0 1 ) a n d p e rc e p tio n of th e g r o u p a s a sy m b olic v e r s u s e c o n o m ic t h r e a t (S te p h a n et al., 1999). F ro m the lim ited r e s e a r c h t h a t h a s b e e n c o n d u c te d to this p o in t on s te re o ty p e s a n d p e r c e p tio n s of Black im m ig r a n ts , it a p p e a r s th a t they a re n o t b e in g perceived in the s a m e w ays a s a r e im m i g r a n ts m o r e g e n ­ erally. As im m ig ra tio n from the C a r ib b e a n a n d Africa c o n tin u e s to in ­ c r e a s e — a n d with it, in tc r g r o u p conflict a n d p e r c e p tio n s of th r e a t—an i m p o r t a n t issu e for fu r th e r s tu d y is w h e th e r the valence of the s te r e o ­ types a b o u t m e m b e r s of th o s e n a tio n s will b e c o m e m o r e negative, in line w ith th o s e a b o u t B lack A m e ric a n s.

NEGOTIATING THE U.S. CONTEXT H ow do B la c k im m i g r a n t s fare in a society in w h ic h n egative s t e r e o ­ ty p e s a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a b o u t B la c k s a r e p e rv a s iv e ? At a g r o u p level, they a re p e r f o r m in g relatively well. In h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , th e r e a re d iffe re n c e s in th e m a t r ic u la tio n levels of im m i g r a n t a n d A m e r i­ c a n B la c k s. At selective colleges a n d u n iv e rsitie s, B la c k i m m i g r a n t s m a k e u p 25% of th e B la c k s t u d e n t p o p u la t io n a lth o u g h they c o m ­ p r is e only a b o u t 6% of th e to tal B lack p o p u la ti o n in the U n ite d S ta te s (Massey, C h a r le s , Lundy, & F ischer, 2 0 0 2 ). In o th e r so c io e c o n o m ic in d ic e s a s well, d e m o g r a p h ic a n a ly s e s s h o w a slig ht b u t c o n s is te n t f irst-g c n c ra tio n B la c k im m i g r a n t a d v a n ta g e over n a tiv e - b o r n B lack A m e r ic a n s . T h e a d v a n ta g e e x ists in e d u c a ti o n a l a t t a i n m e n t (Butcher, 19 94 ), la b o r force p a r tic i p a tio n (Model, 1995), o c c u p a tio n a l d i s t r i ­ b u tio n (U.S. C e n s u s , 2 0 0 0 ) , e m p lo y m e n t (Logan & D e a n e , 2 0 0 3 ) , a n d in c o m e (K alm ijn, 1996). How a re im m i g r a n t B lac k s farin g on a m ic ro level, a s they negotiate s itu a tio n s in w hich th e ir racial identity is visible a n d stig m a tiz e d , w hile th e ir eth n ic identity is invisible u n til it is m a d e sa lie n t? Waters ( 1999a) d is c u s s e d the p h e n o m e n o n of i m m i g r a n t s ' stra te g ic e x p o s u r e of e th n ic or n a tio n a l identity th r o u g h sp e e c h a n d acc e nt, p a rtic u la rly a m o n g the s e c o n d g e n e ra tio n , w ho often have a n A m e rica n a c c e n t th a t is n o t identifiable a s b e in g of i m m ig r a n t heritage. In in t e r p e r s o n a l s i t u ­ a tio n s, this ability to b r o a d c a s t a d is tin c t e th n ic identity m a y serve a s a buffer for Black im m ig r a n ts a g a in s t so m e of the negative effects of th e ir r ac ia l identity (C ro ss & S t r a u s s , 1998). O th e r s itu a tio n s , s u c h as te stin g d o m a in s , typically do n o t p ro v id e a n o p p o r tu n ity for the p e r s o n to e x p r e s s a d is tin c t eth nic identity. An u n d e r s t a n d i n g of b oth visible

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a n d invisible identity a s a n im m ig r a n t is im p o r t a n t in d e te r m in in g how B lack im m ig r a n ts negotiate the A m e ric a n context. Social identities—be they racial, cthnic, gender, social class, or reli­ gio us—guide th o u g h ts, beliefs, a n d exp ectatio ns w ithin varying social contexts a n d can affect b eh a v io r in th o se situ a tio n s (A shm ore, Deaux, & McLaughlin-Volpe, 2 0 0 4 ; Deaux, 1996). T h re a ts to social identities (and the in c re a se d salience of the m e a n in g s a n d r e p r e s e n ta tio n s a s so c i­ ated with them ) have i m p o r ta n t c o n s e q u e n c e s on a ttitu d e s, behavior, a n d p e rfo rm a n c e (see B r a n s c o m b e , E lle m e rs, & S p e a r s , 1999, for a r e ­ view). A m ong A m erican Blacks, stereotyp e th r e a t is one form of social identity th r e a t th a t h a s b ee n sh o w n to affect a c a d e m ic p e rfo rm a n c e , leading African A m e ric a n s to u n d e r p e r f o r m relative to Whites w h e n u n ­ d e r th r e a t co n d itio n s (although show in g e q uivalent p e rfo rm a n c e w hen th r e a t is a b se n t; see Steele, 1997; Steele & A ronso n, 1995). A lth o u g h the s te r e o ty p e of B la ck in te lle c tu a l in fe rio rity is u b i q u i ­ to u s in the U.S., th e s a m e ste re o ty p e d o e s n o t p e r v a d e A frican a n d C a r ib b e a n c o u n tr ie s . Accordingly, r e a s o n e d D e a u x a n d h e r co l­ le a g u e s (D eaux et al., 2 0 0 5 ) , f ir s t- g e n e ra tio n B la c k i m m i g r a n t s , w h o have n o t b e e n r a i s e d w ith th e s te r e o ty p e of B lack u n d e r a c h ie v e m e n t, w o u ld n o t be e x p e c te d to s h o w u n d e r p e r f o r m a n c e in a ste r e o ty p e t h r e a t s itu a tio n . In c o n t r a s t , s e c o n d - g e n e r a ti o n B lack i m m ig r a n ts , w h o have h a d m o r e e x p o s u r e to th e ste r e o ty p e a n d m o r e e x p e rie n c e w ith b e in g c a te g o riz e d a s A frican A m e r ic a n , a r e a p t to be m o r e v u l­ n e r a b le to ste re o ty p e t h r e a t effects. C o n s i s te n t w ith th is th eo rizing , se c o n d - g e n e r a tio n im m i g r a n t s f ro m th e West I n d ie s s h o w e d a signifi­ c a n t d e c r e m e n t in p e r f o r m a n c e relative to f irst-g e n e ra tio n i m m i ­ g r a n t s w h e n ste r e o ty p e t h r e a t c o n d iti o n s w ere in v o k e d , a lth o u g h p e r f o r m in g e q ua lly w h e n the s it u a tio n d id n o t inv ok e the s te r e o ty p e s of B lack inferiority. T h is effect w a s m i r r o r e d in a n o th e r s tu d y s h o w in g th a t first-g e n e ra ­ tion im m ig r a n ts in a h ig h -th r e a t situ a tio n e x p r e s s e d h ig h er e x p e c ta ­ tio n s for p e r f o r m a n c e on a te st th a n th o s e in a lo w -th re a t situ a tio n , w h e r e a s the r e v e rse p a tte r n w a s tr u e for s e c o n d - g e n e ra tio n im m i ­ g r a n ts a n d B lack A m e r ic a n s (Torm ala, Steele, & Davies, 2 0 0 6 ). T h e va ria ble o r v a ria b le s u n d e rly in g th e se g r o u p d ifferences in the effects of identity th r e a t a re still b e in g ex p lo re d , b u t several p o ssib ilitie s exist. One p o te n tia l in te r p r e ta t io n of the in c r e a s e d p e r f o r m a n c e of first-gen­ e ra tio n B lack im m ig r a n ts is t h a t th e activation of the s te re o ty p e by the high th r e a t c on tc x t e n g e n d e r s a social c o m p a r is o n p r o c c s s betw een o n e ’s ow n B lack i m m i g r a n t g r o u p a n d the less positively e v a lu a te d Af­ ric a n A m e ric a n g ro u p . T h is c o m p a r i s o n m a y lead to a n a t t e m p t to d i s ­ tance o n e se lf positively from the negative ste re o ty p e (i.e., "African A m e r ic a n s te n d n o t to do well on h ig h - s ta k e s te s ts, b u t I’m n o t African A m e rica n , so I'll do well"). Alternatively, p e r f o r m a n c e p r e s s u r e m a y m a k e m o r e s a lie n t th e positive im ag e s th a t one h a s of o n e 's im m ig r a n t g ro u p , le a d in g to e n h a n c e d p e r f o r m a n c e (“B lack im m ig r a n t s a re s m a r t/d o well on h ig h - s ta k e s t e s t s ”).

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T h e first i n te r p r e ta tio n im p lie s an explicit c o n s id e ra tio n of the c o n ­ t r a s t b etw een the B lack im m ig r a n t a n d B lack A m e ric a n stere o ty p e of a c h ie v e m e n t or p crccivcd values a b o u t e d u c a tio n . T h is degree of activc th o u g h t is unlikely, given th a t ste re o ty p e th r e a t effects often o c c u r a u ­ tom atically (see W heeler & Petty, 2 0 0 1 , for a review). We th in k the s e c ­ o n d e x p la n a tio n is m o r e likely, b a s e d on a n o b s e r v e d positive re la tio n s h ip b etw een p e r c e p tio n s of the favorability of o n e 's ow n g ro u p a n d a c tu a l p e r f o r m a n c e in th e D eau x et al. (20 05 ) re s u lts . A n o th e r q u e s tio n r e g a r d in g the g e n e r a tio n a l d iffe ren c e is w h e th e r B lack im m i g r a n t s p e rc e iv e d ra c ia l id e n tity - th r e a te n in g s it u a t i o n s as s u c h . F irs t- g e n e r a tio n im m i g r a n t s m a y n o t perceiv e r a c e - r e la t e d s i t ­ u a ti o n a l c u e s to th e s a m e d e g ree a s B la c k s w ho a re b o r n in the U n ited S ta te s . S o m e r e c e n t r e s e a r c h (2 0 0 3 ; T o r m a la et al., 2 0 0 6 ) s u p p o r t s this possibility. In two s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d w ith C a lifo rn ia college s t u ­ d e n ts , f ir s t-g e n e ra tio n B la c k i m m i g r a n t s sh o w e d lo w er s tig m a c o n ­ s c i o u s n e s s t h a n d id s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n i m m i g r a n t s a n d B la c k A m e ric a n s ( T h o m a s , 2 0 0 3 ; T o r m a la et al., 2 0 0 6 ). T h e s e d a ta im ply t h a t f o re ig n -b o rn B la c k s a r e le ss likely to p e r c e iv e — o r to a c k n o w l ­ ed ge— th e role o f r a c e in i n t e r p e r s o n a l in te r a c tio n s a n d p e r c e p tio n s . However, d a ta collected by D ea u x e t al. (2 0 0 5 ) in th e m o r e e th n ic a lly d iv e rse locale of New York City fo u n d no difference b e tw e e n first- a n d s e c o n d - g e n e r a tio n West In d ia n s t u d e n t s on a m e a s u r e of s ensitivity to r a c e - b a s e d r e je c tio n (M e n d o z a -D en to n , Downey, P u r d ie , Davis, & P e itrz a k , 2 0 0 2 ). F u r t h e r w o r k is n e e d e d to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r the dif­ f e re n c e s b e tw e e n th e two s e ts of fin d in g a r e d u e to sc ale v a r ia tio n s or to m o r e c o m p lic a te d i s s u e s of c o n te x t a n d g e o g r a p h ic a l lo c a tion .

ETHNIC IDENTIFICATION AND NEGOTIATION T h u s far o u r d is c u ssio n h a s c o n sid e re d Black im m ig r a n ts in d e m o ­ g ra p h ic te rm s, d istin g u ish e d on the b a s is of c o u n try of origin or g e n e r a ­ tio n a l s ta t u s . Yet for the p sy cho lo gist, th e s e e xternally a ssig n e d categories a re only p a r t of the story. Black im m ig r a n ts (and o th e r im m i­ g ra n ts a s well) w ho arrive in the United S ta te s m u s t redefine them selv es in a new con tex t a n d negotiate th eir identity vis-à-vis th o se w h o would c ho o se to define th e m . T he identification p ro c e ss is th u s a m ultifaceted one, influenced by the h istory of the im m ig ra n t's c ulture of origin, by the labeling of o th e r s w h o m they encounter, a n d then tr a n s la te d into a s u b ­ jective p a tte r n of ethnic identification th a t serves to define the self a c r o s s varying contexts (see Fig. 8.1 for a s c h e m a tic of this p rocess). U p o n a rriv a l to the U nited S ta te s, B lack im m ig r a n ts a re generally positive in th e ir view of th e ir g ro u p a n d in th e ir a tti tu d e s to w a r d th e ir new c o u n t r y o f r e s id e n c e . In c o m p a r i s o n to B la c k A m e r ic a n s , f irst-generation B lack im m ig r a n ts a r e m o r e likely to i n te r a c t with o u tg ro u p m e m b e r s (Phelps, Taylor, & G e r a r d , 2 0 0 1 ), m o r e likely to e n d o r s e A m eric a n ideologies of e c o n o m ic o p p o r t u n it ie s a n d rig h ts ( P h in ney & O n w u g h a lu , 1996), less likely to m i s t r u s t A m eric a n cui-

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Foreign countries of origin: First-generation immigrants

The United States context: Native-born Black Americans

- history o f colonization and/or enslavem ent by foreign (w hite) colonizers - w idespread rights given to Blacks after slavery (in the C aribbean), e.g. land ow nership

- history o f enslavem ent by W hite native colonizers - follow ing a b rie f period (the R econstruction), B lacks w ere denied basic rights (e.g., education, land ow nership)

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Dual reference points o f exposure, socialization, and id e n tity enactm ent for the second generation

FIG . 8 .1 .

S o u r c e s of in flu e n ce for s e c o n d -g e n e ra tio n B la c k im m ig r a n ts .

t u r e a n d so cie ty (B iafora, Taylor, W arheit, Z i m m e r m a n , & Vega, 19 93 ), a n d le s s likely to believe t h a t p a r e n t s s h o u l d ta lk to th e ir c h ild r e n a b o u t r a c is m ( T h o m a s , 2 0 0 2 ). T h e s e d a ta s u g g e st a difference in the w ays th a t th e tw o g r o u p s p erceiv e ra c e a n d th e ro le of r a c e w ith in A m e r ic a n so c i­ ety. For the first g e n e r a tio n , the a b s c n c c of a ra c ia liz c d social s t r u c t u r e in th e ir c o u n t r ie s o f origin a p p e a r s to c o n tin u e to influen ce p e r c e p t io n s a fter initial im m ig r a tio n in to A m e ric a n society. In c o n tr a s t, B lack A m e r ­ ic a n s, a n d to a large e x te n t s e c o n d - g e n e r a tio n B lack i m m i g r a n t s , a re m o r e in flu e n c e d by the s o c io h is to ric a l m e a n i n g s a r o u n d B la c k n e s s th a t a r e e m b e d d e d in U.S. c u ltu r e (see T able 8 .4 for a d e s c r ip ti o n of th e s e a n d o th e r p r o c e s s e s a n d c u ltu r a l p ra c tic e s). T h e s e m e a n in g s o f B la c k n e s s , often negative in c o n te n t, c a n i m p a c t o n th e i m m i g r a n t in a p r o c e s s t h a t h a s b e e n t e r m e d s o c ia l m ir ro ri ng (S u a re z - O ro z c o & S u a r e z - O r o z c o , 2 0 0 1 ). In th is p r o c e s s , th e negative views of o n e ’s g r o u p t h a t a r e e x p r e s s e d b y o t h e r s a r e reflected b a c k a n d m a y b e in c o r p o r a t e d in th e self-image. (Alternatively, a s w o r k by C ro ck e r, L u h ta n e n , Blaine, a n d B r o a d n a x [1 9 9 4 ] su g g e sts , o n e m a y b e a cutely a w a r e of th e negative views of o t h e r s b u t n o t in c o r p o r a te th e m into the self-image.) T h e ex iste n c e o f th e s e k i n d s of p r o c e s s e s m a k e s the a s s im ila tio n s to r y of im m ig r a tio n a m u c h m o r e c o m p li c a te d one th a n h a s p re v io u sly b e e n told. R e c e n t th e o riz in g by s o c io lo g ists p r o p o s e s a m o d e l of s e g m e n t e d a s s i m i l a t i o n , in w h ic h two a lte rn a tiv e s to cla ssic u p w a r d a s s i m ila tio n a r e p o s t u l a t e d (Po rtes & Z h o u , 1993). S e g m e n te d a s s im ila tio n h o l d s t h a t i m m i g r a n t s d o n o t n e c e s s a r ily m o v e into a n up -

TABLE 8 .4

P sy c h o lo g ic a l P r o c e ss e s an d C ultural P r a c tic e s for F irst-G en era tio n , S e c o n d -G e n e r a tio n , an d N ative-B orn B la ck s Fi rs t- ge ne ra ti on black im m igrants Psychological processes a n d c u ltu ra l p ra c tic e s

Collective identity

Negotiation w ith in g U.S. society

Second-generation black im m igrants

Black Americans

More likely to interact with o u tg ro u p members'*

Have possibility of strategic u se of a c c e n ts 6

Less likely to in te r a c t with o u tg ro u p m em bers3

Belief th a t A merican ideals apply to self1

Salicncc of an American identity causes heightened perceptions of prejudice a n d owered expectation for su cccss than a salient im m igrant identity0

Belief t h a t B la c ks are often over­ lo oked in U.S. policy

Unwilling/ unlikely to view race as a barrier to success b

Personal experience with race a s a barrier; willing to acknowledge possibility13

P e rso n a l a n d h is to ric a l ex­ p e r ie n c e s with race a s a b a r ­ rier: willing to ackno w ledg e possib ility

M a in te n a n c e of ethn ic identity c an serve a s buffer from ste re o ty p e s a n d p reju d ice a s so c ia te d with African A m e ric a n s 15

Neighborhood d e m o graph ics have large effects on self-identificationb

Identity is stig m atized a n d dev alued in U.S. society0

Collective identity te n d s to be hig h d

Those who identify as African American show greater belief that race affects future o u tcom es than those w ho identity as im m ig ra n ts15

Collective identity t e n d s to be hig h d

Fewer e x p e rie n c es w ith racial p re ju d ic e in c o u n trie s of originb

E x p e rie n c e with in s ta n c e s of racial p r e ju d ic e 15

Experience with instances of racial prejudice15

aP h e l p s , Taylor, a n d G e r a r d ( 2 0 0 1 ) ; bW a t e r s ( 1 9 9 9 a ) : cT o r m a l a , S te e le , a n d D a v i e s ( 2 0 0 6 ) : dT h o m a s ( 2 0 0 3 ) : ° C r o c k e r , M ajor, a n d S t e e le ( 1 9 9 8 ) .

143

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w ardly m obile m id d le class, b u t in ste a d a ssim ila te into different seg­ m e n ts of society d e p e n d in g on several class- a n d c u ltu re -b a se d factors. D o w n w a r d a s s i m i l a t i o n is c h a ra c te riz e d by integration with the exist­ ing u n d e r c la s s a n d a fall in s ta tu s p osition. G r o u p s th at follow this p a th a re tho se m o re likely to face d isc rim in a tio n on the b a s is of race. In a third p a tte rn , e t hn ic m a i n t e n a n c e , ethnic identification a n d c o m m u ­ nity a re m a in ta in e d , w h e re a s o c c u p a tio n a l s ta tu s rises. For the B lack i m m ig r a n t, a n d p a rtic u la r ly the s e c o n d -g e n e ra tio n im m ig r a n t, the choice is often b etw een th e s e la tte r two p a t h s (w ithout im plying t h a t choice is u n c o n s t r a i n e d by s itu a tio n a l a n d s t r u c t u r a l r e ­ alities). T he straight-line, tr a d itio n a l th e o ry of u p w a r d a s s im ila tio n a n d a c c u ltu r a tio n can no lon ger explain th e tra je c to ry of g r o u p s w h o s e racial s t a t u s lin k s th e m to s te re o ty p e s a lre a d y in place w ithin society (S á n c h e z , 1999; S u á re z -O ro z c o , 2 0 0 0 ). As V ic k e rm a n (1999) h a s n o te d , “T h e a ttitu d e s exhibited by West In d ia n im m ig r a n t s in this c o u n try derive from the conflict b e tw e e n a s tr o n g d e sire for u p w a r d m obility th a t is im p lie d in the im m ig r a n t e th o s, a n d the existence of an e n t r e n c h e d e t h n i c h i e r a r c h y w h ic h t e n d s to tig h tly c o n s t r a i n in d iv id u a ls of African a n c e s tr y ” (p. 5). E th n ic identification by s e c o n d - g e n e r a tio n B lack im m ig r a n ts is i n ­ fluenced by the ethnic a n d i m m ig r a n t c o m p o s itio n of the n e ig h b o r ­ h oo d in w hich they live, a s they align th e m se lv e s with the g r o u p w ho se p r a c tic e s a re m o s t p re v a le n t in th e ir daily lives (G ibso n, 2 0 0 1 ; H ao & B o n s te a d - B ru n s , 1998; P o rtes & Z h o u , 1993). S e c o n d -g e n e ra tio n i m ­ m ig r a n t s w h o live in in teg ra ted o r p r e d o m i n a n tl y White n e ig h b o r ­ h o o d s te n d to be m id d le - c la s s or above, a n d also te n d to self-identify a s an ethn ic A m e ric a n (d istin c t from B lack A m e ric a n s). T h is g ro u p s h o w s a fairly w e a k e n d o r s e m e n t of the belief in a n a s s o c ia tio n b e ­ tw een ra c e a n d s u c c e s s (Waters, 1994). In c o n tr a s t, s e c o n d -g e n e ra tio n im m ig r a n ts w ho live in p r e d o m in a n tly B lack A m e ric a n n e ig h b o r ­ h o o d s , w hich a re often c h a r a c te r iz e d by low er in c o m e a n d p o o r e r sc h o o ls, te n d to self-identify a s B lack A m e ric a n , s h o w a s tr o n g e r belief in the a s s o c ia tio n b e tw een ra c e a n d fu tu r e s u c c e s s , a n d believe m o re stron gly in the u b iq u ity of ra c ia l p re ju d ic e . P e r s o n a l e x p e r ie n c e in flu e n c e s e th n ic id e n tific a tio n a s well. P o rte s a n d R u m b a u t (2 0 0 1 ) n o te d th e role t h a t negative i n te r a c tio n s with o u tg r o u p m e m b e r s can play, d e s c r ib in g a p r o c e s s t h a t they te r m e d r e a c t i v e e t h n i c i t y , w h e r e b y e th n ic id e n tity is s t r e n g t h e n e d in d ir e c t a n d ex plicit o p p o s itio n to th e negative f e e d b a c k from o t h e r s . As they c o n c lu d e d , “G r o u p s s u b j e c te d to e x tr e m e d i s c r im in a t io n a n d d e r o ­ g a tion of th e ir n a tio n a l o rig in s a re likely to e m b r a c e th e m ever m o re fiercely; th o s e receiv ed m o r e fa v o ra b ly sh ift to A m e ric a n id e n titie s w ith g r e a te r s p e e d a n d le ss p a in ” (p. 187). For the im m i g r a n t fro m the C a r ib b e a n o r Africa, it is in t e r e s ti n g to c o n s i d e r w h e t h e r the s a m e fo rc e s w o u ld b e a t w o r k . Are t h e r e d iffe re n t views of th e s e two s ite s of o rigin t h a t m ig h t le a d to diffe re n t e x p e r ie n c e s , o r a r e b o th g r o u p s e q u a lly lu m p e d to g e th e r w ith the n a tiv e - b o r n A frican A m e r ic a n , ef­ fectively c o n s t r a i n i n g th e ir o p tio n s ?

8.

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145

R e la tiv e ly s t a b l e id e n tif i c a tio n p a t t e r n s c a n c o e x is t w ith s i t u a t i o n ally i n f lu e n c e d s a li e n c y o f a p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t o f e t h n i c id en tity . T h u s m a n y i m m i g r a n t s m a y h a v e a c c c s s to m o r e t h a n o n e view of self, view s t h a t c a n b e tr ig g e r e d b y d if f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n a l c o n tin g e n c ie s . R e ­ s e a r c h h a s s h o w n , for e x a m p l e , t h a t m a n i p u l a t i n g i d e n ti ty s a li e n c e t h r o u g h p r i m i n g o n e s o c ia l id e n tity v e r s u s a n o t h e r l e a d s to d if f e r ­ e n c e s in a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e (S h ih , P ittin sk y , & A m b a d y , 1 9 9 9 ), s e l f - a p p r a i s a l s (R o s s , X u n , & W ilso n , 2 0 0 2 ) , a n d a t t r i b u t i o n s for b e ­ h a v io r ( B e n e t- M a rtin e z , L e u , Lee, & M o r r i s , 2 0 0 2 ) . A m o n g B la c k i m ­ m i g r a n t s , it m a y b e t h e s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n t h a t h a s m o r e a c c e s s to v a r ie d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a n d h e n c e w o u l d be m o r e s e n s itiv e to s i t u a ­ tio n a l v a r i a t i o n . C o n s i s t e n t w ith t h i s n o t i o n , T o r m a l a a n d h e r c o l­ l e a g u e s f o u n d t h a t s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n B la c k i m m i g r a n t s w h o w e r e p r i m e d w ith a n A m e r i c a n i d e n tity s h o w e d g r e a t e r p e r c e p t i o n of p r e j ­ u d i c e a n d lo w e r e d e x p e c ta n c y for s u c c e s s t h a n t h o s e p r i m e d w ith a n i m m i g r a n t i d e n tit y ( T o r m a la et al., 2 0 0 6 ) .

CONCLUDING TH O U G H T S I m m ig r a ti o n a d d s a n i m p o r t a n t d i m e n s i o n to th e e x p lo r a tio n of th e p a r a m e t e r s of ra c e a n d of B l a c k n e s s in U.S. society, a n d s t a n d s a s a n e l e m e n t of i n c r e a s i n g i m p o r t a n c e a s th e n u m b e r of i m m i g r a n t s fro m Africa a n d th e W est I n d ie s c o n t i n u e s to ris e . We o u r s e lv e s c o m e to th is c o n v e r s a ti o n f ro m d if fe r e n t e x p e r ie n c e s a n d s o m e w h a t d if f e r e n t p e r ­ sp e c tiv e s , b u t w ith e q u iv a le n t c o m m i t m e n t s to the i m p o r t a n c e o f u n ­ d e r s t a n d i n g th e i m m i g r a n t e x p e r ie n c e m o r e fully. T h e firs t a u th o r , the d a u g h t e r o f a T r i n i d a d i a n m o t h e r a n d G u y a ­ n e s e fa th e r, h a s a lw a y s b e e n i n t e r e s t e d in th e w a y s in w h ic h e th n ic ity a n d r a c e d o — a n d d o n o t — in te r s e c t. B ein g a s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n C a r i b ­ b e a n A m e r i c a n s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a llo w s for c l o s e n e s s to a n d d i s t a n c e fro m th e tw o s i d e s t h a t m a k e u p t h a t w h o le . T h i s b i c u l t u r a l id e n tity a d d s a n u a n c e d p e r s p e c ti v e to th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of i m m i g r a n t a n d A m e r i c a n B la c k s a n d ; a t tim e s , d is a llo w s th e o p p o r t u n i t y to ever feel fully c o n n e c te d w ith either. It a lso a llo w s a n i n ti m a te g lim p s e a t th e w a y s in w h ic h so c ia l id e n tity c a n s h ift a c r o s s s i t u a t i o n s a n d o ver tim e . T h e s e c o n d a u t h o r , w h o s h a r e s n e i t h e r r a c e n o r e th n ic it y w ith h e r c o a u t h o r , n o n e t h e l e s s h a s s o m e h i s t o r i c a l c o n n e c t i o n to i m m i g r a ­ tio n t h r o u g h th e m o v e o f o n e s e t o f g r a n d p a r e n t s f r o m (the very n o n - B l a c k re g io n of) F i n l a n d to th e U n ite d S t a t e s . A lth o u g h th e ir c o lo r m a d e t h e s e F i n n s c a n d i d a t e s fo r u p w a r d a s s i m i l a t i o n , th e e t h ­ nic is o la t io n o f th e f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n w a s p r o f o u n d . A r e t r o s p e c t i v e lo o k a t th e s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n (i.e., in a c o m p a r i s o n o f tw o s e c ­ o n d - g e n e r a t i o n b r o t h e r s ) t h r o u g h a c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c ia l p s y c h o l o g i ­ cal len s su g g e s ts q u ite d iffe re n t p a t t e r n s of id e n tific a tio n a n d a s s i m i l a t i o n , u n d e r l i n i n g th e i m p o r t a n c e o f e x a m i n i n g th e p s y c h o l ­ ogy w it h in d e m o g r a p h i c e t h n i c c a t e g o r i e s . As we lo o k f o r w a r d fr o m w h a t we k n o w n o w to w h a t still r e m a i n s to b e le a r n e d , we a r e i m p r e s s e d w ith th e e x te n t to w h ic h th e c a s e o f B la c k

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im m ig ra tio n p u ts in s h a r p relief so m e of the f u n d a m e n ta l q u e s tio n s in th e field. W ork on Black im m ig r a n t p o p u la tio n s , for e xam ple, allow s u s to s e p a ra te , a t le a st in p a r t, the d is tin c t in flue n ce s of r a c c a n d cthnicity on identity p r o c e s s e s . So often con flated in the lite ra tu re , race a n d ethnicity a re d istin g u is h a b le c o n c e p ts, with s e p a r a te a n d in te r a c ­ tive effects a m o n g B la c k s (as well a s o th e r g ro u p s ). An in c re a s e d focus w ithin psychology on e thnicity a s a m o d e r a t o r of p r o c e s s e s fo u n d a m o n g B la c k s will be an i m p o r t a n t d ire c tio n in th e m e a s u r e of the v a ria tio n a m o n g the Black p o p u la tio n in the U nited S ta te s. T he stu d y of e th n ic m in o r ity im m ig r a n ts w ithin the b r o a d e r f r a m e w o r k of c u l­ tu r a l psychology can s h o w h ow e th n ic a n d c u ltu r a l v a riatio n u n d e r ­ g ird s n o t only d ifferences in psychological c o n te n t, b u t p r o c e s s a s well. We have fo c u s e d on ra c e a n d e th n icity in th is c h a p te r, atte n tiv e to th e w ays t h a t they play o u t in th e lives of first- a n d s e c o n d - g e n e r a tio n im m i g r a n t s fro m Africa a n d the C a r ib b e a n . T h is fo cu s s h o u l d n o t su gg est, however, t h a t we d i s m i s s the m o r e c o m p le x c u l tu r a l c o n te x t in w h ic h i m m i g r a n t s n e g o tia te th e ir lives. G e n d e r, for e x a m p le , u n ­ d o u b te d ly h a s a n in flu e n ce o n the w a y s in w h ic h ra c e a n d e th n ic ity play o u t (Foner, 2 0 0 2 ) . S o too do d iffe re n c e s in e c o n o m ic r e s o u r c e s a n d so c ia l c a p ita l t h a t an i m m i g r a n t b r in g s to th e new e n v ir o n m e n t ( P o rte s & R u m b a u t, 2 0 0 1 ) . Sim ilarly, the p la ce o f religion in an a n a ly ­ sis of e th n ic id e n tity m u s t b e in v e s tig a te d , p a r tic u l a r ly a s th e n u m b e r of B la c k im m i g r a n t s fro m M uslim N o rth a n d West Africa in c r e a s e s ( S h ry o c k , 2 0 0 0 ). It will be i m p o r t a n t to n o te the im p a c t of ris in g n u m b e r s a n d in ­ c r e a s in g fam iliarity a n d visibility on the o u tc o m e s of first- a n d seco n d - g c n c r a t i o n B la c k i m m i g r a n t s . A lth o u g h s o m e in v e s ti g a t o r s su gg est th a t the in c re a s in g size of a n i m m ig r a n t g r o u p le a d s to m o re positive views of the g r o u p (e.g., Mullen et al., 2 0 0 1 ), o th e r r e s e a r c h h a s sh o w n th a t in c r e a s e s a r e a ss o c ia te d with m o r e negative views (Taylor, 1998). We s u s p e c t the is s u e is m o r e c o m p lic a te d th a n size a lo n e a n d m u s t ta k e into a c c o u n t the com p le x ities of i n te r p e r s o n a l p e r c e p tio n s a n d in te ra c tio n s . F u r th e r m o r e , j u s t a s in c re a s e d n u m ­ b e r s m a y a lter th e views of th o s e in the h o s t country, i n c r e a s e d d iv e r­ sity w ithin the B lack p o p u la tio n m a y f u r th e r challenge definition s of race a n d ethnicity b o th w ithin the m a jo rity c u ltu r e a n d w ithin the B lack p o p u la tio n itself. T h u s far, social psychology h a s sh o w n itself to be a c a u tio u s g a te ­ keeper, p a rtially re cognizing the in trin sic value th a t the s tu d y of Black im m ig r a n ts offers to the s tu d y of r a c e - b a s e d g ro u p d ifferences w hile at th e s a m e tim e la c k in g a full a p p r e c ia tio n for the s u b tle tie s of the e n t e r ­ p rise. A lo n g -sta n d in g p r e fe re n c e in the field for the s tu d y of r a n d o m ly a s sig n e d la b o r a to r y g r o u p s over existing social d e m a r c a tio n s a c ­ c o u n ts for p a r t of th e re s is ta n c e . A lack of in t e r e s t o r even rejection of d a ta e m a n a tin g from o th e r m e th o d o lo g ie s — s u c h a s e th n o g r a p h ie s — also c o n tr ib u t e s to the n a r r o w e d focus. T h u s , a lth o u g h long e s t a b ­ lish e d w ithin o th e r d is c ip lin e s s u c h a s sociology, history, a n d a n t h r o ­

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pology, the s tu d y of in tr a ra c ia l g ro u p differences is yet to be e m b r a c e d by psychology. Once we a s a field b e c o m e m o re o p e n to c u ltu ra l p s y ­ chology in general, a n d the im p o r ta n c e of va ria tio n w ithin racial g r o u p s in p a rticu la r, we will co m e clo se r to a fuller u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the varieties of h u m a n experience.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT We a re grateful to Bill C r o s s a n d to m e m b e r s of the CUNY G r a d u a te C e n te r Identity R e s e a rc h G r o u p for th eir c o m m e n ts on an e a rlie r ve r­ sion of this chapter.

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Deaux, K. (2004). Im m ig ra tio n a n d the c olor line. In G. Philogcnc (Ed.), R ac ia l i d e n t i t y in c ont ext : T h e l e g a cy o f K e n n e t h B. C l ar k (pp. 1 9 7 -2 0 9 ). W ash­ ington, DC: A m erican Psychological Association. D eaux, K., G ilkes, A., B ik m e n , N., V entuneac, A., J o s e p h , Y., Payne, Y., & Steele, C. (2005). B e c o m i n g A m e r i c a n : S t e r e o t y p e t h r e a t e f f e ct s in b l a c k i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s . M a n u s c r ip t u n d e r review. Devine, P. G., & Elliot, A. J. (1995). Are ra c ia l ste r e o ty p e s really fading? The P rin c e to n trilogy revisited. P e rs on a l it y a n d S oc ia l Ps y c h ol og y Bull et in, 21, 1139-1150. E s s e s . V. M.. Dovidio, J. F., J a c k s o n , L. M., & A rm stro n g , T.L. (2001). T he i m ­ m ig ra tio n d ile m m a : The role of pcrccivcd g ro u p c o m p e titio n , e th n ic p r e j u ­ dice, a n d n a tio n a l identity. J o u r n a l o f S oc ial I s su e s, 57, 3 8 9 - 4 1 2 . E sse s, V. M., J a c k s o n , L. M., & A rm stron g, T. L. (1998). In terg ro u p com petition a n d a ttitu d e s tow ard im m ig ra n ts a n d im m igration: An in stru m e n ta l m odel of g ro u p conflict (Special issue]. J o u r n a l o f Social I ssues, 54, 6 9 9 - 7 2 4 . Foner, N. (1998). West In d ia n identity in the d ia s p o r a : C o m p a ra tiv e a n d h i s t o r ­ ical p ersp e ctiv es. L at in A m e r i c a n P er sp e ct iv es, 25 (3), 1 7 3 - 1 8 8 . Foner, N. (2002). I m m ig ra n t w o m e n a n d w o rk in New York City, th e n a n d now. In P.G. Min (Ed.), M a s s m i g r a t i o n to t h e U ni t e d S t a t e s : Cl ass ic al a n d c o n ­ t e m p o r a r y p e r i o d s (pp. 2 3 1 - 252). W alnut Creek, CA: A ltaM ira Press. G ib so n , M.A. (2001). I m m ig r a n t a d a p ta tio n a n d p a t te r n s of a c c u ltu ra tio n . H u ­ m a n D e v e l o p m e n t , 44, 1 9-2 3 . Hao, L., & B o n s te a d - B ru n s , M. (1998). Parent-child differences in ed u c a tio n a l e x p ec ta tio n s a n d the a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t of im m i g r a n t & native s t u ­ d e n ts . S o c iol ogy o f E d u c a t i o n , 71, 1 7 5 - 1 9 8 . H intzen, PC. (2001). We st I n d i a n in the West: S e l f - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s in a n i m ­ m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t y . New York U niversity P ress. New York a n d L ond on . J o s t, J. T.. & Banaji, M. B. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system-justification a n d the pro d u c tio n of false consciou sness. British J o u r n a l o f Social Psychol­ ogy, S p eci al Issue: St er eo ty p e s: Structure, f u n c t i o n a n d process, 33, 1-27. Kalmijn, M. (1996). T he so c io e c o n o m ic a ssim ila tio n of C a r ib b e a n A m e ric a n B lacks. S oc ia l Forces, 74, 9 1 1 - 9 3 0 . L a p in sk i, J.S ., Pcltola, P., Shaw, G., & Yang, A. (1997). Poll tr e n d s : Im m ig r a n ts a n d im m ig ra tio n . Public Opi ni on Qu ar te r ly , 61, 3 5 6 - 3 8 3 . Levy, S. R., S tr o e s s n e r , S. J., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). S tereo ty pe fo rm a tio n a n d e n d o r s e m e n t: The role of im p licit th eo rie s. J o u r n a l o f P ers onal it y a n d S o ­ cial P sy ch ol ogy , 74, 1 4 2 1 - 1 4 3 6 . Logan. J. R., & D eane, G. (2003). B l a c k d iv e r s i t y in m e t r o p o l i t a n A m e r i c a . Al­ bany, NY: Lewis M u m fo rd C e n te r for C o m p a ra tiv e U rb a n a n d Regional R e­ s e a r c h at the University at Albany. M addox, K. B.. & Gray. S. A. (2002). Cognitive r e p r e s e n ta t io n s of B lack A m e r i­ c a n s: R eexploring the role of s k in tone. Pe rso na li t y a n d S oc ial Psuchol oqu Bull eti n, 28, 2 5 0 - 2 5 9 . Massey, D. S., C h a rle s, C. Z., Lundy, G., & Fischer, M. J . (2002). T h e s o u r c e o f t he river: T h e s ocial origi ns o f f r e s h m e n a t A m e r i c a ' s s e l e c t i v e col leges a n d uni v er si ti es . Prin ceton , NJ: P rinceton University Press. Massey, D. S., & D e n to n , N. A. (1993). A m e r i c a n a p a r t h e i d : S e g r e g a t i o n a n d t he m a k i n g o f the u n d e r c l a s s . C a m b rid g e , MA: H a r v a r d U niversity Press. M e n do za-D enton, R., Downey, G., P u rd ie , V., Davis, A., & Pie trz a k , J. (2002). Sensitivity to s t a tu s - b a s e d rejection: Im p lic a tio n s for African A m e ric a n s t u ­ d e n ts ' college experience. J o u r n a l o f P er s on a l it y a n d S oci al P s y c h o l o g y f 83, 8 9 6 - 9 1 8 .

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S te p h a n , W. G., Y b a rra , O., & B a c h m a n , G. (1999). P rejud ice to w a r d s im m i­ g r a n ts . J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d Social P sy chol ogy , 29, 2 2 2 1 - 2 2 3 7 . S tep ick, A., S tepick , C. D., Eugene, E., Teed, D., & L ab issie re , Y. (2001). In R. G. R u m b a u t & A. P ortes (Eds.), Et hni cit ies: C hi l dr en o j i m m i g r a n t s in A m e r i c a (pp. 2 2 9 - 2 6 6 ) . Berkeley: U niversity of California Press. Sucirez-Orozco, M. M. (2000). E ve rything you ever w a n te d to k n o w a b o u t a s ­ sim ila tio n b u t w ere afraid to a sk . D a e d a l u s , T h e e n d o j t olerance: E n g a g ­ ing c u lt ur al d i f fe r en c es , Fall. 1- 30. S u a re z -O ro z c o , C.. & S u a re z -O ro zc o , M. M. (2001). Ch il dr e n o f i m m i g r a t i o n . C a m b rid g e . MA: H a rv a rd U niversity P ress. S w a r n s , R. L. (2 00 4, A ugust 29). “A frican -A m erican ” b e c o m e s a te rm for d e ­ bate. N e w York T i m e s , section 1, p. 1, col. 2. Taylor, D. M., & L a m b e rt, W. E. (1996). T he m e a n in g of m u ltic u ltu ra lis m in a c u ltu ra lly d iv erse u r b a n A m erican a re a . J o u r n a l o f S oc ia l Ps ychol ogy, 136(6), 7 2 7 - 7 4 0 . Taylor, M. C. (1998). How w hite a ttitu d e s vary with the ra c ia l c o m p o sitio n oflocal p o p u la tio n s : N u m b e r s c o u n t. A m e r i c a n Sociological R e v i e w , 63, 5 12-535. T h o m a s , T. E. R. (2002). P er c epti ons o f ra c e a n d r a c is m a m o n g b l ac k s. U n­ p u b lis h e d d ata. T h o m a s , T. E. R. (2003). B l a c k A m e r i c a n s a n d b l a c k i m m i g r a n t s : T h e i nf lu ­ e n c e o f e t h n i c i dent if i c at io n on p e r c e p t i o n s or race, p r e j u d i c e , a n d i n d i ­ v i d u a l s u c c e s s in A m e r i c a n s ociety. U n p u b lis h e d d o c to ra l d is s e rta tio n , S ta n f o r d University. T o rm a la , T. T. (2005). T h e m e a n i n g o f b l a c k n e s s : S t e r e o t y p e s a b o u t B l a c k A m e r i c a n s a n d b l a c k i m m i g r a n t s . M a n u s c r ip t in p r e p a r a tio n . T o rm a la , T. T., Steele, C. M., & Davies, P. G. (2006). B l a c k A m e r i c a n s a n d B l a c k i m m i g r a n t s : T h e i n f lu e nc e o f e t h n i c i d ent if i c at i on on e x p e c t a n c i e s f o r s u c c e s s a n d p e r c e p t i o n o f p r e j u di c e . M a n u s c r ip t in p r e p a r a tio n . U.S. C e n s u s . (2000). 2 0 0 0 C e n s u s o f P op ul at ion a n d H ou s in g. W ashington, DC: U.S. G o v e rn m e n t P rin tin g Office. V ic k e rm a n , M. (1999). C ro ssc urr ent s: West I n d i an i m m i g r a n t s a n d race. Ox­ ford University P ress. Waters, M. C. (1 99 4) E th n ic a n d racial identities of s ec o n d -g e n e ra tio n Black i m m i g r a n t s in New York City. I n t e r n a t i o n a l M i g r a t i o n R e v i e w , 28, 795-820. Waters, M. C. (19 9 9 a ). B l a c k i dentities: We st I n d i a n i m m i g r a n t d r e a m s a n d A m e r i c a n realities. C a m b rid g e, MA: H a rv a rd U niversity Press. W aters. M. C. (1 99 9b ). West In d ia n s a n d African A m e ric a n s a t w o rk: S t r u c ­ tu ra l d ifferences a n d c u ltu ra l s te re o ty p e s. In F. D. Bean & S. Bell-Rose (Eds.), I m m i g r a t i o n a n d o pp o r tu n it y : R a c e, e th n ic i ty , a n d e m p l o y m e n t in t h e Uni te d S t a t e s (pp. 1 9 4 -2 2 7 ). New York: R u ssell Sage. Wheeler, S. C., & Petty, R. E. (2001). T h e effects of s te re o ty p e activation on b e ­ havior: A review of p o ssib le m e c h a n is m s . P s y chol ogic al Bulletin, 127, 797-826. Z a ra te , M. A., G arcia, B., G arz a , A. A., & Hitlan, R. T. (2003). C u ltu ra l th r e a t a n d perceived realistic g ro u p conflict a s d u a l p r e d ic t o r s of p re ju d ic e . J o u r ­ n al o f E x p e r i m e n t a l Soc ial P sy chology , 40, 9 9 - 1 0 5 .

Cultural Psychology and M arginality: An Explorative Study o! Indian D iaspora R a m a s w a m i M a h a l in g a m University o f Michigan

C h e r i Philip H o w a rd University

S u n d a r i B a la n University o f Michigan

I m m ig r a n ts often ex p e rie n c e a se n s e of a lie n ation, lo ss, a n d a feeling of “n o t belonging" b e c a u s e of th e ir d is p la c e m e n t (Alexander, 1996). T hey have to c o n fr o n t new f o r m s of c u ltu r a l m o d e s of social p a rtic ip a tio n th a t in c re a s e th e ir s elf-a w a re n e s s a n d se n s e of identity. A lthough s u c h ex p e rie n c e s a re s tre ssfu l, they also p ro v id e o p p o r tu n iti e s for c re a tin g a “new" identity. However, n eg otiating the social p o sitio n in g of these “new" id en titie s w ithin existing social h ie r a r c h ie s p r e s e n t s u n iq u e challenges. Kim ( 1999) a r g u e s th a t A sian A m e ric a n s a r e m a rg in a liz e d w ithin the “field of ra c ial p o s itio n s ,” w h e re Asian A m e r ic a n s a re s i m u l ­ ta n e o u sly valorized a s a m o d e l m in o rity a n d d e n ig ra te d a s “o u t s i d e r s ” a n d “p e r p e tu a l f o re ig n e rs.” T h u s , A sian A m e ric a n s a re “racially t r i a n ­ g u la te d ” vis-à-vis W hites a n d B la c k s in th is field of racial p o s itio n s (Kim, 1999, p. 106). A sian A m e r ic a n s s o m e ti m e s u se the " a n c ie n tn e s s ” of th e ir c u ltu r e to f u r th e r legitimize th e ir "m od e l m in o rity im a g e .” S u c h "im a g in e d ” n o tio n s of c u ltu r e a s s u m e a “h o riz o n ta l p a s t ” devoid of in te r n a l c o n ­ 151

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tr a d ic tio n s (A n derson , 1991; E s p ir itu , 1992; Kurien, 2 0 0 3 ; Nagel, 1994; Ong, 1999). A sian A m e r ic a n s c a r ry c e rta in r e p r e s e n ta tio n s of their " h o m e ” c u ltu r e in o r d e r to c rc a tc a positive self identity. O ur stu d y a d d r e s s e s the following two b r o a d r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n s : (a) How do the “r e s i d u a l s ” of In d ia n c u ltu re t h a t In d ia n im m ig r a n t s c a rry in th eir “h e a d " influence th e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of th e ir ra c ia l p o s itio n in g in a new social m ilieu? (b) How d o m a rg in a liz e d social e x p e rie n c e s a n d r a ­ cial tria n g u la tio n s h a p e In d ia n A m e r i c a n s ’ (se c o n d -g e n e ra tio n ) a tti­ tu d e s to w a rd African A m e ric a n s ? U sing a th e o re tic a l p e rsp e c tiv e th a t in te g ra te s the c u ltu r a l psychological r e s e a r c h on social m a rg in a lity a n d im p licit th e o r ie s of pe rsonality, we investigated first- a n d s e c ­ o n d -g e n e ra tio n In d ia n A m e r ic a n s ’ a ttitu d e s to w a rd African A m e r i­ c a n s . U sing a n a d o p t io n p a r a d ig m , o u r s tu d y e x a m in e d In d ia n im m i g r a n t s ’ im plicit th e o r ie s of pe rsonality. In a d d itio n , we also e x a m ­ ined f irst-g eneration In d ia n i m m ig r a n ts ' p e r c e p tio n s of r a cc a n d castc. T h e r e s t of the c h a p te r is in fo ur p a r t s . T h e first p a r t p ro v id e s a h is to r i­ cal b a c k g r o u n d on In d ia n im m ig r a tio n to the U nited S ta te s. T h e s e c ­ o n d p a r t p ro v id e s a s y n th e s is of th e o retica l p e r s p e c tiv e s on c u ltu ra l c o n c e p tio n s of se lf a m o n g In d ia n s. T he t h ir d p a r t d e s c r ib e s o u r s tu d y of In dian im m i g r a n ts a n d In dian A m e ric a n s . In th e last p a r t we d i s ­ c u s s the relevance of m a rg in a liz e d e x p e rie n c es to u n d e r s t a n d i n g the co m p le x re la tio n s h ip b e tw een c u ltu re , racial p o sitioning , a n d the p s y ­ chology of marginality.

HISTORY OF INDIAN IMMIGRATION T h e e a r lie s t r e p o r t of E a s t In d ia n im m i g r a n t s in th e U nited S ta te s d a te s b a c k to 1 8 04, w h e n a few I n d ia n s se ttle d in S a le m a n d m a r r i e d B la c k A m e r ic a n w o m e n ( J e n s e n , 1988). T h e la te r wave of I n d ia n i m ­ m ig r a tio n to th e U n ite d S ta te s w a s largely d u r i n g the ea rly p a r t of the 2 0 th ccn tu ry. M ost e m ig r a te d from P u n ja b a s m i g r a n t w o r k e r s a n d w o r k e d on f a r m s in C a lifo rn ia (L e o n a rd , 1992). B e c a u s e of i m m i g r a ­ tion p o licies a t the tim e (a n tim is c e g e n a t io n law s), In d ia n i m m i g r a n t s w e re n o t a llow ed to m a r r y A m e r ic a n w o m e n ; n o r c o u ld they afford to go b a c k to In d ia to get m a r r i e d . C o n se q u e n tly , m a n y of th e m m a r r i e d Mexican w o m e n w h o w o r k e d on th e f a r m s , a n d to d a y a s m a ll b u t th riv in g P u n ja b i- M e x ic a n c o m m u n i t y is still active in C a lifo rn ia (L e o n a r d , 1992). T h e P u n ja b i S ik h s w h o c a m e to C alifornia w ere politically active a n d s ta r t e d a p a rty called the G a d a r Party ( 1 9 1 3 - 1 9 1 8 ) , to fight B rit­ ish colonial ru le from the United S ta te s . A lthough the p a rty h a d a high n u m b e r of P u n ja b i im m ig r a n ts , m a n y Leftists of E u r o p e a n a n c e s tr y also s u p p o r t e d the party. Party m e m b e r s h i p c o n s is te d of b lu e -c o lla r w o r k e r s , In d ia n elites, a n d in te lle c tu a ls of E u r o p e a n ancestry. T h e party, w hich p r o d u c e d a n e w s le tte r th a t c ritiq u e d b o th B ritish i m p e r i ­

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a lis m a n d r a c ia l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in th e U n ite d S t a t e s (P u ri, 1 9 94 ; S a r e e n , 19 9 4 ), o ffered a p la tf o r m to m o b iliz e e x p a tr ia t e s u p p o r t to fight B r itis h i m p e r i a l i s m a n d the r a c i s t p o lic ie s of th e A m e r ic a n gov­ e r n m e n t . N ot s u r p r is in g ly , th e p a r t y w a s b a n n e d by th e U.S. g o v e r n ­ m e n t b e c a u s e o f its a n ti- B r itis h a ctivities. T h e G a d a r p a r t y m e m b e r s w e r e a lso o p p o s e d to J i m C ro w la w s o f th e S o u t h ( P r a s h a d , 1 9 9 8 , 2 0 0 0 ; P u ri, 1 9 9 4 ), g r e a tly s y m p a t h i z i n g w ith th e p lig h t o f s o u t h e r n B la c k s . S e v e ra l E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s w h o w e re active in t h e l a b o r m o v e m e n t c o n t i n u e d to s u p p o r t effo rts a im e d a t fighting ra c ia l d i s ­ c rim in atio n ag ain st B lacks (P ra sh a d , 2000). D u r in g th e 1 9 2 0 s , I n d ia n i m m i g r a n t s f o u g h t for th e ir r ig h t to gain c itiz e n s h ip ; th e c a s e of B h a g a t S in g h T h i n d il l u s t r a t e s th e s e s tr u g g le s ( J a c o b s o n , 1 9 9 9 ). U s in g g o v e r n m e n t - p r e s c r i b e d c r i te r i a for i m m i ­ g r a n t s ' eligibility for c itiz e n s h ip . T h i n d a r g u e d t h a t th e a v a ila b le " s c i­ e n tific ” e v id e n c e s u g g e s te d th a t I n d i a n s c o u ld in d e e d b e c la ss ifie d a s C a u c a s i a n s , n o t o nly b e c a u s e s e v e r a l I n d i a n l a n g u a g e s w e re of I n d o - E u r o p e a n orig in , b u t a lso t h a t th e I n d i a n s ' p h y s ic a l a n d c u l t u r a l r o o t s w e re c lo s e to C a u c a s i a n s . However, th e S u p r e m e C o u r t re je c te d t h is a r g u m e n t ( J a c o b s o n , 1 9 9 9 ). T h e c r u c ia l d iffere n ce b e tw e e n th e G a d a r P a rty m e m b e r s a n d T h i n d ’s c a s e il l u s t r a t e s th e b i m o d a l r e l a ­ t i o n s h ip b e tw e e n I n d ia n i m m i g r a n t s a n d B la c k s . In th e c a s e of th e G a d a r Party, I n d ia n i m m i g r a n t s str o n g ly id e n tifie d w ith B la c k s a s m a r g in a liz e d p r o l e t a r i a t s , w h e r e a s in th e c a s e of T h i n d , th e c o m m o n id e n tific a tio n w a s w ith W h ite s a s fellow “C a u c a s i a n s , ” n o t w ith B la c k s . In f a c t, th e p r e s c r i b e d c r i t e r i a fo r c i t i z e n s h i p s t i p u l a t e d t h a t n o n - B la c k s o f C a u c a s i a n o rig in w e r e eligible to b e c o m e A m e r ic a n s . B e tw e e n th e 1 9 2 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s I n d i a n i m m i g r a t i o n s lo w e d g r e a tly b e c a u s e o f a b a n o n A s i a n i m m i g r a t i o n . A c h a n g e in i m m i g r a t i o n p o lic y o c c u r r e d d u r i n g L y n d o n B. J o h n s o n ' s p r e s i d e n c y , w h i c h a l ­ l o w e d m a n y A s i a n p r o f e s s i o n a l s to i m m i g r a t e ( B a c o n , 1 9 9 6 ; R angasw am y, 2 0 0 0 ). T h o u s a n d s of en g in ee rs a n d d o c to rs from In ­ d i a c a m e to t h e U n it e d S t a t e s f o r b e t t e r c a r e e r s a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l o p ­ p o r t u n i t i e s . In fac t, e s t i m a t e s w i t h i n t h e p a s t 5 y e a r s s u g g e s t t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 , 0 0 0 I n d i a n d o c t o r s n o w w o r k in th e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n o f P h y s i c i a n s of I n d i a n O r ig in , 2 0 0 2 ) . In a d ­ d i t i o n , s e v e r a l l e a d e r s in th e s o f t w a r e i n d u s t r y , s u c h a s Bill G a t e s , h a v e r e c o g n i z e d th e a c h i e v e m e n t s o f I n d i a n p r o f e s s i o n a l s in t h i s field. M o s t o f th e i m m i g r a n t s w o r k i n g in t e c h n o l o g y r e l a t e d f ie ld s a r c f r o m th e u p p e r c a s t c a n d h i g h e r s o c i o c c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d s in gen eral. T he tra d itio n of c o m m u n ity activ ism se e k in g so cial ju s tic e a n d fig h tin g f o r th e r i g h t s o f m i n o r i t i e s is still p r e s e n t a m o n g th e c u r r e n t, n e w e r wave of im m ig r a n ts (A b ra h a m , 2 0 0 0 ; K h a n d e lw a l, 1 9 9 8 ) . T h e s e n e w i m m i g r a n t s , by a n d l a r g e , a r e h ig h ly s u c c e s s f u l a n d fit t h e la b e l o f " m o d e l m in o r ity ." T h i s t h e m e is r e v i s i t e d in t h e sectio n on ra c e a n d caste.

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CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND IM M IGRANTS C u ltu r e p la y s a d y n a m ic ro le in in f lu e n c in g o u r w o r ld view s a n d o u r c o n c e p t of p e r s o n h o o d , le a d in g to d iffe rin g c o n c e p t i o n s o f so c ia l o n to lo g ie s ( S h w c d c r & B o u r n e , 19 8 4 ). Differing c u l t u r a l c o n c e p t i o n s o f p e r s o n h o o d exist a m o n g E a s t A sia n a n d W e ste rn c u l t u r e s (N isbett, Peng, C h oi, & N o r e n z a y a n , 2 0 0 1 ) . S u c h c o n c e p t i o n s d o n o t m e re ly p r o v id e th e m e t a p h y s i c a l b a s i s for t h i n k i n g a b o u t p e r s o n h o o d b u t a lso le n d a so c ia l le n s t h r o u g h w h ic h th e a c tio n s , i n t e n t i o n s , e m o ­ tio n s , a n d b e h a v i o r s of se lf a n d o t h e r s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d , s h a r e d , c o m ­ m u n i c a t e d , a n d j u d g e d . S u c h d o m i n a n t w o r ld v ie w s a ls o m e d i a t e th e m e a n i n g - m a k i n g p r o c e s s ( R o la n d , 1 9 8 8 ). E a s t A sia n c u l t u r e s v a lu e a n e m b e d d e d , c o n t e x t- b o u n d n o tio n of self, w h e r e a s W e ste rn c u l t u r e s v alu e ind iv id uality , a u to n o m y , a n d a n u n b o u n d e d n o ti o n o f s e lf (Miller, 1 9 8 4 : R a m a n u j a n , 1988). A lthough th e se a re p o r tra y a ls of c u ltu re as a m a c ro sy ste m , sev ­ e ra l r c s c a r c h c r s have a rg u e d th a t s u c h p o rtra y a ls of c u ltu ra l d iffer­ e n c e s u n d e r e s tim a te large in tr a c u ltu r a l v a ria tio n s a c r o s s caste, r a c e , c l a s s , a n d g e n d e r ( M a h a l i n g a m , 2 0 0 3 ) . F o r i n s t a n c e , G illig a n ( 1 9 8 2 ) f o u n d t h a t th e m o r a l s e n s i b i l i t y o f A m e r i c a n w o m e n d if f e r s from th a t of A m e ric a n m e n . J o n e s (1 9 9 9 ) p r e s e n te d a m o d e l of s o ­ c ia l id e n tity , T R I O S ( tim e , r h y t h m , i m p r o v i s a t i o n , o ra lity , a n d s p i r i ­ t u a l i t y ) , to c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e c u l t u r a l p s y c h o l o g y o f A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s . B o y k in ( 1 9 8 6 ) p r e s e n t e d t h e c o n c e p t o f a “t r i p l e q u a n ­ d a r y " for A f r ic a n A m e r i c a n c h i l d r e n , w h e r e i n th e y n e g o t i a t e a r o u n d a d o m i n a n t g r o u p - p r e s c r i b e d i d e n t i t y e ve n a s th e y p r e s e r v e th e u n iq u e fe a tu re s of th e ir e th n ic id e n tity a n d r e m a in acu tely a w a re of th e ir m a rg in a liz e d s ta tu s . L a n d rin e (1 9 9 2 ) a rg u e d th a t a cont c x t - b o u n d , i n d c x i c a l n o t i o n o f s e l f is m o r e p r e v a l e n t a m o n g v a r i o u s eth n ic g ro u p s a n d a m o n g w o m en . T h e s e p e r s p e c tiv e s s u g g e s t t h a t c u l tu r e , so c ia l h i e r a r c h i e s , a n d m a r g i n a lit y m e d i a t e th e d iffe rin g n o t i o n s o f self. It s e e m s t h a t m a r ­ g in al s t a t u s m a y i n c r e a s e o u r a w a r e n e s s o f c o n te x t. M a h a lin g a m (in p r e s s ) p r e s e n t s a f r a m e w o r k fo r a p s y c h o lo g y of m a r g in a lity t h a t a r ­ g u e s t h a t m a r g in a li z e d s t a t u s i n c r e a s e s o n e ’s a w a r e n e s s o f c o n te x t. S o c ia l p s y c h o lo g is ts r e p o r t t h a t th o s e in p o w e r a r e m o r e likely to e s s e n tia liz e o r u s e c a te g o r y - b a s e d i n f o r m a tio n o f in d iv id u a ls to j u d g e th e ir a c t io n s a n d b e h a v io r (F isk e , 1 9 9 3 ). R e s e a r c h o n e s s e n t i a l i s m s u g g e s ts t h a t in d iv i d u a ls fr o m h i g h - s t a t u s g r o u p s a re m o r e likely to b e lie v e in b i o lo g ic a l e s s e n t i a l i z a t i o n o f g r o u p id e n tity , w h e r e a s m a r g in a liz e d g r o u p m e m b e r s r e s i s t s u c h biolo gical c s s c n tia l iz a tio n s o f g r o u p d iff e r e n c e s ( M a h a lin g a m , 2 0 0 3 ) . F or e x a m p le , M a h a lin g a m ( 1 9 9 8 ) f o u n d t h a t u p p e r c a s te B r a h m i n s believe t h a t c a s te id e n tity is d e t e r m i n e d a t b i r t h , w h e r e a s D a lits (f o r m e r “u n t o u c h a b l e s " ) believe t h a t c a s te id e n tity is n o t fixed a t b i r t h , b u t i n s te a d is t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h s o c ia liz a tio n . In s u m , th e c u l t u r a l p s y c h o lo g y o f m a r g in a liz e d s o c ia l s t a t u s c o u ld b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a h e ig h te n e d a w a r e n e s s o f c o n ­

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text, a n d r e s is ta n c e to ideologies t h a t esse n tia liz e g r o u p differences a n d social h ie r a rc h ie s .

RACE, CASTE, AND INDIAN AMERICANS Several r e s e a r c h e r s have p o in te d o u t th a t the “m o d e l m in o r ity m y th ” p o s i tio n s In d ia n A m e r i c a n s in o p p o s itio n to African A m e r ic a n s (D hingra, 2 0 0 3 ; Kim, 1999; Lee, 1994). However, early a n d c u r r e n t In ­ d ia n i m m ig r a n ts ' p a r tic ip a tio n in c o m m u n ity activism (K handelw al, 1998) in d ic a te s t h a t the r e la tio n s h ip b e tw een th e ir m a rg in a liz e d s o ­ cial e x p e rie n c es, a n d th e ir a ttitu d e s to w a r d African A m e r ic a n s m ay be co m p lex . V arious in te r s e c tio n s of social c la ss, g e n e ra tio n , g ro u p s t a ­ tu s in the “h o m e ” c u ltu re , a n d "re s id u a l'’ a s p e c ts of c u ltu r e play a c r u ­ cial role in s h a p i n g s u c h tra je cto ries. In In d ia n c u ltu re , the caste sy ste m re g u la te s the social h ie r a r c h y (Parish , 1997), a n d m o s t of the c u r r c n t wave of In d ia n im m ig r a n ts a r c from the u p p e r c a s tc s a n d arc highly e d u c a te d . S e c o n d -g e n e ra tio n In d ia n A m e ric a n s a re also viewed as one of the m o s t s u c c e s sfu l m in o r itie s in the U nited S ta te s (D hingra, 20 0 3 ), b u t they do n o t s h a r e the c u ltu r a l ex p e rien c e of b e ing p a r t of a ca ste g ro u p . It is p e r tin e n t to e x a m in e how privileged c a ste s ta tu s (such a s b eing a B r a h m in ) , c u ltu r a l beliefs a b o u t p e r s o n h o o d , a n d v a r ­ iou s in te r s e c tio n s of social m a rg in a lity m ig h t influence first- a n d s e c ­ o n d -g e n e ra tio n I n d i a n s ’ a ttitu d e s to w a r d African A m e ric a n s a n d to investigate w h e th e r first-generatio n In d ia n im m i g r a n ts in d e e d view ca ste a n d r a c e a s very similar.

METHOD P a rtic ip a n ts For th is study, E a s t In d ia n im m ig r a n t a n d In d ia n A m e ric a n g r a d u a te a n d u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s at a large, M id w e ste rn u n iv e rsity in the U nited S ta te s w ere r e c r u ite d over a o n e - s e m e s t e r p e r io d to p a r tic ip a te in a psychology study. T h e first g e n e ra tio n In d ia n im m ig r a n t g ro u p c o n s is te d of 23 g ra d u a te s tu d e n ts , a n d the In d ia n A m e ric a n g ro u p c o n s is te d of 27 u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s . B e c a u se we d id n o t have a large e n o u g h p o p u la tio n of first-g en eratio n u n d e r g r a d u a t e s o r s e c ­ o n d -g e n e ra tio n g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s to m a k e a c o m p a r is o n w ithin e d u ­ cation level, we re c r u ite d only first-gen eratio n (FG) g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s a n d s e c o n d - g e n e ra tio n (SG) u n d e r g r a d u a t e s . O u r p a r ti c ip a n t s r e ­ flected the g re a te r p r e d o m i n a n c e of FG g r a d u a te s t u d e n t s a n d SG u n ­ d e r g r a d u a t e s in th e u n iv e rsity a s a whole. T h e c rite ria for p a r tic ip a tio n by E a s t In d ia n im m ig r a n t s r e q u ir e d th a t p r i m a r y socializatio n (birth to 18 y ears) o c c u r r e d in India. For In d ia n A m e ric a n s , p r im a r y s o c ia l­ ization (birth to 18 y ears) o c c u r r e d in the U nited S ta te s, a n d p a r tic i ­ p a n t s m u s t also have In d ia n im m ig r a n t p a r e n ts .

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P ro ced u re P a r tic ip a n ts w ere s e n t a n e-m ail r e q u e s tin g the p a r tic ip a tio n of E a s t In d ia n s t u d e n t s (im m ig r a n ts a n d In d ia n A m e ric a n s w ere given the specific c rite ria n e c e s s a r y to qualify for the study). V arious In d ia n o r ­ g a n iz a tio n s on c a m p u s w ere also c o n ta c te d via e-m ail a n d w o r d of m o u th . Incentive for p a r tic ip a tio n w as in th e form of m o n e ta r y c o m ­ p e n s a tio n , with g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s receiving $ 1 5 a n d u n d e r g r a d u a t e s receiving $ 1 0 . P a r tic ip a n ts w ere a s s u r e d t h a t th e ir p a r tic ip a tio n w as v o lu n ta ry a n d t h a t th e ir r e s p o n s e s w o u ld r e m a in confiden tial a n d be u s e d only for r e s e a r c h p u r p o s e s . After r e s p o n d e n t s c o m p le te d an in fo rm e d c o n s e n t fo rm , they w ere briefed on the fo r m a t of the study. T hey th e n p a r tic ip a te d in a th in k -a lo u d p r o to c o l in w hich they w ere in s tr u c te d to r e s p o n d to each q u e s tio n orally a n d to p ro v id e the u n d e rly in g r e a s o n in g for e ach of th e ir r e s p o n s e s . They w ere given so m e sim p le , p ra c tic e m a th e m a tic a l p r o b le m s so th at they c ould get u s e d to the id e a of th in k in g -a lo u d b e ­ fore p a r tic ip a tin g in a tw o -p a rt study. In the first p a r t of the study, th in k -a lo u d p r o to c o ls w ere collected. In the s e c o n d p a r t, the p a r ti c i­ p a n t s filled o u t a q u e s tio n n a ire . On average, they to o k a b o u t 30 m i n u te s to c o m p le te the study.

M easu res F irst, all th e s t u d e n t s w e re given a vignette to r e a d a b o u t a n a d o p tio n t h a t d e p ic ts the sto r y of a child w ho after b ir th is s e p a r a te d from h is b i­ ological p a r e n t s a n d ra is e d by a d o p tiv e p a r e n ts . T h e y w ere told a b o u t c e rta in c h a r a c te r is tic s of b o th s e ts of p a r e n ts (biological a n d adoptive) a n d w ere a s k e d to m a k e a p r e d ic tio n a b o u t the likelihood th a t the child w o u ld in h e r it o r a c q u ir e c e rta in tr a its a n d c h a r a c te r is tic s ( G e lm a n & Wellman. 1990; H irsch feld , 1996). T h e ra c e of the biologi­ cal a n d a do ptiv e p a r e n t s w a s m a n ip u la te d in th e vignettes, c o u n t e r b a l ­ a n c in g po sitiv e a n d negative q u a litie s of the biolog ical p a r e n t s r e s u ltin g in a 2 (race; While o r African A m e rica n ) x 2 (valence: positive a n d negative) design. T h u s , th e re w ere in total fo ur d ifferent v e rs io n s of the vignettes. T h e tr a its a ttr ib u t e d to the p a r e n t s in c lu d e d intelli­ gence, pe rsonality, a n d biological tra its. E a c h p a r ti c ip a n t w a s r a n ­ do m ly a ss ig n e d to one of th e fo u r vignette c o n d itio n s. In a d d itio n , p a r ti c ip a n ts a lso c o m p le te d a q u e s t io n n a ir e t h a t i n ­ c lu d e d the M o d e rn R ac ism Scale (McConahay, H a rd e e , & B atts, 1981 ; M cC o n a h a y & H ough, 1976) a n d Social D o m in a n c e O rie n ta tio n Scale ( S id a n io u s & P ra tto , 1998). T h e M o d e rn R ac ism Scale c o n s is te d of 7 ite m s m e a s u r in g a ttitu d e s to w a r d A frican A m e ric a n s. H igher s c o r e s c o r r e s p o n d e d to h ig h e r levels of m o d e r n r a c is t views. T h e Social D o m ­ in a n ce O rie n ta tio n (SDO) scale c o n s is te d of 16 ite m s. T h is scale m e a ­

9.

157

C U L T U R A L P S Y C H O L O G Y AND MARGI NALI TY

s u r e s a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s o c ia l h i e r a r c h i e s . H igh s c o r e s i n d i c a t e t o le r a n c e o f so c ia l h i e r a r c h i e s . In a d d i t i o n , we a s k e d th e I n d i a n i m m i ­ g r a n t p a r t i c i p a n t s to r a te th e ir d e g r e e of a g r e e m e n t w ith th e s t a t e m e n t “C a s te a n d r a c e a r e s i m i l a r ” o n a 1 -5 s c a le (1 s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e , 5 s t r o n g l y a g r e e ) . We a lso a s k e d th e m to p r o v id e a r a tio n a l e for th e ir j u d g m e n t . T h e r e s p o n s e s to th e a d o p t i o n s to r y a n d th e c a s t e - r a c e c o m p a r i s o n i te m s w e r e a u d i o t a p e d .

RESULTS Q uantitative A nalyses T h e m e a n s c o r e s for v a r i o u s m e a s u r e s a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b le 9 .1 . For th e a d o p t i o n t a s k we c a lc u la t e d th e m e a n s for all 14 tr a its . T h e r e w e re

TABLE 9.1 Sum m ary of Mean Values o f First and Second Generation First G en e ra tio n

Second G en e ra tio n

N

23

27

Age

26

27

E v e n s p l i t b e tw e e n m en and wom en

E v e n split, 3 eases m issing

M o d e r n R a c i s m (M RS)

2 .2 9

3 .8

S o c ia l D o m i n a n c e (SDO)

3 .1 4

1.8

C a s te s t a t u s ( B r a h m i n )

4 8%

33 %

C astc/racc q u estio n

2.5

V ariables

G ender

G en e/en v iro n m en tal m e a n

—

4 . 4 7 (1 - 7 ), h ig h = e n v i r o n m e n t a l

4 .4 4

B r a h m i n M RS

2 .47

3 .8 0

N o n -B rah m in MRS

2 .1 4

3 .8 5

B r a h m i n SD O

3 .5 1

1.9 2

N o n -B ra h m in SDO

2 .8 5

1.71

A d o p t i o n B r a h m i n g ene mean

4 .5 (1 - 7 ), h ig h = e n v i r o n m e n t a l

4 .4 7

N o n -B ra h m in gene m e a n

4 .4 3

4 .4 2

S p li t c a s e s b y c a s t e

158

MAHALI NGAM, P H I LI P , BALAN

n o d if f e r e n c e s in th e m e a n s c o r e s b e tw e e n fir s t- a n d s e c o n d - g e n e r a ti o n p a r t i c i p a n t s . B o th g r o u p s t h o u g h t th a t th e e n v i r o n m e n t w o u ld p la y a c ritic a l ro le in s h a p i n g the p e r s o n a l i t y o f th e in d iv id u a l. T h is fin d in g is c o n s i s t e n t w i th p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h o n c u l t u r a l c o n c e p t i o n s of p e r s o n h o o d in In d ia (i.e., I n d i a n s believe t h a t th e e n v i r o n m e n t p la y s a g r e a t e r ro le t h a n h e r e d it y in s h a p i n g p e r s o n h o o d ) . How ever, t h e r e w e re s o m e i n te r e s ti n g g r o u p d iffe r e n c e s o n m o d e r n r a c i s m a n d so c ia l d o m i n a n c e o r i e n t a t i o n m e a n s c o r e s . SG p a r t i c i ­ p a n t s s c o r e d h ig h e r on m o d e r n r a c i s m t h a n FG I n d ia n i m m i g r a n t s . How ever, FG i m m i g r a n t s w e r e h ig h e r o n so c ia l d o m i n a n c e t h a n SG i m m i g r a n t s . R e g a r d in g th e q u e s tio n of w h e t h e r c a s te a n d r a c e w e r e sim ila r, th e FG p a r t i c i p a n t s felt t h a t c a s te a n d r a c e w e re d is s i m ila r .

Qualitative A nalyses A d o p tio n T a sk T h e a u d i o t a p e s th a t w e re t r a n s c r i b e d for a n a ly s e s s h o w e d s o m e s im ila r iti e s a s well a s s o m e d if f e re n c e s b e tw e e n th e r e s p o n s e s of FG a n d SG p a r t i c i p a n t s . O verall, b o t h g r o u p s t h o u g h t t h a t th e e n v i r o n ­ m e n t p la y e d a sig n if ic a n t ro le in s h a p i n g v a r i o u s p e r s o n a l i t y tr a its . However, t h e r e w e r e q u a lita tiv e d if f e r e n c e s in th e w a y s in w h ic h th ey r e c o g n iz e d th e ro le o f th e e n v i r o n m e n t in s h a p i n g p e r s o n a l i t y tr a its .

E x a m p l e s o f FG P a r t i c i p a n t s ’ J u s t i f i c a t i o n s . It is n o t exactly e n o u g h to have n a t u r a l ability. I believe t h a t we develop a lot m o r e t h r o u g h su s t a i n e d effort a n d the e n v ir o n m e n t a s the genetic m a terial. I w o u ld s a y likely, fi r s t of all I t h i n k t h e r e a r e tw o r u l e s — o n e is g e n e tic b a c k g r o u n d a n d th e e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h y o u g ro w b asically, ev en if y o u a r e b o r n in te llig e n t a n d yo u a r e r a i s e d d u m b , y o u a r e g o in g to b e d u m b s o m e m u c h in te llig e n c e y o u m a y h a v e a c q u i r e d — b u t if y o u a r e g o in g to b e b o r n d u m b b u t if y o u a r e g o in g to b e r a i s e d s m a r tl y , y o u a r e g o in g to be s m a r t . I t h i n k b a s i c a ll y it is th e e n v i r o n m e n t in w h ic h th e c h il d is b r o u g h t u p — it m a y b e i n h e r i t e d b u t it is als o i m p o r t a n t w h a t y o u a c q u i r e s o I t h i n k e n v i r o n m e n t p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t ro le. P eo p le a r c r e s p o n s i b l e a n d b a s e d o n t h e i r g e n e tic i n h e r i t a n c e a n d a s well a s d e p e n d i n g o n th e w ay th e y a r e b r o u g h t u p , s o b o t h a r e in e q u a l c o n t r i ­ b u t i o n . w h ic h is w h y I c a n ’t re a lly s a y w h e t h e r Alex will b e r e s p o n s i b l e b e c a u s e g e n e tic a lly he is s u p p o s e d to b e r e s p o n s i b l e a n d if th e S m i t h s a r e i r r e s p o n s i b l e , t h e n b o t h will c o n t r i b u t e equally.

In g e n e r a l, FG p a r t i c i p a n t s belie v e d t h a t g e n e s a n d th e e n v i r o n m e n t w o u ld in flu e n c e e a c h other. T h e y often t h o u g h t t h a t t h e r e w a s s o m e ­ th in g in th e “n a t u r e ” o f th e c h ild t h a t w a s d e t e r m i n e d by g e n e s. H o w ­ ever, th is p a r t i c u l a r t r a i t n e e d e d to be a c tiv a te d by th e e n v i r o n m e n t o r

9.

C U L T U R A L P S Y C H O L O G Y AND MARGI NALI T Y

159

c o u ld b e s h a p e d by th e p a r e n t s . E n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c to r s a s well a s th e r o le of p a r e n t s (in th is c a se , th e a d o p tiv e p a r e n t s ) in s h a p i n g p e r s o n a l ­ ity t r a i t s w e re e m p h a s i z e d by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s . By c o n t r a s t , th e r e ­ s p o n s e s of th e SG p a r t i c i p a n t s s u g g e s te d a n active ro le for e n v i r o n m e n t a s well p e r s o n a l agency. U n lik e FG p a r t i c i p a n t s , SG p a r ­ t ic ip a n ts t a lk e d a b o u t th e ro le o f p e r s o n a l in c lin a tio n s o r m o tiv a ti o n s a n d will in s h a p i n g o n e 's p e rso n a lity .

E x a m p le s o f SG P a r tic ip a n ts ’ J u s tific a tio n s . T h e r e is m o r e to it t h a n b io lo g ic a l in h e r i t a n c e . T h e b a s i s o f g e n e ti c s d e t e r m i n i n g IQ i s n ’t so lid . ... a lo t o f t h e s e th i n g s a r e h o w yo u a r e b r o u g h t u p . ... he m i g h t n o t b e a q u i c k l e a r n e r b u t I t h i n k if h e 's b e i n g r a i s e d in a n e n ­ v i r o n m e n t w h e r e e d u c a t i o n is re ally s t r e s s e d , a n d if h e 's given o p p o r t u ­ n itie s to p u t h i s in te llig en ce, w h a t e v e r s t u d i e s he is b e in g p u s h e d ... T h e r e ’s m o r e to it t h a n b io lo g ic al intellig enc e. It d e p e n d s o n h o w y o u a r e b r o u g h t u p , th e p e o p l e y o u a r e living w ith , a n d your enviro n m en t. W h a t th e p a r e n t s a r c re a lly d o e s n ' t m a t t e r ... it d e p e n d s o n w h a t y o u a s a p e r s o n a re . D e p e n d s o n h o w m u c h he li k e s m u s i c a n d g e ts in v olved in it.

A few SG p a r t i c i p a n t s c h a lle n g e d th e v ery n o tio n of a b iolog ical b a s i s for in tellig en ce. T h e ir r e s p o n s e s s u g g e s t t h a t th e y view p e r s o n a l i t y a s m o r e th a n th e i n t e r a c tio n b e tw e e n th e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d biology. R a th e r, p e r s o n a l agency, m o tiv a tio n , a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s for p e r s o n a l g ro w th in flu e n c e th e e m e r g e n c e o f a p e r s o n a l i t y tra it.

C o m p a riso n o f C a ste a n d R ace M o s t i m m i g r a n t p a r t i c i p a n t s d is a g r e e d w ith th e s t a t e m e n t “C a s te a n d r a c e a r e s im ila r ,” a lt h o u g h se v e r a l re c o g n iz e d th e f u n c tio n a l s i m i ­ la r itie s b e t w e e n c a s te a n d r a c e a n d th e ir ro le in r e g u la tin g a n d m a i n ­ ta in in g s o c ia l h i e r a r c h i e s . R a c e c o u l d still b e like in s o m e s e n s e b e d e fi n e d a s g e o g r a p h i c a l b o u n d ­ a r i e s o r s o m e t h i n g , b u t c a s t e is to tally m a d e b y a g r o u p o f o p p o r t u n i s t i c p e o p le w h o w a n t to s u i t th e i r o w n n e e d s ... b o t h a r e p r e t t y b a d a c tu a lly for th e society. In In d ia , we h a v e th e lo w e r c a s t e a n d we h a v e th e u p p e r c a s t e s o th e y a l ­ w a y s s t a y low a n d we p e o p le s t a y h ig h , a n d if we c o m e to r a c e w e h a v e

160

MAHALI NGAM, P H I LI P , BALAN

B la c k a n d W h ite so we a r e in th e s a m e s c a l e ... s o it's th e in f e rio r it y a n d th e s u p e r i o r i t y is th e b a s i c t h i n g b e t w e e n c a s t e a n d ra c e .

H o w e v e r, s e v e r a l t h o u g h t t h a t c a s t e w a s a s o c ia lly c o n s t r u c t e d c a t e ­ gory, a n d r a c e w a s a n e s s e n t i a l c a te g o r y d e t e r m i n e d b y v a r i o u s b i o ­ lo g ic a l f a c t o r s . I t h i n k r a c e h a s g o t a b ig g e r s c o p e t h a n th e c a s t e , b e c a u s e c a s t e is s o m e ­ t h i n g w h ic h yo u c a n ea sily b r e a k u p in to m o r e d if f e r e n t c a s t c s b u t r a c c is s o m e t h i n g y o u c a n ’t d o easily. C a s te is a s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n ... y o u c a n m o v e fr o m o n e c a s t e to a n o t h e r , b u t I t h i n k r a c e is m o r e so lid a n d y ou c a n ’t c h a n g e fr o m o n e r a c e to a n o th e r . R a c e is s o m e t h i n g w h ic h is a c tu a lly g ot d o w n f r o m y o u r p a r e n t s w ith s i m i l a r g e n e s , a n d c a s t e is s o m e t h i n g t h a t is c r e a t e d b y th e society. T h e r e is lot o f g c n c tic d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n r a c e s a n d I d o n 't t h i n k t h e r e a r e s o m a n y g e n e tic d if f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c a s t e s . I t h i n k r a c e is s o m e t h i n g lik e m o r e o f y o u r b l o o d g r o u p a n d t h a t i t c o m e s by b i r t h , a n d I b elieve c a s t c is m o r e all in th e m i n d a n d th e e n v i r o n m e n t .

FG p a r t i c i p a n t s e s s e n ti a liz e d ra c e a s s o m e t h i n g t r a n s m i t t e d fr o m p a r ­ e n t to o ffs p rin g , t h a t w a s fixed a t b i r t h , a n d w h o s e o r ig in s c o u ld b e tr a c e d to g e n e tic d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n r a c ia l g r o u p s . In s u m m a r y , se v e ra l t h e m e s e m e r g e d fr o m th e q u a lita tiv e a n a ly s e s . FG p a r t i c i p a n t s h e ld a n i n t e r a c t i o n i s t view of g e n e s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t , be lie v in g t h a t g e n e s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t m u t u a l l y in flu e n c e e a c h o t h e r in s h a p i n g p e r s o n a l i t y t r a ils . T h e y b e lie ve d in “th e p o w e r of p a r e n t s ” to t r a n s f o r m th e lives o f th e c h i l d r e n t h r o u g h th e ir p a r e n t a l effort. SG p a r t i c i p a n t s th o u g h t t h a t a c o m b i n a t i o n of p e r s o n a l age n c y a n d p r o p e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s w o u ld d e t e r m i n e th e p e r s o n a lit y t r a i t s o f in d iv id u a ls . U n lik e th e FG , a few SG p a r t i c i p a n t s even q u e s ­ tio n e d t h e scientific b a s i s o f c la i m s a b o u t th e g e n e tic b a s i s of IQ a n d o t h e r p e r s o n a l i t y tr a its . FG i m m i g r a n t s t h o u g h t t h a t c a s te a n d ra c e w e r e d i s s i m i l a r b e c a u s e th e f o r m e r w a s s o cia lly c o n s t r u c t e d , w h e r e a s th e la te r w a s biolo gically d e t e r m i n e d .

G ENERAL D ISC U SSIO N F i r s t- g e n e r a tio n p a r t i c i p a n t s s c o r e d lo w e r o n m o d e r n r a c i s m th a n s e c o n d - g e n e r a tio n p a r t i c i p a n t s . T h is f in d in g is c o n s i s t e n t w ith se v e ra l f in d in g s o n I n d i a n A m e r i c a n s ’ p e r c e p t i o n s of A fric a n A m e r i c a n s {D hingra, 2 0 0 3 ) . A c c o r d in g to D h in g r a (2 0 0 3 ), c l a s s affiliation a n d s u b u r b a n u p b r i n g i n g d i s t a n c e I n d ia n A m e r i c a n s fro m o t h e r e th n ic m in o r itie s . S u c h fo r m a tiv e e x p e r ie n c e s s h a p e In d ia n A m e r i c a n s ’ b e ­ liefs a b o u t r a c e a n d ethnicity. D h in g r a n o t e d th e following: T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s h a d a tt a i n e d th e "A m erican D r e a m , ” w h ic h in t u r n e m ­ b e d d e d t h e m f u r t h e r i n to th e n a ti o n a n d , in th e ir o p in i o n , s h o u l d h a v e d e ­

9.

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161

fin ed th e m a s b e in g c o m p a r a b l e to m i d d l e - a n d u p p e r - m i d d l e - c l a s s W h ites, in s t e a d of a s f o r e ig n e r s b a s e d o n th e i r p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e . T hey a ls o h ig h lig h te d th e i r e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t , u s e o f m a i n s t r e a m i n s t i t u ­ ti o n s like w h i t e - c o ll a r - o c c u p a t io n s , n e i g h b o r h o o d s , r e s t a u r a n t s , a n d c lu b s . IThcy] s a w th e m s e l v e s a s " m o d e l A m e r i c a n s " a s o p p o s e d to “m o d e l m i n o r i ti e s ." P a r t ic i p a n ts r a i s e d th e ir s t a t u s a s c o m p a r a b l e to W hite s p a r t ly b y d is ta n c i n g th e m s e l v e s fro m A frican A m e r i c a n s , a s i m m i g r a n t s h ave d o n e a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s in A m e r i c a n history. M an y c o n s i d e r A frican A m e r i c a n s a s th e t r u e “fo r e ig n e r s " for s u p p o s e d l y r e m a i n i n g u n ­ a s s i m i l a t e d in to m a i n s t r e a m n o r m s . (D h in g ra , 2 0 0 3 , p. 137)

Kim ( 1 9 9 9 ) a r g u e d t h a t b y v a lo riz in g A sia n A m e r i c a n s a s a m o d e l m in o rity , m a n y c o n s e r v a tiv e s f r a m e d a ffirm a tiv e a c tio n d e b a t e s in w h ic h A sia n A m e r i c a n s w e r e p o r t r a y e d a s “v i c t i m s ” a n d B la c k s a s “vil­ l a i n s , ” t h e r e b y c r e a ti n g a c o n flic t b e tw e e n B la c k s a n d A s ia n A m e r i ­ c a n s . P e r h a p s th e so c ia l c la s s b a c k g r o u n d a n d i n te r n a liz a t io n of th e m o d e l m i n o r i t y m y t h m i g h t h a v e a ls o s h a p e d SG p a r t i c i p a n t s ' a t t i t u d e s to w a r d A fric a n A m e r ic a n s . In te r e s t in g l y , FG p a r t i c i p a n t s h a d h i g h e r s o c i a l d o m i n a n c e o r i e n ­ t a t i o n s c o r e s t h a n S G p a r t i c i p a n t s . We w o n d e r e d w h e t h e r t h e s o c ia l l o c a tio n o f th e f i r s t - g e n e r a t i o n p a r t i c i p a n t s m i g h t h a v e p l a y e d a r o le . We e x a m i n e d th e c a s t e b a c k g r o u n d o f th e f i r s t - g e n e r a t i o n p a r ­ tic ip a n ts. M ore t h a n h a lf of o u r p a r tic ip a n ts w ere B r a h m in s , a n d af­ t e r s p l i t t i n g g r o u p m e a n s by c a s t e , w e f o u n d t h a t t h e S D O s c o r e s o f B r a h m i n s w e r e s lig h tly h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e o f n o n - B r a h m i n s . P e r ­ h a p s b e i n g p a r t o f a p r iv ile g e d g r o u p i n f l u e n c e s o n e ’s view o f s o c ia l h ie ra rc h ie s (M ah alin g am , 2 0 0 3 ; S id a n iu s & P ra tto , 1998). C o n s id ­ e r i n g th e s a m p l e s iz e a n d d e s c r i p t i v e n a t u r e o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , we t h i n k f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h w ith a la r g e s a m p l e is n e e d e d to e x a m i n e w h e t h e r p r iv il e g e d c a s t c o r ig in a n d S D O a f f c c ts I n d i a n i m m i g r a n t s ’ a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d A f r ic a n A m e r i c a n s . A lth o u g h b o t h g r o u p s be lie v e d t h a t n a t u r e a n d n u r t u r e b o t h s h a p e p e rs o n a lity , th e r e w e re s o m e s u b t l e d iff e r e n c e s b e tw e e n FG a n d SG p a r t i c i p a n t s . T h e q u a lita tiv e r e s p o n s e s of FG p a r t i c i p a n t s s u g g e s t t h a t th ey believe in th e m u tu a lly in flu e n tia l ro le o f g e n e s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t s h a p i n g v a r i o u s p e r s o n a l i t y tr a i ts . T h e y a lso believe in th e p o w e r of p a r e n t s to c h a n g e th e b io lo gical m a k e u p o f th e ch ild . T h i s is c o n s i s ­ te n t w ith se v e r a l c u l t u r a l p s y c h o lo g ic a l fin d in g s o n b eliefs a b o u t s e lf a n d p e r s o n h o o d in In d ia. T h e fin d in g s c o n f ir m t h a t I n d i a n s in g e n e r a l believe th a t p e r s o n h o o d is d e t e r m i n e d b y th e so c ia l c o n te x t, a n d p a r ­ e n t s p la y a n active ro le in s h a p i n g th e s o c ia l c o n te x t (e.g., Miller, 1 9 84 ; S h w c d c r & B o u r n e , 1 9 8 4 ; T r a w i c k , 1990). By c o n t r a s t , SG p a r t i c i p a n t s believe in th e will of th e in d iv id u a l in c h a n g in g h is o r h e r d estin y , w h ic h is c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e d o m i n a n t A m e r ic a n c u l t u r a l beliefs a b o u t “free will" a n d p e r s o n a l g ro w th . T h e m a r g in a li z e d s o c ia l e x p e r ie n c e o f SG p a r t i c i p a n t s s h a r p e n e d th e ir a w a r e n e s s o f c o n te x t in a w a y t h a t w a s c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e d o m i n a n t A m e r ic a n c u l t u r a l b eliefs a b o u t o n e 's a g e n c y to c r e a t e o p p o r t u n i t i e s

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for p e r s o n a l g row th . However, the FG p a r t i c i p a n t s ’ i n te r a c tio n is t view of p e rs o n a lity w a s m o r e in line w ith In d ia n c u ltu ra l c o n s t r u a l s of p e r s o n h o o d . T h u s c u ltu re , g e n e ra tio n a l s ta tu s , a n d privileged social location influence beliefs a b o u t p e r s o n h o o d a s well a s a ttitu d e s to w a rd African A m e ric a n s. Interestingly, FG In d ia n im m i g r a n t s ’ re c o gnitio n t h a t c a ste is a s o ­ cially c o n s tr u c te d category d id n o t help th e m to u n d e r s t a n d the social c o n s tr u c tiv is t n a t u r e of race. P e r h a p s the re la tion a l, m u ltic u ltu r a l co nte xt of ra c e a n d ethnicity, in s te a d of c re a tin g a critical a w a r e n e s s of th e social c o n s tr u c tiv is t n a tu r e of social catego ries, m ig h t have r e i n ­ forced e s s e n tia lis t views of race. S u c h te n d e n c ie s to esse n tia liz e race a n d e thnicity c ou ld b e c o m e a tr o p e for in tern a liz in g a n d legitimizing g ro u p h ie r a r c h i e s (M ah aling am . 2 0 0 3 ). F u r th e r r e s e a r c h is n e e d e d to identify specific fa c to rs th a t c o uld foster a g re a te r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the role of social p o w e r in the c o n s tr u c tio n a n d m a in t e n a n c e of social catego ries s u c h a s r a c e a n d c a ste a m o n g first-gen eratio n im m ig r a n ts .

CULTURE, MARGINALITY, AND IMMIGRATION We s e t o u t to e x a m in e how c u ltu re a n d privileged social location s h a p e m a rg in a liz e d social e x p e rie n c es, with a p a r ti c u la r focus on how racial p o sitio n in g s h a p e s a ttitu d e s to w a rd A frican A m e ric a n s. M ah alin gam (in p r e s s ) a rg u e s t h a t an a w a r e n e s s of o n e ’s m a rg in a liz e d s t a t u s in ­ c r e a s e s o n e 's u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c on te x t a n d r e s is ta n c e to biological esse n tia liz a tio n of p e r s o n o r g r o u p differences. O u r a n a ly s e s sug gest t h a t th e re m a y be two different k in d s of m a r ­ ginality: d i s c r i m i n a t i n g a n d e m p o w e r i n g marginality. D i s c r i m i n a t i n g m a r g i n a l i t y re fe rs to the p r o c e s s by w hich m a rg in a liz e d g r o u p m e m ­ b e r s psychologically d is ta n c e th e m se lv e s from o th e r m a rg in a liz e d g r o u p s by identifying th e m s e lv e s with th e d o m i n a n t g ro u p . E m p o w e r ­ ing m a r g i n a l i t y re fe rs to the p r o c e s s w h e re in m a rg in a liz e d g ro u p m e m b e r s form coalition s th r o u g h critical a w a r e n e s s a b o u t the c o m ­ m o n a litie s of th e ir m a rg in a liz e d social e x perien ce. T h e se two different k in d s of m a rg in a lity affect In d ia n A m e r ic a n s ' a ttitu d e s to w a rd B la ck s in i m p o r t a n t ways. E m p o w e r in g m a rg in a lity fo ste rs a c o m m o n id e n ­ tity a s m a rg in a liz e d g r o u p m e m b e r s , w h e r e a s d is c r im in a to r y m a r g i n ­ ality tr a n s c e n d s m a rg in a liz e d s t a t u s th ro u g h fo rm in g allia nc e s with th e d o m i n a n t g ro u p u s in g e ith e r a d is c o u r s e of s h a r e d c u ltu r a l a n d b i­ ological o rigins (as in the c a se of B ha ga t Sing h T h in d ) or th r o u g h s h a r e d values, s u c h a s beliefs in in d iv id u a lism a n d m e r ito c r a c y achieved t h r o u g h g re a te r a s s im ila tio n a n d c eleb ra tio n of A m e ric a n c u ltu ra l n o r m s a n d ideals. O u r SG p a r t i c i p a n t s ’ d i s c r i m i n a t o r y a t titu d e s to w a r d African A m e r ic a n s c ou ld be c h a r a c te r iz e d a s d is c r im in a tin g m arginality, b e ­ c a u se they m ig h t have in te rn a liz e d th e ir ra cia l p o sitio n in g a s a “m o d e l m in o rity ,” w h ic h se ts th e m a p a r t from African A m e ric a n s (D hingra, 2 0 0 3 ; Kim, 1999). F irst-g e n e ra tio n In d ia n im m i g r a n ts h a d an e m p o w ­

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e r in g s e n s e o f m a r g in a li ty b e c a u s e th e y d id n o t e n d o r s e d i s c r i m i n a ­ to ry v iew s of A fric a n A m e r i c a n s a n d p e r h a p s s e n s e d s o m e c o m m o n a l i t i e s a m o n g th e ir m a r g in a li z e d s o c ia l c x p c r ic n c c s . F irst- a n d s e c o n d - g e n e r a tio n I n d i a n s a r e n o t m o n o li th ic g r o u p s , a n d h e n c e o u r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of th e s e two g r o u p s s h o u l d n o t b e view ed a s s te re o ty p ic a l. For i n s t a n c e , a lth o u g h t h e r e a r e se v e ra l h i s ­ to r ic a l e x a m p l e s of I n d ia n i m m i g r a n t s fighting a g a i n s t r a c i s m , we a lso ha v e c a s e s o f s e c o n d - g e n e r a ti o n I n d ia n A m e r i c a n s w h o h o ld a d i s ­ c r i m i n a t o r y view b y d i s t a n c i n g t h e m s e l v e s fr o m A frican A m e r i c a n s to c la im e q u a l o r s u p e r i o r s t a t u s to W h ite s. A c c o r d in g to P r a s h a d (2 0 0 0 ), D e s i s ( I n d i a n s ) s e e k o u t a n " a u t h e n t i c c u l t u r e " fo r c o m p l e x r e a s o n s , a m o n g t h e m th e d e s i r e n o t to b e s e e n a s f u n d a m e n t a l l y i n f e r i o r to t h o s e w h o s e e t h e m s e l v e s a s “w h ite " a n d s u p e r i o r . To b e o n a p a r w ith , a t le a s t n o t b e n e a t h t h e s e p e o p l e , d e s i s , lik e o t h e r s u b o r d i n a t e d p e o p l e s , revel in t h o s e a m o n g t h e m w h o s u c c c c d in w h ite t e r m s . T h e r e is a so tto voce kn o w led g e a m o n g n o n w h ite s of th e ir v a rio u s fo r m s o f g re a tn e s s . P a r ­ e n t s i n s t r u c t t h e i r c h i l d r e n to r e c o g n i z e all k i n d s of p e o p l e v a l u e d by E u r o p e , (p. 15 7)

C onversely, we a ls o have e v id e n c e o f active I n d i a n A m e r ic a n o r g a n i ­ z a tio n s o n v a r i o u s college c a m p u s e s fighting a g a i n s t r a c i s m by e s t a b ­ lis h in g s t r o n g c o a litio n s a m o n g v a r i o u s e t h n ic m in o r i ty g r o u p s (see S h a n k a r & S r i k a n t h , 19 88 ). We n e e d m o r e r e s e a r c h to id e n tify th e c ritic a l ro le of c u l t u r a l beliefs a b o u t s o c ia l g r o u p s a n d p riv ileg ed so c ia l lo c a tio n in s h a p i n g h o w I n d i a n A m e r i c a n s m a k e s e n s e o f th e ir m a r g in a li z e d so c ia l i d e n t itie s a n d h o w th e y n e g o tia te , r e s i s t, a n d t r a n ­ s c e n d the r a c ia l t r ia n g u la t io n o f th e ir c th n ic id e n titie s .

LIMITATIONS As p re v io u sly m e n tio n e d , FG p a r t i c i p a n t s w e re g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s , a n d S G s t u d e n t s w e re u n d e r g r a d u a t e s , b o th d r a w n fr o m a c o n v e n ie n c e s a m p le . A m o r e d iv e rse g r o u p of first- a n d s e c o n d - g e n e r a t io n In d ia n A m e r ic a n s fro m a differen t s o c ia l location (grocery s to r e c le rk s, etc.) m ig h t yield d iffere n t r e s u l ts . C o n s id e r in g th e s m a ll s a m p l e size, we n e e d to i n t e r p r e t o u r q u a n tita tiv e fin ding s c a u tio u s ly a n d s u g g e s t th a t m o r e la rg e -sca le q u a n tita tiv e s tu d i e s a r e n e e d e d to u n d e r s t a n d the c o m p le x la y e rs of In d ia n i m m i g r a n t s ’ a t ti tu d e s to w a r d race.

CO NCLUSIO NS A lth o u g h we re c o g n iz e t h a t th e FG p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e le s s p r e j u d i c e d t h a n SG p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e ir a t t i t u d e s to w a r d A fric a n A m e r ic a n s , p e r ­ s o n a l id e o lo g ie s a n d id e n tity p o litic s p la y a ro le in s h a p i n g FG a n d SG I n d i a n s ’ a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d A fric a n A m e r i c a n s . For in s ta n c e , a n I n d i a n A m e r i c a n w h o is i m m e r s e d in r a d i c a l l a b o r p o litic s m ig h t a ls o s tr o n g ly id e n tify w ith th e m a r g in a liz e d s t a t u s of A frican A m e r i c a n s

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a n d b e m o r e s y m p a th e tic to th e s y s te m ic n a t u r e o f r a c i s m . By c o n ­ t r a s t , a n o t h e r I n d ia n A m e r ic a n m ig h t s tr o n g ly id entify w ith W h ite s a n d be a p r o p o n e n t o f m e r i t o c r a c y (e.g., D in c s h D ’S o u z a ) . A ny i m m i ­ g r a n t g r o u p will c o n s i s t of a v a rie ty o f in d iv id u a ls , w h o m a y exem plify th e e m p o w e r i n g a s well a s d i s c r i m i n a t i n g a s p e c t s o f th e i m m i g r a n t ps y c h o lo g y of ra c e . T h e critic a l t a s k is to find o u t h o w v a r i o u s c u ltu r a l, so c ia l, a n d p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c to r s i n t e r s e c t w ith a s p e c t s of g e n d e r a n d s o c i a l c l a s s to e i t h e r p r o m o t e o r h i n d e r s u c c e s s f u l p o s i t i v e in t e r m i n o r i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p s . W h e n we s t a r t e d th is p r o je c t, we w e r e m in d f u l o f v a r i o u s i n t e r s e c ­ t i o n s of o u r r a c ia liz e d m in o r ity id e n titie s . R a m is a f ir s t- g e n e r a tio n i m ­ m i g r a n t w h o e m ig r a te d fro m I n d ia to " b e c o m e ” S o u t h A sia n b e fo re r e c o g n iz in g t h a t w h e n s o m e o n e c a lls y o u “G a n d h i , ” it is n o t n e c e s s a r ­ ily a c o m p l i m e n t . C h e r i is a s e c o n d - g e n e r a tio n I n d ia n A m e r ic a n w h o b c c a u s c of h e r c th n ic a lly a m b i g u o u s a p p c a r a n c e a s well a s h e r C h r i s ­ tia n u p b r i n g i n g f r e q u e n tly e x p e r ie n c e d n o t b e in g tr e a te d a s a n “a u ­ t h e n tic I n d i a n . ” H e r I n d ia n e th n ic id e n tity is o ften c o n te s te d in a p r e d o m i n a n t l y H in d u v iz e d In d i a n A m e r ic a n c o m m u n i t y (K u rie n , 2 0 0 3 ) . S u n d a r i , a f irs t-g e n e r a tio n i m m i g r a n t fr o m I n d ia , a l r e a d y h a d a m i g r a n t e x p e r ie n c e b e c a u s e h e r p a r e n t s m ig r a te d fr o m S o u t h In d ia to M u m b a i . S h e h a s often r e v isite d v a r i o u s i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f h e r m a r g i n a l ­ ity (c a ste , g e n d e r, c l a s s , a n d eth nicity ). S in c e th e e v e n t of 9 /1 1 , we hav e all b e e n m o r e fr e q u e n tly s e le c te d for " r a n d o m ” b ag gag e s e c u r i ty c h e c k s in a i r p o r t s . We h a v e often ta lk e d a b o u t th e w a y s in w h ic h w e n e ­ go tia te , c o n t e s t, a n d m a k e s e n s e o f th e r a c ia liz a tio n of o u r e th n ic id e n titie s , w h ic h a r e p r o f o u n d ly i m p a c t e d by th e v a r i o u s i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f o u r so c ia l id e n titie s .

ACK NO W LEDG M ENTS F u n d in g for th is r e s e a r c h w a s p r o v id e d by a s m a l l g r a n t fr o m S p e n c e r F o u n d a t i o n a n d a faculty g r a n t f r o m OVPR, U n iv e rsity of M ichigan , to th e f ir s t a u th o r . We t h a n k T h o m a s Pe ttig rew for h is in sig h tfu l c o m ­ m e n t s o n a n e a r lie r d r a f t of th is c h a p te r .

R E FE R E N C E S A b r a h a m . M. (2 0 0 0 ) . S p e a k i n g the u n s p e a k a b le : M arital vio lence a m o n g S o u th A s ia n i m m i g r a n t s in the U nited S ta te s . New B r u n s w i c k , N J: R u t g e r s U n iv e rs ity P r e s s . A le x a n d e r, M. (1 9 9 6 ) . T he s h o c k o j arrival: R eflec tio n s on p o s tc o lo n ia l e x p e ­ rience. B o s to n : S o u t h E n d P r e s s . A m e r i c a n A s s o c ia tio n of P h y s i c ia n s o f In d i a n O rigin. (2 0 0 2 ). R etrieve d F e b r u ­ a r y 10, 2 0 0 3 , fro m http://w w w . a a p i u s a . n e t / m e m b e r s h i p . h t m A n d e r s o n , B. (1 9 9 1 ) . I m a g i n e d c o m m u n iti e s . New York: Verso. B a c o n , J . (1 9 9 6 ) . L ife lines: C o m m u n i t y . f a m i l y a n d a s s im ila tio n a m o n g A sia n I n d ia n im m ig r a n ts . New York: O x fo rd U n iv e rs ity P r e s s .

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McConahay, J. B., & H ough, J. C., J r. (1976). Sym bo lic r a c is m . J o u r n a l o f Conflict R es ol ut io n, 32, 2 3 - 4 5 . Miller, J. (1984). C u ltu re a n d the d e v e lo p m e n t of everyday social e xp la na tio n. J o u r n a l o f Pe rsonal ity a n d S oci al P s y chol ogy , 46(5), 9 6 1 - 9 7 8 . Nagel, J. (1994). C o n s tr u c tio n ethnicity: C re atin g a n d re c r e a tin g e thn ic id e n ­ tity a n d c u ltu re . S oc ia l Pr ob le ms , 41 (1), 1 5 2 - 1 7 6 . Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K., C hoi. I., & N o re n z a ya n, A. (2001). C u ltu re a n d s y s te m s of th ou ght: Holistic v e rs u s analytic cognition. Ps y ch o lo g ic a l R e v i e w , 108(2), 2 9 1 - 3 1 0 . Ong, A. (1999). C u ltu r a l citizensh ip a s su b je c t m a k in g: I m m ig r a n ts negotiate racial a n d c u ltu r a l b o u n d a r i e s in the U nited Sta te s. In R. D. T o rre s , L. F. M iron, & J. X. In da (Eds.), Rac e, e t hn i c i t y a n d c i t iz e ns h i p: A r e a d e r (pp. 2 6 2 - 2 9 4 ) . Oxford: Blackwell. P a rish , S. M. (1997). H ie r a r c h y a n d its d i s c o n t e n t s : Cu lt ur e a n d t h e politics o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s in c a s t e societ y. Delhi, India: Oxford University P ress. P r a s h a d , V. (1998). Crafting so lid a ritie s. In L. D. S h a n k a r & R. S r ik a n th (Eds.), A p a r t y e t a p a r t: S o u t h A s i a n s in A s i a n A m e r i c a (pp. 1 0 5 -1 2 6 ). Ph ila d e lp h ia : T em ple U niversity Press. P r a s h a d . V. (2000). T h e k a r m a o f b r o w n f o l k . M in neapolis: University of M in ­ n e s o ta P re ss. Puri, H. K. (1994). G a d a r m o v e m e n t : Ideology, o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d s tr a t e g y . A m ristar, India: G u r u N a n ak Dev University. R a m a n u ja n , A. K. (1988). Is th e re an In dian way of th in k in g ? In M. M a rrio tt (Ed.), I n di a t h ro ug h H i n d u c a te g o r i e s (pp. 4 1 - 5 8 ) . New Delhi: Sage. Rangasw am y, P. (2000). N a m a s t e A me r ic a .: I n d i a n i m m i g r a n t s in a n A m e r i ­ c a n Metropolis. U niversity P ark , PA: P ennsylvania State University P ress. S a re e n , T. R. (1994). S e l e c t d o c u m e n t s on the G a d a r p a r t y . New Delhi: M oun to P u blication s. R ola n d . A. (1988). In s e a r c h o f s e l f in I n di a a n d J a p a n : T o w a r d a c ro ss - c ul ­ tural p s y c h o l o g y . Ph ila d elp h ia: T em ple U niversity P ress. S h a n k a r . L.. & S r ik a n t h , R. (1988). A p a r t y e t a par t: S o u t h A s i a n s in A s i a n A m e r i c a . Ph ila d e lp h ia : T em ple U niversity Press. Shw cdcr, R., & B o u rn e , E. J. (1984). D ocs th e c o n c e p t of p e r s o n vary? In R. S h w e d e r & R. A. Levine (Eds.), Cu lt ur al theory: E s s a y s on m i n d , s e l f a n d e m o t i o n (pp. 1 5 8 -1 9 9 ). New York: C a m b rid g e University P ress. S id a n io u s , J., & Pratto, F. (1998). Soci al d o m i n a n c e : A n i nt e rg r ou p t h e or y o f s oci al h i e r a rc h y a n d o p p r e ss i o n . New York: C a m b rid g e U niversity Press. T raw ick , M. (1990). N o t e s on love in a T a m i l f a m i l y . Berkeley: U niversity of C alifornia Press.

Pari III Im m igration, S elf, Gender, and N arratives

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R a cin g T ra n sa tla n tic P a s sa g e s : J a m e s B ald w in ’s A frican ‘A m erica ” and Im m igrant S tu d ie s M agdalena J. Z a b o ro w s k a U niversity o f M ichigan

They face each other, the Negro an d the African, over a gulf of three h u n ­ d re d years .... This alienation ca u se s the [American] Negro to recognize th at he is a hybrid. Not a physical hybrid merely: in every a spect of his liv­ ing he betrays the m e m o ry of the auction block and the im pact of the h ap py ending. In white A m ericans he finds reflected—repeated, as it were, in a higher key—his tensions, his terro rs, his te n d e rn e ss. Dimly a n d for the first time, there begins to fall into perspective the n a tu re of the roles they have played in the lives and history of each other .... T h e re ­ fore he c a n n o t deny them , n o r can they ever be divorced. (Ja m e s Baldwin, “E n c o u n ter on the Seine: Black Meets Brow n,” 1985, p. 39) To do your first w orks over m e a n s to reexam ine everything. Go ba c k to where you sta rte d , as far back as you can, examine all of it, travel your ro a d again an d tell the tru th a b o u t it. Sing or s h o u t or testify or keep to yourself: b u t k n o w w h e n c e you c a m e . ( J a m e s Baldwin, “The Price of the T icket,” 1985, p. xix)

J a m e s Baldwin s call to “know whence you c a m e ” urges all Americans to examine their origins, histories, peoples, and places they have s p ru n g from, no matter their skin color. This invocation comes from and echoes th rou gho ut “The Price of the Ticket,” the late essay that serves as an introduction to Baldwin’s last collection of prose. The Price o f the Ticket: Collected Non-Fiction, 1948-1985 (PT; 1985). Weaving together Baldwin’s signature autobiographic perspective with 169

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a s t u t e r e m a r k s o n the s ta te of the A m e r ic a n n a ti o n in th e late 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y w o r ld , “T h e P r ic e ” d i s c u s s e s th e fa llo u t of r a c ia l u n r e s t d u r i n g th e w r i t e r ’s lifetim e. However, B a ld w in a r t i c u l a t e d th e lin k b e ­ tw e e n A m e r i c a n — o r w h it e — a n d A fric a n A m e r i c a n — o r b l a c k — d e s ­ tin y 35 y e a r s earlier, in a n e s s a y t h a t h a d f ir s t a p p e a r e d a s “T h e Negro in P a r i s ” ( 1 9 5 0 ) , a n d l a te r b e c a m e “E n c o u n t e r on th e S e in e : B lack M e e ts B r o w n ." In th is p iece, h e b r i n g s to g e th e r A fric a n s, A fric a n A m e r ­ ic a n s , E u r o p e a n s , a n d w h ite A m e r i c a n s in a s w e e p in g m o v e a c r o s s c o n t i n e n t s a n d c e n t u r i e s of t r a n s a t l a n t i c history. T h e “E n c o u n t e r on th e S e i n e ” t h u s p r o v id e s th e d e s c r i p t i o n of o u r c o m p le x n a t i o n a l o r i ­ g in s — t h a t h y b r id " w h e n c e ”— t h a t B a ld w in a s k s all A m e r i c a n s to loo k for in “T h e P rice of th e T ic k e t.” T h e s e tw o i m p o r t a n t e s s a y s m a r k th e p o i n t s o f d e p a r t u r e a n d a r ­ rival, a s th e y b r a c k e t B a ld w in ’s t h i n k i n g o n r a c e a c r o s s h is to r ic , n a ­ tio n a l, a n d c u l t u r a l b o r d e r s . T h e y a lso rely o n v i b r a n t m e t a p h o r s of jo u r n e y , p a s s a g e , a n d h e a lin g t h r o u g h sto ry te llin g a n d a n c e s t r a l ties. In th e ir f o c u s on m o v e m e n t , tra v el, a n d t r a n s a t l a n t i c lo c a tio n s , “E n ­ c o u n t e r ” a n d “T h e P r ic e ” b o o k e n d a c o m p e lli n g c a r e e r of a n A frican A m e r i c a n w riter, w h o s e o w n d iv e r s e t r a n s a t l a n t i c c r o s s i n g s m a d e h im into a p a s s i o n a t e , c o m p le x , a n d often c o n flic te d type of trav eler. In th e s e p a g e s , I s h a ll re fe r to h im a s a n “o t h e r ” k in d o f i m m i g r a n t . 1 As I d e m o n s t r a t e t h r o u g h o u t th is c h a p te r , B a ld w in n o t o n ly e m b r a c e d b u t a lso a r t i c u l a t e d h is lite ra l a n d lite r a r y p a s s a g e s a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of th e ric h c o n te x ts o f t r a n s a t l a n t i c a n d t r a n s n a t i o n a l A m e r i c a n n e s s . His w o r k s sig n a l th e little - k n o w n A frica n A m e r ic a n p e r s p e c ti v e on l ite ra r y r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of i m m i g r a t i o n a n d m ig r a ti o n , o n the o n e h a n d , a n d on th e w a y s in w h ic h ra c e a n d th e A frican M id d le P a s s a g e ha v e b e e n u s e d to c o n s t r u c t the b l a c k - a n d - w h itc d i c h o t o m y a t th e c o r c o f A m e r i c a n n e s s . I a m th e r e f o r e p r o p o s i n g t h a t we la k e a c lo s e r lo o k a l B a ld w in 's w o r k t h r o u g h th e i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y le n s of i m m i g r a n t s t u d ­ ies, a n d , co nversely, t h a t we a ls o r e a s s e s s o u r a p p r o a c h e s to i m m i g r a ­ tion t h r o u g h h is w o r k . G iv en h is o v e r a ll p r o f o u n d , lifelong p r o j e c t o f r e d e f i n i n g th e s o c ia l a n d n a r r a t i v e s p a c e s o f A m e r i c a n id entity, B a ld w in is a n i m p o r t a n t fig u re to c o n s i d e r in t h i s c o n t e x t for s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . F i r s t, d e s p i t e m a n y s c h o l a r l y c l a i m s t h a t it is p r e d o m i n a n t l y s o , 2 B a l d w i n ’s c o m ­ p le x v is io n o f A m e r i c a n i d e n tity is o n ly s u p e r f ic ia lly a w h i t e - o n - b l a c k story, o r s t o r y a b o u t r a c e to ld in b i n a r y t e r m s o f b l a c k a n d w h ite c o n ­ f r o n t a t i o n . In th e i n t r o d u c t i o n to h i s s e c o n d c o lle c tio n o f e s s a y s , N o ­ b o d y K n o w s M y N a m e (NKMN; 1 9 6 1 ), he s t r e s s e s t h a t h i s la r g e r Bald w in r e siste d t e r m s s u c h a s “é m ig r é ” o r “expatriate." p ointing at their racialized a n d elitist c o n n o ta tio n s . While in Turkey, he be g an n a m i n g h i m s e l f a k in d of exile: he ta lk s a b o u t h im s e lf a s a “tra n s a t l a n t ic c o m m u t e r " in several e ssa y s a n d interview s. See, for exam ple, “J a m e s Baldw in B r e a k s Ilis Silence," interview in the T u r k is h j o u r n a l , Cep Derglsi, r e p r i n t e d in C o n v e r s a t io n s w ith J a m e s B a l d w i n , p. 60. 2 See also Dwight M cB rid e’s very helpful review of e arlie r s c h o l a r s h ip on Baldw in a n d his a stu te critique of its s h o r t c o m i n g s in the in tr o d u c tio n to J a m e s B a l d w i n N ow.

1 0.

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p u r p o s e is to e m b r a c e s e lf - k n o w le d g e a n d face a n d a c c e p t o t h e r a s a w r i t e r w h o s e “s u b j e c t is h i m s e l f a n d th e w o r l d a n d , fo r w h o m it r e ­ q u i r e s ev e ry o u n c c of s t a m i n a h e c a n s u m m o n to lo o k o n h i m s e l f a n d th e w o r l d a s th e y a r e ” ( B a ld w in , E s s a y s , p. 1 36). S e c o n d , a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t , h e l i n k s h is p e r s o n a l q u e s t t o w a r d th is g oal to a s i m i l a r q u e s t t h a t m u s t b e u n d e r t a k e n b y th e w h o le n a t i o n : "th e q u e s t i o n of c o lo r ... o p e r a t e s to h i d e th e g r a v e r q u e s t i o n s o f t h e s e l f .... O n e c a n o n ly face in o t h e r s w h a t o n e c a n face in o n e s e lf " (NKMN, p. 12). T h i r d , a s he a lw a y s , a n d v e h e m e n tly , r e s i s t e d c l a s s if i c a tio n , la b e lin g , a n d s te r e o ty p i n g , B a ld w i n 's w o r k s d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t i d e n ti ty a s a c o n c e p t a n d id e n ti ty o f th e a r t i s t / w r i t e r in q u e s t i o n s h o u l d be a p ­ p ro a c h e d as co m p lex , d y n a m ic , a n d m u ltid im e n s io n a l. B a ld w in 's view s d e v e lo p e d , evolved, a n d c h a n g e d t h r o u g h o u t h is c a ­ reer, a t th e s a m e tim e a s h is b a s ic c o m m i t m e n t to fight for ra c ia l e q u a l ­ ity a n d all A m e r i c a n s ’ civil r ig h ts r e m a i n e d c o n s t a n t . T h is e v o lu tio n h a s n o t b e e n a d e q u a t e l y re c o g n iz e d in th e B a ld w in s c h o l a r s h i p , 3 w h ic h h a s t e n d e d to classify h im in n a r r o w a n d s e p a r a t i s t w a y s a s a n e it h e r “B la c k w r i t e r ” o r a “gay w rite r ,” a n d to se e h is c a r e e r a s s h a r p l y d iv id e d b e tw e e n the p e r i o d of a r tis tic a s c e n t th a t c u l m i n a t e d w ith the p u b lic a t io n o f T h e Fi re N e x t T i m e in 1 9 6 3 a n d th e p e r i o d o f w a n in g c re ativ ity t h a t f o llo w e d .4 E x c e p t for D av id R o e d ig e r ( 1 9 9 7 ), n o o n e h a s p a id a tte n t io n to th e m a n y i m m i g r a n t c h a r a c t e r s a n d t h e m e s in h is w o r k s , p e r h a p s d u e to th e fa c t t h a t s u c h a fo c u s d o e s n o t fit e it h e r s e t of c a te g o r ie s o f c ritic a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n th is w rite r. In m y r e a d i n g s o f B a ld w in 's c o n t r i b u t i o n to d i s c o u r s e s on i m m i ­ g ratio n , I em ploy literary a n d c u ltu ra l s tu d ie s a p p ro a c h e s , a n d c o n ­ t e n d t h a t B a l d w i n ’s w o r k s e x p lo r e , e l a b o r a t e o n , a n d p u s h f u r t h e r th e g e n r e id e n tif ie d b y W illiam B o e l h o w e r a s “i m m i g r a n t n a r r a t i v e . ”5 F or m y p u r p o s e s , i m m i g r a n t n a r r a t i v e r e f e r s to a b r o a d a r r a y o f te x ts b y - a b o u t - a n d - f o r i m m i g r a n t s t h a t e m p l o y s s o m e o f t h e s h a r e d f o r m a l a n d t h e m a t i c e l e m e n t s . In t e r m s o f f o r m , it ofte n u tiliz e s f ir s t p e rso n or a u to b io g rap h ic n a rra to r, jo u rn a listic an d ep isto lary w rit­ ing, g l o s s a r i e s , n o t e s a n d r c f c r c n c c s , l e t t e r s o r s t a t e m e n t s o f v a l i d a ­ tio n a n d i n t r o d u c t i o n by n a t i v e - b o r n p a t r o n s , a n d m ix in g o f E n g lis h w ith o t h e r l a n g u a g e s o r s ty liz e d i m m i g r a n t s p e e c h . In t e r m s o f its t h e m a t i c f o c u s , i m m i g r a n t n a r r a t i v e fo llo w s a c le a r t r a j e c t o r y o f dep a r t u r e - c r o s s i n g - a r r i v a l ; i m p o r t a n t m o m e n t s in c lu d e receiv in g 3

T h e r e is very in te res tin g new w o rk e m e rgin g on this w riter th a t I c a n n o t do ju stic e to in this chapter. I do so. however, in my new b o o k on Baldwin. Erotics o f Exile. See e s p e ­ cially Scott, McBridc, Miller, Ross, Wallace, a n d H e n d e rs o n . 4 T h e r e a re too m a n y titles c o n firm in g this to list in one note. A m ong the be tte r kn ow n a re the collections: e dited by S ta n d le y a n d B u rt, Critical E s s a y s on J a m e s B a l d w i n a n d by H arold Bloom. J a m e s B a l d w i n : see also H o ra ce Porter. S t e al i ng the Fire. Clarence E. H a rd y III. J a m e s B a l d w i n ’s God: Sex. Hope, a n d Crisis in Bl a ck Holi ness Culture-, E ldridge Cleaver’s in f a m o u s Soul on Ice is an extre m e e xam ple of a hostile critique. Boelhower (1981) defines the genre in formalist term s, referring to the specifics of theme, construction, and r e ad e r expectation, as conveying “a pluric ultu ral reality in which for the first time the im m igrant a p p e a rs in American fiction as historical protagonist” (p. 3).

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n e w s f r o m A m e r i c a , p r e p a r i n g for a jo u r n e y , c r o s s i n g o f b o r d e r s , p a s s i n g o v e r a b o d y o f w a te r, a n d w i t n e s s i n g f i r s t s ig h ts o f th e n e w l a n d on a r r i v a l ( g l im p s e s o f th e S t a t u e o f L iberty, ctc.). O th e r, l e s s f r e ­ q u en t, th e m e s in clu d e a c c o u n ts of a c c u ltu ra tio n a n d c u ltu re sh o c k , c o p i n g w ith th e la n g u a g e b a r r i e r , c l a s h e s w ith th e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e , c h a n g i n g g e n d e r r o le s , a n d n o s t a l g i a fo r h o m e . In lig h t o f t h i s d e f i n i ­ tio n , B a ld w in 's c o n t r i b u t i o n c o n c e r n s h i s e n g a g e m e n t o f s o m e o f th e f o r m a l a n d t h e m a t i c a s p e c t s o f th e g e n r e , a n d , m o s t i m p o r t a n t , j u x t a ­ p o s i n g , in o fte n r i s k y w a y s, E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t a n d A fric a n A m e r i ­ c a n p e r s p e c t i v e s o n n a t i o n a l id entity. I s h o w t h a t in so d o in g , B a ld w in b o t h e n r i c h e s o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f li t e r a r y r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f i m m i ­ g r a n t e x p e r i e n c e a n d c a s t s in n e w lig h t o u r a p p r o a c h e s to ra c e , n a ­ ti o n h o o d , a n d c u l t u r a l iden tity. In the follow ing th r e e p a r t s o f th is c h a p te r , I first b rie fly i n t r o d u c e B a ld w in ’s life a n d w o r k s a n d h is fo c u s o n E u r o p e a n im m ig r a tio n . I th e n s itu a te m y d i s c u s s i o n of B a ld w in vis-à-vis th e r e c e n t i n s ig h t s o n r a c e in th e i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y im m i g r a t i o n s t u d i e s , s o m e of w h ic h h is w o r k s h a v e c le a rly a n t ic ip a te d . In th e t h i r d p a r t , I d i s c u s s th e w a y s in w h ic h B a ld w in 's s e le c t w o r k s b r i n g to g e th e r e l e m e n t s of (white) E u r o ­ p e a n i m m i g r a n t n a r r a t i v e a n d A frican M id d le P a s s a g e in h is e x p l o r a ­ tio n s o f 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n n e s s . B a l d w in ’s u n d e r a p p r e c i a t e d c o n t r i b u t i o n to d i s c o u r s e s on im m ig r a tio n , m ig r a tio n , a n d l ite ra r y g e n r e s u s e d to r e p r e s e n t th e m d e m o n s t r a t e s a p o w e r f u l in te r tw i n in g o f s t o r i e s o f t r a n s a t l a n t i c p a s s a g e a n d th e ir r e lia n c e on w h a t T oni M o r ­ r i s o n t e r m s th e e v e r - p r e s e n t “A f r i c a n i s t p e r s o n a " in A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e a n d c u ltu r e (M o r r is o n , 1 9 9 2 , p p . 3 8 - 3 9 ) .

INTRODUCTION: LEAVING H O M E6 My jo u r n e y , o r m y flight, h a d n o t b e e n to P a r i s , b u t s i m p l y a w a y fro m A m e r i c a . (B a ld w in . No N a m e in the S tre e t, 1 9 7 2 , p. 4 6 9 )

6A very b r ie f b io g ra p h ic note for tho se r e a d e r s w ho arc no t fam iliar with Baldwin's early life: lie w a s b o r n into a lower-class, religious family of d isp lac ed Black S o u t h e r n e r s in H arlem in 1924. He w a s a n illegitimate child, w hose m o t h e r r e m a r r i e d a n old er p r e a c h e r w hen J a m e s w as 2 y e ars old; the B a ldw ins h a d eight m o r e c h ild r e n , whom young J a m e s h e lpe d to raise. His writing tale nt w as quickly d isc o vere d a n d n u r t u r e d by his t ea ch e rs; he p u b lis h e d p o e m s a n d essays, a n d edited a literary m ag azine in high sc hool. Torn betw een his s u c c e s s a s a teenage p r e a c h e r a n d his d e sire to write, he gave u p the c h u r c h a n d . after his f a th e r ’s d e ath , w o r k e d m e n ia l j o b s to s u p p o r t his family a n d writing. Even th o u g h he never o b ta in e d a collegc degree, he a m a s s e d t r e m e n d o u s e r u d i ­ tion th r o u g h v o ra cio u s re a d in g a n d m e n t o r s h i p of te a c h e r s, e d ito rs, a n d friends, a n d e s ­ pecially the African A m e ric an p a in te r B eauford Delaney. In his tw enties. Baldw in lived in G reenw ich Village, w h e re he waited tab les while writing as m u c h a s he could. After his close friend c o m m i tt e d suicide, Baldw in de cid ed th a t he h a d to flee his c o u n try or he w ould likely m ee t a sim ila r end. 11is experience of the n o r t h e r n b r a n d of ra c ism w a s c o m p o u n d e d by the h o m o p h o b ic h a tr e d he e x perienc e d a m o n g b o th B lacks a n d Whites. 7PT. p. 4 69.

1 0.

RACI NG T R A N S A T L A N T I C P A S S A G E S

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A fter h e left New York for P a r i s in 1 9 4 8 a s a n a s p i r i n g y o u n g b l a c k w r i t e r o n a S a x t o n F e llo w s h ip , B a ld w in w a s c o n s t a n t l y o n th e m o v e . In te re stin g ly , he n e v e r t h o u g h t o f h i s tr ip a s “g o in g to P a r i s , ” b u t r a t h e r a s , e m p h a t ic a lly , l e a v i n g th e City. In t h a t s e n s e , h i s s t a t e m e n t s o u n d s m o r e lik e t h a t o f a n i m m i g r a n t t h a n a n e x p a t r i a t e ; h i s w a s a s y m b o lic a lly in v e r t e d p a s s a g e a lo n g th e r o u t e o n c e t a k e n b y th e “h u d ­ d le d m a s s e s ” d e s c r i b e d in E m m a L a z a r u s ’ f a m o u s p o e m “T h e New C o l o s s u s ” ( 1 8 8 8 ; se e L a z a r u s & S c h a p p e s , 1 9 4 7 ). B a ld w in w a s a lso tr y in g to e s c a p e fr o m th e d a n g e r a n d f u ry h e felt in h is w h ite s u p r e m ­ a c i s t a n d h o m o p h o b i c h o m e l a n d , a n d w a s s e a r c h i n g fo r p l a c e s w h e r e h e c o u l d w o r k w i t h o u t d i s t r a c t i o n . In h i s l a t e r y e a r s , th is s e a r c h w o u ld b e fo r h a v e n s w h e r e h e c o u l d w r ite in p e a c e a n d flee th e d e m a n d s a n d p r e s s u r e s o f h i s f a m e a n d p u b l ic life. T h e t r a j e c t o r i e s of B a l d w i n ’s m u l t i p l e j o u r n e y s c r i s s c r o s s n e i g h b o r h o o d s , c itie s, th e c o u n try , a n d r e a c h o ver a n d a c r o s s th e A tla n tic O c e a n . F i r s t , B a ld w in m o v e d f r o m H a r l e m to th e B r o n x , t h e n to G r e e n w i c h Village in New York City. S e c o n d , a s a y o u n g w r i t e r h e fled f r o m th e U n ite d S t a t e s to F r a n c e , a n d o t h e r E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s ; h e w a s b a c k in 1 9 5 7 , a f te r n e a r ly a d e c a d e , b u t n e v e r to s e ttle d o w n for g o o d . He a d m i t s th a t h e r e t u r n e d f r o m E u r o p e to visit th e A m e r i c a n S o u t h a n d p a r t i c i p a t e in th e Civil R ig h ts M o v e m e n t; t h i s tim e , h i s t r a j e c t o r i e s r a n b e tw e e n th e N o r t h a n d th e S o u t h , a n d t h e n t h e E a s t a n d W est in t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . T h e n , h e t r a v e le d to T u rk e y , s e v e r a l A fr ic a n c o u n t r i e s . S o u t h A m e r ­ ica, a n d t h e S o v ie t U n io n . He s p e n t n e a r l y a d e c a d e a s a s e m i r e s i d e n t in I s t a n b u l in th e 1 9 6 0 s . F r o m 1 9 7 0 o n , he w o u ld r e t i r e m o r e a n d m o r e o fte n to t h e o n ly s e m i p e r m a n e n t h o m e h e k n e w in th e s e e m ­ ingly u n lik e ly lo c a le o f th e m e d ie v a l village of S a in t-P a u l- d e - V e n c e in th e s o u t h of F r a n c e . He r e s i d e d t h e r e for n e a r l y 16 y e a r s , u n t il h is d e a t h in 1 9 8 7 , w h ile m a i n t a i n i n g h i s “t r a n s a t l a n t i c c o m m u t e r ” s c h e d u l e a s lo n g a s h i s h e a l t h a llo w e d it. T h i s a u t h o r i a l m o b ility p r o v id e s a c o n s t a n t a u t o t h e m a t i c a n d n a r ­ ra tiv e th r e a d in B a ld w in ’s w o r k s , a n d its i m p a c t o n h is c a r e e r h a s b e e n a c k n o w le d g e d , c r i t i q u e d , a n d e x a m i n e d by m a n y s c h o l a r s . B a ld w in ’s frie n d , a s s i s t a n t , a n d b io g r a p h e r , D avid L e e m i n g ( 1 9 9 4 ) , r e m a r k s t h a t th e flight to P a r is w a s th e w r i t e r ’s " d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t to ‘c h e a t th e d e ­ s t r u c t i o n ’ w h ic h he fe a r e d w o u ld be h is fate in New York" (p. 56 ), w h e r e a s h is a t t a c h m e n t to, for e x a m p le , I s t a n b u l a s a w r itin g h a v e n w a s m o ti v a t e d by th e fa c t t h a t “he w a s 'left a l o n e ’ a n d c o u ld w o r k b e t t e r t h e r e ” (p. 2 6 3 ). J a m e s D a r s e y ’s ( 1 9 9 9 ) s t u d y o f th e w r i t e r in a t r a n s a t ­ la n tic c o n te x t r e f e r s to B a ld w in 's “t h e m e s o f e s c a p e o r flight in [his] life a n d w o r k s ” a n d c h a r a c t e r i z e s h im a s a w r it e r w h o “s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d e ­ s ir e s a n d r e s i s t s p l a c e m e n t ” (p p . 1 95 , 2 0 1 ) .8 In F r o m H a r l e m to Pari s ( 1 9 9 1 ) M ichel F a b r e s t r e s s e s B a ld w in 's i n d e b t e d n e s s to F r a n c e a s a 8I a rg ue with Da rcc y’s co n clu sio n . It m ay not be p o ss ib le to classify Baldw in a s sim ply a feminist, especially given the definition of the term d u r i n g the se c o n d wave of femi­ n ism , w h e n his w o r k s flourished . As I c o n te n d in m y f o rth c o m in g b o ok , though, his a p ­ p r o a c h to g e n d e r a s an u n s ta b le category de se rv e s c areful interrogation .

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c o u n t r y a b o u t w h ic h h e f a m o u s l y s a id t h a t it '"sav ed m y life by a llo w in g m e to find o u t w h o I a m , ’” n o m a t t e r t h a t h e r e m a i n e d o n ly “a n h o n o r ­ a r y citizcn o f th e c o u n t r y h e h a d n e v e r w a n te d to call h o m e ” (p. 2 1 3 ). E n g in Cezzar, B a l d w in ’s c lo se fr ie n d in T urkey, s t r e s s e s th a t, “ fro m th e get-go, it w a s im p o s s i b l e for a p e r s o n w h o ’s so c o lo rfu l, full of life, d y n a m i c , a n d b e a u tif u l like J i m m y to s ta y in o n e p la c e . It w o u ld have s t a g n a t e d h im a n d h e k n e w th is , in stin c tiv e ly ."9 In th e e s s a y “T h e New L o s t G e n e r a tio n " ( 1 9 6 1 ) , B a ld w in c a lls a t t e n ­ tion to h is c o m p u l s i o n to travel a n d c h a n g e c u l t u r a l sc e n e ry . He s e e s h is i m m i g r a n t itch of s o r t s a s n e c e s s a r y for c re a tiv ity a n d o p e n - m i n d ­ e d n e s s r e q u i r e d o f a w rite r, t h a t is, a s p r o v id in g in v a lu a b le e x p e r ie n c e a n d p e rs p e c tiv e . B a ld w in s t r e s s e s t h a t ev ery a r t i s t m u s t b e c o m e o n e ­ se lf first, if he o r s h e is e ver to g ain a “k e y to th e e x p e rie n c e o f o t h e r s ” (PT, p. 3 1 3 ) . M u c h in th e vein of th e g r o u p of A m e r ic a n e x p a tr ia te w r i t ­ e r s to w h o m h i s title c le a rly r e f e r s — H em in gw ay, S c o tt F itz g e ra ld , S te in , a n d o t h e r s — “T h e New L o s t G e n e r a t i o n ” a ls o e m p h a s i z e s th e n e ­ c e ssity o f e x p lo r in g th e A m e r ic a n c o n n e c tio n to E u r o p e . At th e s a m e tim e , B a ld w in s h a r p l y d iv o rc e s h i m s e l f fr o m th e m o d e r n i s m of th o s e w h ite w r it e r s . He r e f u s e s to e m b r a c e th e t e r m e x p a t r i a t e a s a b la c k a r t i s t w ith m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x ties to th e A tlan tic w o r ld . He a ls o p u t s in q u e s ti o n th e m y th o lo g iz e d t i e s 10 b e t w e e n th e O ld a n d New W o rld s by s u g g e s ti n g t h a t , m u c h like fo r i m m i g r a n t s , for w r i t e r s , too , a n u n c o m p l i c a t e d r e t u r n h o m e is n o t p o s s ib le : W h a t E u r o p e s till g ives a n A m e r i c a n — o r gave u s [ a r t i s t s ] — is t h e s a n c ­ ti o n , if o n e c a n a c c e p t it, to b e c o m e o n e s e l f . No a r t i s t c a n s u r v iv e w i t h ­ o u t t h i s a c c e p t a n c e . B u t r a r e i n d e e d is th e A m e r i c a n a r t i s t w h o a c h i e v e d t h i s w i t h o u t f i r s t b e c o m i n g a w a n d e r e r , a n d th e n , u p o n h i s r e ­ t u r n to h i s o w n c o u n tr y , th e lo n e l i e s t a n d m o s t b l a c k l y d i s t r u s t e d o f m e n . (p. 3 1 3 )

T h i s f r a g m e n t s t r e s s e s th e c o m p le x a n d t r o u b l e d li n k s b e tw e e n th e A m e r ic a n a n d E u r o p e a n c u l t u r a l id e n titie s , a n d e s p e c ia lly t h o s e b e ­ tw e e n A f r i c a n A m e r i c a a n d E u r o p e . O n th e o t h e r h a n d , it gives B a ld w in ’s p r o j e c t of s e e k in g o n e ’s id e n tity o u t s i d e of o n e ’s c o u n t r y a cle a rly t e m p o r a l , n a r r a t iv e , a n d ra c ia liz e d d i m e n s i o n t h a t e c h o e s the w e ll- k n o w n g e n r e o f i m m i g r a n t n a r r a t i v e . 11 To B a l d w in , th e p r o c e s s o f g a in in g t r a n s n a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e is a m i x e d b le s s in g , a j o u r n e y o f e b b a n d flow, a s t o r y o f d e p a r t u r e s , c r o s s i n g s , a n d a r r i v a l s , w h o s e i n d i v i d u a l a n d a r t i s t i c b e n e f it s in th e la r g e r w o r ld a r e c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d by a l i e n a t i o n a n d “b l a c k d i s t r u s t " i n t e r v i e w with the au tho r, Ista n b u l, Turkey. 23 May 2 0 0 1 . 10I a m a w a r e th a t t h e r e a r e s u b t l e i m p l i c a t i o n s of a r ti s t i c elitism in B a ld w in 's a p ­ proach. 1*1 realize th a t the quo tatio n , ta k e n ou t of context, m ay se e m to im ply a E u r o - c e n tr ic vantage point. It is c lear t h ro u g h o u t the text, however, a n d in his later w o rk s , that Baldwin w a s far from e m b r a c i n g s u c h a positio n.

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o n e fa c e s u p o n o n e ’s r e t u r n h o m e . To th e e x te n t t h a t s e lf - k n o w le d g e g a in e d In th is p r o c e s s u n l o c k s th e e n i g m a o f th e “o t h e r , ” a n d t h u s e n ­ a b l e s a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n a n d i n s i g h t i n to th e h u m a n s u b j e c t , it a ls o l o c k s o n e o u t of th e s e e m in g ly h o m o g e n o u s , f a m i l i a r e v e r y d a y n e s s o f o n e ’s h o m e c o u n try . T h e l o n e l i n e s s a n d fe e lin g o f b e i n g " m o s t b la c k l y d i s t r u s t e d ” t h u s h i n t a t a c e r t a i n lin k b e tw e e n th i s s t a t e o f i m m i g r a n t i s o l a t i o n a n d a k i n d o f “r a c i a l i z e d s e g r e g a t i o n , ” if yo u will, t h a t a n a r t ­ is t e x p e r i e n c e s o n c e h e o r s h e h a s u n l o c k e d a w in d o w in to th e m i n d s o f o t h e r p e o p le . B a ld w in e m p h a s i z e s f u r t h e r th e ra c ia liz e d d i m e n s i o n o f th is m e s ­ sage in t h e s a m e se c tio n o f h is text. He d i s m a n t l e s th e re c e iv e d d i c h o t ­ o m y o f t h e O l d - v e r s u s - N e w W o r ld t h r o u g h a t r i a n g u l a t i o n o f p e r s p e c tiv e s a m o n g A fric a n s, b la c k a n d w h ite A m e r i c a n s , a n d E u r o ­ p e a n s . He a lso d r a w s a p a r a d o x i c a l a n a lo g y b e tw e e n th e E u r o p e a n a n d A fric a n A m e r i c a n e x p e r ie n c e of i n te r a c ti o n w ith A m e r ic a n W h ites: E u r o p e a n s re f e r to A m e r i c a n s a s c h i l d r e n in th e s a m e w ay t h a t A m e r i ­ c a n N e g ro e s r e f e r to t h e m a s c h i l d r e n , a n d for th e s a m e r e a s o n : th ey m e a n t h a t A m e r i c a n s h a v e so little e x p e r i e n c e — e x p e r i e n c e r e f e r r i n g n o t to w h a t h a p p e n s , b u t to w h o — t h a t th e y h a v e n o k e y to th e e x p e r i e n c e of o t h e r s . O u r c u r r e n t r e l a t i o n s w ith th e w o r l d fo rc ib ly s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e is m o r e t h a n a little t r u t h to th is . (PT, p. 3 1 3 )

In th is in trig u in g in v e rsio n o f h ie r a r c h ie s , w h ite A m e r i c a n s a re d e n ie d a c c e s s to a d u l t h o o d , o r full-fledged m a t u r e self. T h e y s e e m to b e v ic tim s o f th e r a c ia liz ed p r o c e s s e s o f i m m i g r a n t a c c u lt u r a t io n th a t gave th e m th e ir new n a t io n a l id e n tity in the first p lace. T h a t E u r o p e a n s —w h o r e ­ s id e in th e Old W orld, a fte r all—w o u ld sec th e m a s ju v e n ile is n o t a s s u r ­ p risin g , esp ecially given H e n ry J a m e s ’s, D. H. L a w re n c e 's , a n d o th e r E u r o p e a n w r i t e r s ’ d i a tr ib e s on the m y th ic a l y o u th of the N e w W o r ld .12 S u c h a n a p p r o a c h a lso r e s o n a t e s in the c o n te x t of h o w n a tiv e b o r n s have u s u a lly t r e a te d n e w c o m e r s , w h o a r e s te r e o ty p e d a s b a c k w a r d , “g r e e n ,” a n d childlik e. T h e ir foreign d r e s s a n d m a n n e r , a c c e n t, p o o r lang uag e sk ills, h e lp le s s n e s s , a n d u n fa m ilia r ity w ith th e n e w c o u n tr y m a k e f irst-g e n era tio n i m m i g r a n t s into p e r p e t u a l ju ven iles. To p u s h th is r e a d i n g even f u r th e r , in B a ld w in 's t r i a n g u l a r r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p a m o n g A frican A m e r ic a n s , E u r o p e a n s , a n d w h ite A m e r ic a n s , th e h o l d e r o f th e m o s t p o w e r — o r th e w h ite r e s i d e n t of th e s u p e r p o w e r — is th e le a s t m a t u r e a n d d e v e lo p e d s u b je c t. B a ld w in t h u s i n v e r ts th e t r a d i ­ tio n a l h i e r a r c h i e s a g a in , by m a k i n g th e lite ra l a n d l ite ra r y o u t s i d ­ e r s — A f r ic a n A m e r i c a n s a n d E u r o p e a n s — p o s s e s s i n s i g h t s t h a t “n a t i v e - b o r n ” A m e r i c a n s c a n n o t a c c e s s . U n d e r th e m o r e e x p e r ie n c e d gaze of th e E u r o p e a n a n d th e A fric a n (A m e ric a n ), th e A m e r i c a n s e e m s to b e a k id p la y in g g a m e s well b e y o n d h is o r h e r k e n . In effect, we a r e im p lic itly e n c o u r a g e d to lo o k a t h im o r h e r a s a k i n d of i m m i g r a n t 12

See H. J a m e s . D. H. Law rence. J. B a u d rilla rd , to n a m e j u s t a few.

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" g r e e n h o r n .” B a ld w in 's essay, th e n , flo a ts th e i m m i g r a n t p r e d i c a m e n t b e tw e e n A m e r i c a n B la c k s a n d W h ite s, a n d t h u s t h r u s t s th e m to g e th e r in th e la rg e r n a r r a t i v e o f n a t i o n a l o rig in s , s u g g e s tin g too, t h a t th is n a r r a t i v e h a s t r a n s a t l a n t i c im p lic a ti o n s . In h i s o t h e r w r itin g s , how ever, B a ld w in i n s e r t s d iv e r s e m in o r ity g r o u p s in to th is p i c t u r e a n d t h u s b r e a k s th e artificial b i n a r y o f th e w h i t e - b l a c k b a la n c e : Native A m e r ic a n s , P u e r to R ic a n s , W est I n d i a n s , A s ia n s , M e x ic a n s, a n d o t h e r s . 13 In “N o te s o n th e H o u s e of B o n d a g e " (1 9 8 0 ), h e r a g e s a g a in s t th e "TV s c r e e n w h ic h c e le b r a te s , n ig h t a fter n ig h t a n d y e a r a fte r y e a r a n d d e c a d e a fte r d e c a d e th e s l a u g h t e r of th e Native A m e r i c a n ” (PT, p. 6 7 3 ). He d e s c r i b e s th e A m e r ic a n w h ite nat iv e - b o r n , a g a i n s t w h o m A sia n a n d J e w i s h i m m i g r a n t s h a d to m e a ­ s u r e t h e m s e l v e s in th e late 1 9 th a n d e a rly 2 0 t h c e n tu r ie s , by p o i n tin g a t the w a y s in w h ic h th e in v e n tio n of th e 'A m e r i c a n in n o c e n c e ... u n a s ­ sa ila b le , fixed f o r e v e r ” c a m e h a n d in h a n d w ith — if n o t a s a r e s u l t of— th e le g itim a tin g of vio lc n cc a g a in s t p e o p le of c o lo r: “F o r it w a s n o t a c r i m e to kill a b l a c k o r a yellow o r a r e d m a n ... (it w a s] a d u ly ... it w a s n o t a c r i m e to r a p e a b la c k r e d o r yellow w o m a n — it w a s s p o r t " (PT, p. 6 7 2 ). In T h e Fire N e x t T i m e (FNT: 1 9 6 3 ), h e p la c e s th e A m e r ic a n i m ­ p e r i a l i s t a n d r a c i s t p r o je c t in th e c o n te x t of E u r o p e a n c o l o n i a l i s m s in A sia a n d Africa, a s well a s lin k in g th e b i r t h o f f a s c is m a n d its t r i u m p h in t h e G e r m a n T h i r d R e ic h to c r o s s - b r e e d i n g o f g l o b a l W h ite s u p r e m a c y a n d C h r i s t i a n ideology (FNT, p p . 7 2 - 7 5 ) . B a ld w i n 's l a t e r w r itin g s h o w s even m o r e e x p lic itly t h a t g a m e s of p o w e r b a s e d in r a c i s m h a v e d a n g e r o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s for all i n ­ vo lv ed . A s H o m i B h a b h a s t a t e s , " N a tio n s ... like n a r r a t i v e s , lo se th e i r o r i g i n s in th e m y t h s of tim e a n d o n ly fully re a liz e th e i r h o r i z o n s in th e m i n d ’s e y e .” B a ld w in r e v e a l s h is a w a r e n e s s o f th e fallacy o f th e A m e r ­ ic a n m y th of o r ig in s a n d c a lls its p e r p e t r a t o r s o n it. U n d e r th e f a c a d e o f n a t i o n a l m y th a n d t r a d i t i o n , “n a t i o n h o o d i m p l i e s v io le n c e ... of [the] s t a l e ” (p. 11 2) a n d “s ig n ifie s p o w e r a t th e s a m e ti m e a s it e n a c t s p r o h i b i t i o n s a n d c o m m a n d s b o d i e s ," a s H e n r i L e fe b v re c l a i m s (pp . 1 4 2 - 1 4 3 ) . 14 By i m p ly in g th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n a n d a m o n g E u r o ­ p e a n s , w h i te A m e r i c a n s , a n d A fric a n A m e r i c a n s , t h e n , B a ld w in d e m ­ o n s t r a t e s , w h a t w e h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s i n g o n ly r e c e n tly in c o m p a r a t i v e e t h n i c s t u d i e s , t h a t is, a p r o f o u n d l y t r a n s a t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n of A m e r i c a n n e s s . He s h o w s t h a t t h e p r i c e o f b e c o m i n g a n A m e r i c a n in th e a c t u a l s p a c e s of th e N ew W o rld is b e c o m i n g “w h i t e ” in th e m y t h ic s p a c e s o f th e n a t i o n a l n a r r a t i v e , w h o s e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n is s a n c t i o n e d by th e p o w e r a n d v io le n c e o f th e r a c i s t s ta te . To B a ld w in , s ta te p o w e r s e e m s c a r v e d in s t o n e , j u s t a s d o e s w h ite ­ n e s s , its b y p r o d u c t . T h e “C ity” h e fled to P a r is is a ls o a m e t a p h o r for 13

See for exam ple, ‘Notes on the H ouse of Bondage," “Here Be D ra gon s," T h e Fire N e x t T i m e , I f B e a l e S t r e e t C ould Talk. B lu e s f o r M ister C h a r l i e . Tell Me H ow L on g the Train's B e e n G o n e . J u s t A b o v e M y H e a d . I will d i s c u s s o t h e rs in the c o u r s e of the essay. 14 Lefebvre’s T h e P roduction o f S p a c e s t r e s s e s the sp a tia l u n d e r p i n n i n g of this p a r a ­ digm, a d i m e n s i o n o fw h ic h I a m m u c h a w are a n d explo re in m y larger s t u d y of Baldwin.

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th e n a t io n s t a te t h a t e c h o e s th e v isio n of J o h n W i n t h r o p ’s “city u p o n a h ill” a n d t h a t e r e c ts for its c itiz e n s w h a t h e t e r m s in a n evocative m e t a ­ p h o r the “h o u s e o f b o n d a g e ” th a t i m p r i s o n s all A m e r ic a n s . T h i s s y m ­ bolic s t r u c t u r e h a s a c c o m p l is h e d : F or w h a t we will call th e c la s s ic w h ite A m e r i c a n ... th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f h is m o r a l s e n s e , e x c e p t in r e l a t i o n to w h i t e s .... (And) it a ls o d e s t r o y e d h is s e n s e o f r e a lity a n d , t h e r e f o r e , h i s s e n s e o f w h ite p e o p l e h a d to b e a s c o m p u l s i v e ly o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l a s h is v is io n o f b l a c k s . T h e r e s u l t is t h a t w h ite A m e r i c a n s h a v e b e e n o n e a n o t h e r ’s j a i l e r s fo r g e n e r a t i o n s , a n d the a t t e m p t a t in d i v i d u a l m a t u r i t y is th e l o n e l ie s t a n d r a r e s t o f th e A m e r i c a n e n d e a v o r s (PT, p p . 6 7 2 - 6 7 3 ) . 15

In t h u s i llu s tr a tin g th e r a c ia l strife u n d e r l y i n g A m e r i c a n n e s s , B a ld w in gives a n e w tw is t to W. E. B. D u B o is 's n o tio n o f “d o u b l e c o n s c i o u s ­ n e s s , ” th e n o tio n t h a t h a s b e e n m u c h q u o t e d in d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e Af­ r ic a n A m e r ic a n c o n d iti o n ever s in c e th e p u b lic a tio n o f Du B o is's l a n d m a r k w o r k , T h e S o u l s o f B l a c k Fol k ( 1 9 0 3 ). In B a ld w in 's v e r s io n , a s in D u B o is 's, th e c e n t r a l " p r o b l e m ” of th e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y is th e “co lo r lin e ,” a n d , like D u B ois, B a ld w in c h o o s e s inv entiv e n a r r a t i v e f o r m s to s t u d y a n d t h e o r iz e th is p r o b l e m . W h e re th e y differ, ho w ev er, is in B a ld w in ’s i n s is t e n c e t h a t th e effects of r a c i s m b e s t u d i e d in d e ta il a s m u c h in th e c a s e o f its v ic tim s a s th e p e r p e t r a t o r s . B a ld w in tr a c e s the “c o lo r lin e ” in th e s t o r i e s of p a s s a g e in to th e New W orld, t r ia n g u l a t e s a m o n g Africa, E u r o p e , a n d N o r th A m e r ic a , a n d m a k e s h i m s e l f a n in t e ­ g ra l p a r t of t h e s e s t o r i e s a s a m i g r a n t a r t i s t o f c o l o r .16 M o re t h a n h a l f a c e n t u r y ago, a s a B la c k w r i t e r w h o w a s s u c c e s s f u l a n d t h u s a b le to live a n d w rite in w idely d iff e r e n t p l a c e s on s e v e ra l c o n ­ t i n e n t s — fr o m H a r le m , to P a ris, to I s ta n b u l, to F r a n c e , S w itz e r la n d , a n d T u r k e y a m o n g o t h e r s — B a ld w in w a s , of c o u r s e , in a p e c u lia rly c o m p e llin g a n d p riv ile g e d p o s iti o n to c o m m e n t o n m i g r a t o r y a n d i m ­ m i g r a n t m a k e u p o f A m e r ic a n identity. In h is w e ll- k n o w n a n d m u c h q u o t e d essay, “T h e D is c o v e ry of W h a t It M e a n s to Be a n A m e r i c a n ” (1 9 5 9 ), h e e x p la in s h is j o u r n e y fr o m th e New W orld to th e O ld — a n i n ­ v e r te d i m m i g r a n t p a s s a g e — a s o n e t h a t, b y m a k i n g h im in to a w riter, h a d a ls o m a d e h im e m b r a c e a n d w r e s tle w ith th e m ix e d b le s s i n g s of h is n a t i o n a l identity. W hile w o r k i n g on h i s first novel, Go Tell It o n t h e M o u n t a i n (1 9 5 3 ), i m m e r s e d in th e icy w h i t e n e s s o f a S w is s m o u n t a i n village, B a ld w in is "the s t r a n g e r ” a m i d W e ste rn e u ltu r e , o n e w h o s e 15

A n o th e r p a r t of the text n e a r b y is w o r th a c loser look: “It is t e r r o r th a t in f o rm s the A m e ric an political a n d social sc e n e — the t e r r o r of leaving the h o u s e o f b o n d a g e . It isn’t a t e r r o r of seeing b l a c k peop le leave the h o u se of bo n d a g e, for white peop le th in k th at they k n o w th at th is c a n n o t really h a p p e n ... No. white people h a d a m u c h be tte r time in the h o u s e of b o n d a g e th a n we did. a n d G od bles s their souls, they’re going to m is s it—all th at a d u la tio n , a d o ra tio n , ease, with n o th in g to do b u t fornicate, kill I n d ian s , b re e d slaves, a n d m a k e m o n e y ” (PT. pp. 6 7 2 - 6 7 3 ) . lbI deliberately oversimplify th is d i s c u s s i o n , a s it lies well o u tsid e of the sc o p e of this paper.

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o nly h e lp line to h is r o o t s is a m u s i c r e c o r d — B e ssie S m i t h s ig n in g th e b l u e s a g a i n s t th e b a c k d r o p o f th e to w e r in g Alps: I h a d n ev er lis te n e d to B e ssie S m i t h in A m e r i c a (in the s a m e way, th a t, for y e a rs , I w o u ld n o t t o u c h w a t e r m e lo n ) , b u t in E u r o p e s h e h e lp e d to r e c o n ­ cile m e to b e in g a “nigger.” I d o n o t t h i n k t h a t I c o u ld h av e m a d e th i s r e c o n ­ ciliation h e r e . O n ce I w a s ab le to a c c e p t m y ro le — a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d , I m u s t say, fro m m y ‘ p lace "— in th e e x t r a o r d i n a r y d r a m a w h ic h is A m e ric a , I w a s r e l e a s e d fr o m th e illusio n t h a t I h a t e d A m c r i c a .” (E s s a y s , p. 138).

T h i s r e l e a s e f r o m h a t r e d o f h i s c o u n t r y o p e n s u p th e w o r l d to B a l d w i n ’s n a r r a t o r . A lth o u g h h e is k e e n ly a w a r e of h i s A fric a n a n c e s ­ try, h e a ls o a c k n o w l e d g e s a n d r e c o n c i l e s to t h e id e a o f h i s h y b r i d i t y a s t h e “b a s t a r d o f th e W e s t.”17 H is r e - a p p r o p r i a t i o n a n d d e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h i s ro le a s a “n i g g e r ”— th e b r u t a l legacy o f h i s b i r t h r i g h t c o m ­ p r e s s e d in o n e w o r d — h a s to b e n e g o t i a t e d n o t o n ly in h i s h o m e c o u n ­ try, b u t a ls o t h r o u g h o u t th e w e s t. It e n a b l e s B a ld w in to b e c o m e a w i t n e s s a n d p r o p h e t w h o e m b r a c e s h is v o c a tio n o f th e w o r d p a s s i o n ­ ately. “I w a n t to be a n h o n e s t m a n a n d a g o o d w r i t e r ,” h e s t a t e s in “A u ­ t o b i o g r a p h i c a l N o t e s ” t h a t o p e n h is f ir s t c o lle c tio n o f e s s a y s , N o t e s o f a N a t i v e S o n ( 1 9 5 5 ) , w h ic h w a s c o n c e iv e d a n d w r i t t e n b e tw e e n th e U n it e d S t a t e s a n d W e s te r n E u r o p e . B a l d w i n ’s a u t h o r i a l se lf- f u lf illm e n t a n d c o m p l i c a t e d l o v e - a n d - h a te a ffa ir w ith h i s c o u n t r y b e c o m e h i s e v olving s u b j e c t s o n c e he h a s b e e n a b le to a s s e s s “A m e r i c a ” f r o m a d i s t a n c e . H e s t r e s s e s in " A u to b io ­ g r a p h i c a l N o t e s ”: “I love A m e r i c a m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r c o u n t r y in th e w o r l d , a n d , ex a c tly for t h i s r e a s o n , I i n s i s t o n th e r i g h t to c r itic iz e h e r p e r p e t u a l l y ” (p. 6). H is p a r a d o x i c a l p a t r i o t i s m — o r a sp e c ific b r a n d o f “A fric a n A m e r i c a n i s m ”— a r i s e s f r o m a d e e p c o m m i t m e n t to d i s s e n t , a n d a d e s i r e to i m p r o v e h is c o u n t r y b y c r i t i q u i n g th e p la c e a n d p e o p le w h e r e a n d w ith w h o m h e w a s t h r u s t by a c c i d e n t s of g e o g r a p h y a n d g e n e ti c s (p. 9). In t h i s s e n s e , it c a n be s a i d t h a t B a l d w i n ’s A m e r i c a n “d r a m a ” d e s c r i b e d in th e p a s s a g e s f r o m “A u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l N o t e s ” a n d “T h e D is c o v e r y o f W h a t It M e a n s to Be a n A m e r i c a n ” g a in s a d i ­ m e n s i o n of a n i m m i g r a n t p a s s i o n play. B a ld w in s e e m s to e c h o A n zia Y e z ie r s k a ’s w o r k i n g - c l a s s P o l i s h - J e w i s h i m m i g r a n t h e r o i n e , w h o , h a v in g b e c o m e d i s i l l u s i o n e d w ith th e A m e r i c a n D r e a m , a s k s : “B u t f r o m A m e r i c a w h e r e c a n y o u g o ? ” (Y ezierska, 1 9 9 1 , p. 119). Fo r i m ­ m i g r a n t s t h e r e a r e n o o t h e r c o u n t r i e s to flee to f r o m th e P r o m i s e d L a n d . Fo r B la c k s , t h e r e a r e n o o t h e r to o ls b u t th e m a s t e r ’s to d i s m a n ­ tle th e h o u s e o f b o n d a g e ; t h e r e is n o o t h e r s h e l t e r a n d c o u n t r y o n e c o u ld c la im a s o n e ’s o w n . As B a ld w in f in d s o u t o n a t r ip t h e r e , A frica a s a h o m e l a n d is a m y t h , a n d th e S o u t h is th e o n ly t r u e “o ld c o u n t r y ” for A m e r i c a n B l a c k s (PT, p. 183).

17“Autobiographical Notes.” JVoies oj a Native Son (1984), p. 6.

1 0.

RACI NG T R A N S A T L A N T I C P A S S A G E S

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In light o f th is discovery, th e on ly p la c e w h e r e r a c ia l r e c o n c ilia tio n is p o s s ib l e is p r e c is e ly a t h o m e , in “A m e r ic a , ” w h ic h m u s t b e t r a n s ­ f o r m e d a n d c la im e d by B la c k s . For B a ld w in , th is m e a n s c o m i n g to t e r m s w ith th is n a t i o n a l id e n tity w hile aw a y fr o m h o m e , for h o m e c a n ­ n o t b e e s c a p e d . In “T h e D is c o v e ry ” he s t r e s s e s t h a t u p o n h is a r r iv a l in P a ris, “I p r o v e d , to m y a s t o n i s h m e n t to be a s A m e r ic a n a s a n y T exas G.I." W h e n h e e n c o u n t e r e d h is w h ite c o m p a t r i o t s th e r e , a w a y fr o m th e “fu ry o f th e c o lo r p r o b le m " a t h o m e , “it t u r n e d o u t to m a k e very little d iffe re n ce t h a t th e o r ig in s o f w h ite A m e r i c a n s w e r e E u r o p e a n a n d m i n e w e r e A fric a n — th e y w e r e n o m o r e a t h o m e in E u r o p e t h a n I w a s ” (PT, p. 172). B u t th e m o s t a s t o n i s h i n g d is c o v e ry is th a t , a lth o u g h it is p o s s ib l e to find a m o m e n t a r y h a v e n — a n d h a v e n s a r e “h i g h - p r i c e d ” a n d c o r r o b o r a t e d e l u s i o n s t h a t it is p o s s ib le to e s c a p e f r o m o n e ­ self—w h a t o n e really l e a r n s in th e c o u r s e of a n in v e r te d i m m i g r a n t j o u r n e y b a c k to the O ld W orld is t h a t “th e r e a r c n o u n t r o u b l e d c o u n ­ trie s in th is fearfully tr o u b l e d w o rld : th a t if h e h a s b e e n p r e p a r i n g h i m ­ se lf for a n y th in g in E u r o p e , he h a s b e e n p r e p a r i n g h im s e lf —for A m e ric a " (PT, p. 175). T h e k i n e s t h e t i c c h a r a c t e r o f B a ld w in 's w r itin g — its f o c u s o n lite ra l a n d m e ta p h o ric a l p a s s a g e s , jo u rn e y s , a n d m ig ra tio n s — p r o m p t s m e to a r g u e t h a t B a l d w i n ’s "A m erica" is a s t o r y - a s - p a s s a g e , a flo a tin g n a r ­ r a tiv e , a s it w e re , a w o r k / v e s s e l in p r o g r e s s t r a v e r s i n g th e A tla n tic b a c k a n d fo r th a lo n g v a r i o u s h i s t o r i c t r a j e c t o r i e s . L ik e B a ld w in 's ow n tr a v e ls a n d th e m a n y s t o r i e s o f t r a n s a t l a n t i c c r o s s i n g s t h a t h e r e ­ f e r s to in h i s w r it in g s , h i s v e s s e l o f w o r k s t r i a n g u l a t e s a m o n g A frica, E u r o p e , a n d p r o b l e m a t i c “A m e r i c a . ” In s e a r c h fo r th e s e lf—a n d “A m e r i c a ”— w h ic h e c h o e s p r o f o u n d l y s u c h i m m i g r a n t c l a s s i c s a s C a r lo s B u l o s a n ’s A m e r i c a Is in t h e H e a r t (1 9 4 3 ) o r M a ry A n tin ’s T h e P r o m i s e d L a n d ( 1 9 1 2 ) , it b r i n g s t o g e th e r d i s p a r a t e n a r r a t i v e t r a d i ­ t i o n s — u n e a s y a n d c o n t e n t i o u s a s th e y m a y b e . T h e s e t r a d i t i o n s a n d s t o r i e s h a v e b e e n t r i a n g u l a t i n g a c r o s s th e A tla n tic , a m o n g c o n t i n e n t s w h e r e B a ld w in c l a i m s h i s h y b r i d a n c e s tr y , t h a t is, w h e r e h e m a p s h is a m b i v a l e n t p la c e a s t h e “A m e r i c a n N e g r o .” B u t it is p r e c i s e l y b y w e a v ­ in g th e u n lik e ly t h r e a d s o f h is c o m p l e x h i s t o r y a n d g e o g r a p h i c b e ­ lo n g in g , a s m u c h a s w r i t i n g h i s s t o r i e s a s a n e w 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y b l a c k A m e r i c a n i m m i g r a n t , t h a t B a ld w in e n v is a g e s a n d c o n s t r u c t s new, p o s t b i n a r y n o t i o n s o f i d e n t ity a n d t h u s s p a c e s for n e w A m e r i c a n ­ n e s s . 18 To h i m , we all e n d u p in th e s a m e b o a t a s q u a s i - i m m i g r a n t s , o n c e w e h a v e r e c o g n iz e d a n d c l a i m e d o u r o w n c o m p l e x r o o t s a n d r o u t e s , a n d a c k n o w l e d g e d a n d e m b r a c e d o u r d i f f e r e n c e s . 19 W ritin g a b o u t th e m e a n i n g o f d i a s p o r a , K e n n e th W. W a r r e n l i k e n s it to “a d e ­ 18D a r se y ’s d i s c u s s i o n of Baldw in a s an a r tist in N ietzschean s e n s e of a s in g u la r intel­ ligence u p o n w hich the w est d e p e n d s is rele vant he re (p. 202). I d isag ree, however, th at Baldw in e n d s u p a victim of h is own racial p a r a d ig m . 19 T h is c ould be e x p a n d e d into a larger d is c u s s io n in the context of J a m e s Clifford’s R o u te s: Travel a n d T r a n sla tio n in the L a t e T w e n t i e t h C e n tu r y . C a m b rid g e . MA: H a r ­ va rd University Press. 1997. See especially “Traveling C u l tu r e s . ” pp. 17-4 6.

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s ir e to s p e a k th e s e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s in a s i m p l e v o ic e ” (W a rre n , 1 9 9 3 , p. 4 0 5 ) . B a l d w i n ’s “e m b r a c e o f a r a d i c a l i d e n t i t y ” (W a rre n , p. 4 0 4 ) l e a d s to p r e c is e ly s u c h a n a r t i c u l a t i o n . B a ld w in 's in s i g h t s m a y n o t b e b ig n e w s in A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s th e s e d a y s , b u t , given th e i r e a r ly a r t i c u l a t i o n in th e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s , th e y p u t h i s w o r k s s q u a r e l y o n th e m a p o f l a n d m a r k s t u d i e s o f 2 0 t h - c e n ­ t u r y r a c i a l iz e d A m e r i c a n id e n tity . In th e n e x t s e c t i o n , I w o u l d like to p a u s e for a m o m e n t in m y r e a d i n g s o f B a ld w in , a n d s u g g e s t t h a t we n o t o n ly r e a d h is c o n t r i b u t i o n t h r o u g h r e c e n t s c h o l a r s h i p o n i m m i ­ g r a t i o n a n d r a c e , b u t t h a t w e a ls o i n t e r r o g a t e t h a t s c h o l a r s h i p t h r o u g h h i s in s i g h t s . T h i s is to s a y t h a t B a l d w in 's e s s a y s a n d fiction ha v e a n t i c i p a t e d b y s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a n i m p o r t a n t d i s c o u r s e t h a t h a s j u s t m a d e its e n t r y in to th e s t u d y o f A m e r i c a n i m m i g r a t i o n s . T h u s , h e d e s e r v e s a c a r e f u l r e r e a d i n g a s a t h e o r i s t o f A m e r i c a n iden tity, m u c h in th e s a m e v ein a s , for e x a m p l e , d o c s F r a n z F a n o n , a s r e c e n tly a r ­ g u e d by H o m i B h a b h a (p p . x - x i ) .20

INTERACTION: UNEA SY C R O S S IN G S , IM PO SSIB L E D IA L O G U E S R e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s in th e fields o f A m e r ic a n a n d im m i g r a t i o n s t u d i e s h a v e b e g u n p a y in g a lot o f a tte n tio n to ra c e , a n d th e w a y s in w h ic h v a r i ­ o u s h is to ric iz e d A m e ric a n iz a tio n p r o c e s s e s have re lie d on e x c lu s io n a r y p o litic s o f identity. U n lik e th e c la s s ic , so to s p e a k , a p ­ p r o a c h e s to im m ig r a ti o n in itia te d by h i s t o r i a n s M a r c u s Lee H a n s e n a n d O s c a r H a n d li n , w h o s e c e l e b r a te d s t u d y o f l o w e r - c la s s E u r o p e a n n e w c o m e r s , T h e U p r o o t e d ( 1 9 5 1 ) b e c a m e a fie ld -d e fin in g w o r k , th e s e n e w w o r k s s h o w th e in sta b ility a n d often d e s tr u c tiv e o u t c o m e s o f th e m y th of A m e r ic a a s a “P r o m i s e d L a n d . ” T h e y p r o b l e m a t i z e a n d d e ­ c o n s t r u c t th e id e a liz e d m o d e l of p a s s a g e fr o m p o v e rty to p r o s p e r ity , f r o m o p p r e s s i o n to f r e e d o m , a n d fr o m th e O ld W orld h i e r a r c h i e s of d e ­ s c e n t to th e New W orld lib e r a ti n g in d iv i d u a li s m of c o n s e n t . 21 T h e b r i e f review o f th e s e w o r k s t h a t I offer h e r e a i m s to c o n te x tu a liz e m y r e a d i n g of B a ld w in a s a t h e o r i s t o f A m e r ic a n identity. A lth o u g h a t h o r o u g h d i s ­ c u s s i o n o f all m a j o r w o r k s in th is field is well b e y o n d th e s c o p e of th is p r o je c t, I h ig h lig h t th e p e r s p e c t i v e s o f se v e r a l s c h o l a r s , w h o s e w o r k h a s b e e n e sp e c ia lly h e lp fu l to m y t h i n k i n g t h r o u g h B a ld w in 's r e v o l u ­ t io n a r y a r t i c u l a t i o n o f th e i m p o r t a n c e of r a c e to n a r r a t i v e s s c r ip tin g A m e r ic a n n a t i o n a l id e n tity a s a lite ra l a n d li te r a r y i m m i g r a n t p a s s a g e . M u c h like B a ld w in 's “T h e P r ic e ” a n d “E n c o u n t e r ” e s s a y s , L isa L o w e ’s I m m i g r a n t A c t s (1 9 9 6 ) s t r e s s e s t h a t in th e p r o d u c t i o n o f n a ­ tio n a l is t d i s c o u r s e , " im m ig r a t io n h a s b e e n h isto r ic a lly a l o c us of 20

In fact, bringing together F anon a s a th e o rist of colo nialism a n d p o stc o lon ia l m o v e ­ m e n t s with Baldw in w ould m a k e for a very interesting, dialogic r e re a d in g of b oth w riters in a t r a n s a tla n tic context. 21See Sollo rs (1986). especially pp. 3 - 3 9 .

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r a c ia liz a tio n a n d a p r i m a r y site for th e p o lic in g o f po litic a l, c u ltu r a l, a n d e c o n o m ic m e m b e r s h i p in th e U.S. n a t i o n - s t a t e . ” Low e s t r e s s e s th a t, a s wc e n t e r th e 2 1 s t c e n tu ry , “Wc a r c (now] w i t n e s s i n g a ‘r e - r a c i a l i z a t i o n ’ of i m m i g r a n t s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s ‘th e i m m i g r a n t ' a s the m o s t h ighly ta r g e te d o b je c t o f a U.S. n a t i o n a l i s t a g e n d a " (p. 174). H e r t e r m s , s u c h a s l o c u s a n d s i t e , e m p h a s i z e th e p la y b e tw e e n m o v e m e n t a n d ro o te d n e s s /u p ro o tin g th a t are ch a ra c teristic of im m ig ra n t a c ­ c o u n t s . At th e s a m e tim e th ey call a tte n t io n to the p o w e r t h a t th e s t a te h a s o ver n e w c o m e r s a n d th e ir re lative p a s s iv ity a s o b je c t s /b o d ie s p la c e d u n d e r its c o n tr o l. B a ld w in 's w o r k s in d ic a te t h a t B la c k s in th is c u l t u r e have b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d in e erily s im i l a r w a y s b y s o m e of th e s t a t e ’s i n s t i t u t i o n s . 22 As th e b la c k j a z z m u s i c i a n R u fu s S c o tt l e a r n s in B a ld w in 's t h i r d novel, A n o t h e r C o u n t r y ( 1 9 6 2 ) , n o m a t t e r w h a t he d o e s , h e will b e p u r s u e d by th e r a c i s t n o t i o n s W h ites h o ld of h i m , on th e o n e h a n d , a n d by h is o w n rag e a n d s e lf - d e s tru c tiv e r e a c tio n to a n d i n te r n a liz a t io n of t h e s e n o tio n s , o n th e o th er. R u f u s ’s life e n d s in s u i ­ cide, a s h e s e e s n o w ay o u t of th is p r e d i c a m e n t . B a ld w in s h o w s h o w R u f u s ’s m a n y w h ite f r ie n d s , in c lu d i n g h is b e s t b u d d y , th e Iris h A m e r i ­ c a n in te g r a te d i m m i g r a n t Vivaldo, e n d u p p a r a d o x ic a ll y a n d trag ically r e d e e m e d by th is d e a t h a n d t h u s s e e m to r e p lic a te th e n a t i o n a l s to r y of w h i t e n e s s a r is in g fro m th e d e s t r u c t i o n of its o th e r, o r b l a c k n e s s . B u t e v e n t h a t s t o r y is m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x , a s n o t all E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s w e r e “w h ite o n a rriv a l" (see G u g lie lm o , 2 0 0 3 ) . As h i s t o r i a n P au l S p i c k a r d s t r e s s e s , 23 th e s o - c a lle d E llis I s la n d m o d e l o f i m m i g r a t io n s t u d i e s t h a t followed in th e w a k e of O s c a r H a n d l i n ’s “i m m i g r a n t s a s A m e r ic a n h is to ry " in T h e U p r o o t e d (1 9 5 1 ) h a s r e d u c e d c o m p le x a n d m u ltiv a le n t h i s t o r i e s to a o n e - d ir e c ti o n a l s to r y of u p w a r d m o b ility a n d w h ite n i n g of d iv e r s e e th n ic g r o u p s . E v en today, for d a r k - s k i n n e d i m m i g r a n t s fr o m S o u t h e a s t Asia, th e C a r i b ­ b e a n , a n d o t h e r p a r t s of th e w o r ld , i m m i g r a t in g a n d b e c o m i n g A m e r i ­ c a n n e c e s s a r i ly involve a c on flict w ith th e p r e v a l e n t b la c k - o n - w h ite c la s s ific a tio n of the p o p u l a t i o n h e r e . W hile p o n d e r i n g d iff e re n c e s b e ­ tw een so c ia l c o n s t r u c t i o n s of ra c e in the C a r i b b e a n a n d th e i m p e r a ­ tives of n a tio n a l id e n tific a tio n in th e U n ite d S ta te s , M a ry C. W ate rs d i s c u s s e s th e p a r a d o x facing d a r k - s k i n n e d W est I n d i a n s : “T h e p e r v a ­ sive in e q u a litie s in A m e r ic a n life ... often m e a n t h a t b e c o m i n g b la c k A m e r ic a n o r M exican A m e r ic a n le a d s to a le s s b r i g h t f u tu r e t h a n r e ­ m a i n i n g a n i m m ig r a n t" (W aters, 1 9 9 9 , p. 3 3 2 ) . C o n s i d e r i n g th e w a y s 22

At the sa m e time, a n d p o s t - 9 / 1 1, the link betw een the " n a tio n a list a g e n d a ” a n d the “rc-ra c ia liz ation ” of i m m i g r a n t s a n d th a t c u r io u s o x ym oron , “r e s i d e n t a lie n s,” is e s p e ­ cially chilling. Given the fact th a t A m e ric an pu blic d i s c o u r s e a n d c o rp o ra t e m ed ia elide the d is c u s s i o n s of d o m es tic inju stice a n d ra c i s m , th eir a c c o u n ts of m ilita ry a n d legal a c ­ tion s a g ain st foreign n a tio n a l u n d e s i r a b l e s , su s p e c t e d t e rr o ris ts , a n d citizens of U.S.-occu p ic d c o u n tr i e s shift the “p ro b le m ” to the ou tsid e of the United Sta te s. 23 I am re fe rring to S p i c k a r d ’s fo rth co m in g b o o k A l m o s t All A llens: Im m ig r a ti o n , R a ce , a n d C o lonialism in A m e r i c a n H istory a n d I d e n ti t y (Routledge). See also. “W hat’s Critical A bout White S t u d i e s . ” in S p i c k a r d (2004).

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in w h ic h S o u t h A sia n A m e r i c a n s , o r “d e s i s , ” “a r e p le d g e d a n d s o m e ­ tim e s , in a n a c t o f b a d faith, p le d g e o u r s e lv e s , a s a w e a p o n a g a in s t b l a c k fo lk ,” Vijay P r a s h a d d i s c u s s e s a “r a c i s t c o n t r a c t ” in T h e K a r m a o f B r o w n Fol k ( 2 0 0 0 ) a s a n o u t c o m e of a “s e a r c h o f s o m e a c c o m m o d a ­ tion in a r a c i s t p o lity ” (pp. viii, xi). In a s i m i l a r vein, in h is r e c e n t A m e r ­ i c an S t u d i e s in a M o m e n t o f D a n g e r , l a b o r h i s t o r i a n G e o rg e L ip sitz s t r e s s e s the i m p o r t a n c e o f i m m i g r a n t s o f c o lo r to th e reific a tio n of old a n d in v e n tio n o f n e w "rac ia l e n m i t i e s a n d a n t a g o n i s m s , w h ic h in t u r n p r o m o t e s n e w v a r i a n t s o f r a c i s m ” (p. 12). L ip sitz s e c s th e s e p r o c e s s e s to be e sp e c ia lly p r e s e n t in larg e u r b a n c e n t e r s like M ia m i, L o s A ngeles, New York, o r B o s to n , w h ic h h a v e b e c o m e th e “s e c o n d la rg e st" cities w ith C a r i b b e a n , A sia n , o r L a tin A m e r ic a n p o p u l a t i o n s a fte r K in g sto n , S a n J u a n L a o s, S e o u l, o r Mexico City.24 C le a rly e c h o in g B a ld w in ’s r e f e r e n c e s to w h i t e n e s s a n d b l a c k n e s s a s a lw a y s a t p la y in n a r r a t i v e s of i m m i g r a n t p a s s a g e a n d a r riv a l, M a th e w Fry J a c o b s o n ( 1 9 9 8 ) s t u d i e s th e h is to r ic o r ig in s of E u r o p e a n n e w ­ c o m e r " w h i t e n e s s .” J a c o b s o n c la im s , “R a c e is n o t ta n g e n tia l to th e h i s ­ to ry o f E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a t i o n to th e U n ite d S t a t e s b u t a b s o l u te ly c e n tr a l" (p. 42 ). T h is p o i n t h a s f o u n d s u p p o r t in m a n y o t h e r s c h o l a r s , in c lu d in g P r a s h a d ( 2 0 0 0 ) a n d W a te rs ( 1 9 9 9 , p. 3 2 8 ); o t h e r s d i s c u s s the “in - b c lw c e n ,” o r “n o t-y c t-w h ite ” s t a t u s o f c e r ta in i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s in a h is to r ic p e r s p e c ti v e (Roediger, C o l or e d W hi t e , 2 0 0 2 ) . L o u is M e n d o z a a n d S. S h a n k a r , e d i t o r s o f a r e c e n t c o lle c tio n , C r o s s i n g into A m e r i c a : T h e N e w L i t e r a t u r e o f I m m i g r a t i o n , e m p h a s i z e th a t, given th a t th e m o s t r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s 25 ha v e b e e n p r e d o m i n a n t l y a r riv in g fro m A sia a n d L a tin A m e r ic a , "R acc is a n a lto g e th e r m o r e c o m p li c a te d a n d i m p o r t a n t a n i s s u e in th e n ew l i t e r a t u r e o f im m ig r a ti o n " (p. xxi). T h a t ra c e h a s b e e n in fa c t s u c h a n i s s u e fro m th e very b e g i n n in g o f the m o s t p o p u l o u s wave of E u r o p e a n im m i g r a t i o n to th is c o u n tr y ,2'’ n o m a t t e r th a t t h e s e i m m i g r a n t s have q u ic k ly b e c o m e w h ite , is c o n f ir m e d in J a m e s R. B a r r e t t a n d D avid R o e d ig e r ’s s t u d y t h a t tr a c e s th e initial “i n - b e tw e e n ” ra c ia l s t a t u s of th e late 1 9 th - a n d e a rly 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y E a s t E u r o p e a n l a b o r e r s (R oe dige r & B a r r e tt, 2 0 0 2 , p p . 1 3 8 - 1 6 8 ) . H is to ­ r ia n D avid R o e d ig e r ’s e s s a y “T h e F i r s t W ord in W h ite n e s s : E a r l y T w e n ­ tie th - C e n tu r y E u r o p e a n E x p e r i e n c e s ” b r in g s to g e th e r A frican A m e r ic a n in te lle c tu a ls a n d a r t i s t s w ith w h a t, a t th e tim e, w e r e c o n s i d ­ e r e d th e “in f e r i o r ” s t o c k s of s o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e a n s , o r “n ew i m m i g r a n t s ” to s h o w th e f o r m a t i o n o f w h ite i m m i g r a n t id e n tity 24

On racializatlo n. see O m i a n d W in ant (1994). S o m e ti m e s i m m i g r a n t s a re re fe rre d to as eth n ics; s o m e s c h o l a r s re s is t the c once pt of ra ce a n d th u s re fuse to engage it (e.g.. Sollors. 1986); o t h e r s look for n u a n c e d ways to trace its w o r k in g s in a historic persp ec tiv e (e.g. Roediger. 2002). H a n d lin m ay have b een a w are of the r a c is t d i m e n s i o n s of the d i s c u s s i o n s on i m m i ­ gration in early 2 0 th century, even thou gh his p io n ee rin g w ork on the “new im m ig r a n ts" c am e d e c a d e s before th ese n e w o m e r s w ere se en a s having s h a p e d , a n d b e en s h a p e d by. A m e ric an iz ation as “whitenin g.” See e p ig r a p h s i n tro d u c in g the se c tio n s in I m m ig r a ti o n a s a Factor (Handlin . 1959), a n d cspccially p. 192. 25

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(Roediger, 1 9 9 7 , p p . 3 5 4 - 3 5 7 ) . Sim ilarly, in C o l o r e d W h i t e (2 0 0 2 ), R o e d ig e r a r g u e s for a c a re f u l r e a d i n g of th e c h a n g in g ra c ia l c o d e s , a n d e m p h a s i z e s th e i m m i g r a n t e n t r y in to w h i t e n e s s a s a p r o c e s s r a t h e r t h a n a n o v e rn ig h t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in th e “n a t i o n in w h ic h ‘b e c o m i n g w h i t e ’ a n d ‘b e c o m i n g A m e r i c a n ’ w e r e i n t e r t w i n e d a t every t u r n ” (R o ed ig e r 2 0 0 2 , p. 141). In th e i r s t u d i e s o f l a b o r m o v e m e n t s a n d u n i o n i z a t i o n , b o t h R o e d ig e r a n d L ip s itz s t r e s s l i n k s b e tw e e n (d e -) r a c ia liz a tio n a n d e c o ­ n o m i c s u c c e s s for lig h t- s k in n e d E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s to th e U n ite d S t a t e s . 27 L ip sitz a r g u e s , to o, t h a t s u c h tie s ha v e g lo b a l im p li c a tio n s . Today, th e b o r d e r s o f n a t i o n s a r e no lo n g e r o b s ta c le s for in t e r n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s , b u t r a t h e r a s s e t s t h a t c a n be u s e d to p itc h lo c a tio n s a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r in th e n e v e r - e n d in g c o m p e t itio n for c h e a p o ff s h o r e l a b o r s o u r c e s (Lipsitz, 2 0 0 1 , p p . 3 - 3 0 ) . S u c h a n a p p r o a c h s e e m s to im p ly ag a in , m u c h in th e w a y B a ld w in ’s w o r k s d id d e c a d e s earlier, th a t i m m i g r a t i o n d o e s n o t h av e to follow th e t r a d i t i o n a l r o u t e o f d e p a r t u r e - c r o s s i n g - a r r i v a l . T h e w o r k e r s m ig r a t in g to m a n u f a c t u r i n g s ite s a n d p l a n t s in th e ir ow n c o u n t r i e s e m b a r k o n a j o u r n e y o f s o r t s , loo, o n e th a t l e a d s in to th e n e w w o r l d s o f c o r p o r a t e e xploitative A m e r ic a t h a t h a s d i s p e n s e d w ith t r a d i t i o n a l b o r d e r s . A m y K a p la n 's r e m a r k t h a t th e n o ti o n of “b o r d e r l a n d s ” (see A n z a ld u a , 1 9 8 7 ) fir s t d e p lo y e d by C h ic a n a /- n o s t u d i e s h e l p s u s to "link th e s t u d y o f e th n ic ity a n d i m m i ­ g ra tio n in e x tr ic a b ly to th e s t u d y of i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s a n d e m p i r e ” ( 1 9 9 3 , 1 6 - 1 7 ) is t r e m e n d o u s l y i m p o r t a n t in th is c o n te x t. No le ss i m ­ p o r t a n t is K a p l a n ’s r e c e n t a c k n o w l e d g m e n t in h e r A m e r ic a n S t u d i e s A s s o c ia tio n p r e s i d e n t i a l a d d r e s s ( 2 0 0 3 ) t h a t we s h o u l d r e g a r d i m m i ­ g r a tio n a s a “m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a l m o v e m e n t . ”28 W alter B e n n M i c h a e l s ’s e x p l o r a t i o n o f th e h i s t o r y o f le g is la tio n a i m e d a t c u r b i n g i m m i g r a t i o n via q u o t a s y s t e m s in O u r A m e r i c a : N a ­ t i v i s m , M o d e r n i s m , a n d P l u r a l i s m ( 1 9 9 5 ) h e l p s to e x p la in s o m e of th e r e a s o n s fo r B a ld w in 's flight to E u r o p e . M ic h a e ls e x p l o r e s c a r e ­ fully o r c h e s t r a t e d e f f o r ts to fu se r a c i s m , n a t i v i s m , m o d e r n i s m , a n d h e t e r o s e x i s t f a m ily p o litic s in th e l i t e r a t u r e a n d legal d i s c o u r s e s of th e tim e . T h a t th e I m m i g r a t i o n A cts o f 192 1 a n d 1 9 2 4 h a d la r g e i m ­ p a c t on th e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f A m e r ic a a s a r a c ia liz e d s t a t e is e ve n m o r e i n te r e s tin g , given o u r n e w k n o w le d g e o f h o w g e n d e r a n d s e x u a l ity w e r e i n t e r t w i n e d in t h a t s c h e m e ( M ic h a e ls , 1 9 9 5 , p p . 8, 11, 13). In h e r s t u d y o f A fric a n A m e r i c a n m i g r a n t n a r r a t i v e , “W h o S e t You Flo w i n ? ”: T h e A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n M i g r a t i o n N a r r a t i v e ( 1 9 9 5 ) , th e lit­ e r a r y c r itic F a r a h J a s m i n e G riffin f o c u s e s on s u c h i n t e r t w i n i n g s of g e n d e r, se x u a lity , a n d r a c e in th e c o n t e x t o f t h e s t o r i e s c a p t u r i n g b l a c k m i g r a t i o n fr o m th e r u r a l S o u t h to th e u r b a n N o r th . U n lik e B a ld w in , G riffin ’s r e a d i n g s s e t u p th e g e n r e a s s p e c ific a lly b l a c k , even 27

See Lipsitz. P o s s e s s iv e I n v e s t m e n t (1998) a n d A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s , a n d Roediger. W a ges (1999). ^Sce Kaplan, “Violent Belongings" (2004), T h e A n a r c h y o f E m p i r e , a n d cd.. C u ltures o j US I m p e r i a l i s m .

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a s s h e g e s t u r e s a t m a n y f e a t u r e s of it t h a t m i g h t b e s e e n a s s h a r e d a m o n g o t h e r g r o u p s c o m p r i s i n g A m e r i c a n li t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s (p p. 3 - 1 0 ) . B a l d w i n ’s n o v e l IJ B e a l e S t r e e t C o u l d T a / J c ( 1 9 7 4 ) i s a g o o d e x ­ a m p l e of a te x t t h a t lo c a t e s A fr ic a n A m e r i c a n s t o r i e s o f p a s s a g e in r e ­ l a t i o n s h i p w ith o t h e r s , s u c h a s M e x ic a n , S o u t h A m e r i c a n , a n d E u r o p e a n a c c o u n t s , ev e n if its m a i n f o c u s is o n B la c k s . H i s t o r i a n M ae M. N g a i’s r e c e n t I m p o s s i b l e S u b j e c t s : I l l e g a l A l i e n s a n d t h e M a k i n g o f M o d e r n A m e r i c a ( 2 0 0 4 ) is a n i m p o r t a n t s tu d y of how ra c e a n d e x c lu sio n a ry c o n s tr u c ts of n a tio n a l id en tity t h a t o b t a i n e d , a m o n g o t h e r s , fo r A f r ic a n A m e r i c a n s , a l s o w o r k e d f o r A s ia n i m m i g r a n t s . S h e s t r e s s e s th e i m p o r t a n c e o f th e “ic o n ic (A sia n ) i m m i g r a n t [w ho] s e r v e s e x c e p t i o n a l i s t p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e " (p. 5), a n d a r t i c u l a t e s a n i m p o r t a n t s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n in h e r d i s c u s ­ s i o n s o f i m m i g r a t i o n p o li c i e s t h a t w o r k by: “d r a w i n g l i n e s o f i n c l u ­ sio n a n d ex clu sio n th a t artic u la te a d e s ire d c o m p o s itio n — im ag in ed if n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e a l i z e d — o f th e n a t i o n ” (p. 5). In t h a t s e n s e , N g a i’s c la i m t h a t r e s t r i c t i v e i m m i g r a t i o n c o n t r i b u t e d to th e m u l t i p l i c i t y of f a c t o r s t h a t w o u l d b e c o m p l i c i t in " p r o d u c ( i n g ] n e w c a t e g o r i e s of r a ­ c ia l d i f f e r e n c e ” (p. 7) c le a r ly e c h o e s B a l d w i n ’s a r g u m e n t f r o m “T h e P r ic c o f th e T i c k c t . ” In light of th e s e r e c e n t s c h o la r ly a r g u m e n t s , it is c le a r t h a t B a ld w in 's lifelong p r o j e c t of s e e k in g a n d e x p la in in g r o o t s o f th e w h i t e - b l a c k fis­ s u r e a t th e h e a r t o f A m e r ic a n c h a r a c t e r f o r e s h a d o w s d i s c u s s i o n s on h i s to r i c specificity o f r a c i s m a n d its c h a n g in g r ole in th e d e sig n o f n a ­ tio n a l identity. Like Ngai, s c h o l a r s s u c h a s T h o m a s G u g lie lm o , E ith n e L u ib h e id , a n d T oby R o s e 29 a r g u e for a p p r o a c h i n g th e i m m i g r a n t c h a r ­ a c t e r a s a lw a y s ra c ia liz e d , n o t to m e n t i o n g e n d e r e d a n d se x u a liz e d ; l i k e B a l d w i n , t h e y s e e i m m i g r a t i o n a n d r a c e a s c e n t r a l to A m e r i c a n n e s s . In “T h e New L o s t G e n e r a tio n ," B a ld w in s t r e s s e s , “Voy­ a g e r s d is c o v e r t h a t th e w o r ld c a n n e v e r be la r g e r t h a n th e p e r s o n th a t is in th e w o r ld ; b u t it is im p o s s i b l e to fo re s e e th is , it is i m p o s s i b l e to be w a r n e d ” (PT, p. 3 1 0 ). E v e ry i m m i g r a n t e x p e r ie n c e is u n i q u e a n d totally su b je c tiv e , a lth o u g h u s u a lly e n d s u p re la y e d t h r o u g h c o m m o n g e n r e s . My g o a l in t h i s b r i e f re v ie w o f s c h o l a r s h i p h a s n o t b e e n a s m u c h to e x a m i n e in d e t a i l — fo r s u c h s t u d i e s a b o u n d , a s w e h a v e s e e n — b u t r a t h e r to r e la te th e h i s t o r i c p r o c e s s e s o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i m m i g r a n t a n d e s p e c ia lly E u r o p e a n r a c i a l i z a t i o n in th e New W o rld to J a m e s B a l d w i n ’s a r t i c u l a t i o n s o f n a t i o n a l id en tity . S u c h a n a p p r o a c h is c o m p e l l e d b y m y f o c u s in th e n e x t s e c tio n o n B a l d w i n ’s v a r i o u s te x ts t h a t u tiliz e e l e m e n t s o f i m m i g r a n t n a r r a t i v e a n d th e r h e t o r i c o f th e M id d le P a s s a g e . In t e r m s of th e i r f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e , v ir tu a lly all of B a l d w i n ’s w o r k s re ly o n i m a g e r i e s a n d e x p e r ie n c e o f d e p a r t u r e , p a s ­ sage, c ro ssin g , a rriv a l, tra n s itio n , d is p la c e m e n t, d ia s p o ra , g h e t t o i z a t i o n , r e m o v a l, a n d e r a s u r e . B a ld w i n h e l p s u s to s e e t h a t, a p a r t f r o m h i s t o r i c s o u r c c s a n d d a t a , wc m u s t a ls o s t u d y in d e p t h the 29

E.g., see Guglielmo, Luibh eid, a n d Rose.

1 0.

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d iv e r s e n a r r a t i v e p r o d u c t i o n s t h a t h a v e r e s u l t e d f r o m v o l u n t a r y a n d f o r c e d c r o s s i n g s o f th e A tla n tic O c e a n b y E u r o p e a n s a n d A f r ic a n s . In th i s c u l t u r e , t h e s e tw o g r o u p s h a v e b e e n h i s to r ic a ll y o v c r v isib lc , w h ile a ls o b e i n g r e d u c e d — if n o t e r a s e d — to th e e x t r e m e s o f th e c o lo r s p e c t r u m — b l a c k a n d w h ite . “B l a c k s ” a n d “W h ite s" h a v e p r a c ti c a lly d i s a p p e a r e d b e h i n d r a c i s t s t e r e o t y p e s in d i c h o to m y - l o v in g A m e r i c a n c u l t u r a l i m a g i n a t i o n , m y t h s o f n a t i o n a l o r ig in s , a n d e t h n i c c lic h é s. B a l d w in 's w o r k s s h o w u s how, to g e t h e r w ith m a n y o t h e r p e o p le s , th e y f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s e m b r o i l e d in t h e a m b i v a l e n t p r o j e c t o f b u i l d ­ in g th e A m e r i c a n “city o n a h i ll.”

P A S S A G E S AND ARRIVALS: L O ST AND FO UND IN TH E NEW W ORLD C le a rly e c h o in g J a m e s B a ld w in 's id e a s in h e r w e ll- k n o w n s t u d y o f c a ­ n o n ic a l A m e r ic a n l i te r a tu r e , P l a y i n g in t h e D a r k ; W h i t e n e s s a n d t h e L i t e r a r y I m a g i n a t i o n (1 9 9 2 ), Toni M o r r is o n r e m a r k s t h a t “c u l t u r a l id e n titie s a r e f o r m e d a n d in f o r m e d by a n a ti o n 's l i t e r a t u r e ” a n d t h a t “it is n o a c c i d e n t a n d n o m i s t a k e t h a t i m m i g r a n t p o p u l a t i o n s (a n d m u c h i m m i g r a n t l i te r a tu r e ) u n d e r s t o o d t h e ir 'A m e r ic a n n e s s ' a s a n o p p o s i ­ tion to th e r e s i d e n t b l a c k p o p u l a t i o n ” (p. 4 7). M o r r is o n 's a r g u m e n t r e s o n a t e s v ery c le arly fo r m a n y i m m i g r a n t n a r r a t i v e s t h a t m a p i n d i ­ v id u a l a n d collective t r a je c to r ie s o f p a s s a g e fro m th e O ld W orld o f E u ­ r o p e to th e New W orld o f N o r th A m e r ic a . T h e m a jo r ity of th e s e te xts t h a t h a v e b e e n c e l e b r a t e d in A m e r ic a n p o p u l a r im a g i n a t i o n — M ary A n tin ’s T h e P r o m i s e d L a n d ( 1 9 1 2 ), for e x a m p l e — d o n o t in c lu d e a n y m e n t i o n o f th e fact t h a t th e s a m e A tla ntic O c e a n t h a t E u r o p e a n i m m i ­ g r a n t s c r o s s e d in s te e r a g e h a d c a r r i e d t h o u s a n d s o f slav e s h i p s a n d h a r b o r e d th e h o r r o r s of th e M id d le P a ss a g e . Clearly, m a n y i m m i g r a n t w r i t e r s w e r e e ith e r r e f u s in g o r u n a b l e to se e th e r a c ia l strife all a r o u n d th e c o u n t r y t h a t re ce iv e d t h e m , a t th e s a m e tim e a s th e y w e r e b e in g c o n s t r u c t e d a c c o r d i n g to e x c lu s io n a r y n o t i o n s of n e w c o m e r a n d n a ­ tiv e -b o rn id e n tity th e m s e lv e s . A lth o u g h B a l d w i n ’s w o r k s c le a rly a n t i c i p a t e M o r r i s o n ’s a r g u m e n t in P l a y i n g in t h e D a r k , th e y a ls o , a s w e h a v e s e e n , f o r e g r o u n d s o m e o f th e m o r e r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n s o n r a c i a l i z a t i o n o f li g h t - s k i n n e d i m ­ m i g r a n t s b a s e d o n t h e i r n a t i o n a l o r i g i n s . 30 For e x a m p le , in A n o t h e r C o u n t r y ( 1 9 6 2 ) , B a ld w in p o r t r a y s a s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n P o lis h A m e r i ­ c a n , R i c h a r d S ile n sk y , w h o g r e w u p a s h a m e d to s p e a k P o lis h a n d , h a v in g e s c a p e d h is o w n e t h n i c g h e t to b y m e a n s o f l i t e r a r y s u c c e s s , a s s e r t s h i m s e l f in o p p o s i t i o n to b l a c k A m e r i c a n s . A fter y e a r s o f s t a r v ­ in g a s a h i g h b r o w w r ite r , S i l e n s k y le a r n s th e l a w s o f A m e r i c a n d r e a m a n d m a k e s h i s l i t e r a r y c o u p w ith a m y s t e r y no v e l t h a t b e c o m e s a p o p ­ u l a r b e s t s e l l e r a n d c a n d i d a t e for a H o lly w o o d hit. H is s t o r y e c h o e s 30Scc cspccially the w o rk of J a c o b s o n ( 1998), b u t also B ro d k ln 's H o w J e w s B e c a m e W h ite Folks, Guglielmo, Roediger. Lipsitz, a n d Z a b o r o w s k a (1995).

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th e t r a d i t i o n a l m a l e i m m i g r a n t n a r r a t i v e o f e c o n o m i c s u c c e s s — o r a l l- A m e r ic a n r a g s - t o - r i c h e s p r o g r e s s . 31 T h r o u g h it, B a lw in a ls o h i n t s , m u c h like s u c h p r o m i n e n t e a r l y - 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y i m m i g r a n t a u ­ t h o r s a s A b r a h a m C a h a n o r A n z ia Y e z ie rsk a , a t th e p r e s s u r e s a n d c o n t i n g e n c i e s o f n e w c o m e r c u l t u r a l id e n t ity a n d a u t h o r s h i p in th e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y U n ite d S t a t e s . O bviously, m a n y E u r o p e a n - A m e r i c a n i m m i g r a n t te x ts, willingly o r unwittingly, naively o r slyly, c o r r o b o r a t e d th e p r o j e c t o f th e " c o n s t r u c ­ tion of th e A m e r i c a n a s a n ew w h ite m a n ” (p. 3 9 ), a s M o r r is o n ( 1 9 9 2 ) s t r e s s e s . It is i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r , how ever, t h a t th o s e te x ts w e re n o t s e e n , a t l e a s t u n t il relatively recently, a s p a r t o f n a tio n a l lit e r a tu r e (or a s d e s e r v in g to b e c a lle d li t e r a t u r e a t a ll).32 T h a t is, th e y w e r e g h e tto iz e d a s m u c h a s o t h e r e t h n ic a n d ra c ia liz e d lite r a r y t r a d i t i o n s , a t the s a m e tim e a s th ey w e r e p la c e d s o m e w h a t h ig h e r in th e e p i d e r m a l l y d e t e r m i n e d , so to s p e a k , h i e r a r c h y of th e s e t r a d i t i o n s . T h e i r w r i t e r s w e re u s u a ll y b o u n d by the c o d e s a n d e x p e c ta ti o n s o f th e d o m i n a n t c u l ­ tu r e in t e r m s of c o n te n t, la n g u a g e , style, a n d g e n re : t h e ir s u c c e s s a n d m a r k e t a b i l i t y w e r e s u b j e c t to th e p e r c e p t i o n s a n d t a s t e s o f th o s e in c h a r g e o f th e b u s i n e s s o f p u b l i s h i n g a n d m a r k e tin g . For e x a m p le , th e w o r k s by E a s t E u r o p e a n J e w s , s u c h a s th e o n e s by th e a f o r e m e n ­ tio n e d a u t h o r s Y ezierska, A ntin , a n d C a h a n , e v id e n c e m u c h a tte n tio n to th e e x p e c ta t io n s of e d i t o r s a n d r e a d e r s , w h o h a d a v ery specific k in d of a J e w i s h n e w c o m e r in m i n d . 33 T h i s m e d i a t i o n of i m m i g r a n t te x ts in e a rly - to m i d - 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y U n ite d S t a t e s w a s in a n d of its e lf a f o r m of l i t e r a r y p a s s a g e a n d p r o ­ c e s s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n t h r o u g h th e p u b l i s h i n g m a r k e t . M o s t i m p o r ­ ta n t, it o fte n t o o k p la c e in w a y s e e rily s i m i l a r to t h o s e t h a t h a d o b t a i n e d for A fric a n A m e r i c a n w r i t e r s a n d a r t i s t s in th is c o u n tr y . E v e r s in c e th e 1 8 t h - c e n t u r y p o e t a n d A f ric a n slav e P h illis W h e a tle y h a d h e r a b ilit ie s a n d in te llig e n c e e x a m i n e d by a d is b e lie v i n g p a n e l o f w h ite m a l e j u d g e s , m a r g i n a l i z e d a n d m i n o r i t y w r i t e r s h a v e h a d to face r a c i a l i z e d n o t i o n s o f t a l e n t a n d ab ility.34 T h e ir o n y o f t h i s p a r a ­ d o x ic a l s i m i l a r i t y in th e t r e a t m e n t o f p a s s a g e s a n d s t o r i e s p r o d u c e d b y d i s p l a c e d p e o p l e s , s o m e o f w h o m w o u l d a n d d id b e c o m e w h ite A m e r i c a n s w ith tim e , a n d t h o s e “o t h e r s ” w h o w e r e b r a n d e d b y c o n ­ s t r u c t i o n s o f r a c e a n d e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e d e f in i tio n o f a c itiz e n a n d n a t i o n a l w a s n o t lo s t o n J a m e s B a ld w in . B a ld w in ’s li t e r a r y a n d lite r a l “i n v e r te d i m m i g r a n t j o u r n e y s ”— h i s e x p e r ie n c e o f m i g r a t i o n a n d w o r k s d o c u m e n t i n g it— r e - v is io n (A frican) A m e r i c a n i d e n t ity in th e s e c o n d h a l f o f th e 2 0 t h c c n t u r y by f in d in g b o t h p o i n t s o f c o n t e n t i o n a n d s p a c e s fo r u n e a s y d ia lo g u e b e tw e e n w h ite a n d b l a c k s t o r i e s of d i s p l a c e m e n t in th e New W orld. 31

See m y d i s c u s s i o n of this g e n d e r e d m o d e l in l l o w We F o un d (Z a b o ro w s k a , 1995). See the w o rk s of Zaborow ska, Lowe, Friedman, D earborn, and Sollors, am o n g others. 33 For s c h o l a r s h ip th at p i o n e e rs in clu sio n of im m i g r a n t texts in A m e ric an n a tio na l lit­ e r a t u re , see D e a rb o rn . Z a b o r o w s k a (1995). Sollors. Lowe. Rose, a n d M e n doz a at al. See L evernier (1991). O Neale (1986). S cheick (1984), a n d R o b in so n (1965). 32

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B a ld w in ’s o w n m u ltip le c r o s s i n g s of th e A tla n tic a n d h is r e f e r e n c e s to i m m i g r a n t s , (im Jm ig ra tio n , a n d la n g u a g e -, iden tity-, a n d c u ltu r e - a ltc r in g p a s s a g e s f u n c tio n in h is n o v e ls, e s s a y s , a n d in te rv ie w s s id e by s id e w ith th e r h e t o r i c o f th e M id d le P a s sa g e . In th e s h o r t s to r y "T his M o rn in g , T h i s E v e n in g , So S o o n ” ( 1 9 6 0 ) , h e m ix e s u p ra c ia liz e d i d e n ­ tities, tr a j e c to r ie s , a n d lo c a tio n s to s h o w th e ir c o n s t r u c t e d c h a r a c t e r a n d instability. T h e s t o r y ’s p r o t a g o n i s t is a n a m e l e s s A fric a n A m e r ic a n a r t i s t in th e Old W orld of P a r is , w h o fa c e s a r e t u r n to th e U n ite d S t a t e s a s a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l sta r. He e n v is a g e s h is j o u r n e y b a c k h o m e a s a n iro n ic r e e n a c t m e n t o f a w h ite i m m i g r a n t p a s s a g e to th e New W orld. W hile o n a b o a t a r r iv in g in th e New York H a r b o r , B a ld w in 's p r o t a g o n i s t o b s e r v e s h is fellow p a s s e n g e r s a s th e y a r e e n jo y in g a H olly w o od -lik e r e p la y of a c lic h e d i m m i g r a n t la n d in g : I w a t c h e d ... (New York) c o m e c l o s e r a n d I li s t e n e d to th e p e o p le a r o u n d m e . to th e i r e x c i t e m e n t a n d th e i r p l e a s u r e . T h e r e w a s n o d o u b t t h a t it w a s real. I w a t c h e d t h e i r s h i n i n g f a c e s a n d w o n d e r e d if I w e r e m a d . F or a m o m e n t I l o n g e d , w ith all m y h e a r t , to be a b le to feel w h a t e v e r th e y w e r e feeling, if o n ly to k n o w w h a t s u c h a feeling w a s like. As th e b o a t m o v e d slo w ly in to th e h a r b o r , th e y w e r e b e in g m o v e d in to safety. It w a s o n ly I w h o w a s b e i n g flo a te d in to d a n g e r. I t u r n e d m y h e a d , l o o k i n g for E u r o p e , b u t all t h a t s t r e t c h e d b e h i n d m e w a s th e sky, th i c k w ith g u lls __ A big, s a n d y - h a i r e d m a n h e ld h is d a u g h t e r o n h is s h o u l d e r s , s h o w i n g h e r th e S t a t u e o f Liberty, (p. 1 6 2 )35

B a ld w in u p s e t s h e r e b o th b l a c k a n d w h ite n a r r a t i v e m o d e l s ’ r e lia n c e o n o n e -w a y p a s s a g e s a n d m o v e m e n t s of b o d i e s a n d s t o r i e s to p o s e a n a lte r n a tiv e , m u lt id ir e c tio n a l, a n d d y n a m i c s t o r y o f A m e r ic a n natio n - a n d - l i t e r a t u r e - b u i l d i n g a c r o s s th e A tlan tic. T h i s e x c e r p t in p a r t i c ­ u l a r a n d th e w h o le s to r y in g e n e r a l a lso f o r e s h a d o w th e p r e o c c u p a t i o n w ith im m i g r a t i o n a n d i m m i g r a n t n a r r a t i v e in th e m u c h l a te r B a ld w in e s s a y “T h e Pricc o f th e T ic k e t.” For th e n a m e l e s s n a r r a t o r - p r o t a g o n i s t in “T h i s M o r n in g ,” h is s e n s e o f d a n g e r c l a s h e s w ith th e visio n o f the W h ite s' h a p p y h o m e c o m i n g . T h e y e n jo y it like a t h e m e p a r k r id e , c o m ­ plete w ith th e view of th e S t a t u e o f L ib e rty a n d s t r e a m i n g A m e r ic a n flags. A lth o u g h B a ld w in p la c e s h is A fric a n A m e r ic a n , q u ite literally, in th e “s a m e b o a t ” w ith th e W h ite s, he e m p h a s i z e s h is is o la tio n fro m th e m a n d h is invisib ility in t h e i r eyes. As we le a r n fr o m th e r e s t o f th e story, th e p r o t a g o n i s t ’s feelings of a lie n a tio n a n d d a n g e r a r e c o m p o u n d e d by th e fa c t t h a t he h a s b e e n liv­ ing in F r a n c e for y e a r s , h a s a (white) S w e d is h wife a n d a " m ix e d - r a c e ” s o n . As h e is r e t u r n i n g to h is p la c e of o r ig in s , h e f e a r s h e m a y b e j u d g e d , a n d even p e r s e c u t e d , for h is m u l tip l e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s a g a in s t w h ite s u p r e m a c y . M oreover, h is o w n a n d h is fa m ily ’s safety d e p e n d , too, o n h is b e in g a b le to "play th e N e g ro ,” a s it w e re , th a t is, b e h a v e in w a y s th a t w o u ld n o t a n ta g o n iz e h is w h ite c o m p a t r i o t s a n d th e s ta te . 35

See “T h is Morning, T h is Evening, So Soon," in Going to M e e t the M an.

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a n d e sp e c ia lly th e police. We c a n se e B a ld w in p r e p a r i n g g r o u n d h e r e for a n o t h e r critic a l p e r s p e c ti v e w ith m u c h c u r re n c y , t h a t is, P au l G ilro y 's ( 1 9 9 3 ) f a m o u s “i n t c r c u l t u r a l a n d t r a n s n a t i o n a l f o r m a tio n " o f the B la c k A tlan tic, in w h ic h id e n titie s a r e in s ta b le a n d m u t a b l e , “a l ­ w ays u n f i n i s h e d , alw a y s b e in g r e m a d e ” (ix ).36 B a ld w in 's c rea tiv e a n d s u b t l e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of, o r r a t h e r in n o v a tiv e i m p r o v i s a t i o n o n th e (w hite E u r o p e a n ) i m m i g r a n t n a r r a t i v e p a t t e r n s a n d im a g e r y a n d h is often u n o r t h o d o x a n d a m b i v a l e n t c r o s s - b r e e d i n g of th is m o d e l w ith th e r h e t o r i c o f th e A frican D i a s p o r a i n f o r m s s e v e ra l o t h e r of h is p r o m i n e n t w o r k s . 37 A m o n g th e m a r e e s s a y s — “'On B eing W hite' a n d O th e r L ie s ,” “W hite M a n ’s G u ilt”38— a n d , to a c e r ta in e x ten t, even s u c h s e e m in g ly “w hite" n o v e ls o f h is a s G i o v a n n i ’s R o o m (1 9 5 6 ) a n d A n o t h e r C o u n t r y ( 1 9 6 2 ). M o s t in te r e s tin g , in th e la t te r two, B a ld w in u s e s r e f e r e n c e s to i m m i g r a n t n a r r a t i v e to tell s t o r i e s of c h a r ­ a c t e r s b u r d e n e d by th e legacy of th e t r a n s a t l a n t i c s la v e ry o n b o t h s id e s of th e c o lo r line, a s is th e c a s e w ith D av id in G i o v a n n i ' s R o o m a n d R u f u s a n d Vivaldo in A n o t h e r C o u n t r y , a n d s e v e r a l p r o t a g o n i s t s o f th e s h o r t s t o r i e s c o lle c te d in G o i ng to M e e t t h e M a n ( 1 9 6 5 ).39 L et u s r e t u r n to A n o t h e r C o u n t r y (AC; 1 9 6 2 ), w h ic h h a s n o t b e e n sufficiently re c o g n iz e d for its a s t u t e e x a m i n a t i o n of th e legacy of E u r o ­ p e a n i m m ig r a ti o n , th e M id d le P a ssa g e , a n d i n t r a n a t i o n a l m ig r a tio n s . T h e e n d i n g of t h i s r ic h novel offers a c le a r r e e n a c t m e n t o f yet a n o t h e r i m m i g r a n t a r r iv a l c a s t in a tr o u b l i n g c o n te x t. Incid en tally, th is s c e n e w a s w r itt e n w h e n B a ld w in r e s i d e d in h is s e m i - i m m i g r a n t , se m ie x ilic lo c a tio n in T u r k e y (L eem ing, 1 9 9 4 , p. 153). It f e a t u r e s Yves, a y o u n g p r o l e t a r i a n F r e n c h m a n , w h o is a r r iv in g in the U n ite d S t a t e s by p la n e to r e u n i t e w ith h is o l d e r A m e r ic a n lover. T h e lover, E ric , is a w h ite S o u t h e r n e r w h o e s c a p e d h is h o m e a n d l a n d o w n i n g legacy to the N o r th , t h u s follow ing in th e f o o t s te p s of A frica n A m e r i c a n s w h o m i ­ g r a te d t h e r e d u r i n g R e c o n s t r u c t i o n . E r ic is a n a c t o r w h o h a s s p e n t a lon g tim e in F r a n c e , w h e r e h e m e t a n d fell in love w ith Yves. U p o n his a rr iv a l a n d s o o n to b e r e u n i t e d w ith E ric , Yves is c o n s u m e d w ith w h a t is c le a rly a n i m m i g r a n t a n x ie ty — Will th e y let m e in ? A m I go od e n o u g h ? Will th e y like m e ? — r a t h e r t h a n joy. As th e p a s s e n g e r s he h a s c h a tte d w ith d u r i n g th e flight s lip off th e “fa c e s they h a d w o r n w h e n My b o o k on Baldwin. Erotics o j E xile, e x plo re s m anifold a n d tr o u b lin g c o n n e c tio n s betw een the rhe toric of the Middle Passage. Black Atlantic, a n d th a t of E u r o p e - t o - M America” im m i g r a n t s to ry in Bald w in’s life-long p ro je c t of re d efin ing the social a n d n a rra tiv e s p a c e s of A m e ric a n identity. *7Likc Baldwin, I a m fully aw are th at m y focusing on these two u n d e rly in g n a r ra tiv e s s o m e w h a t m arig in aliz e s the p r io r sto ry of E u r o p e a n colo nizatio n of the c o n tin e n t a n d Native A m e ric an genocide. T h is is n o t the in te ntion of this study: again, I a m exercising the n e c e s s a r y n a r ro w in g of my sc ope. 38See also Roediger on th is issu e a n d these essays. Critical W hite S t u d i e s , p. 356. 39 Sec also Irish American Parnell in B lu e s f o r Mister Charlie, a n d the na m e less female Italian sh o p k e e p er and Mexican café o w ners a n d Puerto Ricans in IJ B ea le S t r e e t Could T a l k : J u s t A bove My H e a d includes episodic e ncou nters with West Indians in New York City.

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h a n g in g ... in th e m id d le o f th e a ir ... for th e faces w h ic h th e y w o r e on e a r t h ” (p. 4 3 3 ) , Yves feels “h e lp le s s ly F r e n c h : a n d h e h a d n e v e r felt F r e n c h b e f o r e ” (p. 4 3 4 ). W hile the r e t r e a t i n g A m e r ic a n p a s s e n g e r s s e e m to con vey to h im t h a t h e is a n o u t s i d e r in th e ir m i d s t — "they d id n o t k n o w w h o he w a s" (p. 4 3 4 ) — “It f la s h e d t h r o u g h h im t h a t of c o u r s e h e h a d a t e s t to p a s s : h e h a d n o t yet e n t e r e d th e c o u n tr y ; p e r h a p s h e w o u ld n o t p a s s th e test" (AC, p. 4 3 4 ). In o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d t h e r a c ia l iz e d u n d e r p i n n i n g s of Y ves’s d i ­ l e m m a , let u s le a p tw o d e c a d e s i n to th e f u t u r e , r e t u r n i n g to B a l d w i n ’s e s s a y t h a t we b e g a n w ith , “T h e P r ic e o f th e T i c k e t ” ( 1 9 8 5 ) . Its c o n c l u ­ s io n h i s t o r i c i z e s Y ves’s e x p e r i e n c e in A n o t h e r C o u n t r y , o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d s u p p o r t s B a l d w i n ’s c l a i m s a b o u t A m e r i c a n n e s s a s a n im m i g r a n t / r a c i a l i z e d c o n s t r u c t , o n th e o th e r . As if a n s w e r i n g J . H e c to r S t. J o h n d e C r e v e c o e u r ’s f a m o u s h i s t o r i c i n t e r r o g a t i o n in o u r c e n ­ t u r y of m i g r a t i o n s — “W h a t is a n A m e r i c a n , t h a t n e w m a n ? ”— B a ld w in d e s c r i b e s th e m o m e n t o f i m m i g r a n t a r r i v a l a s a p a s s a g e in to re a d y -m a d e w h iten ess: They com e th r o u g h Ellis Isla n d , w h ere Giorgio b e c o m e s J o e , Pappavasiliu becomes Palmer, Evangelos becomes Evans, Goldsmith becomes S mi th or Gold, and Av ak ia n becomes King. So, with a painless change of name, and in the twinkling of an eye, one becomes a white American. (PT. p. xix) B a ld w in f o c u s e s h e r e o n th e m o s t c lic h e d p a r t o f t h e s to r y t h a t c o n ­ c e r n s p a s s a g e t h r o u g h a n d r e n a m i n g a t th e im m i g r a t i o n s ta t io n lo ­ c a te d o n E llis I s la n d in th e New York H a rb o r. T h i s q u o t a ti o n , th e n , p r o v i d e s th e h is to r ic a n d m e t a p h o r i c c o n te x t for Yves’ a rr iv a l, b u t a lso e c h o e s B a ld w in ’s d e s c r i p t i o n of th e la n d of th e free a s th e h o u s e of b o n d a g e . W h ite n e s s , he s u g g e s ts , is a p r i s o n . As a n e w c o m e r , Yves will l e a r n th is on ly afte r h is p a s s a g e in to A m e r ic a . A n d if h e r le ts h i m s e l f b e c o m e w h ite , h e will b e fo re v e r i m p r i s o n e d by h is ra c e , n o m a t t e r its p riv ileg e d p o s it io n in s o c ia l h ie ra rc h y . E llis I s l a n d t h a t B a l d w i n r e f e r s to is t h e p a l a t i a l b u i l d i n g o f th e i m m i g r a t i o n s t a t i o n , w h i c h h a s b e e n f e a t u r e d in t h o u s a n d s o f p h o ­ to g r a p h s a n d sin ce th e early 1 9 9 0 s h a s h o u s e d a m u s e u m of im m i­ g r a t i o n . It b e c a m e a n i m p o r t a n t a r c h i t e c t u r a l s y m b o l fo r E u r o p e a n n e w c o m e r s a n d a v ita l im a g e in t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f m y t h i c n a t i o n a l o r i g i n s , e c li p s in g , fo r e x a m p l e , A n g e l I s l a n d o n th e W est C o a s t , w h i c h r e c e i v e d th e m a j o r i t y o f A s i a n i m m i g r a n t s . E llis I s l a n d t h u s h a s s t o o d fo r th e "g a te w a y to A m e r ic a " in th e p o p u l a r i m a g i n a t i o n , l i t e r a t u r e , a n d v i s u a l c u l t u r e . A s s u c h , it e r a s e s o t h e r a r r i v a l s a n d e n t r y p o i n t s , a n d e s p e c ia ll y th e p a i n f u l a n d t r a u m a t i c “o t h e r " A m e r ­ ic a n p a s s a g e — t h a t o f th e A f ric a n s la v e s . T h e m a j o r i t y o f A f r i c a n s in b o n d a g e w e r e b r o u g h t to N o r t h A m e r i c a t h r o u g h t h e p o r t o f C h a r l e s t o n , S o u t h C a r o l i n a ; s o m e w e r e s t a t i o n e d o n th e i s l a n d s off

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th e s o u t h e a s t e r n c o a s t . Yet t h e r e a r e n o m o n u m e n t s o r n a t i o n a l l y s a n c t i o n e d s p a c e s o f c o n t e m p l a t i o n in t h e s e l o c a t i o n s t h a t w o u l d c o m e c lo s e to E llis I s l a n d . 40 T h e g lo r io u s i m m i g r a n t s t o r y c h e r i s h e d a t th e site of th e E llis I s la n d m u s e u m to d a y a n d e u lo g iz ed in d o c u m e n t a r i e s a n d p u b l i c a t i o n s e n d s w ith th e t r i u m p h a n t p a s s a g e in to a n d th r o w in g o p e n th e “d o o r to A m e r ic a ." 41 T h e a f t e r m a t h of th e e n tr y is v irtu a lly u n i m p o r t a n t . It b e ­ c o m e s a s u b j e c t o f d o c u m e n t a t i o n a n d s t u d y for so c ia l w o r k e r s , s c h o o l s , g o v e r n m e n t a l c o m m i s s i o n s , a n d a r t i s t s a n d j o u r n a l i s t s , fro m J a c o b Riis to th e D illin g h a m C o m m i s s i o n . B a ld w in v e n t u r e s in to th a t r e a lm o f p o s t p a s s a g e to a n a ly z e its u n g l a m o r o u s r e s u l t s , a n d to p la c e t h e m in th e c o n te x t of th e t r a n s a t l a n t i c c r o s s i n g fo rc e d o n h is e n s la v e d A fric a n a n c e s t o r s : Later, in the midnight hour, the missing identity aches. One can neither access nor overcome the storm of the middle passage. One is mysteri­ ously shipwrecked forever, in the Great New World. (PT, p. xix) T h e s o m e w h a t o b liq u e , im p lie d r e f e r e n c e s to the African a n d E u r o p e a n “m id d le p a s s a g e " s e e m to b le n d to g e th e r in th e s p a c e of j u s t th r e e b r ie f s e n te n c e s . B ald w in s u g g e s ts th a t th e fre sh ly m in te d w h ite A m e r ic a n s find th e m s e lv e s n o t e n r ic h e d by a n e w identity, b u t r a t h e r s t r i p p e d of th e only id e n tity th ey h a d ever k n o w n u p o n th e ir a rr iv a l— o r “s h i p ­ w r e c k ”— in th e “G r e a t New W orld .” S u c h a n a p p r o a c h p u t s in q u e s tio n the u t o p ia of i m m i g r a n t p r o g r e s s by n e g a tin g the m y th ic s t o r y ’s h a p p y e n d in g .42 B a ld w in d o e s so by su g g e stin g th e often tragic re a litie s of E u ­ r o p e a n p o s tp a s s a g e . M oreover, by b r in g in g th is n a r r a tiv e tra d itio n to ­ g e th e r w ith the o n e of A frican e n s la v e m e n t a n d M idd le Pa ssa g e , he p o s e s b o t h of th e m a s equ ally i m p o r t a n t a n d p ain fully in te rw o v e n in the la rg e r n a r r a tiv e fab ric of n a tio n a l orig in s. B a ld w in ’s m o v e c a n b e r e a d a s iro n ic , o r virtually sa c rile g io u s, in its violation o f n a tio n a l m y th a n d of th e s e p a r a t e — if n o t g h e tto iz e d — n a r r a tiv e m o d e ls t h a t in A m e ric a n lite ra ry h is to r y se g re g ate th e “w h ite ” a n d “b l a c k ” tr a d iti o n s . N e v e r th e le s s , b y l i n k in g th e tw o d i s p a r a t e n a r r a t i v e s o f p a s s a g e a n d a r r i v a l in “T h e P ric e of th e T i c k e t , ” B a ld w in o b l i t e r a t e s t h e i r e x c lu s io n a r y , c o m p e t itiv e , a s it w e r e , p o s i t i o n i n g vis-à-vis e a c h o t h e r on th e o p p o s i t e e n d s o f th e A m e r i c a n s p e c t r u m o f color. He s t r e s s e s a s a p o i n t o f c o n n e c t i o n b e tw e e n t h e tw o s t o r i e s th e s h a r e d l o s s o f s e lf a n d h o m e , a s w ell a s th e fa c t t h a t b o t h g r o u p s e n d c a u g h t u p , a lb e it w ith d r a m a t i c a l l y d if f e r e n t o u t c o m e s , in th e r a c i a l m a c h i n e r y of A m e r i c a n iz a tio n : 40

I a m a w are of the ex istence of the Avery M u s e u m in C h a r le s to n , which is i m p r e s ­ sive. but not of the callbcr I have In m in d here. 41 See the v ideocassette p r o d u c ti o n of “Island of Hope, Island of Tears," at the Ellis Is­ l and M u s eu m . 42 H ere I echo m y c h a p t e r on Anzia Yezierska a n d h e r h a p p y e n d in g s in H ow We F oun d A m e r i c a (1995).

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The Irish middle passage, for but one example, was as foul as my own. and as dishonorable on the p art of those responsible for it. But the Irish became white when they got here and began rising in the world, whereas I became black and began sinking. (PT, p. xx) B a l d w in n o t o n ly b r a i d s t o g e t h e r h e r e th e s t o r i e s o f th e I r i s h a n d Af­ r i c a n c r o s s i n g s t h a t “m a d e th e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e , ” a s O s c a r H a n d l i n m i g h t p u t it, b u t g o e s o n to p r o c l a i m t h a t t h e r e w e r e c o m p a r a b l e c a u s e s a n d c o s t s o f th e j o u r n e y fo r t h e E u r o p e a n n e w c o m e r s a n d th e b l a c k A m e r i c a n s a s th e y e n c o u n t e r e d th e N ew W o rld . E s p e c ia lly , t h e s h a r e d m o m e n t o f l o s s a n d c o n f r o n t a t i o n w ith th e n e w a lie n l a n d is w h a t h a s b e e n lo s t; in fac t, B a l d w i n i m p l i e s th is m a y b e th e p a r t o f t h e s t o r y t h a t h a d to be o b l i t e r a t e d , to p r o d u c e th e a n t a g o n i s ­ tic b l a c k - w h i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t s e c u r e d th e r a c i a l h i e r a r c h y a t th e c o r e o f th e n a t i o n . In B a ld w in 's a c c o u n t i n g o f th e e c o n o m y o f r a c e w ith in th e c o n s t r u c ­ tio n s o f n a t i o n a l identity, th e s h a r e d jo u r n e y e n d s u p w ith very d iffe r­ en t, c o lo r - c o d e d o u tc o m e s : The price th at white American paid for his ticket was to becom e white— : and, in the m ain, nothing m ore than that, or, as he was to in ­ sist, nothing less. T his incredibly limited not to say dim witted a m b i­ tion h a s choked m any a h u m a n being to death here: and this, I con tend, is b ecause the white A m erican has never accepted the real re a so n s for his journey. I know very well th a t m y a n c e s tors had no d e ­ sire to come to this place: b u t neither did the a n c e sto rs of the people who bccam c white an d who re qu ire of my captivity a song. They r e ­ quire of me a song less to celebrate my captivity than to justify their own. (PT, p. xx) In t h u s r e v e a lin g th e flip s id e o f w h i t e n e s s a s a m a s k c o v e r in g u p lo s s a n d d e n i a l o f o n e 's p a s t a n d a n c e s tr y , B a ld w in fulfills th e t a s k o f b e ­ in g "a g o o d w r i t e r ,” w ith w h ic h h e e n t r u s t e d h i m s e l f a s a f r e s h ly a n o i n t e d i m m i g r a n t a u t h o r in P a r is . By s h o w i n g th a t , lik e th e A fri­ c a n , th e I r is h i m m i g r a n t s u f f e r e d a lo s s o f n a m e in t h e New W o rld , B a ld w in c o m m e n t s on a s o m e w h a t s t r u c t u r a l l y s i m i l a r p r o c e s s of p a s s a g e , a t t h e s a m e tim e a s h e s t r e s s e s th e d r a m a t i c a l l y d if f e r e n t c o n s e q u e n c e s fo r b o t h s u b j e c t s u p o n a r r iv a l. It c a n b e s a i d , t h e n , t h a t h e is u s i n g th is r i s k y j u x t a p o s i t i o n to c r e a t e a s p a c e fo r d ia lo g u e b e ­ tw e e n th e tw o i n c o m p a t i b l e n a r r a t i v e s o f p a s s a g e in to th e A m e r i c a n h o u s e o f b o n d a g e . A lth o u g h n o t free f r o m a w k w a r d n e s s a n d r i s k , t h i s m a n e u v e r e n a b l e s h im to c h ip a t th e “m y t h o f A m e r i c a to w h ic h we [all] c lin g s o d e s p e r a t e l y ” (p. 173).

CONCLUSION: A G A IN ST E SSE N T IA L ISM /SE PA R A T ISM As I h a v e s h o w n , B a ld w in d i s c u s s e s E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t c r o s s i n g s a n d t h e ir e n t a n g l e m e n t w ith th e c o m p le x h is t o r y o f A fric a n p r e s e n c e in

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th e New W orld in th e e s s a y s a n d fiction t h a t p i o n e e r d i s c u s s i o n s on c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f n a t i o n a l identity. H is w o r k s a n d life s t o r y offer p r o ­ f o u n d a n d p ro v o c a tiv e t h e o r iz a ti o n s o f A m c r i c a n n c s s a s t r a n s n a t i o n a l a n d m u ltir a c ia l, a n d sig n a l i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s of c o n n e c ti o n , a n d c o n ­ t e n tio n , b e tw e e n th e r h e t o r i c of th e M id d le P a s s a g e a n d (white) E u r o ­ p e a n i m m i g r a n t c r o s s i n g y e a r s b e f o r e th e y h a v e b e g u n to b e a r t i c u l a t e d in a c a d e m i c d i s c u s s i o n s . B a ld w in 's e x p lic it g o a l is n o t to s e p a r a t e p e o p l e s a n d c u l t u r e s ; h is g e n e r a l p r o j e c t b r i n g s th e m all t o g e th e r in a m u c h m o r e c o m p r e h e n ­ sive t r a n s a t l a n t i c p e r s p e c t i v e . 43 In “E n c o u n t e r o n th e S e in e ," h is a u ­ t o b i o g r a p h i c a l A fric a n A m e r i c a n v is ito r in P a r is d e l i b e r a t e s th e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f h i s s t a t u s , w h ile e n c o u n t e r i n g h i s w h ite a n d b l a c k c o m p a t r i o t s , o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d F r e n c h c o lo n ia l A f r ic a n s , o n th e o t h e r : “P e r h a p s it n o w o c c u r s to h i m t h a t in h is n e e d to e s t a b l i s h h i m ­ s e lf in r e l a t i o n to h i s p a s t h e is m o s t A m e r i c a n , t h a t th is d e p t h l e s s a l i e n a t i o n f r o m o n e s e l f a n d o n e ’s p e o p le is, in s u m , th e A m e r i c a n e x ­ p e r i e n c e " (PT, p . 3 9 ). T h i s d i s c o v e r y is n o t a c o n f i r m a t i o n of s o m e u n iv ersal, esse n tia l A m erican ch aracter, b u t r a th e r a n a c k n o w le d g ­ m e n t o f a s h a r e d h e r ita g e o f d e p a r t u r e s , p a s s a g e s , a n d a r r i v a l s — in s h o r t , o f u p r o o t e d n e s s , flux, a n d c o n s t a n t c h a n g e a s m a r k s o f n a ­ t i o n a l b e lo n g in g b e y o n d , b e c a u s e , a n d i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f r a c e . As B a ld w in s a y s in th e i n t r o d u c t i o n to N o b o d y K n o w s M y N a m e : “In A m e r i c a , th e c o l o r o f m y s k i n h a d s t o o d b e tw e e n m y s e l f a n d m e ; in E u r o p e , t h a t b a r r i e r w a s d o w n . N o t h in g is m o r e d e s i r a b l e t h a n to b e r e l e a s e d fr o m a n afflic tio n, b u t n o t h i n g is m o r e f r i g h te n i n g t h a n to b e d iv e s t e d o f a c r u t c h ” ( E s s a y s , p. 1 3 5 ) .44 W hile t h u s b o l d ly d i s p l a c i n g th e m o d e l w h ite A m e r i c a n m a l e t r a v ­ ele r in E u r o p e p o p u l a r i z e d by H e n r y J a m e s ’s o r M a r k T w a in ’s w o r k s , B a ld w in i n s i s t s o n th e m a t e r i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f s o c ia l a n d c u l t u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f r a c e for all A m e r i c a n s a n d p e o p l e s . F o r e x a m p le , t h i s l e s s o n h i t s h o m e to a s i m i l a r d e g r e e fo r w h ite D a v id o f G i o v a n n i ' s R o o m a n d b l a c k A r t h u r in J u s t a b o v e M y H e a d w h e n th e y c o n f r o n t love a f f a ir s w ith E u r o p e a n m e n . A l th o u g h th e i r b o d i e s s e e m a b le to d o so t h r o u g h s e x u a l e n c o u n t e r s , a t l e a s t m o m e n t a r il y , th e i d e n t i t i e s o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s c a n n o t e s c a p e th e A m e r i c a n s o c ia l f o r c e s o f r a c i s m , h o m o p h o b i a , a n d h e t e r o s e x i s m . By s ig n a lin g th e p r e s e n c e o f s e x u a li ty in n e g o t i a t i o n s o f n a t i o n a l a n d i m m i g r a n t i d e n ­ tity, B a l d w in t h u s g e s t u r e s t o w a r d s a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f i m m i g r a n t s t u d i e s t h a t is in u r g e n t n e e d o f e x p lo r a t io n . In B a ld w in , th e s t o r y of th e n a ti o n is n e i t h e r b l a c k n o r w hite, b u t s h i n e s w ith th e full s p e c t r u m o f m u l t i h u e d h u m a n i t y t h a t is in c o n ­ s t a n t m o tio n , m ig r a tin g , c h a n g in g p la c e s a n d id e n titie s . G iven the 43

Although a rguably m o r e justified, if n ot expected for identity politics’ s a k e , to focus on his p e o p le ’s plight. B ald w in occasionally falls p r a y to the w h ite - b la c k d ich o to m y that he is setting o u t to d ism an tle. 44 See, I n tro d u ctio n . Bald w in (1961). N o b o d y K n o w s .

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m a n y N a tiv e p e o p l e s t h a t h a d b e e n liv in g in N o r t h A m e r i c a b e f o r e a n y im m ig ra n ts c a m e h e re, th is sto ry c a n n o t be w ritten w ith o u t th e m , as B a l d w i n a c k n o w l e d g e s in s e v e r a l e s s a y s . 45 F a r f r o m s i g n a l i n g fa c ile s im ila r itie s o r u n p r o b l e m a t i c r e c o n c ilia tio n s , h is w o r k s s t r e s s the c h a lle n g e a n d p a i n th a t A m e r i c a n n e s s e n ta ils for th o s e w h o h a v e i n ­ h e r i t e d i ts m a n y i m m i g r a n t n a r r a t i v e s . A s D a v id , t h e w h i t e A m e r i c a n p r o t a g o n i s t o f G i o v a n n i ’s R o o m (G R : 1 9 5 6 ) d e f i n e s h i m s e l f : “My a n ­ c e s to rs c o n q u e re d a c o n tin en t, p u s h in g a c ro s s d e a th -la d e n p la in s, u n ­ til t h e y c a m e to a n o c e a n w h i c h f a c e d a w a y f r o m E u r o p e i n t o a d a r k e r p a s t ” (G R , p . 3 ). L ik e m a n y o t h e r B a l d w i n c h a r a c t e r s , D a v i d l e a r n s t h a t h e is a p a r t o f a m u c h l a r g e r s t o r y t h a n h e w o u l d lik e to a c k n o w l ­ e d g e . In h i s l i t e r a r y m a n i f e s t o , “A s M u c h T r u t h a s O n e C a n B e a r , ” ( 1 9 6 2 ) B a l d w i n s t a t e s w h a t s e e m s to b e a v e r y a p t w a y o f c l o s i n g t h i s e s s a y o n difficult a n d n e c e s s a r y r e a d in g s o f i m m i g r a n t s to r ie s b e y o n d a n d f o r r a c e : “N o t e v e r y t h i n g t h a t is f a c e d c a n b e c h a n g e d ; b u t n o t h i n g c a n b e c h a n g e d u n t i l it is f a c e d ” (p. 3 8 ) . 46

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11 M odel M inority and M arital Violence: S o u th A sia n Im m igrants in the United S ta te s Margaret Abraham Hofstra University

T h e U n ite d S t a t e s is a c o u n t r y b u ilt on im m i g r a t io n . M u c h o f the n ew im m i g r a t i o n is th e o u tc o m e of i m m i g r a t i o n la w s closely c o n n e c t e d to c o n c e p t s o f c itiz e n s h ip , fam ily unity, a n d th e e c o n o m ic v a lu e o f labor. In th e U n ite d S t a te s , p e o p l e o f c o lo r have h is to r ic a lly e x p e r ie n c e d i n ­ s t itu t io n a l iz e d c u l t u r a l a n d e c o n o m ic r a c i s m . O ften d u e to i s s u e s s u c h a s n o n c itiz e n s t a t u s , g e n d e r, ethnicity, a n d ra c e , i m m i g r a n t w o m e n o f c o lo r e x p e r ie n c e s o m e of th e w o r s t h a r d s h i p . D r a w in g fr o m m y r e ­ s e a r c h in th e 1 9 9 0 s o n m a r i t a l v io le n c e a m o n g S o u t h A sian I m m i ­ g r a n t s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s a n d m y o n g o in g in v o lv e m e n t in a d d r e s s i n g d o m e s t i c violence in S o u t h A sian c o m m u n i t i e s , I d i s c u s s : (a) th e i m ­ p o r t a n c e of e th n ic ity g e n d e r, c la s s , a n d c itiz e n s h ip s t a t u s in u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g s e l f a n d c o m m u n i t y , (b) t h e p r o f i l e o f S o u t h A s i a n i m m i g r a n t s in the U n ite d S t a l e s f ro m th e 1 9 6 0 s t h r o u g h th e 1 9 9 0 s , (c) th e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f th e m o d e l m i n o r i t y im a g e a n d its i m p a c t o n t h e se lf a n d c o m m u n ity , (d) i m m i g r a n t w o m e n ’s e x p e r i e n c e s o f m a r i t a l v io ­ len ce, a n d (e) th e ro le o f S o u t h A sia n w o m e n 's o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e d e f in in g

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n o t i o n s of s e lf a n d c o m m u n i t y b y a d d r e s s i n g m a r i t a l v io l e n c e .1 I c o n ­ c lu d e w ith a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f m y e n t r é e in to r e s e a r c h o n m a r i t a l v io ­ lence a m o n g S o u t h A sia n i m m i g r a n t s , th e c h a lle n g e s a n d v a lu e of e n g a g in g in a c tio n r e s e a r c h , a n d o n e p o t e n tia l for f u t u r e r e s e a r c h .

ETHNICITY, G E N D E R , C L A SS AND LEGAL STATUS IN DEFINING SE L F AND COMMUNITY N o tio n s o f se lf a n d c o m m u n i t y a r e n o t a b s o l u t e a n d vary in c o m m u n i ­ ties b a s e d o n in te r n a lly d e fin e d a n d e x te r n a lly im p o s e d fa c to r s . E t h ­ nicity, g e n d e r, c la s s , ra c e , a n d c itiz e n s h ip a r e all i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f th e c o n s t r u c t i o n of s e lf a n d c o m m u n i t y fo r S o u t h A sia n i m m i g r a n t s in th e U n ite d S ta te s . E th n ic ity is fr e q u e n tly th e f ir s t e x plic it m a r k e r o f d iffe re n tia tio n t h a t th e d o m i n a n t g r o u p a n d o t h e r g r o u p s ’ u s e , e s p e c ia lly w h e n th e r e a r e sp ecific p h y s ic a l f e a t u r e s t h a t “s t a n d o u t ” a n d c a n b e u s e d a s a n e a sy s o u r c e of d is ti n c tio n in th e c o n s t r u c t i o n of th e e t h n i c i z e d o t he r . For S o u t h A s ia n s t h e r e is a c e r ta in d e g re e of “c u l t u r a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n ” th a t S o n ia S h a h ( 1 9 9 4 ) d e fin e s “a s "a p e c u l i a r b l e n d o f c u l t u r a l a n d s e x is t o p p r e s s i o n b a s e d o n o u r c lo th e s , o u r f o o d s , o u r v a lu e s a n d o u r c o m m i t m e n t s ” (p. 182). G e n d e r too p lays a critical role in defining self a n d c o m m un ity. W om en of color have to d e a l n o t only w ith se x ism in th e ir day-to -day lives b u t also w ith s y s te m s of ra c ia l a n d e th nic stratification th a t label a n d c o n tro l the m in o rity g r o u p a s a w h ole (Healey, 1995, p. 26). As w o m e n , S o u th A sian im m ig r a n t w o m e n (unlike im m ig r a n t m e n ) have to cope w ith g e n d e r b o u n d a r i e s th a t define th e m a s s u b o r d i n a t e b a s e d on the p a tr ia r c h a l n o r m s a n d v alues of b o th the im m i g r a n t a n d m a i n s t r e a m c u ltu re s . As a n e thn ic minority, S o u th Asian im m i g r a n t w o m e n (unlike w o m e n from the d o m i n a n t cu lture) have to cope w ith s e m ip e r m e a b le b o u n d a r i e s th a t a l­ low th e m , a s s u b o r d i n a t e g r o u p m e m b e r s , to partially in tern alize the n o r m s a n d v alues of the d o m i n a n t c u ltu re while be in g s im u lta n e o u s ly ex­ c lu d e d by the d o m i n a n t g r o u p from total m e m b e r s h i p in th a t c u lture. Fo­ c u sin g on g e n d e r a lo ne e x cludes c u ltu r a l d is tin c tio n s in g e n d e r re la tio n s a n d ig n o re s the im p a c t of m a jo rity /m in o rity eth n ic g ro u p d istin c tio n s. As H a r d in g (1 99 1) p o in ts out, w ithin the U n ited S ta te s , a racially o r d e r e d society, th e r e a r e no g e n d e r e d r e la tio n s th a t s ta n d - a lo n e b u t only th ose th a t a r e c o n s tr u c te d by a n d b etw e e n r a c e s (p. 171). Here, I w o u ld a d d ethnicity a n d class. C la s s d is t i n c t i o n s w ith in th e S o u t h A sian c o m m u n i t i e s a ls o im p a c t o n n o tio n of s e lf a n d c o m m u n ity . C l a s s i n t e r e s t s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p lea d I w ould like ack now ledge the valuable c o n tr i b u t io n of the w o m e n a n d org a n iz atio n s who p a rtic ip a te d in this study. T h is c h a p t e r is partially d r a w n from pre vio usly p u b lis h e d w o r k writte n by the a u t h o r in S p e a k i n g th e U n s p e a k a b l e : M arital Violence a m o n g S o u t h A s i a n I m m i g r a n t s in the U n ited S t a t e s , Rutgers University P re ss. 2 0 0 0 . a n d the I n d ia n J o u r n a l o j G e n d e r S t u d i e s G e n d e r S t u d i e s , 1998.

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to v a r y in g c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f id e n tity a n d c o m m u n ity , d e p e n d i n g on th e s i t u a t i o n a l c o n te x ts . C la s s d i s t i n c t i o n s w ith in th e S o u t h A sia n c o m ­ m u n i t i e s f re q u e n tly le a d to t e n s i o n s b a s e d o n e x ploita tiv e w o r k r e l a ­ tio n s b e tw e e n e m p l o y e r s a n d e m p lo y e e s . O ften i m m i g r a n t w o m e n a r e w o r s t s i t u a t e d d u e to t h e i r g e n d e r, r a c e , a n d n o n c iti z e n s t a t u s (H o ss fe ld , 19 9 4 ). T h e y a r e f r e q u e n tly p e r c e iv e d a s d e s p e r a t e for w o r k a t a n y w age, p a r t i c u l a r l y if th ey a r e k n o w n to be u n d o c u m e n t e d w o r k ­ e r s , have la n g u a g e b a r r i e r s , o r n e e d a n in c o m e to s u s t a i n t h e m s e lv e s o r t h e ir family. A lth o u g h g e n d e r ro le s t e r e o t y p e s o p p r e s s w o m e n u n ­ d e r p a tr ia r c h y , e th n i c m in o r ity w o m e n , e sp e c ia lly r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t w o m e n , e x p e r ie n c e m u l tip l e s u b o r d i n a t i o n b a s e d o n th e ir c o u r s e s of ac tio n , stra te g ie s, d is tin c tiv e n e s s of c u ltu re , a n d s tr u c tu r a l arran g em en ts.

SO C IO H ISTO R IC AL PRO FILE OF SO U TH ASIAN IM M IGRANTS IN TH E UNITED STATES Defining se lf a n d c o m m u n i t y e n ta ils a q u ic k so c io h is to ric a l profile of the S o u t h A sian c o m m u n it y in the U n ite d S ta te s . O ne of the e a rlie s t g r o u p s a m o n g S o u t h A s ia n s in th e U n ited S ta te s w a s t h a t of th e S i k h s from P u n ja b , w h o m ig r a te d to th e West C o a s t o f th e U nited S ta t e s in the early 2 0 t h c e n t u r y a s f a r m e r s a n d to w o r k on th e r a i lr o a d s . However, it w a s th e 1 96 5 Im m ig r a tio n Act ( H a r t- C e lla r Act) t h a t really s e t th e stage for th e g ro w th of the S o u th A sian c o m m u n i t y in th e U nited S ta te s . P r io r to th e m i d - 1 9 8 0 s , th e S o u t h A sia n c o m m u n i t y w a s c o m p r i s e d p r i m a r i l y o f p r o f e s s io n a l ly q u a lifie d in d iv i d u a ls , c u ltu r a lly b o u n d to th e ir h o m e l a n d a n d fa m ilie s in S o u t h Asia, b u t s e e k in g the o p p o r t u n i ­ ties for p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro w th a n d e c o n o m ic s u c c e s s t h a t th e y felt w e re la c k in g t h e n in th e ir o w n h o m e c o u n t r i e s . In v e stin g in th e im a g e of the s u c c c s s f u l. h a r d - w o r k i n g , f a m ily - o ric n tc d i m m i g r a n t a n d in a n a t ­ t e m p t a t u p w a r d g r o u p m obility, S o u t h A sia n i m m i g r a n t s w h o c a m e to th e U n ite d S t a t e s in th e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s w e r e view ed by m a i n s t r e a m A m e r i c a n s a n d view ed t h e m s e lv e s a s a “m o d e l m in o r it y " — a m i n o r i ty t h a t w a s a m o d e l c o m m u n i t y b a s e d on its e m p h a s i s on s t r o n g fam ily ties, h ig h e d u c a t i o n , a n d e c o n o m ic s u c c e s s . T h e 1 9 8 0 s a n d 1 9 9 0 s w e r e m a r k e d b y " c h a in m i g r a t i o n , ” w h e r e b y S o u t h A sia n i m m i g r a n t s w h o h a d b e c o m e U.S. c itiz e n s s p o n s o r e d th e ir re la tiv e s, w h o in t u r n s p o n s o r e d o t h e r r e la tiv e s to m ig r a t e to the U n ite d S ta te s . T h i s c h a in m ig r a t io n b r o u g h t a b o u t c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a ­ tio n w ith in th e c o m m u n i t y a lo n g d i m e n s i o n s s u c h a s e d u c a t i o n , o c c u ­ p a tio n , class, a n d g e n d e r e x p erien ces. E th n ic h o m o g en eity w as r e p l a c e d w ith a m u c h m o r e visible c la s s - a n d r e g io n - b a s e d h e t e r o g e ­ ne ity by th e late 1 9 8 0 s . T h e im a g e o f highly e d u c a t e d p r o f e s s i o n a l s w a s g r a d u a ll y r e p l a c e d by m o r e h e t e r o g e n e o u s visib le i m a g e s o f S o u t h A sia n t h a t i n c lu d e d m o te l o w n e r s a n d w o r k e r s , g a s s t a tio n a t t e n d a n t s , n e w s p a p e r s t a n d v e n d o r s , a n d taxi d r iv e r s .

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D e s p ite th is h e te ro g e n e ity of th e S o u t h A sia n p o p u l a t i o n , c o m m u ­ nity l e a d e r s c o n t i n u e d to r e p r e s e n t th e c o m m u n i t y a s a m o n o lit h ic w hole. M e m b e r s of th e c o m m u n i t y w o r r i e d a b o u t th e ir c o m m u n i t y i m ­ age. O ften a s a r e a c tio n to th e d o m i n a n t A m e r ic a n s o c ie ty 's r a c i s m a n d c u l t u r a l i m p e r i a l i s m , th e y a v o id e d critic ally lo o k in g a t th e m s e lv e s o r th e ir c o m m u n ity . T h e y b e c a m e so i n v e s te d in p o r t r a y i n g th e m o d e l m i ­ n o r ity im a g e t h a t th e y o p p r e s s e d s o m e s e g m e n t s of th e c o m m u n ity , a n d d e n i e d th e p r e v a l e n c e o f a n y s o c ia l p r o b l e m , in c lu d i n g violen ce a g a i n s t w o m e n , w ith in t h e ir c o m m u n ity .

M O DEL MINORITY IMAGE AND ITS IMPACT ON S E L F AND COMMUNITY As s t a t e d earlier, th e S o u t h A sian c o m m u n i t y w a s s e e n by th e m a i n ­ s t r e a m a n d id e n tifie d its e lf a s a m o d e l m i n o r i t y c o m m u n ity . T h i s i m ­ age w a s b a s e d o n th e n o tio n t h a t S o u t h A s i a n s h a d a c h ie v e d a fine b a la n c e b e tw e e n u p h o l d i n g th e c h e r i s h e d v a lu e s of S o u t h A s ia n c u l ­ tu r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y fa m ily s o lid a r ity a n d h a r m o n y , w hile s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a d o p t i n g th e p r i n c i p l e s of m o d e r n A m e r ic a n c a p ita lis m . W o m e n w e r e the m a i n s y m b o l o f c u l t u r a l c o n tin u i ty a n d w e r e fac e d w ith b o t h e x t e r ­ n a l a n d i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s to u p h o l d th e c u l t u r e in sp ecific w a y s, i n ­ c lu d in g a d h e r i n g to c u ltu r a ll y p r e s c r i b e d g e n d e r ro le s . T h e S o u t h A sia n w o m e n in th e U n ite d S t a t e s b e c a m e r e s p o n s i b l e n o t only for fam ily h o n o r b u t a lso for th e h o n o r of th e " m o d e l m in o r ity c o m m u n ity " ( A b r a h a m , 1 9 9 8 ; D a s g u p ta , 1 99 8). In v e s tin g in th e m o d e l m i n o r it y im a g e r e s u l t e d in n a r r o w l y d e fin e d n o t i o n s of se lf a n d c o m m u n i t y a n d w a s p r o b l e m a t i c in s e v e ra l w ays. F ir s t, it d e n i e d th e d iv e rsity o f i n d iv id u a ls a n d th e d iv e rs ity of g r o u p s w ith in th e S o u t h A sia n i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t y a c r o s s c la s s , g e n d e r, r e ­ gion al, a n d re lig io u s lin e s. S e g m e n t s t h a t d id n o t fit th e “s u c c e s s m o l d ” w e r e c o n s t a n t l y faced w ith a s e n s e of s h a m e , deficiency, a n d fa ilu re . To av o id th is s h a m e , i n d iv i d u a ls a n d th e c o m m u n i t y often p la y e d th e c o v e r-u p g a m e . 2 T h is w a s d o n e t h r o u g h fun-filled c u l t u r a l activ ities a n d sty liz e d so c ia l f u n c t io n s by th e c o m m u n i t y to r e in f o r c e th e co lle c ­ tive id e n tity a s o n e t h a t is p r e d o m i n a n t l y s u c c e s s f u l — a n d u p h o l d s its c u l t u r a l v a lu e s o f s tr o n g , u n it e d , h a r m o n i o u s fam ilies. S e c o n d , it p la c e d S o u t h A s i a n s in a p o s itio n w h e r e th e y d i s a s s o c i ­ a te d th e m s e lv e s fro m o t h e r m i n o r i t i e s a n d w e r e s o m e t i m e s r e s e n t e d by o t h e r ra c ia l, e th n ic m i n o r i t i e s a n d by c e r ta in g r o u p s of W h ite s too. For m a i n s t r e a m A m e r ic a n s o c ie ty a n d its l e a d e r s h i p , th e u s e o f s u c h a n o p e ra tiv e la b e l a s “m o d e l m in o r ity " s e r v e d th e vital f u n c tio n o f “d i ­ vide a n d ru le " b y c r e a t in g e t h n ic c o n t r a s t s t h a t k e p t m i n o r i t i e s h i e r a r ­ ch ic a lly a p a r t . L ike o t h e r m o d e l m in o r itie s , S o u t h A s ia n s too c a r r i e d 2

Here the term “cover-up g a m e “ im p lies u sin g v a rio u s strateg ies, in th is case, stylized c u ltu ral activities th at p o r t r a y a p a r ti c u l a r im age of the c o m m u n i ty a n d help to conceal or o b s c u re the p r o b l e m s within the S o u th Asian community.

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th e ir o w n f o r m s o f r a c i s t beliefs fro m th e c o u n t r i e s fro m w h ic h they e m ig r a te d . T h e s e beliefs w e r e f u r t h e r e x a c e r b a t e d in a r a c ia lly o r d e r e d s o c ie ty s u c h a s th e U n ite d S ta t e s . O ften it w a s n o t o nly the elite a m o n g the S o u t h A s ia n c o m m u n i t y th a t h e ld o n to th e m o d e l m in o r ity im a g e b u t a lso e c o n o m ic a lly e x p lo ite d c l a s s e s w h o felt t h a t p e r h a p s th is m o d e l m in o r i t y s t a t u s , e sp e c ia lly in t e r m s o f fam ily v a lu e s , d if f e r e n ti­ a te d th e S o u t h A sia n c o m m u n i t y fr o m e c o n o m ic a lly e x p lo ite d c la s s e s in o t h e r e th n ic o r ra c ia l c o m m u n i t i e s . T h i r d , s u c h t e r m s p la c e d c o n s i d e r a b l e p r e s s u r e on c o m m u n i t y i m ­ p r e s s i o n m a n a g e m e n t , t h a t is, a c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e o n th e c o m m u n i t y to m a n i p u l a t e th e g r o u p ’s collective id e n tity so a s to p o r t r a y its m o d e l m i n o r i t y s t a t u s . T h i s m o d e l m in o r ity s t a t u s f re q u e n tly m e a n t d e n y in g o r m a k i n g invisib le a n y i s s u e th a t w a s p e r c e iv e d a s e r o d i n g th e m o d e l m i n o r i t y im a g e, s u c h a s poverty, AIDS, h o m o s e x u a lity , s u b s t a n c e a b u s e , a n d d o m e s t i c violence, a s n o n e o f th e s e fit in to the c o n c e p t of the “m o d e l m in o r ity .” T h e s u c c e s s s t o r i e s o f s o m e s e g m e n t s o f th o s e g r o u p s la b e le d a m o d e l m i n o r ity p a r tia lly h id th e fact t h a t o t h e r s e g ­ m e n t s w e re n o t p r o s p e r o u s , a n d e x p e r ie n c e d p o v e rty a n d e x p lo ita tio n b o t h w ith in a n d o u t s i d e o f th e i r c o m m u n ity . F o u rth , it led to th e p e r s i s t e n c e of n a r r o w l y d e fin e d c u l t u r a l c o n ­ s t r u c t s of g e n d e r r e la tio n s . To u p h o l d th e n o tio n o f g o o d fam ily v a lu e s a n d s t r o n g fam ily ties, a n e s s e n tia l a t t r i b u t e for m o d e l m i n o r i t y im a g e w a s to s h o w h o w th e S o u t h A sia n i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t y h a d c a r r i e d o ver a n d r e t a i n e d th e c u l t u r a l v a lu e s fro m S o u t h Asia. N o tio n s o f w o m e n 's s t a t u s a n d r o le s in S o u t h A sia ha v e v a rie d b y r e ­ gion, c la s s , re ligion , a n d e th n ic ity o ver tim e . C u l t u r a l a n d e c o n o m ic r o le s h av e b e e n s h a p e d a n d s h ifte d b y e c o n o m ic a n d s t r u c t u r a l f o rc e s s u c h a s c o l o n ia lis m , u r b a n i z a t i o n , c a p ita l is m , a n d g lo b a liz a tio n in S o u t h A sia ( A b r a h a m , 2 0 0 2 ) . H owever, th e d o m i n a n t im a g e in th e c u l ­ t u r a l r h e t o r i c h a s b e e n a relatively m o n o lith ic o n e t h a t d e f in e d a w o m a n p r i m a r i l y in t e r m s of h e r r e p r o d u c tiv ity a n d h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e m e n in h e r fam ily a n d c o m m u n ity . R a t h e r t h a n a se lf-d e fin e d i m ­ age, s h e w a s s u b j e c t to p a t r i a r c h a l p e r c e p t i o n s o f w o m a n a s d e fin e d in re lig io u s a n d c u l t u r a l r h e to r ic . T h e v a r i o u s so c ia l, e c o n o m ic , legal, a n d re lig io u s i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r m e d th e f r a m e w o r k t h a t s u p p o r t e d a n d le g itim iz e d the d o m i n a n c e of th e m e n a n d th e s u b o r d i n a t i o n of w o m e n . W o m e n w e r e view ed a s g u a r d i a n s o f fam ily h o n o r , a n d the c o n c e p t of “s h a m e ” w a s d e e p ly i n g r a in e d in th e s o c ia liz a tio n p r o c e s s o f w o m e n b u t for the i n t e r e s t o f m e n , the family, a n d the c o m m u n ity . T h is n a r r o w c u l t u r a l c o n s t r u c t w a s e x te n d e d to the i m m i g r a n t c o m ­ m u n i t y in th e U n ite d S ta t e s , often in m o r e lim itin g w a y s t h a n in S o u t h A sia itself. T h e p u b lic im a g e o f th e S o u t h A sia n c o m m u n i t y in th e U n ite d S t a t e s w a s p r i m a r i l y m a le - d e f in e d , w ith w o m e n a s th e c u l t u r a l t r a n s m i t t e r s . M a ny S o u t h A sian m e n w h o e m i g r a t e d to th e U n ite d S t a t e s often d e s i r e d th e ir w ives to r e ta i n S o u t h A sia n c u l t u r a l v a lu e s often f r a m e d in “t r a d i t i o n a l p a t r i a r c h a l ” t e r m s w hile s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e x p e c tin g th e m to “A m e r i c a n i z e / m o d e r n i z e ” in s o m e a r e a s e x te r n a l to

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the h o m e . G u id e d b y th e c u l t u r a l d o c t r i n e of h o n o r a n d duty, m a n y S o u t h A sia n i m m i g r a n t w o m e n e x p e r ie n c e d e x te r n a l a n d in t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s to s ta y w ith in th e p a r a m e t e r s th a t d e f in e d th e m a s o b e d i e n t , self-sacrificing , a n d c o n t e n t in th e p r iv a te r e a l m . N o tio n s o f self, c o m m u n ity , a n d g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s w e r e a ls o in f lu ­ e n c e d by relig io n a n d re lig io u s in s t i t u t i o n s . For m a n y S o u t h A s ia n s, th e ir re lig io u s i n s t i t u t i o n s p la y e d a c e n t r a l ro le in d e f in in g t h e ir c o m ­ m u n i t y identity. T e m p le s , m o s q u e s , a n d c h u r c h e s b e c a m e th e f o c u s o f e s ta b l i s h i n g a n d p e r p e t u a t i n g a lin k w ith th e ir h is to r ic a n d c u l tu r a l r o o t s . R e lig io us i n s t i t u t i o n s w e re n o t on ly p l a c e s o f p ra y e r, b u t a ls o th e a r e n a for t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f v a lu e s , beliefs, a n d c u s ­ t o m s o f th e i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n ity . T h e s e c e n t e r s of w o r s h i p p a r tia lly b e c a m e th e c a r e t a k e r s of t r a d i t i o n in th e U n ite d S t a te s . M o ra l s o l i d a r ­ ity of th e collective w a s o f vital i m p o r t a n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in m a i n t a i n i n g the m o d e l m in o r i t y im ag e. G e n d e r e d r e l a t i o n s w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d a n d p e r p e t u a t e d by th e s o c i o - c u l t u r a l a c tiv itie s of t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s (R a y a p ro l, 19 97 ). T h e y p la y e d a c e n tr a l ro le in the r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f th e g e n d e r id e n tity of S o u t h A sia n w o m e n in A m e ric a . S o u t h A sia n w o m e n w e re s e e n a s th e c a r e t a k e r s o f c u l t u r a l c o n tin u ity in th e U n ited S ta te s . A c k n o w le d g in g th e p r o b l e m o f d o m e s t i c viole nc e w ith in th e S o u t h A sia n fam ily w a s p r o b l e m a t i c , a s it c h a lle n g e d th e very c o n c e p t of "good fam ily v a lu e s a n d s t r o n g fam ily t ie s ” o r w h a t L in d a G o r d o n ( 1 9 8 9 ) c a lle d “th e m y t h s of h a r m o n y of th e n o r m a t i v e family,” w h ic h w a s a n in te g r a l p a r t of th e m o d e l m i n o r ity im a g e for th e S o u t h A sia n c o m m u n ity . D o m e s ti c p a t r i a r c h y w a s a s s u m e d by th e m a i n s t r e a m i m ­ m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t y a n d w a s n o t a n is s u e for p u b lic d i s c u s s i o n . M en a s s u m e d g r e a t e r p o w e r a n d c o n tr o l w ith in th e h o m e , a l t h o u g h w o m e n w o r k e d o u t s i d e a n d w e re still r e s p o n s i b l e for th e h o m e a n d c h ild r e a r ­ in g A lth o u g h S o u t h A sia n w o m e n w e re e c o n o m ic c o n t r i b u t o r s , they w e r e in c re a s in g ly c o n s t r u c t e d in c u l t u r a l t e r m s w ith in th e i m m i g r a n t h o m e a n d c o m m u n ity . R e ligiou s in s t i t u t i o n s b e c a m e s ite s for d e fin in g th e s e n a r r o w g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s a n d e n s u r i n g t r a d i t i o n a l p a tr ia r c h y . At th e s a m e tim e , S o u t h A sia n i m m i g r a n t w o m e n a n d m e n w e r e s t r u g ­ gling a g a i n s t th e e th n ic /g e n d e r im a g e t h a t f r e q u e n tly p la c e d th e m a s ta r g e t s for e th n ic , c la s s , a n d r a c e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in A m e r ic a n society. T h e so c ia l e n v i r o n m e n t w a s s u c h t h a t i s s u e s s u c h a s m a r i t a l violen ce lay u n a d d r e s s e d by th e m a i n s t r e a m s e g m e n t s o f the c o m m u n i t y b c c a u s c they d id n o t fit in to th e c o n c e p t o f the “m o d e l m in o rity " o r th e h a p p y h a r m o n i o u s S o u t h A sia n h o m e . I n a tte n t io n to so c ia l is s u e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e re l a te d to g e n d e r a n d c la s s , p a r t ia l ly s e t th e s ta g e for th e e m e r g e n c e in 1 9 8 0 s of S o u t h A sia n w o m e n 's o r g a n i z a t i o n s (SAWOs) t h a t c h a lle n g e d th e m o d e l m in o r it y im age. T h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s b e g a n to a d d r e s s d o m e s t i c viole nc e a n d o t h e r p r o b l e m s faced b y w o m e n in th e ir c o m m u n i t y w h ile a ls o fighting s t r u c t u r e d in e q u a lity in d i s c r i m i n a t o r y im m ig r a ti o n la w s t h a t i n d i ­ r e c tly c o n t r i b u t e to violen ce a g a in s t w o m e n . T h e y r e d e f in e d c o m m u ­

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nity id e n tity so t h a t it w a s m o r e reflective of th e d iv e rs ity w ith in th e c o m m u n i t y in t e r m s o f g e n d er, c la s s , sexuality, a n d c iti z e n s h ip s t a t u s . H owever, p r i o r to d i s c u s s i n g the ro le o f th e s e SAWOS, it is i m p o r t a n t to u n d e r s t a n d s o m e of th e w a y s t h a t S o u t h A s ia n i m m i g r a n t w o m e n e x p e r ie n c e d m a r i t a l v iolence.

SO U T H A SIA N IMMIGRANT W O M EN’S E X PE R IE N C E S OF MARITAL VIO LENCE ISOLATION For S o u t h A sia n w o m e n , e sp e c ia lly r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s to th e U n ite d S ta te s , o n e o f th e w o r s t a n d m o s t p a in f u l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of m a r i t a l v io ­ lence p e r p e t r a t e d a g a i n s t th e m w a s th e is o la tio n factor. H e re , iso la tio n r e f e r s to th e in d i v i d u a l ’s p e r c e p t i o n a n d rea lity of b e in g e m o tio n a lly a n d so cially a lo n e , e c o n o m ic a lly c o n fin e d , a n d c u l tu r a lly d i s c o n ­ n e c te d . It is the “feeling a n d fact” of n o t b e lo n g in g o r h a v in g a m e a n i n g ­ ful r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e in d iv i d u a l e x p e r ie n c e s a s e n s e of b e in g lonely, a b a n d o n e d , ig n o r e d , a n d d is c o n n e c t e d fro m b o t h i n ti m a te a n d o t h e r so c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . M a ny e x p e r ie n c e d a d e s i r e to alleviate th e is o l a ­ tio n t h r o u g h so c ia l i n te r a c tio n w ith m e m b e r s o f th e ir o w n c o m m u n ity . How ever, th i s w a s n o t a lw a y s p o s s i b l e a s th e h u s b a n d c o n tr o lle d all th e a c tivities a n d c o n t a c t s t h a t th e w o m a n m a d e by lo c k in g th e d o o r fro m th e o u ts id e , m o n i t o r i n g all te le p h o n e calls, leaving h e r a t h o m e w it h o u t a n y m oney, o r q u e s t io n i n g h e r w h e r e a b o u t s . T h e f r ie n d s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s w e r e often th e h u s b a n d ’s f r i e n d s w h o s e loyalty f r e ­ q u e n tly r e s t e d w ith th e a b u s e d w o m a n ’s h u s b a n d . Y a m u n a ,3 a 3 0 -y e a r-o ld w o m a n , w h o h a d j u s t g o t h e r d iv o rc e a n d g re e n c a r d a n d w o r k e d a s a c le ric a l w o r k e r , r e c o u n t i n g h e r e x tr e m e s e n s e o f is o la tio n w h e n s h e f ir s t a r r iv e d in th e U n ite d S t a t e s to jo in h e r h u s b a n d , e x p la in s: I was in his apa rtm e n t ... I think we hardly went out ... I mean you could feel terribly trapped in that kind of thing. I did not know how to operate the locks and he never taught me ... what he would do is when he would go out, he would lock it from outside .... For some reason I never realized that I could open it from inside ... I thought I was looked in and I was locked in and he never tried to explain to me that I could open it if I wished ... he of course never gave me an extra set of keys ... I could not even open the blinds ... so I had this awfully trapped feeling. S h a h i d a , a 3 4 -y e a r - o ld w o m a n w h o w o r k e d a s a c h e m i s t, d e s c r i b e d h e r e x p e r ie n c e o f iso la tio n u p o n c o m in g to th e U n ite d S t a t e s a s a d e ­ p e n d e n t s p o u s e . H e r h u s b a n d lo c k e d h e r a t h o m e fr o m m o r n i n g u n til he r e t u r n e d fro m w o r k in th e evening. 3

P s e u d o n y m s have been use d to p r o te c t p a r t i c i p a n t s ’ confidentiality. Age a n d o th e r profile de ta ils are b a s e d at the time of the interviews were c o n d u c t e d with p a r tic ip a n ts .

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He took off a day after I came here. The next day he went ... he sh u t the door and locked it from outside ... he used to come around 6:30 and eat dinner around 7:30 ... So the whole day I was alone in the house ... I spent my time watching TV ... when I asked about a job, he said that he didn't want me to have any small job, if I got a good job I could do it. When I asked for English classes he said that he did not have the money. He told me if I had money, then I could go and take English classes ... after d in ­ ner he would go out ... and come aro un d one at night. U s h a , a 3 2 -y e a r-o ld i n s u r a n c e a g e n t, e x p la in e d h o w h e r h u s b a n d a n d h e r in -la w s to g e th e r m a d e all a t t e m p t s to is o la te h e r n o t on ly fro m h e r w o r k p l a c e b u t a lso fro m h e r ow n fam ily in In d ia . It was an everyday problem, they wouldn't let me go to work, they would elose the garage door on me. They would lock all the doors and I couldn't get out of the house. It was real real h ard ... right before Thanksgiving ... when I was going to India for my sister’s marriage, they would not let me go. I had to call my neighbors to let me go out of the home, otherwise I would have ju s t m issed the plane. When I came back the same thing started again. S o u t h A sian c u l t u r e a n d th e c h a lle n g e s o f n e g o tia tin g th e d a y - to - d a y life a s n e w i m m i g r a n t s te n d to c r e a te a s e n s e o f d e p e n d e n c e for m a n y w o m e n o n th e ir s p o u s e s . A d d e d to th is p r o b l e m a r e th e is o la tio n a n d d e p e n d e n c e s t e m m i n g fr o m leav in g b e h i n d m o s t o f th e s u p p o r t s y s ­ te m o f th e la rg e r fa m ily in y o u r h o m e c o u n try . B a c k in t h e ir o w n h o m e c o u n try , for S o u t h A sia n w o m e n , a h u s b a n d ' s la c k of i n t e r p e r s o n a l i n ­ te r a c tio n m ig h t ha v e b e e n c o m p e n s a t e d by the s o c ia l tics to h e r family, h e r f r i e n d s , o r o t h e r m e m b e r s o f th e c o m m u n ity . M e m b e r s of fa m ilie s a n d f r i e n d s m a y a c t a s a b u ffe r a g a i n s t s t r e s s a n d a b u s e . T h r o u g h th e ir rela tive p h y s ic a l p ro x im ity , fam ily m e m b e r s a n d f r i e n d s c o u ld p o te n tia lly a c t a s a m e c h a n i s m o f so c ia l c o n tr o l o n a n a b u s i v e s p o u s e . M a n y i m m i g r a n t m e n a n d w o m e n f o u n d th e m s e lv e s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s w i t h o u t a n y e q u iv a le n t f r i e n d s o r s u p p o r t i v e r e la tiv e s w h o c o u ld b e s u c h b u f f e r s . 4 T h e r e s u l t w a s t h a t fr e q u e n tly w o m e n w h o e x­ p e r i e n c e d m a r i t a l violen ce h a d no fam ily o r f r i e n d s o f th e ir o w n to tu r n to in a c r is is , a n d e x p e r ie n c e d a lie n a tio n a n d p o w e r l e s s n e s s .

PH YSICAL A B U SE T h e u n h e a l t h y i s o l a t i o n o f i m m i g r a n t f a m ilie s in th e U n it e d S t a t e s a n d th e s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f w o m e n b y m e n a s a n in te g r a l p a r t o f th e c u l ­ t u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n of th e fa m ily t h u s s e t in p la c c th e a r e n a w h e r e 4

T h is a s p e c t c a n n o t be o v e re m p h a s iz e d b e c a u s e the sexism a n d c u lt u r a l p r e s c r ip tio n in So u th Asia in ge nera l also allow c o n s id e r a b le latitude a n d p ow e r to m e n vis-à-vis w o m e n in g e n d e r relation, a n d often a w o m a n ’s family a n d friend s, altho ugh sy m p a th e tic to the w o m a n ’s situation, m ay suggest t h a t the w o m a n stay with h e r a busive h u s b a n d d ue to v a rio u s c u ltu ra l factors.

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p h y s i c a l v io le n c e c o u l d t a k e p la c e . A c o m m o n w a y in w h ic h v io le n c e w a s p e r p e t r a t e d o n S o u t h A s ia n w o m e n w a s t h r o u g h p h y s i c a l a b u s e . T h i s a b u s e r a n g e d f r o m p u s h i n g , h ittin g , a n d p u n c h i n g , to b e a t i n g w ith a n o b je c t o r c h o k in g . Very o fte n th e b r u i s e s w e r e o n a r e a s t h a t c o u ld b e h i d d e n fr o m o t h e r s n o tic in g t h e m , t h e r e b y m a k i n g th e c r i m e a n in v is ib le o n e a n d a llo w in g th e cycle of v io le n c e to c o n t i n u e . P o s itio n e d b e t w e e n a S o u t h A s ia n s o c ie ty w h ic h l e g itim iz e d v io le n c e by c u l t u r a l v a l u e s t h a t d e f in e d w o m e n a s p r o p e r t y a n d a n A m e r i c a n so c ie ty t h a t o b je c tifie s w o m e n 's b o d i e s , S o u t h A s ia n m e n f r e q u e n t l y p e r c e iv e d t h a t it w a s t h e i r m a le r i g h t to c o n t r o l w o m e n ’s b o d i e s t h r o u g h c o e r c io n . T h e s i l e n c i n g of w o m e n a n d t h e i r r i g h t s in S o u t h A s ia n p a t r i a r c h a l c u l t u r e m a d e it h a r d for w o m e n w h o a r e v ic t im s o f s u c h a b u s e to d i s c u s s th is w ith o t h e r s , e s p e c ia lly in a fo re ig n c u l t u r e w h e r e th e i r c o n t a c t s w e r e lim ite d . Z a k h ia , a 3 3 -y c a r -o ld w o m a n w ith a 6 -y c a r-o ld c h ild , w h o s tr u g g le d to m a k e a living d o i n g o d d j o b s a n d s o m e t i m e s s e w in g in a g a r m e n t factory, t a lk e d a b o u t h o w h e r h u s b a n d s t a r t e d b a t t e r i n g h e r a fte r c o m ­ ing to th e U n ite d S ta te s . After three m o nths [of coming to the United States) he [husband) started hitting me. And every year it ju st became worse. He didn’t think much of workinggirls. He thought that they had easy morals. He would accuse me of not working and doing other things with my time. He would beat me at night and during the day I had logo out and work. He would beat me once in a few weeks. I used to have bru ises on my body and had to work like t h a t ... I never told them [at work) that my h u sb an d was beating me ... He was hitting me very badly, and then he started threatening to take my life. U s h a w a s p h y s i c a l l y a b u s e d b y h e r h u s b a n d a n d b y h e r in - la w s to o f o r s u c h t h i n g s a s g o in g to w o r k o r fo r s p e n d i n g a n y o f t h e m o n e y s h e e a r n e d , s p e n d i n g to o m u c h o n g r o c e r i e s , o r c o o k i n g to o m u c h o r to o little — in fa c t, fo r a n y t h i n g s h e d i d . “All t h r e e o f t h e m , f a ­ t h e r - i n - l a w , b r o t h e r - i n - l a w a n d h i m [ h u s b a n d ] a ll t e a m e d u p [ M o t h e r - in - la w h a d p a s s e d aw ay ]. T h e y s t a r t e d a b u s i n g m e p h y s i ­ cally. T h e y k i c k e d m e . My f a t h e r -in -la w c a m e a n d t w i s t e d m y a r m s , a n d t h r e w m e in th e f a m ily r o o m . " “T h r e e d a y s a fte r I a r r i v e d h e r e [U n ited S ta te s ] h e s t a r t e d b e a ti n g m e ” s a i d 3 0 -y e a r- o ld R e e n a , a c le rica l w o r k e r , o f th e b a t t e r i n g h e r h u s ­ b a n d inflicted o n her. He held my neck and beat me |for asking him what was on his mind] ... when I went to lie down he pushed me off the bed ... I felt very sad and I wanted to die ... When he would come home he started to beat me ... for reasons like not eating, not drinking juice, not cooking or cleaning enough ... he would beat and kick me and when I would start crying he would put the T.V. loud so no one could hear outside. He would squeeze my throat. One day when I got unconscious they all [husband, brotherin-law and his wife] put me in a tub and bathed me and fed me for three days.

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ABRAHAM

Z a k h ia , U s h a , a n d R e e n a a r e j u s t th r e e of th e m a n y w o m e n w h o have b e e n s im ila r ly b a t t e r e d . No m a t t e r w h e t h e r it w a s m o ney , c o o k ­ ing, g r o c e r ie s , o r n o t d r i n k i n g ju ic e , th e ir a b u s e r s a lw a y s f o u n d a r e a ­ s o n to b e a t th e s e w o m e n , t h e r e b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g th e ir p o w e r a n d c o n tr o l. S o u t h A sian m e n , o ften t h e m s e lv e s o p p r e s s e d o n th e b a s i s of th e ir e th n ic ity a n d c l a s s p o s i t i o n in th e U n ite d S ta t e s , fr e q u e n t ly u s e g e n d e r - d e r i v e d p o w e r to c o n t r o l w o m e n 's b o d ie s th r o u g h p h y s ic a l a n d m e n t a l c o e r c io n . H e n c e , a g e n d e r e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f b a t t e r i n g r e ­ q u i r e s u s to a lso lo o k in to th e i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f ethnicity, c la s s , a n d ra c e in th e i m m i g r a n t d a y - to - d a y e x p e r ie n c e s .

SEX UAL A B U SE A n o th e r m a n if e s ta tio n o f violence is t h r o u g h s e x u a l a b u s e . Until r e l a ­ tively recently, w o m e n 's se x u a lity w a s ra r e ly p u b lic a lly a d d r e s s e d in S o u t h A sian c u ltu re . D is c u s s io n of sex, e specially in f r o n t of u n m a r r i e d w o m e n , w a s r a r e . T h e high value p la c e d o n a n u n m a r r i e d w o m a n ’s v ir­ ginity a n d e m p h a s i s o n p le a s in g th e h u s b a n d for a s u c c e s s f u l m a r r ia g e r e s u lt e d in the ob jcctification o f w o m e n in se x u a l re la tio n s . O ften n o ­ tio n s of W estern s e x u ality w e re s u p e r i m p o s e d by i m m i g r a n t h u s b a n d s o n th e ir wives while s im u lta n e o u s ly d r a w in g o n tr a d i tio n a l S o u t h A sian v a lu e s of th e rig h ts o f a h u s b a n d to d e m a n d s e x u a l g ratificatio n fro m h is wife. N a r ro w a n d rigid c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f m a s c u lin ity a n d fe m ininity also e x a c e r b a te d th e p r o b l e m . Male se x u a l gratification w a s f re q u e n tly the r e a lm in w h ic h d o m i n a t i o n a n d c o n tr o l over w o m e n w a s e x e rc ise d , e s ­ pecially w ith in th e c o n te x t of m a r i t a l violence. Z a k h i a ’s h u s b a n d felt it w a s h is rig h t a s a h u s b a n d to sexu ally c o n tr o l her. My h usb and would bother me at night. He would accuse me of doing im­ moral things at the job and for being tired at night. He would beat me and then do whatever he wanted to ... he never asked me at all. He did w hat­ ever he wanted to do. If I refused then fights would start. He would never apologize. I had to apologize to him ... he used to say, I am m arried to you, I don't have to ask or apologize for anything. For s o m e w o m e n , th e a b u s e a g a in s t th e m w a s n o t lim ite d to th e ir h u s b a n d . A t t e m p t s a t s e x u a l c o n tr o l f re q u e n tly got e x te n d e d to m a le m e m b e r s of h is family. R e e n a re c a lls: T hat night my brother-in-law molested me ... (when the h u sb an d was awayl ... he could not get too far b ut he told me not to repeat to anyone what had happened. But I repeated and he got angry ... I told my h u s ­ band ... when he (brother-in-law) came to know and was questioned, he got furious and beat me ... when my h u sb an d was at work. A n o t h e r fo rm of s e x u a l a b u s e w a s by m a n i p u l a t i n g w o m e n 's r e p r o ­ d u c tiv e r ig h ts . Z a r i n a , a 6 2 -y e a r-o ld w o m a n w ith five c h i ld r e n , f o u r of

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w h o m w e r e b o r n w ith in th e f irs t 5 y e a r s , e x p la in e d h o w h e r h u s b a n d c o n tr o lle d h e r s e x u a l a n d r e p r o d u c t i v e rig h ts . Most of the time he would force himself on me ... he did not feel any guilt and would go about his activities like nothing happened ... after my fourth child, my sister's friend suggested I go on the pill ... b u t my h u s ­ band was reluctant to buy them. He himself never wanted to use con­ dom s or anything ... and by making me pregnant time and time again, he was trying to bind me down to him. S im ilarly, T a ra , a 3 7 -y e a r - o ld se c re ta ry , d e s c r i b e d h o w h e r h u s b a n d c o n t r o ll e d h e r s e x u a l a n d r e p r o d u c t i v e rig h ts . In T a r a 's e a s e , it w a s n o t by fo rc in g h e r to ha v e c h ild r e n , b u t by fo rc in g h e r to h a ve a b o r t i o n s , th e r e b y d e n y in g h e r r ig h t to ha v e a c h ild a n d g o ing a g a in s t h e r r e li­ g io u s beliefs. Three times he forced me to go for an abortion, which I was totally against ... he said wc can't afford it, wc have nobody to watch the baby, things like t h a t ... when I finally got pregnant for the fourth time ... I con­ vinced him somehow to keep the baby ... but a year later he said he can’t stand this, he does not want to deal with the responsibilities, it is too much for him, he is too young for all this, he should be enjoying his life. He started going out and having an affair. S o m e o f th e s e S o u t h A sian m e n a lso s ex u a lly a b u s e d th e ir w ives by m a n i p u l a t i n g th e “o t h e r w o m a n " fa c to r a s a m e a n s o f in t i m i d a t i n g a n d e x e r c is in g p o w e r a n d c o n t r o l. H e r e f la u n tin g th e s e x u a l o t h e r involved the p r o c e s s of i n s in u a tin g , th r e a te n in g , o r a c tu a lly h a v in g a s e x u a l r e ­ l a t i o n s h i p w ith a n o t h e r w o m a n , t h e r e b y m a k i n g h is wife feel s e x u a lly in a d e q u a t e a n d a lie n a t e d f r o m h e r body. For S o u t h A s ia n i m m i g r a n t w o m e n like Y a m u n a , se x u a l a b u s e to o k th e fo r m o f h e r h u s b a n d t h r e a t e n i n g to s e e k sex e ls e w h e r e if s h e d id n o t s u c c u m b to h i s d e ­ s ir e s , t h e r e b y d e v a lu in g her, m a k i n g h e r feel in a d e q u a t e , a n d fo rc in g h e r to h a ve se x w ith h im in w a y s t h a t w e r e a g a in s t h e r beliefs a n d v a l­ u e s . In s h o r t , f r e q u e n tly m e n in itia te d th e se x u a l a c t, d e f in e d th e n a ­ tu r e o f th e act, a n d d e t e r m i n e d w h e n it w a s over, w ith w o m e n ra r e ly h a v in g a n y c h o ic e in th e m a tte r . T h e s e x u a l a c t w a s o n e in w h ic h w o m e n w e re s ile n c e d , c o n tr o lle d , a n d s u b o r d i n a t e d .

INTIMIDATION I n t i m i d a t i o n w a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e a b u s e t h a t th e S o u t h A s i a n i m m i g r a n t w o m e n I i n t e r v i e w e d e x p e r i e n c e d . It o fte n o c c u r r e d o n a d a y - t o - d a y b a s i s a n d o f te n e s c a l a t e d w h e n a w o m a n c h a l l e n g e d h e r a b u s e r . M a lti, a 4 7 - y e a r - o l d s y s t e m s e n g in e e r , w a s i n t i m i d a t e d by h e r h u s b a n d u s i n g v io l e n c e o n o b j e c t s a n d t h r e a t e n i n g to d o th e s a m e to her.

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All of a s u d d e n he w o uld get angry ... from the s i m p le s t things to the big­ gest thing ... he w ould c o m e a n d e xam in e the re frig e ra to r everyday, w h a t I h a d th r o w n o u t a n d w h a t I h a d kep t. T h e garbage in the h o u s e w as in ­ sp e c te d before it w a s th ro w n o u t ... he w a n te d to find faults in so m e th in g ... w h e n e v e r he w as a t h o m e th e re w a s c o n s ta n t c riticism . I c ould never be r i g h t ... the a n ge r w as u n p r e d ic ta b le . He w o uld be nice a n d sw eet for a few days, a n d then all of a s u d d e n s o m e th in g very insignificant w ould m a k e him a ngry ... he w ould n o t s h o w the violence physically, he w ould get g lasse s a n d b r e a k t h e m . He w ould say, see w h a t I can d o to th a t glass, I can do the s a m e to you. This type of intim id a tio n .

Anot he r c o m m o n way of intimid atio n w as the h u s b a n d th re a te ni ng the wife th at he woul d s en d he r b a c k to the h o m e co un try if she did not abide by his d e m a n d s . For s o m e So u th Asian w o m e n this w as t r a u ­ matic, as they feared the negative social i m p a c t of this on their own families in S o u t h Asia. S h a h i d a d e s cr i b ed this intimidation: O ne day I h e a r d him (h u s b a n d ) m a k e p la n s with (A m erican girlfriend] for going o u t for d inner. I w a s in the k itc h e n , a n d he w a s u sin g the b e d ­ ro o m p h o n e . I d o n ’t k n o w w h a t got over m e b u t I p ic k e d u p the o th e r ex­ te n sio n . Im m e d ia te ly he c a m e, s n a tc h e d the p h o n e a n d p u t it d o w n . He w as very angry a n d sa id th a t (girlfriend] c o u ld s u e m e ... a n o t h e r time he w a n te d to k n o w w hy I h a d gone to the s to re w h e n he h a d f o r b id d e n m e ... he s a id th a t if I co u ld n o t stay the way he w a n te d m e, th e n I c ould go b a c k to P a k is ta n ... he told m e to a s k m y father for the ticket m o n e y a n d said t h a t my fa the r d o e s n o t w a n t m e b a ck .

All the diff erent m an if es ta ti on s of violence j u s t d i s c u s s e d were u s u ­ ally a c c o m p a n ie d by verbal a b u s e. As Se e m a , a 26-year-old w o m a n who w o r k e d as a p a c k e r a nd w as physically m a i m e d by h er h u s b a n d w he n she wa s 24 explained: He did n o t w a n t m e to a s k him anything. B ut I h a d a lot of q u e s tio n s , a s I h a d lots to learn. If I ever a s k e d him an y th in g he w ou ld get a ngry with m e b e c a u s e I h a d a s k e d him a n d s h o u te d in s te a d of explaining it to m e. He never a n s w e r e d my q u e s ti o n s a n d w a s alw ays angry. He w ou ld verbally a b u s e m e a n d I c ould n o t sleep a s I w a s s c a re d of him .

The privatization of the ho m e, language a n d cultural b a rr i e r s , and the an on ym ity of i m m i g r a n t families were conducive to So u th Asian w o m e n being t r a p p e d in an abusive m arr iag e, with their p e r p e t r a t o r s r e m a in i n g u n a c c o u n t a b le for their actio ns (S a k hi Collective, 1992). E C O N O M IC D E P R IV A T IO N

Although m a r i t a l violence c u ts a c r o s s all s oc io e c o n o m i c s e g m e n t s of the S o u t h Asian co m m un ity , fact ors s u c h a s level of ed u c at io n , lac k of e m p l o y m e n t , or i n a d e q u a t e p r e p a r a t i o n to e n te r the w o r k force exac­

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e r b a t e a w o m a n ’s s e n s e o f d e p e n d e n c y a n d f i n a n c i a l e n t r a p m e n t w ith in th e m a rria g e . O ne im p o r t a n t w ay an a b u s iv e h u s b a n d e c o ­ n o m i c a l l y a b u s e d h i s i m m i g r a n t wife a n d m a d e h e r “n o n e x i s t e n t ” to th e o u t s i d e w o r l d w a s b y c o n t r o l l i n g a ll t h e f i n a n c e s , g iv in g h e r a b s o ­ lu te ly n o m o n e y , t h e r e b y r e s t r i c t i n g h e r f r e e d o m o f m o v e m e n t , h o l d ­ in g h e r a c c o u n t a b l e f o r e v e r y p e n n y s h e s p e n d s , a n d e x c l u d i n g h e r f r o m a n y b a n k a c c o u n t s a n d a n y m o v e a b l e o r i m m o v a b l e a s s e t s . A l­ t h o u g h s o m e S o u t h A s i a n w o m e n a r e h ig h ly e d u c a t e d a n d f in a n c i a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t , c u l t u r a l l i m i t a t i o n s c o m b i n e d w it h g e n d e r r o l e c o n d i ­ t i o n i n g r e s u l t in w o m e n f e e lin g p r e s s u r e d to b e f i n a n c i a l l y a c c o u n t ­ a b l e to t h e i r s p o u s e s . T a r a e x p l a i n e d h o w h e r h u s b a n d t r i e d to c o n tro l h e r fin an ces. I was w orking for two years before he m a rrie d m e ... he starte d asking me a b o u t the money. Like w h at do you do. w hat h a p p e n e d ? Then he sta rte d asking me to give him an account. I said I c an ’t give you an ac­ c o u n t for w hat I did with my m oney in the last two years. I d o n ’t keep the receipts ... he said you are talking b ack to me. you have no re sp e c t for your h u s b a n d ... th a t’s how it started . I couldn't say anything. If he a sk s me som eth in g I have to give him an answer. If he does not like it, then it’s no t respecting him ... he would slap me. U s h a s a id : Since I came here, I have been w orking b u t my h u s b a n d took the money ... and then they [ h u s b a n d and in-laws) would give me twenty d ollars a week. I h ad to p u t my gas and for all my lunches. Things k e p t getting h a rd , b ccausc when you go out and all, you have to con tribu te in other things. You have to m aintain your attire ... F irst I sta rte d talking that I need som e m ore. Then the father [in-lawj starte d interfering, then the b ro th e r (in-law] sta rte d interfering m ore and m ore. If I go for grocery, why did I sp e n d so m uch, they would open my groceries and go through everything. How m uch I sp e n t on it. Whatever I do at hom e is wrong. If I cook two things, why did I cook two? W h e n U s h a tr i e d to m a i n t a i n a s e p a r a t e a c c o u n t , s h e w a s b e a t e n u p by h e r h u s b a n d . One day I thought that I am not going to close the account (an independent account that she had started and was u n d e r p re ssu re to close] ... I need a little bit of financial independence ... so he beat me and said th a t he was going to call his father and bro th er and they are all going to beat me. S h a h i d a e x p l a i n e d h e r a b u s e t h r o u g h fisc a l d e p r i v a t i o n w h e n s h e w a s n o t w o r k i n g a n d w a s f in a n c ia lly d e p e n d e n t o n h e r h u s b a n d : He gave me no m oney for h o u seho ld expenses ... He used to do all the sho p p in g a n d spending, he never took m e for grocery. He told me not to go, b ecause it w a sn ’t a good ne ighborhood .... I had no slip p e rs to wear at hom e, so I a sk e d him for one. He bought me one that w as one size bigger. So I w as in a state, that I c ou ld n’t even go out to buy a pair of slip p e rs ....

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During Ramzan, I had kept Roza, but he did not. You know I couldn’t eat anything the whole day. He never got fruits or anything for me. It was very hot those days. I had found a bag of coins in a drawer. I didn't know that they were old rare coins. I took a couple and bought orange juice. Later he told his friend that I had stolen his money. By c o n tr o l lin g th e fin a n c e s , m e n e n s u r e d t h a t th e w o m e n r e m a i n e d w ith in a b u s iv e s i t u a t i o n s d u e to a p e r c e iv e d , a n d o ften re a l, in a b ility to o p t o u t. A lth o u g h m a n y of th e w o m e n h a d b e e n e d u c a t e d in th e ir h o m e co u n try , they d id n o t h a v e th e type o f p r e p a r a t i o n in t e r m s o f la n g u a g e sk ills, q u a lif ic a tio n s , o r j o b t r a i n i n g n e e d e d for a t t a i n i n g a j o b t h a t c o u ld p r o v id e s o m e s o r t o f fin a n c ia l i n d e p e n d e n c e in th e U n ite d S t a te s . For o t h e r s , t h e ir q u a lif ic a tio n s a n d t r a i n i n g w e r e o u t d a t e d d u e to a b i d i n g b y th e c u ltu r a lly p r e s c r i b e d n o r m of th e p r i m a r y role a s wife, m o th e r , a n d k e e p e r o f th e h o m e . For m a n y w o m e n th e lo s s of se lf-e stee m a n d c o n f id e n c e , e sp e c ia lly in a n alien c o u n try , d e t e r r e d th e m fr o m s e e k in g j o b s , o r in s o m e c a s e s a tta in in g th e m . Lastly, the l a c k of a “g r e e n c a r d ”5 for s o m e of th e s e w o m e n m a d e o b ta i n i n g a n y s o r t o f legal e m p l o y m e n t a n o n v ia b le o p tio n .

THE “GREEN CARD” OR IMMIGRATION STATUS FACTOR An e x tr e m e ly i m p o r t a n t m a n if e s ta tio n of m a r i t a l viole nc e is in r e la tio n to im m i g r a t i o n i s s u e s a n d th e fear of d e p o r t a t i o n . A lth o u g h s o m e I n ­ d i a n w o m e n e m ig r a t e o n a n i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t u s , m a n y c o m e in to th e U n ite d S t a t e s a s s p o u s e s of U.S. c itiz e n s o r law ful p e r m a n e n t r e s i ­ d e n t s (LPR). P r i o r to th e p a s s a g e of th e V iolence A g a in s t W o m e n Act (VAWA) in 1 9 9 4 , th is legal d e p e n d e n c y often p l a c e d th e h u s b a n d in a p o s it io n o f d o m i n a n c e a n d c o n t r o l ov er h is wife. It p la c e d th e legally d e p e n d e n t , a b u s e d wife in th e d a n g e r o u s p o s iti o n o f r e m a i n i n g w ith h e r a b u s e r . O ften, w o m e n w h o left a n a b u s iv e m a r r i a g e p r i o r to a t t a i n ­ in g a “g re e n c a r d " w e re faced w ith th e lo s s of legal i m m i g r a t i o n s t a t u s a n d r i s k e d p o s s ib le d e p o r t a t i o n . Today, a lth o u g h h a v e b e e n s o m e legal p r o v i s i o n s for a b u s e d i m m i g r a n t w o m e n , i m m i g r a t i o n i s s u e s c o n ­ t i n u e to b e a p r o b l e m , p a r t i c u l a r l y for w o m e n o n a n H-4 v i s a .6 5

A green c a r d is a p e r m i t given to im m i g r a n t s by the U.S. Im m ig ra tio n a n d N a tu r a liz a ­ tion Scrvice ( r e n a m e d B u r e a u of Citizenship a n d I m m ig ra tio n Services) to p e r m a n e n t l y r e side a n d legally w o rk in the United States. 6The s p o u s e a n d u n m a r r i e d c h ild r e n (below 2 1 y e ars of age ) of an H 1B visa h o ld er a re eligible for a n H4 visa. A p e r s o n on a n H4 s t a t u s visa c a n n o t legally w o rk u n l e s s a n d u n til the p e r s o n gets a Change of S t a tu s from the I m m ig ra tio n a n d N a turaliz a tio n S c r ­ vice from an H4 to H 1B sta tu s . T h is h a s specific r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d is n ot easy au to m a tic p r o c e s s . An H1B visa is given to b rin g in professional-level foreign e m ploy e es to the United S ta te s. T h r o u g h the H1B visa p r o g r a m , U.S. e m p lo y e rs a re able to hire foreign p r o f e s s io n a ls for a spccificd p e rio d of time. T h e H1B p r o g r a m allows w o r k e r s in s p e ­ cialty o c c u p a ti o n s to w o rk in the United S ta te s for a m a x i m u m p e rio d of 6 y e a r s a n d is su b je ct to c ertain specificatio ns. T he H4 visa p u t s severe c o n s t r a i n t s on a b u s e d w o m e n , as they are econom ically d e p e n d e n t a n d also fear d e p o r ta ti o n if they leave their a b u s e r s .

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A m o n g s o m e o f th e w o m e n I in te rv ie w e d , th e g r e e n c a r d w a s u s e d a s a m e a n s of p o w e r a n d c o n tr o l b y the a b u s e r a n d h a d a n i m p a c t on w o m e n g e ttin g o u t o f a n a b u s iv e r e l a t i o n s h i p . S c c m a 's h u s b a n d u s e d th e g r e e n c a r d to e x e rc is e p o w e r a n d c o n tro l. A he [Seema’s husband) is a citizen, my green card came within three m onths but he never let me collect the mail. I knew that the green card had come b ut he kept it with h im . I had not even seen it. Then he started to say that one day he would m u rd e r me ... It was six o’ clock in the m o r n ­ ing ... he said that I had comc only for my green card. He said he knew that I had asked his friend about my green card. He kept on saying that I had m arried him for the green card and was going to ruin his life ... he went and picked up a pitchfork. The big one m ade of iron ... he aimed it to poke my eyes ... I had not fully woken up so 1 could not run away ... I became unconscious ... when I regained conscience, I realized that I was all alone ... I saw myself in the m irro r and found that I was bleeding p ro ­ fusely ... one eye was totally damaged. For S h a h i d a , g e ttin g o u t o f a n a b u s iv e m a r r i a g e c a u s e d d e la y s in h e r a tta in in g a g r e e n c a r d sin c e th e g r e e n c a r d w a s c o n tin g e n t o n h e r h u s ­ b a n d ’s s t a t u s . S h e e x p la in e d : I have a green card now but earlier I had some other status. I got it after my marriage, und er the condition that I will have my interview after two years when they will m ake the green card (permanent). But I separated within seven m onths of my coming here. So the interview that needed both the h usband and wife could not be held. I had to file for my green card separately ... one has to file it and give it for their [Immigration and Naturalization Services) consideration. They decide whether to give it to you or not. I filed it and fortunately won the case. Y a m u n a , w h o left h e r h u s b a n d b e fo re h e r g r e e n c a r d c a m e t h r o u g h , d e s c r i b e d h o w h e r h u s b a n d tr ie d to in t i m i d a t e h e r a t w o r k by telling h e r r o o m m a t e th e following: “I'm go in g to tell th e p olice, I'm g o ing to tell th e i m m i g r a t i o n t h a t s h e ’s a c h e a t, s h e ’s a lia r a n d e v e r y th in g .” N ot h a v i n g t h e i r o w n fa m ilie s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s to t u r n to for s o m e s o r t o f f in a n c ia l s u p p o r t m a k e s g e ttin g a jo b i m p e r a t i v e for a b u s e d S o u t h A s ia n w o m e n w h o a r e d e p e n d e n t o n th e i r s p o u s e s . T h e la c k o f a “g r e e n c a r d ” w a s a n o b s t a c l e for s o m e o f t h e s e w o m e n in f in d i n g a n a lt e r n a t iv e , t h r o u g h legal e m p l o y m e n t , t h a t w o u l d fa c ili­ ta te t h e i r e c o n o m i c i n d e p e n d e n c e fr o m th e ir a b u s e r . T h e n e e d to p r o ­ te c t a b u s e d i m m i g r a n t w o m e n ’s r i g h t s le d to g r o u p s s e e k i n g m e m b e r s o f C o n g r e s s to in iti a te o r h e lp p a s s le g is la tio n t h r o u g h the I m m i g r a t i o n A ct o f 1 9 9 1 , th e V iolence A g a in s t W o m e n Act (VAWA) 1 9 9 4 , a n d VAWA 2 0 0 0 . H ow ever, v a r i o u s b a r r i e r s p e r s i s t , p a r t i c u ­ la rly fo r t h o s e a b u s e d S o u t h A s ia n i m m i g r a n t w o m e n w ith a n H 4 v isa s t a t u s (Raj & S i l v e r m a n , 2 0 0 3 ) .

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PO LICE, C O U R T S, AND HEALTH CARE PR O V ID E R S T h e p o lice, c o u r t s , a n d h e a l t h p r o v i d e r s a ls o e x a c e r b a t e w o m e n ’s ex­ p e r i e n c e s o f d o m e s t i c vio len ce t h r o u g h ra c ia l, g e n d e r, a n d c u l t u r a l s t e ­ r e o ty p in g . I m m i g r a n t w o m e n ’s a b u s e w a s c o m p o u n d e d w h e n the p olice, c o u r t s , a n d th e d e p a r t m e n t of h e a l th w e re u n r e s p o n s i v e o r w o m e n fe a r e d th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s c o llu d in g w ith g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c ie s s u c h a s th e I m m ig r a t io n a n d N a tu r a liz a tio n S erv ice. I s s u e s s u c h a s la c k o f c o u r t la n g u a g e i n t e r p r e t e r s , e th n ic , ra c ia l, a n d c la s s b ia s e s , a n d la c k of c u l t u r a l s e n sitiv ity in th e i n s tit u t io n a l r e s p o n s e a ls o d e ­ t e r r e d w o m e n fro m s e e k in g i n s tit u t io n a l s u p p o r t in e n d in g d o m e s tic violen ce. S o m e t i m e s th e c o u r t s b e in g u n a w a r e o f m a r r i a g e c u s t o m s a m o n g th e v a r i o u s s e c tio n s of th e S o u t h A sia n c o m m u n ity , s u c h a s th e la c k of legal d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f m a r r i a g e s , dowry, gift giving, a n d s e x u ­ ality, p la c e d a b u s e d i m m i g r a n t w o m e n s e e k in g a d iv o rc e a t a d i s a d v a n ­ tage d u e to the la c k of u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e c u l t u r a l d y n a m i c s on the p a r t o f la w y c r s a n d j u d g e s . S te r e o ty p e s , negative a t t i t u d e s , a n d a p a th y by p r o v i d e r s o f m e d i c a l c a r e t o w a r d a b u s e d w o m e n a lso r e d u c e d vic­ t i m s ’ w illin g n e s s to s e e k h elp .

ST R A T EG IE S OF RE SIST A N C E A d i s c u s s i o n o f w o m e n 's e x p e r ie n c e s o f m a r i t a l violen ce is n o t c o m ­ p le te w it h o u t b riefly m e n t i o n i n g th e s tr a te g i e s o f r e s i s t a n c e th a t a b u s e d i m m i g r a n t w o m e n u s e . O ften th e im a g e o f a b u s e d i m m i g r a n t w o m e n in th e m a i n s t r e a m A m e r ic a n s o c ie ty is t h a t th e y a r e do c ile o r p a s s iv e to th e a b u s e p e r p e t r a t e d a g a i n s t th e m . T h i s is c le a rly n o t th e c a s e . D e s p ite th e m a n y c o n s t r a i n t s th e y face, m a n y a b u s e d i m m i g r a n t w o m e n t h a t I in te rv ie w e d u s e d m u lt ip le s t r a te g ie s to r e d u c e o r e n d th e violen ce. T h e s e in c lu d e d : (a) p e r s o n a l s t r a t e g i e s s u c h a s talking , p r o m i s i n g , h id in g , av oiding , p a s s iv e o r a g g re ssiv e d e f e n s e , (b) u s i n g i n f o r m a l s o u r c e s o f h e lp s u c h a s fa m ily m e m b e r s , n e ig h b o r s , a n d f r ie n d s , a n d (c) u s i n g f o r m a l s o u r c e s o f h e lp s u c h a s p olice, s o c ia l s e r ­ vice a g e n c ie s , s h e l t e r s , a n d la w y e rs a n d th e c o u r t s y s te m ( A b r a h a m , 2 0 0 0 ) . O ften a b u s e d w o m e n felt c o m p e lle d to s ta y w ith th e i r a b u s e r a s th ey h a d n o e c o n o m ic in d e p e n d e n c e a n d c o u ld n o t easily a c c e s s p u b lic b e n e f its a n d a lte r n a tiv e h o u s in g .

STR A T EG IE S FOR CHANGE AND TH E ROLE OF SO U TH ASIA N W O M EN’S ORGANIZATIONS A lth o u g h w o m e n w h o h a v e b e e n a b u s e d h av e u s e d v a r i o u s s tr a te g ie s o f r e s i s t a n c e in t h e ir o w n r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a m o r e collective a n d o r g a ­ n iz e d a p p r o a c h to s h iftin g d o m e s t i c v io le n c e fr o m a p r iv a te p r o b l e m to a p u b lic i s s u e o c c u r r e d w ith th e e m e r g e n c e of S o u t h A sia n w o m e n 's o r g a n i z a t i o n s (SAWOs) in the 1 9 8 0 s . At th e f o r e f r o n t of a d d r e s s i n g the n e e d s o f a b u s e d S o u t h A sia n i m m i g r a n t w o m e n , c h a lle n g in g th e n o ­

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tion o f a m o d e l m in o rity , a n d re d e f in i n g c o m m u n i t y w e r e S o u t h A sian w o m e n 's o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u c h a s S a k h i for S o u t h A sia n W o m e n in New York, M a n a v i in New J e r s e y , S e w a a in P h ila d e lp h i a , A p n a G h a r in C h i ­ cago, S n e h a in C o n n e c t ic u t, M a itri a n d N a r ik a in C a lifo rn ia , a n d S a h e li in T exas. A p n a G h a r s t a r t e d th e f ir s t s h e l t e r in C h ic ag o in 1 9 9 0 to p r o v id e s e r v ic e s for a b u s e d S o u t h A sian w o m e n . T h e s e o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n s to g e th e r c r e a te d a s p a c e for S o u t h A sia n w o m e n to d i s c u s s i s ­ s u e s t h a t w e r e p e r t i n e n t to t h e m a s w o m e n a n d a s S o u t h A s ia n s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s a n d p r o v id e d ta n g ib le s u p p o r t a n d s e r v ic e s for S o u th A sia n a b u s e d w o m e n . I n te r s e c tin g g e n d e r a n d e th n ic ity b y th e ir very e x is te n c e a n d in i s s u e s th e y a r t ic u la te d , t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s p r o t e c t e d a n d e m p o w e r e d S o u t h A sia n w o m e n ( A b r a h a m , 1995). T h e l a s t d e c a d e h a s s e e n th e e m e r g e n c e o f m a n y m o r e S o u t h A s i a n w o m e n 's o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a t a d d r e s s d o m e s t i c v io le n c e . I n d i ­ v id u a lly a n d to g e th e r , t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e d e v e l o p e d s t r a t e g i c s to s t a r t s e n s i t i z i n g la w e n f o r c e r s a n d h e a l t h c a r e p r o v i d e r s to th e n e e d s o f S o u t h A s ia n w o m e n by p r o v i d i n g h a n d b o o k s a n d d i s c u s s ­ in g t h e i s s u e s w ith m a i n s t r e a m s e r v i c e s . At th e m i c r o level, t h e s e SA W O s h a v e s h i f t e d n o t i o n s o f s e l f a n d c o m m u n i t y t h r o u g h i n d i v i d ­ u a l a d v o c a c y a n d v ic tim s u p p o r t g r o u p s . T h e s e SA W O s a s s i s t S o u t h A s i a n v i c t i m s / s u r v i v o r s o f m a r i t a l v io l e n c e by p r o v i d i n g t h e m w ith r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n , s u g g e s t i n g th e a l t e r n a t i v e o p t i o n s a v a i la b l e to t h e m , l i s t e n i n g to t h e i r p r o b l e m s , b e i n g a s o c ia l s u p p o r t , c o u n s e l i n g th e m , e m p o w e rin g th e m , h e lp in g th em rem o v e th e ir p e r s o n a l b e ­ l o n g in g s if th e y d e c i d e to le a v e t h e i r h o m e , a n d f r e q u e n t l y t a k i n g t h e m t h r o u g h th e s t e p s n e c e s s a r y to e n d t h e cycle o f v io le n c e p e r p e ­ t r a t e d a g a i n s t t h e m . 7 SA W O s a l s o p r o v i d e legal a s s i s t a n c e for a b u s e d S o u t h A s ia n w o m e n w h e n e v e r p o s s i b l e . T h e y h a v e c r c a t c d s u p p o r t g ro u p s w h ere v ictim s/su rv iv o rs m e e t o th e r v ic tim s/su rv i­ v o rs, d is c u s s th e ir p r o b le m s , s u p p o r t e a c h o ther, p ro v id e s o l i d a r ­ ity, a n d h e l p e a c h o t h e r in th e p r o c e s s o f e n d i n g t h e v io le n c e p e r p e t r a t e d a g a i n s t t h e m . T h e y h e l p e m p o w e r w o m e n a n d s h i f t th e p r o b l e m f r o m a p r i v a t e p r o b l e m to a p u b l i c i s s u e . T h e la c k o f a p p r o p r i a t e e d u c a t i o n a l a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l s k ills is a m a ­ j o r o b s ta c le for s o m e v ic tim s o f m a r i t a l vio le n c e in th e S o u t h A sian c o m m u n ity . SAWOs h e lp w o m e n w h o la c k th e la n g u a g e a n d c o m m u n i ­ c a tio n s k ills to a t ta in s u ita b le j o b s by p r o v id in g la n g u a g e c l a s s e s a n d jo b t r a i n i n g c l a s s e s , a n d h e lp i n g th e m lo c a te s u ita b le j o b s so a s to a t ­ ta in s e lf-c o n fid e n c e a n d e c o n o m ic i n d e p e n d e n c e . T h e y d e v e lo p c o n ­ ta c ts w ith jo b t r a i n i n g c e n t e r s a n d c h e c k th e ir a c c e s s ib ility to S o u t h A sia n w o m e n , in itia te la n g u a g e t r a i n i n g c l a s s e s o r c o n n e c t v ic tim s w ith a l r e a d y e x istin g p r o g r a m s , p r o v id e a s s i s t a n c e in a tta in in g w o r k p e r m i t s , a n d a s s i s t in w r itin g r e s u m e s a n d l o c a tin g j o b s .

C o u n se lin g p rov ided by the different S o u th Asian o rg a n iz a tio n s varies from train ed c o u n s e lo r s to v o lu n te e rs who a re t r a in e d to c o u n se l on an in form al, nonlegal b a sis.

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At the m a c r o level, th e s e SAWOs a tt e m p t to b r in g a b o u t legislative re fo rm a n d c u ltu r a l s e n sitiz a tio n in law e n fo rc e m e n t a n d m e d ic a l care sy ste m s . Similarly, they h elp redefine the c o m m u n ity by w o rk in g with m e d ia to s to p p e r p e tu a ti n g a d is to r te d im a g e ry of im m ig r a n t m i n o r i ­ ties, as th e s e im ages often r e s u l t in d is c r im in a tio n a n d violence a g a in st th e se g r o u p s . Th ey h elp a d d r e s s d o m e s tic violence a n d o th e r social i s s u e s by lo o k in g a t the w ays by w hich c u ltu r a l a n d s t r u c t u r a l d is c r im in a tio n le a d s to policies t h a t lim it the w ays of e n d in g violence a g a in s t w o m e n . M ost im po rtan tly, th e se o rg a n iz a tio n s have played a pivotal role in challeng in g th e existing s t a t u s q u o a n d in r a is in g c o m ­ m u n ity c o n s c i o u s n e s s to e n d violence a g a in st w o m e n . T h e s e SAWOs a n d with o th e r c o m m u n ity - b a s e d o rg a n iz a tio n s have re d e fin e d the S o u th A sian c o m m u n ity in the U nited S tates. C o n s tr u c t io n s of se lf a n d c o m m u n ity a r e c o n sta n tly u n d e r g o in g c hange. A lthough m y r e s e a r c h focused on SAWOs th a t a d d r e s s e d m a r ­ ital violence, the 1 9 9 0 s in the U nited S ta le s a lso w itn e s s e d m o b iliz a ­ tion a r o u n d o t h e r i m p o r t a n t i s s u e s , i n c l u d in g h e a l th , poverty, religiou s f u n d a m e n t a l i s m , gay a n d le sb ia n rig h ts, a n d d o m e s tic w o r k e r 's rig h ts in the S o u th A sian c o m m u n ity (K handelw al, 1997, 1998). T oday th e S o u th Asian p o p u la tio n is over 2 million, new S o u th Asian o rg a n iz a tio n s have p ro life ra te d , a n d m a n y m o r e s c h o la r s , in ­ c lu d in g a new g e n e ra tio n of S o u th A sian s t u d e n ts , a r e w ritin g on i s ­ s u e s th a t im p a c t S o u th A sian im m ig r a n t w o m e n a n d m e n ’s lives. T he c o m in g of age of a s e c o n d g e n e ra tio n of S o u th A sia n s in the United S ta te s h a s led to a d d r e s s i n g div e rse c o n c e r n s grow ing o u t of th e ir p e r ­ c e p tio n s a n d e x p e rie n c e s of A m e ric a n a n d S o u th A sian c u ltu re . It also plays into the d y n a m ic s of o rg a n iz a tio n s a n d c o n s tr u c tio n s of self, c u ltu re , a n d c o m m u n ity of S o u th A sia n s in the U nited S la te s.

POSTSCRIPT: REFLECTIONS ON DOING COMMUNITY-BASED ACTION RESEARCH A lthough m y goal h a s to b e en to ke e p the voices of a b u s e d w o m e n c e n ­ tra l in th is cha p te r, I w a s a s k e d to briefly d e s c r ib e m y own e n tré e a s a sociologist into th is r e s e a r c h , d e s c r ib e s o m e of the challenges, a n d su g g e st so m e a r e a s for fu tu re r e s e a r c h . A d e c a d e ago, th e re w a s c o n ­ sid e ra b le r e s e a r c h on d o m e s tic violence in the U nited S ta te s, b u t a s e ­ r i o u s p a u c ity of m a t e r i a l on its p r e v a le n c e in e th n ic m i n o r it y c o m m u n itie s . It w a s in 1 9 8 9 /1 9 9 0 th a t 1 d e c id e d to e xplore m a r ita l vi­ olence in the S o u th A sian i m m ig r a n t c o m m u n ity in the U nited S tates. Interestingly, in the early sta g e s of th is r e s e a r c h , I fo u n d m yself being a s k e d by s o m e S o u th A sian activists w h e th e r m y w o r k a s a sociologist w o u ld be acc e ssib le to a larg e r a u d ie n c e th a n a c a d e m ic s . T h is q u e s ­ tion, tog ether with d is c u s s io n s w ith a c a d e m ic s , frie n d s, a n d activists

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a b o u t c o m m u n i t y id e n tity c o n s t r u c t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e c o n te x t of vio lence a g a in s t w o m e n , in flu e n c e d m e to c ritic ally refle ct on m y r o le s a s a so c io lo g ist a n d a s a S o u t h A sia n i m m i g r a n t w o m a n w o r k i n g in th e U n ite d S la te s . A lth o u g h m y e n t r é e in th e field of d o m e s t i c violen ce w a s p r i m a r i l y a s a r e s e a r c h e r w h o s e m a i n g oal w a s to c o n t r i b u t e to th e d i s c o u r s e on d o m e s t i c vio lence, I w a s s u r p r i s e d to se e h o w th is g oal b e c a m e m u c h m o r e c o n c r e te t h a n I h a d initially e n v is io n e d . O ver th e y e a r s I h a v e i n ­ c r e a s in g ly c o m e to se e m y s e lf a s a s o c io lo g is t e n g a g e d in " a c tio n r e ­ s e a r c h ” ( D o b a s h & D o b a s h , 1 9 7 9 ) c o m m i t t e d to b r id g in g th e g a p b e tw e e n s c h o l a r s h i p a n d a c tiv is m . I believe t h a t d o in g r e s e a r c h o n vio ­ lence a g a i n s t w o m e n involves in te g r a tin g th e o r e tic a l a n d m e t h o d o l o g i ­ cal rig o r w ith in a so c io p o litic a l c o n te x t. T h e o re tic ally , a c tio n r e s e a r c h e n ta ils a c o m m i t m e n t to c o n t i n u o u s l y e x a m in e th e c o m m o n a l i t i e s a n d d if f e r e n c e s t h a t ex ist a m o n g w o m e n a n d m e n b a s e d o n th e i n t e r s e c ­ tion o f ra c e , ethnicity, g e n d e r, c la s s , a n d n a tio n a lity . M ethodologically, a c tio n r e s e a r c h r e c o g n iz e s t h a t i s s u e s s u c h a s w h e r e th e r e s e a r c h t a k e s p la c e , th e ty p e s o f q u e s t i o n s a s k e d , d a t a collec tio n s tr a te g ie s , i n ­ t e r p r e t a t i o n , d i s s e m i n a t i o n , a n d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n r e s e a r c h e r a n d r e s p o n d e n t a r e in tr in s ic a lly s o c io p o litic a l in n a t u r e . T o d a y a s a s o c io lo g is t I c a n tr u ly s a y t h a t w r itin g a n d w o r k i n g in e t h ­ n ic c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t h a v e b e e n h is to r ic a lly m a r g in a liz e d o r re le g a te d to th e a m b i g u o u s " t h i r d ” p o s it io n in a tr a d i tio n a lly d i c h o t o m o u s s o c i ­ ety s u c h a s th e U n ite d S t a t e s h a s s e n s i tiz e d m e to the s o c io p o litic a l c o n te x t w ith in w h ic h m y r e s e a r c h is d o n e a n d a p p lie d . We n e e d to d e ­ c o n s t r u c t s t e r e o t y p e s o f o u r c o m m u n i t i e s a n d h e lp s h ift i s s u e s p e r t i ­ n e n t to S o u t h A s ia n s fro m th e m a r g i n s to the c e n te r. C u r r e n t l y t h e r e is r e s e a r c h o n th e c a u s a l f a c t o r s a n d th e m a n i f e s ­ t a t i o n s o f d o m e s t i c v io le n c e a m o n g S o u t h A s ia n s . H ow ever, n o s e r i ­ o u s a t t e n t i o n h a s b e e n given to th e j u s t i c e r e s p o n s e to d o m e s t i c v io le n c e in t h i s e t h n i c p o p u l a t i o n . T h i s is a n e x tr e m e ly i m p o r t a n t a r e a fo r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h . T h e j u s t i c e r e s p o n s e c a n s h a p e , to a la rg e d e g r e e , th e o u t c o m e s o f s u r v i v o r s ’ e x p e r i e n c e s o f d o m e s t i c v io le n c e a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f c o m m u n i t y It is i m p o r t a n t to e x p lo r e w h e t h e r d o m e s t i c v io le n c e v i c t i m s / s u r v i v o r s in th e S o u t h A s ia n c o m m u n i t y e x p e r i e n c e th e p o lic e r e s p o n s e a n d c o u r t s in p a t t e r n e d w a y s. T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t given t h a t th e l a s t d e c a d e h a s s e e n th e i n c r e a s ­ in g c r i m i n a l i z a t i o n o f d o m e s t i c v io le n c e . We a ls o n e e d to e x a m i n e s o m e m o r e l o n g - t e r m v ia b le s o c ia l a l t e r n a t i v e s to th e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m in a d d r e s s i n g d o m e s t i c v io le n c e . In th e y e a r s to c o m e , m o r e c o ll a b o r a tiv e , c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s will h e lp u s u n d e r s t a n d a n d a d ­ d r e s s th e g lo b a l p e r v a s i v e n e s s o f v io le n c e a g a i n s t w o m e n . To d o th is w e h a v e to b u i l d b e t t e r b r i d g e s b e tw e e n s o c io lo g is ts a n d a c tiv is ts , b o t h n a t i o n a l a n d t r a n s n a t i o n a l , w h ile c r itic a lly r e fle c tin g on a n d sh arin g our research.

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REFERENCES A b r a h a m , M. (1995). Ethnicity, gender, a n d m a r ita l violence: S o u th Asian w o m e n ’s o rg a n iz a tio n s in the United S ta te s. G e n d e r & S o c i e t y , 9(4), 450-468. A b r a h a m , M. (1998). S p e a k in g the u n s p e a k a b le : M arital violence a m o n g the S o u th Asian c o m m u n ity in the U nited S ta te s. I n d i a n J o u r n a l o f G e n d e r S t u d i e s , 5(2), 2 1 5 - 2 4 1 . A b r a h a m , M. (2000). S p e a k i n g t he u n s p e a k a b l e : Mar i ta l vi ol enc e a m o n g S o u t h A s i a n i m m i g r a n t s in t h e Un i te d S t a t e s . New B ru n s w ic k , NJ: R u tg ers U niversity Press. A b r a h a m . T. (Ed.). (2002). W o m e n a n d t he pol it i cs o j violence. New Delhi. India: H ar-A nand. D a sg u p ta , S. D. (Ed.). (1998). A p a t c h w o r k s h a w l : C hr onic le s o f S o u t h A s i a n w o m e n in A m e r i c a . New B ru n s w ic k , N J: R u tg e rs U niversity Press. D o b a s h , R. E., & D o b a s h , R. P. (1979). Violence a g a i n s t w i v es . New York: Free P re ss. G o r d o n , L. (1989). H e ro e s o j their o w n lives: T h e politics a n d h ist ory o f f a m ­ ily violence. L o n d o n : Virago Press. H arding , S. (1991). W h o s e s c i e n c e? W h o s e k n o w l e d g e ? Ith aca, NY: C o rnell University Press. Healey. J. F. (1995). Ra ce , e th n i c i ty , g en de r, a n d class: T h e sociology o f gro up conflict a n d c h a n g e . T h o u s a n d O a k s, CA: Pine Forge P ress. H ossfcld, K. J . (1994). H iring im m ig r a n t w o m e n : Silicon Valley’s “s im p le for­ m u l a .” In M. B. Zinn & B. T. Dill (Eds.), W o m e n o f color in U.S. s o c i e t y (pp. 6 5 - 9 3 ) . P h ila d e lp h ia : T em ple U niversity Press. K handelw al, M. (1997). C o m m u n itie s org a n izin g in an Asian g ro u p : Asian In­ d ia n s in New York City. A n o t h e r S i d e , 5(1), 2 3 - 3 2 . K handelw al, M. (1998). Reflections on diversity a n d in clu sion : S o u th A sians a n d A sian A m e ric an s tu d ie s. In L. R. H ir a b a y a s h i (Ed.), T e ac hi ng A s i a n A m e r i c a : Di ve r si ty a n d t h e p r o b l e m o f c o m m u n i t y (pp. 1 1 1 -1 2 2 ). New York: R o w m a n & Littlefield. Raj. A.. & S ilv erm a n . J. G. (2003). I m m ig r a n t S o u th Asian w o m e n a t g re a te r r is k for in ju ry from in tim a te p a r t n e r violence. A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l Public H ealt h, 93(3), 4 3 5 - 4 3 7 . R ayaprol, A. (1997). N e g o t i a t i ng identities: W o m e n in the I n d i a n d i a sp o ra . New Delhi, India: Oxford U niversity P ress. S a k h i Collective. (1992). B re a k th e silence. C o m m i t t e e on S o u t h A s i a n W o m e n Bulletin, 7, 1 1 7 -1 1 9 . S h a h , S. (1994). P re se n tin g the b lue g o d d e s s: T ow ard a n a tio n a l. Pan-Asian f e m in ist a g en d a . In K. A.-S. J u a n (Ed.), T h e s t a t e o f A s i a n A m e r i c a : A c t i v ­ ism a n d r e s i s t a n c e in t he 1 9 9 0 s (pp. 1 4 7 -1 5 8 ). B oston : S o u th E n d.

Refugees and Gendered Citizenship P a tric ia R. P e s s a r Yale U n i v e r s i t y

S c h o l a r s h i p on w o m e n , g ender, a n d m ig ra tio n h a s g ro w n t r e m e n ­ d o u s ly s in c e th e 1 9 7 0 s. W ithin th is c o r p u s , only m o d e s t a tte n tio n h a s b e e n p a id to r e f u g e e w o m e n a n d m e n (e.g., G iles, M o u sa , & Van E s te r ik , 19 96 ; I n d r a , 1999); i n s te a d , re fu g e es a r e often c o lla p s e d into th e m o r e u n iv e r s a l c a te g o ry of im m ig r a n t. T h e r e is n e e d to e x a m ­ ine how refugee s t a t u s w ith its d istin c tiv e c o u r s e of violence a n d d i s ­ p la c e m e n t, p u b lic d i s c o u r s e s , law s, a n d p r a c tic e s i m p a c t w o m e n a n d m e n differentially. How violence, a b u s e of h u m a n r ig h ts, exile, a n d r e p a t r i a t i o n b e c o m e o c c a s io n s for d is p la y s of, o r c h a lle n g e s to, p a t r i a r c h y n e e d s to be in t e r r o g a te d a s well. T h is c h a p t e r tr e a t s th e se i m p o r t a n t is s u e s , a n d it d o e s so fro m the v an ta g e p o in t of g e n d e r e d c itiz e n s h ip . In d o in g so, I s e e k to m o ve the e n g a g e m e n t of s t u d i e s of g e n d e r a n d r e f u g e e s /i m m ig r a n t s b e y o n d the m o r e f a m ilia r c o n t o u r s of h o m e a n d w o r k p la c e to a d d itio n a l a n d r e la te d s ite s s u c h a s the body, ethic c o m m u n iti e s , refugee c a m p s , n a tio n - s ta te s , i n te r n a tio n a l law, a n d in t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n s . T h e a n a ly tic a l c o n s t r u c t s of fe­ m a le c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d f e m in is t c o n s c i o u s n e s s , e m p lo y e d in th is w o r k , aid in t r a c i n g c o n tin u ity a n d c h a n g e in refugee w o m e n 's c o n ­ s c i o u s n e s s a c r o s s tim e a n d s p a c e . A g e n d e r e d a p p r o a c h to c itiz e n sh ip d e m a n d s a critical e n g a g e m e n t with t h a t p u b lic - p riv a te divide t h a t n o t only h a s in fo rm e d a g re a t deal of tra d itio n a l political th eo ry b u t also h a s b u t t r e s s e d the p o w e r of m a le citizens (P atem an, 1989). C e rta in fe m in is ts have u rg e d the a b a n d o n ­ m e n t of the p u b lic - p r iv a te b in a r y altogether. O th e r s have called for new ways to env isio n their c h a r a c te r a n d a rtic u la tio n (Mouffe, 1992).

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A d o p t i n g t h i s l a t t e r s t a n c e , A n n P h i l l i p s ( 1 9 9 3 ) r e f u s e d th e e sse n tializ ed a n d g e n d e re d q u a lities of the d istin c tio n b e tw e e n the two d o m a in s , r a t h e r th a n the d is tin c tio n itself. In this spirit, Wcona Giles (19 9 9 ) p r o p o s e d th a t for refug ees a n d im m ig r a n ts th e c o n n o ta tio n s , e m o tio n s, a n d n o r m s of “h o m e " exten d well b ey o n d th e fem inized h o u s e h o ld to in c lu d e the e th n ic co m m u n ity , refugee c a m p s , a n d the n a tio n . T he im b r ic a tio n s of w o m a n h o o d w ithin s u c h m a le - d o m i n a t e d d o m a i n s a s the local c o m m u n ity a n d th e n a tio n can be highly d is c i­ plining a n d d is c r im in a to r y for w o m e n . T h is is especially so for th o se w h o a re p e r s e c u te d d u e to th e ir " t r a n s g r e s s i o n ” of c u ltu r a l n o r m s a n d w h o a re involved in w a r a n d refugee d is p la c e m e n t. A lthough c o m m o n a litie s exist, the e x p e rie n c e s of refugee w o m e n a n d m e n are highly varied, b o th ind iv idually a n d regionally. C o n s e ­ quently, in the first p a r t of th is w o r k I d r a w e x a m p le s from several d o ­ m a i n s a n d localities to u n d e r s c o r e p a t t e r n s of o p p r e s s i o n a n d d is c r im in a tio n a g a in st fem ale refugees a n d c la im a n ts . I th e n t u r n in the s e c o n d sectio n to the specific case of G u a te m a la n refugees in c a m p s in s o u t h e r n Mexico d u r in g the 1 9 8 0 s a n d early 1 9 9 0 s a n d in r e ­ t u r n c o m m u n it ie s a s of the m i d - 1 9 9 0 s . In light o f the g a in s in political a n d social rig h ts m a n y of th e s e refugee w o m e n m a n a g e d to atta in, I ex­ p lo re the p o te n tia ls a n d lim its of exile a s a site for the d e v e lo p m e n t of m o r e ex pan sive a n d active fo r m s of c itiz en sh ip for w o m e n . I c o n c lu d e with a m o r e s o b e r in g a s s e s s m e n t of the difficulties e n c o u n te re d by re f­ ugee w o m e n w h e n they a t t e m p t to r e p a t r ia te into a highly p a tr ia r c h a l a n d in s u l a r G u a te m a la n sta te new id e n titie s a n d p ra c tic e s in fo rm e d by global h u m a n rig h ts a n d w o m e n 's rights.

GENDER AND REFUGEE STATUS R u le s of in t e r n a t i o n a l law a re p u r p o r t e d l y a b s t r a c t , objective, a n d g e n d e r - n e u t r a l. F e m in is t j u r i s p r u d e n c e , how ever, h a s d o c u m e n t e d the w ays in w h ic h the s t r u c t u r e s of in t e r n a t i o n a l law m a k i n g a n d the c o n te n t of its r u l e s s y s te m a tic a lly privilege m e n w hile ig n o rin g or m a rg in a liz in g w o m e n (B inion, 1 99 5; C h a r le s w o r th , 1991). C ritics in s is t t h a t a p u b lic /p r iv a te b i n a r y in f u s e s the law, w ith the o u tc o m e b e in g t h a t g r e a te r sign ifican ce a n d privilege a r e a f fo rd e d to p u b lic/”m a l e ” d o m a i n s th a n p r iv a te /”f e m a le ” o n e s. C o n se q u e n tly , m a n y p r o b l e m s of c o n c e r n to w o m e n a re c o n c e p tu a lly re le g a te d to the p r i ­ vate s p h e r e : a locale c o n s id e r e d i n a p p r o p r i a t e for legal re g u la tio n (Crowley, 1999). T h is o r ie n ta t io n h o ld s grave c o n s e q u e n c e s for w o m e n , e sp e cia lly th o se w h o se e k r e c o g n itio n a s re fu g e e s b a s e d on g e n d e r p e r s e c u ti o n . As J a c q u e l i n e B h a b h a (1 9 9 0 ) w ro te : N o r m s a b o u t q u o tid ia n life, the v a r io u s in s t a n c e s of "p riv ate b e h a v i o r ” s u c h a s " d r e s s c o d e s , p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , se x u a l c o n d u c t a n d in itia ­ tion a re m o s t a m e n a b l e to th e s e a r g u m e n t s b e c a u s e w ith in i n t e r n a ­ tio n a l law g e n e ra lly a n d h u m a n r ig h ts law in p a r tic u la r , th e y have

12.

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tra d itio n a lly b e e n d i s r e g a r d e d a s relatively trivial a n d friv olou s, in c o n t r a s t to the c la ssic g r o u n d s of p e r s e c u t i o n ” (pp. 4 -5 ). Within in te r n a tio n a l law, h u m a n rig h ts a r g u m e n ts a rc s u p p o s e d to t r u m p sovereign s t a t e s ’ ju s tific a tio n s for o p p r e s siv e or re s tr ic tio n is t a c tio n s, a n d the in te r n a tio n a l refugee regim e is ch a rg e d with p u ttin g th is policy into pra c tic e . Yet in c a s e s of g e n d e r p e r s e c u ti o n d ire c te d at w o m e n , th is u n d e r s t a n d i n g is often s id e s t e p p e d . R ather, a s a sy lu m c a s e s over s u c h m a t t e r s a s fem ale c ir c u m c is io n a n d forced m a r ria g e reveal, c u ltu r a l is t a r g u m e n t s a d v a n c e d by s ta te officials frequently outw eigh calls for in d iv id u a l p ro te c tio n . It is a rg u e d t h a t a lth o u g h h u ­ m a n be in g s have a c o m m o n inviolable dignity, a given society m a y p r e ­ sc rib e c e rta in n o r m s of b e h a v io r c o n s id e r e d to be c o n s is te n t w ith s u c h n o tio n s of h u m a n dignity (B h a h b a , 1996). It is a long this "fault line" b etw een the u n iv e rsa l a n d the c u lturally p a r ti c u la r th a t m a n y p o stc o lo n ia l n a tio n -s ta te s n o t only se e k to affirm th eir m e m b e r s h i p a m o n g m o d e r n n a tio n - s ta te s , b u t also e n d e a v o r to differentiate th e m s e lv e s a s u n iq u e n a tio n s . N a tio n a lists te n d to locate th is u n iq u e n e s s by gazing “b a c k w a r d " to th e “tra d itio n a l." A nd it is w o m e n w ho a r e u su a lly a s s o c ia te d with “th e tra d itio n a l" a n d ch a rg e d with m a in ta in in g th e se v alues a n d life ways. Within th is division of la­ bor, m e n a r e freed to r e p r e s e n t a n d p a rtic ip a te in m o r e “m o d e r n ” r e a lm s like the s ta te (Collier, 1995; N elson, 2 0 0 0 ). W omen w h o t r a n s ­ g re s s the tra d itio n a l by e m b r a c in g s e n tim e n ts , su bjectivities, a n d b e ­ h a v i o r s a s s o c i a t e d w ith m o r e g lo b a l n o t i o n s o f w o m a n h o o d , m o dern ity, a n d citiz e n sh ip challenge p a t r i a r c h a l im ag in in gs of their pa rtic u la r, m o d e r n n a tio n - s ta te a n d the re s p o n s ib ilitie s of m e n a n d w o m e n to d e fe n d it. In m a n y c o u n tr ie s w o m e n have p a id d e a rly for s u c h “t r a n s g r e s s i o n s ,” yet th e ir p e r s e c u tio n h a s r a re ly b e e n m e t with th e p ro te c tio n of refugee law .1

THE PREAM BLE TO FLIGHT AND THE “REFUGEE-CAMP-AS-HOME”2 Today's p o stin d e p e n d e n c e w a rs a n d social revolutions often involve e th ­ nic conflict a n d the targeting of ethnic minorities. Although, for the m o s t part, m e n a n d boys take u p a r m s a n d leave h o m e c o m m un ities, w om en a n d young children re m a in beh in d to struggle with b ro a d -b a se d im pacts (e.g., w eak en ed states, econom ies, a n d social institutions) an d local ag­ A d v o c a te s of change ad o p t the feminist position that “the p e rso n al is political” and that patriarchy is a system constituted primarily through power relations not biology. They insist that female cla im ants who oppo se institutional discrim ination or who ex­ p r e s s dissentin g views on male social or cultural dom ina n c e sh ould be recognized as having been persec uted on the g r o u n d s of their political opinio ns a n d the threat they r e p ­ resent to gendered hierarchies of power (Crowley, 1999; Macklin, 1995). Certain c o u n ­ tries, like Canada, have m ad e significant progress in incorporating gender as a criterion for refugee statu s. 2 The term “refugee-camp-as-hom e" is taken from Giles (1999, p. 90).

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gressions. In these w ars, w o m en 's a ssociations with rep ro d u c tio n a n d the m a in ten a n c e of ethnic “tra dition” re n d e r their bodies highly politi­ cized spaces. For example, in the form er Yugoslavia a distinction was d ra w n betw een “patrio tic” a n d “disloyal” w om en. The patrio ts were w om en th ro ug h w hom the nation could “rebuild links with ‘h o n o r a b le ’ histories, religions, a n d tra d itio n s.” T ho se who w ere stigmatized as d is ­ loyal allegedly betrayed the “ethnic-national collective” by initiating or m a intaining solidarity a c ro ss ethnic-national b o u n d a rie s (Kurac, 1995). It w as the m e m b e rs of this latter grou p w ho were targeted for violence by those w hose identities a n d social practices as Se rb s, Bosnians, Croats, an d m ales were th reaten ed. Today g ender-oriented violence h a s becom e one of the m a in w e a p o n s of refugee-producing conflicts worldwide (Matlou, 1997). In this pro cess, w o m e n ’s b od ies emerge “as b oth the ta r­ gets of violence a n d sy m bols of a violated na tion” (Giles, 1999, p. 89). A ssa u lts a g a in st w o m e n do n o t n ecessarily stop w hen they arc ex­ te n d e d “safe haven." Rather, refugee c a m p s can often be c o m e sites of c o n tin u ed violence owing to the ways in w hich ideologies of g e n d e r a n d h o m e infuse c a m p life. In h e r useful c o n s tru c t of “refug ee-cam p a s - h o m e ,” W enona Giles w rote: “One of the inevitable o u tc o m e s of the interplay betw een n a tio n a list fan tasies of po w er a n d ideologies of ho m e a n d h o u s e h o ld is the c o n tra d ic to ry c o n stru c tio n of refugee c a m p s as bo th places of refuge from the n a tio n a list a n d g e n d e re d violence of war, as well a s sites of g e n d e re d violence" (1999, p. 90). T h is p a p e r b u ild s on G iles’s claim th a t "refugees a re a deeply inform ative site for the analysis of w ays th a t n a tu ra liz e d im ages of h o m e are m a p p e d onto r e p r e s e n ta ­ tions of the state, the n a tion , a n d in te rn a tio n a l agencies” (1999, p. 90). For w o m e n in refugee c a m p s , h o m e , in m u ltiple m a n ifesta tio n s, can be a setting for w o m e n ’s c o n fin e m e n t a n d d is e n fra n c h ise m e n t. On the oth e r h a n d , either one or several in s ta n c e s of h o m e can be a location for re sista n c e, struggle, a n d active citizenship. A lth o u g h 80% of th e refugee p o p u la ti o n is w o m e n a n d c h ild r e n , d o m e s tic u n its a r e u s u a lly f a s h io n e d by c a m p a d m i n i s t r a t o r s to c o n ­ fo rm to the h e te r o s e x u a l, p a t r i a r c h a l m o d e l. C o n se q u e n tly , h o u s e ­ h o ld s t h a t a re c o m p o s e d of w o m e n a n d c h ild r e n a re , n o n e th e le s s , often m a n a g e d a n d c o n tr o lle d by refugee m e n a n d m a le c a m p a d m i n ­ i s t r a t o r s (Giles, 1 99 9). R e p o r ts of violence a g a i n s t w o m e n w ith in h o u s e h o l d s a n d c a m p e n v ir o n s a re c o m m o n (M artin, 19 92 ; M atlou, 1997). Yet ow ing to th e s tr e n g th a n d p e r v a s iv e n e s s of p a t r i a r c h a l pow er, a s s a u l t s fr e q u e n tly go u n r c p o r t c d o r u n p u n i s h e d . H ere, the e x p e rie n c e in refugee h o u s e h o l d s m a y be so p o w e rfu lly in f o r m e d by g e n d e r e d , n o r m a ti v e a s s u m p t i o n s of th e p riv a tiz e d , p a t r i a r c h a l h o m e t h a t w o m e n m a y r e f r a in fro m , o r be d is c ip lin e d a g a in st, p r o ­ te sting. Equally, a d m in is tr a tiv e p r a c tic e s m a y affo rd g e n d e r e d vio­ lence a n d d i s c r im in a ti o n little s ig n ific a n c e (Giles, 1999).

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A lth o u g h o ver th e l a s t few d e c a d e s t h e r e h a v e b e e n s ig n ific a n t m o v e s on th e p a r t o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l h u m a n i t a r i a n a n d a id o r g a n i z a t i o n s to inje c t b a s ic v a lu e s of g e n d e r e q u ity in to c a m p life, i m p l e m e n t a t i o n h a s b e e n slo w a n d u n e v e n . T h e c h a lle n g e is m a d e all th e m o r e difficult by a m a l e - d o m i n a t e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l re fu g e e r e g im e t h a t c o n t i n u e s to see p a t r i a r c h y a s " n a tu r a l" a n d a s s i g n s r e fu g e e m e n to l e a d e r s h i p p o ­ s itio n s (M atlo u, 19 9 7 ). R e p o r t in g on c a m p s in A frica, P a tr ic k M atlou ( 1 9 9 7 ) n o te d : “F a r to o often, th e r e s u l t s a r e t h a t r a tio n a llo c a tio n s for m e n a n d w o m e n a r e d iffe re n t, t h a t m e n receive m o r e m a t e r i a l a s s i s ­ ta n c e , a n d t h a t m o s t j o b s in th e c a m p s go to m e n .... W h e n w o m e n [ p r o te st] a n d (seek] d i r e c t c o n t a c t w ith a id a g e n c ie s, m e n I th r e a te n ] th e m w ith v io le n c e ” (pp. 1 37 , 136). In s u c h a n e n v i r o n m e n t , fo r c e d c o ­ h a b i ta t io n o r p r o s t i t u t i o n m a y b e c o m e s u r v iv a l s tr a te g i e s for v u l n e r a ­ ble f e m a le s (M a rtin , 1 9 92 ; M a tlo u , 1997). Finally, fo r m a n y r e f u g e e s , c a m p s a r c v ie w e d a s sa fe h o u s e s for th e m a i n t e n a n c e — if n o t i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n — o f v a l u e s a n d life w a y s s h a tte re d by w ar a n d d isp la c e m e n t. T h is m o ra l/p o litic a l to p o g ra ­ p h y m a y b e d if f ic u lt fo r c e r t a i n w o m e n to n a v ig a te . O v e r th e c o u r s e o f th e 1 9 9 0 s , a s p a t r i a r c h a l f u n d a m e n t a l i s m i n t e n s i f i e d , A fg h a n i c a m p s in P a k i s t a n r e p r e s e n t e d a n e s p e c i a l l y tr y i n g c a s e . T h e r e , w o m e n w e r e w a r n e d t h a t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a id w o r k e r s a n d t h e i r e d u c a ­ ti o n a l p r o g r a m s w o u l d “t a k e I s la m a w a y f r o m t h e m [ a n d ] m a k e [ th e ir lives] d e p e n d e n t o n th e evil w a y s o f life. In t h i s w a y t h e y will h a n d y o u r s o c i e ty o v e r to th e h a n d s o f s t r a n g e r s ... a n d p l a c e th e i r s e x u a l d e s i r e s u p o n y o u . ” T h e a d m o n i t i o n s e n d e d w ith th e t h r e a t : “You g r o u p s o f w o m e n w h o d o [ n o t ob e y ] w ill b e k ill e d , a n d n o o n e will b e a b l e to p r e v e n t th is " ( C a m m a c k , 1 9 9 9 , p p . 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 ) . In a s i g ­ n if ic a n t ly m i l d e r v a r i a n t , M a y a n n a t i o n a l i s t s in G u a t e m a l a n re f u g e e c a m p s in M ex ico d e n o u n c e d r e f u g e e w o m e n 's o r g a n i z a t i o n s a s W e s t e r n f e m i n i s m , a n d t h u s w h o ll y a l ie n to M a y a n v a l u e s o f c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e (B illin g s, 1 9 9 5 ) . Yet a s o n e f e m a le l e a d e r l a t e r q u i p p e d , "W he n d id w e l a s t h e a r o f c o m p l e m e n ­ ta r ity ; m a y b e m a n y h u n d r e d s a n d h u n d r e d s o f y e a r s ag o . I c e r t a i n l y never h e a rd m y fath er s p e a k s u c h w o rd s w h en he w as o rd e rin g m y m o t h e r a b o u t a n d b e a t i n g h e r ” ( M a r ia G u a d a l u p e F e r n á n d e z , p e r ­ sonal co m m u n ic a tio n , 2003). As th e e x a m p l e s j u s t p r e s e n t e d h ig hlig ht, in b o t h th e o r y a n d p r a c ­ tice th e p u b l i c - p r i v a t e d ivide is p r o f o u n d l y g e n d e r e d a n d highly p o liti­ cal. T h o s e a c t o r s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s w ith the p o w e r to d e c id c w h e r e the line is d r a w n , for w h o m , a n d in r e la t io n to w h a t i s s u e s h a v e r o u tin e ly ne g le c te d the r ig h ts o f w o m e n to e q u a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d p r o t e c tio n . Yet, a s th e G u a t e m a l a n c a s e re v e a ls , th e p u b l i c - p r i v a t e d ivide is a ls o a sh iftin g p o litic a l c o n s t r u c t i o n . E x p l o r a t i o n s o f th is d y n a m ic a r e e s s e n ­ tial to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of e n g e n d e r e d c itiz e n s h ip .

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GUATAMALAN R E FU G E E S: A CO UNTERNARRATIVE G u a t e m a l a n r e f u g e e s w e r e d i s p l a c e d by a b l o o d y w a r t h a t r a g e d for m o re th a n 35 y ears u n til an in te rn a tio n a lly b ro k e re d p eace a g re e ­ m e n t w a s s i g n e d in D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 6 . 3 T h e i n s u r g e n c y w a s ig n i te d by a g r o s s l y i n e q u i t a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f in c o m e a n d l a n d , a b r u t a l h i s ­ t o r y o f e t h n i c g e n o c i d e a n d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , a n d t h e e l i t e ’s u n w i l l i n g ­ n e s s to e n t e r t a i n p e a c e f u l o r g a n i z i n g a r o u n d civil r e f o r m s a n d e c o n o m i c r i g h t s . In itially, in th e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s , s o c i a l a c t i v i s t s w e r e t a r g e t e d fo r r e p r e s s i o n , d i s a p p e a r a n c e , a n d m u r d e r . In th e e a r ly 19 8 0 s , w h e n s u c h s e le c tiv e v io le n c e p r o v e d i n c a p a b l e o f s t e m ­ m i n g p o p u l a r r e f o r m i s t s t r u g g l e s , a n d a t a ti m e w h e n s o m e w e r e e ve n p r e d i c t i n g t h e i m m i n e n t v ic to r y o f t h e g u e r r i l l a f o r c e s , t h e G u a ­ t e m a l a n g o v e r n m e n t u n l e a s h e d its h o r r i f i c S c o r c h e d E a r t h c a m ­ p a i g n . It t a r g e t e d th e w e s t e r n h i g h l a n d s a n d a d j a c e n t l o w l a n d a r e a s ( C a r m a c k , 1 9 8 8 ; Fa lla , 1 9 9 4 ) . At l e a s t 1 0 0 . 0 0 0 c iv il ia n s w e r e k i lle d a n d m o r e t h a n 4 0 0 v illa g e s r a z e d . S o m e 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 to 2 0 0 . 0 0 0 p e o ­ p le , th e m a j o r i t y o f w h o m w e r e i n d i g e n o u s , fled to n e i g h b o r i n g M e x ­ ico (U.S. C o m m i t t e e fo r R e f u g e e s , 1 9 9 3 ) . S o m e t i m e s tra v e lin g in e n tir e c o m m u n i t y g r o u p s , t h o u s a n d s o f v ic­ t i m s o f th e S c o r c h e d E a r t h c a m p a i g n b e g a n c r o s s i n g in to Mexico in th e e a rly 1 9 8 0 s . M a n y s e ttle d in C h i a p a s , a n d it w a s th is g r o u p t h a t b e n e f ite d fro m th e M ex ican g o v e r n m e n t ’s a g r e e m e n t to r e c o g n iz e a s u b s e t of th e G u a t e m a l a n s a s re fu g e e s. T h is g r o u p of 4 3 , 0 0 0 w a s p e r ­ m i tte d to s e ttle in c a m p s in s o u t h e r n Mexico, w h e r e i n d iv id u a l s a n d fa m ilie s w e r e a s s i s t e d by th e M e xican g o v e r n m e n t ’s re fu g ee agency, th e C a th o lic c h u r c h , th e U n ite d N a tio n s High C o m m i s s i o n e r for H u m a n R ig h ts (UNHCR), a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l n o n g o v e r n m e n t a l o r g a n iz a tio n s (NG O s) (Aguilar Zinzcr, 1991). In m a n y i n s t a n c e s , re f u g e e fa m ilie s h a d to r e n t th e l a n d s th e y lived a n d w o r k e d o n f ro m M e x ic a n o w n e r s . Wages w e r e n e e d e d b o t h to p a y t h i s r e n t a n d to s u p p l e m e n t th e fo o d a id r e c e iv e d f ro m th e M e x ic a n g o v e r n m e n t a n d U N H CR. In th e p u r s u i t o f w a g e s , w o m e n f o u n d th e m s e l v e s a t a d i s t i n c t d i s a d v a n t a g e . In G u a t e m a l a , w o m e n h a d b e e n a b le to c o n t r i b u t e i n c o m e a s a r t i s a n s a n d t r a d e r s . By c o n t r a s t , in th e e a r ly y e a r s o f exile, w o m e n f o u n d th e i r a c c e s s to lo c al m a r k e t s in r u r a l M exico s e v e r e ly lim ite d . S im ila rly , w ag e w o r k w a s g e n e r a lly h a r d to fin d , a n d th e t ra v e l a n d lo d g in g e x p e n s e s for a c o u p le a n d th e ir c h i l d r e n o fte n o u tw e ig h e d th e e x tr e m e ly low w a g e s w o m e n w e r e p a id . As a c o n s e q u e n c e , w o m e n t e n d e d to b e left a t h o m e b y th e ir w a g e - e a r n i n g h u s b a n d s (B illings, 19 9 5 ). W o m e n ’s s e lf-e s te e m p l u m m e t e d a s they b e c a m e in c r e a s in g ly d e ­ p e n d e n t u p o n m a le p a r t n e r s . In 1 9 9 2 , a 3 2 -y e a r-o ld C h u j w o m a n l a ­ m e n t e d : "W hen I cry I s a y to m y self, ’W h a t a s h a m e t h a t I a m a w o m a n . ’ 3

T he se c o n d section of the c h a p t e r d r a w s from a previously p u b l is h e d w o rk . Pe ssar

(2

0 0 1 ).

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223

If I w e r e n ’t I c o u ld w a lk w h e r e 1 w a n t a n d w ith m o n e y in m y h a n d . ” A n d a 3 5 -y e a r-o ld C h u j s ta t e d : “We ha v e n o w a y to h e lp o u r s e lv e s . We c a n ’t go o u t a n d e a r n a n y th in g . Wc sec the m e n . T h e y c a n e a r n a n d w e ’r e d e ­ p e n d e n t o n th e m " (Billings, 1 9 9 5 , p. 174).

TH E CREATION OF FEM ALE R E FU G E E S U B JE C T S If in th e s e e a rly y e a r s of exile G u a t e m a l a n refu g e e w o m e n f o u n d t h e m ­ se lv es p a r t i c u l a r l y a d r i f t a n d needy, th e y w e re to m e e t u p w ith r e p r e ­ s e n ta tiv e s o f a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l refu g e e re g im e p o is e d to a c k n o w le d g e th i s c o n d it io n a n d d e t e r m i n e d to t u r n it a r o u n d d r a m a tic a lly . T h e w o m e n w e r e e x tre m e ly f o r tu n a te b e c a u s e , e a r li e r a n d w o r ld w id e , m o s t fe m a le re fu g e e s h a d e n c o u n t e r e d in d if fe r e n c e o n th e p a r t o f local a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l p e r s o n n e l c h a r g e d w ith a d m i n i s t e r i n g refu g ee p r o ­ g r a m s (M a rtin , 19 9 2 ). It w a s on ly in th e 1 9 8 0 s t h a t a c tiv is ts in th e i n ­ te r n a t i o n a l w o m e n ’s m o v e m e n t m a n a g e d to g a in th e a t t e n t i o n of h i g h - r a n k i n g officials o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s a n d c o n v in c e th e m to tr e a t refu g ee w o m e n a s p e r s o n s w ith s p e c ia l n e e d s a n d p o te n t ia ls . C o n s e ­ quently, in 1 9 9 1 , s o m e 4 0 y e a r s a fte r th e f o u n d in g o f th e U n ite d N a ­ tio n s High C o m m i s s i o n for H u m a n R ig h ts (UNHCR), UN g u id e lin e s for th e P ro te c tio n o f R efugee W o m e n w e re finally is s u e d . T h i s a c h ie v e m e n t follow ed o n th e h e e ls o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l f e m in i s t s tr u g g le s a n d a c c o m ­ p l i s h m e n t s , s u c h a s th e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f 1 9 7 6 - 1 9 8 5 a s t h e UN D e c a d e o f W o m e n a n d th e 1 9 8 5 N a iro b i m e e tin g in w h ic h re fu g e e w o m e n first e m e r g e d a s a s p e c ia l c a te g o ry o f m i g r a n t (M a rtin , 19 9 2 ). As th e p r o d ­ u c t of a p r o g r e s s iv e s o c ia l m o v e m e n t , refu g e e w o m e n w e r e r e f a s h ­ io n e d a s active s u b j e c t s w ith specific n e e d s , o b lig a tio n s , a n d rig h ts. A c c o r d in g to th e 1 9 9 5 Beijing P la tf o rm for Action: "T he s t r e n g t h a n d re s ilie n c e t h a t w o m e n re fu g e e s d i s p l a y in th e face of d i s p l a c e m e n t is n o t a c k n o w le d g e d . W o m e n ’s vo ices n e e d to b e r e p r e s e n t e d in p o l ­ ic y - m a k in g t h a t affects t h e m , i n c lu d i n g in p r o c e s s e s to p r e v e n t c o n ­ flicts b e f o r e th e y r e s u l t in th e n e e d for c o m m u n i t i e s to flee (in M e r tu s , 1 9 9 7 , p. 125). A n d , m o r e forcefully, th e W o m e n 's C o m m i s s i o n for Ref­ ugee W o m e n a n d C h i l d r e n a s s e r t e d : “R a t h e r t h a n se e in g refu gee w o m e n a s v i c t i m s w h o n e e d to be p r o t e c t e d , p r o t e c t i o n m u s t b e r e c o g ­ n iz e d a s a w o m a n ’s r i gh t (n .d ., p. 4). T h e fate of G u a t e m a l a n refu gee w o m e n a n d m e n w a s sig n ific a n tly s h a p e d b y th e c o n v e r g e n c e in tim e b e tw e e n th e ir a r r iv a l in Mexico a n d th i s n e w c o n s t r u c t i o n of re fu g e e w o m e n a s r i g h t s - b e a r i n g s u b j e c t s w h o w e re p o is e d for e m p o w e r m e n t a s w o m e n a n d a s c itiz e n s of lo c a li­ ties, n a t i o n s , a n d th e w o r ld c o m m u n ity . As a UN H CR r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w h o w o r k e d w ith G u a t e m a l a n re fu g e e s o b s e r v e d : W o m e n w e r e s in g le d o u t to i m p l e m e n t s m a l l e c o n o m i c p r o j e c t s . E ven w h e n t h e s e w e r e u n s u c c e s s f u l e c o n o m ic a lly , [they] b r o u g h t re fu g e e w o m e n to g eth er. N G O s. U N H CR , a n d th e w o m e n ’s o r g a n i z a t i o n s e v e n t u ­ ally a p p r o a c h e d t h e i r w o r k w ith r e f u g e e s w ith a d e f i n e d a g e n d a o f e m ­

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p o w e r i n g w o m e n a s a n e c e s s a r y s t e p to e n s u r i n g w o m e n ’s p a r t i c i p a t i o n in c r e a t i n g d u r a b l e s o l u t i o n s for th e m s e l v e s , th e i r fa m ilie s, a n d th e c o m ­ m u n ity . (Worby, 1 9 9 8 b , p. 6)

FROM FEM ALE C O N SC IO U SN E SS TO FEM IN IST C O N SC IO U SN E SS It is n o te w o r th y t h a t G u a t e m a l a n refu g ee w o m e n q u ic k ly m o v e d b e ­ y o n d m e r e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in m o d e s t in c o m e - g e n e r a ti n g p r o je c ts to c r e ­ a te a f e m in is t o r g a n i z a tio n , M a m á M a q u in . T h e la tte r b o a s t e d s o m e 8 , 0 0 0 m e m b e r s in its heyday. In th e w o r d s o f its le a d e r s h i p : " O u r d e ­ m a n d s s h o u l d n o t b e r e d u c e d to s m a l l e c o n o m i c p r o je c ts , b u t r a t h e r to b e c o m e o u r s e l v e s — active s u b je c ts , w o m e n w ith a c o n s c i o u s n e s s a b o u t g e n d e r, ethnicity, a n d c l a s s — in o r d e r to p a r t i c i p a t e in so c ia l a n d n a tio n a l p r o j e c t s w h e r e we w o m e n p la y a n active role, s id e - b y - s id e w ith m e n " (Billings, 1 9 9 5 , p. 2 6 1). T h e f o u n d i n g o f M a m á M a q u i n a n d th e f o r m u l a t i o n o f it s f e m i n i s t p l a t f o r m r e v e a l a m a r k e d c h a n g e in p o l i t i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s . M a n y w o m e n m a d e a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a “f e m a l e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , ” w h ic h p l a c e s h u m a n n u r t u r i n g a b o v e all o t h e r s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l r e q u i r e ­ m e n t s ( K a p l a n , 1 9 8 2 ) , a n d f r o m a c t i o n s b a s e d on “p r a c t i c a l i n t e r ­ e s t s ” ( M o ly n e u x , 1 9 8 5 ) c e n t e r e d a r o u n d f a m ily s u r v i v a l , to a “f e m i n i s t ” a n d " s t r a t e g i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s ” ( M o ly n e u x , 1 9 8 5 ) . T h e s e w o m e n c o n c l u d e d t h a t all s t r u g g l e s fo r e q u a l i t y m u s t b e c o n n e c t e d to a b r o a d e r , s t r a t e g i c s t r u g g l e for w o m e n ’s r i g h t s . T h e s e w e r e n o ­ tio n s of fem ale p e r s o n h o o d . c itiz e n sh ip , a n d stru g g le th a t e m e rg e d la r g e ly in exile. W h ile still in G u a t e m a l a , s o m e o f t h e r e f u g e e w o m e n h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d in p r o g r e s s i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u c h a s C a th o lic A c ­ tio n a n d th e C o m m i t t e e o f C a m p e s i n o U n ity (CUC), a s w ell a s in v a r ­ i o u s g u e r r i l l a m o v e m e n t s (C o lo m , 1 9 9 8 ; H o o k s , 1 9 9 3 ; S in c l a ir , 1 9 9 5 ). A lth o u g h t h e s e e n t i t i e s e m p h a s i z e d e q u i t y in e t h n i c a n d c l a s s r e l a t i o n s , th e y w e r e la r g e ly s i l e n t o n m a t t e r s o f g e n d e r o p p r e s ­ sion a n d ce rta in ly did n o t see th e fo ste rin g of fe m in is t c o n s c io u s ­ n e s s a s c e n t r a l to t h e i r m i s s i o n . A lth o u g h for m a n y w o m e n a f e m in is t c o n s c i o u s n e s s w a s forg ed in exile, its r o o t s go b a c k to a s y m m e t r i c a l g e n d e r e d r e l a t i o n s t h a t e x iste d lo n g b e fo re . For e x a m p le , a y o u n g refu g e e w o m a n r e p o r t e d d u r i n g a w o r k s h o p o n h u m a n rig h ts: B efo re we left G u a t e m a l a , w h e n I w a s 19 y e a r s o ld , I h e l p e d m y f a t h e r w o r k th e fields. If we d i d n ' t w o r k h a r d e n o u g h h e h it u s . W h e n t h i s h a p ­ p e n e d w e h a d n o r i g h t to q u e s t i o n h i m o r s a y a n y th in g . At h o m e , th e w o m e n h a d n o r i g h t to s p e a k n o r to c o m p l a i n t h a t t h e r e w a s to o m u c h w o r k . It w a s w o r s e in th e c o m m u n i t y w h e r e o n ly th e m e n m a k e c o m m u ­ n ity d e c i s i o n s . T h e y t h o u g h t t h a t w o m e n w e r e o n ly t h e r e to h a v e c h i l d r e n a n d s e r v e t h e m . We h a d to p u t u p w ith th e d r i n k i n g a n d h it ti n g a n d p e o ­ ple s a y i n g t h a t w o m e n w e r e n ’t w o r t h th e s a m e a s m e n . All o f th i s s e e m e d n o r m a l .... N ow it’s d if fe re n t. We k n o w t h a t we h a v e r i g h ts a n d t h a t in o r ­

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d e r for t h e s e r i g h t s to b e r e s p e c t e d we h a v e to c a r r y o u t th e s tru g g le a m o n g all o f u s . (Billings, 1 9 9 5 , p. 2 2 5 )

A n o th e r w o m a n to ld a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a C a n a d i a n - b a s e d i n t e r n a ­ tio n a l d e v e l o p m e n t agency: S o m e people a n d agencies m ista k e n ly see o u r in d ig en o u s c o m m u n a l a p ­ p r o a c h , w h e r e b o t h w o m e n a n d m e n p a r t i c i p a t e in m a n y t a s k s , a s a s ig n t h a t w o m e n h a v e a s e n s e o f th e i r v a lu e in th e c o m m u n i t y . T h i s i s n ’t u s u ­ ally s o . W o m e n p a r t i c i p a t e a s p a r t o f th e c o m m u n i t y b u t th e i r se lf-e s te e m r e m a i n s low .... T h e y d o n 't re a liz e th e v a lu e o f t h e i r o w n c o n t r i b u t i o n s n o r th e i r c a p a c i ty to l e a r n n e w s k i l l s a n d a s s u m e n e w ro le s . (A rbo ur, 1 9 9 4 , p . 10)

As th e s e r e m a r k s i llu s tr a t e , th e p a s t w a s r e v is ite d in w o r k s h o p s on h u m a n rig h ts , w o m e n 's r ig h ts , a n d violence. N o r m s a n d p r a c t i c e s th a t w e r e p re v io u s ly n a t u r a l i z e d w e r e n o w d e n o u n c e d a s f o r m s o f p a t r i a r ­ c h a l privilege a n d violence t h a t w e re n o lo n g e r to le ra b le .

VIOLENCE TO B O D IE S AND H O M ES T h e fir s t p a r t o f th is a rtic le re v ie w e d h o w se x u a l a g g r e s s i o n a g a in s t w o m e n d u r i n g ti m e s of w a r is i n t e n d e d to d e m e a n a n d s u b j u g a t e th e m . T h is , u n f o r tu n a te ly , w a s t h e e x p e r ie n c e o f m a n y G u a t e m a l a n i n ­ d ig e n o u s w o m e n , a s well. H ow w o m e n w e r e a b u s e d p r i o r to th e ir flight a n d h o w exile p r o v i d e d n e w to o ls for w o m e n to i n t e r p r e t t h e s e v io la ­ tio n s a r e e x p lo r e d next. To r e i t e r a t e , in th e 1 9 7 0 s d u r i n g th e in itia l p h a s e o f s e le c tiv e r e ­ p r e s s i o n a n d v io le n c e in G u a t e m a l a , th e a r m y a n d d e a t h s q u a d s fo ­ c u s e d o n p o p u l a r l e a d e r s w h o o p e r a t e d in s u c h a r e n a s a s c o m m u n i t y c o o p e r a t i v e s , l a b o r u n i o n s , a n d lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t . T h e s e w e r e s i te s t h a t r u r a l a n d i n d i g e n o u s G u a t e m a l a n s p e r c e i v e d a s “p u b l i c ” a n d “m a l e . ” A lth o u g h w o m e n , e i t h e r a s a c tiv is ts o r a s c lo s e k in o f m a l e v ic tim s , s u f f e r e d g r e a tly d u r i n g t h i s in itia l p h a s e , th e y b e c a m e fa r m o r e i m p l i c a t e d a n d t e r r o r i z e d o v e r th e c o u r s e of th e g o v e r n m e n t 's S c o r c h e d E a r t h c a m p a i g n . In th e e a r ly 19 8 0 s t h e s t a t e a i m e d to s e p a ­ r a t e th e i n s u r g e n t s b r u t a l l y f r o m t h e i r p o p u l a r b a s e . In p r a c t i c e , t h i s m e a n t d e s t r o y i n g th e q u o t i d i a n i n f r a s t r u c t u r e t h r o u g h s u c h a c t s a s m a s s a c r i n g c a r n p e s i n o f a m ilie s , a n d / o r b u r n i n g t h e i r h o m e s a n d m i l p a s ( s m a ll f a r m i n g p lo ts ) . In t h e s e a c t s o f b r o a d - b a s e d d e s t r u c ­ tio n , th e a r m y i n v a d e d w o m e n 's “p e r s o n a l " s p a c e s a n d d e n i e d th e m th e i r m o s t i m p o r t a n t ro le: to m a i n t a i n la l u c h a (th e s tru g g le ) , t h a t is, w h a t w o m e n m u s t d o s i m p l y to k e e p t h e i r f a m ilie s alive f r o m o n e d a y to th e n e x t ( E h le r s , 1 9 9 0 . p. 4 6). T h e s t a te - i n s tig a te d i n t r u s i o n in to d o m e s t i c s p a c e d is s o lv e d th e a p ­ p e a r a n c e o f a fixed divide b e tw e e n m a le /p u b lic a n d fe m a le /p riv a te s p h e r e s . T h i s w a s a n in c u r s i o n s t e e p e d in e th n ic a n d g e n d e r s y m b o l ­ is m a n d fu eled by p a t r i a r c h a l rag e. D ia n e N e ls o n (2 0 0 0 ) d e s c r i b e d a

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“te r r ib le in tim a c y " b e tw e e n M a y a n a n d la d in o (p. 3 3 2 ). T h e l a t t e r ’s vi­ s io n of th e n a t io n e v o k e s th e p o w e r a s y m m e t r i e s e m b e d d e d in the p a ­ t r i a r c h a l n u c l e a r fam ily a n d im a g in e s th e n a tio n a s h o m e : th e la d in o a s f a t h e r / h u s b a n d , a n d th e M aya a s wife a n d m o th e r . In th e 1 9 8 0 s a s th e n a tio n b le d a lo n g c l a s s a n d e th n ic lin e s, p o w e r fu l la d i n o s s t r u c k o u t v iolently a g a i n s t th e ir “w a y w a r d ” a n d “d islo y a l w iv e s .” D u r in g th e a t t a c k s i n d ig e n o u s fe m a le s w e re f r e q u e n tly r a p e d a n d m u r d e r e d . O t h e r a tr o c itie s i n c lu d e d r i p p i n g th e u n b o r n fro m th e ir m o t h e r s ' b o d ­ ies a n d s m a s h i n g th e m a g a in s t h o u s e b e a m s a n d tr e e s . T h e r e w e r e a lso in c i d e n t s o f r i t u a l b u r n i n g s o f i n d i g e n o u s w o m e n 's c lothing; w o ­ ven a r tic l e s o f d r e s s (traje) t h a t s y m b o liz e d b o th w o m e n a n d th e i r e th n ic c o m m u n i t i e s (Billings, 19 9 5 ). A w illin g n e ss to i m b u e th e s e s e a r in g e x p e r ie n c e s w ith a lte rn a tiv e m e a n in g s a n d p u r p o s e is w h a t m a n y refugee w o m e n b r o u g h t to th e ir p a r tic ip a tio n in h u m a n r ig h ts a n d w o m e n ’s r ig h ts w o r k s h o p s . T h e fol­ low ing c o m m e n t a r y a b o u t th e G u a t e m a l a n o rg a n iz a tio n of w a r w id ow s, CONAVIGUA, a p p lie s e q u a lly well to th e ir refugee s i s t e r s in Mexico: T h e i r s e n s e o f “k n o w i n g , ” o f l e a r n i n g f r o m e a c h o t h e r ’s e x p e r i e n c e , w h i c h w a s in c o n f l ic t w ith “th e I S t a t e ’s official] t r u t h , ” w a s c o n t i n u a l l y b e i n g r e c o n s t i t u t e d , e s p e c i a l l y a s p a t t e r n s o f v io l e n c e a g a i n s t t h e m b e ­ g a n to e m e r g e . [T h e y q u e r i e d ] “If th e y s a y we a r c m o t h e r s w h o s h o u l d b e r e s p e c t e d , a n d y et t r e a t u s a n d o u r d a u g h t e r s w ith r a p e a n d t o r t u r e , w h o a r e t h e s e m e n w h o s e x u a l i z e u s , s o il u s , a n d d e g r a d e u s ? ” ( S c h i r m e r . 1 9 9 3 , p. 6 3 )

In r i g h ts w o r k s h o p s th e refu g ee w o m e n c a m e to q u e s t i o n f ir s t “th e t r u t h ” a n d t h e n th e c l a i m e r s of “t r u t h . ” T h e y a lso c a m e to c h a lle n g e th o s e “c u l t u r a l ” p r e s c r i p t i o n s t h a t h e ld t h a t th e h o m e w a s fe m a le , p r i ­ vate s p a c e . S o m e c a m e to q u e s t i o n w h y w o m e n 's a u t h o r i t y in th e h o u s e h o l d w a s s u b o r d i n a t e d to m e n ’s a n d w h y they ro u ti n e ly b lo c k e d f e m a le p a r t i c i p a t i o n in m o r e f o r m a l p u b lic v e n u e s for d e c i s i o n - m a k ­ ing. As o n e w o m a n e x p la in e d d u r i n g a w o r k s h o p o n violence: In o u r c o u n t r y it w a s t h e ri c h w h o k i c k e d u s o u t a n d m a d e u s leave .... I n ­ d i g e n o u s m e n vio late w o m e n 's r i g h ts , yes, b u t it’s n o t th e i r fault. T h e ric h h av e p u t t h a t id e a in th e i r h e a d s t h a t w o m e n a r e o n ly g o o d fo r t a k i n g c a r e o f c h i l d r e n . T h e y s a y t h a t a w o m a n is o n ly a w o m a n w h e n s h e ' s in th e h o u s e . B u t we w o m e n h a v e n o r i g h ts to d e c id e w h a t s h o u l d b e d o n e in o u r h o m e s , a n d th e n in o u r c o u n t r y w e w o m e n h a v e n o r i g h ts to d e c id e o r to p a r t i c i p a t e .... T h e r i c h h a v e tr ie d to fool all o f u s for m a n y y e a r s . N o n e o f u s k n e w o u r r i g h t s s o we w e r e n 't a b le to d e f e n d o u r s e l v e s . (Bill­ ings, 1 9 9 5 , p p . 2 2 3 - 2 3 4 )

In th e s p i r i t o f “d e f e n d i n g t h e m s e l v e s ” a n d c l a i m i n g r i g h t s f r o m a p a t r i a r c h a l s t a t e , th e r i c h , a n d m a l e fa m ily m e m b e r s a n d n e i g h ­ b o r s , t h o u s a n d s o f G u a t e m a l a n r e f u g e e w o m e n in c a m p s in M exico j o i n e d w o m e n 's o r g a n i z a t i o n s , s u c h a s M a m á M a q u i n , M a d r e T ierra, a n d Ix m u can é.

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REFUGEE CAMPS AND MULTIPLE CONSTRUCTS OF “HOME” T h e p a t r i a r c h a l h o u s e h o l d w a s o n e a m o n g s e v e r a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of h o m e p r e s e n t in t h e c a m p s . O t h e r s i n c l u d e d c a m p s a s r c c n a c t m c n t s of h o m e c o m m u n i t i e s , a n d c a m p s a s i n t e r n a t i o n a l , g lo b a l villages. E a c h a l te r n a tiv e h a d its ow n g e n d e r d y n a m ic . E a c h a ls o p la c e d specific c o n s t r a i n t s o n, a n d a f f o r d e d d i s t i n c t o p p o r t u n i ­ ties for, w o m e n 's e m p o w e r m e n t . For th e m o s t p a rt, d o m e s tic u n i ts w e re config ured a c c o r d in g to the n o r m s of the h e te ro se x u a l, p a tr ia r c h a l family. A lthough w o m e n w ere a ssig n e d to la l u ch a of e n s u r in g th e ir h o u s e h o l d 's b a sic s u b s is te n c e , th e ir d u tie s w e re significantly lighten ed by th e food aid, technology (e.g., electric c o rn g rin d e r s ), a n d in c o m e -g e n e ra tio n p ro je c ts available in the c a m p s . Ind eed , w o m e n c o m m e n te d th a t th e se s u p p o r t s freed up th e ir tim e a n d e n a b le d m a n y to p a rtic ip a te in w o m e n ’s o rg a n iz a tio n s a n d to a tte n d w o r k s h o p s . Moreover, given th e close ph ysical p ro x im ity of h o u s e h o ld s , c a m p r e s i d e n ts w ere well a w a re of th o se m e n w ho for­ b a d e th e ir fem ale k in from p a rtic ip a tin g in th e se initiatives. Not infre ­ quently, m o r e receptive s e n io r m e n w o u ld be d is p a tc h e d to c o u n se l r e c o n s id e ra tio n . A lthough c e rta in female refugee le a d e r s a n d a d m i n ­ istrative staff e n d e a v o r e d to in c r e a s e g e n d e r p a rity w ithin d o m e s tic u n its, definite c o n s t r a in ts w ere pla ce d on th e ir a c tio n s. C onsequently, after a g r o u p of w o m e n u rg e d t h a t p r o b le m s of d o m e s tic violence w ithin refugee h o u s e h o ld s be publicly a ire d a n d r e d r e s s e d , they w ere r e b u k e d by o th e r w o m e n a n d m e n w h o in s iste d on fo cu sing solely on s t a te - o r c h e s tr a t e d violence (Billings, 1995). C a m p s also c o m e to r e p r e s e n t local c o m m u n i tie s left b e h in d . For e x a m p le , ind iv id u a l c a m p s w ere given th e n a m e s of in d ig e n o u s G u a te ­ m a l a n c o m m u n itie s , a n d refugees stru g g le d to m a in ta i n Mayan p r a c ­ tices th a t h a d b e e n o u tla w e d in G u a te m a la by the o c cu py in g a rm y (Billings, 1995). C a m p life— like local c o m m u n iti e s —r e ta in e d highly m a s c u lin iz e d f e a tu re s. Only m e n h eld p o s itio n s a s r e p r e s e n t e s — le a d ­ e r s w h o c o o r d in a te d all facets of c a m p life a n d se rv e d a s c o m m u n ity s p o k e s p e r s o n s . M a le s a l s o p r e d o m i n a t e d a m o n g th e c a m p s ' p r o m o t o r e s , o v e rse e rs of s u c h e ss e n tia l activities a s food collection a n d d is tr ib u tio n , m e d ic a l a s s is ta n c e , a n d e d u c a tio n . Men filled the r a n k s of the P e r m a n e n t C o m m is s io n , the refugee b o d y c h o s e n to n e g o ­ tiate the t e r m s of a n o rg an ize d a n d collective r e t u r n to G u a te m a la . Fi­ nally, m a le r e s p o n s a b l e s , guerilla o rg a n iz e rs , a n d s p o k e s m e n w ere highly influential in all c a m p s . A c tin g o n b e h a l f o f t h e l a r g e r g u e r r i l l a o r g a n i z a t i o n , th e r e s p o n s a b l e s p r e s s e d refugee w o m e n to c re a te s e p a r a t e w o m e n 's o r ­ g a n iz a tio n s . With the Cold War r e c e d in g a n d e x te r n a l f u n d in g for t h e ir c a u s e g reatly r e d u c e d , g u e rr illa l e a d e r s viewed th is new in te r e s t in refugee w o m e n 's p r o je c ts a n d o r g a n i z a tio n s a s a w indfall. Al­ th o u g h it is the c a se t h a t g u e r r illa l e a d e r s h a d e a r lie r r e f u s e d to in-

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e lu d e g e n d e r e q u ity w ith in th e ir p o litic a l p la t f o r m , th e m e n ’s a c tio n s w e re n o t e n tire ly m a n ip u l a ti v e of w o m e n . R a th e r, th e o v e r tu r e by i n ­ t e r n a ti o n a l d o n o r s c r c a tc d a n o p e n in g for c c r ta in w o m e n w ith in the g u e r rilla o r g a n iz a tio n to a d v a n c e th e ir l o n g - f r u s tr a te d goal to f o r e ­ g r o u n d g e n d e r a m o n g th e o th e r f o r m s of o p p r e s s i o n to be e r a d ic a te d . I n d e e d , s o m e of th e e a r lie s t m e m b e r s of M a m á M a q u in w ere w o m e n w h o h a d b e c o m e d isa ffe c te d by th e m o v e m e n t ’s fa ilure to a d d r e s s p a ­ tr i a r c h a l privilege a n d fem ale c o m b a t a n t s ' s p e c ia l n e e d s (e.g., p r e g ­ n a n c y a n d c h ild c a r e ) (Pessar, 2 0 0 1 ). T h e th ird m a n if e s ta tio n of h o m e p r e s e n t in the c a m p se ttin g w as a s u p r a n a t i o n a l f o rm a tio n a k in to the global village. Here, officials of Mexican, in te rg o v e rn m e n ta l, a n d n o n g o v e r n m e n ta l o rg a n iz a tio n s fre ­ q u e n tly e n c o u r a g e d G u a te m a la n refugee w o m e n to im agine a n d f a s h ­ io n m o d e s o f b e l o n g i n g a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n t h a t i n c l u d e d full m e m b e r s h i p in local, n a tio n a l, a n d t r a n s n a tio n a l collectivities, s u c h as th o se lin k e d to h u m a n rig h ts, w o m e n 's rights, a n d in d ig e n o u s rig hts. Not infrequently, w o m e n w ere in tr o d u c e d to v alu es a n d ex p e c ­ ta tio n s a b o u t g e n d e r e d c itiz e n sh ip th a t c o n tr a d ic te d th o se o p e ra tin g in h o u s e h o l d s a n d ethn ic c o m m u n itie s . For ex a m p le , w o m e n w ere urg e d to m ove well b ey o n d th e h o u s e h o ld , yet in doing so, they c h a l­ lenged c o m m o n beliefs t h a t fem ales w ho ro u tin e ly in te ra c te d with no n fa m ilia l m e n (especially a t night) w e re p r o s t itu t e s o r w itches (Burgos-D ebray, 1984; Pessar, 2 00 1). In th e c a m p - a s - g lo b a l village, refugee w o m e n a n d m e n w ere ex­ p o s e d to a u n iv e r s a l la n g u a g e of h u m a n a n d w o m e n ’s rig h ts. For ex­ a m p le , w o m e n w h o a t t e n d e d w o r k s h o p s on w o m e n 's r ig h ts w ere given i n s t r u c t i o n a l b r o c h u r e s th a t c o n ta in e d line d r a w in g s th a t s i m ­ ply, b u t eloquently, p o s iti o n e d i n d ig e n o u s , G u a t e m a l a n w o m e n — w ith t h e ir s u b o r d i n a t e d q u o tid ia n lives— a lo n g s id e official n a tio n a l a n d i n te r n a ti o n a l legal d o c u m e n t s . O ne b r o c h u r e , for e x a m p le , s h o w s a m u s i n g in d i g e n o u s w o m a n w h o a s k s , "W hat is m y reality?" B e n e a th a p ic tu r e of m e n a tte n d in g a p u b lic m e e tin g , s h e is i n ­ s t r u c t e d , "P ublic p o s itio n s a r e a l m o s t a lw ays h e ld by m e n , b a s e d on th e in e q u a lity b e tw e e n m e n a n d w o m e n . T h is im p e d e s o u r p a r t i c i p a ­ tion." S h e c o u n t e r s , "And h o w c o u ld it b e ? ” T h e q u e s tio n is " a n ­ s w e re d " by a n a c c o m p a n y in g d r a w in g of w o m e n p ro c la im in g , “We w in !” A nd b e n e a t h it is a rtic le 7 - 8 o f th e UN C o n v e n tio n to E lim in a te D is c r i m i n a tio n A g a in st W om en (CEDAW), w h ic h r e a d s , “All c o u n tr ie s s h o u l d ta k e m e a s u r e s s u c h th a t w o m e n p a r tic ip a te in p o litic a l life e q u a lly w ith m en " (Billings, 1 9 9 5 , p. 2 8 5 ). In a n o t h e r e x a m p le , on I n ­ t e r n a ti o n a l W o m e n's Day, p a m p h l e t s w ere d i s t r i b u t e d in the c a m p s sta tin g , “All of u s w o m e n have the r ig h t to stru gg le for equality, w h ich is a h u m a n rig h t. We ta k e o u r e x a m p le fro m R ig o b e rta M e n c h u , w ho w o n th e N obel Peace Prize in 1 9 9 2 , w h o str u g g le s for th e in d ig e n o u s a n d for h u m a n rig h ts" (Billings, 1 9 9 5 , p. 27 8).

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T h e d is c u r s iv e e l e m e n t s c o n t a i n e d in t h e s e a n d s c o r e s o f o t h e r s i m ­ ila r te x ts b e lo n g to t h a t g lo b a liz e d g e n re o f m e a n i n g s t h a t A rju n A p p a d u r a i ca lle d i d e o s c a p e s . By th is te r m , he r e f e r r e d to th e tra v e lin g c o n c a t e n a t i o n o f t r o p e s “t h a t a r e o fte n d ir e c tly p o litic a l a n d f r e q u e n tly h a v e to d o w ith th e id e o lo g ie s o f s t a t e s a n d th e c o u n te r i d e o lo g ie s o f m o v e m e n t s explicitly o r i e n t e d to c a p t u r i n g s ta le p o w e r o r a p ie c e of it” ( A p p a d u r a i, 1 9 9 6 , p. 36 ). T h e i d e o s c o p e s refu g e e w o m e n w e re ex­ p o s e d to e x h o r t e d th e m to w id e n th e ir h o r i z o n s , a n d to s t a k e c laim to “p ie c e s" o f local a n d s t a t e p o w e r th a t, u n b e k n o w n to t h e m , w e re a l ­ r e a d y le g itim a te ly t h e ir s . As w o m e n c a m e to w eave n e w t r o p e s of h u ­ m a n r ig h ts a n d w o m e n ’s r ig h ts in to th e t e s t i m o n i o s ( te s tim o n ia l a c c o u n ts ) th e y d e liv e re d p u b lic ly in c a m p w o r k s h o p s , in e n c o u n t e r s w ith i n t e r n a t i o n a l v is ito rs , a n d a t i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e s , they s e e m e d to c o n f ir m R u th L i s t e r ’s ( 1 9 9 7 ) c la im t h a t "We a r e to d a y w it­ n e s s i n g th e e m e r g e n c e of a g lo b a l civil society, in w h ic h w o m e n a re p la y in g a c e n t r a l r o l e ” (p. 18). W o m e n ’s p a r t i c i p a t i o n in g lo b a l civil so c ie ty w a s c e r ta in ly fa cili­ t a t e d b y t h e i r r e s i d e n c e in a s u p r a n a t i o n a l f o r m a t i o n t h a t o p e r a t e d a s a t r a n s n a t i o n a l e n t r e p ô t . T h r o u g h th e c o m i n g s a n d g o in g s o f i n t e r ­ n a t i o n a l s a n d o w in g to th e p r e s e n c e of m o d e r n te c h n o lo g y , th e r e f u ­ ge e s e x p e r i e n c e d a m a r k e d q u i c k e n i n g in th e p a c e a n d i n t e n s i t y o f m o v e m e n t a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n a c r o s s s p a c e , a s w ell a s th e g e o g r a p h ­ ic a l s t r e t c h i n g o u t o f s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s (M assey, 1 9 9 4 ). S u c h t i m e s p a c e c o m p r e s s i o n d id n o t s i m i l a r l y affect all w h o lived in o r p a s s e d t h r o u g h th e c a m p s . N o r d id all b e n e f it e q u a l ly f ro m its p o t e n t i a l s . E m p l o y i n g t h e c o n c e p t o f “th e p o w e r g e o m e tr y ,” D o r e e n M a s s e y ( 1 9 9 4 ) o b s e r v e d : "D iffe re n t s o c ia l g r o u p s , a n d d if f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s a r e p la c e d in v e ry d i s t i n c t w a y s in r e l a t i o n to t h e s e flow s a n d i n t e r ­ c o n n e c t i o n s .... Mobility, a n d c o n t r o l o v e r m o bility , b o t h r e f l e c ts a n d r e i n f o r c e s p o w e r ” (p p . 1 4 8 , 1 50). In th e c a s e o f M e x ic a n r e fu g e e c a m p s , th e r e f u g e e s a n d th e i n t e r n a ­ ti o n a l s d if fe r e d g r e a tly in th e i r m o bility , in t h e i r a c c e s s to t r a n s n a ­ t i o n a l flow s o f p e o p le , i d e a s , c o m m o d i t i e s , a n d s e r v ic e s , a n d in th e i r c o n t r o l o v e r th e c o n t e n t a n d d i r e c t i o n a l i t y o f t h e s e flow s. Clearly, th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s h e ld t h e r e i n s o f p o w e r — a h a r d le s s o n th e re fu g e e w o m e n w o u l d l e a r n w h e n th e y r e t u r n e d to r e m o t e c o m m u n i t i e s in G u a t e m a l a , still n e e d i n g th e a id o f t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s u p p o r t e r s . R efugee w o m e n a n d m e n a ls o d iff e r e d w ith r e s p e c t to t h e i r p a t t e r n s of m o b ilit y a n d c o n t r o l o v e r flo w s of i n f o r m a t i o n a n d r e s o u r c e s . Fe­ m a l e l e a d e r s c o n c e n t r a t e d o n t r a v e ls to a n d c o n t a c t s w ith g r a s s - r o o t s u p p o r t e r s in N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d E u r o p e . By c o n t r a s t , m e n , a s g u e r ­ r illa f ig h te r s a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f r e t u r n e e g r o u p s , d i r e c t e d th e ir a c t i o n s m o r e t o w a r d G u a t e m a l a a n d t o w a r d f o r m a l b o d i e s lik e th e U N H C R , th e G u a t e m a l a n s t a t e , a n d th e g u e r r i l l a o r g a n i z a t i o n , th e G u a t e m a l a n N a tio n a l R e v o l u t i o n a r y U n ity (URNG). T h i s d iv is io n o f

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l a b o r w o u ld h a v e p r o f o u n d i m p a c t s l a t e r on th e lives o f r e t u r n e e w o m e n a n d m e n a s well.

TH E SUPRANATIO NAL M E ETS TH E NATIONAL: TH E A BAND O N M ENT O F R E FU G E E WOMEN T h e l i m ita tio n s for w o m e n o f s u p r a n a t i o n a l f o r m s o f c i tiz e n s h ip b e ­ c a m e c le a r w h e n th e re fu g e e s e n t e r e d in to f o r m a l n e g o tia t io n s r e g a r d ­ ing t h e ir collective r e t u r n . At th is j u n c t u r e th e r e f u g e e s ’ k e y p o litic a l in t e r l o c u t o r s b e c a m e officials of th e G u a t e m a l a n s ta te . W h e n c r u c ia l m a t t e r s o f g e n d e r e d c i tiz e n s h ip w ith in th e c o n te x t o f th e n a t i o n - s t a t e w e r e a t is s u e , b o th th e m a le refu g ee l e a d e r s h i p a n d th e w o m e n 's p r e v i­ o u s ly s t a l w a r t s u p p o r t e r , th e U NH CR, failed th e m m is e ra b ly . D e s p ite w o m e n 's o b je c tio n s , m e n totally d o m i n a t e d th e r a n k s o f th e P e r m a n e n t C o m m i s s i o n s , th e ele c te d b o d y c h a r g e d w ith n e g o tia tin g , a lo n g s id e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of th e G u a t e m a l a n a n d M e x ic a n g o v e r n ­ m e n t s a n d officials of th e UNHCR, th e t e r m s of th e r e fu g e e s' collective r e t u r n (Billings, 1 9 9 5 ; M o r e l , 1 9 9 8 :W o rb y , 19 9 8 a ) . 4 U N HC R a s s u m e d a k e y ro le in fin a n c in g th e activities o f th e P e r m a n e n t C o m m i s s i o n s a n d , h a d it so c h o s c n , it m ig h t h av e a s s e r t e d fin a n c ia l leverage to i n s is t on a n d facilitate a g r e a t e r ro le for w o m e n . In a n e x tr e m e ly f r a n k a d m i s ­ s io n , T e r r y M orel, a UN H CR r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w h o w o r k e d c lo se ly w ith th e refu g e e w o m e n in Mexico, p u b lic ly d e c r ie d th is fa ilu re o f p o litic a l will w h e n s h e w ro te : In itially U N H CR d id n o t t a k e u p th e m a t t e r o f w o m e n ’s p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s r e s p o n s i b l e for th e r e f u g e e s ' r e t u r n . I a m d a r i n g e n o u g h to s t a te t h a t th is o w e d to o u r i n s t i t u t i o n a l difficulty in i m ­ m e d i a te l y d e f e n d i n g th e r i g h t s of w o m e n w ith in t r a d i t i o n a l s p a c e s of po w e r. (A ltho ug h we fi n a n c e d th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s d u r i n g th e i r n e g o t i a ­ tio n s ,) we n e v e r q u e s t i o n e d th e a b s e n c e of w o m e n . T h i s m e a n s t h a t we [actually] fo rtifie d m a l e l e a d e r s h i p a t th e e x p e n s e o f th e w o m e n ’s o r g a n i ­ z a t i o n s . (M orel, 1 9 9 8 , p. 16)

An u n p r e c e d e n t e d f e a tu r e o f th e O c to b e r 8, 1 9 9 2 , A c c o r d s w a s the G u a t e m a l a n g o v e r n m e n t ’s a g r e e m e n t to h e lp re fu g e e s re c o v e r l a n d s o c c u p i e d by o t h e r s , a n d to o b ta i n l a n d s for all l a n d l e s s a d u l t re fu g e e s. A lth o u g h they h a d n o t b e e n p r e s e n t d u r i n g the n e g o tia tio n s , w o m e n m il ita te d for j o i n t o w n e r s h i p o f th e s e p r o p e r t i e s . T h e y d id so on ly a fte r 4

T h e re was, apparently, in te re s t early on in havin g so m e female r e p re s e n t a t i o n . T his in te r e s t w a n e d so on after the first g r o u p of w o m e n w as selected. According to a n a dvisor to the P e r m a n e n t C o m m i s s io n s , the m ale c o m m i s s i o n e r s c o m p la in e d th a t the w o m e n could n o t “m anag e" th e difficult w o rk in g c o n d itio n s (e.g., c la n d e s tin e travel to c a m p s in Mexico a n d c a m p i n g with large g r o u p s of m en ), a n d m o s t were found w a n tin g by their m ale c o u n t e r p a r t s owing to an alleged lack of e xp erien ce a n d training. T h is sa m e a dvisor a d d e d that the m ale c o m m i s s i o n e r s were also extremely re lu c ta n t to have the w o m e n b e ­ com e privy to the m e n ’s "leisure-tim c" activities! (Paula Worby, e-mail, April 9, 1999).

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a n a ly z in g th e e x tr e m e v u ln e r a b ility o f w o m e n (a n d th e ir c h i ld r e n ) w h o w e r e a b a n d o n e d by th e ir p a r t n e r s a n d often d e p r iv e d o f th e f a m ili e s ’ la n d a n d b e l o n g i n g s .5 As M a m á M a q u i n ’s l e a d e r s h i p o p in e d : We r e a l iz e d t h a t w o m e n w h o w e re m a r r i e d o r in c o m m o n law u n i o n s w e r e n o t t a k e n in to a c c o u n t in r e g a r d s to th e r i g h t to la n d , (o)nly m e n , w id o w s a n d sing le m o t h e r s .... T h a t is w h e n we d e c i d e d to fight for th e r i g h t to b e j o i n t o w n e r s o f t h e l a n d fo r o u r o w n s e c u r i t y a n d t h a t o f o u r d a u g h t e r s a n d s o n s , s o t h a t we will n o t b e left o u t in t h e s t r e e t if th e m a n s e l ls th e l a n d o r a b a n d o n s h i s p a r t n e r . T h i s a ls o m e a n s re c o g n i z in g th e e c o n o m i c v a lu e o f th e w o r k t h a t we c a r r y o u t in th e h o u s e a n d in th e field s, (cited in Worby, 1 9 9 9 , p. 1)

T h e r e w e r e e a rly sig n s t h a t th e s e d e m a n d s w o u ld n o t b e easily m e t. With all th e c o n t r o v e r s ia l c o n c e s s i o n s th e P e r m a n e n t C o m m i s s i o n s o u g h t to e x t r a c t fr o m G u a t e m a l a n a u t h o r i t i e s , th e p r o v is i o n to p r o ­ vide w o m e n e x plic it r ig h ts to la n d w a s h a r d l y a n item t h a t th e a ll-m a le n e g o tia tin g te a m w a s e a g e r to p r e s s . In d e e d , th ey on ly d id so a t th e la s t m o m e n t , to p la c a te a n i n s i s t e n t fe m a le U N H C R official. A lth o u g h th is w a s a v ictory of s o r t s , fe m a le r e t u r n e e s h a v e fa c e d a h o s t of o b s t a c l e s in th e ir a t t e m p t s to h a v e t h i s c o n c e s s i o n fo r m a lly i n ­ s tit u tio n a liz e d . F ir s t, th e m a jo r ity of m a le r e t u r n e e s failed to m a k e g o o d o n th e ir p le d g e to s u p p o r t th e w o m e n 's a c c e s s to la n d titles. As o n e m a n e x p la in e d to m e , w h e n I a s k e d if h is wife w a s officially r e g is ­ t e r e d a s a c o - o w n e r of th e ir la n d in th e Ixcán G r a n d e c o m m u n i t y o f L os A ngeles: "Why s h o u l d s h e b e ? My n a m e is t h e r e on th e title, a n d I r e p r e ­ s e n t h e r a n d o u r c h i l d r e n . ” In fact, it to o k m e s e v e ra l tr ie s b e fo r e th is m a n even u n d e r s t o o d th e g ist of m y en q u iry . H is initial b a f f le m e n t a n d s u b s e q u e n t r e m a r k s u n d e r s c o r e h o w d e e p ly e n t w in e d a re n o t i o n s of M ayan m a sc u lin ity , p a t r i a r c h a l a u t h o r i t y in th e h o u s e h o l d , a n d c o n ­ tro l o ver l a n d in h i g h l a n d p e a s a n t c o m m u n i t i e s (W ilson, 1 9 9 5 ). T h e m a le r e t u r n e e l e a d e r s h i p s i m ila r ly r e n e g e d on its p r o m i s e to jo in t o w n e r s h ip : a g u a r a n t e e th a t s o m e o b s e r v e r s believe w a s e x te n d e d in a n o p p o r t u n i s t i c f a s h io n to la k e a d v a n ta g e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s y m p a ­ th ie s for th e i n d i g e n o u s G u a t e m a l a n w o m e n , a n d to gain in t e r n a t i o n a l s u p p o r t for th e ov e ra ll r e t u r n a n d its p r o v i s io n for la n d (Worby, 199 9). If r e t u r n e e m e n d e v e lo p e d so c ia l a m n e s i a r e g a r d i n g th e i r a g r e e ­ m e n t to e x te n d w o m e n c o - o w n e r s h i p o f la n d , so too , d id G u a t e m a l a n s ta te officials. As a U NH CR official e x p la in e d to m e , " G o v e r n m e n t a u ­ th o r i tie s a n d g o v e r n m e n t la w y e rs h a v e n e v e r ' u n d e r s t o o d ’ th e n e e d for th is initiative. C o n s e q u e n tly , th e y h a v e t h u s far r e f u s e d to d e s ig n a n d i m p l e m e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o lic ie s a n d p r a c t i c e s to facilitate jo i n t 5

' In s o m e G u a t e m a l a n c o m m u n itie s , family p r o b l e m s , s u c h a s m ale a b a n d o n m e n t , m ay be b ro u g h t b efore an elders* council (of m en) a n d /o r r e s p e c te d c o m m u n i ty a u t h o r i ­ ties. A lthough the m a n m ay be i n s t r u c t e d to leave the family h o u s e a n d /o r la n d to his chil­ d r e n a n d f o r m e r wife, s u c h a n o u tc o m e is by no m e a n s a s s u r e d . R e d r e s s th ro u g h the legal syste m t e n d s to be tim e -c o n s u m in g , expensive, a n d p a rtic u la r ly intim id a tin g for in ­ dig en o u s w o m e n , especially if they do n ot sp e a k S p a n i s h (Worby, 1999).

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o w n e r s h i p of l a n d . ”6 A lth o u g h c o r r e c t, I w o u ld s u g g e s t th a t th is n o n c o m p l i a n c e h a d d e e p e r, m o r e tr o u b l i n g r o o ts . A lth o u g h the re fu g e e s in Mexico w e re involved in f a s h io n in g g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s in a s o m e w h a t m o r e e q u ita b le f a s h io n , m a n y of th e ir c o u n ­ t e r p a r t s b a c k in a r m y - c o n t r o l l e d villages w e re e x p e r ie n c in g a h a r d e n ­ ing o f p a t r i a r c h a l v a lu e s a n d n o r m s . G u a t e m a l a , a n a t i o n a t w a r a g a in s t g u e r r illa i n s u r g e n t s , c h o s e th e f a m ilia r p a t h o f e q u a t i n g m a s ­ c u lin ity w ith p a t r i o t i s m a n d n a ti o n a l b e l o n g in g (see Yuval-Davis, 19 9 7 ). T h u s , in d i g e n o u s m a l e s —w h o b e fo r e th e violen ce h a d b e e n largely d i s p a r a g e d a n d f o rg o tte n b y th e s t a t e — w e r e n o w “r e h a b i l i ­ ta te d " a s p a t r i o t s : t h a t is, a s lo n g a s th e y a g r e e d to s e rv e in th e a r m y o r in th e u b i q u i t o u s civil p a t r o l s . In th is capacity, in d ig e n o u s m e n w e r e c h a r g e d w ith p r o t e c t i n g r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s a n d th e G u a t e m a l a n n a ­ tio n a g a in s t th e g u e r r i lla e n e m i e s of th e s ta te . E v e n w o m e n w e re d r a w n in to h ighly m a s c u l i n i z e d d i s p la y s o f loyalty. For e x a m p le , in a c o m m u ­ nity in th e d e p a r t m e n t o f Alta V e ra p a z , th e lo cal r e p r e s e n t a t i v e fro m th e a r m y 's civic affa irs office o r d e r e d all th e village’s w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n to line u p in fr o n t o f th e G u a t e m a l a n flag p o s t in th e m a i n s q u a r e . As o n e o b s e r v e r w ro te : In w h a t a p p e a r e d to b e a w e l l- r e h e a r s e d p a n t o m i m e , th e w o m e n , all of th e m d r e s s e d in traje (i n d ig e n o u s d r e s s ) , flung t h e m s e l v e s re l u c ta n t ly fo r­ w a r d , feigning c o m b a t a g a i n s t a n o n - e x i s t e n t ag g re s so r, th e i r im a g in a r y r i ­ fles p o is e d in em pty, o u t s t r e t c h e d a r m s . (A m e r ic a s W atch. 1 9 8 6 , p. 17)

In o t h e r c o m m u n i t i e s w o m e n w e r e r e q u i r e d to o b ta in p a s s e s from th e a r m y to tra v e l to local m a r k e t s a n d th e y w e re t r a n s p o r t e d t h e r e in a r m y t r u c k s . In th is way, m a s c u l i n e d is c ip lin e a n d p o lic in g w e r e i m ­ p o s e d o n a s e t of p r a c t i c e s a n d p u b lic s p a c e s in w h ic h w o m e n h a d , u n ­ til recently, e x p e r ie n c e d a far g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f c o n tr o l a n d a u t o n o m y ( B o s s e n , 1 9 8 4; E h l e r s , 1 9 9 0 ). U p o n r e t u r n , r e fu g e e w o m e n b u m p e d u p a g a in s t th e n o r m s a n d p r a c t i c e s o f th is h ighly m a s c u l i n i z e d re g im e w h e n th e y r e q u e s t e d t h a t g o v e r n m e n t a u t h o r i t i e s m a k e g o o d on th e ir p r o m i s e s to th e o r g a n iz e d w o m e n .

R E T U R N E E S AND TH E GUATEMALAN STATE F or o v e r a d e c a d e , th e n , G u a t e m a l a n officials h a d in v e s te d h e a v ily in th e p r o d u c t i o n of n a t i o n a l i s t i c , s t a t e - s u r v e i l l e d , r u r a l c itiz e n s a n d lo ­ c a l i t i e s . In t h e m i d - 1 9 9 9 0 s t h e y c o n f r o n t e d t h o u s a n d s o f alr c a d y - s u s p c c t G u a t e m a l a n n a t i o n a l s 7 r e t u r n i n g h o m e a lo n g w ith an e n t o u r a g e o f UN o fficials, i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c c o m p a n i e r s , a n d i n t e r n a ­ t i o n a l d o n o r s a n d N G O s — all e a g e r to b u i l d civil society. I n d i g e n o u s ^Interview n u m b e r 37. G u a t e m a l a Cily. J u l y 21. 1999. 7 For exam ple, the M inister of Defense. Héctor G r a m a jo . publicly labeled the r e t u r n ­ ees a s “su b v e rsiv e s” (Manz, 1988).

12.

R E F U G E E S AND G E N D E R E D C I T I Z E N S H I P

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w o m e n , in c lu d in g R ig o b erta M en ch u , w ere sh o w c a se d . G o v e rn m e n t officials m i g h t w ell h a v e e n v i s i o n e d th e n e e d for a “s t r o n g - a r m e d ” a p ­ p r o a c h to r c i m p o s i n g th e s t a t e , a lo n g w ith its h ig h ly m a s c u l i n i z e d p r a c t i c e s , o n th e r e t u r n e e s . P a r a d o x ic a lly , th o u g h , in m a n y c a s e s it w a s th e r e t u r n e e s w h o w e r e th e i n s t i g a t o r s o f a c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e s t a t e . T h i s w a s o f te n th e c a s e b e c a u s e — a s a c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s in exile— b o t h r e t u r n e e w o m e n a n d m e n c a m e to view th e m s e l v e s a s full G u a t e m a l a n c i tiz e n s a n d m o d e r n s u b j e c t s w h o h a d g r o w n u s e d to th e a m e n i t i e s a n d u p - t o - d a t e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d s o c ia l s e r v ic e s th e y h a d e n jo y e d in e x ile .8 T h e c h a l l e n g e s th e r e t u r n e e s fac e d w a s to m a k e t h e i r r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s c o n f o r m to t h e s e n e w s u b je c t iv it ie s , a n d to d o s o th e y t u r n e d i n c r e a s ­ ingly to th e G u a t e m a l a n s t a t e . T h e y n e e d e d g o v e r n m e n t officials to h e lp t h e m litigate l a n d c o n f lic ts w ith “r e c a l c i t r a n t ” n e i g h b o r i n g ( n o n r e t u r n e e ) villag es, a n d to o b t a i n s u c h m o d e r n a m e n i t i e s a s r o a d s , e lectricity, a n d l i c e n s e d t e a c h e r s ( S t c p p u t a t , 19 9 7 ). In th is m o d e r n i z i n g p r o je c t, th e s ta te f o u n d a f o r m i d a b l e ally in the m a l e r e t u r n e e l e a d e r s h i p . T h is n e w a llia n c e p o s e d s ig n ific a n t p r o b ­ l e m s for r e t u r n e e w o m e n , how ever. In exile, it will b e r e c a lle d , w o m e n h a d little s u c c e s s in p e n e t r a t i n g m a l e - d o m i n a t e d , local a n d n a tio n a l p o w e r s t r u c t u r e s . M oreover, th e ir allies w e r e often r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e very t r a n s n a t i o n a l e n tit ie s — s u c h a s , U.S. s o li d a r ity g r o u p s — t h a t t h e s t a te d i s t r u s t e d a n d s o u g h t to m a r g in a liz e . T h e p r o b l e m s c e r ta in refugee w o m e n have e x p e r ie n c e d a r e il l u s t r a t e d in th e c a s e o f th e Ixcan G r a n d e C o o p e r a tiv e — h o m e o f a large n u m b e r of th e r e t u r n e e s . 9

R E T U R N E E S TO TH E IXCAN G RAND E COOPERATIVE T h e Ixcan G r a n d e C o o p e r a tiv e (IGC), lo c a te d in th e t r o p ic a l lo w la n d s o f n o r t h e r n Q u ic h e , h a d b e e n o n e of th e m o s t p r o g r e s s iv e lo c a litie s in all of G u a t e m a l a . 10 T h e five c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t c o m p r i s e th e IGC w ere s ite s of e a rly g u e r r illa o r g a n iz in g in th e 1 9 7 0 s , a n d o f b r u t a l s t a te - o r c h e s t r a t e d vio lence in th e 1 9 8 0 s . M an y m e m b e r s o f th e c o o p e ra tiv e w e re m u r d e r e d , jo in e d th e g u e r rilla , o r w e r e fo r c e d in to exile (Falla, 19 94 ). T h e c o o p e r a tiv e ’s m a le l e a d e r s w e r e a m o n g th e e a r lie s t a n d m o s t in f lu e n tia l a u t h o r i t i e s in th e M exican refu g e e c a m p s , a n d m a n y ^ R e tu rn e e s in the c o m m u n i ty of C h a c u lá refer to th em se lv es a s g e n t e s f o r m a l e s (for­ m a l people), while their “b a c k w a r d " n e ig h b o rs arc d e ple ted in s u c h un flattering a n d “p r e m o d e r n ” term in olo gy a s a n i m a l e s a n d people w ith o u t r e a s o n (a ellos no lle gan r a z ó n ) ( S te p p u ta t. 1997). g For r e s e a r c h on o t h e r r e t u r n c o m m u n itie s , see Taylor (199 8) a n d Project C oun se lin g Services (2000). 1 T h e Ixcán G r a n d e region w a s se ttle d in the m i d - 1 9 6 0 s by p e a s a n t s from H u ehu etenango at the urging of Maryknoll priests. E ach family w as given approxim ately 40 acres after a p r o b a tio n perio d. Ultimately the in h a b ita n ts gro upe d them selves into five savings a n d credit cooperatives. Mayalán, Xalbal. Pueblo Nuevo. C u a rto Pueblo, a n d Los Angeles. T hese five c o m m u n itie s are all p a r t of the larger Ixcán G ra n d e Cooperative (IGC).

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s e r v e d a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s in th e P e r m a n e n t C o m m i s s i o n s . It w a s t h u s w ith g r e a t d i s m a y t h a t G u a t e m a l a n a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l s u p p o r t e r s w a tc h e d th e s e m a le l e a d e r s m a k e c o m m o n c a u s e w ith “the e n e m y .” For e x a m p le , w ith th e b le s s i n g o f g o v e r n m e n t officials a n d m ilita ry a u ­ th o r iti e s , m a le ( r e tu r n e e ) le a d e r s h a v e actively p u r s u e d a b r a n d of d e ­ v e l o p m e n t t h a t involves a t t r a c t i n g foreign oil i n t e r e s t s a n d p r iv a tiz in g c o o p e r a tiv e l a n d s (D avis, 19 98 ). In 1 9 9 7 a s p a r t of a m o v e a im e d a t c o n s o lid a tin g p o w e r a n d a t r e m o v ­ ing all c h a lle n g e rs , th e IGC's m a le l e a d e r s h i p a c c u s e d th e m e m b e r s of M a m á M a q u in o f b e in g g u e r r illa s y m p a th iz e r s . In f la g ra n t violation of th e p r o v is io n s for free a s s o c ia tio n in th e Peace A c c o rd s, th e c o o p e r a ­ tive’s l e a d e r s d e c la r e d "illegal” a n y g r o u p like M a m á M a q u in t h a t h eld m e e tin g s in the c o m m u n i t y w ith o u t th e ir p e r m i s s i o n . T h is t h r e a t w a s s o o n followed b y th e b u r n i n g o f M a m á M a q u in ’s h e a d q u a r t e r s in th e Ixcán G r a n d e c o m m u n i t y o f P u e b lo Nuevo. Reflecting on the r e f u g e e s ’ y e a r s in exile, P a u la W orby (1 9 9 8 b ) w rote: “[Once] the w o m e n b e g a n to ta k e c h a rg e o f th e ir ow n o r g a n iz a tio n s a n d c o n s c io u s - r a is in g to d e ­ m a n d visible a n d f o r m a l r o le s in d e c is io n - m a k in g , th is m a y have b e e n p e rc eiv ed by m e n , c o n s c io u s ly o r u n c o n sc io u sly , a s o v e r s te p p in g th e a c ­ c e p ta b le lim its they h a d p r e s c r i b e d for w o m e n ’s r o le s ” (p. 10). W h a t likely c o n s t r a i n e d m a le le a d e r s fro m r e ta lia tin g a g a in s t th e “u p p it y ” w o m e n b a c k th e n w ere, of c o u r s e , th e r e s o u r c e s o rg a n iz e d w o m e n o b ­ ta in e d fro m in t e r n a t io n a l d o n o r s a n d th e p u b lic re la tio n s b e n efits all the refu g e e s a c c r u e d in in te r n a tio n a l circle s fro m im a g e s of fully p a r tic i­ p a to r y refugee w o m e n . In th e b u r n i n g of M a m á M a q u i n ’s h e a d q u a r ­ t e r s — a fla g ran t a c t of e r a s u r e d ir e c te d at the w o m e n ’s only p u b lic s p a c e w ith in the c o m m u n i t y — wc find s a d evidence th a t onc e the re fu g e e s h a d r e t u r n e d h o m e a n d th e ir m a le le a d e r s h a d allied th e m s e lv e s w ith the sta te , w o m e n ’s “visibility" w a s n o lo n g e r n e e d e d n o r even to le ra te d . A lth o u g h th e m e n s o u g h t to d i s e n f r a n c h is e th e o r g a n iz e d w o m e n , the le a d e r s h i p of M a m á M a q u in b a s e d in G u a t e m a l a City h a d o th e r p la n s . T h e y still believed in th e ir p o w e r w ith in th e in te r n a ti o n a l " c o m m u n ity " a n d , accordingly, s e n t u r g e n t faxes a d d r e s s e d to “th e G u a t e m a l a n gov­ e r n m e n t , ” "the p e o p le a n d g o v e r n m e n ts of th e w o r l d , ” "the n a t io n a l a n d in te r n a tio n a l p r e s s , ” a n d "the p o p u l a r m o v e m e n t in g e n e r a l.” T h e y h o p e d th a t in te r n a tio n a l s u p p o r t e r s w o u ld — a s in the p a s t — s u p p o r t th e m decisively in th e ir la te s t struggle. I n s te a d , very little if a n y effective p r e s s u r e w a s b r o u g h t to b e a r . 11 l l It is p r o b a b ly the case th a t a good d e al of the inaction r e s u lte d from the fact th at M a m á M aq uin a n d its local s u p p o r t e r s were involved in a factional conflict w ithin the guerrilla orga n iz atio n (URNG). T h is left i n te r n a tio n a l o b s e r v e rs a n d s u p p o r t e r s g e n e r­ ally c o n fo u n d e d a n d r e lu c ta n t to ste p in. For its p a rt. M am á M aquin r e le as ed a c o m m u ­ n iqu é sh ortly after the d e s t ru c t i o n of its h e a d q u a r t e r s in Pueblo Nuevo th a t sta te d : “The r e a s o n for this aggressio n a g ain st o u r orga n iz atio n a n d o u r right to free a sso c ia tio n is d u e to the fact th at we do not s h a r e so m e of the political s t a n c e s held by the [c o m m u n ity ’s cooperative] d irec to ra te, [since] these o p i n io n s relegate w o m e n to se c o n d place in social a n d c o m m u n i ty participation" (M am á M aquin. c o m m u n i q u é , J u n e 1 1. 1997, r e p r o ­ d u c e d in Worby. 19 99. p. 13).

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R elu ctantly , th e n , in th e late 1 9 9 0 s m a n y o f th e m e m b e r s of M a m á M a q u in in th e Ixcán G r a n d e c o m m u n i t i e s s u c c u m b e d to th e i n t i m i d a ­ tion o f the m a le l e a d e r s h i p a n d to th e u r g in g o f t h e ir h u s b a n d s to d r o p o u t o f th e o r g a n i z a tio n c o m p le te ly (Worby, 1 9 9 8 a , p. 9). In th e c o o p e r a ­ tive c o m m u n i t y of L os A ngeles, M a m á M a q u in h a d b e e n e n tire ly r e ­ p la c e d by a w o m e n ’s d e v e l o p m e n t c o m m i t t e e t h a t w a s c o n t r o ll e d by th e m a le l e a d e r s h i p (the d i r e c to r a t e ) ; a s o n e m a n e x p la in e d , th e d i r e c ­ to r a te c o m e s u p w ith th e i d e a s for w o m e n ’s p r o j e c t s a n d "write u p th e r e q u e s t s , a n d th e n we get th e w o m e n to sign t h e m . ’’12 T h e w e a k e n in g , if n o t total a b a n d o n m e n t , of M a m á M a q u in w a s n o t the only political lo ss th e s e r e t u r n e e w o m e n e n d u r e d . C o n tr a r y to the w o m e n ’s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s p r io r to th e ir r e t u r n , only m e n a n d w id o w e d w o m e n have b e e n g r a n te d titles to c o m m u n a l la n d . M e m b e r s h ip to the c o m m u n i t i e s ’ official g o v e rn in g b o a r d is d e t e r m i n e d b y o w n e r s h ip of th e se titles. T h u s , o n c e again , w o m e n w ith p a r t n e r s have f o u n d t h e m ­ selves e x c lu d e d fro m full c itiz e n sh ip w ith in th e ir c o m m u n iti e s . U n d e r s u c h u n f a v o r a b le c i r c u m s t a n c e s , w o m e n have se e n th e ir i n te r e s t s tr a m p l e d u p o n . In o n e p a r tic u la r ly eg re g io u s case, the m a le d ir e c to r a te exacted a far m o r e se v e re p u n i s h m e n t o n a m a n w h o h a d s to le n a cow th a n on a n o t h e r w h o h a d r a p e d a fem ale m e m b e r of the c o m m u n i ty .13

CERTAIN GAINS REMAIN To e n d on s u c h a re s ig n e d n o te w o u ld b e i n a c c u r a t e a n d w o u ld m i s r e p ­ r e s e n t th e ov e ra ll s tru g g le t h a t m a n y re fu g ee w o m e n a n d m e n r e m a i n c o m m i t t e d to (W o m e n ’s C o m m i s s i o n for R efugee W o m e n a n d C h il­ d r e n , 2 0 0 0 ) . If w e a c c e p t th e fe m i n is t p r e c e p t t h a t “th e p o litic a l” r e ­ s i d e s in all c u l t u r a l a n d so c ia l r e l a t i o n s a n d d o m a i n s , th e n w o m e n s e e m to h a ve m a d e th e ir g r e a t e s t s t r i d e s in th e m ic r o p o liti c s o f th e h o u s e h o l d a n d k i n s h i p s p h e r e s — n o t w ith in c o m m u n i t y p o litic s, a s th ey h a d a n t i c i p a t e d p r i o r to th e ir r e t u r n ( M a m á M a q u in & CIAM, 1 9 9 4 ). In L o s A ngeles a n d C h a c u l á ( H u e h u e te n a n g o ), th e tw o r e t u r n e e c o m m u n i t i e s I ha v e s t u d i e d , 14 s e v e r a l c o u p le s p o i n t e d w ith p r i d e to s u c h p r a c t i c e s a s eq u ity b e tw e e n p a r t n e r s in h o u s e h o l d b u d g e t in g a n d in r e p r o d u c t i v e d e c i s io n s . T h e y a ls o n o te d th e r e d u c e d in c id e n c e of 12

Interview n u m b e r 5. Los Angeles, M arch 15. 1999. Most of the fo r m e r m e m b e r s of M a m á M aquin have re fused to Join this g ro u p , b u t its existence h a s clearly de m o ra liz ed m a n y of these w om en. 13 Interview n u m b e r 32. Nenton. J u l y 27. 1998. 14 In C h a cu lá too. w o m e n have not gain ed jo in t o w n e r s h i p of th eir land n o r a re they m e m b e r s of the m a le -c o n tro lle d cooperative. In one p a rticu la rly d i s h e a r t e n i n g incident, the m ale coop erativ e le a d e rs a s k e d the w o m e n to form a c o m m itte e to r e q u e s t food from a f o u nda tion. W hen n o n e of the w o m e n p r e s e n t at the m ee tin g v o lun te e re d , the h e a d of the cooperative sa id. “Oh. p e r h a p s the p ro b le m is th at the m e n have not given their wives p e r m i s s io n to form a c o m m itte e. Men, ra ise y o u r h a n d , if you give yo u r wife p e r m i s s i o n ” (Interview n u m b e r 3, C ha culá, J u l y 1 5 , 1 9 9 8 ) . A clear sign of the w o m e n 's d e m o r a li z a ­ tion is th a t the m e m b e r s h i p in C h a c u l á ’s b r a n c h of M a m á M aqu in h a s d r o p p e d in 4 ye ars from a high of 2 0 0 to a low of 3.

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dom es tic violence ag ainst w o m e n a n d their greater spatial mobility. It is stri king th at the majority of the interviewees in b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s empl oyed a h u m a n rights d i s c o u r s e w he n they d e s cr i b ed m o r e e q u it a ­ ble ge nd er relations in their own h o m e s . Evaristo López Calmo, a 30-year-old Mam r e s i d e n t of Chaculá, reflected: In the old d a ys w h e n a coup le m a r r ie d the w o m a n b e c a m e the p r o p e rty of the m a n . In this way he d o m in a te d all the d e c is io n s b e c a u s e he w a s the h e a d of the h o u s e h o ld . And th a t’s w h a t wc w ere ta u g h t from the tim e wc w ere little; b u t th e n the s itu a tio n c h a n g e d .... In exile the w o m e n le a rn e d th a t they h a d rig h ts e q u a l to m en . T h e r e ’s n o difference. Before we never p ra c tic e d this, w o m e n were tre a te d like a n im a ls .... Now w h en I e a rn m o n e y I d o n ’t p u t it in m y p o c k e t like m y fa th e r did. I b rin g it to the h o u se a n d m y wife a n d I decide tog ether how to s p e n d it .15

And Petrona López García explained: It u s e d to be t h a t the w o m a n is a w o m a n a n d the m a n is a m a n . S h e h a s to feed him , w a sh his clothes, c a re for him ; a n d while h e ’s in b e d resting, s h e ’s th e re w o rk in g u ntil 8 o r 9 a t night, still giving a n d giving. B u t [M amá M aquin] ta u g h t u s th a t the w o m a n h a s ten fingers a n d the m a n h a s ten fingers .... It’s n o t th a t the m a n is w o rth m o r e o r the w o m a n w o rth m ore; they’re e qu al. My h u s b a n d gives m e liberty to w o rk in w ha te v e r jo b I c h o o s e .16 Now th is s e e m s s tra n g e to th o s e w ho r e m a in e d in m y village a n d c o n tin u e to follow the old ways. Even my ow n m o th e r says to m y h u s ­ b a n d . "Aren’t you afraid sh e will find a n o th e r m a n a n d do b a d th in gs b e ­ c a u se you allow h e r to go w h e re v e r s h e p le a s e s ? " 17

A lt hou gh m a n y w o m e n a n d s o m e m e n in b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s p u b ­ licly e x p r e s s e d c o n s t e r n a t i o n over the w o m e n ’s fai lure to p a r t i c i ­ p a te m o r e fully a n d e qu a ll y in th e c o m m u n i t y ’s po litical a n d e c o n o m i c affairs, t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s di d h o ld o u t h o p e for the fut ur e. Th e y p o i n t e d a d m i r i n g l y to th e i r d a u g h t e r s , w ho have h ig he r e d u c a ­ tion levels c o m p a r e d to o t h e r G u a t e m a l a n r u r a l girls, a n d w h o have often c h o s e n to m a r r y l ate r a n d / o r de lay c h i l d b e a r i n g in o r d e r to p u r s u e their e d u c a t i o n s or c a r e e r s . In w ri tin g a b o u t s u c h p r a c t ic e s , Worby (1 9 9 9 ) c o n c l u d e d : “In th is way they a re va ry in g the r o le s

15I n t e r v i e w n u m b e r 12. C h a c u l á . J u l y 2 0 . 1 9 9 8 . 16A l t h o u g h t h i s w o m a n p o s i t i o n s h e r s e l f a s very m u c h a m o d e r n , s e l f - a c tu a l iz e d w o m a n , it is s i g n i f ic a n t t h a t s h e view s h e r h u s b a n d a s t h e o n e w h o p o s s e s s e d , a n d c o n ­ t i n u e s to p o s s e s s , t h e r i g h t to give h e r f r e e d o m a n d to a llo w h e r to w o r k a t w h a t e v e r j o b she chooses. 17 I n t e r v i e w n u m b e r 6. C h a c u l á . J u l y 18. 1 9 9 8 . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e r e is a v o c al m i n o r i t y t h a t d i s p u t e s s u c h a s s e r t i o n s a b o u t i n c r e a s e d g e n d e r p a rity . It i n c l u d e s a n u n w h o h a s lived in t h e c o m m u n i t y s i n c e i ts f o u n d i n g . S h e c h a r a c t e r i z e d l o c a l g e n d e r r e l a ­ t i o n s a s “9 9 . 9 % s e x i s t , m a c h i s t i c [ a n d ] p a t r i a r c h a l . " a n d s h e b a c k e d u p t h i s s t a t e m e n t w i t h r e c e n t e x a m p l e s o f d o m e s t i c v io le n c e , a b a n d o n m e n t , a n d b r i d e p r i c e {Interview n u m b e r 3. C h a c u l á . J u l y 15. 1 9 9 8 ).

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p la y e d by w o m e n a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y i n c r e a s i n g r e c o g n itio n a m o n g m e n a s to th e ir d if f e r e n t c a p a b i l i t i e s ” (p. 6). Finally, over the c o u r s e of the la s t d e c a d e a s G u a te m a la n r u r a l c o m ­ m u n itie s have a b s o r b e d the s h o c k s of the n a tio n ’s s t r u c t u r a l a d j u s t ­ m e n t p r o g r a m a n d the lack of c o m p e titiv e n e s s of its tra d itio n a l a g ric u ltu r a l c o m m o d itie s in w o rld m a r k e t s , m a n y r e tu r n e e w o m e n have h a d to r e a s s e s s th e ir th in k in g a b o u t th e family a n d local c o m m u ­ nities. T h e w o m e n ’s d i s c o u r s e a n d p r a c tic e s have m o d u la te d , no lo n ­ ger focusin g so in siste n tly on p a t r ia r c h y a s a p r i m a r y s o u r c e of w o m e n 's o p p r e s s io n . In s te a d , they m o r e freely a c k n o w le d g e t h a t f a m i­ lies a n d local c o m m u n itie s a r e sites of p ro te c tio n fro m , a n d re s is ta n c e to, global c a p ita lis m a n d n a tio n a l f o r m s of c lass a n d racial o p p r e s ­ sion. It is in this s p ir it th a t the c u r r e n t le a d e r s h ip of M a m á M a q u in h a s dev eloped a p ro g r a m to e d u c a te r u r a l c o m m u n itie s a b o u t the d a n g e r s of glob alization a n d Plan P a n a m a a n d to e nlist w o m e n a n d m e n collec­ tively to analyze the local a n d n a tio n a l i m p a c ts of th e s e new d e v e lo p ­ m e n ts . A lthough th e r e is a g e n d e r c o m p o n e n t to this e d u c a tio n a l p r o g r a m (e.g., the c u r r e n t a n d gro w ing d e m a n d for female w o r k e r s in e x p o rt-p ro c e s s in g i n d u s tr ie s ) , it is n o t fo r e g ro u n d e d .

CONCLUSION A lthough c o n s p ic u o u s ly a b s e n t from m u c h of th e lite r a tu r e on g e n d e r a n d m ig ra tio n , c itiz en sh ip is a c o n c e p t t h a t m e r its far g re a te r a tte n tio n in fu tu re s t u d ie s of refugees a n d im m ig r a n ts . As we ta k e th is ste p , however, we s h o u ld be m in d f u l t h a t s o m e q u e s tio n the very utility of a t ­ te m p tin g to e n g e n d e r a c o n s t r u c t t h a t h a s enjoyed s u c h a long h isto ry of d e legitim ating w o m e n ’s s p h e r e of activities by relegating it to “the private" (Phillips, 1993). As the first p a r t of this c h a p te r n o te d , in te r ­ n a tio n a l law a n d the refugee regim e have often a d o p te d th is sta n c e , leaving s c o r c s of w o m e n d is e n f r a n c h is e d a n d vu ln e ra b le . T h e o r i s ts w ho ta k e u p the challenge to e n g e n d e r o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c itiz e n sh ip a rg u e t h a t it c a n n o t be r e d u c e d sim p ly to re la tio n s b e ­ tween in d iv id u a ls a n d th e sta te (Lister, 1997). R ather, c itiz e n sh ip in ­ volves a b r o a d ra n g e of social re la tio n s a m o n g in d iv id u a ls a long m u ltip le sc a le s a n d s p a c e s . T h e la tte r r a n g e from th e im a g in a tio n a n d the b o d y to tr a n s n a tio n a l a n d global ideologies a n d c o ntexts. C o n s e ­ quently, an e n g e n d e r e d a n d fe m in ist u n d e r s t a n d i n g of citiz e n sh ip m u s t e x a m in e the socializatio n of fem ale c h ild r e n to a c c e p t a s u b o r d i ­ n a te s t a t u s to m a le s w ithin key s p h e r e s of power, w o m e n ’s e c o n o m ic d e p e n d e n c e w ithin the family, th eir w e a k p o sitio n w ith in the la b o r m a r k e t a n d c u ltu re in d u s tr ie s , a n d th e ir r e d u c e d r e p r e s e n ta tio n in lo­ cal, n a tio n a l, a n d in te rn a tio n a l p o litics (H o bson, 1999, p. xix). It m u s t also tr e a t g e n d e r relatio nally— th a t is, n o t only b e tw e e n m e n a n d w o m e n , b u t also a s one of m u ltip le , re la te d axes of difference a n d power. T h e s e o t h e r s in c lu d e sexuality, race, ethnicity, religion, legal s ta tu s , a n d cla ss. H ere, the challenge is to e x a m in e a n d the orize the

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w a y s in w h i c h t h e s e m u l t i p l e a x e s o p e r a t e i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d in te ra c tiv e ly to c o n d itio n c itiz e n s h i p r ig h ts a n d p r a c t ic e s . As the s e c o n d sc c tio n of th is c h a p t c r d o c u m e n t e d , t h r o u g h w o m e n 's p r o g r a m s p r o m o t i n g j o b tr a in in g , in c o m e g e n e r a t io n , literacy, a n d r i g h ts e d u c a t i o n , a g r o u p o f hig hly m o tiv a te d re fu g e e s a n d i n t e r n a t i o n ­ a ls stru g g le d to r e v e r s e lo n g - s ta n d in g p a t t e r n s of fem a le e x c lu s io n a n d d e p e n d e n c y . R e m a r k a b ly , t h e s e b i d s for c itiz e n s h ip r ig h ts a n d active p a r t i c i p a t i o n o c c u r r e d w ith in th e c o n te x t o f refu g e e c a m p s w h e r e p a ­ t r i a r c h a l h o u s e h o l d s a n d m a le l e a d e r s h i p a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c ­ t u r e s p r e d o m i n a t e d . T h e p r e s e n c e of s u p r a n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a tio n s w illing to a s s i s t w o m e n to forge m o r e e q u ita b le s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s w ith in the m u ltip le a r e n a s in w h ic h c it iz e n s h ip is c o n s t i t u t e d a n d e n a c te d w a s key. So, too , w a s th e i n t r o d u c t i o n of s u c h u n iv e r s a l id e o s c a p e s a s h u m a n r ig h ts a n d w o m e n 's rig h ts . S in c e th e ir r e t u r n to G u a te m a la , refu g ee w o m e n ha v e c o n f r o n t e d th e r c a s s c r t i o n o f p a t r i a r c h a l id e o lo ­ gies a n d p r a c t i c e s in th e ir h o m e s , c o m m u n i t i e s , a n d n a ti o n , th e w i t h ­ d r a w a l o f m a n y i n t e r n a t i o n a l s u p p o r t e r s , a n d th e n e e d to c o p e w ith G u a t e m a l a ’s co stly c o n c e s s i o n s to i n t e r n a t i o n a l ca p ita l. It h a s b e e n e x ­ c e e d in g ly difficult to k e e p n e w e r v is io n s a n d p r a c t i c e s o f f e m a le citi­ z e n s h i p alive. M a ny r e t u r n e e w o m e n h a v e s u b s t i t u t e d a “fem a le c o n s c i o u s n e s s ” for th e ir p r e v io u s f e m in is t o n e . T h e fo rm e r, it will b e r e c a lle d , is o n e g r o u n d e d in n u r t u r i n g a n d fam ily s u rv iv a l. T h e d i ­ le m m a c o n f r o n tin g th e s e r e t u r n e e s , a n d m a n y o t h e r p o o r w o m e n in r u r a l G u a t e m a l a , is to d e f e n d a n d h o ld to g e th e r th e ir fa m ilie s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s , w hile a t t e m p t i n g g r a d u a lly to r e f o r m th e n o r m s a n d p r a c t i c e s t h a t c o n t i n u e to d i s e n f r a n c h i s e th e m .

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13 Gender, Sexuality, Language, and M igration1 Oliva M. Espin S a n D ie g o S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

MIGRATION AND GENDER ROLES As m i g r a n t s c r o s s b o r d e r s , th e y a lso c r o s s e m o tio n a l a n d b e h a v io r a l b o u n d a r i e s . B e c o m in g a m e m b e r o f a n e w so cie ty s t r e t c h e s th e b o u n d ­ a r i e s o f w h a t i s p o s s ib le . O n e 's life a n d r o le s ch a n g e . With t h e m , i d e n t i ­ t i e s c h a n g e a s w e ll. M o s t i m m i g r a n t s a n d r e f u g e e s c r o s s i n g g e o g r a p h ic a l b o r d e r s , r a r e ly a n t ic i p a te th e e m o t i o n a l a n d b e h a v i o r a l b o u n d a r i e s they will c o n f r o n t. It is m y c o n te n ti o n , b a s e d o n b o t h clinical p r a c t ic e a n d r e s e a r c h , t h a t a t e a c h s te p of th e m i g r a ti o n p r o c e s s , w o m e n a n d m e n e n c o u n t e r d iff e r e n t e x p e r ie n c e s . W o m e n ’s r o le s a n d s e x u a l b e h a v io r m a y b e m o d ­ ified m o r e d r a m a t i c a l l y a n d p r o f o u n d l y th a n m e n ’s ( E s p in , 19 8 7 ). For b o t h h e t e r o s e x u a l a n d l e s b i a n w o m e n , th e c r o s s i n g o f b o r d e r s t h r o u g h m ig r a ti o n p r o v i d e s th e s p a c e a n d “p e r m i s s i o n ” to c r o s s b o u n d a r i e s a n d t r a n s f o r m th e ir s e x u a lity a n d g e n d e r r o le s . However, th is is u s u a lly n o t a s m o o t h p r o c e s s , even for t h o s e w o m e n w h o se e m to h a ve a c c u l t u r a t e d e a sily to th e n e w society. W o m e n w h o m ig r a te f o rm “t r a d i t i o n a l ” s o c ie tie s m a y find t h a t n e w a lt e r n a t iv e s o p e n to th e m in th e n e w c o u n try . B u t th e n e w p o s s ib ilitie s t h a t m ig r a tio n o p e n s u p a r e n o t lim ite d to w o m e n fr o m t r a d i t i o n a l s o c ie tie s . W o m e n w h o m ig r a te fo r m " m o d e r n ” so c ie tie s m a y a ls o find t h a t a lt e r n a t iv e s o p e n for th e m in th e n ew c o u n t r y b e c a u s e of the d i s t a n c e fro m th e fa ­ ’p a p e r p r e s e n t e d at C on feren ce on Im m ig ra tio n a n d Psychology (Panel on I m m i g r a ­ tion a n d G e nd er), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. April 2 0 0 3 .

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m i lia r e n v i r o n m e n t a n d / o r th e ir fa m ilie s. "New l e a r n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s e m e r g e , a s h o s t so c ie ty in s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s i n t e r a c t w ith th e p s y ­ c h o lo g ic a l e q u i p m e n t i m m i g r a n t s b r i n g a n d c r e a t e in the h o s t so c ic ty ” (Rogler, 1 9 9 4 . p. 70 6). We k n o w t h a t th e s e x u a l a n d g e n d e r ro le b e h a v i o r s o f w o m e n s e rv e a la r g e r so c ia l f u n c tio n b e y o n d th e p e r s o n a l . T h e y a r e u s e d by e n e m i e s a n d f r ie n d s a lik e a s “p r o o f " of th e m o r a l i t y — o r d e c a y — o f so c ia l g r o u p s o r n a tio n s . In m o s t so c ie tie s , w o m e n ’s s e x u a l b e h a v io r a n d th e ir c o n f o r m it y to t r a d i t i o n a l g e n d e r ro le s signifies t h a t fam ily 's value s y s te m . T h u s , in m a n y s o c ie tie s, a d a u g h t e r w h o d o e s n o t c o n f o r m to " tr a d itio n a l m o r a l i t y ” c a n be s e e n a s “p r o o f ” of th e lax m o r a l s o f th e family. T h i s is w h y s tr u g g le s s u r r o u n d i n g a c c u l t u r a t i o n in i m m i g r a n t a n d refu g e e fa m ilie s c e n t e r f re q u e n tl y o n th e i s s u e s of d a u g h t e r s ’ s e x ­ u a l b e h a v i o r s a n d w o m e n 's s e x r o l e s in g e n e r a l. For p a r e n t s a n d y o u n g w o m e n alike, a c c u l t u r a t i o n a n d s e x u a lity a r c closcly c o n n e c tc d w ith b e in g s e x u a lly p r o m i s c u o u s . Policing w o m e n 's b o d i e s a n d se x u a l b e ­ h a v io r b e c o m e s for i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t i e s th e m a i n m e a n s o f a s s e r t ­ in g m o r a l s u p e r i o r i t y o ver th e h o s t c u ltu r e . Yet it se v ere ly lim its th e p e rso n a l ex p ressio n of im m ig ra n t w om en. G ro u p s th a t are tr a n s fo rm ­ ing t h e ir w a y o f life th r o u g h a v a s t a n d d e e p p r o c e s s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n , f o c u s on p r e s e r v i n g " t r a d i t i o n ” a l m o s t e xclusively t h r o u g h th e g e n d e r r o le s o f w o m e n . W o m e n ’s r o le s b e c o m e th e l a s t “b a s t i o n of t r a d i t i o n . ” W o m e n ’s b o d i e s b e c o m e th e site for s tr u g g le s c o n c e r n i n g d is o r i e n t i n g c u l t u r a l d iffe re n c es . G e n d e r b e c o m e s th e site to c la im the p o w e r d e ­ n ie d to i m m i g r a n t m e n by r a c is m . It is i m p o r t a n t to re c o g n iz e t h a t s o m e o f th e r ig id ity c o n c e r n i n g th e r o l e s o f w o m e n t h a t w c o b s e r v e in i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t i e s is a n a t ­ t e m p t to p r o t e c t a n d s a f e g u a r d w h a t r e m a i n s o f e m o t i o n a l s ta b ility ; s o m u c h o f it is lo s t w ith m i g r a t i o n . It is a s if t h e i m m i g r a n t s ’ p s y c h o ­ lo gical s e n s e o f s a fe ty a n d t h e i r s e n s e o f s e lf d e p e n d e d o n a s h a r p c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n tw o s e t s o f c u l t u r a l v a lu e s c o n c e iv e d a s rig id ly d if ­ f e r e n t a n d u n c h a n g e a b l e . T h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f “o ld v e r s i o n s " of w o m e n 's r o le s b e c o m e s c e n t r a l to th is s h a r p c o n t r a s t . For p e o p le w h o e x p e r i e n c e a d e e p la c k of c o n t r o l o v e r th e i r d a ily lives, c o n t r o l ­ ling w o m e n ’s s e x u a lity a n d b e h a v i o r b e c o m e s a s y m b o lic d e m o n s t r a ­ tio n of o r d e r l i n e s s a n d c o n tin u ity . It gives th e m th e feelin g th a t n o t all is lo s t, n o t all is c h a n g in g . O bv io usly , it is e a s i e r fo r i m m i g r a n t s to m a i n t a i n c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r p r iv a te w o r l d t h a n o v e r t h e i r p u b l i c lives: w o r k s c h e d u l e s , ty p e s o f w o r k a n d s c h o o lin g , h o u s i n g , a n d th e s t r u c ­ t u r e s o f d a ily life a r e c o n t r o l l e d by th e c u s t o m s a n d d e m a n d s o f th e n e w society. B u t in th e p r iv a c y o f t h e i r h o m e s , th e y c a n s e e k to m a i n ­ ta in th e s e n s e t h a t th e y a r e still in c o n t r o l . T h i s is w h y f r e q u e n t ly w o m e n t h e m s e l v e s j o i n activ ely in a d h e r i n g to “t r a d i t i o n s ” th a t , fr o m th e p o i n t o f view of o u t s i d e r s , a p p e a r to c u r t a i l t h e i r o w n f r e e d o m s a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s for se lf-fu lfillm e n t. M oreover, s e lf - a p p o in te d " g u a r d i a n s o f m o r a li ty a n d t r a d i t i o n ” th a t a r e e v e r - p r e s e n t a m o n g i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t i e s a r e d e e p ly c o n c e r n e d

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w ith w o m e n 's r o le s a n d s e x u a l b e h a v io r. T h e s e p e o p le in c lu d e re li­ g io u s o r c o m m u n i t y le a d e r s , o ld e r w o m e n a n d m e n , a n d even y o u n g e r p e o p le w h o feel a n e e d to p r e s e r v e old v a lu e s a t all c o s ts . B c c a u s c i m ­ m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t i e s a r e o ften b e s ie g e d w ith re je c tio n , r a c i s m , a n d s c o r n , th o s e s e l f - a p p o in te d “g u a r d i a n s ” ha v e a lw a y s f o u n d fertile g r o u n d fro m w h ic h to c o n t r o l w o m e n ’s s e x u a lity In th e n a m e o f p r e ­ s e r v in g “tr a d iti o n " (Yuval-Davis, 19 9 2 ). P r e s s u r e s o n i m m i g r a n t w o m e n ’s r o le s a n d se x u a lity a ls o e m e rg e fro m o u t s i d e th e ir o w n c u ltu r e . T h e h o s t so c ie ty a ls o i m p o s e s its ow n b u r d e n s a n d d e s i r e s t h r o u g h p r e j u d i c e s a n d r a c i s m . A lth o u g h “r e ­ t u r n i n g w o m e n to th e ir ‘t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e s ’ c o n t i n u e s to b e d e fin e d a s c e n t r a l to p r e s e r v i n g n a t io n a l id e n tity a n d c u l t u r a l p r i d e ” ( N a ra y a n , 1 9 9 7 , p. 2 0 ) b y s o m e im m i g r a n t s , th o s e s a m e v a lu e s a n d b e h a v i o r s a r e p e r c e iv e d by th e ir h o s t s a s a d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f i m m i g r a n t s ’ “b a c k ­ w a r d n e s s " a n d n e e d for c h a n g e . Yet a t h i r d o p p r e s s i v e fa c to r c o m e s fr o m p e o p le e a g e r to be “c u l t u r ­ ally s e n s i tiv e .” U n d e r th e g u ise of r e s p e c t , s o m e m e m b e r s of th e h o s t so c ie ty m a y “r a c ia liz e ” a n d “exoticize" i m m i g r a n t w o m e n , p a r ti c u la r ly th o s e w h o c o m e f r o m n o n - E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s . M an y w e ll- in te n tio n e d p e o p le believe t h a t th e “t r u e i m m ig r a n t" h a s to b e “d if fe r e n t” even if s h e d o e s n o t w a n t to be. Tragically, th e y c o n t r i b u t e to th e o p p r e s s i o n of i m ­ m i g r a n t w o m e n in th e n a m e of r e s p e c t i n g th e ir c u l t u r e a n d p r e s e r v i n g th e ir v a lu e s . D e p lo y m e n t of “t r a d i t i o n ” a n d “c u l t u r e ” to ju s tif y b e h a v ­ io r s h o u l d n e v e r r e m a i n u n p r o b l e m a t i z e d . C onversely, m u c h is m a d e a b o u t th e in c id e n c e of m a le d o m i n a n c e in i m m i g r a n t c u l t u r e s b y i n d iv i d u a ls in th e h o s t c u ltu r e . However, it is i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r t h a t a n y e x p r e s s i o n o f m a le d o m i n a n c e a m o n g im m i g r a n t is n o t h i n g b u t th e sp ecific c u l t u r e ’s v e r s io n of th e m y th of m a le s u p e r i o r i t y t h a t exits in m o s t c u l t u r e s , in c lu d i n g m a i n s t r e a m A m e r i c a n c u l tu r e . M any i m m i g r a n t s of b o th s e x e s still s u b s c r i b e to th e tr a d it io n a l id e a s of m a le s u p e r io r ity a n d its c o n s e q u e n t f o r m s o f e x p r e s s io n , b u t m a n y re jec t it o u trig h t. Let u s r e m e m b e r t h a t th e r e a r e m a n y i m m i g r a n t w o m e n w h o a r e actively involved in th e fe m in is t m o v e m e n t a n d w h o a r e u n w illin g to s u b m i t to th e a u th o r it y of m a le relatives. T h e s to r ie s of m a n y o f the h e te r o s e x u a l a n d le s b ia n in te rv iew e e s in m y s tu d i e s of i m ­ m i g r a n t w o m e n illu stra te th is p o in t. I n d e e d , the ex iste n c e of le s b ia n s a n d fe m in is ts a m o n g i m m i g r a n t w o m e n c h a lle n g e s the m y th of th e ir s u b m i s s i v c n c s s to old v a lu e s so p r e v a le n t in m a i n s t r e a m A m e r ic a n c u l ­ tu re . In fact, r e s e a r c h s h o w s th a t th e p a c e of a c c u ltu r a tio n te n d s to be s lo w e r for f e m a le s t h a n m a le s in all a s p e c t s b u t one: F em a le s of all ages a c c u lt u r a te fa s te r t h a n th e ir m a le c o u n t e r p a r t s w h e n it c o m e s to g e n d e r r o le s (G ino rio , 1979). As so ciolog ist Silvia P e d r a z a (1 9 9 1 ) r e p o r t e d : While men were eager to return [to the home country), women tended to postpone or avoid retu rn because they realized it would entail their re­ tirement from work and the loss of new-found freedoms .... As a result, a

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struggle developed over ... return that revolved around the traditional definitions of gender and privileges which the migration itself had chal­ lenged and which many men sought to retain by returning home. (p. 310)

MIGRATION A N D SEXUALITY A lt h o u g h th e e x p e r i e n c e o f w o m e n in i n t e r n a t i o n a l m i g r a t i o n h a s b e g u n to d r a w a t t e n t i o n f r o m r e s e a r c h e r s , p o l i c y m a k e r s , a n d s e r ­ vice p r o v i d e r s (e.g. C ole, E s p i n , & R o t h b l u m , 1 9 9 2 ; G a b a c c i a , 1 992), se x u ality a n d o th e r in tim a te e x p e rie n c e s of w o m e n im m i­ g r a n t s a r e m o s t l y a b s e n t f r o m t h e s e s t u d i e s . “By c o n t r a s t , t h e r e e x ­ i s t s a w e l l - d e v e l o p e d s c h o l a r s h i p a b o u t h o w i m m i g r a t i o n ... h a s r e p r o d u c e d racial, eth n ic, a n d c la ss d istin c tio n s" (L u ib h eid , 2 0 0 2 , p . xi). L ittle is k n o w n , fo r e x a m p l e , a b o u t th e e x p e r i e n c e s o f i m m i ­ g r a n t w o m e n in s u c h " p r i v a t e ” r e a l m s a s s e x u a l id e n tity , s e x u a l b e ­ h a v io r , a n d s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n . Yet, a s w e k n o w , s e x u a l i t y is n o t p r i v a t e , a n d t h i s e x p l a i n s w h y s o m a n y c u l t u r e s a n d c o u n t r i e s tr y to c o n t r o l a n d le g is la te it. I n d e e d , a s o n e h i s t o r i a n o b s e r v e d , " S e x u a l b e h a v i o r ( p e r h a p s m o r e t h a n re lig io n ) is t h e m o s t h ig h ly s y m b o l i c a c tiv ity in a n y society. To p e n e t r a t e th e s y m b o l i c s y s t e m i m p l i c i t in a n y s o c i e t y 's s e x u a l b e h a v i o r is t h e r e f o r e to s o m e c l o s e s t to th e h e a r t o f its u n i q u e n e s s ” ( T r u m b a c h , 1 9 7 7 , p. 2 4 ) . I b e lie v e w ith L u i b h é i d ( 2 0 0 2 ) t h a t s e x u a l i t y is a c e n t r a l a x is t h r o u g h w h i c h i m m i ­ g r a t i o n to th e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s b e e n o r g a n i z e d . P e r h a p s t h e s i m ­ p l e s t i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s p o i n t is t h e i m p o r t a n c e p l a c e d by i m m i g r a t i o n l e g is la tio n a n d e n f o r c i n g a u t h o r i t i e s o n i s s u e s o f w o m e n 's s e x u a l i t y s u c h a s p r o s t i t u t i o n , l e s b i a n i s m , a n d p r e g ­ n a n c y — all o f w h i c h h a v e b e e n u s e d a s e x c l u s i o n c r i t e r i a fo r f e m a le i m m i g r a n t s a t o n e p o i n t o r a n o t h e r . I n d e e d , “th e i m m i g r a t i o n a p p a ­ r a t u s h a s b e e n a m a j o r s ite fo r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d r e g u l a t i o n o f i m m i g r a n t w o m e n 's s e x u a l i d e n t i t i e s a n d a c t i v i t i e s ” ( L u i b h é i d , 2 0 0 3 , p. x x v ii). I m m i g r a n t w o m e n 's s e x u a lity a n d g e n d e r - s p e c ific b e h a v io r a r e n o t s ta tic . T h e e s t a b l i s h e d n o r m s for w o m e n ’s a p p r o p r i a t e se x u a l b e h a v ­ io r e x p e r ie n c e c o n s t a n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s in b o t h th e h o m e a n d h o s t c u lt u r e s /s o c ie ti e s . I m m i g r a n t w o m e n a n d g irls d e v e lo p t h e ir id e n tity a g a in s t the b a c k d r o p o f th e s e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . I believe wc n e e d to r e c o n c e p tu a l iz e h o w we view w o m e n i m m i g r a n t s b y e x p a n d i n g o u r u n ­ d e r s t a n d i n g of w h a t m ig r a tio n e n ta ils for w o m e n in th e r e a l m s o f s e x u ­ ality a n d g e n d e r ro le s . T h e s t o r i e s i m m i g r a n t w o m e n tell a b o u t h o w t h e ir m i g r a t io n e x p e r ie n c e s , g e n d e r ro le s , a n d s e x u a lity h av e b e e n i n ­ f lu e n c e d by th e c u lt u r e /s o c ie ty th e y c a m e fro m a n d th e c u ltu r e /s o c ie ty in w h ic h th e y n o w live, a n d b y th e la n g u a g e in w h ic h th e s t o r i e s a r e to ld . L is te n in g to t h o s e s t o r i e s s h e d s light on th e i m p a c t o f m ig r a tio n o n g e n d e r role a n d s e x u a lity

13.

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MY S T U D IE S OF IMM IGRANT W OM EN’S SEXUALITY AND G E N D E R R O L ES A fter s e v e ra l d e c a d e s o f clinical w o r k a n d r e s e a r c h on i m m i g r a n t a n d refugee w o m e n , a few y e a r s ago 1 c o m p l e t e d a s t u d y t h a t s o u g h t to i n ­ c r e a s e k n o w le d g e a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s e x u a lity a n d g e n d e r - r e la te d i s s u e s a m o n g th is p o p u la tio n . Specifically, I w a n t e d to e x p lo r e h o w w o m e n 's se x u a lity a n d g e n d e r r o l e s a r e affected b y m ig r a tio n to a new c o u n try . B e tw e e n 1 9 9 4 a n d 1 9 9 6 I c o lle c te d 3 5 life n a r r a t i v e s o f w o m e n w h o m i g r a te d over a p e r i o d o f 5 8 y e a r s to th e U n ite d S t a t e s f r o m d iff e r e n t p a r t s o f the w o r ld . T h e w o m e n in te rv ie w e d r a n g e d in age fro m e a rly 2 0 s to m i d 7 0 s , a n d th e y w e r e all college e d u c a te d . T h e s e w o m e n w e r e c h o s e n o n th e b a s i s o f th e ir a b ility to a r tic u l a te th e ir e x p e r ie n c e s w ith th e r e s e a r c h to pic , th e ir fluency in E n g lis h , a n d t h e ir k n o w le d g e of t h e i r first la n g u a g e .2 T h e y c a m e fr o m E u r o p e , C a n ­ a d a , L a tin A m e r ic a , A sia, th e In d ia n s u b c o n t i n e n t , a n d th e M id d le E a s t . A n d , c o n t r a r y to th e s te r e o ty p ic a l im a g e o f all i m m i g r a n t w o m e n a s h e t e r o s e x u a l m o t h e r s , 3 0% of th e w o m e n w h o v o lu n te e r e d to b e i n ­ te rv ie w e d w e r e l e s b ia n s . T h e d a t a c o n s i s t o f life s t o r y n a r r a t i v e s e lic ­ ite d t h r o u g h th e u s e of o p e n - e n d e d q u e s t i o n s in i n - d e p t h in te rv ie w s t h a t fo c u s e d on d iffe r e n t a s p e c t s o f th e ir e x p e rie n c e . I n d iv id u a l i n t e r ­ view s (a n d a few fo c u s g r o u p s ) w e r e c o n d u c t e d in se v e r a l cities in the U n ite d S t a t e s (S a n Diego a n d S a n F r a n c is c o , CA; B o s to n ; C h ic a go ; Mi­ a m i; New York; a n d S e a ttle , WA). T h e r e s u l t s of th is s t u d y c o m b i n e d w ith th o s e of two p r e v io u s s t u d i e s a p p e a r e d in m y b o o k e n title d W om e n Crossing Boundaries: A Psychology a n d Im m igratio n a n d T r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f S e x u a l i t y ( E s p in , 19 9 9 ). T h e two p r e v io u s s t u d ­ ies fo c u s e d on a d o le s c e n t e x p e rie n c e s of m ig ra tio n a n d on m o t h e r - d a u g h t e r s e p a r a t i o n t h r o u g h m i g r a ti o n , respectively. T h e s e s t u d i e s a ls o u s e d life n a r r a t i v e s a s th e ir s o u r c e o f d a ta . T h e m i g r a t io n n a r r a t i v e s o f th e in te rv ie w e e s a r e i n t e r tw in e d w ith t h e ir tellin g a b o u t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e ir s e x u a litie s , th e ir r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d th e ir id e n titie s . T h e i r s t o r i e s a r e th e p r o d u c t of u n i q u e p e r s o n a l a n d c u l ­ t u r a l c o n te x ts d is lo c a t e d by m i g r a tio n . T h e e v e n ts s u r r o u n d i n g m i g r a ­ tio n a n d its p r é c i p i t a n t s a r e c e n t r a l to th e s e w o m e n ’s lives. T h u s , th e ir s t o r i e s a r e b o t h p r o t o t y p e s a n d in d iv id u a l tales. T o g e th e r th e s e n a r r a ­ tives c h a lle n g e c o m m o n s t e r e o t y p e s a b o u t i m m i g r a n t w o m e n . W h a t I p r e s e n t h e r e a r e s o m e o f th e m a i n r e s u l t s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s fro m th e s e s t u d i e s . In th e i n te rv ie w s , c h o ic e o f la n g u a g e to d i s c u s s i s s u e s of s e x u ­ ality e m e r g e d a s o n e of the i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t s of th e s u b je c tiv e e x­ 2

This may raise the objection that these women arc not "typical" Immigrants. There is a comm on misconception that all immigrants are poor, uneducated, and unable to c om ­ municate in English. The reality is that immigrants to the United Stales, particularly af­ ter 1965, come from all social classes in their countries of origin and adapt to their new environment in a variety of ways, including becoming succcssful and well educated.

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p e r ie n c e . G iven th e ir r e s p o n s e s , I f o u n d m y s e lf fo c u s in g p a r t i c u l a r l y o n th e ro le of la n g u a g e in s h a p i n g a n d e x p r e s s i n g the e x p e r i e n c e s of i m m i g r a n t w o m e n c o n c e r n i n g se xuality, g e n d e r r o le s , a n d identity. N a r r a t i v e s o f g e n d e r a n d se x u a lity , like all s t o r i e s lived a n d to ld by p e o p le , a r e i n f lu e n c e d by w h a t is c u l t u r a l l y a c c e p t a b l e . A c c e p ta b le a c c o u n t s o f b e h a v i o r a r e r e g u l a t e d b y society. I n d i v i d u a l d e s i r e a n d s o c i e ta l p o s s i b i l i t i e s b o t h p u s h t h e li m i t s a n d c o n s t r a i n th e b o u n d ­ a r i e s o f t h e lived story. W h e n s o c ie t a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o c c u r, th e lived s t o r y a n d th e a c c e p t a b l e a c c o u n t s o f t h a t s t o r y a r e a ls o t r a n s f o r m e d . I m m i g r a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s o n e o f th e m o s t p o w e r f u l t r a n s f o r m a t i v e p r o c e s s e s in a given p e r s o n ’s life. S ure ly , w e a g r e e t h a t c u l t u r e a n d h i s t o r i c a l e v e n ts a r e p o w e r f u l f o r c e s in h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t . W h a t, th e n , h a p p e n s to th e i n d i v i d u a l life, s e n s e o f self, a n d life s t o r y w h e n th e c u l t u r a l n a r r a t i v e c h a n g e s a b r u p t l y a s w ith m i g r a t i o n ? A lth o u g h “th e s t o r y a b o u t life is o p e n to e d it in g a n d r e v isio n " ( P o l k in g h o r n c , 1 9 8 8 , p. 1 5 4), s o m e e d itin g a n d r e v is i o n m a y r e q u i r e m o r e w o r k t h a n o t h e r s . “R e - w r itin g o n e ’s s t o r y in v o lv e s m a j o r life c h a n g e s ” ( P o l k i n g h o r n e , 1 9 8 8 , p. 182). W h a t h a p p e n s w h e n e v e n t s t h a t a r e n o t “p e r s o n a l e v e n ts " in th e u s u a l w a y “in v a d e " t h e life s t o r y ? E v e n t s t h a t h a p p e n “o u t th e r e " in th e w o r l d a r e n o t o n ly "so cia l" b u t a ls o " p s y c h o ­ logical." T h e s e e v e n ts t r a n s f o r m th e “p lo ts " p r o v i d e d by th e c u l t u r e a n d t h e s o c ia l c o n te x t, e i t h e r b e c a u s e th e c u l t u r e i ts e l f is t r a n s ­ f o r m e d , o r b e c a u s e th e i n d i v i d u a l f in d s h e r s e l f in a n e w c u l t u r a l c o n ­ tex t t h a t a llo w s a d if f e r e n t k i n d of sto ry . S o m e c l a s s ic a l s t u d i e s o f life h i s t o r y h a v e t h e i r s o u r c e in t h e s e c a t a c l y s m s (e.g., T h o m a s & Z n an ieck i, 1 9 1 8 -1 9 2 0 /1 9 2 7 ). T h r o u g h th e c o lle c te d n a r r a t i v e s , I e x p lo r e d h o w q u e s t i o n s o f c u l ­ t u r a l id e n tity a n d s e x u a l id e n tity a r e n e g o tia te d by i m m i g r a n t a n d r e f ­ ugee w o m e n . I tr ie d to u n d e r s t a n d h o w th e s t o r i e s w o m e n i m m i g r a n t s tell a b o u t t h e m s e lv e s a n d a r e b o t h m a d e p o s s i b l e a n d c o n s t r a i n e d by s o c ia l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f re a lity a n d by th e la n g u a g e in w h ic h th e s t o r i e s a r e to ld . I w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y in t e r e s t e d in th e v ic is s itu d e s of g e n d e r a n d s e x u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n a s th e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s c r e a te d by m ig r a tio n , d e v e lo p e d in t h e s e w o m e n ’s lives. A lm o s t all of th e in te rv ie w e e s in m y s t u d i e s actively a t t r i b u t e d th e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s in th e ir g e n d e r ro le s a n d s e x u a lity to th e ir m i g r a tio n . N ot all o f t h e m w e r e fully c o m f o r ta b l e w ith th e ir s e x u a lity o r g e n d e r r o le s , b u t th e n , s e x is n o t u n p r o b l e m a t i c for m o s t w o m e n . Sex a n d s e x ­ u a lity c a n b e a s o u r c e o f fear, p a in , a n d e m b a r r a s s m e n t , a n d they c a n a lso b e a s o u r c e of h a p p i n e s s , p l e a s u r e , a n d fu lfillm e nt. In th is, th e i n ­ te rv ie w e e s a r e n o e x c e p tio n . In a n y c a s e , th e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s in th e ir g e n d e r r o le s a n d s e x u a lity d id n o t o c c u r i n d e p e n d e n t l y fro m o t h e r id e n tity t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , b u t r a t h e r w e r e p a r t of a p r o c e s s c h a r a c t e r ­ ized by a m o v e to w a r d g r e a t e r a u t o n o m y in all a r e a s o f th e ir lives. B e ­ c a u s e th e w o m e n in te r v ie w e d h a d e x p e r i e n c e d d r a m a t i c t r a n s ­ f o r m a t i o n s in t h e ir lives, th e e v id e n c e for a so c ia l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s e x u ­ ality a n d g e n d e r r o le s p r o v id e d b y th e ir life n a r r a t i v e s b e c o m e s even

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m o r e p o ig n a n t. L isten in g to th e se w o m e n ’s sto rie s, the p o w e r of this social c o n s tr u c tio n m a n if e s ts in: (a) th e ir struggle to e ith e r m a in ta in or reflect the v a lu e s of the im m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t i e s c o n c e r n in g w o m e n 's se xuality— m e a n in g b o th v alues b r o u g h t from the h o m e c o u n try a n d values of th e ir identified c o m m u n ity th a t d evelo ped d u r ­ ing the m ig ra tio n p r o c e s s ; (b) the in te rn a liz e d d e s ir e s of the w o m e n th e m se lv e s, w hich have o rig in a te d b o th in the h o m e a n d h o s t c u ltu re s; a n d (c) the "uses" b o th the w o m a n h e r s e lf a n d h e r c o m m u n ity m a k e of female sexuality in the p r o c e s s of e sta b lis h in g id e n titie s d ifferent from th e h o s t society, or, conversely, to signal a s sim ila tio n .

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LANGUAGE In the in the c o u rs e of the interview s, it b e c a m e e v id e n t th a t language c h a n g e s w ere c e n tra l to the t r a n s f o r m a tio n of identity a n d the e x p r e s ­ sio n of sexuality in the interview ees. Ind eed , la n gu age— the forced le a rn in g of the new a n d the lo ss of the old linguistic c o m m u n ity —is c e n tra l to the m ig ra tio n ex perience. In fact, language c ha n ge is one of the m o s t difficult p r o b le m s the i m m ig r a n t faces—a n d I am n o t r e f e r ­ ring to is s u e s of vocabulary, g r a m m a r o r p ro n u n c ia tio n . L anguage lo ss a n d its c o n c o m ita n t s e n s e of iden tity lo ss a n d t r a n s ­ fo rm a tio n a r e one of the m o s t p o w erfu l c o m p o n e n ts of the i m m ig r a n t exp erience. In h e r a u to b io g r a p h ic a l a c c o u n t of m ig ra tio n , L o s t in T r a n s l a t i o n , w rite r Eva H offm an (1989) vividly d e s c r ib e d th e in te n sity of th is ex p e rie n c e for im m ig r a n ts : L in guistic d i s p o s s e s s i o n is ... close to the d is p o s s e s s i o n of o n e ’s s e l f __ [T he re is feeling that] th is lan g u a g e is b e g in n in g to in v e n t a n o t h e r m e .... lAnd 1 th e r e is. o f c o u r s e , the c o n s t r a i n t a n d the s e l f - c o n s c io u s n e s s of an a c c e n t t h a t I h e a r b u t c a n n o t co n tr o l, (p. 121)

B eyon d allow ing th e im m i g r a n t s to fu n c tio n in th e new co n te x t, a new lan g u a g e h a s p r o f o u n d i m p a c t on th e ir s e n s e of se lf a n d identity, a s H o ffm a n ’s s t a t e m e n t s illu s tra te . T h e im m i g r a n t l e a r n s "to live in two la n g u a g e s ”; sim ilarly, sh e l e a r n s to live in two so c ia l w o rld s . L e a r n in g to “live” in a ne w la n g u a g e is n o t m e r e ly a n i n s t r u m e n t a l p r o c e s s . It is n o t a n e u t r a l act. It im p lie s b e c o m i n g i m m e r s e d in the p o w e r r e la tio n s of th e specific c u l tu r e t h a t s p e a k s the specific l a n ­ guage. Paradoxically, le a r n in g the la n g u a g e of the h o s t society im p lie s le a r n in g o n e ’s p lace in the s t r u c t u r e s of s o c ia l inequality. To s p e a k w ith a foreign a c c e n t p la c e s o n e in a le s s privileged p o s itio n w ith in th o s e p o w e r r e la tio n s . E ven s u p p o s i n g t h a t the i m m i g r a n t is in a c o u n t r y w h e re h is [sicJ own lan gu ag e is s p o k e n (a ltho ug h it c an n ev er be the ex act s a m e language), h i s s p e e c h a c t will ta k e p lace at a p a r t i c u l a r m o m e n t of tim e a n d in a d i s ­ tinctive s e t of c i r c u m s t a n c e s d if fe re n t from th o s e he h a s k n o w n . ( G rin b e rg & G rin b e r g , 1984, p. 100)

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"One of the p r i m a r y pla c e s w h e re is s u e s of n a tio n a l c u ltu re a n d family c o h e re n c e c o m e to geth er is the q u e s tio n of la n g u a g e ” (B am m er, 1994, p. 96). T h is iss u e b e c o m e s f u r t h e r c o m p lic a te d w h e n different g e n e r a tio n s w ithin a family have different levels of p roficiency in the different la ng ua g es s p o k e n . While the first language o r m o th e r tongue m a y be ta k e n to m e a n the native language of the m o th e r, in the case of im m i g r a n ts o r refugees, c h ild r e n m a y be m o r e fluent in the language of the h o s t c u ltu re , w hich is really th e ir first language, r a t h e r th a n the lang uag e th e ir m o t h e r s s p e a k b e s t (B a m m e r, 1994). In o th e r w o rd s: L an gu age c a n p lay a c o m p le x role, b o th b i n d i n g a n d d ividin g family m e m b e r s . For n o t only do p a r e n t s a n d c h il d r e n often e n d u p with differ­ e n t native la n g u ag e s, th e ir d iffe re n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s to th e s e la n g u a g e s can have n o ta b le so cial c o n s e q u e n c e s . (B a m m e r, 1 99 4 , p. 100)

E v e ry la n g u a g e is lin k e d to a c u lt u r e . E v e ry l a n g u a g e d e p e n d s on th e c o n c r e te c o n te x t t h a t p r o v id e s it with its m e a n i n g a n d its b o u n d ­ a r ie s . “L a n g u a g e d e t e r m i n e s o n e 's k n o w le d g e of th e w o r ld , of o t h ­ e r s , a n d of o n e se lf. It p r o v id e s a b a s i s of s u p p o r t for o n e ’s iden tity" ( G r in b e r g & G r i n b e r g , 1 9 8 4 , p. 109). To s o m e e x te n t, o u r la n g u a g e a n d o u r w ay o f life a r e o n e a n d th e s a m e . W h e n p a r e n t s a n d c h i l d r e n a r e f lu e n t in d if f e r e n t la n g u a g e s , th e y may, in fact, be g u id e d by d if­ ferent c u ltu ral codes. L a ng uag e— the p a r e n t s ’ lack of fluency in the new language a n d the c h ild r e n ’s lack of fluency in the “m o th e r - to n g u e ”—s u b v e r ts a u th o rity in the family. T h e p o w e r of c h ild re n is i n c r e a s e d b c c a u s c they b c c o m c “c u ltu r a l b r o k e r s ," w h e re a s the p o w e r of p a r e n t s is d e c r e a s e d b e c a u s e they d e p e n d on th e ir c h ild re n 's a s s is ta n c e to survive in the new w orld. T he in o r d in a te a m o u n t of p o w e r c h ild r e n m a y a c q u ir e b e c a u s e of their language proficiency can be a t th e s o u r c e of conflicts over a u th o r ity is ­ s u e s. It also m ag nifies c h ild r e n ’s c o n s c io u s or u n c o n s c io u s fears th a t their p a r e n t s a re now u n a b le to p r o te c t th e m as they u se d to. An im m ig ra n t’s re s ista n c e to language learn in g m ay be an e xp ression of a desire for self-preservation. E n te rin g the w orld of a new language m ay p o se a th r e a t for the in d iv id u a l’s se n s e of identity. Individu als w ho learn the new language a t a fast pace m ay have less of a sta k e in p r e s e r v ­ ing a n o th e r identity. T h is m ay be why the young le a rn faster. Conversely, le a r n in g a new language p ro v id e s th e im m i g r a n t with the o p p o r tu n ity to “c re a te a new self." T h is facilitates w o rk in g t h ro u g h early in tr a p s y c h ic conflicts, a n d find in g new w ays of self-e x p ressio n th a t m a y n o t have be e n available in the w o rld of the first language. P eople w h o l e a r n to u s e two la n g u a g e s h av e two s y m b o ls for every object. T h u s , from a n early age they b e c o m e e m a n c i p a t e d from linguistic s y m ­ b o l s — from the c o n c r e t e n e s s , a r b i t r a r i n e s s , a n d “t y r a n n y ” o f w o r d s — d e ­ ve loping an alytic abilities ... to t h i n k in t e r m s m o r e ... i n d e p e n d e n t of the a c tu a l w o rd .... By c o n tr a s t, m o n o l in g u a l m a y be at a d is a d v a n ta g e . (P ortes & R u m b a u t , 1 99 6, p p . 2 0 0 - 2 0 1 )

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LANGUAGE AND SEXUALITY IN THE INTERVIEWS T h e in terv iew ees’ d e s c r ip tio n s of th e ir re la tio n to th e ir la n gua g e s a n d to E nglish illu s tra te s o m e of the tw ists a n d c o m p lic a tio n s c re a te d by the m u ltilin g u a l ex perience. T he first language often r e m a i n s the l a n ­ guage of e m o tio n s , even a m o n g im m ig r a n t s w ho m a y be fluent in E n g ­ lish. T h e topic of sexuality is a n e m o tio n a l one for m o s t of u s. For w o m e n , p a r tic u la r ly i m m ig r a n t w o m e n , th e s u b je c t is a d d itio n a lly c h a rg e d with the m a n y c o n te x tu a l layers w ithin w hich it d evelops. B e­ c a u se m o s t of w h a t we k n o w a b o u t p e o p le ’s in n e r feelings c o m e s to u s t h r o u g h language, the langu ag e c h o se n to d i s c u s s i m p o r t a n t e m o ­ tio nal i s s u e s s u c h a s se xuality a n d r e la tio n s h ip s m a y d e te r m in e the ac cessibility a n d a w a r e n e s s of e m o tio n a l c o nten t. M o st of the w o m e n in te rv ie w e d r e s o r t e d to E n g lish w h e n d e s c r i b ­ ing th e ir se x u a lity — b o th d u r i n g the interview a n d in o t h e r c o n te x ts w h e r e the to p ic w a s d i s c u s s e d . T h is p a t t e r n w a s p r e s e n t e q u a lly for w o m e n c o m in g fro m “tr a d itio n a l" a n d “m o d e r n " so c ie ties. However, s o m e r e s p o n d e n t s p r e f e r r e d th e ir first la n g u a g e in th e ir se x u a l i n t e r ­ a c tio n s . T h e y fo u n d w o r d s in th e i r f irst la n g u a g e m o r e sexu ally a r o u s in g . As one of th e m s ta t e d , it s e e m e d difficult, if n o t im p o s s ib l e , to " m a k e love in E n g li s h .” In s o m e i n s t a n c e s , th e u s e of E n g lis h , r a t h e r th a n th e m o t h e r to n g u e , m a y a c t a s a b a r r i e r o r r e s i s t a n c e in d e a lin g w ith c e r ta in c o m p o n e n t s of th e p s y c h e . C onv ersely , th e s e c o n d la n g u a g e c a n a c t to fa cilita te th e e m e r g e n c e a n d d i s c u s s i o n of c e r ta in to p ic s . T h e s e to p ic s m a y b e ta b o o in th e n a tiv e la n g u a g e . G o n z a le z - R e ig o s a ( 1 9 7 6 ) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t ta b o o w o r d s in th e la n g u a g e of o rig in elicit m a x i ­ m u m anxiety. T h e y c a u s e m o r e a n g s t t h a n e i th e r ta b o o w o r d s in the s e c o n d l a n g u a g e o r in d if f e r e n t w o r d s in th e f ir s t la n g u a g e . W o rd s t h a t r e la te to s e x u a lity easily q ualify a s e m o t io n a lly c h a r g e d ta b o o w o r d s . T h u s , s p e a k i n g in a s e c o n d la n g u a g e m a y “d i s t a n c e ” th e i m ­ m i g r a n t w o m a n fr o m i m p o r t a n t p a r t s of h e r s e lf . Yet a s e c o n d l a n ­ gu a ge m a y p r o v id e a ve h ic le to e x p r e s s th e i n e x p r e s s i b l e in th e f irs t la n g u a g e — e i th e r b e c a u s e th e f ir s t la n g u a g e d o e s n o t hav e th e v o c a b ­ ulary, o r b e c a u s e th e p e r s o n c e n s o r s h e r s e l f fro m s a y in g c e r ta i n t a ­ b o o t h in g s in th e f ir s t la n g u a g e . T u r k is h -D a n is h s c h o la r M e h m e t Necef (1 994 ) c o n te n d e d t h a t the iss u e is one of c la s h e s in v alu es m o r e th a n language. If the w o r d s le a r n e d to d i s c u s s sexuality in the first language a re “d ir ty ” w o rd s , th e n the native s p e a k e r of th a t language m a y b e a t a lo ss to d e sc rib e positive e x p e rie n c es. S o m e tim e s a s o ciety /cultu re la c k s the language to d e s c r ib e an ex perien ce. It m a y have n o t dev elop ed the v o c a b u la ry th a t w ou ld validate t h a t exp erience. T he s e c o n d language, th e n , m ay b e c o m e h elpful a s it p ro v id e s an a c c e p ta b le v o c a b u la ry to talk a b o u t th e s e iss u e s. In s h o r t, w h e n a good ex p e rien c e h a s no n a m e in one la n ­ guage, th e b ilingual p e r s o n h a s the o p tio n of r e s o r tin g to th e o th e r la n ­ guage. T h e s e two is s u e s m ay be in te rtw in e d b e c a u s e — a lth o u g h this is

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n o t a lin e a r r e la tio n s h ip — the a b se n c e a n d /o r p r e s e n c e of te r m s in any language is often suggestive of c u ltu ra l values. C u ltu r e s th a t have fairly co nservative views of fem ale sexuality a n d agency fre q u e n tly m a k e it difficult to s p e a k a b o u t th e se i s s u e s (E sp in , 1984, 1987: Necef. 1994). If one c o m e s from s u c h a c u ltu re , E n g lish p ro v id e s a vehicle for d i s ­ c u s s in g sex u a l is s u e s th a t m a y be too difficult o r e m b a r r a s s i n g to d i s ­ c u s s w ith e ith e r n o n e x i s t e n t o r f o r b id d e n w o r d s in o n e ’s f irst language. Interestingly, so m e of the interview ees, w h o c a m e from c u l­ t u r e s they defined a s "m o re lib e ra l” th a n m a in s tr e a m A m eric a n c u l­ tu re , still p r e f e r r e d to u s e E n g lish in d is c u s s io n of sexuality. For ex a m p le , M arg uerite, Hilde, a n d U rsu la , im m i g r a n ts from A ustria, G erm any , a n d S w itz e rla n d , respectively, after the co m p le tio n of in te r ­ views c o n d u c te d in E ng lish, s ta te d th a t a lth o u g h they believed m o s t A m e r ic a n s w ere very “p u r ita n i c a l” a b o u t sexuality a n d a lth o u g h they h a d a la rg e r v o c a b u la ry in their first language, it w a s e a s ie r for th e m to talk a b o u t th ese top ics in E nglish. Feelings of s h a m e , they r e p o r te d , w o uld have p r e v e n te d th e m from a d d r e s s i n g th e se to pics in d e p th h a d they u s e d th e ir first language. Clearly, the in te rv ie w s re v e ale d ho w th e a c c e s s to m o r e t h a n one lan gu ag e p u s h e s a t the b o u n d a r i e s of w h a t is “s a y a b l e ” o r “tellable." In te rv ie w e es s t a te d r e p e a te d ly t h a t the s e c o n d la n g u a g e facilitates e a s e of c o m m u n i c a t i o n w h e n th e to p ic d i s c u s s e d is sexuality. S o m e p a r t i c i p a n t s s a id t h a t th e y d id n o t k n o w or w e re u n f a m ilia r w ith vo­ c a b u la r y a b o u t s e x u ality in th e ir native la ng uage. T h e s e w o m e n h a d m ig r a te d a t a n e a rlie r age, u s u a lly b efo re o r d u r i n g e a rly a d o le s c e n c e . T h e y h a d d e v e lo p e d th e ir k n o w le d g e of sex w hile i m m e r s e d in E n g ­ lish. T h ey u s e d E n g lish m o r e c o n s is te n tly in o th e r s p h e r e s of life a s well a n d felt m o r e c o m f o r ta b le w ith it. T h e r e fo re , they f o u n d it i n c o n ­ ceivable to u s e t h e ir f irs t la n g u a g e to ta lk a b o u t a d u l t in te r a c tio n s , i n ­ c lu d in g se x a n d sexuality. In m y th e r a p e u tic p ra c tic e , I o b se rv e d t h a t th e p re fe re n c e for E n g ­ lish w a s p a rtic u la r ly significant for bilingual le sb ia n s. T hey d e s c r ib e d th eir life s itu a tio n a n d c h oices m o s t fre qu en tly in E n glish. T h e y te n d e d to avoid e q u iv a le n t w o r d s in th e ir native tongue. T h e d e s c r ip tio n of h e r re la tio n s h ip to h e r first language p ro v id e d by L o re n a (one of th e in te r ­ viewees) vividly illu s tr a te s th is point. L o r e n a is a P u e rto R ic a n -b o rn n u r s e w ho im m ig r a te d to the U.S. m a in l a n d at age 3 0, a n d h a s b e e n o u t a s a le sb ia n for a lm o s t 20 y ears. W hen L o re n a w a s grow ing u p , s h e h a d to c o n f r o n t the re a litie s of w o m e n 's lives a n d the idea of m a rr ia g e . S h e fo u n d it h a r d to im agine h e rs e lf a m a r r i e d w o m a n , b u t h a d n o t im a g in e d the p o ssibility of le s b i­ a n is m . D u rin g h e r college y e a rs, L o re n a h a d m a le frie n d s b u t never im ag in e d h e r s e lf a s a wife o r a m othe r. H er sex fa n ta sie s th e n , however, w ere all a b o u t m e n . A g e n e ra l s e n s e of d issa tisfa c tio n with h e r everyday life in P u e rto Rico p r o m p t e d h e r e m ig ra tio n to th e m a in l a n d . Like all P u e rto R icans, sh e w a s a n A m e ric a n citizen; no m a jo r legal p r e p a r a t i o n s w e re r e ­

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q u i r e d . S h e h o p e d t h a t a c h a n g e in th e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d a u t o n o m y f r o m h e r fam ily w o u ld e n e rg iz e h e r life. Little d id s h e k n o w w h a t th is c h a n g e w o u ld e n ta il. S h o r tly a fte r h e r a r r iv a l in th e U n ite d S t a t e s m a i n l a n d , L o r e n a m e t a lo n g -tim e l e s b i a n a n d fell in love w ith her. A q u ic k t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o c c u r r e d . In h e r w o r d s , “It w a s a s if th e p ie c e s o f th e p u z z le h a d n o w all s u d d e n l y fit in p l a c e .” S h e h a s n e v e r r e t u r n e d to P u e r t o Rico s in c e th e n e x c e p t for b r i e f visits. S h e s p e a k s w ith s o m e d e g re e o f c o m f o r t a b o u t h e r s e x u a l o r i e n t a ­ tio n , in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d in E n g l i s h . S h e is far le s s c o m f o r ta b le s p e a k i n g o f it in S p a n i s h o r in P u e r to Rico. S h e a t t r i b u t e s th is to th e p l e t h o r a o f “d ir ty w o r d s " in S p a n i s h t h a t d e s c r i b e le s b i a n s a n d a lso to h e r fam ily's p r e s e n c e in P u e r to Rico. I c a n b e o u t in E n g li s h b u t n o t in S p a n i s h . W h e n th e p l a n e l a n d s in P u e r t o R ico it is a s if I “s h u t d o w n " a n d d o n o t b e c o m e le s b i a n a g a in u n ti l I c o m e b a c k to th e U.S. It t o o k m e f o r e v e r to sa y c e r t a i n w o r d s in E n g li s h . It is still i m p o s s i b l e for m e to s a y th o s e w o r d s in S p a n i s h . I c a n n o w find p r i d e in s a y i n g s o m e w o r d s in E n g li s h , b u t I still feel on ly s h a m e s a y in g t h o s e w o r d s in S p a n i s h . I w o u ld o n ly u s e t h o s e w o r d s w h e n a b s o l u te l y n e c e s s a r y to ta lk to L a ti n a l e s b i a n s , n o t o n m y o w n .... It is n o t t h a t I t h i n k t h a t E n g l i s h is “lib e ra tin g " o r t h a t p e o p l e a r e so "fre e ” in th i s c o u n ­ try. It is j u s t t h a t E n g li s h is m u c h l e s s c h a r g e d for m e , n o t on ly a b o u t s e x ­ u a lity b u t a b o u t p r a c t ic a l ly a n y t h i n g e m o t io n a l .

W h e n I a s k e d a b o u t th e la n g u a g e s h e p r e f e r r e d w hile m a k i n g love, s h e s a i d s h e u s e s b o t h la n g u a g e s b u t t h a t E n g lis h “c o m e s e a s i e r ” b e ­ c a u s e s h e d is c o v e r e d h e r “le s b ia n self" in E n g lis h . S h e is flu e n tly b i l i n ­ g u a l b u t b eliev es t h a t s o m e p a r t s o f h e r e m o t i o n a l s e lf a r e m o r e “in E n g lis h ” w h ile o t h e r s a r e m o r e “in S p a n i s h . ” S h e e q u a t e s h e r l e s b i a n i s m to a n o t h e r fo rm o f b i c u l t u r a l i s m : “You a r e a lw a y s o n th e m a r g i n s . B e in g gay o r le s b ia n is living in a d iffe re n t s u b c u l t u r e . B e in g a L a tin a i m m i g r a n t is like t h a t to o .” D e s p ite h e r s e n s e o f m a rg in a lity , s h e b e lie v e s h e r c o m in g o u t w a s e a s e d b y b e in g in the U n ite d S l a t e s m a i n l a n d . A n o t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g p e r s p e c t i v e w a s p r o v i d e d by Ayla, a n i m m i ­ g r a n t f r o m T u rk e y . Ayla f o u n d t h a t in th e U n i t e d S t a t e s , “It is i m p e r ­ ativ e to t a l k a b o u t s e x a n d s e x u a l i t y if y o u w a n t to m a k e f r i e n d s . ” A lt h o u g h Ayla m a t u r e d s e x u a l ly in T u r k e y a n d c o u l d s p e a k in T u r k ­ is h a b o u t se x , s h e p r e f e r s to t a l k a b o u t it in E n g l i s h . E v e n w ith h e r T u r k i s h w o m e n f r i e n d s , it is e a s i e r to s p e a k in E n g l i s h a b o u t s e x u a l ­ ity. P e r h a p s t h i s is b e c a u s e “o n e h a s m o r e p r a c t i c e a n d le s s p r o h i b i ­ tio n t a l k i n g a b o u t t h i s in E n g l i s h . ” To s u m m a r i z e , m a n y in tr ig u in g q u e s t i o n s a r e r a i s e d by th e s e d a t a on th e u s e s o f la n g u a g e . F irs t, is th e im m i g r a n t w o m a n 's p r e f e r e n c e for E n g lis h w h e n d i s c u s s i n g s e x u a lity m o tiv a te d b y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f E n g lis h a s a la n g u a g e (i.e., d o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a specific s e c o n d l a n ­ gu ag e offer a vehicle fo r e x p r e s s i o n th a t is u n a v a ila b le in th e fir s t l a n ­ gu a g e )? O r d o e s a s e c o n d la n g u a g e (no m a t t e r w h ic h o ne) offer the

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degree of e m o tio n a l d is ta n c e n e e d e d to e x p r e s s ta b o o s u b je c ts ? If the later w ere tru e , then p eople w h o se s e c o n d language is n o t E nglish w o u ld find it e a s ie r to d is c u s s sexuality in th eir s e c o n d language. B e­ c a u se E ng lish w a s the s e c o n d o r th ir d language for all interview ees (with only one exception), it w a s im p o s s ib le to a s s e s s th is possibility. S e c o n d , d o e s the new c u ltu ra l c o nte xt—w h e re E n glish is s p o k e n — a l­ low m o r e e x p r e s s io n of the w o m e n ’s feelings? To m a n y i m m ig r a n ts , A m e ric a n society s e e m s m o r e sexually p e rm issiv e behav io rally a n d verbally th a n th e ir society of origin. P e r h a p s the p r e s u m e d p e r m is s i v e ­ n e s s of A m e ric a n society e n c o u r a g e s a n d facilitates the e x p r e s s io n of th e s e to p ic s in E nglish. T h is m a y be tr u e for w o m e n w ho im m ig ra te d from tra d itio n a l societies. Yet it d o e s n o t explain the p r e fe re n c e for E n g lish a m o n g th o se w o m e n w ho m ig ra te d from m o r e “p r o g r e s s iv e ” societies. A th ir d possib ility m a y be p a r tic u la r ly re le v a n t for th o s e w ho m ig ra te d a s c h ild re n o r a d o le s c e n ts . B c c a u sc they “c a m e of age s e x u ­ ally" in E ng lish , its e x p r e s s io n m a y b e c o m e inextricab ly a sso c ia te d with the language. T h is sc e n a rio w o uld m a k e th e ir p r e fe re n c e for E nglish d e p e n d e n t on th eir lea rn in g context, r a t h e r th a n on e m o tio n a l facto rs, c u ltu r a l b a c k g r o u n d , or th e c h a r a c te r is ti c s of e ith e r language.

LANGUAGE AND INTERCULTURAL MARRIAGES Many of the w o m e n in terview ed w ere in in te r r a c ia l o r in te r c u ltu r a l r e ­ la tio n s h ip s or m a r r ia g e s . If, a s it a p p e a r s to be t ru e from the r e s u lts of my study, p e o p le w h o s p e a k m o r e t h a n one langu age are ab le to defend from a n d w ith h o ld th e e x p r e s s io n of d e ep e m o tio n by sw itc h in g b e ­ tw een langu ag es, w h a t h a p p e n s for w o m e n in in tim a te re la tio n s h ip s with in d iv id u a ls w ho do n o t s p e a k th e ir first la n g u a g e s? Do these w o m e n b e c o m e truly in tim a te in th e s e r e la tio n s h i p s ? Are the se r e la ­ tio n s h ip s a m a n ife s ta tio n of h e a lth y p e r s o n a l tr a n s f o r m a t io n s o r are they a form of e sc a p in g in tim a c y a n d v u ln era bility? Is it p o ssib le th a t a d e e p a n d significant r e la tio n s h ip m a y develop d e sp ite th e se b a r r i e r s ? R e g a rd le ss of th e d e e p d e s ir e s to c o n n e c t with th e ir p a r t n e r s they m a y have, a re they able to do s o ? O r a r e th e sp lits in identity c r e a te d by l a n ­ guage differences an i m p e d i m e n t to th e s u c c e s s of th e s e r e la tio n s h ip s ? P e r h a p s , p a r tic u la r ly c o n c e r n in g sexuality, n o n v e r b a l c o m m u n ic a tio n c re a te s the b rid g e to o v e rc o m e the lang uag e divide. But, in an y case, th is is an u n a n s w e r e d q u e s tio n in m y study.

MIGRATION: L O SS AND GAIN T h e lo s s involved in m ig r a tio n w a s a d d r e s s e d r e p e a te d ly by m o s t of th e w o m e n in te rv ie w e d . S im u lta n e o u s ly , they c o u n t e r e d forcefully the p e r c e p ti o n o f l o s s c s w ith the a r g u m e n t th a t the e x p e rie n c e of m i ­ g ra tio n h a d e n r ic h e d th e m , given th e m c h o ic e s, o p tio n s , a n d fluency in a r e p e r t o i r e of la n g u a g e s, m o d e s of th o u g h t, a n d so c ia l n e t w o r k s .

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T h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s in w o rk , e d u c a tio n , a n d r o u t i n e s of life p r o v id e d by the m ig r a tio n h a d a sp e c ia l sig nifican ce for th e s e w o m e n . R e g a r d ­ le ss o f d iffe re n c e s in th e ir c o u n t r i e s of b i r t h c o n c e r n in g the r o le s of w o m e n , they all b e n e fite d fro m the lib e r a tin g effect of b e in g “o u t s i d ­ ers" in th e h o s t c u ltu r e of th e U n ite d S ta te s . A q u o te from M a rg u e rite ill u s t r a te s th is p oint: I'm n o t s u r e if it is b ein g in A m erica o r j u s t b ein g a d is ta n c e from m y c o u n ­ try b u t I feel I a m bein g affcctcd by th is a t m o s p h e r e t h a t gives m e the free­ d o m to experience myself. B u t I definitely feel th a t s o m e th i n g is changing; the cha ng e is in g eneral b u t also a b o u t sexuality. And it is very i m p o r t a n t for m e th a t it is a b o u t sexuality b e c a u s e I felt so o p p r e s s e d there.

N e v erth eless, m ig ra tio n also c a r r ie s with it the po ssib ility of lim it­ ing w o m e n 's priv a te s p h e r e s of influence a n d their m o r a l a u th o rity w ithin tra d itio n a l c u ltu ra l c ontexts. T r a d itio n a l p a t r i a r c h a l con te x ts have alw ays p r o v id e d th e o p p o rt u n ity to carve s e p a r a t e —if infe­ r io r — s p a c e s for w o m e n . T he c u ltu ra l tr a n s f o r m a t i o n s b r o u g h t a b o u t by m ig ra tio n u p s e t th e se s p a c e s w ith o u t yet giving w o m e n full a c c e s s to eq u a l p o w e r in the p u b lic s p h e r e . For i m m ig r a n t d a u g h te r s , it m a y b e c o m e difficult to invest th e ir m o t h e r s with positive im ag es a n d c h a r ­ a c t e r is tic s w h e n m i g r a ti o n h a s lim ite d the m o t h e r s ’ s p h e r e of influence even further.

MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE A n o th e r sig n ific a n t fa c to r p r e s e n t in the e x p e rie n c e of th e in te rv ie w ­ ees w a s the life stage/age a t the tim e of m ig r a tio n . T h is c o n n e c tio n b e ­ tw een age a n d the im p a c t of a life event is a l m o s t self-evident. It c o n f i r m s p sy c h o lo g is t Abigail S t e w a r t’s (1 9 9 4 ) a s s u m p t i o n t h a t “one i m p o r t a n t fa c to r in th e a t t a c h m e n t of in d iv id u a l m e a n in g to social e v e n ts is a n in d iv id u a l’s age, b e c a u s e of th e c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n age a n d stag e of psyc h o lo g ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t” (p. 2 3 1 ). T h e w o m e n w h o h a d m ig r a te d a s c h ild r e n s e e m e d to have a d a p t e d m o r e r a p id ly a n d easily. However, c h ild r e n w h o s e lives have b e e n affected by m a jo r s o ­ cial h is to r ic a l e v e n ts m a y be affected in th e ir b r o a d v a lu e s a n d e x p e c ­ t a tio n s a b o u t the w o r ld at a d e e p e r p sy c h o lo g ic a l level. “C h i l d r e n ’s e x p e r ie n c e s of s o c ia l h is to r ic a l e v e n ts is, of c o u r s e , filtered th r o u g h t h e ir e x p e rie n c e s in th e ir own fa m ilie s ” (S te w a rt, 1 9 94 , p. 2 3 2 ). B e­ c a u s e the m ig r a tio n a lte r e d the c o u r s e of th e ir p s y c h o lo g ic a l a n d m a ­ te ria l lives early in life, in te rv ie w e e s w h o h a d m ig r a te d at a very early age w e re le s s able to im age w ho a n d w h a t they c o u ld have b e e n w i t h ­ o u t th e im p a c t of m ig r a tio n . M o s t co n flic ts a b o u t g e n d e r r o le s a n d se x u a lity w e r e m a n i ­ f e ste d — e ith e r p r e s e n tly o r in the p a s t —by th o se w ho m ig ra te d d u r in g a d o le sc e n ce. N egotiating g e n d e r roles, se x u a l behavior, a n d sex ual identity in b o th th e h o m e a n d h o s t c u ltu r e s b e c o m e s one of the m a jo r

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d e v e lo p m e n ta l ta s k s for im m ig r a n t a d o le s c e n ts . T h u s yo u n g w o m e n or a d o le s c e n t girls c o n fro n t the q u e s tio n of how to "be c o m e A m e r ic a n ” w ith o u t com p letely losing th e ir c u ltu ra l h eritage. Conflicts over p a r e n ­ tal a u th o r ity often a r e play ed o u t a r o u n d is s u e s of a p p r o p r i a t e sexu al behavior: D ating a n d o th e r b e h a v io r s re la te d to sexuality b e c o m e the focus of conflict b etw een p a r e n t s a n d d a u g h te r s . T h is is u n d e r s t a n d ­ able b e c a u s e of the m u ltip le ta s k s r e q u ir e d of yo u n g w o m e n i m m i ­ g ra n ts . As a y o u n g im m ig r a n t w o m a n c o n s t r u c ts h e r c u ltu ra l identity in a new country, s h e s im u lt a n e o u s ly de v e lo ps a se x u a l identity. T h e i n ­ h e r e n t c o n n e c tio n b e tw een d i s c o u r s e s on sexuality a n d s o u r c e s of p o w e r in a new a n d different c u ltu r a l con te x t m a y r e s u lt in sp lit id e n ti­ ties for yo u n g w o m e n im m ig r a n ts . Religious a n d c u ltu ra l in ju n c tio n s m a y f u r th e r lim it the yo u n g w o m a n ’s dec isio n m a k in g . Young w o m e n from “ra c ia liz ed ” g r o u p s m ay c o n fro n t a d d itio n a l c o n ­ flicts c o n c e rn in g th eir sexuality a n d b o d y image. T hey have to find a b a l­ ance betw een the im p o s e d h y p e rsexu alizatio n of im m ig ra n t w o m e n as “exotic” a n d the “h y p e rp u rity ” expected of them by th eir families an d c o m m u n itie s. N evertheless, m a n y yo un g im m ig r a n t w o m e n s u c c e s s ­ fully negotiate a place for the m se lv es d e sp ite th e se in ju n c tio n s a n d lim i­ ta tio n s a n d struggle to find their own sexual exp re ssio n . T h o s e w ho m ig ra te d after a d o le sc e n c e a p p e a r to be less conflicted a b o u t th e ir identity. T h is is d u e in p a r t to th e ir a lre a d y s o m e w h a t solid iden tities before u n d e r g o in g th e ex tra t a s k s involved in th e m igration. T h is is clearly tru e for lesb ia n interview ees. Even w h e n “c o m in g o u t,” with its a tt e n d a n t identity ch a n g e s, h a d o c c u r r e d after the m ig ra tio n , th e p r o c e s s s e e m e d to have b ee n less d is r u p tin g for th o s e w ho m ig ra te d a t a la te r age.

LESBIANS AND MIGRATION A lthough le s b ia n s a n d gay m e n obviously exist a m o n g im m ig ra n ts , m a n y im m i g r a n t c o m m u n itie s p re fe r to believe o th e rw ise . S o m e p o s it th a t h o m o se x u a lity is j u s t an evil a c q u ir e d by co ntagion o r t h r o u g h the b a d influence of A m e ric a n society. T hey p re fe r to believe e ith e r t h a t h o ­ m o se x u a lity is n o n e x is te n t in th e ir c o m m u n it ie s o r th a t it c ould be e ra d ic a te d w ere it n o t for th e b a d influence of the h o s t society. Ir o n i­ cally, the p r o p e n s ity to a ttr ib u te sexu al vice to im m ig r a n t s h a s a long h is to ry in A m e ric a n society a n d , in fact, A m e r ic a n s fre q u en tly b la m e one or a n o th e r ethn ic g r o u p for th e ir s u p p o s e d p r o p e n s ity to h o m o ­ sexuality. S o m e of the c o n g r e s s io n a l c o m m is s io n s c re a te d to deal with im m ig ra tio n in the p a s t have b l a m e d im m ig r a n ts for the in tr o d u c tio n of h o m o s e x u a l p ra c tic e s into the U nited S ta le s (L uibhéid. 2 0 0 2 ). Difficulties prevail in o b ta in in g a d e q u a te s ta tis tic s on le s b ia n p o p u ­ latio n s a m o n g i m m i g r a n ts —a h a r d ly s u r p r i s i n g fact c o n s id e r in g th a t un til very recently th e m e r e a p p e a r a n c e of h o m o s e x u a l in c lin a tio n s w a s c o n s id e re d g r o u n d s for ex clusion a n d denial of e n try into the

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c o u n try . M o s t likely, s e v e r a l m illio n l e s b i a n s a n d gay m e n a r e a m o n g th e i m m i g r a n t p o p u l a t i o n in th e U n ite d S ta te s . F r o m th is a n d o t h e r s t u d i e s wc c a n s u r m i s e t h a t le s b i a n i m m i ­ g r a n t s face s p e c ific e m o t i o n a l a n d p r a c t i c a l d iffic u ltie s . D i s c l o s u r e o f s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n a ffe c ts t h e m a s i n d i v i d u a l s a n d it a ffe c ts th e c o m ­ m u n ity . “C o m i n g o u t ” a s a l e s b i a n m a y j e o p a r d i z e n o t o n ly fa m ily ties b u t a ls o t h e i r m u c h n e e d e d c o n t r i b u t i o n s to th e i r c o m m u n i t y . B e ­ c a u s e m o s t le s b i a n i m m i g r a n t s a r e s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g a n d t a k e a d v a n ­ tage o f e m p l o y m e n t a n d e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s ( E s p in , 1 9 8 4 ) , th e y a r e f r e q u e n t l y in v o lv e d in s e r v ic e s a n d a d ­ v o c a c y for th e i r c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e fe a r o f b e i n g " d i s c o v e r e d ” a n d r e ­ j e c t e d m a y c o n s t i t u t e a s e r i o u s c o n c e r n for t h e m . T h e s e f e a r s a r e c o m p o u n d e d b y th e d iffic u ltie s c r e a t e d by p r e v a l e n t s t e r e o t y p e d c o n ­ c e p t i o n s o f w o m a n h o o d a n d s e x u a li ty in b o t h th e h o m e a n d h o s t c u l ­ t u r e s , f a m ilia l a n d s o c ie ta l r e j e c tio n o f t h e i r s e x u a l id e n t i t i e s , a n d legal r e s t r i c t i o n s o n th e ir i m m i g r a t i o n . Still, th e n e w e n v i r o n m e n t m a y o p e n p o s s i b i l i t i e s h i t h e r t o u n a v a i l a b l e in th e c o u n t r y o f b i r t h , a s i l l u s t r a t e d b y th e e x a m p l e of L o r e n a . T h e i m m i g r a n t l e s b ia n a c c u l t u r a t e s to th e n e w so c ie ty a s a n i m m i ­ g r a n t a s well a s to th e p a r t i c u l a r le s b ia n c u l t u r e in w h ic h s h e is s i t u ­ a te d . T h u s , i m m i g r a n t l e s b i a n s s h a r e e x p e r ie n c e s w ith h e t e r o s e x u a l w o m e n fr o m t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t y a s well a s w ith l e s ­ b i a n s in th e h o s t c u ltu r e . T h e y a lso s h a r e s o m e e x p e r i e n c e s w ith gay m a l e s w h o a r e i m m i g r a n t s o r refu g e e s. T h e i r politic al, r e lig io u s, a n d s o c ia l affilia tion s v a ry greatly. In d iff e r e n t d e g re e s , b o t h th e i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t y a n d th e le s b ia n c o m m u n i t y p r o v id e th e m w ith a s e n s e o f id e n tific a tio n in the h o s t c o u n try . T h e typical i m m i g r a n t ’s r u m i n a t i o n s a b o u t “w h a t c o u ld h a v e b een " a r e m a g n ifie d for l e s b i a n s by q u e s t i o n i n g w h e t h e r th e y w o u ld h a v e th e o p p o r t u n i t y o r th e d e s i r e to live a le s b ia n life h a d th e y n o t e m ig r a te d . For t h o s e w h o w e r e a w a r e o f t h e ir s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n b e f o r e m ig r a tio n , th e q u e s t i o n s m a y have to d o w ith w h a t a le s b ia n life w o u ld ha v e b e e n like in th e ir c o u n t r y of b ir th .

ENDING TH O U G H T S M a n y o f t h e in t e r v i e w e e s d e s c r i b e d t h e i r e a r l y s e x u a l e x p e r i e n c e s an d d e s ire s —both h e tero sex u al an d le sb ia n — as tro u b lin g an d f r a u g h t w i th s e c r e c y a n d i g n o r a n c e . M a n y m a n a g e d to fin d t h e i r o w n w a y s a n d h a p p i n e s s d e s p i t e t h e i r c o n f u s i o n a n d th e s t r u g g l e s a n d o p p o s i t i o n o f f a m ilie s . I h a v e tr ie d in th is c h a p t e r to c onv e y s o m e t h i n g o f w h a t th e p r o c e s s o f im m i g r a t i o n in to a n o t h e r c o u n t r y m e a n s for w o m e n . My in te n tio n w a s n o t to c r e a te a s e n s e o f g r a n d n a r r a t i v e b u t r a t h e r to p r e s e n t a w i n ­ d o w in to th e in d iv id u a l life n a r r a t i v e s d e v e lo p e d by w o m e n w h o have b e e n i m m e r s e d in th e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s b r o u g h t a b o u t by m i g r a tio n .

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My fo c u s h a s b e e n o n p s y c h o lo g ic a l a s p e c t s o f th e ir e x p e r ie n c e , w ith a p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s o n s e x u a lity a n d g e n d e r ro le s . I h a v e s p e n t m y p r o f e s s i o n a l life w o r k i n g in t h e r a p y w ith i m m i g r a n t w o m e n , d o in g r e s e a r c h o r t e a c h in g a b o u t i s s u e s of c o n c e r n to th e m . B e c a u s e I h a v e s h a r e d s im ila r life e x p e r i e n c e s w ith th e s e w o m e n . I ha v e b e e n b o th g la d to s e r v e a s th e ir m o u t h p i e c e a n d w a r y a b o u t th e d a n g e r s o f r e p r e s e n t i n g th e m . No m a t t e r h o w s i m i l a r th o s e e x p e r i ­ e n c e s , th e r e s e a r c h e r a n d th e r e s e a r c h e d (or t h e r a p i s t a n d client) m a y ha v e v ery d iff e re n t i d e a s a b o u t “w h o w e a r e . ” A n d no m a t t e r h o w s t r o n g th e s im il a r it ie s , v a s t d iff e r e n c e s in e x p e r ie n c e w e re a lso p r e s ­ en t. D iffe re n c es o r ig in a te in th e d i s s i m i l a r c o u n t r i e s o f b i r t h , a g e s of m ig r a tio n , h is to r ic a l p e r i o d w h e n th e m i g r a t io n to o k p la c e , c i r c u m ­ s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g it, a n d the u l tim a te c o n s e q u e n c e s of the p r o c e s s for e a c h i n d iv id u a l life. E a c h o n e o f th e s e w o m e n c a r r i e d in to th e i n t e r ­ view the h i s t o r y o f all th e s e e v e n ts i n t e r tw in e d w ith h e r p e r s o n a l h i s ­ tory. I a ls o c a r r i e d m y o w n, w h ic h w a s a n i m p o r t a n t m o tiv a tio n for m y s t u d i e s . D e s p ite th e d if f e re n c e s a m o n g t h e m , s e v e r a l b e h a v io r a l p a t ­ t e r n s b e c a m e c le a r th r o u g h th e in te rv ie w s . M o s t of th e w o m e n re v is e d t h e ir s o c ia l a n d g e n d e r ro le e x p e c ta tio n s a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e ir m i ­ g ra tio n . T h e y w o r k e d h a r d a t r e n e g o tia tin g g e n d e r ro le s w ith b o t h th e t r a d i t i o n s of th e ir h o m e c o u n t r y a n d th e e x p e c ta tio n s o f th e h o s t c u l ­ tu r e . T h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s i l lu s tr a t e th e s i m u l t a n e o u s p r o c e s s of a c c u l ­ t u r a t i o n a n d id e n tity f o r m a t io n . In g e n e ra l, th e ir a d a p t a t i o n s a p p e a r to b e s u c c e s s f u l d e s p i t e d if f e r e n c e s in in d i v i d u a l h i s t o r i e s a n d p e r s o n a l i t i e s a n d in th e ir c h o ic e o f in d iv id u a l p a t h s . In th e s t u d i e s I h a ve u n d e r t a k e n t h r o u g h o u t m y c a r e e r a n d in th e s e p a g e s I h a v e tr ie d to r e s p o n d n o t on ly to m y o w n i n t e r e s t s b u t a ls o to s o m e i m p o r t a n t i s s u e s r a i s e d by th e U n ite d N a tio n s c o n c e r n in g w o m e n i m m i g r a n t s a n d re fu g e e s. T h e U n ite d N a tio n s (UN I n t e r n a ­ tio n a l R e s e a r c h a n d T r a i n i n g I n s titu te , 1 9 9 4 ; UN E x p e r t G r o u p M e e t­ ing, 1 9 9 5 ) u n e q u iv o c a lly s t a t e d in r e c e n t d o c u m e n t s t h a t i m p r o v i n g th e s t a t u s of w o m e n is i n c r e a s i n g ly re c o g n i z e d a s f u n d a m e n ­ tal to i m p r o v i n g th e b a s i c h u m a n r i g h t s of o v e r h a l f th e p o p u l a t i o n o f th e w o r l d a n d a ls o c o n t r i b u t i n g to s o c i a l e c o n o m i c p r o g r e s s ... .W o m en 's m i ­ g r a t i o n . b o t h in t e r n a l ly w ith i n d e v e lo p i n g c o u n t r i e s a n d in t e r n a t i o n a l l y a c r o s s b o r d e r s ... to d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r i e s , is i n e x t r i c a b ly li n k e d to th e s t a t u s o f w o m e n in society. ( 1 9 9 4 , p. 1)

T h i s a s s e r t i o n is follow ed by q u e s t i o n s yet u n a n s w e r e d : B u t w h a t d o we k n o w a b o u t w o m e n ’s m i g r a t i o n ? ... F o r e x a m p l e , d o e s m i g r a t i o n le a d to i m p r o v e m e n t s in t h e s t a t u s of w o m e n , b r e a k i n g d o w n p a t r i a r c h a l s t r u c t u r e s a n d e n h a n c i n g w o m e n 's a u t o n o m y o r d o e s it le a d to p e r p e t u a t e d e p e n d e n c y ? ( 1 9 9 4 , p. 1)

Ultim ately, th e q u e s t i o n s fa c e d by th e s e s t u d i e s is, w h o “o w n s ” w o m e n ’s s e x u a lity a n d w o m e n ’s lives? “M o d e r n ” i d e a s a b o u t w o m e n ’s

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r i g h ts a n d free c h o ic e s c o n c e r n i n g th e ir lives h a v e n o t e n tire ly r e ­ p la c e d m o r e “t r a d i t i o n a l ” i d e a s a b o u t g e n d e r o b lig a tio n s a n d d iffe r­ e n c e s in rig h ts . T h e s e q u e s t i o n s a r c alive in all s o c ie tie s. Yet they b e c o m e m o r e p o i g n a n t a n d d r a m a t i c in th e c o n te x t o f tr a d i t i o n a l g r o u p s tr y in g to a c c u l t u r a t e in a n e w c o n te x t w h ic h is its e lf in t r a n s i ­ tion c o n c e r n i n g th e ro le of w o m e n . P e r h a p s p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e s e s t u d i e s a n d th e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l ta le s c r e a t e d in th e s e in te rv ie w s a l ­ low ed p a r t i c i p a n t s to g et in to u c h w ith th e i r ow n s e x u a lity a n d th e ir o w n e r o tic p ow er. Hopefully, t h e s e s t u d i e s c o n t r i b u t e d to a w a r e n e s s a n d in te g r a t io n of e x p e r ie n c e s for th e p a r t i c i p a n t s a s th e y c o n t r i b u t e d to o t h e r s ' i n c r e a s e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w o m e n ’s e x p e r ie n c e s o f c r o s s i n g g e o g r a p h ic a l a n d e m o tio n a l b o u n d a r i e s . I ha v e th e e x p e r ie n c e o f leav in g C u b a , c r o s s i n g a la n g u a g e a n d c u l ­ tu r e to m a k e a n e w h o m e in a n e w p lac e . As a le s b ia n w h o c e le b r a te s h e r identity, I h a v e th e e x p e r ie n c e of a w o m a n c h a lle n g e d to live a m a r g in a liz e d e x iste n c e , b u t I h a v e c r e a t e d a loving c o m m u n i t y a m o n g w o m e n a n d m e n w h o s h a r e a n d / o r c e le b r a te h e r e x p e r i e n c e s . My w ill­ in g n e s s to d is c lo s e p e r s o n a l c h a lle n g e s a n d j o y s h a s m a d e m y te a c h in g a n d s c h o l a r ly w o r k v i b r a n t. I h a v e a lw a y s in v ite d p s y c h o lo g is ts to a s k q u e s t i o n s t h a t w e r e n o t c o n s i d e r e d by m o s t . I w o u ld n o t a c c e p t t h a t p s y c h o lo g ic a l th e o r y w a s a c c u r a t e w h e n it w a s b a s e d only a s m a l l p e r ­ c e n ta g e o f th e p o p u l a t i o n . As s u c h , m y e a rly w o r k d e m a n d e d t h a t we u n d e r s t a n d h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t in r e la tio n to th e e x p e r i e n c e s of w o m e n a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y th e e x p e r ie n c e s of w o m e n of color.

R E FE R E N C E S Bammer. A. (1994). Mother tongues and other strangers: Writing “family" across cultural divides. In A. Bam m er (Ed.), D is p la c e m e n ts : Cultural id e n titie s in q u e s tio n (pp. 90-109). Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Cole, E.. Espin, O. M. & Rothblum, E. (Eds.). (1992). R e f u g e e w o m e n a n d their m e n t a l hea lth : S h a t t e r e d so cieties, s h a t t e r e d lives. New York: Haworth. E spin, O. M. (1984). C ultural an d historical influcnccs on sexuality in His­ panic/Latin women. In C. Vance (Ed.), P le a s u r e a n d d a n g e r : E x p lo rin g J e m a l e s e x u a l i t y (pp. 149-164). L ondon, UK: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Espin, O. M. (1987). Psychological impact of migration on Latinas: Implica­ tions for psychotherapeutic practice. P syc holog y o f W o m e n Q uarterly, 4(11). 489-503. Espin, O. M. (1999). W om en crossing b o u n d a rie s: A p s y c h o lo g y o f i m m i g r a ­ tion a n d tr a n s fo r m a tio n s o f se x u a lity . New York: Routledge. Gabaccia, D. (Ed.). (1992,/. S e e k i n g c o m m o n ground: M u ltid iscip lin a ry s t u d ­ ies o f i m m i g r a n t w o m e n in the U nited S ta te s . Westport, CT: Praeger. Ginorio, A. (1979). A com parison of Puerto Ricans in New York with native Puerto Ricans and Caucasian—and Black—Am ericans on two m e a su re s of acculturation: Gender role and racial identification (Doctoral d is s e rta ­ tion, Fordham University). D is s e r ta tio n A b s t r a c t s I n te r n a tio n a l, 40, 983B-984B.

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Gonzálcz-R cigosa, F. (1976). T h e a n x ie ty -a ro u sin g effect of ta bo o w o r d s in b ilinguals. In C. D. S p ie lb e rg e r & R. D ia z -G u e rre ro (Eds.), Cr os s - c ul tu ra l a n x i e t y (pp. 3 0 9 - 3 2 6 ) . W ashington, DC: H e m isp h e re . G rin b erg , L., & G rinberg , R. (1984). P si co an ál is is d e la m i g r a ci ó n y del exilio. M a drid : Alianza E d ito rial. [English tr a n s la tio n by N. Festinger. P s y ­ c h o a n a l y t i c p e r s p e c t i v e s on m i g r a t i o n a n d exile. New Haven, CT: Yale U ni­ versity P re ss, 1989.) H offm an, E. (1989). Lost in t ra ns l at io n. New York: D u tton . L uibh éid , E. (2002). E n t r y d e n i e d : Controlling s e x u a l i t y a t t he border. M in­ ne a po lis: U niversity of M in n e so ta Press. N arayan . U. (1997). Di sl oc ati ng cult ures: I dent it ies , t r ad i ti o ns a n d Third World f e m i n i s m . New York: Routlcdgc. Ncccf, M. (1994). T h e language of intimacy. In L. E. A n d e r s e n (Ed.). Mi dd le E a s t s t u d i e s in D e n m a r k (pp. 1 4 1 -1 5 8 ). O d e n se , D e n m a r k : U niversity of O d e n s e P ress. Pe d raz a , S. (1991). W omen a n d m igra tion : T h e social c o n s e q u e n c e s of gender. A n n u a l R e v i e w o f Sociol ogy, 17, 3 0 3 - 3 2 5 . P o lk in g h o rn e, D. E. (1988). N a r r a t i v e k n o w i n g a n d the h u m a n s c i e nc e s. Al­ bany. NY: State University of New York Press. P ortes, A., & R u m b a u t, R. (1996). I m m i g r a n t A m e r i c a : A p or t r a i t (2n d. ed.). Berkeley: U niversity of California Press. Roglcr, L. H. (1994). In te rn a tio n a l m ig ra tio n s: A f ra m e w o r k for d ire c ting r e ­ se a r c h . A m e r i c a n Psychol ogi st , 49(8), 7 0 1 - 7 0 8 . S te w a rt, A. J. (1994). T he w o m e n ’s m o v e m e n t a n d w o m e n ’s lives: L ink in g in ­ div idual d e v e lo p m e n t a n d social events. In R. J o s s e l s o n (Ed.), T h e n a r r a ­ tive s t u d y o f lives (Vol.2, pp. 2 3 0 - 2 5 0 ) . T h o u s a n d O a k s, CA: Sage. T h o m a s , W. I., & Z n a n ie c k i, F. (1927). T h e Polish p e a s a n t in E u r o p e a n d A m e r i c a . New York: A. Knopf. (Origianl w o rk p u b lis h e d 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 2 0 ) T r u m b a c h , R. (1977). L o n d o n ’s so d o m ite s . J o u r n a l o f S oc ial Hi st ory, 11, 1-33 . United N a tio n s I n te r n a tio n a l R es e a rc h a n d T ra in in g In stitu te for the A d v a n c e ­ m e n t of W omen. (1994). T h e m i g r a t i o n o f w o m e n : Me t ho d o lo g ic a l i s s u e s in the m e a s u r e m e n t a n d a n a l y s i s o f i n t e r na l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l m i g r a ­ tion. New York: U nited N ations. U nited N ation s E x p e rt G r o u p Meeting on In te rn a tio n a l Migration Policies a n d the S ta tu s of Female M igrants. (1995). I n t e r n a t i o n a l m i g r a t i o n poli cies a n d t h e s t a t u s o f f e m a l e m i g r a n t s . New York: U nited Nations. Yuval-Davis, N. (1992). F u n d a m e n ta lis m , m u ltic u ltu r a lis m a n d w o m e n in B rit­ ain. In J . D o n a ld & A. R a ta n s i (Eds.), Ra c e, culture, a n d d i f f e r e n c e (pp. 2 7 8 - 2 9 1 ) . L o n d o n : Sage.

14 Cultural Psychology of Gender and Immigration R a m a s w a m i M a h a lin g a m University o f Michigan

J a n a H a r ita to s Univ ers ity o f California, S a n Francisco

C u ltu r a l psychological r e s e a r c h on g e n d e r h a s trad itio n a lly fo cused on d o c u m e n tin g sex role beliefs in v a rio u s c u ltu r e s (Best & W illiams, 1997). However, s u c h a p p r o a c h e s often d o n o t a d e q u a te ly a d d r e s s how i s s u e s of p o w e r a n d social m a rg in a lity s h a p e beliefs a b o u t g e n d e r a m o n g im m ig r a n ts . A dditionally, a lth o u g h th e re have b e en m a n y q u a l ­ itative a c c o u n ts of the im p a c t of im m ig ra tio n on tra d itio n a l g e n d e r r o le s a n d th e ex p e rie n c e of g e n d e r a m o n g fem ale im m ig r a n ts to the U nited S ta te s (e.g., E s p in , 1999; H o n d a g n e u -S o te lo , 1994), m u c h of the existing p sychological lite r a tu r e on g e n d e r socializatio n h a s often f o c u se d on th e “u n iv e r s a l” n a t u r e of sex role d e v e lo p m e n t in s tu d ie s of White m id d le - c la s s A m e ric a n c h ild re n , m a n y tim e s failing to a c c o u n t for varieties of c o n te x tu a l a n d c u ltu ra l p r o c e s s e s (Schaffer, 1996). C u l­ t u r a l p sychological r e s e a r c h on im m ig ra tio n a n d gender, a s well as m o r e gen e ra l th e o re tic al m o d e ls of g e n d e r socialization , w ou ld benefit greatly from c o m b in e d a p p r o a c h e s to the se c o m p le x iss u e s; however, very little s u c h w o rk exists. T h is fo cus on the p r o c e s s of so cialization d u r i n g a n d after im m ig ra tio n is a m u c h - n e e d e d one, yet again is la c k ­ ing from the e xisting lite ra tu re . In this c h a p te r we p r o p o s e a c u ltu r a l psychology of g e n d e r f r a m e ­ w o rk to s tu d y im m ig r a n t w o m e n a n d m e n , fo re g ro u n d in g the c o m p le x r e la tio n s h ip b etw een idealized c u ltu r a l beliefs a b o u t g e n d e r a n d the 259

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m a rg in a liz e d s t a t u s of im m ig r a n ts , a n d focusing on their im p a c t on im m i g r a n t s ’ lives. T h is a p p r o a c h is im p o r t a n t b e c a u s e im m ig r a n ts face a u n iq u e p r e d ic a m e n t. In a new c u ltu r a l contcxt, they m ay feel the n e e d to a s s e r t their id en tities th ro u g h v a rio u s m o d e s of c u ltu r a l p r a c ­ tices t h a t a u th e n tic a te th e se id e n titie s a n d d istin g u ish th e m from the “n a tiv e s.” Often they im ag in e a c u ltu r e w ith a “glo riou s" h is to ric a l p a s t th a t p ro v id e s th e m a s e n s e of s u p e r io r ity over the “natives." We arg ue th a t over tim e s u c h id e a liz a tio n s of c u ltu ra l identity b e c o m e s a lie n t a n d a c q u ire new m e a n in g s in the im m ig r a n t co n tex t with in c re a sin g a w a r e n e s s of the p o w e r a n d m a te r ia l d ifferen ces b etw een new im m i ­ g r a n t s a n d th e “h o s t ” c u ltu re . G e n d e r b e c o m e s a m a jo r site to a n c h o r s u c h a r tic u la tio n of id e a l­ ized n o tio n s of c u ltu r a l iden tities. For ex am ple, sev eral g e n d e r th e o ­ r is t s have p o in te d o u t th a t w o m e n a re believed to be the “p u r v e y o r s ” of c u ltu re . T h e “p u r it y ” a n d r e s t r a in e d , c h a s tc b e h a v io r of w o m e n a rc b e ­ lieved to sy m bolize the e sse n tia l c h a r a c te r is tic s of th eir k in , family, a n d g r o u p iden tity (L in disfarn e, 1998). U sing In d ia n im m ig r a n ts a s an ex a m p le , we e xplore the role of d o m i n a n t In d ia n c u ltu r a l r e p r e s e n t a ­ tio n s of g e n d e r in s h a p in g c u ltu r a l ex p e c ta tio n s of w o m e n in the i m m i­ g r a n t context. Specifically, we focus on th e d o m i n a n t role of g e n d e r ideals in the g e n d e r socialization of s e c o n d - g e n e ra tio n d a u g h t e r s in the In d ia n d ia s p o r a . In d o in g so, th is c h a p te r is divided into th r e e s e c ­ tions: In the first section, we d i s c u s s the salien c e of idealized g e n d e r r e p r e s e n t a tio n s u s in g two e x a m p le s of idealized w o m a n h o o d w ithin the c u ltu ra l n a r ra tiv e s of In d ia n w o m a n h o o d : in the s e c o n d section, u s in g a qualitative study, we investigate v a rio u s a s p e c ts of g e n d e r s o ­ cialization of sc c o n d - g e n c r a tio n In d ia n i m m ig r a n t w o m e n in the U nited S ta te s; a n d in the final p a r t, we d is c u s s the relevance of these findings for d eveloping a c u ltu ra l psychological f r a m e w o r k for the s tu d y of g e n d e r a n d im m ig ra tio n .

REPRESENTATIONS OF GENDER AND THE IDEAL HINDU WOMEN—“PATIVIRDA” H in d u is m , in general, h o ld s a p a t r ia r c h a l definition of the role of w o m e n . W o m en ’s ro le s a n d d u tie s a re defined by M a nu , the H in d u la w ­ giver. A cco rd in g to M anu, w o m e n a re to be p r o te c te d by th e ir f a th e rs w h e n they a re young, a n d th en by h u s b a n d s w h e n they a re m a r r ie d , a n d by th e ir s o n s d u r in g th e ir old age. T h e psychological realities of w o m e n th u s can be c o n d e n s e d in th re e stages: F irst, s h e is a d a u g h te r to h e r p a r e n ts , s e c o n d , s h e is a wife to h e r h u s b a n d , a n d th ird , s h e is a m o th e r to h e r s o n s (Kakar, 1978, p. 57). If the h u s b a n d t u r n s o u t to be an u n w o rth y p e r s o n , w h a t can sh e d o ? M an u p r e s c r ib e s the cod e of c o n d u c t for w o m e n w ho are in s u c h a sta te of affairs. Though destitute of virtue or seeking pleasure elsewhere, or devoid of good qualities, yet a husband must be constantly worshipped as a God

14.

C U L T U R A L P S Y C H O L O G Y O F G E N D E R AND I MM I GR A T I ON

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by a faithful wife .... By violating her duty towards her husband, a wife is disgraced in this world, [after death) she enters the womb ofa jackal, and is torm ented by the p unishm ent of her sin. (Manu, cited in Kakar, 1978) T h e n o ti o n of “P a l i v i r d a ” (one w h o is d e v o te d to h e r h u s b a n d th r o u g h all h e r su ff e r in g s ) is r e i n f o r c e d by v a r i o u s s t o r i e s a n d “P u r a n a s ” o r e p ic s. In th e g r e a t I n d i a n epic R a m a y a n , S ita follow s h e r h u s b a n d R a m to th e f o r e s t a n d is ta k e n aw a y by a d e m o n , R a v a n a . L a te r R a m fights R a v a n a n a n d kills h im . T h e n h e a s k s S ita to p ro v e h e r fidelity by a s k i n g h e r to w a lk t h r o u g h fire, a n d Agni, th e fire g od , testifies to h e r purity. S ita 's su f fe r in g d o e s n o t s t o p h e r e . A fter c o m in g b a c k to h is c o u n try , R a m s e n d s p r e g n a n t S ita b a c k to th e f o r e s t b e ­ c a u s e of th e g o s s ip a m o n g h is c itiz e n s a b o u t S ita ’s fidelity. S ita gives b i r t h to two s o n s a n d r a i s e s th e m in th e fo re s t. W hen th e s o n s a re g ro w n u p s h e s e n d s th e m b a c k to th e ir father. T h e n R a m in v ite s h e r b a c k . Again, s h e is a s k e d to go t h r o u g h th e fire. T h is tim e S ita c a n n o t b e a r it a n y m o r e . S h e p r a y s to the e a r t h m o t h e r to ta k e her. T h e e a r t h m o t h e r t a k e s h e r b a c k in to h e r w o m b . T h e n o t io n o f P a tiv ir d a is e p ito ­ m iz e d in S ita , w h o e m b o d i e s th e s u f f e rin g a n d h u m i l i a t i o n s a n o r d i ­ n a r y w o m a n / m o t h e r g o e s th r o u g h in a H i n d u society. A v a r i a n t o f th e p a n - I n d ia n n o tio n of P a tiv ird a ( d e d ic a te d wife) is th e s to r y o f th e id e a l T a m il w o m a n — “P a t t i n i " (a v i r t u o u s wife), w h o is a n ­ gry a n d t a k e s th e law into h e r o w n h a n d s . K a n n a g i, th e d o m i n a n t fe­ m a le , is a d e v o te d wife, w h o b e c o m e s a p r o t a g o n i s t w h e n h e r h u s b a n d is e x e c u te d w it h o u t tria l o n th e g r o u n d s t h a t he h a d s to le n th e a n k l e t s of th e q u e e n . S h e g o e s to th e k i n g ’s c o u r t a n d p r o v e s h e r h u s b a n d ’s i n ­ n o c e n c e . T h e n s h e c a lls th e fire g od , a n d o r d e r s h im to b u r n th e city e x ­ c e p t for w o m e n , e ld e r s , a n d c h ild r e n . T h e n s h e w a lk s for d a y s a n d w a its u n d e r a tre e . H e r h u s b a n d c o m e s fro m h e a v e n alive a n d t a k e s h e r w ith h im to h e a v e n . T h u s K a n n a g i, a q u ie t d e v o te d h o u se w ife , t u r n s in to a p r o t a g o n i s t only a f t e r h e r h u s b a n d ’s d e a t h . S h e b u r n s th e city b y v irtu e o f h e r loyally to h e r h u s b a n d . S h e d e riv e s h e r m o r a l force exclusively fr o m h e r d e d ic a t io n a n d virtuo sity . T h e v irtu e o f P attini, s y m b o liz e d b y K a n n a g i, i l l u s t r a t e s th e p o w e r f u l ro le of c u l t u r a l n a r r a t i v e s in d e fin in g a p a n - I n d i a n id e a l w o m a n h o o d . C u ltu r a l n a r r a t i v e s s u c h a s S i ta a n d K a n n a g i u n d e r s c o r e t h e p o w e r of c h a s t e w o m e n (Wadley, 1 9 9 1 ). V a rio u s p o p u l a r n a r r a t i v e s a lso v a lo ­ riz e w o m e n w h o a r e d e v o te d , v ir t u o u s , self-sacrificin g, a n d p a t i e n t a s th e e m b o d i m e n t of th e c u l t u r a l identity. A lth o u g h a n id e a liz e d I n d ia n w o m a n ’s id e n tity is b u il t o n th e p u r it y o f h e r body, a n I n d ia n w o m a n lives o u t s i d e h e r b o d y so t h a t the re a litie s of life d o n o t affect h e r ( L a k s h m i, 1 9 8 4 ). L a k s h m i ( 1 9 8 4 ) a r g u e d t h a t a s a r e s u l t of s u c h e x­ cessive c u l t u r a l i d e a liz a tio n o f th e f e m a le body, I n d ia n w o m e n d e v elo p a n o n c o n s c i o u s n e s s of th e ir b o d i e s a s a w ay o f co p in g w ith exc essive c o n c e r n s a b o u t th e fe m a le body. T h is c o n c e r n fo r th e fe m a le body, a lo n g w ith a c u ltiv a te d n o n c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f th e b o d y for w o m e n t h e m ­ se lves, is a c u l t u r a l in h e r i t a n c e t h a t h a s b e e n p r e s e r v e d o ver th e y e a r s .

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T h is n o n a w a r e n e s s of the b o d y is only one k in d of m u te d c o n s c io u s ­ n e s s. M o th e rh o o d , w ifehood, a n d d a u g h te r h o o d , c o m b in in g q u a litie s of sacrifice, s u p p r e s s i o n , self-denial, a n d self-control, a rc also off­ sh o o t s of this one form of m u le d c o n s c io u s n e s s . T h is h a s m a d e n o n a w a r e n e s s in g en e ra l an a d m ir e d fem ale quality. N o n a w a r e n e s s is also recog nized a s a n a s s e t t h a t h a s h e lp e d in saving the in n e r w o rld of th e family by re ta in in g tra d itio n a l family r e la tio n s h ip s (L a k sh m i, 1984, p. 2 36 ). R o la n d (1988) also r e p o r te d t h a t a m o n g In d ia n w o m e n , th e re exists a familial "we" self—a self t h a t e n c o m p a s s e s th e feelings of in n e r re g a r d for the in d iv id u a l a s well a s h e r family. As a re s u lt, any pu blic b e h av io r (su c c e ss or failure) n o t only affects the ind iv id u a l b u t also reflects the h o n o r of the family a n d its m e m b e r s , p a rtic u la r ly in re la tio n to o th e r fam ilies in th e c o m m u n ity (Roland, 1988). T h e in te re stin g c u ltu r a l p sychological q u e s tio n is, to w h a t exten t do th ese c u ltu r a l ide a ls affect the psychological well-being of w o m e n a n d m e n in In dia? M ah a lin g a m a n d I la r il a to s ( u n d e r review-a) p r o p o s e d a d u a l-p a th w a y m o d e l, a rg u in g t h a t c u ltu ra l id ea ls a re a s o u r c e of b o th str e n g th a n d s t r e s s b e c a u s e they p ro v id e a c u ltu ra l re f e r e n t for self-pride a s well a s for critical s e lf-e v alu a tio n . U sing m e a s u r e s of g e n ­ d e r ideals, s u c h a s c h a stity (M ahaling am , u n d e r review) a n d m a s c u l i n ­ ity ( M a h a lin g a m & J a c k s o n , u n d e r re v iew ), M a h a l i n g a m a n d colleagues e x a m in e d th e m e n ta l h e a lth c o n s e q u e n c e s of idealized n o ­ tio n s of g e n d e r in T a m iln a d u , India. T hey fo u n d t h a t idealized c u ltu ra l beliefs a b o u t gender, s u c h a s c h a stity a n d m asculinity, a lth o u g h in ­ c r e a s in g self-esteem , also c o n tr ib u te d to s h a m e , le a d in g to d e p r e s s i o n for m e n a s well a s for w o m e n . T h is fin ding is c o n s is te n t w ith the d u a l-p a th w a y m o d e l p r o p o s e d by M ah a lin g a m a n d H a r ita to s ( u n d e r review-a). In s u m , the se qualitative a n d q u a n titativ e s tu d ie s suggest th a t idealized g e n d e r beliefs play a critical role in w o m e n ’s a n d m e n ’s lives in India. However, less is k n o w n a b o u t th e s e i m p o r t a n t p r o c e s s e s a m o n g im m ig r a n ts . T h e re fo re , it is critical to u n d e r s t a n d the c o n te x ­ tu al m o d a litie s of how a n d w h e n th e se g e n d e r ideals b e c o m e s a lie n t for In d ia n s w h en they m ig ra te to the U nited S tates.

CULTURE, GENDER, AND IMMIGRATION: AN INTERSECTIONALITY PERSPECTIVE S te w a rt a n d M c D e rm o tt (200 4) p r o p o s e d a n in te rse ctio n a lity p e r s p e c ­ tive for the s tu d y of gender. T h is in te rse c tio n a lity p e rsp e c tiv e a rg u e s for th e n e e d to s tu d y g e n d e r in re la tio n to rac e , ethnicity, social c la ss a n d se x u a l o rie n ta tio n . E x te n d in g the in te rse c tio n a lity pe rspe c tiv e, M ah a lin g a m a n d H a r ita to s ( u n d e r review-a) p r o p o s e d an Idealized C u ltu r a l Iden tities (ICI) m o d e l to s tu d y gender. A cco rd in g to ICI, m a r g in a liz e d so c ia l g r o u p s s e n s e the n e e d to a s s e r t a p ositive self-identity to negate negative ste re o ty p e s in p o p u l a r d o m i n a n t r e p r e ­ s e n ta tio n s . T hey e m b r a c e o r “im agine" an idealized r e p r e s e n ta ti o n of th eir c u ltu ra l identity w h o se r o o ts typically are tra c e d to an “a n c ie n t”

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civilization with a "g lorious” p a s t. Marginalized social locations, a n d in pa rtic u lar the relational context of im m ig ra n t identities, play a significant role in accentuating the need to hold on to or articulatc new er fo rm s of idealized notio n s of cultural identities. Several c u ltu r a l th e o r is ts have po in te d o u t t h a t g e n d e r b e c o m e s a critical site of s u c h a r tic u la tio n s of idealized id en tities (D a sg u p ta & D a s g u p ta , 2 0 0 0 ; O rtner, 1974). T h u s , th e i n te r s e c tio n s of gender, ethnicity, a n d social c la ss e n g e n d e r the very c re a tio n of su c h idealized r e p r e s e n ta t io n s . H ence idealized c u l­ tu r a l id e n titie s m ig h t play a critical role in g e n d e r socialization. E th n o g r a p h i c r e p o r t s on g e n d e r socialization a m o n g i m m ig r a n t f a m i­ lies also sug gest th a t c u ltu r a l ideals play a c e n tra l role in v a r io u s a s ­ p ec ts of g e n d e r so cialization p ra c tic e s , a s im m ig ra tio n h a s b e e n s h o w n to have c o m p le x effects on tra d itio n a l g e n d e r r o le s a n d the ex­ p erie n c e of g e n d e r a m o n g female im m ig r a n ts to the U nited S ta te s {Espin, 1999; H o n d a g n c u -S o tc lo , 1994). U sing a qualitative s tu d y of g e n d e r socialization a m o n g second-gene ra tio n w o m e n , we investigated w h e th e r th e r e w as c u ltu r a l co n tin u ity in the socializatio n of g e n d e r id e als a m o n g In d ia n im m ig r a n ts . To do so, o u r s tu d y e x a m in e d how th e p r o c e s s of im m ig r a tio n im p a c ts g e n ­ d e r socialization a m o n g A m e ric a n -b o rn d a u g h t e r s of first-gen eration In dian im m ig r a n ts . Specifically, we exp lo re d w h e th e r beliefs a b o u t the e x p e c ta tio n s a n d a p p r o p r i a t e life c h oices for m a le s a n d fem a le s w ere t r a n s m itte d th ro u g h a g e n d e r socialization p r o c e s s of differential t r e a t m e n t a n d d if fe re n tia l a llo c a tio n of r e s o u r c e s to s o n s a n d d a u g h te r s in In d ia n im m ig r a n t families.

In d ia n Im m igran ts T he Indian d ia s p o r a c o m m u n ity w as cited by the Im m igration a n d N atu ­ ralization Service as being one of the fastest growing im m ig ra n t g ro u p s in the United States as of the m id -1 9 8 0 s. In 1990, there were estim ated to be 8 1 5 ,4 4 7 Ind ians living in the United S tates (Shah, 1994), a n d by the 2 0 0 0 c en sus, there were 1 ,678,765 U.S. re sid e n ts re p orting Asian Indian ethnic b a c k g r o u n d s (Barnes & Benett, 2002). Since we are interested in the role of idealized re p re se n ta tio n s of gender, we w ere particularly in te r­ ested in w h a t “residual" asp e c ts of "Indian culture" h a d been a p p r o p r i ­ ated or r e p ro d u c e d in a new, postm ig ratio n context, or whether, and u n d e r w h a t conditions, im m ig ra n t d a u g h ters also retain so m e agency while changing their behavioral rep ertoire in re sp o n se to idealized cu l­ tural re p re se n tatio n s. This stu d y explored the role of family socialization of traditional or n o n tra d itio n a l g end er beliefs, a n d ex am ined the relation­ ship between gender socialization a n d young w o m e n ’s academ ic achieve­ m e n t, c a r e e r o p tio n s , so cial b e h a v io rs , a n d d a tin g /m a rria g e expectations. C o nsidering the extrem e fo rm s of g end er d iscrim in atio n in India a s d o c u m e n te d by several d e m o g r a p h e r s (see H u d so n & den Boer, 2 004 , for a review), we also focused on w hether there w as any “re s id u a l” cultu ral influence in the differential tre a tm e n t of d aughters.

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S tu d y M eth o d s Seven s e c o n d - g e n e ra tio n In d ia n w o m e n w ere r e c r u ite d to p a rtic ip a te in the s tu d y t h ro u g h v a rio u s In d ia n A m e ric a n s t u d e n t a s s o c ia tio n s at a large, M id w e s te rn university. T he selection c rite ria w ere th a t w o m e n m u s t be s e c o n d -g e n e ra tio n In d ia n college s tu d e n ts , they m u s t have al le a s t one b ro th e r, a n d th e ir p a r e n t s m u s t have e m ig ra te d from India. E a ch In d ia n A m e ric a n w o m a n p a r tic ip a te d in an in dividu al s t r u c t u r e d interview, w hich investigated h e r p e r c e p tio n s of tr e a tm e n t of bo ys a n d girls in h e r own family with re s p e c t to the following t h e m e s : specific b e h a v io r m o d ific a tio n s, r e s o u r c e allocation (i.e., toys, money, college fu n d s), curfew s, d a tin g r u le s a n d m a r r ia g e e x p e c ta tio n s, c a r e e r o p ­ tions, a n d c o m m u n ic a tiv e r e la t io n s h ip s with p a r e n t s a n d g r a n d p a r ­ en ts. E a c h interview w as c o n d u c te d by a tr a in e d m e m b e r of the r e s e a r c h te a m a n d la ste d a p p ro x im a te ly 75 to 90 m in u te s . After c o m ­ pletin g the interview s, e ach w o m a n received $ 1 5 for h e r p a rtic ip a tio n .

D ata A n a ly sis All of the w o m e n interview ed for th is s tu d y w ere u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u ­ d e n ts a l the u n iv e rsity a n d w ere b e tw e e n 19 a n d 21 y e a rs old. M ost grew u p in the M idw est with relatively s m a ll n u c le a r fam ilies, typically c o n sistin g of b o th p a r e n ts , the p a r tic ip a n t, a n d one to th re e b r o th e r s . Often the p a r t i c i p a n t s ’ fam ilies lived relatively close to the un iv ersity th e s e w o m e n w ere a tte n d in g ; however, in a few c a se s, th e w o m e n h a d left fam ilies living in o th e r s ta te s to go study. As is typical in In d ia n f a m ­ ilies, m o s t of o u r college s t u d e n t p a r ti c ip a n ts w ere m a jo r in g in e ith e r en g in e e rin g o r a m e d ic in e -re la te d field. T h e average yearly family in ­ co m e of o u r p a r tic i p a n ts w a s relatively high, r a n g in g from $ 5 0 ,0 0 0 to over $ 1 2 5 , 0 0 0 , a n d the m o s t c o m m o n ly r e p o r te d in co m e w a s in the sa la r y ra ng e of $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 - 1 2 5 , 0 0 0 p e r year. For e x am ple, P o o n a m ( n a m e s have b e e n c h a n g e d for this c h a p te r) is a 2 1 -year-old biology m a jo r a t a large, M id w es te rn university. S h e h a s one y o u n g e r b ro th e r, a n d h e r p a r e n t s e m ig ra te d to the U nited S ta te s from New Delhi, India. As is typical of m a n y p a r ti c ip a n t s , h e r fa th e r c a m e h e re first a s a high sc h o o l s t u d e n t , a n d after r e t u r n i n g to India for the a r r a n g e d m a r r ia g e to P o o n a m 's m o th er, th e co u p le r e t u r n e d to ­ g eth er to the U nited S ta te s a n d se ttle d in the M idwest. Now h e r fa th e r ow n s a sm a ll e le ctro n ic s b u s i n e s s a n d h e r m o t h e r w o r k s a s a s y s te m s a n a ly s t for a technology firm . S h o b h a is a 2 0 -y e a r- o ld b u s i n e s s m a j o r w ith two y o u n g e r b r o t h ­ e r s , o n e a t t e n d i n g a d if fe r e n t u n iv e rsity , a n d the o t h e r still in high sc h o o l. As w ith P o o n a m , S h o b h a 's f a t h e r w a s a l r e a d y living in the U n ite d S t a t e s w h e n h is m a r r i a g e w a s a r r a n g e d in P u n j a b , a fte r w h ic h he r e t u r n e d to th e M id w e s t w ith S h o b h a 's m o th e r . Now h e r f a ­ t h e r o w n s h i s ow n r e a l e s t a te c o m p a n y a n d h e r m o t h e r is n o t e m ­ plo y e d o u t s i d e th e h o m e .

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In a final exam p le, Priti is a 20-year-old c o m p u t e r e ng in e e ring m a jo r with one y o u ng e r b ro th e r, a n d she is slightly u n u s u a l in th a t sh e tr a v ­ eled o u t of sta te to a tte n d collcgc, r a t h e r th a n going to sc h o o l close to h o m e . H er p a r e n t s c a m e to the U nited S ta te s from New Delhi, India, af­ ter getting m a r r i e d , a n d after se ttling in the M idw est h e r fa th e r e s t a b ­ lish e d a c a re e r a s a c h e m is t for a p h a r m a c e u tic a l c o rp o r a tio n , a n d h e r m o th e r o w n s a s m a ll b u s in e s s . After collecting all of th e interview d a ta from th e s e seven w o m e n , the interview tr a n s c r i p t s w e re ana lyz e d th r o u g h qu a n tita tiv e c o d in g a n d th e m a tic analy sis. In general, the r e s p o n s e s c o uld be o rg a n iz e d into two d o m i n a n t th e m e s : the "good d a u g h te r /w o m a n ” ideal a n d d o ­ m ain-spe c ific differential tr e a tm e n t.

“G ood D a u g h ter” In g e n e ra l, th e s e s e c o n d - g e n e r a tio n In d ia n d a u g h t e r s have to be "good d a u g h t e r s T h is re f e r s to th e o v e r w h e lm in g t h e m e a m o n g all in te rv ie w s in w h ic h th e d a u g h t e r s of th e se im m i g r a n t p a r e n t s d e ­ s c r ib e d feeling i m m e n s e ly r e s p o n s i b l e a n d d e d ic a te d to m a i n t a i n i n g a n im age of a d h e r e n c e to fa m ily /c o m m u n ity r u l e s a n d tr a d itio n s . T h u s , th e s e d a u g h t e r s d e s c r i b e feeling m o r e r e s p o n s i b l e t h a n th eir b r o t h e r s , a n d in s o m e c a s e s h av in g m o r e r e s p o n s i b ilit y e x p e c te d of th e m by th e ir p a r e n t s . T h is w a s often re fle c ted in the k i n d s of c h o r e s a n d b e h a v io r s p e r f o r m e d by d a u g h t e r s , c o m p a r e d with th e ir m a le sib lin g s. For e x a m p le , Priti alw ays c a m e h o m e by h e r curfew, a n d h e lp e d h e r m o t h e r o u t a r o u n d th e h o u s e , w o r k e d h a r d to receive good g r a d e s in high s c h o o l, a n d w e n t on to a t t e n d a c o m p e titiv e u n i ­ versity. T h e s e ty p e s of "go od ” b e h a v io r s w ere d o n e v o lu n ta rily by Priti, r a t h e r t h a n h a v in g to be c o e rc e d o r r e w a r d e d . However, Priti e x­ p la in e d t h a t s h e k n e w th a t h e r y o u n g e r b r o t h e r d id n o t se e m to feel a s c o n s c ie n tio u s a s sh e d id . a n d h e r p a r e n t s e n d e d u p giving him money, privileges, a n d gifts a s r e w a r d s for o b ta in in g g oo d g r a d e s a n d for d o in g c h o r e s s u c h a s m o w in g the law n. For in s ta n c e , a lth o u g h Priti d id well in h igh s c h o o l, w h ic h e n s u r e d th a t s h e got in to a c o m ­ petitive university, h e r p a r e n t s offered h e r y o u n g e s t b r o t h e r a H o n d a Ninja m o to rc y c le if he c o u ld m a n a g e to get a good SAT s c o r e a n d m a k e h i m s e l f eligible for college. W hen Priti c o m p la i n e d to h e r p a r ­ e n ts t h a t th is s e e m e d like a d o u b le s t a n d a r d , h e r p a r e n t s s a id , “It’s diffe re n t for you a n d y o u r b r o th e r . You d i d n ’t n e e d to be m o tiv a te d , b u t he d i d . ” T h is p a t t e r n is ty pical of m o s t of th e d a u g h t e r s we i n t e r ­ viewed, a n d given t h a t m o s t d a u g h t e r s d id n o t o u tw a r d ly q u e s tio n w hy th is diffe re n c e in m o tiv a tio n e x iste d b e tw e e n th e m s e lv e s a n d th e ir b r o t h e r s , th is s e e m s to be e vide nc e of th e e x te n t to w h ic h d a u g h ­ te r s th e m s e lv e s in te rn a liz e d , a n d b e h a v e d a c c o r d in g to, th is ideal. T h e “good d a u g h t e r ” c o m p le x c o uld have d e e p e r psychological c o n ­ s e q u e n c e s a s well. In the interview s, th e d a u g h te r is often viewed a s the m o r e r e s p o n s ib le one of h e r siblings, a n d in s o m e c a se s is even c o n ­

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sid e re d m o r e likely to su c c e e d in p ro fe ssio n a l m a t t e r s th a n h e r b r o t h ­ ers. However, this s e e m e d to c reate a s o r t of “b u r d e n of b e in g the b e s t ,” a n d m a n y of the d a u g h te r s wc interv iew ed d e s c r ib e d s p e n d i n g q uite a bit of tim e a n d energy living u p to th e se s t a n d a r d s , w h e th e r it be g r a d e s in sc h o o l or m a in ta in in g th e im age of social o b e d ie n c e a n d chastity. Very few p a r tic ip a n t s d e s c rib e d any type of reb ellion a g a in st th e s e s t a n d a r d s , a n d m o s t actually very m u c h w a n te d to live u p to th e ir p a r e n t s ’ e x p e c ta tio n s. On th e o th e r h a n d , a c c o r d in g to th e s e w o m e n , this b u r d e n is n o t p r e s e n t for th e ir b r o t h e r s , a n d th u s their b r o t h e r s w e re d e s c r ib e d a s b e ing m o r e c a s u a l a b o u t a d h e r in g to family e x p e c ta tio n s a n d ru les. Often the e x te n t to w hich o u r p a r tic i p a n ts th e m s e lv e s e n d o r s e d the “good d a u g h t e r ” p e r s o n a w a s reflected th ro u g h th e ir s t a t e m e n ts c o n ­ c e rn in g feelings of p rid e in th eir fre e d o m to p u r s u e h ig h -s ta tu s c a r e e rs a n d to c h o o s c their own fu tu re m a te s . At the s a m e time, m a n y of their d e s c r ip ti o n s of “f r e e d o m ” w ere c o u p le d with in te n s e p r e s s u r e to a l­ ways do well a n d su c c e e d in sc h o o l a n d c a r e e rs , a lon g with pow erful social r e s tric tio n s a b o u t w ho a n d w h e n to m arry, how to m a in t a in the im age of c h a stity in the p u blic s p h e r e , a n d the a p p r o p r i a t e m e t h o d of going o u t with frie n d s o r bo ys (usu ally by w ay of c h a p e r o n e s o r c o n ­ s t a n t c h e c k in g with p a r e n ts ) . In the case of one p a r tic ip a n t, S h o b h a , b o th p a r e n t s a n d e x te n d e d family m e m b e r s c o n sta n tly r e fe r r e d to h e r as “se ttin g the e x a m p le .” T h r o u g h o u t h e r interview, S h o b h a often d e ­ sc r ib e d having to be a role m o d e l for everyone, in c lu d in g h e r female c o u s in s a n d o th e r c o m m u n ity m e m b e r s , a n d sh e w a s often e n c o u r ­ aged in h e r s c h o o l w o r k o r social b e h a v io r s by r e m i n d e r s from h e r p a r e n t s th a t sh e s h o u l d n o t let p e ople dow n. Even in the c a se of h e r fa­ t h e r ’s family b u s in e s s , a lth o u g h S h o b h a ’s two y o u n g e r b r o t h e r s w ere p r e s s u r e d to c o n tin u e in the b u s in e s s , h e r fa th e r e xp ects S h o b h a to be the o n e to r u n it s o m e d a y b e c a u s e , a s s h e ex p la in e d , “He th i n k s I am m o r e r e s p o n s ib le , so he e xp ects the m o s t from m e ... I g u e ss they th in k I have th e m o s t p o te n tia l.” A lthough th e r e is a “good son" a rc h e ty p e in the m ythical s to r y of the god R a m , w ho e p ito m iz e d the “ideal s o n ” by following his f a th e r ’s o r ­ d e r s a n d going to th e fo re s t for 14 y e a rs, still, the “good s o n ” ideal is r e ­ lated to the self-interest of the p a r e n ts . T he “good s o n ” ideal highlights the filial o blig atio ns of the s o n s to ta k e c are of th eir p a r e n t s in th e ir old age. In a s e n se , the “good s o n ” ideal is in directly lin k e d to, a n d c o n ­ trols, the p sychological a n d social p r o d u c tio n of the “good w o m a n ” (i.e., th r o u g h the good daughter-in-law , w ho la k e s c a re of h e r in-laws d u r in g th e ir old age). T h is filial d u ty to the h u s b a n d ’s p a r e n t s is a c r u ­ cial c h a r a c te r is tic exp ected of th e good daughter-in-law , a n d is e x a m ­ ined by the family w h e n selectin g a s u ita b le b rid e . Often a s a re s u lt, in In d ia n c u ltu ra l n a r ra tiv e s , the d au g h te r-in -la w a n d m other-in -law conflicts o cc u p y a le g e n d a ry s ta t u s (see K akar, 1978).

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In I n d ia , typically th e wife m o v e s in w ith h e r h u s b a n d ’s family, a n d m o t h e r s - i n - l a w a r e th e m a j o r s o u r c e o f s t r e s s in th e lives o f n e w ly ­ w e d s. T h u s , se le c tin g a p a r t n e r for the s o n tr a d i tio n a ll y r e q u i r e s a c a r e f u l w e ig h in g of v a r i o u s f a c to r s , s u c h a s w h e t h e r th e p r o s p e c ti v e b r i d e will get a lo n g well w ith th e p a r e n t s , on to p of c o m p a tib il ity b e ­ tw e e n th e b r i d e a n d b r i d e g r o o m . B e c a u s e t h e r e a r e n o S o c ia l S e c u r ity b e n e f its in In d ia , h o w “a c c o m m o d a tiv e " a d a u g h te r - in - la w w o u ld be p la y s a n i m p o r t a n t ro le in m a k i n g d e c i s i o n s a b o u t c h o o s in g p r o s p e c ­ tive d a u g h te r s - in - la w . In teresting ly , even in th e U n ite d S ta te s , w h e r e aging p a r e n t s a r e n o t fin a n c ia lly d e p e n d e n t o n th e ir o ffsp rin g , we f o u n d t h a t I n d ia n i m m i g r a n t p a r e n t s h o l d o n to t h e ir t r a d i t i o n a l b e ­ liefs a b o u t l o o k in g a t th e fam ily h is t o r y of th e p r o s p e c ti v e b r i d e s (i.e., g ir lf r ie n d s o f th e ir s o n s ) . For e x a m p le , in th e c a s e o f P o o n a m , th e r e p u ­ ta tio n of h e r o w n m o t h e r a n d g r a n d m o t h e r h a s b e c o m e a p r o b l e m in h e r c u r r e n t d a t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h i s c o n c e r n s a n i n c i d e n t th a t o c c u r r e d se v e r a l y e a r s ago b u t th a t is still k n o w n in th e c o m m u n i ty . W h en P o o n a m w a s younger, h e r p a r e n t s w e re living w ith h e r w ido w e d p a t e r n a l g r a n d m o t h e r a n d w e re p la n n in g a m o v e to a new city. At the l a s t m in u te , P o o n a m ’s g r a n d m o t h e r d e c id e d th a t s h e c o u ld n 't leave the fam ily h o u s e , w h ic h c o n ta in e d so m a n y m e m o r i e s , a n d a lth o u g h s h e h a d c o m m itt e d to h e lp in g P o o n a m 's p a r e n t s p u t a d o w n p a y m e n t o n the new h o u s e , s h e w a s b a c k in g ou t. T h is le a d to a n in te n s e fight w hile P o o n a m w a s aw a y a t s u m m e r c a m p , a n d by th e tim e s h e r e t u r n e d , h e r g r a n d m o t h e r h a d m o v e d o u t a n d g one to live w ith h e r f a th e r ’s sister. Ac­ c o r d in g to tr a d itio n a l In d ia n c u ltu r e , h av in g a m o t h e r leave h e r s o n ’s h o m e a n d m o v e in w ith h e r d a u g h t e r is c o n s id e r e d a c u ltu ra lly s h a m e ­ ful event a n d reflects p o o rly on the e n tire family. In P o o n a m 's c ase, a p ­ p a r e n tly h e r g r a n d m o t h e r c o m p l a in e d to m a n y c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s (in c lu d in g Baljit, the w o m a n w h o s e s o n w o u ld la te r b e c o m e P o o n a m ’s b oyfriend ) th a t s h e h a d left b e c a u s e P o o n a m ’s m o t h e r h a d given h e r fa­ th e r a n u ltim a tu m : E ith e r h e h a d to leave h is m o th e r , o r h is wife w a s leaving h im . T h e id e a th a t a n In d ia n d a u g h te r-in -la w w o u ld force s u c h a c o n f ro n ta tio n b e tw e e n h e r h u s b a n d a n d m o th e r-in -la w w a s s h o c k in g a n d e x tre m e ly s h a m e f u l, a n d th is event c a u s e d a g r e a t d e a l of g o s s ip in the c o m m u n ity . Se v e ra l y e a r s later, w h e n P o o n a m b e g a n d a tin g Baljit’s so n , Baljit b e c a m e very u p s e t a n d w o r r ie d th a t P o o n a m c a m e fro m a b a d family, a n d th a t if th e r e la t io n s h ip got s e r io u s , P o o n a m w o u ld s i m i ­ larly “s t e a l” h e r s o n fro m her. After relay in g th is s to r y d u r i n g the i n t e r ­ view, P o o n a m re v e a le d th a t recently, Baljit h a d called h e r on the p h o n e a n d told h e r to s ta y aw a y fro m h e r s o n . A lth o u g h th is s e e m s to b e a n ex­ tr e m e c ase , it e p ito m iz e s th e c u lt u r a l th e m e o f the m o th e r-in -la w v e r s u s d a u g h te r-in -la w conflict, a n d h ig h lig h ts th e w ays in w h ic h e x p e c ta tio n s a n d d e m a n d s a r e p la c e d on girls n o t only by t h e ir ow n p a r e n t s b u t also by th e la rg e r c o m m u n ity , even after im m ig r a tio n to th e n ew a n d d is tin c t c u ltu r a l c o n te x t o f th e U n ite d S ta te s .

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D iffere n tia l T rea tm en ts A s e c o n d a r y yet highly re la te d th e m e involved the p r e s e n c e of ce rta in types of d o m a in -s p e c ific differential t r e a t m e n t of s o n s a n d d a u g h te r s . A lm o st all p a r tic ip a n t s r e p o r te d so m e types of differential tre a tm e n t in the re a lm of dating, m a r r ia g e , c urfew s, a n d o th e r social b e h a v io rs. However, this g e n d e r e d s e t of r u le s a n d e x p e c ta tio n s d id n o t s e e m to tr a n s la te to the a c a d e m ic /c a r e e r d o m a in . In t e r m s of college, e x p e c ta ­ tio n s for g r a d e s , a n d c a re e rs , d a u g h te r s w ere given e q u a l o p p o r t u n i ­ ties a n d r e s o u r c e s . At le a s t a s m u c h , if n o t m o r e , w a s e x pected of th em c o m p a r e d with th e ir b r o t h e r s . In t e r m s of th e c o m p a r i s o n b e tw e e n o u r p a r ti c ip a n t s a n d th e ir b r o t h e r s , for girls, d a tin g w a s never explicitly a l­ lowed in high scho ol; a lth o u g h th is w a s s o m e t im e s the c a se for their b r o th e r s , often the r u le s h a d greatly relax ed by the tim e the m a le s i b ­ lings re a c h e d d a tin g age. C o n c e rn in g m a rria g e, r e s p o n d e n ts often said th a t it w as im p o r ta n t to their p a r e n ts th a t their b r o th e r m a r r y a sim ila r w o m a n in te r m s of castc a n d religion, b u t this h a d to do less with him th a n with the expected role of h is fu tu re wife. T h a t is, the c o n ce rn w a s th a t b e c a u se a s o n d id n't seem to always kn o w eno ug h a b o u t the c u ltu re a n d language (as c o m ­ p a r e d with d a u g h te rs, w ho a lm o s t always did), his future wife sh o u ld be the “prote c to r" a n d tr a n s m itt e r of c u ltu ra l knowledge. P a ren ts had oth e r specific r e stric tio n s for their d a u g h te r s ’ m a rria g e p r o sp e c ts. M ost p a rtic ip a n ts d e sc rib e d firm age exp ectatio ns for w h en a d a u g h te r is too old to get m a r r ie d , the b e s t time b eing betw een ages 23 a n d 28 years. In ad dition , it is im p o r t a n t th a t the d a u g h te r be m a r r ie d before h e r b r o t h ­ ers, a tra d itio n a l belief still u p h e ld in the p o stm ig ra tio n context. S o m e p a r e n t s p u s h e d for a r r a n g e d m a r ria g e , b u t a lm o s t all settled for c o m p r o m is e , w h e re they w ere allow ed to in tr o d u c e y o u n g m e n to th e ir d a u g h te r s . T h is c o n c e r n highlights a n is s u e of w ho the fu tu re s p o u s e s h o u ld be, a n d th e fact th a t m o s t d a u g h te r s sa id th e ir p a r e n ts w o u ld be u p s e t if m a t c h i n g tra its s u c h a s race, religion, a n d caste w e re n 't c h o s e n in a m a r r ia g e p a rtn e r. T h is s e e m e d to fall on a c o n tin ­ u u m , however, w ith s o m e choices, s u c h a s C a u c a s ia n A m e ric a n s , le a d ­ ing to o nly t e m p o r a r y d i s a p p o i n t m e n t , w h e r e a s o th e r s , n o ta b ly M u slim s o r A frican A m e ric a n s, m ig h t p ro v o k e o u tra g e , le c tu r e s /a r g u ­ m e n ts , a n d even " o u tc a stin g ” or c u ttin g off all c ontact. Several p a r tic i­ p a n t s ex p lain ed th is by saying th a t b asically the family w a s c o n c e r n e d with th e ir p o te n tia l m a te s b e in g “r e s p e c ta b le ” a c c o r d in g to the P u n ja b i co m m u n ity , a n d overall, this e m p h a s i s on the c o m m u n i ty ’s evaluation of the family, the c h ild r e n , their b e h a v io rs , a n d th e ir a c h ie v e m e n ts is a n o th e r r e c u r r e n t th e m e in the interview s. A lthough p a r t ic ip a n ts d e ­ sc r ib e d this influ ence r e a c h in g all m e m b e r s of th e co m m u n ity , it s e e m e d t h a t the b u r d e n of u p h o ld in g c o m m u n ity s t a n d a r d s fell e s p e ­ cially heavy on s e c o n d - g e n e r a tio n d a u g h te r s , a n d several w o m e n ex­ plain ed th a t w h o they d a te d a n d m a r r ie d h a d to s e t an e x a m p le for their b r o th e r s , c o u sin s, a n d o th e r s in the co m m u n ity .

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In t e r m s o f o th e r social r e s tr ic tio n s , p a r e n t s w ere m o r e re stric tiv e w h e n th e ir c h il d r e n w e re in high sc h o o l, b u t th is w a s typically m o r e th e e ase for d a u g h t e r s th a n for th e ir b r o t h e r s . Often, o u r p a r t i c i p a n t s d e ­ s c r ib e d h a v in g im p lic it c u rfe w s th a t m e a n t they s h o u l d b e h o m e by 10 o r 11 p .m .; h o w e v e r they often re la te d t h a t th e ir b r o t h e r s , in m a n y c a s e s younger, typically sta y e d o u t u n til 2 o r 3 a .m . a n d n o th in g s e e m e d to h a p p e n to th e m . W h e n a s k e d w h y th is difference e x isted , S h o b h a sa id th a t h e r p a r e n t s k n o w th a t h e r b r o t h e r s a r e "ju s t d o in g h a r m l e s s th in g s w ith frie n d s , b u t they th in k I’m d o in g th e w r o n g t h in g s .” D e sp ite this, S h o b h a r e p o r t e d t h a t s h e c a n alw ays sta y o u t la te r if s h e is a c c o m p a ­ n ied by a t r u s t e d m a le c h a p e r o n e , s u c h a s a b r o t h e r o r a m a le c o u sin . T h is w a s a lso very c o m m o n w ith o u r p a r t ic i p a n ts , even in c a s e s w h e r e the c h a p e r o n e w a s a y o u n g e r b r o th e r , a n d even w h e n p a r e n t s h a d ex­ plicitly in d ic a te d th a t in o th e r d o m a i n s , s u c h a s s c h o o l a n d w o r k , the d a u g h te r w a s viewed a s the m o r e r e s p o n s ib le one.

IM PLICATIONS FOR CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY OF G E N D E R AND IMMIGRATION Wc h a d two m a i n g o a ls for th e q u a lita tiv e s t u d y j u s t d e s c r i b e d ; (a) to in v e stig a te w h e t h e r th e r e w a s a n y s y s te m i c g e n d e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in th e w a y s in w h ic h b o y s a n d g irls w e re r a i s e d in i m m i g r a n t I n d ia n f a m i ­ lies, a n d (b) to e x a m in e w h e t h e r id e a liz e d n o t i o n s o f g e n d e r d id p e r ­ m e a te v a rio u s g e n d e r so c ia liz a tio n p ra c tic e s am o n g seco n d g e n e r a tio n I n d i a n A m e r ic a n w o m e n . It is very e n c o u r a g i n g to n o te t h a t b a s e d on o u r in te rv ie w s, we f o u n d t h a t In d ia n i m m i g r a n t p a r e n t s w e r e g e n e ra lly e n t h u s i a s t i c a n d s u p p o r t i v e a b o u t t h e ir d a u g h t e r s g o in g to s c h o o l a n d p u r s u i n g a c a re e r. In th is d o m a i n , th e i m m i g r a n t e x p e r i ­ e n c e s e e m s to ha ve r e s u l t e d in th e b e t t e r t r e a t m e n t o f d a u g h t e r s a n d a n e q u ita b le i n v e s t m e n t in th e ir c a r e e r s , in c o m p a r i s o n to th e g ro w in g p r o b l e m of fe m a le feticide a n d n e g le c t in v a r i o u s p a r t s o f In d ia . U nlik e in In d ia , th e d a u g h t e r s a n d s o n s g r o w in g u p in th e U n ite d S t a t e s se e m to gel s i m i l a r e n c o u r a g e m e n t fr o m th e ir p a r e n t s to s u c c e e d in s c h o o ls a n d to p u r s u e h ig h s t a t u s c a r e e r s . At th e s a m e tim e , how ever, th e m e s s a g e in th e s o c ia l d o m a i n s e e m s to b e e n tire ly d iffere n t. Id e a liz e d g e n d e r id e n titie s p lay a piv o tal role in s h a p i n g v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of g e n d e r s o c ia liz a tio n p r a c t i c e s o f th e s e i m ­ m i g r a n t s . D a u g h t e r s d e s c r i b e d e x p e r ie n c e s full o f im p lic it m e s s a g e s a b o u t b e in g a “g o o d d a u g h t e r . ” A lth o u g h th is g o o d d a u g h t e r / w o m a n id e a l h a s r o o t s in I n d ia n c u l tu r e , t h a t id e a l is c a r r i e d over to th e i m m i ­ g r a n t e x p e r ie n c e in th e U n ite d S t a t e s t h r o u g h c o n t r o l o f so c ia l lives, c o m m u n i t y im a g e , a n d se x u a lity of d a u g h t e r s . T h e r e s e e m s to b e s o m e c u l t u r a l c o n ti n u ity in th e w a y s in w h ic h id e a liz e d c u l t u r a l be lie fs a b o u t g e n d e r c o n tr o l i m m i g r a n t d a u g h t e r s ' lives in th e U n ite d S ta te s . M ore th a n for th e s o n s , th e c h a s tity o f t h e s e d a u g h t e r s s e e m s to be stro n g ly tied to th e s e n s e of fam ily h o n o r a n d re sp e c ta b ility . T h i s is refle c ted in th e r e c u r r e n t t h e m e s a m o n g o u r p a r t i c i p a n t s c o n c e r n i n g a n x ie ty t h a t

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b e h a v io rs o r d e c isio n s will b r in g s h a m e to the family. In fact, the e n tire family plays a role in m a in ta in in g the d a u g h t e r ’s purity, a n d even b r o t h e r s a re cxpcctcd to c h a u ffe u r their s i s te r s so th a t they do not engage in a n y th in g th a t m ig h t b r in g s h a m e to the family. T h u s , o u r r e s u l ts sugg est t h a t c u ltu r e w o r k s a s a “re s id u a l" in se le c ­ tive a n d c o m p lic a te d ways. In d ia n i m m ig r a n t p a r e n t s se e m to have d is r e g a r d e d tra d itio n a l p a t t e r n s of lower in v e s tm e n t in the sc h o o lin g a n d c a r e e r s of d a u g h te r s in favor of a m o r e A m e ric a n -sty le e m p h a s is on high a c h ie v e m e n t a n d financial i n d e p e n d e n c e ; a t the s a m e time, however, they have r e ta in e d th e “good w o m a n ” ideal from In d ia n c u l­ tu re , a n d c o n tin u e to value t ra d itio n a l so cial/sex ual c o n tro l over d a u g h te r s even in the new, p o s tm ig ra tio n context. F u r th e r c o m p lic a t­ ing th e p ic tu re, however, w ere several in s ta n c e s in the n a r r a tiv e s in w hich the d a u g h te r s also fo u n d creative w ays of negotiating th e d e ­ m a n d s of the c u ltu r a l ide a ls to exercise th e ir own s e n s e of agency. In this study, we interview ed only s e c o n d - g e n e ra tio n fem ale s t u ­ d e n ts . Given th e c o n te n t of m a n y i s s u e s r a is e d in th e s e interview s, a p r o m i s in g fu tu re d ire c tio n w o u ld be to follow u p the s tu d y by also in ­ te rview ing yo u n g m e n from P u n ja b i i m m ig r a n t families. In a d d itio n , b e c a u s e several of o u r p a r t ic ip a n ts a tte n d the s a m e un iv e rsity a s th e ir b r o th e r s , a n d in s o m e c a se s even s h a r e the s a m e a p a r t m e n t a t college, we are very in te re s te d in o b ta in in g d a t a from th e s e b r o t h e r s a s well. In ­ te rview ing b o th b r o t h e r s a n d s i s te r s from the s a m e fam ilies w ou ld pro v id e a m o r e full a c c o u n t of the p r o c e s s a n d the effects of g e n d e r so cialization w ith in the family. T h is s tu d y fo c u se s on the p r o c e s s u n d e rly in g c u ltu ra l beliefs, a n d how yo u n g w o m e n e x p e rie n c e the im p a c t of th eir fam ily’s im m ig ra tio n to a new c u ltu r a l setting. T h is p ro v id e s a useful s ta r tin g p o in t from w hich to c o n s t r u c t a th e o re tica l b a s e for c o n tin u in g w o r k on g e n d e r a n d im m i g r a n t s in the U n ited S ta te s, a s well a s a g lim p se into how the lives of s e c o n d - g e n e ra tio n i m m ig r a n t w o m e n a re s h a p e d by th e exis­ tence of th e s e d u a l c u ltu r a l c o ntexts. For ex a m p le , the “good d a u g h t e r ” th e m e s e e m s to c re a te a ce rta in degree of s t r e s s a m o n g y o u n g w o m e n to live u p to high e x p e c ta tio n s of b o th pe rfe c t a c a d e m ic /p r o f e s s io n a l a c h ie v e m e n t a n d o b e d ie n t, p io u s p u rity in the s ocial/sexual re a lm . B a se d on this r e s e a r c h , we b e c a m e in te r e s te d in e x a m in in g the p o s s i ­ ble m e n ta l h e a lth im p lic a tio n s of the s tr a in c a u s e d by idealized g e n d e r beliefs s u c h a s “good d a u g h te r ,” a s well a s the “good s o n ” ideals, a n d to investigate ho w r e la tio n s h ip s w ithin the family a rc im p a c te d by th e se ex p e c ta tio n s a n d re s u ltin g s tr e s s . To do so, we d ev eloped a M odel Mi­ no rity Scale (M ahalingam & I la r ita to s , u n d e r review-b) th a t ta p p e d into v a r io u s g e n d e re d a s p e c ts of idealized c u ltu r a l id e n titie s ro o te d in th e m y th of A sian A m e r ic a n s a s m o d e l m in o ritie s . T h e scale c o n ta in s th e following s u b s c a le s : (a) m o d e l m in o rity stere o ty p e, (b) m o d e l m i ­ n ority m a le ideal, (c) m o d e l m in o rity female ideal, (d) m o d e l m in o rity p rid e , a n d (e) m o d e l m in o rity p r e s s u r e . We fo u n d t h a t a s a c u ltu ra l ideal, the m o d e l m in o r ity ideal c o n tr i b u te s to p r id e a n d p r e s s u r e in

14.

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271

g e n d e r - s p e c ific w ays. W o m e n w h o e n d o r s e d th e m o d e l m in o r ity fe­ m a le id e a l a lso e x p e r i e n c e d p r i d e a n d p r e s s u r e , a n d p r i d e a n d p r e s ­ s u r e negatively a n d p ositive ly c o n t r i b u t e d to d e p r e s s i o n , respectively. T h e fin d in g s w e re c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e d u a l p a t h w a y s to m e n t a l h e a lth a s d e lin e a te d in th e ICI m o d e l. T h e c o n v e rg in g e v id e n c e s u g g e s ts t h a t so c ia l p o s it io n i n g o f A sia n A m e r i c a n w o m e n leav es th e m in a u n i q u e p r e d i c a m e n t . O n th e o n e h a n d , th e s e w o m e n hail fro m a c u l t u r e t h a t f a v o rs s o n s . T h e r e is e n o r ­ m o u s s o c ia l p r e s s u r e on t h e m to b e s u c c e s s f u l a n d p r o v e th e m s e lv e s a g a in s t v a r i o u s f o r m s of d iffe re n tia l t r e a t m e n t . B e in g view ed a s a " m o d e l m in o r ity ,” A sia n i m m i g r a n t w o m e n (b o th f ir s t a n d s e c o n d g e n ­ e r a tio n s ) a ls o face th e b u r d e n o f “c a r r y in g t h e ir c u l t u r e s . ” In a d d itio n , a s m i n o r i t y w o m e n , th e y a ls o o ften h a ve to p o s iti o n th e ir g e n d e r i d e n ­ tity in o p p o s i t i o n to “W h ite ” w o m e n ( C o n s ta b le , 2 0 0 3 ; E s p i r i t u , 2 0 0 1 ; M a h a lin g a m & Leu, 2 0 0 5 ) . T h u s A s ia n A m e r i c a n w o m e n face a triple p r e d i c a m e n t — th ey n e e d to c o n f r o n t th e g e n d e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n w ith in th e ir e th n ic g r o u p , th e g e n d e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a s m in o r i t y w o m e n , a n d th e p r e s s u r e to u p h o l d th e “p u r i t y ” o f t h e ir c u ltu r e , w h ic h c o n t r a s t s th e m w ith “c u l t u r e l e s s W hite w o m e n . ” S u c h m u l tip le i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f m a r g in a liz e d g e n d e r e x p e r ie n c e s affect A sia n A m e r i c a n w o m e n 's lives in c o m p le x w ay s. T h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l w e ll-b e in g o f th e s e w o m e n a lso s e e m s to d e p e n d o n h o w they n e g o tia te th e c o m p e t i n g d e m a n d s o f th e s e c u l t u r a l id e a ls in v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f t h e i r lives. However, in d iv id ­ u a l d iffe re n c e f a c t o r s s u c h a s o p t i m i s m a n d r e s ilie n c e m a y a lso s h a p e th e v a r i o u s p a t h w a y s to s u c c e s s f u lly n e g o tia tin g th e p o sitiv e a n d n e g a ­ tive c o n s e q u e n c e s o f in te r n a liz i n g c u l t u r a l i d e n titie s , a n d t h e s e i n d i ­ v id u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a v e n o t b e e n e x a m in e d in re la ti o n to id e a liz e d id e n tity c o n s t r u c t s . In a d d itio n , the d e v e lo p m e n ta l c h a n g e s involved in t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d i n te r n a liz a tio n of c u l t u r a l id e a ls n e e d to b e e x a m i n e d to identify v a r i o u s d e v e l o p m e n t a l t r a j e c t o r i e s to s u c c e s s f u l n e g o tia tio n o f id e a liz e d c u l t u r a l id e n titie s . In s u m m a r y , we s e t o u t to p r o p o s e a c u l t u r a l p s y c h o lo g y o f g e n d e r p e r s p e c t i v e to s t u d y i m m i g r a n t s . We p r o p o s e d , a n d f o u n d s u p p o r t for, t h e n o t i o n t h a t i d e a l i z e d c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s p l a y a c r iti c a l r o l e in th e life e x p e r i e n c e s a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l w ell b e i n g o f A s ia n i m m i g r a n t w o m e n . H o w e v e r, a l t h o u g h r e s e a r c h e r s f r o m th e d i s c i p l i n e s o f a n ­ th r o p o l o g y a n d s o c io lo g y h a v e e x a m i n e d t h e c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e t h n i c i d e n t i t y a n d g e n d e r a n d its i m p a c t o n m e n a n d w o m e n ’s liv es, v e r y little c u l t u r a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l w o r k h a s i n v e s t i ­ g a t e d i s s u e s s u r r o u n d i n g th e ro le o f id e a l i z e d i d e n t i t i e s a m o n g i m ­ m i g r a n t s . We s u g g e s t, t h e n , t h a t c u l t u r a l p s y c h o l o g y n e e d s to a d o p t a n i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y f r a m e w o r k u s i n g a v a r ie ty o f m e t h o d s to i n v e s ­ tig a te h o w i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f c u l t u r e , e th n ic ity , i m m i g r a n t g e n e r a t i o n , a n d s o c i a l c l a s s in f l u e n c e th e p r o d u c t i o n , t r a n s m i s s i o n , a n d i n t e r ­ n a liz a tio n of v a r io u s c u ltu ra l id e a ls, a n d the c o m p le x re a litie s of h o w i n t e r s e c t i n g i d e n t i t i e s h a v e u n i q u e e ffe c ts o n th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l w e l l- b e i n g o f i m m i g r a n t w o m e n a n d m e n . S u c h a t a s k w o u l d e n a b l e

272

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u s to b e g in t h e i m p o r t a n t w o r k o f i d e n ti f y in g m e a n i n g f u l c u l t u r a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n t e c e d e n t s to i m m i g r a n t m e n t a l h e a l t h . W hile w o r k in g o n th is p ro je c t, wc often t a lk e d a b o u t o u r o w n i n t e r ­ s e c tin g s o cia l id e n titie s. R a m is a first-g e n e ra tio n i m m i g r a n t w h o c o m e s from a s m a ll tow n in Ind ia. He is th e first g e n e r a tio n in h is fam ily w h o w e n t to college. P rio r to i m m ig r a tio n , h e led a m o r e o r le ss “c u l t u r e l e s s ” life b e c a u s e h e d id n o t n e e d to have a reflective u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h is "cu lture." J a n a c o m e s from a s m a ll M id w e ste rn to w n in th e U nited S ta te s , a lth o u g h h e r p a t e r n a l g r a n d f a t h e r a n d g r e a t - g r a n d p a r e n t s i m ­ m i g r a te d to th e U nited S ta te s f ro m G reece. S h e is a lso m a r r i e d to a M a ­ la ysia n C h in e s e im m ig r a n t. By a p p e a r a n c e , th o u g h , s h e co u ld p a s s for a “c u l tu r e l e s s W h ite ” w o m a n . In fo r m u la tin g th is w o rk , we often ta lk e d a b o u t th e a xes of privileges (g e n d e r a n d ethnicity) a n d a x e s of m a r g i n a l ­ ity (e thnicity a n d g e n d e r ) o f o u r id e n titie s, c i r c u m s c r i b e d by th e v a rio u s c o m p lc x r e la tio n a l a n d s itu a tio n a l a s p e c t s o f o u r lives. Wc in d e e d p u r ­ s u e d a line of r e s e a r c h th a t e x a m in e d m a n y of o u r a s s u m p t i o n s a n d “l e a r n e d w i s d o m s " a b o u t g end er, c u ltu re , a n d im m ig r a tio n . We w e re of­ ten o v e r w h e lm e d by th e re a liz a tio n t h a t e m b o d i m e n t o f s o c ia l e x p e r i­ e n c e s a t th e in te r s e c tio n s of ra c e , c la ss , ethnicity, a n d g e n d e r h a s c o m p le x c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d by th e im m e n s e l y c h a lle n g in g ta s k o f d evel­ o p in g a s o p h i s tic a te d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e s e c o n s e q u e n c e s . We believe, however, t h a t p u r s u i n g s u c h a ch a lle n g e is critical a n d w o u ld greatly vi­ talize th e re le v a n c e o f c u lt u r a l p syc h olog y for th e s tu d y o f g e n d e r a n d im m ig r a tio n in the new m ille n n iu m .

R E FE R E N C E S B a r n e s , J . S ., & B e n n e tt , C. E. (2 0 0 2 ) . The Asian population: 2000. R e trie v e d J a n u a r y 3 0 , 2 0 0 6 fr o m th e U.S. C e n s u s B u r e a u , D e p a r t m e n t o f C o m m e r c e N e w s Web site: h t t p : / / w w w . c e n s u s . g o v / p r o d / 2 0 0 2 p u b s / c 2 k b r 0 t - 1 6 . p d f B e s t, D. L., & W illiam s, J . E. (1 9 9 7 ) . S ex , g e n d e r a n d c u l t u r e . In J . W. Berry. M. H. Segall, & C. K a g itc ib a s i (E d s .) , Ha nd bo ok o f cross-cultural psychology (Vol. 3. p p . 1 6 3 - 2 1 2 ) . B o s to n : Allyn B a c o n . C o n s t a b l e , N. (2 0 0 3 ) . Ro m an c e on a global stage. B e rk e le y : U n iv e rs ity o f C a li­ fo r n ia P r e s s . D a s g u p t a , S., & D a s g u p t a , S. D. ( 2 0 0 0 ) . W o m e n in exile: G e n d e r r e l a t i o n s in th e A sia n A m e r i c a n c o m m u n i t y in th e U n ite d S t a t e s . In J . Yu-wen S h e n & M. S o n g (E d s .) , Asian Ameri can studies: A reader (p p . 3 2 4 - 3 3 7 ) . New B r u n s ­ w ick , N J : R u t g e r s U n iv e rs ity P r e s s . E s p i n , O. M. (1 9 9 9 ) . Women crossing boundaries: A psychology o f i m m i g r a­ tion and transform ations o f sexuality. New York: R o u tle d g e . E s p i r i t u , Y. (2 0 0 1 ) . "We d o n ’t sl e e p a r o u n d like W hite g ir ls d o." Family, c u l t u r e a n d g e n d e r in F il ip i n a A m e r i c a n lives. Signs, 26(2). 4 1 5 - 4 4 0 . H o n d a g n e u - S o t e l o , P. (1 9 9 4 ) . Gendered transitions. B erkeley.: U n iv e rs ity of C a li fo rn i a P r e s s . H u d s o n , V. M., & d e n Boer, A. M. ( 2 0 0 4 ) . Bare branches: The security impli­ cations o f Asia's surplus male population. C a m b r i d g e , MA: MIT P r e s s . K a k a r, S. (1 9 7 8 ) . The inner world: A psycho-analytic st udy o f childhood and society in India. New D elhi, In d ia : O x fo rd U n iv e rs ity P r e s s . L a k s h m i , C. S. ( 1 9 8 4 ) . Face beind the m as k . D elhi, In d ia : V ikas.

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L in d isfarn c , N. (1998). G ender, sh a m e , a n d cu ltu re : An an th ro p o lo g ic a l p e r ­ spective. In P. G ilb ert (Ed.), S h a m e : I n t e r p e r s o n a l behavi or, p s y c h ­ o p a t h o l og y , a n d c u lt u r e (pp. 2 4 6 - 2 6 0 ) . New York: Oxford U niversity Press. M a halingam , R. (u n d e r review). Be li ef s a b o u t c h as t i t y , m a s c u l i n i t y a n d c a s t e identity. M a halingam , R., & H a rita to s. J. (u n d e r review-a). Cu l t ur a l p s y c h o l o g y a n d g e n d e r : A c u l tu ral ecological i n t e r se c li o na l it y p e r s p e c t i v e . M a halingam , R., & H a rita to s . J. (u n d e r review-b). M o d el m i n o r i t y m y t h : E n ­ g e n d e r i n g cul tu ra l p s y c h o l o g y o f A s i a n i m m i g r a n t s . M a halingam , R., & J a c k s o n . B. (u n d e r review). I d e a l i z e d g e n d e r beliefs, s e l f a p p r a i s a l s a n d m e n t a l he al th : T h e I d e a l i z e d Cu lt ura l I d e n t i t i e s mo d e l . M a halingam , R.. & Leu, J . (2005). C u ltu re , e s se n tia lism , i m m ig ra tio n a n d r e p ­ r e s e n ta tio n s of gender. T he o r y a n d Ps yc ho l og y , 15(6), 8 4 1 - 8 6 2 . . O rtner, S. ( 1974). Is m ale to female a s n a t u r e is to c u ltu re ? In M. R o sald o & L. L a m p h e r e (Eds.), W o m a n , c ul ture, a n d s o ci e ty (pp. 6 7 -8 8 ). S ta n fo rd , CA: S ta n f o r d U niversity Press. R o la n d . A. (1988). In s e a r c h o f s e l f in I n d i a a n d J a p a n . P rin c eto n . N J: P rin c e ­ ton U niversity Press. Schaffer. H. R. (1996). S oc ial d e v e l o p m e n t . M alden, MA: Blackwell. S h a h , S. (1994). P re se n tin g the b lue g o d d e s s: T ow ard a n a tio n a l, Pan-Asian fem inist age n d a . In K. A.-S. J u a n (Ed.), T h e s t a t e o f A s i a n A m e r i c a : A c t i v ­ i sm a n d r e s i s t a n c e in t he 1 9 9 0 s (pp. 1 4 7 -1 5 8 ). B oston: S o u th E n d. S te w a rt, A. J., & M cD erm o tt, C. (2004). G e n d e r in psychology. A n n u a l R e v i e w P sy ch ol og y, 55, 5 1 9 - 5 4 4 . Wadley, S. ( 1991 ). T h e p a r a d o x ic a l p o w e rs of Tam il w o m e n . In S. Wadley (Ed.), T h e p o w e r s o f t he T a m i l w o m e n (pp. 1 5 3 -1 6 7 ). S y ra c u se , NY: S y ra c u se University.

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Part IV Immigration and Family

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15 Conceptual and Research Considerations in the Determinants of Child Outcomes Among English-Speaking Caribbean Immigrants in the United States: A Cultural-Ecological Approach J a i p a u l L. R o o p n a r i n e A m b ik a K ris h n a k u m a r S y r a c u s e University

D uring the last three d ecad es, there have been s h a r p in creases in p o p ­ ulation m o v em en t from the C arib be a n to North America a n d E uro pe. In certain cases, the n u m b e r of people who m igrated from C arib bea n co un tries to p o stin du strialized societies co nstitutes a significant p o r ­ tion of the send ing c o u n try ’s entire population. For example, between 1981 an d 200 2, app rox im ately 187,600 individuals im m ig rated from G uyana to the United States, which a m o u n t s to roughly a q u a rt e r of G uyana's c u rr e n t pop ulation of ab o u t 7 5 0 .0 0 0 people. As can be gleaned from Fig. 15.1, C uba, the D om inican Republic, Haiti, Ja -

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350n 300-

250-

200-

15 0 -

100 50-

0□ Cuba ■ Dominican Republic □ Haiti ■ Jamaica ■ Trinidad andTobago □ Guyana ■ Other Caribbea n Countries

1981-1990

1991-2000

2001

2002

159.2 251.8 14a 2

180.9 340.9 181.8

27.7 21.3 27.1

28.3 2Z6

213.8 39.5 95.4

173.5 63.3 73.9

15.4 6.7 8.3

14.9

8& 2

55.7

5.3

4.6

20.3 5.8 10

FIG . 1 5 .1 . I m m i g r a n t s to th e U n ite d S t a t e s d u r i n g 1 9 8 1 - 2 0 0 2 (in t h o u ­ s a n d s ) . D a t a fr o m U.S. D e p a r t m e n t o f H o m e l a n d S e cu rity , 2 0 0 2 Y e a rb o o k o f I m m i g r a n t S t a t is ti c s .

m a ic a , a n d T r i n i d a d a n d T ob ag o s h o w s i m i l a r t r e n d s a n d a r e a lso th e o r ig in s o f s iz a b le n u m b e r s o f i m m i g r a n t s to th e U n ite d S ta te s . A m a ­ jo r it y of th e i m m i g r a n t s t e n d to be relatively y ou ng , b e lo w 5 0 y e a r s of age, a n d ha v e a tta in e d o nly a high s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n o r b e lo w (see Figs. 15 .2 a n d 15.3). D e sp ite th e ir low levels o f e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t u p o n a r r iv a l, se v e r a l a c c o u n t s s u g g e s t t h a t C a r i b b e a n i m m i g r a n t s ha v e d o n e well e c o n o m ic a lly w h e n c o m p a r e d to o t h e r i m m i g r a n t a n d e th n ic g r o u p s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s (K a sin itz , 2 0 0 1 ; R o o p n a r i n e & S h in , 2 0 0 3 ) . A lth o u g h d e m o g r a p h i c a l l y they a r e a s iz a b le g r o u p in the U n ite d S ta te s , very little is k n o w n a b o u t th e s o c ia l a n d p s y c h o lo g ic a l a s p e c t s of th e lives o f C a r i b b e a n i m m i g r a n t s .

C O N C E P T U A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S IN CHI LD O U T C O M E S

U□ Uxter5years g|5Hyears □ 15-24 years □ 25-34 years □ 35-44 yeais ■45-54 years ■ $-64 years Bl ffi-74 years □ 7564 years B85 years and abcve

279

2003 18

m 371 27 736 637 419 318 169 60

FIG. 15.2. Age g r o u p s o f fo r e ig n -b o r n C a r i b b e a n i m m i g r a n t s ( n a t u ra l iz e d citize ns, legal p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n t s , t e m p o r a r y m i g r a n t s , refu g e es, a n d p e o ­ ple illegally p r e s e n t in the U n ite d S ta t e s ) in 2 0 0 3 . N u m b e r s in t h o u s a n d s . D a ta fro m U.S. C e n s u s B u r e a u , C u r r e n t P o p u la tio n R e p o r ts , P 2 0 - 5 5 1 .

T h i s c h a p t e r h a s its g e n e s is in a t t e m p t s to b r id g e o u r o w n e x p e r i ­ e n c e s a s i m m i g r a n t s w h o ha v e s t u d i e d a n d r e m a i n e d in th e U n ite d S t a t e s to p u r s u e r e s e a r c h a n d te a c h in g c a r e e r s a n d a d e s i r e to c o n t r i b ­ u te to a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f key p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t o r s t h a t m a y h e lp to d efine th e e x p e r ie n c e s a n d daily lives o f i m m i g r a n t s in g e n e r a l, a n d C a r i b b e a n i m m i g r a n t s m o r e specifically. T h a t is, we a im to f u r ­ th e r u n r a v e l th e d e v e lo p m e n ta l c h a n g e s t h a t p r e s u m a b l y o c c u r in d if­ fe r e n t d o m a i n s of f a m i lie s ’ lives a s th e y m o v e f ro m o n e c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i t y to a n o th e r . O n th e o n e h a n d , we ha v e p e r s o n a l l y d e a lt w ith i s s u e s of a c c u l t u r a t i o n , id e n tity c o n f u s i o n , a lie n a tio n , d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , a n d a n t i - i m m i g r a n t s e n t i m e n t s , a s well a s e n c o u n t e r e d t r e m e n d o u s o p p o r t u n i t i e s to re a liz e o u r e d u c a t i o n a l a n d c a r e e r g oals. O n the o t h e r h a n d , a s we s p e n d tim e in i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in the

280

R OOPNAR 1 XE AND KRI S HNAKUMAR

U-

2003

□ Less than 9th yade

504

B N nth to 12th grade □ High School yaduate

921

□Sam e colege or Assocete degree

385

□ Bachelor Degree

511 356

HAJvanced Deanee

1S6

FIG. 15.3. E d u c a ti o n level o f f o re ig n -b o rn C a r ib b e a n i m m i g r a n t s ( n a t u ­ ralize d citizen s, legal p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n t s , t e m p o r a r y m i g r a n t s , refugees, a n d p e o p le illegally p r e s e n t in th e U nited S ta te s) 25 y e a r s a n d o ld e r in 2 0 0 3 . N u m b e r s in t h o u s a n d s . D a ta from U.S. C e n s u s B u r e a u , C u r r e n t P o p ­ u latio n R e p o r ts , P 2 0 -5 5 1 .

New York City a re a , we c o m e face to face with the c o m p le x m ix of a c h ie v e m e n ts a n d ch allen g e s t h a t c h a r a c te riz e th e e x p e rie n c e s of C a ­ r i b b e a n im m ig r a n ts in the U nited S ta te s. U sing a c ultural-ecological a p p r o a c h , o u r aim in this c h a p te r is to a c c o m p lis h two p r i m a r y o b je c ­ tives: (a) piece to g e th e r w h a t we k n o w a b o u t s o m e of the c on textual a n d familial fa c to rs t h a t a r e c e n tra l to the m e n ta l h ea lth a n d p s y c h o ­ logical well-being of E n g lis h - s p e a k in g C a r ib b e a n im m ig r a n ts , a n d (b) d is c u s s c o n c e p tu a l a n d m e th o d o lo g ic a l is s u e s t h a t m a y e n h a n c e o u r r e s e a r c h u n d e r s t a n d i n g of th e ir psychological a n d social functioning.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING AND THE FAMILY O bviously it w o u ld be difficult to cover the m u lti tu d e of social a n d p s y ­ chological fa c to rs t h a t m a y c o n trib u te to the m e n ta l h e a lth a n d overall well-being of C a r ib b e a n im m ig r a n t fam ilies in this ch ap ter. Nor is th e re m u c h e m p ir ic a l d a t a on th e se d o m a i n s of family fu nctioning a m o n g C a r ib b e a n im m ig r a n ts . T h u s , we focus on a few is s u e s th a t have b e e n identified by o t h e r s (e.g., A rn old, 1997; Fuligni, 2 0 0 1 , 2 0 0 3 ;

C ON CE P T U AL C O N S I D E R A T I ON S IN CHILD O U T C O M E S

281

G opaul-M cNicol, 1993) a n d w h a t we d e e m is of p a r tic u la r relevance to th e o rg an iza tio n of C a rib b e a n im m i g r a n t family life p o s tim m ig r a tio n : h u s b a n d - w i f c / p a r t n c r re la tio n s h ip s , socialization a n d c h ild rc a r in g p ra c tic e s , s e p a r a tio n from a n d re u n ific a tio n w ith p a r e n t s , a n d ethn ic identity. As h a s b e e n a c k n o w le d g e d by several r e s e a r c h e r s (e.g., Foner, 2001 ; Fuligni, 2 0 0 1 , 2 0 0 3 ; Phinney, 2 0 0 3 ; R o o p n a r in e & S h in , 2 00 3), th e im m ig ra tio n p r o c e s s is n o t static; it involves p e r io d s of con tin u ity a n d d is c o n tin u ity in family f u n c tio n in g with the even tu al goal of s t r i k ­ ing a n a d a p tiv e b a la n c e b etw een i n t r a p e r s o n a l a n d in t e r p e r s o n a l r e la ­ tio n s h ip s a n d th e q u e s t to m e e t th e social a n d m a te r ia l n e e d s of the family. Additionally, p o p u la tio n m o v e m e n t a s s u m e s different p a t t e r n s (serial, s ta ir - s te p p r o c e s s , familial, t r a n s n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t, etc.), n e ­ ce s sita tin g diverse a d j u s t m e n t stra te g ie s a n d cop in g s k ills (see Berry, 1998; Duany, 1994; R o o p n a rin e , Bynoe. & Singh, 20 0 4 ). T h e re are c o n tin u in g d is a g r e e m e n ts a b o u t w h e th e r c h a n g e s th a t a c c o m p a n y p o p u la tio n m o v e m e n t s a r e u n id ir e c tio n a l o r b id ire c tio n a l, e n c o m ­ p a s s i n g a n e t w o r k of in t e r r e l a t e d fa c to r s a n d p r o c e s s e s (BestC u m m in g s & Gildner, 2 0 0 4 : Fuligni, 2 0 0 1 , 2 0 0 3 ; R o o p n a r in e et al., 2 0 0 4 ). B e c a u s e of the heterog en eity in eth n ic a n d linguistic g r o u p s in th e E n g lis h - s p e a k in g C a r ib b e a n , w h e n e v er p o ss ib le , we refer to fa m il­ ial p r o c e s s e s t h a t relate to specific eth n ic g r o u p s .

H USBAND-W IFE/PARTNER RELATIONSHIPS P e r h a p s one of the m o s t e m otio nally lad e n of all h u m a n re la tio n s h ip s , the m a r ita l o r c o u p le /p a r tn e r r e la tio n s h ip e x e rts m a jo r in fluences on family stability, p a r e n t- c h i ld in te ra c tio n s, a n d child d e v e lo p m e n t o u t ­ c o m e s (see C u m m in g s , Goeke-M orey, & R a y m o n d , 2 0 0 4 ). Notably, the psychological fu n c tio n in g of each in dividu al, c o m m it m e n t to the c o u ­ p le /p a r tn e r re la tio n s h ip , e c o n o m ic r e s o u r c e s , a n d g e n d e r e d id e o lo ­ gies d e te r m in e p a ir - b o n d stability a n d the degree of cfficicncy in c h ild r e a r in g (see Belsky, Ste in b e rg , & D raper, 1993; McLoyd, 1998). How the se v a ria b le s affect the n a tu r e of the diverse p a t t e r n s of c o u ­ p le /p a r tn e r r e la tio n s h ip s a m o n g C a r ib b e a n im m ig r a n t s is a m a tt e r of co n je c tu re at th is p o in t. N ev ertheless, stability a n d in stability in c o u ­ p le /p a r tn e r r e la tio n s h ip s a r e likely to be in flu enced by c hallen ges to n atal tr a d itio n s , beliefs a n d p ra c tic e s, a n d c u s t o m s a b o u t the f o r m a ­ tion a n d d y n a m ic s of c o u p le / p a r tn e r r e la tio n s h ip s . In th e C a r i b b e a n , m a te - s h if tin g is a p r e v a le n t p ra c tic e a m o n g Afri­ c a n C a r ib b e a n fa m ilie s (see B ro w n , N e w la n d , A n d e r s o n , & C h e v a n n e s , 19 97 ; S en io r, 19 91 ), w h e r e a s m o r e tr a d itio n a l f o r m s of m a r r ia g e a r e e v id e n t a m o n g In d o C a r ib b e a n a n d C h in e s e C a r ib b e a n fam ilies (see R o o p n a r in c , 2 0 0 4 ; R o o p n a r in c , Bynoc, S in g h , & S i ­ m o n , 2 0 0 5 ; S m it h , 1 996 ). T h e r e la tio n s h i p p a t t e r n s for in d iv id u a ls with m ix e d e th n ic a n c e s tr y o r c o u p le s fro m d iffe re n t e th n ic b a c k ­ g r o u n d s a r e un c le a r. G e n e ra lly s p e a k in g , it a p p e a r s t h a t m a r i t a l / r e l a ­ tio n s h ip p a t t e r n s fo u n d in th e C a r ib b e a n m a y be m a i n t a i n e d for

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ROOPNAR1NEANDKRISHNAKUMAR

C a r i b b e a n i m m i g r a n t s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( G r a s m u c k & G ro sfo g u el, 1997: R o o p n a r in e , 1999). E m e rg in g out of trad itio nal beliefs a b o u t h u s b a n d - w if c /p a r tn c r re la ­ tio n s h ip s a n d roles, g e n d e re d ideologies drive the n a tu r e a n d quality of the r e la tio n sh ip s betw een African C a rib b e a n a n d Indo C a rib b e a n i m m i­ g r a n t m e n a n d w o m e n (see R o o p n a rin e , 2 0 0 4 ; R o o p n a rin e & E vans, in p re ss). Possibly b e c a u se of H ind u religious d o c trin e s th a t reinforce the differential roles of m en a n d w o m e n a n d the socialization of boys and girls in the C a rib b e a n (see R o o p n a rin e & Ev an s, in p re ss), Indo C a r ib ­ be a n m e n largely see them selves in a h ie ra rc h ica l p osition in the couple re latio n sh ip . In a n interview stu d y of Indo C a rib b e a n im m ig ra n ts r e s i d ­ ing in the New York City a rea, m e n (98% m a r r ie d ) overw helmingly e n ­ d o r s e d the p osition th a t they are the h e a d s of their h o u s e h o ld s , the m a in b re a d w in n er, a n d th a t w o m e n were largely r e s p o n sib le for c aring for c hild ren, even in e a se s w h ere the w o m a n w as b e tte r e d u c a te d an d e a r n e d m o r e th a n the m a n ( R o o p n a r in e , 1999). Likew ise, in a large-scale survey of African C a rib b e a n im m ig r a n ts in the n o r th e a s te r n United S tates, th ere w as evidence th a t m e n s u b s c r ib e d to the do ub le s t a n d a r d in m a le -fe m ale re la tio n s h ip s (sexual exclusivity, loyalty, o b e ­ dience) th a t is ingrained in C a rib b e a n societies (Millette, 1998). At the s a m e time, b o th Indo C a rib b e a n a n d African C a rib b e an w o m e n in the U nited S ta te s w ere m o r e in sync with the values a n d n o r m s of the h o st society, w hich e m p h a s iz e d the equ al rights of individu als in re la tio n ­ sh ip s, a n d they w ere d ism a y e d a t their h u s b a n d ’s / p a r t n e r ’s p e rc e p tio n s of w o m e n in a n d o u t o f c o u p l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s (M illette, 1 9 9 8 ; R o o p n a rin e , 1999). Undoubtedly, tra d itio n a l views a b o u t m a le d o m i n a ­ tion a n d g e n d e r roles vary a m o n g C a rib b e a n im m ig r a n ts a n d a rc m o d u ­ lated by social location a n d e d u ca tio n al a tta in m e n t. Lack of sy nc h ro ny in ge n d e r role ex pectations in C a rib b e a n cou ples can have im p lication s for the physical a n d m e n ta l health of family m e m b e r s . T a k in g into c o n s id e r a tio n th e d e a r t h of d a ta on the i n te r n a l d y n a m ­ ics of c o u p l e /p a r tn e r r e la tio n s h ip s in C a r ib b e a n fam ilies, we offer so m e s p e c u la tio n s as to ho w the c ou ple re la tio n s h ip c a n affect the m e n ta l h e a lth a n d p e r s o n a l well-being of C a r ib b e a n im m ig r a n ts . O u r su g g e s tio n s a r e located in w o r k c o n d u c te d in o th e r c u ltu r e s a n d on p ra c tic e s w ithin cou p le r e la tio n s h ip s in fam ilies in the C a r ib b e a n . A m o n g A frican C a rib b e a n c o u p le s /p a r tn e r s , m a te -sh iftin g h a s be e n k n o w n to c a u se je a lo u s y a n d g e n d e r m i s t r u s t (see Brody, 1981; F linn, 1992; W cdcnoja, 1989). However, a d e e p e r p ro b le m for C a r ib b e a n i m ­ m ig r a n t c o u p le s / p a r t n e r s is th a t te m p o r a r y r e la tio n s h i p s with m u l ti­ ple p a r t n e r s a n d h ig h -risk se x u a l b e h a v io r s m a y c o n tr ib u te to the s p r e a d of HIV/AIDS. H e te ro se x u a l c o n ta c t is the p r e d o m i n a n t m o d e of tr a n s m i s s i o n of HIV/AIDS a m o n g w o m e n , a n d B lack w o m e n m a k e u p th e la rg e st g r o u p infected (DHHS, 2 0 0 0 ). People of C a r ib b e a n a n c e s tr y c o n s titu te one of the la rg e st HIV/AIDS-infected im m ig r a n t g r o u p s in New York City (see S p o o n e r, Daniel, & Mahoney, 2 0 0 4 , for a d is c u s s io n of HIV/AIDS a n d C a r ib b e a n im m ig ra n ts).

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T h e d o m i n a n t role p r e s u m e d by m e n m a y be in o p p o s itio n to w o m e n ’s in c re a s in g n e e d to e x p r e s s th e ir individu ality a n d s e n s e of e quality in th e ir new c u ltu r a l c o m m un ity. B c c a u sc they a rc in d irc c t c o n tr a s t to c u ltu ra l beliefs a b o u t w o m e n 's ro le s in the C a r ib b e a n , ex­ p r e s s io n s of in d e p e n d e n c e a n d individ uality on th e p a r t of w o m e n m ay lead to s p o u s a l / p a r t n e r conflicts a n d psychological te n s io n s (see H e r m a n , 2 0 0 4 ). Arguably, th is m a y be m o r e p r o n o u n c e d for Indo C a ­ r ib b e a n th a n for African C a rib b e a n i m m ig r a n t w o m e n , w h o h is to r i­ cally have h a d little la titu d e to e x p r e s s th eir sexuality, in dividu al rig h ts, a n d ne e d for equality in the m a r r ia g e p re -im m ig r a tio n . D o m e s ­ tic violence, p a r t n e r a b u s e , a n d ra te s of c o m m u n ity violence a re s e r i ­ o u s c o n c e r n s a m o n g C a r ib b e a n fam ilies (see Haniff, 1998; P r a s a d , 1999; Soyibo & Lee, 2 0 0 0 ), a n d im m ig r a n t w o m e n m a y be less in ­ clined to r e p o r t d o m e s tic a b u s e b e c a u s e of legal s t a t u s o r lack of c o m ­ m u n ity r e s o u r c e s (sec S p o o n e r ct al., 2 0 0 4 ) . In sta b ility in the h u s b a n d - w i f e / p a r t n e r r e la tio n s h ip (Wilson & B r o o k s - G u n n , 2 0 0 1 ), d is tr u s t, jealousy, fear of a b a n d o n m e n t (H olden & B arker, 2 0 0 4 ), a n d p a tr ia r c h a l a ttitu d e s to w a rd w o m e n (m isogynistic a ttitu d e s ) th a t e n ­ tail having p o w e r a n d d o m i n a n c e over th e m ( G r a h a m - B e r m a n & B rescoll, 2 0 0 0 ) have all b e en lin ke d to d o m e s tic violence. T h e im p a c t of m a r ita l/c o u p le te n s io n s a n d conflicts a n d d o m e s tic violence on the m e n ta l h e a lth a n d well-being of w o m e n a n d m e n (e.g., C u m m in g s et al., 2 0 0 4 ; H olden & B ark er, 2 0 0 4 ) a n d c h ild re n (e.g., Davies & C u m m in g s , 1994) h a s b ee n well d o c u m e n te d a c r o s s c u ltu r a l g r o u p s in the U nited S ta te s. T h e re is no r e a s o n to believe t h a t the negative c o n s e q u e n c e s of d o m e s tic violence a n d family conflicts m a y n o t generalize to C a r ib b e a n i m m i g r a n t families.

PATTERNS OF SOCIALIZATION AND CHILDREARING R e c en t review s ( R o o p n a rin c et al., 2 0 0 5 ; R o o p n a r in c & E v a n s, in p r e s s ) of p a t t e r n s of socialization a n d c h ild r e a r in g beliefs a n d p r a c ­ tices a m o n g E n g lis h - s p e a k in g C a r ib b e a n fam ilies highlight th re e s a ­ lient fe a tu re s: a p r e v a le n c e of an a u to c ra tic p a r e n tin g style, pu nitive m e t h o d s of c h ild re a rin g , a n d u n re a lis tic d e v e lo p m e n ta l e x p e c ta tio n s of yo u n g c h ild re n . T h e s e is s u e s a n d th e ir effects on the d e v e lo p m e n t a n d well-being of yo u n g c h ild r e n a re e x a m in e d next.

P a ren tin g S ty le s In the C a r ib b e a n , low -incom e m o t h e r s a n d f a th e r s a re m o r e a p t to u se a n a u th o r ita r ia n p a r e n tin g style (see Leo-Rhynie, 1997). T h is m e th o d of c h i l d r e a r i n g is d evo id o f tw o -w ay v e r b a l e x c h a n g e s (M eeksG a rd n e r, G ra n th a m -M c G re g o r, H im e s, & C hang, 1999) a n d e m o tio n a l c lo s e n e s s (see Leo-Rhynie, 1997). By c o m p a r is o n , a n a u th o rita tiv e p a r e n t in g style, c h a r a c te r iz e d by m o r e d e m o c r a tic p r in c ip le s in c h ild re a rin g , is m o r e p re v e la n t a m o n g m id d le a n d u p p e r so c io e c o ­

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n o m ic s t a tu s fam ilies (Payne & F u r n h a m , 1992; R a m k is s o o n , 200 1). T h e lim ited d a t a b a s e on p a r e n ti n g styles a m o n g C a r ib b e a n i m m ig r a n t fam ilies in the U nited S ta te s p e r m i t s few, if any, conclusive s ta te m e n ts a b o u t m o d e s of c h ild re a rin g . DeYoung a n d Zigler (1994) fo u n d th a t Indo G u y an e se p a r e n t s in N e w a rk, New Jerse y , r e p o r t e d u s in g a m o r e a u t h o r it a r ia n style in p a r e n t in g th a t w a s m o r e c o n tro llin g a n d less n u r t u r a n t th a n C a u c a s ia n families did . By c o n tr a s t , o u r own w o r k on a c a d e m ic socialization a m o n g a d iv e rse g r o u p of fam ilies in th e New York City a r e a in d ic a te d th a t m o t h e r s a n d f a th e rs p r e f e r r e d an a u t h o r ­ ita tiv e o v e r a p e r m i s s i v e o r a u t h o r i t a r i a n s ty le o f p a r e n t i n g ( R o o p n a rin e , K r is h n a k u m a r , M etind og an, & E v a n s, 2 00 5). A lthough so m e r e s e a r c h s h o w s differential o u tc o m e s of p a r e n tin g styles b a s e d on ethnicity (see Leung, Lau, & L am , 1998; Steinb erg, D o r n b u s c h , & B ro w n , 1992), we fo u n d th a t a m o n g C a r ib b e a n im m i ­ g r a n t s a n a u th o r ita r i a n p a r e n tin g style s u p p r e s s e s a c a d c m ic grow th in the a r e a of language d e v e lo p m e n t a n d th a t th e a u th o rita tiv e style s u p p o r t s the g row th of social sk ills t h a t a re ex pected of C a r ib b e a n c h ild r e n (e.g., o b edien ce, c o m p lia n c e ) (R o o p n a rin e , K ri s h n a k u m a r , M e tind ogan, & E v a n s, 2 0 0 5 ). Basically, this finding is in a c c o rd with th e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t an a u th o rita tiv e p a r e n ti n g style fo ste rs cognitive a n d social c o m p e te n c e in c h ild re n (see B a u m r in d , 1967). Are C a r i b ­ b e a n im m ig r a n t fam ilies c h a n g in g th e ir in te rn a l w o r k in g m o d e ls a b o u t p a r e n tin g styles a s they c o n f ro n t o th e r m e th o d s of c h ild r e a r in g in th e ir new c u ltu r a l c o m m u n it ie s ? Or c ould it be th a t p re v io u s r e ­ s e a r c h c o n f o u n d e d p a r e n t in g styles, social class, a n d ethnicity? A n­ sw e r s to th ese q u e s tio n s m a y p artia lly lie in p a r e n t s ' o p in io n s a b o u t a n d the u se of ph ysical p u n i s h m e n t d u r in g everyday socialization.

HARSH DISCIPLINARY PRACTICES T h a t C a rib b e a n a d u lts u s e ph ysical p u n i s h m e n t regularly in the h o m e a n d scho ol co ntexts h a s be e n d e m o n s tr a te d in several stu d ie s (A nder­ so n & Payne, 1994; A rnold, 1982; Rohner, Kean, & C ournoyer, 1991). Further, the negative c o n s e q u e n c e s of h a r s h discipline on child ren's psy cho social functioning a re detailed in a re c e n t m eta-analy sis of s t u d ­ ies on physical p u n i s h m e n t (Gershoff, 2 00 2), a n d the co nn ection b e ­ tween d o m e stic violence a n d p h y sic a l/h a rsh discipline in ch ild re a rin g h a s b e e n b o r n e o u t in r e s e a rc h investigations (see H olden & B arker, 2004). Do C a rib b e a n im m ig r a n t p a r e n ts change their beliefs a b o u t physical p u n i s h m e n t w hen they live in a society th a t d isc o u ra g e s it? R e tu r n in g to o u r s t u d y on a c a d e m ic s o c ia liz a tio n a m o n g C a r i b ­ b e a n im m i g r a n t s , we a s k e d p a r e n t s a b o u t the u s e of p h y s ic a l p u n i s h ­ m e n t in d is c ip lin in g c h ild r e n . M o st p a r e n t s e n d o r s e d th e u s e of p h y s ic a l p u n i s h m e n t a n d r e p o r t e d e m p lo y in g it in d e a lin g w ith c h il­ d r e n ’s m i s b e h a v i o r s a n d soc ial t r a n s g r e s s i o n s ( R o o p n a r in e , 1999). Sim ilarly, In d o G u y a n e s e im m i g r a n t s h a d h ig h e r r a t e s of sc o ld in g a n d p h y sic a l p u n i s h m e n t th a n C a u c a s ia n fa m ilies d id (DeYoung &

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Zigler, 1994). T h e s e beliefs a n d p r a c tic e s te n d to s u g g e st t h a t a key te n e t of so c ia liz a tio n p r a c ti c e s in th e C a r ib b e a n r e m a i n s w ith i m m i ­ g r a n t s a s they c o n f r o n t m o r e d e m o c r a tic p r i n c i p l e s in c h il d r e a r in g in th e ir new c o m m u n it ie s . Inflexible a n d h a r s h p a r e n t i n g p r a c t ic e s in C a r ib b e a n im m i g r a n t fa m ilie s m a y c a u s e c h ild r e n to r e b e l o r b e c o m e d i s o b e d ie n t , w h ic h , in t u r n , m a y lead to a b a n d o n m e n t o f c h ild r e n or c h ild r e n r u n n i n g aw ay from h o m e . D e s p a ir a n d d e p r e s s i o n a r e n o t u n u s u a l a m o n g C a r ib b e a n im m i g r a n t m o t h e r s w h o find o u t t h a t h a r s h d is c ip lin e m a y r e s u l t in c h il d h o o d difficulties (see A rn o ld , 19 97 ; R am bally, 1995).

DEVELOPMENTAL EXPECTATIONS A n th r o p o lo g ic a l a n d so ciological s t u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t E n g lis h - s p e a k ing C a r i b b e a n p a r e n t s hav e u n r e a l is t ic e x p e c ta tio n s of c h i ld r e n (see L eo-R hynie, 19 97) a n d t h a t th ey r a n k o b e d ie n c e a n d c o m p lia n c e as th e “m o s t d e s i r e d ” c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of c h ild r e n (D u rb ro w , 19 99 ; Wil­ s o n , W ilson, & B e rk e le y -C a in e s , 2 0 0 3 ) . T h e y also s t r e s s a c a d e m ic tr a in in g early in c h ild r e n 's lives a n d se e m le ss i m p r e s s e d w ith the i m ­ p o r t a n c e a c c o r d e d play in early c h ild h o o d d e v e lo p m e n t (see G r a n th a m -M cG re g o r, L a n d m a n , & D esai, 1983). Do th e s e e t h n o th e o r i e s a b o u t c h il d h o o d d e v e lo p m e n t a n d sc h o o lin g b e c o m e m o d ifie d a s C a ­ r i b b e a n im m i g r a n t p a r e n t s b e c o m e i m m e r s e d in life in the U nited S ta t e s ? How d o they in flu e n c e th e e a rly sc h o o lin g of c h il d r e n of C a ­ rib b ean im m ig ran ts? O nce again, we refer to o u r on d a ta on E n g lis h - s p e a k in g C a r ib b e a n i m m i g r a n t s ( R o o p n a r in e , K r i s h n a k u m a r , M e tin d o g a n , & E v a n s , 2 0 0 5 ) w ho, a t the tim e of d a ta collection, h a d r e s id e d on average a b o u t 13 y e a rs in the U nited S ta te s. A few key t h e m e s e m e rg e d r e g a r d in g p a ­ r e n ta l beliefs a b o u t c h ild h o o d d e v e lo p m e n t: With few e x c e ptio ns, m o t h e r s a n d f a th e r s from different s o c io e c o n o m ic b a c k g r o u n d s in d i­ c ated th a t it w a s a p p r o p r i a t e to r e q u ire p re sc h o o l-a g e d c h ild r e n to do h o m e w o r k ; the role of play a s a n i m p o r t a n t factor in c h ild h o o d social a n d cognitive d e v e lo p m e n t received s o m e s u p p o r t a m o n g p a r e n ts ; a n d the psychological role of p a r e n t s in influencing c h ild r e n ’s well-being w a s ra rely m e n tio n e d . Belief th e o r is ts (see Siegel & McGilliCiuddy-DeLisi, 2 0 0 2 ; S u p e r & H a r k n e s s , 1997) a rg u e t h a t p a r e n t a l id ea s a b o u t c h ild h o o d c a re a n d d e v e lo p m e n t have d ire c t a n d in d ire c t o u tc o m e s for sc h o o l achiev e­ m e n t a n d behavior. S u c h beleifs also influence the s t r u c t u r i n g of every­ da y se ttin g s a n d e x p e rie n c es for c h ild re n (S u p e r & H a r k n e s s , 1997). In view of th e se c laim s, how do C a r ib b e a n im m ig r a n t p a r e n t s engage th e m se lv e s in th e early sc h o o lin g p r o c e s s ? C o n g r u e n t with th e ir b e ­ liefs, b o th m o t h e r s a n d f a th e rs w ere quite involved in selecting a n d e n ­ ro llin g th e ir c h ild r e n in p r iv a te s c h o o ls t h a t e m p h a s iz e s t r o n g disc ip lin e a n d early a c a d e m ic training , a n d they s p e n t on average 8.21 a n d 7.8 3 h o u r s e ach w eek in e d u c a tio n a l activities with c h ild re n , r e ­

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spectively (R o o p n a rin e et al., 20 0 5 ). D oes th is a m o u n t to " h o th o u s in g ” or p r e s s u r i n g c h ild re n to achieve early in life, placing th e m at r is k for difficulties later in th e ir sc h o o l c a r e e r s ? C a rib b e a n im m i g r a n t p a r e n t s see the early e m p h a s i s on s tr o n g a c a d e m ic tra in in g a s n e c e s s a ry d u r ­ ing a “sensitive p e rio d "— the p r e s c h o o l y e a r s —w h e n c h ild r e n a re in a po s itio n to le a rn the a c a d e m ic a n d social sk ills n e c e s s a r y for sc h o o l su c c e ss. T h is view is in d ire c t c o n t r a s t to the p o s itio n e s p o u s e d by the N ational A ssociation for th e E d u c a tio n of Young C h ild re n (NAEYC) ( B r e d e k a m p & C opp le, 1997) a n d r a i s e s q u e s ti o n s a b o u t so -called “e x p e rt k n o w le d g e ” c o n c e rn in g w h a t is d e v elo p m en ta lly a p p r o p r ia te for d ifferent im m i g r a n t g r o u p s (see LeVine, 2 0 0 4 ). So far, s tu d ie s sh o w th a t c h ild r e n 's early a c a d e m ic g r o u p p e r f o r m a n c e on s t a n d a r d ­ ized t e s ts is a t o r a b o v e a v e ra g e ( R o o p n a r i n e , K r i s h n a k u m a r , M e tind ogan, & E v an s, 2 0 0 5 ) a n d m ay be a reflection of p a r e n t s ’ rig o r ­ o u s early in v e s tm e n t in c h ild re n 's a c a d c m ic training. L ess is k n o w n a b o u t b e h a v io ra l difficulties s u c h a s bed-w etting, teeth -grin ding, a n d th e like t h a t m a y r e s u l t from early a c a d e m ic p r e s s u r e s .

SEPARATION AND REUNIFICATION As n o te d e a rlier, d iff e re n t m i g r a t o r y p a t t e r n s p la c e d iv e rg e n t a d j u s t ­ m e n t s a n d c o p in g d e m a n d s on f a m ilie s . A lth o u g h a g o o d n u m b e r of C a r i b b e a n fa m ilie s m i g r a t e a s a u n it , o t h e r s e n g ag e in a s e r i a l m i ­ g r a ti o n p r o c e s s w h e r e in d iv id u a l m e m b e r s m ig r a te w i t h o u t fam ily m e m b e r s to a p o s t i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r y d ire c tly o r in a s t a i r - s t e p m a n n e r to a n e i g h b o r i n g c o u n t r y w ith b e t t e r e c o n o m ic o p p o r t u n i ­ tie s first, b e fo r e m i g r a tin g to a p o s t i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n try . T h is p h e ­ n o m e n o n is e x p e r i e n c e d w o r ld w id e a s i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r s of p a r e n t s leave c h i l d r e n b e h i n d in s e a r c h of e c o n o m ic o p p o r t u n i t i e s in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s (e.g., B a n g l a d e s h i s , E a s t I n d i a n s , a n d E g y p tia n s w h o w o r k in th e o il-ric h n a t i o n s o f the m i d d l e - c a s t ) . A rn o ld (1 9 9 7 ) a n d S u arez-O ro zco a n d T odorova (2001) e stim a te d th at C arib b ean i m m i g r a n t f a m ilie s fr o m d if f e re n t lin g u istic b a c k g r o u n d s w h o m i ­ g r a te in a s e r i a l p a t t e r n a r e s e p a r a t e d fro m fam ily m e m b e r s on a v e r ­ age a little o ver 5 y e a r s . O f i n t e r e s t h e r e a r e th e d iffic u ltie s in f a m ilia l p r o c e s s e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith s e p a r a t i o n a n d r e u n i o n i n h e r e n t in s e r i a l a n d s t a i r - s t e p m ig r a tio n p a t t e r n s . A highly re p u ta b le b o d y of w o r k in d ic a te s th a t the c o n siste n t, re li­ able, a n d p r e d ic ta b le p a t te r n of re la tio n s h ip with a p r i m a r y caregiver is i m p o r t a n t for the d e v e lo p m e n t of p a r e n t - c h i l d a tta c h m e n t b o n d s a n d s u b s e q u e n t r e la tio n s h ip s with o th e r in d iv id u a ls (see A in sw o rth & Bowlby, 1 9 9 1 ). In o th e r w o rd s , the h is to r y of c a re a child receives p r e ­ d ic ts p a t t e r n s of social a d j u s t m e n t a n d m a l a d j u s t m e n t w ith diverse in d iv id u a ls, a n d th is is tru e a c r o s s a n u m b e r of c u ltu r a l g r o u p s (see G r o s s m a n , G r o s s m a n , & Keppler, 2 0 0 5 ). A lthough c hild -sh ifting is a

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c o m m o n p ra c tic e in the C a r ib b e a n (see C ra w fo rd -B ro w n , 1997), the n u m b e r of tim e s c h ild r e n a re shifted a n d the n a tu r e of the social c o n ­ ta cts they have with m o t h e r s a re c o r re la te d with b e h a v io ra l difficulties a m o n g a d o le s c e n ts (R ussell-B row n, Norville, & Griffith, 1997). B ut c hild -sh iftin g o c c u r s for differen t r e a s o n s (e.g., w h en p a r e n t s e n te r a new r o m a n ti c re la tio n s h ip , m ig ra tio n , ec o n o m ic r e a s o n s , fosterage) a n d in s o m e c a se s m ay involve n o r m a tiv e tr a n s itio n from one family m e m b e r to th e next with only m in o r difficulties. T he p r o b le m with s e ­ rial m ig ratio n is t h a t c h ild r e n e n te r into a p r o tr a c te d cycle of s e p a r a ­ tion a n d r e u n io n from diffe re n t a t t a c h m e n t figures w ith o u t full kn o w led ge of w h en they will sever ties with s u b s tit u te caregivers a n d jo in th e ir biological c aregivers again. In the in terv e n in g y e a rs, c h ild re n are exp ected to p lod a h e a d , m a in ta in in g s tr o n g b o n d s to p a r e n t s while develop in g affective a n d social ties to ne w caregivers. M ajor c o n c e r n s a b o u t m ig ra to ry p a t t e r n s th a t leave c h ild re n b e h in d with the explicit a s s u m p t i o n th a t they will be r e u n ite d with p a r e n t s a t a later d a te are: the quality of c o n ta c ts p a r e n t s have with c h ild r e n after se p a r a tio n , the affective r e l a tio n s h ip s c h ild r e n develop with new c a r e ­ givers, a n d th e ability of p a r e n t s to inte gra te c h ild r e n into th e ir fa m i­ lies u p o n re un ific ation. No c o n s e n s u s h a s been r e a c h e d on the fre q u e n cy o r quality of c o n ta c ts C a r ib b e a n im m ig r a n t p a r e n t s have with c h ild r e n w ho a r e left b e h in d . Similarly, the e m e rg in g re la tio n ­ s h ip s c h ild re n have with th eir new caregivers have n o t b e e n th e focus of sy ste m a tic inv estig a tion s d e s p ite th e ir fa r-reac h in g significance for c h il d r e n ’s m e n ta l h e a lth , p h y sic a l h e a lth , a n d well-being. A p a n e l c o n ­ vened in B a r b a d o s in the s u m m e r of 2 0 0 3 c o n c lu d e d th a t p a r e n t s h a d in c re a s in g c o n ta c ts with c h ild r e n via a p r o c e s s te r m e d “tr a n s n a ti o n a l p a r e n tin g ” (Salandy, 2 0 0 3 ). Clearly, c o n ta c ts w ith c h ild re n w ere i n s u f ­ ficient a s c h ild re n c o n tin u e d to m o u r n silently for th e ir p a re n t(s ) (C ra w fo rd-B ro w n , 1999). At the m o m e n t, the se “b a r r e l c h ild re n ," as they a r e pejoratively te r m e d , elu d e the in te r e s ts of social s c ie n tists. In te r m s of reun ific a tio n , A r n o ld ’s (1 9 9 7 ; R o b e r ts o n , 1975) r e ­ s e a r c h revealed th a t s o m e C a rib b e a n im m i g r a n t p a r e n t s in E n g la n d e n c o u n te r e d difficulties in in te g ra tin g c h ild r e n into th e ir fam ilies b e ­ c a u se of rigid p a r e n ti n g styles, c u ltu r a l conflicts, d i s a p p o i n t m e n t with p a r e n t s ’ ow n e c o n o m ic a n d social s ta n d in g , a n d p a r e n t s ' p sycho lo gi­ cal fu n c tio n in g (see also B a p tiste , Hardy, & Lewis, 1997). O n o cc a sio n th e “re c o n n e c tio n p r o c e s s ” to ok a t u r n for the w o rs e once p a r e n t s b e ­ ca m e m o r e c o g n iz a n t of the tra n s itio n a l difficulties. W hen c h ild r e n b e ­ ca m e d is tr a u g h t, w ith d ra w n , a n d re se n tfu l, the f r u s tr a ti o n th a t began to se t in c a u s e d s o m e p a r e n t s to w ith d r a w affection from c h ild re n ; o t h ­ e r s e x p e rie n c e d d e p r e s s io n (Arnold, 1997; C h e e th a m , 1972). E n t e r ­ ing new r e la tio n s h ip s t h a t p r o d u c e offspring, a p ra c tic e t h a t is n o t u n c o m m o n a m o n g C a r i b b e a n i m m i g r a n t s , c a n a ls o c o m p o u n d tra n s itio n a l difficulties for the e n tire family.

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ETHNIC IDENTITY B e c a u s e th e y a r e i m m i g r a n t s o f color, e t h n i c i d e n tity d e f in e s a n d s h a p e s m a j o r c o m p o n e n t s o f th e lives o f C a r i b b e a n i m m i g r a n t s a n d th e ir c h i l d r e n . It a ffc c ts th e q u a lit y of e d u c a t i o n c h i l d r e n r e c e iv e , a c ­ c e s s to h e a l t h a n d m e n t a l h e a l t h s e r v ic e s , ty p e s o f e m p l o y m e n t a n d b u s i n e s s o p p o r t u n i t i e s , a n d w h e r e p e o p le live (see B a y n e - S m i t h , G ra h a m , M ason, & D ro s s m a n , 2 0 0 4 ; C am p b ell & M cLean, 20 0 2 ; F r a n c i s , 1 9 9 3 ; R o o p n a r i n e e t al., 2 0 0 4 ; V i c k e r m a n , 2 0 0 1 ) . J u s t a s c h i l d r e n d o , a d u l t C a r i b b e a n i m m i g r a n t s face th e d i l e m m a o f n e g o t i­ a ti n g c u l t u r a l i d e n t itie s . A fric a n C a r i b b e a n i m m i g r a n t s s e e t h e m ­ se lv e s a s d i s t i n c t f r o m o t h e r e t h n i c g r o u p s of c o lo r in th e U n ite d S t a t e s . Yet th e y h a v e to g r a p p l e w ith w h a t b e i n g d e s i g n a t e d “B l a c k ” m e a n s , b e c a u s e it h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e f e r r e d to A fric a n A m e r i c a n s w h o h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d o p p r e s s i o n o v e r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s . A fr ic a n C a ­ r i b b e a n f a m ili e s a r e a w a r e o f th e c o s t s o f b e i n g “B l a c k ” in A m e r i c a n so c ie ty (sec W a te rs, 1 9 9 9 ) a n d m u s t c o n t c n d w ith th e i s s u e o f w h e r e a n d h o w m i n o r i t y s t a t u s i n t e r s e c t s w ith t h e i r e thn ic ity . I n d o C a r i b ­ b e a n i m m i g r a n t s to o m u s t d e c id e w h e t h e r to id e n tify a s E a s t I n d i a n s , ev e n th o u g h I n d i a n s f ro m I n d ia o fte n d i s p l a y a s u p e r c i l i o u s a t t i t u d e to w a r d th e m in A m e r i c a . P r i o r to m i g r a t i o n , t h e i r e t h n i c i d e n t ity m a y n o t h a v e b e e n a n i s s u e fo r e i t h e r g r o u p . A d m itte d ly , a d u l t s h a v e f i r m e r b e l ie f s a b o u t t h e i r e t h n i c i d e n t i t y a n d a r e in a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n to u n d e r s t a n d t h e v a l u e s a n d e x p e r i ­ e n c e s t h a t s h a p e d a n d c o n t i n u e to s h a p e t h o s e b e li e f s t h a n c h i l d r e n d o . A c h a l l e n g e fo r c h i l d r e n is to effectiv ely c o m b i n e o r a l t e r n a t e b e ­ tw e e n th e v a l u e s a n d b e li e f s o f a t l e a s t tw o d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l c o m m u ­ n i t i e s (P h in n e y , 2 0 0 3 ; P h i n n e y & D e v i c h - N a v a r r o , 1 9 9 7 ) . In th e p r o c c s s of d ev elo p in g th e m se lv e s, y o u n g c h ild re n of im m ig ra n ts a n d i m m i g r a n t c h i l d r e n h a v e to n e g o t i a t e t h e i r w a y t h r o u g h b e lie f s a b o u t c h i l d h o o d , id e n tity , a n d c h i l d r e a r i n g f r o m t h e p a r e n t a l c u l ­ t u r e a n d t h o s e p r e s e n t in t h e i r n e w e n v i r o n m e n t . To c o m p l i c a t e m a t t e r s f u r t h e r , th e y m a y b e c a l le d o n to s e r v e a s c u l t u r a l b r o k e r s fo r a d u l t s . N e e d l e s s to say, t h i s c a n h e i g h t e n t h e c h a l l e n g e s a s s o c i ­ a t e d w ith d e v e l o p i n g a c u l t u r a l id e n tity . It is o u r h u n c h t h a t e th n ic id e n tity is far m o r e c o m p le x t h a n s im p l y n e g o tia tin g tw o c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s . Given th e m u l t i c u l t u r a l c o m p l e x ­ ion of o u r d e m o c ra c y , it m a y b e t h a t we a r e a t a n i n te r e s tin g c r o s s r o a d w h e r e c h i l d r e n in g e n e r a l a r e b e g in n in g to b le n d d iff e re n t c u l t u r a l ele ­ m e n t s to fu se a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w h o th e y a r e . T h is is q u ite e v id e n t in o u r c o n v e r s a t i o n s w ith I n d o C a r i b b e a n i m m i g r a n t y o u th in New York City, w h e r e they p r o c l a i m th a t they “b o r r o w " d i s tin c t sty le s o f b e ­ h a v io r fr o m H is p a n ic a n d A frican A m e r ic a n y o u th . A d d in g c o m p le x ity to th e p r o c e s s o f d e v e lo p in g a n i d e n tity is th e fact t h a t C a r i b b e a n i m m i ­ g r a n t p a r e n t s a n d c h ild r e n live t r a n s n a t i o n a l lives— m o v in g freely b e ­ tw e e n th e C a r i b b e a n a n d N o r th A m e r ic a . In o t h e r w o r d s , th e y a c c e p t b o t h c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s a s c e n tr a l to t h e i r e x is te n c e , a n d , th e r e f o r e

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m a y a tte n u a te p o te n tia l s t r e s s o r c o n fu sio n a ss o c ia te d w ith the p rim a c y of one se t of c u ltu r a l v a lu e s over the other.

CARIBBEAN IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES: SETTING PRIORITIES IN RESEARCH UNDERSTANDING L u m p in g C a r ib b e a n im m i g r a n ts a s a single g ro u p in r e s e a r c h in vesti­ g a tio n s w o u ld essen tially d is r e g a r d th e he te ro ge n e ity th a t exists by c o u n try of origin (e.g., J a m a i c a , T r in id a d a n d Tobago, G uy an a) a n d ethnicity (e.g., A fro -C a rib b e a n , I n d o - C a rib b e a n , C h in e s e - C a rib b e a n etc.). F a m ily r e s e a r c h e r s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t a l i s t s (e.g., G o p a u lMcNichol, 1993; R o o p n a r in e et al., 2 0 0 4 ; R o o p n a r in e , Bynoe, Singh, & S im o n , 2 0 0 5 ) w h o s tu d y C a r ib b e a n im m ig r a n t fam ilies s u p p o r t the p r e m i s e t h a t the n a tu r e , beliefs, a n d m e a n in g s t h a t specific c u ltu r e s a ttr ib u te to child d e v e lo p m e n t are in d e e d u n iq u e a n d a re p r im a r ily a reflection of a c u l tu r e ’s tr a d iti o n s a n d e th o s su gg estin g a n em ic a p ­ p r o a c h to r e s e a r c h c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n s . C r o s s - c u lt u r a l s c h o la r s (see Greenfield, 1 997, for a review of c u ltu ra l a n d c r o s s - c u lt u r a l f r a m e ­ w o rk s ) have o p in e d th a t several c h a r a c te r is tic s of c h ild h o o d d e v e lo p ­ m e n t a re u n iv e rsal, f u n d a m e n ta l to h u m a n existence, a n d s h a r e d a m o n g different c u ltu r e s , esse ntia lly t r a n s c e n d in g the u n iq u e n e s s of race, c u ltu re , a n d g e o g ra p h ic location, s u p p o r t i n g a n etic a p p r o a c h . In th is s e g m e n t of the cha p ter, we p r o p o s e th a t s tu d ie s on C a r ib b e a n i m ­ m ig r a n t fam ilies s h o u ld reflect a b le n d of b o th th e s e a p p r o a c h e s . Al­ th o u g h c u ltu r a l a n d ecological differences exist in w ays in w hich r e s e a r c h e r s have in te r p r e te d th e n a tu r e of family life a c r o s s a n d w ithin v a rio u s C a rib b e a n i m m i g r a n t fam ilies, we sug gest th a t m u c h is to be le a r n e d from a c o m b in a tio n of the specificity of family life w ithin C a ­ rib b e a n im m ig r a n t g r o u p s a n d the e le m e n ts of C a r ib b e a n im m ig r a n t family life th a t a re ge n e ra liz ab le a c r o s s o th e r im m i g r a n t fam ilies. Many of the c halleng es lin k e d to a c c u ltu ra tio n a n d cth n ic identity m a y be c o m m o n a c r o s s im m i g r a n t g r o u p s , b u t s o m e , s u c h a s sc h o o l failure a n d n o n m a r i ta l c h ild b ea rin g , a re s o m e w h a t h ig h e r for C a r ib ­ b e a n i m m i g r a n t fam ilies c o m p a r e d to o th e r i m m ig r a n t g r o u p s (e.g., A sian im m ig r a n ts ). P a re n tin g o u ts id e of m a r r ia g e s h o u ld be u n d e r ­ sto o d a lo n g sid e the s tr e n g th s a n d protective fa c to rs u n iq u e to C a r ib ­ b e a n im m ig r a n t fam ilies t h a t e n a b le th e ir su c c e ss fu l a d j u s t m e n t (e.g., e x te n d e d k in n e tw o rk s) a n d th o s e t h a t they s h a r e with o th e r im m i ­ g r a n t g r o u p s (e.g., h a r d w ork ). M uch of th e c u r r e n t s c h o l a r s h i p on C a ­ rib b e a n im m ig r a n t fam ilies h a s b e e n s h a p e d by de sc rip tive a c c o u n ts of family life a n d h a s n o t b e e n in f o r m e d by s y ste m a tic analytic f r a m e ­ w o r k s . B eyond the q ualitative a c c o u n ts of family life th a t e x plore the a d a p ta tio n of C a r ib b e a n A m e ric a n fam ilies a n d c h ild re n , fu tu re in v e s­ tigations call for contex tu ally a n d c u ltu ra lly sensitive a p p r o a c h e s with r ig o ro u s q u an tita tiv e m o d e l te stin g t h a t e n a b le s r e s e a r c h e r s to in v e sti­ gate b o th p a th w a y s of influence a n d c o n d itio n a liz in g effects (see Fig. 15.4). Accordingly, we p r e s e n t su g g e stio n s for fu tu re r e s e a r c h in this

290

Pro-inmganon

ROOPNAR1NEANDKRISHNAKUMAR

PorJ-im rigralion

FIG. 15.4. Proposed conceptual cultural-ecological model on factors im­ pacting child outcomes in Caribbean im m igrant families.

a r e a , a n d d r a w o n e x a m p l e s f r o m c u r r e n t fin d in g s o n C a r i b b e a n fa m ilie s to s u b s t a n t i a t e o u r p o in ts . A c o m m o n lim i t a t i o n in s t u d i e s of i m m i g r a n t f a m ilie s is h o w th e te r m a c c u l t u r a t i o n h a s b e e n u n d e r s t o o d . R e s e a r c h e r s h a v e t r a d i ­ tio n a lly u s e d th e le n g th of s ta y in th e U n ite d S t a t e s a s a m e a s u r e o f “A m e r i c a n i z a t i o n ” a n d h a v e a s s o c i a t e d lo n g e r d u r a t i o n o f r e s i d e n c e in th e U n ite d S t a t e s w ith s o c i o e c o n o m i c g a i n s a n d th e a d o p t i o n of v a lu e s a n d n o r m s t h a t r e s e m b l e A m e r i c a n so c ie ty (see R u m b a u t , 1 9 9 7 , a n d Z h o u , 1 9 9 7 , for d i s c u s s i o n s o f th e a s s i m i l a t i o n i s t view). H o w ev er, in s e v e r a l i n v e s tig a t io n s w ith C a r i b b e a n i m m i g r a n t f a m i ­ lies (e.g., R o o p n a r i n e , K r i s h n a k u m a r , M e ti n d o g a n , & E v a n s , 2 0 0 5 ) , th e le n g th o f s ta y in th e U n ite d S t a t e s is c o n s i d e r e d a p o o r m e a s u r e o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n a n d is w e a k ly a s s o c i a t e d w ith v a r i o u s f a m ily a n d c h ild o u t c o m e m e a s u r e s . T h e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f th e t e r m a c c u l t u r a t i o n is c u r r e n t l y n o t c a p t u r e d by th e o p e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f th e c o n s t r u c t , w h ic h s h o u l d m o v e b e y o n d e i t h e r “le n g th o f s t a y ” o r “flu e n c y in s p e a k i n g E n g lis h " to i n c l u d e m u l t i p l e m a r k e r s o f s u c c e s s f u l a d a p t a ­ tio n (e.g., j o b se c u rity , e c o n o m i c m o b ilit y etc.). F u r t h e r m o r e , g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n n e e d s to b e p a i d to w h a t is m e a n t by th e t e r m A m e r i c a n c u l ­ t u r e . A m e r i c a n so c ic ty is f a r too c o m p l c x to b e c o n s i d e r e d w h o lis tic . R a th e r, it r e p r e s e n t s a m a c r o c o s m o f v a l u e s a n d t r a d i t i o n s f r o m th e

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v a r i o u s e t h n i c a n d i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s in t h i s c o u n t r y . An o p e r a ti o n a liz a tio n of a c c u l tu r a tio n th a t c a p t u r e s th e s e c o m p le x itie s will m o s t likely be fo u n d to b e a s t r o n g p r c d i c t o r of fam ily life, s o c ia l­ iz a tio n p r a c tic e s , a n d c h ild o u t c o m e s . Tied to a c c u ltu r a tio n a re the p r e im m ig r a tio n h is to rie s of fam ilies. In d e e d , the c u ltu r a l h isto r ie s of v a r io u s C a r ib b e a n g r o u p s a re differ­ e n t (in d e n tu r e d la b o r or e n slaved p e r s o n s o r v o lu n ta ry im m ig ra tio n ) a n d m ay be i n s tr u m e n ta l in s h a p in g c u r r e n t family life a n d ind ividual d e v e lo p m e n t (Gopaul-M cNicol, 1993). S o m e good e x a m p le s inc lude s e p a r a ti o n of a d u lt s a n d c h ild re n d u r i n g m ig ra tio n , p a r e n tin g p r a c ­ tices, e m p h a s i s on early e d u c a tio n a l training , beliefs a b o u t p a re n ta l i n v o l v e m e n t w ith s c h o o l s , s p o u s a l / p a r t n e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d g e n d e r e d ideologies. T h e se fa c to rs r e p r e s e n t a b le n d of African a n d In ­ d ia n tr a d it io n s a n d c u s to m s a n d c u ltu ra l, social, political, religious, a n d e d u c a tio n a l p ra c tic e s im p o s e d by E u r o p e a n colon iz c rs. As im m i ­ g r a n t life p r o c e e d s in the new c u ltu re , it is likely th a t a s p e c ts of family fu n ctio n in g m a y u n d e r g o significant t r a n s f o r m a tio n s . T h e extent of the t r a n s f o r m a tio n s in v a r io u s a s p e c ts of family life c o uld be d e t e r ­ m in e d by th e degree a n d n a tu r e of c o n ta c t with th e h o s t society a n d its in s titu tio n s, the degree to w hich fam ilies have c o n ta c ts with th e ir c o u n trie s of origin, th e ir p r e im m ig ra tio n e x p e rie n c es, a n d c u ltu ra l, r e ­ ligious, a n d racial n o r m s . T h e re fo re, s t u d ie s of a c c u ltu r a tio n of C a r ib ­ b e a n im m i g r a n ts s h o u ld in c o r p o r a te the c u ltu ra l n o r m s a n d social p a t t e r n s of b e h a v io rs in the c o u n tr ie s of origin, the n a t u r e a n d degree of c ha n ge from th eir native c u ltu re , a n d the c o n c e p t of w h a t it m e a n s to be “A m e r ic a n .” At m i n i m u m , th is w o u ld r e q u ir e a p a r tia lin g of d e v e lo p m e n ta l c h a n g e s i n h e r e n t in life c o u r s e tr a n s i t i o n s from c h a n g e s th a t m a y be a ttr ib u t e d to the im m ig ra tio n p r o c e s s itself (see Fuligni, 2 0 0 3 ; Phinney, 2 0 0 3 ). As m e n tio n e d earlier, th e re is a n ee d for r e s e a r c h e r s to in c o r p o r a te contex tu ally a n d c u ltu ra lly sensitiv e f r a m e w o r k s w h e n investigating i s s u e s of child a n d family d e v e lo p m e n t in C a rib b e a n fam ilies. T ow ard th is e n d , r e s e a r c h e r s have c o n tin u a lly w eighed the th e o re tic a l s ta n c e of c r o s s - c u l tu r a l g e n e ra liz a tio n s involving is s u e s of c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n , o p e r a tio n a liz a tio n , a n d p r o p o s i tio n s a g a in s t the ne e d for u n iq u e th e o ­ retical f r a m e w o r k s a n d m e a s u r e m e n t stra te g ie s w ithin specific c u l­ tu re s . W hen focusin g on generalizab ility a c r o s s C a r ib b e a n g r o u p s a n d b e tw e e n C a r ib b e a n a n d o th e r i m m ig r a n t g ro u p s , the e x a m in a tio n of c u ltu r a l gen erality s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d w ithin the fr a m e w o r k of m e a s u r e m e n t eq uivalence. C r o s s - c u lt u r a l s tu d ie s on socialization have b e e n c ritiq u e d for b rin g in g in W estern p h ilo s o p h ie s a n d ap plying th e m to o th e r c u ltu r e s w ith o u t ex a m in in g th e ir applicab ility in o th e r c u ltu r a l c on texts. T h u s , sev eral th e o re tic a l a n d m e th o d o lo g ic a l i s s u e s sh o u ld be ta k e n into c o n s id e r a tio n w h e n im p le m e n tin g investigations of c r o s s - c u l t u r a l ge n e ralizab ility . F o u r a s p e c t s of m e a s u r e m e n t equ iv alence s h o u ld be a d d r e s s e d .

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R O O P NA R 1X E A N D K R IS 11NA K U M A R

1. F irst, c o n c e p t u a l e q u i v a l e n c e p r o p o s e s t h a t th e definition a n d m e a n in g of the v a r io u s a s p e c t s of socializatio n s h o u ld be u n ­ d e r s to o d w ithin the fra m e of the specific c u ltu re . D efinitions for socialization, for ex am p le, c a n n o t be a s s u m e d to be s im ila r a c r o s s the C a rib b e a n . A frican C a r ib b e a n p a r e n tin g b e h a v io rs m a y have different m e a n in g s th a n th o se of In do C a r ib b e a n s o c ia l­ ization b e h a v io rs. 2. Next, o p e r a t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n c e p r o p o s e s th a t c h ild r e n in different c u ltu r e s r e s p o n d to th e s a m e item similarly. H ence, i n ­ s t r u m e n t s o r o b s e rv a tio n a l m e t h o d s s h o u ld be s im ila r in c o n te n t (e.g., m e a n in g of te r m s ) a n d have s im ila r r e s p o n s e scales. It is h e re t h a t the m a jo r w e a k n e s s e s of c r o s s - c u ltu r a l re s e a r c h are m o s t evident. Q u e s tio n n a ir e s a r e a p p lie d with tr a n s la tio n s to o th e r c u l tu r e s w ith o u t a s s e s s m e n t of th e ir validity a n d reliability in d ifferent c u ltu re s . B a c k - tr a n s la tio n s of i n s t r u m e n t s will n o t suffice. U sing a p p r o p r i a t e c u ltu ra l p h r a s e s , w o r d s , s p e e c h p a t ­ te rn s , a n d m e a n in g s s h o u ld be i n c o r p o r a te d w ithin m e a s u r e ­ m e n t of c o n s t r u c ts . Literacy levels of fam ilies, c u ltu r a l m o r e s a n d p ra c tic e s , p lace of a d m in is tr a tio n (which m a y vary w ithin the c u l­ ture; e.g., in m a n y C a r ib b e a n fam ilies c h ild re n m a y be the p r i ­ m a r y re s p o n s ib ility of w o m e n a n d in terview s o r q u e s ti o n n a ir e s m ay n e e d to ta k e place a t the r e s p o n d e n t 's h o m e ), a n d m e t h o d s u s e d (interview, q u e s tio n n a ire , o b se rv a tio n ) a re inte gra l to a s s u r ­ ing o p e r a tio n a l equivalence. 3. S c a l a r s pe ci fi ci ty re fe rs to item e q u iv alence a c r o s s c u l­ tu re s . C o n c e p tu a l a n d o p e r a tio n a l equivalen ce do n o t a s s u r e eq uivalence a t th e item level. S im ila rity in th e facto r s t r u c t u r e a n d s tr e n g th of loa ding s e n s u r e item eq uivalence. A ffirm ation of eq uivalence at the item level allows for m e a n in g fu l in te rp r e ta tio n of sim ila ritie s o r differences of the c o n s tr u c t a t the scale level. 4. Finally, J u n c t i o n a l specificity is a m e a s u r e of s im ila r c o r r e ­ lates of the c o n s tr u c ts a c ro s s c u ltu re s (co rrelatio ns a m o n g a s ­ pe c ts of socialization a n d developm ent). Even though sim ilarity in the n a tu r e a n d stre n g th of re la tio n sh ip s m a y im ply a un iv e rsa l p a t ­ tern, the m e a n in g of re la tio n sh ip s sh o u ld be in te rp re te d from the perspective of the c u ltu ra l lens th a t is a p plie d (K rish n a k u m a r, Buhler, & Barber, 2 0 0 4 ; Van de Vijver & Leung, 1997).

SUMMARY We have s p e c u la te d a good d eal a b o u t so m e fam ilial p r o c e s s e s th a t m a y aid o r c o n s p ir e a g a in st a tt e m p ts m a d e by E n g lis h - s p e a k in g C a ­ rib b e a n im m ig r a n ts to a d ju s t to life in a new c u ltu r a l c o m m u n ity . U n ­ dou btedly, th e r e are o th e r facets of im m i g r a n t family life t h a t m a y c a u se s t r e s s a n d conflict. For exa m p le , fa c to rs s u c h a s m e a n in g fu l e m ­ p lo y m e n t a n d u n d e r e m p l o y m e n t , r a c i s m , c r im e a n d d r u g u s e , a n ti- im m ig r a n t s e n tim e n ts , p a r e n ta l in vo lv em ent in i s s u e s of c h il­

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d r e n 's sc h o o lin g , a n d so c ia l is o la tio n c a n b e q u ite s t r e s s f u l for f a m i ­ lies. H ow ever, a s we ha v e p o in te d o u t e ls e w h e r e ( R o o p n a r i n e et al., 2 0 0 4 ) , E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g C a r i b b e a n i m m i g r a n t s o f th e l a s t two d e ­ c a d e s a r e very f a m ilia r w ith life in th e U n ite d S ta te s , they d o n o t h a v e to face lin g u istic b a r r i e r s , a n d they p la c e a s t r o n g e m p h a s i s on e d u c a ­ tio n a l a c h ie v e m e n t . As a r e s u l t, th e y a r e b e t t e r p r e p a r e d to c o p e w ith life in th e U n ite d S ta t e s . Yet th e in e q u a lity in h u s b a n d - w i f e / p a r t n e r r e ­ l a t i o n s h i p s , b eliefs a b o u t w o m e n ’s ro le s , a n d p a r e n t i n g b eliefs a n d p r a c t i c e s p r e s e n t th e g r e a t e s t c h a lle n g e s to th e m e n t a l h e a t h a n d w e ll-b ein g o f C a r i b b e a n i m m i g r a n t fa m ilie s. It is h o p e d t h a t th e p r o ­ p o s e d m o d e l for s tu d y in g th e m e n t a l h e a lt h a n d w e ll-b e in g o f fa m ilie s a n d th e s h o r t d i s c u s s i o n of c u l t u r a l e q u iv a le n c e in m e a s u r e m e n t will scien tifically a d v a n c e o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l lives of C a r i b b e a n i m m i g r a n t fam ilies.

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Millcttc. R. (1998). West In d ia n fam ilies in th e U nited S ta te s. In R. Taylor (Ed.), Minority f a m i l i e s in t he Uni t e d S t a t e s : A m u l t i c u l t u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e (2nd ed., p p . 4 6 - 5 9 ) . U p p e r S a d d le River, NJ: P rentice Hall. Payne, M. A., & F u r n h a m , A. (1992). P a re n ta l self-rep orts of child r e a r i n g p r a c tices in the C a rib b e a n . J o u r n a l o f B l a c k P sy chol ogy , 18, 1 9 -3 6 . Phinney. J . S. (2003). C o m m e n ta ry : W hat is d e v e lo p m e n t a b o u t im m ig ra tio n . I n t e r n a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r t he S t u d y o f B e h a v i o r a l D e v e l o p m e n t N e w s l e t ­ ter, 44, 1 4 -1 5 . Phinney, J . S., & D evich-Navarro, M. (1997). V ariations in b ic u ltu ra l iden tifica­ tion a m o n g African A m e ric a n a n d Mexican A m e ric a n a d o le s c e n ts . J o u r n a l o f R e s e a r c h on A d o l e s c e n c e . 7, 3 - 3 2 . P r a s a d . B. S. (1999). M arital violence w ithin E a s t In d ian h o u s e h o l d s in G uy­ an a : A c u ltu r a l exp la n a tio n . In R. K anh ai (Ed.), Mat okor: T h e politics o f i d e n t i t y f o r I n d o - C a r i b b e a n w o m e n (pp. 4 0 - 6 1). St. A ugustine, T rin id a d : S c ho ol of C o n tin u in g E d u c a tio n , U niversity of the West Indies. Rambally, R. T. (1995). The o v e r r e p r e s e n ta tio n of Black y o u th in the Q uebec social service sy ste m . C a n a d i a n S oc ia l Work R e v i e w , 12, 8 5 - 9 7 . R u m b a u t, R. G. (1997). A ssim ila tio n a n d its d is c o n te n ts : B etw een rh e to ric a n d reality. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Mi grati on R e v i e w . 31. 9 2 3 - 9 6 0 . R a m k is s o o n . M. W. (2001). T h e p s y c h o l o g y o f f a t h e r i n g in the C ar i b b e a n : An i n v e st i g at i o n o f the p h y s i c a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r e s e n c e o f t he J a m a i c a n f a t h e r . U n p u b lis h e d d o c to ra l d is s e r ta tio n . U niversity of West Ind ies, M ona, J a m a ic a . R o b e rtso n , E. E. (1975). O u t o f s i g h t — Not o u t o f m i n d . A s t u d y o f We st I n di an m o t h e r s living in E n g l a n d , s e p a r a t e d f o r long p e r i o d s f r o m their chi ldren, l e av ing t h e m b e h i n d w h e n m i g r a t i n g a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y re un it in g. U n ­ p u b lis h e d m a s t e r 's th e s is , S u s s e x University, S u sse x , E n g la n d . Rohner, R. P. Kean, K, J., & Cournoyer, D. E. (1991). Effects of c o r p o r a l p u n ­ is h m e n t, perceived c a r e ta k e r w a r m th , a n d c u ltu r a l beliefs on the p s y c h o ­ logical a d j u s t m e n t of c h ild re n in St. Kitts, West Indies. J o u r n a l o f M a r r ia g e a n d t he F am il y. 53, 6 8 1 - 6 9 3 . R o o p n a rin e , J. L. (1999). F at he r i n v o l v e m e n t a n d p a r e n t a l s t y l e s in C a r i b ­ b e a n i m m i g r a n t f a m i l i e s . P a p e r p r e s e n te d a t the A m e rica n E d u c a tio n a l R e se a rc h A sso ciatio n c o nference, M ontreal, C a n a d a , April. R o o p n a rin e , J. L. (2004). African A m e ric a n a n d African C a r ib b e a n fath ers: Levels, quality, a n d m e a n in g of involvem ent. In M. E. L a m b (Ed.), T h e role o f the f a t h e r in child d e v e l o p m e n t (pp. 5 8 - 9 7 ) . New York: Wiley & S o n s. R o o p n a rin e , J. L. & B row n, J. (Eds.). (1997). C a r i b b e a n f a m i l i e s : Di ver si ty a m o n g e t h ni c g r o up s . N orw ood, N J: Ablex. R o o p n a rin e , J . L., Bynoe, P. F., Singh, R., & S im o n , R. (2004). F actors tied to the sc h o o lin g of c h ild re n of E n g lis h -s p e a k in g C a r ib b e a n i m m ig r a n ts in the U nited S ta te s. In U. P. Gielen & J. R o o p n a r in e (Eds.), C h il d ho o d a n d a d o ­ lescence: C ro ss -c ul t u ra l p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d a p p l i c a t i o n s (pp. 3 1 9 - 3 4 9 ) . W estport, CT: Pracgcr. R o o p n a rin c , J. L., Bynoc, P. F., Singh, R., & S im o n , R. (2005). C a r ib b e a n fa m i­ lies in E n g lis h -s p e a k in g c o u n trie s : A r a th e r c o m p le x m o sa ic . In J . L. R o o p n a r in e & U. P. Gielen (Eds.), F am i l i e s in g l o b a l p e r s p e c t i v e (pp. 3 1 1 - 3 2 9 ) . B oston : Allyn & Bacon. R o o p n a rin e , J . L., & Ev ans, M. E. (in p r e ss ). Family s t r u c t u r a l o rganizatio n, m o th e r - c h il d a n d fa th e r- c h ild re l a ti o n s h ip s a n d psychological o u tc o m e s

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in E n g lis h - s p e a k in g African C a rib b e a n a n d Indo C a r ib b e a n families. In M. S u th e r la n d (Ed.), Ps y ch o lo g y o f d e v e l o p m e n t in t he C a r i b b e a n . K ingston, J a m a i c a : Ian R andle. R o o p n a rin e , J. L., K r is h n a k u m a r , A., M e tindogan, A., & E va n s, M. (2005). L i n k s b e t w e e n p a r e n t i n g s t y l e s , p a r e n t - c h i l d a c a d e m i c i nteracti on, pare n t - s c h o o l interact ion, a n d e ar l y a c a d e m i c skills a n d s ocial b e h a v i o r s in y o u n g c hi ldr en o f E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g C a r i b b e a n i m m i g r a n t s . M a n u s c r ip t s u b m i tte d for p u b lic a tio n . R o o p n a rin e , J. L., & S h in , M. (2003). C a r ib b e a n im m ig r a n ts from Englishs p e a k in g c o u n trie s: S o c io h is to ric a l forces, m ig ra to ry p a t te r n s , a n d p s y c h ­ ological is s u e s in family functioning. In L. L. Adler & U. R Giclcn (Eds.), Mi ­ grati on, i m m i g r a t i o n , a n d e m i g r a t i o n in i n t e r n a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s (pp. 1 2 3 -1 4 2 ). W estport, CT: Praeger. Russell-Brown, R, Norville, B., & Griffith, C. (1997). Child shifting: A survival stra t­ egy for teenage m others. In J. L. Roopnarine & J. Brown (Eds.), Caribbean f a m ­ ilies: Diversity a m o n g ethnic groups (pp. 22 3-24 2). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Salandy, A. (Convener). (2 0 0 3 , July). S y m p o s i u m on “B a r r e l C h i l d r e n Ca­ r ib b e a n A ssociatio n of Social Work. B ridgetow n. B a rb a d o s . Senior. O. (1991). Worki ng mi ra c le s: W o m e n ' s lives in t h e E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g C a r i b b e a n . In stitute for Social a n d E c o n o m ic R e s e a rc h (ISER), U niversity of the West Indies, B a rb a d o s . L o ndo n: J a m e s Curry, a n d B lo om ington: In ­ d ia n a U niversity Press. Sigel, I., & McGillicuddy-DeLisi, A. (2002). P a re n ta l beliefs a re cognitions: The d y n a m ic belief s y s te m s m odel. In M. H. B o rn s te in (Ed.), H a n d b o o k on p a r e n t i n g (Vol. 3, 2 n d ed., pp. 4 8 5 - 5 0 8 ) . M ah w ah , N J: L aw rence E r lb a u m A ssociates. S m ith , R. T. (1996). T h e m a t r i f o c a l f a m i l y : Power, p l u r a l i s m , a n d politics. L o nd on: Routledge. Soyibo, K.. & Lee, M. G. (2000). D o m estic a n d sc h o o l violence a m o n g high sc h o o l s t u d e n t s in J a m a i c a . West I n d i a n M e di c a l J o u r n a l , 49, 2 3 2 - 2 3 6 . Sp oo ner, M.. Daniel, C. A., & Mahoney, A. M. (2004). C o n fro n tin g the reality: An overview of the im p a c t of HIV/AIDS on the C a r ib b e a n c om m u nity . J o u r ­ n al o f I m m i g r a n t a n d R e f u g e e S e r v ic e s, 2, 4 9 - 6 7 . Steinberg, L., D o r n b u s c h , S. M., & B row n, B. B. (1992). E th n ic differences in a d o le s c e n t ac h ie v em en t: An ecological persp e c tiv e . A m e r i c a n P s y c ho l o ­ gist, 47, 7 2 3 - 7 2 9 . S u a re z -O ro z c o , C., & Todorova. I. (20 0 2 , J u n e ) . T h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f f a m i l i e s : I m m i g r a n t s e p a r a t i o n s a n d r éu ni fi ca ti o ns . P a p e r p r e s e n te d to the A m e ric a n Family T h e r a p y Academy, Miami. FL. Sup er, C., & H a r k n e s s , S. (1997). T h e c u ltu r a l s tr u c tu r in g of child d e ve lop ­ m e n t. In J. Berry. P. D asen , & T. S a r a s w a th i (Eds.), H a n d b o o k o f cross-cultural p s y c h o l o g y . Vol. 2: B a s i c p r o c e s s e s a n d h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t (pp. 1-39). N e e d h a m , MA: Allyn & Bacon. Van De Vijvcr, F. & Leung, K. ( 1997). M e th o d s a n d d a ta a n aly sis of c o m p a ra tiv e r e s e a r c h . In J. W. Berry, Poortinga, Y. P., & J. P a n d e y (Eds.), H a n d b o o k o f cr os s - cu l tu ra l p s y c h o l o g y (Vol. 1, 2 n d ed., pp. 2 5 7 - 3 0 0 ) . B oston: Allyn & Bacon. V ick erm an, M. (2001). J a m a i c a n s : B ala n c in g race a n d ethnicity. In N. Foner (Ed.), N e w i m m i g r a n t s in N e w York (pp. 2 0 1 - 2 2 8 ) . New York: C o lu m b ia U niversity Press.

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W a te r s , M. ( 1 9 9 9 ) . B l a c k i d e n t i t i e s : W e s t I n d i a n i m m i g r a n t d r e a m s a n d A m e r i c a n r e a l i t i e s . C a m b r i d g e , MA: H a r v a r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s . W e d e n o ja , W. ( 1 9 8 9 ) . M o t h e r i n g a n d th e p r a c t i c e o f “B a lm " in J a m a i c a . In C. S. M c C la in (E d .), W o m e n a s h e a l e r s ( p p . 7 6 - 9 7 ) . N ew B r u n s w i c k , N J : R u t g e r s U n iv e r s ity P r e s s . W ils o n , L. C., W ils o n , C. M., & B e r k e l e y - C a i n e s , L. ( 2 0 0 3 ) . Age, g e n d e r a n d s o ­ c i o e c o n o m i c d i f f e r e n c e s in p a r e n t a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r e f e r e n c e s in G u y a n a . J o u r n a l o f C o m p a r a tiv e F am ily S tud ies, 34, 2 1 3 -2 2 7 . W ils o n . M.. & B r o o k s - G u n n , J . ( 2 0 0 1 ) . H e a l t h s t a t u s a n d b e h a v i o r s o f u n w e d fa th e rs. C h ild ren a n d Youth S e r v ic e s R e v ie w . 23, 3 7 7 - 4 0 1 . Z h o u , M. ( 1 9 9 7 ) . S e g m e n t e d a s s i m i l a t i o n : I s s u e s , c o n t r o v e r s i e s , a n d r e c e n t re s e a rc h on th e se c o n d g e n e ra tio n . I n t e r n a t i o n a l M ig ra tio n R e v i e w , 31, 975-1 0 0 8 .

6 On the Developm ent of Identity: Perspectives From Immigrant Fam ilies K aren Kisiel Dion Uni ver sit y o f Toronto a t S c a r b o r o u g h

Negotiating an d u n d e r s ta n d in g different a spects of o n e ’s identity is a central feature of developm ent d u rin g adolescence an d early a d u lt­ hood. Major psychological theories c oncerning the developm ent of identity a s s u m e a m od el of o ptim al or m a tu r e d evelopm ent that is it­ self culturally c o n stru cte d . U n d e rsta n d in g the d y nam ics of identity d e ­ velopm ent in the c h ildren of im m ig r a n ts —the role of the family, intergen eratio nal c o n s e n s u s a n d conflict, the distinctive con trib utio n of ge n d e r—reveals the n a tu re of these cu ltural c o n stru c tio n s. It is therefore im p o r ta n t to c o n sid e r n ot only how th eories of identity devel­ o p m e n t can be applied to u n d e r s ta n d in g the challenges faced by the children of im m ig ra n ts, b u t also how the experiences of im m ig ra n t families can advance existing theories.

IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE AND EARLY ADULTHOOD P sy ch o lo g ica l T h eories and C on cepts As p a r t of his theory of life-span developm ent, E rik so n (1968) d e ­ scrib ed establishing a sense of identity as a central feature of (although not limited to) adolescence. C entral to his view w as the idea of a " m o ra ­ to riu m ”, enabling the ado lescen t to consolidate different facets of id en ­ tity, with “identity confu sion ” resu lting w hen a tte m p ts at integration 2 99

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did n o t s u c c e e d . M a rc ia (1 9 8 0 , p. 159) d efined iden tity a s “an in te rn al, se lf-c o n stru c te d , d y n a m ic o rg a n iz a tio n of drives, abilities, beliefs a n d in d iv id u a l h isto ry ,” w h ic h facilitated p sycholog ical d iffe re n tia tio n from o th e r s . A se n s e of e m e rg in g identity, c h a r a c te r iz e d by “a flexible unity,” s h o u l d in t u r n m a k e an ind iv id u a l less likely to rely on o t h e r s ’ views a n d e x p e c ta tio n s for self-definition. M arcia (19 80) p r o p o s e d fo ur d ifferent “identity s ta tu s e s ," with the o p tim a l b e ing “identity a c h ie v e m e n t,” involving a p e r io d of p e r s o n a l reflection a n d c o n s id e ra tio n of a lte rn a tiv e s, th e n m a k in g c o m m it­ m e n ts b a s e d on ind iv id ual choices. T he o th e r identity s t a tu s e s w ere “d iffu sio n ” (u n ab le to m a k e c o m m itm e n ts ) , “fo r e c lo s e d ” ( m a k in g c o m ­ m itm e n t s b u t b a s e d on p a ren tal/fam ily influence, r a t h e r th a n p e r s o n a l choice), a n d " m o r a t o r i u m ” ( tra n s itio n a l p h a s e trying to d ec id e on a n d resolve c o m m itm e n ts ). In th is p h a s e of the life s p a n , key is s u e s for c o n s id e r a tio n c o n c e r n e d o c c u p a tio n a l c ho ices a n d is s u e s c o n c c rn in g ideology/w orldviews (su c h a s religious beliefs; political beliefs). M ore recently, it w a s su gg e ste d by A rn e tt (20 00) t h a t in societies or s e g m e n ts w ithin a given society w h e re in d iv id u a ls can p o s tp o n e a s ­ s u m i n g a d u lt role r e s p o n s ib ilitie s , identity e x p lo ra tio n e x te n d s b e ­ yond a d o le s c e n c e well into the tw enties. He a rg u e d th a t th is “em e rg in g a d u l t h o o d ” (ages 1 8 - 2 5 y ears) is a d is tin c t d e v e lo p m e n ta l p h a s e from e ith e r a d o le sc e n c e o r early a d u lth o o d . Of relevance h e re , a defining fe ature of th is p e rio d c o n c e r n s e x p lo ring different facets of p e r s o n a l identity in different d o m a in s . T h u s , "trying o u t ” d ifferent re la tio n ­ s h ip s , e d u c a tio n a l a n d w o r k p o ssib ilitie s, a n d travel a n d v o lu n te e r o p ­ p o r tu n itie s c o n t r ib u te s to identity d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e se e x p e rie n c es c o n tr ib u te to a s e n s e of “self-sufficiency” (Arnett, 2 0 0 0 ). A m o n g a d o ­ le sc e n ts in the U nited S ta te s in the late 1 9 9 0 s, su rv e y s in d ic a te d th a t p e r s o n a l q u a litie s s u c h a s “a c c e p tin g r e s p o n sib ility for oneself" a n d “m a k i n g i n d e p e n d e n t d e c isio n s" w ere r e g a r d e d a s the defining c riteria for a d u lth o o d , r a t h e r t h a n role t r a n s itio n s s u c h as c o m p le tin g o n e ’s e d u c a tio n or getting a jo b (Arnett, 1997). As is eviden t from the p o in ts j u s t d e s c rib e d , psychological a c c o u n ts of identity d e v e lo p m e n t in a d o le s c e n c e a n d “e m e rg in g “ a d u lth o o d have s t r e s s e d the im p o r ta n c e of p e r s o n a l reflection a n d choice, c o n ­ s id e r in g alte rn a tiv e s, a n d c o n s tru c tin g a se n s e of identity b a s e d on o n e ’s p re f e r e n c e s a n d ex pe rie n c es.

Id en tity D e v e lo p m e n t an d F am ily R e la tio n sh ip s W hat i m p a c t do fam ily r e la t i o n s h i p s have o n id e n tity d e v e lo p m e n t in a d o le s c e n c e a n d e a rly a d u l t h o o d ? T h e views j u s t d e s c r ib e d im p ly th a t the o p tim a l role for p a r e n t s is to to le ra te , e n c o u ra g c , a n d facili­ tate v a r io u s in itia tiv e s on the p a r t of th e ir s o n o r d a u g h t e r (see, e.g., the c a se s t u d y c ited b y E r i k s o n , 1 9 68 , p p . 1 3 0 - 1 3 1 ) . Id e n tity s e a r c h involves q u e s t io n i n g e a rlie r w o rld v ie w s a n d v a lu e s, m a n y of w hich have b e e n a c q u ir e d in th e family. C o n c e p t s s u c h a s "id en tity fo re c lo ­

1(>.

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s u r e ” in d ic a te a c c e p ta n c e of o t h e r s ’ views w ith o u t q u e s ti o n in g (M a r­ cia, 1 98 0). As th e lab el s u g g e sts , th is a p p r o a c h is n o t r e g a r d e d a s the id ea l d e v e lo p m e n ta l o u tc o m c . A r n e tt (2 0 0 0 ) p o in te d o u t th a t by age 18 y e a r s , m a n y y o u n g a d u l t d a u g h t e r s a n d s o n s have left th e ir p a r ­ e n ts ' h o m e for college o r w o r k o p p o r t u n i t i e s . Leaving h o m e to live e lse w h e re m e a n s t h a t m u c h of th e ir id e n tity -re la te d e x p lo r a tio n is likely to b e u n d e r t a k e n a p a r t fro m th e ir fam ily of origin. However, in th e U n ite d S ta te s , n o t all y o u n g a d u l t s leave h o m e , a n d t h o s e w ho do leave m a y ev e n tu a lly r e t u r n . A r n e tt ( 2 0 0 0 ) cited fin d in g s from th e U n ite d S t a te s t h a t p h y s ic a l p ro x im ity to p a r e n t s w a s negatively r e ­ late d to v a r io u s i n d ic a to r s of th e p a r e n t - c h i l d r e la tio n s h ip . P e r h a p s on e r e a s o n for th e s e r e s u l t s is t h a t c o r e s id e n c e w ith o n e ’s a d u l t c h il­ d r e n is i n c o n s i s t e n t w ith the b e lie f by p a r e n t s a n d c h il d r e n c o n c e r n ­ ing th e l a t t e r ’s e x p e c te d self-sufficiency by e a rly a d u lt h o o d .

CULTURE AND FAMILY: IMPLICATIONS FOR IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT Id en tity Is s u e s A m o ng a d o le s c e n t a n d yo u n g a d u lt c h ild r e n of im m ig r a n ts , the p r o ­ c e ss of identity e x p lo ra tio n involves n o t only a s p e c ts of p e r s o n a l devel­ o p m e n t (r e la tio n sh ip s; w o r k choices; e x a m in in g values), b u t also c u ltu r e - r e la te d c o n t r a s t s p e rta in in g to th e s e ch oices. Given th e s e c o n ­ tr a s ts , c o n s tr u c ti n g a s e n s e of c u ltu r a l iden tity is a n i m p o r t a n t facet of iden tity d e v e lo p m e n t in a d o le sc e n c e a n d early a d u lth o o d for im m i ­ g r a n t y outh. B oth a s e n s e of p e r s o n a l efficacy (self-sufficiency) a n d c u l­ tu r a l identity c o n tr ib u te to b ic u ltu ra l c o m p e te n c e (L aF ro m b o ise, C o le m a n , & G e rto n , 1993). For L a F ro m b o ise a n d h e r colleagues (199 3), the d e v e lo p m e n t of b ic u ltu r a l c o m p e te n c e w as facilitated by “a s tr o n g se n s e of o n e se lf in re la tio n to o t h e r s ” b u t h in d e r e d if a p e r s o n w a s “e n m e s h e d in h is or h e r social context" (p. 4 0 2 , footnote 2). B a se d on M arc ia’s c o n c e p t of iden tity s t a tu s e s , P h in n e y (1 98 9) p r o ­ p o s e d a fo ur-stage p r o g r e s s io n of e th n ic identity d e v e lo p m e n t a m o n g a d o le s c e n ts from e th n o c u ltu r a l m in o rity g r o u p s : n o t e x a m in in g is ­ s u e s p e rta in in g to ethnicity (diffused); c o m m i t m e n t w ith o u t p e r s o n a l e x p lo ra tio n (foreclosed); e x plorin g the m e a n in g of ethn icity for o n ese lf ( m o ra to r iu m ) ; a n d clarity a b o u t a n d c o m m itm e n t to o n e 's e thnicity af­ te r p e r s o n a l reflection a n d e x p lo ra tio n (identity ac hie ve m ent). A p p li­ c a tio n s of th is f ra m e w o rk have m o stly fo c use d on eth n ic m in o rity a d o lc s c c n ts in the U nited S ta te s. For ex a m p le , a m o n g high sc h o o l s t u ­ d e n ts (U.S.-born), P h in n e y (1 98 9) fo u n d s u p p o r t for th re e iden tity s t a ­ tu s e s a m o n g 1 0th g r a d e r s w h o w e re from th r e e g r o u p s (Asian A m e rica n , H isp a n ic , a n d Black): d iffu sio n /fo re c lo su re (the m a jo rity r e s p o n s e in each g ro up), m o r a t o r i u m , a n d achieved. B a se d on a sm a ll follow-up s a m p le , P h in n e y a n d C h a v ira (1992) fo u n d p r e lim in a ry s u p ­ p o r t for d e v e lo p m e n t to w a r d s achieved identity s t a t u s b e tw e e n the

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ages of 16 a n d 19 y e a rs a m o n g a d o le s c e n ts from th re e e th n ic g r o u p s (Asian A m e ric a n , Black, a n d H isp an ic). More recently, P h in n e y a n d h e r colleagues e x a m in e d the re la tio n b e tw e e n cth n ic identity a n d dif­ fere nt a s p e c ts of p sychological well-being a m o n g im m i g r a n t y o u th in several societies (see Phinney, H oren czy k, L ie b k in d , & Vedder, 2 00 1 ). Tse ( 1999), u s in g a qu alitative a p p r o a c h , an a ly z e d firs t-p e rs o n n a r ­ ratives of 3 9 A sian A m e ric a n s to e x a m in e e th n ic identity. In th e ir a c ­ c o u n ts of th is p r o c e s s , s h e n o te d d e s c r i p tio n s of "ethnic em erg en ce," w hich in c lu d e d se lf-a w a ren e ss of m in o rity s t a tu s followed by a t t e m p t ­ ing to le a rn a b o u t d ifferent facets of e th n ic heritag e a n d eventually, for many, arriv in g a t “e th n ic identity i n c o r p o r a ti o n ,” re s u ltin g in iden tifi­ cation with A sian A m e ric a n s. T h e p r e c e d in g e x a m p le s su gg est t h a t for a d o le s c e n ts a n d y o u n g a d u lts from e th n o c u ltu r a l m in o rity g r o u p s , a d istin ctiv e fe a tu re of id e n tity d e v e lo p m e n t c o n c e r n s its c u ltu ra l g ro u n d in g — th a t is, the exten t to w hich is s u e s p e r ta in in g to cthnicity are e x p lo re d a n d e x a m in e d . For th o s e w ho a re the c h ild r e n of im m ig r a n ts , is s u e s of ego d e v e lo p ­ m e n t em e rg e in the co nte xt of a s e n s e of c u ltu r a l identity. A r r e d o n d o ( 1984) s tu d ie d identity d e v e lo p m e n t a m o n g yo u n g a d u lts from 13 dif­ fe re n t c u ltu ra l b a c k g r o u n d s w ho im m ig r a te d to th e U nited S ta te s in th eir early to m id a d o le s c e n c e (ages 1 4 -1 7 y ears). S h e lo ok ed a t b o th ego identity a n d the c o n tr ib u tio n of c u ltu r a l v alu es in the d e v e lo p m e n t of self-definition. A s e c o n d te stin g after a 5-year p e r io d on a s u b s a m p l e of the g ro u p in d ic a te d h ig her levels of ego iden tity u s in g a m e a s u r e b a s e d on E r i k s o n ’s stages. U sing j o u r n a l e n tr ie s k e p t by p a r tic i p a n ts a n d in terview s with th e m , sh e also n o te d several th e m e s rela te d to iden tity d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e se in c lu d e d cre a tin g a s e n s e of b e in g p a r t of a n d belon ging in a new c u ltu r a l context, the i m p o r ta n c e of “p r im a r y g ro u p /c u ltu r a l v a lu e s ” a n d th e ir im p a c t of e d u c a tio n a l a n d c a re e r p la n s , a n d , m o r e specifically, the i m p o r t a n c e of family r e la tio n s h i p s in he lp in g th e m to m a k e v a r io u s choices. Fam ilies w e re d is c u s s e d a s a s o u r c e of s u p p o r t a n d stre n g th in this p r o c e s s . At the s a m e tim e, the se y ou n g a d u l ts w e re a w a re of the com p lexities of iden tity negotiation , given c o m p e tin g d e m a n d s le a rn e d in th e ir f a m ­ ily’s society of origin a n d s u b s e q u e n t e x p e rie n c es in the U nited S tates. T he c o m m e n t s of a y o u n g w o m a n reflected th is a w a r e n e s s : “It’s like bein g b o r n again. You have to find o u t w ho you are w hile getting m e s ­ sa g es from two s id e s, saying this is h ow you w ere ra is e d , a n d this is how you s h o u ld b e ” ( A rre d o n d o , 1984, p. 984). For a d o le s c e n ts a n d yo u n g a d u lts from im m ig r a n t fam ilies, identity negotiation can be p a rtic u la rly co m p lex, b o th for th o se w ho im m i ­ g ra te d with th e ir p a r e n t s a n d especially for the se c o n d - g e n e r a tio n c h il­ d r e n of im m ig r a n ts . They n o t only m u s t d eal with a s p e c ts of p e r s o n a l d e v e lo p m e n t s h a r e d by all a d o le s c e n ts a n d yo u n g a d u lts (re la tio n ­ s h ip s , w o r k cho ices, e x a m in in g values) b u t also often c o n f r o n t c u l­ tu r e - r e la te d d ifferen ces c o n c e r n in g th e s e choices. S e e k in g to c re a te a se n s e of identity th r o u g h p e r s o n a l c ho ices s u r r o u n d i n g r e la tio n s h ip s ,

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o c c u p a tio n , a n d w orldv iew s/values s o m e ti m e s m a y conflict w ith p a ­ re n ta l a n d o th e r family e x p e c ta tio n s. Moreover, if conflict o c c u r s , it m a y n o t be sim p ly over a specific choicc o r p r c fc rc n c e (which o c c u p a ­ tion: w h a t a re a of stud y: the suitability of a r o m a n tic p a r tn e r ) b u t also with the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t th e se c ho ices s h o u ld be m a d e in d e p e n d e n tly by the y o u n g a d u lt d a u g h t e r o r so n.

F am ily D y n a m ics an d th e D e v e lo p m e n t o f Id en tity In m a n y societies, the p r i m a r y goal of socialization is n o t the d e v e lo p ­ m e n t of a n in d iv id u al w ho by a d o le sc e n c e or early a d u lth o o d is b e c o m ­ ing psychologically a u t o n o m o u s from h e r o r h is family of origin (LeVine, 1990). R ather, it is a s s u m e d th a t family m e m b e r s will c o n ­ tin u e to be involved in a n d influence each o t h e r ’s lives a n d choices. T h e goal of c h ild re a r in g is to foster in te r c o n n e c te d n e s s a n d in te r d e ­ p e n d e n c e a m o n g family m e m b e r s (S h w e d e r & B o u rn e , 1984). H ence yo u n g a d u l ts from im m ig r a n t fam ilies r e s id in g in societies s u c h a s the U nited S ta te s a n d C a n a d a e n c o u n t e r d ifferences n o t only in specific c u ltu r a l p ra c tic e s b u t m o r e fun da m e nta lly, different c u ltu r e - r e la te d belief s y s te m s c o n c e r n in g o p tim a l h u m a n d e v e lo p m e n t. To illu stra te with one ex a m p le , th e e x p ectatio n th a t a y ou n g a d u lt sh o u l d be free to p u r s u e h e r or h is in d iv id u a l d e v e lo p m e n t a n d d e s ir e s in close r e l a tio n s h ip s b ey o n d th e family w ith o u t u n d u e p a r e n t a l i n t e r ­ ference ultim a te ly e n c o u r a g e s the you n g a d u l t ’s p e r s o n a l a u to n o m y from his o r h e r family of origin. T h e view of “e m e rg in g a d u l t h o o d ” d i s ­ c u s s e d by A rn e tt (20 00 ) illu s tr a te s th is poin t. T he choice of a p a r t n e r is im plicitly fo c use d on i s s u e s re la te d to p e r s o n a l identity a s the youn g a d u lt a s k s “Given the k in d of p e r s o n I a m , w h a t k in d of p e r s o n do I w ish to have a s a p a r t n e r th r o u g h life?” (Arnett, 2 0 0 0 , p. 4 73 ). T h is e m p h a s i s on in d iv id u a l a u to n o m y a n d p e r s o n a l iden tity s e a r c h in the co nte xt of in tim a te r e l a tio n s h ip s n o t only reflects c u ltu r e - r e la te d belief sy s te m s b u t also m a y have s o m e p a r a d o x ic a l o u tc o m e s for the quality of r e la tio n s h ip s (see Dion & Dion, 1991, 1 993, for fu r th e r d i s c u s s io n of th is issue). In c o n tr a s t , alte rna tiv e c u ltu r e -r e la te d belief s y s te m s a b o u t th e n a t u r e of a d o le sc e n c e a n d early a d u lt h o o d a dv oc a te a differ­ e n t view, o n e s tr e s s in g c o n tin u in g high levels of p a r e n ta l a n d family in ­ volvem ent. From th is p e rsp e c tiv e , "letting g o ” a n d e n c o u ra g in g o n e ’s yo u n g a d u l t c h ild re n to “str ik e o u t on th e ir ow n” a re n o t n e c e s sa rily the gu id in g m e t a p h o r for c hild re a rin g. O ne i m p o r t a n t m o tiv a tio n for im m ig ra tin g to a n o th e r society is the goal of p ro v id in g e d u c a tio n a l a n d o c c u p a tio n a l o p p o r tu n iti e s for o n e ’s c h ild re n . T h u s the fact of h aving im m ig ra te d itself can c o n tr ib u te to family d y n a m ic s , with p a r e n t s ex pecting to have g re a te r influence over c h i ld r e n ’s d e c is io n s a n d p la n s given the d is r u p tio n a n d u p r o o tin g of th e ir own lives, p a rtic u la r ly if im m ig ra tio n w a s u n d e r t a k e n m a in ly for e c o n o m ic r e a s o n s a n d family a d v a n c e m e n t. T h e p a r e n t s m a y expect th e ir c h ild re n n o t only to su c c e e d b u t also to su cc e e d in a specific d o ­

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m a i n o f a c h ie v e m e n t. M oreover, f a c to r s r e la te d to im m i g r a t i o n , s u c h a s th e e c o n o m ic su rv iv a l a n d w e ll-b e in g o f th e family, m a y m e a n th a t a n a d o l e s c e n t ’s o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o ic c s a r c r e g a r d e d a s a fa m ily r a t h e r t h a n a n in d iv id u a l m a tte r. I l l u s t r a t i n g t h i s p o in t , M a r k o w itz ( 1 9 9 4 ) in te r v ie w e d w o m e n of S o ­ viet J e w i s h p a r e n t s w h o c a m e to th e U n ite d S t a t e s w h e n th e r e s p o n ­ d e n t s w e r e in p r e a d o l e s c e n c e to m i d - a d o l e s c e n c e . T h e s e w o m e n c o m m e n t e d t h a t s c h o o l i n g a n d j o b d e c i s i o n s w e re s t r o n g l y i n f l u ­ e n c e d by t h e i r p a r e n t s ’ w i s h e s , in p a r t b e c a u s e o f th e p a r e n t s ’ o w n p e r s o n a l s a c r if i c e s . T h e s a y in g “A fter all I've d o n e for y o u ” g a i n s e x tr a i m p a c t u n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . As o n e w o m a n s a i d w h o b e c a m e a c o m p u t e r s c i e n t i s t r a t h e r t h a n a m u s i c i a n , “My p a r e n t s d e p e n d e d on m e , a n d o n m y s iste r, to o , to get g o o d , h ig h - p a y i n g j o b s , to h a v e b e t t e r lives t h a n th e y d i d ” (p. 1 56). M a r k o w it z c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e s e f a m ilie s a s h a v i n g “h ig h e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d b l u r r e d ego b o u n d a r i e s ” (p. 1 5 8 ) — q u a l i t i e s t h a t w e r e s o u r c e s o f b o t h s t r e n g t h a n d s t r e s s for t h e s e i m m i g r a n t f a m ilie s . P a r e n t s w h o a r e i m m i g r a n t s often a lso w a n t th e ir c h ild r e n to a d h e r e to th e ir view of c u l t u r e - r e l a t e d v a lu e s a n d b e h av io r. E v id e n c e fro m s e v ­ e r a l s o u r c e s s u g g e s ts t h a t o n e fa c to r c o n t r i b u t i n g to p a r e n t s ' b e h a v io r is p e r c e iv e d t h r e a t to w h a t th e y r e g a r d a s c o r e v a lu e s . T h e g r e a t e r th e p e rc e iv e d d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n th e s e v a lu e s a n d t h o s e in th e rec e iv in g society, th e g r e a te r th e p a r e n t a l r e s t r i c t i v e n e s s w h ic h m a y o ccur. T h i s p o i n t w a s i llu s tr a te d in o n e of D a s G u p t a 's ( 1 9 9 7 , p. 5 7 9 ) in te rv ie w s w ith a y o u n g I n d ia n w o m a n living in New York w h o s e fa m ily h a d p r e v i­ o u s ly lived in two o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . S h e c o m m e n t e d th a t h e r m o t h e r ’s b e h a v io r to w a r d h e r c h i l d r e n h a d b e c o m e m u c h m o r e re s tr ic tiv e u p o n a r r iv a l in th e U n ite d S l a t e s b e c a u s e o f p e rc e iv e d t h r e a t to v a lu e s fr o m th e fa m ily ’s s o c ie ty of o rig in . By c o n t r a s t , w h e n th e fam ily lived in two o t h e r s o c ie tie s, its m e m b e r s h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d m o r e fully, in c l u d in g le a r n in g th e local la n g u a g e. An a d d i t i o n a l c o m p le x ity for a d o l e s c e n t a n d a d u l t c h i l d r e n fro m i m m i g r a n t fa m ilie s is t h a t w h a t is c o n s i d e r e d to b e p r o to ty p i c fam ily life in th e rec e iv in g s o c ie ty m a y differ fro m th e ir lived e x p e r ie n c e in t h e ir o w n family. Im a g e s o f fa m ily life a p p e a r i n g in v a r i o u s m e d i a a n d o b s e r v e d in o t h e r s ’ f a m ilie s fu n c tio n a s a n “i n te r p r e ti v e s t r u c t u r e ” o r f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e i n f lu e n c in g th e a s s e s s m e n t a n d a p p r a i s a l o f o n e ’s o w n fam ily (Pyke, 2 0 0 0 ) . In h e r in te rv ie w s w ith y o u n g a d u l t s w h o s e p a r e n t s w e r e e ith e r K o re a n o r V ie tn a m e s e i m m i g r a n t s , P y kc (2 0 0 0 ) f o u n d t h a t th e g r o w n c h i l d r e n negatively a s s e s s e d s o m e a s p e c t s of fam ily life (p e rc e iv e d e m o tio n a l d i s t a n c e fro m th e ir p a r e n t s , g r e a t e r p a r e n t a l c o n tr o l) w h e n th e y c o m p a r e d it to th e e m o t i o n a l e x p r e s s i v e ­ n e s s a n d e g a lit a r ia n is m d e p ic te d in A m e r i c a n m e d i a (e.g., fic titiou s fa m ilie s d e p ic te d on te levision). At th e s a m e tim e , how ever, th e ir i d e a s a b o u t th e " N o rm a l A m e r i c a n F a m ily ” a ls o w e re a negative re f e r e n c e p o i n t w h e n a s s e s s i n g o t h e r f e a t u r e s of th e ir o w n fam ily life. For e x a m ­ ple, t h e s e y o u n g a d u l t s w e r e s tr o n g ly c o m m i t t e d to c u l t u r a l id e a ls of

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ev e ntua l filial care for th e ir aging p a r e n t s a n d re g a r d e d th e ir c o m m i t ­ m e n t a s a p o in t of positive c o n t r a s t with w h a t they r e g a r d e d a s the neglect of o ld e r family m e m b e r s in A m e ric a n (United S ta te s) society. Moreover, societal-level factors, s u c h as policies to w a rd the im m i­ g ra n ts in im m igrant-receiving societies, p rovide a context th a t s u p p o r ts or h in d e r s in varying deg rees im m ig r a n t p a r e n ts ' tr a n s m is s io n of s y s ­ te m s of beliefs a n d values. For exam ple, since the early 1970s, C a n a d a's official policy h a s e s p o u s e d m u ltic u ltu ra lism (Berry, 1984 ; E s s e s & G ard n e r, 1996) , a n d th e re is p u blic s u p p o r t for this policy (Berry & Kalin, 1995). Key c o m p o n e n ts include r e s p e c t for heritage c u ltu re s an d in te rg ro u p tolerance a n d r e sp e c t for different g r o u p s w ithin C an a d a . T h u s there is explicit societal s u p p o r t for w h a t m a n y im m ig r a n t p a r e n ts are trying to do a t the level of the family— th a t is, foster r e s p e c t for their own family’s cu ltu ra l heritage. G eorgas a n d his colleagues (Georgas, Berry, Shaw, C h r is ta k o p o u lo u , & Mylonas, 1996) p re d ic te d a n d found grea te r e n d o r s e m e n t of tra d itio n a l G re e k family values a m o n g G reek im m ig r a n ts in C a n a d a c o m p a r e d to G reek im m ig ra n ts in two E u r o p e a n societies (the N e th e rla n d s a n d G erm any). T h is difference o c c u rre d for bo th first- a n d seco nd -g e n eratio n im m ig ra n ts. One in te r p re ta tio n for this difference is the difference in societal-level r e s p o n s e s to reten tion of heritage c ultu ra l values in im m ig r a n t families. A n o th e r facto r t h a t m a y facilitate th e likelihood th a t p a r e n t s c o n ­ tin u e to affect the daily lives a n d c h oices of th e ir c h ild re n is c o n tin u in g c o re sid e n c e , w hich m a y o c c u r even w h e n c h ild r e n a re of u n iv e rsity a n d w o r k age. A ltho ug h m a n y U.S. a d o le s c e n ts a n d y ou n g a d u l ts leave th e ir p a r e n t s ’ h o m e by age 18 y e a rs a s n o te d earlier, n o t all do so. A m o n g C a n a d i a n s t u d e n t s , a l th o u g h s o m e d o leave h o m e for p o s t s e c o n d a r y s chooling, a s u b s ta n ti a l n u m b e r of u n d e r g r a d u a t e s a t ­ te n d a u n iv e rsity in th e ir h o m e city o r nearby. For e x a m p le , a s p a r t of a su rv e y of e n te rin g s t u d e n t s c o n d u c te d at the U niversity of T oro nto (UTSC c a m p u s ) in 1993, s t u d e n t s w ere a s k e d a b o u t th e ir ex pected place of re s id e n c e while in university. M ost (80.1% ) ex pected to live with p a r e n t s o r o th e r relatives. M any of th e c o re v a lu e s im m i g r a n t p a r e n t s fro m d iv e rs e e t h n o ­ c u ltu r a l g r o u p s w ish to fo ste r in th e ir c h i ld r e n p e r ta in to p e r s o n a l r e ­ la ti o n s h ip s , e sp e cia lly view s of m a r r ia g e a n d fam ily r e l a ti o n s h ip s , a n d i n t e r g e n e r a ti o n a l conflict is e sp e cia lly likely to o c c u r in th is d o ­ m a in (K. K. D ion & K. L. D ion, 1996). W ithin C h in e s e im m i g r a n t f a m ­ ilies, th e r e a r c se v e ra l a s p e c t s of fa m ily -re la ted v a lu e s th a t m a y be a s s o c ia te d w ith p a r e n t - c h i l d conflict (see K. L. Dion & K. K. D ion, 1996). For e x a m p le , Fong (1 9 7 3 ) c o m m e n t e d on th e i m p o r t a n c e of fil­ ial piety a n d p a r e n t a l a u th o r ity in C h in e s e fam ilies. S u n g (1 9 8 5 ) n o te d conflict c o n c e r n in g th e p e rc eiv ed fo rm a lity of th e ir fam ily r e l a ­ tio n s h ip s , a s well a s p a r e n t a l r e s tr ic tiv e n e s s , e x p r e s s e d by C h in e s e im m i g r a n t c h ild r e n a n d a d o l e s c e n ts . V arious s tu d ie s have fo u n d evidence of im m ig r a n t In d ia n a n d P a k i­ sta n i p a r e n t s ’ c o n c e r n over d a tin g a n d m a r r ia g e p r a c tic e s in the s o c i­

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ety to w h ich they h a d im m ig r a te d (e.g., V aid y a n a th a n & Naidoo, 1991; Wakil, S id d iq u e , & Wakil, 1981). U n s u p e r v is e d a s s o c ia tio n b etw een yo u n g w o m e n a n d y ou ng m e n w a s one of the g re a te s t s o u r c e s of p a r e n ­ tal s t r e s s (e.g., K u rin a & G h o sh , 1983; N aidoo & Davis, 1988). One fac­ to r u n d e rly in g th is c o n c e rn e x p r e s s e d by I n d o -C a n a d ia n p a r e n t s w as c o m p e tin g belief s y s te m s c o n c e rn in g the n a t u r e of m a r r ia g e a n d family r e la tio n s h ip s (Filteau, 1980). K ibria (1 99 3) interview ing V ie tn a m ese A m e ric a n s fo u n d m o t h e r s e x p r e s s in g c o n c e rn over the p o te n tia l w e a k e n in g of family b o n d s a n d in te r d e p e n d e n c e a s a r e s u lt of im m ig ra tio n . W orry over lo ss of th e ir a u th o r ity over th e ir c h ild r e n w a s m e n tio n e d a s the g re a te s t d i s a d v a n ­ tage of living in the U nited S ta te s. T h e iss u e of p a r e n ta l c o n tro l is also s a lie n t to a d o l e s c e n t s fro m i m m i g r a n t fa m ilie s. R o s e n t h a l a n d F e ld m a n (1990) s tu d ie d first- a n d s e c o n d -g e n e ratio n i m m ig r a n t a d o ­ le sc e n ts (ages 1 5 - 1 8 y ears) in A u stra lia a n d the U nited S ta te s. T he se a d o le s c e n ts re g a r d e d th e ir fam ilies a s exercising g re a te r c o n tro l a n d h aving g r e a te r e x p e c ta tio n s for a c h ie v e m e n t w h en c o m p a r e d to e ith e r n o n i m m ig r a n t a d o le s c e n ts (C hinese te e n a g e rs living in Hong Kong) or two o th e r c o m p a r is o n g r o u p s of White, n a tiv e -b o rn a d o le s c e n ts from A u stra lia a n d the U nited S ta te s.

GENDER, FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS, AND NEGOTIATING IDENTITY G en d er an d P a ren t-C h ild In ter a ctio n G e n d e r p ro v id e s a n i m p o r t a n t f r a m e w o r k for u n d e r s t a n d i n g p e r s o n a l r e la tio n s h ip s (Dion & Dion, 2 0 0 lb ) , in c lu d in g family ex p e c ta tio n s a n d i n te ra c tio n s a m o n g m e m b e r s of im m i g r a n t fam ilies (Dion & Dion, 2 0 0 1 a ). R e s e a r c h c o n d u c te d in C a n a d a a n d in the U nited S ta te s in d i ­ c a te s th a t in im m ig r a n t fam ilies from v a rio u s e th n o c u ltu r a l g ro u p s, p a r e n t s a rc m o r e likely to m o n i to r a n d c o n tro l the b e h a v io r of their d a u g h t e r s c o m p a r e d to th e ir s o n s (e.g., G h o s h , 1984; Pettys & Balgopal, 1998). C u ltu r e -r e la te d d ifferen ces exist in core v a lu e s s u c h a s the c rite ria for c h o o sin g a s p o u s e , the ex pected inv olvem en t of the fam ilies of origin in th is d ecision , a n d o blig ation s of a d u l t c h ild r e n to p a r e n t s a n d o th e r relatives. T h e d e s ir e to p r o te c t th e se v alu es is one factor t h a t u n d e r lie s g e n d e r e d so cialization p ra c tic e s, s u c h a s the g re a te r m o n ito rin g a n d c o n tro l over d a u g h te r s ' c o m p a r e d to s o n s ’ a c ­ tivities. D a u g h te r s m o r e t h a n s o n s often a re ex pected to e m b o d y c u l­ tu r a l id e a ls of b e h a v io r from their p a r e n t s ’ society of origin. In p artic u la r, d a u g h te r s b o r n in the receiving society ( se c o n d g en e ra tio n ) m a y e n c o u n t e r p r e s s u r e s from p a r e n t s a n d o th e r family m e m b e r s . E ven w h e n their d a u g h t e r s ’ e d u c a tio n a l a n d o c c u p a tio n a l goals arc s u p p o r t e d , p a r e n t s m a y also expect th e m to a d h e r e to n o r m s of family b e h a v io r from the p a r e n t s ’ society of origin (e.g., Naidoo, 1984).

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Moreover, p a r e n t s ’ g e n d e r-re la te d e x p e c ta tio n s a b o u t th e ir c h il­ d r e n ’s b e h a v io r a re b a s e d on n o r m s th a t w ere p re v a le n t in th e ir society of origin at the time of c m m ig ra tio n , w h ich can a d d to te n sio n betw een p a r e n t s a n d y o u n g a d u lt d a u g h te r s ( G h o sh , 1984). D ue to societal c h ang es, the p a r e n t s ’ beliefs a n d b e h a v io r m a y be i n c o n s is te n t with s o m e c o n te m p o r a r y p r a c tic e s in the p a r e n t s ’ society of origin (Pettys & B algopal, 1998). D as G u p ta (1 99 7) n o te d th a t first-g en eratio n IndoA m e ric a n im m i g r a n t p a r e n t s m a y re g a r d th e m se lv e s a s p re s e rv in g i m ­ p o r t a n t a s p e c ts of th e ir c u ltu r e even in th e face of c ha n ge in th e ir s o c i­ ety of origin. T h u s , p a r e n t s a n d a d o le s c e n t c h ild re n m a y differ on w h a t the m e a n in g of " tra d itio n ” is, with the r e s u lt th a t "tra d itio n b e c o m e s an e m b a ttle d c ateg ory” (p. 580). At th e s a m e tim e, n o t all a s p e c t s of c u ltu r e - r e la te d v a lu e s a n d p r a c t i c e s a r e “e m b a t t l e d . ” G e n d e r - r e l a t e d e x p e c t a t i o n s a b o u t w o m e n ’s i m p o r t a n t role in the c o n te x t of fam ily t r a d i t i o n s is n o t only a s o u r c e of conflict b u t a l s o — often s i m u l t a n e o u s l y —a s o u r c e of p r id e a n d r e s p e c t. A m b iv a le n c e over s o m e a s p e c t s of fam ily fu n c tio n in g d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r ily im p ly r e je c tio n of all p a r e n t a l v a lu e s a m o n g a d o ­ l e s c e n ts a n d y o u n g a d u l t s from im m i g r a n t fam ilies. For e x a m p le , K ib ria (1 9 9 3 ), in te rv ie w in g V ie tn a m e se A m e r ic a n s fro m im m ig r a n t fam ilies, c o m m e n t e d t h a t a g r e a te r d is lik e of h ie r a r c h ic a l fam ily r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p s c o e x iste d w ith a po sitive view of o th e r a s p e c t s of fam ily r e ­ la t io n s h ip s , s u c h a s c o h e s io n a n d c o o p e r a tio n , a m o n g y o u n g a d u lts w h o w e re the c h ild r e n of i m m ig r a n ts .

G en d er an d E th n o c u ltu ra l Id en tity W hat a re the im p lic a tio n s for yo u n g a d u l t s ’ se n s e of e th n o c u ltu r a l iden tity in view of the c o m p le x p a t te r n of g e n d e re d family e x p e ctatio n s a n d b e h a v io r? How d o e s g e n d e r c o n trib u te to the c o n s tr u c t io n of c th n o c u ltu r a l identity? In c o lla b o ra tio n with Ken Dion a s p a r t of o u r p r o g r a m of r e s e a r c h on the social psychology of im m ig ra tio n , I e x a m ­ in e d th is q u e s tio n in a n eth nically d iv erse g r o u p of y ou n g w o m e n a n d m e n ( C a n a d ia n u n iv e rsity s t u d e n t s ) from i m m ig r a n t families w h e re b o th p a r e n t s w e re b o r n o u ts id e C a n a d a (Dion & Dion, 20 0 4 ). To place th is r e s e a r c h in context, w ith in C a n a d a , T o ro n to h a s the la rg e st i m m i­ g r a n t p o p u la tio n , with n early 44% of the p o p u la tio n b o r n o u ts id e C a n ­ a d a a s of the 2 00 1 c e n s u s (S tatistics C a n a d a , 2 0 0 3 ). Moreover, a s an u r b a n a re a , T o ro n to h a s one of the la rg e s t p r o p o r tio n s of im m ig r a n ts in the w o rld (S tatistics C a n a d a , 20 0 3 ). T h is d e m o g r a p h ic tr e n d is evi­ d e n t n o t only in d o w n to w n T o ro n to b u t also in the s u b u r b a n a r e a s of th e city, w h e re th is r e s e a r c h w a s c o n d u c te d . T h e p a r ti c ip a n t s for this r e s e a r c h w ere y o u n g a d u lts (university s t u ­ d e n ts ) w ho r e p o r t e d th a t b o th p a r e n t s h a d im m ig ra te d to C a n a d a . B oth first-generation a n d s e c o n d -g e n e ra tio n w o m e n a n d m e n took p a r t. T h e first-gen eratio n p a r ti c ip a n ts h a d a rriv e d in C a n a d a , on a v e r ­ age, w h en they w e re j u s t over 12 y e a rs old. M o st (93%) r e p o r te d th a t

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b o th p a r e n t s w ere from the s a m e e t h n o c u ltu r a l b a c k g r o u n d . Of this g ro u p , the m ajo rity of o u r p a r t i c i p a n t s ’ p a r e n t s w ere from diverse A sian e th n o c u l tu r a l b a c k g r o u n d s , in p artic u la r, C hinese, a s well a s In ­ d ia n . P a k ista n i, S ri L a n k a n . Filipino, K orean, L aotian, a n d V ie tn a m ­ ese. T h e re w ere a lso s t u d e n t s w h o se p a r e n t s w ere from several C a r ib b e a n (West In dian ) b a c k g r o u n d s , a s well a s several E a s te r n a n d W estern E u r o p e a n g r o u p s . Finally, a few s t u d e n t s w ere from several different African o r M iddle E a s te r n g r o u p s . A lm o st all s t u d e n t s w ere eith e r C a n a d ia n citizen s or la n d e d im m ig ra n ts . We a s k e d th e se y ou n g a d u lts to r e s p o n d to several m e a s u r e s a s s e s s ­ ing different a s p e c ts of identity, in c lu d in g e th n o c u ltu r a l identity (Phinney, 1992). P h in n e y (19 92) developed this m e a s u r e in the contex t of s tu d y in g eth n ic identity a m o n g a d o le s c e n ts from m in o r ity ethnic g r o u p s in the U nited S tates. It is also of relev an ce for e x a m in in g ethn ic iden tity a m o n g im m ig r a n t you th from d ifferent societies (Phinncy ct al., 2 0 0 1 ). E t h n o c u l tu r a l identity (ethnic identity) re fe rs to the c o m p o ­ n e n t of se lf reflecting b o th k n ow ledge a n d evaluation of o n e 's m e m b e r ­ sh ip in one m o r e m o r e e t h n o c u ltu r a l g r o u p s (Tajfel, 1981). T h is c o n s t r u c t h a s sev eral different c o m p o n e n ts/fa c e ts : in c lu d in g self-iden­ tification (i.e., labeling o n e se lf a s a m e m b e r of one o r m o r e g ro u p s ); a se n s e of b e lo n g in g /a tta c h m e n t to o n e 's g ro u p (s); a n d reso lv in g identity is s u e s (identity ac hie ve m en t), a s well a s b eh a v io ra l in volvem ent in g r o u p - re la te d p r a c tic e s a n d t r a d i tio n s (Phinney, 1992). M o st p a r t i c i p a n t s ’ r e s p o n s e to the o p e n - e n d e d q u e s tio n a b o u t s e lf-d e sc rip tio n p e r ta in in g to ethnicity re f e r r e d to specific eth nic g r o u p s (e.g., V ietnam ese; S o m a lia n ; Italian) r a t h e r th a n p a n -e th n ic c ateg ories (su c h a s Asian). In o th e r w o r d s , self-categorization w a s dif­ f e re n tia ted r a t h e r t h a n reflecting b r o a d e r labels. It is of in te r e s t to n ote t h a t P orte s a n d R u m b a u t (2 001) fo u n d in th e ir lo n g itu d in a l r e s e a r c h on the c h ild re n of im m ig r a n t s in the U nited S ta te s t h a t d u r in g the 3- to 4-year interv al b e tw een testing, th e p r o p o r tio n of a d o le s c e n ts c h o o sin g to d e s c r ib e th e m s e lv e s in t e r m s of n a tio n a l o r e th n ic origin h a d in ­ c re a s e d so th a t it w a s j u s t over a th ir d of the s a m p le a t the tim e of the s e c o n d testin g w h e n s t u d e n t s w ere c o m p le tin g high scho ol. T h e r e w as also a sizable in c re a se in the p r o p o r ti o n c h o o sin g a p a n -e th n ic label, in c o n t r a s t to the p a r ti c ip a n ts in o u r study. We ex pected th a t g e n d e r a n d i m m ig r a n t g e n e ra tio n w o u ld jointly c o n tr ib u te to e th n o c u ltu r a l identity, a n d we p ro p o s e d alte rna tiv e h y ­ p o th e s e s a b o u t the n a tu r e of this in te ra c tio n . It c ould be a rg u e d th a t te n s io n s re s u ltin g fro m so m e a s p e c ts of family in te r a c tio n s m ig h t c o n ­ trib u te to a psychological d is ta n c in g from th e ir e th n o c u ltu r a l b a c k ­ g r o u n d on the p a r t of s e c o n d -g e n e ra tio n w o m e n c o m p a r e d to their m a le p e e r s from im m ig r a n t fam ilies. T h e re is s o m e evidence of g e n d e r d ifferen ces in th e e n d o r s e m e n t of g en d e r-ro le ideology in th e United S ta te s (e.g., D a sg u p ta , 1998) a n d in C a n a d a (Tang& Dion, 1999), with w o m e n from different e th n o c u ltu r a l g r o u p s e n d o r s i n g less tra d itio n a l views th a n m e n . Lee a n d C o c h ra n (1 988) re p o r te d t h a t y o u n g w o m e n

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from im m ig r a n t families in C a n a d a e x p e rie n c e d s t r e s s e s b etw een striving for p e r s o n a l fre e d o m a n d th e ir fam ily-related o blig ation s a n d re s p o n s ib ilitie s . Given the se p r e s s u r e s , w o m e n m ig h t be m o r e p r o n e th a n m e n to be m o r e conflicted a b o u t th e ir se n s e of c u ltu r a l identity, re s u ltin g in less in te r e s t in a n d c o m m it m e n t to t h a t a s p e c t of self. On th e o th e r h a n d , g e n d e r-re la te d family e x p e c ta tio n s a n d behavior, even w h e n a s s o c ia te d w ith te n s io n a n d conflict, m a y h e ig hten th e p s y ­ chological sa lie n ce of e th n o c u ltu r a l identity for w o m e n c o m p a r e d to th eir m ale p e e rs . T h is a n aly sis is c o n s is t e n t with dialectical views of h u m a n d e v e lo p m e n t (e.g., Riegel, 1976) in w h ich conflicting p e r s p e c ­ tives a re viewed a s having th e p o te n tia l to instigate g re a te r reflection a n d ultimately, psychological grow th . I llu s tra tin g th is p o in t, D as G u p ta d e s c r ib e d a n interview w ith a yo un g w o m a n in the U nited S ta te s w h o se p a r e n t s w ere im m ig r a n t s from India. T h ey w a n te d h e r to b e ­ co m e a p h y sic ia n , a goal th a t w a s n o t h e r p re fe re n c e . S h e c h o se i n ­ ste a d to specialize in S o u t h A sian s tu d ie s , w hich w a s “h e r way of c h e ris h in g a n d le a rn in g m o r e a b o u t h e r In d ia n heritage w hich, she felt, w a s in te r p r e te d too n a rro w ly by h e r c o m m u n i ty ” (Das G u p ta , 1997, p. 585). In th is in s ta n c e , on e a p p r o a c h to d e a ling with conflict­ ing e x p e c ta tio n s w a s to m o v e t o w a r d — n o t aw ay f r o m — c u ltu r a l identity a n d to redefine its m ea n in g . C o n s i s t e n t w ith t h is s e c o n d view, we fo u n d s u p p o r t for w h a t m i g h t be la b e le d a n a f f ir m a t io n h y p o t h e s i s . A m o n g y o u n g a d u l t s w h o w e r e the s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n c h i l d r e n of i m m i g r a n t s , g e n d e r d if ­ fe r e n c e s o c c u r r e d p e r t a i n i n g to i d e n tity e x p lo r a ti o n (s e e k in g to le a r n m o r e a b o u t a n d u n d e r s t a n d o n e ’s e th n ic ity ) a n d on r e p o r t e d b e h a v i o r a l c o m m i t m e n t . W om en in d ic a te d g r e a t e r in v o lv e m e n t in b o t h c o m p o n e n t s c o m p a r e d to m e n . A m o n g th is s e c o n d i m m i g r a n t g e n e r a tio n g r o u p , t h e r e w e re , how ever, no g e n d e r d if fe r e n c e s in th e s e n s e o f p r i d e a n d a t t a c h m e n t to t h e ir e t h n o c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d . B o th w o m e n a n d m e n in d i c a t e d hig h p o s itiv e r e g a r d for th e ir g r o u p m e m b e r s h i p , n o r d id th e y differ in e v a lu a tin g its i m p o r t a n c e . S i m i ­ larly, in P o r te s a n d R u m b a u t 's r e s e a r c h ( 2 0 0 1 ) m e n t i o n e d p r e v i ­ ously, w h e n e x a m in e d a lo n g w ith a n u m b e r of o t h e r p r e d i c t o r s , g e n d e r p r e d i c t e d th e s t a b ility of e th n ic id e n tity ( c h o o s in g th e s a m e e th n ic s e lf - c a te g o riz a tio n on b o t h te s ti n g o c c a s i o n s in e a rly a n d la te r a d o le s c e n c e ) b u t n o t its p e r s o n a l i m p o r t a n c e , a s o b t a i n e d at th e tim e of th e s e c o n d a s s e s s m e n t . In o u r r e s e a r c h , wc fo u n d g e n d e r differences th e re fo re n o t in the ev aluation a n d a t t a c h m e n t to o n e 's e th n o c u l tu r a l g ro u p a m o n g the se c o n d -g e n e ra tio n c h ild re n of im m ig r a n ts b u t in the e n a c t m e n t of this c ore a tta c h m e n t. As we n o te d (Dion & Dion, 2 0 0 4 ) , the p a t t e r n of f in d ­ ings s u g g e ste d th a t is s u e s c o n c e r n in g e th n o c u ltu r a l identity m a y be a m o r e s a lie n t d e v e lo p m e n ta l ta s k for s e c o n d -g e n e ra tio n y o u n g w o m e n from im m ig r a n t fam ilies c o m p a r e d to yo u n g m e n . T h is g e n d e r differ­ ence is m o s t likely to o c c u r w hen p a r e n t s a n d a d u lt c h ild re n perceive a m a r k e d divergence b etw een th e belief s y s te m s a n d b e h a v io ra l n o r m s

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in the society to w h ich the p a r e n t s i m m ig r a te d a n d p a r e n t s ’own c u ltu r e - r e la te d v alu es a n d b e h a v io rs. T h is is one r e s e a r c h ex am p le , b u t it su g g e sts the value of s ta rtin g with g e n d e r a s a n im p o r t a n t c o n c e p tu a l lens for u n d e r s t a n d i n g i d e n ­ tity is s u e s a m o n g th e c h ild r e n of im m ig ra n ts . In do in g so, b o th g e n d e r a n d c u ltu r e m u s t be c o n s id e r e d together. Often th e se two c o n s t r u c t s have b e e n a d d r e s s e d in s e p a r a te sch o la rly tr a d itio n s , n a m e ly p s y c h o l­ ogy of w o m e n a n d g e n d e r a n d c u ltu r a l psychology. C o n s id e r in g them tog eth er can offer in sig h ts a b o u t the g e n d e r e d n a tu r e of c u ltu r a l a s ­ s u m p t i o n s a n d th e c u ltu ra l c on te xt of g e n d e r p e r ta in in g to identity d e v e lo p m e n t in early a d u lth o o d . In this final section, I have foc u se d on is s u e s c o n fro n te d by a d o le s ­ c e n t a n d yo u n g a d u lt d a u g h te r s c o m p a r e d to s o n s w h o se p a r e n t s are im m ig r a n ts b e c a u s e g e n d e r is differentially a s s o c ia te d with roles, d u ­ ties, a n d o b ligations a c r o s s diverse c u ltu r a l g r o u p s . It is also i m p o r ­ ta n t to a d d r e s s the n a t u r e of the ide ntity-re la te d is s u e s th a t c o n fro n t w o m e n a n d m e n from different im m i g r a n t g r o u p s a n d of e q u a l i m p o r ­ tance, w ithin a specific g ro u p , the v a rio u s w ays in w hich y ou n g a d u lts negotiate p e r s o n a l a n d c u ltu r a l identity. C O N C L U S IO N S

At th e s t a r t of th is c h a p te r, I s u g g e s te d t h a t th e o r ie s of id e n tity de v e l­ o p m e n t c a n he lp to u n d e r s t a n d th e c h a lle n g e s faced by im m i g r a n t y o u th . However, the e x p e rie n c e s of th e s e y o u n g a d u l t s a n d th e ir f a m i­ lies a lso hav e the p o te n tia l to d e e p e n u n d e r s t a n d i n g th e n a t u r e of th e d e v e lo p m e n t of id e n tity in a d o le s c e n c e a n d e a rly a d u l t h o o d . P s y c h o ­ logical th e o r i e s c o n c e r n in g th e d e v e l o p m e n t of id e n tity in a d o l e s ­ c ence s u g g e st t h a t th is is a p h a s e of t r a n s i t i o n b e tw e e n the v a lu e s a n d go als a c q u i r e d in c h i ld h o o d a n d a n a d u l t's s e n s e of a c o h e r e n t self b a s e d on c o n s id e r a ti o n of a ra n g e of a lte rn a tiv e s . For s o m e i n d iv id u ­ a ls, th e s o c ie ta l s t r u c t u r e in w h ic h they live m a y allow the active i d e n ­ tity e x p lo r a ti o n s m a y be p r o lo n g e d into the late tw e n tie s, illu s tr a te d by the te r m e m e r g i n g a d u l t h o o d . T h is la tte r q u e s t is highly i n d i v i d u ­ a lized w ith d iffe re n t a r e a s of life se rv in g to e n h a n c e o n e ’s p e r s o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t ( w o rk c h o ic e s, e d u c a t i o n a l c h o ic e s , r e l a t i o n s h i p s , travel). In b o th e a r lie r a n d r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n s of id e n tity d e v e lo p ­ m e n t, th e role o f th e fam ily is one of d e v e lo p m e n ta l facilitatio n, with th e aim of e n c o u r a g in g e v e n tu a l i n d e p e n d e n c e fro m th e fam ily of o r i ­ gin. P a r e n ts a re t h e r e to offer advice, w ith th e h o p e (b u t n o t n e c e s s a r ­ ily th e a s s u m p t i o n ) t h a t th i s advice will b e h e e d e d , a n d a lso to offer s u p p o r t b o th e m o tio n a l a n d i n s t r u m e n t a l . A lth o u g h in d iv id u a l p a r ­ e n ts m a y find th is s i tu a tio n m o r e o r le s s satisfying, it is c o n s is te n t w ith th e view of a s s is ti n g th e ir c h i l d r e n ’s “g ro w in g u p . ” T h is view of th e p a r e n t a l ro le is, how ever, c u l tu r a lly c o n s t r u c t e d a n d , a s s u c h , is n o t a lw a y s s h a r e d by p a r e n t s w h o i m m i g r a t e to s o c i ­ e tie s in w h ic h th is view is p r e v a le n t. An a lte r n a tiv e view is t h a t p a r ­

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e n ts a n d o t h e r r e la tiv e s c a n a n d s h o u l d s e e k to p la y a m u c h m o r e active ro le in th e i r a d u l t c h i l d r e n ’s lives a s th e ir d a u g h t e r s a n d s o n s begin to c o n s i d e r i m p o r t a n t i s s u e s a n d c h o ic e s t h a t a rc id e n tity r e ­ la t e d — a view n o t a lw a y s s h a r e d by th e ir a d o l e s c e n t a n d y o u n g a d u l t s o n s a n d d a u g h t e r s . In e s s e n c e , in i m m i g r a n t f a m ilie s, t h e r e m a y be i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l d iv e r g e n c e a b o u t (a) th e b a s i s for c o n s t r u c t i n g o n e 's i d e n tity a n d (b) th e c r i t e r i a for m a t u r e a d u l t h o o d . T h is g r e a t e r p a r e n t a l in v o lv e m e n t a n d c o n tr o l is b a s e d in p a r t on th e c o n c e p t of a "good p a r e n t . ” D a u g h te r s , in pa rtic u la r, a r e likely to th e focus of g re a te r p a r e n ta l sc r u tin y c o m p a r e d to the s o n s . G e n d e r is th e re fo re a n i m p o r ta n t fra m e w o rk for u n d e r s t a n d i n g identity fo rm a tio n in a d o le s c e n c e a n d early a d u lth o o d . O ne im p o r t a n t a r e a for c o n tin u in g r e s e a r c h is to ex­ a m in e the g e n d e re d n a tu r e of identity f o rm a tio n a n d the m a n n e r in w hich c o m p e tin g e x p e c ta tio n s a rc a d d r e s s e d . An e m e rg in g s e n s e of p e r s o n a l iden tity for a d o le s c e n ts a n d youn g a d u lts from im m ig r a n t fam ilies o c c u r s th e re fo re in a family c o nte xt in w hich d iv ergen t c u ltu r a l e x p e c ta tio n s a re often explicit. However, r e ­ s e a r c h also in d ic a te s t h a t p a r e n t s a n d th e ir a d u lt c h ild re n can a n d do agree on w h a t they perceive a s c u ltu r e - re la te d family s tr e n g th s , s u c h as family c o h e sio n . Identity negotiation involves the in c o r p o r a tio n of b o th th e se a s p e c ts of family functioning. R E S E A R C H D IR E C T IO N S

I a m f o r tu n a te t h a t m y u niversity is located in one of th e m o s t c u l t u r ­ ally d iv e rse large u r b a n a r e a s . Within T o ro nto, th e r e a r e n o t only m a n y differen t e th n o c u ltu r a l c o m m u n itie s , b u t also m a n y in d iv id u a ls have a rriv e d quite rec e n tly in C a n a d a . T h e re fo re, m a n y are e ith e r first- or s e c o n d -g e n e ra tio n im m ig ra n ts . T h e ir ex p erie n ce is in v aluable for u n ­ d e r s t a n d i n g tr a n s itio n s b e tw e e n d ifferent c u ltu r a l con te x ts a n d the i m p a c t of the se tr a n s itio n s at b o th the in d iv id u a l (e.g., identity) a n d the g ro u p (e.g., family p r o c e s s e s ) level. P a rtic u la rly on m y c a m p u s of the U niversity of T o ro nto, m a n y s t u d e n t s a re from i m m ig r a n t families. T h e ir p a r tic ip a tio n in r e s e a r c h can pro v id e in sig h ts into i m p o r t a n t is ­ s u e s s u c h a s c u ltu r a l identities, negotiatin g family r e la tio n s h ip s , a n d the d e v e lo p m e n t of identity in early a d u lth o o d . REFERENCES A rn ett, J . J . (19 9 7 ). Young p e o p le 's c o n c e p t io n s of th e tr a n s it io n to a d u lt h o o d . Youth & Society, 29, 1 -2 3 . A rn ett. J. J. (20 0 0). E m e rg in g a d u lt h o o d : A th e o r y of d e v e lo p m e n t from the late te e n s th r o u g h the tw en ties. A m eric an Psychologist, 55, 4 6 9 - 4 8 0 . A r r e d o n d o , P. M. (1 98 4 ). Identity t h e m e s for im m i g r a n t y o u n g a d u lt s . A d o le s­ cence, 19, 9 7 7 - 9 9 3 . Berry, J . W. (19 8 4 ). M u ltic u ltu ra l policy in C a n a d a : A so cial p sy cho log ical a n a l ­ ysis. C a n a d ia n J o u r n a l o j B ehav io ura l Science, 16, 3 5 3 - 3 7 0 .

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Berry, J. W., & Kalin, R. (1995). M u ltic u ltu ra l a n d eth nic a ttitu d e s in C a n a d a : An overview of the 1991 n a tio n a l survey. C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l o f B e h a v i o u r a l Sc i en c e, 27, 3 0 1 - 3 2 0 . Das G u p ta . M. (1997). “W h at is In d ia n a b o u t you?" A g e n d e re d , tr a n s n a t io n a l a p p r o a c h to ethnicity. G e n d e r & S oc i et y , 11, 5 7 2 - 5 9 6 . D a s g u p ta , S. D. (1998). G e n d e r ro les a n d c u ltu ra l c o ntin uity in the Asian In ­ d ia n im m ig r a n t c o m m u n ity in the U.S. S e x Roles, 38, 9 5 3 - 9 7 4 . Dion K. K.. & Dion K. L. (1991). Psychological in d iv id u alism a n d love. J o u r n a l o f S oci al B e h a v i o r a n d Per s onali ty, 6, 1 7 -3 3 . Dion, K. K.. & Dion, K. L. (1993). Individualistic a n d collectivistic p e rsp e c tiv e s on g e n d e r a n d the c u ltu r a l c o n tex t of love a n d intimacy. J o u r n a l o f Soci al I ss ue s , 49, 5 3 - 6 9 . Dion, K. K., & Dion, K. L. (1996). C u ltu ra l p e rs p e c tiv e s on r o m a n tic love. Per­ s o n a l R e l a t i o n s h i p s , 3, 5 - 1 7 . Dion, K. K., & Dion, K. L. (20 01 a). G e n d e r a n d c u ltu ra l a d a p ta tio n in im m i­ g r a n t families. J o u r n a l o f S oc ial I s s u e s, 57, 5 1 1 - 5 2 1 . Dion. K. K.. & Dion, K. L. (2 001 b). G e n d e r a n d r e la tio n s h ip s . In R. K. Unger (Ed.), H a n d b o o k o f t he p s y c h o l o g y o f w o m e n a n d g e n d e r (pp. 2 5 6 - 2 7 1 ) . New York: Wiley. Dion, K. K., & Dion. K. L. (2004). G ender, im m ig r a n t g e n e ra tio n , a n d e t h n o ­ c u ltu r a l identity. S e x Roles, 50, 3 4 7 - 3 5 5 . Dion, K. L., & Dion, K. K. (1996). C hinese a d a p ta tio n to foreign c u ltu r e s . In M. H. B o n d (Ed.). T h e h a n d b o o k o f C h i n e s e p s y c h o l o g y (pp. 4 5 7 - 4 7 8 ) . H ong Kong: Oxford U niversity P ress. E r ik s o n , E. H. (1968). I d ent it y : Youth a n d crisis. New York: N orton. E s s e s , V. M., & G a r d n e r , R.C. (1 9 9 6 ). M u l tic u l tu r a l is m in C a n a d a : C o n te x t a n d c u r r e n t s t a t u s . C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l o f B e h a v i o u r a l S c i e n c e , 28, 1 45-152. Filteau, C. H. (1980). T he role of the c o n c e p t of love in the H in d u family a c c u l­ tu ra tio n p r o c e s s . In K. V. Ujim oto & G. H ira b a y a s h i (Eds.), Visible m i n o r i ­ ties a n d m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m : A s i a n s in C a n a d a (pp. 2 8 9 - 2 9 9 ) . T oronto: B u tte rw o rth s. Fong, S. L. M. (1973). A ssim ilation a n d c ha n ging ro les of C h in ese A m e ric a n s. J o u r n a l o f S oc ia l I ss ue s, 29, 1 1 5 -1 2 7 . G eo rg as, J., Berry. J.W., Shaw, A., C h r is ta k o p o u lo u , S., & Mylonas, K. (1996). A c c u ltu ra tio n of G re e k family values. J o u r n a l o f C ro ss - cu l tu ra l P s y c h o l ­ ogy, 27, 3 2 9 - 3 3 8 . G h o s h , R. (1984). S o u th A sian w o m e n in C a n a d a : A d a p ta tio n . In R. K anungo (Ed.), S o u t h A s i a n s in t h e C a n a d i a n Mo sa i c (pp. 1 4 5 -1 5 5 ). M ontreal, Q u e ­ bec: Kala B h ara ti. Kibria, N. (1993). F a m i l y tightrope: T h e c h a n g i n g lives o f V i e t n a m e s e A m e r i ­ c an s. P rin c eto n , NJ: P rin c e to n U niversity P ress. K urian, G., & G h o s h . R. (1983). C h ild -re a rin g in tr a n s itio n in In d ia n im m i­ g r a n t families in C a n a d a . In G. K urian & R.P S riv a sta v a (Eds.), O v e r s e a s I nd i an s: A s t u d y in a d a p t a t i o n (pp. 1 2 8 -1 3 8 ). New York: Advent B ooks. LaFromboise, T., Colemen, H. L. K., & G erton, J. (1993). Psychological im pact of biculturalism : Evidence a n d theory. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 3 9 5 -4 1 2 .

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Lee, C. C., & C o c h ra n , I. R. (1988). M igration p r o b le m s of C hine se w o m e n . C a ­ n a d i a n J o u r n a l o f C ou n s e l in g, 22, 2 0 2 - 2 1 1 . LeVine, R. A. (1990). E n c u ltu r a tio n : A biosocial pe rsp e c tive on the d e v elop ­ m e n t of self. In D. Cichetti & M. Beeghly (Eds.), T h e s e l f in transition: I n ­ f a n c y to c hi l d h o od (pp. 9 9 - 1 1 7 ) . Chicago: U niversity of Chicago Press. M arcia. J. E. (1980). Identity in a d o le sc e n c e. In J. A d elson (Ed.), H a n d b o o k o f a d o l e s c e n t p s y c h o l o g y (pp. 1 5 9 -1 8 7 ). New York: Wiley. M arkow itz. F. (1994). Family d y n a m ic s a n d the teenage im m ig ra n t: C re a tin g the self th ro u g h the p a r e n t s ’ image. A d o l e s c e n c e , 29, 1 5 0 -1 6 1 . Naidoo, J. C. (1984). W om en of S o u th Asian a n d A nglo-Saxon o rigins in the C a n a d ia n context: Sc lf-p c rc c p tion s, socializatio n, a c h ie v e m en t a s p i r a ­ tions. In C. S ta rk -A d a m c c (Ed.), S e x roles: Origins, i nf lu en ce s , a n d i m p l i ­ c at io n s f o r w o m e n (pp. 5 0 - 6 9 ) . M ontreal, Q uebec: E d e n P r e s s W o m e n s ’ P u blication s. Naidoo, J. C., & Davis, J. C. (1988). C a n a d ia n S o u th Asian W omen in t r a n s i ­ tion: A d u a listic view of life. J o u r n a l o f C o m p a r a t i v e F a m i l y S t u d i e s , 19, 311-327. Pettys, G. L., & Balgopal, PR. (1998). M u ltig e ne rationa l conflicts a n d new i m ­ m ig r a n ts : An In do-A m erican experience. F a mi l i e s in S oci et y: T h e J o u r n a l o f C o n t e m p o r a r y H u m a n S er vi ce s, 79, 4 1 0 - 4 2 3 . Phinney, J . S. (1989). Stages of ethnic identity d e v e lo p m e n t in m in o rity g ro u p a d o le s c e n ts . J o u r n a l o f E a r l y A d o l e s c e n c e , 9, 3 4 - 4 9 . Phinney, J. S. (1992). T he m u ltig r o u p eth nic identity m e a s u r e : A new scale for use with diverse g r o u p s . J o u r n a l o f A d o l e s c e n t R e s e a r c h , 7, 1 5 6 -1 7 6 . Phinney, J . S., & Chavira, V. (1992). E th n ic identity a n d self-esteem : An ex p lo r­ a to ry lo n g itu d in a l study. J o u r n a l o f A d o l e s c e n c e , 15, 2 7 1 - 2 8 1 . Phinney, J. S.. H orenczyk , G., L iebkind, K., & Vedder, P (2001). E th n ic i d e n ­ tity, im m ig r a tio n a n d well-being. J o u r n a l o f S oc ial I s s ue s , 57, 4 9 3 - 5 1 0 . Portes, A., & R u m b a u t, R. (2001). Le ga ci es : T h e s to ry o f the i m m i g r a n t s e c ­ o n d g e n e r a t i o n . New York: R ussell Sage. Pyke, K. (2000). “T he N o rm a l A m eric a n Family” as a n in te rp re tiv e s tr u c t u r e of family life a m o n g grow n c h ild re n of K orean a n d V ietn am ese im m ig ra n ts . J o u r n a l o f M a r ri a ge a n d t he F am il y, 62, 2 4 0 - 2 5 5 . Riegel, K. F. (1976). T h e dialectics of h u m a n d e v e lo p m e n t. A m e r i c a n P s y ch ol ­ ogist, 31, 6 8 9 - 7 0 0 . R o se n th a l, D. A., & F e ld m a n , S.S. (1990). T he a c c u ltu r a tio n of C hinese im m i­ g ra n ts : Perceived effects on family f u nc tio ning of length of r e sid e n c e in two c u ltu ra l co ntexts. J o u r n a l o f G e n et ic P sy ch ol ogy , 15, 4 9 5 - 5 1 4 . Shw eder, R. A., & B o u rn e . E. J. (1984). D oes the c o n c e p t of the p e r s o n vary c ro s s - c u ltu ra lly ? In R. A. S h w e d e r & R.A. LeVine (Eds.), E s s a y s on m i n d , s e l f a n d e m o t i o n (pp. 1 5 8 - 1 9 9 ) . C a m b rid g e: C a m b rid g e U niversity P ress. Statistics C a n a d a. (2003). C a n a d a ’s e t h n oc u lt u ra l portrait: T h e c h a n g i n g m o ­ saic. Analysis series 9 6 F 0 0 3 0 X 1 E 2 0 0 1008. Retrieved J a n u a r y 31, 2 00 3, from h ttp ://w w w l2 .sta tc a n .c a /c n g lis h /cc n s u s 0 1 /p ro dcts/anaytic/co m p anon / c to im m /c o n tc n t Sung, B. L. (1985). B ic u ltu ra l conflicts in C h in ese im m ig r a n t c h ild re n . J o u r ­ n al o f C o m p a r a t i v e F a m i l y S t u d i e s , 16, 2 5 5 - 2 6 9 .

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T ajfcl. H. ( 1 9 8 1 ) . H u m a n g r o u p s a n d s o c i a l c a t e g o r i e s . C a m b r i d g e , E n g l a n d : C a m b r i d g e U n iv e r s ity P r e s s . T a n g , T. N., & D io n , K. L. ( 1 9 9 9 ) . G e n d e r a n d a c c u l t u r a t i o n in r e l a t i o n to t r a d i ­ tio n a lism : P e rc e p tio n s of self a n d p a r e n ts a m o n g C h in e se s tu d e n ts . S e x Roles, 41, 1 7 -2 9 . T se . L. ( 1 9 9 9 ) . F i n d i n g a p la c e to b e : E t h n i c i d e n t i t y e x p l o r a t i o n o f A s ia n A m e r ­ ican s. A d o l e s c e n c e , 34, 1 2 1 -1 3 8 . W akil, S. P, S i d d i q u e , C. M., & W akil, F.A. ( 1 9 8 1 ) . B e tw e e n tw o c u l t u r e s : A s tu d y of so cializatio n of c h ild re n of im m ig ra n ts. J o u r n a l o j M a r r ia g e a n d th e F a m ily . 43, 9 2 9 - 9 4 0 . V a i d y a n a t h a n , P. & N a id o o , J . ( 1 9 9 1). A s ia n I n d i a n s in W e s te r n c o u n t r i e s : C u l ­ t u r a l id e n t i t y a n d th e a r r a n g e d m a r r i a g e . In N. B l c i c h r o d t & P. D r c n t h ( E d s .) , C o n t e m p o r a r y i s s u e s in c r o s s - c u l t u r a l p s y c h o l o g y (p p . 3 7 - 4 9 ) . A m s t e r d a m , th e N e t h e r l a n d s : S w e t s & Z e itlin g e r.

17 N egotiating Culture and Ethnicity: Intergenerational R elations in C hinese Immigrant Fam ilies in the United S ta te s1 Min Zhou University o f California, Los A nge le s

In th e U n ite d S t a t e s , m o s t c h i l d r e n of C h i n e s e i m m i g r a n t p a r e n t a g e live in tw o - p a r e n t, n u c l e a r fa m ilie s, w ith a s m a l l e r n u m b e r in e x­ te n d e d fa m ilie s a n d t r a n s n a t i o n a l fa m ilie s. In th e s e v a r i o u s i m m i ­ g r a n t h o u s e h o l d s , the C o n f u c iu s v a lu e s of filial piety, e d u c a tio n , h a r d w o r k , a n d d is c ip lin e h a v e b e e n m o d if ie d to s e rv e a s n o r m a t iv e b e h a v ­ io ra l s t a n d a r d s for s o c ia liz in g the y o u n g e r g e n e r a t io n . M any C h in e s e im m i g r a n t p a r e n t s c la im t h a t they ha v e s a c rific e d for th e ir c h i ld r e n 's b e t t e r fu t u r e in A m e r ic a . T h e y w o u ld e x p e c t t h a t th e i r c h i l d r e n achieve th e h ig h e s t level o f e d u c a t i o n p o s s ib le , h e lp m o v e th e fam ily u p to m i d ­ d le - c la s s s t a t u s , a n d , m o s t im p o r ta n tly , ta k e c a r e o f th e p a r e n t s w h e n th e y a r e old a n d frail. D e v ia tio n fro m th e s e e x p e c ta t io n s is c o n s i d e r e d a s h a m e , o r a fa ilu re , on th e p a r t o f th e fam ily a n d is t h u s s a n c t i o n e d by th e fam ily a n d even th e e n tir e e th n ic c o m m u n ity . It is n o t easy, how ever, for i m m i g r a n t fa m ilie s to e n f o r c e th e s e c u l ­ t u r a l v a lu e s a n d b e h a v io r a l s t a n d a r d s a n d g u a r a n t e e t h a t fa m ilia l e x­ 'T he original version of this chapter was presented at the Conference on Im migrant Psychology: Rethinking Culture, Racc, Class & Gender. April 11-12, 2003, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 1 thank Ram Mahalingham for his helpful comments.

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p e c ta tio n s a re m e t, b e c a u s e of v u ln era b ilitie s a ss o c ia te d w ith p a r e n ta l foreign b irth , in te n se b ic u ltu r a l a n d in te r g e n e r a tio n a l conflicts, a n d different p a c e s of a c c u ltu ra tio n b e tw een p a r e n t s a n d c h ild re n . Like all o th e r im m ig r a n t c h ild re n , the c h ild r e n grow ing u p in C h in e se im m i ­ g r a n t fam ilies have s im u lta n e o u s ly a n d c o n s ta n tly e n c o u n te r e d two different so c io c u ltu ra l w o rld s : o n e — th e “old" w o r ld —from w hich they a tte m p t to d is ta n c e th e m se lv e s, a n d the o t h e r — the m a i n s t r e a m A m e r ­ ican society— to w hich they a s p ir e , a n d a re also p u s h e d , to a ssim ila te . Often, c h ild re n re g a r d th e ir im m ig r a n t p a r e n t s a s l a o - w a n - g u (old s tic k -in -th e -m u d o r s t u b b o r n h e a d s from the old w o rld) a n d p a r e n t a l w ays a s feudal, o u td a te d , o r old fa sh io n e d . T h e c h ild r e n 's c o n s e q u e n ­ tial rebellion a g a in st tr a d itio n is c o n s ta n t a n d in trin sic to th e ir e x p e r i­ ence of s tr a d d lin g two s o c io c u ltu r a l w o rld s. P a re n ts , on the o th e r h a n d , view th e ir own p a r e n tin g w ays a s the b e s t to a s c e rta in su c c e ss . B u t they a r e c o n sta n tly w o rrie d a b o u t th e ir c h ild re n b e c o m in g too A m e ric a n iz e d too s o o n a n d a re h o rrifie d by th e ir c h ild r e n ’s ac tin g up. Moreover, c o n t e m p o r a r y C h in e se im m ig r a n t s a re a n extrem ely diverse g ro u p in th eir s o c io e c o n o m ic b a c k g r o u n d s a n d s e ttle m e n t p a tt e r n s . T h e diverse so c io e c u ltu ra l c o n te x ts — eth nic enclaves, e t h n o b u r b s , 2 a n d White m id d le - c la s s s u b u r b s — in w hich th e s e fam ilies live f u r th e r c o n s t r a in p a r e n t- c h ild r e la tio n s h ip s . T h is c h a p te r e x a m in e s h ow im ­ m ig ra tio n a n d c u ltu r a l chan ge affect family life in the C h in ese i m m i ­ g r a n t c o m m u n ity in th e U nited S ta te s. In pa rtic u la r, it e x p lo re s the p a ra d o x ic a l family p r o c e s s th r o u g h w hich c h ild r e n a n d p a r e n t s cope with in tric a te r e la tio n s h ip s a n d negotiate p rio ritie s in life t h a t benefit b o th in d iv id u a l family m e m b e r s a n d the family a s a whole. T H E “O L D ” V E R S U S T H E “N E W ” S E C O N D G E N E R A T IO N

C h in e s e A m e r ic a n s a re by far the o ld e s t a n d la r g e s t A sia n -o rig in g r o u p in th e U n ite d S ta te s . T h e y have e n d u r e d a long h is to r y of m i ­ g ra tio n a n d s e ttl e m e n t t h a t d a t e s b a c k to th e late 1 8 4 0 s , in c lu d in g s o m e 6 0 y e a r s of legal e x c lu s io n . With the lifting of legal b a r r i e r s a g a in s t C h in e s e i m m ig r a tio n d u r i n g W orld War II a n d the e n a c t m e n t of a s e r ie s of lib e ra l im m ig r a tio n leg islation sin c e the p a s s a g e of the I m m ig r a tio n Act of 1 9 6 5 (also r e f e r r e d to a s th e H a r t- C e l la r Act), th e C h in e s e A m e ric a n c o m m u n i t y h a s in c r e a s e d m o r e t h a n 10-fold: from 2 3 7 , 2 9 2 in 1 9 6 0 , to 1 ,6 4 5 ,4 7 2 in 1 9 9 0 , a n d to n e a r ly 2 .9 m il­ lion (in c lu d in g s o m e h a lf a m illion m ix e d - r a c e p e r s o n s ) in 2 0 0 0 . M u ch of th is e x t r a o r d i n a r y g r o w th is p r im a r il y d u e to im m ig r a tio n . A c c o rd in g to the U.S. C itiz e n sh ip a n d I m m ig r a tio n S e rv ic e s (for­ m e r ly I m m ig r a tio n a n d N a tu r a liz a tio n Service o r INS), m o r e t h a n 1.3 m illio n im m i g r a n t s w e re a d m i t t e d to the U n ited S ta te s fro m C h in a , H o n g Kong, a n d Taiw an a s p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n t s b e tw e e n 1961 a n d 2

E thn obu rb is a term developed by Wei Li (1997) to refer to s u b u r b a n ethnic cluster­ ing of diverse g ro ups with no single racial ethnic group dom inates.

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2 0 0 0 (U SIN S, 2 0 0 2 ) . 3 C h i n a h a s b e e n o n th e lis t o f to p te n im m ig r a n t- o r i g i n c o u n t r i e s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s s i n c e 1 9 8 0 . T h e U.S. C e n ­ s u s a ls o a t t e s t s to th e b ig p a r t p la y e d by i m m i g r a t i o n . As o f 2 0 0 0 . the f o re ig n b o r n a c c o u n t e d for m o r e t h a n t w o - t h i r d s o f th e e t h n i c C h i ­ n e s e p o p u l a t i o n in th e U n ite d S t a t e s . T h e m a j o r i t y of th e U .S .- b o rn is still v e ry yo u n g , living in i m m i g r a n t f a m ilie s , a n d is j u s t b e g i n n i n g to c o m e o f age in la rg e n u m b e r s . At p r e s e n t , t h e e t h n i c C h i n e s e p o p u l a ­ tio n is p r i m a r i l y m a d e u p f ro m t h e fi r s t g e n e r a t i o n ( f o r e ig n - b o r n ), a p ­ p r o x i m a t e l y a q u a r t e r b e l o n g s to th e s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n (U .S .-b o rn o f f o r e i g n - b o r n p a r e n t a g e ) , a n d o n ly a s m a l l f r a c t io n ( a b o u t 10%) b e ­ l o n g s to th e t h i r d - p l u s g e n e r a t i o n (U .S .- b o r n of U .S .- b o r n p a r e n t a g e ) .

T h e “O ld ” S e c o n d G e n e r a tio n As is well d o c u m e n t e d in th e h i s to r y o f C h in e s e i m m i g r a t i o n to th e U n ite d S t a te s , C h in e s e i m m i g r a n t s initially c a m e to th is c o u n t r y fro m th e s o u t h e r n re g io n of C h i n a ’s G u a n g d o n g P ro v in c e (C h a n , 19 91 ). M a n y w e r e y o u n g m e n le a v in g b e h i n d th e ir p a r e n t s , w ives, a n d c h il­ d r e n in r u r a l villages in s e a r c h o f a s o j o u r n e r ’s d r e a m — to m a k e m o n e y a n d th e n r e t u r n h o m e w ith “g old a n d glory" ( Z h o u , 1 9 9 2 ). T h e y h e l p e d d ev e lo p th e A m e r ic a n W est a n d b u i lt th e m o s t difficult p a r t o f th e t r a n s c o n t i n e n t a l r a i l r o a d w e s t o f th e R o c k ie s , b u t e n d e d u p b e in g t a r g e ts of n a tiv is m a n d r a c i s m w h e n th e ir w o r k w a s n o lo n g e r n e e d e d (S a x to n , 19 7 1 ). P o o r e c o n o m ic c o n d i t i o n s in th e late 1 8 7 0 s e x a c e r ­ b a t e d a n ti- C h in e s e a g ita tio n , le a d in g to th e p a s s a g e of th e C h in e s e E x ­ c lu s io n Act in 1 8 8 2 , w h ic h la s t e d u n til 1 9 4 3 . C o n s e q u e n tly , i m m i g r a n t C h i n e s e b u ilt C h i n a t o w n s a n d r e o r g a n i z e d t h e ir s o j o u r n i n g lives w ith in th e s e socially is o la te d e n c la v e s o n th e W est C o a s t, s u c h a s in S a n F r a n c i s c o a n d L o s A ngeles, a n d in o t h e r m a j o r u r b a n c e n t e r s to w h ic h m a n y h a d fled, s u c h a s New York a n d C h ic a g o . W ithin C h i n a ­ to w n , levels o f c o e th n ic in t e r a c t i o n a n d s o li d a r ity w e re hig h , a l m o s t e n tire ly t h r o u g h w o r k i n g in C h i n e s e - o w n e d b u s i n e s s e s a n d s o c ia l iz ­ in g in v a r io u s fam ily o r k i n s h i p a s s o c i a t i o n s , h o m e t o w n o r d i s t r i c t a s ­ s o c ia t io n s , a n d t o n g s o r m e r c h a n t s ’ a s s o c i a ti o n s . D u r i n g th e e x c lu s io n e r a , t h e r e w e r e few w o m e n , fa m ilie s, a n d c h il­ d r e n living in C h in a to w n s , k n o w n a s b a c h e l o r s ’ so c ie tie s . T h e se x ra tio w a s n e a r l y 2 7 m a l e s p e r fe m a le in 1 8 9 0 , a n d d r o p p e d to 9 m a l e s p e r fe m a le in 1 9 1 0 . A lth o u g h t h e s e x r a tio g r a d u a l l y ev e n e d o u t ov er tim e , m a l e s still o u t n u m b e r e d fe m a le s by m o r e t h a n 2:1 in the 1 9 4 0 s . T h e s h o r t a g e of w o m e n c o m b i n e d w ith th e “p a p e r s o n ” p h e n o m e n o n a n d o t h e r illegal e n tr y o f y o u n g m e n stifled th e f o r m a tio n o f “n o r m a l ” f a m i­ lies a n d the n a t u r a l r e p r o d u c t i o n of th e e th n ic p o p u l a t i o n . B c c a u s c of r e s t r i c t e d i m m i g r a t i o n , the size of the s e c o n d g e n e r a tio n w a s s m a l l b u t h a d b e c o m e in c r e a s in g ly visible a m o n g th e ag in g b a c h e l o r s s in c e th e 3T h e n u m b e r w a s 7 9 2 , 5 2 9 b etw een 1961 a n d 1990, a n d 5 2 8 , 8 9 3 b etw een 1991 a n d 2000.

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e a rly 1 9 3 0 s . In 1 9 0 0 , le s s t h a n 9% o f th e e th n ic C h in e s e p o p u l a t i o n w a s U .S .-b o rn ; b e c a u s e o f low im m i g r a t i o n , th e U .S .-b o rn s h a r e i n ­ c r e a s e d s te a d ily to over h a lf b e tw e e n 1 9 4 0 a n d 1 9 7 0 . T h e c h ild r e n b o r n in th e U n ite d S l a t e s p r i o r to W orld W ar II w e r e m o s tly b o r n in th e late 1 9 2 0 s a n d th e 1 9 3 0 s a n d w e re still very y o u n g a t th e o u t b r e a k o f th e war. As o f 1 9 3 0 , th e p r o p o r t i o n of U S - b o r n w e n t u p to 4 1 % . Like o t h e r r a c ia l m i n o r i t y c h il d r e n , th e c h il d r e n o f C h in e s e i m m i g r a n t s w e r e n o t p e r m i t t e d to a t t e n d p u b lic s c h o o ls w ith W hite c h i ld r e n , a n d a s th e y g re w u p , few w e r e a b le to fin d j o b s in th e m a i n s t r e a m e c o n o m y c o m m e n s u r a t e w ith th e ir levels o f e d u c a t io n . D u r i n g a n d a fte r W orld War II, m o r e C h in e s e w o m e n t h a n m e n w e r e a d m i t t e d to th e U n ite d S ta te s , m o s t of th e m a s w a r b r i d e s , b u t th e a n ­ n u a l q u o t a of i m m i g r a n t v is a s for th e C h in e s e w a s o nly 1 05 a fte r the lifting of th e C h in e s e E x c lu s io n Act. In th e 1 9 5 0 s , h u n d r e d s o f re fu g ee s a n d th e ir fa m ilie s fled C o m m u n i s t C h i n a to c o m e to th e U n ite d S ta le s , a n d d e s p it e low im m i g r a t i o n , th e a r r iv a l o f C h in e s e refu g e e fa m ilie s c o n t r i b u t e d to th e i n c r e a s e d p r o p o r t i o n o f U .S .-b o rn c h ild r e n , w h ic h w e n t u p to 61% in 1 9 6 0 . B etw een 1 9 4 0 a n d 1 9 7 0 , th e U .S .-b o rn o u t ­ n u m b e r e d th e f o r e ig n - b o r n in th e C h in e s e A m e r i c a n c o m m u n ity . T h is " o ld ” s e c o n d g e n e r a t io n w a s d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y yo un g; a l m o s t all o f th e m h a d i m m i g r a n t p a r e n t s , a n d th e m a jo r ity g re w u p in C h in a to w n .

T h e “N ew ” S e c o n d G e n e r a tio n After W orld War II, th e e th n ic C h in e s e c o m m u n i t y in th e U n ite d S t a t e s g re w s te a d ily a s t h e o ld s e c o n d g e n e r a t io n r e a c h e d a d u l t h o o d a n d h a d s h ifte d to a m o r e s e ttle d c o m m u n i t y c o m p r i s i n g a U .S .-b o rn m a jo r ity by 1 9 6 0 . However, c o n t e m p o r a r y C h in e s e i m m i g r a t i o n b r o u g h t a b o u t a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . As i m p a c t e d by the I m m ig r a ti o n Act of 1 9 6 5 , w h ic h a b o l i s h e d th e n a t i o n a l o r ig in s q u o t a s y s te m a n d gave p r i o r i ty to fam ily u n if ic a tio n a n d to th e i m p o r t a t i o n o f sk ille d l a ­ bor, th e C h in e s e A m e r ic a n c o m m u n i t y r a p i d l y t r a n s f o r m e d fr o m a b a c h e l o r s ' so c ie ty to a n i m m i g r a n t - d o m i n a n t fam ily c o m m u n ity . T h e 10-fold g r o w th o f th e C h in e s e A m e r ic a n p o p u l a t i o n fro m 1 9 6 0 to 2 0 0 0 is n o t m e r e ly a m a t t e r o f n u m b e r s b u t r a t h e r a s ig n ific a n t t u r n i n g p o i n t fo r c o m m u n i t y d e v e l o p m e n t a n d id e n tity f o r m a tio n . W h a t c h a r ­ a c te r i z e s th is so c ia l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is th e t r e m e n d o u s w ith in - g r o u p d iv e r s ity in t e r m s o f p la c e of origin, s o c i o e c o n o m ic b a c k g r o u n d , p a t ­ t e r n s of g e o g r a p h ic s e t tle m e n t , a n d m o d e s o f s o c ia l m obility. C o m p a r e d to e a r lie r C h in e s e i m m i g r a n t s , c o n t e m p o r a r y C h in e s e i m m i g r a n t s ha v e a r r iv e d n o t on ly f r o m m a i n l a n d C h in a b u t a lso fro m th e g r e a t e r C h in e s e d i a s p o r a — H o n g Kong, T a iw a n , V ie tn a m , C a m b o ­ d ia , M a la y sia , a n d the A m e r ic a s . In L os A ngeles, for e x a m p le , 23 % of C h in e s e A m e r ic a n p o p u l a t i o n w a s b o r n in th e U n ite d S ta le s , 2 7% in m a i n l a n d C h in a , 20 % in T a iw a n , 8% in H o n g Kong, a n d 2 2% fro m o t h e r c o u n t r i e s a r o u n d th e w o r ld a s o f 1 9 9 0 . D iv e rse o r ig in s e n ta il d i ­ v e r s e c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s . L inguistically, for e x a m p le , C h in e s e i m m i ­

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g r a n t s c o m e fro m a m u c h w id e r v a rie ty o f d ia le c t g r o u p s th a n in th e p a s t . A lth o u g h all C h in e s e s h a r e a single a n c e s t r a l w r itte n la n g u a g e (v aried o nly in t r a d i t i o n a l a n d sim p lifie d v e r s i o n s o f c h a r a c t e r s ) , they s p e a k n u m e r o u s re g io n a l d i a l e c t s — C a n to n e s e , M a n d a r i n , M in n a n , H a k k a , C h a o z h o u , a n d S h a n g h a i — t h a t a r e n o t e a sily u n d e r s t o o d even a m o n g C h in e s e i m m i g r a n t s . C o n te m p o ra ry C h in e se im m ig ra n ts have also co m e from d iv erse s o c i o e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d s . S o m e a r r i v e d in t h e U n ite d S t a t e s w ith little m o n e y , m i n i m u m e d u c a t i o n , few j o b s k i l l s , a n d f r o m r u ­ r a l a r e a s lik e t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s o f t h e p a s t , w h i c h f o r c e d t h e m to t a k e lo w -w a g e j o b s a n d s e t tle in d e t e r i o r a t i n g u r b a n n e i g h b o r ­ h o o d s . O t h e r s c a m e w ith c o n s i d e r a b l e f a m ily s a v in g s , e d u c a t i o n , a n d s k i l l s f a r a b o v e th e le v e ls o f a v e r a g e A m e r i c a n s . N a t i o n w i d e , for e x a m p l e , lev e ls o f e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t a m o n g f o r e i g n - b o r n C h i ­ n e s e w e r e s ig n if i c a n tly h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e o f t h e g e n e r a l U.S. p o p u l a ­ tio n . In 2 0 0 0 , 6 5 % o f f o r e i g n - b o r n C h i n e s e a g e d 2 5 to 3 9 y e a r s h a d a t t a i n e d a t l e a s t 4 y e a r s o f c o lleg e e d u c a t i o n , c o m p a r e d to 3 0 % o f U .S . - b o r n n o n - H i s p a n i c W h ite s . C o n t e m p o r a r y C h in e s e i m m i g r a n t s h a v e a ls o s h o w n d iv e r s e p a t ­ t e r n s o f s e ttle m e n t, w h ic h a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by c o n c e n t r a t i o n a s well a s d i s p e r s i o n . G e o g r a p h ic a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n , to s o m e ex te n t, follow s a h is to r ic a l p a t t e r n : C h in e s e A m e r i c a n s h a v e c o n t i n u e d to c o n c e n t r a t e in th e W est a n d in u r b a n a r e a s . O n e s ta te , C a lifo rn ia , a c c o u n t s for n e a r ly 40 % o f all C h in e s e A m e r i c a n s (1.1 m illio n ). New York a c c o u n t s for 16%, s e c o n d only to C a lifo rn ia , a n d H aw aii, 6%. H ow ever, o t h e r s t a t e s t h a t h is to r ic a lly re c e iv e d few C h in e s e i m m i g r a n t s ha v e n o w w it­ n e s s e d p h e n o m e n a l g ro w th , s u c h a s T exas, New J e r s e y , M a s s a c h u ­ s e tts , Illinois, W a s h in g to n , F l o r id a , M a r y l a n d , a n d P e n n s y lv a n ia . A m o n g larg e c itie s (with p o p u l a t i o n s over 1 0 0 .0 0 0 ), New York City (3 6 5 , 0 0 0 ) , S a n F r a n c i s c o ( 1 6 1 ,0 0 0 ) , L os A ngeles ( 7 4 ,0 0 0 ) , H o n o lu lu ( 6 9 ,0 0 0 ) , a n d S a n J o s e ( 5 8 ,0 0 0 ) have th e la r g e s t n u m b e r s o f C h in e s e A m e r ic a n s . S m a ll s u b u r b a n cities in L o s A ng eles a n d th e S a n F r a n ­ cisc o Bay A r e a h a ve a ls o s e e n e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y high p r o p o r t i o n s of C h i­ n e s e A m e r i c a n s in th e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n . T r a d i t i o n a l u r b a n e n c la v e s, s u c h a s C h i n a t o w n s in S a n F r a n c is c o , New York, L os A ngeles, C h i­ cago, a n d B o s to n , h a v e c o n t i n u e d to ex ist a n d receive n e w im m i g r a n t s , b u t th ey n o lo n g e r se rv e a s p r i m a r y c e n t e r s o f initial s e t t l e m e n t , a s m a n y n e w i m m i g r a n t s , e sp e c ia lly th e a fflu e n t a n d h ighly s k ille d , b y ­ p a s s i n n e r cities to s e ttle in to s u b u r b s i m m e d ia te ly a fte r a rriv a l. C u r ­ rently, o nly 2% th e C h in e s e in L os A ngeles, 8% o f th e C h in e s e in S a n F r a n c is c o , a n d 14% of th e C h in e s e in New York live in old C h in a to w n s . T h e m a j o r it y of th e C h in e s e A m e r i c a n p o p u l a t i o n is s p r e a d i n g o u t in o u t e r a r e a s o r s u b u r b s in t r a d i t i o n a l g a te w a y cities a s well a s in new u r b a n c e n t e r s o f A sian s e t t l e m e n t a c r o s s th e c o u n try , a n d h a lf of all C h in e s e A m e r i c a n s live in s u b u r b s . New e t h n o b u r b s — m u lt ie th n ic , i m m i g r a n t - d o m i n a n t s u b u r b a n m u n i c i p a l i t i e s — have a p p e a r e d sin c e th e 19 8 0 s , s h o w in g a c o m p le te ly n e w p a t t e r n of i m m i g r a n t s e t t l e m e n t

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(Li, 1 9 9 7 ). T h e 2 0 0 0 C e n s u s r e c o r d s 11 s u b u r b a n cities in th e U n ite d S t a t e s in w h ic h C h in e s e A m e r i c a n s m a k e u p m o r e t h a n 20 % o f th e city’s p o p u la tio n . T h e s e d e m o g r a p h i c c h a n g e s in th e C h in e s e A m e r i c a n c o m m u n i t y ha v e c r e a t e d m u l tip le c o n te x ts u n d e r w h ic h th e n e w s e c o n d g e n e r a t io n (the U .S .-b o rn o r U .S .-ra ise d c h il d r e n o f c o n t e m p o r a r y i m m i g r a n t s ) is c o m in g o f age. T h r e e m a i n n e i g h b o r h o o d c o n te x ts a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i m ­ p o r t a n t analytically : (a) t r a d i t i o n a l e th n ic e n c la v e s, s u c h a s in n e r-c ity C h i n a t o w n s , (b) e t h n o b u r b s , a n d (c) W hite m id d l e - c l a s s s u b u r b s . T h e c h a lle n g e s c o n f r o n tin g n e w C h in e s e i m m i g r a n t fa m ilie s a r e c o n ­ s t r a i n e d by th e i n te r a c tio n b e tw e e n u n i q u e fam ily d y n a m i c s a n d i m ­ m e d i a t e c o n t e x t u a l f a c t o r s . H o w t h e s e c h a l l e n g e s a ffe c t f a m ily r e l a t i o n s is w h a t I n o w t u r n to d i s c u s s .

NEW CH ALLEN G ES CONFRONTING THE C H IN E SE IMM IGRANT FAMILY D u r i n g th e e r a o f legal e x c lu s io n , m o s t o f th e C h i n e s e i m m i g r a n t s w e r e is o l a t e d in in n e r - c i ty e t h n i c e n c la v e s , w h ic h w e r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s b a c h e l o r s ’ s o c ie tie s . M a n y C h i n a t o w n “b a c h e l o r ” w o r k e r s w e re a c ­ tu a lly m a r r i e d b u t left th e ir w ives, c h i l d r e n , a n d p a r e n t s b e h i n d in t h e i r v illag e s in C h i n a . O f th e few “n o r m a l " fa m il ie s t h a t e x is te d in th e b a c h e l o r s ’ society, m a n y w e r e f a m ili e s o f m e r c h a n t s o r o f w o r k e r s w h o w e r e a b le to c la im to b e p a r t n e r s o f t h e m e r c h a n t s for i m m i g r a ­ tio n p u r p o s e . In old C h i n a t o w n s , i n d i v i d u a l s a n d f a m il ie s w e r e well c o n n e c t e d to th e e t h n i c c o m m u n i t y , h ig h ly d e p e n d e n t o n it for s o c ia l, e c o n o m i c , a n d e m o t i o n a l s u p p o r t , w h ile a ls o s u b j e c t to its c o n t r o l . C h i n a t o w n c h i l d r e n g r e w u p in a u n i q u e e x t e n d e d fa m ily e n v i r o n ­ m e n t , s u r r o u n d e d b y a n d u n d e r th e w a tc h f u l e yes o f m a n y " g r a n d ­ p a s ” a n d “u n c l e s ” w h o w e r e n o t r e l a t e d by b l o o d b u t r e l a t e d b y a n i n t r i c a t e s y s te m o f fa m ily k in o r p a r e n t a l f r i e n d s h i p a s s o c i a t i o n s . T h e i r b e h a v i o r a n d t h a t o f th e i r p a r e n t s w e r e c lo se ly m o n i t o r e d by a c lo se ly k n i t e t h n i c c o m m u n ity . T h e y w e r e e i t h e r “g o o d ” k i d s — loyal, g u a i ( o b e d ie n t) , a n d y o u - c h u - x i ( p r o m i s i n g ) — o r “b a d " k i d s — d i s r e ­ s p e c t f u l, b a i - j i a - z i (fam ily f a ilu r e ) , a n d m e i - c h u - x i ( g o o d - f o r - n o th ­ ing). T h e y g r e w u p s p e a k i n g f lu e n t C h in e s e , m o s t l y in lo c a l d ia le c ts , g o in g to C h i n e s e s c h o o l s , w o r k i n g in C h i n e s e - o w n e d b u s i n e s s e s in C h i n a t o w n , a n d i n t e r a c t i n g i n t i m a t e l y w ith o t h e r C h i n e s e in th e e t h ­ n ic e n c la v e . M a n y w i s h e d to b e c o m e like o t h e r A m e r i c a n c h i l d r e n b u t f a c ed r e s i s t a n c e fr o m th e la r g e r so c ie ty a s well a s f r o m th e i r ow n f a m ­ ilies. T h e la r g e r so c ie ty l o o k e d d o w n o n th e C h i n e s e a n d s e t b a r r i e r s to k e e p t h e m a p a r t , s u c h a s s e g r e g a tio n in s c h o o l s a n d w o r k p l a c e s . T h e C h i n e s e f a m il ie s tie d t h e i r c h i l d r e n to C h i n a t o w n a n d its e t h n i c i n s t i t u t i o n s , w ith C h i n e s e s c h o o l b e in g th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o n e , to s h i e l d t h e m f r o m b e in g h a r m e d by o v e rt d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . C o n s e ­ q u e n tly , d e s p i t e m u c h a d o l e s c e n t r e b e lli o n a n d i n t e n s e g e n e r a t i o n a l c o n f lic ts w ith in th e family, th e c h i l d r e n often f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s g o in g

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full c irc le b a c k to e t h n i c n e t w o r k s w i t h o u t m u c h r o o m to a c t u p a n d e v e n tu a lly b e c o m i n g n o b o d y b u t C h in e s e . U n lik e m e m b e r s o f th e old s e c o n d g e n e r a tio n , w h o w e r e legally e x ­ c lu d e d fro m p a r t i c i p a t i n g in th e A m e r ic a n m a i n s t r e a m a n d w h o s i m ­ ply d id n o t ha v e th e f r e e d o m to c h o o s e w h o m they w a n t e d to b e, the n e w s e c o n d g e n e r a tio n lived in a m o r e o p e n a n d m o r e a c c e p tin g s o c i ­ ety even th o u g h th e ir g ro w in g - u p e x p e r ie n c e s w e r e c o n s t r a i n e d by d i ­ v e r s e fam ily s o c io e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d s a n d i m m e d i a t e n e i g h b o r ­ h o o d c o n te x ts . T h o s e w h o r e s i d e in in n e r - c ity C h i n a t o w n s a r e g e n e r ­ ally fr o m r e c e n tly a r r i v e d , lo w -in c o m e fam ilie s. Like th e old s e c o n d g e n e r a ti o n , th e y s p e a k C h in e s e fluently, i n t e r a c t p r i m a r i l y w ith p e o p le in a C h i n e s e - s p e a k i n g e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d p a r t i c i p a t e in v a r i o u s c u l ­ t u r a l a n d so c ia l i n s t i t u t i o n s o f th e e t h n ic c o m m u n ity . However, th ey no lo n g e r live in a h o s tile e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t so cially a n d legally e x c lu d e s th e C h in e s e . E v e n t h o u g h th ey m a y still go to s c h o o l s w ith m o s tly i m ­ m i g r a n t C h in e s e a n d o t h e r m i n o r it y c h i l d r e n in t h e ir n e i g h b o r h o o d s , th e y h a v e m o r e o p p o r t u n i t i e s to i n t e r a c t w ith n o n - c o e t h n ic c h i ld r e n , m o v e a r o u n d in society, a n d c h o o s e w h a t th e y w a n t to d o in life. B u t b e ­ c a u s e of th e s t r u c t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t s a s s o c i a t e d w ith d is a d v a n t a g e d c la s s s t a t u s , C h in a to w n c h i ld r e n w o u ld face g r e a t e r r i s k s of b e in g t r a p p e d in p e r m a n e n t p o v e r ty a n d d o w n w a r d a s s i m i l a t i o n t h a n th e ir m i d d l e - c l a s s p e e r s (P o rte s & Z h o u , 199 3). T h o s e w h o r e s i d e in m u l t i e t h n i c e t h n o b u r b s a r e m o s tly fr o m u p ­ p e r- a n d m i d d l e - i n c o m e fa m ilie s m ix e d w ith s o m e lo w -in c o m e f a m i ­ lies. T h e y g e n e ra lly go to s u b u r b a n p u b lic s c h o o ls th a t a r e b e t t e r a n d h a v e m o r e r e s o u r c e s th a n in n e r- c ity s c h o o l s , a lth o u g h th o s e s c h o o ls a r c a ls o likely to b e d o m i n a t e d by c o e th n ic a n d o t h e r m in o r ity c h il­ d r e n . T h e y a lso h a v e e a s y a c c e s s to a w id e ra n g e o f e t h n ic in s t i t u t i o n s q u ite d iff e r e n t fro m t h o s e in old C h in a to w n , s u c h a s a f te r - s c h o o l t u t o r ­ ing (b u x i b a n ), a c a d e m i c e n r i c h m e n t c e n t e r s , a n d s p o r t s a n d m u s i c p r o g r a m s o ffered by C h in e s e - o w n e d p r iv a te b u s i n e s s e s . T h e y too s p e a k C h in e s e fluently, i n t e r a c t w ith o t h e r C h in e s e , a n d a r e a s s o c i a t e d w ith th in g s “C h i n e s e , ” in c lu d in g food, m u s i c , a n d c u s t o m s . B u t they a lso i n t e r a c t w ith p e o p le of d iv e r s e r a c ia l/e th n ic b a c k g r o u n d s . T h e c h i l d r e n o f C h i n e s e i m m i g r a n t s w h o r e s i d e in s u b u r b a n W hite m i d d l e - c l a s s n e i g h b o r h o o d s t e n d to h a v e p a r e n t s w h o h a v e a c h ie v e d h ig h levels o f e d u c a t i o n , o c c u p a t i o n , in c o m e , a n d E n g lis h p r o f ic ie n c y a n d w h o a r e f lu e n t b i c u l t u r a l . t r a n s n a t i o n a l , c o s m o p o l i t a n , a n d h ig h ly a s s i m i l a t e d . T h e s e c h i l d r e n a t t e n d s c h o o l s w ith p r e d o m i ­ n a n t l y W h ite s t u d e n t s a n d h a v e few p r i m a r y c o n t a c t s w ith c o e t h n i c p e e r s . M a n y g r o w u p s p e a k i n g o n ly E n g l i s h a t h o m e a n d h a v e f r i e n d s w h o a r e m o s t l y W h ite s. O v e ra ll, th e n e w s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n g r o w s u p in a m o r e o p e n s o c i ­ ety t h a n th e o ld g e n e r a t i o n . T h e s e c h i l d r e n a r e free o f m o s t o f th e le ­ gal b a r r i e r s to e d u c a t i o n a l a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t s t h a t b l o c k e d t h e m o b i lity o f th e o ld s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n . T h e y a ls o t e n d to live in “n o r m a l ” fa m ily n e i g h b o r h o o d s a n d h a v e m o r e s o u r c e s o f s o ­

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c ial s u p p o r t b e y o n d th e e t h n i c c o m m u n ity . A n d th e y h a v e m u c h m o r e o p p o r t u n i t i e s to “fin d t h e m s e l v e s , ” “b e t h e m s e l v e s , ” a n d “b e c o m e A m e r i c a n ” a n d h a v e m o r e le v e ra g e to r e b e l if th e y c h o o s e to. Fo r e x ­ a m p l e , th e y h a v e to p o w e r to r e p o r t to a u t h o r i t i e s , call 9 1 1 , o r even t h r e a t e n to t h r o w t h e i r p a r e n t s in j a il w h e n th e y feel b e in g “a b u s e d " a t h o m e , b e c a u s e s o c ia l i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d th e legal s y s t e m in th e la r g e s o ­ ciety p r o v i d e s u c h s u p p o r t . A n d s h o u l d th e y d e c id e to r u n a w a y fr o m h o m e , th e y w o u l d h a v e m o r e o p t i o n s to g e t by. Iro nically , i m m i g r a n t p a r e n t s in a m o r e o p e n so c ie ty o fte n fin d it h a r d e r t h a n in th e i s o la te d e n c la v e to r a i s e c h i l d r e n a c c o r d i n g to th e i r w a y s, b e c a u s e of th e m o r e i n t e n s e b i c u l t u r a l c o n f lic ts b e tw e e n th e p a r e n t s ’ s o c ia l w o r l d a n d th e m a i n s t r e a m society. L ik e all o t h e r i m m i g r a n t s , c o n t e m p o r a r y C h i n e s e i m m i g r a n t s c o n ­ f r o n t s o m e o f m o s t p r o f o u n d c h a lle n g e s w h e n th e y m o v e to A m e r ic a . T h e f ir s t c h a l le n g e is th e d r a s t i c c h a n g e in th e s o c i o c u l t u r a l c o n te x t s u r r o u n d i n g th e family. In th e i r r e s p e c t i v e h o m e l a n d s — m a i n l a n d C h in a , T a iw a n , H o n g K o n g — C h i n e s e f a m il ie s a r e o fte n e x t e n d e d in n a t u r e , w ith g r a n d p a r e n t ( s ) a n d o t h e r r e la ti v e s e i t h e r in th e h o m e o r in c lo s e c o n ta c t . U p o n a r r i v i n g in th e U n ite d S t a t e s , t h e s e c lo s e f a m ­ ily, k in , a n d f r i e n d s h i p tie s a n d th e a s s o c i a t e d s u p p o r t a n d c o n t r o l m e c h a n i s m s a r e d i s r u p t e d . In th e p a s t , i n d i v i d u a l m i g r a n t s a n d th e ir f a m ilie s c a m e fr o m th e s a m e r u r a l v illa g e s in s e n d i n g c o u n t r i e s a n d a r r i v e d in a t r a n s p l a n t e d village in th e U n ite d S t a t e s , s o th e b r o k e n tie s c o u ld b e e a sily r e b u i l t in C h i n a t o w n s t h a t r e s e m b l e d t h o s e left b e h i n d in v illages in th e h o m e l a n d . Today, h o w e v e r, i m m i g r a n t s a r e f r o m d iv e r s e o r ig in s ; even if th e y a r e f r o m th e s a m e re g io n a n d s h a r e the s a m e lo ca l d ia lc c t, th e y a r c u n lik e l y to b e l o n g to th e s a m e s o c ia l c irc le a n d a r e j u s t a s lik ely to b e s t r a n g e r s a s th e y w e re to m o v e f r o m o n e p la c e to a n o t h e r in t h e i r o w n h o m e l a n d s . T h e u n f a m i l i a r s o c i o c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t , c o m b i n e d w ith th e la c k o f A m e r i c a n c u l ­ t u r a l literacy, E n g li s h la n g u a g e p ro fic ie n c y , a n d e d u c a t i o n a n d jo b s k i l l s fo r s o m e , a d d s to th e d iffic u lty in in itia l s e t t l e m e n t . W h e n i m ­ m i g r a n t f a m ilie s a r r iv e f i r s t in e t h n i c e n c la v e s o r e t h n o b u r b s , th e y m a y b e a b le to r e c o n n e c t to o r r e b u i l d e t h n i c n e t w o r k s , b u t t h e s e n e w e t h n i c n e t w o r k s t e n d to b e c o m p o s e d of c o e t h n i c “s t r a n g e r s ” r a t h e r t h a n c lo s e k in a n d f r i e n d s a n d t e n d to b e m o r e i n s t r u m e n t a l t h a n e m o t i o n a l l y i n t i m a t e a n d h o m e y . A s I h a v e j u s t m e n t i o n e d , th e m a j o r ­ ity o f c o n t e m p o r a r y C h i n e s e i m m i g r a n t f a m ili e s d i s p e r s e in to W hite m id d lc -c la ss s u b u r b s . S u c h geo g rap h ic d is p e rs io n fu rth e r d c ta c h c s n e w i m m i g r a n t s f r o m th e e x is tin g e t h n i c c o m m u n i t y a n d m a k e s it m o r e d iffic u lt for t h e m to r e b u i l d s o c ia l n e t w o r k s b a s e d o n c o m m o n o r ig in s a n d a c o m m o n c u l t u r a l h e r it a g e . A lth o u g h a ff lu e n t C h in e s e i m m i g r a n t f a m ilie s m a y n o t n e e d e t h n i c n e t w o r k s a n d e t h n i c r e ­ s o u r c e s a s m u c h a s t h e i r w o r k i n g - c l a s s c o u n t e r p a r t s , m a n y fin d th e m c o m f o r tin g , c o n v e n ie n t, a n d a t t i m e s i n s t r u m e n t a l for e n f o r c in g c e r t a i n t r a d i t i o n a l C h i n e s e v a lu e s to w h i c h th e y h o ld f ir m , b u t th e y a r e p h y s ic a lly fa r a w a y f r o m th e e t h n i c c o m m u n ity .

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T h e s e c o n d cha lle n ge is the s ig n ific a n t c h a n g e in fam ily r e la tio n s in the im m i g r a n t f a m ily T h e m a jo rity of th e c h ild r e n live in fam ilies w ith b o th p a r e n t s w o r k in g full-tim e a n d s o m e at se v e ra l j o b s on d if­ f e re n t sh ifts . B e c a u s e of d is a d v a n t a g e s a s s o c ia te d w ith im m ig r a n t s t a t u s , m a n y C h in e s e i m m i g r a n t m e n e x p e rie n c e d o w n w a r d m o b ility a n d have difficulty in g e ttin g j o b s t h a t s e c u r e th e ir ro le a s m a in b r e a d w i n n e r s . W om en have to w o r k o u ts id e th e h o m e , a n d m a n y c o n ­ t r ib u t e equally, if n o t m o r e , to th e fam ily w hile c o n ti n u o u s l y ta k in g th e p r i n c i p a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for c h i l d r e a r i n g , w h ic h h a s s u b tly c h a n g e d th e s p o u s a l r e la tio n s . T h a t w o m e n w o r k o u ts id e th e h o m e often c r e a te s difficulty in th e family. W ith o u t the h e lp of g r a n d p a r ­ e n ts, rela tiv e s, a n d o th e r close f r ie n d s , m a n y y o u n g c h ild r e n b e c o m e la tc h -k e y c h ild r e n , sta y in g h o m e a lo n e a fte r s c h o o l h o u r s , w h ic h is in violatio n o f g o v e r n m e n t re g u la tio n s . C h a n g e s in p a r e n t - c h i l d r e l a ­ tio n s arc a lso no te w o rth y , p a r tic u la r ly in fa m ilie s w h e r e th e p a r e n t s have low levels of e d u c a ti o n a n d jo b s k ills a n d s p e a k little o r n o E n g ­ lish. Often th e s e p a r e n t s have to d e p e n d on th e ir c h i ld r e n a s t r a n s l a ­ t o r s a n d b r o k e r s b e tw e e n h o m e a n d the o u ts id e w o rld , w hich severely c u r t a ils p a r e n t a l a u th ority. T h e th ir d challenge is the g e n e ra tio n gap t h a t is e x a c e rb ate d by a c u ltu ra l gap b etw een the im m ig r a n t family a n d the la rge r society. T h is gap is p a rtic u la rly d is c e rn ib le in th e d is c r e p a n c y in goal o rie n ta tio n a n d th e m e a n s of achieving goals b e tw een im m ig r a n t p a r e n t s a n d th e ir U .S.-born or -ra ise d c h ild re n . B ec a u se of im m ig r a n t selectivity, m o s t a d u lt im m ig r a n ts a n d the p a r e n t g e n e ra tio n a re b u s y w orking , fo c u s ­ ing first on p u ttin g food on the table a n d th e n m o ving th e m se lv e s or their fam ilies u p in society. T h ey s t r u c t u r e th e ir lives p r im a rily a r o u n d th re e goals, a s a C h in es e im m ig r a n t p u t it: “To live in y o u r own h o u se , to be y o u r own b o s s , a n d to s e n d y o u r c h ild re n to the Ivy League." They too try to a c c u ltu r a te or a s s im ila te into A m e ric a n society b u t only in ways th a t facilitate the a tta in m e n t of th e se goals. T he c h ild re n , in c o n ­ tra s t, w a n t m o re . T hey a s p ir e to be A m e rica n like everyone else, in the w o r d s of a U .S.-born high sc h o o l s t u d e n t from Los Angeles' C h in a ­ town, “lo o k in g cool, going to th e ball g a m e s, ea tin g h a m b u r g e r s a n d Fre n ch fries, ta k in g family v a c a tio n s, having fun ... feeling free to do w h a te v e r you like r a t h e r t h a n w h a t y o u r p a r e n t s tell you to .” T h is c u l t u r a l g a p s e ts the p a r e n t s a n d c h il d r e n a p a r t , often d a m p ­ e n s th e a lr e a d y s t r a i n e d p a r e n t - c h i l d r e la tio n s . Often c h ild r e n r e ­ g a r d th e ir im m i g r a n t p a r e n t s a s l a o - w a n - g u a n d p a r e n t a l w ays a s o u t d a t e d a n d o ld - f a s h io n e d , a n d th ey c o n s c io u s ly re b e l a g a in s t p a ­ r e n ta l t r a d it io n s . T he p a r e n t s , a s id e fro m jug glin g w o r k a n d h o u s e ­ ho ld r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s t h a t d e v o u r m o s t of th e ir w a k in g h o u r s , a re w o r r ie d t h a t th e ir c h i ld r e n hav e too m u c h f r e e d o m , too little r e s p e c t for au th o rity , a n d too m a n y u n fa v o r a b le s ti m u li in s c h o o l, o n the s tre e t, a n d on th e te levision s c r e e n a t h o m e , a n d a re h o rr if ie d by th e ir c h i ld r e n ’s a c tin g u p . However, they e x p e r ie n c e difficulty in c o m m u n i ­ ca tin g w ith th e ir A m e r ic a n iz e d c h ild r e n a n d in m e d i a tin g b e tw e e n

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th e ir e x p e c t a t i o n a n d th e i r c h i l d r e n ’s o w n n e e d s , w h ic h f u r t h e r i n t e n ­ s ifie s i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l c o n flic ts . To m a k e m a t t e r s w o r s e , th e p a r ­ e n t s ’ c u s t o m a r y w a y s o f c x c r c i s in g a u t h o r i t y o r d i s c i p l i n i n g c h i l d r e n , w h ic h w e r e c o n s i d e r e d n o r m a t i v e a n d a c c e p t a b l e in th e o ld w o r ld , ha v e s u d d e n l y b e c o m e o b s o le te a n d even illegal, f u r t h e r e r o d i n g p a ­ r e n t a l p o w e r in p a r e n t - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t th e c u l t u r a l g a p a ls o a ffe c ts th e r e l a t i o n s b e ­ tw e e n f o r e i g n - b o r n a d o l e s c e n t s a n d t h e i r U.S. b o r n o r - r a i s e d c o e t h n i c p e e r s . I m m i g r a n t y o u t h , t h o s e w h o a r r i v e d in th e U n ite d S t a t e s a s te e n a g e r s , h a d s p e n t th e m a j o r i t y o f th e i r f o r m a ti v e y e a r s in a d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e , w e r e s c h o o l e d in a d if f e r e n t la n g u a g e , h a d e s t a b ­ l i s h e d p e e r g r o u p s , a n d w e re i m m e r s e d in a d if f e r e n t y o u th c u l t u r e t h a n t h a t in th e U n ite d S t a t e s . In t h e i r h o m e l a n d , th e y p la y e d a l e a d ­ ing ro le in d e f in in g w h a t w a s in, w h a t w a s coo l, a n d w h a t w a s tre n d y , a n d m a n y w e r e a v e r a g e s t u d e n t s in th e i r s c h o o l s . H o w ever, o n c e in th e U n it e d S t a t e s , th e y s u d d e n l y fin d t h e m s e l v e s s t a n d i n g o u t th e w r o n g way, b e c o m i n g th e o b j e c ts o f m o c k e r y a n d r i d i c u l e a n d b e i n g r e f e r r e d to d e r o g a t i v e l y a s F O B s ( f r e s h - o f f - t h e - b o a t ) b y t h e i r U .S .- b o r n o r r a i s e d c o e th n ic p e e r s (C h ia n g - H o m , 2 0 0 4 ; P y k e & D ang , 2 0 0 3 ) . T h e y a ls o e x p e r i e n c e h a r d s h i p in s c h o o l . B e c a u s e o f th e l a n ­ g u a g e c u l t u r a l d iffic u ltie s, m a n y n e w ly a r r i v e d a d o l e s c e n t s a r e u n ­ a b le to e x p r e s s t h e m s e l v e s a n d a r e t h u s m i s u n d e r s t o o d by th e t e a c h e r a n d fellow s t u d e n t s ; th e y a r e f r e q u e n t te a s e d , m o c k e d , o r h a ­ r a s s e d b y o t h e r s t u d e n t s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r d if f e r e n t lo o k , a c c e n t , a n d d r e s s ; a n d th e y fe a r to b r i n g t h e s e p r o b l e m s u p a t th e d i n n e r ta b le for f e a r t h a t th e i r p a r e n t s will g e t u p s e t o r b l a m e t h e m . W h e n t h e i r p r o b ­ l e m s a r e u n a d d r e s s e d b y s c h o o l s o r b y p a r e n t s , th e y o u t h b e c o m e d i s c o u r a g e d , a n d th e d i s c o u r a g e m e n t is s o m e t i m e s fo llo w e d b y l o s ­ in g i n t e r e s t , p lu n g i n g g r a d e s , a n d e v e n tu a lly d r o p p i n g o u t o f s c h o o l a n d j o i n i n g g a n g s . T h e s e p r o b l e m s a r e s u m m e d u p in a c o m m u n i t y o r g a n i z e r 's r e m a r k : “It is s o m e t i m e s e a s i e r to b e a g a n g s te r . T h e s e k i d s w e r e g e n e r a lly c o n s i d e r e d ‘l o s e r s ’ b y t h e i r t e a c h e r s , p a r e n t s , a n d p e e r s in s c h o o l. In s c h o o l o r a t h o m e , th e y feel u n c o m f o r t a b l e , i s o l a t e d , a n d r e je c te d , w h ic h f o s t e r s a s e n s e o f h o p e l e s s n e s s a n d p o w e r l e s s n e s s a n d a y e a r n i n g fo r r e c o g n iti o n . In t h e s t r e e t s , th e y feel free f r o m all t h e n o r m a t i v e p r e s s u r e s . It is o u t t h e r e t h a t th e y feel free to b e t h e m s e l v e s a n d to d o t h i n g s w h e r e v e r a n d w h e n e v e r th e y w a n t, giving t h e m a s o r t of id e n tit y a n d a s e n s e o f p o w e r . ” T h e s e c h a lle n g e s a r e r e a l a n d s e r i o u s w ith a f a r - r e a c h i n g i m p a c t o n th e w e ll-b e in g o f i m m i g r a n t p a r e n t s a n d c h i l d r e n a s th e y b o t h s tr iv e to g et a h e a d a n d get a c c e p t e d in A m e r i c a n society. Next, I e x ­ p l o r e s o m e o f th e m o s t i n t e n s e p o i n t s o f i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l c o n flic ts a n d th e w a y s in w h ic h p a r e n t s a n d c h i l d r e n c o m e to a p p r e c i a t e a n d r e c o n c ile d if f e r e n c e s .

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STRADDLING TWO SOCIOCULTURAL WORLDS: CONFLICTS AND RECONCILIATION Today s e c o n d -g e n e ra tio n C h in e se A m e ric a n s a re still very yo u n g a n d are j u s t b e g in n in g to c o m e of age in significant n u m b e r s . 4 T h e 2 0 0 0 C u r r e n t P o p u la tio n S u rve y in d ic a te s th a t 44% of the U .S.-born C h i­ ne se a re b e tw e e n ages 0 a n d 17 y e a rs a n d a n o th e r 10% b etw een ages 18 a n d 24.° Differing from th e ir fore ig n -b o rn p a r e n ts , c h ild re n of i m ­ m ig r a n t p a re n ta g e lack m e a n in g fu l c o n n e c tio n s to the s o c io c u ltu ra l w o rld from w hich th e ir p a r e n t s ca m e . T h u s , they a re u nlikely to c o n ­ si d e r a foreign c o u n tr y a s a p o in t of referen ce, a n d a re m u c h m o r e likely to evaluate th e m se lv e s o r to be eva lua te d by o th e r s by the s t a n ­ d a r d s of th eir c o u n tr y of b ir th o r the one in w hich they a re ra is e d (G ans, 1992; P o rte s & Z h o u , 1993; Z h o u , 1997). However, b e c a u s e of th eir im m ig r a n t p a re n ta g e , the c h ild re n have c o n s ta n tly fo u n d t h e m ­ selves s t r a d d le two so c io c u ltu r a l w o r ld s — C h in e se v e r s u s A m e r i­ c a n —w h ich is a t the core of h e a d -o n in te r g e n e r a tio n a l conflicts w ithin the C h in es e im m ig r a n t family. In the C h in e se c u ltu ra l context, filial piety d ic ta te s p a r e n t - c h i l d r e ­ la tio n s h ip s (Sung, 1987). B u t th is n o r m is often ex pected m o r e of the c h ild r e n th a n of b o th p a r e n t s a n d c h ild re n reciprocally. T h a t is, the c h ild ’s filial r e s p o n sib ility is the d e b t of life owed to p a r e n t s a n d the c h ild re n a r e ex pected to s u p p r e s s th e ir own self-interests to satisfy p a ­ re n ta l n e e d s, re g a rd le s s of w h e th e r p a r e n ta l n e e d s a re a p p r o p r i a t e or ra tio n a l (Dion & Dion, 1996; Yeh & B edfo rd, 2 0 0 3 ). Relative to filial p i­ ety is the n o tion of u n c o n d itio n a l o b e d ien c e , or s u b m is s io n , to a u t h o r ­ ity— the p a r e n t, the elder, a n d the su p e rio r. T he p a r e n t is the a u th o rity in the h o m e , as is the te a c h e r in the school. T he p a re n t, often the fa­ ther, is n o t s u p p o s e d to s h o w too m u c h affection, to play with c h ild re n , or to tre a t c h ild r e n a s e q u a ls. T he p a r e n ta l sto n c -fa c c d a u th o rita tiv e im age often in h ib its c h ild re n from q u e stio n in g , m u c h less challenging, th e ir p a r e n ts . F u r th e r m o r e , in the tr a d itio n a l C h in e se family, th e re is little ro o m for i n d i v id u a lis m . Every m e m b e r is tied to one an o th e r, a n d every a c t of ind iv id u a l m e m b e r s is c o n s id e r e d a n h o n o r o r a s h a m e to th e w hole family. T h u s , C h in ese p a r e n t s a re ex pected to b rin g u p th e ir c h ild r e n in w ays th a t h o n o r th e family. A s y m m e tric filial piety, u n c o n d itio n a l s u b m i s s i o n to a uthority, a n d face-saving ov errid e o th e r familial v alues in the tr a d itio n a l C h in e se family. Even th o u g h c h a n g e s have o c c u r r e d th ro u g h m o d e r n iz a tio n , 4E slim a te d from the C u rre n t Population Survey (CPS) data. 1 9 9 8 -2 0 0 0 . See Logan ct al. (2001). 5 Com pare d to 8% between 0 a nd 17 years a nd 8% between 18 and 24 years in the first generation.

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th ese tra d itio n a l in flue n c es a re still quite s u b s ta n tia l after fam ilies m i ­ grate to a new social e n v iro n m e n t. In the A m e ric a n c ontext, s u c h a b s o ­ lute fam ilial p r a c tic e s a rc fro w n ed on, a n d c h ild r e n a n d p a r e n t s arc exp e cte d to be in d e p e n d e n t in d iv id u a ls on e q u a l te r m s . So p a r e n t child conflicts in the im m ig r a n t C h in e se family a r e n o t j u s t i n t e r ­ g e n e ra tio n a l b u t c ultu ra l.

SENSITIVE PR E SSU R E POINTS T h e im m ig r a n t C h in e se family is often re fe r r e d to by the c h ild re n a s a “p r e s s u r e cooker," w h e r e in te n se in te r g e n e r a tio n a l conflicts a c c u m u ­ late a n d s o m e t im e s boil to th e p o in t of explosion. T h e r e a r e s o m e s e n ­ sitive p r e s s u r e p o in ts in the i m m i g r a n t C h in e se family— th e is s u e s of e d u c a tio n , w o r k ethic, c o n s u m p tio n behavior, a n d dating, a m o n g o t h ­ ers, w h ich can s tir u p potentially in te n se conflicts (Sung, 1987). E d u c a tio n is p e r h a p s m o s t i m p o r t a n t for the im m ig r a n t C hinese family w h e n it co m e to ra is in g c h ild re n . C h in e se p a r e n ts , w ho w ere ra is e d in C o nfuc ia n tra d itio n , te n d to be p a rtic u la r ly d e m a n d i n g a n d un y ie lding on th eir c h ild r e n 's e d u c a tio n a l a ch ie v e m en t. A ltho ug h e d u ­ cation is generally c o n s id e r e d a p r i m a r y m e a n s to u p w a r d social m o ­ bility in all A m e ric a n fam ilies, it is e m p h a s iz e d in s o m e u n iq u e ways in th e im m ig r a n t C h in e s e family. F ir s t a n d fo re m o st, the c h ild re n 's s u c ­ c e ss in sc h o o l is very m u c h tied to face-saving for th e family (Sung, 1987; Z h o u , 1997). T h u s , p a r e n t s c o n siste n tly r e m in d th eir c h ild re n th a t a c h ie v e m e n t is a d u ty a n d an obligation to the family r a t h e r th a n to a n in d iv id u a l goal a n d t h a t if they fail, they will b r in g s h a m e to the family. So c h ild re n a re u n d e r t r e m e n d o u s p r e s s u r e to su c c e e d . P a r ­ e n ts a re also p r e s s u r e d to e n s u r e c h ild r e n ’s s u c c e s s , b e c a u s e bragging is c o m m o n a m o n g relatives, frie n d s, a n d c oe thnic c o w o rk e rs. I m m ig ra n t p a r e n t s a lso tak e a p r a g m a tic s ta n c c on e d u c a tio n . They believe th a t e d u c a tio n is n o t only the m o s t effective m e a n s to s u c c e s s in society b u t also the o nl y m e a n s . T h e p a r e n t s a re keenly a w a re of th eir ow n lim ita tio n s a s im m i g r a n t s a n d the la rge r s t r u c t u r a l c o n s tr a in ts , s u c h a s lim ited family w ealth even a m o n g m id d le - in c o m e i m m ig r a n ts , lack of a c c e s s to social n e tw o r k s c o n n e c tin g to the m a i n s t r e a m e c o n ­ om y a n d v a rio u s social a n d political in stitu tio n s, a n d e n try b a r r i e r s to c e rta in o c c u p a tio n s b e c a u s e of ra c ia l ste re o ty p in g a n d d isc r im in a tio n . T h e ir own ex p e rien c e tells th e m t h a t a good e d u c a tio n in c e rta in fields w o u ld be a safe b e t for th e ir c h ild r e n to get good jo b s in the future. T h e se fields in c lu d e science, m a th , en gineering, a n d m e d ic in e , a s well as b u s i n e s s a n d law to a le s s e r extent. So in pra c tic e, the p a r e n t s are c o n c e r n e d m o r e a b o u t th e ir c h ild r e n ’s a c a d e m ic c o u r s e w o r k , g r a d e s , a n d m a j o r s in th e ir p r e f e r r e d fields th a n a b o u t th e c h ild r e n 's w e ll-ro u n d e d le a rn in g e x perien ce a n d e x tr a c u r r ic u la r activities. T hey w o u ld d is c o u r a g e their c h i ld r e n ’s in te r e s ts in p u r s u i n g history, lite ra ­ tu re , m u s ic , d a n c e , s p o r t s , or a n y th in g th a t they c o n s id e r u nlikely to lead to good-paying, s ta b le jo b s . In ste a d , they p r e s s u r e th eir c h ild re n

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to get involved in th e s e a c a d e m i c fields a n d e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r a ctivities o nly to th e e x te n t th a t s u c h in v o lv e m e n t w o u ld e n h a n c e th e c h i l d r e n ’s c h a n c c of g e ttin g in to a n Ivy L e ag ue collcgc. T h e c h i l d r e n often get f r u s ­ t r a t e d by th e fact th a t th e ir p a r e n t s c h o o s e the type of e d u c a t i o n for t h e m a n d m a k e d e c i s i o n s for th e ir f u tu re , even a lth o u g h th e y s h a r e th e s a m e v a lu e of e d u c a t i o n w ith th e ir p a r e n t s . A n o t h e r se n s itiv e p o i n t is s u e is th e w o r k e thic. I m m i g r a n t C h in e s e p a r e n t s believe t h a t h a r d w o r k , r a t h e r t h a n n a t u r a l ability o r i n n a t e i n ­ telligence, is th e key to e d u c a t i o n a l s u c c e s s . R e g a r d le s s o f s o c io e c o ­ n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d s , th e y te n d to t h i n k (also t e n d to m a k e th e ir c h i l d r e n believe) t h a t th e ir c h ild r e n c a n all get A’s in th e ir t e s t s in s c h o o l if th e y j u s t w o r k h a r d . If th e c h i l d r e n get a g r a d e lo w e r t h a n w h a t th e p a r e n t s e x p e c t, th e y will be s c o ld e d a s n o t w o r k i n g h a r d e n o u g h . T h e p a r e n t s a ls o believe t h a t b y w o r k i n g twice a s h a r d , on e c a n o v e r c o m e s t r u c t u r a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith i m m i g r a n t a n d / o r r a c ia l m in o r i ty s t a t u s e s . A lth o u g h th ey a r e very c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e ir c h i l d r e n 's le a r n in g , th e y a r e i n t e r e s t e d m o s tl y in th e ir c h i l­ d r e n ’s r e p o r t c a r d s a n d will n o t b e s a tis f ie d w ith a n y g r a d e s o t h e r t h a n a n “A." A n d th e y t e n d to ig n o r e th e fa c t t h a t n o t e v e ry b o d y l e a r n s E n g ­ lish, c a t c h e s u p w ith s c h o o l w o r k , a n d e s t a b l i s h e d p r o d u c tiv e r e l a ­ t i o n s h ip w ith t e a c h e r s a n d fellow s t u d e n t s a t a n e q u a l r a te . M a n y d o n o t p a r t i c i p a t e in th e p a r e n t - t e a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n s a t th e ir c h i l d r e n ’s s c h o o l s , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s e a n “i n t e r f e r e n c e ” w ith s c h o o l in e d u c a t i n g th e ir c h i l d r e n ( b u t th e y d o get actively involved in C h in e s e sc h o o ls ) . As a r e s u l t, th e c h i l d r e n often fin d th e m s e lv e s w o r k i n g a t le a s t twice a s h a r d a s th e ir A m e r ic a n p e e r s a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y feeling t h a t th e ir p a r e n t s n e v e r t h i n k th a t they w o r k h a r d e n o u g h . A th i r d s e n s itiv e is s u e is r e la t e d to th e v alu e of th rift. I m m i g r a n t C h i ­ n e s e p a r e n t s e m p h a s i z e s a v in g s a s a m e a n s o f effectively d e p lo y in g av a ila b le fam ily r e s o u r c e s . T h e y o ften b l u n t ly r e je c t m a t e r i a l p o s s e s ­ s i o n s a n d c o n s p i c u o u s c o n s u m p t i o n o n th e p a r t o f c h i l d r e n a n d p e r ­ ceive s p e n d i n g m o n e y on n a m e - b r a n d c lo th e s , l u x u r i o u s a c c e s s o r i e s , a n d f a s h io n a b le h a i r s ty le s a s a sign of c o r r u p t i o n , w h ic h th e y often te r m a s b e c o m i n g “to o A m e r i c a n ” (the c o d e w o r d for “b a d ”; S u n g , 19 8 7 ). However, t h e s e p a r e n t s s e l d o m h e s ita te to s p e n d o n w h a te v e r th e y c o n s i d e r g o o d for th e ir c h i l d r e n , s u c h a s b o o k s , c o m p u t e r s o f t­ w a r e , a f te r - s c h o o l p r o g r a m s , C h in e s e le s s o n s , p r iv a te t u t o r s , a n d o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l - o r i e n t e d activities. T h e y d o n o t j u s t d o it in th e b e s t i n t e r e s t of th e ir c h ild r e n b u t a r c a lso d r iv e n by the m e n ta lit y of “t u r n i n g s o n s in to d r a g o n s ( a n d d a u g h t e r s in to p h o e n i x e s ) . ” T h e f o u r th se n s itiv e i s s u e is d a tin g , e sp e c ia lly d a ti n g a t a n e a rly age. C h i n e s e p a r e n t s c o n s i d e r d a t in g in high s c h o o l n o t on ly a w a s te f u l a c a ­ d e m ic d i s t r a c t i o n b u t a ls o a n u n h e a lth y , p r o m i s c u o u s b e h a v io r, e s p e ­ cially for g irls (Dion & D ion, 2 0 0 1 ) . B u t p a r e n t s ’ a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d d a tin g in high s c h o o l g ro w m o r e a m b i v a l e n t ov er tim e . It is in te r r a c ia l d a tin g , r a t h e r t h a n e a rly d a tin g in g e n e r a l, t h a t “f r e a k s th e m o u t . ” T h e p a r e n t s ’ o v e r c o n c e r n a b o u t g irls is m o r e o u t of p r a c tic a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n

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a b o u t the p o te n tia l r i s k s of u n w a n te d p re g n a n c y th a n o u t of m o ra l c o n s id e r a tio n a b o u t h aving sex. T h e diffe re n t views on th e se is s u e s b e tw e e n p a r e n t s a n d c h ild r e n have b e c o m e the s o u r c e s of in te n s e p a r e n t - c h i l d co nflicts a s the c h il­ d r e n r a p id ly a c c u lt u r a te into A m e ric a n w ays. For b o th p a r e n t s a n d c h ild r e n , th e r e is often a b it te r feeling a b o u t b e in g so far a p a r t from e a c h other. W o rk in g -c la s s C h in e s e im m i g r a n t p a r e n t s living o r w o r k ­ ing in e th n ic e n c lav e s o r e t h n o b u r b s a r e u s u a lly d e m a n d i n g a n d u n ­ b e n d in g w h e n it c o m e s to th e ir c h i l d r e n ’s e d u c a t io n a n d b e h a v io r a l s t a n d a r d s , b u t they d o n o t have th e tim e , th e p a tie n c e , th e c u l tu r a l sensitivity, a n d th e fin a n c ia l a n d h u m a n c a p ita l r e s o u r c e s to be m o r e c o m p r o m is in g , a n d th e ir re fe r e n c e g ro u p is u s u a lly m a d e u p of o th e r C h in e s e im m i g r a n t p a r e n t s w ith w h o m they m a i n t a i n f r e q u e n t c o n ­ ta c ts . M id d le - c la s s C h in e s e p a r e n t s living in W hite m id d l e - c l a s s s u b ­ u r b s a rc d e m a n d i n g too a n d c x p c c t h igh p e r f o r m a n c e of th e ir c h ild r e n , b u t b e c a u s e of th e ir h ig h e r s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s a n d h ig h e r level of a c c u ltu r a tio n , th ey c o n s c io u s ly try to be m o r e like o th e r A m e r ic a n p a r e n t s w hile a d h e r i n g to w h a t they believe is good for th e ir c h ild r e n . A lth o u g h m o s t a r e u n y ie ld in g to th e c u l t u r a l e x p e c ­ ta ti o n s , s o m e m id d le - c l a s s p a r e n t s d ev elop a s e n s e of guilt for n o t b e ­ ing m o d e l A m e r ic a n p a r e n t s a n d t h u s b e c o m e m o r e e asyg oing a n d le ss s tr ic t w ith th e ir c h ild r e n . For e x a m p le , w h e n a c h ild r e f u s e s to do sc h o o lw o r k on w e e k e n d s a s th e fa th e r d e m a n d s , ta lk in g b a c k with “n o b o d y w o r k s on w e e k e n d s , ” a m i d d l e - c l a s s f a th e r living in th e s u b ­ u r b w o u ld s h r u g w ith a s m ile a n d do n o t h in g m u c h b u t let h is child r u n off w ith h is fr ie n d s , b e c a u s e he h im s e lf d o e s n ’t have to w o r k on w e e k e n d s . B u t the w o r k in g -c la s s f a th e r w o u ld get m a d a n d m a k e the ch ild feel guilty a b o u t h is ow n sacrifice, b e c a u s e he h a s to w o r k on w e e k e n d s to s u p p o r t the family.

ETHNIC NETWORKS AND ETHNIC INSTITUTIONS AS MEDIATING GROUNDS T r e m e n d o u s p a r e n t a l p r e s s u r e s for c o n f o r m it y a n d a c h i e v e m e n t in the C h in e s e i m m i g r a n t fam ily c a n le a d to i n t e n s e i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l co nflict, r e b e l l i o u s b e h a v io r, w i t h d r a w a l fr o m s c h o o l, a n d a l i e n ­ a tio n fr o m th e n e t w o r k s t h a t a r e s u p p o s e d to h e lp . A lie n a te d c h il­ d r e n fall e a s y p r e y s to s t r e e t g a n g s . E v en t h o s e c h i l d r e n w h o do well in s c h o o l a n d h o p e to m a k e th e ir p a r e n t s h a p p y a n d p r o u d a r e a t r i s k of b e in g r e b e llio u s . A high s c h o o l s t u d e n t s a id , “B u t t h a t [d oing well to m a k e p a r e n t s h a p p y ) n e v e r h a p p e n s . My m o t h e r is n e v e r s a t ­ isfied no m a t t e r w h a t you d o a n d h o w well you d o i t . ” T h i s r e m a r k e c h o e s a f r u s t r a t i o n felt by m a n y o t h e r C h i n a to w n y o u th s , w h o voiccd h o w m u c h th e y w is h n o t to b e c o m p a r e d w ith o t h e r c h i l d r e n a n d h o w m u c h they w is h to re b e l. In te n s e b ic u l t u r a l c o nflicts, c o u p le d with th e A m e r ic a n p o p u l a r c u ltu r e t h a tg lo r i f ie s s e lf-in d u lg e n c e a n d y o u th re b e llio n , sev erely c ir ­

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c u m v e n t the ro le of the fam ily in so c ia liz in g c h ild r e n in th e e x p e cte d d ir e c tio n . P aradoxically, how ever, m a n y C h in e s e i m m i g r a n t c h ild re n , r e g a r d l e s s of s o c io e c o n o m ic b a c k g r o u n d s , se e m to have lived u p to th e ir p a r e n t s ' e x p e c ta tio n s . M o st r e m a r k a b l e is in the a r e a of e d u c a ­ tion , w h e r e C h in e s e i m m i g r a n t c h i ld r e n o u tp e r f o r m o th e r A m e r i ­ c a n s , in c lu d in g n o n - H is p a n ic W hites, by sign ifican tly large m a r g in s . T h e y hav e s c o r e d e x c e p tio n a lly high in s t a n d a r d i z e d te s t s , have b e e n o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d in th e n a tio n 's p r e s tig i o u s a n d Ivy L eague s c h o o ls , a n d have d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y m a d e th e to p lists of m a n y n a tio n a l o r re g io n a l a c a d e m ic c o n te s ts . T h e y have a p p e a r e d r e p e a te d ly in th e t o p - 10 a w a r d w i n n e r s ’ list of th e W e s tin g h o u se S c ie n c e T a le n t S e a r c h , n ow r e n a m e d a s th e Intel S c ie n c e T a le n t S e a r c h , on e of th e c o u n t r y ’s m o s t p r e s tig io u s high s c h o o l a c a d e m ic c o n te s ts . In 1 9 9 1 , 4 of th e top 10 w in n e r s w e re C h in e s e A m e r ic a n s ; all of th e s e w e re ei­ th e r fo rc ig n -b o rn o r U.S.- b o r n of fo rc ig n -b o rn p a r e n ta g e . T h e ir level of e d u c a tio n a l a c h ie v e m e n t is far above th a t of the i m m i g r a n t g e n e r a ­ tio n, w h ic h is a lso a lr e a d y m u c h h ig h e r t h a n the n a tio n a l a v erage. For e x a m p le , a t th e U niversity of C a lifo rn ia , Los Angeles, w h e r e I teach , th e p r o p o r t i o n of C h in e s e A m e r ic a n s in the e n te r in g c la s s in the p a s t few y e a r s h a s r e a c h e d 18%, h ig h e r t h a n th e p r o p o r t i o n s of B la c k s a n d L a tin o s c o m b i n e d . Is th e e x t r a o r d i n a r y e d u c a t io n a l a c h i e v e m e n t of C h in e s e A m e r i­ c a n s a r e s u l t of th e p a r e n t a l p r e s s u r e for s u c c e s s a n d e n f o r c e m e n t of C o n fu c ia n v a lu e s ? T h e r e is no s im p le an sw e r. A m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e q u e s ti o n is: How is it p o s s ib le for th e C h in e s e im m i g r a n t family, p la g u e d w ith p o te n tia l a n d re a l in t e r g e n e r a tio n a l c o nflicts, to e x e r ­ cise p a r e n t a l a u th o r i ty a n d cn fo rc c the C o n fu c ia n value of e d u c a tio n ? As I have j u s t d i s c u s s e d , the h o m e is u s u a lly w h e r e conflict e r u p t s a n d b o ils u p to a p o in t t h a t n e it h e r p a r e n t s n o r c h il d r e n hav e any r o o m to b r e a t h e . Why w o u ld th e c h ild r e n e n d u p d o in g w h a t th e ir p a r e n t s e x p e c t th e m to d o ? B a s e d o n m y r e s e a r c h in th e C h in e s e i m ­ m i g r a n t c o m m u n ity , I hig h lig h t two of th e less o b v io u s b u t m o s t s e n ­ sible l e s s o n s — th e f o r m a tio n of an e th n ic in s titu t io n a l e n v i r o n m e n t a n d m u ltip le e th n ic in v o lv e m e n ts. In C h in a to w n s , th e r e have d ev elop ed an eth nic enclave e c o n o m y a n d a r a n g e of eth nic social a n d c u ltu ra l in s titu tio n s to s u p p o r t the daily n e e d s of C h in e se im m ig r a n ts . As the c o m m u n ity sh ifts from a b a c h e l o r s ’ society to a fam ily-b ased c o m m u n ity , tr a d itio n a l e th n ic in ­ s titu tio n s also shift th e ir fu n c tio n s to serve fam ilies a n d c h ild re n , r a n g in g from w e e k e n d C h in e se s c h o o ls to a m u c h w id e r variety of e d u ­ c a tio n a l a n d r e c r e a tio n a l e n te r p r is e s , s u c h a s daily a fte rsc h o o l c la s s e s th a t m a t c h fo rm a l s c h o o l c u rric u la , E n glish e n h a n c e m e n t c la sse s, e xam c r a m s c h o o ls, college p r e p sc h o o ls, m u s ic / d a n c e / s p o r t s s tu d io s , a n d so on. T h e s e c h ild r e n - o r ie n te d e n te r p r is e s , b o th n o n p r o f it a n d priv ate, have also d evelop ed in C h in e se e t h n o b u r b s . T h e C h in e s e la n g u a g e s c h o o l is p a r ti c u la r ly illu stra tiv e . In New York City, th e C h in a to w n C h in e s e L an g u a g e S c h o o l ( Z h o n g w e n

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x u e x i a o ) , r u n by th e C h i n e s e C o n s o l i d a t e d B e n e v o le n t A s s o c ia tio n (CCBA), is p e r h a p s th e l a r g e s t c h i l d r e n - a n d y o u t h - o r i e n t e d o r g a n i ­ z a tio n in th e n a t i o n ’s C h i n a t o w n s . 6 T h e s c h o o l a n n u a l l y ( n o t i n c l u d ­ in g s u m m e r ) e n r o l l s a b o u t 4 , 0 0 0 C h in e s e c h i l d r e n , f r o m p r e s c h o o l to 1 2 th g r a d e , in its 13 7 C h i n e s e la n g u a g e c l a s s e s a n d o v e r 10 s p e ­ cia lty c l a s s e s (e.g., b a n d , c h o ir, p i a n o , cello, violin , T 'a i ch i. i k e b a n a , d a n c in g , a n d C h i n e s e p a in tin g ) . T h e C h i n e s e la n g u a g e c l a s s e s r u n f r o m 3 : 0 0 to 6 : 3 0 p . m . daily, a fte r r e g u l a r s c h o o l h o u r s . S t u d e n t s u s u a l l y s p e n d o n e h o u r o n r e g u l a r s c h o o l h o m e w o r k a n d tw o h o u r s on C h i n e s e la n g u a g e o r o t h e r s e le c te d s p e c i a l t i e s . T h e s c h o o l a lso h a s E n g li s h c l a s s e s fo r i m m i g r a n t y o u t h s a n d a d u l t i m m i g r a n t w o r k ­ e r s ( Z h o u , 1 9 9 7 ; Z h o u & Li, 2 0 0 3 ) . As C h in e se im m ig ra n ts b e c a m e re s id e n tia lly d is p e r s e d , C h in ese la n g u a g e s c h o o l s lik e w is e h a v e b e g u n to s p r i n g u p in s u b u r b s . As of th e m i d - 1 9 9 0 s , t h e r e w e r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 3 5 C h i n e s e l a n g u a g e s c h o o l s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( 1 8 9 in C a l if o r n ia ) , e n r o l l i n g n e a r l y 8 3 ,0 0 0 s tu d e n ts (C hao, 1996). T h e C h in e se language sc h o o l e x p e ri­ e n c e is a d e fin itiv e e t h n i c a f f i r m i n g e x p e r i e n c e fo r m o s t C h i n e s e i m ­ m i g r a n t c h i l d r e n . In r e s p o n s e to th e q u e s t i o n “W h a t m a k e s y o u C h i n e s e ? ” m a n y C h i n e s e s t u d e n t s a g r e e t h a t "go in g to C h i n e s e s c h o o l ” d e f i n e s w h a t is C h i n e s e . In C h i n e s e la n g u a g e s c h o o l , C h i ­ n e s e i m m i g r a n t c h i l d r e n c o m e to u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r o w n p r o b l e m s w ith t h e i r p a r e n t s a s c o m m o n in all C h i n e s e f a m i l i e s a n d t h a t t h e i r p a r e n t s a r e s i m p l y a c t i n g lik e all o t h e r C h i n e s e p a r e n t s . T h e y c o m e to t e r m s w it h th e f a c t t h a t g r o w i n g u p in C h i n e s e f a m il ie s is d i f f e r ­ e n t. A s S u n g ( 1 9 8 7 , p. 1 2 6 ) o b s e r v e d : For C h in e s e i m m i g r a n t c h i l d r e n w h o live in New York’s C h i n a t o w n o r in satellite C h i n a t o w n s , t h e s e (bi-cu ltu ra l) c on flicts a r e m o d e r a t e d to a large d e g re e b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e o t h e r C h in e s e c h i l d r e n a r o u n d to m itig ate the d i ­ l e m m a s t h a t they e n c o u n te r. W h e n th e y a r e a m o n g th e i r o w n , th e C h in e s e w ay s a r e b e tt e r k n o w n a n d b e t t e r a c c e p t e d . T h e C h in e s e c u s t o m s a n d t r a ­ d it io n s a r e n o t d e n i g r a t e d to th e d e g re e t h a t th e y w o u ld b e if th e i m m i ­ g r a n t c h ild w e re th e only o n e to face th e co nflict on h is o r h e r ow n.

E th n i c i n s t i t u t i o n s n o t on ly p r o v id e a site w h e r e C h in e s e c h ild r e n m e e t o t h e r c o e th n ic p e e r s , b u t a ls o allow th e c h i l d r e n to d e v e lo p th e ir ow n s tr a te g i e s to c o p e , s o m e o f w h ic h m a y be d is a p p r o v in g . For e x a m ­ ple, w h e n it c o m e s to d a tin g , a girl c a n tell h e r p a r e n t t h a t s h e is g oing o u t w ith s o - a n d - s o fro m th e C h in e s e s c h o o l w h o m h e r p a r e n t k n o w s , b u t r u n s off w ith h e r W hite s w e e t h e a r t to a m o v ie o r to th e s h o p p i n g m a ll. A nd t h e p a r e n t w o u ld c o n fir m it w ith th e r e f e re n c e fro m th e C h i­ 6T he C hin ese C o n so lid a te d Benevolent A ssociation (CCBA) is a q u a si-g o v e r n m e n t in Chinatow n. It u s e d to be a n ap ex g r o u p r e p re s e n t in g s o m e 60 different family a n d d i s ­ trict a s so c ia tio n s, guild s, tongs, th e C h a m b e r of C o m m e rc e , a n d the Natio nalist Party, a n d h a s r e m a in e d the m o s t influential eth nic orga n iz atio n in the C h inese i m m i g ra n t com m unity .

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n e s e s c h o o l, w h o m th e girl h a s a l r e a d y w a r n e d in a d v a n c e . C h in e s e p a r e n t s u s u a ll y t r u s t t h e ir c h i l d r e n 's f r ie n d s fr o m C h i n e s e s c h o o ls b e ­ c a u s e they a lso k n o w the p a r e n t s of th e s e C h in e s e s c h o o l f r ie n d s . C h in e s e la n g u a g e s c h o o ls h a v e b e c o m e a n e th n ic c o m m u n i t y for C h in e s e im m i g r a n t s , e sp e c ia lly th o s e w h o d o n o t live in C h in a to w n o r C h in e s e e t h n o b u r b s . M o s t o f th e s u b u r b a n C h in e s e la n g u a g e s c h o o ls a r e r e g is te r e d a s n o n p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a t r e q u i r e m u c h p a r e n t a l v o lu n te e r s u p p o r t . 7 W h e n c h i l d r e n e n ro ll in C h in e s e s c h o o ls , th e ir p a r e n t s a u to m a tic a l ly b e c o m e m e m b e r s o f th e s c h o o l's a d m i n i s t r a t i v e body, a n d v o l u n te e r th e ir tim e to s e rv e a s p r i n c i p a l a n d / o r a d m i n i s t r a ­ tive officials (C ha o, 1 9 9 6 ; Wang, 1 9 9 6 ). As a r e s u l t, s u b u r b a n C h in e s e s c h o o ls f u n c tio n a s e t h n ic s o c ia l o r g a n iz a tio n s w h e r e a d u l t s ( p a r e n ts ) c o m e to socialize. A C h in e s e p a r e n t lik e n s th e s u b u r b a n C h in e s e s c h o o l to a c h u r c h , a n d s a id in a n in te rv ie w a t a C h in e s e sc h o o l: We a r e n o n - r e lig i o u s a n d d o n ’t go to c h u r c h . S o c o m i n g to C h i n e s e s c h o o l w e e k ly is like g o in g to c h u r c h for u s . W hile o u r c h i l d r e n a r e in c la s s , we p a r e n t s d o n ' t j u s t go h o m e b e c a u s e we live q u it e far aw ay, we h a n g o u t h e r e a n d p a r t i c i p a t e in a v a ri e ty o f th i n g s t h a t w c o r g a n i z e for o u r s e l v e s , i n c l u d i n g d a n c in g , f i tn e s s e x e rc is e , s e m i n a r s o n th e s t o c k m a r k e t , f a m ­ ily f i n a n c ia l m a n a g e m e n t , c h i l d r e n ' s college p r e p . I k i n d o f lo o k f o r w a r d to g o in g to th e C h i n e s e s c h o o l o n S a t u r d a y s b e c a u s e t h e r e is th e only t i m e we c a n so c ia liz e w ith o u r o w n p e o p le in o u r n ativ e la n g u a g e . I k n o w s o m e o f o u r o l d e r k i d s d o n 't like it t h a t m u c h . W h e n th e y c o m p l a i n , I s i m p l y tell t h e m , " th is is n o t a m a t t e r of c h o ic e , yo u m u s t g o .”

In t h e s e e t h n i c s e t t i n g s , p a r e n t s m e e t w ith o t h e r p a r e n t s w h o s h a r e s i m i l a r c o n c e r n s a n d p r o b l e m s a n d w o r k o u t s t r a t e g i e s to d e a l w ith t h e m . In s u m m a r y , e t h n i c i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e vital in p o s itiv e ly a ffe c tin g th e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n . I n s t r u m e n t a l l y , t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s p r o v i d e a safe , he a lth y, a n d s t i m u l a t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e y o u n g s t e r s , e s p e c ia lly th e o n e s w h o s e p a r e n t s a r e at w o r k , c a n go a f te r s c h o o l. T h e C h in e s e s c h o o l s a n d v a r i o u s a f t e r - s c h o o l p r o g r a m s n o t on ly e n s u r e th e tim e s p e n t on h o m e w o r k o r o n o t h e r c o n s t r u c t i v e a c tiv itie s , b u t a l s o h e lp to k e e p c h i l d r e n off th e s t r e e t s a n d to r e d u c e th e a n x ie t ie s a n d w o r ­ r i e s o f w o r k i n g p a r e n t s . M o re i m p o r t a n t , t h e s e e t h n i c i n s t i t u t i o n s of­ fer s o m e s p a c e w h e r e c h i l d r e n c a n e x p r e s s a n d s h a r e t h e i r feelin gs. A C h i n e s e s c h o o l t e a c h e r s a i d , “It is v e ry i m p o r t a n t to a llo w y o u t h s to e x p r e s s t h e m s e l v e s in t h e i r o w n t e r m s w i t h o u t p a r e n t a l p r e s s u r e s . C h i n e s e p a r e n t s u s u a l l y h a v e v e ry h ig h e x p e c t a t i o n s o f th e i r c h i l d r e n . W h e n c h i l d r e n fin d it d iffic u lt to m e e t t h e s e e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d d o n o t ha v e a n o u t l e t for th e i r f r u s t r a t i o n a n d anxiety, th e y t e n d to b e c o m e a l i e n a t e d a n d lo s t o n s t r e e t s . ” 7

For-profit C h inese language sc h o o ls a re often fo und in C h in a to w n s or e th n o b u r b s . includin g m a n y k i n d e r g a r te n s a n d child care c e n t e r s for y oun g c hild ren, a n d offering v a rio u s tu to ria l p r o g r a m s for s e c o n d a r y sc h o o l s t u d e n t s (Wang, 1996).

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E t h n i c i n s t i t u t i o n s a lso s e rv e a s a b r id g e b e tw e e n a se e m in g ly c lo s e d i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t y a n d th e m a i n s t r e a m so c ie ty ( Z h o u & Li, 2 0 0 3 ) . I m m i g r a n t p a r e n t s a n d th e c h i l d r e n w h o live in e th n ic e n c la v e s o r e t h n o b u r b s a r e relatively is o la te d , a n d th e ir daily e x p o s u r e to the la r g e r A m e r i c a n s o c ie ty is lim ite d . M a n y p a r e n t s , u s u a ll y too b u s y w o r k in g , te n d to e x p e c t th e ir c h i l d r e n to d o well in s c h o o l a n d to ha v e s u c c e s s f u l c a r e e r s in th e fu tu r e , b u t a r e u n a b l e to give specific d i r e c ­ tio n s to t h e ir c h i l d r e n ’s e d u c a t i o n a l a n d c a r e e r p la n s , leaving a g a p b e ­ tw een high e x p e c ta ti o n s a n d re a lis tic a lly fe a sib le m e a n s o f m e e tin g th e s e e x p e c ta tio n s . E th n ic i n s t i t u t i o n s fill th is g a p to h e lp y o u n g p e o ­ ple to b e c o m e m o r e a w a r e of th e ir c h o ic e s a n d p o te n tia ls a n d to h e lp th e m fin d r e a lis tic m e a n s of m o v in g u p s o c io e c o n o m ic a lly into m a i n ­ s t r e a m so c ie ty in s t e a d o f b e in g s t u c k in C h in a to w n . A fte r-s c h o o l p r o ­ g r a m s , t u t o r s e rv ic e s, a n d t e s t p r e p a r a t i o n p r o g r a m s a r e re a d ily a v a ila b le in the en c la v c , m a k i n g s c h o o l a fte r s c h o o l p o s s i b l e a n d a n a c ­ c e p te d n o r m . An e d u c a t o r s a i d , “W h e n y o u t h i n k of h o w m u c h tim e th e s e C h in e s e k i d s p u t in t h e ir s t u d i e s a fte r r e g u l a r s c h o o l, you w o n ’t b e s u r p r i s e d w h y th ey s u c c e e d in s u c h a h ig h r a t e . ” F u r t h e r m o r e , e t h n i c i n s t i t u t i o n s f u n c ti o n a s c u l t u r a l c e n t e r s , w h e r e C h i n e s e t r a d i t i o n a l v a lu e s a n d a s e n s e of e t h n i c i d e n tity a r e n u r t u r e d . S t u d e n t s p a r t i c i p a t i n g in th e a f t e r - s c h o o l p r o g r a m s , e s p e ­ cially th e U .S .- b o r n a n d - r e a r e d , o fte n s p e a k E n g l i s h to o n e a n o t h e r in t h e i r C h i n e s e c l a s s e s , a n d th e y a c tu a l ly l e a r n a l im ite d n u m b e r o f C h i n e s e w o r d s e a c h day. H ow ever, th e y a r e e x p o s e d to s o m e t h i n g t h a t is q u ite d if f e r e n t f r o m w h a t th e y l e a r n in s c h o o l a n d a r e a b le to r e la te to C h i n e s e “s t u f f ” w i t h o u t b e i n g t e a s e d a b o u t it. T h e y a ls o lis te n to s t o r i e s a n d s i n g s o n g s in C h i n e s e , a n d t h e s e r e v e a l d if f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f C h in e s e h i s t o r y a n d c u l t u r e . C h i l d r e n a n d y o u t h s l e a r n to w r ite in C h i n e s e s u c h p h r a s e s a s “I a m C h i n e s e ” a n d “My a n c e s t r a l c o u n t r y is in C h i n a , ” a n d to r e c ite c l a s s i c a l C h i n e s e p o e m s a n d C o n f u c i u s s a y ­ in g s a b o u t fam ily v a lu e s , b e h a v i o r a l a n d m o r a l g u i d e l i n e s , a n d th e i m p o r t a n c e o f sc h o o lin g . A C h i n e s e s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l m a d e it c le a r: “T h e s e k i d s a r e h e r e b e c a u s e t h e i r p a r e n t s s e n t t h e m . T h e y a r e u s u ­ ally n o t v e ry m o t i v a t e d in l e a r n i n g C h i n e s e p e r se , a n d w e d o n o t p u s h th e m to o h a r d . L a n g u a g e te a c h i n g is o n ly p a r t o f o u r m i s s i o n . An e s ­ s e n t i a l p a r t o f o u r m i s s i o n is to e n li g h te n t h e s e k i d s a b o u t th e i r o w n c u l t u r a l h e r ita g e , s o t h a t th e y s h o w r e s p e c t for t h e i r p a r e n t s a n d feel p r o u d o f b e in g C h i n e s e . ” L ik e o t h e r e t h n i c b u s i n e s s e s , e t h n i c e d u c a ­ tio n a l e n t e r p r i s e s a ls o a t t r a c t s u b u r b a n m i d d l c - c l a s s C h i n e s e i m m i ­ g r a n t s to r e t u r n to C h i n a t o w n o r e t h n o b u r b s re g u la rly , even t h o u g h s o m e m a y d o s o le s s f r e q u e n t l y t h a n o t h e r s . With th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a w id e r a n g e o f e th n ic e c o n o m i e s a n d e t h ­ nic s o c i o c u l t u r a l in s t i t u t i o n s , C h in e s e im m i g r a n t s , d e s p i t e d iffe r­ e n c e s in o r i g i n , s o c i o e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d s , a n d g e o g r a p h i c d i s p e r s i o n , ha v e m a n y o p p o r t u n i t i e s to i n t e r a c t w ith o n e a n o t h e r a s th ey p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e e th n ic c o m m u n i t y in m u ltip le w a ys. W o rking, s h o p p in g , a n d so c ia liz in g in th e e t h n ic c o m m u n i t y tie i m m i g r a n t s to a

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c lose ly k n i t s y s te m o f e th n ic so c ia l r e la ti o n s . S o c ia l n e t w o r k s , e m b e d ­ d e d in th e b r o a d e r C h in e s e i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n ity , fu n c tio n to r e i n ­ force c o m m o n n o r m s a n d s t a n d a r d s a n d c x c rc isc c o n t r o l ov er th o s e w h o a r e c o n n e c te d to it. In v o lv e m e n t in d iffe re n t type o f e th n ic i n s t i t u ­ tio n s a lso h e lp s c h ild r e n alleviate p a r e n t a l p r e s s u r e . In m a n y r e s p e c t s , th e e th n ic c o m m u n i t y a n d th e ta n g ib le a n d in ta n g ib le r e s o u r c e s it p r o ­ v id e s ha v e p r o v e n effective. P r e s s u r e s a n d c o n flic ts in a w e ll-in te g ra te d e th n ic c o m m u n i t y c a n s e r v e to fulfill fa m ilia l a n d c o m m u n i t y e x p e c t a ­ tio n s. C h ild r e n a r e m o tiv a te d to le a r n a n d do well in s c h o o l b e c a u s e th e y believe t h a t e d u c a t i o n is t h e i r o nly w ay to get o u t of t h e ir p a r e n t s ’ s t a t u s a n d o u t o f th e ir pare n ts* c o n tr o l. T h i s m o tiv a tio n , w hile a r is in g f r o m p a r e n t a l p r e s s u r e a n d b e in g r e in f o r c e d t h r o u g h th e ir p a r t i c i p a ­ tion in th e e th n ic c o m m u n ity , often l e a d s to d e s i r a b l e o u t c o m e s . A c o m m u n i t y y o u t h p r o g r a m o r g a n iz e r s u m m e d u p in th e s e w o r d s : “Well, t r e m e n d o u s p r e s s u r e s c r e a t e p r o b l e m s for s u r e . However, y o u ’ve got to re a liz e t h a t we a r e n o t living in a n id e a l e n v i r o n m e n t . W ith o u t th e s e p r e s s u r e s , y o u w o u ld p r o b a b l y s e e a s m u c h a d o l e s c e n t r e b e l l i o n in th e family, b u t a m u c h l a r g e r ( e m p h a s i s in to n e ) p r o p o r t i o n s of k i d s failing. O u r goal is to get t h e s e k i d s o u t in to college, a n d for th a t, we ha v e b e e n very s u c c e s s f u l."

CONCLUDING REM ARKS In A m e r ic a , m a n y C h i n e s e i m m i g r a n t f a m ilie s e x p e c t th e i r c h i l d r e n to a t t a i n th e h i g h e s t levels o f e d u c a t i o n a l a c h i e v e m e n t p o s s i b l e a n d rely o n th e m to m o v e f a m il ie s u p to m i d d l e - c l a s s s t a t u s a s a w a y to r e ­ p a y p a r e n t a l s a c r i f i c e s a n d to h o n o r t h e fa m ily n a m e . D e v ia tio n fr o m t h e s e n o r m a t i v e e x p e c t a t i o n s is c o n s i d e r e d s h a m e f u l o r "lo s in g fa c e ” for th e family. T h i s s t u d y s h o w s t h a t it is n o t e a s y for i m m i g r a n t f a m i ­ lies to e n f o r c e t h e s e c u l t u r a l v a lu e s a n d b e h a v i o r a l s t a n d a r d s a n d to g u a r a n t e e t h a t fa m ilia l e x p e c t a t i o n s a r e m e t b e c a u s e o f s t r u c t u r a l v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith d i s a d v a n t a g e d i m m i g r a n t s t a t u s a n d i n t e n s e b i c u l t u r a l c o n f lic ts . In th is s i t u a t i o n , b o t h p a r e n t s a n d c h i l ­ d r e n h a v e to c o n s t a n t l y n e g o tia te c u l t u r e a n d e th n ic ity , m a k e c o m ­ p r o m i s e s , a n d r e s o lv e c o n f lic ts in o r d e r to n a v ig a te th e “r i g h t ” w ay in to m a i n s t r e a m A m e r i c a n society. H ow ever, th is u n d e r t a k i n g is by n o m e a n s a fa m ily - o n ly m a t t e r , b u t r e q u i r e s th e i n v o l v e m e n t of b r o a d e r n e t w o r k s o f s o c ia l s u p p o r t . In th e c a s e of c o n t e m p o r a r y i m ­ m i g r a n t s , a w e ll- o r g a n i z e d , r e s o u r c e f u l e t h n i c c o m m u n i t y t h a t g e a r s its e lf t o w a r d s o c ia l m o b ilit y i n to m a i n s t r e a m A m e r i c a n so c ie ty p la y s a c r u c i a l r o le in p r o v i d i n g n o t o n ly t a n g ib le r e s o u r c e s , in th e f o r m of ethnic e d u c a tio n a l in stitu tio n s a n d c h ild re n -o rie n te d p ro g ra m s , b u t a ls o in ta n g ib le e t h n i c n e t w o r k i n g , s e r v i n g a s effective m e c h a n i s m s of s o c ia l c o n t r o l a n d s a n c t i o n i n g . As a so c io lo g is t o f im m i g r a t i o n a n d r a c e a n d ethnicity, I believe th a t c u l t u r a l v a lu e s a n d b e h a v io r a l p a t t e r n s s e e m in g ly u n i q u e to a n e th n ic g r o u p a r e n o t i n t r in s ic to t h a t g r o u p , b u t th a t they e m e r g e fr o m c o n ­

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s t a n t i n t e r a c t i o n s w ith s t r u c t u r a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , in c l u d in g fa v o rab le (o r u n fa v o r a b le ) c o n te x t s o f r e c e p tio n of th e i m m i g r a n t g r o u p fr o m the h o s t so c ie ty a n d the g r o u p ’s o w n o r i e n ta tio n to w a r d the h o s t s ocicty a n d its ability to m u s t e r m o r a l a n d i n s t r u m e n t a l s u p p o r t s . T h u s , e x ­ a m i n i n g th e i m m i g r a n t fa m ily th r o u g h th e p e r s p e c tiv e o f c u l t u r a l p s y ­ c h o lo g y is h e lp f u l i n s o f a r a s it p a y s c lo s e a t t e n t i o n to v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l f a c to r s m e d i a t i n g th e ro le o f th e fam ily in affecting e d u c a ­ tio n a l a c h ie v e m e n t . I t h u s r e ite r a te t h a t th e p r o c e s s e s le a d in g to d e s i r ­ a b le o u t c o m e s a r e highly c o n tin g e n t on c o n te x t, o r o n u n i q u e e th n ic s o c ia l e n v i r o n m e n t s . It is e v id e n t fr o m v a r i o u s q u a n t ita ti v e d a t a s o u r c e s t h a t y o u n g C h i­ n e s e A m e r i c a n s a r e e x tre m e ly d r iv e n to d o well in s c h o o l a n d a r e d i s ­ p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d a t th e n a t i o n ’s b e s t u n iv e r s i tie s , a n d th a t b e i n g C h in e s e h a s a s ig n ific a n tly p o sitiv e effect o n e d u c a t i o n a l a c h ie v e ­ m e n t . However, w h a t c o m c s n e x t h a s o ften g o n e u n n o t i c e d . O n a p e r ­ s o n a l n o te , a s a n i m m i g r a n t m o t h e r w h o h a s r a i s e d a 1 .5 - g e n e r a tio n c h ild in A m e ric a a n d a s a p r o f e s s o r a t a u n i v e r s ity a t t e n d e d by a high c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f A sia n A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s ( m a k i n g u p n e a r ly 40 % of UCLA's u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t b o d y ), th e s u b j e c t m a t t e r I ha v e ex­ p l o r e d h e r e h o l d s p e r s o n a l sig n ific a n c e for m e . A lth o u g h C h in e s e i m ­ m i g r a n t p a r e n t s have b e e n o v e rw h e lm in g ly p r e o c c u p i e d w ith th e ir c h i l d r e n g a in in g a d m i s s i o n to p r e s ti g i o u s colleges, m a n y of th e m have o v e r lo o k e d th e c o s ts t h a t c o m e w ith s u c c e s s . My r a n d o m o b s e r v a t i o n s a t h o m e a n d o n c a m p u s , c o in c id in g w ith m y q u a lita tiv e fie ld w o rk , i n ­ d ic a te th a t o n c e th e s e c h i l d r e n get in to th e ir f a m ili e s ’ d e s i r e d colleges, th e y a r e m o r e o r le s s on th e ir o w n j u s t like e v e ry o n e else. W ith o u t the d e a r g u id a n c e a n d all th e fa m ily a n d c o m m u n i t y s u p p o r t s to w h ic h th ey ha ve g o tte n s o a c c u s t o m e d , s o m e of th e m feel lo st a n d even su ffer f r o m e m o tio n a l b r e a k d o w n . T h is u n d e r s c o r e s th e i m p o r t a n c e of s h if t­ in g f o c u s on th e m e n t a l h e a l th a n d in te lle c tu a l g r o w th of th e i n d iv id ­ u a l — h o w th e c h i l d r e n fa re all o n th e ir ow n in a h ighly c o m p e titiv e a c a d e m i c e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t is s i m u l t a n e o u s l y u l tr a lib e r a l, a n d how th e y s u rv iv e a n d th riv e in th is n e w e n v i r o n m e n t . In th is r e s p e c t , th e p e r s p e c tiv e of c u l t u r a l p s y c h o lo g y is b en eficial.

AUTH O R BIOG RAPH Y Min Z h o u , PhD , is a p r o f e s s o r o f soc iology a n d th e i n a u g u r a l c h a i r of th e D e p a r t m e n t of A sia n A m e r ic a n S t u d i e s a t th e U n iv e rs ity of C a lif o r ­ nia , L o s Angeles. H e r m a i n a r e a s o f r e s e a r c h a r e i m m i g r a t i o n a n d i m ­ m i g r a n t a d a p t a t i o n , i m m i g r a n t y o u t h s , A sia n A m e r ic a n s , e th n i c a n d r a c ia l r e la ti o n s , e t h n ic e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p a n d enc la ve e c o n o m ie s , a n d th e c o m m u n i t y a n d u r b a n sociology. S h e is th e a u t h o r o f C h i n a t o w n : T h e S o c i o e c o n o m i c P o t e n t i a l o f a n U r b a n E n c l a v e (T em ple U n iv e rsity P r e s s , 19 9 2 ), c o a u t h o r o f G r o w i n g u p A m e r i c a n : H o w V i e t n a m e s e C h i l d r e n A d a p t to L if e in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s (R u sse ll S age F o u n d a t io n P r e s s , 19 9 8 ), c o e d ito r of C o n t e m p o r a r y A s i a n A m e r i c a (New York

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University P re ss, 2 0 0 0 ), a n d co e d ito r of Asian Am er ic a n Youth: Cul­ ture, Identity, an d Ethnicity (Routledge, 2 0 0 4 ). H er web site is h ttp ://w w w .sscnet.ucla.edu/soc/faculty/zhou/ REFERENCES C h an . S. (1991). A s i a n A m e r i c a n s : A n i n t e rp r et iv e history. New York: Twaync. C hao, T. H. (1996). Overview. In X. Wang (Ed.), A v i e w f r o m wit hi n: A c a s e s t u d y o f C h i n e s e h e r i t ag e c o m m u n i t y l a n g u a g e s ch oo ls in the Uni ted S t a t e s (pp. 7 - 1 3 ) . W ashington, DC: N ational Foreign Language Center. C hiang-H om , C. (2004). T r a n s n a tio n a l c u ltu ra l p ra c tic e s of C hinese im m i­ g r a n t y outh a n d p a r a c h u te k id s. In J. Lee & M. Z h o u (Eds.), A s i a n A m e r i ­ ca n y out h: Cul ture, i d e nt it y, a n d e t h n i c i t y (pp. 1 4 3 -1 5 8 ). New York: Routledge. Dion. K. K., & Dion, K. L. (2001). G e n d e r a n d c u ltu r a l a d a p ta tio n in i m m ig r a n t families. J o u r n a l o f S oci al I ss u e s . 57, 5 1 1 - 5 2 1 . Dion, K. L., & Dion, K. K. (1996). C hinese a d a p ta tio n to foreign c u ltu re s . In M. H. B on d (Ed.), T h e h a n d b o o k o f C h i n e s e p s y c h o l o g y (pp. 4 5 7 - 4 7 8 ) . H ong Kong: Oxford U niversity P ress. G a n s , H. J. (1992). S e co n d -g e n e ra tio n decline: S c e n a rio s for the e con om ic a n d eth nic fu tu r e s of the p o s t- 1965 A m e ric a n im m ig r a n ts . E t h n i c a n d R a ­ cial S t u d i e s , 15(2), 1 7 3 - 1 9 2 . Li. W. (1997). S p a t i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f a n u r b a n e t h n i c c o m m u n i t y f r o m C h i n a t o w n to C h i n e s e e t h n o b u r b in Los A n g e l e s . PhD d is s e r ta tio n . De­ p a r t m e n t of Geography, U niversity of S o u th e r n California. Logan, J. R.. Stowell, J., & Vesselinov, E. (2001). From m a n y s hor es : A s i a n s in C e n s u s 2 0 0 0 . A r e p o r t by the Lewis M u m fo rd C e n te r for C o m p a ra tiv e U r­ b a n a n d Regional R e s e a rc h , S tate University of New York a t Albany, viewed on O c to b c r 6, 2 0 0 1 , a t h ttp :/ /m u m f o r d l. d y n d n s . o r g / c c n 2 0 0 0 /r c p o r t. h t m l Portes, A., & Z ho u, M. (1993). T he new s e c o n d g e ne ra tion : S e g m e n te d a s s i m i ­ la tion a n d its v a ria n ts . A n n a l s o f the A m e r i c a n A c a d e m y o f Political a n d S oc ia l Sc ie n ce , 53 0 , 7 4 - 9 6 . Pyke, K., & Dang, T. (2003). “FOB" a n d “W hitew ashed": Identity a n d in te r n a l­ ized r a c is m a m o n g s e c o n d g e n e ra tio n Asian A m e ric a n s . Q u a l i t a t i v e S ociol­ ogy, 26, 1 4 7 - 1 7 2 . S ax to n , A. (1971). T h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e e n e m y : L a b o r a n d t he a n t i - C h i n e s e m o v e m e n t in California. Berkeley: University of C alifornia Press. S ung, B. L. (1987). T h e a d j u s t m e n t e x p e r i e n c e o f C h i n e s e i m m i g r a n t chi l­ d re n in N e w York City. New York: C e n te r for Migration S tu d ie s. U.S. Im m ig ra tio n a n d N a tu ra liz a tio n Service. (2002). S t a t i s t i c a l y e a r b o o k o f t he i m m i g r a t i o n a n d n a t u r a l i z a t i o n s ervi ce, 2 0 0 2 . W ashington, DC: U.S. G o v e r n m e n t P rin ting Office. Wang, X. (Ed.). (1996). A v i ew f r o m wi thi n: A c a s e s t u d y o f C h i n e s e h e r i t a ge c o m m u n i t y l a n g u a g e s ch oo ls in the U ni t e d S t a t e s . W ashington, DC: N a­ tional Foreign L anguage Center. Yeh, K., & B ed ford , O. (2003). Filial p i e t y a n d p a r e n t - c h i l d conflict. P a p e r p r e ­ se n te d at the In te r n a tio n a l C onference on “I n te rg e n e ra tio n a l R elations in F am ilies’ Life C ou rse ," c o s p o n s o r e d by the In stitu te of Sociology. A cadem ie

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Sinica, Taiwan a n d the C o m m itte e on Family R e se a rc h , I n te rn a tio n a l S oc io­ logical A ssociation, M arch 1 2 -1 4 , Taipei. Z h ou , M. (1992). C h i n a t o w n : T h e s o c i o e c o n o m i c p o t e n t i a l o f a n u r b a n e n ­ clave. P h ila d e lp h ia , PA: T em ple U niversity Press. Z hou, M. (1997). Social ca p ita l in C hinato w n: T h e role of c o m m u n ity - b a s e d o rg a n iz a tio n s a n d families in the a d a p ta tio n of the y o un ge r g e n e ra tio n . In L. Weis & M. S. S eller (Eds.), B e y o n d B l a c k a n d White: N e w voices, n e w f a c e s in t he U ni te d S t a t e s s cho ol s (pp. 1 8 1 -2 0 6 ). Albany, NY: State U niver­ sity of New York Press. Z h ou , M.. & Li. X. (2 0 0 3 . Winter). E th n ic language sc h o o ls a n d the d e v e lo p ­ m e n t of s u p p le m e n t a r y e d u c a tio n in the im m ig r a n t C h in ese c o m m u n ity in the U nited S ta te s . N e w Di recti ons f o r Youth D e v e l o p m e n t : U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e S oci al Worlds o f I m m i g r a n t Youth, pp. 5 7 - 7 3 .

1 Acculturation or Negotiation? What Japanese Academ ic M igrants Teach Us About Family P rocesses and Gendered Experiences of Cultural Adaptation Izumi S a k a m o to Universi ty o f Toronto

In the era of transnatio nalization, experiences of dealing with an un fa m il­ iar culture are no longer limited to a sm all se g m e n t of society (Rodriguez, 1999). In fact, “u n b o u n d e d tra n sn a tio n a l flows” of people (L ederm an, 1998, p. 428) resulted in an estim ated 175 million individuals living o u t­ side of their h o m e cou ntries (United Nations, 2002). B e s id e s i m m i g r a n t s a n d re fu g e e s w h o s e a im often is to i m m ig r a te p e r m a n e n t l y to a n o t h e r c o u n try , t h e r e a r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m i g r a n t s w h o s e s ta y in a n o t h e r c o u n t r y m a y be t e m p o r a r y . M a n u a l la b o r e r s , m ig ra n t farm w o rk e rs , m u ltin a tio n a l c o rp o ra tio n e m p lo y ees, h ig h - te c h e n g i n e e r s , a n d th e ir fa m ilie s c o u ld all b e m i g r a n t s e x p e r i ­ e n c in g m o v e m e n t a c r o s s n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s . S c h o l a r s a n d s t u ­ d e n t s w h o p u r s u e th e ir a c a d c m i c t r a in in g a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s in a n o t h e r c o u n t r y a r e a n o t h e r e x a m p le of s u c h t r a n s n a t i o n a l m i ­ g r a n t s . T h e s e m i g r a n t s a r e w h a t I call " a c a d e m ic m i g r a n t s . ” A r g u ­ ably th e t r a n s n a t i o n a l m o v e of a c a d e m i c m i g r a n t s to w a r d N o rth A m e r ic a is n e c e s s i t a t e d by th e in c r e a s i n g ly Anglo- a n d U .S .-c e n tric i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c a d e m i c e n v i r o n m e n t (S w a le s, 1 9 9 7 ). T h e s e p o p u l a ­ 337

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tio n s in c lu d e t e m p o r a r y w o r k e r s , s t u d e n t s , a n d s c h o l a r s fro m o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . In fact, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 5 5 , 0 0 0 “foreign" s t u ­ d e n t s / s c h o l a r s w e re p r e s e n t in U.S. h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n i n s t i t u t i o n s in th e a c a d e m i c y e a r of 2 0 0 4 - 2 0 0 5 . M any of th e s e a c a d e m i c m i g r a n t s b r i n g t h e ir fa m ilie s alon g, a n d c o n t r i b u t e ov e r $ 13 b illio n a n n u a l to th e U.S. e c o n o m y ( I n s titu te of I n t e r n a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n [HE], 2 0 0 5 ). E v e n th o u g h th e i n c r e a s e h a s slo w e d d o w n a f te r 9 /1 1 , t h e r e a r e still tr i p le th e n u m b e r of i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t u d e n t s / s c h o l a r s s tu d y i n g in th e U n ite d S t a t e s c o m p a r e d to t h a t of 2 0 y e a r s ago (IIE, 2 0 0 5 ) . However, th e e x p e r i e n c e s of th e s e m i g r a n t s a r e n o t fully a c c o u n t e d for in th e e x is tin g p s y c h o lo g ic a l l it e r a t u r e . T h e s t u d y 1 p r e s e n t in th is c h a p t e r is p a r t of a la r g e r p r o j e c t e x a m ­ in in g th e flexibility o f c u l t u r a l s o c ia l iz a tio n of th e self, a n d th e p r o ­ c e s s e s of c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n of th e s e a c a d e m i c m i g r a n t s a n d th e ir s p o u s e s a s th ey m o v e d fr o m J a p a n to the U n ite d S t a t e s , two c u l ­ t u r e s t h a t a r e a r g u a b l y very d if f e re n t fro m e a c h o t h e r ( M a r k u s & K ita y a m a , 19 9 1 ). J a p a n e s e a c a d e m i c m i g r a n t s c o n s t i t u t e a sig n ifi­ c a n t p o p u l a t i o n , a s , in th e l a s t 10 y e a r s , J a p a n h a s c o n s is te n tl y r a n k e d w ith in th e to p five c o u n t r i e s o f o rig in for i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t u ­ d e n t s e n r o lle d in th e U.S. h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n i n s t i t u t i o n s (IIE, 2 0 0 5 ) . F u rth e r, th e field of c u l t u r a l p s y c h o lo g y h a s s t u d i e d J a p a n e s e selv es m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r n a t i o n a l / c u l t u r a l g r o u p (F isk e , K ita y a m a , M a r k u s , & N is b e tt, 1 9 9 8 ). T h u s , th e c o n te x t of th e c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d w it h o u t d iffic u ltie s. T h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s a s k e d w ere: If th e view of se lf alw a y s r e q u i r e s a c u l t u r a l c o n te x t, a s a r g u e d in c u l t u r a l p s y c h o lo g y l i t e r a t u r e (e.g., F is k e et al., 1 9 9 8 ; M a r k u s & K ita y a m a , 1 9 9 1 ; S h w e d e r & B o u r n e , 19 8 4 ), h o w flexible is the c u l t u r a l s o c ia l iz a tio n of self? S e c o n d , w h a t a r e the c h a n g e p r o ­ c e s s e s of c u l t u r a l s o c ia l iz a tio n of th e self? T h i s c h a p t e r fo c u s e s s p e ­ c if ic a lly o n h o w f a m ily a n d g e n d e r r o l e s a f f e c t t h e c h a n g e / n e g o tia tio n p r o c e s s e s o f c u l t u r a l s e l f a n d c u l t u r a l p r a c tic e s .

PSYCHOLOGICAL STU D IES OF CULTURAL SELF AND ACCULTURATION In th e p a s t d e c a d e , c u ltu ra l psychology h a s offered n u m e r o u s findings highlighting t h a t a n in d iv id u a l’s m in d a n d b e h a v io r a re largely influ­ en c e d by the co n te x ts t h a t he o r s h e is in, w hich m a y vary d ra m a tic a lly from c u ltu r e to c u ltu re (e.g., F isk e et al., 1998; M a r k u s & K itayam a, 1991; Miller, 1997; Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & N o re n z a y a n , 2 001 ). For ex­ a m p le , M a r k u s a n d K itayam a (1 99 1) d e s c rib e d the d ifferen ces b e ­ tw e e n th e i n t e r d e p e n d e n t a n d i n d e p e n d e n t c o n s t r u a l s of self, specifically, E a s t A sian views of the self v e r s u s E u r o p e a n A m e ric a n views of the self. E u r o p e a n A m e ric a n s c lf-c o n stru a ls a rc c h a r a c te r iz e d as being s o m e w h a t m o r e a u t o n o m o u s o r in d e p e n d e n t of context, w h e r e a s E a s t A sian se lf - c o n s tr u a ls a re d e s c rib e d a s m o r e c o m m u n a l, in t e r d e p e n d e n t , or e m b e d d e d in social r e la tio n s h ip s . A lthough the

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f o r m e r m o d e l of the self h a s a d is tin c t b o u n d a r y a r o u n d the ind iv id u a l self to differentiate on e se lf from o th e r s , the la tte r in c o r p o r a te s close o th e r s into self a s a c u ltu ra lly n o r m a tiv e way of b e ing a p e r s o n . T he se c u l t u r a l c o n s t r u a l s of s e lf h a v e b e e n s h o w n to affect p e o p l e ’s cog nition s, affect, a n d b e h a v io rs. In a d d itio n to the o u tc o m e a n d p r o c e s s of cultu re, M a rk u s, Mullally, a n d K itayam a (1997) also focused on the p ra c tic e s of cultu re, c o n c e p tu ­ alized a s “selfways." S e l f w a y s are defined as ways in w hich being a p e r ­ son in the w o rld is u n d e r s t o o d in the so c io cu ltu ra l context, including key cu ltu ra l ideas a n d values s u c h as how to be a "good," " a p p ro p ria te ,” or “m oral" p e r s o n as well a s c u ltu ra l p ra c tic e s a n d identities. Although no t u se d a s frequently a s the c o n stru c t, “cu ltu ra l c o n s tr u a l of self,” selfways h a s m u c h poten tial in offering a m o r e c o m p re h e n s iv e view of the c u ltu ra l influence on the self. C o n sid e ra b le r e s e a r c h h a s been p u b ­ lished in this a re a since M a r k u s a n d K itayam a’s 1991 article, highlight­ ing the differences b etw een Anglo N orth A m e ric a n s a n d E a s t A sians (J a p a n e s e , C hinese, K oreans; e.g., Fiske et al., 1998; Heine & L e h m a n , 1997; Heine. L e h m an . M a rk u s , & K itayam a, 1999; N isbett et al., 2001). However, the selfways of people w ho are e x po se d to m o r e th a n one d i s ­ tinct c u ltu re have n o t been explored. In le a rn in g the r o u tin e s of a new cu lture, w h a t h a p p e n s to the “old" a n d “new" c u ltu ra l selfways? To w h a t extent can people actually learn new th o u g h t styles a n d new selfways? A n o th e r b o d y of lite r a tu r e t h a t can p o ssib ly c o m p le m e n t th e c ul tu re a n d t h e s e / / l i t e r a t u r e is a c c u ltu r a tio n . A cc u ltu ra tio n lite r a tu r e a n d r e ­ lated a r e a s (e.g., b ic u ltu r a l is m , in te r c u ltu r a l c o m m u n ic a tio n ) have a l­ w ays b ee n c o n c e r n e d with p e ople w ho m ove b e tw e en d ifferent c u ltu r e s (Berry, 1 9 90 , 1997; Berry, Kim, Power, Young, & B u jaki, 1989; C u s h n e r & B rislin, 1997; F rable, 1997; Hong, M o rris, Chiu, & B e n e t-M a rtin e z, 2 0 0 0 ; L a F r o m b o is e , C o le m a n , & G e rto n , 1993; P h in n e y & Devich-N avaroo, 1997). J o h n B e rr y ’s m o d e l of a c c u ltu r a ­ tion a ttitu d e s is a re p r e s e n ta tiv e of the o r th o g o n a l m o d e l of a c c u l t u r a ­ tion (Ryder, A ldcn, & P a u lh u s , 2 0 0 0 ) a n d h a s b ee n influential in the field (Berry, 1997; B erry et al., 1989). In h is m o d e l, a n a c c u ltu r a tio n a ttitu d e is d e te r m in e d by the e x te n t to w hich a n in d iv id u a l is willing to re ta in an old c u ltu re a n d to a d o p t a new one, w hich r e s u lt s in four types of a c c u ltu r a tio n a ttitu d e s , namely, Int eg ra ti on (accept old c u l­ tu re ; a c c e p t new cu lture), a s s i m i l a t i o n (reject old c u ltu re ; a c c e p t new c u ltu re ), s e p a r a t i o n (accept old c u ltu re ; reject new c u ltu re ), a n d m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n (reject old c u ltu re ; reject new cultu re). A lthough B e rry a n d o th e r s s tu d y in g a c c u ltu r a tio n from psychological p e r s p e c ­ tives have d o n e m u c h i m p o r t a n t g r o u n d w o r k in th is a r e a of r e s e a r c h , relatively little is k n o w n a b o u t the ongoing everyday p r o c e s s e s c o n ­ s tr u c tin g th e ir s u r r o u n d i n g c u ltu r e s , a n d the r e s p o n s e s invoked by the negotiatio n p r o c e s s of “old" a n d “n e w ” c u ltu r e s . Moreover, often, psychological a c c u ltu ra tio n lite ra tu re h a s la c k e d a view from the i m ­ m ig r a n ts th e m se lv e s, lo o k in g from the m a r g in to the ce n te r (an ex c e p ­ tion w o u ld be E s p in , 1999).

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F u r t h e r m o r e , a lth o u g h the is s u e s of g end er, g e n d e r ro les, a n d f a m ­ ily in r e g a r d s to m ig r a tio n have g a in e d m u c h a tte n tio n in o t h e r a r e a s of the so c ia l sc ie n c e s, s u c h a s im m i g r a t io n s tu d ie s , w o m e n 's s t u d ie s a n d sociology ( E s p ir itu . 1999; I lo n d a g n e u - S o te l o , 1 999 ; M an, 2 0 0 4 ; Lim, 1 99 7; Pessa r, 1999; Valenzuela, 1999), p sy c h o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h on a c c u lt u r a tio n a n d (im )m ig ra tio n often la c k s th e fo c u s on h o w g e n ­ d e r a n d o th e r p o w e r d iffe re n tia ls affect c u lt u r a l a d a p t a t i o n p r o ­ c e s s e s . P sy c h o lo g ists K. K. D ion a n d K. L. Dion (2 0 0 1 ) called for a focu s on th e i m p o r t a n c e g e n d e r p la y s in th e c u ltu r a l a d a p t a t i o n of i m m i g r a n t fam ilies. T h e o r ie s of b ic u ltu ra lis m (e.g., L a F ro m b o ise et al., 1993; H on g et al., 2 0 0 0 ; Phinney, 1990), w h e n c o m p a r e d to a c c u ltu r a tio n lite r a tu re s (e.g., Berry, 1997), a re m o r e sensitive to a p e r s o n ’s in te ra c tio n with the im m e d ia te e n v iro n m e n t a n d its im p a c t on the r e s u lta n t c u ltu r a l m ix in te rn a liz e d by the p e r s o n . T h e se th e o ries, however, still do n o t a d ­ d r e s s h ow different f o r m s of p o w e r d ifferen tials m a y affect the p r o c e s s of b e c o m in g b ic u ltu ra l or b eing p r i m e d to a c t in one c u ltu r e over a n ­ other. For ex a m p le , family d y n a m ic s a n d g e n d e r roles, a s well a s r e la ­ tive social power, w o uld have to d o with how freely one c an go b a c k a n d forth b etw een the two c u ltu ra l s p a c e s. H e r m a n s a n d K e m p e n (19 98 ) criticized c u r r e n t psychological s t u d ­ ies of c u ltu r e a n d identity for n o t a c c o u n tin g for the com p le x itie s a n d hy b rid iz a tio n of c u ltu r e s in an in creasin gly h e te r o g e n e o u s global s y s ­ tem. I n ste a d , they sug g e ste d altern ative a p p r o a c h e s th a t focus on "the c o n ta c t z o n e s of c u ltu r e s , ” ‘‘the co m p le x itie s of self a n d identity,” a n d “the ex p e rie n c e of u n c e rta in ty " (p. 1 1 1 1 - 1 1 1 2 ) . T h e s e is s u e s are c c n tra l to the r e s e a r c h r e p o r te d here. A c c u lt u r a t io n lite r a tu re th a t fo c u se s on th e c h a ng e p r o c e s s of the m a rg in a l a n d the c u l t u r e a n d t he s e l f lite ra tu r e th a t m a in ly c e le b ra te s the difference of the o th e r have n o t yet h a d a significant cross-fertilizing enc o u n te r. However, th e re d o e s se e m to be a p o te n tia l for c re a tin g a new field of r e s e a r c h , given s im ila r a r e a s of in te re s ts b u t different p e r ­ spectives. F urther, b o th of the lite r a tu r e s will be largely e n h a n c e d by the focus on the g e n d e r a n d p o w e r differentials. To fill th e e m p iric a l a n d th e o re tic a l gap, th e s tu d y p r e s e n t e d in th is c h a p te r investigated th e negotiation p r o c e s s e s a n d everyday p ra c tic e s of c u ltu r a l a d a p t a ­ tion of J a p a n e s e a c a d e m ic m ig r a n t fam ilies from a s o c io c u ltu ra l self p e rsp e c tiv e ( S a k a m o to , 2 0 0 1 ). P a r t of the findings re le v a n t to the family is p r e s e n te d in th is cha pte r.

METHOD As p a r t of a larg er s tu d y e x a m in in g the flexibility of selfways over dif­ fe re n t c u ltu r a l c o n te x ts a n d the p r o c e s s e s of s u c h c h a nge a s e x p e ri­ e n c e d by in d i v i d u a l s , a g r o u n d e d - t h e o r y s t u d y u s i n g in - d e p t h interv iew s w a s c o n d u c te d w ith J a p a n e s e a c a d e m ic m ig r a n ts a n d their s p o u s e s in a M id w e stern college town.

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Inform ants T h i s s t u d y i n c l u d e d 18 J a p a n e s e i n d i v i d u a l s (9 w o m e n a n d 9 m e n ; m e a n age e a r ly 3 0 s ) w h o m o v e d f r o m J a p a n to th e U n ite d S t a t e s a s a d u l t s . I in te r v ie w e d s o m e o f th e m m o r e t h a n o n c e , le a d in g to a to ta l o f 2 6 i n - d e p t h in te r v ie w s . T h e o r e t i c a l s a m p l i n g 1 p r o c e s s e s ( S t r a u s s 6 C o r b i n , 1 9 9 8 ) g u i d e d th e d e f in i tio n o f th e c u r r e n t s a m p l e . T h e c r i ­ te r ia for i n f o r m a n t s , in a d d i t i o n to b e in g a d u l t m i g r a n t s fro m J a p a n , i n c l u d e d b e i n g b o r n a n d r a i s e d by J a p a n e s e - e t h n i c p a r e n t s in J a ­ p a n , b e in g in th e m i d - 2 0 s o r o l d e r a t t h e tim e o f t h e in te rv iew , n o t h a v ­ ing lived a b r o a d lo n g e r t h a n a c o u p le o f m o n t h s , a n d h a v i n g h a d s o m e s o c ia lly r e c o g n iz a b le " a d u l t ” r o le s in J a p a n b e f o r e c o m i n g to th e U n i t e d S t a t e s (e.g., b u s i n e s s p e o p l e , e n g i n e e r s , j o u r n a l i s t s , “h o u s e w i v e s ”, m o t h e r s , a n d j u n i o r a c a d e m i c s ) . D iffe re n t s a m p l i n g m e t h o d s w e re u s e d to s e e k a d iv e r s e s a m p l e o f J a p a n e s e a c a d e m i c m i g r a n t f a m ilie s , u s i n g s n o w b a l l a n d d e v i a n t s a m p l i n g m e t h o d s (P a tto n , 1 9 9 0 , p. 1 82 ). T h e s e i n f o r m a n t s w e r e all v o l u n t a r y p a r t i c i ­ p a n ts a n d signed a n in fo rm e d c o n s e n t form . All th e i n f o r m a n t s initially c a m e to th e U n ite d S t a t e s for th e p u r p o s e of s t u d y / r e s e a r c h of th e ir ow n o r t h e ir s p o u s e s . T h e i n f o r m a n t s w e r e all a s s o c i a t e d w ith a local, larg e s ta te un iv e rsity , k n o w n to a t t r a c t m a n y i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t u d e n t s a n d s c h o l a r s , a n d th e i r affiliation i n c lu d e d g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s , p o s t d o c t o r a l fellow s, visitin g s c h o l a r s , a n d th e ir s p o u s e s . All b u t f o u r i n f o r m a n t s p l a n n e d to r e t u r n to J a p a n a fte r 1 to 7 y e a r s in th e U n ite d S ta te s . O n e fe m a le in f o r m a n t , a g r a d u a t e of th e u niv e rsity , w a s a p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k i n g for a U.S. a c c o u n t i n g firm . F o u r te e n of t h e m w e r e m a r r i e d to p e r s o n s o f the o p p o s ite sex, a n d c a m e w ith t h e i r s p o u s e s to th e U n ite d S ta te s , w h e r e a s o n e w a s d i ­ v o rc e d a n d th e r e s t (th re e ) w e r e single. S ingle i n d iv id u a l s w e r e a ls o i n ­ terv ie w e d for c o m p a r i s o n p u r p o s e s . E le v e n i n f o r m a n t s w e r e p a r e n t s . Se v e n o u t o f n in e fe m a le i n f o r m a n t s initially c a m e to th e U n ite d S t a t e s d u e to t h e ir h u s b a n d s ' s t u d y o r r e s e a r c h , a n d th r e e of th e m la te r b e c a m e m a s t e r 's level s t u d e n t s th e m s e lv e s .

Data Collection: In-Depth Interviews I n - d e p t h in te rv ie w s w e r e c o n d u c t e d in J a p a n e s e by th e investig ato r. A t t e m p t s w e r e m a d e to c o n d u c t r e p e a t e d in te rv ie w s, w ith a t l e a s t s e v ­ e ra l m o n t h s b e tw e e n in te rv ie w s , to in v e stig a te c h a n g e s o ver tim e , a n d to e x p lo re th e v alid ity o f th e e m e r g in g h y p o t h e s i s a b o u t th e ir e x p e r i ­ e n c e s . Six i n f o r m a n t s w e r e in te rv ie w e d tw o o r t h r e e tim e s l o n g it u d i­ nally. If th e i n f o r m a n t s h a d s p o u s e s , a t t e m p t s w e r e m a d e to in te rv ie w t h e o r e t i c a l sa m p li n g is defined as “sa m p li n g on the b a s is of c o n c e p ts th a t have p ro ven thcorc tic al rclcvancc to the evolving t h e o r y ” ( S t r a u s s & C orbin, 1990, p. 176). In theoretical sa m p ling , “successive c ases a re ch o se n on the b a s i s of the likelihood th a t they will a d v an c e the d e v e lo p m e n t of find ing s” (Gilgun, 1994, p p. 1 17-1 18).

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b o t h o f th e m , w h ic h w e r e p a r t ia l ly s u c c e s s f u l. Two c o u p le s p r e f e r r e d s p e a k i n g to m e tog ether, i n s t e a d o f in dividu ally , a t l e a s t initially. For s o m e o t h e r c o u p le s , th e h u s b a n d s w e r e too b u s y o r n o t a c c e s s ib le (o ut o f th e c o u n tr y ). In o n e c a s e the h u s b a n d w a s r e l u c t a n t for m e to i n t e r ­ view h is wife, so I d id n o t in te rv ie w her. However, w h e n h u s b a n d s a n d w ives w e r e b o t h in te rv ie w e d , I w a s a b le to in te rv ie w th e m b o t h s e p a ­ ra te ly a n d t o g e th e r m o s t of th e tim e . T h e in te r v ie w la s te d fo r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 to 2Vz h o u r s , w ith tw o e x ­ c e p tio n a lly lo n g in te r v ie w s l a s t i n g u p to 6 h o u r s a t t h e i n f o r m a n t s ’ r e ­ q u e s t s . T h e g e n e r a l d o m a i n s o f th e i n te r v ie w s i n c l u d e d "life in th e U.S. in g e n e r a l , ” “d if f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n th e U.S. a n d J a p a n , o r A m e r i ­ c a n s a n d J a p a n e s e , ” “c h a n g e in s e lf ,” a n d “fa m ily a n d c u l t u r a l a d a p ­ t a t i o n . ” S a m p l e q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g th e fa m ily c o n s i s t e d o f th e follow ing: H o w is y o u r fa m ily ( h e r e o r in J a p a n ) ? H a s y o u r r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p to y o u r fa m ily m e m b e r s c h a n g c d s i n c c yo u c a m e to th e U .S.? If so , h o w ? H ow h a v e y o u r fa m ily m e m b e r s a d j u s t e d to th e U .S .? H ow h a s y o u r fa m ily m e m b e r s ’ a d a p t a t i o n a ffe c ted y o u r o w n a d a p t a t i o n to th e U .S.? H o w d o y o u s h a r e f a m ily c h o r e s w ith y o u r s p o u s e [for t h o s e w ith s p o u s e s / p a r t n e r s only]?

Data A nalysis Fo r a n a ly s is , I u s e d th e t e c h n i q u e s a n d m e t h o d s s u g g e s t e d by g ro u n d e d th e o ry 2 (C harm az, 20 0 0 ; G laser & S tra u s s , 1967; S tra u s s & C o r b i n , 1 9 9 8 ) , w h e r e th e p r o c e s s of d a t a c o lle c tio n a n d d a t a a n a l y ­ s is is c o n d u c t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y to a llo w e x p l a n a t i o n s o f th e p h e n o m ­ e n a to e m e r g e f r o m th e d a t a . F ir s t, I c o n d u c t e d o p e n c o d i n g in J a p a n e s e a n d m y J a p a n e s e r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t a l s o c o d e d th e d a t a i n ­ d e p e n d e n tl y . T h e s e tw o s e t s o f c o d e s w e r e t h e n c o m p a r e d w ith e a c h o t h e r ’s s e t o f c o d e s , v a l i d a t e d o r m o d i f i e d , a n d l a t e r s y n t h e s i z e d . U p ­ d a t e d c o d e s w e r e a p p l i e d a g a in to th e d a t a for f u r t h e r c o d in g . T h r o u g h a x ia l a n d t h e m a t i c c o d i n g p r o c e s s e s ( S t r a u s s & C o r b i n , 1 9 9 8 ), th e c o r e c a t e g o r i e s w e r e d e v e lo p e d . T h e s e c a t e g o r ie s w e re a g a in a p p l i e d to th e d a t a , w h ic h m e a n t t h a t th e p r o c e s s o f d a t a a n a l y ­ s i s b e c a m e m o r e d e d u c tiv e . Finally, th e b o u n d a r i e s a n d d e f i n i t i o n s of th e c a te g o r ie s w e r e f u r t h e r e x a m i n e d , w h ic h w a s fo llo w e d by o r g a n i z ­ in g t h e m in to a c o h e r e n t s t r u c t u r e o f th e M o d e l o f C u l t u r a l N e g o t i a ­ t i on ( d i s c u s s e d in th e D i s c u s s i o n s e c tio n ) . 2

S t r a u s s a n d C o rb in (19 90) explained a g r o u n d e d theory as follows: A g r o u n d e d theo ry is one th at is inductively d e riv e d fro m the s t u d y of the p h e ­ n o m e n o n it r e p r e s e n t s . T h a t is, it is d isc o v ere d , d e v elo p ed , a n d pro visio nally verified th ro u g h s y s te m a tic d a t a collection a n d a n a ly s is of d a ta p e r ta in i n g to th at p h e n o m e n o n . T h e re fo re , d a ta collection, an aly sis, a n d theo ry s t a n d in r e ­ c ip ro c a l r e la ti o n s h ip with e a c h other. One d o e s n ot begin with a theory, then pro ve it. Rather, one b e gins with a n a r e a of s t u d y a n d w h a t is re le v a n t to th a t a r e a is allow ed to e m erge, (p. 23)

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To in c re a se the t r u s tw o r th in e s s of the fin dings (D risko , 1997; L in­ coln & G u b a , 1985), m e m b e r c h e c k w as c o n d u c te d to w a rd the e n d of the r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s . M e m b e r c h c c k is the p r o c e s s by w h ich the r e ­ s e a r c h e r r e t u r n s to the in f o r m a n ts o r the c o m m u n ity , s h a r e s the a n a l­ ysis, a n d receives fe e d b a c k (validation) from th e m (Lincoln & G u b a , 1985). In a d d itio n , p ro lo n g e d en g a g e m e n t (D risko, 1997) th r o u g h r e ­ p e a te d interview s w a s a d d r e s s e d . F urther, d u r in g th e r e s e a r c h p r o ­ c e ss the r e s e a r c h e r w rote reflexive j o u r n a l s to ra ise h e r critical c o n s c io u s n e s s ( S a k a m o to & Pitner, 2 0 0 5 ) re g a r d in g h e r re la tio n s h ip to th e topic a n d the s tu d y p a r tic ip a n ts .

FINDINGS A lthough th e e x p e rie n c es of th e se 18 J a p a n e s e a c a d e m ic m ig r a n ts a n d th e ir s p o u s e s w ere far fro m h o m o g e n e o u s with r e s p e c t to family a n d g e n d e r roles, th e re w ere c o m m o n th e m e s th a t cu t a c r o s s the g ro u p . T h e s tu d y p a r tic i p a n ts d is c u s s e d h ow they liked c e rta in a s p e c ts of A m e ric a n c u ltu r e a n d d id n o t like c e rta in o th e r a s p e c ts . Similarly, they openly d i s c u s s e d things th a t they c a m e to dislike a b o u t J a p a n , while m is s in g s o m e o th e r a s p e c t s of J a p a n e s e c u ltu re . M any w a n te d to be m o r e “a s s e r tiv e ” (“A m erican" c u ltu r a l tr a its , a s d is c u s s e d by m y in fo r­ m a n ts ) while q u e s tio n in g at the s a m e tim e “overly confident" a ttitu d e s of fellow A m e ric a n s tu d e n ts . T h e se p r o c e s s e s of e n c o u n te rin g a n d d ea lin g with c u ltu r e s a s they perceiv ed th e m w e re affected by the p r e s e n c e of family a n d g e n d e r roles. T h e n e x t sectio n b e g in s by d is c u s s in g ho w g e n d e r ro les m a n i ­ fested th e m se lv e s in the c u ltu r a l a d a p ta tio n p r o c e s s e s of w o m e n m i ­ g ra n ts , how family affected in d iv id u a l c u ltu r a l a d a p ta tio n p r o c e s s in general, a n d ho w in d iv id u a l's im m ig ra tio n goals in fluenced the r e s t of the family. T h is s e ts the stage for la te r e x p lo ra tio n of c u ltu r a l a d a p t a ­ tion a n d n e g o tia tio n p r o c e s s e s of a c a d e m ic m ig r a n t s a n d th e ir s p o u s e s . T h r o u g h the p r o c e s s of in te g r a tin g th e se th e m e s th a t e m e rg e d t h ro u g h the d a ta ana lysis, I de veloped a Mo d e l o j Cu ltural N e g ot i at i o n . A m o r e d etailed d e s c r ip tio n of the Model of C u ltu ra l N egotiation is in the D isc u ss io n section.

Encountering Cultures, Negotiating Gender Roles “J u s t a H o u s e w i f e ” S p o u s e s of a c a d e m ic m ig r a n ts often fo u n d th e m se lv e s a c q u ir in g a new role u p o n m ig ra tio n : b e c o m in g a full-time “h o u se w ife ” in th e U.S. m id d le - c la s s , a c a d e m ic context. S o m e of th e s e s p o u s e s w o r k e d full­ tim e in J a p a n . S o m e o th e r s got m a r r i e d j u s t before th e ir m ig ratio n . S o m e o th e r s w ere p r o u d , c o m p e te n t h o u sew iv e s in J a p a n , b u t they

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f o u n d t h a t th e w o r d h o u s e w i f e in th e p r e d o m i n a n t l y a c a d e m i c c o m ­ m u n i t y s e e m e d to ta k e a d if fe r e n t m e a n i n g t h a n s h u f u in J a p a n e s e c o n te x ts w ith w h ic h th e y w e re fam iliar. T h e follow ing e p is o d e w a s s h a r e d b y o n e w o m a n (G) w h o c a m e to th e U n ite d S t a t e s w ith h e r h u s b a n d , w h o w a s in th e P hD p r o g r a m in a s o c ia l s c ie n c e d is c ip lin e : At a party, a professor asked if I was a student. I couldn't answer in Eng­ lish well at the time, then my h u sban d goes, “she is ju st a housewife.” The professor said, "That’s not nice” on my behalf. But, really, I couldn’t speak English or drive a car either. It was very miserable. People would ju s t move away from me at parties when I said “I study English." They thought there was nothing to talk about .... Riding a university bus, I could tell who were students and who were housewives. Housewives looked uncomfortable and small. I felt small and hated myself. U n til s h e c a m e to th e U n ite d S l a te s , s h e d id n o t n e c e s s a r i ly im a g in e h o u s e w i v e s a s “u n c o m f o r t a b l e a n d s m a ll." Initially G b e c a m e “o b ­ s e s s e d w ith ” b e c o m i n g a p e r f e c t J a p a n e s e h o u se w ife , for e x a m p le , by im m a c u l a t e l y c le a n in g t h e h o u s e all th e tim e a n d h o s t i n g a n u m b e r of e l a b o r a t e d i n n e r p a r t i e s a t h o m e . However, s h e w a s n o t s a tis f ie d w ith h e r ro le a s a " h o u s e w if e ,” a n d p e r h a p s felt d e p r e s s e d a b o u t h e r role. After a lo ng 5 y e a r s , s h e le a r n e d E n g lis h , le a r n e d h o w to d riv e (w h ic h a ff o r d e d h e r m o r e i n d e p e n d e n c e fro m h e r h u s b a n d ) , w a s finally a b le to e n t e r a g r a d u a t e p r o g r a m , a n d even o b t a i n e d a m e r i t - b a s e d s c h o l a r ­ s h ip , e a c h o f w h ic h w a s a s te p a w a y f r o m b e in g “j u s t a h o u s e w if e ” w ith lim ite d E n g lis h proficiency. L o o k in g b a c k , s h e r e a liz e d t h a t w h e n s h e w a s “j u s t a h o u s e w i f e ,” s h e a lw a y s felt s e lf - c o n s c io u s a b o u t h e r b e h a v ­ ior a n d h a d d e c r e a s e d se lf-e s te e m : A “h o u sew ife " is “like a c h i l d ” (in a n o t h e r fe m a le i n f o r m a n t ’s w o r d ) , a n d in G 's a c c o u n t, is n a m e l e s s a n d s t a t u s l e s s . If th e h o u s e w iv e s d o n o t s p e a k E n g lis h well, th e n th e ir s t a ­ tu s is even lower. In G 's c a se , s h e felt c o n s t r a i n e d a n d f r u s t r a t e d by a new ly a c q u i r e d g e n d e r ro le a s a " h o u s e w if e ,” w h ic h u ltim a te ly m o t i ­ v a te d h e r to s e t a n d a t ta in h e r o w n im m ig r a tio n g o a ls.

P e r f o r m i n g O k u s a n in a L o c a l J a p a n e s e C o m m u n i t y L ike G, m a n y s p o u s e s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t u d e n t s / s c h o l a r s e x p r e s s e d th e " m is e r y ” of feeling like “n o b o d y ” in a u n iv e r s ity to w n , fo r b e in g “j u s t a h o u se w ife ." O n th e o n e h a n d , m y i n f o r m a n t s r e p o r t e d f r u s t r a t ­ ing e x p e r ie n c e s of b e in g d e v a lu e d a s " h o u s e w iv e s ” in a n a c a d e m i c e n ­ v i r o n m e n t ; o n th e o t h e r h a n d , th e y a lso r e f e r r e d to f o rc e s t h a t c o m p e l le d o t h e r w o m e n to s ta y w ith in th e “h o u s e w ife " ro le w ith in s m a l l J a p a n e s e c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e follow ing a n e c d o te is by X, a single fe m a le visitin g s c h o l a r in h e r late 3 0 s w h o w a s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s for 1 year. X to ld m e th e e x p e r ie n c e s h e h a d a l a farew ell p a r t y for her, a t ­ te n d e d by se v e r a l m a le v isiting s c h o l a r s a n d th e ir s p o u s e s . S o m e o f

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th e s p o u s e s u s e d th e w o r d o lc u sa n (w hich m e a n s wife, b u t w ith a d o ­ m e s tic c o n n o t a t i o n to it) a s a p r i m a r y id e n tifie r o f th e m s e lv e s : So there were ab ou t 8 people at the party, including myself. It was a gathering where I knew everybody but some people did not know each other. So somebody suggested that we first introduce ourselves .... Then when it was a tu rn for the first o k u s a n (wife), she goes "Oh, ah, well, I ju st accom panied my h u sb a n d , yes," and that was it .... Ha! (sar­ castic laughs] ... So I thought, “Okay” but couldn’t help but say, “Well, even if you are a couple, you are still separate individuals, so please do the self-introduction .... (laughs) Then the older visiting scholar went, “Ahh, Ms. X is radical, well, b u t it is her farewell party, so please do the self-introduction" and tried to mediate .... Then next, an o th e r o k u s a n goes, “T hank you for taking carc of my hu sb a n d . I am S -sa n ’s o ku san ." Arghhhh! I was appalled, naturally. X c o n t i n u e d to s h a r e w ith m e t h a t th e r e w e r e o t h e r o c c a s i o n s in w h ic h th e s e J a p a n e s e w o m e n o nly a c te d a s “w iv e s ,” a n d n o t a s “i n d i v i d u a l s ” w ith c h a r a c t e r s . T h e s e w iv e s ’ b e h a v i o r s c o u ld be s e e n a s a p p r o p r i a t e in c o n s e r v a tiv e J a p a n e s e b u s i n e s s s e ttin g s , c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t X w a s a co lle a g u e of th e ir h u s b a n d s '. A lth o u g h s o m e o f t h e s e w o m e n m ig h t ha v e felt c o m f o r t a b l e b e h a v in g j u s t a s “w iv e s ,” it is a lso likely t h a t s u c h s i t u a t i o n s c o u ld b e s t r e s s f u l for s o m e o t h e r w o m e n if t h e y felt p r e s ­ s u r e d to p e r f o r m well a s o k u s a n , lim itin g th e e x p r e s s i o n of t h e ir i n d i ­ viduality . R e g a r d l e s s o f h o w t h e s e w o m e n felt a b o u t th e i r o w n b e h a v i o r s , it m a d e it very difficult for X to get to k n o w t h e m . E v en th o u g h th e y w e r e w o m e n o f s i m i l a r a g e s to X, th e y d id n o t c o m e o u t o f th e r o l e s a s “w ives," leav in g little r o o m for X to b e clo se to th e m . In t u r n , X ’s s t a t u s a s a single fem a le p r o f e s s io n a l w a s h ig h lig h te d even m o r e o n o t h e r o c c a s io n s , s u c h a s b e in g in th e c l a s s r o o m w ith th e s e m a le J a p a n e s e v isitin g s c h o l a r s o r i n te r a c tin g w ith o t h e r a c a d e m i c co lle a g u e s . For X, th is w a s a b i t t e r r e m i n d e r o f th e c o n s t r a i n t s h e felt in J a p a n e s e so c ie ty a s a p r o f e s s i o n a l w o m a n , the c o n s t r a i n t t h a t s h e h a d c o n v e n ie n tly f o rg o tte n a b o u t w hile in th e U n ite d S ta te s . By e n ­ c o u n t e r i n g a r a t h e r e x a g g e r a te d v e r s io n o f J a p a n e s e g e n d e r r o le s in a s m a l l J a p a n e s e a c a d e m i c m i g r a n t c o m m u n ity , X b e c a m e w e a r y a b o u t h e r a n tic ip a te d r e t u r n to J a p a n .

Effect of Family on Individual Cultural Adaptation: Family-Based (Couple-Based) Cultural Adaptation T h e i n f o r m a n t s e x p r e s s e d d iffe r e n t p a t t e r n s o f fam ily /c o u p le d y n a m ­ ics in c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n ; how ever, o n e th i n g t h a t w a s c o m m o n t h r o u g h o u t w a s t h a t th e fam ily /c o u p le w a s o n e of th e k e y fa c to r s t h a t s h a p e d th e i n d iv id u a l c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n . H e re , by "fam ily ” o r “c o u ­ p le ,” I m e a n th e d y n a m i c s w ith in th e fam ily o r th e c o u p le in d e a lin g w ith the n e w c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t , a s well a s th e m e r e p r e s e n c e o f p a r t n e r s a n d c h il d r e n .

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For the a c a d e m ic m ig r a n t fam ilies in m y study, a d a p t a ti o n to a new c u ltu re often to ok p lace in a family u n it (or a c o up le unit), as e ach f a m ­ ily m e m b e r (or each sp o u s e ) took on d ifferent ro le s to a c c o m p lis h c u l­ tu r a l a d a p t a t i o n a s a w hole family u n it. I call th is m e c h a n i s m f a m i l y - b a s e d ( c ou p l e - b a s e d ) c u lt ur al a d a p t a t i o n . T h is b e c a m e a w o rk in g h y p o th e s is a s I interview ed m o r e pe op le in a la te r p h a s e of the in - d e p th interview s a n d c o n s u lte d the existing lite ra tu re . B e c a u s e I i n ­ terview ed only a d u lt s for th is p a r tic u la r study, c o u p l e - b a s e d cul tu ra l a d a p t a t i o n is p ro b a b ly a m o r e a c c u r a te te rm to d e s c r ib e w h a t is o b ­ served in the interview s. However, a s evid en ced in s tu d ie s on language b r o k e r in g (see below), family a s a w hole a s a b a s is of c u ltu r a l a d a p t a ­ tion h a s a th e o re tic a l possibility. T h e re fo re, in th is chapter, I u s e the term f a m i l y - b a s e d ( c o u p l e - b a s e d ) c u lt ur al a d a p t a t i o n . A lthough n o t te r m e d in t h a t way, th e idea of family m e m b e r s h e lp in g each o t h e r ’s c u ltu r a l a d a p ta t io n is n o t new. For e xam ple, the idea of language b r o k e r in g (c u ltu ra l b ro k e rin g ) is often r e p o r te d in Latino fam ilies a n d so m e A sian families, in w h ich p a r e n t s have lim ited c o m ­ m a n d s of E n g lish a n d their c h ild r e n h elp the p a r e n t s c a r r y o u t daily r o u t i n e s ( E s p i n , 1 9 9 9 ; M o r a le s & H a n s o n , 2 0 0 5 ; T se, 1 9 9 5 ; Valenzuela, 1999). However, in o u r study, c u ltu r a l a d a p t a ti o n in r e l a ­ tion to the family is e x a m in e d th ro u g h the le n s of c u ltu r a l negotiation, in w hich c u ltu r a l a d a p t a tio n ta s k s a s well a s g e n d e r e d p o w e r r e la tio n ­ s h ip s w ithin the co u p le a re negotiated.

C ou ple R ole S h a r i n g C o u p le s often divided c u ltu r a l a d a p ta tio n ta s k s along g e n d e r lines, a n d n e gotiated with the h o s t c u ltu r e a s a family u n it r a t h e r th a n on an ind iv id ual b a sis . T h u s , the c u ltu ra l a d a p ta tio n e x p e rie n c e s w ere also g e n d e r e d . O ne exceptio n th a t m y in f o r m a n ts ta lk e d a b o u t is the e x te r ­ nal re la tio n s s u c h a s r e tu r n in g m e r c h a n d is e a n d m a k in g c la im s to b u s i n e s s e s , w hich so m e of the h u s b a n d s to o k on. Initially, h u s b a n d s se e m e d to have b e e n e x p o se d to m a n y a r e a s of living in the U nited S ta te s in g e n e ra l (th us, c u ltu r a l a d a p ta tio n ); however, a s tim e p a s s e d by th eir focus s e e m e d to have r e t u r n e d m a in ly to th e ir w o r k a n d study, a p a tt e r n m a n y wives m e n tio n e d w a s the s a m e w h en they w ere in J a ­ p a n . In the long r u n , therefore, h u s b a n d s ’ co n te x ts of c u ltu r a l a d a p t a ­ tio n m ig h t be m o r e f o c u s e d on th e w o r k d o m a i n ( t h u s m o r e pre d ic ta b le ) th a n th e ir wives’. On th e c o ntrary, wives' d o m a in s of a d ­ a p ta tio n w ere often locally con te x u a liz ed (th u s m o r e le a rn in g w a s r e ­ qu ire d ), w hich w ere n o t n e c e ss a rily re s tr ic te d in one n a r r o w a r e a (e.g., h o u s e k e e p in g , c h ild r e n ’s sc h o o ls, n e ig h b o rs, app ly in g for g r a d u a te sc h o o ls for them selv es). T h u s the h u s b a n d s ’ p u blic s p h e r e of w o rk se e m e d to be m o r e un iv ersa lly d efined th a n th e w ives’ m a in ly priv ate s p h e r e of w o r k , c a u s in g different difficulties in c u ltu r a l a d a p ta tio n ta s k s (for fu r th e r re fe re n c e s on g e n d e r role in gen e ra l, p le a se refer to, e.g., K im m el, 2 0 0 0 ; Paludi, 1998).

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S o c i a l L if e T, a v isitin g s c h o l a r w h o s p e n t 2 y e a r s in th e U n ite d S t a te s , to ld m e h o w h i s so c ia l life w a s e x p a n d e d a fte r h is wife h a d j o i n e d h im in the U n ite d S ta te s : I had three m o nths before my wife and daughter came over. But since they came, things are going very smoothly. My wife is a very social type, so since she came my social life has been expanded. In o t h e r w o r d s , T 's wife filled in th e g a p in h is life a n d fa c ilita te d h is c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n to th e U n ite d S ta te s . T h e c a s e o f S w a s a b it d iffe re n t fr o m th e o t h e r c a s e s d u e to h is f a m ­ ily c o m p o s i t i o n , b u t in h is c a se , too, a n o t h e r fam ily m e m b e r fa c ilita ted h is s o c ia l life a n d a d a p t a t i o n in th e so c ia l d o m a i n . S, a r e c e n t divo rcé, w a s a r e s e a r c h e r in a n e n g in e e r i n g field, w h o c a m e to the U n ite d S t a l e s w ith h is 8 -y e a r-o ld s o n . W ith o u t h a v in g a wife to facilitate th e p r o c e s s , S h i m s e l f s e e m e d to ta k e o n a lot o f th e so c ia l role. Interestin gly, h o w ­ ever, th e p r e s e n c e of h i s s o n s e e m e d ha v e m a d e it e a s i e r for h i m to b e so c ia l. For e x a m p le , h e w o u ld invite o t h e r J a p a n e s e p a r e n t s w h o h a d c h ild r e n h is s o n ’s age, a n d d e v e lo p e d f r i e n d s h i p s w ith t h e s e p a r e n t s . O r he w o u ld invite J a p a n e s e a c q u a i n t a n c e s to jo in h im w h e n he a n d h is c h ild w e n t o u t for a p ic n ic , o r a t t e n d e d s p o r t s g a m e s . S a d m i t t e d to m e th a t h a v in g fu n w ith h is s o n w a s h is w a y of r e d u c i n g s t r e s s fro m h is w o r k . It s e e m e d to m e t h a t a s m u c h a s h e e n jo y e d s p e n d i n g tim e w ith h is s o n , th e s o n 's p r e s e n c e w a s c r u c i a l for h im to m a i n t a i n h is b a la n c e o f w o r k a n d fu n a n d t h a t th e s o n p r o v id e d m u c h r e a s s u r a n c e to h im in a way. T h e s o n sta y e d u p a s late a s S d id . a n d ate a s m u c h a s S d id . D u r i n g th e interview , S w o u ld often t u r n to h is s o n a n d s e e k a s s u r ­ a n c e , a s k i n g “Isn 't it like th a t? " a n d “W a sn ’t it h o w it w e n t ? ” to w h ic h h is s o n w o u ld n o d o r s a y s o m e t h i n g to h im in reply. To m e , th e s o n s e e m e d to have b e e n p la y in g th e ro le o f S ’s p a r t n e r , s h a r i n g a n d vali­ d a tin g S ’s e x p e r ie n c e s in th e p r iv a te d o m a i n a n d h e lp in g h im to feel g r o u n d e d . T h u s , S ’s s o n in a w ay s e e m e d h a v e b e e n p la y in g a m a j o r r o le in S ’s so c ia l life a n d a d a p t a t i o n to a local J a p a n e s e c o m m u n i t y a s well a s to th e la r g e r A m e r ic a n society.

Im p ro v e d F a m ily R e la tio n sh ip s A fter initial conflict, w h i c h o c c u r r e d in a l m o s t all of th e c o u p le s , th e c o u p le s o ften b u ilt c lo s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith e a c h o t h e r d u r i n g th e ir s ta y in th e U n ite d S t a te s . T h e ir r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith th e c h ild r e n , e s p e ­ cially the f a t h e r ’s r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e c h ild r e n , o ften i m p r o v e d a s well. For m a n y , th is w a s p a r tly d u e to the fact th a t th e h u s b a n d s n o w h a d m o r e tim e in th e U n ite d S t a t e s , a w a y fr o m c o m p a n i e s o r w o r k r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p s in J a p a n : n o so c ia l d r i n k i n g a fte r w o r k , n o so c ia l golf, m o r e fam ily m e a ls , a n d l e s s w o r k o ver t h e w e e k e n d o r a t n ig h t. For s o m e , it

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w a s b e c a u s e the h u s b a n d , a lth o u g h b u s y with s c h o o lw o rk , felt guilty for m a k in g h is wife a c c o m p a n y h im , so he tried to c o m p e n s a t e for this by d o in g m o r e c h o r e s a r o u n d the h o u s e . Many in f o r m a n ts e x p r e s s e d th a t b e c a u s e th e re w a s now n o b o d y else to rely on or talk to, th e ir m a r ­ ital a n d family r e la tio n s h ip s h a d im p ro v e d . In th e p r o c e s s of a tta in in g b e tte r r e la tio n s h ip s , s o m e p e o p le s e e m e d to r e d is c o v e r the w o n d e rfu l q u a litie s of th e ir s p o u s e s , a n d im p r o v e d th e ir r e la tio n s h ip s . In the R c o u p le 's case, they w ere on the verge of d ivorce righ t before they c a m e to the U nited S ta te s , b u t w ere able to re s to r e th e ir m a r r ia g e after several m o n t h s in the U nited S ta tes. T he m e a n in g of family often b e c a m e m o re im p o rta n t, especially for the h u s b a n d s . In the R family’s case, the h u s b a n d (RH) confessed that he u se d to see the family a s a b u r d e n to his w ork, b u t he c am e to appreciate his family m o re a n d enjoy s p e n d in g time with them since they moved to the United States. This, in tu rn, rem ov ed feelings of guilt that the wife (RW) h ad, a n d they now talk to each other m o re often. RW also u s e d to feel resentful to w ard h e r h u s b a n d for n o t helping with the ch o re s enough while in J a p a n . For example, sh e estab lish ed a system betw een the two th at whoever changed a dia pe r w ould receive m o ney for each diaper, which led her to m a k e the equivalent of $ 6 0 0 to $ 7 0 0 w hen the third child w as a baby. However, like RH, the m ea n in g of the family also changed for her. She u sed to be to rm e n te d between the two contradicting ideas: "It’s cruel [pitiful; k o d o m o g a k a w a i s o u ] for children if the m o th e r w o rk s outside of the h o u s e ” v e rsu s “Career sh o u ld n o t be in te rr u p te d .” However, she felt less obliged to stay with the children a n d w as m o re sp o n ta n e o u sly willing to do so after s p e n d in g time in the United States: I feel that our children won't be happy [if I stay very busy with work). I want to give a little more of my space, a little more warmth to the chil­ dren. I used to feel that myself, our children, and my husband exist in an inorganic [or mechanic] way [mu kl sh it su ], but now I feel that there is a lot more that I can give to them. It s e e m s th a t the im p r o v e d family re la tio n s h ip a s a w hole m a d e h e r r e ­ evaluate h e r own life goals. At the s a m e tim e, a lo ss of socially r e c o g n iz ­ able r o le s for RW m ig h t have a lso play ed a role in h e r ch an ge, for, in J a p a n , sh e w a s a h e a lth c a re p ro f e s s io n a l w o r k in g sid e by sid e with h e r h u s b a n d . O ne caveat of the R family s to r ie s is t h a t n e ith e r RW n o r RH w as s u r e w h e th e r th e se c h a n g e s w o u ld la st once they r e tu r n e d to J a p a n . A lthough RH w as c u r io u s a b o u t his ow n fu tu re c h a n g e s, RW sa id sh e w as “s c a r e d ” of R H ’s r e t u r n to h is p re v io u s sta te of b ein g an un c o o p e ra tiv e , d is tr e s s e d , a ccusatory, a n d w o r k a h o lic h u s b a n d w ho w o u ld see the family a s a b u r d e n .

C u ltu r a l A d a p t a t i o n Goals N e g o tia te d W ithin th e F a m ily C u ltu r a l a d a p ta tio n g oals w ere often n e g otiated w ithin the family. In th e E family's c ase, it w a s very i m p o r t a n t for the h u s b a n d (EH), a visit­

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ing s c h o l a r In a b io - m e d i c a l field, to r e t u r n to J a p a n a s a n i n t e r n a t i o n ­ ally re c o g n iz e d r e s e a r c h e r . To ac h ie v e th is i m m i g r a t i o n goal, EH w a n te d to c a r r y on h is jo b a t le a s t w ith the s a m e in te n s ity a s w h e n h e w a s in J a p a n . T h is h a d a n i m p a c t o n h is wife (EW), a s E II w a n t e d h e r to b e a s i n d e p e n d e n t a s p o s s i b l e so t h a t he c o u ld d e v o te h i m s e l f to w o r k . At f irs t EW w a s n o t a b le to driv e a n d d id n o t k n o w h o w to c a r r y o u t s m a l l t a s k s n e e d e d for h o u s e k e e p i n g a n d p a r e n t i n g (e.g., w h a t to b u y fo r g r o c e r ie s , h o w to find a g oo d b a b y s itte r ) , w h ic h m a d e h e r “feel like a c h ild ." EH p r e s s u r e d h e r to le a r n to driv e so t h a t s h e w o u ld n 't h a v e to d e p e n d on h im to c a r r y o u t d aily r o u t i n e s . E H s h a r e d w ith m e t h a t for th e f irs t c o u p le o f m o n t h s , ev ery w e e k e n d , th e e n tir e fam ily of f o u r w o u ld get in to t h e i r s m a l l c a r s o t h a t EW c o u ld p r a c tic e driving. E H r e s e n t e d th a t h e h a d to ta k e tim e a w a y fr o m h i s w o r k to d o th is, b u t a t th e s a m e tim e s a w it a s a n e c e s s a r y s te p to w a r d th e fa m ily ’s s u c c e s s ­ ful re s e t t l e m e n t . W h e n EW w a s a b le to d riv e a n d the o ld e r ch ild s t a r t e d d a y c a r e , s h e w a s a b le to r e c la im h e r ro le a s a c o m p e t e n t m o t h e r a n d wife, w h ic h , in t u r n , m a d e h e r feel m o r e c o m f o r ta b le a n d c o m p e t e n t living in th e U n ite d S t a te s . D riv in g a llo w e d h e r to m a k e h e r ow n f r ie n d s th r o u g h o u t s i d e activities, a n d to be a b le to d o e r r a n d s o n h e r o w n w ith th e y o u n g e r c h ild . A n o th e r im m ig r a ti o n goal t h a t b o th EH a n d EW s h a r e d w a s to r a i s e th e ir c h i l d r e n in J a p a n e s e c u l t u r e s o th a t th e y c o u ld r e i n te g r a te s u c c e s s f u lly w h e n th e y r e t u r n e d to J a p a n . C o o k in g J a p a n e s e m e a l s , s p e a k i n g p r o p e r J a p a n e s e a t h o m e , pla y in g w ith o t h e r J a p a n e s e c h i l d r e n , a n d w a t c h i n g th e v i d e o t a p e s o f J a p a n e s e TV p r o g r a m s t h a t th e ir p a r e n t s s e n t th e m w e r e i m p o r t a n t in re a liz in g th is goal. In T 's e a s e , h is im m i g r a t i o n g o a ls w e re “t a k in g a b r e a k from " h is b u s y J a p a n e s e life a n d h a v in g fu n w ith h is family. He e n jo y e d very m u c h h o w h is w ife's p r e s e n c e m a d e h is life m o r e s o c ia l a n d ev en tful in th e n e w c o u n try . However, h is w ife’s im m i g r a t i o n g o a l w a s m o r e th a n t a k in g a b r e a k fr o m h e r ow n jo b . S h e w i s h e d to ta k e a d v a n ta g e of th e o p p o r t u n i t y to p u r s u e h e r o w n e d u c a t i o n . Ev en tu ally, T ’s wife, w ith th e ir c h ild , r e lo c a te d to a n o t h e r p a r t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s to e n r o ll in a g r a d u a t e p r o g r a m , leaving T a lo n e in th e M id w e st. W ith o u t th e “s o c ia l ” d o m a i n of h is fa m ily u n it, T, a r a t h e r q u ie t p e r s o n , felt lonely a n d , in h is w o r d , h is “d a y s b e c a m e d a r k . ” He la te r d e c i d e d to p u s h h i m s e l f to b e c o m e m o r e so c ia l t h r o u g h c r e a tin g a n “a lt e r e go ,” w h ic h h e e n a c te d in e v e n in g E n g lis h c l a s s e s t h a t h e to o k every d a y of th e w ee k . He b e ­ lieved (a n d I c o n c u r r e d ) t h a t h is c l a s s m a t c s a n d tc a c h c r s o nly k n e w h im a s a s o c ia l a n d a r tic u la te p e r s o n , a n a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of w h ic h h e w a s p r o u d . In s u m , w h e n h is a n d h is w ife’s i m m i g r a t i o n g o a ls d id n o t h a r m o n i z e well, T, a fte r s o m e stru g g le , h a d to let go of h is initial im m i g r a t i o n goal a n d s h ift it to s e lf - im p r o v e m e n t . Fo r th e Q family, th e h u s b a n d ' s (QH) im m i g r a t i o n goal w a s to finish a 2 -y e a r m a s t e r ’s p r o g r a m in 12 m o n t h s , w h ic h m e a n t m u c h p r e s s u r e a n d h a r d w o r k . Initially, h e r e s e n t e d t h a t he h a d to h e lp o u t h is wife (QW) in c a r r y in g o u t initial r e s e t t l e m e n t t a s k s in th e U n ite d S ta te s :

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It's not ju st me, b u t it's a com m on story. When I talk to other h u sb an d s Iwho are academic m igrants in the US], there were those complaints (by husbands], complaints about their wives. In sum , unless the hu sb a n d s have to take care of the im portant parts (of the tasks] nothing will h a p ­ pen, and that is k om a r u (bothering, annoying, or hard to deal with]. QW, in t u r n , d id n o t a p p r e c i a t e h e r h u s b a n d ' s in itia l a tt itu d e ; a fte r all, it w a s n o t h e r d e c is io n to c o m e to th e U n ite d S t a te s . N e v e r th e le s s , QW d e c id e d to t a k e a d v a n ta g e of the o p p o r t u n i t y of living in the U n ite d S ta te s . S h e p i c k e d u p E n g lis h q u ic k ly a n d w a s willing to get involved in th e c o m m u n i t y life. W h e n s h e b e c a m e m o r e c o m f o r ta b le in ge ttin g a r o u n d by h e r s e l f w ith th e c h ild , s h e s t a r t e d to enjo y h e r life in th e U n ite d S t a te s , w h ic h , in t u r n , led h e r h u s b a n d (QH) to feel le s s s t r e s s f ro m s tu d y in g b e c a u s e he c o u ld t h i n k "at le a s t o n e of u s is h a v in g f u n .” He a lso e n jo y e d th e p a r t i e s a n d activ ities t h a t QW a r r a n g e d . S o m e t i m e s th e d y n a m i c s w ith in th e fa m ily p la y e d o u t differently. T h e wife o f a P h D s t u d e n t in n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , NW r e s i g n e d f ro m a car e e r - t r a c k j o b in a la rg e m a n u f a c t u r i n g c o m p a n y in J a p a n t h a t s h e h a d h e ld for 5 y e a r s , a n d j o i n e d h e r h u s b a n d a few m o n t h s a f te r h e c a m c to th e U n i te d S t a t e s . T h e w o m e n o n “c a r e c r - t r a c k j o b s ” (s o g o s h o k u ) a r e still a s m a l l elite m i n o r i t y in th e J a p a n e s e w o m e n ’s w o r k force. A lth o u g h th e s y s t e m h a d b e e n in p la c e for m o r e t h a n 10 y e a r s w h e n NW w a s w o r k in g , t h e s e j o b s w e r e u s u a l l y u n d e r very h ig h p r e s s u r e , b e c a u s e th e w o m e n h a d to d e a l w ith b o t h s e x i s m in th e w o r k p la c e a n d h ig h j o b d e m a n d s . NW’s h u s b a n d is a p r o g r e s s i v e p e r s o n c o m p a r e d to m a n y J a p a n e s e m e n a n d s u p p o r t e d h i s w ife's c a r e e r ; t h u s , th e s i t u a t i o n t h a t NW w a s f a c e d w ith w a s r a t h e r a ty p ic a l for s p o u s e s o f a c a d e m i c m i g r a n t s : I like this situation (of being in the U.S. and not working], and I feel I don’t want to work any m ore (laughs]. I really don't have any social pressure any more, but the pressure from my h u sb a n d with whom I am living, is very high .... He doesn't like his wife to be staying home. In NW’s c a s e , th e h u s b a n d , w h o w is h e d h is wife c o n t i n u e d s u c c e s s in h e r c a re e r, w a n t e d NW to p u r s u e s o m e t h i n g o t h e r t h a n “sittin g a r o u n d in th e h o u s e ” like “o t h e r w iv e s .” He m i g h t a lso ha v e felt guilty a b o u t the fact t h a t s h e gave u p a h a r d - to - g e t p o s i tio n a s a w o m a n th a t s h e h a d s u c c e s s fu lly h e ld in J a p a n . A lth o u g h I d id n o t o b s e r v e o r in te rv ie w c h ild r e n , OW, a wife of a n e n ­ g in e e r in g s t u d e n t s e n t by h is c o m p a n y , s h a r e d h e r o b s e r v a tio n w ith m e a b o u t c h i l d r e n 's a d a p t a t i o n in r e la tio n to th e ir p a r e n t s : I think whether the children can speak English or not is related to whether or not the parents are using English actively ... no m atter how m uch English you want the children to study, if the parents cannot use it, the children cannot speak either. O f c o u r s e , if th e c h ild is in s c h o o l o r d a y c a r e , th e s t o r y m ig h t be d iffe r­ e n t. W h e th e r th e p a r e n t s s p e a k E n g lis h o r n o t, th e c h ild w o u ld still

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pic k u p E n glish from the p e e r s a n d te a c h e rs. However, the w illingness of the p a r e n t s to s p e a k /le a rn E ng lish a n d th e ir o p e n n e s s to p e op le dif­ fere nt from th e ir own w o u ld still have an im p a c t on their c h ild re n . I w a s im p r e s s e d by the following sto ry t h a t OW told m e a b o u t a J a p a ­ ne se girl, 4 or 5 y e a rs old, w ho w a s playing in the s a n d b o x in th e c o u r t ­ y a rd of one of the t o w n h o u s e s . W hen a n o t h e r girl of s im ila r age with b lo n d h a ir a p p r o a c h e d the s a n d box, th is J a p a n e s e girl s t a r te d to cry, say in g “I a m s c a r e d of gaij in [foreigner].” OW told m e t h a t the girl’s m o th e r w a s also s c a r e d of gaij in (i.e., A m e ric a n s), a lth o u g h it w as sev ­ e ral m o n t h s after they h a d c o m e to the U nited S ta te s w h e n th is in c i­ d e n t h a p p e n e d . OW t h o u g h t th a t b e c a u s e the m o th e r is so afra id of A m e ric a n s , the child is afra id of th e m a s well, an e x a m p le t h a t illu s­ t r a te s how the state of c u ltu ra l a d a p ta t io n of the p a r e n t s m a y affect the c h i ld r e n ’s c u ltu r a l a d a p ta tio n .

F a m i l y - B a s e d (C ou p le-B a se d ) C u ltu r a l A d a p t a t io n : Sum m ary T h e se a n d p re v io u s e x a m p le s of family m e m b e r s affecting each o th e r 's c u ltu r a l a d a p ta tio n p r o c e s s highlight the im p o r ta n c e of the family contex t for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the c u ltu r a l a d a p ta t io n of in d iv id u a ls w h o co m e to the United S ta te s with th eir families. Two th e m e s of c u l­ tu r a l a d a p ta tio n th a t affect a n d are affected by the existence of the f a m ­ ily em e rg e d fro m th is w o rk . T he i n - d e p th interview d a t a p r e s e n te d h e re sug gest th a t fam ily-based (c o u p le-b a se d ) c u ltu ra l a d a p ta tio n e n tails two m a jo r c o m p o n e n ts : 1. C u ltu ra l a d a p ta t io n ta s k s h a rin g : Family m e m b e r s (often c o u p le s in the c u r r e n t s a m p le ) m ay s h a r e t a s k s of c u ltu r a l a d a p ­ tatio n so t h a t a s a u ni t they c o m p le te th e n e c e s s a ry ta s k s m o r e su c c essfu lly th a n one in d iv id u a l trying to do e verything alone. T h e ta s k s h a r in g involves dividing a n d d is t r ib u tin g t a s k s m o stly a lo ng g e n d e r lines in the fam ily so th a t the u n it can achieve its i m ­ m ig ra tio n goals. For ex a m p le, e x tern a l n e g o tia tio n s a re ta s k s for the h u s b a n d s , social r e la tio n s a re for the wives, a n d m a t t e r s r e ­ g a rd in g h o u s e k e e p i n g a n d c h ild r e a r in g te n d to be for the wives. 2. Negotiation of im m igration goals a n d processes: Family m e m ­ b e rs closely affect each o th er's state, goals, a n d p ro ce ss of cultural adap tation . T his p ro c e ss is also influenced by who h a s the power within the family; the powerful p e r s o n m ight have a greater capacity to affect o th e r s ’ cultural adaptatio n. For example, a visiting sch olar h u s b a n d like EH or RH, having an im m igration goal of being a s u c ­ cessful a c adem ic b oth in J a p a n a n d in the United States, would w a n t to accultu rate to the U.S. cultu ral context as well as keeping close ties to the J a p a n e s e local c o m m u n ity a n d the a c adem ic c o m ­ m un ity b a ck h om e. This, in tu rn , affects how the o ther family m e m ­ b e rs deal with U.S. a n d J a p a n e s e cultu ral contexts.

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B oth c u ltu r a l a d a p t a t i o n t a s k s h a r i n g a n d n e g o tia tio n o f th e c u ltu r a l a d a p t a t io n p r o c e s s a r e often a c c o m p a n ie d by s t r e s s . Very co m m o n ly , th e in f o r m a n t s w ith fam ilies e x p r e s s e d in te n s e s t r e s s a s s o c ia te d w ith family r e la tio n s in the initial p e r io d of th e ir stay. T h e s e in c i d e n ts w ere c o d e d a s “fam ily c onflict,” w h ic h w a s o n e o f th e m o s t fre q u e n tly u s e d c o d e s in th is s t u d y (e.g., the fam ily b u r d e n d i s c u s s e d by QH earlier).

DISCUSSION The Model of Cultural Negotiation T h r o u g h th e p r o c e s s o f d a t a a n a l y s i s a n d in te g r a t io n o f e m e r g e n t t h e m e s , I d e v e lo p e d th e M o d e l o f C u l t u r a l N e g o t i a t i o n ( S a k a m o t o , 2 0 0 1 ; see Fig. 1 8 . 1 ). I d e fin e th e p r o c e s s o f c u l t u r a l n e g o tia tio n a s th e w ay in w h ic h i n d iv id u a ls e n c o u n te r , u n d e r s t a n d , c o n s t r u c t , r e c o n ­ s t r u c t , n e g o tia te , a n d r e e v a lu a te th e m u ltip le c u l t u r a l c o n te x ts o f th e ir e v e ry d a y lives. T h e M o d e l o f C u l t u r a l N e g o tia tio n h a s six s t a t e s , w h ic h

Constraints

Affordances FIG. 18.1. A Model of Cultural Negotiation. The Model of Cultural Negotia­ tion is a loose stage model. Constraints (inhibitors) and affordances (facilita­ tors) affect all states of cultural negotiation. Examples of the constraints include social regulatory powers, such as the presence of the parents, work­ place, and some examples of the affordances include social power and a sense of agency. The presence of the family and family dynamics could be both affordanccs and constraints of an individual’s cultural negotiation processes.

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a r e n o t m u t u a l l y exclu sive. It is likely th a t a n in d iv id u a l e x p e r i e n c e s s e v e ra l s t a t e s a t th e s a m e tim e , d e p e n d i n g o n th e c o n te x t a n d / o r d e ­ p e n d i n g o n the d o m a i n s of in te r a c tio n (e.g., c o m m u n i c a t i o n w ith A m e r ic a n f r i e n d s , c o m m u n i c a t i o n w ith s u p e r o r d i n a t e s ) . O n e s ta te is n o t n e c e s s a r ily s u p e r i o r to th e other. Negative r e p e r c u s s i o n s for n o t m o v in g t h r o u g h d iff e r e n t s t a t e s a lso d e p e n d on e a c h in d iv id u a l o r f a m ­ ily a n d th e ir c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n goals. T h e f ir s t s ta te o f th e m o d e l is e n c o u n t e r s in “h o s t ” c u l t u r e s . T h e s e e n c o u n t e r s m a y b e w ith p e o p le o r n o n h u m a n s , s u c h a s in s t i t u t i o n s a n d m e d ia , a n d le a d n e w c o m e r s to c o n s t r u c t t h e ir o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f “th e h o s t c u ltu r e ." T h is s t a t e c o n s i s t s o f m a k i n g s e n s e o u t o f w h a t th e y o b s e rv e . T h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s m a y be c o lo re d by p r e a r r i v a l s te r e o ty p ic beliefs. T h e n e x t is th e s t a te of a c c o m m o d a t ­ i ng t h e d i f f e r e n c e s ( a c c u l t u r a t i o n ) . My i n f o r m a n t s h a d d iffe r e n t s t r a t ­ egies to a c c o m m o d a t e th e d iffe r e n c e s t h a t th e y o b s e r v e d , e sp e c ia lly in th e a r e a s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n sty le s (e.g., a s s e r t i v e n e s s , d i r e c t c o m m u ­ n ic a t io n style) a n d i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . For e x a m p le , s o m e h u s b a n d s p r e s s u r e d th e ir w ives to be m o r e a s s e r tiv e so t h a t th e w ives c o u ld a c t m o r e i n d e p e n d e n t l y a n d c o u ld be in te g r a te d m o r e in to the “A m e r i c a n ” socicty. S o m e w ives felt th a t th e ir h u s b a n d s h a d g o n e o v e r ­ b o a r d by b e c o m i n g loo a g g ressiv e in d e a lin g w ith local " A m e r ic a n s ,” in c lu d in g th e ir s u p e r v i s o r s . T h i s s t a te o f a c c o m m o d a t i n g th e d iffe r­ e n c e s c o u ld b e follow ed by, o r p r o g r e s s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w ith , th e s t a te of re s i s t a n c e / b e c o m i n g ethnocentr ic . S o m e th o u g h t J a p a n e s e ways w e r e “b e tte r " in c o m m u n i c a t i o n sty le s, s ty le s o f se rv ic e delivery, a n d o t h e r d o m a i n s s u c h a s food. O n e o f th e f a m ilie s h a d believ ed t h a t o n c e th ey m o v e d to “A m e ric a ," they, too, h a d to e a t b r e a d everyday, s o they d id (a c c o m m o d a t i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s ). A fter a few w e e k s , th e y b e c a m e so t ir e d of “A m e r i c a n ” food t h a t th e y s w it c h e d c o m p le te ly to a n a l l - J a p ­ a n e s e d ie t (b e c o m i n g e t h n o c e n t r i c ). T h e s e f i r s t t h r e e s t a t e s (e n c o u n t e r s in h o s t c u l t u r e s , a c c o m m o ­ dating the differences, resistance/becom ing eth n o cen tric) m ay re­ cycle o r p r o g r e s s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a t a n y t im e , a s m i g r a n t s h a v e m o r e e n c o u n t e r s in th e h o s t c u l t u r e s a n d u n d e r s t a n d d if f e r e n t c u l t u r a l n o r m s a n d se lfw a y s. T h r o u g h t h i s p r o c e s s , th e y m a y g r a d u a l l y g a in p e r s p e c t i v e s o n t h e i r c u l t u r e o f o rig in ( J a p a n e s e c u l t u r e ; r é é v a l u a ­ t ion o f t h e “o r i g i n a l ” c u l t u r e ), a s w ell a s o n A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e (r é é v a l ­ u a t i o n o f t h e “h o s t " c u l t u r e ). My i n f o r m a n t s r e e v a l u a t e d w h a t w a s h e a l t h y a n d u n h e a l t h y for t h e m a b o u t J a p a n e s e s e lfw a y s, a n d w a n t e d to d i s c a r d s o m e of its f e a t u r e s ( s e n s e o f ag en cy). F u r th e r , s e v ­ e r a l i n f o r m a n t s t a l k e d a b o u t s e x is m a n d r a c i s m in J a p a n . O n c e th e y s t e p p e d o u t s i d e o f th e f a m i l i a r e n v i r o n m e n t , th e y c o u l d se e m o r e c le a rly th e f o r c e s t h a t w e r e o p p r e s s i v e to w o m e n a n d e t h n i c m i n o r i ­ tie s. O n th e o t h e r h a n d , th e y m a y r e v is e w h a t th e y t h o u g h t w a s “A m e r ­ ic a n ” a n d d e c o n s t r u c t s o m e o f th e ir s t e r e o t y p i c b e liefs. For e x a m p le , th e fa m ily t h a t k e p t e a tin g J a p a n e s e f o o d r e a l i z e d la t e r o n t h a t even if th e y h a d b e e n in J a p a n th e y w o u l d n o t e a t ty p ic a l “J a p a n e s e food" e v ­

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e r y sin g le day. S im ila rly , th e y o b s e r v e d t h a t “A m e r i c a n s ," too , e a t d i s h e s t h a t o r ig in a te in m a n y d if f e r e n t c u l t u r e s . T h e y s w i t c h e d a g a in , to th is tim e to a m o r e e c le c tic d ie t, s u c h a s I ta lia n p a s t a d i s h e s , M e x i­ c a n b e a n s , a n d C h in e s e n o o d l e s . A cco rd in g ly , th e b e h a v i o r s o r t h o u g h t s t h a t th e y a c c o m m o d a t e d e a r l i e r o n m a y b e a ffe c ted a s well. T h r o u g h th is p r o c e s s o f r é é v a l u a t i o n o f th e tw o c u l t u r e s t h a t th e y c o n s t r u c t e d a n d r e c o n s t r u c t e d , th e y m a y a p p r o a c h th e s t a t e of t r a n s c u l t u r a t i o n (“No h e a v e n , n o h e l l ” in th e R c o u p l e 's w o r d s ) — w h e r e th e y feel le s s c o m m i t t e d to o r c o n s t r a i n e d b y e i t h e r c u l t u r e , a l ­ th o u g h th e y still fir m ly id e n tify t h e m s e l v e s a s J a p a n e s e . T h r o u g h u n e v e n s t a t e s ( s ta t u s e s ) o f c u l t u r a l n e g o tia tio n in d iffe re n t d o m a i n s of i n te r a c tio n (e.g., c o m m u n i c a t i o n w ith w o r k c o lle a g u e s, f r i e n d s h i p , t a s k s r e l a te d to family), s o m e i n d i v id u a ls a n d fa m ilie s w e r e m o v in g to w a r d th e t r a n s c u l t u r a t i o n s ta te , w h e r e th e y still h a d a firm s e n s e of J a p a n e s e c u l t u r a l identity, b u t d id n o t feel e n tire ly c o m ­ m i t t e d to e i t h e r J a p a n e s e o r A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e s . T h i s s t a t e of t r a n s c u l t u r a t i o n is still a t e m p o r a r y s t a t e , a n d n o t n e c e s s a r il y a p e r ­ m a n e n t sta g e a c h ie v e d , a s in a sta g e m o d e l s u c h a s W. E. C r o s s ’s ( 1 9 9 5 ) o r a r a c ia l id e n tity d e v e lo p m e n t m o d e l s u c h a s H e l m s ’s (People o f C o lo r R a c ia l Id en tity M o d e ls ; 19 9 5 ). As o n e e n c o u n t e r s a n e w c u l­ t u r a l s i t u a t i o n , th e p r o c e s s o f c u l t u r a l n e g o tia tio n will r e s u m e . F u r t h e r m o r e , v a r i o u s so c ia l r e g u la to r y f o rc e s a s m o d e r a t i n g f a c to r s affected o n e 's m o v e m e n t b e tw e e n th e s t a t e s , a n d th e p r o g r e s s i o n th r o u g h t h e m . T h e s e so c ia l r e g u la to r y p o w e r s m a y in c lu d e family, g e n ­ d e r ro le s , th e p r e s e n c e o f in -law s, a n d so c ia l s t a t u s . M oreover, c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s c o u ld in h i b i t th e k i n d s of c h a n g e s t h a t o n e w o u ld like to m a k e to o n e ’s c u l t u r a l selfw ays. For e x a m p le , s o m e fe m a le s t u d y p a r ­ t ic ip a n ts s h a r e d h o w they w e r e try in g v ery h a r d to d i s c a r d th e “m u t u a l a p o lo g y n o r m , ”3 b u t h a s b e e n very difficult to d o so b e c a u s e of th e c u l ­ tu r a l h a b i t t h a t th e y ha v e d e v e lo p e d ov er th e y e a r s . T h e i n f o r m a n t s in m y s a m p l e , m o s t of w h o m h a d in itia l p l a n s to s la y in th e U n ite d S t a t e s for 2 to 6 y e a r s , m ig h t ha v e felt a s t r o n g e r s e n s e of a g e n c y a n d fluidity t h a n p e r m a n e n t U.S. r e s i d e n t s o f J a p a ­ n e s e o rig in , b e c a u s e th e y w o u ld be le s s likely to hav e e x p e r ie n c e d g la s s ceiling effects o r o t h e r s e r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s a r i s i n g fr o m b e in g a v is i­ ble m in o r it y in U.S. society. In a d d i t i o n , th e fact t h a t th e y w e r e s o c ia l­ ized in J a p a n , w h e r e th e i d e a o f “fitting in ” is e n c o u r a g e d a s a so c ia l valu e, m ig h t facilitate th e ir w illin g n e s s to a c c o m m o d a t e a n d fit in to th e ir s u r r o u n d i n g s . T h u s , b e in g J a p a n e s e m ig h t, in t u r n , facilitate th e m to be a d a p tiv e a n d even t r a n s c u l t u r a l , a s c o n c e p tu a liz e d by 3

A J a p a n e s e c u ltu ral n o r m d e s c rib e d by a few female i n f o r m a n t s in m y s a m p le . I coin ed the term , m u t u a l ap o l o g y n o r m . It is a n o r m in which a w o m a n w ould often a p o l ­ ogize first, r a t h e r autom atically, even w hen sh e k n o w s th at she w a s n ot at fault, only b e ­ c ause th at w ould m a k e the situ atio n s m o o t h e r a n d allow the o t h e r to apologize m o re easily. S o m e of m y in f o r m a n t s d i s c u s s e d it with fru str a tio n b e c a u s e their A m e ric an c o u n t e r p a r t s d id not often re c ip r o c a te these w o m e n ’s h a b it u a l apologies, leaving these w o m e n in a w k w a r d po sitio ns.

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M a r k u s a n d K ity a m a ( 1 9 9 1 ) a n d o t h e r s t u d i e s o n J a p a n e s e s e n s e of s e lf (L e b ra , 1 9 9 2 ; L e b r a & L e b ra , 1 9 8 6 ; R o s e n b e rg e r , 199 2). G e n d e r r o l e s d id s e e m to affect th e c u l t u r a l n e g o t ia tio n p r o c c s s ; th e w o m e n w h o c a m e to th e U n it e d S t a t e s a s s p o u s e s r e p o r t e d d if f e r ­ e n t s e t s o f c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n d if f ic u ltie s t h a n th e m e n d id . T h e d if­ f e r e n c e s in t h e i r g e n d e r r o l e s c r e a t e d d i f f e r e n t c h a l l e n g e s for a d a p t a t i o n . B e c a u s e w o m e n in t h e a c a d e m i c m i g r a n t f a m ilie s w e re d is p ro p o rtio n a te ly a c c o m p a n y in g s p o u s e s ,4 ra th e r th a n ac a d e m ic m i g r a n t s t h e m s e l v e s , it is n o t c le a r w h e t h e r g e n d e r its e lf o r g e n d e r r o le s w e r e o p e r a t i n g h e r e .

How do Gender R oles and Family Affect the Cultural N egotiation Processes? For th e a c a d e m i c m i g r a n t fa m ilie s in m y s a m p l e , th e fam ily a n d r e l a ­ tio n s w ith in it d e e p ly affected i n d iv id u a l c u l t u r a l n e g o tia tio n p r o ­ c e s s e s . G e n d e r r o le s s e e m e d to p la y a c e n t r a l p a r t in th e in flu e n c e of fam ily o n c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n . D iffe re n t m e m b e r s of th e fa m ilie s p a r ­ t ic ip a te d in a n d s h a r e d th e t a s k s o f c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n , w h e r e a s m i ­ g r a n t s w it h o u t fa m ilie s m u s t try to a t t e n d to all the d o m a i n s of c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n o r n eglect s o m e th a t they c a n n o t cover. W ithin th e family, th e g e n d e r e d d iv isio n of l a b o r t h a t it h a d in J a p a n w a s often th o u g h t to be t r a n s p o r t a b l e to th e n e w c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t . In a d d itio n , th e r o le s o f th e wives, w h o w e r e often w it h o u t c h ild c a r e o r a w o r k p e r m i t , w e r e often c e n t e r e d a r o u n d th e a r e a s t h a t w e r e t r a d i ­ tio n a lly th o u g h t to b e w o m e n ’s r o le s . B e c a u s e th e m a jo r ity o f th e w ives h a d h e ld p a i d j o b s in J a p a n , th is c h a n g e in s t a t u s (w o r k in g w o m e n vs. b e in g a “h o u s e w if e ”) often m e a n t t h a t g e n d e r r o le s b e c a m e even m o r e p r o n o u n c e d t h a n w h e n th ey w e r e in J a p a n . T h is c o u ld c a u s e p r o b ­ le m s w h e n th e w o m e n h a d difficulties c a r r y i n g o u t t a s k s a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e s e " w o m e n ’s r o l e s . ” In m o s t of th e h o u s e h o l d s , th e w ives w e r e e x p e c te d to c a r r y o u t all th e t a s k s t h a t w e r e c o n s i d e r e d to b e in th e “p r i v a t e ” s p h e r e o f w o r k ( d o m e s t ic w o r k , c h ild r e a r in g ) , a s o p p o s e d to th e h u s b a n d s ' t a s k s , w h ic h te n d e d to f o c u s o n th e “p u b l i c ” s p h e r e o f w o r k ( o u ts id e w o r k , sc h o o l, r e s e a r c h ) . T h e “p r i v a t e ” s p h e r e of w o r k w a s c o m p li c a te d w h e n th e la rg e r so c ia l e n v i r o n m e n t c h a n g e d d ra s tic a lly ; o ften w ives initially 4

Although th ere a re no c o m p re h e n s iv e d a ta th a t s h o w s the total n u m b e r of J a p a n e s e a c a d e m ic m ig r a n t s a n d their families staying in the United Sta te s, the c u r r e n t available d a t a indic ate th a t w o m e n m a k e up the o ve rw helm ing m ajority of the a c c o m p a n y in g f a m ­ ily m e m b e r s to J a p a n e s e s t u d e n t s a n d r e s e a r c h e r s in the United S ta te s. However, this d o e s n ot m e a n th at m o s t J a p a n e s e in te r n a tio n a l s t u d e n t s a n d s c h o l a r s in the United S ta te s a re m en . T he n u m b e r of w o m e n w ho stay in the United S ta te s over 3 m o n t h s for the p u r p o s e of s t u d y a n d r e s e a r c h h a s m o re than d o u b le d in the p a s t 10 years, r e p r e ­ se n tin g over 46% of the total J a p a n e s e s t u d e n t s a n d r e s e a r c h e r s re g iste red with the local J a p a n e s e c o n s u l a t e s in 1999 (the J a p a n e s e Ministry of Foreign Affairs d a ta , re p o rt e d in O no & Piper. 2 0 0 4 . p. 106).

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n e e d e d h e lp f r o m th e ir h u s b a n d s to c o m p le t e th e t a s k s (e.g., d r iv in g to th e g r o c e r y s t o r e to b u y g r o c e r ie s , n e e d in g h e lp m a k i n g a p p o i n t m e n t s for clin ics), t h u s r e q u i r i n g the h u s b a n d s to c r o s s s p h e r e s . T h e h u s ­ b a n d s c o m m o n l y felt f r u s t r a t e d a n d r e s e n tf u l a b o u t n e e d in g to offer “e x tr a h e l p ” to p e r f o r m t a s k s t h a t w e r e “s u p p o s e d to be" p e r f o r m e d by th e w ives. T h is s p h e r e c r o s s i n g , in t u r n , m a d e w ives often feel guilty a n d m a d e th e m “feel like a child ." How ever, a f te r th e initial s e ttlin g - d o w n p r o c e s s , th e w ives c o m ­ m o n ly g a in e d m o r e c o m p e t e n c e a n d c o n f id e n c e in ta k in g c h a r g e o f th e p r iv a te s p h e r e o f w o r k , w h ic h allo w e d th e h u s b a n d s to c o n c e n t r a t e on th e n a r r o w d o m a i n of w o r k a n d th e c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n t a s k s for t h a t d o m a i n . O n th e o t h e r h a n d , a s m a n y o f th e wives c o n t i n u e d to b e r e ­ s p o n s i b l e for th e p r iv a te s p h e r e o f w o r k , they n e c e s s a r ily h a d a m o r e w id e - r a n g in g e x p o s u r e to th e A m e r ic a n so c ie ty a t large. T h is w a s b e ­ c a u s e in o r d e r to a c c o m p l i s h the p r iv a te s p h e r e of w o r k , th e s e w ives h a d to d e a l w ith p e o p le w h o w e re o u t s i d e of th e u n i v e r s ity w o r ld (e.g., c h i l d r e n ’s s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , n e i g h b o r s w h o a r e A m e r i c a n s o r fro m o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , m a i n t e n a n c e p e o p le ). T h u s , th e h u s b a n d s ’ w o r k te n d e d to be m o r e " u n iv e r s a l ” a c r o s s c u l t u r e s , fo c u s in g on t h e i r a r e a of specialty, w h e r e a s th e w iv es' w o r k t e n d e d to b e c o m e m o r e “local" a n d d iv e r s e a fte r th e initial r e s e t t l e m e n t p e r io d . G iven th is d iv e rs ity of ex ­ p o s u r e , a t l e a s t s o m e o f th e w ives e x p e r ie n c e d m u c h difficulty w ith l a n ­ g u ag e, a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g th e m e a n in g a n d c o n te x t of th e c o m m u n i c a t i o n , c o m p a r e d to th e m e n , w h o s e p r i m a r y la n g u a g e c o n ­ te xt w a s m o r e n a r r o w l y f o c u s e d o n th e ir a c a d e m i c s . F u r th e r , th is w a s a d iffere n c e t h a t n e i t h e r th e h u s b a n d s n o r w ives s e e m e d to u n d e r s t a n d fully, s o t h a t w h e n th e w iv e s w e r e n o t f u n c t i o n i n g c o m p l e t e l y su c c e s s f u lly in th e ir p r iv a te s p h e r e o f w o r k , th e h u s b a n d s w e r e often f r u s t r a t e d a n d th e wives guilty. G e n d e r r o l e s a l s o h a d p o s iti v e e ffe c ts fo r th e c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n o f th e f a m ily w h e n , a f t e r t h e in i t i a l s e t t l e m e n t s t r e s s , w iv e s t o o k o n m o r e a s o c i a l r o l e w i t h i n t h e fam ily, t h u s e x p a n d i n g t h e s o c i a l life o f t h e i r h u s b a n d s a s w ell. At th e s a m e ti m e , w iv e s w h o w e r e q u i e t a n d / o r w e r e n o t c o n f i d e n t in E n g l i s h s e e m e d to h a v e e x p r e s s e d t h i s e x p e c t a t i o n a s c h a lle n g in g . All a s p e c t s o f c u l t u r a l n e g o tia tio n a n d a d a p t a t i o n w e r e affected by the go a ls o f c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n t h a t the i n d iv id u a ls a n d the fa m ily /c o u ­ ple h a d . O ften, th e p o w e r f u l m e m b e r o f the fam ily s e t the to n e for th e r e s t of th e family, s o m e t i m e s “d r a g g in g th e m along" in th e d ir e c tio n he h a d c h o s e n . T h is w a s e sp e c ia lly th e p a t t e r n fo r h u s b a n d s w ith h ig h c a ­ r e e r a s p i r a t i o n s . T h e y often s a w s u c c e s s in th e U.S. r e s e a r c h e n v i r o n ­ m e n t a s c e n tr a l to t h e ir s u c c e s s a s a r e s e a r c h e r , a n d w a n t e d to a d o p t “A m e r ic a n w a y s ” th e y t h o u g h t w e r e c r u c i a l to b e in g s u c c e s s f u l. T h e y e x p e c te d th e r e s t o f th e fam ily (e sp e c ia lly wives) to s u p p o r t th is e n ­ d e a v o r a n d often in d ir e c tly o r d ire c tly p r e s s u r e d th e fam ily to a c c o m ­ m o d a t e th e ir c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n g o als. T h i s o ften m e a n t t h a t the h u s b a n d s w a n t e d th e fa m ily to m o v e a lo n g t o w a r d th e d ir e c t io n of c u l ­

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tu r a l a d a p ta tio n th a t the h u s b a n d s w ere m ov in g to w a rd . T h u s , the sta te s of c u ltu r a l negotiatio n of the in d iv id u a l m e m b e r s of the family w ere d eeply affected by the po w erfu l m e m b e r of the family— often the h u s b a n d s . On the o th e r h a n d , w h en the h u s b a n d s h a d a low er level of c u ltu r a l a d a p ta tio n goals (e.g., "just get by for two y e a r s ,” “enjoy life in the U.S.”), th e re w a s less p r e s s u r e for the fam ily to a c t a s a cohesive u n it in a d a p tin g to a new c u ltu r a l context, th u s re laxing the re g u la to ry po w e r w ithin the family to a c c u ltu ra te . T h e id e a t h a t th e s e J a p a n e s e p e o p le c o n s t r u c t a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of A m e r i c a n n e s s — a s o c ia l c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t view — e m e r g e d a s a n i m ­ p o r t a n t a s p e c t of th e s t u d y p r e s e n t e d h e r e . J a p a n e s e a c a d e m i c m i ­ g r a n t s a n d th e ir f a m ilie s w e r e c o n s t a n t l y e n g a g in g in i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d m e a n i n g - m a k i n g in th e ne w c u l t u r a l c o n te x t. However, the u n ­ d e r s t a n d i n g of th e n ew c u l t u r e w a s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t r a n s l a t e d into th e b e h a v i o r a l o r affective d o m a i n s of c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n , a n d vice v e r s a . T h e in d iv id u a ls a n d c o u p le s e x p r e s s e d a s e n s e o f a g e n c y in th e a d a p t a t i o n p r o c e s s e s , w h e r e a s th e p r o c e s s e s w e re affected by the c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n g o a ls n e g o tia te d w ith in th e fa m ily /c o u p le s , a n d by m a n y o t h e r i n h i b i t o r s a n d f a c ilita to r s . To h ig h lig h t th e fluid, c o m p le x , a n d n o n l i n e a r n a t u r e of c u l t u r a l a c c o m m o d a t i o n , I have p r o p o s e d a M o del of C u l t u r a l N e g o tia tio n (see Fig. 18.1). T h e i m ­ p a c t s of g e n d e r ro le s a n d p o w e r d if fe r e n tia ls on th e c u l t u r a l n e g o tia ­ tio n p r o c e s s e s w e r e d i s c u s s e d a s fa c i lita t o r s a n d i n h i b i t o r s of c u l t u r a l n e g o tia tio n p r o c e s s e s .

Next Steps Currently, I am c o n d u c tin g a r e s e a r c h p ro je c t with a n a d d itio n a l s a m ­ ple of J a p a n e s e a c a d e m ic m ig r a n ts (both lo n g itu d in al a n d c r o s s - s e c ­ tio n a l) to f u r t h e r v a l i d a t e th e M o d e l o f C u l t u r a l N e g o tia tio n . P re lim in a ry r e s u lt s with th is m o r e diversified s a m p le s h o w th a t the M odel of C u ltu r a l Negotiation d o e s a pply to o th e r g r o u p s of J a p a n e s e a c a d e m ic m ig r a n ts . In a d d itio n , I a m c o n d u c tin g a se rie s of s tu d ie s ex­ a m in in g the p r o c e s s e s a n d stra te g ie s of c u ltu r a l nego tiatio n for C h i­ ne se im m ig r a n ts in T oro nto. T h is p r o je c t e x a m in e s the a pp licability a n d lim ita tio n s of th e M odel of C u ltu r a l N egotiation to a n o th e r p r o f e s ­ sio n a l im m ig r a n t p o p u la tio n . Arguably, the flexibility of c u ltu r a l n eg o­ tiation for J a p a n e s e m ig r a n ts w a s a c c o m m o d a te d by the relative affluent e c o n o m ic s t a t u s a n d political stability of th e ir h o m e country. In this s e c o n d wave of s tu d ie s , I have c h o se n skilled im m i g r a n t s from M a in la n d C hina, b e c a u s e they have s im ila r e d u c a tio n a l a n d c la ss b a c k g r o u n d s as well a s c u ltu r a l tr a its to J a p a n e s e p ro f e s s io n a l m i ­ g r a n t s (Fiskc, ct al., 1998), b u t also th e re a rc d ifferences in the p o liti­ cal a n d e c o n o m ic s itu a tio n s in th e ir h o m e c o u n tr ie s . T h e r e s u l ts from th e C h in e se p ro je c t co nfirm the g e n d e r e d e x p e rie n c es of c u ltu r a l n e g o ­ tiation p r o c e s s e s t h a t w ere revealed in th e e a rlie r J a p a n e s e s a m p le (S a k a m o to & Z h o u , 2 0 0 5 ). At th e s a m e tim e, in c o m e s e c u rity e m e rg e s

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as a critical is su e th a t f u n d a m e n ta lly in fluences the c u ltu r a l n eg o tia ­ tion p r o c e s s , w hich is different from th e J a p a n e s e s a m p le (S a k a m o to & Z h o u , 2 0 0 4 ). T h e s e c o n d p h a s e of the C h in ese p ro je c t fo cu se s on r e ­ fining the M odel of C u ltu r a l Negotiation for the C h in e se skilled i m m i­ g r a n t p o p u la tio n .

CONCLUSION A g r o u n d e d th e o ry s tu d y with J a p a n e s e a c a d e m ic m ig r a n ts a n d th e ir s p o u s e s ex p lo re d th e p r o c e s s e s , s ta t u s , a n d s t r u c t u r e of c u ltu ra l n e ­ gotiation, focusing on g e n d e r role a n d family. T h e s tu d y highlighted the co m p le x a n d fluid p r o c e s s e s of c u ltu ra l a d a p ta tio n t h a t th ese J a p a ­ ne se in d iv id u a ls a n d fam ilies n e g otiated in th e ir N o rth A m e ric a n c u l­ tu r a l con texts; in p a rtic u la r, the m o d e r a ti n g f a c to rs— a ffo rd a n c e s a n d c o n s t r a i n t s — of s u c h c u ltu r a l negotiatio n p r o c e s s e s w ere e x a m in e d . A ca de m ic m ig r a n ts e x p r e s s e d a se n s e of agency in the p r o c e s s e s of n e ­ gotiating m u ltip le c u ltu r a l c o n te x ts (e.g., tr a n s c u lt u r a t io n ) , w h ich w as v a rio u sly affected by o c c u p a tio n a l s ta tu s , social power, g e n d e r roles, a n d family r e la tio n s. T he c o n c e p t of fam ily -b ased c u ltu r a l a d a p ta tio n em e rg e d , lea d in g to a new integrative m o d e l d e p ic tin g the nonlinear, fluid, a n d uneven n a tu r e of c u ltu ra l negotiation a n d tr a n s c u ltu r a ti o n , th a t is, the Model of C u ltu ra l Negotiation. C u ltu re is m o r e c o m p le x t h a n h a s often be e n d e s c r ib e d in p s y c h o l­ ogy, a n d in d iv id u a ls m a y h ave m o r e flexibility a n d a d a p ta b ilit y in u n ­ fa m ilia r c u l t u r e s th a n h a s b e e n tr a d itio n a lly a s s u m e d in psy chology lit e r a tu r e s . A lth o u g h p sy c ho lo gy often fails to go b e y o n d th e n o tio n of c u ltu r e a n d th e s e lf a s h a s tr a d itio n a lly b e e n c o n c e p tu a liz e d in the s o ­ cial sc ie n c e s, th e r e is a d ire n e e d to reflect th e m u ltic u lt u r a l , m u l t i ­ faceted re a lity of th e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of c u ltu r e a n d th e self, a n d the p o te n tia l for c h a n g e p r o c e s s e s in c u ltu r a l sclfw ays a s callcd for by c u ltu r a l p s y c h o lo g is ts ( H e r m a n s & K e m p e n , 19 98 ; Miller, 2 0 0 2 ; S h w e d e r & B o u r n e , 1984). T h e stu d y p r e s e n t e d in th is c h a p te r a im s to c o n c e p tu a liz e c u ltu r e a n d the se lf from family, g e n d e r role, a n d pow er-d ifferential p e r s p e c ­ tives. T h e p r o p o s e d Model of C u ltu ra l Negotiation a ffo rd s a m o r e s o ­ p h is tic a te d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the p r o p e r t ie s a n d p r o c e s s e s of c u ltu r e th a n tr a d itio n a l m o d e ls, a n d m a k e s ro o m for th e m alleability of c u l­ tu r a l selfways a n d th e in te rse c tio n a lity of m u ltip le identities.

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL NOTES TOWARD THE FUTURE OF CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY OF IMMIGRATION My p ro f e s s io n a l a n d a c a d e m ic in te r e s ts in w o r k in g with im m i g r a n ts p r im a rily a r o s e from m y p e r s o n a l ex pe rie n c es. I first c a m e from J a ­ p a n in 1993 a s a F ulbrig ht s c h o l a r to p u r s u e g r a d u a te s tu d ie s in M ich­ igan. B e sid e s b e ing a g e n d e r m in o rity a s a w o m a n , I w a s n o t u s e d to bein g se e n a s so "different” all the tim e d u e to m y language, c u ltu re ,

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a n d p hysical a p p e a r a n c e . T h is w a s a truly new ex p e rie n c e for so m e o n e w h o grew u p in the seem ingly h o m o g e n e o u s e n v ir o n m e n t of m id d lc -c la ss J a p a n . As a PhD s t u d e n t in social psychology a n d social w o r k a t the U niversity of Michigan. I stru ggled to find a n ic h e in w hich m y e x p e rie n c e s a n d c u ltu ra l p e r s p e c tiv e s w ere valu ed , o r even re c o g ­ nized as valid. I felt a s if N o rth A m eric a n ra c ia l po litics re s e r v e d the te rm r a c i s m to m e a n o p p r e s s io n a g a in s t African A m e ric a n s, a n d fo u n d it difficult to find a s p a c e to talk a b o u t m y e x p erience of b e in g a foreign A sian w o m a n with a n a c c e n t in a p r e d o m in a n t ly White society. I eventually c a m e to r e p r e s e n t m y se lf a n d o th e r s in s im ila r s itu a tio n s ( in te rn a tio n a l s t u d e n ts / s c h o la r s a n d th e ir families) th r o u g h c a m ­ p u s - b a s e d activism , advocacy, a n d a c o m m u n ity - b a s e d p a r tic ip a to r y action pro ject. F ro m th e se e x p e rien c es, m y sc h o la rly a n d p ro fe ss io n a l w o rk s ta r te d to focu s m o r e on c u ltu re , iden tities, a n d v a rio u s f o r m s of o p p r e s s i o n , in c lu d in g gender, race/ethnicity, a n d fo reig n n ess (e.g., G u tié rrez , S a k a m o to & M o rso n . 2 0 0 3 ; P itn e r & S a k a m o to , 2 0 0 5 ; S a k a m o to , 2 0 0 1 , 2 0 0 3 ; S a k a m o to & Pitner, 20 05 ). J o i n i n g the C u l tu r e a n d C o g n itio n P r o g r a m in M ic h ig a n h e lp e d m y in te l le c tu a l g r o w th a s a c u l t u r a l p s y c h o lo g is t. F i r s t , it w a s s u c h a n in v ig o r a tin g e x p e r ie n c e to be a b le to ta l k a b o u t “m y c u lt u r e " b e ­ fo re a ca p tiv e a u d ie n c e . P eo ple w a n te d to k n o w m o r e a b o u t “th e J a p ­ a n e s e c u l tu r e " to c o n t r a s t to “th e A m e r i c a n c u ltu r e ." T h e n I faced th e c h a lle n g e of b a l a n c i n g m y a g e n d a of i n s e r t i n g m y voice w hile n o t s e lf-e x o tic iz in g o r overly g e n e r a l iz i n g “th e J a p a n e s e c u l t u r e . ” Of c o u r s e , t h e r e a r e v a r i o u s p o w e r d if f e r e n tia ls w ith in J a p a n o r a n y o t h e r c o u n try . H ow m u c h of th o s e p o w e r d if f e r e n tia ls c a n we r e p r e ­ s e n t in c u l t u r a l p s y c h o lo g y ? H ow g e n e r a l iz a b le is m y “in d ig e n o u s k n o w l e d g e ”? T h e s e a r e s o m e of th e q u e s t i o n s t h a t m u s t be r a i s e d in c u l t u r a l psychology. A n o th e r challenge I see in c u ltu r a l psychology is th a t a lth o u g h p s y ­ c ho lo gists a n d a n th r o p o lo g is ts have c o m e tog ether to form a n i n t e r d i s ­ c ip lin a ry field, the b a r r i e r s still r e m a in in m e th o d o lo g y a n d e p iste m ology. F u r th e r m o r e , th o se w h o truly c r o s s the m e th o d o lo g ic a l a n d e piste m o lo gica l b o u n d a r i e s of th e se d is tin c t d isc ip lin e s face c h a l­ lenges in g e ttin g th e ir w o r k p u b lis h e d in “m a i n s t r e a m " j o u r n a l s , w hich lim its the p u b lic a tio n from re a c h in g a w id e r a u d ie n c e . For e x am p le, r a re ly can one p u b lis h a qualitative psychological s tu d y from a c o n str u c tiv is t or critical p e rsp e c tiv e in a m a i n s t r e a m psychology j o u r ­ nal. In m y own ex perience, m y d is s e r ta tio n h a d b o th a c o n tro lle d lab e x p e r im e n t a n d a n in ductive, c o n s tru c tiv is t qualitative study. B rid ging the epistem ological g a p s u n d e r ly in g th e se two d is tin c t m e th o d o lo g ie s w a s truly a challenge for m e in fo rm in g one cohesive b o d y of w o rk . In s u m m a r y , I see the fu tu re d ire c tio n for the s tu d y of c u ltu r a l p s y ­ chology of im m ig r a n ts in th e following: 1. R ecognizing the lim ita tio n s of p o stp o s itiv is m a n d e xp lo ring d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d o l o g i e s a n d e p is te m o l o g ie s to c r e a te new

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k n o w le d g e s (for episte m o lo g ie s, p le a se refer to G u b a & Lincoln, 1998): Different a p p r o a c h e s m a y ra is e a n d a n s w e r new, i m p o r ­ ta n t q u e s tio n s . For ex a m p le , how can c u ltu r a l psychology d ra w fro m c o m m u n ity - b a s e d p a r tic ip a to r y r e s e a r c h p r o je c ts with i m ­ m ig r a n ts t h a t c o uld highlight in d ig e n o u s k n o w le d g e s? 2. Reflecting the tr a n s n a ti o n a l reality a n d re cognizing m u l t i ­ ple id entities: We n e e d to reflect the idea t h a t c u ltu re can be a flex­ ible, c h a n g e a b l e s y s te m t h a t a t th e s a m e tim e c o n s t r a i n s in d iv id u a ls a n d the collective. As H e r m a n s a n d K e m p e n (1998) a rg u e d , c u ltu r a l p syc h olog ists n e e d to to le rate the a m b ig u ity a n d u n c e r ta in ty th a t em erg e w h e n c u ltu r e s shift a n d c o m e in c o n ta c t with one a no th er. T h is also calls for n o t only loo king at ce n tra l te n d e n c ie s w ithin a c u ltu r e u s in g inferen tial sta tis tic s b u t also u s in g a variety of m e th o d o lo g ie s to reflect the diversity w ith in a c u ltu r c a n d its shifting n a tu r e . 3. Inte gra ting m o r e fully gender, s ex u a l o rie n ta tio n , cla ss, a n d v a r io u s o th e r po w e r differentials: Psychology is often criticized for b e ing apolitical. C u ltu r a l in q u iry in psychology is also guilty of offering s w e e p in g h e u r i s t i c s e q u a tin g a c u lt u r e w ith a n a ­ tio n /sta te o r an eth n ic g r o u p (Miller, 1997). We can le a rn m u c h from a n th ro p o lo g y a n d sociology a s we in c o r p o r a te th e i m p a c t of p o w e r differentials a n d diversity w ithin a "c u ltu r e .” 4. E n g a g in g in c ritic a l in te r r o g a t io n of “c u l t u r e ”: M any a n ­ th r o p o l o g is ts in the la s t d e c a d e s critic iz e d th e utility a n d in te g ­ r i ty o f th e n o t i o n o f “c u l t u r e ” (e.g., A b u - L u g h o d , 1 9 9 1 ; B r ig h tm a n , 1995). I a m n o t q u ite s u r e yet w h e th e r o r n o t c u l­ tu r a l p s y c h o lo g is ts , too, c a n “forget c u ltu re " ( B r ig h tm a n , 1995, p. 5 0 9 ) com pletely. N e v e rth e le ss, we n e e d to re c o g n iz e the fact t h a t the n o t io n s of “c u ltu r e " a n d “c u ltu r a l d if f e r e n c e s ” have h a d p r o b le m a tic h is to r ie s a n d , even in th e p r e s e n t day, a re often u s e d to c r e a te a n d r e in f o r c e h i e r a r c h i e s (A bu-L ug hod , 1991). In t h a t r e g a r d , it is c r u c ia l to e x a m in e w h o is n a m i n g th e “c u ltu re " in q u e s tio n a n d w h o is p r a c tic in g it. As long a s c u ltu r e is a p u b lic a lly av a ila b le c o n c e p t, w h ic h I e x p e c t it will be for a t le a st s o m e tim e , I believe c u lt u r a l p sy c h o lo g is ts have an i m p o r t a n t role to play in identifying, q u e s tio n in g , a n d in te r r o g a tin g c u ltu r e in a c ritic a l m a n n e r .

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Paludi, M. A. (1998). T h e p s y c h o l o g y o f w o m e n . U p p e r S a d d le River, NJ: P rentice Hall. P atton, M. Q. (1990). Q u a l i t a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n a n d r e se a rc h m e t h o d s (2nd ed.). N ew bury P a rk , CA: Sage. Pessar, P. R. (1999). E n g e n d e r in g m ig ra tio n s tu d ie s : T h e case of new im m i ­ g r a n t s in the U n ite d S ta te s . A m e r i c a n B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n t i s t , 42(4), 577-600. Phinney, J. S. (1990). E th n ic identity in a d o le s c e n ts a n d a d u lts : Review of r e ­ se a r c h . P sy chologi c al Bull et in. 108, 4 9 9 - 5 1 4 . Phinney, J ., & Devich-Navaroo, M. (1997). V ariations in b ic u ltu ra l id entifica­ tion a m o n g African A m e ric a n a n d Mcxican A m e ric a n a d o le s c e n ts . J o u r n a l o f R e s e a r c h on A d o l e s c e n c e , 7, 3 - 3 2 . Pitner, R., & S a k a m o to , I. (2005). E x a m in in g the role of critical c o n s c io u s n e s s in m u ltic u ltu r a l practice: Its p r o m is e s a n d lim itatio n s. A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f O r t h o p s y c h i a t r y , 75(4), 6 8 4 - 6 9 4 . R odriguez, N. P (1999). G lobalization, auto no m y , a n d tr a n s n a ti o n a l m ig r a ­ tion: Im p a c ts on U.S. in te r g r o u p rela tio n s. R e s e a r c h in Politics a n d S o c i ­ ety, 6, 6 5 - 8 4 . Ro sen berg er, N. R. (1992). J a p a n e s e s e n s e o f self. C a m b rid g e , UK: C a m ­ bridge University Press. Ryder, A. G., Alden, L. E., & P a u lh u s . D. L. (2000). Is a c c u ltu r a tio n u n i d i m e n ­ sio n a l o r b id im c n s io n a l? A h c a d -to -h c a d c o m p a r i s o n in the p re d ic tio n of personality, self-identity, a n d a d j u s tm e n t. J o u r n a l o f Per s o na li ty a n d S o ­ cial P sy cho log y, 79(1), 4 9 - 6 5 . S a k a m o to , I. (2001). N e g ot i a t i ng m u l t i p l e c ul tu ra l co nt ex ts : Fl exi bi lit y a n d c o n s t r a i n t in the cul tu ra l s e l f w a y s o f J a p a n e s e a c a d e m i c m i g r a n t s . U n ­ p u b lis h e d d o c to ra l d is s e r ta tio n . U niversity of Michigan, Ann Arbor. S a k a m o to , I. (2003). C h a n g in g im a g e s a n d c o m m o n d y n a m ic s: H istorical p a t ­ te rn in g off o r e i g n n e s s in the social w o rk p ro fe s sio n . In R. S a u n d e r s (Ed.), T h e c o n c e p t o f t h e f o r e i g n : A n I n t e r d i sc i pl in a ry d i a l o g u e (pp. 2 3 7 - 2 7 9 ) . L a n h a m , MD: Lexington B ooks. S a k a m o to , I., & Pitner. R. (2005). Use of critical c o n s c io u s n e s s in a n ti-o p p r e s sivc social w o rk practice: D isentan glin g p o w e r d y n a m ic s a t p e r s o n a l a n d s t r u c t u r a l levels. British J o u r n a l o f S oc ial Work, 35(4), 4 2 0 - 4 3 7 . S a k a m o to , I., & Z h ou , Y. R. (2 0 0 4 , August). Cu lt ura l n e g ot i a t i on o f J a p a n e s e a n d C h i n e s e ( i m ) m i g r a n t s in North A m e r i c a : A c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s . P a­ p e r p r e s e n te d at the 2 8 th I n te rn a tio n a l C o n g re s s of Psychology in Beijing. S a k a m o to , I., & Z hou , Y. R. (2005). G e n d e r e d nostalgia: T h e e x p e rie n c es of C h in e se new skilled im m ig r a n ts in C a n a d a . In Agnew, V. (Ed.), Di as po r a, m e m o r y a n d s i l e n c e — Who calls C a n a d a h o m e ? (pp. 2 0 9 - 2 2 9 ) . T oronto: U niversity of T oron to Press. Shw ed er, R. A., & B o u rn e , E. J . (1984). D oes the c o n c e p t of the p e r s o n vary c ro s s - c u ltu ra lly ? In R. A. S h w e d e r & R. A. Levine (Eds.), Cu lt ur e theory: E s s a y s on m i n d , s e l f a n d e m o t i o n (pp. 1 5 8 -1 9 9 ). New York: C am b rid g e U niversity Press. S tr a u s s , A., & C o rb in , A. (1998). B a s i c s o f q u a l i t a t i v e research: T e c h n i q u e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s f o r d e v e l o p i n g g r o u n d e d t h e o ry (2nd ed.). T h o u s a n d O a k s, CA: Sage. S w ales, J. M. (1997). E nglish a s T y r o n n o s a u r u s rex. World E n g l i s h e s , 16(3), 373-382.

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Tsc, L. (1995). Language b r o k e r in g a m o n g L atino a d o le sc e n ts: Prcvalcncc, a t­ titu d e s , a n d sc h o o l p e rf o r m a n c e . H i s p a n i c J o u r n a l o f B e h a v i o r a l S c i ­ e n c e s, i 7(2), 1 8 0 -1 9 3 . U n ite d N a tio n s. (2 00 2). N u m b e r of w o rld 's m ig r a n ts r e a c h e r s 175 m illion m a r k : M igra nt p o p u la tio n h a s d o u b le d in twenty-five y e a rs. R etriev ed D e ­ c e m b e r 8, 2 0 0 5 , from h ttp ://w w w .u n . o r g / N e w s / P r e s s / d o c s / 2 0 0 2 / p o p 8 4 4 . d o e.h tm Valenzuela, A. (1999). G e n d e r ro le s a n d s e ttle m e n t activities a m o n g c h ild re n a n d th e ir im m ig r a n t families. A m e r i c a n B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n t i s t , 42(4), 720-742.

A u th o r In d ex

A A b r a h a m , M., 6, 153, 20 0 , 21 2 , 2 1 3 , 164, 165, 2 1 6 A b r a h a m , T., 2 0 1 , 2 1 6 A bu-L ughod, L., 3 6 0 , 3 6 0 A do rn o, T. W.. 97, 99, 108 Aguayo, S., 55, 77 Aguilar Zinzer, A., 22 2 , 2 3 8 A in sw o rth . M., 2 8 6 , 2 9 3 Alba, R.. 44, 51, 5 2 Alden, L. E., 3 3 9 , 3 6 3 Aleinikoff, T. A.. 64, 75 Alexander, M., 151, 164 Aliarne, D., 21, 30 Allen, E.. 84, 90 A llport. G. W.. 96, 98, 99, 108 Ambady, N., 145, 149 A n d e rs o n . B., 3, 152, 11, 164 A n d e r s o n , P., 2 8 1 , 2 94 A n d e rs o n , S., 2 8 4 , 2 9 3 Antin, M., 179, 193 A n tonucci, T., 8 4 , 90 A nzald üa, G., 183, 193 A p p a d u r a i, A., 2 2 9 , 2 3 8 A ra n d a , E., 47, 51 A rbour, E, 2 2 5 , 2 3 8 A rm s tro n g , T. L., 102, 109, 1 13, 119, 128, 134, 138, 1 47

A rnett, J. J ., 3 0 0 , 3 0 1 , 3 0 3 , 311 A rnold. E., 2 8 0 , 28 4 , 2 8 5 , 2 8 6 , 2 87, 293 A rr e d o n d o , P. M., 3 0 2 , 311 A sh m o re , R. D., 126, 140, 141, 147 Aycan, Z., 114, 126, 127 B B a c h m a n , B. A., 104, 113, 128 B a c h m a n , G., 113, 118, 129, 138, 149 B a c h m a n , J . G., 104, 111 Back, K. W., 107, 108 B acon, J., 153, 164 Baker, M., 115, 127 B aldw in, J ., 169, 171, 172, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 193, 194, 195, 196 Balgopal, P. R., 3 0 6 , 3 0 7 , 3 1 3 B alsh in e, S., 21, 3 2 Baltzell. E. D.. 43, 51 B a m m e r, A., 2 4 8 , 2 5 7 Banaji, M. B., 136, 148 B a p tiste . D.. Jr ., 81, 90 B a p tiste , D. A.. 2 8 7 , 2 9 3 B arker. M., 98, 108 B arker, T.. 2 8 3 , 2 8 4 . 2 9 5 36 5

366 B a ro n , R., 105, 109 B a r r e r a , M.. 43, 52 B a rre tt, J., 182, 195 Barry, D. T., 7, 11 B asch , L., 45, 52, 80 , 90. 91 B h a s h a m , R.. 84, 91 B ashi, V. F., 137, 1 47 B a u m r in d . D.. 2 8 4 , 2 9 3 B a y n e -S m ith , M., 2 8 8 , 2 9 3 Becker, B., 7 . 1 1 B e d fo rd , O., 3 2 5, 3 3 5 Belsky, J ., 2 8 1 , 2 9 3 Benet-M artinez, V., 1, 11, 145, 1 4 7 , 3 3 9 , 361 B e n ja m in , D., 115, 1 27 Benoit, L., 28, 31 B e r m a n . W., 2 8 3 , 2 9 5 Berry, J. W., 1. 11, 79, 80, 90, 114, 126, 2 8 1 , 3 0 5 , 3 1 1 , 3 1 2 , 3 1 3 , 3 39, 3 4 0 , 3 6 0 , 361 Best, D. L., 2 5 9 , 2 7 2 B e st-C u m m in g s, C., 2 8 1 , 2 9 3 B h a b h a , J., 176, 180, 194, 2 1 8 , 2 3 8 B hatia, S., 1, J J Biafora, F. A., J r ., 142, 147 Billings, D., 2 2 1 , 22 2 , 2 2 3 , 22 4 , 2 25, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 238 B inion, G., 2 1 8 , 2 3 8 Blaine, B., 142, 147 Blanc, C. S., 45, 52. 54, 80, 90, 91 Blau, P. M.. 104, 109 B launer. R., 43, 52 Bloom. H.. 171, 194 Blue. S. A.. 48. 52 B obb, V., 82. 83. 86. 90 Bobo. L., 98, 111, 135, 1 47 B od na r, J .. 36, 39. 52 Boelhower, W., 171, 194 B o n s te a d - B r u n s , M., 144, 1 48 B o rg e rh o ff M ulder, M., 22, 2 3 , 3 0 , 32 B osse n , L., 2 3 2 , 2 3 8 B urgos-D ebray, E., 22 8 , 2 3 8 B o u rn e , E. J., 154, 161, 166, 3 03, 3 1 3 , 3 38 , 3 5 8 , 3 6 5 Bowen, D. E., 121, 127 Bowlby, J ., 28 6 , 2 9 3 Boykin, A. W., 154, 165 Boyle, P., 28, 3 0 B r a n s c o m b e , N. R., 140, 141, 147 B r c d c k a m p , S., 28 6 , 2 9 3

AUTHOR INDEX B rescoll, V., 2 8 3 , 2 9 5 B ricc-Bakcr, J., 8 1 , 85, 91 Brief, A. P., 1 18, 128 B rig h tm a n , R., 3 6 0 , 361 Brislin, R. W., 3 3 9 , 361 B r o a d n a x , S., 142, 1 4 7 B r o d k in , K., 186, 194 Brody, E. B.. 2 8 2 , 2 9 4 Bromley. S., 100, 109 B ro w n . B. B., 2 8 4 , 2 9 7 B ro w n . J.. 29 3 . 2 9 4 , 2 96 , 2 95, 2 9 7 B ro w n . K. T., 9 6 , 110 B ro w n , S. L., 28, 32 B ro w n . T. N.. 96, 110 B ujaki, M., 3 39. 361 B u lo sa n , C ..179. 194 Burawoy. M., 34. 152 B u rg e ss, E. W., 40, 53 B u rt, N. V., 171, 196 B utcher, K. F., 139, 147 Bynoe, P. F., 21 1, 2 8 9 , 2 9 6

C C a lh o u n , C. A., 102, 109 C a m m a c k , D.. 2 2 1 , 2 3 8 C a m p b e ll, C., 28 8 , 2 9 4 C a m p b e ll. E. Q.. 104, 105, 111 C a r m a c k , R., 2 2 2 , 2 3 9 Cavalli-Sforza, L., 16, 30 C h a n . S., 3 1 7 , 3 3 5 C hang, S., 2 8 3, 2 9 5 C hao, T. H., 3 3 0 , 3 3 1 , 3 3 5 C h a r m a z , K., 3 4 2 , 361 C harnov, E. L., 17, 3 0 C havira, V., 3 0 1 , 3 1 3 C h e v a n n e s, B., 2 8 1 , 2 9 4 C h a r le s w o r th , H., 2 1 8 , 2 3 9 C hian g-H om , C., 3 2 4 , 3 3 5 C hiu. C., I, 11, 3 3 9 , 3 6 2 Choi, I., 154, 166, 3 3 8 , 3 6 2 C h rist, O., 96, 112 C h r is ta k o p o u lo u , S., 3 0 5 , 3 1 2 C I A ,2 5 , 3 0 Cicchetti, D., 7, 11 C lark e. A. L.. 21. 22, 23, 24, 30, 31 Cleaver, E.. 171, 194 C le m e nt, R.. 102, 109 Clifford. J.. 62. 75, 179, 194 C lo w ard , R. A.. 38. 53 C o c h r a n . I. R .,308, 3 1 3

AUTHOR INDEX C o h en , J., 122, 128 C o h e n , P., 1 2 2 , 1 2 8 C o h e n , R. R ., 1 1 8 , 1 2 8 C o le. E ., 2 4 4 , 2 5 7 C ole, M .,1 , 11 C o l e m a n , H. L. K.. 3 0 1 , 3 3 9 , 3 6 2 C ollier, J . , 2 1 9 , 2 3 9 C o l o m , Y., 2 2 4 , 2 3 9 C o n s t a b l e , N., 2 7 1 , 2 7 2 C o p p l e , C., 2 8 6 , 2 9 3 C o r b i n . A.. 3 4 1 , 3 4 2 . 3 6 3 C o r w i n , A. F., 3 6 , 5 2 C o u r n o y e r . D. E ., 2 8 4 , 2 9 6 C o w a n , P. 4 2 , 5 2 C r a m e r , M. R ., 1 0 4 , 1 0 5 , 111 C r a n d a l l , C. S ., 1 1 7 , 1 2 6 , 1 2 8 C r a w f o r d - B r o w n , C ., 8 2 , 9 0 , 2 8 7 , 294 C ro ck er, J., 135, 136, 139, 142, 143, 147 C r o s s , W. E . J r . , 1 3 9 , 1 4 7 , 3 6 1 C row ley, H ., 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 , 2 3 9 C u m m i n g s , E. M., 2 8 1 , 2 8 3 , 2 9 4 C u s h n e r , K., 3 3 9 , 3 6 1

D D a n g , T., 3 2 4 , 3 3 5 D a n ie l, C. A., 2 8 2 , 2 9 7 D a rb y , J . , 1 0 3 , 1 0 9 D arsey, J , 173, 179, 194 D a s G u p t a , M ., 3 0 4 , 3 0 7 , 3 0 9 , 3 1 2 D a s g u p t a , S., 5, 11, 2 6 3 , 2 7 2 D a s g u p t a , S . D . , 5 , 11, 2 0 0 , 2 1 6 , 2 6 3 , 272, 308, 312 D a v ie s , P. G., 1 4 0 , 1 5 0 , 2 8 3 , 2 9 4 D a v is , A., 1 0 4 , 1 4 8 , 2 3 4 , 2 3 9 D a v is , J . A., 1 0 4 , 1 0 9 D a v is , J . C . t 3 0 6 , 3 1 3 D c D c l l a r o s s a , G. S., 8 7 , 9 0 D ean e, G .,1 3 3 , 139, 14 8 D e a r b o r n , M. V., 1 8 6 , 1 9 4 D e a u x , K., 1 3 1 , 1 3 8 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 1 , 1 4 7 , 148 D e n B o er, A. M., 2 6 3 , 2 7 2 D e n e a u l t , B ., 1 0 2 , 1 0 9 C r o s b y . F. J . , 1 0 0 , 1 0 9 D e n t o n . N. A.. 1 0 7 . 1 1 0 D e s a i, P., 2 8 5 , 2 9 5 D esb arets, J.. 25, 30 D e v ic h - N a v a r o o , M., 2 8 8 , 3 3 9 , 3 6 3

367

D e v ill a r d , S ., 2 1 , 3 0 D e v in e , P G., 1 1 7 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 6 , 1 4 8 D eY oung, Y., 2 8 4 , 2 9 4 D h i n g r a , P. H., 7, 1 1, 1 5 5 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 2 , 165 D i c k e n s o n , J . L., 2 1 , 31 D ie tz . J . , 1 1 4 , 1 1 8 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 8 , 1 2 9 D in e r, H. R.. 3 6 , 5 2 D io n , K. D., 9 6 , 3 6 1 D io n . K. K.. 5, 3 0 3 , 3 0 5 , 3 0 6 , 3 0 7 , 309, 312, 325, 327, 335, 340 D io n , K. L., 1 0 9 , 2 0 1 , 3 0 3 , 3 0 5 , 3 0 6 , 307, 309, 312, 314, 325, 3 2 7 , 3 3 5 3 4 0 , 361 D i r k s . N., 6 3 , 7 6 D o b a s h , R. E ., 2 1 5 , 2 1 6 D o b a s h , R. P., 2 1 5 , 2 1 6 D o l a n , R ., 2 6 , 3 2 D o n a z a r , J . A., 2 1 , 3 2 D o r n b u s c h , S. M., 2 8 4 , 2 9 7 D o v id io , J . F., 1 0 2 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 7 , 1 19, 1 2 6 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 8 , 1 4 8 D o w n e y , G ., 1 4 1 , 1 4 8 D r a p e r , P., 2 8 1 , 2 9 3 D r e y f u s , H. L., 6 5 , 6 7 , 7 6 D r i s k o , J . W., 3 4 3 , 3 6 1 D r o s s m a n , M., 2 8 8 , 2 9 4 D u B o is , W. E. B., 1 7 7 , 1 9 4 Duany, J.. 4 8 , 52, 2 8 1 , 2 9 4 D u b e , L., 5, 11 D u n b a r . R. I. M.. 2 1 , 2 4 , 3 2 D u r b r o w . E . H ., 2 8 5 , 2 9 4 D w e c k , C. S ., 1 3 6 , 1 4 8

E E h l e r s , T., 2 2 5 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 9 E l l e m e r s , N., 1 4 0 , 1 4 7 E llio t, A. J . , 1 3 6 , 1 4 7 E m l e n , S. T., 2 1 , 3 0 E n v iro n ic s, 125, 128 E r b , R., 9 8 , 1 0 9 E r i k s o n . E. H., 2 9 9 , 3 0 0 , 3 1 2 E s h l e m a n , A.. 1 1 7 , 1 2 6 , 1 2 8 E s p e n s h a d e , T. J . , 3 4 , 5 3 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 9 E s p i n , O. M.. 2 4 1 , 2 4 4 , 2 4 5 , 2 5 0 , 2 5 5 , 2 6 3 , 27 2, 3 3 9 , 361 E s p i r i t u , Y., 5, 6, 1 5 2 , 1 6 5 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 2 E s p r i t u , Y. L., 3 4 0 , 3 6 1 E s s e d . P., 9 8 , 1 0 9

AUTHOR INDEX

368

E s s e s , V.M., 113, 119, 128, 129, 134, 138, 148, 3 0 5 , 3 1 2 E therege, G .,65, 76 E ugene, E., 137, 149 E va ns, M., 2 8 4 , 2 85 , 2 86 , 2 9 0 . 2 9 7 E v ans, M. E., 2 8 2 , 2 8 3 , 2 9 6 E v a n s - P r itc h a r d . E. E., 62, 76

F Fahre, M., 173, 194 Falla, R., 2 2 2 , 23 3 , 2 3 9 Farley, R., 44 , 52 Fcagin, J. R., 44, 52 F c a rn sid c , P., 26, 3 0 F eldm a n , S. S., 3 0 6 , 3 1 3 Filteau, C. H., 3 0 6 , 3 1 2 Fischer, M. J ., 65, 140, 148 Fiske. A. P., 3 3 8 , 361 Fiske, S. T., 3, 11, 154, 165 Flay, R. R., 107, 109 Flinn. M., 2 8 2 , 2 9 4 Fogg, N., 114, 129 Foner. N.. 5, 7, 10, 11, 45, 4 6 , 4 9 . 52, 81, 82, 83, 84, 135, 146, 148, 2 81 , 2 9 5 Fong. S. L. M.. 3 0 5 , 3 1 2 F orbes. H. D., 104, 107, 109 F o ro u n , G., 80. 87, 90 Foucault, M., 63, 67, 76 Frable, D. E. S.. 3 3 9 , 361 F ra n cis, E., 2 8 8 , 2 9 4 Frazer, R. A., 121, 128 Frazier, E. F., 42, 52 F re n k e l-B ru n sw ik , E., 97, 108 Fuchs, D., 104, 105, 109 F ug leru nd, O., 67, 76 Fuligni, A. J., 2 8 0 , 2 8 1 , 29 1 , 2 9 4 Fuller, T., 101, 109 F u r n h a m , A., 80, 90, 2 8 4 Fussell, E., 4 8 , 52

G G a b b a c c ia, D., 2 44 , 2 5 7 G aertn er, S. L., 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 1 2 6 , 1 28 G aillard , J. M., 21, 30

G a larza, E., 38, 52 G a n s . H. J ., 3 2 5 , 3 3 5 G a rd n e r, R. C., 28 3 , 3 0 5 , 3 1 2 G e lm a n . S. A., 156, 165 G eo rg as, J.. 30 5 , 3 1 2 G e ra r d . P. A., 137, 141, 143, 148 G e r h a r d s , J., 104, 105, 109 G ershoff. E. T., 2 8 4 . 2 9 5 G e rto n , J ., 3 0 1 , 3 3 9 , 3 6 2 G h o sh , R., 3 0 6 , 3 0 7 , 3 1 2 G ib so n , M. A., 144. 148 Gii. R. M., 6, 11 G ildner. M. A., 2 8 1 , 2 9 3 Giles, W., 2 1 7 , 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 , 22 0 . 2 3 9 Gilgun. J. E., 3 4 1 , 361 Gilroy, P. 188, 194 G inorio, A., 2 4 3 , 2 5 7 Glaser, B. G., 3 4 2 , 361 Glaser, J. M., 104, 105, 109 Glazer, N., 41, 52 Glick Schiller, N., 80, 87, 90 Goeke-Morey, M. C., 2 8 1 , 2 9 4 Gold. S. J., 10, 11, 37, 5 2 Goldring, L., 80, 91 Gonzalcz-R cigosa, F.. 24 9 , 2 5 8 Gopaul-McNicol, S., 81, 85, 91, 2 81 , 289, 291, 295 G o rd o n . L., 2 0 2 , 2 1 6 G o rd o n . M. M., 41, 42, 52 G r a h a m . Y. J., 2 8 8 , 2 9 3 G r a h a m - B e r m a n , S. A., 2 8 3 , 2 9 5 G r a n t h a m - M c G r e g o r , S. M.. 2 8 3 , 2 8 5 ,2 9 5 G r a h a m , P.. 80, 90 G r a s m u c k , S., 2 82 , 2 9 5 Gray, S. A.. 137, 148 G reenfield. P. M.. 2 8 9 , 2 95 Griffin. F. J .. 183, 194 Griffith, C.. 2 87 , 2 9 7 Grigg, D. B., 16, 3 0 G rinb erg, L., 24 7 , 2 4 8 , 2 5 8 G rinberg , R., 2 4 7 , 2 4 8 , 2 5 8 G r o s s m a n , K., 2 86 , 2 9 5 G r o s s m a n , K. E., 2 8 6 , 2 9 5 G u a rn iz o , L. E., 7, 12, 47, 53, 80, 92 G u b a , E. G., 3 4 3 , 3 6 0 , 361 Guglielm o, T. A., 181, 184, 185, 194 Gilligan, C., 154, 165 G u n n , S., 102, 109 G urr, T. R., 107, 109 G u tie rre z , L. M., 3 5 9 , 361

AUTHOR INDEX

369

H u t c h i n g s , W. L., 1 3 5 , 1 4 7

H

H a c k i n g . I.. 6 3 , 6 6 , 6 7 , 7 6 H a r n e s , R., 2 3 , 3 0 H a n d l i n , O., 1 8 0 , 1 8 2 , 1 9 1 . 1 9 4 H aniff, N. Z ., 2 8 3 , 2 9 5 H a n s o n , G. H., 1 1 5 , 1 2 8 H a n s o n , W. E ., 3 4 6 , 3 6 2 H a o , L, 1 4 4 , 1 4 8 H a r d i n g , S ., 1 9 8 , 2 1 6 H a r d y III, C. E ., 1 7 1 , 1 9 4 H a rd y , K., 8 1 , 9 0 , 2 8 8 , 2 9 3 L e w is , L., 8 1 , 9 0 , 2 8 7 , 2 9 3 H a rd y , K. V., 2 8 7 , 2 9 3 H a r i t a t o s , J . , 6, 12, 2 6 2 , 2 7 0 , 2 7 3 H a r k n e s s , S ., 2 8 5 , 2 9 7 H ealey, J . F., 1 9 8 , 2 1 6 H egel, G. W. F., 6 8 , 7 6 H e in e , S. J . . 3 3 9 , 3 6 1 H e l m s , J . E ., 3 5 4 , 3 6 1 H e n k e , H ., 8 3 , 91 H e r m a n , K. A., 2 8 3 , 2 9 5 H e r m a n s , H. J . M., 3 4 0 , 3 5 8 , 3 6 0 , 362 H e c h te r , M., 1 0 7 , 1 0 9 H ig h am , J.. 3 5 , 52 H im es. J ., 2 8 3 , 2 9 5 H in tz e n , P. C ., 1 3 4 , 1 4 8 H i r a l d o , F., 2 1 . 31 H i r s c h f e l d , L. A., 1 5 6 , 1 6 5 H itz ta le r, S., 2 7 , 3 0 H o, C., 8 9 , 91 H o b s o n , B., 2 3 7 , 2 3 9 H o d s o n , G., 1 0 5 , 1 0 6 , 1 0 7 , 1 1 3 , 1 2 8 H o f f m a n , E ., 2 4 7 , 2 5 8 H o l d e n , G. W., 2 8 3 , 2 8 4 , 2 9 5 H o l e k a m p , K. E ., 17, 31 H o llin g e r, D., 4 7 , 5 0 , 5 2 H o n d a g n e u - S o t e l o , P., 8 0 , 9 1 , 2 5 9 , 263, 272, 340, 362 H o n g , Y., 1, 11, 9 9 , 3 0 6 , 3 1 6 , 3 1 8 , 322, 339, 340, 362 H o o d , M. V., 9 8 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 4 , 1 0 6 , 1 0 9 , 110

H o o k s , M.. 2 2 4 , 2 3 9 H o r e n c z y , K., 8 5 , 91 H o r e n c z y k , G .. 3 0 2 , 3 1 3 H o s s f e l d , K. J . , 1 9 9 , 2 1 6 H o u g h , J . C.. J r . , 1 5 6 , 1 6 6 H u d s o n . V. M., 2 6 3 , 2 7 2 H u m , D., 1 1 5 , 1 2 8

I I l c h m a n . W.. 2 5 , 31 I n d r a , D.. 2 1 7 , 2 3 9

J J a c k s o n , B., 6, 12, 2 6 2 , 2 7 3 J a c k s o n , J . S ., 9 8 , 1 1 0 , 1 1 2 J a c k s o n , L. M., 1 0 2 , 1 0 9 , 1 13, 1 19, 128, 134, 138, 147 J a c o b s o n , M., 1 5 3 , 1 6 5 J a c o b s o n , M. F., 1 8 2 , 1 8 5 , 1 9 4 J a m e s , S. A., 4 , 1 1 J e n s e n , J., 152, 165 J o h n s o n , C., 1 3 9 , 1 4 8 J o n c s , J . M., 1 5 4 , 1 6 5 J o s e p h , Y., 1 4 7 J o s t , J . T., 1 3 6 , 1 4 8

K K a k a r , S., 2 6 0 , 2 7 2 K a lm ijn , M., 1 3 9 , 1 4 8 K a p l a n , A., 1 8 3 , 1 9 4 K a p l a n , T., 2 2 4 , 2 3 9 K a s i n i tz , P., 8 2 , 9 1 , 1 4 9 , 2 7 8 , 2 9 5 K e a n , K. J . , 2 8 4 , 2 9 6 K e m p e n , H. J . G., 3 5 8 , 3 6 0 , 3 6 2 K enny, D. A., 1 0 5 , 1 0 9 K h a n d e l w a l , M., 1 5 3 , 1 5 5 , 1 6 5 , 2 1 4 , 216 K h a t i w a d a , I., 1 1 4 , 1 2 9 K ib r ia , N., 3 0 6 , 3 0 7 , 3 1 3 K im , C. J . , 2 , 3 , 6 , 11, 1 5 1 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 2 , 165 K im , Ü., 3 3 9 , 3 6 1 K i m m e i , M. S ., 3 4 6 , 3 6 2 K i t a y a m a , S., 1, 12, 3 3 8 , 3 3 9 , 3 6 1 , 362 K lin k . A.. 1 0 0 , 1 1 0 K n u d s e n , J . C ., 6 2 , 7 6 K o e n ig , W. D., 2 1 , 3 1 K o o p m a n s , R ., 1 0 3 , 1 1 0 K r i s h n a k u m a r , A.. 9. 2 8 4 . 2 8 5 . 2 8 6 , 290, 292, 295. 297

370

AUTHOR INDEX

Kristof. B row n. A. L., 121, 1 29 K rysan. M., 98, 111 K unovich, R. M., 98, 99, 105, 106, 107, 110 Kurac, M.. 2 2 0 , 2 3 9 K urian. P., 8. 11, 152, 164, 165 K w enda, N., 28, 32 L

L abissiere, Y., 137, 149 L a F ro m b o ise , T., 3 0 1 , 3 1 2, 3 3 9 , 3 40, 362 L a g u erre , M. S., 49, 5 0 , 53 L a k s h m i, C. S., 26 1 , 2 6 3 , 2 7 2 L aliberte, D., 28, 31 Lam , W., 2 8 4 , 2 9 5 L a m b e r t. W. E., 139, 150 L a n d m a n , J ., 2 8 5 , 2 9 5 L a ndolt, P., 7, 12, 47, 53, 80, 92 L a n d rin e , H., 154, 165 L a p in sk i, J . S .t 139, 148 Lasswell, H., 25, 31 Lau, S., 28 4 , 2 9 5 Lauer, Q., 73, 76 L a z a ru s, E., 173, 194 L eb ra, T. S., 3 5 5 , 3 6 2 Lebra,W. P., 3 5 5 , 3 6 2 L c d c rm a n , R., 33 7 , 3 6 2 L edford, G. R., J r ., 121, 127 Lee, C. C., 3 0 8 , 3 1 3 Lee, E. S., 33, 53 Lee, F., 145, 147 Lee, M. G., 2 8 3 , 2 9 7 Lee, S. J ., 155, 165 L eeming, D., 173, 188, 194 Lefebvre, H., 176, 195 L e h m a n . D. R., 3 3 9 , 361 Lem ieux, A. F., 100, 111 L e o n a rd , K., 152, 165 Leo-Rhynie, E., 2 8 3, 285 Lessinger, J ., 80. 83, 91 Leu, J., 6, 12, 145, 147, 27 1 , 2 7 3 Leung, K., 2 8 4 , 2 9 1 , 295, 2 9 7 Levernier, J . A., 186, 195 Levine, R., 2 8 6 , 2 9 5 LeVine, R. A., 3 0 3 , 3 2 3 Levingson, D. J., 97, 108 Levine, H., 84, 92 Levy, S. R., 136, 148 Lewis, L., 81, 90, 2 8 7 , 293

Li, P. S., 114, 115, 129 Li. W., 3 1 6 , 3 2 0 , 3 3 5 Li, X., 3 3 0 , 3 3 2 , 3 3 6 L iebkind . K.. 85 , 91, 3 0 2 , 3 1 3 Light, I., 40, 5 3 Lijtmaer. R., 87, 91 Lim. I. S., 3 4 0 , 3 6 2 Lin, N., 26, 31 Lincoln, Y. S., 3 4 3 , 3 6 0, 361 L in d isfarn e , N., 2 6 0 , 2 7 3 Lipsitz, G., 182, 183, 185, 195 Lister. R., 23 7 , 2 3 9 L ockridge, K. A.. 22, 31 Logan, J. R., 133, 1 3 9 ,1 4 8 , 3 2 5 , 3 3 5 Lora, E. A., 48, 53 Low. B.. 22, 23, 24, 30, 31, 3 2 Lowe, L., 181, 186, 195 L u c a s, J., 136, 148 L u h ta n e n , R., 142, 147 L uibh eid , E., 2 4 4 , 2 54, 2 5 8 L u m b r a n r a ja , J., 26, 31 L uthar, S. S., 7, 11

M M acklin, A., 21 9 , 2 3 9 M addox, K. B., 137, 148 M a halin gam , R., 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11, 81 , 86, 91, 151, 154, 162, 165, 2 6 2 , 2 7 0 , 2 71 , 2 7 3 Mahler, S., 80, 82, 191 Mahoney, A. M.. 2 8 2 , 2 9 7 Major. B., 135, 136, 143, 14 7 M alkki, L. H., 56, 76 Man, G., 3 4 0 , 3 6 2 Manz, B., 60, 76, 2 3 2 , 2 4 0 Marcia, J. E.. 3 0 1 , 3 1 3 Margolis, J ., 64, 76 M arkow itz. F., 3 0 4 , 3 1 3 M a rk s, B., 96, 110 M a r k u s , H. R., 1, 12, 3 3 8 , 3 3 9, 3 55, 361, 36 2 M arlin. O.. 87, 91 M arriott, M.. 61, 76 M artin, P., 34, 35, 37, 3 9 , 53 M artin, S., 2 2 0 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 3 , 2 3 9 M artin, T., 113, 129 M ason, M. A., 2 8 8 , 2 9 3 Massey, D. S., 107, 110, 134, 139, 148, 229, 239 M atlou, P., 2 2 0 , 2 2 1 , 2 3 9

AUTHOR INDEX M cBride, D. A., 171, 195 McLean, C., 2 8 8 , 2 9 4 McConahay. J. B., 119, 129, 156, 165, 166 M cD erm ott, C., 5. 12, 2 6 2 , 2 6 3 McGillicuddy-DeLisi, A.. 2 8 5 , 2 9 7 McLaughlin-Volpe, T., 140, 147 McLoyd, V. C., 2 8 1 , 2 9 5 McNutt, J. W., 21, 31 M e ek s-G a rd n e r, J.. 2 8 3 , 2 9 5 M eerten s, R. W., 96. 98, 99, 100, 101, 1 1 0 , 111

Melich, A., 97, 111 M endoza, L., 182, 186, 195 M end o z a -D e n to n , R., 141, 148 Menozzi, P., 16, 30 M e rtu s, J., 22 3 , 2 4 0 Michaels, W. B .,1 83 , 195 Midgley, E., 34, 35, 37, 39, 53 Millette, R., 2 8 2 , 2 9 5 Miller, J ., 154, 161, 166 Miller, J . G., 3 3 8 , 35 8 , 3 6 0 , 3 6 2 Mizrahi, K., 138, 148 Model, S. A., 139, 148 Moffitt, R., 16, 31 Molyneux, M., 2 2 4 , 2 4 0 Montgomery, J ., 25, 31 M onteith. M. J . , 1 17, 129 M orales, A., 3 4 6 , 3 6 2 Morel, T., 2 3 0 , 2 4 0 Morley, J . I., 21, 32 Morris, M. W., 1,11, 145, 147, 3 3 9 , 3 62 M orris, I. L., 9 8 , 100, 104, 106, 109, 110

M o rriso n , T., 172, 185, 186, 195 M o rson , T., 3 5 9 , 361 M o ss a k o w sk i, K. N., 7, 12 Mouffe, C., 2 1 7 , 2 4 0 M ousa, H., 2 1 7 , 2 3 9 Moya, J., 45, 4 7 , 5 2 M oynihan, D. P, 52, 53 Mullally, P., 3 3 9, 3 6 2 Mullen, B., 3, 12, 102, 110, 139, 146, 148 Muller, T., 34, 53 M u rd o c k , G. P., 22, 31 Murphy, E. J . , 5 , 9 , 12, 79, 81, 86, 9 J Mylonas, K., 3 0 5 , 3 1 2 N

Nagel, J ., 152, 166

371 Naidoo, J. C., 3 0 6 , 3 1 3 N arayan , U., 24 3 , 2 5 8 N ath a n , B. R .,1 2 1 , 127 Necef, M., 2 4 9 , 2 5 0 , 2 5 8 Nee, V., 44, 51, 84, 91 Negro, J. J ., 21, 31 Nelson. D.. 2 1 9 ,2 2 5 , 2 4 0 New land, A.. 2 8 1 , 2 9 4 Ngai, M. M., 184, 195 Nisbett, R. E., 1, 12, 154, 166, 3 3 8, 3 3 9 , 3 61 , 3 6 2 Noels, K. A., 102. 109 N o ren z a y a n , A.. 154, 166, 3 3 8 , 3 6 2 Norville, B., 2 8 7 , 2 9 7 O O ’Connor, C., 25, 31 O gbu, J . U., 5, 12, 25, 26, 31 Omi, M., 135, 136, 149, 182, 195 Ong, A., 152, 1 66 O no, H., 3 5 5 , 3 6 2 O nw u g h a lu . M., 8 5, 86, 92, 1 4 1 , 1 4 8 Ortiz, F.. 41, 53 O rtner, S., 5, 12, 2 63 , 2 7 3 Oyewole, A .,136, 149

P Packer, C., 22, 32 Palm a. S., 114, 129 Paludi, M. A., 34 6 , 3 6 3 P a ris h , S. M., 155, 166 P a rk , R. E., 40, 41, 42, 53 P a te m a n , C., 2 1 7 , 2 4 0 Patton, M. Q., 3 4 1 , 3 6 3 P a u lh u s, D. L., 33 9 , 3 6 3 Payne, M., 2 84 , 2 9 3 Payne, M. A., 2 8 4 , 2 9 6 Pe d raz a , S., 37, 48, 4 9 , 53, 2 4 3 , 2 5 8 Pedraza-Bailey, S., 34, 38, 53 Peirce, C. S., 63, 76 Pcltola, P, 140, 148 Peng, K., 154, 166, 3 3 8 , 3 6 2 Peregoy. P. L., 107, 111 P errin, N., 21, 31 Perry, P., 137, 149 Pessar, P, 222, 228, 2 4 0 , 3 4 0 , 3 6 3 Pessar, P. R.. 81, 84, 91 P ete rse n . L.-E., 118, 121, 129

372

AUTHOR INDEX

Pettigrew, T. F., 96, 98, 99 , 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 110,

1 1 1 , 112

Pettys. G. L.. 3 0 6 , 3 0 7 , 3 1 3 Petzel, T.. 101, 112 P helps, R. E., 141, 143, 149 Phinney, J. S.. 8 4 , 85, 86, 9 1 , 9 2 , 1 4 1 , 149, 2 8 1 , 2 8 8 , 2 9 1 , 2 96 , 301, 302, 308, 313, 339, 3 4 0 , 363 Phillips, A., 2 1 8 . 2 3 7 , 2 4 0 Phillips, B., 37, 52 Piazza, A., 16, 3 0 Piche, V., 28, 31 P in k a r d , T., 72, 77 Piper, N.. 3 5 5 , 3 6 3 Pitner, R., 3 4 3 , 3 5 9 , 3 6 3 Pittinsky, T. L., 145, 149 Piven, F. F., 38, 5 3 Pious, S., 136, 149 P o lk in gho rne, D. E., 2 4 6 , 2 5 8 Pontier, D., 21, 30 Porter, H. A .,17 1, 195 Portes, A., 3, 7, 12, 40, 43, 4 7 , 5 3 , 80, 85, 92, 142, 144, 149, 2 4 8, 258, 308, 309, 313, 321, 3 2 5 ,3 3 5 Power. S., 3 3 9 , 361 P r a s a d . B. S., 28 3 , 2 9 6 P r a s h a d , V.. 7, 12, 153, 163, 166, 1 8 2 , 195 Pratto . F.. 100, 111, 156, 161, 166 Pugh, S. D., 114, 1 18, 128 P u rd ie , V., 141, 148 Puri, H. K., 153, 166 Pusey, A. E., 22, 32 Pyke, K., 3 0 4 , 3 1 3, 3 2 4 , 3 5 3

Q Quillian, L., 104, 111 R Rabinow, P.. 67. 76 Raj. A.. 2 1 1 , 2 1 6 R a m . A.. 1, 11 Rambally, R.T., 28 5 . 2 9 6 R a m k is s o o n . M. W.. 2 8 4 . 2 9 6 R a m m a n u ja n . A. K.. 154, 166 R a m o s , J.. 40, 53

Rangasw am y, P. 153, 166 Rattray, J., 82, 90 R ayaprol. A., 2 0 2 , 2 1 6 R a y m o n d . J.. 61, 2 8 1 , 2 9 4 Regis. H., 84, 92 Reif. K.. 97, U l Reitz, J . G . , 114, 115, 116, 1 1 7 ,1 2 9 Renfro, L., 113, 129 Reyer. H. U., 2 1 , 3 2 Rico, C.. 21, 3 2 Riegel, K. F., 30 9 , 3 1 3 Rimer, S., 134, 138, 149 Ritsner. M.. 84. 9 2 R o b e rtso n , E. E., 2 8 7 . 2 9 6 R o b in so n , W. H.. 186, 195 R o driguez, N. P. 3 3 7 , 3 6 3 Roediger, D. R.. 171, 182, 183, 188, 195 Rogers, R., 82. 85, 8 6 , 92 Rogier, L. H., 24 2 , 2 5 8 Rogoff, B., 1, 12 R ola n d , A., 154, 166, 2 6 2 , 2 7 3 Roller, E., 104, 105, 109 R om o , H., 49, 53 R o o p n a rin c , J. L., 9, 2 7 8 , 2 8 1 , 2 82 , 283, 284, 285, 286, 288, 290, 2 9 3 , 29 6 , 2 9 7 Rose, T., 184. 186, 1 96 R o sen berger. N. R.. 3 5 5 , 3 6 3 R o se n th a l, D. A., 3 0 6 , 3 1 3 Rohner. R. P. 2 8 4 , 2 9 6 R oskaft, E., 24, 3 0 R oss, M.. 145, 149 R o th b lu m . E., 2 4 4 . 2 5 7 R o use, R., 45, 54 Rozell, D., 139. 148 R o la n d . A.. 154, 166, 2 6 2 , 2 7 3 R u m b a u t, R. G.. 3, 10, 11, 12, 85, 92, 145, 149, 2 4 8 . 2 5 8 , 2 9 0 , 2 9 6 , 3 08 , 3 1 3 R ussell-B row n, P. 2 8 7 , 2 9 7 Ryder, A. G., 3 39 , 3 6 3

S Sabogal, E., 47, 51 S aeth er, B. E., 24, 3 0 S a k a m o to , I., 3 4 0 , 34 3 , 3 5 2 , 3 57, 3 5 9 ,3 6 3 S a k h i Collective, 20 8 , 2 1 6 Salandy, A., 2 8 7, 2 9 7

AUTHOR INDEX S a m o r a , J ., 38, 54 S a n c h e z , G. J.. 138, 144, 149 S a n d e r s , J., 84, 91 S a n fo rd . R. N.. 97, 1 08 Sanger, K., 4. 12 S a r a s o n , I., 84, 9 2 S a r a s o n , B., 84, 92 S a re e n , T. R., 153, 166 S a v a d a , A., 26, 32 Saxe. L., 100, 109 S ax to n. A.. 3 1 7 , 3 3 5 Schaffer, H. R., 2 5 9 , 2 7 3 S c h a p p e s , M. U.. 173, 194 S cheick. W. J., 186, 196 Schiller, N. G., 45, 52, 80, 87, 90 S ch irm e r, J., 2 2 6 , 2 4 0 S c h o p p a , R., 26, 32 S c h u m a n , H., 98, 111 S hw eder, R.A., 1, 12, 154, 161, 166, 3 0 3 , 3 13, 3 3 8 , 3 5 8 , 3 6 3 Scott, L. O., 171, 196 S e a rs , I). D., 98, 111 Seiff, D., 22, 3 2 Scllcn, D., 22, 23, 32 Senior, O., 2 2 7 , 2 8 1 , 2 9 7 S h a h , S., 198. 2 1 6 , 2 6 2 , 2 7 3 S h a h a r a n i, N. M., 56, 77 S h a n k a r , L., 163, 166 S h a n k a r . S., 182, 195 Shaw, G., 139, 1 48 Shaw. A., 3 0 5 , 3 1 2 S h e r m a n , J. W.. 1 17, 1 29 S h e r m a n . P. W.. 17, 31 S h ih . J.. 137, 1 49 S h ih . M., 145, 149 S h ry o c k . A., 146, 149 S id a n io u s , J ., 156, 166 S id d iq u e , C. M.. 3 0 6 , 3 1 4 Sigel, I., 2 8 5 . 2 9 7 S ilv e rm a n , J. G., 2 1 1. 2 1 6 S im o n . R., 2 8 1 , 2 8 9, 2 9 6 S im p s o n , W., 115, 128 Sinclair, M., 2 2 4 , 2 4 0 Singh, R., 2 8 1 , 2 8 9 , 2 9 6 S m ith , M., 80. 92 S m ith , R. T., 2 8 1 , 2 9 7 Sollors, W., 180, 182, 186, 196 Soyibo, K., 2 8 5 , 2 9 7 S p a e th , J . L., 104, 109 S p e a r s , R., 140, 147 S p c rb c r, D .t 1 , 1 2

373 S p ic k a r d . P.. 181, 196 Spo o n e r, M., 2 8 2 , 2 8 3 , 2 9 7 S r ik a n th . R., 163, 166 Standley, F. L.. 171, 194, 196 S teeh, C.. 98, 111 Steele, C. M.. 135, 136, 137, 140. 143, 147, 149, 150 S tein, R. M.. 104, 107, 108, 111 Stein berg, L. ,2 81 , 2 8 4 , 2 9 3 , 2 9 7 S te p h a n . C. W., 102, 111, 129 S te p h a n . W. G.. 102, 111, 113, 129, 1 3 8 . 149 S te p ic k . A., 137, 149 S te p ic k . C. D.. 137, 149 S te p p u ta t, F., 2 3 3 , 2 4 0 S te w a rt, A. J ., 5, 12, 2 5 3 , 2 58 , 2 6 2, 273 S te w a rt, I. N., 107, 111 Stowell, J., 3 3 5 S t r a s s m a n n , B. I., 23, 32 S t r a u s s , A. L., 3 4 2 , 361 S t r a u s s , A., 3 4 1 , 3 4 2 , 3 6 3 S t r a u s s , L., 141, 147 S tr o e s s n e r , S. J ., 136, 148 Stricr, K. B., 22, 32 S u a rc z -O ro z c o , C., 1 ,7 , 12, 142, 144, 150, 28 6, 2 9 7 S u a rc z -O ro z c o , M. M., 1, 7, 12, 142, 1 4 4 . 150 S u h r k e , A., 55, 77 Sullivan, M. A., 1, 12 S u m , A.. 114, 129 S ung, B. L., 3 0 5 , 313, 3 2 5 , 3 2 6 , 3 27 , 3 3 0 ,3 3 5 S u p er. C., 2 8 6 , 2 9 7 S w a r n s , R. L.. 134, 150 Sw idinsky. R.. 115, 130 Sw indisky, M.. 115, 130 S z a n to n Blanc, C., 80. 90

T Tajfel, H.. 4, 12, 3 0 8 , 3 1 4 Tang. T. N., 3 0 8 , 3 1 4 T a n n e n b a u m . A. S., 104, 111 Taylor, C., 23 3 , 2 4 0 Taylor, D. L., 143, 14 7 Taylor, D. M., 139, 149 Taylor, J . D., 142, 143, 148 Taylor. M. C., 104, 105, 106, 111, 134, 137, 146, 150

AUTHOR INDEX

374

Taylor, M. I., 21, 32 Tesser, A .,107, 108, 112 T h o m a s , T . E . R., 142, 143, 149. 150 T h o m a s , W. I., 40, 42, 54. 24 6 , 2 5 8 T h r a e n h a r d t , D., 102, 112 T in b e rg e n , N., 17, 3 2 Ting, T. F., 26, 32 Todorova, I., 2 86 , 2 9 7 T o rm a la , T. T., 137, 140, 141, 143, 1 4 5 , 1 50 Towner. M. C., 21, 23, 3 2 Toye, S., 115, 130 T ra w ic k , M., 161, 1 6 6 T r o p p , L., 100. 106, 111 T r u m b a c h , R., 2 44 , 2 5 8 Tse, L., 30 2 , 3 1 4 , 3 4 6 , 3 6 4 T urner, F. J., 36, 54

Weiner, M., 25, 31 Wellman, H., 156, 165 Wheeler, S. C., 141, 150 W iersm a. U. J., 121, 1 28 Williams. J. E., 2 5 9 , 2 7 2 Williams. R., 61, 77 Williams. T.. 136, 149 Wilson. A. E., 145, 149 Wilson, L. C.. 2 8 3 , 2 8 5 , 2 9 8 Wilson. M.. 2 8 3 , 2 9 8 Wilson. R., 2 3 1 , 2 4 0 W inant, H ., 135, 136, 148, 182, 195 Worby. P, 22 4 , 2 3 0, 2 3 1 , 2 3 4 , 2 35 , 236, 240, 247 W orden, R., 26, 32

X

V

V aidyanathan, P. 3 0 6 , 3 14 Van De Vijver, F., 2 9 2 , 2 9 7 Van Dick, R., 96, 101, 112 Van E ste r ik , P., 2 1 7 , 2 3 9 Van H ook, J., 28, 32 Varshney, A., 103, 1 12 Vaslow, J. B., 118, 128 V asquez, C. S., 5 , 6 , 1 1 Vedder, P., 84, 91, 30 2 , 3 1 3 Vega, W. A., 142, 147 V ic k c rm a n , M., 144, 150, 2 8 8 , 2 9 7 Voland, E., 21, 24, 32

W

Xie, W., 26, 31 Xun, W. 9 . E., 145, 149

Y Yanca, C., 22, 23, 32 Yang, A., 139, 148 Y b arra a , O., 1 13, 129, 138, 149 Yeh, K., 3 2 5 , 3 3 5 Yezierska, A., 178, 186, 190, 196 Young, A., 67, 77 Young, M., 3 3 9 , 361 Yuval-Davis, N., 2 3 2 , 2 40, 2 4 3 , 2 5 8

z

Wadley, S., 2 6 1 , 2 7 3 Wagner, U.. 96, 100, 101, 106, 110,

Z a b o ro w s k a , M. J., 186, 196 Z a ra te , M. A .,134, 138, 150 Wakil. F. A.. 30 6 . 3 1 4 Z h o u , M., 80, 92, 142, 144, 149, 2 9 0, Wakil, S. P, 30 6 , 3 1 4 296, 317, 321, 325, 326, Waldinger, R., 45, 47, 54 3 3 0 , 3 3 2 , 33 5 , 3 3 6 Wang, X., 3 3 1 , 3 3 5 Z h o u , Y. R., 3 5 7 , 3 5 8 , 3 6 3 Warheit, G. J., 142, 147 Zick, A., 98, 101, 106, 111 W arren, K. W., 179, 180, 196 Zigler. E. F., 2 8 4 , 2 8 5 , 2 9 4 Waters, M. C., 80, 85, 86, 92, 132, Z im m e r m a n , K. F., 101, 111 135, 136, 137, 139, 143, 150, Z im m e r m a n , R. S.. 142, 1 4 7 181, 182, 196, 288, 298, Z n a n ie ck i, F.. 40. 54, 2 4 6 , 2 5 8 Wcdcnoja, W.. 28 2 , 2 9 8 Zolberg, A. R.. 55, 77 111,

112

S u b je c t In d ex

A

Civil Rights M ovem ent, 173 S p a n is h A m erican War, 34 A cad em ic m ig r a n ts , 3 3 7 - 3 5 8 Slavery, 4 1 - 4 3 , 8 5 , 188 A c c o m m o d a tin g the Differences (as P ro p o sitio n # 1 8 7 , 35 in the Model of C u ltu ra l Ne­ T reaty of G u a d a lu p e Hidalgo, 34 gotiation) Waves of M igration. 34 A c c u ltu ra tio n , 1, 29, 4 1 - 4 2 , 4 4 - 4 5 , World Wars, 34, 38, 44, 56, 103, 8 7 ,1 4 3 , 172, 175, 186, 3 1 6 , 3 1 8 , 3 29 2 4 2 -2 4 3 , 2 5 7 , 2 8 0 ,2 9 0 , A sse rtiv e n e ss, 353 2 9 1 ,3 1 6 ,3 2 8 ,3 3 8 -3 4 0 A u th o r ita r ia n is m , 9 9 - 1 0 0 A m e ric a n c u ltu rc , 9 ,1 4 0 , 2 43 A m e ric a n h istory B A b r a h a m Lincoln, P r e s id e n t, 36 B aldw in. 1 6 9 - 1 9 3 Angel Islan d, 37, 189 B e longingness. 100 C h in e se E x clusion Act, B ic u ltu ra lism , 1. 2 5 1 , 3 3 9 - 3 4 0 3 6 ,3 1 7 - 3 1 8 Civil Rights M ovem ent, 38, 43, C 173 Ellis Isla nd, 37, 95, 181, C a re e r goals, 2 79 189-190 C h ild re n . 143, 154, 1 6 0 - 1 6 4 F ro n tie r e x p a n sio n . 36 C itizensh ip . 1 9 7 - 1 9 8 , 2 0 3 , 2 17 George W. B u sh . P r e sid e n t, 39, C o m m u n ic a tio n styles, 3 53 50 C o n c e p ts for s tu d y in g im m ig ra tio n GI Bill. 44 A ssim ilation H o m e s te a d Act. 37 C u ltu ra l, 4 1 - 4 2 J a p a n e s e G e n tle m a n 's Agree­ S tr u c tu r a l. 4 1 - 4 2 m e n t, 37 A d a p ta tio n , 34, 41, 80, 89, 132, “J i m C ro w “, 38, 4 1 - 4 2 , 153 2 5 6 ,2 9 0 ,3 3 5 -3 6 0 M exican-A m erican Civil Rights Anglo-Conformity. 42 M ovem ent, 38 375

376

SUBJECT INDEX

Chicago school, 4 0 - 4 2 C o u p le - b a s e d c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n , C olonizatio n, 34, 4 3 - 4 4 , 75, 136, 3 4 5 - 3 4 6 , 351 188 C u ltu ra l a d a p ta tio n D ia s p o ra , 4 8 - 5 0 , 179, 184, 188, C u ltu r a l a d a p ta tio n goals, 2 6 0 ,2 6 3 ,3 1 8 348-357 D ia sp o ric citiz e n sh ip . 4 9 - 5 0 C u ltu r a l a d a p ta tio n p r o c e s s e s , D isc rim in a tio n , 4, 8, 10. 45, 82, 3 4 0 ,3 4 3 86, 9 6 - 9 7 , 100, C u ltu r a l a d a p ta tio n ta sk sha rin g, 1 0 3 -1 0 4 , 1 1 7 - 1 1 8 , 121, 351-352 1 2 6 - 1 2 7 ,1 3 2 , 134, C u ltu ra l b ro k e rin g . 3 4 6 1 3 8 ,1 4 3 , 153, 198, 20 2 , C u ltu ra l c ontex ts 2 1 4 , 2 1 8 , 2 2 0 , 2 2 2 , 22 8 , Negotiation of m u ltip le c u ltu ra l 2 6 4 , 2 6 9 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 9 , 32 0 , c o nte xts, 2 7 0 , 3 1 1 ,3 4 0 , 3 5 1 -3 5 2 , 358 32 6 D ual c itizen sh ip , 49 C u ltu r a l identity, 2 - 6 , 5 0 - 5 1 , 1 7 2 , E th n ic politics, 5 0 -5 1 186, 254, 2 6 0 -2 6 2 , 288, E x c lu sio n , 36, 38, 43, 180, 3 0 1 - 3 0 2 , 3 0 9 - 3 1 0 , 35 4 184-185, 1 9 0 ,2 3 8 ,2 4 4 , C on te x t a n d the self, 142 Self-construals, 338 254, 316, 318, 320, C u ltu ra l pra c tic e, 2 - 3 , 83, 137, 35 4 G e n e ra tio n s: im m ig ra n t, se c o n d , C u ltu ra l psychology of im m ig r a n ts , th ir d a n d higher, 50, 81, 2 ,5 -1 0 ,3 5 9 8 4 , 88, 95, 132, 135, 1 4 0 -1 4 6 , Identity D B icultu ral, 1, 4 5 , 5 0 - 5 1 , 145, 2 5 1 , 3 0 1 , 31 6 , 321-322, 3 2 8 ,3 3 3 , Diversity w ithin a c u ltu re , 3 6 0 340 Bifocal. 45 E E th n ic identity. 7 - 1 0 , 82, 8 4 - 8 6 , 8 8 , 103, 1 3 9 - 1 4 0 , 1 4 4 ,1 4 6 , Epistcmology, 69, 3 59 164, 2 7 1 , 281, E u r o b a r o m e t e r survey, 97, 99 2 8 8 -2 8 9 ,3 0 1 -3 0 2 , 3 0 8 - 3 0 9 , 3 32 F E th n o c u ltu r a l, 3 0 7 - 3 0 9 In c o r p o r a tio n , 34, 41, 44, 7 9 - 8 0 , 302, 311 Family I n te rm a rria g e , 41, 44 Family unity, 197 I m m ig ra n t n atio n , 51 F am ily-based c u ltu r a l a d a p ta tio n , M arginal m a n , 42, 50 35 8 Nation of i m m ig r a n ts , 35, 51 Im p ro v e d family r e la tio n sh ip s, N ativism, 35, 37, 139, 183, 3 17 34 7 “Push" a n d “Pull" “Foreign” s tu d e n t s /s c h o l a r s , 3 38 Race re la tio n s cycle, 41 R e m itta n c e s, 46, 4 8 - 5 0 , 80, G 8 2 - 8 3 , 88 R e tu rn m ig ration, 49 T r a n s c u ltu r a t io n , 41, 3 5 4 , 3 58 Gender T r a n s n a tio n a li s m , 3 4 - 5 1 , 7 9 - 9 0 G e n d e r socialization, 5, 2 5 9 - 2 6 0 , C ouple role s h a rin g , 3 4 6 2 6 3 ,2 6 9 -2 7 0

SUBJECT INDEX G e n d e r roles, 25 9 , 2 6 3 , 282, 338, 340, 343, 345, 354-359 G r o u n d e d theory, 34 0 , 3 5 2 , 3 5 8 G ro u p relative d e p riv a tio n . 99

H Hegel, 68, 70, 7 2 - 7 5 H ie ra rc h ica l re g re s sio n , 105 H ost c u ltu re , 1-3, 2 4 2 - 2 4 4 , 2 4 7 -2 4 8 , 253, 2 5 5 -2 5 6 , 2 6 0 ,3 4 6 ,3 5 3 Housewife, 2 6 1 , 3 4 3 - 3 4 4 , 35 5

I Idealized c u ltu r a l id en tities D ual p a th w a y m ode l, 26 2 Im m ig ra n ts Illegal aliens, 35, 40, 7 0 - 7 1 , 184 I n d e n tu r e d s e rv a n ts , 33 Legal/Illegal im m ig r a n ts , 102, 106 Refugees, 5, 27, 33, 37, 39, 51, 55 , 5 6 - 5 7 , 5 9 - 7 5 , 217-255 Im m ig r a n ts from Africa. 29, 85, 9 7 - 9 8 . 100, 1 0 6 .1 3 1 - 1 4 6 Asia. 1 5 1 - 1 6 4 , 176, 1 8 1 - 1 8 9 A ustria, 2 5 0 A ustria-H ungary. 36 C a m b o d ia , 33, 40. 31 8 C a n a d a . 2 19 , 2 4 5 , 3 0 3 , 3 0 5 , 3 1 1 C a r ib b e a n , 9 - 1 0 , 3 9 - 4 0 , 45, 82-90 C e n tra l A m erica, 24, 45, 48 C h in a . 2 6 - 2 7 , 37, 39, 46. 3 1 6 - 3 2 0 , 3 2 2 , 3 3 2 , 33 5 , 35 7 C o lo m bia , 39 C o sta Rica, 46, 48 C u b a . 33, 37, 3 9 - 4 1 , 46, 4 8 -5 1 D o m in ic a n Republic, 4 8 , 80, 2 7 7 E a s te r n E u r o p e , 34, 35, 38, 42, 4 4 , 9 8 - 9 9 , 102, 182 E c u a d o r, 39

377 E n g la n d , 23, 36, 55, 2 8 7 F rance, 3 5 - 3 6 , 5 5 . 97 G e r m a n y ,1 0 0 - 1 0 3 , 106, 2 5 0 G r e a t B ritain, 3 5 - 3 6 , 98, 101, 103 G reece, 36, 46, 2 72 G u a te m a la . 48, 60, 2 1 8 , 2 2 1 - 2 3 8 Haiti, 27 7 Hungary. 36 India. 4. 6 - 7 , 9 - 1 0 , 28, 39, 56, 8 0 , 9 8 , 1 1 9 - 1 2 7 , 136, 1 5 2 -1 6 4 , 2 0 4 , 2 1 0 , 2 4 5 , 2 6 0 , 2 6 2 - 2 7 2 , 2 86 , 2 8 8 ,2 9 1 ,3 0 4 -3 0 5 , 308-309 In d o c h in a , 101 Ire la n d , 23, 3 5 - 3 6 , 40, 47 Italy, 36, 40, 46, 49, 102 Jap an , 3 3 ,3 6 -3 7 , 5 6 ,3 3 8 -3 3 9 , 340-359 Korea, 3 9 , 140, 3 0 4 , 3 0 8 , 339 Latin A m erica, 3 4 - 3 5 , 3 9 - 4 0 , 4 8 - 5 1 , 79, 182, 245 Mexico, 24, 34, 36, 38, 3 9 - 4 0 , 45 , 48, 21 8 , 2 2 1 - 2 23, 2 2 6 ,2 3 0 -2 3 2 Nazi G erm any, 39 N icaragua, 48 T he N e th e r la n d s , 36, 101 N o rth w e st E u r o p e , 34. 36 Norway, 36, Peru, 39 Polan d, 36 , 40 P u e rto Rico R u ssia , 27, 36, 4 6 ,1 0 0 El Salvador, 48 S ca n d in a v ia , 3 5 - 3 6 S c o tla n d , 36, 95 S o u t h e r n a n d E a s te rn E u ro p e , 3 4 - 3 6 , 38, 4 4 ,1 8 2 S o u th A m erica, 23, 3 9 - 4 0 , 45, 48 , 1 7 3 ,184 Soviet U nion, 27, 3 6 ,1 7 3 S p a in , 36, 101 S w e d e n , 2 3 - 2 5 , 36, 57 Taiw an, 39, 3 1 6 , 3 1 8 ,3 2 2 Venezuela, 48 V ietnam , 37, 40, 100, 101, 3 0 4 , 306-308, 3 1 8 ,3 3 4 Wales, 36 West Africa, 36, 4 1 ,1 4 6

SUBJECT INDEX

378

W estern E u r o p e , 36, 9 6 - 1 0 3 ,1 7 8 , 308 I m m ig ra tio n laws A m e n d m e n ts in 1965 to the I m ­ m ig ra tio n a n d N a tio n a l­ ity Act, 38, 3 9 ,1 9 9 . 245 Family reu n ifica tio n , 39 Im m ig ra tio n a n d N ationality Act of 1924, 3 7 , 42, 83 Im m ig ra tio n a n d N ationality Act of 1952 (McCarran-Walter), 3 8 - 3 9 I m m ig ra tio n Reform a n d C o n tro l Act of 1986 (IRCA), 40 N ational o rigins q u o ta s , 37, 39 D isplaced P e r s o n s Act, 37 O c c u p a tio n a l certification, 39 Refugee Relief Acts, 37 Refugee A s sista n c e Acts, 37 Refugee Act of 1980, 38 I n d ig e n o u s know ledge, 3 6 0 In te r-c u ltu ral c o m m u n ic a tio n , 33 9 I n te re st in politics, 99 I n te rg ro u p contact, 99, 103, 1 0 6 -1 0 7 I n te rn a tio n a l Social Survey, 98 In tern atio nal s tu d e n ts, 338, 341, 3 4 4 ,3 5 5 ,3 5 9 Intersectionality, 262

M utual apology n o r m , 35 4

N N a tio n a lism , 99 N arratives, 2, 4 - 5 , 8, 10, 64, 75, 176, 180, 182, 185, 188, 1 9 0 -1 9 1 , 193, 2 4 5 - 2 4 6 , 255, 260, 261, 266, 270, 302 “No heaven no hell”, 3 5 4 O O k u s a n , 344-345

P Patriarchy. 199. 2 0 2 , 21 7 People of C olor R acial Identity M odels (Helms). 3 5 4 Political c o n s e r v a tis m , 99 Pow er d ifferen tials, 340, 357, 359-360 P rejudice B latan t, 98 S u b tle , 9 8 - 9 9 , 127 P rolonged en gagem en t, 3 43

J J a p a n e s e c u ltu re , 3 4 3 , 3 4 9 , 3 5 3 ,3 5 9

M M arginality D isc rim in a tin g m arginality, 162 E m p o w e r in g m arginality, 162 M e m b e r c h e c k /M e m b e r v a lid a tio n , 343 M a ste r Slave, 7 3 - 7 5 M ediational a n alysis, 105 M odel of C u ltu ra l N egotiation, the A ffordances, 3 5 2, 35 8 C o n s tr a in ts , 28, 2 1 0 , 2 1 2 , 227, 321, 326, 352, 358 F acilitators, 3 5 2 , 35 7 In h ib ito rs, 3 5 2 , 3 5 7 M o d e ra tin g factors, 3 5 8 - 3 6 0 S ta te s of, 2 5 2 , 2 5 7 Multiple identities, 35 8 , 3 6 0

Q Q ualitative re s e a r c h C o n stru c tiv ist, 162, 3 5 9 Inductive. 3 4 2 , 35 9 R R acial G r o u p s Black A m e ric a n s. 100, 107, 131, 1 3 4 - 1 4 1 , 146. 185, 191 H isp a n ic A m e ric a n s, 35 Je w s , 1 8 6 - 1 8 6 , 33, 3 5 - 3 7 , 4 0 - 4 1 , 46, 56 Native A m e ric a n s , 33, 38, 4 3 - 4 4 , 176 M exicans, 3 3 - 3 4 , 36, 3 8 - 3 9 , 4 3 - 4 5 , 48 , 140, 176 P u e rto R icans, 3 3 - 3 4 , 3 8 - 3 9 , 41, 43 , 44, 48, 176, 2 50

SUBJECT INDEX White A m e ric a n s, 7, 3 5 , 100, 1 0 5 ,1 3 8 ,1 6 9 -1 7 0 , 1 7 5 - 1 7 7 , 179, 186 Refugee Ecological, 27 Political. 27 R e s is t e n c e /B e c o m in g E t h n o c e n t r i c (as in the Model of C u ltu ra l Negotiation), 35 3

S Selfways, 3 3 9 - 3 4 0 , 3 5 3 - 3 5 4 , 3 5 8 Social life, 3 4 7 , 3 5 6

379 Social re g u la to ry p o w e rs, 3 5 2 , 3 54 Spouse, 3 4 0 -3 5 8

T T h e o re tic al sa m p lin g , 341 T r a n s c u ltu r a l , 35 5 T r a n s c u l tu r a tio n (as in the Model of C u l t u r a l N e g o tia tio n ), 4 1 , 3 5 4 ,3 5 8 T riple p r e d ic a m e n t, 271 T r u s t w o r t h in e s s , 343