A Sanskrit Primer

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SANSKRIT PRIMER: BASED ON THE

LEITFADEN

FUR DEN ELEMENTAR-CURSUS DES SANSKRIT OF

PROFESSOR GEORG BUHLER OF VIENNA

BY

EDWARD DELAVAN PERRY, OF COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW- YORK.

v BOSTON: GINN AND COMPANY

r.

,

tS£ if-

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1885,

By E. D. PERRY, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 24.9

(ffamposition

lip

GEBRUDER UNGER, SCHONEBBRGBR StRASSE, BKRTtN, SW.

Jprrssto-ir!*.

ij)

JOHN WILSON AND SON, I'/

A,

university press.

Cambridgf, Mass.

c

(OI

t

Preface.

In the preface to the

work* of which

the following

is

a revision,

Prof. Bithler writes as follows:

"The following

Leitfaden

was

written last winter [1881

—

82],

and, printed in manuscript form, was used in the instruction of quite a large practical

number

of scholars.

method of Sanskrit

Haug's and

my own

It

is

based upon the purely

which was introduced

instruction,

at

instance into the Indian secondary schools,

and has become established there by means of R. G. Bhandarkar's text-books. versities

is

The attempt

to be gained thereby.

is

beginners master the

first difficulties

that learners take the if

study,

first,

European uni-

and they

For

I

my

are.

ex-

have found that

of Sanskrit very rapidly, and

lively and continued interest

own

part

is

in the

given them

introduced at once into the living is

made

the

the fact that the elements of Sanskrit form an

Leitfaden fur den Elementarcursus des Sanskrit; mitUebungsund zwei Glossaren. Von Georg Buhler. Wien, 1883.

—

stiicken I

to

Moreover, the question of economy of time

more weighty by *

most

opportunity for activity on their

from the very language.

method

by the practical success which, as

justified

perience shows,

to transfer this

have translated above a

little freely.

iv

important aid to students of Classical and Germanic Philology, yet to a large

number of such are

accessible only

On

can be mastered in a short time.

when

the subject

the other hand, the disad-

vantages necessarily entailed by the purely practical method readily be

removed

later

The

grammar

may

by a short methodical exposition of the the exercises are taken chiefly

verses in

from Boehtlingk's Indischen Spruchen; the sentences are in part derived from various Sanskrit works, or modelled after passages

contained in them.

To

the last lessons no Sanskrit exercises have

been appended, since the reading of the Nala or of some other easy Sanskrit

work may very well be begun

as soon as the form-

ation of the perfect has been learned."

After using the Leitfaden for some time in the instruction of

a

I

class,

was convinced

of

its

great merits as a practical intro-

duction to the language; while on the other hand

unfortunate that

which,

since the

America stances

it

it

at least

seemed advisable

to

to

distrust.

in

Under these circum-

attempt a combination of Buhler's

Whitney's theory; and

really rewritten.

An

to

this

end the

introduction has been added,

of the structure of the language; the exer-

have been pruned here and there, chiefly to remove forms

which seemed too unusual or doubtful the

we

appearance of Prof. Whitney's work,

have learned

giving a general view cises

seemed very

held throughout to the native system of grammar,

practical exercises with

book has been

it

to

have a just claim on

beginner's memory; and the number of lessons has been re-

duced from forty-eight to forty-five, by condensing the description, needlessly full for beginners,

of the aorist, precative, and second-

have endeavored

ary conjugations.

I

would supply the

real

to

retain nothing but

wants of those for

whom

the

book

what is

de-

who may

signed; yet here and there, having in mind those

up I

should otherwise have

A of the

left for oral

communication by the instructor.

detailed explanation of the changes in the grammatical part

book would require too much space

to be given here.

They

be summarized in the statement that I have striven to remove

may all

take

without a teacher, I have added explanations which

this study

forms at present "non- quotable".

In

the explication of the

rules I have sought to be brief, but never to the sacrifice of clear-

In very

ness.

many

cases not only the substance but also the

words of Prof. Whitney's rules have been incorporated of the Primer, which

was done with

needless to designate

all

his sanction.

are due to those

possible the appearance of the work.

different

mention.

aid has

made

consenting to the rendering of his book into a very

To

Prof.

Whitney

I

owe deep

was kind enough

manuscript, and, later, to put at

my

equally indebted

;

as well for

task of looking over

not a

gratitude for

many

valu-

work

to look over the

in

To

Prof.

Lanman

I

am

many

proof-sheets,

which he imposed on himself

little in

acknowledgments are

deserves most grateful

useful hints as for the arduous

My

with characteristic readiness.

me

it

disposal the advance sheets of

invaluable collection of verb -forms.

assisted

whose

Prof. Buhler's ready gene-

form from that which he gave

able suggestions; he

his

seemed quite

such borrowings by quotation-marks.

Many acknowledgments

rosity in

It

into those

pupil,

Mr. A. V.

W.

Jackson,

the compilation of the Glossaries.

also

due

to

the

printers,

My

Gebr. Unger

(Th. Grimm) of Berlin, for the careful manner in which their part of the

work has been done.

From V.

S.

Apte's "Guide

derived occasional examples.

to Sanskrit

Composition"

I

have

VI

The appearance

of the book has been delayed considerably

beyond the date originally planned for

begun

in

November

The printing was

it.

but was interrupted by

last,

a resulting stay of considerable length in the I shall

will notify

may

they

esteem

me

a favor

it

if

my illness,

West

any who may use

of misprints or inaccuracies of

and

Indies. this

sort

any

book

which

remark. E. D. P.

Berlin, August, 1885.

NOTE TO THE SECOND EDITION. In this edition errors have been corrected in the plates

wherever possible, otherwise noted in a

Prof.

Lanman and

Prof.

list

My

additions at the end of the book.

of corrections

and

thanks are due to

H. F. Burton of Rochester for

corrections furnished.

E. D. P.

New

York, September,

1886.

NOTE TO THE THIRD EDITION. The

revision of the book for the

Dr. Louis H.

Gray,

to

whom

I

am

new impression

glad to express

I

my

owe

to

hearty

thanks for his kindness in undertaking and performing this irksome task. E. D. P.

Munich, July,

1901.

Table of Contents, in systematic The

I.

grammatical arrangement. heavy type refer

figures iu

Introductory suggestions, Alphabet and Sounds.

—

p. xi.

—

—

Guna and Vrddni.

Changes of Sounds.

II.

paragraphs.

Classification of Sounds, and Pronunciation, Accent, 56. Light and Heavy Syllables, 48.

Characters, 1—20.

21—47.

to

49—54. Bales of Euphonic Combination. Rules of Vowel Combination, 105,

III.

— General —

156—161, 164.

106,

—

Laws

Deaspiration, 242. concerning Finals, 239—242. Surd and Sonant Transferral of Aspiration, 244, 249, 428.

—

Assimilation, s

and

r,

191, 192,

266,

148,

147,

95, 117—123, 129.

342. 352.

—

—

—

267.

Combinations

Conversion of

Conversion of n to

s

to

»,

of

Final

p. 27 (note**),

n, p. 32 (note**), 166.

—

Conversion of Dental Mutes to Linguals and Palatals, 149, 150, Combinations of n, p. 29 (note), 138—140, p. 99 (note), 342. Combinations 184. Change of ch to cch, p. 27 (note*), 165.

—

—

—

—

of m, p. 29 (note). Final t, 148—151.

—

Final n [and n] 184.

IV. Declension.

Gender, Number, Case, 83—89. Paefo-endings, V. Substantives

—

—

Final

k,

t,

Case-endings, 90,

p, 266.

91.

—

91, 241.

and Adjectives. Vowel-stems:

Stems

in a,

m.

n.,

103,

III.

—

Stems

in

i,

m.,

113, 115;

n., 114, 115.

Vlll

—

Stems

in u,

—

185—187. in

i,

In

a, 162;

in

189, 212, 214;

Stems

in

in

128;

m.,

Stems in

I,

136,

n.,

a,

go,

—

Stems

209; nau,

—

van), 265.

256—264.

i

In

and

w,

in r,

f.,

a, 212, 213;

201—205, 208.

f.

—

:

—

(a)

In

(b) Derivative Stems.

in

211; rai, 277.

Consonant-stems General, 237—242.

Stems

(b) Derivative Stems,

197, 212, 214.

fi,

183; in u, 198.

Diphthongs:

—

137.

u: (a) Root-words.

z,

Root-stems, 243, 244, 246—250. 252—254. In an (an, man,

as, is, us,

— In ant (ant, mant, vant) — In in vin), 251. — Perfect Participles in vans, 268. — Comparatives (in, rain,

in yas, 255.

Irregular

Nouns: 269

— 284.

—

Comparison, 337 345. Formation of Feminine-stems,

187, 251, 255,

262—264, 268.

VI. Numerals.

328—336. VII. Pronouns.

223—236, 285—288, VIII.

Conjugation.

413.

(fM)

Voice, Tense, Mode,

Number, Person, 57—65.

jectives and Nouns, 66—68. Mode and Tense-stems, 71.

IX. Present-System. Conjugation Classes, 72

—

Verbal Ad-

Secondary Conjugation, 69

—70. —

— 80.

First Conjugation.

General, 383—387. I.

Root-class (Hindu second or

ad-class),

404—412, 414

—429. III.

Reduplicating Class (H. third or Au-class), 430—440. Nasal Class (H. seventh or rudh-c\a,ss), 441 446.

IV.

Nu

II.

—

and ^-Classes (H.

classes),

fifth

and eighth, or su and tan-

388—395.

V. iVa-Class (H. ninth or &n-class), 399-403.

IX

Second, or a-Conjugation.

VI. a-Class 135.

(H.

or Mu-class),

first

152—154,

92—94, 97—102,

178—182, 188, 193—196,

200.

199,

207, 210, 222, 260.

VII. Accented a-Class (Hindu sixth or tad-class),

152—154

etc.

VIII. va-Class 152

etc.

107

—

110,

(as for a-class).

or tfw-class),

fourth

(H.

— 155

134,

206,

124—127, 131—134,

(as for a-class).

IX. Accented yd-C\ass or Passive 188, 199, 200, 210,

Conjugation,

168

— 176,

222.

=

H. tenth [Causative and Denominative Conjugation (partly 154 etc. (as for a-class); or cur-class), 141 146, 152

—

—

also 215—221.]

X. Perfect-System.

447—471, 474. Periphrastic Perfect, 472, 473.

XI. Aorist-System.

—

General,

486.

488.

Reduplicated Aorist,

—

s-aorist, 491;

Simple Aorist

is-aorist,

Root-aorist,

:

—

490.

489,

487; a-aorist,

Sibilant

Aorist:

492; m-aorist, 493; sa-aorist, 494.

—

Aorist Passive, 495, 496.

XII. Future-System.

—

General, 475.

—

Xm.

Simple Future, 476—481.

— Conditional,

482.

483—485.

Periphrastic Future,

Verbal Adjectives and Substantives: Participles, Infinitive, Gerund.

Passive Participle in ta or «a, 289

— 301. — Past Active Par— Gerunds Absolutives,

ticiple in tavant or navant, 302, 303.

304—313.

—

Infinitive,

314—322.

—

:

Future Passive Participles:

Gerundives, 323—327.

XIV. Derivative or Secondary Conjugations. General,

497.

Intensive, 499 tive,

—

Passive,

— 502. —

498.

—

Causative,

Desiderative, 503

509, 510.

XV. Periphrastic Conjugation. Perfect, 472, 473.

—

Future, 483-485.

507,

— 506. —

508.

—

Denomina-

XVI. Vcrhal Prefixes: Adverbs and Prepositions. 81, 82, 167, 190, 395—397. XTII. Formation of Compound Stems.

346—353.

Classification,

—

—

Copulative Compounds, 354—357. Compounds, 358; Dependent, 359—361; De— Secondary Adjective Compounds, 366— scriptive, 362—365. 370; Possessive, 371—377; with Governed Final Member, 378.

Determinative

—

Adjective Compounds as Nouns and Adverbs, 350, 379—381. [Z?t;awGfoa-compounds, p. 136 (note); Ta^wrusa-compounds, p. 137 (note **) A'armaJAara^a-compounds, p. 137 (note *) Dvigu-com;

;

pounds, 380; Bahuvrlhi-compounds,

compounds,

p. 142 (note);

Avyayibhava-

381.]

XVIII. Syntactical Rules.

—

Position of Modifiers, p. 35 (note). Repetition of Words, p. G7 Force of Cases, Agreement of Adjectives, 245. kirn with 104, 112. Prepositions with Cases, 82, 130.

(note*).

— —

—

—

Instrumental (and Genitive),

Comparatives, 345.

p. 89

—

(note).

-

—

Construction with

Numerals, 333. Pronouns, 225, 234 Force of Tenses: Present, 96; Force of Modes: Imperfect, 182; Perfect, 474; Aorist, 486.

—236.

—

iti,

Imperative, Passive,

177.

p. 47 (note).

—

—

—

—

Participle, 303.

—

Appendix.

Hindu Names of

Letters.

—

—

320—322.

—

Modern Hindu Accentuation

of

Gerund, 311—313. Future Passive Participle, 327.

Sanskrit.

—

194—196; Optative, 207. Causative, 221. Past Passive Participle, 290. — Past Active Infinitive,

Suggestions for using the Primer.

The Primer can be

finished

by earnest students

in sixteen or

seventeen weeks, reckoning three lessons per week, with here and After that Lanman's Sanskrit Reader, there an hour for review.

an introduction

to

which

this

work

is

partly intended to be, should

be taken up. Students are strongly recommended to provide themselves with Whitney's Sanskrit Grammar at the outset.

seemed advisable

It

to

leave the Introduction undivided into

may prefer to impart the alphabet, Some of the scholars at different rates of speed. exercises for translation may be found rather too long to be com-

lessons,

as different teachers

to their

etc.,

pleted in one lesson.

In such cases

after requiring the translation

it

will

of only so

probably be better,

many

sentences as the

reasonably be expected to master in the preparation of one day's lesson, to proceed directly to the next lesson in. the following hour, leaving the untranslated sentences for a review.

may

pupil

The

vocabularies prefixed to each exercise are not exhaustive,

words which have been treated of immediately before are sometimes omitted from them. The glossaries at the end of the

since

book

will,

it

is

hoped, be found complete for the exercises; but

meaning of compound words must in most cases be learned from their elements; and proper names have often been omitted, the

their Sanskrit

The

forms being discernible from the transliteration.

of contents in systematic grammatical arrangement designed to facilitate the finding of any desired article; it may also be found useful as an outline for a rapid grammatical review. table

is

Arrangement of Vocabularies.

The vocabularies

are arranged

>:n

in strict alphabetic order (see below).

All nouns, whether sub-

stantives or adjectives, are given in the stem-form.

All verb-forms

are placed under the root; prepositional compounds of verbs likeOf wise, and not in the alphabetic place of the preposition. verbal adjectives and nouns, some important ones have been given in their alphabetic places, but the meaning of most of them must

be learned from their respective roots. form of the nominative.

in the

Pronouns are given generally

•

Alphabetic Order. The alphabetic order is that given in § I, but the following points are to be noticed here: The visarga stands next after the vowels; but a visarga regarded as equivalent to a sibilant and exchangeable with it has the alphabetic place of that sibilant.

The

representing "the anusvdra of more independent place before all the mutes etc.; thus dang and danstrd stand before daksa. origin",

The

n,

sign

has

its

sign m, representing an assimilated m, is placed according

to its phonetic value.

m

to

1.

If m, resulting

anusvdra, then

its

place

is

punya and samgaya before

m

assimilated to

place

is

from the assimilation of

represent a nasal semivowel or like that of n. Thus purhs comes before

a semivowel, sibilant, or

h,

sakrt.

2.

But

a mute, representing

n,

that of the nasal so represented.

if

m

be the product of or m, then its

n, n, n,

Introduction.

Alphabet. I.

Sanskrit

is

commonly

The

Devanagarl alphabet.

written

in

what

called

is

characters of this, and the

the

European

characters which will be used in transliterating them, are as follows^

Vowels. short

^ simple

a

palatal

^[

i

labial

^

u

lingual

^

r

dental

*J

/

long

&

a=n

^u

palatal

a.

+7* TJ

e

\|

at

diphthongs labial

Visarga

:

Anus vara

3*1

h.

—

n or m. I

3

Consonants. surd

sonant

sonant asp.

nasal

k

T§ kh

7[

g

Ti gh

>gp

w

palatal

c

^

c£

^j

?J jh

"5f

n

lingual

*[

n

MM

*

»»

dental

7{

labial

T(

Perry, Sanskrit Primer.

f

sr.rd asp.

^ ^

guttural

p

qj ph

;

b

1

* 9

2

Introduction.

,1s

c

palatal *J y

Semivowels r/"

V-'

w»r\

dental

Sibilants: palatal If p;

Aspiration 2.

by

^

T

lingual

^

labial

I

lingual If

dental ^J

-y,

r

v. 8.

//.

The above order

native grammarians

that in which the sounds are catalogued

is

and European scholars have adopted

;

as the alphabetic order,

from

^

for dictionaries,

The

etc.

it

writing runs

left to right.

3.

The theory

and consonantal.

of the devanagari

That

is, it

mode

simple sound, but the syllable; and further, stantial part of the syllable the

ceding the vowel

—

this

is

syllabic

it

regards as the sub-

consonant (or the consonants) prebeing merely implied, as

latter

except when

case with short ^J a,

of writing

regards as the written unit, not the

initial,

or,

if

written,

is

the

being

written by a subordinate sign attached to the consonant. 4.

Hence follow these two

principles:

A. The forms of the vowel- characters given above are used only

when

the vowel forms a syllable by

with a preceding consonant: that

by another vowel.

is,

itself,

when

or

is

not combined

it is initial,

or preceded

In combination with a consonant, other

modes

of representation are used. B.

with

it

If

more than one consonant precede a vowel, forming

a single syllable, their characters must be

combined into

a single character. 5.

syllable

According to the Hindu mode of dividing syllables, each

must end

in

a vowel, or visarga. or anusvdra, except at

the end of the word; and as ordinary the

words of a sentence

in writing,

into one syllable with the initial

Hindu usage does not

a final consonant

is

divide

combined

vowel or consonant of the following

word, so that a syllable ends in a consonant only at the end of the sentence.

Introduction.

Thus

— prarudham

'

by the water which drops from the clouds

tields the grain

m

of signs,

single group

are

the

IT

works

*T

f^ ^T *J

"H

^^^ — or thus:^J-

printed in Europe, the

words so

Thus, ^«£j«[

in which,

5W

indrdya

varenyam, because the

not written with their

have been printed,

common

forms.

full

by a

with

the

all

is

I

and

But some few works

free use of a sign called virdma

In translite-

no good reason for printing otherwise than

words separated.

Vowels combined

Under A.

7.

namah ;

final ?^

(see below, § 8), the individual words are separated.

rated texts there

practice

be done without any

far as this can

tat savitur

f^ rf^^ igj T^

are

T" r

and the syllables

with more or less closeness of

this:

alteration of the written form. 7f(^f

nyam

w ru te 3rau^s*c-

In Sanskrit

to separate the

but

dbhi rdhd

without any reference whatever to the di-

%%|jfa WrfaW^T 6.

ma

would be indicated by a

these syllables

always written independently,

ftnfrrfaifV

upon the

be considered as consisting of

words composing the sentence;

approach; either like

is

— would

kta bhi rme ghd nd

si

Each of

pra ru dham.

of

tall'

grows

the syllables kse tre

vision

meghdndm adbhir dhdnyarh

the sentence ksetrem siktdbhir

with

preceding

consonants

are written as follows: 1.

Short a has no written sign at

a:

itself implies

attached to

it

a following

«,

unless

virdma

(or else the

all;

the consonant-sign

some other vowel-sign

—

see below, § 8).

is

Thus

the consonant-signs given above are really the signs for ka,

klc

ca, clta, etc. (as far as

2.

a: cRT

&

3.

i

and

I:

'^T cd.

^

ha).

\tf dha etc.

r

The hook

f^R

hi.

fx? pi.

f** dhi.

—

eft kl.

\ft dhx.

tft pi.

above, turning to the left or to the right,

is

histori-

been originally cally the essential part of the character, having 1*

-

4

Introduction.

the whole of

way down

and

that the i-hooks

below the

hooks were only

the

it:

as to reach all the

the

prolonged, so

later

Observe

beside the consonant.

M-hooks, respectively above and

are analogous in turning to the left for the

line,

short vowel and to the right for the long.

u and u:

4.

—

bu.

gj ku.

^f cu.

Owing

«f bhu.

are sometimes disguised; thus,

du, H" du;

^

f

:

3a

kr.

-

hook

vowel

the

Xf

^ ru;

^ ru,

^[

ko.

e

:

ift

cfi

kr.

7{

tr.

With

^

middle

;

thus,

mkl.

I:

ke.

3ft bho.

the fi-sign,

g

g

usually attached to the

is 6.

Diphthongs,

—

pr.

Hindus generally begin

the horizontal

""•

But

°ft en

at the left

top-stroke last; thus, 7,

tne horizontal stroke

is

*J,

made

and the perpendicular stroke added without raising the pen

first,

from the paper; thus,

"T,

^;

1, ^u,

System of Sounds: Pronunciation. 21.

The Sanskrit

is

used

in

India to this day very

Latin was used in Europe in the previous century

medium of communication between tongues what they may, and

whatever. skrit

India

mode

Hence

it

is

it is

the

:

it is

a

much

as

common

be their native

learned,

not the vernacular of any district

not strange that the pronunciation of San-

words varies greatly among scholars from

different parts of

and probably no one system represents the true ancient

;

of utterance with

much

I.

22.

A. The

a,

and long, and are

i,

to

exactness.

Vowels.

and u-vowels. be pronounced

These three occur both short in the

'

&t(or-)gan and father, pin and pique, pull and

Italian

'

manner

—

rule, respectively.

as

The

8

Introduction.

a-

vowel stands

in

no relation of kindred with any of the classes

But

of consonantal sounds.

the

i-

vowel

is

and

distinctly palatal,

the w-vowel as distinctly labial.

The

B.

23.

Both of these are plainly the

and /-vowels.

r

result of abbreviating syllables containing a "^ r or ^T

another vowel: r I

like

le

The diphthongs.

1.

long, should receive the long

and

fibre,

in able.'

C.

24.

along with

I

be sounded like the re in the English

is to

The

e

and

bone, without true diphthongal character.

were doubtless

main pure diphthongs

in the

which are always

o,

and o-sounds of the English

e

they

In their origin, both (e

=a+

?',

o

=a+

u);

but they lost this character at a very early period.

The

2.

in

ai

and au are spoken

German Baum

They were

with long prior element.

guished from

e

and

o

only by

II.

25.

A. Mates.

;

that

is,

as pure diphthongs doubtless, distin-

originally,

the length of the

first

element.

Consonants.

In each series of mutes there are two surd

members, two sonants, and one nasal labial series, the

and au

like the ai in English aisle

(ou in English house)

surds

(also sonant);

p and ph, the sonants

and

b

e.

g.,

bh,

in

the

and the

sonant m. 26.

The

first

and third members of each series are the ordinary

corresponding surd and sonant mutes of European languages; thus,

k and

g,

27.

What

m

nasal to

t

and

Nor is

its

to

d, is

p and

character

the

p and

own

b.

b,

or n

is

of the nasal any to

t

and

d,

that

is

more

doubtful.

also each other

series of mutes: a sonant expulsion of breath into

and through the nose, while the mouth-organs are

in the

mute-

contact. 28.

The second and

fourth of each series are aspirates;

tj

"

9

Introduction.

we have

beside the surd mute k

the corresponding surd aspirate

kh, and beside the sonant g, the corresponding aspirate gh.

u9ual

among European

a very closely fol-

rates as the corresponding non- aspirates with

dh nearly as in boathouse, ph a6 in haphazard,

e. g., th

lowing h;

This

as in madhouse.

inaccurate

is

still

unsettled.

29.

The

several mute-series will

30.

1.

Gutturals: k,

English k and g

and nasal; the 2.

but the question of the original sounds

l

('

kh,

now

g,

c

These are the ordinary

hard")-sounds, with their corresponding aspirates

last, like

Palatals:

and the

of corruption of

ng

in singing.

This whole series

ch, j, jh, n.

c,

sibilant c often represent A;;

For

j.)

the palatals is in

many

c

and j are pronounced

ch

and

j,

32. to

Unguals:

dome

e.

r,

European Sanskritists the dentals 4.

:

t is

t,

The

g.

somewhat in very is

make no

pronounced like

Dentals:

The

palatal mutes

sounds of English

See also § 28.

dh, n.

d,

th,

d,

treatment

reason the euphonic

lingual mutes are said

as

drawn back

the English (or rather

pronounced.

In

attempt to distinguish t,

dh,

equivalents of our so-called dentals *

derivative,

(The palatal

and tip of the tongue turned up

of the palate,

American) smooth

33.

this

with the compound

th,

t,

be uttered with the

into the

is

two successive stages

respects peculiar.

as in church and judge. 3.

gutturals.

the corresponding degrees of corruption of g are

both represented by of

difficulty,

be taken up in detail. n.

gh,

being generated by the corruption of original

mute

one of great

is

aspirates are not double letters.

The

31.

;

of

pronunciation of this entire group

and

It is

pronounce both classes of aspi-

scholars to

d like

and so on.

These are practically the

n. t,

d,

practice

them from

d,

n*

But the Hindus generally use Unguals to represent the English dentals; thus,