Battles of the Wars of the Roses 1399083104, 9781399083102

Table of contents :
Contents
Introduction
1 York and Lancaster
2 Jack Cade’s Rebellion
3 The Gathering Clouds of War
4 A New Alliance
5 First Battle of St Albans, 22 May 1455
6 A Peaceful Interlude
7 Battle of Blore Heath, 23 September 1459
8 Battle of Ludford Bridge, 12 October 1459
9 Battle of Northampton, 10 July 1460
10 Battle of Wakefield, 30 December 1460
11 Battle of Mortimer’s Cross, 2 February 1461
12 Second Battle of St Albans, 17 February 1461
13 Battle of Ferrybridge, 28 March 1461
14 Battle of Towton, 29 March 1461
15 The New King
16 War in the North
17 Battle of Hedgeley Moor, 25 April 1464
18 The King Weds in Secret
19 Battle of Hexham, 15 May 1464
20 The New Queen and Political Intrigues
21 Battle of Edgcote, 24 July 1469
22 Battle of Losecote Field, 12 March 1470
23 The Readeption of King Henry VI
24 Battle of Barnet, 14 April 1471
25 Battle of Tewkesbury, 4 May 1471
26 The Yorkist Age
27 Death of the King
28 Battle of Bosworth, 22 August 1485
29 Battle of Stoke, 16 June 1487
30 The ‘Princes in the Tower’
Bibliography
Primary Sources
Index

Citation preview

Battles of the Wars of the Roses

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Battles of the Wars of the Roses David Cohen

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First published in Great Britain in 2022 by Pen & Sword History An imprint of Pen & Sword Books Ltd Yorkshire – Philadelphia Copyright © David Cohen 2022 ISBN 978 1 39908 310 2 The right of David Cohen to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the Publisher in writing. Typeset by Mac Style Printed in the UK by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY.

Pen & Sword Books Limited incorporates the imprints of Atlas, Archaeology, Aviation, Discovery, Family History, Fiction, History, Maritime, Military, Military Classics, Politics, Select, Transport, True Crime, Air World, Frontline Publishing, Leo Cooper, Remember When, Seaforth Publishing, The Praetorian Press, Wharncliffe Local History, Wharncliffe Transport, Wharncliffe True Crime, White Owl and After the Battle. For a complete list of Pen & Sword titles please contact PEN & SWORD BOOKS LIMITED 47 Church Street, Barnsley, South Yorkshire, S70 2AS, England E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.pen-and-sword.co.uk Or PEN AND SWORD BOOKS 1950 Lawrence Rd, Havertown, PA 19083, USA E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.penandswordbooks.com

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Dedicated to my late parents Sara and Moshe for their support over many years. I also acknowledge author and historian Sharon Bennett Connolly for her help and advice in writing this book.

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Contents

Introduction vii Chapter 1

York and Lancaster

Chapter 2

Jack Cade’s Rebellion

16

Chapter 3

The Gathering Clouds of War

19

Chapter 4

A New Alliance

22

Chapter 5

First Battle of St Albans, 22 May 1455

26

Chapter 6

A Peaceful Interlude

34

Chapter 7

Battle of Blore Heath, 23 September 1459

37

Chapter 8

Battle of Ludford Bridge, 12 October 1459

41

Chapter 9

Battle of Northampton, 10 July 1460

44

Chapter 10

Battle of Wakefield, 30 December 1460

50

Chapter 11

Battle of Mortimer’s Cross, 2 February 1461

55

Chapter 12

Second Battle of St Albans, 17 February 1461

59

Chapter 13

Battle of Ferrybridge, 28 March 1461

68

Chapter 14

Battle of Towton, 29 March 1461

71

Chapter 15

The New King

83

Chapter 16

War in the North

87

Chapter 17

Battle of Hedgeley Moor, 25 April 1464

92

Chapter 18

The King Weds in Secret

95

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viii  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Chapter 19

Battle of Hexham, 15 May 1464

98

Chapter 20

The New Queen and Political Intrigues

102

Chapter 21

Battle of Edgcote, 24 July 1469

106

Chapter 22

Battle of Losecote Field, 12 March 1470

113

Chapter 23

The Readeption of King Henry VI

118

Chapter 24

Battle of Barnet, 14 April 1471

130

Chapter 25

Battle of Tewkesbury, 4 May 1471

146

Chapter 26

The Yorkist Age

165

Chapter 27

Death of the King

178

Chapter 28

Battle of Bosworth, 22 August 1485

188

Chapter 29

Battle of Stoke, 16 June 1487

204

Chapter 30

The ‘Princes in the Tower’

216

Bibliography229 Primary Sources230 Index231

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Introduction

T

he causes of the Wars of the Roses, one of the most violent periods in English history, were many and followed years of growing tensions between various factions of the nobility in the government of King Henry VI. The Hundred Years’ war in France had gone badly for England who lost all her continental lands except for Calais and ill feeling existed because of the way the war had been carried out. A weak king had also appointed his favourites, who were seen as self-serving and corrupt, to positions in government. The end of the Hundred Years’ War in 1453 had caused political, economic and social problems in England as the lands won by King Henry  V were lost to the French, inspired by Joan of Arc then King Charles VII. The costly war in France had also caused high taxation and loss of life in England, especially the southeast of the country. There was economic depression in Europe from 1440 due to loss of trade, which in England was limited to Calais due to the wars. The feudal system in the country was disappearing, wages were limited by the Statute of Labourers and goods in short supply since the Black Death. Political structures were changing at that time with a strong and powerful landowning nobility emerging who were able to gain large followings. The towns were growing with professional and merchant classes and the role of town councils became important. The Church remained powerful, owned much land and was able to lend funds for military campaigns, act as mediator, banker and diplomat as well as overseeing the spiritual well being of the country. King Henry VI was not a good politician nor was he a military leader, he suffered with mental illness and did not maintain law and order. Discontent in the country led to Jack Cade’s rebellion in 1450 and later to Richard Duke of York challenging the ruling elite and eventually making a claim to the throne as a descendant of King Edward III.

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x  Battles of the Wars of the Roses York’s challenge to King Henry VI, however, was opposed by the king’s French wife, Margaret of Anjou, who was supported by the Lancastrian faction and this ultimately led to armed conflict and much bloodshed throughout the land.

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Chapter 1

York and Lancaster

T

he origins of the Wars of the Roses can be traced back to King Edward III of the Plantagenet dynasty in England, who reigned from 1327 to 1377. King Edward married Philippa of Hainault in 1328 and had five sons who survived infancy: Edward, the Black Prince; Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence; John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster; Edmund of Langley, Duke of York; and Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester. In the following century, descendants of John of Gaunt (known as Lancastrians) and of Edmund of Langley (Yorkists) fought a prolonged dynastic battle for the throne of England that lasted from 1455 to 1487. In fact, the fifteenth century was one of the bloodiest in English history, with four kings deposed, three kings probably murdered in secret and

King Edward III from his tomb effigy at Westminster Abbey.

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2  Battles of the Wars of the Roses one killed in battle. The wars also saw the deaths of several princes of the royal blood as the noble families of the realm destroyed each other in bloody battles. The term ‘Wars of the Roses’ is a nineteenth-century invention and may have originated from a scene in William Shakespeare’s Henry  VI Part 1 in the Temple Gardens, where the Duke of Somerset plucks a red rose and the Duke of York a white rose for their emblems. There is no truth to this legend, although the Duke of York did use the white rose as one of his badges, as well as the falcon and fetterlock. There is evidence of the red rose of Lancaster in a genealogical record, but the Lancastrians used several badges on their banners. It should be noted that the terms Yorkist and Lancastrian bear no relation to the counties of Yorkshire and Lancashire as, in fact, the Yorkists drew most of their support from the south and east of England and the Lancastrians from the north and west. King Henry VII married Elizabeth of York in 1486 to unite the warring factions of York and Lancaster and the Tudor rose of red and white became a symbol of their union. King Edward  III had laid claim to the throne of France in 1337 as grandson of the French King Philip IV, marking the beginning of the Hundred Years’ War, with lasting repercussions in the following century.

Effigy of Edward the Black Prince at Canterbury Cathedral 1376.

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York and Lancaster  3 Victories for the English in the Battles of Crecy in 1346 and Poitiers in 1356 eventually led to the peace treaty of Bretigny in 1360. The terms of the treaty meant that King Edward was able to retain some of his land holdings in France, but at the same time he renounced his claim to the French throne. The Black Death of 1348–9 in England had decimated the country and many villages were depopulated or abandoned. Farm labourers were

John of Gaunt Duke of Lancaster 1340–99.

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4  Battles of the Wars of the Roses able to negotiate cash wages and many bettered themselves as land was enclosed for farming and sheep grazing. The structure of the English feudal system showed signs of crumbling and this eventually led to the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381, which was provoked by the proposal of a Poll Tax. King Edward III died in 1377, but he was predeceased by his eldest son, the Black Prince, in 1376, leaving the ten-year-old son of the Black Prince to take the throne as King Richard II. The young king showed his courage and stood firm against the rebels during the Peasants’ Revolt

Late fifteenth-century depiction of the marriage of King Henry V to Katherine of Valois.

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York and Lancaster  5 and his uncle, John of Gaunt, the effective ruler, was loyal to him during his reign. John of Gaunt died in 1399 and his son, Henry Bolingbroke, rebelled against his cousin, the king, and deposed him after being disinherited from his lands and sent into exile. Bolingbroke took the throne as King Henry IV. It is thought that King Richard II died of starvation in 1400 while imprisoned in Pontefract Castle in Yorkshire and the new king faced several rebellions during his reign, although he was able to keep his throne. King Henry  IV died in 1413 and his eldest son, who became King Henry V, was the victor of the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 when he renewed the Hundred Years’ War with France. After a series of victories and the capture of Normandy, the Treaty of Troyes with France in 1420 recognised King Henry V as the heir to the French throne and marriage to Katherine of Valois, daughter of the French King, followed. However, before he was able to take the throne of France, Henry died of dysentery in 1422 while on military campaign and was succeeded by his eight-monthold son, who became King Henry VI. The government in England was then taken up by a Regency Council led by the king’s uncles, Humphrey Duke of Gloucester, who became Protector and Defender of the Realm, and John Duke of Bedford, who took the role of Regent of France. On Whitsuntide, 19 May 1426, the four-year-old King Henry  VI was knighted by his uncle John Duke of Bedford at St Mary de Castro Church in Leicester. The young king then proceeded to create fortyfour other knights, including the fourteen-year-old Richard Duke of Stained glass image of Richard Duke of York, his distant relation. York at St Laurence Church, Ludlow.

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6  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Richard, third Duke of York, was born on 21 September 1411, the son of Anne Mortimer (who died shortly after he was born) and Richard of Conisburgh, Earl of Cambridge. Conisburgh was executed in 1415 after the failed Southampton Plot to depose King Henry V. The Duke of York was the grandson of Edmund of Langley, fourth surviving son of King Edward  III and, through his mother, great-great-grandson of Lionel Duke of Clarence, the second surviving son of King Edward III. Consequently, many thought that he had a better claim to the throne than King Henry  VI, who was the great-grandson of John of Gaunt, third surviving son of King Edward III, and this was to lead to serious conflict in the years to come. At this time, however, the Duke of York remained a loyal subject of the king. He was brought up by Sir Robert Waterton, a retainer of the Lancastrian king at Pontefract Castle. In 1423, York was taken into the wardship of Ralph Neville, Earl of Westmorland, and married his youngest daughter Cecily in 1429. The Duke of York was allowed to inherit his title from his uncle, Edward of Norwich, who was killed at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 and had died childless, as he was not seen as a threat to the throne. In 1425, his maternal uncle, Edmund Mortimer, fifth Earl of March, also died childless of plague in Ireland and, in 1432, the Duke of York inherited the vast Mortimer estates and consequently became the wealthiest and most powerful noble in the land, second only to King Henry VI. Ralph Neville, Earl of Westmorland, father of Cecily, wife of the Duke of York, had married Joan Beaufort as his second wife in 1396 and by her had nine sons and five daughters. Joan Beaufort was the youngest daughter of John of Gaunt by his mistress Katherine Swynford, who together had four illegitimate children known as the Beauforts, after a possession once owned by him in France. The four children were legitimised by the Pope in 1396, which was confirmed by Parliament in 1397 after their parents’ marriage in 1396 and allowed to have titles and lands. However, in 1407, their half-brother King Henry IV added by Letters Patent excepta dignitate regali to the Act of Parliament, meaning that they and their descendants were barred from the throne. This was of dubious legality because it was not passed by Parliament and was challenged decades later, but the four Beaufort children, John Earl of Somerset, Henry Cardinal Beaufort, Thomas Duke of Exeter and Joan Beaufort, were to remain loyal Lancastrians. Descendants of the Earl

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York and Lancaster  7

Plantagenet family tree.

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8  Battles of the Wars of the Roses of Somerset were also to become strong Lancastrian supporters in the fifteenth century. The widowed Queen Katherine had formed a romantic attachment around 1429 to a Welshman by the name of Owen Tudor, who was Keeper of the Wardrobe in the royal household. Their marriage was not proved, but the liaison produced up to four children, Edmund Tudor born about 1430, Jasper Tudor born approximately 1431, Owen Tudor who became a monk and possibly a daughter who became a nun. The eldest two were to become strong allies of their half-brother King Henry VI in the decades to come. In the meantime, the war with France had continued under the direction of John Duke of Bedford, who achieved a number of military victories against the French. However, in 1429, Joan of Arc, a peasant girl who claimed to have heard angelic voices instructing her to free France from English rule, appeared at the French court. Her inspiration helped the French to defeat the English in their defence of Orleans in 1429 and this victory marked a turn of fortunes for France in the war. That same year saw the coronation of the Dauphin of France at Rheims as King Charles VII and also the coronation of King Henry VI at Westminster Abbey. In 1431, King Henry VI was crowned King of France at NotreDame de Paris, the only monarch ever to have been crowned King of both England and France. Joan of Arc was captured in 1430 by the Burgundians, allies of the English, handed over to the Duke of Bedford and burnt at the stake for witchcraft at Rouen in 1431. However, her death did not lead to a change in fortunes for the English in France and, in 1435, the French and Burgundians signed the peace treaty of Arras. In 1435, John Duke of Bedford died and was replaced as Governor of Normandy and Regent of France by Richard Duke of York as LieutenantGeneral, who had little military experience, although he was able to drive the French out of Normandy. The Duke of York was not given sufficient finance for the military campaigns and had to fund them from his own income and, consequently, he resigned from his post in 1437 to be replaced by Richard Beauchamp, thirteenth Earl of Warwick. Queen Katherine retired to the Abbey of Bermondsey in 1436 and died in 1437, after giving birth to a daughter who sadly did not survive, and was later buried at Westminster Abbey. King Henry VI had now come of age and took control of the government, which was split by factions

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York and Lancaster  9 led by Cardinal Beaufort (who sought peace) and Humphrey Duke of Gloucester (who wanted to continue the war with France). However, King Henry VI was not a strong king, nor a military leader; he suffered with melancholy and was more interested in religion. King Henry VI, nonetheless, had a great interest in education and many grammar schools were founded during his reign. In 1440, he founded

House of Lancaster and Beaufort family tree.

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10  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Eton College near Windsor for the education of poor scholars and, in 1441, King’s College Cambridge for the continuing education of poor students from Eton. However, he was not seen as a good king and did not deal well with a kingdom that was near to bankruptcy, factions in court, a legal system corrupted by local magnates and their armed retainers, and a war with France that could not be won. In 1440, the Duke of York was appointed Lieutenant-General of France once again for a period of five years, where he enjoyed better fortune in his military campaigns against the French. In a plot to weaken Humphrey Duke of Gloucester, who spoke against peace with France, his rival Cardinal Beaufort accused Gloucester’s wife Eleanor Cobham and her accomplices of witchcraft and treason against the king. They were found guilty and her clerk Roger Bolingbroke was hanged, drawn and quartered, Margery Jourdemain (known as ‘the Witch of Eye’) burnt at the stake and Eleanor Cobham imprisoned. In 1444, William de la Pole, fourth Earl of Suffolk, was sent to France with a delegation to negotiate a peace treaty with the French. He was reluctant to go because he knew that the proposed peace would not be popular with the English public, but realised that prolonging the war would be hopeless. The Treaty of Tours was signed, by which a two-year truce was agreed with the French, the counties of Maine and Anjou were to be returned to France and England was to keep Normandy, Aquitaine and all the other territories won by King Henry V. In order to secure the treaty, a marriage was to be arranged between Margaret, daughter of Rene Duke of Anjou, and King Henry VI. The ceding of the hardwon counties of Maine and Anjou to France were kept secret because it was known that the English public would be aghast at those terms. The proposed marriage of the king with Margaret of Anjou was also not popular with the public because the new Queen did not bring a dowry. On 23 April 1445, King Henry  VI married Margaret of Anjou at Titchfield Abbey in Hampshire in a quiet ceremony officiated by the Bishop of Salisbury. On 30 May 1445, Margaret was crowned at Westminster Abbey by Archbishop of Canterbury John Stafford, followed by a banquet at Westminster Hall and three days of tournaments. When Humphrey Duke of Gloucester found out about the secret treaty to cede Maine and Anjou, he was furious. He also enjoyed great popularity among the populace, so he was viewed as a threat to the peace

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York and Lancaster  11

House of York family tree.

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12  Battles of the Wars of the Roses

Fifteenth-century French depiction of the marriage of King Henry  VI to Margaret of Anjou.

party. To silence him, a Parliament was called at Bury St Edmunds in February 1447, where he was arrested for treason. However, he died before his trial in circumstances that were never explained, with rumours that he had been murdered. His greatest rival, Cardinal Beaufort, lived only a few weeks longer and died in March 1447. In March 1448, King Henry VI finally handed the counties of Maine and Anjou to the French after a siege of Le Mans by King Charles VII of France. The same year, Henry created Edmund Beaufort second Duke of

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York and Lancaster  13

House of Lancaster family tree (Plantagenet).

Somerset and William de la Pole Duke of Suffolk, who then became the leaders of the court party. At that time, Richard Duke of York adopted the surname Plantagenet, the first time it had ever been used, but there was no evidence that he had designs on the throne – although a fierce rivalry had developed between him and the Duke of Somerset. In 1449, the Duke of York was dispatched as Lieutenant of Ireland and the Duke of Somerset was created Governor of Normandy and chief commander, where he took up residence at Rouen. The Duke of Somerset, however, was a failure as commander-in-chief and did not have the ability or capacity for the job. The English attack on the town of Fougeres gave King Charles  VII the excuse to declare war in July 1449 and the French quickly captured about thirty fortified towns in Normandy. In October 1449, Rouen was captured by the French and the Duke of Somerset fled to Caen, but surrendered the city to the

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14  Battles of the Wars of the Roses French in July 1450 and then returned to London on 1 August 1450. On 15 April 1450, a small English army led by Sir Thomas Kyriell had also been defeated by the French at Formigny and, by the end of August, the last English garrison in Normandy had surrendered. The only remaining English possessions left in France were therefore Calais, which had been captured by King Edward III, and the duchy of Aquitaine. On 9 December 1449, Adam Moleyns, Bishop of Chichester, who had been a member of the court party, resigned the Privy Seal. On 9 January 1450, he was in Portsmouth to pay sailors and attempted to explain the Duke of Suffolk’s misdeeds. When he paid the sailors less than their due, they wounded him, such was the lawlessness that had appeared throughout the land, and he later died. The Duke of Suffolk had become the target of the people’s anger because it was perceived that he had been taking decisions independently of the Royal Council. Suspicions were further aroused when he secured in 1450 a marriage between his son John and the seven-year-old Lady Margaret Beaufort, who was a wealthy descendant of John of Gaunt. The Lords and the Commons combined to bring him down. The Duke of Suffolk was in effect a scapegoat for the recent disasters in France and was sent to the Tower, while the Commons prepared a Bill of Indictment. He was accused of plotting an invasion of England with the French ambassador, divulging intelligence to the French, ceding Maine and Anjou to King Charles VII without consent, and wishing to set his son on the throne with the betrothal to Lady Margaret Beaufort. He was further accused by the Commons of embezzlement of Crown funds and taxes, the impoverishment of the monarchy, corruption, extortion and murders. However, the Duke of Suffolk was a favourite of King Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou, and consequently he received a relatively light sentence of five years in exile. On 30 April 1450, the Duke of Suffolk sailed from Ipswich to Calais with three ships. However, he was intercepted at the straits of Dover by a flotilla of small vessels that had been lying in wait for him. A ship called the Nicholas of the Tower, which was part of the royal fleet, met with him and a small boat picked him up to be taken on board. He was tried on the ship, found guilty, taken into a boat and beheaded. His body was placed in Dover beach, with his head on a pike for a month before burial.

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York and Lancaster  15 It has never been established who was behind the killing of the Duke of Suffolk, but the murder showed the anger of the populace at his failings. By the reign of King Henry VI, feudalism had given way to what is now described as ‘bastard feudalism’. Many who had returned from France had profited from the Hundred Years’ War and had established landed families. They placed themselves under protection of powerful magnates, not as feudal vassals but as liveried retainers under contract. The retainer would become a member of the lord’s affinity and would wear his livery, a uniform and badge, and accompany him on military campaigns. In return, the retainer would gain the protection of his lord, an income and sometimes land or a good office. The wealthy magnates were therefore able to gather substantial fighting forces around them, without which the Wars of the Roses could not have taken place, as they were primarily wars between the magnates. They were a class that consisted of a small number of dukes usually related to the royal house, marquesses, earls and viscounts as well as barons, knights and the gentry. They also owned most of the landed wealth of the kingdom, exercised the greatest influence in their territories, and were respected and feared.

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Chapter 2

Jack Cade’s Rebellion

T

he Lancastrian government was bankrupt by 1450, with massive debts and a lavish household, as well as the expensive war in France. King Henry VI had given away much of the royal lands to his favourites and consequently he had lost the resultant income. The country was united in its desire for law and order, an end to corruption and political stability. English troops had begun to return from Normandy after the French victories and trudged along the roads from the Channel ports, begging and stealing as they went. On Whitsuntide, 24 May 1450, the people of Kent gathered for the festival, but not to celebrate, as armed men led by Jack Cade rose up in rebellion against the corrupt government. The king and Parliament were in Leicester at the time and sent an army south to London to confront the rebels. Jack Cade used the name John Mortimer, probably to show connection to Richard Duke of York. He published a manifesto with a list of grievances against the government, which included the giving away of Crown lands, cruel taxes, bribery and corruption by local officials, election rigging, loss of lands in France and government corruption. The rebellion of around 5,000 men was not a second Peasants’ Revolt, but one of wellinformed men who were realistic about what they wanted to achieve. There is no evidence that the Duke of York was connected in any way with the revolt, although he did ask his allies to keep him informed of its progress. In June, Jack Cade led his army to Blackheath. King Henry  VI sent his retainers to parley and they were handed Cade’s manifesto. This was rejected by the Council and the king’s army encamped at Clerkenwell Fields outside London while the Londoners prepared to defend themselves with cannon. The king commanded the rebels to disband but, instead, they retreated to Sevenoaks in Kent. A contingent of the royal army led by Sir Humphrey Stafford and his second cousin, Sir William Stafford, then moved to Sevenoaks to confront the rebels. After a bloody confrontation, the rebels achieved victory, both Stafford cousins were killed and the

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Jack Cade’s Rebellion  17 remainder of the royal army put to flight. When news of this defeat reached the royal army at Blackheath, its troops mutinied and started looting and burning the homes belonging to the court party while King Henry VI and his wife Margaret fled to Greenwich. The following day, most of the Royal Council took refuge in the Tower of London, including Lord Saye and Sele and the Lord Chancellor, John Kempe. The king retreated to Kenilworth. The rebels by this time were joined by men from Essex, Sussex and Surrey who were united in their opposition to corrupt government officials, although they remained loyal to the king. On 29 June 1450, William Ayscough, Bishop of Salisbury, who had married the king and queen and was known to be corrupt, was about to take Mass in church at Edington, Wiltshire, but was dragged out by the congregation and murdered. He had been accused as chaplain of the king of encouraging him to avoid marital relations as far as possible and therefore blamed for the lack of an heir. On 1 July, the Lord Mayor and Aldermen allowed Jack Cade into London from Southwark by lowering the drawbridge because many were sympathetic to the demands in his manifesto. He entered London like a conqueror, led his company into Cannon Street and tapped the

Jack Cade riding through London.

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18  Battles of the Wars of the Roses London Stone, declaring himself lord of the city. The following day, Jack Cade came to London again with a large mob and seized Lord Saye and Sele, the Treasurer of England, at the Tower of London and William Crowmer, Sheriff of Kent, at Fleet prison. They were indicted for treason and extortion at Guildhall and then beheaded, with their heads displayed on pikes on top of London Bridge. The mob led by Jack Cade then took to looting before returning to their camp at Southwark and therefore lost the sympathy of the Londoners. The next evening, the Tower garrison led by Captain Matthew Gough emerged to block the rebels at London Bridge and a furious battle waged, which lasted all night. Captain Gough was killed with about forty of his men but, after losing 200 of his rebels in the battle, Jack Cade ordered a withdrawal to the south bank and the burning of the drawbridge. Lord Chancellor Kempe was then empowered to parley with the rebels and promised them pardons and the investigation of their grievances if they laid down their arms and went home. Jack Cade agreed to this and, on 8 July, retreated with his men to Rochester in barges full of stolen goods. However, he was soon hunted down, a price of 1,000 marks put on his head and his pardon revoked because it was granted in the name of John Mortimer. Jack Cade fled into the Sussex countryside, then to Lewes, where he hid in the surrounding woods, and afterwards in a garden at Heathfield. He was found there on 12 July by armed men led by Alexander Iden, a squire who later became Sheriff of Kent, and defended himself well before being mortally wounded by Iden himself. He was dragged bleeding to London, but died on the way, his head was struck off and placed on a pike over London Bridge facing Kent. His body was then quartered and sent to various towns in disaffected areas as a warning to any future rebels. King Henry VI returned to London after order had been restored, presided over the trials of other rebels and passed the death sentence on thirty-four of them. Jack Cade’s rebellion had achieved nothing, but frustrations with the government had remained among the populace. The king and Council had shown their incompetence in a crisis and the grievances of the rebels were similar to those of the Duke of York not long after. The rebellion did not signal the start of the Wars of the Roses, but it highlighted the conditions in which the conflict would thrive.

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Chapter 3

The Gathering Clouds of War

I

n September 1450, Richard Duke of York received news that the court party was planning to indict him and decided to return from Ireland. He landed in Anglesey, rode to his estates in Ludlow and, with an armed force of around 5,000 men, marched to London. He was received enthusiastically by the citizens, avoided arrest by the Council and arrived at Westminster to see the king. He demanded that the king dismiss his corrupt advisers, deal with the abuses in government and consult York on matters of state. York also demanded to be recognised as heir presumptive, as well as the repayment of his debts, and became a deadly rival of Edmund Beaufort, second Duke of Somerset. Parliament was opened on 6 November 1450 and the Commons tended to support the Duke of York, although the Lords remained opposed to him. The Commons demanded and received an Act of Resumption providing for the return of all Crown lands, a committee overseeing any royal grants and the promise to restore law and order throughout the land. Margaret of Anjou, however, regarded York as her enemy and turned to the Duke of Somerset as her chief adviser. On 1 December 1450, Parliament impeached Somerset and he was sent to the Tower of London, but Margaret soon had him released. In 1451, Somerset was appointed Captain of Calais, although he had already been responsible for the loss of Normandy. On 30 June 1451, the French occupied Bordeaux, capital of Aquitaine, which was a shock to the English because it had been a Plantagenet possession for the last 300 years. King Henry VI had no intention of implementing government reform and there was a lack of law and order in the land. The Duke of York came to the conclusion that the only way to bring change would be by using force and began preparations for a confrontation with the king and the court party, though he did not at that time make a move for the throne. In February 1452, he left Ludlow and led his force of several thousand men to London as Margaret of Anjou, who had been informed of his

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20  Battles of the Wars of the Roses actions, persuaded the king to assemble the royal army and march north to face the Duke. However, he managed to evade the king’s troops and, finding the gates of London barred to him, arrived at Kingston then crossed the bridge to Dartford. On 1 March 1452, the royal army (which was larger) reached Blackheath, then camped the night at Welling in Kent, arriving the following day within three miles of the Duke of York’s army at Crayford. The following day, Margaret of Anjou sent the Bishops of Ely and Winchester and the Earls of Salisbury and Warwick to negotiate peace, as neither side wanted a battle. The Duke of York agreed peace terms on condition that the Duke of Somerset be punished for his crimes against the state and himself acknowledged as the king’s heir. The bishops persuaded the king to agree as long as York dismissed his army, which he did, thinking that he had won a victory. However, when Margaret of Anjou discovered that the Duke of Somerset had been arrested, she ordered him to be released and, when the Duke of York arrived at the king’s tent, he was forced to travel to London with the court like a prisoner. He was made to swear an oath at St Paul’s Cathedral that he had not rebelled against the king and would not do so again and was then released to return to Ludlow. The Duke of York was not charged with treason because it was known that he was a favourite of the citizens and a rumour circulated that his son, the Earl of March (who was only ten years of age at that time), was marching in support with a force of 10,000 men. King Henry VI then issued pardons to the rebels, but York had been humiliated and was excluded from government for the next year. In October 1452, John Talbot, first Earl of Shrewsbury, marched on Bordeaux with a force of 3,000 men after requests from its citizens, recaptured the town and followed this by retaking other towns in Gascony. That autumn, King Henry VI elevated his half-brother Jasper Tudor to the Earldom of Pembroke as Jasper’s elder brother, Edmund Tudor, had already been created Earl of Richmond, Yorkshire in December 1449. They were to become strong supporters of the Lancastrian dynasty thereafter. In the spring of 1453, the Earl of Shrewsbury had still not received the reinforcements he had requested and the French King Charles VII invaded Aquitaine, with three armies converging on Bordeaux. By June,

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The Gathering Clouds of War  21

Contemporary fifteenth-century French depiction of the death of John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, who is seen on his white horse at the Battle of Castillon.

the French had reached Castillon and the earl marched out with his force on 17 July 1453 to face them, but his army was cut to pieces by cannon and the Earl of Shrewsbury killed. On 19 October 1453, King Charles VII marched into the town of Bordeaux with his army and allowed its English garrison to return to England unmolested. English rule in Aquitaine had therefore ended after 300 years and this French victory also signalled the end of the Hundred Years’ War with France, with only Calais remaining under English control.

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Chapter 4

A New Alliance

I

n August 1453, King Henry VI suffered a mental breakdown, which may have been the result of hearing the news of the disastrous English defeat in the Battle of Castillon. His illness could also have been passed down from his mother’s father, King Charles VI of France, who was known to suffer from mental illness. The king’s doctors tried all the remedies they could find but knowledge of such maladies was limited in medieval times and nothing improved his condition. The king’s illness was described by doctors as being non compos mentis, meaning that he was unaware of his surroundings, but there was still hope that he would recover. However, the illness brought the country into a political crisis, with Queen Margaret of Anjou and various political factions fighting for control of the government. On 13 October 1453, Queen Margaret gave birth to a baby boy who was named Edward after the king’s favourite saint, Edward the Confessor. The birth was celebrated throughout the land, although the king was unaware of his new son, who was then baptised at Westminster Abbey. The question of a successor to King Henry  VI was therefore settled, although a rumour had circulated that the real father was the Duke of Somerset. It was now clear that a regent needed to be appointed to act for the duration of the king’s incapacity and on 24 October Somerset summoned a Council in the queen’s name, to which he reluctantly invited the Duke of York. In the north, tensions between the Percys and the Nevilles, the great magnates and landowners, had erupted into violence. On 24 August 1453, a wedding party of the Nevilles was ambushed by a force led by Thomas Percy, Lord Egremont, son of Henry Percy, second Earl of Northumberland, at Heworth Moor near York. The feud was over disputed lands because Sir Thomas Neville, second son of Richard Earl

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A New Alliance  23 of Salisbury, married Maud Stanhope who had inherited estates formerly belonging to the Percys. No casualties were reported as the Nevilles defended themselves well and were able to continue their journey from the wedding. However, this battle was considered the first that ignited the Wars of the Roses. Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, was at that time also in dispute with Somerset over the lordship of Glamorgan, which formerly belonged to Warwick and had been granted by the king to the Duke of Somerset. These disputes therefore drove Warwick and his father, the Earl of Salisbury, whose sister Cecily Neville had been married to the Duke of York, to seek his protection.

Richard Neville 1428–71, sixteenth Earl of Warwick, from the fifteenth-century Rous Roll.

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24  Battles of the Wars of the Roses The alliance of York to the Nevilles was to last for many years and became very powerful. The Earl of Warwick had married Lady Anne Beauchamp and had inherited his title in 1449 jure uxoris by right of his wife and, consequently, the Beauchamp estates and became one of the wealthiest magnates in the land. The earl was charismatic and able to buy influence and support with his vast wealth, which included land in eighteen counties, twenty castles, with his main seat at Warwick Castle, and hundreds of manors. He also had an army of retainers who wore his scarlet livery with a white badge of the Bear and Ragged Staff. The great Council met but the king, who was at Windsor, was unable to acknowledge his new son, so it was not possible for Parliament to confirm him as heir to the throne. Margaret of Anjou was to become

Neville family chart.

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A New Alliance  25 a very protective parent to her new son and therefore did everything in her power to safeguard his right to the throne against the Duke of York, whom she regarded as her enemy. In January 1454, Margaret made a bid for power by becoming regent and taking over the royal prerogative. However, the lords were not inclined to accept a Frenchwoman as their leader and began to support the Duke of York, while London was filled with armed retainers of the magnates. When Parliament met on 14 February 1454, it confirmed the king’s new son as heir to the throne, although there was much intimidation from supporters of both factions. On 15 March 1454, Edward of Lancaster was created Prince of Wales with an annual income and made a Knight of the Garter. On 27 March, the Lords nominated the Duke of York as regent and Protector of the Realm, but without the authority of the king. His first action was to arrest Somerset and remove him from all offices he had held from the king. Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury, was created Chancellor of England and the queen was removed to Windsor to be with her husband. On 28 July, the Duke of York appointed himself Captain of Calais in place of Somerset in the face of attacks on English shipping by French pirates. York proved to be an able Protector, restoring good government with the help of his allies, the Earls of Salisbury and Warwick, and he also elevated his relation, Thomas Bourchier, to be Archbishop of Canterbury. He attempted to reform the royal finances to ensure adequate provision without incurring further debt and, in order to do this, he reduced the royal household. On Christmas Day 1454, however, the king recovered his health and had no memory of his incapacity in the previous sixteen months. He gave his thanks to God for his recovery and was introduced to and acknowledged his new son by Queen Margaret. But it soon became clear that the king had not fully recovered and his health was impaired by mental illness for years to come. He took to religion for consolation and thereafter came to be dominated by the queen and her allies in the nobility.

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Chapter 5

First Battle of St Albans, 22 May 1455

O

n 9 February 1455, King Henry VI appeared in Parliament to the delight of those present, thanked its members and dismissed the Duke of York from his office as Protector. The Earl of Salisbury was removed from his office as Chancellor and his post given to Archbishop Thomas Bourchier, who was neutral at that time, although he later came to support the Yorkists. The Earl of Wiltshire was made Treasurer and Margaret of Anjou wasted no time demanding that the Duke of Somerset be released from the Tower. On 16 February, he was set at liberty and restored as Captain of Calais and Constable of England. The Yorkist lords then became fearful that Somerset would take his revenge on them and retreated north to their estates, the Duke of York to

Street map of the Battle of St Albans.

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First Battle of St Albans, 22 May 1455  27 his stronghold of Sandal Castle in Yorkshire, the Earl of Salisbury to his castle at Middleham and the Earl of Warwick to Warwick Castle. By March 1455, Margaret of Anjou had gained the support of Henry Percy, second Earl of Northumberland and the eighth Lord Clifford, as well as nobility in Wales and the West country to the Lancastrian cause. On 21 April, the king, Somerset and the court party held a meeting at Westminster to which the Yorkist lords were not invited. In order to resolve the present crisis, they planned a Council meeting to be held in Leicester, which was a Lancastrian stronghold, on 21 May, to which the nobles throughout the land were summoned in order to make provision for the king ‘against his enemies’. The court party was fully aware that York had a lot of support in London, but not in Leicester. The Yorkist lords, however, feared a trap similar to what had happened to Humphrey Duke of Gloucester at Bury St Edmunds in 1447 and mobilised their armed retainers throughout their estates to march to London. The Duke of York was joined by the Earl of Salisbury, the Earl of Warwick, Lord Clinton, Lord Grey of Powys, Lord Cobham, Sir Robert Ogle and around 3,000 men down Ermine Street, the old Roman road. He was also accompanied by his two eldest sons, the thirteen-year-old Edward Earl of March and the twelve-year-old Edmund Earl of Rutland, for their first experience of military campaigns. York also hoped to be joined by Ralph, Lord Cromwell and John Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk, but they were delayed and did not arrive in time. In the meantime, the Duke of Somerset, unaware of the Yorkist preparation for war, sent a delegation to negotiate consisting of Reynold Boulers, Bishop of Coventry, John Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester and Robert Botyll, Prior of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem. However, the Yorkist lords did not trust Somerset or his guarantees for their safety and detained the delegation to prevent warnings being given of their march south. On 18 May 1455, Somerset received definite news of the Yorkist march to London and postponed the Council meeting that had been due in Leicester and issued urgent messages to recruit men to the king’s service. A number of nobles did appear at St Albans but they were too late to attend. Somerset also instructed Chancellor Thomas Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury, to send letters to York, Salisbury, Warwick and the Duke

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28

Battles of the Wars of the Roses

of Norfolk informing them of the king’s displeasure at their actions of raising an army and ordering them to disband their forces. The Yorkist lords were in Royston at the time and on 20 May replied that they were loyal to the king, and only raised an armed force to keep themselves out of danger from their enemies. On 21 May 1455, the king and Somerset left Westminster with an army of about 2,000 men and headed north along Watling Street to join up with loyal forces at St Albans. They were accompanied by Somerset’s son, Henry Beaufort, Earl of Dorset, the Duke of Buckingham and his eldest son the Earl of Stafford, as well as the Earls of Northumberland, Pembroke, Devon and Wiltshire. Barons Roos, Sudeley, Clifford, Dudley and Fauconberg were also with the king’s army, but Queen Margaret and the Prince of Wales remained at Greenwich for their safety. When the royal forces arrived at Kilburn, they received the letter in reply from the Yorkist lords, but it is thought that Somerset prevented

Map of St Albans showing the location of forces.

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First Battle of St Albans, 22 May 1455  29 the king from seeing the letter. In any event, the king’s army arrived at Watford by evening, where they stopped for the night. At the same time, the Yorkists had marched from Royston to Ware and sent a second letter to the king informing him of their loyalty, but it is possible that Somerset again prevented him from seeing this letter. The Lancastrians marched on to St Albans and, on the morning of 22 May 1455, received news that the Yorkist army had taken the initiative and had also marched there from Ware. The Lancastrian army was outnumbered and ill prepared for battle because its ranks consisted mainly of the personal retainers of the nobility and some levies from East Anglia. In contrast, the Yorkists had experienced troops, contingents of billmen and pikemen and commanders such as Sir Robert Ogle, who led 600 archers from the Scottish borders. When King Henry  VI became aware that the Yorkists had around 3,000 troops at St Albans, he summoned a roadside conference. Somerset wanted to wait for reinforcements and prepare for battle, but the Duke of Buckingham preferred to settle the matter with the Yorkists by negotiation. Somerset only had the support of his son Henry Beaufort, Earl of Dorset, James Butler, Earl of Wiltshire, the Earl of Northumberland and Thomas, eighth Lord Clifford. It was also doubtful that Lord Fauconberg, brother of the Earl of Salisbury, would fight against his relations and the Earl of Devon had supported York in 1452. King Henry  VI appointed the Duke of Buckingham as Constable of England and overall commander, probably thinking that a settlement could be agreed with the Yorkists as had happened at Blackheath in 1452. Early in the morning of 22 May 1455, the royal army arrived at St Albans, marched up Holywell Street to St Peter’s Street, and barricaded the Tonman ditch on the east side of the town. Back gardens from the town lay between St Peter’s Street and the ditch, where entry could be made into the town through Cock Lane, Shropshire Lane and Sopwell Lane. Those entrances into the town were blocked off with wooden beams or ‘bars’ by the Lancastrian forces. The Yorkist army had marched from Ware to Cock Lane then turned south to face the royal troops at the Tonman ditch, and formed up in Keyfield. The king and his retainers, including the Duke of Buckingham, Lord Fauconberg, and the Earls of Devon and Wiltshire, remained at the marketplace in the centre of the town, which served as their headquarters.

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30  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Three hours of negotiations followed the arrival of the two armies, which was the usual practice at that time when there were still people who believed that a settlement could be reached. Heralds were sent back and forth, the king raised his banner at the town square showing that he was ready to give battle and demanded to know why the Duke of York had arrived there with so many men. The Duke of York protested his loyalty to the king, but added, according to John Stow’s Annales: ‘surrender to us such as we accuse, and not to resist till we have him which deserves death or else we die therefore.’ York had evidently wanted the Duke of Somerset arrested and put on trial. King Henry’s reply was just as uncompromising, also described by John Stow: ‘I, King Henry, charge and command that no manner of person abide not, but void the field and not be so hard to make any resistance against me in mine own realm, for I shall know what traitor dare be so bold to raise a people in mine own land, where through I am in great disease and heaviness. And by the faith that I owe to St Edward and the Crown of England, I shall destroy them, every mother’s son, and they be hanged, drawn and quartered that may be taken afterward, of them to have example to all such traitors to beware to make any such rising of people within my land, and so traitorly to abide their King and Governor. And for a conclusion, rather than they shall have any lord here with me at this time, I shall this day for their sake, and in this quarrel, myself live and die.’ It was now clear that negotiations had failed and, to prepare for battle, King Henry had himself clad in armour, mounted his warhorse and ordered that only the common soldiers were to be spared and the lords, gentry and yeomen put to the sword. The Duke of York thereupon ordered his trumpeter to sound the alarm and his troops to commence the attack against the Lancastrian army on the barricades at the Tonman ditch. The Yorkist archers unleashed their volleys of arrows and were soon followed by the armoured knights and the men-at-arms leading the charge. Inside the town of St Albans, the attack came as a big surprise because most had assumed that there would be a negotiated settlement. Many of the defenders had moved away from the ditch seeking refreshments and most of the nobility who were with the king were unprepared. The alarm bell rang out in the Clock Tower, soldiers ran back to the defences, and knights and noblemen called out for their servants to help them put on

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First Battle of St Albans, 22 May 1455  31 their armour. Within St Albans Abbey, the monks and clergy fell to their knees and cried to St Alban to save them from destruction, while the townspeople barricaded themselves fearfully in their homes. The Yorkist attacks on the bars at Shropshire Lane and Sopwell Lane met determined resistance and were pushed back with heavy casualties because, in the narrow lanes, they could not utilise their superior numbers. The situation appeared to be desperate at this time for the Yorkist cause because neither the Duke of York at Shropshire Lane nor the Earl of Salisbury at Sopwell Lane were able to break through. However, the course of the battle drastically changed when the Earl of Warwick, who commanded the reserves at only twenty-six years of age, led his force through the back gardens at the centre of the barricades into the town. It may have been Warwick’s commander, Sir Robert Ogle, with his force of 600 archers who had suggested this course of action through the weakly held Lancastrian defences between Shropshire Lane and Sopwell Lane. A volley of arrows preceded the attack, followed by a determined assault over the ditch, past the outhouses, as the Yorkist troops arrived at Holywell Street shouting ‘A Warwick, A Warwick’, waving his banner of the Bear and Ragged Staff. The Lancastrian defenders at the barricades now found themselves attacked from the front and rear, with the Yorkists turning left and right and attacking all before them. They fell back in confusion, hoping to join the king at the centre of the town and, at this point, Lord Clifford was killed with many of his commanders. The remaining Lancastrian nobility, together with their retainers, rallied around the king and the Royal Standard in the marketplace at St Peter’s Street. The Yorkist attack had been so sudden that those around the king did not have time to put on their armour and many were killed by a storm of arrows. King Henry himself had been slightly wounded by an arrow in the neck and four of his immediate bodyguards were killed. There was now little organised Lancastrian resistance left, the Royal Standard was abandoned possibly by the Earl of Wiltshire and Henry Percy, second Earl of Northumberland, son of Harry Hotspur, was killed. Abbot John Whethamstede later described the scene in a letter: ‘Here you saw one fall with his brains dashed out, there another with a broken

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32  Battles of the Wars of the Roses arm, a third with a cut throat, and a fourth with a pierced chest, and the whole street was full of dead corpses.’ The Lancastrian soldiers who were not killed or wounded fled for their lives, throwing away their weapons and armour in many cases. The injured King Henry was helped to a tanner’s cottage to have his wound treated, crying ‘forsooth, forsooth, you do foully to smite a King anointed so!’ When the Duke of York heard that he had been found, he ordered him to be taken to the abbey for his safety while there was still fighting in the town. In the meantime, the Duke of Somerset had taken refuge in the Castle Inn just off the marketplace with some of his men. They were surrounded by Yorkist troops and defended themselves well, but eventually had no option but to come out. It was said that Somerset killed four men by his own hand before he was felled by a Yorkist axe, wounded in multiple places and later died. A legend was told that it had been prophesied that Somerset would die in the shadow of a castle and because of this he always avoided castles until he became trapped at the Castle Inn. The Duke of Buckingham was wounded by a Yorkist arrow in the face and neck, and was taken to the abbey for shelter. His son, the Earl of Stafford, was wounded in the hand and Somerset’s heir, Henry Beaufort, Earl of Dorset, was also wounded, as were the first Baron Dudley and John Wenlock, who later became Lord Wenlock. The Lancastrian nobles who were not wounded had their horses and armour stolen and their goods plundered, but the prisoners were soon released. Lord Fauconberg was quietly allowed to escape because the Yorkists were his close relations. The Duke of York made his way to the abbey and demanded that the king surrender the Duke of Buckingham and James Butler, Earl of Wiltshire, to him. Buckingham surrendered, but the Earl of Wiltshire could not be found and it was rumoured that he had escaped, taking off his fine clothes and dressing as a monk. York, Salisbury and Warwick entered the abbey after the battle, approached the king on bended knee, assured him that they were his loyal subjects and begged his forgiveness. They stated that they did not intend any harm to come to him, only the traitors such as the Duke of Somerset. The king forgave them, his threats to hang, draw and quarter them now forgotten, and requested that they order their people to cease doing any

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First Battle of St Albans, 22 May 1455  33 more harm. The Yorkist soldiers had been plundering the townsfolk and Lancastrians alike after the battle, and York now ordered them to cease and the lawlessness gradually came to an end. The Duke of York had learnt from his mistakes at Blackheath three years before. He had assembled an experienced fighting force and acted decisively against his opponents, having lost his faith in negotiations. In contrast, the Lancastrians led by the Duke of Buckingham had failed to rally a strong enough force and had looked for a peaceful settlement that could not be found. It is likely that the battle only lasted half an hour and the number of dead was estimated at around 120 according to the Paston Letters. However, the Duke of Somerset, Earl of Northumberland and Lord Clifford, who were the main targets of the Yorkists, were all killed as well as many knights and squires of the king’s household. They were later all buried at the abbey, but their tombs were destroyed in the Reformation. The following day, the Yorkist army escorted King Henry VI back to London, the Duke of York rode on the king’s right, the Earl of Salisbury on his left and the Earl of Warwick at the front, carrying the sword of state. On 25 May 1455, the king went in procession to St Paul’s Cathedral wearing his crown to show his authority and there were no calls for his deposition. However, it was now clear who had control of the government: the Duke of York was appointed Constable of England, Viscount Bourchier Treasurer and Salisbury Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. Buckingham, Wiltshire, Shrewsbury, Pembroke and other lords now made their peace with York, but he still had his enemies, including Margaret of Anjou. The sons of the second Duke of Somerset, second Earl of Northumberland and the eighth Lord Clifford all killed at St Albans, who had inherited their fathers’ titles, were also biding their time for revenge against York.

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Chapter 6

A Peaceful Interlude

A

t the beginning of July 1455, the Duke of York had established himself as the effective head of government. Archbishop Thomas Bourchier, brother of Viscount Bourchier, remained as Chancellor and now became a supporter of the Yorkist faction. Margaret of Anjou was excluded from London and, on 9 July, York summoned a Parliament in the presence of the king to reconcile the warring parties. An Act of Resumption was passed, which cancelled every land grant made by the king except to the Tudors. In the meantime, Margaret of Anjou was cultivating support among the nobles to the Lancastrian cause. Those who offered to become her allies were Henry Beaufort, now third Duke of Somerset; his brother Edmund; Owen Tudor and his two sons, the Earls of Richmond and Pembroke; Henry Percy, third Earl of Northumberland; the Earl of Wiltshire; and the ninth Lord Clifford. On 12 November 1455, Parliament was recalled and the Duke of York was again appointed Protector and Defender of the Realm. He aimed to reform government finances and was on the whole supported by the Commons. However, many of the Lords suspected him of seeking the throne. In February 1456, King Henry VI appeared in Parliament and relieved the Duke of York of his duties. The king amended the Act of Resumption so that land grants made to his favourites were not revoked, but the moderating influence of the Duke of Buckingham prevented further hostilities. London remained sympathetic to the Yorkists because they were well aware of the king’s misrule and the interference of Margaret of Anjou, who then decided to depart the city. On 20 April 1456, the king appointed the Earl of Warwick Captain of Calais due to the influence of the Duke of York, where he proved to be a fine commander. This was in opposition to the court party, who wanted their candidate the new Duke of Somerset in that position. Calais was to

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A Peaceful Interlude  35 become the base of Yorkist opposition to the king in the following years and also had a substantial military garrison, the only standing army in the land. After the king had embarked on a royal progress, Margaret of Anjou succeeded in persuading him to move the court to Coventry, which had supported the Lancastrians. However, London became the scene of riots, law and order deteriorated throughout the country and there were French raids on the south coast. Margaret now moved against the Yorkists and, in October 1456, persuaded the king to dismiss Viscount Henry Bourchier as Treasurer and Archbishop Bourchier as Chancellor. In November 1456, Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond, husband of Margaret Beaufort died in Carmarthen Castle, possibly of plague, and the properties jointly owned with his brother Jasper Earl of Pembroke came to Pembroke, who became a loyal supporter of the Lancastrian cause in Wales. On 28 January 1457, the thirteen-year-old Margaret Beaufort gave birth to her only child at Pembroke Castle, whom she named Henry after the King. At that time, no one believed that one day he would found the Tudor dynasty in England. In the meantime, the Earl of Warwick in Calais was dealing with piracy in the Channel because it was causing serious harm to the London wool merchants. The king had not dealt with it because of the small size of the English navy, but the earl managed to defeat the French, Burgundian and Spanish pirates. He consequently became popular with the merchants from whom much of the country’s wealth was created and he also kept a lavish household in London, where he dispensed his lavish hospitality. Warwick was able to speak well with the common people and thereby he promoted the Yorkist cause. In August 1457, the French raided Sandwich and burnt much of it to the ground before they were driven away. This action served to discredit the Lancastrian government, as did rumours that the late Duke of Somerset was the father of the Prince of Wales. In October 1457, the court left Coventry because it had proved impossible to govern there and returned to London. King Henry VI, however, only desired peace and in January 1458 he summoned the magnates to a peace conference at Westminster. The young

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36  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Lord Clifford arrived with a large retinue, accompanied by the Earl of Northumberland and the Duke of Somerset, demanding compensation for the deaths of their fathers at St Albans. The king commanded York, Salisbury and Warwick to found a chantry at St Albans in which masses could be sung for the souls of the dead lords. The chantry was therefore founded in March and the families received financial compensation. On 24 March 1458, Lady Day, the Feast of the Annunciation, an official ceremony of reconciliation took place between the king and queen and the Yorkist lords, which became known as ‘Loveday’. The king, followed by York and Margaret of Anjou walking hand in hand, the Nevilles, Percys and other lords went in procession through the streets to St Paul’s, where a service was held. The king and Archbishop of Canterbury Bourchier had brought about this reconciliation, which they hoped would bring peace to the land. York then departed to his estates at Ludlow, Salisbury to Middleham and Warwick to Calais. The Earl of Warwick then engaged in acts of piracy against ships of the Hanseatic League and was summoned to London by the Queen to explain his actions to the Council. He arrived with 600 retainers who ran riot in London against the Queen. In the autumn, Warwick’s supporters were engaged in a fight with the royal guard, but he escaped to Warwick Castle and an order was issued for his arrest. Warwick soon realised that England was not safe for him and he departed to Calais, continuing his attacks on the ships of the Hanseatic League. Late in 1458, the Queen left London and rallied her supporters in Cheshire and Lancashire, recruiting more men to her cause in her fear that her son would not succeed his father. It therefore appeared that further armed conflict between the rival factions was inevitable.

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Chapter 7

Battle of Blore Heath, 23 September 1459

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n the spring of 1459, Margaret of Anjou was in Coventry and persuaded the king to issue writs to loyal magnates to meet with him on 10 May at Leicester, together with their followers. She also ordered commissions of array to be issued throughout the land to conscript the young men. The Duke of York condemned this move and, together with the Earl of Salisbury, began preparations for war and a campaign of propaganda against the queen. York at Ludlow and Salisbury at Middleham rallied their retainers, which the queen interpreted as treason. She called a great council meeting in June, which the king and Prince of Wales attended, but York, Salisbury, Warwick, George Neville and the Bourchier brothers refused to attend, fearing for their safety. Queen Margaret also distributed the livery of the silver swan to her loyal followers in Cheshire while the king recruited an army in the Midlands under the command of Humphrey Stafford, Duke of Buckingham. The Earl of Warwick raised 400 archers and 200 men-atarms led by Andrew Trollope from the Calais garrison in response to calls for assistance from the Duke of York. Leaving Lord Fauconberg in charge, they landed at Sandwich and arrived in London on 21 September. The Earl of Warwick then made for Warwick Castle, hoping to meet up with the forces led by York and Salisbury. However, on hearing the news that the king’s army was coming up from Inscription on Audley’s Cross at Blore Heath.

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38  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Coventry, the earl headed west with his force to Ludlow in order to join up with the Duke of York. Henry Beaufort, third Duke of Somerset, was ordered to patrol the Midlands and confront Warwick, but the earl managed to evade him and arrived at Ludlow safely. In the meantime, the Earl of Salisbury left Middleham Castle in Yorkshire with his troops and headed south to Ludlow. When Margaret of Anjou heard the news, she and her commanders decided to intercept him at Staffordshire. The queen ordered a summons to Lord Stanley and the local magnates to muster their troops while she retired to Eccleshall Castle with the king. James Tuchet, Lord Audley, commanded the local Lancastrian forces together with John Lord Dudley and his orders were to capture the Earl of Salisbury and bring him to the Queen. Salisbury, however, was an experienced military commander, although his 5,000 troops were greatly outnumbered and faced around 10,000 men led by Lord Audley. Lord Stanley had stayed away from the battle, possibly because he was married to Eleanor Neville, Salisbury’s daughter, while his brother Sir William Stanley joined the Earl of Salisbury with his men. Salisbury had with him his two sons, Sir John and Sir Thomas Neville, as well as his captains Sir Thomas Harrington, Sir Thomas Parr, Sir John Conyers, archers, pikemen billmen and some cannon. Lord Audley’s army had the famed Cheshire archers, but many of his troops were inexperienced and ill prepared for war. Lord Audley left Market Drayton with his army and marched to Newcastle-under-Lyme to intercept the Yorkist force heading towards him. On the morning of 23 September 1459, the Yorkist scouts spotted the Lancastrian army forming up behind a hedge at Blore Heath and reported back to Salisbury. After a reconnaissance, Salisbury moved his troops from Burnt Wood and took up positions on a ridge behind a small stream called Wemberton Brook. The Yorkists placed their wagons in a laager north of the heath and formed up in line to the south, parallel to the brook. Salisbury became aware that he was outnumbered and ordered ditches to be dug to the rear and stakes placed at the front of his position. When negotiations failed, with Lord Audley refusing to let the Earl of Salisbury pass, the Yorkist soldiers kissed the ground beneath them, fearing that this would be the ground on which they would meet their deaths. The battle commenced with an archery duel, which was inconclusive because of the distance between the two armies. Salisbury then ordered

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Battle of Blore Heath, 23 September 1459  39 a withdrawal of his centre to draw in the Lancastrian troops. The ruse worked and Lord Audley launched a cavalry charge across the brook. The Yorkists returned and fired their volleys of arrows, cutting down the horses and riders, and beating back the attack. A second attack was launched by the Lancastrians, which was more successful and some managed to cross the stream, but Lord Audley was killed in the intense fighting, possibly by Sir Roger Kynaston of Myddle and Hordley. According to Edward Hall’s Chronicle: ‘The Earl of Salisbury, which knew the sleights, strategies and policies of warlike affairs, suddenly returned, and shortly encountered with the Lord Audley and his chief captains, ere the residue of his army could pass the water. The fight was sore and dreadful. The Earl desiring the saving of his life, and his adversaries coveting his destruction, fought sore for the obtaining of their

The Lancastrian attack on the Yorkist army at the Battle of Blore Heath.

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40  Battles of the Wars of the Roses purpose, but in conclusion, the Earl’s army, as men desperate of aid and succour, so eagerly fought, that they slew the Lord Audley, and all his captains, and discomfited all the remnant of his people.’ Lord Dudley took over the command and ordered a third attack on foot with 4,000 men, but this also failed and, on seeing this, around 500 Lancastrian troops joined the Yorkists and turned against their own men. The Yorkists now attacked in force and chased the remaining Lancastrian troops off the field, about 2,000 of whom were killed, and captured Lord Dudley in the process. The Earl of Salisbury had won a great victory and lost around 500 dead in the battle, and he was now able to resume his march to Ludlow. It was said that the Wemberton Brook ran red with blood for three days. On the Lancastrian side, Sir Hugh Venables of Kinerton, Sir Thomas Dutton of Dutton, Sir Richard Molyneux of Sefton, Sir John Dunne and Sir John Hugh were all killed. However, Sir Thomas Harrington and Sir John and Thomas Neville became separated from the main Yorkist army in the rout, were captured by Lancastrian troops and held prisoner in Chester Castle for nine months. Many Lancastrian knights were killed attempting to cross the River Tern, being hampered by their heavy armour, at a place called Deadmen’s Den to this day. There is a legend that Margaret of Anjou and the Prince of Wales watched the fighting from the tower of Mucklestone Church and this is commemorated by a stained-glass window. There is also an old anvil in the churchyard from a forge where the queen is said to have had her horse’s shoes reversed so that she could escape the battle. The remnants of the Lancastrian forces retreated to Eccleshall Castle, ten miles away, where King Henry VI was shocked and saddened to hear of the defeat and death of Lord Audley. The Earl of Salisbury escaped the battlefield with his remaining troops and managed to reach Ludlow, leaving an Augustinian friar to fire a cannon during the night to distract the Lancastrian forces still in the vicinity. When questioned by the Lancastrians the following day as to his motives, he replied that he fired the cannon to lift his flagging spirits. From Ludlow, the Yorkists wrote to the king justifying their actions. He replied that a free pardon would be offered to all who raised arms against him if they surrendered, except those who fought at Blore Heath and killed Lord Audley.

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Chapter 8

Battle of Ludford Bridge, 12 October 1459

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he Yorkist forces, which totalled around 8,000 men, linked up at Ludlow and marched towards Worcester, heading for London. However, the king’s army blocked their path in battle order, with the king’s standard on display. The Duke of York therefore ordered a retreat into Worcester, not wishing a direct confrontation with the king, and at the cathedral swore an oath of obedience to the sovereign. The royal army pursued the Yorkists into Worcester and York retreated to Tewkesbury with his army and then marched over the River Severn back to Ludlow. The Yorkists camped south of the town by the River Teme near Ludford Bridge and fortified their position with carts, cannon, stakes and ditches. On 10 October 1459, the king’s army of about 15,000 arrived, drew up by the river and made ready for battle. The Duke of York had no desire to fight and wanted to negotiate with the king and resolve the outstanding grievances. He protested his loyalty to the king, but his letter was intercepted and a reply sent that they would meet in the field. The king, however, wishing to avoid bloodshed, sent a herald to offer a free pardon to those who submitted, except the Earl of Salisbury. Andrew Trollope from the Calais garrison thereupon defected to the king with all his men during the night. Those troops had been the best in the Yorkist ranks and, when the Duke of York discovered this the next morning, he worried that all his plans would be divulged to the king’s army. York did not have much support among the nobility, whereas the king had Somerset, Northumberland, Egremont, Buckingham, Exeter, Devon, Shrewsbury, Wiltshire and Beaumont and their retainers. The Yorkist army was now of low morale seeing the king’s standard across the bridge and some defected to the royal forces as another pardon was offered by the king. The Yorkist leaders then ordered their cannon to be fired at the royal army and, on the evening of 12 October 1459, York, Salisbury and Warwick announced that they were returning to Ludlow

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42  Battles of the Wars of the Roses for the night. However, leaving their army in the field, they fled and the following morning the leaderless Yorkist troops submitted by kneeling to the king and were given a free pardon. The Lancastrian soldiers then crossed the bridge, arrested the main Yorkist supporters and sacked the town and castle, robbing it of its treasures. The soldiers also drank the taverns dry, robbed the townsfolk, assaulted and raped the women. The Duchess of York was found at the market cross with her two youngest sons, George aged nine and Richard aged seven, and her daughter Margaret, aged thirteen. The duchess was put under arrest and placed with her children into the care of her sister, the Duchess of Buckingham. The king and queen returned in triumph to Coventry and disbanded their army, which had been ransacking the estates of all the Yorkist retainers they could find. However, the Lancastrian victory at Ludford Bridge was not complete because the Yorkist lords had fled and were still at large. The Duke of York escaped to Devon, taking his son Edmund Earl of Rutland with him, crossed over to Wales and then by ship to Ireland, where he had a great deal of support. The Earls of Salisbury, Warwick and March meanwhile made their way by devious means to Calais where they arrived on 2 November 1459. They were joined there by Warwick’s wife and two daughters, Isabel and Anne. In Calais, the Yorkist lords with their garrison took to raiding the countryside, seizing merchant ships and mounting a propaganda campaign against the government. On 20 November 1459, a Parliament was summoned at Coventry, which became known as ‘the Parliament of the Devils’. Margaret of Anjou indicted the Duke of York and his supporters on a charge of treason and a Bill of Attainder was drawn up against York, Salisbury, Warwick, March, Rutland, Clinton, Wenlock, Henry Bourchier, Thomas Bourchier, Sir William Stanley, Sir William Oldhall and others. The Act of Attainder was passed by Parliament, meaning the accused were all found guilty of high treason and their lives, estates and titles were forfeit. Their lands were therefore distributed among the king’s supporters, including Owen Tudor and his son, the Earl of Pembroke.

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Battle of Ludford Bridge, 12 October 1459  43 The Duke of Somerset was appointed Captain of Calais, although the town was under the control of the Earl of Warwick. The Earl of Wiltshire was given the appointment of Lieutenant of Ireland, but the Duke of York held that posting and he had the support of the Irish Parliament, which passed a law making it an act of treason to rebel against him. When Wiltshire sent an emissary to Ireland to arrest York, the emissary was put on trial, found guilty, hanged, drawn and quartered. In the meantime, the magnates at the Parliament in Coventry had to swear an oath of allegiance to King Henry  VI, Margaret of Anjou and the Prince of Wales. This was sworn by the Archbishop of York, George Neville, Bishop of Exeter, the Dukes of Buckingham, Norfolk and Exeter, and other lords. Somerset, supported by Margaret of Anjou, was determined to take up his post as Captain of Calais and drive out the Earl of Warwick. However, when he arrived with his ship and retainers, he found that the garrison was still loyal to the Earl of Warwick and the gates were closed to him. Burgundy was also showing friendship to the Yorkist lords and signed a three-month truce with them. Somerset managed to capture Guisnes Castle near Calais in November 1459, although Warwick captured Somerset’s commanders, Lord Audley, whose father had been killed at Blore Heath, and Humphrey Stafford. In December 1459, some of Warwick’s ships were captured in Sandwich and an invasion fleet was mustered by Lord Rivers and Sir Gervais Clifton. The government also ordered a survey of castles and fortified towns to make sure they were in a good state of repair and the arrest of any Yorkist lords who set foot in the country. However, much of the sympathy of the country was with the Duke of York and London refused to supply soldiers and money to the king.

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Chapter 9

Battle of Northampton, 10 July 1460

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n January 1460, Lord Rivers, his wife the Duchess of Bedford and son Anthony were at Sandwich, where Rivers had assembled a fleet for the invasion of Calais. However, the Earl of Warwick sent a force that captured them, as well as their ships, and brought them to Calais. They were held there and, at the end of January, the duchess was allowed to return. The government in England was expecting a Yorkist invasion at any time and issued commissions of array to recruit more troops to the Lancastrian cause. The Earl of Warwick then sailed to Ireland to consult with the Duke of York and arrived there on 16 March 1460. While he was away, the

Map of the Battle of Northampton.

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Battle of Northampton, 10 July 1460  45 Duke of Somerset attacked the defences of Calais but was driven back with heavy losses. In Ireland, York and Warwick planned an invasion from the north and through Kent against the Lancastrian government. The Duke of Exeter was then appointed Admiral of England and sailed from Sandwich to capture Warwick, but his men were insufficiently paid and their sympathy was with the Yorkists. The Earl of Warwick arrived safely in Calais with his ships to plan the invasion and propaganda was issued throughout the land against the Lancastrian government, with accusations of misrule, extortion and lawlessness. In June 1460, Lord Fauconberg, Sir John Wenlock and Sir John Dynham crossed over from Calais with a force and captured Sandwich to provide a base for the Earl of Warwick. On 26 June, the Earls of Salisbury, Warwick and March landed there with 2,000 troops as the fleet sent by Margaret of Anjou to intercept them proved ineffective. Warwick sent messages to various towns in Kent asking for assistance to remove the king’s counsellors and many flocked to his banner because he enjoyed great popularity in the county. The mayors of Rye and Winchelsea sent contingents of armed men and Archbishop of Canterbury Bourchier, who was aware of the queen’s misrule, urged support for the Yorkists. Canterbury opened its doors to the invaders and the Yorkist lords made an offering at the shrine of Thomas Becket and were blessed by the archbishop, who then rode with them to London. They were also joined by Papal Legate Francesco dei Coppini, Bishop of Terni, who had been sent by the Pope for support for a new crusade against the Turks. The Yorkist force passed through Rochester and Dartford while the Lord Mayor of London was persuaded by sympathisers to open the gates. Lords Bourchier, Bergavenny, Clinton, Say and Scrope also offered their support to Warwick, who then entered the city with 20,000 armed men on 2 July 1460. The Tower of London and its garrison was commanded by Lord Scales and several Lancastrian lords sought refuge within its walls. On 5 July, Lord Fauconberg left London with the Yorkist vanguard of 10,000 men, heading north while the king’s army stayed in Coventry as it was expecting an invasion from the Duke of York in Ireland. The Earls of Warwick and March followed Fauconberg north with their troops, leaving the Earl of Salisbury, Cobham, Wenlock and 2,000 men to lay siege to the Tower of London.

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46  Battles of the Wars of the Roses With the Yorkist army was the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishops of Ely, Exeter, Rochester, Lincoln, Salisbury and the Papal Legate Coppini. The force passed through St Albans and Dunstable while the king’s army, on hearing the news, marched from Coventry to Northampton to face them in the field. The royal force of around 8,000 men camped near Delapre Abbey, south of Northampton, dug deep ditches around their fortification, erected sharp stakes and placed cannon facing the London road with the River Nene behind them. The king’s army was commanded by the Duke of Buckingham, who wanted to give battle and then march to London to relieve the Tower. On 10 July 1460, the Yorkist army arrived at Northampton, but the Earl of Warwick wanted to avoid battle with the king. He therefore sent the Bishop of Salisbury with Coppini with a request to hear their grievances. Archbishop of Canterbury Bourchier also added his pleas, but the king and the Duke of Buckingham refused their request, stating ‘the Earl of Warwick shall not come to the King’s presence and if he comes he shall die’, which meant that a battle was now inevitable. However, the Yorkist army was twice the size of the royal force, which meant that it was far from safe in its encampment and its expected reinforcements, led by the Earl of Northumberland and Lord Clifford, did not arrive in time. The Lancastrian army drew up in battle order with the Duke of Buckingham commanding the left flank, John Talbot, second Earl of Shrewsbury, Thomas Percy Lord Egremont and Lord Beaumont the centre and Lord Edmund Grey of Ruthyn on the right. The Earl of Warwick tried twice more to gain access to the king, but his herald was turned away each time. The Yorkist force then drew up west of Delapre Abbey with its three battles commanded by Lord Fauconberg, the rearguard; Warwick, the centre; and the Earl of March and John Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk, the vanguard. Warwick then sent a message to the Duke of Buckingham. ‘At 2 o’clock I will speak with the King or I shall die.’ When his request was refused, he ordered the attack, trumpets were sounded and the Yorkist army advanced in columns watched by the Archbishop of Canterbury and Coppini. The Yorkists were met by volleys of arrows, which caused considerable casualties, and heavy rain also

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Battle of Northampton, 10 July 1460  47 slowed their advance. However, the rain also prevented the Lancastrian cannon from firing and there was treachery in its ranks. As Warwick and the Earl of March approached, Lord Grey commanded his troops to lay down their arms and Warwick had also ordered his troops not to attack men with Grey’s livery of a Black Ragged Staff. Prior to the battle, Lord Grey had sent a secret message to the Earl of March that he would change sides and fight for the Yorkists if they would back him in a property dispute with the Duke of Exeter. Grey may also have been offered high office in a future Yorkist government because he later became Earl of Kent, Treasurer of England and was given the manor of Ampthill. Warwick had ordered his troops not to capture any magnates, but kill them and to spare the king and the common soldiers. Lord Grey’s men assisted the Yorkists over the barricades, who then attacked the Lancastrian troops from the flank and put them to flight. Many tried to escape over the River Nene but did not manage to cross its swollen banks. A Lancastrian knight, Sir William Lucy, heard the sounds of battle and hastened to the aid of the king in the field. However, he was spotted by Sir John Stafford, a Yorkist knight and relative of Buckingham, who had been having an affair with Lucy’s wife. He took the opportunity to kill his love rival. The following year, Stafford married Lucy’s widow, but was killed at the battle of Towton. The Yorkist army had won a great victory, with around 300 Lancastrian dead including the Duke of Buckingham, Lord Beaumont, Constable of England, the Earl of Shrewsbury and Lord Egremont, who were cut down by Warwick’s men. Henry Mountfort, a Yorkist archer, captured the king and guarded him in his tent where he was later found disconsolate by Warwick, Fauconberg and March. The Yorkist lords fell to their knees, begged his forgiveness, informed him that they only wished to establish a just government and assured him of their loyalty. The king was then escorted to Delapre Abbey and from there to Northampton, where he stayed for three days while the surviving Lancastrian lords, including the Earl of Wiltshire, fled for their lives. The king was later taken back to London by the Yorkist lords. Margaret of Anjou, who had been waiting with the Prince of Wales for news at Eccleshall Castle, departed to Harlech Castle in Wales to stay with Jasper Tudor and from there to Denbigh.

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48  Battles of the Wars of the Roses In London, the Earl of Salisbury, Cobham and the city’s militia had been besieging Lord Scales at the Tower. On 16 July, the king arrived with the Yorkist lords and stayed at the bishop’s palace while the Londoners celebrated the Yorkist victory. Lord Scales decided to surrender, with little food and no hope of reinforcements, persuaded to take this action by the noble ladies who took refuge there. That night he tried to escape by boat to sanctuary at Westminster Abbey, but the London boatmen surrounded his boat, dragged him out and murdered him. In the meantime, Margaret of Anjou left Denbigh and sailed from Wales to Berwick and then travelled to Scotland. She was received sympathetically by the Scottish Queen, Mary of Guelders, who offered help and loans, but in return wanted the surrender of the town of Berwick to Scotland. Margaret of Anjou agreed to this with little knowledge of the horror this action would have on the English public and she also promised the Scots booty south of the River Trent in return for their military assistance. The Duke of York was convinced after the Yorkist victory that the only way to establish good government was to assert his claim to the throne as descendant of Lionel of Clarence, second surviving son of King Edward III. His previous attempts to become chief counsellor to the king had failed and he felt that his position as premier magnate of the land and his birth entitled him to become sovereign. The misrule of King Henry VI also persuaded many in the land that it was time for a change because, after all, the Lancastrian dynasty had usurped the throne from King Richard II. On 8 September 1460, the Duke of York returned from Ireland and landed in North Wales, then travelled to Hereford and Ludlow. His duchess had been freed from house arrest after the Battle of Northampton and was staying at Baynard’s Castle in London with her younger children. The Duke then rode to London in a ceremony bearing the royal arms of England. At this time, the Duke of Somerset had given up in his attempts to capture Calais, surrendered Guisnes Castle and returned to England. Parliament assembled at Westminster on 7 October 1460, where Viscount Bourchier was made Treasurer of England and George Neville, Warwick’s brother and the Bishop of Exeter, was appointed Chancellor. On 10 October, the Duke of York arrived with his sword, strode through the chamber, bowed to the Lords and placed his hands on the throne.

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Battle of Northampton, 10 July 1460  49 As he turned to face the Lords, instead of the acclamation he expected, he was met with an embarrassed silence. He then stated that he claimed the throne as heir of King Richard II and wished to be crowned on All Hallows Day. Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Bourchier suggested that he should meet with the king, to which he replied ‘I know of no one in the realm who would not more fitly come to me than I to him.’ The Duke then went to see King Henry VI in his chamber, but the king stood by his right to remain sovereign. The noblemen had taken an oath of allegiance to the king, which they were not prepared to break, and the magnates had also prospered during his reign. The Earls of Warwick and Salisbury were shocked at York’s action and did not support his claim to the throne. However, on 16 October, in Parliament the Duke of York formally laid a claim to the crown by inheritance and submitted a genealogy of descent from King Henry III. When he was asked by the Lords why he had not made the claim before, he replied ‘though right for a time rest and be put to silence, yet it rotteth not, nor shall it perish.’ The following day, the king asked the Lords to draw up objections and they duly referred the matter to the justices, sergeants at law and royal attorneys. However, the officials were reluctant to express an opinion as to the validity of York’s claim, saying that it was beyond their competence, their learning, above the law and therefore had to be determined between the king and York. The Lords eventually acknowledged that York had a better claim to the throne, but voted against breaking their oaths of allegiance to the king. On 24 October 1460, the Act of Accord was passed by Parliament, which stated that King Henry VI should stay on the throne of England as long as he lives, the Duke of York would become his designated heir and the Prince of Wales disinherited. This compromise was not ideal for York because he was ten years older than the king, but it was the best he could hope for bearing in mind the doubts of the nobility. The king agreed to the terms of the Act, which became law and the attainders against York and his followers were reversed, restoring them to their titles and lands. The Lords swore their allegiance to York as heir and he swore his allegiance to the king. On 31 October 1460, it was announced that the king and York were reconciled and the following day the king wore his crown and walked in procession with the dukes, earls and other lords to St Paul’s Cathedral.

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Chapter 10

Battle of Wakefield, 30 December 1460

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argaret of Anjou, in the meantime, had marched south with her Scottish troops and was reinforced by recruits from Northumberland, Westmorland, Cumberland and Lancashire. Many who joined her were not interested in politics, but in the prospects of looting the southern counties, which were considered to be prosperous. Queen Margaret was joined by the Dukes of Somerset and Exeter, and the Earls of Devon and Wiltshire with their men, as well as Lords Clifford, Roos, Greystoke, Neville and Latimer. On arriving in Yorkshire, she became furious at the news that Parliament had disinherited her son and stepped up her recruitment campaign. She gathered an army of 20,000 in York, which she placed under the command of Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland and Thomas Courtenay, fourteenth Earl of Devon. The Queen made a formal protest against the Act of Accord, challenged the Duke of York by force of arms and began to march south to London with her troops, intending to rescue the king. On the way, her soldiers were allowed to plunder the estates and tenants of York and Salisbury, and York’s castle at Sandal was also raided by the Lancastrians. On hearing the news, the Duke of York mounted a propaganda campaign against the queen that accused her troops of lawlessness and he also made preparations to march north with his men. London refused Queen Margaret’s request for military aid and money, but made funds available to finance the Duke of York, who also obtained armaments from the Tower of London. On 9 December 1460, the Duke of York marched out of London with his son, the Earl of Rutland, and the Earl of Salisbury, the Earl’s son Sir Thomas Neville and around 5,000 men, heading north and enlisting more recruits on the way. In the meantime, he left the Earl of Warwick in control of the capital to keep order and guard against French raids on the south coast. At Worksop, Nottinghamshire on 16 December, York’s

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Battle of Wakefield, 30 December 1460  51 vanguard clashed with some of Somerset’s men commanded by Andrew Trollope and many of the Yorkist troops were killed. However, the Duke arrived safely at his fortress in Sandal Castle on 21 December 1460, ordered his men to dig trenches and set his cannon in good defensive positions. York had sent his eldest son, Edward Earl of March, to the Welsh Marches to enlist more troops, Edward’s first independent command, while York settled down in the castle with his commanders and personal guard for the Christmas period. The Lancastrian troops in the vicinity had a much larger force of around 15,000, but they lacked the artillery required to besiege the castle. York only had about 6,000 men, most of whom were billeted around the castle or sent on foraging duties. Henry Beaufort, third Duke of Somerset and Thomas Courtenay, fourteenth Earl of Devon took up positions in front of the castle with their troops and Henry Percy, third Earl of Northumberland, Henry Holland, third Duke of Exeter, Lord Roos and Andrew Trollope were stationed nearby. South of the castle were James Butler, Earl of Wiltshire and Lord Clifford with their men.

Remains of Sandal Castle, Wakefield.

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52  Battles of the Wars of the Roses The Duke of Somerset sent heralds daily to the castle taunting the Duke of York that he was hiding behind the walls of a castle and that he was afraid to fight a woman (meaning Margaret of Anjou), although in fact she was in Scotland at that time. The Duke of York held a Council of War on 29 December 1460 with his subordinates, the Earl of Salisbury, Sir Thomas Neville, Sir Thomas Parr, Sir David Hall and other captains, who advised him to remain within the walls of the castle and await the expected reinforcements to arrive with his son, the Earl of March. York had also commissioned Lord John Neville to raise an army for the Yorkists, which he was expecting shortly. A Christmas truce was then agreed with the Duke of Somerset, which was to last until the Feast of Epiphany on 6 January, although as it turned out Somerset had no intentions of honouring the truce. However, on 30 December 1460, the Duke of York ventured out of Sandal Castle with his men for reasons that are unclear. It is possible that York was coming to the aid of his foraging party that was being attacked by troops led by the Duke of Somerset and the Earl of Devon. Alternatively, he saw the men led by Lord John Neville and rode out to join them, not knowing that Lord Neville had in fact defected to the Lancastrians, even though he was half-nephew to the Earl of Salisbury. A third possibility is that troops led by Andrew Trollope appeared dressed in the livery of the Earl of Warwick to make York think that his reinforcements had arrived. In any event, the Duke of York attacked the force in front of him at Sandal Common, thinking that it was smaller than it was, and at first he gained the upper hand. However, the troops led by the Earl of Northumberland soon counterattacked the Yorkists and the surrounding Lancastrians then realised that there was a pitched battle in motion. Lord Roos joined the attack with his men and York, with his casualties mounting, attempted an orderly withdrawal back to Sandal Castle, half a mile to the south. The Earl of Salisbury was still in the castle at that time and, seeing the plight of the Yorkist force, he rallied his captains and with his son, Sir Thomas Neville, rode out to York’s aid. The troops led by Andrew Trollope and the Duke of Exeter now joined the attack and York realised that he was being overwhelmed by a superior force. He placed his son Edmund in the care of Sir Robert Aspall, Edmund’s former tutor, and ordered him to flee the battlefield. Lord John Clifford then arrived with his men and, instead of joining the battle, gave chase to Edmund

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Battle of Wakefield, 30 December 1460  53 and Sir Robert. Richard Duke of York was now surrounded and received a wound to his knee, refused quarter and, unable to defend himself, he was hacked down by multiple blows and killed. In Chronicler Edward Hall’s words: ‘but when he was in the plain ground between his castle and the town of Wakefield, he was environed on every side, like a fish in a net or a deer in a buckstall so that he manfully fighting was within half an hour slain and dead, and his whole army discomfited.’ With the duke’s death the battle ended and the surviving Yorkist troops fled for their lives, hotly pursued by the Lancastrians. The Earl of Wiltshire, who had not joined in the melee, now took control of the undefended Sandal Castle. The Earl of Salisbury was captured by Andrew Trollope’s men and taken to Pontefract Castle, where he was held prisoner. He bribed the guards to set him free and was expecting to be ransomed but, as he was leaving, ‘the common people of the country, which loved him not, took him out of the castle by violence, and smote off his head.’ The Earl of Warwick now inherited his father’s lands in the north, the castles of Sheriff Hutton and Middleham and became by far the wealthiest magnate in the land. As the seventeen-year-old Edmund Earl of Rutland left the field with Sir Robert Aspall, attempting to escape over Wakefield Bridge, Lord Clifford rode up and demanded to know who he was. Aspall replied, ‘Spare him, for he is a King’s son, and good may come to you.’ Lord Clifford replied ‘Whose son is this?’ and without waiting for an answer stabbed the Earl of Rutland and Aspall to death, shouting, ‘By God’s blood, thy father slew mine! So will I do thee and all thy kin!’ Lord Clifford later received the nickname ‘Butcher Clifford’ and it was clear that the wars had now degenerated into blood feuds between the magnates. About 2,000 Yorkist troops were killed in the battle, which was around a third of the Yorkist force, plus around 200 Lancastrians and the green was said to have been covered in corpses. The Earl of Salisbury’s son, Sir Thomas Neville, was among those killed as were his son in law, Lord William Harington, Sir Thomas Parr, Sir David Hall, Sir John Mortimer, Sir Hugh Mortimer and Sir Edward Bourchier, son of Viscount Bourchier.

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54  Battles of the Wars of the Roses After the battle, Lord Clifford ordered that the Duke of York and the Earl of Rutland’s corpses be decapitated, with a paper crown placed on York’s head. Their bodies were quietly buried in Pontefract and their heads placed on pikes and, together with the Earl of Salisbury’s, raised above the Micklegate Bar in York, ‘so that York shall look over the town of York.’ Micklegate Bar was the southern gate to the city of York. However, contrary to belief, Margaret of Anjou was not involved in this action because she was in Scotland at the time. A memorial was later erected in York’s memory on the road between Sandal and Wakefield at the spot where he was killed, which was replaced by a Victorian monument in 1897. On 2 January 1461, the Earl of Warwick in London heard the news of the Yorkist defeat at the Battle of Wakefield. Edward Earl of March was in Shrewsbury, where he had spent the Christmas period, when a messenger brought him the news – to which he was ‘wonderfully amazed’ with grief. Edward, determined to avenge the deaths of his father, brother and uncle, speedily raised an army in the Welsh Marches and assembled them at Wigmore and Ludlow. At eighteen years of age, he had now inherited his father’s title of Duke of York and fully intended to enforce the Yorkist claim to the throne by force if necessary.

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Chapter 11

Battle of Mortimer’s Cross, 2 February 1461

I

n January 1461, Margaret of Anjou marched from Scotland with an army provided by Queen Mary of Guelders to link up with the main Lancastrian forces based in York. She was determined to take advantage of the victory at Wakefield and eliminate the Yorkist threat. She had agreed with Queen Mary to surrender the border town of Berwick in return for troops and the marriage of her son Edward to Mary’s daughter, Margaret Stewart. However, the Scottish queen was unable to provide funds and her troops were therefore promised unlimited freedom to plunder the estates south of the River Trent. As news spread in the northern regions, the Lancastrian army was swelled by many recruits attracted by this prospect of loot. The Yorkists in turn spread propaganda against the Lancastrian lords and their plans to rob and pillage the countryside, murder the citizens and rape the women. Many men in the southern regions therefore flocked to the Yorkist ranks in order to defend their lands and property. The ruling Council voted to grant the Earl of Warwick a loan for defence and issued commissions of array to recruit more troops. Margaret of Anjou intended to march south to London with her army while the Earl of Pembroke raised an army in Wales, in addition to the French, Breton and Irish mercenaries recruited by the Earl of Wiltshire. The combined Lancastrian forces were to link up and march to London to deal with the Yorkist government. Edward Earl of March, who was now the fourth Duke of York, summoned his troops from Staffordshire, Shropshire, Herefordshire, Gloucestershire, Worcestershire, Somerset, Dorset and Bristol to join him at Hereford. His intention was to march to London to link up with the Earl of Warwick’s troops, who were now joined by Lord Fauconberg, against the queen’s army. Edward had staunch Yorkists in his ranks, including Sir Walter Devereux, Sir William Herbert of Raglan and his brother Sir Richard Herbert. Lord Audley, who was the son of the

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56  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Lancastrian leader killed at the Battle of Blore Heath and had defected to the Yorkists, also joined Edward as did Lord Grey of Wilton and Humphrey Stafford. Lord FitzWalter and Edward’s close friend, Sir William Hastings, were also with his army. As Edward prepared to march to London, he received news that a Lancastrian army that consisted of Tudor retainers from Pembroke and Carmarthen, led by Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke and his father Owen Tudor, had formed up to his north. This force was joined by James Butler, Earl of Wiltshire and his French, Breton and Irish mercenaries and was marching towards Hereford. Edward turned his army north towards Mortimer’s Cross because he could not ignore a hostile force at his rear that could also have been marching to join the troops led by Margaret of Anjou. The Yorkist army of around 5,000 men marched seventeen miles from Hereford to Mortimer’s Cross and arrived there on 2 February 1461, where it formed up west of the River Lugg.

Battle of Mortimer’s Cross.

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Battle of Mortimer’s Cross, 2 February 1461  57 Edward formed his troops into three ‘battles’, the right wing commanded by Sir Walter Devereux, the centre by himself and his left wing by Sir William Herbert. The Lancastrian army of around 4,000 men also deployed early on that morning with the left wing commanded by the Earl of Wiltshire, the centre by Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke and the right wing by his father, Owen Tudor, and Sir John Throckmorton. Edward’s army consisted of experienced archers and loyal retainers from the Welsh Marches who were determined to prevent their property and estates from being plundered by the Lancastrian troops. He was advised by Sir Richard Croft, a local lord from Croft Castle, who recommended that he position his archers at the crossroads to guard against Lancastrian attacks. The Lancastrian forces, however, consisted of raw recruits apart from their mercenary troops. Before the battle on Candlemas Day, 2 February 1461, a parhelion was seen in the sky, a meteorological phenomenon of three suns reflected by ice crystals that frightened Edward’s troops. However, he proclaimed that it was an omen of victory, telling his soldiers ‘Beeth of good comfort and dreadeth not. This is a good sign for those three suns betokeneth the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost, and therefore let us have a good heart, and in the name of the Almighty God go we against our enemies!’ He also saw the sign as a prediction of a reunion of the three sons of York, himself and his brothers George and Richard. At his words, his whole army sank to its knees in prayer at the vision and Edward thereafter used the emblem of ‘The Sun in Splendour’ for his banner. The battle commenced with an attack by the Lancastrian left wing led by the Earl of Wiltshire against the Yorkist right commanded by Sir Walter Devereux, which broke and retreated across the River Lugg. Pembroke’s centre, however, was less fortunate and was held by Edward’s troops, who pushed Pembroke’s forces back to retreat and scatter. The Yorkist archers were also shooting deadly volleys at the Lancastrian troops, who took considerable casualties. Owen Tudor’s right wing then attempted a flank attack, which exposed the centre of the Lancastrian army. Sir William Herbert on the Yorkist left wing had experienced troops in his ranks and took advantage of this to attack the Tudor force, which broke and fled towards Hereford. Within half an hour, the battle was over as Pembroke’s men fled to the west, with the Earl of Wiltshire’s

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58  Battles of the Wars of the Roses mercenaries also leaving the field. The Lancastrian army had lost around 2,000 killed, but the Yorkist casualties were much fewer. Owen Tudor, Sir John Throckmorton and eight of the Lancastrian captains were chased, captured at Hereford and executed the following day at the market square on Edward’s orders. Gregory’s Chronicle told that Owen Tudor did not believe that he would be beheaded until he saw the axe and block, saying, ‘That head shall be on the stock that was wont to lie on Queen Katherine’s lap. He full meekly took his death.’ Afterwards a mad woman placed his head on the top step of the market cross, washed the blood from his head and combed his hair before lighting over a hundred candles and setting them around him. He was buried at the Church of Greyfriars at Hereford, which was later demolished. The Earl of Pembroke then fled as a fugitive to France, Scotland, Wales and the north for almost a quarter of a century, although he had not given up his fight for the Lancastrian cause. Edward had been avenged to some degree for the deaths of his father, brother Edmund and uncle Salisbury at the Battle of Wakefield and he now prepared his army to march to the aid of the Earl of Warwick.

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Chapter 12

Second Battle of St Albans, 17 February 1461

O

n 20 January 1461, Margaret of Anjou arrived with her Scottish army at York, where she joined up with the Lancastrian nobles and their men. Her allies then agreed to her surrender of Berwick to Scotland and the marriage of the Prince of Wales to the daughter of the Scottish queen, Mary of Guelders. On that day, the Lancastrian army led by the Duke of Somerset and the Earl of Northumberland began its march south along the Great North Road to Grantham, Stamford, Peterborough, Huntingdon, Royston and St Albans. As soon as the troops crossed the River Trent, they began to rob, loot, rape, torture and

Map of Second Battle of St Albans

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60  Battles of the Wars of the Roses burn at all the towns and villages in their way. They robbed the abbeys, priories and manor houses, taking away all their treasures, cattle, food and provisions. The Croyland Chronicle narrated the events at the abbey: ‘We collected together our precious vestments and other treasures, besides all our charters and muniments, and hid them in our most secret places within the walls. And every day the convent held processions and poured forth prayers and tears. All the gates of the monastery and town were guarded, day and night.’ Fortunately, the devastation passed them by, but the Chronicle added that ‘an infinite number of paupers and beggars, who had emerged like mice from their holes’ were eager to rob in a line thirty miles wide. Many people fled south, bringing tales of unspeakable attacks, and others took to arms to join the forces led by the Earl of Warwick. Sir John Wenlock recruited troops in Hertfordshire and other counties, and many towns including Coventry switched sides to the Yorkists because of the atrocities. London was in a state of panic, with many citizens boarding up their homes and hiding their possessions. The Earl of Warwick in London had sent the Duke of Norfolk to East Anglia to recruit men and Lord Bonville and Viscount Bourchier to southern England, and consequently great numbers of armed men arrived daily. Warwick and his brother, Sir John Neville, were ready to leave the city on 12 February 1461 with the Yorkist army of around 10,000 men to face the Lancastrian forces led by Margaret of Anjou. He was joined by John Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk, Lord Fauconberg, Lord Berners, Lord Bonville, Sir William Fitzalan, Earl of Arundel and John de la Pole, second Duke of Suffolk. The Duke of Burgundy also sent handgunners to help the Yorkist cause and King Henry VI himself was with the Yorkist army. The Lancastrians had about 15,000 troops led by Henry Beaufort, third Duke of Somerset, Henry Percy, third Earl of Northumberland, Henry Holland, third Duke of Exeter, Lords Roos, Grey of Codnor, Clifford, Greystoke, Welles and Willoughby. On reaching Royston, they turned sharply to the west heading for Dunstable, twenty-seven miles away, which they reached on 16 February 1461. The Earl of Warwick in the meantime had arrived at St Albans on 13 February, where he deployed his army north of the town, facing what he thought was the direction of the Lancastrian approach. In his vanguard

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Second Battle of St Albans, 17 February 1461  61 were the troops led by the Duke of Norfolk, at the centre the Earl of Warwick himself and the rearguard at Bernard’s Heath (sometimes called Barnet Heath) was led by Sir John Neville. There was also a force of archers in the marketplace at the centre of town. The Earl of Warwick had set up defences north of St Albans of caltrops, or spikes, iron nails as well as nets with barbed wire across paths and hedges. Warwick’s Burgundian mercenaries were armed with cannon and a new weapon, the handgun. However, those weapons were very new and often lethal to the handler. Dunstable, meanwhile, was occupied by a small Yorkist force commanded by Sir Robert Poynings and a local butcher who led about 200 men to save the town from pillage. However, they had expected to face a rabble, not the battle-hardened Lancastrian troops, and were swiftly annihilated. Margaret of Anjou’s army did not stop there, but continued its march down Watling Street through the night towards St Albans, which it reached at dawn on 17 February 1461. The Yorkists appeared to be unaware of the events at Dunstable the previous day and that they were now in danger of attack because their scouts did not give sufficient warning. Early that morning, the Lancastrians launched their surprise attack from a completely unexpected direction and it is likely that this strategy was devised by veteran soldier Andrew Trollope. Their disciplined vanguard was described by Gregory: ‘The substance that gained that field were household men and feed men. I ween there were not 5,000 men that fought in the queen’s party, for the most part of Northern men fled away.’ There was no resistance until Trollope’s men reached the southern end of the marketplace, where they were met by a storm of arrows fired by the Yorkist archers in the surrounding buildings. The Lancastrian troops were unable to deploy effectively in the narrow streets and fell back in confusion, leaving behind many casualties. Trollope then dispatched scouts, who found an unguarded lane at the northwest part of the town, and he led his horsemen in that direction. The Yorkist archers at the centre of town were now outflanked and attacked from two sides, and were driven back, with no reinforcements arriving from the main Yorkist army. It appears that Warwick had not envisaged an attack from his rear and consequently had not prepared support in that direction. In Gregory’s words: ‘and like unwise men they broke their array and field

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62  Battles of the Wars of the Roses and took another.’ The Lancastrian columns quickly reorganised and moved north against the main Yorkist army at Bernard’s Heath, which was led by Sir John Neville. Abbot Whethamstede later wrote: ‘The northern men, coming to the town of the said protomartyr, and hearing that the King, with a great army and some of his lords, was lying near, immediately entered the said town, desiring to pass through the middle of it and direct their army against the King’s army. However, they were compelled to turn back by a few archers who met them near the Great Cross, and to flee with disgrace to the west end of the town, where, entering by a lane which leads from that end northwards as far as St Peter’s Street, they had there a great fight with a certain small band of people of the King’s army. Then, after not a few had been killed on both sides, going out to a heath called Barnet Heath, lying near the north end of the town, they had a great battle with certain large forces, perhaps four or five thousand of the vanguard of the King’s army.’ Whethamstede described Sir John Neville’s force as the vanguard, although in fact it was the rearguard of the Yorkist army. Because of the delaying action of the archers at the centre of town, Neville had time to turn his force around in order to face the Lancastrian attack. Sir John Neville, however, did not have the assistance of Warwick’s cannon, handguns or any other of his defences. According to Gregory: ‘And before the gunners and Burgundians could level their guns they were busy fighting, and many a gun of war was provided that was of little avail or none at all. But in time of need they could shoot not one of them, for the fire turned back on those who would shoot those things. They could not understand that all these devices did any good or harm except on our side with King Henry.’ In fact, the defences set up by Warwick’s troops were now to become a hindrance to any attempts to redeploy the Yorkist army and wet weather conditions would also have hampered the firing of the cannon. Sir John Neville and his troops now engaged the Lancastrian force in fierce hand-to-hand fighting at Bernard’s Heath without the help of the archers who had been defeated at the centre of town. He sent urgent messages to Warwick asking for assistance from the early morning, but reinforcements were not forthcoming. The Lancastrian vanguard, however, was swelled by men who had been arriving all morning from Dunstable and Neville’s force was steadily pushed back until it broke and

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Second Battle of St Albans, 17 February 1461  63 fled. The Lancastrians then pursued and cut down the fleeing Yorkist soldiers across the heath. There was treachery in the Yorkist ranks with Sir Henry Lovelace, a captain of a company of men from Kent, changing sides and defecting with his men to the Lancastrians. According to the Burgundian historian, Jean de Waurin, Lovelace had been captured after the Battle of Wakefield but released by the Lancastrians when he agreed to betray the Yorkist cause. He was a trusted commander of Warwick and put in command of his vanguard. He then betrayed the Yorkist positions, caused confusion in the ranks with misleading orders and delivered King Henry  VI to the Lancastrians. However, Lovelace may have been a scapegoat for the defeat of the Yorkist army. According to Abbot Whethamstede: ‘The southern men, who were fiercer at the beginning were broken very quickly afterwards and the more quickly because looking back, they saw no one coming up from the main body of the King’s army, or preparing to give them help, whereupon they turned their back on the northern men and fled. And the northern men seeing this pursued them very swiftly on horseback and catching a good many of them, ran them through with their lances.’ The Earl of Warwick had lost control of the events on the battlefield during the day and was dismayed that he had been outmanoeuvred by the Lancastrian army and that his well-prepared defences were of no use. Many in the Yorkist ranks wanted to retreat and join up with the Earl of March to fight again and Warwick had great difficulty in persuading them to turn back in defence of his brother’s force. By the time they arrived at what was now the front line, it had disintegrated, the troops were fleeing for their lives and Sir John Neville and Lord Berners were captured. Warwick now realised that the battle was lost and made a fighting withdrawal to the high ground at Nomansland common, where he was not attacked by the Lancastrians, and as night fell he retreated with about 4,000 of his men. Although the Lancastrians had won a great victory, with around 2,000 Yorkists killed because of their boldness and better strategy, they lost about 1,000 men and had not captured the Earl of Warwick, who lived to fight another day. The Duke of Norfolk, who had been originally at the vanguard of the Yorkist army, does not appear to have taken any part in the battle and

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64  Battles of the Wars of the Roses withdrew from the field together with all his men. In the confusion of the Yorkist rout, they also lost control of King Henry VI. In Gregory’s words: ‘And in the midst of the battle King Henry went unto his Queen and forsook all his lords, and trust better to her party than unto his own lords.’ King’s Henry’s tent had been under an oak tree at Bernard’s Heath and by some accounts he had been laughing and singing, possibly because of his mental state. According to Abbot Whethamstede, a gentleman by the name of Thomas Hoo of Luton Hoo approached the king, informed him that the Yorkist army had been defeated and suggested that a messenger be sent to the northern lords, informing them of King Henry’s location. The king agreed to this and a messenger was sent to the Earl of Northumberland. Several of the northern lords returned and accompanied the king to the Lancastrian army. The consequences of this were considerable because, up to this point, the Yorkists had been fighting in the name of the king and therefore any action against them could have been considered treasonous. The only Lancastrian of note to have been killed was a knight, Sir John Grey of Groby, who left a young widow, Elizabeth Woodville, and two young children. In the years to come, his widow was to marry the Yorkist King Edward IV and become the next Queen of England. The Lancastrians celebrated their victory over the Yorkist army and King Henry  VI was escorted to Lord Clifford’s tent, where he was reunited with Queen Margaret and his son Edward, Prince of Wales. The king embraced his wife and son, whom he had not seen for over seven months, and gave his thanks to God. The queen persuaded King Henry to knight his young son and he in turn knighted thirty Lancastrians who had shown their valour in the battle. Among those knighted was Andrew Trollope, who had injured his foot on a caltrop and stated that this had prevented him from performing further heroic actions: ‘My lord, I have not deserved this for I slew no more than fifteen men. I stood still in one place and they came to me but still they stayed with me.’ King Henry, Queen Margaret and the Prince of Wales were then escorted to the abbey and the monks greeted them there with hymns. King Henry gave his thanks to God at the shrine of St Albans and the Abbot asked him to issue a proclamation to stop his soldiers from looting the town. However, the order was ignored and St Albans was pillaged for the second time in six years.

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Second Battle of St Albans, 17 February 1461  65 King Henry had been guarded after the battle by two Yorkist knights, Lord Bonville and Sir Thomas Kyriell, who were veterans of the Hundred Years’ War, and they agreed to escort him to Queen Margaret with the king’s assurances that they would come to no harm. The day after the battle, however, the queen had Bonville, Kyriell and William Gower, one of King Henry’s standard bearers, brought before her. Turning to her son, the seven-year-old Edward, Prince of Wales, she asked: ‘Fair son, what manner of death shall these knights, whom you see here, die?’ The young prince answered: ‘Let them have their heads taken off.’ Sir Thomas Kyriell replied: ‘May God destroy those who have taught thee this manner of speech!’ The knights were swiftly taken outside and beheaded. Sir John Neville and Lord Berners, however, were spared, probably because the Duke of Somerset’s brother was Warwick’s prisoner in Calais and he feared for his safety. The king’s reunion with the Lancastrian army had discredited him in the eyes of the citizens of the south because of their conduct and because he had broken the terms of the Act of Accord naming the Yorkists as heirs. The Earl of Warwick at this time had retreated with the remnants of his force and met up with the troops led by his cousin, Edward Earl of March, at Burford in the Cotswolds. He apologised to Edward ‘that he was so poor, for he had no money, but the substance of his men came at their own cost.’ However, his men were more concerned with protecting their property from the Lancastrian army than being paid and he told Edward to be of good cheer, for the commons of England were on his side. The two earls then formulated a plan to march to London and proclaim Edward king as the only way to achieve victory. News of the Lancastrian victory at St Albans reached London on 18 February 1461 and plunged the citizens into a panic. They were afraid of the northerners and their lawless and violent conduct, shops were closed, streets were deserted, armed militias patrolled the streets, people buried their valuables and hid away in their homes. Cecily, widow of the Duke of York, was staying at Baynard’s Castle at that time and sent her two younger boys, George and Richard, away to safety at the court of the Duke of Burgundy. The Lancastrian army was now running short of food and the queen therefore sent messengers to the Lord Mayor of London for bread,

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66  Battles of the Wars of the Roses victuals and money. The fearful mayor arranged for a number of carts to be laden with food, meat, fish and money. However, the Londoners were pro-Yorkist and had also received news that Edward Earl of March and the Earl of Warwick were on their way to London with their troops. An angry mob therefore seized the carts and locked the city gates so no one could get in or out. They distributed the food among themselves and, as for the money, wrote one Londoner: ‘I wot not how it departed, I trow the purse stole the money!’ When Queen Margaret heard the news, she was furious and allowed her troops to rob and pillage the surrounding countryside in Hertfordshire. The Lord Mayor offered the Lancastrian army admittance to London as long as the city was not robbed and plundered. On 20 February, the queen sent the Duchesses of Buckingham and Bedford to the mayor to inform him that they had no mind to rob and pillage the city. The mayor sent four aldermen back saying that they would admit the king and queen provided that there was no plunder from the royal army. However, they were overridden by the citizens who had heard numerous reports of the conduct of the Lancastrian troops. Margaret of Anjou did not want to alienate the Londoners further as many of her northern troops were now deserting and heading for home with their plunder. In addition, she did not have the siege engines required to take the capital. She split her army in two, with half retreating to Dunstable and 400 of her elite troops advancing to Aldgate, demanding admittance, which was refused by the Lord Mayor. A detachment of the queen’s troops also reached Westminster, but was driven back by the citizens. Queen Margaret then ordered a full retreat to the north, realising that it would be impossible to capture the city with the Yorkist army fast approaching. The failure of the Lancastrian army to take London was to become a costly missed opportunity for them to consolidate their victory at St Albans and take control of the government. On 27 February 1461, the Yorkist army of around 10,000 led by Edward Earl of March and the Earl of Warwick entered London and were welcomed as saviours. The people said: ‘Hail to the Rose of Rouen!’ and one Londoner wrote: ‘Let us walk in a new vineyard and let us make a gay garden in the month of March with this fair white rose and herb, the Earl of March!’ Edward was an imposing figure at six feet three inches tall, still only eighteen years of age and rode through London’s

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Second Battle of St Albans, 17 February 1461  67 streets to meet his mother at Baynard’s Castle as his army set up camp at Clerkenwell Fields. On 1 March 1461, Warwick’s brother, George Neville, the Lord Chancellor addressed a crowd of citizens at St John’s Fields in Clerkenwell and declared that Edward of York was the rightful king and Henry of Lancaster a usurper. Henry’s reign had been a failure, with lawlessness at home and defeats abroad, and he had also broken the terms of the Act of Accord. Edward on the other hand was a prince of royal descent and had been approved by Parliament as the rightful heir to the throne. The crowd and soldiers agreed enthusiastically and, the following day, Edward, Warwick, Fauconberg and Norfolk rode out to Clerkenwell to review their troops. On 3 March 1461, a Council of the Yorkist Lords consisting of the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishop of Salisbury, George Neville, Bishop of Exeter, the Earl of Warwick, Lord Fauconberg, Duke of Norfolk, Lord FitzWalter, Sir Walter Devereux and other peers met at Baynard’s Castle and decided to offer Edward the throne. A deputation of the Lords and Commons went to Baynard’s Castle on 4 March 1461 to present Edward with the petition and offer the crown, which he graciously accepted and was duly proclaimed King Edward IV. London’s leading citizens were then summoned to St Paul’s Cathedral, where they acclaimed their new king. Edward made a thanksgiving offering to God and went in procession to Westminster Hall, where he took the oath required of a new monarch. He was attired in the royal robes and to the cheers of the lords was escorted through large crowds to Westminster Abbey. The abbot and monks presented Edward with the crown and sceptre of Edward the Confessor and he made offerings at the high altar and the Confessor’s shrine, before returning to the coronation chair. He then addressed the congregation, claiming his right to the throne because King Henry VI had failed to honour the terms of the Act of Accord and the people agreed that he should be king. The magnates paid homage to him one by one, a Te Deum was then sung at the abbey and the new king made more offerings before leaving and taking the boat from Westminster back to Baynard’s Castle. The councillors later came to Edward with plans for a formal coronation, but he refused to be crowned before he had defeated King Henry VI, Margaret of Anjou and the Lancastrian army in battle to secure the throne. It was now evidently clear that further conflict and more bloodshed was coming to the land.

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Chapter 13

Battle of Ferrybridge, 28 March 1461

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n 6 March 1461, the newly declared King Edward IV issued a proclamation to thirty-three counties to accept him as king and a pardon with some named exceptions to any followers of King Henry  VI who submitted within ten days. The previous day, he had dispatched the Duke of Norfolk to East Anglia to recruit more troops for the Yorkist army. The Earl of Warwick was then issued with commissions of array to raise forces in Northamptonshire, Warwickshire, Leicestershire, Staffordshire, Worcestershire, Gloucestershire, Shropshire, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and Yorkshire. On 11 March 1461, Lord Fauconberg led the vanguard of the best Yorkist troops out of London, heading north with the men from London, the Welsh Marches and those from Kent led by Robert Horne. King Edward IV followed on 13 March through Bishopsgate with the main body of the army and a train of supplies of food and weapons. Whereas the Lancastrian army had been robbing the countryside, King Edward IV forbade the taking of plunder and ensured that all provisions were paid for with the money that had been provided by the London merchants. Edward passed through Barnet, St Albans and Barkway, and reached Cambridge on 17 March, recruiting more soldiers en route who were appalled at the conduct of the Lancastrian army. He arrived at Nottingham on 22 March with his troops and joined up with Lord Fauconberg and the Earl of Warwick, with their men north of the River Trent. It is estimated that the Yorkist army now totalled around 25,000 men, whereas the Lancastrians had a larger force of about 35,000 based in York. Edward arrived at Pontefract in Yorkshire on 27 March as the Lancastrians retreated north of the River Aire. King Henry VI was in York with Queen Margaret and the Prince of Wales, where he sat out the battles, leaving his military commanders to lead his troops, who had camped out between the villages of Towton and Saxton near York. In

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Battle of Ferrybridge, 28 March 1461  69 contrast, the young King Edward IV was a charismatic and inspirational general, leading from the front and gaining the respect of his men. In the cold March winds, John Radcliffe, Lord FitzWalter was sent by King Edward with his men to capture the bridge over the River Aire at Ferrybridge. George Neville wrote later to Papal Legate Coppini: ‘Our adversaries had broken the bridge which was our way across, and were strongly posted on the other side, so that our men could only cross by a narrow way which they had made themselves after the bridge was broken. But our men forced a way by the sword, and many were slain on both sides.’ The bridge was therefore captured by the Yorkist troops, who repaired it, crossed the River Aire and camped out on the north bank. The bridge had been defended by Lord John Clifford, Lord John Neville and their 500 men, the ‘Flower of Craven’, their elite force of Westmorland troops. This force then counterattacked the Yorkist troops north of the River Aire at Ferrybridge at dawn on 28 March 1461 and caught them by surprise. According to Edward Hall, who wrote seventy years later in the sixteenth century: ‘The Lord FitzWalter hearing the noise, suddenly rose out of his bed, and unarmed, with a poleaxe in his hand, thinking that it had been an affray amongst his men, came down to appease the same, but before he could say a word, or knew what the matter was, he was slain, and with him the bastard of Salisbury, brother to the Earl of Warwick, a valiant young gentleman, and of great audacity.’ The commander of the Yorkist force, Lord FitzWalter, and Warwick’s bastard brother, Sir Richard Jenney, were therefore both killed in this action. By one account, the Earl of Warwick was wounded in the leg by an arrow and returned to Pontefract with the survivors of the force to explain the situation to Edward. Edward Hall continues: ‘When the Earl was informed of this feat (the destruction of FitzWalter by Clifford), he like a man desperate mounted on his hackney, and came blowing to King Edward saying “Sir I pray God have mercy on their souls, which in the beginning of your enterprise hath lost their lives, and because I see no success of the world, I remit the vengeance and punishment to God our creator and redeemer” and with that he slighted down and slew his horse with his sword, saying “Let him fly that will, for surely I will tarry with him that will tarry with me” and he kissed the cross hilt of his sword.’

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70  Battles of the Wars of the Roses King Edward  IV then ordered the Earl of Warwick to remain at Ferrybridge with his troops to keep the Lancastrian force occupied while Lord Fauconberg, with Sir William Blount and Robert Horne, led the vanguard of the Yorkist army three miles upstream where they crossed the River Aire at Castleford. This force therefore outflanked and attacked Lord Clifford’s troops from the north bank of the river. There was a fierce battle at Bretherton marshes, but Lord Clifford’s troops were overcome and retreated northwards towards the main Lancastrian army near Saxton. Clifford’s force, however, was not reinforced by the Duke of Somerset, the Lancastrian commander, and was outmanoeuvred by Lord Fauconberg, who was an experienced veteran of the Hundred Years’ War. It is possible that Fauconberg had detached a force of mounted scouts or ‘prickers’ to ambush Clifford’s men as they attempted to flee back to the main Lancastrian army. At Dintingdale, the ‘Flower of Craven’ made their final stand. Clifford fell to an archer when, it is said, he removed his gorget to quench a raging thirst and was hit by an arrow without a head and struck in the throat. Butcher Clifford was now dead, leaving a seven-year-old son Henry who was sent away for his safety to live with a shepherd and was to fight at the Battle of Flodden in 1513 against the Scots. King Edward IV had now avenged the death of his brother Edmund Earl of Rutland at the Battle of Wakefield. Lord John Neville, whom it was thought had betrayed the Duke of York at the Battle of Wakefield, was also killed at Dintingdale and the ‘Flower of Craven’ force was wiped out almost to the last man. It appears that the Duke of Somerset was unaware as to the plight of Lord Clifford’s troops, who were merely tasked with delaying the Yorkist army at Ferrybridge. They had fought well but were defeated by the superior numbers and tactics of Lord Fauconberg. The Yorkist army was then able to cross the River Aire with, as George Neville, brother of the Earl of Warwick, wrote to Papal Legate and Bishop of Terni Francesco dei Coppini: ‘The King, the valiant Duke of Norfolk, my brother aforesaid and my uncle Lord Fauconberg, travelling by different routes, finally united with all their companies and armies near the country round York. Finally the enemy took to flight and many of them were slain as they fled.’

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Chapter 14

Battle of Towton, 29 March 1461

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ing Edward IV had lodged the night of 28 March at Pontefract Castle before rising at dawn the following day. It was Palm Sunday, 29 March 1461, as he rode out in a snowstorm with his retainers to face his Lancastrian enemies on the field at Towton. At only eighteen years of age, Edward was already an experienced military commander, having tasted victory in several battles. He had witnessed his father’s victory at the First Battle of St Albans at the age of thirteen and led a wing of the Yorkist army to victory at the Battle of Northampton the previous year. On his first independent command, he had decisively defeated the Tudor army at Mortimer’s Cross, which his younger brother Richard

Initial deployment at Towton.

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72  Battles of the Wars of the Roses was unable to do almost a quarter of a century later. The Lancastrian vanguard led by Lord Clifford had already been defeated at Ferrybridge. Edward’s army now formed up in order of battle between the villages of Saxton and Towton. He was about to face the 35,000 troops of the largest Lancastrian army of the Wars of the Roses with his force of 25,000 in the biggest and bloodiest battle ever known on English soil. Although the Duke of Norfolk had still not arrived with his troops, Edward’s army included the Earl of Warwick, Lord Fauconberg, Lord Scrope of Bolton, Lord Grey of Ruthyn, Earl of Arundel, Viscount Bourchier, Lord Thomas Stanley, Sir William Stanley, Sir William Herbert, Sir Richard Herbert, Sir Walter Devereux, Lord Clinton, Lord Audley, Sir William Hastings, Sir Roger Corbett and Sir William Blount. Among his knights were Sir John Wenlock, Sir John Conyers, Sir John Dynham, Sir Robert Ogle, Sir James Harrington and Sir Robert Harrington. Edward also had the experienced captains John Fogge and Robert Horne, as well as the city militias of Nottingham, Leicester, Northampton and Gloucester.

Engagement at Towton.

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Battle of Towton, 29 March 1461  73 The Lancastrian army was led by Henry Beaufort, third Duke of Somerset, Henry Holland, third Duke of Exeter, Henry Percy, third Earl of Northumberland and his brothers Sir Richard and Sir Ralph, Thomas Courtenay, fourteenth Earl of Devon, Lord Roos, Lord Dacre, Lord Willoughby, Lionel, sixth Lord Welles and the Earl of Wiltshire. Their knights included Sir Andrew Trollope and his brother Sir David Trollope, Sir William Tailboys, Sir Philip Wentworth, Sir Thomas Findern and Sir Nicholas Latimer. The Lancastrians formed up their army on a ridge south of the village of Towton where, to their west, lay the steep drop to the stream the Cock Beck, to the southwest Castle Hill Wood and to the front Towton Dale, a marshy gully. Their vanguard was led by Sir Andrew Trollope and the Earl of Northumberland, centre by Lord Dacre and Lord Welles, and rearguard by the Dukes of Somerset and Exeter. The Yorkists deployed on the higher ground to the south with their vanguard led by Lord Fauconberg, centre by the Earl of Warwick and rearguard and reserve force by King Edward IV himself. The Rose of Rouen was a fifteenth-century poem written after the Battle of Towton, eulogising King Edward IV, who was born in Rouen, Normandy. He was seen as protecting the south from the uncivilised northerners and the poem also lists his commanders with their banners: ‘And when he saw the time best the Rose from London went (Edward of York) With him went the Ragged Staff that many men brought (Richard Earl of Warwick) So did the White Lion full worthy he wrought (John Mowbray Duke of Norfolk) The Fish Hook came to the field in full eager mood (William Lord Fauconberg) So did the Cornish Chough and brought forth all her brood (Baron Scrope of Bolton) There was the Black Ragged Staff that is both true and good (Edmund Lord Ruthyn)

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74  Battles of the Wars of the Roses The Bridled Horse, the Water Boughet, by the Horse stood (Sir William Herbert, Henry Viscount Bourchier and William FitzAlan Earl of Arundel) The Greyhound, the Hart’s Head they quit them well that day (Sir Walter Devereux and Thomas Lord Stanley) So did the Harrow of Canterbury and Clinton (John Baron Clinton) The Falcon and Fetterlock was there that tide (Edward of York) The Black Bull also himself would not hide (Sir William Hastings) The Dolphin came from Wales (John Tuchet sixth Baron Audley) Three Corbies by his side’ (Sir Roger Corbie) The poem continues: ‘Now is the Rose of Rouen grown to a great honour, Therefore sing we everyone, “I blessed be that flower!” I warn you everyone, for you should understand, There sprang a Rose in Rouen & spread into England, The northern party made them strong with spear & with shield; On Palm Sunday after the noon they met us in the field. Within an hour they were right feign to flee & then to yield xxvii thousand the rose killed in the field, Blessed be the time that ever God spread that flower.’ It appears that the Lancastrian army had prepared an ambush at Castle Hill Wood to their front and west led by Sir Andrew Trollope. According to Jean de Waurin, writing about the scouts or prickers of the Yorkist army: ‘They did not go very far before they spotted the reconnaissance party from the enemy and they quickly returned to the Earl of March to tell him that they had seen large numbers of men at arms in the fields and banners of King Henry. They told him how the enemy was manoeuvring and their position, and when the earl was warned of this, he went to his cavalry, which he had positioned on the wing and

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Battle of Towton, 29 March 1461  75 said to them “My children I pray today that we shall be good and loyal to each other because we are fighting for a good cause!” After they had all echoed this thought a messenger came to tell the earl that the vaward troops of the king had started to move forward and the earl went back to place himself behind the banners’. The two armies therefore squared up to each other in the morning snow for a battle driven by thoughts of vengeance for the biggest prize of all- the kingdom itself. As the priests moved in front of the troops assembled in their companies, the men knelt to take earth in their mouths, thinking of their own mortality. According to Jean de Waurin: ‘When the king and his lords were told that King Henry was nearby in the fields they rejoiced, for they wished for nothing more but to fight him. The king called for his captains and told them to put their men in formation and to take their positions before the enemy came to close. And so it was he organised his battles, and he sent some men to look around the area because they were only four miles from the enemy.’ King Edward was in no hurry to attack the Lancastrian army because he was aware that they were deployed in a strong position on the ridge north of his lines and that they far outnumbered his own troops. It is likely that the van of the Yorkist army numbered between 10,000 and 12,000 archers, led by Lord Fauconberg, an experienced military commander. At around eleven in the morning, he noticed that the strong wind had changed direction and was blowing against the Lancastrian troops. He therefore ordered his archers to advance and fire volleys of arrows at long range, which were carried by the wind and snow blowing into the faces of their enemies. According to Edward Hall: ‘The Lord Fauconberg, which led the forward of King Edward’s battle being a man of great policy and much experience in martial feats caused every archer under his standard to shoot one flight and then made them stand still. The northern men, feeling the shoot, but by reason of the snow, not perfectly viewing the distance between them and their enemies like hardy men shot their sheaf arrows as fast as they might, but all their shot was lost and their labour in vain for they came not near the southern men by forty tailors yards.’ It has been estimated that, because an archer could fire ten shots a minute, within ten minutes hundreds of thousands of arrows descended on the Lancastrian ranks, causing considerable casualties. The return fire

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76  Battles of the Wars of the Roses on the other hand fell short because of the wind direction and therefore did little damage to the Yorkist army. ‘When their shot was almost spent the Lord Fauconberg marched forward with his archers, who not only shot their own sheaves, but also gathered the arrows of their enemies and let a great part of them fly against their own masters, and another part they let stand on the ground which sore annoyed the legs of the owners when battle was joined.’ The Lancastrian men-at-arms had some degree of protection with their body armour, but the common soldiers and archers suffered terrible wounds from the arrow storm. With no other option, the Lancastrians were forced to attack and surged forward before noon, shouting ‘King Henry!’ According to Jean de Waurin: ‘At that moment the king saw the army of the Earl of Northumberland coming for battle carrying the banner of King Henry. The king rode his horse along his army where all the nobles were and told them how they had wanted to make him their king, and he reminded them that they were seeing the next heir to the throne which had been usurped by the Lancasters a long time ago. He suffered his troops and knights to help him now to recover his inheritance and they all assured him of their desire to help and said that if any desired not to fight they should go their own way.’ The Yorkist archers were still firing their volleys of arrows as the Lancastrian men-at-arms advanced past their dead and wounded comrades lying in the snow and the obstacles made by the carpet of arrows on the ground. The archers withdrew as the Yorkist infantry moved forward to meet the enemy with their bills, poleaxes and swords. King Henry’s army still enjoyed the advantage of numbers in spite of the casualties, but King Edward IV dismounted, a young and inspirational figure, to fight with his retainers in the midst of his troops. A Welsh retainer, Sir Dafydd ap Mathew, saved the life of King Edward at one point for which he was granted the honour of standard bearer and ‘Towton’ on his family arms. The battle was savage and relentless, with no quarter asked or given, and falling men finished off with pikes, swords or daggers. The walls of dead men had to be cleared periodically to clear the way for a further fight and the companies of troops required rotation to prevent exhaustion and dehydration.

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Battle of Towton, 29 March 1461  77 King Edward harangued his troops: ‘hearing this support he thanked them, jumped from his horse and told them, sword in hand, that on this day he would live or die with them in order to give them courage. Then he came in front of his banners and waited for the enemy which was marching forward with great noise.’ During the afternoon, the Duke of Somerset launched his ambush from Castle Hill Wood on the Lancastrian right wing. According to Jean de Waurin: ‘When Lord Rivers, his son and six or seven thousand Welshmen led by Andrew Trollope, following the Duke of Somerset himself with seven thousand men, charged his cavalry who fled and were chased for about eleven miles. It seemed that Lord Rivers’ troops had won a great battle, because they thought that the Earl of Northumberland had charged on the other side, unfortunately he had not done so and this became his tragic hour for Northumberland died that day. During this debacle many of King Edward’s soldiers died and when he learned the truth of what had happened to his cavalry he was very sad as well as very annoyed.’ However, although King Edward had lost his cavalry, he managed to reinforce his left wing and his line held and did not disintegrate. The Earl of Northumberland was killed at that time, which was why his wing on the left of the Lancastrian line did not manage to attack the Yorkist right wing. Lord Dacre was also killed in North Acres that afternoon. Being overcome with thirst, he had removed the gorget from his helmet only to be struck by a bolt from a crossbow. It was said that his youthful opponent had hidden in a bur tree in pursuit of a blood feud because his father had been killed by Lord Dacre. King Edward in the meantime, with his standard bearer Ralph Vestynden holding his banner of the Black Bull of Clarence, was constantly rallying his troops and performing great feats of valour. In spite of this, the Yorkist army was being pushed back on the ridge by superior weight of numbers and appeared to be on the verge of defeat. However, help was soon at hand with the late arrival of the Duke of Norfolk’s troops, a force of several thousand, in the late afternoon, who appeared on the Yorkist right wing and attacked the Lancastrians. There was a stalemate at first on the battlefield with neither side gaining the advantage, but Norfolk’s fresh troops soon pushed back the left wing of

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78  Battles of the Wars of the Roses their opponents’ line although Norfolk himself was gravely ill and may not have been present. The Yorkist army had now lost Robert Horne and the Lancastrian dead included Lord Dacre, the Earl of Northumberland, Lord Welles, Sir Richard Percy and Sir Andrew Trollope. The Lancastrian line began to give way, first at a trickle, then groups of men retreating leading to a mass panic. According to Polydore Vergil, who wrote in the Tudor period: ‘Thus did the fight continue more than ten hours in equal balance, when at last King Henry (the Duke of Somerset) espied the forces of his foes increase, and his own somewhat yield, whom when by new exhortation he had compelled to press on more earnestly, he with a few horsemen removing a little out of that place, expected the event of the fight, but behold, suddenly his soldiers gave the back, which when he saw this he fled also.’ The Lancastrian retreat had turned into a rout as men discarded their helmets and weapons and fled down the slippery slope of the Bloody Meadow and across the freezing stream, the Cock Beck, which soon turned red with blood. The Yorkists chased their foes down to the Cock Beck, killing many while others were pushed into the stream, crushed with the weight of men in heavy armour behind, and drowned. It was said that the bodies in the stream formed a bridge that enabled others behind to cross. Other Lancastrian soldiers fled north to Tadcaster, pursued by the Yorkist cavalrymen, and many were killed attempting to cross the River Wharfe. As Hall wrote: ‘The common people there affirm that men alive passed the river upon the dead carcasses, and that the great river of Wharfe, which is the great sewer of the brook, and all the water coming from Towton, was coloured with blood.’ King Edward IV, it was said, gave orders in the battles which he had won to spare the common soldiers and kill the lords. However, according to the Croyland Chronicle: ‘For their ranks being now broken and scattered in flight, the king’s army eagerly pursued them, and cutting down the fugitives with their swords, just like so many sheep for the slaughter, made immense havoc among them for a distance of ten miles as far as the City of York.’ King Edward had wanted a decisive victory to prevent any further uprisings, although the Dukes of Somerset and Exeter and Lord Roos managed to escape from the battlefield. James Butler, Earl of Wiltshire,

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Battle of Towton, 29 March 1461  79 who had escaped from several battles in the past, being more concerned with his good looks, was captured at Cockermouth, his luck having run out, and was executed at Newcastle. Thomas Courtenay, Earl of Devon was also captured in York and executed, as were forty-two Lancastrian knights who had been taken into custody. As George Neville wrote to Papal Legate Coppini: ‘That day there was a very great conflict, which began with the rising of the sun, and lasted until the tenth hour of the night, so great was the pertinacity and boldness of the men, who never heeded the possibility of a miserable death. Of the enemy who fled, great numbers were drowned in the river near the town of Tadcaster, eight miles from York, because they themselves had broken the bridge to cut our passage that way, so that none could pass, and a great part of the rest who got away who gathered in the said town and city, were slain and so many dead bodies were seen as to cover an area six miles long by three broad and about four furlongs.’ ‘In this battle eleven lords of the enemy fell including the Earl of Devon, the Earl of Northumberland, Lord Clifford and Neville with some cavaliers, and from what we hear from persons worthy of confidence, some 28,000 perished on one side and the other.’ He added: ‘O miserable and luckless race and powerful people, would you have no spark of pity for our own blood, of which we had lost so much of fine quality by the civil war, even if you had no compassion for the French.’ The Croyland Chronicle stated: ‘Those who helped to inter the bodies, piled up in pits and in trenches prepared for the purpose, bear witness that eight and thirty thousand warriors fell on that day, besides those who were drowned in the river before alluded to whose numbers we have no means of ascertaining, the blood, too, of the slain, mingling with snow which at this time covered the whole surface of the earth, afterwards ran down in the furrows and ditches along with melted snow, in a most shocking manner, for a distance of two or three miles.’ The Medieval Chronicles, however, often exaggerated the numbers of battle casualties, although the accepted number of dead at Towton was 28,000 as counted by the heralds, of whom 20,000 were Lancastrian and 8,000 Yorkist. Modern research points to a much lower figure, but there is no doubt that Towton was the bloodiest battle in the Wars of the Roses and on English soil.

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80  Battles of the Wars of the Roses In 1996, workmen at Towton Hall discovered the mass grave of fiftyone skeletons that were identified by archaeologists as Lancastrian casualties aged between sixteen and fifty from the Battle of Towton. Most had exhibited horrific injuries to the skull and limbs, suggesting that they were killed in the rout that followed the battle and not executed. King Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou had sat out the battle in York with their son Edward, Prince of Wales, when they received news of the terrible defeat of the Lancastrian army at Towton. They decided on flight and, swiftly packing their possessions, they fled north with their surviving commanders, the Dukes of Somerset and Exeter, Lord Roos and Dr John Morton. Queen Margaret vowed to seek revenge on the House of York for the overwhelming defeat of the Lancastrian army, but Jean de Waurin wrote: ‘King Henry and his wife were overthrown and lost the crown which Henry  IV had violently usurped and taken from King Richard II. Men say that ill gotten goods cannot last.’ King Edward IV had won a great victory, but it was incomplete as long as King Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou were at large and able to gather support. He gave his thanks to God and, the day after the battle, rode into the city of York with his army in procession. His first order was the removal of the heads of his father, brother and uncle from Micklegate Bar, the southern gate, for burial with their bodies at Pontefract. Their heads were replaced by those of the Earl of Devon and other Lancastrians. King Edward had now been well avenged for the deaths of his kinsmen at the Battle of Wakefield. He showed mercy to a number of magnates, however, including Sir Ralph Percy, brother of the Earl of Northumberland, others were allowed to escape and were later pardoned. Lord Rivers and his son, Anthony Woodville, acknowledged King Edward as their rightful king and were also pardoned and later admitted to the Royal Council. Warwick’s brother, Sir John Neville, and Lord Berners were released from prison in York and Neville was later created Lord Montagu in thanks for his support. The news of the Yorkist victory reached London on 3 April and the Londoners rejoiced, with Edward’s mother, Cecily Neville, who was at Baynard’s Castle with her household. The Chancellor, George Neville, also announced the news at St Paul’s Cross to the acclaim of the citizens. On 5 April 1461, King Edward celebrated Easter in York and arranged the recruiting of fresh troops with his commanders. He then rode north

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Battle of Towton, 29 March 1461  81 to Durham and on to Newcastle in pursuit of King Henry VI, Margaret of Anjou and the surviving Lancastrian leaders, who were fleeing to Scotland. The fugitives reached Alnwick, where Margaret of Anjou sent an urgent message to the Regent of Scotland requesting safe conduct. They arrived at Berwick-upon-Tweed on the border and awaited news from the Scottish court whether they would be granted safe conduct in Scotland. The Scottish queen, Mary of Guelders, decided to give refuge to the Lancastrians, but not to offer them military support after pressure from the Earl of Warwick. King Edward had therefore not managed to catch his quarry and, had he done so, he would have been spared many problems in the years to come. In the meantime, the north remained strongly Lancastrian, which was also to cause the Yorkist government problems for several years. Margaret of Anjou persuaded the Scottish government to agree to the marriage of her son Edward Prince of Wales to Margaret Stewart, sister of King James III, in return for the surrender of Berwick, which had already been promised. When King Edward IV heard the news, he was greatly angered but the Scots refused to break the agreement and, on 25 April, Berwick-upon-Tweed was handed to the Scottish government. On 2 May 1461, King Edward left Newcastle and returned to London, where he received a hero’s welcome as having saved the Londoners from being ravaged by the northerners. He issued commissions of array to guard against a Lancastrian invasion from Scotland and Lord Fauconberg was left in the north with his forces as a safeguard from attacks. In June, Margaret of Anjou led an army of some retainers and exiles from Scotland into England accompanied by Prince Edward in order to capture Carlisle, which she had also promised to the Scots. However, her army was defeated and driven away by a force led by Lord Montagu, who had been tasked with guarding the border. A Lancastrian army led by King Henry  VI also headed for Durham, but retreated back to the border on hearing that troops led by the Earl of Warwick were marching against them. Warwick was then appointed warden of the West and East Marches in the north to ensure that they remained under the king’s control. King Edward was also determined to gain control in Wales and he therefore dispatched troops there for that purpose. He needed to destroy the ability of the Lancastrians to gain support but, at the same time, he had to increase his own powerbase with new alliances. An Act

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82  Battles of the Wars of the Roses of Attainder was issued against all the northern lords who were killed at the Battles of Towton and Ferrybridge, the Earl of Northumberland and Lords Clifford, Neville and Dacre. Also attainted were the knights Sir Humphrey Dacre, Sir Thomas Findern, Sir John Heron, Sir Henry Bellingham, Sir Robert Whittingham, Sir Ralph Randolf, Robert Bellingham of Westmorland, John Smothing, Robert Bolling, Robert Hatecale, Richard Everingham, Richard Cokerell, Roger Wharton and Ralph Chernock. According to William Gregory’s Chronicle of London: ‘And the king tarried in the north a great while and made great inquiries of the rebellions against his father, and took down his father’s head from the walls of York, and made all the country to be sworn unto him and his laws. And then he returned to London again and there he made eighteen knights and many lords, and then he rode to Westminster and there he was crowned the 28 day of June in the year of our lord 1461, blessed be God of his great grace.’ On 26 June 1461, King Edward IV was taken to the Tower of London by the Lord Mayor and aldermen, where by custom a monarch stayed before his coronation. He then created several Knights of the Bath, including his brothers George and Richard and another five the following day, who went in a ceremonial procession to the Palace of Westminster. On Sunday 28 June 1461, King Edward issued a proclamation promising a good and just government and condemned the oppression and lawlessness that had previously taken place among his subjects. He created his brother George Duke of Clarence before he was crowned at Westminster Abbey, in a ceremony of splendour to great public acclaim. As one London merchant wrote: ‘I am unable to declare how well the commons love and adore him, as if he were their God. The entire kingdom keeps holiday for the event, which seems a boon from above. Thus far he appears to be a just prince, and to mean to mend and organise matters otherwise than has been done hitherto.’ On 29 June, the king went to Westminster again to give his thanks and the following day to St Paul’s Cathedral for celebrations. He was received by the Londoners with great happiness, being regarded as a great improvement on the previous monarch.

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Chapter 15

The New King

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ing Edward IV was very much a king in his looks and manner, being six feet three inches tall and of handsome appearance. He was lean, energetic and active in his younger years and enjoyed wearing fine clothes to improve his image in public. He was described by those who met him as intelligent, courageous, generous, magnanimous and resourceful, but ruthless when required. He was cheerful by nature, tolerant, easy-going and pleasure loving, the complete opposite of King Henry VI. King Edward’s main vice, however, was his sensuality, as Italian contemporary Dominic Mancini wrote: ‘Licentious in the extreme. Moreover, it was said that he had been most insolent to numerous women after he had seduced them, for as soon as he had satisfied his lust he abandoned the ladies, much against their will, to the other courtiers. He pursued with no discrimination the married and unmarried, the noble and lowly. However, he took none by force. He overcame all by money and promises, and having conquered them, he dismissed them. He had many promoters and companions of his vices.’ Two of King Edward’s mistresses were Elizabeth Lucy, who bore him a son, Arthur Plantagenet, and Elizabeth Shore, known as Jane. Although Edward was a good general and already the victor in several battles at the age of eighteen, he disliked war for its own sake and only conscripted troops when required for military campaigns. He had no interest in foreign wars and did not pursue the war with France at that time, unlike previous monarchs. However, he loved wearing the crown, was ostentatious and enjoyed the ceremonial displays of monarchy. Edward was a good statesman, a firm ruler, good in business affairs and was able to restore the authority of the monarchy, unlike his predecessor. He was an energetic administrator and involved himself in all parts of government, especially law enforcement. He improved his palaces, such

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84  Battles of the Wars of the Roses as Eltham, Greenwich, Westminster and Windsor, and lavished his apartments with tapestries and decorations of splendour. He loved hunting at Windsor palace, picnics in the park, music and sailing on the Thames with his courtiers. King Edward’s greatest challenge after Towton was political reconstruction with a strong and stable government. He protected the merchants and English industry by banning foreign goods, but also looked for good relations with France and Burgundy. He restored law and order by replacing corrupt officials and toured the country to ensure that laws were enforced, also taking measures to prevent rigging of elections. Piracy in the seas was greatly reduced during King Edward’s reign, which pleased the merchant classes, and gradually law and order was improved throughout the land. The royal finances were also greatly reformed and Acts of Resumption were passed by Parliament to revoke grants and pensions, with some exceptions, which had been issued by King Henry VI. The royal household was greatly reduced and replaced by Yorkist courtiers and this lowered the royal expenditure by a substantial amount. King Edward also took possession of the Duchy of Lancaster, its associated estates and income, which greatly improved his finances. He also had the income from his Yorkist inheritance and confiscated Lancastrian properties. Parliament gave Edward the revenues from customs duties in ports and he also demanded loans called benevolences from his wealthy subjects and sometimes gifts. He rewarded his loyal supporters with grants and repaid the loans from merchants and banks, but, even Stained glass image of King Edward IV so, the monarchy became solvent for at St Laurence Church, Ludlow.

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The New King  85 the first time in many years, which was something the administration of King Henry VI had been unable to do. The king was supported in the first few years of his reign by the Earl of Warwick, his elder cousin, a popular figure who was perceived at home and abroad as being in control of the government. Warwick was more experienced in political affairs and loyal to Edward, who could not fully trust all the magnates, although they were outwardly subservient to him. Edward therefore relied on Warwick as his chief adviser, who was also responsible for defence, foreign affairs and military matters. One citizen of Calais wrote to the King of France: ‘They tell me they have but two rulers in England, Monsieur de Warwick, and another whose name I have forgotten.’ According to Philippe de Commines: ‘The Earl could almost be called the King’s father as a result of the service and education he has given him.’ Warwick was called at the time ‘the most courageous and manliest knight living.’ He was the wealthiest magnate in the land and was based at Sheriff Hutton and Middleham castles in Yorkshire, although he also had a household in London, where he dispensed lavish hospitality. He was interested in self-promotion, increasing the power of the Neville faction and international politics. He therefore alienated many of the magnates, such as Sir William Herbert and Lord Audley, who were envious of him but could not oppose him because of his close connection to the king. However, King Edward was determined to ensure that there would be only one ruler in England, which was to lead to problems in future years. King Edward reformed the Royal Council to some degree, so that it would not be dominated by the magnates for their self-interest but came to be based on meritocracy. He came to rely on about twelve trusted men who were all Yorkist loyalists, both clergy and secular, lawyers and highly qualified ambitious individuals who held posts throughout the land. Sir William Hastings, for example, was a close friend of Edward who controlled the Leicester area, which had previously supported the Lancastrians. Sir William Herbert became ruler of South Wales, the Nevilles dominated the north and the Dukes of Norfolk and Suffolk East Anglia. John Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester, who was married to Warwick’s sister and a very educated man, became a strong supporter of the king and was appointed Constable of England. He later became instrumental in crushing Lancastrian resistance to King Edward’s rule and became

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86  Battles of the Wars of the Roses known and hated by the people for his sadistic tendencies, with his reputation of inventing new methods of execution. Edward also attempted to win over the magnates who had previously supported King Henry  VI by promises of advancement, but he was only successful to a limited degree. He invited the magnates to Council meetings to discuss important decisions and relied on them to uphold the law in their local areas in return for his support. King Edward also created new peerages and enjoyed the support of the Londoners and the merchant class, who were solidly Yorkist in sympathy. Edward’s first Parliament at Westminster began on 1 November 1461 when, on addressing the Speaker, he proclaimed his ‘right and title unto the Crown, and thanked Almighty God that his house was restored to it, promising to be “as good and gracious a sovereign lord as ever was any of my noble progenitors”.’ He created his younger brother Richard Duke of Gloucester, who was then sent to Middleham Castle for his education, and his uncle Lord Fauconberg was created Earl of Kent. King Edward in this Parliament annulled the sentence on his grandfather, Richard Earl of Cambridge, who had been executed in 1415 for treason against King Henry V, as ‘irregular and unlawful’. The Lord Chancellor then announced that the practice of livery and maintenance would be banned by law. This was where the magnates had contracts with retainers to fight for them and wear their livery in return for a wage or pension. Early in 1462, John de Vere, twelfth Earl of Oxford, a staunch Lancastrian, planned an invasion with Margaret of Anjou in Scotland, the Duke of Somerset and Jasper Tudor to overthrow King Edward IV. However, Oxford was betrayed by his own courier, tried by John Tiptoft and convicted of treason. He suffered a terrible death but his son, John de Vere, was allowed to inherit his father’s title, became the thirteenth Earl of Oxford and was married to Margaret Neville, Warwick’s sister. In spite of this, he remained loyal to the Lancastrian cause for the rest of his life.

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Chapter 16

War in the North

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lthough King Edward IV had won an overwhelming victory at the Battle of Towton, the Lancastrian survivors had not given up on their cause and revolts still occurred throughout the land. Northumberland in particular remained a Lancastrian stronghold where the castles of Alnwick, Bamburgh, Dunstanburgh and Warkworth were held by retainers of the Percy family. In June 1461, a force led by Lord Roos crossed the border from Scotland with King Henry VI and arrived at the Earl of Westmorland’s castle at Brancepeth, near Durham. However, they did not find much support and quickly returned to Scotland on hearing that the Earl of Warwick was marching against them. Margaret of Anjou realised soon after the surrender of Berwick-uponTweed to the Scots that she could not expect any financial aid from them. She therefore dispatched the Duke of Somerset and two other envoys, Lord Hungerford and Sir Robert Whittingham, to King Charles VII of France to request men, ships and money for the Lancastrian cause. King Charles agreed that Pierre de Breze be sent with ships to conquer the Channel Islands with a Lancastrian force and Jersey was then occupied, although it was later retaken by the Yorkists. King Charles VII died on 22 July 1461 and was succeeded by his son, Louis XI, who became known as the ‘Universal Spider’ and was prepared to offer assistance to Queen Margaret to suit his political ambitions. King Edward also felt the need to march to Wales at that time, where a Lancastrian revolt led by Jasper Tudor was centred at Harlech, Pembroke and Denbigh. Edward was accompanied by Sir William Herbert, Sir Henry Bourchier, Earl of Essex and Sir Walter Devereux, Lord Ferrers. They arrived at Hereford in September but Edward decided to leave the campaigning to his trusted captains while he remained at Ludlow. The Yorkist force captured Pembroke on 30 September 1461 and on 16 October fought the Lancastrians, led by Jasper Tudor and Sir Henry

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88  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Holland, Duke of Exeter, at Twt Hill near Caernarfon. The Lancastrian force was routed, lost heart and surrendered Denbigh Castle in January 1462, leaving only Harlech Castle in their possession. In the meantime, in August and September 1461, the Earl of Warwick and Lord Montagu eliminated Lancastrian resistance in Northumberland. In September 1461, the Earl of Warwick captured Alnwick and Bamburgh castles from Percy retainers and manned Alnwick with a force of 100 men loyal to the Yorkist cause. In October, Sir Ralph Percy surrendered the coastal fortress of Dunstanburgh to Warwick and it seemed that the war for control of the north was over. However, King Edward made a mistake by allowing Sir Ralph Percy to stay in control of the castle and Sir William Tailboys led a Lancastrian force from Scotland that recaptured Alnwick. This force then marched to Dunstanburgh, was welcomed and gained entry into the fortress. Lord Humphrey Dacre also marched from Scotland and captured Naworth Castle, east of Carlisle, for the Lancastrians. King Edward then decided that the only way to gain peace in Northumberland was to conclude a peace treaty with Scotland. The Earl of Warwick therefore arranged for a meeting with the Scottish queen, Mary of Guelders, where he was received sympathetically.

Alnwick Castle, Northumberland.

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War in the North  89 However, at that time, the Scottish king, James III, was still a minor and there was opposition within the Regency Council. Margaret of Anjou then travelled to France to try to win support for the Lancastrians and Warwick took the opportunity to sign an Anglo-Scottish non-aggression pact, which was to last from June to August 1462. King Edward then ordered reinforcements to be sent north and, in July, Lord Dacre surrendered Naworth Castle to Lord Montagu. Sir William Tailboys then surrendered Alnwick Castle, which had been besieged by Lord Hastings, Sir John Howard and Sir Ralph Grey with their men. Margaret of Anjou had managed to obtain the support of King Louis  XI with 2,000 troops and money in return for the surrender of Calais. Margaret agreed to this, although she was aware that it would alienate the English public, and she then prepared for an invasion. In October 1462, Margaret landed with Pierre de Breze at Bamburgh Castle, which had already been captured for the Lancastrians by Sir Richard Tunstall. With her French troops, Queen Margaret then took Dunstanburgh Castle, which was still held by Sir Ralph Percy, who had transferred his allegiance back to Lancaster, and Alnwick Castle, which was short of provisions, capitulated soon after. When King Edward IV received the news, he quickly raised taxes and borrowed money from the London merchants to raise a new army. He then marched north with his troops while the Earl of Warwick was also ordered to Northumberland. Bamburgh Castle was at that time under the

Bamburgh Castle, Northumberland.

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90  Battles of the Wars of the Roses control of the Duke of Somerset, the Earl of Pembroke, Sir Ralph Percy and Lord Roos. Margaret of Anjou realised that she could not face a large Yorkist army and, on 13 November 1462, fled from Bamburgh with King Henry VI, Pierre de Breze and her 400 troops in a small ship. However, they encountered a storm and, although Margaret and Henry managed to escape to Berwick, their troops were stranded on Holy Island and surrendered to the Yorkists. The Earl of Warwick had in the meantime captured Warkworth Castle and laid siege to Bamburgh, which was still held by Somerset, who demanded that Sir Ralph Percy be restored to its custody, the lords there be restored to their estates and their lives spared. Warwick agreed to those terms and, on Christmas Eve, Bamburgh Castle was handed over, Somerset gave his allegiance to King Edward IV and went to help Warwick take over Alnwick and Dunstanburgh castles, which surrendered to the Yorkists in January 1463. However, three months later, Queen Margaret, de Breze and her Scottish and French mercenaries marched across the border into Northumberland and took Bamburgh Castle from Sir Ralph Percy. Dunstanburgh Castle also surrendered to the Lancastrian forces and, on 1 May 1463, Sir Ralph Grey gave up Alnwick Castle. Once again, the three great northern fortresses had been recaptured by the Lancastrians, who now had control of much of the north. King Edward IV was horrified at the news and became aware that the only way to achieve peace in the region was to have a permanent representative of the Yorkist government there. He therefore appointed Lord Montagu Warden of the East March on 26 May 1463 and sent him north with the Earl of Warwick and Thomas Lord Stanley. At the same time, Edward reversed the attainder on the Duke of Somerset, hoping to bring him back to his allegiance. In July 1463, a large Yorkist army arrived in Northumberland led by the Yorkist lords. Warwick found the situation so alarming that he felt the need to send a message back to Edward asking for reinforcements on his discovery that a Scottish force had crossed the border led by Mary of Guelders, King James  III, King Henry  VI and Margaret of Anjou. The Lancastrian force was besieging Norham Castle, which was situated on the border with Scotland, but the arrival of the Yorkist army caught them by surprise and they broke and fled back to Scotland. The Yorkist troops followed and pillaged the Scottish countryside before returning to

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War in the North  91 England, while Margaret of Anjou, her son Prince Edward and Pierre de Breze fled to Berwick. King Henry VI, in the meantime, escaped to Scotland, then Bamburgh Castle, which was still held by Lancastrian sympathisers. However, Norham was to be a decisive victory for the Yorkists and Margaret of Anjou took a ship from Berwick to France with her son, leaving her husband behind, whom they never saw again. The Scots were now keen to make peace with England and King Edward  IV arrived in York to meet a Scottish envoy on 9 December 1463. A truce was agreed until October 1464 and, although the castles of Alnwick, Bamburgh and Dunstanburgh were still held by Lancastrians, their cause in the north was practically over.

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Chapter 17

Battle of Hedgeley Moor, 25 April 1464

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t the beginning of 1464, there was unrest in several counties in the land including Kent, Cornwall, Cambridgeshire, Gloucestershire and Leicestershire, inspired by Lancastrian sentiments. King Edward IV was therefore forced to stay in the south with the Earl of Warwick and toured the counties in revolt with his justices of the peace to restore order. The Duke of Somerset was at that time in North Wales corresponding secretly with King Henry VI at Bamburgh Castle. Somerset then decided to openly declare his support for the Lancastrians, having defected from the allegiance of King Edward IV, and travelled north to Newcastle to join his retainers. He had intended to capture the Yorkist garrison at Newcastle, disrupt the Yorkist supply line and aid the Lancastrian cause in Northumberland. However, the Yorkist troops in the garrison heard of the plan and incarcerated Somerset’s men. On hearing the news, King Edward IV appointed Lord Scrope of Bolton commander and sent him reinforcements of loyal Yorkist troops. Somerset then headed for Bamburgh Castle to join up with King Henry VI and the loyal Lancastrians, was almost captured by Yorkist sympathisers while he was sleeping at Durham, but managed to escape and reach Bamburgh. In March 1464, King Edward IV received news of Somerset’s arrival at Bamburgh Castle, where he was joined by Sir Humphrey Neville of Brancepeth and Sir Henry Bellingham, who had been pardoned by Edward the previous year but had reverted their allegiance to the Lancastrians. Sir Ralph Percy, Lord Hungerford, Lord Roos and Sir Ralph Grey also joined this force and together they went on a military campaign, capturing Norham Castle, Prudhoe, Bywell, Langley and Hexham. The Clifford family also managed to capture their ancestral home in Skipton at that time. King Edward  IV was forced to act, but his most urgent need was to safeguard the Anglo-Scottish talks that were due to take place in Newcastle on 6 March 1464 and were threatened by Lancastrian activity.

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Battle of Hedgeley Moor, 25 April 1464  93 The talks were therefore postponed to April and were scheduled to be held in York. Edward then announced that he would personally travel north to bring the Lancastrian revolts to an end. In April, Lord Montagu was sent by Edward to Northumberland to meet the Scottish envoys near Norham on the border and escort them to York through the areas that were held by the Lancastrians. A force of eighty men and archers led by Sir Humphrey Neville was then dispatched from the Lancastrian army to ambush Lord Montagu and his force on their way to Newcastle. However, Montagu’s scouts discovered this force and the Yorkists managed to reach Newcastle by an alternative route. Montagu, in the meantime, had been recruiting more troops on the way and his army increased to almost 6,000 men by the time he left Newcastle and headed north. On his way to the border, Montagu came across the main Lancastrian force of around 5,000 men, which was led by the Duke of Somerset, Sir Ralph Percy, Lord Roos, Lord Hungerford and Sir Ralph Grey. On 25 April 1464, the two armies faced each other at Hedgeley Moor, nine miles northwest of Alnwick. The Lancastrians had already been aware of the presence of the Yorkist troops and had formed up in battle order with Sir Ralph Percy on the right wing or vanguard, the Duke of Somerset, Sir Henry Bellingham and Sir Ralph Grey at the centre, and Lord Hungerford and Lord Roos on the left or rearguard. Lord Montagu arranged his force directly opposite the Lancastrians, separated by moorland, and the battle commenced with archer fire before the Yorkist troops advanced in a mass attack. The left flank of the Lancastrian force led by Lord Hungerford and Lord Roos Percy’s Cross at Hedgeley Moor.

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94  Battles of the Wars of the Roses suddenly disintegrated and around 2,000 men broke and fled from the battlefield. Lord Montagu then rearranged his army and attacked the remainder of the Lancastrian troops on the field, who were at this point vastly outnumbered. Sir Ralph Percy was then deserted by the rest of the Lancastrian leaders, including the Duke of Somerset, with their men and was left just with his household retainers to fight against overwhelming odds. Percy was soon killed, with his men, crying as he fell ‘I have saved the bird in my bosom’, which probably meant that he had remained loyal to the Lancastrian cause. It was also said that, after he had received his death blow, he leapt twelve yards to escape to freedom and a place known as ‘Percy’s Leap’ is marked by two boulders to this day. The battlefield is now commemorated by a stone monument known as Percy’s Cross, erected in the fifteenth century with the Percy heraldic badges. The Percy family had now paid a heavy price for their support of the House of Lancaster with the death of Sir Ralph Percy, as he had already lost a brother killed at the Battle of Northampton and two at Towton, as well as his father at the First Battle of St Albans. After the battle, Lord Montagu rallied his men and marched north to meet up with the Scottish envoys at Norham. He then escorted them to York for the peace talks and a truce was later agreed, which was to last for fifteen years.

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Chapter 18

The King Weds in Secret

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lizabeth Woodville was the eldest daughter of Richard Baron Rivers and Jacquetta of Luxembourg, twenty-seven years of age and a widow with two young children. Her husband had been a Lancastrian knight, Sir John Grey of Groby, who was killed in 1461 fighting for the Lancastrians at the Second Battle of St Albans. After the death of her husband, Elizabeth had been dispossessed of her family property and was living in poverty with her family. She was beautiful, with a good figure, blond hair, an alluring smile and had worked as one of Queen Margaret of Anjou’s ladies in waiting. The Rivers family home was in Grafton Regis, Northamptonshire and both Lord Rivers and his father were loyal servants of the Lancastrian kings. Lord Rivers had been an ally of the Duke of Suffolk and the Beauforts, and also had connections with the Bourchier and Ferrers families. Elizabeth’s brother, Anthony Woodville, was a learned man and translated from the French, The Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers, which, together with Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales, were the first books printed in England by William Caxton. According to the legend, King Edward  IV was out hunting in Whittlebury forest in Northamptonshire and came across Elizabeth, who was waiting by an oak tree with her two young sons. She pleaded with him to restore her lands, which had been taken away from her after her husband died, and Edward could not resist her charm and striking good looks. However, Elizabeth refused to become one of Edward’s mistresses and there was a story that, when Edward tried to rape her, she pulled a dagger and threatened to kill herself, saying that she knew she was unworthy to be queen but valued her honour more than her life. As the Chronicler Gregory wrote in the fifteenth century, ‘Now take heed of what love may do’ and King Edward offered marriage to Elizabeth even though no king in England had ever married a commoner since before the Norman Conquest.

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96  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Edward knew that such a marriage would not be approved by the nobility nor his own family and, in fact, at that time the Earl of Warwick was negotiating a marriage for Edward with Bona of Savoy in order to conclude a peace treaty with King Louis XI of France. In April 1464, King Edward was riding north to deal with the Lancastrian rebels when he stopped at Northampton and Stony Stratford, where he ordered the sheriffs of sixteen counties to array the men of military age to join his military campaign when required.

Elizabeth Woodville, 1437–92.

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The King Weds in Secret  97 On 1 May 1464, Edward rose before dawn, pretended he was going out hunting and secretly rode to Grafton Regis, where early in the morning he married Elizabeth Woodville in a small chapel in the nearby woods. The only witnesses were the priest, John Eborall, Elizabeth’s mother Jacquetta, two gentlewomen and a young man who helped the priest to sing. After the ceremony, Edward went to bed with his bride to consummate the marriage and then returned to Stony Stratford. King Edward came back that night, stayed for another four days and was given hospitality by Lord Rivers and Jacquetta, with his new wife smuggled into his bedchamber. He then had to leave his secret wife and in-laws in order to ride to Leicester to join up with his troops.

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Chapter 19

Battle of Hexham, 15 May 1464

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ing Edward  IV had ordered the preparation of the massive siege guns ‘Dijon’, ‘London’, ‘Newcastle’, ‘Richard Bombartal’ and ‘Edward’ to be taken north for his military campaign. The Lancastrians, in the meantime, had regrouped at Alnwick after their defeat at Hedgeley Moor, where they received news of King Edward’s army at Leicester and prepared their forces for battle. With King Henry VI at its head, the Lancastrian army marched south towards the River Tyne, hoping to gain support en route. The Earl of Warwick was at that time heading north from London with his troops and was later followed by King Edward, while Lord Montagu, who had delivered the Scottish envoys to York, returned to Newcastle with his men. On hearing of the presence of the Lancastrian army nearby, Lord Montagu, a courageous soldier, immediately rallied his troops and marched north without waiting for the reinforcements led by the Earl of Warwick and King Edward. Montagu’s force of around 4,000 men included Lord Greystoke and Lord Willoughby, who were former Lancastrians but had remained loyal to the Yorkist cause. The Lancastrian army reached south of the town of Hexham on 14 May and set up camp by a river called ‘Devil’s Water’ in a meadow called the ‘Linnels’. King Henry VI then retired to Bywell Castle, where he sat out the battle. On the morning of 15 May 1464, the Yorkist army marched past Bywell without being aware of the presence of King Henry and the Lancastrians were warned only just in time by their scouts of the Yorkist force. The Duke of Somerset rallied his men and arrayed them in order of battle at the base of a hill opposite Montagu’s men with ‘Devil’s Water’ at their rear. Somerset commanded the centre, Lord Roos and Lord Hungerford the right wing, with Sir Ralph Grey and Sir Humphrey Neville on the left. Lord Montagu commanded the centre of the Yorkist army, with Lord Willoughby on the right and Lord Greystoke at the left flank. Montagu

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Battle of Hexham, 15 May 1464  99 chose to lead the attack to prevent any possible treachery in his ranks, as his commanders were former Lancastrians, and led his men on a charge downhill directly against Somerset’s centre, which slightly gave way in the melee. However, the Lancastrian troops were in a precarious position in front of the river and many were pushed into the water by the retreating men to be drowned or crushed with the weight of their armour. The remainder of the Yorkist army also charged and a fierce handto-hand battle followed against the Lancastrian troops. Somerset then attempted to rally his men and was successful on his left wing. However, his centre was defeated and his right wing, led by Lord Roos and Lord Hungerford, repeated their actions at Hedgeley Moor and fled across the ford in the river with most of their men. The whole Lancastrian line then broke, including the left wing led by Sir Ralph Grey and Sir Humphrey Neville, and ran for their lives. The Yorkist troops pursued their foes as far as Hexham and the remaining Lancastrians were quickly overpowered, with the Duke of Somerset taken prisoner. The following day, Henry Beaufort, third Duke of Somerset was executed at Hexham with other prisoners on the orders of Lord Montagu and buried at Hexham Abbey. Somerset had led the Lancastrian army at the Battle of Wakefield and been pardoned by King Edward IV, only to revert to the Lancastrian cause. Two days later, Lord Roos and Lord Hungerford, who had been captured in a wood near Hexham, were executed at Newcastle with three others. On 18 May, Lord Montagu went south to Middleham Castle, where he ordered the executions of Sir Philip Wentworth and three Lancastrian squires. Sir Thomas Findern and Sir Edmund Fish were then executed in York and others tried for treason by John Tiptoft, Constable of England, met the same fate. By 19 July, more than two dozen other Lancastrians had been captured and executed on the orders of the Earl of Warwick and Lord Montagu, who were not as lenient as King Edward  IV had been. Sir William Tailboys was captured hiding in a coal pit with the war chest of King Henry VI and executed at Newcastle on 20 July. In defence of Warwick and Montagu, they had risked their lives for three years in battles in the north and wanted to bring the Lancastrian revolts against the king to an end. After the Battle of Hexham, Montagu received the news that King Henry  VI was in hiding at Bywell Castle and dispatched men to take

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100  Battles of the Wars of the Roses him into custody, but they discovered that he had already fled with his servants. King Edward  IV rewarded Lord Montagu two weeks after the Battle of Hexham for his military service in Northumberland. In York, before an audience of the nobility, Montagu was created the new Earl of Northumberland, which was a very lucrative position because of vast estates in the county. In fact, the Battle of Hexham meant the end of effective Lancastrian resistance in the north, but the three castles of Alnwick , Bamburgh and Dunstanburgh still remained to be captured by the Yorkist forces. King Edward therefore assigned the Earl of Warwick to this task while he negotiated the peace treaty with the Scottish envoys. Alnwick Castle at that time was occupied by the Lancastrian survivors of the Battles of Hedgeley Moor and Hexham, who had no desire for a further fight. When the Earl of Warwick offered a full pardon to the defenders in his terms of surrender, they readily agreed and Alnwick Castle was soon taken by the Yorkists. Two days later, Dunstanburgh Castle followed after being offered the same terms, which left only Bamburgh Castle in Lancastrian hands. The Earl of Warwick’s herald approached Bamburgh Castle and offered a free pardon for its surrender, to which the commanders Sir Ralph Grey and Sir Humphrey Neville were excluded because they had previously defected. However, Grey was defiant and replied that he would live or die within the castle. The herald returned with a message from Warwick: ‘if you deliver not this Jewel, the which the king our most dread sovereign Lord hath so greatly in his favour, seeing it marcheth so near his ancient enemies of Scotland, he specially desireth to have it, whole, unbroken, with ordinance, if you suffer any great gun laid unto the wall, and be shot and prejudice the wall, it shall cost you the Chieftain’s head; and so proceeding for every gun shot, to the least head of any person within the said place.’ This message was sent because King Edward  IV had wanted to keep the northern fortresses intact for defence of the northern border. Grey remained defiant and a siege of the castle followed with cannon. A cannonball from the great gun ‘Dijon’ then landed on top of Grey’s chamber and he was gravely injured, with Sir Humphrey Neville taking over command of the castle. Neville then agreed to its surrender, after being offered a free pardon, and Bamburgh was taken over by the

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Battle of Hexham, 15 May 1464  101 Yorkists, the first castle in England to be taken with the aid of siege artillery. The injured Sir Ralph Grey was taken to Doncaster, tried for treason by the Constable of England John Tiptoft and executed on 5 July. The threat to execute the other defenders, however, was not carried out. King Edward IV was now in control of the whole of England and Wales, with the exception of Harlech Castle, which held out for a few more years. There now followed a period of peace and prosperity in the land, but it did not bring an end to the Wars of the Roses. King Henry  VI had escaped after the Battle of Hexham, leaving behind his helmet, crown and sword at Bywell Castle. He remained a fugitive for over a year, hiding out in safe houses in Yorkshire, Lancashire and the Lake District. His chamberlain, Sir Richard Tunstall, was his only companion and it was said that they disguised themselves as monks at one time, staying in a monastery in Yorkshire. In July 1465, King Henry was staying at Waddington Hall in Lancashire as a guest of Sir Richard Tempest, with Sir Richard Tunstall, and was joined by Thomas Manning, a former official. However, Tempest had a brother, John, who had Yorkist sympathies and was told by another guest, according to the Warkworth Chronicle, ‘a black monk of Abyngtone’ William Cantlow, of the identity of King Henry VI. On 13 July 1465, John Tempest took a handful of men to Waddington Hall to confront the king, but Tunstall sprang up with his sword to defend Henry and managed to escape with him to Clitheroe forest. John Tempest’s men then chased the fugitives on horseback and captured them by the River Ribble, near the forest. King Edward IV was informed by a monk in Canterbury of the capture of King Henry VI near Clitheroe and ordered a service of thanksgiving to be held at the cathedral. King Henry was then brought to London under guard on his horse with his legs bound to the stirrups, arrived on 24 July and was greeted in a derisory manner by the crowds who pelted him with stones and rubbish. He was brought to the Tower of London, where he was to be incarcerated with some degree of comfort for the next five years. In effect, King Edward IV was holding Henry as a hostage because Margaret of Anjou was at that time trying to persuade King Louis XI of France to finance an invasion of England.

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Chapter 20

The New Queen and Political Intrigues

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n 4 September 1464, a Great Council of magnates assembled in Reading, where the Earl of Warwick put great pressure on King Edward IV to conclude a marriage alliance with France. For almost a year, Warwick had been negotiating with King Louis XI for the marriage of Bona of Savoy to King Edward in order to establish a political alliance and prevent a future Lancastrian invasion. On 14 September, King Edward astounded the Council with his announcement that he was already married and had been for the past four months. The peers did not hide their disapproval and informed Edward that his new wife was no match for the king and was no wife fit for a prince. The Rivers family were regarded as upstarts, minor gentry

Woodville Family.

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The New Queen and Political Intrigues  103 out for promotion and worst of all had been loyal Lancastrians who had fought for King Henry  VI. Edward’s own family also did not approve of his choice of bride and Warwick was furious that he had not been consulted and that his negotiations with King Louis XI had been in vain. In effect, Edward’s marriage caused a lasting rift with Warwick that was to have serious repercussions in the years to come. Warwick did make his peace with Edward and remained his chief counsellor, but disagreements remained with the king who had preferred to make a peace treaty with Burgundy and not France. The Woodville family were to become deadly rivals of the Earl of Warwick in the years to follow. However, on Michaelmas day, 29 September 1464, Elizabeth Woodville was escorted into Reading Abbey by the Duke of Clarence and the Earl of Warwick and presented to the magnates as their queen. The assembled peers duly knelt before their new sovereign and a week of celebrations followed. The queen was aware of the disapproval of the people and therefore made sure of elaborate ceremonies when she appeared in public. She was given Greenwich Palace, formerly owned by Margaret of Anjou, and her arms replaced Margaret’s at Queen’s College Cambridge. Elizabeth then ensured that her family and friends were given posts and promotions in court, which alienated the old established nobility.

Elizabeth Woodville presented at Reading Abbey, 1464, painting by Ernest Board.

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104  Battles of the Wars of the Roses King Edward IV also arranged advantageous marriages for the Woodville family, which infuriated the nobles. Elizabeth’s brother, Anthony, was married to the heiress of the late Lord Scales and therefore took over his title. Lionel was made Bishop of Salisbury and Edward Admiral of the Fleet. Margaret was married to the son and heir of the Earl of Arundel and nineteen-year-old John married the sixty-seven-year-old Dowager Duchess of Norfolk. Katherine married Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, who was still a minor, Anne married William Viscount Bourchier, Eleanor married Sir Anthony Grey of Ruthyn, son of the new Earl of Kent, Mary married William, son of Lord Herbert, Jacquetta married Lord Strange and Martha married Sir John Bromley. Lord Rivers, Elizabeth’s father, was created Earl and made Treasurer of England in 1466, which offended the Earl of Warwick because his uncle had formerly held the post. The Queen’s son, Richard Grey, was married to Anne Holland, daughter of the Duke of Exeter, which also infuriated Warwick because his nephew, the son of the Earl of Northumberland, was previously betrothed to her. Most of the eligible heirs of the peerages were therefore now married to the Woodville family and they did not dare refuse the king. In order to placate Warwick, King Edward created his brother, George, Archbishop of York on 15 March 1465. However, the rapid advancement of the queen’s family made them extremely unpopular with the nobility and populace. King Louis XI of France was at this time still keeping in touch with the Earl of Warwick as he wished to have better relations with England. However, King Edward preferred to be in close contact with Burgundy and Brittany, and to form alliances with them. Margaret of Anjou was in the meantime still appealing to King Louis for assistance to help her regain her husband’s kingdom. On Whitsuntide, 26 May 1465, Elizabeth Woodville was crowned queen at Westminster Abbey by Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Bourchier, followed by great celebrations, although the Earl of Warwick was not present. On 11 February 1466, Elizabeth Woodville gave birth to her first child by the king at Westminster, a daughter whom they named Elizabeth. The Earl of Warwick was godfather and the baby’s grandmothers, Cecily and Jacquetta, the godmothers. Elizabeth of York eventually married the first Tudor king and consequently she became the ancestor of all subsequent English monarchs, including the present royal family.

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The New Queen and Political Intrigues  105 In April 1466, Warwick and King Louis XI signed a two-year truce in Calais, where the king agreed not to help Margaret of Anjou and Edward in return undertook not to assist Burgundy or Brittany against the French. However, King Edward had no intention of keeping to his side of the agreement and only wanted to placate Warwick. Margaret of Anjou was still hopeful of regaining her husband’s throne and her son, Edward of Westminster, was being groomed to take over the banner of Lancaster. The Milanese ambassador in France reported that the prince, ‘though only thirteen years of age, talks of nothing but cutting off heads and making war, as if he had everything in his hands or was the god of battle.’ The Earl of Warwick now thought of marrying his two daughters, Isabel and Anne, to King Edward’s two brothers, George and Richard, in order to increase the influence of the Neville family. George in particular was ambitious and envious of his elder brother, although he had gained substantial wealth and estates from King Edward. However, the king opposed the proposed marriages as he was fearful of Warwick gaining more power. Philip of Burgundy died in June 1467 and was succeeded by his son, who became known as Charles the Bold. King Edward then agreed an alliance with Burgundy in advantageous terms to which the Earl of Warwick agreed, although he was angered that his brother George Neville had been dismissed as Lord Chancellor. A deadly rift had now developed between Warwick and the Neville family on one side, and King Edward with the Woodvilles on the other, which was not to be healed. On 1 July 1468, Margaret of York, sister of King Edward, married Charles the Bold of Burgundy in Flanders in order to cement the alliance with England. King Louis XI was determined to undermine this alliance and aided the Earl of Pembroke with money, ships and men to invade Wales, near Harlech Castle, and some success was achieved. However, after a long siege, Lord Herbert managed to capture Harlech Castle on 14 August 1468 and was rewarded by King Edward, who bestowed on him the Earldom of Pembroke. Jasper Tudor was driven out by Herbert and his brother, Sir Richard, and fled on a ship to Brittany. The Earl of Warwick now became envious of the Herberts, their growing influence with King Edward and their plans to take possession of lands owned by him.

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Chapter 21

Battle of Edgcote, 24 July 1469

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he Earl of Warwick had spent much of his life and money in support of the House of York and both his father and brother had given their lives for the cause. However, there was now a rift with King Edward that could not be healed. Warwick had opposed the alliance with Burgundy, the king had put a ban on the marriage between Warwick’s daughter Isabel and George Duke of Clarence, the Woodvilles had been promoted beyond their station, Herbert had become powerful in Wales and George Neville had been demoted. Warwick had now become alienated from Edward and retired to his estates, refusing summonses from the king. He then discovered that the king’s brother, George, had also become disenchanted with Edward because he had been denied influence and the marriage to Isabel, and because of the promotion of the Woodvilles. The Duke of Clarence therefore allied himself with the Earl of Warwick and harboured a dream to depose Edward and become king, although Warwick himself only wished for more influence. There were minor disturbances in the north of England at that time, but there was no proof that Warwick or Clarence had been involved, and the country was subject to disorder and lawlessness. It was later claimed that the people had become disenchanted with the rule of King Edward because of excessive taxation, although he still enjoyed personal popularity. However, the Earl of Warwick was able to exploit disaffection in the north, which became the centre of opposition to the Yorkist government. The queen, by March 1469, had given birth to three daughters, Elizabeth, Mary and Cecily, but King Edward had no sons as yet to consolidate his rule. The Yorkist government was at this time seeking out Lancastrian activists and agents working on behalf of Margaret of Anjou. In January 1469, Henry Courtenay and Thomas Hungerford were tried, found guilty of treason and suffered a traitor’s death.

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Battle of Edgcote, 24 July 1469  107 In the spring of 1469, the Earl of Warwick secretly allied himself to King Louis XI, who had promised him estates in the Low Countries if he could overthrow King Edward. Warwick may not have wanted to go this far, but the Duke of Clarence had his eyes on the throne and spread rumours that Edward was not the son of the Duke of York by Cecily, but the son of an archer of Calais called Blaybourne. This story spread around Europe and was used to discredit Edward, although Cecily was outraged and absolutely denied it. In the spring of 1469, Warwick returned to Calais with his wife and daughters for his post as Captain. There was now a period of unrest in the north because of high taxation and several uprisings occurred, which were coordinated by Warwick through his agents, led by Sir John Conyers. The aim was to crush the influence of the Woodvilles and restore the power of the Nevilles. A revolt also took place in Yorkshire, which was led by ‘Robin of Holderness’ of mysterious identity to restore Henry Percy to the Earldom of Northumberland. However, Warwick’s brother, John Neville, who held that title was able to disperse the uprising with his troops. King Edward received news of the revolts while he was on pilgrimage in East Anglia and, on 28 June 1469, issued a summons to recruit men to assist him to suppress the rebellions. He arrived at Croyland Abbey in Lincolnshire and then proceeded to Fotheringhay Castle in Northamptonshire with the queen. On 5 July, Edward continued to Stamford and commanded the mayors of several towns to provide him with men for the war as Queen Elizabeth returned to London. However, while he was at Nottingham, Edward realised that he did not have enough men to suppress the rebels with insufficient recruits answering his call and he was now well outnumbered. With Edward were his brother, Richard Duke of Gloucester, Lord Scales, Earl Rivers and others from the Woodville family. In the meantime, the Earl of Warwick had received dispensation from the Pope for his daughter Isabel to marry the Duke of Clarence because they were first cousins once removed. On 4 July, Warwick sailed to Calais with Clarence, Archbishop Neville and the Earl of Oxford to plan a coup against King Edward. On 11 July 1469, the Duke of Clarence married Isabel in Calais, officiated by Archbishop Neville, with few guests and little celebration.

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108  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Sir John Conyers had now come out into the open under the name ‘Robin of Redesdale’, claiming that he had the support of the common people, and issued a petition calling on the king to rid himself of his evil advisers, especially the Woodvilles. In Nottingham, Edward awaited the arrival of Sir William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke and Sir Humphrey Stafford, Earl of Devon with their troops, sent the Woodvilles to Wales for their own safety and Lord Scales to Norfolk. On 12 July 1469, the Earl of Warwick and his party in Calais issued a manifesto with the rebels’ petition declaring their support and claiming that they sought ‘a remedy and reformation’, with grievances about ‘the exclusion of the Princes of the blood royal from the king’s secret council in favour of the deceivable covetous rule and guiding of certain seditious persons.’ These were named as the Woodville family, the Herberts, the Earl of Devon, Lord Dudley and Sir John Fogge, who were blamed for ‘his realm to fall in great poverty of misery, disturbing the ministration of the laws, only intending their own promotion and enriching.’ The manifesto included a summons to all who wished to join them in Canterbury on 16 July. Warwick’s party reached Canterbury and left on 18 July, heading for London with a considerable force, where they were received favourably. Warwick’s manifesto had succeeded and the Londoners had opened the gates and even offered a loan for the cause. The rebels did not stay long in London and headed to Coventry to join up with the force led by Robin of Redesdale to confront the king. King Edward IV was at this time still in Nottingham with the troops that he had been able to muster and awaited the forces led by the Earl of Pembroke and the Earl of Devon in order to reinforce his army. Robin of Redesdale was still marching south with around 4,000 men and he deliberately avoided Nottingham, where he knew that King Edward was stationed with his forces. However, he was unaware of the whereabouts of the Earls of Pembroke and Devon with their troops and the two armies marched on a collision course unknown to each other until the night of 23 July. Before the two earls knew about the presence of the rebels, they had argued with each other about the billeting of their respective troops at Edgcote, six miles northeast of Banbury. The Earl of Devon then moved his troops some miles away nearer to Banbury, while Pembroke set up camp south of the River Cherwell. When the opposing forces sighted each other, it was too late to join in

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Battle of Edgcote, 24 July 1469  109 battle so both armies camped out for the night on opposite sides of the river. Recent research has identified the date of the Battle of Edgcote as 24 July 1469, not 26 July, which had been the previous date recorded. Early on the morning of 24 July 1469, the rebel army (which outnumbered Pembroke’s force of about 3,000 men) launched their attack against the Welshmen by the river crossing. The Pembroke force was hampered because it lacked the archers of Devon’s men and, although they fought hard, they were gradually pushed back from the river. According to Edward Hall: ‘The Earl of Pembroke behaved himself like a hardy knight, and expert captain, but his brother Sir Richard Herbert so valiantly acquitted himself, that with his poleaxe in his hand (as his enemies did afterwards report) he was by fine force passed through the battle of his adversaries, and without any mortal wound returned. If any one of his followers and companions in arms had done but half the acts, which he that day by his noble prowess achieved, the Northmen had obtained neither valour or victory.’ Later in the day, the rebels attacked again and Devon’s men had still not arrived. At one o’clock, Pembroke received news that they had finally appeared, but at the same time the advance guard of Warwick’s men also arrived, led by Sir William Parr and Sir Geoffrey Gate, although his main army was still on the road. The appearance of Warwick’s troops raised the confidence of the rebels, who believed that the rest of the army would soon arrive, and at the same time the courage of the royal troops failed and they broke and fled. Over 2,000 Welshmen had died in the field, but the rebels also suffered heavy casualties, with Robin of Redesdale and several of his captains killed. The Earl of Pembroke and his brother, Sir Richard Herbert, were taken prisoner, the Earl of Devon fled to Somerset, with Earl Rivers and his son Sir John Woodville going into hiding. The Herbert brothers were taken to Northampton to appear before the Earl of Warwick and the Duke of Clarence at their headquarters. They were condemned as traitors, although there was no legal justification for this as they had not rebelled against the king, and were beheaded on 27 July. The execution of the Herberts shocked people, but the Earldom of Pembroke was now vacant and Jasper Tuder tried to claim it again, while the Earl of Warwick had lost a rival to his territorial ambitions in Wales. Henry Tudor, who had been under the wardship of William Herbert, was

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110  Battles of the Wars of the Roses taken into the custody of Herbert’s widow as Tudor’s mother, Margaret Beaufort, unsuccessfully tried to reclaim him. King Edward  IV had in the meantime received news of the defeat of the royal army at Edgcote and rode south to Coventry. Many of his nobles were now feeling vulnerable and deserted, leaving him isolated. The king was only left with the Duke of Gloucester and Lord Hastings in attendance when he was found at Olney by Archbishop Neville and his men. Edward had been woken at midnight, protesting he was tired, but he had no choice but to follow Archbishop Neville and his force to appear before the Earl of Warwick and the Duke of Clarence at Coventry. However, the rebels were in no position to depose the king, as they lacked sufficient support and Edward was therefore confined to Warwick Castle while they attempted to conduct the business of government in his name. The Earl of Warwick nonetheless lacked royal authority and was not supported by the magnates, who did not wish to increase his power and felt that this time he had gone too far. The king dutifully signed anything that was put to him by Warwick and behaved with courtesy and humour. Warwick was afraid that a rescue attempt would be made on King Edward, who was then moved into captivity at Middleham Castle, while Queen Elizabeth entered the Tower of London. Earl Rivers and Sir John Woodville were found at the Forest of Dean by one of Warwick’s agents, brought to Coventry to appear before Warwick and Clarence, condemned to death and beheaded on 12 August. This act devastated Queen Elizabeth, who vowed to avenge the deaths of her father and brother. On 17 August, the fugitive Humphrey Stafford, Earl of Devon was captured at Bridgewater, where he was beheaded by the common people of Somerset. By the end of August, however, Warwick’s authority was crumbling and many lords were taking justice into their own hands. Warwick cancelled the Parliament that had been called in York for September. He also issued proclamations in the king’s name demanding civil obedience, which were ignored by the people, many of whom were angry because of the imprisonment of the king. Sir Humphrey Neville of Brancepeth, who had been in hiding near Derwentwater since the Battle of Hexham, now raised the standard of King Henry  VI and incited the northerners to rebellion. He had

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Battle of Edgcote, 24 July 1469  111 managed to gather a strong following and the Earl of Warwick wanted to ride north to suppress the rebellion, but was unable to muster an army without the king’s authority. Archbishop Neville was therefore obliged to ask Edward if he would support Warwick against the rebels in return for a degree of liberty. King Edward then agreed to cooperate and stated that he did not bear ill will against the Nevilles. He was then taken to York in ceremony, cheered by the crowds, with the lords offering their support against the rebellion. The royal army led by the Earl of Warwick then marched north and put down the rebels with ease. Sir Humphrey Neville was captured, brought back to York and beheaded in the king’s presence on 29 September. King Edward was then granted more freedom by Warwick, as he had promised, and it was now obvious to him and Clarence that their revolt had failed. The king then summoned his loyal followers, the Duke of Gloucester, Lord Hastings, the Earl of Essex, the Earl of Arundel, the Earl of Northumberland and others who rode to join him in York. In October 1469, King Edward rode to London in triumph with his lords and mounted men to an enthusiastic welcome from the Lord Mayor, aldermen and citizens, but he forbade Archbishop Neville and the Earl of Oxford from joining him. King Edward immediately set to work to re-establish his authority, hoping that a policy of reconciliation would persuade the former rebels to return to his allegiance. The king settled in Westminster and behaved towards the Earl of Warwick and the Duke of Clarence in a courteous and forgiving manner. In Wales at this time, the death of the Herberts had encouraged Lancastrian-inspired revolts and several royal castles were seized by the rebels, who sought to rule the local population. In December 1469, King Edward therefore sent his seventeen-year-old brother Richard Duke of Gloucester with a force to bring the territory back into royal control. The young Richard managed to recapture the Welsh castles with his troops with remarkable efficiency. The Earl of Warwick and the Duke of Clarence were invited by King Edward to Westminster in December 1469, where he performed a ceremony of reconciliation and showed no ill feelings towards them. Warwick and Clarence then returned north to their estates and Edward issued pardons to those who had been involved in the rebellions against him. However, it was obvious that Edward had realised that he could not

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112  Battles of the Wars of the Roses trust Warwick any longer and his influence was now even less than it had been before the revolt. King Louis  XI of France now attempted to take advantage of the turmoil in England, announced that he had become an ally of the Lancastrian faction and invited Margaret of Anjou to Tours to meet with him. Queen Margaret accepted his invitation and rode to Tours to discuss a strategy to restore King Henry VI to the throne. After the meeting, Queen Margaret wrote to her supporters in England to prepare themselves for the campaign to restore Lancastrian rule.

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Chapter 22

Battle of Losecote Field, 12 March 1470

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he Earl of Warwick was aware by February 1470 that his disputes with King Edward had not been resolved and he therefore began to plan another revolt with the Duke of Clarence. However, this time, they would go one step further, depose King Edward and install Clarence as king. At this point, Warwick had no desire to ally himself with Margaret of Anjou to reinstate King Henry VI to the throne. He had planned to instigate a rebellion that King Edward would be occupied in suppressing while he organised an invasion with King Louis  XI to depose the king. Warwick then used his influence, power and money to exploit the grievances of the gentry and the common people for an uprising. Together with Clarence, Warwick joined up with men with Lancastrian sympathies in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire who were dissatisfied with the taxes imposed by the Yorkist government. Sir Robert Welles became the leader of the uprising in Lincolnshire and he was able to recruit others to the cause of deposing King Edward IV. On 4 March 1470, he arranged for notices to be posted in every church in Lincolnshire with a call to arms and an appeal for men to meet him near Lincoln to resist the king. On 7 March, King Edward was at Waltham Abbey, where he heard about the revolt and moved north to Royston. Edward then received further news that the rebels were heading for Stamford and had been joined by men from the nearby counties, including Yorkshire. The king now received letters from the Earl of Warwick and the Duke of Clarence that said they would soon join him with their men to help him put down the rebels. Edward at that point did not suspect them of disloyalty and he therefore issued commissions of array, which included Warwick, who set about recruiting troops to his cause. He then rode a further twenty-one miles to Huntingdon, where he was joined by his captives Richard, seventh Lord Welles and Thomas Dymmock, whom he had already summoned to Westminster. Edward

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114  Battles of the Wars of the Roses interrogated his prisoners, who confessed their parts in the revolt but not the involvement of Warwick and Clarence. Edward then ordered Lord Welles to write a letter to his son, Sir Robert Welles, the rebel leader, demanding his surrender – if he did not, Lord Welles and Dymmock would be put to death. On 11 March 1470, King Edward had reached Fotheringhay with his force when he heard that the rebel force was heading for Leicester, with Warwick and Clarence also moving in that direction. Edward now realised that he had been betrayed by Warwick and Clarence and he was now in danger of being caught by the two forces. The following day, Sir Robert Welles received Lord Welles’s letter and turned back to Stamford without Warwick to preserve his father’s life. King Edward had now been joined by many more recruits and rode north to Stamford at the same time as the rebel leader. Warwick and Clarence reached Leicester and informed Edward that they were coming to his aid, although he was not so certain of their loyalty. Edward sent his scouts ahead to look for the location of the rebel army and they informed him that it had moved towards Empingham in Rutland, five miles to the west of Stamford. On receiving the news, Edward ordered his army forward until it lined up facing the rebels led by Sir Robert Welles. At this point, King Edward ordered the execution of Lord Welles and Thomas Dymmock in front of the rebel army in order to discourage the rebellion. Sir Robert Welles then ordered an attack of his infantry, who charged with cries of ‘A Warwick, A Warwick’ and ‘A Clarence, A Clarence’. However, King Edward’s army was well trained and well equipped with artillery and a few shots of cannon fire caused many casualties among the rebels, putting them to flight. The royal troops pursued the rebels in the ensuing rout, many of whom were wearing the livery of the Earl of Warwick and the Duke of Clarence. As they fled, they discarded their jackets, not wishing to be identified, and this action gave the battle its name of ‘Losecote Field’ according to a nineteenth century account, although contemporary evidence states ‘Hornfield.’ Sir Robert Welles was among those captured wearing the livery of Clarence, as were Sir Thomas de la Lande and Richard Warren. Also captured was the messenger from Clarence to Sir Robert Welles, with incriminating letters that confirmed to King Edward that his brother Clarence and Warwick had supported the rebellion. Edward rode back

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Battle of Losecote Field, 12 March 1470  115 to Stamford in triumph as he was now in full control of London, East Anglia and the East Midlands, and issued a proclamation forbidding additional arrays of men by his subjects. The following day, Edward wrote to Warwick and Clarence to inform them of his victory, and ordered them to disband their forces and meet him at Stamford with only their personal retinues. He also wrote to Sir John Neville, Earl of Northumberland, with commissions of array to deal with the rebel army in Yorkshire that had not managed to reach Empingham. Warwick and Clarence were in Coventry at that time and informed the king that they would disband their army and ride to Stamford as instructed. However, instead of taking this action, Warwick kept the army intact and rode north to Burton-on-Trent, Derby and Chesterfield, while he ordered his supporters in Yorkshire to meet him at Rotherham. On hearing the news, Edward wrote to Warwick again commanding him to disband his army and to come to his presence, but refused to give guarantees of safety and clemency. Edward rode north with his army to Doncaster, arriving on 19 March, and his captives Sir Robert Welles and Richard Warren were then put on trial for treason. The Earl of Shrewsbury, who had supported Clarence, defected at that point and rode in support of the king with his troops. Sir Robert Welles and Richard Warren then confessed their involvement in the revolt with Warwick and Clarence, with the aim of placing Clarence on the throne. The captives were both executed in front of the whole army and, at the same time, Edward issued an offer of a pardon to those who would desert Warwick and Clarence. Sir William Parr, who had led Warwick’s cavalry at the Battle of Edgcote, took advantage of the offer and rode into Edward’s camp with his men. King Edward then rode into York with his army and received the submission of Lord Scrope and the northern rebels, but he was worried that John Neville, Earl of Northumberland, brother of Warwick, would join the rebels. He therefore deprived him of the Earldom of Northumberland on 25 March and restored Henry Percy, whose father had been killed at the Battle of Towton, to the title. This was received favourably by the people of the north and John Neville was created Marquess of Montagu as compensation, but without any lands, thereby depriving him of any income.

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116  Battles of the Wars of the Roses However, Montagu’s son George was then created Duke of Bedford and betrothed to King Edward’s daughter Elizabeth in compensation, with a possibility of becoming king if any mishap happened to Edward. The king wanted at all costs to prevent his brother, the Duke of Clarence, and Warwick’s daughter Isabel becoming the next monarchs and had hoped to gain Montagu’s loyalty by his actions. On 24 March 1470, King Edward denounced the Earl of Warwick and Clarence as great traitors and rebels, with a bounty placed on their heads, and summoned them to appear before him. Edward then left York on 27 March and marched south to Nottingham and Coventry with the aim of capturing them. Warwick, in the meantime, had been refused the help of Lord Stanley and he now knew that he had insufficient support to confront the king and therefore decided to flee south with Clarence to Warwick Castle. He then collected the Countess of Warwick and his daughter, Anne, and together they speedily rode to the south coast. The plan was to join Warwick’s daughter, Isabel, at Exeter and then sail to Calais, where the Earl hoped that he still had support. However, they first travelled to Southampton to the ships docked in the port owned by Warwick. Edward had anticipated this move and dispatched Anthony Earl Rivers and Sir John Howard to Southampton with their men, where they seized all the ships owned by Warwick, as well as their crews. Warwick, Clarence and their party then travelled to Exeter, met up with Isabel, who was heavily pregnant, and on 3 April took a ship to Calais. On 14 April, Edward arrived at Exeter, found that the fugitives had already sailed and continued to Southampton. He then commanded John Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester and Constable of England, to put Warwick’s captured men on trial for treason. Twenty were then hanged, drawn and quartered, but worse they were then beheaded, their corpses hung up by the legs, with stakes forced into their buttocks and their heads impaled on top. This act shocked the people and John Tiptoft was feared and hated for the irregular and unlawful manner of the executions. The Earl of Warwick had in the meantime arrived in Calais, which was commanded by Lord Wenlock, who had already received orders from King Edward not to let him land. Wenlock therefore fired his guns on Warwick’s ship, where Isabel was in labour, and he still refused to let the party land in spite of Warwick’s pleas because of his perceived loyalty

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Battle of Losecote Field, 12 March 1470  117 to the king. However, Wenlock sent Warwick a secret message that if he sailed on and obtained aid from King Louis XI, he would offer the support of the Calais garrison. After a difficult labour, Isabel’s baby later died and was taken to Calais for burial, after which Warwick’s ship sailed on to Normandy, capturing Breton and Burgundian ships on the way.

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Chapter 23

The Readeption of King Henry VI

T

he Earl of Warwick arrived with the Duke of Clarence and his party at Honfleur on 1 May 1470 and was welcomed by the Admiral of France as King Louis XI’s representative. Warwick was now informed that King Louis would assist him to recover England with the Lancastrians or another way because he wanted to cause a rift between England and Burgundy. In fact, King Louis had wanted to reconcile Warwick and Margaret of Anjou in order to bring a restoration of King Henry  VI to the English throne. Louis invited Warwick and Margaret to meet him, but, according to the Milanese ambassador to France: ‘The Earl of Warwick does not want to be here when the Queen arrives, but wishes to allow His Majesty to shape matters a little with her and move her to agree to an alliance between the Prince, her son, and a daughter of Warwick.’

King Henry VI.

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King Edward IV.

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The Readeption of King Henry VI  119 On 8 June, King Louis met Warwick with the Duke of Clarence, but by this time Warwick had realised that his only solution was to join up with the Lancastrians and abandon his idea of putting Clarence on the throne. Louis promised Warwick that he would ask Queen Margaret to pardon him and grant him a position in government if their plans to restore King Henry VI to the throne were successful. Louis would provide men, ships and money for the invasion of England and, in return for the alliance, Warwick would aid him with his proposed offensive against Burgundy. Warwick agreed to this plan, which would be sealed with the marriage of his daughter Anne to Edward of Lancaster, the son of Margaret of Anjou. At this point, the Duke of Clarence realised that Warwick’s plan to make him king had been abandoned and his own role was merely to support Warwick and the French king. Louis also proposed a thirty-year truce between France and the Lancastrians, to which Margaret of Anjou readily agreed. King Edward IV was at this time recruiting men for defence in case of an invasion by Warwick and Clarence. King Louis then met with Queen Margaret separately and informed her of his plan to ally the House of Lancaster with the Earl of Warwick in order to overthrow King Edward IV. Margaret was horrified at first because Warwick’s support of the House of York had been one of the main reasons that her husband had been overthrown, saying according to the Harleian Manuscript: ‘Warwick had pierced her heart with wounds that could never be healed, they would bleed till the Day of Judgement, when she would appeal to the Justice of God for vengeance against him. His pride and insolence had first broken the peace of England and stirred up those fatal wars which had desolated the realm. Through him, she and her son had been attainted, proscribed and driven out to beg their bread in foreign lands, and not only had he injured her as a queen but he had dared to defame her reputation as a woman by divers false and malicious slanders, as if she had been false to her royal lord the king – which things she could never forgive.’ King Louis, however, informed Margaret that she would have to put her personal feelings aside if she wanted his assistance to regain her husband’s throne. Eventually Queen Margaret agreed to meet the Earl of Warwick, but insisted that her son Edward would not accompany Warwick on the proposed invasion because that would put him at great risk.

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120  Battles of the Wars of the Roses On 15 July 1470, Queen Margaret met the Countess of Warwick and her daughter Anne at Angers and was informed by King Louis that Warwick had agreed to the marriage of her son to his daughter. However, Margaret informed him that she preferred that her son should marry Elizabeth of York, so that Lancaster would regain the throne when King Edward IV died. On 22 July, the Earl of Warwick was brought to the presence of Queen Margaret by King Louis and addressed her on his knees, according to the Chastellain Chronicles: ‘begging forgiveness for all the wrongs he had done her, and humbly beseeching her to pardon and restore him to her favour.’ He conceded that he had wronged King Henry VI by putting him out of the realm of England but he had then believed that the Lancastrians had wished for his destruction. He now offered himself as a friend of the Lancastrians and wanted to unsettle King Edward. However, the queen kept Warwick on his knees for a quarter of an hour and King Louis then offered to guarantee his conduct. The queen demanded that the earl withdraw his allegations of her son’s paternity in France and in England, which he promised to do, and only then did Margaret pardon Warwick. King Louis, Margaret and Warwick then discussed the terms of their alliance. Margaret of Anjou finally agreed to the marriage of her son to Warwick’s daughter, but only after Warwick had proved himself in battle

Margaret of Anjou.

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Edward of Lancaster.

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The Readeption of King Henry VI  121 against King Edward and the prince was to remain in France for the time being. King Louis was to provide money, ships and men to invade England, but it was agreed that King Henry  VI could no longer rule and therefore Warwick would act as regent. The English exiles, Henry Holland, third Duke of Exeter and Edmund Beaufort, fourth Duke of Somerset, would return and reclaim their lands and Warwick would assist Louis in his campaign against Burgundy. On 25 July 1470, Prince Edward of Lancaster was betrothed to Anne Neville at Angers Cathedral in the presence of King Louis, Queen Margaret and her father Rene, Isabel and the Earl and Countess of Warwick. In the meantime, the Duke of Clarence was in Normandy having been sidelined by Warwick in the original plan to install him as king. He had merely been offered a promise by Warwick that he would become heir to the throne should Prince Edward and Anne not provide an heir. It was agreed that Warwick and Jasper Tudor would lead the invasion of England, with Margaret and her son following when it was safe. They were to land in the southwest and Jasper Tudor would continue to Wales to enlist the help of loyal Lancastrian supporters. Clarence had kept his grievances quiet for the time being and issued a manifesto with Warwick, which was posted in various towns in England on church doors and on London Bridge. The manifesto referred to the misrule of King Edward  IV, oppression and injustice, which Warwick would ‘redeem for ever the said realm from the thralldom of all outward nations and make it as free within itself as ever it was heretofore.’ Clarence received a message from his brother, King Edward, at that time offering a reconciliation and to restore him to his position in court, but he decided to keep his options open. At the beginning of August 1470, Warwick’s agent in Yorkshire staged a sham rebellion to lure King Edward away from the invasion. The ruse worked and, on 5 August, Edward headed north after summoning his troops in order to put down the revolt. He managed to recruit more than 3,000 men and was joined by another 3,000 led by Lord William Hastings. In the meantime, Lord Montagu had raised 6,000 soldiers who were prepared to join the king. However, the rebel leader fled to Scotland as soon as he heard of the approach of King Edward and consequently there was no longer a rebellion to be vanquished.

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122  Battles of the Wars of the Roses The real danger to Edward’s rule in fact came from the south where, in September 1470, Warwick and Clarence had sailed from Normandy with a fleet of sixty ships. Their troops included Jasper Tudor, John de Vere, thirteenth Earl of Oxford and Thomas Neville, Bastard of Fauconberg. The royal fleet, which had been sent by King Edward, scattered in storms and Warwick’s fleet managed to land at Dartmouth and Plymouth in the southwest. Warwick was still popular in the land and managed to gather a large following of people to restore King Henry VI to the throne. Jasper Tudor marched to Wales to recruit the Welsh troops, while Warwick headed north where Lancastrian supporters from all over the realm rallied to his cause. Warwick’s aim was to defeat King Edward in battle and, on his arrival in Coventry, he was joined by the Earl of Shrewsbury and Lord Thomas Stanley, which increased his force to around 30,000 men. London was in turmoil at the news of the invasion and the Kentishmen rioted, whereupon Lord Chancellor Bishop Stillington fled into sanctuary. Warwick then reappointed his brother, George Neville, as Chancellor in his place. On 29 September, King Edward, who was in Yorkshire, heard of Warwick’s advance north and awaited the arrival of Lord Montagu

Louis XI of France.

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Charles the Bold of Burgundy.

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The Readeption of King Henry VI  123 with his troops. He had lodged in a safe house in Doncaster, where he heard that Montagu and his men had defected to the standard of King Henry VI. It appears that Montagu had a grievance with Edward because he had been deprived of the Earldom of Northumberland and was given a title with little income to support himself. Edward sent messengers to confirm this news and armed his men to defend his lodgings. Montagu had informed his men that he would now be supporting his brother, the Earl of Warwick, and Edward’s agents soon passed him this information. King Edward’s men were now deserting in large numbers until he was left with only around 2,000 soldiers, which was not enough to take on Lord Montagu in the field. Edward therefore had no other option but to flee for his life and, together with William Hastings, the Duke of Gloucester, Anthony Earl Rivers and other loyal troops, he rode through the night across Lincolnshire, almost drowned in the Wash and arrived at King’s Lynn in Norfolk on 30 September. King Edward was fortunate to find two Dutch ships bound for Holland at anchor whose captains were willing to take him and around 700 of his men. He had no money for his passage and gave the master of his ship an expensive gown as a surety. The ships sailed on 2 October 1470 and arrived in Holland, which was ruled by Charles the Bold of Burgundy, whom Edward was hoping would grant him asylum. At that time, Lord Wenlock in Calais had defected to the Earl of Warwick, his troops were wearing Warwick’s livery of the Bear and Ragged Staff and he was now supporting King Henry VI. On 1 October 1470, news of King Edward’s flight from Yorkshire had reached London and Queen Elizabeth, fearing for her safety, went into sanctuary at Westminster Abbey with her mother and children. She was heavily pregnant at the time and was given the best rooms in the abbey for her comfort by Abbot Thomas Milling. The Earl of Warwick, in the meantime, had sent his representative, Sir Geoffrey Gate, to take control of the Tower and City of London. The mayor was aware that he would not be able to resist such a large force and the Constable of the Tower surrendered to Gate. This action meant that Gate was now in control of King Henry VI, who was then moved to the royal apartments at the Tower. On 5 October 1470, Archbishop Neville rode into London with his troops and took control of the Tower of London. The following day, the

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124  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Earl of Warwick entered London with the Duke of Clarence, the Earl of Shrewsbury, Lord Stanley and their troops, entered the Tower and greeted King Henry VI as their lawful king. At this point, many Yorkist loyalists decided to go into sanctuary as Lancastrian supporters came out of hiding. King Henry, wearing blue velvet, was then escorted in procession through London by the lords to the Bishop of London’s palace by St Paul’s Cathedral. He sat on the throne there with a crown on his head, but clearly his captivity had affected him and he appeared to be in a bewildered state. The real rulers were now without doubt the Earl of Warwick and the Duke of Clarence, with the king a mere puppet. The next day, it was announced at St Paul’s Cross that King Edward IV had fled the country and had been deposed and this period was now referred to as the Readeption of King Henry  VI. The officers of the household of King Edward IV were now dismissed and replaced by loyal Lancastrians and it was said that the problems of Henry’s previous reign were due to corrupt officials. King Edward  IV was now in the company of Charles the Bold of Burgundy and requested his assistance to regain his kingdom. However, Charles would not commit himself before he was able to see the proposed

George Duke of Clarence.

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Margaret of York, Duchess of Burgundy.

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The Readeption of King Henry VI  125 developments in the alliance between the Earl of Warwick and King Louis  XI of France. Edward therefore travelled to Bruges, where he stayed at the palace of the Governor of Holland in some comfort. King Louis XI heard of the restoration of King Henry VI with pleasure and prepared to receive Queen Margaret, Prince Edward, the Countess of Warwick and her daughters on their way to England. The Earl of Warwick then decided to parade King Henry VI in his royal robes through London to St Paul’s Cathedral before the people and, after a service there, the king took up residence at the Palace of Westminster. John Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester, Constable of England under King Edward IV, had hidden in a forest in Huntingdonshire after the flight of the king, but was caught and brought to London. On 13 October, he was tried by a court presided by John de Vere, thirteenth Earl of Oxford, whose father and brother had both been condemned to death by Tiptoft in 1462. He was found guilty and the man the people were calling the ‘Butcher of England’ for his sadistic executions was sentenced to have his head cut off at Tower Hill. He had to be protected from the crowds, who were ready to lynch him, and was lodged for the night at Fleet prison. The following day, the sheriffs escorted John Tiptoft to Tower Hill where, on the scaffold, he ignored the hateful taunting of the crowds. When an Italian friar reproached him for his cruelty, he replied that his actions were for the good of the state and requested that his head be severed by the executioner in three strokes for the Holy Trinity. John Tiptoft, however, became the only Yorkist noble to be executed by the new Lancastrian government. Jasper Tudor at this time regained control of his nephew, Henry Tudor, and took him to London to meet the king. It was said that King Henry VI greeted him as the one who would one day take over the realm, but it is unlikely that anyone at that time thought that Henry Tudor would one day become the founder of the Tudor dynasty. Henry Tudor then visited his mother, Margaret Beaufort, and returned to Wales, but he was not to see her for another fourteen years. By November 1470, the Earl of Warwick was in effect ruler of the land as the King’s Lieutenant, Chamberlain and Captain of Calais. The Duke of Clarence was appointed Lieutenant of Ireland and had his place in the ruling Council, while Lord Montagu was sent north as Warden

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126  Battles of the Wars of the Roses of the East Marches. However, many loyal Lancastrians still distrusted Warwick and he also lost the support of many Yorkists who had not wanted to see King Edward deposed. He was now therefore left with only the support of the Nevilles and Lancastrians who had benefited from his rule. The London merchants, who created much of the country’s wealth, had also lost much of their trade with Burgundy because of the alliance with France and were therefore dissatisfied with Warwick’s policies. On 2 November 1470, Elizabeth Woodville, who was still in sanctuary at Westminster Abbey, gave birth to her first baby boy by King Edward IV, whom she named Edward after his father. He was baptised at the Abbot’s House in a quiet ceremony with the abbot and prior as godfathers. The Earl of Warwick now decided that it was time to bring Margaret of Anjou and Prince Edward to England in order to increase their popular appeal. Queen Margaret agreed to this proposal after receiving letters from Warwick, although she had thought that England was not a safe place for the prince. On 26 November, the Readeption Parliament met at Westminster and confirmed King Henry  VI as King of England, with the Prince of Wales as his heir and, failing him, the Duke of Clarence. King Edward IV and his children were disinherited and he and his brother, Richard Duke of Gloucester, were attainted. The Earl of Warwick was recognised as Lieutenant and Protector of the Realm and the King with

Richard Duke of Gloucester.

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Tomb effigy of John Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester.

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The Readeption of King Henry VI  127 the Duke of Clarence. Jasper Tudor was restored to his estates and as Earl of Pembroke, and the Dukes of Exeter and Somerset restored to their lands. On 3 December 1470, King Louis XI cancelled his treaty of friendship with Burgundy because of the alliance of Charles the Bold with King Edward IV. In fact, he had wanted to invade and defeat the Duchy of Burgundy with the help of his English allies. Edward, Prince of Wales, had agreed to this and also to persuade his father to assist King Louis until the whole of Burgundy had been conquered by France. However, back in England, the Earl of Warwick was not able to persuade the magnates and merchants to wage war on Burgundy because it threatened their trade links that brought them prosperity. On 13 December 1470, the Prince of Wales married Anne Neville at Amboise in a grand ceremony attended by the French royal family and the Duke of Clarence. Queen Margaret then prepared to return to England with Prince Edward, his new bride and the Countess of Warwick. They travelled to Paris, where they remained over the Christmas period on the first stage of their journey. However, Margaret then learned that Charles the Bold of Burgundy and King Edward  IV had met on 5 January 1471, which caused her to become fearful for her son. After being reassured, the queen travelled to Rouen to await the Earl of Warwick and continued to Dieppe to embark to England. Warwick, however, did not arrive because he had more pressing matters to attend and the queen’s party was then delayed by storms. Back in England, Warwick was becoming concerned as to the loyalty of the citizens in the counties of Herefordshire and Gloucestershire. He therefore granted the Earl of Pembroke military and administrative powers in those counties, the Marcher regions and the Severn Valley, in addition to his existing duties in Anne Neville from the fifteenth century South Wales. The Duke of Clarence Salisbury Roll.

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128  Battles of the Wars of the Roses at that time was also becoming worried about the loyalty of some of the nobility with regards to his position in the Lancastrian administration. In February 1471, Parliament debated the Earl of Warwick’s proposal that England would join with King Louis of France in an offensive against the Duchy of Burgundy. The Lords and Commons were aware that the citizens would not agree to this proposal because of the traditional enmity between the two countries and the loss of trade with Burgundy. Parliament therefore only agreed to a ten-year truce with France, not an alliance. Nonetheless, Warwick had already promised King Louis his assistance and began recruiting an army for this purpose. He also commanded the Calais garrison to prepare an attack on Burgundian territory in northern France. He then wrote to Louis: ‘I pray Almighty God to give you the victory. In the matter of beginning the war at Calais, I have sent instructions to start it, and have today had certain news that the garrison of Calais has already begun and has advanced from Ardres and has killed two of the garrison at Gravelines. As soon as I possibly can I will come to you to serve you against this accursed Burgundian without any default, please God. Your humble servant, R. Warrewyk.’ The London merchants were furious that the Earl of Warwick had dragged England into war with Burgundy without the authority of Parliament because they knew that this action would result in a loss of trade and prosperity for the country. Consequently, they refused to lend the Lancastrian government any more money to pay for the war. Charles the Bold then decided to give his assistance to King Edward IV because of the attack of the Calais garrison on his lands, as he now became aware that it was important for his interests to restore the Yorkists to government. If King Henry VI could be deposed once again, King Louis of France would have lost an important ally in his war with Burgundy. Charles then agreed to give King Edward the funds to enable him to recover his kingdom. The Dukes of Somerset and Exeter, who were still at the court of Charles at that time, asked him not to help Edward dethrone King Henry VI. However, he informed them that they should return to England and do what they could against the Earl of Warwick because they did not trust him as a former Yorkist. They therefore returned to England, where they found that most of the population was against helping the French against Burgundy. Warwick

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The Readeption of King Henry VI  129 had also alienated most of the Lancastrian nobility and the Dukes of Somerset and Exeter found that the Lancastrians had wanted to renew the alliance with Burgundy. If that could be achieved, it would leave Edward IV in an isolated position. However, Edward’s sister, Margaret of York, was married to Charles the Bold of Burgundy and, with her help, Edward was making plans to invade England. He had already recruited a force of over 1,000 Englishmen and 300 Flemish mercenary handgunners for his invasion as well as a fleet of ships provided by the Hanseatic League at Flushing harbour.

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Chapter 24

Battle of Barnet, 14 April 1471

O

n 2 March 1471, King Edward  IV boarded his ship the Anthony at Flushing in the Low Countries with his troops and, accompanied by his fleet of thirty-six ships, he then prepared to set sail for his invasion of England. Unfortunately for him, the wind changed direction and Edward had to wait in port for favourable weather. The Earl of Warwick had expected this invasion and he therefore issued commissions of array in Wales and the Welsh Marches. Lord Montagu recruited an army at Pontefract, the Earl of Oxford was with his troops guarding East Anglia, the Earl of Pembroke in Wales and the Duke of Clarence in Bristol to guard the West Country. Thomas Neville, Bastard of Fauconberg, was also at that time in command of the royal fleet patrolling the English Channel. However, Warwick’s authority was rapidly diminishing, with both the Lords and the Commons disliking his hold on power. He was also not trusted by Lancastrians or Yorkists because of his change of allegiance, and his popularity was fast fading. On 12 March 1471, King Edward’s fleet arrived at Cromer in Norfolk, where he sent two of his scouts, Sir Robert Chamberlain and Sir Gilbert Debenham, to discover the lie of the land. They returned to say that the surrounding area was full of Lancastrian troops led by the Earl of Oxford. Edward therefore decided to sail north up the coast while, unknown to him, a messenger rode to London to inform the Earl of Warwick of the arrival of the invasion. Edward’s fleet sailed to Yorkshire, where he hoped that Henry Percy, whom he had reinstated as the fourth Earl of Northumberland, would support him. His fleet was then hit by storms, which scattered his ships. On 14 March, Edward’s ship landed alone at Ravenspur on the Humber, where he decided to disembark with William Lord Hastings and a few men. Edward spent the night at the village of Kilnsea and sent riders around the countryside to check if any more of his ships had landed and of the loyalty of the local population. The following day, Edward was

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Battle of Barnet, 14 April 1471  131 reunited with his brother, Richard Duke of Gloucester, with his 300 men who had landed four miles up the coast at Welwick. Anthony Earl Rivers had also landed with 200 men at Paull, and joined up with Edward and his men. The Yorkist force then marched inland, where they encountered a band of armed men several thousand strong commanded by the vicar of Keyingham, Sir John Westerdale, and local squire Martyn of the Sea

Late fifteenth-century Ghent manuscript depiction of the Battle of Barnet.

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132  Battles of the Wars of the Roses who informed him they were loyal to King Henry  VI. King Edward knew that he would not be able to defeat such a large force with the limited numbers of men under his control and he therefore claimed that he had only returned to claim his hereditary title of Duke of York. This action was similar to that of Henry Bolingbroke, who had returned from exile to claim the throne from his cousin King Richard  II over seventy years earlier in the same part of the country. It is possible that King Edward paid a bribe to the leaders of the armed militia to let him pass. However, Robert Hildyard, who was a friend of one of the leaders of the militia, had received a pardon from Edward for his part in the revolt of Robin of Holderness in 1469 and his father had also been pardoned by Edward after the Battle of Towton. The Hildyards also supported Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland, whom Edward had restored to his title and therefore may have influenced the leaders of the local force to let Edward continue unmolested. The Yorkists then moved inland to Beverley, where the citizens were more hospitable and friendly to the invaders, then to Kingston upon Hull, where they found the gates of the town locked and the garrison opposed to them. King Edward then decided to lead his small force to York, where they arrived on 18 March and again found the city gates locked. He informed the city leaders that he had returned to England to reclaim his title of Duke of York and he and his men displayed the emblem of the Prince of Wales, a single ostrich feather in their hats. Edward and sixteen of his men were therefore allowed to enter by the sympathetic city leaders on condition that they would leave the following day and that the remainder of his force would stay outside. On 19 March, the Earl of Oxford, who was at Bury St Edmunds, received news of King Edward’s arrival and issued a summons to the men in the region to arm themselves and join his force. The Earl of Warwick also issued a summons, which many of the Lancastrian nobility ignored, preferring to wait for the arrival of Queen Margaret and the Prince of Wales. However, Warwick still managed to raise a sizeable number of men. The Historie of the Arrivall of Edward IV in England and the finall recoverye of his kingdomes from Henry VI A.D.1471, written from a narrative taken from Nicholas Harpisfeld, the clerk of the king’s signet, who was close to King Edward’s retinue in his army states: ‘Where he could not

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Battle of Barnet, 14 April 1471  133 raise the people with goodwill, he straitly charged them to come forth on pain of death.’ Parliament also granted the Prince of Wales the power to array men for the defence of the realm, and commissions were sent out in his name, threatening those who did not comply with the penalties meted out to traitors. The Earl of Warwick marched north and left his brother, Archbishop George Neville, in charge of London and the safekeeping of King Henry VI. The Duke of Clarence raised 3,000 men at Bristol and Wells, but Lord Montagu, who was at Pontefract Castle, lacked sufficient men to attack King Edward. On 21 March, King Edward continued to his family home at Sandal Castle, near Wakefield, with his troops, where his father, brother, uncle and cousin had been killed in battle ten years before. However, he found that he was not joined by many recruits, whom he had hoped would rally to his cause. The Earl of Northumberland did not join King Edward’s force, but neither did he oppose him, and Lord Montagu had been waiting to see what the earl would do before taking any action. The Earl of Warwick had now arrived in Coventry in order to join up with the troops led by the Earl of Oxford, who was at Newark at that time, with the Duke of Clarence marching from the southwest. King Edward rode to Doncaster with his force, then Nottingham, where the townsfolk flocked to join his standard. He then abandoned his pretence of returning to reclaim his Dukedom and issued proclamations as king. He was now arriving in territory with Yorkist support and many of the magnates and knights joined him with their retainers, including Sir William Parr, Sir James Harrington with 600 men, Sir William Stanley, brother of Lord Stanley, and Sir William Norris. Edward then sent his scouts into the surrounding countryside to discover the whereabouts of his enemies. He was informed that the Earl of Oxford was at Newark and decided to attack the city. Oxford, however, did not believe that his troops would be able to match Edward’s trained force, abandoned Newark and marched south, with many of his men deserting. King Edward then rode in triumph to Leicester with his army of around 2,000, which was increasing daily as 3,000 of Lord Hastings’s men joined him. When the Earl of Warwick heard of the Earl of Oxford’s retreat, he withdrew his force of about 3,000 men behind the walls of Coventry to

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134  Battles of the Wars of the Roses await the arrival of Oxford’s troops and also those led by the Duke of Clarence. He was then confident that he would be able to outnumber and defeat Edward’s army with the combined force of men. On 29 March 1471, King Edward arrived at Coventry with his men, which at the time was a well-fortified town, and called out to Warwick to make his peace and receive a pardon or come out and fight. Warwick was well aware that Edward was now leading a strong and well-trained army and was therefore reluctant to accept his challenge of a trial by battle. It was also known that Edward was a good general who had never lost a battle and many men did not wish to face him in the field. For three days, Edward sent his heralds to Warwick with his challenge, but received no reply. He therefore withdrew and marched to the town of Warwick, where he captured the earl’s castle and formally declared himself king. Edward then heard of the advance of the Earl of Oxford, Lord Montagu and the Duke of Exeter and sent a force to Leicester, which defeated Oxford on 3 April. Edward returned to Coventry and, before its walls, issued another challenge to Warwick that he did not accept. At this time, the Duchess of York and Duchess of Burgundy, mother and sister of the Duke of Clarence, had put pressure on him to make his peace with King Edward  IV. Clarence’s brother, Richard Duke of Gloucester, was also involved in the reconciliation by meeting him in secret at Banbury on 2 April to convince him to return to Edward’s allegiance. Clarence was persuaded, especially after the Earl of Warwick had forced him on 23 March to give up some of his property to Queen Margaret and the Prince of Wales. This was in spite of agreements that had been previously made between Queen Margaret, the Prince, Warwick and himself that he should retain all his properties until he was fully recompensed. Clarence was also aware that Warwick’s position was becoming fragile and that he should therefore transfer his allegiance before it was too late. On 3 April, the Duke of Clarence led his army of 3,000 men into Edward’s camp at Banbury and knelt in submission. King Edward forgave him and promised to restore his estates, after which the Yorkist brothers returned to Warwick Castle and issued another challenge to the Earl of Warwick at Coventry. Warwick, however, was appalled at the defection of Clarence and knew that he could not face the Yorkist army without reinforcements. Edward then abandoned his attempts to engage

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Battle of Barnet, 14 April 1471  135 with Warwick, according to the Arrivall: ‘Not thinking it behoveful to assail nor to tarry for the assieging thereof, as well for the avoidance of great slaughter that should thereby ensue, and for that it was thought more expedient to them to draw towards London.’ In London, the Duke of Somerset, his brother John Beaufort, Marquess of Dorset and John Courtenay, fifteenth Earl of Devon decided to leave and ride west to meet Queen Margaret on her arrival from France. King Edward then headed for London with his army, knowing that, if he could secure the city, it would help him gain the victory he desired. On Palm Sunday, 7 April, Edward arrived at Daventry, where he attended a service at the parish church. Within the church was a statue of St Anne, whom the king venerated, but it had been boarded up for the period between Ash Wednesday and Easter Sunday. The boards surrounding the statue suddenly crashed to the floor, which was interpreted as the saint having King Edward under her special protection. Edward then continued to Northampton, where he was well received and kept an experienced force at his rear to guard against attack. He left Northampton with his army and the Earl of Warwick followed him from Coventry two days later with his troops. Edward continued to London with his army growing all the time and Lord Howard left sanctuary at Colchester to join him with his retainers. The Earl of Warwick at this time sent messengers to the city authorities ordering them to resist Edward and not offer him any assistance, hoping to catch him outside the city walls. Warwick also wrote to his brother, Archbishop Neville, ‘desiring him to do all he could to provoke the city against Edward and keep him out for two or three days, promising that he would then not fail to come up with great forces from behind, intending utterly to destroy him and his men.’ The archbishop on 9 April summoned as many of the citizens and the nobility as he could who were loyal to King Henry  VI to St Paul’s, where around 6,000 people gathered. King Henry  VI was then brought out of his lodgings at the bishop’s palace and paraded around the city to encourage the citizens, but the sight of the king in his faded blue gown, slumped on his seat looking tired and surrounded by armed men, did not inspire confidence. King Edward sent messages from Dunstable on 9 April, according to the Arrivall, ‘to his queen at Westminster, and to his true lords and his servants and supporters being in London where upon they considered by

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136  Battles of the Wars of the Roses the most covert means how he might be received and welcomed at his said city of London.’ On 10 April, Edward arrived at St Albans, where the authorities became aware that he was in a much stronger position than the forces of King Henry. The mayor and aldermen therefore opened the city gates to King Edward’s army and offered him their assistance. Most of the Lancastrian lords had now left London in order to meet up with Queen Margaret in the West Country, therefore there was no one left in power to oppose the Lord Mayor’s decision to open the city to King Edward. Archbishop Neville then sent a message to Edward promising him his assistance and goodwill, which was accepted by him. The Tower of London was also taken for the king that night, which left him a clear entry into the city. On 11 April, it became known that King Louis XI had signed a threemonth truce with Charles the Bold of Burgundy. This was because the French king had wanted to see the outcome of events in England before he committed himself to help the Earl of Warwick. That same morning, the Lord Mayor and aldermen of London dismissed the city militia and at noon King Edward and his two brothers rode into the city through Bishopsgate with their army. They were welcomed by the citizens, according to Philippe de Commines, because of the birth of an heir to the throne, the merchants had wanted their loans to the king repaid and the delight of ‘the ladies of quality and rich citizens’ wives, with whom he had formerly intrigued, who had forced their husbands to declare themselves on his side.’ King Edward went to St Paul’s Cathedral to hear the thanks of Archbishop Neville for his restoration to the throne and the archbishop also declared King Henry VI deposed. He then escorted Edward to the bishop’s palace, where he was embraced by King Henry, who stated ‘my cousin of York, you are very welcome. I know that in your hands my life will not be in danger.’ Edward ordered him taken into custody at the Tower of London, with the Yorkist prisoners there released, and he also sent his retainers to Westminster Abbey to take Queen Elizabeth and her children to the Palace of Westminster. The king then went to Westminster Abbey himself, where Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Bourchier set the crown on his head to show the people that he had been restored as king and Edward gave his thanks to God.

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Battle of Barnet, 14 April 1471  137 He then ordered his army to guard the city walls against attack from the Earl of Warwick, who was riding from Coventry to confront him, and went in procession to the Palace of Westminster to greet his queen and children. He embraced his daughters and took his five-month-old son Edward in his arms, which moved him to tears. The following day, Good Friday 12 April 1471, Edward installed his queen, children, mother and the Archbishop of Canterbury at the Tower of London for their safety. He had also ordered his captains to recruit reinforcements and prepared to face Warwick as far from London as he could. On the afternoon of 13 April, King Edward rode out of London with his army, taking King Henry with him, and headed ten miles north to the little town of Barnet. His advance guard then had a skirmish with Warwick’s vanguard and drove them half a mile from the town. When King Edward arrived, he ordered his men to deploy north of Barnet and not to remain in the town. At this time, the Earl of Warwick had also arrived north of Barnet with his army, spent some time looking for an advantageous position for his men and deployed his force on a ridge behind a hedge on both sides of the Great North Road. By then, it was nightfall and both King Edward and Warwick did not realise that they were much nearer to their opponents than they had thought. Edward had positioned himself at the centre of his army of around 12,000 men with his brother, Richard Duke of Gloucester, leading his right wing and William Lord Hastings his left. Lord Montagu was at the centre of the larger Lancastrian army of about 15,000 soldiers, with John de Vere, Earl of Oxford commanding the right wing, Henry Holland, Duke of Exeter the left and the Earl of Warwick the reserve. Both armies had deployed their forces with their right wings overlapping their opponents, without their leaders being aware of the disposition of their men. The Earl of Warwick commanded his gunners to fire during the night at King Edward’s forces. However, because of the overlap and the closeness of the two armies, their shots landed on empty fields or passed harmlessly over the Yorkist army. Edward ordered his gunners not to return fire so as not to reveal their positions to the Lancastrian army.

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Depiction of the burial of the Earl of Warwick at Bisham Priory, Berkshire.

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Battle of Barnet, 14 April 1471  139 At around four o’clock the next morning, Easter Sunday, 14 April, according to the Arrivall: ‘The King notwithstanding that there was a great mist which prevented each side from seeing the other yet he committed his cause and quarrell to almighty God.’ He then ‘advanced banners, did blow the trumpets and set upon the enemy, at first with shot, soon they joined and came to hand strokes, wherein his enemies manfully and courageously received them. With the faithful wellbeloved and mighty assistance of his supporters… who did not desert him and were as devoted to him as they possibly could be, he manfully, vigorously and valiantly assailed his enemies in the midst and strongest part of their army, and with great violence beat and bore down all before him that stood in his way... so that nothing might stand in the sight of him and the well assured fellowship that attended truly upon him.’ Both sides soon sent in their reserves to reinforce the centre and the left wings of both armies gave way because of the overlap without the commanders being aware due to the early morning mist. The Earl of Oxford chased the Yorkist left wing several miles beyond the town of Barnet while the Duke of Gloucester pushed the Lancastrian left wing beyond a depression called Dead Man’s Bottom. The disposition of the two armies at that point therefore changed as they swung round from north-south to east-west deployment. The Earl of Oxford’s men then took to looting the town of Barnet and he had great difficulty in rallying them to return to the battle. He managed to gather around 800 of his men but, as they returned to the battlefield, his banner of ‘Star in Rays’ was mistaken for King Edward’s ‘Sun in Splendour’ and Lord Montagu’s men fired several volleys of arrows at them. Oxford’s men hit back and withdrew from the battle amid cries of treason. The shouts of treason then spread throughout the Lancastrian ranks and shattered their morale because the Earl of Warwick had been a former Yorkist and the troops did not now know whom they could trust. Some of Lord Montagu’s men thought that the Earl of Oxford had defected to the Yorkist cause and others thought that the Earl of Warwick was about to come to terms with King Edward and halt the battle. Many of the Lancastrian soldiers were now panicking and fleeing and King Edward took full advantage of the situation by sending in his reserves to attack. Lord Montagu was then killed in the melee, by one of Warwick’s men, according to the Warkworth Chronicle because he had put on King Edward’s livery. The

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140

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Map of the early deployment of forces at the Battle of Barnet.

Earl of Warwick tried to rally his remaining troops, but the Lancastrian line had now been broken as men fled for their lives. Warwick dismounted and summoned his best knights, saying, ‘If we withstand this one charge, the field will be ours.’ They fought valiantly but most were cut down by the mounted Yorkist knights who charged at them. The Earl of Warwick now realised that he had lost the battle and retreated to Wrotham Wood, where he had left his horse. King Edward,

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Battle of Barnet, 14 April 1471

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who became aware that he had won the field, had sent a messenger to inform his troops to spare Warwick’s life. However, a group of Yorkist soldiers who may not have known about Edward’s order saw Warwick trying to escape, caught and killed him with a dagger thrust through the visor in his helmet. His body was then stripped of his armour and he was left naked in the field. The battle, which had lasted about three hours, was now over before eight o’clock in the morning.

Map of the late deployment forces at the Battle of Barnet.

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142  Battles of the Wars of the Roses The casualties were heavy on both sides as King Edward had not instructed his troops to spare the common soldiers because he had been angered by former Yorkists taking arms against him. Around 1,000 were killed on the Lancastrian side, including the Earl of Warwick and Lord Montagu. The Yorkists lost about 500 men, many of whom were among King Edward’s personal retinue, including Humphrey Bourchier, Lord Cromwell who was the son of Isabel, sister of the late Duke of York and therefore King Edward’s first cousin. Also killed were Sir William Blount, Lord Say and Sir Humphrey Bourchier, son of Lord Berners, who was the first cousin of Lord Cromwell. The Bourchier family had therefore paid a heavy price for their support of the House of York at Barnet. The Duke of Exeter was wounded in the battle and left for dead until the afternoon, when he was recognised and taken to a safe house by a supporter, where his wounds were treated. He then went into sanctuary at Westminster and later spent four years as a prisoner at the Tower of London. The Earl of Oxford, his two brothers, Viscount Beaumont and a few of his men also managed to escape the battle and fled to Scotland, then France.

Nineteenth-century depiction of the rout of the Lancastrian army at the Battle of Barnet.

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Battle of Barnet, 14 April 1471  143 King Edward later granted a general pardon to the gentry at Barnet who had taken arms against him, which included Sir John Paston, who had fought for the Earl of Warwick and was wounded in the battle. On 14 April 1471, the same day of the Battle of Barnet, Margaret of Anjou had landed at Weymouth with her son, Edward Prince of Wales, and her entourage after spending twenty days at sea battered by storms. Accompanying her were the Princess of Wales, Sir John Fortescue, Dr John Morton, Lord Wenlock and around 1,000 French knights and squires. The queen had been hoping to raise the southwest to the Lancastrian cause because many of her supporters, including the Duke of Somerset, the Duke of Exeter, the Duke of Clarence and the Earl of Devon held lands in the region. She was not aware at that time of the defection of the Duke of Clarence or that her husband had been deposed once again. During the battle, men had been running into London claiming that King Edward and his brothers had been defeated by the Earl of Warwick and killed. This had evidently happened after the Yorkist left wing was routed by the Earl of Oxford’s men and chased out of Barnet. It was not known whether that was true until one of the king’s messengers rode through the streets in triumph, waving one of Edward’s gauntlets as a sign of victory before taking it to the queen. King Edward had ordered his men to rest and refresh themselves after the battle and then take possession of the Lancastrian cannon. That same afternoon, the king returned to London, accompanied by his brothers, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Gloucester, his nobles and troops. He was welcomed, according to the Arrivall, ‘with great joy and gladness’. King Henry VI was returned to the Tower of London as a prisoner and was later joined by Archbishop Neville, whom Edward was not able to trust, even though he had guaranteed the archbishop’s safety. The bodies of the Earl of Warwick and Lord Montagu were brought back to London the following day, Easter Monday, and displayed naked, covered only by loincloths in a single open coffin at St Paul’s Cathedral. They remained there for three days according to the Arrivall ‘so that the people should not be abused by feigned and seditious tales’ claiming that the Earl of Warwick was still alive. It appears that those stories had already been circulated by his supporters. It was evident therefore that King Edward did not wish to see any further rebellions throughout

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144  Battles of the Wars of the Roses

Nineteenth-century image of the death of the Earl of Warwick.

the country in the names of Warwick and Montagu, as had occurred in previous years. However, Edward treated the corpses of his former allies with some respect and did not order them to be quartered and displayed on bridges as traitors.

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Battle of Barnet, 14 April 1471  145

Obelisk erected in 1740 at Hadley Highstone, Barnet to the Earl of Warwick.

The bodies of Warwick and Montagu were taken for burial to Bisham Priory in Berkshire, which had been the family burial place of the Earls of Salisbury since 1344. Their brother, Sir Thomas Neville, and father, Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury, had also been buried there after they were killed on and after the Battle of Wakefield in 1460. However, the priory, which later became an abbey, was dissolved in 1538 in the Reformation of King Henry  VIII and later destroyed along with the graves. The site of the abbey is now occupied by a leisure centre. London rejoiced at the victory of King Edward, but he was well aware that the battle was not yet over and he would still have to deal with the threat of an invasion by Margaret of Anjou, the Prince of Wales and their followers in the southwest.

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Chapter 25

Battle of Tewkesbury, 4 May 1471

A

fter landing at Weymouth on Easter Sunday, 14 April 1471, Margaret of Anjou travelled to the Benedictine abbey at Cerne in Dorset with the retainers that had accompanied her from France. She was soon joined by Edmund Beaufort, fourth Duke of Somerset and his brother, John Beaufort, Marquess of Dorset, Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke and John Courtenay, fifteenth Earl of Devon. The lords then gave her the bad news of the defeat and death of the Earl of Warwick at Barnet and the removal of her husband King Henry VI to the Tower of London. The Countess of Warwick, on hearing of the deaths of her husband and brother-in-law, fled with her party through the New Forest and took sanctuary at Beaulieu Abbey in Hampshire. Queen Margaret fainted in shock and, according to Edward Hall: ‘She reviled the calamitous times in which she lived and reproached herself for all her painful labours, now turned to her own misery, and declared she desired rather to die than live longer in this state of infelicity.’ Her main concern was the safety of her son, the Prince of Wales, and she begged the lords to ensure it. Margaret then suggested that it would not do any good to continue armed confrontation with King Edward and they should therefore prepare to return to France. However, the lords persuaded her to remain steadfast in her pursuit of the Lancastrian cause. Although the defeat of Warwick had been a setback, many men were ready to fight against King Edward in support of the House of Lancaster. The alliance with Warwick had also been a reluctant one and, if they triumphed against the Yorkists, they would soon become sole rulers of the kingdom. The lords informed Margaret that they would raise the west and northern counties to her cause and she then sent summonses to her supporters. In the next few days, more Lancastrian lords and their retainers arrived at Cerne from Dorset, Somerset and Wiltshire, which cheered Margaret, who recovered her former energy and vitality.

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Battle of Tewkesbury, 4 May 1471  147 The Duke of Somerset, John Beaufort, Marquess of Dorset, the Earl of Devon, Jasper Tudor, Lord Wenlock and Sir John Langstrother, Prior of the Order of the Knights of St John of Jerusalem, then held a council of war and decided that their army should travel north through Bristol, Gloucester and Chester to Lancashire to raise more troops. They would be able to raise archers in the northwest and Jasper Tudor would also travel to Wales to recruit the Welsh supporters in the region. Queen Margaret was to march west to rally more adherents to the Lancastrian cause and then join up with the rest of the army.

Fifteenth-century Ghent manuscript depiction of the Battle of Tewkesbury.

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148  Battles of the Wars of the Roses King Edward  IV was in London when he heard on 16 April of the landing of Margaret of Anjou with her force at Weymouth. He knew that he needed to act swiftly to prevent the build-up of the new Lancastrian threat to his rule and, according to the Croyland Chronicle: ‘He was worn down by many different blows and had little time in which to refresh himself. No sooner was he done with one battle in the east than he was faced with another in the western part of England, and had to prepare himself to fight at full strength.’ King Edward had dismissed his army after the Battle of Barnet and, between 18 and 26 April, he sent commissions of array to fifteen different counties to instruct men-at-arms to come to his aid as he was in need of fresh troops. Edward issued a proclamation against the queen and her supporters, informing the people that ‘God had vindicated his right to the throne by giving him the victory at Barnet and in divers battle against our great adversary Harry and his adherents.’ He then ordered that workmen be recruited to service and repair the royal ordnance and cannon before travelling to Windsor on 19 April with William Lord Hastings to gather his army. Although King Edward had won at Barnet, was in control of London and held King Henry  VI imprisoned at the Tower, his position was still not as secure as it may have seemed. The west and northwest were still Lancastrian strongholds, Kent and Calais were full of Warwick’s supporters and Thomas Neville, Bastard of Fauconberg was able to muster an army and march on London as soon as Edward left the capital. Edward celebrated the Feast of St George on 23 April with his Knights of the Garter at Windsor Castle before leading his army of 3,000 men the following day in pursuit of Queen Margaret’s army. His march was slow because he was still waiting for reinforcements and his army included a wagon train of supplies and artillery captured at Barnet. Edward’s army marched through the Thames Valley, reached Abingdon on 27 April and continued to Malmesbury, intending to cut off Queen Margaret’s army before it crossed the River Severn at Gloucester. King Edward’s scouts were at that time shadowing Margaret’s army to discover its movements. The queen’s own scouts were then sent east as though her army intended to march to London to conceal its real intentions. Edward was taken in at first by this deception, but soon

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Battle of Tewkesbury, 4 May 1471  149 discovered the real course of the Lancastrian army, which was marching north to Wales. The queen’s force became aware that King Edward’s army was bearing down on them in good order and therefore quickened their march to escape. However, the Lancastrian army was gaining new recruits every day because it was in territory that was loyal to King Henry VI as King Edward drove his army forward. Queen Margaret had moved from the abbey at Cerne to Exeter, where many men joined her from the counties of Devon and Cornwall led by Sir John Arundell and John Courtenay, Earl of Devon. According to the Arrivall: they raised ‘the whole might of Cornwall and Devonshire’. The Lancastrian army then moved to Taunton, Glastonbury and Wells,

The Yorkist cannon in action at the Battle of Tewkesbury.

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150  Battles of the Wars of the Roses which it reached on 27 April and sacked the bishop’s palace there. The queen was advised to stop in order to muster her troops as King Edward’s army was in Abingdon. On 29 April, Edward’s army reached Cirencester, where he was informed that the queen’s army was moving to Bath, thirty miles southwest, and was heading towards him. King Edward therefore ordered his troops out of the town and placed them in battle order three miles outside. However, the following day there were no further reports of the advance of the Lancastrian army towards Cirencester and Edward moved his army south to Malmesbury, hoping to intercept his enemies. On 30 April, Margaret’s army had reached Bath and on being told the news King Edward’s army changed course and arrived there on 1 May. However, the queen’s army had already moved west and reached Bristol, with Edward being told that her army was planning to meet him in the field at nearby Chipping Sodbury. Queen Margaret was well received at Bristol and received arms, food and money from the citizens, but not many recruits joined her army there. Margaret then moved her troops to Berkeley Castle, leaving her vanguard at Chipping Sodbury to distract King Edward’s army. Edward’s advance troops had a skirmish there with Margaret’s force and a few Yorkists were captured before the Lancastrians withdrew. King Edward’s army then spent the night at Chipping Sodbury, but found no trace of Queen Margaret’s troops. On the evening of 2 May, Margaret moved her army from Berkeley Castle and marched through the night to Gloucester, where she planned to cross the River Severn into Wales. Once she had joined up with the Welsh soldiers recruited by Jasper Tudor, Margaret reasoned that the Yorkist army would have little chance against their combined forces. However, King Edward had received news of the queen’s moves during the night and he was determined to stop the Lancastrians linking up with the Welsh forces. He therefore dispatched a fast messenger to Sir Richard Beauchamp, governor of Gloucester, commanding him to close the city gates to Queen Margaret’s army. The royal messenger took a circular route around the Lancastrian army to reach Gloucester to pass the message. The following day at dawn, King Edward drew up his army in battle order for its thirty-mile march through the Cotswolds to Cheltenham to intercept Margaret’s forces.

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Battle of Tewkesbury, 4 May 1471  151 At ten in the morning of 3 May, the Lancastrian army arrived at Gloucester, where Margaret found the gates and access to the bridge closed and demanded admission from the governor. Beauchamp informed her, however, that he and the citizens were bound by their oath of loyalty to the king and he remained steadfast when Margaret threatened an attack on the city. But the Yorkist army was now fast approaching, so Margaret had no alternative but to march ten miles north to Tewkesbury, where there was a ferry crossing over the River Severn, with the next bridge six miles further north at Upton-upon-Severn. According to the Arrivall: ‘All that day was ever the King’s host within five of six miles of his enemies; he in the plain country, and they amongst woods, he having always good espialls (spies) upon them.’ However, Edward’s army was running low on food supplies and were on short rations. It was a hot day and the Yorkist soldiers had to drink from a stream polluted by dirt churned up by the passing carts. At four in the afternoon of 3 May, Queen Margaret’s army arrived at Tewkesbury in Gloucestershire to cross the River Severn into Wales. However, they had marched for a night and a day and, according to the Arrivall, they were: ‘right weary, for by that time they had travelled thirty six long miles in a foul country, all in lanes and stony ways, betwixt woods, without any good refreshing.’ Some of the Lancastrian soldiers had collapsed from heat and exhaustion and had been left behind. Margaret was also exhausted and it was therefore decided to rest that night and take the field against King Edward the following day. Queen Margaret, the Princess of Wales, the Countess of Devon and other ladies of the queen’s retinue retired for the night at nearby Gupshill Manor. King Edward arrived with his troops at Cheltenham that afternoon and was told that the Lancastrian army was heading for Tewkesbury. He ordered his army to rest, eat and drink for a while before heading for Tredington, which was three miles from Tewkesbury. They set up camp there, being just as exhausted as the Lancastrians after a long march. At dawn the following day, 4 May 1471, Queen Margaret’s army began preparing for the battle that would undoubtedly take place on that day. Edmund Beaufort, fourth Duke of Somerset, was commander in chief and drew up his army of around 6,000 troops in battle order on a hill south of the town and Tewkesbury Abbey. The queen and captains, however, expressed concern that, according to the Arrivall: ‘Afore them,

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152  Battles of the Wars of the Roses and on every hand of them, were foul lanes and deep dykes, and many hedges with hills and valleys, a right evil place to approach as could well have been devised.’ To this day the place is known as Margaret’s Camp. Later that morning, King Edward arrived with his army of about 5,500 men, having finally caught up with the Lancastrians at Tewkesbury, crossed the Swilgate Brook and formed up his troops in battle order about 500 yards in front of his foes. There were no negotiations with heralds passing messages to and fro because both sides had clearly wished to eliminate the enemy. The queen and Prince of Wales then rode through the ranks of their soldiers promising fame, fortune and glory if they fought well. Margaret then retired to the rear, leaving the Duke of Somerset in command of the Lancastrian army. The Prince of Wales in his first battle was to lead the centre, with Lord Wenlock and Sir John Langstrother, Prior of the Order of the Knights of St John of Jerusalem, Somerset led the right wing and the Earl of Devon the left. King Edward commanded the centre of the Yorkist army with his brother, George Duke of Clarence, at his side, Richard Duke of Gloucester leading the left wing and William Lord Hastings the right. Thomas Grey, Elizabeth Woodville’s son by her first husband, led the rearguard. His army had more professional soldiers, better arms and artillery and their morale was better than the Lancastrian troops who had been hunted down in the past few days. Edward also positioned a force of 200 mounted spearmen in a park to the right of the Lancastrian line in case of an ambush, as had happened at Towton eleven years before. According to the Arrivall: ‘He considered that upon the right hand of their field there was a park, and therein much wood, and he, thinking to purvey a remedy in case his said enemies had laid any bushment (ambush) in that wood of horsemen, he chose out of his fellowship two hundred spears, and set them in a plump (group), together, near a quarter of a mile from the field, giving them a charge to have a good eye upon that corner of the wood, if case that any need were, to put them in devoir (service) and, if they saw none such, as they thought most behoveful for time and space, to employ themselves as best wise as they could.’ The Duke of Somerset had planned that he would attack the Yorkist left wing and Lord Wenlock the centre, but King Edward started the attack with a blast of trumpets, artillery fire and volleys of arrows from

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Battle of Tewkesbury, 4 May 1471  153

Map of the Battle of Tewkesbury. ‘From the Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury’ 1991, by P.W Hammond, map drawn by Dave Scuffam.

his archers. The Lancastrians returned fire, but they had already lost some of their cannon, captured by Sir Richard Beauchamp at Gloucester, and they therefore suffered heavily in those exchanges. The Duke of Gloucester then gave the order for a retreat to draw his enemies out of their defensive positions. The ruse worked and the Duke of Somerset led his troops in a charge down the hill against Gloucester’s left wing, also calling for Lord Wenlock and Prince Edward to follow him in the attack. The commander of the 200 spearmen whom King Edward had placed in the park witnessed the attack and led his troops against the rear of Somerset’s men. King Edward’s centre also joined in this attack with

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154  Battles of the Wars of the Roses their axes and swords. The Duke of Somerset was now surrounded on three sides, but fought bravely, although the Lancastrian centre led by Lord Wenlock did not come to his aid. As a consequence, Somerset’s wing was cut to pieces as soldiers fled in panic in all directions and, at this point, the Lancastrians had effectively lost the battle. According to one account, Somerset returned to the centre of the Lancastrian army with his remaining troops, realising that Lord Wenlock had not joined his attack, called him a traitor and, before he had a chance to answer, dashed out his brains with his battle axe. Prince Edward was left leading the centre as King Edward took full advantage of the situation and ordered a general charge of the Yorkist centre and right wing. In the face of this overwhelming attack, the Lancastrian line broke as soldiers fled in a fullscale rout, hotly pursued by the Yorkist troops. Many were cut down as others entered Tewkesbury Abbey seeking sanctuary, and more drowned in their heavy armour attempting to cross the River Avon. Some were slaughtered near the Abbey Mill, but most were killed in the Bloody Meadow near the river in a field that bears that name to this day. The Lancastrian army had lost around 2,000 men including Sir John Beaufort, Somerset’s younger brother, John Courtenay, Earl of Devon,

Tewkesbury Abbey.

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Battle of Tewkesbury, 4 May 1471  155 Sir William Vaux, Sir Robert Whittingham, Sir William Roos and Sir Edmund Hampden, all ardent supporters of Queen Margaret. The number of Yorkist casualties is unknown, but King Edward did not lose any of his commanders. The most significant loss of the Lancastrian army was Edward, Prince of Wales, who, according to the Arrivall, ‘was taken fleeing to the townwards and slain in the field.’ Commines and other contemporary writers wrote that he ‘died in the field’, whereas the Duke of Clarence stated that ‘he had been slain in plain battle’. Tudor historians Vergil, More and Hall, however, state that the prince was captured during the rout and brought before King Edward after the battle. The king asked him why he had taken up arms against him, to which he replied, ‘I came to recover my father’s heritage. My father had been miserably oppressed, and the crown usurped.’ King Edward was angered at his reply and slapped the Prince on the mouth with his gauntlet, which prompted Clarence, Gloucester and Hastings to cut him down with their swords. Prince Edward was the last male heir of the House of Lancaster and his death therefore ended their future hopes and dynasty. He was buried

The Sun in Splendour badge on the ceiling of Tewkesbury Abbey.

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156  Battles of the Wars of the Roses with the other common soldiers at Tewkesbury Abbey under the roof decorated to this day with the gilded Sun in Splendour to commemorate the Yorkist victory. An eighteenth-century brass plate inscribed in Latin marks his last resting place: ‘Here lies Edward Prince of Wales, cruelly slain while a youth, Anno Domini 1471, alas the savagery of men, thou art the sole light of thy mother, the last hope of thy race.’ The Duke of Somerset fled into Tewkesbury Abbey after the battle with Sir John Langstrother, Sir Humphrey Audley, Sir John Fortescue and Dr John Morton, with many others of the Lancastrian army seeking sanctuary. The Chronicle of Tewkesbury Abbey states that the Yorkists entered the abbey armed and killed several of those sheltering inside, while others sacked the building and the town. Because of this, the abbey had to be consecrated again on 30 May by the Bishop of Worcester. Similar violence also occurred at the church at Didbrook ten miles away, where the Lancastrians were targeted. With the battle won and the enemy in flight, King Edward entered Tewkesbury Abbey to give his thanks to God for his victory. The Arrival

The Bloody Meadow at the Battle of Tewkesbury.

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Battle of Tewkesbury, 4 May 1471  157 states: ‘He gave them all his free pardon, albeit there neither was, nor had at any time been granted, any franchise to that place for any offenders against their prince having recourse thither, but that it had been lawful to the King to have commanded them to have been drawn out of the church, and had done them to be executed as his traitors, if so had been his pleasure.’ ‘He granted the corpses of the said Edward, and others so slain in the field, or elsewhere, to be buried there in the church, or elsewhere, as it pleased the servants, friends or neighbours, without any quartering, or defouling their bodies, by setting up at any open place.’ It therefore appears that Tewkesbury Abbey did not have the right of sanctuary. However, according to the Warkworth Chronicle, Edward entered carrying a sword in his hand and was faced by a priest ‘that turned out at his Mass, and the sacrament in his hands.’ ‘The priest required him by virtue of the sacrament, that he should pardon all those whose names here follow: the Duke of Somerset, Sir John Langstrother the Lord of St John’s, Sir Humphrey Audley, Sir Gervais Clifton, Sir William Gremyby, Sir William Cary, Sir Thomas

Monument to the Battle of Tewkesbury.

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158  Battles of the Wars of the Roses

Plaque to Edward of Lancaster at Tewkesbury Abbey.

Tresham, Sir William Newburgh, knights, Harry Tresham, Walter Courtenay, John Florey, Lewis Myles, Robert Jackson, James Gower, James Delvis, son and heir to Sir John Delvis, which upon the trust of the King’s pardon, given in the same church, the Saturday, abode there still, when they might have gone, and saved their lives.’ Those men therefore remained in the abbey, trusting King Edward’s pardon instead of trying to escape from the vengeful Yorkists. Edward also knighted some of his followers, including George Neville, Philip Courtenay, Richard and Ralph Hastings, and James Tyrell. On 6 May 1471, the Duke of Somerset and the other Lancastrian fugitives were dragged out of Tewkesbury Abbey and brought before a military tribunal to be tried for treason by Richard Duke of Gloucester, Constable of England, and John Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk, Marshall of England. The verdict was never in doubt and Somerset, Sir John Langstrother, Sir Gervais Clifton, Sir Humphrey Audley and the others were beheaded at Tewkesbury marketplace. However, King Edward was not without mercy and Sir John Fortescue, Dr John Morton, Sir Thomas

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Battle of Tewkesbury, 4 May 1471  159 Ormonde and Sir Kerry Roos were pardoned, along with all the common soldiers who had fought against him. The Beauforts had now been eliminated in the male line apart from an illegitimate son of Henry Beaufort named Charles Somerset, who became the ancestor of the present Duke of Beaufort. King Edward, who had been receiving reports of a new rebellion in the north and also in Wales, dismissed his army who had fought at Tewkesbury and began to recruit a new army.

Fifteenth-century depiction of the beheading of the Duke of Somerset after the Battle of Tewkesbury.

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160  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Jasper Tudor was in Chepstow recruiting soldiers when he heard of the defeat of the Lancastrian army. King Edward had sent Sir Roger Vaughan to capture him, but Vaughan was captured himself and beheaded by Jasper Tudor, possibly in revenge for the death of his father, Owen Tudor. Jasper then fled to Pembroke Castle and later to France with Henry Tudor, where he spent the next fourteen years in exile. Margaret of Anjou, Anne Neville and their retinue received news of the Lancastrian defeat, but no information regarding Prince Edward. Margaret fainted with anxiety and had to be carried to her litter by her ladies in order to escape from the battlefield. The queen’s party fled through the countryside, arriving at Little Malvern Priory, a poor religious house in Worcestershire, where they were captured by Sir William Stanley on 7 May 1471. Stanley informed Margaret of the death of her son and, after collapsing in shock, she was dragged out by his men to be brought before King Edward, who had in the meantime travelled to Worcester and then to Coventry. In great distress, Margaret screamed curses and abuse at the king who at first considered her execution. However, it was not the usual custom of the Plantagenets to execute women, except for witchcraft or murder, and he informed her that she would be dealt with honourably, to which she meekly replied that she would place herself at his commandment. On 14 May, Edward received news that the northern rebellion had dissolved after his victory at Tewkesbury with Henry Percy, fourth Earl of Northumberland, remaining loyal to him. On that day, he left Coventry with the queen in his train to return to London with his army. Anne Neville was taken into the custody of the Duke of Clarence, her brother-in-law, to enter his household in the care of her sister Isabel. At this time, another rebellion was taking place in the southeast, particularly in Kent, in spite of King Edward’s victories at Barnet and Tewkesbury, led by Thomas Neville, Bastard of Fauconberg. He was the illegitimate son of William Neville, Lord Fauconberg, who had died in 1463, and therefore the Earl of Warwick’s cousin. He led Warwick’s former followers, Calais soldiers, sailors and pirates. Fauconberg had commanded Warwick’s ships and, after his death, landed in Kent to incite rebellion, to which men flocked from all regions in order to march to London. Sir Geoffrey Gate sent him 300 soldiers from Calais and the Mayor of Canterbury, Nicholas Faunt, joined him with 200 men. Rebels

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Fauconberg’s siege of London, May 1471.

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162  Battles of the Wars of the Roses also arrived from Essex by road and by boat to rob and pillage the City of London. On 8 May, Fauconberg, who was at Sittingbourne, demanded that the Lord Mayor of London open the gates to him, but he was refused because news of King Edward’s victory at Tewkesbury had already arrived. When the king learnt of the rebellion, he sent commissions of array to several counties and was soon joined by 30,000 soldiers. On 13 May, Fauconberg appeared in London on the Surrey side with a force of 17,000 men and announced his intention of freeing King Henry VI from the Tower of London. The Lord Mayor, John Stockton, and aldermen refused him entry, saying that they were holding the capital for the king. Fauconberg then marched to Kingston, where he crossed the Thames intending to capture Westminster, but returned to Southwark on hearing that King Edward’s army was on its way. He then lined up his guns to fire at the Tower of London, which was under the command of the queen’s brother, Anthony Earl Rivers, and where Queen Elizabeth and her children were staying. Rivers ordered the firing of the Tower’s cannon at the rebels, which beat off their assault. The following day, Fauconberg made an attack on London Bridge, but was again driven back by cannon fire. Some of his men attacked St Katherine’s Docks, rampaged through the streets firing guns and arrows, robbing, pillaging, and setting fire to Aldgate and Bishopsgate. Henry Bourchier, Earl of Essex and William Fitzalan, Earl of Arundel then arrived with reinforcements to assist the Londoners and, together with Earl Rivers and his troops, fought off Fauconberg’s men, about 300 of whom were killed. The rebels were then pursued back to their ships on the Thames and some regrouped at Blackheath, where they stayed until 18 May. Fauconberg then discovered that King Edward’s vanguard of around 1,500 men had arrived in the city and decided to escape to the safety of his fleet, leaving Nicholas Faunt and the rebels to their own devices. He travelled to Rochester and then Sandwich, where the Calais garrison departed, while the Kentish men made their way home. The Bastard of Fauconberg was later offered a pardon in return for the surrender of his ships, which he accepted. However, after leading another revolt in the north, he was beheaded on 22 September 1471. Nicholas Faunt and other rebels were later tried for treason, some of whom were hung, drawn and quartered and others fined. King Edward later received the submission

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Battle of Tewkesbury, 4 May 1471  163 of the Calais garrison and issued pardons to the soldiers there to gain their loyalty. Edward was welcomed into London by the Lord Mayor and city fathers at Islington on 21 May 1471 and, accompanied by a large retinue and nobility, rode into the capital with banners unfurled. He knighted the Lord Mayor, John Stockton, Thomas Urswick the recorder, John Crosby a sheriff and nine others for their valiant defence of the city. Chapel at the Wakefield Tower where it is said that King Henry VI was murdered. Ahead of the procession, Queen Margaret of Anjou had sat in a litter, a broken woman after her defeat and the death of her son, exposed to the derision and abuse of the crowds who flung mud and stones at her. Edward had now triumphed against all his enemies because of his brilliant military campaigns, his speed, tenacity and leadership, for which he was acclaimed by the citizens who bestowed their blessings upon him. A service of thanksgiving was then held at St Paul’s Cathedral. That night, Richard of Gloucester entered the Tower of London as Constable of England, where King Henry  VI was still imprisoned. However, Fauconberg’s rebellion had effectively signed the death warrant of the Lancastrian king and the Arrivall states that, after the death of his son Edward and capture of his wife Margaret, his cause ‘was utterly despaired of with so great spite, ire and indignation that, of great Tomb of King Henry VI at St George’s displeasure and melancholy he died.’ Chapel, Windsor.

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164  Battles of the Wars of the Roses However, few believed this and the Milanese ambassador in Paris heard that King Edward had ‘caused King Henry to be secretly assassinated in the Tower. He has, in short, chosen to crush the seed.’ Philippe de Commines stated that the Duke of Gloucester `killed poor King Henry with his own hand, or else caused him to be killed in his presence.’ Warkworth wrote: ‘And in the same night that King Edward came to London. King Henry, being in ward in prison in the Tower of London, was put to death, between eleven and twelve of the clock, being then at the Tower the Duke of Gloucester, brother to King Edward and many other.’ There is not much doubt that King Edward had ordered the murder of King Henry VI in order to prevent any further rebellions by the nobles in his name, which would have led to more loss of life and expenditure by the Crown. He was kept alive while his son Edward lived because the prince would have otherwise been a focus for more revolts and, after he was killed at Tewkesbury, Edward felt justified in having Henry put to death. By tradition, King Henry was killed while at prayer near the eastern wall of his chamber at the Wakefield Tower. In 1910, his body was exhumed and examined, and the bones of his skull were found to be ‘much broken’ with possible traces of blood on his hair. The following day, 22 May, King Henry’s corpse was laid in an open coffin and taken through the streets of London to St Paul’s Cathedral, where it lay in state for several days. According to Warkworth: ‘And his face was open that every man might see him, and in his lying he bled on the pavement there, and afterwards at the Black Friars was brought, and there he bled new and fresh.’ King Henry’s funeral was held at the monastery of Black Friars and his body was then taken in a barge up the Thames to be interred at Chertsey Abbey. In 1484, his body was transferred for reburial at St George’s Chapel, Windsor. Margaret of Anjou had been imprisoned at the Tower of London and was then moved to Windsor Castle and, later, to Wallingford Castle under the guardianship of her good friend Alice Chaucer, Duchess of Suffolk, granddaughter of the poet Geoffrey Chaucer. She was ransomed to King Louis XI of France in 1476 and maintained by her father, Rene. When Rene died in 1480, she lived on a reduced pension provided by King Louis in great poverty. Queen Margaret died in 1482 of a short unknown illness and was buried in Angers Cathedral.

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Chapter 26

The Yorkist Age

B

y the summer of 1471, King Edward IV could finally claim to be ruler of the whole of the kingdom. The Lancastrian and Beaufort lines had been eliminated, his enemies defeated and the House of York was to rule with no effective opposition for the next fourteen years. He now had to restore law and order to a country that had suffered many years of civil war and lawlessness. In October 1472, Edward summoned Parliament, which was to sit for forty-four weeks and was therefore one of the longest in English history. One of the first issues was to deal with the vast estates of the Earl of Warwick, which had also included the Neville, Beauchamp and Despenser lands. In the meantime, the king’s brother Richard Duke of Gloucester had married Anne Neville, widow of Edward Prince of Wales and younger daughter of the Earl of Warwick. His elder daughter, Isabel, had already married George Duke of Clarence and therefore the Warwick estates had to be divided between the two brothers. Although there were disputes between George and Richard, they both agreed that

St Michael’s Mount, Cornwall.

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166  Battles of the Wars of the Roses they should have title to the lands as jure uxoris by right of their wives, not as grants from the king, which could be taken away. The Neville affinity in the north and Midlands would also remain loyal to the Crown in this way. However, Warwick’s widow, Anne Beauchamp, Countess of Warwick, was still living and was declared by Parliament to be legally dead so that her daughters could take possession of her inheritance. The Neville lands were also tied to the male heir, George Neville, son of Lord Montagu, who was disinherited by Parliament and George and Richard were granted title to the Neville lands in their lifetime, after which they would pass to the crown. This was an unsatisfactory outcome for all parties and was to cause problems in later years. The lands belonging to the Earl of Oxford and his mother, the Dowager Countess, were also forfeited or signed over to the Duke of Gloucester. John de Vere, Earl of Oxford had at this time been engaging in piracy in the English Channel since arriving in France, after he had escaped from the Battle of Barnet. He spent two years raiding Calais and English merchant shipping from which he made a good living, while causing problems for his enemy, King Edward IV. George Neville, Archbishop of York also suffered in 1472 from King Edward’s efforts to rid himself of his former enemies. Although he had made peace with the king on Edward’s return from exile, he was not considered trustworthy and was arrested for treason on account of helping the Earl of Oxford’s piracy. The archbishop was sent to Hammes Castle in Calais, while the king’s men seized the treasures at his manor. His properties were then transferred to the king and his wealth to Edward’s infant son. George Neville was released in 1475, but died in poverty the following year. The Earl of Oxford attempted to invade the Essex coast near St Osyth in 1473, but was driven off. He then sailed along the coast to Cornwall and captured St Michael’s Mount, which was a monastery on a tidal island, on 30 September 1473, with his two brothers and 397 men. At high tide, the island and monastery is cut off from the mainland and becomes a fortress, but at low tide there is a connecting causeway that can be easily crossed. It is possible that the Earl of Oxford was seeking another alliance with the Duke of Clarence in order to depose King Edward. When the king was given news that the earl had been receiving a good welcome in

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The Yorkist Age  167 Cornwall, he sent orders to Sir Henry Bodrugan, the main landowner in the area, to besiege St Michael’s Mount to deal with the invasion. Bodrugan did as he was ordered, but every day at low tide the Earl of Oxford’s men would come out under a flag of truce to parley before returning to the fortress. Oxford complained at one of the parleys that his supplies at St Michael’s Mount were running low for his men. Bodrugan then proceeded to deliver more provisions to the island in order to restock its food supplies. King Edward was furious when he heard of those actions and sent one of his squires, Richard Fortescu, to take over the siege. In December 1473, Fortescu arrived and took over, despite resistance from Bodrugan and a daily skirmish took place with Oxford’s men, with occasional truces called. The earl’s troops were then offered free pardons and grants of land if they submitted, with many of them taking up the deal until less than a dozen remained. On 15 February 1474, Oxford finally surrendered St Michael’s Mount to Richard Fortescu, who then found ample food supplies on the island. The Earl of Oxford was taken into custody to be imprisoned at Hammes Castle, Calais for the next eleven years. King Edward’s alliance with Charles the Bold of Burgundy had remained in place in the meantime and, on 25 July 1474, the Treaty of London was signed. The treaty provided for Burgundian support for Edward’s proposed invasion of France, which was to take place by 1 July 1475, while Burgundy retained all its territories with additional claims. Edward had sought revenge for King Louis  XI’s support for the Lancastrian cause in previous years and spent the rest of the year recruiting troops and planning the invasion. The invasion of France would also be popular in England in order to regain French possessions previously lost. The Duke of Burgundy had informed Edward that he would attack the French at the beginning of the campaigning season and the English would then be faced with a tired army, which could be easily defeated. In June 1475, King Edward mustered a force of 11,000 men in 500 ships provided by Charles the Bold, which took three weeks to transport to Calais. However, on his arrival, Edward found no Burgundian army to assist him as it was far to the east and Charles came to meet him with only a small escort. There was also little support from the Duke of Brittany for the English army.

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168  Battles of the Wars of the Roses King Louis XI then sent messages to King Edward that he would be willing to negotiate a settlement and a meeting was arranged on a bridge separated by a wooden grill at Picquigny, near Amiens. Louis informed Edward that he had been led by false promises and he would therefore receive little support from Charles the Bold. The Treaty of Picquigny was subsequently signed on 29 August 1475, which provided for a seven-year truce between England and France. King Louis would also pay Edward 75,000 crowns to return to England and not take up arms to pursue his claim to the French throne. An annual pension of 50,000 crowns would be paid to Edward, Margaret of Anjou would be ransomed for 50,000 crowns and annual pensions would also be paid to some of the English lords. A marriage would take place between King Edward’s eldest daughter Elizabeth and King Louis’s son Dauphin Charles when they came of age. King Edward appeared to be happy with this settlement because his heart was not fully behind the invasion. Richard Duke of Gloucester, however, was against the Treaty of Picquigny because he believed that the English army was strong enough to pursue its cause and therefore did not attend the negotiations or the signing. Richard, however, was in a minority and was then summoned to a meeting with King Louis, who gave him gifts of plate and horses, and consequently the treaty was considered dishonourable on both sides because of its apparent bribery. On the voyage home from Calais to Dover, Henry Holland, Duke of Exeter fell overboard and drowned. He had led a wing of the Lancastrian army at the Battle of Barnet and was divorced in 1472 by King Edward’s sister, Anne, while imprisoned at the Tower of London. He had then volunteered to join the expedition to France in 1475 as part of his rehabilitation, but it was rumoured that he had been murdered on Edward’s orders, who had now rid himself of a troublesome problem. On 21 July 1476, King Edward arranged for the bodies of his father, Richard Duke of York, and brother, Edmund Earl of Rutland, who had been killed at the Battle of Wakefield in 1460 to be exhumed. They had been buried in Pontefract but were now to be taken in a procession led by Richard Duke of Gloucester for reburial in the House of York Mausoleum at St Mary and All Saints Church, Fotheringhay. The procession rested each night at Doncaster, Blyth, Tuxford le Clay, Newark, Grantham and Stamford.

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The Yorkist Age  169

St Mary and All Saints Church, Fotheringhay.

Monument to Richard, third Duke of York and his wife Cecily at St Mary and All Saints Church, Fotheringhay.

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170  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Thomas Whiting, the Chester Herald, has left an account of the events: ‘The bodies were exhumed, that of the Duke, garbed in an ermine furred mantle and cap of maintenance, covered with a cloth of gold lay in state under a hearse blazing with candles, guarded by an angel of silver, bearing a crown of gold as a reminder that by right the Duke had been a king. On its journey, Richard Duke of Gloucester, with other lords and officers of arms, all dressed in mourning, followed the funeral chariot, drawn by six horses, with trappings of black, charged with the arms of France and England and preceded by a knight bearing the banner of the ducal arms. Fotheringhay was reached on 29 July, where members of the college and other ecclesiastics went forth to meet the cortege. At the entrance to the churchyard, King Edward waited, together with the Duke of Clarence, the Marquis of Dorset, Earl Rivers, Lord Hastings and other noblemen. Upon its arrival the King made obeisance to the body right humbly and put his hand on the body and kissed it, crying all the time. The procession moved into the church where two hearses were waiting, one in the choir for the body of the Duke and one in the Lady Chapel for that of the Earl of Rutland, and after the King had retired to his closet and the princes

Painting of William Caxton presenting his first printed work to King Edward IV and his family in 1477 by Daniel Maclise.

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The Yorkist Age  171 and officers of arms had stationed themselves around the hearses, masses were sung and the King’s chamberlain offered for him seven pieces of cloth of gold which were laid on a cross on the body. ‘The next day three masses were sung, the Bishop of Lincoln preached a very noble sermon and offerings were made by the Duke of Gloucester and other lords, of the Duke of York’s coat of arms, of his shield, his sword, his helmet and his coursers on which rode Lord Ferrers in full armour, holding in his hand an axe reversed. When the funeral was over, the people were admitted into the church and it is said that before the coffins were placed in the vault which had been built under the chancel, five thousand persons came to receive the alms, while four times that number partook of the dinner, served partly in the castle and partly in the King’s tents and pavilions. The menu included capons, cygnets, herons, rabbits and so many good things that the bills for it amounted to more than three hundred pounds.’

William Caxton and Anthony Earl Rivers presenting his printed book to King Edward IV.

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172  Battles of the Wars of the Roses The Duke of York was laid to rest in the vault under the choir and the Earl of Rutland under the Lady Chapel. The body of Cecily Neville, wife of the Duke of York, was placed beside her husband after she died in 1495. Their tombs were destroyed in the Reformation but, after Queen Elizabeth I visited the church in 1566, she expressed disgust at their desecration. She then ordered new monuments to be constructed for her Yorkist ancestors, which remain to this day. On 22 December 1476, Isabel Neville, Duchess of Clarence, died two months after giving birth to a baby boy, Richard, who sadly did not survive. Her husband George was furious and became convinced that one of Isabel’s ladies in waiting, Ankarette Twynyho, had poisoned her at the time of the birth, which caused two months of pain before her death. It is more likely that Isabel died of consumption, which was the name given at that time to tuberculosis, or possibly due to an infection. George, however, would not be convinced and on 12 April 1477, eighty of his men entered Ankarette’s house in Somerset to arrest and remove her to Bath. She was then taken to Warwick and put in prison before appearing before George the following morning to be accused of murder. By midday, Ankarette was tried, found guilty and sentenced to death by a jury who later said that they had been threatened by George. The sheriff had Ankarette drawn through Warwick to the gallows without due process of law to be hung at Myton. George had exercised royal authority in a way that was only permitted to the Constable of England and King Edward, who had forgiven George for his previous betrayals and indiscretions, could not tolerate this behaviour indefinitely. An astronomer named John Stacy was then arrested for various offences, including using the black art to bring about the death of Richard Lord Beauchamp at the request of his unfaithful wife. During questioning under torture, Stacy implicated Thomas Burdet as an accomplice. Stacy and Burdet were convicted and condemned to death to be hanged at Tyburn. However, before their execution, they both made speeches to claim their innocence. The following day, the Duke of Clarence burst into a Council meeting, bringing with him Dr William Goddard, a former Lancastrian, to read out Stacy’s and Burdet’s final words. This was a clear attempt to denounce royal justice and King Edward, who was at Windsor at the time, immediately summoned Clarence, had him

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The Yorkist Age  173 arrested and placed in the Tower. At the beginning of 1478, Edward himself presented the case in Parliament against Clarence for treason. The Parliament Rolls state: ‘A conspiracy against him, the queen, their son and heir and a great part of the nobility of the land has recently come to his knowledge, which treason is more heinous and unnatural than any previous one because it originates from the king’s brother the duke of Clarence, whom the king had always loved and generously rewarded.’ The Duke of Clarence’s previous rebellions were restated and it was claimed that he had used the deaths of Stacy and Burdet to turn the people against King Edward. Clarence ‘also said that the king was a bastard, not fit to reign, and made men take oaths of allegiance to him without excepting their loyalty to the king.’ These allegations were not new and may have originated in the court of King Louis XI where it was said that Edward was the son of an English archer named Blaybourne, with whom his mother Cecily had an affair. The Earl of Warwick had also used that story in the past to his own advantage. Men spoke in the Parliamentary

Stained-glass image commissioned in 1480 by King Edward  IV at the Royal Window, Canterbury Cathedral of his daughters Elizabeth, Cecily, Anne, Katherine and Mary.

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174  Battles of the Wars of the Roses trial, although George denied all the charges and Edward stated that he intended to bring war to England and kept ‘an exemplification under the great seal of an agreement made between him and Queen Margaret promising him the crown if Henry VI’s line failed’. King Edward had now lost patience with his brother. The Act of Attainder was passed, George was found guilty and executed at the Tower of London on 18 February 1478, aged twenty-eight. It was later rumoured that he was permitted to choose the manner of his execution and asked to be drowned in a vat of Malmsey wine. His daughter Margaret was said to have worn a charm of a wine cask, which can be seen on a contemporary portrait of her. It was stated that King Edward was reluctant to execute his own brother and later regretted it. There was also a rumour that the Woodville family were involved in revenge for the deaths of their father, Richard Earl Rivers, and brother, Sir John Woodville, who had been executed on the orders of the Earl of Warwick and Clarence. George Duke of Clarence and his wife Isabel were both buried at Tewkesbury Abbey and a display of bones of four individuals there is thought to contain some of their remains. King Edward had wanted to provide for the future of his children and, on 15 January 1478, his four-year-old second son, Richard of Shrewsbury,

Stained-glass image commissioned in 1480 by King Edward  IV of his two sons Edward Prince of Wales and Richard Duke of York at the Royal Window, Canterbury Cathedral.

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The Yorkist Age  175 was married to the five-year-old wealthy heiress, Anne Mowbray, daughter of the late John Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk. However, Anne died aged eight in 1481 and her estate was bestowed by Act of Parliament to her husband, Richard. She was buried at Westminster Abbey, but her coffin was later moved due to building works to the Abbey of Minoresses of St Clare near Aldgate. In 1964, her coffin was found by construction workmen, examined, with hair still on her skull, and returned for reburial to Westminster Abbey. Richard Duke of Gloucester had been created Lord President of the Council of the North, which had been set up by King Edward as an administrative body with the aim of improving government control and economic prosperity. Richard was involved in improving trade, obtaining tax breaks, land disputes, keeping the peace, punishing lawbreakers and therefore spent most of his time there away from the court. Richard had also been appointed Warden of the West March on the Scottish border and used Penrith in Cumberland as a base, taking effective measures against the Scots. He enjoyed the revenues of the forest of Cumberland and was appointed sheriff there for five years based at Penrith Castle. By 1480, war was looming with Scotland as a truce expired and Richard was appointed Lieutenant General in May of that year as fears of a Scottish

Bones of four individuals at Tewkesbury Abbey, which include those thought to belong to George Duke of Clarence and his wife Isabel.

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176  Battles of the Wars of the Roses invasion grew. King Louis  XI had attempted to negotiate a military alliance with Scotland (the Auld Alliance), with the aim of attacking England, and was therefore defaulting on the terms of the Treaty of Picquigny. King Edward  IV had prepared for war, but now lacked the drive and physical condition. He therefore handed command to Richard, who summoned the border levies and issued commissions of array to recruit soldiers in order to repel the border raids. Richard, together Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, with the Earl of Northumberland, daughter of George Duke of Clarence. Lord Stanley, the Earl of Dorset, Sir Edward Woodville and 20,000 men, launched counter raids and recaptured Berwick-upon-Tweed on the Scottish border. Richard then left the siege of the Berwick citadel to Lord Thomas Stanley and moved north into Scotland, firing buildings and reaching Edinburgh, the capital city, unopposed. The Scots then sued for peace and Richard insisted on the return of Berwick, which had been ceded to Scotland by Margaret of Anjou in return for Scottish support. The town had been used as a base for Scottish raids since then, but the castle was captured on 24 August 1482 and Berwick-upon-Tweed has remained in English hands ever since. The English victory was more due to divisions in the Scottish court because of disputes between the Scottish King James  III and his brother, Alexander Duke of Albany, than English military prowess. The Scottish campaign, however, had achieved its aims of ending the Scottish raids and recapturing Berwick. King Edward was full of praise for his brother’s achievements and for preventing the army’s looting of Edinburgh. He then wrote to the Pope: ‘Thank God, the giver all good gifts, for the support received from our most loving brother, whose success is so proven that he alone would suffice to chastise the whole kingdom of Scotland. This year we appointed our very dear

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The Yorkist Age  177

Capture of Berwick-upon-Tweed on 24 August 1482.

brother Richard Duke of Gloucester to command the same army which we ourselves intended to have led last year, had not adverse turmoil hindered us. The noble band of victors, however, spared the supplicant and prostrate citizens, the churches, and not only the widows, orphans, and minors, but all persons found there unarmed.’

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Chapter 27

Death of the King

A

t the end of March 1483, King Edward  IV was taken ill. According to Dominic Mancini, he caught a chill while on a fishing trip. He took to his bed on Easter Sunday and died of a mystery illness on 9 April 1483 at forty years of age. Edward knew that he was dying and had gathered his retinue around him and beseeched them from according to the Tudor Grafton’s Chronicle ‘this time forward, all grief forgotten, each of you love each other, which I verily trust you will. He laid down on his right side, his face toward them and none was there present that could refrain from weeping. But the Lords comforting him with as good words as they could each forgave other and joined their hands together, when as it appeared by their deeds their hearts were far asunder.’

Tomb of King Edward IV at St George’s Chapel, Windsor Castle.

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Death of the King  179 Edward had become obese in his later years with overeating, had led an unhealthy lifestyle and his final illness was thought to be pneumonia, malaria or even poisoning. He knew that his close friend, William Lord Hastings, had been in a bitter feud with Thomas Marquess of Dorset, elder son of Queen Elizabeth Woodville, and forced them to shake hands on his deathbed. He also appointed his brother Richard Duke of Gloucester as Protector of the Realm during Prince Edward’s minority in a codicil to his Will. Edward had wanted Richard to take charge of the kingdom, his son Edward and also the prince’s education. The country had been in relative peace for the previous twelve years with his enemies vanquished or in exile and the king wanted this state of affairs to continue. However, King Edward had held the various court factions together when he was alive and, after his death, the situation unravelled. Edward was buried at St George’s Chapel, Windsor Castle, on 19 April and his tomb can now be seen next to that of his greatest rival, King Henry VI. Lord Hastings then wrote to Richard Duke of Gloucester in Yorkshire to ask him to take control of the new king, and stop the Woodvilles taking over the government and undermining his role as Protector. In York, Gloucester heard Mass for his brother and took oaths of allegiance from his followers for the new king. Edward’s son, Edward Prince of Wales, who had now become King Edward V, was in Ludlow at that time, where his household was under the control of his maternal uncle, Anthony Earl Rivers, and Gloucester had written to arrange to meet him at Northampton. He also wrote to Henry Stafford, second Duke of Buckingham, whom he had hoped would be his ally in the inevitable conflict that was to come. When Gloucester arrived at Northampton, he was joined by Buckingham, but the new king had not arrived with his retinue, which had left Ludlow on 24 April. Anthony Earl Rivers then joined the two dukes at Northampton Henry Stafford, second Duke of Buckingham.

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180  Battles of the Wars of the Roses with Sir Richard Grey, Queen Elizabeth’s younger son by her previous marriage, and a few others. King Edward V had travelled on to Stony Stratford and, the following day, the Duke of Gloucester’s party moved on to meet him there. However, before they arrived, Richard ordered the arrests of Rivers, Grey and Sir Thomas Vaughan, King Edward V’s Chamberlain. He then took the king into his custody at Stony Stratford and travelled with him to London with 600 armed men, while his prisoners were moved north to his estates. When Elizabeth Woodville heard of this action, she immediately went into sanctuary at Westminster Abbey with Richard, her second son by King Edward  IV, her five daughters and Thomas Grey, Marquess of Dorset, her eldest son by her first marriage. Lord Hastings, who according to Polydore Vergil, ‘bore privy hatred to the Marquess and others of the Queen’s side’ then called a meeting of men of importance at St Paul’s Cathedral. Some argued for the removal of King Edward from his uncle’s care fearing for the new king’s safety but this proposal was defeated. On 4 May 1483, King Edward V rode into London wearing blue velvet to great public acclaim, cheering crowds and ringing of bells. He was greeted by the mayor, aldermen and prominent citizens, flanked by the Duke of Gloucester and the Duke of Buckingham. However, that had also been the date set by the Woodvilles for King Edward’s coronation in order to prevent Gloucester from becoming Protector. King Edward V was installed at the Bishop of London’s palace and was later moved to the royal apartments at the Tower of London, where by tradition kings stayed before their coronation. The Duke of Gloucester then called on all the lords, mayor and aldermen to swear an oath of allegiance to the new king. This was seen as a positive sign and a coronation date was set for 22 June 1483, with Gloucester also being confirmed as Protector of the Realm. Lord Hastings aided the two dukes and, according to the Croyland Chronicle: ‘was in the habit of saying that hitherto nothing whatever had been done except the transferring of the government of the kingdom from two of the queen’s blood to two more powerful persons of the king’s, and this, too, effected without any slaughter, or indeed causing as much blood to be shed as would be produced by the cut of a finger.’

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Death of the King  181 The Council rebuked the Duke of Gloucester for his treatment of the queen and her family, requesting that they should be given more care, but it seemed as though a bloodless transfer of power had taken place. Gloucester then took steps to take control of the royal fleet, which was under the control of Sir Edward Woodville at Sandwich and Dover. He offered free pardons to all those who would surrender and this action was successful, with most of the fleet sailing to London. He then gave wide powers of government and military control to the Duke of Buckingham in Wales and some western counties, with the constables of several castles dismissed and replaced with his own men. On 10 June, Gloucester realised that he needed more men and wrote to the city authorities of York with a letter taken by Sir Richard Ratcliffe to supply as quickly as possible: ‘as many as ye can defensibly arrayed, to aid and assist us against the queen, her blood adherents and affinity, which have intended and daily doth intend, to murder and utterly destroy us and our cousin the Duke of Buckingham and the old royal blood of this realm, fail not, but haste you to us hither.’ Letters were also sent to the Earl of Northumberland and others to muster their men at Pontefract and march to London, although, as it turned out, those men were never used in action. On 13 June 1483, part of the Council met to discuss the coronation while, at the Tower of London, Richard Duke of Gloucester, Protector, Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, William Lord Hastings, Thomas Lord Stanley, John Morton, Bishop of Ely and Thomas Stained-glass image of Archbishop of Rotherham, Bishop of Rochester were Canterbury Cardinal Thomas Bourchier in a separate meeting. in Sevenoaks Church, Kent.

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182  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Gloucester was late in arriving and, when he entered the room, he asked Morton for some strawberries from his garden to provide refreshments for the meeting. He later excused himself but, when he returned, his mood had changed, he was full of anger and demanded of Hastings: ‘What

The Bloody Tower, which housed King Edward V and his brother Richard Duke of York.

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Death of the King  183 punishment do they deserve who had plotted his death, who was so near to blood to the king, and by office the protector of the king’s person and realm?’ Hastings replied that death was the fitting punishment, at which point Gloucester condemned him as a traitor, saying according to Grafton’s Chronicle: ‘By Saint Paul, I will not dine till I see your head off.’ Hastings was then dragged outside and, according to Fabyan’s Chronicle, ‘there without judgement, or long time of confession or repentance, upon an end of a long and timber log, which lay with other for the repairing of the said Tower, caused his head to be smitten off.’ Lord Stanley, Bishop Morton and Bishop Rotherham were then placed under arrest. To Gloucester’s detractors, those events appeared to be part of his plan to eliminate his enemies on the way to seizing the throne, because Lord Hastings would never have agreed as a close friend of King Edward IV to deposing his son, the new king. However, Gloucester claimed that he had evidence of a plot against him and reportedly had it publicised and, as Constable of England at that time, he had the power to dispense justice and execute offenders. He had already been taught by his brother,

The penance of Jane Shore by William Blake.

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184  Battles of the Wars of the Roses King Edward  IV, to be ruthless towards his opponents. Proclamations were now being issued in the name of King Edward V, new coins were thought to have been minted in his image and Parliament summoned in his name for after the coronation, and it is therefore difficult to unravel Gloucester’s real intentions at that time. Modern examinations of the gold coins at the British Museum, however, which had previously been thought to have been minted in the name of King Edward V have shown that was not the case. On 15 June, King Edward  IV’s favourite mistress, Jane Shore, was forced to do public penance for harlotry by walking through London’s streets in just her underskirt, carrying a lighted taper before being thrown into prison. She had also been the mistress of William Lord Hastings and Thomas Grey, Marquess of Dorset and was accused of carrying messages between Hastings and Elizabeth Woodville regarding the conspiracy against the Duke of Gloucester. On 16 June, the Council agreed that Richard Duke of York, brother to King Edward V, be removed from sanctuary at Westminster Abbey to join the king at the Tower of London before his coronation. A band of soldiers surrounded the abbey and Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Bourchier put the case to Elizabeth Woodville, according to Dominic Mancini: ‘to

Elizabeth Woodville surrenders her son, Richard Duke of York, to the Tower of London, painting by Philip H. Calderon.

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Death of the King  185 prevent a violation of sanctuary’. Elizabeth reluctantly handed him over to the care of the archbishop on his promise that the boy would not be harmed. It appeared that Elizabeth had no choice because, without her consent, the soldiers would have violated the sanctuary of the abbey. On 17 June, orders were sent to Pontecraft Castle for the executions of Anthony Earl Rivers, Sir Richard Grey and Sir Thomas Vaughan, and the three men were beheaded on 25 June. At that time, Robert Stillington, Bishop of Bath and Wells, visited the Duke of Gloucester with some startling news that King Edward IV had been pre-contracted to marry Lady Eleanor Butler when he married Elizabeth Woodville. Two witnesses and a member of the clergy had to be present for this contract to be legally valid. If King Edward’s marriage was bigamous, it followed that all his children were illegitimate and legally incapable of inheriting and taking the throne. Edward was well known for his womanising and was therefore capable of making such pre-contracts with more than one woman. Robert Stillington claimed to have been a witness to the pre-contract between King Edward and Eleanor Butler. A sermon was then preached by Dr Ralph Shaa, half-brother to the Mayor of London, on 22 June at St Paul’s Cross, the date of the proposed coronation, entitled ‘Bastard Slips Shall Not Take Deep Root’.

Stained-glass image of King Richard III and his queen, Anne Neville, at Cardiff Castle.

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186

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Dr Shaa stated that King Edward had married bigamously and therefore all his children from that marriage were illegitimate, including King Edward V. It was also alluded that King Edward IV himself was illegitimate, which was an old charge, but this was not pursued. Robert Stillington produced evidence that was presented to a Parliamentary Committee whose members had already been summoned to London for the proposed Parliament. The committee accepted the evidence, which has since been lost, and declared King Edward V illegitimate and incapable of taking the throne. On 25 June 1483, at Baynard’s Castle, Richard of Gloucester was petitioned by the mayor and aldermen of London and members of Parliament present to take the throne as the only lawful heir. Richard accepted and preparations began for his coronation, with only one copy of the document of the Act of Parliament ‘Titulus Regius’, which declared Elizabeth’s children illegitimate, surviving. King Edward IV and Eleanor Butler were both dead and it was therefore not possible to question them regarding the story of illegitimacy. The Duke of Clarence had an eight-year-old son,

The Quire at Westminster Abbey.

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Death of the King  187 Edward, but the duke had been attainted by Parliament and therefore it would not have been possible for him to take the throne. On 6 July 1483, Richard Duke of Gloucester was crowned King Richard  III with his wife Anne Neville at Westminster Abbey by Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Bourchier in a joint coronation. The Earl of Surrey carried the sword of state, the Earl of Northumberland the sword of mercy and the Duke of Buckingham the king’s train.

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Chapter 28

Battle of Bosworth, 22 August 1485

T

he crowning of King Richard  III had seemed to the southern population that the northerners were taking over. Viscount Francis Lovell was appointed Chief Butler and Lord Chamberlain to succeed Earl Rivers and Lord Hastings. Sir Robert Brackenbury became Constable of the Tower and Lord Scrope of Bolton, Sir Richard Ratcliffe, Sir James Tyrell and Sir Richard FitzHugh were appointed to the Council. Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland and Lord Thomas Stanley also remained as councillors. In July 1483, there was a failed attempt to rescue the sons of King Edward IV from the Tower of London and rumours started circulating that they were already dead, especially when King Richard did not put them on parade. The Woodvilles were now starting to gain sympathy and Richard’s popularity was fading as he was seen by many as a usurper. On 21 July 1483, King Richard set off on a royal progress to meet his subjects, accompanied by Lord John Howard, Duke of Norfolk and 200 household retainers. The procession departed from Windsor Castle and travelled to Reading, Oxford, Gloucester, Tewkesbury and then Warwick, where it was joined by Richard’s wife, Anne Neville. The party then moved to Coventry, Leicester, Nottingham, Pontefract and York, where Richard’s son Edward was invested as Prince of Wales on 8 September 1483. Elizabeth Woodville’s son, Thomas Edward of Middleham, son of King Grey, Marquess of Dorset and brother, Richard III, from the fifteenthLionel Bishop of Salisbury, were now century Rous Roll. Battles of the Wars of the Roses.indd 188

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Battle of Bosworth, 22 August 1485  189 implicated in a revolt that was centred in Kent, Berkshire and Devon. Some of the conspirators were gentry with Woodville connections like Sir Richard Haute and John Guildford. Others were former Yorkists of the household of King Edward IV, like his brother-in-law Sir Thomas St Leger, former treasurer of the household Sir John Fogge, Sir John Cheyne, Sir George Brown, Sir William Norris, Sir William Stonor, Sir William Berkeley, Sir Giles Daubeney, Bishop Peter Courtenay and his distant kinsman Edward Courtenay of the old Lancastrian family in Devon. There was therefore an alliance of Yorkists opposed to King Richard III as well as former Lancastrians. The Duke of Buckingham then joined the conspiracy, although his motives were unclear as he had greatly benefited from King Richard’s rule. It appears that he was influenced by his prisoner, Dr John Morton, at his castle in Brecon, and also Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry Tudor, who was married to Lord Stanley. The focus of the rebellion then changed from the restoration of King Edward V to support of Henry Tudor, so it was clear that the conspirators had accepted that King Edward’s sons were no longer alive. Margaret Beaufort was also in touch with Elizabeth Woodville in sanctuary because they shared a doctor, Lewis Caerleon. A possible marriage between Elizabeth of York, eldest daughter of Elizabeth Woodville, and Henry Tudor was discussed, and it seems that the former queen had now realised that both her sons were now dead or she would not have agreed to such a union. At the end of August 1483, King Richard III became aware that there was a conspiracy and appointed the Duke of Buckingham to deal with the situation, not knowing that by the end of September he would change sides. The men of the southeast involved in the rebellion were to march from Maidstone to London, while others Sixteenth Century portrait of Margaret assembled at Newbury, Salisbury and Beaufort.

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190  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Exeter. Henry Tudor was to land on the south coast with a fleet and men provided by the Duke of Brittany, and the Duke of Buckingham would march east across the Severn from his castle at Brecon. The date of the start of the rebellion was to be 18 October and King Richard, who was then at Lincoln and had been informed of its progress, called the Duke of Buckingham ‘the most untrue creature living’. However, although the rebellion had gained support in the south among the gentry and yeomanry, there were not enough recruits in Wales or the Welsh Marches. King Richard III had the support of Lord Stanley when he mustered an army at Leicester, offered free pardons to the commoners who would submit and a reward of £1,000 for the capture of the Duke of Buckingham. Rewards were also offered for the capture of the Marquess of Dorset, the Bishops of Salisbury and Exeter, and any knight involved in the rebellion. The Duke of Buckingham was hampered on his march from Brecon by storms, which had flooded the rivers and countryside, and he was also slowed down by King Richard’s Welsh troops who were guarding river crossings. He decided to escape, leaving his men near Hereford, and ended up in the house of one of his followers, Ralph Bannister of Lacon Hall, near Wem in Shropshire. However, Bannister handed over the Duke to the sheriff, for which he was later rewarded with one of Buckingham’s manors in Kent. King Richard then marched southwest from Leicester to Newbury, Salisbury and Exeter, but encountered almost no opposition, the rebels having dispersed after the capture of Buckingham. John Howard, Duke of Norfolk had also dealt with the rebels in the southeast and Henry Tudor, whose fleet was scattered by the storms but had landed on the south coast, put to sea on hearing of the failure of the rebellion. The Duke of Buckingham was beheaded at Salisbury marketplace on 2 November 1483 after King Richard refused him an audience to explain his actions and Thomas St Leger, who was King Richard’s brother-inlaw, met the same fate with other rebels going into hiding or fleeing to Brittany. John Morton fled to Flanders and Margaret Beaufort was placed in the house arrest of her husband, Lord Thomas Stanley. King Richard then appointed Sir Robert Brackenbury Sheriff of Kent for life, Sir Robert Percy Sheriff of Essex and Hertfordshire, and Lord Scrope of Bolton head of a commission for Devon and Cornwall.

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Battle of Bosworth, 22 August 1485  191

Stained-glass window at Sutton Cheney Church of King Richard III and King Henry VII.

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192  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Henry Tudor returned to Brittany with his uncle Jasper Tudor and was joined by Sir Edward Woodville, the Marquess of Dorset, Bishop Peter Courtenay, Edward Courtenay, Sir John Cheyne, Sir William Berkeley and Sir Giles Daubeney. He had lived for twelve years in exile and now became the focus of opposition to King Richard III, although his claim to the throne of England was relatively weak. His grandfather was Owen Tudor, Keeper of the Wardrobe to Katherine of Valois, widow of King Henry V. Owen Tudor’s marriage to Queen Katherine had not been proved, but produced four children, including Henry’s father, Edmund Tudor. Henry Tudor’s mother, Margaret Beaufort, was

Fifteenth-century depiction of Lord Stanley presenting the crown to Henry Tudor.

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Battle of Bosworth, 22 August 1485  193 the great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt, third surviving son of King Edward III. On Christmas Day 1483, Henry Tudor swore an oath at Rennes Cathedral in Brittany in front of the Yorkist and Lancastrian exiles to marry Elizabeth of York as soon as he became king. The assembled company then swore homage to him as though he was king already. Henry had been seeking to strengthen his claim to the English throne with the proposed marriage to the eldest daughter of King Edward IV. King Richard  III opened his only Parliament on 23 January 1484, where Titulus Regius, the document that enabled him to take the throne, was made into law. The system of bail was then reformed so that a person’s goods would be returned if he was found innocent. The Parliament also improved justice for the common man, but this tended to alienate the nobility, who had previously benefited from the corruption in the land and the law was to be published in English, which improved its access to the people. After Parliament was dissolved, Elizabeth Woodville and her daughters left sanctuary at Westminster Abbey, where they had spent a year, when King Richard made a public vow that he would not harm them and would arrange suitable husbands for his nieces. In April 1484, tragedy struck when Edward of Middleham, King Richard’s only son, died aged ten. According to the Croyland Chronicle, ‘on hearing the news of this, at Nottingham, where they were then residing, you might have seen his father and mother in a state almost bordering on madness, by reason of their sudden grief.’ Richard meanwhile had been attempting to persuade the Duke of Brittany to surrender Henry Tudor in return for military aid against France. King Louis  XI of France had died on 30 August 1483 and was succeeded by his thirteenyear-old son, who became Charles  VIII, but there was still a danger that France would attempt to take over Brittany. Silver boar badge found at the new location of There had been a winter war at the Battle of Bosworth.

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194  Battles of the Wars of the Roses sea between English and Breton ships, which came to an end in June 1484, and King Richard also promised to provide 1,000 English archers to defend Brittany against France. In view of this agreement, Henry Tudor escaped from Brittany to Anjou and then to the court of King Charles VIII. On 16 March 1485, Richard’s wife, Anne Neville, died of tuberculosis and rumours circulated that he had poisoned her in order to marry his niece, Elizabeth of York, which he publicly denied. In fact, King Richard had sent a delegation to Portugal to negotiate his marriage to Infanta Joanna, sister of the king, while Elizabeth was to marry Joanna’s cousin Manuel. At this time, John de Vere, Earl of Oxford, who had been imprisoned at Hammes Castle, Calais for eleven years, persuaded the garrison to release him to join Henry Tudor’s court in France. This provided Henry with a capable commander who possessed a wealth of military experience and

Site map of the new site location of the Battle of Bosworth.

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Battle of Bosworth, 22 August 1485  195 he was also joined by former Yorkists James Blount, Captain of Hammes Castle, and John Fortescue. By June 1485, King Richard knew that an invasion led by Henry Tudor would be coming. He therefore issued proclamations against him, ordered commissions of array to review the levies and the sheriffs to remain at their posts. Richard then travelled to Nottingham Castle to prepare his army for the forthcoming invasion. Henry Tudor in the meantime had been enquiring as to how much support he could expect in England and had received encouraging messages from the Stanleys. He also received promises from Sir Gilbert Talbot, Sir John Savage, Rhys ap Thomas and a few others. In addition, he had received financial aid from the French, who were aware of King Richard’s agreement with Brittany. On 1 August 1485, Henry Tudor’s invasion fleet of thirty ships commanded by the French admiral, Guillaume de Casenove, left Harfleur and sailed into the Channel heading to Wales. On 7 August, the fleet landed at Mill Bay near Milford Haven, Pembrokeshire. Henry fell to his knees, reciting the psalm ‘Judge me, Oh Lord, and defend my cause’. The invasion army consisted of several hundred English exiles and 2-3,000 French troops supplied by King Charles VIII and commanded by Philibert de Chandee. Henry Tudor marched with his force the following day to Haverfordwest and was joined there by a small Welsh contingent. At first, there were few Welsh recruits and Henry sent messages to Sir Gilbert Talbot and the Stanleys to meet him across the Severn at Shrewsbury. Rhys ap Thomas, who was in command of that region, had promised to King Richard ‘whoever ill fated to the state, shall dare to land in those parts of Wales where I have employment under your majesty, must resolve with himself to make his entrance and irruption over my belly.’ Thomas did not resist but joined Henry Tudor with his men on 12 August and, to keep his honour, supposedly stood below a bridge over which the invasion force passed. Henry had therefore made his entrance over Thomas’s belly and marched north and east, seeking Welsh support and continuing his journey to meet the Stanleys. Rhys ap Thomas had also been promised the lieutenancy of Wales if Henry’s attempt to capture the throne was successful. On 15 August, Sir Gilbert Talbot joined Henry at Newport with his 500 men, which increased his confidence of victory.

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196  Battles of the Wars of the Roses King Richard, who had learnt of the invasion, gave orders for his troops to muster at Leicester. According to the Croyland Chronicle: ‘In the meantime, in manifold letters he dispatched orders of the greatest severity, commanding that no men, of the number of those at least who had been born to the inheritance of any property in the kingdom, should shun to take part in the approaching warfare, threatening that whoever should be found, in any part of the kingdom after the victory should have been gained, to have omitted appearing in his presence on the field, was to expect no other fate than the loss of all his goods and possessions, as well as his life.’ He had not trusted Lord Stanley and kept his son, Lord Strange, as a hostage for Stanley’s good behaviour. The Stanleys sent Henry Tudor money for his troops when he arrived at Shrewsbury, but only promised to join him when the time was right. Richard then received a message from Lord Stanley that he could not join him at Leicester because he was suffering from the sweating sickness and Richard realised that he had turned against him. Richard questioned Lord Strange, who admitted that his uncle, Sir William Stanley, and Sir John Savage had plotted to join Henry, but not his father. Lord Strange was then forced to write a letter to his father to come to Richard’s aid. On 17 August, Sir William Stanley met Henry Tudor at Stafford and encouraged him to carry on with his invasion and, on 18 August, Henry arrived at Lichfield.

Dadlington Church, where the dead from the Battle of Bosworth were buried.

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Battle of Bosworth, 22 August 1485  197 King Richard was still at Nottingham at that time and was becoming aware that many of his nobles and knights were no longer loyal to him. He had asked Sir Robert Brackenbury to escort two of his knights, Sir Thomas Bourchier and Sir Walter Hungerford, to the rendezvous, but they gave him the slip during the night and joined Henry. However, the mayor and citizens of York had promised their support and the Earl of Northumberland also marched to Leicester with his troops. On 20 August, King Richard rode from Nottingham to Leicester, where by tradition he stayed the night at the Blue Boar Inn and joined up with the Duke of Norfolk and the Earl of Northumberland with their men the following day.

Nineteenth-century painting by John Fulleylove of King Richard  III departing the Blue Boar Inn, Leicester to face Henry Tudor at Bosworth Field.

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198  Battles of the Wars of the Roses On 21 August, Henry Tudor met up with the two Stanley brothers at Atherstone but found that they were reluctant to support him openly because Lord Strange was being held hostage, although Sir John Savage and his large retinue remained with Henry. On the same day, King Richard marched out of Leicester over Bow Bridge with his army to intercept Henry’s troops and camped the night at Sutton Cheney, two miles southeast of the village of Market Bosworth. Henry Tudor had made camp on the same night at a place called Whitemoors, less than four miles from King Richard’s army. It was now clear that a battle would take place the following day for the greatest prize of all, the throne of England. King Richard had nightmares during the night and rose before dawn on 22 August 1485 to assemble his men, together with his commanders, into battle order. According to York city records, the battle was fought on Redmoor Plain with Market Bosworth to the north, Sutton Cheney to the east, Stoke Golding to the south and Upton to the west. Traditionally, it was thought that the battle site was on Ambion Hill, west of Sutton Cheney. However, recent archaeological excavations and geographical surveys have identified the true site about two miles southwest of Ambion Hill, on farmland on both sides of Fenn Lane. A silver white boar badge that was likely worn by one of King Richard’s knights was found there with medieval weapons, pieces of armour, dozens of shot and cannonballs.

Bow Bridge, Leicester, which King Richard III crossed on his way to Bosworth, decorated with the white roses of York, King Richard’s sign of the white boar and the Tudor roses of King Henry VII.

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King Richard’s Well from which he drank before the battle.

King Richard had arrayed his large vanguard led by John Howard, Duke of Norfolk and his son, Thomas Earl of Surrey, with his artillery, archers, cavalry and infantry. Richard himself led the centre with his household retainers and Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland the rearguard. The royal army totalled around 12,000 troops and included Sir Robert Brackenbury, Francis Viscount Lovell, Sir Richard Ratcliffe, Sir Gervais Clifton, whose father had been killed at the Battle of Tewkesbury fighting for the Lancastrians, John Lord Zouche, Sir Walter Devereux Lord Ferrers, Sir William Catesby, Sir Humphrey Stafford and his brother Sir Thomas Stafford. The Tudor force consisted of about 5,000 soldiers, plus another 5,000 led by the Stanleys who were situated not too far away. It included Philibert de Chandee, who led the French troops, Jasper Tudor, Sir William Brandon, Sir John Byron, Sir Humphrey Cheney and his brother Sir John Cheney, Sir Richard Fox, Sir Edward Woodville, Sir Edward Poynings, Thomas Arundel, John Fortescue, plus Sir Thomas Bourchier and Sir Walter Hungerford who had recently defected. Henry Tudor had sent a message to Lord Stanley to join him, but his policy was to wait and see how the battle progressed, as his son was still

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200  Battles of the Wars of the Roses King Richard’s hostage. The Tudor vanguard was led by John de Vere, Earl of Oxford, right wing by Sir Gilbert Talbot and left wing by Sir John Savage. Between the two armies was a marsh, which the Tudor army marched across in order to deploy in battle order. Soon after, King Richard gave the order for his archers to attack, followed by the infantry, and a fierce hand-to-hand skirmish followed. The Earl of Oxford then ordered his men not to stray more than ten feet from the standards in order to present a solid line. There was a short lull in the fighting, but it soon restarted and Oxford’s men advanced in a wedge formation, with the Duke of Norfolk and Sir Walter Devereux, Lord Ferrers of the royal army killed in the melee. The Earl of Surrey then took command of the royal vanguard, but, when King Richard called for the Earl of Northumberland to join the attack, his order was disobeyed. It appears that Northumberland was reluctant to risk his own and his men’s lives for a cause to which he was not fully committed. Henry Tudor, with his smaller army, had his own problems and with his personal retinue decided to ride to Sir William Stanley’s force to seek his assistance. King Richard had seen this move from his vantage point on a rise and quickly realised that decisive action with a headlong charge towards his enemy would swiftly bring the battle to an end. If he could

Tomb of King Richard III at Leicester Cathedral.

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Battle of Bosworth, 22 August 1485  201 eliminate the small Tudor force, the day would soon be his. With his small retinue of household knights, he rode down the slope, struck and killed Sir William Brandon, Henry Tudor’s standard bearer, with his lance and also knocked down Sir John Cheney, a giant of a man. Henry’s bodyguard fought well and, at this point, Sir William Stanley decided to commit his force of around 3,000 men and, with a cry of ‘A Stanley, A Stanley’, attacked King Richard’s retinue, killing or sending most of them into flight. Richard was unhorsed and his companions brought him another to flee the field, which he refused to take, and he was then cut down in the midst of his enemies. According to John Rous: ‘If I may speak the truth to his honour, although small of body and weak in strength, he most valiantly defended himself as a noble knight to his last breath often exclaiming that he was betrayed.’

Death of King Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth.

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202  Battles of the Wars of the Roses The Earl of Northumberland, on seeing this action, retreated north with his men, having taken no part in the battle and the Earl of Surrey also fled the field with his remaining troops in the direction of Stoke Golding. In the royal army, the Duke of Norfolk, Sir Walter Devereux Lord Ferrers, Sir Robert Brackenbury, Sir Richard Ratcliffe, Sir Gervais Clifton and about 1,000 men were killed and most were buried at Dadlington Church. Viscount Lovell, Sir Humphrey Stafford and his brother Thomas managed to escape, but Sir William Catesby was captured and executed the following day at Leicester. The Earl of Surrey surrendered shortly after, spent years as a prisoner, but was later pardoned and restored to his father’s title of the Duke of Norfolk. The Earl of Northumberland was imprisoned then allowed to return home and keep his title, but was murdered in 1489 in a tax revolt in Yorkshire. In July 1484, William Collingbourne had pinned a note on the door of St Paul’s Cathedral: ‘The Catte, the Ratte and Lovell our dogge rulyth all Englande under a hogge.’ This referred to King Richard’s henchmen, Sir William Catesby, Sir Richard Ratcliffe and Francis Lovell, with the hogge referring to King Richard. A day after the battle, only Lovell was left alive out of the four. William Collingbourne, who had also been corresponding with Henry Tudor, was put on trial and hanged, drawn and quartered at Tower Hill. As he was cut down, he reportedly said, ‘Oh Lord Jesus, yet more trouble!’ King Richard’s crown had been found in a thorn bush and placed on the head of Henry Tudor by Lord Stanley south of the battlefield at a place still known as Crown Hill. Stanley’s son, Lord Strange, survived after Richard’s orders for his execution were not carried out in the confusion of the battle. That same day, Henry Tudor and his army rode into Leicester with King Richard’s body stripped naked, slung on a horse and paraded around the town. Richard’s corpse was publicly displayed for two days in Leicester at the Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady of the Newarke. The king’s corpse was then claimed for burial by the Franciscans at the nearby Greyfriars Church, which was destroyed in the Reformation in 1538. For centuries, it had been recorded that King Richard’s bones were dug up at the Dissolution of the Monasteries and thrown into the River Soar over Bow Bridge in Leicester. However, on 5 September 2012, the Looking for Richard project led by Philippa Langley of the

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Battle of Bosworth, 22 August 1485  203 Richard III Society, the late John Ashdown Hill and Leicester University Archaeological Services located King Richard’s bones in a car park at the site of Greyfriars Church. John Ashdown Hill had already discovered the mitochondrial DNA sequence of Richard’s sister, Anne of York, by tracing two of her descendants, including Joy Ibsen, who was King Richard’s sixteenth generation great niece. Joy Ibsen had died in 2008, but the mitochondrial DNA of her son, Michael Ibsen, was examined and found by Dr Turi King of Leicester University to match those of the bones found at the site of Greyfriars. The authenticity of the bones were also confirmed by carbon dating, age, sex, battle wounds, place of burial and signs of curvature of the spine known as scoliosis. King Richard  III was reburied on 26 March 2015 at Leicester Cathedral after being carried in a procession in a ceremony attended by the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Countess of Wessex, and the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester. The Corporation of York had written soon after the Battle of Bosworth: ‘King Richard late lawfully reigning over us through great treason with many other lords and nobility of these northern parts, was piteously slain and murdered to the great heaviness of this city.’ However, the Great Chronicle of London was not as supportive: ‘Thus ended this man with dishonour as he sought it, for had he continued still protector and have suffered the children of Edward IV to have prospered according to his allegiance and fidelity, he should have been honourably lauded over all, whereas now his future is darkened and dishonoured as far as he was known, but God that is all merciful forgive him from his misdeeds.’ The two accounts reflect the differing opinions of King Richard and also the north/south divide in loyalties to the king. The Battle of Bosworth had witnessed the last English king killed in battle, the end of the Yorkist and Plantagenet dynasty in England, and beginning of the Tudor rule. King Richard had lost not because of his lack of military skill, but through the betrayal or indifference of many of his nobles and common soldiers.

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Chapter 29

Battle of Stoke, 16 June 1487

O

ne of Henry Tudor’s first acts was to send Sir Robert Willoughby to Sheriff Hutton in Yorkshire to secure the person of the tenyear-old Earl of Warwick, son of the late Duke of Clarence and Isabel Neville. Warwick was the last direct male heir of the Plantagenets and the House of York, and was consequently put into custody at the Tower of London, where he was to remain for the rest of his life. Two weeks after the Battle of Bosworth, the new king entered London in triumph to the acclaim of the city fathers and citizens. One of Henry’s first actions was to create a personal bodyguard of 200 men picked from the Yeomen of the Guard for his personal protection.

Last stand of Martin Schwartz and his mercenaries at the Battle of Stoke.

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205

On 30 October 1485, Henry Tudor was crowned King Henry  VII at Westminster Abbey by Archbishop of Canterbury Cardinal Thomas Bourchier, the third king whom he had crowned. On 7 November 1485, the king assembled his first Parliament at Westminster, where he dated his reign from 21 August 1485, which meant that anyone who had fought against him – including King Richard – could be regarded as a traitor and have his lands and property confiscated. A Bill of Attainder was brought against King Richard, accusing him of ‘the unnatural, mischievous and great perjuries, treasons, homicides and murders, in shedding of infants blood, with many other wrongs, odious offences and abominations against God and man.’ This was interpreted by some as an accusation of the murder of the two princes imprisoned at the Tower of London. The Parliament also repealed Titulus Regius, which had made the marriage of King

Elizabeth of York.

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206  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Edward  IV invalid and, consequently, his children were legitimised. King Henry also issued an edict that anyone who swore fealty to him would, notwithstanding previous attainder, be secure in his property and person. On 18 January 1486, King Henry kept his promise made at Rennes Cathedral to marry Elizabeth of York, eldest daughter of King Edward IV, which was again officiated by Archbishop of Canterbury Bourchier at Westminster Abbey. The marriage united the warring factions of York and Lancaster with the intention of bringing an end to the Wars of the Roses. The heraldic emblem of the Tudor Rose, a combination of the white rose of York and red rose of Lancaster, symbolised the union. Nine months after the marriage, Prince Arthur was born to Elizabeth, which meant that the Houses of York and Lancaster were finally united. The majority of the nobles were not punished for having been loyal to King Richard and were therefore content with the new king. However, in spite of King Henry’s marriage to Elizabeth of York, pockets of Yorkist resistance remained in the land. King Henry was then advised to set off from London with a large retinue on a tour of his realm, which commenced in the spring of 1486. In April 1486, the king faced the first test of his authority when Francis Lovell, Sir Humphrey Stafford and his brother, Thomas, who had been living in sanctuary at Colchester Abbey since the Battle of Bosworth, rebelled against him. All three had suffered with the loss of their titles and lands with the Act of Attainder of King Henry’s Parliament and thought that they could raise the people in revolt. Viscount Lovell travelled to Middleham in North Yorkshire from sanctuary and the Staffords to Worcestershire. At that time, King Henry was in Lincoln on his royal tour and decided not to issue commissions of array to raise troops, but to travel north with his retinue in order to deal with Francis Lovell and then return south to confront the Staffords. Henry was afraid that Lovell would be able to gain support in the north from those who had previously been loyal to King Richard. However, the rebels lacked a royal figurehead behind whom they could rally and therefore there was lack of support for the revolt. King Henry arrived in York on 23 April and sent Jasper Tudor, who had now become Duke of Bedford, to Middleham with some of his men to parley with the rebels. A pardon was offered to those who would lay down their arms and return

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Battle of Stoke, 16 June 1487  207 home, which most accepted, and Francis Lovell then fled to Lancashire. In Worcestershire, the Staffords had similar problems attracting support and had to rely on the success of Lovell. When news arrived that the rebels in Yorkshire had dispersed and Lovell had fled, the Worcestershire revolt also disintegrated, with the Staffords again seeking sanctuary on 11 May at an abbey near Abingdon. Two days later, the king’s men arrived and removed them to be tried for treason, with the judges ruling that sanctuary could not be sought in such cases. In July, the Staffords were found guilty, with Sir Humphrey hanged, drawn and quartered, although Thomas was pardoned. Francis Lovell had managed to find safety in the home of Sir Thomas Broughton, a Yorkist, with Sir John Huddleston and two other knights from Cumbria. King Henry offered them pardons if they would return home, except to Lovell, and this offer was accepted. Francis Lovell then had no option but to escape abroad to the Low Countries, where he found refuge in the court of Margaret, Dowager Duchess of Burgundy, sister of King Edward IV and King Richard III. Smaller risings also took place in various locations, but they lacked a charismatic leader and were soon put down. At this time, a priest called Richard Simons had been coaching one of his scholars by the name of Lambert Simnel in the ways of a prince. Simnel was the son of an Oxford joiner, but later claimed to be the Earl of Warwick, who had been imprisoned at the Tower of London. The imposter was to receive much support from disaffected Yorkists and thereby lead the opposition to King Henry. Viscount Lovell was joined by other Yorkists at Burgundy, such as Captain Thomas David, who had refused to swear an Memorial stone at the Battle of Stoke.

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208  Battles of the Wars of the Roses oath of loyalty to King Henry and had been expelled from Calais. John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, the nephew of King Richard III and possibly his nominated heir, also joined his aunt Margaret and the other rebels. Richard Simons presented Lambert Simnel to Gerald Fitzgerald, eighth Earl of Kildare in Ireland, as Edward Earl of Warwick, son of the late Duke of Clarence. The ten-year-old boy was then accepted as the Yorkist heir to the throne, possibly because the Irish lords hoped to gain home rule with their support. Margaret of Burgundy then financed mercenaries and ships to transport Lovell, Lincoln and the other Yorkists from Burgundy to Ireland. The fleet included 2,000 Swiss and German mercenary soldiers led by Martin Schwartz, who was a noted military commander from campaigns for Burgundy against the French. King Henry had heard about Lambert Simnel in January 1487 and realised that an invasion of the disaffected Yorkists could follow. He thought at first that an invasion would come from Burgundy and therefore moved his court to Norwich in April 1487 in order to meet the threat. On hearing that Simnel had been accepted as the Earl of Warwick in Ireland, he tried to prove that he was an imposter by parading the real Warwick through the streets of London. However, those who supported Simnel claimed that the boy paraded through London was the imposter and the real Warwick was in Ireland. King Henry then received news that Lovell and Lincoln had sailed to Ireland and moved his court to Coventry to be better placed to meet the expected invasion. On 24 May 1487, Lambert Simnel, ‘Earl of Warwick’, was crowned ‘King Edward  VI’ at Christ Church, Dublin. Other Yorkists, such as Richard Harleston, who had been Governor of Jersey, Sir Henry Bodrugan and Sir John Beaumont from Cornwall, and Thomas Fitzgerald, joined the rebellion with their men. King Henry then prepared defences in the country by ordering warning beacons to be erected along the coast of the likely landing place and summoned his nobles to Kenilworth Castle, near Coventry. On 4 June 1487, the rebels who had sailed from Dublin landed near Peil Island in Furness, Lancashire, which is now part of Cumbria. They then set off inland near Ulverston, where they were joined by Sir Thomas Broughton and his men, who had supported Lovell’s rebellion

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Battle of Stoke, 16 June 1487  209 the previous year. The following day, they set off to Yorkshire and were joined by men from the Harrington and Middleton families who still harboured Yorkist sympathies. The rebels numbered almost 5,000 men, hoping to be joined by more recruits and in fact Alexander Appleby of Carlisle, Nicholas Musgrave of Brackenthwaite and Clement Skelton of Bowness with their men were added to their ranks. Sir Thomas Scrope of Masham and John Lord Scrope of Bolton were also sympathetic to the rebels, but were not yet ready to join them. More Yorkist supporters joined at Middleham, North Yorkshire and the numbers swelled to almost 9,000, although they had been hoping for more. The Earl of Lincoln then wrote to the mayor and leaders of York, warning them of his intention to enter the city and gather supplies for his army. However, the citizens of York were divided in their loyalties because, although they had previously supported King Richard III, traditionally the city harboured Lancastrian sympathies. Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland had also written to the city to inform the leaders that his intentions were to resist the rebels and reinforce the city of York. The city leaders therefore decided to stay loyal to King Henry and replied to the Earl of Lincoln according to York Civic Records that ‘He whom the said Lords called the King, they, or none of their retinue intending to approach this city should have any entry into the same,’ and if the so called King Edward VI should try to take the city by force they would ‘withstand him with their bodys and goods’. The Earl of Lincoln and Francis Lovell were disappointed to receive this news and decided to turn south with their rebel forces down the Great North Road to Boroughbridge and Tadcaster. They set camp at Bramham Moor and were then joined by Sir Edward Hastings and Sir Robert Percy. King Henry was at Kenilworth when he heard of the landing of the rebels with the help of his warning beacons and immediately set off to intercept them. Henry travelled north to Coventry with his army, which included Sir Edward Grey, Viscount Lisle and cavalry led by Edward Woodville, Lord Scales. His main army was led by Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford, Rhys ap Thomas, Sir John Cheney and Sir Thomas Brandon, whose brother had been killed at Bosworth. King Henry’s supporters had also been

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210  Battles of the Wars of the Roses gathering in Yorkshire, including Sir Henry Clifford, who had recently regained his father’s title and lands. Clifford marched to York with 200 of his men to reinforce the garrison and then decided to attack the rebels at Bramham Moor, on the same day that the Earl of Northumberland also arrived in York with his force. Clifford arrived at Tadcaster with his troops and made camp on 11 June, but was attacked by the rebels and had to retreat back to York. The Earl of Lincoln and Francis Lovell then decided to head to Newark in order to pick up supplies. King Henry had been informed of the rebels’ march to Newark and ordered his army to advance to intercept them as they marched south through Castleford and Rotherham. The rebels were then attacked by the mounted troops of King Henry’s vanguard, led by Lord Scales, for two days before the royal troops retreated through Sherwood Forest to Nottingham. In the meantime, King Henry’s main army had travelled from Kenilworth through Leicester and Loughborough, arriving at Nottingham on 14 June. The royal army was reinforced at Nottingham by the 6,000 men of Sir Thomas Stanley, Earl of Derby, led by his son, Lord Strange. The Earl of Northumberland and Lord Henry Clifford then left York with 4,000 of their troops to attack the rebels. However, two days later, John Lord Scrope of Bolton and Sir Thomas Scrope of Masham arrived in York with their men, demanding entry in the name of King Edward VI. This was refused and the Lord Mayor then sent an urgent letter to the Earl of Northumberland to return to defend the city. The earl returned to York to find that the Scropes had already departed, which was possibly a ploy to keep him away from the main rebel army. The Earl of Lincoln and Francis Lovell then decided to cross the River Trent on 15 June, west of Newark, which by that time was heavily defended by some of the royal troops, and camped the night near the village of East Stoke. The following day, 16 June 1487, was clear and sunny as the rebel army prepared for battle with their army of around 10,000 men. The force included Sir Thomas Broughton, Sir James Harrington, William Hammond, William Kay, Richard Harleston, Sir Henry Bodrugan, Sir John Beaumont, Alexander Appleby, Nicholas Musgrave, Clement Skelton and Thomas David. The best soldiers were the Swiss and German mercenaries led by Martin Schwartz and the Irish troops led by Thomas Fitzgerald, although the Irish were lightly armed and poorly equipped.

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Battle of Stoke, 16 June 1487  211 The rebel army formed up on a hill southwest of the village of East Stoke, with their right flank on the high point called Burham Furlong, with a drop that formed a good defensive barrier. The mercenaries and Irish contingent were placed among the English troops as they waited for the royal army to arrive. Lincoln and Lovell decided to stay in a strong position to gain the advantage over King Henry’s army, rather than advancing to attack. The king’s commanders, however, were not aware at that time of the rebel disposition as the main army marched along the road towards Newark, with John de Vere, Earl of Oxford leading the vanguard. On being informed that the rebel army was in battle formation on the hilltop, Oxford decided that, rather than wait for the main body of the royal army to arrive, he should attack with the 6,000 troops of his vanguard and not be caught in the open. The Earl of Oxford was joined by Sir George Talbot fourth Earl of Shrewsbury and Sir Edward Grey, Viscount Lisle with another 6,000 soldiers of King Henry’s force behind. The battle commenced at around nine in the morning with an exchange of arrow fire from which the Irish troops suffered badly because of their lack of body armour. In consequence of their heavy casualties, the Irish soldiers decided to attack and were soon followed by the main body of the rebel army. The ensuing melee lasted about an hour, with Oxford’s men pushed back by the speed of the charge, although they were the better trained. King Henry had been informed of the ongoing battle and quickly sent reinforcements, led by Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford, who shored up Oxford’s men, therefore preventing a full retreat of the vanguard. The skilled longbowmen of King Henry’s army fired volley after volley of arrows at the Yorkist troops, cutting them down in considerable numbers. As more fresh royalist troops arrived, their superior numbers won the day, the rebels tired and were pushed back up and over the hill. The battle had lasted around three hours and the rebel line broke as hundreds fled towards the River Trent in a full-scale rout. Hundreds of the rebels tried to escape along a ravine to the river, but many were caught and killed by the king’s troops at the place still known today as ‘Red Gutter’, which was said to have ran red with blood. The casualties were high on both sides, with the royal army losing about 3,000 soldiers, mainly from Oxford’s vanguard. The rebels lost about 4,000 men, including their commanders, the Earl of Lincoln, Martin

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212  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Schwartz, Thomas Fitzgerald and Sir Thomas Broughton. According to French chronicler Jean Molinet, the mercenary soldiers by the end of the battle were ‘filled with arrows like hedgehogs’. Francis Lovell managed to escape the battle and was never seen again. He may have gone to Scotland as there is evidence of a safe conduct pass being granted to him there, but his later fate is unknown. According to one account, he lived long after in a cave or vault. In 1708, the skeleton of a man was found in a secret chamber in the family mansion at Minster Lovell and it was supposed that it was that of Francis Lovell, having died of starvation. However, that story is probably just a legend because the manor had been granted to Jasper Tudor, the king’s uncle. The fleeing rebels were pursued for several days, with many captured by the royal troops, although the surviving German mercenaries were allowed to return home. Lambert Simnel was captured by squire Robert Bellingham, but pardoned by King Henry in view of his young age, because he had obviously been used by the Yorkist leaders for their own ambitions. He was given a job in the royal kitchens and later promoted to falconer. Richard Simons, who had taught Lambert Simnel, was spared execution but imprisoned. After the battle, King Henry raised his standard at Burham Furlong, where the spot is marked by a large stone memorial. Thirteen new bannerets were created by the king and fifty-two men knighted. Henry had hoped to capture the Earl of Lincoln to discover the reasons for his defection, but there were few executions, although many nobles were fined. King Henry then progressed on a tour of the north through Pontefract, York, Durham and Newcastle to show his presence in those areas. The Battle of Stoke was the last pitched battle in the Wars of the Roses, which had lasted over thirty years since the First Battle of St Albans in 1455. The Lancastrian, Yorkist and Beaufort heirs had all been killed in battle, murdered or executed, with the exception of the Earl of Warwick, son of the Duke of Clarence, who was imprisoned at the Tower of London. King Henry was to face further tests of his authority, but none that required him to lead an army into battle. Perkin Warbeck was a Flemish pretender to the English throne who, in 1490, claimed to be Richard of Shrewsbury, son of King Edward IV and one of the ‘Princes in the Tower’ who had vanished after their incarceration.

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Battle of Stoke, 16 June 1487  213 He claimed the throne in Burgundy and coins were minted for him there. Warbeck claimed that his brother, King Edward V, was murdered but he was spared because of his young age, and he gained some support in Ireland from John Atwater, a former Mayor of Cork in 1491. He was also publicly recognised as Richard of Shrewsbury by Margaret of Burgundy, his supposed aunt, although she had left England before he was born. It is not known whether Margaret truly believed that Warbeck was her nephew, but she had always been ready to support the Yorkist cause. Warbeck also had support in England, including Lord FitzWalter, Sir Simon Montfort, Sir Thomas Thwaites, Sir William Stanley, William D’Aubeney, Thomas Cressener, Thomas Astwode, Robert Ratcliff and Sir Robert Clifford. King Henry ordered them to be put on trial and, in January 1495, Sir Simon Montfort, Robert Ratcliff and William D’Aubeney were beheaded, with the others pardoned, imprisoned or fined. Lord FitzWalter was sent as a prisoner to Calais and later beheaded

Lambert Simnel in Ireland.

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214  Battles of the Wars of the Roses for attempting to escape. Sir Robert Clifford was pardoned and rewarded for revealing the names of the conspirators. Sir William Stanley, who had rescued King Henry at Bosworth, was beheaded in the same month for his support of the pretender. Warbeck was then funded by Margaret of Burgundy to invade Deal on 3 July 1495, but his small army was defeated by the locals and, after losing 150 men without even disembarking, he fled to Ireland then to Scotland. King Henry pardoned Warbeck’s Irish supporters, saying ‘I suppose they will crown an ape next’. In Scotland, Warbeck was received well by the Scottish king, James IV, and married Lady Catherine Gordon of the Scottish nobility, clothed in armour covered with purple silk, in Edinburgh amid great celebrations. On 14 September 1496, King James  IV of Scotland and Warbeck offered prayers at Holyrood Abbey before their invasion of England. On 19 September 1496, they crossed the English border at Coldstream on the River Tweed with their men and set to work demolishing Heaton Castle on 24 September. However, the Scottish king and Warbeck retreated with their army after running out of provisions and failing to gain local support in Northumberland. An English army led by Lord Neville had also advanced from Newcastle, which convinced them to return to Scotland. Warbeck then fled to Ireland and, on 7 September 1497, landed in England for the second time at Whitesand Bay, north of Land’s End, hoping to exploit the Cornish resentment of over-taxation. He was declared King Richard  IV at Bodmin Moor and his Cornish army advanced to Exeter, then Taunton. However, on hearing of the arrival of the king’s army, he deserted and was later captured at Beaulieu Abbey, Hampshire. The Cornish army surrendered to the king on 4 October at Taunton, with their leaders executed or fined. Warbeck was treated well at first by King Henry, when he admitted that he was an imposter, but after attempting to escape from court he was held at the Tower of London with Edward Earl of Warwick, The two tried to escape from the Tower, but were both captured and executed in November 1499. It was thought that the Earl of Warwick was executed after pressure from Ferdinand and Isabella, whose daughter Catherine of Aragon was to marry King Henry’s son, Arthur, because Warwick was the last surviving Yorkist heir who could have claimed the throne. However,

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Battle of Stoke, 16 June 1487

215

Map of the Battles of the Wars of the Roses.

chronicler Edward Hall wrote that Warwick had been imprisoned for so long that ‘out of all company of men, and sight of beasts, in so much that he could not discern a goose from a capon’. Catherine of Aragon was said to feel very guilty about Warwick’s death and believed that her trials in later life were punishment for it.

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Chapter 30

The ‘Princes in the Tower’

T

here is no issue during the period of the Wars of the Roses that has attracted as much controversy as the two sons of King Edward  IV who were held at the Tower of London and subsequently disappeared. The twelve-year-old King Edward V took up residence at the Tower on 19 May 1483 to prepare for his coronation and was joined there on 16 June by his brother, the nine-year-old Richard Duke of York, from sanctuary at Westminster Abbey. After the two boys were declared illegitimate by Parliament, their uncle Richard Duke of Gloucester took the throne and was crowned King Richard  III on 6 July 1483. Several contemporary or near contemporary accounts were written of the fate of the two princes. Dominic Mancini was an Italian friar who visited England in 1483 and wrote a report of what he had witnessed for Angelo Cato, Archbishop of Vienne and counsellor to King Louis  XI of France, which was discovered at Lille in 1934: ‘But after Hastings was removed, all the attendants who had waited on the king were debarred access to him. He and his brother were withdrawn into the inner apartments of the Tower proper, and day by day began to be seen more rarely behind the bars and windows, till at length they ceased to appear altogether. The Physician John Argentine, the last of his attendants whose services the king enjoyed, reported that King Henry VII.

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The ‘Princes in the Tower’  217

The two princes, Edward and Richard, in the Tower, 1483, by Sir John Everett Millais, 1878.

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218  Battles of the Wars of the Roses the young king, like a victim prepared for sacrifice, sought remission of his sins by daily confession and penance, because he believed that death was facing him. I have seen many men burst into tears and lamentations when mention was made of him after his removal from men’s sight and already there is suspicion that he had been done away with. Whether, however, he has been done away with, and by what manner of death, so far I have not yet at all discovered.’ The Croyland Chronicle states: ‘In the meantime and while these things were happening the two sons of King Edward IV remained in the Tower of London with a specially appointed guard… a rumour arose that King Edward’s sons, by some unknown manner of violent destruction, had met their fate.’ The Great Chronicle of London states: ‘During this mayor’s year (to 28 October 1483) the children of King Edward were seen shooting and playing in the garden of the Tower sundry times.’ Robert Ricart, recorder of Bristol, entered in his calendar for the year to 15 September 1483: ‘In this year the two sons of King Edward were put to silence in the Tower of London.’ John Rous, a Warwickshire Chronicler, wrote that Richard: ‘Received his lord King Edward V blandly with embraces and kisses and within about three months or a little more he killed him together with his brother.’

Tomb of King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York at Westminster Abbey.

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The ‘Princes in the Tower’  219 Robert Fabyan’s Chronicles of London, compiled thirty years after the disappearance of the princes, named King Richard as the murderer. In January 1484, Guillaume de Rochefort, Lord Chancellor of France said: ‘If I were to recall special proofs of your loyalty to the prince and the treachery of others, a whole day would not suffice me. It will be enough to cite as an example our neighbours, the English. Look I pray you at the events which have happened in that land since the death of King Edward. Reflect how his children, already big and courageous, have been killed with impunity, and the crown has been transferred to their murderer by the favour of the people.’ The Danzig Chronicle of 1483 alleges that ‘later this summer [1483] Richard the King’s brother seized power and had his brother’s children killed, and the queen secretly put away.’ Philippe de Commines, who was a diplomat in the courts of Burgundy and France, categorically confirmed that Richard III was responsible for the deaths of the two princes, but in his later memoirs he accused the Duke of Buckingham. It is clear, therefore, that rumours had circulated in England and abroad of the murders of the two princes, many of whom accused their uncle, King Richard III. However, some sources accused the Duke of Buckingham, King Richard’s former supporter, of being responsible. The near contemporary historical notes of a citizen of London found in the College of Arms in 1980 stated that: ‘King Edward the fifth, late called Prince of Wales and Richard Duke of York, his brother, were put to death in the Tower of London by the vise (advice) of the Duke of Buckingham.’ The private secretary to the king of Portugal, Alfonso V, recounted: ‘after the passing away of king Edward in the year of 83, another one of his brothers, the Duke of Gloucester, had in his power the Prince of Wales and the Duke of York, the young sons of the said king his brother, and turned them to the Duke of Buckingham, under whose custody the said Princes were starved to death.’ Some of these accounts circulated well before the time of King Henry VII and can therefore not be seen as Tudor propaganda. There is also a legend that the younger prince, Richard Duke of York, survived and dwelt in Gipping Hall in Suffolk, but there is no credible evidence to

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220  Battles of the Wars of the Roses confirm this story, or that he was Perkin Warbeck, the Flemish imposter. Gipping Hall was in fact the family home of Sir James Tyrell. The Lincoln Roll is a genealogical chart of the family of John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, nephew of King Richard III, which is acknowledged to have been completed in the early sixteenth century. The chart includes King Edward V and Richard Duke of York, of whom it says in Latin that Edward ‘died in youth without issue’ and Richard ‘also died without issue’ and has been interpreted by some as the ‘death certificate’ of the two princes. Other than rumours, there are no well-informed, independent or impartial sources of the associated events, or of the survival of the princes after 1483. On 23 September 1483, a Requiem Mass was offered for the soul of an English king called Edward at the Sistine Chapel in Rome, with the Pope in attendance. This was unlikely to have been for King Edward IV because he had died some time before, on 9 April 1483, and therefore the Mass was probably taken for his son, King Edward V. By the Tudor period, it was the standard and accepted account that King Richard  III had ordered the killing of his two nephews. Sir Thomas More had grown up in the household of John Morton, an enemy of King Richard, and in 1513 wrote The History of King Richard III. This identified Sir James Tyrell as the murderer, acting on Richard’s orders. Tyrell was the loyal servant of King Richard who is said to have confessed to the murder of the princes before his execution for treason in 1502. He admitted under torture to have committed the murders at the behest of King Richard and claimed that Robert Brackenbury, Constable of the Tower had moved them. The story is that, in July 1483, King Richard told Brackenbury to kill the princes. However, Brackenbury refused, saying he would never do such a thing. So, Richard sent him an order to give the keys to Sir James Tyrell. This he did and Tyrell found Miles Forrest, ‘a fellow fleshed in murder’ and John Dighton, who smothered the princes to death in their beds and buried them ‘at the stair foot, deep in the ground under a great heap of stones’. The bodies were later disinterred and buried in a secret place. There is a claim that the two sons of Miles Forrest were at the court of King Henry VIII and therefore Sir Thomas More would have had contact with them.

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The ‘Princes in the Tower’  221 Polydore Vergil was another Tudor historian who identified Tyrell as the murderer and stated that he had committed the deed with reluctance upon King Richard’s orders and that Richard himself spread the rumours of the princes’ deaths to discourage rebellion.

Urn at the Henry VII Chapel, Westminster Abbey, which may contain the bones of King Edward V and his brother, Richard Duke of York.

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222  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Raphael Holinshed’s Chronicles, written in the second half of the sixteenth century, was another account that identified King Richard III as instigating the murders. This was one of the main sources used by William Shakespeare for his play Richard III, which further blackened Richard’s name. The absence of hard evidence of what happened to the princes has led to a number of theories being put forward. The most common is that they were murdered soon after they disappeared on the orders of King Richard. This is because Richard’s hold on the monarchy was not strong, due to the way he gained the throne, which led to a backlash by some Yorkists. According to the Croyland Chronicle: ‘The two sons of King Edward IV remained in the Tower of London with a specially appointed guard. In order to release them from this kind of captivity people of the south and west of the kingdom began to murmur secretly, forming groups and meetings-many in private and some openly-especially those who, because they were afraid, were scattered through franchises and sanctuaries.’ The sixteenth century chronicler, John Stow, also reported an attempt to abduct the two princes from the Tower with a plan to ignite diversionary fires in the vicinity. The chief culprits were Robert Russe, sergeant of London, William Davy of Hounslow, John Smith, former groom of King Edward IV and Stephen Ireland, wardrober of the Tower. The four men were apprehended and tried at Westminster, condemned to death, drawn to Tower Hill and beheaded, with their heads exhibited on London Bridge. It is clear therefore that, while the princes were alive, they remained a threat to King Richard in spite of being declared illegitimate by Parliament because they could be used as figureheads for rebellion. Although rumours of the deaths of the two princes had circulated in 1483, Richard did not produce them in public to prove that they were alive, which suggests that they were deceased. Raphael Holinshed reported in his Chronicles in 1577 that Richard: ‘What with purging and declaring his innocence concerning the murder of his nephews towards the world, and what with cost to obtain the love and favour of the communal tie... gave prodigally so many and so great rewards, that now both he lacked, and scarce with honesty how to borrow.’ King Richard also failed to open an investigation into the matter, which would have been in his interest if he was not responsible for the

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The ‘Princes in the Tower’  223 deaths of his nephews. He was away from court on a royal tour at the time the princes disappeared and therefore he could not have murdered them himself. They were under guard at this time at the Tower of London, which was controlled by Richard’s men and access to them was strictly limited by his instructions. He could therefore have dispatched one of his retainers to murder his nephews on his behalf, but it is unlikely they could have been murdered without his knowledge. This was the version put forward by Sir Thomas More and Polydore Vergil, although it has to be said they had been writing for the Tudors and consequently were not independent accounts. Elizabeth Woodville had made her peace with King Richard and brought her daughters out of sanctuary at Westminster Abbey, but only after he swore a solemn oath before witnesses to protect and provide for her surviving children. This made it less likely that they could be quietly murdered as it was believed that their brothers had been. According to the Harleian Manuscript, the oath stated: ‘I Richard by the grace of God King of England and of France and lord of Ireland in the presence of you my lords spiritual and temporal and you mayor and aldermen of my city of London promise and swear verbo Regio and upon these holy evangelicals of god by me personally touched that if the daughters of dame Elizabeth Grey late calling herself Queen of England that is to wit Elizabeth, Cecily, Anne, Katherine and Bridget will come unto me out of sanctuary of Westminster and be guided ruled and demeaned after me then I shall see that they shall be in surety of their lives and also not suffer any manner hurt by any manner of person or persons and that I shall do marry such of them as now be marriable to gentlemen born and ever rich of them give in marriage lands and tenements to the yearly value of two hundred marks for term of their lives and in likewise to the other daughters when they come to lawful age of marriage if Lock of hair belonging to King Edward IV.

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224  Battles of the Wars of the Roses they live and such gentlemen as shall happy to to marry with them I shall straitly charge from from time to time lovingly to love and entreat them as their wives and my kinswomen as they would avoid and eschew my displeasure in witness whereof to this writing of my oath and promise aforesaid in your said presences made I have set my sign the first day of March the first year of my reign 1483-1484.’ However, Elizabeth Woodville had formed a pact with Margaret Beaufort to marry her daughter, Elizabeth of York, to Margaret’s son, Henry Tudor, which implies that she no longer believed that her two sons were still alive. Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham was the only suspect named by contemporary writers for the deaths of the two princes apart from King Richard himself. He was a descendant of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster and Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester on his father’s side and also of John of Gaunt on his mother’s side. Consequently, he had a potential claim to the throne himself, if he was not acting on behalf of others. It is possible that his rebellion in the autumn of 1483 was because he had fallen out with King Richard, who blamed him for the murders of the two princes, or that Richard had been responsible. When King Richard departed on his royal tour, Buckingham was left in charge of the capital and, as Constable of England, he had every access to the Tower of London. When the two men met a month later, there was an unholy row between them. However, after Buckingham was executed in November 1483, King Richard did not blame him for the murders in order to clear his own name, although it is possible he would not have been believed if he had done so. Another possibility is that Buckingham had ambition to take the throne himself and killing the princes was just the first step. King Henry VII was never accused of the murders by any contemporary sources and additionally he had been in exile in Brittany and France until August 1485, two years after the princes disappeared. However, had Henry been responsible, he could have produced the corpses and blamed King Richard, which he never did. King Henry had also married Elizabeth of York, sister of the two princes, and had repealed Titulus Regius in Parliament so that her legitimacy would not be questioned. The princes were therefore legitimised by King Henry, but it was unlikely that King Richard had kept them alive for two years while rumours circulated of his responsibility for their deaths.

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The ‘Princes in the Tower’  225 Other suspects such as John Howard, Duke of Norfolk and Margaret Beaufort have been accused of the murders of the princes, but no real evidence has been produced of their complicity. They would not have had access to the Tower without Richard’s knowledge and he was ultimately responsible for their safekeeping. Even if he had not been directly responsible for their deaths, the fact that Richard had deposed them and kept them under tight guard made him responsible for their welfare in the eyes of contemporaries and the belief that they had been murdered made him guilty of negligence if not malice. The initial rising in the autumn of 1483 had been aimed at restoring King Edward V to the throne and was not stopped by rumours of his murder. The focus of the revolt then changed to supporting Henry Tudor, who was relatively unknown at the time, and, because many Yorkists now changed their allegiance to him, it was clear that they thought that the two princes had been murdered. In 1674, during the reign of King Charles II, workmen dug up a set of bones ten feet under a stairwell leading to the Chapel of the White

Sir Thomas More.

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226  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Tower. A report of this first appeared in Francis Sandford’s Genealogical History of the Kings of England published in 1677: ‘Upon Friday the day in July 1674 in order to the rebuilding of the several offices in the Tower, and to clear the White Tower of all contiguous buildings, digging down the stairs which led from the King’s Lodgings, to the chapel in the said Tower, about ten feet in the ground were found the bones of two striplings in (as it seemed) a wooden chest, which upon the survey were found proportionable in ages of those two brothers viz about thirteen and eleven years. The skull of one being entire, the other broken, as were indeed many of the other bones, also the chest, by the violence of the labourers, who cast the rubbish and them away together, wherefore they were caused to sift the rubbish and by that means preserved all the bones. The circumstances of the story being considered and the same often discoursed with Sir Thomas Chichley, Master of the Ordinance, by whose industry the new buildings were then in carrying on, and by whom the matter was reported to the King upon the presumptions that these were the bones of the said Princes.’ These were not the first set of skeletons to be located as previously the bones of two children had been found in an old chamber that had been walled up. However, it should be noted that Sir Thomas More had said that the bodies were moved to a better place. One report said that the bones were found with pieces of rag and velvet about them, showing that they were those of aristocrats. Four years after the discovery, the bones were placed in an urn designed by Christopher Wren and placed at the Henry VII Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey on the orders of King Charles  II, whose warrant reads: ‘These are to signify his Majesty’s pleasure that you provide a white marble coffin for the supposed bodies of the two Princes lately found in the Tower of London and that you cause the same to be interred in the Henry VII Chapel in such a convenient place as the Dean of Westminster shall appoint.’ It is clear therefore that there was no certainty that the bones were those of the two princes, but the Latin inscription written in 1678 states: ‘Here lie the relics of Edward V, King of England and Richard Duke of York. These brothers being confined in the Tower of London, and there stifled with pillows, were privately and meanly buried, by the order of their perfidious uncle Richard the Usurper, whose bones, long enquired

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The ‘Princes in the Tower’  227 after and wished for, after 191 years in the rubbish of the stairs (those lately leading to the Chapel of the White Tower) were on the seventeenth day of July 1674, by undoubted proofs discovered, being buried deep in that place. Charles II, a most compassionate prince, pitying their severe fate, ordered those unhappy Princes to be laid amongst the monuments of their predecessors, 1678, in the thirtieth year of his reign.’ It should be noted that, if the bones were found ten feet underground, they would have been much older than 191 years and in fact more recently the skeleton of a child was found there that was dated to the Iron Age. The urn could therefore be a symbol by King Charles II to show the evils of deposition and thwarted succession and could be seen as a political act. In 1933, the bones in the urn were removed and examined by a leading anatomist, Professor William Wright, and the president of the Dental Association, Dr George Northcroft. By measuring certain bones and teeth, they concluded that the bones belonged to two children about the correct age for the two princes, although chicken and animal bones were also found in the urn as well as three rusty nails. One skeleton was larger than the other, but many of the bones were missing, including part of the smaller jawbone and all of the teeth from the larger one. Many of the

Henry VII Chapel, Westminster Abbey.

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228  Battles of the Wars of the Roses bones had also been broken by the original workmen. The examination has been criticised on the grounds that it was presumed that the bones were those of the two princes and concentrated on whether the bones showed evidence of suffocation. No attempt was made to show whether the bones were male or female. However, only a modern scientific examination of the bones would show if they were male, their ages and their approximate date of death. The mitochondrial DNA of a descendant of Jacquetta of Luxembourg (mother of Elizabeth Woodville) by the name of Elizabeth Roberts has also been identified, which should match the DNA of the bones in the urn if they are genuine. Royal consent would be required for a further examination of the bones, which so far has not been obtained, but, even if the identity of the bones could be shown as being of the two princes, the mystery of how they met their fate would still remain. In 1789, workmen carrying out work at St George’s Chapel, Windsor accidentally broke into the vault of King Edward IV and Queen Elizabeth Woodville and discovered in the process a small adjoining vault that was not inspected. It was thought that this vault contained the coffins of two of King Edward’s children, George Duke of Bedford, who died aged two, and Mary of York, who died aged fourteen, both of whom predeceased the king. However, in 1810, the lead coffins of George and Mary were found elsewhere in the chapel, clearly labelled, and these were moved into the adjoining vault of King Edward IV. This led to a story of the two other mysterious coffins, which needed further examination. Enquiries were made of the archivist of St George’s Chapel, who discovered that the original assumption of two unknown coffins may be mistaken because the vault had not been examined. Again, royal consent would be required to investigate whether the two mysterious coffins actually exist and, if so, their identity, but to date this has not been forthcoming.

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Bibliography

Ashdown-Hill, John: The Wars of the Roses 2015 Ashdown-Hill, John: The Mythology of the Princes in the Tower 2020 Burley, Peter; Elliot, Michael; Watson, Harvey: The Battles of St Albans 2017 Gillingham, John: The Wars of the Roses, Peace and Conflict in 15th Century England 2018 Gravett, Chris: Tewkesbury 1471: The last Yorkist victory 2009 Haigh, Philip: The Military Campaigns of the Wars of the Roses 1997 Lewis, Matthew: The Wars of the Roses: The Key Players in the Struggle for Supremacy 2016 Moorhouse, Dan: On this day in the Wars of the Roses 2021 Reedman, J.P: Blood of Roses, Edward IV and Towton 2018 Sadler, John: Towton: The Battle of Palm Sunday Field 1461 2014 Weir, Alison: Lancaster and York; The Wars of the Roses 1998 Williams, D.T: The Battle of Bosworth 1975

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Primary Sources

Chastellain, Georges: Chronicles of the Dukes of Burgundy (ed K de Lettenhove Brussels 1864) Commines Philippe de: Memoires trans M. Jones 1972 The Croyland Chronicle Continuation, 1459-1486 Fabyan Robert: The Concordance of Histories: The New Chronicles of England and France (ed H. Ellis 1811) The Great Chronicle of London (ed A. H Thomas and I. D. Thornley, 1938) Gregory’s Chronicle: The Historical Collections of a Citizen of London in the Fifteenth Century (ed. James Gairdner, Camden Society, 1876) Hall, Edward: The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York (ed H. Eliis 1809) The Harleian Manuscripts British Library Historie of the Arrivall of Edward IV in England and the final Recoverye of his Kingdomes from Henry VI, A.D 1471 (ed. J. Bruce, Camden Society 1838) Mancini, Dominic: The Usurpation of Richard III (ed C.A Armstrong 1969) The Paston Letters 1422-1509 (ed James Gairdner 1872-1875) Rous John: Historiae Regum Angliae (ed T. Hearne 1716) Stow, John: Annales 1615 Vergil,Polydore: Three Books of Polydore Vergil’s English History (ed Henry Ellis, Camden Society, 1844) Warkworth, John: A Chronicle of the First Thirteen Years of the Reign of King Edward the Fourth (ed J. O. Halliwell, Camden Society, 1839) Waurin, Jean de: Recueil des Chroniques D’ Angleterre (eds W. Hardy & E.L, C.P. Hardy 1891) Whethamstede, J: Registrum in ‘Registra quorandum Abbatum Monasterii S. Albani’ (ed H. Riley 1872-3) York Records: Extracts from the Municipal Records of the City of York during the Reigns of Edward IV, Edward V, and Richard III (ed R. Davies 1843)

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Index

Albany, Duke of 176 Alfonso V, King of Portugal 124 Anne of York 203 Appleby, Alexander 209–10 Aragon, Catherine of 214–15 Argentine, John 216 Arthur, Prince 206, 214 Arundel, Earl of – see William Fitzalan Arundel, Thomas 199 Arundell, Sir John 149 Aspall, Sir Robert 52–53 Astwode, Thomas 213 Atwater, John 213 Audley, Sir Humphrey 156–8 Audley, 5th Lord – see James Tuchet Audley 6th Lord – see John Tuchet Ayscough, William, Bishop of Salisbury 17 Bannister, Ralph 190 Beauchamp, Sir Richard 150,153 Beaufort, Edmund, 2nd Duke of Somerset 2, 13, 19–20, 22–3, 25–30, 32–3 Beaufort, Edmund, 4th Duke of Somerset 121, 127–9, 135, 143, 146–7, 151–4, 156–8 Beaufort, Cardinal Henry 6, 9–10,12 Beaufort, Henry Earl of Dorset, 3rd Duke of Somerset 28–9, 32, 34, 38, 41, 43, 45, 48, 50–2, 55, 59–60, 65, 70, 73, 77–8, 80, 86–7, 90, 92–4, 98–9, 159 Beaufort, Joan 6 Beaufort, John 6

Battles of the Wars of the Roses.indd 231

Beaufort, Sir John Marquess of Dorset 135, 146–7, 154 Beaufort, Margaret 14, 35, 125, 189–90, 192 Beaufort, Thomas 6 Beaumont, Sir John 208, 210 Beaumont, Lord 41, 46–7 Becket, Thomas 45 Bedford, George, Duke of 116 Bedford, Jacquetta of Luxembourg, Duchess of 44, 66, 95, 97, 104 Bedford, John, Duke of 5, 8 Bellingham, Sir Henry 82, 92–3 Bellingham, Robert 82 Berners, Lord – see John Bourchier Blaybourne 107, 173 Blount, James 195 Blount, Sir William 70, 72, 142 Bodrugan, Sir Henry 67, 208, 210 Bolingbroke, Roger 10 Bona of Savoy 96, 102 Bonville, Lord 60, 65 Botyll, Robert 27 Boulers, Reynold 27 Bourchier, Sir Edward 53 Bourchier, Henry, Viscount 33–5, 42, 45, 48, 53, 60, 74, 162 Bourchier, Humphrey, Lord Cromwell 142 Bourchier, Sir Humphrey 142 Bourchier, John Lord Berners 60, 63, 65, 80, 142 Bourchier, Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury 25–7, 34–6, 42, 45, 46,

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232  Battles of the Wars of the Roses 49, 104, 136, 184, 187, 197, 199, 205–206 Bourchier, William, Viscount 104 Brackenbury, Sir Robert 188, 190, 197, 220 Brandon, Sir Thomas 209 Brandon, Sir William 27, 34, 199, 201 Breze, Pierre de 87, 89–91 Bridget of York 223 Brown George 189 Buckingham, Duchess of 42, 66 Buckingham, Henry, 2nd Duke of – see Stafford Buckingham, Humphrey, 1st Duke of – see Stafford Burgundy, Charles the Bold, Duke of 105, 123–4, 127–8, 136, 167–8 Burgundy, Margaret, Duchess of 105, 129, 208, 213–14 Burgundy, Philip, Duke of 60, 65, 105 Butler, Lady Eleanor 185–6 Butler, James, Earl of Wiltshire 26, 28–9, 31–4, 41, 43, 47, 50–1, 53, 55–7, 73, 78 Byron, Sir John 199 Cade, Jack 16–18 Caerleon, Louis 189 Cambridge, Isabel of 142 Cantlow, William 101 Casenove, Guillame de 195 Catesby, Sir William 199, 202 Catherine of Aragon 214–15 Cato, Angelo 216 Caxton, William 95 Cecily of York 6, 23, 65, 80, 104, 107, 172–3 Chamberlain, Sir Robert 130 Chandee, Philibert de 195, 199 Charles II, King 225, 226–7 Charles VII, King 8, 12–14, 20–1, 87 Charles VIII, King 194–5 Chaucer, Geoffrey 95, 164 Cheney, Sir Humphrey 199

Battles of the Wars of the Roses.indd 232

Cheney, Sir John 199, 201, 209 Cheyne, John 189, 192 Chichley, Sir Thomas 226 Clarence, George, Duke of 42, 82, 103, 106–107, 109–11, 113–16, 118–19, 121–2, 124–7, 130, 133–4, 143, 152, 155, 160, 165–6, 170 ,172–4, 186, 204, 208, 212 Clarence Lionel Duke of 1, 6, 48 Clifford, Sir Henry 210 Clifford, John 9th Lord 34, 36, 46, 50–4, 60, 64, 69–70, 72–3, 82 Clifford, Sir Robert 213 Clifford Thomas 8th Lord 28–9, 31, 33 Clifton, Sir Gervais 43, 157–8 Clifton, Sir Gervais (son) 199, 202 Clinton, Lord 27, 42, 45, 72, 74 Cobham, Eleanor 10 Cobham, Lord 27, 45, 48 Commines, Philippe de 85, 136, 155, 164, 219 Conyers, Sir John 38, 72, 107–108 Coppini, Francesco dei 45–6, 69–70, 79 Corbett, Sir Roger 72 Corbie, Sir Roger 74 Courtenay, Henry 106 Courtenay, John 15th Earl of Devon 135, 143, 146–7, 149, 152, 154 Courtenay, Peter 108, 109 Courtenay, Thomas 13th Earl of Devon 28–9 Courtenay, Thomas 14th Earl of Devon 41, 50–2, 73, 79–80 Cressener, Thomas 213 Croft, Sir Richard 57 Cromwell, Lord Ralph 27, 42 Crowmer, William 18 Dacre, Lord Humphrey 88–9 Dacre, Lord Ranulf 73, 77–8, 82 Daubeney, Giles 189, 192 D’Aubeney William 213 David, Thomas 207

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Index 233 Davy, William 222 Debenham, Sir Gilbert 130 Devereux, Sir Walter, Lord Ferrers 55, 57, 67, 72, 74, 87, 199–200, 202 Devon , Earls of – see Courtenay Dorset, Marquess of – see Thomas Grey Dudley, Lord 28, 32, 38, 40, 108 Dunne, Sir John 40 Dutton, Sir Thomas 40 Dymmock, Thomas 113–14 Dynham, Sir John 40, 72 Eborall, John 97 Edmund of Langley 1, 6 Edmund, Earl of Rutland 27, 42, 50, 53–4, 70, 168, 170, 172 Edward III, King 1, 2, 4, 6, 14, 48, 193 Edward Earl of March, King Edward IV 27, 51, 54–8, 64, 66–78, 80–93, 95–108, 110–11, 113–16, 118–37, 139, 142–4, 146, 148–58, 160, 162– 8, 170–1, 173–6, 178–80, 183–6, 188–9, 193, 203, 206–207, 212, 216, 218–20, 223–4, 228 Edward V, King 179–80, 184, 186, 213, 216, 218, 220, 225–6 Edward, the Black Prince 1,4 Edward of Lancaster 22, 25, 81, 105, 119, 121, 134, 143, 152, 155–6, 160 Edward of Middleham 188, 193 Edward of Norwich, 6 Edward, Earl of Warwick 204, 208, 214 Exeter, Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of – see Henry Holland Fabyan 183, 219 Fauconberg, Bastard of – see Thomas Neville Fauconberg, Lord – see William Neville Faunt, Nicholas 160, 162 Findern, Sir Thomas 73, 82, 99 Fish, Sir Thomas 99

Battles of the Wars of the Roses.indd 233

Fitzalan, William, Earl of Arundel  60, 72, 74, 104, 111, 162 Fitzgerald, Gerald 208 Fitzgerald, Thomas 208, 210, 212 Fitzhugh, Sir Richard 188 FitzWalter, Lord – see John Radcliffe Fogge, Sir John 72, 108, 189 Fortescu, Richard 167 Fortescue, Sir John 143, 156, 158, 195, 199 Fox, Sir Richard 199 Gate, Sir Geoffrey 109, 123, 160 Gordon, Lady Catherine 214 Gower, James 158 Gower, William 65 Gregory 58, 61–2, 64, 82, 95 Grey, Lord of Codnor 60 Grey, Lord Edmund Grey of Ruthyn 46–7, 72–3 Grey, Sir Anthony of Ruthyn (son of above) 104 Grey, Sir Edward, Viscount Lisle 209, 211 Grey, Sir John of Groby 64, 95 Grey, Lord of Powys 27 Grey, Sir Ralph 89, 93, 98–9, 100–101 Grey, Sir Richard 104, 180, 185 Grey, Thomas, Marquess of Dorset 152, 179–80, 184, 188, 190, 192 Grey, Lord of Wilton 56 Greystoke, Lord 98 Guildford, John 189 Hall, Sir David 52–3 Hall, Edward 39, 53, 69, 75, 109, 146, 215 Hammond, William 210 Hampden, Sir Edmund 155 Harington, Lord William 53 Harleston , Richard 208, 210 Harpisfeld, Nicholas 132 Harrington, Sir James 72, 133, 210 Harrington, Sir Robert 72

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234  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Harrington, Sir Thomas 38, 40 Hastings, Sir Edward 209 Hastings, Sir William 56, 72, 74, 85, 89, 110–11, 121, 123, 130, 133, 137, 148, 152, 155, 170, 179–84, 188, 216 Haute, Sir Richard 189 Henry IV, King 5–6, 80 Henry V, King 5–6, 10, 86 Henry VI, King 5–6, 8–10, 12, 14–16, 18–20, 22, 26, 33–5, 40, 43, 49, 60, 64, 67–8, 80–1, 84–5, 87, 90–2, 98–9, 101, 103, 112–13, 118, 120, 122–6, 128, 132, 135–6, 143, 146, 163, 164, 179 Henry VII, King 2, 35, 109, 125, 160, 189–202, 204–205, 219, 224–7 Henry VIII King 220 Herbert, Sir Richard 55, 72, 105, 109 Herbert, Sir William Lord 55, 57, 72, 74, 85, 87, 104–106, 108–10 Hill, John Ashdown 203 Holinshed 222 Holland, Henry 3rd Duke of Exeter 45, 47, 51–2, 60, 73, 88, 104, 121, 134, 137, 142, 143, 168 Horne, Robert 68, 70, 72, 78 Howard , Sir John, Duke of Norfolk 89, 116, 188, 190, 197, 199–200, 202, 225 Howard, Thomas, Earl of Surrey 187, 199–200, 202 Huddleston, Sir John 207 Hugh, Sir John 40 Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester 5, 9–10 Hungerford, Lord 87, 92–3, 98–9 Hungerford, Thomas 106 Hungerford, Sir Walter 197, 199 Ibsen, Joy, 203 Ibsen, Michael 203 Ireland , Stephen 222 Jenney, Sir Richard 69 Joan of Arc 8

Battles of the Wars of the Roses.indd 234

Joanna, Infanta 194 John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster 1, 5–6, 14, 193, 224 Jourdemain, Margery 10 Katherine of Valois 5, 8, 58, 192 Katherine of York 223 Kay, William 210 Kempe, John 17–18 King, Dr Turi 203 Kynaston, Sir Roger 39 Kyriell, Sir Thomas 14, 65 Lande, Sir Thomas de la 114 Langley, Philippa 202 Langstrother, Sir John 147, 152, 156–8 Latimer, Lord 50 Latimer, Sir Nicholas 73 Louis XI, King 87, 89, 96, 101–105, 107, 117–18, 125, 127, 136, 164, 168, 173 Lovelace, Sir Henry 63 Lovell, Francis 188, 199, 202, 206–12 Lucy, Elizabeth 83 Lucy, Sir William 47 Mancini, Dominic 83, 178, 184, 216 Margaret of Anjou 10, 14, 17, 19, 20, 22, 24–8, 33–8, 40, 42–3, 45, 47–8, 50, 52, 54–6, 59–61, 64–8, 80–1, 86–7, 89–91, 95, 101, 103–106, 112–13, 118–21, 125–7, 132, 134–6, 143, 145–52, 155, 160 163–4, 168, 174, 176 Mary of Guelders 48, 55, 59, 81, 88, 90 Mathew, Sir Dafydd ap 76 Moleyns, Adam 14 Molinet, Jean 212 Molyneux, Sir Richard 40 Montfort, Sir Simon 213 More, Sir Thomas 220, 223, 226 Mortimer, Anne 6 Mortimer, Edmund 5th Earl of March 6

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Index 235 Mortimer, Sir Hugh 53 Mortimer, John 16, 18 Mortimer, Sir John 53 Morton, Dr John 80, 143, 156, 158, 181, 182–3, 189–90, 220 Mountfort, Henry 47 Mowbray, Anne 175 Mowbray, John 3rd Duke of Norfolk 27, 46, 60–1, 63, 68, 72–3 Mowbray, John 4th Duke of Norfolk 158, 175 Musgrave, Nicholas 209–210

132, 133–40, 142–5, 160, 165, 173–4 Neville, Thomas Bastard of Fauconberg 122, 130, 148, 160, 162–3 Neville, William, Lord Fauconberg 28–9, 32, 37, 45–7, 55, 60, 67–8, 70, 72–3, 75–6, 81, 86 Norris, Sir William 133, 189 Northcroft, Dr John 227

Neville, Anne 119–21, 127, 143, 151, 160, 165, 187–8, 194 Neville, Cecily 6, 23, 65, 80, 104, 107, 172–3 Neville, Eleanor 38 Neville, George, Archbishop of York 37, 43, 48, 67, 69, 79–80, 105–106, 122, 133, 166 Neville, George, Duke of Bedford 116, 166 Neville, Sir Humphrey 92–3, 98, 100, 110–11 Neville, Isabel 42, 105–107, 116–17, 121, 160, 165, 172, 174, 204 Neville, Sir John Lord Montagu 38, 60–3, 65, 70, 80–1, 88–90, 93–4, 98–100, 107, 115–16, 121–3, 125, 130, 133–4, 137, 139, 142–5, 166 Neville, Lord John 52, 69, 70 Neville, Margaret 86 Neville, Ralph Earl of Westmorland 6 Neville Ralph 2nd Earl of Westmorland 87 Neville, Richard Earl of Salisbury 20, 23, 25–7, 29, 31–3, 36–42, 45–6, 48–9, 50, 52–4, 58, 145 Neville, Richard, Earl of Warwick 23–4, 27, 33–7, 43–6, 50, 52, 53–5, 58, 60–1, 63, 65–70, 72–3, 81, 87–90, 92, 96, 99–100, 102–11, 113–14, 116, 118–20, 123–8, 130,

Parr, Sir Thomas 38, 52–3 Parr, Sir William 109, 115, 133 Paston letters 33 Percy, Sir Henry (Hotspur) 31 Percy, Henry 2nd Earl of Northumberland 22, 27–9, 31, 33 Percy, Henry 3rd Earl of Northumberland 34, 36, 41, 46, 50–2, 59–60, 64, 73, 76–80, 82 Percy, Henry 4th Earl of Northumberland 107, 115, 130, 132–3, 160, 176, 181, 187–8, 197, 199–200, 202, 209, 210 Percy, Sir Ralph 73, 80, 88–90, 92–4 Percy, Sir Richard 73, 78 Percy, Sir Robert 190, 210 Percy, Sir Thomas Lord Egremont 22, 41, 46, 47 Philip IV, King 2 Philippa of Hainault 1 Plantagenet, Arthur 83 Pole, John de la 2nd Duke of Suffolk 60, 85 Pole, John de la Earl of Lincoln 208–12, 220 Pole, Margaret Countess of Salisbury 174 Pole, William de la 1st Duke of Suffolk 10, 13–15, 95 Poynings, Sir Edward 199 Poynings, Sir Robert 61

Battles of the Wars of the Roses.indd 235

Ogle, Sir Robert 27, 29, 31, 72 Oldhall, Sir William 42

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236  Battles of the Wars of the Roses Radcliffe, John, Lord Fitzwalter 56, 67, 69 Ratcliff, Robert 213 Ratcliffe Sir Richard 181, 188, 199, 202 Rene of Anjou 10, 121, 164 Ricart, Robert 218 Richard II, King 4–5, 48–9, 80, 132 Richard of Conisburgh, Earl of Cambridge 6, 86 Richard Duke of Gloucester, King Richard III 42, 86, 107, 110–11, 123, 126, 131, 134, 137, 139, 143, 152, 153, 155, 158, 163–6, 168, 170–1, 175, 177, 179–90, 192, 203, 207–209, 216, 219–20, 222, 224 Richard Plantagenet Duke of York 2, 5, 6, 8, 10, 13–14, 16, 18–20, 22, 25–7, 29–38, 41–5, 48–54, 168 Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York 174, 184, 212–13, 219, 220 Rivers, Anthony Earl – see Woodville Rivers, Richard Lord – see Woodville Roberts, Elizabeth 228 Rochefort, Guillaume de 219 Roos, Lord 28, 50–2, 60, 73, 78, 80, 87, 90, 92–3, 98–9 Roos, Sir William 155 Rous, John 201, 218 Russe, Robert 222 Sandford, Francis 226 Savage, Sir John 195–6, 198, 200 Say, Lord 45, 142 Saye and Sele, Lord 17–18 Scales, Lord 45, 48, 104 Schwartz, Martin 208, 210, 212 Scrope, Lord John of Bolton 45, 72–3, 92, 190, 209–210 Scrope, Sir Thomas 209–210 Shaa, Dr Ralph 185–6 Shakespeare, William 2, 222 Shore, Jane 83, 184 Shrewsbury Earls of – see Talbot

Battles of the Wars of the Roses.indd 236

Simnel, Lambert 207–208, 212 Simons, Richard 207–208, 212 Skelton, Clement 209–210 Smith, John 222 Somerset, Earls and Dukes – see Beaufort St Leger, Sir Thomas 189–90 Stafford, Earl of 28, 32 Stafford, Humphrey, 1st Duke of Buckingham 28, 29, 32–4, 37, 41, 43, 46–7 Stafford, Henry, 2nd Duke of Buckingham 104, 179–81, 187, 189–90, 219, 224 Stafford, Sir John 47 Stafford, Sir Humphrey Earl of Devon (son of Sir William Stafford) 43, 56, 108, 110 Stafford, Sir Humphrey 16 Stafford, Sir Humphrey (son of the above) 199, 202, 206–207 Stafford, Sir Thomas (brother of the above) 199, 202, 206–207 Stafford, Sir William 16 Stanley, Lord Thomas 38, 72, 74, 90, 116, 122, 124, 133, 176, 181, 183, 188–90, 195, 196, 198–9, 202, 210 Stanley, Sir William 38, 42, 72, 133, 160, 195–6, 198–201, 213–14 Stewart, Margaret 55, 81 Stillington, Robert 122, 185–6 Stockton, John 162–3 Stonor, William 189 Stow, John 30, 222 Strange, Lord 104, 196, 198, 202, 210 Sudeley, Baron 28 Swynford, Katherine 6 Suffolk, Earls and Dukes – see de la Pole Tailboys, Sir William 73, 88–9, 99 Talbot, George, 4th Earl of Shrewsbury 211 Talbot, Sir Gilbert 195, 200

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Index 237 Talbot, John 1st Earl of Shrewsbury 20–1 Talbot, John 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury 33, 41, 46–7 Talbot, John 3rd Earl of Shrewsbury 115, 122, 124 Tempest, John 101 Tempest, Sir Richard 101 Thomas, Rhys ap 195, 209 Thomas of Woodstock 1, 224 Throckmorton, Sir John 57–8 Thwaites.Sir Thomas 213 Tiptoft, John Earl of Worcester 27, 85–6, 99, 101, 116, 125 Trollope, Andrew 37, 41, 51–3, 61, 64, 73–4, 77–8 Trollope, Sir David 73 Tuchet, James 5th Lord Audley 38, 39–40 Tuchet , John 6th Lord Audley 43, 55, 72, 74, 85 Tudor, Edmund 8, 20, 34–5, 192 Tudor, Henry 2, 35, 109–10, 125, 160, 189–202, 204–205, 219, 224, 226 Tudor, Jasper 8, 20, 28, 33–5, 42, 47, 55–8, 86, 87, 90, 105, 109, 121–2, 125, 127, 130, 146–7, 150, 160, 192, 199, 206, 209, 211–12 Tudor, Owen 8, 34, 42, 56–8, 160, 192 Tunstall, Sir Richard 89, 101 Twynho, Ankarette 172 Tyrell, Sir James 158, 188, 220–1 Vaughan, Roger 160 Vaughan, Sir Thomas 180, 185 Vaux, Sir William 155 Venables, Sir Hugh 40 Vere, John de 12th Earl of Oxford 86 Vere, John de 13th Earl of Oxford 86, 107, 111, 122, 125, 130, 132–4, 137, 139, 142, 143, 166–7, 194, 200, 211

Battles of the Wars of the Roses.indd 237

Vergil, Polydore 78, 155, 180, 221, 223 Vestynden, Ralph 77 Warbeck, Perkin 212–14, 220 Warren, Richard 114–15 Warwick, 16th Earl of – see Richard Neville Warwick, Countess of 24, 116, 120, 127, 146, 166 Waurin Jean de 63, 74–7, 80 Welles, Lionel 6th Lord 60, 73, 78 Welles, Richard 7th Lord 113–14 Welles, Sir Robert 113–15 Wenlock, Lord John 32, 42, 45, 60, 72, 116–17, 123, 143, 147, 152–4 Wentworth, Sir Philip 73, 79 Whethamstede, Abbot 31, 62–4 Whittingham, Sir Robert 82, 87, 155 Willoughby, Lord 60, 73, 98 Willoughby, Sir Robert 204 Woodville, Anthony Earl Rivers 44, 80, 95, 104, 107, 116, 123, 131, 162, 170, 179, 180, 185, 188 Woodville, Sir Edward Lord Scales 104, 176, 181, 192, 199, 209 Woodville Elizabeth 64, 95–7, 103–104, 126, 152, 179–80, 184–5, 188–9, 193, 223, 224, 228 Woodville, Sir John 104, 109–10, 174 Woodville, Lionel Bishop of Salisbury 104, 188 Woodville, Richard Earl Rivers 43–4, 77, 80, 95, 97, 104, 107, 109–10, 174 Worcester, Earl – see John Tiptoft Wren, Christopher 226 Wright, Professor William 227 Zouche, John Lord 199

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