Brain-adapted Leadership: Effective Leadership according to Neuropsychological Findings [1st ed. 2023] 3662658402, 9783662658406

Table of contents :
Foreword
Preface
Contents
About the Author
1 Introduction
References
I Theoretical Foundations for Leaders
Contents
2 Applied Neurobiology for Leadership people
2.1  History of Brain Research
2.2  Facts About the Brain
2.3  Structure of the Brain
2.4  How the Brain Works
2.5  Structure and Function of Nerve Cells
2.6  The Brain, a Complex Network
2.6.1  Oscillations of Brain Regions
2.7  Neurobiology of Learning and Forgetting
2.8  Neurotransmitters, Hormones and Their Functions
2.8.1  Examples of Important Neurotransmitters
2.8.2  Examples of Important Hormones
Conclusion
References
3 Applied Neuropsychology for Leaders
3.1  Mental Representation
3.2  Perception
3.2.1  Conscious vs. Unconscious Perception and Processing of Information
3.2.2  Perception and Evaluation Bias
3.3  Attention Focus
3.4  Consciousness, the Unconscious and Free Will
3.5  Emotions and Feelings
3.5.1  Introduction
3.5.2  The Reward System
3.5.3  The Stress System
3.5.4  Emotional Regulation
3.5.5  Somatic Markers
3.5.5.1  Reinterpreting Somatic Markers
3.5.6  Emotions and Decisions
3.6  Neuronal Plasticity
3.7  Learning
3.8  Potential for Change of Emotions and Behavior
Conclusion
References
II Human Behavior in the Workplace
Contents
4 Neuropsychological Model of Human Behavior
4.1  Introduction to the Neuropsychological Model of Human Behavior
4.2  The Three Worlds in the Neuropsychological Model of Human Behavior
4.3  Overall Context in the Neuropsychological Model of Human Behavior
4.4  Basic Needs and Motivational Schemas in the Neuropsychological Model of Human Behavior
4.4.1  Introduction
4.4.2  Motivational Patterns or: Avoidance Strategy vs. Approach Strategy
4.4.2.1  Personality Traits
4.4.2.2  Generalized Internal Control Conviction and General Self-Efficacy
4.4.2.3  Organizational Possibilities of Satisfying Basic Needs
4.4.2.4  Current Emotional Situation
4.4.2.5  Relation to Basic Needs
4.4.3  Basic Needs
4.4.3.1  Attachment Need
4.4.3.2  Need for Orientation, Control and Security
4.4.3.3  Need for Self-Esteem Protection Self-Esteem Enhancement
4.4.3.4  Need for Pleasure and Avoidance of Displeasure
4.4.4  Consistency vs. Inconsistency in the Neuropsychological Model of Human Behavior
4.5  Working with the Neuropsychological Model of Human Behavior in the Corporate Context
4.5.1  Neurosystemic Solution Cycle
Conclusion
References
III Brain-Adapted Leadership
Contents
5 Brain-Adapted Self-Leadership
5.1  Introduction
5.2  Self-Awareness
5.3  Perception by Others and Feedback
5.4  Reflectiveness
5.4.1  Changing Perspectives
5.4.2  Paint a Picture
5.4.3  Photo Language (Picture Cards)
5.4.4  Analogies
5.5  Self-Compassion
5.6  Resilience and Stress Management
5.7  Dealing with Beliefs
5.8  Mindfulness
5.8.1  Positive Change through Extended Mindfulness
Conclusion
References
6 Brain-Adapted Employee Leadership
6.1  Introduction
6.2  Relationship Design
6.2.1  Self-Knowledge and Self-Leadership
6.2.2  Positive Attitude of Approach
6.2.3  Effective Listening
6.2.4  Transform Empathy into Compassion
6.2.5  Sincere Appreciation and Recognition
6.2.6  Remove Pressure
6.3  Promoting Resilience
6.4  Value-Oriented Leadership
6.5  Mindful Leadership
6.6  Leadership as an Advisor?
Conclusion
References
7 Brain-Adapted Corporate Leadership
7.1  Introduction
7.2  Current Challenges
7.2.1  The VUCA World
7.2.2  Corporate World 4.0
7.3  Leadership 4.0 and Brain-Adapted Leadership
7.3.1  Increasing Self-Esteem Through Meaningfulness
7.3.2  Satisfy the Need for Attachment Through Afflilation and Connectedness
7.3.3  Satisfy the Need for Security, Orientation and Control Through Trust and Freedom
7.3.4  Satisfy the Need for Pleasure by Revealing Potential
7.3.5  The New, Agile Corporate Culture
7.4  Brain-compatible Corporate Form
Conclusion
References
8 Appendix
8.1  Real Positive and Negative Feelings and Unreal Negative Feelings
8.2  Assessing Motivational Schemas
8.2.1  Extraversion and Neuroticism
8.2.2  Internal Control Conviction
8.2.3  Self-Efficacy
8.2.4  Questionnaire for the Exploration of Motivational Schemas
8.3  Questions for Assessing the Current Emotional Situation
8.4  Questionnaire for the Assessment of Basic Needs in the Work Context
Glossary
Index

Citation preview

Christoph Hoffmann

Brain-adapted Leadership Effective Leadership according to Neuropsychological Findings

Brain-adapted Leadership

Christoph Hoffmann

Brain-adapted ­Leadership Effective Leadership according to Neuropsychological Findings

Christoph Hoffmann IAP Institut für Angewandte Psychologie ZHAW Zürcher Hochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften Pfäffikon, Zürich, Switzerland

ISBN 978-3-662-65840-6 ISBN 978-3-662-65841-3  (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65841-3 This book is a translation of the original German „Gehirngerechte Führung“ by Hoffmann, Christoph, published by Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE in 2019. The translation was done with the help of an artificial intelligence machine translation tool. A subsequent human revision was done primarily in terms of content, so that the book will read stylistically differently from a conventional translation. Springer Nature works continuously to further the development of tools for the production of books and on the related technologies to support the authors. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of Springer Nature 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of Springer Nature. The registered company address is: Heidelberger Platz 3, 14197 Berlin, Germany

V

For Shiho

Foreword For many decades, there was a very one-sided belief in the sole validity of rationality and quasi emotionless calculated decision making, especially in the field of work of profit-oriented organizations, but also otherwise. It is unfortunately perhaps too optimistic to state that this prevailed, because the same attitudes are still very widespread today, especially among people with leadership responsibility. I conclude this, albeit reluctantly, after having gained over 30 years of consulting experience in such organizations. It is still not uncommon in such “one-sided cerebrum-dominated cultures” for someone in a leadership position to consider it to be “esoteric nonsense”, “sentimentalism”, “wimpy attitude” and in general a weakness when someone else in a leadership position regards emotions and bodily reactions to be important, valuable information when making desicions. It sometimes already impresses me considerably how many people apparently let the results of 40–50 years of intensive, scientifically well-founded research work pass by them almost untouched, at least in their practical behavior in everyday life, as if they posessed a mental immune system against new learning experiences. At the same time, we know from many studies that, for example, a leadership style which uses pressure, devaluation, lack of transparency, and tangible arbitrariness not only massively harms the people involved, but also the organization in which this takes place, also on a economically level. I find it particularly disturbing that the respective leaders do this not with bad intentions, but, to the best of their knowledge and conscience, so to speak, guided by beliefs and an image of humanity from which this arises. In my opinion, it is therefore of central importance that there is well-prepared information, especially concerning the results of modern brain research, which nowdays already gives us a much more differentiated picture of how human experience and action are created. From the thousands of experiences in counselling processes with the concepts with which I work and which are based strictly on the findings of modern brain research (neurosystemics and hypnosystemics), I also know that every second experience is rebuilt a new through processes of attentional focusing and priming (shaping of involuntary experience); likewise, that people have a huge potential of competence in their unconscious repertoire of experience. But we also know that these potentials can only be optimally activated if the contextual conditions are right for people in such a way that their biologically relevant basic needs are taken into account, at least relatively well, e.g. safety, autonomy and attachment, and further orientation, self-efficacy, appreciation, sense of experience, etc. It is imparative that intuitive emotional and physical processes are also brought into an optimal cooperation with conscious, rational processes as valuable feedback on involuntary knowledge. These intuitive processes can also be described as “rational”, but they represent a different “rationality”, namely that of the brain stem and the interbrain, which are enormously important not only for our survival, but also for differentiated, wise decisions and exhibit exellent competences for this purpose. People in leadership positions are central co-creators of settings which can meet these basic needs. Unfortunately, this knowledge is not useful enough in everyday life of organizations, if it does not convincingly reach the people who then become

VII Foreword

the creators of the relevant settings. We therefore need information carriers who can sustainably and effectively “bring this knowledge to the man/woman”. In the mean time there has been a veritable flood of publications on the results of brain research and its practical implications for communication, decision-making processes, etc. Unfortunately however, I find very few that convey this knowledge in relation to the practical issues of a leadership position, and do so plausibly, clearly, and in a way that one can immediately derive practical action from it in everyday life. This book is a pleasant exception for me. It offers excellent, easily comprehensible descriptions of brain processes, of the way in which experience arises, and then, in an admirable way, stringent, clearly comprehensible derivations from this for practical behaviour in everyday life corresponding to the findings, step by step, immediately implementable. In addition to all the other valuable offers of this book, I particularly like that it also deals specifically with how people in leadership positions can also systematically and constructively deal with their own development accompanying their role, with very helpful suggestions for successful self-management wich also promotes health. I consider this to be very important because it is quite difficult and often tedious for all of us to put knew knowledge into practice, even if we “accept” it as being very useful. For this is first of all a conscious insight, which can only be successfully implemented if we also win over the involuntary areas of the brain stem and the interbrain. Here too, the author consistently follows the consistent and congruent line of his entire book and offers many opportunities to apply the theory to oneself right away and thus make the convincing experience tangible. I am very grateful to the author for this compact, wonderfully clear and encouraging book that reduces the complexity of science in such a refreshing and relieving way. I am sure that it can motivate many people in leadership positions (and others, of course) to also effectively implement the content so clearly conveyed here with fun and curiosity. In this respect this book can contribute to a long-needed strengthening of a culture at eye level and with wise use of our “triune brain” (as P. MacLean, the founder of research into the limbic system, once called it). I look forward to it receiving the great response it deserves. Dr. med. Dipl.-Volkswirt Gunther Schmidt Head of the Milton-Erickson Institute Heidelberg Medical Director of the sysTelios Clinic for Psychosomatic Health Development Siedelsbrunn



Preface Keeping one’s balance is the most successful movement in life. This sentence, which is attributed to the German writer Friedl Beutelrock (1889–1958), has closely accompanied me as a guiding principle throughout the time of writing. At the beginning of this book project, I was not sure whether I would succeed in finding the balance between writing and spending time with friends and family, and whether I would be able to maintain the balance between my own demands on the quality of the content and letting go of ever more innovative ideas. The person who reminded me to keep the balance was always my wife. The discussions with her led to further inspirations, her care prompted me to take a break, refuel with sports activities or simply to attend a concert together. All of this contributed significantly to this balance. For this, Shiho, I thank you from the bottom of my heart. With great understanding, my son Kai and my wife also waived my presence during vacation activities and kept my back free during the time of intensive writing. Thank you, Shiho and Kai. Also during the writing process, the metaphor of maintaining balance kept appearing everywhere in the content-related topics: for example, in the balance of emotions and cognitive thinking, of economic efficiency and humanity in leadership, but also in the balance of basic human needs and their satisfaction, or of stress and relaxation. In this sense, this booklet is also a guide to a better understanding of maintaining balance as employees, as leaders, but also as human beings. The fact that the book also maintains a balance between theoretical considerations and practically implementable examples, as well as between what might interest the reader and what I considered to be significant, is to the great credit of Gérard Wicht, who proofread the book and thus provided me with so much valuable input. Thank you, Gérard. A special thank you goes to Gunther Schmidt, who was once again asked to write a foreword for a book. It is impressive hwo he always manages to do this with great passion, in addition to maintaining a balance between his many commitments and engagements. Thank you, Gunther. In addition, I would like to thank Joachim Coch, Marion M. Krämer and Anja-Raphaela Herzer from Springer-Verlag for their professional support and patience, as well as Stephanie Kaiser-Dauer for her competent and efficient editing of the book. A big thank you also goes to all the unnamed idea-providers who helped me a lot with their suggestions and support. Christoph Hoffmann

Pfäffikon, Zürich In the Spring of 2019

IX

Contents 1

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

I

Theoretical Foundations for Leaders

2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Applied Neurobiology for Leadership people. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

 History of Brain Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  Facts About the Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  Structure of the Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  How the Brain Works. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  Structure and Function of Nerve Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  The Brain, a Complex Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.1  Oscillations of Brain Regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7  Neurobiology of Learning and Forgetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8  Neurotransmitters, Hormones and Their Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8.1  Examples of Important Neurotransmitters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8.2  Examples of Important Hormones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 3.1 3.2

10 11 11 13 17 19

21 23 24

26 26 27

Applied Neuropsychology for Leaders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

 Mental Representation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  Perception. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1  Conscious vs. Unconscious Perception and Processing of Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2  Perception and Evaluation Bias. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3  Attention Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4  Consciousness, the Unconscious and Free Will. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5  Emotions and Feelings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1  Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2  The Reward System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.3  The Stress System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.4  Emotional Regulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.5  Somatic Markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.6  Emotions and Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6  Neuronal Plasticity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7  Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8  Potential for Change of Emotions and Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30 32

34 34 35 36 40

40 44 46 49 51 57 59 61 64 67

X

Contents

II

Human Behavior in the Workplace

4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

Neuropsychological Model of Human Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

 Introduction to the Neuropsychological Model of Human Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  The Three Worlds in the Neuropsychological Model of Human Behavior. . . . . . . . . . .  Overall Context in the Neuropsychological Model of Human Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . .  Basic Needs and Motivational Schemas in the Neuropsychological Model of Human Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1  Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2  Motivational Patterns or: Avoidance Strategy vs. Approach Strategy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3  Basic Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.4  Consistency vs. Inconsistency in the Neuropsychological Model of Human Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5  Working with the Neuropsychological Model of Human Behavior in the Corporate Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.1  Neurosystemic Solution Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72 75 78 80

80 81 85 93 98

98 103

III

Brain-Adapted Leadership

5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

Brain-Adapted Self-Leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  Self-Awareness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  Perception by Others and Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  Reflectiveness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1  Changing Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2  Paint a Picture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3  Photo Language (Picture Cards). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.4  Analogies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5  Self-Compassion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6  Resilience and Stress Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7  Dealing with Beliefs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8  Mindfulness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8.1  Positive Change through Extended Mindfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6.1 6.2

108 108 110 111

112 113 113 114 115 118 120 123

124 128

Brain-Adapted Employee Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  Relationship Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1  Self-Knowledge and Self-Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2  Positive Attitude of Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.3  Effective Listening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.4  Transform Empathy into Compassion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.5  Sincere Appreciation and Recognition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.6  Remove Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3  Promoting Resilience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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132 133 134 136 139 140 141

XI Contents

 Value-Oriented Leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  Mindful Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  Leadership as an Advisor?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4

6.5 6.6

7 7.1 7.2

Brain-Adapted Corporate Leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  Current Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1  The VUCA World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2  Corporate World 4.0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3  Leadership 4.0 and Brain-Adapted Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1  Increasing Self-Esteem Through Meaningfulness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2  Satisfy the Need for Attachment Through Afflilation and Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.3  Satisfy the Need for Security, Orientation and Control Through Trust and Freedom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.4  Satisfy the Need for Pleasure by Revealing Potential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.5  The New, Agile Corporate Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4  Brain-compatible Corporate Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8 8.1 8.2

143 145 146 151

154 155

155 156 157

159 160 161 161 163 166 168

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

 Real Positive and Negative Feelings and Unreal Negative Feelings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  Assessing Motivational Schemas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.1  Extraversion and Neuroticism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.2  Internal Control Conviction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.3  Self-Efficacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.4  Questionnaire for the Exploration of Motivational Schemas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3  Questions for Assessing the Current Emotional Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4  Questionnaire for the Assessment of Basic Needs in the Work Context. . . . . . . . . . . . .

170 172

172 174 175 176 178 179

Supplementary Information Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189



About the Author Christoph Hoffmann Dipl. Psych. FH, dipl. Ing. HTL, studied psychology with a focus on work and organisational psychology in Zurich. Further training in andragogy and intercultural communication. International work experience in adult education (Japan), management experience in various adult education institutions. Consultant and lecturer in the Centre for Leadership, Coaching and Change Management at the Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW). Course director of the CAS Leadership Basic and of various continuing education courses. Main focus: Leadership development, coaching of leaders, neuroleadership, facilitation of change processes, team building and organisational development. [email protected] 7 www.gehirngerecht.ch

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Introduction

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of Springer Nature 2023 C. Hoffmann, Brain-adapted Leadership, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65841-3_1

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Leadership literature takes up kilometers of space on library shelves. A search for “Leadership” on Google returns over half a billion hits! Leadership is advised from various perspectives of science, research, business, psychology, but also from different world views and even religious denominations on how they can shape their leadership tasks more professionally and effectively. It describes how people can be led to greater performance and motivation, and how processes can be designed more efficiently, while maintaining high job satisfaction and good health. These recipes often claim universal validity if they are only consistently applied. The question is legitimate why there is still a need for a book that deals with the leadership of people in companies, even if this is done from a new perspective. Brain research can help us understand our own behavior and the mechanisms of effective leadership. It makes leadership psychology understandable and applicable. Leadership always starts and ends with oneself. This approach reaches many leaders in our economy and society and helps them reflect on and change their behavior. The findings of neuroscience make them personally affected. It is no longer a question of faith whether and how psychology works in leadership. Knowledge in neuropsychology is a success factor for furthering oneself, the organization and the people working therein. The experiences in working with companies show that many executives are still working according to the old patterns of power and authority. This is shown by the numbers of the latest Gallup study 2018 on the Engagement Index of employees aged 18 and over (. Fig. 1.1). Only 13% of employees in Switzerland (D: 15%, Ö: 12%) feel a high level of commitment and are engaged at work. 76% (D: 70%, Ö: 71%) have a low level of commitment and just want to be inconspicuous. 12% (D: 15%, Ö: 18%) have internally resigned and have no commitment to the company at all. The biggest differences between what employees want and what they actually find are in the work-life balance and in the quality of leadership. This makes one sit up and take notice and shows that leadership people are often overwhelmed by their activities. They are often not able to make an adequate decision from the situation as to which leadership behavior would be appropriate and impactful. They lead mainly by numbers and clear statements and are of the opinion that feelings and empathy have no place in business life. They act ­according High binding

15%

70%

15%

Germany

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Austria

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18%

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76%

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. Fig. 1.1  Gallup Engagement Index 2018 DACH. Source Marco Nink (2018), Gallup GmbH, Berlin

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to the top-down principle, exert pressure or take on conscious overstrain with their hierarchically shaped command thinking. They do not do this out of bad will, but they do this very often unconsciously and against better knowledge. They have experienced and internalized it themselves and do not doubt the validity of these experiences. They act in an environment that demands a lot from them: increasing competitive and price pressure, their own performance pressure from above, competitive pressure at different levels and last but not least the learned pressure to meet their own expectations. And yet the leadership people have a faint suspicion that the era of leadership with command and control is over. The people in the companies feel: The behaviorist approach of rewarding and punishing reduces motivation and performance in the sum. And they also experience again and again at themselves or at people in their environment that good feelings arise through real appreciation and recognition and that this motivation lasts, causes less stress and makes them happier. But this takes courage. Many remain unintentionally in old patterns. This little book sensitizes and shows ways to effective and human leadership. Applied leadership knowledge based on neuropsychological findings helps many leadership people to seriously deal with already known knowledge from leadership psychology. And the access is comprehensible, scientifically, insightful and understandable. The access via neuroscientific studies helps leaders to integrate the findings about emotions, decisions and behavior changes, which often have to do with soft factors, more easily into their everyday leadership. The experiences with leadership development in large companies confirm this view. Psychology is an empirical science and therefore strives to achieve a practically implementable increase in knowledge through the collection and evaluation of information. However, the type of investigation and data collection is strongly dependent on personal beliefs, convictions and attitudes. Consequently, the evaluations are also diverse. Numerous empirical studies have produced excellent practically applicable research results. However, as already mentioned, numerous models and views have been derived from this. And the leadership people were and are confused and irritated by the many advisers because they do not know what to believe in, which model is now effective or which trainer is now “right”. In this sense, there is no correct and wrong way to lead. There are only different perspectives and glasses through which leadership can be viewed. So today it is less about joining a community of faith, but about implementing effective and important findings. And indeed: leadership people are much more likely to talk about emotions, body perception and their own well-being as well as their relationships with others if they are accompanied by secure evidence from brain research. This makes it much easier for them to get involved in processes of change and to develop corresponding attitudes towards their subordinates. Brain research has fundamentally changed psychology and thus also the image that man has drawn of himself. The image of a human being with reason, consciousness, rational thinking and free will and morality, who has control over his actions and stands above all other living beings, has changed. It gives way to an image of the intuitive, feeling being that seeks physical and psychological well-being, for which bonding, recognition and security are existential and which is so adaptable that it can live almost anywhere from the equator to the Arctic. That the shaking of this

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image of man can cause unrest, make leaders insecure and still cause controversial discussions today is only too understandable. Of course, such an attitude also leads to fundamental discussions about the meaning of leadership and how we should treat ourselves and others in order to lead a happy and fulfilling working life. This booklet would like to contribute to stimulating thinking about one’s own perception, thinking, feeling, decision-making and action. The findings from brain research can be used to align one’s own behavior with already tried and tested models, behaviors and attitudes. Many leaders do a lot of things right; this little Book can help them understand why! Of course, the way our brain works has not been fully understood despite all the scientific progress made so far. On the contrary, today’s statements from neuroscience are still on a very general level of knowledge. But the efforts are considerable. Estimates suggest that knowledge in neuroscience doubles every year. Each study is a small puzzle piece to better understand the connections of the brain’s functions. Thanks to the imaging methods of fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), we now know a lot about the activities of different isolated brain areas on the macro level and about the working of neurons and ganglia on the micro level. But in between, over the connections of the areas with each other, we still know very little. The imaging methods make it possible to see into the thinking, feeling and decision-making brain today. In the past, it was not possible to see into an active brain, but one was limited to the examination of dead tissue and the observation of acting people. Today this gap can be closed, although the methods still provide very rough images. But the longer one researches the brain, the clearer central and relevant findings for acting as a leader emerge. We want to follow these as a basic understanding and reflect on them in specific leadership situations. The boo does not want to exalt the neurosciences to the flagship of the new leadership doctrine, but rather to connect the hitherto findings of general psychology with the concepts of neurobiology available today and to derive conclusions for effective leadership action. Accordingly, this contribution is to be understood in such a way that well-proven leadership psychology is shown in the new light of neuropsychology and its effectiveness is highlighted. It is, so to speak, like a thought process in the brain that cannot generate new knowledge on its own, but rather makes new connections of what has already been experienced and learned and thus creates added value through a new perspective. Old questions of work psychology are thus linked to statements of the neurosciences and answered: 5 When are people happy in companies? 5 How can companies become “more human”? 5 How do leaders achieve motivation, work ethic and enjoyment of the job in their employees? 5 How do leaders effectively lead people in organizations? 5 How can organizations create conditions in which healthy employees bring high motivation and willingness to perform? 5 What do people in companies have to learn about themselves and other employees in order for the design of work activities to be optimal? These questions are not new and have been answered with the current knowledge in different epochs of psychology. There have arisen many concepts, strategies and theories that tried to shed light on these questions from different perspectives. The

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neurosciences of recent years have created findings that can be applied to the design of leadership and provide valuable techniques and justification to leaders of today’s companies about what people need in companies and how motivation for an activity arises. We will focus on the following basic principles: 5 The separation between body and mind (Dualism) postulated by Descartes is an error. Instead, there is an inseparable connection between body and mind, and they constantly influence each other (Damasio 2000). 5 “Emotions are the drivers of human existence” (Jäncke 2007). Our mind is at the service of our emotions. Not vice versa. This radical redefinition of the function of ratio and emotions or their reversal of meaning is a central part of the new understanding of leadership. Rational and cognitive processes are rather only granted a “veto right” in everyday action. 5 Our decisions and actions are only partially voluntary resolutions. Unconscious motives guide a consciously experienced act of will. The more clearly the neurophysiological processes turn out, that is, the more we perceive our own body, the stronger the following act of will is experienced. People with a strong will are particularly guided by their inner motives (Roth 2009, p. 195). Self-perception is therefore an important principle in leadership and standsat the very beginning of fundamental changes. 5 “After all, we are in large part who we are because of what we learn and what we remember” (Eric Kandel 2013). Our cognitive and emotional experiaential memory, which can be located in the limbic system and the neocortex, controls our actions to a large extent. As Gerhard Roth succinctly put it in an interview: “Our perception consists of 99% of our memory and only 1% of our sensory impressions” (Roth 2009). 5 The neuronal plasticity of the brain, wich means the ability to neuronal changes, gives all living beings the lifelong capacity  to learn and develop further. As adults, we do not learn as quickly as children, but we can use and combine existing experiences. In this little book you will probably not read a single word or only very few words that you do not understand, but in this combination they are sometimes new, perhaps even unique. Your brain, the neuronal connections of the brain cells with each other, will look different after reading the lecture than before. 5 All people have universal basic needs. The striving for a balanced satisfaction, an inner consistency, is the driving force for all impulses to act. 5 Companies live in a VUCA world (volatility = instability, uncertainty = uncertainty, complexity = complexity, ambiguity = ambiguity). These VUCA criteria are further increased by digitalization. One way to move in it is the agile corporate design, which takes into account the basic needs and considers a changed life-work balance. In order to better understand the contents of this book, it is as already mentioned important to keep in mind that the findings of neuroscience largely illuminate wellknown relationships of psychology from a new perspective. Known psychological and mental phenomena are confirmed in experiments from neuroscience and explained at the neuronal level. But it remains largely unexplained how the individual feeling of psychological mechanisms and their neuronal images in the brain arise

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and function. The neuroscientist Olaf Sporn (2017) expressed it cautiously that it is still largely unresolved how different neurons and brain areas communicate with each other, what the “currency” is, how they communicate and how the whole thing is orchestrated. Finally, I would like to allow myself one final remark: This little book differs from management manuals in that it does not offer any recipes for effective and sustainable management, but rather requires a great deal of work from the leadership people themselves. This inner work is meant, an honest confrontation with oneself and one’s own leadership attitude. This requires sharpening of attention and mindfulness, first directed inward and then outward. That we will change in the process is a condition, that we want it is a prerequisite, and that we can do it is a fact..

References Damasio AR (2000) Ich fühle, also bin ich. Die Entschlüsselung des Bewusstseins. List, München Jäncke L (2007) Hinter den Kulissen des Geistes. Gehirn und Geist, Das Magazin für Psychologie und Hirnforschung. Spektrum der Wissenschaft, Heidelberg, p 61–65 Kandel ER (2013) We are what we remember: memory and age-related memory disorder. Speech at the Brain Insight Lecture from the Stavos Niarchos foundation at Columbia University Nink M (2018) Gallup Engagement Index 2018 DACH. Gallup GmbH, Berlin Roth G (2009) Aus der Sicht des Gehirns. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt a. M. Sporn O (2017) Das Connectom. Interview auf der HeiNEC 2, 2017. Heidelberg Neuronal Ensemble Conference, 15/16 Sept. 2017. 7 https://www.dasgehirn.info/anatomie/netzwerke/meilensteine/olafsporns-das-connectome. Accessed 28 May 2018

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Theoretical Foundations for Leaders Contents Chapter 2 Applied Neurobiology for Leadership people – 9 Chapter 3 Applied Neuropsychology for Leaders – 29

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The following section describes the basics of the organ that everyone carries around with them and that is responsible for experience, assessment, decision-making and action. In 7 chapter 2 “Applied Neurobiology for Leaders”, the function of our brain is presented in a simple way, how nerve cells are structured and how they interact with each other. The chapter offers an introduction to the question of how learning and forgetting take place from a neurobiological perspective and what role neuronal messenger (neurotransmitters and hormones) play. The brain as a gigantic network that communicates through rhythmic oscillations and processes of learning and forgetting are described. It shows how the interests of brain research have moved from the localization of functions in the brain to the networking of brain areas. 7 Chapter 3, “Neuropsychology for Leaders” describes psychological processes from the perspective of neuroscience. Mental representation, perception, attention focus, the controversy over free will are explained, and the importance of emotions and our dealing with them are conveyed in detail. The chapter answers questions about learning and human change processes.

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Applied Neurobiology for Leadership people Contents 2.1 History of Brain Research – 10 2.2 Facts About the Brain – 11 2.3 Structure of the Brain – 11 2.4 How the Brain Works – 13 2.5 Structure and Function of Nerve Cells – 17 2.6 The Brain, a Complex Network – 19 2.7 Neurobiology of Learning and Forgetting – 23 2.8 Neurotransmitters, Hormones and Their Functions – 24 References – 27

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of Springer Nature 2023 C. Hoffmann, Brain-adapted Leadership, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65841-3_2

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This chapter explains,

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5 how brain research has changed and what is currently in focus, 5 what is known about the facts of this amazing organ (such as number of neurons and synapses, length of nerve fibers, etc.), 5 which areas a brain consists of and which rough functions are attributed to these areas, 5 how one must imagine the functioning from perception to action in the brain, 5 how the structure of a nerve cell look like and how the electrochemical transmission of nerve impulses works, 5 which role the neurotransmitters and hormones play and what their difference is, 5 how one can understand the brain as a complex network, 5 how learning arises through strengthening of nerve connections, 5 how the exchange of information between brain regions works through oscillations and which states in the body and mind are associated with it.

2.1  History of Brain Research

As early as 5000 years ago, systematic cranial aperture(trepanations) were carried out in Egypt, which the patients survived for months or even years. In antiquity, Hippocrates described the brain as the seat of sensations and intelligence in an anatomical collection. In the Middle Ages, the first autopsies on the brain were carried out in the Arab cultural sphere, while in the European cultural sphere they were banned for religious reasons. In the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci (1452– 1519) laid the foundation for a rapidly developing neuroanatomical research and documentation with his significant contributions to a more realistic graphical representation of anatomical brain structures. The discovery of the circulatory system in the seventeenth century and the reduction of the heart to a pump led René Descartes (1596–1650) to the philosophy of dualism, according to which all beings are divided into matter and spirit. This consept still shapes the opinion of many laymen and the idea of many researchers today. The eighteenth century was marked by the research of nerves as electrical conductors and replaced the previous idea that all functions of the body would be controlled by pneumatics and hydraulics via “lines”. The first maps of functional areas of the brain were created. This research direction spread rapidly in the nineteenth century through large studies, especially on pathological cases. This was followed by findings on the functions of nerve cells in the brain and on psychophysics (the interaction of objectively measurable physical processes and subjective, mental experience). The investigations were always carried out on dead tissue or in animal experiments. In the second half of the nineteenth century, new methods such as electroencephalography (EEG) for brain wave measurement and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for the localization of brain activity were added, which made it possible to obtain information about the living brain. For a long time, researchers argued about which biological mechanisms were decisive for information processing in the brain. Today, scientists agree that the most important basic biological element of information processing is the nerve cell

2.3 · Structure of the Brain

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­(neuron) (. Fig. 2.4). In the future, the deciphering of the highly complex neuronal networking of brain centers and brain regions with each other will play a central role in understanding the function of our brain. So today the brain research focuses on the connectivities of brain regions and how brain functions, thoughts and perceptions are orchestrated. The media-effective topic of consciousness and the questions of free will and determinism are controversially discussed again. ► Example from Leadership Practice Project leader Olga is angry at her boss because he did not appear at an important project meeting. Petra, another project member, cannot understand the anger of Olga and makes the best of the situation. Olga writes an angry email to her boss after the meeting, which she later regrets. Petra, on the other hand, has literally forgotten the absence at the end of the meeting. Why do two people experience and judge the same situation so fundamentally different? How do we explain Olga’s and Petra’s behavior? What happens in the brains of the two ladies? Is this genetically determined? Or is their upbringing the cause? Or have they made different experiences during their lives? To understand this from a neuropsychological perspective, it is helpful to first get to know the structure and the most important functions of the brain. ◄

2.2  Facts About the Brain

The human brain weighs about 2% of body weight (on average 1375 g for men, 1245 g for women) and uses about 20% of the oxygen in the blood. It is estimated to consist of approximately 86–100 billion nerve cells (neurons). All neurons are already present at birth, and their development is completed after one year. They are the only cells in the brain that (with few exceptions in selected brain areas) cannot regenerate. The neurons are also estimated to be interconnected by approximately 100 billion connections (synapses) with each other. Consequently, each nerve cell in the brain is on average connected to 10,000 other nerve cells, with the number of connections varying greatly and ranging from a few connections to 100,000. This happens through nerve tracts (axons). Its length in the brain is from a few micrometers to a few centimeters and outside the brain up to over a meter (e.g. muscle control of limbs). If you lined up all the nerve pathways in the brain, it would result in a nerve strand of 5.8 million km (corresponding to about 145 laps around the earth). The nerve conduction velocity is 1–120 m/s depending on the nerve cell (see pulse speed in copper wire: 299,000 km/s, therfore about 2.5 million times slower then in copper!). Long axons are surrounded by a layer (myelin) which increases the electrical transmission speed of the impulses by up to 10 times. 2.3  Structure of the Brain

The brain is a complex, dynamic organ and there are countless ways to access its structure and description. We choose here a simple and convenient view (. Fig. 2.1). Visible from the outside is the cortex, also called the cerebral cortex. It covers the whole brain in a 2–5 mm thick furrowed layer and is divided into several lobes. It

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Frontal lobe Motor tasks Controlling, checking

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Prefrontal cortex Forebrain Thinking decide, plan

Neocortex Cerebral cortex Among other things, consciousness and knowledge

Limbic system Emotion processing Cingulate gyrus Behaviour driven by instinct

Hippocampus Seahorse Emotional & Cognitive Memory processes

Amygdala fear center

Gyrus parahippocampalis Thalamus Brainstem gateway to memory contents gateway to consciousness Respiration, blood pressure, reflexes . Fig. 2.1  Brain regions (regions with different functions)

contains the most recent areas (neocortex) that humans have acquired over evolution. These include associative areas (without clear sensory, sensitive or motor functions), which together with other brain areas form the biological basis of our memory (conscious and unconscious emotional and cognitive experiential memory) and our understanding. The neuron density is very high in the cortex, has an enormously diverse range of tasks and is in constant, intensive exchange with all other brain centers. Good to Know We do a lot when we do nothing. What does our brain do when it does nothing, that is, when it is in a supposed state of rest and recover? The brain is mainly concerned with itself in idle mode (Maier 2010). The resting state of the human brain is characterized by the intrinsic activity of the so-called “Default-mode network” (DMN) (Otti et al. 2012). In this state, the brain consumes only slightly less energy than when we solve a task. In these phases, a network of brain regions is active, which apparently is mainly responsible for mental perspective changes. DMN activity consolidates one’s identity, shapes autobiographical memory, and plans for the immediate future. Presumably, the activity of the DMN strengthens the ability to empathize. The activities of the DMN can also be a hindrance in everyday life, when we want to concentrate and our thoughts wander, for example when reading a book or listening to music. Meditation can counteract this. For people with meditation experience, thoughts no longer wander aimlessly. They live with a stronger present-oriented attention, in the here and now.

The frontal lobe occupies the front part of the cortex. Many researchers locate the higher mental functions of man here. He also takes over motor tasks and speech in large areas. Feelings, emotions and thoughts are decoded in it. Right at the front of the forehead is the frontal lobe, the prefrontal cortex—short PFC. Many textbooks rather name cognitive processes like to direct consciously attention, concentrate,

2.4 · How the Brain Works

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think, plan, judge and decide. Often the PFC is also called “seat of the personality” and is responsible for our consciousness. It is clear that this part of the brain plays a central role in thinking processes, in rational problem solving. Approximately in the middle and inside the brain, at the basal pole, the limbic system is located. It is a functional unit consisting of different regions which link together unconscious and emotional content as well as pain information. The limbic system is a very old part of the brain, phylogenetically, which is composed of several structures and can be found in many creatures, down to reptiles. It also plays an important role in storing memory content and is thus involved in learning processes. The limbic system is often associated by many researchers with moods, feelings and emotions. The thalamus decides which information is to be made accessible to consciousness (see “consciousness”, 7 Sect. 3.4). The Amygdala comes into play especially when fear and anger occur. There are an infinite number of connections between these different brain regions, which make up the largest part of the brain volume. In recent decades, neuroscience has regarded the brain as a processing organ composed of functional modules and has focused its research on the study of the different brain areas and their functions. For this purpose, hundreds of thousands of studies have been made using fMRI (“functional magnetic resonance imaging”), and it has been examined in detail which brain areas are activated in thinking, processing and decision-making processes, where neural networks work when the person is playing a music instrument, climbing or meditating. In the last ten years, the interest of brain research has shifted to the connections between regions in the brain, therfore away from the interest of brain areas toward the Networks (see “Network”, 7 Sect. 2.6). At any moment, an infinite amount of information flows from perception processes in the body and through the senses to the brain, where it is processed consciously or unconsciously, and then routed back to the body through the central nervous system. Comparative, selection, and decision processes keep the network active in the brain at all times. There are countless connections between individual brain centers for this processing in the brain. It is only in recent years that we have been able to look into a thinking brain. When doing so, one does not see individual “wires”, but only locations with increased activity, i.e. the activated neurons. 2.4  How the Brain Works

The human brain is our center of information processing. It is the seat of memory and emotions, as well as consciousness. The brain can be viewed as a dynamic and self-organizing system (Storch, p. 31), whose goal is to control the body and its organs, and coordinate all mental and cognitive processes and knowledge. The gigantic neural network processes and links highly differentiated sensory impressions from the externalworld and signals from within the body with thoughts, physiological needs, and stored experiences. It controls and coordinates complex behavior. Therefore, the task of our brain is to connect the actual events of this world with the self in a meaningful way. It is, so to speak, the interface and the computing center between the world and the individual. The primary goal of this processing center is to ensure that the organism to which the brain belongs sur-

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vives well within the given conditions (Storch and Krause 2002, p. 32) or even experiences psychobiological well-being. How a complex and dynamic interplay of this highly complex and dynamic network of neurons and synapses could work for perception, decision-making and action processes is to be demonstrated using an example (. Fig. 2.2). Let’s assume a woman sees a cat and would like to stroke it. What happens now in the brain from perception to action? First, via her eyes and the optic nerve, the information comes into her brain that she sees something. After the complex processing of decode the information in the visual center (shape, color, movement) and the search in memory (yes, known = cat), the brain will activate a very specific and very individual excitation pattern (previous experiences and knowledge with cats), that is, a highly interconnected, simultaneous interplay of millions of neurons. Various very different areas in the brain can be involved and activated at the same time, depending on experiences, thoughts, associations, intentions and knowledge (forebrain) about the current situation. For example, in our case, the emotional center (limbic system) could be involved (pleased!), because she may love cats and their soft fur. It would be conceivable, however, that areas in the brain are involved which deal with fear (amygdala), because a rabid cat was recently picked up in the neighborhood. It could also be that a network of neurons “switches on” or “fires”, which stores knowledge (cortex), because the person may have recently read in a magazine that cats communicate with their owners and can therefore support the healing process of people with a mental disorder. All participating cell groups are activated at the same time. In fact, even significantly more areas in the brain will be involved than shown in . Fig. 2.2, especially if the person has a lot of experience with cats or similar animals. Roth (1995) writes that there is no single neuron group that could represent an object, here the cat, even approximately.

» “The perception of a concrete object requires the simultaneous activity of many cell

groups, each of which only encodes very limited aspects, be they detail aspects or category aspects, and these cell groups are widely distributed throughout the brain” (Roth 1995, pp. 233–237). Parietal Lobe (parietal lobe)

Language Center

Frontal lobe

Touch sensitivity Decision-making ability, muscle activity

touch

Soft fur Cat

+

Vision Center Good for healing process

Emotions

Occipital lobe (Occipital lobe)

Temporal lobe (temporal lobe) Memory Center

. Fig. 2.2  Possible activated cell groups when looking at a cat

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2.4 · How the Brain Works

Which cell groups are now activated here depends on very many factors. On the one hand, probably recently made, still “fresh” experiences are preferred. The interest, the attention focus, the physical constitution of the observer, but also the experiences can be further influencing factors (see “Perception”, 7 Sect. 3.2). Now let’s look at another person looking at the same cat. They have a different background experience than the first person. Therefore, completely different cell groups are active than in the first person, e.g. the person could hate cats because the neighbor’s cats are constantly doing its “business” in their own vegetable garden and this experience has been transferred to long-term memory (. Fig. 2.3). The limbic system plays a major role in coordinating which brain areas should communicate with each other at what time. In both cases, the brain begins to select and decide what is important at the moment. From all these excitations (perceptions, memories, needs, opinions, knowledge, emotions, etc.), the brain must initiate an adequate action. In our case of the cat, various options are conceivable: for example, in the first case, to stroke the cat, or in the second case, to run away or to chase the cat. This selection or decision is made by our brain, and it happens to a large extent automatically, that is, unconsciously. Just think of all the automated actions when driving, brushing your teeth, walking or sleeping (D’Amicis et al. 2011). We are constantly making decisions, all day long. ► Example from Leadership Practice I notice that for some time now, both the performance and motivation of an employee no longer meet the requirements of the corresponding activity. I agree with her on a date for an evaluation and goal setting conversation. When I meet her, I feel tension rising in me, my thoughts are concentrated, my heart rate is slightly increased, my breathing is shorter and my gaze is focused. I start the conversation with a question about how she is doing. After that, I actively listen to find out if what is said corresponds to my observations.

Language Center

Decision-making ability, muscle activity Do not touch, run away

Cat

Vision Center Emotions

Disgust, Dislike

. Fig. 2.3  Possible brain areas involved when viewing a cat if negative experiences are present

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­ fter a neutral introduction (as a leader, it is my intention to align the interests of the A employees with the interests of the company), I express my observations of what, in my opinion, is the effect of her behavior on me and the company, and show the consequences of her behavior. After that, I will listen to the employee and ask questions. How the conversation develops depends heavily on the course so far. Possible action alternatives range from understanding-accompanied support and problem solving to the written documentation of clear, scheduled expectations and the corresponding consequences if the objectives are not achieved. ◄

So what happens neurobiologically when I sit across from this person and start the conversation? My brain activates a specific and individual arousal pattern that represents the accumulated experience with this person and the knowledge about this person. The arousal pattern also includes my experience in solving similar situations, my values, attitudes and beliefs. The neuronal arousal pattern will also include information on experienced emotions from the limbic system (e.g. pride, when we last solved problems together) as well as experience with already held conversations with this person. The activation happens in a flash, involuntarily and is based on the cognitive and emotional experience memory. Some of this content is conscious to me at this moment, but the great majority is not accessible to me, so unconscious. In such a highly complex social situation, countless nerve fibers fire simultaneously (see “Oscillations”, 7 Sect. 2.6.1) and can change intensity very quickly depending on the interaction. The following brain areas could be activated in our example: Brain areas that are involved in processes of emotions (limbic system), control of the central nervous system (cerebellum) and pulse regulation, attention and mental activity, memory, planning, empathy, language and vision and hearing center, etc. Good to Know Perception consists largely of already learned content. The perception of the external world (seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, touching, feeling, heat, acceleration, balance) or a thought (memory, conscious thinking) triggers a pattern of excitement in our brain that is based on previous experiences and knowledge to a large majority (well over 90%). The perception or thought is therefore preceded by a learning process. Consequently, perception or thought is extremely individual, personal and subjective and usually leads to quick action. Leaders who are aware of this act more brain-adapted and effective.

We cannot look into the future and also cannot fully understand the complexity of all influencing factors in a situation. Our brain takes this difficulty away from us by providing us with a direction of action in the form of a basic feeling based on past learning experiences (cognitve heuristics). However, if we adopt this feelings unreflectively, there is also the danger of initiating an inadequate action, as we usually assess this feelings to be true and in line with reality. The brain deceives us by making us believe that we know the reality exactly. It also has to make decisions during conversations constantly. These decisions or at least the decision-making process come from the limbic system. The evaluation system is therefore very closely related to our emotions. If an evaluation has been positive, the reward system (see “reward system”, 7 Sect. 3.5.2) is activated, which indicates that the current state in which the person is located is pleasant and staying there is a sensible alternative. However, if the evaluation is negative, the brain is of the opinion that action is required. Our brain is therefore a highly interconnected system that, in addition to

2.5 · Structure and Function of Nerve Cells

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new inputs that reach the brain via the sense organs, also takes into account the experiences and knowledge already stored for further processing and decision-making. Gerhard Roth speaks of the fact that the most important sense organ in perception is our memory. We see 99% of what is in our memory, and only about 1% is added by our sense organs (G. Roth in Das automatische Gehirn von D’Amicis et al. 2011). Application for Leadership Practice In leadership practice, one can counter hasty, subjective (limbic) behaviour by preparing well for important conversations, involving as many perspectives and opinions as possible, and documenting significant events over time. Possible scenarios and reactions should be trained mentally, i.e. in the imagination, before a difficult conversation with all possible emotions, and corresponding behaviour should be developed. This leads to more confidence and composure in the conversation itself. Furthermore, it is important to identify highly emotional situations through trained body awareness in order to consciously control one’s impulses. This can be promoted by verbalising emotions, taking breaks, relaxation techniques and consciously tolerating contradictions (tolerance of ambiguity) (see “emotion regulation”, 7 Sect. 3.5.4). In addition, effective listening helps to minimize perceptual distortions (see “Perception”, 7 Sect. 3.2).

2.5  Structure and Function of Nerve Cells

A neural network must be imagined as a relationship network among people, as Facebook tries to map it. The individual people symbolize the nerve cells. Just like Facebook friends, nerve cells can, statistically speaking, reach any other neuron through a maximum of four intermediate stations, that is, communicate with it. But nerve cells not only play a central role in the processing of information in the brain, they also transmit commands from the brain to our movement system and receive signals from the body for further processing. The whole organism, all internal organ systems and external movement systems, emotional processes and cognitive processes, including our language system, are ultimately controlled by neurons in the brain. Neurons can forward and disseminate information, retain, filter and amplify it, depending on the significance of the information. Nerve cells are combined into functional neuronal assemblies. To understand the functioning of memory and the networking of nerve cells with others, we first look at the structure and function of a single neuron. Each individual nerve cell (. Fig. 2.4) is connected to thousands of other nerve cells via many small contact points, the synapses. The synapses are located on the dendrites as well as on the cell body and the axon itself. The synapses have the task of transmitting an electrical impulse (action potential) from one nerve cell to another or inhibiting it. The axon transports the action potentials from the cell body to the presynapse, which in turn transfers the action potential to the next nerve cell. In so-called chemical synapses, the electrical potential is not simply transmitted from the presynapse to the postsynapse, but they trigger the release of neuronal

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Electrical transmission

2 Synapse

Presynaptic Membrane

Neurotransmitter = Chemical transfer

Synaptic cleft Postsynaptic Membrane Receptor

Electrical transmission

Dendrites

Nucleus Cell body

Axon

Nerve cell (neuron) . Fig. 2.4  Nerve cell (neuron) and structure of a synapse

messengers (neurotransmitters or simply transmitters) in the presynapse. These carriers penetrate the tiny gap (synaptic gap) of the synapse and influence the postsynaptic membrane through the receptors. The transmitters now in turn cause a change in the electrical potential on the postsynaptic membrane, which is forwarded to the cell, more precisely to the cell nucleus, via the dendrites (finely branched nerve cell processes that grow out from the cell body and form contact points for other cells). The nucleus now decides whether the incoming charge states of the various synapses are sufficient to transmit an impulse via the axon to further nerve cells or not. Therfore the transmission of signals in the brain is an electro-chemical process. One could therefore say that the task of a nerve cell is to make decisions continuously, namely whether to transmit an impulse (action potential) to other nerve cells or not. If the incoming signals from other nerve cells increase the potential of

2.6 · The Brain, a Complex Network

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the entire cell body above a certain threshold level, the neuron fires, i.e. an electrical impulse is transmitted through the axon to the next presynapses and thus to the next nerve cells at a speed of up to 120 meters per second. A new action potential is present at a downstream nerve cell. Incoming signals can also inhibit the entire potential of the cell and thus prevent the threshold level from being reached and the neuron from firing. The neurotransmitters, i.e. the transmitters in the synaptic gap, either act excitatory on the synapse and can increase the potential (depolarisation), or they act inhibitory on the synapse and reduce the potential (hyperpolarisation). Neurotransmitters therefore play a central role in our brain. And this is where many medications and also the effect of alcohol, tobacco and other drugs come into play. Whether a presynapse acts excitatory or inhibitory depends not only on the type of neurotransmitter secreted by the presynapse, but also on the special sensitivity and receptivity of the synapse (Roth 2009, p. 18). This process is not yet fully clarified, but researchers assume that, for example, postsynapses become more sensitive in the course of learning processes. For example, we have about 20% inhibitory and about 80% excitatory synapses in our brain. Normally, active nerve cells do not fire just one impulse, but several impulses in succession (so-called volleys). For example, muscles are set in motion, organs controlled or sensory perceptions transmitted to the brain. Most nerve cells However, in the human brain, they fire based on impulses from other neurons in the head. So the cells are primarily connected to each other. This creates gigantic individual neuronal networks. Every perception, every thought and every action or movement arises through its own, unmistakable pattern of connections of nerve cells that are activated. Most nerve cells are located in the cortex. Connections are distinguished in neuroscience according to the course of information exchange (direction of impulse). As already mentioned (7 Sect. 2.2), each nerve cell can build up to 30,000 connections to other neurons. Of 10 million fibers, only one is connected to the external world through the sense organs and muscles (Gasser 2008, p. 25). 2.6  The Brain, a Complex Network

In the gigantic network of neurons (. Fig. 2.5) and their connections, millions of nerve cells are always active simultaneously for a perception or a thought or for the control of a certain movement. For information processing, sometimes far-flung brain areas are involved in complex neuronal assemblies (Wolf 2015). With similar activities, e.g. climbing in a hall or on a rock, similar networks are always active. According to Schmidt (2009), the brain can only perform its function in close cooperation with many neuronal assemblies (functional connectivity). How the interaction of the different brain areas works exactly is not yet understood in detail. Today, many studies are being conducted in the area of networking of neuronal assemblies. “Due to the interconnected and parallel information processing, it is also not possible to say where a neuronal process began and where it ended” (Schmidt 2009, p. 24). The US government has provided $40 billion to study the connections in the human brain. In this Human Connectome Project (HCP), the previously only very rudimentary known complex relationship between the structure and function of the

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. Fig. 2.5  Fiber architecture heading to and away from the cortex (from the Connectome Scanner database). The fibers are coded according to the direction of information processing: red = left-right, green = front-back, blue = up-and-down. Source 7 www.humenconnectomeproject.org. Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, Los Angeles

brain is being investigated. The goal is to create a map of the connections and network of the human brain, similar to the decoding of the genome. This should enable diagnoses of diseases and disabilities in the future, predict behavioral changes and promote Brain-adapted learning and understanding. In 2013, the EU also founded the Human Brain Project with the aim of better understanding the human brain through cooperation of all European research centers in neuroscience. The headquarters and coordination hub is the EPFL in Lausanne (École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne). This is a flagship project that is funded under the Horizon 2020 research and innovation program of the EU with over 1 billion Swiss francs and links the findings of neuroscience with the latest data processing technologies as well as the brain-related medical fields. A study by Dr. Dr. Elise Klein’s team at the Leibniz Institute for Media Research (IWM) in Tübingen has found that even a short and intensive mental arithmetic training can strengthen the neural connections between important regions in the brain in adulthood (. Fig. 2.6). The researchers were able to show that the intensive use of brain areas (here for solving arithmetic problems) has strengthened the fiber connections (construction of white matter) and this was associated with successful learning. The neuronal plasticity, that is, the plastic change of the brain, was already detectable after a few training sessions (Klein et al. 2018). This impressively shows that we can further educate our brain by actively using our brain, by solving problems, by trying and error, and that the neural network continues to develop. The more different networks a person can activate at the same time and the more often he can do this, the better his mental flexibility will be when the brain areas are used again.

2.6 · The Brain, a Complex Network

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. Fig. 2.6  Fiber connections in the brain that run through the hippocampus and are associated with the retrieval of numerical facts. Media-based training increased the strength and conductivity of fibers associated with long-term memory. Source Dr. Dr. Elisa Klein. Leibniz Institute for Media Research, Tübingen

2.6.1  Oscillations of Brain Regions

With this the exchange of information and processing between the simultaneously active brain areas are more efficient, spatially distributed regions are active in synchronous, rhythmic patterns. The oscillation of neuronal assemblies is either extrinsic, i.e. triggered by a stimulus via the senses such as language, a piece of music, a picture, the touching of an object or the inhalation of a scent, or it arises intrinsically in the brain itself. In most cases, direct anatomical connections to other regions ensure the common oscillation. With time-shifted oscillations, decentralized neuronal assemblies can also be interconnected via different intermediate stations. Good to Know Oscillations enable communication in the brain. Oscillations are vibrations (derivation from Latin: oscillare = swing, fluctuate). Oscillations occur in the communication of almost all biological systems. The feedback structure of the systems is responsible for the oscillations. The brain with its gigantic network offers ideal conditions for such oscillations. Many scientists suspect that synchronous oscillations support and enable the flow of information between different brain areas.

The brain, as already described, consists of approx. 100 billion nerve cells. The signal transmission from one cell to the next takes place, as described above, at the

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synapses. The action potential of a single synapse is absolutely about 100–120 mV and is too weak to be measured by skin electrodes from the outside. However, when activities take place in the brain, whole brain regions are always excited synchronously and communicate with each other, which can result in a summation potential that can be measured from the outside. These summation potentials begin to oscillate (oscillate) when communication between brain regions takes place in synchronous, rhythmic patterns. This makes the exchange of information and processing between the simultaneously active brain areas more efficient. It is further assumed that these oscillations serve the consolidation of memory contents (Lenzen 2015). According to Wolf (2015), these brain waves depend on the current consciousness state from (deep sleep, relaxed wakefulness, mental challenge) and range from 3 to 100 vibrations per second (. Table 2.1). Inhibitory neurons, which make up about 20% of the nerve cells in the cortex, seem to play the key role in the emergence of these brain waves. However, how the inhibitory neurons control the oscillation is unknown. What is known, however, is that the oscillations play a central role in consciousness processes, controlling attention, concentration, wakefulness, perception, memory performance and memory formation. Brain waves are a network phenomenon and there is still uncertainty about how the properties of the individual cells are reflected in the network dynamics or whether only the synaptic connections are of importance (Tchumatchenko and Clopath 2014). Empirical experience through measurements of brain waves using EEG (electroencephalogram) makes it possible to diagnose dysfunctions and states of consciousness of the brain. The analysis of brain waves has proved to be particularly helpful in the diagnosis of epilepsy and sleep disorders.

. Table 2.1  The different brain waves Name

Frequency in Herz (Hz) (vibrations/second)

State Effects on body and mind

Infra-low