Analysis and Publication of Ceramics: The Computer Data-Base in Archaeology 9780860546986, 9781407348476

Table of contents :
Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Figures and Tables
List of Contributors
Introduction
Chapter 1: Morphology, Composition, and Stratigraphy
Chapter 2: Processing Archaeological Ceramics
Chapter 3: Beyond Socio-Economics
Chapter 4: The Provenience Postulate
Chapter 5: Levantine Mortaria of the Persian Period
Chapter 6: The Ceramic Data Base and Studies of Trade
Chapter 7: Ceramic Analysis, Variation and Data Base Construction
Chapter 8: Practical Data-Base Construction for Historical-Period Ceramic Analysis
Chapter 9: Conclusion
References Cited

Citation preview

Analysis and Publication of Ceramics The Computer Data-Base in Archaeology

edited by

Jeffrey A. Blakely and W. J. Bennett, Jr.

BAR International Series 5 51

1989

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S551, 1989: 'Analysis and Publication of Ceramics: The Computer Data-Base in Archaeology' © Jeffrey A. Blakely and V.J.Be�nett, J r., 1989 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860546986 paperback ISBN 9781407348476 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546986 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T ab le o fC on ten t s

L i s to fF igures L i s to fT ab les L i s to fC on tr ibu tors I n troduc t ion

v i v i v i i i x

C hap ter 1 : Morpho logy ,C ompos i t ion ,a nd S tra t igraphy : AD a ta B ase C oncep tf o rC eram ic S tudy a nd P ub l ica t ion b yW .J .B enne t t ,J r . a nd J e f f rey A .B lake ly P ro logue I n troduc t ion B ackg round H i s to ry o fE xcava t ion a tC ae sa rea Ma r i t im .a

1 1 1 2 2

Rev iew o fT echn ique si nC e ram ic Ana ly s i s S umma ry o ft he B ackg round S tud ie s :I n i t ia lP ro jec t Gu ide l ine s Mode l sa nd P redece s so r s Ana ly t ica lP rog ram f o rC aesa rea Ma r i t ima T he Hea r to ft he P rob lem F ormu la t ion o ft he Da ta B a se :T heo re t ica lC on s ide ra t ion s AC e ram ic Da ta B a se Compu te rC e ram ic Da ta B a se s S t ruc tur ing t he C a tego r ies F ind spo t F o rm F ab r ic Ana ly s i so ft he Da ta B a se : Man ipu la t ion a nd I n f erence P ub l ica t ion o ft he Da ta B a se a nd Ana ly t ica lR e su l t s

3 4 4 5 6 8 8 9 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6

S ummary a nd C onc lu s ion s T he B o t tom L ine

1 7 1 8

C hap ter 2 :P rocess ing A r chaeo log ica lC eram ics : S ome C ommen t s o nA na ly t ica l Ob jec t ives b y Dav id Adan -Bayew i tz Re ten t ion o fE xcava ted C eram ic s S tudy a nd P ub l ica t ion Open ing t he E xcava ted Ma te r ia lf o rF u r the rS tudy P o t tery p roven ience . Why w e re p a r t icu la rr aw ma te r ia l sc ho sen f o rp o t tery manu fac tu re? S oc ioeconom ic a nd t e chno log ica la spec t so fp o t tery p roduc t ion : V es se lf unc t ion a nd c on ten t s :

1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0

C hap ter 3 :B eyond S oc io -Econom ics : S ome R eac t ions t o "Morpho logy ,C ompos i t ion ,a nd S tra t igraphy" b yJ ame sF .S t range I n troduc t ion S ome S pec i f ic R eac t ion st oB lake ly a nd B enne t t A Mode s tP roposa lt o Move B eyond S oc io -Econom ic s Conc lu s ion

2 3 2 3 2 3 2 7 2 9

C hap ter 4 :T he P roven ience P os tu la te :T hough ts o nt he U se o fP hy s ica la nd C hem ica l D a ta i nt he S tudy o fC eram ic Ma ter ia ls b yW .J .B enne t t ,J r . ,J ef f rey A .B lake ly , Robe r t B r inkmann , a nd C ha r le sJ .V i ta l iano I n troduc t ion T he P roven ience P o s tu la te Chem ica l Ana ly s i so fC lay :N eu tron Ac t iva t ion Ana ly s is T he P hy s ica la nd C hem ica l Ana ly se so fI nc lus ions : X e ro rad iog raphy , Heavy Mine ra l Ana ly s i s ,a nd P e t rog raphy

1 1

3 1 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4

X e ro rad iog raphy , Heavy M inera l Ana ly s is ,a nd P e t ro logy X e rorad iog raphy . Heavy M ine ra l Ana ly s is . P e tro logy . R e la t ion sh ip o ft h eT h ree Ana ly t ica lP rocedu res .

3 6 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 8

T he C a se o fP ompe ian R ed Wa re T he S tudy T he R e su l t s C onc lu s ion sB a sed o nt he P ompe ian R ed Wa re E xper imen t G roup ing o fS he rds f r om aC on sump t ion S i te G roup ing o fS he rds a t aP roduc t ion F ac i l i ty G roup ing S he rds a tC on sump t ion S i te sw hen K i ln Da ta A re K nown T he D icho tomy b e tween P roduc t ion F ac i l i t ie sa nd C on sump t ion S i tes C onc lu s ion s

3 9 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 2 4 3 4 3 4 3

C hap ter 5 :L evan t ine Mor tar ia o ft he P er s ian P er iod b yJ ef f rey A .B lake ly a nd W .J .B enne t t ,J r . I n t roduc t ion Two Decades o fI nves t iga t ion T he B eg inn ing : N eu tron A c t iva t ion Ana ly s i sa nd R ep l ica t ion T he R ecen tR eg iona lL i tera ture C la s s ica l C lue s P e t r ie a nd B l is s R eg iona lL i tera ture : M id -1970 's Onwa rd C on tex t ,A s soc ia ted A r t i fac t s , a nd Wea rP a t terns Mo re C ompo s i t iona la nd T echno log ica l Ana ly ses N eu tron Ac t iva t ion Ana ly s is . P e t ro logy . Heavy M ine ra l Ana ly s is . X e ro rad iog raphy . Our C onc lu s ions R egard ing t he Manufac tu re a nd D i s t r ibu t ion o ft he L evan t ine Mo r tar ium T he Manuf ac ture o ft h eL evan t ine Mo r ta r ium L evan t ine Mo r ta r ia i nP a les t ine F la t -Ba sed Mor ta r ia R ing -Ba sed Mo r ta r ia Mo r ta r ia i nt he S oc io -Po l i t ica la nd E conom ic Wo r ld o ft h eP er s ian Emp i re Mo r ta r ia i nt he S oc io -Po l i t ica la nd E conom ic Wo r ld o ft h eS even th C en tu ry T he N ex tS tep s S ummary R ema rks o nC e ram ic Ana ly s is

4 5 4 5 4 6 4 6 4 7 4 8 5 0 5 2 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 5 7

B . C .

5 7 5 7 5 9 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 2 6 3

C hap ter 6 :T he C eram ic D a ta B ase a nd S tud ies o fT rade b y Ma r tha K .R i s ser a nd G a ry R eger

6 7

C hap ter 7 :C eram ic A na ly s is ,V ar ia t ion a nd D a ta B ase C ons truc t ion : AS e lec t ion is t P er spec t ive b yJ ames K .F ea the rs I n t roduc t ion C e ram ic S tud ies i nP er spec t ive AS e lec t ion i s t P er spec t ive T he Que s t ion o f Un i ts O r ig ins o fS he l lT emper ing

7 1 7 1 7 1 7 4 7 5 7 8

C hap ter 8 :P rac t ica l D a ta -Base C ons truc t ion f o rH is tor ica l -Per iod C eram ic A na lys is b y T e re s i ta Ma jew sk ia nd M ichae lJ .O 'Br ien I n troduc t ion P rob lems i nt he C a tegor iza t ion o fC eram ic s C e ram ic C a tego r iza t ion i n Amer ican H i s to r ica lA rchaeo logy D eco ra t ion -Ba sed C a tego r iza t ion

8 1 8 1 8 1 8 3 8 5

i v

F o rm a nd C on tex t( F ind spo t ) i n aDeco ra t ion -Ba sed S y s tem E xamp le so fH i s to r ica l -Ce ram ic Da ta -Ba se C on s t ruc t ion D iscus s ion a nd C onc lu s ions

8 7 8 9 9 4

C hap ter 9 :C onc lus ion b yW .J .B enne t t ,J r . ,a nd J ef f rey A .B lake ly D iscus s ion. P os tsc r ip t

9 9 9 9 1 02

R e f erences C i ted

1 03

V

L is to fF igures

F igu re 1 1 .AP age o fP o t te ry D raw ing sI lu s tra t ing C eram ic sE xcava ted i nt he C aesarea M i th raeum

1

F igure 1 2 .X ero rad iog raph o fP ompe ian R ed Wa re L id G .8 .424 .2 f r om C ae sa rea Ma r i t ima . F igu re 1 3 .P a r to f aM ic ropho tog raph o fS he rd G .8 .307 .1 .

1 2 1 3

F igu re 1 4 .D i s tr ibu t ion C ha r to f Ampho rae E xcava ted f r om t h eC ae sa rea M i th raeum .

1 5

F igu re 4 1 . I nc lu s ion sw i th in C eram ic s . F igu re 4 -2 .I lu s t ra t ion o ft he Un ive r se o fI nc lus ion s .

3 5 3 9

F igure 5 -1 . C ompu te r Gene ra ted Mode lo f aMor ta r ium . F igu re 5 -2 .R icha rd F inman a nd F rank K oucky Ob serv ing t he T es tF i r ing o f aModern Open -A i rK i ln ..

4 5 4 7

F igu re 5 -3 . Xe ro rad iog raphs : a ) at h ick -sec t ion v i ew o f amo r ta r ium r im ;b ) as u r face -sec t ion v i ew o f amo r ta r ium b a se ; a nd c ) at h ick -sec t ion v i ew o f amo r ta r ium b a se . F igu re 8 1 .T axonom ic S y s tem U sed i nt he C la s s i f ica t ion o fH i s to r ica l -Per iod C eram ic s f r om Nor thea s te rn M i s sou r i .

5 8

8 6

L is to fT ab les

T ab le 1 1 . Heavy -M inera lC oun t Der ived f r om aV a r ie ty o fC e ram ic s .

1 3

T ab le 4 1 . C ompa r i son o fS he rd G roup ing sb yX ero rad iog raphy ,P e t ro logy ,a nd Heavy M inera l Ana ly s i s .

4 0

T ab le 8 1 .S e lec ted E xamp le so fC eram ic C od ing sf r om t h eH i s to r ic A r t i fac tC ode B ook o f Ga r row a nd A s soc ia te s ,I nc . T ab le 8 -2 .M i l le ra nd Hun ter V es se l -De sc r ip t ion S y s tem U s ing t he CORNERSTONE P rog ram . T ab le 8 -3 .V e s se l De sc r ip t ion sa nd Add re s se sf r om t he F rank l in G la ss Wo rk s ,P o r tage C oun ty , No r the rn Oh io . T ab le 8 -4 . Desc r ip t ion o fC e ram ic V es se l sf r om t he Mapp in - Mu rphy Hou se We l l Depos i t , No r thea s te rn M i s sou r i ,U s ing aDeco ra t ion -Ba sed C la s s if ica t ion .

v i

9 0 9 2 9 3 9 5

L is to fC on tr ibu tor s

D av id Adan -Bayew i t z , D epa r tmen to fL and o fI s rae lS tud ie s ,B a r -I lan U n ive r s i ty , R ama t -Gan , I s rae l W .J .B enne t t ,J r . ,A r cheo log ica lA s ses smen t s , I nc . ,P . 0 .B ox 1 631 , Na shv i l le , AR 7 1852 J ef r ey A . B lake ly ,A r cheo log ica lAs se s smen t s ,I nc . , P .0 .B ox 1 631 , Na shv i l l e , AR 7 1852 R obe r tB r inkmann , D epa r tmen to fG eog raphy , U n ive r s i ty o fW i scons in -M i lwaukee ,P . 0 .B ox 4 13 , M i lwaukee , W I 5 3201 J ame sF .F ea the r s , D epa r tmen to fAn thropo log , DH -05 , U n ive r s i ty o f Wa sh ing ton , S ea t t l e , WA 9 8195 T e r e s i ta Ma j ew sk i , D iv i s ion o fAme r ican A r chaeo log y , U n ive r s i ty o fM i s sour i , 1 5 Sw i t z l e r Ha l l , C o lumb ia , MO 6 5201 M ichae lJ .O 'B r ien , D epa r tmen to f An thropo log y , U n ive r s i ty o fM i s sou r i , C o lumb ia MO 6 5211 G a ry R eg e r , B ox 1 343 , T r in i ty C o l l eg e , Ha r t f o rd , CT 0 6106 Ma r tha K R i s se r , B ox 1 343 , T r in i ty C o l leg e , Ha r t f o rd , CT 0 6106 J ame sF .S t rang e , D epa r tmen to fR e l ig ious S tud ie s , U n iv er s i ty o fS ou th F lo r ida , T ampa , FL 3 3620 -5550 C ha r l es J .V i ta l iano , D epa r tmen to fG eo log y , I nd iana U n ive r s i ty , 1 005 E as tT en th S t r ee t , B loom ing ton , I N 4 7405

VI

I n troduc t ion

T he i dea f o rt h is v o lume a ro se a sw ew e re c omp le t ing t he manu sc r ip tf o rt he f i na lp ub l ica t ion o ft he P e r s ian -Per iod r ema ins e xcava ted a tT e l l e l -Hes i ( Benne t t a nd B lake ly 1 989 ) ; a n u nder tak ing wh ich f o l lowed c l o se ly a tt he h ee l s o ft he f i na l r epo r t o n t he c eram ic s e xcava ted i n ah o r r eum a tC aesarea Ma r i t ima ( B lake ly 1 987 ) . A s w e w o rked t h rough t h ese ma te r ia l s w e e xpe r ienced a cu te ly t he t en s ion w h ich r esu l ts f r om a t temp t ing t od oj u s t ice t ot he i n fo rma t ion p o ten t ia lo ft he e xcava ted c eram ic sw i th in t h e f i nanc ia l a nd t empo ra l r e s t ra in ts o f p a r t icu la r p ro jec t b udge ts a nd t ime tab le s . F aced w i th t he n eces s i ty o f m ak ing i n numerab le s ma l l , s he rd -spec if ic d ec i s ion s r ega rd ing b o th t he p o s s ib i l i t ies a nd l i m i ta t ions o ft he ma te r ia l s f r om He s i a nd C ae sarea , w e c onc luded t ha t t he p rob lem s c onf ron t ing u s c ou ld n o tb er e so lved u n le s sw ec on s ide red t he i s sue si n vo lved i n amo re t heo re t ica lf a sh ion . Chap te r 1 o ft h is v o lume , "Morpho logy ,C ompo s i t ion ,a nd S t ra t ig raphy : A Da ta B a se C oncep tf o rC e ram ic S tudy a nd P ub l ica t ion ," i st he mo s tr ecen tr e su l to fo u rd e l ibe ra t ions o nt he se i s sues . An e ar l ier v e rs ion o f C hap ter 1w a s o u r i n i t ia l a t temp t t o c l a r i fy o u r own t h ink ing r ega rd ing t he p ub l ica t ion o fa rchaeo log ica lc e ram ic sa nd w es ubsequen t ly u sed t h i si n i t ia le s say a st he t heo re t ica lb a s i s f o ra ppea ls t om a jor g ran t ing a genc ie sf o rf unds .R ev iewe rr e spon se t ot he i d ea sw er a i sed s urp r ised u s . R e sponses w ere e i ther e mba r ra s s ing ly s uppo r t ive o r d eva s ta t ing ly n ega t ive ; n one w e re n oncomm i t ta l . Wh i le t he n ega t ive r e sponse ss pe l led d oom f o rt h ef und ing r eques ts ,t he n a tu re o ft h i sr e spon se i nd ica ted t ou st ha tw e h ad s t ruck an erve . T he t ime h ad c ome ,w ec onc luded ,t od ow ha tw ec ou ld t oe ncou rage t h e f o rma l e xchange o f i d ea s r egard ing t h e w ay ( s ) i n w h ich i n fo rma t ion c ou ld b e e x t rac ted f r om a r chaeo log ica l c eram ic s a nd s ha red mo re f u l ly b yt h e i n c rea s ing ly d i ve rse n umber o fp ro f es s iona l s a s w e l la s a rchaeo log is ts f o rw hom s uch i n fo rma t ion m ay b eu sefu l . A s aw ay o fi n i t ia t ing w ha tw eh ope w i l lb e ac on t inu ing d i scu s s ion b y al a rge n umbe ro fc o l league s , w ec on tac ted t h ep ub l ishe r so fB r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t sa bou tt he i dea o fp ub l i sh ing ac o l lec t ion o fe s say so nt h ea na ly s is a nd p ub l ica t ion o fa rchaeo log ica lc eram ic s .E ncouraged b yt he p ub l i sher st ha t t h i sw as aw o r thwh i le u nde r tak ing w er ev ised o u ro r ig ina lt e x ti n aw ay w eh oped w ou ld f ocu s ad i scus s ion a mong ad i ve rs i ty o fr e sea rche r s . N ex t , w e i n v i ted a bou t t wen ty d i f fe ren t s cho la r s a c t ive ly i n vo lved i n t h ep ub l ica t ion o fa rchaeo log ica lc e ram ic st oj o in w i th u si nf o rma l ly c on s ide r ing t he p rob lem si n vo lved i nt h e p ub l ica t ion o fa rchaeo log ica l c e ram ic s u s ing t h i s e s say t of ocu s t he d i scus s ion o n t he d a ta b a se c oncep t . A l though t he i d ea s f o rmu la ted i no u r o r ig ina l e s say w e re d i rec t ly b a sed o n w ork o r ig ina t ing i nt he M idd le E a s t , w e r ecogn ized t h a t t he se s ame i s sue s w e re r e levan t w he ther o ne w a s e xcava t ing i nt he C la s s ica l Wo r ld ,P reh is tor ic E urope ,P re -Co lumb ian No r th Ame r ica ,o ra t a2 0 th C en tu ry s i te a nywhere i nt h e wor ld .T hus w hen w ec on tac ted o the r s cho la rs a bou tt h i sp ro jec tw et r ied t oi n te re s t i nd iv idua l s w i th av ar ie ty o fb ackg round sw ho w o rked i nd i spa ra te r eg ions . Wh i le w ei n v i ted c r i t ic ism a nd c ommen ts o n o ur t e x t , i tw as o ur h ope t ha t t he i nd iv idua l p a r t ic ipan ts w ou ld u se t h is a sa n o ppo r tun i ty t o s ha re w i th o thers t h ec once rns , p rob lem s , a nd s o lu t ions t h ey h ad e ncoun tered i nt he i ro wn w o rk . T he e nd r e su l ti st h ec ur ren tv o lume w h ich i n c lude s ,i na dd i t ion t oo ur e s say ( Chap ter 1 ,"Mo rpho logy , C ompos i t ion , a nd S t ra t ig raphy : AD a ta B ase C oncep t f o r C eram ic S tudy a nd P ub l ica t ion" ) , c on tr ibu t i on s b y t wo f e l low M idd le E a s te rn A rchaeo log is ts , D av id Adan -Bayew i tz ( Chap ter 2 ," P rocess ing A rchaeo log ica lC eram ic s : S ome C ommen t so n Ana ly t ica l Ob jec t ive s" ) a nd J ames F .S t range ( Chap te r 3 ," Beyond S oc io -Econom ic s : S ome R eac t ions t o' Mo rpho logy , C ompos i t ion , a nd S t ra t ig raphy" ) a nd t wo o ther p apers r ega rd ing s pec if ic E a s tern Med i ter ranean c e ram ic s f o rm s : P ompe ian R ed Wa re ( Chap ter 4 ," The P roven ience P o s tu la te : T hough ts o n t he U se o fP hy s ica l a nd C hem ica l Da ta i nt he S t udy o fC e ram ic Ma te r ia l s" b yt he c ur ren t a u tho rs , R ober t B r inkmann a nd C ha r les J .V i ta l iano ) a nd t h e P ers ian -Pe r iod Mo r ta r ium ( Chap te r 5 ," The L evan t ine Mo r ta r ium o ft h e P er s ian P e r iod" b y t he c u r ren t a u tho r s ) . C on tr ibu t ions p rov ided b yr e sea rcher sw o rk ing i no the rp a r t so ft h ew o r ld i n c lude as t udy b yc l as s ica l s c ho lars ( Chap ter 6 ," The C eram ic Da ta B a se a nd S tud ies o fT rade" b y Ma r tha K . R i s se r a nd Gary R eger ) , aN o r th Ame r ican p reh is to r ian ( Chap te r 7 ," Ceram ic Ana ly s i s , V a r ia t ion a nd Da ta B a se

x

C on s t ruc t ion : A S e lec t ion i s t P e r spec t ive" b y J ame s K . F ea the r s ) a nd r e sea rche r s c onc e rned w i th ma s s -p roduced c e ram ic s f r om G rea t B r i t ian a nd t h e Un i ted S t a te s ( Chap te r8 ," P rac t ica lD a ta -Ba se C on s t ruc t ion f o rH i s to r ica l -Pe r iod C e ram ic Ana ly s i s" b yT e re s i ta Ma jew sk ia nd M ichae lJ .O 'B r ien ) . We w i sh t oe x tend o u rh ea r t f e l tt hank st oa l t ho se i n d iv idua l s . A si su sua l ly t h ec u s tom w eh ave p rov ided ac onc lu s ion t ot h i sc o l lec t ion o fe s say s . Ra the rt h an t r y ing t o s umma r ize t h e p o in t s m ade b y t h e i n d iv idua l c on t r ibu to r s , h oweve r , w e h ave a t temp ted i n t he c onc lu s ion t ou nde r sco re c e r ta in p o in t sw h ich s e em t ou st ob es ha red b ya l t h ev a r iou sc on t r ibu to r s a bou tt h eg ene ra lp roce s so fp ub l i sh ing a r chaeo log ica lc e ram ic s .T hu sw eh ave c ho sen t oc onc lude t h i s v o lume w i th s ome g ene ra l r ema rk s a bou tt h ep ub l ica t ion o fa r chaeo log ica lr e su l t s ;a ni s sue w h ich h a s b een r ecen t ly a dd re s sed i n mo s t p rovoca t ive m anne r b y I an Hodde r ( 1 989 ) a nd C hr is toph e r T i l ley ( 1 989 ) .

x

Chap ter 1

Morpho logy ,C ompos i t ion ,a nd S tra t igraphy : AD a ta B ase C oncep tf or C eram ic S tudy a nd P ub l ica t ion

W .J .B enne t t ,J r .a nd J e f f rey A .B lake ly A rcheo log ica lA s se s smen t s ,I nc . N a shv i l le ,A rkan sa s P ro logue T he p u rpo se o ft h i se s say i st oi n i t ia te f o rma ld i scu s s ion o n at op ic w h ich w eb e l ieve t ob ec ruc ia lt o t h es ucces s o r f a i lu re o fm o s t a rchaeo log ica l e ndeavo r s . T he t op ic c on s ide red h e re i st h e n a tu re a nd f o rm o ft he p ub l ica t ion o fp r ima ry c e ram ic d a ta f r om s i te e xcava t ion s . I nt he p age sw h ich f o l low an umbe ro fi s sue sw i l lb ec on s ide red ,s ome mo re d i rec t ly t han o the r s .T he se i n c lude t he s t age t o w h ich c e ram ic s a r e p roce s sed , a na lyzed , a nd p ub l i shed a s p a r t o f t h e p r imary p ub l ica t ion o fe xcava t ion r e su l t s ,t h ei d en t i f ica t ion o ft ho se c e ram ic d a ta f o rw h ich t h ee xcava t ing t e am i su n ique ly p l aced t op re sen tt ot h es cho la r ly w o r ld ,t h en a tu re o ft h ee xcava t ion t e am 's o b l iga t ion sa nd d u t ie s ,a nd h ow t h ea na ly t ica lp rog ram i smo s t -e ff ic ien t ly s t ruc tu red t om ee ts uch g oa l s . We b eg in b yo f fe r ing w ha tw eb e l ieve t ob ep a r t icu la r ly s a l ien to b se rva t ion sm ade b yo the r sc once rned w i th t h i si s sue : ( I ) ts hou ld b ef i rm ly b o rne i nm ind t h a t ag ood p o t tery r epo r td epend sn o tu pon d e ta i led d a ta w on b ys c ien t if ic t e chn ique s ,h oweve ra dvanced a nd a ccu ra te ,b u tu pon a ni n te l l igen tp roce s s ing s cheme ,t h ed e s ign o fw h ich r e s t si nt u rn u pon ac l ea ru nde r s tand ing o ft h eo b jec t ive so ft h es t udy . I ft he re a r en oc l ea rc u ta im s ,a nu nd ige s ted c a ta logue w i l lr e su l t .O ft h e se w eh ave e nough a l ready ( Peacock 1 977a :3 3 ) . T he t ime h a sc ome f o ru st ob eg in as ea rch f o rt h ef undamen ta l so fd a ta c o l lec t ion ,c l a s s i f ica t ion , a nd r eco rd ing s y s tem s t h a t w i l l f o rm af i rm b a s i s f o r o n s i te s t ud ie s a nd w i l l d i rec t o u r h ome s t ud ie s a sw e l l . I ti sh i gh t i me t og ene ra te s ome r u le s a nd l im i t s f o r p roce s s ing c e ram ic s ( J oukow sky 1 982 :2 48 ) . .

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I n troduc t ion I ti st he c onv ic t ion o ft h ea r chaeo log ica lc ommun i ty t h a tt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd c r ea ted b yt ho se w ho p receded u sc on ta in si mpo r tan ti n fo rma t ion a bou tt h e i rl i f eway sa nd b ehav io r .F u r the r ,i ti sb e l ieved t h a tt h ea s s im i la t ion o ft h i si n fo rma t ion w i th in t h eh uman i t ie sa sw e l la st h en a tu ra la nd s oc ia ls c ience s p rov ide st he p o ten t ia l t og a in ab roade rp e r spec t ive w i th in w h ich t ou nde r s tand c on tempo ra ry h uman p rob lems a nd p roce s se s . I tf o l low s f r om t h e se t wo f u ndamen ta lp re suppo s i t ion s o ft h e d i sc ip l ine t h a t t h ew o rk o ft h ea r chaeo log ica lc ommun i ty ,b road ly s t a ted ,i st od i scove rw ay sw he reby t h i si n fo rma t ion c an e me rge f r om t h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd a nd b ea s s im i la ted i n to c on tempo ra ry l i f e .I nt h i se ndeavo r t h ea r chaeo log ica lc ommun i ty h a so f ten f o und i tp roduc t ive t of o cu sa t ten t ion o nc e ram ic m a te r ia l s ,a nd s e ve ra l g ene ra t ion s o f r e sea rch h ave s hown c e ram ic s t ob e p a r t icu la r ly s en s i t ive c on s t i tuen t s o ft h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . A l though c e ram ic sw e re o nce v i ewed a sp r ima r i ly u se fu li nc h rono log ica l ly -o r ien ted a na ly se s ,r e cen t s t ud ie sh ave c onv inc ing ly s hown t h a tt h ey c on s t i tu te au n ique s ou rce o fi n fo rma t ion a bou tt h et e chno l o gy ,e conom ic s ,a nd s oc ia lo rgan iza t ion so fp a s tc e ram ic -mak ing c u l tu re s .I ndeed ,f o l low ing t h ep i onee r i n gw o rk o fF rede r ick Ma t son a nd A nna S hepa rd ,t h ea r chaeo log ica lc ommun i ty n ow f i nd si t se l fi nt h e s omewha te mba r ra s s ing p o s i t ion o fb e ing a b le t oe x t rac t ag rea t d ea l mo re i n fo rma t ion f r om c e ram ic m a te r ia l st han i th a sb een a b le t od i ge s t .F ac ing g rea t ly i n c rea sed a nd r e f ined m e thod so fd a ta r ecove ry

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b o th a tt he e xcava t ion a nd l a bo ra to ry s t ages , a rchaeo log i s ts h ave b een a nd a re c rea t ing e no rmous b ack log s o fu np roce s sed o r p a r t ia l ly p roce s sed ma te r ia l w ho se i n terp re t ive p o ten t ia l h a s b een v a s t ly u nde ru t i l ized i nt he s ea rch f o rk now ledge a bou tp a s th uman c u l tures .R ecogn iz ing t h i s a s am a jo r a rea o f c once rn , r e sea rcher s h ave b een i n c rea s ing ly c oncerned w i th d eve lop ing p rog rams o f s t udy a nd p ub l ica t ion t ha t w i l l a l low t he l a rge ly u n tapped p o ten t ia l o f t he se ma te r ia ls t o b e more t horough ly r ea l ized . Ou rd e l ibera t ion so n t h i ss pec i f ic i s sue b egan i n1 986 w hen w ew ere a pp roached b yt he d i rec tors o f t he J o in t E xped i t ion t o C aesa rea Ma r i t ima t o a s s i s t i n t he p ub l ica t ion o f t he i r r ecove red c e ram ic ma te r ia l s .T he p age st ha tf o l low d esc r ibe b o th t he r a t iona le f o ra nd o u t l ine o ft he p lan o fs t udy a dop ted f o ra ne x t reme ly l a rge i n ven to ry o fr ecovered c e ram ic ma te r ia lf r om C ae sa rea Ma r i t ima ,o ne o ft he mos t i mpo r tan tc o smopo l i tan c en te r so ft he Roman a nd By zan t ine w o r ld . T he p r inc ip le w h ich h a sg u ided t he d eve lopmen t o ft h i sp lan h a sb een t ha ti ti st he r e spon s ib i l i ty o f t he p ro jec t w h ich r ecove r s t he c eram ic ma te r ia l s t o d e sc r ibe a ccu ra te ly a nd p rec ise ly t h e d i vers i ty p re sen t w i th in t he r ecovered c e ram ic i n ven to ry s o t ha t t he v a s t r e sea rch p o ten t ia l o ft h i s r e source i s o pened r a the rt han c l osed .T he p l an o fs t udy i t se l fh a sb een d e r ived t oi n co rpo ra te a na ly se sa ppropr ia te f o rt he e x trac t ion o fc h rono log ica l ,t e chno log ica l ,a nd f unc t iona li n fo rma t ion f r om t h is b ody o f ma ter ia l . B y c omb in ing s t ra t ig raph ic , mo rpho log ica l , a nd c ompo s i t iona l a na ly se s t o f o rm a n i n teg ra ted a nd c a re fu l ly s t ruc tu red p rog ram ,w ea re o ft he o p in ion t ha ti tw i l lb ep os s ib le t og a in s i gn if ican ti n s igh ti n to t he c omp lex s oc io -econom ic s t ruc ture o ft he Roman a nd B yzan t ine w o r ld . We a l so b e l ieve t ha t t hese i n s igh t sw i l lb eo fi n te res tt oh uman i s ts a nd s c ien t i s ts w ho a re n o tp a r to ft he a rchaeo log ica lc ommun i ty . T hu s ,t he r e su l t so ft he a rchaeo log ica le ndeavor w i l lb ed i spe r sed t o af a rw ider a ud ience . We b e l ieve t ha tt he p rog ram o u t l ined b e low r ep resen t s as i gn if i can ts t ep f o rwa rd i nt he e x t rac t ion o f v a luab le i n fo rma t ion f r om c e ram ic ma te r ia l s .F o rt h i sr ea son ,w ep re sen tt h i sp rog ram a so ne mode lf o r c e ram ic s t ud ies a pp l icab le t ow ide ly d i ve r se c h rono log ica la nd g eog raph ica l a rea s .I ti sf o rt h is r eason t ha t c ommen t f r om o the r r e sea rcher s w a s s o l ic i ted a nd p re sen ted i nt h is v o lume . Howeve r , f i rs t w e b e l ieve i ti sa pp rop r ia te t op rov ide r eade r sw i th s ome h i s to r ica lc on tex tf o rt h is w o rk p r ior t oc ons ide r ing t h et heo re t ica li s sue sw h ich i no u rj udgmen tu nde r l ie t h i sa nd s im i la ru nder tak ing s . B ackground H i s tor yo fE x cava t ion a tC ae sa r ea Mar i t in ia Du r ing i t s t h i r teen f i e ld s ea sons , t he J o in t E xped i t ion t o C ae sa rea Ma r i t ima ac on sor t ium o f u n ive rs i t ies a nd c o l leges h eaded b yD rew Un ive r s i ty c onduc ted l a rge -sca le e xcava t ion sa ts i xd i f feren t p a r ts o ft ha t s i te a sw e l l a s s ma l ler s ca le e xam ina t ion o fi s o la ted s t ruc tu res . Ma jo r a rea s o fa t ten t ion i n c luded ah ou s ing a nd i ndu s t r ia lq ua r ter w h ich c an b ed a ted f r om t h eB yzan t ine t oC ru sader p er iod s ( F ie ld A ) , ap ub l ic s t ruc tu re o ft he B yzan t ine p e r iod w h ich w a sf o l lowed b y ac e ram ic k i ln o ft h e Umayyad P e r iod a nd r oad s d u r ing t he ' Abba s id a nd F a t im id P e r iod s ( F ie ld B ) , ac i ty b lock o ft he R oman a nd B y zan t ine P e r iod w h ich w a sl o ca ted o n ac a rdo j u s ts ou th o ft he c i ty c en te ra nd i n c luded as e ven th -cen t u ry k i ln ( F ie ld C ) , ab a th c omp lex o ft he B yzan t ine a nd Umayyad P e r iods ( F ie ld E ) , ah ou s ing q uar te r f r om t he L a te He l len is t ic t h rough B yzan t ine P e r iod sw h ich i n c luded p o r t ion so ft he Roman -Pe r iod c i ty -

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w a l l( F ie ld G ) ,a nd t he c i ty 's h ippod rome o ft h e Roman a nd B yzan t ine P er iod sa l ong w i th t h ea s soc ia ted L a te B y zan t ine -Pe r iod f o r t if ica t ion w a l l ( F ie ld H ) . T aken t oge the r , t hese d epos i ts s pan t he e n t i re f ou r teen c en tu r ie so f ma jo ro ccupa t ion a tt h es i te ,f r om t h eL a te H e l len i s t ic P e r iod p r io rt ot h ef ound ing o fC aesa rea ,t h rough i t sf l o re scence i nt h e Roman a nd B yzan t ine P e r iod s ,i n to ap er iod o fd ec l ine i nt h e Umayyad , ' Abba s id , a nd F a t im id P e r iod s , a nd f i na l ly t h rough i t s o ccupa t ion b y t he C ru sade rs ( Bu l l 1 982a , 1 982b ;B u l l ,K ren tz ,a nd S to rv ick 1 986 ; Wiemken a nd Ho lum 1 981 ) . T h i r teen s ea sons o fe xcava t ion p roduced i mmen se q uan t i t ies o fa r t i fac tua l ma ter ia ls a nd a ccompany i n g a rchaeo log ica l r eco rd s . B y v o lume , t he c eram ic i n ven to ry c on s t i tu te s t he g rea te s t q uan t i ty o f a rchaeo log ica l m a ter ia l r ecove red b y t he e xcava to rs o fC aesa rea . Du r ing t he y ea rs o fe xcava t ion , t h e p ro jec ts aved a l l r im s he rds ,b a se s he rd s ,d eco ra ted s he rd s , a nd mo s th and le s , s oc urren t ly t h i s c o rpu s i sb e s tq uan t if ied b yw e igh t a bou t3 0t ons .A l lo ft h is c e ram ic ma te r ia lw a ss h ipped t oD rew Un ive rs i ty . E ach s he rd i nt h is c o rpu s i si d en t i f ied a nd i n d iv idua l ly l a be l led b y f i e ld , a rea , l o cus , a nd c on ta iner o f -

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e x cava t ion .T he se s herd s s t o red i nb ag sw h ich a re f i l ed i nb oxe so rgan ized b yf i e ld ,a rea , a nd b ucke t o fe xcava t ion a re e a s i ly a cce s s ib le . -

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R ev iew o fT echn ique si nC e ram ic Ana l y s i s I n1 986 D rew Un ive r s i ty a nd t he J o in t E xped i t ion t oC ae sa rea Ma r i t ima r eque s ted t ha tt he a u thor s p repa re a p l an b y w h ich t h e ma s s ive c e ram ic i n ven tory g ene ra ted b y t he J o in t E xped i t ion c ou ld b e a na lyzed a nd p repa red f o rp ub l ica t ion .I no rde rt oc r ea te s uch ap lan , at ho rough l i t e ra tu re s ea rch w a s c onduc ted o nt he t op ic o fc e ram ic a na ly s i sa nd a rchaeo log ica lp ub l ica t ion s ot ha t av a r ie ty o ft r ad i t iona l m e thods u sed i nc eram ic a na ly s i sa nd r epo r t ing c ou ld b ee va lua ted ( Benne t ta nd B lake ly 1 986 ) . T rad i t iona la rchaeo log ica lr epo r t ing i nP a le s t ine a nd t he M idd le E a s th a sb een a ccomp l i shed t h rough ad i rec t s t ra t ig raph ic a pp roach i n w h ich t he f o cu s i so n t he d e te rm ina t ion o f t he c h rono log ica l p a rame ters o ft he s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t . Many o ft he c h rono log ica l p a rame te rs a re i d en t if ied t h rough m o rpho log ica l c ompa r i son s o f c e ram ic s f r om o ther k nown a nd d a ted c on tex t s ( e .g . , A lb r igh t 1 943 ; T u fne l l1 953 ;C row foo t ,C row foo t ,a nd K enyon 1 957 ;S auer 1 973 ;R a s t1 978 ;C a l laway 1 980 ;T u sh ingham 1 986 ) . Much l e s s f r equen t ly , a mo re f o rma l i s t ic c l a s s ica l a pp roach i su sed f o r t he s ame c eram ic c ompar ison s ( e .g . , O xé a nd C om for t 1 968 ; Haye s 1 967 , 1 972 , 1 980 ) . O ther a pp roache s a nd t e chn iques a imed a td e term in ing t he l o ca t ion o f manu fac tu re f o r c eram ic s h ave b een d eve loped a nd a pp l ied t o t he s t udy o f N ea r E a s te rn ma ter ia l s . R esu l t s o fs uch a na ly t ica l t e chn iques h ave b een u sed t og a in i n s igh ti n to t he c omme rce a nd e conomy o ft h ec i ty a sw e l la st he s oc ia l i n te rac t ion b e tween s i te s . T he re h a sb een h igh ly s ucces sfu lw o rk d eve loped b yt he B r i t i sh r e sea rcher s D .P .S .P eacock , M . G .F u l fo rd , D . F .W i l l iams , a nd J .A .R i ley , w ho h ave u sed d e ta i led p e t rog raph ic a na ly s is c oup led w i th h eav ym ine ra l a na ly s i s t oi d en t if yt empe r s ou rce s a nd t og a in i n va luab le i n s igh t i n to t he e xchange n e two rk sa c ro s st he Med i te r ranean w or ld d u r ing t he Roman P e r iod ( e .g . ,F u l fo rd a nd P eacock 1 984 ;P eacock 1 977b ,1 982 ;P eacock a nd W i l l iams 1 986 ;R i ley 1 975 ,1 976 ,1 981 ) .T empe rs t ud ies d one a t B ab e dh -Dhra ' a nd N ume i ra h ave c l a r i f ied c er ta in i mpo r tan t a spec ts r ega rd ing t he s oc ia l i n te rac t ion b e tween t he se t wo s i tes ( Benyon , Donahue ,S chaub ,a nd J ohns ton 1 986 ) .N eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s is h a s a l so b een u sed s ucces s fu l ly i nd e te rm in ing t he p roven ience o fc l ay s ou rces ( e .g . , B rooks 1 975 ; K ap lan , Ha rbo t t le , a nd S ay re 1 984 ; Gunneweg , P er lman , a nd Y e l l in 1 983 ; Adan -Bayew i tz a nd P e r lman 1 985 ) . T echno log ica l v a r iab i l i ty i nw a re c ompos i t ion o f s ome P a le s t in ian p o t te ry h a s b een i n ve s t iga ted u s ing X -ray f l uo re scence ( Has s ler 1 980 ) . F ina l ly , i n t ra reg iona lp o t te ry e xchange h a sb een c l a r if ied t h rough n eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s is p rocedu res i nI s rae l ( Adan -Bayew i tz 1 985 , 1 986b ) , wh i le i n Nor th Amer ica e xchange h a s b een s t ud ied t h rough d e ta i led p o in t c oun ts u s ing s ed imen ta ry p e t rograph ic m e thod s ( Lomba rd 1 987 ) . I nves t iga t ion s i n to t h e a nc ien t t e chno logy o fc e ram ic p roduc t ion h ave b een v e ry s ucces s fu l . T hese h ave i n c luded w o rk b yS hepa rd ( 1 985 ) ,F ranken a nd K a lsbeek ( 1969 ,1 975 ) ,V an B eek ( 1969 ) ,a nd L eeuw ( 1 976 ) t o men t ion o n ly af ew p e r t inen t s t ud ies . N umerous g eo log ica l a nd o the r a na ly t ica l t e chn iques h ave o f ten b een u sed i ns uch s t ud ie s , s uch a st h in -sec t ion p e t rog raphy , F IXE a na ly s i s ,r ef i r ing e xper i m en ts , X -ray f l uo re scence , a nd X -ray d i f f rac t ion . R ecen t ly , x e ro rad iog raphy h a s s hown p rom i se o f i n c reas ing t he e ff ic iency o fs uch e ndeavo r s( G lanzman 1 983 ,1 987 ;G lanzman a nd F lem ing 1 985 ,1 986a ) . R ep l ica t ion e xper imen t sa nd e t hno log ica l r e sea rch a l so f o rm a ni mpo r tan t a spec t o ft h i s a rea o fs t udy ( J ohns ton 1 984 ) . I n s igh ts i n to p a r t icu la rc e ram ic p roduc t ion l o t sh ave b een g a ined t h rough t he a na ly s i so fm ic ro -s ty l i s t i cf e a tures o fp a r t icu la rv e s se l so rv e sse lg roup s . Wh i le mo s to ft h is w o rk h a sb een l im i ted t ot he s t udy o fh and -made c eram ic sf r om p reh is to r ic c on tex ts ( Dee tz 1 965 ;H i l l1 970 ;L ongac re 1 970 ;A rno ld 1 984 ) , i ti st hough tt h a ts uch i n ve s t iga t ions c an a l so b ee f fec t ive i nf u r the ri d en t if y ing s pec i f ic p o t tery p roduc t ion f a c i l i t ies . I n t ra s i te s t ud ies o f t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f m ic ro -s ty l i s t ic f e a tu re s g i ve i n s igh t i n to t he s pa t ia l o rgan iza t ion o fp ar t icu la rs o c ia lg roup sw i th in t h e c i ty . F ur the r , t he s i ze a nd s hape o fp a r t icu la rv e sse l c l a s ses c an a l so g i ve i n s igh ti n to t h en a tu re a nd e x ten to fp a r t icu lar c ommod i t ies e xchange a sw e l la si n to h ou seho ld s i ze s (M i l l ion 1 980 ; L ondon 1 985 ) .T he i s sues o fc on ten ts a nd f unc t ion o fp a r t icu lar v e s se l s a nd c on ta ine r sa re b e ing i n c rea s ing ly a dd re s sed ( Ro thsch i ld -Bo ro s 1 981 ;P a s s ie ta l . 1 981 ) . I nt he p a s t f ew y ears , many o ft he se i d eas h ave b een s yn the s ized i n mo re t heo re t ica lw ork s ( e .g . , F ry 1 980 ; L eeuw a nd P r i tcha rd 1 984 ; R ice 1 987 ) .

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S u r nnay o ft h eB ackg round S t ud i e s :I n i t ia lP ro j ec tG u id e l ine s Du r ing t h ep repa ra to ry w o rk f o rt h ea na ly s i so ft h ec e ram ic se xc ava ted a tC ae sa rea Ma r i t ima b yt he J o in t E xped i t ion s e ve ra l o b se rva t ion s a bou t c e ram ic a na ly s i s a nd p ub l ica t ion s eemed p a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t . F i r s t , i n t h e l a s t 5 0 y ea r s n o p ro jec t c ompa rab le t o t h i s o ne h a s b een p ub l i shed i n t he P a le s t in ian w o r ld f o rt h e se t ime p e r iod s .I n s tead ,t h ed i rec t ly c ompa rab le p ro jec t sa re b a sed a r ound t he Med i te r ranean b a s in a tC a r thage ,B enghaz i ,O s t ia ,A then s , An t ioch ,a nd T a r su s .T hu s ,t he p ub l ica t ion o ft h e C ae sa rea Ma r i t ima c e ram ic c o rpu s mu s t b e a dd re s sed p r ima r i ly t ot h e l a rge r Med i te r ranean a ud ience a nd , s e conda r i ly ,t ot h eM idd le E a s te rn o rP a le s t in ian a ud ience . S econd , many n ew a na ly t ica l t e chn ique s a pp l icab le t oc e ram ic a na ly s i s h ave b een f o rmu la ted a nd t e s ted s ucce s s fu l ly . S uch t e chn ique s h ave n o t b een i mp lemen ted f o r l a rge sca le a na ly s i s o fp r ima ry e xcava ted d a ta f o ru se i ne xcava t ion r epo r t se xcep tf o rt h ew o rk a tC a r thage ( Fu l lo rd a nd P eacock 1 984 ) . T he d eve lopmen t a nd u se o ft h e se t e chn ique s a tC a r thage as i t e c on tempo ra ry w i th C ae sa rea p rov ided amo s ti mpo r tan tc ompa ra t ive c o rpu sf o rt h eC ae sa rea c e ram ic s .T hu s ,i tw a sj udged i mpor tan t f o rt h eC ae sa rea p ro jec tt oo b ta in a nd p ub l i sh d a ta d i rec t ly c ompa rab le t ot h a tp ub l i shed a tC a r thage . -

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T h i rd ,i nt h ea na ly s i so f3 0t on so fc e ram ic s ,i ti si mpo r tan tt ou t i l ize t h e mo s tc o s t -e ff ic ien ta na ly t ica l s cheme w h ich w i l l p rov ide t h e d a ta n ece s sa ry t o i n ve s t iga te t h e q ue s t ion s t h e e xcava to r s a s k o ft he c e ram ic s .I ta l so mu s tp rov ide o the rr e sea rche r sw i th e nough a cce s st ot h ep r ima ry d a ta s ot h a tt h es ame c e ram ic sc an b eu sed b yt h e se a na ly s t st oh e lp a n swe rd i f f e ren tq u e s t ion s e t s . F ou r th , i tw a s c on s ide red i mpo r tan t t h a t c e ram ic r epo r t s b e p repa red a s p a r t o f o ne a na ly t ica l p rog ram a nd t h a tt h i sd a ta b ep re sen ted a sr ap id ly a sp o s s ib le c on s i s ten tw i th t ho roughne s sa nd a ccu racy . T h i sa na ly t ica lv i ew s ugge s ted t h a tt h e c e ram ic ss hou ld b ea na lyzed a nd p ub l i shed a ss oon a sp o ss ib le , w i thou tw a i t ing f o rd e ta i led s t ra t ig raph ic r epo r t st ob ew r i t ten o ne v e ry d epo s i ta tt h es i te .S uch as y s tem m ake st h ec e ram ic d a ta a va i lab le t ot h es t ra t ig raphe r sa st h ey p repa re t h e i rm a te r ia l sa nd i ta l so a l low s o the rr e sea rche r st ou t i l ize t h a ts ame d a ta i n at ime ly f a sh ion . F i f th ,t h i sp ape rd i scu s se st h eh and l ing o fc e ram ic sa nd c e ram ic d a ta f r om t h ep o in ta f t e re xcava t ion w he re t h e c o rpu s f o r s t udy h a s a l ready b een i d en t i f ied i nt h i s c a se a l l e xcava ted r im , b a se , a nd d eco ra ted s he rd sa sw e l l a sn ume rou sh and le s . Hence ,t h i ss t udy d oe sn o tc on s ide rt he a c tua lp roce s s o fe xcava t ion o rt h ed ec i s ion o fw ha tm a te r ia l ss hou ld b es a ved ,w ha ts hou ld b ee xam ined ,a nd w ha t may b ed i sca rded . -

Mod e l sa nd P r ed ece s so r s Wh i le w en o te w i th i n te re s ta nd e n thu s ia sm t h eg rea tv a r ie ty o fp roduc t ive a venue so fr e sea rch c i ted a bove ,i ti si n s t ruc t ive t oo b se rve t h a tf o rM idd le E a s te rn ,C la s s ica l , a nd No r th Ame r ican a r chaeo logy t h e se t e chn ique sh av en o tb een i n co rpo ra ted i n to au n i f ied a na ly t ica lp rog ram t ob eu sed i np roduc t ion o ff i na la r chaeo log ica lr epo r t sw h ich p re sen tt h ep r ima ry e xcava ted d a ta .I n s tead ,t hey h av eb een u sed t oa dd re s sm uch mo re p o in ted q ue s t ion sa nd t h er e su l t so ft h e se s t ud ie sa ppea ra sa r t ic le so ra ddenda t ol a rge rr epo r t s .N os y s tem ic a pp roach u t i l iz ing a ny o ft h e se t e chn ique sh a sb een d ev i sed e x cep tf o rt h e w o rk o fF u l fo rd a nd P eacock a tC a r thage ( 1 984 ) . Wh i le ,i ng ene ra l , f i na l p ub l ica t ion o fa ny e xcava t ion r e su l t s f o r M idd le E a s te rn p ro jec t sa re r a re , t h e re i sar ema rkab le c on s i s tency i nt h ew ay i nw h ich c e ram ic m a te r ia l sa r et r ea ted .W .M .F .P e t r ie a nd F .J .B l i s sw o rk ing a tt h e e nd o ft h en i ne teen th c en tu ry w e re t h ef i r s tt oe mp loy s t ra t ig raph ic m e thod s i nP a le s t ine .T he i rp i onee r ing w o rk a tT e l le l -He s ie s tab l i shed t h es i gn i f icance o fc e ram ic sa st h ep r ime d a t ing t oo l s f o r a r chaeo log ica l s i te s ( B l i s s 1 894 ; P e t r ie 1 891 , 1 8 99 ) . S i nce t h a t t ime t h e r e cove ry o f p o t she rd s t o s e rve a s c h rono log ica l c on t ro l b ecame a p r ime g oa l o fa r chaeo log i s ts . T he s e em ing ly l i m i t le s s q uan t i t ie s o fp o t te ry c o l lec t ib le f r om a ny o ft h e l a rge r p ro jec t s i nP a le s t ine a nd t h e i r u se a s c h rono log ica li n d ica to r sa ppea rt oh ave d i c ta ted t h ea na ly t ica lf u nc t ion o fc e ram ic si nt he M idd le E a s t . P o t she rd sa r ep ub l i shed a lmo s te xc lu s ive ly a sd a t ing t oo l s .T he re fo re ,t h ee xcava to rp ub l i she so n ly t ho se c e ram ic sw h ich p rove o ri n d ica te t h ed a te o fo ccupa t ion f o rt h es t ra ta u nde rs t udy .A l lo the rp o t she rd s , i ft h ey a r e e ven s a ved , a r e b oxed u p a nd s t o red i nt h eb owe l s o fs t o re room si nv a r iou sm u seums a nd u n ive r s i t ie s .T hu s ,t h ea na ly t ica lp o ten t ia lo fc e ram ic si nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr epo r to fe xcava ted ma te r ia l h a ss t agna ted a tt h el e ve lo f1 894 .

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T h i sa l l -con sum ing i n te re s ti nc h rono log ica lq ue s t ion si st y p ica l ly e xp re s sed i nt h ef o l low ing m anne r i nt h ep ub l ica t ion o fc e ram ic d a ta .T he a na ly t ica lg oa li st oi d en t i f yt h e" l a te s t" p i ece sw i th in p a r t icu la r s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t sa nd t op ub l i sh t h em e .g . ," Se lec ted P o t te ry f r om S t ra tum X I I" o r" Th i rd C en tu ry V e s se l s" t h el o g ic b e ing t h a to n ly t h em a te r ia l sw h ich " da te t h eu n i t" a re i mpo r tan t .S he rd ss e lec ted t os uppo r t t h ea na ly s t 's d a te a r e d rawn a nd p ub l i shed w i th t h e i r s t ra t ig raphy t op rove t ha td a te . T he a na ly s t ,t he re fo re ,h a s c ho sen t h e mo s ts e lec ta nd s ub jec t ive s amp le o fd a ta f r om t h es i te a nd h a su sed i tf o r o ne h i gh ly s pec ia l ized p u rpo se . T he g oa li nt h e se e xe rc i se s i st op roduce ac a ta logue o f" i ndex f o s s i l s ." T he p roduc t ion o fh andbook so fs uch i t em si st h el o g ica lo u tcome o ft h i se f fo r t( e .g . , Am i ran 1 9 69 ;L app 1 961 ;S aue r 1 973 ) .T ot h ee x ten tt h a ts uch i n dex f o s s i l sa r ec on s ide red " t ype s" w i th in t h e se h andbook s ,i ti sc l ea rt h a ta ny f o rma lt y po log ica lc on s ide ra t ion sw e re b a sed a lmo s te xc lu s ive ly o nv e s se l m o rpho logy . -

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T he re a re t wo d i ff icu l t ie sw i th t h i s a pp roach .T he f i r s ti sd oub t le s sn o ts o much ap rob lem w i th t he a pp roach i t se l fa st h ee x t reme m e thodo log ica ln a ive te w h ich h a sc ome t ob ea s soc ia ted w i th i t .A lmo s t i n va r iab ly i nt h e se p ub l ica t ion st h ec r i te r ia u pon w h ich t h ea na ly s tm ade t h i sc ruc ia l ,i n i t ia lj udgmen ti s s e ldom g i ven a nd , a lmo s t u n ive r sa l ly , d a ta r e la ted t ot h em a te r ia l s c on s ide red t ob e" ea r l ie r" a r e n o t p re sen ted . T he r eade r i st h u s u nab le t or e con s t ruc t t h e r e sea rch p a th t h a t l e dt h e o r ig ina l a na ly s t t o h i s /he rc onc lu s ion sb ecau se t h ed a ta i sn o tp re sen ted t oa low t h i s .T h i sf o rm o fp ub l ica t ion f o rce st h e r e ade rt oa ccep tt o ta l ly a nd o nb l ind f a i th t h eo b se rva t ion so ft h eo r ig ina la na ly s t .S uch p roc edu re sd o n o t f a c i l i ta te t h e o b jec t ive r e v iew o f d a ta a nd p l ace o t he r r e sea rche r s i nt h e a wkwa rd p o s i t ion o f a c cep t ing o rr e jec t ing t h e c onc lu s ion s p re sen ted o nt h eb a s i so ft h e i ro the rw i se f o rmed o p in ion o ft h e a na ly s t . When r e sea rche r sa dop ts u ch as e lec t ive m e thod f o rt h ei d en t if ica t ion o ft h ep i ece s( o rt y pe s ) f r om w i th in t he v a s tq uan t i t ie so fd a ta ,i ti sc ruc ia lt h a tt h ea na ly t ica lp rog ram m a in ta in av ery h igh d eg ree o f m e thodo log ica ls e l f -awa rene s sa nd t h ec a re fu lr e co rd ing o fp rocedu re sa nd c r i te r ia .T oa vo id b ecom ing s imp le a rgumen t s f r om a u tho r i ty , i ti sn ece s sa ry t h a t t h es amp l ing m e thod sh em ade e xp l ic i ta nd t ha t s ome e f fo r tb ep u t f o rwa rd t os pec i f yt h e r e la t ion sh ip o ft h e se p i ece s ( o rg roup s ) t ot h et o ta lc e ram ic p opu la t ion . Un fo r tuna te ly s u ch p ro toco l sh ave b een o b served l a rge ly i nt h eb reach . T he s econd m a jo r d if i cu l ty e ncoun te red w i th t h i sa pp roach t oc e ram ic d a ta i s mo :e d eva s ta t ing i n t h a ti tt o ta l ly i g no re st h ei n te re s t s o fo t he r sw ho a r en o tp r ima r i ly c once rned w i th t h ei d en t if i ca t ion o f i n dex f o s s i l s .I nt h i sc a se t h er e ade ro n ly h a sa cce s st ot ho se d a ta p ub l i shed b yt h eo r ig ina la na ly s tw h ich w e re c ho sen t o a n swe r ac omp le te ly d i f f e ren t q ue s t ion . R a re ly c ou ld s uch d a ta b e u sed t o a dd re s s q ue s t ion sa nd i s sue sr e levan tt ot h e se n ew a venue so fi n qu i ry . O u rr ev iew o ft h el i t e ra tu re i ns e a rch o fp o s s ib le mode l sf o rt h eC ae sa rea Ma r i t ima p ro jec tw a s ,t hu s , s omewha td i sappo in t ing a nd l e d u st ot h e r e luc tan t c onc lu s ion t h a tt h e c u r ren tc h rono log ica l ly b a sed s y s tem o fc e ram ic p ub l ica t ion i so u tmoded ,g i ven t h en ow recogn ized i n fo rma t ion p o ten t ia lo fc e ram ic d a ta . T he s ub jec t ive n a tu re o ft h e p re sen ta t ion v i r tua l ly i n su re s t h a t o n ly af r ac t ion o ft he d i ve r s i ty c on ta ined i nt h ei n ven to ry w i l lb ed ocumen ted .T op repa re af i na lc e ram ic r epo r tt h a td oe sn o tt a ke i n to a ccoun tt he t o ta l c e ram ic c o rpu s o rs ome r ep re sen ta t ive s ub se to ft h a tc o rpu s ( e .g . ,a l r im s he rd s ) i s , b yc u r ren ts t anda rd s ,i n adequa te . A na l y t i ca lP rog ra ln f o rC ae sa r ea Ma r i t in ia C on s ide r ing b o th t h e v a s t q uan t i t ie s o fu nana ly zed m a te r ia l a nd t h e w iden ing r e sea rch h o r izon s , B enne t ta nd B lake ly ( 1 986 ) c onc luded t h a tt h ep rope rs t udy a nd p ub l ica t ion o ft h eC ae sa rea Ma r i t ima m a te r ia l sw ou ld b e af o rm idab le e ndeavo r .G iven t h eg ene ra ll a ck o fs t udy d evo ted t oc e ram ic m a te r ia l s f r om t h ee a s te rn Med i te r ranean f o rt h e se t i me p e r iod s( e .g . ,R i ley 1 975 :25 )a nd t h ee x t reme b i a st owa rd s i n dex f o s s i l so ft ho se w h ich d oe x i s t ,i tw a sc l ea rt h a tt h es t ra tegy a nd t e chn ique st ob eu sed i nt h i sw o rk w ou ld h ave t ob ed eve loped l a rge ly f r om t h es t udy i t se l f .I nt h i ss i tua t ion ,i tw a sd ec ided t oc oncen t ra te e f fo r t s i n i t ia l ly o n s ma l l s t ra t ig raph ica l ly -def ined p o r t ion s o f t h e t o ta l i n ven to ry i n o rde r t o g a in s t ra t ig raph ic a nd t e chn ica l c on t ro l o ve rt h e i n ven to ry p r io rt ot h e p repa ra t ion o fc e ram ic s t ud ie st h a t e ncompa s st h ee n t i re c e ram ic c o rpu so fC ae sa rea . F ou rk ey d epo s i ts w e re s e lec ted f o r t h e se i n i t ia l s t ud ie s .T he C ae sa rea M i th raeum ( A rea C .8 )w a s c ho sen a s t h e f i r s t d epo s i t t ob e s t ud ied b ecau se o f t h e c a re fu l ly c i rcum sc r ibed a nd w e l l -s t ra t if ied

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i n ven to ry i tc on ta ined ( abou t2 00 p i ece sw i th in 1 3p ha ses )a nd b ecau se o fi t sh i s to r ica li mpor tance ( Bu l l 1 974 ,1978 ; Hop fe a nd L ea se 1 975 ) .T he g oa lo ft h ei n i t ia ls t udy w a st oe xpe r imen tw i th t he u se o fs evera l t e chn iques i nc ompo s i t iona l a na ly s i s a nd t oa s se s st he i r a pp l icab i l i ty i nt he d eve lopmen t o f at e n ta t ive c h rono log ica l mode lf o rc e r ta in c a tego r ie so f ma te r ia l ,p a r t icu la r ly t r anspo r ta mpho rae . T he r epo r t o f t he s t ra t ig raphy a nd c e ram ic s o f t he C ae sa rea M i th raeum w a s c omp le ted i n 1 986 ( B lake ly 1 987 ) . T h is d epo s i tw a s a na lyzed b o th s t ra t ig raph ica l ly a nd mo rpho log ica l ly t o c r ea te al ong b u ti n te rrup ted s equence o fr ema in sw h ich s panned t h ef i r s tt h rough t h et we l f th c en tu r ies .F o rt h i ss t udy , h eavy m ine ra la nd p e t ro log ica la na ly ses w e re t e s ted a sp a r to fa ni n teg ra ted p rog ram o fc e ram ic a na ly s i s . T he r e su l ts o ft h i sw o rk w e re h i gh ly e ncou rag ing b ecau se t h e t e s ted a mpho rae w e re e a s i ly p l aced i n to c a tegor ies b yd a te , l o ca t ion o f manu fac tu re , a nd c on ten t .E ven t h e se l im i ted r e su l t sw ere s u ff ic ien tf o r t he f o rmu la t ion o ft e s tab le h ypo the se sr ega rd ing t he e xchange n e two rk s o fw h ich C aesa rea w a s ap a r t ( B lake ly 1 988 ) . On t he b a s i so ft h i sw o rk , i tw a s d ec ided t oi n co rpo ra te t he se t e chn iques u n iversa l ly i n t he s t udy o fC ae sa rea 's c e ram ic s . T he s econd d epos i t c ho sen f o r s t udy w a s t he d eepe s t s t ra t ig raph ic p rof i le e xcava ted b y t h e J o in t E xped i t ion ( A rea G .8 ;B lake ly 1 984 , i np res sa ) .T h i sd epo s i t c on s i s t so fa lmo s ts i x me te r so fs t ra t if ied ma te r ia l d a t ing f r om t he s econd c en tu ry B .C . t o t h e s even th c en tury o f t he c ur ren t e ra , t h e l onge s t c h rono log ica l s equence y e t e xcava ted a tt he s i te . B ecau se o ft h e s t ra t ig raph ic d ep th , w eb e l ieved t h i s i n ven to ry w ou ld p rov ide e xpo su re t o mo s to ft he c e ram ic v a r iab i l i ty p re sen ta tt he s i te .S uch a ni n ven to ry w ou ld a l low u s t oe va lua te h ypo the se s f o rmu la ted o n t he b a s i s o fs t udy o ft he M i th raeum m a te r ia l a s w e l la se nab le u st of o rmu la te o the rt e s tab le h ypo the se sw h ich c ou ld b eu sed i na na lyz ing t h er e s to ft he ma ter ia l . B efo re emba rk ing o n t h e a na ly s i s o ft he e n t i re i n ven to ry f r om A rea G .8 , h oweve r , as econd a nd e xpanded t r ia lr un o ft he a na ly t ica lm e thod w a sr ecen t ly c omp le ted o nt he c o rpus o fP ompe ian R ed Wa re e xcava ted i nA rea G .8 ( B lake ly ,B r inkmann , a nd V i ta l iano 1 989 ) . T he t h i rd a nd f ou r th d epo s i ts c ho sen f o rs t udy w e re t h e r ema in s a nd w a s te rp i les o ft he t wo k nown p o t tery k i ln sa tC aesa rea ( A rea sB .6 a nd C .21 ) . T he f o rme ri sa n Umayyad d epo s i ta nd t he l a t te r i sa n e a r ly s even th -cen tury d epo s i t .T he se w e re c ho sen b ecau se w ew e re c on f iden tt ha tt hey r ep re sen ted i n tac t d epo s i ts o fl o ca l ly manufac tu red m a te r ia ls f r om d i f fe ren te ra so ft h es i te 's h i s to ry . B yc ompa r ing t he se ma ter ia l s t o e ach o the r a nd t ov e s se l s e xam ined f r om t he M i th raeum a nd t he d eep s t ra t ig raph ic c u t ( A rea G .8 ) ,i tw a se xpec ted t h a t s i gn i f ican ti n s igh ts w ou ld b em ade i nu nde r s tand ing t he t e chno log ica l a nd e conom ic a spec ts o ft he i n ven to ry a si tc hanged o rr ema ined c on s tan tt h rough t ime . Wo rk o nt hese l a t te rt wo p ro jec t sw i l lf o l low t h a tc u r ren t ly b e ing c onduc ted o nt h eA rea G .8 m a ter ia ls . A f te r t he c omp le t ion o f a na ly s i s o f t h e f our p r ima ry d epo s i ts , w e a n t ic ipa te i tw i l l b e p os s ib le t o p repa re as e r ie so fr epo r ts o nv a r iou sc a tego r ie so fp o t tery f ound a tC ae sa rea ( e .g . , ampho rae , c ook ing p o t s ,l amp s ) .T he se r epo r t sw ou ld b eb a sed o nt h ee n t i re 3 0 ton c o rpu s . Two c ons idera t ion sw e re c ruc ia l i nt he d e te rm ina t ion t of o l low t h is a pp roach i n s tead o ft h e mo re t y p ica lM idd le E a s tern a pp roach whe re t he c e ram ic r epo r t f o l low s t he s t ra t ig raph ic r epo r t . F i r s t , i tw a s r ecogn ized t ha t t he c eram ic a na ly s i s c ou ld p roceed a t amuch f a s ter r a te t h an t h ed e ta i led a nd me t icu lou st a sk o fs t ra t ig raph ic a na ly s is a nd r epor t ing . I fa l l t y pe s o f p o t te ry w e re a na ly zed , t h en t h e se r e su l ts w ou ld b e f u l ly a va i lab le t o t h e s t ra t ig raphe r s a s t hey r epo r ted t h e i r w o rk . S econd , i fn on -p ro jec t a na ly s t s w e re i n teres ted i nI t a l ian a mpho rae a tC ae sa rea ,i tw ou ld b e much e a s ie rf o rt h a ta na ly s tt ou se o ne v o lume o n ampho rae t han t o s t rugg le t h rough al a rge s e r ie so fs t ra t ig raph ic r epo r ts i nw h ich t h e c e ram ic d a ta w ere p re sen ted . T h i s s hou ld n o ti mp ly t ha tt he s t ra t ig raph ic d a ta w i l ln o tb et i ed t ot h ec e ram ic s ,h owever .S ince w ea dvoca te t he u se o f ag raph ic c ompu te r ized d a ta b a se ( s ee f o l low ing s e c t ion s ) ,t he se d a ta w ou ld b ea va i lab le f o r mu l t ip le p ub l ica t ion o rp resen ta t ion i nt h ef o l low ing s t ra t ig raph ic v o lumes .I ns od o ing t he p e ru n i tc o s t o fc eram ic sp ub l ica t ion w ou ld d rop s ub s tan t ia l ly . T he H ea r to ft h eP rob l em Hav ing c omp le ted t he s t udy o ft h e M i thraeum m a te r ia l s , w ew e re e ncou raged b y t he r e su l t s a sw e t u rned o u ra t ten t ion t ot h em a ter ia l sf r om A rea G .8 .I tb ecame c l ea rt h a ti n mov ing f r om a2 00 -spec imen i n ven to ry t o a2 , 000 -spec imen i n ven to ry , i tw a sn ow t ime t of a ce t h em a jo ri s sue i n vo lved i nt h is e f fo r t : t he p rob lem o fc eram ic c l a s s i f ica t ion .I fo ne i ss e r ious a bou t a ccoun t ing f o r t he d i ve rs i ty c on ta ined i n a ny c o l lec t ion o fe xcava ted m a te r ia l ,i ti sm anda to ry t oa ccoun tf o ra l t he i nd iv idua lp iece sw h ich make u p t he c o l lec t ion . B u t a s R ice ( 1 984b : 2 48 ) h a s o b se rved , " A rchaeo log i s ts r a re ly work w i th s herds a s

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i n d iv idua ls he rd s ;r a the r ,t h ey g roup t h es he rd si n to c a tego r ie so r' t ype s , 'w h ich a r e mo re o rl e s ss t r ic t ly f o rmu la ted o n av a r ie ty o fa tr ibu te sf o rd e l inea t ing s pa t io tempo ra lr e la t ion sh ip s ." I ti sn e i the rf i nanc ia l ly f e a s ib le n o rm e thodo log ica l ly d e s i rab le t op re sen td raw ing sa nd d e sc r ip t ion s o fa lr eco rded s he rd sf r om e v en av e ry s ma l lp ro jec t .S ome a t temp ta tm ean ing fu lg roup ing o fm a te r ia l s i sb o th n ece s sa ry a nd d e s i rab le . I no rde rt ob eu nde r s tood i na ny s en se o ft h a tt e rm ,t h ec e ram ic d a ta m u s tb ep re sen ted w i th in s ome s o r to fs y s tem .T h i si sw ha tw eb e l ieve t ob et h eh ea r to ft h ep rob lem .I t i so u rj udgmen tt h a tt h ep rob lem o fc l a s s if ica t ion l i e sa tt h er oo to fo u ri n ab i l i ty t oe x t rac tt h ek i nd so f i n fo rma t ion w eb e l ieve t ob e c on ta ined i nt h e c e ram ic p o r t ion so ft h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . I ti so u r o p in ion t ha tt h i si s sue mu s tb ef a ced s qua re ly a nd w i th s ome r i go rb e fo re a ny p rog re s sw i l lb em ade . B ya nd l a rge ,h oweve r ,r e sea rche r si nt h eM idd le E a s th ave n o ts e en t h i sa s ap rob lem .S i nce t h eg oa l w a st oi d en t i f ya nd t op re sen ti n dex f o s s i l sd ef ined l a rge ly b ys t ra t ig raph ie c on s ide ra t ion s ,t h e re h a sb een n o a t temp t t o o rgan ize e n t i re r e cove red c e ram ic i n ven to r ie s i n to s y s tema t ic p re sen ta t ion s . I tw a s s u ff ic ien t t o i l u s t ra te s e v e ra l e xamp le s o f t h e i n dex f o s s i l s . T o t h e e x ten t t h a t i ndex f o s s i l s w e re c on s ide red t y pe s ,t h ey w e re d ef ined s o le ly o nt h eb a s i so fv e s se l mo rpho logy . I n many w ay st h e s i tua t ion r ega rd ing c e ram ic s t udy i nt h eN ew Wo r ld i se xac t ly t h eo ppo s i te . Wh i le a l so t hough tt ob e i mpo r tan t f o r c h rono log ica l q ue s t ion s , c e ram ic d a ta w e re b rough t t ob ea r o n s uch i sue st h rough s t a t i s t ica l m an ipu la t ion r a the rt h an s t ra t ig raph ica la na ly s i s .B ecau se o ft h ei mpo r tance o fq uan t if ica t ion i ns e r ia t ion t e chn ique s , r e sea rche r s h ave o f ten b een c once rned t o a ccoun t f o r t h e e n t i re ty o ft h ee xcava ted m a te r ia l .T h i sh a sb een d one b ys epa ra t ing i t em si n to mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive " t ype s ." H owever , v e s se l f o rm h a s s e ldom b een a n i mpo r tan t c r i te r ion f o rt h e d ef in i t ion o f at y pe .T empe r ing a g en t s , me thod so fd eco ra t ion ,d e s ign s t y le sa nd d e s ign mo t i f sa r et h e mo s tc ommon d e te rm ina to r so f t y pe s . T h i s h a s l e d t o ag r ea t d ea l o fd i scu s s ion r ega rd ing t h e w ay i nw h ich t y pe s a r e ( s hou ld b e ) f o rmu la ted ( Rou se 1 939 ; K r iege r 1 9 44 ; S pau ld ing 1 953 ; F o rd 1 954 ; P h i l l ip s 1 970 ; Wha l lon 1 972 ; a nd m any o the r s ) . S eve ra ld ecade so fd eba te a nd d i scu s s ion o nt h ep rob lem o ft y po logy h ave l e dt ot h ec onv ic t ion t ha t w h i le s uch t h ing sa sc e ram ic " t ype s" m ay ( o rm ay n o t )h ave e x i s ted i np reh i s to ry ,t h ey c e r ta in ly d oe x i s t i nt h e m ind s o f a r chaeo log i s t s . C on s ide r t h e r ema rk s m ade i nt h e i n t roduc t ion t oo ne o f t h e mo s t i n f luen t ia lc e ram ic s t ud ie si nt h eN ew Wo r ld ( Ph i l l ip s ,F o rd ,a nd G r i ff in 1 951 :6 1 ,62 ) , I th a sb ecome p rac t ica l ly m anda to ry i np u t t ing t y po log ica l s t ud ie s i n to p r in t t od ec la re a tt he o u t se tt h a tc l a s s i f ica t ion i sr ega rded t h e re in p u re ly a s a" t oo l ," f a sh ioned t os u i tt h em a te r ia li n h and a nd t h ek i nd o fi n fo rma t ion o ne h ope st og e to u to fi t . Un fo r tuna te ly ,t h ep henomenon o f i n te r -changeab i l i t yo fe nd sa nd m ean si sn o tc on f ined t op o l i t ica ls c ience .A l so ,t h e re i sm ag ic i n n ame s . Once l e t ah a t f u lo fm i se rab le f r agmen t so ff o u r th ra te p o t tery b ed i gn if ied b y a" Name ," a nd t h e re w i l lf o l low i n ev i tab ly t h et e ndency f o rt h en ame t ob ecome a ne n t i ty ,p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e m ind o fh im w ho g i ve si t .G o as t ep f u r the ra nd p ub l i sh ad e sc r ip t ion a nd t h et y pe e mba rk so na n i ndependen t e x i s tenc e o fi t so wn .A t t h a t p o in tt h ec l a s s i f ica t ion c ea se st ob e a" t oo l ," a nd t h e a rchaeo log i s tb ecome so ne . F rom o u rp e r spec t ive t h i sp rac t ice o fd i v id ing t h ei n ven to ry i n to as e r ie so fm u tua l ly e xc lu s ive " t ype s" w h ich a re t h en m an ipu la ted i nv a r iou sw ay si sa l so ag ua ran tee t h a tm uch o ft h ei mpo r tan ti n fo rma t ion c on ta ined i nt h ec e ram ic i n ven to ry w i l lb el o s t . We s a yt h i sn o ts imp ly b ecau se m o s to ft h et y po log ica l s y s tems h ave b een s e tu pu s ing e r roneou sa s sump t ion sr e ga rd ing c e ram ic m anu f ac tu re a nd u se a nd /o r c on s t ruc ted t h rough t h eu s eo fi n accu ra te o ri mp rec i se o b se rva t ion s .A ny s y s tem w h ich i n i t ia l ly p rov ide s a ni n f lex ib le s y s tem o fi n te rp re ta t ion w i l lr e su l ti nt h el o s so fs i gn if ican ti n fo rma t ion . I ts eem s ,t h e re fo re ,t h a tw eh ave p a in ted o u r se lve si n to ac o rne r . On t h eo ne h and w er e jec tt h ei ndex f o s s i la pp roach b ecau se i td oe s n o t a ccoun tf o rt h ef u l li n ven tor y , a nd o nt h eo t he rh and w er e jec tt h e t y po log ica la pp roach b ecau se i tp rov ide si n f lex ib le s t ruc tu re sw i th in w h ich i n te rp re ta t ion c an p roceed .

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F ormu la t ion o ft h eD a ta B a se :T heor e t ica lC ons idera t ion s AC e ram i cD a ta B a se Aw ay o u t o ft h i s d i lemma b egan t os ugge s t i t se l fa sw e f o cu sed o u r a t ten t ion o n t he w ay i nw h ich c e ram ic m a te r ia l sa c tua l ly f u nc t ion i no u rs t udy o ft h ep a s t . We h ave i d en t if ied t h ree l o g ica ls t age sw i th in t h i sp roce s s . F i r s to fa l ,t h e re i so u rp r ima ry o ru l t ima te g oa l :g a in ing i n s igh ti n to o ne o r mo re o ft he m any f a ce t s o fp a s th uman l i f e .I no rde rt ou se c e ram ic m a te r ia l st od ot h i s ,w em u s tk now c e r ta in t h ing sa bou tt he se c e ram ic s . We n eed t ok now w hen t h ey w e re m ade ,w he re t h ey w e re m ade , h ow t h ey w e re m ade , w hy t h ey w e re m ade ,a nd h ow t h ey w e re u sed .T h i si st h es e cond s t age .B u tt h e se a r eq ue s t ion sw h ich mu s t b ea sked o ft h em a te r ia l si na ni n d i rec tm anne r .T ha ti s ,o ne c anno t ,e x cep ti nv e ry r a re i n s tance s ,o b ta in t h e a n swe r s t o a ny o f t h e se q ue s t ion s d i rec t ly f r om t h e c e ram ic p i ece s t h em se lve s . T hey m u s t b e e s tab l i shed t h rough p rog ram s o f i n qu ir y . Wha t c an b e o b se rved d i rec t ly a bou t c e ram ic s w i th in a n a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd c an , w e b e l ieve , b e d i v ided i n to t h ree c a tego r ie s : f i nd spo t ( s tra t ig raphy ) , f o rm ( mo rpho logy ) ,a nd f a b r ic ( c ompo s i t ion ) .E ve ry p i ece o fc e ram ic m a te r ia lw a sf ound a t ap a r t icu la rs po t a tt h es i te ,h a s ap a r t icu la rf o rm ,a nd i sm ade o f ap a r t icu la rm a te r ia l .T he s y s tema t ic g a the r ing o fd a ta w i th in t h e se t h ree c a tego r ie si st h et h i rd s t age o ft h ep roce s s . T hu s ,t ou se c e ram ic m a te r ia l si no u rs t udy o ft h ep a s t ,w ea r ef a ced w i th t h en ece s s i ty o fu s ing t ho se t h ing sw ec an o b se rve d i rec t ly f r om t h ec e ram ic st oe x t rapo la te t ot h eq ue s t ion sa bou tw hen ,w he re ,h ow , a nd w hy ,a nd t h en u s ing t h i si n fo rma t ion t oa dd re s st ho se q ue s t ion so fs oc ia l ,t e chn ica l ,e conom ic ,a nd b ehav io ra ln a tu re .W i th in t h i st h ree s tage p roce s si ti sc r uc ia lt ob ea w a re o ft h eu n ique a spec t so fe ach s t age a nd t oi n su re t h a tt h e se s epa ra te a c t iv i t ie sa r ec l ea r ly d ef ined a nd a pp rop r ia te ly i n teg ra ted . F o re xamp le ,i fw ea r ei n te re s ted i nb r ing ing c e ram ic m a te r ia l st ob ea ri nd e te rm in ing t h ea moun to f t r ade b e tween C ae sa rea Ma r i t ima a nd o t he ra r ea so ft h e Med i te r ranean w o r ld a nd h ow t h i sm ay h ave c hanged t h rough t ime ,t h en w em u s tb ea b le t os pec i f yt h ea ge ,p l ac eo fo r ig in ,a nd f unc t ion o fi mpo r ted c e ram ic s a tt h e s i te . Mo reove r , w e m u s tb e a b le t od e te rm ine i nq uan t i ta t ive t e rm s h ow v e s se l s f r om p a r t icu la r t i me s a nd p l ace s a r e d i s t r ibu ted t h rough t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd .T od o t h i sw e mu s tb e a b le t os pec i f yt h er e la t ion sh ip o fs he rd st ov e s se l s ,g roup t h ev e s se l si n to s ome s o r to fo rde rw i th in t he i r a pp rop r ia te s pa t ia l a nd c h rono log ica l c on tex t s , a nd i d en t i f yt h e r e la t ion sh ip o ft h e se g roup st o e ach o the r .T h i s ,o fc ou r se , mu s tb ed one u s ing o b se rva t ion sa bou tt h ef o rm a nd f a b r ic o ft hese p i ece sa sw e l l a sa bou tt h e i rd i scove red l o ca t ion si nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . I ns oc on s ide r ing t h ep roce s s ,w eh ave f o und i th e lp fu lt oc oncep tua l ize t h ep rob lem a so ne o fu s ing d i rec t ly o b se rvab le c ha rac te r i s t ic s t oc r ea te ad a ta b a se w h ich w i l l , i nt u rn , b e u sed t o a dd re s s t ho se q ue s t ion sw ew an tt op u r sue .B yn ece s s i ty t h i sd a ta b a se w i l la c ta sa ni n te r f ace b e tween t h er e sea rche r a nd t h ec e ram ic m a te r ia l s .I tw i l lt h e re fo re o we a sm uch o fi t sn a tu re t ot h er e sea rche r 's q ue s t ion sa st o t h ec e ram ic st h em se lve s .F o rt h i sr ea son ,t h es e r iou sd ange rt h a tt h ed a ta b a se w i l ln o tb er e ad i ly u sab le b yo the rr e sea rche r sw i th d i f f e ren tq ue s t ion si sa lway sp re sen t . I tw ou ld s e em ,t h e re fo re ,t h a tw e a r e f a ced w i th h av ing t oc hoo se b e tween t wo u n sa t i s f y ing a l te rna t i ve s . We c an d ec ide w h ich i sue o ri s sue sa r ei mpo r tan ta nd s t ruc tu re o u rw o rk t od ea lw i th t h em a nd t h e reby e f f ec t ive ly e xc lude o t he r r e sea rche r s f r om u s ing t h e d a ta w eg ene ra te . O r w e c an a temp t t o c r ea te t h e" u l t ima te" d a ta b a se ,s u i tab le t oa ls o r t so fr e sea rch g oa l s , as e em ing ly q u i xo t ic v en tu re u pon w h ich s ome h ave e mba rked b u tn one h ave r e tu rned . I ts e em s t h a t i no rde r t oa ch ieve t h i s l a t te rg oa l , i tw ou ld b e n ece s sary t of i nd aw ay t og i ve o the r r e sea rche r sd i rec ta cce s st oa l t h em a te r ia l ss i nce w eb e l ieve t h a tt h em a te r ia l st h em se lve sp o s se s st h e c apab i l i ty o fb e ing g rouped i n al a rge n umbe ro fw ay s( o ri n to ar i ch v a r ie ty o fd a ta b a se s ) ( R ice 1 987 : 2 86 -87 ) .T heo re t ica l ly , r e sea rche r s c ou ld , o ve r t i me , s o r t t h e m a te r ia l si n to a ny n umbe r o fg r oup ing s , t h e reby c r ea t ing a ny n umbe ro fs pec i f ic d a ta b a se s . Howeve r ,t h i si sc l ea r ly n o t ap rac t ica lo p t ion . Wha t w e m u s t d o i sc onvey t o o t he r s t h e m ax imum a moun t o fd a ta t h a t w e c an c o l lec t d i rec t ly f r om t h e m a te r ia l s( Fo s sey ,S edgw ick ,a nd A t ta s1 982 :246 ) .T he se d a ta m u s tb ep re sen ted i n amed ium t h a ta l low s f o rr epea ted m an ipu la t ion o ft h em a te r ia l si n to av a r ie ty o fd a ta b a se s .

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Wh i le w ea re n o t s on a iv ea st ob e l ieve t h a t as i ng le d a ta b a se c an b ec on s t ruc ted t om ee ta l ln eed s o ri n te re s t s ,w eb e l ieve t h a tt h ep rocedu re sd i scu s sed b e low w i l ll e ad t ot h ec on s t ruc t ion o f amu l t i -pu r p o se d a ta b a se w h ich c an s ub s tan t ia l ly e xpand a cce s s t ot h e i n fo rma t ion c on ta ined i nt h e se c e ram ic m a te r ia l s .T od ot h i si th a sb een n ece s sa ry f o ru st ou nde r s tand o u rt a sk a st h a to fs t ruc tu r ing ap roce s s w he reby ma te r ia l s c an b e g rouped a l ong an umbe r o f d i f f e ren t a xe s . Ou r g oa l i sn o t t o d eve lop a c l a s s if i ca t ion s y s tem o rs c heme i n to w h ich a lo ft h eC ae sa rea Ma r i t ima c e ram ic s mu s tb ep l aced .R a the r , i ti st h e d eve lopmen t o f ac e ram ic d a ta b a se c apab le o f m an ipu la t ion i n am ax imum n umbe r o f d imen s ion s . C ompu t e rC e ram i c Da ta B a s e s O the rr e sea rche r sd r iven b yt h es ame i n te re s t sh ave r ea l ized t h a ts uch ag oa lc an o n ly b ea ch ieved b y c ompu te r iz ing t h ei n fo rma t ion . Howeve r ,a tp re sen t ,a ls uch e f fo r t sh ave f a i led . Wh i le i tm aybe p o s s ib le t oi s o la te s eve ra ld i f f e ren tc au se sf o rf a i lu re i np a r t icu la rc a se s ,i ti so u rj udgmen tt ha tt h e re h ave b een t wo p r imary c au se so ff a i lu re i nt h ep a s t . One h a sb een t h er a the ra rb i t ra ry a nd s ub jec t ive w ay i nw h ich t ho se a t t r ibu te st ob em ea su red h ave b een m ea su red .T oq uo te v an d e rL eeuw ," One man i f e s ta t ion o f t h ep rob lem i sC la rke ' s ( 1 968 :522 ) r ema rk t h a ti ts e em sa si fa t t r ibu te sa r ee s tab l i shed b yi n tu i t ion a nd t h en u s ed t o d ef ine t h e g r oup f o r w h ich t h ey a r e p re sumed t h e d i s t inc t ive i nd ica to r . He c o r rec t ly c onc lude st ha tt h i si s ac i rc le o ft h e mo s tv i c iou sn a tu re ( Leeuw 1 984 :5 9 ) ." T oa vo id t h i sd i f f icu l ty , s ome s y s tem sh ave a t temp ted t oo b se rve av e ry l a rge n umbe ro fi t em si nt h e h ope o fd i scove r ing s ome s o r t o fc l u s te r ing d u r ing l a te r a na ly s i s . F o s sey , S edgw ick , a nd A t ta s ( 1 982 : 5 22 )s u cc inc t ly d e sc r ibe t h i sa pp roach , " Ou rs t a ted a im w a st or e co rd a s much i n fo rma t ion a sp o s s ib le , a se f f i c ien t ly a sp o s s ib le ,t op e rm i ts t a t i s t ica la na ly se s ." T h i si st h es e cond m a jo rc au se o ff a i lu re .I no rde r t oh and le s uch av o lume o fd a ta ,i th a sp rev iou s ly b een n ece s sa ry t op l ace t h eo b se rva t ion st a ken f r om t h ec e ram ic m a te r ia l si n to a na l phanume r ic d a ta b a se a nd t om an ipu la te t h em i nt h a tm ed ium .B ecau se o ft h e t hou sand s o fs ma l lj udgmen t s m ade i nt u rn ing t h e se o b se rva t ion s i n to a n a l phanume r ic f o rm ( c od ing ) ,t he c hance so ft h i sb e ing d one w i th a na ccep tab le d eg ree o fa ccu racy ,p rec i s ion ,a nd c on s i s t e ncy a r ev ery s l igh t ,w he the ro rn o tt h e c a tego r ie so ro b serva t ion sa r ea pp rop r ia te . T ot h e se t wo s ub s tan t ia lp rob lem sw ea dd at h i rd .A l lt oo o f ten t h ed a ta e n te red i ss imp ly e r roneou s . T h i si sp a r t icu la r ly t r ue w hen r e sea rche r sh ave a t temp ted t om ake o b serva t ion sr ega rd ing t h ec ompo s i t i on o fc e ram ic m a te r ia l sw i thou ta pp rop r ia te l a bo ra to ry s t udy b yp e r son sf u l ly t r a ined i nt h ea pprop r ia te s c ien t i f ic t r ad i t ion s a nd m e thodo log ie s . D e s igna t ing w a re t y pe so rf a b r ic so nt h eb a s i so fm ac roscop ic f i e ld o b serva t ion s o r b yt h e " f ee l ing " as he rd h a s t ot h e a r chaeo log i s t a r e p a r t icu la r ly s u scep t ib le t o e g reg iou se r ro r . T o m ake a ny j udgmen t s r e ga rd ing t y pe s o ft empe r ,p l ace so fo r ig in ,o r t e chn iques o f m anu f ac tu re w i thou t s u ff i c ien t , d e ta i led s c ien t if ic d a ta g ene ra ted f o r t h e i n ven to ry b y a pp rop r ia te s pec ia l i s ts i st oi n v i te d i sa s te ra nd i ts e ldom f a i l st or e spond t os uch i n v i ta t ion s . T he s y s tem d e sc r ibed b e low a t temp t s t oo ve rcome t h i s d eb i l i ta t ing p rob lem i nt h e u se o f ac om p u te r ized d a ta b a se s y s tem f o rt h es t udy o fc e ram ic s .I td oe ss ob yt h ea pp l ica t ion o fc ompu te rg raph ic m e thod s w h ich , i ne f f ec t , p l ace t h e c e ram ic i n ven to ry a s d i rec t ly a s p o s s ib le a tt h e d i spo sa l o f t h e r e sea rche r s . T he r ea son sf o rt h eu s eo f ac ompu te r -g raph ic sd a ta b a se a r ef i ve fo ld .F i r s t ,t h i sm e thod o fs t o rage a low sf o rt h eb a s ic a l phanume r ic d a ta a bou tt h ep i ece a sw e l la sg r aph ic d a ta t ob es t o red i n av ery s ma l l s pace b u t i n am anne r t h a t s t i l l a low s i n s tan t a cce s s w h i le p rov id ing am ean s o fl o ng te rm s t o rage . S econd , mu l t ip le c op ie s o ft h eb a s ic d a ta b a se c an b em ade a nd d i s t r ibu ted c heap ly t oo the r u se r si n n eed o fi t .T h i rd , t h e d a ta b a se i sf u l ly e xpan s ib le s ot h a t mo re s he rd s o r o b ser va t ion s c an b e a dded . F ou r th ,t h i ss y s tem p rov ide st h ec heape s tm e thod o fd a ta m an ipu la t ion a nd i l u s t ra t ion p roduc t ion f o r r epo r t s .F ina l ly , a nd mo s ti mpo r tan t ly ,b yi l u s t ra t ing t h ef o rm a nd f a b r ic r a the rt h an r e co rd ing s o le ly a s e r ie s o f c oded m e s sage s , t h e e l emen t s o fs ub jec t ive d e sc r ip t ion w h ich h ave p l agued a l phanume r ic c e ram ic d a ta b a se si sg r ea t ly d im in i shed .W i th t h i si n fo rma t ion ,r e sea rche r sw i l lb ea b le t om an ipu la te i mage s , n o t i mp re s s ion s . S eve ra l p ro jec t s h ave u t i l ized v a r iou s a spec t s o f t h e c ompu te r -g raph ic s p o ten t ia l : C ae sa rea ( B lake ly 1 987 , 1 988 ) , T e l l e l -He s i ( Benne t t a nd B lake ly 1 989 ) , Wad i a l -Ha sa ( MacDona ld 1 987 ) , a nd t h eL in ze sAr ab i cu sP ro jec t( Pa rke r1 987 ) .

9

T hu s , w e a dvoca te t h e u se o f ac ompu te r d a ta b a se w h ich c omb ine s g raph ic c apab i l i t ie s w i th t r ad i t iona l a l phanume r ic d a ta . D raw ing s , p ho tog raph s , a nd x e ro rad iog raph ic i mage s c an b e s canned i n to t h es y s tem f o rs t o rage ,w h i le p roven ience i n fo rma t ion ,c oun ted d a ta ,c o lo rd e sc r ip t ion s ,a nd o the r r e f e rence d a ta c an b e e n te red i n to a l phanume r ic f i e ld sf o rs t a t i s t ica lo ri ndex m an ipu la t ion a sw e l la s d e sc r ip t ive p u rpo se s . S truc tur ing t h eC a tegor ies T he f o l low ing d i scu s s ion c on s ide r s an umbe r o fd i f f e ren t i s sue si no u r p ropo sed m e thod o fs t udy . T he se a re d i scu s sed u nde r t h ree s epa ra te c a tego r ie s : f i nd spo t , f o rm , a nd f a b r ic . I ti so u r i n ten t t o u nde r s tand t h e se c a tego r ie sa st h ree d i f f e ren ta xe sa l ong w h ich d i v e r s i ty c an b ea ccu ra te ly a nd p rec i se ly d ocumen ted . We f u r the ra s sume t h a t a l ong e ach o ft h e se t h ree a x e st h eo b se rved d i ve r s i ty w i l ln o tb e r andom a nd t h a tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion w i l l , a tl e a s ti np a r t ,b et h er e su l to fp a s th uman a c t iv i ty . F in d spo t T he d a ta n ece s sa ry t op rov ide p roven ience ( f ind spo t )i n fo rma t ion a r ek nown o nce t he c e ram ic c o rpu s i se xcava ted . B yt h e t e rm f i nd spo tw e m ean t h e r e cove red c on tex to fi n d iv idua l p i ece s .T h i s may ( bu t d oe sn o ta lway s )m ean t h ee xac t ,s pec i f ic p l ace w he re e ach s he rd w a sp i cked u p .I tc e r ta in ly d oe sm ean , h oweve r ,t h a tt h el o ca t ion i se xp l icab le i nt e rm so ft h ed eve lopmen to ft h es i te m a tr ix ,n o ts imp ly s ome t wo o r t h ree d imen s iona l c oo rd ina te s , e .g . , Un i t 1 ,L eve l 3 .F o r m o s t p ro jec t s t he se d a ta i n c lude l o ca t iona l i n fo rma t ion f r om e xcava t ion ( i . e . , f i e ld , a r ea , a nd l o cu s o r e qu iva len t t e rm s ) a nd c e ram ic r eg i s t ry n umbe r sa sw e l la st h es uppo r t ing s t ra t ig raph ic n o te s ,s e c t ion s ,a nd t op p l an s .F u r the ri n te rp re t i ve a na ly s i so ft h es t ra t ig raph ic r e co rd w i l la low t h ea na ly s tt op repa re t h ef i na ls t ra t ig raph ic r epo r tf o r t h ea r ea u nde rs t udy ,b u tt h a td oe sn o tc hange t h ep r ima ry i n fo rma t ion a bou tf i nd spo t .I td oe s ,h oweve r , a ugmen tt h e se d a ta w i th s e conda ry i n te rp re t ive g roup ing s , s uch a s ,f o r e xamp le , " hea r th " o rs t ra tum n umbe r s . T he v a r iou s f i nd spo t d a ta s hou ld b e e n te red i n to ac ompu te r d a ta b a se f o r t h ep u rpo se o f m an ipu la t ion ( e .g . , d Ba se I I+ ) . Many e xcava t ion sa r en ow u s ing af o rm o ft h e Ha r r i s Ma t r ix ( Ha r r i s 1 979 )w h ich i sw e l la dap ted t oc ompu te ru se t oa s s i s ti nt h i sr e co rd ing . I ti s ,o fc ou r se ,p o s s ib le t op e r fo rm m any h e lp fu la na ly se so nc e ram ic i n ven to r ie sf o rw h ich t h ef i nd spo t o fp a r t icu la rp i ece si se i the rn o tk nown o rp oo r ly d ocumen ted . How eve r ,i ti so u rj udgmen tt h a tt he b e s t i n fo rma t ion w i l l c ome f r om t ho se s i te s a tw h ich d a ta r e la ted s o le ly t oc e ram ic f o rm a nd f a b r ic c an b e t i gh t ly i n teg ra ted w i th aw e l l -excava ted , c a re fu l ly d ocumen ted ,a nd f u l ly i n te rp re ted s i te c on tex t . And t h i s ,i no u ro p in ion , d emand st h a t t h es i te b ei n ve s t iga ted s t ra t ig raph ica l ly ,n o t d ug i na r b i t ra ry 1 0c m l e ve l s . F o rm We h ave i n c luded t h ei s sue so f mo rpho logy ,s u r f ace f i n i sh ,a nd d eco ra t ion i nt h i sc a tego ry .T oo b ta in t h i si n fo rma t ion , t h e c o rpu s mu s tb e i n ven to r ied a nd d a ta r e la ted t ot h e se c a tego r ie sr e co rded . E ach s he rd i sa s s igned t o ap re l im ina ry v e s se lc a tego ry a nd d a ted t o av e ry g ene ra lc h rono log ica lp e r iod a sa c rude o rgan iz ing d ev ice f o rs t udy . I tc an b e a rgued t h a ts uch a no rgan iz ing d ev ice i su nnece s sa ry a nd , p e rhap s , i na nu l t ima te s en se i ti s . Howeve r ,w e h ave f o und i te x t reme ly h e lp fu lt ob eg in b yd iv id ing a v e ry l a rge c o rpu si n to w o rkab le a na ly t ica lu n i t so ft e n sa nd h und red sa so ppo sed t ot hou sand sa nd t e n s o ft hou sand s . S i nce t h e d ev ice i su l t ima te ly d ropped o nce t h e f a b r ic s a r e i d en t if ied o b jec t ive ly , t h e p rec i s ion o r o b jec t iv i ty o ft h e p re l im inar y v e s se l c a tego ry d oe s n o t m a t te r . F o r t he m a te r ia l s f r om C ae sa rea Ma r i t ima w eh ave c ho sen t of o l low t h et r ad i t iona lr a t iona le f o rs uch d i v i s ion si nt h eM idd le E a s t , ac omb ina t ion o f mo rpho logy a nd f unc t ion ( e .g . ,c ook ing p o t ,b i con ica lb ow l ) .A sa na ly s i sp roceed s , t h ed a te c a tego ry w i l lb eu pda ted a nd r e v i sed a sr e sea rch p rov ide sc ompa ra t ive d a ta .I ts hou ld b en o ted t h a t " ve s se l c a tego ry " m ay b e au se fu l h ead ing f o rg ene ra l d i scu s s ion o f af o rm a nd i t sv a r ied f ab r ic s ( wha ts ome c a l l" t ype s" ) . E ach s he rd i sa l so d e sc r ibed f o rv e s se l p a r t ,s u r f ace t r ea tmen t ,d eco ra t ion , c o lo r (Wa re , E x te r io r , I n te r io r , D eco ra t ion ) , a nd d eg ree s o f p re se rved v e s se l a r c . T he se d e sc r ip t ion s a re e n te red i n to a c ompu te rd a ta b a se .A tt h es ame t ime ,d raw ing so fa l r im ,b a se ,a nd d eco ra ted s he rd sa r ee n te red i n to t h ec ompu te rg r aph ic sd a ta b a se ( f ig . 1 1 ) .

1 0

F i gu re 1 1 . AP age o fP o t ter y D raw ings I l us t ra t ing C e ram ics E xcava ted i nt he C aesa rea Mf t h raeum .

1

F i gu re 1 2 . X e ro rad iog raph o fP ompe ian R ed Wa re L i dG .8 .424 -2 f r om C aesa rea M a r i t ima . l t s hows amass o fr ad io -opaque a nd r a d io lucen ts ub round a nd s ubangu la rp a r t ic les a t t he r e so lu t ion l e ve l o ft h is p rocess . l ta l so s hows n ume rous s ub round sma l lt o med ium s i zed r ad io -opaque i n c lus ions a nd l a rge i regu la r ly -shaped r ad io lucen tv o ids . L i fe s i ze . T he s e cond s t ep i nt h e mo rpho log ica ls t udy i sc ompa r i son b a sed o nv e s se lf o rm .At ho rough l i t e ra tu re s e a rch i sm ade f o r c e ram ic p a ra l le l s o fa l s he rd sp re sen t i nt h ed a ta b a se .T he i n fo rma t ion s ough ti n t h i ss e a rch a r et h e f i nd spo t s a nd t h e d a ted c on tex t so ft h ep a ra l le lp i ece s .P a r t icu la r e mpha s i sw i l lb e p l aced o n p ub l i shed d a ta f r om c e ram ic m anu f ac tu r ing s i te s , w h ich p rov ide k ey c h rono log ica l a nd d i s t r ibu t ion i n fo rma t ion ( s ee ,e . g . ,P eacock 1 982 :1 66 -72 ;P eacock a nd W i l l iam s1 986 :67 -77 ) .I nt he c a se o fC ae sa rea Ma r i t ima w h ich w a s ac omme rc ia lc en te r , much o ft h i ss ea rch w i l le x tend b eyond P a le s t ine t h roughou tt h ee n t i re Med i te r ranean b a s in a nd a sf a ra way a sE ng land a nd I nd ia .T h i sa na ly s i ss hou ld p rov ide amo rpho log ica l i d en t if ica t ion f o r a l o ft h e r e cogn izab le f o rm s . T he mo re p rec i se d a te s a nd mo re s pec if ic v e s se lc a tego ry d a ta r e su l t ing f r om t h i sw o rk w i l lb ee n te red i n to t h ed a ta b a se ,r ep lac ing t h eg ene ra ld a ta w h ich w e re o r ig ina l ly t h e re . F ab r i c T he c a tego ry o ff a b r ic i n c lude s a n a na ly s i s o ft empe ra nd c l ay m a t r ix .T he m e thodo logy a dvoca ted h e re c oncen t ra te s p r ima r i ly o n t empe r . F ou r t y pe s o f d a ta a r e g ene ra ted i n t he s t udy o f f ab r ic : x e ro rad iog raph ic ,p e t ro log ica l ,h eavy m ine ra l ,a nd n eu t ron a c t iva t ion .X e ro rad iog raph ic i mag ing s hou ld b ed one o n t h e e n t i re c o rpu s ( f ig . 1 2 ) . T h i sw o rk c an b e d one a ta lmo s t a ny m a jo rh o sp i ta lw i th t h e e qu ipmen tc ommon ly u sed f o rm ammog raphy .T e s t si n d ica te a na v e rage c o s to fa bou t$ 0 .50 p e rs he rd i st ob ee xpec ted f o rt h i sp rocedu re .X e ro rad iog raph ic i mage ss how t h ed i s t r ibu t ion ,s i ze ,a nd s hape o f t h et empe r ing a gen t sf o ra l t empe ra bove t h es i ze o fa bou t0 . 5 mm i ne ach s he rd ( Fo s te r1 9 85 ) .F or o u r a na ly s i s ,t h e se d a ta a r eu sed t og roup s he rd sb yf a b r ic i ne ach o ft h eb roade rv e s se lc a tego r ie sf o r wh ich t h et empe r s i ze , s hape , a nd f r equency i st h e s ame ( s ee , e . g . , B raun 1 982 ) . A s s i s tance i nm ak ing t he se g roup ing s w i l l b e p rov ided b y t h e m ac ro scop ic o b se rva t ion s o fp a s te c o lo r ; p re sence , a b sence a nd f r equency o f m ica ; a nd w ha teve r o ther o bv ious i nd ica to rs ( e .g . , s pa l l ing ) a re p re sen t . T he x e ro rad iog raph ic i mage i st h en s c anned i n to t h ed a ta b a se . F o l low ing t h ep rocedu re o fF u l fo rd a nd P eacock ( 1 984 ) , as amp le o fs he rd s( i no ur c a se u pt ot en )i s s e lec ted f r om e ach f a b r ic g roup w i th in e ach v e s se lc a tego ry .P e t ro log ica lt h in -sec t ion a na ly s i sa nd h eav y m ine ra la na ly s i si sp e r fo rmed o ne ach o ft h es e lec ted s he rd s .T he f o rme rf o l low st h ep rocedu re so u t l ined b yW i l l iam s( 1 983 )a nd i n c lude st h ep roduc t ion o fc o lo rm ic ropho tog raph so fe ach t h in s ec t ion ( f ig .1 3 ) , w h i le t h el a t te rf o l low st h ep rocedu re so fP eacock ( 1 967 ) a nd W i l l iam s( 1 979 , 1 983 ) .T he p e t ro log ica l t h in s e c t ion sa r ea na ly zed a nd i n te rp re ted .T he c o lo rm ic ropho tog raph sa r es c anned i n to t h ed a ta b a se f o rr e f e rence .L ikew i se ,t h ea b so lu te h eav ym ine ra la na ly s i sc oun t sa r eu sed f o ra na ly s i sa nd a r ee n te red i n to t h ed a ta b a se ( Tab le 1 1 ) .

1 2

F i gu re 1 3 . P a r t o f aM ic ropho tog raph o f S he rd G .8 .307 1 .P ho tographed w i th p l ane p o la r ized l i gh t .T h is s he rd h as a r ed , p o rous , p o rphy roc las t ic f ab r ic w i th s e na te -s ized p o rphy roc las ts ( up t o0 .9 mm ) i n a ma t r ix o fr ed c l ay i m p regna ted w i th s i l t -s ized g ra ins o ft he p o rphy roc las ts . T he p o rphy roc las ts c ons is to f : 4 .5% q ua r tz ; 4 .0% s a n i d ine ; 1 . 8% p l ag ioc lase ; 7 .0% p y rox e ne ; 0 .2% b io t i te ; 0 .8% c a rbona te , z i rcon a nd h o rnb lende ; 1 6% l i t h ic f r ag men ts ( vo lcan ic r ock , p o lyc rys ta l l ine q ua r tz , b rown v o lcan ic g lass , a nd c he r t ( ? ) ) ;0 .6 % g rog a nd 1 . 6% o paque g ra ins . A= a ug i te ; B= b io t i te ; F= f e ldspa r ; G = g rog ; = i r on o re ; L= l i t h ic f r agmen t ( vo l c an ic ) ; M = ma t r ix ; P= p o re s pace ; = q ua r tz . C ha r les J .V i ta l iano , a na lys t .

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T ab le 1 1 H eavy -M inera lC oun tD er ived f r om aV ar ie ty o fC eram ic s ;A l l S herds o fA pprox ima te ly t he S ame We igh t

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Ho rnb lende P y roxene Z i rcon K yan i te B io t i te Apa t i te

6 873 2 519 7 47 4 46 5 7 3 5

9 1 669 6 5 0 0 2 4

2 045 9 73 5 1 5 0 6

0 3 12 5 2 0 0 1 7

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R u t i le O paque Mine ra l

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7 3 1 062

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1 24 1

5 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4996

0 8 0 0 0 0 0 2 153

0 0 2 0 0 0 0 4 181

0 0 0 1 5 0 0 8 25

0 0 0 5 3 1 0 8 26

0 0 0 4 0 0 0 3 9

0 0 0 0 0 0 15 1 376

E p ido te S t au ro l i te O l iv ine T ou rma l ine G a rne t A nda lus i te S phene T o ta l

8 0 1 6474 1 0 0 5 2 1 6 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 8 1 6665

9 0 2 7 0 1 2 0 0 0 1 62 0 0 0 4 1 0 0 2 06

N o te : Da ta p repa red b yR obe r tB r inkmann f r om av a r ie ty o fh eavy m ine ra ls t ud ie s .

T he d a ta j u s td e sc r ibed a r ef i r s t u sed t oc on f irm t he a ccu racy o ft he g roup ing s made o nt he b a s i so f t h e x e rorad iog raph ic s t udy . T hen f o r t ho se g roup ing s c onf i rmed , s t anda rd f ab r ic d e sc r ip t ion s a re p repa red a nd g i ven t empo ra ry f a br ic n umbe r s . F o r m ixed g roup s ,t he b a s i so fm ix ing i ss ough t s ot ha t n ew w a re g roup ing sc an b ef o rmed o rs ot ha tt h e m ixed s he rd sc an b ea dded t op re -ex i s t ing g roups o r a dd i t iona l g roup s c an b e c r ea ted . T he re fo re , b y e mp loy ing x e ro rad iog raphy , t he b a s i s o f mak ing t he

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f a b r ic g roup ing sb ecome se xp l ic i t a nd q uan t i f iab le ,t h e reby o pen ing t h i si mpo r tan ts t ep i nt h e p roce s s t op ub l ic d i scu s s ion . W i th a lf a b r ic sg rouped w i th in e ach v e s se lc a tego ry ,a nd a st h en ex ta na ly t ica ls t ep ,t he v e s se lc a tego ry c r i te r ion i sd ropped s o t h a t t h e s ame f a b r ic , i fp re sen t i n mo re t h an o ne c a tego ry , c an b ec omb ined . [ Th rough t h i s a na ly t ica l s t ruc tu re , F u l fo rd a nd P eacock ( 1 984 ) i d en t if i ed af i na l t o ta l o f3 2 f ab r ic c a tego r ie sa tC a r thage . ] T he se f a b r ic c a tego r ie sa r et h en e n te red i n to t h ed a ta b a se .A tt h es ame t ime t h ey a r e c ompa red w i th t h e k nown g eo logy o ft h e C ae sa rea r eg ion , P a le s t ine , a nd t he Med i te r ranean b a s in t ol o ca te t h er eg ion so rp o in t so fm anu f ac tu re f o rt h ev a r iou sw a re s . F ina l ly ,s i nce o the r a na ly s t sh ave u sed n eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i st od e te rm ine w a re g roup ing sa nd t oi d en t i f y manu f ac tu re p o in t s ,s ome n umbe ro fs he rd sm igh tb es amp led f r om t h ef i na lf a b r ic c a tego r ie s a nd s ubm i t ted f o rn eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i s .T h i si sd one t oc o r re la te ( po s i t ive ly o rn ega t ive ly )r e su l t s o b ta ined t h rough t h em e thod sa dvoca ted i nt h i sp ape rw i th t ho se o b ta ined t h rough n eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i s .T he r e su l t s o fn eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i ss hou ld b ee n te red i n to t h e d a ta b a se .I mp l ica t ion s b a sed o nc ompa r i son sb e tween t h er e su l t so fn eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i sa nd f i nd spo t / form / f ab r ic s hou ld b ed rawn a sp a r to ft h i sp rocedu re . A na ly s is o ft h eD a ta B a se : Man ipu la t ion a nd I n f er ence Once t h ed a ta b a se i sc omp le te , i ti sa va i lab le f o rm an ipu la t ion a l ong a ny o ft h et h ree m a in a xe s f i nd spo t ,f o rm ,o rf a b r ic o nt h eb a s i so fa ny c r i te r ia w i th in t h e se c a tego r ie s .A st h i si sw r i t ten ,t he d a ta b a se i ss t i l ll i m i ted i ns i ze . O ne v o lume a nd t wo a r t ic le sh ave b een w r i t ten o nm a te r ia lg ene ra ted f r om t h i sr e sea rch ( B lake ly 1 987 , 1 988 ; B lake ly , B r inkmann , a nd V i ta l iano 1 989 ) . I ti sp o s s ib le t oc omb ine c ompa ra t ive mo rpho log ica l ,f a b r ic ,a nd c h rono log ica ld a ta t oc r ea te g roup ing sf o rt he v e s se l ss im i la rt o t ho se c r ea ted b yP eacock a nd W i l l iam s ( 1 986 )f o ra mpho rae .I nt h ec a se o fC ae sa rea , a mpho rae make u p as i gn if ican tp o r t ion o ft h ec e ram ic c o rpu s( 3 8% f o rt h eG .8 m a te r ia l ) ;d a ta g ene ra ted a tC ae sa rea Ma r i t ima s hou ld l e ad t os i gn if ican t i n s igh t i n to t h ep roduc t ion a nd u se f o rP a le s t in ian a mpho rae .T he r ema inde ro ft h ec e ram ic p opu la t ion f o rm st h eb eg inn ing o fs im i la rg roup ing sf o rt he mo s t ly l o ca la nd d ome s t ic P a le s t in ian c e ram ic v e s se lc a tego r ie s . -

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A tt h i sp o in t ,d a ta b a se m an ipu la t ion i st h ek ey .T he s t ra t ig raph ic d a ta , mo rpho log ica ld a ta ,a nd d a ta w on t h rough t e chn ica l a na ly t ica l p rocedu re sh a sb een q uan t if ied a nd e n te red i n to t he c ompu te r d a ta b a se .A f te rt h e se p r ima ry d a ta h ave b een e n te red ,t h ree a dd i t iona la t t r ibu te sa r ea dded :p robab le d a te o fs he rd , mo rpho log ica lc l a s s ,a nd f a b r ic g roup .T hu s ,a lo ft h ea na ly t ica la nd d e sc r ip t ive d a ta g a the red f o re ach i nd iv idua ls he rd a r ep re sen ta nd a va i lab le f o rm an ipu la t ion .A l lo ft h e se d a ta a re g a thered i na c ompac tb u tr ead i ly a cce s s ib le f o rm t h a tc an b er ep l ica ted o nt e n so rh und red so fe i the rf l oppy d i sc so r c ompac td i sc s( CD ) a st h er e sea rch n eed d i c ta te s . A sd a ta m an ipu la t ion o ccu r sa nd i n f e rence sa r em ade ,a dd i t iona li l u s t ra t ive p l a te sa re p roduced v i a t h ec ompu te r -g raph ic ss y s tem t oe xp l ica te g roup ing sg ene ra ted a l ong t h ev a r iou sa xe s .P la te si nw h ich av e s se l c a tegory ( e .g . , a mpho rae a si nf i g . 1 4 w he re a mpho rae o fd i f f e ren t m o rpho log y a r e c a l led c l a s se s )a r eg rouped t os how t h e i rd i s t r ibu t ion t h rough t h ei d en t if i ed s t ra ta a r ep repa red .O ther p l a te s m igh ts how d i s t r ibu t ion o fc e r ta in v e s se l c l a s se sa ts i te sb eyond C ae sa rea , t h ev a r ious f a b r ic si nw h ich o ne f o rm m igh t b e f o und , o rt h ev e s se l f o rm sw h ich a r e a l m ade f r om o ne w a re . I ti sa l so p o s s ib le t o c r ea te p l a te s s how ing t h e c l a s s ic i n dex f o s s i l s p re sen t i n e ach s t ra ta . T he se c ha r ts p rov ide v i sua l r ep re sen ta t ion o ft h e e v idence g a the red i nt h es t ra t ig raph ie , mo rpho log ica l ,a nd f a b r ic a na ly se so ft h e c e ram ic c o rpu su nde rs t udy .A s ap a r to ft h e se s ame s t ud ie s ,a na ly s i so ft h ed eg ree so fa rc w h ich w a s r eco rded f o re ach r im s he rd c an b eu sed i ns t ud ie so ft h ea c tua ln umbe ro fv e s se l su nde ra na ly s i sa nd h ow t h e se n umbe r sf a l li n to t h ev a r iou sv e s se lc a tego r ie sa nd c l a s se s . -

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T he f o l low ing t wo p a rag raph s s umma r ize s ome o f t h e r e su l t s , i n te rp re ta t ions , a nd q ues t ion s g ene ra ted d u r ing o u ri n i t ia ls t ud ie su s ing t h i ss y s tem .T he c e ram ic c o rpu sf r om t h eC ae sa rea M i th raeum w a sq u i te l i m i ted o n ly 2 00 r im a nd b a se s he rd s . One o ft h e mo s td rama t ic d i scove r ie sm ade d u r ing t h i ss t udy w a s t h e i d en t i f ica t ion o fc hange si nt h e c e ram ic c o rpu sb e tween p ha se s 1a nd 2( ah o r r eum u sage )a nd p ha se s 3t h rough 9( t he M i th raeum u sage ) .T he o r ig ina lu s age o ft h ev au l tw h ich l a te rh ou sed t h eM i th raeum w a st h a to f ah o r r eum o rw a rehou se .O ve r7 0p e rcen to ft h ec e ram ic ma te r ia lr e cove red f r om t h eh o r r eum l e ve l sw e re a mpho rae . Mo reove r ,n one o ft h e se a mpho rae w e re made i nt h ev i c in i ty -

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F i gu re 1 4 . D i s t r ibu t ion C ha r to f Ampho rae E xcava ted f r om t he C aesa rea M i th raeum .T he C ha r ti s O rgan ized b y Ampho ra C lass ( a s D e f ined b yP eacock a nd W i l l iams , 1 986 ) a nd S t ra t ig raph ic P hase . R educed f o rI n c lus ion H e re .

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o fC aesa rea ;t hey w e re a l li mpo r ted ,p robab ly b ys ea .A tt h ee nd o ft h eh o r r eum u sage ,t he re w a s at o ta l b reak a nd n one o ft he se o r ig ina la mpho ra f o rm sw e re f ound a ga in i nt h i ss t ruc tu re .T he l a te ra mpho rae w e re am ix ture o fl o ca la nd i mpo r ted a mpho rae w i th t h e l o ca le xamp le sb e ing f a r more c ommon ( f ig . 1 4 ) . O the r s t ud ie s o f f i r s t c en tury s i te s i nd ica te t h a t many o the r c e ram ic t r ade i t ems a ccompan ied ampho rae a s t h ey w e re i mpo r ted . T he t wo m a jo r i mpo r ted c e ram ic g ood s o ft h ef i rs t c en tu ry b es ide s a mpho rae w e re P ompe ian R ed Wa re c ook ing b ow l s a nd E a s te rn T er ra S ig i l la ta . None o ft h e se w a re s w e re f ound i nt h eh o r r eum l a ye r s ,y e t t h ey a r ec ommon e l sewhe re a tt h es i te . Many t imes i ti sa s sumed t ha tt h ese s ma l le rc e ram ic p roduc ts w e re s h ipped i nt h ei n te rs t ice so ft he s h ip s .A s sum ing t h a tt h is w a s d one i nt he f i r s t c en tu ry , t h en a tt h e t ime o fo f f load ing t h e se p roduc t sw e re d i v ided , w i th a mphorae b e ing d i rec ted t oo ne w a rehouse a nd t h e c e ram ic p roduc t s t oa no the r ( B lake ly 1 988 ) . Wha t d oes t h i s i mp ly f o rt he m ic ro -econom ic s y s tems a tw o rk a tC ae sa rea Ma r i t ima? I nt h eA rea G .8 c o rpus ,o n ly t he P ompe ian R ed Wa re h a sb een a na lyzed f u l ly ( B lake ly ,B r inkmann , a nd V i ta l iano 1 989 ) . P rev iou sw o rk o nP ompe ian R ed Wa re f r om E u rope a nd E ng land h ad i d en t if ied s even f a b r ic s f o r t h e w a re a nd s ugges ted s ou rces f o r m any o ft h em ( Peacock 1 977b ) . S ince w e w ere d ea l ing w i th t he s ame w a re ,w ee xpec ted c ompa rab le r e su l ts .F o rt h eP ompe ian R ed Wa re f r om A rea G .8 a tC aesa rea ,h owever ,o n ly t wo f a b r ic sw e re i d en t if ied a nd a lb u to ne s he rd b e longed t oo ne f ab r ic . T he m a jo rf ab r ic a ppea r st oh ave o r ig ina ted i nI t a ly a nd i s af a b r ic u ndesc r ibed p rev iou s ly . Why d oe s t he P ompe ian R ed Wa re f r om C ae sa rea Ma r i t ima ,l o ca ted i nt he e a s te rn Med i te r ranean ,o r ig ina te f r om o ne s pec if ic r eg ion i nI t a ly ,w h i le c on tempo ra ry d epo s i t so fP ompe ian R ed Wa re i nE urope a nd E ng land o r ig ina te f r om n ume rou s p l ace s , i n c lud ing m any e xamp le s made a ta no the r I t a l ian l oca t ion? I st h is a c h rono log ica l d i f fe rence o r ar e su l t o fd i f f e ren t e conom ic s y s tem s o pera t ing i nt he e a s tern Med i ter r anean a nd t he w e s te rn Med i te r ranean? O the rr e sea rch a rea sa re n ume rou s .F o re xamp le ,h ow m any f a b r ic sa r et he re f o re ach f o rm o fc ook ing v e s se la nd d oe st h i sn umbe rc hange o ver t ime? C ook ing v e s se l sn o rma l ly w ou ld h ave b een p roduced a t o rn ea rC aesa rea a nd s t udy s hou ld d e te rm ine i ft h e re w a so ne ma jo rp roducer o r many s ma l le rp roducer s t wo e n t ire ly d i f fe ren te conom ic s y s tems ( Peacock 1 982 ) .I na dd i t ion ,t he c o rpu sc ou ld b es t ud ied f o r -

f ab r ic ,v e sse lc a tego ry , a nd d a te ,e spec ia l ly f o ri mpo r t s . We re c l u s te r so fv es se l sp roduced i no ne w a re o ri no ne r eg ion i mpo r ted t oC ae sa rea Ma r i t ima? I nt h ef i r s tc en tu ry ,f o re xamp le ,d id t he i mpo r ta t ion o fI s t r ian a mpho rae c o -va ry w i th t h e i mpo r ta t ion o fn o r th I t a l ian l amp s? We re t h ese c e ram ic v e s se l s p o s s ib ly i mpo r ted o nt he s ame s h ip s? T he se a r ej u s t s ome o fm any a venue st h a tc ou ld b es t ud ied . The e nd r e su l to ft h i st y pe o fa na ly s i sw i l lb ea imed a tt h ef undamen ta le conom ic b a s i so ft he s i te a nd h ow i t c hanged o ve rt ime ,n o ts imp ly s i te c h rono logy . He re w en o te o u rb e l ief t ha tw h i le t h i sa c t iv i ty may a ppea rt ob et h es ame a st h a ti n tended t op roduce t y po log ies ,t h i si sn o tt he c a se . We c on tend t h a tt h ea t temp tt oi d en t i f y ap a t te rn t oa scer ta in w here a nd w hen p a r t icu la rv e s se l sw e re m ade b yc l u s te r ing a t tr ibu te sa l ong t h et h ree a xe su sed h ere i sn o tt h es ame a st y po logy . One i st h eq ua r re lb e tween r e sea rche r so ve rt h ea pp l ica t ion o fl a be l s .T he o the ri sa na t temp t t oi d en t if yp roduc t ion l o ts . P roduc t ion l o t sw ere , u ndoub ted ly , p roduced b y an umber o fm anuf ac tur ing f a c i l i t ie sr ang ing f r om l a rge , s t a te -run f a c to r ies t oi n d iv idua lh ou seho ld sa nd f r om a sf ew a s as i ng le i t em t oe n t i re s h ip load s . T he p roduc ts f r om a ny p a r t icu la r p roduc t ion u n i t m ay v a ry , t o am o re o r l e s s s i gn if ican t d eg ree , b o th mo rpho log ica l ly a nd c ompo s i t iona l ly w i th in g roup ss een a sf unc t iona l ly t y po log ica l : ampho rae ,s a l tp an s , c ook ing p o t s , a nd t h e l i ke .T hus ,t h i s q ue s t ion c an b e a sked ; I ft h ec ompo s i t ion o fa l l ampho rae made a tt h a t f a c i l i ty i st he s ame b u t t h e f o rm s a r e s l igh t ly ( o r e ven d ra s t ica l ly ) d i f f e ren t , a re t he se t h e s ame t y pe? Obv ious ly i td epend s o n h ow b road ly o r h ow n a r row ly t h e r e sea rche r w an ts t od ef ine t y pe . Ou r p o in t h e re i st h a t i fo ur g oa l i st oi d en t i f yw he re a nd w hen ( and h ow a nd w hy ) av esse l ( o r g roup o f v e sse ls )w a s made ,t he c oncep to ft y pe i sn o th e lp fu l . I nf a c t ,i ti sp robab ly h a rm fu l . P ub l ica t ion o ft he D a ta B ase a nd A na ly t ica l R e su l ts A sn ew a na ly t ica lt e chn ique sh ave b een d eve loped o ve rt he p a s tf ew d ecade s ,s im i lar a dvances h ave b een m ade i nt h e e l ec tron ic m ed ia . I ti sn ow p o s s ib le t op l ace t h ee n t i re E ncy c loped ia B r i tann i ca o r a n u nab r idged d i c t iona ry o n to ac ompac td i sk ( CD ) ,f l oppy d i sk s ,o rt a pe .T hese c an b ec op ied q u ick ly a nd d i s sem ina ted c heap ly . CDs i np a r t icu la ra r es t ab le a nd a ppea rn o tt od eg rade o ve rt ime .M ic rof iche a nd m ic ro f i lm h ave b een a round f o ry ea r sb u t a r er a re ly u sed f o rt h es t o rage o fa rchaeo log ica ld a ta .T here

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a r ep o ten t ia la venue sf o rp ub l ica t ion u t i l iz ing t h e se m ed ia i ft h ec oncep to fa r chaeo log ica lr epo r t ing i s a l te red . P rev iou s s e c t ion s o ft h i s a r t ic le h ave a dvoca ted t h e u se o fc ompu te r - g raph ic d a ta b a se s y s tem s . T h rough s uch m ed ia t h ee n t i re d a ta b a se c an b ec op ied a nd t r an spo r ted a t am inu scu le c o s ta nd g i ven t oo t he r s f o r t h e i r o wn a na ly t ica l p u rpo se s . T h i s w ou ld e l im ina te m any o ft h eb i a se s n ow p re sen t i n s t anda rd p ub l ica t ion o fa r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia l .C u r ren t ly , CD ss e em t ob et h e mo s te ff ic ien tm ed ium f o rt h et r an sm i s s ion o fs uch l a rg ea moun t so fd a ta ,b a sed o nc o s ta nd p e r fo rmance . We b e l ieve t h a tt h e e n t i re c o rpu so fa na lyzed c e ram ic ss hou ld b ec op ied f r om t h ea na ly s t ' so r ig ina ld a ta b a se a nd i n c luded w i th t h ew r i t ten r epo r ta st h es uppo r t ing d a ta f o rt h ec onc lu s ion sr e ached b yt h ea na ly s t . S uch p re sen ta t ion o fd a ta a low st h ea na ly s tt op re sen th i s /he ra na ly s i sa nd c onc lu s ion sb a sed o nt h e se d a ta i n ad i f f e ren tm anne r .C e r ta in ly s e lec ted s he rd sw ou ld b ep ub l i shed o np ape ri n at r ad i t iona lm anne r b u t o n ly a s i l u s t ra t ion s o ft h e s pec i f ic p o in t b e ing m ade b yt h e a na ly s t , w he the r t h ey a r e c ho sen t o i l u s t ra te i ndex f o s s i l s o rf o rc h rono log ica l , d i s t r ibu t iona l ,f unc t iona l ,o rs ou rce r ea son s .S uch as y s tem a low st he a na ly s tt op rove h i s /he rp o in tb u ta l so p rov ide st h ec omp le te r e co rd o ft h ea na ly s i sw h ich w a s c onduc ted o nt h e se c e ram ic r ema in s . T hu s , ad a ta b a se p ub l i shed o n CD s ( g iven c u r ren tt e chno logy ) r e p re sen t so b jec t iv i ty i nt h er epo r t ing o fw ha tw a sf o und ,a nd t h ew r i t ten w o rd a nd p r in ted d raw ing sa r e u s ed t oi lu s t ra te t h e a na ly s t ' s c onc lu s ion s . I na dd i t ion , i tw ou ld b e p o s s ib le t op l ace t ho se i n d ice so r c l u s te r ing p rog ram su sed b yt h ea na ly s to nt h e CD a sp a r to ft h ea na ly t ica lr epo r t ,a low ing f u tu re a na ly s t s t or e c rea te t h ea na ly t ica le xpe r imen t . We s ugge s t , t h e re fo re , t h a t t h e f i na l c e ram ic r epo r to ne xcava ted m a te r ia lb e ar a the r t h in v o lume , c on ta in ing t h e m e thodo log y , r e su l t s , a nd i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e a na ly s t ' s r e sea rch . T h i s r epo r t s hou ld h i gh l igh t d i s t r ibu t ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion o f c e ram ic s , w he the r i ti sa t am ic ro scop ic l e ve l , am ic ro s t ra t ig raph ic l e ve l ,o r ag l oba ll e ve l . I n c luded w i th s uch aw r i t ten r epo r tw ou ld b et h ee n t i re d a ta b a se , s t o red o n CD s ( o r o the r a pp rop r ia te m ed ia ) , w h ich w ou ld a low o t he r a na ly s t s t oc onduc t t h e i r o wn r e sea rch w i th t h es ame d a ta . S ummary a nd C onc lus ion s I nt h ep reced ing p age sw eh ave d e sc r ibed t h eg oa l s ,p rocedu re s ,a nd a ccompany ing r a t iona le f o rt h e p rog ram o f s t udy o f t h e c e ram ic m a te r ia l s f r om C ae sa rea Ma r i t ima . We b e l ieve t h a t t h e p rog ram o u t l ined a bove h a s i n teg ra ted a n a pp rop r ia te s u i te o f a na ly t ica l p rocedu re s i n to ac l ea r -cu t s e t o f p rog ram o b jec t ive sa nd t h e reby h a sa vo ided m any o ft h eg r ea te s tc au se sf o rf a i lu re o fs uch e f fo r t s . T he r eade rh a sn o d oub ta l ready d i sce rned t h a to u ri n ten ti sn o tt oi d en t i f y at e rm inu sf o rs t udy b u t t oe s tab l i sh ap l ace a tw h ich t os t a r t .T he t e rm " f ina l" p ub l ica t ion i sam i snome r .T he a na ly t ica lp rog ram o u t l ined i nt h i sp ape ri sa na temp tt op rov ide ab a se l i ne f o rc e ram ic a na ly s i s .I nt h a ts en se ,t h i sp ape r e s pou ses t he c r ea t ion o f as t anda rd f o rc e ram ic a na ly s i sw h ich i sam in imum l e ve l ,t h el owe s tc ommon d enom ina to r , a low ing r e su l t s g ene ra ted b y v a r iou s p ro jec t s t ob e c ompa rab le a tb o th s c ien t if ic a nd i n te rp re t ive l e ve l s . We d on o ti mp ly t h a tc e ram ic a na ly s i ss hou ld s t op a tt h el e ve l sd e sc r ibed i nt h i sp ape r . I nf a c t ,i ft h i sw e re t h ec a se ,w ew ou ld s e et h ee f fo r ta s af a i lu re .A f te ra l ,t h es t a ted a im i st oo pen t h e m a te r ia lf o rs t udy ,n o tp u ta ne nd t oi t sc on s ide ra t ion . A sp o in ted o u ti nt h ei n t roduc t ion ,m any n ew t e chn ique sa nd a na ly t ica ls y s tem sh ave b een d eve loped i nt h ep a s td ecade s .C e r ta in ly t h eu n ique s i tua t ion c on f ron t ing e ach a r chaeo log ica lp ro jec tw i l ld emand t h a to t he rt e chn ique sb ee mp loyed t oa n sw e rs ome o ft h e se q ue s t ion s .T h i si sn o ted a nd e ndo r sed ,b u t w em a in ta in t h a tt h em e thod sa nd c oncep t sp u tf o rwa rd i nt h i sp ape ra r ea pp l icab le a st h es t a r t ing p o in t f o rf u r the ro rm o re d e ta i led a na ly s i s . I nt h ee nd ,w en ow b e l iev et h a tt h ek ey t os o lv ing o u ri n i t ia l ,l a rge rp rob lem o fe x t rac t ing i n fo rma t ion f r om t h ese m a te r ia l si st ou nde r s tand t h a ti ti sap roce s s .I ti sd ynam ic ,o pen -ended ,a nd ,w ea r ec onf iden t , f i l led w i th s u rp r i se s . How ev e r ,w e d o n o t r e ga rd t h e p roce s s t ob ew i thou t s t ruc tu re . Wh i le w ea g ree t h a tt h e re i sn o o ne s i ng le " r igh t" o r" t rue" w ay t og roup m a te r ia l sf o r s t udy ( Ma jew sk i a nd O 'B r ien 1 9 87 :1 01 ) ,w ed on o tb e l iev et h i sm ean st h a ta ny p rocedu re sa r ea sg ood a sa ny o t he r s .I ti so u rj udgmen t t h a ta na ly t ica lp rocedu re ss hou ld b eg rounded i nt h eb e l ie ft h a ti n d iv idua lv e s se l sw e re m ade t os e rve a p a r t icu la r f u nc t ion a nd t h a t t h ev e s se l s w e re m ade a t as pec if ic t i me a nd p l ace b yp a r t icu la r p e r son s

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w o rk ing o u to fp a r t icu la rt r ad i t ion sw i th in p a r t icu la rt e chno log ica lo p t ion sa nd l im i ta t ion s .F rom t h is i t f o l low st ha t t h e re a re , i ndeed , r i gh t a nd w rong a n swe r s t ot he q ue s t ion s a bou tw here , w hen ,w hy , a nd h ow t h ey w e re m ade . Ou r a rgumen t i st ha t i n o rde r t o f i nd t h e c o r rec t a n swe rs t o s uch q ues t ion s r e sea rcher s mu s t a dop t ac a refu l ly s t ruc tured , mu l t i face ted a na ly t ica l p roce s s w h ich i so rde r ly , s y s t ema t ic , a nd r epea tab le . A t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e i n troduc t ion t o t h i s p ape r , w e n o ted t h a t t he g oa l o f t he a rchaeo log ica l c ommun i ty i st od i scover w ay sw he reby i n fo rma t ion c an e me rge f r om t h ea rchaeo log ica lr eco rd a nd b e a s s im i la ted a nd t h en d i s sem ina ted b yc on tempo ra ry s cho la r s .S uch ag oa lr a i se s aq ues t ion :F or whom i st he a rchaeo log is tw r i t ing ,o the ra rchaeo log i s t so r av a r ie ty o fh uman i s t ic a nd s c ien t if ic a ud iences? We b e l ieve t h a ta na rchaeo log ica lr epo r t s hou ld b ea dd re s sed t oi n tere s ted s cho la r si nt he h uman i t ie sa nd s c ience , n o t s pec if ica l ly t o a rchaeo log i s t s . T he a rchaeo log ica l c ommun i ty w i l l p robab ly b e t he mo s t f r equen tu se ro fa na rchaeo log ica lr epo r t ;a rchaeo log is t sw i l lr ev iew t h ew ork a nd t hey w i l lu se i t sr e su l t s a s c ompa ra t ive ma te r ia l i nt h e i r o wn s t ud ie s . T h i s i mp l ie s t ha t t h e a r chaeo log ica l c ommun i ty w i l l b e h eavy u se rs o ft he d a ta b a se . I ft he g oa l o ft h e a rchaeo log ica le n te rp r i se i sw ha tw e a ssume , h oweve r , t h en t he a rchaeo log ica lr epo r t mu s tb ew r i t ten s ot ha tt he r e s to ft h es cho la r ly c ommun i ty h a sa cce s st o t he d a ta a sw e l l .T hese s cho la r sw i l ln o tb ei n te re s ted i nt he a ng les o fr im e ve r s ion f o r ac e r ta in c ook ing p o tf o rm ,f o re xamp le ;t h ey w i l lb ei n te re s ted i ne conom ic ,s oc ia l ,h i s to r ica l ,a nd t e chno log ica ld a ta t ha t c an b eg l eaned f r om t h ea rchaeo log ica lr eco rd [ s ee ,e . g . ,C oo te a nd Wh i te lam ( 1987 ) who h ave t r ied t o o b ta in t h i st y pe o fd a ta f r om t he a rchaeo log ica lr eco rd i n as t udy o fo ne f a ce to fI r on Age P a le s t ine ] .I t i st h e i n teg ra t ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion o fa rchaeo log ica l d a ta t ha t a l low s s uch s t ud ies t ob e u nde r taken , n o tt he p repa ra t ion o fl i s t so fi ndex f o s s i l so rt y pes w h ich d on o ta dvance mu l t id i sc ip l ina ry s t udy . T he B o t tom L ine F o remo s ti nt he m ind o ft he p ro jec td i rec to rw ho mu s tf und t h ea na ly t ica lb udge t ,h owev e r ,a re t wo b a s ic c oncep ts :c o s ta nd c o s t -e ff ic iency . Wha tw i l lt h er e su l t sb e ,a nd c an t he p ro jec ta f fo rd t h em? T hese , h oweve r ,a r et h ew rong q ue s t ion s .I n s tead ,t he q ue s t ion ss hou ld b e ," I st h i sn ece s sary f o rt h es ucce s sfu l a na ly s i so ft h e d a ta w eh ave a cqu i red t h rough e xcava t ion?" " I si tt h e mo s t c o s t -e ff ic ien t manne r t od o t h i s?" a nd , " Can w e a f fo rd n o t t od oi t ?" B a sed o n t h e p rev iou ss t a ted t heo re t ica lc on s ide ra t ion s , t he a n swe r sf o rw h ich o ne h ope sa re " ye s" ," ye s" ,a nd " no ." We v i ew u nde re s t ima t ion o ft he r e sou rce sr equ i red t oc omp le te t h et a sk a so ne ma in c au se o ff a i lu re i na rchaeo log ica l a na ly s i s . Here w e n o te t h e w o rd s o fP eacock ( 1 982 : 1 71 ) : " A t C a r thage t h e B r i t i sh e xcava t ion sa l one p roduced 1 5t on so fp o t tery w h ich t ook 5 00 m an -day st os o r ti nt he f i e ld a nd a tl e a s t d oub le t h a tf i gu re i np repa r ing t h e a rch ive a nd f i na l r epo r t .T he p o t te ry w o rk a ccoun ted f o r a bou t2 5 p e rc en t o ft h e e xcava t ion c o s t s . T h i sh i gh i npu to fr e sou rces c an b ej u s t if ied ,b ecau se C a r thage w as a g rea t t r ad ing c i ty a nd i tw a s i mpo r tan t t oe x trac t m ax imum e v idence o fe conom ic a c t iv i ty ." T h i s l a rge f i nanc ia li n ve s tmen ts hou ld n o tc ome a s as u rp r i se w hen a na rchaeo log ica lp ro jec tc omp le te sf i e ldwork a nd t u rn s t of u l l t ime a na ly s i s . S u re ly f r om t h i s t ime f o r th i tmu s t b e a n t ic ipa ted p r ior t o t h e p ro jec t ' s b eg inn ing . We p o in tt oP eacock 's f i gu re o f2 5p e rcen to ft h eC a r thage e xcava t ion b udge ta sa ne xamp le o fs ca le . F u r the rc ommen to nc o s ti sw a r ran ted , h oweve r .F i r s t ,c ompa ra t ive d a ta g a the red b yt he m e thodo logy a dvoca ted i nt h is p ape ri sc u r ren t ly a tg round z e ro .V a luab le c ompo s i t iona ld a ta a bou t Roman -Pe r iod a mpho rae ( Peacock a nd W i l l iams 1 986 )a nd P ompe ian R ed Wa re ( Peacock 1 977b ;B lake ly ,B r inkmann , a nd V i ta l iano 1 989 ) e x is t , b u t t h e se d a ta h ave b een g ene ra ted o n o n ly a f ew s e lec ted v e s se l f o rm s . P e tro logy i sa ne xpens ive u nde r tak ing ,h eavy m ine ra la na ly s i si sl e s ss o ,a nd x e ro rad iog raphy i si n expen s i ve . Du r ing t h ep er iod t h a tf a b r ic sa re b e ing i d en t if ied f o rt h ef i r s tt i me ag rea tf r on t -end e xpen se mu s t b eb o rne . Once t h ev a s tm a jo r i ty o ft h ef a b r ic sa r ek nown a nd h ave b een d esc r ibed ,t he c o s to fp l ac ing s pec if ic s herd s i n to k nown f a b r ic g roup s d rop s d rama t ica l ly s i nce t h e a na ly s t c an r e ly o n t he l e s s e xpen s ive x e ro rad iog raph ic a nd h eavy m inera l t e chn ique s f o r t h i s t a sk . T h i s i sa no the r v e ry s t rong a rgumen t f o rc oncep tua l iz ing t he e f fo r ta s as i ng le ,u n if ied ,a nd l o ng t e rm p ro jec t . A cknow ledgemen t s . Our t h ank s t oD r . L aw rence E . T oomb s f o rh i s many h e lpfu l c ommen t so n a n e a r l ie rd ra f to ft h is p aper ,a nd t oW i l l iam D .G lanzman a nd D r .W i l l iam P . Ande r son f o rt he i rc ommen t s o n al a te rd ra f t .

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C hap t er 2 P rocess ing A rchaeo log ica lC eram ic s : S ome C ommen ts o nA na ly t ica l Ob jec t ives

D av id Adan -Bayew i tz B a r Il a n Un ive r s i ty R ama t -Gan ,I s rae l

T he a rchaeo log i s ta pp roach ing e xcava t ion a nd p ub l ica t ion o fa r chaeo log ica le v idence i sf a ced w i th at wo fo ld o b l iga t ion : f i r s t , t op re sen tt h es cho la r ly c ommun i ty w i th ar eco rd a sc omp le te a nd o b jec t ive a sp o s s ib le o ft h ee xcava ted e v idence ,a nd s e cond ,t oo pen t h ee xcava ted m a te r ia lf o rf u r the rs t udy .T he f o l low ing r ema rk s r e la te t ot h i s d ua l r e spon s ib i l i ty a s i tp e r ta in s t o t h e s t age s i nt h e p roce s s ing o f c e ram ic s . R e t en t ion o fE x cava t ed C er am ic s An umbe ro fa pp roache st ot h i sp rob lem a r ec u r ren t .T he re a r es t i l lp rac t ic ing a r chaeo log i s t sw ho r ou t ine ly d i sca rd i nt h ef i e ld t h el a rge b u lk o fr e cove red c e ram ic s ,s av ing o n ly t ho se p i ece sc on s ide red s i gn if ican tf o rp ub l ica t ion i nc onnec t ion w i th s i te c h rono logy .F ew l a rge e xped i t ion sr e ta in a l r ecove red p o t te ry ,a l though t h i sm e thod h a sm uch t oc ommend i t( c f .L ondon 1 985 ) . A mo re c ommon a pp roach , a nd o ne w h ich i su sua l ly a dequa te f o rp u rpo se so ff u r the r r e sea rch , i st os a ve a l lr im s ,h and le s ,b a se s , a nd d eco ra ted o r o the rw i se " i nd ica t ive" p i ece s ; a l f r agmen t s f r om b e i o fp a r t icu la r s i gn if icance o r c on ta in ing r epa i rab le v e s se l sa r ea l so g ene ra l ly r e ta ined . S tudy a nd P ub l ica t ion T h i ss t age ,r ep re sen t ing t h e s y s tema t ic s t udy o ft h er e ta ined p o t te ry f o rp r ima ry p ub l ica t ion ,i st h e s ub jec to ft h ea bove c on t r ibu t ion b yB enne t t a nd B lake ly ( Chap te r1 ) .T he se a u tho r sa dvoca te t h eu se o f ac ompu te rd a ta b a se c apab le o fs t o r ing a nd m an ipu la t ing g raph ic a nd a l phanume r ic d a ta .T h i sd a ta b a se w ou ld i n c lude ar e co rd o ff i nd spo t ( i nc lud ing a l so s t ra t ig raph ie n o te s , s e c t ion s , a nd t op p l an s ) , f o rm ( ad raw ing o fe ach i n d ica t ive p i ece ,a nd ad e sc r ip t ion o fs u r f ace t r ea tmen t ,d eco ra t ion ,a nd c o lo r ) , a nd d a ta w i th r e spec tt of a b r ic ( ax e ro rad iog raph ic i mage o fe ach p i ece ,p e t ro log ica la nd h eavy m ine ra l a na ly s i sa imed a td e sc r ib ing t h ef a b r ic g roup sp re sen ti nt h ei n ven to ry ,a nd p e rhap sn eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i so fs ome o ft h es he rd sf r om t h ef i na lf a b r ic c a tego r ie s ) . T he q uan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty o ft h e d a ta r eg i s te red i nt h ep ropo sed d a ta b a se s u rpa s se st ha t c u r ren t ly r e co rded b ym o s t a r chaeo log ica l e xped i t ion s ; t h i s , t o ge the rw i th i t sm an ipu la tabi i ty ,w ou ld make t h i s d a ta b a se av a luab le t o o l f o r t h e p roce s s ing a nd s t udy o fc e ram ic sb yt h e e xcava t ing e xped i t ion . T h i s a na ly t ica lt oo lw ou ld b ep a r t icu la r ly u se fu l f o rp roce s s ing e x ten s ive p o t te ry c o l lec t ion s ,s uch a st h a to f t h eJ o in tE xped i t ion t oC ae sa rea Ma r i t ima ,b u ti tc ou ld a l so b eu sed e f f ec t ive ly b ys ma l le re xped i t ion s , a nd , w i th c e r ta in mod if ica t ion s , f o r mo re s pec ia l ized e xcava t ion p ro jec t s ( s uch a s p roce s s ing t h e c e ram ic sr e t r ieved a t ak i ln s i te [ s ee e . g . Adan -Bayew i tz 1 987 ;i np re s sa ] ) . T he d a ta b a se w ou ld g ene ra l ly s u f f ice f o rt h ec h rono log ica ls t udy o ft h e c e ram ic s . F u r the rmo re ,b a sed o nt h e f a b r ic c ha rac ter iza t ion b yp e t ro logy a nd h eavy m ine ra la na ly s i s ,i tm ay b ep o s s ib le t os ugge s t ar eg ion o fo r ig in f o rc e r ta in w a re s i fd i s t inc t ive r ock s a nd m ine ra l s a r e p re sen ti nt h ef a b r ic ( Peacock 1 982 : 1 69 -71 ;1 984b :6 28 ;P eacock a nd W i l l iam s1 986 ) . O pen ing t he E x cava ted Ma t er ia lf o rF ur ther S tudy T he d a ta b a se f o rma tw ou ld e xped i te t h ea va i lab i l i ty t oa r chaeo log i s t so f ab read th o fm an ipu la tab le d a ta n o tc u r ren t ly a va i lab le i np ub l i shed e xcava t ion r epo r t s .T he se f e a tu re s ,a l ong w i th t ho se m en t ioned a bove ,j u s t i f yt h ew ide sp read e mp loymen to ft h i sa na ly t ica lp rog ram . Howeve r , a l though t h i sp rog ram d oe sp rov ide t h e a r chaeo log i s tw i th av a luab le c o rpu so fu seab le d a ta ,b yn om ean sd oe si ta dequa te ly

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o pen t he e xcava ted ma te r ia lf o rf u r the rr e sea rch .T h i si sn o td ue t ot he s ho r tcom ing so ft h i sp ar t icu la r d a ta b a se . Ra ther t he r ange o f p rob lem s c ur ren t ly i n ve s t iga ted b y r e sea rche rs t h rough t h e s t udy o f a nc ien tc e ram ic si ss uch t ha td i rec ta cce ss t oe xcava ted c o l lec t ion si sf r equen t ly e s sen t ia l . R esea rch p rob lem s wh ich i n vo lve t he d i rec te xam ina t ion o fp o t te ry i n c lude t he f o l low ing : ( The l i s t i sn o te xhau s t ive . Ar ecen tr ev iew ,w i th b ib l iog raphy ,o fw o rk i n many o ft he a rea s men t ioned b e low may b e f ound i nR ice 1 987 [ C f . a l so t he s u rvey b yB enne t t a nd B lake ly p p . 3 -5 ] ; s e lec ted a dd i t iona lb ib l i o g raphy i sn o ted b e low . ) P o t tery p roven ience . T he d e te rm ina t ion o fp roven ience i so fc ou r se t he s i ne q ua n on f o ra ny s t udy o ft r ade i nc e ram ic s .T he i mpo r tance o fs uch s t ud ie s ,w h ich o f ten p rov ide t he o n ly a va i lab le e v idence o f i n terac t ion b e tween a nd w i th in r eg ion si na n t iqu i ty ,n eed n o tb ee l abo ra ted u pon h ere ( s ee ,e . g . ,P ucc i 1 983 ) . C ha rac te r iza t ion o f p o t tery f ab r ic u s ing t he t e chn ique s a dvoca ted b y B enne t t a nd B lake ly i s i mpo r tan tf o r c l a s s if ica t ion , a nd i ns ome c a se si ss uff ic ien t t os ugge s t ap robab le r eg ion o fo r ig in . F o r many p rob lem so fp roven ience ,h owever ,a nd p a r t icu la r ly w he re l o ca lp roven ience d e term ina t ion i st he o b jec t ive , mo re s ens i t ive c ha rac ter iza t ion o f p o t tery , a nd s ome t ime s c l ay s , i so f ten n eeded . S uch h igh -re so lu t ion p roven ience i n ves t iga t ion i si ndeed b eyond t he s cope o f c e ram ic p roce s s ing f o r t he p r imary p ub l ica t ion o fe xcava ted ma te r ia l . H igh -re so lu t ion p roven ience s t ud ie sr equ i re a ne x ten s ive a na ly t ica lp rog ram , emp loy ing l a bora to ry t echn ique s w h ich a re b o th s en s i t ive a nd a ccu ra te . T he mo s t i mpo r tan t o ft he se t e chn ique s i sn eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i s , b u t o the r me thod s , p a r t icu la r ly X -ray f l uo re scence , h ave b een u sed p rof i tab ly ( Pe n man a nd A sa ro 1 969 ; B i shop , R and s , a nd Ho l ley 1 982 : 2 88 -300 ) . N eu tron a c t iva t ion a na ly s is h as b een s hown t ob e e f fec t ive i na s s ign ing l o ca l ly -made w a re s t os pec if ic c l ay s ou rces o r manu fac tu r ing c en te r s( e .g . Widemann e ta l . 1 975 ; Adan -Bayew i tz a nd P e r lman 1 985 ;P e n man , Gunneweg ,a nd Ye l l in 1 986 ) ,a nd ,w hen c oup led w i th q uan t i ta t ive s t udy o fe xcava ted c orpo ra ,f o rt r ac ing t he g eog raph ica la nd q uan t i ta t ive e x ten to fl o ca lt r ade i nc ommon p o t tery ( Adan -Bayew i tz 1 985 ;i np re s sb ) . S uch s t ud ie so fp roven ience a nd t r ade r equ i re d i rec t a cce s st op o t tery i n ven to r ies . E xpe r ience h a s s hown t ha t ,f o l low ing s t udy o ft he a na ly t ica ld a ta ,a dd i t iona ls amp le sa re o f ten r equ i red . Mo reover ,e ven i fq uan t i ta t ive d a ta f o r ap o t tery c o rpu sa re a va i lab le ,i ti ss ome t ime sn eces sary t or eeva lua te t he se d a ta f o l low ing a na ly s i s . Why w ere p ar t icu lar r aw ma ter ia ls c hosen f o rp o t tery manuf ac ture? S ub jec ts o fi n ve s t iga t ion i n c l ude t he r e la t ion b e tween c l ay s a nd p o t tery ( e .g . Momm sen , K reu se r , a nd Weber 1 988 ) a nd p hy s ica l p rope r t ies ,s uch a ss t reng th a nd t he rma ls hock r e s i s tance ,o ft he f i red v e s se l s( Bron i tsky 1 986 ;S chu r ing 1 986 ) . S oc ioeconom ic a nd t e chno log ica la spec ts o fp o t tery p roduc t ion : S ub jec t si n c lude r econ s t ruc t ion o fs oc ia lo rgan iza t ion a nd manu fac tu r ing t e chn ique sb a sed o nm ic ro -s ty l i s t ic f e a tu res ( Landg ra f1 980 ; L ondon 1 985 ) ,e s t ima t ion o ff i r ing t empe ra tu re ,r econ s t ruc t ion o ff i r ing t e chn iques , a nd s t udy o ff i r ing f au l ts ( f o rk i ln s i te s ) ( Rye 1 981 : 10 -22 ) . V esse lf unc t ion a nd c on ten ts : S ub jec t s i n c lude t he s t udy o fe v idence f o r u se w i th f i re ( charr ing ; s oo t ) ( R ice 1 987 : 2 35 -36 ; Adan -Bayew i tz , i np res s b ,C hap te rV ) , u se -wear s t ud ies , emp loy ing m ic ro s cop ic a na ly s is , a nd i d en t if ica t ion o fc on ten ts f r om r e s idue sr e ta ined i nt he v e s se lw a l ls . E ach o f t he se a venue s o fi n ves t iga t ion r equ i re s d i rec t a cce s s t ot he e xcava ted p o t te ry c o l lec t ion . T he se r e sea rch p rob lem s , i ts hou ld b e n o ted , a re o fi mpo r tance n o t o n ly i nt he i r own r i gh t ,b u ta l so i n r e la t ion t ob roade r s oc ioeconom ic q ue s t ion s . T he p rope r t ie s o f ac l ay may h ave b een af a c tor i n t he l o ca t ion o f ap roduc t ion c en te r( c f .A rno ld 1 988 :2 0 -60 ) ,a nd t h et e chn ica lq ua l i t ie so f aw a re may h ave i nf luenced t he s i ze o fi t s ma rke t ( Shepa rd 1 985 :3 54 -55 ;s ee a l so B i shop ,R and s ,a nd Ho l ley 1 982 : 3 13 ) . C la r if ica t ion o fc on ten t sa nd f unc t ion , mo reover ,i so fc en tra li mpo r tance f o rt h es t udy o ft r ade . B es ide s i t s o the r u ses , t he t y po log ica l , q uan t i ta t ive , a nd c h rono log ica l d a ta a va i lab le f r om t he d a ta b a se p roposed b yB enne t t a nd B lake ly w ou ld a l so f a c i l i ta te t h es t ud ie s men t ioned a bove .I na dd i t ion , u se o f t ha t d a ta b a se t o c o r re la te a na ly t ica l d a ta o b ta ined f r om c hem ica l a na ly s is s uch a s n eu tron a c t iva t ion w i th a l ready e x i s t ing d a ta o n f ab r ic c ha rac ter iz a t ion c ou ld c on tr ibu te t o af i ner d ef in i t ion o f

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f a b r ic ,a nd ,i fp roven ience c an b ed e te rm ined ,c ou ld e xped i te c l a s s if ica t ion i n to s ou rce g roup s .A r t icu la t i on o f d a ta f r om c hem ica l a na ly s i s a nd p e t rog raphy w i th a r chaeo log ica l e v idence c ou ld a l so a dd i mpo r tan ti n fo rma t ion f o rt h ei n te rp re ta t ion o fc e ram ic c ompo s i t ion ( B i shop ,R and s ,a nd Ho l ley 1 982 ) . B u ti fd i rec ta cce s st ot h ep o t te ry i n ven to ry i sn o tp rov ided t h es t ud ie sm en t ioned a bove c ou ld n eve rb e e mba rked u pon . Ad a ta b a se ,n om a t te rh ow c omp le te a nd e ff ic ien t ,c an o n ly g os of a r .F o r aw ide r ange o fr e sea rch p rob lem si tc anno ts e rve a s as u r roga te f o rt h ea c tua lc e ram ic v e s se l s . C u r ren tp o l ic ie s w i th r e ga rd t or e ten t ion a nd s t o rage o fe xcava ted p o t tery i nt h ev a r iou s s t age s o f p roce s s ing d i f f e rw ide ly .O f ten l a rge p o r t ion so fs uch c o l lec t ion sa r ed i sca rded a l ong t h ew ay ,a nd t ha t w h ich i sr e ta ined i ss ome t ime si n adequa te ly s t o red .T he t ime h a sc ome t oa dd re s ss qua re ly t h eo b l iga t ion o ft h ea r chaeo log ica l e xped i t ion a nd o the r o rgan iza t ion s ( t he e xcava to r ' si n s t i tu t ion a nd t he l i cen s ing a u tho r i ty ) t o i n su re a dequa te a cce s s t o t h e c omp le te e xcava ted c o l lec t ion o f c e ram ic s ( and o the r a r t i f ac t s ) .P rov id ing s uch a c ce s si sar e spon s ib i l i ty i n he ren ti nt h ee xcava t ion p roce s s .

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C hap ter 3

B eyond S oc io -Econom ic s : S ome R eac t ions t o "Morpho logy ,C ompos i t ion ,a nd S tra t igraphy"

J ames F .S t range Un ive r s i ty o fS ou th F lo r ida T ampa ,F lo r ida

I n troduc t ion I ng enera l , Ib e l ieve t ha tB lake ly a nd B enne t t 's ma in p roposa li sap o s i t ive a nd u sefu lo ne .I ti si ndeed t r ue t h a t c eram ic a na ly se s f r om e xcava t ion s i nt h e E a s te rn Med i te r ranean a nd e l sewhe re h ave b een d om ina ted b yt he q ue s t ion o fc h rono logy ( A rno ld 1 985 :1 ) . One c an p eru se a lmo s ta ny r ecen te xcava t ion r epo r ta nd d i scover t ha tw eh ave n o t moved v e ry f a ri nt he p a s tf i f teen y ea r sb eyond wha tB lake ly a nd B enne t tc a l lt he " i ndex f o s s i l ." T h i si sa l so t r ue o ft ho se e xcava t ion r epo r t sf o r wh ich Ih ave p a r t ic ipa ted i nt h ew r i t ing a nd p ub l ica t ion (Meye r s ,K raabe l ,a nd S t range 1 976 ; Meye rs ,S t range ,a nd Meye rs 1 981 ) . T he mos t i mpo r tan t a spec t o fB lake ly a nd B enne t t 's p ropo sa l , h oweve r , i sn o t t ha t t hey p o in t o u t c e r ta in l im i ta t ion so fc ur ren tc e ram ic a na ly s i s a nd p ub l ica t ion . I ti s ,r a the r ,t ha tt hey h ave d eve loped a p ropo sa l f o r a na ly s i s o ft h e C aesa rea Ma r i t ima p o t te ry a nd o fo ther p o t te ry t ha t h a s at heore t ica l b a s i s .I no the rw o rd s ,t hey a r ep ropo s ing as y s tem o fc e ram ic a na ly s i st ha tr ecogn izes t ha ti ti sp o s s ib le t oe x t rac t i n fo rma t ion a bou t ap a s ts oc ie ty ' s" t echno logy , e conom ic s , a nd s oc ia lo rgan iza t ion s" ,a s t h ey p u t i t ,f r om c e ram ic r ema in s . No t o n ly d o t h ey r ecogn ize t he p o s s ib i l i ty , b u t t hey h ave a l ready d emon s tra ted i n ama jo rp ub l ica t ion ( B lake ly 1 987 ) t ha t t he i rs y s tem a l low se x trac t ion o fa tl e a s t p a r t o ft h ei n forma t ion l i s ted .T he i rs y s tem i sg rounded i n ad a ta -ba se ,w h ich mean st ha to ne c ou ld g enera te a ni n de f in i te n umbe ro fr epo r ts o nt he d a ta ,d epend ing u pon t he t ype o fq ue s t ion sa sked ,t he s t ruc tu re o ft h ed a ta b a se i t se lf ,a nd w he the ro ne m igh tu se A r t if ic ia lI n te l l igence ( A T )o r" expe r ts y s tem s" t oa id t h ea r chaeo log i s ti na na lyz ing t he d a ta ( Lag range 1 985 ; Ga rd in e ta l1 987 ; Ga rd in 1 988 ) . On t he o ther h and , a l though t hey h ave i n d ica ted s ome th ing o f d a ta b a se d e s ign , t here i sn o i n fo rma t ion a bou t a cce s s ib i l i ty ,s t ruc tu re ,o rf u tu re c hange sp o s s ib le i nt h ed a ta b a se ( A l len 1 985 ; Ga ine s 1 981 ) . -

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B e fo re e xpound ing o nm yo wn v i ew so fw ha to ne c an a nd mu s tl e a rn f r om c e ram ic a na ly s i s , Ip re fer t or e spond i ns ome d e ta i lt os eve ra lo fB lake ly a nd B enne t t 's i d ea s .T he m idd le p o r t ion o ft h i se s say i s t h e re fore d evo ted t ot ha te n te rp r i se , a nd t h et h i rd p a r t i sd evo ted t o ad eve lopmen t o fa nd e xpans ion o nt h et heore t ica lt heme st h ey e voke . S ome S pec i f ic R eac t ions t oB lake ly a nd B enne t t I nt he I n t roduc t ion t ot h e i re s say ,B lake ly a nd B enne t ts t a te t he i r c onv ic t ion a nd t he c onv ic t ion o f t h e w ider a rchaeo log ica l f r a te rn i ty—tha t a rchaeo log ica l r ema in s c on ta in i n fo rma t ion a bou t p a s t l i f eway sa nd b ehav io r .T hey e xp la in t h a tt h i sm ean s ,f o rt hem ,i n fo rma t ion a bou tt e chno logy ,e conom ic s , a nd s oc ia lo rgan iza t ion so ft h ep a s t .T h i si ss u re ly t r ue ,a nd i ss uppo r ted b y ah o s to fp ub l ica t ion sd evo ted t oa r chaeo log ica lt heo ry b ya r chaeo log i s t sw o rk ing a lmo s ta nywhe re e xcep tI s rae l ,E gyp t ,J o rdan ,S y r ia , a nd L ebanon , w he re p ub l ica t ion s i nt h eo ry r ema in l ow . S uch r ecen t t heo re t ica l p ub l ica t ion s i nc lude t h o se b y e thnoa rchaeo log i s t s ( B in fo rd 1 978 ; Gou ld 1 980 ; P eacock 1 982 ) , s y s tem ic a dap t ive t heo r i s ts ( Koh l 1 981 ; S he r ra t t 1 982 ; R and sbo rg 1 982 ; R en f rew a nd S he rman 1 982 ) , s t ruc tu ra l i s t s ( B in tl i f f1 984 ; D ee tz 1 983 ;K en t 1 984 , 1 987 ;L eone 1 978 ; McGhee 1 977 ) , Ma rx i s tt heo r i s ts ( Fa ns 1 983 ;F r iedman a nd -

R ow lands 1 978 ; S p r igg s 1 984 ) , m idd le r ange t h eo r i s ts ( B in fo rd 1 983 ; R aab a nd Goodyea r 1 984 ) , c on tex tua l is ts ( Be ra rd , B ron , a nd P omo r r i 1 987 ; Hodde r 1 986 , 1 987 , 1 988a , 1 988b ) , t he s oc ia l a r c haeo log is ts ( Ren f rew 1 982 , 1 984 ; R en f rew , Row land s a nd S eag rave s 1 982 ) a nd o the rs i mpo s s ib le t o p i geonho le . T he i n te re s t a mong t h e se s cho la r s i si ns oc ia l a nd s ymbo l ic i n fo rma t ion e x trac ted f r om a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s . T he ir i n te re s t i se xp l ic i t ly b a sed u pon t heo r ie s o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re a nd t he q ue s t ion o f mean ing .

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I ti si mpo r tan tt os t a te a tt he o u t se to ft h i se s say t ha tt h e re i saw ho le s e to fo the rt ypes o fi n forma t ion t ha tm igh tb ee x t rac ted f r om t he a rchaeo log ica lr eco rd b e s ide sw ha tB lake ly a nd B enne t tm en t ion .S uch i n fo rma t ion i n c lude s v a lues , i dea s , b e l ie f s , a nd a t t i tude s , w h ich p e rmea te as oc ie ty a nd t h e refore i t s ma ter ia l c u l tu re ( Hodde r 1 986 : 1 4 ) . T he se a re a s much " f ac t s" a sa re s t y le , a r t i s t ic mo t i f s , a nd c l ay p repa ra t ion .I fi ti st he t a sk o fa rchaeo logy a tl e as tt o" e s tab l i sh t h ef a c t s" ( Cou rb in 1 988 : 11 -13 ) , t hen i tf o l low st ha to ne s ha l la l so e xe rc i se t he i n te rp re ta t ive f a cu l ty t oe s tab l i sh f a c t ss uch a st he v a lues ,i dea s , b e l ie f s ,a nd a t t i tude so fa na nc ien tp eop le ,i n c lud ing t h e i ra e s the t ic s .T h i sp e r ta in sf o rc e ram ic a na ly s i s a s much a si td oe sf o ra ny o the rt ype o fa r t i fac ta na ly s i s .B u t mo re o ft h i si st of o l low i np a r tt h ree . I ti sa l so t r ue t ha t , i ng ene ra l , c e r ta in a rchaeo log i s t s h ave f ound i te a s ie s t t o a sk t h e f o rma l a nd c h rono log ica lq ue s t ion o fc e ram ic s ,s ome t ime si nt he f o rm o ft ypo log ica lo rs e r ia t ion a na ly s i s ,a nd o f ten t ot he e xc lu s ion o fq ues t ion so ft he s oc ia ls t ruc tu re so rv a lue so ft h ep eop le u nde ri nves t iga t ion ( Lev ine a nd N e tze r 1 986 ;L o f f reda 1 974 ;N egev 1 986 ;N e tze r 1 981 ; Ro sen tha l -Heg inbo t tom 1 988 ;S t e rn 1 982 ) . R ecen t ly a tl e a s tt wo s t ud ie sh ave a sked t h et e chno log ica l q ue s t ion o f Roman a nd I ron A ge c e ram ic s f r om a nc ien tI s rae l ( Gunneweg , P e r lman , a nd Y e l l in 1 983 ;R a s t 1 978 ) , o ne h a s a sked t h ep roven ience q ue s t ion o fc e ram ic sf r om P e t ra i nJ o rdan ( 'Am r1 987 ) ,a nd a tl e a s to ne h a sa sked t he s oc io -econom ic a nd t r ade q ue s t ion o f Roman ampho rae ( Peacock a nd W i l l iam s 1 986 ) . I n a l l f a irness t oG unneweg , P e r lman , a nd Y e l l in , h oweve r , t he i r s t udy w a s a l so a imed a tt he q ue s t ion o ft he p roven ience o ft he i r p o t tery c orpu s . T he C ae sarea c eram ic c orpu s e xcava ted b y I s rae l i a rchaeo log i s ts a l so y i e lded p roven ience a nd s oc io -econom ic i n fo rma t ion t o Adan -Bayew i tz ( 1 986a ) . I no u rq ue s tf o ri n fo rma t ion f r om ap o t tery c o rpu sw e mus tb ec e r ta in o fo u rt e rm ino logy . It u rn t oa s pec if ic t e rm t ha tB lake ly a nd B enne t tu se t ha tt u rn so u tt ob ec u r iou s ly amb iguou s . Ir e f e rt ot he t e rm " f unc t ion ." F o r e xamp le , B lake ly a nd B enne t t d ec la re t ha t t he i r p l an i st o e x trac t c h rono log ica l , t e chno log ica l ,a nd " func t iona l" i n fo rma t ion f r om ab ody o fc e ram ic m a te r ia l .B y" func t iona l" t hey s eem t ob es peak ing o ft he u t i l i ta r ian o rt e chno log ica lu se t ow h ich t he v e s se li sp laced .T ha ti s ,n o to n ly w a s t he v e sse l p roduced b y t e chno logy , b u t i tw a s a l so u sed t o i n te r f ace w i th t he ma ter ia l e nv i ronmen t . B in fo rd d e sc r ibe s t h is f unc t ion a s t e chnom ic ( B info rd 1 972 : 2 3 ) . T he refo re , i f Iu nde r s tand t hem c o rrec t ly ,t hey a re a sk ing w he the r ag i ven v e s se lw a su sed t os t o re l i qu id so rg ra in s ,o ru sed f o rc ook ing , o r f o r s e rv ing c ooked f ood , o r f o r b o t t l ing w ine , e t c . B u t i ta l so h appen s t ha t ag i ven v e s se lh as o the r f unc t ions .F o re xamp le , av e s se l may f unc t ion a s as oc ia ls ymbo lo fs t a tu s( Pompe ian Red Wa re? ) , o ri t may f unc t ion a s a ma rke r o f r e l ig iou s o r o the r i d en t i ty ( a l amp w i th c ro s se s ) . Th i s i sB in fo rd ' s s oc io techn ic a r t i fac t( B in fo rd 1 972 :2 4 ) . On t he o the rh and av es se l may d ec la re i deo log ica lo rr e l ig iou s v a lues ( aS abba th l amp ) ,w h ich i sB in fo rd 's i d eo techn ic a r t i fac t( B in fo rd 1 972 :2 4 ) .Av es se la l so h a sa n a es the t ic f unc t ion w he ther t he p o t te ri n tend st ha to rn o t .I ts eem si mpo r tan tf o ru sa sa rchaeo log is ts t o make e xp l ic i tw h ich l e ve lo f" f unc t ion" w ea re g i v ing a t ten t ion t o .T hese o ther l e ve l so fs ymbo l ic mean ing a re m i s s ing i nB lake ly a nd B enne t t . An i dea t ha t Ia pp laud i st he n ece s s i ty o f mak ing o u rs amp l ing m e thod se xp l ic i t . The p rocedu re f o r many N ea rE a s te rn a rchaeo log ica le xped i t ion s ,w hen f a ced w i th s imp ly t hou sand so fs he rd st op roce s s t h rough t he i rc e ram ic p roce s s ing s y s tem s ,i st os amp le b yi n tu i t ion a nd a rchaeo log ica lt r ad i t ion .I th a s s eemed a pp rop r ia te t ok eep r im sa nd b a se sb ecau se o ft h ec h rono log ica li n forma t ion o ne c ou ld e x trac t b ys e r ia t ion me thod s . One a l so k ep th and les f o r as im i la rr ea son .B ody s he rd s ,o nt he o the rh and ,s uf f e r al a ck o fr ep resen ta t ion i nc eram ic c o rpo ra ,f o rt h ey t e nd t ob er ega rded a sc on ta in ing l i t t le i fa ny u sefu l ( ch rono log ica l ) i n fo rma t ion . On ly b ody s he rd s f r om p o ten t ia l ly r e s to rab le v e s se l s a re a d judged t o b e w o r th r e ta in ing , a nd t he j udgmen t a st ow h ich l o c i a re p o ten t ia l ly r e s to rab le i s as ub jec t ive o ne b a sed u pon t he e xper ience a nd k now ledge o ft he e xped i t ion d i rec to r . B lake ly a nd B enne t th ave n o ted t ha ts amp l ing p rocedu re s ,t hough c r i t ica l ,a re n o tt he m a in p rob lem . R a ther t hey r ecogn ize f r om t he ir o wn r e sea rche st h a tt h er ea lp rob lem i sc e ram ic c l ass if ica t ion . G iven t he i ri n te res t i na ccoun t ing f o rt he c e ram ic d i ve r s i ty i n ag i ven c e ram ic c o rpus ,i ti sc r i t ica lt oa ccoun t f o ra l lt he p iece st ha t make u pt h ec o rpu s .B u tf o l low ing R ice ( 1984b :2 48 -49 ) ,t h ey s eem t oo b jec tt ha t t r ad i t iona l c l a s s if ica t ion s cheme s r educe t h e n umbe r o f u n i t s i n a n i n app rop r ia te w ay . T rad i t iona l c l a s s if ica t ion i n troduces as chema t iza t ion t h a td oe sn o ta low o ne t oa ccoun tf o rt he i nd iv idua lp ieces . Id on o tf i nd t h is o b jec t ion t ob ew e igh ty .A l though t h ei d ea l maybe t oa ccoun tf o re ve ry s i ng le p iece i n ac o l lec t ion , w hen s a id c o l lec t ion a pp roaches 3 0 t on s , t h e i d ea l i sn o t a t ta inab le . One i sf o rced t o

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c l a s s i f y ,a nd c l a s s i f yw es ha l l ,t h ough o fc ou r se w ec an a lway si mp rove o u rc l a s s i f ica t ion m e thod s( A rno ld 1 985 :2 34 -35 ;C ou rb in 1 988 : 1 4 5 -46 ) . F u r thermo re , w e p robab ly c anno t s imp ly f o l low N ew Wo r ld m e thod s a s a n a l te rna t ive c e ram ic a na ly s i ss y s tem . AN ew Wo r ld a r chaeo log i s tm ay r e ly u pon s t a t i s t ic st om an ipu la te t h ed a ta ,n o tb ecau se i ti sas upe r io rm e thod o fa ccoun t ing f o r a l t h e s he rd s( on t h ec on t ra ry ,i ta ccoun t sf o rt h em a s s ) ,b u t b ecau se ( a ) N ew Wo r ld a r chaeo log i s t s a r e c l o se r t o t h e s oc ia l s c ience s a s ad i sc ip l ine t han t o t h e Human i t ie s , ( b ) t h e u se o fs t a t i s t ic s i s aw e l l -e s tab l i shed d ev ice f o r d a ta m an ipu la t ion i nt h e s oc ia l s c ience s , ( c ) t h e a r chaeo log i s t m ay r e t r ieve r e la t ive ly f ewe r s he rd s c ompa red t ot h e v o lume o fe a r th r emoved ,i fa nc ien tN ea rE a s te rn a r chaeo logy i so u rn o rm ,a nd s t a t i s t ica lm an ipu la t ion p rom i se s mo re i n fo rma t ion f r om t h e d a ta , a nd ( d ) t h e a r chaeo log i s t h a s s omewha t l e s s c omp l ica ted s t ra t ig raphy t o i n fo rm t he a na ly s i s ,a sc ompa red t ot h es t ra t ig raphy o f aM idd le E a s te rn t e l l . T he u se o fs t a t i s t ic sh e lp s m ake u pt he i n fo rma t iona ld ef ic i t .T oi l u s t ra te t h et h i rd p o in t , We s tF i e ld o f Ha tchery S i te , aN ew Wo r ld s i te m ade f amou sb yB in fo rd ,y i e lded at o ta lo f3 75 s he rd st ot h ea r chaeo log i s t ' se ye ( B in fo rd 1 972 :1 64 ) . O ne w ho k now s t h e r epo r tw i l l o b jec t t h a t t h e se w e re s he rd s r e t r ieved i ns u rvey , n o t i ne xcava t ion . I a n sw e rt ha t t h e s u rveyo r s o nf oo t i n spec ted 4 16 s i xb ys i xm e te r s qua re s , a nd t h a t t h e i r i n ten tw a s t o r e t r ieve a nd b ag b yh and a l a r t i f ac t sf r om a l s qua re s .T he 3 75 s he rd so n ly r ep re sen t4 . 17% o ft h e7 , 817 s epa ra te i t em sr e cove red .T he re fo re l e s st h an o ne s he rd w a sf ound p e rs i xb ys i xm e te rs qua re ,b u tt h e re w e re a bou t t wen ty o the r i t em s i n e ach s qua re . C ompa re t h i s t o t h e Un ive r s i ty o f S ou th F lo r ida e x ca va t ion s a tS eppho r i s , I s rae l , a tw h ich e xcava t ion s f r om 1 983 t o 1 987 r e su l ted i n1 ,721 s he rd s r e cove red a nd r eg i s te red .T h i si sf r om e xcava t ion o f2 5f ou rb yf o u rm e te rs qua re s ,o ra bou t4 68 s he rd s p e rs qua re .T he re a r ea bou tt e nt ime sa sm any p o t te ry s he rd sa sa l o the ra r t i f ac t sa tS eppho r i s ,w h ich i sp robab ly n o tf a r f r om t h e a v e rage f o r s im i la rc i ty s i te si nt h eN ea rE a s t .T he re fo re t h em e thod u sed t oa na lyze t h es he rd sw i l lr e ly u pon c l a s s i f ica t ion ,a l though i tm ay n o tb ec l a s s if ica t ion b yc e ram ic f o rm a l one . T h i sd oe sn o ti mp ly t h a ts t a t i s t ica lm e thod sh ave n op l ace i na nc ien tN ea rE a s te rn a r chaeo logy . On t h ec on t ra ry ,t h eu se o f ah o s to fs t a t i s t ica l m e thod si sl i ke ly t oi n c rea se i nt h ec om ing y ear si nt h ef a ce o ft h ei mmen se a moun t o fd a ta a ccumu la t ing i no u rd a ta b a se s ( o r i no u ra r chaeo log ica lc l o se t s ) .I ti s s imp ly t ha t w e n eed t o t h ink a bou t o u r i n te rp re t ive g oa l s , d eve lop r a t iona l g u ide l ine s f o r a s se s s ing m e thod s( i nc lud ing s t a t i s t ic s )a nd m e thodo log ica la s sump t ion s ,a nd e ngage i nr ea son ing a bou to u rd a ta i nw ay st ha tg ene ra te r e fu tab le a nd t e s tab le t h e se s .I ft h i sm ean st h a tw ew i l lr ecogn ize t h eu se o fs ome s t a t i s t ica l me thod sa nd d i sca rd o the r s ,t h en t h i si sa na dvance . If i nd t he c l a s s i f ica t ion s c heme p ropo sed b yB lake ly a nd B enne t tt ob ei n t r igu ing ,b u tn o tw i thou ti t s s ub jec t ive e l emen t s . T hey p ropo se t o u se f i nd spo t ( s t ra t ig raphy ) , f o rm ( mo rpho logy ) , a nd f a b r ic ( c ompo s i t ion ) a st h e i rv a r iab le s ( " ca tego r ie s" ) . Ii n te rp re tt h e se t om ean i mmed ia te c on tex t ( t he l a s t p l ac et he v e s se lo rs he rd w a sl e f t ,o rt h ed epo s i t iona lu n i t ) ,t h es oc ia l ly d ef ined f o rm ,a nd t he p roduc ing t e chno logy . T he t e chno log y t h a t p roduced t h e v e s se l c an b e d educed mo re o r l e s s b y e mp i r ica l o b se rva t ion ( t h in s e c t ion a na ly s i s ,x e ro rad iog raphy ,e t c . ) .O ne c an d e sc r ibe t h e mo rpho logy o ft h ev e s se l , b u tt h i s d oe sn o t a ccoun tf o r i t ,s i nce t h e f o rm i st h er e su l to fs oc ia lf o rce sw i th in t h ec ommun i ty t h a t p roduced t h ev e s se l . T he n o t ion o fc on tex t o r " f ind spo t" c on ta in s a n u n recog n ized c i rcu la r i ty , s i nce o rd ina r i ly s he rd sa r eu sed t oi n te rp re tt h es t ra t if ica t ion ,w h ich i nt u rn b ecome sr eco rded a st h ef i nd spo t . A s Ir ef lec ted o nt h em ean ing o f" f ind spo t" , h oweve r , Ir e a l ized t h a tt h i si so n ly p a r to ft h es t o ry i n i n te rp re t ing f i nd s ,i n c lud ing c e ram ic f i nd s .I ti sa l so t h ec a se t h a ti ng ene ra la r chaeo log i s t ss e ek t ok now t h el a rge rs pa t ia lu n i tt ow h ich ag i ven d epo s i t iona lu n i tb e long s .A tt h ev e ry l e a s t ,w ea t temp tt oi d en t i f y t h ef i nd spo ti nt e rm so ft h ec u l tu re :r oom i n al a rge ra r ch i tec tu ra lu n i t ,c ou r tya rd ,s t ree t ,c u l t iva ted a r ea , t omb , p i t , c i s te rn , e t c . We a l so s e ek t o i d en t i f y t h e l a rge r s pa t ia l u n i t : h ou se , t emp le , s t o rehouse , g ymna s ium , s hop , e t c . We m ay a l so l o ok a t am o re a b s t rac ti n te rp re ta t ive c a tego ry s uch a sp r iva te o r i n d iv idua ls pace ,p ub l ic s pace ,o rs a c red o rr e l ig iou ss pace ( F r i tz 1 978 ) . We w i l la l so d oo u ri n te rp re t ing i nt h ec on tex to fa l ready h av ing i d en t if ied t h et y pe o fs i te a nd i t sr eg ion :c eme te ry ,v i l lage ,f o r t re s s ,c i ty , f a rm , e t c . I n o t he r w o rd s , i ti sn eve r e nough t o s peak o f t h e s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t a l one w i thou t m en t ion ing a nd f a c to r ing i n to o u ri n te rp re ta t ion o the r ,l a rge rs pa t ia lu n i t s( Hodde r1 986 : 1 25 ; Hodde r a nd O r ton 1 976 ) . I ti sc r i t ica lt ou nde r s tand t h e a c tua l p roce s sb yw h ich w e move f r om f i nd spo t + f o rm + f a b r ic t o t h ew hen ,w he re ,h ow ,h ow u s ed ,a nd w hy av e s se li sm ade . We c an d educe t h e" when" f r om c ro s s -da t ing ,

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t h e rmo lum ine scence , a nd s o f o r th , b u t m a in ly f r om o the r m a te r ia l s i nt h e c on tex t a nd f r om r e la t ive d a t ing b ys t ra t ig raphy . We c an d educe t h e " whe re" b yn eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i s o ft h ef a b r ic a nd o f l o ca l c l ay b ed s , b u t a l so b y c ompa ra t ive s t ud ie s o ft h e f a b r ic . We c an d educe t h e " how "b yc e ram ic t e chno log ica l s t ud ie s o f t h e f a b r ic . We m igh t d educe " how u sed " f r om a nc ien t a r t , b y a na logy w i th mode rn v e s se l s f r om p re -mode rn g roup s , b yf i nd ing t h e r ema in so fa nc ien t c on ten ts i nv e s se l s , o rb y r ead ing a nc ien t d e sc r ip t ion s . B u ti n f e rence o f" why "i sf a r mo re i n te re s t ing a nd f a r mo re d i ff icu l t . We m igh ti n s i s tt ha t ag i ven v e s se lw a sm ade b ecau se t h es oc ie ty i nq u e s t ion n eeded i t ,b u tw eh av en o ts a id v e ry m uch . A f te r a l , w e m igh t b e a b le t o p o in t t o t r ad i t iona l s oc ie t ie s t h a t c on t inue t op roduce e s tab l i shed i t em s i nt h e p o t te ry r epe r to i re l o ng a f te r t h e i mmed ia te , t e chno log ica l " need " h a s d i sap p ea red . Mo re i n te re s t ing i st h ei n s i s tence t h a tt h ev e s se l" mean s" s ome th ing t ot h el o ca l st h a tp roduced i t .I tm ay m ean t h a tI ,a st h e a nc ien to wne ro ft h i sv e s se l ,b e long t ot h i sg roup a nd b e l ieve t h e se t h ing s , t h a t Ih ave t h i sl e ve lo fw ea l th , a nd t h i s much s t a tu s . Ia ma l so o f as pec if ic s e xa nd p e rfo rm t h e se l a bo r s d ef ined b ym ys ex ,a nd t h i sv e s se lc o r re la te sw i th t h i ss e xa nd t h e se l a bo r s .I n f e rence b yd educ t ion o ft h a t s e to fs ymbo l ic m ean ing s , Ig a the r ,i sr ea l ly w ha tw ea r ea bou t ,n o tm e re ly i n f e rence o ft r ade r ou tes a nd t y pe so fi mpo r ted o re xpo r ted g ood s ,a si n te re s t ing a st h a tm ay b e . B lake ly a nd B enne t te xp la in t h a tt h e s t age si nt h e i rp roce s so fd educ ing t h ew hen ,w he re ,h ow ,w hy , a nd h ow u sed a r e a sf o l low s : ( 1 ) E s tab l i sh t h ec ove r ing g oa lo fg a in ing i n s igh t i n to o ne o rm o re f ace t s o fp a s th uman l i f e .( 2 )D educe t h ew hen ,w he re ,h ow ,w hy ,a nd h ow u sed .( 3 )G a the rd a ta o nt h ef i nd spo t , f o rm ,a nd f a b r ic o fe ve ry p i ece i nt h ec o l lec t ion . If i nd t h i ss e r ie st ob ep a r t ia l ly i n ve r ted ,a nd i tc on ta in s a n u n spoken c onund rum . F i r s t , i sn o t t h a t p roce s s ( 1 ) e s tab l i sh t h e i n te rp re ta t ive g oa l s a nd t h e i n t e rp r e ta t ive m e thod st ob eu sed i nt h el i g h to ft h o se g oa l s ,( 2 )g a the rd a ta o nf i nd spo t ,f o rm ,a nd f ab r ic , a nd ( 3 ) d educe t h e w hen , w he re , e t c .? S econd , p rec i se ly h ow a r ew e t og o a bou t d educ ing t h e when , w he re ,h ow ,w hy , a nd h ow u sed ( t ow h ich Iw ou ld a dd " s ymbo l ic f u nc t ion" )? Ia ma wa re t h a t B lake ly a nd B enne t tg i ve u s ap réc i so ft h e i rm e thod o fi n f e r r ing t r ade r ou te s . T he m e thod i n vo lve sd e te rm ina t ion o ft h e" age ,p l ace o fo r ig in ,a nd f u nc t ion" o ft h es he rd si nt h ec o l lec t ion a th and . It a ke t h i st om ean " when ," " whence" , a nd " how u sed ." Is ubm i t t h a t d e te rm ina t ion o ft h e " age , p l ace o fo r ig in , a nd f u nc t ion" o ft h es he rd s i s ap e r fec t ly r ea sonab le s e to fg oa l s .T hey a r ea l so q u i te l i m i ted .E ven i fw es t ay w i th in t h er ub r ic o fs oc io -econom ic f o rce s , w e m igh t d educe p a t te rn s o fR oman a nd B yzan t ine p o t te ry p roduc t ion , t he p o t te r y i ndu s tr y ( Ande r son 1 984 ) , ac o r re la t ion o fp o t te ry p roduc t ion w i th c l ima te ( A rno ld 1 985 ) ,a nd o the rp a t tern s .I a m a l so a wa re t h a t i n f e rence b yd educ t ion o fs ymbo l ic m ean ing , a s Ih ave a dvoca ted a bove ,r equ i re s mo re d a ta t h an t h ey w i l l h ave i nt h e i r d a ta b a se . I n o rde r t od educe t h e s oc ia l m ean ing o rs ymbo l ic f unc t ion o f av e s se l , Ic anno t r e ly u pon ad a ta b a se t h a t c on ta in so n ly f i nd spo t + f o rm + f a b r ic . I ti s c r i t ica lt h a t Ia l so k now t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ec e ram ic r ema in s .B lake ly a nd B enne t tm en t ion t h en ece s s i ty o fr eco rd ing h ow v e s se l s a r e d i s t r ibu ted t h rough t h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd ,w h ich It ake t om ean t ha t t h er eco rd so fl o ca t ion a re p re se rved i ns uch aw ay t h a tl o ca t ion m ap sw i th in t h es i te c an b ep roduced . O nt h eo the rh and ,i no rde rt od educe a n swe r st ot e chn ica l ,s oc ia l ,b ehav io ra l ,a nd s ymbo l ic q ue s t ion s , Imu s ta l so k now t h ef i nd spo t s + i d en t i f ica t ion s + u se + d i s t r ibu t ion o fa l t h ea r t if ac t su nea r thed w i th t h e c e ram ic s , a nd Imu s t m ake c on s ide rab le i n te rp re ta t ive a s sump t ion s . I no the rw o rd s , t h a tw h ich i s m i s s ing f r om t h ep ropo sed d a ta b a se i sp rec i se ly t h er e s to ft h em a te r ia lc u l tu re f r om t he s i te i nq ues t ion . It h ink t h e p rope r r i po s te t om y o b jec t ion i st op o in t o u t t h a tB lake ly a nd B enne t t a r eh and l ing a p o t tery c o rpu sa l one .I ft h ey mu s ta l so e ncode a nd r e co rd a l t h ea r t i f ac tua ld a ta t oc or re la te w i th t he i r 3 0t on so fc e ram ic s ,t h en w ew i l ln o ts e et h er ema inde ro ft h eC ae sa rea r epo r t si no u rl i f e t ime s .T ha ti s l i ke ly av a l id o b jec t ion . I fi n deed i ti sn o t f e a s ib le t oe xam ine t h er e s to ft h em a te r ia lc u l tu re f r om t h e C ae sa rea e xcava t ion s ,t h en w e mu s tc on ten to u r se lve sw i th l i m i ted c e ram ic a na ly se s .T h i sm aybe a l lt h e mo re r ea son t ot u rn t oA r t if ic ia lI n te l l igence ( A l )a nd e xpe r ts y s tem st oa i du si nt h ea na ly s i so ft h ed a ta ( Lag range 1 985 :37 ;G a rd in e ta l1 987 ;G a rd in 1 988 ) . Howeve r ,i ti sf r om w ha ts ome c a l lt h e" a s soc ia t ion s" o fa r t i f ac t sw i th a r t i f ac t s ,w h ich It a ke t o mean c o r re la t ion so fa r t i f ac t sa nd a r t i f ac tt y pe sw i th o ne a no the r ,t h a tw ec an m ake t h e mo s ts en se o u to ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i nt e rm s o fs ymbo l ic m ean ing s . T he r e a son f o r t h i s i ss imp le . We h av e s a id i n a r chaeo logy f o r m any y ea r st h a ta n a r t i f ac tc anno tb ei n te rp re ted a pa r tf r om i t sc on tex t .B y" con tex t" w eu sua l ly m ean t i t s a s soc ia ted s t ra t ig raphy . N ow w e a r ei n ap o s i t ion t oc on tend t ha t t h e a s soc ia ted m a te r ia l c u l tu re i nt h e s t ra t ig raphy i s ar e a l p a r t o ft h e c on tex t , a si si d en t if i ca t ion o ft h e i mmed ia te

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s pa t ia lu n i t ( p i t ) ,t h e l a rge r s p a t ia lu n i t ( hou se ) , t h es i te ( at e l lo rr u in ) ,t h er eg ion ( t he c oa s ta lp l a in ) , a nd s of o r th . W i thou t t h i s a dd i t iona l i n fo rma t ion , t h e d a ta b a se w h ich t h ey p ropo se w i l lb e u se fu l f o r d educ ing t r ade r ou te sa nd o the r t y pe so fs oc io -econom ic i n fo rma t ion ,b u tw i l ln o tb eu sab le t od educe much i n t h ew ay o fg roup i d en t i ty ,s t a tu s ,b e l ie f s ,a t t i tude s ,a nd v a lue so ft h ea nc ien tp eop le w ea r es t udy ing .I n o the rw o rd s , t h e d a ta b a se t h a t B lake ly a nd B enne t t p ropo se i su n ique ly s u i ted t ot h e i r o wn , l i m i ted a im s ,b u tn o tt ow ide ra im sa nd g oa l s . Ir e ad w i th c on s ide rab le i n te re s tt h a tB lake ly ,B r inkmann ,a nd V i ta l iano h ave p roduced a ne s say o n P ompe ian Red Wa re s .T h i si sg ood n ew s ,b u t It h ink i tw ou ld b ef a i rt op red ic tf r om t h el e ad e s say i n t h i s v o lume a nd f r om C ae sa r ea Ma r i t ir na : T he P o t t e r y a nd D a t ing o fV au l t I ,t h a t t h e t h ree a u tho r s n ece s sa r i ly c onf ined t h em se l ve s t o q ue s t ion s o f t e chno logy a nd t r ade . T he se a r e w o r thy g oa l s , b u t s omeone mu s t p ub l i sh r e su l t s o fa no the r i n ve s t iga t ion w h ich t e l l u sw hy P ompe ian R ed Wa re sw e re n eeded a ta l l . One m igh tf o rmu la te as e to ft e s tab le h ypo the se st h a tP ompe ian R ed Wa re sw e re n eeded f o r r e a son s o fg roup s t a tu s a nd i d en t i ty o r p e rhap s t ob r ing t o e xp re s s ion as e t o fb e l ie f s a bou t t he p re f e ren t ia ls t a tu s o fg ood sf r om R ome a so ppo sed t os im i la rc e ram ic g ood sf r om I nd ia o re l sewhe re . I n s ho r t , s omeone n eed s t ob e b rave e nough t od eve lop m e thod s t h a t w i l l e nab le u s t oe xp la in h ow P ompe ian R ed Wa re sf o rm a no pe ra t ive s ymbo lf o rw ea l th ,s t a tu s ,p owe r ,i mpo r tance ,g roup i d en t i ty , a nd s o c ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion a nd s oc ia l a leg iance s . T hey m ay s ucceed i ns how ing u s h ow p o s se s s ion o f P ompe ian R ed Wa re sc r ea ted a nd m a in ta ined as oc ia lb ounda ry ,n ego t ia ted s oc ia lp o s i t ion ,a nd c r ea ted s oc ia lc hange ( fodde r1 982a :3 7 -74 ) . T he p reced ing p a rag raph b r ing sm et oa no the rp o in t ,w h ich i st oa g ree w i th B lake ly a nd B enne t tt ha t w em u s tp ub l i sh f o r as cho la r ly a nd l a ya ud ience o u t s ide t h ec i rc le o fa r chaeo log i s t s . We h ave o f ten s a id t h a tw es e rve h i s to r ian s ,a n th ropo log i s t s ,a r th i s to r ian s ,a nd o t he rc on s t i tuen t s . On t h eo the rh and t h e se v e ry c o l league s h ave s ome t ime s c omp la ined a bou t h ow m any p age s o fa r chaeo logy t h ey mu s t p low t h rough t o f i nd o ne i t em o fu s e t ot h em . I ts t r ike s m e t h a tp u r su ing q ue s t ion s o fs oc ia l a nd s ymbo l ic f u nc t ion b eyond t r ade a nd s o c io -econom ic sw i l lg ene ra te aw ide rr e ade r sh ip t h an c onf in ing o u r se lve s t ot h es imp le rq ue s t ion s ,i n c lud ing t e chno log ica lq ue s t ion s . A Mod es tP ropo sa lt o Mov eB eyond S oc io -Econom ic s I nt h ei n te rp re ta t ion o fm a te r ia lc u l tu re ,i n c lud ing c e ram ic s , Ib e l ieve t h a ti ti sc o r rec tt oa ccoun tf o r t h ev a r ia t ion o rv a r iab i l i ty i nt h e r e co rd . When w e s peak o fv a r ia t ion , h oweve r ,w ea r e s peak ing o fa t l e a s tf o u rd imen s ion s : t i me ,s pace ,d epo s i t ion , a nd t y pe . We k now t h a tg i ven v e s se l sa r em anu f ac tu red a nd u s ed o ve r ag i ven p e r iod o ft ime . We a l so k now t h a tt h ey a r ec onf ined t o as pec if ic s pace . Du r ing e xcav a t ion d i f f e ren tv e s se l se me rge i nd i f f e ren ts t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t s .F ina l ly ,w en o t ice s im i la r i ty a nd d i f f e rence c on t inua l ly , w h ich l e ad s u s t o c l a s s i f y b y s im i la r i t ie s a nd d i f f e rence s , t h a t i s ,b y " t ype s ," p e rhap sr ecogn ized h eu r i s t ica l ly a tf i r s t .A l lo ft h e se c a tego r ie s mu s tb ee ncoded i n to o u rd a ta b a se a s p a r to ft he s t ruc tu re o ft h ed a ta ,i fw ea r et oi n te rp re to u rd a ta s ucce s s fu l ly ( O ikawa e ta l1 985 ) . I nt h e c a tego ry " t ime" w eu se r e la t ive a nd a b so lu te c h rono log ie s , r e cogn iz ing t h a t t h ea nc ien t s d id n o tn eces sa r i ly d i v ide t ime t h es ame w ay w ed o( Leone 1 978 :30 ; Hodde r1 986 :128 -30 ) . We a r ei n te re s ted i nf i nd ing o u ti ft wo a r t i f ac t so ccu ra tt h es ame o rn ea r ly t h es ame t i me ,o ri ft h ey a r es epa ra ted b ys ome s ub s tan t ia l a moun t o ft i me . I ft wo o b jec t s a r e c l o se t o ge the r i nt ime , a r chaeo log i s t sa r e a p t t o a s s ign t h em r e la ted m ean ing s . I ft h ey a r ew ide ly s epa ra ted i nt ime ,t h en w e a r el e s sa p tt od os o . We a sk t h e t i me q ue s t ion a sp a r to ft h ea r chaeo log ica lr ou t ine s ot h a tw ec an d educe d i f fu s ion f o ri n s tance ,t hough t h a t i sa l so a s pace a nd t y po log ica l q ue s t ion . We w i l l l i ke ly d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t h e t ime o f t h e m anu f ac tu re o f av e s se la nd t h et i me o fi t sd epo s i t ion . We may u se c e r ta in t y pe s o fs t ra t ig raph ic a na ly se s t od e te rm ine t empo ra ls equence s . We n o t o n ly w i sh t oi den t i f yt i me s equence so fi n d iv idua la r t i f ac t sa nd o fw ha teve rt y pe sw eh ave i d en t if ied ,w ea r e a l so i n tere s ted i n c on t inu i t ie s a nd b reak s i nt h e se s equence s . We h ave a t h and aw ho le s e r ie s o f q uan t i ta t ive t e chn ique sf o ri d en t i f y ing c on t inu i t ie sa nd b reak si nt ime ( Do ran a nd Hod son 1 975 :2 67 -84 ; R edman 1 978 ) . We d ot h i sb ecau se w ea r ec onv inced t h a ts uch c on t inu i t ie sa nd b reak sa l so r ep re sen t c on t inu i t ie sa nd b reak si nt h ec u l tu ra ls equence a to u rs i te a nd h ave h i s to r ica li mp l ica t ion s .

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I n t he c a tego ry " space" w e r ecogn ize , a s Ih ave o u t l ined a bove , ah i e ra rchy o fc a tego r ie s ( Hodde r 1 986 : 1 30 -32 ) .F i r s ti st he d epos i t iona lu n i t( f o re xamp le ," Locu s1 4007" ) ,w h ich r equ ire si n te rp re ta t ion i nt e rm s o fn a tu ra l f o rce s , o ri na n swe r t ot he q ue s t ion , How d id t h es o i la nd a r t ifac ts g e tt h ere? A l so o ne a sk sf o ri den t if ica t ion o ft he i mmed ia te s pa t ia lu n i t ( p i t ) ,t h el a rge rs pa t ia lu n i t ( hou se ) ,t he s i te ( a t e l lo rr u in ) ,t he r eg ion ( t he c oa s ta lp la in ) ,a nd s of o r th .E qua l ly i mpo r tan ti nt he c a tego ry " space" i st h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fc e ram ic s ( s ince c e ram ic s a re u nder d i scu s s ion ) t h rough e ach o ft hese s pace s ( Hodde r a nd O r ton 1 976 : 2 44 -45 ) . D e term ina t ion o fd i s t r ibu t ion a l low s i mpo r tan t d educ t ion s a bou t s oc ia l a nd o the rb ounda r ie s ( Ca r r 1 984 ) . Howeve r , d i scu s s ion o f t he i mmed ia te c on tex t o f t he c e ram ic s r equ i re s k now ledge a bou t o the r a r t i fac tua lm a ter ia l si nt he s ame d epo s i t iona lu n i t s ,s pa t ia lu n i t s ,s i te ,a nd r eg ion ,d epend ing o nt he t y pe q ues t ion b e ing a sked .I n t h i s c a se w e a re a sk ing a bou tc o r r e la t ion s ( i nc lud ing n ega t ive c o r re la t ion s ) i n t ime a nd s pace .I ti sv ery h e lp fu lt ok now i nc eram ic a na ly s i s ,f o re xamp le ,t ha tC apernaum s t orage j a r s o ft ype Al a lmo s ta lway so ccur w i th c ook ing p o t so ft y pe A4 ,a nd t h a ti nf a c tt hey " look a l ike" a nd h ave t he s ame f ab r ic ( Lo f f reda 1 974 :2 9 ) .W i thou tp a t terned c o r re la t ion s( wh ich Hodder c a l l s" a s soc ia t ion s" , 1 987 : 5 ) , n o t o n ly b e tween c e ram ic v e s se l s , b u t a l so b e tween c e ram ic v es se l s a nd me ta lo b jec ts , s t one o b jec ts ,b one o b jec t s ,e t c . ,w ec anno td educe s oc ia la nd i d eo log ica lm ean ing s .S ta temen t so fc orre la t ion o ra s soc ia t ion d on o tc on s t i tu te t he w r i t ing o fh i s to ry ,b u tt hey a re n ece s sa ry a so ne o ft he i n te rpre ta t ive s t eps w et a ke a sw e move t oward w r i t ing h i s tory ( Co l l ingwood 1 939 : 1 08 -10 ) . I nt he c a tego ry " depo s i t ion" w er ecogn ize t he e l emen to fi n te rp re t ing s t ra t if ica t ion i no rde rt od ef ine t he s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t .( S tra t ig raphy i st he i n terp re ta t ion o fo b se rved s t ra t i f ica t ion . )B et h a ta si tmay , t he i n ten ti st oa ccoun tf o rh ow t h ea r t ifac t ,a nd s ome t ime sh ow ag roup o fa r t i fac ts ,i nc lud ing c eram ic s , c ame t ob ew here t hey a re .U sua l ly w ea re l ook ing a tt he r e su l to fd e s truc t ion o fs o me k i nd ,w he the rb y n a tu ra l f o rce so rb yh uman f o rce s . S ome t imes w e i n te rp re td eb r i si nt e rm s o fh uman f o rce st ha t b r ing o n d i sa s ter : " The mo s t p rom inen t s t ra t ig raph ic f e a tu re i nP lo ts C , D , a nd E ( nor th o f Wa l l3 0 ) w a s a d e s truc t ion l e ve li nw h ich s evera lr e la t ive ly c omp le te v es se l sw e re f ound l y ing w here t hey h ad f a l len . . ." ( Sm i th 1 973 : 1 58 ) . S ome t ime s w e i n te rp re t f i nds i nt e rms o fd ec l ine a nd n eg lec t , wh ich i mp l ies t ha t n a tu ra lf o rces t ook o ve r : " The f a c t t h a t many o ft he [ pav ing ] s l ab sw e re u p roo ted , t ha ta lmo s tn o f i nd s w e re c o l lec ted i nt he n ave a nd t he a i s le se xcep tf o ra rch i tec tu ra lf r agmen ts ,a nd t ha tn os ub s tan t ia ll a ye r o fa she sw a sf ound l e du st oc onc lude . .t ha tt he t own 's d em i se w a sn o tt he r e su l to f as udden d es truc t ion b u to f al ong p roces so fn eg lec t" ( T sa f r ir e ta l1 988 : 2 7 f . ) . I na ny c a se ,a ccoun t ing f o rt he d epos i ts a l so g i ves a na ccoun to fh ow t he a r t ifac t sc ame t ob ei nt h ep o s i t ion i nw h ich t hey w e re f ound . I n t he c a tego ry " t ype" , a bou t w h ich s o much a rchaeo log ica l i n k h a s b een s p i l t i n r ecen t y ears , w e r ecogn ize t he u sua l s c ien t i f ic e f fo r t t oc l a s s i fy a nd p l ace i nd iv idua l i t em s i nc a tegor ies ( Hodder 1 986 : 1 31 -34 ) .A rchaeo log is ts t y p ica l ly r ecogn ize t ha tt h e re i sa ne l emen to fs ub jec t iv i ty i nc l a s s if i ca t ion , a nd t hey h ave t u rned t o ma thema t ica la nd c ompu ter ized t e chn ique si nt h ep a s s ion t oa pproach t h e i lusory g oa lo fo b jec t iv i ty ( Do ran a nd Hodson 1 975 ;S ab lo f f1 981 ;S t range 1 984 ,1 988 ) .I na ny c a se ,c l a s s if ica t ion i su navo idab le , a nd i si nf a c t n eces sa ry t oa pp ly s c ien t i f ic m e thod t oa na ly s is o ft he p hy s ica l r e ma in s . Wha tw e mus tb ea wa re o f ,w h ich e choe sa ni d ea i nB lake ly a nd B enne t t 's e s say ,i st ha tw ea r en o t wedded t oo n ly o ne s y s tem o fc l a s s if ica t ion .I tm ay w e l lb et ha tw ew i l lu se a na l te rna t ive s y s tem o fc l a s s if ica t ion o fv e s se ls t ot he t r ad i t iona lo ne b a sed o nf o rm . We may b a se o u rt y pe so nt he f ab r ic ,f o re xamp le ,o ro n d ecora t ion ,o rs u rface t r ea tmen t , e t c . T he s t ep s i n o ur a na ly s i s , t hen , a re a s f o l low s : ( 1 ) De sc r ibe e ve ry s he rd i nt e rms o ft i me , s pace , mo rpho logy , a nd d epo s i t iona l u n i t . T h is i sd ecep t ive ly s imp le t o s t a te , b u t amaz ing ly d i ff icu l t t o i mp lemen t . I ti n vo lve s f a b r ic d e sc r ip t ion s , mo rpho log ica l d e sc r ip t ion s o f e ach s herd , s t ra t ig raph ic d esc r ip t ion s , a nd s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l d e sc r ip t ion s . I t may a l so i n vo lve p e tro log ica l a na ly se s o r o the r h i gh ly s pec ia l ized s t ud ie s . S u re ly t he r e su l ts o ft h i s d a ta d e sc r ip t ion w i l lb e r eco rded i nt h e f o rm o fa c ompu te r ized d a ta b a se .( 2 )O rgan ize t he c e ram ic sb yc l as se s ,c a tego r ie s ,o rt ype s .T he " t ype s" w i l lv ary d epend ing o n t he q ue s t ion s b e ing a sked . T h i s i s mo re c omp l ica ted t han i ta ppea r s , b u t may b e a ccomp l i shed b yc ompu te r ized s t a t i s t ica lm e thod s ,i ft he a moun to fd a ta i so verwhe lm ing .T or epea t :I t i sa l so p o s s ib le t ha tt he " t ypes" u sed f o ro ne a na ly s is w i l ln o tb et h e" t ypes" u sed f o r as econd a na ly s i s . F o re xamp le ,i ft he r e sea rcher i si n teres ted i nq ue s t ion so fd eco ra t ion ,t hen t he c o rpus w i l lb eo rgan ized b yd eco ra t ive t y pe s (Wa shbu rn 1 987 ) .I f ,o nt he o the rh and ,t he q ue s t ion i so ne o fc l ay p repa ra t ion ,t hen t he c o rpus w i l lb e o rgan ized b yf ab r ic t y pe s . " The k ey i sk now ing t h eq ue s t ion s o ne w an t s t oa sk a nd t h en d eve lop ing as y s tem o fc l a ss if ica t ion t ha t h e lp s a n swer t ho se q ue s t ion s" ( A rno ld 1 985 : 2 34 ) . ( 3 )

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D e te rm ine a nd d e sc r ibe t h es pa t ia la nd t ime d i s t r ibu t ion o fc l a s se so rt y pe sa tt h es i te ,o ri nw ha teve r l a rge ru n i ti su nde rd i scu s s ion .F o re xamp le ,o ne m aybe i n te re s ted s o le ly i nC ae sa rea Ma r i t ima ,i nw h ich c a se d i s t r ibu t ion m ap si nt i me a nd s pace w i l lb ec onf ined t ot h ee v idence f r om C ae sa rea Ma r i t ima . I f o ne i si n te re s ted i nt h eE a s te rn Med i te r ranean ,t h en t h ed i s t r ibu t ion m ap sw i l lc on fo rm t ot h a ta r ea .( 4 ) D e te rm ine a nd d e sc r ibe t h et i me a nd s pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o fc l a s se so rt y pe so fo t he ra r t i f ac t s a tt h es i te s ot h a tc o r re la t ion m a t r ice so ro the rc o r re la t ion t e chn ique sc an b ed eve loped ( Do ran a nd Hud son 1 975 : 1 35 -57 ) .! s peak o fc o r re la t ion so rc on t ra s t sb e tween c e ram ic sd i s t r ibu t ion a nd t h ed i s t r ibu t ion so fe ach o ft h eo the ra r t i f ac t c l a s s i f ica t ion s . O u ra im a tt h i ss t ep i st of i nd o u tw h ich c l a s se so fc e ram ic sf o rm a n e two rk o fr e la t ion sh ip sw i th w h ich o t he rc l a s se so fa r t i f ac t s .I ti sa l so i mpo r tan tt ok now w h ich c l a s se s o fc e ram ic sf o rm an e two rk o fr e la t ion sh ip sw i th w h ich o the rc l a s se so fc e ram ic s .( 5 ) App ly d educ t ive t e chn ique st ot h e n e two rk o fc on t ra s t s a nd c o r re la t ion s ( r e la t ion sh ip s ) t oa t temp tt oi n f e r t e chno logy f i r s t ,s oc ia ls t ruc tu re sa nd n o rm ss e cond ,b u ta l so t oi n f e ri d en t i ty ,s t a tu s ,b e l ie f s ,a t t i tude s ,a nd v a lue s . I tm ay b e n ece s sa ry t od eve lop amode l o r s imu la t ion o ft h e c u l tu re t oa ccomp l i sh t h i sg oa l ( Sab lo f f 1 981 ) . Ou rt a sk i st od eve lop f a l s if iab le a nd t e s tab le h ypo the se s( Be l l1 981 ,1 982 )t oe xp la in o ra ccoun t f o rt h e t e chno logy t h a t p roduced t h e c e ram ic s , b u t a l so t oa ccoun t f o r t h e" why " o fp roduc t ion . T he " why "q ue s t ion i n vo lve st h ea r chaeo log i s ti nt h ei n te rp re ta t ion o fs t y le ,t a s te ,a nd a e s the t ic s (We i s sne r 1 983 , 1 985 ) , n o t t om en t ion p owe r a nd d om ina t ion ( Sp r igg s 1 984 ) , i na dd i t ion t ot h el i s tg i ven a bove . We n eed t or emembe rt h a ta l t h e se a b s t rac t ion s( i den t i ty ,s t a tu s ,b e l ie f s ,a t t i tude s ,v a lue s ,s t y le ,t a s te , a e s the t ic s ,p owe r ,a nd d om ina t ion )f o rm p a r to ft h ec on tex to f ap o t she rd ,a sd oe sd i r t ,t ime ,s pace ,a nd t e chno logy .( 6 )E xam ine t h el i t e ra ry ,e p ig raph ica l ,a nd o t he rw r i t ten e v idence o ft h es i te ,i t sh i s to ry ,a nd t h ew ide rc u l tu ra ls t ream st h a tu n i te a tt h es i te i nq ue s t ion t od eve lop t h eh i s to r ica la nd c u l tu ra lc on tex t o ft h ec e ram ic sa nd t h er e s to ft h em a te r ia lc u l tu re .F o rt h eR oman a nd B yzan t ine p e r iod st h e se h i s to r ie s a nd c u l tu re s a r ek nown i nc on s ide rab le d e ta i l ,b u tt h e re i sn eve re nough k nown .A tt h i sl e ve lo ne may w i sh t od eve lop f i r s tg ene ra l iza t ion s , t h en h ypo the se sa bou tp o l i t ica lo rg eog raph ica lu n i t st od i scove r w he the rl o ca lv a r ia t ion sa nd p a t te rn sa r et h er u le .O ne m ay a sk l o ca l ,r eg iona l ,p rov inc ia l ,o re mp i re -w ide q ue s t ion so ft h ep a t te rn si nt h e d a ta , t os peak o ft h eR oman a nd B yzan t ine p e r iod s . ( 7 ) C o r re la te t h e h i s to r ica la nd c u l tu ra lp a t te rn sg l eaned f r om t h el i t e ra tu re w i th t h ep a t te rn sd i sce rned i nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h em a te r ia le v idence ,i n c lud ing c e ram ic s .I nt h i sc a se c on t ra s t sa r ea si mpo r tan ta sc o r re la t ion s ,b u t i ti sd i ff icu l tt od eve lop a na dequa te t h eo re t ica lb a s i sf o ra ccoun t ing f o rt h em .I no t he rw o rd s ,i fh i s to r ica l s ou rce s make i tp l a in t h a tN aba tean c u l tu re s hou ld n o tb ef ound a tC ae sa rea ,b u ti fN aba tean c e ram ic s w e re i nf a c tf ound a nd v e r i f ied ,t h en w e mu s ta ccoun tf o rt h i sc on t ra s tb e tween t h et wo r eco rd s .I nt e rm s o fs p a t ia la na ly s i s ,w ew ou ld b ea ccoun t ing f o ra na ppa ren ta noma ly i nt h ep red ic ted d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn o fN aba tean c e ram ic s . Iw i sh t oi n t roduce t h ei d ea h e re ,k nown f r om o t he rp ub l ica t ion s ,t h a ti ti sp o s s ib le t om ake i n f e rence s a bou ti nd iv idua lc r a f t smen ,s hop s ,a nd o wne r sf r om t h ea r chaeo log ica le v idence ( H i l la nd Gunn 1 977 ; H odde r1 986 :6 8 ) .I th e lp st og i ve t h em n ame sw he re w ec an f i nd r e co rd so ft h e se i nd iv idua l sa to rn ea r t h es i t e sw ei n ve s t iga te . B u ti ti sa tl e a s t t h eo re t ica l ly p o s s ib le t od educe p a t te rn so fc hange r e la ted t o a ni n d iv idua lp o t te r ' ss hop o ro the rt y pe o fs hop ,a nd s ome h ave m ade i mpo r tan t move si nt h a td i rec t ion ( Adan -Bayew i tz 1 985 ;N egev 1 986 ;S i nc la i r 1 987 ) .I th a sn o tb een t h et r ad i t ion i na nc ien tN ea rE a s te rn a r chaeo logy t ow o rk w i th p a t te rn so fa r t i f ac tua lc hange r e la t ing t ot h ei n d iv idua l ,b u ti ti sp robab ly t ime t h a tw eg ave o u r se lve s p e rm i s s ion t od o s o . ( 8 ) A r t icu la te t h ef a l s if iab le a nd t e s tab le h ypo the se s , i . e . , t h ee xp lana t ion s f o r t h ev a r ia t ion si nt h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd ,f o rt h en e two rk so fr e la t ionsh ip s t h a t w eh ave d educed f r om t h ep a t te rn so fc o r re la t ion a nd c on t ra s t ,a nd f r om t h ed i s t r ibu t ion so fc e ram ic s a nd o t he ra r t i f ac t s .O u rt a sk i st oa ccoun tf o rc hange si ns hape ,s t y le ,t a s te ,e t c . ,a nd t oa ccoun tf o rt h e p a t te rn s o ft h e se c hange s b y a ppea l t oe conom ic , h i s to r ica l , p o l i t ica l , a e s the t ic , s oc ia l , r e l ig iou s , a nd o t he rf a c to r st h a tw e m ay h ave i n f e r red f r om t h e w r i t ten a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . We mu s t n o t b e a f ra id t o d eve lop h ypo the se s t h a t m igh t b e c on t rove r s ia l , f o r o u t o f c on sc ien t iou s c on t rove r sy m ay e v en tua l ly e me rge amuch s h a rpe ru nde r s tand ing o fw ha tw ea r ed o ing a nd o ft h er eco rd i t se l f . Is peak o ft h es ymbo l ic m ean ing sa nd f u nc t ion so fc e ram ic sh e re ,f o rt r ad i t iona l ly i n f e rence o fs ymbo l ic m ean ing s p rovoke sc on t rove r sy i na nc ien tN ea rE a s te rn a r chaeo logy . C onc lus ion Ih ave a s se r ted a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h i se s say t h a tB lake ly a nd B enne t t ' sm a in p ropo sa l i s ap o s i t ive a nd u se fu l o ne . It h ink n ow t h a t Ic an a dd t h a t i ti su se fu ln o t o n ly f o ru t i l i ta r ian r ea son s ,b u t a l so f o r h eu r i s t ic r ea son s . If o und f r om r e ad ing t h e i r e s say t h a t Iw a sp rovoked i n to s t a t ing w ha t It hough tw e s h ou ld b e d o ing i na r chaeo logy , w h ich It a ke t ob e " exp la in ing " d a ta a nd t h e p a t te rn s i nt h e d a ta b y

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d educ ing "mean ing s ." I nf a c t , It h ink t ha tw ea re h ono r -bound a ss cho la r st os t a te wha tt h ea r chaeo log i c a lr ecord mean s , n o t me re ly t od esc r ibe i t . We mu s td os oa tt he r i sk o fb e ing w rong , o fd i s tor t ing t h e i mpo r tance o fo ne f a c to ro ve ra no the ri na t tr ibu t ing c au se f o rc hange i nt he r eco rd , o ro fm i s s ing s ome f a c to ra l toge ther t ha ti n i t ia ted c hange i n ap a t te rn o fr e la t ion sh ip s . B et ha ta si tmay ,w ec anno te scape t he i mpe ra t ive t oe xp la in o u r d a ta . T h i si si ns ome w ay st he mo s te xc i t ing p a r to ft he w ho le e ndeavo r , f o ri tp lace s u sn ex tt oo u ra nce s to r s a c ro s st he c en tu r ie s ,w ho w e re t h ink ing , f e e l ing , a nd a c t ing much a sw ed o . A l lh i s tory i st h eh i s to ry o ft hough t ." ( Co l l ingwood 1 939 : 10 ; 1 924 : 2 03 ) . ".

. .

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Robe r tB r inkmann Un ive r s i ty o fW i scon s in M i lwaukee M i lwaukee ,W i scon s in -

C ha r le sJ .V i ta l iano I nd iana Un ive r s i ty B loom ing ton ,I nd iana

I n troduc t ion F o ro ve r ac en tu ry ,r e sea rche r sh ave s ough tt od eve lop w ay st og roup o rt oc l u s te rc e ram ic m a te r ia l s s o le ly o n t h e b a s i s o f a t t r ibu te s o f t h e c e ram ic m a te r ia l s t h em se lve s . No t s u rp r i s ing ly , g i ven t he i mpo r tance t h e d i sc ip l ine h a s p l aced o n c h rono log ica l q ue s t ion s , t h e p r ima ry e mpha s i s h a s b een t o d ev e lop t empo ra l s equence s f o r c e ram ic m a te r ia l s b y mea su r ing o r s ca l ing p a r t icu la r a t t r ibu te s a nd p e r fo rm ing v a r iou st y pe so fs t a t i s t ica lm an ipu la t ion so nt h er e su l tan td a ta ( s ee ,e . g . ,P e t r ie 1 899 ;K enda l l 1 9 63 ; R ice 1 987 : 4 36 -38 ) . Un fo r tuna te ly , i ns p i te o ft h e m any s uch a t temp t s , r e sea rche r s h ave y e t t o a r r ive a ta ny s o r t o fs a t i s f ac to ry c on sen su s r ega rd ing w h ich a t t r ibu te s s hou ld b e m ea su red , h ow t hey s hou ld b em ea su red , o rw ha ts o r t so fm an ipu la t ion sa re a pp rop r ia te f o rs uch e f fo r t s . A t temp t sa tc h rono log ica ls e r ia t ion h ave n o tb een c ommon i nM idd le E a s te rn w o rk .T h i si sb ecau se t h ec e ram ic -bea r ing s i te sw h ich a r et h eu sua lf o cu so fi n ve s t iga t ion a re s t ra t if ied a nd s i nce P e t r ie 's w o rk a tT e l le l -H e s i( Pe t r ie 1 891 )w eh ave b een a wa re t h a tv a r iab i l i ty w i th in t h ec e ram ic ma te r ia l sf r om at e l l s i t ei sr e la ted t ot h ev a r iab i l i ty o ft h es i te ' ss t ra t ig raph ic r eco rd .T he re fo re ,i fas i te i se xcava ted p rope r ly ( s t ra t ig raph ica l ly ) t h e a pp rop r ia te f r amewo rk f o r g roup ing i t s c e ram ic m a te r ia l s c h rono log ica l ly i s c on s t ruc ted i ndependen t ly o f t h e c e ram ic m a te r ia l s t h em se lve s . T hu s , t o c on s t ruc t ac h rono log ica l s equence f o rt h er eg ion o ne s imp ly e xcava te s am u l t i -pe r iod s i te s t ra t ig raph ica l ly ,p u t st h es he rd si n to t h e i rp rope rs t ra t ig raph ic u n i t sa nd t h es equence a ppea r s . S i nce t he p r ima ry e mpha s i si nt h es t udy o fc e ram ic m a te r ia l sh a sb een t oo rde rt h em c h rono log ica l ly a nd t h i s o rde r i sp rov ided b y s t ra t ig raph ic a na ly s i s ( B lake ly 1 988 : 3 1 -33 ) , c e ram ic m a te r ia l s f r om u n s t ra t if ied s i te so rs i te st h a tw e re n o te xcava ted i n ap rope rs t ra t ig raph ic m anne rc ame t ob er ega rded a sv i r tua l ly w o r th le s s .S i nc et h ei n fo rma t ion n ece s sa ry t op l ace t h em i n am ean ing fu l( i . e . ,c h rono log ica l ) f r amewo rk w a sm i s s ing t h e re w a sl i t t le t ob ed one w i th t h em .S he rd s ,b yt h em se lve s ,w e re u n in s t ruc t ive . A s ar e su l t o f t h i s p e r spec t ive , m any t on s o f c e ram ic m a te r ia l s c u r ren t ly l i e b a s ica l ly u nexam ined , g a the r ing d u s t i ni n s t i tu t iona l s t o re room sw h i le r e sea rche r s s e ek f r an t ica l ly t or a i se f und s i no rde rt o g a the r mo re . I nr ecen td ecade s ,h ow eve r ,i tw a sd i scove red t h a tc e r ta in p hy s ica la nd c hem ica la t t r ibu te so fc e ram ic m a te r ia ls , w h i le n o t p a r t icu la r ly a menab le t o r ef ined c h rono log ica l p rob lem s , a re o fg rea t v a lue i n s t udy ing t he s pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o fc e ram ic m a te r ia l s .S uch ad eve lopmen tm ean st h a te ven i fap rev iou s ly g a the red c o l lec t ion o fm a te r ia l s m ay n o t b e o rgan ized s t ra t ig raph ica l ly , i ti ss t i l l c apab le o fy i e ld ing s i gn if ican t i n fo rma t ion r e ga rd ing t h e t r ade a nd e conomy o fp a s t s oc ie t ie s .T h i s p o s s ib i l i ty n ow o f f e r s

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r e sea rche r st h eo ppo r tun i ty t o" r ehab i l i ta te" c o l lec t ion so nce r e lega ted t ot h ea r chaeo log ica lw a s te rp i le a nd e x t rac ti mpo r tan ti n fo rma t ion f r om c o l lec t ion sm ade w hen o u rd i sc ip l ine w a sy oung .T he e conom ic i mpac to fs uch d eve lopmen t si ss t agge r ing . I n t h e p age s w h ich f o l low w e o f f e r ab r ie fd i scu s s ion o fs e ve ra l a na ly t ica l p rocedu re sw h ich h ave p roven u se fu li nr ecen ts t ud ie s .I nt h i sd i scu s s ion w es t re s sw ha tw eb e l ieve t ob ei mpo r tan td i f f e rence s b e tween t h e se p rocedu re sa sw e l la ss ome o ft h ed i ff icu l t ie se ncoun te red i nt r y ing t oi n teg ra te d a ta f r om d i f f e ren ts ou rce s .T he p u rpo se o ft h i sd i scu s s ion i sn o t ,h oweve r ,s imp ly t oa cqua in tr eade r sw i th t he se a na ly t ica l p rocedu re s . R a the r i ti so u r c once rn t ou nde r sco re t h ei mpo r tance o fu s ing t h em w i th in a c a re fu l ly c on s t ruc ted p rog ram o fi n qu i ry .I nt h i sr ega rd w ew i sh t om ake t h ree p o in t s . • A w e l l -con s t ruc ted p rog ram w h ich s t re s se s t h e p hy s ica l a nd c hem ica l a na ly s i s o f c e ram ic m a te r ia l si sc apab le o fe x t rac t ing i mpo r tan ti n fo rma t ion f r om a lmo s ta ny c e ram ic i n v en to ry .S uch as t a temen ts hou ld n o tb e t a ken t om ean t h a tw er ega rd s t ra t ig raphy a su n impo r tan t .Q u i te t h e c on t ra ry .T rue t oo u r Whee le r -Kenyon a r chaeo log ica lh e r i tage w er ema in u n shaken i nt h eb e l ie f t ha t t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t s i ng le p i ece o fi n fo rma t ion r ega rd ing c e ram ic m a te r ia l s i st h e i r e xac t l o ca t ion w i th in t h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . We j u s td on o th appen t ob e l ieve t ha tt h ea b sence o f t h i si n fo rma t ion r ende r sc e ram ic i n ven to r ie sc omp le te ly w o r th le s s . • I fi ti sn ow p o s s ib le t oe x t rac ti n fo rma t ion f r om t h e se i n ven to r ie st h en t h ed i sc ip l ine c an c on s ide r r e sea rch o ns uch m a te r ia l sa sa na l te rna te a venue o fi n ve s t iga t ion w h ich a vo id st h ei n c rea s ing ly h eavy c o s t so ff i e ld w o rk .S uch a na l te rna t ive c an o n ly a s s i s tu si nf u lf i l l ing t h e mo ra li mpe ra t ive o fp re se rv ing ,i ns i tu , a r chaeo log ica ls i te sf o rt h en ex ts e ve ra lg ene ra t ion so fr e sea rche r s . • F ina l ly , w e h a s ten t o a dd t h a t s uch p rog ram s d ef in i te ly s hou ld n o t b e r e s t r ic ted t o o lde r c o l lec t ion s . I ft h e se p rocedu re s a r e e f f ec t ive i nt h e a na ly s i s o fu n s t ra t if i ed ma te r ia l s , t h ey a r e l i ke ly t o y i e ld e ven mo re i n fo rma t ion w hen a pp l ied t om a te r ia l s w ho se e xac t l o ca t ion i n t h e a r chaeo log ica lr eco rd h a sb een p rope r ly r eco rded . T he P rov en ience P o s tu la te T he u se o fp hy s ica la nd c hem ica la t t r ibu te so fc e ram ic m a te r ia l st od e te rm ine t h e i ro r ig in si sb a sed u pon s e ve ra la s sump t ion sw h ich t o ge the rh ave b een t e rmed t h e" p roven ience p o s tu la te ." ( T )he p roven ience p o s tu la te h o ld st h a td i f f e rence sb e tween d i s t inc ts ou rce so fr aw m a te r ia l sc an b er e cogn ized a na ly t ica l ly a nd t h a tc ompo s i t iona lv a r ia t ion sw i l lb eg r ea te rb e tw een s ou rce st han w i th in s ou rce s( s ee B i shop ,R and s ,a nd Ho l ley 1 982 ,301 ) .I no t he rw o rd s ,i fc l ay s ou rc eX i su sed t om ake p o t te ry t y pe A ,a nd ad i f f e ren ts ou rce Y i su sed t om ake t y pe B ,t h en i fA a nd Bp o t tery t y pe sa r ea na lyzed c hem ica l ly , i ts hou ld b ea ppa ren t t h a t t h ey w e re m ade f r om d i f f e ren tc l ay s . T h i sp o s tu la te d oe s n o t s pec i f y a ny n ece s sa ry r e la t ion b e tween ar aw c l ay a nd af i red p roduc t m ade o fc l ay , h oweve r , a nd t hu s i d en t i f y ing c l ay s ou rce s Xo rYi nt h e m anu fac tu re o fp o t te ry t y pe sAa nd B i sas epa ra te t a sk . ( R ice 1 987 :4 13 -14 ) Ou r o wn i n ve s t iga t ion s a sw e l l a s t h e r e su l t s o fo t he r s h ave s t reng thened o u r c on f idence i n t h i s a s sump t ion .T he re a r e p re sen t ly a va i lab le s e ve ra l a na ly t ica lp rocedu re sw h ich h ave b een s hown t ob e q u i te e f f ec t ive w hen a pp l ied t o p rob lem s r e la ted t o t h e o r ig in s a nd s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o fc e ram ic m a te r ia l s .A si so f ten t h e c a se w hen s uch a na ly t ica lp rocedu re sa r ef i r s ti n t roduced i n to ap rog ram o f s t udy t h e se s ome t ime s w e re r ega rded a s" mag ic b u l le t s ," c apab le o fs o lv ing a ny a nd e v e r y p rob lem r e la ted t os pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion . Un fo r tuna te ly ,t h i si sn o tt h ec a se . T he se v a r iou s a na ly t ica l p rocedu re s f o cu s o n p a r t icu la r a spec t so ft h e c hem ica l a nd p hy s ica l c om p o s i t ion o fc e ram ic m a te r ia l s .N oo ne p rocedu re i ss u ff ic ien tt oe xhau s tt h ei n fo rma t ion p o ten t ia lo fa ny s i ng le s he rd .D i f f e ren tp rocedu re sa nd t e chn ique sy i e ld d i f f e ren ti n fo rma t ion .I ti st h e re fo re i n cumben t u pon t h er e sea rche rt oc hoo se t ho se a na ly t ica lp rocedu re sw h ich a r em o s ta pp rop r ia te t ot h ep a r t icu la r p rob lem o r p rob lem s e t u nde r i n ve s t iga t ion . F o r c e r ta in v er y t i gh t ly d rawn l i ne s o f i nqu i ry as i ng le p rocedu re m ay w e l lp rov ide t h en ece s sa ry d a ta . When t h et a sk a th and i st h ea na ly s i so f al a rg ei n ven to ry o fm a te r ia ls uch a sd e sc r ibed i nC hap te r 1i tw i l lb en ece s sa ry t ou s em o re t h an o ne s uch p rocedu re .I n t ho se i n s tance si ti se x t reme ly i mpo r tan tt ou nde r s tand h ow t h ev a r iou sd a ta g ene ra ted a re t ob er e la ted .

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C hem ica lA na ly s is o fC lay :N eu tron A c t iva t ion A na ly s is A so ne m igh ts u spec tg i ven t he w ay i n wh ich t he p roven ience p o s tu la te i ss t a ted a bove , e a r ly e f for t s t ou se c hem ica lo rp hy s ica la na ly se st od i scove rt he o r ig in o fc e ram ic ma ter ia l sh ave f ocu sed mo s to f ten o nt h ec l ay c omponen to fc e ram ic ma te r ia l s .B yf ocu s ing o nt he c l ay ma t r ix ,i n s tead o ft he i n c lus ion si n t h ec e ram ic b ody ,r e sea rche rs w e re f o rced t or e ly h eav i ly o nt he c hem ica la spec t so fc eram ic ma ter ia l s . T hu st hose me thod s o fa na ly s i sw h ich c ou ld o b jec t ive ly d e sc r ibe t ho se a t tr ibu te sw e re among t he f i rs t t o b e a pp l ied ( f or s umma r ies o f t he se t e chn iques s ee , B i shop , R and s , a nd Ho l ley 1 982 ; R ice 1 987 : 3 89 -403 ) . N o tw i ths tand ing t he r ange o fa va i lab le a na ly t ica lp rocedu res i tc an b ef a i r ly s t a ted t ha te ve rs i nce t he w o rk o fS ay re a nd Dod son ( 1 957 )n eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i sh a sb een t he s t anda rd s ource o fc hem ica l d a ta f o ru se i nt h is t ype o fa r t i fac ta na ly s i s .T h i sp rocedu re b egan t oa t t rac tw idesp read i n tere s tb yt he e a r ly 1 970s a s av a r ie ty o fw o rke r s g a ined e xpe r ience a nd c omp i led s u ff ic ien t d a ta t o f o rm r e f erence d a ta b ases o nc l ay d epo s i ts a nd c e ram ic c o l lec t ions ( e .g . ,P e r lman a nd A sa ro 1 969 ;K ruger 1 971 ;B rook s , B iebe r , Harbo t t le , a nd S ay re 1 974 ) . S ince t ha t t ime t he p rec i s ion a t ta ined h a s i n c rea sed a nd t he a na ly t ica l c l u s te r ing p rocedu res h ave g a ined s oph i s t ica t ion ( e .g . , R ice a nd S a f fe r 1 982 ; Gunneweg , P e n man , a nd Y e l l in 1 983 ; Adan -Bayew i tz a nd P e r lman 1 985 ; Gunneweg e ta l1 986 ; N ef f , B i shop , a nd S ay re 1 988 , 1 989 ) . B r ief ly s t a ted , n eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i s i sa n a ccu ra te a nd p rec i se w ay t o mea su re t ho se m inera l t r ace e l emen ts w h ich o ccu ri nv ery s ma l l amoun ts ( pa r ts p e rm i l l ion )w i th in c l ay b od ie s( s ee R ice 1 987 : 3 96 -98 f o r ad esc r ip t ion o ft h et e chn ique ) .T h rough n eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i si ti sp o ss ib le t oi d en t if y t he se t r ace e l emen t s i nc l ay b od ies a nd t hus i d en t i fy a nd q uan t if yt he se e l emen t s a st hey a re f ound i n i n d iv idua l s amp les . A s al a rger a nd l a rger n umber o fs amp les w ere p roces sed c rea t ing ac ompa ra t ive d a ta b a se i th a s b een f ound t ha t i ti sp os s ib le t og roup o r t o c l u s ter c e ram ic v es se l s a ccord ing t o t he v a r ious t r ace e l emen tp rof i le so r" f inge rpr in t s" o b served f o rt hese c l ay b od ies ( s ee t he f o l low ing s ec t ion f o r ad i scus s ion o fp r ima ry a nd s econda ry c l ay d epo s i ts ) . F u r thermo re , i th a sb een d emons t ra ted t ha t t h et r ace e l emen ts f ound i nf i red c l ay b od ies a re d ue l a rge ly t ot he m ine ra log ica lh i s to ry o ft he c l ay f r om w h ich t he v es se l sw e re m ade t hus mak ing i tp o s s ib le t od e term ine w he re av e s se lw a s made b y ma tch ing t h et r ace e l emen tp rof i le o ft he v e sse lw i th t ha to fi t sc l ay s ou rce . I ndeed , t he a rchaeo log ica l a nd a rchaeome tn ic l i t e ra tu re o ft he p a s t d ecades i sf i l led w i th a r t ic les d e sc r ib ing c hem ica l d i f f erence s i nc l ay s a nd c e ram ic w a re s a s mea sured t h rough n eu tron a c t iva t ion a na ly s is . I n g enera l t e rm s , i n ve s t iga to rs u s ing n eu tron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i s f o r a rchaeo log ica l p u rpose s h ave e mp loyed t wo b a s ic a pp roache s : c l ay s ou rc ing a nd w o rk shop s ou rc ing ( R ice 1 987 : 4 15 ,4 17 ) . F or t ho se i n tere s ted i nc l ay s ou rc ing t wo d a ta s e t s a re i mpo r tan t . T he f i r s t s e t o fd a ta c on s i s t s o fs herd s , e i the r av a r ie ty o fd i f feren tk i nd so fs herd sf r om o ne s i te o ro fs he rd st hough tt ob e long t oo ne t ype o f c e ram ic v es se l t ha t a re f ound a t many s i te s . T he s econd s e t o fd a ta i sc omposed o fc l ay s a nd t emper s t a ken f r om t he r eg ion i nw h ich t h i sp o t te ry i st hough tt oh ave b een p roduced .E ach s e ti sa na lyzed t h rough n eu t ron a c t iva t ion p rocedu res w i th t he g oa lo fi d en t i f y ing w h ich c l ay o rc l ay sw e re t he s ou rce ma ter ia l f o rt h ec eram ic su nder s t udy . P o ten t ia la rea so fc onfus ion i ns uch s t ud ie si n c lude :v a r iab i l i ty o fo r ig ina l c l ay s ources ,t o ta ld ep le t ion o ft he o r ig ina lc l ay s ou rce ,m ix ing o fc l ay so rt emper ing w i th ar ock s uch a s c a lc i te , a nd t he n on -homogeneou s c ha rac te ro f many c oa rse ly t empe red c eram ic s . None the le s s ,s t a t i s t i ca lm an ipu la t ion a nd t h eu nde r s tand ing o ft he e f fec t so fs ome o ft he se p roce s se sh ave a l lowed s t r ik ing s ou rce d i scove r ie s t o b e m ade f o r c e r ta in c e ram ic f a b r ic s ( e .g . , Adan -Bayew i tz a nd P er lman 1 985 ; Adan -Bayew i tz 1 986b ;F i l l iè res , Ha rbo t t le ,a nd S ay re 1 984 ) . P rog rams o fi n ves t iga t ion w h ich s eek t od e te rm ine w o rkshop s ou rce sf ocus o n ad i f feren tp a i ro fd a ta s e t s .T he f i rs t s e t i s ac o rpu so f ma ter ia lk nown t ob e manu fac tu red a tt he s ame s i te . S uch as e t m igh t i n c lude s i gned s he rds o rs he rd sd ecora ted i n as pec if ic manne r ,b u t mo re o f ten t hey a re s herd sc o l lec ted f r om t he k i ln so rw a s ter p i le s a t ap o t te ry w o rkshop .T he s econd d a ta s e ti n c lude ss he rd s ,u sua l ly f r om d i f f e ren t s i te sw h ich r e sea rche rs t h ink w e re o r ig ina l ly p roduced a tt he k i ln s i te . I fo ne i sd ea l ing w i th k i ln o r w a s ter d eb r i s , t he a r eas o fp o ten t ia l c on fus ion i nt h is t y pe o fa na ly s i s a re l im i ted . T he ma jo r p rob lem h ere i sd ocumen t ing t he f u l l r ange o f c hem ica l v a r iab i l i ty d i sp layed i n p roduc ts a t t he m anu fac tur ing s i te a nd ,n om a t te rh ow s oph is t ica ted t h es amp le s t ra tegy u sed ,i ta lmo s ta lway sd emands t h e p rocess ing o f al a rge s amp le . On t h e o ther h and , i fs i gned o r d eco ra ted s he rds a re t he b a s i s f o r w o rk shop i d en t i f ica t ion , t h e re r ema in s t he p rob lem o fd e te rm in ing i f ,i nf a c t , a l l p i eces w e re made a t

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t h e s ame s i te . I t ine ran t p o t te r s a r e h a rd ly u nknown . I n a dd i t ion , i ti sl e s sl i ke ly t ha t t he f u l lr ange o f p roduc tv a r iab i l i ty c an b e d e te rm ined e ven i ft h ey d id o r ig ina te a to ne manu fac tu r ing p o in t . Once t h e s t anda rd r e f e rence i sd e te rm ined ,t h en s he rd sc an b ec ompa red t ot h er e f e rence c o l lec t ion .T h i s me thod e l im ina te s many o ft h ep rob lem si n he ren ti nc l ay s ou rc ing s i nce v a r iab i l i ty w a sd e te rm ined b yt h ea nc ien t p o t te rn o tb yt h e i n genu i ty o ft h e mode rn s amp le c o l lec to r . F ranco i sW idemann a nd c o -wo rke rs h ave b een p a r t icu la r ly s ucce s s fu li nt h e se s t ud ie s (W idemann e ta l1 975 ;W idemann e ta !1 978 ) .I t mu s tb e n o ted ,h oweve r ,t h a to ne o r mo re w o rk shop sc ou ld p roduce p roduc t sf r om t h es ame c l ay s ou rce o rf r om c hem ica l ly s im i la r c l ay .T h i sp o s s ib i l i ty c ou ld c au se e r roneou sc onc lu s ion st ob ef o rmu la ted i fi ti sn o t c on s ide red . We s umma r ize t h i sp o r t ion o fo u rd i scu s s ion b yn o t ing t ha tt h ec l ay s ou rce m e thodo log yi st h e mo re c ommon ly a pp l ied a nd a sr eg iona la nd w o r ldw ide d a ta b a se si n c rea se t h ep rec i s ion o fr eg iona ls pec if ic i ty w i l l c on t inue t oi mp rove . T he w o rk shop s ou rce m e thodo logy h a sf ewe rv a r iab le s t o c on tend w i th i n a na ly s i s , b u t i ti sl a rge ly d ependen t o n t h e i d en t if ica t ion ( and e xcava t ion ) o fp o t tery m anu fac tu r ing i n s ta l la t ion s . A s mo re o f t h e se a r e k nown t h en t h e n umbe r o f w a re s w h ich c an b e i d en t if ied b y m anu f ac tu r ing p o in tw i l li n c rea se . C lea r ly r e sea rch i n to t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f c e ram ic m a te r ia l s h a s b een a i ded e no rmou s ly b y n eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i s . Un fo r tuna te ly t he re a r e t wo m a jo r p rob lem s w h ich s e r iou s ly i n h ib i t i t s w ide sp read u se . T he f i r s t i st h e c o s t o ft h i s p rocedu re . A sR ice ( 1 987 : 3 98 ) a nd B i shop , R and s , a nd Ho l ley ( 1 982 :289 )h ave p o in ted o u t ,t h ep rocedu re c an b ev e ry e xpen s ive .I ft e n so rh und red so fs amp le s a r en eeded f o rt e s t ing t h e c o s t c an b ew e l lb eyond t h ea r chaeo log i s t ' sb udge ta st he p rocedu res a l low f o rv e ry l i t t le i nt h ew ay o fe conom ie so fs c a le .T he h i gh p e rs amp le c o s ti n va r iab ly l e ad sr e sea rche r st o p roce s so n ly as ma l l n umbe r o fs amp le s a nd t hu s h e igh ten st h en ece s s i ty f o rt h e u se o fv e ry r i go rou s s amp l ing t e chn ique sw h ich ,a sy e t ,h ave b een l a ck ing i n mo s ts t ud ie s .I n mo s tr epo r t so ft h i st y pe o f wo rk , o ne r ead ss ome th ing l i ke , " 44 c e ram ic s pec imen sw e re t a ken f o r a na ly s i s. ( Gunneweg e ta l1 986 ) . C ha rac te r i s t ica l ly t h e n umbe r o f s amp le s a na lyzed a r e t oo s ma l l t ob e s t a t i s t ica l ly r e l iab le a nd t h e r a t iona le f o rs amp le s e lec t ion i sn o t s t a ted o re xp la ined .T he e xpen se o ft h i se f f ec t ive p rocedu re t hu s s t and sa s ab a r r ie rt oi t sf u l li n teg ra t ion i n to l a rge p rog ram so fc e ram ic a na ly s i s . . ."

T he P hy s ica la nd C hem ica lA na ly se so fI n c lus ions : X erorad iography ,H eavy M inera lA na ly s is ,a nd P e trography A s r e sea rche r sh ave c on t inued t ot u rn t h e i r a t ten t ion t oe x t rac t ing p roven ience d a ta f r om c e ram ic m a te r ia l ss e ve ra la na ly t ica lm e thod sf o cu s ing o nt h o se l a rge rt h an c l ay s ized p a r t ic le s( ma te r ia ls u sua l ly c a l led i n c lu s ion s ) i mbedded i nt h e c l ay m a t r ix o fc e ram ic sr a the rt h an t h e c l ay m a t r ix i t se l f( s ee , e . g . , P eacock 1 967 , 1 970 , 1 977b ; P eacock a nd W i l l iam s 1 986 ) h ave b een e mp loyed . T he d i f f e rence i n t h eo re t ica l a pp roach b e tween ac hem ica l s t udy o ft h e c l ay c on s t i tuen t w i th in ac e ram ic f a b r ic a nd a m ine ra log ica ls t udy o ft h eg r ea te rt h an c l ay -s ized i n c lu s ion sw i th in ac e ram ic f a b r ic i sg rea te v en t hough t h er e su l t s( p roven ience )s hou ld b es im i la r . 'T he f o l low ing d i scu s s ion c on s ide r st h ree d i f f e ren ta na ly t ica l p rocedu re sr e commended f o ru se i nC hap te r1 ;p e t ro logy ,h eavy m ine ra la na ly s i s ,a nd x e ro rad iog raphy . C lay s ,I nc lu s ions , a nd T empe r We b eg in o u r c on s ide ra t ion o ft h e se t h ree a na ly t ica l p rocedu re s w i th ad i scu s s ion o ft h e v a r iou s m echan i sm sb yw h ich i n c lu s ion s c an b ecome p a r to f as he rd ' sw a re . F i gu re 4 1 s how st h eu n ive r se o f s he rd i n c lu s ion sd i v ided i n to t wo p a r t s : n a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing i n c lu s ion sa nd t empe ra dded t ot h e c l ay b y m an .I na dd i t ion ,t h i sd i ag ram n o te st h a tc e r ta in i n c lu s ion sm aybe r emoved f r om t h en a tu ra l ly o ccur r ing i n c lu s ion so fr aw c l ay b yt h ep o t te r .T he f o l low ing p a rag raph sw i l lb eu sed t od i scu s sh ow a nd i nw ha t

( 1 )

T h is w i l ln o ta lway sb e t he c a se ,h owever . I ti sp o s s ib le t oi mpor tc l ay a nd u se l o ca lt emper ing a gen ts , t oi mpor t t emper ing a gen ts a nd u se l o ca lc l ay ,o rt oi mpor tb o th .I ns uch c ases a nd d epend ing o nt h et e chn iques u sed ,t he i den t i f ied p roven ience w i l lb et he s our ce o ft he r aw m a ter ia ls s t ud ied a nd n o tt he l o ca t ion o ft he p o t te ry w ork shop .T h is p rob lem c an b em i t iga ted t h rough t he i d en t if ica t ion o fk i ln d epo s i t sa sw i l lb ed i s cu s sed l a ter i nt h is c hap ter .

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I n c lu s ion s b y Ma

N a tu ra l ly O ccu r r ing I nc lu s ion s

T empe r Added b y P o t te r

m anne r i n c lu s ion s ( i nc lud ing t empe r ) p o t t ing c l ay s .

-

p r ima r i ly m ine ra l

F i gu re 4 1 . I n c lus ions w i th in C e ram ics .

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a r e i n t roduced i n to o r r emoved f r om

I n c lu s ion so ccu rn a tu ra l ly i nb o th r e s idua l( p r ima ry )c l ay sa nd s ed imen ta ry ( s econda ry )c l ay s .P r ima ry c l ay sa r ef ound i nd epo s i t sa tt h es ame g ene ra ll o ca t ion a st h ep a ren tm a te r ia lf r om w h ich t h ey d eve loped . T he p a ren t m a te r ia l m ay b ea ny r ock t y pe s uch a s ab a sa l t , s ch i s t ,o rs ha le . Av a r ie ty o fc hem ica l a nd p hy s ica lp roce s se s c omb ine t of o rm c l ay , b u tt h e se m ay l e ave r e s idua lc oa r se f r agmen t so ft h ep a ren t r o ck a si n c lu s ion sw i th in t h ec l ay d epo s i t ( s ee , e . g . ,R ice 1 987 :3 6 -37 ) . T he t y pe o fc l ay w h ich f o rm si n a ny g i ven l o ca t ion i sn o to n ly d ependen tu pon t h el o ca lg eo logy ,b u ta l so t he c l ima te ,t h er e l ie f ,a nd t he l e ng th o fs u r f ace e xpo su re .T he se f a c to r sa l so m ay c on t ro lt h et y pe a nd a moun to fh eavy m ine ra l sp re sen t i nt h es ed imen t . I nc on t ra s t ,s e conda ry c l ay sa r ed epo s i ted a t ad i s tance f r om t h ep a ren t ma te r ia lt h rough av a r ie ty o f t r an spo r ta t iona l s y s tem s , b u t u sua l ly aw a te r -ba sed s y s tem . D epo s i t s o fc l ay f o rmed b ys uch s y s tem s i n c lude f l uv ia t i le , m a r ine , l a cu s t r ine , a eo l ian , a nd g l ac ia l . E ach o ft h e se t y pe s o fd epo s i t sf o rm b yt he c l ay p a r t ic le ss e t t l ing o u t o fi t st r an spo r tm ed ium b u tu nde rd if e ren tc ond i t ion s .A s ar e su l t ,t h ec l ay s o f ten m ix w i th o the rc l ay sa nd w i th ag rea tv a r ie ty o fl a rge rp a r t ic le s .T he d epo s i t sc an b eh omogenou s o rn o t d epend ing o n t h e p roce s s , a nd d epo s i t c ompo s i t ion c an c hange r ad ica l ly i no n ly af ew f e e t . I n s u ch d epo s i t st h el a rge rp a r t ic le si nt h ec l ay d epo s i tm ay h ave n or e la t ion w ha t soeve rw i th t h eo r ig ina l p a ren t ma te r ia lo ft h ec l ay o rc l ay sw h ich m akeup t h ed epo s i t( s ee ,e . g . ,R ice 1 987 :3 7 ) . When ac l ay i se x t rac ted f r om ar aw d epo s i ti ta lmo s ta lway sc on ta in si mpu r i t ie sa nd mu s tb ec l eaned o rl e v iga ted t o make i ts u i tab le f o r u se b yt h e p o t te r .S uch p roce s se s may i n c lude p i ck ing o u to rgan ic m a t te ra nd p ebb le s ,w innow ing ,s i ev ing ,a nd l e v iga t ion .A l lt h e se p roce s se sr e su l ti nt h er emova lo fl a rge r o rh eav ie r i n c lu s ion s f r om t h e c l ay b e ing p roce s sed .T he se a c t ion s , d epend ing o nh ow r i go rou s ly t h ey a r ef o l lowed , m ay r emove e n t i re c l a s se s o fi n c lu s ion sf r om o ne b a tch o fp roce s sed c l ay , c l a s se sw h ich m ay b el e f ti n tac ti na no the rb a tch w h ich d e r ive f r om t h es ame s ou rce .T hu se ven t hough t wo c l ay s amp le s m ay c ome f r om t h es ame d epo s i t , t h e i rf i na li n c lu s ion u n ive r se sm ay b ee n t i re ly d i f f e ren ta s ar e su l to f t h ec l ay p roce s s ing p rocedu re s .I na dd i t ion ,a c t ion ss uch a sg r ind ing o rc ru sh ing m ay a l te rt h es i ze sa nd s h ape so fs ome c omponen t s ( s ee ,e . g . ,R ice 1 987 : 18 ) . I n c lu s ion sp u rpo sefu l ly a dded b yt h ep o t te rt ot h ec l ay a r ec ommon ly c a l led t empe r .S uch m a te r ia l s c an b e a dded d i rec t ly w i thou t a ny , o ro n ly m in ima l , p repa ra t ion t ot h e c l ay .S uch p u rpo se fu l ly a dded i n c lu s ion sm ay c ome f r om o ne o rm any s ou rce s ,b u to f ten t h ey d e r ive f r om as ed imen ta ry d epo s i t ,e .g . b each s and .T he se s ou rce sa l so m ay o rm ay n o tb eh omogenou si nc on ten t .

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T he p o t te r m ay c hoo se t o a dd t empe r w h ich h a s u nde rgone c on s ide rab le mod i f ica t ion . C ru shed a nd /o rg round r ock o rg rog ( c ru shed c e ram ic s )a r ec ommon t empe r ing a gen t s .S uch t empe ri su sua l ly much mo re a ngu la rt han n a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing a luv ia ls and t empe r .R ock sc ho sen f o rc ru sh ing m ay c ome f r om t h ep a ren tr ock sn ea rt h ep o t te ry s hop ,t h ey m ay b es h ipped i n ,o rt h ey m ay b ed e r ived f r om c oa r se f l uv ia lo rg l ac ia ls ed imen t . B e s ide st h e se c ommon t empe r ing a gen t s , aw ide v a r ie ty o fo t he rm a te r ia l sa r ek nown t oh ave b een u sed i nt h e p roduc t ion o fc e ram ic s . T he p o t te r m ay a dd o rgan ic m a te r ia l , s uch a sb one ,s h e l l , d ung , g ra s se s ,o ro the rf l o ra lr e s idue ,a st empe r ( s ee ,e . g . ,S ode r s t rom 1 9 69 ;R ye 1 981 :3 3 -34 ;G lanzman a nd F lem ing 1 985 ) . D epend ing o n f i r ing t empe ra tu re t h e se i n c lu s ion s m ay b e c a rbon ized a nd l e f t i nt h e c e ram ic f a b r ic ,o rt h ey m ay b eb u rned o u tb yt h ef i r ing p roce s si nw h ich c a se ac a s to ft h e i rs h ape may b e r e ta ined i nt he c e ram ic f a b r ic . I ti su nc lea r h ow e ach t y pe o fo rgan ic i n c lu s ion w ou ld a l te r t h e c hem i s t ry o ft h e c l ay ma t r ix . T hey s hou ld , h oweve r , h ave al i m i ted i mpac t o n t h e m ine ra l i n c lu s ion s . F ina l ly w en o te t h a ts a l t sh ave o f ten b een a dded t ot h eu nf i red f a b r ic ( Rye 1 981 :3 5 -36 ) .T he a dd i t ion o f s a l tc an a l te rc hem ica lr eac t ion sd u r ing f i r ing w h ich m ay e f f ec ts ub sequen tc hem ica la nd m ine ra log ica l a na ly s i s( Peacock 1 984a ;K lemp tne ra nd J ohn son 1 986 ;R ice 1 987 :9 8 , 19 ) . T h i sb r ie fs umma ry i s ,w eb e l ieve , s u ff ic ien tt od r ive h ome t h ep o in tt h a tt h ei n c lu s ion sf o und w i th in c e ram ic s m ay e n te r t h e c e ram ic f a b r ic f r om an umbe r o f s ou rc e s a nd b y av a r ie ty o f m ean s . T hu s s ucce s s fu la na ly s i s o fs uch m a te r ia l s d epend su pon t h e c on s ide ra t ion o f an umbe r o fv a r iab le s . G iven t h i ss i tua t ion i ts hou ld n o tb es u rp r i s ing t h a tn os i ng le a na ly t ica lp rocedu re c an b ee xpec ted t op rov ide r e sea rche r sw i th a l t he d a ta r equ i red t ou nde r s tand f u l ly t h en a tu re o ft h i sc omponen to ft h ec e ram ic m a te r ia l su nde rs t udy . X e ro rad iog raphy , H eav yM ine ra l Ana l y s i s , a nd P e t ro log y ' I nC hap te r 1o ft h i sv o lume t wo o fu s( Benne t ta nd B lake ly )a dvoca ted ap rog ram o fx e ro rad iog raphy , h eavy m ine ra la na ly s i s ,a nd p e t ro logy a s ac o s t -e ff ic ien ta na ly t ica lp rog ram f o rt h es t udy o fc e ram ic sa nd a st h e b a s i s o fc e ram ic p ub l ica t ion . T he i n teg ra t ion o ft h e se v a r iou s p rocedu re s s ucce s s fu l ly d i s t in g u i shed t vo b a s icwa re sw i th in al i m i ted c o rpu so fP ompe ian R ed Wa re ( aR oman p e r iod c ook ing v e s se l ) e xcava ted a tC ae sa rea Ma r i t ima ( B lake ly ,B r inkmann ,a nd V i ta l ia r io 1 989 ) .X e ro rad iog raphy a nd h eavy m ine ra la na ly s i sw e re a l so c omb ined i nt h es t udy o fc e ram ic m a te r ia l sf r om f ou r1 8 th a nd 1 9 th C en tu ry N ew E ng land k i ln s i te sw h ich s ucceeded i nd i s t ingu i sh ing t h ec e ram ic so fe ach k i ln ( B lake ly 1 989 ) . I n n e i the rt e s t ,h oweve r ,w a st h e re ad i scu s s ion o fw ha te ach p roce s sm ea su re sa nd h ow t he v a r iou sr e su l t s c an b e c omb ined o r u sed i nt h e d e sc r ip t ion o ft h ew ho le . T h i s i sa n i mpo r tan t c ons ide ra t ion . I n t h e f o l low ing p a rag raph sw ed i scu s sm e thodo logy a nd m ea su remen tu s ing x e ro rad iog raphy ,h eavy m ine ra l a na ly s i s ,a nd p e t ro logy . X erorad iography . T he x e ro rad iog raph ic p roce s s h a sb een d e sc r ibed b yo the r s ( e .g . , H e inemann 1 976 ;F o s te r1 985 ) a nd i t sa pp l ica t ion t oc e ram ic s t udy h a sa l so b een t h es ub jec to f av a r ie ty o fa r t ic le s ( e .g . ,G lanzman 1 983 , 1 987 ;G lanzman a nd F l em ing 1 985 , 1 986a ;F o s te r1 983 ) .F o ro u rs t ud ie s ,B lake ly p roce s sed a l s he rd s u s ing x e ro rad iog raph ic i mag ing a tt h e m ammog raphy u n i t o ft h e S t . M ichae l ' s Ho sp i ta li nT exa rkana ,A rk . Mo s to fo u rx e ro rad iog raph ic w o rk h a sb een c onduc ted a t1 0 0 MAS a nd 4 6 KV f o r0 . 5s econd ,b u tt h i s v a r ied d epend ing o ns he rd t h ickne s sa nd d en s i ty . T he u se o fx e ro rad iog raphy i nt h e q uan t i f ica t ion a nd i d en t if ica t ion o ft empe ra nd i n c lu s ion sw i th in c e ram ic s h a s b een c on s ide red b y B raun ( 1 982 ) a nd F o s te r ( 1 985 ) a nd mo s t r ecen t ly b y B lake ly , B r inkmann , a nd V i ta l iano ( 1 989 ) a nd B lake ly ( 1 989 ) . I n o u r s t ud ie s t h e x e ro rad iog raph ic v a r iab le s c on s ide red w e re s i ze , s hape , d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd o r ien ta t ion o fr ad io lucen t a nd r ad io -opaque i n c lu s ion s c ap tu red i nt h e r ad iog raph ic p roce s s . S ome m ac ro scop ic v a r iab le s w e re a l so c on s ide red b u t , s uch o b se rva t ion sw e re l a rge ly l i m i ted t ot h e p re sence ,a b sence , a nd q uan t i ty o fm ica w i th in t h ef a b r ic a nd s l ip o ft h es he rd s . T he re a r et wo i s sue st ob ec on s ide red b yt h ec e ram ic a na ly s tu s ing x e ro rad iog raphy ;t h en a tu re o ft h e i t em sb e ing o b se rved a nd t h e mo s t a pp rop r ia te m e thod sb yw h ich t om ea su re t h em . C e r ta in p ecu l ia r f e a tu re so ft h ex e ro rad iog raph ic p roce s s mu s tb ec on s ide red i nd ea l ing w i th t h e se i s sue s .

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• T he x e ro rad iog raph ic i mage f o rt h e se p u rpo se si sas u r face ( a so ppo sed t os ec t iona lv i ew )o ft h e s he rd . T h i s t e chn ique , t h e re fo re , a l low s t h e a na ly s t t o s t udy t h e s hape , s i ze , r ad io -opaque ! r ad io lucen tq ua l i t ie s , a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fi n c lu s ion s .S ec t iona lv i ew sa re a l so p o s s ib le .S ec t iona l v i ew sw ou ld a dd d a ta a bou td i s t r ibu t ion a nd o r ien ta t ion o ft empe r ,b u ti t sg rea te s tu se w ou ld b e i n t he i d en t if ica t ion o f manu fac tu r ing t e chn ique ( G lanzman 1 983 ) . T he c o s t o f p roduc ing s ec t iona l v i ew s ( t h ick s e c t ion s ) a dd s s i gn if ican t ly t o t h e c o s t o fx e ro rad iog raph ic i mag ing a s d esc r ibed a bove a nd i nC hap te r 1 . •

F o s te rh a ss hown t h a tx e ro rad iog raphy c ap tu re sa ni mage o ft h ec l ay f a b r ic a sw e l la sa ni mage o ft he i n c lu s ion sw i th in t h a tc l ay m a t r ix ( Fo s te r1 985 ) . An e xam ina t ion o fF o s te r ' sf i gu re sa nd a s t udy o ft h ef i gu re sp roduced b yt h ea u tho r s ,s ugge s t st h a tt h ei n c lu s ion so f0 . 5 /1 .0 mm a nd l a rger a re o fs u ff i c ien t s i ze a nd c l a r i ty f o r s t udy . Any s ma l le r s i ze a ppea r s a sp a r to ft he b ackg round i mage o ft h e c l ay b ody .T hu s ,t h ex e ro rad iog raph ic s t udy o fi n c lu s ion sc an b eg in o n ly a t0 . 5 /1 .0 mm a nd c an c on t inue u pwa rd st ot h em ax imum s i ze a l lowab le i nt h ec e ram ic f ab r ic .

• A s B raun h a s p o in ted o u t , t h i s i s at h ree -d imen s iona lv i ew w h ich h a sb een c o l lap sed i n to t wo d imen s ion s , a n o r thogona l p ro jec t ion . T hu s ,v o lume t r ic a na ly s i s i sp o ten t ia l a nd mu s tb e c on s i de red i ns uch s t ud ie s( B raun 1 982 ) . • I den t i f ica t ion o ft h ei n c lu s ion si sp o s s ib le w i th in l i m i t s ,i . e . ,g rog ,m ine ra l ,s he l l ,c o ra l ,e t c .( Fo s te r 1 985 ) . T he se f ou ro b se rva t ion sa low t h ef o l low ing c onc lu s ion st ob ed rawn r ega rd ing t h eu se o fx e ro rad iog r aphy i np rog ram s o fc e ram ic a na ly s i s . X e ro rad iog raphy i s mo s t e f f ec t ive i nd i sc r im ina t ing i n c lu s ion s l a rg e rt han 0 . 5 /1 .0 mm i ns i ze w i th in w a re so ve r al a rge a r ea w h ich m ean st ha t mo s ti n c lu s ion ss ma l le r t h an 0 . 5 mm , as i zab le p ropo r t ion o ft h ei n c lu s ion sw i th in m any w a re s ,w i l lr ema in u nob se rved .I ne f f ec t , x e ro rad iog raphy g i ve s t h e a na ly s t d i rec t a cce s s t ow ha t i sq u i te l i ke ly t ob eo n ly af r ac t ion o ft h et o ta l i n c lu s ion sw i th in t h ec e ram ic m a te r ia lu nde ro b se rva t ion .B u t ,w h i le o n ly ap o r t ion o ft he i n c lu s ion sa re o b se rved ,i ti sp o s s ib le t os pec i f yt h en a tu re o ft h i sp o r t ion a nd t h ew ay i nw h ich i tr e la te st os uch o the r i n c lu s ions w h ich m ay a l so b e p re sen t . T he re fo re , w a re d i sc r im ina t ion a nd d e sc r ip t ion b a sed o n x e ro rad iog raph ic i mage sd e r ive f r om o ne s e lec ta nd i d en t i f iab le c omponen to f amuch mo re b road s e t o fi n c lu s ion s .T h i sa na ly t ica ls e lec t iv i ty i so f f se tb yt h ea b i l i ty o ft h i sp rocedu re t oi d en t i f yt h e se i n c lu s ion s o v e rt h ee n t i re s u r f ace o ft h es he rd a nd t on o te t h e i rs i ze s ,s hape s ,d i s t r ibu t ion ,a nd t o ta lv o lume w i th in t h es h e rd 's m a t r ix ( B raun 1 9 82 ) . I na dd i t ion i ti sp o s s ib le ,w i th in c e r ta in l i m i t s ,t oi d en t i f ys ome o ft h e m o re mo rpho log ica l ly d i s t inc t l a rge r i n c lu s ion s s uch a s g rog o r f i be r ( Fo s te r 1 985 ; G lanzman a nd F l em ing 1 985 ,1986a ) . H eavy M inera lA na ly s is . H eavy m ine ra l sa r et ho se m ine ra l s i t h as pec if ic g rav i ty o fo ve r2 . 90 .T hey a r e ar a re c l a s so fm ine ra l s ,b u t ac l a s sw h ich i ss en s i t ive t ot h em ine ra logy o ft h ep a ren t ma te r ia lo ft h e m ine ra li n c lu s ion sw i th in c e ram ic s . Quan t if ica t ion o ft h eh eavy m ine ra l sc an b ed one b a sed o nm ine ra l t y pe ,s i ze , s hape ,r e la t ive p ropo r t ion s , a nd t o ta lq uan t i ty .T he g ene ra la na ly t ica lp roce s su sed i nh eavy m ine ra la na ly s i so fc e ram ic m a te r ia lh a sb een d e sc r ibed e l sewhe re ( Peacock 1 967 ;W i l l iam s1 979 ,1 983 ) a sh a s i t s u se fu lne s s f o r c e ram ic a na ly s i s ( Peacock a nd W i l l iam s 1 986 ; R ice 1 987 : 3 81 -82 ) . Wh i le t h e g ene ra la pp l icab i l i ty a nd u s e fu lne s so ft h i st e chn ique i nc e ram ic a na ly s i si sn o tq ue s t ioned i ti si mpo r tan t t ou nde rs tand t h ei d en t if ica t ion a nd q uan t if ica t ion p roce s se su sed i nh eavy m ine ra la na ly s i s . I no ur s t ud ie sw h ich w e re d one b yB r inkmann a tt h e Un ive r s i ty o fW i scon s in -M i lwaukee ,e ach s he rd w a sg en t ly c ru shed w i th am o r ta ra nd p e s t le a nd t h ep roduc tw a sp l aced i n ac en t r i fuge t ube .A ce ty lene t e t rab rom ide ( s pec i f ic g r av i ty o f2 . 96 )w a sa dded ,a nd t h es amp le w a st ho rough ly s t i r red .T he t ube w a s c en t r i fuged f o rf i f teen m inu te sa t1 500 r pm .M ine ra l sw i th as pec if ic g rav i ty g rea te rt han 2 . 96 s ank i nt h e h eav yl i qu id a nd l i gh te rm ine ra l sf l oa ted .N ex tt h et ube w a sp l aced i n af r eeze rf o rt h ree h ou r s .F reez ing a lowed e a sy r emova l o ft h el i gh t f r ac t ion u s ing as ma l ls pa tu la ,w i th m in ima lm ix ing o fl i gh ta nd h eavy m a te r ia l s . I fa ny m ix ing o ccu r red , t h e s amp le w a s r e cen t r i fuged a nd f r ozen , a nd t h e r ema in ing l i gh t m ine ra ls w e re r emoved . T he h eavy m ine ra l s w e re t h en f i l te red f r om t h e a ce ty lene t e t rab rom ide . T he g r a in sw e re w a shed w i th a c e tone a nd c o l lec ted . T he h eavy m ine ra l sw e re i d en t if ied b yc r y s ta ls y s tem , c o lo r , p leoch ro i sm , c l eavag e , t w inn ing , z on ing , p re sence o r a b sence o fi n c lu s ion s , r e l ie f , a nd o p t ica l p rope r t ie s ,c ha rac te r i s t ic sw h ich h ave b een d i scu s sed b ym any a u tho r si n c lud ing J one s( 1979 ) , Hu r lbu t a nd K le in ( 1 977 ) ,J one sa nd B lo s s( 1 980 ) ,a nd B lo s s( 1 961 ) .A f te ri n i t ia li d en t if ica t ion ,t h eh eavy m ine ra l

3 7

i d en t if ica t ion sw e re c ro s s -checked b yt h ep e t ro log i s tt oe n su re t h a tm ine ra li d en t if ica t ion sw e re s t and a rd ized b e tween t h et wo p rocedu re s .O the rt e chn ique sf o rh eavy m ine ra ls epa ra t ion a re a v a i lab le ( s ee , e . g . ,P la sa nd Doe sbu rg 1 987 ) a nd s t anda rd iza t ion b e tween t e chn ique sh a sn o tb een a t temp ted . Two o b se rva t ion sa re i no rde r .F i r s t ,t h em ine ra lg ra in si d en t if i ed t h rough h eavy m ine ra la na ly s i sa r e u sua l ly s ma l le rt h an t h ei n c lu s ion ss een t h rough x e ro rad iog raphy .S econd ,t h ey a r eb yt he i rn a tu re r a re a nd n o tr ou t ine ly i d en t if ied b yn o rma lp e t ro log ica la na ly se s .F u r th e rmo re ,s i nce i ti st he o b jec t ive o ft h e a na ly t ica lp rocedu re t oc oncen t ra te t h em f o ra na ly s i s ,t h er e su l t so fh eavy m ine ra la na ly s i sa r ed i ff icu l t t o r e la te q uan t i ta t ive ly t o o the r p e t ro log ica l o r x e ro rad iog raph ic o b se rva t ion s a bou t t h e s amp le s i n q ue s t ion . L ike x e ro rad iog raph ic a na ly s i s , h eavy m ine ra l a na ly s i s i d en t if ie s a nd q uan t if i e s o ne s e lec t c omponen t o f amuch b roade r s e t o fi n c lu s ion s b u t o ne w h ich i sl a rge ly d i s t inc t f r om t h a t i d en t if ied t h rough x e ro rad iog raphy . P e tro logy . T he a na ly t ica l p roce s s u sed f o r c e ram ic p e t ro logy i s ag eo log ica lt e chn ique w h ich h a s b een d eve loped o ve rh und red so fy ea r s .A cco rd ing t oR ice : App ly ing t h e se t e chn ique st oc e ram ic m a te r ia l s( F reche t te 1 971 ; Hodge s1 963 ; Wi l l iam s1 983 )i s j u s t i f ied b yt he c oncep t o fc e ram ic m a te r ia l sa sa r t if ic ia ls t one ( s ee B amp s 1 883 , 2 78 ) . P o t te ry m aybe c ompa red t om e tamo rpho sed s ed imen ta ry r ock s :' t he f a b r ic o f as he rd c on s i s t sp r inc ipa l ly o fe l a s t ic g ra in s h e ld i n ac l ay m a t r ix ,b o th p a r t ia l ly a l te red d u r ing f i r ing ' ( W i l l iam s1 9 83 , 3 02 ) . ( R ice 1 987 :376 ) I no u rp e t ro log ica l s t ud ie sc onduc ted b yV i ta l iano a tI nd iana U n ive r s i ty , e ach s herd w a se xam ined b y h and len s a nd b i nocu la r m ic ro scope t od e te rm ine f a b r ic t e x tu re a nd t og e t s ome i d ea o ft empe r c omponen t sa nd t h e i r r e la t ion t ot h em a t r ix o ft h es he rd .F o l low ing t h i s ,t h es amp le w a si mp regna ted w i th e poxy r e s in t or educe p l uck ing d u r ing c u t t ing ,g r ind ing ,a nd p o l i sh ing t oo b ta in t he 3 0m ut h ickne s s r equ i red o f at h in sec t ion f o rm ic ro scop ic s t udy .A f te ra pp l ica t ion o ft h ec ove r s l ip , m ic ro scop ic s t udy o fe ach t h in s e c t ion p e rm i t ted i d en t if ica t ion o ft h ec on s t i tuen t sm ak ing u pt h et empe r .T he q uan t i ta t ive a bundance so fe ach c on s t i tuen t w e re d e te rm ined b yt h ep o in t c oun tt e chn ique ( Chaye s 1 9 56 ) . O the r m e thod sa r ea va i lab le ( e .g . ,M idd le ton ,F ree s tone ,a nd L ee se 1 985 ;o r Wand ibba 1 982 ) . P e t ro logy a nd p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i sf o rc e ram ic sa r ep rocedu re sw h ich t a ke m ea su remen t so n at h in s ec t ion c u to u to ft h es he rd .T he r e su l t ing i d en t i f ica t ion sa nd q uan t if i ca t ion a r eb a sed o nt h em a te r ia l s w h ich a r e f ound i n t h a t t h in s e c t ion . T he re fo re , t h i s t e chn ique m ea su re s t h e c ommon a nd n orma l i n c lu s ion s f ound w i th in as pec if ic c e ram ic w a re . T he r a re r i t em s i nt h e w a re m ay n o t b e f o und a nd c e r ta in ly c anno tb e q uan t if ied i n as i gn if ican tm anne rt h rough t h i sp rocedu re .T hu s , r a re ri n c lu s ion s , s uch a st ho se i d en t if ied t h rough x e ro rad iog raphy a nd h eavy m ine ra la na ly s i s , a r eo f ten a b sen t i nt h in s e c t ion .S uch i t em sr ema in u n iden t if ied ( a nd u nava i lab le f o rq uan t if i ca t ion )i nt h i st ype o fa na ly s i s . R e la t ionsh ip o ft h eT hr ee A na ly t ica lP rocedur e s . T he p rev iou sp a rag raph sh ave a t temp ted t os ug g e s th ow t h et h ree a na ly t ica lp rocedu re s( x e ro rad iog raphy ,h eavy m ine ra la na ly s i s ,a nd p e t ro logy )a cce s s d i f f e ren tp o r t ion so ft h et o ta lu n ive r se o fi n c lu s ion sp o ten t ia l ly p re sen tw i th in v a r iou sc e ram ic m a ter ia l s . E ach t e chn ique ,i ni t so wn w ay , m ea su re s ac e r ta in d ef inab le c omponen to ft h ei n c lu s ion sf o und w i th in c e ran ic s ,b u tt h e se c omponen t sa r ed i f f e ren ts ub se t so ft h eu n ive r se o fi n c lu s ion s .F igu re 4 2p o r t ray s t h i s u n ive r se a nd i d en t if ie s t h e r e la t ion sh ip o f t h e t h ree s ub se t s i d en t if ied b y e ach o ft h e se t h ree p rocedu re s . P e t ro logy i d en t if ie s a nd q uan t if ie st h e c ommon i n c lu s ion s .S uch c ommon i n c lu s ion s may i n c lude s ome h eavy m ine ra l sa sw e l la si n c lu s ion si d en t if ied i nx e ro rad iog raphy b u tt h i si sn o tn ece s sa r i ly t h ec a se . Heavy m ine ra l a na ly s i si d en t if ie s as e lec t s ub se to fs ma l la nd h eavy i n c lu s ion sa nd q uan t if ie s t h em i nr e la t ion t oo the r h eavy m ine ra l s . X e ro rad iog raphy l o ca te s a nd d e sc r ibe s t he s i ze , s h ape a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fl a rge ri n c lu s ion sa nd i sa b le t oi d en t i f ys ome o ft h em o re c ommon t y pe so fi n c lu s ion .T hu s , e ach t e chn ique m ea su re s as e lec tb u td ef inab le s ub se to ft h ei n c lu s ion u n ive r se .T he s ub se t so fi d en t if ied i n c lu s ion si n te r sec t ,b u ta r en o th i e ra rch ica l ly r e la ted . N o t o n ly d o t h e se a na ly t ica l t e chn ique s v a ry i nt h e t y pe s o fi n c lu s ion s t h ey i d en t i fy t h e re i sa l so a s ub s tan t ia l d i f f e rence i nt h e i r p e r u n i t c o s t s . H eavy m ine ra l a na ly s i si ss l igh t ly mo re t han a no rde r o f m agn i tude mo re t h an x e ro rad iog raphy a nd p e t ro logy i so f ten m o re t h an a no rde ro f magn i tude mo re e xpen s ive t h an h eavy m ine ra la na ly s i s .

3 8

O th i Me tho .s

I l ea

i n e ra l y s i s

F i gu re 4 -2 . I l us t ra t ion o f t he U n ive rse o f I n c lus ions . E ach h a tched c i rc le s hows t ha tp o r t i on o ft he u n ive rse o b s e rved b yt he l a be l led me thod . " O the r " i n c ludes S EM o bse rva t i on ,X ray f l uo rescence , X r ay d if rac t ion , c as ts f o rf l o ra l i d en t i f ica t ion , a nd o the rt ech n i ques .

T he C a se o fP ompe ian R ed War e T he S t ud y B lake ly ,B r inkmann , a nd V i ta l iano ( 1 989 ) c onduc ted as t udy b a sed o nt h ex e ro rad iog raph ic ,h eavy m ine ra l , a nd p e t ro log ic p rocedu re a dvoca ted i nC hap te r 1 .T h i ss t udy w a sc onduc ted i no rde rt ot e s t b o th t h ev a l id i ty a nd t h ec o s t -e f f ec t ivene s so fs uch a ni n teg ra ted p rog ram .T h i ss t udy e xam ined t h ee n t i re i n ven to ry o f P ompe ian R ed Wa re ( 8 5 s he rd s ) e xcava ted f r om o ne s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t a t C ae sa rea Ma r i t ima .P ompe ian R ed Wa re , aR oman p e r iod c ook ing w a re ,w a ss e lec ted f o rt h i ss t udy b ecau se ,a s P eacock ( 1977b ) h ad s hown , i tw a s k nown t oh ave b een p roduced i ns e ve ra ld i s t inc t f a b r ic s a nd t hu s w e l l su i ted t ot e s t ap rog ram d e s igned t od i f f e ren t ia te b e tween v a r iou sf a b r ic sw i th in as i ng le c l a s so f c e ram ic s . Mo reove r , as t udy o ft h e se m a te r ia l sw ou ld h ave P eacock 's w o rk a s as ound r e f e rence p o in t f o rp e t ro log ica lc ompa r i son . T he p r ima ry g oa lo ft h i se f fo r tw a st od e te rm ine i fa ni n teg ra ted p rog ram o fx e ro rad iog raphy ,h eavy m ine ra la na ly s i s , a nd p e t ro logy w a s a n a ccu ra te a nd c o s t e f f ec t ive w ay o fi d en t i fy ing d i f f e ren tf a b r ic s . Mo re s pec i f ica l ly i tw a s c onduc ted t od e te rm ine i ft h eg roup so rc l u s te r si d en t if ied t h rough t he much l e s se xpen s ive m e thod o fx e ro rad iog raphy c ou ld b es a id t oc o r re la te w i th g roup ing s made t h rough h eavy m ine ra la na ly s i sa nd /o r p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s . As e conda ry g oa lw a st od e te rm ine i fi tw a sp o s s ib le t o s p ec i f ys ou rce a r ea sf o rt h ed i f f e ren tg roup so ff a b r ic si d en t if ied b yt h e se v a r iou st e chn ique s . T he f i r s t s t ep i n t h e s t udy w a s t o x e ro rad iog raph e ach o f t h e 8 5 P ompe ian R ed Wa re s he rd s . Mac ro scop ic e xam ina t ion o ft h ex e ro rad iog raph sq u ick ly t o ld u st h a ta l lb u to ne o ft h es pec imen sc ou ld b ec on s ide red a s as i ng le g roup . T hu s u s ing t h ex e ro rad iog raph si tw a s p o s s ib le t od i v ide t h i s s amp le i n to t wo p a r t s ; am a jo rg roup ing c on s i s t ing o f8 4s pec imen sa nd am ino rg roup ing o fw h ich t h e re e x i s ted o n ly as i ng le e xamp le .A f te rt h i sd i v i s ion o ft h es pec imen st h ex e ro rad iog raph so ft h em a jo rg roup w e re f u r the r s ubd iv ided i n to s i xs ubg roup sp roduc ing t wo m a jo rc l a s se so ff a b r ic o ne o fw h ich w a sf u r the r d i v ided i n to s i x s ubg roup s . T h i s s e ven fo ld s t ra t if i ca t ion w a s t h en u sed t o s e lec t s pec imen s t o b e s ubm i t ted f o rh eavy m ine ra la nd p e t ro log ica la na ly se s .W i th t h ee xcep t ion o ft h e( s ub )g roup sc on ta in ing o n ly s i ng le s pec imen s a tl e a s t t wo s pec imen s w e re c ho sen f r om e ach o ft h e s ubg roup s . I n a l f i f teen s p ec imen sw e re c ho sen a nd t h e se w e re d i v ided a nd h a l fs en t f o r h eavy m ine ra l a na ly s i s a nd h a l ff o r p e t ro log ica l a na ly s i s . I n n e i the r c a se d id t h e p e t ro log i s t o r t h e h eavy m ine ra l a na ly s t k now o f t h e x e ro rad iog raph ic g roup ing s n o r o f t h e r e su l t s o f t h e o t he r t e chn ica l s t udy . When a l a na ly s i s w a s c omp le ted ,t h et h ree s e t so fa na ly t ica lr e su l t sw e re c ompa red .

3 9

The Results It was found that each technique in this study identified the same two principal fabric groups within a corpus of Pompeian Red Ware as its first order division, but when these analyses were pressed further in an attempt to subdivide the dominant fabric represented, each technique yielded different groupings. The following table (Table 4-1) summarizes the groupings and subgroupings obtained for the fifteen sherds on which all three techniques were applied.

Table 4-1 Comparison of Sherd Groupings by Xeroradiography, Petrology, and Heavy Mineral Analysis Sherd Number

Xeroradiography

Petrology

Heavy Mineral

Pompeian Red Ware Fabric 1 308-5

1

C

2

Pompeian Red Ware Fabric 2 218-4 262-6 291-2 297-4 307-1 308-16 391-11 403-9 416-8 424-2 424-8 441-10 443-3 448-3

2e 2a 2f 2d 2e 2d 2c 2f 2f 2b 2c 2e 2f 2d

A

le le

B

A

B B B A A B B A A A A

lb le lb le le le le la la lb lb le

Note: Table copied from Blakely, Brinkmann, and Vitaliano (1989). Although using different techniques, each process identified the same two macrogr oups. One gr oup, represented by a single example, was characterized by numerous fossiliferous inclusions and no volcanic materials. The other group included large quantities of volcanically-derived materials; both rock and minerals. Based on the mineralogy of the inclusions identified within this group, it was possible to suggest that these sherds originated from the Mount Vesuvius region of southern Italy (Blakely, Brinkmann, and Vitaliano 1989; Peacock 1977b: 149, 153). A provenience for the fossiliferous specimen was not suggested. As indicated above xeroradiographic observations had proposed six subgroupings of the larger of the two macrogroups. Five of these divisions were made based on the relative size, frequency, and angularity of the inclusions visible within the xeroradiographs. The sixth was defined by the presence of macro­ scopically observable mica.

40

F rom d a ta o b ta ined i nt h eh eavy m ine ra la na ly s i st h e" vo lcan ic" m ac rog roup c ou ld b es epa ra ted b y t h er e la t ive f r equenc ie so fa ug i te a nd d i op s ide ( B lake ly ,B r inkmann ,a nd V i ta l iano 1 989 ) .A sT ab le 4 1 i n d ica te sn one o ft h e se s ubg roup sm a tch a c ro s st e chn ique s . C onc lus ions B ased o nt h eP ompe ian R ed War eE xp er imen t I nt e rm so ft h eb a s ic g oa l so ft h ee f fo r tt h i se xpe r imen tw a sc l ea r ly s ucce s s fu l .T he t wo m a jo rf a b r ic g roup si d en t if ied b yx e ro rad iog raphy w e re l i kew i se i d en t if ied b yb o th h eavy m ine ra la nd p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s . T he re w a s a n o b jec t ive c o r re la t ion b e tween t h e f i nd ing so fa l t h ree a na ly t ica lt e chn ique s a t t h i sl e ve lo fa na ly s i s ;a no u tcome w h ich s t rong ly s ugge s ted t h a tx e ro rad iog raph sc ou ld b eu sed t og roup c e ram ic f ab r ic s i n w ay s w h ich r e la ted t o t h e n a tu re o f t h e i r i n c lu s ion s . F u r the rmo re , g i ven t h e p roven ience i n fo rma t ion g a ined t h rough h eavy m ine ra la nd p e t ro log ica la na ly s i si ts hou ld b ep o s s ib le t oa s s ign t he p roven ience o fo the r s pec imen so fP ompe ian R ed Wa re ( e i the rf r om C ae sa rea Ma r i t ima o re l sewhe re )t ot h i sr eg ion b a sed o nx e ro rad iog raph ic a na ly s i sa l one .I ns ho r t ,i tw a sp o s s ib le t og roup f a b r ic si n to m ean ing fu lc a tego r ie sr e la ted t ot h e i rp l ace o fm anu fac tu re t h rough o b se rva t ion sr ega rd ing t h es i ze ,s hape ,a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h el a rge ri n c lu s ion sw i th in c e ram ic su s ing t h er e la t ive ly i n expen s ive p rocedu re o fx e ro rad iog raphy .1 B eyond t h i si mpo r tan t ,b u tg ene ra lc onc lu s ion ,t h er e su l t so ft h i se f fo r ta r ed i ff icu l tt oi n te rp re t ,a nd , i nf a c t ,a tt he p re sen tt i me ,w er ega rd t h ed a ta r e la ted t ot h ev a r iou sm ic rog roup ing sa su n in te rp re tab le . G iv en t ha t e ach a na ly t ica l p rocedu re m ea su re s d i f f e ren ta spec t so ft h es e to fi n c lu s ion sa nd g i ven t h e p roce s se s t h rough w h ich i n c lu s ion s n o rma l ly e n te r a nd l e ave t h e s y s tem , i ts hou ld b e e xpec ted t h a t g roup ing b yt h e i nd iv idua l p roce s se s w ou ld p roduce d i ve rgen t r e su l t sw hen v i ewed i ni s o la t ion . T he v a r ia t ion so b se rved b yt h e se t e chn ique sa r en od oub tt h er e su l to ft h ei n te rp lay o fh uman s e lec t ion a nd m a te r ia l a va i lab i l i ty . T he v a r iab i l i ty n o ted b yt h e se t h ree p rocedu re sm ay b er e la ted t oe i the r o rb o th s i de so ft h i se qua t ion i na ny p a r t icu la rs pec imen .I ti sp o s s ib le t h a tt h e se a na ly se sa r e ,i nt h e i rs epa ra te w ay s ,d i sce rn ing m ine ra log ica ld i f f e rence sp re sen tn a tu ra l ly w i th in as i ng le ,h i gh ly l o ca l ized s ou rce a r ea . O r ,t h ey may r ef lec t t h eu se o fm a te r ia l s f r om av a r ie ty o fs ou rce a r ea sw i th in as i ng le r eg ion . S uch a d i f f e rence c ou ld b er e la ted t od i f f e ren tp roduc t ion c en te r so rw o rk shop se ach w i th i t so wn s ou rce a r ea o rt ot h eu se o fd i f fe ren t s ou rce a r ea s ( pe rhap so ve rt ime ) o f as i ng le p roduc t ion c en te r .O r ,t hey may r ef l ec t t he m ix tu re o f i n c lu s ion s f r om d i f f e ren t s ou rce a r ea s a t as i ng le p roduc t ion s i te ; t h e e xac t i n g red ien t so fw h ich m igh ta l so v a ry ,b o th i nk i nd a nd i nq uan t i ty ,t h rough t ime . Ac on s ide ra t ion o ft h e se v a r iab le sh a sl e du st od raw as e cond s e to fc onc lu s ion sr ega rd ing t h ew ay i nw h ich s uch ap rog ram a st h i sc an b em o s t e f f ec t ive ly a pp l ied t ol a rge i n ven to r ie s .I ti si mpo s s ib le t o i n te rp re td a ta r e la ted t ow ha ti sq u i te l i ke ly t ob ev e ry s pec i f ic c hange si ns ou rce a r ea so rm anu f ac tu r ing t e chn ique su s ing m a te r ia l sr e cove red a td i s tance f r om t h e i rp o in to fm anu f ac tu re .W i thou td a ta c o l lec ted f r om t he p o in to fm anu fac tu re i ti si mpo s s ib le t od e te rm ine w h ich i n c lu s ion s o ccu rn a tu ra l ly w i th t h e c l ay s ou rce ( s ) a nd w h ich a r e t empe red . T he re i sn ow ay t od e te rm ine w ha t m ay h ave b een a dded o r r emoved . Howeve r ,i ti so u rj udgmen tt h a ts uch d e te rm ina t ion sc an b em ade f r om i n ve s t iga t ion sa tt h e p l ace o fo r ig in . We b e l ieve t h i s h a s s ome c on s ide rab le i mp l ica t ion s f o r t h e w ay i nw h ich p rog ram s i n tended t o d e sc r ibe a nd t oi n te rp re tc e ram ic f a b r ic s ,b o th t h ec l ay m a t r i xa nd t h ei n c lu s ion s ,s hou ld b es t ruc tu red . I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t c on tex tb eu sed a st h ed e te rm in ing f a c to ri ns e t t ing t h el e ve lo fc e ram ic a na ly s i st o b ea t temp ted .T h ree l e ve l so fe f fo r t c an b ed e f ined t oa ccoun tf o rm o s ta na ly t ica ls i tua t ion s : g roup ing

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As im i lar t e s tw as c onduc ted o n e ar thenware f r om 1 8 th a nd 1 9 th c en tury N ew E ng land o n am ixed s a mp le o fs herds f rom f our k nown k i ln s i tes . Two i ndependen t a na lys ts g rouped t he s herds i den t ica l ly o nt he b as is o fx erorad iog raphs a nd t hese g roups ma tched t he f our k nown k i ln d epo s i ts .N e i ther a na lys ts ucceeded i ng roup ing t he s herds o nt he b as is o f morpho logy a nd macroscop ic o bserva t ions a lone ( B lake ly 1 989 ) .

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s he rd sf r om ac on sump t ion s i te i nt h ea b sence o fk i ln d a ta ,g roup ing s he rd sd e r ived f r om t h ee xcava t ion o f ap roduc t ion f a c i l i ty ( k i ln ) ,a nd g roup ing s he rd sa tc on sump t ion s i te sw hen p roduc t ion d a ta i sk nown . G roup ing o fS he rd sf r om aC on sump t ion S i t e B lake ly , B r inkmann , a nd V i ta l iano c onduc ted t h e i r a na ly s i s i nt h e a b sence o f k i ln d a ta s i nce n o p roduc t ion f a c i l i t ie s a r e c u r ren t ly k nown w h ich p roduced P ompe ian R ed Wa re o ft he t y pe sf ound a t C ae sa rea Ma r i t ima a nd t h ea na ly s i so ft h eP ompe ian R ed Wa re s ugge s ted t h a ti tw a sn o tp roduced a t t h e s i te . T hu s , t h e s he rd g roup ing s h ad t ob e d one s o le ly o n t h e b a s i s o f s he rd s e xcava ted a t o ne c on sump t ion s i te . 1A l lt h ree p rocedu re si n dependen t ly i d en t if ied t h es ame t wo f ab r ic g roup s( B lake ly , B r inkmann , a nd V i ta l iano 1 989 ) . T hu s , x e ro rad iog raphy h a s b een s hown t ob e s ucc e s s fu l i n w a re d i f f e ren t ia t ion a tt h e m ac ro l e ve l . I t mu s t b e r emembe red , h owev e r , t h a t w h i le t h i s t e chn ique c an s eg rega te w a re s , i tc anno tb eu sed i nt h ea t temp tt od e te rm ine p roven ience o fp roduc t ion ;o ft he t e s t s u nde rs t udy o n ly h eavy m ine ra la na ly s i sa nd p e t ro logy c an p o in tt os pec if i cg eog raph ic r e g ion s . B o th p e t ro logy a nd h eavy m ine ra la na ly s i sp rov ide s pec if ic m ine ra log ica ld a ta a bou tt h ei n c lu s ion s a nd t empe rf ound w i th in as he rd ' sf a b r ic .A cco rd ing t ot h ep roven ience p o s tu la te t hese a r ev a l id mean s f o rs ugge s t ing g ene ra lm anu fac tu r ing p roven ience .E xcep ti nt ho se r a re c a se sw he re t empe ri si mpo r ted o ve r ag rea t d i s tance ( e .g . , m i l l s tone s g round f o r t empe r , P eacock 1 980 ; F u l fo rd a nd P eacock 1 984 : 2 7 -28 ) o rw he re c l ay i si mpo r ted ( P rom i s 1 969 : 1 92 a nd D re s se l 1 879 : 1 93 w h ich d e sc r ibed 1 , 350 ,000 a mpho ra f i l led w i th p o t t ing c l ay ; a nd t h e c onc lu s ion s o f N egev 1 986 : XV I I I -X IX r e ga rd ing c l ay t r an spo r t ) , t h e m ine ra logy o fb o th t h e n a tu ra l i n c lu s ion s a nd t h e t empe r w i l l i nd ica te t h e n ece s sa ry m ine ra log ica lb ackg round f o r t h e r eg ion o fp roduc t ion . T he m ine ra logy may p o in t t o av e ry s pec i f ic r eg ion ,a sd id P eacock ' ss t udy o fP ompe ian R ed Wa re F ab r ic 1( 1 977b ) ,o rt oo ne o r mo re l a rge r eg ion s i ft h em ine ra logy i sc ommon o ra mb iguou s .W i th s uch i n fo rma t ion a va i lab le ,t h e a rchaeo log i s t s hou ld b ea b le t or ef ine a r ea so fp robab le s ou rce b a sed o nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h es ame mo rpho log ica lf o rm o ve r t h ea r ea u nde rs t udy ( s ee ,e . g . ,t h ei d en t if ica t ion o f at y pe o fA vda ta mpho ra i nB lake ly 1 988 ) . T he m ac rog roup ing l e ve l o fa na ly s i s d e sc r ibed i nt h ep rev iou st wo p a rag raph ss hou ld b es u ff ic ien t f o r mo s ts t ud ie sa tc on sump t ion s i te s .A t ac on sump t ion s i te t h ea na ly s ts hou ld n o tb ec once rned w i th a mb igu i ty o f t h e x e ro rad iog raph ic , h eavy m ine ra l a na ly s i s , a nd p e t ro log ica l d a ta a tt h e l e ve l o f m ic rog roup ing c once rn .A t ac on sump t ion s i te mo s tl i ke ly i ti si mpo s s ib le t or e c t i f ya nd i n te rp re ts uch d a ta p rope r ly s i nce t h e p rec i se g eog raphy , g eo log y ,p o l i t ica l , a nd e conom ic c ond i t ion sa tt h ep o in t ( s ) o fm anu fac tu re a r eu nknown .I ti st h eo p in ion o ft h ec u r ren ta u tho r st h a tf o rg ene ra lw a re c a tegor iza t ion , a t temp t sa tm ic rog roup ing a nd i n te rp re ta t ion a r en o tw a r ran ted u n le s sp roduc t ion f a c i l i t ie sa r ei n vo lved ( s ee f o l low ing s e c t ion ) o r t h e re i ss ome i n cong ru i ty i nt h e d a ta a tt h e m ac ro l e ve l w h ich d emand s a dd i t iona l s t udy . T ak ing as u ff ic ien t q uan t i ty o fd a ta t o t h e l e ve l n ece s sa ry f o r m ic rog roup ing a dd s a dd i t iona le xpen se a nd w i l lp robab ly n o tb ei n te rp re tab le . G roup ing o fS he rd sa t aP roduc t ion F ac i l i ty T he e xcava t ion a nd a na ly s i s o fk i ln s a nd w a s te r d ump s m u s t b e t r ea ted i nf a r g rea te r d e ta i l t han m a te r ia l se xcava ted a tc on sump t ion s i te s .A sP eacock h a sp o in ted o u t ,i ti st h rough t he s t udy o fk i ln s i te s t h a tw a re c an b e d e f ined ( Peacock 1 982 : 1 65 -66 ) . T h i s o b se rva t ion i s mo s t a pp l icab le t ot h e c u r ren t s t udy .I ti so n ly a ts uch ap roduc t ion f a c i l i ty t h a td a ta c an b eo b ta ined w h ich w i l la low ag rea te ra na ly t ica l s pec if ic i ty t ob et ob ei n te rp re ted .T he w a re ( s )p roduced a tk nown k i ln s i te s mu s tb ei d en t if i ed t h rough q uan t if ied t e chn ique ss ot h a tt h e re a r es t anda rd sb yw h ich t oc ompa re w a re sc o l lec ted a tc on sump t ion s i te s . F o r p roduc t ion f a c i l i t ie s e nough s he rd s m u s t b e s t ud ied b y x e ro rad iog raphy , h eav y m ine ra l a na ly s i s ,a nd p e t ro logy s ot h a tl i m i t sc an b ee s tab l i shed w h ich m a rk t h ee x t reme c a se so fw a re p roduced f r om t h ek i ln s i te a nd s ot h a tt h en o rma lr a nge sc an b ee s tab l i shed .T he t e chn ique ss ugge s ted b yB raun ( 1 982 )a nd F o s te r( 1 985 )s hou ld b ee mp loyed f o rx e ro rad iog raph ic a na ly s i sa nd t h en c omb ined w i th t h e

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Th in s ec t ions o fs ome o ft hese s herds w ere s ubsequen t ly c ompared w i th o ther P ompe ian R ed Ware s herds c o l lec ted i n Europe a nd E ng land b y Dr .D .F . Wi l l iams o ft he Un iver s i tyof S ou thamp ton .F or h i sc om men ts s ee t he a ppend ix t oB lake ly , B r inkmann ,a nd V i ta l iano ( 1989 ) .

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h eav ym ine ra ld a ta a nd p e t ro log ica ld a ta i nm ixed l e ve la na ly s i so ft h et y pe d e sc r ibed b yR ice a nd S a f f e r ( 1 982 ) .S uch s t ud ie sp rov ide t h ec ompa ra t ive b enchma rk sf o ri d en t if ica t ion a tn on -p roduc t ion s i te s . Mo re t han p rov id ing m e re b enchma rk s , h oweve r , t h e se t e chn ique s w il i np a r t d e sc r ibe w ha t r aw m a te r ia l sw e re c o l lec ted a nd h ow t h ey w e re p roce s sed a sp a r t o f ac e ram ic p roduc t ion p roce s s .T he p rocedu re sd e sc r ibed i nt h i sp ape rs hou ld b eb u t as ma l lp a r to f al a rge rp rog ram a tk i ln s i te s .W i th k i ln s i t e sb o th p rec i se c l ay s ou rc ing a nd t empe r s ou rc ing s hou ld b e a t temp ted . T h i sw i l ld ef ine a sb e s t a s p o s s ib le t he r e sou rce sa va i lab le t ot h ep o t te r .S tud ie ss hou ld b ed one t od e te rm ine h ow t h ev e sse lw a s m ade : x e ro rad iog raphy , r e t i r ing , a nd r ep l ica t ion s t ud ie s s hou ld b e c onduc ted . A l l w ou ld h e lp t o d e te rm ine t h et e chno logy e mp loyed i np o t te ry m anu f ac tu re a tt h es i te .W i th t h e se d a ta c o l lec ted i tmay b ep o s s ib le t os pecu la te w hy t h ep o t te ry w a sm ade a si tw a s .F o ra r chaeo log i s t sw o rk ing a to the rs i te s , h ow eve r ,t he k ey d a ta n ece s sa ry f r om p roduc t ion s i te sw ou ld b ed ef in i t ion o ft h el i m i t sw h ich d ef ine t h e w a re sp roduced f r om t h ek i ln s i te .S uch d a ta s hou ld b ep re sen ti n many c a tego r ie s ,b u tf o rt h ep u rpo se s h e re ,x e ro rad iog raph ic , h eav y m ine ra l , p e t ro log ica l , a nd n eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i s r e su l t sw ou ld b e e s sen t ia l . G roup ing S he rd sa tC onsump t ion S i te sw hen K i ln D a ta A r eK nown A s mo re a nd mo re p roduc t ion s i te s a r e e va lua ted ,s pec if ic p roduc t ion p o in t sw il b ed ef ined a nd i t w i l lt h en b ep o s s ib le t oi d en t i f ys pec if ic w a re sa tu se rs i te sa nd k now w he re t h ey w e re m ade .T hu s ,o ve r t i me i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e g ene ra l r eg ion o f p roduc t ion c an b e r ep laced b y t h e s pec if ic r eg ion o f p roduc t ion a sk i ln s i te s a r e i d en t i f ied a nd a na lyzed . K now ledge o fi nd iv idua lk i ln s may d emand t ha t s ome a dd i t iona lt e s t ing b ed one o ns he rd sp rev iou s ly c o l lec ted a tc on sump t ion s i te s .S ome t ime si tm ay b en ece s sary t od oa dd i t iona lh eavy m ine ra la na ly s i so re ven p e t ro log ica la na ly s i si no rde rt os epa ra te a v a r ie ty o fk i ln si no ne r eg ion . A n a dd i t iona l c omp l ica t ion i st h a t s ome c e ram ic s a r e n o t f i red i nk i ln s . Many N o r th Ame r ican c e ram ic sa sw e l la sM idd le E a s te rn v e s se l sw e re f i red i n amo re -o r le s so pen e nv i ronmen ta nd k i ln s ,p e r s e ,d on o te x i s t .I nc a se ss uch a st h e se ,w hen i ti sc l ea rt h a tk i ln d a ta w i l ln eve re x i s t ,t h ea na ly s ts hou ld a t temp t t o d i sce rn w h ich s he rd s c ou ld h ave b een p roduced l o ca l ly a nd a t temp t t od e sc r ibe t h em i n g r ea te rd e ta i l .P rov ing t h a t t h ey c ou ld b el o ca l , c ou ld b ep roduced w i thou t ak i ln ,a nd d e sc r ib ing h ow t h ey w e re p roduced w ou ld d emand a dd i t iona l m ine ra log ica ls t udy o fc l ay sa nd t empe rs ou rce si nt he r e g ion a round t h es i te a sw e l la st e chno log ica ls t ud ie so ft h es he rd s . T he D icho tomy b e tw een P roduc t ion F ac i l i t ie sa nd C onsump t ion S i t e s S ome a na ly s t sh ave s ugge s ted t h a ta r chaeo log i s t sn eed t os pend mo re t ime a nd money d o ing d e ta i led t e chno log ica ls t ud ie so ft h e i rc e ram ic s .T he se a na ly s t sh ave s ugge s ted t ha tt h ee mpha s i so np roven ience i st o og rea ta nd t h a ti ti st oo l i t t le o nt e chno logy .T he se a r ep rob lema t ic s ugge s t ion s .I nt e rm so fc e ram ic s t ud ie sp e rS e ,w es ugge s tt h a tt h eu l t ima te g oa ls hou ld n o tb eh ow i tw a sp roduced a so ne m igh tb e l ieve , b u ti n s tead w hy w a si tp roduced i nt h ef o rm a nd m anne ri nw h ich i tw a s .S uch aq ue s t ion ,h oweve r ,c an o n ly b ea n swe red a t ap roduc t ion f a c i l i ty ,f o ro n ly a ts uch as i te c an ac omp le te t e chno log ica lp rof i le b e d e te rm ined , a nd o n ly a t ap roduc t ion f a c i l i ty c an o ne d e te rm ine w h ich r e sou rce s w e re p re sen t a nd a v a i lab le t ot h ea nc ien tp o t te r .I ti sl i ke ly t h a ts oc io -cu l tu ra l ,e conom ic ,a nd e ven h i s to r ica lh appen s tance a l so p l ayed k ey r o le si nt h ed e te rm ina t ion o ft e chno logy ;h ence p roven ience mu s tb ek nown b e fo re t h e w hy q ue s t ion c an e ven b e b roached . T hu s , w e s e e t e chno log ica l s t ud ie s a sw a r ran ted a nd a b so lu te ly n ece s sa ry a tp roduc t ion f a c i l i t ie s ,b u tr a re ly w a r ran ted a tc on sump t ion s i te s . T he refo re , t h eg oa l s o fc e ram ic a na ly s i s t ot h ee xcava to ro fc on sump t ion s i te s s hou ld b e d a te , u se , a nd r eg ion o fo r ig in w h i le t h e e xcava to r o f ap roduc t ion f a c i l i ty h a s af a rg rea te r r e spon s ib i l i ty : d a te , f u nc t ion ,t e chno logy , i d en t i f ica t ion o fc e ram ic v a r iab i l i ty ,m a te r ia ls ou rce s ,a nd i fp o s s ib le s ugge s t ion s w hy c e r ta in f o rm sw e re p roduced i nt h em anne ri nw h ich t h ey w e re .T oa t temp tt h e se l a t te rs t ud ies a t c on sump t ion s i te sc an o n ly b ef u t i le a nd c o s t ly . C onc lus ions A nu nde r ly ing t h eme o ft h i s c hap te r h a sb een t h a ta tt h em in imum o ne mu s ti d en t i f yt h e a na ly t ica l g oa l s f o r c e ram ic s g ene ra ted t h rough t h e a r chaeo log ica l e n te rp r i se . Wh i le a l p ro jec t s s hou ld h ave

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project specific goals, we believe that certain minimal standards are required based on the type of site under study. We have implicitly assumed that the chronological and functional goals for ceramics are valid at all sites and these goals have only been mentioned in passing in this chapter. We have argued that a third valid and necessary goal of ceramic analysis at all sites is provenience. Two basic site types have been identified, consumption sites and production facilities, and two approaches to provenience study have been identified, raw material sourcing and the use of kiln materials for sourcing. Too many variables affecting both chemical and mineralogical determinations are present to allow precise sourcing without kiln data. Thus for most consumer sites we have suggested that the provenience study be carried out only to the degree necessary to identify general geological sources (i.e., generally local vs. Anatolia, Eastern Greece, or Syrian coast) except for when it is possible to match these data with that collected at production facilities. On the other hand when kiln data are being studied we suggested that all levels of analysis be carried out (mineralogical and chemical) as far as discrimination is available in order to define the limits of variability for that production site. Together chemical and mineralogical data should be able to determine the sources for tempers and clays as well as identify aspects of the process that brought them together in the ceramic fabric. This means that the analysis of materials excavated at kiln sites will be much more detailed and expensive than at a consumption site. Again, however, xeroradiographic and heavy mineral analysis can form the groups which are sampled for chemical analysis thus providing a valid statistical basis for sampling and analysis. With such data available to archaeologists at consumption sites, it would be possible to match and identify absolute provenience. Finally we return to where we began, to the storerooms full of material excavated over a century and now relegated to shelves since their stratigr aphic provenience is suspect or unknown. We suggest that these storerooms can be reexcavated to provide current and future archaeologists with valuable data about provenience. It is now possible to date many of these pieces on the basis of morphology. At the same time they can be sourced using the techniques described previously thus providing key interpretive economic and social data about the sites with larger implications for their geographic regions. We suggest that this lode (not load) be mined before more sites are trenched. The data available from these sources certainly can play an important role in the formulation of research designs for future archaeological fieldwork, but they must be integrated into archaeological knowledge and not relegated to storage room shelves. As with all rules, there are exceptions. We suggest the exception is that fieldwork should continue in the search for and the excavation, analysis, and publication of production facilities, a vital key in unlocking additional information from the myriad tons of pottery sitting on these storeroom shelves.

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C hap ter 5

L evan t ine Mor tar ia o ft he P er s ian P er iod

J e f f rey A .B lake ly a nd W .J .B enne t t ,J r . A rcheo log ica lA s ses smen ts ,I nc . N a shv i l le ,A rkan sa s

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O L5 3 -

I

F i gu re 5 1 . C ompu te rG ene ra ted Mode l o f a Mo r ta r ium .

I n troduc t ion F igure 5 -1 i s ac ompu te r -gene ra ted i mage w e c on s t ruc ted i n1 985 w i th t he a s s i s tance o ft he f i rm o f Au toma ted G raph ic s , Hou s ton ,T exa s ,u s ing c ompu te rg raph ic se qu ipmen ta nd s o f twa re d eve loped b y t h eI n terg raph C o rpo ra t ion , Hun t sv i l le ,A labama . We c on s t ruc ted t he i mage b y me rg ing d raw ing so fa r im f r agmen t a nd b a se f r agmen t f r om t wo d i f fe ren t v es se l s . E ven t hough t h i s i mage i s ac ompo s i te r e sea rche rs f am i l ia rw i th c e ram ic sf r om t he s i x th t h rough t he f ou r th c en tu r ie sB .C . ( t he P e r s ian P er iod ) i nP a les t ine w i l l i mmed ia te ly r ecogn ize i ta so ne o ft he mo s t d i s t inc t ive " i ndex f o s s i l s" f o rt h i s p e r iod . T he se v esse l s , o r ig ina l ly s imp ly c l a s s if ied a s b ow l s , a re n ow c ommon ly d e s igna ted "mo r ta r ia" i nt he r eg iona ll i te ra tu re .

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We d i scu s sed t h e se v e s se l si no u rr epo r to ft h ee xcava t ion sa tT e l le l -He s i( Benne t ta nd B lake ly 1 989 : 1 96 -203 )a nd i na no ra lp re sen ta t ion m ade a tt h e Ame r ican S choo l so fO r ien ta lR e search a nnua l mee t ing i nA t lan ta ,G eo rg ia ,i nt h ef a l lo f1 986 .I nt ho se p re sen ta t ion sw ea r gued t ha tt h e se v e s se l sw e re n o tj u s t s ome l o ca l ly p roduced b ow l s b u t r a the r w e re m a s s -p roduced , m o ld -made g r ind ing v e s se l sw h ich w e b e l ieve t oh ave b een i mpo r ted i n to P a le s t ine i nc onnec t ion w i th P e r s ian I mpe r ia lm i l i ta ry a nd g ove rn m en ta la c t iv i t ie s . Wh i le i nt h ep age sw h ich f o l low w er e cap i tu la te m uch o ft h ee v idence a l ready p re sen ted f o rt h e se c onc lu s ion sw ed os oi n amo re n a r ra t ive f a sh ion i nt h eb e l ie ft h a tt he s t o ry o fh ow w er eached t h e se c onc lu s ion si sa tl e a s ta si mpo r tan tf o rt h ec once rn so ft h i sv o lume a st h ec onc lu s ion st h em se lve s . Two D ecade so fI nv e s t iga t ion T he B eg inn ing :N eu t ron A c t iva t ion A na l y s i sa nd R ep l i ca t ion T he J o in tE xped i t ion t oT e l le l -He s ie xcava ted a tT e l le l -He s i , am a jo rt e l ls i te i ns ou the rn I s rae l ,f r om 1 970 t h rough 1 983 ( B lake ly a nd T oomb s1 980 ;D ah lbe rg a nd O 'Conne l l1 989 ) . Du r ing t h ef i r s tp ha se o f t h i sp ro jec te mpha s i sw a s p l aced o n t h e r ecove ry o ft h em a te r ia l sf r om t h ep e r iod s o ft h es i te ' sl a te s t o ccupa t ion s .A ss t a ted a bove w eh ave j u s tp ub l i shed t h ep ro jec t ' sr epo r to nt h eP e r s ian P e r iod m a te r ia l s ( Benne t t a nd B lake ly 1 989 ) . T he r e su l t s o ft h e a na ly s i so fa ne x ten s ive Mu s l im c eme te ry o nt he s i te ' s a c ropo l i s h a s a l so b een c omp le ted ( Toomb s 1 985 ) . One o ft h e g oa l s o f t h e p ro jec t w a s t ou se n ew t e chn ique si ni t sa r chaeo log ica li n ve s t iga t ion . A s ap a r t o f t h i s e f fo r t t h e J o in t E xped i t ion , w i th t h e a s s i s tance o f t h e B rookhav en N a t iona l L abo ra to r ie s ,i n i t ia ted ar a the ra mb i t iou sp rog ram o fN eu t ron A c t iva t ion Ana ly s i s( NAA ) .D i rec ted b y Do ro thea W .B rook s ,t h i sp rog ram w a sa imed a td e te rm in ing t h es ou rce f o rm any o ft he c e ram ic i t em s r ecove red a tt h es i te ( Brook s 1 975 ;B rook se ta !1 974 ;B iebe re ta !1 976 ) .I nt h eb eg inn ing t h ec ho ice o f e xamp le s t ob e s t ud ied w a s , t o p u t i tm i ld ly , s omewha t h aphaz a rd . Ou r s amp l ing s t ra teg y w a s n o t p a r t icu la r ly s y s tema t ic b u td i dm anage t oc ove r av a r ie ty o fd i f f e ren tc e ram ic f o rm sa nd f a b r ic s .A sp a r t o ft h i se f fo r tw es amp led s e ve ra l mo r ta r ium f r agmen t sa nd ,t oo u rc on s ide rab le s u rp r i se ,B rook sj udged a l lt oh ave b een m ade f r om n on loca lc l ay s . We e xpec ted t h eA t t ic b l ack -g lazed v e s se l st ob ei mpor ted , b u tt h e se w e re " f ine w a re" p i ece s w h ich w et hough tw e re v a luab le i nt h e i r o wn r i gh t . We e xpec ted a n umbe ro ft h es t o rage c on ta ine r st ob en on loca l ,a mpho rae a nd t h el i ke ,b u tt h e se w e re u sed t ot r an spo r t c ommod i t ie st ot h es i te .T of i nd , h oweve r ,t h a tt h e se r a the rc rude l o ok ing v e s se l s wh ich c ou ld n o th av e s e rved t ot r an spo r ts ome th ing mo re v a luab le t h an t h ev e s se l st h em se lve sw e re n o t manu f ac tu red l o ca l ly w a ss ome th ing w eh ad n o te xpec ted .A sr eade r sw i l ls e e ,w eh ad n o tr e ad o u rP e t r ie a nd B l i s sw e l le nough . F o r tuna te ly f o r u s , t h e 1 971 a nd 1 973 f i e ld t e am s i n c luded p rac t ic ing p o t te r s a s p a r t o ft h e s t a f f . R icha rd F inman s e rved a ss t a f fp o t te ri n1 973 a nd w a s ap a r t ic ipan ta tt h ea f te rnoon a nd e ven ing " po t te r y r ead ing " s e s s ion s a sw e l l a s ar egu la r a tt h e " a f te r h ou r s" g a the r ing s a tt h e B a r S ha lom w he re s uch w e igh ty i s sue s a sv e s se l f unc t ion a nd o r ig in sw e re h o t ly d eba ted .I na dd i t ion t ot he q ue s t ion o fw hy a v e s se lw h ich a r chaeo log i s t sj udged t ob e s o c r ude w a s i mpo r ted t ot h e s i te F inman b ecame i n t r igued w i th w ha th ev i ewed a st h ep ecu l ia rt e chno log ica lc ha rac te r i s t ic so ft h e mo r ta r ium f r agmen t sr ecove red f r om t h es i te .A f te re xam in ing n ume rou sp i ece so f mo r ta r ia a nd n o t ing t h el a ck o ft r ue w hee lm a rk sa s w e l la st h ea ngu la r s hape o ft h e b roken s he rd s , F inman s ugge s ted t h a t t h e se v e s se l sw e re c on s t ruc ted u s ing mo ld sr a the rt h an b e ing t h rown o n aw hee l . A so ne m ean st ot e s tt h i sp o s s ib i l i ty F inman c onduc ted af i e ld e xpe r imen tw h ich w a sb eg un w i th t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f ap l a s te r -o f -Pa r i sj i gge r mo ld m ade t ot h e i n te r io r d imen s ion s u sua l ly f o und i nt h e se v e s se l s . As amp le o fl o ca l c l ay w a sp repa red , r o l led o u t o n as hee ta nd t h en p l aced o ve rt h e mo ld . B y p l ac ing t h ec l ay c ove red mo ld o n aw hee l F inman w a se a s i ly a b le t of o ld o ve rt h et op r im a nd c u t t h e g roove so nt h ev e s se l ' s e x te r io rs i de a st h ew hee lt u rned .T h i se x amp le w a sf i n i shed b ya dd ing al a rge r i ng b a se .A f te rb e ing f i red i n ak i ln c on s t ruc ted a tt h es i te b yF inman a nd p ro jec tg eo log i s tF rank K oucky ( s ee f i g .5 2 ) ,t h i sv e s se lw a sv i sua l ly i n d i s t ingu i shab le i nf o rm f r om t ho se made i na n t iqu i ty . T ha t F inman c ou ld p roduce av e s se l w h ich l o oked l i ke amo r ta r ium w a s , o fc ou r se , n o t d e f in i t ive p roo ft h a t i tw a s p roduced i nt h e m anne r s ugge s ted b yF inman b u t n e i the rc ou ld i tb e d i sm i s sed . O f c ou r se ,l i ke a l g ood h ypo the se s ,F inman ' st h e s i s ,n ow c on s ide rab ly s t reng thened b yt h i se xpe r imen ti n r ep l ica t ion ,r a i sed m o re q ue s t ion st h an i ts o lved .S pec i f ica l ly ,w ha tm igh tt h i sm e thod o fp roduc t ion h av e t od o w i th t h e f a c t t h a t i ti si mpo r ted? I n i t ia l ly , w e c on jec tu red t h a t t h i s s imp ly mean t t h a tb y ma s s

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F i gure 5 -2 . R icha rd F i nman ( s tand ing ) a nd F rank K oucky ( knee l ing ) o bserv ing t he t es tf i r ing o fa mode rn o pen -a i rk i ln . A n u ps ide -down mo r ta r ium i st he u ppe rr i gh t -hand v esse l .

p roduc ing t he v es se l i t s m anu fac tu re rs g a ined a s i gn i f ican t e conom ic a dvan tage i nb ow l p roduc t ion b ecause o fe conom ie so fs c a le b u tt h i sn a ive n o t ion w a sq u ick ly d i sca rded . T he R ecen tR eg iona lL i te ra tur e B yt he e nd o f1 973 w eb e l ieved t ha tw eh ad d e term ined t ha tt hese v es se ls w ere i mpor ted i n to P a le s t ine a nd w e h ad a s as t rong w o rk ing h ypo the s i st ha t t h e se h ad b een ma ss -produced u s ing ac omb ina t ion o f j i gge r -mo ld ing a nd w hee lf i n ish ing . Wi th t h i s i nm ind w eb egan a n e xam ina t ion o ft he r ecen tr eg iona l l i t e ra ture i na n a t temp t t od e term ine i fs uch h ad e ve rb een s ugges ted . No t o n ly d id t h i s s ea rch r evea l t h a tn oo ne e l se h ad made s uch as ugge s t ion ,w ha tw ef ound i nt he r eg iona la rchaeo log ica ll i t era tu re u p t ot h a tt ime ,t he m id -1970 s ,w a ss oi n te res t ing w eb e l ieve i tt ob ew o r th r ecap i tu la t ing a tt h i st ime . Our " l i te ra ture r ev iew "b egan w i th ac on s idera t ion o ft he r epo r ts o fe xcava t ions a t ma jo rt e l ls i tes . We f ound t ha te xamp le so fo u rv e sse l sw ere d e sc r ibed a nd i lus t ra ted i nt he r epo r ts o fi n ves t iga t ion sa t n umerous " h igh v i s ib i l i ty" s i tes i nP a les t ine i n c lud ing A shdod ( Bach i1 971 : 1 01 , 1 04 ,1 07 , 13 , 14 ;F ig s . 4 5 :15 , 5 0 :1 , a nd 5 3 :8 ) , Hazo r ( e .g . , Y ad in e ta l1 958 : P l . 7 9 :17 -20 , 2 3 -27 ; 1 960 : 7 5 : 2 0 -23 ) , Meg iddo ( Lamon a nd S h ip ton 1 939 ) , L ach i sh ( Tu fne l l 1 953 : 2 79 -80 ) ,T e l l Abu Hawam ( Ham i l ton 1 934 :F ig .4 ) , T e l le n -Na sbeh (Wamp le r1 947 :37 ,143 ,171 ,P l s .2 9a nd 5 9 ) ,E n -Ged i (Maza r , Do than ,a nd Dunayev sky 1 966 : 2 7 , F ig . 1 6 :1 ,2 ) , a nd S he ikh Z uwe id ( Pe tr ie 1 937 : P l .3 2 , T ype 8 R ) t o men t ion o n ly af ew . Wh i le m any o ft he se p ub l ica t ion sc on ta ined i lus t ra t ion s a nd d esc r ip t ion s t hey d id n o t i n c lude d i scu s s ions o f t h e n a tu re a nd /o r o r ig in o ft he se v es se l s . No t s u rp r i s ing ly , w hen d i scu s s ions w e re p rov ided t hey w ere c oncerned s o le ly w i th t he c h rono log ica lr ange o ft h ese v e sse l s . I mpor tan ti nt h i sc onnec t ion w a st he p ub l ica t ion o fe xamp le sf r om as ma l l , l a te -seven th c en tu ry B .C . f o r tress e xcava ted a t Me sad Ha shavyahu b yJ o seph N aveh . I n ap re l im ina ry r epo r t a ppea r ing i n1 962 , N aveh p ub l i shed t wo f l a t -ba sed mo r ta r ia ( Naveh 1 962 :F ig .4 : 16 ,17 )a sw e l la s ag rea tq uan t i ty o fM idd le W i ld Goa t Ip o t tery a nd o ther i mpo r ted c ook ing w a re t he l a t ter t wo t ypes o fp o t tery w e re k nown t o o r ig ina te i nA s ia M ino ro rt he G reek I s lands . He a rgued t ha tt he se v es se l sw ere i nP a le s t ine b efo re t he e nd o ft he s even th c en tury B .C . Q ues t ion sr ega rd ing t he i ro r ig in o rf unc t ion w ere n o tr a i sed . -

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I na l lt he l i te ra tu re c i ted t ot h i sp o in ti ti sc l ea rt ha tr e sea rche r sr ega rded t he se v es se ls a sl o ca lp roduc t s a nd t ha t t hey c on s idered t hem t ob e b ow l s . T he d i scus s ion o fL . A . S inc la i r , w ho p ub l i shed t h e s i x th c en tury p o t te ry f r om B e the le xcava ted b e tween 1 934 a nd 1 960 b yW .F .A lb r igh ta nd J .L .K e l so , wou ld s eem t ob e af a i r s t a temen t o fo p in ion . Af ew mo r ta r ia w e re p re sen t i nt h i s c o rpu s ( S inc la i r 1 968 : P l . 8 0 :7 )a sw e l la st he l a rge t h ick -r im P a le s t in ian b ow l so ft he e nd o ft h eI r on I o fP a les t ine ( S inc la i r1 968 : 7 1 -72 ; P l . 6 4 :1 ,2 ) . A s s hown b y t he f o l low ing q uo ta t ion S inc la i r c onc luded t ha t t he mo r ta r ium wa s a t y po log ica ld eve lopmen tf r om t he t h ick -r im P a le s t in ian b ow l so ft h eI r on I ( S inc la ir 1 968 :7 2n . 27 ) . S ome h ave s moo th s i des i n s tead o f aw avy p rof i le , wh i le o the rs h ave af l a tb a se i n s tead o f af l anged r i ng b a se .T he i rc h ie fc ha rac te r i s t ic sa re h eav ine s sa nd c oa rsene s s .T hey a l la ppear t oh ave b een t h rown o n aw hee l , b u ti ti sd oub t fu l t ha tt hey r ece ived l a te rr ef inemen tb yt he t u rne r ... T h is c an c ha rac te r ize mo s to ft he l o ca l ly made p o t tery i nP a les t ine d u r ing I r on I I . We c anno t d raw d ef in i te c onc lu s ion sf o rt he h i s tory o ft he c oun try a tt h i st ime ,b u tu n ref ined p o t tery f i t si n to t he p i c tu re o ft he e a r ly p os t -ex i l ic p e r iod . .

I n 1 970 P au l L app p ub l i shed t he f i r s tg ene ra l d i scu s s ion d evo ted s pec i f ica l ly a nd s o le ly t oP ers ian P e r iod c e ram ic s( Lapp 1 970 ) .A st he i n t roduc t ion t ot h i sa r t ic le i l u s t ra tes ,t he i n ten to ft h i se f fo r tw a s t op rov ide r e sea rche rs w i th e xamp le s o ft he b es t " i ndex f o s s i l s" f o r a nd w i th in t h is p er iod . "Wh i le i n s ome p e r iod s o fP a les t ine 's h i s tory , r ep re sen ta t ive c e ram ic g roup sc an b e a s s igned d a te sw i th in h a l fa c en tu ry , u p t o t he p resen t n o a rchaeo log i s t h a s v en tu red a p rec i se s pec if ica t ion o f t he d i f fe rence s b e tween e a r l ier a nd l a ter l o ca lp o t te ry i nt he p e r iod f r om 5 87 t o3 32 B .C . T h i sc hap ter a t temp ts af i r s t s t ep t owa rd a more p rec i se u nde r s tand ing o f t he d eve lopmen t o f P a le s t in ian c eram ic f o rm s i n t h i s p e r iod" ( Lapp 1 970 : 1 79 ) . L app b a sed t h i ss t udy o fP er s ian -Per iod c e ram ic v es se l so nw ha th ec on s idered t ob et h eb e s te x tan t s t ra t if ied d epo s i ts i nP a le s t ine a nd h ep resen ted av a r ie ty o fe xamp le so fv es se l sc a l led mo r ta r ia .V iew ing t he Me sad Ha shavyahu e v idence a ss t ra t ig raph ica l ly m ixed ( Lapp 1 970 :1 84 n . 28 )L app a rgued t ha tt hey w e re s o le ly P e rs ian -Pe r iod v e sse l s( s ix th t h rough t he f ou r th c en tu r ie sB .C .) . Wh i le h eg ave n oi n d ica t ion t ha th e t hough t t he se v e s se l sw e re o fn on -Pa le s t in ian o r ig in h ed i sag reed w i th S inc la ir 's a s se r t ion t ha t t hey w e re c on t inua t ion s o ft he I r on I b ow l t r ad i t ion . A s se r t ing t h a t mo r ta r ia w e re a b sen t f r om e a r ly p o s t I ron I s i te s L app s t a ted t ha t " Th i s w ou ld p u t ag ap b e tween t he d i sappea rance o fI r on I b ow l t y pe sw i thou tb u rn i sh ing a nd t he i n t roduc t ion o f mo r ta r ia .T h i sp lu st he s ma l le rc apac i ty o ft h e mor ta r ia a rgue a ga in s t l i nk ing t he i rt ypo logy ." ( Lapp 1 970 : 1 84 n . 28 ) .A l though d i sag ree ing w i th S inc la i ro nt he e xac t" ped ig ree" f o rt hese v es se l sL app g i ve sn oi nd ica t ion t ha th es u spec t st hem t ob ei mpo r t s o rt ha t h ev i ew st hem a sa ny th ing o ther t han s ome s o r to fc on ta ine r . T hu s ,a l though t he l i t era ture n eve re xp l ic i t ly d i scu ssed t he p o s s ib le f unc t ion o ft hese v e s se l s ,i ti st he c l ea rc onsen su s o fp ub l i shed o p in ion i nt h e l i t e ra tu re w eh ad r ev iewed t ot h i sp o in t t ha t t h e se v es se l s w e re l o ca l p roduc t s w h ich c on t inued e x i s t ing c eram ic t r ad i t ion s ; c onc lu s ion s wh ich w e re i n d i rec t c onf l ic tw i th o u r f i nd ing s . Ano the rv e ry i n te re s t ing a spec tt ot h i ss ea rch w a s t on o te t ha t t h ese v es se l s w e re o f ten ,b u tn o ta lway s ,c a l led mo r ta r ia a nd w eb egan t ow onde rw ha tt he o r ig in a nd m ean ing o ft h i s t e rm m igh t b e . T h i s c a l led f o r a no the r r ound o f " l i te ra tu re r ev iew ," o n ly t h i s t ime w e c on s ide red l i t e ra tu re f r om e l sewhe re i nt he Med i te r ranean Wo r ld a nd f r om a ne a r l ier g ene ra t ion o fr e sea rcher s . C las s ica lC lue s I tw a s o u r r ev iew o fw ha t m igh t b e c a l led t h e l i t e ra tu re o fc l a s s ica l a rchaeo logy wh ich p rov ided u s w i th t he s econd ma jo r i n s igh t i n to t h i s r ema rkab le s t o ry .T h i sw a st he d i scovery o f mo ld -made v esse l s i nt he s i x th t of ou r th c en tury B .C . m a te r ia l sf r om t he A then ian Ago ra ;v es se l sw h ich w ere c a l led mo r ta r s . S pa rkes a nd T a ico t tw ro te ( 1970 : 3 6 -37 ) : T he u se o f mou ld sw a sn o ta nA then ian t e chn ique f o rt he manufac tu re o fd omes t ic p o t te ry ; mo s t o ft he p o t sm ade i n mou ld ss hown h e re a re mo r ta r so rl ou te r ia f r om t he C o r in th ian t i le f a c to r ie s . . . T he f i ne p a le h igh ly p l a s t ic C o r in th ian c l ay w a sh eav i ly t empe red w i th t he l oca ls ha le o rh o rn fe ls . . . I tw a s n o t w e l l a dap ted t ou se o n t h e w hee l , b u t w hen p re s sed o r t h rown i n amou ld i ts e rved a dm irab ly f o rs ha l low b a s ins .B yt h i sm e thod t he p o t sc ou ld b e made e x treme ly d urab le s i nce t he mou ld p rov ided s u ff ic ien ts uppo r tf o rt h et h ick s p read ing w a l l ss ot ha tt he p o t wh i le d ry ing w ou ld

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not warp, buckle or develop cracks... The product was so satisfactory for its purposes that Corinthian mortars and louteria were a continuing article of import in Athens. To be sure the examples of these mortaria had only a vague formal resemblance to our vessels and their fabrics did not appear to have much in common with ours. Moreover, it seemed as if different types of molds, convex rather than concave, had been used in their production. Never mind all that, for the first time the term mortarium meant something to us besides "large drab bowl." A mortarium was a grinding bowl and we now knew that the Greeks, at least in Athens, were in the habit of using imported, mold-made grinding bowls. At about this same time one of our Hesi colleagues, Michael Coogan, reported on his efforts to determine when the term had entered our literature. While he was unable to determine the earliest use in the Palestinian literature he discovered that it had been used since the middle of the 19th century, 1872 to be precise (Smith 1872: 768-69), in the literature of classical archaeology. These discoveries encouraged us to continue to expand our search. We discovered that similar vessels had been reported from Cyprus (e.g., Gjerstad et al 1935: 773 #2747 and Pl. 187 where it was suggested to be a pithos cover) and at Mersin in Anatolia (Barnett 1935: 107 and Pl. 52:1). G. M.A. Hanfmann's publication of the Iron Age pottery from Tarsus provided us with a number of examples which on form and fabric seemed to resemble our vessels rather closely. These "heavy deep bowls" were called mortars. These vessels were common at the site and Hanfmann identified most of them as local to Tarsus from the eleventh century through the sixth century B.C. (the terminus for the material considered in that study). These local mortars Hanfmann considered as part of the "Local White" ware group but asserted that "Some mortars of the same type are, however, imported" (Hanfmann 1963: 71). We found his discussion of the imported mortars to be most instructive (Hanfmann 1963: 90): Clay is dark brown to brick red (when wet), and pink, when dry. Biscuit homogeneous, porous, strongly laminated. It absorbs water with rapidity and noise. The grit seems to have been preground. It seems to consist of sand and limestone particles which are whiter than in the average Tarsian clay. Some are very large. Those visible on external surface measure up to 2.5 mm. Quartz grains (to about 20 per cent) are also clearly visible. The white slip is not a self-slip but a thick cream to buff coat, clearly prepared separately and used to attain a definite effect. The interior is often carefully smoothed. Next to local examples of the popular local shape, there were found in each period a number of mortars of pink clay described above. These seemed to me in clay and slip to be so similar to some mortars from the Amuq in the Antioch Museum that they must be considered imports at Tarsus. The mortars have a pendent thickened rim (923). The walls are sometimes ribbed (299). The flat base is string-cut (922). This shape continues to be used in many countries to this day. In Cyprus, where this tradition was perhaps never broken, peasants are said to use such mortars as milk bowls and for making cheese. To our delight Hanfmann even went so far as to link his imported vessels to published examples from Palestine (Hanfmann 1963: 90 n.218, n.219) as with Catalogue Number 298/299 "This is quite certainly a non-Tarsian 'imported white' mortar. Practically identical mortar in Antioch, from Al Mina. Similar white mortars occur in the Persian period at Tell Qasile 6, Megiddo I, Athlit, and Gezer" (Hanfmann 1963: 187). Another study of mortaria from this same general area, although from a much later time period was also suggestive. This was a study by John W. Hayes of a particular type of stamped mortarium whose distribution had been traced around the eastern Mediterranean and westward into Greece, Italy and Britain. A central focus of this study was the description of the discovery of the region of origin for these vessels. Hayes wrote (1967: 340-42): The exact center of manufacture of this group of mortaria can now be identified, thanks to a chance discovery made by Miss Honor Frost during the course of investigations along the Syrian 49

c oa s ti nt he s umme ro f1 964 . Among t h e p lace sv i s i ted b yM i s sF ro s tw a st he a nc ien ts i te a t Ra s e l -Ba s i t , s ome t wen ty -f ive k i lome te r s t o t he s ou thwes t o f t h e mou th o f t he O ron te s , w h ich i s g ene ra l ly i d en t if ied a st he s i te o ft he a nc ien t P o s ide ion . Ac on s iderab le n umber o f mo r ta r ium s t amp so ft he c l a s sh e re d i scu s sed w e re r ecovered f r om h ere b yM .S ey r ig a nd o the r ss ome y ea rs a go ,a nd f u r ther i n ve s t iga t ion l ed t ot he d i scove ry o fc l ear t r aces o fp roduc t ion o nt he s po t .I nt he f i e ld s i nt he v i c in i ty o ft he a nc ien t s i te M i s s F ro s t i n fo rm s m e t ha t s he e ncoun tered n umerou s f u r ther f r agmen ts ,s ome w i th t he f am i l ia rs t amp s , wh ich h ad b een t u rned u pb yt he l o ca lf a rme rs i np lough ing ; i ns ome c a se s t hese h ad b een h eaped u p i np i le s i no rder t oc l ea r t he g round . A s i gn if ican tp ropo r t ion o ft hese w e re k i ln -wa s te r s ,i ns ome c a se sc omp le te ly v i tr if ied .C lea r ly t he se i nd ica te manu fac tu re i nt he i mmed ia te v i c in i ty . S im i la rc oncen t ra t ion so f mor tar ium f r agmen t s o fs im i la r t y pe w e re n o ted i n t he c o s ta l r eg ion t o t he n o r th o f Ra s e l -Ba s i t , e x tend ing o ver a d i s tance o fs eve ra lm i les ; o ther f a c to r ie sw e re p re sumab ly l o ca ted h e re .I na dd i t ion , ar e la t ive ly c omp le te s pec imen w a sr ecove red f r om a na nc ien tw reck i nt h ev i c in i ty ,f u rn i sh ing d i rec te v idence o fh ow t hese l a rge a nd c umber some v e s se l sw e re e xpo r ted . A l though t he se w ere c e r ta in ly n o t" ou r" mo r ta r ia t he d i scovery o f ap roduc t ion c en te rf o r mor ta r ia i nt he r eg ion w he re w et hough to u rv es se l so r ig ina ted w a s mo s te ncourag ing .F u r thermore ,H aye s 's s t udy d i rec ted o u ra t ten t ion much f a r the rw e s tt han w em igh th ave o the rw i se h ave l ooked a nd w ec ame a c ro s s t wo v ery i mpo r tan ts t ud ies r ega rd ing t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f mo r ta r ia i nB r i ta in w i th t he i n tr igu ing t i t le s" The Ma rke t ing a nd D i s t r ibu t ion o f Mo r ta r ia" ( Ha r t ley 1 973 )a nd " Two Ma jo rP o t te r ie sP roduc ing Mor ta r ia i nt he F i rs tC en tury A .D ." ( Ha r t ley 1 977 ) .A tt he r i sk o fo ver s imp l i f y ing t he c on ten ts o ft he se s t ud ies w e s aw t ha tt hey p re sen ted ap i c tu re o fc en t ra l ized p roduc t ion c en te r ss pec ia l iz ing i n mor ta r ia ( w i th s ome o the rp roduc t sl i ke b r ick )o r ig ina l ly c rea ted t os e rve t h en eed so ft h e Roman L eg ion s wh ich e vo lved i n to mo re d i spe rsed c en ter s o fp roduc t ion mee t ing t he d emand a tc i v i l ian ma rke t s . We q uo te t h es umma ry p re sen ted i nt he e a r l ie ro ft he se t wo s t ud ies ( Ha r t ley 1 973 : 4 3 ) : S tamped mo r ta r ia a re o fe spec ia li n te re s ti np e rm i t t ing t he w o rk o ft he i rp o t te rs t ob et r aced w i th e ase ;w i th t hem i tb ecome sp o s s ib le t os t udy t he ma rke ts o fd i f f e ren tp o t te r ies a nd t h e i rv a ry ing f o r tune st h roughou tt he e a r l ier Roman p er iod .S tamped mo r ta r ia i mpo r ted t oB r i ta in mos t ly i n t he f i r s tc en tury a re k nown t oh ave b een made i nI t a ly ,o nt he b o rder so f Ga l l ia Lugdunen s i sa nd Ga l l ia N a rbonen s i s ,i n Ga l l ia B e lg ica a nd p e rhap st he n o r th -ea s te rn s ec to ro f Ga l l ia L ugdunens i s . B r i t ish manu fac ture b egan e a r ly a nd b yA .D . 1 00 a tt he l a te s tB r i ta in w a ss e l f -suff ic ien tf o rt he i r p roduc t ion . Ma rke t s a nd p o t te r s i nB r i ta in p re sen t av a r ied p i c tu re r ang ing f r om i n d iv idua l p o t te rs s e rv ing av ery l o ca l ma rke tt ol a rge i ndu s tr ia lc oncern s .T he l a t te rc an o f ten b es hown t o h ave p roduced f o r ma rke ts o ver as ub s tan t ia lp a r to ft he p rov ince ,t r ade w i th m i l i ta ry s i t e so f ten b e ing p rom inen t . Wh i le c l ea r ly n o td ea l ing w i th o u rv e s se l s ,t hese s t ud ie ss e rved t og i ve u sc on s ide rab le f ood f o rt hough t i nc on s ide r ing t he p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f mo r ta r ia i ng ene ra l . P e t ri ea nd B l i s s T he se w ere n o tt he o n ly d i scove r ie so fc on sequence w e made d u r ing t h is s econd r ound o fs t udy . We a l so d i scove red t ha to u rv e s se l sf i r s ta ppea red i nt he r eg iona la rchaeo log ica ll i t era ture when S i r Wi l l iam Ma t thew F l inde r s P e tr ie r epo r ted o nh i s e xcava t ion s a tt he c i ty o fN auk ra t i s i nt he N i le D e l ta ( Pe tr ie 1 886 ) .I nt h i sr epo r tP e t r ie i l us t ra ted a ne xamp le w h ich w a sr ecove red i n tac tf r om t he T emp le o f Apo l lo ( Pe t r ie 1 886 :P 1 .4 ) .T hese v e s se l sw e re p a r t icu la r ly r ema rkab le b ecau se o ft he G reek i n sc r ip t ion si nc i sed o nt hem .P e t r ie d e sc r ibed i ta s a" Rough d rab b ow l d ed ica ted t o Apo l lo ( Pe tr ie 1 886 : C on ten ts ) ," a nd h ed a ted i tt ot he s i x th a nd f i f th c en tu r ie sB .C .( Pe tr ie 1 886 :P l .4 ) . Appa ren t ly ,t he se v esse l sw e re c ommon a tt he s i te e ven t hough o n ly t h is s i ng le e xamp le w a sp ub l i shed ( Pe t r ie 1 892 : 2 05 ) . P e tr ie w a sa l so r e spon s ib le f o rt he n ex ta rchaeo log ica l men t ion o ft h ese v e s se l s . Th is a ppea red i nt h e r epo r t o f h i s s i x w eek s o f i n ve s t iga t ion s a t T e l l e l -He s i i n 1 890 w here h e f i r s t u n i ted s t ra t ig raph ic e xcava t ion w i th c e ram ic i n ve s t iga t ion s . B e fo re t he e xcava t ion o fa ny t r enches a t Hes i P e t r ie i n spec ted t h en a tura ls c a rp o nt he e a s ts i de o ft he s i te a nd n o ted t ha tc e ram ic sc hanged a sh e moved u pa nd d own f r om l a ye rt ol a ye r .T h i s o b serva t ion w a st ob ecome t he b a s i sf o rt h ec eram ic c h rono logy o fP a les t ine ; c eram ic f o rm s c hanged o ve r t ime a nd i tw a s p o s s ib le t od e te rm ine d a te s w hen c e r ta in c e ram ic f o rm s w e re i nu se a nd t h rough s uch o b serva t ion d a te t he l a ye r s i nw h ich t h ese c eram ic sw ere f o und . A s t he

5 0

f i r s ts t eps i nf o rm ing t h i sc e ram ic c h rono logy ,P e t r ie d rew o nh i se xpe r ience i nE gyp tt od a te t he i t em s w h ich w ere c ommon b e tween E gyp ta nd He s i .T hus Mycanean a nd C yp r io tw a re sh e lped d a te t he L a te B ronze Age a nd G reek w a re sh e lped d a te t he l a te I r on Age ,P e r s ian P er iod ,a nd He l len i s t ic P e r iod o f P a le s t ine . We n o te p a ren the t ica l ly t ha t s ub sequen t r e sea rch h a s d one l i t t le t o c hange P e t r ie 's b as ic c h rono log ica lf r amewo rk ,a tl e a s ta sf a rb ack a sc a . 1500 B .C . A sw e s t a ted a bove T e l le l -Hes i i s ap rom inen tt e l ls i te i ns ou the rn I s rae l who se l a tes tu se i n c luded o ccupa t ions f r om t he s i x th t h rough t he f ou r th c en tu ry B .C . Wh en P e tr ie e xam ined t he u ppe r l a ye rs o f t h es i te h e f ound ag rea tq uan t i ty o fG reek B lack -a nd R ed -F igu re Wa re a sw e l l a sB lack -G laze Wa re . T he se i t em s ,h a l lma rk so ft h e s i x th , f i f th , a nd f ou r th c en tu r ies B .C . , w ere w e l l k nown t oP e t r ie f r om h i s w o rk a t Nauk ra t i sa nd D aphnae a nd t h rough c ompa r i son sw i th ma ter ia l sb e ing e xcava ted a nd c o l lec ted i nG reece . B yd raw ing o n t h i s e xpe r ience P e tr ie w a s a b le t od a te t he f i na l o ccupa t ion a t He s i a nd i t s l o ca lc eram ic so ft ha t p e r iod .A s i th appened , t he " rough d rab b ow l" w a sa l so c ommon a t He s id u r ing t h i ss ame p e r iod ,j u s ta si th ad b een a tN auk ra t i s( Pe tr ie 1 891 : 4 8 ; 1 892 :2 04 -205 ) . I nt he p ub l ica t ion o ft h e Hes ie xcava t ion ,P e t r ie s t a ted t ha tt he " th ick d rab b ow l" w a s aG reek i mpo r t ( Pe t r ie 1 891 :4 8 ) : T he G r eek p o t te ry b eg in st oa ppea ra se a r ly a s7 00 o r8 00 B .C . T he mo s ti mpo r tan tc a se i st ha to f t he t h ick d rab b ow l s( 222 -224 ) ,w i th as moo th s phe r ica li n s ide a nd r i b so u t s ide .T he se a re c ommon a t Nauk ra t i s , o n t he w es t o ft he De l ta , b e ing f ound among t he e a r ly d ed ica t ion s o ft he Apo l lo t emp le a bou t6 50 t o5 50 B .C . B u tt hey a re w ho l ly u nknown i nt he G reek t own o f Defenneh ,o nt he S y r ian r oad , a tj u s tt he s ame p e r iod .I ti sc l ea rt hen t ha t t he i ru se i nS y r ia d id n o t a r i se f r om t he G reek s e t t lemen ts i nE gyp t , a s t hey a re d i s t inc t ly a b sen t o n t he l i ne o fc ommun ica t ion , w h i le c ommon a t at own much f u r ther o f f . T hey mu s t t he refore h ave r e su l ted f r om ama r i t ime i n te r c ourse . I n al a ter p ub l ica t ion P e t r ie w a s t op lace mo re o f ac hrono log ica l mean ing o n t he p resence o ft he " r ough d rab b ow ls" a tN auk ra t i sa nd t he i ra b sence f r om Daphnae . He a rgued t ha ti ts hou ld b ee a r l ie r t h an t he B lack - a nd R ed -F igu re Wa re s i nce i tw a s f ound a t Nauk ra t i s a nd n o t Daphnae . T hu s P e tr ie c onc luded t ha t t he " rough d rab b ow l" w a s G reek a nd s hou ld b e d a ted " p robab ly e a r l ie r t han t he f o und ing o f Daphnae i n6 64 B .C . , d ur ing t he r e ign o f Mana s seh ( Pe t r ie 1 892 : 2 05 ) ." I na dd i t ion ,P e tr ie c on s idered t he d i spe rs ion o ft h i sv es se lt ob e ar e su l to fG reek t r ade o rG reek me rcena r ies ( Pe tr ie 1 892 : 2 04 -205 ) . P e tr ie o n ly c onduc ted t e s te xcava t ion a tT e l le l -He s i ,b u ti n1 891 a nd 1 892 F .J .B l i ss e xcava ted a bou t o ne th ird o ft he s i te 's a c ropo l i s .B l i s sc oncur red w i th P e tr ie 's c onc lu s ions r egard ing t hese v e s se ls ( 1894 : 1 2 1 ) , " Cer ta in t y pe s o fG reek p o t te ry h ad a bou t t he s ame r ange a s t he J ew i sh , t hough n o t a ppea r ing q u i te s oe a r ly .T hey o ccu r red i nC i ty V I . , a nd o nt he t op . Among t he se a re t he t h ick d rab b ow l s ,w i th a s moo th ,s phe r ica li n s ide ,a nd r i b so u t s ide. T hu s ,B l i s s ,t oo ,i den t if ied t he b ow l sa sG reek a nd d a ted t h em f r om t he s even th c en tury t oa bou tt he f ou r th c en tury B .C . .. "

I n1 902 a f ter e xcava t ing f ou rt e l l si nt he S hephe lah ,B l i s sp repa red as ummary o fc e ram ic a na ly s i si n w h ich h ew ro te : A ssoc ia ted w i th t he l o ca lw a re o ft h i sp e r iod a re t wo c l a s se so fG reek w are ,d oub t le s si mpo r ted . T he e a r l ier t ypes d a te i nE gyp tf r om t he s even th a nd s i x th c en tu r ie sB .C . T hey i n c lude a mpho rae w i th ma s s ive l oop h and le s , t h ick d rab b ow ls w i th as moo th s phe r ica li n ter io ra nd r i bbed o u ts ide s urface ( T .H . , No s . 2 22 -226 , P l . I X ) , a nd l amp sw i th w ide f l a tb r im ( No . 2 ,P l . 6 6 ) .S ome l amp s w ere f ound w ho le , b u t t he a mpho rae a nd b ow l s w e re a lway s i n f r agmen ts . T he s econd c l a s s c ons is ts o ft he w e l l -known g l azed f i gure w a re d a t ing f r om 5 50 t o3 50 1 902 : 1 01 )

B .C .

( B l i s sa nd Maca l is te r

T h is s u mmary t e l l s u s t h a t e i gh t a dd i t iona l y ea r s o fe xpe r ience h ad p rov ided n o th ing wh ich w ou ld s ugge s t t o B l i s s e i ther d i f fe ren t d a te s o r ad i f f eren t p o in t o f manufac tu re f o rt hese v e s se ls . S ob y 1 902 P e t r ie a nd B l i s sh ad b o th s ugge s ted ,o nt he b a s is o fc ompa ra t ive c o l lec t ions f r om s eve ra lP a les t in ian a nd E gyp t ian s i te s , t ha t t he se v e sse ls w e re i mpo r ted i n to t he r eg ion d u r ing w ha t c ame t ob e k nown a s t he

5 1

P e r s ian P er iod . T he se s ugge s t ions , h oweve r ,w ere a lmo s tt o ta l ly i g no red b yt he n ex t t h ree g enera t ion s o fr e sea rche rs . A l though S chumache r f ound s ome o f o u r v es se l s a t Meg iddo , Maca l is te r i den t if ied t h e se a s " V s haped s auce rs" a t Gezer w h ich h ed a ted ,a ppa ren t ly ,f r om t he e nd o ft he s even th c en tu ry i n to p robab ly t he s econd c en tu ry B .C . ,a tw h ich t ime ,h en o ted ,t hey w e re f a i r ly c ommon . He d e sc r ibed t h em a s" u sua l ly o f ah a rd c ompac t y e l low w a re , w i th f l a t b a ses , s t ra igh t s i des , a nd h eav i ly mo lded mou th ." I n t h i s Maca l i s ter w a st he s o le a rchaeo log i s tt oa s soc ia te mo ld ing o fa ny s o r tw i th t he v e s se l (Maca l i s te r1 912a : 2 01 ; 1 912b :P l . 1 74 :5 ) . T he n ex t ma jo rP a les t in ian p ro jec tt od i scus st hese v es se l sw a st he Ha rva rd E xcava t ion sa tS ama r ia c onduc ted b e tween 1 908 a nd 1 910 .T he se e xcava to rs t ended n o tt ol ook f o rc e ram ic p a ra l le ls b eyond t he i r own p ro jec t a nd t hey b e l ieved t ha t c e ram ic t e chn ique a nd ma te r ia l s hou ld b e t h e b as i s f o r c h rono log ica l a r rangemen t w i th in a s t ra t ig raph ic f r amewo rk ( Re i sne r , F i sher , a nd L yon 1 924 : 2 74 ) . T hu s ,i nt he i rs ec t ion o nt he c e ram ic so ft he " Baby lon io -Grec ian p e r iod" t hey p ub l ished ad esc r ip t ion a nd i lus t ra t ion o f a"W ide b ow l w i th r i ng -foo t . D rab w a re , r ed o r g reen i sh -d rab s u r face" ( Re i sne r , F i she r , a nd L yon 1 924 :2 90 ,F ig . 1 69 :15a , a nd P l .6 5g. T hey o f fered n of u r ther c ommen t . I nt he l a te 1 920s , P e t r ie r e tu rned t os ou thwes tern P a le s t ine a nd e xcava ted a t af ew s i te sa t wh ich h e f ound a dd i t iona le xamp le so ft he " rough d rab b ow l ." I n1 930 ,a tP e t r ie 's r eque s t ,J .G . Duncan p ub l i shed ac o rpus o fP a le s t in ian c e ram ic sb a sed o nP e tr ie 's w o rk a tT e l l e l -Fa ra ' ( S ) a nd T e l lJ emmeh ,b u t a l so i n c lud ing o the r p ub l ished r e fe rence s . T o o u r k now ledge t h i s i st h e e a r l ie s t p ub l i shed s ou rce i n wh ich t h i s v e s se l i sc a l led a mo r ta r ium . He re Duncan l i s t s T ype 7 a s "Mo r ta r ia" a nd T ype 8 a s " R ibbed Mo r ta r ia" ( Duncan 1 930 ) .T he re i sn oe xp lana t ion o fw hy Duncan u sed t h i st e rm ,b u ts i nce h en ow w a s u s ing t he G reek w o rd f o r ag r ind ing v e sse l w e a s sume t ha t t he u se o ft h i s t e rm wa s b o r rowed f r om C la s s ica la rchaeo log i s ts . Wh i le w eh ave b een u nsucce s s fu l i nf i nd ing t he s ou rce o f Duncan ' si den t if ica t i on w i th c e r ta in ty ,w en o te t ha tP e t r ie s pen t an umbe ro f mon th si n Rome i nt he l a te 1 920 sw o rk ing o n h i sp o t tery a nd d i scu s s ing p o t tery w i th c l a s s ic i s ts a nd c l a s s ica la rchaeo log is t s( pe rsona lc ommun ica t ion , Howa rd C om fo r t , 1 989 ) . We s pecu la te i tw a si n Rome t ha t P e tr ie made t he i d en t if ica t ion a nd t ha th e p a ssed t h i si n fo rma t ion o nt o Duncan . A s w e i nd ica ted a bove , n ume rou s e xamp le s o ft he se v e s se ls a ppea r i nt he r eg iona l a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re a f te r 1 930 . T hey u sua l ly a ppea r g rouped w i th t he b ow l s i nt he c e ram ic i lus t ra t ions a nd a r e o f ten ,b u tn o ta lway s ,l a be led a s mo r ta r ia a nd b yt he 1 970 st h i sa ppe l la t ion h ad b ecome a lmo s tu n ive rsa l . Un fo r tuna te ly , n o th ing i nt h i s l i t e ra tu re s how s t ha t t he r e sea rche r s w e re a wa re o f t he v e ry s pec if ic , f unc t iona l c onno ta t ion s t h i s t e rm , mo r ta r ia , h ad i n t he l i t e ra tu re o f c l a s s ica l G reek a nd Roman a rchaeo logy . A s w e n o ted p rev iou s ly , i ti sd i ff icu l t f o r u s t o b e l ieve t ha t Duncan ( and P e t r ie !) w e re u naware t ha t C la ss ica l a rchaeo log i s t s u sed t h i s t e rm t o d es igna te ac l a s s o f c eram ic v e s se l s u sed a s g r ind ing b ow l s . B u tw he the r o rn o t t h i sw a s t he c a se ,w ek now o fn oe v idence t os ugge s tt h a t t he l a te r r e sea rcher sw ho u sed t h i s t e rm w e re a wa re o fi t s o r ig in o r t he s pec if ic r e fe rence t he t e rm h ad among t h e i rc l a s s ica lc o l league s . Mo c a r ia m ean ts imp ly " l a rge d rab b ow l" o r , mo re r ecen t ly , " Pe r s ian Bow l ." S tud ies p ub l i shed s i nce t h em id -1970 's u n t i lt he p re sen th ave c on t inued t h is t r ad i t ion . R eg iona lL i te ra tur e :M id -1970 ' s O nwa rd I n 1 973 ar ev i sed v e rs ion o fE ph ra im S te rn 's d i s se r ta t ion w a s p ub l i shed i n Hebrew , a nd i n 1 982 a f u r ther r ev ised E ng l ish e d i t ion a ppea red ( S te rn 1 982 ) . T h i s w o rk c on ta ined t he f i rs t d e ta i led s t udy o f t he mo r ta r ium ( S te rn 1 982 : 9 6 -98 ) . S te rn d i v ided mo r ta r ia ( wh ich h e d e sc r ibed a s " l a rge h eavy b ow l s w i th at h ick r i ng r im" a nd o f ten c a l led " Pe r s ian B ow l s" )i n to t wo g roups ;f l a t -ba sed a nd r i ng -ba sed . He s ugge s ted t he f o rmer g roup w a s e a r l ier , o r ig ina t ing i n Ana to l ia o r No r th S y r ia b yt he s e ven th c en tury B .C . a nd t ha tt he v es se ls p read s ou th p r io rt oi t si n co rpo ra t ion i n to t he P a le s t in ian r eper to i re .T he l a t te r g roup S tern i d en t i f ied a s al o ca l P a le s t in ian d eve lopmen t o ft he f l a t -based t y pe wh ich w a si n troduced n oe a r l ier t han t h e s i x th c en tu ry a nd b ecame c ommon i n t he f i f th a nd f ou r th c en tu r ies .I nn e i ther c a se d id S te rn a t t r ibu te af unc t ion t ot he se v e s se l s .T hu s ,a cco rd ing t oS t e rn ,t he v es se lo r ig ina ted i nt he n o r th i nt he s even th c en tury ( o re a r l ie r ) a nd i ts p read s ou th t oP a les t ine w here i tw a s mod if ied a nd e n te red l o ca l p roduc t ion . S tern r e i tera ted t h i s v i ew i n h i s p ub l ica t ion o f t he P er s ian -Per iod d a ta f r om T e l Mevo rakh ( S te rn 1 978 : 3 1 ) . L a te r s t i l l i np ub l i sh ing p o t tery f r om Q adum ,S tern a nd Magen c a l led t he mo r ta r ia l o ca l p o t te ry ( S te rn a nd Magen 1 984 : 1 6 ) . T hu s o f a l t he r e sea rche r s t o h ave c on s ide red

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mo r ta r ia S tern s eem s t o h ave b een t he o n ly o ne t o c on s ide r P e tr ie 's a nd B l is s ' s ugges t ion t ha t t he se v e s se l sw ere i mpo r ted . Un fo r tuna te ly ,h es eem st oh ave r e jec ted t he ir t he s i so u to fh and b a sed s o le ly o n h i sp e r sona lk now ledge o ft he s i te sf r om w h ich t he se v es se l sh ad b een r ecove red . T he p ub l ica t ion o fS te rn 's d i s se r ta t ion i n1 973 w a s f o l lowed b yt he p repa ra t ion o fS eymour G i t in 's d i s se r ta t ion i n1 979 . G i t in r e -eva lua ted a l lt he e v idence a nd c onc luded t ha t mo r ta r ia d id a ppear i nt he c e ram ic r eper to i re o fP a le s t ine a tt he e nd o ft he s even th c en tu ry ,b u tn o ted t ha ti tw a sf a r mo re c ommon i nt h e P ers ian P er iod . I n a dd i t ion , h e a ccep ted t h e i dea t ha t t he v es se lo r ig ina ted i nt he n o r th a nd h e a ppea r st o a ccep tS tern 's c onc lu s ion t ha tt he P er s ian -Pe r iod e xamp les w i th r i ng b a se s a sw e l l a ss ome o ft h ef l a t -based e xamp le sw e re l o ca l ly made i nP a le s t ine ( G i t in 1 979 : 2 16 -20 , 2 68 -72 ) .G i t in , wh i le n o t a sc r ib ing a ny f unc t ion t ot he se v e s se l s , d id n o te t he i r d i s t inc t ive w a re sw h ich h e d esc r ibed a s " poo r ly l e v iga ted a nd o f ten a era ted" ( G i t in 1 979 :2 17 )o r" w i th ah igh d en s i ty o fi n c lu s ion s ,i te fec ts av ery c oa r se f ab r ic ," o r , i n many c ase s ," ac oa r se a e ra ted f ab r ic" ( G i t in 1 979 : 2 70 ) . O the rl e s sc ommon e xamp les h e c a l led " f a ir ly w e l ll e v iga ted" o r" ve ry w e l ll e v iga ted" ( G i t in 1 979 :2 70 ) .G i t in a l so n o ted t ha tt he v e sse l 's r im w a sf o lded o ver a nd h e , l i ke S inc la i r , s ugge s ted t ha t" I t may b ep o s s ib le t or e la te t h i st e chn ique t o t he f o lded t r ad i t ion o fL a te I r on I b ow l s. t ha tt end st od i sappea ro nb ow lf o rms i nt he 6 th c . " ( G i t in 1 979 :2 20 ) . . .

I n 1 984 E . D . O ren p ub l i shed ap robab le s i x th c en tury B . C .m i l i tary s i te i nt he e a s te rn N i le d e l ta , M igdo l( Oren 1 984 ) . He re h ef ound aq uan t i ty o ff l a t -based mo r ta r ia a s soc ia ted w i th n umerou si mpor ted G reek a nd G reek Is land a mpho rae ( 1984 : 1 7a nd F ig .2 1 :9 -10 ) .O ren s ugges ted t ha t mo r tar ia ,f ound i n a s soc ia t ion w i th t hese o the rv e sse l sw h ich c a r r ied g ra in , may h ave s e rved a s amea su r ing b ow lf o rt ha t g ra in ( Oren 1 984 : 1 7 ) . S ome e xamp les o f mo r ta r ia w e re p ub l i shed a sp a r to ft he T e l le l - Maskhu ta p ro jec ti nE gyp t( Ho l laday 1 982 :P l . 1 6 ) ,b u tt h i sw a so n ly i n ap re l im ina ry r epo r ta nd g rea td e ta i lw a sn o tp rov ided . More r ecen t ly , P a tr ic ia P a ice p rov ided as ummary o ft he i mpo r ted c eram ic s f ound i nS a i te a nd P er s ian l e ve l s a tT e l l e l - Ma skhu ta .S he w ro te ( Pa ice 1 986 /87 ) ," A tT e l le l - Maskhu ta , mo r ta r ia w i th f l a tb a se sa ppea ri nb o th S a i te a nd P er s ian c on tex t s ; t h eh igh b a ses a re f ound i nP er s ian c on tex ts o n ly ." Mo s tr ecen t ly ,a f ter o u rs t udy o ft h e He s i ma ter ia l sh ad g one t op res s ,t he r epor to ne xcava t ion a tT e l M icha l ( Herzog , R app , a nd N egb i 1 989 ) a ppea red . T h i s r epo r t p resen ted t he s t ra t ig raph ic , c eram ic , a nd a r t ifac tua l d a ta f o r a n i mpo r tan t P er s ian -Per iod s i te . I n t h is w o rk L i ly S inger -Av i tz p ub l i shed i lus t ra t ions a nd d e sc r ip t ion sf o r many mo r ta r ia .S he w ro te u nde rt he h ead ing o fl o ca lp o t tery f o rS t ra tum X I( S inger -Av i tz 1 989a : 16 ) : T he o n ly t ype o fb ow lf r om t h i s s t ra tum i sp opu la r ly c a l led a"mo r ta r ium ," al a rge ,h eavy v es se l w i th a n e x te rna l ly t h ickened r im , r i pp led o u ter s u rface , a nd t h ick r i ng b a se . T he c l ay i sc oa rse a nd p oo r ly l e v iga ted . N umbe r 1i so fy e l low i sh c l ay , a nd No . 2i so fb rown c l ay . T he v es se l , s o u b iqu i tou s t h roughou t t h e P e r s ian p er iod t ha t i th a s b ecome k nown a s t he " Per s ian b ow l ," i s d i scus sed a tl e ng th b yS t ern ( 1 982 :96 -98 ) . I nt h ef o l low ing s t ra tum ( S t ra tum X )a dd i t iona l mo r ta r ia a re p resen ta nd i nS t ra tum I X mo r ta r ia a re t he " p redom inan t b ow l" ( S inger -Av i tz 1 989a : 19 -20 ) . I n t he S t ra tum V I I I t hey a re " ub iqu i tou s" ( S inge r -Av i tz 1 989a : 1 24 ) ,w h i le i nS t ra tum V I I av a r ian t mo r ta r ium w i th l u gh and le s "made o fp oo r ly l e v iga ted r edd ish b rown c l ay " a ppea r s ( S inge r -Av i tz 1 989a : 1 30 ) . I n S t ra tum V I t he mo r ta r ium i sn o l o nge rp resen ta nd o the rb ow l sa ppea r( S inge r -Av i tz 1 989a :1 30 ) .T hus ,t h e mo r ta r ium w a st he s o le b ow l a tt h e s i te f r om 5 25 B .C . t o3 50 B .C . , w hen i td i sappeared . No s pec if ic f unc t ion i ss ugge s ted f o r t he se v e s se l sb eyond " bow l" a nd c l ea r ly t h ey a re r ega rded a s l o ca l p roduc t s . Wh i le p e t rog raph ic w o rk a nd NAA w ere u nder taken a tt h es i te , n o mo r ta r ia w e re s amp led f o rs uch w o rk . T h i s b r ief h i s to ry o f r e sea rch h a s s hown a n a c t ive s cho la r ly i n te re s t i n t he se v es se l s s i nce P e tr ie p ub l i shed t he f i rs te xamp le m ore t han 1 00 y ear sa go .S ugge s t ion sa bou tt h ed eve lopmen t ,d a te , s ou rce , a nd f u nc t ion o ft he v es se lv a ry . Wh i le t he d a te sa s c r ibed t ot he v es se la re b a sed o ns t ra t ig raphy i n mo s t c a se s ,a l d i scus s ions o fv e s se ld eve lopmen t ,s ource ,a nd f unc t ion a re s imp ly s t a temen t sf r om a u thor i ty , o rg ue s ses , s i nce i nn oc a se d id t h ea u thor a t temp tt od emon s t ra te t he v a l id i ty o ft he a s se r t ion .

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C on tex t ,A s soc ia ted A r t if ac t s , a nd W ear P a t te rns Wh i le w ec on t inued t or ead w i th i n tere s tt he v a r iou ss t ud ie so n mo r ta r ia w ec on t inued o u ri n ves t iga t i ons i nt wo s omewha t d i f feren t d i rec t ion s . We u nde r took at h i rd r ev iew t he l i t era ture ; a l though t h i s t ime l ook ing f o rs ome v e ry d i f fe ren ti n forma t ion t han w eh ad p rev iou s ly . Th i st ime we w e re l ook ing f o r c on tex tua la nd p hy s ica le v idence t os uppo r tt he u se o f mo r ta r ia a sg r ind ing v es se l s . Ou ro ther a venue o fi n ve s t iga t ion c on s i s ted o fc onduc t ing as econd r ound o fa na ly t ica lt e s ts o ne xamp les f r om Hes i . J .L . Wakef ie ld , t hen a n u nde rg radua te s t uden t a tt he Un ive r s i ty o fS ou the rn C a l ifo rn ia , made t he f i r s te f fo r ta tt r y ing t or ec rea te t he e xcava ted c on tex ts o f mo r ta r ia i n1 975 . Wakef ie ld u nde r took as t udy o f mo r ta r ium f i nd spo ta nd a s soc ia ted f i nd sf o rt he J o in tE xped i t ion a s ap ar to fh i sc our se r equ iremen t s i na na rchaeo log ica l s em ina rl ed b yo ne o fu s ( Benne t t ) .A tt he e nd o fh i s s t udy Wakef ie ld c onc luded t ha t : T he mo r ta r ia a re u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th d omes t ic b u i ld ing s . I ti sf ound mos t o f ten w i th o the r k i tchen w a re .F rom t h is i tc an b es een t ha ti ti sa l so ak i tchen u ten s i l . • T h i si smo re t han a dequa te ly b orn o u tb yt he f o l low ing e v idence .A tB e the l ,s he rd 2 283 f ound i nl o cu s4 07 c an b ea s soc ia ted d i rec t ly w i th al imes tone p es t le ( Reg . No .2 076 ) . Locu s4 07 a ppear s t ob e ac l ose t b ecau se o ft he o b jec t s f ound i ni t . Doub t a bou t t he v a l id i ty o ft h is i sc l eared b y s im i lar f i nds a t Meg iddo . I nl o cu s 6 33 ab a sa l t h amme r c an b e a s soc ia ted w i th b ow lt y pe 1 3 ( a mo r ta r ium ) .I nl o cu s5 20 al imes tone r ubbe r -hamme rw a sf ound i n Room 5w i th ab ow lt ype 1 4 ( a mo r ta r ium ) .I nl o cu s6 75 t he r ea l" pay d i r t" w a sf ound a sb ow lt y pe 1 5( a mor tar ium )w a sf ound i n ar oom w i th ab a sa l th amme ra nd t wo b a sa l tr ubber -hammer s . A tL ach i sh amo r ta r ium w a sf ound u nde ra no ven . E ncou raged b y t h ese f i nd ing s w e b egan t o r eexam ine t he c on tex t f o r t he se p iece s a t Hes i . We c onc luded t h i se xam ina t ion b yw r i t ing ( Benne t ta nd B lake ly 1 989 :203 ) : One mo r ta r ium o ccur red a l ong w i th aw e l lw o rn s t one t h a tm ay h ave b een u sed i ng r ind ing a nd ag r ind ing s t one. i nP i t 1 . 105 . Ano ther mo r ta r ium. w a s f ound a long w i th ab asa l t f r agmen t ,p robab ly f r om ag r ind ing b a s in b u tp o s s ib ly ag r ind ing s t one. i np robe 2 . 103 . E igh t mo r ta r ia.. w e re f ound t oge ther w i th al ime s tone g r inde r. i nP i t1 .326 ( =. 3 10 , =3 31 ) .S even mo r ta r ia w ere f ound i n c on junc t ion w i th a p robab le g r ind ing s t one i n P i t 1 2 .249 . Un fo r tuna te ly n one o f t he se p i eces w ere f ound i n p r imary -u sage d epo s i t s , b u t t h ey w e re i n g a rbage p i ts o ri np robe s . On C obb le s tone P avemen t 3 1 .095 , h oweve r , o ne mor ta r ium.. w a s f ound i nc on junc t ion w i th ap robab le b a sa l tg r ind ing b a s in... T he p avemen t c ou ld h ave b een u sed a s ag r ind ing s t a t ion ,b u tt he e v idence i ss can ty a nd n og r ind ing s t ones o rp es t le sw e re f ound t he re . .

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A sw er e fe renced a bove ,t he p ub l ica t ion o ft he T e lM icha lp ro jec th a sj u s tr ecen t ly a ppea red ( Herzog , R app , a nd N egb i 1 989 ) w h ich i n c luded t h e d e sc r ip t ion a nd i l u s t ra t ion o f an umbe r o f mor ta r ia . Un fo r tuna te ly , o n ly a f ew s e lec ted c eram ic s w ere p ub l ished ( S inger -Av i tz 1 989a ) , n one o f t he q ue rn s tones w ere p ub l i shed ( S inge r -Av i tz 1 989b : 3 50 ) , a nd n os ec t ion sw ere p repa red ( He rzog 1 989 ) . I ti s ,t he refo re ,d i ff icu l tt oi n terp re t t h ese r ema in sw i th c onf idence a nd t he f o l low ing l i s ts hou ld n o tb e c ca s ide red c omp le te . However , e nough i sp re sen ted t o b e mo s t s ugges t ive i n t e rm s o f mor tar ium f unc t ion .S t ra tum X Ia tT e lM icha li st y p i f ied b yp i ts ,o ven s ,a nd a sh . Two mo r ta r ia ( l ocu s1 500 #9459 /3 a nd l o cu s1 515 # 9631 /1 )a nd ab a sa l tb ow l( l ocu s1 495 # 9480 /50 )w e re f ound i na sh d epo s i t sa s soc ia ted w i th t he o ven s . I n S t ra tum X mo r ta r ium # 5856 /1 w a sf ound i nl o cu s8 81 a nd mor tar ium # 5954 /1 w a s f ound i nl o cus 8 57 . T he se w ere f ound n ea r t h ree o ven s . Mo r ta r ium # 9430 /1 i nl ocu s 1 454 w a s f ound n ea rt wo o ven s .I nS t ra tum I X , mo r ta r ium # 5577 /1 i nl o cu s8 40 a nd b a sa l t mo r ta r# 1883 /50 i nl o cus 3 44 w e re f ound n ear e ach o the ri nS t ruc tu re 3 44 n ea ra no ven .J u s to u t s ide t ha ts t ruc tu re a nd o n af l oor w a s f ound mo r ta r ium # 1955 /1 i nl o cus 3 39 .I nS t ra tum V I I I mo r ta r ium # 9335 /1 i nl o cus 9 4 .8 w a sf ound n ea r b asa l t b ow l #2011 /50 i nl o cus 3 52 , i na nd a round S t ruc tu re 1 304 w h ich c on ta ined a n o ven . F ina l ly , i n S t ra tum V I I mo r ta r ium # 8345 /8 i nl o cu s 1 029 a nd ad i f fe ren tt ype o f mo r ta r ium #9656 /1 i nl o cus 1 022 w e re f ound n ea r l ime s tone mo r ta r # 9407 /50 i nl o cu s 1 474 a nd k u rka r mo r ta r # 10417 /50 i nl o cu s 1 649 w e re a l l f ound i na nd a round S t ruc tu re 1 013 w h ich c on ta ined o ven sa nd ab r ick s i lo .

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Wh i le t h e e v idence f r om t h e se s i te s i sn o t c onc lu s ive , i td oe s s how t h a t t h e se v e s se l s a r e o f ten r ecove red i nc on tex t sa nd w i th o t he ri mp lemen t sw h ich a r ec ompa t ib le w i th g r ind ing a nd f ood p repa ra t i on ;p a r t icu la r ly b ak ing . O u ra t temp t st od i scove rs ome t e l l ta le p hy s ica la t t r ibu te sw h ich w ou ld i d en t i f yp ub l i shed e x amp le s a sg r ind ing v e s se l sw e re a l so s u cce s s fu l . We n o ted B l i s s ' so b se rva t ion t h a tt h e" t h ick d rab b ow l sw i th a s moo th s phe r ica li n te r io ra nd r i bbed o u t s ide s u r f ace" w e re a lway sf ound b roken i nf r agmen t s( B l i s sa nd Maca l i s te r1 902 : 1 01 ) . We w e re p a r t icu la r ly i mp re s sed b yt h ep ub l i shed s pec imen f o rS ama r ia i nw h ich i tw a s c l ea r t h a t t h e b a se h ad b een w o rn t h rough ( Re i sne r , F i she r , a nd L yon 1 924 : P l .6 5g ) . We a l so d i scove red w i th p l ea su re t h a t Wa l te rE .R a s t ' sp ub l ica t ion o ft h eP e r s ian -Pe r iod m a te r ia le xcava ted a t T aanach b yP au l L app i l u s t ra ted as im i la r e xamp le w h ich t h er e sea rche r s c onc luded w a sd ue t ot he v e s se l ' su se a s ag r ind ing b ow l( Ra s t1 978 :5 0 ) .R a s tp rov ided af ew mo re s t ra t i f ied e xamp le so fw ha th e c a l led mo r ta r ia ,b u t , mo re i mpo r tan t ly ,h en o ted t h a tm any o ft h ee xamp le sw e re p i t ted o nt h ei n te r io r ( Ra s t 1 978 : 5 0 , F ig s . 7 7 :7 -9 ,7 9 :5 , 8 1 :8 -9 ,8 4 :2 , 8 5 :8 -10 ,8 6 :1 ,8 7 :2 ) ,i np a r t icu la rh en o ted t ha tF ig .8 4 :2 h ad b een u sed a s a" g r ind ing b ow l , mo r ta r ." On ly f o rF ig .8 4 :2 d id R a s ts ugge s t af unc t ion . T he H e s ie xamp le ss howed e x ce s s ive w ea ro nt h ei n te r io rs u r f ace a st hough f r om ag r ind ing o pe ra t ion a nd i ns ome c a se sw ew e re a b le t or econ s t ruc tv i r tua l ly c omp le te v e s se l si nw h ich t h e2 cm t h ick b a se s h ad b een w o rn d own t o af ew m i l l ime te r sb e fo re t h ey b roke .T hu s ,t h rough c on tex ta nd w ea rp a t te rn s , w en ow h ave n o d oub t o ft h e f u nc t ion o ft h e se v e s se l s . T he q ue s t ion o fe xac t ly w ha t m ay h ave b een g round i nt h e se v e s se l si ss t i l lo pen b u tw eh ave n od oub ta ta lo ft h e i rg ene ra lf unc t ion . We h ave t e nded t ot h ink o ft h e se a sv e s se l s u s ed t og r ind g ra in i n to f l ou rf o rb read m ak ing b u tt h i si sb yn om ean st h e o n ly u se w ec an i mag ine f o rt h em .P e t r ie ' se xamp le sf r om N auk ra t i si n d ica te t h e i ru se i nr i tua lo f f e r ing s . P e rhap st h e se w e re o f f e r ing so ff l ou rb u tt h ey m ay h ave b een o fo the ri t em sa sw e l l .I nt h i sr ega rd w e r e cen t ly c ame a c ro s s as t udy o ft h e u se o f mo r ta r ia b y D ie twu l fB aa tz ( 1 977 ) . H e p re sen t s l i t e ra ry e v idence f o rs uch v e s se l sb e ing u sed t op repa re h e rb sa nd s ugge s t st h a tt h e se v e s se l sw e re i n t roduced i n to E u rope b yR oman sa nd t h e ir u se r e f lec ted t h ec u l ina ry p rac t ice so ft h eR oman t r ad i t ion .N o to n ly i st h i s amo s ti n te re s t ing s ugge s t ion i ni t se l fi tp o in ted u st owa rd a ne n t i re ly n ew a venue o fi n ve s t iga t ion ; o ne w h ich h a sy e tt ob ee xp lo red . Mo r eC ompo s i t iona la nd T e chno log i ca lA na l y se s N eu tron A c t iva t ion A na ly s i s . T h rough ag ran tf r om t h eN a t iona lE ndowmen tt ot h e Human i t ie st o t h e Mu seum o ft h eR ed R iv e r ,I dabe l ,O k lahoma w ew e re a b le t oc on t inue NAA o n amuch b e t te rc ho sen s amp le o fm a te r ia l sa nd t oc oup le t h i sw i th p e t rog raph ic a nd h eavy m ine ra la na ly s i ss t a r t ing i n1 979 /80 . I nt h ee nd B rook ss amp led f o r NAA i d en t if ica t ion s i x teen mo r ta r ia ( bo th f l a t -a nd r i ng -ba sed e xamp le s ) . S he c onc luded t h a t n one o ft h es i x teen e xamp le sc ou ld h ave b een m anu f ac tu red i nP a le s t ine .I n s tead , B rook si d en t if ied f ou r teen e x amp le sa sp robab ly c om ing f r om S y r ia w i th Du ra -Eu ropo sb e ing t h eb e s t m a tch w i th in t h e NAA d a ta b a se a th e rd i spo sa l ,o ne f r om C yp ru s ,a nd o ne p robab ly f r om L ebanon . P e tro logy . A tt h es ame t i me , F rank K oucky ,c onduc ted p e t ro log ica lt h in sec t ion a na ly s i so ne l even m o r ta r ia s amp le s , mo s to fw h ich h ad a l so b een s t ud ied p rev iou s ly b yB rook s .K oucky i d en t if ied t h ree g roup s : t h e f i r s tg roup c on ta in ing n i ne s amp le s a nd e ach o ft h e o the rt wo g roup so ne . R ega rd ing t he f i r s tg roup ,K oucky w ro te ( Koucky i nB enne t ta nd B lake ly 1 989 : 1 98 ) : ( They )a r es im i la ri nf a b r ic b u tv a ry g r ea t ly i nc o lo r . . . T he m a t r ix v a r ie sf r om p a le g reen t h rough y e l low t ol i gh t r ed a nd a l h ave s c a t te red b l ob s o fr ed h ema t i te r ich m a te r ia l ( pe rhap s d ue t o o x ida t ion o fp y r i te ) .N one o ft h e se e xamp le sc on ta in s mo re t h an 5% q ua r tz s i l ta nd mo s tl e s st han 2% , a nd n o s and -s ized q ua r tz g ra in s . I nc lu s ion s o f w h i te f i ne s and s ized c r yp toc ry s ta l l ine l ime s tone a re r ounded w i th i n d i s t inc t b ounda r ie s d ue t o r eac t ion w i th t h e c l ay ma tr ix . F o ram in i f e ra a nd f o s s i l she l lf r agmen t s a r ec ommon b u ta l so h ave i n d i s t inc tb ounda r ie sd ue t o r e ac t ion w i th t h em a t r i xc l ay .M ino ri n c lu s ion so fp l ag ioc la se a nd f i ne l ow b i re f r ingen tf i be r so f c h lo r i te o r s e rpen t ine a r e p re sen t i na l o ft h e se s amp le s . ( F ive s amp le s ) c on ta in o x id ized b a sa l ta nd c o lo r le s sp y roxene f r agmen t s .T he s amp le sa r ea l d en se w i th l ow p o ro s i ty c au sed b y u n i fo rm ly d i s t r ibu ted t i ny p o re s o ff i ne s i l ts i ze a nd t h ey h ave n op e rmeab i l i ty .T hey h ave b een f i red h i gh e nough t oc au se t h e l i me s tone f r agmen t s t or e ac tw i th t h e m a t r ix b u tn o te nough t o d e s t roy t h em ic ro fo s s i l s ,p robab ly b e tween 7 00 a nd 7 50 °C . .

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( One s amp le ) a ppea rs s im i la r t oo the rs o ft h i s g roup b u t h a s a n o p t ica l ly i s o t rop ic ma t r ix . I t s i n c lus ion s a re s im i la r t ot ho se o ft h e o the r s i nt h i sg roup a nd s eem s im i la r t ot he B i i Ampho ra w a re ( Fu lfo rd a nd P eacock 1 984 : 2 0 ) . F u lfo rd a nd P eacock c onc luded t ha t t he " pe tro logy i s u nequ ivoca l ,f o ri ts ugge s t st h i sf ab r ic o r ig ina te si na n a r ea d om ina ted b yo u tc rop so fl imes tone a nd o ph io l i t ic r ocks ." Oph io l i te c omp lex s i te sa re w e l lk nown a nd v ery r e s t r ic ted i no ccu r rence . Un fo r tuna te ly t oo many a rea s a re k nown f r om G reece , R hod ion P e raea , C yp ru s , S ou thern T u rkey , a nd t he Z ag ro s Moun ta in so fI r aq a nd I r an . O ft h et en th s amp le ,K oucky w ro te ( Koucky i nB enne t ta nd B lake ly 1 989 : 1 99 ) : T h i s e xamp le i sb rown i nc o lo r a nd made u p o fp oo r ly s o r ted r ock c h ip s , m inera l s , a nd f o ss i l f r agmen ts .T he r ock c h ip si n c lude d i aba se ,l i me s tone ,c her t ,a nd r a re q ua r tz g ra in s .P lag ioc la se , c h lo r i te ,a nd p y roxene m inera lg ra in sa re p re sen t .T he m a te r ia lh as n o tb een w e l lh omogen ized , a nd l a rge e l onga ted p o re s a re p re sen t . T he f i r ing w a s n o t h i gh e nough t od e s troy l imes tone o r s he l l f r agmen ts . T he m ine ra l a nd r ock i n c lu s ion a s semb lage i ss im i la r t o t he n ine p rev iou s mo r ta r ia , a nd t h i s e xamp le h ad t ob e manu fac tu red n ea ra no ph io l i te c omp lex a nd c ou ld c ome f r om t he s ou th s ho re o fC yp ru s . O ft h ef i na le xamp le ,K oucky w ro te ( Koucky i nB enne t ta nd B lake ly 1 989 :2 00 ) : T h i se xamp le i s af i ne g ra ined s he rd t ha ti sp a le y e l low o nt h eo u ts ide a nd p a le o range i n te rna l ly w i th am a tr ix s im i la rt ot he g roup o fn ine mo r ta r ia ,b u ti tc on ta in s 8% s and -s ized g ra ins o fq ua r tz , c he r t ,a nd l i me s tone .T he ma tr ix d i f f er sf r om t h eo ther n i ne i nt h a ti tc on ta in sa bundan tf i ber so f mu scov i te , b io t i te a nd l o ng f i be r s o f s e rpen t ine , a nd b o th m ic ro l ine a nd p l ag ioc lase . T he m ic ro fo s s i l s a re f i l led w i th a r ed c l ay . T he a bundance o f m ica s s ugge s t s amph ibo l i te -g rade m e tamo rph ic r ock sa nd a l te red b a s ic r ock si nt h es ource a r ea . I fo ne c ompare sB rook s ' sa nd K oucky 's s t ud ies ,i ti sc l ear t ha tb o th r u le o u tP a les t ine a st h ep o in to f o r ig in f o rt he mo r tar ia e xam ined . B o th s t ud ies p i cked o u tt he s ame s he rd a so r ig ina t ing i nC yp rus .F o r t h eo ther sB rook ss ugge s ted s ome a rea i nS y r ia a nd i d en t if ied Dura -Eu ropo sa st h ec l o se s tm a tch i nh er d a ta b a se . K oucky , o n t h e o the r h and , i d en t i f ied t he s ou rce r eg ion a s b e ing a l ong t he G reek , G reek I s land , Ana to l ian , a nd Z ag ro s moun ta in r a l ige n o r th o ft he r eg ion i d en t if ied b yB rook s . R ecen t ly i n as t udy o f L a te Roman mo r ta r ia f r om C aesa rea Ma r i t ima w h ich i sc u rren t ly b e ing p repa red , o ne o f t he He s i mo r ta r ia w a s i n c luded i n ap e tro log ica l s t udy o ft he se l a ter mo r ta r ia a s a c on tro l .C .J .V i ta l iano d e sc r ibed t h i se xamp le ( p rev iou s ly s t ud ied b yK oucky a nd B rook s ) : I ti s ag ray -o range ( 1 0YR 7 / 4 ) f ab r ic c ompo sed o f ap orou s m a t r ix w i th embedded g ray , b l ack a nd d eep r ed s and -t os i l t -s ized t empe rf r agmen ts .T he ma t r ix ,6 5% o ft he f ab r ic ,c on s is t so f8 5% c l ay a nd 1 7% p o re s pace .T he t empe r ,3 5% o ft h ef a b r ic , i su n i fo rm ly d i s t r ibu ted t h roughou tt he m a t r ix a nd c on s is ts mo s t ly o fa ngu la r w h i te , g ray a nd b l ack m ine ra l a nd r ock f r agmen t s a l ong w i th t he o cca s iona l s ub rounded , d eep r ed , s and -s ized e a r thy a gg rega te s . A p o in t c oun t o f a t h in -sec t ion g ave t he f o l low ing , q ua r tz ( 3% ) ; p l ag ioc la se ( ande s ine ) ( 1% ) ; p o ta s s ium -f e ld spa r ( 1% ) ; p y roxene ( ma in ly d iop s ide b u t s ome e n s ta t i te ( 2% ) ; c a rbona te s ome o bv iou s ly d o lom i te ( 1 3% ) ; r ock f r agmen ts ( t rachy t ic a nd v i trophy r ic v o lcan ic t y pe s ( 1 1% ) ; ma tr ix ( 54 % ) ; p oro s i ty ( 1 1% ) ;g rog ( 2% ) ;i r on o x ide s( 3% ) ;o ther s( b io t i te ,g arne t ,z i rcon ,n ephe l ine ( ? ) ‚t r . ) . Ande s i t ic t or hyo l i t ic v o lcan ic r ock f r agmen ts a re p re sen t i nt h i s s amp le . T he u na l tered n a ture o ft hese f r agmen ts s ugges t sd er iva t ion f r om r e la t ive ly y oung v o lcan ic r ock t e rra in . Add i t iona ld i scus s ion w i th V i ta l iano i d en t if ied t h es ame b a s ic s ou rce r eg ion a sd esc r ibed b y Koucky . V i ta l iano a l so c onc luded t h a t t h e s amp le h es t ud ied h ad av ery w e l l lev iga ted c l ay ma tr ix i n to wh ich a s pec i f ic t empe rh ad b een a dded t og i ve i tar ough t e x ture . H eavy M inera lA na ly s is . T he s ame s herd s t ud ied b yV i ta l iano w a ss ubm i t ted t o Robe r tB r inkmann f o rh eavy m ine ra la na ly s i s . B r inkmann r e covered 4t ou rma l ine g ra in s , 1g a rne tg ra in , 1 2k yan i te g ra in s , 2 7p y roxene g ra ins , 1 62 o paque m ine ra ls , a nd n oz i rcon ( Benne t ta nd B lake ly 1 989 :2 00 ) .A sw e n o ted i nt h e He s iv o lume , t h i sm inera ls u i te s ugge s t st ha tt h i s mor ta r ium w as n o t manuf ac tu red i nP a les t ine .

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T os umma r ize ,t h ed a ta f r om t h e se a na ly se sa r ec l ea ra nd u namb iguou s .B o th t h ec l ay a nd t h et empe r s ou rce sa r ef o re ign t oP a le s t ine .T he re fo re w ef e e lc onf iden tt h a tt h e se v e s se l sw e re n o t manu f ac tu red i nP a le s t ine .T hu st h ey a r en o tl o ca l ly p roduced i t em sw h ich c on t inue a ny i nd igenou sc e ram ic t r ad i t ion s . N e i the ra r et h ey l o ca li m i ta t ion so fw ha tw e re o r ig ina l ly f o re ign p roduc t s .T he v e s se l sa r ei mpo r ted ; mo s t l i ke ly f r om as ou rce i nn o r the rn S y r ia o rs ou thwe s te rn Ana to l ia . X erorad iography . Hav ing e s tab l i shed t h ep robab le p o in to fo r ig in f o rt h e se v e s se l sw et u rned o u r a t ten t ion b ack t o t h e q ue s t ion o f t h e m e thod o f m anu f ac tu re . A s af u r the r t e s t o fF inman 's t h e s i s r e ga rd ing t h e m e thod o f m anu fac tu re , w e a s ked c e ram ic t e chno log i s t W . D . G lanzman t o c onduc t x e ro rad iog raph ic a na ly s i s( f ig .5 3 ) o f af ew s amp le so fm o r ta r ia ( a l so p ubl i shed i nB enne t ta nd B lake ly 1 9 89 :2 01 ) a sa na dd i t iona l a na ly t ica lm ean so ft e s t ing F inman ' st h eo ry .A tt h ec onc lu s ion o fh i ss t udy G lanzman r epo r ted : Mac ro scop ic a nd x e ro rad iog raph ic d a ta s ugge s tt h a tt h er im w a sp i nched o u t ,i n s tead o ff o lded o ve ro n to i t se x te r io r .T he re i sa ni n exp l icab le o ccu r rence o f az one o fd i so r ien ta t ion o fa i rv o id s a bou t3 . 5cm sa bove t h eb reak .A tb reak ,t h ev o id ss how ac l ea ra r ch f r om l owe ri n te r io rt ou ppe r e x te r io r .T he c au se i su nce r ta in .T he re s e em st ob e as em i -c i rcu la ra i r -vo id p a t te rn i nt h es u r face v i ew o ft h ep a ren ts he rd w h ich m ay a ccoun tf o rt h ea r ch ing v o id p a t te rn i nt h ick -sec t ion i mag ing , p e rhap s ap a tch . . . .

( The ) r i ng b a se i sd ef in i te ly a n a dded m embe r . Mac ro scop ic e v idence s how st h eb a se w a s a dded a s ac o i l ,o ri ni n comp le te s t a te ,t h en s haped w h i le t h ev e s se lw a ss t i l li n ve r ted . Ap o s s ib le f o ld -vo id p a t te rn i ss e en n ea r t h e b o t tom s u r f ace o ft h e r i ng b a se , b u t d i rec t ion o ff o ld ing i s u nc lea r . .

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T he p o s s ib le c o i l / jo in s e am , a bou t4 . 0 -4 .5cm sb e low t h eb ody b reak ( i nt h ick s e c t ion ) ,i sr ep re s en ted b yr ound ing o f fo ft h e a i r -vo id f l ow p a t te rn i nt h el owe rb ody .T he g roov es e en m ac ro s cop ica l ly o nt h ee x te r io rs u r f ace l i e sj u s tb e low t h i sp henomenon . T he p o s s ib le s eam o fa ni n te r io rp a tch ,a bou t4 . 5cm su pf r om b a sa lb reak ,w iden sf a r the rd own . I ti su nce r ta in i ft h i si sap a tch ,b u tt h ev o id p a t te rn w i th in i t sb ounda r ie si sp a ra l le lt ot h es u r face , w h i le t h el owe rb ody v o id sh i tt h eb ounda ry a ta na cu te a ng le .T hu s ,i tm ay b e ap a tch . T he re fo re ,1 ) Ic anno tr e fu te b a s ic c on s t ruc t ion t h eo ry ,a l though Ic anno td emon s t ra te ar im f o ld ; r a the r ,o nt h es he rd a na lyzed t h er im s e em st oh ave b een p inched o u twa rd st oc r ea te i t sp rof i le ; 2 ) t h e b a se w a s d e f in i te ly a n a dded m embe r , a t l e a s t h av ing b een s haped—pe rhap s e ven f o rmed—wh i le t h e v e s se l w a s i n ve r ted a nd p robab ly d one o ve r amou ld ; 3 ) t h en a tu re o ft he p o s s ib le f o ld so rs e am ss e en i nt h ick sec t ion i mag ing n eed st ob es t ud ied f u r the ra si tm ay ,o r may n o t ,b e a" f o s s i l" o fr o l l ing o u t t h e s h ee t o fc l ay p r io rt os e t t ing i to ve r ac onvex m ou ld ; a nd 4 ) o ve ra l lt h ea i r -vo id p a t te rn sa r ef a i r ly p a ra l le lt ot h es u r f ace ,c l ea r ly n o tf r om h av ing b een f o rmed o n ap o t te r sw hee l .T he v o id sa r et oo i regu la rf o rt h a tp roce s s .T hu s , Ia ccep tt h eu se o f ac onvex mou ld b a sed o nt h e se s amp le s . S ub sequen ts t udy o fo the rr im s he rd ss howed c l ea re xamp le so ff o ld ing ,t h ep henomenon n o to b se rved b yG lanzman ,t hu sd ocumen t ing b o th p i nched -ou ta nd f o lded r im so ccu ro no u r mo r ta r ia . O ur C onc lus ions R egard ing t h e Manuf ac tur ea nd D is tr ibu t ion o ft h eL evan t ine Mor tar ium T ue Manuf ac tur eo ft h eL evan t ine Mo r ta r iu tn R e ly ing o nF inman ' sr ep l ica t ive s t udy a nd G lanzman ' sx e ro rad iog raph ic a na ly s i sw eo f f e rt h ef o l low i n gr e con s t ruc t ion f o rt h em anuf ac tu re o fm o r ta r ia . We b e l ieve t h ey w e re p roduced b yr o l l ing o u ts hee t s o fp repa red c l ay i n to w h ich c a re fu l ly p repa red v o lcan ic t empe rw a si n ten t iona l ly a dded a sa ni n c lu s ion t o aw e l l lev iga ted c l ay i no rde r t oc r ea te ac oa r se f a b r ic . We b e l ieve t h i s h a rd ,v o lcan ic t empe r w a s a dded a st h ea b ra s ive c omponen tn ece s sa ry f o rt h ep roduc t st os e rve a sg r ind ing v e s se l s .S hee t so fs uch c a re fu l ly p repa red c l ay w e re t h en p l aced o ve rj i gge r mo ld s .T he e x te r io rs moo th ing o rr i bb ing w ou ld h ave b een f o rmed b yt u rn ing o n aw hee lw h i le s t i l lo nt h em o ld .T he v e s se l sw e re t h en f i n i shed b ye i the r f o ld ing o r p i nch ing t h e i r r im s , a nd , f o r t h e f oo ted e xamp le s , a dd ing ac o i lt of o rm ar i ng b a se . O ft h e

5 7

F i gu re 5 3 . X e ro rad iog raphs : a )t h ick -sec t ion v i ew o f amo r ta r ium r i m ; b )s u r face -sec t ion v i ew o fa mo r ta r ium b ase ; a nd c )t h ick -sec t ion v i ew o f amo r ta r ium b ase . N one s how ing a ny i n d ica t ions o f h av ing b een t h rown o n aw hee l ( s e t t ings 2 00 mas , 6 0 k V , 1 . 00 s econd ,f oca ld i s tance 1 . 02m ) .

5 8

e xamp les e xam ined p e t rog raph ica l ly b y Koucky , t he v e s se l sw e re f i red a t at empera tu re b e tween 7 00 a nd 7 50 °C a l though t he e xamp le f r om C yp ru sa ppa ren t ly d id n o tr each t h i st empe ra tu re .T h i s me thod o fm anu fac tu re i su na t te s ted i nP a les t ine f o r o the rv es se l si nt he f i r s t m i l lenn ium B .C . ( e .g . , K e lso a nd T ho r ley 1 943 ;K a lsbeek 1 969 ;F ranken 1 985 ;G lanzman a nd F lem ing 1 986b ) . U s ing t h is manu fac tur ing t e chn ique t he p o t te r sw e re a b le t op roduce amos ts t anda rd ized v e s se l .T he v e s se lu sua l ly h a s ar im w h ich i sa bou t3 0cm i nd i ame te ra nd 8t o1 0cm t a l l .T he b a se d i ame te rf o r t he r i ng b a se e xamp le s i su sua l ly a round 1 5cm . F ab r ic t h ickne s s i sc on s i s ten t ly a round 2 cm . B eyond a ny f unc t iona lc ha rac te r i s t ic ss uch av es se ls t ack sw e l lf o rs h ipmen t . A tt he e nd o ft h i ss t age o fo u r i n ve s t iga t ion sw eb e l ieved t ha tw eh ad e s tab l ished s eve ra li mpo r tan t a spec t s a bou t t he se v e sse l s . T he v e s se l sw e c a l l L evan t ine mo r ta r ia w e re ma s s -p roduced , mo ld -made v e s se l s , w e l l l e v iga ted a nd i n ten t iona l ly t empe red a nd c on s truc ted t os e rve a s g r ind ing v es se l s . T hey o r ig ina ted f r om amanu fac tu r ing c en te ri nn o r the rn S y r ia a nd /o rs ou thwe s te rn Ana to l ia .F rom t ha tp o in t t hey w ere d i s t r ibu ted t ov a r iou sp o in ts a l ong t he e a s te rn Med i te r ranean .A l though a tp re sen tw ec anno t b ec e r ta in ,w eb e l ieve t ha tt h i s d i s t r ibu t ion w a sa ch ieved a l ong ma r i t ime s h ipp ing r ou tes ,a sP e tr ie h ad s ugge s ted . Wh i le w ef e l t ac e r ta in amoun to fa ccomp l i shmen ta th av ing e s tab l i shed t h is w er ea l i zed t ha t w ew e re s t i l l l e f tw i th o u r q ues t ion o fw hy t h i s h appened . A f te r a l l , u p t ot h i s p o in t o ur w o rk s imp ly p rov ided as uppo r t ing f r amewo rk a nd ab i to f embe l l i shmen tf o rw ha tP e t r ie h ad s ugge s ted 1 00 y ea rs a go . We a t temp tt oa ddre s st h i si nt he f o l low ing s ec t ion a nd ,i ns od o ing ,w e move t o amo re s pecu la t ive f o rm o fd i scou r se t oc on s ide ri s sues o fc h rono log ica lp l acemen ta nd s pa t ia ld i s tr ibu t ion . L evan t ine Mo r tar ia i nP a l e s t ine F la t -Based Mor tar ia F o rt he e nsu ing d i scu s s ion w ef o l low S tern i nd iv id ing t he L evan t ine mo r ta r ia i n to t wo b as ic g roups : f l a t -ba sed a nd r i ng -ba sed . ' We w i l l a dd re s st he f l a t -ba sed g roup ing f i r s t .I t may b ei n s t ruc t ive t od e te rm ine w hen mor ta r ia f i r s ta ppea red i nP a le s t ine .A sG i t in h a sr ecen t ly n o ted ( G i t in 1 989 : 4 8 ) , f l a t -ba sed mo r ta r ia a re p re sen t i nc on tex ts w h ich t he i r e xcava tor s r ega rd a s l a te s even th c en tu ry a tT e lM iqne ( G i t in 1 989 : 4 8 ) ,E n -Ged i (Maza r , Do than , a nd Dunayev sky 1 966 : 6 5 ,F ig . 1 6 :2 ) , A shdod ( Bach i 1 971 : 11 , 1 29 , F ig s . 5 0 :1 a nd 5 9 :11 -12 ) , T e l l K e i san ( Br iend a nd Humbe r t 1 980 : P i s . 2 8 :1 ,31 : 5 -6 ) , A ro 'e r ( B i ran a nd C ohen 1 981 : 2 55 , F ig . 6 : 1 ) , a nd T e l lB a ta sh i ( Ke lm a nd Mazir 1 985 : 10 , F ig . 1 6 :7 ) . We a l so n o te t he i r p re sence a tA rad ( Aha ron i a nd Aha ron i 1 976 : F ig . 7 : 2 ) , J e r icho ( F ranken 1 974 : F ig . 1 8 :4 ) , a nd , p o s s ib ly , T e l le n -Na sbeh (Wamp ler 1 941 : F ig .7 :X10 ; G i t in 1 979 : 2 19 ) . On t h e e v idence p resen ted i nt ho se p ub l ica t ion sn one o ft he se c on tex ts w ou ld r equ i re ac h rono log ica l p l acemen te a r l ier t han t h el a s tq ua r te ro ft he s even th c en tury B .C .2 T hu si ti so u rj udgmen tt ha tf l a t -ba sed mo r ta r ia w ere f i r s t d i s t r ibu ted i n to t he r eg ion i nt he y ea r si mmed ia te ly b efo re 6 00 B .C . A si so f ten t he c a se , i d en t i f y ing t he d a te o f av es se l 's d i sappea rance f r om t he c e ram ic r epe r to ire i s mo re d if icu l tt han d e te rm in ing t he d a te o fi t sa ppea rance s i nce o lde rp i eces t end t ob ec hu rned u pi n to l a te rc on tex ts t h rough p i t t ing a nd t r ench ing a c t iv i t ie s .T he p re sence o ft he e a r l ier f l a t -ba sed mor ta r ium i sa t te s ted t h roughou tt he 6 th c en tu ry ( e .g . ,a tM igdo l ,O ren 1 984 )a nd s t i l li nS ub s tra tum Vd ( ca .5 00 -ca . 4 56 B .C .) a tT e l le l -Hes i( Benne t ta nd B lake ly 1 989 :F ig s .1 42 :11 -12 ) ,b u tw ek now o fn ol a te r ,t i gh t ly -da ted c on tex ts wh ich i n c lude f l a t -ba sed mo r ta r ia a sp a r t o ft he i rc e ram ic i n ven to r ie s . B a sed o nt he e v idence a th and , mo s t o f i ta dm i t ted ly l e s s s ecu re t han w e w ou ld l i ke , w e p resen t ly c onc lude t ha t f l a t -ba sed mo r ta r ia b eg in t oa ppear i nP a le s t in ian n ea rt he e nd o ft h es even th c en tury a nd a re i nu se ,p e rhap ss t i l l b e ing d i s tr ibu ted ,u n t i lt h eb eg inn ing o ft he f i f th c en tury B .C . I ti sp o s s ib le t oc onnec tt h i sc h rono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion r ange w i th c e r ta in i mpo r tan tg eopo l i t ica ls h i f ts .

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Af a ir ly c omprehens ive l i s to ff i ndspo ts ( a tl e as tt ot he s i te l e ve l) f or mor tar ia c an b eo b ta ined b yc o l la t ing S tern 's l i s t( 1982 :

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T he o n ly e ar ly d a tes wh ich c an b eg iven c ons idera t ion a re d a tes b eg inn ing c a .1 050 B .C .a tT ar sus a nd i nt he e igh th c en tury

9 6 -98) w i th d a ta p rov ided b y Hanfmann ( 1963 ) , Aharon ia nd Aharon i( 1976 ) ,G i t in ( 1979 ,1989 ) ,a nd S inger -Av i tz ( 1989a) .

a t Mers in . Wh i le s uch d a tes m ay n o ta ppear t ob er e l iab le a tf i r s tg l ance ( and may ,i nf a c t ,n o t b e ) ,e ar ly d a tes a tt he p o in t o f manufac ture a re c er ta in ly p oss ib le a nd r esearchers mus t c ons ider p re la te s even th c en tury p oss ib i l i t ies i nC i l ic ia o ra t o ther p o in ts o f manufac ture .

5 9

I nP a le s t ine A s sy r ian d om ina t ion p robab ly e nded i nt he 6 30 s B. C .w i th ar e su rgen tJ udah s e cur ing t he h i gh land so fP a le s t ine ,b u tw i th E gyp ta s sum ing n om ina lc on t ro lo ft he c oa s ta lr eg ion (Ma lama t 1 979 ) . E gyp t ian c on tro lp robab ly l a s ted u n t i ls oon a f te r6 05 B .C .w hen B aby lon wou ld h ave g a ined c on t ro lt ha t c on t inued u n t i l t he P e r s ian c onque s t , 5 39 B .C . T he i n troduc t ion o f t he f l a t -based mo r ta r ium i n to P a les t ine c o r re la tes c h rono log ica l ly w i th t h ed em i se o fA ssy r ian c on t ro l . Whe the rt h is i sb a sed o nt r ade o rt he p resence o f mercena r ie si nt he m i l i tary i sn o tc l ea r ,b u ts ome mo r ta r ia made t he ir w ay t ot he c i t ie s a nd f o r ts w h ich w e re a s soc ia ted w i th m i l i ta ry a nd g ove rnmen ta li n te re s t .A tt he s ame t ime ,c e r ta in E a s t G reek w a res a re a l so mak ing t he i r f i r s t a ppea rance i nt he r eg ion , b u t s ome t imes a l so a tp oorer s i te s ( e .g . , G i t in 1 989 : 4 8 ; R i s se r a nd B lake ly 1 989 : 9 3 , F ig s . 8 5 , 8 6 ; K ochav i 1 977 : 7 74 ) . B y a bou t 5 25 B .C . f l a t -ba sed mo r ta r ia a re p re sen ta tt he w e l l -da ted s i te o fM igdo la l ong w i th g rea tq uan t i t ie so fi mpo r ted a mpho rae a nd t r an spo r tj a r s .T h is s i te w a si d en t if ied b yO ren a sm anned b yG reek mercena r ie s . On t h i s s e to fl im i ted e v idence ,w es pecu la te t ha tf l a t -ba sed mo r ta r ia w e re b o th t r aded b y "Greek t r aders" a nd u sed b yt he v a r iou sm i l i ta ry u n i ts ( me rcena r ie s? ) a c t ive t h roughou tt h er eg ion j u s ta sP e t r ie d educed . R ing -Based Mor tar ia We c on t inue b yn o t ing t ha tw h i le t he f l a t -ba sed mo r ta r ium i st h es o le v er s ion o ft he v es se lk nown i nP a le s t ine t h rough t he t ime o fM igdo l wh ich a ppa ren t ly w a sd es troyed d u r ing t he P er s ian c onque s t o fE gyp t i n5 25 B .C . ( Oren 1 984 : 3 4 ) ,i mmed ia te ly f o l low ing t ha tc onque s ti nS tra tum X I( 525 -490 B .C .) a tT e l lM icha l( S inger -Av i tz 1 989a : 16 ,F ig .9 . 1 .2 ) ,i nS ub s tra tum Vd ( c a .5 00 -ca .4 56 B .C .) a tT e l le l -He s i( e .g . ,B enne t ta nd B lake ly 1 989 :F ig . 1 45 :4 ) ,a nd T e l la l - Ma skhu ta ( ca .4 86 B .C . w e l l ; Ho l laday 1 982 : P l . 1 6 : 1 ; P a ice 1 986 /87 : 9 9 ) t he r i ng -ba sed v er s ion o ft he mo r ta r ium i sp re sen t a long w i th t he f l a t -ba sed v e r s ion .P rev iou s ly w es ugges ted t ha ti nt he f i r s th a l fo ft he f i f th c en tury B .C . mo r ta r ia ( and many o f t he a mpho rae a nd t r an spo r t v e s se l s ) a re u sua l ly f ound a t s i tes w i th a m i l i tary o r g ove rnmen ta ln a tu re w h ich a re l o ca ted o n t r ade r ou te s ( Benne t t a nd B lake ly 1 989 : 2 23 ) .T he P er s ian I mpe r ia l m i l i ta ry u se o fs uch s i te s a s Dor ( S te rn 1 989 ) , T e l M icha l ( He rzog , R app , a nd N egb i 1 989 ) , N eb i Yun i s( Po ra th 1 974 ) ,L ach ish ( Tu fne l l1 953 ) ,T e l le l -Hes i( B lake ly a nd B enne t t1 989 ) ,T e l lJ emmeh ( Pe tr ie 1 928 ,V an B eek 1 983 ) ,S he ikh Z uwe id ( Pe t r ie 1 937 ) ,a nd M igdo l( Oren 1 984 ) i sa lmo s tb eyond q ues t ion a nd t he se a re t he s i tes w he re mo r ta r ia a re t he mo s tp reva len t ,a tl e a s ta sa t tes ted i nt he p resen t l i t e ra ture .T he a rchaeo log ica lr eco rd a tt h ese s i tes d ur ing t he f i f th c en tury B .C . d oh ave c e r ta in t h ing si n c ommon . S t ruc tura l ly t hey a re ma rked b y n ew ly -con s t ruc ted l a rge b u i ld ing s , many t ime s mud -b r ick c a sema te s t ruc tu re s ( e .g . , c l ea r c a ses a tT e l l e l -He s i , T e l l M icha l , a nd N eb i Yun is ) , a nd t h er epo r ted c eram ic i n ven to r ie s i n c lude l oop -hand le a mpho rae , s au sage j a r s , o f ten e xamp les o fA t t ic v ases a nd b ow l s ,a nd mo r ta r ia .T hese c eram ic i t em ss eem t o make ap ackage ,a sO ren ( 1984 ) s urm i sed a t Migdo l , w h ich p e r s i s ted t h rough t he f i f th c en tury B .C . T h i sr eco rd i sd i f fe ren tf r om o the rf i f th c en tury s i tes l i ke S hechem ( Lapp 1 985 ) , T e l l e l -Fü l ( Lapp 1 981 ) , T e l l Maza r ( Ya s s ine 1 984 ) , a nd e ven J erusa lem ( Tu sh ingham 1 985 ) w he re b o th t y pes o f mor ta r ia u nde rs t udy a ppea rt ob em i s s ing f r om t h ep ub l i shed a rchaeo log ica l r eco rd . T hus , w e s ugge s ted t ha t t he re i s ar e la t ion sh ip b e tween m i l i ta ry p resence i n P a le s t ine a nd mo r ta r ium d i s tr ibu t ion ( B lake ly a nd B enne t t1 989 :223 )a nd i td oes n o ts eem u n rea sonab le t os ugge s tt h a tt he r i ng -ba sed mo r tar ia w ere b rough ti n to P a le s t ine a sp a r to ft he s upp l ies a nd e qu ipmen t f o rt he v a r iou sf o rce so ft he I mpe r ia lP e r s ian m i l i ta ry . B yt he s ame t oken ,w ek now o fn oe xamp le o f af ou r th c en tury B .C . r i ng -ba sed mor ta r ium o ft he t y pe u nder d i scu s s ion w h ich c ou ld n o t b e e xp la ined a s a n e a r l ie r d i sp laced e xamp le . We n o te t ha t f ou r th c en tu ry mo r ta r ia i n Wad i e d -Dâ l iyeh ( Lapp 1 974 : 3 2 , P i s . 3 2 :1 a nd 7 5 ) a nd T e l M icha l ( S inge r -Av i tz 1 989a : 1 30 , F ig . 9 . 9 .1 ) w i th p a ra l le l s a tT e l le l -F6 1 ( S inc la i r 1 960 : 4 3 ,P l .2 6 :12 ) ,S he ikh Z uwe id ç Pe tr ie 1 937 :P l .3 2 :3C ) ,a nd S ama r ia ( 1966 :P 1 .28 :29 )a re o f ad i f fe ren tt y pe t h a tt hose u nder s t udy h e re . T hu s ,

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A lso o f ad i f feren t t ype a re t he f l a t -based mor tar ia w i th ac i rcu lar g roove o n t he b ase 's e x ter ior a nd ap rof i led r im , f ound a tT aanach ( Ras t 1 978 : F is .8 5 :8 a nd 8 6 :1) ,T e l le l 1 les i( Benne t ta nd B lake ly 1 989 : F ig s . 1 44 :37 a nd 1 55 :27 ) ,i l azor ( Yad in e t

a l1 960 : P l . 2 57 :7 ,9 ) ,T e l lJ emmeh ( Pe tr ie 1 928 : P l . 4 8 :8e) , Gezer ( G i t in 1 979 : P l . 3 0 :2 ) ,T e l Mevorakh ( S tern 1 978 : P l .

2 2 :4) ,a nd T e l M icha l ( S inger -Av i tz 1 989a : 1 33 , F ig .9 . 11 .1) .T h is v ar ie ty a ppear st ob ea no ther f i f th c en tury B .C . f orm .

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i ti sl i ke ly t ha tt he r i ng -ba sed mo r ta r ium l e f tt he P a le s t in ian c e ram ic c o rpu sb yt he e nd o ft he f i f th c en tu ry o ra tt h ev ery b eg inn ing o ft h ef ou r th c en tury B .C . O ne mu s tn o te t ha tc a . 4 00 B .C . i sp rec i se ly t he t ime p e r iod o f u n re s t i nt he P er s ian Emp i re a nd t he d a te w hen E gyp t r evo l ted a nd c onque red s ou thern P a le s t ine ( O lm s tead 1 948 :3 73 -74 ;B a rag 1 966 :6 12 ;S tern 1 978 :8 2 -83 ;B enne t ta nd B lake ly 1 989 : 337)•1 T hu s , t os umma r ize t h i s d i scu s s ion , as t udy o fc ompa ra t ive s t ra t ig raphy ,c h rono logy ,a nd a s soc ia ted c on tex ts ugges ts t ha tt he mo r ta r ia u nde rs t udy w e re p re sen ti nP a les t ine a tt he e nd o ft he s even th c en tury B .C . t ot he e nd o ft he f i f th c en tury o r t he b eg inn ing o ft he f ou r th c en tu ry B .C . I ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he f l a t -ba sed v a r ie ty w a s c ommon f r om t he e nd o ft he s even th c en tury t ot he e ar ly f i f th c en tury B .C . a nd t ha tt h er i ng -ba sed v e rs ion w a sc ommon f r om t he e nd o ft he s i x th c en tury t ot he t r an s i t ion f r om t he f i f th t ot h ef our th c en tu r ies B .C . F rom t he i rf i r s t a ppea rance t ot he m id -f i f th c en tury , mor ta r ia a ppea r mo s t o f ten i ng overnmen ta lo r m i l i ta ry c on tex ts i na s soc ia t ion w i th v a r iou st ype s o fi mpo r ted t r an spo r tj a rs a nd a mphorae . He re w en o te t ha t a ppa ren t ly t he r i ng -ba sed v a r ie ty f i r s ta ppea rs i nP a le s t ine w i th t he P e r s ian c onque s to fE gyp t ,c a .5 25 B .C . , a nd d i sappea r sw i th P er s ian t u rmo i la nd E gyp t ian r evo l t ,c a .4 00 B .C .

Mo r ta r ia i nt h eS oc io -Po l i t ica la nd E conom ic Wo r ld o ft h eP er s ian Emp i r e H i s to r ica l ly ,w i th t he P e r s ian sc ame t he r i ng -ba sed mo r ta r ia ,a nd w hen many o ft he P er s ian s i te sw e re o ve r run o ra bandoned a round 4 00 B .C . , r i ng -ba sed mo r ta r ia c ea se t ob ef ound .T he P e rs ian Emp i re b u i l t as y s tem o fr oad s w i th w ay s ta t ion s , t a xs t o rehou se s f o r g ra in , m i l i tary s upp ly d epo ts t h roughou t t he i r e mp i re . The m i l i ta ry s i tes o ft he P e rs ian P e r iod b e longed t ot h i s s y s tem a nd i ti s ma in ly a tt hese s i tes w he re w e f i nd t h e r i ng -ba sed mo r ta r ia . B a sed o n t he se o b se rva t ion s , w e s pecu la te t ha t r i ng -ba sed mo r ta r ia ( and p o s s ib ly f l a t -ba sed o ne s t oo ) w e re m i l i tary i s sue g r ind ing b ow l s o ft he P er s ian Emp i re d u r ing t he l a te s i x th c en tury a nd t h rough much o ft he f i f th c en tury B .C . Why i ss uch ag r ind ing v e s se lf ound i nm i l i ta ry c on tex t si nP a le s t ine a nd r a re ly e l sewhe re? T he Z ag ro s r eg ion , Ana to l ia ,t he G reek I s land s ,G reece ,a nd S y r ia a l la re v o lcan ic r eg ion si n wh ich b a sa l ta nd o the r i g neou s r ocks a re p resen t . S uch r ock s a re t r ad i t iona l ly u sed f o rg r ind ing v e sse l s . P a les t ine l a ck st he se l i th ic r e source sa nd e i the r mu s ti mpo r tt hem o ru se s ed imen ta ry r ock sf o rt he s ame p u rpo se . When t he P e r s ian a rmy e s tab l i shed i t s s y s tem o fi mpe r ia l s t o rehou se s , d epo t s , a nd w ay s ta t ion s , t hey n eeded a c e r ta in q uan t i ty o fg r ind ing i mp lemen ts . We s ugges tt ha t t h em anu fac tu re a nd i mpor ta t ion o fc e ram ic r i ng -ba sed mo r ta r ia w a s p robab ly mo re e conom ica l ly e ff ic ien t s i nce t hey a re b o th r e la t ive ly l i gh t a nd t h ey s t ack w h ich i mp l ies t h a t t hey s hou ld b e e a sy t os h ip . On t he o the rh and , s t anda rd b a sa l t mo r ta rs , b a sa l tq uerns tone s ,a nd b a sa l tb ow ls w ou ld t end t ob eh eav ie r ,b el e s ss t anda rd ized ,a nd p robab ly w ou ld b e m o re d i f f icu l t t o s h ip . T hus t he c eram ic mor ta r ia m ay w e l l h ave b een t he s t anda rd i s sue I mper ia l P e r s ian g r ind ing b ow lf o rt h eP a le s t in ian r eg ion . D .P .S .P eacock p ub l i shed amo s ti n te re s t ing e thnoa rchaeo log ica ls t udy o fP o t teyin t h e Roman Wor ld ( 1 982 ) .I ni th ed i scus sed av a r ie ty o fe conom ic s y s tem si nw h ich c e ram ic sa re a nd h ave b een p roduced . I fo u r s pecu la t ion r ega rd ing t he c onnec t ion b e tween t he r i ng -ba sed mo r ta j aa nd t he P e r s ian m i l i tary s y s tem i sc or rec t , w e m ay b e a b le t o p rov ide ar easonab le s cena r io t od e sc r ibe t he e conom ic s y s tem w h ich p roduced t h ese v e s se l s . We b e l ieve i tt ob e ar ea sonab le h ypo the s is t ha tt he r i ng -ba sed mo r ta r ia w e re manufac tu red p r ima r i ly ( s o le ly?) a s am i l i ta ry i s sue i nP a le s t ine a nd E gyp t .P eacock h a sd i scu ssed t h i st y pe o f manufac tu re ( 1 982 : 1 36 -50 ) i n Roman t ime s w hen h e d e sc r ibed t he manu fac tu re o ft i le s , mo r ta r ia , a nd o the rv es se l sf o rt he Roman A rmy . B a sed o n P eacock 's s ugge s t ion s f o rm i l i ta ry p roduc t ion a nd o nw ha tw eh ave i den t if ied c once rn ing t h em anufac tu re o fr i ng -ba sed L evan t ine mo r ta r ia , w ew ou ld e xpec t o ne d ed ica ted f a c i l i ty p roduc ing

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I ti si n teres t ing t on o te t ha t a tf our th -cen tury T e lM icha l , i nt he f i r s ts t ra tum f o l low ing mor tar ia ( S tra tum V I ; c a . 3 50 -300 B .C .) , w e f i nd f r amed b asa l t m i l ls tones ( S inger -Av i tz 1 989b : 3 50 -51 , F ig . 3 1 .2 .9 ) . Th is s t ra tu m i ss upposed t o r epresen t c on t inued a nd e x tens ive m i l i tary u sage a tt he s i te ( Her zog 1 989 :110 -12 )) ,b u ts udden ly t he mor tar ium i sn ol onger p re s en t . T h is c ou ld b e c hance o ri tc ou ld r ef lec t an ew m i l i tary i nc on tro l . O r , t he s t ackab le a nd p or tab le f r a med m i l ls tone c ou ld c once ivab ly b et he r ep lacemen t f or t he r i ng -based mor tar ium i nt he f our th c en tury B .C .

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t h e se v e s se l s . We s ugge s t a n a s semb ly l i ne p roduc t ion w h ich a lowed f o r m a s s p roduc t ion . C e r ta in i n d iv idua l sw ou ld p robab ly l e v iga te t h ec l ay w h i le o the r sw ou ld a dd t h et empe r .O ther sw ou ld p robab ly r o l li ti n to s hee t sa nd t h en p l ace t h es hee t so ve rt h e mo ld sw he re t h ep o t te rw ou ld f i n i sh t h ev e s se l ' sr im a nd b a se a nd t h en g oo nt ot h en ex t mo ld .O the ra s s i s tan t sw ou ld r emove t h ev e s se lf r om t h e mo ld a nd s e ti tt od ry p r io rt of i r ing .I ft h i si sh ow t h ei n s ta l la t ion o pe ra ted ,s u ch a na s semb ly l i ne w ou ld p robab ly c u tc o s t sb ya low ing s pec ia l iza t ion i nk ey r o le sw i th a s s i s tan t so rt r a inee sd o ing t he s imp le ra nd mo re r epe t i t ive t a sk s .I ne s sence w ea r ed e sc r ib ing w ha to u rB r i t i sh c o l league ss ugge s tf o rt he p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f mo r ta r ia i nE u rope a nd B r i ta in ( Ha r t ley 1 973 , 1 977 ;P eacock 1 982 ) . B eyond t h e s t r ic t ly m i l i ta ry n eed s a dd re s sed b ys uch af a c to ry ,w ew ou ld n o tb e s u rp r i sed t of i nd a c e r ta in n on -m i l i ta ry c omme rc ia l a spec t w he reby t h e s a le o ft h e se v e s se l s t o an on -m i l i ta ry p opu lace c ou ld b ea ccommoda ted f r om r eg iona l d i s t r ibu t ion c en te r si nP a le s t ine o rt ot r ade r sd i rec t ly f rom t h e f a c tory . Ou r s en se o f t h e p ub l i shed P a le s t in ian l i t e ra tu re t od a te w ou ld s ugge s t t ha t an on -m i l i ta ry d i s t r ibu t ion w a sp re sen ti nP a le s t ine a f te ra bou t4 50 B .C . i fn o tb e fo re . Mo r ta r ia i nt u eS oc io -Po l i t i ca la nd E conom i c Wo r ld o ft h eS ev en t hC en tur yB . C . Ad i scu s s ion o ff l a t -ba sed L evan t ine mo r ta r ia i nt h e s even th a nd s i x th c en tu r ie s B .C . i s af a r mo re d i ff icu l t t a sk t h an t h e o ne j u s t c omp le ted . F a r l e s s i sk nown a bou t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft he v e s se l s t h em se lve sa nd a bou tt h eg r ea te re conomy a s aw ho le .T he re fo re ,t h i sa nd t h ef o l low ing p a rag raph mu s t b ev i ewed a ss pecu la t ive . A sw e p u sh b ack e a r l ie rf r om t h em i l i ta ry c e ram ic p roduc t ion s y s tem w h ich w es ugge s ted w a s i np l ace d u r ing I mpe r ia lP e r s ian t ime s ,w em ay f i nd s ome s ub t le b u tv e ry i mpo r tan t s h i f t si nt h ep roduc t ion s y s tem a l though t h e re s eem st ob en oi n d ica t ion t h a tt h er eg ion o fm anu fac tu re f o ro u r mo r ta r ia s h i f t s . I fw e a s sume t h a t f l a t -ba sed mo r ta r ia o ft h e l a te s e ven th a nd s i x th c en tu r ie s B .C . w e re t r ade i t em s d i rec ted t owa rd P a le s t ine , a sw e t e n ta t ive ly s ugge s ted , t h en w es hou ld p robab ly l ook f o r as e r ie s o f r e la ted b u ts pec ia l ized s hop s s uch a st ho se p re sen ti nC o r in th ( Spa rke sa nd T a lco t t 1 970 ) d u r ing t h i s p e r iod o ra tR a sa l -Ba s i t i nt h eR oman e r a ( Haye s1 967 ) .T he re m ay h ave b een many s u ch f a c i l i t ie si n n o r the rn S y r ia a nd /o r s ou thwe s t Ana to l ia . O the r s w e re d oub t le s s p re sen t o n C yp ru s . E a sy a cce s s t o t r an spo r ta t ion s y s tem s , p robab ly s h ipp ing l a ne s , a nd t h e a va i lab i l i ty o fs u i tab le r aw m a te r ia l s w ou ld d e te rm ine t h el o ca t ion o ft h e se f a c i l i t ie s . We h ave n od oub tt h a tt h e se e x i s ted a nd w ou ld p robab ly h ave r e semb led w ha tP eacock c a l led " u rban n uc lea ted i n du s t ry "( Peacock 1 982 :9 9 -103 ,e sp .9 ) . T he N ex tS t ep s We u nde r s tand t h a tw ha tw eh ave p ropo sed i nt h ei mmed ia te ly p reced ing p a rag raph sw e re as e r ie s o fi n te r lock ing h ypo the se sr ega rd ing t h ew ay t h e se v e s se l sw e re d i s t r ibu ted a nd t h ei n te rna t iona lt r ade s y s tem so fw h ich t h ey w e re ap a r t . Wh i le w eb e l ieve t h e se h ypo the se st ob ef ounded o ns o l id e v idence t h ey a r e , n eve r the le s s , h ypo the se s a nd r equ i re ag rea t d ea l o ff u r the r c on s ide ra t ion p r io r t o t h e i r a ccep tance . I no u rj udgmen t ap rog ram t ot e s t t h e se h ypo the se sw ou ld b e mo s t i n s t ruc t ive a nd w ep ropo se t h e f o l low ing s t age so fi n ve s t iga t ion : • S tag e1 .T he a na ly s is o fp r ev ious ly i n ve s t iga ted m a t er ia ls .T h i sw ou ld b eg in w i th t h ec r ea t ion o f ac ompu te rg raph ic sd a ta b a se f o rb eg inn ing w i th p ub l i shed e xamp le s .I n i t ia l ly t h i sw ou ld i nc lude o n ly mo rpho log ica li n fo rma t ion a nd t h ea va i lab le p roven ience a nd c on tex tua li n fo rma t ion . Onc e t h i s i sc omp le ted , a t ten t ion w ou ld t u rn t ot h e e xam ina t ion o fp rev iou s ly e xcava ted c o l lec t ion s p a r t icu la r ly t ho se w h ich w e re i n comp le te ly o rt o ta l ly u npub l i shed a nd t h ea dd i t ion o fi n fo rma t ion f r om t h i ss ou rce t ot h ed a ta b a se . On t h eb a s i so fm an ipu la t ion o ft h er e su l tan td a taba se s e lec ted e xamp le sw ou ld b e c ho sen f o rc ompo s i t iona la na ly s i sa nd t h e se r e su l t sa dded t ot h ed a ta b a se . I na dd i t ion ,i tw ou ld b ea pp rop r ia te t ou nde r take ar ev iew o ft h ep e r t inen tl i te ra tu re ,d ocumen t a ry e v idence , a nd s u rv iv ing a r t i s t ic p roduc t s f o r t h e p e r iod t os ea rch f o r r e f e rence s t o t h e se v e s se l so rt ot h ef u nc t ion st h ey m ay h ave s e rved . • S tage 2 .T he i d en t i f ica t ion o fp roduc t ion s i te s .T he s t udy o ft h em a te r ia l su nde r taken i nS tage 1 w ou ld g i ve u ss ome r e a sonab ly g ood i d ea sa bou tt h ep o ten t ia ll o ca t ion so fp roduc t ion s i te s .T h i s

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s t age w ou ld i n vo lv et h e u se o fs u r face s u rvey o fs e lec ted l o ca le sw h ich a r et hough tl i ke ly t ob e p roduc t ion c en te r s .C a re fu ls u r f ace c o l lec t ion sw ou ld b em ade a ts uch l o ca t ion sw i th e xamp le s a dded t ot h ed a ta b a se a nd s ubm i t ted f o rc ompo s i t iona la na ly s i sa nd t e chno log ica ls t ud ie s . • S tag e3 .T he e x cava t ion o fp roduc t ion s i te s .T h i sw ou ld b eu nde r taken o n ly a ts i te sa tw h ich t he r e su l t s o fS tage s 1a nd 2i n d ica ted w ou ld y i e ld s i gn if ican t a moun t s o fi n fo rma t ion a bou t t he t e chno log ica la spec t so ft h ep roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion s y s tem s . S ummary R emark s o nC eram ic A na ly s is A sw e s t a ted i nt h e i n t roduc t ion , t h i s c hap te rw a sn o tw r i t ten p r ima r i ly a s as t udy o f mo r ta r ia . We b e l ieve w e h ave l e a rned s ome th ing a bou t t h e se v e s se l s a nd g a ined s ome i n s igh t i n to t h e s oc ia l a nd c omme rc ia lw o r ld so fw h ich t h ey w e re ap a r t ,b u tw ha tw el e a rned a bou ta r chaeo log ica lm e thod may b e m o re i mpo r tan t . S o , i nc onc lu s ion w e w i sh t os ha re s ome n o t t o ta l ly i n teg ra ted o b serva t ion s o n h ow s imp le mo rpho log ica l o b se rva t ion s a nd i n comp le te a na ly s i s o f d a ta l e d s eve ra l g ene ra t ion s o f r e s e a rche rs d own ab l ind a ley . T oday w et e nd t ot h ink o fo u re a r ly p redece s so r si nt h ea r chaeo log ica lp ro f e s s ion ,o u r1 9 th a nd e a r ly 2 0 th c en tu ry g rea t -g rand f a the r s ,a sc rude a nd n on sc ien t if ic i nt h e i ra pp roache st oa na ly s i s . Wh i le t h i s i st r ue i nm any c a se s ,w ew i sh t or e empha s ize t h a tP e t r ie a nd B l i s sh ad h i tu pon ab a s ic u nde r s tand ing o f mo r ta r ia w hen t h ey w e re f i r s t r epo r ted n ea r ly o ne h und red y ea r s a go . B o th r ecogn ized t h e se a s i mpo r t sf r om t h eG reek w o r ld a nd s ugge s ted t h a tt h ey w e re t r ade i t em sd i s t r ibu ted i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e movemen t so fG reek t r ade r sa nd m e rcena r ie ss t a r t ing ,p robab ly i nt h es e ven th a nd c on t inu ing i n to t h es i x th c en tu ry B .C . T he i rj udgmen t ,b a sed p r ima r i ly o nc on tex t sf o rt h ef l a t -ba sed v e r s ion i nE gyp t ,i s r ema rkab ly c l o se t ot h eb e s t t h a tw e c an s ugge s tt oday . We a t t r ibu te P e t r ie a nd B l i s s ' si n s igh ti n to t he m a s s ive q uan t i t ie s o fd a ta e ach h and led a s ar e su l to ft h e i rp ionee r ing w o rk .I nt h ec a se o fB l i s s ,w ho e l se e ve re xcava ted a nd p ub l i shed m a jo rp o r t ion so fs i xl a rge s i te si nP a le s t ine? T h i sa ccomp l i shmen ti s u n ique a nd mode rn s cho la r sd i scoun t t h i se a r l ie rw o rk a tt h e i rp e r i l . Wh i le w ed on o ts ugge s tt ha to ne s hou ld a ccep t t h e r e su l t s o fe a r l ie r s c ho la r s u nc r i t ica l ly , w e d o s ugge s t t h a t t h e i r c onc lu s ion s n o t b e d i sm i s sed u nc r i t ica l ly . A no the ro b se rva t ion , s omewha t s im i la r t ot h a t o f f e red a bove , c once rn st h e u se o ft e rm sb o r rowed f r om o the ra r ea so rd eve loped t h rough a r chaeo log ica l" f o lk t a xonomy ," e .g . ,s au sage j a r s ,t o rdepo j a r s , m i lk b ow l sa nd t h el i ke . B y1 930 Duncan a nd P e t r ie s t a r ted c a l l ing t h ev e s se l su nde rs t udy " mo r ta r ia ." T h i st e rm h ad am ean ing w h ich w a sw e l lk nown e ve rywhe re i nt h ew o r ld e xcep t ,i ta ppea r s ,t or e sea rcher s w o rk ing i nP a le s t ine .N one o ft h es ub sequen tr eg iona ls t ud ie si n d ica ted t h eu nde r s tand ing t h a tt h i st e rm m ean t ag r ind ing v e s se l .I nf a c t ,w ef i nd s uch a maz ing i n s tance so fn on -unde r s tand ing a st h et r an s l i te ra t i on o f mo r ta r ia i n to H eb rew p ub l ica t ion sw h ich a r et h en t r an s la ted i n to E ng l i sh a s" Pe r s ian B ow l s" a nd o ne p a r t icu la r ly o u t s tand ing i n s tance i nw h ich t h e t e rm i sw r i t ten a s "Mo ra to r ium" ( Deve r 1 974 : P l . 3 8 :1 -2 ) . Wo rd s ,e spec ia l ly w hen t h ey a r eu sed a sl a be l s ,h ave ap owe r fu lr o le i nt h ew ay w ea pp roach t h e o b jec ts o fo u ri n ve s t iga t ion s .T hey s hou ld n o th ea pp l ied u nc r i t ica l ly .A sw ew i l la rgue b e low ,s uch t e rm s s h ou ld b ea dded o n ly a tt h ec onc lu s ion o fe xhau s t ive s t udy ,n o ta tt h eb eg inn ing . We r ecogn ize t h a ti ti s n ece s sa ry f o r r e sea rche r s t od eve lop ac ommon l a nguage t ot a lk a bou t t h e o b jec t s o ft h e i r c o l lec t ive i n ve s t iga t ion s ;h oweve r ,a l t oo o f ten w em i s take o u rl a nguage f o rt h er ea l i ty .A st h i sl a nguage h a rden s o u rt y ranny o ve rt h em a te r ia l sb ecome si n c rea s ing ly p owe r fu l . We p a s st h i sl a nguage o nt oo u rs t uden t s w ho ,b e ing u nawa re o fj u s t h ow f l im sy s uch c on s t ruc t s a r e ,p roceed a si fw eu nde r s tood t h en a tu re o f t h ing sj u s tb ecau se w eh av ei n ven ted n ame sf o rt h em . A no the re xamp le o fh ow o u rl e a rned c on s t ruc t sa nd o p in ion s c o lo ro u ri n ve s t iga t ion si st h ew ay i n w h ich w eo r ig ina l ly p e rce ived t h e mo r ta r ia . When w ef i r s te ncoun te red t h em a tT e l le l -He s iw ej udged t h em t ob ep a r t icu la r ly c r ude a nd u n soph i s t ica ted .T he se l a rge ,g r i t ty b ow l sc ou ld n o tb et h ep roduc t s o ft h es ame c e ram ic i n du s t r ie sw h ich p roduced t h ef i ne ,h i gh ly g l o s sed A t t ic b ow l sa nd v a se s .B u ta so u r i n v e s t iga t ion ss l ow ly r e vea led t ou st h i s n o t ion s p rang s o le ly f r om o u r2 0 th c en tu ry a e s the t ic sa nd h ad n o th ing w ha t soeve rt od ow i th t h em a te r ia l sw ew e re c on s ide r ing .I n s tead o fb e ing c rude ly c on s t ruc ted , t h e i rw e l l lev iga ted c l ay w a st empe red w i th s pec i f ic c oa r se v o lcan ic i n c lu s ion sa nd c a re fu l ly mo lded i n m anufac tu re t op roduce as t anda rd ized v e s se lt om ee tt h en eed so fa ni n te rna t iona ld i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk . O u r mode rn e ye ss aw n one o ft h i s ;u n t i lw el o oked . We h ave n od oub tt h a tt h i sa e s the t ic p e rcep t ion h a s b een l a rge ly r e spon s ib le f o rt h er e fu sa lo fm any r e sea rche r st ob e l ieve t h a tt h e se w e re i mpo r ted v e s se l s .

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F u r the rmo re , a sw e h ope w eh ave d emon s t ra ted ,o ne d oe sn o ta s ce r ta in w i th c e r ta in ty t h eo r ig in o f p a r t icu la r v e s se l s s imp ly b y m app ing t h e i r r e co rded f i nd spo t s . T h i s i sh ow S t e rn c onc luded t ha t t he r i ng -ba sed mo r ta r ia w e re P a le s t in ian ( S te rn 1 982 :9 6 -98 ) . He n o ted t h a ta l r eco rded f md spo t sw e re i n P a le s t ine a nd c onc luded t h ey h ad t ob e P a le s t in ian v e s se l s . T h i s f a u l ty j udgmen t ,b a sed o nw ha t w a s t hough tt ob e al o g ica la s sump t ion ,c ou ld h ave b een a vo ided b yp e t ro log ic o r NAA s t udy .I ti sa pp rop r ia te t or emembe r t h ew a rn ing i s sued b yD . P .S .P eacock ( 1 978 ) : t h e a na ly s i so ff i nd spo t s may w e l lb e a n a na ly s i so fw he re p eop le h ave d ug . Ou r d i s t r ibu t ion m ap sm ay b ea r t i f ac t so fi n ve s t iga t ion s .T h i si sn o d oub tp a r t icu la r ly t h ec a se w i th r ega rd t oI s rae l .I nc ompa r i son t oa lo fi t se a s te rn a nd n o r the rn n e igh b o r s ,I s rae li se x ten s ive ly e xcava ted . Wh i le w eh ave t r ied t oe xp la in t h ed i s t r ibu t ion p henomenon a so ne b a sed o ns upp ly a r id d emand o fg r ind ing i mp lemen t s ,w ed on o td oub tt h a tf u tu re w o rk i nL ebanon a nd S y r ia /Ana to l ia w i l ld i scove rr i ng -ba sed mo r ta r ia i nb o th f a c to ry a nd m i l i ta ry s upp ly a nd t r an s i tc en te r s . S ome g rea tc on fu s ion r ega rd ing t h e mo r ta r ium h a sb een i n t roduced b ecau se t h e s t udy o fc e ram ic s t e nd s t of o l l w ab io log ica l mode l t h e " deve lopmen t" o ff o rm s . Wh i le w ew ou ld n eve r s u gge s t t ha t v e s se lf o rm sd on o tc hange o ve rt ime o na ccoun to fc hang ing r e sou rc e sa nd c hang ing c on sume rd emand s o r i d io sync ra s ie s o f p o t te r s , o ne c anno t s imp ly a s sume t h a t b ecau se t wo f o rm s a re c h rono log ica l ly s equen t ia la nd s o r to fl o ok a l ike ,t h a to ne d eve loped i n to t h eo the r .S i nc la i ra nd G i t in 's s ugg e s t ion st ha t t h e mc r ta r iu rn ( may h ave ) d e scended f r om t h e l a rge t h ick r immed b ow l o ft h e e nd o ft h eI r on I i n P a le s t ine i ss uch a n a s sump t ion . H ad m anu f ac tu r ing t e chn ique o ft h et wo v e s se l sb een e xam ined b ya c e ram ic t e chno log i s t ( s uch a sK e l so a nd T ho r ley h ad d one f o r t h e I r onI l b ow l a nd Maca l i s te r h ad g ue s sed a tZ o rt h e mo r ta r ium ) ,h ad t h ef unc t ion o ft h et wo v e s se l sb een c on s ide red ( a s Duncan a ppa ren t ly h ad ) ,o rh ad t h e i rp o in t so fo r ig in b een c on s ide red ( a sP e t r ie a nd B l i s sh ad d one ) ,s uch ad ev e lopmen ta l s ugge s t ion w ou ld n eve rh ave b een m ade .T he a na ly s t sl o oked s o le ly a tg ro s s mo rpho logy a nd d rew t he i r c onc lu s ion s . -

T h i sb r ing su s t ot h e p o in t o fd i scu s s ing t h e u se o ff i xed t y po log ica lc a tego r ie sa st he b a s i sf o r o u r u nde r s tand ing o fc e ram ic s .I nt h ec a se a th and ,t h et y pe c a l led " mo r ta r ium" w a sd ef ined o nt h eb a s i so f m o rpho logy a s" La rge h eavy b ow lw i th at h ick r im ," a nd t h en s ubd iv ided a sa )" La rge b ow lw i th f l a to r c oncave b a se ,w i th s moo th t ow av ys i de s" a nd b )" L ike t h ep reced ing b u tw i th ah i gh d i sk b a se" ( S te rn 1 982 :96 9 8 ) . Wh i le t h i sd oe sd ef ine ar a t iona le f o rg roup ing v e s se l s ,i tp rov ide sn og rea te ru nde r s tand ing o ft h e se v e s se l so rf o rt h es oc ie ty i nw h ich t h ey w e re u sed .A sw ed i scu s sed i n ap reced ing p a rag raph ,i t p rov ide s an ame a nd t h ei l u s ion t h a tw ek now mo re t h an w er e a l ly d o .C e r ta in ly i ti sn ece s sa ry t og roup i t em sf o rs t udy b u tw e mu s t r e a l ize t h eg rave c on sequence ss uch g roup ing h a s .I ti s af l ex ib le g roup ing o fi t em s , h oweve r , t h a t s t imu la te s t hough t . When d ea l ing w i th c e ram ic s , ar e sea rcher c an g roup t h e m a te r ia l s u nde r c on s ide ra t ion o n t h e b a s i s o f w a re ( howeve r p rec i se ly d ef ined ) , s ou rce , f unc t ion , m anu fac tu r ing t e chn ique ,f i r ing t empe ra tu re ,h a rdne s s ,p o ro s i ty ,o rs ome o the rc r i te r ion ,d epend ing o n t h er e sea rch g oa l s , a nd t h er e su l t s o fa ny o ft h e se g roup ing s( o rc omb ina t ion st h e reo f ) c ou ld a dvance u nde r s tand ing .T op a raph ra se Whee le r ' sc ommen t so na r chaeo log ica lm e thod ,t h e re i sn os i ng le r i gh t w ay ,b u tc e r ta in ly t h e re a r e m any w rong w ay s .J u s tb ecau se o ne m e thod i s" r igh t" d oe sn o tm ean t ha t a no the ri s" w rong ." F i xed t y po log ica lc a tego r ie s( e spec ia l ly o ne sb a sed s o le ly o ng ro s s mo rpho logy ) ,b y t h e i r v e ry n a tu re , a r e n o t s imp ly w rong t h ey a r e p e rn ic iou s . N o t o n ly d o t h ey f a i l t op romo te u nde r s t and ing ,t h ey mo s to f ten a c tt os t if le f u r the ra na ly s i s . T h roughou t t h i s c hap te r w e h ave a t temp ted n o t t o d ef ine " t ype " . T o d ef ine t ype s , e v en f o r t h e L evan t ine m o r ta r ium , i s at a sk f r augh tw i th p e r i lw h ich c ou ld ,a nd h a s ,f i l led e n t i re v o lume s . Wh i le w e t h ink w eh ave b egun t oe s tab l i sh ap rope ru nde r s tand ing o ft h en a tu re t h e se v e s se l s ,w ew ou ld n o ta g ree o n ac a se -by -ca se b a s i sg i ven t h ec u r ren tu n ive r se o fk now ledge . We a r eh oweve r ,s a t i sf i ed ,t h a t ac l a s s o fv e s se l sw h ich f u nc t ioned a sg r ind ing b ow l sa nd t h a ta r ec a l led " mo r ta r ia" i sav a l id s t a r t ing p o in ti n o ne s uch t y po logy . I fa l g r ind ing b ow l s , c e ram ic o r n o t , w e re g r ouped a to ne l e ve l o fu nde r s tand ing u nde rt h eh ead ing " mo r ta r ia "w ew ou ld b eh appy .I f ,a st h en ex tb a s i so fs epa ra t ion ,t hey w e re d iv ided b yw a re a nd t h e i rs ou rce so fm anu f ac tu re w e re i d en t if ied t oc r ea te ,e . g . ," Ta r su s ," " An t ioch , "C o r in th , C he s te r , e t c . , g roup ing s , w e w ou ld b e p l ea sed . I fe ach o ft h e se w e re s ubd iv ided i n to i n te r io r mo ld , e x te r io r mo ld ,w hee l th rown ,c o i l -made ,a nd " ch ipped d i rec t ly o u to fs t one" t e chno log ica lg r oup ing sf o r e ach s ou rce ,w he re a pp l icab le ,w ew ou ld b e e c s ta t ic . O fc ou r se ,f u r the rs ubd iv i s ion w ou ld b ep os s ib le w i th in t h i sf r amewo rk s i nce w eh ave n o t ,a nd w i l ln o t ,c on s ide rm o rpho log yo rc h rono logy ,j u s tt on ame t wo .C le ar ly ,h oweve r ,t h eh i e ra rchy f o rd i v i s ion f o rg r ind ing b ow l s " mo r ta r ia " c ou ld b ed i f fe ren tf o r o t he r s w i th a l te rna te r e sea rch g oa l s . T he g oa l i sf l ex ib i l i ty a nd t h i s f l ex ib i l i ty i sb a sed o n ag rea te r u nde r s tand ing o f av e s se l 's f o rm ,f a b r ic ,a nd f m nd spo t . -

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We h ope t h a t t h i s c on t r ibu t ion h a ss hown t h a t ak now ledge o ff o rm ,f a b r ic ,a nd f md spo ti se s sen t ia l t ot h eu nde r s tand ing o fa ny c e ram ic c o rpu s .I nC hap te r 1w es ugge s ted t h a ts uch d a ta b ec o l lec ted i na c ompu te rg raph ic sd a ta b a se a st h eb e s ta va i lab le m ed ium o fm an ipu la t ion , s t o rage ,a nd p re sen ta t ion . We a l so n o ted t h a t d a ta c a ta logued u nde r a ny o ft h e se c a tego r ie s c an s pan a n e n t i re s pec t rum f r om c r ude ( e .g . , f o und a tT e l l e l -He s i ) t op rec i se ( e .g . , f ound w ho le u p s ide -down o n ap l a s te rs u r f ace i na k i tchen n ex tt oa no ven a nd c ove red b yd ome s t ic a sh i na s soc ia t ion w i th o the rp o t te ry i n as t ra tum w h ich d a ted t ot he m id f i f th c en tu ry B .C .) , d epend ing o nt h e a va i lab i l i ty o fs uch d a ta . I ti st h ec o l lec t ion a nd m an ipu la t ion o f s uch r e sea rch d a ta i n au sab le f o rma t w h ich s t imu la te s c r ea t ive t hough t a nd a n a dv ancemen ti nu nde r s tand ing .T hu s , w e e nd w he re w eb egan i nC hap te r 1b ys ay ing t h a t ac ompu te r g r aph ic s d a ta b a se w h ich c on ta in s d a ta a bou t f i nd spo t , f o rm , a nd f a b r ic i s as cho la r ly n ece s s i ty , a nd c e r ta in ly a m in ima l o ne , a s w e t r y t o move b eyond p u re ly c h rono log ica l c once rn s t o c on s ide r t he e conom ic a nd s oc io -po l i t ica l s y s tem s i n vo lved i nt h ec r ea t ion o ft h ea r chaeo log ica lr eco rd w es eek t o i n te rp re t .

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C hap ter 6

T he C eram ic D a ta B ase a nd S tud ie so fT rade

Ma r tha K .R i s se ra nd G a ry R ege r T r in i ty C o l lege Ha r t fo rd ,C onnec t icu t

B lake ly a nd B enne t t c o r rec t ly n o te t h a t t od a te t h e re h a sb een a nu n fo r tuna te t endency t op ub l i sh o n ly t h a tp o t te ry w h ich d a te s as t ra tum a nd o n ly t h a tw h ich i si d en t if ied .T he p rob lem sw h ich c an a r i se f r om i n comp le te p ub l ica t ion o fc e ram ic m a te r ia l sc an b ea mp ly i l u s t ra ted . Om i s s ion so fd a ta h ave e ven c au sed ,r a the rt h an s o lved ,c h rono log ica lp rob lem sa ts ome s i te s . When u npub l i shed p o t tery f r om T e l l Abu H awam w a s e xam ined r e cen t ly , at r an s i t iona lM idd le G eome t r ic 1 /La te G eome t r ic Is he rd w a s f ound a mong m a te r ia l f r om aS t ra tum I I p i t , as t ra tum p rev iou s ly t hough tt oc on ta in n oi mpo r t sl a te r t h an E a r ly Geome t r ic I ( Ba len s i1 985 :69 ;H e r re ra a nd B a len s i1 985 :36 -38 a nd 1 986 ;a l so s ee S a l tz 1 978 : 2 81 ) .P e r rau l th a sr ecen t ly a r gued t h a tt h eu npub l i shed b l ack -f igu red p o t tery f r om t h ea l -M ina e xcava t i on s m anda te s ar e -eva lua t ion o f t h e d a te o f a l -M ina I V ( Pe r reau l t 1 986 : 1 46 -48 ) . F u l l d a ta b a se p ub l ica t ions o fa l e xcava ted c e ram ic m a te r ia lm ay h e lp t oa ve r tt h i ss o r to fp rob lem i nt h ef u tu re . Ad a ta b a se mu s tn o tb er e ga rded a sa na r chaeo log ica lp anacea .S ome p rob lem sa re n o td e tec tab le t h rough ad a ta b a se . Af u l l i n ven to ry o ff i nd sw ou ld n o t h ave a ve r ted t h e q ue s t ion sw h ich h ave a r i sen c once rn ing t h ec on tex t a nd s i gn if icance o f ap endan ts em i -c i rc le s kypho sa t lama ( R i i s 1 970 : 1 48 -52 ; F ranc i sa nd V icke r s1 985 : 1 32 ,136 ;b u ts e eS a l tz 1 978 : 14 -16 ) .As he rd l i s ta l one g i ve sl i t t le i n fo rma t ion , e ven w hen a ccompan ied b y as i te p l an ;n od a ta b a se c an r ep lace ac omp rehen s ive p ub l ica t ion .T he re i s an eed f o r af u l la na ly t ica lf r amewo rk f o rt h ec e ram ic d a ta i fi ti st ob eu se fu lt os cho la r sn o ts pec ia l iz ing i nc e ram ic s .T he t r ad i t iona lm e thod so fp ub l ica t ion p rov ide t h i sf r amewo rk ,b u t ad a ta b a se a l one w i l l n o t .T he re fo re ,e ven t hough B lake ly a nd B enne t tm en t ion t h a tt h ed a ta b a se t h ey p ropo se i sn os ub s t i tu te f o r ac omp rehen s ive p ub l ica t ion , t h ep o in tn eed st ob es t re s sed . T he c e ram ic d a ta b a se m ay w e l lm ake f u l lp ub l ica t ion e a s ie r ,f a s te ra nd l e s se xpen s ive . When t h ed a ta b a se f o r as i te i si n c luded i nt h ep ub l ica t ion , a u tho r sw i l lb ea b le t or e fe rt ot h ed a ta b a se a nd d i spen se w i th e xhau s t ive c a ta log s a nd i l u s t ra t ion s : a l o ft h i si n fo rma t ion w ou ld b e c on ta ined i nt he d a ta b a se d e sc r ibed b y B lake ly a nd B enne t t . A l though t h e i n i t ia l i n ve s tmen t i n c ompu te r s y s tem s w i th g ood g raph ic sc apab i l i t ie sm ay b eh i gh ,c o s t sw i l lb eo f f se tb ys a v ing so fe xpend i tu re sf o rr ep roduc ing p rof i le d raw ing sa nd p ho tog raph s ,a st h ey c an b es c anned d i rec t ly i n to ad a ta b a se .T h i s ,i nt u rn ,s hou ld d ec rea se b o th t h e amoun to ft ime n eeded t op ub l i sh as i te r epo r ta nd p e rhap su l t ima te ly t h em a rke tp r ice o ft h e s i te r epo r t .R eade r sw ou ld b e a b le t op r in t o u t h a rd c op ie so fd raw ing sa nd p ho tog raph sa cco rd ing t o t h e i ro wn n eed s . Ad a ta b a se m ay c au se p rob lem s , h oweve r . F i r s t , t h eb i gge rt h ed a ta b a se t h e mo re e r ro r s ,a nd t h e h a rde rt ho se e r ro r s m ay b et oe r ad ica te .T he re w i l lb e an a tu ra lt e ndency t or e ly o nt h ed a ta b a se a nd e r ro r sw i l lg ou nde tec ted .S econd , ad a ta b a se m ay l u l lp eop le i n to t h ink ing i tu n impo r tan tt os a ve p o t te ry o nce i tg e ts r e co rded . I fp o t te ry i sn o t s a ved ,e r ro r sa nd om i s s ion sc an n eve rb ed e tec ted o rc o r rec ted . T he o n ly " raw d a ta" i st h ep o t te ry i t se l f ,a nd n od raw ing so rp ho tog raph sc an r ep lace t h en eed f o rt r a ined a nd e xpe r ienced h uman e y e s . T h i rd , t h e p rob lem o fc ompa t ib i l i ty mu s t b e c on s ide red . Ad a ta b a se s y s tem w on ' tw o rk w i thou tu n i fo rm i ty .I no rde rf o rt h eB lake ly a nd B enne t tp ropo sa lt ow o rk ,a lp o t tery f r om a l s i te s w ou ld h ave t o b e e n te red i n to t h e d a ta b a se s y s tem c on s i s ten t ly . C onven t ion s a nd s t anda rd ized l a nguage ,a l ready r e cogn ized a s ad e s i rab le g oa l( s ee f o re xamp le B a l f e t ,F auve t -Be r the lo t , a nd Monzon 1 983 ) , b ecome c r uc ia l . W i thou t s uch s t anda rd iza t ion , d a ta b a se s ea rche s a r e v i r tua l ly i mpo s s ib le . An umbe r o fc e ram ic d a ta b a se s a r e a l ready i nu se . B lake ly a nd B enne t t n o te t h e i mpo r tance o f p re sen t ing d a ta " i n am ed ium t h a t a low s f o r r epea ted m an ipu la t ion o ft h e m a te r ia l si n to av a r ie ty o f d a ta b a ses" ( p . 8 ) . T he i r p ro jec ted d a ta b a se p ro jec ti si n tended t os upp lemen t ,n o tr ep lace ,t h e d a ta b a se st h a t a l ready e x i s t f o rc e r ta in c l a s se so fc e ram ic s .I no rde rt h a ti nd iv idua le n t r ie si nt h ep ropo sed

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d a ta b a se c an e a s i ly b et r ans f er red i n to s pec ia l ized d a ta b a se s ,i ts hou ld b ec ompa t ib le w i th t hem . Da ta b a se s c i rcu la ted w i th e xcava t ion r epo r t s s hou ld p re sen t A t t ic f i gu red w a res , f o r e xamp le , i n af o rma t w h ich w i l lp e rm i t e a sy e n t ry i n to t he B eaz ley A rch ive c ompu te rp ro jec t ( G lynn 1 983 ) . Aw ide -sca le d a taba se s y s tem mu s t a l so b e p l ian t . I ti si mpe ra t ive t ha t s cho la rs b e a b le t o c hoo se f o rma ts b es t s u i ted t o t he i r own i nd iv idua l p ro jec ts . S ome , f o r e xamp le , w i l l r equ i re h igh ly ma l leab le r e la t iona l d a ta b a se p rog rams , wh i le o the r s w i l l p re fe r u ser -f r iend ly p rog ram s s im i la r t o t ho se n ow e mp loyed b yr e sea rche r si n vo lved i nm ed ica ld i agno s t ic s y s tem s( s ee f o re xamp le C lancey a nd S ho r t l i f f 1 984 ) . Re sea rche rs i nF rance a nd G reece , w i th t he h e lp o ft he G reek b ranch o fI BM , h ave d ev ised a d a ta b a se s y s tem f o r ampho rae w h ich p rov ides ag ood e xamp le o f as y s tem d es igned f or u se b y ad iver se g roup o fs cho la rs .T he d es ign a ddre s se sp rob lem so fi n fo rma t ion s t o rage ,t he o rgan iza t ion o fe p ig raph ic a nd c eram ic i n forma t ion , t he u se o fs e ve ra l l a nguages s imu l taneou s ly , a nd me thod s o f r e t r ieva l a nd a na ly s is .T he s y s tem i sa l so f l ex ib le e nough t oa ccomoda te a ny t y pe o fo pen -ended q ues t ion t h a t may b e a sked i n an a tu ra ll a nguage .T h i s k i nd o ff l ex ib i l i ty i sc ruc ia li ft h es y s tem i st ob e a cces s ib le t o aw ide v a r ie ty o fu se r sw i th d i f fe ren tr e sea rch i n te re s ts ( Empe reu ra nd G u im ie r -So rbe t s 1 986 : 1 27 -41 ) . P roponen ts o f aw ide -sca le d a taba se s y s tem mu s t b e f l ex ib le a s w e l l . T he B lake ly a nd B enne t t p ropo sa l sa re f e a s ib le o n ly f o r a rchaeo log ica l p ro jec t s o fr e la t ive ly s ho r t d u ra t ion . L ong te rm e xcava t i on s , s uch a st ho se a tC o r in th a nd i nt h e A then ian Ago ra , h ave p roduced v a s t q uan t i t ie so f ma te r ia l o ve rt he l a s tc en tury .N ew ly -excava ted m a ter ia lf r om t he se s i te sc anno tb ef u l ly a na lyzed w i thou t s t udy o fc ompa rab le ma te r ia l f r om e a r l ie r e xcava t ion s ea sons . Wh i le s ome d a ta i sn ow b e ing c ompu ter ized ( s ee f o re xamp le Wi l l iams 1 987 ;S l ane 1 987 ) , i ti su n rea l i s t ic t oe xpec te xcava to r sa tt he se s i te st oe n te r p o t te ry f r om s eve ra lg ene ra t ion so fp rev iou sw o rk i n to ad a taba se .I nt hese c a se s ,i tmaybe mo s tp rac t ica l t oe n te rt he c a ta log sa nd p l a te so fp o t te ry v o lume si n to t he d a ta b a se a tt he t ime o fp ub l ica t ion . T he i n fo rma t ion g a ined t h rough t h ed eve lopmen ta nd u se o ft h ed a ta b a se p roposed b yB lake ly a nd B enne t tw ou ld b e ap a r t icu la r ly v a luab le t oo l f o r d i scu ss ions o fa nc ien t e xchange s y s tem s . Au s t in a nd V ida l -Naque te cho t he s en t imen t so fm any w hen t h ey w a rn t ha t" one s hou ld n o tg enera l ize f r om p o t te ry a l one a nd t r ea ti ta s ar e l iab le i ndex o fe conom ic a c t iv i ty a s aw ho le" ( Au s t in a nd V ida l -Naque t 1 977 : 5 4 ) . A mu l t id i sc ip l ina ry a pp roach t oq ue s t ion so ft r ade i sn eces sa ry i no rde rt oo b ta in ab road v i ew ,b u t much i no rma t ion c an b e o b ta ined f r om p o t te ry . Mo reover , p o t te ry i so f ten a l l t ha t s u rv ives . P o t tery c anno t b e r ega rded a s t he s o le i ndex o f t r ade r e la t ions a nd i n te rconnec t ion s b e tween c u l tu res , b u t c e ram ic s t ud ies a re a ni n teg ra lp a r t o fs t ud ie s o fe xchange s y s tem s ( R i ley 1 984 ) . C lay s , manufac tu r ing t e chno log ie s , s hape s , a nd d eco ra t ion v a ry w ide ly o ve r t ime a nd s pace , e nab l ing s t ud ie s o fr eg iona l a s w e l la sl ong -d i s tance e xchange n e two rks . T he p ropo sa l sp u tf o r th b yB lake ly a nd B enne t tw ou ld , o nce i mp lemen ted , f a c i l i ta te c e r ta in s t ud ie s o fa nc ien t G reek t r ade . E x i s t ing c omp i la t ions o fG reek c eram ic d a ta ( s uch a sB eaz ley 1 956 a nd 1 963 , C la i rmon t1 955 a nd 1 956 /57 ,P e r reau l t1 986 , a nd t h eC o rpus V a so rum An t iqua rum s er ie s )h ave a l ready p roved t h e i rw o r th . Humph rey sh a sn o ted t ha t : T he p os s ib i l i ty o f i d en t i fy ing v a se -pa in ter s a nd A o rk shop s o f fe rs o ppo r tun i t ie s t o s t udy t he w o rk ing o ft r ade :v a se sw h ich s e em t oh ave b een e xpo r ted i nt he s ame s h ip load , c u s tome rs w i th at a s te f o ro ne p a in te ro rw o rk shop ,l o ng te rm c onnec t ion sb e tween aw o rk shop a nd at r ade r who t r ave l led i n ap a r t icu lar a rea , p a in ter s ' k now ledge o f t h e p refe rence s o f f o re ign c us tomer s . ( Humph rey s 1 978 : 1 20 -21 ) S ome s uch s t ud ies h ave a l ready b een d one . DeV r ies ,f o re xamp le ,h a sd emon s tra ted t ha tt he G reek v a se s hape sw h ich a re i mpo r ted t oN ea rE a s tern s i te sa re t ho se w h ich c on fo rm t oo rc an b ea dap ted t o A chaemen id c u s tom s . S ome t ime s p a in ted s cene s c a te r t o e a s te rn i n te re s t s a s w e l l ( DeVr ies 1 977 : 5 44 -48 ) .F u r the re xam ina t ions o ft h ec on tex ts o fG reek c e ram ic sa tn a t ive s i te sa nd s t ud ie so ft he t ype s o fs i tes a tw h ich p a r t icu la r k i nds o fp o t te ry a re f ound c ou ld b e a s s i s ted b yt h e i mp lemen ta t ion o ft h e B lake ly a nd B enne t tp roposa ls . S tud ie so ft he c e ram ic a s semb lage sa tn on -Greek s i te s may a l so p u ta ne nd t oa rgumen t st ha tG reek p o t tery w a s t r anspo r ted a s m e re b a l la s t ( G i l l 1 985 : 2 3 -25 , 1 986 : 3 13 , 1 987a : 1 23 -24 , 1 987b : 3 2 , 1 987c : 8 3 -84 , a nd 1 988 ; V icke rs 1 984 : 9 0 n . 30 , 1 985 /86 : 1 65 ;b u ts ee B oa rdman 1 988a a nd 1 988b , a nd F u l fo rd 1 980 : 6 9 n . 6 ) . T he l a rge a moun t s o fA t t ic w a res a ts i tes s uch a sT e l l e l -He s i s uppor tB oa rdman 's v i ew

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t ha t " A then ian d ecora ted p o t te ry w a s n o t c heap a nd t ha t i tw a s a s v a luab le a nd p rof i tab le at r ade c ommod i ty a s mo s tt ha ta ny C la s s ica ls h ip t ook o nb oa rd" ( Boa rdman 1 988a :3 3 ) .I fG reek p o t sh ad l i t t le v a lue a nd w e re s imp ly p u t o n m erchan t s h ips a sb a l la s t , t here w ou ld b e n o i n cen t ive t o t r an spo r t a ny v e s se l s wh ich c ou ld n o ts e rve a sc on ta ine r sf o ro the rg ood so ve rl and t oT e l le l -He s i( R is se ra nd B lake ly 1 989 ) .F ur the ri n fo rma t ion f r om o ther s i tes i nt he a rea ,a nd f r om n on -Greek s i te si ng ene ra l ,i sn eeded i no rde r t o d e term ine i ft h e a s semb lage a tT e l l e l -Hes i i st yp ica l . Ad a ta b ase o fa l l c e ram ic ma ter ia l f r om many s i te s w ou ld f a c i l i ta te c ompa r i son a nd s t a t is t ica l s t ud ie s o f t he ir c e ram ic a s semb lage s . E v idence o fl a rge -sca le o ver land t r an spo r to fG reek w a res w i l lp rov ide f u r ther r e fu ta t ion o ft he n o t ion t ha t" po ts w ere p robab ly n ever t r aded o nt he i ro wn" ( G i l l1 987c : 8 3 ) . S im i lar a pp l ica t ions o f al a rge -sca le d a ta b a se t o s t a t i s t ica l s t ud ie s w ou ld e nhance s evera l o the r i n ve s t iga t ions o fa nc ien te xchange n e twork sa sw e l l .T he d e term ina t ion o ft he r e la t ive b a lance b e tween l o ca l a nd l ong -d i s tance t r ade w ou ld b e f a c i l i ta ted b y ad a ta b ase . Ques t ion s o f i mpo r t v e rsu s l oca l p roduc t ion o fw ine a nd o i l w ou ld b enef i t f r om s t a t i s t ica l c oun t s o f t r an spo r t ampho rae . Hypo the se s l i nk ing Roman c i v i l ian t r ade w i th a rmy s upp ly r ou te s a nd as t rong m i l i tary p resence c ou ld b e t e s ted (M idd le ton 1 983 ; I s aac 1 980 ) .T he B lake ly a nd B enne t tp ropo sa l wou ld p rov ide t he d a ta n ece s sa ry t o d os uch s t ud ies . T hough i tw ou ld p rov ide av a luab le c on tr ibu t ion t oc e ram ic a nd c eram ic -re la ted s t ud ies ,t he B lake ly a nd B enne t t p roposa l s hou ld n o tb ei mp lemen ted w i thou t c au t ion . C omp i la t ion o f ad a ta b a se w i l lb e e xpen s ive a nd t ime -consum ing . T he d a ta b a se s hou ld t he refo re b ec on s truc ted s ot ha ti tw i l lb e u sefu l t oa sm any p eop le a sp o s s ib le ,i n ar ange o fr e sea rch s pec ia l t ies .T he d a ta s hou ld b ep resen ted i n af o rma t e qua l ly a ccess ib le t ou se r so fp e r sona lc ompu te rs a nd ma in f r ame s y s tem s .I ts hou ld b ec ompa t ib le n o t o n ly w i th e x is t ing d a ta b a se s , a s n o ted a bove , b u t a l so w i th t he v a r iou s s t a t i s t ica l , a na ly t ica l , a nd w o rd -p rocess ing p rog rams i n to w h ich s cho la r so fd i ve r se f i e ld sw i l lw an tt oi n teg ra te t he d a ta . T he o rgan iza t ion o f ad a ta b a se n eces s i ta tes a na na ly t ica lf r amework ,w h ich i mpo se sa ni n te rpre ta t ion ( f o rf u r ther d i scus s ion s ee R yan a nd Sm i th 1 986 ) .T h is f r amework mus tb eo ne w h ich i sw e l l -su i ted t oa w ide r ange o fs t ud ies . T he B lake ly a nd B enne t t p ropo sa l d oe s n o t , f o r e xamp le , i n c lude a ny w ay t o i n co rpo ra te c er ta in t y pes o fi n fo rma t ion ( i nsc r ip t ion so nc e ram ic s ,e t c . )o f ma jo rc once rn t os cho la rs i n t he C la s s ica lw o r ld .B ecau se t h eu nder tak ing p ropo sed b yB lake ly a nd B enne t th a si mp l ica t ion sf o re very a spec to fc eram ic a nd c e ram ic -re la ted s t ud ies , a ni n terna t iona l c onfe rence i se s sen t ia lb efore t he d a ta b a se i sd es igned o r p u t i n to o pe ra t ion . O therw ise , o ne g roup w i th ap a r t icu la r r e sea rch i n teres t w i l l i mpo se s t anda rds a tt he e xpen se a nd i n conven ience o fe ve ryone e l se .R ep resen ta t ive sf r om v a r iou sf i e ld s o fs t udy s hou ld b e i n c luded i nt h i s c onfe rence , f r om s pec ia l i s t s i nc eram ic s t oh i s to r ian s t od a ta b a se e ng ineer sa nd p rog ramme r s .T he c onfe rence mus ti n c lude d e lega t ion sf r om a l lc oun t r ies i n vo lved i nt he a rchaeo logy o f t h e a nc ien t w o r ld , i n c lud ing p a r t ic ipan ts f r om t he S ov ie t Un ion , t he E a s te rn B loc c oun t r ie s , Nor th A f r ica , a nd t h eM idd le E a s t , a sw e l l a s Amer ican s a nd We s tern E u ropeans . E xpe r ts w i th e xper ience i nd e s ign ing s im i la r d a ta b a se s mu s t b e b rough t i na ta n e a r ly p ha se . Mo reove r , i ti s e s sen t ia l t o i n c lude e xpe r t s i n p rog ramm ing a nd a r t if ic ia l i n te l l igence . T h i s l a t te r f i e ld h a s b een e xpand ing a t ap a r t icu la r ly g rea tr a te i nt he l a s tf ew y ea rs ,a nd o ne o ft he p rob lems i nc ompu t ing t ow h ich r e sea rchers h ave d evo ted m uch a t ten t ion i st h a t o fs ea rch a nd u se o fi n fo rma t ion s t o red i nv ery l a rge d a ta b a ses .P rog rammer sa nd r e sea rcher si n vo lved i nd eve lop ing s uch s y s tem sf o ro ther d i sc ip l ine sc ou ld make v e ry i n te re s t ing c on t r ibu t ions t ot he r e so lu t ion o fp rob lems i no u rf i e ld .T he p ropo sa lo u t l ined b y B lake ly a nd B enne t tw ou ld s e rve a sg ood s t a r t ing p o in to fd i scu ss ion a tt h i sc onfe rence .

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C hap ter 7

C eram ic A na ly s is ,V ar ia t ion a nd D a ta B ase C ons truc t ion : AS e lec t ion is tP er spec t ive

J ame sK .F ea the r s Un ive r s i ty o f Wa sh ing ton S ea t t le , Wa sh ing ton I n troduc t ion Ad a ta b a se a s se s sab le t oa r chaeo log i s t ss t udy ing p reh i s to r ic c e ram ic si smuch n eeded .C on s ide r ing t h el a rge e f fo r tt h a th a sb een p u ti n to c e ram ic a na ly s i s ,m yo wn e xpe r ience i nt r y ing t og l ean i n fo rma t ion f r om t h e c e ram ic l i t e ra tu re f o r r eg iona l q ue s t ion s h a sb een f r u s t ra t ing a nd d i sappo in t ing . F o r ad a ta b a se t oh ave m ax imum u t i l i ty i tmu s tb ea b le t oa ccommoda te av a r ie ty o fq ue s t ion sa nd a pp roache si n c e ram ic s t ud ie s .I nt h i sp ape r Ie l abo ra te t wo i mpo r tan tp o in t sr a i sed b yB enne t ta nd B lake ly .I nd o ing s o Io u t l ine a s omewha t a l te rna t ive a pp roach t o c e ram ic a na ly s i s t ha t i sa menab le t o d a ta b a se c on s t ruc t ion . I n a dd i t ion , Ip re sen t a n e xamp le o f a n i n te re s t ing q ue s t ion f r om N o r th Ame r ican p r eh i s tory t h a tc ou ld b er e so lved t h rough c on s t ruc t ion o f ar eg iona ld a ta b a se . B r ief ly ,t h et wo p o in t sa r et h er ecogn i t ion t h a tp reh i s to r ic c e ram ic s mu s tb eu nde r s tood i nt h e i ro wn r i gh tb e fo re i n fo rma t ion f r om t h em c an b e a pp l ied i nt h es o lu t ion o fo the rp rob lem sa nd t h en eed t o e xp re s st he v a r iab i l i ty f o und i nt h ec e ram ic r e co rd a sa na l te rna t ive t ot y po logy . C eram ic S tud ie si nP er spe c t ive Ar eg iona l d a ta b a se i sn o t an ove l i d ea i n Ame r ican a r chaeo logy . A c e ram ic r epo s i to ry a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o fM ich igan w a s e s tab l i shed i n1 928 b y C a r l Gu the t o p rov ide ac en t ra l l o ca t ion w he re c e ram ic s c ou ld b e c omp i led , a na lyzed a nd c ompa red ( Gu the 1 952 ) . Gu the a t temp ted t o f o rma l ize c e ram ic s t ud ie sb ye s tab l i sh ing c l a s s i f ica to ry s t anda rd s( Gu the 1 927 , 1 934 ) .P o t te ry w a st ob ec l a s s i f ied a l ong f ou r d imen s ion s : p a s te , s u r f ace t r ea tmen t , d eco ra t ion a nd f o rm . A l though Gu the ' s a im w a s t o p rov ide o b jec t ive s t anda rd s f o r a ny c e ram ic a na ly s i s , t h e c l a s s if i ca to ry s cheme w a s u sed p r ima r i ly t o c on s t ruc t c h rono log ica l t y pe s , a n e ndeavo r w h ich , u nde r t h e a b le g u idance o fJ ame s B . G r i ff in w ho a r r ived a tM ich igan i n1 933 ,w a sl a rge ly s ucce s s fu l . T he u se o fG u the ' s c l a s s if i ca t ion t oc on s t ruc tt y po log ie sh ad t wo u n fo r tuna te s i de e f f ec t s .F i r s t ,h i s c l a s s if ica t ion i n c luded aw ide a s so r tmen to fc e ram ic a t t r ibu te so n ly s ome o fw h ich w e re s en s i t ive t ot ime . U s ing i tf o rc h rono logy i n v i ted t h ec r i t ic i sm t h a ts uch i n te rp re ta t ion si g no red a dd i t iona ls t ruc tu re i nt h e r e co rd ( Spau ld ing 1 985 ) .S ome c e ram ic a t t r ibu te sa r el a rge ly r e la ted t oh ow t h ec e ram ic w a sm ade o r u s ed a nd n o tt oh i s to r ica l r e la t ion sh ip s .T he s e cond d rawback w a st h a tt h e c on s t ruc t ion o f at y po logy h ad t h ee f f ec to fs upp re s s ing v a r ia t ion i n to p ackage st h a tt h en s e rved a su n i t sf o rf u r the rs t udy . Ame r ican a r chaeo logy i ss t i l ls t ruc tu red b yt h e se t y po log ica lu n i t st h a th ave l i t t le v a lue b eyond c h rono logy . As t udy o ft e chno log ica l c hange , f o r e xamp le ,i ss t ym ied b ecau se t h ev a r ia t ion n eeded t ot r ace s uch c hange i s l o s ti nt he " ave rag ing "t h a to ccu r sw hen c ha rac te r i s t ic so fi n d iv idua ls he rd so rv e s se l sa re s upp lan ted b y a s s ign ing t hem t o moda l" t ype s" . A n e a r ly c r i t ic o f t h e se c h rono log ica l t y po log ie s w a s Anna S hepa rd , as t uden t o f S ou thwe s te rn c e ram ic t e chno log y .S hepa rd a r gued t h a th i s to r ica lr e la t ion sh ip sc ou ld n o tb ew e l lu nde r s tood w i thou t u nde r s tand ing t h et e chno log ica lb a s i s o fc e ram ic s ( Shepa rd a nd Ho r ton 1 939 ) .S he o f ten d i spu ted t h e p r e sence o ra b sence o fc u l tu ra lr e la t ion sh ip s ,p o s i ted b yo t he r so nt y po log ica lg round s ,o nt h eb a s i so f m ine ra lc ompo s i t ion a nd o t he rt e chno log ica lf e a tu re s( e .g . ,S hepa rd 1 954 ) .S tud ie so fc ompo s i t ion a l so l e dh e rt oc on s t ruc tt r ad ing a nd o t he re conom ic r e la t ion sh ip sa mong p reh i s to r ic p ueb lo s ,i n te rp re ta t ion s t h a tw e re n o tp o s s ib le t h rough t h et r ad i t iona lt y po log ie s( K idde ra nd S hepa rd 1 936 ) .

7 1

S hepa rd o pened t he p o s s ib i l i t ie so fu s ing c e ram ic st oi n ve s t iga te o the ra spec t so fp reh i s to r ic s oc ie ty . An e a r ly v en tu re w a st he u se o fc e ram ic st oi d en t i fy s oc ia lr e la t ion sh ip s( e .g . ,L ongac re 1 964 ) .O the r s , p a r t icu la r ly i nE u rope , t r ied t ot r ace t r ad ing p a t te rn sf r om c ompo s i t iona ld i s t r ibu t ions ,r ep lac ing t he c h rono log ica lt y pe sw i th c ompo s i t iona lt y pe s .C e ram ic v a r ia t ion h a sa l so b een u sed t o make i n fe rence s a bou ta s so r ted o the r s ub jec t ss uch a sp opu la t ion ( Tu rne ra nd L o fg ren 1 966 ) , r oom f unc t ion ( Ne lson 1 980 ) , s i te f unc t ion ( D icken sa nd C hapman 1 978 ) ,l e ng th o fo ccupa t ion ( Pauke ta t 1 989 )a nd o ccupa t i ona lp e rmanence ( Shap i ro 1 984 ) . N one o f t h e se e ndeavo r s h ave e n joyed u nque s t ioned s ucce s s . F ew h ave f ound c on v inc ing t he r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween d i s t r ibu t ion o f c e ram ic s t y le s a nd s oc ia l r e la t ion sh ip s b ecause s o m any o the r v a r iab le sc an a f f ec t c e ram ic d i s t r ibu t ion s ( e .g . ,P log 1 978 ) .T rade s t ud ie sh ave e ncoun te red p rob lem s w hen c ompo s i t ion t ype s w e re e mp loyed b eyond t h e a r ea s w he re t h ey h ad b een d ef ined a nd when e conom ic i n te rp re ta t ion s w e re a pp l ied t o c ompo s i t ion d i s t r ibu t ion s w i th n o u nder s tand ing o f t he t e chno log ica l s ou rce o ft ho se c ompo s i t ions ( e .g . , W i l son 1 978 ) . O the r a pp l ica t ion s o fc e ram ic d a ta r equ i red b road a s sump t ion sa bou tc e ram ic f unc t ion ,b reakage r a te sa nd s i te f o rma t iona lp ro cesses .I n s ho r t ,n one o ft h e se a pp l ica t ion sc ou ld b ea rf r u i tw i thou ts ome u nde r s tand ing o fc e ram ic si nt h e ir own r i gh t . Wha t p rec i se ly i st h e s ou rce o fc e ram ic v a r iab i l i ty a nd d i s t r ibu t ion? I th a s b ecome c l ea r t h i s q ue s t ion mu s tb ea n swe red b e fo re c e ram ic sc an b eu se fu l ly e mp loyed f o ro the rq ue s t ion s . E a r ly r ecogn i t ion o f t h i s p rob lem l e d Ma t son t o f o rmu la te t h e n o t ion o f c e ram ic e co logy ( f i r s t f o rmu la ted a se a r ly a s 1 951 , b u t b e s t e xp re s sed i nh i s 1 965 p ape r ) t ou nde r s tand t he f u lc on tex t o f c e ram ic v a r ia t ion .E f fo r t sb yo the r st ou nde r s tand c e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion s t emmed f r om s im i la rc once rn s( e .g . , Howa rd 1 981 ;P eacock 1 982 ) . Unde r s tand ing c e ram ic si nt h e i ro wn r i gh t ( Benne t ta nd B lake l y ' ss t age 2 )s hou ld n o t ,h owever ,b e s e en m e re ly a so ne s t ep t owa rd al a rge r g oa l o fr econ s t ruc t ing o t he ra spec t so fs oc ie ty ( Benne t t a nd B lake ly ' ss t age 1 ) .C e ram ic a na ly s i si si mpo r tan ta sa ne nd i ni t se l f .U s ing c e ram ic st oa n sw e rq ue s t ion s a bou to the rf a ce t so fp reh i s to r ic l i f ew i l la lway sb ep rob lema t ic t os ome d eg ree b ecau se o fi n numerab le u nknown v a r iab le st h a ti n te rvene b e tween c e ram ic sa nd t h e se o the rf a c to r s .S imp ly t r y ing t ou nde rs tand h ow a nd w hy c e ram ic s c hange t h rough t ime a nd a c ro s s s pace , h oweve r , p rov ides f e r t i le g round f o r e xp lo r ing h ow a nd w hy a ny c u l tu ra lc hange o ccu r sa ta l .T he p re se rva t ion q ua l i t ie so fc e ram ic sa nd t he i r r e la t ive ly c omp lex c on s t ruc t ion p rov ide s ad a ta b a se f o rs t udy ing c hange t ha th a sf ew e qua l s . T he s t udy o fs uch c hange ,h oweve r ,r equ i re ss t r ic ta t ten t ion t ov a r iab i l i ty ,t h es econd p o in tf o r wh ich B enne t ta nd B lake ly s hou ld b ec ommended .T he i mpo r tance o fv a r iab i l i ty a so ppo sed t ot y po logy i nt h e s t udy o fc hange c an b e a pp rec ia ted t h rough ac r i t ica lr e v iew o f Ame r ican c e ram ic s t ud ie s ,w h ich , a sa w ho le , f a i l t ou nde r s tand t h e c en t ra l r o le o fv a r iab i l i ty i na r chaeo log ica l e xp lana t ion . R e th ink ing t h e t h eo re t ica lb a s i sf o rc e ram ic a na ly s i sm ay b er equ i red b e fo re au se fu ld a ta b a se i sar ea sonab le g oa l . T he t h eo re t ica lu nde rp inn ing so f Ame r ican c e ram ic s t ud ie sc an b er ough ly p a r t i t ioned i n to f unc t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion s a nd h i s to r ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s . F unc t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion s i n vo lve t he r e la t ion sh ip o f c e ram ic sw i th t h e i re nv i ronmen t .H i s to r ica li n te rp re ta t ion sd ea lw i th t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fc e ram ic sa c ro s s t i me a nd s pace . Wh i le t h e t wo i n te rp re ta t ion s c an , a nd i nf a c ts hou ld ,b ec omp l imen ta ry ,i np rac t ic e c e ram ic s t ud ie sh ave d i vuded i n to t wo s choo l s .B o th i n te rp re ta t ion sh ave l o ng h i s to r ies a l though v ar iou s p e r iod si nt h eh i s to ry o f Ame r ican a r chaeo logy h ave s e en t h ea s c endancy o fo ne a tt he e xpen se o ft h e o t he r .T he e a r ly c u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion i s t sa tt h et u rn o ft h ec en tu ry w e re g ene ra l ly i nt he f unc t iona lc amp ; t h e r i se o f p a r t icu la r i sm a nd t h e c once rn w i th c h rono logy b rough t h i s to r ica l i n te rp re ta t ion t o t h e f o re f ron td u r ing t h em id c en tu ry ;w i th t h eN ew A rchaeo logy o ft h e1 960 ' sa nd 1 970 's c ame ar ev iva lo f f unc t iona l i sm ;t h er ecen td em i se o ft h eN ew A rchaeo logy a nd t h el a ck o fa ny p a rad igm t or ep lace i th a s l e f tb o th i n te rp re ta t ion sc ompe t ing f o ra dhe ren t s . T he mode rn f unc t iona l i s ti n te rp re ta t ion s t em sf r om t h ec u l tu ra le co logy o f Ma tson ( 1965 )a nd f r om B in fo rd ( 1 965 ) . T he c l ea re s t mode rn e xp re s s ion i sp rov ided b yA rno ld ( 1 985 ) . A rno ld c r i t ic izes t h e h i s to r ica li n te rp re ta t ion sf o ro ve rempha s iz ing t h ei n f luence o fc u l tu ra lt r ad i t ion sa nd i gno r ing t h ee f f ec t s o f t h e e nv i ronmen t o n c e ram ic v a r iab i l i ty . A rno ld v i ew s c u l tu re a s am ean s o f a dap ta t ion t o t h e e nv i ronmen t , s o t o u nde r s tand c e ram ic v a r ia t ion r equ i re s u nde r s tand ing t h e e nv i ronmen ta l c on tex t ( bo th n a tu ra l a nd c u l tu ra l ) . C ompa ra t ive s t ud ie s o fc e ram ic /env i ronmen ta l r e la t ion sh ip sw i l lr e su l t i n g ene ra l iza t ion s t h a t c an h o ld f o r t h e p a s t a sw e l l a st h ep re sen t . Ap a r t icu la re nv i ronmen ta ls i tua t ion

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c an b e e xpec ted t o s o l ic i t ap a r t icu la r c e ram ic r e spon se . T he se r e spon se s may d if e r i nd e ta i l b u t s t ruc tu ra l ly t h ey w i l lb es im i la r .C e ram ic c hange ,w h ich a ppear st oo r ig ina te f r om s ome p e r tu rba t ion i n t h ee nv ironmen t ,i sr egu la ted b yv ar iou sf e edback m echan i sm s .B ecau se as ma l lc hange i na ny o ne p a r t o ft h e s y s tem c an a f ec t a l o the r p a r t s , c hange i s mu l t icau sa l . A rno ld d evo te s mo s t o fh i s b ook t o c on s t ruc t ing c e ram ic /env i ronmen ta lg ene ra l iza t ion s ,d rawn m a in ly f r om t he e thnog raph ic r e co rd . Un fo r tuna te ly ,A rno ld ' sg ene ra l iza t ion sa re n o tu n ive r sa la nd t h e re fo re ab l anke ta pp l ica t ion t ot he p a s t i sn o t p o s s ib le . No r d o a l p e r tu rba t ion s i nt h e e nv i ronmen t r e su l t i nc e ram ic c hange s , a s , f o r e xamp le ,t he l a ck o fc o r re la t ion b e tween c e ram ic c hange sa nd m a jo re nv i ronmen ta le ven t sd ocumen ted b y Adams ( 1979 ) among o t he r s . C e ram ic e co log i s ts h ave a dd re s sed t h ese c once rn st h rough w ha tm igh tb ec a l led " f ine t un ing ." T he l a ck o f c or re la t ion b e tween c e ram ic c hange s a nd m a jo r e nv i ronmen ta l e ven t s o b ta in s b ecau se t he c e ram ic /env i ronmen ta lr e la t ion sh ip i sc omp lex a nd s ub t le .R ice ( 1 984a ) ,f o re xamp le ,a rgue st ha to ne mu s t f i r s t i d en t i f y t he p o t te ry p roduc ing s ub sy s tem : t h e t e chno log ica l p roduc t a nd t h e means o f p roduc t ion ,d i s t r ibu t ion a nd u se .T hen o ne c an i n ve s t iga te e xac t ly h ow t h a ti n te r f ace sw i th t he r e s to f t h e e nv ironmen t a nd i d en t i f yw ha t f a c to r s w i l l p romo te c hange o r s t ab i l i ty . D i rec t c au se a nd e f ec t r e la t ionsh ip sb e tween e x te rna l e ven t s a nd c e ram ic s a re d i ff icu l t t od ef ine b ecau se c e ram ic s a re em b edded i n ac u l tu ra l s t ruc tu re t ha t r egu la te s h ow t h ey w i l lc hange . I n te rna lc on s t ra in t sw i l l p romo te s t ab i l i ty a nd g ua ran tee s l ow a nd v ar iab le r e spon se st oe nv i ronmen ta lp e r tu rba t ion s .C e ram ic sd oc hange i n as y s tema t ic f a sh ion b u tt h ep roce s si se xceed ing ly c omp lex . S uch c omp lex i ty b r ing si n to q ue s t ion t h ev a lue o fc e ram ic e co log ica lg ene ra l iza t ion s .W i l ln o te ve ry s i tua t ion b eu n ique? T he c e ram ic e co log i s tm ay a g ree b u ta dd t h a tt he re a re s t i l lu nde r ly ing p r inc ip le s s uch t ha t g i ven ap a r t icu la rs i tua t ion , ap ar t icu la rr e sponse c an b e p red ic ted . B u tw ha t p romp t s t he p o t te ry i ndu s t ry t oc hange i nt he p red ic ted w ay r a the rt han s ome a l te rna t ive? T he q ue s t ion h a sb een a dd re s sed ,f r om as l igh t ly d if e ren tp e r spec t ive ,b yS chi f f e ra nd S k ibo ( 1987 ) , w ho a re i n te re s ted n o t s o m uch i nc e ram ic /env i ronmen ta l g ene ra l iza t ion sb u t h ow t h a t r e la t ion sh ip c ome sa bou t .F o rt hem , t h ep r inc ip le s ou rce o ft e chno log ica lc hange i sf r om d emand sc r ea ted b yt he " f unc t iona lf i e ld" , as e to fp e r fo rmance c r i te r ia t h a ti n c lude e a se o f manu f ac tu re a nd ma in tenance a s w e l la su se .T he b e s to ve ra l ld e s ign may n o tb ep roduced b ecau se o fc ompe t ing p e r fo rmance r equ i re m en t s a nd t h e i n he r i ted t e chno logy w i th w h ich t ow o rk ,b u t e ven tua l ly " t inke r ing" a r t i san s p roduce p roduc ts t ha ts a t i s f yp e r fo rmance d emand s .C hange so ccu rb ecau se o fc hange si nt he f unc t iona lf i e ld o r , i nt he c on tex t o f amo re o r l e s s c on s tan t f unc t iona l f i e ld , f r om p res su re s f o r i mp rovemen t o rb y c ompe t i t ion .I no the rw o rd st h ec e ram ic i n du s t ry r i se st ot he o cca s ion ( K inge ry 1 984 ) . S ch i f f er a nd S k ibo a re c omm i t ted t ov i ew ing c hange a s ac on sequence o fp eop le ' sa t temp t st oa dap t t ot h e i re nv i ronmen t . Wh i le d ownp lay ing c ro s s -cu l tu ra lg ene ra l iza t ion sa nd e mpha s iz ing t h ec omp le x i ty o fa ny g i ven s i tua t ion ,t h ey d oa dm i ts ome r egu la r i t ie sc an b ed i scove red ." Becau se s ome t e chno log ie s a sw e l la ss ome c ond i t ion ing f a c to r sa r er ea sonab ly c ommon ,w ea n t ic ipa te t h a tt he s pec if ic t e chn ica l c ho ice s wou ld r ecu r i n an umbe r o fs oc ie t ie s" ( 1 987 : 6 16 ) . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t a r t i san s , s ub jec t t o a p a r t icu la rk ind o fp re s su re f r om t h ef unc t iona lf i e ld ,w i l lh ave at e ndency t or eac ti n ac e r ta in w ay .I t m igh tb ef a i rt oc a l lt h i s as ub t le r e fo rmu la t ion o ft h e" p sych ic u n i ty o fm ank ind" . Wh i le c u l tu ra l e co log i s t sh ave m ade am a jo rc on tr ibu t ion i ni d en t i f y ing f unc t iona lp a rame te r st ha t a f f ec t c eram ic a t tr ibu te s ,t h e i rs ou rce o fc hange l i e si nt h ea dap t ive i n ven t ivene s so fi nd iv idua l s .T h i s h a st h ee fec to fs upp re s s ing t he i mpo r tance o fv a r ia t ion s i nce n on -adap t ive a nd n eu t ra lv a r iab le sa re t r ea ted a sn o i se .T he p rob lem o ft e chno log ica la va i lab i l i ty i ss ca rce ly c on s ide red a ta l l . T he n o t ion t ha tc e ram ic v a r iab le sc an o n ly b el e g i t ima te ly e xp la ined i na dap t ive t e rm sh a ss pawned ar e ac t ion f r om t h eh i s to r ic a lc amp .U se o fc e ram ic t y po logy to c ons t ruc tc u l tu ra lh i s to ry i ss t i l l ac ommon p rac t ice i n Amer ica b u t t h e h i s to r ica l a pp roach h a s g a ined a dd i t iona l a mmun i t ion f r om r e v i s ion i s t s r e ac t ing a ga in s t t he N ew A rchaeo logy . T he i n sp i ra t ion f o r t h i s n ew c u l tu ra l h i s to ry h a s c ome f r om E u rope ,p a r t icu la r ly Hodde r ( 1 982b , 1 986 , 1 988b )a nd ,f o rc e ram ic a pp l ica t ion s ,M i l le r( 1 985 ) , a nd i s o n ly b eg inn ing t oi nf luence Ame r ican a r chaeo log i s t s .T h i sc on tex tua la r chaeo logy ,t ou se Hodde r ' st e rm ( 1 986 ) ,f au l t sc e ram ic e co logy f o ri t se nv i ronmen ta ld e term in i sm a nd i t si g no rance o fc u l tu ra lt r ad i t ion .

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C u l tu re i sn o t ap a s s ive r eac to rt oe nv i ronmen ta ls t imu l ib u ta na c t ive f o rce c r ea t ing h uman s o c ie ty o n ar a the rp a s s ive e nv i ronmen ta ls t age . M i l le r ' s ( 1 985 ) s t udy i sa n a t temp t t o i d en t i f y t h e f a c to r s u nde r ly ing v a r ia t ion i n p o t te ry i n t h e e t hnog raph ic s e t t ing o f as ma l l v i l lage i nI nd ia . T he s ou rce o fv a r iab i l i ty , M i l le r p ropo se s , i sh uman c a tego r iza t ion p roce s se s ,w h ich i mpo se ac u l tu ra lo rde ro n to t h ew o r ld t h rough t h ec rea t ion o f ma te r ia l o b jec t s .P o t te ry r ema in sa r en o tf a c t st ob ee xp l icab le i nt e rm so fg ene ra ll aw s ,b u tc u l tu ra l" con s t ruc t s" c r ea ted t h rough t h e i n te rac t ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ee nv i ronmen t .H i ss t udy o ft he I nd ian v i l lage r e vea led t h a tv a r ia t ion i np o t te ry d id n o tc o r re la te w i th c a s te ,f am i ly f o rm ,w ea l th o ru se . Ra the rh ef ound c e ram ic d i s t inc t ion sp a t te rned a f te rs ymbo l ic d i s t inc t ion sr ef lec t ing c u l tu ra li n te rp re ta t ion so ft h ew o r ld . F o re xamp le ,t h ed i s t inc t ion b e tween r ed a nd b l ack p o t te ry c o r re sponded w i th t h ed i s t inc t ion b e tween t h er e l ig iou sa nd t h es e cu la r .D eg ree o fo r if ice c l o su re w a sa l so p a t te rned a f te rt h i sd i s t inc t ion . T he c ode p rov ided b yt h i sc a tego r iza t ion p roce s s ,h oweve r ,d oe sn o te xp la in a lv a r iab i l i ty . When t h e " code" i si mp lemen ted t h rough t h e p roduc t ion , d i s t r ibu t ion a nd u se o fp o t te ry , g rea t f l ex ib i l i ty a nd b end ing o fr u le s i sa lowed b ecau se o f c onf l ic t ing i n te re s t s a nd p e r spec t ive s . V a r iab i l i ty i sn o t o n ly d ependen t o n f o rma l s t ruc tu re b u t t h e c on tex t i nw h ich i ti si n te rp re ted . T h i s l a ck o fi s omo rph i sm b e tween t h ef o rma la nd i n fo rma li st h ek ey t oc e ram ic c hange .C on t rad ic t ion sa r i se b e tween t he i dea l a nd p rac t ica lw h ich e ven tua l ly a r e r e so lved b yc hange , a l though n ew c on t rad ic t ion st hen a r i se ( T i l ley 1 982 ) . T he s t ra tegy f o re xp la in ing p reh i s to r ic c e ram ic v a r ia t ion i n vo lve sc on s t ruc t ing t h ec on tex to fc e ram ic c hange s t ot h e f u l le s t e x ten t p o s s ib le . Ad e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion o fd e tec tab le p a t te rn ing t h en b ecome s s e l f -exp lana to ry .E xp lana t ion i sd e sc r ip t ion ( Hodde r1 986 ) . C on tex tua la r chaeo logy d oe sp rov ide ac r ed ib le s ou rce f o rc e ram ic c hange : t r ad i t ion s pec if ie s wha t v a r iab le s a r e a va i lab le . Un l ike t h e c e ram ic e co log i s t s , h oweve r , t h ey p rov ide n o mechan i sm f o r t h e d i rec t ion o f c hange . I f ac on t rad ic t ion m u s t b e r e so lved , w ha t d ec ide s t he w inne r s? C on tex tua l a r c haeo log i s t sa r er a the rv ague o nt h i sm a t te r .O ne s u spec t st h ec on t rad ic t ion sa r er e so lved a cco rd ing t o s ome t e leo log ica lt e ndency o fh ow h i s to ry m u s tw o rk i t se l fo u t . T he i mpo r tance o fv a r ia t ion i sa l so s upp re s sed i nc on tex tua l a r chaeo logy . E f fo r ts a r e f o cu sed o n " f ind ing "t h ep reh i s to r ic c a tego r ie sa nd d i sm i s s ing v a r ia t ion a s al a ck o fi s omo rph i sm b e tween t he i d ea l a nd p rac t ice . Wha tc e ram ic s t ud ie si na r chaeo log yt oday l a ck i sat h eo re t ica la pp roach t h a td oe sn o tt r yt oe l im ina te v a r ia t ion b u tr a the rb a se si t se xp lana t ion so nv a r ia t ion .T h i sw i l lp rov ide t h et h eo re t ica lb a s i sf o r ad a ta b a se . An i n i t ia ls t ep i st oa l te ro u rc oncep t ion o fc hange . AS e lec t ion is tP er spec t ive F o r t h e c on tex tua l a r chaeo log i s t c hange a r i se s f r om c on t rad ic t ion s w i th in c u l tu re . I tc on s t i tu te s a d eve lopmen t l i t t le i nf luenced b y t h e e nv i ronmen ta l s t age o n w h ich i to ccu r s . S uch c hange i sc a l led t r an s fo rma t iona l . I ti ss imp ly a n i n te rna l mod if ica t ion u na f f ec ted b ye x te rna le ven t s . Change f r om t h e f unc t iona l i s tp e r spec t ive i st r an s fo rma t iona l a sw e l l , e ven t hough t h ee nv i ronmen t i nt h i sc a se p lay s a k ey r o le .C e ram ic sc hange t om ee tc hang ing e x te rna lp re s su re sb u tt h es ou rce o fc hange i si n te rna l .T he p o t te rf e e l st h ep re s su re a nd c hange s t h ep o t te ry a cco rd ing ly .F o ru n ive r sa lp r inc ip le s t oa pp ly t ot h i s p roce s s ,t h ep o t te rm u s th ave a ni n te rna lm echan i sm t h a tg u ide sc hange i n ap re sc r ibed w ay .I nb o th t h e h i s to r ica l a nd f u nc t iona l c a se s , t h e s ou rce o fv a r ia t ion a nd t h e d i rec t ion o fv a r ia t ion a r e n o t s een a s s epa ra te p roce s se s . F o rt h e c on tex tua l a r chaeo log i s tt h es ou rce o fv a r ia t ion a l so d i c ta te si t sd i rec t ion . F o r t h e f unc t iona l i s t t h e d i rec t ion o f v a r ia t ion d i c ta te s i t s s ou rce . T o r e so lve t h i s c onf l ic t t he t wo p roce s se s mu s tb es epa ra ted . A na l te rna t ive i sas e lec t ion i s tv i ew o fc hange .F rom t h i sp e r spec t ive i n te rna lc hange w i th in au n i to f s t udy ,e . g . , ag roup o fc e ram ic s ,i sn o ts oi mpo r tan ta si n te rna ls t ab i l i ty ,w h ich i saf unc t ion o fh er i tab i l i ty i n su r ing s ome d eg ree o fr e semb lance f r om g ene ra t ion t og ene ra t ion ( Sobe r1 984 ) . Change t h en o ccu r s t h rough s e lec t ion w h ich a f f ec t s t h e f r equency , n o t t h e c ha rac te r , o fi nd iv idua l u n i t s . S e lec t ion m ay o pe ra te b ys ome p r inc ip le s uch a sf i tne s s w he reby o n ly t ho se u n i t sw h ich a r e a dap t ive a r ep a s sed o n

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f r om g ene ra t ion t og ene ra t ion , g i v ing d i rec t ion t oc hange , b u t o the r mo re r andom p roce s se s m ay b e o pe ra t ive a sw e l l . V a r ia t ion i sc en t ra lt o as e lec t ion i s tv i ew o fc hange s i nce w i th n ov a r ian t st h e re a r en oa l te rna t ive sf o r s e lec t ion . At r an s fo rma t iona lv i ew o fc hange ,o nt h eo the rh and ,m in im ize st h es i gn if i cance o fv a r ia t ion . F o rt h ef unc t iona l i s t ,u n ive r sa l p r inc ip le sw ou ld ,a l e l se b e ing e qua l ,r e su l ti ns upp re s s ion o fv a r ia t ion s i nce l i ke c ond i t ion sw ou ld r e su l ti nl i ke p roduc t s .S i nce a l e l se i sn o te qua l ,v a r ia t ion p e r s i s t sa sn o i se w h ich r equ i re ss c reen ing b yp a r t i t ion ing a l ong r e levan td imen s ion s .I fd i f f e ren t ia lf r equenc ie so fk i nds o fs h e rd sa re t ob er e la ted t od i f f e ren t ia lu se f r equenc ie s ,f o re xamp le ,t h ee f f ec t so fd i f f e ren t ia ld u rab i l i ty r equ i re s c reen ing o u t .F o rt h ec on tex tua la r chaeo log i s t ,v a r ia t ion i st h er e su l to fd ev ia t ion f r om t h ei d ea l i np rac t ice .C hange i sd i rec ted t owa rd r e so lv ing c on t rad ic t ion sb e tween t h ei d ea la nd t h ep rac t ica lw i th t h e p re sumed g oa l , h oweve r u nob ta inab le , o fr e a l iz ing ap e r f ec t i s omo rph i sm w he re v a r ia t ion w ou ld c ea se . Aga in v a r ia t ion i sn o i se . T he s e lec t ion i s t v i ew t r ea t s v a r ia t ion n o t a s n o i se b u t a s c en t ra l t o u nde r s tand ing .V a r ia t ion i sg ene ra ted , mo re o rl e s sr andom ly ,t h en t h ef r equency o fv a r iab le i nd iv idua l u n i t sc hange st h rough s e lec t ion . As e lec t ion i s tp e r spec t ive d oe sn o tp rec lude t r an s fo rma t iona lc hange . I nf a c t ,t h eg ene ra t ion o fv a r ia t ion i st r an s fo rma t iona l .B u ti ti ss e lec t ion o fv a r ian t st h a ti sk ey t oc hange . T he f o cu s o nv a r ia t ion f r om as e lec t ion i s t p e r spec t ive p re suppo se s ad i f f e ren tv i ew o fr ea l i ty f r om t h a to fe i the rt h ef unc t iona lo rh i s to r ica la pp roache s .T h i sd i f f e rence h a sb een l a be l led a st he d i f f e rence b e tween e s sen t ia l i sm a nd m a te r ia l i sm ( Sobe r 1 984 ; Dunne l l1 982 ) o rb e tween t y po log ica lt h ink ing a nd p opu la t ion t h ink ing ( May r 1 9 82 ) . T he e s sen t ia l i s tm e taphy s ic i sr oo ted i nA r i s to t le ' s" na tu ra ls t a te mode l" ( Sobe r1 984 ) .E ach p hy s ica l o b jec th a s an a tu ra ls t a te w h ich i st h ef o rm i tw i l lt a ke i fn oi n te r f e r ing f o rce si mp inge u pon i t .T he f o cu s o fe s sen t ia l i sm i so nt h ek i nd ,o rt y pe .V a r iab i l i ty i st hu sn o i se .T he m a te r ia l i s tp e r spec t ive ,i nc on t ra s t , c on s ide r sv a r iab i l i ty t ob et h en a tu ra ls t a te .E ve ry o b jec ti sd i f f e ren tf r om e ve ry o the ro b jec t .S im i la r i t ie s a mong o b jec t s ,r a the rt h an v a r iab i l i ty ,i st h er e su l to fa ni n te r f e r ing f o rce ,n ame ly s e lec t ion ( Sobe r1 984 ) . T he f o cu s i st h en o n v a r ia t ion r a the r t h an k i nd sw h ich a r et r an s i to ry c on f igu ra t ion s . C au sa ls t ruc tu re d i f f e r s f o r t h e t wo m e taphy s ic s . W i th e s sen t ia l i sm c au se i sr oo ted i n t h e i n te r f e r ing f o rce s , w i th m a te r ia l ism i ti sr oo ted i nv a r ia t ion .F o ra r chaeo log i s t st ob es ucce s s fu li ne xp la in ing c e ram ic v a r iab i l i ty , as e lec t ion i s tp e r spec t ive i sn ece s sa ry .T h i sp e r spec t ive s hou ld f o rm t h ef ounda t ion f o r ad a ta b a se . T he Q ues t ion o fU n i t s I n c on s t ruc t ing a d a ta b a se , t wo i mpo r tan t q ue s t ion s m u s t b e a dd re s sed : w ha t a r e t h e u n i t s o f c ompa r i son a nd w ha tm ea su remen t ss hou ld b em ade o ne ach u n i t .T he q ue s t ion o fu n i t si n vo lve sd ef in ing p rec i se ly w ha ti ti st h a ti sb e ing s e lec ted o ra tw ha ts c a le s hou ld v a r iab i l i ty b ee xp re s sed .I tmay b eu se fu l t od i s t ingu i sh u n i t s o f t r an sm i s s ion f r om u n i t s o fs e lec t ion ( E ld r idge 1 985 ) . E vo lu t ion i s at wo s t ep p roce s s . One i st h eg ene ra t ion o fv a r ia t ion a nd i t s t r an sm i s s ion t h rough t ime a nd s pace .T he o the ri s s e lec t ion a c t ing o nt h a tv a r ia t ion .A cco rd ing ly ,t h e re a r eu n i t so fr ep l ica t ion ( wh ich c ompo se t h ep l aye r s i nt h ea rena )a nd t h e re a r eu n i t so fi n te rac t ion ( on w h ich s e lec t ion o ccu r sa low ing o n ly s ome p l aye r st o s u rv ive ) .A tw ha ts c a le e i the rp roce s so fr ep l ica t ion o rs e lec t ion o ccu r si sl a rge ly e mp i r ica la nd d epend s i np a r to nt h ek i nd so fq ue s t ion sb e ing a s ked . Ad a ta b a se mu s tb ea menab le t ot h ec on s t ruc t ion o fu n i t s a td i f f e ren ts c a le s . F o r t he a r chaeo log i s t s t udy ing c e ram ic s a t l e a s t t h ree s c a le s a r e a ppa ren t : s he rd s , v e s se l s a nd a s semb lage s ,t h el a t te rb e ing d e f ined a s ag roup o fv e s se l sp roduced w i th in s ome t empo ra la nd s pa t ia l b ounda r ie s . S he rd s , e ven t h ough i nm o s t c a se s t h ey f o rm t h e u n i t o f o b se rva t ion , c an p robab ly b e d i sm i s sed o u t r igh ta sc ompa ra t ive u n i t sb ecau se t h ey a r et h er e su l to fd epo s i t iona la nd p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s t h a t b ea r l i t t le r e la t ion sh ip t o t h e c on tex t u sua l ly u nde r s t udy . T ha t l e ave s v e s se l s a nd a s semb lage s . I n tu i t ive ly ,v e s se l sw ou ld a ppea r ap rope ru n i tb ecau se t h ey f o rm d i sc re te t oo l s .I fs o ,a ni mmed ia te o pe ra t iona l p rob lem f a ce s m any a r chaeo log i s t s : h ow a r ev e s se l s t ob ed e f ined w hen o n ly af ew w ho le v e s se l ss u rv ive .I nt h eM i s s i s s ipp iV a l ley ,w he re Ih ave w o rked ,w ho le v e s se l sa r er a re a nd u n rep re sen t a t ive ,u sua l ly c on f ined t ob u r ia l s . S he rd sf o und i nm idden sr ep re sen t aq u i te d i f f e ren tk i nd o fp o t te ry t h an w ho le v e s se l s p u l led f r om m o r tua ry c on tex t s . R e t r ieva l o f w ho le v e s se l s , m o reove r , i so f ten e xpen s ive a nd d e s t ruc t ive o ft h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd .T or e c t i f yt h i ss i tua t ion a na t t rac t ive a l te rna t ive

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m igh tb et oc onve r t s herd si n to v e s se l s .T he mo s td i rec tt e chn ique i st he a c tua lr ef i t t ing o fs herd s i n to v e s se l s( K r ieger 1 946 ;N ewe l la nd K r ieger 1 949 ;B u rnham a nd T a r l ing 1 975 ;M i l l ion 1 980 ;S u l l ivan 1 983 ) . R ef i t t ing i st ime c on sum ing a nd r equ i res s pec ia lp re serva t ion c ond i t ion sw hereby s herd sf r om as i ng le p a ren t c an b e a s soc ia ted . I n mo s t c ases i ti sn o t p rac t ica l . O the r s h ave t r ied t o c a lcu la te m in imum n umber so fv es se l sb ya s s ign ing s he rd st o" ve s se ll o ts" a cco rd ing t os im i la r i t ie si nc ompos i t ion a nd o the r a t tr ibu te s( Brose 1 970 ;S u l l ivan 1 983 ;P e ter son 1 985 ) .O the r sh ave u sed p ercen tage o fr im c i rcumf erence r ep resen ted b yr im s he rd st ot he s ame e f fec t( Or ton 1 970 ;E g lo f f1 973 ;R edman a nd Myer s1 981 ) . These e f fo r ts a re g eared t owa rd e s t ima t ing m in imum n umbe r s o f v e s se l s a nd t hu s c ou ld h i gh ly d i s tor t f r equenc ies o fa t tr ibu tes i fr ecove ry w as n o tc omp le te o ri ft h ere w ere l a rge n umber so fs im i lar v esse l s w h ich c ou ld n o tb ed i s t ingu ished . F rom a no pera t iona l s t andpo in t , t hen , much i mp rec i s ion c ou ld b ea vo ided i ft he a ssemb lage r a ther t han t he v es se lc ou ld b ec on s ide red t he p roper u n i to fc ompa r i son .T he re a re t heore t ica lg rounds t ha t a s semb lages i ndeed c an s erve a st he p roper u n i t sf o rs t ud ie so fb o th t r an sm i ss ion a nd s e lec t ion . I nb io logy t r ansm i s s ion o ccu r sg ene t ica l ly ,u sua l ly a tt he s ca le o ft h ei nd iv idua l ,t h rough r ep roduc t ive s ucce s s .W i th c u l tura lp henomena t r a i ts a re t r an sm i t ted t h rough l e a rn ing a sw e l l( Pu l l iam a nd Dun ford 1 980 ;C ava l l i -Sfo rza a nd F e ldman 1 981 ;B oyd a nd R iche rson 1 985 ) . C u l tu ra lt r an sm iss ion e xpands t he b read th o f i nhe r i tance b y r emov ing s ome o f t he r e s t r ic t ion s o f g ene t ic t r an sm i ss ion . T ra i t s c an b e i nhe r i ted f r om o the rs b es ides g ene t ic p a ren ts ,t r an sm is s ion c an o ccu rt h roughou tt he c our se o fl i fe r a the r t han o n ly o nce a tc oncep t ion ,t r a i t sa cqu i red a f te rb i r th c an b et r an sm i t ted .T he l a t te ri mp l ie st ha t at r a i t c an b eh e r i tab le e ven t hough t h eb ea rer o ft h e t r a i tl e ave sn og ene t ic o f f sp r ing .T o e ncompa s sc u l tu ra l t r an sm i s s ion t he mo re i n c lus ive t e rm r ep l ica t ive s ucce s s ,o fw h ich r ep roduc t ive s ucces si s as pec ia lc ase , h a sb een s ugge s ted ( Leona rd a nd J one s 1 987 ) . B roaden ing t he p o ten t ia l o ft r an sm iss ion b yi n c lud ing c u l tura l mechan i sms a l low s al a rge rs ca le a tw h ich t r an sm is s ion o ccu r s . P o t te rs l e a rn t he i rt e chn ique s f r om av a r ie ty o fs ou rces ,n o tt h el e a s tt he ir o wn i nd iv idua le xpe r ience st h rough t he c ou rse o fl i f e . When f a sh ion ing a v e s se l , t he p o t ter m ay d raw u pon s eve ra l s ou rce s o f v a r ia t ion . T he c eram ic i ndus try r ep resen t s more t han t he s um o f i nd iv idua l p o t ter s b u t r a ther ap oo l o fv a r iab i l i ty s ome o f wh ich i s t r an sm i t ted t h rough t ime . I ti st h is p oo l , r ep re sen ted b y t h e a s semb lage , w h ich s erve s a st h e u n i t o f t r an sm is s ion . An a rgumen t f o r t he a s semb lage b e ing t h e u n i t o f s e lec t ion i s more emp i r ica l ly g rounded . A h ypo the t ica le xamp le may b ei l us t ra t ive .S uppo se t he re a re t wo v e s se l sw h ich d i f fe ri nf i tne s s .S e lec t ion f a vor st he r ep l ica t ive s ucces so fo ne o ver t he o ther b ecau se i tb e t te rm ee t st he n eed so ft he manu fac ture r s ( i nt e rm s o fc o s t s o fp roduc ing ) a nd /or u se r s ( i nt e rm s o fe f fec t ive i n ter face w i th t he e nv i ronmen t ) . I n t h i ss i tua t ion t he u n i to fs e lec t ion w ou ld a ppea rt ob e t h ei nd iv idua lv es se l .S uppo se ,h oweve r ,t ha tt he t wo v e s se l s d i f fe red i nt he ir f i tne s s a cco rd ing t oh ow t hey w ere u sed . One v es se lw a s mo re e f ic ien t i n o ne u se c on tex t , t he o the r i n ad i f f eren t u se c on tex t . T he r ep l ica t ive s ucces s may t hen d epend o n t he f r equency o ft he p a r t icu lar u se sb u t a sl o ng a sb o th u ses w e re a dap t ive n e i the rf o rm wou ld g o e x t inc t . Aga in s e lec t ion w ou ld b e a tt he l e ve l o ft he i n d iv idua lv es se l .S uppo se f u r ther , h owever ,t h a tt he c os t s o f manuf ac tur ing t wo v e s se ls o ft wo d i f fe ren tk i nds w e re much g rea te rt han t he c os ts o fm anu fac tur ing o ne k i nd o fv es se lp u tt ov ar ied u se s . S e lec t ion m igh t t h en f a vo r t h e m anuf ac tu re o f ac omp rom i se d e s ign t ha tb e s t f i tb o th a pp l ica t ion s . T he u n i t o fs e lec t ion w ou ld t h en b e a tt he l e ve l o ft he a s semb lage .T ha t s uch c omprom i se so ccur h a s b een d emons tra ted e t hnog raph ica l ly ( Rye 1 976 )a nd p robab ly i st h en o rm f o ra ny s i tua t ion w he re c o s t s o f manuf ac tu re a re s epa ra te c on s ide ra t ions f r om u se .S e lec t ion a tt h es ca le o fi nd iv idua lt oo lm aybe t he a pprop r ia te s ca le f o rs t udy o fe xped ien tc e ram ic sw h ich a re manu f ac tured i nt he c ou rse o fb e ing u sed . B u rned l umps o fc l ay u sed a sr ep lacemen ts f o r s t one i nb o i l ing w a ter , a sf o re xamp le t he e a r ly P over ty P o in t o b jec ts , may r epre sen t s uch e xped ien t c e ram ic s . Adobe b r icks i nt he N ea r E a s t may b e a no the r e xamp le .I na ny c a se a tw ha ts c a le s e lec t ion o pe ra te si sa ne mp i r ica lq ues t ion . Iw ou ld a s sume f o r mo s t p o t te ry i ndus tr ies , h owever , t he s c a le i sa tt h e l e ve l o ft he a s semb lage . T he o pe ra t iona l d i ff icu l t ies o f r econ s t ruc t ing v es se l sm ay l e ave l i t t le c ho ice b u tt om ake s uch a na s sump t ion . T he re a re t wo d i ff icu l t ies w i th u s ing t h e a s semb lage a s t he u n i t o fa na ly s is . F i rs t i st h e p rob lem o f b oundar ie s .S herds a re d i s t r ibu ted mo re o r l e s s c on t inuous ly , a l be i t u neven ly a c ro ss t he s u r f ace o ft he g l obe . Where c an l i nes b e d rawn? T he q ue s t ion i se mp i r ica l , d epend ing o n t h e p rob lem a nd a l so t he p a r t icu la r t r a i t i n vo lved . R aw m a te r ia l p rocu remen t , f o r e xamp le , m ay f o l low l oca l t r ad i t ion s wh i le

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t e chn ique so fs u r face t r ea tmen tm ay r ef lec t much w ide rc on tac t .T he s i ze o ft h eu n i tm ay c hange o ve r t i me a sw e l l .I nS ou thea s tM i s sou r i Ih ave f o und i tu se fu lt od ef ine t h ea s semb lage sa sd i sc re te c l u s te r s o fc e ram ic st h a tr ep re sen t ,s p a t ia l ly a nd t empo ra l ly ,f unc t iona lr edundancy .T ha ti s ,t h ey d on o to ccupy d i f f e ren tm ic roenv i ronmen ta lz one sn o rc on ta in ag ro s s ly d i f f e ren tr ange o fa r t i f ac t s .T he a s semb lage i s i n c rea sed i ns i ze u n t i ls uch f u nc t iona lr edundancy i sr e a sonab ly o b ta ined .D ef in ing t empo ra lb ounda r ie s c an b ee spec ia l ly d i ff icu l tb ecau se c u l tu ra lt r an sm i s s ion o ccu r sa c ro s sg ene ra t ion sa sw e l la sw i th in t h em . A rchaeo log i s t sh ave a dd re s sed t h i sq ue s t ion b yt r y ing t oi s o la te " s ing le c omponen t s" f r om c l u s te r st h a t c ov e r l a rge p e r iod s o ft i me . Mo s t s ucce s s i nt h i s r ega rd h a s b een i ns epa ra t ing r e la t ive ly s ho r t l i ved o ccupa t ion s . Whe re as i te h a s b een o ccup ied c on t inuou s ly f o r c en tu r ie s d raw ing l i ne sb e tween c om p onen t s b ecome s a n a rb i t ra ry a nd p o ten t ia l ly m i s lead ing e ndeavo r , p a r t icu la r ly w he re w e l l d ef ined s t ra t ig raphy i sa b sen t . T he s econd d if i cu l ty i si nm ea su r ing a s semb lage c ha rac te r i s t ic s . U s ing t h e a s semb lage h a s t h e a dv an tage o fb e ing a b le t om ake m ea su remen t s o n s he rd s ( s ince s he rd s a r e a s much ap a r t o f t h e a s semb lage a sv e s se l s ) ,b u ts h e rd sa r en o tw i thou tt h e i rb i a se sw hen a s semb lage sa r et ob ec ompa red . B ecau se o fd i f f e ren t ia ls i ze a nd p re se rva t ion ,s ome s he rd sc a r ry mo re a t t r ibu te i n fo rma t ion t han o the r s , s k ew ing f r equenc ie s . F o r e x amp le , i fe x te r io r s l ip s a r e p re sen t o n 2 5 p e rcen t o f s he rd s f r om o ne a s semb lage b u t 6 0 p e rcen t f r om a no the r , t h e d i f f e rence m igh t s imp ly b e af unc t ion o fl a rge r s u rface a r ea sp re se rved o n s he rd s i nt h e l a t te r . D i f f e ren tf r equenc ie sc an a l so b es imp ly am a t te ro fb reakage p a t te rns o ro r ig ina ls i ze ,w h ich i nt u rn a r ef u nc t ion so fd i f f e ren t ia lb ody s t reng th s ,u se h i s to r ie s ,d i spo sa l p a t te rns a nd p o s t - d epo s i t iona lp roce s se s ( So lhe im 1 960 ;E g lo f f1 973 ) . A t temp t sh ave b een m ade t oc on t ro l s he rd b i a sb yc ompa r ing c oun t sw i th w e igh t s ( Baumho f fa nd H e ize r1 959 ;E van s1 973 ) o rc oun t sw i th s u r f ace a r ea ( Hu l thèn 1 974 ) .N e i the rw e igh t ing m e thod i sb ia s f r ee s i nce w e igh t a l so d epend s o n t h ickne s s a nd d en s i ty a nd s u r f ace a r ea d epend s o n c u rva tu re a nd d eg re i o fp re se rva t ion .B o th m e thod sa l so o n ly c on t ro lf o rd i f f e ren t ia lb reakage p a t te rn s .T hey d on o t c on t ro lf o rv e s se ls i ze w h ich w ou ld r equ i re s ome c on s ide ra t ion o fc u rva tu re ( t og i ve w e igh tt od i f f e ren t ia l d i ame ter s ) a nd r im /body r a t io s ( t og i ve w e igh tt od i f f e ren t ia lv e s se lh e igh t s ) . Much o ft h e e f fo r t t oc on t ro l b i a se s i ns he rd c oun t s p re suppo se s t h a t t h e p rope ru n i t i st h ew ho le v e s se l .T he se b i a se s t a ke o n ad i f f e ren t l i gh tw hen t h e a s semb lage i st a ken a st h eu n i t .B o th b reakage p a t te rn sa nd v e s se ls i ze a r ef u nc t iona lp a rame te r s . Two a s semb lage st h a td i f f e ra l ong t h e se d imen s ion s w i l lb e d i s t ingu i shed b y t h e i r s he rd c oun t s . T hu s s he rd c oun t s a r e n o t s imp ly ab i a s b u t as ou rce o f i n fo rma t ion ,e spec ia l ly w hen c on s ide red i nc on junc t ion w i th w e igh t s ,t h ickne s se s ,c u rva tu re sa nd o the r p rope r t ie s . A no the rb i a st h a th a sr e ce ived r e cen ta t ten t ion i sd i f f e ren t ia lu se l i f eo fv e s se l s( DeBoe r1 974 , 1 983 , 1 9 85 ; Dav id 1 972 ; L ongac re 1 985 ; P auke ta t 1 989 ) . T he f r equency o fk i nd s o fs he rd s o rv e s se l s i na n a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t i sp a r t ia l ly af u nc t ion o f r ep lacemen t r a te s . Among t h e mode rn F u lan i , f o r e x amp le ,s t o rage j a r sl a s t1 0y ea r s ,c ook ing p o t so n ly t wo y ea r s( Dav id 1 972 ) . An a r chaeo log ica ld epo s i t c ov e r ing 1 0y ea r sw ou ld t h en p re sumab ly c on ta in a no ve r rep re sen ta t ion o fc ook ing p o t s ,b y af a c to ro f f i v e , i nt he c a lcu la t ion o ff r equency o fp o t s i nu se a ta ny o ne t ime . A ga in , d i f f e ren t ia l l i f e span s a r e f u nc t iona l c ha rac te r i s t ic s , r e la t ing t ot r ade -o f f sb e tween e a se o fu se ( e .g . ,p o r tab i l i ty ) a nd p roduc t ion c o s t s ( DeBoe r 1 985 ) . A ny a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t r ep re sen t s ab lock o ft ime , n o t as i ng le momen t , s o r e p lacemen tr a te sa r ee mbedded i nt h ef u nc t iona lv a r iab i l i ty .T h i si sa na dvan tage o fa r chaeo log ica ld a ta b ecau se i ta l low sa s se s smen to fl o ng t e rm f u nc t iona lc on s t ra in t s ,n o t ad i sadvan tage b ecau se o f ab i a sed r e co rd .H igh f r equency o fc ook ing p o t s( a s sum ing t h ey c an b ei d en t if ied )i ss ome th ing t ob ee xp la ined , n o t" con t ro l led f o r" . C ompu t ing l i f e span si sn o to n ly p rob lema t ic b u t ,a tl e a s tf o rd e tec t ing d i f f e rence s a nd o f ten f o rj udg ing t h e i rm agn i tude a nd d i rec t ion ,u nnece s sa ry . I n s ho r t , t h e d a ta f r om s h e rd s d oe s n o t n eed t ob e t r an s fo rmed b e fo re i tc an b e u sed t o d ef ine a s semb lage c ha rac te r i s t ic s . I tm e re ly h a s t ob ei n te rp re ted a nd e xp la ined .A s semb lage c ha rac te r i s t ic s c an b e d ef ined b y m ak ing m ea su remen t s o n s he rd s a nd e xp re s s ing t h e se m ea su remen t s t h rough f r equency t a b le sa nd c o r re la t ion m a t r ice s .T he se t h en s e rve a st h eb a s i sf o rm ak ing c ompa r i son sb e tween a s semb lage s .I ts hou ld b es t re s sed t h a ti ti st h ev a r iab i l i ty w i th in a na s semb lage t h a ti si mpo r tan tt or epo r t . Wh i le mean sa r ec r i t ica l ,s oa r er ange s ,s t anda rd d ev ia t ion sa nd o the rd i s t r ibu t iona lm ea su re s .

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T he a s semb lage ,o fc ou r se ,i sa na na ly t ica lc on s t ruc t ,j u s ta sv e s se l so f ten a re .D epend ing o nt h en a ture o ft h ep rob lem a nd t h ep a r t icu la r a t t r ibu te su nde rs t udy ,t h eb ounda r ie so ft h ea s semb lag ew i l l d i f f e r . Ad a ta b a se t ob eu se fu l mu s tb ec ompa t ib le w i th t h i sf l ex ib i l i ty .T he r aw d a ta c on s i s t so ft h em ea su re m en t sm ade u pon s he rd sa nd t h i s mu s tb em ade a va i lab le t oo the rr e sea rche r s .S ome p rob lem s ,s uch a s e s t ima t ing t r ade v o lume , m ay r equ i re c on s t ruc t ion o fv e s se l s . T he i n fo rma t ion t o d o t h i s s hou ld b e a va i lab le .T h i si st h ei n ten t ,a s Iu nde r s tand i t ,o fB enne t ta nd B lake ly ,b u ti nl i gh to f my d i scu s s ion s ome c ommen t sa r ei no rde r . P a r to ft h ed a ta t ob er eco rded u nde rt h e i rp ropo sa la r ec ompo s i te g roup ing so fv e s se lc a tego ry a nd f a b r ic g roup .T hey e mpha s ize h ow t h ef a b r ic g roup i sa na na ly t ica lc on s t ruc t ,b a sed o nc ompo s i t ion d a ta , a nd w h i le t h eg roup a s s ignmen t sc an b er epo r ted i ti smo s ti mpo r tan tt or epo r tt h eb a s i sf o rm ak ing t h e g roup sb ecau se d i f f e ren tp rob lem sm ay r equ i re g roup ing a l ong d i f f e ren td imen s ion s .T he s ame s hou ld a pp ly t ot h ev e s se lc a tego ry ,w h ich i sar a the rv ague a s s ignmen tb a sed o nf o rm a nd f unc t ion t y pes d rawn f r om t h el i t e ra tu re .T he se ,o fc ou r se ,a r ea na ly t ic c on s t ruc t sa sw e l la nd t h ed a ta b a se r equ i re si n c lu s ion o fr aw m ea su remen t so fc u rva tu re ,r im s hape a nd s of o r th . Wh i le i ti sa g reed t h a ti ti si mpo s s ib le t oc on s t ruc t ad a ta b a se t h a tw i l ls a t i s f ya l n eed s , Id on ' tt h ink t h e t h ree c a tego r ie s o f f i nd spo t , f o rm a nd f a b r ic a r e s u ff ic ien t f o r m any p rob lem s . B ec au se o f t he i mpo r tance o fu nde r s tand ing c e ram ic sa sc e ram ic s ,a s much d a ta a sp o s s ib le r e la t ing t ot he m anu fac tu re a nd u se o ft h ep o t te ry s hou ld b ei n c luded .T he m anu f ac tu re o fp o t te ry c an b es epa ra ted i n to t h ree s t age s : a cqu i s i t ion a nd p repa ra t ion o fr aw m a te r ia l s , f o rm ing t h ec on ta ine ra nd f i r ing . Documen t ing v a r ia t ion r e levan tt ot h ef i r s t s t age i n c lude sm ea su remen to fm ine ra lc ompo s i t ion ,t e x tu re ( amoun t s ,s i ze r ange , s hape sa nd o r ien ta t ion so fv a r iou sc on s t i tuen t s ) ,a nd s ou rce .F o rm ing v a r iab le si n c lude t he b a s ic f o rm ing m e thod ,s u r f ace t r ea tmen t a nd mo rpho logy ( s ize , t h ickne s so fw a l l s ,c u rva tu re ) .F i r ing c ha rac te r is t ic s i n c lude t h ed eg ree a nd a tmo sphe re o ff i r ing .C o lo ra nd f i r ing c o re d a ta a r ei mpo r tan ti nt h i sr e ga rd .U se i s mo re d i ff icu l t t oe va lua te b u t f r ac tu re p a t te rn s , o rgan ic d epo s i t sa nd o the re v idence o fw ear c an b e n o ted .P e r fo rmance p rope r t ie ss uch a sh a rdne s s ,p o ro s i ty a nd s t reng th m ay a l so b e mea su red .N a turaly t h ec on tex to ft h ep o t te ry i sa l so i mpo r tan t ,n o to n ly t h ef i nd spo tb u tt h ea s soc ia t ion w i th o the ra r t i fac t s a nd m ic roenv i ronmen t s . F ina l ly , i n fo rma t ion i mpo r tan tt oa s se s s ing a s semb lage c ha rac te r i s t ic s i si m p o r tan t .T h i s i n c lude s s i ze a nd w e igh t o fs he rd s , a s s ignmen t o fb ody p a r t s , d eg ree o fe ro s ion , a nd s o f o r th . N o t a l m ea su remen t s c an b e m ade o n e ve ry s he rd ,o fc ou r se .A sB enne t t a nd B lake ly p o in t o u t , a s amp l ing s t ra tegy i sn ece s sa ry .C omp rehen s ive m ea su remen t sm aybe m ade o n ly o nt hose s h e rd ss ub jec t t od e s t ruc t ive t e chn ique s ,w h ich s hou ld b el i m i ted t os ma l ls amp le s .( Pa ren the t ica l ly ,x e ro rad iog raphy , t hough p e rhap s ac heap a nd r ap id t e chn ique f o re va lua t ing c ompo s i t ion , i sn o tt o ta l ly n onde s truc t ive . E xpo s ing s he rd st ol a rge d o se so fX ray sm ay d e s t roy a ny c hance o fd a t ing t h es he rd b yt he rmo lum ine s c ence [ A i tken 1 985 ] ,w h ich i nt h ea b sence o fs t ra t ig raphy o ra s soc ia ted o rgan ic m a t te rm ay b et he o n ly d a t ing t e chn ique a va i lab le . E xpo s ing t h e e n t i re c o rpu s o f s he rd s t o r ad iog raphy i st h e re fo re n o t a dv i sab le . )F ina l ly ,B enne t ta nd B lake ly c au t ion a ga in s ti n app rop r ia te a nd u n re l iab le mea su remen ts .A r emedy i st h ep rov i s ion o fe r ro rt e rm sa nd h ow t h ey a r ec a lcu la ted f o ra l m ea su remen t s . O r ig ins o fS he l lT emper ing I nc l o s ing Is upp ly ab r ie fe xamp le o f aq ue s t ion i nc e ram ic e vo lu t ion i nE a s te rn No r th Ame r ica t ha t c ou ld b e a n swe red w i th ap rope r d a ta b a se b u t w h ich c anno t b e r e so lved g i ven t he c u r ren t s t a te o f p ub l i shed d a ta . T he q ue s t ion c once rn s t h e o r ig in s o fs he l l t empe r ing i nt h e E a s te rn Wood land s . S he l lr ep laced a v a r ie ty o fo t he rk i nd so fn onp ia s t ic sa st h ep redom inan tt empe ri nc e ram ic st h roughou tt h em a jo rr i ve r v a l ley sa nd a l ong p o r t ion so fb o th A t lan t ic a nd Gu l fc oa s t ss ome t ime d u r ing t h eL a te Wood land p er iod , c i rca AD 9 00 . R ep l ica t ive s t ud ie s s ugge s t t h a t s he l li n c rea sed t h ef r ac tu re t oughne s sa nd p robab ly t h e t h e rma ls hock r e s i s tance o fp o t te ry ( Fea the r sa nd S co t t1 989 )a nd t h ew o rkab i l i ty o ft he c l ay ( Fea the r s , u npub l i shed d a ta ) . T h i s g ave t h e s he l l s ome s e lec t ive v a lue , a l though i ta l so h ad d i sadvan tages , t h e p r inc ip le o ne b e ing t h ed ecompo s i t ion o fc a lc ium c a rbona te w h ich i n c rea sed t h er i sk o fo v e rf i r ing .T he q ue s t ion i sw he the r s he l l t empe r ing w a s at e chn ique a l ready k nown a nd t h e re fo re p a r to ft h e p oo lo f a va i lab le v a r iab i l i ty a tt h et i me i tb egan t op redom ina te i nt h em anu f ac tu r ing p roce s so rw he the ri t sr ap id s p read i sd ue t od i f fu s ion o f at e chn ique t h a to nce a va i lab le q u ick ly o u tcompe ted a l terna t iv e s .

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Wh i le t h i s q ue s t ion i sl a rge ly h i s to r ica l i nn a tu re , t h e t wo a l te rna t ive sr equ i re d if e ren t f unc t iona l a r gumen t s .I nt h ef i r s tc a se ,s he l lt empe r ing w a sa l ready k nown b u tw a sn o ts e lec ted e a r l ie rb ecause t he a dvan tage si tb e s tow sd i dn o to u twe igh t h ed i sadvan tage s ,b ecau se o ft h ew ay p o t te ry w a su sed o r made ( e .g . ,p oo rc on t ro l o ve rf i r ing ) . I nt h es e cond c a se t h e re i sn oq ue s t ion t h ea dvan tage so u twe ighed t he d i sadvan tage s .T he q ue s t ion i ss imp ly o ne o fa va i lab i l i ty . Once i n t roduced i ts p read r ap id ly . T he d i f fu s ion a l te rna t ive h a s b een t h e t r ad i t iona la r gumen t i nE a s te rn p reh i s to ry . S he l l t empe r ing a nd o t her t r a i t sa s soc ia ted w i th t h e M i s s i s s ipp ian p e r iod w e re t hough tt oh ave o r ig ina ted i no ne a rea a nd s p read o u twa rd e i the r b y d i f fu s ion o r a c tua l e xpan s ion o fp eop le s . T he a rgumen tw a s o r ig ina l ly f o rmu la ted i np u re ly h i s to r ica lt e rm sb u tC a ldwe l l( 1 958 )a dded af unc t iona le xp lana t ion :t h eM i s s i s s ip p i an t r a i ts w e re a dap t ive ly s upe r io r . I n ac r i t ica l r e v iew Sm i th ( 1 984 ) p o in t s o u t t h a t t h e d i f fu s ion a rgumen t h a sf a l len i n to d i s f avo r i n r e cen ty ea r sf o rt wo r ea son s .F i r s t ,i th a sb een r ea l ized t h a tM i s s i s s ipp ian c u l tu re w a sn o t as i ng le e n t i ty t h a ts p read a c ro s st he c oun t ry b u t i n c luded m any d i ve r se p a r t se ach w i th i t so wn h i s to ry o fo r ig in a nd s p read . S he l l t empe r ing , f o r e xamp le , h a s b een s hown t o p reda te m any o the r M i s s i s s ipp ian t r a i t s . S econd ,i n c rea s ing k now ledge o fl o ca ls equence sh a sw eakened t h ea rgumen tf o ri n t ru s ion .M i s s i s s ip p i an a dap ta t ion sa re s e en a sl o ca ld eve lopmen t sf r om a n teceden tc u l tu re s . T he n o t ion o f ah ea r t land f o rs he l lt empe r ing h a sb een r e v ived b yP r ice a nd L yno t t( P r ice 1 986 ;L yno t t 1 986 ;L yno t ta nd P r ice 1 989 )b a sed o nt h e i rw o rk i nt h ef oo th i l l so ft h eO za rk si ns ou thea s te rn M i s sou r i . R ad ioca rbon a nd t he rmo lum ine scence d a te s o f AD 6 00 h ave b een o b ta ined f o rs he l lt empe red p o t te ry f r om t wo l o ca l i t ie si nt h eE a s te rn O za rk s ,a nd P r ice ( 1 986 ) a rgue ss he l lt empe r ing may d a te a se a r ly a s AD 5 00 .T he a rgumen tf o rt h e O za rk h ea r t land i sb o l s te red b yt h el a te ri n t roduc t ion o fs he l lt empe r ing t ob o th t he n o r th a nd s ou th : o n ly b y AD 8 25 a tC ahok ia i nt h e Ame r ican B o t tom a nd AD 1 000 a tL ake G eo rge i nt he l owe rv a l ley ( P r ice 1 986 ) . P r ice a nd L yno t t ' s a r gumen t h a s c on s ide rab le a ppea l . N o t o n ly d o t h e d a te s t h ey p re sen t s ugge s t d i f fu s ion o u twa rd f r om t h eO za rk h ea r t land , b u tt h ei n ven t ion o fs he l lt empe r ing i n ama rg ina l ,r a the r i s o la ted a rea s uch a st h eO z a rk sf i t sw e l lw i th e vo lu t iona ry s c ena r io s .I nb io log ica le vo lu t ion ,s pec ia t ion i so f ten t hough tt ot a ke p l ace a mong p opu la t ion si s o la ted f r om g ene f l ow . An a na logou ss i tua t ion c ou ld a ccoun tf o rt h eo r ig in o fs he l lt empe r ing . L yno t ta nd P r ice ( 1 989 )a l so p o in to u ts ome o ft h ee a r ly s he l l t empe red p o t te ry h a s m o rpho log ie s c l ea r ly d i f f e ren t f r om t h e m a in s t ream Wood land f o rm s , mo re e v idence o fi s o la t ion a nd m a rg ina l i ty . O ne w ay t ot e s t P r ice a nd L yno t t ' s h ypo the s i s i st op l o t t h e f r equenc ie s o fs he l l t empe red p o t te ry a c ro s ss pace a nd t ime . F o r t h e h ea r t land s c ena r io , o ne m igh t e xpec te a r ly d a te s i nt h eh ea r t land a nd i n c rea s ing ly l a te rd a te sw i th d i s tance a way f r om t h eh ea r t land . Mo reove r ,r ep lacemen tr a te sw ou ld b e e xpec ted t ob er ap id s i nce i no rde rt os p read t h es he l lt empe r mu s tp re sen ti mmed ia te a dvan tages .I f , o n t h e o the r h and , s he l l t empe r ing w a s n o t t h e r e su l t o f d i f fu s ion b u t r a the r s e lec t ion o n e x i s t ing v a r iab i l i ty ,o ne w ou ld e xpec tr a re s he l lt empe r ing t od a te q u i te e a r ly i n av a r ie ty o fp l ace sa nd t h ed a te s o fp redom inan t u se o fs he l lt empe r t ov a ry w ide ly f r om r eg ion t or eg ion . R a te s o fc hange m igh tv a ry w ide ly a sw e l l ,d epend ing o nh ow r ap id ly s he l lg a ined s e lec t ive a dvan tage , ap roce s sh i gh ly d ependen t o nl o ca lc ond i t ion s . Ab r ie fs urvey o ft h el i t e ra tu re i se nough t or ea l ize t h a tt h ed a ta t oa n swe rt h i sq ue s t ion i sn o tr ead i ly a va i lab le f o ra tl e a s tt h ree r e a son s .F i r s t ,s he rd st h em se lve sa r er a re ly d a ted .T he rmo lum ine scence ,t h e b e s tt e chn ique f o r d a t ing c e ram ic s d i rec t ly , h a s h ad l i t t le a pp l ica t ion i nt h i s c oun t ry . Mo s t d a te s a r e d e r ived f r om r ad ioca rbon a s se s smen t s o n o rgan ic m a t te ra s soc ia ted o n ly g ene ra l ly w i th t h e c e ram ic s . O sbo rn ( 1988 ) , f o r e xamp le , q uo te s d a te s o f AD 6 90 -960 f o r t h e Mo ingona P ha se o fc en t ra l I owa , a c o l lec t ion o fa r t i f ac t st h a ti n c luded s he l lt empe red p o t te ry .I ti sn o tk nown i ft h es he l lt empe red s he rd s d a ted t ot he e a r ly p a r t o ft h e r ange , i nw h ich c a se t h e O z a rk h ea r t land h ypo the s i sw ou ld b e s e ve re ly s t re s sed ,o rl a te r ,i nw h ich c a se t h eh ypo the s i sw ou ld b es uppo r ted . S econd , mo s t a r chaeo log i s t s h ave t a ken t h e t y po log ica l a pp roach t oc e ram ic a na ly s i s .Ap a r t icu la r s e c t ion o ft ime a nd s pace , l a be l led ap ha se , i sc ha rac te r ized b y" t yp ica l" c e ram ic s .T he F o r t Anc ien t a spec to ft he u ppe r Oh io R iv e r ,f o re xamp le ,i sp a r t ly d e f ined b yt h ep re sence o fs he l lt empe red p o t te ry . When as he l l t empe red s h e rd i sf o und i nt h e c en t ra lO h io V a l ley , i ti sa s sumed t ob eF o r t Anc ien ti n

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o r ig in ( Hender son a nd T urnbow 1 987 ) .S he l lt empe red p o t tery f ound o u ts ide i t su sua lc on tex ti sa ssumed t ob ei n tru s ive f r om l a te ro ccupa t ion so rt r ade w a re .T he " ave rag ing "t ha tr e su l ts f r om t he se a s sump t ion s make si ti mpo s s ib le t ot r ace a nd d a te c hang ing f r equenc ie so fs he l lt empe rt h rough t ime .T oo o f ten ,w i th b o th f unc t iona la nd h i s to r ica la ccoun ts ,o n ly t h ei n te rp re ta t ion sa nd n o tt he o b se rva t ion so nw h ich t hey a re b a sed a re p ub l i shed . T he f i na lr ea son i st ha tt he L a te Wood land p e r iod w hen t hese c hanges w e re o ccurr ing i samong t h e p oo res tk nown i nE a s te rn No r th Ame r ica ,p a r t ly b ecause t he L a te Wood land p o t tery l a ck sm any o ft h e d i s t inc t ive d ecora t ive f e a tu res t ha tc ha rac te r ize e a r l ie ra nd l a te rt ime s .T hu st he L a te Wood land , f r om at y po log ica ls t andpo in t ,i sp oo r ly d ef ined . P r ice a nd L yno t th ave s ome e a r ly d a tes b u ti ti sp rema tu re t oc onc lude t ha to the re a r ly d a tes w i l ln o tb ef o r thcom ing f r om o the rr eg ion s .( The Oza rk p o t tery i sn o t i nf a c tt he e a r l ies ts he l lt empe red p o t te ry r epo r ted i nt he E a s t .S he l lt empe red w a re i nt h eC hesapeake B ay r eg ion , f o re xamp le , d a tes a se a r ly a s AD 2 00 [ G leach 1 988 1 ,b u t t h i s c ou ld e a s i ly b et r ea ted a sa n i ndependen td eve lopmen te a s to ft he Appa lach ian s . ) . Had ad a ta b a se f ounded o nt he d ocumen ta t ion o ft he o bserved v a r iab i l i ty b een d eve loped e a r ly o n , t he i n forma t ion n eeded t oa nswer t h i sq ue s t ion may n ow h ave b een a va i lab le . C hang ing f r equenc ies o f t emper h ave b een r epo r ted i n af ew i n s tance s .T h i sd a ta s ugge s t st h ea n swer i smuch mo re c omp lex t han e i the ra l terna t ive s cena r ios .Af ew e xamp les w i l lb eg i ven . F i rs t ,s he l lt emper ing d oes n o ta ppea rt oh ave s e lec t ive a dvan tage i na l la rea s .I nt he r i ve rv aley so f t he w e s te rn p ra ir ie , s he l l t empe r ing r ema in s am ino r i ty f r ac t ion o fn on -p la s t ic s t h roughou t t he L a te P reh i s to r ic ( Ho f fman 1 984 ; Wede l 1 986 ) . I n Geo rg ia , s he l l t empe r ing a ppea r s t o c on s t i tu te a bou t 5 0 p e rcen t o fa s semb lages d u r ing t he e a r l ie s t p a r t o ft h e L a te P reh i s to r ic ( a round AD 9 00 ) b u t d ec l ine s t h e rea f te rt oo n ly m ino rr ep re sen ta t ion (Wauchope 1 966 ;K n igh t 1 979 ) . I n o the r a r ea ss he l l d oe sb ecome p redom ina te b u t t he t r an s i t ion a ppea rs g radua l . I nt h e Amer ican B o t tom s he l lf i r s ta ppea r sa st emper i nt h er epa i ro fd amaged v e sse l sf ound i nP a t r ick P ha se a s semb lage s ( AD 6 00 -700 ) , f o rms a m ino r c omponen t o f a s semb lage s u n t i l AD 9 00 -950 a nd t hen b ecomes t h e p redom inan t t empe r ing a gen t ( Ke l ly e ta l1 984 ; P o r te r 1 983 ) . S im i la r t r end s a re n o ted i nt he Uppe r M is s is s ipp i( Ha l l 1 986 ) a nd t he m id -Sou th ( S tepona i t is 1 983 ) . I ns umma ry ,t he d i s tr ibu t ion o fs he l lt empe r ing i nE a s tern No r th Ame r ica i sn o t we l le nough k nown t or e fu te P r ice a nd L yno t t 's h ea r t land h ypo the s i s ,b u tt he d i s t r ibu t ion d oe s a ppea rc omp lex e nough t o s ugge s tt he mode li st oo s imp le i fn o tw rong .C e r ta in ly l o ca ls e lec t ive p res su re sw e re s u ff ic ien t ly d ive r se t og ua ran tee aq u i te v a r ied e xp re s s ion o fs he l l t empe r ing . How d i ver se c anno t b e k nown u n t i l b e t te r r epo r ted d a ta i sf o r thcom ing . A d a ta b ase a l ong t h e l i ne s s ugge s ted b y B enne t t a nd B lake ly , w i th mod if ica t ions ,w ou ld g o al ong w ay si nm ak ing s ub s tan t ive c on tr ibu t ion so nc e ram ic e vo lu t ion p oss ib le . A cknow ledgmen t s . My t hanks t oD r . R obe r t C . Dunne l l f o r c ommen t ing o n a n e a r l ie rd raf t o ft h i s p ape r .

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C hap t er 8 P rac t ica l Da ta -Base C ons truc t ion f or H is tor ica l -Per iod C eram ic A na ly s is

T e re s i ta Ma jew sk ia nd M ichae lJ .O 'Br ien Un ive r s i ty o fM i s sou r i C o lumb ia ,M i s sou r i

I n troduc t ion B enne t ta nd B lake ly r a i se an umbe ro fi mpo r tan ti s sue si nt he i rp ape r i s sue st ha tw eb e l ieve d eserve mo re i n -dep th i n spec t ion . We a re s ympa the t ic t o t he p rob lem s t hey r a i se , e spec ia l ly t ha t o ft r y ing t o make a na ly t ic s en se o f al a rge c o l lec t ion o fc e ram ic ma te r ia l s ,a nd w ea g ree t ha t many a na ly t ic s y s tem s c u r ren t ly i nu se a re n o tw e l lg rounded i nt h eo ry , me thod , o r p rac t ica l i ty . Howeve r ,w e a re c oncerned -

t ha t B enne t t a nd B lake ly c on found s eve ra l i s sue s i nt he i r p aper i s sues t ha t s hou ld b e s epa ra ted c oncep tua l ly .T hey c er ta in ly a re n o tu n ique i nt h is r ega rd .I s sue si nc e ram ic c l as s if ica t ion a nd t ypo logy h ave b een a c en tra l c once rn i n a rchaeo logy f o r d ecades , a nd i fo u r r a ther p e s s im i s t ic v i ew s o f t he s i tua t ion a re i na ny s en se r ef lec t ive o ft h ea c tua ls t a te o fa f fa i rs ,t hen l og ica lp rob lem si nt he c a tegor iza t i on o fa rchaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls w i l lc on t inue t op l ague t he d i sc ip l ine . -

I nt h i sp aper w ed i scu s ss ome o ft h ep o in t sr a ised b yB enne t ta nd B lake ly a nd a t temp tt or e la te t hem t ob roader i s sues i na rchaeo logy . We h ope t od emon s t ra te t ha t t he p rob lem s t ow h ich t hey a l lude a re n o tu n ique t oa rchaeo log i s ts w o rk ing i nt h eO ld Wo r ld . We t hen f ocu so n as e r ie so f Ame r ican i s ts t ud ie s c once rned w i th t he a na ly s i s o f r e f ined e a r thenwa re s f r om t he e i gh teen th t h rough e a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu r ie s . C en t ra lt oo u rd i scus s ion i sa na na ly t ic s y s tem d ev i sed t oe xam ine s eve ra la spec t so fh i s tor i c a l -pe r iod s e t t lemen to f ar i ve rv a l ley i nn o r thea s te rn M i s sou r i . We empha s ize a tt he o u tse tt ha ts y s tem s o fc a tego r iza t ion mus tb ed e s igned f o rs pec i f ic r e sea rch p rob lem s ,a nd t hu sw ei nn ow ay o f fe ro u rs y s tem a s amode lt ob ec op ied w ho lesa le .A sw ee mpha s ize t h roughou tt he p ape r ,t he re i sn oc o r rec t me thod o fc a tego r iz ing c e ram ic so ra ny o the ra r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l s .T here a re ,h oweve r , c er ta in c ons idera t i on s t h a t mus t b e t aken i n to a ccoun t p r io r t o e s tab l ish ing s uch s y s tem s c on s idera t ion s t ha t a re i ndependen to ft ime a nd s pace . -

P rob lems i nt he C a tegor iza t ion o fC eram ics T he f i e ld o fa rchaeo logy s t i l lh a sn o tc ome t og r ips w i th t he d i f ference s among k i nd so fc a tego r iza t ion , s pec i f ica l ly d i f f erences b e tween c l a s s i f ica t ion a nd t y po logy . T he t wo t e rm s a re u sed i n te rchangeab ly w i th l i t t le o rn or ega rd t ot h ef a c tt ha tt h ey e ncompa s se n t ire ly d i f fe ren tv i ew so fr ea l i ty .T ypes ,i nt he i r b a se s tf o rm ,a re k inds ;c l a im so f ten a re m ade t h a tt hey a re r ea l ,i . e . ,t ha tt hey h ave emp ir ica lr ea l i ty .A s Dunne l l ( 1986 : 1 51 ) n o te s , t y pes u sua l ly " a re c once ived a s n a tu ra l ly b ounded p henomena w h ich h ave s pec if iab le ,f unc t iona lp rope r t ies i nr e spec tt oo the rs uch p henomena ." On t he o the rh and ,c l a s ses r e su l t f r om t h e measuremen t sw ei mpo se o n ag roup o fo b jec ts .I mpo r tan t ly ,c l as s if ica t ion s a re i mpo sed o na s e to fo b jec ts r a ther t han e x t rac ted f r om t h em : " They f unc t ion t op rov ide t he t e rm sb y mean s o f wh ich w e i d en t ify , d esc r ibe , mea su re , a nd c ompa re p henomena ; i ns ho r t , t hey a l low u s t o mode l r ea l i ty i n p a r t icu lar w ay s f o r p ar t icu la rp u rpo se s" ( Dunne l l 1 986 : 1 52 ) . C la s s if ica t ion i s ad educ t ive e xerc i se a s o ppo sed t oa ni nduc t ive o ne ,t h el a t ter b e ing ap rocedu re i nw h ich mean ing i se x t rac ted f r om t he i nduced " e s sence" o fo b jec ts . I nab i l i ty t od i s t ingu i sh b e tween c l a s s i f ica t ion a nd t y po logy h a sh ad d i re r am if ica t i on s f o r a rchaeo logy . I n i t s w o r s t f o rm , c onf la t ion o f t he t wo h a s masked e x treme d i f fe rences i n o n to log ica lp os i t ion s . O f ten t ime sw ea t temp tt oa n swe rq ue s t ions o fu l t ima te c au se b yu s ing t he w rong s e to fa na ly t ica lp rocedu re s .I no the rw o rd s ,w ea t temp tt oa n swer q ue s t ion so fo r ig in t h rough r e fe rence t op rocedures t ha ta tb e s tc an y i e ld o n ly f unc t ion -re la ted a nswe r s .B enne t ta nd B lake ly ( p .11 ) s t a te t ha t "We n eed t ok now w hen [ c e ram ic s ]w e re m ade ,w he re t hey w e re made ,h ow t hey w ere made ,w hy t hey w e re m ade , a nd h ow t hey w e re u sed ." N o t ice t he t y pes o fq ues t ions t hey a re a sk ing : "How w ere t hey made?" a nd "W 7 zy w ere t h ey m ade?" T he f i r s tq ue s t ion i sr e la ted t of unc t ion ,t he a n swer t ow h ich g i ve s

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u s s ome i d ea o fp rox ima l c au se . T he s econd q ue s t ion , h oweve r , i sr e la ted t ou l t ima te c au se , i . e . , w hy s ome th ing w a s c r ea ted o r c ame i n to e x i s tence . T he se a r e f undamen ta l ly d i f f e ren t q ue s t ion s . C an c l a s s i f ica t ion e ven a n swe rt h e se t y pe so fq ue s t ion s? T he a n swe ro bv iou s ly i s" No ." C la s s i f ica t ion i ss imp ly am ea su r ing s y s tem i mpo sed , a sw e n o ted e a r l ie r ,o n ag roup o fo b jec t s .T he r e a son ac l a s s i f ica t ion i s i mpo sed o n ag roup o fo b jec t s i st ou nde r s tand t h e m akeup o ft h eg roup , b a sed o n as e t o fa na ly t ic d imen s ion ss e lec ted f o rt h es e to fo b jec t s . An swe r st o" How ?" a nd "Why ?" q ue s t ion sa re d e r ived s t r ic t ly f r om i n f e rence s made b yt h ea na ly s t . B enne t ta nd B lake ly ( p .7 )m i sp lace t h eb l ame w hen t h ey s t a te t h a t" I ti so u rj udgmen tt h a tt h ep rob lem o fc l a s s if ica t ion l i e s a tt h e r oo t o fo u r i n ab i l i ty t oe x t rac t t h e k i nd s o fi n fo rma t ion w e b e l ieve t ob e c on ta ined i nt h ec e ram ic p o r t ion so ft h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd ." We c anno tb l ame c l a s s if ica t ion f o ro u r i n ab i l i ty t oe x t rac tt h ek i nd so fi n fo rma t ion n eeded t oa n swe ra r chaeo log ica lq ue s t ion s .T he b lame l i e s s qua re ly w i th t h e a na ly s t ' s i n ab i l i ty t oc on s t ruc t ac l a s s if ica t ion u se fu li na n swe r ing r e levan tr e sea rch q ue s t ion s . I ti si n conce ivab le t h a t as i ng le c l a s s if i ca t ion s y s tem c an a dequa te ly a dd re s s a l r e sea rch p rob lem s .T he q ue s t ion o fu tmo s t c once rn i s ," [W ]ha t i st h e a dequa te l e ve l o fd e ta i lt h a t ap a r t icu la r s cheme s hou ld p o s se s s?" ( Ma jew sk ia nd O 'B r ien 1 987 :1 01 ) . Ap rac t ica lc on s ide ra t ion i st h a tt he mo re i n vo lved as y s tem b ecome s ,t h el e s so the rr e sea rche r sw i l lb ei n te re s ted i nu s ing i t . S eve ra l o p t ion s a r e a va i lab le f o r c l a s s i f y ing o b jec t s i n to a na ly t ica l ly m ean ing fu l t a xa , i n c lud ing p a rad igma t ic c l a s s if ica t ion a nd t a xonom ic c l a s s i f ica t ion .P a rad igma t ic c l a s s if ica t ion u se sa ne xhau s t ive s e to fu nwe igh ted d imen s ion ss uch t h a ta lr e su l t ing c l a s se sc on ta in t h es ame a moun to fi n fo rma t ion ( s ee Dunne l l1 971 ) .A l though p a rad igma t ic c l a s s if ica t ion f a c i l i ta te s as h i f ti nf o cu sf r om o ne s e to fv a r iab le s t oa no the ra sr e sea rch q ue s t ion sc hange ,s e ve ra ld rawback se x i s ti nt h ea pp roach d rawback st ha tc an , u nde r c e r ta in c i rcum s tance s , b e a lev ia ted b y u s ing t a xonom ic c l a s s if ica t ion . I n c a se s w he re n one q u iva len tr e la t ion s mu s tb es hown ,t a xonom ic c l a s s if ica t ion i st h eo n l yc l a s s if ica to ry s y s tem t ha tc an b e e mp loyed ( Dunne l l1 971 :8 3 ) . -

B enne t ta nd B lake ly a r ec once rned w i th t h ea moun to fv a r ia t ion c on ta ined w i th in ag roup o fo b jec t s , t hough t h ey e r roneou s ly r e f e r t ov a r ia t ion a sd i ve r s i ty ( p . 1 0 ) . D ive r s i ty c on ta in s s eve ra ld imen s ion s , p e rhap st h et wo mo s t i mpo r tan t o ne sb e ing r i chne s sa nd e venne s s . R ichne s se xam ine st h en umbe ro f c l a s se sp re sen tw i th in ag roup ,w h i le e venne s se xam ine sh ow m any r ep re sen ta t ive s a re p re sen tw i th in e ach c l a s s .V a r ia t ion i smo re a k in t or i chne s st h an i ti st oe venne s s .B u te ven h e re ,v a r ia t ion c an o n ly b e ar e su l to ft h ec l a s s i f ica t ion s y s tem i mpo sed o n as e to fo b jec t s .I no t he rw o rd s ,t he amoun to fv a r ia t ion s e en i n ag roup o fs he rd si saf unc t ion o ft h en umbe ro fd imen s ion sa nd a t t r ibu te s t a te su s ed i na na ly s i s . T he mo re d imen si o n s e ncompa s sed b yt h es y s tem , t h ef i ne rt h ed eg ree o fv a r ia t ion o b se rved ; t he l e s s d imen s ion s ,t h ec oa r se rt h e d eg ree o fv a r ia t ion o b se rved .I mpo r tan t ly ,t h e re i sn of o rmu la f r om w h ich t od e r ive t h e mo s t u se fu ln umbe r o fd imen s ion s .T he n umbe ru sed i s af unc t ion s o le ly o ft h ea na ly t ica l i n te re s t so ft h ei n ve s t iga to r . One p rob lem t h a t c au se s u sg rea t c once rn i st h em ix ing o fa na ly t ica l r ea lm s i n to as i ng le g roup ing s y s tem . F o r e xamp le , B enne t t a nd B lake ly s t a te ( p . 6 ) t h a t " A f te r t h e c omp le t ion o fa na ly s i s . . w e a n t ic ipa te i tw i l l b e p o s s ib le t op repa re as e r ie s o fr epo r t s o n v a r iou s c a tego r ie s o fp o t te ry f ound a t C ae sa rea ( e .g . , a mpho rae ,c ook ing p o t s ,l amp s ) ." T hey a l so n o te ( p . 1 0 )t h a t" we h ave c ho sen t of o l low t h et r ad i t iona lr a t iona le f o rs uch d i v i s ion si nt h eM idd le E a s t , ac omb ina t ion o f mo rpho logy a nd f unc t ion ( e .g . , c ook ing p o t , b i con ica l b ow l ) ." A rchaeo log is t s , o fa l p eop le , s hou ld b ea wa re o ft h ed i f fe rence s a mong f o rm ,s t y le , a nd f unc t ion ,b u t , a su sua l ly i st h ec a se i nc e ram ic a na ly s i s ,t he t h ree a r ec o l lap sed i n to ah yb r id t y po logy o rc l a s s if ica t ion . S uch c on fu s ion mu s tb ea vo ided f o r s e ve ra lr e a son s . F i rs t , t h e t h ree t e rm sr e f e rt od i f f e ren tt h ing s . Un le s st h ea na ly s tc an d emon s t ra te u nequ ivoca l ly t h a ti n ac e r ta in c e ram ic " t rad i t ion" f o rm a nd d eco ra t ion a r ec omp le te ly d ependen tv a r iab le s ,i . e . ,p a r t icu la rf o rm sa r e a lway sd eco ra ted i d en t ica l ly , t h en p o ten t ia l ly i mpo r tan tv a r ia t ion i sb e ing m a sked . S econd ,u n le s st h e a na ly s tc an d emon s t ra te t h a tp a r t icu la rf o rm sw e re a lway su sed f o ri d en t ica lf unc t ion s ,v a r ia t ion i sa ga in b e ing m a sked . And ,w em igh ta s k ,h ow d oe st h ea na ly s tk now w ha tt h ep a r t icu la rf unc t ion w a so f av e s se l ? A rchaeo logy i sr i f e w i th i d en t i f ica t ion s o ff unc t ion d e r ived s o le ly f r om m en ta l a s soc ia t ion s w e m ake b e tween a no b jec ta nd w ha ti tw a se mp loyed t od o .B u t ,a s Dunne l l( 1 978 :2 00 )n o te s ,f u nc t ion d ef ined i nt h i ss en se ,e spec ia l ly w hen t e rm sa r eu sed t h a td raw u pon c on tempo ra ry f o rm sf o rm ean ing ,d en ie s t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fe vo lu t ion o fs epa ra te f u nc t ion s( O 'B r ien a nd H o l land 1 990 ) . .

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Homo log sa nd a na log sa r ea sr e a li na r chaeo logy a st h ey a r ei nb io logy ,t h ef o rme rb e ing p roduc t so f c ommon d eve lopmen ta l h i s to r ie s a nd t h e l a t te rb e ing i n dependen t ly g ene ra ted f e a tu re s . Ana log sa re a h i s to r ica l ; t hey a r i se n o t f r om c ommon p hy logene t ic b ackg round s b u t r a the r a s s im i la r s o lu t ion s t o s im i 1a rp rob lem s .T he t e rm " s o lu t ion" i mp l ie sn op a r t icu la rf o rm .I na r chaeo logy ,c on fu s ion o ff o rm a nd f unc t ion h a s l e do n n ume rou so cca s ion s t ot h e c on s t ruc t ion o fp o s tu la ted r ou te so fd ifu s ion ,w hen i n r ea l i ty t wo f o rm sw e re s im i la rb ecau se o fc onve rgence . I nt h e e xamp le g i ven b yB enne t t a nd B lake ly ( p . 1 0 ) , n onequ iva lency e x i s t sb e tween t h ec a tego r ie s " cook ing p o t" a nd " b icon ica lb ow l ." T he t e rm " cook ing p o t" c a r r ie sf unc t iona li mp l ica t ion s . " Po t" b y i t se l fi sb o th af unc t iona lt e rm , e l abo ra ted b yt h es pec if ic mod i f ie r" cook ing ," a nd af o rm re la ted t e rm ( bow l ) ." B icon ica lb ow l" c on f e r s ad eg ree o ff o rma ls pec if ic i ty n o te v iden ti n" cook ing p o t ." T hu st he t wo c a tego r ie sa r ea s ymme t r ica lr e la t ive t oe ach o the r . B enne t t a nd B lake ly s how c on s ide rab le i n te re s t i nw ha t t h ey t e rm " f ab r ic ," w h ich e ncompa s se s t empe r ing ma te r ia l sa nd t h ec l ay m a t r ix . We a g ree t h a ta na ly s i so ft h e se d imen s ion sw i l ls hed c on s ide r a b le l i gh to nt h et e chno log ie so ft h ec e ram ic -mak ing g roup si nq ue s t ion a nd t h a ti ti sa no f ten -ove r looked f i e ld o fi nqu i ry . F rom o u r p e r spec t ive , t h e a dvan tage s o fs t udy ing t e chno log ie s a re t ha t ( a ) t h ey a re c ond i t ioned b ya h i s to r ica lc hem ica la nd p hy s ica lp roce s se st h a t make e ng inee r ing e va lua t ion sp o s s ib le a nd ( b )i nt he c a se o fc e ram ic s ,s e lec t ion c u l l sm i s take sr ap id ly .B u t ,a sw i th o the ra na ly t ica lr ea lm s ,o ne c anno ts imp ly t h row t e chno logy i nw i th i t ss i s te rr ea lm so ff o rm ,s t y le ,a nd f unc t ion t oc r ea te an ew t y pe . A l though B enne t t a nd B lake ly a r ec once rned w i th t h ea na ly s i so ft e chno log ica lv a r ia t ion , t h ey a sk t h e q ue s t ion ( p . 1 9 ) :" I ft h ec ompo s i t ion o fa l a mpho rae m ade a tt h a tf a c i l i ty i st h es ame b u tt h ef o rm sa re s l igh t ly ( o re ven d ra s t ica l ly )d i f f e ren t ,a r et h e se t h es ame t y pe?" T he se k i nd so fq ue s t ion sc an b et r ea ted w i th o u rs y s tem ( d i scu s sed b e low ) , e ven t hough ( a )o u rp r ima ry o rgan iza t iona lf o cu si so nd eco ra t ion , w i th f o rm a nd f u nc t ion a ss e conda ry c once rn s ,a nd ( b )w ed on o tu se t h et y pe c oncep t . We a ga in p o in t o u t t h a t t h e p rob lem s d i scu s sed b y B enne t t a nd B lake ly a re l e g i t ima te c once rn s , e spec ia l ly f o ra na na ly s t f a c ing , a st h ey p u t i t ,3 0t on so fs he rd s . We h ave n eve rf a ced as amp le o ft ha t magn i tude ,a nd w ou ld n o tc a re t od os oi fs uch a no ppo r tun i ty a ro se . We h ave ,h oweve r ,b een f a ced w i th t he s ame t ype so fp rob lem s , a nd w eh ave s pen tc on s ide rab le t ime i nd ec id ing h ow t oc on s t ruc tr e levan t a na ly s i ss y s tem s . We a r es en s i t ive t o ac once rn r a i sed t h roughou tB enne t ta nd B lake ly ' sp ape r ,n ame ly a dd re s s ing t he a ud ience t h a tw i l lr e ad ap a r t icu la rw o rk .B enne t ta nd B lake ly ( p . 1 8 )a sk ," Fo rw hom i s t he a r chaeo log i s tw r i t ing , o t he r a r chaeo log i s t so r av a r ie ty o fh uman i s t ic a nd s c ien t i f ic a ud ience s? We b e l ieve t h a ta na r chaeo log ica lr epo r t s hou ld b ea dd re s sed t oi n te re s ted s cho la r si nt h eh uman i t ie sa nd s c ience , n o t s pec i f ica l ly t oa r chaeo log i s t s ." A no the r p o s s ib i l i ty e x i s t s , t h a t o fw r i t ing f r om o ne ' s o wn v i ewpo in t , w he the r t h a t v i ewpo in t b e s ha red b y h uman i s t s , s c ien t i s t s , o r n e i the r , t hough t h i s m ay b e d i ff icu l tt od ow hen al a rge ,i n te rd i sc ip l inary p ro jec ti si n vo lved . We h ave , o n o cca s ion , e v en f o und i td i ff icu l t t oa g ree w i th e ach o t he r , g i ven o u rv a r ied r e sea rch i n te re s t s a nd p red i lec t ion s . We d o , h oweve r , s ha re ac ommon b e l ie ft h a t s y s tem s o fg roup ing o b jec t s mu s tb ec l ea r ly d ef ined , o b jec t ive , a nd c apab le o fb e ing r ep l ica ted . Mo s ti mpo r tan t ,g roup ing s y s tem s mu s tb ed e s igned f o rs pec if i cp u rpo se s a so ppo sed t os imp ly b e ing c a ta log ing s y s tem s .T hey a l so mu s t b ef r ee o fe r ro r si n t roduced b yc onf la t ing f o rm , f unc t ion ,t e chno logy , a nd s t y le .T he my r iad p rob lem s r a i sed b y B enne t t a nd B lake ly f a ced u s w hen w e b egan a n i n ten s ive a na ly s i s o f n i ne teen th -cen tu ry c e ram ic ma te r ia l f r om as e r ie s o ff a rm s tead s i nn o r thea s te rn M i s sou r i ( Ma jew sk i1 987 ; Ma jew sk ia nd O 'B r ien 1 984 , 1 987 ; O 'B r ien a nd Ma jew sk i 1 989 ) . We d i scu s s t h e se p rob lem sb e low a nd p re sen t o u r s o lu t ion t ot he p rob lem . C eram ic C a tegor iza t ion i n Amer ican H is tor ica lA rchaeo logy A rchaeo log i s t s w o rk ing i nr e g ion s w he re B r i t i sh c o lon ia l a nd c omme rc ia l i nf luence w a s f e l t mu s t a t ta in a tl e a s t ab a s ic f am i l ia r i ty w i th E ng l i sh -made c e ram ic s .T he B r i t i sh d om ina ted t h ec e ram ic sm a rke t u n t i lt h el a te 1 800 s , a nd f ew g eog raph ic l o ca t ion si nt h ew e s te rn w o r ld e x i s tt h a td id n o ti mpo r tB r i t i sh w a re so n ar egu la rb a s i s .A f te r 1 900 , t h e e xpo r ts i tua t ion r ad ica l ly c hanged i nN o r th Ame r ica w i th t h e i n f lux o f J apane se - a nd B a va r ian /Ge rman -made c e ram ic s a nd t h e t empo rary f l o re scence o f t h e Ame r ican c e ram ic i n du s t ry .

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C e ram ic m a te r ia l sf r om h i s to r ica l -pe r iod Ame r ican s i te sh ave b een u sed f o rv ar ious p u rpo se s ,f r om s imp ly d a t ing as i te t od eve lop ing a nu nde r s tand ing o ft he r o le p l ay ed b y as i te ' si nhab i tan t si n aw ide r s oc ioeconom ic n e two rk .E ng l i sh -made c e ram ic sa r ei d ea l ly s u i ted f o rt he se k i nd so fp u rpo se sb ecau se o ft h er ap id c hange st h a ta f f ec ted t he E ng l i sh c e ram ic s -manu f ac tu r ing s c ene d u r ing t he l a te e i gh teen th a nd n i ne teen th c en tu r ie s . S h i f t si np a s te c ompo s i t ion a nd d eco ra t ion ,p lu st h ef a c t t ha tm any Eng l i sh c e ram ic p i ece s w e re b ackma rked , make r ef ined e a r thenwa re s f r om B r i ta in i d ea l t empo ra l marke r s u se fu li no rde r ing h i s tor ica l -per iod s i te sc h rono log ica l ly .B eyond t h e i ru se f o rd a t ing p u rpo se s , Eng l ish c e ram ic sh ave b een u sed t oi n f e rs t a tu sa nd s oc ia lp o s i t ion a nd t oe x am ine p u rcha s ing p a t te rn so fu rban a sw e l la sr u ra ls oc ia lu n i t s .B ecau se o ft h et ime p er iod i n vo lved ,m anu fac tu r ing a nd ma rke t ing r eco rd s a re a va i lab le a nd o f fe r a no the r mean so fa ccomp l i sh ing s uch o b jec t ive s .I nS ou th 's ( 1977 :2 35 ) t e rm s , h i s to r ica l -pe r iod a rchaeo log i s t s o f ten a r e " i n t he u n ique p o s i t ion o fb e ing a b le .. . t o c on t ro l c e r ta in v a r iab le s wh i le d e l inea t ing a r chaeo log ica l p a t te rn ing , a n a dvan tage n o t p o s s ib le i n t he a b sence o f d ocumen ta t ion ." N one the le s s ,a sw eh ave p o in ted o u te l sewhe re ( Ma jew sk ia nd O 'Br ien 1 987 ) ,c e ram ic s f r om h i s to r ica ls i te sc on t inue t ob eo ne o ft h e mo s tm i su sed c a tego r ie so fa rchaeo log ica lm a te r ia ls . S eve ra lf a c to r sc on t r ibu te t oc on fu s ion s u r round ing t h ec a tego r i za t ion o fh i s to r ica l -pe r iod c eram ic s , t h ep r ima ry o ne b e ing t he p l acemen to fm a te r ia l si n to t y po log ica ls cheme sb a sed s o le ly o nt h ec oncep t o fw a r e( e .g . ,c r eamwa re ,p ea r lwa re ,a nd w h i tewa re ) . Ana ly t ica lp rob lem sa r i se b ecause ( a )f ew s ou rce s a g ree o nt he c r i ter ia f o rs o r t ing s he rd si n to w a re c a tego r ie sa nd ( b )r e su l t ing g roup sa re a r chaeo log ica l c on s t ruc t s t ha t m ay h ave l i t t le i nc ommon w i th h ow c e ram ic p i ece sw e re c a ta loged , m a rke ted , a nd p u rcha sed .T hu sr e su l t ing d i scu s s ion st h a ta t temp tt oa dd re s st he b ehav io ro fa nh i s to r ica l -pe r iod g roup r e spon s ib le f o r t he c e ram ic ma te r ia l r ecove red f r om a n a rchaeo log ica l s i te o f ten a re b a sed o n a n a na ly t ica ls cheme i l -conce ived t oa dd re s sr e levan tr e sea rch c once rn s . W i th t he a dven t o fc u l tu ra l re sou rce managemen ti nt he 1 970 s ,h i s to r ica la r chaeo logy r e ce ived a n i n fu s ion o ff und sa tu np receden ted l e ve l s .R e sea rche r si mmed ia te ly s aw a no ppo r tun i ty t og ob eyond m e re d a t ing o fs i te s a nd t oa t temp t t or econ s t ruc t t he b ehav io r so fs i te o ccupan ts a t ad ep th r a re ly p o s s ib le p rev iou s ly . D raw ing u pon t h ep a t te rn recogn i t ion s t ud ie so fS ou th ( e .g . , 1 97 7 , 1 978a ,b ) a nd o the r s ,a rchaeo log i s t sr ea l ized t ha tc e ram ic m a ter ia l s ,e spec ia l ly w hen l i nked t od ocumen ta ry ma ter ia l s , c ou ld y i e ld k een i n s igh t s i n to v a r iou s a spec t s o fs oc ia l a nd e conom ic b ehav io r . L arge sca le p ro jec t s b egan f o cu s ing o n t op ic s s uch a s a va i lab i l i ty a nd i n t roduc t ion o fg ood s i n to r eg ion s a nd b ehav io ra l a spec t so fv es se lo wne r sh ip a nd u se .S chi f f e r ' s( e .g . ,1 972 ,1973 ,1976 ,1983 )i nf luence r e la t ive t oc u l tu ra l a nd n a tu ra lf o rma t ion p roce s se sc au sed a r chaeo log i s t st ou nde r take d e ta i led e xam ina t ion o ft op ic ss uch a sv e s se l u se , l a te ra l r ecyc l ing , a nd d i sca rd r a te s a nd p a t te rn s ( s ee Ma jew sk i a nd O 'Br ien [ 1 987 ] f o r s pec if ic e xamp le s ) .D e sp i te t h et hough t fu ln a tu re o ft he se r e sea rch e ndeavo r s ,t h ec e ram ic c a tego r iza t i on sn ece s sa ry t oc a r ry t h em o u to f ten w e re n o tu pt ot h et a sk . We b ecame a wa re o ft h e se s ho r tcom ing sa sw eb egan a na ly s i so fc e ram ic ma te r ia ls f r om as e r ie so f n o r thea s te rn M i ssour i f a rm s tead so ccup ied s t a r t ing c a . 1 830 . We d i scove red t h a ta l though ap le tho ra o fp ub l i shed m a ter ia lo nE ng l i sh c e ram ic se x i s t s ,m any r e f e rence w o rk st r ea to n ly t he e l egan tp iece so f t h ed ay a nd b ypa s s t h e " eve ryday " p i ece s t h a tw e re r ead i ly a va i lab le a nd a fo rdab le t ot h ep er son o f a ve rage m ean s . We a l so d i scove red t h a t t h e a rchaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re o n s i te s o ccup ied d ur ing t he n i ne teen th c en tu ry c on ta in s as i gn if i can tn umbe ro fe r ro r sr e la t ing t o al a ck o fk now ledge o fc e ram ic s . F o rc e ram ic sf r om t h el a te e i gh teen th t h rough t h ee a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu r ie s , aw a re -based c a tego r iza t ion i si l -adv ised .T he s i ng le mo s tv ex ing p rob lem i nw a re -ba sed a na ly se si st he l a ck o fa g reemen t among r e sea rche r s o ve r w a re d ef in i t ion s . F ew a u tho r s w i l l a g ree o n t h e b a s ic d ef in i t ions o f c r eamw are , p ea r lwa re ,a nd w h i tewa re ,l e ta l one o nt h ec r i te r ia f o ri n c lu s ion o f ap i ece i n to o ne o ft he c a tegor ie s( s ee M i l le r1 980 ) . Ou rf e e l ing w a st h a ti fa r chaeo log i s t sc ou ld n o ta g re ea st ow ha tc on s t i tu ted t h eb as i sf o r s o r t ing ,t hen t he c oncep to fw a re s hou ld n o tb eu sed a st h ep r ima ry c a tego r ize ri na na na ly t ica ls y s tem . Wha t , t hen , a re a l te rna t ive s? One a pp roach t o t h e p rob lem i st o v i ew t h e c r eamw a re -pear lwa re w h i tewa re t r iad a s ac on t inuum , b a sed o n t h ev i ew t h a tt h e se w a re sa re n o ts t a t ic e n t i t ie sb u t r a the r p o in t s a l ong a l i ne o f t e chno log ica l d eve lopmen t ( Ma jew sk i a nd O 'Br ien 1 987 : 1 06 ) . T he u se o f a m a te r ia l s sc ience a pp roach w ha t C ohen ( 1 980 : x i ) d ef ine s a st h e " gene ra t ion a nd a pp l ica t ion o f k now ledge r e la t ing t h ec ompo s i t ion ,s t ruc tu re a nd p roce s s ing o fm a te r ia l st ot h e i rp rope r t ie sa nd u se s " ( s ee a l so B ron i tsky 1 986 ) o f f e r s am ean so fr educ ing t h ek i nd so fe r ro r se v iden ti n aw a re -ba sed s y s tem o fc a tego r iza t ion ,e spec ia l ly f o rl a te e i gh teen th -a nd n i ne teen th -cen tu ry m a te r ia l s . -

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S eve ra l t echno log ica l v a r iab les a re i mpo r tan t i n a na lyz ing r ef ined e ar thenware s , i n c lud ing c l ay c ompo s i t ion ,f i r ing t empe ra tu re ,a nd g l aze c ompo s i t ion /f i r ing t empe ra tu re ( s ee Ma jew sk ia nd O 'Br ien L 1 987 1 f o r e x tended d i scu ss ion ) . Deg ree o f v i tr if ica t ion , i t se lf d ependen t u pon a n umbe r o f f a c to r s i nc lud ing f i r ing t empera ture , a ppea r s t o u s t o b e au se fu l mean s o f s epa ra t ing n ine teen th -cen tu ry e a r thenware . Wh i te -bod ied w a re s f a l lw i th in s pec if ic f i r ing r ange s : n onv i treous ( 1100 -1150 °C ) , s em i v i t reou s( 1150 -1250 °C ) , a nd v i t reous ( 1250 -1520 °C ) ( e s t ima te sb ased o n mode rn f i r ing r ange s [ New c omb 1 947 : 2 23 -30 ; No r ton 1 952 : 1 23 -24 ] ) . No s imp le p rocedu re c an b e u sed t o d e te rm ine f i r ing t empe ra tures ( Greer 1 981 : 1 5 ) , t hough t hey c an b e c a lcu la ted b y d e term in ing p e rcen tage o fw a te r a b so rp t ion ( pe rcen tage i n c rea se i nw e igh to ns a tu ra t ion w i th w a te r[ Gr im shaw 1 971 : 4 24 ; McNamara 1 948 :329 -30 1) . Nonv i treous w a res h ave 1 0 -15 % a b sorp t ion ,s em iv i t reous w a res h ave 4 10 % ,a nd v i t reou s w a re sv a ry w ide ly :b one c h ina ,0 . 3 -2% ;h o te lc h ina ,% ;a nd h a rdpas te p o rce la in , 0% ( No r ton 1 952 :1 23 ; Wa t t s1 939 :3 15 ) . D a ta r esu l t ing f r om s uch s t ud ie sc an b eu sed t oe xam ine t he c u l tu ra lc on tex ts o fc eram ic p roduc t ion a nd u se . Con tex t ,a tt he mo s tb a s ic l e ve l ,i n c lude sc ho ice sa nd p rob lem se ncoun te red d u r ing p roduc t ion a nd a d jus tmen ts made i n ma te r ia l si no rder t oa r r ive a t af i n i shed p roduc t (Ma jew sk ia nd O 'Br ien 1 987 : 1 06 ;s ee a l so v an d er L eeuw 1 976 :3 93 ) .B ron i t sky ( 1986 :2 11 )n o te st ha t "Unde r s tand ing t he se c ho ice s r equ i re s more a ccu ra te a s se s smen t o f t he s y s tem o f c eram ic manufac tu re a th and a nd t he e x i s t ing k now ledge s y s tem : t he k inds o fc l ay su t i l ized ,t he r ea son sf o rt he ir u se , a nd t he k i nd so f man ipu la t ion s r equ i red t oa r r ive a tt he f i na lc eram ic p roduc t ." A l though d e ta i led t echno log ica ls t ud ie ss uch a st ho se d e sc r ibed a bove g i ve u npa ra l le led v i ew so ft he d eve lopmen to fc e ram ic b od ie sa nd g l aze s ,t hey a re t ime c on sum ing a nd e xpen s ive .A lso ,t e chno log ica l s t ud ie s ,w h i le p rov id ing i n fo rma t ion i mpo r tan tt ou nde r s tand ing t he e ve r -chang ing c e ram ic -produc t ion b u s ine s s ,b yt hemse lves y i e ld l i t t le i n s igh t i n to h ow c e ram ic sw e re ma rke ted b yt he manu fac tu re r sa nd p e rce ived b yc on sume rs .W i th r egard t ot he c l a s s i f ica t ion o fa rchaeo log ica lo b jec t s , ad eba te h a sa lway s e x i s ted o ver t he "mean ing" o fu n i ts u sed t oc l a s s ify o b jec ts ,i . e . ,w he the rc l a s se sc an b ec ons truc ted a nd i n te rp re ted a s c ogna te s o fw ha t t he make rs h ad i nm ind . I n t he c a se o f h i s to r ica l -per iod c eram ic s , c on temporary d ocumen t s s uch a s f a c to ry c o r respondence , b i l l so fl ad ing , i n ven to r ie s , a nd n ew spape r a dve r t i semen ts s ugges tt ha tp e rhap sc er ta in d imen s ions w ere h i s tor ica l ly mo re " r ea l" t han w e re o ther s i nt e rms o fd ec i s ion s made b yt h ep eop le w ho p roduced , ma rke ted ,a nd u sed t he c eram ic s .T hu s as y s tem t ha te mp loy ss uch d imens ion s may b eu sefu lf o ra r rang ing h i s to r ica l -per iod c e ram ic si n to t a xa t ha ta re a pp rop r ia te f o r t he a na ly s i s o f c er ta in b ehav io ra l a spec ts o f n ine teen th -cen tu ry l i f e (Ma jew sk i a nd O 'B r ien 1 987 :102 ) . Deco ra t ion -Based c a tego r i za t ion We s hare M i l le r 's ( 1980 : 1 8 ) o p in ion t ha t " Beyond c h rono logy , t here a re f ew , i fa ny , r ea son s t o o rgan ize c eram ic s b y w a re t y pes . I n te rp re ta t ion a nd s yn the s i s o f a rchaeo log ica l d a ta w i th h i s to r ica l s ou rces w i l lb eg rea t ly f a c i l i ta ted b yo rgan iz ing c e ram ic sa cco rd ing t ot he f o rm a nd t he d eco ra t ion t hey b ea r . F o r e xamp le , i t make s l i t t le s ense t os epa ra te s he l l e dge p la te s i n to c reamwa re , p ea r iwa re , a nd wh i tewa re ." N ine teen th -cen tu ry c eram ic s ,i n mo s tc a se s ,w e re n o t ma rke ted b yw a re t ype .I nf a c t ,d ur ing t he e a r ly p or t ion o ft he n ine teen th c en tu ry t he t e rm c r eam w ar e ,i fu sed a ta l l ,r e fe r red t o ac ream -co lored b ody ,s im i lar t ow ha tc ommon ly i sc a l led c reamwa re o ft he e i gh teen th c en tury b u tr e s tr ic ted t o an a r row r ange o fn on tab lewa re f o rms ( M i l le r1 980 :3 ,1 5 -16 ) .I tm ake sl i t t le s ense t ou se t he t e rm f o rl a ter i t ems . Wha t a rchaeo log i s ts t e rm p ea r iwa r e w a s ma rke ted u nder a p l e thora o f t e rm s , n one o f w h ich wa s " pea r lwa re ." Du r ing t he l a te e i gh teen th a nd e a r ly n ine teen th c en tu r ie s , c e ram ic manuf ac tu re r s a t t emp ted t o o f fe ra n i n expen s ive s ub s t i tu te f o r O r ien ta l p o rce la in . T o make i ta t t rac t ive t o c on sumer s , t hey h ad t o d eco ra te i ti n am anne r s im i la r t op o rce la in , a nd t r an s fe r p r in t ing , e spec ia l ly o fp seudo Ch ine se mo t if s ,b ecame ap opu la r me thod o fd eco ra t ion ." Thu s ,d esp i te d i f fe rences i ng l aze a nd p a s te c ompo s i t ion ,t he ma in t h ru s to f manu fac tur ing w a st oc rea te a no r ien ta l look ing v e s se l ,a nd t he p r ima ry me thod o fa ch iev ing t h is l o ok w as t h rough a pp rop r ia te d eco ra t ion" (Ma jew sk ia nd O 'Br ien 1 987 : 1 32 ) . Wo rk ing w i th t he p rem i se t h a t d ecora t ion e x i s ted i ndependen t ly o f w a re t y pe , w e d eve loped a c a tego r iza t ion s y s tem u sefu l f o re xam in ing m anuf ac tur ing , marke t ing , a nd c onsume r -re la ted i s sue s . O u r c ho ice o f s y s tem w a s b a sed i n p a r t o n c on s ide ra t ion o f o the r d eco ra t ion -ba sed s chemes , e spec ia l ly t ha t o f M i l ler ( 1 980 ) . U s ing p r ice -f ix ing a g reemen ts , a ccoun t b ook s , b i l l s o f l a d ing , a nd n ew spaper a dve r t isemen ts f r om t he n i ne teen th c en tu ry ,M i l le rd ev ised af ou r leve lc l a s s if ica t ion s cheme

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a r ranged i na s cend ing o rde rb yc o s tt ot h ec on sume r :( 1 )u ndeco ra ted ,c r eam -co lo red ( CC )v e s se l s ;( 2 ) m in ima l ly d eco ra ted v e s se l ss uch a ss he l le dge ,s ponge d eco ra ted ,a nd d ipped ;( 3 )h andpa in ted v e s se l s w i th s l igh t ly mo re i n t r ica te a nd s t anda rd ized p a t te rn ss uch a sf l owe r s ,l e ave s ,a nd C h ine se l a nd scape s ; a nd ( 4 )t r an s f e r -p r in ted v e s se l s .U s ing d ocumen ted p r ice so f CC v e s se l sa s ab a se l ine ,M i l le rs ca led t h e p r ice s o fo the r t y pe s o fv e s se l s r e la t ive t o CC w a re . U s ing h i s s c a le , t he a rchaeo log i s t c an d e r ive t h e r e la t ive p r ice o f ac e ram ic i n ven to ry . M i l le r ' s m e thod h a s s een c on s ide rab le u se ( s ee r e f erence s i n Ma jew sk ia nd O 'B r ien [ 1 987 1 ) , i np a r t b ecau se i ti s as y s tem o fc a tego r iza t ion t ha t a c tua l ly mea su re s v a r ia t ion i n a n a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage a s o ppo sed t o s imp ly d e sc r ib ing t h e c omponen t s o f t h e a s semb lage .O the r r e sea rche r s h ave mod if ied M i l le r ' si n dex t oi n c lude s em iv i t reou sw a re st ha tb egan t ob ed eve loped a round 1 850 ( J acob s1 983 )a nd t oe xpand t h ei n dex p a s t1 881 ( e .g . , Hen ry a nd Ga r row 1 982a , b ) . N ew i n fo rma t ion h a s p romp ted M i l le r ( 1 990 ) t oc omp i le an ew s e t o f CC i n dex v a lue s t o r ep lace a nd e xpand u pon t ho se p ub l i shed i nh i s1 980 a r t ic le .T he y ea r sf r om 1 787 t o1 880 a r ec ove red , v a lue sf o rs e ve ra la dd i t iona lf o rm sa re i n c luded ,a nd ac r i t ica lm i sconcep t ion r ega rd ing t h es t ab i l i ty o f t h ep r ice o f CC w a re d u r ing t h ef i r s th a l fo ft h en i ne teen th c en tu ry i sc o r rec ted . D e sp i te t h e i r a b i l i ty t om ea su re v a r ia t ion v a r ia t ion t h a tm igh tb e l i nked t od i f fe rence si ns t a tu s , e conom ic p o s i t ion , o r e ven e t hn ic a ff i l ia t ion d eco ra t ion -ba sed c a tego r i za t ion s y s tem sh ave c e r ta in d rawback s .F o re xamp le ,M i l le r ' s( 1 980 ) s cheme r equ i re st h a tt h ea na ly s th ave t h ea b i l i ty t od i s t ingu i sh b e tween c r eam -co lo red v e s se l sa nd s em iv i t reou s" i ron s tone ," b o th o fw h ich o ccu ru ndeco ra ted .S econd , a l though c e ram ic s w e re m a rke ted b y d eco ra t ion t h roughou t t h e l a te n ine teen th a nd e a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu r ie s ,t h ey a l so w e re m a rke ted b yp a t te rn n ame sa nd w ha tm igh tl oo se ly b et e rmed " w a re" n ame s ( e .g . ," s em i -v i t reou s ," " h igh g rade s em i -po rce la in ," " p la in w h i te ," a nd " wh i te g ran i te" ) . -

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S ucce s s fu li mp lemen ta t ion o f ad eco ra t ion -ba sed s y s tem r equ i re s aw o rk ing k now ledge o ft he w ay s i nw h ich p o t te ry i sd eco ra ted ,b u ta cqu i r ing s uch k now ledge i sf a i r ly s t ra igh t fo rwa rd a nd r e su l t si n mo re e r ro r f ree i n i t ia lc a tego r iza t ion s .A sw es how i nl a te re xamp le s ,a na ly se su s ing o u rs y s tem o rs im i la ro ne s b a sed o n d eco ra t ion h ave t h e c apab i l i ty t o r e co rd a nd p rov ide ( t h rough r e comb ina t ion o f a na ly t ic c a tego r ie s ) mo re s oph i s t ica ted i n fo rma t ion i far e sea rche rs od e s i re s . T he s y s tem w e d ev i sed c ou ld , i no ne s en se ,b et e rmed at a xonomy .I ti s ah i e ra rch ica ls y s tem b a sed o nl e ve l so fd ec i s ion sm ade b yp o t te r si nd ec id ing w he the r av e s se lw ou ld b ed eco ra ted a nd i fs o , h ow ( f ig .8 1 ) .T h i ss t a temen ti s ab i tm i s lead ing ,s i nce i tw a st h ec ompan i e sa nd n o tt he p o t te r sw ho ,b a sed o nt h e i ra s se s smen t so fc on sume rd e s i re s ,m anu f ac tu r ing c o s t s ,a nd s e ve ra lo the rf a c to r s( Ma jew sk ia nd O 'B r ien 1 987 :1 35 ) ,m ade s uch d ec i s ion s .T he f i r s td ec i s ion f a c ing ap o t te ri sw he the rt od eco ra te av e s se l o rt ol e ave i tp l a in .S i nce mo s tr e f ined e a r thenwa re sa r e mo ldmade ,t h ec ho ice o fs u r face s h ape ( mod if i ed

D eco ra ted

U ndeco ra ted

Md i l ied s u r face

U nmod i f ied s u r face

I

I T r ans te

p r in ted

B r oad r a nge o f u nde rg laze c o lo rs

D eca l

F l o ra l

H andpa in ted

S he l l e dge

N onpa in ted

S he l l e dge

p a t te rn O t he r p a t te rn

I T r ans fe r p r in ted

B r oad r a nge o f u nde rg laze c o lo rs

F l o ra l e dge o r

F l o ra l e dge o rb ody m o t i f

I ' D eca l

H andpa in ted

F l o ra l

F l o ra l

p a t te rn O t he r p a t te rs

B o rde r l ined o r b anded

b ody m o t i f O t he r e dge o r

O the r e dge o r b ody m o t i f

b ody m o ld

S ponge o r s pa t te r ( d ipped o r a nnu la r o r S l i p b anded (

M o lded s u r face O n ly

S l ip g l azed O t he r

F i gu re 8 1 . T axonom ic S ys tem U sed i nt he C lass i f ica t ion o fH is to r ica l -Pe r iod C e ram ics f r om N o r theas te rn M issou r i ( f rom M a jewsk ia nd O 'B r ien 1 987 ) .

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v e r su su nmod if ied ) i sm ade a tt h es t a r to ft h ep roduc t ion p roce s s .C rea t ing a nu nmod if ied s u r face i si n i t s e l f ad eco ra t ive d ec i s ion ,a si st h ec ho ice o fi n c lud ing n ega t ive o rp o s i t ive r e l ie fd eco ra t ion ( Ma jew sk i a nd O 'Br ien 1 987 ) .S eve ra lt e chn ique sc an b eu sed t oc r ea te r e l ie fd eco ra t ion :( 1 )b yf r eehand mo ld ing o rb yi n c i s ing o rp i e rc ing ; ( 2 ) b yp re s s ing c l ay i n to mo ld s ; ( 3 ) b yc a s t ing ; ( 4 )b ys t amp ing ; a nd ( 5 ) b y m o ld ing l ow r e l ie f ss epa ra te ly a nd t h en a pp ly ing t h em t ot h ev e s se l( Co t te r1 968 :2 8 ) .T he k i nd so fr e l ie f d eco ra t ion w ec a tego r ize u nde r" mod if ied s u r f ace" g ene ra l ly a r ep roduced a si nt y pe s2 ,3 ,o r5 . O nce t he d ec i s ion i sm ade t oc r ea te ar e l ie fd eco ra t ion o n av e s se l ,t h ep o t te rf a ce s aw ide c ho ice o f o p t ion s c once rn ing h ow t oa pp ly f u r the r d eco ra t ion . N ine teen th -cen tu ry p o t te r s a ppea r t oh ave h ad t h ree ma jo ro p t ion s :t ot r an s f e rp r in t av e s se l ;t oh andpa in ti t ;o rt ol e ave i tp l a in . Al a te n i ne teen th -cen t u ry o p t ion w a st ou se d eca l s .I ns ome i n s tance s av e s se lw a sd eco ra ted u s ing ac omb ina t ion o fc ho ice s , a nd u nde ro u rs y s tem t h ea na ly s t mu s td ec ide w h ich f e a tu re sa r ep r ima ry a nd w h ich a r es econda ry . Ou r m e thod o fc a tego r iz ing t h ep r ima ry f e a tu re d i f f e r sf r om t h a to fH en ry a nd G a r row ( 1 982a : 2 93 ) ,w ho u s et h e mo s tt e chn ica l ly c omp lex m o t i fa st h ep r ima ry mo t i fd e sc r ip to r . We ,h oweve r ,c on s ide ra sp r ima ry t h o se f e a tu re st h a t a r es t r uc tur a l l yp r ima ry , i . e . ,r e l ie fd eco ra t ion ,s i nce i to ccu r se a r l ie s ti nt h ev e s se l c on s t ruc t ion s equence ,t h en u nde rg laze d eco ra t ive t e chn ique ss uch a st r an s f e rp r in t ing a nd h andpa in t i n g ,t h en d eco ra t ion e xp re s sed a so ve ra l lg l aze c o lo ra t ion ,a nd f i na l ly ,d eco ra t ion a pp l ied o ve rt h eg l aze , s u ch a sh andpa in t ing ,g i ld ing ,a nd ( l a te r ) d eca l s . Two o the rp o in t sr ega rd ing o u rs y s tem d e serve m en t ion .F i r s t ,t h ree o ft h ef e a tu re ss hown i nF igu re 1u nde r" mod if ied s u r f ace" ( t ran s f e rp r in ted ,d eca l ,a nd h andpa in ted )c a tego r ize t h es econda ry d eco ra t i ve t r ea tmen t s a cco rded v e s se l s a l ready e xh ib i t ing s ome f o rm o f s u r f ace r e l ie f . T he f ou r th f e a tu re ( n onpa in ted )r e f e r st ou nmod i f ied r e l ie fd eco ra t ion a s ap r ima ry f e a tu re ,i . e . ,r e l ie ft h a ti sn o td eco ra ted f u r the r ,a si nt h ec a se o fh o l lowwa re a nd f l a twa re f o rm sw i th f l u ted ,p ane led ,o rr i bbed mo lded s i de so r r im s . S econd ,n oe qu iva lence e x i s t sb e tween h andpa in t ing o nv e s se l sw i th mod if ied s u r face sa nd h andpa in t i n go nv e s se l sw i th u nmod i f ied s u r f ace s .H andpa in t ing o nv e s se l sw i th mod if ied s u r face su sua l ly o ccu r s e x c lu s ive ly o nv e s se l st h a th ave r e l ie fa r ea sa round t h er im ,i . e . ,o ne dge -deco ra ted v e s se l s .T he p o r t ion o f av e s se le xh ib i t ing r e l ie fu sua l ly i st h eo n ly a r ea p a in ted ,a lmo s ti n va r iab ly i ns hade so fb lue o rg reen . O nv e s se ls w i th u nmod if ied s u r f ace s ,s e ve ra lm e thod so fh andpa in t ing c an b eu sed .A l though t h e re i sa s l i gh t d eg ree o fn onequ iva lence a mong t h e f e a tu re s l i s ted u nde r t h e c a tego ry " unmod if ied s u r face , h andpa in ted" ( e .g . ," f lo ra l" i sad e s ign a nd " sponge o rs pa t te r" a r em e thod so fa pp ly ing p a in t ) ,w eb e l ieve t h ef e a tu re sa dequa te ly r ep re sen tv a r ia t ion a nd a r ei d en t if ied e a s i ly . F onn a nd C on t ex t ( F ind spo t )i n aD eco ra t ion -Ba sed S y s tem When o u rd eco ra t ion -ba sed s c heme i su sed t oi n i t ia l ly s o r t ac e ram ic a s semb lage ,f onn i sas econda ry , y e t c r i t ica l , a spec t o ft h e a na ly s i s . F o r o u r p u rpo se s , f o rm i sn o t u sed i n c lu s ive ly ( s ensu B enne t t a nd B l ake ly [ p .1 5 1 )t os ub sume " t he i s sue so fm o rpho logy ,s u r f ace f i n i sh ,a nd d eco ra t ion ." R ice ( 1 987 :2 99 ) l i s t s f i ve p r ima ry c e ram ic v a r iab le s : " s hape , s i ze , f unc t ion , c ompo s i t ion , a nd n umbe r o f v e s se l s ." R eco rd ing v e s se l s hape u s ing h i s to r ica l ly d ocumen ted t e rm ino logy a nd r eco rd ing v e s se l d i ame te r i n i n che si st he mo s ts t ra igh t fo rwa rd m e thod o fc a tego r iz ing " f o rm" f o rl a te rf unc t iona li n te rp re ta t ion . A tt h is p o in tw e s hou ld c on s ide r ac r i t ica lq ue s t ion : Wha ti st h em in ima la na ly t ic u n i tt ob eu sed i n a n a na ly s i s t h e i nd iv idua l s he rd o r t h e v e s se l ? We c on tend t h a t t h e d ec i s ion t oa na lyze s he rd s o r v e s se l s i sd ependen t o n t h e c on tex t o f a n a s semb lage a nd o n t h e s t a ted a im s o f t h e a na ly s i s . I f " d iagno s t ic "s he rd s a r e c o l lec ted f r om t h es u r f ace o f as i te f o ru se i nr ough ly b racke t ing t h ep e r iod o f o c cupa t ion , a s i so f ten d one i ns i te r e conna i s sance w he re n o s ub su r f ace e xcava t ion i sp e r fo rmed , g r oup ing s he rd si n to " ve s se l s "w ou ld b e as pec iou se xe rc i se . Howeve r ,i fw ea r es ea rch ing f o rb ehav io ra l i n fo rma t ion a bou tt h ei n hab i tan t so f as i te ,t h en i ti sn ece s sa ry t os t udy c e ram ic d eb r i si nt e rm so fm in ima l f u nc t iona lu n i t s ,i . e . ,a sv e s se l st h a tc omp r i se a na s semb lage .A sB eaud ry e ta l .( 1 983 :20 )s uc c inc t ly s t a te , " One n eed st or emembe rt h eo bv iou s :t h ep eop le w hom a r chaeo log i s t ss t udy w o rked w i th ,a t ef r om a nd d r ank f r om w ho le v e s se l s ,n o t [ f rom ] t h es he rd st h ev e s se l sw ou ld e ven tua l ly b ecome ." -

G roup ing s he rd si n to v e s se l sc an b ed one i nv a r iou sw ay s ,b u t mo s ti n vo lve c a lcu la t ing t h em in imum n umbe r o fv e s se l s r ep re sen ted b y t h e r e cove red s he rd s . F l e tche r a nd H eywo r th ( 1 987 : 3 7 ) n o te t h a t t h e re a re t wo w ay s t o d e r ive t h i s f i gu re : b y u s ing t h e v e s se l -equ iva len t s m e thod a nd b y s ub jec t ive

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a s se s smen t .T he v e s se l -equ iva len t sm e thod i sb a sed o nm ea su r ing t h et o ta lr im l e ng th o ft h er im s he rd s o fe ach " t ype ," d i v id ing t h e v a lue o b ta ined b y t h e a ve rage r im c i rcum f e rence o ft ha t t y pe , a nd t hen r ound ing t h e r e su l t u pwa rd t o t h e n ex t i n tege r . F u l fo rd ( 1 973 ) u s ed t h i s m e thod i n t h e a na ly s i s o f R omano -B r i t i sh p o t te ry k i ln sn ea rF o r tham ,E ng land .T he m e thod m ay b ea pp l ied t ob a se sa sw e l l ,b u t i ni t so r ig ina lf o rmu la t ion i td oe sn o tc on s ide rb ody f r agmen t s . T he s ub jec t ive -a s se s smen t m e thod i n vo lve s e xam in ing a l l s h e rd s a nd p l ac ing s im i la r e xamp le s t o ge the rs ot h a t a sm any s he rd s a sp o s s ib le f r om t h es ame v e s se lu l t ima te ly a r er eun i ted .T he m e thod c an b ee x t reme ly t ime c on sum ing ,e spec ia l ly w i th l a rge a s semb lage st h a tc omb ine s he rd sf r om an umbe r o fc on tex t s ,a nd t h e re a l so i st h e p rob lem o fb i a sw he re r a re t y pe sr ep re sen ted b yo ne o r af ew s he rd s a r e c oun ted a s o ne v e s se l . R ega rd le s s o f t h e se d rawback s , t h e s ub jec t ive a s se s smen t o fs h e rd s t o d e te rm ine m in imum v e s se l c oun t s ( MVC ) i s am e thod w ide ly u s ed b yh i s to r ica l a rchaeo log i s t s ( e .g . , G a r row 1 984 ;H e rmann e ta l1 975 ; Ma jew sk i1 987 ; Ma jew sk ia nd O 'B r ien 1 984 ;M i l le r1 974 ;M i l le ra nd Moodey 1 986 ) b ecau se i tp rov ide s ak ey s e t o fd a ta f o r u se i nh i ghe r leve l a na ly se s . T he se i n c lude s t ra t ig raph ic a na ly s i s ( Ga r row 1 984 ) , s e t a na ly s i s ( Ga r row 1 982 , 1 9 84 ) , a nd c a lcu la t ion o f CC i ndex v a lue s( M i l le r1 980 , 1 990 ) . H i s to r ica l -pe r iod c e ram ic sl e nd t h em se lve st o MVC i nw ay st h a tn on indu s t r ia lc e ram ic sd on o t , a nd a r chaeo log i s t s h ave c ap i ta l ized o n t h i s t om in im ize b i a s . G iven t h eb u lk o fd ocumen ta ry i n f o rma t ion p e r ta in ing t ot h eB r i t i sh a nd Ame r ican c e ram ic i n du s t r ie s( s ee Ma jew sk ia nd O 'B r ien [ 1 987 ]f o r ar ev iew o fs ou rce s ) ,t h er ange o fv a r ia t ion w i th in a na ly t ic c a tego r ie sc an b ec on t ro l led f o r ,a tl e a s tt os ome e x ten t . F o r ag i ven t ime p e r iod , t h e re a r e k nown m anu f ac tu r ing a nd p opu la r i ty r ange s f o r k ind s o fc e ram ic b od ie s ,k i nd so fd eco ra t ion , a nd f o rm s( e .g . ,B eaud ry e ta l1 983 ;S u s sman 1 977 ) . I n ar ecen ta na ly s i so fc e ram ic sf r om am id -n ine teen th -cen tu ry h o te l re fu se d ump f r om t h eQ u inda ro t own s i te i nK an sa s , Ma jew sk i ( 1 988 ) r e f ined t h e MVC p rocedu re a nd s o r ted s he rd s i ns t ep s ,f i rs tb y b ody ,t h en b yd eco ra t ion a nd f o rm .S he rd ss ma l le rt h an aU .S .p enny w e re n o ti n c luded ,b u ts imp ly w e re c oun ted a nd w e ighed .S he rd sr ema in ing a f te rc r o s sm end ing w e re c oun ted ,w e ighed , a nd s umma r ized b yb ody ,d eco ra t ion , a nd f o rm .A f te r t h e m in imum -ve s se ls o r t ing w a sc omp le te ,t h e n umbe ro fs he rd s p e rv e s se lw e re c oun ted ,a nd t h en t h ee n t i re v e s se lw a sw e ighed .I nf u tu re MVC a na ly se s ,s ome m e thod o fe s t ima t ing t h e p e rcen tage o f av e s se l s t i l l e x tan t a f te rr ef i t t ing w i l lb eu sed ( s ee b e low ) .T he MVC p rocedu re w a ss imp l if ied b yp r io rk now ledge o fw hen t h es i te w a so ccup ied ( 1 850 s ) ,c omb ined w i th t he a na ly s t ' sf am i l ia r i ty w i th c e ram ic sf r om t h a tp e r iod .S em iv i t reou sw h i te -bod ied w a re sp r ima r i ly h av ing mo lded d eco ra t ion w e re e xpec ted i n av a r ie ty o ff o rm s( Ma jew sk ia nd O 'B r ien 1 984 ; Wea the rbee 1 980 , 1 985 ) . When t h ep o ten t ia l r a nge o fv a r iab i l i ty i sk nown b e fo rehand , s o r t ing t ime i sm in im iz ed g rea t ly . One a s s i s tan ta i ded i nt h ea na ly s i s . B e fo re f i na lv e s se lc oun t sw e re m ade , Ma jew sk iv e r if ied e a ch MVC t oe l im ina te t h ep rob lem o fi n te r sub jec t ive r e l iab i l i ty i ns epa ra t ing s h e rd si n to v e s se l s . P roven ience s c an b e r e co rded e a s i ly f o r t h es he rd s f r om e ach v e s se l , a nd d i s tance sb e tw een c ros s m end sc an b eu sed t oe va lua te t h en a tu re o ft h ed epo s i t( Ga r row 1 984 ;M i l le ra nd Moodey 1 986 ; Moodey 1 988 ) .M i l le r ( pe r sona lc ommun ica t ion 1 989 ) a nd M i l le ra nd Moodey ( 1 986 ) d e te rm ine p e rc en tage o f c omp le tene s so f av e s se lb yc ompa r ing t h ee x tan tp o r t ion t oc omp le te p i ece sf o rw h ich a rea sh ave b een c a lcu la ted . G a r row ( 1 984 : 9 2 ) r e l ie s i n s tead o ns ub jec t ive a s se s smen t sf o re s t ima t ing t he p o r t ion o fa v e s se l s t i l l e x tan t ( t h re sho ld v a lue s u sed a r e 2 5% ,5 0% , 7 5% , a nd 1 00 % ) . D e r iv ing MVC sw ou ld , o f c ou r se ,b e mo re d i ff icu l tg i ven t h eq uan t i ty o fs he rd sB enne t ta nd B lake ly a re f a ced w i th a na ly z ing ,b u t c e r ta in c on tex t s p a r t icu la r ly a r e a menab le t oa na ly s i s . G a r row ( 1 984 : 9 2 ) d eve loped t h e c oncep t o f " l o t spec if ic c on tex t" t oe va lua te u rban s i tua t ion s " i n ten se ly u t i l ized , m anaged , a nd t r an s fo rmed p rope r t ie s" w he re c on tex tua lb ounda r ie so f ten b ecome b l u r red ,a nd w he re i ti sn eces sa ry t oa s cer ta in t h ed eg ree so fi n teg r i ty e xh ib i ted b y am u l t i tude o ff e a tu re s ,n o to n ly t op r io r i t ize d epo s i t sf o ra na ly s i s b u ta l so t og auge t h el e ve lo fc onf idence t h a tc an b ep l aced o no ve ra l la na ly t ica lr e su l t s . -

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G a r row ' s( 1 984 :9 1 ) d e f in i t ion o fl o t spec i f ic c on tex t si sp a r t icu la r ly u se fu lf o rh i s to r ica la r chaeo logy a nd c ou ld b ea dap ted f o ru se b ya r chaeo log i s t si nt h eO ld Wo r ld a sw e l l .I ti n co rpo ra te s ab road r ange o fc on tex tt y pe s ,i n c lud ing d ome s t ic f e a tu re ss u ch a sw e l l s ,p r iv ie s ,t r a sh p i t s ,b u i lde r 's t r enche s ,c e l la r s , a nd e ven s u r f ace m idden a ccumu la t ion s . L o t spec if ic c on tex t s c on ta in a r chaeo log ica l m a ter ia l s d epo s i ted a s ad i rec tr e su l to fd ay to -day a c t iv i t ie sw i th in t h es t udy l o t( e .g . ,S ch i f f e r ' s[ 1 972 1" p r ima ry " a nd " de f a c to" r e fu se a nd S ou th ' s [ 1 977 ] " i n s i tu d e fac to r e fu se " ) . N on lo t spec if ic c on tex t s c on ta in m a te r ia l so r ig ina l ly d epo s i ted o u t s ide t h es t udy u n i ta nd t r an spo r ted t ot h es i te t h rough a c tv i t ie ss uch

8

a sp l acemen t o ff i l l ( equ iva len t t oS ch i f f er 's [ 1 972 ] " seconda ry r e fu se" a nd S ou th 's [ 1 977 ] " d i sp laced r e fu se" ) . G a rrow ( 1 984 :9 2 -93 )d i scus se sf ou r me thod si nw h ich c eram ic d a ta a re u sed t oe s tab l i sh w he ther o r n o t ac on tex ti sl o ts pec if ic i nn a tu re : ( 1 )u s ing c e ram ic sa st empo ra l ma rke r sw i th in a na s semb lage /con t e x t ,( 2 ) s t udy ing t he r e la t ive p ercen tages o fc omp le tene s so fc e ram ic v es se l sw i th in a na s semb lage , ( 3 ) q uan t if ied c ro s s -mend a na ly s i s ,a nd ( 4 ) c e ram ic s e ta na ly s i s . T he f i rs t me thod i n vo lve sc on s ide r ing t he manu fac tu r ing -da te r ange sw i th in a na s semb lage ( t e rm inu s p o s t q uem [ TPO ] a nd t e rm inu s a n te q uem [ TAO ] d a tes [ Noe l Hume 1 969 : 6 9 ] ) a nd p o s s ib ly mean c e ram ic d a te s (MCDs )( Sou th 1 977 ) .T h i si sn o t ad ef in i t ive me thod ,b u ti tc an b eu sed t oi d en t i f yo bv iou s d a t ing d i sc repanc ie sw i th in a na r t i fac ts amp le . Obv iou s ly r em in i scen to fw ha tB enne t ta nd B lake ly ( pp . 6 7 ) a l lude t oa s t he " i ndex fo s s i l" a pp roach , i tn one the le ss h a s i t s p lace a tt he o u t se t o fa n a na ly s i s , p a r t icu la r ly w hen o ne e va lua te st he a na ly t ica ls u i tab i l i ty o f ma te r ia l sf r om d i f f e ren tc on tex t s . T he s econd a na ly t ica l t oo l i st he s t udy o f r e la t ive p ercen tages o fc omp le tene s s o fc e ram ic v es se l s w i th in a na s semb lage ( a l so a pp l ies t og l a s s ) .K le in a nd Ga r row ( 1984 : 1 75 )b u i l to ns t anda rd s herd leve l s t ud ies b y d o ing v es se l a na ly s is o f t he s he rd s ( a l so a na lyzed i nd iv idua l ly ) f r om u rban c on tex ts i n W i lm ing ton , De lawa re .T hey f ound t h a tf e a tu re sw i th a na ve rage p e rcen tage o fv es se lc omp le tenes so f l e s st han 2 5% w e re n o tl o t -spec if ic c on tex ts ( c f .M i l le ra nd Moodey 1 986 ) . T he t h ird me thod , q uan t i f ied c ro s s -mend a na ly s i s , a dd sr eco rd ing o fp roven ience d a ta t o MVC .A l l c r o s s mend sa re e n te red b yl e ve la nd e xcava t ion u n i to n ama s te rc ha r to ft he c on tex tu nde rs t udy .T he m e thod w a sd ev ised b yG a r row ( 1 982 : 7 4 -85 ) t os t udy t he i n te rna lh o r izon ta la nd v e r t ica ld i s tr ibu t ions o fc e ram ic v e s se l sw i th in as i ng le d epo s i t , i no rde rt ou nde r s tand p roce s se s c on t r ibu t ing t of o rma t ion a nd t r ansfo rma t ion o ft he d epo s i t . Ga r row a pp l ied t he me thod t o am id -n ine teen th -cen tury t r a sh d ump a tt h e Wash ing ton , D .C . ,C iv ic C en ter t od e term ine i fr ecove red ma te r ia l sc ame f r om a ni n tac td epo s i t o rf r om o u t s ide t he l o t . O f9 0 r eco rded c ro s s m end s , o n ly 7% s panned mo re t han t wo a d jacen t l e ve l s w i th in ag i ven u n i t . A l l u n i t sh ad s he rd st ha t c ro s s mended w i th s he rd si no the ru n i ts . T he c onc lu s ion w a st ha t t he c on tex t b e ing a na lyzed w a s t he r e su l t o fp e r iod ic t r a sh d epo s i t ion r a ther t han o fl a te r f i l l a c t iv i ty . T he f ou r th me thod , c e ram ic s e t a na ly s i s , a l so c an b e u sed t o e va lua te s i te c on tex t s . T eawa re w a s a v a i lab le i ns e t sd ur ing t h ee i gh teen th c en tu ry ( Ro th 1 961 ) ,b u ts e t so ft ab lewa re d id n o tb ecome w ide ly a va i lab le u n t i l a f ter t he f i r s tq ua r te r o ft he n ine teen th c en tury ( M i l ler 1 974 ) , a nd e ven t hen m igh t n o t h ave b een t h en o rm ,d epend ing o no ne sg eog raph ic l o ca t ion a nd e conom ic p o s i t ion ( s ee Ma jew sk ia nd O 'B r ien 1 987 :1 79 ) .B yt h el a te n i ne teen th c en tu ry ,l a rge s e t si n aw ide p r ice r ange r ou t ine ly w ere o f fered f o rs a le t h rough ma i l -o rde rc a ta log s( Hen ry 1 986 ; Hen ry a nd G ar row 1 982a : 3 12 ) . T hree k ind s o fs e ts a ppea r mo s t f r equen t ly i nt he a r chaeo log ica lr eco rd : ( a )t e as e ts ,w h ich i n c lude c up s / tea b ow l s ,s auce r s ,a nd s e rv ing p i ece s( t eapo t ,s uga rb ow l ,c reame r ,w a s te b ow l ,a nd a no cca s iona l p l a te ) ;( b )d inne r( t ab lewa re )s e t s ,c ons is t ing o fv a r ious -s ize p l a te s ,b ow l s ,c up s ,s aucer s ,s e rv ing p iece s , a nd m isce l laneous p i ece s ; a nd ( c ) t o i le t s e ts , c on s is t ing o f ae we r a nd b a s in w i th p o s s ib le e x tra p i ece s . C heek ( 1988 : 1 02 )s ugge s t st h a tt oq ua l i fy a s as e t , ap a t te rn s hou ld a ppea ro nt h ree d i f fe ren tf o rm s ;t he s ame p a t te rn i nt wo d i f f e ren t f o rm s c an b e r eco rded a s a" b roken" s e t .T h i s c r i ter ion w ou ld w o rk f o r d i nner s e ts b u ti st oo s t r ingen t f o rt e as e t s , a st he r ange o ff o rm s i s much s ma l le r .I den t i fy ing d i f feren t s e t si n ad epo s i t ,e xam in ing t h ep roven iences o rt h ec on s t i tuen ts he rd s ,a nd t empo ra l ly p lac ing t he s e ts c an h e lp u n rave lt he d epo s i t iona lh i s to ry o f ad epo s i t .I f" se ts ucce s s ion" c an b ed emon s t ra ted ,i to f ten i sp o s s ib le t ot e l li fo ne o r mo re f am i l ie sc on t r ibu ted t om idden d epo s i t ion ( Ga r row 1 984 :9 3 ) .B a sed o n h i sa na ly s is o ft he a fo remen t ioned m idden f r om t h e Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . ,C iv ic C en te r , Ga r row ( 1982 : 14 ) s ugges ts t ha t a" s tep i nt h el i f ec yc le o f as e tp robab ly l a s ted a bou tf ou ry ea r s .E igh ty ea r sw ou ld t hen b e r equ ired f o r ac e ram ic s e t t oc omp le te i t s l i f e c yc le t h rough ' g ood ' c e ram ic s , ' e veryday ' c eram ic s , t o r emnan tv es se l s ." E xamp les o fH is tor ica l -Ceram ic D a ta -Base C ons truc t ion Up t o t h i sp o in t ,w eh ave f o cu sed o n t he s t ruc tu re o fa na ly t ic c a tego r ie sc ommon ly u sed i nh i s to r i c a l -ceram ic a na ly s is a nd h ave u rged t h e u se o f ad eco ra t ion -ba sed s y s tem o f c a tego r iza t ion . We

8 9

p re sen ted e xamp le st oc onv ince r e sea rche r so ft h eu t i l i ty o fu s ing t h ev e s se lr a the rt han t h ei n d iv idua l s he rd a st h e m in ima l a na ly t ic u n i t . I nt h i s s e c t ion ,w eb u i ld o n o u r e a r l ie r p re sen ta t ion b yd i scu s s ing s e ve ra lw ay st h a t h i s to r ica l a r chaeo log i s t sh ave c omp i led a nd p re sen ted c e ram ic d a ta t oi l u s t ra te t he p rac t ica lc on s ide ra t ion so fa na ly s i ss t ruc tu red u nde rd i f f e ren tr e sea rch g oa l s .I n -dep th c r i t ique sa re n o t i n tended ,n o rd ow ep ropo se t os e to ne s y s tem a bove a no the ra s amode ls cheme . T he e xamp le si n c lude ( a ) t h e" H i s to r ic A r t i fac tC ode B ook" d eve loped b yG a r row a nd A s soc ia te s , I nc . ( 1 987 ) ; ( b ) t h ev e s se l c a ta log d a ta b a se d eve loped b yG eo rge L .M i l le ra nd R obe r t Hun te ru s ing t h e CORNERSTONE , ar e la t iona l d a ta -ba se p rog ram c r ea ted b y I n focom , I nc . ( 1984 ) ; ( c ) v e s se l d e sc r ip t ion d a ta f r om h ou seho ld -deb r i s d epo s i t sa tt h e F rank l in G la s s Wo rk s ,P o r tage C oun ty , Oh io ( M i l le r a nd Moodey 1 986 ; Moodey 1 988 ) ; a nd ( d ) c e ram ic -a s semb lage -de sc r ip t ion d a ta f r om aw e l l d epo s i ta tt he Mapp in - Mu rphy r e s idence i nn o r thea s te rn M i s sou r i( Ma jew sk i1 987 ) . T he f i r s tt wo e xamp le sa l ready a r ei n ac ompu te r ized f o rma t ;t h es e cond t wo a r en o t ,b u tt h ey c ou ld b ea dap ted .B enne t ta nd B lake ly ( p . 1 3 )p o s i tt h ree p r ima ry c au se so ff a i lu re o fc ompu te r ized d a ta b a se s . T he se i n c lude t h e a rb i t ra ry w ay i nw h ich c ho sen a t t r ibu te s a re m ea su red , p rob lem s a s soc ia ted w i th r e l iab le c od ing o fa l phanume r ic d a ta ,a nd p rob lem sr e la ted t ot h ee n t ry o fe r roneou sd a ta .T od a te ,t he re a re n oc a tego r iza t ion o r d a ta -p re sen ta t ion s cheme s u n ive r sa l ly u sed b yh i s to r ica l a rchaeo log i s t s . T he f o l low ing e xamp le sm ay s hed s ome l i gh to nw hy t h i si st h ec a se . T he f i r s te xamp le ( Tab le 8 1 )i l u s t ra te ss e ve ra le xamp le so fc e ram ic c od ing sf r om t he H i s to r ic A r t i f a c t C ode B ook u sed b yG a r row a nd A s soc ia te s( 1 987 )t oc a ta log h i s to r ica l -pe r iod a r t i fac t s . I tw a sn o t T ab le 8 1 S e lec t ed E xamp le s o fC eram ic C od ing sf r om t h eH is tor ic A r t if ac tC ode B ook o f G arrow a nd Associates, I n c .

KC0900 KC0901

I r ons tone P la in w h i te i r ons tone

0 1 840

0 1 863

0 1 885

C C

NO YES

NO YES

NO YES

KC0902 KC0903

P la in g rey i r ons tone Hand p a in ted i r ons tone

1 840 0

1 863 0

1 885 0

C C

YES NO

YES YES

YES NO

KC0904

L us terware i r ons tone

KC0905 KC0906

G i lded i r ons tone Deca l i r ons tone

KC0907

C o lored g l aze i r ons tone

KC0908

P la in b lue i r ons tone

1 840

1 863

1 885

KC0909

R ev iva l t r ans f er p r in t i r ons tone

1 885

1 936

1 986

KC0910

App l ique i r ons tone

0

0

0

KC0911

Mo lded i r ons tone

0

0

0

KC0912

Annu lar i r ons tone

0

0

0

C

NO

YES

NO

KC0913

I ns t i tu t iona l i r ons tone

0

0

0

C

NO

YES

NO

KC1000

C reamw are

KC 1001

Darker y e l low c reamware

0

0

0

C

NO

YES

NO

0 1 902

0 1 944

0 1 986

C C

NO YES

YES YES

NO YES

C

NO

YES

NO

C

YES

YES

YES

C

YES

YES

YES

C

NO

YES

NO

C

NO

YES

NO

0

0

0

0

0

C

NO

NO

NO

1 762

1 791

1 820

0

C

YES

YES

YES YES

KC1002

F inger p a in ted c reamw are

1 790

1 805

1 820

C

YES

YES

KC1003

Annu lar c reamware

1 780

1 798

1 815

C

YES

YES

YES

KC1004 KC1005

L igh ter y e l low c r eamw are Overg laze e name l h and p a in ted

1 762 1 765

1 791 1 788

1 820 1 810

C C

YES YES

YES YES

YES YES

KC1006

T rans f er p r in ted c reamw are

1 765

1 790

1 815

C

YES

YES

YES

KC1007

L i t t ler ' sb lue c r eamware

1 750

1 758

1 765

C

YES

YES

YES

KC1008 KC1009

E ng ine t u rned c r eamw are G reen g l azed c r eamware

0 1 759

0 1 767

0 1 775

C C

NO YES

YES YES

NO YES

KC IOIO

C louded / tor to iseshe l lc r eamware

1 740

1 755

1 770

C

YES

YES

YES

c r eamw are

N o te :E xamp le sr ep roduced b yp e rm i s s ion o fP a t r ick H .G a r row ;d a ta f r om N ovembe r 1 ,1 9 87 , r e v i s ion o ft h ec odebook .

9 0

c r ea ted a s at oo lt ob eu sed f o rd e ta i led a na ly s i so fa r t i fac tc l a s se s .R a the r ,i tw a sd eve loped t of a c i l i ta te e a r ly s t age m an ipu la t ion o fd a ta b yp rov id ing t empo ra li n fo rma t ion u sed t oi d en t i f y MCD s ,T PQs ,a nd a r t i f ac tp a t te rn s .T he MCD f o rmu la d eve loped b yS ou th ( 1 972 ,1 974 , 1 977 ) u se st h em ed ian m anu f ac t u r ing d a te o fc e ram ic t y pe st oa r r ive a t am ean d a te f o ra na s semb lage ( s ee a l so Ma jew sk ia nd O 'B r ien 1 9 87 :1 70 -172 ) .S ou th ( 1 977 ,1 978a ) a l so a ma s sed c on s ide rab le q uan t i ta t ive d a ta r e la t ive t ot h ep ropo r t i on s o fv a r iou s a r t i fac t f u nc t iona l g roup s t h a t w e re k nown f r om h i s to r ica l d ocumen t s t o h ave h ad d i f f e ren tc u l tu ra la nd f unc t iona la s soc ia t ion s . He u sed d a ta f r om h ypo the s ized f unc t iona l ly s im i la rs i te s t od e f ine p a t te rn s t h a t h e a nd o t he r s u sed p red ic t ive ly i ns i tua t ion sw he re c u l tu ra l a nd /o r f unc t iona l a s soc ia t ion sw e re u nc lea r( Ma jew sk ia nd O 'Br ien 1 987 : 1 75 ) . T he e xamp le s s hown i nT ab le 8 1 a r e o rgan i zed i n ah i e ra rch ica l s y s tem ( g roup , c l a s s , t y pe , a nd s ub type ) .C o lumn o ne c on ta in st h ea r t i f ac tg roup ,f o rc e ram ic s ( K )k i tchen .O the rp o ten t ia lg roup s i n c lude ( C ) c l o th ing , ( R ) a rm s , ( F ) f u rn i tu re , e t c . C o lumn t wo c on ta in s t h e c l a s s o r ma te r ia l o f m anu fac tu re ( C ) c e ram ic .O the r si n c lude ( M )m e ta l ,( F )p l a s t ic ,( S )s t one ,b r ick , mo r ta r ,( G )g l a s s , e t c .C o lumn s 3a nd 4r e f e rt o" t ype s" ( e .g . ,i r on s tone ) ,a nd c o lumn s 5a nd 6r e f e rt os ub type s( e .g . ,p l a in w h i te i r on s tone ) .T he n ex tt h ree f i e ld sc on ta in t h eo ff i c ia lb eg inn ing d a te o ft h es ub type ( de r ived f r om v a r iou ss ou rce s ) , t h em idda te , a nd t h e e nd ing d a te .T he f o l low ing f i e ld i nd ica te sw he the rt h ea r t i fac t s i nt h a ts ub type s hou ld b e( C )c oun ted , (W )w e ighed ,b en o ted o n ly a s( P )p re sen t ,o r( B )b o th w e ighed a nd c oun ted . A" ye s" i si n d ica ted i nt h en ex tf i e ld i ft h es ub type c an b eu sed f o rd eve lop ing T PQ d a te s ; a" no " i nd ica te s t h e b eg inn ing d a te l i s ted p rev iou s ly i s ab eg inn ing p opu la r i ty d a te r a the r t h an a b eg inn ing m anu f ac tu r ing d a te .T he n ex tf i e ld i n d ica te sw he the rt h es ub type i su sab le i na r t i fac t -pa t te rn c ompa r i son s ,a nd t h ef o l low ing f i e ld r e co rd sw he the rt h em ed ian d a te s hou ld b eu sed t od eve lop MCD s . T he l a s tf i e ld ( no ts hown i nT ab le 1 )a low sf o rn o te st ot h ec a ta loge r ,w h ich u sua l ly i nd ica te c a se sw he re an umbe rn ol o nge rs hou ld b eu sed f o rt h a tp a r t icu la rp ro jec t .T ab le 8 2i l u s t ra te st h ef o rma tu sed b y G eo rge L .M i l le ra nd R obe r t Hun te rt od e sc r ibe c e ram ic v e s se l su s ing t h e CORNERSTONE p rog ram ( I n focom 1 984 ) . T he s o f tw a re a low s t h e r e sea rche rt oc r ea te a nd n ame d a ta f i e ld so fh i s /he r c ho ice , w h ich t h en a r ef i l led i nu s ing e nume ra ted w o rd s e lec t ion ( e ach f i e ld c an c on ta in u pt o2 56 w o rd c ho ice s ) . T he s y s tem i sr e la t iona l i nt h e s en se t h a t t h e r e co rd s c an b e s o r ted o r o rgan ized b ya ny o ft h e f i e ld s . Mo s t o f t he d a ta -en try c a tego r ie s a r e r e la t ive ly s t ra igh t fo rwa rd , a nd c an b e b roken d own i n to p rov en ience /con tex t i n fo rma t ion , t empo ra l i n fo rma t ion ,w a re t y pe ,t e chno log ica l /deco ra t ive i n fo rma t i on ,a nd c ha rac te r i s t ic so ff o rm ( s hape ,s i ze ,p o r t ion e x tan t ) . -

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S i te n umbe r , v e s se l n umbe r , a nd d a te e n te red a r e s e l f -exp lana to ry . D a ta c a tego r ie s f r om " po t te r " t h rough " reg i s t ry d a te" o bv iou s ly a r ep e r t inen to n ly w hen av e s se lh a sm a rk si n d ica t ing t h em anu f ac tu re r , p a t te rn , a nd /o ro the r r e la ted i n fo rma t ion . Wa re d e s igna t ion i sb a sed o ni n tu i t ive c ho ice s , u s ing c om m on ly a ccep ted h i s to r ica l -a rchaeo log ica lt e rm ino logy . "Manu f ac tu r ing t e chno logy "r e f e r st ot h ea c tua l t e chn ique u sed b yt h ep o t te rt oc r ea te t h ev e s se lf o rm ( e .g . ,s l ipca s t ,t h rown ,p re s s mo lded ) ." P r ima ry " a nd " s econda ry "d eco ra t ive t e chn ique ( s )a r eb a sed o nw h ich d eco ra t ive f e a tu re sa r es t ruc tu ra l ly p r ima ry ( s ee f i g . 8 1 ) , e xcep t f o rt h e f a c t t h a t M i l le r a nd H un te r a ppa ren t ly d on o tc on s ide rv e s se l mo ld ing i n t h es ame s en se d eco ra t ive ly a sw ed o . "Mo lded mo t i f s "a nd " shape d eco ra t ion" r e f e rt od e sc r ip t ion sf o r m o t i f st ha t a r ea pp l iqued o rt h a t a r e ar e su l t o ft h eo r ig ina lv e s se l -mo ld ing p roce s s . " Co lo r" r e f e r st o t h ec o lo r (s )u sed t od eco ra te t h ev e s se l ." S ty le" d e s igna t ion i sb a sed o no ve ra l lt h eme st h a ta re u sed b y a r th i s to r ian st oc ha rac te r ize ab road r a nge o fm a te r ia l -cu l tu re c l a s se st h a to ccu rd u r ing s pec if ic p e r iod s . F o re x amp le ," Rococo" c an b eu sed t od e sc r ibe b o th af u rn i tu re s t y le a nd t h ew avy ,i r regu la rb o rde ro f as h e l l -edge p l a te ,w h i le " A r tD eco" s t y le i nf luenced a b road r ange o fd eco ra t ive a r t s ,i n c lud ing c e ram ic s . P h i l ip M i l le r( 1 979 ) ,i nh i sb ook T eapo t sa nd C of f eepo t s ,o f f e r sn ume rou se xamp le so fh ow s t y le i no ne m ed ium s i l ve r i nf luenced f o rm s c r ea ted i na no the r c l ay . " Fo rm " d e s igna t ion s a r eb a sed o n p o t te r st e rm ino logy a sd i scu s sed b yG .M i l le r( 1 980 ,1 990 ) ," shape" i sc a tego r ized u s ing g eome t r ic t e rm s ( e .g . ,h exagona l , o va l , e t c . ) ,a nd " s ize" i sm ea su red i ni n che s( t ob e mo re -o r le s se qu iva len tt op o t te r ' s s i ze g r ade s ) . " Foo t r i ng " ( e .g . , n one p re sen t , t u rned ,j i gge red , a pp l ied , e t c . ) i s ad i agno s t ic t empo ra l t r a i t ,b u t M i l le rh a sy e tt op ub l i sh t h et e rm ino log yh eu se sh e re . ( Su s sman [ 1 977 1 i l u s t ra te sc hange si n f o o tr i ng sf r om t h ee i gh teen th t on i ne teen th c en tu r ie sb u td oe sn o tp rov ide as t anda rd t e rm ino logy . ) -

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" Po r t ion o fv e s se l" i n d ic a te sw he the rt h e i t em b e ing c a ta loged i s ac omp le te v e s se l , ab a sa lp o r t ion o n ly ,l i d ,e t c . ,w h i le " po r t ion e x tan t" r e f e r st o ap e rcen tage e s t ima te o ft h er ema in ing p o r t ion b a sed o n k nown a rea s o f c ompa rab le g eome t r ic s hape s ( s ee M i l le r a nd Moodey 1 986 ) . O f t h e r ema in ing c a tego r ie s ,r im d i ame te r ,b a se d i ame te r ,h e igh t ,a nd s ou rce a r es e l f -exp lana to ry ." Con tex t" i n fo rma t ion

9 1

T ab le 8 2 M i l ler a nd H un t er V e sse l -De scr ip t ion S y s tem U s ing t h e CORNERSTONE P rog ram

S ITE NU MBE R VF S . SEL NU MBE R

DATE ENTERED :

PO TFE R P0

V I ER 'S BEG IN DATE :

END DATE :

MEAN DATE :

M ARK 'S BEG IN DATE :

END DATE :

MEAN DATE :

DATE FRO M VESSEL :

ATTR IBUTED DATE :

M AR K T

I NSCR IPT ION : PAFIERN NA ME : REG ISI RY DATE : W ARE : [ MANUFACTUR ING ] TECHNOLOGY : PR I MARY DECORAT IVE TECHN IQUE : SECONDARY DECORAT IVE TECHN IQUE (S ) : M OLDED MOT IFS : SHAPE DECORAT ION : COLO R STYLE : FORM : SHAPE : S IZE : FOOT R ING : PORT ION OF VESSEU

PORTION EXTANT :

R IM D IA ME IE R BASE D IA ME IER HE IGHT : SOURCE : TYPE OF CONTEXT : BEG INN ING CONTEXT DATE : CO M MENTS :

END CONTEXT DATE :

N o te : CORNERSTONE i sap roduc to fI n focom ,I nc .( 1 984 ) .T he d e sc r ip t ive f o rma tr ep roduced a bove i sb yp e rm i s s ion o fG eo rge L .M i l le r .

c an b ee n te red b yt h er e sea rche rb a sed o np e r t inen tc r i te r ia .T he c ommen tf e a tu re i su se fu lf o re n te r ing i n fo rma t ion t h a td oe sn o tf i t" nea t ly "i nt h eo t he rf i e ld s . T he t h i rd e xamp le i st a ken f r om v e s se l -de sc r ip t ion d a ta r e la t ive t oc e ram ic se xcava ted f r om t h eh ou se a r ea o ft h eF rank l in G la s s Wo rk ss i te i nP o r tage C oun ty ,O h io .T he g l a s sw o rk sw a si nu se f r om 1 824 -32 ( M i l le r a nd Hu r ry 1 983 ) . Ah i gh c oncen t ra t ion o fh ou seho ld a r t i f ac t s w a s f ound t o t h e n o r th o ft h e f a c to ry . Al o gc ab in p robab ly e x i s ted t h e re , b u t e v idence f o r t h e s t ruc tu re w a s d es troyed b yy ear s o f p low ing , a nd o n ly as c a t te r ing o fp l ow -zone a r t i f ac t s a nd f i ve s ma l l t r a sh p i t s r ema ined ( M i l ler a nd Moodey 1 986 :6 1 ) .

9 2

M i l ler a nd Moodey ( 1 986 ) u sed c ro s s -mend p roven ience i n fo rma t ion i nc omb ina t ion w i th MVC t o c on s t ruc t amode lf o re s t ima t ing t h et o ta lv e s se lp opu la t ion o f as i te .T hey c on tend t h a ti fv e s se l -popu la t i on s i ze c an b ee s tab l i shed , an ew r ange o fs i gn if ican tt op ic sm igh tb ei n ve s t iga ted .T he se i n c lude r a te o fb reakage ,v e s se lu se l i f e , r ep lacemen t c y c le s ,t h er a t io o fc e ram ic v e s se l st ot h ep eop le u s ing t h em , a nd t h er ep re sen ta t ivene s so fc e ram ic -ve s se ls amp le sw i th in t o ta ls i te c on tex t s( s ome o ft h e se t op ic sa r e a dd re s sed i n Moodey [ 1 988 ] ) . A na ppend ix ( p repa red b y Moodey ) f o l low sa tt h ee nd o ft h ep ape r[ i n ]" t he h ope t h a to the r sm igh t b ea b le t ob u i ld ab e t te r mode lo u t o ft h e d a ta" ( M i l le ra nd Moodey 1 986 :7 4 ) .O fp r ima ry i n te re s tt o o u rd i scu s s ion h e re ,h owev e r , a r et h ev e s se ld e sc r ip t ion sa nd " add re s se s" p rov ided i nt h ea ppend ix ,a s amp le o fw h ich i sp re sen ted i nT ab le 8 3 . T ab le 8 3 V e s se lD escr ip t ions a nd A ddr es se sf r om t h eF rank l in G lass Work s ,P or tag eC oun ty ,N or thern Oh io

N umber : 0 09 ip F orm : b ow l D e cor a t ive t e chn ique : p r in ted C o lo r s : b lue P o r t ion e x tan t : 0 . 031 P o t ter . S our ce : 9 ip ,9 iq ,9 i r , 2 99a ,3 50k ,3 7 1au ,4 25g r ,4 69gb , m a tche sv es se l2 by N umber 1 77ae F orm : p la te D e cor a t ive t e chn ique : s he l le dge e mbo s sed C o lor s : b lue P o r t ion e x tan t : 0 . 125 P o t ter : S our ce 9 de ,9 nz ,9 dd , 3 6dx , 1 72z , 1 77ae , 1 78 j [ a nd o ther s ] N umber : 3 89L F orm : s aucer D ecora t ive t e chn ique : p r in ted C o lor s : b lue P or t ion e x tan t : 0 . 063 P o t ter : R & JC lew s S our ce :

1 70p ,

2 57d ,2 61d ,3 52 sc [ a nd o ther s ]

N umber : 3 90ah F orm : muf f in D ecora t ive t e chn ique : s he l l e dge s c a l loped C o lo r s : l i gh t g reen P or t ion e x tan t : 0 . 031 P o t ter : S our ce [ 3 96cq + 4 27 fo ] ,8 3ce ,3 90ah ,4 40e j N umber : 4 61dv F orm : c up D e co ra t ive t e chn ique : p r in ted C o lor s : b lack P or t ion e x tan t : 0 . 063 P o t ter S our ce : [ 461dv + 3 92dh ] , [ 1 71am +4c ] , 3 92dg ,4 64be

N o te :E xamp le st a ken f r om M i l le ra nd Moodey ( 1 986 : 7 4 -85 ) .

9 3

T he v e s se l d esc r ip t ion s c on ta in many o f t he s ame c a tego r ie s u sed b y M i l le r a nd Hun ter i n t he CORNERSTONE s y s tem d ev i sed f o r v e s se l c a ta log ing ( Tab le 8 2 ) . " Numbe r" r efe r s t o t he mo s t " con sp icuou s" s herd f r om a v e s se l t h a t h a s b een r ef i t ted /g rouped t oge the r ( G . L . Mi l le r , p er sona l c ommun ica t ion 1 989 ) .M i l ler a nd Moodey ( 1986 :74 )n o te t ha te ach s he rd f r om t he g l a ss w o rk sw a sg i ven au n ique n umbe rb ya dd ing al e t ter s e r ie st ot he e xcava t ion b ag n umbe r .T hu s ," Number :0 09 ip" r efe r s t ot he mo s t c on sp icuou ss he rd " i p" f r om b ag n umbe r0 09 .T e rm ino logy f o rt he " fo rm" c a tego ry f o l low st ha t u sed b yM i l le r ( 1980 ) ,w h ich i st a ken f r om an umber o fS ta f fo rd sh i re p o t te r ' sp r ice -f ix ing a g reemen t s( e .g . ,b ow l ,p l a te ,s auce r , muff in ,c up ) ." Deco ra t ive t e chn ique" i s as yn the t ic d e sc r ip t ion o f p r imary a nd s econda ry d eco ra t ive t e chn ique s . " Co lo r s" r e fe r s t ot he c o lo r (s ) u sed i n t h e d ecora t ive -

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p roce s s . " Po r t ion e x tan t" i sa ne s t ima te o ft he v es se la rea r ep re sen ted b yt he r ef i t t ing / reg roup ing ( s ee e a r l ier d i scu s s ion o fh ow M i l ler c a lcu la tes t h i s ) ." Po t te r" i si nd ica ted i ft h ev e s se li sb ackma rked . Ves se l a dd res ses a re i n c luded u nde r " Sou rce" ; m ended s he rd s a ppea rw i th in b racke t s , w i th u nmended ( bu t a t tr ibu ted ) s he rd sa l so l i s ted . U s ing t h e c a ta log n umbe r si nc on junc t ion w i th t he s i te map ,i ti se asy t o r econs truc tt he d i s t r ibu t ion o fv e s se lp a r ts . T he f i na l e xamp le p re sen ted i lu s t ra te s t he u se o fo u r d eco ra t ive c l a s s if ica t ion t o d e sc r ibe c eram ic v es se l sf r om aw e l ld epo s i ta tt he Mapp in - Mu rphy s i te , ar u ra lf a rm s tead l o ca ted i nt he c en t ra lS a l tR ive r v a l ley o fn o r thea s tern M i s sou r i .T he a rea o r ig ina l ly w a ss e t t led i nt h ee a r ly n ine teen th c en tury b yf am i l ie s f r om t he B lue G ra s s r eg ion o fK en tucky , w ho b rough t w i th t hem ad i s t inc t ive e conom ic a nd e nv iron men ta l a dap ta t ion r e f e r red t o a s " uppe r S ou th c u l tu re" (Ma son 1 984 ; O 'Br ien 1 984 ; O 'Br ien a nd Ma jew sk i1 989 ) ,w h ich w a sb a sed o na na g r icu l tu ra lc omp lex c omposed o fm ixed f a rm ing ( c o rn , whea t , h og s ,a nd b eef c a t t le )a nd h emp a nd t obacco p roduc t ion .T he e a r l ie s t Mapp in sa r r ived i nt h el a te 1 820 s , a nd t he f a rm s tead r ema ined o ccup ied u n t i li t sd emo l i t ion i n1 982 .T he l a s tr e s iden ts ,t he Mu rphys ,w e re t he o ccupan t so ft he s i te w hen t he w e l lw a sf i l led i n( a f ter c a .1 930 ) .T he w e l ld epos i tw a su n ique i nt ha t i tp rov ided t he o n ly e xcava ted " l o t -spec if ic" c on tex t f r om t h e s i te t ha t d a ted t ol a te i ni t s o ccupa t ion , f r om c a . 1 895 t o 1 930 . We v i ewed t he a na ly s i s a s a n o ppo r tun i ty t o t e s t t he a pp l icab i l i ty o f o u r d ecora t ion -ba sed s y s tem t o t h e c a tego r iza t ion o f c e ram ic s f r om al a te r t ime p e r iod ( ea r ly t wen t ie th c en tury ) . T ab le 8 -4 p re sen ts s e lec ted d e sc r ip t ion s o f c e ram ic s f r om t he Mapp in - Murphy w e l l d epos i t . T he " C la ss" d e s igna t ion u se st e rm ino logy d i ag ramed i nF igu re 1 ,w h ich b r ief ly w a ss ummar ized i na ne a r l ie r s ec t ion o f t h is p ape r . " Ve s se l n umbe r" a nd " Numbe r o f S herd s" ( pe r r econ s truc ted v e sse l ) a re s e l f -exp lana tory .T he c a tego ry " Ve s se l /L ip F o rm" c on ta in sv a r iou sk i nd so fi n forma t ion . F o re xamp le , " 8 " s e rv ing b ow l , o u tf ia r ing r im w / i r reg w avy l i ne" c omb ine s d imen s iona l , f unc t iona l , f o rma l , a nd d ecora t ive / s ty l i s t ic i n fo rma t ion .T he " Rema rk s" c o lumn c on ta in st e chno log ica li n fo rma t ion r e la t ing t o t he c e ram ic b ody ( e .g . ,n v = n onv i t reou s ,e t c . ) a sw e l la s amo re c omp le te d e sc r ip t ion o ft h ed eco ra t ive c ha rac te r i s t ic so ft he v e s se l( e .g . ," mo lded A r t Deco s t y le v avy l ine b o rde r mo t i f ;p ink a i r sp rayed a rea f r om l i pt or im b reak" ) .T he r ema rk sc o lumn a l so i su sed t oi nd ica te i fap a r t icu la rv esse li sp a r to f as e t ( s ee l a s tt wo e xamp le si nT ab le 8 -4 ) . D iscuss ion a nd C onc lus ions Wha t , t h en , c an w e l e a rn f r om t he p re sen ta t ion o ft he a bove e xamp les? T he ma in p o in t i so ne w e s t re ssed e a r l ie r , i . e . , tha tt he c ho ice o fh ow f a rt ot a ke a n a na ly s i sw i l ld epend n o t o n ly o nt h er esea rch d e s ign u sed t os t ruc tu re d a ta c o l lec t ion a nd a na ly s i s ,b u ta l so o n t h eq ua l i ty o ft he d a ta r ecovered a nd t he i n teg r i ty o fi t sp a ren tc on tex t s .T he e xamp le sp re sen ted h e re o bv iou s ly s how t ha td i f f e ren tl e ve ls o f d a ta p resen ta t ion a re u sed d epend ing o nt h et a sk a th and .F o re xamp le ,t h eH i s to r ic A r t i fac tC ode Book o f Ga rrow a nd A s soc ia te si sap r ima ry c a ta log ing d ev ice f ocu s ing o nt he t empo ra li n forma t ion a s soc ia ted w i th p a r t icu lar w a re s ( t ypes ) a nd r e la ted s ub types . F o r t he w o rk p e r fo rmed b y t he ir c ompany i ti sa u sefu l ,v a l id s y s tem . B u ti t ,a l ong w i th t he o ther s y s tem sd e sc r ibed a bove , s ha res s o me th ing i nheren t ly c onfu s ing t h eu se o fc a tegor ie sh av ing i mbedded mean ing s . -

W i thou t f a i r ly e x ten s ive p r io rk now ledge o fe i gh teen th - a nd n i ne teen th -cen tu ry c eram ic s , t he t ype s a nd s ub types l i s ted i nT ab le 8 1 c ou ld b e c on fus ing . I s ap i ece i r on s tone? I si tc reamwa re? How i s h andpa in ted i r ons tone d i f fe ren t f r om g i lded i r ons tone ( g i ld ing a l so i s at e chn ique o fh andpa in t ing )? How c an o ne c ons i s ten t ly j udge w h ich c r eamwa re e xamp le s h ave " da rke ry e l low" v s . " l igh te r y e l low" g l azes? S l ip t r a i l ing o f ten a ppea r st oge the rw i th e ng ine turned d e s igns o nc reamwa re . How d ow ec hoo se t he p roper c ode? Wh ich i st he p r ima ry mo t i fd e sc r ip to ri nt h i sc a se?

9 4

T ab le 8 4 D e scr ip t ion o fC eram ic V e sse ls f r om t h e Mapp in - Murphy H ouse We l lD epo s i t ,N or theas tern M issour i ,U s ing aD ecora t ion -Based C lass i f ica t ion

C la s s

V e ss e l N umb er

N umb er o fS herd s

1

2 1

V e sse l /L ip F orm

R emark s

D eco ra ted Mod if ied s ur f ace D eca l F lo ra lp a t tern

2 8

3

8 "s e rv ing b ow l ,

n v , mo lded A r t Decos ty le w avy l ine

o u tf iar ing r im w l

b order mo t if ;p ink a i r sprayed p a in ted

i r reg w avy l i ne

a rea f r om l i pt or im b reak

9 "s e rv ing b ow l ,

n v , mo lded A r t Deco s t y le l i pr i dge ;

o u tf iar ing r im w /

p a le g reen a i r sprayed a rea f r om

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4 7

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9 "s erv ing b ow l ,

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3

p la te ,d i am i nde t

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4 4

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n v ,s e tw /v e sse l8

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n v , s e tw /v e sse l s 1 ,3 ,& 4

N o te :D a ta a b s t rac ted f r om Ma jew sk i ( 1 987 :2 26 -30 ) .n v t r an sf e rp r in ted .

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I nt h eo ry t h e a bove p rob lem sd o e x i s t , b u t i np rac t ice t h ey a r em in im ized b ecau se G a r row a nd h i s c owo rke rs r e ly o ne x ten s ive t y pe c o l lec t ion s , d e ta i led c e ram ic d e sc r ip t ion s ,c e ram ic t ra in ing s em ina r s , a nd c a re fu l ly d ef ined d a te r a nge sf o rc on s t ruc t ion o ft empo ra lt oo l ss uch a sT PQ a nd TAO d a te s a nd MCD s . Da ta b a se s c r ea ted u s ing t h i s f o rma tw i l lb eu se fu lf o ri n te r - a nd i n t ra reg iona lc ompa r i son si f G a r row o rh i sc u r ren t ,f o rme r ,o rf u tu re c owo rke r sc r ea te t h em .A tt h i ss t age ,i ti sp rema tu re t oe xpec t t h a t mo s t h i s to r ica l -a rchaeo log ica l p ro jec t s w i l l u se a s cheme t h a t n ece s s i ta te s s uch a n i n dep th k now ledge o fh i s to r ica l -ce ram ic d eve lopmen t , u n le s s ac e ram ic s pec ia l i s ti se mp loyed t oi mp lemen ti t .

9 5

T he p rob lem o fe mbedded m ean ing sl i e sa tt h eh ea r to ft h ea n swe rt ot h eq ue s t ion , "Why i st h ea dop t ion o fp o ten t ia l ly u se fu la nd p owe r fu ls y s tem ss uch a st h eo ne sd e sc r ibed h e re r e s i s ted b yt h eh i s to r ica l -a r c haeo log ica lc ommun i ty ?" T he o the r t h ree e xamp le s a l so c on ta in c a tego r ie s w i th e mbedded m ean ing s . M i l le r a nd Hun te r ' s v e s se l -de sc r ip t ion s y s tem ( Tab le 8 2 ) h a sm any c a tego r ie st h a ta r es e l f -exp lana to ry ,b u te v e ry c a tego ry f r om w a re t h rough f oo tr i ng h a sv e ry s pec i f ic m ean ing sa s soc ia ted w i th i t .W i thou tb ackup i n fo rma t ion i nt h ef o rm o ft y pe c o l lec t ion s o r" d ic t iona r ie s" o ff o rma la nd d eco ra t ive a t t r ibu te s , a na lmo s ti nf in i te r ange o fa n swe r sc ou ld b ep rov ided f o re ach c a tego ry .T he s t reng th o ft h e i rs y s tem ,h oweve r ,l i es i nt h e f l ex ib i l i ty a nd r e l iab i l i ty p rov ided b yt h ea b i l i ty t ou se t e x ts t r ing si n s tead o fn ume r ic c ode s .T he F rank l in G la s swo rk se xamp le p re sen ted i nT ab le 8 3 a l so c on ta in sp o ten t ia l ly a mb iguou s c a tego r ie s ,i . e . , f o rm a nd d eco ra t ive t e chn ique .l ti s ,h oweve r , av ery s ucc inc ts y s tem f o rp re sen t ing c o te rm inou ss t ra t ig raph ic a nd f o rma l / s ty l i s t ic d a ta f o rv e s se l s . T he e xamp le p re sen ted i nT ab le 8 4 ,o u rd eco ra t ion -ba sed s y s tem u sed t oc a tego r ize l a te n i n teen th a nd e a r ly t wen t ie th -cen tu ry c e ram ic s f r om al o t spec if ic c on tex t ,f a re s n ob e t te r . On ly t h e c a tego r ie s u nde r " C la s s" a r e w e l l d ef ined e nough ( e .g . , Ma jew sk i a nd O 'B r ien 1 987 ) t oe xpec t t h a t c on s i s ten t , r e l iab le a s se s smen t s c ou ld b e m ade i fo the r sr eana lyzed t h em a te r ia l s f r om t h e Mapp in -Mu rphy w e l l d epo s i t . T echno log ica l j udgmen t s o f h ow v i t reou s ac e ram ic b ody i sc ou ld b e v ery d i ff i cu l t f o r t h e u n in i t ia ted .I np rev iou se xp lana t ion so fo u rs y s tem ( Ma jew sk i1 987 ; Ma jew sk ia nd O 'B r ien 1 984 , 1 987 ) w eh ave a t temp ted t op rov ide e xamp le so fa sm any o fo u rd eco ra t iv ec l a s se sa sp o s s ib le ,a nd t h ese r ange f r om c o lo r a nd b l ack -and -wh i te p ho tog raph so fs he rd sa nd b ackma rk st ol i ne d raw ing so fd ecora t iv e f e a tu re ss uch a sr e l ie f mo ld ing a nd e dge mod if ica t ion t h a ta r ed i ff i cu l tt op o r t ray t h rough p ho tog raphy . We r ea l ize ,i np a r t a s ar e su l to fp repa r ing t h i sp ape ra nd f r om c on t inued a pp l ica t ion a nd t e s t ing o f t h ew o rkab i l i ty o fo u rs c heme ,t h a tc on s ide rab le w o rk i sn eeded r e la t ive t oc on s i s ten tc a tego r iza t ion o f f o rma l ( s ize - a nd s hape re la ted ) c e ram ic a t t r ibu te s ( s ee b e low ) . We h ave n eve r d en ied t h a tf o rm i sa c r i t ica la spec t o fc e ram ic a na ly s i s ,b u tw eh ave f e l tt h a t aw e l l -deve loped , d eco ra t ion -ba sed s cheme i s l e a s ts ub jec tt om i su se o rm i sapp l ica t ion . A s d eco ra t ive a t t r ibu te s a re c o r re la ted w i th t e chno log ica l f a c to r s , i n m any c a se s t h e c or rec t c a tego r iza t ion o fd eco ra t ion w i l li mp ly o t he rc ha rac te r i s t ic st h a ta r et i ed t ok now ledge o ft h ed eve lop m en t o ft h e c e ram ic i ndu s t ry . F o r e xamp le , o n ly c e r ta in m e thod so ft r an s f e r p r in t ing t e chno log ica l ly w e re p o s s ib le w hen c r eamwa re w a s a si t sh e igh t o fp opu la r i ty i nt h el a te e i gh teen th c en tu ry . Ano the r e xamp le i st h ed eve lopmen to fc e ram ic c o lo rt e chno logy f o rd eco ra t ion ( s ee Ma jew sk ia nd O 'B r ien 1 987 : 1 38 -41 ) . Me ta l l ic o x ide sc on s t i tu te t h eb a s i so fa lv i t r if iab le c o lo r s .C e r ta in o x ide s( mercu r ya nd a r sen ic ) a r eh i gh ly v o la t i le a nd a r e u n su i tab le f o r u se a sc e ram ic s t a in s t h a t s ub sequen t ly w i l lb e f i r ed a th i gh t empe ra tu re s .O the r sa r eu n s tab le a nd m ay p roduce av a r ie ty o fc o lo r sd epend ing o nt h ef i r ing p roce s s . E a r ly c o lo rm ake r sw e re a wa re o ft h i s ,a nd w eb e l ieve t h a tt h ee a s ie s tc o lo r st oc on t ro l( e .g . ,c oba l tb lue s ) w e re u sed f i r s t ,a nd a sk now ledge o ft h ec o lo rp repa ra t ion ,a pp l ica t ion ,a nd f i r ing p roce s se sp rog re s sed , mo re c o lo r sw e re a dded . Aq uan tum l e ap o ccu r red d u r ing t h ef i r s tq ua r te r o ft h e n ine teen th c en tu ry w hen t h e c o lo r p a le t te f o r u nde rg laze p r in ted a nd p a in ted d eco ra t ion e xpanded f r om b l ue t oi n c lude o the rc o lo r ss uch a ss hade so fg reen ,y e l low ,r ed ,b rown ,a nd b l ack ( s ee M i l le r1 984 : 4 3 -45 ) . T he d eve lopmen to fc on s i s ten tt e rm ino logy f o rh i s to r ica l -pe r iod c e ram ic s i ze a nd s hape c a tego r ie s i sap re s s ing c once rn i fw ep l an t ou se d a ta o nf o rm t om ake m o re t h an s imp le f unc t iona li n te rp re ta t ion s . A sm en t ioned e a r l ie r ,w o rk i nt h i sa r ea h a sa ppea red ,b u ti to f ten i sw a re s pec if ic i nn a tu re ( e .g . ,S u s sman [ 1 977 ] f o r p ea r lwa re a nd B lanche t te 1 981 1 f o r F rench f a ienc e [ t i n -g lazed e a r thenwa re ] ) o r t r ea t s c e ram ic s f r om o n ly o ne t ime p e r iod a nd /o r o n ly o ne g eog raph ic r eg ion ( e .g . , B eaud r ye ta !1 983 f o r s e ven teen th -cen tu ry c e ram ic s f r om t h e C he sapeake ) . T he se a r el a ndma rk w o rk s , h ow ev e r , a nd t h e i r i mpo r tance s hou ld n o tb ed i scoun ted . T h ree o t he ra r ea so fc once rn h o ld c on s ide rab le p rom i se f o rs t anda rd iz ing t h es t udy o fs i ze a nd s hape . T he f i r s ti st h ec omp i la t ion o fs i ze a nd s hape i n fo rma t ion b a sed o nt h es t udy o fw ho le e xamp le si np r iva te a nd p ub l ic c o l lec t ion s . P ionee r si nt h i sa r ea a r eP h i l ip M i l le ra nd M ichae lB e r thoud ,w ho h ave f ocu sed o n t e a c up s , t e apo t , a nd c o f f ee p o t s ( Be r thoud 1 982 ; M i l le r 1 979 ; M i l le r a nd B er thoud 1 9 85 ) . T he i r w o rk sc on ta in p ho tog raph s a nd l i ne d raw ing st h a tc ou ld b eu sed i nd eve lop ing as t anda rd d e sc r ip t ive t e rm ino logy .

9 6

T he s econd a r ea i st h eu s eo fp r ima ry s ou rce ss uch a sm anu f ac tu re r ' sc a ta log sf r om t h ea c tua lt ime p e r iod u nde rs t udy . Au se fu li n t roduc t ion t ot h ep ub l i shed a nd u npub l i shed c a ta log sa nd d raw ing b ook s o fs h ape s a nd p a t te rn s a va i lab le i sp rov ided b y d e s F on ta ine s ( 1 971 ) i nh i s " In t roduc t ion" t o T he W ed gwood 1 880 i lu s t ra t ed C a ta logue o fS hape s .T he se c a ta log sa nd s hape b ook sw i l lp rove i n va luab le f o rc omp i l ing s hape a nd p a t te rn i n fo rma t ion u s ing t h ec oncep t ion s a nd t e rm so ft he a c tua l manu fac t u re r s . At h i rd a r ea o f p rom i se c once rn s u se o f t h e S t a f fo rd sh i re p o t te r ' s p r ice -f ix ing a g reemen t s , a n i n fo rma t ion s ou rce t h a t h a sb egun t ob et a pped b yG eo rge M ile r( 1 980 , 1 990 ) .T he se a g reemen t sl i s t t h et e rm su sed f o rf o rm sa nd d ocumen tt h er ange o fs i ze sa va i lab le i nd i f f e ren tf o rm s .C e r ta in s i ze sa nd s h ape s a re a s soc ia ted w i th p a r t icu la r n ame s , f o r e xamp le t h e " I r i sh s i ze" o r " London s i ze" c up . T o c on found ma t te r s , " London "c an a l so r e f e rt o ac up s hape . Un t i l " d ic t iona r ie s" o ff o rma l s i ze a nd s hape t e rm ino logy a ppea r ,h oweve r ,r e sea rche r sc an o p tt o f o l low t he s ugge s t ion o fB enne t ta nd B lake ly ( pp . 1 0 -12 )t ou se ac ompu te r -g raph ic sd a ta b a se t od ep ic t t h er a nge o fv a r iab i l i ty i nf o rma lc ha rac te r i s t ic sw i th in ap a r t icu la ra s semb lage .T he f a c tr ema in s ,t hough , t h a tu nder tak ing a ni n -dep th f o rma la na ly s i sm igh tb ec o s tp roh ib i t ive i n many c a se s .I nt h e se s i tua t ion s , a dop t ion o fb a s ic t e rm sf o rs i ze a nd s hape s uch a st ho se u sed b yM i l le ra nd Hun te r( s ee T ab le 8 -2 )m igh t b et h e mo s te xped i t iou ss o lu t ion .T he re i ss t i l lt h ep rob lem t h a tt h ed ef in i t ion so fs ome t e rm sf o rf o rm s , e . g . , " muff in" ( as ma l l p l a te t h a t c an r ange f r om f ou r t os e ven i n che s i nd i ame te r ) o r " tw i ff le r" ( an e i gh t inch p l a te ) ,a r en o tc ommon ly k nown t oa l h i s to r ica la r chaeo log i s t s .T he s o lu t ion a sp re sen ted i n T ab le 8 -4 s imp ly i st ol i s tp l a te s i ze b yd i ame te ri ni n che s ;n ame sc an b ea dded l a te ri fd e s i red . I nc onc lu s ion ,w eb e l ieve t h a tr e sea rch d e s ign a nd a s semb lage c on tex ts hou ld b et h ep r ima ry f a c to r s t h a tg u ide c e ram ic a na ly s i s . Whe the rt h i si sp re f e rab le f r om ar e spon s ib le s c ien t i f ic v i ewpo in t ,r e sea rch d e s ign c on s t ruc t ion s hou ld b e g rounded i nt h e t wo b a s ic f a c to r sn o ted b yB enne t ta nd B lake ly ( p .18 ) : c o s ta nd c o s te f f ic iency .I tt o oo f ten i st h e c a se t h a tf u nd ing s ou rce sp rov ide s uppo r tf o ra ne xcava t ion w h i le g i v ing l i t t le f o l low -up s uppo r tf o ra na ly s i s .T h i sr e a l i ty n ece s s i ta te s ac l ea r ly i n teg ra ted a pp roach f r om i n i t ia l r e cove ry o fm a te r ia l s t h rough t h e a na ly s i s a nd i n te rp re ta t ion p ha se s . T he a r chaeo log ica l c ommun i ty s hou ld s t r ive f o ra tl e a s ts ome d eg ree o fc ommona l i ty i nt e rm ino logy ,r ega rd le s so fm e thod o fd a ta p re sen ta t ion ,s ot h a tt h er e su l t so fc e ram ic -a s semb lage c a tego r iza t ion w i l lb ec ompa rab le o na s b road as ca le a sp o s s ib le . A cknow ledgmen t s G eo rge L .M i l le ra nd P a t r ick H . G a r row k i nd ly p rov ided u sw i th s e ve ra lh a rd to -ob ta in s ou rce sa nd g r ac iou s ly g ave u sp e rm i s s ion t oa dap ts ome o ft h e i ru npub l i shed m a te r ia lf o ru se i nt h i sp ape r .

9 7

C hap ter 9

C onc lus ion

W .J .B enne t t ,J r . ,a nd J e f f rey A .B lake ly A rcheo log ica lA s se s smen t s ,I nc . N a shv i l le ,A rkan sa s

D i scuss ion A sw es t a ted i nt h e" I n t roduc t ion ," w eh ave c ho sen n o tt oc onc lude t h i sv o lume w i th ar ecap i tu la t ion o ft h e i nd iv idua l c on t r ibu t ion s o rw i th ac on s ide ra t ion o ft h e n ume rou s , s pec if ic i s sue s r a i sed b y t h e v a r iou s p re sen ta t ion s . R a the r , w e h ave c ho sen t ou se t h i so ppo r tun i ty t oh i gh l igh t , r eempha s ize , a nd c ommen tf u r the ro np a r t icu la ra spec t so ft h ed a ta b a se c oncep tf o rw h ich w ep e rce ive as t rong c on sen su s a mong p a r t ic ipan t s . C lea r ly a l c on t r ibu to r ss ha re t h e o p in ion t h a tw e , a sa r chaeo log i s t s ,a r er e spon s ib le f o rb r ing ing t o p ub l ica t ion t h e f u l l i n ven to ry o f c e ram ic m a te r ia l s w e r e cove r . T he p ub l ica t ion o f as e lec t ion o f " r ep re sen ta t ive e xamp le s " i sn o l o nge r a n a ccep tab le w ay t op roceed . Mo reove r , t he re s e em s t ob e a g reemen t t h a t n o t o n ly m u s t w e a ccoun t f o r a l t h e i n d iv idua l e l emen t s ( s he rd s o r v e s se l s ) b u t t he m e thod o fo rgan iza t ion s hou ld a low f o r t h e c on s ide ra t ion o f aw ide r ange o fq ue s t ion s b eyond t he t r ad i t iona lc h rono log ica li sue sw h ich h ave f o rs ol o ng d om ina ted t he s t udy o fa rchaeo log ica lc e ram ic s . H av ing p l aced o u r se lve su nde rt h e se d emand ing i mpe ra t ive s ,h oweve r ,w ea l ls eem t oa g ree t h a ti ti s n e i the r d e s i rab le n o r p o s s ib le t op re sen t o u r c o l league s w i th as imp le p r in ted c a ta logue o fn a r ra t ive d e sc r ip t ion s , e ven w i th g r aph ic r ep re sen ta t ion s , f o r a l t h e s pec imen s w e r ecove r . G iven t he se p a rame te r si ts eem st h a t ad a ta b a se a pp roach i st h eo ne b e s ts u i ted t ot h ep re sen ta t ion o ft he m ax imum a moun to fd i ve r s i ty a nd t h eg rea te s ta moun to fo rgan iz a t iona lf l ex ib i l i ty . A sF ea the r sp o in ted o u t ,t h ei d ea o f ad a ta b a se i sn o t an ew o ne .L ike s om any o the ra rea s ac a se c an b em ade t h a t t h i s c oncep tw a s f i r s t s ugge s ted b yW . M . F .P e t r ie . H i s s y s tem o fs equence d a t ing f o r E gyp t ian c e ram ic s , a sd ef i ned i n1 899 a nd f i r s t u sed a tD io spo l i s P a rva i n1 901 , may w e l lb et h e f i r s t d e s igned a rchaeo log ica ld a ta b a se . F ea the r sg oe so n t on o te , h oweve r ,t h a tt h e se e a r ly a t temp t sa td a ta b a se c on s t ruc t ion w e re u sed t o c r ea te t ypo log ica l g roup ing s ( p r ima r i ly o n mo rpho log ica l c on s ide ra t ion s ) w h ich w e re o rgan ized c h rono log ica l ly . I tw a s t h e se s ub sequen t g roup ing s o r t y po log ie s w h ich w e re p ub l i shed . T he mo s t e x ten s ive P a le s t in ian e xamp le w a sJ .G . Duncan a nd P e t r ie ' sC o rpus o fD a t ed P a l e s t in ian P o t t e r y .T h i s v o lume w a sa r ranged b yk nown t y pe sw h ich w e re p roven ienced t os i te a nd s e lec t ive ly i l u s t ra ted ( Duncan 1 9 30 ) . T he t y pe -va r ie ty s y s tem u sed b y P h i l l ip s , F o rd , a nd G r i ff in t op ub l i sh t h er e su l t s o ft h e L owe r M i s s i s s ipp iV a l ley s u rvey ( Ph i l l ip s , F o rd , a nd G r i ff in 1 951 ;P h i l l ip s 1 970 ) i sp e rhap st he mo s tf amou s N o r th Ame r ican e xamp le w i th Handbook o fT exa sAr chaeo log y :T ype D e sc r ip t ions ( Suhm a nd J e lk s1 962 ) ac l o se s econd . Wh i le f ew s ub sequen t r e sea rche r s h ave u nde r taken t o o rgan ize i n ven to r ie s o fs uch c on s ide rab le s cope t h e re h ave b een n ume rou sa t temp t st os oo rgan ize s ma l le rs egmen t s .I nt h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 st h i sw a s ap a r t icu la r ly p opu la rp a s t ime o fP h .D .c and ida te s . S uch t y po log ie s mu s t ,b yd ef in i t ion , o rgan ize t h em a te r ia l si n to r i g id , mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive c a tego r ie s . T h i st y pe o ft a sk i su sua l ly af o rm idab le o ne a nd t h es ucce s so rf a i lu re o fs uch e f fo r t si su sua l ly m ea su red b yt h e e x ten t t ow h ich t h e c a tego r ie s p ropo sed e ncompa s s t h e b road r ange o fr ea l -wo r ld v a r ia t ion s e ncoun te red i na c tua li n ven to r ie s .T he v a s tm a jo r i ty o fs uch a t temp t sg ene ra l ly e n joy o n ly l i m i ted u se i f , f o rn oo the rr e a son ,t h a ts ub sequen td i scove r ie sp roduce e xamp le sw h ich c anno tb ea ccommoda ted b y t h es y s tem .O f ten s uch s t ud ie sa r eo u tda ted b e fo re t h ef i r s tc opy i se ve rs o ld .I f ,o nt h eo the rh and ,o ne c on t inue s i nt h e e f fo r t t o i n co rpo ra te n ew d a ta a s t h ey b ecome a va i lab le t he s t udy m ay n eve r b e c omp le ted a sw a st h ec a se o fC .S .F i she r ' sC o rpus o fP a l e s t in ian P o t t er y .F rom t h em id -1920 su n t i lh i s

9 9

d ea th i nt h ee a r ly 1 940 sh ec on t inued t ow o rk o nt h i se f fo r t ,a nd f r om 1 930 u n t i lh i sd ea th t h e re w a sa n a nnua la nnouncemen to fi t si mm inen tp ub l ica t ion ,y e ti tn eve ra pp ea red . A l l s uch e f fo r t s h ave , h oweve r , n o t e nded i n t h e p ub l ica t ion o f" hope le s s ly a n t iqua ted " s t ud ie s ( A lb r igh t1 939 :5 5 )o rf a i led t or e ach t h ep r in ted p age .Af ew s t ud ie sa r es os ucce s s fu lt ha tt h ey b ecome t h e s t anda rd r e f e rence f o r t h e f i e ld , i ti st h e se s t ud ie s ,w es ugge s t , t h a t a r e ,i nt h el ong r un ,t h e mo s t d amag ing t ot h ed i sc ip l ine . B ,a nd l a rge ,t y po log ica ls t ud ie sa r ed e s igned a nd f unc t ion a sd i c t iona r ie s .T hey p rov ide u sw i th al i s t o fn ame su nde rw h ich t h e c e ram ic i n ven to ry c an b eg rouped a nd p rov ide u sw i th d e f in i t ion sf o rt he se v a r iou sn ame s . I f ,f o r e xamp le ,w ew an tt ok now t h eb a s ic d ef in i t ion o rl i s to fc ha rac te r i s t ic so f at ype c a l led A l l iga to rI nc i sed i ti sp o s s ib le t of i nd t h i se a s i ly b yl o ok ing u nde rt h eA l l iga to rI nc i sed h ead ing i n t h er e f e rence . I n s uch as y s tem , i fw ew i sh t o" unde r s tand" t h ec e ram ic si nt h ei n ven to ry o u rj ob i st o ma s te rt h i sl i s to fn ame sa nd d e sc r ip t ion s . S i nce t h e se s t ud ie s a r e d i c t iona r ie s , a nd n o tl e x icon s ,t h ey a r eo n ly o rgan ized i no ne d i rec t ion b y t h en ame o ft he t y pe s . I fw ew an tt ok now t h et y pe ( s )t ow h ich as h e l l tempe red s he rd w i th d i agona l ly i n c i sed l i ne sb e long s ,w e a re i nf o r al o ng s ea rch . Ou rr ewa rd f o rt h i se f fo r ti sl e a rn ing t h a t" A l l iga to r I nc i sed" i ss imp ly a no the rw ay t os a y" she l l tempe red c e ram ic sw i th d i agona l ly i n c i sed l i ne s ." -

I nt h i s m anne r t h e i n t roduc t ion t ot h e s t udy o fc e ram ic s i sl i ke l e a rn ing al a nguage ; i nt h i s c a se a l a nguage w i th a nu ncomp l ica ted s y n tax c on s i s t ing p r ima r i ly o fn oun sa nd a d jec t ive sa nd a lmo s tn ov e rb s . T he s t uden t 's j ob i st om emo r ize t h e t y pe d e sc r ip t ion s .T h i si sh ow o ne b ecome sa n a u tho r i ty . I n t h i s s y s tem k now ledge i sa dvanced b yr ef in ing p rev iou s ly f o rmu la ted t y pe d ef in i t ion so rb yd i scov e r ing n ew t y pe s ;t h a ti sb ye i the re d i t ing o re n la rg ing t h et e x t . Wo rk ing w i th in s u ch af r amewo rk a rchaeo log i s ts c an o rgan ize t h e m a te r ia l s t h ey r e cove r u nde r t h e se n ame s a nd b e l i eve t h a t t h ey h ave d i scha rged t he i r r e spon s ib i l i ty f o r p ub l i sh ing t h e c e ram ic s .S uch as y s tem ,w ef e a r ,s e rve so n ly t or ewa rd p edan try a nd s t if le i mag ina t ion . U s ing s uch af r amewo rk w i th in w h ich t oi n te rp re ta r chaeo log ica lc e ram ic sh a sh ad t he e f f ec to fc l o s ing o r r e s t r ic c ing r a the r t h an o pen ing o r w iden ing t h e f i e ld s o fi n qu i ry . T h i s i sw hy w e r ega rd t h e mo s t s ucce s s fu lt y po log ica ls y s tem sa st h e mo s td ange rou s . We d on o tn eed ac l o sed s y s tem o fd i scou r se . We n eed a ni n te rac t ive ,m u l t i -d imen s iona ll a nguage s ot h a tw em ay b eg in t ou nde r s tand t he p roce s ses r a the r t h an p rov ide n ame sf o rt h ep roduc t s . A sw eh ave e mpha s ized ab a s ic r equ i remen tf o rt h i sl a nguage i st h a ti th ave as t ruc tu re w h ich s e rve s t op rov ide a cce s s ( f o r u se a nd /o r d a ta e n t ry ) , r a the rt h an b a r r ie r s , i n to t h e i n ven tory i t se l f .A s Adan B ayew i tz h a se mpha s ized ,t h e re i sf i na l ly n os ub s t i tu te f o rt h es he rd st h em se lve s .I ti st he r e spon s ib i l i ty o ft h ep r ima ry r e sea rche ri nt h e" f ina l" p ub l ica t ion o ft h e se m a te r ia l st ou se a no rgan iza t iona ls t ruc tu re w h ich w i l l a l low r e sea rche r s t od e te rm ine i ft h e i n ven to ry c on ta in s m a te r ia l s w h ich e i the rw ou ld b e a menab le t oo the r f o rm s o fa n z iy s i s o r c ou ld b eu sed t oa dd re s so t he rs e t s o fq ue s t ion s . We n eed t o d e te rm ine t h i sw i thou th av ing t oo pen e ve ry b ag i nt h es t o re room a nd r eca ta log e very s he rd . C e r ta in ly n o o ne s t ruc tu re w i l lb e c omp le te ly s u i tab le f o ra l p o s s ib le t y pe s o fi nqu i ry .T h i sp o in t i s m ade b ya l o ft h i s v o lume ' s c on t r ibu to r s . Howeve r , i ti se qua l ly c l ea r t h a t t h e re a re c e r ta in k ind s o f i n fo rma t ion w h ich a r ea b so lu te ly e s sen t ia lt oa ny t y pe o fs t udy . We a t temp ted t os umma r i z et h ese t ype s o fi n fo rma t ion u nde r t h e h ead ing s o ff o rm , f a b r ic , a nd f i nd spo t . T he se t h ree c a tego r ie s a r e , i n o u r j udgmen t , t he a b so lu te m in imum n eeded t o e x trac t s i gn i f ican t i n fo rma t ion f r om a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s . E x t rac t ing m ean ing fu l i n fo rma t ion f r om a ny p ub l i shed i n ven to ry w h ich om i t s f u ndamen ta l d a ta r ega rd ing f o rm , f a b r ic ,a nd f i nd spo ti s ,w ea r ec onv inced ,a lb u ti mpo s s ib le . Wh i le w eb e l ieve t h a ti ti sc r uc ia lt h a t s ome a ccu ra te i n fo rma t ion m u s tb ep rov ided f o rf o rm ,f ab r ic , a nd f i nd spo t , d a ta a l ong t h e se t h ree a xe s m ay , a nd p robab ly w i l l , e xh ib i t c on s iderab le v a r ia t ion i n p rec i s ion ,c omp le tene s s ,a nd a ccu racy g i ven t h ev a r ied n a tu re o fp a r t icu la rp ro jec t sa nd t h ei n te re s t so f i n d iv idua lr e sea rche r s .F o rt h i s r e a son w eb e l ieve i ti si mpo r tan tt oc on s ide rf u r the rs ome o ft h ei s sue s i n vo lved i nt h e se t h ree c a tego r ie s .I nt h ec a se so ff i nd spo ta nd f o rm w eb e l ieve t h em a t te rt ob er e la t ive ly s t ra igh t fo rwa rd .M in imum d e sc r ip t ion so ff a b r ic ,h oweve r ,a r em o re c omp lex .

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T he d ef in i t ion o ff i nd spo ti sc on s ide red b yS t range w ho e mpha s ize st h ei mpo r tance o fp rov id ing a n i n te rp re t ive f r amewo rk f o r t h i s . We a g ree . I ti so ne t h ing t ok now s imp ly t h a t as he rd o rv e s se li sf r om C ae sa rea .I ti sq u i te a no the rt ok now t h a ti tw a sf ound u p s ide d own i nt h ef i l lb enea th t h el owe s tp l a s te r f l oo ri nt he M i th raeum .F u r the r ,w ea g ree w i th S t range t h a ti n fo rma t ion a bou tt h ef i nd spo ts hou ld e nab le r e sea rche r s t o i d en t i f y a l t h e o the r m a te r ia l s r ecove red f r om t h a t c on tex t . ' S uch i n fo rma t ion w a s i mpo r tan ti nc on s ide r ing t h ew ay i nw h ich t h eL evan t ine mo r ta r ia w e re u sed ( Chap te r5 ) . An umbe ro fm e thod sf o rc onvey ing i n fo rma t ion a bou ts he rd o rv e s se lf o rm h ave b een u sed . We a rgue t h a tt h em in imum n eeded i sac ro s s sec t ion p rof i le o ft h ev e s se lo rt ha tp o r t ion o ft h ev e s se lr ep re sen ted b yt h es he rd ( s ee ,e . g . ,C hap te r1 ,f i g . 1 1 ) .S uch am e thod c onvey st h eb a s ic mo rpho log ica la t t r ibu te so f t h ep i ece a ccu ra te ly a nd p rec i se ly . I ti so u r c on s ide red j udgmen t t ha t p ro se o r n ume r ic r e f e rence t o f o rm s o r mo rpho log ica l e l emen t s s hown e l sewhe re i n ac ode b ook , c a ta logue , o r h andbook i sn o t a dequa te . S uch p rocedu re s i n ev i tab ly t e nd t owa rd s chema t ic r ep re sen ta t ion a nd t hu s o b scu re s ub t le v a r ia t ions a mong i nd iv idua l p i ece s . We e mpha t ica l ly d on o te ndo r se t h em e thod u sed t oi lu s t ra te t he c e ram ic sf r om Meg iddo ( Loud 1 948 ) ;" Fo r mo s to ft h ep o t te ry t y pe so n ly o ne e xamp le ( u sua l ly t h ef i r s t f o und )w a sd rawn ;b u t ,s i nce i tw a sd ec ided t os how d raw ing so ft h ec omp le te a s semb lage o ft y pe sf r om e ach s t ra tum ( XX -V I ) , t h e d raw ing o ft h e s o -ca l led ' t ype p o t ' i sr epea ted f o ra l o the rs t ra ta i n wh ich t h et y pe o ccu r red ." T he re e x i s t m any g raph ic c onven t ion s f o r t h e r ep re sen ta t ion o fs u r f ace f i n i sh a nd d eco ra t ion a nd t h o se s t anda rd sw h ich h ave b een a dop ted f o r t h e r eg ion s hou ld b ee mp loyed . We n o te t h ec omb ined u s eo fd raw ing sa nd p ho tog raph si n ar e cen tp ub l ica t ion o fI r on Age m a te r ia lf r om T aanach w h ich w a s v e ry e f fec t ive i np o r t ray ing s u ch a spec t s i nt h e v e s se l s u nde r s t udy ( Ra s t 1 978 ) . S ome s t anda rd ized t e rm ino logy f o rc o lo rd e s igna t ion i sa l so c e r ta in ly n ece s sa ry i nd e sc r ip t ion so fw a re a nd d eco ra t ion ,b u t , i no u rj udgmen t ,t h eb l a sé u s eo ft h e Munse l lS o i lC o lo rC ha r t s( 1 975 )f o rt h i sp u rpo se i sv a s t ly o ve r ra ted . Ma jew sk i a nd O 'Br ien p o in ted t os e ve ra l p rob lem s i nd e te rm in ing h ow much a nd w ha t t y pe s o f i n fo rma t ion a bou tt h ec ompo s i t iona la t t r ibu te so ft h ec e ram ic ss hou ld b ei n c luded i nt h ed a taba se .S ome o ft h e se i s sue sa r ea l so d i scu s sed i nC hap te r4 .T h i sm ay v a ry b e tween t y pe so fi n ven to r ie s . Wh i le as he rd m a rked " I ron S tone C h ina ,W i l l iam F l en tke" m ay b es u ff ic ien ta s ad e sc r ip t ion o fc e ram ic c ompo s i t ion i fi ti sk nown t h a tF l en tke u s ed t h i st r adema rk b e tween 1 880 a nd 1 882 w hen h ew a si nE a s tL ive rpoo l , O h io ,t h i ss i tua t ion i sn o tn o rma li na r chaeo logy .U sua l ly s ome s o r to fc ompo s i t iona la na ly s i si sn ece s sa ry i no rde rt op o in tt ot h ep i ece ' sp o in to fm anu f ac tu re a nd t h e se i nd ica to r sw i l lv a ry b e tween r eg ion sa nd a c ro s st ime .E xcava to r sn eed t od e te rm ine s ome b a s ic p o in te r sf o rt h ec e ram ic si nt h e i rr eg ion .T ok now t h a tt h e" b lack s and t empe r" i nP ompe ian R ed Wa re c an b ed ef ined o b jec t ive ly a sc ompo sed l a rge ly o f a ug i te a nd t ha ti tw a sm ade ,i na l l i ke l ihood ,n ea rP ompe i ii sa ni mpo r tan ti nd ica to ro ft r ade .T he s ame w ou ld b et r ue o f ap i ece o fS t a f fo rd sh i re P ea r l - Wa re . He re w er epea to u rv i ew t h a ts uch i d en t if ica t ion s m u s t b e made b y p ro f e s s iona l c e ram ic t e chno log i s t s o r c e ram ic p e t ro log i s t s a nd n o t t h e f i e ld a r c haeo log is tw ho t h ink st h i sl o ok sl i ke ap i ece o f aK oan a mpho ra s een t h ep rev iou sy ea r . W i thou ts ome b a s ic i n fo rma t ion i ne ach o ft h e se t h ree ( f ind spo t ,f o rm ,a nd f a b r ic )i ti si mpo s s ib le f o r r e sea rche r s t o b eg in t o t a p t h e i n fo rma t ion p o ten t ia l c on ta ined i n a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s . T h i s s t a temen ts hou ld n o tb et a ken t om ean t h a te xcava t ion r epo r t sa r en o tc omp le te u n le s se ach s pec imen i sd e sc r ibed i ne xqu i s i te d e ta i l .T ha t i sn o t o u rr e spon s ib i l i ty . O u rr e spon s ib i l i ty i st op rov ide t h eb a s i s u pon w h ich o the r sc an c ha l lenge o u ra s se r t ion sa bou tv a r iou sa spec t so ft h ei n ven to ry o rc an r eo rgan ize t h em a ter ia ls i nw ay st h a td i dn o to ccu rt ou so rc an s e lec tf r om o u ri n ven to ry p i ece st ob ea na lyzed a nd d e sc r ibed u s ing m o re p rec i se o ra ccu ra te t e chn ique st of o rm m o re s pec ia l ized d a ta b a se sp e rhap sl i nk ing

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I na n a s ide ,w e n o te t ha t t he p rac t ice o fr epor t ing f i ndspo t i n t erms o fa rb i trary l e ve ls o fe xcava t ion ,e .g . , S quare 2 ,L eve l 4 ,c om mon ly u sed t or epor te xcava t ions a t Nor th Amer ican p reh is tor ic s i tes i s ,i no ur judgmen t ,a lmo s tc omp le te ly wor th les s a s af r a mework w i th in wh ich t or epor tt he l o ca t ion a nd c on tex to fr ecovered c eram ic s .I nf ac t ,i ti sworse t han wor th less ; i t i sp ern ic ious . I tc onveys t he i lus ion o fp rec is ion a nd a ccuracy wh i le t o ta l ly a vo id ing t he r espons ib i l i ty o ri n terpre t ing t he n a ture o ft he ma tr ix w i th in w h ich ma ter ia ls a re r ecovered . Wh i le i t may b ep oss ib le f or t he r esearcher t od e term ine wha t o ther ma ter ia ls w ere r ecovered f r om L eve l 4o fS quare 2 ,i ti sn o tp oss ib le ,o n t ha t i n forma t ion a lone , t od e term ine i ft h is u n i tc ross -cu t i mpor tan ts t ra t ig raph ic d i s t inc t ions o rh ow t h is u n i t m igh t r e la te t oo thers f rom t he e xcava t ion .

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t h em t om a te r ia l s r ecove red f r om a c ro s s ar eg ion . C e r ta in ly t h eu tmo s t c a re n eed st ob eu s ed i no u r c ho ice o fc onven t ion sr ega rd ing t h ef o rm ,f a b r ic ,a nd f i nd spo to fo u rc e ram ic sa nd ,a sR i s se ra nd R ege r p o in to u t ,a na rchaeo log ica lc on f e rence m igh tw e l lb en eeded t og e ta g reemen tw i th in a nd a r ound a ny o ne a r ea o fs t udy . I nc l o s ing w ew i sh t oe mpha s ize mo s ts t rong ly t h a tt h eg oa lo ft h i se n te rp r i se i sn o tt oc r ea te t he mo s t a rcane w ay t od ef ine s ome m i se rab le p o t she rd . We a re l o ok ing f o rw ay st oo rgan i ze t he c e ram ic ma te r ia l s ot h a to the r s w ho ,g od f o rb id ,m ay n o te ven b ea r chaeo log i s t s m ay " shu ff l ea nd r e -shuf f l et h ed eck " i nn ew w ay s s o t h a t p a t te rn s h idden i nt h e i n ven to ry , p e rhap se v en o b scu red b yt he w ay i nw h ich t h e m a te r ia l sw e re o r ig ina l ly o rgan ized ,m ay b ea lowed t oa ppea r . We a r ec onv inc ed t ha t ac ompu ter ized d a ta b a se o rgan ized t op rov ide m in imum d a ta r ega rd ing t h ef o rm ,f a b r ic ,a nd f md spo to fa r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic si sa ni d ea w ho se t ime h a sc ome . -

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P o s t scr ip t A sw ew e re p repa r ing t h i s c onc lu s ion w e c ame a c ro s s t wo a r t ic le s a ppea r ing i nt he l a te s t i s sue o f An t iqu i ty w h ich , w h i le n o t d i rec t ly c once rned w i th a r chaeo log ica lc e ram ic s ,w eb e l ieve t ob eo fs ome c on s ide rab le r e levance t ot h i sd i scu s s ion .T he se a r eC h r i s tophe rT i l ley ' s( 1 989 )" Excava t ion a sT hea t re " a nd I an Hodde r ' s ( 1 989 ) "W r i t ing A rchaeo logy :S i te R epo r t si nC on tex t ." E ach a r t ic le d ea l ss pec if ica l ly w i th t h ea r chaeo log ica le n te rp r i se a nd t h ep ub l ica t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l d a ta . T i l ley m ake s t h e p o in t t h a t mo s t a r chaeo log ica l w o rk h a sc ea sed t ob e r e levan t o u t s ide o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l p ro f e s s ion a nd t h a t t h e p ro f e s s ion h a s b ecome o b se s sed w i th d a ta c o l lec t ion n o t i n te rp re ta t ion . T hu s , mode rn r epo r t st e nd t ob ec a ta logue so fd a ta w h ich a r e mo re -o r le s so b jec t ive ly s t a ted b u ta re t o ta l ly d evo id o fi n te re s t . Hodde r ' sp ape re xam ine st h es h i f ti na r chaeo log ica lr epo r t ing f r om " t he c on t ingen t a nd c on tex tua l ized" r epo r t s o ft h e 1 8 th c en tu ry t ot h e " ab s t rac t , d i s tanced a nd u n ive r sa l" r epo r t s o ft oday . Hodde r d e sc r ibe s m ode rn r epo r t sa s" ove r loaded , d u l l , u n readab le" a nd s ugge s t s ( 1 989 : 2 74 ) , "We m igh t a l so c on s ide r p ub l i sh ing m uch l a rge r p o r t ion s o f s i t e r epo r ts i n m ic rof iche f o rm , l e av ing t h e t e x t f o r n a r ra t ive , d i a logue , a nd i n te rp re ta t ion ." We h ea r t i l yc oncu rw i th b o th T i l ley a nd Hodde r ' sa s se s smen t so ft h ep rob lem . -

We s ugge s t , h oweve r , t h a t i ft h em a jo r i ty o ft h ea r chaeo log ica ld a ta w e re p ub l i shed a s ad a ta b a se , a va i lab le f o rt h eu se o fa li n te re s ted s c ho la r s ,a r chaeo log i s t sc ou ld p roduce f a rs ho r ter s i te r epo r t s wh ich c on ta in p r ima r i ly d i a logue a nd a rgued c onc lu s ion s . Hodde r ' s s ugge s t ion t h a t m ic rof i che b e u sed f o r l a rge p a r t so fa r chaeo log ica lr epo r t sw ou ld r e su l ti nt h ep re sen ta t ion o fd a ta i n as t a t ic m ed ium w he re f u r the rm an ipu la t ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ed a ta i si mpo s s ib le w i thou tt h en ece s s i ty o fc onve r t ing t h e d a ta b ack i n to a na na ly t ica lm ed ium ,p robab ly a t as i gn if ican tc o s ta nd c e r ta in ly n o tw i thou ti n troduc ing a dd i t iona le r ro r .T he p ub l ica t ion o ft h ea c tua ld a ta b a se u sed i nt h ea na ly s i sb eh ind t he a r chaeo log ica l r epo r tp re sen t st h ei n te re s ted r eade rw i th i mmed ia te a cce s st ot h ed a ta w i thou tt h en ece s s i t yo f manua l ly r e t r iev ing i t .T hu st h ed a ta i sa cce s s ib le ,y e ti so u to ft h ew ay w hen n o tw an ted b yt he r eade r . I n av e ry r ea ls en se ,w ev i ew t h ei d ea so fT i l ley a nd Hodde ra sc omp lemen ta ry t hough t so nt he t op ic o fa r chaeo log ica lp ub l ica t ion .T h i sv o lume h a sc on s ide red t h eq ue s t ion o fd a ta b a se si nt h ea na ly s i sa nd p ub l ica t ion o fa r chaeo log ica lc e ram ic s . We b e l ieve t h a tt h es ucce s s fu li mp lemen ta t ion o ft h i sa pp roach t o t h e s t udy o f a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s w i l l g r ea t ly a s s i s t i n o pen ing t h e p ro fe s s ion t oi n tere s ted s pec ia l i s t sf r om o t he rf i e ld sa nd t on ew s e t so fp rovoca t ive q ue s t ion st ob ea s ked o ft he a r chaeo log ica l d a ta .I na dd i t ion ,w eb e l ieve t h a tt h ec e ram ic d a ta s e tc an b ed ef ined mo re o b jec t ive ly b yt h e se mean s . I fs uch c hange s c an h appen , t h en t h e b a s ic a r chaeo log ica l" f ina lr epo r t" w i l l c e r ta in ly b em od if ied .I f t h eo b se rved a nd o b jec t ive d a ta i sp ub l i shed a sa ne l ec t ron ic d a ta b a se , t h en m uch o ft h eo ve r loaded , d u l l ,a nd u n readab le a spec t so fc u r ren tr epo r t sw i l lh ave b een b an i shed f r om t h ep r in ted r e po r t .T he se d a ta w ou ld n ow b e a va i lab le t ot h e " de l i r iou s s c ho la r" i n am ed ium w h ich a low s i n s tan t a cce s s a nd m an ipu la t ion s ome th ing i mpo s s ib le i nc u r ren tr epo r t s .W i th t h er emova lo ft h i sn ece s sa ry ,b u tb o r ing , m a te r ia lf r om t h eb a s ic p r in ted r epo r t , t h e a u tho r so fs uch r epo r t sw i l lh ave t of i l la tl e a s ts ome o ft h e s pace s omehow . Wou ld i tb et oo m uch t oa s kt h a tw ed oi tw i th n a r ra t ive ,d i a logue ,i n te rp re ta t ion s ,a nd a rgued c onc lu s ion s? -

1 02

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T he L a te P e r s ian P o t te ry .I nD i scove r ies i nt h e Wad ie d -Dâ l iyeh ,c d .b yP .W .L app a nd N .L .L app , pp. 3 0 -32 . Annua lo ft he Ame r ican S choo l so fO r ien ta lR esea rch V o l .4 1 . C amb r idge , Ma s s . : Ame r ican S choo l so fO r ien ta lR e sea rch . T he S t ra tum V P o t tery f r om B a ltah ( Shechem ) .B u l l e t in o ft h e Amer ican S choo l so f O r ien ta lR e sea r ch 2 57 :19 -43 .

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L app ,P .W . 1 961

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P a l e s t in ian c e ram ic sc hrono logy :2 00 B .C . -A .D . 7 0 . N ew Haven : Amer ican S choo ls o f O r ien ta lR e sea rch . T he P o t te ry o fP a le s t ine i nt he P er s ian P e r iod .I nA r chäo log ie u nd a l te s T e s tamen t : F e s t schr if tf ür K ur t Ga l l ing ,e d .b yA .K u schke a nd E .K uschke ,p p . 1 79 -97 .T üb ingen :J . Moh r .

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P o t te ry Manu fac tu re :S ome C omp l ica t ion sf o rt he S tudy o fT rade .I nP o t sa nd P o t t er s : C ur r en t App roaches i nC e ram ic A r chaeo lo gy ,e d .b yP .M .R ice ,p p .5 5 -70 .I n s t i tu te o fA r c haeo logy Monog raph 2 4 .L o s Ange le s : Un iver s i ty o fC a l i fo rn ia .

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E x cava t ions a tC ae sa r ea Ma r i t ima 1 975 , 1 976 , 1 979—F ina lR epo r t . Qedem 2 1 . J e rusa lem :H ebrew Un ive r s i ty o fJ e ru sa lem .

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C af arnao I :L aC e ram ica .P ub l icaz ion id e l lo S tud ium B ib l icum F ranc i scanum 1 9 . J e rusa lem :F ranc i scan P r in t ing P re s s .

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P rovenance o fS and T empe ri n Hohokam C eram ic s ,A r izona .G eoar chaeo logy 2( 2 ) :91 19 .

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D ecod ing D e s igns : T he L a te T h i rd M i l l enn ium B .C .P o t te r yf r om J ebe lQ a 'aq i r . Un p ub l ished P h .D . d i s se r ta t ion .T uc son : Un iver s i ty o fA r izona .

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1 985

P o t tery U se l i f e Among t h eK a l inga , No r the rn L uzon ,t he P h i l ipp ine s .I nD ecod ing P r eh i s to r ic C e r am ic s ,e d .b yB .A .N e lson ,p p .3 34 -46 .C a rbonda le :S ou the rn I l ino i s Un ive rs i ty P re s s .

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Meg iddo I :S ea sons o f1 935 -39 ,v o l .2 .O r ien ta lI n s t i tu te P ub l ica t ion 6 2 . Ch icago : Un ive rs i ty o fC h icago P re s s .

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17

L yno t t ,M .J . ,a nd J .E . P r ice 1 989

T he L a te Wood land t o Eme rgen t M i s s i s s ipp ian T ran s i t ion i nt he E a s tern O za rk R eg ion ,S ou thea s tM i ssou r i .P aper p resen ted a tt h e5 4 th a nnua l mee t ing o ft h eS oc ie ty f o r Ame r ican A rchaeo logy ,A t lan ta , Ga .

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T he E x cava t ion o fG e ze r , 1 902 -1905 a nd 1 907 -1909 ,v o l .3 .L ondon :J ohn Mu r ray .

MacDona ld ,B u r ton 1 987 Wad ia l -Hasa . Wa te r loo , On t . : Wi lf r id L au r ie r Un ive r s i ty P re s s . McGhee ,R . 1 977 I vory f o rt he S ea Woman :T he S ymbo l ic A t t r ibu te so fP reh i s to r ic T echno logy . C anad ian J ourna lo fA r chaeo log y 1 : 141 -59 . McNama ra ,E .P . 1 948 C e ram ic s ,v o l .I I .S ta te C o l lege :P enn sy lvan ia S ta te Un ive rs i ty . Ma jew sk i ,T e re s i ta 1 987 S oc ia lS ta tus a nd E conom ic P a t te rn ing i nt h eC en t ra lS a l tR ive rV a l ley o f No r theas te rn M i ssour id ur ing t h eN ine teen th a nd E a r l yT wen t ie th C en tur ie s .P h .D .D isse r ta t ion , Un iver s i ty o fM i s sou r i -Co lumb ia . Ann A rbo r ,M ich . : Un ive rs i ty M ic rof i lm s . 1 988

M in imum V e s se lC oun tP rocedu re . Manu sc r ip to nf i l e ,E nv i ronmen ta lS y s tem s Ana ly s i s ,S hawnee M i s s ion ,K an .

Ma jew sk i ,T e re s i ta ,a nd M .J .O 'Br ien 1 984 An Ana l y s i so fH i s to r ica lC e ram ics f r om t h eC en t ra lS a l tR iver V a l l ey o f No r theas tM i s sour i . D epar tmen to f An th ropo logy , Ame r ican A rchaeo logy D iv i s ion , P ub l ica t ions i n A rchaeo logy No .3 .C o lumb ia : Un ive r s i ty o fM i ssour i . 1 987

T he U se a nd M isu se o fN ine teen th -Cen tury E ng l i sh a nd Amer ican C eram ic si nA r c haeo log ica l Ana ly s is .I n Advances i nA r chaeo log i ca l Me thod a nd T heo ry ,e d .b yM .B . S ch i f fe r ,v o l . 1 , pp. 9 7 -209 . N ew Yo rk : Academ ic P re s s .

Ma lama t ,A . 1 979

T he L a s tY ea r so ft he K ingdom o fJ udah .I nT he Wo r ld H i s to ry o ft h eJ ew i sh P eop le , Vo l .4 . 1 , e d .A . Ma lama t , pp. 2 05 -21 .J e ru sa lem : Ma s sada P re s s .

Ma son ,R .D . 1 984 E uro -Ame r ican S e t t l emen tS y s tems i nt h eC en t ra lS a l tR ive rV a l l ey o f No r thea s tM i ssour i . Depa r tmen to f An th ropo logy , Amer ican A rchaeo logy D iv is ion ,P ub l ica t ion si nA r c haeo logy No .2 .C o lumb ia : Un iver s i ty o fM i s sou r i . Ma t son ,F .R . ,J r . 1 951 C e ram ic T echno logy a sa nA id t oC u l tura lI n te rp re ta t ion :T echn iques a nd P rob lem s .I n E s say so nA r chaeo log ica l Me thod s ,e d .b yJ .B .G r i ff in , pp. 1 02 -16 . An th ropo log ica l P ape r so ft he Mu seum o f An th ropo logy No .8 . Ann A rbor : Un ive r s i ty o fM ich igan . 1 965

C e ram ic E co logy : a n App roach t ot he S tudy o ft h eE a r ly C u l tu re so ft he N ea rE as t .I n C e ram ic sa nd Man , e d .b yF .R . Ma tson ,

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May r ,E rn s t 1 982 T he G row th o fB io log ica lT hough t . C amb r idge , Ma s s . : Harva rd Un ivers i ty P re ss . Maza r ,B en jam in ;T rude Do than ;a nd I .Dunayev sky 1 966 E xcava t ions a tE n -Ged i , 1 961 -1962 .' A t iqo t 5( Eng l i sh S e r ie s ) .J e ru sa lem :D epa r tmen t o f An t iqu i t ies a nd Mu seums .

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Teapots and Coffee Pots. Tunbridge Wells, Eng.: Midas Books.

Miller, P., and M. Berthoud 1985 An Anthology of British Teapots. Broseley, Shropshire, Eng.: Micawber. Million, M. G. The Big Lake Phase Pottery Industry. In Zebree Archaeological Project: Excavations, 1980 Data Interpretation, and Report on the Zebree Homestead Site, Mississippi County, Arlcan­ sas, ed. by D. F. Morse and P.A. Morse, pp. 18-1 to 18-42. . Fayetteville:Arkansas Ar­ chaeological Survey. Mommsen, H.; A. Kreuser; and J. Weber 1988 A Method for Grouping Pottery by Chemical Composition.Archaeometry 30 (1):47-57. Moodey, M. Ceramics from the Franklin Glassworks: Acquisition Patterns and Economic Stress. Un­ 1988 published Master's Thesis. Williamsburg: College of William and Mary of Virginia. (Munsell Soil Color Charts) 1975 Munsell Soil Co/or Charts. Baltimore: Munsell Color MacBeth.

119

N aveh ,J oseph 1 962

T he E xcava t ions a t Me sad Ha shavyahu .I s rae lE xp lo ra t ion J ourna l1 2 :89 -113 .

N e f f , Hec to r ;R . L .B i shop ;a nd E .V .S ay re 1 988 AS imu la t ion App roach t ot he P rob lem o fT emper ing i nC ompo s i t iona lS tud ies o fA r c haeo log ica lC e ram ic s .J ourna lo fA r chaeo log ica lS c i ence 1 5 :159 -72 . 1 989

N egev ,A . 1 986

Mo re Ob se rva t ion so nt he P rob lem o fT empe r ing i nC ompo s i t iona lS tud ie so fA r c haeo log ica lC e ram ic s .J ourna lo fA r chaeo log ica lS c i ence 1 6 :57 -69 .

T he L a te H e l l en i s t ic a nd E a r l yR oman P o t te r yo f Naba tean O boda . Qedem 2 2 . J eru sa lem : Hebrew Un ive r s i ty o fJ e ru sa lem .

N e l son ,B .A . 1 980 C u l tura lR e sponse st oP opu la t ion C hang e :A C ompa r i son o fT wo P r eh i s to r i cO ccupa t ions o ft h eM imbr e s V a l ley , N ew Mex ico . Unpub l i shed P h .D .d i s ser ta t ion . Ca rbonda le : S ou the rn I l ino i s Un ive r s i ty . N e tze r ,E hud 1 981 G r ea ter H e rod iur n . Qedem 1 3 .J e ru sa lem : Hebrew Un ive r s i ty o fJ e rusa lem . N ewcomb ,R . ,J r . 1 947 C eram ic Wh i tewar e s .N ew Yo rk : P i tman . N ewe l l ,H .P . ,a nd A .D .K r iege r 1 949

George C . Dav i sS i te . Memo i r so ft h eS oc ie ty f o rAme r ican A r chaeo logy 5 . Wa sh ing ton , D .C .

No r ton ,F .H . 1 952

E lemen t so fc e ram ic s .C amb r idge , Ma ss . : Add i son - We s ley .

O 'Br ien ,M .J . 1 984 G ra s s land , F or e s t , a nd H i s to r ica lS e t t l emen t .,An Ana l y s i so fD ynam ics i n No r thea s tM i s s our i .L inco ln : Un ive r s i ty o fN eb ra ska P re s s . O 'Br ien ,M .J . ,a nd T .D . Ho l land 1 990

V a r ia t ion ,S e lec t ion ,a nd t he A rchaeo log ica lR ecord .I nA r chaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heo ry ,e d .b yM .B .S ch i f fe r ,v o l . 1 2 .T uc son : Un ive r s i ty o fA r izona P res s( i np ress ) .

O 'Br ien ,M .J . ,a nd T . Ma jew sk i 1 989

Wea l th a nd S ta tu si nt he Uppe rS ou th S oc ioeconom ic S y s tem o f Nor thea s te rn Mi s s ou r i .H i s to r ica lAr chaeo log y2 3( 2 ) :60 -95 .

O ikawa ,A . , e ta ! 1 985 A rchaeo log ica l Da ta B a se i nJ apan .I n Da ta B a se si nt h e Human i t ies a nd S oc ia lS c ien c e s ,e d .b yR .F .A l len , pp. 5 5 -64 .O sp rey ,F la . :P a rad igm P re ss . O lm s tead ,E .T .E . 1 948

H i s to r yo ft h eP e r s ian Emp i r e . C h icago : Un iver s i ty o fC h icago P re s s .

O ren ,E l ieze rD . 1 984 M igdo l : AN ew F or t res so nt h eE dge o ft he E a s tern N i le De l ta .B u l le t in o ft h e Amer ican S choo l so fO r ien ta lR e sea r ch 2 56 :7 -44 . O r ton ,C .R . 1 970

T he P roduc t ion o fP o t te ry f r om aRomano -Br i t i sh K i ln S i te : AS ta t is t ica lI n ve s t iga t ion . Wo r ld A r chaeo log y 1 : 343 -58 .

O sbo rn ,A .J . 1 988 L im i ta t ions o ft h eD i f fus ion is t App roach .I n T he T r ansf e ra nd T ransforma t ion o fI dea s a nd Ma te r ia lC u l tur e , e d .b yP .J . Hug i l la nd D .B .D ick son , pp. 2 3 -44 . Co l lege S ta t ion : T exa s A & M Un ive r s i ty P res s .

1 20

O xé ,A . , a nd H .C om for t ,e d s . 1 968 C o rpus V a so rum A r r en t ino run i .B onn . P a ice ,P a t r ic ia 1 986 /87 A P re l im ina ry Ana ly s is o fs ome E lemen t so ft he S a i te a nd P e rs ian P e r iod P o t te ry a t T e l le l - Ma skhu ta .B u l l e t in o ft h e Eg yp to log ica lS em ina r8 : 95 -107 . P a rke r ,S .T . ,e d . 1 987 T he R oman F ron t ie ri nC en t ra lJ o rdan :I n te r im R epo r to nt h eL ime sÄ ra b i cus P ro jec t . B .A .R .I n terna t iona lS e r ie sS 340 . Ox fo rd :B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epo r ts . P a s s i ,S . ; M .C . Ro th sch i ld -Bo ro s ;P .F a se l la ;M .N azza ro -Po r ro ;a nd D . Wh i tehou se 1 981 An App l ica t ion o fH igh P e r fo rmance L iqu id C h romo tog raphy t o Ana ly s i so fL ip id si n A rchaeo log ica lS amp le s .J ourna lo fL ip id R e sea r ch 2 2 :778 -84 . P auke ta t ,T .R . 1 989 Mon i to r ing M i s s is s ipp ian Homes tead Occupa t ion S pan a nd E conomy U s ing C eram ic R efu se .A me r ican An t iqu i ty 5 4 :288 -310 . P eacock ,D .P .S . 1 967 T he Heavy M ine ra l Ana ly s i so fP o t tery : AP re l im inary R epo r t .Ar chaeome t my 1 0 :97 -100 . 1 970

T he S c ien t i f ic Ana ly s i so f Anc ien tC e ram ic s : AR ev iew . Wo r ld A r chaeo log y 1( 3 ) :375 -89

1 977a

C e ram ic sa nd Med ieva lA rchaeo logy .I nP o t ter ya nd E a r ly C omme r ce ,e d .b yD .P .S . P eacock , pp. 2 1 -32 .N ew Y o rk : Academ ic P re s s .

1 977b

P ompe ian R ed Wa re .I nP o t ter ya nd E a r l yC omme r ce ,c d .b yD .P .S .P eacock , 6 2 .N ew Yo rk : Academ ic P re s s .

1 978

T he Rh ine a nd t he P rob lem o f Gau l i sh W ine i n Roman B r i ta in .I nR oman S h ipp ing a nd T rad e :B r i ta in a nd t h eR h ine P rov ince s ,c d .b yJ oan d uP la tT ay lo ra nd Henry C lee re , p p .4 9 -51 .C ounc i lf o rB r i t ish A rchaeo logy R esea rch R epo r t No .2 4 .L ondon : C ounc i l f o rB r i t i sh A rchaeo logy .

1 980

T he Roman M i l l s tones n ea rO rv ie to , Umb r ia ,I t a ly . An t iqua r ie sJ ourna l6 6 :45 -51 .

1 982

P o t te ry i nt h eR oman Wo r ld : An E thnoa r chaeo log ica l Approach .N ew Yo rk : L ongman .

1 984a

Append ix 1 :S eawa te r ,S a l ta nd C eram ic s .I nE x cava t ions a tC a r thag e : T he B r i t i sh M i s s i on . Vo l .1 , 2 ,T he A venue d uP r e s id en t Hab ib B ourgu iba , S a lammbo : T he P o t te r ya nd O the rC e ram i cO b jec t sf r om t h eS i te ,b yM .G .F u l fo rd a nd D .P .S .P eacock , S heff ie ld : B r i t ish A cademy .

1 984b

p p .

p p .

1 47 -

2 63 -64 .

P e tro logy a nd O r ig in s .I nE x cava t ions a tC a r thag e : T he B r i t i sh M i s s ion . Vo l .1 , 2 , T he Avenue d uP r e s id en t Hab ib B ou rgu iba , S a lammbo : T he P o t te r ya nd O the rC e ram ic O b j e c t sf r om t h eS i te ,b yM .G .F u l fo rd a nd D .P .S .P eacock , pp. 6 -28 .S he ff ie ld :B r i t i sh A cademy .

P eacock , D .P .S . , a nd D .F .W i l l iam s 1 986 Ampho rae a nd t h eR oman E conomy : An I n t roduc to r y Gu id e .L ondon a nd N ew Yo rk : L ongman . P e r lman , I . ,a nd F .A sa ro 1 969 P o t te ry Ana ly s i sb yN eu t ron A c t iva t ion .A r chaeome t r y1 :21 -53 . P e r lman , I . ;J . Gunneweg ; a nd J .Y e l l in 1 986 P seudo -Naba taean Wa re a nd P o t tery o fJ e ru sa lem .B u l l e t in o ft h e Ame r ican S choo l so f O r ien ta lR e sea r ch 2 62 :77 -82 .

1 21

P e r reau l t ,J .Y . 1 986 C é ram ique e té change s : l e si mpo r ta t ion sa t t ique sa up roche -o r ien td uV le a um i l ieu d u y es i èc le a van tJ . -C .L e sd onnée sa rchéo log ique s .B u l l e t in d eC o r r e spondance He l lén ique 10 :145 -75 . P e te r son ,J .B . 1 985 T h ree M idd le Wood land C e ram ic A s semb lage sf r om t he Winoo sk iS i te .I nC e ram ic Ana l y s i si nt h e No r thea s t :c on t r ibu t ions t o Me thodo log ya nd C u l tura lH i s tor y ,O cca s s i ona lP ub l ica t ion si n No r thea s te rn An th ropo logy 9 ,p p . 1 09 -59 .R indge ,N .H . :F rank l in P ierce C o l lege . P e t r ie ,W .M .F . 1 886 Nauc ra t i s .P a r t1 . ,( 1884 -5 ) .T h i rd Memo i ro ft he E gyp t ian E xp lo ra t ion F und .L ondon : T rübner . 1 891

L ach i sh ( T e l le lH e sy ) .L ondon : P a le s t ine E xp lo ra t ion F und .

1 892

T he S to ry o f a" Te l l" .I n T he C i ty a nd t h eL and :A C our se o fS even L ec tur e so nt h e Wo rk o ft h eS oc ie ty ,p p . 1 83 -207 .L ondon :A .P . Wa t t .

1 899

S equences i nP reh i s to r ic R ema ins .J our na lo ft h eR oya lAn thropo log ica lI ns t i tu te o f G r ea tB r i ta in a nd I r e land 2 9 :295 -301 .

1 901

D io spo l i sP a rva .L ondon : E gyp tE xp lo ra t ion F und .

1 928

G e rar .B r i t ish S choo lo fA rchaeo logy i nE gyp t , Vo l .4 3 .L ondon : B r i t i sh S choo lo fA r c haeo logy i nE gyp ta nd B e rna rd Qua r i tch .

1 937

An thedon , S i na i . B r i t i sh S choo lo fA rchaeo logy i nE gyp t , Vo l .5 8 .L ondon :B e rnard Qua r i tch .

P h i l l ip s ,P h i l ip 1 970 A r chaeo log ica lS urvey i nt h eL owe rY azoo B a s in , M i s s i s s ipp i , 1 949 -1955 .P ape r so ft he P eabody Mu seum o fA rchaeo logy a nd E thno logy , Ha rva rd Un ive rs i ty Vo l .6 0 . C amb r idge , Ma s s . : P eabody Mu seum . P h i l l ip s ,P h i l ip ;J .A .F o rd ;a nd J .B .G r i f f in 1 951 A r chaeo log ica lS ur vey o ft h eL ow e rM i s s i s s ipp iA l luv ia lV a l ley 1 940 -1947 .P ape r so ft he P eabody Mu seum o fA rchaeo logy a nd E thno logy , Ha rva rd Un ive r s i ty Vo l .2 5 . C amb r idge , Ma s s . :P eabody Museum . P la s ,L eende r tv an d er ,a nd J an v an Doe sbu rg 1 987 Heavy M ine ra l sa nd F e ld spa r si nP o t sherd s .I nN ew s l e t te r :D epa r tmen to fP o t te ry T ech n o logy ( Un ive r s i ty o fL e iden )5 : 74 -86 . P log ,S tephen 1 978

S oc ia lI n te rac t ion a nd S t y l i s t ic S im i la r i ty : AR eana ly s i s . Advance si n Ar chaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heo r y ,e d .b yM .B .S ch i f f e r ,v o l . 1 , pp. 1 43 -82 . O r lando , F la :A cadem ic P res s .

P o ra th ,Y . 1 974

AF o r tre s so ft he P e r s ian P e r iod . ' A t iqo t 7( Heb rew S e r ie s ) :43 -55 a nd 6 *7* .

P o r ter ,J .W . 1 983 T h in S ec t ion Ana ly s i so fC e ram ic s .I nT he R ob inson ' sL ake S i te ,c omp .b yG .R . Mi lne r , p p . 1 33 -216 . Ame r ican B o t tom A rchaeo logy , FA I -270 S i te R epo r t s . Urbana : Un iver s i ty o fI l ino is P re s s . P r ice ,J .E . 1 986

Eme rgen tM i s s i ss ipp ian O ccupa t ion i nt h eS ou thea s te rn Oza rks o f Missou r i .P aper p re sen ted a tt h ea nnua lm ee t ing o ft h eS oc ie ty f o r Amer ican A rchaeo logy ,N ew O r l e an s ,L a .

1 22

P rom is , C a r lo 1 969 S to r ia d e l l 'an t i ca T o r ino ,J u l ia Augus ta T au r inomm , s c r i t ta s u l laf ede d e 'v e tus t ia u to r ie d e l l es ue i s c r i z ion i emura d a C a r lo P rom i s .T o r ino :S tamper ia r ea le , 1 869 ( r ep r in ted , T o r ino : Ed i l ib r i -A .V ig longo ) . P ucc i ,G . 1 983

P o t tery a nd T rade i nt he Roman P e r iod .I nT rad ei nt h e Anc ien tE conomy ,e d .b yP . Ga rn sey ,K . Hopk ins ,a nd C .R . Wh i t taker , pp. 1 05 -17 .B erke ley a nd L o s Ange les : Un ive rs i ty o fC a l iforn ia P re s s .

P u l l iam ,H .R . ,a nd Ch r i s tophe r Dun fo rd 1 980 P rog rammed T oL ea rn : An E s say o nE vo lu t ion o fC u l tur e . New Yo rk : C o lumb ia Un ive r s i ty P res s . R aab ,L .M . ,a nd A .C . Goodyea r 1 984

M idd le -Range T heory i nA rchaeo logy : AC r i t ica lR ev iew o fO r ig in sa nd App l ica t ion s . Amer ican An t iqu i ty 4 9 :255 -68 .

R and sborg ,K . 1 982

R ank ,R igh t s ,a nd R e sou rce s : An A rchaeo log ica lP e r spec t ive f r om Denma rk .I nR ank i ng R e sour ce a nd E x chang e ,e d .b yC .R en f rew a nd S .S he rman , pp. 1 32 -39 .C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s .

R a s t , W. E . 1 978

T aanach I :S tud ie si nt h eI r on Ag eP o t te r y ,e d .b yA .E .G lock .E xcava t ion R epo r ts o ft he Amer ican S choo l so fO r ien ta lR esea rch :T aanach I .C amb r idge , Ma s s . : Amer ican S choo l so fO r ien ta lR esea rch .

R edman , C .L . 1 978 Mu l t ivar ia te A r t if ac t Ana ly s is : AB a s i sf o r Mu l t id imen s iona lI n terp re ta t ion s .I nS oc ia l A r chaeo log y :B eyond S ubs i s tence a nd Da t ing ,e d .b yC .R edman ,e ta l . , Yo rk : Academ ic P res s .

p p .

1 59 -92 .N ew

R edman , C .e ta l . ,e d s . 1 978 S oc ia lA r chaeo logy . B eyond S ubs i s tence a nd Da t ing .S tud ies i nA rchaeo logy .N ew Yo rk : Academ ic P re s s . R edman , C .L . ,a nd J .E . Mye r s 1 981 I n terp re ta t ion ,C la s s i f ica t ion ,a nd C e ram ic P roduc t ion : aMed ieva l No r th A f r ican C a se S tudy .I nP roduc t ion a nd D i s t r ibu t ion :A C e ram ic V i ewpo in t ,e d .b yH i la ry Howard a nd E .L . Mo rr i s , pp. 2 85 -307 .B .A .R .I n te rna t iona lS e r ies 1 20 . Ox fo rd :B r i t i sh A rchaeo log i c a lR epo r ts . R e i sner , Geo rge A . ;C la rence S .F i she r ; a nd Dav id G . L yon 1 924 Ha r va rd E x cava t ions a tS ama r ia , 1 908 -1910 , 2v o l s . C amb r idge , Ma s s . : Harva rd Un ive r s i ty . R en f rew , C . 1 982

S oc io -econom ic C hange i nR anked S oc ie t ie s .I nR ank ing R esour ce a nd E xchang e ,e d . b yC . Renf rew a nd S .S he rman , pp. 1 8 .C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s .

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App roache st oS oc ia lA r chaeo logy . C amb r idge , Ma s s . : Ha rva rd Un iver s i ty P re s s .

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