De Rebus Bellicis: Part I: Aspects of the De Rebus Bellicis: Papers presented to Professor E. A. Thompson. Part 2: de rebus bellicis: the text 9780860540632, 9781407349473

Table of contents :
Blank Page
Front Cover
Copyright
INTRODUCTION
Title Page
Table of Contents
LIST OF PLATES
LIST OF TEXT FIGURES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FOR ILLUSTRATIONS
ABBREVIATIONS
THE DATE OF THE ANONYMUS DE REBUS BELLICIS
THE ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE ANONYMUS, DE REBUS BELLICIS
LATE ANTIQUE BOOK ILLUSTRATION AND THE GALLIC PREFECTURE
HARVESTING MACHINES, PALLADIUS AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE LATER ROMAN EMPIRE
TAXATION AND SURVIVAL IN THE LATE FOURTH CENTURY: THE ANONYMUS' PROGRAMME OF ECONOMIC REFORMS
THE ANONYMUS: A NUMISMATIC COMMENTARY
FRONTIER POLICY IN THE ANONYMUS
THE INVENTIONS
THE PLUMBATAE FROM WROXETER
PLUMBATAE—A NOTE ON THE METHOD OF MANUFACTURE
FOURTH-CENTURY UNDERWEAR WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE THORACOMACHUS
SIEGE-CRAFT FROM THE SIXTH TO THE TENTH CENTURY
THE ANONYMUS IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES
SUMMING UP
PART TWO
Title Page
PRELIMINARY
Table of Contents
TEXT
TRANSLATION
THE TRANSMISSION OF THE TEXT
TEXTUAL CRITICISM
LANGUAGE AND STYLE
INDICES
MANUSCRIPT ILLUSTRATIONS

Citation preview

De Rebus Bellicis Part I Aspects of the De Rebus Bellicis Papers presented to Professor E. A.Thompson Edited by M.W.C.Hassall

Part 2

de rebus bellicis: the text edited by Robert Ireland

B A R International Series 6 3 1 979

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS

A. R. Hands, B.Sc., :\LA., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, :\1.A.

B. A. R. -863, 1979: "De Rebus Bellicis: Part 1: Aspects of the De Rebus Bellicis; Part 2: the edited text" © The I ndividual Authors, 1979

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860540632 paperback ISBN 9781407349473 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540632 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

I NTRODUCTION

The Anony mus a u thor o ft he t ract k nown a s t he d e R ebus B e l licis l i ved i n t he midd le o f t he f our th c en tury A . D., a t at ime when , i n t he words o f a c on te mporary , " the mos t s avage p eoples were r ous ing t he mse lves a nd p ouri ng a cross t he n eares t f ron t iers a s i ft rumpe ts were s ound ing t he war-no te t hroughou t t he who le Ro man wor ld" . ( Amm . x xv i .4. 5 .) . I t was a p er iod wh ich s ee med t o t he Anony mus , n o l ess t han t o h is tor ians o f al a ter a ge , t o r epresen t ad ec line f ro m R o me 's p r is t ine g lory , ad ec l ine wh ich l ed , a s w i th t he h inds igh t o f h is tory we k now , t o t he s ack o f t he C i ty i t se l f w i th in a c oup le o f g enera t ions a nd t he f a l l o f t he Wes tern Empire a f ter b are ly a c ouple more. Ye t t he Eas tern Empire s urv ied f or c en tur ies a nd t he r easons f or t he c o l lapse o f t he Wes t d id n o t l i e i n g rea ter mora l d egeneracy o r e cono m ic i nco mpe tence , b u t r a ther i n ad e mograph ic p rocess t ha t h ad i t s b eg inn ing c en tur ies b efore t he Anony mus wrote . When Caesar c hecked t he wes tward migra t ion o f t he H e lve t i i d ur ing t he f irs t c en tury B .C . a nd f orced Ar iov is tus a nd h is G er mans t o r e turn a cross t he Rh ine , h e s e t t he c ourse o f h is tory b ack f or f our h undred y ears , b u t h e c ou ld n o t c hange i t ;

s ooner o r l a ter t he o ver-ex tended l and f ron t ier o f t he

Wes tern Empire was b ound t o f a i l .

Tha t i tf a i led a t l as t o n C hr is t mas Day

4 06 A .D. when t he Rh ine f roze a nd e nab led t he wa i t ing b arbar ians o n t he o ther s ide t o c ross , i s n o t i n i tse l f s urpr is ing : t he r e markable f ac t i s t ha t i td id n o t f a i l s ooner .

The f a ta l weakness o f t he r iver f ron t iers o f Rh ine a nd Danube

h ad b een r evea led w i th b ru ta l a nd s udden c lari ty i n t he s econd c en tury A .D . when t he Marco mann i h ad c rossed t he U pper Danube a nd s wept i n to

N or thern I ta ly

o n ly t o b e d r iven o u t a t g rea t c os t a nd w i th u t mos t d i f f icu l ty b y t he p h i losopher emperor Marcus Aure l ius .

The p oten t ia l d anger , h owever , h ad b een r ecog-

n ized a lready e ven e ar l ier , i n t he f irs t c en tury when Tac i tus i n t he G er man ia h ad warned R o me o f t he p er i l s he wou ld f ace , i ft he f euding G er man t r ibes s hou ld s top f igh t ing amongs t t he mse lves a nd o n ly c o mbine a ga ins t h er .

The

c on federa t ions o f t r iba l g roups l ike t he A lamann i t ha t emerged i n t he t h ird c en tury were t he r ea l iza t ion o f t he v ery t hrea t t ha t t he h is tor ian h ad f orseen . I n t he t h ird c en tury A .D . t he p ressure b u i l t u p t o b reak ing p o in t , n o t o n ly o nb o th r iver f ron t iers b u t i n t he Eas t t oo , where t he n ew S assan id d yn as ty c onver ted t he q u iescen t a nd mor ibund Par th ian Empire i n to a f orm ida ble a nd h os t i le n e ighbour .

B u t t he empire d id n o t f a l l .

I ts s urv iva l was d ue

t o t he e xer t ions o f as uccess ion o f s trong b u t s hor t l i ved warr ior-e mperors d rawn f ro m t he Danubian p rov inces .

The l as t a nd g rea tes t o f t hese men ,

D ioc le t ian , was a lso a n a dm in is tra tor o f g en ius .

H e r ecogn ized t he f ac t , n o t

s o o bv ious a t t he t ime , t ha t t he empire 's v u lnerabi l i ty l ay n o t o n ly , o r e ven p r i mar i ly , i n mi l i tary ma t ters b u t i n h er own i n terna l p o l i t ica l a nd e cono m ic weakness .

On ly f ro m e cono m ic s treng th c ou ld R o me a f ford a n i ncreased a r my

a nd o n ly w i th p o l i t ica l s tab i l i ty c ou ld s he r isk i t .

The r e for ms u nder taken b y

D ioc le t ian g ave t he Empire a n ew l ease o f l i fe e ven t hough i n t he s hor t t er m

s o me o f h is mos t f a mous p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic measures f a i led .

Paradox-

i ca l ly t he s ocia l , e conomic a nd mi l i tary c hanges b rough t a bou t b y D ioc le t ian a nd h is s uccessor C ons tan t ine were a l mos t t oo s uccess fu l . The c rea t ion o f as trong a nd a t f irs t e f f ic ien t a dm in is tra t ive mach ine c oup led w i th t ha t o f a l arge a nd mi l i tar i ly e f fec t ive a r my b ound b y t i es o f l oya l ty t o t he h ouse o f C ons tan t ine , g ave t he empire b o th i n terna l s tabi l i ty a nd r e la t ive p eace o n t he f ron t iers . B u t t he e cono mic b ase p roved t oo sma l l t o s uppor t b o th a r my a nd b ureaucracy a nd t hose b es t a ble t o b ear t he b urdens o f i ncreased t axa tion , t he g rea t magna tes were t he mos t a b le t o a vo id t he ir o b l iga t ions . I ti s a ga ins t t h is b ackground t ha t t he c ompos i t ion o f t he w ork k nown t o s cho lars a s t he d e R ebus B e l l ic is mus t b e s e t . T he t i t le i t se l f i s n o t t he o r ig ina l o ne wh ich i s u nknown . Pro fessor E . A . Thompson , p o in ts o u t t ha t i ti s i nf act mis lead ing s ince t he l i t t le t rea t ise d ea ls n o t mere ly w i th mi l i tary ma t ters b u t w i th ' de fence f ro m s treng th ' i n t he s or t o f t er ms i n wh ich - i fi t i s p oss ible t o make s uch a c o mpar ison - t he r e forms o f D ioc le t ian were c onc e ived . Modes t t hough t hey a re , t he Anony mus ' p roposa ls c over a who le s pectrum f ro m mone tary a nd e cono m ic r eform t o mi l i tary r ecru i tmen t a nd t he b u i ld ing o f f or ts . H is mi l i tary p roposa ls a re h owever made t he more s tr ik ing b y t he i nc lus ion o f s ec ti ons o n war mach ines , a nd i ti s f or t h is r eason n o d oubt t ha t t he t i tle d e R ebus B e l l ic is was l a ter c o ined . The mach ines t he ms e lves r ange f ro m t he p ure ly f anc i fu l , s uch a s t he s cy thed c har io ts , a nd mos t f amous o f a l l , t he o x-powered p add le b oa t , t o weapons a nd e qu ip men t a c tua l ly i n u se b y t he a rm ies o f t he f our th c en tury , s uch a s t he we igh ted j ave l ines , mar ti obarbu t i o rp lu mba tae . I n s o me i ns tances i ti s n o t c lear whe ther h e i s d escr ibing o r ig ina l i nven t ions o f h is own o r p ieces o f e x is t ing mi l i tary e qu ipmen t . Au n ique f ea ture o f t he d e R ebus B e l l ic is a nd o ne t ha t h as a lways e nh anced i t s i n teres t , i s t he i nc lus ion o f i l lus tra t ions . E ven i n t he med ieva l v ers ions o f t he l os t C aro l ing ian c opies o f t he o r ig ina ls , i tc an b e s een t ha t t hey o f ten make c lear p o in ts t ha t a re o bscure i n t he Anony mus ' t ex t . I ti s c er ta in t ha t h e r e l ied o nt he m t o make h is mean in g c lear f or h e r e fers t o t he m o n an umber o f o ccas ions a nd s o me t imes i n t erms o f o bv ious p r ide ( e .g . V I .5 . V I I .1) . An e xample o f t he s uper ior i ty o f i l lus tra t ion o ver t ex t d escr ipt i ons o ccurs i nt he s ect ion o nt he Ba l l is ta F u lm ina l is , w i th i t s t wo p a irs o f p u l leys ( n o t men t ioned i n t he t ex t , b u t c lear i n t he a cco mpany ing p ic ture ) , o ne t o p u l lb ack t he " s l ider" o n wh ich t he a rrow r es ts , a nd t he s econd t o p u l l i t f orward a ga in a f ter d ischarge . I ti s t h is a ccuracy o f d e ta i l when t he t ex t i s a t i t s mos t u nhe lp fu l a nd o bscure t ha t r a ises t he q ues t ion whe ther t he a r t is t was n o t c opy ing a c tua l mach ines whose me thod o f work ing n e i ther h e n or o ur Anony mus a u thor u nders tood .

Ye t i n a t te mpt ing t o i n terpret t he p ic tures o f

t he mach ines a nd d ec ide whe ther t hey c ou ld a c tua l ly h ave worked , i ti s n ece ssary t o c o mpare t he d i f feren t i l lus tra t ions i n t he p r inc ipa l MSS o f t he d e R ebus B e l l ic is . F or t he f i rst t ime t hese a re n ow p ub lished i nP ar t 2t oge ther w i th t he l i ne b locks o f t he s even teen th c en tury e d i t io p rinceps wh ich h ave b een i nser ted i n t he ir c orrec t p os i t ion i n t he La t in t ex t . The mos t s tr ik ing t h ing a bou t t he i l lus tra t ions i s t he d i f ference i n s ty le a doped b y t he v ar ious c opyi s ts ; i n o ne c ase , t he i l lus tra t ions o f t he Anony mus ' p roposed n ew c oin t ypes , o ne o f t he med ieva l c opy is ts h as u sed a ctua l e xa mp les o f Ro man c o ins.

The Anony mus was p erhaps u n ique among c on te mporar ies i nh is a t te mp t t o a na lyse t he c auses o f t he c r isis t ha t h ad b efa l len t he Emp ire a nd s uggest s pec if ic c ures. Bu t c ou ld a ctua l e cono m ic a nd m i l itary r efor ms o n t he s ca le s uggested e ver h ave b een c arr ied o u t , a nd wou ld t hey h ave s ucceeded i n p ostp on ing t he c o l lapse o f t he Western Emp ire ? There i s n o d oubt t ha t s trong e cono m ic a nd m il itary r efor ms n o t o n ly c ou ld h ave b een p u t i n to efect , b u t were a ctua l ly c arr ied o u t i nt he Anony mus ' o wn l i fe t ime , a nd t ha t i n t he s hor t t er m t hey w ere b enef ic ia l .

I n 3 56 J u l ian , a dm in ister ing t he p refec ture o f t he

Gau ls f or h is u ncle C onstan t ius I b o th r educed t he t ax r a te t o 2 8% o f i t s f or mer v a lue , a nd e ven s ucceeded i n g et t ing more money f or t he s ta te t han p rev iously , p arty b y o verhau l ing t he c orrup t a nd i nef f ic ien t mach inery f or c o l lect ing t he amoun t d ue , a nd p ar t ly b ecause t he s um d e manded was more r ea l ist ic a nd t ax p ayers d id n o t a t te mp t t o a vo id p aymen t.

A s ar esu l t t he t ax p ayers " as i f

c lear s unsh ine h ad b ea med u pon t he m a f ter a n u gly d arkness , e xpressed t heir j oy i ng a iety a nd d ances" ( A m m. x v 5 .14 ). Probably o f l onger l ast ing e f fect were t he m il i tary r efor ms o f Va lens a nd Valen t in ian , w h ich r ev ita l ised t he d efences o ft he emp ire d ur ing t he p er iod i n wh ich t he Anony mus wrote. Bu t ag rea ter m il itary e f for t mean t ag rea ter c on tr ibu t ion f rom t he e cono my t o s uppor t i t , a nd t h is t he Emp ire, i nt he f act o f ad espera te s hortage o f manp ower , was i n n o p os it ion t o make. I t was f or t h is r eason t ha t t he Anonymus c oncerned h i msel f w ith t he "mechan iza t ion" o f t he a r my a nd , t ime a nd a ga in , h e emphas izes h ow h is s che mes w il l r esu l t i n a more e cono m ica l u se o ft he s tretched r esources o f l abour a va ilable.

I fs o me o fh is p roposa ls s ee m n a ive,

t here i s more t o many o ft he m t han may a ppear a t f i rst s ight .

I ti s t he o b ject

o f s evera l o ft he p apers i n P ar t 1 .t o a ssess h ow e f fective t hey wou ld i n f act h ave b een . Bu t , efec t ive o r n o t , a t l east t he Anonymus d eserved t he c red i t f or b ravely a t te mp t ing a n a na lysis o ft he p roble ms t ha t b eset t he empire a nd f or s uggest ing r a t iona l s o lu t ions t o t he m. I ti s ag en t le i rony t ha t t he Anony mus, w hose words may n ever h ave b een r ead ,b y t he emperors t o w ho m h is l i t t le t rea t ise i s a ddressed , s hou ld have a t ta ined t o ac er ta in p osthumous f a me , f i rst o f a l l i n t he m idd le a ges when h is mach ines i n p ar t icu lar , c aught t he f ancy o f s tuden ts o f war fare a nd e ng ineeri ng , a nd s ubsequen t ly i nt he p er iod f ro m t he Rena issance t o t he p resen t when h is v iews o nt he c r is is o f t he f ourth c en tury b eca me o f i n terest t o h istor ians o ft he l a ter Ro man Emp ire. Curren t i n terest i n t he Anony mus i n Br i ta in i s d ue p ar t ly t o t he more g enerous s pace i nt he s y l labuses o f Br it ish Un ivers i t ies a l lot ted t o t he l a te emp ire a nd p ar t ly d ue t o t he a va ilab i l ity o f Professor Tho mpson 's e xcel len t t ransla t ion a nd c o mmen tary p ubl ished i n 1 952, p rec isely f our h undred y ears a f ter t he a ppearance o f t he f i rst p r in ted e d it ion b y Gelen ius. The p apers t ha t a re h ere c o l lected were g iven a t a sma l l s em inar o nt he Anonymus h eld a t t he I nst i tu te o f Archaeo logy o f L ondon Un ivers ity i n Dece mber 1 973. There i s n o t o ne o f t hose who c on tr ibu ted who h as n o t b enef it ted immensely f ro m Pro fessor Tho mpson 's s cho larly e d it ion o f t he t ex t , t ran slat ion a nd c o m men tary , a nd , i n o fer ing t hese p apers t o h i m we a re h appy t o a cknowl edge o ur d ebt.

H is c o m men tary h as, i n a l most e very c ase, a cted a s t he

s tar t ing p o in t f or o ur d e ta iled d iscussions o f t he d if ferent a spects o f t he d e Rebus Bel l ic is, a nd h is s ympathet ic a pproach t o t he Anony mus h i mself h as p rov ided a l ead t ha t many o f u s a re h appy t o f o l low.

Professor Tho mpson 's

A . Ro man Reformer a nd I nven tor i s u nhapp i ly n ow o u t o f p r in t , a nd p art ly f or

t h is r eason a nd p ar t ly t o make t he p resen t c o l lec t ion more s el f c on ta ined , a n ew ly r ev ised t ex t a nd a t rans la t ion h ave b een p repared b y R ober t I re land ( Par t 2 ) : t he t ex t of ten r ef lects Professor Tho mpson 's r ecension , a s a l l t ex ts • s ubsequen t t o h is mus t ( t o ag rea ter o r l esser e x ten t ) wh i le t he e d i tor h as b ased h is r epor ts o f t he MSS o n Pro fessor Tho mpson 's c o l la t ions , a nd we a cknow ledge t he k ind p erm iss ion o f t he De lega tes o f t he C larendon Press t o make u se o f t he Ox ford e d i t ion i n t h is r espec t . B eyond t h is , t he t ex t a i ms a t i ndependence ; t he t rans la t ion was made w i thou t r eference t o Professor Tho mpson 's v ersion ;

a nd t he n o tes o n t ex t , l anguage a nd s ty le a t te mp t t o

c onsider t he t rea t ise f u l ly , f ro m t hese p o in ts o f v iew , f or t he f irst t ime . The p apers a re r eproduced i n Par t 1i n t he f or m i n which t hey were g iven t hough i n c er ta in c ases a u thors h ave c arr ied o u t s o me r ev isf o in t he l igh t o f d iscuss ion a t t he s em inar .

The l a te C . E . S tevens ' s um m ing u p h as b een

t ranscr ibed f ro m a t ape r ecord ing made a t t he t ime , w i th t he min i mum o f e d i tor ia l i n ter ference .

F ina l ly t he f ac t t ha t t hese p apers s hou ld n o t o n ly a ppear

a t a l l b u t a t s uch a n e cono m ica l p r ice i s d ue t o t he p os t-war t echn ica l i nnov a t ions i np r in t ing , a dop ted b y B .A .R . -a s ta te o f a f fa irs i n wh ich t he Anony mus wou ld s ure ly h ave d er ived p ro found s a t is fac t ion :

ASPECTS OF THE DE REBUS BELL ICIS Papers p resen ted t o Professor E . A . Tho mpson a t as em inar h e ld i n L ondon , D ece mber 1 4 t o 1 5, 1 973 b y A . Ca meron , J . J . G . A lexander , M . E . Hen ig , K . D . Wh i te , P . Vanags, R . M . Reece, J . S . J ohnson , M . W . C . Hassa l l, P . A . Barker , D . H . S her lock , J . P . Wi ld , D . H . H i l l , H . W . M . Hodges a nd C . E . S tevens

e d i ted b y M . W. C . Hassa l l

CONTENTS

P age

L ist o f p la tes L ist o f t ex t-f igures A cknow ledge men ts f or i l lustra t ions A bbrev ia t ions A . C a meron

The d a te o f t he Anony mus

J . J . G . A lexander

The i l lustra t ion o f t he d e Rebus Be l lic is

M . E . Hen ig

L a te a n t ique b ook i l lustra t ion a nd t he Ga l l ic p refecture

K . D . Wh i te

Harvest ing , Pa l lad ius, a nd t echno logy i n t he l a ter Ro man emp ire

P . Vanags

1 7

3 9

Taxa t ion a nd s urv iva l i n t he l a te f our th c entury : t he Anony mus ' p rogra m me o f e cono m ic r eforms

4 7

R . M . Reece

The Anony mus: a n um is ma t ic c o m men tary

5 9

J . S . J ohnson

Fron t ier p o l icy i n t he Anony mus

6 7

M . W . C . Hassa l l

The i nven t ions 7 7

P . A . Barker

The p lu mba tae f ro m Wroxeter

D . H . S her lock

P lu mba tae , an ote o n t he me thod o f manufacture

J . P . Wi ld

9 7

1 01

Four th c en tury u nderwear w i th s pec ia l r eference t o t he t horaco machus

1 05

D . H . H i l l

S iege-craf t f ro m t he s ix th t o t he t en th c en tury

1 11

H . W . M . Hodges

The Anony mus i n t he M idd le Ages

1 19

C . E . S tevens

S um m ing-up

L IST OF PLATES

PLATE

PAGE S iege Eng ine.

A thenaeus

T r . cpt ,

p . r ixavr ip f r uwv

B ibl io teca Aposto l ica Vat icana , Vat . Gr. 1 164, f . 9 9r la

S hepherds, Verg il ius Ro manus , Eclogue V B ibl io teca Aposto l ica Va t icana , Va t. L a t. 3 867 , f . 1l r

I lb

I l ib

I V

Pho to : Warburg I nst itu te, L ondon .

3 1

Deta i l , L ow Ha m Mosa ic. Pho to : Warburg I nst itu te , L ondon .

3 1

F iloca lus

Ca lender , Ded ica t ion .

I N

Xa

3 6

The p oet Corydon , Verg i l ius Ro manus , Ec logue I . B ibl io teca Aposto l ica Va t icana , Va t . L a t. 3 867 , f . 3 "

3 6

S cu lp ture , Murrel l H il l , Cu mber land . Pho to : Warburg I nst itu te, L ondon .

3 7

Fron t p or t ion o f ar el ief f ro m Buzeno l d ep ict ing a v al lus. Copyr ight A . 0 .L . —Bruxel les.

Xb

X I X I I

X I I I

3 5

Head o f Chr ist , mosa ic , H in ton S t . . Mary , Dorset. L ondon , Br it ish Museu m.

V I l lb

3 4

I ns ign ia o f t he Proconsu l o f A fr ica , N o t i t ia D ign ita tu m Ox ford , Bod le ian L ibrary , MS. Canon . Misc. 3 78 , f . 1 47

V I I Ia

3 3

A lexandr ia i nt he F i loca lus Ca lender. B ibl io teca Aposto l ica Va t icana , Barb. L a t. 2 154, f . 3 r

V I I

3 2

February i n t he F iloca lus Ca lender. B ibl io teca Aposto l ica Va t icana , Barb. L a t. 2 154, f . 1 7r

V I

3 0

S cenes f ro m t he Aene id , mosa ic , L ow Ha m S o merset.

B ibl io teca Aposto l ica Va t icana , Barb. L a t. 2 154, f . l r V

3 0

Turnus, Verg il ius Ro manus, A ene id V I I. B ibl io teca Aposto l ica Va t icana , Va t . L a t. 3 867 , f . 7 4"

Ma

1 8

4 0

Rear p or t ion o f ar el ief f ro m Ar lon d ep ict ing a v a l lus. Copyr igh t A. 0 C .L . —Bruxel les.

4 0

P lurnba ta f ro m Wroxeter.

9 8

L ef t o r ig ina l , r ight r ep l ica.

L eonardo s ke tches , Royal L ibrary , Windsor Cast le. I nventory N o. 1 2653.

1 22

L eonardo s ketches, Br i t ish Museu m.

1 23

L IST OF TEXT F IGURES

F igure

Page

1

Reconstruct ion o f t he v a l lus

4 1

2

Proposed c o in t ypes o f t he Anony mus a s d rawn b y L a my

6 4

3

Mode ls u sed b y L amy f or t he p roposed c o in t ypes

6 4

4

P ossib le d r ive f or l ashes o n t he c urrodrepanus

7 9

5

A lterna t ive d r ive f or l ashes o n t he c urrodrepanus

7 2

6

Ar mour f or Po l ish h ussar

8 1

7

Reconstruct ion o fb a l l ista f u lm ina lis

8 3

8

Reconstruct ion o f b a l l ista f u lm ina lis, f ir ing p osi t ion

8 3

9

The l i burna , g eart ig f or c en tra l c apstan

8 5

1 0

Tho mas S avery s g eared p add le-boa t

8 6

1 1

Reconstruct ion o f t i chod i frus

8 8

1 2

Reconstruct ion o f t i chod ifrus w ith c ra tes i n p osi t ion

8 8

1 3

P or tab le Ch inese r af t made o f i n f la ted g oa ts Idns

9 0

1 4

A lterna t ive me thods o f f ix ing t he h ead o f P lu mba tae t o t he s haf t

1 02

AC KNO WLEDGE MENTS FOR I LLUSTRATIONS

P la te X I I i s r eproduced b y g rac ious p er m ission o f Her Ma jesty Queen E l izabeth I . Gra tefu l t hanks a re a lso d ue t o t he f o l low ing f or p er m iss ion t o r eproduce p ho tographs : A . C . L .

Bruxel les :

P ls. Xa , Xb.

B ibl io teca Aposto l ica Va t icana :

P ls. I , Ha , r i b , I V , v , V I , V I I Ib.

Bod le ian L ibrary , Ox ford : P l. V I I. Br i t ish Museu m : P l . V il la , P l . X I I I. Warburg I nst itu te , L ondon :

P l . I X.

ABBREVIATIONS

Where p oss ible a bbrev iat ions a re t hose emp loyed b y J ones, L ater Ro man Emp ire I I , 3 92-406, t o who m t he r eader i s r eferred f or p ubl ished e d it ions o f a nc ien t t ex ts. AJP

Amer ican J ourna l o f Ph ilo logy

Am m.

Am m ianus Marcel l inus

An t . C lass.

L 'An t iqu i te C lass ique

An t . J .

An t iquar ies J ourna l

Arch. Anz.

Archäo log ischer Anze iger

B . J b.

Bonner J ahrb t fcher

B .Vb1 .

Bayer ische Vorgesch ich tsblät ter

Byz. Z e itschr.

Byzan t in ische Z e itschr if t

CEHE

Ca mbr idge Econo m ic H istory o f Europe

C IL

Corpus I nscr ip t ionu m L a t inarum

CJ

Codex J ust in ianus

CP

C lass ica l Ph ilo logy

CR

C lass ica l Rev iew

CTh

Codex Theodos ianus

CW

2

Transact ions o f t he Cu mber land a nd West morl and An t iquar ian a nd Archaeo log ica l S oc iety. N ew S er ies.

DRB

De Rebus Bel l ic is

D ig.

J ust in ian , D igesta s eu Pandectae

Downey

G . Downey e t a l . ( eds.), The m ist i i Ora tiones q uae s upersun t ( Teubner e d it ion , L e ipzig , 1 965-74 )

Econ . H ist. Rev.

Econo m ic H istory Rev iew

Ed. D iocl .

Ed ictum D ioclet ianu m

I GBR

G . Miha ilov ( ed.), I nscr ip t iones Graecae i n Bu lgar ia R eper tae , Vo ls. I -IV ( Sof ia , 1 956-66)

I IS

H . Dessau , I nscr ip t iones L a t inae S electae ( Berl in , 1 892-1916 )

I sid. E ty m. JBAA 3

I s idore E ty mo log iae s ive O r ig ines J ournal o ft he Br i t ish Archaeo log ica l A ssoc iat ion .

Th ird s er ies.

J RS

J ourna l o f Ro man S tud ies

J h. 0AI

J ahreshef te d es O sterreichischen Archaeol og ischen I nst itu ts i n Wien

J oh. L ydus Mag.

J ohannes L ydus, De mag istra t ibus

J ones, L a ter Ro man Emp ire

A. H .M. J ones , The L ater Ro man Emp ire , 2 84-602, a s oc ia l , e cono m ic a nd a dm in istrat ive s urvey , I I I I ( Oxford , 1 964)

L ew is a nd S hor t

C .T. L ew is a nd C . S hort , A L a t in D ic t ionary

L ib. O r.

L iban ius , Ora t iones

L iddel l-Sco tt-Jones

H .G. L iddel l a nd R . S co t t , A Greek-Engl ish L ex icon .

Rev ised b y S ir H .S. J ones ( Oxford ,

1 968 ) MGH

M onu men ta Ger man iae H istor ica

Ma la las

J ohn Mala las, Chronograph ia

I CN TKOB

N ieuws-bu l le t in v an d e K on ink l i jke N eder landse Oudhe idkund ige Bond

N ot. D ig. Nu m. Chron .

N o t i t ia D ign ita tum Num is mat ic Chron icle a nd J ourna l o f t he Nu m isma t ic S oc iety

OMROL

Oudhe idkund ige Mededel ingen u i t h et R i j le museu m v an Oudheden t e L eiden

PLRE

A .H. M. J ones , J .R. Mart inda le a nd J . Morr is, The p rosopography o f t he l a ter Ro man Emp ire, Vo l . I , A .D. 2 60-395 ( Ca mbr idge , 1 971 )

P . Oxy .

The Oxyrhynchus p apyr i ( Egyp t Exp lora t ion S oc iety , Craeco-Ro man me mo irs )

P . Ry l .

A .S. Hun l e t a l ( eds.), Ca talogue o ft he Greek Papyr i i n t he Ry lands L ibrary ( Manchester , 1 911,

Pa l lad ius , De Re Rust. 2 -a n . L a t.

np rogress )

P a l lad ius , De Re Rest ica ,I janegyr ic i

L a t in i

P fa lz. Mus.

P fa lzisches Museu m

Po l lux , Ono m.

Po l lux , Ono mast icon

Proc. Aed .

Procop ius , De A ed if ic i is

Proe. HA

Procop iuä , H istor ia Arcana

PW(-K )

Pau ly- W issowa (- K ro l l ) ,Real-Encyclopad ie d er c lassischen A l ter tumsw issenschaf t

RCH M , Eburacum

Roya l Co m m ission o nH istor ica l Monu men ts, Eng land , The C i ty o f York :

Vo l I , Eburacu m ,

Ro man York REA

Revue d es E tudes Anc iennes

R IC

H . Ma t t ing ly e t a l

Ro man Imper ia l Co inage

( London , 1 923, i n p rogress ) Rev . A rch.

Revue Archeo log ique

Rev. P h i l.

Revue d e Ph i log ie

SHA

S cr ip tores H istor iae Augustae

S oc. EH

S ocra tes, H istor ia Ec clesiast ica

S oz. EH

S ozo men , H istor ia Ecclesiast ica

TLL

Thesaurus L inguae L a t inae

The m O r.

The m ist ius, O rat iones

Tho mpson

E. A. Tho mpson , A Ro man Refor mer a nd I nven tor ( Ox ford , 1 952 )

Va l . I I , N ov.

Va len t in ian I I ,N ove l lae

Veg.

Vege t ius, Ep i to ma r ei m il itar is

V . S ever in i

Eug ipp ius, V i ta S . S ever in i

Verg i l ius Ro manus

E . Rosen thal , The I l lum inat ions o ft he Verg il ius Ro manus ( Zür ich , 1 972 )

Z os.

Z os i mus , H istor ia N ova

THE DATE OF THE ANONY MUS DE REBUS BELLIC IS b y A lan C ameron

C ons tan t in i t e mpor ibus a t I .1 g ives a f ir m t er m inus p os t q ue m o f 3 37, t he y ear o f C ons tan t ine 's d ea th .

And ( as h as g enera l ly b een a greed ) t here a re

v ar ious i nd ica t ions t ha t t he work was wr i t ten b e fore Adr ianop le i n 3 78 .

I ti s

h ard ly n ecessary t o q uo te more t han V I .1.2. ' Above a l l i t mus t b e r ecogn ized t ha t w i ld n a t ions a re p ress ing u pon t he Ro man Empire a nd h ow l ing r ound a bou t i t e verywhere , a nd t rea cherous b arbar ians , c overed b y n a tura l p os i t ions , a re a ssa i l ing e very f ron t ier .

F or u sua l ly t he a foresa id n a t ions a re e i ther c overed

b y f ores ts o r o ccupy c o m mand ing moun ta in p os i t ions o r a re d e fended b y s now a nd i ce

( Tho mpson 's t rans la t ion ). We may c o mpare t he u rgen t r eco m menda t ion t o b u i ld f or ts a t i n terva ls o f a mi le a long a l l t he f ron t iers a t XX .1 , a nd t he b oas t t ha t t he B a l l is ta f u lm ina l is c an s hoo t r igh t a cross t he Danube ( XVIL I .5 ) .

I ti s c lear t ha t t he

Anony mus wro te a t at ime when b arbar ians , h owever t hrea ten ing , c ou ld a t a ny r a te b e a ssu med t o l i ve b eyond t he imper ia l f ron t iers . H e s ee ms a lso t o h ave wr i t ten a t at ime when war w i th P ers ia was n o v ery d is tan t p rospec t ( )M el, X IX . 4 ) ; i ndeed , t he r e ferences t o t he s tor m ing o f c i ty a nd f or tress wa l ls ( V I .4 , V I I I .1) a nd t o marching i ns ide P ers ian t err i tory s ee m t o e nv isage a R o man i nvas ion o f P ers ia . The work i s a ddressed t o ap lura l i ty o f emperors ( pre f . 1 , 9 ) , who ( on t he n a tura l i n terpreta t ion ) h ad a p lura l i ty o f s ons ( pre f . 8 ) , a nd h ad s uppressed ap lura l i ty o f u surpers ( I I .6 ). Th is i s q u i te a l o t t o g o o n .

I t s hou ld n o t b e t oo d i f f icu l t t o p in d own a

mo men t b e tween 3 37 a nd 3 78 when a p lura l i ty o f emperors w i th ap lura l i ty o f s ons s uppressed a p lura l i ty o f u surpers i n t he s hadow o f a Pers ian war . I th as l ong b een s een 1 t ha t o n ly o ne p er iod w i l l a nswer a l l t hese c ond i t ions , t he j o in t r eign o f Va len tin ian a nd Va lens :

s o me t ime b e tween 3 66

( when Va lens ' s on Va len t in ianus G a la tes was b orn ) a nd 3 75 ( when Va len t in ian d ied ) .

I ti s ( 1b e l ieve ) p oss ib le b o th t o n arrow t he t er m in i al i t t le a nd t o e s tab-

l i sh a t l eas t whether t he work was wr i t ten i n t he Eas t o r Wes t .

Bu t f irs t we

mus t d ea l w i th S an to Mazzar ino 's e labora te ly a rgued c ase f or t he p er iod 3 533 60 , when C ons tan t ius I was Augus tus a nd G a l lus a nd J u l ian h is s uccess ive C aesars .

2

Mazzar ino r igh t ly p o in ts o u t t ha t t he b ody o f t he work i s a ddressed t o

1

j us t o ne emperor ( i nv ic te impera tor , XV I I I .7; XX I .1) .

s acra t iss i me impera tor ,

Th is o ne emperor , h e c la i ms , mus t b e t he s en ior emperor .

Th is i s

p roved , h e b e l ieves , b y t he c los ing a ppea l t o t he emperor t o ' t hrow l igh t u pon t he c on fused a nd c on trad ic tory r u l ings o f t he l aws ' ( XX I ).

On ly t he s en ior

emperor , h e c la i ms , was e n t i t led t o c od i fy t he l aw . I ft h is i s r igh t , t hen , Va len t in ian b e ing s enor t o Va lens , i ft he work was wr i t ten u nder t he m , t he a ddressee wou ld h ave t o b e Va len t in ian .

I t wou ld t hen

f o l low t ha t i ti s Va len tin ian who i s c red i ted w i th p u t t ing d own t he u surpers . Th is wou ld mean t ha t t he mos t o bv ious c and ida tes , n ame ly t he e as tern u surpers Procopius a nd h is k ins man Marce l lus i n 3 65-6 , wou ld b e r u led o u t .

F or i ft he

Anony mus h ad b een a ddress ing Va len t in ian , h e c ou ld h ard ly h ave c red i ted h im w i th s uppressing a r ebe l l ion wh ich , a f ter c are fu l d e l ibera t ion , h e h ad l e f t e n t ire ly i n

t he h ands o f Va lens 3

The o n ly u surpers t ha t c an b e p roduced f or Va len t in ian a re t he o bscure Pannon ian r ebe l Va len t inus4 a nd t he A fr ican p r ince F ir mus . N ow wh i le I f u l ly a gree w i th Mazzar ino t ha t Va len t inus w i l l n o t d o , F ir mus s hou ld h ard ly h ave b een d is m issed s o c ava l ier ly , e ven i fu l t i ma te ly h e t oo p roves u naccep ta ble ( see b e low ) .

Mazzar ino h owever , c onv inced t ha t b y e l im ina ting Va len tin ian

h e h ad e l im ina ted Va lens t oo , f ound h i mse l f d r iven b ack t o C ons tan t ius a nd h is C aesars G a l lus a nd J u l ian . H ere we d o h ave a s a t is fac tory p a ir o f u surpers , Magnen t ius a nd Decen t ius ( 350-3 ) , a nd f a ir ly c ons tan t h os t i l i ty f ro m P ers ia - b u t ( despi te Mazzar ino ) n o t o ne o f t he o ther c ond i t ions i s s a t is f ied . To s tar t w i th , n o t o ne o f t he t hree h ad a s on .

Mazzar ino a rgues t ha t

f i l ius i s b e ing u sed i n a n e x tended s ense , mean ing i n e f fec t ' successor '. N ow a n emperor c er ta in ly c ou ld h ave d escr ibed h is j un ior c o l leagues a nd d es ign a ted s uccessors a s h is f i l i i . d o n o t f i t o ur r equ ire men ts .

5

Ye t e ven s o C ons tan t ius a nd h is C aesars s i mp ly

F or i ti s n o t t he o ne emperor a ddressed i n t he

b ody o f t he work who i s c red i ted w i th s ons ( r ea l o r me taphor ica l ) , b u t t he ' c le men t iss im i p r incipes ' o f p re f . 8 .

N ow G a l lus a nd J u l ian were C aesars

i n s uccess ion ( f ro m 3 51-4 a nd 3 55-9 r espec t ive ly ) .

Thus a t n o t ime c ou ld

a nyone h ave a ddressed C ons tan t ius I a nd h is o ne C aesar o f t he mo men t a s ' mos t merci fu l emperors ... who t rans m i t t o y our s ons t he a f fec t ion d ue t o t he Ro man n a me ' ( ' qu i R o mano n om in i d ebi tos a f fec tus p ropaga t is i n f i l ios ' ). The C aesar o f t he mo men t wou ld h ave t o b e c oun ted b o th among t he ' merci fu l emperors ' ( t o j us ti fy t he p lura l ) a nd a s t he ' sons ' -a l l b y h i mse l f ! L ess f or ma l ly c onc lus ive , p erhaps , b u t h ard ly l ess s er ious a n o b jec t ion i s t he s harp a nd o pen c r i t ic is m o f t he f isca l p o l icy

o f C ons tan t ine i n I .i f .

I s i t r ea l ly c red ib le t ha t a man whose d i f f icu l t t ask was t o p ersuade t he s usp icious a nd v ind ica t ive C ons tan t ius t o g ive a s y mpa the t ic h ear ing t o h is d ras t ic p roposa ls f or r efor m s hou ld h ave b een s o i nsane ly t act less a s t o b eg in b y d en ouncing C ons tan t ius ' f a ther a s t he a u thor o f t he s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic i l ls h e was p ropos ing t o c ure?

Thanks t o R ichard R eece i tc an n ow b e a dded t ha t ,

d espi te h is e s tabl ish men t o f t he s o l idus , g o ld was n o t ' ass igned t o p e t ty t ransact ions ' ( 1 1 .1) u nder C ons tan t ine .

Tha t d id n o t c o me u n t i l C ons tan t ius .

N or c ou ld a nyone wr i t ing u nder C ons tan t ius h ave made s uch a n e rror .6 We mus t r eturn , t hen , t o Va len t in ian a nd Va lens .

Bu t wh ich?

There

i s , It h ink , n o j us t i f ica t ion wha tever f or Mazzar ino 's b e l ie f t ha t t he o ne 2

emperor mus t b e t he s en ior emperor .

I f Anony mus h ad b een wr i ting a ny-

7

where i nt he e as tern p rov inces , l e t a lone ( a s may we l l h ave b een t he c ase) a t Va lens ' c our t , t hen s ure ly h e wou ld h ave a ddressed h is p roposa ls t o Va lens r a ther t han Va len t in ian - t hough h e migh t we l l h ave t hough t i ta ppropr ia te t o a ddress h is more g enera l p re fa tory r e marks t o b o th emperors . As f or t he r eques t f or a l aw c ode , s ince e ach emperor c ou ld l eg is la te , e ach mus t a lso h ave b een a ble t o c od i fy t he l aw .

I ti s t rue t ha t , i f Va lens h ad

i ssued a c ode , i t wou ld n o t a u to ma t ica l ly h ave b een a ccep ted b y Va len t in ian , b u t o n ly f or t he s ame r eason t ha t i nd iv idua l l aws i ssued b y o ne emperor were n o t a u to ma t ica l ly v a l id i n h is c o l league 's t err i tory .

I np ract ice o ne emperor

n or ma l ly d id r a ti fy h is c ol league 's l aws , a nd we may b e s ure t ha t ( f or t he r easons Anony mus g ives ) Va len t in ian wou ld h ave we lco med a c ode .

I n t he

e ven t t he j ob was n o t d one t i l l t he Theodos ian C ode o f 4 38 , wh ich was a ccepted i n t he Wes t -b u t b ecause Va len tin ian I I e ndorsed i t8 n o t b ecause Theodos ius I was t he s en ior Augus tus . T he l as t t wo c odes b efore t ha t were i ssued b y p r iva te c i t izens , 9 s o t here c an h ave b een n o p oss ible o b jec t ion t o a n e as tern wr i ter p u t t ing t he s i mple a nd r easonab le r eques t made i n XX I t o Va lens . I ft he o ne emperor i s Va len t in ian , t hen a l l we h ave b y way o f u surpers f or h im i s F ir mus .

Mazzarino , f o l low ing h ere a w idespread modern v iew ,

o b jected t ha t F ir mus ' non è v ero e p ropr io t yrannus "

( p .385 , n .66) .

The

a rgu men t i s t ha t , a s a Moor , F ir mus was a n ' ex terna l ' r a ther t han ' i n terna l ' e ne my , a n i nvader r a ther t han a u surper .

Whe ther F ir mus s aw i tt h is

1 1

way may b e d oub ted , s ince h e t ook t he tr ouble t o h ave h i mse l f f or ma l ly c rowned w i th t he mi l i tary t orques , j us t l ike J u l ian a d ecade e ar l ier .

1 2

Bu t R o man c on-

t e mporar ies d o s ee m t o h ave b een i n s o me d oub t h ow t o c lass i fy h im , a nd f or a l l we k now Anony mus migh t h ave b een among t hose who r eckoned h i m ab arb ar ian . There a re o ther o b jec t ions , h owever . Anony mus s ays t yrann i i n t he p lura l .

F irs t a nd l eas t s ubs tan t ia l ,

N ow wh i le i t wou ld b e s i mple e nough

t o p ara l le l t he ' rhe tor ica l p lura l ' , ' usurpers l i ke F ir mus ' mean ing i n f ac t j us t F ir mus , p r i ma f ac ie more t han o ne u surper i s i nd ica ted . F ir mus ' r ebe l l ion d ragged o n i n to 3 75 . t ha t Va len t in ian d ied .

I t was i n N ove mber o f t ha t y ear

S o i fi ti s t he s uppress ion o f F ir mus t ha t Anony mus

h as i n mind , h is b ook c ou ld b e d a ted t o w i th in a mon th o r s o i n mid 3 75 . A t trac t ive t hough s uch p rec is ion wou ld b e , t here a re t hree o b jec t ions t o s o l a te a d a te : ( 1 )

The p r i ma f acie imp l ica t ion o f p re f . 8i s t ha t e ach emperor h ad a s on ,

a nd ( par t icu lar ly i n t he l igh t o f t he r e ferences t o p ropaga ting ' a nd 'a ffection ' ) ar ea l , n o t a metaphor ica l s on . Now Va lens ' o n ly s on d ied i n t he c ourse o f 3 70 .

1 3

( 2 )

DRB ) 0 C a dvoca tes t he b u i ld ing o f f ron t ier f or ts , ap o l icy t ha t b o th

Va len t in ian a nd Va lens h ad b een p ursu ing , o n t he Rh ine a nd Danube f ron t iers r espec t ive ly , w i th g rea t e nergy s ince 3 69 .

I ti s d i f f icu l t t o b e l ieve t ha t

Anony mus wou ld h ave b een e i ther s o f oo l ish o r s o i l l-in for med a s t o c o me o u t w i th s uch a p roposa l a s l a te a s 3 75 . ( 3 ) Accord ing t o I .5 , 6t hese t yrann i f ound t he ir s uppor t among t he p oor , made d espera te b y o ver taxa t ion a nd i n f la t ion : 3

' t he p oor were d r iven b y t heir a f f l ic t ions i n to v ar ious c r im ina l e nt erpr ises .. l ay ing was te t he f i e lds , b reak ing t he p eace w i th o u tb urs t o f b r igandage , s t irr ing u p a n i mos i t ies ;

a nd , p ass ing f ro m o ne

c r i me t o a no ther , s uppor ted u surpers , p roduced b y p over ty f or y our g lor i f ica t ion r a ther t han i nspired b y t he ir o wn b ravery .' N ow i t was c laimed a t t he t ime t ha t F ir mus ' r evo l t was s parked o f fb y t he e x tor t ions o f t he v i l la inous R o manus , c oun t o f A fr ica .

Whe ther o r n ot

t h is was t rue , R o manus was s ubsequen t ly a rres ted , a nd t wo h igh o f f ic ia ls c omm i t ted s u ic ide o n b e ing i mp l ica ted i n a n i nves t iga t ion s e t i n mo t ion b y t he e nerget ic p re fect Max im inus .

Ano ther d ea th t ha t s ee ms t o h ave h ad s o me

c onnec t ion w i th t he a c t iv i t ies o f Max im inus i s t he s udden e xecu t ion o f Theodos ius , t he g enera l r espons ib le f or F ir mus ' d e fea t . Th is o f c ourse p roved mos t emb arass ing when h is s on b eca me emperor i n 3 79 , a nd t he f ac ts were v ery t hor ough ly b ur ied .

R o manus h i msel f s urv ived t he d ea th o f Va len t in ian , b u t a

n ew t r ia l was l aunched b y t he n ew emperor G ra t ian , t he o u tco me o f wh ich i s u nknown .

1 4

The ' Ro manus a f fa ir ' was a murky b us iness , w i th r a mi f ica t ions t ha t l ed d angerous ly c lose t o t he t hrone , as canda l o n t he g rand s ca le .

I f Anony mus

h ad b een wr i t ing i n 3 75 , h e wou ld h ave b een v ery i l l a dv ised t o l ink t he r ebe ll i on o f F ir mus s o empha t ica l ly w i th o f f ic ia l e x tor t ion . A l l i n a l l F ir mus d oes n o t s ee m a v ery p laus ib le c and ida te f or Anony mus ' t yrann i . And w i th F ir mus g oes Va len t in ian 's c la im t o b e t he p r inc ipa l a ddressee . Tha t l eaves Va lens .

H is u surpers , P rocopius a nd Marce l lus , f i t t he b i l l t o

p er fec t ion . T o s tar t w i th t here were t wo o f t he m , Marce l lus t ak ing u p t he s tandard a f ter P rocop ius ' d efea t a nd d ea th .

1 5

T hus t he ir r ebe l l ions a re c lose ly l inked ,

a s mus t h ave b een t hose Anony mus h ad i n m ind , i fh is t yrann i a l l d rew t he ir s uppor t f ro m among t he v ic t i ms o f t he s ame e cono m ic p ressures . Then t here a re t he a ccoun ts o f P rocop ius ' s uppor ters i n T he m is t ius a nd Am m ianus ( The m is t ius a n e xac t c on te mporary , wr i t ing a bou t t wen ty y ears l a ter ) .

wr i t ing i n 3 66/7;

Am m ianus

A ccord ing t o Am m ianus t hey w ere d ray ,n

f ro m ' dea lers i n c heap d ain t ies ' ( cuppediaru m v i liu m merca tores) ,

1 6

a nd ,

more t o t he p oin t ,' so me f ro m t he d regs o f t he p eop le , l ed b y d espera tion o r b y b lind ambi tions '

( ex v u lgar ifaece n onnu ll i , d espera t ione c onsi l i isque

d uctan t ibus c aecis) ,

1 7

a nd ( c losest o f a l l t o Anony mus ' words) ,

t heir wor th lessness a nd d espera t ion d rove t o c r i me ' ( pauci , d espera t ie t rudeba t i n s ce lus) .

1 8

af ew , who m

q uos v i li tas e t

The m ist ius, i n as peech p urpor ting t o c on-

g ra tu la te Va lens o nh is g enerous t rea t men t o f P rocop ius ' f o l lowers , d escr ibes h im a s w inn ing t he m w i th p ro m ises o f 'a bo li t ion o f d ebts a nd r edistr ibut ion o f l and 'x pe c T iv d c r coxo r t6 cg d e magogue . 19

& v c x .5a .cp .oi )g t he a ge-o ld s logans o f t he r evo lu t ionary

I t wou ld n o t i n t he o rd inary way b e w ise t o b u i ld much s oc ia l h is tory o n s tock r hetor ica l c l ichés s uch a s t hese - d es igned ( o f c ourse ) t o d iscred i t Procopius r a ther t han d raw a t ten t ion t o e cono m ic g r ievances .

Bu t t here a re

o ther r easons f or b e l iev ing t ha t e cono m ic f ac tors d id p lay a n i mpor tan t p ar t i n t he i n i t ia l s uccess o f P rocopius ' b id f or p ower .

Ano ther s peech o f The m is t ius , h is P en taeter icus ( 9z . v i i i , c o m me mora t ing Va lens ' q u in9uenna l ia i n March 3 68 ) , d raws a g r im p ic ture o f t he e con om ic d is tress o f t he e as tern p rov inces b e tween C ons tan t ine a nd t he a ccess ion o f Va lens ( 3 64 ) .

Throughou t t ha t p er iod , h e r e marks , t axes wen t u p

s tead i ly , e ven tua l ly d oub l ing a f ter f or ty y ears .2 0

Then c ame Va lens , who

a f ter h o ld ing t he m a t t he s ame l eve l f or t hree y ears r unn ing , f ina l ly r educed t he m b y h a lf i n t he f our th .

F or ty y ears b ack f ro m 3 64 t akes u s t o 3 24 , t he

v ery y ear C ons tan t ine d e fea ted h is l as t r iva l L ic in ius a nd s e t u p h is p er man en t e s tabl ish men t i n t he E as t , c en tred o n C ons tan t inop le . S o The m is t ius i s s aying much t he s ame a s Anony mus .

I t was w i th C on-

s tan t ine t ha t t he i ncreas ing d e mands o f p ubl ic e xpend i ture c aused t h is c a lam i tous r ise i n t axa t ion a nd i mpover ishmen t o f t he l ower c lasses . A t l eas t h a l f o f The m is t ius ' p ic ture we may a ccept r ead i ly e nough :

t he

s teady t ax-r ise s ince C ons tan t ine , a nd Va lens ' r eluc tance t o i ncrease t he b urden .

The m is t ius ' o wn q ua l i f ica t ion ' i f t he c a lcu la t ions g o a ccord ing t o

p lan ' ( ci , x c c -c b * : Y v 4r ov c CvOL T& u t f :Tpo c " r : C X .v6 0 1 . ) ) 21 r evea ls t he p ro jec ted ' ha lv ing ' a s p erhaps n o more t han a p ious h ope , b u t f or t he r es t t here i s t he c on f ir ma t ion o f t he o bi tuary n o t ice i n Am m ianus ( no a dm irer o f Va lens ) : t r ibu toru m o nera s tud io q uodam mo l l iens s ingu lar i , n u l la v ect igal i um a dm i t tens a ugmen ta .

2 2

B u t h ow s oon d id t he p r iv inc ia ls b eg in t o f ee l t he b ene f i t -i fb ene f i t t here was?

A ccord ing t o Am m ianus , i t was n o t t i l l h e d iscovered h ow u npopu lar

Va lens h ad made h i msel f b y h is r apac i ty ( cupid i ta te a l iena r ap iend i s uccensu m ,

2 3

t ha t P rocop ius d ec ided t o make h is b id f or t he p urple . I n a dd i t ion , Am m ianus c on t inues , Va lens ' a gen t , h is f a ther-inlaw P e tron ius , 2 4 h ad b een c aus ing g rea t d is tress b y c a l l ing i n a rrears o f t ax f ro m a s f ar b ack a s t he d ays o f Aure l ian ( debi ta l am i nde a t e mpor ibus p r inc ipis Aure l ian i ,

2 5

S o e ven w i thou t at ax r ise , i f Va lens was i ns is t ing o n t he f u l l p ay men t o f a rrears h e mus t h ave made t he i m med ia te s i tua t ion e ven worse . Those who were n o t u p t o d a te i n t he ir p ay men ts mus t h ave b een f aced w i th a tax d e mand wh ich , b y d e f in i t ion ( i f t hey h ad f a l len i n to a rrears i n t he f irs t p lace ) , t hey wou ld h ave b een u nab le t o mee t .

A t s uch a mo men t ' abo l i t ion o f d ebts ' wou ld

h ave b een a v ery s educ t ive ( and , f or P rocop ius , v ery s ens ib le ) r a l lying c ry. The m is t ius ' p ra ise o f Va lens i s n o t p erhaps s o s tra igh t forward a s i t s ee ms . As G . Dagron h as wel l p u t i t2 6

' The m is t ios f e l ic i te d e p re ference l es emper-

e urs p our l es q ua l i tes q u i l eur manquen t man i fes te men t l e p lus , c e q u i e s t u ne man Are d e l eur e n r eco m mander l ' usage '.

F or e xa mple , mos t o f Or .

v i i o n t he f ol lowers o f Procopius p ra ises Va lens mos t f u lso me ly f or h is s ta tesman l ike a nd c onc i l ia tory t rea t men t o f t he r ebe ls . ap ar t icu lar ly s avage a nd r e len t less p ersecu t ion . wr i t ing s evera l mon ths a f ter t he f ina l b a t t le 28

Our o ther s ources r ecord 2 7

The m is t ius a dm i ts t o

a nd mus t h ave k nown t he f ac ts ;

h e i s d o ing h is b es t t o s how Va lens h ow , e ven n ow , h e c an b es t w in men 's r espec t a nd l oya l ty i fh e c hooses . S o i n t he l igh t o f t he v ery d i f feren t s tory t o ld b y Am m ianus a nd h is o wn a l lus ion t o d eb ts , i tb eg ins t o l ook a s i f The m is t ius ' emphas is o n t he s uccess o f t he f i sca l p o l icy o f Va lens ' f irs t q u inquenn iu m i n Or . v i i i may n o t mean q u i te wha t i t s ays .

I ndeed , d o n o t t hese s uspic ious ly r osy r e marks , b o ls tered

5

u p b y impress ive b u t mis lead ing s ta t is t ics , s ugges t r a ther t ha t t he b eg inn ing a t l eas t o f Va lens ' r e ign s aw a g rave f inanc ia l c r is is? 2 9 A c r is is wh ich ( as s o o f ten ) made t he r ich r icher a nd t he p oor p oorer . T he m is t ius g oes o n t o a t tack t he r ich f or mak ing e ven t he b arbar ians we lc o me t o t he ir d ependan ts "

Anony mus a lso b lames t he r ich f or t he d ire

s tra i ts o f t he p oor , w i th h arsh words f or t he ir h ouses c ra m med w i th g o ld ( I I .4 ) .

P erhaps , t oo , i ti s s o me th ing more t han a c asua l r he tor ica l e xe mplum

when The m is t ius c o mpares Procopius ' me thods o f r a is ing t roops a t s o me l eng th t o t hose employed b y S par tacus a nd C r ixus .3 1 I ti s a lso i n teres ting t o n o te t ha t , l i ke Anony mus a ga in , The m is t ius was t ac t fu l e nough t o e voke t he t hen t wo y ear o ld Va len t in ianus G a la tes , r e mark ing o n t he k ing ly q ua l i t ies h e was a lready r evea l ing .

3 2

Procop ius a nd Marce l lus f i t Anony mus ' t yrann i d own t o t he l as t d e ta i l . N o o ther s e t o f t yrann i f i ts a t a l l .

Over a nd a bove t h is t he g enera l e cono m ic

b ackground t o The m is t ius ' o ra t iones v i i a nd v i i i ( 366/ 7 a nd 3 68 ) c orresponds e xac t ly t o t he s i tua t ion d escr ibed b y Anony mus .3 3 G ran ted ( as we s urely mus t ) t ha t Anony mus wro te i n t he E as t a nd was a ddress ing Va lens , t here i s more t han o ne p o in ter t o ad a te b e fore 3 70 , when Va lens ' s on d ied . g un i n a bou t 3 69 ;3 4 3 70 .35

The f or ti f ica t ion o f t he Danube f ron t ier s ee ms t o h ave b ei t was b e ing d escr ibed w i th a dm ira t ion b y The m is t ius i n

I t was i n 3 70 t ha t Va lens f ina l ly i nvaded Pers ia i n r esponse t o y ears

o f p rovoca t ion .

3 6

One g ets t he impress ion f ro m Anony mus t ha t h os t i l i t ies

w i th P ers ia , t hough im m inen t ,

h ad n o t y e t b egun .

L ess p rec ise ly , t he u se

made o f Procopius ' r ebe l l ion t o i l lus tra te t he d anger o f c urren t f i sca l p o l ic ies s ugges ts t ha t i t was s t i l l r e la t ive ly

f resh i n t he wr i ter 's m ind .

I f we c an n arrow t he l im i ts t o ( say ) 3 67-9 , t hen t here i s p erhaps a p ass age wh ich migh t b e p ressed i n to a more p rec ise r e ference .

A t V I .2 Anony-

mus r e fers t o s o me o f t he b arbar ians who h arass e very f ron t ier a s o ccupyi ng ' co m mand ing moun ta in p os i t ions '. N ow wh ich b arbar ians c ou ld b e s a id t o h ave c o m mand ing moun ta in p os i t ions t o r e t ire i n to? Ic an t h ink o f o n ly o ne s uch e ne my ;

t he I saur ians .

I n t heory ' paci f ied ' b y P o mpey , t hey were

n o t p erhaps t echn ica l ly b arbar ians , b u t i np rac t ice t hey c ons t iu ted a n e ne my e nc lave i n Ro man t err i tory , l aunch ing p er iod ic i nvas ions o f t he s urround ing p rov inces . One p ar ticu lar ly w ide r ang ing s uch i ncurs ion , ' i n f l ic t ing g rea t l osses o n Pa mphy l ia a nd t he C i l ic ians ' a nd w ip ing o u t av icar o f A s ia ,

3 7

t ook p lace i n 3 68 , t he f irs t s ince 3 53 a nd t he l as t b efore 3 76. 3 8 An a r my was d ispa tched , a nd ' a f ter k i l l ing s o me o f t he m d rove t he r es t t o t he r ocky r et rea ts i n t he moun ta ins where t hey l i ve ' .

3 9

I fh e h ad b een wr i t ing i n 3 68/9

i t wou ld b e n a tura l e nough f or Anony mus t o h ave t hough t o f t he I saur ians when l i s ting t he n a tura l a dvan tages e n joyed b y R ome 's e ne m ies . I f Anony mus h ad b een t rying t o s e l l h is i nven t ions t o Va len t in ian , h e wou ld s ure ly h ave a dver t ised t he r ange o f h is B a l l is ta f u lm ina l is a s t he w id th o f t he R h ine r a ther t han t he Danube . I t was t he Rh ine f ron t ier t ha t e xercised Va len t in ian f or mos t o f h is r eign .

Va lens , h owever , s pen t t he who le o f t he

p er iod f ro m S pr ing 3 67 t o S pr ing 3 70 o n t he Danube , mak ing r egu lar e xpedi t ions f ro m h is c a mp a t Marc ianopo l is40

a ga ins t t he G o ths o n t he o ther s ide .

There i s o f c ourse n o n eed t o s uppose t ha t Anony mus was a t Marc ianopo l is h i msel f , t hough a p ersona l a pproach wou ld n o t h ave b een a b ad i dea f or o ne 6

s o a nx ious t o b r ing h is i deas t o t he emperor 's a t ten t ion - e spec ia l ly a t at ime when h e was much o ccupied w i th mi l i tary r e for m . 41

I ndeed , i th as n o t ( I

t h ink ) b een n o t iced t ha t , e ar ly i n 3 70 , Va lens i s r epor ted b y T he m is t ius t o h ave b een e qu ipp ing h is n ew Danube f or ts w i th ' weapons a nd miss i les a nd e ng ines ,a l l t horough ly t es ted ' ( ' o lAu x xl

ß gX 1-1

p . nxav k LaTo c,b l 'T ta .vc cT c x .

Ei , g

) .42 I t wou ld b e n ice t o t h ink ( nor i s i ta l toge ther imposs ib le ) t ha t o ne o r t wo o f Anony mus ' i nven t ions -p erhaps a B a l l is ta f u lm ina l is 4 5 ) (O CT 0V

1TC (C 7

VC C

were among t he m . Anony mus ' L a t in , a s h as o f ten b een r e marked , i s v ery p ecu l iar .

I ndeed ,

t here h as o f ten b een a f ee l ing t ha t h is n a t ive t ongue mus t h ave b een G reek . Tha t c an b e n e i ther p roved n or d isproved ; 43

i ts hou ld b e o bserved , h owever ,

t ha t La t in wou ld c er ta in ly h ave b een t he b es t l anguage f or a p a mph let a i med a t Va lens , f or h e d id n o t k now G reek .

The n eares t p ara l le l i s t he Brev iar iu m

o f F es tus , as u m mary o f R o man h is tory ( wi th s pec ia l r e ference t o t he e as tern p rov inces ) a ddressed t o Va lens ( presumab ly a t Marcianopo l is ) i n 3 69/70 b y h is mag is ter me mor iae . 44

The work c loses w i th a n e voca t ion o f t he r ecen t

G o th ic v ic tory a nd a h ope f or s uccess i n P ers ia ( ' u t a d h anc i ngen te m d e G o th is [ sc . v ictoria m ]

e t iam B abylon iae p a l ma p ac is a cceda t ').

A f ter c onclud ing a p eace w i th t he G o ths , Va lens moved i n 3 70 t o S yr ia , where , o n a nd o f f , h e r e ma ined f or s evera l y ears , d irec t ing t he P ers ian war . I tl ooks a s i f Anony mus was wr i ting c a . 3 68/9 , when war w i th P ers ia was t hrea ten ing a nd t he G o th ic war n o t y e t o ver ; when t he b u i ld ing o f t he f ron t ier f or ts h ad n ot y e t r ea l ly g o t u nder way ;

o n ly a c oup le o f y ears a f ter t he s up-

p ress ion o f Procop ius a nd Marcel lus i n 3 66 , v ery s oon a f ter t he I saur ian i nv as ion o f 3 68 , a nd when t he u n for tuna te Va len t in ianus G a la tes s t i l l h ad a y ear o r s o t o l i ve.

D epar t men t o f C lass ics , C o lo mbia Un ivers i ty , NE W YORK N . Y.10027.

T

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1 .

Tho mpson , 2 , a nd works t here c i ted .

2 .

S . Mazzarino Aspe tt i s ocia l i d e l q uar to s eco lo Ro me ( 1951) , 7 2-109- a nd i ndeed much o f t he r es t o f t he b ook .

3 .

Am m . x xv i .5.13 .

4 .

i bid . x xv i i i .3 .4 f f.

5 .

S ee t he works c i ted b y Mazzar ino , p .86.

6 .

S ee p p . 6 0-1 . Bu t i n t he l igh t o f t he p ara l le l w i th The m :

Or . v i i a dduced

b elow I s hou ld b e r e luc tan t t o c orrect Anony mus ' e rror b y wr i ting ' Cons tan t in ( t he e as ies t o f c hanges :

c f . t he f irs t c hapter o f Am m ianus Mar-

c el l inus , where ' Cons tan t in mus t b e r ead f or t he ' Cons tan t inn o f t he MSS a nd o f ten e lsewhere ). 7 .

S t i l l l ess f or h is i n ference , b ased o n t he f ac t t ha t Anony mus a lways u ses p r incipes t o d es igna te h is p lura l i ty o f emperors i n t he p reface a nd imp era tor o n ly f or h is ma in a ddressee , t ha t o n ly o ne o f t he p r inc ipes was a n impera tor ,tha t i s t o s ay Augus tus ( wh ich wou ld s u i t C ons tan t ius a nd h is Caesars , b u t n o t t he c o-Augus t i Va len t in ian a nd Va lens ).

There i s

n o b as is wha tever f or t h is d is t inct ion , e i ther i n l ingu is t ic u sage o r c ons t i tu t iona l p ract ice . 8 .

C f . t he G es ta S ena tus R o man i i n Mo m men 's e d i t ion o f t he C Th , i , p .1.

9 .

Gregor ius a nd H er mogen ianus , b o th u nder D iocle t ian ;

i n g enera l s ee J .

Gaude met , La f or ma t ion d u d roi t s 6cu l ier e t d u d roi t d e l ' gg l ise a u I Ve e t Ve s ic les ( 1937) , a nd A . H . M. J ones , La ter R o man Empire 4 72f . 1 0.

o p.ci t . ( n . 2 ) , 3 85 ,n .66.

1 1.

S ee n ow A . De mandt 's u sefu l d iscuss ion i n H er mes 1 972 , 9 7f .

1 2.

Am m . x x ix .5 .20 ;

1 3.

PLRE s . v . Ga la tes .

1 3.

The b as ic s ource i s Am m . x xv i i i .6, w i th t he d iscuss ions ( quo t ing t he

Z os . i v .1 6 .2 .

e ar l ier l i tera ture ) o f B . H . War m ing ton , B yz. Z e i tschr . 4 9 ( 1 956) 5 5f ., a nd A . De mand t , Byzan t ion 3 8 ( 1968 ) , 3 43 f ., H is tor ia 1 8 ( 1 969 ) , 5 98f ., a nd H er mes 1 00 ( 1972 ) , 9 4f . 1 5 .

A . P igan io l , L 'E mpire c hr a ien 2 6( 1958 ) , 1 99-210 ( i n Russ ian :

( 1972 ) , 1 72-4.

I . Hahn , Acta An tigua

G er man a bs tract p .211) p resen ts a r a ther

s i mple i nsecure ly b ased Marx is t a na lys is o f t he r ebe l l ion . 1 6.

Am m . x xv i . 7. 1.

1 7.

i bid x xv i .7 .7 . 8

1 8 .

i b id . x xv i .1 0 .3 .

1 9.

The m . Or . v i i 9 1c = i .138 .12 Downey.

2 0.

i bid . v i i i .113a-c = i .170-1 Downey .

2 1.

i b id . 1 13c.

2 2. Am m . x xx i. 14 .2 . 2 3.

i b id . x xv i . 6.6.

2 4.

PLRE Petron ius n o. 3 .

2 5 . Amm. x xv i .6 . 7; n ebu las 2 6.

c f . i bid . 1 7 S epu l ta j am d udum n egot ia e t r ed ivivas

[ t ri f les ] d ebi toru m

G . Dagron , l 'he l lgn is me :

i n d iversos o rdines e xci taba t .

' L 'E mpire r o ma in d 'or ien t a u I Ve s ièc le e t l es t radi t ions d e l e t g moignage d e Thg m is t ios ' , Travaux e t Mg moires 3

( 1968 ) , 8 4 , n .l . 2 7.

Am m. x xvi .10 .6f .;

Z os .iv . 8 .5 . ; S oc. EH i v .5 ;

S oz. EH v i . 8 ;

t he o n ly

e xcept ion i s L ib . Or . i .171 , c f . x ix .15f . a nd x x .25f ., w i th A . F . N or man , L iban ius ' Au tobiography ( 1965 ) , 1 99-200.

The m is t ius , l ike L iban ius , p re-

s u mab ly h ad a f ew p ar t icu lar e xa mples o f Va lens ' c le mency i n mind . 2 8 . 2 9.

The m . Or . v i i .8 4b = i .128 Downey . S trong ly b orne o u t b y The m is t ius ' a t te mpt i n t he ma in b ody o f t he s peech t o d eter Va lens , l argely f or f isca l r easons , f ro m p ro long ing h is o ffens ive a ga ins t t he G oths ( see t he e xce l len t a na lys is i n Dagron , o p. c i t . ( n .26). ( 101f f .)

3 0.

The m . Or . v i i i .115a .

3 1.

The m . Or . v i i . 8 6c.

C f .

R . Brown ing , CR 1 953 , 1 07.

I ti s o f c ourse a n

a l together d i f feren t ma t ter t o c la im , w i th I . Hahn ( Acta An t igua 1 958 , 1 99f .) , t ha t The m is t ius s aw Procopius ' u pr is ing a s a' pendan t ' t o t ha t o f S par tacus , w i th a ' socia l-revolu t ionary p rogra m me '. 3 2.

The m . Or . v ii i .120a .

3 3 .

Though o f c ourse Anony mus t akes f or g ran ted t he a ggress ive p ol icy t owards b arbar ians t ha t , e ven b efore Adr ianople , The mis t ius c ons is ten t ly o pposed , c f . Dagron . o p .c i t . ( n .26) , 8 4.

3 4.

H . v on Pe tr ikov i ts , ' For ti f ica t ions i n t he N or th-wes tern Ro man Empire f ro m t he Th ird t o t he F i f th C en tur ies A .D .' , JRS 6 1 ( 1971) , 1 86f f ., q uo t ing t he a rchaeolog ica l e v idence -b u t mis taken ly a ttr ibu t ing t he Danube a s we l l a s t he Rh ine f or ti f ica tions t o Va len tin ian .

3 5 .

The m . Or . x .136a-138d .

3 6. A . P igan io l , L 'E mpire c hrgt ien 2

( Par is 1 947) , 1 76.

3 7.

Am m . x xvi i .9.6.

3 8 .

S ee J . R ougg , ' L ' H is toire Augus te e t l ' Isaur ie a u I Ve s iec le , REA 6 8 ( 1966) , 2 82f ., a nd R . S y me , Am m ianus a nd t he H is tor ia Augus ta ( 1968 ) , 4 3f f . -w i thou t n ecessar i ly a ccept ing a l l t heir c onclus ions .

9

3 9.

Am m. x xv i i . 9 .7 .

4 0 .

0 . S eeck , R eges ten d er Ka iser a nd Päps te ( S tu t tgar t , 1 919 ) , 2 31-9.

4 1.

S ee t he e n thus iast ic a ccoun t o f h is r e for ms o n t he Danube f ron t ier i n The m is t ius , _ Or . x .135d f . , a nd ( more g enera l ly ) J ones , La ter R o man Empire 1 48-9 .

4 2.

The m . Or . x .136a .

4 3.

S ee R ober t I reland , I I 4 : The s tyle :

4 4.

S ee J . W. Ead ie 's e d i t ion L ondon , N ew S er ies 1 9( 1969 ) 3 05-6.

1 0

ag enera l s u m mary .

( 1967 ) , 2 -3 , w i th my r e marks i n CR

THE I LLUSTRAT IONS OF THE ANONY MUS, DE REBUS BELLICIS b y J .J . G . A lexander

T he i l lustra t ions o f t he Anony mus, d e Rebus Be l l ic is, a re a n e ssen t ia l p ar t o f i ta nd, a s Professor Tho mpson s ays, c ou ld n ot h ave b een c rea ted w ith t he a id o f t he t ex t a lone .

1

They a re l i ke ly , t herefore, t o h ave a cco mpan ied

i tf ro m t he t ime o f i t s o r ig ina l c o mpos it ion i n t he l a ter f our th c en tury .

The

t rea t ise i s t rans m it ted t o u s, h owever , w ith a c o l lect ion o f t ex ts wh ich was p robab ly p u t t oge ther i n t he n in th c entury .

S evera l o f t he o ther t ex ts i n t he

2

c o l lect ion , e spec ia l ly t ha t k nown a s t he No t i t ia D ign itatu m u tr iusque i mper i l were a lso i l lustra ted .

3

S o f ar a s i s k nown a t p resen t a l l t hese i l lustra t ions

were t rans m i t ted v ia a s ing le Caro ling ian i n termed iary o f t he l a te n in th o r e ar ly t en th c en tury .

Th is was a manuscr ip t p reserved i n t he c a thedra l l i brary

a t S peyer ( Codex S p irensis) o f wh ich a s ing le, u n i l lustra ted , b i fo l iu m a lone r e ma ins .

4

T he e ar liest c opy o f t he S p irens is o f wh ich we k now i s a lso a f rag men t , t he manuscr ip t wr i t ten i n 1 427 b y An ton ius Ange l l d e Aqu i la n ow i n Ca mbr idge . I t s f i ve

5

s urv iv ing l eaves h ave p ictures b ut a re a l l f ro m t he Not i t ia D ign ita tu m .

The e ar l iest c o mp le te c op ies o f t he S p irensis i nc lud ing t he i l lustra t ions o f t he d e Rebus Be l l ic is a re t he manuscr ip ts i n Ox ford ( of ten r eferred t o a s 'O ' ,b u t h ere , f o l low ing Ma ier a nd Tho mpson , a s 'C ' ) 6

a nd Par is ( 'P ' ) . 7 'C ' was

made f or P ie tro Dona to, b ishop o f Padua , i n 1 436 when h e was p resid ing f or Eugen ius I V o ver t he Counci l o f Base l .

The c o lophon a lso s ta tes t ha t h e

b orrowed t he S p irensis f or i tt o b e c op ied .

The i l lu m ina t ion h as b een c on-

v inc ing ly a t tr ibu ted b y Pro fessor S he i la Ed munds t o a French man , Perrone t L a my , who was emp loyed b y Amadeus V I I I , Duke o f Sa voy .

8

Perhaps Amadeus

s en t h im t o work f or Dona to w i th a n u l ter ior mot ive, f or i n 1 440 t he C ounc i l e lected Amadeus P ope i n o ppos i t ion t o Eugen ius, a nd h e t ook t he n a me F e lix V .

A t a ny r a te L a my must h ave s tayed i n Base l al i t t le t ime f or h e a lso e xe-

c uted t he f ron t isp iece o f aL ect ionary f or Dona to 9 a nd t he i l lustra t ions o f a T erence . "

Moreover h e a lso p a in ted t he min iatures o f

must h ave worked a t a l most t he s a me t ime .

P ' o n wh ich h e

The M i lanese h u man ist P ier

Cand ido Dece mbr io made n o tes o n t h is manuscr ip t i n h is c o m monp lace b ook i n 1 437 a nd i t may h ave b een made f or h im .

1 1

I ti s n ot s o g rand a s Dona to ' s

c opy t o wh ich L a my a dded a f ron t isp iece o n t wo p ages, wh ich i n 'P ' i s c ond ensed i n to o ne , a nd a min ia ture o f C onstan t inop le n ot i nc luded i n 'P ' ,a s we l l a s mak ing o ther a ltera t ions .1 2 D ona to h ad b een a p up i l o f G aspar inus Barz izz ius who was p rofessor i n Padua i n 1 407 , a nd h e was a f r iend a nd c orresponden t o f t he Vene t ian h u man ist Francesco Barbaro .

G uar ino d ed ica ted a L a t in t rans la t ion o fL uc ian t o h im .

He h ad a f ine l i brary wh ich i s n ow d ispersed b u t o f wh ich we h ave a c a ta logue . 1 3 Vespas iano d a B lst icc i wrote a l i fe o f h im i n wh ich h e a ccuses h im o f wor ld 1 1

l i ness .

Amongst h is s urv iv ing manuscr ip ts i s ac o l lec t ion o f c lassica l

ma ter ia l n ow i n Ber l in .

1 4

Th is i nc ludes i nscr ip t ions d iscovered b y C yr iaco

o f Anconal 5 a nd Cyr iaco a dded a n e xcerp t f ro m Gregory Naz ianzus, De s epte m mund i s pectacu l is, i n h is own h and a t t he e nd o f 'C ' . D ona to t hus f or ms a n i mpor tan t l i nk i n t he t rad i t ion o f Paduan h u man is m wh ich b egins w ith P e trarch ' sf r iendsh ip w ith t he Carrara o ver lords 1 6 a nd c u lm ina tes i n t he s econd h a lf o ft he f i f teen th c en tury w ith t he d ist ingu ished c irc le t o wh ich , amongst o thers, t he a n t iquar ians G iovann i Marcanova a nd Fra G iocondo , t he p a in ter Andrea Man tegna , a nd t he c a l l igraphers F e l ice F e l ic iano a nd Bar to lomeo S anv i to, b e longed . 1 7 Th is t rad it ion was t hroughou t n otab le f or a n i n ter est i n t he v isua l ma ter ia l o f An t iqu ity . O f t he l a ter c op ies o f t he S pirensis b y f ar t he most i mpor tan t i s t ha t wh ich b e longed t o t he C oun t P a la t ine , O t the inr ich ( 1502-59) , n ow i n Mun ich . 1 8 Th is h as t wo s e ts o f i l lustra t ions, t he f i rst s e t b e long ing w ith t he o r ig ina l manuscr ip t made i n 1 542 , t he s econd s e t a dded a t t he e nd .

Ap re face e xp la ins

t ha t O t the inr ich f ound t he f i rst s e t u nsa t isfactory d ue t o t he ir c on te mporary G erman Rena issance s ty le a nd we k now t ha t t he s econd s e t a re i n f act t racings o f t he S p irensis . Thoughthe i l lustra t ions o f ' M* ' t hus h ave g rea t a u thor ity , we k now t ha t p erm iss ion f or t he t rac ings was a t f irst r efused b y t he C hapter o n t he g rounds t ha t t he S p irens is was i n af rag i le c ond it ion .

1 9

Th is may h ave

b een a n e xcuse , o f c ourse, t o a vo id l oan ing t he manuscr ip t , b ut i tc anno t b e a ssu med i n a l l c ases t ha t t he 'M* ? p ictures a re more a ccura te t han t hose i n 'C ' a nd P ' ,f or t he S p irens is may h ave b een i n b et ter c ond it ion i n t he f i ft een th c en tury . There a re a n u mber o f o ther i l lustra ted c op ies, b ut t hose men t ioned a re t he most i mpor tan t w itnesses. O n t he who le t he Anonymus i l lustra t ions a re s im i lar i n

M* ' a nd '0 '

a nd t h is i s at r ibu te t o t he a ccuracy w i th wh ich L a my p er formed h is t ask . Dr . Reece h as s hown ( p . 2 0 ) t ha t i lustra tions o f t he Anony mus ' p roposa ls o n t he r eform o f t he c o inage a re a l tered i n C ' b y L amy who i nser ts r epres en ta t ions o f e ar ly imper ia l c o ins wh ich c annot h ave b een i n t he o r ig ina l a nd wh ich a re n ot s hown i n 'P ' o r A V" ( F ig . 3 ) . On t he mast o f t he L iburna where 'N I *" s hows a c ross w ith a c lassica llook ing wrea th , L amy om i ts t he wrea th i n C ' a nd b o th wrea th a nd c ross i n P '. On t he o ther h and L amy p a in ts a n e ye o n t he p row wh ich i s n o t s hown i n 'AV ' b ut wh ich migh t p erhaps b e a uthen t ic ( Par t 2 , P is XX a , b , XM a , b ) .

On t he w ings o f t he C urro-

d repanus c l ipeatus sma l l t asse ls a re r epresen ted i n 'C ' b ut n o t i n 'M* '. I ti s i n terest ing , h owever , t ha t i n M ' t hey a re s hown , wh ich migh t s uggest t ha t t hese i l lustra t ions were c op ied n ot f ro m t he S p irens is b u t f rom s o me i n termed iary i n f luenced b y C '. ( I b id . P ls . X IV a ,b, XV a , b ) . I ft he Rena issance c op ies g ive u s af a ir ly a ccura te i dea o f t he i l lustrat i ons o f t he S p irens is, we n eed t o a sk wha t e ar l ier s tages t here were i n t he ir t rans m iss ion . I ts ee ms l i ke ly t ha t t he S p irens is c op ied a n e ar l ier C aro l ing ian mode l r a ther t han a l a te a n t ique manuscr ip t d irect .

S ince t he e ar ly

C arol ingian c op ies o f c lassica l t ex ts a re r e markab le f or t heir a bi li ty t o r eproduce t he i l lusion istic s ty le o ft heir mode ls, t he a r tist o ft he S p irensis was n o d oubt r espons ib le f or t he u nc lass ica l s ty l iza t ion o f t he p ictures a s t rans m it ted i n

M* ' . The l a te a n t ique mode l , s ince i tp robab ly c onta ined

t he Not i t ia a s we l l a s t he Anony mus, i s l i ke ly t o h ave b een o f t he e ar ly f i f th 1 2

c en tury p erhaps p roduced i n t he s a me c en tre a s t he Va t ican V irg i l, t ha t i s Ro me .

2 1

G ood c o mpar isons c an b e made b e tween t he V irg i l i l lustra t ions a nd

t he p ictures i n t he N o t i t ia . T he e ar ly f i f th-cen tury manuscr ip t must h ave b een a v ery e xcep t iona l p roduct , ad e l uxe c opy made f or s o me g rea t p ersonage, p erhaps t he Emperor h i mse lf . I f we c o mpare t he i l lustrat ion o f t he Anony mus a nd t hose o f t he No t i t ia , t hough i nb oth we c an d e tec t as im i lar f orma l l anguage, t here a re c er ta in s ign if ican t d if ferences .

F irst ly , whereas most o f t he N ot it ia p ictures a re

f u l l-page m in iatures, t he Anonymus i l lustrat ions a re r ectangu lar p ictures i nser ted i n to t he t ex t .

I n an u mber o f p ictures o b jects o ver lap t he f ra me a s

i ft he o r ig ina l c o mpos it ion was n o t i n tended t o b e r estr icted i n t h is way . Exa mp les a re t he s pear i n t he Thoraco machus p icture ( Par t 2 , P ls. XV I a , b , XV I I a ,b) , t he mast o f t he L iburna ( i b id . P ls . XXa , b , XX I a ,b) , a nd t he s cy the o n t he c har iot o f t he C urrodrepanus c l ipeatus ( i bid . P ls . X IV a ,b, XV a ,b) . S econd ly , most o f t he N o t i t ia p ictures a re s ymbo l ic . They r epres en t n o t t he g rea t o f f icers o f t he Emp ire i n p erson b u t t he ir i ns ign ia , t he t rapp ings o f t he ir o f f ice .

T hese a re s hown d iagra m ma t ica l ly i n a way t yp ica l

o f R o man a r t , s ca t tered i n ah aphazard manner a nd s een i n ab irds-eye v iew r a ther l i ke t he f a mous a saro ton mosa ic p ave men ts . S o me o f t he Anonymus p ictures a re a lso d iagra m ma t ic b irds-eye v iews, f or e xamp le t he A scogefyrus ( Par t 2 , P l . XV I I I a , b , X LX a , b ) .

Bu t t he ma jor i ty a re l andscape v iews

f ro m a n or ma l v iew-po in t s how ing t he mach ines i n u se b y t he s o ld iers .

F or

e xa mp le i n t he m in ia ture o ft he Thoraco machus ( i b id . P l . XVI a , b , XV I I a , b ) as o ld ier s tands wear ing s o me o f t he e qu ipmen t wh i lst o ther p ieces a re h ung o n ac onven ien t t ree .

Ar ea listic c on tex t f or t he o b jects i s t hus p rovided .

I ft he d ist inct ions d rawn a re v a l id , t hen t hey may n ot b e w ithou t s ign if icance f or d e term in ing t he n ature o f t he o r ig ina l i l lustra t ions o f t he a rche type .

The

f our th c en tury was t he t ime when , a s Professor We itz mann h as s hown , t he n a ture o fb ook i l lu m ina t ion s tar ted t o c hange t o t ake a ccoun t o f t he r ep lace men t o f t he r o l l b y t he c odex a s t he n orma l t ype o f b ook .

2 2

Un fra med min iatures

s e t i n t he c o lu mns o f t ex t a re t he n orma l f orm o f i l lustra t ion i n t he p apyrus r o l l . S uch i l lustra t ions c on t inued t o b e u sed l a ter i n c od ices, o f c ourse , f or e xamp le i n s uch Eastern i l lu m ina ted manuscr ip ts a s t he V ienna G enesis o f t he s ix th c en tury .

The o r ig ina l Anony mus i l lustra t ions o n t h is e v idence,

whe ther t he a rche type was a r o l l o r ac odex , c ou ld h ave b een r o l l-type ' i l lus tra t ions s e t i n t he t ex ts a nd , a ssu m ing t he o ver lapp ing o f t he f ra mes i s n o t d ue t o t he C aro l ing ian c opy ist , l ack ing f rames .

I fs o t hey m igh t h ave b een

r a ther more l i ke ly t o o r ig ina te i n a n He l len ist ic o r e astern i n f luenced mi l ieu t han a w estern o ne .

The Anony mus t ex t w ith i t s i l lustra t ions w ou ld t hen h ave

b een i ncorpora ted i n to t he e ar ly f i f th-cen tury c odex whose ma jor c o mponen t was t he No t it ia ma in ly i l lustra ted b y c odextype ' f u l l-page p ictures. Frames may h ave b een a dded t o t he Anonymus p ictures a t t h is s tage i n o rder t o make t he m more c ons isten t .

H istory o f Ar t Depar t men t , The Un ivers ity, Manchester .

M13 9 PL

NOTES AND REFERENCES 1 .

T ho mpson , e spec . p p . 1 5-17 .

2 .

L . B ie ler , The t ex t t rad it ion o f D icu i l ' sL iber d e mensura o rb is t errae ', Proceed ings o f t he R oya l I r ish A cade my , 6 4, s ect ion C n o . 1 , ( 1965) , 1 -32 .

3 .

The e d i t ion o f 0 . S eeck ,

N o t i t ia D ign i ta tu m ( Ber l in , 1 876) , r eproduces

t he i l lustra t ions o f t he Mun ich MS . i n o u t l ine .

F or t he t ex tua l p rob le ms

o f t he No t i t ia a nd t he e x tan t MSS . s ee I . Ma ier , 'The G iessen , Par ma a nd P iacenza C od ices o f t he "N o t i t ia D ign itatu m" w i th s o me r e lated t ex ts ', L a to mus, 2 7 ( 1968 ) , 9 6-141;

i d .

The Barber inus a nd Mun ich

c od ices o f t he No t i t ia D ign itatu m omn iu m ' ,i b id . 2 8 ( 1969) , 9 60-1035 . F or t he i l lustra t ions s ee J .J . G . A lexander , 'The i l lustra ted manuscr ip ts o f t he No t it ia D ign itatu m ' ,i n R . G oodburn a nd P . Bar tho lo mew ( eds .) A spects o f t he Not i t ia D ign itatu m , B .A .R . S upp le men tary S er ies 1 5 ( Ox ford , 1 976) , 1 1-25 . 4 .

S ch loss Harburg , F ürst l ich O e t t ingen- Wa l lerste in ' s che B ib l iothek , I ,2 , 2 0, 3 7 .

F or r eferences a nd a n i l lustra t ion s ee A lexander , o p . c it . ( n .3) ,

P l . I . 5 .

F itzw i l l ia m Museu m , MS . 8 6-1972 . Franc is Worma ld .

I t was b equea thed b y Professor

I t was p ub l ished b y H . Omon t , 'L e p lus a ncien manu-

s cr it d e l a N ot it ia D ign ita tu m ' ,Me mo ires d e l a s oc ie te n a t iona le d es a n t iqua ires d e France , s er . V I , 1( 1890 ) , 2 25-4 1 .

I th ad b e longed t o

S ir Tho mas Ph i l l ipps . 1 V L S . 1 6397 , a nd G ug lie l mo L ibr i . h istory s ee A lexander , o p . c i t . ( n .3 ) .

F or i t s e ar l ier

The Anonymus i l lustra t ions were

a lready k nown t o K onrad K yeser who wro te h is t rea t ise Be l l i F or t is 1 402-5 . 6 .

Tho mpson , 1 8 .

Bod le ian , MS . Canon . M isc . 3 78 .

F or t he i l lustra t ions s ee Par t 2b e low .

F or b ib l iography s ee 0 . Päch t ,J .J .G . A lexander , I l lu mina ted manus cr ip ts i n t he Bod le ian L ibrary , 2 , I t a l ian S choo l ( Ox ford , 1 970) ,no .5 99 . 7 .

B ib l io theque n a t iona le , L a t in 9 661. Ro man i .

H . Omon t , No t i t ia D ign itatu m Imper i l

Reproduc t ion r edu lte d es 1 05 m in iatures ( Par is, 1 911) .

F or

t he i l lustra t ions s ee a lso Par t 2b e low . 8 .

S . Ed munds, 'The M issa ls o f F e l ix V a nd e ar ly S avoyard i l lu m ina t ion ', Ar t Bu l le t in , 4 6 ( 1964) , 1 38-40 .

9 .

N ew York , Morgan L ibrary , M . 1 80 .

1 0 .

Va t ican , O t tob . L a t . 1 368 . s a me u n iden t if ied s cr ibe a s

Th is was wr it ten a t Base l i n 1 436 b y t he C ' a nd 'P ' . The o r ig ina l ow ier i s u nknown .

The a r ms a re u n for tuna te ly d e faced . 1 1.

R . S abbad in i,

S pog l i Ambros ian i L a t in i . D i u n n uovo c od ice d e l la

" No t i t ia D ign itatu m" ,S tud i I t a l ian ' d i f i lo log ia c lass ica, 1 1 ( 1903 ) , 2 57-63 . 1 4

1 2 .

S ee A lexander o p .c i t . ( n .3 ) , 1 5 a nd P l . X .

1 3 .

P . S a mbin , 'L a b ib l io teca d i P ie tro Dona to ( 1380-1447 ) ' ,Bo l le t ino d e l Museo C iv ico d i Padova , 4 8 ( 1959) , 6 0 .

1 4 .

Ber l in , Deu tsche S taa tsb ib l io thek , Ha m i lton 2 54 .

H . Boese , D ie l ate in-

i sche MSS . d er S amm lung Ha m i l ton z u Ber l in ( Ber l in , 1 966) . 1 5 .

B . A sh mo le , 'Cyr iac o f Ancona ' ,Proceed ings o f t he Br i t ish Acade my, 4 5 ( 1959) , 2 5-41.

W . B odnar , C yr iacus o f Ancona a nd A thens ( Co l lec-

t i on L a to mus 4 3 ( 1960 ) .) 1 6 .

F . S ax l,

P e trarch i n V en ice ' a nd

J acopo Be l lin i a nd Man tegna a s

An t iquar ians ' r epr in ted i n A H er i tage o f Images .

A S e lect ion o f L ectures

b y Fr itz S ax l, e d . E . G o mbr ich ( Harmondswor th , 1 970) . 1 7 .

C . M itche l l , 'F e l ice F e l ic iano An t iquar ius ' ,Proceed ings o f t he Br it ish A cade my , 4 7 ( 1961) ; J . Wardrop , The S cr ip t o f Hu man is m ( Ox ford , 1 963 ) .

1 8 .

Mun ich , Bayer ische S taa tsb ib l iothek , C lm . 1 0291. i l lustra t ions i n

F or t he t wo s e ts o f

M ' s ee p ar t 2b e low .

1 9 .

Ma ier , o p .c i t . ( n .3 , 1 969) , 9 95 .

2 0 .

S ee p . 6 5 .

2 1.

Va t . L a t . 3 225 . J . d e W it , D ie M in iaturen d es V irg i l ius Va t icanus ( A msterda m, 1 959) .

2 2 .

K . We i tz mann , 'Book i l lustra t ion o f t he f our th c en tury : Trad it ion a nd I nnova t ion ', i n S tud ies i n C lass ica l a nd Byzan t ine Manuscr ip t I l lu m inat i on

e d . H . L . K ess ler ( Ch icago , 1 971) , 9 6f f .

1 5

LATE ANTIQUE BOOK I LLUSTRATION AND THE GALLIC PREFECTURE b y Mar t in H en ig

T h is p aper h as a d ouble o r ig in .

Iwas o r ig ina l ly a sked t o s ay s o me th ing

a bou t t he i l lum ina t ions i n t he Anony mus , d e R ebus B e l l ic is . H owever , my t hough ts were s oon d iver ted b y t he g rea t s i lver d ish k nown a s t he C orbr idge Lanx , i n to c ons ider ing h ow p eop le a pproached p ic tures i n La te An t iqu i ty . The s pir i t o f t he L anx , " a t opica l a d h oc a l lus ion t o as peci f ic e ven t , n a me ly t o t he s acri f ice o f fered t o A po l lo o n D e los b y J u l ian t he Apos ta te i n 3 63" 1 s ee med t o me e spec ia l ly r em in iscen t o f t he V irg i l ian i l lum ina t ions i n C odex Va t icanus La t inus 3 867 2 . B o th t he works , p ar t icu lar ly t he l anx , a re c lose i n d a te t o t he o r ig ina l v ers ions o f t he i l lus tra t ions o f t he Anony mus , a nd i ti s a ga ins t t he Canons o f La te An t ique Ar t t hey r epresen t , t ha t t he p ic tures o f t he d e R ebus B e l l icis s hou ld b e s e t .

A s tudy o f t he o r ig ins o f t h is s tyle h as p ar t icu lar

r e levance f or o ur a u thor s ince t echn ica l t rea t ises wou ld a ppear t o h ave b een among t he e ar l ies t works t o b e i l lus tra ted . o f my p aper .

3

S uch a s tudy f or ms t he f irs t p ar t

Ye t t he Lanx a nd t he Va t ican Verg i l were p roduc ts o f a n imper ia l

o r metropo l i tan m i l ieu ; a nd i fo ne t h ing i s a greed a bou t t he Anony mus , i ti s t ha t h e was a p rov incia l .

H ow p reva len t t hen , was t he p ract ice o f b ook i l lu m in-

a t ion i np rov inc ia l s tud ios?

I n a t te mp t ing t o a nswer t h is q ues t ion i n t he s econd

p ar t , Ie xa m ine o ne a rea i n p ar t icu lar , t he G a l l ic p re fec ture , whose r o le i n t h is s phere h as p rev ious ly b een a t b es t u nderes t i ma ted a nd a t wors t i gnored . L a te An t ique b ook i l lumina t ion a nd i t s d eve lop men t The a r t o f b ook i l lu m ina t ion h ad h u mb le b eg inn ings a s s i mp le d iagra ms wh ich were emp loyed t o c lar i fy t he mean ing o f s c ien ti f ic a nd ma the ma t ica l t rea t ises .4

These works were wr i t ten o np apyrus s cro l ls w i th t he t ex t a rranged

i n c o lumns a nd t he f igures o ccupy ing c onven ien t b reaks .

A l though t he e ar l ies t

s urv iv ing e xa mp le o f t h is p ract ice i s h e l len is t ic i n d a te , i ti s t hough t t o h ave o r ig ina ted i n c lass ica l t imes . G ood e xa mples o f s uch d iagrams , embe l l ished s u f f icien t ly t o d eserve t he n ame o f a r t , were c op ied i n t he s urveying t rea t ises o f t he C orpus A _gr imensorum , wh ich i nc ludes r epresen ta t ions o f c i t ies i n c lass ica l s ty le . 5 These may b e c o mpared w i th t he t own o n aP o mpe ian f resco s howing t he f a l l o f I carus ,

6

a nd w i th a no ther i n t he f our th c en tury Verg i l ius Va t icanus ( 1 0 1 .35v )

a s we l l a s w i th t hose s hewn i n t he N o t i t ia D ign i ta tu m . Med iaeva l c opies o f D ioscur ides ' d e Ma ter ia Med ica i ncorpora te p lan t i l lus tra t ions o f s uch v er isim i l i tude t ha t t here c an h ard ly h ave b een many i n ter med iary c opies s ince t he f irs t c en tury o r ig ina l:7 F ina l ly , t he s iege e ng ines a nd a u to ma ta wh ich a ppear i n works u nder t he g enera l h ead ing o f Po l iorce t ica a nd Pneuma t ica 8 ( P l . I ) f ro m t he s econd c en tury B .C., a re i n t he s a me t rad i t ion a s t he d ev ices p ort rayed i n t he d e R ebus B el l ic is .

They s tand a lone r a ther t han a s i t e ms i n

1 7

PLATE

I .

S iege

Engine.

Vaticana,

Vat.

Vatican, Gr.

Biblioteca Apostolica

1 164,

f .

9 9r

f u l l-sca le min ia tures .

T hus , i n t he Anony mus , t he r epresen ta t ions o f t he

T ichode frus a nd C l ipeocen trus ( Par t 2P ls . V I I , V I I I ) o f t he l ances , p lumba ta e t t r ibu la ta a nd p lumba ta ma m i l la ta i n t he ir b ox ( i b id ., P l . I X ) a nd o f t he s k inb r idge k nown a s t he a scoge frus ( i bid ., P ls . XV I I I , X IX ) a re v ery c lose i ndeed t o a nc ien t p ro to types .

E lsewhere , w i th o ne e xcept ion , t he h uman f igures

a ppear a s med iaeva l i n trus ions .

Th is o ne e xcep t ion , h owever , p roves t he

r u le f or t he mach ine i s a n i t em o f u nderwear - t he Thoraco machus ( i b id ., P ls . XV I , XVI I ) a nd t he R o man S o ld ier i s a n e ssen t ia l p ar t o f t he e xp lana t ion o f i t s u se . C urren t o r thodoxy ma in ta ins , Ib e l ieve , t ha t f u l lsca le p ic tures s carce ly o ccurred i n manuscr ipts u n t i l l ong a f ter t he c odex was i nven ted i n t he e ar ly c en tur ies o f o ur e ra .

Th is v iew d oes n o t s ee m t o me t o b e c ons is ten t w i th t he

e v idence o f wa l l p a in t ing i n g enera l a nd o f t he Odysseus f r ieze f ro m R o me i n p ar t icu lar .

9

Tha t f r ieze , e xecu ted i n t he f irs t c en tury B .C. a nd b ased o n a

s econd c en tury o r ig ina l , i s r e markab le f or t he way i n wh ich t he f igures a re i den t i f ied - minu te ly - i n G reek wh ich wou ld h ave b een t oo d is tan t t o r ead when t he f r ieze was h igh o n a wa l l .

O ther wa l lp a in tings d ep ict ing my tho logica l

s cenes a re r epea ted i n i den t ica l f or m a t s evera l s i tes a nd s ugges t t ha t t he a r t is t h ad a ccess e i ther t o p a t tern-books o r , more p robab ly , t o i l lus tra ted t ex ts .

1 0

I ti s o f s o me i n teres t t ha t Mar t ia l wr i tes o f as cro l l wh ich was p re-

f aced b y ap or tra i t o f Verg i l ( X IV , N o . 1 86) a nd p resu mably t h is wou ld h ave b een s im i lar t o t hose t ha t s t i l l s urv ive i n t he Verg i l ius R o manus . I n a ny c ase , t here c an b e l i t t le d oub t t ha t i l lus tra ted s cro l ls a nd c od ices e x is ted i n c ons iderab le n u mbers b y t he t h ird c en tury A .D ., f or t here i s a d irec t i conograph ica l l ink b e tween t he Monnos mosa ic a t Tr ier a nd t he c lass ic a l ly d er ived t wel f th c en tury a s trono m ica l c odex i n Madr id 1 1 w h i ls t t he d epict i on o f Andro meda c ha ined t o ar ock i n an in th c en tury manuscr ip t a t L eiden i s b ased o n av ery we l l-known p ro to type . 1 2 A c tua l manuscr ip ts s urv ive f ro m t he f our th o r f i f th c en tur ies .

O f p r i-

mary impor tance a re t he Verg i l ius Va t icanus ( Cod . Va t . L a t . 3 225 ) wh ich i s h igh ly e clec t ic , b u t f requen t ly v ery c lass ica l i n s ty le , a nd t he v igorous a nd r a ther s trange Verg i l ius R o manus ( Cod . Va t . La t . 3 867) wh ich w i th G rabar 1 3 Ib e l ieve t o b e n o t o n ly a f iner work o f a r t b u t e very b i t a s e ar ly i n d a te ( P ls . Ia ,b ,

b ) .

I t s s tyle s ee ms t o b e n ei ther Or ien ta l n or e ar ly B yzan t ine

a nd i n t he s econd p ar t o f t h is p aper Iw i l l a t te mp t t o p lace i ti n t he l a t ins peak ing c u l ture o f G au l a nd B r i ta in .

These d ocumen ts may b e r e la ted t o

o ther c on te mporary works o f a r t a s we l l a s t o b ooks s l igh t ly l a ter i n d a te ( e .g . t he Ambros ian I l iad ) a nd a lso t o o thers wh ich a re r ena issance o r e ar ly modern c op ies o f La te An t ique b ooks ( e .g . N o t i t ia D ign i ta tu m , P l . V I I , F i loc a lus ' C a lendar o f 3 54 , P ls . I V , V , V I ). Thus , t o t ake o ne t he me , many o f

t he i l lus tra t ions i n t he c a lendar i n-

c lude a n a ssor t men t o f o b jects s ca t tered i n t he f i e ld ;

f or e xamp le , t he C i ty

o f T r ier14 i s p erson i f ied a s ag oddess o f Minerva t ype w i th h er r igh t h and o n t he h ead o f ab arbar ian . H er warr ior a spec t i s f ur ther s ugges ted b y t wo s h ields a nd a q u iver f u l l o f a rrows wh i le h er wea l th i s s y mbo l ised b y s evera l d r ink ing v esse ls .

The s a me p ic tor ia l s hor thand i s f ound i n t he V erg i l ius R o manus 1 5

a nd i n t he N o t i t ia D ign i ta tu m .1 6

I t s terns f ro m t he " Asaroton" t rad i t ion wh ich

c an b e t raced b ack i n t ime , v ia t he mosa ics o f S . C ons tanza i n R o me a nd t he

1 9

f rescoes o f t he Dura Europos S ynagogue t o t he work o f S osos . 1 7 The o n ly d i f ference b e tween l a ter e xa mples o f t he t ype a nd t he ir h e l len is t ic mode ls i s t heir a pparen t f la tness a nd a vo idance o f p erspect ive . Aga in , b o th n ew a nd a rcha is ing e le men ts c an b e f ound i n t he c onsu lar d iptychs , wh ich a re i n e ssence i l lum ina ted p ages f oss i l ised i n i vory , a nd i n s i lver p la te .

The p ic tures o f G a l lus p ro f fer ing a v ic tory t o C ons tan t ius I who

i s i n t he a c t o f d is tr ibu t ing l argesse a re t he mos t f orma l a nd h iera t ic i n t he C a lendar .1 8 P rob ianus ,

They f ind t he ir e xact p ara l le ls i n t he d ip tychs o f P robus 1 9 9 0

a nd

a nd i n t he M issor iu m o f Theodos ius 2 1 w here t he d ign i ty o f t he

R o man mag is tra te a nd e ven more o f t he s acred Emperors i s ma in ta ined i n t he s a me , e leva ted , l a te a n t ique manner .

As a c on tras t t he f amous N icho-

machus-Sy m machus d ip tych 2 2 w h ich d ep ic ts t wo p r ies tesses a nd a s im i lar p agan d ip tych 2 3 t ha t s hows Ask lepios o n o ne l ea f a nd H yge ia o n t he o ther , o r t he C orbr idge L anx 2 4 i n t he C a lendar 25

a re a s c lass ic is ing a s t he r epresen ta t ions o f t he mon ths

a nd b e long t o a much o lder t rad i t ion a l toge ther , at rad i t ion

e pi to m ised b y t he mytho log ica l r e l ie fs o n t he A ra Pad s.

2 6

The G a l l ic P re fec ture I s i tp oss ib le t ha t d rawing a nd i l lum ina t ion was c arr ied o n i n N or th Wes tern E urope , e ven p erhaps i n B r i ta in?

I fs o , u nder wha t c ond i t ions?

S uch q ues t ions r equ ire n o e xcuse b ecause o n ly a f ew c en tur ies l a ter - a dm i tt ed ly i n ar a ther d i f feren t e nv ironmen t t han t ha t wh ich a pper ta ined i n R o man B r i ta in - C e l ts a nd Ang lo-Saxons were p roducing s o me o f t he g rea tes t works i n t he h is tory o f med iaeva l i l lum ina t ion .

The p roduc ts o f s cr ip tor ia a t I ona

o r L ind is farne were e ar ly a nd i n f luen t ia l a nd f ar f iner t han c on te mporary p roducts emana t ing f ro m t he o ld l ands o f t he R o man Empire .

B ooks s uch a s

t he C odex Am ia t inus , t he L ind is farne G ospe ls a nd t he B ook o f Durrow " were p roduced f or monas t ic p a trons whose p lace i n t he ir r ich a nd s e t t led c o m muni t ies was s im i lar t o t ha t o f t he l a te R o man ( nob le ) p a tronus .

I ndeed , a s R ichard

R eece h as s o r igh t ly p o in ted o u t t o me , t here may b e aq ues t ion o f s urv iva l o r c on t inu i ty t o b e i nves t iga ted b e tween t he L a te An t ique p er iod a nd t he ' Nor thumbr ian R ena issance '. I n t he B r i ta in o f t he f our th c en tury t he t hr iv ing c u l ture o f t he G rea t V i l las o f fered p rop i t ious g round f or a r t is t ic e ndeavour o f a l l k inds . I ti s t o R u t i l ius Na ma t ianus , a n i nhabi tan t o f G au l wr i t ing i n t he e ar ly f i f th c en tury A .D., t ha t we owe t he f ines t a nd mos t mov ing t r ibu te t o R o me ' mo ther o f men a nd mo ther o f g ods '. ' Exaud i , r eg ina t u i p u lcherr i ma mund i , I n ter s idereos R o ma r ecep ta p o los ; E xaud i , g ene tr ix h om in .u m g ene tr ixque d eoru m ; N on p rocu l ac ae lo p er t ua t e mpla s umus . T e c an i mus s e mperque , s inen t d um f a ta , c ane mus S ospes n e mo p o tes t im me mor e sse t u i F ec is t i p a tr ia m d ivers is g en t ibus u nam . P rofu i t i n ius t is , t e d om inan te , c api ; Dumque o f fers v ic t is p ropr i i c onsor t ia i ur is , U rbe m f ecis t i , q uod p r ius o rbis e ra t .

D e R ed i tu S uo I , 4 7f f .

As Ru t i l ius s ugges ts t he l ands o f t he Empire s hared i n ac o m mon c u l ture . Even t he n or th-wes tern p rov inces , o nce t he h o me o f r ude a nd b arbarous p eoples h ad b eco me a n impor tan t p ar t o f t he G raeco-Ro man o ikoumene ; p rocess whose b eg inn ings a re r ecorded b y Tac i tus ( Agr ico la 2 1 ) .

a

F or a t ime

i n t he t h ird a nd f our th c en tur ies Tr ier was a n imper ia l c ap t ia l a nd , i nev i tab ly , ac en tre where a r ts a nd l e t ters were p a tron ised .

The p oe ms o f Auson ius o n

t he o ne h and , a nd t he c e i l ing p a in t ings f ro m t he C ons tan t ian p a lace? 8 o n t he o ther a t tes t as oph is t ica t ion e qua l t o t ha t o f An t ioch o r A lexandr ia o r Mi lan . H igh c u l ture was n o t c on f ined t o o ne c i ty , n e l .

2 9

n or d id i t s top a t t he C han-

G rea t v i l las s uch a s Woodches ter , t he ir f l oors embel l ished w i th mosa ics ,

d inner s erv ices o f e xqu is i te s i lver l i ke t ha t f ro m Mi ldenha l l , t he i ncis ive c r i t ic is m o f Augus t ine 's g rea t r iva l P e lagu is , 3 0 a nd t he s uccess o f t he l oca l c ur ia l c lass i n c on t inu ing t he a dm in is tra t ion f or more t han a g enera t ion a f ter l inks w i th t he c en tra l Emp ire were s evered a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he f i f th c en tury 3 1 t oge ther c o mpr ise s trong e v idence i n f avour o f ar ich a nd c ohes ive s oc ie ty . I ndeed , i f ar escr ipt i ssued b y G ra t ian a nd Va len t in ian i n A .D . 3 76 a nd a ddress ed t o t he P re fec t o f t he G au ls means wha t i t s ays ( C . Th . X II I , 3 , 1 1 ) , p rov is ion was made f or t he s uppor t o f G reek a nd La t in r he tor icians i n t he ma jor c i t ies o f t he p raefecture , wh ich a ssured ly mus t h ave i ncluded L ondon .... s o much f or t he p r i macy o f Ox ford a nd C a mbr idge i n Un ivers i ty e duca t ion i n t h is c oun try , u n less o ne a ccep ts t he f an tas t ic c la i ms o f s ix teen th a nd s even teen th c en tury s toryte l lers , who g o b ack t o C an taber a nd t he e ra o f t he Tro j a n War : Bu t i ti s t o t h is war , o ne o f t he mos t me morab le i n t he h is tory o f mank ind b o th f or i t s s o mbre a nd h ero ic e ven ts a nd i t s u nexpected y e t g lor ious a f ter ma th , t ha t Imus t n ow t urn , o r r a ther t o e v idence f or t he p opu lar i ty o f V irg i l i n Br i ta in .

E v iden t ly C araus ius i n tended h is c o ins w i th t he l egend

EXPECTATE VEN I t o e voke t he V irg i l ian , ' Qu ibus H ector a b o r is e xspecta te v en is ' ( Aen . i i , 2 82f .) , wh i le a n i nscr ip t ion a bove t he E uropa mosa ic a t Lu l l ings tone i s as cho lar ly j oke a l luding t o a n e pisode i n t he f irs t b ook o f t he Aene id

8 8 f f .) : " inv ida s i t a (ur i ) v id isse t I uno n a ta tus , i us t ius A eo l ias i sse t a dusque d o mos ."

The g rea t s tor m wh ich J uno r a ised a ga ins t Aeneas i s g raph ica l ly s hown i n o ne o f t he min ia tures o f t he V erg i l ius R o manus ( f o l .77 r) . O f c ourse i ti s r a ther s i mp l is t ic t o s ugges t t ha t t he e pigra m o n t he f l oor o f at r ic l in iu m was i n tended t o e voke d iscuss ion a t e very d inner-par ty ( un less t he o wner was a ccus to med t o b or ing h is g ues ts ) , y e t i t was s ure ly d es igned t o g ive a c u l t iv a ted t one t o t he p roceed ings . S cenes f ro m t he A eneid were s hown o n af resco p a in ted o n t he wa l l o f ar oo m i n t he v i l la n ear O tford , K en t 32 a s t he i nscrip t ion p a in ted i n r ustic c api ta ls, B ina manu 1 ( a to c rispans h ast i lia f erro ) ', t esti f ies 1 65) .

( .

Aen . i , 3 13 ; x i i ,

There i s a n o verwhe lm ing p robabi l i ty t ha t t he s cene a cco mpanying t he

l egend was c op ied f ro m a n i l lu m ina ted V irg i l , f or V irgi lian s cenes i n monumen ta l p a in t ing a re r are e ven i n I t a ly , a nd It h ink i tv ery u n l ike ly t ha t a works hop c opy-book , e ven i fi te x isted , wou ld h ave c on ta ined t ex ts a s we l l a s p ictures.

A s, i n f act , t wo i l lustra ted a ncien t manuscr ip ts o f V irg i l s urvive ,

a ny o ther e xp lana t ion s ee ms r a ther p o in t less.

2 1

The mos t v a luable p iece o f e v idence r e la t ing t o V irg i l f ro m Br i ta in i s t he mosa ic f ro m L ow Ia nd I V o f t he E p ic .

Ham mosa ic , S o merse t .

The s cenes i l lus tra te b ooks

3 3

The T ro jan f lee t , b lown o f f-course i n t he t e mpes t we

h ave d escr ibed a bove , c o mes t o C ar thage .

A cha tes i s t hen p resen ted , w i th

as pear h e ld o ver h is l ef t s hou lder a nd a d iade m i n h is r igh t h and .

H e a ppears

i n i den t ica l f or m ( bu t w i thou t t he d iade m ) i n t he Verg i l ius Va t icanus ( f . 1 6" ) . B eynond , Ascan ius a nd Aeneas s tand b e fore D ido' t he Queen i s t he r a ther s in is ter f igure o f V enus .

b e tween t he T ro jans a nd H ere we may n o te t he

i conograph ica l s im i lar i ty o f Aeneas t o Turnus , s tand ing c ross-legged a nd h o ld ing a s pear i n t he V erg i l ius Ro manus ( P ls . Ib , t he R oya l Hun t ;

b ) .

T hen we c o me t o

Ascan ius , Aeneas a nd D ido o n h orseback , wh ich i s , h owever ,

n o t r e la ted t o a ny s cene i n t he s urv iv ing manuscr ip ts .

The c o mpos i t ion o f t he

s cene i n t he " darkso me c ave" h ere r endered a s D ido a nd Aeneas embracing b e tween t wo t rees , a l though f ar r e moved f ro m t he c orrespond ing s cene i n t he Verg i l ius R o manus ( f . 1 06r ) i s s im i lar i n c o mpos i t ion t o t he r ender ing o f Me l iboeus a nd T i tyrus b etween t rees i n f .1" o f t he s a me manuscr ip t .

R osen-

t ha l 's t heory t ha t mosa ics l i ke t h is i n f luenced manuscr ip t i l lu m ina t ion i s mos t u n l ike ly b ecause t he b reakdown o f t he n arra t ive i n to s ing le f ra med e p isodes , v i ta l f or a c odex , i s s o mewha t i nconven ien t i n a mosa ic ;

f ur ther more t he

t rans m iss ion o f a r t is t ic i deas d e mands a p or tab le med ium s uch a s ab ook .

3 4

F or R osen tha l t he V erg i l ius R o manus i s a n o r ien ta l is ing p roduc t ion wh ich c on tras ts w i th t he l a te c lass ic f or ms o f t he L ow H a m mosa ic . more , i ti s ah undred a nd f i f ty y ears l a ter i n d a te .

F ur ther-

I n c on tras t , Ima in ta in

t ha t a l though t here a re f ew i conograph ic l inks b e tween t he t wo , t here a re impor tan t s tyl is t ic s im i lar i t ies .

They c o me f ro m t he s a me mi l ieu .

The a t ten t ion p a id t o o u t l ine , t he a bsence o f p erspec t ive e ncourag ing t he d eve lop men t o f r hyth m ic p a t terns , a nd t he p r im i t ive v igour o f t he f igures a re f ea tures b o th h ave i n c o m mon a nd wh ich c on tras t w i th t he p a in t ings i n t he more c orrec t a nd c lass ica l V erg i l ius Va t icanus .

H owever , i n e ach o f t hese

r espec ts , t he manuscr ip t a ppears s tranger a nd l ess c lass ica l t han t he mosa ic . I ft he R o manus i s f our th c en tury i n d a te , i t was p roduced i n aR o man wor ld d om ina ted b y t he f our c i t ies s hown i n t he F i loca lus C a lendar ( Ro me , C ons tan t inop le , A lexandr ia a nd Tr ier ) , s o we s hou ld n o t b e b iased a ga ins t a scr ib ing e ven i mpor tan t c our t p roduc t ions t o t he c i ty o n t he Mose l le .

The

u se o f La t in i n t he E as t was v ery r es tr ic ted a s t he r ar i ty o f L a t in p apyr i o u ts ide mi l i tary c irc les t es ti f ies . Eas tern p rovenance .

Tha t a lone a rgues a ga ins t t he R o manus '

Y e t c o mpare t he p or tra i ts o f V irg i l ( f o l . 3v ;e tc .) w i th

t he s urveyor i n t he Wo l fenbt i t te l C odex o f t he Agr i mensores ( f o l . 6 7v ) a nd c on tras t t he p rov incia l i ty o f t he f or mer w i th t he h igh c lass ic is m o f t he l a t ter , wh ich i s k nown t o b e o f I ta l ian work mansh ip . E ven more t e l l ing a re t he i l lus tra t ions i n t he C a lendar 3 5 w h ich were o r ig ina l ly d rawn b y ac er ta in F ur ius D ionys ius F i loca lus ( P l . I V ) a nd a re c lear ly me tropo l i tan i n s ty le . The g oa therd who r epresen ts March a nd F ebr uary c lad i n h er c h i ton a nd h i ma t ion ( P l . V ) c ou ld h ave b een a dap ted f ro m 'P o mpeian ' f rescos a nd t he f or mer i s f ar r e moved f ro m t he more s ty l ised c oun tr y men i n t he E c logue i l lus tra t ions o f t he Verg i l ius R o manus ( f o l . 1 r , 6 r , 1 1r ( =P l . Ia ) a nd 1 6v ) .

2 2

The V erg i l ius R o manus w i th i t s p r im i t ive a nd v igorous a pproach i s c er ta in ly p rov incia l a nd a t l eas t a s Wes tern a s t he l i t t le b lond-ha ired G er man p age-boys i n t he b anque t ( f o l . 1 00" ) who , i nc iden ta l ly , h ave t he ir c oun terpar ts i n s o me o f t he h er ms f ro m We lschb i l l ig , 3 6 a l though , o f c ourse , t hey c ou ld a lso b e p ara l leled o n works o f a r t em ina t ing f ro m t he E as tern Cour t . B u t , I b e l ieve , we c an g o f ur ther a nd a scr ibe t he manuscr ipt t o B r i ta in where V erg i l was s o w ide ly r ead a nd l oved .

C er ta in ly t he f igure-s ty le a nd t he l inear t rea t-

men t o f d raper ies i s c ons is ten t w i th a l l t ha t we k now o f R o mano-Br i t ish a r t . The V irg i l p or tra i ts ( f o ls . 3v

( =P l . V I I I b ) , 9 " , 1 4r

a re h igh ly r em in iscen t

o f a we l l-known r e l ie f s cu lp ture f ro m Murre l l H i l l , C umber land 3 7 wh ich s hows a wo man s ea ted t owards t he f ron t .

( P1 .I X )

" The ma in c har m o f t he p iece

mus t a lways h ave r es ided i n t he o rna men ta l b lack-and-wh i te e f fect p roduced b y t he d eep ly g ouged o u t l ines o f t he t ra i l ing t un ic ."

G eorge H enderson h as

a lready d e mons tra ted t ha t t he s cu lp ture r eca l ls S t . J ohn o n f o l . 2 09 v o f t he L ind is farne G ospe ls ,

3 8

b u t t he p ara l le l b e tween t he G ospe ls a nd V irg i l wou ld

b e j us t a s s tr ik ing a nd , o f c ourse , p oses t he q ues t ion o f manuscr ip t s urv iva l a s d e ta i led a bove .

The p rov inc ia l t rea t men t o f d ress i n t he V irg i l p or tra i ts

i s a lso s tr ik ing ly s im i lar t o t ha t o f t he t un ica a nd p a l l ium worn b y C hr is t o n t he H in ton S t . Mary p ave men t ( P l . V i l la ) , a s J ohn P eter Wi ld h as p o in ted o u t t o me . The j e t p endan ts made i n Y orksh ire a round t he t ime o f t he t e trarchy a re i n s o me ways e ven more s ign i f ican t b ecause t hey r equ ired a min ia tur is t a pproach t o t he c ra f t .

B e fore a ny e ngraver wou ld a t te mp t t o c u t s uch a h ard ma ter ia l

3 9

a s j e t , h e i s l ike ly t o h ave p repared v ery e xac t d raw ings o f e xact ly wha t h e i n tended t o d o.

The r eason t he d es igns o f t he p endan ts a re s o l i ke t hose o f

g o ld-g lass emb le ma ta i s s ure ly t h is c o m mon g raph ic s ource .

I tw i l l b e

o bserved t ha t t he Br i t ish p endan ts a re v ery f or ma l ised a nd l inear c o mpared t o c on te mporary c a meos f ro m e lsewhere i n t he Empire . 4° A t as l igh t ly e ar l ier p er iod we h ave t he s a me p roble m w i th t he t ypes o f Caraus ius t c oinage .

The d ie-cu t t ing a ch ieved a v ery h igh s tandard b u t many

p ieces e xh ib i t ac ur ious t hough ( Ih as ten t o a dd ) a es the t ica l ly s a t is fying l inea r i ty.41 P erhaps Br i t ish d rawing h as s o me th ing t o d o w i th i t , e ven where a d irec t f rees tyle was emp loyed i nb arbo t ine p o t tery 42

t he f ina l r esu l t h as a

s trong ly l inear c haracter . A l though t he R o manus i s t he o n ly R o man manuscr ipt t o wh ich Iwou ld a ss ign a p oss ib ly i nsu lar p rovenance , t he o r ig ina l o f t he N o t i t ia a lso a ppears t o me a s ap roduc t o f t he G a l l ic P rae fec ture .

The C od ices wh ich c on ta in i t

a re d ependen t o n C aro l ing ian a rch types t he mse lves d escended f ro m l a te An t ique manuscr ip ts .

I n s tyle t hese p robab ly h ad more i n c o m mon w i th t he

p rov inc ia l is m o f t he Ro manus t ha t w i th works i n ' me tropo l i tan ' s ty le l ike t he F i loca lus C a lendar .

H owever , t he i l lum ina tors a re e ven f ur ther r e moved f ro m

t he i l lus ion is m o f s uch Eas tern works a s t he Ambros ian I l iad .

To t ake o ne

e xa mp le , t he a sse mb led d e i t ies s hown i n t he R o manus ( 234v a nd 2 35" ) a re n o t u n l ike min ia tures I X a nd XX I I I o f t he Ambros ian I l iad f ro m t he p oin t o f v iew o f c o mpos i t ion . I n e ach c ase t he g ods a nd g oddesses a re n i mba te , s hown f ron ta l ly a nd wear o r c arry a ppropr ia te d ress o r a t tr ibu tes . Ye t t he G reek manuscr ip t43

i s a iry a nd i mpress ion is t ic , r eca l l ing t he p a in ted s h ie lds f ro m

Dura E uropos " wh i le t he Wes tern o ne i s s o l id a nd l inear .

The g oddesses

a re r em in iscen t o f images o f R o ma i n t he N o t i t ia o f t he C i ty o f R o me 45 2 3

a nd

Ca mpan ia i n t he N o t it ia D ign i ta tum46 Bran t ingha m mosa ic. 47

a s w el l a s o f t he f e ma le d e i t ies o n t he

I ndeed , Ro ma , s hown w i th a h ead-dress o f ' sp ikes '

i n t he N o t it ia , i s p ara l leled b y t he Minerva i n Romanus f o l. 2 35r , whose p lumed h el met h as merged w ith h er n imbus t o c rea te j ust s uch a n e fec t.

Th is i s f ar

r e moved f ro m t he c arefu l d ep ic t ion o f Ro ma 's h e l met i n t he C a lendar o r o n f resco p a in t ing f ro m Ro me. 48 We must b ear i n m ind t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t Ro ma 's h ead-dress i s i n tended t o s uggest t he e ars o f c orn wh ich a re a ppropr ia te t o Annona , a l though Id o n o t t h ink t ha t t h is i s l ike ly . Ano ther e xa mp le o f d iferences a r is ing b etween c en tra l a nd p rov inc ia l s tud ios c an b e s een i n c o mpar ing A lexandr ia a s r epresen ted i n t he Ca lendar w i th h er e qu iva len t i nt he N o t i t ia. A lexandr ia ( Pl. V I ) i s p resen ted a s as tandi ng f e ma le f i gure w ho h o lds c orn-ears a nd p oppy-heads a nd i s c rowned w ith c orn-ears.

Beh ind h er a re t wo w indows t hrough w h ich g ra in-sh ips a re v is ible.

The c oncep t ion , h igh ly r egu lar a nd c lassica l , was b orrowed f rom p erson if icat i ons o f C ar thage a nd i s t he b asis f or t he m in ia ture w i th t he i ns ign ia o f t he Proconsu l A fr icae i nt he N o t i t ia ( Pl . V I I ). However , t he p lan ts wh ich t he g odd es h o lds a re b lundered , a s p a l ms, a nd t he s h ips n ow a ppear i n as epara te p anel b elow , h ence d epr iving t he p icture o f a ny p erspective . Af ina l n ote , a propos o ft he ' a saro ton ' e f fects t o wh ich Ih ave r ef erred a bove ( p . 1 9 ) The l eaves o f p rec ious meta l u sed a s l argesse o nb o th t he Verg i l ius Ro manus a nd t he N o t it ia b r ing t o m ind t he v o t ive t able ts f ro m Barkway , Her t fordsh ire , 49

a nd e ven more , t he r ecen t ly d iscovered ' chr ist ian t

e xamp les f ro m Wa ter N ew ton . 5 ° There was a c ons iderab le q uan t ity o f s i lver i nt he west a t t h is t ime , a nd a part f rom a ctua l p la te w e may c i te t he i ngo ts f ound e spec ia l ly i nt he Br i t ish I s les a nd p erhaps u sed i n t he p aymen t o f t roops . 5 1

A s Is a id a t t he b eg inn ing o f t h is p aper , my e nqu iry b egan w ith t he Corb r idge L anx a nd w i th t he d e Rebus Bel l icis a nd i ti s t ime t o r eturn t o t he m. The L anx was c op ied f rom a c ar toon , p resumably i n s ome s tud io o n t he s hores o f t he Med iterranean a l though i ti s s t il l n ot e asy t o a ss ign much Roman s i lver t o s pec if ic s choo ls o r workshops a nd i n v iew o ft he p reponderance o f s i lver f ro m f our th c en tury Br ita in ,

i t wou ld n o t b e s urpr is ing i fi mpor tan t of ic inae

e x isted i n Tr ier o r e ven f ur ther West. Treasure a re s a id t o b e Ga l l ic 5 2

S o me o f t he i t e ms i n t he Mi ldenha l l

a nd S on ia Hawkes h as a scr ibed a s i lver b ow l

f ro m Co lera ine t o Br ita in .5 3 If ee l t ha t t here i s as trong a nd s o l id Western e le men t i nt he L anx , b u t t h is i s n o t e ssen t ia l t o o ur a rgumen t . The L anx p roves t ha t c er ta in v isua l e f fects f ound i n manuscr ip ts were k nown i n Br ita in , a nd t ha t t he a esthe t ic c onsc iousness r equ ired t o a pprec ia te h igh-qua l i ty d raw ing e x isted e ven i n t he n or th o f t he p rov ince.

Pe lag ius a nd h is c on te mpor-

a r ies wou ld h ave k nown o f s im ilar v essels i n t he ir y ou th j ust a s t hey k new o f b ooks a nd l earned h ow t o w r ite w ith e legance a nd p anache. The s a me ' a saro ton '-l ike f ea tures a re f ound o n t he L anx a s o n l a te Ro man i l lum ina t ions a nd , f ur ther more, t he f i gures a re p os it ioned i n r ela t ion t o t rees i n t he s a me way a s o n s uch manuscr ip ts t he T ityrus e p isode i nt he Ro manus f o l . i r a nd a ppropr ia te p ic tures i n t he Va t icanus , f o l . 3 6v , 6 9r ), p agan d ip tychs a nd s arcophag i. D ishes s uch a s t he Corbr idge L anx b elonged t o members o ft he s a me l andown ing c lass o f s oc iety wh ich d ined i n

2 4

t r icl ina f l oored w ith V irg i l ian p ave men ts a nd r ead t he c lassics w ith e ase. S uch p eop le must h ave c omm issioned i l lum ina ted c od ices e ven i ft hey d id n o t p hys ica l ly c rea te t he m ( and t he n a me o f t he i l lustra tor o f t he C alendar s ugg ests a n h onest ior a t t he v ery l east ).

The Ro man Emp ire ofered many o p-

p or tun i t ies f or a r t ist ic d if fus ion b e tween East a nd West a nd i fi ti s s trange t o t h ink o f as i lver d ish e ngraved w i th t he s acred r epresen ta t ions o f t he g ods a nd g oddesses worsh ipped o nt he most e voca t ive o f G reek i s lands , f l oa t ing d owns trea m o n t he muddy f l oodwa ters o ft he Tyne , i ti s n o more c ur ious t ha t t he l ands wh ich l a ter g ave b ir th t o t he Codex Am iat inus a nd t he L ind isfarne Gospels s hou ld h ave made a n e ar l ier c on tr ibu t ion t o t he C iv i l ised L ife. Th is b r ings u s a t l ast t o t he d e Rebus B el l ic is. I t i s d if f icu l t t o s ay e xa ct ly where o ur Au thor w ro te , a l though t he r eferences t o t he b u i ld ing o fb urg i b r ings Va lens f ron t ier p o l icy t o m ind Th is b r ings u s a t l ast t o t he d e Rebus B el l ic is.

I ti s d if f icu l t t o s ay e x-

a c t ly where o ur Au thor wro te , a l though t he r eferences t o t he Danube a nd t he b u ild ing o fb urg i b r ings Va lens ' f ron t ier p o l icy t o m ind ( see p p . 6a nd 7 0 ) . However , f or o ur p urposes, i td oes n o t ma tter w hether t he t ract a ctual ly o r ig i a ted i nt he East o r i nt he West : t echn ica l d raw ing was c er ta in ly emp loyed i nb o th s ect ions o ft he Emp ire ; i n t he West t h is c an b e p roved f ro m t he e x ist ence o f t he Cadestra l S urvey o f O range o n marble 5 4 wh ile a r e l ief f ro m Buzeno l s how ing a c o mp l ica ted r eap ing mach ine c a l led a v al lus i s c lose t o t he t rad i t ion o f t he Anony mus ( p . 3 9 , P l . Xa , b ).

A t a n e ar ly d a te t he Anony mus ' t rea t ise

c erta in ly e x isted i n t he West a s t he o ther works w i th wh ich i t was a ssoc ia ted— a l l i n L a t in— i mp ly .

There i s n o r eason why n ew d evelop men ts i n t echno logy

s hou ld n ecessar ily l eave t he ir t races i n a r t ( a l though n o o ne r eal ly s upposes t ha t ma jor b u i ld ings w ere e ver e rected w ithou t t he a id o f d eta iled p lans ). The i l lustra t ions o ft he d e Rebus Bel l ic is e scaped o bl iv ion i n t ha t t hese e phe mera l s ke tches were c op ied a nd t hese c op ies c ame t o b e b ound u p w i th t he magn if ican t N o t i t ia manuscr ip t . Thus w ha th ad b een merely u t il itar ian s ke tches h ave c o me d own t o u s a s p rec ious e v idence f or t he a r t o f d raw ing i n t he L a te Ro man Emp ire.

I nst itu te o f Archaeo logy Beau mon t S treet Ox ford .

POSTSCR IPT S ince wr it ing t he a bove Rosen thaPs The I l lum ina t ions o f t he Vergi lius Ro manus h as b een r ev iewed b y Professor J . M. C . Toynbee. 5 5 Her ma in c onclusions a re t ha t t he work i s o f l a te f i f th c en tury d a te a nd Western . S he s uggests t ha t t he Ro manus was ' pa in ted f or a wea l thy a nd c u l t iva ted v il laowner i n Gau l '.

Together w ith Rosen tha l s he a ccep ts t he r elevance o ft he

L ow Ham mosa ic i n t he d evelopmen t o fb ook i l lum ina t ion .

2 5

NOTES AND REFERENCES The a uthor wou ld l i ke t o t hank , among o thers, Mark Hassa l l , J u l ian Munby a nd R ichard Reece f or v ar ious c o m men ts a nd s uggest ions made when a n e ar l ier v ers ion o f t h is p aper was r ead t o t he Ro man Depar t men t o f t he I nst itute o f Archaeo logy , L ondon . 1 .

J . M .C . Toynbee , Ar t i n Br i ta in u nder t he Ro mans ( Ox ford , 1 964) , 3 06f f .

2 .

E . Rosen tha l, The I l lu m ina t ions o f t he Verg i l ius Ro manus ( Zür ich , 1 972 ) .

3 .

H . S tern , L e C a lendr ier d e 3 54 ( Par is, 1 953 ) ;

F or L a te An t ique Book

i l lustra t ion a nd i t s o r ig ins s ee e spec ia l ly R .B . Band ine l l i, He l len ist ic Byzan t ine M in iatures o f t he I l iad ( O lten , 1 955) ;

K . We itz mann , t he

works c ited i n n o . 4a nd 1 2 . 4 .

K . We itz mann , Anc ien t Book I l lu mina t ions ( Ca mbr idge , Mass., 1 959) . 5 f f .

5 .

0 .A .W . D i lke , The R o man L and S urveyors: a n I n troduct ion t o t he 'Agr i mensores '

( New ton Abbo t , 1 971) , 1 26f f .

6 .

J . M .C . Toynbee , The Ar t o f t he Ro mans ( London , 1 965), 1 18 .

7 .

K . We itz mann , o p .c i t . ( n .4 ) 1 2 .

8 .

i b id

9 .

J . M .C . Toynbee , o p .c i t . ( n .6 ) , 1 13 f f .

1 0 .

G . M .A .R ich ter , Anc ien t I t a ly ( Ann Arbor , 1 955) , 7 8 f .

1 1.

R .B . Band ine l l i, o p .c i t . ( n .3 ) , 1 8 .

1 2 .

K . We itz mann , S tud ies i n C lass ica l a nd Byzan t ine Manuscr ip t I l lu m ina-

7 -10 .

t i on ( London &Ch icago , 1 971) , 9 7f f ;

G . P icard , Ro man Pa in t ing ( Lon-

d on , 1 970 ) , 6 4 f . 1 3 .

A . Grabar , Byzan t iu m f ro m t he d ea th o f Theodos ius t o t he r ise o f I s la m ( London , 1 966) , 1 94 .

1 4 .

H . S tern , o p .c i t . ( n .3 ) , 1 42f .;

E . M . Wigh t man , Ro man Tr ier a nd t he

Trever i ( London , 1 970 ) , 6 5 a nd P l . X . 1 5 .

C od . Va t . L a t . 3 867 f 74" q u iver , 7 6v d iade m a nd l eaves ( ?pa l ms) o f p rec ious me ta ls g iven a s g if ts ;

1 6.

s ee E . Rosen tha l, o p .c i t . ( n .2) , P ls .

e .g . Ox fordBod le ian L ibrary ms . Canon . M isc . 3 78 f . 1 41r ( weapons) , i b id . f . 1 42v , 1 44 r l eaves a nd o ther a ppur tenances t o l argesse , i l lust ra ted i n R . G oodburn a nd P . Bar tho lo mew , A spects o ft he N o t i t ia D ign ita tu m ( BAR S upp le men tary S er ies 1 5, Ox ford, 1 976) , 1 , P l . XXV I I I a nd X YXV I a nd XXV I I .

2 6

1 7 .

W . Dor igo , L a te Ro man Pa in t ing ( London , 1 871) , 9 5 a nd 2 12 ;

H .P .

I . , ' Orange a nd P .J . N ordhagen Mosa ics ( London , 1 966) , 3 7 . 1 8 .

H . S tern , o p .c it . ( n .3 ) , 1 52-68, P ls . X IV f .

1 9 .

R . De lbruck , D ie C onsu lard ip tychen ( Ber l in-Le ipz ig , 1 929) , No . 1 .

2 0 .

i b id ., n o . 6 5 .

2 1.

i b id ., n o . 6 2 - W. F . V o lbach , Ear ly Chr ist ian Ar t ( London , 1 961) , 3 22 , N o . 5 3

2 2 .

R . De lbruck , o p .c i t . ( n .19) , n o . 5 9- Vo lbach o p .c i t . ( n .21) , 3 28 , N o , 9 Of f .

2 3 .

R . De lbruck , o p .c i t . ( n .19) , No . 5 5 .

2 4 .

J . M .C . T oynbee, Ar t i n Ro man Br ita in ( London , 1 962) , 1 72 , N o . 1 08 .

2 5 .

H . S tern , o p .c it . ( n .3 ) , 2 32-298 .

2 6 .

E . S i mon , Ara Pac ts Augustae ( Tüb ingen , 1 967 ) , 2 2-30 .

2 7 .

R . L .S . Bruce- M it ford ,

The Ar t o f t he C odex Am ia t inus ' JBAA 3 3 2

( 1969) , 1 -25 ; E .G . M i l ler , The L ind isfarne G ospe ls ( London , / 923) ; F . Henry , I r ish Ar t i n t he Ear ly Chr ist ian Per iod ( London , 1 965) ,159f f . 2 8 .

W. Reusch , F rühchr ist l iche Z eugn isse im E inzugsgebiet v on Rhein u nd Mose l

( Tr ier , 1 965) , 2 40-6 .

2 9 .

c f . T .J . Haarhof f , S choo ls o f Gau l ( Johannesburg , 1 958 ) .

3 0 .

F or P e lag ius c f . J .N . L . Myres JRS 5 0 ( 1960) , 2 1-36 .

3 1.

C f . J . Morr is, The Age o f A rthur ( London , 1 973 ) , p ass im .

3 2 .

J . M .C . T oynbee, o p .c i t .

3 3 .

i b id ., 2 41-6 ;

3 4 .

i b id ., 1 09 .

3 5 .

Va t ican MS . Barb . L a t . 2 ; H . S tern , o p .c i t . ( n . 3 ) p ass im .

3 6 .

E . M . Wigh t man , o p .c i t . ( n .14), 1 70 P l . X I II .

3 7 .

J . M .C . T oynbee, o p .c i t . ( n . 2 4) , 1 61, n o . 8 9 .

3 8 .

G . Henderson , Ear ly Med ieva l ( Harmondswor th , 1 972 ) .

3 9 .

J . M . C . T oynbee, o p .c i t . ( n .24) , 1 84 a nd P ls . CL , CL I No . 1 38 -

( I L 1 ) , 2 20 .

E . R osen tha l, o p .c i t .

( n . 2 ) , 1 06-9 .

RCH M E buracu m 1 41f f . P l . LXV I I I Nos . H . 2 442 , H . 2 444 . 4 0 .

G . M .A .R ich ter , Engraved G e ms o f t he Ro mans ( London , 1 971) , 1 2Of f .

4 1.

H . Webb, 'The Re ign a nd C oinage o f Carausius ', N um . Chron . f our th s er ies 7 ( 1907 ) , 1 -88 , 2 91-338 , 3 73-426 P l . I I , 3a nd 7 .

4 2 .

J . M .C . T oynbee, o p .c it . ( n . 2 4) , 1 89f f , P ls . CLXXVI I I i f . No . 1 55

4 3 .

R .B . Band ine l l i, o p .c i t . ( n .3) , p ass im .

4 4 .

M .I . R ostov tzeff , F .E . Brown , C .B . We l les, The Excava t ions a t DuraE uropos .

Pre l im inary Repor ts o n t he 7 th a nd 8 th s easons

1 939) , 3 26-369 . 2 7

( New Haven ,

4 5 .

e .g . Mun ich , Bayer ische S taatsbib l io thek , C l m, 1 0291 f . 1 77 , i l lustrat ed b y . R . G oodburn a nd P . Bar tho lo mew o p .c it . ( n . 1 6) , P l . XX I .

4 6.

i b id . „f ron t isp iece, where t hree o f t he med ieva l MS v ersions o f t he i ns ign ia o f t he c onsu lar is o f Ca mpan ia a re r eproduced i n c o lour .

4 7 .

JRS 5 3 ( 1963) , P ls . X I f .

4 8 .

K . We itz mann , o p .c it .

4 9 .

J . M .C . Toynbee, o p .c it . ( n . 1 ) , 3 28f f , P l . LXXV I .

5 0 .

K .S . Pa in ter , The Wa ter N ew ton Ear ly Chr ist ian S i lver ( London , 1 978) .

( n .1 2) , 1 08f f .

S ee n ow J . M . C . Toynbee

A L ond in iu m v o t ive l eaf o r f ea ther a nd i t s

f e l lows ' i n e ds . J . B ird, H . Chap man , J . C lark , Co l lectanea L ondini ensia S tud ies p resen ted t o Ra lph Merr if ie ld ( London 1 978 ) . 5 1.

I d .

A L a te Ro man S i lver I ngo t f ro m K en t ' ,An t .J . 5 2 ( 1972) , 8 4-92 .

5 2 .

J . M . C . Toynbee , o p . c i t . ( n . 1 ) , 3 11.

5 3 .

Transact ions o f t he B ir m ingha m a nd Warw icksh ire Archaeo log ica l S oc ie ty 8 5 ( 1972) , 1 57 .

5 4 .

O .A . W . D i lke, o p .c it . ( n .5) , 1 59-177 .

5 5 .

An t .J . 5 4 ( 1974) , 1 17f f .

A lso c f .K . We itz mann , L a te An t ique a nd Ear ly

Chr ist ian Book I l lu mina t ion ( London , 1 977 ) , 2 2, a nd P ls. 1 1-14.

H e

c onc ludes t ha t t he s ty le i s p robab ly Western a nd t ha t t he manuscr ip t may h ave b een p roduced i n Gau l d ur ing t he s econd h a lf o f t he f i f th c ent ury .

2 8

PLATE

I I.

a .

Shepherds.

Apostolica Vaticana,

PLATE

I I.

b . _

Turnus.

Vaticana,

Vat.

Vatican, Vat.

Lat.

Vatican, Lat.

Biblioteca

3 867,

f .

l lr

Biblioteca Apostolica V 3 867, f . 7 4

PLATE

I II.

L ow Ham

a .

a nd b .

Somerset,

Scenes

with

Warburg

f rom

d etail

t he

be.uw.

I nstitute,

Aeneid, Ph

London.

mosaic,

t ographs:

V •L EN

F LOREAS ; NDE0

T i NE

VALE N T I NE N E \ N L E N T I N E, FLO EAS . V DV A s FE UC TER A LE? f l

•

/ 0 ,2Z ie ' › ed i

PLATE

I V.

F ilocalus'

Calendar,

Biblioteca Vaticana,

Barb.

Dedication, Lat.

2 154,

Vatican, f .

l r

7\ 7 9

U M ”AlU lA 4

PLATE

V .

I ST t LTtR

F ilocalus'

Calendar,

B iblioteca Vaticana,

9

QUO 3 1r 7V . 51

Barb.

t i

r ej

1 fo Ho

February,

Lat.

2 154,

f

Vatican, f .

1 7r

PLATE V I.

Filocalus'

Calendar,

Biblioteca Vaticana,

Barb.

Alexandria, Lat.

2 154,

Vatican, f .

3 r

PLATE V II. M S.

A frica, Canon.

Oxford, Misc.

Bodleian

3 78,

f .

1 47

L ibrary,

PLATE V III. S t.

PLATE

V III.

b .

a .

Mary,

The

Vaticana,

Head of London,

poet Vat.

Christ,

mosaic,

H inton

British Museum

Corydon, Lat.

Vatican, B iblioteca V 3 867, f . 3

PLATE

IX.

Sculpture,

Photo:

Warburg

Murrell Hill, I nstitute,

Cumberland.

London

HARVESTING MACH INES, PALLAD IUS AND TECHNOLOGY I N THE LATER ROMAN EMPIRE b y K .D. Wh ite

The Anony mous a u thor o f t he De Rebus Be l l ic is c onsisten t ly c la i med t ha t h is m i l itary i nven t ions h ad t he g rea t a dvan tage o f b e ing e cono m ica l i n manpower ( Pref . 1 2, 1 3, 1 4; X IV 2 ; XV I I I 4 , 1; c f . t he c hanges i n t he s ys te m o f r ec ru i t men t d eta i led i n V 7i n tended t o f i l l t he d ep leted r anks o f t he a r my ). I nd eed , i t wou ld n o t b e t oo much t o s ay t ha t h e s aw t he s lava t ion o f t he emp ire l arge ly i nt er ms o f t echno log ica l i nnova t ion . I n o ne a rea , a nd t o o ne c lass o f p eop le , h is message w il l h ave s truck a f am i l iar c hord : t he wea l thy l andowners o f N orthern Gau l h ad l ong u sed a l abour-sav ing d ev ice , t he v a l lus, i nh arvesti ng.

Th is r e markable mach ine , o r r a ther a h eav ier v ers ion d er ived f rom i t ,

was c i ted b y Tho mpson ( p . 8 0 ) i nh is d iscussion o f t he l evel o f t echno log ica l c ompe tence o f w h ich t he Ro mans o f t he Anonymus ' d ay w ere c apable.

S ince

Thompson wro te , h owever , t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or t he a ppearance o f t he v a l lus h as g rown ( Pls. Xa , b , F ig. 1 ) . The mach ine i s n ow s een t o b ear a n u ncanny r ese mblance t o o ne o f t he Anony mus ' a ctua l i nven t ions, t he T ichod ifrus ( Par t 2 , P ls. V I I &V I I I ).

F or a n umber o f r easons t herefore , i tw i l l

b e u sefu l t o l ook a ga in a t t he e v idence f or t he u se o f r eap ing mach ines i n t he L a te Emp ire a nd f or t h is we must t urn t o Pa l lad ius , a nd h is work , t he De L e Rust ica, 1 .

The Da te a nd b ackground o f Pa l lad ius

The d a te o f t h is work , t he l ast o f ar e markably r ich a nd w el l-assorted c orpus o f wr i t ings o n Ro man a gr icu l ture , c anno tb e f i xed b y a ny s pec if ic i nt erna l e v idence , wh ich t e l ls u s o n ly t ha t h e owned l anded p roper ty i n s evera l d iferen t a reas.

I ft he a u thor o f t he De Re Rust ica i s t o b e i den t if ied w ith t he

Ga l l ic f r iend o ft he f i f th c en tury p oet Ru t il iu .s N a ma t ianus , t he work must b el ong t o t he f i f th c en tury , a nd b e d ated n o t e arl ier t han AD 4 50 1 ,t ha t i s t o s ay s o mewha t l a ter i n d a te t han t he c o mposi t ion o f t he De Rebus Be l l ic is. There i s n o i n terna l e v idence t o s uppor t t he g uess t ha t Gau l was t he a u thor 's h omel and , b u t t he Tables o fh ours o f s unsh ine , wh ich a re a ppended t o e ach o f t he mon th ly a ccoun ts o f o pera t ions wh ich c o mpr ise t he t ex t , a re e v iden t ly b ased o n s und ia l r ead ings f or l at . 4 5 ° ,wh ich i s c ons isten t w ith t ha t c on jecture 2 . 2 .

Techno logy i n Pa l lad ius

The a u thor 's r eco m menda t ions o n t he v ar ious o pera t ions o f t he f ar m a re , f or t he most p art , c ondensed v ers ions o f e ar l ier wr i t ings, n o tably t hose o f Co lume l la . Bu t t here a re t wo p assages c on ta in ing ma ter ia l o f much t echn ica l i n terest , wh ich a re d er ived f ro m i ndependen t s ources, p robably o r ig ina l t o t he a u thor , a nd r ef lect ing h is own p ersona l o bserva t ion .

These c o mpr ise

( 1 ) ad iscussion o fb u ild ing mater ia ls a nd t echn iques wh ich e v iden t ly r ef lect 3 9

c f i of

vallus,

portion of

Copyright

Front

Bruxelles

relief

a

Buzenol

4 1

c on te mporary a rch itectura l p rac t ice, more p ar t icu larly a s c oncerns t he c ons truct ion o f c isterns ; 3 ( 2 ) ac hap ter o n h arvest ing o f w hea t wh ich s tands a t t he h ead o f t he Ca lendar f or t he mon th o f A ig u st , a nd wh ich i s e n t ire ly g iven o ver t o ad eta i led a ccoun t o f a n a n i ma l-opera ted mach ine f or h arvest ing g ra in , t he t ex t o f w h ich r uns a s f o l lows :

' On t he more l evel p la ins o f t he Ga l l ic

p rov inces t hey emp loy t he f o l low ing s hor t-cu t o r l abour-sav ing d ev ice ( co mp end ium ) f or h arvest ing. With t he a id o f as ing le o x , t he mach ine o u tstr ips t he e f forts o f l abourers a nd c u ts d own t he t ime o f t he e n t ire h arvest ing o pera t ion . They b u ild a c ar t , moun ted o n t wo sma l l wheels; t he s quare s urface o f t he c ar t i s made u p o f p lanks, wh ich s lope o u twards f ro m t he b o t to m , a nd t hus p rov ide a l arger s pace a t t he t op . The h e igh t o f t he p lanks i s l ower a t t he f ron t o f t h is c on ta iner ( carpen tum ); a t t h is p o in t al arge n u mber o f t eeth w ith s paces b etween t he m a re s e t u p i n l i ne t o ma tch t he h e ight o f t he e ars : t ee th a re u p turned .

t he t i ps o f t hese

A t tached t o t he r ear o f t he v eh ic le a re t wo v ery sma l l y oke-

b ea ms , r ese mbl ing t he p o les o f al i t ter.

A t t h is p o in t a n o x i s h arnessed b y

means o f ay oke a nd c ha ins , w ith h is h ead p o in t ing t owards t he c ar t. He must b e d oc ile , s o t ha t h e w i l l n ot e xceed t he p ace s e t b y t he d r iver. When t he l a t ter b eg in s t o d r ive t he c ar t t hrough t he s tand ing c orn , a l l t he e ars a re s e ized b y' t he t ee th , a nd p i led u p i n t he c ar t , l eav ing t he s traw c u t o f f i n t he f i e ld , t he v ary ing h e ight o f t he c u t b e ing r egu la ted f rom t ime t o t ime b y t he c owherd who wa lks b eh ind . I n t h is way , af ter a f ew j ourneys u p a nd d own t he f i eld , t he e n t ire h arvest ing o pera t ion i s c o mp le ted i n t he s pace o f af ew h ours. Th is mach ine i s e fect ive o n o pen p la ins o r where t he g round i s l evel, a nd i n a reas where t he s traw h as n o e cono m ic v a lue '.

Pa l lad ius De Re Rust . 7 .2.2.

D iscuss ion The a bove a ccoun t o ft he mach ine , wh ich i s v ery p rec ise o n ma t ters o f c r i t ica l impor tance f or i t s e f f ic ien t o pera t ion ( e .g. t he r ecurved t i ps o f t he t ee th ), s uggests v ery s trongly e i ther t ha t t he a u thor h ad s een t he mach ine i n a ct ion , o r t ha t h e h e d er ived h is a ccoun t f rom s omeone who k new i ta t f i rst h and . I ti s t herefore s urpr is ing t o f ind modern wr iters o n a nc ien t t echno logy e ither p lay ing i td own4 o r d eny ing t ha t i t was e ver u sed. 5 A l though t he mach ine h ere d escr ibed b y Pa l lad ius h as n o p rec ise p ara l lel i n o ur o ther s ources o f i n for ma t ion , wh ich a re a l most e n i tre ly a rchaeo log ica l , we h ave n o f ewer t han f i ve i den t if iable r epresen ta t ions o f mach ines b elong ing t o t he s a me g enus a s Pa l lad ius ' h arvester , b u t t o ad i f feren t s pec ies, t he v a l lus ( P LX ; F ig. 1 ) ; f our o f t hese a re f unerary r el iefs, a nd t he f i f th i s p ar t o f as cu lp tured r epres en ta t ion o ft he S easons. 6

I nvest iga t ion o f t hese monumen ts s hows t hat a l l

c on for m t o ab as ic d es ign , t hat o f as i mp le wooden f ra me moun ted o n as ing le a x le , t he f ron t p or t ion b e ing f i t ted w i th a r ow o f t ee th , e xact ly l ike t hose o f Pa l lad ius ' mach ine. These l i gh ter s pec i mens were s im ilar ly p ropel led f rom b eh ind b y a n a n i ma l i n s haf ts.

Bu t t here t he r ese mblances e nd.

Whereas

t he t umbr iltype b ody o f Pa l lad ius ' h arvester i s i t sel f t he r ecep tacle f or t he h eads o fg ra in , t he o thers h ave e i ther a n u nderslung c on ta iner o r as or t o f g rass-box b eh ind t he t ee th ; i n e i ther c ase t he c apac i ty i s much more r estr icte d , i nvo lv ing f requen t s toppages t o emp ty t he c on ta iner.

The d iference i n

s ize a nd we igh t i s f urther emphas ized b y t he a n i ma l : Pa l lad ius ' h eav ier mach ine i s p ushed b y a n o x , t he o thers b y a mu le o r d onkey.

S ince t he e ar-

l i est a nd l a test r eferences t o t hese mach ines a re s epara ted b y at ime-span o f 4 2

a pprox i mate ly f our c en tur ies ( f ro m c . 5 0 AD t o c4 50, i mprove men ts i n d es ign wou ld b e l ikely ,7 a nd Pa l lad ius ' r eaper s ee ms t o i nd ica te j ust s uch a n improve men t. Techn ica l a nd d eve lopmen ta l p roble ms Wh ile t here i s e v idence o f t echn ica l d evelopmen t i n t he s ubst itu t ion o f mechan ica l f or manua l me thods o f h arvest ing g ra in , t he l i terary r eferences, c oup led w i th t he monu men ta l e v idence t ha t h as s o f ar c ome t o l i gh t , s how t ha t f or s o me r eason t he mach ines d id n o t s pread b eyond t he a rea o f t he ir i nvent ion, n a me ly t he t runk r oad w h ich l inked t he c i ty o f Re i ms

( Durocor toru m ) , t he

c ap i ta l o f t he Re m i i n wha t i s n ow Cha mpagne , t o Tr ier ( Augusta Treverorum ) t he c ap i ta l o f t he Trever i , a nd f or s o me d istance t o t he s ou th o f t ha t r oad. The a rea c o mrp ises u ndula t ing d own land , v ery s u i table f or t he l arge f i e lds w h ich w ou ld f avour mechan ica l h arvest ing.

That we f ind n o e v idence o f t he ir

u se i nI t a ly i s n o t s urpr ising , s ince t he c omb ina t ion o f s own a nd p lan ted c rops wh ich was s tandard i n t he Pen insu la i n Ro man t imes f ro m t he s econd c en tury B .C. 8 wou ld p rec lude t he u se o f mach in es r equ ir ing f l a t , u n i mpeded s tre tches o f o pen g round.

Bu t t he f a ilure o ft he i nven t ion t o s pread e lsewhere was p ro-

b ably d ue t o av ar iety o f f actors, t hree o f wh ich a re s pe l t o u tb y Pa l lad ius i n t he c onclud ing p aragraph o fh is a ccoun t : t he mach ine , h e s ays , i s o n ly s u itable o ng round t ha t i s o pen a nd l evel , a nd where t he s traw h as n o e conom ic v a lue. To t ake t he f i rst t wo p o in ts : o pen , l evel g round was n o t t oo p len t ifu l i n t he n or th-western p rov inces : t he Ardennes f orest , w h ich l i es c lose t o t he a rea o f t he i nven t ion , i s s ucceeded t o t he n orthward b y t he e x tens ive l ow lands o f F landers a nd Ho l land , wh ich were s ub ject t o r epea ted i nunda t ion f ro m t he u nc on tro l led wa terwa ys t ha t c onst i tu ted t he l ower r eaches o f t he Meuse a nd t he S cheld t .

To t he w estward , much o f n or thern Gau l was h eav ily f orested i n

a n t iqu i ty , wh i le t o t he e ast l ay t he v ast f orests o f f ree Ger many b eyond t he Rh ine f ron t ier. Most o f t he s urround ing r eg ions w ere t hus u nsu i table f or t he s pread o f t he i nven t ion . Turn ing n ow t o t he ma jor whea t-produc ing a reas o f t he Emp ire , Egyp t i s o bv iously r u led o u t.

Bo th S ic ily a nd N orth A fr ica w il l

h ave p rov ided s u i table t erra in , b u t i nt hese r eg ions, a s o ver most o f t he l ands b ordering t he Med iterranean , t he s traw , wh ich was d estroyed b y t ra mp l ing , was o f c onsiderble e cono m ic i mpor tance , b o th a s r oof ing mater ia l a nd a s b edd ing f or s tock . T i me-sav ing a nd manpower e cono m ies The i n troduct ion o f mach ines , a s Pa l lad ius p o in ts o u t , mean t s av ings o fb oth t ime a nd manpower.

I nt he n or th west , s peed was —and i s —of t he

e ssence o ft he h arvest ing o pera t ion . A who le c rop c an b e r u ined b y s tor ms o r p ers isten t r a in . Th is f ac tor was o bv iously much l ess impor tan t i n t he Med it erranean r eg ions.

Manpower q uest ions, f or l ack o f s pec if ic e v idence, a re

l arge ly ma t ters o f s pecu la t ion , s o me o f i tw ild a nd most o f i tu nprof itable. 9 S easona l s hortages o ff ar m l abour , p ar t icu lar ly a t h arvest a nd v in tage t ime , a re men t ioned f ro m t ime t o t ime i n t he l i terary s ources , b u t s uch s hor tages a re c ommon i n a l l p er iods w here manua l methods p redom ina te : a s i n l a ter t imes , t hese were me t b y emp loy ing i t ineran t l abour.

i n a n t iqu ity , There i s ,

i n f act , n o e v idence o f a ny s ign if ican t s hor tage o f manpower r igh t d own t o t he l a ter f our th c en tury .

Bu t t he s tead ily i ncreas ing p rosper ity o f t he r eg ions

43

a d jacen t t o t he Rh ine f ron t ier , f or wh ich t here i s g ood e v idence i n t he n e ighbourh ood o f Tr ier , may h ave a f fected t he l oca l marke t f or s easona l l abour. L ack o f i ncen t ive t o t echn ica l improve men t , h owever , i s af ac tor t o b e c onsidered . Ih ave s hown e lsewherel° t ha t t he a t t itude o f t he l andown ing c lasses i n Roman t imes was e ssen t ia l ly t ha t o f t he r en t ier ; s o l ong a s t hey c on t inued t o o bta in a s teady r e turn o f a round 5 -6% o n t he ir i nvestmen t , t here was n o mot ive f or a dd it iona l o u t lay d es igned t o p roduce g rea ter r eturns. Th is e xp la ins t o s ome e x ten t t he c on tras t b e tween t echn ica l p rogress i n t he m i l i tary s phere a nd i n c er ta in i ndustr ia l s pheres s uch a s m in ing , w here t he s ta te p rov ided t he n ecess ary f unds, a nd t he s tagna t ion o ft he p r iva te s phere. F ro m t h is p o in t o f v iew t he r estr icted r ange o f t he Ga l lo-Ro man h arvest ing mach ines s tands i n c ont rast w i th t he d evelop men t o fb a l l istae a nd o ther o f fens ive w eaponry . I n c onclusion i tc an b e s a id t ha t u nder c ond it ions o f manpower s hor tage , t he a dvan tages o f mechan isa t ion c ou ld b e a pprec ia ted i n Ro man t imes, a nd t he s o lu t ions o ft he Anony mus t o t h is p ar t icu lar p roble m may h ave b een a long t he r ight g enera l l ines, s ince t he c on t inued u se o fh arvest ing mach ines i n Gau l d own t o t he t imes o f Pa l lad ius s hows t ha t t he b enef its o f s uch l abours s av ing d ev ices must h ave b een measured i nh ard e cono m ic t erms.

Bu t t o s uppose t ha t t he

Anony mus was i nsp ired b y t he v a l lus when h e d rea m t u ph is t i chod ifrus, wou ld b e t o g ob eyond t he e vidence . This s uggests t ha t ah eavier mach ine d erived f ro m t he v a l lus , a nd n o t t he v a l lus i t se lf , was emp loyed a t t he t ime t ha t t he Anony mus was wr it ing ; b u t e ven i ft he l i gh t-we ight v al lus c on t inued i n u se , i t i s u n l ike ly t ha t t he Anony mus c ou ld h ave s een i t , f or h is own words ( XV I I I 5 ) imp ly t ha t h e c a me f ro m a p rov ince where men t hought o f t he Danube a s t he r iver f ron t ier , a nd t he u se o f r eap ing mach ines n ever s ee ms t o h ave s pread b eyond t he Rh ine land a nd N orthern Gau l.

Garden F la t , 6A lexander S tree t , LONDON W2

4 4

NOTES AND REFERE NCES

1 .

S ee J . Da l masso i n Rev . Ph il . 4 3 ( 1915 ) , 8 2f f .

2 .

S ee R . Harr is i n AJP 3 ( 1882 ) , 4 11-421.

3 .

D iscussed i n d e ta il b y W. H . P lo m mer i nh is r ecen t monograph , V i truv ius a nd L a ter Ro man Bu i ld ing Manua ls ( Ca mbr idge , 1 973 ).

4 .

S ee e .g. M. I . F in ley ' Techn ica l i nnova t ion a nd e cono m ic p rogress i n t he a nc ien t wor ld ' , Econ . H ist . Rev . 2 nd s er., 1 8 ( 1965 ), 2 9f f .

5 .

By C . Mosse t , The Anc ien t Wor ld a t Work ( London , 1 969 ) 3 5 : ' I t i s d oubtf u l whether P l iny 's f a mous a nd c on troversia l r eaper was e ver u sed '.

6 .

S ee K . D . Wh ite Agr icu l tura l Imp le men ts o f t he Ro man Wor ld ( Ca mbr idge , 1 967 ).

7 .

Den ied , a ga inst t he e v idence , b y Hodges , Techno logy i n t he Anc ien t Wor ld ( Har mondsworth , 1 971 ), 1 99 .

8 .

S ee K . D . Wh i te Ro man Far m ing ( London , 1 970 ), 4 7f f .

9 .

S ee t he r ev iew o f M. I . F in ley o f A . E . R . Boak 's Manpower S hor tages a nd t he D ecl ine o f t he Ro man Emp ire i n t he West ( Ann Arbor/London , 1 955 ), i n J RS 4 8 ( 1958 ), 1 56-164, s how ing t ha t B . h as a n tedated t he s hor tage o f manpower b y t wo c en tur ies.

1 0.

K . D . Wh i te , 2 2. c i t ( n . 8 ) , 4 46f f .

4 5

TAXAT ION AND S URV IVAL I N THE LATE FOURTH CENTURY : THE ANONY MUS ' PROGRA M ME OF ECONO M IC REFOR M S b y Pa tsy Vanags N ob is p ent d e ter ior p ossessor e f fectus, n ob is p rof ic it n on g rava tus ( Va l I I N ov . 1 ,3 ,3 . ) . 'A l andho lder r endered i mpover ished i s l ost t o u s; o ne who i s n o t o verburdened , p rof its u s ' . Thus wro te t he emperor Va len t in ian I I i n h is n ove l la o f 4 50 A .D ., a nd t he l a te Ro man a dm in istra t ion was more t han aware o f t he t ruth o f t h is s i mp le p recep t . I ti s i n t h is c on tex t , o f t he c ont inuous f i gh t a ga inst t he a dverse e f fects o f t axa t ion wh ich t he g overnmen t was f orced t o p ursue, t ha t we c an t ake a nother l ook a t t he Anonymus. E ssen t ia l ly , t he Anonymus a rgues t ha t o ne o f t he ma jor p rob le ms i n t he l a ter R o man emp ire i s t he 'o vertaxa t ion ' o f t he o rd inary a gr icu l tura l worker . I ti s a n a rgu men t t ha t h as b een r esta ted b y A . H . M . J ones.

1

F or b o th , i ti st he

r obor , t he we l l-be ing , o f t he f armer a s t ax-payer t ha t i s t he k ey t o t he s i tuat i on . A t t he t ime t ha t t he Anonymus was wr it ing 2 ,t ax-payers were s uf f ic ien tl y o ppressed f or h im t o emphas ise t ha t wha t was n eeded was t o r estore c u lt iv a tors t o t he ir f ormer s treng thth is was n o warn ing o f wha t migh t h appen . The Anony mus s uggests t wo l i nes o f a pproach t o h e lp t he t ax-payer . O ne ( I .1) i s t o r educe t he o vera l l l eve l o f g overnmen t e xpend iture, t o a sk f or l ess i n t o ta l :

Q uae s i p rov iden t ia ma iesta t is impera tor iae r epr i ma tur ( sc . t he

p rofusa l arg i t io o f t he p rev ious s en tence) ... c o l latoru m p o t ius d efecta s ubs id ia r ecrean tur —' I ft he f oresigh t o f t he imper ia l ma jesty r estra in ( t h is u nbr id led e xpend iture) .. t he e n feeb led r esources o f t he t ax-payer w i l l b e r estored '. The o ther i s t o e f fect ive ly i ncrease t he a bso lute n umber o f t ax-payers s o t ha t t he b urden o f t he t axes may b e s hared amongst more p eop le a nd t here fore r ed uce t he l oad o n e ach i nd iv idua l .

T h is s tra tegy i s a rgued i n c hap ter V , o n

Me thods o f e cono my i n mi l itary e xpend iture ', where h e e nv isages ( V .6) v e ter an s o ld iers r e t ir ing t o c u lt iva te t he f i e lds b u t p aying t axes l i ke e veryone e lse : H u ius mod i i g itur p rov is ion is u t i l i tas i n a ugmentu m p rovinc ia l iu m h abet v e ter anos .. a d c o lendos a gros p raeva len tes a gr ico las, whereas i n p ract ice i n t he l a te f our th c entury v e terans d id n ot p ay t he p o l ltax . B oth o f t hese a pproaches wou ld e f fect ive ly r educe t he t ax-ra te f or a l l t ax-payers . The l a te Roman t ax s yste m was b ased u pon a n a ssess men t o f t he a sse ts o f a n i nd iv idua l c u lt iva tor ( amoun t a nd q ua l ity o f l and , amoun t o f a gr ic u ltura l c ap ita l s uch a s l i vestock , a nd l abour i nputs a ssessed s o me t i mes o n a s epara te s chedu le a s p o l l-tax , a l loca t ing t ax l i ab i l ity a ccord ing t o t he r esources o f t he i nd iv idua l .

3

The amoun t o f t ax d e manded e ach y ear i n p r inc ip le a l tered

w ith t he n eeds o f t he g overnmen t .

T he t ax-ra te l ev ied o n e ach s tandard ised

u n it o f a ccoun t , o r l ugu m , c ou ld v ary a ccord ing t o whe ther t he g overn men t n n eeded more r evenue o r l ess . I n p ract ice, t he t ax-ra te e sca la ted i nexorab ly t hrough t he f ourth c en tury , a s t he g overn men t a lways d ec ided t ha t i t was h ardp ressed a nd n eeded more f unds .

4 7

B u t ah igher a nd h igher t ax-ra te d id n o t n ecessar i ly mean a b igger a nd b igger t ax-y ie ld .

I tc ou ld mean p eop le r efusing t o p ay a t a l l— there was i ndeed

al ast s traw wh ich c ou ld b e p u t o n t he c ame l ' sb ack .

And h ere we c an c onfron t

t he Anony mus w i th t he r ea l ity o f t he h istor ica l r ecord . Ad rama t ic r eversa l t o t he e sca la t ion o f t he t ax-ra te was e ng ineered b y t he f u ture emperor J u l ian . H e b rough t i n al ower t ax-ra te i n G au l i n 3 65, r educ ing i tf ro m 2 5 s o l id i p er c aput ( t he G a l l ic v ers ion o f t he i ugu m) t o 7s o l id i, a nd t he t o ta l r evenue g a ined was more t han h ad b een b rough t i n u nder t he much h igher r a te .

4

Tha t i s , b y

a sk ing f or a f eas ib le amoun t , t here was a r ea l c hance o f g e t t ing i t . I ft oo much was d emanded , p eop le wou ld n ot p ay u p , a nd wau ld f a l l i n to a rrears, o rj o in t he b r igands, o r g o o ver t o t he b arbar ians, a ccord ing t o t he ir s ta tus a nd d egree o f d espera t ion .5 We k now t ha t Va len t in ian a nd Va lens c on t inued t he e f for ts t o r educe t he b urden o n t ax-payers—A m m ian p ra ises b o th o f t he m f or t h is— the p hrases h e u ses 'r e l iev ing t he b urden o f t he t r ibute ' ( o f Va len t in ian ) , a nd 'r e l iev ing t he we igh t o f t he t r ibu te ' ( o f Va lens) s tress t he r educt ion o f p ressure o n t he t axp ayer .6 T he m ist ius s ays i n h is p anegyr ic t o Va lens t ha t h e r educed t he o vera l l amoun t o f t ax ( i .e . t he i ndiction ) b y aq uar ter . 7 I n v iew o f J u lian ' sr emarkab le s uccess i n G au l, i ts ee ms t ha t more r ea l ist ic manage men t o f t axat i on v ia a l ower t ax-ra te , c ou ld r esu lt i nb et ter c ircu mstances f or t ax-payers a nd b et ter r evenue p rospects f or t he g overnmen t .

Tha t i s t he i rony o f 'o ver-

t axa t ion ' . B ut why d id t he a verage c u lt iva tor s uf fer s o much f ro m t he e f fects o f t axa t ion? O bv ious ly , i ft he s ta te were a sk ing f or t oo much , more t han p eop le c ou ld manage t o p ay , t hen l i fe was h ard f or a f armer .

T oo much was a lso

d e manded o f p oorer p eop le b ecause t he r icher were a b le t o a vo id d ue p aymen t i n many c ases . I t may b e i nd ica t ive o f t he c lass i n terests o f t he Anonymus ( f or wha tever h e may h ave b een h e c er ta in ly wasn ' ta p easan t ) t ha t h e o n ly t ack les t he g enera l p rob le m o f o ver taxa t ion b y t he g overnmen t a nd n ever ment i ons t he e vas ion o f t axes b y t he r ich a nd modera te ly r ich ( wh ich was t he o b ject o f t ough l eg is la t ion b y Va len t in i a n a nd Va lens) .

H is g raph ic p or traya l o f t he

r ich amass ing g rea t p i les o f g o ld a nd s i lver a t t he e xpense o f t he p oor p owerf u l ly s uggests e cono m ic i nequa l ity—but t ha t i s a l l . 8 T here i s n o h in t e i ther o f t he v ic ious c onnect ion b etween t he r ich s tay ing r ich a nd t he who le s yste m o f a dm in istra t ive c orrup t ion t ha t a cco mpan ied t he a ssess ing a nd r a is ing o f t axes . We w i l l l ook a t t he Anonymus ' t rea tmen t o f t he p rob le ms o f a dm in istra t ive c orrup t ion i n a mo men t .

Bu t i f we h ave t o

c hoose , t hen t he p erks wh ich migh t l i ne t he p ocke ts o f minor o f f ic ia ls wou ld b e ag ood d ea l l ess c ost ly i n f i nanc ia l a nd s oc ia l t erms t han t he i mmun i t ies p urchased b y t he g rea t l andowners f ro m o f f ic ia ls h igher u p t he a dm in istra t ive p yram id . I ti s t he h igh l eve l c o l lus ion b e tween men o f s ubstance a nd o f f ic ia ls wh ich mutua l ly b enef its t he m—and d oes t he g rea test h arm t o t ax-payers e n masse b ecause o f t he s ca le o f e vasion i nvo lved .

We h ave o n ly t o r eca l l t ha t

f or t he g rea ter p ar t o f Va len t in ian a nd Va lens ' r e igns t he f i gure o f Pe tron ius Probus t owers o ver t he a dm in istra t ion o f t he emp ire , Prae tor ian Prefec t a nd h ead o ft he g rea t h ouse o f t he An ici i .

S uch a n exus o f s ena tor ia l a nd p o l it ica l

p ower must h ave t hwar ted many o f t he e f for ts t o i mprove t he f a irness o f t he t ax a dm in istra t ion wh ich were made a t t he t ime . T o g ive t he Anonymus h is 4 8

d ue , h e may o n ly h ave b een a b le t o c i te 't he a ppa l l ing g reed o f t he p rov inc ia l g overnors, wh ich i s r u inous t o t he t axpayers ' i n terests ' i n s uch g enera l t erms ( and e ven t h is i s q u ite b rave c r it ic is m) .9 T o h ave s a id t hat t he b ureau o f t he p rae tor ian p refecture was a n est o f v i l la ins f avour ing f r iends a nd r e la t ives was h ard ly p oss ib le when Pe tron ius Probus ' c onnect ions were s o p ower fu l . C orrup t ion amongst a dm in istra tors i s , o f c ourse , t he e v i l a ga inst wh ich e very b ureaucracy h as t o f i gh t—the Anonymus ' p lea t ha t t he p rovinces s hou ld b e g overned b y men who a re 'h onourab le a nd l overs o f h onesty ' c ast i e t i n teg r i ta t is c up id i ( IV, 5 .) i s ap ious i fn o t n a ive h ope . g overnors who

Bu t h is s harp words f or

t h ink t hey h ave b een s en t i n to t he p rov inces a s merchan ts '

( ve lu t merca tores) ( IV ,1. )a re a much more p er t inen t c o mmen t wh ich d eserves c onsidera t ion . L e t u s l ook a t s o me o f t he c ircu mstances o f t he ir 'mercan t i le a ct iv i ty ' wh ich t he Anonymus c onsiders t o b e s o d a mag ing t o t he p ub l ic i n terest . Professor A .H .M . J ones, i n h is c o mmen tary o n t h is p assage, s uggested p oss ib i l it ies f or a dm in istra tors a busing s uch p rocedures a s t he p urchasing o f r ecru its, h orses a nd g ra in , a l l o f wh ich t he Anonymus c i tes a s e xa mp les o f c orrup t pr act ices . 1 0 Wha t we s hou ld n ote h ere i s t he p resence o f t he d i le m ma wh ich e x isted f or a p rov inc ia l g overnor , c orrup t ion o r n o . I n as ense , t he who le c o mp lex o f d ec isions wh ich h e was r equ ired t o t ake a s al oca l a dm in ist ra tor c om m i t ted h im t o b ehav ing r a ther l i ke a merchan t—dec isions o n t he p r ice f or r ecru i ts, t he p r ice f or g ra in , who m t o g ive b u i ld ing c on trac ts t o a nd a t wha t r a te .

T he f act o f t he ma t ter i s t ha t p rov inc ia l g overnors were d eep ly i n-

v o lved i n l oca l a f fa irs a nd i n t he l oca l e cono my : t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he Ro man i mper ia l a dm in istra t ion a f fected t he e cono my a s a who le was e normous . And most o f t he i mpact c a me t hrough a l l t he p arapherna l ia a ssoc ia ted w i th t he t ax s ystem . T he p ar t icu lar a buse wh ich t he Anonymus d ecr ies t ha t h igh ligh ts t he who le c o mp lex o f p rob le ms r e la t ing t axa t ion t o t he e cono my , i s c oe mp t io, where a g overnor h ad t o d isp lay t he most mercan t i le o f h is t a len ts . C oe mp t io was t he g overnmen t p urchase o f g ra in , u sua l ly d irec t f ro m p roducers b u t s o me t i mes f ro m merchan ts a ct ing a s i n termed iar ies. 1 1 Th is p rocedure h as a lways h ad a v ery b ad r a t ing b y modern h istor ians, n ot l east b ecause t he c h ief d escr ip t ion o f h ow i t migh t work i s t o b e f ound i n P rocop ius ' Anecdo ta .1 2 We w ou ld e xpect h orr if ic s tor ies o f h ow t he s uf fer ing c u l t iva tors were f orced t o p rov ide g ra in a t d er isive p r ices i n t he Anecdota ( wh ich v i l if ied J ust in ian a nd h is a dm in istra t ion ) , b u t t he p oten t ia l a nd a ctua l e v i ls o f t he p roc edure a re a lso t est if ied t o b y l eg is la t ion r egu la t ing t he a buse o f c oe mp t io . 1 3 T he r ea l p o in t i s , t ha t g overn men t p urchase o f g ra in c ou ld e i ther h arm o r b ene f i t t he p roducer ;

i td epended o n t he e xact c ircu mstances o f i t s u se .

C lear ly when c oe mp t io was u sed j ud ic ious ly, n e ither Procop ius n or t he l ega l d ocumen ts wou ld f i nd i tn ecessary t o p ra ise i t . T he g overn men t p urchase o f g ra in h as t o b e s een i n t he c on tex t o f t he l a te R oman t ax s yste m . Those p roducers g row ing s ign i f ican t amoun t o f g ra in w ou ld h ave t he ir p oten t ia l f or o utput a ssessed w i th in t he f ra mework o f t he t ax s yste m . T he l evy ing o f as pec if ied amoun t o f t ax i n g ra in i n e f fect s e t a min i mu m t arge t f or p roduc t ion .

When , b ecause o f t he v agar ies o f t he c l i-

ma te , o u tput f e l l b e low t he e st i ma ted l eve l, t ax p ayers wou ld n eed a t ax r eba te, 4 9

o r f a l l i n to a rrears o f p ay men t .

Where c oe mp t io c o mes i n i s when o u tpu t was

g o ing t o b e b e t ter t han t he e st i ma ted a verage p red ic ted b y t he t ax i nven tory . The p rob le m w ith s et t ing a t arge t f or p roduc t ion was t ha t o verproduct ion c ou ld a lso b e ar ea l h azard f or p roducers . T h is ma t tered p ar t icu lar ly when t he g overn men t e xpec ted money p aymen ts o f t ax f ro m g rain p roducers . F or i n t he e ven t o f ag ood h arvest , t he marke t f or g ra in wou ld b eco me g lut ted , a nd p r ices wou ld f a l l t o l eve ls where t he n et money i nco me a f armer d er ived f ro m a s ubstan t ia l c rop wou ld b e l ess t han h e g o t when t here was a s hor tage o f g ra in , a nd p r ices were h igh . I n t h is s i tua t ion , where t he g overn men t was r espons ib le f or c o mm it t ing p roducers t o ac er ta in l eve l o f o u tpu t t o t ry a nd c over t he mse lves f or a r ange o f p oss ib i l i t ies, i t made s ense f or t he g overn men t t o s tep i n a nd s tab i l ize t he g ra in marke t i n t he e ven t o f ag lu t . The b uy ing-up o fg rain b y t he s ta te ( t he b iggest s ing le s ource o f d emand , w ith va st p urchasing p ower a nd w ith s torage f ac i l it ies) t hus e ased t he i l l-e f fects o f ag lut ted marke t a nd h e lped f armers ' i nco mes b y p reven t ing p r ices f ro m f a l l ing t o al ow l eve l . 1 4 The s ta te o f c ourse s erved i t s own i nt erests a t t he s a me t ime b y c ream ing o f f ab igger s urp lus i n g ood y ears, b ut c oe mp t io a lso f unct ioned a s as tab i l ising mechan is m i n t he l oca l e cono my . Tha t i tc ou ld p rotect t he r obor o ft he t axpayers i s c lear f ro m t he f ac t t ha t a g overnmen t p urchase o f g ra in c ou ld b e d irec t ly c red ited g a inst t he t ax l i abi li ty o f a n i nd iv idua l, a l low ing f or t he p ossib i l ity o f p aymen t o f a rrears ( or e ven f u ture l i ab i l it ies ? ) when a n a bundan t h arvest swe l led o utput .1 5 Whe ther t axpayers b enef it ted o r s uf fered f rom c oe mp t io, t hen , d epended e n t ire ly o n t he p r ice t he g overn men t was o f fer ing f or g ra in r e la t ive t o marke t p r ices . We s hou ld n o te t ha t t he g overnmen t ' si n ten t ions were , b y t he b ook , h onourab le ; p r ices were mean t t o r ef lect t he g o ing market r a te .1 6 And we s hou ld a lso n ote t ha t t o a ssu me a s many p eop le h ave, t ha t c oemp t io a lways i mp l ies c o mpu lsory p urchase i s ad istor t ion o f t he mean ing o fb o th t he L a t in t erm a nd i t s Greek e qu iva len t ( avvc ovA ) , wh ich r ea l ly o n ly s uggest ' buy ing u p ' , ar a ther d if feren t mat ter .1 7 T he b est c on te mporary r ef lect ion o f t he many f ace ts o f g overnmen t p urc hase o f g ra in , a nd h ow i ti nvo lved p rov inc ia l o f f ic ia ls a s

merchan ts ' w ith

v ery l arge p oss ibi l i t ies f or c orrup t p ract ices, c o mes f ro m A fr ica .

Am m ian

r ecords t ha t when Hy me t ius was g overnor i n Car thage , c o l lect ion p o in t f or t he g ra in o f A fr ica wh ich f ed Ro me , h e was r epr i manded b y Va len t in ian b ec ause h e r e leased s tocks o f g overn men t g ra in t o t he C ar thag in ians i n t ime o f f am ine ;

a nd t hen h av ing made u p t he d e f ic i t when t he h arvest was g ood , d id

n ot r em i t s uf f ic ien t f unds t o t he t reasury .

1 8

Bu t e xact ly h ow Hyme t ius was

a t f au l t i s n o t c lear : d id h e k eep s o me o f t he money h i mse lf , af ter p ay ing e i ther a r easonab le p r ice t o f armers o r a 'f orced ' l ow p r ice t o g et a b igger c ut f or h i mse lf? Or a l terna t ive ly , d id h e p ay t oo h igh a p r ice t o p roducers f or t he g ra in , b enef it t ing t he m ( t hey may we l l h ave b een l arge l andowners t o a s ign if ican t e x ten t ) a t t he e xpense o ft he s ta te t reasury , wh ich made l ess o n t he who le o pe r a t ion ? 19 We h ave t o l eave t he i ssue o pen—bu t o ne c an s ee t ha t a n o f f ic ia l e ven b ehav ing 'w i th i n tegr ity ' was t read ing a v ery t horny p a th i nd eed when t he s ta te a ctua l ly r equ ired h im t o p lay t he g ra in marke t l i ke a merchan t .

5 0

L et u s n ow l ook a t t he Anony mus ' p roposa ls f or r efor m i n t he c ond it ions o f m il i tary s erv ice a nd t he ir e cono m ic i mp l ica t ions.

F irst ly , t he h istor ical

b ackground . I n t he m id-four th c en tury , t he m in i mum l eng th o f m il i tary s erv ice t ha t q ua l if ied a s o ld ier f or a nh onesta m issio ( honourable d ischarge ) w as t wen ty y ears , a nd t o g et f u l l v eteran p r iv i leges o n r e t ire men t , h e n eeded t o s tay a no ther f our y ears i nt he a r my. The r et ire men t p r iv i leges g iven t o s o ld iers b y Constan t ine w ere : t he g ran t o f v acan t l ands, t ax e xe mp t ion i n p erpetu i ty ; 2 5,000 f o l les i n c ash o r ay oke o f o xen a nd a h undred measures o f s eed c orn . Under Va len t in ian a nd Va lens, t he g ran t o f t ax-free l and was c on f ir med a ga int hose w i th h onourab le o r med ica l d ischarges w ere t o g et o ne p a ir o f o xen a nd f if ty measures o f e ach k ind o f s eed g ra in ( wheat a nd b ar ley ); wh ilst e x-pro tect ores ( honorary o r e x- me mbers o f t he i mper ia l b odyguard ) g ot t wo y oke o f o xen e ach a nd a h undred measures o f e ach k ind o f g ra in . 2° I n c hap ter V o f t he t rea t ise, t he Anony mus p u ts f orward h is o wn s uggest i ons f or r efor m ing t he c ond i t ions o f m il itary s erv ice. H is c h ief a rgumen t o f e cono m ic s ign if icance i s t ha t t he l eng th o f s erv ice s hou ld b e s hortened :

t h is,

h e c la i ms , w il l h ave t wo b enef ic ia l r esu l ts —f irst ly , g overnmen t e xpend iture o n t he a r my w il lb e c u t , b ecause s o ld iers w il l b e o n t he p ayro l l f or l ess t ime — s econd ly , s ince t hey w il l g o i n to e arl ier r et ire men t , t hey w il l s t il l b e p hysica l ly v iab le a s c u l t iva tors, a nd w il lb e a ble t o make f ul ler u se o f t he ir r et ire men t g ran ts.

The ir r o le a s a c t ive f ar mers s hou ld n ow b e t aken a dvan tage o fb y t he

s tate , a nd t hey s hou ld b e t axed , l ike a ny o ther p rov inc ia ls ( V.6 ). On t he f ace o f i t , t he Anony mus ' s uggest ion t ha t e ar ly-ret ired v eterans s hou ld b e g iven t he ir c ap ita l g ran ts t o e ngage i n a gr icu l ture a nd t hen p ay t axes l ike e veryone e lse , i s a n a t trac t ive o ne. Par ticu lar ly s ince h e i s t h ink ing o f f ron t ier a reas, where l and n eeded t he h ard l abour o n ly a y ounger man c ou ld g ive i t , a nd where a gr icu l tura l c ap i ta l l ike o xen m igh t b e h ard t o c o me b y , Tha t i tm igh t b e s o me y ears b efore s uch f ar m ing wou ld p ay of , h e d oes n o t t ake i n to a ccoun t. 2 1 But t he mos t i mpor tan t i ssue , wh ich n o d oub t al a te Ro man a dm in istra tor

would h ave t o t ake i n to a ccoun t , i s h ow f ar t he g iv ing o u t o f r et ire men t g ran ts e ar l ier , af ter a s hor ter p er iod o f m i l itary s erv ice, wou ld b e t rea ted a s ar ea l improve men tb y p rospect ive a r my r ecru its, i ft hey t hen h ad t o p ay t axes l ike t he r est o f t he p rov inc ia ls.

B ecause a t t he t ime t he Anony mus

was wr it ing ,

s erv ice i nt he a r my c arr ied w i th i tt he p r iv i lege o f t ax e xe mp t ions f or s o ld iers a nd t heir f am il ies , wh ich w ere o f r ea l f inanc ia l v a lue , a nd mus t t herefore h ave f unc t ion ed a s ag enu ine i ncen t ive t o j o in t he a r my i n t he f i rst p lace. The Anony mus ' p rogra m me o f r efor m wou ld t hus r e move a p owerfu l i nc en t ive f or r ecru i t men t , a nd s ince h e d oes n o t g ive a ctual f i gures f or h is p rop osed l eng th o f s erv ice o r f or t he s ize o f r e

r e men t g ran ts, w e c anno t b a lance

o u t t he g a ins f or a s o ld ier o f a ne arl ier r et ire men t a ga inst t he l osses o f s ubsequen t ly b e ing t axed .

Wha t w e c an o bserve i s t ha t t he a c tua l p r ior it ies o f

t he l ate Ro man g overnmen t w ere a t v ariance w i th t he Anony mus ' i dea—rec ru itmen t t o t he a r my was o f p ara moun t i mpor tance , a nd i ncen t ives w ere p ref erred t o c onscr ip t ion .

Va len t in ian a nd Va lens s tepped u p t he s cale o f t ax

5 1

a l lowances made t o t roops: e .g . u nder Con stan t ine ( 325 A .D . ) , s o ld iers af ter 2 0 y ears s ervice g ran ted 2 c ap i ta r e mission t hen i n 3 70 A .D . s o ldiers af ter 5y ears s ervice g ran ted 2 c ap i ta r e mission wh i le i n 3 75 A .D . s o ld iers af ter 5y ears s ervice g ran ted 4 c api ta r e mission ( i f c o mi ta tenses) .

2 2

T he a d min istra t ion o bv iously f e lt t ha t a ny l oss o f r evenue t hrough t he g iv ing o u t o f s uch t ax a l lowances was a n a ccep tab le c ost t o i mprove r ecru i tmen t a nd t o p ro mote l oya lty .

2 3

T here i s a more c o mp l ica ted a spect o f t ax a l lowances t o s o ld iers a nd t he ir f am i l ies, wh ich c oncerns t he e cono m ics o f a gr icu lture .

We h ave s een

t ha t t he Anonymus ' s che me i s t o g e t s o ld iers b ack t o t he l and a s f ast a s p oss ib le-swords i n to p loughshares a t t op s peedto s we l l t he l abour f orce u sed i n a gr icu lture a nd h ence t o l i gh ten t he b urden o f t axa t ion b y s pread ing i to ver al arger n u mber o f c u lt iva tors . N ow wha t h e a ssu mes ( i n c o m mon w i th most h istor ians who h ave s tud ied t h is p er iod ) i s t ha t t he more p eop le t here a re i n a gr icu lture, a nd t he f ewer i n 'n on-product ive ' o ccupa t ions l i ke t he a rmy , t he b et ter .

We c anno t g et v ery

f ar w ith t ry ing t o we igh-up t he v a lue o f a gr icu lture a ga inst t he v a lue o f t he a rmy , i ti s v ery d if f icu l t t o a ssess t he r e la t ive v a lues o f g oods a nd s erv ices. Bu t we c an e xp lore s o me o f t he i mp l ica t ions o f t he Anonymus ' p roposa ls, b y

2 4

s ee ing h ow t hey wou ld a f fect t he r e la t ive v a lues o f c ap i ta l a nd l abour i n t he r ura l e cono my . T he t ak ing-away o f r ecru its i nvo lves t he r e mova l o f l abour , wh ich i s r ep laced b y c ap ita l, e i ther i n t he f orm o f n ew c ap ita l ( t he r e t iremen t g ran ts, o xen a nd s eed c orn ) o r i n t he f orm o f k eep ing e x ist ing c ap i ta l t ha t wou ld u sua l ly h ave b een t aken away i n t ax ( t he t ax e xe mp t ions) .

Was t h is a n e t g a in o r l oss ?

T o a rgue b y a na logy w ith most u nderdeve loped e cono m ies, i n p easan t f am i l ies n o t s uf fer ing f ro m e x tre me p opu la t ion p ressure o r t he p oorest o f l ands, n o t e very p a ir o f h ands i s f u l ly u t i l ised .

The f am i ly u n it u ses a s many p eop le a s

h appen t o b e i n t he f am i ly ; t he work-force i s n o t p lanned t o u se l abour i n tens ive ly .

When we t a lk o ft he r ecru its t ha t Va len t in ian a nd Va lens were i nduc ing

t o j o in t he a rmy , we a re t a lk ing o ft he y oung s ons i n p easan t f a mi l ies.

I ft here

was a measure o fu ndere mp loymen t i n t he work-force , t he s end ing-of f o f y ounger s ons was a l oss t ha t c ou ld b e c o mpensa ted f or b y t he r e ma in ing w orkers.

The

s teady r ecru i t men t o f p easan ts f ro m t he Ba lkans, d ecade a f ter d ecade i n t he l a te emp ire , w ithout o bvious a dverse e f fects, b ears o u t t h is h ypo thes is .

Wh i le

we c anno t g auge r esu lts, i ti s wor th r e me mber ing t ha t t he s ubst itu t ion o f c ap ita l f or l abour i n r ura l e cono m ies c an e ven p roduce r ea l e cono m ic g row th .

2 5

T hus t he s end ing-of f o f a n e x tra s on may n ot h ave b een a l oss, i n e cono m ic t erms . T he t ax-exe mp t ions wh ich Va len t in ian a nd Va lens a ctua l ly g ave o ut mean t t ha t t he l abour o ft he s on was b e ing e xchanged f or f am i ly i nco me t ha t wou ld o therw ise h ave g one a s t ax t o t he g overnmen t . O f c ourse , s usta ined b enef it f ro m s uch p o l l-tax e xe mp t ions wou ld d epend o n t he l and-tax s chedu le o f f am i l ies n ot b e ing i ncreased t o make u p t he d if ference g iven away i n e xemp t ions . T h is g e ts u s d eep i n to t he c o mp lica ted t ax-game where wha t t he g overnmen t c ou ld l ose o f t he r oundabouts i t migh t make u p o n t he sw ings —revenue l ost b y r em iss ions o f p o l ltax c o mpensa ted f or b y i ncrease i n t he l andtax . 5 2

H ere t he d isappearance o f t he s epara te p o l ltax a ssess men t ( perhaps e ven i n t he r e ign o f Va len t in ian a nd T heodos ius I ) i n t he r ecru i t ing a reas o f t he Ba lk ans, a nd w ith i tt he who le i ncen t ive s che me o f r em issions, i s h igh ly i n terest ing .

Why d id t he a dm in istra t ion c o me r ound t o as im i lar o p in ion a s o ur

2 6

a nony mous wr iter , t ha t s o ld iers, o r t he ir f am i l ies, s hou ld b e a s l i ab le f or t ax a s o ther p eop le? Iwou ld s uspect t ha t o ne r e levan t c onsidera tion was t he p roble m o fa dm in ist er ing p o l ltax s chedu les e f f ic ien t ly .

The d e ta i led a ccoun t ing t ha t was n eeded

t o work o u t who was l i ab le i n e ach h ouseho ld , e spec ia l ly w ith e xe mp t ions b e ing h anded o u t , was work e nough .

B ut more impor tan t was t he e ase w ith wh ich

p eop le c ou ld h ide away t o e vade b e ing l i sted .

The e ar ly Byzan t ine a d min istra-

t ors s t i l l wan ted t o measure l abour i npu ts i n t he ir t ax-schedu les, b ut t hey c oun ted e ach h ouseho ld f or a h ear th t ax , t he k apn ikon , wh ich r ep laced t he p o l ltax t hroughou t t he emp ire .

2 7

F armhouses c ou ld n o t g et u p a nd h ide away ;

i t was b e t ter f or a t ax-assessor t o c ut h is l osses a nd d o a n e st i ma te o f t he a gr icu ltura l p opu la t ion t ha t was n ot p rovoked i n to mob i l ity a t t he wh isper o f ac ensus . S o t he l ess c o mp l ica t ions t he b et ter when i tc a me t o measur ing p eop le ' s l i ab i l ity f or t ax . r a is ing t axes .

B ut e f f ic ien t measure men t was o n ly p ar t o f t he p rob le m i n

T he Anony mus p ut h is f inger r igh t o n t he c en tra l p rob le m when

h e s tated t ha t i t was t he r obor o f a gr icu ltura l p roducers t ha t was t he k ey t o s urv iva l .

H is s che me f or mak ing t he c ap ita l g ran ts o f l and a nd c ash t o s o l-

d iers o n t he ir r e t ire men t i s s im i lar t o t he g ran ts g iven o ut u nder Va len t in ian a nd Va lens: b ut s ince h e s uggests a lso a s hor ter t er m f or mi l itary s erv ice , h is s trong y oung v e terans a re s et t ing u p f arms w i th v ery p os it ive a gr icu ltura l s ubs id ies .

We c an s ee h is p o in t :

a r thr it ic o ld c a mpa igners c has ing a t ea m

o f o xen r ound s o me s em i-dere l ict f i e ld o n t he f ron t ier i s n o t at err ib ly g ood i nvest men t f or o ther t ax-payers ' money .

Bu t wh i le , t rad it iona l ly a t l east ,

t he Ro man g overn men t was p oten t ia l ly r eady t o p rovide p osit ive h e lp t o a gr ic u l ture ,

2 8

t he p o l icy wh ich emerges w ith t he l a te emp ire migh t b e t ermed o ne

o f 'n ega t ive h e lp ' .He lp was g iven—but a ga inst t he i l l-e f fects o f t he h ar m a lready c aused b y t he g overn men t i t se lf , l arge ly t hrough o ppress ive t axa t ion .

29

T axa t ion i s a lways a n u nwe lco me b urden , b u t i n t he l a ter Ro man emp ire i th i t t he a gr icu ltura l p opu la t ion p ar t icu lar ly h ard a s more a nd more f unds h ad t o b e f ound t o c oun ter t he massive o nslaugh t o f t he b arbar ians. T axa t ion t oday d r ives s o me p eop le t o l eave t he ir n a t ive c oun try , b ut p robab ly d r ives f ew p eop le t o l eave s et t led emp loymen t a ltoge ther .

Ne ither

d oes t he p ro m ise t o p ay t ax g ive u s t he r igh t t o work , o r t he r igh t t o p ropert y wh ich w i l l y ie ld u s a n i nco me .

Bu t i n t he l a te emp ire, p eop le were d r iven

t o d efect t o t he b arbar ians, o r t o t ake u p t he l i fe o fb r igands . 30 They were d r iven t o c on tract away t he ir f reedo m o f move men t a nd t he ir b arga in ing r igh ts a ga inst emp loyers, i n t he f orm o f s er fdo m k nown a s t he c o lona te ;3 1

t hey t hen

a ccep ted t he c hance t o make a l i v ing b y a gree ing t o p ay t ax i n e xchange f or l and .

Th is was where t he s ta te s tepped i n t o p ro tect i t s weak b u t i mpor tan t

me mbers a nd i t s own r evenue, b y s e l l ing p roper ty-r igh ts f or t he p r ice o f t axes .

5 3

Va len t in ian a nd Va lens c ha mp ioned t he c ause o f wha t were i n e f fect s ta tes ponsored s quat ters:

i fa nyone s et t led o n u noccup ied l and , f armed i ta nd p a id

t he t axes, t hey g a ined t he p roper ty r igh ts o n t ha t l and .

The p rev ious owner

was f orb idden t o a rr ive a nd b ehave a s i fh e were l and lord t o t he n ew o ccupan ts ; s pec if ica l ly b anned was a n ea t lyt i med a rr iva l f or t he h arvest , t o c la im a s hare o ft he c rop , t he a gra t icu m . 32 Th is g ran t ing o f ownersh ip o f d ere l ict l and b eca me a va i lab le t o a nyone , t hough we c an c er ta in ly imag ine i ta pp ly ing t o t he v e terans t ha t t he Anony mus men t ions . I ron ica l ly t he ir v a l ian t c onquests f ro m t he e x terna l e ne my migh t t hen b e t hrea tened b y t he i nroads o f a n i n terna l e ne my , who h ad owned t he l and b efore t he b arbar ians c ame . A s w i th s o many a rrange men ts c rea ted i n t he l a te emp ire , i ti s e asy t o a ssu me t ha t n one o f t hese l ast-d i tch e f forts c ou ld h ave worked—wh ich emperors c ou ld h ave l eg is la ted f ro m a p osit ion o f s treng th?

B ut t he l aws o f Va len t in ian

a nd Va lens were n o t mere mu mb lings o f a worr ied a dm in istrat ion .

T he ir l aws

were u sed—ruth less ly a nd r ea l ly e f fect ive ly—aga inst t hose , most n otab ly t he r ich who were h eav i ly b eh ind w ith t he ir t ax-pay men ts .

3

Wha t i s e ven more

impor tan t , t here were q u i te s ound p r incip les o f p ub l ic f inance embod ied i n t he ir l aws, a nd t hese p r inc ip les were a t t he r oo t o f t he s o l id f inanc ia l p o l ic ies o ft he B yzan t ine emp ire .

T he e cono m ic a r ithem t ic t ha t l ay b eh ind t he s ta te

t ak ing t he s ide o f t he s quat ter a ga inst a l and lord-f igure i s s i mp le : s ta te a nd l and lord were i n c o mpe t it ion f or t he p easan t ' ss urp lus, t he l and lord wou ld t ake i ta s r en t , t he s ta te a s t ax .

The p ub l ic i n terest b enef ited more i fi t was

t ax . Ap easan t f reeho lder was o f g rea ter v a lue t o t he s ta te o n t he who le t han at enan t-farmer . S o t he a bi l ity t o p ay t he t ax o n ap iece o f l and c on t inues t o g ive a ccess t o t he p roper ty r igh ts o ver t ha t s a me p iece o f l and i n to t he Byzan t ine emp ire , a nd r e ma ins a s ac ornerstone o f f i sca l p o l icy . T he i nd iv idua l s quat ter b ec o mes p ower fu l i n t he f ace o f l and lords i ft he we igh t o f t he s ta te a nd t he i n tr ica te mach inery o f a we l ltr ied l ega l s yste m a re b eh ind h im .

I n t he

Byzan t ine East , s er fdo m d oes n o t c o me t o d om ina te t he e cono my, t he p easan t f reeho lder s urv ives a nd p rospers .

Byzan t ine E gyp t o r A s ia M inor n ever

c o mes t o r ese mb le l a te R o man G au l ; t he g rea t l andowners a re o n ly med iu ms ized c o mpared w i th t he ir G a l l ic c oun terpar ts a nd t he ir p ower i s c hecked b y t he s urv iva l o f i ndependen t p easan ts . When t he r igh t t o l and c an b e p urchased t hrough t he p aymen t o f t axes, t he e xp lo ited p easan t h as a c hance o f i mprov ing h is l o t S O l ong a s t here i s l and f or h im t o move t o, a nd t here was a lways p len ty o f l and i n a n o vera l l s ense w ith in t he R o man a nd Byzan t ine t err itor ies .

I n ac ur ious way , t he

l a ter Ro man emp ire t hus e vo lved a mechan is m f or l and r eset t lemen t wh ich c ou ld a ch ieve a n o ngo ing p rocess o f l and r e form - a s low p rocess o f p er mane n t a grar ian r evo lut ion where t he p ower o f t he g reat l and lords was n o t b roken a t ab low b y aZ apa ta , b u t i n term it ten t ly a s i nd iv idua l f armers c a me u nder p ressure a nd moved o f f t o s tar t a ga in w ith t he b ack ing o f t he s ta te .

Th is

p rocess e f fec t ive ly s tar ted u nder t he emperors t o who m t he Anonymus was u rg ing h is p rogra mme o f r eform, i ts uggests a c l i ma te o f o p t im is m where b o ld s o lu t ions t o p rob le ms were a t te mp ted . Educa t ion Depar t men t , The Br i t ish Museu m, L ondon .

WC1B 3 DG

NOTES AND REFERENCES 1 .

A .H . M . J ones,

O ver taxa t ion a nd t he d ec l ine o f t he R o man emp ire ',

An t iqu i ty , 3 3 ( 1959) , 3 9-43 a nd s ee a rgu men ts i n t he f i na l c hap ter o f L a ter Ro man Emp ire . 2 .

A s r egards d a t ing , Iam a ssu m ing t ha t t he Anonymus i s wr it ing i n t he r e ign o f Va len t in ian a nd Va lens, i n t he l i gh t o f C a meron ' sa rgu men ts, i n 3 70 ( or e ar l ier ) .

T he e ar l ier o ne c hooses t o p lace t he Anony mus,

t he more i t migh t a ppear t ha t h is a dv ice i n e cono m ic mat ters was t aken : 3 .

The b est s hor t a ccoun t o f h ow t he t ax-ra t ing was o rgan ised i s i n J ones L a ter Ro man Emp ire , 6 1-8 .

4 . 5 .

Am m . x v i .5 .1 4 . One o f t he l argest r ecen t b ibl iograph ies o n t he l a te Ro man t ax s yste m c an b e a sse mb led f ro m t he p aper b y A . Bernard i, 'The E cono m ic p rob le ms o f t he Ro man emp ire a t t he t ime o f i t s Dec l ine ', c hap ter Ii n C . C ipo l la , ( ed .) The E cono m ic Dec l ine o f Emp ires . ( London , 1 970)

6 .

Am m . x xx .9 .1 ; x xx i, 1 4 . 2 . s ee a lso W. G of far t ,

C apu t a nd C o lona te :

T owards a h istory o f l a te

Ro man t axa t ion ( Toron to , 1 974) . 7 .

The m . Orv i i i .113a , T E : t ) T ET6 CpTW 6 1

' OW

t , 8T 1V

p , o p c xv T c c r ockücaTE

T f ig ß o ca r tr y rog. Ia ssu me t ha t t h is means t ha t t axa t ion h ad b een r educed b y aq uar ter , a s d oes J . K arayannopou los, Das F inanzwesen d es f rühbyzan t in ischen S taa tes ( Mun ich 1 958 ) , 1 94 .

c f . J ones, L a ter Ro man Emp ire, p . 1 47

who t akes i tt o b e ar educt ion o f ah a lf . 8 .

1 .4 .

Ex h ac a ur i c op ia p r iva tae p o ten t iu m r ep le tae d o mus, i n p ern ic ie m

p auperu m c lar iores e f fec tae , t enu ior ibus v ide l icet v io len t ia o ppress is . The t enu iores a re t he o rd inary p oep le , 'l a ma jeure p ar t ie d e l a p opu lat i on d e l ' emp ire '

( J . G age , L es c lasses s oc ia les d ans l ' emp ire Ro ma in

( Par is, 1 964) , 2 83) 9 .

I V, 1 .....iud icu m e xecranda c up id itas c o l la toru m u t i l i ta t ibus i n im ica .

1 0 .

J ones 2 2 .c i t . ( n . 1 ) 3 9-40 .

1 1,

On c oe mp t io , s ee E . S te in , H isto ire d u Bas emp ire ( Bruges, Par is, 1 959, 1 949) v o l . 2 , 1 99-203 , 8 64 ;

J ones L a ter Ro man Emp ire 4 60-1,839-41, 8 44,

S . Mazzar ino A spe t t i s oc ia l i d e l q uar to s eco lo , ( Ro me 1 951) 5 5f f ,

p ar t icu lar ly f or i t s r e la t ionsh ip t o t he c o m muta t ion o f 'i n k ind ' l ev ies t o c ash , a daera t io . 1 2 .

Proc . HA, x x i i i, 9 -14 ,

1 3 .

S ee n . 1 1 s upra .

5 5

1 4 .

More o n t he e cono m ics o f g overn men t g ra in p urchases i n Vanags, Econ . H ist . R ev . f or thco m ing .

1 5 .

C oe mp t io c red ited a ga inst p roducers t ax l i ab i l ity , CJ X , 2 7 , 2 . `1 1 T roXo r . V 4o *E 1

5 1 T obg r u ,npäc o touc iL , T C x T v dp .aTc c TV c i -En T )v c i ,g T Ö : O vvTEXoLp , n ap 'c in c lv 1 6 .

V x pvc cT ) i E Y nµ6cLc c.

C orpus I ur is C iv i l is, e d . Krueger e t a l . ( Ber l in 1 928-9) 3 , App . 7 . C onst itu t io Prag ma t ica , 1 8 : .. p re t i is v ide l ice t p ro s pec iere m v enal i ta te , q uae t unc t e mpor is i n f oro r eru m v ena l iu m o bt inere n oscun tur . S tatuend is, i psis t a rnen p re t iis s pec iere m u n icu ique c o l la toru m i n t r ib u toru m i mputand is e xact ione m .

There was n o way , o f c ourse , i n wh ich

l eg isla t ion c ou ld c over a l l t he e ventua li t ies o f c hanges i n t he p r ice l eve l o f t he o pen marke t ;

c lear ly , t he p r ice o f g ra in c ou ld g o u p , h owever

g lu t ted t he market , o nce p eop le were c onf iden t t ha t t he g overn men t was g o ing t o s tep i n a nd o f fset e xcess s upp ly .

T E üv

T t 6Xcwv

The p resence o f oL 7 c r rgpcg

was r eco m mended d ur ing t he n ego t ia t ions f or g ra in p ur-

c hase , t o p ro tect l oca l i n terests ( CJ , X , 2 7 , 1 2) . 1 7 .

C f . e n tr ies i n L ew is a nd S hor t u nder c oe mp t io a nd L idde l l-Scot t-Jones u nder ouvc ovf j .

1 8 .

Am m . x xv ii i .1. 7 . Cu m [ Sc Hy me t ius ] p ro c onsu le r egere t , Car thag in iens ibus v ictus i nop ia l am l assa t is, e x h orre is R o mano p opu lo d est ina t is, f ru men t um v enu mded it , p au loque p ostea , c um p roven isse t s egetu m c op ia , i n tegre s ine u l la r est itu it mora .

Veru m q uon iam d en ts mod us s ingu l is

s o l id is i nd igen t ibus v enunda t is, emera t i pse t r icenos, i n terpre t i i c o mp end iu m a d p r inc ip is a erar iu m misi t .

I deoque Va len t in ianus, p er n und i-

n a t ione m s usp icatus p aru m q ua m o por tuera t missu m, e um b onoru m p ar te mu ltav i t . 1 9 .

C f . F . Dö lger i n Byz . Z e itschr . 3 4 ( 1934) , 7 1, ' Es i s t mir wahrsche inl i ch , d ass d ie c a )vwvA v on An fang a n n ur v on d en G rossbesi tzern e rh oben wurde .'

2 0 .

Re t ire men t g ran ts t o v e terans: 8 . ( 364) .

CTh . V I I . 2 0 .3

( 320 , 3 26) :

CTH V I I .2 0 .

2 1 .

The l a te R o man g overn men t d id t ake i n to a ccoun t t he t imelag o pera t ive b e tween i nvest ing c ap i ta l a nd e f for t i n l and a nd g et t ing s ubstan t ia l r esu lts. L ands t ha t r equ ired many y ears o f e f for t b efore a d ecen t l eve l o f p rod uct ion c ou ld b e a ch ieved were r a ted s ympa the t ica l ly i n t erms o f t he r en t a nd t ax d e manded , u sua l ly o n as hare-cropp ing o r t i the b as is t ha t wou ld a d just t he amoun t t aken a uto ma t ica l ly a s p roduc t ion wen t u p .

The

g iv ing o u t o f t ax-exe mp t l ands t o v e terans migh t n o t b e s uch a b ig c onc ess ion a f ter a l l, i ft hose l ands wou ld n o t h ave a s ubstan t ia l y ie ld f or s o me t i me . 2 2 .

CTh V I I .20 .3 ( 325) :

2 3 .

CTh V I I . 1 3 , 7 (3 ) ,

CTh V I I . 1 3 .6 . ( 370) ;

CTh

1 3 . 7 . ( 375) .

I psoru m e t ia m , q u i mi l itatur i s un t , p r iv i leg i is

a cceden t ibus f ac i l ius d evot io p rovoca tur ,...

I n t he s a me l aw t he

a dm in istra t ion d e monstra tes i t s c oncern f or t he l oss o f r evenue s uch t ax-exe mp t ions migh t i nvo lve —Et q u ia p ub l ica u t i li tas q uoque c og i tanda e st , n e s ub h ac i ndu lgen t ia i nser tae c ap i ta t ion is n u merus minnatur , e x

i ncens it is a dque a dcrescen t ibus i n e oru m l ocu m , q u i d efens i mi l it ia f uer in t , a l tos p raec ip imus s ubrogar i .

The d evo t io wh ich h opefu lly

r esu lted f ro m s uch p r iv i leges migh t b e c onstrued a s b e ing p ersona l l oya lty t o t he emperors, b ough t i n a n a na logous way t o t he p urchase o f l oya lty w i th d ona t ives .

But s ince t he v e terans i n t he Ba lkans h ad b een

s uf f ic ien t ly d is loya l a s t o j o in t he r ebe l l ion o f Procop ius i n t he r e ign o f Va lens . ( A mm . x xv i, 7 , 1 ) , a long w i th c urren t ly-serv ing s o ld iers, l ongerterm p r iv i leges, o f c on t inu ing e cono m ic v a lue, migh t b uy more d evo t ion . 2 4 .

E .g . J ones, who i s n o t a lone i n h is n o t ion o f t he l arge a rmy a nd b ureauc racy b e ing p aras it ica l o n t he e cono my .

C f . L a ter Ro man Emp ire , 1 045,

t he b asic e cono m ic weakness o f t he emp ire was t ha t t oo f ew p roducers s uppor ted t oo many i d le mouths '.

Wh i le t he Anony mus d oes n ot c o m-

p la in a bou t t here b e ing t oo many c iv i l s ervan ts, a ny d ist inct ion b etween c iv i l a nd mi li tary o f f ic ia ls i s b lurred b ecause s o ld iers a ssisted i n a dm ini s tra t ive ma t ters. 2 5 .

A ma jor i ssue o f modern d eve lop men t e cono m ics . For a r ecen t e xa mp le o f t he b enef ic ia l e f fect o n p easan t i nco mes o f c ap ita l/ labour s ubst i tut ion a s ar esu lt o f t he r ecru it men t o f p easan ts i n to t he a r my, s ee t he a na lysis o f t he i mpact o f t he V ie tna m war o n t he l oca l e cono my , i n S anso m , R . L ., The E cono m ics o f I nsurgency i n t he Mekong De lta o f V ie tna m, (M .I .T . Press, 1 970) .

2 6 .

P o l l t ax a bo l ished i n I l lyr icu m , CJ X I . 5 3 . 1 , (371) : 5 2 .1 .

i n Thrace, CJ . X I .

I n B i thyn ia a nd P on t ica i t was r educed b y aq uar ter b y Anastas ius,

J oh . L ydus Mag . 1 1 .47 . 2 7 .

On t he k apn ikon , a nd o n Byzan t ine t axa t ion g enera l ly , s ee t he c hap ter b y O strogorsky , 'Agrar ian c ond i t ions i n t he Byzan t ine Emp ire i n t he M idd le Ages ' i n CEHE, v o l . 1 .

2 8 .

F or e xa mp le , t he p ro ject t o e x tend t he c u l t iva t ion o f t he v ine a t tr ibuted t o t he emperor Probus, i n SHA

2 9 .

P oor t axpayers were t rea ted more l en ien t ly w ith o utstand ing t ax-debts t han t he r ich , f or e xa mp le .

3 0 .

V i t . Prob . 1 8 .

CTh ,X I . 1 .27 ( 400/5) .

Br igandage—a mong v e terans t he mse lves—CTh V II .2 0 . 7 . ( 353 ) :

d efect ion

t o t he e ne my , The m . O r v i i i . 1 15a . 3 1.

T he i nst i tut ion o f t he c o lona te i nvo lved l im ita t ions o n t he mob i li ty o f t he p easan ts a nd c ur ta i l men t o f t he ir l i ber ty :

s ee J ones, L a ter R o man

Emp ire . 3 2 .

CTh v i i . 2 0 .11 ( 368 ) , ag enera l p rov ision f or v e terans t o c u lt iva te d erel i ct l ands, a nd t he f orb idd ing o f f ormer owners f ro m c la i ming t he a grat i cu m .

CJ X I .5 9 . 8( 386) , r em iss ion o f a rrears o f fered t o owners o f

d eser ted l and , o r , i ft hey f a i led t o r eturn , t he o f fer ing o f t he l and t o a nyone who was p repared t o p ay t he t axes o n i t . 3 3 .

Va lens ' f a therinlaw , Probus, t racked d own l ong-overdue t ax-debts i n t he Ba lkan p rov inces, s ub ject ing e ven t he r ich a nd p ower fu l t o r uth less i nvest iga t ion a nd t orture , Am m . Marc . XXVI. 6 . 7 , 3 65 AD . 5 7

THE ANONY MUS :A NU M ISMAT IC CO M MENTARY b y R ichard R eece

The r e ferences t o c o ins a nd mone tary ma t ters i n t he Anony mus a re s o much a p ar t o f t he g enera l a rgumen t o f t he t rac t t ha t t hey n eed c lose s cru t iny a nd d e ta i led e xegesis.

A t p resen t Ic an d o n o more t han s uggest s o me i deas

r a ther a s a n i n ter im n o te t han a f ina l r epor t . F irs t a nd f ore mos t , t he Anony mus s tands h ead a nd s hou lders a bove o ther wr i ters o f t he R o man Emp ire b ecause h e wr i tes n o t o n ly a bou t d eno m ina t ions a nd d es igns o f c o ins , b u t a lso a bou t t he d ay t o d ay t heory o f c oinage . L ivy , P l iny , Tac i tus , D io a nd o ther h is tor ians men t ion o dd f ac ts a bou t c o ins b u t t hey n ever t ake u p t he s ub jec t o f c o inage a s s uch . They s e ldo m g ive a ny r eason ing b eh ind a ny c hanges a nd a vo id c o mmen t f ro m t he ir o wn s tandpoin t o n t he f ac ts t ha t t hey g ive u s . The Anony mus wades i n to e cono m ic d eba te w i th t he e xpress p urpose o f d eta i l ing p as t e ven ts i n c o inage t o p rove h is p o in t . H e i s n ot q u i te a lone i n t h is , b u t h is c o mpan ion i s p erhaps e ven more d i f f icu l t t o i den ti fy , d a te a nd e va lua te .

I ti s i nev i table t ha t aS y mpos ium o n al a te f our th

c en tury t opic s hou ld i nvo lve t he wr i ter o f t he H is tor ia Augus ta ; Imake n o a po log ies f or i n troduc ing h im i n t he s ingu lar f or t he c o in r e ferences i n a l l t he V i tae o f t he H is tor ia Augus ta a re s o e ccen tr ica l ly u n iform t ha t Ic an o n ly b el i eve i n o ne wr i ter .

1

L ike many wr i ters b e fore h im , b u t i n a more d e ta i led f ash ion , t he Anonymus i s worr ied ( I .lf f .) a bou t t he s quander ing o f g o ld a nd s i lver b y l arg i t io i m modera ta . H e e xhor ts t he emperor ( I L 7 ) , r epressa l arg i ta te ,a nd a l l w i l l b e we l l . T he S cr iptor h as a s im i lar ma t ter ' o n h is mind . H e p laces i ti n t he r eign o f S everus A lexander 2 who , we a re t o ld , c a l led i n t he g o ld c o ins o f E lagaba lus wh ich h ad b een t wo , t hree , f our o r t en t imes t he we igh t o f a n a ureus , o r e ven u p t o al i bra . 3 Th is c o m men t s erves t o p u t t he S cr iptor o n al eve l o f c oin r epor t ing e qua l w i th t he Anony mus b u t i ti s t he r eason f or t h is c hange t ha t i s o f e x tra i n teres t ; " A lexander" s a id t ha t i fy ou h ave c oins wh ich a re t en t imes a g o ld p iece o r more , a nd y ou h and o u t af ew g o ld c o ins , y ou g ive a way t en t imes a s much a s y ou o ugh t . 4 The r e medy was t o s tr ike s ub-d iv is ions i ns tead o f mu l t iples , f irs t h a lves , t hen t h irds a nd f ina l ly q uar ters , b ecause h e c ou ld n o t p roduce sma l ler c o ins , b u t a s t axes d id n o t c o me d own a s f ar a s e xpec ted h e h ad t he ( ha lves? a nd ) q uar ters me l ted d own a nd j us t s truck t remisses a nd s o l id i . 5 Tre m isses a nd s o l id i a re f lagran t a nachron isms f or s o meo ne wri t ing a bou t S everus A lexander a nd a re d i f f icu lt f or s o meone wri ting u nder C ons tan t ine ; t hey b e long f ar b e t ter i nt he wor ld o f t he Anony mus . A t a s tr ingen t min imum we c an s ay i n s a fe ty t ha t t wo wr i ters i nt he a ge o f t he s ol idus were c oncerned w i th u nnecessar i ly g enerous l argesse , t he f or ms a nd d eno m ina t ions o f t he c o ins , a nd t he d ep le t ion o f s tocks o f p rec ious me ta ls . Un for tuna te ly t h is p ara l le l may d e mo te t he Anony mus i n my e s t ima t ion f or wh i le t he H is tor ia Augus ta l oses a l l p o in t i fi t was n o t i n tended f or p ubl ica t ion 5 9

a nd mus t , t here fore , b e r egarded a s c on form ing t o s o me l i terary c onven t ions , o ur a u thor i s wr i t ing o n ly a p amph le t wh ich was p robab ly n ever m ean t f or p ubl i c c onsumpt ion .

Men t ions o f c oins may we l l h ave b een made i n t he t housands

o f imper ia l me moranda wh ich h ave p er ished , s o t he Anony mus ' ma in v ir tue may b e n o more t han s urv iva l . T he h is tor ica l f lashback wh ich t he Anony mus g ives u s i s as ub ject f or a n t iquar ian r a ther t han n um isma t ic e nqu iry b ecause t he a u thor mus t b e r e lying o nt ex tua l r a ther t han ma ter ia l e v idence . One i l lus tra t ion o f t he t rad i t ions i n g enera l c ircu la t ion , amongs t t he many wh ich c ou ld b e p icked u p , c o mes f ro m a no ther f und o f mone tary i n forma t ion , t he S a tyricon o f P e tron ius , where i n s ec t ion 8 8 we a re t o ld t ha t e ven t he S ena te o f ten p ro m ise 1 000 l i brae o f g o ld t o t he C api tol ine t e mp le ; t hese g i f ts t o J upi ter mean t ha t n o o ne n eed b e a shamed o f o f fer ings o f money . T h is i s t he Anony mus ' s econd p hase , when b ronze was a bundan t , r e jec ted f or o rnamen t ing p ubl ic b u i ld ings , a nd c o ined i n s uch a way t ha t i t was wor th i t s o wn we igh t ( a es v a l idum i pso p ondere I .8 ) . The c o inage h ad p rev ious ly b een i ns t i tu ted f or t wo r easons - a s a means o f r ega l g ran ts , wh ich may b e at ac t fu l way o f s ay ing " paying t he r oya l b i l ls" , a nd f or e veryday c o m merce ( emend i e t v endend i u t i l i tas 1 .6) . M ichae l C raw ford 6 h as q ues t ioned t h is s econd u se o f c oinage a nd h as d ocu men ted h is c r i t ic is ms f or t he l a te R epubl ic a nd e ar ly Emp ire , b u t n e i ther h is c r i t ic is ms n or h is e v idence e x tend much b eyond t he e ar ly p r incipa te ; e cono my a nd t he u se o f c o ins a f ter A .D. 2 00 may we l l n o t o bey t he more c lass ica l r u les h e s ugges ts .7 Bronze h ad b eco me more c o mmon a nd was min ted a s g i f ts f or t he t roops a nd f or p r iva te t ransac t ions ( I .9 ). Th is , i fh is h is tory i s i ndeed a s much i n c hrono log ica l o rder a s i ts ee ms t o b e , i s t he f irs t c en tury A .D., when t he s es ter t i i o f G a ius a nd N ero a re s uperb a r t is t ic p roduct ions , s ome t imes w i th p urely mi l i tary t ypes s uch a s t he a d locu t io , wh ich may h ave b een mean t f or o f f ic ia l d ona t ives r a ther t han e veryday c o mmerce . F or b uy ing a nd s el l ing i t s ee ms v ery l i ke ly t ha t a ssess a nd d upond i i were s upp l ied , c er ta in ly t o t he t roops , a nd p robab ly t o c o m merce i n g enera l . T he i l lus tra t ions a t t he e nd o f C hapter I ( Par t 2 , P ls . Ia nd I ) , d o n o t , i n t he ir p resen t f or m , f u l f i l l t he a u thor 's i n ten t ion - t o i l lus tra te h is h is tory s o t ha t i t migh t b e more e as i ly f o l lowed . T he d iscs " de c or io" a re p resumab ly o f l ea ther w i th a s quare o f g o ld l ea f a t t he t op ; t hey c orrespond t o t he d escr ipt i on b u t g ive u s n o f urther h e lp .

G o ld a nd c lay c o ins mus t r e ma in a mys tery

u n t i l t he C odex S p irens is r eappears , o r t he C arol ing ian c opy c o mes t o l i gh t . They p resen t e i ther a mudd le , o r ap ure ly R ena issance s ty le wh ich d ef ies a na lys is .

I tc ou ld b e a rgued t ha t t he b are h ead a nd h a irs ty le o f wavy l ocks

i n t he O x ford MS . r ese mb le t hose o f Augus tus ;8 t ha t t he l aure l wrea th a nd u pward s tra in ing p or tra i t o we s o me th ing t o C ons tan t ine 9 b u t Ip u t t hese p ara ll e ls f orward w i thou t c onv ic t ion . C hapter I p oses s evere p rob le ms . T he f irs t s en tence t e l ls u s t ha t u nder C ons tan t ine g enerous l argesses made g o ld , f ormer ly v ery v a luab le , t ake t he p lace o f b ronze i n e veryday c o m merce . S i lver , q u i te r igh t ly , f or " Cons tan t in i t e mpor ibus" ( o r i s i ta n a cciden t s te m m ing f ro m t he d a te o f o ur a u thor?) , i s n o t men t ioned . Th is i s a rchaeo log ica l ly u nacceptab le . The c oins c o m mon ly l os t o n a n a ncien t s i te mus t g ive s o me c lue t o t he c o ins u sed i n " v i l ibus c ornmerci is" .

I f , u nder C ons tan t ine , g o ld l os t i t s v a lue a nd was u sed a s b ronze

h ad b een u sed , we s hou ld s ure ly f ind g o ld c oins i n a rchaeo log ica l c on tex ts . 6 0

I n d ea l ing w i th h undreds o f t housands o f c o ins f ound o n s i tes i n I t a ly , France a nd B r i ta in Ic an n ever r eco l lec t s ee ing a g o ld c oin o f C ons tan t ine I . E i ther t he Anony mus i s u s ing h yperbo le h ere , o r i s s imp ly wrong . H is e xplana t ion o f t he d eva lua t ion o f g o ld i s e xp l ic i t a nd , a s f ar a s Ic an s ee , n ove l :- t ha t wh ich h ad b een s tored a way i n t e mp les , g o ld , s i lver a nd l o ts o f p rec ious s tones , was l oosed , p resumably v ia t he min t , o n t he p ubl ic . S ince h e h as j us t s poken o f t he t ime o f C ons tan t ine , t h is r ush o f p rec ious me ta l i s d a ted t o h is r e ign . H ere , Mr . S tevens h as g iven t o u s w i th o ne h and , b u t t aken a way w i th t he o ther . H e h as p rov ided P ro fessor Tho mpson w i th a f ootno te

G .3 2

n .2 ) t o t he e f fec t t ha t t he r e ign o f C ons tan t ine was c harac ter ised b y a n

i ncreased em iss ion o f g o ld c o inage - a nd h as n o t s ubs tan t ia ted t he c la im ; t h is i s t he d ebi t : b u t h e h as g iven u s t he p assage f ro m t he d e E rrore P ro fanarum R e l ig ionum o f F ir m icus Ma ternusl° i n wh ich C ons tan t ius I a nd C ons tans a re i mplored , o r i ns truc ted , t o c ook t he g ods ; f or t h is h is b a lance moves much i n c red i t . Th is a pparen t ly C hr is t ian a dv ice s ee ms l ess b igo ted when t he ment i on o f e xac t ly t he s ame c ourse o f a c t ion r ecorded b y Va ler ius Max imus f or t he c r is is o f 8 2 B .C. 1 1

i s r e me mbered .

S ta tues , e ven o f g ods , c ou ld o f ten

b e r eckoned a s d isposab le a sse ts . H owever , Mr . S tevens h as moved u s o n t o t he j o in t r e igns o f t he s ons o f C ons tan t ine wh ich e nded when C ons tan t ius I r u led a lone f ro m 3 50 . The r eason t ha t Iam s o a nx ious t o move l a ter i n t he f our th c en tury i s p ure ly a rchaeo log ica l a nd n eeds b r ie f d igress ion . There a re a t l eas t t wo ways i n wh ich a n i ssue o f c o ins may b e j udged l arge o r sma l l .

T he f irs t me thod c oncerns s urv iva l .

I f many c oins o f a n i ssue

s urv ive o n s i tes a nd i n c o l lec t ions , t he i ssue may b e c a l led l arge , aq u ick way o f c heck ing i sb y c oun ting t he n umbers i n r ich c o l lec t ions s uch a s t ha t o f t he B r i t ish Museum . I ff ew c o ins o f a n i ssue s urv ive t ha t i ssue may n o t b e c a l led sma l l b ecause t he c o ins may h ave b een h oarded , me l ted d own , o r r eca l led a f ter i ssue . I ti s r easonab le t o s ay t ha t t he i ssue migh t h ave b een sma l l . S econd ly , s o me a t te mpt a t o b jec t ive e s t i ma tes may b e made b y e xam in ing a l l s urv iv ing c o ins i n c ons iderab le d eta i l d is t ingu ish ing wh ich c ame f ro m d i f feren t d ies , a nd c o in ing u p t he n umber o f d ies k nown . I fi ssue A h as l e f t t wice a s many d ies p er y ear a s i ssue B i ti s af a ir , b u t n o t f oo lproo f , s ugges t ion t ha t i ssue A was t w ice a s i n tens ive a s i ssue B . F ew d ie s tud ies h ave b een d one o n l a te R o man c oinage s o Ir e ly o n r a tes o f s urv iva l . The g rea t s urge i n c o inage o fp rec ious me ta ls s ee ms t o c o me s oon a f ter t he Tr icenn .a l ia o f C ons tan t ius I i n 3 53 . I f a museum o r s i te i s r ich e nough t o h ave a f ew g old c oins , i tw i l l t ypica l ly h ave c o ins o f N ero , V espas ian , p erhaps t he An ton ines , a nd t hen a g ap wh ich i s i nvar iab ly c losed b y a n i ssue o f C ons tan t ius I r ecord ing VOT/XXX/MVLT/ 200CX ;1 2 a f ter t h is s evera l g old c oins may f o llow . The s ame i s t rue i n s i lver . Ig a ther f ro m Dr . K en t t ha t t he f or thcom ing Vo l . VI I o f R o man Imper ia l C o inage may t i e t hese l arge i ssues t o C ons tan t ius ' v is i t t o R o me w i th a d a te o f c . 3 57-61. S ince we h ave t h is s udden em iss ion o f p rec ious c oinage , Ip re fer t o b r ing t he a ccoun t o f t he Anony mus i n to a ccord w i th a rchaeolog ica l f act r a ther t han t o l eave i ti n t ex tua l i so la t ion . Th is wou ld t hen mean t ha t we c an a ccep t t he Anony mus ' a ccoun t b y s epara ting t he c on f isca t ion o f g o ld a nd t he i ssue o f i ta s c o inage , a t tr ibu t ing t he f ormer t o C ons tan t ine a nd t he l a t ter t o h is s on . The t e mpta t ion t o make a t iny emenda t ion s o t ha t s ec t ion I .1 b eg ins " Cons tan t i i t e mpor ibus ..." s hou ld a l mos t c er ta in ly b e r es is ted b ecause o ur a u thor i s t a lk ing a bou t t he t ime o f c on f isca t ion o f 6 1

p rec ious me ta l a s we l l a s i t s i ssue , a nd f or t h is " Cons tan t in i t e mpor ibus ..." s ee ms t o b e c orrect . C hapter I p osed i n tr igu ing p rob le ms wh ich c ou ld b e r eso lved b y s imp le r earrange men t a nd t he r ecogn i t ion o f h yperbo le . C hapter I I i s o f much s terner s tu f f .

The b as ic p rob le m c oncerns t he f ash ion ing ( f ig-um .) o f s o l id i wh ich i s

d eprava ta ( 11 .1).

We k now e xac t ly why t h is i s as ad s ta te o f a f fa irs - t he i m-

a ge o f r oya l ma jes ty i s d im in ished b ecause t he c o ins b ear ing i ta re r e fused , a nd t h is i s t he f au l t o f t he min t . S o l id i a re s o u ncer ta in t ha t d ownr igh t c unn ing h as e n tered i n to a ny c o m merce where t hey c hange h ands a nd n o s tra igh tf orward s imple d ea l ing i s p oss ib le .

We k now t he c ure -p u t a l l t he min t workers

o n a n i s land , o u t o f c on tac t w i th t he p ub l ic , o u t o f t rade , t hey w i l l t hen h ave n o mo t ive f or f raud , a nd a l l w i l l b e we l l ( 1 1 1 .2 , 3 ) . I f we k now t he e f fect a nd t he r e medy i t may s ee m p edan tic t o worry a bou t t he p recise n a ture o f t he f raud . P rofessor Tho mpson s et t les o n ap er fec t ly g ood mean ing o f d eprava ta , " debased" . Al i tera l r ender ing o f " depraved" c on jures u p magn i f icen t v is ions o f t he F a l l o f t he R o man Emp ire , b u t d oes n o t h e lp , a nd "ma l formed" , wh ich i s n ear t he o r ig ina l mean ing o f p hys ica l a bnorma l i ty , b egs t he q ues t ion o f whe ther i ti s s hape o r s ubs tance wh ich i s b e low s tandard . Ip refer " d is tor ted" l ead ing t o at rans la t ion o f " irregu lar" . Wh i le Tho mpson h as marsha l led r ef erences t o d ebased s o l id i" i ti s v ery h ard t o f ind e xamp les o f s uch c o ins , t hough p la ted g o ld a nd s i lver c oins o f t he l a te f our th c en tury a re f a ir ly we l l k nown , p erhaps e spec ia l ly f ro m B r i ta in . T o g ive s peci f ic e xamp les t here a re among a bou t 6 ,0 00 c o ins i n t he C or in ium Museum , C irences ter , p la ted s i lver c oins o f J u l ian , a nd a s o l idus o f Va len t in ian Iw i th g o ld p la te o n ac opper c ore . Erra t ic c oins w i th r eversed l e t ters o r o dd s tyle d o o ccur ( Bourges Museum , France ) a nd i t may b e t hese wh ich t he workers i n t he min t p roduced u nof f ic ia l ly . Mos t o f t he r e ferences t o s o l id i i nt he Theodos ian C ode c oncern h agg l ing o ver we igh t s o t ha t If ee l t ha t t he i ssue o f d ebasemen t s hou ld b e l e f t o pen . T ho mpson h as n o ted t he c orrespondence o f l anguage b e twen t he c oin d e ta i ls o f t he Anonymus a nd t he S cr ip tor , a nd t h is a dds c on f irma t ion t o my e ar l ier s ugges t ions . 14 F ina l ly , we c o me t o t he i l lus tra t ion a t t he e nd o f C hapter I I ( Par t 2 , P ls . I l l , I V ) , wh ich t he a u thor t e l ls u s i s t o make c lear t he n a ture o f f u ture , improved , i ssues . We a re g iven o n ly p ic tures o f g o ld a nd b ronze . E ar l ier ( 1 1 1 .2 ) t he r e form o f t he min t i s s a id t o c oncern s o l id i a nd n ummar i i . The Theodos ian C ode u ses n um mus a s as peci f ic c o in o r u n i t o f r eckon ing -p erhaps t he u b iqu i tous sma l l c opper c oin o f t he l a te f our th a nd f i f th c en tur ies was a f ive-num mus p iece , a nd t h is migh t e ncourage u s t o t ake n um mus a nd n ummar ius a s c opper c o ins . The H is tor ia Aufus ta , h owever , s ca t ters n um m i o f g o ld , s i lv er a nd b ronze t hrough i t sp ages 15 s o we o ugh t p erhaps n o t t o t ake t he Anony mus ' n u m mar i i a u to ma t ica l ly a s s peci f ica l ly b ronze .

H owever , t he p ic ture w i th t he

a t tendan tp hrase , Tam a ereae q uam a ureae , ( I I I .4 ) , makes i tq u i te c lear t ha t s i lver i s missed o u t . Th is i s t rue o f t he who le t rac t -s i lver i s ap recious me ta l l i ke g o ld b u t i tn ever marches b y i t se l f a nd n ever e xp l ic i t ly p roduces c o ins .

The Anonymus migh t a l mos t h ave b een l i v ing i n a wor ld d evoid o f

s i lver c oinage . I nt he f our th c en tury t here was a lways , i n t heory , as i lver c oinage , b u t s i lver o f h igh p ur i ty i n g ood s upply i s c on f ined t o t he y ears 3 57 t o c .450 o r e ven l a ter i n t he Eas t .

Ih ave a lready a rgued t ha t t he f l ood o f p recious c oinage

6 2

F IG .

2 ( above) proposed

L ine c oin

drawing

t ypes

( cf.

Drawing by

F IG .

3 ( below)

Models

R IC Aug.

of

Dom.

Drawing by

Part

S imon

used by

3 70,

t he

t he 2 70,

i llustration 2 ,

I II.

' C'

a .).

James.

i llustrator Nero

S imon James

6 4

Plate

i n

3 28

o f

' C'.

o f

s tar t ing i n 3 57 i s k nown t o t he Anony mus , t h is means t ha t i fh is wor ld r ea l ly i s w i thou t ag ood s upp ly o f s i lver , i t mus t b e a f ter c . 4 20 i n t he Wes t o r v ery l a te i ndeed i n t he E as t .

Th is i s a t p resen t ap rob le m wh ich may b e d ue t o

n oth ing more t han c hance s e lec t ion o f c oins f or i l lus tra t ion . The a c tua l i l lus tra t ions o f t hree g o ld a nd t hree b ronze c oins b r ing me t o t he p o in t where Mark Hassa l l f irs t i n troduced me t o t h is t rac t a nd t he Ox ford manuscr ip t .

I t was h is s uspic ion t ha t h e r ecogn ized t he A l tar t o R o me a nd

Augus tus a t L yon o n t he l e f t-hand b ronze c oin t ha t g ave u s f a i th i n t he i l lust ra t ions a nd made me i den t i fy t he o ther t ypes ( Figs . 2a nd 3 ) . The l e f t-hand c oin i s i ndeed t ha t a l tar w i th o n ly t he l egend RO M ET AVG om i t ted ; a s t he o ther t ypes b e long t o f irs t c en tury a sses , i tp robab ly d er ives f ro m a n a s o f T iber ius 1 6

The c en tre b ronze c oin i s a n o n ly s l igh t ly misunders tood t ype o f

Mone ta s uch a s t he A s o f Do m i t ian 1 7

Mone ta h as h er s ca les a s e xpec ted b u t

t he _ So f _ SC as b een mudd led i n t he s ca les ; wha t s hou ld b e ac ornucopiae _h c rad led i n t he l e f t a rm h as b een t urned i n to a n e ag le h e ld o n t he l e f t h and . The l egend h as a ga in b een om i t ted .

The r igh t-hand b ronze c o in i s c opied f ro m

a n a s o f N erol 8 s how ing a w inged V ictory f l y ing l ef t c arrying a buck ler i ns cr i bed SPQR . I n t his c ase , a l though t he e xpected S C i s v ery f a in t o r e ven om i tted , t here was n o l egend o n t he o r ig ina l . The g old c o ins s ugges t t he i ssues o f C ons tan t ine w i th u pward s tra in ing f aces .

1 9

The c en tre c oin s hows a d ia-

d e med h ead , t he r igh t-hand o ne a l aurea te h ead .

Th is r esumb lance , h owever ,

c anno t b e t aken t o b e a s f i rm a s t he i den t i f ica t ions o f t he b ronze c o ins .

I ti s

v ir tua l ly imposs ib le t ha t t he g o ld c oins s hou ld b e t he s ame s ize a s Asses o f t he f irs t c en tury ( c . 2 6 mm

d iame ter ) ;

o n t he o ther h and , i ti s i n teres t ing

t ha t s o l id i a nd c o m mon b ronze c oins o f t he p er iod 3 66-375 d o h ave r ough ly t he s ame d ia me ter ( AV c . 2 0 mm d ia me ter , AE3 c . 1 9 mm d ia me ter ) . Iwou ld p re fer n ot t o a t te mpt a c o mpar ison o f t he i l lus tra t ions o f t he c o ins i n d i f feren t manuscr ip ts u n t i l Ic an s ee t he d e ta i l o f e ach d rawing i n t he o r ig ina l MSS . a nd i n c o lour .

A l l t ha t c an b e s a id a t t he mo men t i s t ha t

o ne i l lus tra tor c op ied s ix R o man c o ins .

E i ther t he i l lus tra tor o f t he Ox ford

MS ( 'C ' ) f a i th fu l ly c op ied a r e markab ly p reserved c opy wh ich e xac t ly t ransmi t ted t he f our th c en tury o r ig ina l , wh ich means t ha t t he Anonymus was a b le t o f ind , a nd c hose t o c opy , t hree we l l p reserved a sses t hree h undred y ears o ld . Or , a nd Iam a fra id t h is i s more l ike ly , t he R ena issance i l lus tra tor , s ee ing t ha t h e h ad t o d raw t hree c o ins , wen t t o t he p a tron 's c oin c ab ine t , f ound a p or tra i t s er ies o f t he Twe lve C aesars , c hose T iber ius , N ero a nd Do mi t ian ( roo m f or s pecu la t ion h ere !) t urned t he m o ver a nd d rew t he m . A l though t he ma in i deas p resen ted h ere a re t he s ame a s t hose p resen ted a t t he S y mpos ium , t hey h ave b een mos t u se fu l ly r ef ined , amended a nd amp l if ied i n d iscuss ion w i th Andrew Burnet t , t he l a te C . E . S tevens , Dr . J ohn K en t a nd Pro f . A lan Cameron .

Wi thou t Mark Hassa l l 's i n teres t i n t he t rac t a nd

h is g rea t e n thus ias m I s hou ld n ever h ave t aken my p resen t i n teres t i n t he s ubj ec t , a nd t he S y mpos iu m wou ld n ever h ave t aken p lace .

T oge ther w i th a l l t he

o ther c on tr ibu tors Iowe h im ad eb t o f g ra t i tude f or a we lco me c hance t o a ir my i deas i n av ery h e lp fu l ly k now ledgeab le c o mpany a nd c onv iv ia l s urround ings .

I ns t i tu te o f Archaeo logy , 3 1-34 G ordon S quare , LONDON WC1H OPY . 6 5

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1 .

R ober t I reland a nd I an Marr io t t c a me t o t he s a me c onc lus ion f ro m t heir l ingu is t ic s tudy o f t he SHA, JRS f or thco ming .

2 .

SHA A lex .S ev . 2 9.

3 .

i b id . 3 9 .9 .

4 .

i bid . 3 9 .10.

5 .

i bid . 3 9 .7.

6 .

M . Crawford ' Money a nd Exchange i n t he Ro man Wor ld ' JRS 6 0 ( 1970 ) , 4 0-48 . s ee p .40 .

7 .

R . Reece ' Ro man C oinage i n t he Wes tern Empire ' Br i tann ia 4 ( 1973 ) , 2 27-251.

8 .

R IC IPLI I , N o . 3 3.

9 .

R IC V I I P l .X IX , N o . 1 05.

1 0.

d e Errore Pro fanaru m Rel igionu m

q uo ted b y C . E . S tevens i n ' A Ro man

Au thor i n N or th- Wes t Br i ta in ' i n CW 2 5 0(1951) , 7 0-79 , s ee p .75 , n .26. 1 1.

Va ler ius Max i mus , Fac toru m a c D ic torum Me morabl iu m L ibr i i x , v i i . 6 .4.

1 2.

R IC f or thco m ing .

1 3.

Tho mpson , 3 6 ( n .2 ) , c i ting C T h . D C .21.2 a nd L ib . Or . XVI I I .138.

1 4.

Tho mpson , 3 6-7 ( n .6 ) : f or ma ( 1 1 1 .4 ) C f . SHA Tyr . Tr ig .3 1.3 : f igura t io ( 1 1 1 .4 ) C f . f igurare . SHA A lex .S ev . 2 5 .9.

1 5.

e .g . SHA E lag..8 .3 ;

Tyr . Tr ig .3 1 .3 .

1 6.

R IC ( Aug .) , 3 70 ,

1 7.

R IC ( Do m .) , 2 70.

1 8.

R IC ( Nero ) , 3 28.

1 9.

R IC V II ( Con .) , 1 04-5.

6 6

FRONTIER POLICY I N THE ANONY MUS b y S tephen J ohnson

Two p assages i n t he d e R ebus B e l l ic is s ee m t o r e fer s peci f ica l ly t o f ront ier p o l icy.

I n c hapter V , t he a u thor i s a rguing f or a c u tback i n mi l i tary s pend-

i ng , a nd t hen , more d e ter m ined ly , b u t i n ar e la ted v ein , i n c hapter XX h e s ugg es ts a method o f p o l icing t he f ron t iers w i th sma l l c as te l la p laced a t r egu lar i n terva ls o f o ne mi le , a nd p a id f or b y t he l oca l l and owners . B y t ak ing t hese p assages i n t urn , i tw i l l b e p oss ib le t o c ons ider wha t r e levance t he r eco m menda t ions wh ich t he Anony mus makes h ave t o s tandard R o man p rac t ice i n t he midd le a nd l a ter p hases o f t he Imper ia l p er iod .

Mos t o f t he p aper w i l l d ea l w i th wr i t ten

s ources , e i ther f ro m l a te R o man a u thors , o r f ro m i nscr ipt ions . I n t he f irs t p assage , t he Anony mus c ounse ls e ar ly r e t ire men t f or s ol iders , s o t ha t t hey d o n o t b eco me a b urden t o t he t axpayer .

Th is , c oup led w i th r apid

p ro mo t ion w i l l s ee a more r ap id t urnover o f t roops , wh ich w i l l e nsure t ha t t here a re a lways l arge n u mbers o f e xper ienced v e terans s t i l l p resu mab ly i n t he p r i me o f l i fe . ' A p rov is ion o f t h is s or t w i l l i ncrease t he p opu la t ion o f t he p rov inces b y s upp ly ing v e terans e nr iched w i th Imper ia l g i f ts who w i l l b e s trong e nough t o c u l t iva te t he l and .

They w i l l l i ve u pon t he f ron t iers , t hey w il l p lough

t he a reas wh ich t hey r ecen t ly d e fended , a nd h av ing won wha t t hey l onged t o o bt a in f ro m t he ir t o i l , t hey w i l l b eco me t axpayers i ns tead o f s o ld iers ' ( V .6. Tho mpson 's t rans la t ion ) .

1

F irs t , wha t i s t here a bou t t h is s che me f or s e t t l ing r e t ired s o ld iers o n t he f ron t iers wh ich i s n ove l? I th ad a lways b een imper ia l p o l icy t o g ran t l and t o s o ld iers a t t heir d ischarge .

2

On t he f ace o f i t , t h is i dea f or s e t t ling v e t-

e rans i nf ron t ier a reas i s ag ood o ne ;

b u t t he i nd ica t ions f ro m l a te a n t ique

s ources a re t ha t i t was a lready c o m mon p rac t ice b y t he f our th c en tury.

On

d ischarge , t he v e teran wou ld r ece ive a s ubs tan t ia l s um i n c ash , o r a n e quiv a len t amoun t o f l and , w i th a n i ma ls a nd s laves t o work i t .

I n Augus tan t imes ,

l and was p len t i fu l , a nd t hus c ame a bou t t he f or ma t ion o f many n ew v e teran c o lon ies t hroughou t t he empire , b u t l a ter i tb ecame i ncreas ing ly d i f f icu l t t o f ind e nough l and t o g ive t o e veryone , e xcept a t t he v ery f r inges o f t he empire . P oss ib ly , a lready i n t he s econd c en tury , t here was s o me s ys te m o f v e terans s et t led n ear f or ts , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he Rh ineland , where , i n t he l eg ionary t err i tory o f N euss t here a re a s er ies o f sma l l v i l lae r us t icae wh ich may h ave b een c onnected w i th t he f ar m ing o f t he t err i tor iumleg ion is : a n i dea l s i tua t ion f or t he r e t ired l eg iona r y .

3

H e c ou ld t i l l h is f ields , a nd y e t n o t b e t oo d ivorced

f ro m t he mi l i tary l i fe t o wh ich h e was a ccus to med .

There i s e p igraph ic e v-

i dence f ro m Aqu incum 4 a nd a nd Troes m is 5 r ecord ing v e teran i e t c ives R o man i c ons is ten tes a d c anabas l eg ion is ... s how ing t ha t v e terans migh t wel l s tay o n i n t he c anabae o f l eg ionary o r p erhaps e ven a nx i l iary f or ts .

6 7

F ro m t he H is tor ia Augus ta , we c an t race t he d e l ibera te p o l icy o f g ran ti ng f ron t ier l and t o s o ld iers a nd v e terans a t l eas t a s f ar b ack a s S everus A lexa nder , who ' gave wha t l and h e c aptured f ro m t he b arbar ians t o t he c o m manders a nd s o ld iers o f t he l im i tane i w i th t he s t ipu la t ion t ha t t hey s hou ld n ever b e long t o c iv i l ians .

H e a dded t o t h is g ran t d raugh t a n i ma ls a nd s laves , s o t ha t t he

l and b order ing o n b arbar ian t err i tory s hou ld n ever b e l e f t v acan t b ecause o f s parseness o f p opu la t ion o r t he o ld a ge o f t he o wners '. q uen t ly i n t he s ources ;

6

L im i tanei o ccur f re-

i n ar escr ipt i n t he C odex J us t in ianus d a ted t o t he

e ar ly s ix th c en tury , B e l isar ius r e fers t o l and t o b e g iven t o l im i tanei s o t ha t t hey c an d e fend t he f or ts a nd s e t t le men ts o f t he f ron t ier , a nd t i l l t he l and , t oo .

7

The i na l ienab i l i ty o f s uch l and g iven t o t hese f ron t ier g uards i s a we l l e s tabl ished f ac t , s tretch ing b ack a t l eas t a s f ar a s t he b eg inn ing o f t he t h ird c en tury .

8

C lues a s t o t he s or t o f p eop le who were p re ferred a s l im i tane i a re g iven b y ar escr ipt o f H onor ius a nd Theodos ius p reserved i n t he C odex T heodos ianus . ' Areas wh ich h ave b een g ran ted t o t he g en t i les b y t he b enevo lence o f o ur p red ecessors f or t he g uard ing o f t he l imes mus t b e r eserved o n ly f or men l i ke t hose who were a ss igned t he t ask p rev ious ly .

O therw ise , t hese a reas a re t o

b e g iven e i ther t o g en t i les , i ft hey c an b e f ound , o r a t l eas t , wh ich i s r igh t a nd p roper , t o v eterans . ' 9 The p o l icy o f g iv ing l and n ear t he f ron t ier t o b arbar ians t he mse lves i s a lso we l l e s tab l ished b y t he e nd o f t he t h ird c en tury Passages f ro m t he Panegyr ic i t a lk o f Max im ian a nd C ons tan t ius ' g ran ts o f l and t o Franks , who h ad t hereby a d ua l r o le o f t i l l ing t he s o i l a nd b ear ing a r ms f or R o me .

1 6

I ti s e ven p oss ib le , i np ar ts o f G a l l ia a nd G erman ia t o d is t ingu ish , b y as tudy o f t he t ypes o f h i l l-top f or t i f ica t ions , where s o me o f t hese t r ibes were s e t t led . N o t a l l s o c a l led F luch tburgen were u sed s o le ly f or t ha t p urpose , a nd s o me a re r e markab ly s im i lar t o t he k ind o f f or t i f ica t ions i ns ide wh ich t r ibes i n f ree G ermany were l i v ing a t t he s ame p er iod .1 1 The p o l icy o f d educ t io was s een a s t he d eveloping a nswer t o t he p rob le m o f p rov id ing a j ea lous f ron t ier d e fence a nd ab u f fer s ta te b e tween t he u nro man ised b arbar i a nd t hose i ns ide t he empire . De l ibera te s et t le men t o f v e teran i o n t he f ron t iers wou ld b e c ons idered a t l eas t a s e f fec t ive a s t ha t o f b arbar i f or e ven t hough t he ir t er m o f s erv ice h ad e nded , t hey were s t i l l i n s evera l r ecorded i ns tances i n t he l a ter p er iod o f R o man h is tory a f orce t o b e r eckoned w i th .

I n Am m ianus a lone , v e terans

r e le ived t he s iege o f Au tun i n 3 56 when r egu lar t roops p roved u se less ; 12 t hey p layed a n impor tan t p ar t i n t he r evo l t o f P rocopius a ga ins t Va lens i n 3 65 : 13 a nd i n 3 78 , v e terans f or med a p or t ion o f Va lens a r my a ga ins t t he G o ths .

1 4

Tha t s uch v e teran s e t t le men ts were s e t u p i n f ron t ier a reas i s s hown b y t he s urv iva l o f i nscr ip t ions a nd t ex ts wh ich d ocumen t o verseers o f t hese c o mmun i t ies .

15

I n b eg inn ing t o c ons ider wha t k ind o f b u i ld ings s uch f ron t ier s et t le men t may h ave u sed , t he o ther t ex t f ro m t he Anony mus b eco mes o f r e levance . A f ter t he l arge s ca le v e teran s e t t le men t o f t he f irs t c en tury , t here were n o more t owns c rea ted a s c o lon ies f or t he m t o i nhab i t , s o t he t ype o f b u i ld ings wh ich may h ave h oused t hese s o ld ier-far mers i fp robab ly o n a sma l ler s ca le , a nd s o mewha t l i ke t he sma l l b u i ld ings wh ich t he Anony mus s ugges ts s hou ld b e p u t u p a l l r ound t he f r inges o f t he empire .

' I t i s ag ood i dea a nd b ene fic ia l t o t he

s ta te t o t ake e f fec t ive c on trol o f t he f ron t ier works wh ich s urround a l l th e b orders o f t he emp ire . The ir s a fety w i l l b e b e t ter p rov ided f or b y ac on t inuous l ine o f f or ts c ons tructed a t i n terva ls o f o ne mi le w i th f ir m wa l ls a nd v ery p ower6 8

f u l t owers . These f or t i f ica t ions s hou ld b e c ons tructed w i thou t p ub l ic e xpend it ure o n t he i nd iv idua l r espons ib i l i ty o f t he l oca l l andowners , w i th wa tches a nd p icke ts k ept i nt he m s o t ha t t he p eace fu l p rov inces may b e s urrounded b y a b e l t o f d e fences a nd s o r e ma in u n i mpa ired a nd a t p eace .' ( X 0 ( , a dap ted f ro m T ho mpson 's t rans la t ion ). T h is p assage , w i th i t s i n tr igu ing r e ference t o ' m i lecas t les ' h as o f ten b een s een a s ar e ference t o H adr ian 's Wa l l , a nd h as p osed s ince C amden t he i n tr igu ing q ues t ion whether t he Anony mus v is i ted n or th B r i ta in .1 6 Bu t t here i s n o men t ion o f a wa l l a s ac on t inuous b arr ier t o l ink t hese mi lecas t les ,; r a ther , t he f ron t ier i s t o b e u nders tood a s s o me th ing a l mos t s epara te f ro m t h is s ys te m o f c as te l la . There i s f ar more e v idence t o l i nk t h is p assage w i th p ract ice o n o ther f ron t iers , a nd i np ar t icu lar t he p rov is ion o f t owers k nown a s ' burg i ' a nd ' cen tenar ia '. The d eve lop men t o f t he f ron t ier i n N or th A fr ica was d escr ibed b y Baradez a s t he g radua l p rocess o f i rr iga t ing a s tr ip o f l and 6 0 k i lo me tres w ide c arved o u t o f t he d eser t , a nd p a tro l led o r c on tro l led f rom sma l l b urg i -b lockhouses w i th s evera l r oo ms wh ich s erved b o th a s f arms teads a nd a s f or ts .1 7 S im i lar s ys te ms t o t he o ne s tud ied i n s uch d eta i l b y B aradez h ave b een f ound i n o ther p ar ts o f N or th A fr ica , 18 e .g . Tr ipo l i tan ia ,1 9 Maure tan ia T ing i tana , 2 0 a s we l l a s i n S yr ia 2 1 a nd J udaea .2 2 Their c lear c onnec t ion w i th a s ys te m o f f arm ing a nd ap o l icy o f f ron t ier d efence l i nks t hese sma l l t owers c losely w i th t he d isp os i t ion o f l im i tanei , whe ther g en t i les o r v e terans . I n a reas wh ich a re n ow r e la t ive d eser t , t he t races o f t h is f ron t ier a re s t i l l r e markably c lear : e lsewhere , a nd p ar t icu lar ly i nt he R o man f ron t iers i n E urope , t he e v idence i s more c o mplex . E urope was i n t he ma in f or tuna te t ha t mos t o f h er f ron t iers r an a long t he r iver l ines o f R h ine a nd Danube : 23 t h is g ave a s ol id d e marca t ion b e tween t he Empire a nd b arbar icum ,b u t e ven s o , f ro m e ar ly d ays , s ys te ms o f sma l l b urg i b egan t o b e p laced a t s tra teg ic p oin ts a long t h is d efens ive l ine .

A s er ies o f

i nscr ip t ions f ro m Thrace r ecords t he c onstruction o f s evera l f ron tier works u nder An ton inus P ius i n 1 52-5 .2 4 One , f ro m t he r eg ion o f S erd ica , r ecords t ha t 4praes id ia ,12 b urg i a nd 1 04 p hrur i were b u i l t o b t u te lam p rovinciae Thrac iae . 25 Ano ther , i n G reek , r ecords t he c ons truc t ion o f nüpyo i mn a no ther a rea o f Thrace 2 6 a nd t wo o thers i n La t in r ecorded s im i lar d efens ive works a t as im i lar d a te i n o ther p ar ts o f t he p rov ince .

2 7

E lsewhere , t oo , t here were s im i lar measures a t ad a te n o t t oo f ar d ist an t f ro m t h is . I nscr ip t ions f ro m s i tes i n G erman ia S uper ior , 28 P annon ia ,2 9 N umid ia ,

3 0

a nd Mauretan ia 3 1 men t ion t he c ons truc t ion o f b urg i u nder C o mmodus ,

S everus A lexander a nd C araca l la . B u t i ti s p oss ib le t ha t a l l t hese were o f fi c ia l f ron t ier works , a nd n o t p a id f or b y t he l oca l l andowners t he mselves , a s t he Anony mus s ugges ts . There i s a lso s o me e v idence o f t he mann ing s ys te m u sed t o k eep p icke ts i n s uch f ron t ier t owers . Al ong G reek i nscr ip t ion , s e t u p a t P izus i n Thrace i n 2 02 r ecords t he e s tabl ishmen t o f an ew empor ion c rea ted o u t o f n ine f ormer n a t ive v i l lages .

Among t he i ncen t ives o f fered t o t hose who j oined t h is n ew

c o mmun i ty o f t heir o wn a ccord were s evera l o f p ar t icu lar i n teres t : ' t o e nsure t he g rea ter p rosper i ty o f t hese empor ia . Ip ersuaded men o f g ood s tand ing t o move i nf ro m t he s urround ing v i l lages , a nd t o i nduce o thers t o move i n to t he 6 9

s e t t le men ts s t ipu la ted t ha t t hose who were d es irous o f d o ing t h is o f t he ir own a ccord s hou ld h ave t he f ol lowing g rea t c oncess ions b y f avour o f t he Augus t i , t ha t i s , f reedo m f ro m t he l evy o f whea t f or t he c i ty o f R o me , a nd e xe mp t ion f ro m t he o b l iga t ion t o f urn ish b urgar i i a nd g arr ison t roops a nd p rov is ion f or t he imper ia l p os ta l s erv ice . ' 3 2

The p r iv i lege o f b eing e xcused ' burgar i i 'd u ty

s ugges ts t ha t l oca l c o m mun i t ies were e xpec ted t o p rov ide men t o g arr ison f ron t ier p os ts .

I n a dd i t ion , af ur ther c lause i n t he i nscr ip t ion s hows t ha t t he

u pkeep o f t he b u i ld ings o f t he n ew empor ion was t o b e b orne b y t he l oca l d ec ur iones t he mse lves -p erhaps more t han a h in t o f t he s ame s ugges t ion wh ich t he Anony mus h i mse l f made w i th r egard t o t he f urn ish ing o f h is f ron t ier c as t3 3 e l la . As e ar ly a s t he mid-second c en tury , t here fore t here was a lready a s ys te m o f wa tchtowers a long a t l eas t s o me o f t he f ron t iers o f t he empire , as ys te m wh ich was t o b e manned b y s o me f orm o f c onscr ip t ion o f l oca l p eop le .

Tha t

t h is c on t inued l a ter i s s hown b y ap assage f ro m t he Anony mus B yzan t inus , who i n ap assage o f h is T t cpt

a-c p c x -ur l yn4C CT6 JV e n t i t led T t gpi .

o f men who were r equ ied f or s uch d u ty .

c p povot .wv s peaks o f t he

They mus t b e o f g ood c harac ter s o

t ha t t hey a re n o t t e mp ted t o d eser t , a nd p re ferab ly t hey s hou ld l eave a s ecure f am i ly b eh ind t he m t o k eep t he m l oya l .

Du ty i n s h i f ts i s r eco m mended , a nd

i ft he p hrour ion i s e xcept iona l ly s a fe , t here i s n o r eason why a man s hou ld n o t a lso t ake h is f ami ly w i th h im , p ar t icu lar ly i ft he p os t c an b e made s el f-s t ippor ti ng b y al i t t le g arden ing o n t he s ide .

3 4

H ere t he i dea t ha t s e t t lers s hou ld b e

e ncouraged t o g o a nd l i ve o n t he l imes i s v ery c lose .

Further q uo ta t ions f ro m

t he Codex Theodosianus 3 5 s uppor t t his i n terpreta t ion o f t he way i n wh ichthe d u ty o f b urgar i i was o rgan ised . Bu t b urg i a lso h ad ap eace fu l p urpose .

An i nscr ipt ion o f 1 88 r ecords a

b urgus s e t u p s pec i f ica l ly t o wa tch o ver a marke t a t ac rossroads , b urgum C o m mod ianu m s pecu la tor ium i n ter d uas v ias a d s a lu te m c o m mePn t ium . Ano ther i nscr ip t ion f ro m P annon ia , o f Va len t in ian ic d a te r ecords t he c ons truct ion o f ab urgus , c u i n o men C o m merc iu m , q ua c ausa e t f ac tus e s t .3 7 O ther b urg i a re men t ioned i n

a in , s o t hey were c lear ly n o t o n ly c on f ined t o t he

f ron t ier a reas , a nd t heir c onnect ion w i th t he i mper ia l p os ta l s ys te m i s a lso we l l e s tab l ished .

3 8

The ma jor i ty o f t hese s i tes , p art icu lar ly t hose o f t he l a ter R o man p er iod a re r e la t ive ly we l l k nown a nd p ub l ished . i n R a .e t ia 3 9

Max i ma S equanorum ,

4 0

S ys te ms o f f ron t ier t owers a re k nown

a nd Pannon ia4 1

a nd g ive s o me i dea o f t he

c o mprehens iveness o f l a te a nd , i n s o me c ases , e ar l ier R o man c over o f t hese a reas .

S i tes h ere a re u sua l ly s i mple t owers , s o me t i mes s urrounded b y a

d i tch .

Abou t s ix h ave l e f t b u i ld ing i nscr ip t ions , a l l d a t ing t o t he j o in t r e ign

o f Va lens a nd Va len t im ian , t ha t i s , b etween 3 67 a nd 3 72 . 42 This t a l lies we l l w i th v ar ious l i terary s ources , n o tab ly Am m ianus Marce l linus , who i n more t han o ne p lace men t ions Va len t in ian 's s che mes f or f or t i fying t he who le o f t he Rh ine a nd Danube b anks w i th s uch t owers . 43 Among o ther emperors , o n ly D iocle t ian h as a c o mparab le r epu ta t ion f or b u i ld ing . 44 There a re s i tes , h owever , wh ich t a l ly more w i th t he d escr ipt ion o f f or t a nd f armhouse g iven b y t he Anony mus .

I n G erman ia S uper ior a s er ies o f

t owers w i t he x terna l wa l ls wh ich a lso h ave e x terna l t owers h ave b een f ound , f or e xamp le t hose a t Asperden ,

4 5

H eer len ,

7 0

4 6

H eumensoord ,

4 7

a nd H u lsberg . 48

But other small scale forts are known from elsewhere on the European front. iers, for example at Eisenberg,49 Strasbourg St. Nicolas,50 and Skt. Mar-­ garethen in Burgenland.51 These possibly find a common ancestor in the burgus of Harlach52 and other slightly earlier small forts in Gallia Belgica at Senon and St. Laurent.53 Near Vienna, too, archaeologists have found what may have been the empty tomb of St. Severin at Heiligenstadt, which was in a building of 'burgus' type, and recalls the mention in Eugippius' Life of the Saint that he lived in a habitaculum guod burgum appelatur ah accolis.54 All these last buildings in particular owe something to the fortified centenaria of the African limites.55 Perhaps the most interesting idea of the Anonymus is that his scheme should be financed by the landowners themselves. This, too, was not original. Several of the African cenenaria carry inscriptions showing that they were built by the owners of the surrounding estates.5 6 There is as yet little evi­ dence from elsewhere of the same situation: richer landowners may have pro­ vided refuges into which the local populace could flee in times of danger57 or even have built for themselves walled villas defended by several outpost burgi. 5 8 As for the burgi closer to the limes itself, there is no inscription to record who paid for the towers erected, though they were likely to have been built out of public funds, and there is unfortunately no evidence to shed light on who lived in such little forts. What, then, is the Anonymus' frontier policy? Broadly, it fits easily into the mainstream of Roman practice without contributing anything start­ lingly novel. It would be surprising if a writer of late fourth century date had any devastatingly new ideas about frontier control after Rome had had more than three hundred years' cumulative experience in the field. The policy of settling veterans on the frontier was , if not commonly practised, at least not unknown, and the Anonymus' recommendations about frequent milecastles had been common practice on the frontiers s ince the mid second century. If it is �urprising that the Anonymus should counsel exactly what the Em peror was en­ gaged in doing, then the date of writing should hardly be after 367, after whi�h time it appears that Valentinian was most active in improving the European frontiers. Inspectorate of Ancient Monuments Fortress House, 23 Savile Row, LONDON WIX 2AA. NOTES AND REFERENCES 1.

On this passage see Thompson, 41-4, and Patsy Vanags (p. 51ff. above).

2.

G. Webster, The Imperial Roman Army (London, 1969), 41-3, 257 -8.

3.

H. von Petrikovits,.0-as r-�mische Rheinland Cologne and Opladen, 1960), 63 f.

4-.-

CIL III. 3505 (=ILS 47 3).

· 5.

CIL III.6166 (=ILS 2474).

6 .

SHA S everus A lex . 5 8 . 4 -5 . S im i lar p assages , f or e xamp le S HA Probus 1 6 . 6 , may b e al i t t le more i nven t ive , s ince t here i s n o a rchaeo log ica l e v idence t ha t P robus e ver a ctua l ly h e ld a ny l and b eyond t he R h ine t o g ive t o l im i tane i .

Bu t s im i lar s e t t le men ts o ccurred l a ter , s ee e .g . C J

X I . 6 0 . 3 . 7 .

C J I . 2 7 .2:

' l im i tane i , q u i p oss in t e t c as tra e t c iv i ta tes l im i t is d e fenders

e t t erras c o lere ...' 8 .

R . Mac mu l len , S o ld ier a nd C iv i l ian i n t he La ter R o man Empire ( Ca mbr idge , Mass ., 1 963 ) , 1 2-13 .

C ons tra in ts were a lso e xerc ised o n s ons , p ar t ic-

u lar ly t hose o f v e terans , t o f o l low t he s a me p ro fess ion a s t he ir f a thers . S ee C Th V I I . 2 2 .1. 9 .

CTh V I I . 1 5 . 1 :

Terraru m

s pa t ia , q uae g en t i l ibus p rop ter c ura m

mun i t ione mque l im i t is a tque f ossa t i a n t iquoru m h u mana f uer i t p rov is ione c oncessa .... c irca c uram f ossa t i t u i t ione mque l im i t is s tud io v e l l abore n over in t s erv iendum u t i l l i q uos h u ic o pen ia n t iqu i tas d epu tara t .

A l ioqu in

s cian t h aec s pa t ia v e l a d g en t i les s ip o tuer in t i nven ir i , v e l c er te a d v e te ranos e sse n on i nmer i to t rans ferenda , u t h oc p rov is ione s erva ta f ossa t i l im i t isque n uf la i np ar te t imor is e sse p oss i t s uspic io . Da ted t o 2 9.4 .409. 1 0 . 1 1.

Pan . La t . v i i ( v i ) 6 . 2 .

Z os . i , 4 6.

Am m . x v i i , 1 3 .3.

S ee , f or e xa mp le t he G lauberg , G er man ia 1 8 ( 1 934 ) 2 971 .,

a nd , i ns ide

t he Empire , t he O d i l ienberg , G er man ia 3 6 ( 1958 ) 1 13 f . 1 2.

Am m .

x v i . 2 .1 .

1 3.

i bid .

x xv i . 7 .1 .

1 4 .

i bid .

x xx i . 1 2 .1 .

1 5 .

Mac mu l len , o p. : A t . ( n . 8 ) , 6 4 , n .41.

1 6 .

Tho mpson , 7 2-3 , t he r e ferences t here c i ted a nd i n t he b ib l iography s .n . Cadwa l lader Ba tes , C amden S tevens .

1 7.

J . Baradez , F ossa tum A fr icae ( Par is, 1 949 ) ,

a nd ' Organ isa t ion mi li taire

Ro ma ine d e l 'A lger ie a n t ique e t e vo lu t ion d u c oncep t d e fens i f d e s es f ron t ibres ' , R evue i n terna t iona le d 'h is to ire mi l i ta ire ,4( 1 935 ) 2 5 f f . 1 8 .

S ee B . H . War m ing ton The N or th A fr ican Prov inces f ro m D iocle t ian t o t he Vanda l C onques t ( Cambr idge , 1 954 )

1 9.

2 3-4 .

R . G oodch i ld a nd J . Ward-Perk ins , JRS 3 9 ( 1 949 ) 8 1f f ., 4 0 ( 1950 ) 3 Of f ., R . G oodch i ld , JRS 4 3 ( 1 953 ) 6 5 f f .

2 0 .

M . P ons ich , R echerches a rcheo log iques a Tanger e t d ans ( Par is , 1 970 ) 3 43 f .

2 1.

A . P oidebard , La t race d e R o me d ans l e d eser t d e S yr ie ( Par is , 1 934 ).

2 2.

M . G ichon , S tud ien z ur M i l i tUrgrenzen R o ms , ( Kd ln G raz , 1 967 ) 1 75f f ., a nd R o man F ron t ier S tud ies , 1 967 ( Te l Av iv , 1 971) 1 91f f .

2 3.

Apar t f ro m p er iods i n t he f i rst t o t hird c en tur ies when t he a rea b e tween Rh ine Danube was p ro tec ted b y t he c on t inuous l ine o f p a l isade a nd a l l i ts i n ter med ia te s tages o f d eve lop men t .

7 2

s a r eg ion

2 4.

G . M ih .a i lov , ' Le f or t i f ica t ion d e Thrace p ar An ton in l e P ieux e t Marc Aur Me ', S tudi Urbina t i

2 5 .

3 5 ( 1961) , 4 2ff .

The f u l l i nscription r uns : IMP CAES T AEL HADR I (A )N ANTON INUS AUG P IUS PP TR IB/POT XV COS I I PRAESLDIA/ET BURGOS OB TUTELA M PROV INC/THRACIAE FECIT CURANTE C GALLON IO/FRON (TO )NE Q MARCIO TURBONE LEG/A [ U ] GUSTI PR PR PER F INES C IV ITATIS S E RD( IC )ENSIU M REG IONE DYPTENS( IU M )/PRAES IDIA N 1 1 1 BURG I NX I I PHRUR I/N C IX .

I t was f ound a t Bä lgarsk i

i svov , a nd i s d a table

t o 1 52. 2 6.

K . B i ttel & A . M. S chneider , Arch . Anz 5 6 ( 1941), 2 78-80 , f ound a t K irk i l ise , t h is i nscr ipt ion was s et u p u nder t he s a me g overnor a s t ha t q uo ted i n n o te 2 5.

CALg B LCur Ivc i )v

XaTE CXECKXCE

5 LA k T ri .µ6Arr uc ev Z i .pµou M Aou r ropcwg 1 , ( Co , xat 2 7.

Tobg T d )pyoug

AüXouxgveou Aoucaxgveou

` 13< bov I i r c xxi ,v9ou.

S ee Miha i lov , o p. c i t . ( n .24 ).

The i nscr ipt ions a re o f t he s a me f or m a s

t ha t q uoted i n n ote 2 5 , b u t more f ragmen tary a nd d o n ot g ive a ny n u mbers o f f or ti f ica t ions b u i l t .

One i s d a table t o 15 2 , a nd c o mes f ro m N ersa , i n

Provad i ja , r ecording b urg i b u i l t r ound Marcianopo lis , a nd t he o ther , d a table t o 1 55 , r ecords d e fens ive p repara t ions i n t he r eg ion o f c ol .F lay . Deu l t(ens iu m ). 2 8 . 2 9.

C IL 'M I . 6 509 - ' i n t he s tyle o f wr i t ing o f t he l a te s econd c en tury '. C IL I I . 3 385 IMP CAES M [AUR CO M MODUS AN J/TON INUS PIUS S AR [ MAT]GER M / BR IT PONT MAX TRIB POT X [ I MP V I I) / COS I I PPR IPA M OMNES BU [ RG IS ]/A SOLO EXTRUCTIS I TE M PRAES D IS PER LOCA OPP ORTUNA . AD/CLA .NDESTINOS LATRUNCULO/RU M TRA .NS ITUS OPP OSITIS/ MUN IV IT PER [ . ... . S ee a lso C IL I I . 1 0312 a nd 1 0313.

3 0 . 3 1.

C IL V IL I . 3 , a nd 2 494-5 . C IL V I I I .22629.

Th is b urgus h ad e viden t ly b een b ui l t b efore 1 83-5

wh ich i s t he d a te o f t h is i nscr ipt ion , s ince i t r ecords t ha t i t was r eb u i l t b ecause t he o ld f or ti f ica t ions h ad f a l len d own t hrough d ecay . 3 2.

I GBR I I . 2n o . 1 690(pp . 1 03-120 ) .

S ee a lso G . J . Murphy , The Re ign

o f t he Emperor S ept im ius S everus ( Ph i ladelph ia 1 945 ) , 5 1-4. 3 3.

Murphy , o p .c i t. ( n .3 2) , 5 4 .

3 4.

Tex t o f t he Anony mus B yzan t inus i s p ub lished i n H . Köch ly a nd W. R t is tow G r iech ische Kr iegschri f ts tel ler , 2 ,2 ( Le ipzig , 18 53 ) , 4 1-209. S ee a lso K . Kru mbacher , Handbuch d er k lass ischen A l ter tu mswissens cha f t , 9 .1.

( Byzan t in ische L i tera turgesch ich te 2 nd e d . Mun ich 18 97 )

6 35-7 , a nd M . J ähns , G eschich te d er Kr iegswissenscha ft , 1 Abt ., 1 43 f f . The p assage f ro m t he Anony mus h ere q uoted i s 2 28b , 4 -6.

( Köch ly a nd

R t is tow g ive G reek t ex t a nd G er man t rans la tion ). 3 5 .

CTh X I I . 1 9. 2 .

3 6.

C IL V I I I . 2 495.

S ee a lso M. T . Ros tovze f f , JRS 8 ( 1918 ) , 2 7ff .

3 7.

C IL 1 1 .3653 ( da ted t o 3 71). On t he b arbar ian d ependance o n t rade , a nd t he d isastrous c onsequences f or t he m i ft rade w i th t he Ro man empire was c u t o f f ,

3 8 .

s ee Am m . x xv i i , 5 .7.

S ee 0 . S eeck , s .v . Burgus , i n PW ( -K )II I , 1 066-7 , a nd M . Labrousse , ' Les b urgar i i e t l e Cursus Pub l icus ' , Me l .d ' Arch . e t d 'H is t . d e l 'Eco le Franca ise d e Ro me 5 6 ( 1939 ) 1 51f f .

For p rov is ion o f mu ta t iones f or

t he imper ia l p os t i n Nor th I ta ly i n 3 62-5 , s ee C IL V . 8 987 a nd CTh V I I I . 5 .2 . 3 9.

J . G arbsch , Der s pä trö m ische Donau-I l ler- Rhe in l imes ( S tu t tgar t , 1 970 ) ;

a nd a lso ' D ie Burg i v on Mecka tz u nd Un tersaa l u nd d ie Va len-

t in ian ische G renzbefes t igung z wischen Base l u nd Passau ' , B .V b l 3 2 ( 1 967) ,51f f . 4 0 .

K . S teh hin , D ie s pa trö mische Wach t tt lr me am Rhe in v on Base l b is z um Bodensee ( Base l , 1 957 ).

4 1.

R e ferences a re r a ther s ca t tered :

s ee S . S opron i , ' Der s pä trö m ische

L i mes zwischen V igegräd u nd Es tergo m ', L i mes Kon ferenz , N i tra ( Bra t is lava , 1 959 ) 1 31f f . J . S zi ligyi , Aqu incu m ( Budapes t , 1 956) , 2 4-6 , a nd t he r eferences c i ted i n S . S opron i , ' Burgus Bau-Inschr i f t v on J ahre 3 72 am Pannon ischen L i mes ' S tud ien z ur M i l i tärgrenzen R o ms ( Kö ln G raz , 1 967) ,138 f f ., a nd T . Nagy , ' The f ron t ier o f Pannon ia a s r ef lected b y r ecen t r esearch ' i n e d . S . Applebaum Ro man Fron t ier S tud ies 1 967 ( Te l Av iv , 1 967),145f f . 4 2.

C IL X II I . 1 1573 S um ma Rapida a t Kob lenz , S wi tzer land ; 1 1538 ,

( 3 71 A . D. ? ) ;

I LS 7 62 ,

( ?367) :

C IL X I II ,

C IL I I 1 0596 ( 3 70 ) a nd 3 653

( 3 71). 4 3.

Am m. x xv i i i . 2 ,1 a nd s im i lar p assages

4 4.

Eu men ius Pan . La t . i x ( i v ) 1 8 . 4 ;

XXX.

7 .6 a nd x xv i i i . 2 .2.

Ma la las , x i i . 3 08 ;

Proc . Aed .

8 . 7 . r ecording t he c ons truct ion b y D ioc letian o f t hree f or ts o n t he e astern l imes .

Z os . i . 3 4 , g ives a b r ie f r . s un it o f D ioc let ian 's o ver-

a l l p o licy. 4 5 .

H . H inz a nd I . He iberg , Bei träge z ur Archäo log ie d es r ö mischen Rhein lands ;

Rhein ische Ausgrabungen 3 ( 1968 ) , 1 67f f . H . S chönberger ,

JRS 5 9 ( 1969 ) Map C . n o. 6 . 4 6.

I b id ., n o . 3 0. An t . C lass .17 ( 1 948 ) 1 19ff .; NKNOB

6 th S er ies , 1 0

( 1 957) ,133f f . 4 7.

i b id ., n o . 4 . OMROL 1 4 ( 1933 ) ,11f f .

4 8 .

i b id ., n o . 2 9. J . H . Ho lwerda , N eder lands Vroegs te G esch ieden is ( A ms terda m , v an L ooy 1 925 ) ,219f f .

4 9.

i b id ., n o . 5 9. P fa lz. Mus . 3 6 ( 1919 ) , 2 1f f .

F . S pra ter , Der r öm ische

E isenberg ( Speyer , 1 952 ) a nd D ie P fa lz u n ter d en Rö mern , 1( 1929 ) , 5 5 f f . 5 0 .

J . J . Ha t t , Cah iers A lsaciennes d 'H is toire e t d 'Archtolog ie 1 32 ( 1952) 6 3f f .

5 1.

A . Barb , J h OAI 3 7 ( 1948 ) Co l . 2 63f f .

7 4

5 2.

F . Winkel mann , G er man ia 1 ( 1917) ,45 ;

2( 1918 ) , 5 4 .

5 3 .

A . G ren ier , Manue l d 'archeolog ie p reh is tor ique C e l t ique e r g a l lor o ma ine ( Par is , 1 924- )v o l . 5 ,447 a nd 4 49.

5 4.

V . S ever in i 4 .7.

The b u i ld ing a t H ei l igens tad t i s d escr ibed b y A .

N eu mann , B , Tb162 ( 1 962) , 4 80 f f . 5 5 . 5 6.

S ee , f or e xa mple , Mac mu l len , o p .c i t . ( n . 8 ) , f ig .D , a f ter p .118 . C IL V I I I . 2 2774. 2 1531;

S ee a lso s im i lar i nscr iptions V II I .9725 , 1 9328 a nd

C IL V I II . 8 209.

On b urg i i n S yr ia ,

s ee Mac mu l len , o p. c i t .

( n .8 ) , 1 42 , n .82. 5 7. 5 8 .

F or e xa mple t he i nscr ipt ion C IL X I I . 1 524 a t S is teron . P erhaps t he v i l la a t F roi tzhe im , wh ich a ppears t o h ave b een s urrounded b y b urg i , i s o ne s uch e xa mple , B ei träge z ur Archäolog ie d er r d mischen Rhein lands ;

Rhe in ische Ausgrabungen 3 ( 1968 )

7 5

l f f .

THE I NVENT IONS b y Mark H assa l l T he o b ject o f t h is p aper i s t o r e-open t wo q uest ions p osed b y Professor T ho mpson a bou t t he i nven t ions : 1 'C ou ld t he mach ines h ave b een made a nd u sed? I ft hey c ou ld , wha t w ou ld h ave b een t he ir v a lue? ' To a n t ic ipa te my g enera l c onc lus ion , Ib e l ieve t ha t i n e very c ase t hey c ou ld a ctua l ly h ave b een c onstructed a nd t ha t a s f ar a s t he t wo t ypes o fb a l l ista a t l east a re c oncerned , t he Anony mus i s d escr ib ing a ctua l e x ist ing mach ines a nd t ha t ap hrase u sed o f t he b a l l ista f u lm ina l is, t ha t i s 'h as b een f ound b y e xper ience ( u su) t o s urp ass a l l o thers i n r ange a nd p ower , (XV II I . 1 ) i mp lies a s much . s on , o n t he o ther h and

F or Tho mp-

A l l a t te mp ts t o e xp la in t hese mach ines ( t he b a l l istae

s hou ld s tar t f ro m t he a ssu mp t ion t ha t i n p ract ice t hey wou ld n o t h ave worked a t a l l ' 2 ,t he Anony mus h ad b o ld ly r e jected t he c oncep t o f t orsion a r t i l lery , w ithou t h av ing c lear ly t hough t o u t a ny th ing t o p ut i n i t s p lace . Wha t Ih ave d one t hroughou t t h is p aper i s t o t ake e xac t ly t he o ppos ite v iew - t o a ssu me t ha t e ven t he most b izarre o f t he Anony mus " i nven t ions ' a re p rac t icab le e ven i f , a s i n t he c ase o f t he s cy thed c har io ts, t hey were n ever a ctua l ly made . S uch a n a pproach may b e o ver-op t im ist ic b u t i ti s wor th wh i le t ak ing , i fo n ly t o s ee where i tg e ts u s . Iw ish f i rst t o d iscuss t he Anony mus ' s cy thed c har io ts ( DRB X I I , X I I I , X IV ) o f wh ich t here a re t hree v ers ions . The Mark I ' ( Par t 2 , P ls . X , X I ) i s d rawn b y t wo h orses u pon wh ich a re moun ted t wo r iders; t he Mark ( i bid . P ls . X I I , X I I I )b y o ne h orse w ith a s ing le r ider a nd t he 'Mark

b y

t wo h orses, o n ly o ne o f wh ich h as a r ider ( i b id . P ls . X IV , XV) . A l l h ave s cy thes t ha t a re h inged where t hey a re a t tached t o t he a x le a nd wh ich c an b e r a ised o r l owered b y r opes p assing t hrough r ings t ha t a re a t tached t o t he h orses ' f l anks . Professor T ho mpson p oin ts o u t3 t ha t b y moun t ing t he d r iv er (s) o n t he h orses g rea ter c on tro l i s e xerc ised o ver t he mach ine ( and we may a dd t he t ask o f t he d r iver i s r endered v ery much e as ier ) , a nd t ha t t he a x les w i l l b e o f t he f i xed t ype ( t he e leva t ing r ope wou ld o therw ise b e r ap id ly wound r ound t he s cy the b lade ) .

O ne p o in t t ha t h e d oes n ot t ouch u pon i s h ow

t he h orses were a t tached t o t he c har iots .

Th is i s n ot j ust a q uest ion o f i d le

s pecu la t ion s ince It h ink t ha tb y d ef in ing t he p rob le ms a nd s uggest ing s o lut ions i t may b e p ossib le t o f i l l t he l acuna r ecogn ized b y Professor T ho mpson i n t he Anony mus ' d escr ip t ion o f t he Mark I I mach ine .

T he o n ly ( DRB X IV)

s cho lar who h as g iven a ny t hough t t o t he q uest ion o f t ract ion i s G (odesca lcus) S tewech ius i n h is c o m men tary o n Vege t ius p ub l ished i n 1 595 .

I n h is r ender-

i ng o f t he Mark Ih e a dds t races a t tached t o a sw ing le tree . 4 Th is i s u n fort una te ly a n a nachorn is m a s a re t he s t irrups u sed b y t he r ider . I n f ac t , a s f ar a s t he t wo-horse v ers ions ( Marks Ia nd I I ) a re c oncerned t here i s n o p rob le m .

B o th wou ld h ave b een p rov ided w ith n orma l c har io t p o le a nd t here

wou ld h ave b een a y oke ( no t s hown i n t he i l lustra t ion i n t he MSS . )A s l ong a s t he h orses were s uf f ic ien t ly w ide ly s paced , t he i nner l eg o f b o th r iders wou ld 7 7

n o t h ave b een c rushed a ga inst t he c har io t p o le . There i s i nc iden ta lly , a l i t t le e v idence b o th l i terary a nd a rchaeo log ica l f or r iders moun ted o n c har io t h orses i n Ro man t imes .

T hus S ue ton ius 5 s ays h ow T iber ius " At t he a ge o f

n ine d e l ivered a e u logy o f h is d ead f a ther f ro m t he r ostra .

Then j ust a s h e

was a rr iv ing a t p uberty , h e a cco mpan ied t he c har io t o f Augustus i n h is t r iu mph a f ter A ct iu m , r id ing t he l e f t t race-horse wh i le Marce l lus, s on o f O ctav ia , r ode t he o ne o n t he r igh t ." An e ngraved b ronze v esse l ( c ista ) i l lustra ted i n Dare mberg e t S ag l io 6 s hows j ust s uch a s cene . T he Mark I ( currodrepanus s ingu lar is, P ar t 2 , P ls . X I I , X I I I ) h owever p resen ts p rob le ms .

T he o n ly way t ha t t he s ing le h orse c an h ave d rawn t h is

v eh ic le i sb y b e ing h arnessed b e tween s ha f ts .

C ar ts a nd o ther v eh ic les w ith

s haf ts a re k nown f ro m t he Rhen ish g enre s cu lp ture o f t he t h ird a nd f our th c entur ies b u t , i n t he p resen t c ase , t he r ider c rea tes o bv ious t hough n ot i ns uperab le d if f icu lt ies. O ne s o lu t ion i s f or t he s haf ts t o t erm ina te s hor t o f t he r ider ' sl egs 7 . The u se o f s ha f ts t hough n o t e xp l ic i t ly men t ioned b y t he Anony mus i n h is d escr ip t ion o f t he Mark I s ee ms t o b e d ef in ite ly i mp l ied i n h is d escr ip t ion ( X IV . 1 ) o ft he Mark I I wh ich h e c on trasts w ith i t , f or i n t he l a t ter c ase t he c har io t ( or a s we may s uppose , t he c har iot t ea m ) i s d escr ibed a s b e ing " less embraced".

I ft h is i s c orrect i ta l lows u s t o r estore t he s ense

o f t he l acuna r ecogn ized b y Tho mpson i n t he d escr ip t ion o f t he Mark I I t h is s ect ion 8 .

i n

T he Mark I I ( currodrepanus c l ipeatus, P ar t 2 , P ls . X IV , XV) , l i ke t he Mark Ih as t wo h orses b u t , u n l ike i t , o n ly o ne r ider . I ti s a lso p ro tected a t t he r ear b y s h ie lds a nd i s f i t ted w ith a uto ma t ic l ashes t o u rge t he h orses o n . T he i l lustra t ions i n t he p r inc ipa l MSS . a re o f l i t t le h e lp i n t ry ing t o d ec ide h ow t he a u to ma t ic l ashes worked a nd t he d ev ice moun ted o n t he c har io t more r es e mb les a c lo thes mang le t han a ny th ing e lse . I ft he v ersion g iven i n G e len ius ' p r in ted e d i t ion i s n earer t he a rche type ( reproduced i n P art 2 , p .000) t hen i t i s n o t d if f icu lt t o i mag ine a s i mp le d r ive-syste m f or t he l ashes, e spec ia l ly i f o ne a ssu mes t he u se o f ac ha in .

9

( F igs. 4 a nd 5 ) .

A l l t he h orses t ha t d raw t he s cy thed c hario ts h ave b een p rov ided w ith s ca le h orse a r mour . The r epresen ta t ion o f t h is, a s i s s hown b y f i nds o f a rmour o f t h is t ype a t D ura o n t he E uphra tes, i s much more a ccura te t han t he c arv ings o f Tra jan ' sc o lu mn . " T he moun ted warr ior d r iv ing t he Mark I I c har io t i s d ist ingu ished f ro m t he o ther c har io t d r ivers b y t he w ings t ha t s pr ing f ro m b eh ind h is s hou lders. Fro m t he t ips o f t hese w ings h ang c ha ins a nd o n t he e nd o f a t l east o ne o f t hese i s ac ur ious o b ject wh ich s ee ms t o t he p resen t wr iter t o r esemb le t he b ronze h orse p endan ts f ound o n Ro man mi l itary s i tes o f t he f i rst a nd s econd c en tur ies 1 . Bu t wha t o f t he w ings t he mse lves ? The ir p resence a t f irst s ee ms i nexp l icab le b u t o ne p oss ib le e xp lana t ion i s t ha t t he Anonymus h ad r ead a nd misunderstood a G reek m i l i tary manua l s uch a s Xenophon ' so n Horse mansh ip where T u rtpuyEg ( l itara l ly " w ings" b u t r egu lar ly u sed o f t he l ea ther s traps a t tached t o t he l ower h a lf o f t he He l len ist ic a nd R oman l or ica) a re d escr ibed i n o ne p lace 1 2 a s b e ing f i t ted a lso t he s hou lder t o a l low f reedo m o f move men t i n h ur l ing a j ave l in . It h ink i tj ust p ossib le t ha t t he i l lustrat ion o f t he C urrodrepanus C l ipea tus i n t he e d it io p r inceps ( reproduced i n Par t 2 ,

7 8

F IG .

4 ( above) u sing

F IG .

5 ( below)

Drive a c hain

f or

l ashes

a nd

A lternative

of

c urrodrepanus

toothed wheels

drive using

Drawing by Moira Mackenzie 7 9

t oothed wheels

p .13 )

may h ave i nsp ired t he d es igners o f t he a rmour o f t he P o lish h ussars

o f t he s even teen th c en tury , f or t hey t oo w ere f urn ished w i th w ings ( Fig . 6 ) . T urn ing f ro m t he s cy thed c har io ts t o t he b a l listae, we f ind t ha t t he Anonymus d escr ibes t wo t ypes, t he h eavy s ta t ic b a l lista f u lm ina l is a nd t he mob i le b a l l ista q uadr iro t is . O f t hese i ti st he f u lm ina l is ( Xym , Part 2 , P ls . XX I I , XX I I I ) t ha t h as p rovoked more d iscuss ion . F or T ho mpson t he f u lm inal i s r epresen ts a g a l lan tb u t n a ive a t te mp t o n t he p ar t o f t he Anonymus t o b reak away f ro m t he p r inc ip les o f c onven t iona l R o man b a l l istae a nd o nagr i w i th t he ir s pr ings o f t w isted s inew , b u t h e d oes n ot b e l ieve t ha t o ur a uthor h ad a ny th ing b e t ter t o o f fer i nt heir p lace . Marsden 1 4 t hough t t ha t b oth t he b a l l istae o f t he Anonymus were t ors ion e ng ines wh i le R .P .O liver 1 5 a rgued t ha t t he i ron a rch , wh ich i nb o th mach ines r ises a bove t he ' barre l ' ,was a ctua l ly a s tee l s pr ing wh ich s upp l ied t he n ecessary p ropu lsive f orce .

T he

l ast t heory h as b een s uf f ic ien t ly r efuted b y Marsden 1 6 . R e inach ' sc o m men ta ry 1 7 o n t he f u lm ina l is i s s o mewha t o bscure a nd h e d oes n o t c lear ly e xp la in h ow h e b e l ieved t he mot ive f orce was p roduced .

H owever , i ti s v ir tua l ly c er-

t a in t ha t h e i s c orrect i n o ne e ssen t ia l . R e inach p o in ted o u t t ha t t here a re t wo p a irs o fp u l ley b locks a t t he r ear o f t he mach ine a nd t ha t o ne p a ir w i l l h ave b een u sed t o p u l l b ack t he s l ider ( =t he s l id ing b arre l u pon wh ich t he a rrow t o b e f i red r ested a s i n c onven t iona l b a l l istae ) . When t he w ind lass s et b eh ind t he p u l leys was t urned i n t he o ppos ite d irec t ion t h is s econd p a ir w i l l h ave p u l led t he s l ider b ack t o i t s o r ig ina l p os it ion a t t he f ron t o f t he mach ine . Fro m t h is, i nc iden ta l ly , i tf o llows t ha t i n t he i l lustra t ions t he l eng th o f t he r ear p ar t o f t he mach ine h as b een d rast ica l ly r educed , f or t he d istance b e tween t he p u l ley b locks o f e ach p a ir must b e e qu iva len t t o t he d istance t ha t t he s l ider h as t o b e p u l led b ack , I .e . a pprox i ma te ly t he l eng th o f t he s l ider . B o th R einach a nd T ho mpson t ransla te t he c och leae a t tached t o t he f ron t o fb o th mach ines a s s crews u sed t o e leva te t he m , wh i le Marsden i n terprets t he m a s u n ivsrsa l j o in ts, w ith s o me f orm o f wh ich i ts ee ms r easonab le t o a ssu me t hey were p rov ided .

The s crew t hreads, h owever , a re c lear ly s hown

o n s o me o f t he i l lustra t ions o f t he f u lm ina l is a nd t he i n terpre ta t ion a s s crews h ere s ee ms o n t he who le more l i ke ly . T h is i mp lies t he e x istence o f ap ivot a t t he c en tre o f g rav ity o fb oth b a l l istae . O ne o f t he o b ject ions t ha t Marsden r a ises i s t ha t t he p rov ision o f s crews c rea tes d if f icu l t ies when o ne c o mes t o t raverse t he mach im s .

I n f act t h is i s n o t r ea l ly a p rob le m i f au n iversa l

j o in t was p rov ided a t t he c en tre o f g rav ity . Marsden 1 8

i s s ure ly c orrec t i n i mp ly ing t ha t t he Anony mus a nd h is

a r t ist h ere c on fused t he s i mp le h ook c onnec t ing t he e nd o f t he w inch-rope t o t he r ear o f t he s l ider a nd t he t r igger- mechan is m . T he f unct ion o f t hese t wo p ar ts c an h ard ly h ave b een c o mbined i n t he s a me a pparatus . A t t he s ide o f t he f u lm ina l is i s wha t l ooks l i ke a l arge c ogwhee l . T h is c an h owever e qua l ly we l l a nd p erhaps more p lausib ly b e i n terpre ted a s a r atche t-whee l p erhaps c onnected t o a sma l l w ind lass om i t ted f ro m t he i l lustrat i ons . The p oss ib le f unc t ion o f t h is s ubsid iary w ind lass a nd r a tchet w i l l b e d iscussed b e low . T he b iggest p uzz le a bou t t he f u lm ina l is i s h ow t he miss i le was a ctua l ly p rope l led f ro m t he mach ine a nd Tho mpson s ays t ha t t h is i s n ot d escr ibed i n 8 0

F IG.

6

Armour

f or Polish Hussar

Drawing by Moira Mackenzie r s

C l7th.

t he t ex t .

Th is may n ot b e c orrect , f or i tc ou ld b e t ha t t he work ing p r inc ip les

o f t he b a l l ista c an b e d educed f ro m a l i tera l r ead ing o f t he p hrase ( XV I I I . 1 ) v a l idus n erv t f un is f erreo u nco t ractus e andem s ag i t ta m magn is v ir ibus i n h oste m d im issus i mpe l l it , a nd a s trong r ope o f s inew i s p u l led b ack w i th a n i ron h ook a nd f i res t h is a rrow w i th e normous p ower i n to t he e ne my when i t i s r e leased ', a nd a s im i lar l i tera l i n terpre ta t ion o f t he i l lustra t ion . I n o ther words, t he b a l l ista c ou ld h ave worked e xac t ly o n t he s a me p r inc ip le a s t he s i mp le s choo lboy ' sc a tapu lt , i n wh ich a l eng th o f r ubber s tores t he e nergy when p u l led b ack , a nd i t se lf p rov ides t he mo t ive f orce when r e leased . Cruc ia l t o t h is e xp lana t ion i s t he i n terpre ta t ion o f t he word n ervus . I n a t ransferred s ense t he word i s u sed o f t he s tr ing o f ab ow b ut t he b as ic mean ing , l i ke t ha t o f t he e ty mo log ica l ly c onnected G reek w ord v ci 3pov ,i s s inew o r t endon f ro m wh ich b ow s tr ings were o f ten made . S inew o r t endon wou ld b e u nsu itab le f or t he p urpose a uggested h ere , b u t t he l i gamen ts o f c er ta in a n ima ls w ou ld make v iab le a l terna t ives t o r ubber a nd p erhaps c ou ld h ave b een d escr ibed a s n erv i . T he l i ga men tu m n uchae o f u ngu la tes ( wh ich f or ms o ne o f t he e lemen ts i n t he c onstruct ion o f c o mposi te b ows) r uns f ro m t he h ead a long t he t op o f t he n eck t o t he a n i ma l ' sb ack .

I t s f unct ion i s t o c oun teract t he

we igh t o ft he h ead o f t he a n i ma l , a nd r e l ieve t he n eck musc les . I ti s made o f a l most p ure e last in , a n e last ic p rote in f ound i n v er tebra tes wh ich " can b e s tre tched a l ong way l i ke r ubber , a nd s naps b ack t o i t s i n i t ia l l eng th when i t i s r e leased" 1 9 . T hrough t he k indness o f Dr . Pa t Hodson a nd Br igad ier Harry Mer l in o f t he R oya l Ve ter inary C o l lege Io bta ined t he l i ga men tu m n uchae o f ah orse a nd i n it ia l e xper i men t h as b een p ro m ising .

20

The f unc t ion o f t he

s ubs id iary w ind lass w ith i t s r a tche t s e t o n t he s ide o f t he mach ine w i l l, o n t h is i n terpre ta t ion , h ave s erved t o s tre tch t he l i ga men t i n to p osi t ion i n it ia l ly a nd/or t igh ten i tp er iod ica l ly i fc reep be comes a p rob le m . T he l ast p rob le m w i th t he f u lm ina l is c oncerns t he ma in w ind lass t ha t d raws b ack t he s l ider .

The t wo men o pera t ing i ta ppear t o b e c on f ined i n

s o me s or t o f c age wh ich Tho mpson c la i med was n o t p ar t o f t he w ind lass .

T h is

mat ter i s n o t q u ite s o c er ta in . I f , a s S tewech ius t hough t2 1 ,t he men were e nc losed i n t read whee ls, t hen t h is f act t aken i n c on junct ion w i th t he p a ir o f mu l t ip le p u l ley b locks u sed t o p u l l b ack t he s l ider , i mp l ies t he a pp l ica t ion o f c ons iderab le f orce w ith s ing if ican t i mp l ica t ions f or p o ten t ia l p ower a nd r ange o f t he mach ine . F ina l ly , i ti s wor th n o t ing t ha t i ta ppears t o b e e x tra o rd inar i ly s im i lar t o t he d escr ip t ion o f t he b a l l ista g iven b y Am m ianus Marce l l inus, t hough t h is i n i t se lf p resen ts d if f icu l t ies o f i n terpre ta t ion 2 2 . F igs . 7a nd 8a re b ased o n p hotographs o f a work ing mode l o f t he b a l l ista f u lm ina l is, b u i l t a ccord ing t o t he i deas o u t l ined a bove ( i n b o th F igs . o ne o f t he p u l ley b locks i s a l most c o mp le te ly o bscured b y t he b ack o f t he s l ider ) . T he b oxl ike b ody o f t he mach ine i s moun ted o n au n iversa l j oin t a t i t s c en tre o f g rav ity , t he j oin t b e ing i t se lf f i xed t o ac ruci form wooden b ase .

T he c on-

s truct ion o f s uch a mode l o f c ourse o n ly s hows t ha t t he b a l l ista c ou ld h ave f unct ioned i n t he way p roposed , n ot t ha t i t must h ave d one s o . 2 3 O ther i n terp reta t ions may b e s uggested b y as tudy o f t he r ecen t e xc it ing f i nds o fb a l l ista p ar ts made a t Ha tra i n I raq , s acked b y t he P ers ians i n 2 45 2 4 a nd a t t he f our th c en tury s i tes o f G ornea a nd Orsova i n R ou man ia . 2 5 The Rou man ian f inds a re p ar t icu lar ly r e levan t t o t he d e Rebus Be l l ic is s ince t hey c o me f ro m t wo f or tl e ts o ft he t ype r eco mmended b y t he Anonymus 8 2

p o9 ,

f or t le ts, moreover ,

N -

c n

Drawings

f iring

position.

b y Moira Mackenzie

i n

l oading

position.

t ha t were b u i lt o ver look ing t he Danube , wh ich i s p rec ise ly where t he b a l l ista f u lm ina l is was t hough t o f a s o pera t ing

( Xvm .5 ) .

T he b a l l ista q uadr iro t is ( V I I ) a lso p resen ts d if f icu l t ies wh ich a re n ot r eso lved b y t he MS i l lustra t ions ( Par t 2 , P ls . V , V I ) . A s w i th t he b a ll ista f u lm ina l is, t here a re n o o bv ious v er t ica l ly moun ted t ors ion s pr ings i n to wh ich b ow a rms a re i nser ted i n t he manner o f c onven t iona l b a l l istae .

How

t hen d id t he a ct ion o f t urn ing t he w ind lass a t t he r ear o f t he mach ine p rov ide a nd s tore t he e nergy wh ich , when r e leased , p rope l led t he miss i le?

O ne

f eature p resen t i n a l l v ersions o f t he i l lustrat ion l ooks i n s ome o f t he m , e spec ia l ly C ( Par t 2 , P l . V a) , l i ke a f orward p o in t ing b ow a rm , b u t t he b en t a rm o f ar e-curve b ow a nd n ot t he s tra igh t , r ig id a rm t ha t o ne wou ld e xpect . I ft h is i n terpre ta t ion i s c orrect , i t migh t e xp la in a d i f f icu lt p hrase i n t he d escr ip t ion g iven b y t he Anonymus ( V I I .6 ) w here t he m issib le i s s a id t o b e d ischarged f ro m t he b a l l ista n on , u t a l iae f un ibus s ed r ad i is i n tor ta ,2 6 where f unes wou ld t hen r efer t o t ors ion s pr ings a nd r ad i i t o r e-curve bow a rms . H owever , t he b ow a rm i n terpreta t ion i s much l ess c onv inc ing i f we t urn t o t he o ther v ers ions o f t h is f eature , e spec ia l ly t ha t o f t he s econd s e t o f i l lustra t ion i n t he Mun ich I V L S ( Par t 2 , P l . V lb) . Here i tl ooks l i ke a l eng th o f r ope a t tached t o t he f ron t o ft he s l ider a nd p assing b ack f ro m i tt o t he b ody o f t he mach ine a nd i s b est t hough t o f a s t he r ope u sed t o p u l l b ack t he s l ider a f ter t he miss le h as b een d ischarged , ad ev ice w ith wh ich t he b a l l ista f u lm ina l is was a lso p rov ided . T he b as ic q uest ion , t herefore, o f h ow t he b a l l ista q uadr iro t is a ctua l ly worked r e ma ins u nanswered . There a re o ne o r t wo o ther p o in ts t o n o t ice .

The e x tens ion o f t he f l igh ted

e nd o f t he a rrow b ack t o ap o in t j ust i n f ron t o f t he w ind lass, i n t he i l lustra t ion i n C , i s n ot c on f irmed b y t he i l lustra t ions i n t he o ther MSS , a nd It ake t o b e a mistake o n t he p ar t o ft he c opy ist .

T he s crew d ev ice a t t he f ron t o f t he

q uadr irot is, men t ioned i n t he d escr ip t ion g iven i n t he t ex t , i s s im i lar t o t he c och leae o n t he f u lm ina lis, b ut t hough r ecogn izab le i n t he i l lustrat ions h as a lso s uf fered a t t he h ands o f t he c opy ists . T he p resence o f t h is s crew o nce more i mp l ies t he e x istence o f ap ivo t a t o r n ear t he c en tre o f g rav ity o f t he u pper p ar to ft he mach ine .

F ina l ly , t he v ersions o f t he i l lustra tions i n Pa nd

i n G e len ius ' e d i tion ( reproduced i n P ar t 2 , p . 8 ) s how t wo r ings a t tached t o t he v isible s ide o ft he b a l lista , p resu mably b a lanced b y ap air o n t he o ther s ide . These c ou ld p ossib ly b e t he q uat tuor f ora m ina , a ct ing a s h and les f or t he g un c rew b y wh ich t he t op o ft he b a l lista was r o ta ted a bou t av er t ica l p ivo t , f or b y u se o ft hese f ora m ina we a re t o ld t he mach ine was ' turned r ound a nd a imed ' ( V I I . 3 ) . T he o ne mach ine u pon wh ich t he r epura t ion o f t he Anonymus a s as er ious i nven tor r ests i s t he l i burna d r iven b y p add le whee ls ( XV I I) . Un l ike t he i nv en t ions d iscussed s o f ar t h is r ea l ly p resen ts n o p rob le ms . I ti s wor th , h owever , t urn ing t o t he i l lustra t ion ( Par t 2 , P ls. XX , XX-I )t ha t s upp le men ts t he t ex ts f or s o me p o in ts d eserve c o m men t . The s a i ls t he mse lves h ave b een r eefed b y means o fb ra i l ing r opes a nd , t o a l low u s t o s ee t he m p roper ly , h ave b een t urned b y t he a r t ist t hrough 9 00 . T h is i s ac onven t ion t ha t we s ha l l mee t w ith a ga in when l ook ing a t t he t i chod ifrus . I n g enera l t he v esse l b ears a r emarkab le r ese mb lance t o modern r econstruct ions o f Ro man b ire mes, i fo ne t h inks away t he p add le whee ls.

T he p resence o f a n "o u tr igger" f or t he u pper 8 4

F IG .

9

The

l iburna,

gearing

f or

c entral

Drawing by Moira Mackenzie

;

capstan

_A Scale ,

D ISCRIPTI O NS P e T he l i ne t h e h i p t o ako s . L 2D rum h e ad s , ne t h of e n nt h e C ap . ' and . a . The ,. V a te rl i ne . K . P a! le s . o fw h ich 6 o r 8o n e a ch • i d e t h e L .C The D:cke . S h ip a r e w i th c a f e F i xed ,a nd u n f ixtu , i n to D . T he C apland b a r n. : h e1 , id D rum h e ad s A E . T h, " ap l I and . L . ar ce o fI r on , t ow h ich al u f fT ak le m ay F . a Whee l o n t h e D rum h e ad o ft h e C ap - n e e Ii x ed , t ol i f t t h of e t h a t a r e t o H eave, & and If o r m en s S t reng th , o und e a ch o f1 , V h ic i i , C . aT rund 'e h e ad o n t h e Whe e l . Ib y t a k ing h a lf t u rn s w i th a C o il lA ehey l i d , a n s I r on B a rr , g o ing t h .ouLh t h eT r i m l m ak e aC omp les z % T hi e l Oa etch $kh r t h e 1 '7:h e ad , a nd t h rough t h e S i de so ft h eS h ip . i V e ir e l . 4 C

A

C

' r iV

—

_

_ r

F IG.

10

Thomas

Savery' s

( from Navigation 8 6

g eared paddle-boat I mprov' d)

s et o ft hwar ts i s a n i n terest ing d eta i 1 ,

2 7

a s i s t he sma l l s econdary r am a t tached

t o t he p row o f t he v essel . J ust s uch ab ronze s ubs id iary r am h as r ecen tly b een d eposi ted o n l oan a t t he F i tzw il l ia m Museum. 28 The g ear ing s yste m u sed f or t rans m i t t ing t he r otary mo t ion o f t he c apstans d r iven b y t he o xen t o t he p add le-wheels i s s i mp le a nd , a s Tho mpson p o in ts o u t , i s i den t ica l t o t ha t o f t he V i truv ian w ater m il l , a nd , w e m ight a dd , g eared wa ter l i f t ing w heels t urned b y o xen . 29

D rive s yste ms o f t h is s or t a re a t tes ted a rchaeo-

l og ica l ly . 3 ° The o n ly d i f f icu l ty i n r econstruct ion i s c aused b y t he p os i t ion ing o ft he c en tra l c apstan wh ich i s p laced awkward ly t o o ne s ide o f t he c en tra l mast w h ich wou ld p reven t t he o xen f ro m t urn ing i t .

I n f act , i ft he Anony mus h ad s o

d es ired , t he c apstan c ou ld h ave f or med a s or t o f s leeve r ound t he mast. 3 1

( F ig.9 )

How e f fect ive wou ld t he v essel h ave b een i n p ract ice ? The c onc lusion o f P rof . Gordon o f Read ing Un ivers i ty32 i s t ha t " simp le c alcu la t ion ... s hows t ha t t he s peeds a t ta inable wou ld b e t oo l ow t o b e o f a ny m il i tary u se." B e t h is a s i t may , p add le-dr iven b oa ts c augh t t he i mag ina t ion o f i nven tors a nd e ng ineers o f t he Midd le A ges , t hough a tf i rst n o p ract ica l e xper i men ts were made. n ach 3 3

Re i-

a scr ibed t he f i rst s er ious a t te mp t a t mak ing a n a ctua lb oa t o pera ted b y

p add les t o t he F rench e ng ineer Duque t i n 1 699. I n f act Duquet was a n t ic ipa ted b y a t l east t hree a nd p ossibly f our i nven tors. One o f t he e arl iest i s a lso t he most e n ig ma t ic : t he p add le b oa t p owered b y s tea m s upposed ly b u i l t b y t he S pan iard B lasco d e G aray i n 1 543. The g enu ineness o f t h is c la i m made f i rst i nt he n ineteen th c en tury h as b een d oubted. 3 4 Bu t o f o ther e arly p add le b oa ts w e h ave c on te mporary o r n ear c on te mporary c ircumstan t ia l a ccoun ts. For e xa mp le , t here was t he " Cast le o f D elf t" b u il t b y t he Du tch a dm ira l Bo iso t ( d ied 1 576 ) , ad ouble h u l led v essel p ropel led b y ac en tra l ly p laced p add le wheel g eared t o aw ind lass t urned b y t welve men .3 5 O f p ar t icu lar i n terest i s t he b oa tb u i l t o nt he o rders o f Pr ince Ruper t o f t he Rh ine , F irst L ord o f t he Ad m ira l ty ( 1673-1679 ). Th is i s r eferred t o b y t wo p ioneers o ft he s tea m e ng ine, Tho mas S avery a nd D en is Pap in ,3 6 b o th o f w ho m w ere e x tre mely i mpressed b y t he v essel ts p erfor mance a nd b oth o f w ho m l a ter b u il t ( man-powered ) p add le b oa ts o ft heir o wn . ( Fig. 1 0 ).

F ro m t he ir

a ccoun ts w e l earn t ha t t he Prince's v essel d rew 4 1 f eet o f wa ter a nd p ropel led b y f our , s ix o r e ight h orses; t ha t i n ac on test o n t he Tha mes i te asily o u ts tr ipped t he Roya l Barge r owed b y s ix teen men a nd t ha t i t was i n u se i n 1 682 a s t ug f or e ven t he l argest v essel a t C hatha m ( where t he w ind ing c ourse o f t he r iver made i td if icu l t t o manoeuvre a s h ip u nder s a il ). I n t he l a te e igh teen th a nd e ar ly n ineteen th c en tur ies t here w ere a t l east t hree a reas where h orse d r iven p add le b oa ts w ere i n u se. Across t he A t lan t ic, ar iver b oa tb u i l tb y a Du tch man was i n u se o n t he O h io 3 7 w h i le s evera l d ouble h u l led v essels d r iven b yh orse-powered p add les w ere i n u se i n 1 814 a s f err ies a t N ew York . 38

F ina l ly , t here was t he G rea t Yar mou th Horse Packet c i ted b y

Tho mpson39 . Th is v essel was a bou t 6 0 f eet l ong a nd 1 8 f ee t i n t he b ea m. I t was p ropel led b y f our h orses t urn ing a c apstan a nd w en t a t a bou t s ix m iles a n h our. O f t hese p add le b oa ts , t ha t b u i l t b y Pr ince Rupert w as, a s f ar a s w e k now , t he f i rst t o h ave b een p ropel led b y a n i ma l p ower. I ts ee ms n o t imposs ible t ha t t he Pr ince was i n sp ired b y t he d e Rebus Be l l ic is, p erhaps k nown t o h im

8 7

t ichodifrus

with

t hrough G elen ius' p r in ted e d i t ion , o r e ven t he Codex S p irensis i t self , f or h e was r ela ted t o Pr ince O t to He inr ich w ho a cqu ired t he b ook f ro m t he Ca thedra l l i brary a t S peyer.

Rupert 's b oa t w as p owered b y h orses, a s were t he N orth

Amer ican a nd G rea t Y ar mou th p add le-boa ts a nd n o t o xen l ike t he l i burna o f t he Anonymus.

Th is i s h ard ly s urpr is ing g iven t he g rea t i mprove men t i n t he b reed

o f d raugh t h orses t ha t t ook p lace d ur ing t he Midd le Ages when a h orse was r eq u ired t ha t c ould c arry t he w eigh t o f ak n igh t i n f u l l a r mour. I n t he n ine teen th c en tury , e ng ineers r eckoned t hat a g ood d raugh t h orse a nd a n o x c ou ld b o th e xer t af orce o f 1 20 l bs. b u t t he h orse moves f aster a nd i s t herefore more e f fec t ive a s ap r i me mover. " However , i n a n t iqu i ty b efore t hese i mprovemen ts i n t he b reed o f h orses t ook p lace, t he o x whose h arness ing a rrange men ts w ere a lso more efect ive, was t he p r inc ipa l d raught a n i ma l a nd t herefore t he n a tura l c ho ice o f t he Anony mus f or h is p add le b oa t. There i s much l ess t o s ay a bou t t he t wo f i na l ' i nven t ions '. The t i chod if rus l i tera l ly means ' wa l l c har io t ' b u t t he Anony mus g ives a f a lse e ty mo logy f or h e s ays ( VI I I.1) t hat ' i ts f unc t ion c orresponds w ith t he mean ing o f t ha t word : t ha t i s t o s ay t hat a wal l c an e as ily b e c l i mbed b y means o f i t ' ( quod p er h unc f ac il ior i n murum p aretur a scensus ). Though h e k new t he mean ing o f TE i : xog e ven i fh e c ou ld n o t a lways s pel l i t , h e c learly d id n o t k now t he mean ing o f 5t , c ppo , a c har io t , s o c a l led b ecause i tc arr ies t wo p ersons. Possibly h e was m isled b y t he s im ilar ity o ft he word t o t he L a t in d efrusto = d iv ide i n p ieces , d is me mber , a word u sed b y Am m ianus 47 . I ti s i n terest ing t o n ote t ha t i nX IX .5 h e d escr ibes t he t i chod ifrus a s ' carried a long b y t he a gency o f t wo men ' , w h ich l ooks a s i fi tc ou ld d er ive f rom a marg ina l n o te o r a c tua l g lossary e xp la in ing t he t rue d er iva t ion o f t he word . The i n terpreta t ion o f t he i l lustra t ion g iven i n t he MSS ( Par t 2 , P ls. V I I a nd V I I I ) i s d if f icu l t. I nt he t ex t w e r ead t ha t ( t he s ides o f ) t he v eh icle d o n o t s tand h igh o f f t he g round s o a s t o c oncea l t he v est ig ia , t ha t i s t he f eet o f t hose wa lk ing i nside ( VI I I.2 ).

Th is means t ha t t he v eh icle l acked ab ase , y et was

p ro tec ted b y s o me f or m o f s uperstruc ture.

However , a s Tho mpson p o in ts o u t , 42

t he i l lustra t ion s ee ms t o s how t he c hass is a lone.

Wha t t he s uperstruc ture w as

c omposed o f t he Anony mus d oes t e l l u s—two h urd les p laced o n t op a nd f astened ( or s tudded ) w i th n a ils ( duabus s uper i mposit is c ra t ibus f i xor i isque c on f ix is ). N ow s e t u nder t he l anceae wh ich p ro ject f ro m t he f ron t o f t he mach ine i s af l at r ec tangu lar o b ject d iv ided b y ad ark l ong i tud ina l l ine , u pon wh ich a re f our r ows o f f i xor ia. The i den t if ica t ion o f t hese l as t i s a ssured b y t he i l lustra t ion o f t he c l ipeocen trus where t he r ad ia l ly a rranged f i xor ia m inu ta d escr ibed i n t he t ex t a re c learly s hown . I ts ee ms p oss ib le t ha t t h is o b ject r epresen ts t he t wo c ra tes, p erhaps h inged t ogether , r est ing o nt he g round b efore b e ing ' super i mposed '. I ft h is i s c orrect , t hey c ou ld h ave b een s uppor ted b y t he c ur ious t r iden ts w i th t he ir o dd b u t ton-shaped t er m ina ls w i th wh ich t he mach ine i s f urn ished . These may h ave b een t urned t hrough 9 00 b y t he a rt ist s o t ha t t he ir n a ture c ould b e s een more c learly , a s t he wheel o n t he l ef t s ide o f t he mach ine h as b een a nd a s was t he c ase w i th t he s a i l o f t he l i burna. The t er m ina ls, o r p erhaps r ather t he c ross-bar o f t he t r iden ts wou ld s uppor t o ne o f t he c ra tes p laced h or izon ta l ly o ver t he m wh ile t he s econd wou ld h ang d own i n f ron t v er t ical ly w i th i t s b o t to m e dge r est ing o n t he r ear p art o ft he l anceae. ( Figs. 1 a nd 1 2). How was t he t i chod ifrus p ropel led f orward?

I ft he p hrase ' borne b y t wo

men ' i s t ob e t aken a t i t s f ace v a lue t he men i n q uest ion wou ld manhand le t he 8 9

F IG .

1 3

Portable

Chinese

raft

9 0

made

of

i nflated

g oatskins

t i chod ifrus f orward b y h o ld ing o n to t he p o le w ith o ne h and a nd t he c ross-p iece w i th t he o ther.

However , i f , a s Ih ave s uggested a bove , t h is p hrase o n ly d e-

r ives f rom a l earned n o te o nt he word 5t s opog f ound i n as ource, t hen i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he mach ine s hou ld r ea l ly h ave b een p ropel led b y t wo h orses , p ush ing f orward i n t he manner o f t he h orse w ho d r ives t he Ga l l ic r eaping mach in e o r v a l lus a nd h arnessed i n as im ilar way43

( Fig. 1 ) .

F ina l ly , t he i n f la table b r idge , ( a scogefyrus ) , d escr ibed i n XV I.

There

i s l i t t le t o a dd t o Tho mpson 's Co m men tary e xcep t t o d raw a t ten t ion t o t he v ers ion o f t he i l lustra t ion g iven b y S tewech ius . 4 4 Th is s hows b uck les f asteni ng l ea ther s traps h o ld ing t he c onst ituen t i n f la ted l ea ther b ladders t oge ther , wh ich s ee ms a r easonable i n terpre ta t ion o f t he i l lustra t ions i n t he MSS ( Par t 2 , P ls. XV I I I , XD ( ) a l though i td oes n o t t a l ly w i th t he d escr ip t ion g iven b y t he Anonymus wh ich s ee ms t o r efer t o h ooks a nd e yes ( XV I . 2 : d e s uper a u te m p ar te c ircu l is e xs tan t ibus, e x a l tera i mm i t tun tur u nc in i ). The a r t icle b y Horne l l c i ted b y Tho mpson45

a dm irably d e monstra tes t he p ract icab il ity o f t he

a scogefyrus a s w el l a s t he a c tua l u se made o f c o mparable d ev ices f rom a n t iq u ity t o r ela t ively modern t imes.

Henry Hodges h as a lso d rawn my a t ten t ion

t o ap icture o f ar ela t ively modern e xa mp le o f ar af t s upported b y i n f la ted b ladders w h ich b ears a n a l together u ncanny r ese mblance t o t he Anony mus ' i nf la table p on toon ( F ig. 1 3) ". S ince t h is i s c arr ied b y o ne man , s o me i dea o f t he s or t o f w id th o f r iver t ha t t he Anony mus e nv isaged s pann ing w ith h is b r idge c an b e g auged f ro m h is s ta te men t i n t he p erface t o t he d e R ebus B el l ic is, t hat i tc ou ld b e c arr ied d is man t led b y f i f ty p ack-horses ( Praef. 1 4 ).

I nst itu te o f Archaeo logy , 3 1-34 Gordon S quare, L ondon WC1H O PY.

9 1

NOTES AND REFERE NCES 1 . 2 .

Tho mpson , 7 8. i b id., 6 4.

E lsewhere Tho mpson t akes a much more o p t im ist ic v iew

p art icu larly o f t he i n f la table b r idge a nd t he p add le b oa t. 3 . 4 .

i b id., 5 7 a nd n .1. G . S tewech ius, Co m men tar iu s,

a d F lav i Veget i Renat i L ibros d e Re

Mi l i tar i ( An twerp , 1 585 ) , 2 64 ( i l l istra t ion ). 5 .

S ueton ius T ib. 6 .

6 .

Dare mberg e t S agl io , D ict ionna ire d es An t iqu ites Gräcques e t Ro ma ines, Vo l . 1 , p ar t 2 (c ), f ig. 2 223.

7 .

S ee L e Co m te L efebvre d es Noet tes , L 'a ttelage. t ravers l es a ges.

L e c heva l äs el le a

Con tr ibu t ion ä l ' h isto ire d e l ' esclavage.

( Par is, 1 931) ,

f i g. 1 61. 8 . 9 .

S ee t he t ransla t ion o f t h is c hap ter i n Par t 2 . N o te t he u se o f ac ha in i n t he r epea t ing c a tapu l t o fD ionys ias o f A lexandr ia. E .W. Marsden , G reek a nd Ro man Ar t i l lery Techn ica l Trea t ises, 1 47-53, d iagra m 9 , ( Ox ford , 1 971).

c f . The marble-cu t t ing s aws d r iven b y t he

water p ower p rov ided b y t he r iver Ruwer n ear Tr ier i n t he f our th c en tury ( Auson ius, Mose l la , 3 61-364 ) , wh ich , i ft hey w ere n o t c ircu lar i ron d iscs, c ou ld h ave b een w ire b and-saws.

I n e i ther c ase t hey p robably d id n o t

h ave t eeth , b u t worked w i th a n a bras ive. 1 0.

For Dura s ee Excava t ions a t Dura-Europos , Report o f S ix th S eason ( Ya le , 1 936 ), P l. ) 0 (I I a nd f or Tra jan 's C o lu mn , C . C ichor ius, D ie Re l iefs d er Tra ianssäu le ( Ber l in , 1 896 a nd 1 900 ) , c ast n os. 9 2-94.

1 1.

S ee f or e xa mp le G . Webster , The Ro man Imper ia l Ar my ( London , 1 969 ) , 1 52, F ig. 2 3.

There a re m inor v ar ia t ion s i n t he MSS i l lustra t ions

( Par t 2P ls. X IV a nd XV ) a nd t hose o f M* om it t he m a l toge ther.

The

v ers ions i nM r ese mble t he l arge t assels. 1 2.

Xenophon , n Epi , e d o n t he monu men ts.

g 1 2.6.

They a re o f c ourse o f ten r epresen t-

1 3.

Tho mpson , 6 4, 6 5.

1 4.

Marsden , o p . c i t . ( n . 1 1) , 2 35.

1 5.

R .P. O l iver , ' A N o te o n t he D e Rebus Be l l ic is ' ,

1 6.

Marsden , l oc. c i t.

CP .

5 0 ( 1955 ) , 13f f.

For t he awareness o f s pring s tee l i n H e l len istic

t imes s ee H . Bar t let t We l ls, ' Know ledge o f s pr ing s tee l i n He l len ist ic t imes ' , Ar ms a nd Ar mour , 7( 1971-3 ) , 2 49-256.

N u merous f inds o f

Ro man l ocks i n Br ita in a nd e lsewhere s how t ha t s pr ing s teel was w idely u sed f or t h is p ar t icu lar a pp l ica t ion d ur ing t he Ro man p er iod . 9 2

1 7.

S . Re inach , ' Un h o m me d ' idees a u Bas-E mp ire ' , RA s er. 5 .16 ( 1922 ), 2 05-65.

1 8.

Marsden , o p .c i t. ( n . 9 ) , 2 45 n .3.

1 9.

R . McNe il l A lexander An i ma l Mechan ics ( London , 1 968 ), 8 1.

Young 's

modu lus i s a bou t 6x 1 06 d yn/c m z . H . Ya mada S treng th o f B io log ical Ma ter ials ( Ba l t i more , 1 970 ), 9 2, 9 3 , g ives f ur ther d ata o n t he l i ga men tum n uchae o f c a t t le , i nclud ing t he s tress s tra in c urve. f or t he u l t i ma te e longa t ion i s 1 60%.

The h ighest v a lue

He a lso g ives d a ta o n t he e last ic

p roper t ies o f t h is ma ter ia l af ter b e ing t rea ted i n v ar ious ways. Thus t i ssue s tored i n 2 0% s o lu t ion o f a cet ic a c id ( = v inegar , t he a cetu m o f t he Ro mans ) f or f our d ays ma in ta ins 9 8% o f i t s e last ic i ty a nd 9 0% o f i t s s treng th. 2 0.

The l i ga men tum n uchae was k ep t s upp le b y s tor ing i ti n a2 0% s o lu t ion o f a ce t ic a c id.

2 1.

S tewech ius o p.c it . ( n . 4 ) , 3 21 ( w ith F ig.)

2 2.

Am in . 4 . 1 -3 s ee t he t ex t t ransla t ion a nd i l lu m ina t ing n o tes g iven b y Marsden o p .c it . ( n .11 ), 2 37-240.

Id o n o t , h owever , a gree w i th h im

o n e very p o in t. 2 3.

Co mpare t he r e marks b y J ohn C oles i nh is i n troduct ion t o Archaeo logy 1 2 y Exper i men t ( London , 1 973 ), 1 7.

2 4.

D . Baatz ' The Ha tra Ba l l ista ' S u mer 3 3 n o. 1 ( 1977 ) ,1 41-51 .

2 5.

i de m ' Te ile s pätrö m ischer Geschü tze a us Ru män ien ' A rch. Anz. 3 ( 1975 ), 4 32-4, a nd ' Te ile s pä trö m ischer Ba l l isten a us Gornea u nd O uova ( Ru män ien ) ' , S aa lburg-Jahrbuch 3 1 ( 1974 ) ,50-72.

Baa tz h as r ecen t ly p ubl ished

a n a ccoun t i n Engl ish o fb oth t he H a tra a nd Ru man ian f inds, s ee Br itann ia 9( 1978 ), 1 -17. 2 6.

DRB V I I. Marsden o p .c it . ( n .9 ) , 2 43 s uggests t ha t t he r ad ius was a t oo thed i ro t ib ar u sed i n c on junc t ion w ith a c og whee l f or p u l l ing b ack t he s l ider.

Tho mpson , 1 14 , t ransla tes r ad i is i n tor ta a s ," propel led .. b y

aw ind lass" i .e. h e i n terprets t he r ad i i a s t he h andspakes o f t he w ind lass. 2 7

.

C f . f or e xa mp le , B . L andstro m , The S hip ( London 1 961) , f i g . 9 5 ( ou trigger ) a nd c on trast A .L . Ben-El i a nd R .R. S t iegl i tz ( eds.) The N a t iona l Mar it ime Museu m z Ha i fa , ( London , 1 972 ), P l . 3 8 ( no o u tr igger ).

2 8.

R .V. N icho l ls, " The Tr in i ty Co l lege Co l lect ion a nd o ther r ecen t l oans a t t he F i tzw il l ia m Museu m" , i n Archaeo log ica l Repor ts, 1 970-71, n o . 1 7 , ( He l len ic S oc iety a nd Br it ish S choo l a t A thens ) , 8 5, f i g. 1 4.

2 9. 3 0.

T . S ch i c y ler Ro man a nd I sla m ic Water-l if t ing Wheels ( Odense 1 973 ). L .A. Mor itz, Gra in Mi l ls a nd F lour i n C lassica l An t iqu ity ( Ox ford , 1 958 ) , p la te 1 4c , f or t he work ing p arts o f am il l f ro m t he S aa lburg.

3 1.

Th is i s t he s o lut ion a dop ted b y my f r iend Mr. Pau l Pou la in who h as b u il t a model o f al i burna , d r iven b y as ingle c apstan a nd p a ir o f p add le-wheels. A s ing le p a ir o f p add le wheels, i nc iden ta l ly , wou ld n o t b e afected b y t urb u lence i n t he wa ter a s wou ld h ave b een t he c ase w ith t he t wo r ear p a irs o f p add les o f t he Anony mus ' l i burna. 9 3

3 2.

S ta ted i n d up l ica ted l ecture n o tes o n t he H istory o f t he Warsh ip.

3 3.

o p .c it. ( n .17 ).

3 4.

s ee H .P. S pra t t , The B irth o f t he S tea m Boa t ( London , 1 958 ), 1 8f f .

3 5.

N icho las Witsen , Arch itec tura N ava l is e t Reg i men N au t icum. , (A msterdam , 1 960 ), 3 8.

Th is b ook h as r ecen t ly b een r e issued i n af acsi m i le e d i t ion ,

Amsterda m ( no d a te ).

J ust s uch a d ouble-hu l led p add le v esse l was b u i l t

b y Pa tr ick Mil ler i n 1 787.

H is s pec if ica t ions were r epubl ished b y B ennet

Woodcrof t i n S tea m N aviga t ion ( 1848 ) a nd t here i s ac on te mporary model i n t he S c ience Museu m , L ondon . 3 6.

Den is Pap in , ' Nova methodus a d v ires mo tr ices v al id iss i mas l ev i p ret io c o mparand is' , i n A c ta Erud i toru m , 9 1 ( Le ipzig , Aug. 1 690 ) , 4 13. Tho mas S avery , 1 698 ).

N av iga t ion Improv 'd :

o r t he Ar t o f r ow ing S h ips e tc. ( London ,

F or t he f a te o f Pap in 's o wn v esse l , s ee R .L . Ga l loway , The

S tea m Eng ine a nd i t s I nven tors ( London , 1 881).

S avery i ncludes a n

i l lustra t ion o f t he work ing p ar ts o f h is p ro jected v essel i n wh ich h e h oped t o i n terest t he Ad m ira l ty ( see F ig. 1 0 ). 3 7.

F ranc is Ba i ly , J ourna l o f a Tour .. o f N or th Amer ica i n 1 796 a nd 1 797. ( London , 1 856 ), 3 72, a nd ( London a nd Amsterda m , 1 969 , e d. J ack D .L . Ho l mes ), 1 82.

3 8.

Robertson Buchanan , Ap ract ica l t rea t ise o n p ropel l ing v essels b y s tea m e tc. ( G lasgow ,

3 9.

Tho mpson , 5 4.

1 816 ) , 7 0 . Iam g ra tefu l t o Mr. A . A.0 .Hedges, F .L .A .,Borough

L ibrar ian a nd Cura tor , t he Cen tra l L ibrary , Grea t Yar mou th , N orfo lk , f or s end ing me f urther d e ta ils o f t h is i n terest ing v esse l , t he " Cour ier" . 4 0.

W.J . M. Rank ine , U sefu l Ru les a nd Tables ( London , 1 866 ), 2 51.

The

a verage d raugh t h orse e xerts a f orce o f 1 20 l bs. a t as peed o f 3 .6 f ee t p er s econd , o r n early 2 1 m.p .h. o ver a l ong p er iod wh i le t he o x d oes s o a t o n ly 1 .6 m.p .h. ( No te t ha t Rank ine 's v a lues f or a h orse d r iv ing a g in o r m i l l a re s o mewha t r educed , b e ing 1 00 l bs f orce a t 3f eet p er s eco nd ).

I t wou ld b e i n terest ing t o e st i ma te t he p robable d i mens ions o f t he

Anony mus ' v esse l a nd u s ing d a ta s uch a s t he a bove c a lcu la te t he t heoret i ca l s peed.

Tak ing i n to a ccoun t t he r ecorded p erfor mance o f a ctua l

h orse-powered b oa ts ( Pr ince Ruper t 's a nd t he G rea t Yar mou th f erry ), i t s ee ms t ha t Gordon 's e st i ma tes o n t he p erfor mance o f t he l i burna a re t oo p essi m is t ic. 4 1.

N o te t he r ead ing t i chodefrus i nt he c ap t ion o f t he p icture i n C .

4 2.

Tho mpson , 6 7.

4 3.

For t he v a l lus s ee p p .39f f . a bove .The g enera l a ppearance o f t he t i chod ifrus w i l l t hen h ave b een s im i lar t o t ha t o f t he mob ile c annon i l lustrat ed i n t he Encyclopaed ia Br i tann ica ( 1 1th e d it ion ) 2 . P I . 1 .3 o pposite p . 6 88 = N apo leon L I I 's E tudes s ur

4 4.

l 'Ar t il ler ie 3 , 1 78 , P l. 1 8.

G . S tewech ius o p .c i t. ( n .4 ) 2 07 w ith F ig.

9 4

4 5.

nd Buoyed Raf ts i n Mil i tary Opera t ions" , An t iqu ity , J . Hornel l " Floa ts a 1 9 ( 1945 ), 7 2-79.

4 6.

. F rench , Ch ina , h er l i fe a nd Peop le , ( London , A . M. Cable a nd F .L 1 946 ), 7 2.

9 5

THE PLU MBATAE FRO M WROXETER b y P h i l ip Barker

As i s we l l k nown t o s tuden ts o f t he l a ter R o many a r my , c er ta in i n fan try u n i ts were p rov ided w i th s hor t h andthrown j avel ins k nown a s mar t io-barbu l i ( 'Mars-barbs ' ) o r ( has tae ) p lumba tae ( leaded ' j ave l ins ) f ro m t he l ead we igh t a t tached t o t he s ha f t t o g ive t he miss i le g rea ter i mpe tus .

A ccord ing t o

V ege t ius , 1a g roup o f f ive s uch miss i les was c arr ied i n t he h o l low o f t he s h ie ld a nd t hey were t hrown a t t he f irs t c harge . t wo v ers ions o f t h is weapon .

The Anony mus d escr ibes

The f irs t , t he p lu mba ta t r ibo la ta ( X ) h ad , a s

i t s n ame i mp l ies , i ron s p ikes f ixed i n t he l ead we igh t s o t ha t i fi tf a i led t o i n f l ict d amage a s a miss i le , i tc ou ld s t i l l h ur t t he e ne my b y a c t ing a s ac a l trop. The c a l trop ( t r ibu lus ) i n q ues t ion i s n o t t he l arge wooden o bs tacle men t ioned i n t he l i terary s ources c i ted b y Tho mpson , 2 b u t t he sma l l i ron o b ject k nown f ro m f inds a t R o man mi l i tary s i tes s uch a s N ew s tead . 3 The s econd t ype , t he p lumba ta ma m i l la ta ( X I ) , l acked t he s pikes a nd h ad a d is t inc t ive h ead ' round i n s ec t ion a nd t aper ing t o ap o in t ..., p ower fu l e nough t o p ene tra te v ery e as i ly t he e ne my 's s h ields a nd s im i lar o bs tac les ' .

I n o ther words t he h ead was l i ke

t ha t o f t he s harp , a rmour p iercing , b a l l is ta b o l t h eads a t tes ted a rchaeo log ica l ly , wh ich a re a lso h eavy , t aper ing a nd n eed le s harp , o n ly n or ma l ly s quare r a ther t han r ound i n s ect ion .4

The e pi the t mam i l la ta , ' breas ted ' p resumably r e fers

t o t he b u lbous l ead we igh t a t tached t o t he s ha f t , a l though t h is i s om i t ted i n t he MS i l lus tra t ions o f t he weapon ( Par t 2 , P l . I X ) . P lumba tae h eads h ave b een f ound a t an umber o f s i tes i n B r i ta in a nd o n t he c on t inen t i n t h ird a nd f our th c en tury c on tex ts b u t n o s i te a ppears t o h ave y ie lded s o many a s V irocon ium ( Wroxe ter , S hropsh ire ) . H ere , e xcava t ions c onduc ted o n b eha l f o f t he D epar t men t o f t he Env ironmen t h ave s hown t ha t t here was a s uccess ion o f t imber b u i ld ings , s o me o f t he m v ery l arge , c overi ng t he s i te o f t he b as i l ica o f t he p ubl ic b a ths wh ich h ad p robab ly b een d e mol i shed d ur ing t he f irs t h a l f o f t he f our th c en tury .

Among t he f inds f ro m t he

l a tes t l eve ls 5 t here were f our p lumba tae t o wh ich n umber c an b e a dded a no ther f ound b y Dr . G raham Webs ter 6 i n h is e xcava t ions o f t he b a ths t he mse lves a nd o ne f ound d ur ing t he e xcava t ions o f t he n ine teen th c en tury .

7

Taken t ogether

t hese f inds p robab ly i nd ica te t he p resence o f aR o man a rmy u n i t s ta t ioned h ere a s l a te a s t he e ar ly f i f th c en tury . They a lso p rov ide t he c leares t e v ide nce f or t he s or t o f weapon o f wh ich t he Anony mus ' t wo miss i les were a dap ta t ions . The Wroxe ter p lu mba tae h eads ( P l . X I ) a re a pprox i ma te ly 1 9 cm l ong . The t i p i s a rrowl ike i np ropor t ions a nd b arbed .

I ti s j o ined t o t he s ocke t b y

al ong , s lender s te m a nd t he s ocke t i s e nc losed , a nd t herefore o bscured , b y a n o vo id l u mp o f l ead .

The l ead p reven ts n or ma l X -ray e xam ina t ions b u t , b y

c our tesy o f t he A .W .R .E., H arwe l l , t hree p lumba tae were s ub m i t ted t o n eu tron r ad iography , a n a s y e t l i t t le u sed t echn ique i n a rchaeo log ica l p rac t ice . 9 7

PLATE

X I.

Plumbata r ight

f rom Wroxeter,

replica.

Scale

l eft 1 :1

original,

The n eu tron r ad iographs s howed t ha t t he p lumba tae were o f s p l i t s ocke t t ype , w i th s o me w ood r e ma in ing i n s i tu . The p lu mba tae o f t he Anony mus were e qu ipped w i th f ea thered f l igh ts l ike a n a rrow , a nd h is d escr ip t ion a nd p ictures p rov ide t he o n ly e v idence f or t h is f ea ture . I n o rder t o t ry t o e s tab l ish t he l eng th o f t he wooden s ha f t b eh ind t he we igh t o n t he Wroxe ter p lumba tae a nd whe ther t hey were a lso f le tched , a n u mber o f r ep l icas w ere made a t t he T ower o f L ondon Armour ies t hrough t he g ood o f f ices o f t he l a te Mr . R usse l l R obinson .

T hrowing e xper i men ts c arr ied

o u t a t t he T ower a nd i n Worces ter s howed t ha t i t was d i f f icu l t t o a ch ieve d ist ances o f more t han a bou t t h ir ty y ards w i th a s ha f ted a nd f l e tched p lu mba ta s i mply t hrown b y h and . H owever , w i th t he a id o f as tr ing t he r ange was i nc reased t o s even ty o r e igh ty y eards . s ib le t o i ncrease t h is d is tance .

N o d oub t w i th p rac t ice i t wou ld b e p os-

8

D epar t men t o f E x tra mura l S tud ies , U n ivers i ty o f B ir m ingham , P .O . B ox 3 63 , B IR M INGHA M ,

B 15 2 TT .

NOTES AND REFERENCES 1 .

V eg . i i 1 4 .

2 .

Tho mpson ,

3 .

J . Cur le , AR o man F ron t ier P os t a nd i t s P eop le ( G lasgow , 1 911 ), P1 . ) (XXVI I I .

4 .

E .g . Excava t ions a t Dura-Europos i Repor t o f t he S ix th S eason ( Ya le ,

6 8 .

1 936 ) , P l . XX IV . 5 .

T he l a tes t b u i ld ings f ro m among whose f ounda t ions t he p lu mba tae were f ound a re n o t c lose ly d a table .

They c on ta in n o th ing b u t R o man ma ter ia l

b u t ag ood d ea l o f t h is may b e r es idua l .

T he n u mber o f p er iods o f

o ccupa t ion a t p resen t r ecogn ised b e tween t he d es truc t ion o f t he b as i l ica a nd t he l a tes tb ui ld ings s ugges ts a d a te i n t he l a te f our th o r e ar ly f i f th c en tur ies f or t he b eg inn ing o f t he l as t p er iod o f o ccupa t ion .

At o mb-

s tone o f a n I r ish c h ie f ta in , Cunor ix Macus Maqu i C o l ine ( 'Cunor ix , s on o f t he s on o f t he H o l ly ' ) , d a ted b y P ro fessor K enne th J ackson t o 4 60-480 , An t . J . 4 8 ( 1 968 ), 2 96-300 , i s t he l a test f i nd f ro m t he c i ty a nd i mp l ies a n I r ish mercenary f orce o pera t ing t here i n t he l a ter f i f th c en tury . H owever , p lumba tae were weapons o f t he r egu lar R o man a r my a nd s hou ld d a te f ro m t he e ar ly f i f th c en tury a t l a tes t . 6 .

P ub lica t ion f or thco m ing .

7 .

J . C orbe t Anderson , The R o man C i ty U r icon ium a t Wroxe ter , S a lop . ( London , 1 867) , P l . X I I I .

8 .

F or a f u l ler a ccoun t o f t he p lu mba tae r ep l icas a nd e xper i men ts made w i th t he m , s ee An t . J . 5 4 p ar t i ( 1974 ) ,1 75-277 .

9 9

PLU MBATAE—A NOTE ON THE METHOD OF MANUFACTURE b y D av id S her lock T he r ecen t f i nd ing a t B urgh C ast le S axon s hore-for t ( Gar iannonu m ) o f a n i ron s pear-head ,a l most c er ta in ly f ro m a p lu mba ta , n ot o n ly a dds t o t he k nown d istr ibu t ion o f t h is c lass o f w eapon b ut a lso t e l ls u s more a bout i t s method o f manufacture .

1

The Burgh C ast le i ron i s 1 5 .8 cm l ong , a bou t 2 5% l arger t han

t he b est-preserved o ft he Wroxe ter e xa mp les wh ich measures 1.8 cm f ro m t he p o in t t o t he f ur ther e nd o f t he l eaded s ect ion , a nd l arger s t i l l t han t hose f ro m R ichborough ( Rutup iae )2 a nd Doncaster ( Danu m )3 f or ts, t hough sma l ler t han t he 1 9th-cen tury Wroxe ter f i ne a nd a c o mparab le o ne f ro m Caste 1 1 We issenberg o n t he G erman l imes .5 N euron r ad iographs s howed t ha t t he Wroxe ter p lu mba tae d escr ibed i n t he r epor t a bove were o f " sp l i t s ocke t t ype , w ith s o me wood r e ma in ing i ns itu" . T o t h is me thod o f j o in ing s haf t a nd h ead may b e a dded a d eta i l t ha t c an b e o bta ined f ro m t he i l lustra t ion o f t he 1 9th-cen tury f i nd wh ich i s d escr ibed b y t he a u thor a s f o l lows : " (The weapon ) i s f l a t-headed , a nd a bout 1 0 i nches l ong ; t he n a i l wh ich f ormer ly h e ld i t s l ong wooden s ha f t s t i l l r e ma ins ." 6 ( Fig . 1 4b) On t he o ther h and , t he Burgh C ast le e xa mp le, l ack ing i t s l ead we igh t a nd wooden s haf t , s hows a n a lterna t ive me thod o f c ombin ing t he t hree p ar ts o f t he weapon , a s s hown i n F ig . 1 4a . Wh ich o f t he t wo methods was t he more e f fecti ve i s h ard t o j udge . The B urgh C ast le me thod wou ld b e s peed ier t o make b u t w ithou t an a i l t he s haf t migh t work l oose more e as i ly, e spec ia l ly i ft he s ur face o f t he w ood was c harred b y t he mou lten l ead . I n t he Wroxe ter me thod t here i s l ess wood e xposed t o c on tact w ith t he l ead a nd a n a i l wou ld h ave h e ld t he wood f irm ly i nt he i ron s ocke t .

I nspectora te o f Ancien t Monu men ts F or tress H ouse , 2 2 S av i le Row L ondon W1X 2HE

NOTES AND REFERENCES 1 .

Proc . S uf f . I nst . Arch . 3 4 , Par t 2( 1978 ) ,1 41-3 .

2 .

R ichborough 4 ( Soc . An t iq . R esearch R ep t , 1 949), 1 52 a nd P l . L IX , n os. 2 95-296 .

3 .

C urren t ArchaeoL

4 .

Anderson , 9 2 . c i t . ( p . 9 9 , n . 7 ) .

5 . 6 .

Caste 1 1 We issenberg ( 0 .R .L . 7 2 , H e ide lberg , 1 914) , S . 4 2 , Ta f . V I I I , Nr 8 8 . Anderson , 2 2 . c i t ., p . 7 4 .

3( 1 971-2 ) , p . 2 74, i l lus .

1 01

b .

Ie a d wood i ron n a i l

c r ns

10

I

1

i n s

4 b .S.

F IG .

1 4 a .

Two

s uggested methods

The Burgh Castle b .

The same

i ron

e ncasing wood o f

i ron

o f manufacturing p lumbatae:

i nserted

i nto

a dapted w ith s plit

a nd h eld with nail, t he Wroxeter

1 02

i n

e xamples

e nd o f wood s ocket

e nd

t he manner

FOURTH-CENTURY UNDER WEAR WITH S PECIAL REFERENCE TO THE THORACO MACHUS b y J . P . Wi ld

My s ub jec t i s t he t horaco machus , a nd Is ha l l c ons ider b oth t he Anony mus ' v erba l d escr ip t ion o f i t , ( XV ) a nd t he s ub t i l is p ic tura wh ich h e p rov ided t o i l lu s tra te h is mean ing ( Par t 2 , P ls . XV I , XVI I ) . B r ief ly p u t , t he t horaco machus i s as h ir t o f s heeps ' woo l f e l t , d es igned t o p ro tec t t he c hes t o f t he wearer a ga ins t t he weigh t a nd f r ic t ion o f h is a r mour , a nd a ga ins t c o ld .

I n we t wea ther t he Anonymus r eco m mends t ha t ar a inproo f

s heepsk in t un ic s hou ld b e worn o ver i t .

T he a u thor t hus c i tes o r i l lus tra tes

an umber o f o ther i t e ms o f c lo th ing a nd a r mour , s o me o f wh ich a lso d eserve c o m men ts . F irs t ly , t he n ame t horaco machus . t he Anonymus h i mse l f .

I t was i nven ted i n a l l p robab i l i ty b y

G reek s c ien t is ts f requen t ly c o ined n ew t echn ica l

t er ms when t he n eed a rose - f or i ns tance , T heophras tus ' ' evergreen '.

Act .C .p .A .Ä .0 g,

La t in was a l ess a cco m moda t ing l anguage , a nd t he Anony mus '

c ho ice o f G reek was i n k eeping w i th R o man p rac t ice . e c upc cF , ,' breas tp la te ' o r ' breas t ' a nd p Axo wzi , ,l igh t ' , a re t he c ons t i tuen t e le men ts o f t he t er m .

1

The a u thor s ee ms t o c ons true t he c o mpound a s ' ches t-pro tec tor ' ( ex t u i t ione c orpor is :

XV . 4 ) , a l though t h is i s n o t t he o n ly s ense wh ich t he G reek c ou ld

b ear . The t horaco machus i s t o b e made f ro m s o f t woo l f e l t ( de c oac t i l i ...de mo l libus l an is ) t o f i t t he h u man b ody ( ad mensura m ...pec tor is h uman i XV . 2 .) . F e l t was a fam i l iar ma ter ia l i n a n t iqu i ty a nd h ad a w ider r ange o f u ses t han k n i t ted o r woven t ex t i le f abr ics . The mos t f a mous a rchaeo log ica l f inds a re p robab ly t he S cy th ian f e l t c over ings , h ang ings a nd c lo th ing f ro m t he b arrows a t Pazyryk i n t he A l ta i r eg ion , d a t ing t o t he f i f th a nd f our th c en tur ies B .C .

The f abr ics a re d ecor-

a ted w i th b r i l l ian t ly c o loured a pp l ied l ea therwork a nd embro idery .

2

More

p rosa ica l ly , i n t he c lass ica l w or ld o ne may c i te t he embro idered s add le-c lo ths l is ted i n t he E d ic t o f D iocle t ian o r t he f e l t c over ing o n t he p lywood s h ie ld l os t b y aC e l t ic mercenary i n t he F ayum i n t he t h ird o r s econd c en tury B .C .3 F e l t l i n ings were u sua l f or many i t e ms l i ke h e l me ts a nd s l ippers ,4 b u t f ew i t e ms o f a c tua l c lo th ing were made f ro m i t .

The mos t o bv ious e xcep t ions

a re f e l t c aps , wh ich we s ha l l c ons ider l a ter , a nd u dones , l ong f e l t s ocks .

5

S heeps ' woo l , b ecause o f t he s ca ly o u ter s truc ture o f t he woo l f i bre a nd i t s c r imp , i s i dea l ly s u i ted t o mak ing f e l t ,

b ut we

( c i l icia ) a nd h ares ' h a ir f e l t i n R o man t imes , t oo .6

1 05

h ear o f g oa ts ' h a ir f e l t

T o make f e l t f ro m s heeps ' woo l mo is t h ea t , f r ic t ion a nd p ressure mus t b e a pp l ied - h ence t he n ame c oact i le .7 T he n o mads o f t he C en tra l As ian S teppes s t i l l make f e l t b y t he t rad i t iona l me thod . T hey mo is ten t he s coured woo l w i th whey a nd s pread i to u t i n at h ick l ayer o n ab lanke t wh ich t hey t hen r o l l a nd u nro l l r epea ted ly. E ven tua l ly t he woo l f i bres b eco me a s tab le , c o mpac t , f abr ic . R o man me thods were i ndus tr ia l ised .

8

A wa l l-pa in t ing i n P o mpe i i o u ts ide

t he workshop o f V erecundus , ac oac t i l iar ius , s hows h is emp loyees , t he l an i fr icar i i , k need ing r o l ls o f h o t , mo is t w oo l f i bres i n s ha l low s inks s upport ed o n t res t les .

S urplus wa ter d ra ined b ack i n to a b o i ler b e tween t he m .

9

S evera l o ther h ouses i n P o mpe i i c on ta in ing f ree-s tand ing b o i lders h ave b een c la i med a s t he p re m ises o f f e l t manu fac turers .

1 9

F e l t was n o t o f ten u sed f or b ody-gar men ts i n c lass ica l a n t iqu i ty .

E ven

s o f t woo l f e l t wou ld n o t h ave b een p ar t icu lar ly c om for tab le n ex t t o t he s k in . Moreover , l i ce were o ne o f t he f ac ts o f l i fe - a s Ar is tophanes a ssures u s a nd t here was n o p oin t i n o f fer ing t he m a s ecure h o me . The t horaco machus a s i ti s r evea led i n t he e x tan t manuscr ip t i l lus tra t ions ( Par t 2P ls . XV I , XV I I ) was a l ong-s leeved s h ir t o f s tandard l a te-Ro man p a t tern .

The s tyle was c a l led a s tr ic tor ia

s leeves a nd c o mpara t ive ly r es tr ic t ing c u t .

v es t is ) o n a ccoun t o f i t s t igh t I n t he f our th c en tury i t was o n

s a le i n l inen , s heeps ' woo l , r abb i ts ' o r h ares ' woo l , s i lk a nd a s i lk-and-woo l u n ion f abr ic .

1 1

The o ran tes o n t he wa l l-pa in t ings o f t he C hr is t ian c hape l a t

Lu l l ings tone g ive u s ag ood impress ion o f t he s tyle a nd a ppearance o f t he s tr ic tor ia .1 2 The i l lus tra tor o f t he C odex S pirens is d rew o n t he r igh t-hand s ide o f h is v igne t te t wo s h ir ts h ung o n t he R o man e qu iva len t o f t he modern c oa t-hanger . One i s t he t horaco machus , t he o ther t he s heepsk in o ver tun ic .

B o th h ave

f a ir ly w ide s leeves , b u t t he f oo t-so ld ier o n t he l e f t-hand s ide who i s wear ing t he t horaco machus h as t he r egu la t ion t igh t s leeves . The c opy is t who worked o n t he B od le ian manuscr ip t Cr eproduces more c onv incing d e ta i ls t han t he r es t ( P l . XV I .a .) .

H e g ives t he t horaco machus

ar ounded n eck-aper ture , e dged w i th a d ark-co loured b and .

Th is m igh t b e

i n terpreted a s ac lo th b ind ing t o p reven t t he r aw e dge o f t he f e l t f ro m c ha f ing t he s o ld ier 's n eck ;

b u t i ti s more l i ke ly t o b e mean t a s embro idery o r t ap-

e s try weav ing i n t une w i th c on te mporary f ash ion . The c uf fs a re f in ished o f f i n as im i lar manner , b u t t here a re n o a dd i t iona l t apes try-woven emb lema ta ; 13

f or mos t o f t he g ar men t wou ld h ave b een i nv is ib le , e spec ia l ly i fa

c ha in- ma i l c l ibanus were t o b e worn o ver i t . I ft he t horaco machus h ad g one i n to p roduct ion i n t he s ta te g ynaecea , 14 i t wou ld h ave b een e qu iva len t t o t he s tr ic tor ia i nd ic t iona l is , t he s h ir t

c u t t o t he t axa t ion-o f f ice n or m , a nd d ecor-

a t ion wou ld s urely h ave b een min i ma 1 .

1 5

To wha t e x ten t was t he t horaco machus a n ew i dea?

The Anony mus c la i ms

t ha t h e i s a dvoca t ing a n o ld d ev ice , c red i t f or wh ich h e g ives t o ' t he a nc ien ts '. I n d escr ibing t he A then ian c ap ture o f S phac ter ia i n 4 25 B . C. Thucyd ides s ta tes t ha t t he S par tans ' ' T ao t ,d id n o t k eep o u t t he A then ian a rrows . word i s u n for tuna te ly ambiguous ;

1 6

The

i t means a ny i t em o f f e l t , ac ap , l egg ings

1 06

o r s o me o ther g ar men t .

1 7

I n t he c on tex t e d i tors t rans la te ' f e l t c u irass ' , a nd

c er ta in ly t ha t makes b e t ter s ense t han c ap o r l egg ings .

I f we a ccep t t h is i n-

t erpre ta t ion - s o me a u thor i t ies d o n ot - t hen a p assage i n P o l lux 18 men t ion i s made o f t he f a me o f S par tan

where

may r e fer t o t he s ame f e l t

i t TAO i .

c u irass . The N otae T iron ianael 9 l i s t t he s hor thand s ig la f or t horax a nd c oact i l is c lose t ogether , b u t t h is may b e c o inc iden ta l . 20 1 \ b e x tan t s ource a par t f ro m t he d e R ebus B e l l ic is men t ions a f e l t s h ir t t o b e worn u nder a r mour . We a re o n f ir mer g round i n s ta t ing t ha t f e l t was a r ecogn ised s tra teg ic ma ter ia l l ong b e fore t he t ime o f t he Anony mus .

Odysseus ' b oars ' t usk h e l me t

was l i ned w i th f el t (accr . ) n i ,Xog ä p pc u v 21 )a nd t he me ta l h e l me ts worn t hroughou t t he c lass ica l p er iod mus t r egu lar ly h ave h ad a f e l t l in ing , i fo n ly a s as hock a bsorber .

One o f t he N ews tead p arade h e l me ts , f or e xa mple , d a t-

i ng t o t he l a te f irs t c en tury A .D., was f ound t o c on ta in r e ma ins o f af e l t l ini ng .22

The G reeks wen t t o c ons iderab le l eng ths w i th p add ing t o min im ise t he

e f fect o f b lows o n ah el met-encased s ku 1 1 .

2 3

E . A . Tho mpson d rew o ur

a t ten t ion t o Amm ianus ' c o mpan ion who h ad t he f ore though t t o wear a p ad o f o ld r ags ( cen to ) u nder h is h e l me t , p erhaps a s as upple men t t o a n e x is t ing f e l t l in ing .

2 4

C har ioteers wore a f e l t c ap , t he p i l leus , a s ac rash-he l me t .

A l e t ter

wr i t ten i n t he t h ird o r f our th c en tury b y ag lad ia tor t o h is t ra iner a t Oxyrhynchus b ears a r eques t f or ayi l leus , ap a ir o f p x x .p .uX 1 ,( 1 )vcg ( probab ly a wa is tcoa t ) a nd ap a ir o f f e l t b ands .2 b Ano ther p apyrus , f ro m An t inoe , d a ted t o t he f i f th c ent ury , i l lus tra tes a g roup o f c har io teers i n t he ir r ac ing c o lours .

They h ave

y e l low p i l le i o n t he ir h eads a nd t he ir b od ies a re p rotec ted b y wha t c ou ld we l l b e t he p . c cp .uXtWVE C ;

a nd t he f e l t b ands men t ioned i n t he l e t ter .2 6

When C a esar 's men were t roub led b y t he a rrows o f t he Po mpe ians d uri ng t he s iege o f Dyrrach iu m , we a re t o ld t ha t t hey made t he mse lves t un ics a nd c over ings o f a n u nspeci f ied n a ture o u t o f f e l t , o ld r ags a nd h ide .

2 7

Th is was

ar eac t ion t o a n emergency , n o t n or ma l p ract ice . I n t he f ie ld R o man s o ld iers wore t heir a r mour , wha tever t ype i t migh t b e , o ver a woo l len o r al inen t un ic - s o me t i mes o ver b o th .

An a dd i t iona l

l ea ther j erk in was worn u nder c ha in- ma i l a nd s ca le-ar mour , a s Tra jan 's C o lu mn a nd a rchaeo log ica l d iscover ies i nd ica te . p layed a p ar t i n t h is s che me ;

F e l t d oes n ot s ee m t o h ave

b u t t he u ses o f f e l t were f ami l iar t o e veryone .

T he Anony mus n ea t ly a n t ic ipa ted t he p rac t ica l o b jec t ion t ha t ar a ins odden t horaco machus wou ld b e e x tre me ly u nco m for table .

Today , t he t r ibes-

men o f t he S teppes g rease t he f e l t s egmen ts wh ich make u p t he ir t en ts t o r end er t he m wa terproof , b u t t h is wou ld h ave s ee med a d espera te r e medy t o a R o man s o ld ier .

Our a u thor s ugges ts t ha t at un ic d e L ibyc is

p e l l ibus ( XV .3 ) ,

worn o ver t he t horaco machus , b u t p resu mab ly u nder t he b reas tp la te , wou ld s o lve t he p roble m - i ft he s o ld ier c ou ld h ave f ough t u nder s uch a we igh t o f p ro tec t ive c over ing :

Vege t ius t e l ls u s t ha t s o ld iers i n t he l a ter f our th c en tury

h ad b eco me o versens i t ive a bou t wear ing u nnecessary g ear .

2 8

The manuscr ipt i l lus tra t ions s how t he o ver tun ic a s t he s ame s hape a s t he t horaco machus . The s o ld ier s tand ing l e f t d oes n o t a ppear t o b e wear ing a n o ver tun ic .

On t he o ther h and t he c opyis ts r espons ib le f or t he i l lus tra t ions

i n MS . 0 i n Ox ford a nd MS , M i n Mun ich ( wh ich c on ta ins t wo s e ts o f i l lus tra t ions ) 1 07

d isagree o n whe ther t he C odex S pirens is s howed a s o ld ier i n f u l l k i t o r n o t . S o t here i s s o me c on fus ion . The p ecu l iar v ir tue o f L ibyan s k ins ( Ia ssu me g oa tsk in o r l a mbsk in ) i s o bscure .

2 9

Bu t l ea ther was c er ta in ly t he ma in ma ter ia l u sed i n wa terproo f

c loth ing i n a n t iqu i ty .

3 0

We c an b e s ure t ha t t he h a ir o r woo l wou ld h ave b een

r e moved f ro m t he Anony mus ' L ibycae p e l les ; f or t he emperors H onor ius a nd Theodos ius I i n D ece mber o f A .D . 4 16 i ssued a p ar t icu lar ly b adte mpered c ons t i tu t ion a ga ins t l ong h a ir ( maiores c r ines) l iu m ) i n t he c i ty o f R o me .

a nd f ur c oa ts ( i ndumen ta p e l-

S o much f or t he t horaco machus i t sel f .

3 1

The Anony mus q uo tes a n umber o f o ther i t e ms o f c lo th ing a nd e qu ip men t wh ich made u p t he s o ld ier 's a ccou tre men ts .

H is p ic ture s hows t he m , t oo .

A t t he f oo t o f t he t ree i n t he c en tre o f t he s cene i s ap a ir o f s occ i s l ipp ers .

We k now f ro m o ther s ources t ha t t hese were o f l ea ther , s o me t i mes

g i lded a nd d yed .

3 2

They were h ouse-shoes , n o t mi l i tary b oo ts , a nd s o s ee m

s trange ly o u t o f c on tex t h ere . On t he t ree b eh ind t he m h ang t he i ron g reaves , o creae f erreae , p res cr ibed b y t he Anony mus .

A t t he t op o f t he t ree i s wha t c an o n ly b e t he g a lea 2

h e l me t , b u t t he c opyis ts d o n o t s ee m t o h ave u nders tood . i t .

The a r t is t who

d rew t he f igure i n t he t ex t o f MS . M ( Par t 2P l . XVI I .a ) t hough t t ha t h e was p or tray ing t he h e l me t f ro m t he f ron t , a nd c lear ly d epic ts wha t h e t ook t o b e c heek-pieces .

H e may h ave b een r igh t .

The B od leian MS .C h as l ess d e ta i l ,

b u t s hows wha t may b e e n larged h inges f or t he c heek-pieces o n e i ther s ide o f t he h e l me t . ( P l . XVI a , c f .b ).

A t a ny r a te t he C odex S p irens is a ppears t o

h ave r eproduced a p ic ture o f t he l a te R o man G ardehe lm o r S pangenhe lm .3 3 F ina l ly , a n i t e m wh ich t he Anony mus h ad d rawn , b u t d id n o t men t ion i n h is t ex t .

The s tand ing s o ld ier wears a c ap o n h is h ead , t he p i l leus .

a lready h ad c ause t o men t ion t he c har io teer 's p i l leus ;

g ear i s f ound i n many o ther c on tex ts i n c lass ica l a n t iqu i ty . impl ies , i t was o f f e l t , p robab ly mou ld- made .

We h ave

b u t t h is f orm o f h ead3 4

As i t s n ame

H owever , t he E d ic t o f D ioc le-

t ian l i s ts i n t he c hap ter o n l ea therware a ' sheepsk in w i th t he woo l l e f t o n f or mak ing ap i l leus ' , wh ich c os t t wice a s much . 35 A f leecy p i l leus , It h ink , i s wha t t he Anony mus ' p ic ture was mean t t o s how . S o ld iers a re c harac ter ised i n l a te a n tique a r t b y t he p i l leus , wh ich h as t he f orm o f af ez.

The s o ld iers s een a rres t ing S t . P eter o n l a te R o man

s arcophag i h ave ap i l leus more o ft en t han n o t .

3 6

E ven t he s o-ca l led t e trarch ic

f igure o n t he P iazza Ar mer ina mosa ics h as a c ap o f t h is t ype .

3 7

Av ar ia t ion

o n t he s ame t he me i s p rov ided b y t he a ppare l o f t he g uard wa tch ing o ver t he t o mb o f C hr is t o n af i f th-cen tury i vory d ip tych i n t he Tr ivu lzio C o llec t ion . Veget ius t hrows al i t t le l igh t o n t h is mi l i tary f ash ion .

3 8

H e c o m men ts t ha t u n-

t i l r ecen t ly a l l s o ld iers h ad worn l ea ther p i l lei , c a l led Pannon ian c aps , s o t ha t when t hey c ame t o p u t o n ah e l me t , t hey wou ld a lready b e a ccus to med t o h av ing a we igh t o n t he ir h eads .

3 9

I ti s g rea t ly t o h is c red i t t ha t t he o ur a u thor r ea l ised t ha t ac om for table s o ld ier i s more l i kely t o b e a n e f f ic ien t s old ier .

Hu mb le t hough i t s ee ms , t he

t horaco machus d eserves a t l eas t a s much a t ten t ion a s h is more s pec tacu lar i nven t ions .

D epar t men t o f Archaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o f Manches ter , MANCHESTER M .139.PL . 1 08

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1 .

L idde l l-Sco t t-Jones s .v .

e ( i ) p c c

, µ6 z .xop ,a ,L . Thoraco machus i s i gnored

b y t hose who h ave wr i t ten o n G reek t er ms i n La t in . 2 .

S . I . Rudenko , Frozen To mbs o f S iber ia ( London 1 970 ) , 8 3 f f .

3 .

E d .D ioc l . ( Lau f fer 's e d i t ion ) V I I , 5 2 ,5 3 ;

4 .

J . P . Wi ld , T ex t i le Manu facture i n t he N or thern R o man P rov inces

G er man ia 2 4 ,

( 1940 ) , 1 06f f .

( Cambr idge , 1 970 ) ,1 2O f f . 5 .

U dones : Mar t ia l , x iv .1 40 ; P . R y l . I V .6 27 . 3 5 ;

Po l lux , Ono m . x . 5 0 ;

E d .D ioc l . V I I .4 7;

D ig . XX IV .2 .2 5 .4( U lpian ).

6 .

G oa t :

Mar t ia l , X IV .1 40 ;

h are : Wi ld , o p. c i t . ( n .4 ) , 1 20 B 97.

7 .

F or p roduct ion me thods :

8 .

Wi ld , o p .c i t . ( n .4 ) , 6 0 .

9 .

V . S p inazzo la , P o mpe i a l la l uce d eg l i s cav i n uov i d i v ia d e l l 'Abbondanza

C IBA-Rev iew 1 1 , n o .129 ( Nove mber 1 958 ).

( ann i 1 910-1923 ) 1 , ( Ro me , 1 953 ) , 1 94 , Tay .d 'agg .2

( Id o n o t t h ink t ha t

t he v es t iar ius Verecundus ( CIL I V . 3 130 ) n eed b e t he s a me man , p ace S pinazzo la ) ;

W. 0 . Moe l ler , ' The l an i fr icar ius a nd t he o f f ic inae l an i-

f r icar iae a t P o mpei i ', Techno logy a nd Cu l ture 7 ( 1966) , 4 93f f .

1 0.

W. 0 . Moe l ler , ' The F e l t S hops a t P o mpe i i ' , Amer ican J ourna l o f Archaeo logy 7 5 ( 1971 ) ,188 f f .

1 1. 1 2.

E d .D iocl . X IX .1 0 ,1 1 ,18 ,7 3a ;

XX .l a , 2 ;

HMSO , L u l l ings tone R o man V i l la ,

XX I I .2 ,9 ,1 4 ;

XXV I .1 3f f.

( 1962 ) , 3 1; B .J b 1 68(1968 ) ,1 85 B i ld

1 2 ,2 , a nd P193 . 1 3.

F or e xa mp le o n t he mosa ics o f t he v i l la n ear P iazza Ar mer ina :

W.

Dor igo , La te R o man Pa in t ing ( London 1 971) , c o lour P ls . 9 9 a nd 1 01. 1 4.

La to mus 2 6 ( 1967 ) , 6 48 f f . , R . G oodburn a nd P . Bar tho lo mew ( eds .). Aspec ts o f t he N o t i t ia D ign i ta tu m B . A. R . S upp le men tary S er ies 1 5 ( Ox ford 1 976 ) , 5 1-58 .

1 5 .

E d .D ioc l . XD ( .2 ;

1 6.

Thucyd ides i v , 3 4 .

1 7.

L idde l l-Sco t t-Jones s .v .

1 8 .

P o l lux , Ono m . i ,149.

1 9.

N o tae T iron ianae x cv i i . 2 6.28 .

2 0 .

XX I I .2 ;

XXV I . 2 8 ;

n i :Xog

JRS 6 0 ( 1 970 ) , 1 28 .

; PW (-K ) 2 0 p t .2 ,1330 .

Me l ler e v iden t ly t hough t t ha t i t was s ign i f ican t :

B er liner Ph i lo log ische

Wochenschr i f t 3 1 ( 191 4 ,232 ( w i th i ncorrect r e ference t aken f ro m TLL ). 1 09

2 1.

I l iad x .265 .

2 2.

Wi ld , o p .c i t . ( n .4 ) , 1 02 A53 .

2 3.

Iam g ra tefu l t o my c o l league , Dr . A las ta ir J ackson , f or i n for ma t ion o n t h is q ues t ion .

2 4. 2 5 .

Am m . x ix . 8 .8 . P . Oxy . 2 598 ; a t t ire :

A c en to i s t echn ica l ly a n ama lga m o f o ld r ags , n o t f e l t . t he La t in mam i l lare c i ted b y t he e d i tors a d l oc . i s f e ma le

Mar t ia l , X IV .6 6.

2 6.

J ourna l o f E gypt ian Archaeo logy 1 7 ( 1 931) , l f f .,

2 7.

B e l l . C iv .i i i .44 .

p l . 1 .

B ody a r mour o f q u i l ted a nd r o l led c o t ton was worn i n

Mexico a nd a dopted b y t he S pan ish c onqu is tadors a s p ro tect ion a ga ins t d ar ts a nd a rrows . Transact ions o ft he American P hi losoph ica l S ocie ty , N ew S er ies 4 7(1957 ) , 3 61 . Io we t h is r e ference t o Mr . J . F orde-Johns ton . 2 8 .

V eg . i .20 .

2 9.

Mos t p e l les r eg is tered i n t he E d ic t o f D ioc le t ian ( VI I I .6f f .) a re w i thou t p rovenance ; f or s heep i n N or th A fr ica : C lass ica l J ourna l 4 9 ( 1953-54 ) , 1 57f f .

D io C hrysos to m ( xxxv .1 2) men t ions a g oa t-sk in c loak C 7i . cüpc c ) ;

f or a d iscuss ion o f t ypes o f l ea ther :

A . G ansser-Burckhard t , Das L eder

u nd s e ine V erarbe i tung im r öm ischen L eg ions lager V indon issa , ( Base l , 1 942) , 7 f f . 3 0 .

Mar t ia l , x iv .130 . Woo l len c apes w i th a l ong n ap were wa terproo f , t oo : An t iqu i ty 3 7 ( 1963 ) ,1 98 .

3 1.

Th . X IV .1 0 ,4 .

3 2.

E d . D ioc l . I X . 2 0a , 2 1f f .; I sid . E ty m . x ix .34 .12 .

3 3.

H . K lu mbach , S pä trömische G ardehe l me , Mt inchner B e i träge z ur V oru nd Frühgesch ich te

1 5 ,

( Mun ich , 1 973 ) ;

f or l i tera ture o n S pangenhe l me :

Proceed ings o f t he S oc iety o f An t iquar ies o f S co t land 9 4 ( 1 960-1) ,1 84 f f . ( Io we t h is r eference t o Mr . R ichard H igg inbo t to m ) . 3 4 .

, PW (-K )

XX ,2 .1328 s .v .p i l leus .

3 5 .

E d . D iocl . V II I . 1 5.16 jpreek a nd La t in e n tr ies ).

Ib e l ieve , p ace Lau f fer , t ha :

b e l lear is h ere ( f or v e l lear is ) means ' w i th t he f leece ( ve l lus ) l e f t o n ' , n o t ' m i t g erupf ter S cha fwo l le '. 3 6.

F . W. De ichmann ( ed .) , R eper tor iu m d er c hr is t l ich-an t iken S arkophage I , R om u nd Os t ia ( W iesbaden , 1 967 ) , n os . 6 ,7 ,11 ,17 ,20 e tp ass im .

3 7.

W. Dor igo , 9 2 .c i t . ( n .13 ) , P l . C l .

3 8 .

R . De lbrueck , D ie C onsu lard ip tychen u nd v erwand te Denkmä ler ( Ber l in , 1 929) , n o . 6 8 .

3 9.

V eg . i .2 0 .

1 10

S IEGE-CRAFT FRO M THE S IXTH TO THE TENTH CENTURY b y Dav id H i l l

I t s ee ms c er ta in t ha t t he t ex t a nd a cco mpanying i l lus tra t ions o f t he d e R ebus B e l l ic is h ad a lready b een c opied a t l eas t o nce b e fore b eing c op ied y e t a ga in b y t he c o mpi lers o f t he C odex S pirens is i n t he l a te n in th o r e ar ly t en th c en tury .

The p a trons who o rdered t he t ex t t o b e t ranscr ibed a nd t he p ic tures

t o b e c are fu l ly r eproduced , may h ave b een i nspired b y mere a n t iquar ian is m , b u t t he ir i n teres t i n t he we ird a nd wonder fu l mach ines o f t he Anony mus c ou ld h ave h ad a more p rac tica l a spec t .

Were t he C aro l ing ian F ranks f am i la ir w i th

t he u se o f t he b a l l is ta , f or e xample , o r was t he who le c oncept o f t ors ion a r t i ll ery a l ien t o t he m?

I n t rying t o a nswer s uch q ues t ions i ti s wor th l ook ing a t

a ccoun ts o f s ieges i nt he Ear ly M idd le Ages , f or h ere i fa nywhere we migh t e xpec t t o f ind s oph is t ica ted mi l i tary e qu ip men t b e ing emp loyed b o th i n a t tack a nd d e fence . The a ccepted v iew o f t he p er iod o f Wes tern European H is tory f ro m t he ' wi thdrawa l ' o f t he l eg ions t o t he a rr iva l o f t he N or mans i s s o t in ted w i th ' pr im i t ive ' , ' t r iba l ' a nd ' barbar ian ' o ver tones t ha t we a re s o me t i mes l ike ly t o miss a l together impor tan t a spec ts o f t he p er iod .

Thus i ti s p oss ible i n

Eng land t o s ee t he who le Ang lo-Saxon p er iod a s a mere p ro logue t o t he " rea l" M idd le Ages , t h is i s d one s i mply b y l abe l l ing t he p er iod a s Pre-Conques t . Th is t endency s hou ld b e r es is ted b y r ecogn is ing t he l eng th o f t he p er iod , a nd i t s v ar ie ty , a nd b y r ecogn is ing t he s oph is t ica t ion o f s o me o f t he European s ta tes a t t h is p er iod .

I n t he Frank ish l ands t he K ings c a me t o s ee t he mse lves a s t he

i nher i tors o f t he r o man i tas a nd f ina l ly o f t he t i t le a nd t rappings o f t he Empire . The p er iod i s c o mplex a nd many s ided .

The i n f luence o f R o me d isappeared

g radua l ly , t he t echn iques o f t he H igh M idd le Ages h ave t he ir r oo ts b efore 1 066. F or ti f ica t ions o f v ar ious k inds a re t o b e f ound i n t he p er iod f ro m t he c o l lapse o f t he Wes tern Empire t o t he r ise o f t he N or mans , i t migh t b e a mis take t heref ore t o a ccep t t he r eceived o p in ion t ha t s iege mach ines a nd s iege war fare a re a nachron is t ic , t ha t t hey d isappear c o mp le te ly t o b e r e-inven ted i n a l l t he ir r am i f ica t ions i n t he s ieges o f t he N or mans .

I ti s n o t t o b e a ccep ted w i thou t

d iscuss ion t ha t f or s ix h undred y ears t here were n o s iege mach ines b ecause t he p eop le were wag ing a h ack-and-bash t ype o f war fare . The c en tre o f t he wes tern Chr istian k ingdo ms was t he K ingdo m o ft he Franks , t he o ld p rov ince o f G au l . The s iege-eng ines a nd t he who le s c ience o f p o l iorce tics may wel l h ave b een a bsen t f ro m many o ft he minor k ingdo ms f or mos t o f t he c en tur ies b u t i n G au l t he Franks waged war wh ich c on t inua l ly t urned o n t he c i t ies a nd f or tresses .

Where war fare i s c ons tan t ly h ing ing o n

t he p ossess ion o f f or t i f ica t ions t here mus t b e s ieges , a nd i tf ol lows l og ica l ly t ha t t here may we l l b e s iege e ng ines a nd mi l i tary e ng ineer ing .

There was

n ever a l ong e nough p er iod f or t he s c ience t o d isappear c o mp le te ly f ro m t he t ime o f B e l isar ius a nd h is d e fence o f R o me o nwards .

1 11

The s ources a re n o t

g ood b u t i f we f o l low t he c ampa igns o f t he F ranks we c an d e mons tra te i n e very p er iod s o me s ieges a nd s o me f or m o f mi l i tary e ng ineer ing a nd s iege e ng ines . I n t he e p ic s iege o f R o me ( March 5 37- March 5 38) we s ee a l l o f t he R o man s iege e ng ines a nd e xper t ise i n u se , a nd s o me e v idence o f i ti n u se o n t he s ide o f t he G o ths .

B e l isar ius u sed a g rea t d ea l o f i n te l l igence a nd mos t o f t he c lass ic

e ng ines . When C onvenae i n S ou thern G au l was b es ieged i n 5 85 we h ave a n a ccoun t f ro m t he H is tory o f t he F ranks ,o f G regory o f T ours , wh ich i nc ludes d escr ipt ions o f f ascines f or f i l l ing d i tches , s tones wh ich a re h ur led a nd v ess e ls o f b urn ing p i tch a nd o f g rease wh ich a re p repared .

S iege e ng ines a re i n

e v idence :' The f i f teen th d ay o f t he s iege d awned a nd L eudeg ise l was p repar ing n ew e ng ines f or t he d es truct ion o f t he c i ty .

There were wagons f i t-

t ed w i th r a ms c overed w i th wa t t le-work a nd p lanks , u nder wh ich t roops c ou ld g o f orward t o d es troy t he wa l ls .

Bu t a s s oon a s t hey c a me n ear

t hey were o verwhe l med w i th s uch s howers o f s tones a pproached t he wa l l ' .1 __

t ha t a l l f e l l who

The men t ion o f f or tresses a nd p ar t icu lar ly o f t he s ieges o f c i t ies c ont inues t hroughou t t he f o l low ing c en tur ies b u t r are ly a re t hey e xp l ic i t .

P erhaps

t he mos t f ru i t fu l s ource , wh ich f o l lows o n f ro m G regory o f Tours i s t he F our th B ook o f t he C hron icle o f F redegar w i th i t s C on t inua t ions .

2

An e xamp le o f t he

t ype o f war fare t ha t migh t b e u sed c o mes f ro m o ne o f t he many i n ternec ine wars , a nd i n t he e n try f or 6 39 we l earn :' Observ ing t h is , Radu l f p u t u p a wooden s tockade r ound h is p os i t ion o n ar ise a bove t he r iver Uns tru t ... a nd when h e h ad a sse mb led e very p oss ib le man f ro m a l l p ar ts , f or ti f ied h i msel f w i th h is w i fe a nd c h i ldren w i th in t h is f ie ld-work t o w i ths tand a s iege ....' The s iege i t sel f i s n o t dwe l t o n , b u t h ere i s a n e xa mple o f af ie ld f ort if ica t ion i n u se .

I t may we l l b e a rgued t ha t t he mos t s oph is t ica ted f or ms o f

mi l i tary a r t i f ice were r e-learn t a t r egu lar i n terva ls f ro m t he B yzan t ines , a nd t here i s s o me s uppor t f or a v iew t ha t s iege mach ines o f t he mos t a dvanced t ypes a ppear i n F ranc ia a nd n or th-wes tern E urope a f ter p ro longed c on tac t , p ar t icu lar ly i n war fare , b e tween F rank a nd E as tern R o man , a nd more p ar t icu lar ly b e tween Frank a nd L o mbard , ar ace p ar t icu lar ly i n f luenced b y c on tact w i th imper ia l d o ma ins i n I t a ly .

O f c ourse i t may s i mply b e t ha t we a re r ead-

i ng t oo much i n to t he f ac t t ha t r e ferences b eco me f u l ler a s we move t owards t he e igh th a nd n in th c en tur ies .

Fredegar 's a ccoun t o f as ou thern s iege b y t he

Franks s hows much o f t he mi l i tary a r t , i n 7 37:' Once more , t he migh ty r ace o f I shmae l , who a re n ow k nown b y t he o u t land ish n ame o f S aracens , r ebe l led a nd b urst a cross t he r iver R hone ...

C h i ldebrand l os t n o t ime i nb ivouack ing i n t he a pproaches

a nd s urround ing c oun trys ide o f t h is e xce l len t ly p rov is ioned c i ty ( Av ignon ) , a nd i n s e t t ing a bou t h is p repara t ions f or t he f orthco m ing e ngage men t u n t i l t he a rr iva l o f C har les , t he G rea t C o m mander , who f or thw i th s hu t u p t he c i ty , e rec ted s iege-works a nd t igh tened t he b lockade .

Then a s o nce b e fore J er icho , t he a rm ies g ave a g rea t

s hou t , t he t ru mpe ts b rayed a nd t he men r ushed i n to t he a ssau l t w i th b a t ter ing r ams a nd r ope l adders t o g e t o ver wa l ls a nd b u i ld ings ....

1 12

l a ter C har les c rossed t he R hone ...

H e i nves ted i t s f amous c api ta l ,

N arbonne i t se l f . H e t hrew u p l i nes o n t he b anks o f t he Aude i n wh ich h e i ns ta l led o f fens ive a r mamen t o f t he b a t ter ing t ype . H e t hen c ont inued h is l ines i n aw ide s weep a round t he S aracen em ir A bd a rR ahman a nd h is v iziers , i nves t ing t he m s o .

H e a dded c are fu l ly c on-

s truc ted works a t i n terva ls .' The me thod o f c ircumva l la t ion e tc . i s c lear , t he t ypes o f e ng ine i s madd en ing ly i nexpl ic i t .

I n t he s iege o f B ourges ( 7 62 ) we a re s im i lar ly , a nd v agu-

e ly t o ld :' He ( P ippin ) t hen s urrounded t he t own w i th a s trong f or t i f ica t ion , w i th s iege-eng ines a nd a l l manner o f weapons s o t ha t n o o ne wou ld h ave d ared t o l eave i to r e n ter i t , a nd h e a lso b u i l t ar a mpar t .' We h ave n ow r eached t he t hresho ld o f t he r e ign o f C har le magne ;

s ources

i ncrease a nd b eco me a l i t t le more e xp l ic i t . T he c api tu lar ies l ay d own t he e qu ip men t f or t he a r my o n c ampa ign a nd i nc lude r e ferences t o wha t wou ld a ppear t ob e e ng ines b u t wh ich a re e xpla ined , a ccord ing t o t he o r thodox v iew , a s s ome s or t o f s ta f f-s l ing . 3 Th is t rans la t ion w ou ld , o f c ourse , f i t i n w i th av iew o f t he p er iod wh ich d ubs i t ' pr im i t ive ' , b a l l is tae a re n o t p r im i t ive o r t r iba l s o we h ave t he s ta f f-s l ing . B u t h ow m ou ld t h is s quare w i th t he a nna l f or 7 76 i n t he Anna les r egn i F rancorun f l wh ich t e l ls n o t o f t he F ranks b u t t he S axons b es ieg ing t he m? t hey h ad n o t l earn t we l l f ro m t heir o pponen ts , b u t t hey h ad l earn t :( The S iege o f S yburg ) ' When t hey ( t he S axons ) f a i led t o t a lk t he g uards i n to s urrender , a s t hey h ad t hose i n t he o ther c as t le , t hey b egan t o s e t u p war mach ines t o s tor m t he c as t le .

S ince G od w i l led i t , t he

c a tapu l ts wh ich t hey h ad p repared d id more d amage t o t he m t han t hose i ns ide . When t he S axons s aw t ha t t he ir c ons truc t ions were u se less t o t he m , t hey p repared f aggo ts t o c ap ture t he f or tress i n o ne c harge .

Bu t G od 's p ower , a s i s o n ly j us t , o vercame t he irs .

There a re many r e ferences i nt he n in th c en tury t o s ieges a nd t heir mach ines . They a ppear i n L o mbardy a nd a round t he p er iphery o f t he Empire . The i mpress ion c on t inues t ha t t hese mach ines a re b u i l t o n t he s po t b y as k i l led a r t i f icer r a ther t han t ranspor ted , a l though t he e ssen t ia ls were p erhaps a lways c arr ied . Ra ther t han l i s t a l l t he r e ferences we s hou ld c ons ider t he mos t f amous o f a l l t he s ieges , t ha t o f Par is . The b es t d escr ip t ion o f t h is s iege , o r a ny n in th c en tury s iege i s i n a c ur ious ly n eg lec ted d ocumen t , Abbo 's B e l la Par is iacae U rbis . Th is i s n o t t he p lace f or a n e x tended d iscuss ion o f t he a u then t ic i ty o f t he t ex t . I t s hou ld b e s u f f ic ien t t o s ay t ha t many modern t ex ts a nd t rans la t ions a re t o b e f ound i n F rance a nd a t rans la t ion h as r ecen t ly a ppeared i n Dan ish , i nd ica t ing a c ont inen ta l a ccep tance o f Abbo 's work , a t l eas t a s l i tera ture . Eng l ish t rans la t ion a nd d iscuss ion i s r e markab le .

5

The l ack o f a n

The l ong p oe m h ad r eached

Eng land b y t he midd le o f t he t en th c en tury , c ircu la ted w ide ly a nd a p ar t ia l t rans la t ion i n to O ld E ng l ish a ppeared . S ince t hen E ng l ish h is tor ians h ave i gnored t he s ource . The a c tua l e ven ts were we l l k nown i n Eng land a nd a ppear b o th i n t he Ang lo-Saxon C hron ic le a nd i n Asser .

Fro m t he i n terna l e v idence

we k now t ha t A bbo was a n e ye-wi tness a nd t ha t t he p oe m i s p ar t ia l ly a e u logy

13

o f E udes , C oun t a nd l a ter K ing , a nd c an b e c on f iden t ly a scr ibed t o t he y ear 8 97.

I tr ecoun ts i n c ons iderab le d e ta i l a nd a ppa l l ing p oe try t he e ven ts o f t he

S iege o f P ar is f ro m 8 85 t o 8 86. I f we a ccep t t he a dv ice o f a no ther p oe t who was u sed t o wr i t ing i np ra ise o f a no ther med ieva l K ing :We f ind t he b es t e v idence i n t he p oe ms wh ich were o f fered t o t he k ings t he mse lves o r t o t he ir s ons ;

we t ake e very th ing f or t rue wh ich

i s f ound i n t heir p oe ms a bou t t heir j ourneys o r b a t t les . I ti s t he way o f s ka lds , o f c ourse , t o g ive t he mos t p ra ise t o h im f or who m t hey a re c o mposed , b u t n o o ne wou ld d are t el l t he k ing h i msel f s uch d eeds o f h is a s a l l l i s teners a nd t he k ing h i mse l f k new t o b e l i es a nd l oose t a lk ;

f or t ha t wou ld b e mockery b u t n o t p ra ise . ' 6

The who le p oe m i s p oor a nd o bscure l a t in b u t i td oes c on ta in t he mos t d e ta i led d escr ip t ions o f t he mi l i tary a r ts o f t he p er iod .

As t he ir i s n o t rans-

l a t ion i n Eng l ish i t may b e wor thwh i le t o q uo te a f ew o f t he r e levan t p assages i ne x tenso . I th as o f ten s ee med s urpr is ing t o many t ha t i ti s t he Danes a s we l l a s t he F ranks who a re u s ing t hese a dvanced t ac t ics , b u t t he a ccoun t o f t he S iege o f S yburg i n 7 76 mus t a ler t u s t o t he s w i f t i n terchange o f i deas i n t ime o f war , f or t hen i ti s t he S axons who a re a t te mp t ing t o u se p o l iorce t ics . A more s tr ik ing e xample i s t o b e f ound i n C easar 's G a l l ic Wars where t he G au ls a re s hown t o b e c apab le a f ter a v ery f ew y ears c on tact w i th R oman a t tacks t o c arry o n av ery r espectable s iege .7 The i n i t ia l a t te mp ts o f t he Danes t o c ap ture Par is i n t he a u tumn o f 8 86 b rough t E udes t o t he f ore ( i . 9 9-102) :' I f a nyone t r ied t o c u t i n to t he f oo t o f t he wa l l w i th i ron p icks , h e wa i ted u pon t he m w i th o i l , wax a nd p i tch . Th is mix ture , l i que f ied , i n ab urn ing f urnace b urn t t he Danes ' h a ir a nd made t hem t ear i t f ro m t he ir h eads .' As t he c oup d e ma in f a i ls t he Danes i ns t i tu te a r egu lar s e ige , a l though , a s Par is i s o n a n i s land t hey n ever c o mple te ly c ircumva l la te i t . Eng ines a ppear ( i . 2 05-220 ) :-

S iege

' Meanwh i le t he Danes u ndertook t he mak ing o f s o me v er i tab le mons ters , a nd t o p u t t he m o n s ix teen whee ls , a mos t e x traord inary s igh t , t he l ike o f wh ich t he F ranks h ad n ever s een b e fore . T hree o f t hese g rouped t oge ther , made f ro m s trong o aks , were e ach p laced o ver a b a t ter ing r am , h idden b y ar a ised r oo f .

There was e nough s pace i n

t he s ecre t d epths o f t he ir f lanks t o h ide s ix ty h e lme ted men .

Ye t

t hey o n ly s ucceeded i nb u i lding o ne s uch mach ine , o f af a ir ly amp le s ize . T he s econd was f in ished , a nd t hey were work ing o n at h ird , when a m iss i le was f ired a r fu l ly a nd w i th f orce f ro m ab a l l is ta , i t a rr ived a nd k i l led t he t wo mach ine-bu i lders t oge ther .

S o t hey were

t he f irs t t o s u f fer t he d ea th t hey were p repar ing f or t he P ar is ians . S oon t he e v i l c ouple p er ished , mor ta l ly wounded b y t he s ing le b low . T hey h ad g one t o t he e x ten t o f s e t t ing u p at housand a wn ings o n e lev a ted s uppor ts wh ich t hey c overed w i th s k ins t aken f ro m t he b ack a nd n eck o f y oung b u l ls .

T hey a c ted l i ke s h ie lds a nd e ach was c ap-

a ble o f s he l ter ing t hree o f f our men ; c a l l a man te le t o r s creen .'

14

t h is i s wha t as cho lar wou ld

The s oph is t ica t ion t ha t i s c la i med f or s o me o f t he mechan ica l d ev ices i s s urpr is ing ( i .235-6, 2 95-300 ) :' Thousands o f g renades o f mo l ten l ead were t hrown i n to t he t own . t he b r idges p ower fu l c a tapu l ts ming led w i th t he wa tch towers.'

On

' . ...

The Danes c arr ied t he c anop ies a lready men t ioned t o t he t ower ,

These

were made f ro m wood f ro m t he f ores t a nd f ro m t he s k ins o f y oung s laugh tered b u l ls .

Thanks t o wh ich s o me o f t he m p assed t he n igh t

mak ing war wh i ls t o thers s lep t , a nd t hey made c ircu lar o pen ings i n t he c anopies t hrough wh ich t o f ire f ea thered a rrows impregna ted w i th g a l l .' P ina l ly t he g rea t a t tack was l aunched ( i .356-374 ) :' They p u t t he ir b a t ter ing r a ms i n to a c t ion ; e as t f acing t he t ower ;

t hey s e t o ne o f t he m t o t he

a no ther t o t he n or th , a ga ins t t he g a tes a nd a

t h ird was p u t t o t he wes t .

T he Franks p repared s o me h eavy p ieces o f

wood e ach w i th a n i ron t oo th i n t he e nd , s o a s t o d a mage t he Dan ish mach ines more q u ick ly .

Wi th c oup led b ea ms o f t he s a me l eng th t hey

b u i l t wha t a re c o m mon ly c a l led Mangone ls , mach ines f or t hrowing v as t s tones , wh ich wou ld b las t t he l owly r ace o f b arbar ians o f ten b lowing o u t t he ir b ra ins , c rush ing c rowds o f t he m a nd t he ir s h ields . N o t o ne s h ie ld t ha t was h i t d id n o t b reak ; n o t o ne u n for tuna te who was h i t d id n o t d ie .

I n v a in t he ir c olu mns wh ich n o th ing c ou ld r es is t t r ied

t o f i l l i n t he d i tches , t hey c ou ld n o t f i l l i n as ing le o ne .

They t r ied t o

d es troy t he t ower w i th b lows f ro m t he b a t ter ing r am , b u t were u nab le t o move t he m f orward o n f la t g round ...' The S iege l as ted f or mon ths , w i th i n ter m iss ions , a nd we r ead o f wagons f i l led w i th a s low b urn ing l oad o f t ur f u sed a ga ins t t he g a tes o f o ne t ower , o f f iresh ips t owed a ga ins t t he b r idges a nd s o o n .

A l l t h is a ga ins t a miss i le f ire

wh ich i s c on t inuous a nd , t o u se modern p ar lance , b o th i ngo ing a nd o u tgo ing ( i. 23 9-244 ) :' And s h ie lds g roaned b enea th t he we igh t o f h eavy b a l ls o f l ead a nd mass ive s tones .

Th is was t he way t he Danes f ough t a l l t he t ime .

T he F ranks r epl ied i n al i ve ly way , a im ing s tones a nd b a l l is ta b o l ts a nd s wi f t a rrows a t t he s avages .

Miss i les were f lying e verywhere

a nd c ross ing e ach o ther i n t he a ir .' There a re o ther r e ferences t o p o liorce tics a nd mach ines i n t h is p er iod a t Angers , S ens a nd o ther t owns , u n for tuna te ly a par t f ro m t he f ac t t ha t b oth F rank a nd Dane a re employing t he m t here i s l i t t le d e ta i l t o b e g a ined f ro m t he s evera l C hron ic les o f t he p er iod . I ti s d i f f icu l t t o r econs truc t f ro m t hese f ew r e ferences a ny c lear i dea o f wha t was h appen ing .

I t wou ld s ee m t ha t t he t owns s o me t i mes h ad f ixed d e-

f ens ive mach ines , b o th b a l l is tae a nd mangone ls , a nd t ha t s iege t ra ins were n o t a t tached t o t he a rm ies b u t af ew s k i l led a r t i f icers t rave l led i n t he h os t . C ert a in p ar ts o f t he mach ines were p robab ly p resen t i n t he t ra ins t he r es t b e ing made a s t ime wen t o n a nd a f or ma l s iege was d ec ided o n .

Ba t ter ing r a ms ,

b a l l is tae , f ascines , man tele ts , f ire-wagons , l adders a nd c ircu mva l la t ion were g enera l , o n o ccas ion t he wa ter s upply was d iver ted a nd s tr ic t b lockades e nf orced .

S uch t echn iques may h ave b een p rac t ised e ver s ince R o man t imes o r

1 15

k now ledge o f t he m may h ave c o me f ro m r epea ted c on tac t w i th t he ' Greeks ' o f t he Eas tern R o man Empire .

F or e xa mp le i n t he n ex t c en tury d ur ing t he d i f-

f icu l t s iege o f t he S aracens i n F rax ine tu m o n Gaul ' sMed i terranean c oas t , Hugh , C oun t o f Ar les a nd K ing o f I t a ly , s en t t o C ons tan t inople f or f iresh ips .

Wi th

t he B yzan t ine Navy a t tack ing f ro m t he s ea u s ing t he f a mous G reek F ire , a nd Hugh 's men f ro m t he l and , t he S aracens c ame t o t er ms .

There i s a lso a p os-

s ib i l i ty t ha t s o me o f t he mechan ics i nvo lved may h ave b een r ev ived f ro m l a te L a t in s ources wh ich r e turned t o g enera l c ircu la t ion i n t he C aro l ing ian R ena iss ance .

V i truv ius c on ta ins i n for ma t ion wh ich i s o f s u f f ic ien t d e ta i l t o b e o f

p rac t ica l u se a nd we k now t ha t c op ies o f h is work were made a nd i n c ircu la t ion t hroughou t t h is p er iod i n t he Wes t , l ess c er ta in ly Veget ius wou ld a ppear t o h ave h ad s o me c urrency a nd t he o n ly c opy o f t he Anony mus a ppears t o h ave made i n a C aro l ing ian p rovenance .

H ow f ar t he s c ience s pread o u ts ide t he b orders o f

t he Frank ish Empire i s e ven l ess c er ta in , b o th S axons a nd Danes u sed t he mach ines when n ecess i ty f orced t he m , a nd i t s hou ld b e r e me mbered t ha t t he Danes h ad t he ir o wn c on tac ts w i th t he Eas tern Med i terranean , b u t t o t he n or th t he e v idence f or s uch mach ines i n t he K ingdo ms o f t he Wes t S axons i s p oor . The Ang lo-Saxon C hron ic le i s u nspec i f ic when t a lk ing o f t he d e ta i ls o f war fare a nd n o e x tended a ccoun t e x is ts f or a ny o ne s iege .

Bu t i t s hou ld b e r eca l led

t ha t i n 8 85 t he Danes a t tack ing Par is h ad c o me d irec t ly f ro m b es ieg ing R ochest er . C er ta in i ti s t ha t me mbers o f t he Wes t S axon monarchy , c lergy a nd n obi l i ty were i n c lose a nd f requen t c on tac t b o th w i th n or thern France a nd w i th R o me .

And i ti s p rec ise ly t h is c lass t ha t w ere amused b y , a nd mus t h ave h ad

t he a b i l i ty t o s o lve , t he Ang lo-Saxon R idd les .

R idd le S even teen h as b een

t rans la ted v ar ious ly b u t t here i s v ir tua l u nan im i ty i n modern e d i tors a s t o t he i n terpre ta t ion o f t he s ub jec t :

t he d e f in i t ive e d i t ion b y Krapp a nd D obb ie s ees

t he a nswer a s p robab ly ' ba l l is ta ' 8 wh i le Tupper , i n t he f u l les t d iscuss ion o f t he r idd les ,

9

p o in ts o u t t ha t t he r idd le i s p ar t o f ap a ir w i th ' bow ' a nd a l mos t

c er ta in ly i s ' ba l l is ta '.

I n t rans la t ion i t r eads :-

1 am t he p ro tec tor o f my f lock , f as t s treng thened w i th w ires a nd f i l led i ns ide w i th n ob le t reasures .

I n t he d ayt i me Io f ten

s pi t f or th d ead ly s pears ; t he f u l ler Iam .

Ih ave t he g rea ter s uccess

My mas ter b eho lds

H ow miss i les o f war f l y f ro m my b e l ly. S o met i mes Ib eg in t o s wa l low b lack a nd d usky weapons o f war , b i t ter a rrows , s pears d read fu l a nd v eno mous .

Ih ave a g ood s to mach ,

a nd w i th in i ta n e xce l len t t reasure , d ear t o g a l lan t men . Men r e me mber wha t p asses t hrough my mou th . '10 Wha tever t he d oub t a bou t r idd le s even teen h owever , t here c an b e n o d oub t a bou t t he weapon i n tended i n r idd le 5 3 a nd t he t rans la t ion r eads :s aw a t ree , g leam ing w i th b ranches , s tand e rec t i n af ores t . ag rowing t imber .

Tha t t ree was j oyfu l ,

Wa ter a nd e ar th

f ed i t we l l , u n t i l , when o ld i n y ears , i tb eca me c hanged , d eeply g ashed

1 16

b y t or men t , d umb i nb onds , f e t tered o ver i t s wounds , a dorned i n f ron t w i th d ark t rappings .

N ow i tc lears a way ,

b y t he migh t o f i t s h ead , f or a no ther , d angerous warr ior ;

t hey o f ten t oge ther

f i ercely p i l laged t he h oard .

Ac t ive a nd q u ick

was t he s econd , i ft he f irs t , h is c o mrade i n d angers , mus t v en ture i n to d anger. ' 1 1 The a nswer i s t aken a s ' ba t ter ing-ram ' i n a l l r ecen t a u thor i t ies a nd wou ld g ive u s e v idence f or t he k now ledge o f ap a ir o f s iege mach ines a t ad a te o f c irca 9 70 . Toge ther w ich s uch d e fens ive f ea tures a s t he mu l t iple d i tch s yste ms, a t L yd ford , Wareha m a nd C hr is tchurch , c a l trops f ro m a S axon c on tex t a t I ps w ich 1 2 a nd t he u se o f s iege works a nd c ircu mva l la t ion b y t he Danes a t L ond on a nd p erhaps R oches ter 1 3

a more s oph is t ica ted mi l i tary p ic ture mus t b e

a ccep ted .

NOTES AND REFERENCES 1 .

0 . M . Da l ton , The H is tory o f t he F ranks ( Ox ford , 1 927) , 3 14 .

2 .

J . M . Wa l lace Hadr i l l , The F our th B ook o f t he C hron ic le o f F redegar ( London , 1 960 ) .

3 .

MGH L eges 2 .1 , N o . 7 7 , s ec t ion 1 0 . ( A ix , 8 02/3 ) . f und ibu lae .

The word u sed i s

The s tones t o b e u sed a s miss i les were t o b e t ranspor ted

b y t wen ty p ack-horses . 4 .

B . W. S cho lz , Caro l ing ian C hron ic les ( Ann Arbor , 1 970 ) .

5 .

F or a t ex t a va i lab le i n l arger l i brar ies s ee MGH s cr ip tores r eru m G erman icarum i n u sum s cho laru m s epara t im e di t i 1 8 ° , ( Hanover , 1 871) .

6 .

H e i mskr ing le o r The L ives o f t he N orse K ings ,pre face . b y E . Mansen , ( Cambr idge , 1 932 ) , p XXXVi.

S ee t he e d i t ion

7 .

A . L . F . R ive t , ' H i Wor ts i n Ac t ion ' i n D . H i l l a nd M . J esson ( eds .) The I ron Age a nd i t s H i l l for ts ( Sou thamp ton , 1 971 ) , 1 89-202.

8 .

G . H . Krapp a nd E . V . K . Dobb ie , The E xe ter B ook ( New Y ork a nd London , 1 936) , 3 32.

9 .

F . Tupper , The R idd les o f t he E xe ter B ook , ( Bos ton , 1 910 ) ..

1 0.

W. S . Mack ie ' Notes o nt he T ex t o f t he E xe ter B ook ' , Modern Language Rev iew ,

( 1 934 ) , 1 07.

1 1.

i b id ., 1 45 .

1 2.

Proc . S u f f .Ins t . Arch . 2 9 ( 1964 ) 2 74 n o . 3a nd F ig . 5 4 .

1 3.

C f . The Ang lo S axon C hron ic le e n tr ies f or t he y ear 1 016 ( London ) a nd 8 85 ( Roches ter ) .

1 17

THE ANONY MUS I N THE LATER MIDDLE AGES b y H enry H odges

Th is p aper i s c oncerned w i th t he q ues t ion o f wha t e f fects , i fa ny , t he wr it ings o f t he Anony mus h ad u pon mi l i tary t echnolog is ts o f t he l a ter Midd le Ages .

Th is may s ee m a s trange q ues t ion t o p u t , b u t s ince a t l eas t t wo c opies

were made o f t he work i n t he f i rs t h a l f o f t he f i f teen th c en tury o ne i s e n t i t led t o a sk who were i t s r eaders , a nd why i t was f ound worth wh i le t o r eproduce t he o r ig ina l manuscr ipt . I n h is r ecen t monograph e n t i t led The R ena issance Eng ineers B er trand G i l lel h as c onven ien t ly s u m mar ised t he h is tory o f n o tebooks o n mi l i tary t echno logy o f t he l a te Midd le Ages , b eg inn ing w i th Gu ido d a V igevano

1 328 )

a nd e nding w i th t he n o tes made b y L eonardo d a V inci i n t he p er iod 1 485-1488 . V igevano 's t rea t ies , wr i tten f or P h i lip V d e Va lois , was d es igned a s a mi l it ary manua l f or c rusaders . Kyeser

I n t he s a me v e in was t he B el li for tis o f Konrad

1 405 ) d ed ica ted t o t he Emperor Ruprech t o f t he Pa la t ina te.

The

s even ty-odd y ears b etween t hese t wo works was a c r i t ica l p er iod i n t he d evel op men t o f mi li tary t echnology :

V igevano k new n oth ing o f f irear ms , Kyeser 's

mach ines l i tera l ly b r is tle w i th g uns .

Th is t rend was c arr ied s t i l l f ur ther i n

t he d ecades o f t he Huss i te wars , a nd t he work o f t he Anony mus H uss i te ( s . 1 430 ) , wh ich may b e s een a s Europe 's f irs t h andbook o f ar es is tance move men t , i l lus tra tes t he f irs t t rue c annons .

I ti s e v iden t t ha t b o th t hese manuscr ipts

were a va i lable t o t he I t a l ian e ng ineers Taccola a nd Va l tur io s ince many o f t he i l lus tra t ions i n t he l a t ter a u thors ' works a re d irec t c op ies f ro m t hose o f t he G er man s chool .

L i t t le i s k nown o f Tacco la s ave t ha t h is manuscr ipt , De

mach in is l i br i X , mus t h ave b een p roduced c . 1 450.

R ober to Va ltur io , b et ter

k nown a s a n a rch i tect , f in ished h is t rea t ise o n mi l i tary ma t ters f or S ig is mundo Ma la testa i n C . 1 455 .

A t h ird I t a l ian e ng ineer , Francesco d i G iorg io Mar t in i ,

c o mple ted h is manuscr ip t o n mi l i tary t echno logy b e tween t he y ears 1 470-1480 , wh i le Va l tur io 's work f irs t a ppeared a s ap r in ted e di tion i n 1 479. Th is e x tre me ly b r ief s urvey , wh ich om i ts many o f t he minor wr i ters o n t he s ub jec t , i s s u f f icien t t o s how t he k een i n teres t t ha t e x is ted f ro m t he midf our teen th c en tury o nwards i n manua ls o f mi l i tary t echno logy.

A l though d e-

d ica ted t o me mbers o f r oya l o r n ob le h ouses , t here s ee ms l i t tle d oub t t ha t t hey were wr i t ten f or t he b ene f i t o f o ther e ng ineers a nd mi l i tary l eaders .

One

mus t s uppose t ha t many e ng ineers h ad t heir own c ol lect ions o f p r iva te n otes j us t a s ac he f d e c u is ine t oday w i l l k eep h is own r ecipe b ook .

I ti s impor tan t

t o g rasp t ha t , q u i te a par t f ro m a f ew o r ig ina l i deas , e ach c o l lect ion c on ta ined ah igh p ropor t ion o f d evices b orrowed f ro m a c o m mon p ool .

I ti s e qua l ly im-

p or tan t t o r ea l ise t ha t many o f t he i nclus ions were made , n o t b ecause o f t heir u t i l i ty o r p ract icabi l i ty , b u t f or t he s ake o f c o mpleteness .

1 19

We may n ow a sk wh ich o f t he mach ines d escr ibed b y t he Anony mus were mos t l i ke ly t o h ave f ound t heir way i n to t hese n o tebooks . f our s uch d ev ices ;

There a re b as ica l ly

t he c a tapu l ts , t he i n f la table p on toon b r idge , t he p add le-

d r iven b oa t a nd t he c har io ts .

The r e ma inder o f t he e qu ip men t i s o f s uch a

f undamen ta l n a ture t ha t i t wou ld b e i mposs ible t o t race i n t h is c on tex t . The f irs t o n t h is l i s t , t he c a tapu l ts , c an b e d is m issed q u i te r ap id ly .

B y

t he midd le o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury t ors ion a r t i l lery h ad b een l arge ly r ep laced a s a means o f t hrowing h eavy miss i les b y t he mangone l , q u ick ly s uperseded b y t he t rebuche t .

2

T hese mach ines were e ssen t ia l ly h eavy p ivo ted l evers t o

o ne e nd o f wh ich was a t tached a s l ing i n wh ich was p laced t he miss i le .

I n t he

c ase o f t he mangone l t he o ther e nd o f t he l ever was e qu ipped w i th h au l ing l ines o pera ted b y at ea m o f men ;

wh i le i n t he t rebuche t3 t hese r opes were r ep laced

b y ah eavy c oun terwe igh t , n or ma l ly o f s tones o r s oi l c on ta ined i n al arge s ack , a nd wh ich was t herefore c apab le o f b e ing v ar ied a ccord ing t o c ircu ms tances . As L ynn Wh i te h as p o in ted o u t ,

4

t he t rebuche t was f ar s uper ior i n ma t ters o f

r ange a nd a ccuracy t han a ny t ors ion-opera ted a r t i l lery o f t he e ar ly M idd le Ages , e spec ia l ly o nce i th ad b een e s tab l ished t ha t r ounded s ho t o f s tandard we igh ts c ou ld b e f lung r epea ted ly a t t he s ame t arge t a rea w i th a r easonab le c hance o f h i t t ing i t .

Thus , h ad t he wr i ters o f t he l a ter Midd le Ages s een t he

Anony mus ' a ccoun ts o f c a tapu l ts t hey migh t we l l h ave mean t n o th ing t o t he m .

5

A t b es t t hey wou ld b e r ecogn ized a s o u t moded p ieces o f e qu ip men t , more d i ff icu l t t o c ons truct t han t he t rebuche t a nd l ess e f fec t ive . The o n ly s im i lar d ev ice t o s urv ive t hroughou t t he M idd le Ages was t he c ross-bow ,

6

l arge ly a s ah and-he ld weapon .

I ti s c er ta in ly s ign i f ican t t ha t

when L eonardo d a V inci d rew a mach ine t o t hrow a h eavy s pear h e s aw i tn o t a s ab a l l is ta b u t a s as ca led-up v ers ion o f t he h and-he ld c ross-bow o f t he p er iod .7 T o i th e a t tached a c arr iage o f l arge whee ls , b u t a s f ar a s o ne c an d e tect p rov ided n o means o f t ra in ing o r e leva t ing t he weapon . H is s ke tch ' , v as p resumab ly e i ther a p re l im inary s tudy o f as ub jec t o n wh ich h e d ec ided t o d o n o f ur ther work , o r ar ecord c u l led f ro m s o me o ther s ource s i mp ly o u t o f i n teres t . T he i n f la tab le p on toon b r idge d escr ibed b y t he Anony mus s ee ms a t f irs t s igh t t o b e ap oss ible s ource o f i nsp ira t ion f or a s im i lar k ind o f b r idge d epic ted b y V igevano i n wh ich o ne c ou ld a rgue t ha t t he i n f la ted s k ins o f o ur A uthor h ave b een r ep laced b y c asks .

8

I fs o , t h is wou ld b e as urpr is ing modi f ica t ion s ince

t he who le c on trap t ion was s upposed , o nce b roken d own t o i t s c o mponen ts , t o b e r ead i ly p or table o n p ack a n i ma ls a nd o ne wou ld imag ine t ha t s k ins , f o lded a nd r eady f or i n f la t ion , wou ld h ave b een f ar more e as i ly c arr ied t han b arre ls . On t he o ther h and i t migh t h ave b een t ha t c asks , i n i t ia l ly c on ta in ing v ictua ls , wou ld h ave b een a va i lable o n a ny c rusad ing e xped i t ion , wh i le s k ins migh t n o t h ave b een t o h and .

E ven s o , e lsewhere i n

h is t ex t , V igevano d escr ibes t he

u se o f i n f la ted s k ins a s f l oa ts f or s wi m mers c ross ing r ivers .

9

K yeser , t oo , h as h is p on toon b r idge , wh ich a ppears t o h ave b een a s er ies o f r a f ts j o ined b y l a t t ices t ha t c ou ld b e c losed o r e x tended d epend ing u pon t he w id th o f r iver t o b e s pa ned . 1 0 Th is c on trap t ion s ee ms t o o we l i t t le t o V igev ano 's b r idge a nd n o th ing t o t ha t o f t he Anony mus . Fur ther more , i n f la ted s k ins f or s wi m mers a re d escr ibed f requen t ly b y t he o ther wr i ters o n mi l i tary t echno logy.

E ven i n t h is c en tury r a f ts made u p i n t he manner d escr ibed b y t he

1 20

Anony mus a nd s k in f l oa ts h ave b een r epor ted i n u se w ide ly t hroughou t As ia f ro m Mesopo ta m ia t o C h ina .

1 1

T he u se o f s uch r a f ts a nd f loa ts i n t he Midd le

Ages was e ven more w idespread , i n wh ich c ase t he ir i nc lus ion i n t ex ts o n m i l i tary t echno logy n eed h ave n oth ing t o d o w i th t he work o f o ur Au thor . L eonardo wr i tes ,

Thus

( When t he S pan iards . S cyth ians a nd Arabs w ish t o b u i ld a

b r idge v ery q u ick ly , t hey b ind h urd les made o f w i l low t o b ags o r w ine-sk ins o f o xh ide , a nd s o c ross s a fe ly ) . 1 2 B oa ts p rope l led b y p add le-whee ls o ccur i n v ir tua l ly a l l t he t ex ts o n m i l i tary t echno logy f ro m V igevano t o L eonardo , b u t n one s how t he o x-powered c aps tan d r ive o f o ur Au thor .

I ns tead , t he p add le-boa ts a re sma l l v esse ls i n-

t ended t o b e manua l ly o pera ted , a nd t ha t i l lus tra ted b y V igevano i nc iden ta l ly s hows o ne o f t he f i rs t u ses i n E urope o f t he d oub le c rank h and le .

1 3

N eedha m

h as r ecen t ly d rawn a t ten t ion t o t he e ar ly d eve lop men t o f s im i lar p add le-boa ts i n C h ina , 1 4 b u t a s i n t he c ase o f c ross-bows c i ted a bove i ti s h igh ly d oubt fu l t ha t a ny q ues t ion o f d i f fus ion i s i nvo lved . 1 5 I ndeed a ma jor d i f f icu l ty t ha t s tands i n t he way o f a ny d iscuss ion o f t he e vo lu t ion o f t he p add le-boa t l i es i n t he f act t ha t ap er fec t ly r easonab le p ro to type h ad b een e vo lved i n t he l a te R o man p er iod a nd c on tinued i n u se t hroughou t t he M idd le Ages .

Th is was t he

f loa t ing mi l l , b as ica l ly a moored b oa t e qu ipped w i th a n u ndersho t wa ter-whee l t ha t o pera ted t he mi l l-s tone s e t amidsh ips .

1 6

I n t h is c ase t he t urn ing whee l

p rov ided t he p ower , b u t b y r evers ing t he p rocess o ne h ad a p add le-boa t .

I t

s ee ms h igh ly p robab le t ha t t h is was o ne s ource o f i nspira t ion f or o ur Au thor 's p add le b oa t , t he o ther b e ing t he o x-dr iven wa ter-ra is ing whee l , c o m mon t o a l l a reas o f i rr iga t ion f ar m ing , t ha t p rov ided t he p ower .

1 7

The f ac t t ha t

V igevano a nd l a ter a u thors o n m i l i tary t echno log y1 8 u sed o n ly musc le-power s trong ly s ugges ts t ha t t he p add le-boa ts o f t he l a te M idd le Ages were a s epara te a nd d is t inct d eve lop men t t ha t o wed n o th ing t o o ur Au thor 's work . S o f ar we h ave d rawn a b lank . There i s n o th ing p os i t ive t o s ugges t t ha t o ur a u thor 's t ex t was k nown t o mi l i tary wr i ters o f t he l a ter M idd le Ages , a nd t here r e ma in o n ly t he c har io ts t o c ons ider ,

( Par t 2 , P ls . X -XV ) . I n ap er iod

t ha t was t o s ee t he f ina l d eve lop men t o f h eavy c ava lry a nd p la te a r mour i ti s h ard ly s urpr is ing t ha t t he l a te Med ieva l wr i ters h ave n o th ing t o s ay a bou t c har io ts o f t he k ind i l lus tra ted b y o ur a u thor .

Ad m i t ted ly , V igevano h as a

l u mber ing o x-drawn wagon f i t ted w i th f ixed s cy the b lades 1 9 a nd t h is was c opied b y l a ter wr i ters i n mod i f ied f or ms ; b u t t hese mach ines h ave n o b ear ing u pon o ur a u thor 's c har io ts , wh ich c ou ld b e more c orrec t ly d escr ibed a s ' de fens ive ly e qu ipped c ava lry '. E v idence t ha t t he t ex t a nd a cco mpany ing i l lus tra t io

o f t he Anony mus

were k nown t o L eonardo d a V inci c o mes i n t he f orm o f a mos t s urpr ising s er ies o f s ke tches ( P ls . X I I-X IL I ) 2 ° made i n t he p er iod 1 485-1488 .

H ere we

s ee o ur a u thor 's s cy thed c har io ts r e-vamped t o s u i t c urren t i deas o f R ena iss ance e ng ineer ing . T he s ing le d raugh t-po le o f t he c urrodoepanus c l ipea tus ( Par t 2 , P ls . X IV , XV ) h as b een r ep laced b y s ha f ts o r t races wh i le t he ' au toma t ic f l ogg ing d ev ice ' h as g iven way t o af earso me g roup o f wh ir l ing b a l ls a nd c ha ins ( P l . X I I ) .

The l a t ter i n a l l p robab i l i ty o we t he ir d es ign t o t he b a l l-and -

c ha in g overnors t o b e s een a s c o mponden ts o f h and- m i l ls i n t he works o f t he Anony mus H uss i te , T acco la a nd G iorg io ;?'

b u t t he i nsp ira t ion may we l l l i e

i n t he i l lus tra t ions o f o ur a u thor 's t ex t , f or t he d ang l ing b e l ls ( ? ) a t tached t o t he h orse man 's ' w ings ' c er ta in ly l ook a t f irs t s igh t l i ke a p a ir o f b a l ls a nd c ha ins . 1 21

I nventory No.

PLATE X II.

C O i n c o . c N T H

Reproduced by

gracious

1 m

permission

Leonardo

British Museum,

F ur ther more , t he c loaks worn b y s o me o f L eonardo 's r iders , t ru ly u nnecessary e ncu mbrances , may we l l b e wha t L eonardo made o f t he ' wings '. d repanus ( Par t 2 , P ls. X , X I ) ,

The ( Curro-

i n wh ich t he t wo r iders a re s een t o h o ld t he ir

l ances a t e xac t ly t he s ame a ng le , may h ave i nspired t he c ur ious a nd t o ta l ly imprac t icable a rrange men t o f f ixed l ances o n L eonardo 's l one h orse man ( P l . X I I b o t to m l e f t ) ; wh i le t he s ke tch o f a n a rcher o n t he s a me p age ( P l . X I I t op l ef t ) ,

i n wh ich h e i s s een t o b e s hoo t ing t hrough t he c en tra l o pen ing o f a

s h ie ld , may h ave b een i ncluenced b y o ur a u thor 's i l lus tra t ion o f t he c l ipeoc en trus ( Par t 2 , P ls . V I I , V I I I ) . L eonardo 's t ex t makes h is i ndebtedness t o t he Anony mus e ven c learer . " These c har io ts a r med w i th s cy thes were o f v ar ious k inds ," h e wro te , " and o f ten d id n o l ess h ar m t o t heir f r iends t han t o t he ir e ne m ies , f or t he c o mmanders o f t he a rm ies t h ink ing t ha t b y t he ir u se t hey wou ld t hrow c on fus ion i n to t he r anks o f t he e ne my c aused p an ic a nd d es truc t ion among t heir o wn f orces .... As a p ro tect ion a ga ins t t he m t he R o mans u sed t o s ca t ter i ron c a l trops , wh ich b rough t t he h orses t o ah a l t a nd made t he m f a l l t o t he g round i n p a in , l eav ing t he c har io ts u nab le t o move . "2 9

E lsewhere h e wr i tes , "When

p ass ing t hrough i t s o wn r anks i ti s n ecessary t o r a ise>t he mach inery t ha t works t he s cythes t o p reven t t he m h ar m ing a nyone . "2 3 k inds" o f c har io t a r med w i th s cy thes ; p ass ing t hrough o ne 's o wn f orces ;

The men t ion o f " var ious

o f t he n eed t o r a ise t he s cythes when

a nd o f t he u se o f c a ltrops

( c o mpare t he

p lu mba ta t r ibo la ta , DRB X ) l eaves n o r easonab le d oub t a s t o wh ich R o man a u thor s erved a s L eonardo 's a u thor i ty.

I ti s q u i te t yp ica l o f L eonardo , t oo ,

t o h ave d ea l t w i th o ur a u thor 's c har io ts i n t he manner h e d id .

F or h i m mach ines

h ad t o b e f unc t iona l , a nd t he f act t ha t t hese c har io ts h ad n o b ear ing u pon t he mi l i tary s i tua t ion o f h is d ay was i rre levan t .

D t irer 's p icture o f al andsknech t

t e l ls u s t he t ru th a bou t t he c ava lry o f t he p er iod :

L eonardo 's s ke tches b e long

t o af a iry-ta le wor ld o f Anc ien t R o me p u t i n to modern d ress . I ti s n o t d i f fuc l t t o u nders tand why t he d e R ebus B e l licis o f t he Anony mus was c opied i n t he f irs t h a l f o f t he f i f teen th c en tury .

C lear ly i tb e longed o n

t he s he l f w i th V igevano , K yeser a nd t he o thers , i fo n ly f or t he p le teness .

s a ke

o f c o m-

I t was r equ ired r ead ing b ecause i t was h is tory a nd b ecause i t

d ea l t w i th t opics t ha t s u i ted t he mood o f t he R ena issance .

As a p ract ica l

g u ide t o ma t ters o f mi l i tary t echno logy i th ad , a s o n t he d ay i t was wr i t ten , n o f unct ion a t a l l .

D epar t men t o f Ar t H is tory , Queen 's Un ivers i ty , K ings ton , On tar io , CANADA .

1 24

NC ' ES AND REFERENCES

1 . 2 .

G i l le , R ena issance Eng ineers ( London , 1 966). A MS i n t he Na t iona l L ibrary ,

V ienna ,

d a ted 1 415 h as a n i l lus tra t ion

o f ap etrary o r o nager wh ich i s t ors ion o pera ted ( Gi l le, o p .ci t . 5 7 ). 3 .

( n .1) , 2 6;

Mach ines o f t h is n a ture were , n ever theless , ar ar i ty a t t h is t ime .

G i l l , 92 .ci t . ( n . 1 ) , 2 6; C . S inger e t a l . ( eds.) , A H istory o f Technology , Vo l . 2( Oxford , 1 956) , 6 44.

4 .

L . Wh i te , The Expans ion o f Techno logy ( London , 1 969 ) , 3 2.

5 .

Th is i s a ssu m ing t ha t t he Anony mus a r t i l lery was t orsion o pera ted .

I n

f act h is d escr iptions a re s o u nclear t ha t e ven t h is i s n o t c er ta in . 6 .

Wr i ters o n t he s ub jec t o f medieva l t echno logy d isagree a s t o t he c ont inued u se o f t he c ross-bow , e i ther i n t he moun ted o r h andheld i n Wes tern Europe a f ter t he Ro man p er iod .

f or m ,

B y s o me a u thor i t ies t he

l ack o f wr i t ten o r p ic tor ia l e v idence f or i t s u se p r ior t o t he f irs t c rusade i s t aken a s e v idence o f i t s t o ta l a bsence , a nd i t s ' re-in troduct ion ' f ro m Ch ina h as b een l a id a t many d oors .

R ecen t ly t he Kara Kh i ta i h ave b een

c redi ted w i th t h is s upposed d i f fus ion ( J . N eedha m, S cience a nd C ivi liza t ion i n C h ina , Vo l 4 , 3( Ca mbr idge , 1 971 ).

However , t he v ery d i f feren t

s tr ing-re ta in ing a nd t r igger mechan is ms o f t he C h inese a nd European c ross-bows a rgue a ga ins t s uch d i f fus ion is t t heor ies .

C o mpare S inger ,

o p. c i t . ( n .3 ) , 7 23 w i th H . Hodges , Technology i n t he Ancien t Wor ld ( London , 1 970 ) , 2 96. 7 .

Mi lan , C od . A t lan t . 5 3v .

8 .

G i l le , o p. c i t .(n . 1 ) 2 9.

9 .

i b id ., 2 9 .

1 0.

i b id ., 6 2 . .

1 1 .

Hodges , o p .c i t . ( n .6 ) , 1 52.

1 2.

Par is MS . B 69v .

1 3.

G i l le , o p.ci t . ( n .1), 2 8 ; S inger , 2E .c i t . ( n . 3 ) , 6 51.

1 4 .

N eedha m , o p .c i t . ( n .6). Vo l . 4 , 2p p . 4 13-35.

1 5 .

S ee f oo tno te 6 a bove.

1 6.

S inger , o p. c i t .

1 7.

i b id ., 6 75 ;

( n . 3 ) , 6 07-8 .

H odges o p.c i t . ( n . 6 ) ,

1 93 ;

T . S ch i 9 S ler , Ro man a nd

I s la m ic Wa ter-Li f t ing Whee ls ( Odense , Denmark , 1 973 ). 1 8 .

G i l le , o p .ci t .

( n . 1 ) , 6 2 .

1 25

1 9. 2 0 .

i bid ., 3 1. C f. A . E . P opha m , The Drawings o f L eonardo d a V inci ( London , 1 946) , P ls . CCCV I I I-X I .

2 1.

G i l le , o p.ci t .

( n . 1 ) , 7 2 , 1 11.

2 2.

E . MacCurdy , The N o tebooks o f Leonardo d a V inci ( London , 1 938 ) , 1 85.

2 3 .

i bid ., 2 12 .

1 26

T he l a te C . E . S tevens ' e x te mpore s um m ing u p a t t he Anony mus S em inar was t ranscr ibed f ro m a t ape r ecord ing a nd i s h ere r eprod uced w i th t he min i mum o f e d i tor ia l a l tera t ion a s at r ibu te t o a g rea t s cho lar a nd a r e markab le man .

1 28

S U MM ING UP b y C . E . S tevens

Is tar ted t h ink ing a bou t t he Anony mus when i t was a l mos t i mposs ib le t o g et a c opy o f h is work a t a l l a nd when i t wen t o n t he r ecord a s wha t S eeck c a l led " die D enkschri f t e iner v err t ick ten P ro jectenmachers" . We l l n ow I t h ink t ha t we h ave s o me th ing e x tre me ly i n teres t ing a nd s ugges t ive f or s tuden ts o f t he l a ter R o man emp ire t ry ing t o t h ink Anony mus o u t . s or ts o f d i f feren t a ng les .

I tc o mes f ro m a l l

I tc o mes f ro m S tephen J ohnson o n F ron t ier P o l icy ,

i tc o mes f ro m J ohn P e ter Wi ld o n t he T horaco machus a nd i tc o mes f ro m Mark Hassa l l o n b a l listae — tha t , i n f act , t he An ony mus , when we l ook a t h im , was i nven t ing v ery l i t t le i ndeed . k nown a bou t a lready.

H e was t e l l ing t he emperor wha t h e o ugh t t o h ave

In ow c o mp lete ly a ccep t t ha t t he Annony mus ' "m i le-

c as t les" n eed n o t b e , a nd p robab ly were n o t t he mi le c as t les o n H adr ian 's wa l l a s Io nce i ng a t t he t ime .

h ad

s ugges ted ,

1

b u t were s imp ly wha t Va len t in ian was b u i ld-

Ic anno t b e l ieve t ha t Va len t in ian r ead t he Anony mus a nd s a id ,

" Good g racious , I ' ve g o t t o d o t h is" a l l i n t he l i ne o f M i l i tary t h ink ing .

b ecause , a s S tephen J ohnson s a id , i t was

And t ha t b r ings me o n t o c ons ider , wha t was t he Anony mus r ea l ly u p t o? B ecause e very s ing le p erson h ad t he ir t er ms o f r e ference , Iwou ld l i ke r a ther t o t ry t o t i e t he ir c on tr ibu t ions t ogether w i th s o me th ing w i th wh ich It h ink t hey wou ld a l l a gree w i th .

L e t me l ook a t t he b ackground o f Va len t in ian-Va lens

w i th s pecia l r eference t o wha t t he Anony mus wrote . I n t he p re face h e s a id wha t Iwou ld e xpec t h im t o s ay w i th t he l anguage o f af r igh tened man ;

" I may y e t g e t i n to t rouble o ver t h is" .

N ow t ha t was

o n ly t oo c o m mon a t t ha t t ime . The emperors, f ro m Constan tius o nward , were a l l , It h ink , u nder d espera te s tra in . I f t hey were n o t n inn ies , t hey were v ery , v ery t e rnperso me men .

Theodos ius , Va len t in ian , t hey a l l

c a me l i ke t ha t .

I t was a v ery , v ery d angerous b ook t o wr i te a nd h e s a id s o . N ow wha t It h ink h e was u p t o , was r ea l ly wha t was s o e x tre me ly wel l b rough t o u t f or u s b y P a tsy Vanags a nd R ichard R eece ;

h e r ea l ly wan ted t o

r e l ieve t he f inanc ia l d i f f icu l t ies w i th s pecia l r e ference t o s old iers a nd f avour i tes . Am m ianus k new t he l a t ter .

Aure l ius V ic tor f in ished h is Caesars b y p oin t ing

o u t wha t al o t o f was te g oes o n f avour i tes u nder a b ad emperor , b u t t hen C ons tan t ius was c onven ien t ly d ead .

S e ldo m d o we h ave c r i t icis m o f al i v ing

emperor ; N obody d ares t o c r i t ic ize t he mi l i tary p o l ic ies o f a n emperor u nl ess h e c an i n f ac t g e t h im b ecause h e was o n , s o t o s ay , t he l os ing s ide . Ye t i ti s j us t t he q ues t ions , " How much more t he a rmy c os ts u s .

H ow c an we

e cono m ise i n t he a r my?" t ha t c oncerned t he Anony mus . I t was s a fe f or Lac tan t ius , a s a Chr is t ian u nder t he C hr is t ian C ons tant ine , t o p o in t o u t ; i tc os ts .

t h is mi l i tary e xpend i ture i s a l l v ery we l l b u t wha t al o t

L actan t ius c ou ld s ay t ha t .

Id o n o t 1 29

w orry t ha t Ih ave t o g o b ack t o

Lac tan t ius t o l ook a t my p ara l le l f or t he Anony mus . N ow , who was t he Anonymus? H e was n ot a man , a s h e v ery c are fu l ly makes c lear , who was i n t he C iv i l S erv ice . H e h adn 't c l i mbed t he l adder wh ich p u t h im i n c harge o f 9 uaest i ones ; h e was n o t i nvo led i n t he g iv ing o f j us t ice ; h e was n o t ap rov incia l g overnor ; f isci .

a nd h e wasn 't " educa ted i n e loquence" , h e wasn 't a n a dvoca tus

H e d id n o t c l i mb t he c iv i l ian l adder a t a l l .

L e t u s f irs t k eep t ha t i n

mind . Wha t a re t he i mp l ica t ions o f t h is?

As a c iv i l ian b u t ap r iva te c i t izen ,

was h e n o t r ea l ly a r a ther c lever man , g e t t ing t he emperor 's e ar f or s o met h ing t ha t was s a fe , t o d isgu ise p u t t ing a cross s o meth ing t ha t was v ery d angero us?

T ho mpson h as s a id t ha t i t was n a ive t o s ay t ha t we s hou ld g e t o ur t ax-

a t ion s tra igh t .

Agreed , i t was n a ive b u t , i t was d espera te ly d angerous .

was s aying t ha t a n emperor c ou ld 't p ick t he r igh t min is ters .

I t

Ir em ind myse l f

t ha t p erhaps t he more o r l ess c on te mporary H is tor ia Augus ta p u t u p a man who s a id t o Hadr ian : " Do m i t ian may h ave b een a b ad man b u t h e p icked we l l" w i th t he i n ference t ha t ag ood man c ou ld p ick b ad ly . t o s ay .

I t was a d angerous t h ing

Ic an t h ink o f t he p eop le who made t he c o mp la in ts a ga ins t Va len t in ian

a nd Va lens - who g ot i n to t roub le when t hey d id . who h ad p icked C oun t R o manus . p ick ing b ad ly" .

These were t he emperors

Ad espera te ly d angerous t h ing t o s ay :

H ow d id h e g e t r ound i t?

" You 're

H e g o t r ound i t , It h ink , b y p u t t ing

t hese mi l i tary mach ines i n a nd f or t he mos t p ar t p u t t ing t h ings i n a bou t wh ich t he emperor wou ld s ay :

"We l l , t ha t 's r a ther c lever o f h im , It hough t o f t ha t

myse l f" . And when h e d oes t ry t echn ica l i mprove men ts , t hey a re s i l ly improvemen ts .

( The p add le s teamer , a nd Iwou ld s ay t he t read m i l l a t tached t o t he

b a l l is ta f u lm ina l is , i nciden ta l ly , s ee m t o i nd ica te a f am i l iar i ty w i th mines Iwou ld l i ke y ou t o r e me mber t he whee ls a t R io T in to a nd e ven o ne a t Do la uco th i i n Wa les ).

T hey a re i nc luded b u t i ti s i n teres t ing t o s ee h ow h e s tar ts

w i th t he f inanc ia l-po l i t ica l s tu f f , a nd t hen h ow , a f ter t he mach ines , h e h as r a ther a n i n teres t ing l ead b ack b y t he mi le f or ts , t o f inance a ga in : y ou c an s ave money b y employing q uas i-c iv i l ian b urgar i i i n f i f t ies o r h undreds , who g e t t he ir o rders f ro m t he c iv i l ian P raetorian P raefect i n t he Theodos ian C ode . H e l ed u p t o t he mi l i tary mach ines a nd t hen l ed a way f ro m t he m f in ish ing w i th s o me th ing wh ich , i n as ense , o ugh t t o h ave b een a t t he b eg inn ing , t ha t i s t o s ay t he c od i f ica t ion o f R o man L aw a nd a l l t he d i f f icu l t ies t ha t t he c iv i l ians h ad g o t i n to . Iw i l l make y ou a g uess a t t he e nd . s l igh t a nd r a ther s i l ly .

H is mi l i tary impro v e men ts a re v ery

H e was n o t i n f act a mi l i tary man a t a l l .

H e o ugh t

n o t , a s Ih ave s a id , h ave b een i n t he c iv i l s erv ice i fh e was n o t ah igh t ly e duca ted man .

H e wag p erhaps , ac ur ia l is a nd Iam s ure t ha t a n e as tern o r ig in

i s r igh t , o therw ise , i fh e h ad b een a wes terner , q u i te , s i mp ly , h e wou ld h ave men t ioned n o t t he Danube b u t t he R h ine .

H e l i ved s o mewhere n ear t he Danube ,

Iwou ld g uess . And Iwou ld g uess t oo , t ha t h e h ad s een t hese mi l i tary mach ines b ecause h e was s o mewhere where t here were c om i ta tenses a t tached . Whe ther o r n o t t hey a ctua l ly h ad o f fens ive mach ines s uch a s t he Anony mus s ugges ts , t he d angers t he R o mans f aced r equ ired d efensive o nes which t he b arbarians d idn 't h ave , b u t t he R o mans c er ta in ly p ossessed .

We t h ink i th igh t ly l ike ly

t ha t t he b as t ions o f R o man t owns were b u i l t s o a s t o moun t b a l l is tas u pon t he m . De fens ive mach ines a re impor tan t .

I n i nc lud ing t he o f fens ive mach ines h e i s 1 30

r ea l ly r a ther s i l ly . Wha t a re t hey g o ing t o a t tack a t own f or? T he b arbar ians d id n o t l i ve i n t owns . I fh e h ad s een a ny th ing l i ke t he m i n r ea l i ty t hey may v ery wel l h ave b een k ep t o n t he e s tabl ish men t o f c om i ta tens ian u n i ts o f t he f ie ld a r my , o f fens ive mach ines t o b e u sed a ga ins t R o man t owns

i f , p erhaps ,

t here were a c iv i l war . Tha t i s t he p ic ture Imean t :

t ha t h e i s a man v ery i n teres ted i n , v ery

t hough t fu l a bou t t he d angers - " The b udge t d oesn 't b a lance , t he t axes a re t oo h igh , t oo much g oes o n t he s o ld iers , o n t he a rmy .Can we t h ink i to u t? emperor o ugh t t o d o s o me th ing a bou t t h is ."

a ga ins t P robus o f f isca l o ppress ion i n I l lyr icu m i n 3 75 . c ur ia l is u nder P robus . i n .

" Very d angerous t h ing t o d o .

Ih ave s een t he m myse l f .

Perhaps h e was a

L e t u s p u t t he mach ines

( Co m i ta tenses were b i l le ted i n t owns .)

t h ink o u t ac lever t h ing o r t wo .

The

L ike I ph icles who made c o mp la in ts

I ' l l

P erhaps t h is w i l l g o f ar ." We l l , It h ink t he

f a te o f t he Anony mus was t he f a te o f t he man who p ushed t he t ank u p t o t he War O f f ice . o n to t he f i le .

The War O f f ice man wro te o n i t :

" The man 's mad" .

B u t i tg ot

I tg o t o n to t he f i le .

H e c ou ldn 't d o a ny th ing a bou t h is worry , t hough It h ink myse l f t ha t h e c ou ld h ave g ot i tb oth ways .

H e f e l t , c orrect ly , t ha t i t wou ld h ave b ene f i ted

t he c o l la tores i fy ou g ot t he mi l i tary o n to t he l and a nd made t he m p ay t axes t here .

It h ink t h is was a modes t i dea t ha t h e c ou ld h ave g o t f ro m h is o wn

r eg ion , t ha t i fy ou c ou ld p u t t he m o n emphy teu t ic l eases , t hey migh t p ay a l ow r en t b u t t hey 'd p ay s o me th ing . d id p ay .

They c ou ld b e c a l led c o l la tores , i ft hey

I t was a n ea t h a l f-way h ouse i ft hey p a id s o me th ing a t l eas t .

The man 's mad .

Bu t Id on 't t h ink we 'd h ave h ad h is p a mph le t s o mehow

i fh e h adn 't b een c lever e nough a t l eas t t o k eep h is h ead o n h is s hou lders . The n ices t t h ing a bou t t h is c on ference i s t o s how t ha t h e i s wor th s tudying . H e i s n ot a " verr t ick ter P ro jec tenmacher" a nd n e i ther a re t he l ec turers v err t ick te V or tragende , n or i s t h is v ery o ld h and i n t he b us iness , who o nce p ubl ished s o me th ing o n t he Anony mus , a nd In ow k now i t 's n o t wor th t he p aper i t was p r in ted o n :

NOTE 1 .

C . E . S tevens , ' A R o man Au thor i n N or th- Wes t B r i ta in '. CW 2 1 . ( 1951 ) , p p . 7 0-79 .

1 31

ANONYMI

D E

AVCTORI S

L I BELLVS

R EBVS B ELLICIS

A TREATI SE

B Y

AN

UNKNOWN

A UTHOR

O N M ILITARY M ATTERS

e dited, w ith

b y

t ranslated a nd

c ommentaries o n

R OBERT

I RELAND

p resented

t he

t ext,

l anguage a nd

s tyle

- a xpoy w ncL ß apßdpwv

8 xal

T oOToy

EI V UL

TE XE C TL X 6 V.

X UI

ÖÜVO LC e aL

ü nLcxyci :c .aaL

a üTby x c op ' Lc

Ö T IXLIG 3V xaTä

v epycZy. O lympiodoros, f rg .38

P RELIMINARY

n unc t andem . H astily c onceived a nd p ainfully g estated , o f d e r ebus b ellicis i s f inally ,

t his e dition

o bstetricante m e i pso, d elivered

a s t he s equel t o as et o f l earned p apers w hose a ppearance h as b een d elayed f or f ive y ears b y m y r eluctance t o t ake l eave o f a n o ld a nd v alued c ompanion .

T o t he a uthors o f t hese p apers I o we m y a pologies;

t o t he r eader , m y e xplanations; a nd t o m y f riends, m y t hanks . I h ave k ept m y w ork o n t he t ext v ery l argely t o m yself , n eque s i m ale c esserat o h m d ecurrens a lio, n eque s i b ene; a nd t he c omponent p arts o f m y c ontribution w ere p ulled t ogether a t s o l ate a s tage a s t o r ender t he a dvice o f e xternal a uthority - e ven i f i t h ad b een s ought - u nserviceable: s i a utem u el p ro m ei a biectione u el p ro u itiosi s ermonis r usticitate p lacet n ulli, m emet t ar nen i psum i uuat q uod f eci. O ne p ortion o f t his e dition , h owever ,

h as b een s een b y

o ther e yes t han m ine, a nd I m ust t hank P aul C ollins f or r eviewing m y t ranslation , a nd 2 /Lt P .A . F ox R .A . f or c orrecting i ts u se o f m ilitary t erminology .

T he t ranslation a nd p arts o f t he i nterpreta-

t ive w ork w ere d rafted d uring a p eriod o f r esidence a t t he F ondation H ardt i n G eneva , a nd I a m v ery g rateful t o P rofessors E ric T urner a nd O livier R everdin , M Me S uzanne M oor , M . B ernard G range, a nd t heir s taff , f or m aking m y s tay a t L a C handoleine p ossible, d elightful a nd p roductive . A nd I m ust r ecord s ome p urely p ersonal o bligations: t o M ärk H assall , f or i mposing t he p resent t ask u pon m e a nd f or s ubs equently a pplying n o m ore t han t he n ecessary p ressure; t o M ärk L owe, f or l imitless s upplies o f c offee; t o M ärk ,

C orinne, A dam , D aniel a nd

M agdalen G retton , f or t he w eekend i n S uffolk d uring w hich ( I h ope w ithout t heir k nowledge) t he b ook w as f inished ; t o R oyston , J o, T imothy a nd M atthew B ail , f or r efuge a t W argrave d uring c rucial s tages o f t he t yping; t o m y p arents , w ho d id n ot a sk a wkward q uestions , a nd t o m y b rother a nd s ister , w ho d id . I n t echnical m atters I a m i ndebted t o I an M arriott , f or i nvaluable h elp w ith

t he c omputer p rocedure e mployed i n p roducing t he c oncordance t o t he t ext , a nd t o M oira M ackenzie , w ho p asted u p t ext a nd t ransl ation w ith u nerring s kill a nd a g ood-humour u nshaken e ven b y a l ast-minute d isaster i nvolving a p icture-caption . T he t ypography o f t he e dition i s m y o wn: I h ave t o t hank P rofessors D .M . W ilson , G .P .

G oold , E .W . H andley a nd J .E .C .T .

W hite f or s uc-

c essive g rants t owards t he p urchase o f t he I BM m achine a nd t he s tock o f t ypes w ith w hich t hese p ages w ere e xecuted .

T he r eader h as t here-

f ore t o c ontend n ot o nly w ith a n a ggressive a nd d espotic e ditor b ut w ith a n a mbitious a nd u ntrained t ypist a s w ell . H e w ill p robably f ind o ccasion t o b lame m e i n b oth m y c apacities , a nd I s hall d efend m yself i n b oth w ith t he w ords o f F oulke R obartes: W ho f aulteth n ot, l iueth n ot;

w ho m endeth f aults i s c ommended:

f aulted a l ittle: ( Reader )

i t m ay b e t he a uthor o uersighted m ore.

i s t he l east;

s harpe c ensuring;

T he P rinter h ath T hy p aine

t hen e rre n ot t hou m ost b y m isconstruing o r

l east t hou b e m ore v ncharitable,

t hen e ither o f

t hem h ath b een h eedlesse.

A s f or t he e diting : t here a re c ertain o bvious a nd u nassailable c orr ections w hich e very p ost -1 952 t ext o f o ur t reatise m ust i ncorporate, a nd t he u ser o f T hompson's e dition w ill f ind h ere m uch t hat i s a lr eady f amiliar . B ut h e m ust a lso b e p repared t o f ind s ome n ovelties , e ven w here h e t hought t hat t he s olution o f d ifficulties h ad b een f ound : I h ave n ot h esitated t o r econsider t he t ext a t a ll i ts p oints o f w eakness , w hether p reviously s uspected o r n ot . I n t he c ommentaries Ih ave v ery o ften u sed t he l anguage o f h ypothesis , s ometimes o f i ntimidation: t he e ditor o f ad ifficult t ext i n a t reacherous t rad ition , f irst e dited b y S iegmond G helen a nd i n m odern t imes a ll b ut n eglected , h as l ittle c hoice i n t he m atter .

T he a rt o f b oring m ay

c onsist i n s aying e verything : b ut i t i s e qually t rue t hat t he o nly r eally i nteresting q uestions a re t hose t o w hich n o a nswer h as y et b een f ound . T he o bvious w ill b e f ound h ere j uxtaposed w ith t he s peculative; e xplorations i nto t he i nner n ature o f af ourth-century s tyle c o-exist w ith a c atalogue o f t he m ost e lementary u ses o f t he a blative . I t w as n ecessary t o d o a ll t his n ow , b ecause n one o f i t h ad b een d one b ef ore: a nd I h ave t ried t o l eave t he t ext a nd i ts l iterary i nterpretation a t ap oint , n ot w here a ll f uture w ork i s p recluded , b ut f rom w hich i t m ay u sefully s tart .

C ONTENTS An o n

a nalysis of pp. 1 93-196

t he

c ontents

of s ections

1 -5

i s

printed

T EXT

3 - 1 9

TRANSLATION

TRANSMISSION OF

T EXTUAL

THE

T EXT

CRITICISM

LANGUAGE AND

STYLE

I NDICES

MANUSCRIPT

I LLUSTRATIONS

- 3 6

3 9

- 9 2

9 4

- 1 09

1 13

- 1 50

1 53

- 1 96

f ollowing

V

2 3

p .

1 98

A NOTE

ON

THE

PRESENTATION

OF

THE

T EXT

T he f ollowing t ypographic c onventions h ave b een a dopted h ere:

i talics i n t he t ext , a ngle b rackets < > i n t he c ritical n otes, s ignify s upplements, i talic a sterisks ** a p ostulated l acuna; w ords w ithin s quare b rackets

[] a re e ditorially d eleted;

t he r oman a sterisk * p recedes a c orrection o r s upplement l acuna a ssumed) b y t he p resent e ditor;

( or a

o beli t t s urround i rremediable c orruptions.

T o p ermit e xact r eference t o t he t ext t he t raditional c hapterd ivision h as b een m aintained b ut t he s entences w ithin c hapters h ave b een r e-numbered t hroughout.

T he i llustrations i n t he t ext a re r eproduced a t f ull s ize f rom t he e ditio p rinceps o f 1 552. F roben 's e ngraver n aturally t ransf erred t o h is b locks a d irect c opy o f t he d rawn i llustration b efore h im , a nd t he p rinted i mpressions a re, i n c onsequence, l aterally r eversed w ith r espect t o t he o riginals. N o a ttempt h as b een m ade t o a lter t his b y p hotographic m eans i n t he p resent e dition . A n ecessary c hange, h owever, h as b een v entured o n i n r eproducing t he i llustrations t o c c . x -xi ( the p lumbatae ) a nd x vi ( ascogef yrus), b oth o f w hich F roben 's c ompositor l ocked i nto t he t ext u psid e -d own - a p ardonable e rror i n b oth c ases, b ut a n e rror n onetheless, a nd o ne w hich i s h ere c orrected. A nd t o c omply w ith t he l ateral r eversal o f t he p rinted i mage o f t he b locks f or c c . v iii-ix a nd ( as r estored) x -xi, t he i tems w ithin t he c aptions t o t hese b locks h ave b een t ransposed s o t hat t he c orrect n ame a ppears a bove e ach d evice; t he t ext c hapters o f c ourse f ollow i n t heir t ransmitted s equence. ( The e ditio p rinceps a voids t he p roblem h ere b y r anging t he n ames v ertically o ver t he c entre o f t he c uts). F inally , i n t he i nterests o f t ypographical c onsistency, t he o riginal l etterpress d ropped i nto t he i llustrat ion f or c . ih as b een r eplaced b y l abels s et i n t he t ype u sed f or t his e dition.

D E

R EBVS

B ELLICIS

p raefatio

1 2

3

4 5

c aelesti s emper i nstinctu f elicis r ei p ublicae u estrae c ommoditas, s acratissimi p rincipes, o pportunis e st s uggerenda t emporibus, u t d iuina c onsilia d iuinis s uccessibus c onualescant. u nde p ro i ngenii f acultate u num c apitulum d e l argitionum u tilitate i n h oc l ibello c omposui, n on q uod i stud t am i nmensae u tilitati s ufficiat s ed u t e x h oc m ediocritatis m eae d ocumento p raemisso i n r eliquis u tilit atis p ossit f ides o stendi. p roinde, n e p romissioni f ides a ccomm odata u elut f allacem i n p osterum g rauet, p ro c onscientia u eritat is i pse m ihi p oenam p raemii l oco, s i p romissio s ecus c esserit, p osco, * nec m e l aus a ut p raemium p rosequatur c um a bunde s it i n h ac p arte i ndignationem p ro a udacia d eclinare. s ed f as e rit r ei p ublic ae p raesulem a p rivato d esiderata c ognoscere, c um r erum u tilitas i nterdum e um l ateat i nquirentem. e rgo n on n umquam i nuitandi s unt

q ui r ecte q uicquam s entire f uerint a pprobati: n am u t a it o ptimus o rator, a d i lium m aior p ars h ominum d ecurrit q uem i ngenio n atura 6 d onauerit. i n q ua r e e st c onsiderare s emper q uid u nus q uisque m agis s entiat q uam l oquatur; c onstat e nim a pud o mnes q uod n ec s umma n obil itas n ec o pum a ffluentia a ut s ubnixae t ribunalibus p otestates a ut e loquentia l itteris a cquisita c onsecuta e st u tilitates a rtium, i n q uibus e tiam a rmorum c ontinetur i nuentio, s ed i ngenii t antum m odo m agnitudo, q uae u irtutum o mnium m ater e st, n aturae f elicitate s ub7 n ixa. q uod q uidem s ine p ersonarum e lectione u idemus a ccidere: n am c um b arbarae g entes n eque f acundia p olleant a ut d ignitatibus i llust rentur, m inime t ar nen a r erum i nuentione, n atura o pitulante, h aben 8 t ur a lieni. q uam o b r em, c lementissimi p rincipes, q ui g loriam b onae o pinionis p erpetua f elicitate d iligitis, q ui r omano n omini d ebitos 9

1 0

1 1

1 2 1 3

1 4

a ffectus p ropagatis i n f ilios, r espicere d ignemini q uae n ostris s en s ibus c ommoda p rouidentia d iuinitatis i ntulerit. u niuersis i gitur s eu m ilitiam c lementiae u estrae t ractantibus s eu o tio p rivato c ont entis u el t errae c ultoribus s iue n egotiatoribus m ercium l ucra t ractantibus p ro s aeculi u estri f elicitate g audentibus, c onsequem ini e x h oc o pere c ommoda s ingulorum, q uorum s pecies d iuersis t itulis, o pportunis q uibusque l ocis, o ratio s ubiecta t estabitur. r eferemus e nim q ue r n a d m odum , r emissa t ributorum m edietate, i n r obur p roprium p rouinciarum c ultor h abeatur : u nde e tiam, * in r atione e xactionum c essante c ontumelia, l imitum s olitudinem e rect is c astrorum m unitionibus i ncola s ecurus i llustret: q uo e tiam p acto a uri a rgentique m odus s ine d antium p oena d uplicetur: u el q uo a rgumento e xtra s olitam l argitatem c umulatus h onoribus m iles e xultet. h is e tiam a dnectenda c redidimus q uae b ellorum n ecessit atibus t erra u el m an i i n a cquirendis u ictoriis p rocurentur; e x q uibus, f astidii l euandi g ratia, p auca m achinarum i nuenta r efer emus. d ocebimus i gitur u elocissimum l iburnae g enus d ecem n auibus i ngenii m agisterio p raeualere i ta u t h ae p er e ar n s ine a uxilio c uiusquam t urbae o bruantur. i n t errenis u ero c ongressibus t alis e st e xcogitata s ollertia u t e quus, s iue a ciem r upturus i nuadat s iue f ugientibus i ngerat s e, t ali a rte m uniatur u t s emet i psum u erberans s ine c uiusquam m agisterio e fficiat m agnas h ostium s trages. i n f luuiorum q uoque d ifficultatibus e xquisita e st n oui 3

1 5

1 6

1 7

p ontis i nuentio m inime s ubuectioni o nerosa; h unc e nim p ontem a mnibus p aludibusque n ecessarium p erpauci h omines a ut q uinquag inta f ere n umero i umenta p ortabunt. e x h is i gitur q uae r ettul imus, i am f uturis u t e go a rbitror d esignatis, p ace u estra d ixerim, m agnum u obis m unus c oncessu d iuinitatis a pporto, a sser ens p rouidentia p ietatis u estrae a rmorum u igorem e t c unctam r em p ublicam p raedictis r emediis s ubleuandam: q uae q uidem n on i gnota s unt p roximis u estrae c lementiae, q uos a lia p lura s oll icitant a n obis a liena . u erum q uia i llos m ulta o ccupatos e ff ugiunt, o tio p ersuasus, n on a deo a r erum c ommoditatibus p ereg rinus, u tilia u estrae f elicitati u ndique r edacta c onferre g estiui. s i q uid u ero l iberius o ratio m ea p ro r erum n ecessitate p rotulerit, a estimo u enia p rotegendum , c um m ihi p romissionis i mplendae g ratia s ubueniendum e st p ropter p hilosophiae l ibertatem.

C OMMODAE A VCTOR IT ATI S V AR IA E

P R IS CORVM M ONETAE

I d e i nhibenda l argitate

1

b ellicam l audem e t g loriam t riumphorum u tilitas s emper * intueatur a erarii, n e p rofusa l argitio s emina m agis e xcitet p roeliorum; q uae s i p rouidentia m aiestatis r eprimatur, n on a mplius b ellorum f lorebit 2 i mprobitas s ed c ollatorum p otius d efecta s ubsidia r ecreantur. q uod s i l argitio i mmoderata s eruanda p rofuderit, o pum d electabilitas 3 n ullo u etustatis m ore p oten t l am n ecessitatibus s ubuenire. q uam o b r em p atrum n obis e st p aulisper p rouidentia r eferenda q uam i n r ebus e genis h abuerint, u el q uae n unc * ita i n t anta f acultatum 4 l icentia u ideatur. r ectores s uperioris u itae n on o tiosis o pibus s ed c ondendis p otius m oenibus l aetabantur, i n q uorum d ecorem u ni 5 u ersam a uri a rgentique m ateriam c onferebant. a eris q uoque c opiam 6 i n s imulacris p räpriis a d u irtutis s uae t estimonia f igurabant. u t u ero e mendi e t u endendi u tilitas * * **** e t u t f acultas r egiae l argitati s uppeteret, i n a eris u sum e xcultam p olitius t erram e t i gne s olidatam, c ertis q uoque e xpressionibus f iguratam, a uro a rgen 7 t oque r eposito u sui h abuerunt. s ed p osteriores f astidientes p riscae u ilitatis i nuentum f ormatos e c oriis o rbes a uro m odico s ignauerunt, q uibus r egum m unificentia e t c ommutationum n ecessitas i ntactis c ol8 l atoribus u tebatur. s equentior u ero a etas, a eris r edundante m ateria q uam p ublicus j am m oenium r ecusabat o rnatus, d iuturna u t p rior m onum enta m editata a es u alidum i pso p ondere p retiosius f igurauit; c uius s pecies p ro q ualitate, u t d iximus, p onderis d iuturnior f uit, s ed p otentia r egalis p ro l icentia s peciem s uam t antum i n a uro a rgen t oque s ignauit, q uae p ro r euerentia f igurae n ullis u sibus p rofici9 e ns a d h onorem r egium s acrata p ermansit. a eris a utem m ateria, q uae j am p ro c opia u ilior e rat, a d d ona m ilitaria e t u aria p opu1 0 l orum c ommercia s ignabatur. s ed u t u era f ides d icta f acilius p ros equatur , f ormas e t s pecies c ommodas a tque p ro t emporibus d iuersas u ariasque u eterum p rouisiones e xprimi c olorum q ualitatibus p roperaui

i i

1 2

3

4 5 6

7

e x q uibus t emporibus p rofusio u el a uaritia c oeperit

C onstantini t emporibus p rofusa l argitio a urum p ro a ere, q uod a ntea m agni p retii h abebatur, u ilibus c ommerciis a ssignauit; s ed h uius a uaritiae o rigo h inc c reditur e manasse. c um e nim a ntiquitus a urum a rgentumque e t l apidum p retiosorum m agna u is i n t emplis r eposita a d p ublicum p eruenisset, c unctorum d andi h abendique c upiditates a ccend it . e t c um a eris i psius, q uod r egum , u t d iximus, f uerat u ultu s ign atum, e normis l am e t g rauis e rogatio u ideretur, n ihilo m inus t ar nen a c aecitate q uadam e x a uro, q uod p retiosius h abetur, p rofusion e rog andi d iligentia f uit. e x h ac a uri c opia p rivatae p otentium r epletae d omus i n p erfid em p auperum c lariores e ffectae, t enuioribus u idel icet u iolentia o ppressis. s ed a fflicta p aupertas i n u arios s celerum c onatus a ccensa, n ullam r euerentiam i uris a ut p ietatis a ffectum p rae o culis h abens, u indictam s uam m alls a rtibus c ommendauit. n am s aepe g rauissimis d amnis a ffecit i mperia p opulando a gros, q uietem l atroc iniis p ersequendo, i nflammando o dia; e t p er g radus c riminum f ouit t yrannos, q uos a d g loriam u irtutis t uae p roduxit * inopia m agis q uam s uccendit a udacia. e rit i gitur c urae p rudentiae t uae, o ptime I mperator, r epressa l argitate e t c ollatori p rospicere e t i n p osterum

8 n ominis t ui g loriam p ropagare. d enique p aulisper f elicium t emporum r euolue m emoriam e t a ntiquae p aupertatis f amosa r egna c onsidera q uae a gros c olere e t a bstinere o pibus n orant, q ua h aec h onoris l aude 9 p er o mne a euum f rugalitas i ncorrupta c ommendet. c erte a urea n uncup amus q uae a urum p enitus n on h abebant.

i ii

d e f raude e t c orrectione m onetae

1

i nter d amna r ei p ublicae n on f erenda, s olidorum f igura a liquantorum f raudibus d eprauata d iuersa p opulos r atione s ollicitat e t r egiae m aiestatis i maginem , d um p er m onetae c ulpam r efutatur , i mminuit; e mentis e nim e undem s olidum f raudulenta c alliditas e t u endentis d amnosa n ecessitas d ifficultatem q uandam i psis c ontractibus i n2 t ulerunt, n e r ebus p ossit i nteresse s implicitas. e rgo h uic q uoque p arti m aiestatis u estrae e st, u t i n o mnibus, a dhibenda c orrectio: i ta u t o pifices m onetae r edacti u ndique i n u nam i nsulam c ongregent ur , n ummariis e t s olidorum u sibus p rofuturi, a s ocietate u idelicet i n p erpetuum c ontiguae t errae p rohibiti, n e c ommixtionis l icentia f raudibus o pportuna i ntegritatem p ublicae u tilitatis o bfuscet. 3 i llic e nim s olitudine s uffragante i ntegra f ides m onetae p raestabi4 t ur, n ec e rit f raudi l ocus u bi n ulla e st m ercis o ccasio. u erum u t q ualitas f uturae d iscussionis a ppareat, f ormas e t m agnitudinem t am a ereae q uam a ureae f igurationis p ictura p raenuntiante s ubieci.

F ELIX

I NCHOATIO

SACRAE

D I VINAEQVE

MONETAE

i v

1

2

3 4 5

a d h aec i gitur i ncommoda q uae p rouincias a uaritiae a rtibus u exant, a ccedit e tiam i udicum e xecranda c upiditas c ollatorum u tilitatibus i nimica : n am h i d especta r euerentia d ignitatum u elut m ercatores i n p rouincias s e m issos e xistimant, e o g rauiores q uad a b h is p rocedit i niquitas u nde d ebuit s perari m edicina. e t t amquam s ua r ebus s uff icere n on p ossit i niquitas, e xactores i n p rofligandis r ebus h uius m odi d irigit u nus q uisque q ui d iuersis r apinarum a rtibus c ollatorum u ires e xhauriant; u idelicet q uasi p arum n otabiles h aberentur s i is oli p eccarent. q uae e nim a b h is o ccasio f iscalium t itulorum i l ibata e st? q uae c onuentio s ine p raeda d iscessit? i llis t ironum c omparatio, e quorum u el f rumenti c oemptio, e xpensa q uoque m oenibus p rofutura s ollemnia l ucra s unt e t u otiva d ireptio. q uad s i p rouinc ias c asti e t i ntegritatis c upidi m oderentur, n ec f raudi u squam r elinquetur l ocus e t r es p ublica m oribus d itata f irmabitur.

v

1

2 3

4

5

6

d e i udicum p rauitate

d e r eleuando m ilitari s umptu

r elatis, u t u isum e st, r ei p ublicae i ncommodis a ugustis p rouisio nibus m erito r epellendis, a d e normia m ilitum a limenta r atione n on i ncongrua p rohibenda u eniamus, q uorum c ausa t otius t ribut ariae f unctionis l aborat i llatio. s ed n e t antae c onfusionis m olem o ccupatio a ugusta f astidiat, b reuius t am d iuturni e rroris e xitum d eclarabo. m ilitaris o rdo s tipendiis a liquot p eractis u bi a d q uinque u el e o a mplius a nnonarum e molumenta p eruenerit, n e h aec d iutius p ercipiens r em p ublicam g rauet, h onesta m issione d onatus u acans s ibi o tio g audeat a bsolutus; i n c uius l ocum p oster ior s uccedens t otum n umerum p er c erta t emporum s patia e xpensis g rauissimis r eleuabit. q uad s i n umerosior m iles d e s equentibus s cholis i n d ecedentium l ocum u ocatur, h ic q uoque p ari l iberalit ate * otio d onatus a bscedat u el a d a lium o rdinem c ui m iles d eest l ocum s uppleturus a ccedat. q uae r es n on s olum e xpensis g rauidam r em p ublicam r ecreabit s ed e tiam c uras i mperatoriae p rouisionis i mminuet; a nimabit e tiam p lures a d m ilitiam q uos a b e a s tipendio rum t arditas p rohibebat. h uius m odi i gitur p rouisionis u tilitas i n a ugmentum p rouincialium h abet u eteranos r egiis d onis o pulentos e t a d c olendos a gros a dhuc p raeualentes a gricolas: h abitabunt l imites, a rabunt q uae d udum d efenderant l oca, e t l aborum d esiderio

7

p otiti, e runt e x m ilite c ollatores. u erum q uia n on n umquam b ell orum r uina a ut f astidio c astrensium m unerum d eserta m ilitia d e s umma i ntegritatis i ntercipit, t ali r emedio h uius m odi d amna s upp lenda s unt, s cilicet u t c enteni a ut q uinquageni i uniores e xtra h as q ui i n m atriculis c ontinentur h abeantur i n p romptu a rmis e xerc iti e t m inori [ ut m inori] u tpote t irones s tipendio s ubleuati, i n 8 l ocum a missorum s i r es i ta t ulerit s ubrogandi. h is i ta p rouisis e t i ntegritas s ecura m anebit e xercitus e t d amnis n on d eerunt m atura e t p arata i n p rimis s ubsidia.

7

v i

d e b ellicis m achinis

1 i n p rimis s ciendum e st q uod i mperium r omanum c ircumlatrantium u bi2

3 4 5

q ue n ationum p erstringat i nsania e t o mne l atus l imitum t ecta n atur alibus l ocis a ppetat d olosa b arbaries. n am p lerumque m emoratae g entes a ut s iluis t eguntur a ut e xtolluntur m ontibus a ut u indicant ur p ruinis; n on n ullae u agae s olitudinibus a c s ole n imio p roteg untur . s unt q uae p aludibus f luminibusque d efensae n ec i nueniri f acile q ueunt e t t ar nen q uietem p acis l acerant i nopinatis i ncursibus. e rgo h uius m odi n ationes, q uae a ut t alibus s ubsidiis a ut c iuitatum c astellorumque m oenibus d efenduntur, d iuersis e t n ouis a rmorum s unt m achinis p rosequendae. u erum n e q ua d ifficultas i n e xcitandis a rmorum g eneribus o riatur, i maginem t ormentorum n ihil a u ero d istant em c oloribus a dumbratam o rationi s ubieci, u t s it f acilis i mitandi c onfectio.

B ALL IS TA Q VADR IR OT IS

v ii

e xpositio b allistae q uadrirotis

1 e xemplum b allistae, c uius f abricam a nte o culos p ositam s ubtilis 2

3 4 6

p ictura t estatur. s ubiecta n amque r otarum q uattuor f acilitas, d uobus s ubiunctis e t a rmatis e quis, a d u sus h anc b ellicos t rahit; c uius t anta e st u tilitas p ro a rtis i ndustria u t o mni l atere i n h ostem s agittas i mpellat, s agittarii l ibertatem e t m anus i mitata. h abet f oramina p er q uattuor p artes, q uibus p ro c ommoditate r erum c ircumducta e t f lexa, f acillime a d o mnes i mpetus p arata c onsistat. q uae q uidem a f ronte c ochleae m achina e t d eponitur c elerius e t e rigitur s ubleuata . s ed h uius t emo i n q uamuis p artem n ecessitas u ocet c ita e t f acili c onuersione d eflexus e rigitur. s ciendum e st

8

a utem q uod h oc b allistae g enus d uorum o pera u irorum s agittas e x s e n on u t a liae f unibus s ed r adiis i ntorta i aculatur .

C L IP EOCENTRVS

v iii

1

2

3

e xpositio t ichodifri

t ichodifrus q uod e st g enus m achinae e x r ei s uae c ommoditate, g raeca a ppellatione, u ocabuli s umpsit e xordium, e o q uod p er h unc f acilior i n m urum p aretur a scensus, a nte b allistae s emper d ucendus i ncessum q uo p rotectior e adem b allista o peretur; e rit e rgo h uius q uoque c or np ositio u el f abrica u tili e t c ommoda i nuentione p raeparanda . e rgo h ic i dem t ichodifrus n on a ltior s ed h umilior f abricatur u t i ntra s e p ossit l atenter i ncedentium c elare u estigia : q ui, d uabus s uperimp ositis c ratibus f ixoriisque c onfixis, i ntra s e t ectos a b o mni i ncurs ione d efendit, d uabus s ane r otis a d p romouendam m achinam l atenter i mpulsus. c uius a xium e xtremitates e t f rons n ec n on e t s uperior l atit udo f uscinis e t l anceis a rmatur d iligenter a ptatis, n e a ggrediendi c uiquam p er u acantia d efensore l oca - i d e st s uperiorem p artem t ribuatur f acultas.

i x

1

TIC HOD IF RVS

e xpositio c lipeocentri

p arma, h oc e st m odicus c lipeus, f ixoriis m inutis a d s oliditatem s ui d iligenter m unitus, u arie h abetur i doneus; i nterdum e nim o perit g estientem , n on n umquam i n f ronte t ichodifri o ppositus u el i n t emone s uspensus m unit i nferius l atitantes a b i ncursu c omminus u enientum .

P LVMBATA

P LVMBATA M AMI L LATA

x

1

2

3

[ et]

T R IB OLATA

t ribolatae

h oc i aculi g enus, q uod i n m odum s agittae p ennis u idetur i nstructum , n on a rcus n eque b allistae p ulsu c onsueuit e mitti, s ed m anus i mpetu e t u iribus e lisum i n h ostem c omminus u adit: q uod e xcipienti g emina r atione u idetur a fferre p erniciem ; a ut e nim p erimit i nfixum a ut s ine u ulnere d ilapsum e t i n t erram p ositum p lantae c alcantis i nf igitur, e o q uod i n p artem q uamlibet s i f uerit c onuersum , e x l atere a culeo e x s e e minente i nferat u ulnus. f it a utem e x l igno i n m odum s agittae f acto, c ui f errum s ubtiliter i n f ormam u enabuli a ptatum i nfigitur, f istula e iusdem f ern i p arumper e xtensa, s upra q uam , m odico i nteriecto s patio, p lumbo a dhaerentes a culei u elut t ribuli e mergunt. i n s umma a utem p arte e iusdem i aculi a ffiguntur p ennae c eleritatis c ausa, t anto u idelicet s uper e asdem p ennas r elicto s patio q uantum d igiti p otuerint t enentis a mplecti.

x i

1

e xpositio p lumbatae

[ ET]

e xpositio p lumbatae mamillatae

b ene e xtensa e t d irecta u irga a ccipiet i n e xtremitate s ui r otundum e t i n a cumen d eductum f errum , s imilibus l ocis * ac i n t ribulata p lumbo e t p ennis a dhaerentibus, u t p lumbi p ondere e t p ennarum c eleritate a diuta r otunditas t eli f acilius c lipeos a duersarii e t s imiliter o bstantia u aleat p enetrare.

1 0

C VRRODREPANVS

x ii

1 2

3

4

e xpositio c urrodrepani

h uius m odi p ugnacis u ehiculi g enus, q uod a rmis p raeter m orem u id etur i nstructum , r epperit p arthicae p ugnae n ecessitas. s ed h oc s ingulis b ene m unitis i nuecti . equis d uo u iri u estitu e t a rmis * e f erro d iligenter m uniti c itato c ursu i n p ugnam r apiunt; c uius p osterior s upra c urrum p ars c ultris i n o rdinem e xstantibus c omm unitur, u idelicet n e f acilis a t ergo c uiquam p raebeatur a scensus. f alces u ero a cutissimae a xibus e iusdem c urrus a ptantur, i n l ater ibus s uis a nsulas h abentes, q uibus i nnexi f unes p ro a rbitrio d uo rum e quitum l axati q uidem e xplicant, r epressi a utem e rigunt f alces. q ualia u ero h uius m odi m achinae f unera h ostibus i mmittant u el q uas t urbatis o rdinibus s trages e fficiant, d icent m elius q ui u su b ella c ognoscunt.

1 1

CVRRODREPANVS

x iii

1

SIN GVLAR IS

e xpositio c urrodrepani s ingularis

i n h oc c urriculo, q uod s ingularis e qui t ractu d iscurrit q uodque u nius h ominis a rte r egitur e t u irtute p rotegitur, e adem e st q uae i n p riori c urru a rmorum f acies e t a d r epellenda t ela e t a d i nfer enda p ericula, n ec d istat a s uperiore q uicquam m achina n isi q uod s uperior c urrus p ro m agnitudine s ui d uobus e quis t ractus, a d uobus e tiam b ellatoribus g ubernatur .

1 2

C VRRODREPANVS C L IP EATVS

x iv

e xpositio c urrodrepani c lipeati

1

m achinae h uius a dmiratio h abet n ouitatis a liquid; e st e nim a s uperioribus c urribus q uadam p arte d issimilis, h ic e nim p osterior u ehiculi p ars u erberibus s pontaneis a d i ncitandos e quos e t c lipeis a cuto f erro c ircumdatis u elut i n p ropugnaculo p ositis c ommunitur. 2 e t e st p riori q uidem c urrui h ac r atione d issimilis, q uod h ic n on u t i bidem d uos e quos d uorum e tiam h ominum s ed u nius t antum s agaci3 t as r egit. a s ecundo u ero c urru h ac d iuersitate s ecernitur, q uod i n i llo u nus e quus e t p ondus b ellatoris s ubit t dum i psum e quitem 4 p ortat e tt o cculto t emone i ugum t rahente m inus a mplectitur. h ic e tiam l icet c onuertere l axatis f unibus e xplicatas f alces e t a d 5 p erniciem h ostium l ongius a b a xe p orrectas. f unis u ero, q uo l axato a ut e xplicantur f alces a ut r epresso s uper e osdem a xes e riguntur , l igatur c irculo h aerenti c atafracto i n p osterioris l ateris p arte e xteriore, p er q uod u estiti e qui a d o mnes t elorum m uniuntur i ncursus.

1 3

T HORACOMACHVS

x v

I 2

3

4

e xpositio t horacomachi

i nter o mnia q uae a d u sum b ellicum p rouida p osteritatis c ogitauit a ntiquitas, t horacomachum q uoque m ira u tilitate a d l euamen c orporis a rmorum p onderi e t a speritati s ubiecit. h oc e nim u estimenti g enus, q uod d e c oactili a d m ensuram e t t utelam p ectoris h umani c onficitur, d e m ollibus l anis t imoris s ollicitudo s ollertia m agistra c omposuit u t h oc i nducto p rimum l orica u el c livanus a ut h is s imilia f ragilit atem c orporis p onderis a speritate n on l aederent, m embra q uoque u estientis i nter a rmorum h iemisque d iscrimen t ali s olacio a diuta l abori s ufficiant. s ane n e i dem t horacomachus p luuiis u erberatus i ngrauescente p ondere a dficiat u estientem , d e l ibycis b ene c onfect is p ellibus a d i nstar e iusdem t horacomachi f ad em c onueniet s uperi nducere. h oc i gitur, u t d iximus, t horacomacho i nducto ( qui g raeca a ppellatione e x t uitione c orporis n omen a ssumpsit), s occis e tiam ( hoc e st c alciamentis) e t f erratis o creis i nductis, s uperposita

1 4

g alea e t s cuto u el g ladio l ateri a ptato, a rreptis p edestrem s ubiturus p ugnam m iles a rmabitur.

l anceis,

i n p lenum

A SCOGEFYRVS

x vi

e xpositio a scogefyri

1 n e i nterdum n ecessario i tineri e xercitus f luuiorum ( quod p lerumq ue e uenit) o ccursus i mpediat, r emedium a d h anc r em e t c ompendio f acile e t u su p raecipuum r epperit i ngeniosa n ecessitas, q uod t ali 2 r atione c omponitur. u itulinis p ellibus a rabica a rte m ollitis e st e nim a pud e os p raecipua c onfectionis c ura p ropter a quam d e p uteis f ollibus h auriendam - h is i gitur u t d ictum e st, d iligenter s utis, f iunt u tres i n m agnitudinem t rium e t s emis p edum, i ta u t c um i dem u tres s piritu i nflati t umuerint n on e xtollant u terum s ed a equalitate q uadam p lenitudo i psa u trium s patia p lana p erficiat, e x q uorum l ateribus l oris s ubter a dnexis i nuicem c olligantur; d es uper a utem u na p arte c irculis e xstantibus e x a ltera i mmittuntur u ncini: e t i ta i n f ormam p ontis a dsociata p artibus e xplicatur i n3 t egritas. s ed h oc i dem o pus o bliquo f luuio p ropter i mpetum m eatus f acilius u sque a d a lteram e xplicabitur r ipam; q uod, f ixis i n u traq ue r ipa f erreis p alis, e t f unibus u alidis i n m edio q uidem s ub i psis u tribus p ropter i ncedentium s ustinendum p ondus, i n m arginib us a utem f irmitatis g ratia d esuper e xtensis, t ranseundi p er f luu ium n ouo q uodam e t p eregrino i tineris a pparatu i ntra b reue t empo4 r is s patium p raebebit l iberam f acultatem . a dmonendi p raeterea s umus q uod s uper u trium c ompaginationem c ilicia s unt i ncedentium • s ubsternenda u estigiis n e l ubrica p ellium c onfectio i nsistendi 5 d eneget f irmitatem . i n u traque t ar nen r ipa e runt m anuballistae d ispositae n e h ostilis m anus p ontem o perantibus i mpedimento c ons istat.

L IBVRNA

4 41 4MM I M M 1 -I

x vii

1

II

Ut -1

1

1

17 1

A TM A -A I

e xpositio l iburnae

l iburnam n aualibus

i doneam b ellis,

q uam p ro m agnitudine s ui

u irorum e xerceri m anibus q uodam m odo h ibebat, 2

i mbecillitas h umana p ro-

q uocumque u tilitas u ocet a d f acilitatem c ursus

o pe s ubnixa a nimalium u irtus

i mpellit.

i ngenii

i n c uius a lueo u el

c apa-

c itate b ini b oues m achinis a diuncti a dhaerentes r otas n auis l ater ibus u oluunt, q uarum s upra a mbitum u el r otunditatem e xstantes

3

r adii, c urrentibus i isdem r otis, i n m odum r emorum a quam c onatibus e lidentes m iro q uodam a rtis e ffectu o perantur, i mpetu p arturiente d iscursum . h aec e adem t ar nen l iburna p ro m ole s ui p roque m achinis i n s emet o perantibus t anto u irium f remitu p ugnam c apescit u t o mnes a duersarias

l iburnas c omminus u enientes

1 6

f acili a ttritu c omminuat.

B ALLISTA

F VLMI N AL IS

EiI W

,4 ez r . _

KR IM ? 4

N e l e e tw iz e m ee e m kmu% e t ev e ‘ Mr ,

e i n ieexemeum M i keßen he e m ‘e 1 111

` nr ' ' ` \ '

'

M

• r

'

' ' ` ' ‘\7 \ N N N 'N\\ • \\\ ' \ ' \ \\`\ \e `x\

'N

m u mum inu i siu m i um u t lU l ii l l it i M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

x viii

1

2

3 4

5

6

e b x

M 1 1'

e xpositio b allistae f ulminalis

h uius m odi b allistae g enus m urali d efensioni n ecessarium s upra c eteras i mpetu e t u iribus p raeualere u su c ompertum e st: a rcu e tenim f erreo s upra c analem q uo s agitta e xprimitur e recto, u alid us n erui f unis f erreo u nco t ractus e andem s agittam m agnis u irib us i n h ostem d imissus i mpellit. h unc t ar nen f uAem n on m anibus n eque u iribus m ilitum t rahi f abricae i psius w Ignitudo p ermittit, s ed r etro d uabus r otis u iri s inguli r adiorum n isibus a dnitentes f unem r etrorsum t endunt, p ro d ifficultate r ei u iribus m achinis a dquisitis. b allistam t ar nen i psam a d d irigenda s eu a ltius s eu h umilius t ela c ochleae m achina p rout u ocet u tilitas n unc e rigit n unc d eponit. h oc t ar nen m irae u irtutis a rgumentum: t ot r erum d iuersitate c onnexum u nius t antum o tiosi ( ut i ta d icam ) h ominis a d o fferendam t antum m odo i mpulsioni s agittam o pera g ubernat; u idelicet n e, S i h ominum t urba h uius m inisterio i nseruiret, m inue retur a rtis i nuentio. e x h ac i gitur b allista t ot e t t antis i ng enii a rtibus c ommunita e xpressum t elum i n t antum l ongius u adit u t e tiam D anubii, f amosi p ro m agnitudine f luminis, l atitudinem u aleat p enetrare. f ulminalis e tiam n uncupata, a ppellatione s ua u irium t estatur e ffectum .

1 7

7

h is i gitur,

i nuicte i mperator ,

m achinarum q uoque i nuentionibus

c ommunitam p otentiam i nuicti d uplicabis e xercitus, h ostium i ncurs ibus n on u i s olum e t u iribus o buiando s ed e tiam a rtis i ngenio, m axime c um a nimi s agacitate p er o mnia e lementa m achinas r eppereris 8 u alituras. n am s iue t erra s int s ubeunda d iscrimina c ontra d esper ati h ostis a udaciam , f alcatis c urribus p er a perta c amporum f ugie ntium a gmina p ersequeris; s iue m urum s ubire t emptauerit o cculta t emeritas, e xperietur b allistae f idem a nte q uam u eniat; a ut s i u ictricem e xercitus c ursum f luuiorum u spiam m eatus i mpediet, p or9 t atilis p ontis p eculiaris s uccurret i nuentio. q uod s i n auali b ello t erras f ugiens m aria h ostis o bsideat, n ouo c eleritatis i ngenio t err estri q uodam m odo r itu r otis e t b ubus s ubacta f luctibus l iburna 1 0 t ranscurrens r estituet s ine m ora u ictoriam . q uis e nim h uius u iribus r esistet, q uae e t t errestris u ehiculi n ititur f irmitate e t h abet 1 1 d e n auigii f acilitate r emedium? e rit p raeterea f ulminalis b allista f elicium l imitum c ustos, q uae q uanto m inus a d a rmandam s e u irorum m inisterium q uaerit, t anto e st i ngenii u irtute p raestantior; q uicq uid e nim o pis i n e a n umerosior m anus a fferre p otuisset, i d s ibi a rtis i ngenio d otata l argitur.

x ix

1

d e b ellico a pparatu

c um b ellicus a pparatus p rouocet c ertamina, n e t urba m ilitum c onf usis o rdinibus u irtus c ompressa m inuatur c onueniet d ucem s patia t ernis a gminibus o rdinare, i ta u t s ingula q uaeque a gmina d uobus t antum u irorum m ilibus i nstruantur, n e c ompressa p opulositas, i n p erniciem p ropriam a uxiliis a bundans, s uis c opiis o pprimatur. 2 c onueniet t ar nen p er g laciales e untem m ilitem p lagas e t t horacomacho m uniri e t r eliquis a d t utelam p ertinentibus r ebus p rout m embrorum p oscit u tilitas a rmari, u t e t f rigoribus s ufficiat e t t elis p ossit o ccurrere; m inoribus s ane c lipeis a ssumptis, n e s it ( quod u su p lerumque e uenit) p ro a rmorum l atitudine s iluarum d ensitas mac3 c essa , e t a mittatur a rmorum e normitate r efugium . a d o mnia t ar nen r epentina s ubsidia m ilitarem u iam l euibus p ortatum u ehiculis a scog efyri c omitetur a uxilium , q uo f acilius e t l atior f luminum s uperetur o ccursus e t e ffugiendi t rans f luuium, s i r es i ta t ulerit, f acili4 t as o fferatur. P ersarum s ane g ens, c ui p raeter c eteras n ationes e t d olus c ordi e st e t c orpori s uppetit u irtus, q uadratis e st a gminibus e t m aiori b ellorum a pparatu s uperanda; u bi e tiam m achinarum e st o mnis q uam r ettulimus i ndustria p roponenda, q uae e t u iribus r esis5 t at e t d olos c allidae g entis r efutet. i n h uius m odi i gitur c ong ressibus t ichodifrus d uorum g estatus m inisterio u irorum p rotegat 6 b allistam m ultum b ellicis s ubsidiis p rofuturam . s ub i psius e rgo t ichodifri t egmine l atentes s cutati u sque a d u iciniam p ugnaturi h ostis a dueniant, q ui p ost d etecti p rotegendi s unt a b o mni t elorum n ube, e iusdem t ichodifri t abulatis, u t m eminimus, a cutis f erreis 7 c ommunitis. c um u ero i nclinatum h ostium p ondus f ugae p raesidia m editetur, f alcatis c urribus e xercenda u ictoria e st q uibus f ugi8 e ntium p oplites i ncidantur. u bi t ar nen a ngustiora l oca a gmen n equaq uam e xplicari p ermiserint, c oartatam a ciem l ongus m achinarum s iue t ormentorum o rdo c ircumdet, n e c onstrictum l atus l iberior h ostis 9 i nfestet. e rit t ar nen u tilior c ura s i d uplex a nimalium n umerus a d s ubuectionem t ormentorum d ucatur, u t s it c opia i n d ubiis r ebus u el l assitudini u el c asibus s ubuenire.

x x

d e l imitum m unitionibus

1 e st p raeterea i nter c ommoda r ei p ublicae u tilis l imitum c ura a mbientium u bique l atus i mperii, q uorum t utelae a ssidua m elius c astella p rospicient, i ta u t m illenis i nteriecta p assibus s tabili m uro e t f irmissimis t urribus e rigantur: q uas q uidem m unitiones p ossessorum d istributa s ollicitudo s ine p ublico s umptu c onstituat, u igiliis s ane i n h is e t a grariis e xercendis, u t p rouinciarum q uies c ircumdata q uodam p raesidii c ingulo i nlaesa r equiescat.

x xi

1

d e l egum u el i uris c onfusione p urganda

d iuina p rouidentia, s acratissime i mperator, d omi f orisque r ei p ublicae p raesidiis c omparatis, r estat u num d e t ua s erenitate r emedium a d c iuilium c urarum m edicinam, u t c onfusas l egum c ont rariasque s ententias, i mprobitatis r eiecto l itigio, i udicio a ugustae d ignationis i llumines; q uid e nim s ic a b h onestate c ons istit a lienum q uam i bidem s tudia e xerceri c ertandi u bi, p rofitente, d iscernuntur m erita s ingulorum?

1 9

i ustitia

2

T RANSLATION

O N M ILITARY MATTERS

P reface

I M ost s acred e mperors: a dvice u pon t he w elfare o f y our e mpire, e ver p rosperous u nder h eavenly i nspiration, s hould b e o ffered o n a pprop riate o ccasions, s o t hat y our g lorious p urposes m ay b e c onfirmed 2 b y g lorious a chievements. C onsequently, I h ave w ritten i n t his l ittle w ork, t o t he b est o f m y a bility, a c hapter o n t he s ystem o f p ublic d onations - n ot t hat t his i s a s ufficient t reatment o f s o e normous a s ystem , b ut s o t hat f rom t his p reliminary e vidence o f m y m oderate c apacity t he r eliability o f m y e xpedients i n w hat i s t o f ollow m ay 3 b e d isplayed . A nd t herefore - s o t hat t rust p laced i n w hat I p romise m ay n ot b ear h eavily o n m e h ereafter, i f i t s hould a ppear t hat I h ave d eceived y ou - I r equest f or m yself, i n c onsciousness t hat I s peak t he t ruth, a p unishment i n p lace o f ar eward, i f w hat I f orec ast s hould t urn o ut a gainst m y e xpectations; n or i ndeed s hould a ny p raise o r r eward a ttend m e w hen i t i s q uite e nough, i n t he p resent 4 c ase, t o e scape y our w rath a t m y t emerity . B ut i t w ill b e a dmissible t hat t he h ead o f s tate s hould f ind o ut f rom a p rivate i ndividual w hat n eeds t o b e d one, s ince t he b est s olution o f p roblems s ometimes 5 e scapes h is i nquiry . A nd s o, f rom t ime t o t ime, t hose w ho h ave b een s hown t o v iew a nything c orrectly m ust b e c alled i n; f or a s a n e xc ellent o rator s ays, ' the g reater p art o f m ankind h as i mmediate r ecourse t o t he m an w hom n ature h as e ndowed w ith t he f aculty o f 6 t hought'. I n t his, o ne m ust c onsider w hat a m an t hinks r ather t han s ays; f or e veryone a grees t hat n either t he l oftiest b irth n or t he a bundance o f w ealth o r t he i nfluence p roceeding f rom p ublic p ositions o r e loquence a cquired i n s tudy h as l ed t o i mprovements i n t he a rts ( in w hich t he i nvention o f m ilitary e quipment h as i ts p lace a lso), b ut i ntellectual c apacity a lone, w hich i s t he m other o f a ll e xcel7 l ences, a nd d epends o n ah appy a ccident o f n ature. A nd t his w e s ee h appen w ithout r espect o f p ersons: f or a lthough t he b arbarian p eoples a re n either p otent i n e loquence o r e nnobled b y o fficial r ank, t hey a re n evertheless k nown t o b e n ot i n t he l east s trangers t o t he d is 8 c overy o f t hings, w hen n ature l ends h er a id . W herefore, m ost m erciful e mperors, y ou w ho i n p erpetual h appiness l ove t he g lory o f h igh r enown, w ho e ncourage i n y our s ons t he s entiments d ue t o t he n ame o f ' Roman ', c ondescend t o l ook u pon w hat a t imely p rovidence f rom o n 9 h igh h as i mpressed o n m y u nderstanding . T hus, a s a ll r ejoice i n t he h appiness o f y our r eign, w hether t hey e ngage i n Y our C lemencies' s ervice o r a re c ontent w ith t he p eaceful l ife o f ap rivate c itizen, o r a re f armers o f t he l and o r m erchants h andling t he p rofits o f c ommerce, y ou w ill p ursue, g uided b y t his w ork, t he b est i nterests o f e ach; t he n ature o f w hich i nterests t he f ollowing d isquisition w ill d isplay, a t t he m ost a ppropriate p oints, i n i ts v arious s ections. 1 0 F or I s hall d escribe h ow, w ith a r eduction o f t he t axes b y o ne-half, t he f armer i n t he p rovinces m ay b e r estored t o h is t raditional p ros perity ; h ow a lso, w ith t he a bolition o f a buses i n t he s ystem o f t axation, t he f rontier-dweller m ay d o h onour t o t he l onely s tretches o f t he i mperial b oundaries i n s afety, a fter t he e rection o f f ortif ied d efences; a nd i n w hat w ay t he s upply o f g old a nd s ilver m ay b e

2 3

1 1

1 2

1 3

1 4

1 5

1 6

1 7

d oubled w ithout h ardship t o t he t ax-payers; e ven b y w hat m eans t he a rmy m ay r ejoice u nder a s hower o f h onours b eyond t hose w hich a re c ustomarily g ranted . T o t his I h ave t hought i t n ecessary t o a dd p rovisions f or t he r equirements o f w arfare b y l and a nd s ea i n o rder t o s ecure v ictories; a mongst w hich, f or t he p urpose o f l essening d istaste, I w ill d escribe a s mall n umber o f m echanical i nventions. T hus, I s hall r eveal t hat a n e xceptionally f ast t ype o f w arship, u nder t he c ontrol o f a n i ngenious d evice, c an h ave t he a dvantage o ver t en o rdinary s hips, w ith t he r esult t hat t hey c an b e s unk b y i t w ithout i ts n eeding a l arge c rew . W hereas f or e ngagem ents o n l and a c unning a rrangement h as b een d evised s uch t hat a h orse, w hether h e i s g alloping f orward t o b reak t hrough t he e nemy l ine o r w hether h e i s b earing d own u pon f ugitives, i s e quipped w ith a c ontrivance s uch t hat h e w hips h imself o n a nd w reaks e normous d estruction a mongst t he e nemy w ithout a nyone t o c ontrol h im . A gain, w here d ifficult r iver-crossings a re c oncerned, a d esign h as b een t hought o ut f or a n ew t ype o f b ridge w hich i s n ot a t a ll h eavy t o c arry : av ery f ew m en, o r a bout f ifty p ack-animals, w ill b e a ble t o t ransport t his b ridge, w hich i s e ssential f or u se a cross r ivers o r m arshy t erritory . I n w hat I h ave d escribed, t herefore - n ow t hat I h ave, I t hink, s ketched w hat i s t o c ome - I b ring y ou ( allow m e t o s ay s o ) a g reat g ift b y h eaven's g ranting, s tating a s a f act t hat b y Y our P ieties' f oresight t he p ower o f t he a rmy, a nd t he e nt ire e mpire, c an b e s ustained b y t he m easures w hich I h ave j ust m entioned : t hese a re, o f c ourse, a lready k nown t o Y our C lemencies' m ost i ntimate a dvisers, w ho h ave a g reat n umber o f o ther c ares w hich a re f oreign t o m e. B ut b ecause m any t hings e scape t heir a ttention a midst t he p ressure o f b usiness, i t h as b een m y u rgent d esire - p rompted a s Ia m b y r etirement, a nd b eing n ot e ntirely i gnorant o f w hat s hould b e d one f or t he b est i n t hese m atters t o b ring t ogether w hat I h ave c ollected f rom a ll q uarters w hich m ay b e o f u se t o Y our F elicities. I f , h owever, b ecause o f t he r eq uirements o f t he s ubject, m y r epresentation p roduces s omething r ather o utspoken, I b elieve t hat t his w ill b e f avoured w ith p ardon, s ince i n t he f ulfilment o f m y u ndertaking i ndulgence w ill b e a ccorded m e i n t he i nterest o f f reedom o f s peculation .

[ picture: T HE V ARIOUS S UITABLY-AUTHORIZED C OINS O F T HE A NCIENTS ( BRONZE; C LAY; M ADE O F L EATHER )]

2 4

IS trict c ontrol o f p ublic d onations

1 T he t reasury, i n i ts o wn i nterests, m ust a lways k eep a w atchful e ye o n m ilitary s uccess a nd t he p omp o f t riumphs, t o p revent t he e xtrav agant d onation o f m oney f rom s tirring u p t he s eeds o f c onflict t o a n e ven g reater e xtent: i f t his i s p ut d own b y Y our i mperial M a jesty 's f oresight, t he e vil o f w ar w ill n o l onger f lourish, b ut i nstead t he c ollapsing r esources o f t he t axpayers w ill b e r efreshed . 2 W hereas i f t he u ncontrolled d istribution o f m oney w astes w hat o ught t o b e p reserved, t he d elights o f w ealth w ill n ot b e a ble i n a ny w ay 3 t o s upply o ur n eeds a s t hey d id i n a ntiquity . C onsequently I m ust s peak b riefly o n t he s ubject o f t he f oresight ( or w hat w ould s eem s uch, i n o ur p resent p rofligacy o f r esources) e xercised b y o ur 4 a ncestors i n a n a ge o f p overty . T he r ulers o f e arlier t imes t ook p ride n ot i n u seless t reasure, b ut i n t he c onstruction o f b uildings i nstead, t o b eautify w hich t hey d evoted t heir e ntire s tock o f g old 5 a nd s ilver . T heir s upply o f b ronze, t oo, t hey s truck i n r epresent ation o f t heir o wn l ikenesses, a s t estimonies t o t heir e xcellence. 6 B ut s o t hat t he c onvenience o f b uying a nd s elling *a nd s o t hat t he m eans o f r oyal b ounty m ight b e s upplied, t hey s tored u p t heir g old a nd s ilver, a nd, t o t ake t he p lace o f b ronze, t hey m ade u se o f c lay a rtfully t reated, h ardened b y f ire a nd i mpressed w ith 7 d efinite s ymbols. T hose w ho c ame a fter, h owever, d espising t his c ont rivance o f t he h umble d ays o f o ld, m ade d iscs o f l eather a nd a ttached t o t hese a s mall p iece o f g old: w ith t hese t he m unificence o f t he k ings, a nd t he r equirements o f t rade, c ould b e e xercised 8 w ithout h arm t o t he t axpayers. B ut t he f ollowing a ge - i n w hich t here w as a v ast s upply o f b ronze w hich c ould n o l onger b e a bsorbed i n t he d ecoration o f p ublic b uildings , i ntending, l ike t he p rev ious o ne, a m onument f or a ll t ime, s truck h eavy b ronze c oins, a ll t he m ore v aluable p recisely b ecause o f t heir w eight: a s ar esult o f t heir w eight, w hich I h ave j ust n oted, t he t ypes w ere v ery l ongl asting; b ut t hese p owerful k ings i mpressed t heir o wn i mage a s t hey w ished o nly o n g old a nd s ilver, a nd t his i mage r emained - b ecause o f t he s anctity o f w hat w as r epresented - a t ribute t o t he k ingly 9 s tate, u seless f or a ll p ractical p urposes. B ronze, h owever, w hich w as n ow v ery c heap b ecause o f i ts a bundance, w as s truck f or p urposes 1 0 o f m ilitary d onatives a nd t he v arious c ivil t ransactions. B ut s o t hat c omplete c onviction m ay t he m ore r eadily a ttend o n w hat I h ave s aid, I h ave t aken p ains t o h ave t he s hapes a nd d esigns w hich w ere d eemed s uitable ( and w hich d iffer a ccording t o t heir p eriods), a nd t he c hanging a rrangements o f a ntiquity, i llustrated i n t heir v arious c olours.

* Lacuna ( see c ritical n ote): s upply p erhaps m ight c ontinue t o b enefit t he p eople,

2 5

I

1

2

3

T he p eriod a t w hich e xtravagance a nd g reed b egan

I n t he a ge o f C onstantine e xtravagant p ublic s pending p rescribed g old f or p etty t ransactions i nstead o f b ronze, w hich p reviously w as h ighly v alued; a nd t he o rigin o f t his d isplay o f g reed i s b elieved t o h ave s prung f rom t he f ollowing c ause. W hen t he g old a nd s ilver a nd t he e normous q uantity o f p recious s tones w hich h ad b een h oarded u p m any y ears a go i n t he t emples r eached t he p ublic, i t i nflamed e veryone's d esires t o s pend a nd p ossess. t he s pending o f b ronze i tself ( which, a s Ih ave s aid,

A nd a lthough h ad b een

s tamped w ith t he p ortraits o f k ings) c ould a lready b e s een t o b e e xcessive a nd d ifficult t o c ontrol, n evertheless, a s a r esult o f s ome b lindness o r o ther, t here c ame a bout a n i ncreasingly w ide4

5

6

7

8

9

s pread i nsistence o n s pending g old, w hich i s u nderstood t o b e m ore v aluable. T he p rivate m ansions o f t he p owerful, f illed f rom t his f lood o f g old , w ere t urned i nto m ore s ignal i nstruments f or t he o ppression o f t he p oor; t he l ess-well-off , o bviously , b eing h eld d own b y b rutal m eans. B ut t he s uffering p oor , d riven t o a ttempt v arious a cts o f w ickedness, a nd h aving b efore t heir e yes n o r espect f or t he l aw n or f eelings o f l oyalty, e ntrusted t heir r evenge t o t he c riminal a rts. F or f requently t hey i nflicted e xtremely s erious d amage o n t he e mpire b y l aying t he c ountryside w aste, b y p ersistently d isturbing t he p eace w ith a cts o f b riganda ge, b y s tirring u p h atreds; a nd t hey e ncouraged a long t he s tages o f t heir c riminal c areer t he t yrants w hom d esperation b rought f orth ( rather t han e mulation i nspired) a gainst Y our v irtuous S plendour . Y our P rudence, m ost e xcellent e mperor, w ill t herefore t ake s teps t o h old d own p ublic s pending, a nd t hereby b oth t o l ook t o t he i nterests o f t he t axpayer a nd t o e xtend t o a ges t o c ome t he s plendour o f y our n ame. L ast o f a ll, t hink o ver b riefly w hat i s k nown o f t he h appier a ges o f m ankind, a nd r emember t he c elebrat ed k ingdoms o f t he a ncient t imes o f p overty, w hich h ad l earned h ow t o c ultivate t he l and a nd n ot c ovet r iches, r emember w ith w hat h onour a nd p raise t heir u ntainted f rugality g ives t hem a n ame f or a ll t ime. C ertainly w e s peak o f t hose a ges a s ' golden' w hich h ad a bsolutely n o g old a t a ll.

I II

1

2

F raud , a nd t he r eform o f t he m int

A mong t he i n juries t o t he s tate w hich c annot b e t olerated, t he c ondition o f t he s olidi, w hich h as b een d ebased t hrough t he f rauds o f c ertain p ersons, t roubles t he p eople i n d ifferent w ays, a nd c heapens t he r epresentation o f i mperial m ajesty w hen i t i s r eject ed t hrough t he f ault o f t he m int; f or t he d eceitful c unning o f t he b uyer a nd t he m iserable p light o f t he s eller o f o ne a nd t he s ame s olidus h ave i mported s omething o f ap roblem i nto t he c ont racts c oncerned, s o t hat a s traightforward t ransaction i n s uch c ases i s i mpossible. A nd s o Y our M a jesty 's c orrection m ust b e e mployed , a s i n a ll o ther m atters, s o i n t his a lso, o n t he p lan t hat t he w orkers o f t he m int s hould b e b rought i n f rom a ll s ides a nd p laced a ll t ogether o n o ne i sland , t o o ccupy t hemselves w ith t he b usiness o f t he l ower d enominations a nd t he s olidi, c ut o ff , 2 6

3

4

t hat i s, f rom c ontact w ith t hat f reedom o f p assing t o f or f raud, m ay n ot b lacken t here, g iven t he a dvantage

t he n eighbouring m ainland f or e ver, s o a nd f ro, w hich p rovides o pportunities t he i ntegrity o f ap ublic s ervice. F or o f i solation, t he p erfect g ood f aith o f

t he m int w ill b e g uaranteed, a nd t here w ill b e n o p lace f or f raud w here t here i s n o c hance o f p rofit. N ow s o t hat t he t ypes o f a f uture i ssue m ay b e s een, I h ave s et o ut b elow i n a n i nformative p icture t he s tyles a nd s ize o f b oth t he b ronze a nd t he g old s pecimens.

[ picture: A F AVOURABLE N EW S TART F OR T HE S ACRED A ND D IVINE C URRENCY]

I V

1

2

3

4

5

O n t op o f t hese i nconveniences, t hen, w hich v ex t he p rovinces w ith t he r efinements o f a varice, t here c omes a lso t he a bominable g reed o f t he p rovincial g overnors, w hich i s p rejudicial t o t he i nterests o f t he t axpayers: f or, c aring n othing f or t he d ignity o f t heir o ffice, t hey r egard t hemselves a s b eing s ent i nto t he p rovinces l ike m erchants, a ll t he m ore o bjectionable i n t hat i niq uity p roceeds f rom t he v ery m en f rom w hom a r emedy w as t o b e e xpected . A nd a s t hough t heir o wn i niquity w ere n ot e nough f or t his s tate o f a ffairs, e ach o ne o f t hem , t o f urther t he w ork o f d estruction, s ends o ut t ax-collectors t o d rain t he r esources o f t he t axpayers b y v arious r efinements o f e xtortion - e vidently b ecause t hey t hemselves w ould b e t hought t otally u nremarkable i f t hey w ere t he o nly o nes t o d o w rong. I n f act, w hat o pportunity o f g ain o ffered b y t he t ax-returns h ave t hese p eople l et s lip? W hat p roceeding f or u npaid t axes h as e ver g one b y w ithout t heir e xtracting t heir p lunder? T o t hese m en t he e nlistment o f r ecruits, t he p urchase o f h orses a nd c orn, e ven t he s ums a llocated f or d efence-walls, a re a ll t ime-honoured s ources o f p rofit a nd t he e agerly-awaited o pportunity f or r obbery. W hereas i f h onourable m en , l overs o f h onesty, w ere i n c harge o f t he p rovinces, t here w ill b e n o p lace f or f raud a nywhere, a nd t he s tate w ill b e s trengthened b y a r ich a ccession o f m oral q ualities.

V

1

2

C orruption a mong t he p rovincial g overnors

R eduction o f m ilitary e xpenditure

H aving n ow , It hink, r eviewed t he t roubles o f t he s tate w hich m ust b e a bolished - a nd r ightly s o -b y i mperial m easures o f r eform , l et m e t urn t o t he v ast e xpenditure o n t he a rmy , w hich m ust b e c ut d own i n a n ot d issimilar f ashion : b ecause o f t his e xpenditure, t he w hole s ystem o f t ax-collection i s i n t rouble. B ut s o t hat Y our M a jesty, p ressed a s y ou a re w ith b usiness, m ay n ot g row w eary a t 2 7

3

4

5

6

7

8

t he e normous m ass o f c onfusion h ere, I w ill s et o ut v ery b riefly t he s olution o f t his i nveterate p roblem . W hen a s erviceman h as s erved f or a c ertain n umber o f y ears a nd h as r eached t he p oint a t w hich h e h as r eceived t he r ewards o f f ive d onatives o r m ore, h e s hould b e g iven a n h onourable d ischarge a nd e njoy h is r etirement f reed f rom h is c ommitment , h is t ime b eing a ll h is o wn, w hich w ill p revent h is b eing a b urden o n t he s tate b y r eceiving d onatives y ear a fter y ear; t he m an n ext b elow i n s eniority w ill t ake h is p lace, a nd s o a t r egular i ntervals o f t ime w ill r elieve t he b attalion a s a w hole f rom t remendous e xpense. I f , h owever, t here a re t oo m any s oldiers d ue f or p romotion f rom t he l ower c ompanies i nto t he p lace o f t hose w ho a re r etiring, t his s urplus t oo c an b e g ranted i ts r etirement a nd l eave t he s ervice, o r i t c an b e d rafted t o a nother u nit w hich i s s hort o f m en , t o f ill u p t heir p lace. T his p lan w ill n ot o nly g ive n ew s trength t o t he s tate, w hich i s b urdened w ith e xpenses, b ut i t w ill a lso r educe t he c ares o f i ts i mperial d irector; i t w ill, m oreover , e ncourage m any t o j oin t he s ervice w hom t he s lowness o f p romotion d eterred f rom i t. A nd t hen t he u tility o f a n a rrangement o f t his k ind i s t hat i t t urns o ut, t o t he b enefit o f t hose i n t he p rovinces, v eterans e nriched w ith i mperial g rants a nd f armers s till p owerful o f l imb t o t ill t he f ields: t hey w ill i nhabit t he f rontier-territory , t hey w ill p lough t he l ands w hich t hey b ut l ately d efended, a nd, h aving g ained t he l onged-for r eward o f t heir l abours, f rom b eing s oldiers t hey w ill b ecome t axpayers. B ut b ecause t he s ervice i s f requently d epleted b y m ilitary d isaster o r b oredom w ith t he d uties o f c amp l ife, s o c utting t he f ull s trength, l osses d ue t o t hese c auses a re t o b e m ade g ood b y ar emedy o f t his k ind, n amely, t hat d ivisions o f a h undred o r f ifty y ounger m en , i n a ddition t o t hose w ho a re l isted o n t he p ay-rolls, s hould b e k ept r eady f or a ction, t rained i n t he u se o f w eapons, a nd p aid ( as b eing r ecruits) a t a l ower r ate, t o b e d rafted i nto t he p lace o f t hose w ho h ave b een l ost i f e vents s hould m ake t his n ecessary . G iven p rovisions o f t his k ind, t he f ull s trength o f t he a rmy w ill b e m aintained i ntact, a nd a s upply o f e xcellently-trained r ecruits w ill b e a t h and i n g ood t ime a gainst l osses.

V I

M ilitary m achines

I

F irst o f a ll i t m ust b e r ecognized t hat f renzied n ative t ribes, y elping e verywhere a round, h em t he R oman e mpire i n, a nd t hat t reacherous b arbarians, p rotected b y n atural d efences, m enace 2 e very s tretch o f o ur f rontiers. F or t hese p eoples t o w hom I r efer a re f or t he m ost p art e ither h idden b y f orests o r l ifted b eyond o ur r each b y m ountains o r k ept f rom u s b y t he s nows; s ome, n omadic, a re p rotected b y d eserts a nd t he b lazing s un. 3 T here a re t hose w ho, d efended b y m arshes a nd r ivers, c annot e ven b e l ocated e asily , a nd y et t hey t ear p eace a nd q uiet t o s hreds 4 b y t heir u nforeseen a ttacks. T ribes o f t his k ind, t herefore, w ho a re p rotected e ither b y n atural d efences s uch a s t hese o r b y t he w alls o f t owns a nd t owers, m ust b e a ttacked w ith a v ariety 5 o f n ovel a rmed d evices. A nd s o t hat n o d ifficulty m ay a rise i n c onstructing t he v arious t ypes o f w eapons, I h ave a dded b eneath 2 8

m y t ext a p erfectly a ccurate p icture o f e ach m achine, p icked o ut i n c olours, s o t hat i t m ay b e e asy t o b uild i n i mitation o f i t.

[ picture:

V II

T HE F OUR-WHEELED B ALLISTA ]

D escription of t he f our-wheeled b allista

1 A t ype o f b allista, w hose c onstruction t he d etailed d rawing s ets 2 c learly b efore y our e yes. E vidently, f our s moothly-running w heels m ove t his a round f or b attle p urposes, t wo m ail-clad h orses b eing y oked t o i t; a nd s o v ersatile i s i t, t hanks t o i ts i ngenious d esign, t hat i t c an f ire a rrows i n a ll d irections a gainst t he e nemy , i n i mitation o f t he f lexibility a nd d exterity o f ab owman. 3 I t h as o penings i n i ts f our s ides, t hrough w hich i t i s t urned a nd a imed a s c ircumstances r equire, a nd s o i t c an b e g ot r eady a gainst 4 a ny a ttack w ith g reat e ase. B y m eans o f a s crew-thread d evice a t t he f ront i t i s v ery q uickly l owered, a nd a s q uickly l ifted i nto 5 t he r aised p osition . I ts p ole, t oo, c an b e s wung r ound b y a r apid a nd e asy t urning m ovement, a nd t hen r aised, t o f ace w hatever 6 d irection t he n eed o f t he s ituation d ictates. I t m ust a lso b e p ointed o ut t hat t his t ype o f b allista f ires i ts a rrows o n b eing w ound u p n ot b y r opes, a s o thers a re, b ut b y aw indlass, w hich i s w orked b y t wo m en .

[ picture:

V III

T HE C HAR MVRAILLE: T HE S HIELD A C LOUS]

D escription of t he c har-muraille

1

T he c har-muraille t ype o f m achine h as t aken t he o rigin o f i ts n ame f rom a G reek d esignation d erived f rom t he n ature o f i ts f unction, i n t hat b y m eans o f i t t he s caling o f aw all i s m ade e asier: i t i s a lways t o b e b rought u p i n f ront o f ab allista m oving i nto a ction, s o t hat t his b allista m ay o perate u nder b etter c over. T he a ssembly o r c onstruction o f t his m achine t oo, t hen, i s t o b e c arried o ut i n 2 a ccordance w ith a p ractical a nd p roper d esign. T he p resent c harm uraille, t herefore, i s b uilt n ot h igh o ff t he g round b ut l ow d own, s o t hat i t c an c onceal w ithin i tself a ll t races o f i ts c rew, w ho a dvance i n h iding; w ith t wo w icker s creens p laced a bove i t, a nd i ts n ails h ammered w ell h ome, i t p rotects t he m en h idden i nside i t f rom a ll a ttacks, b eing m oved, i nvisibly, b y t wo w heels i ntended t o p ropel 3 t he s uperstructure. T he t ips o f i ts a xles, a nd i ts f ront e nd, a nd i ts u pper s urface t oo, a re a rmed w ith c arefully-fitted p rongs a nd b lades,

2 9

s o t hat n o-one m ay b e g iven t he o pportunity o f m aking a n a ssault o n t he u ndefended a rea - t hat i s, t he u pper p art.

I X

1

D escription of t he s hield ä c lous

A t arge ( that i s, a s mall s hield), c arefully s tudded w ith t iny n ails t o s trengthen i t, i s t hought d esirable f or v arious r easons: s ometimes, t hat i s, i t p rotects t he m an w ho c arries i t; s ometimes, f astened o n t he f ront o f t he c har-murailie o r h anging f rom i ts p ole, i t g uards t he m en h iding b eneath f rom t he a ttacks o f o ppon ents c oming a t c lose q uarters.

[ picture:

X

1

2

3

' CALTROP'

D escription of t he

J AVELIN; T HE

' BREASTED '

J AVELIN]

' caltrop' j avelin

T his t ype o f j avelin, w hich c an b e s een t o b e e quipped w ith f lights l ike a n a rrow , h as b een i ntended t o b e h urled n ot b y t he i mpulse o f a b ow o r a b allista; f lung i nstead b y t he t hrust a nd p ower o f t he h and, i t t ravels a t c lose r ange i nto t he e nemy : t his c an b e s een t o t hreaten d eath i n o ne o f t wo w ays t o t he m an w ho i s w ounded b y i t; f or i t e ither b uries i tself i n h is b ody a nd k ills h im , o r i t f alls a way w ithout w ounding h im a nd l ies o n t he g round a nd s ticks i n h is f oot w hen h e t reads o n i t, b ecause, w hatever w ay i t i s t urned, i t c an i nflict a w ound f rom i ts e dge w ith t he p rong p rojecting f rom i t. N ow i t i s m ade o f ap iece o f w ood f ashioned l ike a n a rrow, t o w hich i s c arefully f ixed a n i ron t ip w orked i nto t he s hape o f a h unting-spear, w ith t he t ubular e nd o f t he b lade e xtended a l ittle w ay: a bove t his, w ith a s hort g ap l eft i n b etween, s pikes l ike c altrops p roject, s oldered o n w ith l ead . A nd a t t he l ower e nd o f t he j avelin a re f ixed f lights t o g ive s peed, w ith e nough s pace l eft a bove t hese f lights, o f c ourse, f or t he f ingers o f t he h older t o b e a ble t o g rasp.

X I

1

T HE

D escription of t he

' breasted' j avelin

A s haft, n icely l ong a nd s traight, w ill h ave f itted t o o ne o f i ts e nds a p iece o f i ron, r ound i n s ection a nd t apering t o ap oint, w ith a l ead w eight a nd f lights a ttached a t t he s ame p oints a s i n t he ' caltrop ' t ype, s o t hat t he b ulbous w eapon, a ssisted b y t he w eight o f t he l ead a nd t he s wiftness o f t he f lights, w ill b e 3 0

p owerful e nough t o p enetrate v ery e asily t he e nemy 's s hields a nd s imilar o bstacles.

[ picture:

X II

T HE C HARIOT A F AUX ]

D escription of t he c hariot ä f aux

1 T he p eculiar r equirements o f t he P arthian w ar l ed t o t he i nvent ion o f t his t ype o f f ighting v ehicle, w hich c an b e s een t o b e 2 p rovided w ith o ffensive w eapons i n a r emarkable f ashion . T wo m en , h owever, p roperly e quipped w ith s teel c lothing a nd w eapons, a nd e ach r iding o n a w ell-protected h orse, d rive t his p articular m achine i nto b attle a t g reat s peed : i ts r ear e nd i s e quipped w ith k nives p rojecting i n a r ow a bove t he c hassis - o bviously s o t hat n o-one m ay b e a fforded a n e asy c hance o f c limbing o n i t 3 f rom t he b ack. F urthermore, v ery s harp s cythes a re f itted t o t he a xles o f t his c hariot, w ith e yelets o n t heir e dges, i n w hich a re k notted r opes w hich, w hen r eleased a t t he w ill o f t he t wo r iders, l et d own t he s cythes, a nd w hen t ightened, l ift t hem u p. 4 T hose w ho k now w ar t hrough p ersonal e xperience w ill t ell b etter t han I w hat d estruction d evices o f t his k ind c an w reak a mong t he e nemy, o r w hat c arnage t hey c an p roduce a mong t he s hattered r anks.

[ picture:

X III

1

T HE C HARIOT A F AUX F OR O NE R IDER]

D escription o f t he c hariot ä f aux f or o ne r ider

I n t his c hariot, w hich m oves a bout u nder t he p ull o f o ne h orse a nd w hich i s d irected b y t he s kill a nd d efended b y t he c ourage o f a s ingle m an, t he a rrangement o f t he o ffensive d evices, b oth f or r epelling w eapons a nd f or t hrusting h ome t he a ttack, i s t he s ame a s i n t he p revious c hariot: i t h as, i n f act, n o d ifferences a t a ll f rom t he m achine d escribed a bove, e xcept t hat t he c hariot d escribed a bove i s h auled ( because o f i ts g reat s ize) b y t wo h orses, a nd i s a lso d riven b y t wo w arriors.

[ picture:

T HE C HARIOT A F AUX W ITH S HIELDS]

3 1

X IV

D escription of t he c hariot ä f aux w ith s hields

1

T his a mazing m achine i ncorporates a c ertain n ovelty, b eing i n o ne r espect d ifferent f rom t he c hariots d escribed a bove; f or h ere t he r ear e nd o f t he v ehicle i s e quipped w ith a utomatic w hips t o g oad t he h orses o n, a nd w ith s hields, s urrounded w ith s harp i ron 2 p oints p laced a s o n ab attlement. I t d iffers, t oo, f rom t he f irst c hariot i n t his w ay, t hat h ere t he s kill n ot o f t wo m en, 3 a s t here, b ut o f o ne m an o nly d irects t he t wo h orses. I t i s, m oreover, d istinguished f rom t he s econd c hariot b y t his p oint o f d ifference, t hat t here a s ingle h orse b oth t akes t he w arrior's w eight i n c arrying t he r ider [ ? a g loss] ,a nd s urrounds .. t o a l esser e xtent, s ince a h idden p ole p ulls t he y oke [ or: a nd t he y oke s urrounds .. t o a l esser e xtent, s ince a h idden p ole 4 p ulls ..].* H ere t oo o ne c an c hange t he p osition o f t he s cythes, w hich, w hen t he r opes a re s lackened, a re e xtended a nd s tretch f ar 5 b eyond t he a xle t o s laughter t he e nemy . T he r ope, b y m eans o f w hich t he s cythes a re e ither e xtended ( when i t i s r eleased ) o r l ifted a bove t he a xles ( when i t i s t ightened ), p asses t hrough a r ing a ttached, o n t he o uter s ide o f t he r ear f lank, t o t he s calea rmour b y w hich t he h orses a re c lad a nd p rotected a gainst a ll b lows o f w eapons.

* The s ense of t his d efective a nd p erhaps i nterpolated p assage m ay o riginally h ave b een: .. t hat t here a s ingle h orse b oth t akes t he w arrior 's w eight i n c arrying t he r ider a nd < draws t he v ehicle, b eing p laced b etween t wo s hafts; w hereas t his c hariot> s urrounds < its h orses> t o a l esser e xtent, s ince a h idden p ole p ulls t he y oke ( so H assall): b ut t he L atin i s b eyond r ecovery ( see c ritical n ote).

[ picture: T HE D EFENSEUR D E P OITRINE ]

X V

D escription of t he c lfenseur d e p oitrine

1

T he a ncients, a mong t he m any t hings w hich, i n t heir f orethought f or p osterity, t hey d evised f or u se i n w ar, p rescribed a lso t he d gfenseur d e p oitrine t o c ounteract t he w eight a nd f riction o f 2 a rmour: i t i s a mazingly u seful f or p rotecting t he b ody . T his t ype o f g arment i s m ade o f t hick c loth t o t he m easure a nd f or t he p rotection o f t he u pper p art o f t he h uman f rame; f earful a pprehension, g uided b y c leverness, d evised i t, s o t hat, a fter i t h as b een p ut o n f irst, t he b reastplate, o r s uit o f a rmour, o r s omething s imilar, c annot i njure t he f rail b ody b y i ts r oughness a nd w eight; a nd a gain, t he l imbs o f t he w earer, h elped b y t his m eans o f r elief , w ill b e a ble t o d o t heir w ork a midst t he d iffi3 c ulties o f w arfare a nd c old w eather . B ut i n a ny c ase, s o t hat t he d gfenseur d e p oitrine m ay n ot c ause p roblems f or t he w earer

3 2

4

w ith i ts i ncreasing w eight w hen i t i s s oaked w ith r ain, i t w ill b e a dvisable t o p ut o ver o n t op a c overing g arment m ade o f n icely-treated L ibyan h ide i n t he s hape o f t he d gfenseur d e p oitrine i tself . S o, w hen t he d gfenseur d e p oitrine h as b een p ut o n a s Ih ave d escribed - i t d erives i ts n ame t hrough G reek n omenclature , f rom i ts p rotecting t he b ody - a nd w ith p umps ( footwear, t hat i s) a nd s teel g reaves p ut o n, a h elmet o n h is h ead a nd a s hield a nd s word s lung b y h is s ide, s natching u p h is s pears, t he s oldier w ill b e c ompletely a rmed , r eady t o g o i nto a n i nfantry e ngagement.

[ picture :

X VI

1

2

3

4

5

T HE P ONT D 'OUTRES]

D escription o f t he p ont d 'outres

T o p revent e ncounters w ith r ivers f rom d elaying ( as v ery o ften h appens) a m arch w hich i t i s s ometimes n ecessary f or t he a rmy t o m ake, i nventive n ecessity h as d iscovered a r emedy a gainst t his d ifficulty , a t o nce e conomically s imple a nd o utstandingly e ffective; i t i s m ade i n t he f ollowing m anner. C alf-skins a re s oftened b y t he A rabian p rocess - b ecause i n t hat c ountry t here i s ap articularly w ell-developed t echnique o f t reatment, a s a r esult o f t heir n eed t o l ift w ater f rom w ells i n b uckets - s kins o f t he s ort t hat I h ave m entioned, t hen, a re s titched t ogether c arefully t o f orm b ladders t hree-and-a-half f eet a cross, i n s uch aw ay t hat, w hen t hese b ladders a re f illed w ith a ir a nd s well u p, t hey d o n ot b ulge o utwards, b ut i nstead t he i nflation o f t he b ladders p roduces f lat s urfaces b y ak ind o f e qual s tretching: t hey a re t ied t o e ach o ther, s ide b y s ide, b y m eans o f t hongs k notted u nderneath : o n t op, s mall l oops p roject o n o ne s ide, a nd h ooks a re s lipped i nto t hese f rom t he o ther; a nd t hus t he w hole t hing, p ut t ogether i n t he f orm o f ab ridge, i s b uilt u p c omplete i n i ts p arts . B ut t his s tructure w ill b e m ore e asily b uilt o ut t owards t he o ther b ank i f t he r iver s trikes i t o bliquely , b ecause o f t he p ush o f t he c urrent; a nd t hen , w ith i ron s takes f ixed i n b oth b anks, a nd w ith s trong r opes r unning b oth c entrally u nder t he b ladders t o t ake t he w eight o f t hose w alking o n t hem a nd a lso a long t he t op o f t he s ides t o g ive r igidity, t he s tructure w ill o ffer a n e asy m eans o f c rossing a r iver i n a s hort s pace o f t ime b y m eans o f an ew a nd u nfamiliar i tem o f m arching-equipment. I n a ddition , w e n eed t o r emember t hat h air m ats h ave t o b e p laced a bove t he a ssembly o f b ladders w here t hose w alking a cross w ill t read, s o t hat t he g reasy d ressing o f t he s kins d oes n ot p revent a f irm f oothold b eing t aken. A gain, h and-ballistae w ill b e s tationed o n b oth b anks, s o t hat a n e nemy d etachment c annot g et i n t he w ay o f t hose w orking o n t he b ridge.

3 3

[ picture:

X VII

T HE W ARSHIP ]

D escription o f t he w arship

1

A nimal p ower , d irected b y t he r esources o f i ngenuity, d rives w ith e ase a nd s wiftness, w herever u tility s ummons i t, a w ars hip s uitable f or n aval c ombats, w hich, b ecause o f i ts e normous s ize, h uman f railty a s i t w ere p revented f rom b eing o perated b y 2 t he h ands o f m en. I n i ts h ull, o r h ollow i nterior, o xen, y oked i n p airs t o c apstans, t urn w heels a ttached t o t he s ides o f t he s hip; p addles, p rojecting a bove t he c ircumference o r c urved s urface o f t he w heels, b eating t he w ater w ith t heir s trokes l ike o ar-blades a s t he w heels r evolve, w ork w ith a n a mazing 3 a nd i ngenious e ffect, t heir a ction p roducing r apid m otion. T his w arship, m oreover, b ecause o f i ts o wn b ulk a nd b ecause o f t he m achinery w orking i nside i t , j oins b attle w ith s uch p ounding f orce t hat i t e asily w recks a nd d estroys a ll e nemy w arships c oming a t c lose q uarters.

[ picture:

X VIII

T HE ' THUNDERBOLT '

D escription o f t he

B ALLISTA ]

' thunderbolt' b allista

1

T his t ype o f b allista, e ssential f or t he d efence o f f ortifications, h as b een f ound i n p ractice t o b e s uperior t o o thers i n f orce a nd p ower; t his i s b ecause a n i ron b ow i s p laced v ertically a bove t he c hannel a long w hich t he a rrow i s p ropelled, a nd a s trong r ope o f e lastic f ibre i s p ulled b ack w ith a n i ron h ook a nd f ires t his a rrow 2 w ith e normous p ower i nto t he e nemy w hen i t i s r eleased. T he g reat s ize o f t he c onstruction d oes n ot a llow t his r ope t o b e p ulled b ack b y t he p ower o f s oldiers' h ands: i nstead, t wo m en, p ushing a t t he s pokes o f t wo w heels p laced a t t he r ear, o ne m an t o e ach, s tretch t he r ope b ack, p ower p roportionate t o t he d ifficulty o f t he o pera3 t ion b eing o btained b y m eans o f m achinery . A s crew-thread d evice, t oo, n ow r aises a nd n ow l owers t he b allista i tself , s o t hat i t m ay 4 f ire i ts a rrows h igher o r l ower a s o ccasion d ictates. B ut n ow t he p roof o f i ts a mazing a nd u nique e xcellence: t hough i t i s c omposed o f s o m any d ifferent p arts, i t i s c ontrolled b y t he a ttention o f o ne m an o nly, w ho i s ( so t o s peak) a t h is e ase, f or t he p urpose s imply o f l oading t he a rrow i n f ront o f t he p ropulsion-mechanism ; t his, y ou s ee, a voids i mpairing t he b asic p urpose o f t he d esign , a s w ould h appen i f a l arge n umber o f m en p erformed t his f unction. 5 A m issile, t hen, f ired f rom t his b allista e ndowed w ith s o m any g reat r efinements o f i ngenuity , f lies s uch a v ery l ong w ay t hat i t c an e ven t raverse t he w idth o f t he D anube, f amed f or t he b readth 6 o f i ts s tream . A nd t he m achine's d esignation - t he ' thunderbolt' 3 4

b ears w itness b y i ts v ery n ame t o t he e ffectiveness o f i ts p ower. 7 A nd s o, i nvincible e mperor, y ou w ill d ouble t he s trength o f y our i nvincible a rmy i f i t i s r einforced w ith t hese m echanical i nvent ions t oo, c hecking e nemy i nvasions n ot m erely b y f orce a nd m ight b ut a lso b y s cientific d evices: p articularly s ince y ou w ill h ave d iscovered , i n t he k eenness o f y our m ind's p erception , t hat t he 8 m achines w ill b e o f s ervice i n a ll p hysical c onditions. F or i f b attles a re t o b e f ought o ut o n l and a gainst t he b oldness o f a d esperate e nemy , y ou w ill p ursue h is f leeing f orces a cross t he o pen p lains w ith t he s cythed c hariots; i f ar ash f oe a ttempts s ecretly t o s cale a w all, h e w ill f ind o ut h ow t rusty a t hing t he b allista i s b efore h e g ets a nywhere n ear; o r i f s treams o f w ater a nywhere b lock t he v ictorious a dvance o f t he a rmy, m y s pecial 9 d evice o f ap ortable b ridge w ill l end i ts a id. A nd i f t he e nemy f lees t he l and a nd i nvests t he s eas w ith n aval c onflict, t he w ars hip , r acing a cross t he w aves w ith i ts n ew c ontrivance f or f ast t ravel, m oved a long b y w heels a nd o xen , i n a s ense a s t hough i t 1 0 w ere o n l and, w ill g ive i nstant v ictory . F or w ho w ill b e a ble t o r esist t he p ower o f t his s hip , w hich r ests o n t he s tability o f a l and v ehicle a nd o ffers t he a dvantage o f a s hip's m anoeuvrability? 1 1 I n a ddition, t oo, t he ' thunderbolt' b allista w ill g uard y our f ortunate f rontiers: t he l ess n eed t his h as o f m en's a ssistance t o p ut i t i nto f iring o rder, t he m ore r emarkable i s i t i n t he u nique e xcellence o f i ts c ontrivance, i n t hat i t p rovides f or i tself , b eing e ndowed w ith t he c ontrivances o f s cience, a ll t he r esources t hat a l arger c rew m ight a fford i t.

X IX

M ilitary e quipment

W hen t he d isplay o f m ilitary m ight p rovokes e ngagements, t he c ommander-in-chief w ill f ind i t a dvisable t o a rrange b reaks b et ween e very t hree c olumns o f m en , s o t hat t he f ighting-power m ay n ot b e r estricted a nd r educed b y d isorganization o f t he r anks c aused b y t oo l arge a n umber o f s oldiers: g iven a lso t hat e ach c olumn s hould c onsist o f o nly t wo t housand m en , t o p revent t he o verwhelming b y i ts o wn f orces o f av ery l arge n umber o f m en a ll p acked t ogether, w ith r esources s o a bundant t hat t hey a ctually 2 i nflict d amage u pon t hemselves. A nd t hen i t w ill b e n ecessary f or t he s oldier p assing t hrough i ce-bound r egions t o b e e quipped w ith t he d eenseur d e p oitrine a nd t o b e a rmed w ith w hatever e lse i s n eeded t o p rotect h im, a s t he r equirements o f h is b ody d ictate, s o t hat h e c an b oth r esist t he c old a nd f ace m issiles: s mall s hields w ill o bviously b e c arried , s o t hat d ense w oodland m ay n ot b e i naccessible b ecause o f t he w idth o f t he e quipment ( which o ften h appens i n p ractice ), a nd s o t hat t he o pportunity o f c onc ealment m ay n ot b e l ost b ecause o f t he h uge s ize o f t he e quipment. 3 F or a ll e mergency p urposes t he h elpful p ont d 'outres s hould a cc ompany t he s oldiers' m arch , t ransported o n s mall v ehicles, s o t hat w ide r ivers w hich a re e ncountered m ay b e c rossed e asily , a nd a lso s o t hat - i f c ircumstances m ake t his n ecessary - t here m ay 4 b e a t h and a n e asy m eans o f e scaping a cross t he w ater. A s f or t he P ersians, w ho a bove a ll o ther n ations a re a ddicted t o t reachery a nd p ossess g reat p hysical s trength, t hey m ust b e d estroyed b y 3 5

m eans o f s quare f ormations a nd a n e normous q uantity o f b attleg ear : h ere t oo t he o peration o f a ll t he m achines w hich I h ave d escribed m ust b e b rought f orward t o r esist t he p ower a nd c onfute 5 t he t reacheries o f t his c unning r ace. I n b attles o f t his s ort, t hen , t he c har—muraille, c arried a long b y t he a gency o f t wo m en, c an p rotect t he b allista w hich w ill b e a n i nvaluable p art o f t he 6 c ombat-equipment. M en c arrying s hields, h iding u nder t he p rotect ion o f t his c har—muraille, c an c ome r ight u p t o t he n eighbourh ood o f t he e nemy w hen h e i s o n t he p oint o f g iving b attle; a nd t hen, w hen t hey c ome o ut i nto t he o pen, t hey w ill b e p rotected f rom a ll t he m issiles r aining d own, s ince t he p latforms o f t he c har—muraille a re d efended ( as I h ave d escribed) b y i ron s pikes. 7 A nd t hen, w hen t he e nemy f orce y ields a nd i s i ntent o n s eeking s afety i n f light, t he d ecisive b low w ill b e a dministered b y t he s cythed c hariots, b y m eans o f w hich t he f leeing e nemy's h amstrings 8 c an b e c ut. W here, h owever , v ery r estricted c onditions p revent t he a rmy f rom b eing f ully d eployed, a l ong l ine o f m achines o r t hrowing-engines s hould s urround t he c ondensed f orce, s o t hat t he 9 e nemy m ay n ot b e f ree t o m olest t he p acked f lank. F urther, i t w ill b e av ery u seful p lan i f t he n umber o f a nimals b rought a long t o h aul t he t hrowing-engines i s d oubled, s o t hat a t c ritical m oments t here i s a r eserve t o r eplace t hose w hich a re e xhausted o r h ave b een k illed .

X X

1

D efence of t he f rontiers

A p roper c oncern f or t he f rontiers w hich s urround t he e mpire o n a ll s ides i s a lso t o t he a dvantage o f t he s tate: a n u nbroken c hain o f f orts w ill b est a ssure t he p rotection o f t hese f rontiers, o n t he p lan t hat t hey s hould b e b uilt a t i ntervals o f o ne m ile, w ith w ith a s olid w all a nd v ery s trong t owers; t he l andowners w ould c ons truct t hese d efences o n t heir i ndividual r esponsibility, a t n o e xpense t o t he s tate, a nd o f c ourse w atches a nd c ountry p atrols s hould b e o rganized i n t hem, s o t hat t he p eace o f t he p rovinces, p rotected b y ak ind o f b elt o f v igilance, m ay r est u nharmed i n q uiet.

X XI

R emoval of c onfusion i n t he

l aws a nd t he l egal s ystem

I

M ost s acred e mperor, w hen m easures f or t he d efence o f t he s tate a t h ome a nd a broad h ave b een f urnished b y Y our d ivine P rovidence, t here i s o ne r emedy y et r equired o f Y our S erenity t o h eal o ur d omestic t roubles: t hat b y t he p ower o f j udgement b elonging t o Y our i mperial C ondescension y ou s hould t hrow l ight u pon t he c onf used a nd c ontradictory p ronouncements o f t he l aws, c asting a side

2

t he d isputes o f e villy-disposed m en . F or w hat i s t here m ore a lien f rom h onourable c onduct t han t hat t he p assion f or c aptious d ebate s hould b e g iven r ein i n t he v ery p lace w here, f rom t he m outh o f j ustice, d istinctions a re m ade b etween t he m erits o f i ndividuals? 3 6

T HE

1 .

TRANSMISSION OF T HE

T EXT

F ive p rincipal w itnesses t o t he t ext o f t he g roup o f w orks

w hich i ncludes d e r ebus b ellicis s urvive, a ll d escended f rom a l ost m anuscript ( to b e d escribed i n d ue c ourse ) w hich b elonged t o t he c athedral l ibrary a t S peyer . t heir a ccepted s igla ,

T hese p rimary s ources, w ith

a re:-

C , a t O xford, o xoniensis c anonicianus c lass .

l at .

3 78

( de r ebus b ellicis o n f f . 6 7r-77v );

M ,

a t M unich, m onacensis l atinus 1 0291 o n f f .

P . a t P aris,

V ,

1 71-222);

p arisinus l atinus 9 661 f f .

( de r ebus b ellicis

( de r ebus b ellicis o n

5 3v-63r );

f ormerly a t V ienna, u indobonensis 3 103, n ow a t T rento ( de r ebus b ellicis o n f f .

5 3r-63v );

a nd t he t ypographic e ditio p rinceps, p repared b y S iegmond G helen ( 'Sigismundus G elenius'), a nd p rinted b y F roben a t B asel i n 1 552

( de r ebus b ellicis o n s igs. q lr-r3v ).

O ther m anuscripts w hich c arry t he t reatise - f lorentinus l aurentia nus 9 13, l eidensis u ossianus 4 4, m atritensis Q 129, m onacensis l atinus 7 94

[ imperfect ], p arisini l atinus 5 825E a nd n ouv .acq .1424,

u aticani l atinus 3 715

[ imperfect ]

a nd b arberinus l atinus 1 57(809),

3 9

u indobonensis 3 102, a nd t he p armensis s een b y P anciroli,

1

a re

v ariously d erived f rom C M P o r Va nd m ake n o i ndependent c ont ribution t o t he e stablishment o f t he t ext .

2

I n a ddition , t he

e qually d erivative C openhagen m anuscript g ottorpiensis 4 98 c ont ains t he p ictures b ut n ot t he t ext o f t he w ork .

T he p recise r elationship o f t hree o f t he p rimary s ources t o t heir a rchetype i s a scertained f rom e xternal t estimony : t hat o f t he o ther t wo m ust b e c on jectured f rom i nternal e vidence, a nd t he r eader i s w arned , o nce f or a ll, t hat m y c onclusions i n t his r espect , a s i n o thers, a re m ore s evere t han t hose a dmitted b y p revious e ditors o f t he c omponents o f t he S peyer c orpus. L eaving d iscussion o f t hese d isputed c ases ( namely P a nd t he e ditio p rinceps) u ntil l ast, w e m ay s et o ut b riefly t he k nown f acts c oncerning t he m anuscripts C M a nd V .

2 .

Cw as t ranscribed d irectly f rom E ,

t he s pirensis, i n o r

a bout J anuary 1 436, f or P ietro D onato, w hose c olophon s tates: E xemplata e st h ec C osmographia q ue S coti d icitur 3 c um p icturis e x u etustissimo c odice q uer n h abui e x S pirensi b ibliotheca a nno d omini m .cccc.xxxvi. m ense J anuario. D um e go P etrus D onatus d ei p aciencia e piscopus P aduanus u ice S anctissimi D omini E ugenii p ape i iii G enerali B asiliensi C oncilio p residerem .

e x S pirensi b ibliotheca

d um

B asiliensi C oncilio p residerem :

d oes t his i mply t hat t he a rchetype w as s ent f rom S peyer t o B asel f or c opying?

3 .

M i s ac opy o f 1 542 m ade d irectly f rom E a t S peyer .

I t w as

s ent i n 1 549 t o H eidelberg , t o t he P falzgraf O tt H einrich , w ho h ad w ritten i n 1 548 t o a sk t he S peyer a uthorities t o l end h im E i tself f or t ranscription . T heir r efusal w as m inuted o n 2 6 J anuary 1 548 : H erzog O tt H einrich p faltzgraff s chreibt v nd b egert d en 4 0

I tinerarium A nthoninj,

s onderlich d as a lt E xemplar I r G n.

z u l eyhen, w ol d asselbig a bschreiben z u l assen J r g n .

g eantwurt:

s teen m .

H n .

..

D arauf

d as a lt e xemplar s ey e twas b lod v nd

i m w erck d as

z u r enouiren.

O tt H einrich a greed t o a ccept i nstead a c opy t o b e m ade a t S peyer, s pecifying t hat t he p ictures ( in w hich h e s eems t o h ave b een p rimarily i nterested ) s hould r eproduce a s a ccurately a s p ossible t hose i n E : a nd t he d ean o f S peyer d irected o ne D ominic t o p repare t he n ew m anuscript . N othing , h owever , h ad b een d one b y D ecember 1 549, a lthough t he a uthorities h eld o ut t he p rospect o f p roducing t he c opy w hen t he s pring c ame r ound . I n t he m eanwhile, t he d ean a ttempted t o p acify t he i mportunate P falzgraf b y t he l oan o f a n e xisting t ranscript o f E uf d ie n ewe h and g emalet , n amely M ; a nd , t he n ew c opy s till n ot b eing r eady b y J uly 1 550 - a S peyer m inute o f 2 1 0 M arch d iscloses t hat n o c ompetent m iniaturist h ad y et b een f ound - t he l oan o f Mw as c onverted i nto a n o utright g ift , a s M 's p rescript r ecords : H IC L IBER ,

C VI T ITVLVS,

I TINERARIVM A NTONINI,

a tque a rchetypum e xemplar d escriptus, P rincipi a c d omino, t ino R heni, E cclesie ,

a d u erum

I llustrissimo

d omino O THONI H ENRICO,

C omiti P ala-

.. a V enerabilibus a c h onestis C athedralis

S pirensis D ecano a tque C anonico D ono m issus e st.

B ut O tt H einrich r efused t o b e s atisfied , b ecause ( and h ere a gain Iq uote M 's p rescript ) e iusdem l ibri p icture ;

p raesentis a etatis h abitum,

a c

n ouitatis f ormam q uandam p re s e f erebant, v eterisque a tque a rchetypi e xemplaris S chematibus a c l ineamentis n on i ta e xacte , a tque p er o mnia r espondebant,

a nd i t w as a rranged t hat a M aster H ans s hould p aint a s eparate s et o f p ictures f rom t racings o n o iled p aper , i f t hese c ould b e m ade w ithout s taining E . T he n ew r eproductions, c ued t o t he t ext w ith n umbers, w ere p laced a t t he b ack o f Mw hen i t w as r ebound f or O tt H einrich i n 1 551; a nd w ith t his r ather u nsatisfactory s ubstitute

4 1

f or t he u erum a tque a rchetypum e xemplar t he P falzgraf h ad t o m ake s hift u ntil t he f ollowing y ear, 1 552, w hen, a s w e s hall s ee, h e c ontrived t o a cquire E i tself .

4 .

4

Vw as c ompleted i n 1 484, a s i ts s ubscription p roclaims. A c lue

t o i ts o rigin i s f ound i n a nother V ienna m anuscript, u indobonensis 3 102, w hich e xhibits t he f ollowing c olophon i n t he h and o f B ernhard C les: l ibrum h unc s atis i ncorrectum

..

t ranscriptum e x a ntiquo e xemplari c apitulari s pirensi

..

e st i ussu n ostro i n b ibliotheca

a nno 1 529.

T he a ntiquum e xemplar was not E b ut V , w ith w hich u indobonensis 3 102 a grees e ssentially v erbatim e t l iteratim , even t o t he e xtent o f c opying i ts su bscription .

V t herefore w as i n t he S peyer l ibrary

5

i n 1 529, a nd t here i s ap owerful p resumption t hat, l ike M , i t w as ad irect a pograph o f Em ade f or s ome u nspecified p urpose - p erhaps t o s ave w ear a nd t ear o n t he f rail o riginal . T he s upposition i s c onf irmed b y t hose o f V 's e rrors w hich s how t hat i t i s i ndependent o f t he e arlier c opies C a nd P d .r .b . p r.12 t urbae omitted i n C , p resent i n V d .r .b .

i i.1

s ub P

s ed V

-b ut t hat i t t ransmits c orruptions f ound i n E ( the l acunose l aus a ut p rosequatur a t d .r .b . p r .3 ) a nd w as c opied - i t i s n ecessary h ere t o a nticipate a l ater c onclusion - f rom a n o riginal i n i nsular s cript ( d .r .b . v ii.6 i ntoxta V , f or i ntorta ).

5 .

It urn n ow t o P , o f w hich T hompson s ays

' It i s n ot a ltogether

c ertain t hat P i s ad irect c opy o f t he S pirensis, b ut, i f n ot, i ts i ntermediary i s n ow l ost .'

Pu ndoubtedly t ransmits, u nder a l ayer

o f i ts o wn s uperficial c orruptions, a t ext a greeing w ith t hat o f E a s r econstructed f rom t he u nited t estimony o f CM a nd V . T hus, a t

4 2

d .r .b .pr .10 i t i nherits a lieni , al ectio d ifficilior , a nd i n d .r .b . x iv .3 t he d esperately c orrupt t ext r eads i dentically i n a ll f our m anuscripts. T hat P , w hich w as i n e xistence b y a bout 1 443, i s n ot ac opy o f t he c ontemporaneous t ranscript C i s e vident f rom t he p res ence i n Po f t urbae , o mitted b y Ci n d .r .b .pr .12, a nd f rom P 's c orrect n on f erenda i n d .r .b .

i ii .1, w here C g ives c onseruanda .

6

T hat P i s n ot a c opy o f a n a rchetype i ndependent o f Ei s s ugg ested b y i ts t aking o ver c orruptions w hich m ay w ith r eason b e s upposed t o h ave o riginated i n Ei tself - t he d ittography e t m inori u t m inori a t d .r .b . v .7, t he l oss o f at ermination i n d .r .b . x v .4 , t he s pelling A SCOGEFRI i n t he p icture-caption f or d .r .b . I t i s t herefore c onceded t hat P d erives f rom E e ither d irectly o r t hrough a n i ntermediary w hich w as n ot C ; a nd t he c ase c an , I t hink , b e d ecided o n t he b asis o f t hree r eadings. A t d .r .b . x ii.3 e rigunt P 's s cribe a t f irst m istook h is e xemplar 's r f or a n x , s ubsequently c orrecting i t o ver t he l ine ; a t n otitia o r .xii.27 P 's o riginal c yrecei i s s imilarly c orrected t o c ynecei ( read , o f c ourse, g ynaecei ); a nd , m ost r evealingly o f a ll, P t wice ( notitia o r .xxiii.2 a nd 3 ) w rites l ibra f or l ibya w ithout c orrection . T he c onfusions a re e minently c haracteristic o f t ranscription f rom a n i nsular h and , a nd i t i s c lear - t he d emonstration f ollows i n § 16 t hat a t l east t he n otitia d ignitatum a nd i ts s atellite t exts, t he d e r ebus b ellicis a mongst t hem , a ppeared i n t he s pirensis i n a n i nsular s cript . Pt herefore w as t ranscribing f rom a n i nsular b ook c arrying a t ext i dentical w ith t hat o f E : a nd t his m ust s urely m ean t hat P w as t ranscribing f rom E i tself .

6 .

7

Ip roceed t o t he q uestion o f t he e xemplar u sed b y G helen i n

p reparing t he f irst p rinted e dition o f t he t ext . H ere, a s n owhere e lse a mong t he p roblems p osed b y s tudy o f t he S peyer n otitia c orpus, g rammatici c ertant e t a dhuc s ub i udice l is e st , ap osture o f a ffairs f or w hich t he l earned d rudge o f B asel i s h imself p artly t o b lame . I t s eems t o h ave b ecome a n a rticle o f f aith , d espite a cknowledged d iff iculties i n G helen 's t itle-page a nd p reface, t hat h is t ext d epends

4 3

s omehow u pon t he s ame s pirensis w hich i s t he a rchetype o f o ur s urv iving m anuscript c opies; t he s ole g round f or t his s upposition b eing t hat t his i s t he o nly a ncient m anuscript c ontaining a ll t he w orks w hich h e p rints o f w hich w e h ave a ny c ognizance. T his c asual ( but, a s i t t ranspires, c orrect ) a ssumption s hould n ot h ave b een a llowed t o g o w ithout p roof , a nd a s ubstantial p art o f t he f ollowi ng d iscussion i s d evoted t o e stablishing t hat G helen d id i ndeed d raw o n t he E t radition o f t he c ollection . T he a rgument w ill t hen b e d riven t o ac onclusion w hich s eems, o n i nternal a nd e xternal g rounds, b oth l ogical a nd i nevitable; w hich w as c ontemplated ( witho ut a dequate d emonstration ) b y S eeck; b ut w hich T hompson ( who e xp licitly s hrank f rom t he f undamental t ask, t hat o f i nquiring f or r esources o f f act b eyond t he w ork w ith w hich w e a re i mmediately c oncerned ) d enied t o b e p ossible .

7 .

8

O ur f irst s tep, b efore w e e nter o n t he s pecific p roblem o f

G helen 's 1 552 n otitia v olume, m ust b e t o m arshal a n umber o f f acts w hich w ill h elp u s t owards a n u nderstanding o f t he m an a nd h is m ethods. B etween 1 532 a nd 1 554 t here p oured f rom t he p rinting-house o f F roben a t B asel a f lood o f t exts e dited b y S igismundus G elenius, S iegmond G helen [ 1497-1554 ], u ir u triusque l itteraturae n on u ulgarit er c allens , a s t he p rinter 's p uff i n h is A mmianus c alls h im , e munctaeque n aris . T hey m ake a f ormidable c atalogue . A urelius V ictor w ith E utropius a nd P aulus D iaconus a ppeared i n 1 532, a nd C allimachus' h ymns c um s choliis n unc p rimum e ditis i n t he s ame y ear, f ollowed i n 1 533 b y A mmianus M arcellinus ( in a v olume w hich a lso i ncluded t he h istoria a ugusta , S uetonius, a nd a L atin D io ) a nd a g eographici g raeci i n w hich G helen c ollaborated w ith A rnold v an A rlen . I n 1 535 h e p rinted h is c astigationes o f t he E lder P liny, a nd p roduced a n e dition o f L ivy j ointly w ith B ilde v on R heinau . T wo y ears l ater G helen p ublished a f aintly e ccentric p hilological w ork, al exicon s ymphonum ( 'quo q uatuor l inguarum , g raecae s cilicet l atin ae g ermanicae e t s clauinicae 9 c oncordia c onsonantiaque i ndicatur ') t hen d isappeared f or a w hile, p erhaps s o t hat h e c ould b uild u p

4 4

as tock o f f resh m aterial . A s econd e dition o f t he l exicon w as c alled f or i n 1 544, a nd h is A rnobius a duersus g entes w as p rinted i n 1 546. H e n ow b egan t o c oncentrate o n G reek a uthors: b oth A ristophanes a nd J ohn C hrysostom a ppeared i n 1 547, t he l atter p erhaps i n c ollaboration w ith S imon G ryn , G reek p rofessor a t B asel, w hom w e s hall m eet a gain i n a nother c onnexion a nd w ho, i nterestingly e nough, h ad e dited A ristophanes f or B rubach o f F rankfurt t hree y ears e arlier . G helen 's L atin J osephus c ame o ut i n 1 548 - v an A rlen h ad e dited t he G reek t ext i n 1 544 - a nd h is a nthologia p alatina ( reprinting t he n otes o f B rodeau ) i n 1 549, t he y ear a lso o f h is D ionysius o f H alicarnassus.

1 0

H e r eturned

t o L atin i n 1 550 w ith T ertullian; a nd a g ap o f t wo y ears i nterv enes b etween t his a nd t he n otitia d ignitatum o f 1 552, a fter w hich t here e nsued a nother p ause u ntil 1 554, t he l ast y ear o f G helen 's l ife, a n a nnus m irabilis w hich s aw t he p ublication o f h is A ppian, h is P hilo, a nd h is E lder P liny - t his l ast a L ebenswerk t o w hich t he c astigationes o f 1 535 h ad b een a p relude. H e h ad a lso f ound t ime t o w ork o n A mbrose; t he e dition a ppeared p osthumously i n 1 555.

8 .

T his i s n ot a n u nimpressive a chievement; b ut i t h as a r ival

i n t he o utput o f a nother o f F roben 's c lient e ditors, B ilde v on R heinau , B ildius ,

l ater - a nd m ore g randly - B eatus R henanus

[ 1485-

1 547 ], G helen 's i nseparable c olleague, w ho, f or r easons w hich w ill a ppear, h as a c ertain c laim o n o ur a ttention . H e b egan p roduction g ently i n 1 509 w ith e ditions o f F austus A ndrelinus a nd M ichael T archaniota : d eserting B asel f or S trasbourg, h e p ublished P liny 's l etters t here i n 1 514, b ut r eturned t o F roben 's e rgastulum i n t ime t o i ssue i n 1 515 a s omewhat i rresponsible c ollection w hich c omprised S eneca 's a pocolocyntosis , S ynesius d e l audibus c aluitii a nd E rasmus' M öriae e ncomium . H is G ermania o f T acitus a ppeared i n 1 519; V elleius P aterculus a b i nteritu u indicatus p er B eatum R henanum, a nd t he p anegyrici l atini ,

f ollowed i n 1 520 . I n 1 521 h e e dited a c ompilation

o f t raditiones d e a rte r hetorica , a nd i n t he s ame y ear a T ertullian : a nother c ollection , a uctores h istoriae e cclesiasticae, c ame o ut i n

4 5

1 523, a nd a s et o f c orrections i n t he E lder P liny i n 1 526. F inally, i n ab urst o f c halcenteric a ctivity b etween 1 531 a nd 1 536, B ilde p roduced e ditions o f P rokopios ( 1531 ), L ivy ( 1535; i n c ollaboration w ith G helen ), T acitus ( 1536) a nd O rigen ( 1536), a s w ell a s a n a ugmented v ersion o f h is a uctores h istoriae e cclesiasticae ( 1535 ). H is l ast y ears w ere s pent i n p reparing r evised e ditions o f h is e arlier w ork , a nd o f t hese t he m ost i mportant i s t he e ditio t ertia o f h is T ertullian ( 1539), f or w hich h e w as a ble t o u se a n ew a nd v aluable m anuscript s ource .

9 .

B ilde, d espite h is e normous p roductivity, s eems t o h ave b een

s omething o f as erious s cholar; G helen , b ecause o f h is, p artakes m ore o f t he c haracter o f p rinter 's h ack, e qually p repared t o s upply , a s o ccasion r equired a nd a t t he s hortest n otice, c opy f or a L atin h istorian , aG reek d ramatist, o r ag lossary o f h omonyms .

1

B ut t he

r elationship b etween t he t wo m en w as e vidently v ery c lose : t hey s hared t he s ame i nterests, t hey w orked f or t he s ame p ublisher; t hey h ad a t s undry t imes b ecome i nvolved i n a ctual c ollaboration , w hether o vert ( as i n t he c ase o f t he 1 535 L ivy ) o r i mplicit ( Bilde's e mend ations i n t he E lder P liny o f 1 536 b eing t aken u p b y G helen i n h is c astigations o f t he s ame i n 1 535 a nd h is e dition o f 1 554 ); a nd G helen b rought o ut a n ew e dition o f B ilde 's a dmired T ertullian t hree y ears a fter h is f riend 's d eath .

1 2

A nother f act c onnects t hem . I n t he p reparation o f m any o f t heir e ditions t hey w ere a ble t o e mploy n ewly-discovered m anuscripts w hich p ermitted t hem o ccasionally t o p resent i tems f or t he f irst t ime, m ore o ften t o i mprove d ramatically t he c urrent t ext o f k nown a uthors. T he p rovenance o f t hese m anuscripts i s u sually r evealed i n t he p refatory m atter t o t he v arious p ublications. T hus, B ilde 's V elleius o f 1 520 , t he e ditio p rinceps, w as p rinted f rom a b ook f ound a t M ürbach : t his l ibrary a lso s upplied a n E lder P liny w hose s uperior r eadings w ere r eported b y B ilde i n h is c ritical s tudy o f 1 526 a nd w hich m ay h ave b een d irectly a vailable t o G helen f or u se

4 6

i n h is s ubsequent w ork o n t he t ext . G helen 's A mmianus o f 1 533 w as b ased o n am anuscript f rom H ersfeld , w hich a lmost c ompleted a nd v ery m uch p urified t he m utilated a nd d epraved v ulgate .

1 3

T he c ol-

l aborative L ivy o f 1 535 c ontained , f or t he f irst t ime, t he f ifth d ecad , t aken f rom a m anuscript f ound a t L orsch i n 1 527 b y S imon G ryne ; f or t he t hird d ecad , m oreover, t he e ditors w ere a ble t o u se aS peyer t ext, a nd, f or t he f ourth, a nother b ook f rom S peyer a nd o ne f rom W orms. T he n ew ( 1530 ) e dition o f B ilde 's P linian e mendat ions s tates t hat t res n oui c odices ( they c annot n ow b e i dentified ) h ave b een a pplied t o t he r evision o f t he w ork ; t he 1 535 p rint o f h is a uctores h istoriae e cclesiasticae i ncluded a p rinceps ( that o f N icephorus) f rom a n u nknown s ource; a nd t he t hird e dition o f h is T ertullian ( 1539) i ncorporated n ew r eadings f rom a m anuscript d iscovered a t G orze .

1 0 .

T hese e xcellent a nd ( presumably o r d emonstrably ) o ld m anu-

s cripts, f ound a nd u sed b y B ilde a nd G helen b etween 1 520 a nd 1 539, a ll b elonged , s o f ar a s w e a re t old , t o c athedral l ibraries i n a t olerably w ell-defined a rea o f t he u pper R hineland, n ot e xcessively f ar f rom B asel.

I t i s i nteresting t hat t hey s hould a ll h ave b ecome

a vailable a t t his l ate d ate a nd s o c losely t ogether. B ilde a nd G helen , o r t heir a gents, h ad e vidently b een e xploring t he u ndisturbed r esourc es o f t he n eighbouring m onastic c ollections. N or w ere t hey a lone, f or , a s w e s aw, G ryne, a nother B asel s cholar, h ad p enetrated i nto L orsch i n 1 527; a nd E rasmus, f or h is 1 518 F rohen h istoria a ugusta , u sed a M ürbach m anuscript w hich i s n ow l ost. I n p atronizing t he w ork o f t hese m en t he F robens, f ather a nd s on , a ppear t o h ave b een a iming a t t he p ublication o f t wo p articular v arieties o f c lassical t ext : o n t he o ne h and, p rivileged a nd v astly i mproved e ditions o f e xisting w orks, a nd o n t he o ther, p rincipes .

T he r eputation o f t he

p ublisher, n o l ess t han t hat o f t he e ditors, m ay h ave m aterially a ss isted t he p rocesses o f d iscovery ; f or t he 1 533 A mmianus, e xemplar m anu s criptum g ratis e t a lacriter s uppeditauit e gregius p rinceps,

4 7

a bbas h ersf eZdensis: a nd m ore t han o ne a bbot m ay h ave p rovided a m anuscript p romptly a nd w ithout f ee w hen i t w as k nown w hy , a nd f or w hom , i t w as r equired .

B ut t his i s t o s peculate . W hat i s k nown w ith d istressing c ertainty i s t hat a ll t he a bove-mentioned m anuscripts u sed b y B ilde o r G helen o r b oth - t wo s pirenses , aZ aurishamensis , ah ersfeldensis, t wo m urbachienses , au ormatiensis a nd a g orzeiensis - a re n ow w holly l ost, w ith t he s ingle e xception o f s ix l eaves o f t he H ersfeld A mmianus. T heir l oss h as s erious c onsequences f or t he c riticism o f t he t exts c oncerned . H ow r eliable a re t he e ditorial r eports, a nd t o w hat e xtent a re t he p rinted t exts s ophisticated b y u nsignalized c on jecture?

T he p roblem i s m ost a cute i n t he c ase o f V elleius,

w here B ilde 's m urbachiensis w as a n u nicus a nd , t hat h aving d isapp eared , t he p rint i s c odicis i nstar :

1 4

a nd t he h ideous t ruth i s

r evealed i n t he c ase o f A mmianus, w here i t i s s till p ossible t o c onfront t he p rinted t ext w ith p ortions o f t he m anuscript f rom w hich i t d erives. T he l eading c haracteristics o f G helen 's e ditorial t echnique w ill a ppear f rom w hat f ollows, a s w e e xamine h is p rinceps o f t he n otitia d ignitatum a nd i ts a ssociated t exts - a w ork w hich h as b een d eliberately e xcluded f rom m ention i n t he s urvey a bove .

1 1 .

T he c ontents o f t he m anuscript u sed b y G helen i n t he p repa-

r ation o f h is n otitia v olume o f 1 552 a re g iven o n h is t itle-page 1 5 i n t his o rder : n otitia d ignitatum , d escriptio u rbis R omae , d escript io u rbis c onstantinopolitanae, d e r ebus b ellicis, a nd - n e q uid d e a ntiquo e xemplari o mitteretur - t he a ltercatio H adriani e t E picteti . T he a ctual p rinted o rder, g iven a nd d iscussed b elow a t § 21 i nit ., d iffers f rom t his, a nd i n n either c ase a re w e e ntitled t o a ssume t hat t he s equence o f t he i tems i n t he e xemplar h as b een r etained . N ow t hese i tems, a nd t hese o nly , f orm t he c ontents o f t wo s urviving m anuscripts, u aticanus l atinus 3 715 a nd l eidensis u ossianus 4 4: b ut n either c an h ave b een G helen 's c opy-text, s ince b oth a re d emonstrably

4 8

c opies o f i tems s elected f rom C , t he O xford t ranscript o f t he s pir ensis , a nd w e s hall s ee i n t he n ext p aragraph t hat G helen c ould n ot h ave u sed C o r a ny m anuscript c arrying C 's t ext .

1 6

T he i dentity

o f c ontents b etween t hese t wo b ooks a nd t he p rinted t ext i s i ntere sting ; w e s hall r ecur m omentarily t o i t: b ut t he n ature o f t heir t ext p recludes a ny a ttempt t o i dentify o ne o r o ther o f t hem a s G helen 's e xemplar .

1 2 .

T he a rgument f rom c ontents h aving f ailed u s, w e a re t hrown

b ack o n t he e v idence o f r eadings. L et i t n ow b e d emonstrated t hat t he t ext o f t he i tems w hich G helen p rints w as d erived f rom n one o f t he s urviving d irect t ranscripts o f t he s pirensis .

C onfining o ur

a ttention m erely t o d e r ebus b eilicis a nd a f ew p ages o f n otitia d ignitatum , w e f ind c onclusive e vidence t hat t he m anuscript u sed w as n ot C :d .r .b .pr .12 t urbae o mitted b y C , p resent i n G helen a nd M PV p r . 1 4 p auci C

p erpauci G helen a nd M PV

n otitia o c .xxix .14 c eteros C r eliquos G helen a nd M PV o r .vi.68-9 o mitted b y C , p resent i n G helen a nd M PV

N or w a s i t M :d .r .b .iv .5 a uidi M

c upidi G helen a nd C PV

n otitia o r .xxxiii: e ntries 2 4-28 t ransposed t o f ollow e ntry 3 5 i n M ,

c orrectly p laced i n G helen a nd C PV

N or P :-

d .r .b .iv .1 e x istimabant P e xistimant G helen a nd C MV i v .2 d irigit h uiusmodi P h uiusmodi d irigit G helen a nd C MV

N or V , s ince V u nifo im ly o mits t he i llustrations, w hich a re p resent

w ithout e xception i n t he p rinted e dition : a nd i f i t w ere c ontended t hat G helen m ight h ave d erived h is p ictures f rom a nother s ource b ut

4 9

h is t ext f rom V , t he s upposition w ould b e d emolished b y s uch v erbal e vidence a s:d .r .b.pr.10 i gitur V

i .7

e nim G helen a nd C MP

u tilitatis V

u ilitatis G helen a nd C MP.

I n a ll t he a bove c ases G helen g ives t he t rue r eading, a nd i n n one

o f t hem , It hink, c ould c ritical s agacity o r t emerity h ave d etected t he f ault, o r, h aving d etected i t, s o i nfallibly r emoved i t .

1 3 .

1 7

G helen , t hen, d id n ot u se C M P o r Va s c opy-text, a nd a

f ortiori h e d id n ot u se a ny o f t heir p rogeny . B ut t hat h is t ext b ears i n e rroneous r eadings a c onspicuous a nd d etailed s imilarity t o t hat o f E a s i t i s r econstructed f rom t he d irect c opies t here i s e qually n o d oubt:d .r .b.pr.13 e ques v ii i nscr.

E ,

r ead e quus

G helen:

e xemplum E , G helen: r ead e xpositio

v iii.5 e xtremitate E ,

r ead e xtremitates

G helen:

n otitia o r .i.38-9 d uces p er E , G helen: r ead d uces x iii, p er o r.ii.1 u irorum i llustrium p raefectorum E ,

G helen:

r ead u iri i llustris p raefecti o c.xi.74-77 b ranbaricariorum E ,

b arbaricariorum .

G helen:

r ead

1 8

A nd w here G helen 's t ext d oes d iffer f rom t hat o f Eh is m inor d iv ergences, w here t hey a re n ot m ere s pelling-corrections, c an i nv ariably b e e xplained a s m ore o r l ess i ntelligent a nd o ften s uccessful c on jectures b ased o n c orruptions i dentical w ith t hose c arried b y E :d .r .b .pr .7 p rope E p ropter G helen x viii.7 c ommunite E

c ommunitam G helen

n otitia o r.xxviii.19 t raian(a )e E o r.xxviii.31 t ouia E

5 0

t raiana G helen

i ouia G helen

Iw ould w ithout h esitation e xplain h is m a jor v ariants a lso a s t he p roduct o f d eliberate a lteration o f as pirensis-type t ext: a r epres entative s election o f t hem i s d iscussed i n § 17 b elow .

I n n o c ase

n eed w e p ostulate t hat G helen m ay h ave b een c ontrolling a t ext o f t he E -type b y a n i ndependent m anuscript s ource.

1 4 .

I mportant e vidence f or t he n ature o f t he t ext u sed b y G helen

a ppears f rom t he d escriptio u rbis c onstantinopolitanae, p rinted i n t he n otitia v olume a nd c ontained i n E . T he t ext o f t his l ittle w ork i s s eparately p reserved i n am anuscript w ritten i n a bout 9 40, p rob ably a t F ulda , n amely u indobonensis 1 62 - I w ill c all i t U -w hich i s d emonstrably i ndependent o f t he s pirensis .

1 9

F rom c . i i.12 o f

t he t ext o nwards U i s s ubstantially i n a greement w ith E i n presenti ng t he r eadings o f t heir u ltimate p arent, w hose c orruptions

( as a t

v iii .17) a nd o missions ( as a t x i.2 a nd 8 ) a re r eproduced i n b oth m anuscripts. U , h owever, h ad e vident d ifficulty i n d eciphering t he h andwriting o f i ts e xemplar, w hich w as i n a n i nsular s cript, a s t he c haracteristic m isreadings s how : i ii.4 m ane f or m are, i v .2 t ertio f or t ertia , i v .10 s eminotundam f or s emirotundam , i v .1 6 m agnus f or m agnas , a nd n otice t he c orrection a t

p articibus . T hat t he

e xemplar o f Uw as n ot E ( on w hose s cript s ee § 16 b elow ) i s s hown i n t his p ortion o f t he t ext b y t he h abet g iven b y E i n v i.18, o f w hich i nterpolation U i s i nnocent, a nd b y s uch d ivergences a s c onfinio E , c onuiuio U a t x iii .5. B ut t he m ost i nstructive p assage o f t ext i s a t t he b eginning, S eeck 's c c . i -i , w hich a re q uite d ifferently p res erved i n t he t wo b ranches o f t he t radition . Ui s a lone i n e xhibiti ng ( though n ot w ith o utstanding a ccuracy ) c . i : n othing o f t his, o r o f m ost o f t he o pening o f c . i i, a ppeared i n E , w hich p resented am utilated o r d eliberately a bbreviated v ersion o f t he t ext, b eginn ing r egio p rima c ontinet ( continet o m . V ) d omum P lacidiae a ugustae, w here r egio p rima c ontinet l ooks l ike a n i nterpolation a nd d omum P lacidiae a ugustae f alls a t l ine 1 1 o f c . i i i n S eeck 's e dition . E ,

f or i ts p art, p reserved o ne f eature e ntirely a bsent f rom U , t he

p icture a t t he h ead o f t he w ork. T his, i t i s t rue, s urvives o nly i n

5 1

C , b ut b lanks a re l eft f or i t i n Ma nd i n V Which o mitted a ll t he i llustrations o n p rinciple), a nd C w as n ot t herefore m erely i nventi ng a n a ppropriate f rontispiece w here n one h ad e xisted .

C omparison o f G helen 's t ext o f t he d escriptio w ith t he v ariant v ers ions p resented b y Ea nd U r eveals t hat i t f ollows t he t radition o f t he s pirensis t hroughout .

I t b egins r egio p rima , c ontinet i n s e ( an

e ditorial s upplement ) 2° d omum P lacidiae a ugustae , a nd t hereafter e xhibits t he p eculiarities o f E ( vi .15 p resent i n E a nd G helen , o mitted i n U : v i .16 u alentiana E a nd G helen , u alentiaca U r ecte: v i .18 p ortum h abet p rosförianum E a nd G helen , h abet o m . U ), s omet imes m odifying t he t ext b y c on jecture ( so t he s upplement m entioned a bove, a nd e .g . i ii.1 p ost E U

p er G helen 2 1 ) .

A nd G helen p rints

b efore h is t ext a p icture a greeing - s ubject t o t he l imitations o f F roben 's e ngraver - w ith t hat c opied f rom t he s pirensis b y Ca lone .

1 5 .

I t i s t hus v ery c lear t hat f or t he w orks w hich h e p rinted

G helen h ad a ccess t o am anuscript c arrying t heir t ext a s i s a pp eared i n t he s pirensis .

T hat h e d id n ot d epend o n a ny o f t he

c opies C M P V , o r o n a ny c opy o f t hese c opies, w as s hown e arlier, a nd s ome e xplanation o ther t han t hat o f d irect d ependence o n C m ust b e f ound t o e xplain t he p resence i n t he p rint o f t he d escriptio i llustration p reserved i n t hat m anuscript a lone.

C ertain f acts m ay n ow b e p resented c oncerning t he s pirensis i tself . T his b ook , f ound f irst b y P ietro D onato i n t he S peyer l ibrary i n o r b efore J anuary 1 436, a nd l ast c opied t here w hen M aster H ans t raced t he i llustrations i n 1 550 , r emained a t S peyer ( so f ar a s i s k nown ) u ntil 1 552, w hen t he P falzgraf O tt H einrich , a lready t he o wner o f M , s wooped o n t he c athedral l ibrary a nd c arried o ff t he s pirensis i n t riumph t o H eidelberg . A d jacent e ntries f or E a nd M a ppear i n t he H eidelberg c atalogue o f 1 556 .

O tt H einr ich d ied o n 1 2 F ebruary

2

1 559, a nd p art o f h is c ollection w as e ventually r emoved t o t he l ibrary o f h is h eir W olfgang a t N euburg . T he b ooks s o t ransferred

5 2

w ere l isted i n O ctober 1 599, a nd a mong t hem w ere b oth E a nd M . T he l ist 2 3

i dentifies a nd d istinguishes b etween t hem b y t heir p hysical

a ppearance : E , t he i tinerarius A ntonini , d as a lt r echt e xemplar , w as u f P irgament g eschrieben , m it a lten i lluminirten F iguren ,

g ebunden i n B retter , m it w eissem L eder ü berzogen : w hile M , t he b emellter I tinerarius A ntonini , u f P irgament n eu a bgeschriben u nd i lluminirt , d urch D echant u nd C apitl z u S peyr P faltzgraf O tthainr ichen v erehrt , c ut a m ore b rilliant f igure, i n B retter g ebunden , m it g oidtfarben L eder ü berzogen , u f d em S chnitt u nd L eder v ergult u nd m it m essen S pangen b eschlagen .

I n 1 660 M m igrated t o D üsseldorf ,

t hence t o M annheim , a nd f inally t o M unich; E h owever w as d estroyed , w hether a ccidentally o r d eliberately i s n ot k nown . A s ingle s heet, p lausibly a scribed t o i t, s urvives a s t he f ormer b inding o f a r ecord-book o f 1 602/3 i n t he a rchives o f W allerstein , n ear N eu-

T he s pirensis c ontained a r emarkable c ollection o f i tems o f v arious d ates, a ll o f ag eographical, t opographical o r m ore-or-less o fficial c haracter . T hey w ere, i n t his o rder, a nd w ith t he t itles s uitably a dapted t o m odern f orms o f r eference, A ethici c osmographia i tinerarium A ntonini D icuil d e m ensura o rbis t errae n otitia G alliarum l aterculus P olemii S iluii d e m ontibus p ortis e t u iis u rbis R omae d e r ebus b ellicis a ltercatio H adriani e t E picteti d escriptio u rbis R omae d escriptio u rbis c onstantinopolitanae d e g radibus c ognationum n otitia d ignitatum .

T he l ist d ivides i tself n eatly i nto t wo p arts: f irst, a s et o f t opog raphical t reatises, w ithout i llustrations a nd r anging w idely i n d ate ;2 5

a nd s econd , b eginning w ith d e r ebus b ellicis, a g roup o f s ix

i tems w ith o fficial c onnotations, 2 5

a ll i llustrated , a nd i llustrated

i n as tyle c onsonant w ith t hat o f t he l ate f ourth o r e arly f ifth c entury , ap eriod t o w hich t he c omposition o f s ome o f t he p ieces c an b e s ecurely a scribed . T his s econd g roup c learly r epresents t he 5 3

c ontents o f as ingle m anuscript i n w hich t he s eparate w orks h ad b een c opied u p t ogether : t he t exts i n t he f irst g roup m ay n ot h ave b een b rought t ogether b efore t he c ompilation o f t he c orpus w hich t he c omplete s pirensis r epresented .

W hen a nd h ow w as t his s ynthesis a chieved?

S eeck e volved a t heory

t hat t he c ollection w as a ssembled e ither b y t he s cribe o f t he s pir ensis o r b y t he s cribe o f i ts e xemplar ( which c annot h ave p receded i t b y a ny g reat d istance i n t ime, s ince t he s pirensis w as, a ccording t o S eeck, n o l ater i n d ate t han t he e leventh c entury, a nd i ts e xemp lar w ould h ave h ad t o c ontain D icuil d e m ensura , w hich i s f irmly d ated t o 8 25). O n e ither s upposition, S eeck 's v iew c ompels u s t o e nvisage t he s pirensis a s a n o rganic w hole, a b ook w ritten t hrougho ut i n ac aroline m inuscule w hich e mployed t he o pen a , i ts t ext a lready p lagued w ith i nsular c orruptions w hich h ad o riginated a t s ome p oint i n al ong a nd c omplicated h istory o f c opying a nd w hich a re f aithfully r eflected i n CM P a nd V .2 7

1 6 .

B ut I s ubmit t hat t his w as n ot t he c ase: f or i t s eems t o m e

q uite c lear t hat i n t he g roup o f f ourth- o r f ifth-century t exts i solated a bove f rom t he c ontents o f t he s pirensis ( the n otitiag roup, a s Is hall c all t hem ) t he d irect c opies o f t he S peyer b ook, CM P a nd V , w ere t hemselves t ranscribing f rom a n i nsular h and . T his w as b riefly c anvassed f or P i n § 5 a bove, a nd i s d iscussed i n d etail f or a ll f our m anuscripts a t t he a ppropriate p oints i n m y c ritical a pparatus . T he c rucial r eadings i n d e r ebus b ellicis a re t hese:i i.6 t yrannos c orrected f rom t rrannos i n V v ii.6 i ntoxta V i n a uram M i ntorta C P x ii.3 e xigunt P x ix .3 a scogefrri C .

T hese e rrors p oint u nmistakably t o a n i nsular e xemplar ; a nd o bserve t hat i n t hese i nstances w e a re n ot d ealing w ith f our s cribes e ach

5 4

b lindly c opying t he s ame e xisting c orruption , aw ord a lready m angled i n E : t hey a re i ndependently a ttempting t o d ecipher t he c rabbed , u nf amiliar a nd p erhaps f aded s cript o f a n i nsular b ook .

E xamples o f

t he s ame c onfusions o f l etters c an b e f ound i n o ne o r m ore o f CM P a nd V t hroughout t he n otitia-group; a nd w e a re, I t hink , o bliged t o c onclude t hat t he t ext o f t he w orks i n t his g roup a t l east w as w ritten i n t he s pirensis i n a n i nsular h and . B ut E m ay n ot h ave b een a n i nsular m anuscript t hroughout, f or , i f t he l eaf o f t he i tinerarium A ntonini f ound a t W allerstein i s c orrectly r ecognized a s af ragment o f t he s pirensis, t hen t hat w ork a t l east, a nd p erhaps t he e ntire f irst p ortion o f t he m anuscript,

w a s

w ritten i n al ate

n inth- o r e arly t enth -century c aroline, a llegedly o f M iddle R henish t ype. A nd e ven w ithout t he e vidence o f t he W allerstein s heet w e m ight p recariously s urm ise f rom t he c orruptions o f CM P a nd V t hat i n t he w orks o utside t he n otitia-group t hey w ere n ot t ranscribing f rom a n i nsular o riginal : n one o f t he t ypical c onfusions o f n a nd r , xa nd r , ya nd r a re r ecorded ,2 8

d espite q uite u nusually p rolific

o pportunities f or t heir o ccurrence i n u nfamiliar g eographical n ames. W e m ust t herefore s uppose t hat t he s pirensis w as n ot a n o rganic w hole; t hat i t c onsisted o f a t l east t wo g roups o f m anuscript l eaves, t he i tinerarium a nd t he g eographical w orks ( if t hey w ere c opied u p w ith t he i tinerarium ) i n c aroline m inuscule, a nd t he n otitia-group i n i nsular m inuscule, b ound t ogether t o f orm a s ingle b ook . 2 9

1 7 .

T he c onnexion o f G helen w ith t his b ook m ay n ow b e i nvestigated .

W e h ave s een ( §13 ) t hat c ollation o f h is t ext r eveals t hat i t i s b asically i n a ccord w ith t hat o f t he s pirensis , a nd i t w as s uggested t hat a ll v ariants i n t he p rint , o f w hatever m agnitude, a re t he r esult o f e ditorial c on jecture. T his w ill r equire e xtensive d emons tration ; l et d e r ebus b ellicis a nd t he f irst f ew c hapters o f t he n otitia d ignitatum s erve a s t est c ases.

W e w ill b egin w ith s ome o f G helen 's s uccesses. A t d .r .b . p r .17 h e c ould c orrect p rope ( so E ) t o p ropter w ithout d ifficulty, a nd E 's

5 5

c ommunite w as e asily r ectified a t x viii.7 .

p ortatilis , w hich G helen

p rints f or t he c orrupt p ortanti a t x viii.8, i s s elf -evidently c onj ectural a nd , Ij udge, r ight: b ut t he l ibido c oniectandi o vercame h im a t v .6, w here h is l imites A rabum f or l imites, a rabunt i s a n e mendatory e xploit w orthy o f t he m ature B entley ; a nd h is s ine f or s ane i n x ix .2 b etrays a w oeful ( but p robably n ot w ilful ) m isunders tanding o f t he d rift o f t he a uthor 's m eaning . E 's c orruptions i n p r .3 n ec t e ,

3 1

p r .13 e ques , v iii.3 e xtremitate , a nd t he d efects

i n x iv .3 , a ll e luded h im - p erhaps f ortunately , s ince t heir a ppeara nce i n h is t ext s hows t hat h is e xemplar r eflected t he m ost m inute p eculiarities o f t he E t radition . H e d id h is b est w ith t he w retched a lio i n v .4, a ccenting i t a s a n a dverb ( with n o p erceptible i mprovem ent i n t he s ense ); a nd h e h ad t he t act n ot t o m eddle w ith u enientum i n i x .1.

3 2

H e r ightly d eleted t he d ittographic u t m inori i n v .7,

a nd I a cquiesce i n h is r emoval o f e t f rom t he hadings o f c . x .

I n

n either c ase d oes G helen g ive a ny i ndication t hat h e h as e liminated m atter f rom t he t ext , b ut w e a re n ot t herefore t o a ssume t hat h e w as f ollowing a m anuscript w hich c arried a v ersion o f t he t ext m odified f rom t hat o f t he s pirensis ,

f or t he s ilent d eletion o f d ifficulties

i s a n o utstanding c haracteristic o f t he G elenian c ritical m ethod . J ust s o h e e xcised o ut f rom t he r eceived l aus a ut p rosequatur i n p r .3, w here w e n owadays p erceive t he l oss o f aw ord b efore t he v erb. T here a re c onvincing p arallels i n h is t reatment o f t he t exts o f A mmianus " a nd t he n otitia , w here a s pectacular d eletion w ill b e c ommented u pon s hortly .

T urning , t hen , t o t he o pening c hapters o f t he n otitia , w e f ind a mple e vidence h ere a lso t hat P asquali 's c ongetturatore a bilissimo e p rati c issimo .. m a a nche a ltrettanto a udace i s a t w ork o n at ext o f p urely E -type.

p raesentalis f or p raesentat w as o bviously n ecessary

a t o r .v .26 ( the m istake h ad p robably r esulted f rom t he m isapprehens ion o f t he a bbreviation p raesental ) , a nd t he s upplement I X a t o r . v ii .38 r equired o f i ts r estorer o nly t he a bility t o c ount . B ut h e w as n ot s o f ortunate w ith c onsularem f or c onsularitatem a t o r .i.78, o r w ith A egyptum f or a egyptiacam a t o r .i.80; a nd g raecorum f or g raecarum a t o r .i .24 i s t he r esult o f af aulty a rticulation o f t he c ontext .

I n o r .i.40 h is L ibyae f or t he i mportant c orruption l ibrarum

m isses t he o bvious t ruth w ith a lmost d eliberate p erversity ; 5 6

3 4

a nd

m agistri f or m agister a t o r .v .75 i s w holly u nprovoked . F rom h is r eading o f o r .xxiii .2-7, 9 -14 h e i nferred a l acuna a fter o r .i.29 w hich h e f illed w ith t he a pparently m issing n ame A ugustamnica a n a lteration w hich i n t urn n ecessitated t he c hange o f t he n umeral i n o r .i .24 f rom V t o V I. A s i n d e r ebus b ellicis, s o i n t he n otitia s ome g enuine d ifficulties e scaped h im , t he m issing e ntry a fter o r .vii .34, f or e xample; a nd p atent i ncoherencies w ere c oncealed b y s ilent d eletion, a s i n t he i llustration t o o r .vi, w here e ntry 2 4, a d uplicate o f 2 a s r egards t he c aption b ut w ithout a c oloured d evice o n t he s hield , i s s uppressed . T here a re c ertain c uriosities. I n o ne e ntry ( or .i .5 ) G helen a dds a m arginal n ote, c ued i n t he t ext w ith a d agger : t ext t in p raesenti i i , m argin a lias, p raesentiales s iue p raesentales . E ither h e t hought e mendation u nnecessary h ere, o r, m ore p robably, h e w as s imply d rawing a ttention t o t he u nusual t erminology : h e i s c ertainly n ot r eporting a v ariant f rom a nother m anuscript . A nd t his i s n ot a ll: i mmediately f ollowing t he n umeral i i w hat a ppears t o b e aj otting m ade b y t he e ditor i n t he p rinter 's c opy h as a ctually c rept i nto t he t ext, w hich r eads, i n f ull, M AGISTRI e quitum & p editum t in p raesenti

I I. Alij

I II.

B ut t his i s b y n o m eans t he f ull e xtent o f G helen 's i nterference w ith t he t ext; w hen h e i s c onfronted w ith a n e xigency o f t ypography r ather t han o f c riticism , h is e xpedients c an b e s hockingly a rbitrary. T hus, n otitia o r .ii.59 i s f ollowed i n t he p rinted b ook b y o r .iii .4 s qq ., t he s eries o f e ntries i i .60-71 b eing e ntirely c ut o ut a nd t he i llustr ations a t t he h ead o f c .iii t emporarily d eferred : m oreover, i ii.33 i s r eplaced b y i i.72 w ith i ts t ext r uthlessly a ltered a nd i nterpolated ( uterque

p raefectus

i psi p raefectos

e mittunt ) t o s uit t he

f aulty p lural u irorum i llustrium p raefectorum o f i ii.1, 4 a nd 2 0, w hich h ad a risen i n o r b efore E f rom t he w rong e xpansion o f a n a bbrev iation . B y t hese b rutal m eans t he l etterpress o f c c .

iii i s

n eatly c oncluded a t t he f oot o f s ig . b lr, l eaving b lv f ree t o c arry t he f ull-page p late o f t he i nsignia o f t he p raefectus p raetorio p er I llyricum w ith i ts c aption . S ig . b 2r c ontains o nly t he s mall p late

5 7

o f t he o ther i llustration t o c . i ii ( Macedonia a nd D acia ), b 2v a nd b 3r a re n ecessarily o ccupied b y t he i llustrations a nd c aptions t o c .

V;

3 5

a nd t he p rinted t ext r esumes w ith t he l ists o f c . v

( Seeck 's 2 6 s qq .) o n b 3v .

T hese v iolent a lterations h ave b een

c arried o ut w ith a c ertain l ow s cholarly c unning , a nd t hey a re t o b e i mputed n ot t o F roben 's c aster-up o r c ompositor b ut t o t he l earned e ditor , w ho m ust h ave b een p resent i n t he p rinting-shop w hen t he c opy w as b eing m arked f or c omposition .3 6

1 8 .

Ih ave d welt l onger o n G helen 's d ifferences f rom t he t radition

o f t he s pirensis t han o n h is r esemblances t o i t ; b ut t he e ssential s imilarities a re s ufficiently o bvious, a nd w hat r equired d emonstrat ion w as t hat w henever h e d iverges f rom t he E ' -text w e a re n owhere e ntitled t o c onclude t hat h e w as u sing a m anuscript i ndependent o f E ,

o r e ven t hat h e h ad m ore t han o ne m anuscript a t h is d isposal.

W hat, t hen , w as t he m anuscript w hich h e u sed? b een t he s pirensis

i tself

T hat i t m ust h ave

Iw ould a rgue f rom s trong e xternal

a nd a dmittedly w eaker i nternal e vidence . W e h ave s een ( § §9-10 ) t hat f or s ome t ime b efore t he a ppearance o f t he n otitia v olume i n 1 552 G helen a nd B ilde v on R heinau h ad b een e xploring t he m onastic l ibrar ies o f t he U pper R hine, a mongst t hem S peyer ; a nd t he s pirensis o f t he n otitia h ad b een l ocated a nd p ublicized i n 1 525 b y — B ilde v on R heinau h imself .3 7

I t i s i nconceivable t hat h is s inister c rony G helen

d id n ot k now o f t he m anuscript a lmost f rom t he m oment o f i ts d isc overy . W hat i s c urious i s t hat n either s cholar p rinted i t i mmedia tely . P ermission t o d o s o m ight a t f irst h ave b een r efused b ecause o f t he f ragile c ondition o f t he m anuscript a lleged i n 1 548; b ut b oth B ilde a nd G helen s eem t o h ave h ad t heir m ethods f or t he e ventual e xtraction o f o ld c opies f rom r ecalcitrant a uthorities. I n a ny c ase , n either w as u noccupied a t t he t ime : t he n ew m urbach ensis o f t he E lder P liny c laimed B ilde 's a ttention i n 1 536, a nd G helen , t he j unior p artner i n t heir e nterprises, h ad a rrived i n B asel f rom V enice o nly i n 1 524; h e w as p erhaps n ot t o b e t rusted w ith a p rinceps u ntil h e h ad s hown h is p aces f or F roben i n al ess r esponsible t ask .

5 8

B oth m en m ust h ave b een i nterested i n t he d iscovery b y S imon G ryn6 , i n 1 527, o f t he l aurishamensis o f L ivy 's f ifth d ecad ; a nd w hen s ubsequent r esearches a t S peyer b ore s plendid f ruit i n t he s hape o f t exts o f d ecads f our a nd f ive - t he u ormatiensis o f d ecad f our b eing a lso t o h and - t he p roduction o f an ew L ivy m ust h ave t aken p recedence o ver m uch e lse . M oreover, b y 1 533 G helen h ad s ec ured t he h ersfeldensis o f A mmianus a nd w as w orking , f or P roben , o n a n e dition t o r ival A ccorsi 's a nd r eplace t hat o f E rasm u s .3 8 T hese t asks c ompleted, h e c ould t urn t o t he n otitia : h is m anus cript w as c ertainly a vailable t o h im i n 1 536, w hen , a s w e s hall s ee i n t he E xcursus b elow , F roben 's a rtist c ut o ne o f t he w oodb lock i llustrations f or t he b ook . A nother p icture , h owever, a s w e s hall a lso s ee, w as n ot e ngraved u ntil 1 550 ; t he e dition a pp eared i n 1 552 ; a nd ( since t he i nterval b etween 1 550 a nd 1 552 p oses n o p roblem , a s a llowance h as t o b e m ade f or t he c utting o f p erhaps m ore b locks t han o ne a nd f or t he s etting o f t he l etterp ress) w e a re l eft t o f ind a r eason f or t he g ap b etween t he i ll ustration d ates. I nfrequent a ccess t o t he f ragile a nd j ealouslyg uarded S peyer e xemplar i s t he o bvious e xplanation o f t his, a s i t m ight a lso i n p art e xplain t he e leven y ears' d elay b etween t he l ocation o f t he m anuscript a nd t he c utting o f o ne p icture-block i n 1 536 ; t hough a ppeals t o t he b ad c ondition o f t he s pirensis i nevitably d epend o n t he v eracity o f t he a uthorities i n i nforming O tt H einrich t hat t heir b ook w as i n ap oor s tate , n ecessitating a ctual r epair i n 1 548 . A n i nsular m anuscript m ight w ell h ave b een f alling a part b y t hen , b ut t he p ossibility r emains t hat S peyer 's r eply t o t he P falzgraf w as a n e xcuse c oncocted t o t ry t o k eep t he b ook o ut o f t he h ands o f a n a cquisitive b ibliophile ( and p erh aps o f d estructive e ditors a lso ). T he p robability o f al ink b et ween t he c ondition o f t he s pirensis a nd t he t ime t aken t o p roduce t he p rinted t ext w ill b e n oticed i n t he E xcursus a t t he e nd o f t his s ection : h ere I w ill o nly i nsist t hat G helen 's s trong i nterest i n S peyer , h is p roven u se o f t wo o ther s pirenses, a nd h is p resumed k nowledge s ince 1 525 o f t he e xistence o f t he S peyer n otitia ,

a re

v alid e nough e xternal r easons f or b elieving t hat t his m anuscript w as t he d irect s ource o f h is t ext .

5 9

3 9

1 9 .

T hat G helen m ade d irect u se o f t he s pirensis i n p reparing

h is e dition o f t he n otitia-group t exts m ay a lso , Ib elieve , b e s ustained f rom t he i nternal e vidence o f t wo u nusually i nteresting r eadings i n d e r ebus b ellicis . A t t he e nd o f c . v ii .2 E 's w riting o f t he w ord i ntorta w as ( or h ad b ecome ) s ufficiently i ndistinct t o c onfuse t wo o f t he s cribes c opying f rom i t . Vm isread t he i ns ular r a s a n x : M, b ewildered b y t he s hapes o f r ound t a nd o pen a , a nd u nhappy a bout t he e nd o f t he w ord , p roduced t he w ildly w rong i n a ura r i .

1 0

Ca nd P w rote t he w ord c orrectly : i s t his a

t ribute t o t heir s uper ior d iscernment , o r h ad d amage o ccurred t o i ntorta b etween t he d ates o f Ca nd P a nd t hat o f V ?

N ow G helen 's

t ext c onta ins n o h int o f aw ord r esembling i ntorta , a nd f or i acul atur h e r eads e iaculatur . W hat d oes t his m ean? E vidently t hat h e c ould n ot f ully d ecipher t he r eading i n h is e xemplar o f t he w ord b etween r adiis a nd i aculatur .

4 1

N either C n or P w as h is e xemplar ,

a s w e h ave s een ( and a s t his v ariant f urther s hows ); a nd h e c ould s urely h ave c orrected i ntoxta i f Vh ad b een h is c opy-text ( which , a s w e h ave a lso s een , i t w as n ot ). E ither , t hen , G helen w as u sing M , w ith i ts g hastly e rror i n a uram : o r h e w as u sing a ( lost ) c opy o r t win o f t he s pirensis w hich w rote t he w ord i ndistinctly o r w rongly : o r h e w as u sing t he s pirensis i tself . B ut h e d id n ot u se M : l ost t ranscripts a re n ot t o b e p ostulated u nnecessarily : a nd g iven t he p ossibility t hat G helen c ould h ave h ad a ccess t o Eb et ween 1 525 a nd 1 552, n o a lternative n eed b e s upposed . G helen , I c ontend , s aw t he d oubtful r eading i n t he s pirensis , a nd h is s olution o f t he p roblem i s e ntirely t ypical : t he u nclear w ord i s s uppressed , a nd i aculatur i s w ilfully e xtended , p erhaps t o c ompensate f or t he p receding e xcision .

T he s econd i mportant r eading i s a t x xi .1, w here a ll f our a pographs o f E present u s w ith c omponatis . G undermann i s r ight i n r estoring c omparatis; t he e rror a rose f rom a n e asy m isreading o f i nsulars. B ut i t i s, I t hink , u nlikely t hat a ll f our m anuscripts w ould m isr ead t he s ame t wo l etters i n p recisely t he s ame w ay , a lthough t hey

6 0

a re e lsewhere g uilty o f c o mitting t he s ame f ault i ndependently i n as ingle l etter . c omponatis m ust t herefore , o n t his v iew , h ave b een t he r eading o f E , a n e rror w hich t ends t o s how t hat E was i tself t ranscribing f rom a n i nsular h and .4 3

B ut P , h aving d uly

t ranscribed c omponatis, f elt m isgivings a bout w hat h e h ad w ritten , a nd p laced e xpuncts u nder t he l etters n a , w ithout , h owever , s ugg esting a lternative i nterpretations ( he c annot h ave i ntended a d eletion ). T his i s e xceptionally i nstructive . Ph ad n o d oubts c oncerning t he o b efore t he n ( which i ncidentally r einforces t he c ontention t hat c omponatis w as i n E ); h is d issatisfaction w as w ith n a nd a , w hich , i n t ranscription f rom i nsulars, i s u nders tandable ; b ut h e e vidently c ame t o t he c onclusion t hat t hat w as w hat t he l etters i n h is e xemplar r eally w ere. N ow i t i s p recisely t hese t wo l etters, n a, w hich a re a ltered i n G helen 's r eading h ere , c ompositis . H ad G helen b een a ble t o r ead c omparatis s ecurely , e ven h e c ould h ave h ad n o r eason t o c hange i t ; b ut t wo c rucial l etters w ere i n d oubt i n h is c opy-text, t he s ame t wo l etters w hich h ad p uzzled o ne s cribe c opying f rom E ; a nd G helen , c oncerned ( unlike CM a nd V ) t o p roduce L atin , w as f orced t o i mprovise o n t he b asis o f w hat c ould b e r ead w ithout d ifficulty . W e a re ,

It hink , d riven

t o c onclude t hat G helen h ad b efore h im t he v ery m anuscript w hich d eluded C M a nd V a nd t roubled P , n amely E i tself . I t w ould b e e xc essively r ash t o p ostulate a lost c ongener o f C M P V intervening b etween G helen a nd t he s pirensis a t t his p oint , s ince t his h ypothet ical m anuscript ,

i f i t w ere i n d oubt a s t o t he r eading - a nd t he

p robability i s t hat i t w ould n ot h ave b een , m ust e ither h ave g iven E 's l etter-forms i n f acsimile o r h ave a lready i nterpolated c ompositis

( by c on jecture , s ince P 's f ailure t o o ffer a lternatives f or t he l ett ers n a s hows t hat i t w as u nsafe t o c opy t hem a s a nything e lse ). A nd ag emellus o f Ew ould h ave h ad t o p resent e xactly E 's unclarity. I t i s a ltogether m ore e conomical t o s uppose t hat n o s uch i ntermediary o r t win e xisted .

I t i s a ppropriate a t t his p oint t o r eturn b riefly t o an otorious r eading i n d e r ebus b ellicis w hich h as a lready b een m entioned , n amely u enientum a t t he e nd o f i x .1, s hared b y G helen w ith P a nd V

6 1

a gainst t he u enientium o f Ca nd M .

I f m y c ontentions a s t o G helen 's

c opy-text a re c orrect, t hen o f c ourse h e t ook h is r eading d irectly f rom E , a nd P a nd V m ust h ave p reserved t he t ruth b y a ccurate t ranscription ( which a dmittedly i s t he l ast t hing w e e xpect f rom V ) r ather t han s tumbled u pon i t b y af ortunate e rror .

2 0 .

I t i s ar emarkable f act t hat, o f t he n ine g reat L atin m anu-

s cripts u sed b y B ilde o r G helen o r b oth b etween 1 520 a nd 1 552, s even h ave c ompletely d isappeared , a nd t he o ther t wo a re r epres ented o nly b y f ragments . B ilde i s k nown t o h ave s ent t he m urbachi ensis o f V elleius t o t he p rinter a s c opy ; i t m ay n ever h ave c ome b ack ."

T he h ersf eldensis o f A mmianus, w hich a lso s eems a ctually

t o h ave b een l ent t o t he e ditor ( 'exemplar m anu s criptum ...supped itauit ...abbas h ersfeldensis ') m ay s imilarly h ave g one t o t he p ress :

i f s o , i t w as a t s ome t ime r eturned , s ince t he s ix f ragments

o f i t n ow a t M arburg w ere f ound s erving a s d ust-jackets t o a ccountb ooks a t S chloss F riedewald , n ear H ersfeld . T he S peyer c orpus, o f w hich w e a pparently p ossess a s ingle l eaf , w as f ound i n i ts h ome l ibrary i n 1 552 b y O tt H einrich . Q uestions a rise, t o w hich t he r eader m ay s upply h is o wn a nswers. D oes t he p artial o r t otal l oss o f t hese m anuscripts i mply t hat t hey w ere a ll a t s ome t ime u sed i n o r n ear t he p rinting-shop, s uffering a n i ll-treatment w hich r esulted i n , i f n ot t heir i mmediate d estruction , t hen a t l east s ome d amage w hich h astened t heir e ventual c ollapse? W ho w as r esponsible f or t his? W as t he S peyer c orpus, o r ap art o f i t, e ver l ent, e ven b riefly , t o B asel a fter 1 525, a s i t m ay h ave b een i n 1 436, w hen C w as c opied? I n f act, a re i ts k nown f ragility a nd u ltimate r uin f urther e vidence t hat E w as u sed b y G helen?

2 1 .

T wo p roblems r emain . T he f irst c oncerns t he c ontents o f t he

1 552 e dition , w hich , i t w ill b e r emembered , c onsist o f n otitia d ignitatum , d escriptio u rbis R omae , d escriptio u rbis c onstantinop olitanae , d e r ebus b ellicis , a nd - n e q uid d e a ntiquo e xemplari

6 2

o mitteretur - d isputatio H adriani e t E picteti . N either t his, t he t itle-page o rder , n or t he a ctual p rinted o rder - d escriptio R omae, d escriptio c onstantinopolitanae, n otitia , d e r ebus b ellicis , d isput atio - r eproduces t he s equence o f t hese i tems i n E ; a nd, d espite t he p rofession t hat n othing h as b een o mitted f rom t he a ntique e xem p lar , t he l ittle m emorandum d e g radibus c ognationum , w hich w as p laced i n Eb etween t he d escriptio c onstantinopolitanae a nd t he n otitia ,

i s n ot p rinted , n or i ndeed a re a ny o f t he w orks o utside

t he n otitia-group . T hese f acts a dmit o f t he f ollowing e xplanations:

( a ) T he o rder o f t he c ontents . T his n eed c ause u s n o d isquiet . A s ixteenth-century e ditor w ould n ot h ave f elt h imself b ound t o p res erve t he a rrangement o f h is c opy-text, a nd b ibliographical c ons iderations s how t hat t he c ontents h ave b een s o o rdered t hat t he n otitia f alls i n t he v ery c entre o f t he p rinted b ook, s ymmetrically s urrounded b y t he r emaining m atter . T he m odern t reatises b y B ilde a nd A lciati, w hich f ollow t he p reface a nd a re s trictly s peaking e xtensions o f i t, c ompleting t he p reliminary q uire, t ogether w ith t he d escriptiones u rbium ( Rome p receding C onstantinople, a s i n E ), o ccupy 2 1 p ages o f t ype : t hen c omes t he n otitia: a nd d e r ebus b ellic is a nd t he d isputatio ( these t wo t exts a lso i n t heir E o rder ) c omp lete t he p rint i n a nother 2 1 t ype-pages.

A s f or t he t itle-page

o rder, G helen o r h is p ublisher w as c learly i ntent o n s ecuring t he g reatest p ossible t ypographical p rominence f or w hat w as c onsidered t he m ost i mportant i tem i n t he c ollection : t hereafter t he t itles a re i n t he p rinted o rder o f t he w orks.

( b ) n e q uid d e a ntiquo e xemplari o mitteretur . ( as w e h ave a rgued )

I f t he s pirensis was

ac omposite m anuscript, i t m ay h ave b een

o bvious t o G helen t hat t he i nsular l eaves c ontaining t he n otitiag roup t exts w ere m ore a rchaic i n a ppearance t han t he c aroline l eaves o f t he p receding p ortion o f t he b ook, a nd h e m ay h ave w ished t o p ut o nly t he m ore a ncient s ection i nto t ype. T his i s i mprobable .

I t i s

m uch m ore l ikely t hat h e w as c oncerned t o p rint o nly t he s pectacular i llustrated i tems, a s t he w ritten c opies u aticanus 3 715 a nd l eidensis

6 3

u ossianus 4 4 w ere c ontent t o t ranscribe t hese a lone f rom C ; t he s cript o f t his s ection c ould h ave h elped t o c onfirm t hat t hese i llustrated t exts c onstituted a n e xemplar s eparate f rom t he r est o f t he m anuscript a nd o f u ndoubted a ntiquity . I t i s b arely p oss ible t hat G helen w as p ermitted t o e xtract t hese l eaves f rom E a nd u se t hem f or a w hile i n B asel: t his w ould a dd v erisimilitude t o h is ( or h is p rinter 's ) p roclamation o f a n a ntiquum e xemplar w hose c ontents w ere g iven i n f ull .

B ut i n f act o ne t reatise f rom a mong t he n otitia-group h ad b een l eft o ut, t he d e g radibus c ognationum , w hich c onsists o f at abular i llustration a nd a s hort b lock o f d escriptive t ext . I ts o mission m ay h ave t o b e e xplained a s ac onscious e xcision m ade b y ap rinter p ressed f or s pace a nd u nable t o i nclude e ven s o s hort a w ork w ithout u psetting t he p lanned m ake-up o f h is b ook . S omething i n t he p reliminaries, o ne f eels, m ight w ith a dvantage h ave b een s pared t o m ake r oom f or d e g radibus, w hich c ould h ave b een p rinted o n t wo p ages i n t he c hosen f ormat a nd i n F roben 's s tandard r oman t ype ; b ut w e m ust a ccept t hat G helen o r F roben h ad l egitimate r eason f or p refixing t o t he n otitia B ilde ' s f ragmentary b ut p atriotic e ssay o n I llyricum a nd A lciati 's s omewhat e tiolated o bservations o n R oman p ublic o ffices. A nd g iven t his, i t c an b e s een b y c orrelation o f t he c ollation-formula a nd t he l ist o f c ontents 4 5

t hat n o t wo p ages o f t he b ook a re v acant, a nd t hat

i nsertion o f a n e xtra s heet ( say i n q uire p , t o b ring i t u p t o at ernio ) w ould h ave s poiled t he d istribution o f t he t ext o ver t he q uires a nd i nto 2 1 t ype-pages o n e ach s ide o f t he n otitia . A ddition o f as heet w ould h ave f urther e ntailed e ither f inding a nother o ne-leaf t reatise t o p rint o r l eaving a n u nsightly b lank . D eliberate o mission a t t he p rinting s tage s eems t herefore t he m ost p robable r eason f or G helen 's n ot g iving d e g radibus . A r emote p ossibility i s t hat t he p age c arrying t his t ext m ay h ave b een m issing f rom t he f ragile s pirensis w hen G helen u sed t he b ook : r emote, i n v iew o f t he u ndoubted p resence i n Eo f d e g radibus w hen M w as c opied f rom i t i n 1 542. A f inal b ibliographical s pecul ation i s b est r elegated t o an ote .4 6

6 4

2 2 .

T he l ast r emaining q uestion c oncerns a s entence i n G helen 's

e pistle d edicatory w hich a ppears t o c onvey i nformation a bout t he p rovenance o f t he m anuscript w hich h e u sed i n p reparing h is t ext . I t r eads i n e xtenso a s f ollows: G helen i s a ddressing t he s urgeon A ndr6 V esale, V esalius, o n s ig . * 2v o f t he p rinted b ook :-

c aeterum h aec N OTITIA, d um R omana r es s taret, a dseruata p enes P rimicerium n otariorum, i mperio,

c um c aeteris s poliis i n b arbarorum m anus d elata,

n unc d emum r epetita,

e t t andem a fflicto a c p en ee xciso

e x

u ltimis

B ritannis

a ntiquariorum s tudiis

i nnotescit a uspicio f elici t ui n ominis, a eque c lani

a c g ratiosi a pud o mnes q uibus c ordi s unt b onae l iterae.

I t i s d ifficult t o k now h ow s eriously w e s hould t ake w hat i s p roposed h ere, e specially s ince G helen r egards h is m anuscript a s t he a ctual w orking c opy o f t he n otitia - a nd I s uppose o f i ts s atellites a lsou sed i n t he o ffice o f t he w estern p rimicerius n otariorum i n t he e arly f ifth c entury . M anifestly i t c an n ot h ave b een . B ut w hat w as h is r eason f or b elieving t hat i t c ame e x u ltimis B ritannis? P erhaps h e r ecognized t he i nsular s cript o f t he n otitia-group l eaves a s c har acteristic o f m anuscripts w ritten b y t he r emotest B ritons: p erhaps t here e xisted a t S peyer s ome e vidence, o r a t l east a t radition , t hat B ritain w as t he o rigin o f t his p ortion o f t he m anuscript . T he e xiste nce o f s uch a t radition m ay b e r eflected i n t he a lleged c onnexion o f t he f irst w ork i n t he S peyer c orpus, t he A ethici c osmographia , w ith t he I rish s cholar M oelbrigte, M äriangelus S cotus ( 1028-?1082 ): h ec c osmographia q ue S coti d icitur , a s C , a lone a mong t he a pographs o f E , d escribes i t . M oelbrigte l eft I reland f or C ologne i n 1 056, w as a t F ulda b etween 1 058 a nd 1 069, a nd s pent t he r est o f h is l ife a s ar ecluse a t M ainz: i t i s s uggested t hat h e b rought w ith h im f rom I reland a m anuscript o f A ethicus a t l east, a nd p erhaps a lso t exts o f o ther c omponents o f t he S peyer c orpus. T he s upposition , i f c orrect , w ould b e o f s ignal i mportance, b ecause, i f M oelbrigte c arried o ver a t ext o f t he n otitia-group w ith t he A ethicus, t hat

6 5

t ext s hould h ave f ormed t he v ery s et o f l eaves w hich - i t i s c on jectured - w as b ound u p i nto t he s pirensis .

4 8

B ut a t radition

o f aB ritish o rigin f or t his s ection o f t he m anuscript m ay h ave p ersisted w ithout r eference t o M oelbrigte 's r eputed c onnexion w ith t he A ethicus, a nd i n e ither c ase t he t radition , i f i t e ver e xisted , m ay h ave b een m istaken . T here i s, a fter a ll, n o o verw helming n ecessity t o c onnect E 's n otitia-group p ortion , o n g rounds o f c ontent o r s cript, w ith M oelbrigte o r B ritain a t a ll .

I t m ay

n ever h ave l eft G ermany : f or , i f t hese t exts f ormed p art o f a w estern a rchive, t he s eparate o riginals o f i ts c ontents m ay h ave b een h eld a t t he a dministrative c entre a t T rier, a nd b oth t he i nsular s pirensis a nd i ts p ostulated i nsular p arent" c ould h ave b een w ritten i n t he p aradoxically-named c ontinental i nsulars a t a ny o ne o f t he A nglo-saxon f oundations i n G ermany, a t F ulda , f or i nstance, a t H ersfeld , o r a t E chternach . B ut h ere t he p iling o f s peculation o n s peculation b ecomes p rofitless, e s e ' v enuto i n p arte

Id ov' i o p er m e p i üo ltre n on d iscerno .

NOTES

1 . T his i s p armensis p alatinus 1 280, s aec. x vi ( I.G.Maier, 2 7 L atomus [ 1968].96 s qq ., q uoting P .F.Girard's i dentification o n p .103 .n ote 1 ). P anciroli g ave m erely a s ummary o f t he c ontents o f d e r ebus b ellicis, b ut p resumably h e k new i t e xclusively f rom t he P arma m anuscript.

2 . A ccording t o R .Neher, i n h is T übingen d issertation o f 1 911 o n t he a nonymus , p arisinus 5 825E i s a c opy o f P , u aticanus b arberinus 1 57 a c opy o f M , u indobonensis 3 102 a c opy o f V [ this i s c ertain: § 4 a bove w ith n ote 5 ],

a nd a ll t he r est c opies o f C .

3 . T he s cribe i s o f c ourse u sing t he h eading o f t he f irst w ork i n t he c ollection a s a g eneral t itle f or t he b ook. O n t he i mplications o f t he r eference t o S cotus s ee § 22 .

6 6

4 . Iw ill t ranscribe h ere, f or t heir i mportance i n t extual a nd i conog raphic s tudies o f E a nd M , t he e xtracts f rom t he S peyer m inute-book p rinted b y P reisendanz i n 1Z eitschrift f ür B uchkunde ( 1924).15-16: A ( 26 J anuary 1 548). I tinerarius . H ertzog O tt H einrich p faltzgraff s chreibt v nd b egert d en I tinerarium A nthoninj , s onderlich d as a lt E xemplar I r . G n . z u l eyhen , w ol d asselbig a bschreiben z u l assen . H aben m . H . d arum g eredt v nd i n a nsehung , d as d ie a lten h erren e s n ie m her a ußzuleyhen b eschlossen , f ür g antz b eschwerlich g eacht , e s I r . g n . z u l eyhen , w ollen e he I hr g n . e in e xemplar v erfertigen l assen . D arauf I r g n . g eantwurt: d as c at e xemplar s ey e twas b lod v nd s teen m . H n . i m w erck d as z u r enouiren , s o d as v ol p racht , w olle s ie I r g n . ( wo a nderst I r g n . a ls d an n och d aruff b edacht , e in E xemplar z u h aben ) e ins v ertigen l assen .

H at H ertzog O tt H einrich w ider g es chrieben , d as I r . g n . z u f riden m it e iner C opeij , m it b eger d as d ie f iguren w ie d ie a lten s ollen g emalet w erden , w elcher m uhe h alb I r g n . s ich w oll w erden z u h alten w issen ; d arauf s oll T ymenick v icarj e s i n d er D echanej s chreiben .

B ( 3 F ebruary 1 548).

C ( 5 D ecember 1 549). H ertzog O tt H einrich p faltzgraff ,

h at d es I tinerarij h alb m . H n . D humbdechan g eschrieben v nd a ngemanet . I st I r F . G . g eschrieben , w ie d as g eschrieben e xemplar vf d ie a lit h andt n och n it g emalet , m an w olle vf d en f ruling , s o e s w ieder w arm , v leiß a nkeren , d as e s , . m aiet; w o e s a ber i r g . b enugig s ein w olle, w olle m an I r g . e in e xemplar vf d ie n ewe h and g emalet z ustellen . vf s olchs h at e r w ider g eschrieben v nd b egert , d as m an I me w olle d as g emalet z u s ehen a n s chaden z uschicken . I st b ew illigt . D ( 20 M arch 1 550). D es H ertzog O tt H einrichen v ertrostung g eschehen , d en I tinerarium vf d ie a lt h ande m alen z u l assen , v nd a ber k hein m aler z ubekomen , i st d em f abricken m aister b evolhen s ich b esser v mbzuthun v nd w o k ein m aler z ubekomen , d e ßd em H ertzogen z u b erichten . E ( 1/2 J une 1 550 ). N achdem v f m . H n . s chreiben , d as d er g eschrieben I tinerarius vf d ie a lt h ande z u m alen , n it m ag

b este l t w erden , H ertzog O tt H einrich z u f riden , d as m an I me d en I hringen , s o I r . g n . h ieuor b esichtigt v nd vf d ie n ewe h ande g emalt i st , v ngebunden z uschicke v nd d arbey a nzeigen w olle , w aß d er r est , i st b edacht w iewol d erselbe vf 6 9 g ld g ecost , J r g n . s olchen v erfertigten I tinerarium z u s chencken v nd I r g n . d en n amen z u a ntwurten l assen , w e I r g n . f ür s ich s elb d em S tifft z u g utten g ebe , m use m an g eschehen l assen v nd z u D anck a nnemen . F ( continues E ). H at H ertzog O tt H einrich w iederumb b egert , d ieweil d er I tinerarius , s o m . H n . I r g n . v erert , z u w it vf d ie n ew h andt g emalet , d as m . H n . v nbeschwerdt s ein w olten , s eine m aler , s o I r G n . d erhalben g eschickt ,

6 7

v f g eoldrenckt p appeir , d ie a lte f iguren d urchzeichnen z u l assen , v nd d ieweil m . H n . n it w issen , o b e s o n s chaden g eschehen m oge, s o i st b edacht , M eister H onsens M ölerns R hat d ar z u z uhoeren . W o e s o n s chaden g esein m oge , s o i st e s b ewillget . T hompson 's a ccount o f M s eems t o m e c onfused . 5 . u indobonensis 3 102 n aturally p resents s ome i ndependent r eadings, a ll o f w hich, h owever, a re e vident d istortions o f u nclarities i n V . 6 .

F or P 's e arly h istory s ee T hompson, p p.7-8.

7 . T hose w ho r egard a lieni i n d .r .b . p r .7 a s c orrupt w ould c laim t his a s v ery s trong e vidence o f P 's d escent f rom E a nd n ot f rom a g emellus o f t hat m anuscript, s ince t he p erversion o f t erminations w as a c haracteristic o f t he E t ext ( see m y c ritical n ote a d l oc .). I f c orrect, a s Ib elieve i t t o b e, t he r eading i s l ess d ecisive. 8 . O n p age 1 1 o f h is e dition, l ines 6 -7. T he e normous m ass o f m aterial o n p arts o f t he t radition o f t he n otitia , l aboriously p ut t ogether b y I .G.Maier i n 2 7 L atomus ( 1968 ).96-141 a nd i n 2 8 L atomus ( 1969).960-1035, i nsofar a s i t r eflects u pon t he s ource o f t he e ditio p rinceps , i s s usceptible o f i nterpretation i n m ore t han o ne w ay . 9 . B ohemian;

G helen w as a n ative o f P rague.

1 0. T his s udden s pate o f G reek a ctivity i s r emarkable. P erhaps P roben, w hose p ublishing h ouse w as ( as G helen e xpresses i t i n h is n otitia p reface) l iteratorum c ommodis i am d udum d editissima, h ad s ignified a d esire t o h ave s ome n ew e ditions o f G reek a uthors a mong h is s tock; a nd S imon G ryne 's r ecent a ppearance o n t he s cene m ay a lso b e s ignificant. N ot t hat G helen l acked G reek; b efore g oing t o B asle i n 1 524 h e h ad s tudied a t V enice u nder M ousouros, w hose t eaching w as a dmired b y - a mongst o thers - B ilde v on R heinau ( see J .E. S andys, A h istory o f c lassical s cholarship 2 .79 n ote 4 , f or B ilde's p unning e ncomium ). 1 1. T he k indest p ossible v erdict o n G helen a s c ritic i s p erhaps t hat o f P asquali i n S toria d eila t radizione e c ritica d el t esto 2 p .82: i l G elenio , s e i n f ond° e ra u no s tudioso o nesto , e ra a nche

u n c ongetturatore a bilissimo e p raticissimo d i l ingua e s tile, m a a nche a ltrettanto a udace . 1 2. B ut G helen b ased h is t ext o n a d ifferent m anuscript, f ifteenth-century u olaterranus 2 98(5404).

t he

1 3. W ithout s pace o r a dequate p retext t o w ork o ut t hese c ontentions i n d etail h ere, I w ill r ecord m y b elief t hat G helen's A mmianus w as p repared n ot, a s h as o ccasionally b een s uspected, t hrough h eavy d ependence o n A ccorsi's e dition ( which c arried r eadings a nd t he t ext o f b ooks 2 7 s qq . f rom t he h ersfeidensis o r o ne o f i ts c lose r elatives), b ut w as e dited f irstly, i n b ooks 1 4 t o 2 6, o n t he b asis o f t he 1 518 P roben p rint c ontrolled b y t he h ersfeldensis , a nd s ubs equently, i n b ooks 2 7 t o 3 0.9.6 ( where r eliqua i n a rchetypo d e-

s iderabantur ), by w orking d irectly f rom t he H ersfeld t ext. G helen,

6 8

It hink, s upplied h is p rinter w ith c omposite m aterial f rom w hich t o s et u p t he n ew e dition : a c opy o f t he 1 518 P roben ( Erasmus' r ee dition o f C astelli's 1 517 e ditio b ononiensis ) e mended b y c ollation w ith t he h ersfeldensis , p lus a m odified t ranscript f rom t hat m anus cript o f b ooks 2 7 s qq ., a v ery l ong s tretch o f c onsecutive t ext u nknown t o e ditors b efore A ccorsi a nd h imself ; t he w hole, a nd p erh aps e specially t he l atter p ortion, s uitably r evised o n e stablished G elenian p rinciples. F roben 's d esire t o h ave e ditions o f i mportant t exts m ore s aleable t han t hose o f h is r ivals i s e vident i n a ll t his. C astelli e dits ( for B enedetti o f B ologna ) w hat w as k nown o f A mmianus i n 1 517, a nd P roben f orthwith c ommissions E rasmus t o r e-edit ( in f act, t o d o l ittle m ore t han r eprint u nder a g reater n ame) C astelli's t ext: A ccorsi e dits ( for O tmar o f A ugsburg) a n a ugmented A mmianus i n M ay 1 533, a nd t wo m onths l ater G helen 's n ew P roben a ppears. T wo m onths i s a c ruelly s hort s pace o f t ime i n w hich t o c ollate, e dit a nd p ut i nto p rint a t ext o f a bout 1 25,000 w ords i n a p oor t radition, a nd v ery c onceivably G helen h ad b een w orking o n A mmianus f or s ome y ears, w ith k nowledge o f t he H ersfeld m anuscript; b ut t he p ublic ation o f A ccorsi's s ensationally-improved e dition m ust h ave b een t he f inal s timulus t o t he p roduction o f a r eplacement o f t he n ow o bsolete 1 518 F roben . O f c ourse G helen m ay o ccasionally h ave a ppropriated, o r i ndependently c onjectured, r eadings w hich a ppear i n A ccorsi, o r, f or t hat m atter, e lsewhere: b ut I w ould p refer t o c onsider h im i n g eneral a s a t reacherous w itness t o t he H ersfeld m anuscript t han a s a s hameless b orrower w ho m angled w hat h e t ook. 1 4. S ee i nfra , n ote 4 4, f or a b rief d escription o f B ilde's c opy f or h is V elleius; a nd i n d etail, W oodman's e dition ( 1977) o f V elleius 2 .94-131, p p.3 s qq . o f t he I ntroduction. 1 5. I g ive a t ype-facsimile o f t he t itle-page o f t he e ditio p rinceps i n m y c ritique o f p revious e ditions o f d e r ebus b ellicis, p rinted i nfra a s a n a ppendix t o t his s ection. B efore t he a ncient w orks G helen p rints h is o wn e pistle d edicatory a nd t wo m odern e ssays, B ilde o n I llyricum a nd A lciati o n R oman p ublic o ffices: v ide t he c ontents-list i n n ote 4 5, a nd, f or t he e ffects o f t he i nclusion o f t hese t reatises o n t he c asting-up o f t he c opy f or t he b ook, § 21. 1 6. u aticanus 3 715, w hich t oday l acks a bout h alf t he t ext o f d e r ebus b ellicis , a ctually c opies o ut C 's c olophon, e xemplata e st h ec c osmographia e .q .s . ( supra , § 2 ). 1 7. C ritical s agacity w ould a bove a ll h ave b een d efeated i n t he c ase o f V . w hose t ext i s s hockingly c orrupt t hroughout . S eeck s hould n ot h ave s aid, o n p . i x o f h is e dition o f t he n otitia , t hat a pographa e ius ( sc. c odicis s pirensis ) q uattuor e xtant , q uae o mnia e a c um c ura f acta s unt u t e tiam i n m inimis r ebus c onspirent : t his i s s carcely t rue o f M a nd g rossly f alse o f V . W e m ay f urther d iscount t he p oss ibility ( Thompson, p .12 ) t hat G helen 's e xemplar m ay h ave b een u aticanus 3 715, w hich a lone s tates - a s tatement w hich r ecurs o n G helen's t itle-page - t hat d e r ebus b ellicis i s a ddressed t o T heod osius a nd h is s ons. u aticanus 3 715 i s a c opy o f C , a nd G helen 's t ext i s i n d etail n ot o ne w hich a ny c opy o f C c ould p resent ( supra ,

6 9

§ 12 ). F urthermore, h is q ualified s tatement - u etustus l iber D E R EBVS B ELLICIS a d T heodosium A ug . &f ilios e ius A rcadium a tq; H onorium , ut u idetur, s criptus - i mplies g uesswork; u t u idetur s hould n ot h ave b een w ritten i f t here w as m anuscript e vidence f or t he a ddress. G helen k new h is a ncient h istory, a nd m erely m ade a n u nlucky i nfer ence f rom t he i mperatores, i mperator a nd f ilii o f t he t ext: a m ist ake s uggested p erhaps b y t he r eferences i n t he d escriptio c onstant inopolitanae t o t hermas a rcadianas, d omum P ulcheriae a ugustae, t hermas h onorianas, c isternam t heodosianam a nd s o o n. B ut n ote t hat, s ince G helen k new o nly t he m utilated f orm o f t he d escriptio t ext ( supra , § 14 ), t he c ue f or t he i dentification c annot h ave c ome f rom t he d irect a llusion t o T heodosius i n t he p reface t o t hat w ork ( line 1 4 o f S eeck 's e dition ), a s ection o f t he t ext t ransmitted u niquely b y u indobonensis 1 62 o utside t he E t radition. 1 8. W hy d id G helen f ail t o c orrect t his? 1 9. I t i s c alled V b y S eeck, w ho i n h is a pparatus t o t he d escriptio c hanges t he s iglum o f u indobonensis 3 103 f rom V t o S1 - a n u nnecess ary a nd c onfusing a lteration. u indobonensis 1 62 m ay b e c onsulted i n U nterkircher's p hotographic f acsimile, u mbrae c odicum o ccident alium 2 ( Amsterdam 1 960). 2 0. c ontinet i n s e i s t he r egular f ormula o f i ntroduction i x-xv): c . v iii a lone h as h abet a utem i n s e .

( cc.

i i-vii,

2 1 . G helen w as m uch g iven t o t his s ort o f t inkering; c ompare h is e qually g ratuitous p rae f or p ro i n d e r ebus b ellicis i .9. 2 2 . T he e ntries a re p rinted b y T hompson, p .9. 2 3 . T ext o f t he f ollowing d escriptions o f E a nd M f rom T hompson, p .9. 2 4 . F ürstlich O ettingen-Waliersteinische B ibliothek , S chloss H arburg, M S .I,2,2 0 , 37. T he f ragment i s c onfidently a scribed t o Eb y c ompetent a uthorities ( apud T hompson p .10 a nd M aier, 2 7 L atomus ( 1968).98) a nd i t i s v ery c onvenient, t hough b y n o m eans e ssential, t o b elieve t hat t heir a ttribution i s c orrect; s ee i nfra, § 16. 2 5. T he S peyer l ibrary s eems t o h ave b een w ell p rovided w ith t opog raphical t exts. C , h aving c opied ( at S peyer? § 2 ) t he c ontents o f E , a dds t he d emensuratio p rouinciarum a nd C yriac o f A ncona d e s eptem m undi s pectaculis , b ut a dmits, a t t he h ead o f t he d emensuratio, t hat t his w ork n on e rat i n p raecedenti c odice, s ed d e a ntiquissimo l ibro d esumpta . W as t he C yriac f rom t he s ame s ource? a nd d id t he a ntiquiss imus l iber d uplicate s ome o r a ll o f t he E i tems? 2 6. T he a ltercatio H adriani e t E picteti c an b e d escribed a s a n o ffic ial t ext o nly b y t he e xercise o f e xtreme s ophistry, a nd i ts p resence i n t he n otitia-group r emains m ysterious. I c an o nly s uggest t hat i f ( as I a m i nclined t o b elieve ) t he c ollection w as a ssembled i n t he s criptorium o f a n i nsular f oundation f rom s eparate o riginals, s ome o f t hem p erhaps h aving s urvived a s ab undle f rom a n o fficial s ource, t hen t he d idactic, e ven p edantic q uality o f t he a ltercatio s hould

7 0

h ave a ppealed t o m en t rained i n t he i nsular t radition,

a nd t he f act

t hat t he t ext i s a p ara-philosophical d ialogue w ith a n e mperor a s p rotagonist m ay h ave h elped t o j ustify i ts i nclusion i n a t echnical c ollection o f i mperial c haracter . 2 7. S eeck i n 9H ermes p .ix w ith p .xxvi.

( 1875).229,

a nd i n h is e dition o f t he n otitia,

2 8. A s weeping s tatement, b ut I b elieve i t t o b e t rue i n t he c ases o f t hose t exts a nd m anuscripts f or w hich p rinted c ollations a re a vailable. 2 9. I c annot c laim t hat t he c oncept o f t he s pirensis a s a c omposite m anuscript i s n ew; S chnabel ( 29 S itzungsberichte d er P reussischen A kademie d er W issenschaften , p hil .—hist . A bteilung ( 1929).242 s qq ., a t p .257) d evised i t b efore m e. H is c onclusion h as b een i mpugned b y L ehmann a nd T hompson : Ir eached i t i ndependently, w ithout c onsultat ion o f S chnabel's a rticle, a nd h ave l eft m y t ext a s Ia t f irst w rote i t. u aleat q uantum u alere p otest . C omparison o f S chnabel's p osition w ith m ine w ill s how t hat I a ccept a m ore o rthodox g rouping o f t he c ontents o f E t han h e p roposes; a nd I w ould t end t o s et t he t erminus f or t he w riting o f t he n otitia-group l eaves q uite o ne h undred y ears b efore h is n inth-century l imit. W e n eed s uppose o nly o ne i ntermediary s tage b etween E a nd t he i ndividual a rchetypes o f t he n otitia-group w orks; s ee t he n ote i mmediately f ollowing . 3 0. S eeck's s peculations a s t o t he a rchetype o f E f all o f c ourse. Id o n ot f ind i t n ecessary t o a ssume, w ith h im, a l ong h istory o f c opying o f t he n otitia-group . T he t ext o f C -o n t he w hole t he b est s urviving c opy o f E - i s o f d istinctly h igh q uality, a nd s ome o f i ts e rrors a re u ndoubtedly s elf-inflicted; a nd b etween i t a nd t he s eparate o riginals o f t he t exts i n t he g roup t here n eed h ave i ntervened o nly o ne m anuscript, i n w hich t he c ollection w as f irst m ade, a nd w hose p resence i n t he b ackground m ay b e f elt i n c ertain c orruptions d iscussed i n m y c ritical n otes t o d .r .b.pr .5 a nd x xi.l. 3 1. T hat t his w as a c orruption a lready e xisting i n E i s s uggested i n m y c ritical n ote t o x xi.l. 3 2. T he n ecessity f or t he r eduction o f t he t ermination i n c lausula i s d iscussed i n m y c ritical n ote t o i x .1. 3 3. S ee s upra , n ote 1 3, f or a n o pinion o n t he c opy f or G helen's A mmianus. F or h is p ractice o f s ilently d eleting d esperately . : orrupt o r d efective t ext i n A mmianus s ee, f or e xample, h is p roceedings a t 2 8.4.26 ( lacunose m atter i n M V o mitted b y G helen), 2 8.5.1 d um M V o mitted b y G helen ( read d ux w ith d e V alois), 3 0.3.5 s acranenti e t i nti M V, e t i nti o mitted b y G helen ( perhaps r ead e t r itus w ith C lark ). 3 4.

l ibrarum m ay h ave b een t he r eading o f E :

s ee n ote 4 3.

3 5. S eeck's p ostulated c . i v i s l ost. I t w as m issing f rom t he s pi— r ensis, f or C M P a nd V k now n othing o f i t. B ut o bserve t hat i n v iew o f G helen 's b utchery o f t he t ext i n t his a rea i t w ould b e u ns afe t o c onclude s olely f rom h is o mission o f ' c. i v' t hat h e w as u sing a t ext o f s pirensis-type .

7 1

3 6. I h ave t reated t his e xtraordinary p iece o f G elenian m isrepres entation i n s ome d etail b ecause i t m ust b e u nderstood t hat t he t elescoping o f t he t ext h ere i s n ot d ue t o G helen's h aving f ollowed a t radition o ther t han t hat o f Eb ut a rises p urely f rom t he a ccomm odation o f t ext t o t ypographical c ircumstances. H is m ethods w ere n ot w holly a rbitrary; t hey c an b e o bserved a nd d efined ( supra , § 17 w ith n ote 3 3, a nd, f or a nother a spect o f h is t echnique , n ote 2 1); b ut t hey w ere p ervasive , a nd h is i nveterate h abits o f t rivial ( and o ften u nnecessary) e mendation , t he s ilent d eletion o f d ifficulties, a nd a bbreviation, m ust b e c onstantly b orne i n m ind b y t hose d ealing w ith a ny t ext i n w hich G helen i s t o b e e mployed a s a w itness t o a

d eperditus . 3 7. T hompson , p .8 ; P . L ehmann i n S itzungsberichte d er b ayerischen A kademie d er W issenschaften , p hil .-hist . A bteilung 1 934.iv.12 s q . 3 8.

F urther c onsideration o f G helen 's A mmianus s upra i n n ote 1 3.

3 9. T he t imetable o f O tt H einrich's r equests f or t he l oan o f t he s hows t hat E w as o stensibly a t S peyer c ontinuously f rom J anuary 1 548 t o J une 1 550 ; a nd i n 1 552 t he P falzgraf d escended o n t he l ibrary a nd r emoved t he m anuscript t o H eidelberg. T hompson ( p.11), r ehearsing a n a rgument o f S eeck's, a vers t hat t he p resence o f Ea t S peyer ' during t he y ears 1 542 [ the d ate o f M ]-1552' p recludes G helen 's h aving u sed i t a s c opy . I t d oes n o s uch t hing ; i ndeed, i t w ould r ather e ncourage t han p reclude i t. I t i s e ven a p ossible e xplanation o f t he a uthorities ' u nwillingn ess t o l et O tt H einrich h ave t he b ook t hat t hey w ere r eserving i t f or G helen 's u se. E h ad b een d iscovered a t S peyer i n 1 525 b y B ilde v on R heinau ; i t w as s till t here i n 1 542 a nd f rom 1 548. T hroughout t his p eriod w e h ave n o e vidence t hat i t e ver l eft S peyer, a nd s ince i t i s o n t he w hole i mprobable ( despite t he p ossibility e xplored i n § 20) t hat s o i mportant a nd f ragile a b ook w ould h ave b een l ent t o G helen, r estricted a ccess t o i t i n t he l ibrary s eems a ltogether t he b est e xplanation o f t he t ime t aken i n p roducing t he e dition. G helen's g lancing r eference t o t he f ortuitous ( and , b y i mplication, r ecent) d iscovery o f t he t ext m ust b e v iewed w ith a ppropriate s cepticism : e quidem c upiebam , h e s ays t o V esale , i am a nte e xtare m onumentum

s pirensis ( supra , n ote 4 )

a liquod m utuae n ostrae b eneuolentiae: u erum t ua h umanitas h oc q uad f ors o btulit, a equi b onique c onsulet ( ed. p r. s ig. * 2v ).

primum

4 0. T he c onfusion o f o pen a w ith u , t hough c ertainly c haracteristic o f t ranscription f rom i nsulars, i s n ot c onfined t o c opies m ade f rm i a n e xemplar i n s uch a h and . T he c onfusion o f a a nd o i s s lightly m ore s uggestive , t hat o f a a nd t n oticeably m ore s o , a nd t he c omb ined e vidence h as p erceptible w eight. 4 1. T ypographical c onvenience d id n ot h ave t o b e t aken i nto a ccount h ere.

7 2

4 2. I t m ust b e d istinctly u nderstood t hat w hen i n t his a nd l ater c ontexts I s peak o f a ' lost c opy o f t he s pirensis' I m ean a t ranscript o f E i ntended, a s CM Pa nd V w ere i ntended, t o s erve a s a n i ndependent c opy o f t he t ext w ith n o u lterior p urpose i n v iew. I d o n ot r efer t o a ny t ranscript w hich G helen m ight h imself h ave m ade , o r h ave h ad m ade, t o s erve a s p rinter's c opy i f t he u se o f E i tself f or t his p urpose w as d enied h im. W hether t he c ompositor s et u p h is t ext f rom t he a ctual p ages o f t he s pirensis, a s P ickel's p rinter s et u p H rotsuith i n 1 501 ( infra , n ote 4 4), o r w hether h e u sed a p repared t ranscript, o r w hether h e w orked f rom a t ranscript p lus t he o riginal, a s B ilde's p rinter d id w ith V elleius ( infra , n ote c ited), c annot b e a scertained. B ut a t ranscript m ade b y o r f or G helen w ould e ventually , a fter e ditorial c orrection b y h im , b e i ndistinguishable f rom t he f inal t ext o f t he e xtant p rinted b ook. W hat I a m t rying t o s how i s, n ot t hat G helen d id n ot a t s ome t ime h ave h is o wn w orking c opy o f t he s pirensis , b ut t hat h e a ctually s aw a nd u sed t hat b ook, a nd t hat h is t ext i s, b eneath a l ayer o f a lterations, a d irect w itness t o E i ndependent o f CM Pa nd V . 4 3. S ee m y c ritical n ote a d l oc ., w here C MPV 's i ncredible n ee t e i n d .r .b . p raef.5 i s a lso c onsidered i n t his l ight. C ould C MPV 's l ibrarum f or l ibyarum a t n otitia o r.i.40 h ave b een i n E ? -t hat i s, d id G helen f ind m ore t o c hange h ere t han t he n umber i n c onjuring u p h is e mendation L ibyae? 4 4. T he c opy w hich B ilde e ventually d ispatched t o P roben c onsisted o f t wo b ooks, t he ' monstrously c orrupt' m urbachiensis i tself a nd a n e ven f ouler t ranscript h astily m ade f rom t he M urbach t ext b y a f riend s hortly a fter t he e xemplar h ad b een b rought t o l ight. T he p rinters w ere d irected u t u etus e xemplar n on m inus q uam e xemplum i nspicerent : a n i nstruction w hich m ight m ean n ot o nly t hat t he p arent c ould b e u sed t o c orrect e rrors i n i ts o ffspring b ut a lso t hat n ecessary c orrections h ad b een e ntered i ndiscriminately i n b oth . ( For a d iscussion o f t he t ransmission o f V elleius, a nd o f B ilde 's e ditorial m anoeuvres i n p roducing h is t ext, s ee W oodman's e dition [ 1977] o f V elleius 2 .94-131, p p.3 s qq .). A n otorious i nstance o f a n a ntique m anuscript s till e xtant w hich w as u sed a s p rinter's c opy i s t he t enth-century g andershemensis o f H rotsuith, s ent t o H oeltzel's s hop i n N uremberg f or P ickel's ( "Celtis'" ) p rint o f 1 501 a nd n ever r eturned t o G andersheim ; i t s urvives, i nterpolated w ith e ditorial m atter a nd s mudged w ith p rinter's i nk, i n t he B ayerische S taatsbibliothek ( as c odex m onacensis l atinus 1 4485). A p ossible c ase o f am anuscript t ranscribed s pecifically t o s erve a s p rinter's c opy m ay b e i dentified i n a f ifteenth-century A ugustine d e c iuitate d ei n ow a t S . S colastica, S ubiaco; t his s eems, f rom d etails o f i ts r eadings a nd l ineation, t o h ave b een t he c opy s upplied f or t he e ditio p rinceps o f t he t ext, p rinted b y S weynheym a nd P annartz a t S ubiaco i n 1 467. ( Details a nd p hotographs o f t he G andersheim a nd S ubiaco c odices i n A drian W ilson, T he m aking o f t he N uremberg C hronicle, A msterdam 1 976, p p.32 s qq .)

7 3

c l -r 6 4 5. T he c ollation i s: r oy.2°, * 8 ( on a p roblem i n t he l ast q uire s ee n ext n ote), a nd t he c ontents: e z 1r t itle, * 1v b lank, * 2r-v G helen : e pistula n uncupatoria , *3 r- 5r B ilde v on R heinau : I llyrici d escriptio, e c 5v A lciati: e pistle p refatory t o h is e ssay d e m agistratibus, * 6r- 8v A lciati: d e m agistratibus c iuilibusque e t m ilitaribus o fficiis, a lr-a3v d escriptio u rbis R omae, a 4r-a6r d escriptio u rbis C onstantinopoleos, a 6v-p4v n otitia d ignitatum , p

4

q lr-r3v d e r ebus b ellicis, r 4r-r5r a ltercatio H adriani e t E picteti, r 5v c olophon, r 6r b lank, r 6v d evice. 4 6. I w as o nce i nclined t o t hink t hat F roben h ad m ade a p hysical a lteration i n t he m ake-up o f t he l ast q uires o f t he p rinted b ook, s ince t he l eaf w hich s hould b e r 4 l acks a s ignature, c ontrary t o t he p rinter 's p ractice i n a ll t he o ther t ernios i n t he v olume. Q uire r c ould t herefore, i t s eemed, b e a d uernio ( in w hich c ase r 4 w ould n aturally b e l eft u nsigned ), a nd t he f ollowing l eaves, t he s upposed r 5 a nd r 6, m ight n ot a fter a ll b e c onjugate w ith r 2 a nd r l r espectively b ut m ight c onstitute a s eparate, u nsigned c ancel u nio. T his w ould i mply t hat s ome c hange h ad b een m ade i n t he c ontents a t t he e nd o f t he b ook, p erhaps r eflecting a n a bandoned i ntention t o p rint d e g radibus c ognationum i n t his a rea. B ut e xamination o f t he w ater-marks a nd c hain-lines o f t he p aper s eems t o s how q uite c learly t hat ' r4', ' r5' a nd ' r6 ' a re c onjugate r espectively w ith t he s igned l eaves T 3, r 2 a nd r l; a nd t he a bsence o f a s ignature f or r 4 i s p robably t he r esult o f a c areless ( or a esthetically-inspired ) o mission o f t he d irection-line b elow t he p icture-block w hich ' r4' c arries, s howing H adrian a nd E pictetus i n d ebate. 4 7. I t u se C B ut i t w hence

i s n ot n ecessary f or m e t o s ay a gain t hat G helen d id n ot ( supra, § 12 ) a nd c annot h ave s een t his a scription t here. m ay h ave e xisted a s an ote w ritten i nto t he s pirensis, b oth C a nd G helen h ave r eported i t.

4 8. O n p urely t emporal g rounds, M oelbrigte 's t ext o f t he n otitiag roup, i f h e e ver h ad o ne, c annot h ave b een t he l ightly-corrupted i nsu lar a rchetype o f E , e rrors i n w hich a re t entatively i solated i n m y t extual n otes t o d .r .b .pr .5 a nd x xi.l. T o s peak p lainly, I a m n ot i nclined t o b elieve t hat h e i mported a n otitia-group m anus cript a t a ll. N evertheless, t he i nsular c onnexion w ith o fficial a nd t opographical t exts i s i nteresting a nd s uggestive. A nglo-saxon f oundations o n t he c ontinent w ere s tocked, p resumably f rom t heir p arents, w ith t exts o f t his k ind ( for S peyer, s ee s upra , n ote 2 5); t he b ooks - a mong t hem, I m ust i nsist, t he s pirensis o f t he n otitia a nd i ts s atellites - a re o r w ere i n i nsular s cript; a nd w e h ave p roof t hat a t l east o ne e ighth-century s cholar, a n E nglishman w orking o n t he c ontinent, h ad r ead o ne o f t he w orks i n t he n otitiag roup ( a f act w hich m ay r eflect u nfavourably o n t he v iew t hat t he g roup w as u nknown i n c ontinental m onasteries u ntil M oelbrigte's m igration i n t he e leventh c entury ). A lcuin w rites ( epist .88 a d f in .: D uemmler, m .G .h . e pp . i v =e pp . a eui k arol . i i, p .133 l ines 4 -9: a .d .793-796?): d e e pistola i nterrogasti, q uid e sset . n am e pi s uper,

7 4

s tola h abitus g rece d icitur . u nde H adrianus i mperator E pit etum p hilosophum i nter a lias i nquisitiones i nterrogauit q uid e sset c inctum . a t i lle u idens e um e pistolam m anu t enentem r espondit quod manu t enes, u olens i ntellegere q uasi s upercinctorium e sset e pistolae s igillum , q uo a f öris u estia tur c artula . h anc h abeto i nterpretationem , d onee m eliorem i nuenias u el u eriorem . T he r eference t o t he a ltercatio H adriani e t E picteti i s p erfectly c lear: I t ranscribe t he r elevant l ines ( they f orm t he v ery o pening o f t he t ext) f rom G helen's e dition, s ig. r 4v :H ADRIANVS. Q uid e rit n obis s i c inctum s oluas, n eq; n udaberis i pse? r espice c orpus, q uo & d oceri p ossis.

E PIC.

E pistola e st.

4 9. S ee c ritical n otes o n d .r .b . p r.5 a nd x xi.1; n ote 4 3 a bove; a nd, f or a p ossible f eature o f t his m anuscript's l ayout, t he c ritical n ote o n t he c hapter-heading o f d .r .b .xvi .

7 5

APPENDIX

P REVIOUS

EDITIONS

O F

T HE

T EXT

Ig ive t his c onspectus s ubstantially a fter N eher a nd T hompson. O ne p reliminary o bservation m ay b e o f s ervice t o u sers o f t he O xford e dition. T hompson c onfesses ( p.17 n .3) t hat h e h ad n ot s een a c opy o f a 1 729 r eprint o f L abbe's w ork m entioned b y N eher . H e t herefore g ives n o b ibliographical d etails t o s upplement N eher 's b are r efer ences. F ortunately I c an c ome t o t he r escue h ere. T he c urious r eader w ill f ind o ur t reatise e xecrably p rinted w ith t he n otitia d ignitatum a nd i ts r elated t exts b y J avarina , i n t he f olio c orpus b yzantinae h istoriae, V enice 1 729, v olume x viii, w here d e r ebus b ellicis, w ith n o i llustrations, o ccupies p p.32-36 o f t he s econd p agination s eries.

G HELEN

( Gelenius): t he e ditio p rinceps, w ith n otitia d ignitatum , & c .,

B asel

( Froben )

1 552.

N O T IT IA V TRAQVE/cvm

I t ranscribe t he u nwieldy t itle-

p age

ORIENTIS TVM OCCIDENTIS/ V LTRA A RCADII H ONORIIQVE C AESARVM T EMPORA,/ i lluftre u etuftatis m onumentum, i mö t hefaurus p rorfum i ncompar abilis./ P RAEcedit a utü D .Andrea e A lciati l ibellus, D e m agiftratib. c iuilibuso l C ; a c/ m ilitaribus o fficijs, p artim e x h ac i pfa N otitia, p artim a liunde d efumptus./ C VI f uccedit d efcriptio u rbis R om , , q ua fub t itulo P ub . V ictoris c ircum/fertur: & a ltera u rbis C onftant inopolitan i ncerto a utore, n unquä a ntehac/ t ypis e xcufa, I mperialium u idelicet a c p rimariar i l f edium u triufq ; R eipub ./ S VBiungitur N otitijs u etuftus l iber D E R EBVS B ELLICIS a d T heo/dofium A ug . & f ilios e ius A rcadium a tq; H onorium, u t u idetur, f cri-/ptus, i ncerto a utore. I TEM, n e q uid d e a ntiquo e xemplari/ o mitteretur , D ifputatio A driani A ug.! & E picteti p hilofophi./ ( Froben's d evice)/ BASILEAE, M D L II/ C um g ratia & p riuilegio I mp . M aieft. a d a nnos q uinq;/ /

d e r ebus b ellicis a ppears o n s igs. q lr — r 3v, w ith w oodc ut b locks o f a ll t he i llustrations.

S CHRIJVER

S criverius ): i n h is e dition o f V egetius, & c., L eiden ( Plantin ) 1 606/7; d e r ebus b etZicis o n p p.81-102. T ext f rom G helen w ith f urther e mendations; p icture-blocks ( smaller t han G helen 's a nd h eavily m odernized ) t aken f rom

7 6

p assages o f d e r ebus b ellicis p rinted b y S tewech i n h is c omm entary o n V egetius, A ntwerp ( Plantin ) 1 585, r epeated t wice a t L eiden, s eparately i n 1 592 a nd w ith S chrijver 's V egetius i n 1 606/7.

P ANCIROLI ( us) : a s ummary o f t he c ontents o f d e r ebus b ellicis a ppears i n h is e dition o f n otitia d ignitatum , & c., V enice ( de F ranceschi) 1 593 a nd [ posthumously] 1 602. P anciroli n ever i n f act e dited t he t ext o f t he t reatise; b ut a n ew e dition o f h is n otitia w ork ( Lyons [ de l a P orte] 1 608 ) c ontains, i n a ddition t o t he s ummary, t he d e r ebus b ellicis i tself ( on p p.201-222). A f urther e dition ( Geneva 1 623 ) r e-arranges t he m aterials a nd r elegates t he t reatise t o a n a ppendix ( pp.24-39). I t i s n ot k nown b y w hose a uthority t he t ext - G helen's, m odified o nly b y m isprints - w as i nserted i nto t he 1 608 e dition o f P ancir oli: R huardesius o f C ahors, w ho a dded n otes t o P anciroli's c ommentary , o r M aranus o f T oulouse, w ho p repared t he i ndices t o t he v olume, m ay h ave b een r esponsible f or i ts i nclusion.

P h . L ABBE:

i n h is n otitia d ignitatum , & c ., P aris 1 651: d e r ebus b ellicis , w ithout i llustrations, o n p p .164-189. G helen's t ext, v ery s lightly a ltered . R eprinted i n J avarina's c orpus b yzant inae h istoriae , V enice 1 729 ( see m y h eadnote s upra ). O ne o f L abbe 's r eadings i s a g reat c uriosity, a nd d eserves t o b e r ec orded h ere, s ince i t w ill f ind n o p lace i n a n a pparatus u ere c riticus . T he t itle o f P icture I, F ELIX I NCHOATIO e .q .s ., i s t acked o n t o t he e nd o f c .iii b y t he a ddition o f t he w ords u t s it . T he p icture i tself b eing s uppressed, t he r esulting t ext h as a c ertain s pecious p lausibility : f ormas e t m agnitudinem t am a ereae q uam a ureae f igurationis p ictura p raenuntiante s ubi eci , u t s it f elix i nchoatio s acrae d iuinaeque m onetae . T he

c ue f or t his f eat o f m isdirected i ngenuity w as n o d oubt t aken f rom t he c losing s entence o f c .vi, i maginem t ormentorum

o rationi s ubieci , u t

s it f acilis i mitandi c onfectio .

S CHNEIDER: i n a nonymi d e r ebus b ellicis l iber , T ext u nd E rläute rungen; B erlin ( Weidmann) 1 908 . A w orthless v erbatim r eprint o f G helen's e dition, o f i nterest o nly i n t hat i t r eproduces, i n a r educed s ize, t he s plendid p icture-blocks o f t he e ditio p rinceps - a n i nsufficient e xcuse, o ne f eels, f or t he r eprod uction o f t he s ixteenth-century t ext a s w ell.

S . R EINACH:

i n U n h omue d 'idJes a u b as —e mpire ( 16 R evue a rch6 ol ogique [ s6r .5], 1 922, p p.205-265); t ext o f d e r ebus b ellicis o n p p.255-265. N oteworthy a s b eing t he f irst a ttempt t o c ont rol t he G elenian t extus r eceptus b y c ollation w ith a s urviv ing M S ( in t his c ase p arisinus l atinus 9 661, o ur P ): a dequate r ecognition o f t his i n T hompson, p .17. T he t ext w hich R einach p resents, h owever, i s m arred b y f aulty c ollation, a nd i s s o d isfigured b y m isprints a nd b ad r eadings a s t o b elie e ven t he m odest c laim ( p.205) t hat i t i s & p eu p rs l isible: a dequate c ondemnation o f t his i n T hompson , p .18.

7 7

E . A. THOMPSON: i n A R oman R eformer a nd I nventor: b eing a n ew t ext of t he t reatise d e r ebus b ellicis, w ith a t ranslation a nd i ntroduction b y E .A . T hompson: O xford ( Clarendon P ress ) 1 952. T ext o n p p.91-105, E nglish p araphrase o n p p.106-123. T he p ublication o f t his b ook, p recisely f our h undred y ears a fter t hat o f t he e ditio p rinceps, m arked a n e poch i n t he s tudy o f t he t reatise: i ts e ditor r escued f rom o blivion a w ork o f c rucial i mportance f or o ur s tudy o f t he f ourth c entury ; h e p rovided t he f irst a cceptably c ritical e dition o f t he t ext; h e t ook t he u nknown a uthor s eriously , a nd c omm ented o n h is i deas w ith m uch l earning; a nd h e l aid, s ingleh anded, t he f oundations o n w hich n o l ess t han f ifteen s pecialists h ave b uilt i n t he p resent v olume. I t i s n ot s urprising t hat, a midst s uch a d iversity o f m aterials, s ome p arts o f t he w ork s hould s eem l ess s atisfactory t han o thers, a nd t hat c ertain l egitimate t opics o f i nvestigation ( quae q uidem n on i gnota s unt i lli, q ue r n a lia p lura s ollicitant a n obis a liena) s hould h ave b een n eglected. T he t ext ( it m ay b e t hought) r equired g reater f irmness o f h andling, t he v ariants m ore a ttentive c onsideration, t he s tyle m ore s ubtle c omment. I m ust n ot l ay m yself o pen f urther t o t he c harge o f e nvy o r i ngratitude, p articularly s ince I a m w holly i ndebted t o T hompson's m eticulous c ollations f or m y r eports o f t he M SS: u erum q uia i lium q uaedam o ccupatum e ffUgiunt , o tio p ersuasus, n on a deo a r erum c ommoditatibus p eregrinus, u tilia u ndique r edacta c onferre g estiui . e i q uid u ero l ibentius o ratio m ea p ro r erum n ecessitate p ro— t ulerit , a estimo u enia p rotegendum , c um m ihi p romissionis i mplendae g ratia s ubueniendum e st p ropter p hilosophiae l ibertatem .

7 8

EXCURSUS

T HE

P RINTING

O F

W e n oticed a bove

THE

EDITIO

PRINCEPS

( Transmission of t he t ext § 18 )

t hat G helen w as

a lready a t w ork o n p reparations f or t he p rinting o f t he n otitia v olume i n 1 536:

t he g ap o f s ixteen y ears b etween t his d ate a nd

F roben's e ventual p ublication o f t he e ditio p rinceps i n 1 552 r emains u nexplained.

I s i t p ossible t hat t he b ook w as i ntended

t o a ppear e arlier t han t his? t hat p art o f i t w as a ctually s et u p i n t ype i n 1 536? I i ntend h ere t o s et o ut t he f acts c oncerning t he d ated p lates - f or t wo p lates, n ot o ne,

c arry d ates;

t o

e stablish t he c onsonance o f t hese f acts w ith t he t heory t hat G helen 's e xemplar w as t he s pirensis ,

n unc d eperditus i tself ;

a nd t o p roduce b ibliographical e vidence t o s how t hat, d ecision t o p rint h ad b een t aken, a c ontinuous w hole.

o nce t he

t he b ook a s e xtant w as s et a s

I n n o w ay c an m y o bservations b e c hecked

a gainst m odern r eproductions o f t he t exts a nd i llustrations;

t he

r eader w ho w ishes t o v erify t hem m ust c onsult a n a ctual c opy o f t he 1 552 p rint.

1

THE

D ATED

P LATES

T he f irst d ate w hich w e a re g iven,

. M. D.XXXVI,

a ppears i n l arge

c apitals o n t he i nsignium g rasped f irmly i n t he l eft h and o f t he m ajestic a llegorical f igure o f p rouincia P alestina o n s ig. T he l inked i nitials o f t he p late; A frica o n s ig.

3 5 appear

t owards t he l ower r ight-hand c orner

t he m onogram r ecurs i n t he p late o f I talia , 1r,

h 2v.

o n t he r ock i n t he c entre f oreground.

I llyricum, T he d ate

1 536 c onsists w ell w ith G helen's k nown o perations i n t he m id-1530s. I n 1 533 h e h ad p ublished h is A mmianus,

7 9

a nd i n 1 535 h is c astigations

o f t he E lder P liny a nd t he L ivy i n w hich h e c ollaborated w ith B ilde v on R heinau .

T hese p rinted, h e c ould t urn h is a ttention t o t he c om-

p lex t ask o f p roducing t he e laborately-illustrated n otitia-group, d iscovered b y B ilde a t S peyer a s l ong a go a s m ission o f t he t ext § 18 ). b egun d irectly,

1 525

P reparation o f t he p lates m ust h ave

a nd p rouincia P aiestina a t l east w as r eady i n

1 536; b ut f or s ome r eason p rogress w as s uspended, w hich i s w holly o f o ne s etting, u ntil

( above, T rans-

1 550 a t t he e arliest.

a nd t he b ook,

c annot h ave b een p ut t ogether

T he e xtant b ook, t hat i s:

Ic annot

o f c ourse p reclude t he p ossibility t hat a f ew p ages o f t he t ext w ere i n t ype i n 1 536, b ut i f s o,

t hey m ust h ave b een b roken u p

w hen i t w as f ound t hat p ublication w ould h ave t o b e d elayed.

N o

s ixteenth-century p rinter w ould k eep a n i ncomplete s et o f t ypep ages s tanding f or s ixteen y ears;

t he c ompositor's t ime s pent i n

r e-setting w as l ess v aluable t han t he r eady a vailability o f t he t ype .

T he e vidence t hat t he p lates w ere s till b eing p repared i n

1 550 c omes f rom a n i nscription o n a nother p icture-block, w hich a ppears f irst a s t he d evice o f t he e astern m agister s criniorum o n d 4v a nd a gain a s t he d evice o f t he w estern m agister s criniorum o n

1 4r.

( At i ts s econd a ppearance,

v ery c oarsely,

Is hould a dd, t he p late p rints

s uggesting e ither t hat t he b lock w as s oaked i n i nk

f rom i ts p revious u se o n d 4v o r t hat a p articularly h eavy p ull w as a pplied t o t he p ress - p erhaps b oth; a nd i n f act t he p late, w hen i t a ppears o n

1 4r, h as b een s eriously d amaged,

e ither b y

s plitting o f t he b lock o r b y a ccidental g ouging w ith a p ointed i nstrument:

t hree d iscontinuous w hite l ines, a bout 2 mm a cross,

r un v ertically f rom t op t o b ottom o f t he p late, q uarters o f t he w ay f rom t he l eft e dge). t his p late,

t ouching t he l eft m argin,

a bout t hree-

T owards t he b ottom o f

i s a n o pen b ook, o n w hich

c an b e r ead t he f ollowing G reek l etters:-

l eft p age E ( or E ) 8

r ight p age

( ? )

G ( ?)

0

IA P A

A 0N ( the N r eversed )

IO A N NHI O

8 0

T o t he r ight o f a nd b elow t he b ook, ap artly-unfurled s croll,

AE

t ouching t he l ower m argin,

i s

o n w hich a ppears:-

BAE I A E I A

EK 8 E E I E

KE 0

A A A IS 2 N

NA P

O f t he l etters i n t he u pper l ine o f t he l eft p age o f t he o pen b ook Ic an m ake n o s ense, b ut t he g roup n umbers.

A N

i ndeed I c annot e ven g uarantee m y r eadings;

i s s urely t he y ear 1 550 i n G reek a lphabetic

O n t he r ight p age o f t he b ook a n a rticulation nape t

' Ic Lxivvn

L c o

s uggests i tself ,

o f t he b lock-cutter,

J ohann;

p age i s d rawn w ith a f old,

t he

a nd t his s hould g ive u s t he n ame 10,

i ts I n ot q uite c ertain

( the

o n w hich t he l etter c omes) m ay b e m erely

a n u nmeaning f iller f or t he l ine d erived f rom t he b eginning o f t he n ame.

( A d ivision T i cg Da .

' Ioxivvnt ,

o . ) i s p ossible b ut e ven l ess

e xplicable).

O n t he s croll w e h ave ac

f 3 a .c act ,a gxecc t ,c I tcwa—

XaC cov r cap,

f rom w hich I c an d erive n o c oherent s ense b eyond s ome

r eference t o i mperial d ispositions i n c hapters, o f t reatment o f t he n otitia .

T he f inal EAP

t he s ubject a nd m ode

h ere - EM I

i s j ust

p ossible - m ay b e a f iller t aken f rom t he o pening l etters o n t he r ight p age o f t he b ook a bove.

Iw ould b e g lad t o h ave a c onvincing

i nterpretation o f t hese m ysterious i nscriptions; u ncertainties e lsewhere,

b ut, w hatever t he

t he G reek d ate kDN = 1 550 i s n ot,

It hink,

a n o ptical i llusion .

A p ossible i mplication o f t he o rder o f a ppearance o f t hese d ates i n t he p rint n eeds t o b e w orked o ut s eparately . p recedes

( on d 4v)

t hat d ated 1 536

( h2v):

T he b lock d ated 1 550

w ere t he b locks t herefore

n ot c ut i n t he o rder o f t heir a ppearance i n t he f inished b ook? B ut t he 1 550 b lock r ecurs o n

1 4r;

t he p lates c ould t herefore h ave b een

c ut i n c orrect s equence, w ith t he 1 550 m agister s criniorum b lock p rojected f orwards t o d 4v d uring p rinting.

8 1

P reparation o f t he p lates, i n 1 550.

t hen, b egun b y 1 536, w as s till u nder w ay

W as t his r eally a t ask w hich w ould t ake f ourteen y ears t o

c omplete? I v ery m uch d oubt i t.

M aster H ans, w ho t raced t he p ictures

i n t he s pirensis f or O tt H einrich,

t ook o nly a y ear o ver t he w ork

( above, T ransmission of z he t ext § 3 w ith d ocument F i n n ote 4 ); a nd e ven a llowing f or t he g reater c omplexity o f w ood-block c utting, f ourteen y ears s eems a n u nreasonable t ime t o s pend i n t he p reparation o f t he p lates - u nless,

t hat i s, a ccess t o t he o riginal f rom w hich

t he p lates w ere m ade w as r estricted a nd i ntermittent. t hrough G helen, h is a rtist) s cript,

h ad h ad c ontinuous a ccess t o t heir m anu-

t he d elay w ould n ot h ave o ccurred;

a rtist m ade h is t racings

I f G helen ( and,

t his a pplies w hether t he

( to g lue t o t he r aw b locks)

t he o riginal o r f rom d rawings m ade f rom i t;

d irectly f rom

i n t he l atter c ase o ne

s imply a ssumes d iscontinuous a ccess t o t he o riginal w hile t he p ict ures w ere b eing c opied.

T he p ossibility t hat t his o riginal w as t he

s pirensis i s a gain s eriously r aised;

t he D ean a nd C hapter o f S peyer

m ay h ave b een v ery u nwilling t o a llow G helen e xtended u se o f t heir m anuscript i f i t w as i ndeed i n t he p oor c ondition w hich t hey a lleged ( 'das a lt e xemplar s ey e twas b lod')

a s a r eason f or r efusing i t t o

O tt H einrich i n 1 548.

2

C ONTINUITY

O F

P RINTING

I t n ow b ecomes n ecessary t o d emonstrate t hat t he e ditio p rinceps a s w e h ave i t i s t he p roduct o f a n u ninterrupted p iece o f t ype-setting; t o d iscount, s ee

t hat i s,

t he p ossibility t hat p ortions o f w hat w e n ow

( including a t l east q uire h ,

i n w hich t he 1 536 P alestina p late

o ccurs) w ere i n t ype i n 1 536,

t he r est b eing a dded p iecemeal a s c opy

b ecame a vailable t owards

( the t erminus f or q uires d a nd

t heir d ated b lock )

1 550

I , w ith

a nd i nto 1 552, w hen t he b ook c ame f rom t he p ress.

Is hall d emonstrate t he c ontinuous s etting o f t he p rinted b ook t o t he l imit o f t he e vidence p rovided t ute s orts,

( a ) b y f oul-case l etters o r s ubsti-

( b) b y t he r epetition o f p icture-blocks,

8 2

a nd

( c) b y b lind

i mpressions o f t ype k ept s tanding t o f ill o ut t he c hase a t t he b ottom o f s hort t ype-pages.

T hese f indings w ill n ot o nly s erve

t he p urpose o f e stablishing t he t ypographical u nity o f t he e ditio p rinceps:

t hey w ill c ast i nteresting l ight o n t he m ethods o f a

s ixteenth-century p rinter f aced w ith s o c omplicated a p iece o f w ork a s t he s etting o f t he n otitia d ignitatum .

( a)

l etter

p eculiarities

( o

f or

o ;

b roken

' long

s ')

O n an umber o f o ccasions i n t he b ook a c ircular, u nweighted f igure z ero i s u sed i n p lace o f t he s pheroidal, w eighted l ower-case o o f t he m agnificent c anon r oman u sed b y P roben f or t he c ross-headings o f t he t ext. T hus o n a 2r, Regio V I; b1r, P rouinciae c 4v,

S ub

d ispositione uiri

I II;

c 6r,

S ub

d ispositione

i llustris, u iri

D aciae;

Magi- a nd

i llustris,

P onticae

C omitis

( the

f irst f our w ords a nd t he c omma p erhaps s tanding t ype f rom c 4v); d 2r

S ub

d ispositione

u irorum

i llustrium

C omi-

( first t wo

w ords, p ossibly f irst t hree l etters o f t hird, p erhaps s tanding f rom c 4v and c6r ); k 6r,

k 3v,

I ntra Africam

R ationales;

C orrector Apuliae c hodifrus.;

o 2v,

D ux

c um uiro

P rouinciae

& C alabriae.;

a nd q 5v,

Expositio

i nstances a re i n d e r ebus b ellicis,

q 4v,

s pectabili

s equanici.;

C o-; p 3r,

C lipeocentrus.

C urrodrepani.

T i-

T he l ast t wo

a ll t he o thers i n t he n otitia .

A part f rom t he i dentical p osition o f t he o i n t he s ub d ispositione h eadings o n c 4v, c 6r a nd d 2r,

s uggesting s tanding t ype, t here i s

n o d iscernible p attern h ere, a nd t he s ubstitution o f o f or o i s e ither a s imple m atter o f f oul-case o r a n a ttempt b y t he c omposit or t o e ke o ut h is s upply o f 0 -sorts i n t he l arge t ype; p robably t he l atter,

s ince a f oul-case l etter o ught n ot t o s urvive m ore t han

o ne d istribution o f t he t ype.

T he r ecurrence o f t he f ault f rom q uire

at o q uire q - t hat i s, a lmost t hroughout t he b ook - i mplies a c ont inuous p rocess o f s etting a nd d istribution b y a c ompositor m aking s hift w ith a n i nadequate f ount.

L ess w idespread, b ut e qually n otice-

a ble a nd p ointing t o t he s ame c onclusion, i s t he o ccurrence o n f ive

8 3

p ages o f n otitia t ext,

i n c ross-heads s et i n t he c anon r oman ,

o f a

' long s ' w ith i ts u pper c urve b roken a s t he r esult o f a n a ccident t o t he k ern : c efeos

t hus o n a 3r,

P onticae.;

t amiae.;

a nd k 3r,

O belifci

f 2r,

D ux

V .;

e 4v,

I fauriae.;

I ntra Africam

V icarius

g 2v,

c um u iro

d io-

Dux Mefopo-

f pectabili

A fter t his t he d efective s ort i s a voided o r ( more p robably ) s crapped.

C o-. w as

T he p attern s uits a n ormal r hythm o f s etting a nd d is-

t ribution:

a 3r ( second q uire,

t ed w ell b efore e 4v s et

t hird s heet, o uter f orme ) d istribu-

( sixth q uire,

t hird s heet, o uter f orme );

e 4v d istributed j ust b efore f 2r s et ( seventh q uire,

s econd s heet,

o uter f orme );

f 2r d istributed j ust b efore g 2v s et ( eighth q uire,

s econd s heet,

i nner f orme );

( eleventh q uire,

g 2v d istributed w ell b efore k 3r s et

t hird s heet,

o uter f orme ).

T he i rregularity o f

o f or o s pans t he q uires c arrying t he d ated p lates, w hile t he b roken l ong s l ocks q uire d ( first a ppearance o f t he 1 550 b lock) i nto s equence w ith q uire h ( containing t he b lock d ated 1 536).

( b)

T HE

R EPEATED

I LLUSTRATION-BLOCKS

T he s imilarity o f a ppearance b etween c ertain o f t he m anuscript i ll ustrations t o t he n otitia i nduced t he p rinter t o m ake e conomies i n t he b lock-cutting b y u sing t he s ame b locks i n m ore t han o ne p lace a nd f or t heoretically d ifferent i llustrations.

T he n ecessary

d ifferentiation w as a ccomplished b y t ypographical m eans, w ith n ew l etter-press o ver t he h ead o f ar e-used b lock o r d ropped i nto i t. T he d eliberate r e-use o f b locks o r p arts o f b locks i n am anner c ons istent w ith n ormal i mposition w ill s uggest - w hat i t d oes n ot o f i tself c onclusively p rove - a c ontinuity o f s etting a nd i mpression. F roben 's s hop s howed s uch s kill i n a rranging t he r epetitions t hat o nly a t o ne p oint i s i t o bvious t o t he c asual e ye t hat a b lock i s b eing u sed a s econd t ime. T he s cheme o f t he r epetitions i s t his: ( i)

t he f ull-page b lock o f t he i nsignia u irorum i llustrium p rae-

f ectorum p raetorio p er I llyricum o n b lv, r e-used a s t he i nsignia u iri i llustris p raefecti p raetorio p er I talias o n h 6v, a nd a gain a s t he i nsignia u iri i llustris p raefecti u rbis R omae o n i 2r;

8 4

( ii) t he t hree-quarter b lock o f t he i nsignia u iri i llustris q uae-

s toris ( east ) o n c 5r, r e-used a s t he i nsignia u iri i llustris q uaes toris

( west)

o n k 5r.

t he t hree-quarter b lock o f t he i nsignia u iri i llustris c omi-

( iii)

t is l argitionum ( east; s ic )

o n c 5v, r e-used a s t he i nsignia u iri

i llustris c omitis s acrarum l argitionum ( west) o n k 5v. t he t hree-quarter b lock o f t he i nsignia u iri i llustris c omitis

( iv )

p rivatarum ( east) o n c 6v, r e-used a s i nsignia u iri i llustris c omit is p rivatarum ( west) o n ( v )

1r.

t he f ull-page b lock f or s ub d ispositione u iri s pectabilis c ast-

r ensis ( east) o n d 2v, r e-used f or t he c astrensis s acri p alatii ( west)

o n

1 2v.

( vi)

t he t hree-quarter b lock f or t he p rimicerius n otariorum

d 3v,

r e-used f or t he p rimicerius n otariorum ( west)

( vii)

o n

( east) o n

I 3v.

t he t hree-quarter b lock f or t he m agister s criniorum ( east)

d 4v, r e-used f or t he m agister s criniorum ( west)

M emoriae e pistolarum & l ibellorum G raecorum .

o n

o n

1 4r. O n d 4v

i s d ropped i n i n t ype

a t t he h ead o f t he b lock, b elow t he t op m argin; o n

I 4r t his i s

c hanged t o M emoriae E pistolarum & L ibe norum .(first w ord n ot f rom s tanding t ype). ( viii )

T he i llustration f or t he c omes o rientis o n e lv,

t hree-quarters o f t he p age, a t t he t op,

t he i nsignia

t aking u p

i s c omposed o f f our s eparate b locks:

( clasped b ook o n d raped t able n ext t o k ala-

m arion ); b elow t his, t hree h orizontal s trips e ach d epicting f ive a llegorical f emale f igures.

T he f our c omponents a re s eparated b y

l ines o f l etterpress e ach n aming,

i n o rder, t he p rovince r epresented

b y t he f igure i n t he s ection o f t he w ood-block s trip i mmediately b eneath . A ll f our o f t he b locks w hich c ompose t he i llustration a re r e-used - t he f irst n o l ess t han s ix t imes - a s f ollows: b lock

( the i nsignia )

o n e 2v,

e 3v,

e 5v,

t he t op

1 6r, m ir a nd m lv; t he f irst

h orizontal s trip ( elv c aptions P alaestina , P hoenice,

S yria ,

C yprus ,

C ilicia ) a s t he t hird s trip o n m lv ( new c aptions A quitania s ecunda , N ouem p opulorum , N arbonensis p rima , N arbonensis s ecunda , L ugdunens is s ecunda ); t he s econd h orizontal s trip ( elv c aptions P alaestina

8 5

s ecunda , P alaestina s alutaris,

P hoenice l ibani,

s alutaris) a s t he s econd s trip o n m lv

E ufratensis,

S yria

( new c aptions B elgica s ecunda ,

A lpium M aritimarw n , A lpium P oeninarum , M axima s equanoru r n , A quitanic a p rima); p otamia , e 4v

t he t hird h orizontal s trip

C ilicia s ecunda ,

( elv c aptions O srhoena , M eso-

I sauria, A rabia)

a s t he s econd s trip o n

( new c aptions C appadocia s ecunda , H elenopontus, P ontus P olemo-

n iacus, A rmenia p rima , A rmenia s ecunda) s trip o n m lv

a nd a gain a s t he f irst

( captions V iennensis, L ugdunensis,

G ermania p rima,

G ermania s ecunda , B eigica p rima). ( ix )

T he t wo l arge h orizontal s trips e ach c ontaining t hree f emale

f igures w hich ( with t he i nsignia b lock r e-used f rom e lv)

f orm t he

t hree-quarter-page i llustration o n e 2v a re e ach p ressed i nto s erv ice o n t wo f urther o ccasions: s uperior , L ybia i nferior ,

t he f irst s trip ( e2v c aptions L ybia

T hebais)

a s t he s econd s trip o n e 5v

c aptions R hodopa , M oesia s ecunda , S cythia) o n

1 6r

a nd a s t he l owest s trip

( captions T ripolitana , M auritania S itifensis, M auritania

C aesariensis);

a nd t he s econd s trip ( e2v c aptions A egyptus, A rcha-

d ia , A ugustamnica) a s t he f irst s trip o n e 5v T hracia ,

( new c aptions E uropa,

H aemimontus) a nd a s t he s trip b elow t he r e-used i nsignia

b lock o n m ir ( captions B etica , L usitania , ( x)

( new

T he f ull-page c ut o n g lr d epicts,

G allaecia).

i n s tylized f ashion,

f orti-

f ied t owns w ith t heir n ames d ropped i n a bove t hem i n t ype;

i n t he

u pper r egister a ppear a s croll a nd a c lasped b ook i nscribed F L. I NTALL C OMO R D P R , b oxed-in f rom t he r est o f t he p late a nd f ollowed h orizontally b y t wo c ities,

c aptioned o n g lr G allaba a nd C allinicum .

B elow t his i s ar ow o f f our c ities O roba); b elow t his, C ircaesia );

( Dabana , B anasa , S yr ia I udeorum ,

f our m ore c ities

( Thillazamara , M ediana , R asin ,

a nd i n t he l owest r egister,

i n t he r ight-hand c orner o f

t he p late, a s ingle c ity (eatna). T his i solated c ity, w ith t he l ower a ngles a nd r ule o f t he f rame , a ppears o n n 6v

( the c ities o f t he s urviving r egisters n ow n amed

F lexo, A rrabona / V indobona , A d H erculem ,

G erolatae,

P hebianis / S ubmuntorio , F oetibus ,

i s r emoved w hen t he b lock r e-

T eriolis,

Q uadriburgio, A lanoua , A equinoctiae /

C arnuntum ,

Q uadrato), o n o lv

V allato , R ipa p rima ,

Q uintanis)

a nd o n o 3v

8 6

( Augustanis,

C ambiduno / G untia ,

( Grannona , B labia /

V enetis , c atis,

O sismiis, M annatias, A leto / C onstantia , R otomago ,

G rannono).

A brin-

F inally t he s ingle c ity a nd t he f rame a re r estored

a t t he b ottom o f t he b lock, a nd t he f ull p late i s p rinted o n o 6v w ith c aptions S alecto ,

T abernae / V ico I ulio, N emetis, A lta r ipa ,

V uangionis / M ogontiaco , B ingio , ( xi)

B odobrica ,

C onfiuentibus / A ntonaco.

T he m ost i mmediately n oticeable e xample o f a r epeated b lock

c omes a t t he f acing p ages h 4v/h5r, w here t he s ame b lock s erves f or D iuina P rouidentia

( accompanied b y S cientia r ei m ilitaris,

A uctoritas a nd F elicitas)

a nd f or D iuina E lectio

V ernus, A estas, A utumnus a nd H iems),

V irtus,

( accompanied b y

t he c aptions i n a ll c ases b eing

d ropped i n i n t ype. ( xii)

T he b lock f or D ux M oesiae p rimae o n g 6v,

r egisters c aptioned,

( top ,

c lasped b ook a nd s croll f ollowed b y s chematic c ities

i n t ype, F lauiana ,

n ium , A ureus m ons, p ae, A dnouas)

V iminatium :

( xiii)

P incum : t hird,

s econd,

t hree c ities,

T ricor-

t hree c ities, L aedenata ,

C up-

r ecurs o n n 2v u nchanged s ave f or t he c aptions, w hich

b ecome C olumnatensis, A udiensis,

c onsisting o f t hree

V idensis / I nferioris,

F ortensis , M uticitani /

C aput c ellensis, A ugustensis.

T he b lock c aptioned A rgentoratensis o n n 2r i s r epeated w ith

t he c aption O lino o n o 2v. ( xiv )

F inally ,

t he i llustration f or C orrector A puliae & C alabriae

o n p 3r - t he f ortifications c aptioned t here P rouincia A pulia & C al abria - i s r epeated f or t he P raeses D almatiae , n ow n amed P rouincia D almatia,

M ost o f t he b locks

t he f ortifications

o n p 4r.

l isted h ere r equired n o a daptation f or r e-use

o ther t han c hanges i n t he t ype-captions;

t hose o f w hich p ortions

w ere v ariously r epeated w ere p resumably s awn i nto s ections a fter t heir f irst a ppearance c omplete. T his,

It hink,

i s c ertainly t rue

o f t he g lv b lock, w hich l oses o nly t he l ower r egister w hich i s s ubsequently r estored;

i t i s v ery p robably t rue o f t he e lv b lock,

a lthough t he f ull p late o n e lv m ight r epresent t he v ertical a ss embly o f s eparate h orizontal

s trips d esigned f rom t he f irst f or

r e-use i n o ther c ombinations l ater i n t he b ook.

8 7

T he h orizontal

u nity o f t hese s trips i s c ertain;

t he l ines d ividing t hem i nto

c ompartments s ometimes r un t hrough p art o f a f igure,

f or e xample

a t t he j unction o f t he f irst a nd s econd c ompartments o f t he u pper f igure-strip o n d 6v.

T he h orizontal b orders o f t he e lv s trips a re

c ertainly , t he v ertical b orders p robably ,

c ut o n t he b lock;

t he

b orders o f t he g lv b lock a re m ade u p o f t ype-metal r ules a nd a ngles w hich o ften f ail t o j oin e nd-to-end a ccurately . W hen t he c ompositor l ifted t his b lock a nd i ts b orders f rom g lv h e c ut o ff t he l owest r egister a t a j unction b etween r ules i n t he s ide b orders,

l eaving t he l ower a ngles a nd r ules s tanding w ith t he

s eparated p ortion, a nd t he u pper p art o f t he c ut p rints o n n 6v a nd o 3v w ithout a ny l ower b order a t a ll.

A s r e-assembled o n o 6v

t he b lock p rints e xactly a s i t d id o n g lv e xcept t hat t he m etal r ules

( especially t he l ower l eft a ngle )

a re e ven f urther o ut o f

a lignment t han b efore.

A ttentive c onsideration o f t he f acts r eported a bove w ill s how ( 1)

t hat n o b lock o r p ortion o f ab lock i s r e-used w here a c ontinu-

o us i mposition-pattern w ould f orbid i t.

T hus ( a)

i f t he u pper

s trip o f t he e lv b lock i s t o b e u sed o n e lv, e 2v a nd e 3v,

t here

a re o nly t hree o ther p ages o f t his q uire o n w hich a c ontinuous i mposition w ill a llow i t t o a ppear, n amely e 6v, e 5v a nd e 4v: a ctually o ccurs o n e 5v. A nd ( b) v ery d aring )

i t

i t w as p erfectly e asy ( though

t o a rrange t hat a b lock s hould f ace i tself a t h 4v/

h 5r: t he p ages a re i n d ifferent f ormes o f d ifferent s heets. ( 2)

t hat t he a daptation o f t he g lv b lock s uggests t hat t he l owest

p ortion o f t his c ut w as r emoved ,

l eft s tanding, a nd r eplaced

d uring a c ontinuous p rocess o f p rinting. ( 3)

t hat t he u nusually c oarse i mpression o f t he b lock o n

1 4r,

c ompared w ith i ts f ormer a ppearance o n d 4v, t hough p ossibly c aused b y ah eavy p ull o r b y t he b lock s tanding p roud o f t he l etterpress, m ay b e t he r esult o f o ver-inking a b lock s till w et f rom i ts f ormer u se a t p ress. ( 4) t hat t he e lv s trips r e-appear i n a g roup, t hough w ith v ertical p ermutations,

i n q uires

1a nd

( especially )

m ,

t ying t hese q uires a t

l east i nto a u nity ; a nd t hat o ther r epetitions l ink q uire b w ith

8 8

q uires h a nd

I , q uires c a nd d w ith q uires k a nd

q uires n a nd o , ( 5)

q uire

I , q uire g w ith

Iw ith q uire n a nd q uire n w ith q uire o .

t hat t hese l inked s equences r un t hrough t he q uires c ontaining

t he d ated p lates a nd s pan t he t ypographical i rregularities,

a nd

t hat t hus c ontinuity o f s etting a nd i mpression i s p ractically a ssured.

T he m ost e lusive a nd t ypographically i nteresting p iece o f e vidence f or t his c onclusion r emains t o b e p resented.

( c)

T HE

B LIND

I MPRESSIONS

O F

STANDING

T his i s d erived f rom

T YPE.

I n c asting u p t he c opy f or t he n otitia p ortion o f G helen's b ook t he p rinter a imed t o s ynchronize h is l argest p icture-blocks w ith t he a ppropriate t ext b y p lacing,

w herever h e c ould,

t he b lock o n

av erso a nd t he e xplanatory m atter - o ften v ery s hort - o n t he f acing r ecto, o pening.

s o t hat p icture a nd t ext w ere a vailable o n o ne

B etween q uires d a nd

It he a rrangement o f t he p rinted

t ext i s e ssentially s uch t hat a f ull- o r t hree-quarter-page b lock o n t he l eft-hand p age f aces a p aragraph o f l etterpress o n t he r ight.

T o e nable t he r ecto p age t o b e l ocked u p p roperly t he f oot

o f t he c hase w as o ften p acked o ut w ith o ne,

t wo,

t hree,

o r a s m any

a s e leven l ines o f s tanding t ype j ustified t o t he f ull m easure. T hese l ines h ad b een e xtracted f rom f ormes b eing b roken u p,

a nd

w ere i nserted c asually - s ome o f t hem i nverted - f rom d irection l ine l evel u pward;

t hey w ere o f c ourse n ot i nked,

b ut t he f ace

o f t he t ype b it i nto t he s urface o f t he p aper, a nd i n a r aking l ight t he i mpression c an b e m ore o r l ess c learly s een.

I t i s n ot

p ossible f or m e t o g ive a c omplete c atalogue o f t hese v estigial i mpressions;

t he t races a re o ften v isible e nough t o p rove t hat

a l ine w as t here w ithout b eing s harp e nough t o i dentify w hich l ine i t w as.

I t w ill b e s ufficient i f Ip rove,

l ocking u nits o f b lind i mpressions ,

f rom t wo i nter-

t hat a ll t he q uires f or w hich

e vidence i s a vailable - n amely q uires a - o ,

a fter w hich t he p ages

a re s et v irtually s olid - r epresent a c ontinuity o f s etting a nd d istribution.

8 9

T he l argest s ingle g roup o f b lind i mpressions i s f ound o n s ig. m 6r ,

w here e leven l ines t aken f rom p revious f ormes f ill o ut t he

f oot o f a p age c arrying o nly a nd d irection) f ollows

1 6

o f i nked t ype.

l ines

( including r unning-title

Ir ead t he b lind i mpressions a s

( suppressing l ong s a nd d igraphs):

Et

quae

Duces

de

minore

L imitum

Laterculo

infrascriptorum

i sasuazu3TwoD

I n

d ecem.

s auoTI .uiT uaA

P seudocomitatenses

d ecem & octo.

Gallijs.

TI N O P O L I T A N A E P raepositi

DE S C R

I -

Bastagarum.

I II I N

emittuntur.

av3T wod

NV AO • saiozDalioD

[ a

s ignature

( ?)

T he f irst l ine h ere i s u sed

( probably a s s tanding t ype)

t imes i n t he c ourse o f t he t ext; g 6r.

T he s econd l ine i s f rom t he f ifth f rom k 4v,

f rom k 6v,

t he e ighth f rom c 4v,

t he s ixth f rom a 4r,

t he h eight o f t he c omma s hows),

s everal

i ts l atest a ppearance w as o n

1 6r, t he t hird f rom k 2r,

f rom 1 6v,

t he n inth f rom h 5v t he t enth f rom

e leventh a lmost c ertainly f rom q uire f rom a 4r ,

1 4]

1( not

t he s eventh ( not a 6v, a s

1 5v ,

i ).

t he f ourth

a nd t he

L ine f ive,

s tanding

h ad b een u sed t o p ack o ut t he c hase f or c 2v, i n c ombina-

t ion w ith t he l ine f ollowing i t o n a 4r ( these t wo l ines i n c orrect s equence b ut i nverted) a 6v.

a bove t hree c onsecutive l ines l ifted f rom

V ery f aint t races o f t he m 6r i mpressions s eem t o o ccur o n t he

p receding r ecto,

m 5r; a nd t his,

t aken w ith t he t enuous e vidence o f

a lternating i rregularities i n t he r unning-titles P ROVINCIARVM o r N OTITIA P ROVINCIARVM, r ectos: I MPERII ROMANI)

( versos:

N OTITIA

I MPERII R OMANI o r

s uggests t he u se o f s keleton f ormes.

W hat i s

a bsolutely c lear i s t hat t he r e-use o f l ines f rom e arlier f ormes t o p ack o ut l ater o nes p roves b eyond d oubt a s trict c ontinuity o f s etting, p rinting-off a nd d istribution f rom ( as m 6r s hows) q uire a t o q uire m :

a t l east

a nd t he s equence c an b e e xtended i nto q uire o

9 0

b y m eans o f t he l ink w ith q uire i mpressions o f l ines f rom

( 12v)

I 2r/v a t t he f oot o f o lr:

• rIzriud

( I2r)

nao3T3sawop

( 12r)

Is hown i n t his g roup o f b lind

T I3 1s

s TsuaizsuD

s amoD• wnio3T3samop

' 1 \ IAIIAbg

s owoD

WAIIGgd

Q uire n i s i n a ny c ase d irectly l inked w ith q uire a b y t he p resence a t t he f oot o f b oth n 5r a nd n 6r o f

NI V M , 1 \ 10

f rom a 6v a 6v ,

( not h 5v,

i nterruption :

CI V I L I V M

N A I V I I N D I C I

QV A M

MI-

V I I I I O N

a s t he p osition o f t he c omma - o n t he l ine o n

a bove i t o n h 5v,

Q uires a t o o ,

TA M

i n o therwise i dentical t ype - p roves).

t herefore,

w ere s et,

m achined a nd d istributed w ithout

w e c an h ave n o r eason f or n ot e xtending t his s equence

b ack t o t he p reliminary q uire * a nd f orward t o t he f inal q uires a nd r : a s w e h ave s een i n s ection l inked w ith q uires a , b , R eciprocally ,

c ,

d ,

( a )

a bove ,

DE

RE B V S

i n t he v erso r unning-titles f rom q 2v t o r 2v

q 4v,

q 5v,

q 6v)

r lv,

t hen:

( D E

a nd D E R EBVS

RE B V S in t he

r 2v: D E R EBVS i n t he o uter f orme a t

c onfirms t he s uggestion t hat s keleton f ormes c ould

h ave b een u sed i n t he n otitia q uires

I n s um,

q uires p a nd q a re

ka nd o b y t he w rong-fount o f or o .

t he v ariation b etween

i nner f orme a t q 2v, q 3v,

pq

( b - p ).

t hree k inds o f e vidence p rove t hat t he e ditio p rinceps

o f t he n otitia d ignitatum a nd i ts s atellites i s a t ypographical u nity :

o nce p rinting w as u nder w ay,

t here w as n o i nterruption o f

t he o rdinary s equence o f c omposition ,

m achining a nd d istribution.

N o p ortion o f t he e xtant b ook w as p ut i nto t ype i n 1 536, w hen a t l east o ne p late w as a vailable;

a nother p late w as c ut i n 1 550,

a nd

s till t he b ook - w hich s hould h ave t aken n o m ore t han t wo m onths a t p ress - c ould n ot b e g ot o ut u ntil

1 552,

w hen a t l ast t he

e ditor w as i n p ossession o f a ll t he m aterial w hich h e p roposed

9 1

t o p rint a nd t he b ook c ould b e s et u p a nd r un o ff . G helen a nd h is a rtist J ohann

( ?)

F roben's e ditor

e vidently e xperienced c onsiderable

d ifficulty i n g aining a ccess t o t heir e xemplar, w hich c an h ave b een a vailable t o t hem o nly a t i nfrequent i ntervals o ver a p eriod o f a t l east f ourteen y ears; n otitia-group ,

a nd w e k now o f o nly o ne m anuscript o f t he

c arrying a v ery p articular t ype o f t ext,

d iscovered

b y a F roben e ditor i n an ormally c o-operative l ibrary, b ut a m anus cript t o w hich a ccess w as,

p erhaps f or m ore t han o ne r eason, m ade

e xceptionally d ifficult i n t he s econd q uarter o f t he s ixteenth c entury :

t he s pirensis ,

n unc d eperditus ,

9 2

i tself .

1 4

T EXTUAL C RITICISM

S OURCES

OF

TEXT

o xoniensis c anonicianus l at. m isc. T ransmission o f t he t ext § 2 ) •

m onacensis l atinus 1 0291 t ext 5 3 ) p arisinus l atinus 9 661 t ext § 5 )

( 1542 :

( >1443 :

3 78

( January 1 436 :

T ransmission of t he

T ransmission of t he

✓

u indobonensis 3 103 n unc t ridentinus of t he t ext 5 4)

•

T he l ost c odex s pirensis , a rchetype o f CM Pa nd V ( Transmission of t he t ext 5 515 s qq .),I a pply t his s iglum o nly t o r eadings i n w hich t he a greement o fC MP V i s t aken t o g uarantee t he r eading o f t he a rchetype : r eadings i n w hich t he f our M SS a re t hought t o a gree b y i ndependently c ommitting t he s ame e rror, o r i n t he d iscussion o f w hich t he u se o f t he g eneral s iglum w ould p rejudice t he a rgument , a re m arked ' CMPV '.

G helen

( 1484 :

T ransmission

S iegmond G helen, S igismundus G elenius o f P rague [ 14971 554], e ditor o f t he f irst p rinted t ext o f d e r ebus b ellicis ( with n otitia d ignitatum & c.), B asel ( Froben a nd B ischoff ) 1 552 ( Transmission of t he t ext § § 7 -14 , 1 7-22 a nd E xcursus).

9 4

T itle

DE

R EBVS

BELLICIS

I t m ay b e d oubted w hether t he a uthor g ave t he t itle t o t he w ork.

p raef.3

p ro c onscientia u eritatis i pse m ihi p oenam p raemii l oco, s i p romissio s ecus c esserit, p osco, n ec m e l aus a ut < praemium> p rosequat ur c um a bunde s it i n h ac p arte i ndignation em p ro a udacia d eclinare. n ec s cripsi

n e E

1

p raemium s uppleuit M aas

( i ) n ec , i n i ts c ommon l ate s ense n eque q uidem , s eems t o b e t he l east c hange r equired t o r estore o rder a nd c oherence t o t he s truct ure. L imited e mendation i s c learly r equired i n t his a rea, d espite T hompson 's d iscouraging c omment ( p.24 n .2), b ut t he t ext i s n ot s o c orrupt a s t o n eed t he e xtensive a lterations w hich M aas ( reported b y T hompson, / oc . c it .) w as ' inclined t o b elieve' d esirable. T he f ault i n t he t ransmitted t ext - a part f rom t he p alpable l oss o f a w ord b etween a ut a nd p rosequatur - l ies w ith n e, s ince n e .. p ros equatur w ill n ot c onstrue a s a f inal c lause r unning o n f rom p osco , a nd t he a lternative t o e mendation, a h eavy s top b efore n e , r esults i n ap ause a nd a n a brupt p rohibition w hich f racture t he a rgument a nd s tyle o f t he p eriod. I t ake t he t hought o f t he s entence, w hen r econstructed a s p rinted a bove, t o b e t his: ' so s ure a m It hat I s peak t he t ruth t hat, i f Ia m p roved w rong, I i nsist o n r eceiving p unishment, n ot a r eward; n or i n a ny c ase a m It o b e r ewarded o r p raised w hen i t w ill b e a mple r ecompense t o m e, i n am atter s uch a s t his, t o e scape t he c onsequences o f t he e mperor's w rath w hen h e i s i nformed o f t he t ruth b y ap rivate c itizen.' T hough t his i s b y n o m eans t he m ost s hapely o r f ully-evolved u tterance e ver d evised b y a L atin w riter, t he s ense i s a cceptable a nd t he e xpression c ont inuous, a nd t he p hrasing i s b etter a djusted t o a c ontext w ritten i n -f or i ts a uthor - a c omparatively f luent, i ntegrated a nd r easoned s tyle. W e s till h ave t o c ontend w ith t wo e llipses, t he f irst a ccidental, t he s econd a pparently c alculated. B y p raemii l oco w e m ust u nderstand ' in p lace o f t he r eward w hich I m ight e xp ect i f m y p redictions p rove a ccurate ': t he a nonymus s urely d id n ot e xpect a r eward s i p romissio s ecus c esserit , a lthough a n e arlier i nventor h ad r eceived a s ubstantial p ayment e ven t hough h is p roposal w as r ejected b y t he e mperor; S uetonius, d iuus V espasianus 1 8, m echanico g randis c olumnas e xigua i npensa p erducturum i n c apit olium p ollicenti , p raemium p ro c ommento n on m ediocre o ptulit , o peram r emisit , p raefatus s ineret s e p lebeculam p ascere. T he s econd e llipse e ntirely d epends o n o ur r eading n ec: t his i s t he e llipse o f a s tatement o f t he c ontingency e nvisaged f or t he l egitim ate e xpectation o f ar eward, n amely , ' if m y p redictions d o p rove a ccurate', w hich n ec , w ith i ts i mplied q uidem , w ould s ufficiently s uggest, a nd w hich t he a nonymus , w ith c ommendable m odesty , d eclines t o e xpress o penly . Id o n ot t hink t his s ubtlety w holly a dventitious; i t i s a t l east i n k eeping w ith t he s elf-deprecatory t one o f t he s entence.

9 5

( ii) A w ord h as o bviously d ropped o ut o f t he t ext b etween a ut a nd p rosequatur . M aas' s upplement p raemium f ulfils t he d emands o f s ense , s tyle ( for t he r epetition o f w ords i n t he a nonymus s ee m y d iscussion i n L anguage a nd S tyle , s ection I II) a nd p alaeography. F or t he i diom c ompare c odex t heodosianus 9 .34.7.11 -1 2 l audem m aximam a c p raemium an ostra c lementia c onsequetur . M aas' a lternative p roposal, h onor , i s a ltogether l ess s atisfactory h ere; b ut t heodosianus 9 .14.3.30 h as e t p raemio a n obis e t h onore d onabitur . G helen , f aced w ith t he i ncoherent l aus a ut p rosequatur , s ilently d eleted a ut — a d eadly e xpedient m uch f avoured b y h im a t s imilar m oments o f t extual c risis e lsewhere ( see T ransmission of t he t ext § 17 ).

p raef.5

q ui

r ecte q uicquam s entire

r ecte M aas

f uerint a pprobati :

n ec t e E

S ince i t i s e xceptionally i mprobable t hat C M P a nd V w ould i ndep endently c ommit t he m isreading o f i nsulars a nd t he f alse a rticul ation o f l etters e vident i n n ec t e , t he r eading m ay c onfidently b e a ssumed t o h ave s tood i n E . I f t he m istake g oes b ack n o f urther, i .e. i f t he r eading n ec t e w as p roduced b y E 's s cribe , t hen t his t ells u s s omething a bout E 's e xemplar ; t hat i t w as i n i nsulars w ithout w ord-division. F urther e vidence f or a n i nsular p re-archetype ( with a m ild r eservation o n i ts u se) i s p roposed i n m y n ote b elow o n x xi.1 c omparatis .

p raef.7

n am c um b arbarae g entes n eque f acundia p olleant m inime t ar nen a r erum i nuentione .. habentur a lieni. a lieni E

a lienae G helen e ditoresque d einceps

a lieni , i n f alse c oncord w ith g entes ,

i s l ectio d ifficilior t o t he p oint o f s olecism, b ut I h ave a llowed i t t o s tand, s upposing t hat w e a re d ealing w ith e ither a c onstructio a d s ensum o r a n e xtended u se o f t he a djective w hereby i t s ignifies h omines a lieni . B ut t he r etent ion o f E 's r eading m ay b e a n a ct o f e xcessive p iety t owards t he a rchetype , s ince t he s ubstitution o f i f or f inal e o r o ccurred r epeatedly i n t he E t ext : s o, f or e xample , n otitia d ignitatum o r. 4 2.39 m acedonici C MPV ( write m acedonicae), o c.11.67 b enetii C MV b eneni P ( write u enetiae), o c.11.70 t ripolitani C PV , o mitted i n M ( write t ripolitanae a nd c ompare t he v ariants a t o c .20.13). T he a nonymus c ertainly c ommitted f alse c oncords a t v ii.6 h oc b allistae g enus .. r adiis i ntorta i aculatur a nd x viii.8 u ictricem e xercitus c ursum ( ix.1 p arma , h oc e st m odicus c lipeus , f ixoriis m unitus , u arie h abetur i doneus i s v ery d ifferent); b ut h e w as n ot s o c arel ess i n x ix.4 , w here c orrect a greement i s p reserved a cross a l ong h yperbaton : P ersarum s ane g ens , c ui p raeter c eteras n ationes e t

d olus c ordi e st e t c orpori s uppetit u irtus , q uadratis e st a gmini— b us e t m aiori b eliorum a pparatu s uperanda . .

9 6

praef.9

c onsequemini c onsequemini C M

ex hoc

o pere

c ommoda

s ingulorum,

c onsequimini P V G helen

Ih ave n o d oubt t hat c onsequemini i s t he b etter r eading - c ompare t he f uture t enses t hroughout x viii.7-11 - a nd t hat t he a uthor w rote i t ( which i s n ot n ecessarily t he s ame t hing ); b ut I a m e qually c onv inced t hat i ts a ppearance i n C a nd M i s n ot t he r esult o f s uperior a ccuracy o f t ranscription. E ven G helen , w ho w as l iable t o a lter a nything o n t he s lightest p rovocation o r n one, a nd w ho, I b elieve, k new E d irectly a nd P V n ot a t a ll ( see T ransmission o f t he t ext §12 f f .), w ould n ot h ave c hanged t he f uture i nto t he m anifestly i nferior p resent ; t he s urprise i s t hat h e d id n ot c hange t he p res ent i nto t he e xpected f uture. W e m ust a ccept, I t hink, t hat G helen g ives h ere t he u nadulterated E r eading, w hich P a nd V a lso r eprod uce - P V a nd G helen c oincide i n a nother c rucial a nd a pparently a rchetypal r eading a t i x .1, w here s ee m y n ote - a nd t hat C a nd M h ave s tumbled u pon t he t ruth b y a ccident. T o r etain t he p resent a nd t reat i t a s a f uture w ould b e e xcessively h arsh : t he o ne c lear i nstance o f p raesens p ro f uturo i n t he t ext ( i.1 n on a mplius b ell orum f iorebit i mprobitas s ed c ollatorum p otius d efecta s ubsidia r ecreantur ) i s f orced u pon t he a uthor b y t he c lausula : t here i s n o s uch e xcuse f or t his r are l icence i n p raef .9.

praef.10

r eferemus e nim quer n a d modum, r emissa tribut orum medietate, i n r obur proprium prouincia rum cultor habeatur: t otum h oc c omma e rrantibus o culis p raetermisit M

praef.10

u nde e tiam, < in> ratione exactionum c essante c ontumelia, l imitum s olitudinem erectis castr orum munitionibus incola s ecurus i llustret: i n s uppleui ,

c etera s ecutus u eterem i nterpunctionem

T he s upplement a llows u s t o p reserve a p unctuation w hich r eflects t he n atural r un o f t he w ords. T hompson , f ollowing M aas, r educes t he t ext t o i ncoherence b y w riting r atione e xactionum * ** , c ess ante c ontumelia l imitum , s olitudinem , e rectis e .q .s. T his i s p erverse: t o s plit u p l imitum a nd s olitudinem s poils t he c ontrolling r hythm a nd r obs t he a nonymus o f a g ood p hrase w ithout s ubstituting ab etter. T his e xercise i n r e-punctuation i s c onsequent u pon M aas' s upposition o f a l acuna a fter e xactionum , t o s upply w hich h e p rop oses, f or e xample, d eminuta . B ut t he h alting c onstruction o f t he r eceived t ext c an b e c ured b y l ess w holesale m eans, a nd I a m n ot s ure t hat t wo c onsecutive a blatives a bsolute w ould n ot b e u nstylish i n a n a uthor w ho e lsewhere d eploys t he c onstruction r arely a nd s ingly ( as i n p raef .15) a nd w ho t wice ( in x x .1) s eems d eliberately t o a void c ommitting h imself t o i t ( see L anguage a nd S tyle 1 a , u nder A blative).

9 7

p raef.10

u el q uo a rgumento e xtra s olitam l argitatem c umulatus h onoribus m iles e xultet. a rgumento M V

p raef.12

a rgumenta P

a rgento C

i ta u t h ae p er e ar n s ine t urbae o bruantur.

a uxilio

c uiusquam

t urbae o missum i n C

p raef.13

t alis e st e xcogitata s ollertia u t e quus, s iue a ciem r upturus i nuadat s iue f ugientibus i ng erat s e, t ali a rte m uniatur u t s emet i psum u erberans s ine c uiusquam m agisterio e fficiat m agnas h ostium s trages. e quus R einach

e ques E

G regory o f T ours c ould u se e ques f or e quus ( ascenso e quite [ better a equite], h ist . F ranc . 4 .13 [ p.151.1 A rndt]) b ut I c annot p ersuade m yself t hat t he a nonymus d id.

p raef.15

q uae q uidem n on i gnota s unt p roximis u estrae c lementiae, q uos a lia p lura s ollicitant a n obis a liena. n obis M PV f hcere

praef.17

u obis C :

c um m ihi p romissionis i mplendae g ratia s ubu eniendum e st p ropter p hilosophiae l ibertatem. p ropter G helen

1 .1

f hlso T hompson a utumat c um C G helen

p rope E

b ellicam l audem e t g loriam t riumphorum u tilitas s emper i ntueatur a erarii, n e p rofusa l argitio s emina magis e xcitet p roeliorum ; i ntueatur s cripsi i mitatur E c omitatur S chrijver : p ost a erarii l acunam i ndicauerunt R einach , T hompson , c ui s upplendae i lle c auendum u ero p roposuit

Io ffer i ntueatur m ore e xempli g ratia t han a s t he f inal s olution o f t he d ifficulty : s crutetur o r r imatur w ould g ive t he d esired

9 8

s ense b ut a re n ot e asily r econciled w ith t he c orruption ; i nquiratur i s p alaeographically f easible b ut o therwise u nsatisfactory . I f w e a re n ot t o h azard a c orrection w e m ust a t l east o belize i mitatur; t he ' utility ' ( or ' service' o r ' institution ' -t he a nonymus o ften u ses u tilitas w ith d eplorable v agueness) o f t he t reasury c annot b e s aid t o ' imitate' o r ' resemble' a nything. S chrijver's c orrection i s n ot u nattractive, b ut I w ould p refer i t i n t he f orm c omitetur : t he a nonymus i s c learly m aking a r ecommendation f or f uture p olicy , a nd a j ussive o r h ortatory s ubjunctive i s t he o nly a ppropriate m ood f or t he v erb. I d o n ot t hink , w ith R einach , t hat t here i s a g ap i n t he t ext a fter a erarii: h is p roposed s upplement i s i n a ny c ase v ery p oor , s ubstituting a t autology f or a c onsequence.

1 .3

patrum nobis e st paulisper prouidentia r efer enda quam i n r ebus e genis habuerint, uel q uae nunc < ita> i n t anta f acultatum l icentia u ideatur. i ta t extui a dieci

M aas s uggested u ideantur ( sc. e genae); t hat i s, u nderstanding t he c omparison t o b e w ith t he r elative p overty o f a ntiquity ; b ut I f ail t o s ee h ow t his i mproves o n t he t ransmitted t ext, w here q uae n unc u ideatur r efers b ack t o p rouidentia a nd t he c omparison i s w ith a ncient f rugality. I n t he h eat o f a rgument t he a nonymus' s tructures a re o ften d isorganized, a nd i t i s o ver-precise ( a h arsher w ord c ould h ave b een u sed) t o i nsist t hat q uae m ust i nevitably r efer t o t he n earest p receding f eminine. W hat t he t ransmitted c onstruction d oes c ry o ut f or i s a dverbial c ompletion , a nd i ta i s t he l ikeliest c andidate f or m echanical o mission.

1 .6

ut u t

u ero emendi et uendendi utilitas * * * et f acultas r egiae l argitati suppeteret,

p ost u tilitas 1 . acunam e xhibui B oth t he a rgument a nd t he s yntax o f t he r eceived t ext a re h ighly s uspect h ere , t hough t he e ditors h ave v oiced n o d issatisfaction, a nd T hompson 's f acile p araphrase g losses o ver t he d ifficulties. u t f acultas r egiae l argitati s uppeteret m akes e xcellent s ense a nd g ood L atin , b ut , w ith t he t ext a s i t s tands, e mendi e t u endendi u tilitas m ust a lso b e t hought r egiae l argitati s uppetere, a nd I d o n ot u nderstand h ow e ven t he a nonymus c ould h ave t hought t hat i t d id. N or c an w e a ccept t he t ransmitted t ext a nd i nterpret s upp eteret f irst a bsolutely a nd q uasi-reflexively ( in t he s ense o f c resceret ) w ith e mendi e t u endendi u tilitas a nd t hen n ormally w ith f acultas r egiae l argitati . T he c ollocation e t u t i n a ny c ase p revents o ur r eferring s uppeteret b ack t o e mendi e t u endendi u tilitas ( though e t a lone w ould n ot h ave p revented o ur d oing s o) a nd t his c ollocation , It hink , i nevitably s hows t hat t he t ext h ere o riginally c ontained t wo s yntactically p arallel c lauses o f w hich t he f irst h as l ost a t

9 9

l east i ts v erb a nd p erhaps a n a ssociated d ative p hrase a s w ell. I f f acultas r egiae l argitati s uppetit , t hen e mendi e t u endendi u tilitas s hould b enefit a nother c lass o f i nterests i n ap arallel b ut d istinct f ashion , a nd e xempli g ratia o ne m ight r estore u t u ero e mendi e t u endendi u tilitas < populi c ommoditatibus i nseruiret> , e t u t f acultas r egiae t argitati s uppeteret , i n a eris u sum e .q .s .

1 .9

a eris autem materia, u ilior erat, p ro] p rae G helen ,

i i.6

et

per

g radus

quae

j am pro

c opia

g ratuito

criminum

f ouit

t yrannos,

t yrannos e t rrannos e ffectum i n V C onfusion o f y a nd r i s t he f ault m ost c haracteristic o f t ranscript ion f rom a n i nsular h and . V 's e rror r eveals t he s cript o f i ts e xemplar, a nd t here c an b e n o r easonable d oubt t hat t hat e xemplar w as t he s pirensis ( see T ransmission of t he t ext § 4). T hat V i s a d irect c opy o f E , a nd n ot o f a n i ntermediary, a ppears f rom i ts c orrection s ecundis c uris o f t he m isread y h ere. C m istakes i nsular y f or r a t x ix .3 a scogefyri ( where s ee m y n ote): a nd t he s cript c auses t rouble a gain a t v ii.6 i ntorta , w here d iverging c orruptions a rise i n M a nd V t hrough m isreadings o f t a nd r : s ee m y n ote t here. F or t he i nsular p arentage o f P c onsult ( briefly ) m y n ote o n x ii.3 e rigunt a nd ( more f ully ) T ransmission of t he t ext § 5; f or a p rop osed i nsular e xemplar o f E i tself , m y n otes o n p raef .5 r ecte a bove a nd x xi.1 c omparatis b elow; a nd f or i nsular e rrors n ot e xemplified i n t he t ext o f d e r ebus b ellicis b ut f ound e lsewhere i n t he n otitiag roup, f ootnote 7 t o T ransmission of t he t ext § 5.

i i.6

t yrannos, quos ad g loriam u irtutis tuae produxit < inopia> magis quam succendit audacia. i nopia e go,

f ortuna M aas e xempli c ausa s uppleuimus

q uos p roduxit m agis q uam s uccendit a udacia c ontains n o i ntell igible o pposition b etween t he v erbs, a nd a s eparate s ubject i s n eeded f or t he f irst, a s M aas ( apud T hompson, p .5 n .2 ) r ealised, t hough h is s upplement, w hich s tarts t oo w ildly f rom t he c ontext, f ails t o c onvince.

1 11.1

i nter

damna

n on f erenda]

r ei

publicae

non

f erenda,

c onseruanda C i ncuriose

1 00

i v.2

e t t amquam s ua r ebus i niquitas,

s ufficere n on p ossit

r ebus u t i nterpolatum d amnat T hompson

r ebus i s h arsh o nly a s b eing t he f irst w ord o f t he g roup w hich i ntervenes b etween s ua a nd i niquitas; s yntactically i t p articip ates i n t he c onstruction e xactly a s i t d id a bove i n i ii.1 n e r ebus p ossit i nteresse s implicitas . T he a nonymus i s e choing, a s h e s o o ften d oes, b elow,

a f orm o f w ords w hich h e h as a lready u sed;

5 , L anguage a nd s tyle

v c hapter h eading

d e

1 11.2, R epetition of w ords ,

r eleuando m ilitari

r eleuando P ( itane?),

s ee

p assim.

s umptu

G helen : r euelando C MV

T he a greement o f C MV e ffectively g uarantees t he r eading o f Eh ere, a nd G helen w as c ritic e nough t o r estore r eleuando i n t he t itle f rom r eleuabit i n t he t ext. F or P 's r eading w e a re a t t he m ercy o f R einach 's a nd T hompson 's s ilence, b ut t he p oint i s o f n o i mportance; i f i t r eally p resents r eleuando h ere, t hen a c urious r eversal o f t he p rocess s een i n i ts a nte c orrectionem c orruption o f r eleuabit t o r euelabit i n v .3 h as p roduced t he t ruth; b ut t hat E w rote r euelando t here c an b e n o r easonable d oubt.

v .4

h ic q uoque p ari a bscedat o tio s cripsi

l iberalitate o tio d onatus

a lio E

It ake t he c ue f or m y e mendation f rom t he p hrase p receding i n v .3,

h onesta m issione d onatus o tio g audeat a bsolutus: t he c aium f ollowing * otio a t f our w ords' d istance m ay h ave h elped t o c ause t he t rouble. T he c lose r epetition o f o tio w ill b e v ery m uch i n t he a uthor 's s tyle ( below, 5 .111.2 p assim ), a nd f or t he e xpression, c ompare c odex t heodosianus 6 .35.4.1 -2 q ui o b s pectatum l aborem o tio d onati s unt , 1 4.3 .7.2 o tio e t q uiete d onetur , 1 2.1.89.4 -5 s egue o tio u el d ebilitate m embrorum u el m entis t orpore d onantes . G helen m ade a g allant a ttempt t o p reserve t he r eceived a lio , a ccenting i t a dverbially w ith f inal g rave a nd p resumably t aking i t w ith a bscedat; b ut t his l eaves d onatus p ainfully e xposed a nd ( assuming t hat h e m eant h is a ii e ) . t o b e l ocal) p roduces t autology w ith t he f ollowing c lause ( uel a d a iium o rdinem a ccedat ). T hompson o belizes a lio a nd r ecords t wo h ariolations, B arbara F lower 's a limonio a nd S chneider's a liorum . T he f irst - d espite T hompson 's a pproving f ort r ecte - l oses s ight o f t he m eaning o f a limonium i n a d esperate q uest f or p alaeographical r esemblance b etween c orruption a nd c orrect ion , a nd t he s econd i s c ompletely u nintelligible.

1 01

v .6

habitabunt l imites, d efenderant l oca, l imites,

v .7

a rabunt]

a rabunt quae

dudum

l imites A rabum, G helen i mpudenter

a rmis exerciti e t t irones s tipendio

m inori [ ut minori] subleuati,

u tpote

u t m inori d eleuit G helen G helen r ightly e xcises u t m inori, t he r esult i n ( hardly b efore) E o f a c omplex m echanical e rror, t he s cribe's e ye w andering b etween e t a nd u t(pote).

v .8

e t damnis non d eerunt primis subsidia.

matura e t parata

i n p rimis, m inime g entium r elegandum , T hompson

i n

e liminauit

D eletion o f i n p rimis a ssumes s cribal a nticipation o f t he o pening o f c . v i, i n p rimis s (ciendum e st ...): b ut t he p hrase a dds a d esirable e mphasis t o p arata, a nd t he r epetition o f t he i diom i s i n f act a s trong a rgument f or i ts r etention a s a uthentic i n v .8 ( below, L anguage a nd S tyle I II 2 , R epetition o f w ords, p assim ).

vii

c hapter heading

expositio

ballistae

quadrirotis

e xpositio W .R .Smith a pud T hompson:

e xemplum E

e xemplum a nticipates t he o pening w ord o f t he c hapter, e xemplum b allistae... T hat t he i nevitable c orrection s hould h ave b een d el ayed b y f our h undred y ears i s e ither a m easure o f t he c ritical i nattention w hich h as b een p aid t o t he t ext, o r a n o blique t ribute t o t he a uthority o f aG elenian e dition .

v ii.6

s ed h oc ballistae g enus . .. sagittas ex s e non ut a liae f unibus s ed r adiis i ntorta i aculatur. i ntorta C P i ntoxta V i n a uram M , o misit G helen q ui e t e iaculatur s cripsit

Vm istook t he l ong-tailed i nsular r f or x ( which i n i nsulars m ay h ave i ts l ower l eft l imb c onsiderably e xaggerated ), a nd M e volved

1 02

i n a uram f rom a c onfusion o f r ounded t w ith t he c urve o f r a nd a s purious d ivision o f t he l etters i nto w ords; a c orruption w hich, g iven M 's l ate d ate, p erhaps i ndicates a g rowing u nfamiliarity w ith i nsular h ands. G helen 's o mission o f t he w ord i s i nteresting: i t i s c ontended ( above, T ransmission of t he t ext § § 1 1-14 , 1 7-20 ) t hat h e h ad d irect a ccess t o E i n p reparing h is t ext; a nd i f s o, t he u nclarity i n i ntorta w hich r esulted i n t he e rrors o f M a nd V m ay h ave b een s ufficiently s erious t o i nduce h im t o o mit t he w ord a ltogether a nd e xtend t he v erb b y w ay o f c ompensation . H ad h e b een a ble t o r ead i ntorta s ecurely h e w ould n ot, I j udge, h ave b een d ist urbed b y t he i nconcinnity o f h oc b allistae g enus . . i ntorta: h e w ould h ave l eft t he r oot i ntact a nd e mended t o i ntortum , j ust a s h e c hanged a lieni t o a lienae ( following b arbarae g entes) i n p r.7. H is e xtension o f t he v erb i s c urious ( it i s c ertainly n ot n eeded c lausulae c ausa ); p erhaps i t i s a n e xample o f t he G elenian l ibido c oniectandi , a ssisted b y g uilt a t t he p receding e xcision.

viii. 3

c uius a xium e xtremitates e t f rons n ec n on e t s uperior l atitudo f uscinis e t l anceis a rmatur e xtremitate E

ix.1

c orrexit S chrijver

m unit i nferius u enientum.

l atitantes

u enientum P V G helen

a b

i ncursu

c omminus

u enientium C M

A cceptance o f t he t heory t hat G helen u sed t he s pirensis d irectly i n p reparing h is e dition m akes h is e vidence d ecisive f or t he r eading o f Eh ere. T he r educed g enitive i s r equired c lausulae c ausa: t he r hythm c ömminus u Znigntum , i s f ound t hroughout t he t reatise ( pr.1 s uccgssibus c önualgscant , 3a udäcia c iclinäre , 4 l äteat i nquir gntem , & c & c ) b ut t he e xtended v ersion w ith f inal d actyl, . 00.0.00, c ömminus t inigntium , n owhere. V egetius o nce u ses t he r educed g enitive o f t he p articiple i n t he s ame c ursus u elox , a nd t he m anuscripts s how p redictable c orruptions ( 3 .4 n on p ro i nuidia s uggerentum [ so A GI I; s uggerentium D VP s uggerendum L MQ ]).

x picture caption

P LVMBATA ET T RIBOLATA

P LVMBATA MAMILLATA

C M

P LVMBATA ET TRIBVLATA

P LVMBATA MAMILLATA

P

s patium u acuum p icturae e t t itulis d estinatum m ore s uo r eliquit V : e t e iecit G helen

x chapter heading

e xpositio p lumbatae m ero c asu o missum i n P :

1 03

e t

t ribolatae

e t e iecit G helen

C MV

x i

c hapter h eading

expositio

plumbatae

mamillatae

CMPV

Ia m w illing - t hough S chrijver w as n ot - t o a ccept t he v ariation b etween t ribolata a nd t ribulata i n t he s pelling o f t he n ame o f t he f irst j avelin ( see m y n ote o n x i.1, b elow); b ut I c annot b elieve t hat t he a uthor a pplied d ifferently c onstructed n ames t o a lmost i dentical w eapons. I n t he n ame o f t he s econd d evice, p lumbata m amiliata , t he w ord p lumbata h as s ubstantival f orce ( as i t d oes a t V egetius 1 .17 p Zumbatarum e xercitio: t he l exica, o verl ooking t he a nonymus , r ecord p lural i nstances o nly ): a nd w hy s hould i t n ot i n t he f irst? I n m y n ote o n t he p icture-caption a nd c hapter-heading o f c . x vi I a rgue, f rom t he p resence o f a n i nsular c orruption i n a c apital i nscription, t hat i n t he o riginal s tate o f t he w ork h eadings w ere a ffixed o nly t o t he c hapters o f t ext, n ot t o t he p ictures w hich p recede t hem . I n t hat c ase w e w ould h ave a n e xplanation o f t he p resence o f e t i n b oth t he f irst p icture-caption a nd t he h eading o f c . x , a nd a c lue t o t he r eason f or i ts i ntrusion . I f, a t s ome e arly s tage o f t he t ransmission, t he p icture o f t he j avelins b ore n o c aption a t a ll - t he r eader i s i nvited t o t est t he f ollowing s peculation b y m asking t he p rinted c aption w ith a s lip o f p aper - t hen a c opyist, f aced w ith t he h eading o f c . x i n w hat G helen a nd I s uppose t o h ave b een i ts o riginal f orm, e xpositio p lumbatae t ribolatae, m ight e asily c onc lude t hat t he w ords p lumbatae t ribolatae r eferred s eparatim t o t he t wo w eapons i n t he p icture; t heir t erminations a re a fter a ll i dentical, a nd p lumbata a s a s ubstantive m ay h ave b een f amiliar f rom e lsewhere. T he i nsertion o f e t w ould m ake t his s upposed d ist inction c lear. T he s ubsequent p rovision o f c aptions f or t he p ictures, b y am ore i ntelligent o r m ore e nterprising s cribe, w ho r ealised t hat t he m a r ni//ata a s w ell a s t he t ribolata w as i llust rated, l ed t o t he t ransference o f t he r elevant p ortion o f t he f irst c hapter-heading i n i ts i nterpolated s tate. I t herefore r ec ommend a cceptance o f G helen 's d eletions i n t he c aption a nd t he h eading . R estoration o f p arallelism i n t he c aptions a nd t itles o f c c. x a nd x i c ould a dmittedly b e a chieved b y s upplying < et> i n t he s econd p air ( PLVMBATA < ET> M AMILLATA : e xpositio p lumbatae < et> m amillatae) r ather t han b y e xcising i t f rom t he f irst: b ut t his s eems a ltogether u ndesirable i n v iew o f t he d emonstrably s ubstantival n ature o f p lumbata .

x i.1

s imilibus l ocis < ac> i n p ennis a dhaerentibus,

t ribulata p lumbo e t

a c s uppleui , u t n oster l atinius u el c erte l atine l oqui u ideatur T here a re a lternatives t o m y s upplement. t ribulata i s t he o rthog raphy o f E , b ut I d o n ot f ollow S chrijver i n e xtending t his s pelling t o t he c aption a nd h eading o f c . x , w here t he m anuscripts i ndicate a n o i n t he w eak p re-tonic s yllable.

1 04

xii

C VRRODREPANVS

picture caption

s ic s cribendum : C VRRVS D REPANVS C M C VRRVS D RIPANVS P : d eest u t s emper p ictura c um t itulo i n V

xii

chapter heading

e xpositio

c urrodrepani

e xpositio

c urri

C M

d repani

P V

Ca nd M p resent, i n t he c hapter-heading, w hat m ust b e a ssumed t o b e t he a uthentic f orm o f t his s trange n ame; t he a nonymus i nvariably a nd c orrectly i nflects c urrus i n t he f ourth d eclension, a nd c urri d repani i s a b arbarous s implification. E ven w here t he w ord r e-appears i n i ts c orrect l iteral f orm a n i mpression s eems t o h ave p ersisted a mong s cribes t hat i ts c omponents s hould b e s eparated: s o Pp unctua tes t he p icture-captions t o c c . x iii a nd x iv C VRRO.DREPANVS.SINGVL ARIS, C VRRO .DREPANVS.CLIPEATI ( sic: s ee m y n ote a d l oc .) Z 's r eading i n t he c hapter-heading c annot b e g uaranteed, a nd I d o n ot s ee t hat a nything i s t o b e a rgued f rom t he v ariants f or o r a gainst t he t heory t hat t he p icture-captions w ere e xtracted f rom t he c hapter-headings a t a n i ntermediate s tage o f t he t ransmission .

xii.2

d uo u iri u estitu e t muniti

a rmis

< e>

f erro

d iligenter

es uppleui F or m y s upplement c ompare e xactly M odestus, d e u ocabulis r ei m ilit aris ( ed. S tewech i n S chrijver's V egetius & c [ Lippenheim 1 670], p .374 l ines 3 -4), a culei i ngentes e x [ e S tewech 's m argin] f erro .

xii.3

f unes l axati q uidem e xplicant, a utem e rigunt f alces.

r epressi

r . e xlgunt P • T he v ariant i s c rucial f or d etermining t he p arentage o f P , a nd d eserved a b etter f ate t han r elegation t o t he l imbo o f T hompson's s upplemental a pparatus. P h as m isread a n i nsular r a s x , p recisely a s V d id i n i ntorta a t v ii.6. T he c orrected e rror, t aken i n c onj unction w ith o ther e vidence, p oints c learly t o a n i nsular e xemplar, a nd i n f act t o E i tself : s ee T ransmission o f t he t ext § 5 .

1 05

x iv picture caption

C VRRODREPANVS

C LIPEATVS

CVRRO. DREPANVS. CLIPEATI

C M P

d eest V A n i nteresting a nd p erhaps i mportant v ariant . E ither P h as s imply a nticipated t he g enitive i nflexion o f t he c hapter-heading, o r w e h ave h ere t he u nique s urvival o f a n e rror t ransmitted b y E a nd c orrected ( consciously o r o therwise ) b y C a nd M , r esulting f rom t he e xtraction - i n t his c ase, s ingularly m aladroit - o f t he p icture-caption f rom t he c hapter-heading . T he f ormer p ossibility i s m uch t he m ore l ikely, b ut i n v iew o f t he t endency o f o ther s craps o f e vidence ( see m y n otes o n t he c aptions a nd h eadings o f c c . x i a nd x vi) t he s econd c annot b e e ntirely d ismissed .

x iv. 3

a s ecundo u ero c urru h ac d iuersitate s ecernitur, q uod i n i llo u nus e quus e t p ondus b ellatoris s ubit t dum i psum e quitem p ortat e tt o cculto t emone i ugum t rahente m inus a mplectitur. l ocus d esperatus

T hompson, r ecognizing t hat t he t ext b reaks d own i n t he l atter p art o f t he s entence, d eletes d um i psum e quitem p ortat a s a g loss, a nd m arks a l acuna a fter t he e xcised w ords. H e w as r ight t o d iagnose s erious c orruption i n t his a rea, t hough w e m ight h ave b een s pared t he a wkward j ests w hich h e c uts o n t he s ubject i n h is p reface, p .15. H is d eletion o f d um i psum e quitem p ortat m ay b e r ight; a gainst i ts e xcision o ne m ight u rge ( 1) t hat a s a n e xpression i t i s n ot u ntypic ally f lat, ( 2) t hat p ondus b elZatoris s ubit i s i nflated b ut n ot o bscure e nough t o n eed e xplanation, ( 3 ) t hat t he a uthor o ccasionally g losses h imself ( ix .1 p arma , h oc e st m odicus c lipeus: x vii.2 i n c uius a lueo u el c apacitate ), a nd ( 4) t hat d um a t l east, w hich r eads r ather o ddly a s t he o pening o f a g loss o n p ondus b ellatoris s ubit , c ould b e g enuine . I f l acunae e xist t hey c ould b e e xtensive, a nd i f d um i psum e quitem p ortat i s a uthorial, m atter m ay h ave b een l ost b efore a s w ell a s a fter i t. A ssuming t hat t his p hrase i s n ot i nterp olated a nd t hat t he s urrounding t ext i s b adly d efective, M ark H assall r econstructs t he p assage i n E nglish a s f ollows:

I t i s , m oreover , d istinguished f rom t he s econd c hariot b y t his p oint o f d ifference , t hat t here a s ingle h orse b oth t akes t he w arrior's w eight i n c arrying t he r ider a nd < draws t he v ehicle , b eing p laced b etween t wo s hafts; w hereas t his c hariot> s urrounds < its h orses> t o a l esser e xtent , s ince a h idden p ole p ulls t he y oke . T his h e c onsiders t he m inimum s upplementation r equired t o s ustain w hat h e t akes t o b e t he o riginal a rgument; b ut r ecovery o f t he L atin i s o ut o f t he q uestion, a nd I t herefore o belize a t t he o uter l imits o f t he t extual d isturbance.

1 06

xv picture caption, c hapter heading, t ext

THORACOMACHVS t horacomachi t horacomachum

t horacomachus

t horacomachi

t horacomacho

.

T he m anuscripts v ariously d istort t he n ame b y f alsifying o r o mitting t he a spirates w herever i t a ppears, t hough a ll t he v ariants ( noted b y T hompson ) p oint t o t he s ame o riginal, a nd o ne m ust a ssume t hat t he a uthor c ould s pell t he w ord c orrectly . T he t rue f orm i s g iven b y M a nd P i n t he p icture-caption, M P a nd V i n t he c hapter-heading, M i n c . x v .1 a nd 3 , a nd M a nd P a t x v .4, w here M c orrupts t he c ase-ending f rom a blative t o n ominative .

.4

hoc

igitur,

u t

i nducto G helen

d iximus,

i nducta E

t horacomacho

inducto

i nduto S chrijver

T hompson ( text:inducto - a pparatus:ocripsi) h is c onjecture o riginal.

i s w rong i n t hinking

xv.4

tuitione

qui graeca a ppellatione nomen a ssumpsit a ppellatione M

ex

c orporis

a ppellatio C PV

T hompson a ttributes M 's r eading t o c on jecture, r ightly; t he a greement o f CPV e ffectively g uarantees t he r eading o f E , w hose t ext w as d isfigured n ot o nly b y t he p erversion o f t erminations ( observe i nducta f or i nducto i mmediately a bove, a nd s ee m y n ote o n p raef .7 a Zieni ) b ut a lso, i nfrequently, b y t heir a ctual o mission ( notitia d ignitatum o r. 3 3.26 n eocesar C V n eocaesar P M, w rite n eocaesareae).

xvi

p icture caption

ASCOGEFYRVS s ic s cribendum:

xvi

c hapter heading

expositio

A SCOGEFRVS C MP, d eest V

a scogefyri

a scogefri E c orrexit T hompson T he f orm r estored i n t he c hapter-heading b y T hompson ( anticipated b y S chrijver i n h is o ver-corrected A SCOGEFVRAE) i s u nassailable; s ee t he v ariants a t x ix .3, b elow. I t m ust o f c ourse b e e xtended t o t he p icture-caption, a nd a n i nteresting p oint o f p alaeography i s t hereby

1 07

r aised.

T he o mission o f yb efore r i s f atally e asy i n i nsular

m inuscules; n ot s o i n c apitals; b ut p erhaps w e o we t he c apital s cript o f t he c aptions t o t he t aste o f t he f ifteenth- a nd s ixteenthc entury c opyists. T hat E w as i n t his p ortion o f i ts c ontents a t l east a n i nsular m anuscript i s s ufficiently d emonstrated i n T rans-

m ission o f t he t ext § 16, w ith m y n otes o n i i.6, v ii.6, x ii.3 a nd x ix .3. B ut e ven s upposing E 's p icture-caption h ere t o h ave b een i n m inuscule, i t s eems h ighly i mprobable t hat t he s urviving c opies ( or E i tself , i f i t w ere c opying a n i nsular e xemplar - s ee o n p raef .5 a nd x xi.1) s hould c ommit t he s ame m echanical e rror t wice o ver. T he i dentical c orruption o f a scogef yrus a nd a scogef yri s trongly s uggests a n e arly s tate o f t he t ext i n w hich h eadings w ere p refixed, i n m inuscule, o nly t o t he c hapters o f t ext, t he n ame o f e ach d evice b eing s ubsequently t aken u p, s ometimes i n a c orrupt s tate, a s a c aption t o t he a ppropriate p icture. T his t heory s hould b e c onsidered i n t he l ight o f t he c hapter-heading e rror r eproduced i n t he p icturec aption t o c . x a nd t he P v ariant i n t he c aption t o t he p icture f or c . x iv: s ee m y d iscussions t here.

x vi.2

h is

i gitur u t

d ictum e st,

d iligenter s utis,

Ir emove t he i ntrusive e ditorial c omma a fter i gitur , s ince u t d ictum e st i s n ot p urely p arenthetical b ut r efers b ack t o h is .

x vi.2

e t i ta, i n f ormam p ontis e xplicatur i ntegritas.

a dsociata,

p artibus

Ic omma-off i n f ormam p ontis a dsociata t o e xpress t he s yntactical r eference o f i ta t o e xplicatur a nd n ot t o a d sociata .

x viii.7

h is i gitur, i nuicte i mperator, m achinarum q uoque i nuentionibus c ommunitam p otentiam i nuicti d uplicabis e xercitus, c ommunitam G helen

c ommunite E

A gain a f aulty t ermination i n E : f or d ucem a t x ix .1 b elow.

x viii.8

p ortatilis p ontis

s ee o n x v.4 a bove,

p eculiaris

a nd n ote d ucum

s uccurret

p ortatilis G helen , q uod e rit ä nag Ä cyöpevoy: d e p ortandi s cribendo o hm c ogitabam

1 08

i nuentio. p ortanti E :

x ix.1

c onueniet d ucem s patia o rdinare, d ucem T hompson

x ix. 3

t ernis

a gminibus

d ucum E

m ilitarem u iam l euibus p ortatum u ehiculis a scogefyri c omitetur a uxilium, a scogefyri T hompson a scogefrri C a scogefiri P V a scogephyri M a scogefri G helen e t itulo c . xvi

C 's c orruption b etrays t he i nsular s cript o f i ts e xemplar a nd, b y t hus r evealing t he E s pelling, p rovides o ur o ldest e vidence f or t he t rue f orm o f t he n ame. P a nd V a pprehend t he y c orrectly a nd r ender i t b y t he p honetically e quivalent M u nashamedly g recizes ( the f i s c ertain ).

x xi.1

d iuina p rouidentia, s acratissime i mperator, d omi f orisque r ei p ublicae p raesidiis c omparatis, c omparatis G und ermann c ompositis G helen

c omponatis C MV

c omponatis P

T he s ignificance o f t he c orruption h ere i s w orked o ut m ore f ully i n T ransmission o f t he t ext § 19 m ed . T he c onfusion o f n a nd r i s e asy a nd f requent i n t ranscription f rom i nsulars, a nd e xamples o f i t a re f ound a mongst t he c opies o f E i n t he n otitia-group o f t exts ( which i ncludes d e r ebus b ellicis: T ransmission o f t he t ext § 15 ); s o i n n otitia d ignitatum , o c.5.106 f öntenses M f örtenses C P r ecte ( deest V ), o c .37.13 a rmonicani C V a rmoricani M P r ecte . B ut i t i s n oticeable t hat t his c onfusion i s e ncountered m ore o ften i n C MPV t ogether t han i n i ndividuals o f t he g roup; s o i n n otitia o r.35.30 p anthorum C MPV f or p arthorum , o r.39.17 a rmigenorum C MPV f or a rmig erorum , o c.1.56 a nnorarii C MPV f or a nnonarii , o c.3 .31 s enoria C MPV f or s enonia: a nd s o a t d e r ebus b ellicis p raef .5 n ec t e C MPV f or r ecte. T his s uggests t hät s ome a t l east o f t hese c orruptions e xisted i n t he E t ext, t hat E 's s cribe w as h imself c apable o n o ccasion o f m isreading t he l etter-forms o f a n i nsular p re-archetype. E 's n ec t e a t p raef .5, a nd t he c orruption i n t he h eading t o c . x vi, s hould b e c arefully c onsidered w ith t he p ossibility o f a n i nsular p re-archetype i n m ind ; t hough a gainst t he t heory o ne c ould a rgue t hat c onfusion o f no r yw ith r m ight o ccur m ore r eadily t o a c opyist u nfamiliar w ith i nsulars t han t o o ne w ho p ractised t he s cript a s h is c urrent h and . H ere, t herefore, a t d .r .b . x xi.1, c omponatis m ay w ith l ittle h esitation b e a ssigned t o E , b ut a n u nclarity i n t he w riting o f t he l etters na- l eft P d issatisfied ( as w itness h is e xpuncts) a nd i nduced G helen t o c hange j ust t hese l etters i n o rder t c p roduce a n i ntelligible r eading.

1 09

5

L ANGUAGE A ND

S TYLE

I

G RAMMAR

1

N OUNS

a ]

t he

AND

P RONOUNS

c ases

NOMINATIVE A r elative c lause i n a pposition t o, n ot e pexegetic o f, t he s ubject i n v iii .1 t ichodifrus q uod e st g enus m achinae, a mounting a lmost t o a n i nversion, g enus m achinae q uod e st t ichodifrus. I d eliberately a void t he t oo-obvious e pexegetic a rticulation t ichodifrus, q uod e st g enus m achinae, e x r ei s uae c ommoditate e .q .s., w hich w eakens t he r elative c lause i nto s uperfluity ( no-one c ould b e u naware o f w hat t he t ichodifrus w as); i f t hat p unctuation i s m aintained w e h ave a n i nstance o f t he p erfectly n ormal p rospective a ttraction o f t he g ender o f a r elative p ronoun b y t he d ominant n oun ( ...beneu olentiam , q ui e st a micitiae f ons, C icero, d e a micitia 1 4.50 ). V OCATIVE T he h istorical s ignificance o f t he c hange o f n umber f rom s acratissimi p rincipes ( praef .1) a nd c lementissimi p rincipes ( praef.8) t o o ptime i mperator ( ii.7) a nd i nuicte i mperator ( xviii.7) i s d iscussed e lsew here i n t his c ollection . T he c aptatio b eneuolentiae a nd c ompendious c atalogue o f t he c ontents o f t he t reatise s eem t o b e a ddressed t o t he j oint m asters o f t he R oman w orld a s a n a ppeal o f g eneral i nterest t o b oth; t he b ody o f t he t ext, w ith i ts d etailed p roposals, i s d irected t o t he e mperor ( of t he w est?) w hom i t m ost n early c oncerns. B ut i n p raef .4, h idden a way b etween t he p lural v ocatives o f 1a nd 8 , t here i s ar eference t o a s ingle r ei p ublicae p raesul . I s t his m ere c arel essness? I s i s a g eneralizing s ingular, ' any h ead o f s tate'? O r i s i t a s ign o f r evision, t he a uthor h aving o riginally a ddressed o ne e mperor o nly, s ubsequently c hanging ( for d iplomatic r easons) s ingular t o p lural v ocatives w here d irect a ddress w as o bvious b ut o verlooking t he o blique r eference i n 4 ? ACCUSATIVE A p robable a ccusative o f respect i n x iii.1 n ec d istat quicquam a s uperiore m achina; b ut t he s entence i s n ot f ree f rom s yntactical a mbiguity . m achina I t ake a s a blative, w ith q uicquam a s a ccusative a nd t he v erb 's s ubject u nderstood f rom e arlier i n t he s entence: b ut q uicquam c ould b e n ominative, w ith m achina a blative; o r m achina c ould b e n ominative, w ith q uicquam a s a ccusative o f r espect. G ENITIVE A partitive g enitive d epends o n an euter p lural a djective i n t he o rnate, a lmost r hapsodic s ummary o f t he v irtues o f t he a nonymus' i nventions i n x vili.8 p er a perta camporum, c learly a s a d evice t o h eighten t he t one. T he c onstruction p ersists: q uidquid o pis f ollows a lmost i mmediately ( 11). n ouitatis a liquid i s a n e ffective w ay o f a rousing t he r eader 's c uriosity i n x iv.l.

1 13

O n t he u se o f t he g enitive o f t he p ersonal p ronoun i nstead o f a s yntactically a ppropriate i nflexion o f t he p ossessive p ronoun s ee [ b ] b elow . D ATIVE T he a nonymus s hows s ome f ondness f or t he predicative d ative c ons truction; s o w ith t he c olourless e sse a t i i.7 e rit c urae a nd a t x ix .4 c ordi e st , a nd w ith a v erb m ore e xpressive o f ap hysical s tate a t x vi.3 i mpedimento c onsistat . ABLATIVE Aw ide r ange o f u ses, n one o f t hem s pecially r emarkable . A blatives o f r espect w ith a d jectives ( xvi.1 e t c ompendio f acile e t u su p raecipuum ) a nd w ith a v erb ( i.4 n on o tiosis o pibus s ed c ondend is p otius m oenibus l aetabantur ); o f separation ( ii.8 a bstin ere o pibus, v iii.3 u acantia d efensore l oca ) a nd o f complement ( v .5 e xpensis g rauidam r em p ublicam ); t he modal a blative ( xvi.2 u itulinis p ellibus a rabica a rte m ollitis ); descriptive a blat ive ( xv.1 t horacomachum m ira u tilitate a d l euamen c orporis); instrumental a blative ( xvi.2 a quam d e p uteis f ollibus h auriend am ); a nd a blative o f t he agent w ith a nd w ithout p reposition ( xiii.1 d uobus e quis t ractus a d uobus e tiam b ellatoribus g ubernatur ); s tandard c orrelative a blatives o f measure of d iff erence i n x viii.11 q uanto m agis t anto p raestantior . I n x viii.9 f luctibus t ranscurrens t he a blative r eplaces a n e xpected a ccusative. S ome d ifficulties o f c lassification: a t v .6 r egiis d onis o pulentos , i s t he a blative o ne o f c omplement o r o f r espect? I t hink t he f ormer . A t v ii.2 o mni l atere i n h ostem s agittas i mpellat , i s l atere a blative o f s eparation ( harshly u sed - w e s hould r ather h ave e xpected a p repositional p hrase ) o r a c urious v ariety o f t he l ocal a blative? A gain, I t hink, t he f ormer . T he s ame p roblem , a nd t he s ame a nswer, a t x vi.2 u na p arte c irculis e xstantibus . I n x vi.3, i s o bliquo f luuio a ccompanimental o r l ocal? a nd i n x viii.2 i s d uabus r otis l ocal o r i nstrumental? I n x vi.2 u itulinis p ellibus

m ollitis , . . h is i gitur d iligenter s utis , f iunt u tres i n m agnitudinem e .q .s . t he f irst a blative c lause i s p resumably a bsolute a nd t he s econd g oes c losely w ith t he v erb; a lthough t he s econd m ay i tself b e a bsolute, a nd i n e ither c ase t he f irst m ight b e m erely p rospective. T he ablative a bsolute i s i n f act m ore c onspicuous b y i ts a bsence t han b y i ts p resence ( it o ccurs, e .g ., a t i .8 a eris r edundante m ateria a nd x i.1 p lumb° e t p ennis a dhaerentibus); a c ons cious a ttempt t o a void i t s eems t o b e m ade a t t wo p oints i n x x .1, m illenis i nteriecta p assibus a nd c ircumdata q uodam p raesidii c ingulo, w here t he c ontext s hould b e v ery c arefully c onsidered.

b ]

s pecial

u ses

o f t he p ronoun

a T he a uthor f our t imes a ffects t he g enitive o f t he r eflexive p ers onal p ronoun i nstead o f a n a ppropriate i nflexion o f t he p ossessive: i x .1 a d s oliditatem s ui, x i.1 i n e xtremitate s ui, x vii.1 a nd 3 p ro m agnitudine s ui .. p ro m ole s ui. T his c ould w ell b e i nterp reted a s e vidence f or a L ate I mperial d ating o f t he p rose; t he u se o f t he c onstruction s eems t o i ncrease s teadily f rom t he S ilver A ge

1 14

( effectively f rom S eneca ) o nwards, a nd h as b ecome p ervasive b y t he p eriod o f l atest a ntiquity ( e.g. [ Justinian ] i nstituta 3 .19. 2f in .: n atura s ui d ominio n ostro e xempta i n o bligationem d educi n uZio m odo p ossunt .) ß T he r eflexive i s o nce i ntensified, s olely f or p urposes o f e uphony, a t x vii.3 p roque m achinis i n s emet o perantibus .

2

A DJECTIVES

a ]

morphology

T he a blative s ingulars o f p rior , m inor a nd m aior a re w ritten p riori ( xiii.1), m inori ( v.7) a nd m aiori ( xix.4), b ut t he f orm i s q uite a s f requent i n e arly a s i n l ate w riting. b ]

c oncord

F alse c oncord i n x viii.8 u ictricem e xercitus c ursum , w here t he g ender o f t he a djective h as b een a ttracted b y t he a djacent n oun; a nd a gain i n v ii.6 h oc b allistae g enus...sagittas e x s e n on u t a liae f unibus s ed r adiis i ntorta i aculatur , t hough h ere w e c an e xtract b alZista f rom b allistae a s s ubject o f t he f inal v erb a nd p articiple, t he t ransition s moothed b y t he i ntervening a liae . A l ess c ertain e xample i n p raef .7 b arbarae g entes...habentur a lieni, w here a lieni w as t he r eading o f t he l ost S peyer a rchetype. I h ave a llowed i t t o s tand - s ee m y c ritical n ote a d l oc . -a lthough e ditors s ince 1 552 h ave u nanimously p rinted G helen's a lienae . T he a djectival a greement a t i x.1 p arna , h oc e st m odicus c lipeus, f ixoriis m inutis ...diligent er munitus i s e ntirely n atural. c ]

a djective

a s

noun

I nfrequently u sed b y t he a nonymus, b ut s ee p raef.16 u tilia, i v.5 c asti e t i ntegritatis c upidi, x viii.8 p er a perta c amporum , I n t he c ase o f t he n euters a t l east t his i nfrequency o f a djectives s ubstantivally u sed i s ac onsequence o f t he a uthor' 's e xtensive c ommand o f a bstract n ouns. d ]

a djective

f or

a dverb

T he a djective i n v iii.1 q uo protectior e adem b allista o peretur i s m ost u nexpected , b ut i t i s q uite i n k eeping w ith t he a nonymus' g eneral c ast o f t hought a nd e xpression; t he a djectival, n ot t he a dverbial, q ualification s hows t hat t he s ubstantival e lement i n t he c lause p reponderates o ver t he v erbal ( see b elow, A bstraction a nd s ubstantival s tyle, i n s ection I I ( Vocabulary a nd c omposition) 2 ). C ompare t he l ess a rresting n e c onstrictum l atus l iberior h ostis i nfestet i n x ix .8 . e ]

adjectival

d egree

T here m ay b e s ome r esidue o f c omparative f orce i n t he a djective a t v iii.1 facilior a scensus, w hich c ould i mply ' an e asier m eans o f a scent ( sc . t han h as h itherto b een p ossible)'; a lthough ap ositive s ense s uffices ( and a s uperlative c annot b e p recluded).

1 15

H eightening o f a djectival a nd a dverbial d egree i s, o f c ourse, w ides pread i n l ate p rose a s a s ymptom o f l inguistic i nflation; i t i s a c onscious a rtistic d evice o nly i n A mmianus, w here c omparatives u sed r egularly f or p ositives c ontribute t o t he s ense o f e xaggerated r ealism w hich c haracterizes h is s tyle . A nd s o, i n t he a nony ms , f acilior a t v iii.1 i s p robably n o m ore t han a r eflection o f r outine l ate p ractice. B ut t ichodifrus . . n on a ltior s ed h umilior f abricatur , f ollowing a t v iii.2, b oth i s a nd i s n ot a t ypical i ns tance o f i ts t ype. T here i s n o d ifficulty i n u nderstanding t he a djectives a s t he p ositives w hich t hey s urely a re, a nd y et t hey h ave, Ib elieve, b een d ragged i nto t he c omparative d egree b y t he f acilior j ust p receding. ( The p ersistence o f w ord, f orm a nd p hrase i n t he a nonymus w ill b e c onsidered i n a l ater s ection ). O bserve, h owever, t he g enuinely c omparative f orce o f t he p hrase w hen i t i s r epeated i n a dverbial f orm a t x viii.3 a d d irigenda s eu a ltius s eu h umilius t ela , w here t he a dverbs a re i ntimately c onnected w ith t he f ollowing p ro u t u ocet u tilitas , m uch l ess c losely w ith n unc e rigit n unc d ep onit . F or t he r est, a s uperlative f orce m ay b e p erceptible i n x ix .3 l atior f iuminum o ccursus . x ix .8 a ngustiora l oca i s av ery d oubtful c ase, b ut I s uspect t hat t he c omparison m ay b e r eal.

3

V ERBS

a ]

t ense

P resent f or f uture i n r ecreantur a t i .1, e vidently c lausulae c ausa : a lternatively, t he p resent m ight b e f elt t o h ave p otential r ather t han f uture f orce, i n w hich c ase r ecreentur w ould b e a n e asy a ltera tion . B ut I w ould n ot r ecommend s ubstitution e ither o f t his o r o f R einach 's r ecreabuntur f or t he t ransmitted r eading; f lorebit g ives e nough o f a t emporal h int t o r ecreantur , a nd, s o f ar a s t he r estora tion o f a s ubjunctive i s c oncerned, a f uture i ndicative r eplaces a p ermissive o r h ortatory s ubjunctive a t x i.1 u irga a ccipiet i n s e . b ]

mood

I ndicative a fter c onstat q uod a t p raef .6, s ciendum e st q uod a t v ii.6, a nd a dmonendi s umus q uod a t x vi.4; b ut s ubjunctive f ollows s ciendum e st q uod a t v i.l. ( On t his f orm o f t he o blique s tatement s ee [ f ] b elow ). T he i ndicative a fter s unt q uae a t v i.3 i s u nexpected. p ro u t t akes a n i ndicative a t x viii.3 b ut p otential s ubjunctive a t x ix .2. M ore a larming i s t he i ndicative a fter c ausal c um a t p raef.17 a estimo u enia p rotegendum , c um m ihi s ubueniendum e st: t he c onstruction i s s poradically a ttested f or c lassical w riting, b ut i s g enerally a ss ociated w ith a m uch l ater p eriod; s o V egetius 2 .5 n am i mperator c um

a ugusti n omen a ccepit, t amquam p raesenti e t c orporali d eo f idelis e st p raeetanda d euotio , a nd G regory o f T ours d e u irtutibus s . M artini 1p r . s ub f inem ( p .589.14 s qq K rusch ) s ed q uid t imeo r usticitatem m eam , c um d ominus r edemptor e t d eus n oster a d d istruendam m undanae s apientiue u anitatem n on o ratores s ed p iscatores, n ee p hilosophos s ed r usticos p raelegit? ' Iterative' c um , h owever, i f o ne i s c orrect

1 16

i n i dentifying i t a t x ix .1 c um b eZlicus a pparatus p rouocet c ertam ina , t akes t he u sual s ubjunctive. C ]

voice

a u estire a ppears i n m iddle v oice a t x v .2 u t m embra u estie ntis i abori s ufficiant a nd 3 n e t horacomachus a dficiat u estientem. N ot i n m iddle v oice, b ut u sed a bsolutely w ith a c ertain a bruptness, i s g estientem a t i x .1. ß T he p assive i nfinitive i n 1 .9 f ormas e t s pecies .. u ariasque u eterum p rouisiones exprimi c olorum q ualitatibus p roperaui i s v ery h arsh; w e w ould r ather h ave e xpected t he s ubject o f t he f inite v erb t o p ersist i nto t he d ependent c lause, w hose a ccusatives w ould b e t he d irect o bjects o f t he a ctive e xprimere. d ]

morphology

a N otice t he d ouble c ompounds s uperinducere ( xv.3) a nd s uperimp ositis ( viii.2; b ut s uperposita l ater a t x v .4). T he f irst i s p osta ugustan ( Quintilian, P liny ), t he s econd i n L ivy ( 38 .56.3 & c ) b ut p erhaps b est k nown f rom S tatius, s iluae 1 .1.1. ß A t ermination i s s yncopated c lausulae c ausa a t i x .1 a b i ncursu c omminus u enientum. T he c ontraction i s f amiliar i n v erse o f a ll p eriods; i t e nters p rose p robably w ith N epos ( s .u .l . a t T hrasybulus 4 .2 s apientum ), a nd w ill b e f ound i n S eneca ( sapientum a t ad P olyb ium d e c ons. 1 4 .1 a nd [ emended o ut b y C .F.W.Mueller] a t a d H eluiam d e c ons .12.1): i t i s e stablished i n T acitus ( ann .4.12.1 d o72ntum, 4 .41.2 s alutantum [ but s aiutantum a t 1 1.22.1 i s r ejected b y t he e ditors], 6 .50 .4 g ratantum ). I t t hen a pparently u ndergoes a p eriod o f d isfavour, t o b e r evived ( in a ll c onjugations, a nd n ot n ecessar ily i n c lausula ) i n t he f ourth c entury ( Nazarius p anegyricus C ons tantino 2 6.2 c adentum; h istoria a ugusta A uidius C assius 4 .6 a gent um; A mmianus 1 9.8.5 s qualentum , 1 9.8.10 u iantum; [ Aurelius V ictor] d e u iris i llustribus 3 4 .9 p otentum , aw idely-used f orm ), a nd i t b ecomes d istinctly c ommon i n t he f ifth ( Vegetius 3 .4 s uggerentum , A ugustine d e c iuitate d ei 4 .2 b ellantum; f requently i n S idonius [ epist .1.7.3 a nd 1 0 o ccurrentum , s ancientum], A lcimus A vitus [ epist . 3 6 ( p.66.7 P eiper ) m unerantum] a nd E nnodius [ uita E piphanii 1 08 a ud ientum]). u enientum a t d .r .b .ix .1 m ay t herefore b e u sed t o c orrob orate a l ate f ourth-century d ate f or t he t reatise . y T he i nchoative f orm c apescit i n x vii.3 i s o f s ome i nterest, i f t his i s g enuinely t he a uthor 's s pelling. c apesco f or c apesso p resuma bly a rose t hrough f alse a nalogy w ith t he l arge f amily o f i nchoat ives i n esso, a c onfusion p erhaps a ssisted b y p ronunciation ( the p alatalization o f c b efore i a nd e i n t erminations). T he f orm i s d istinctively l ate: i t i s f ound, f or e xample, a t P rosper o f A quitaine c armen d e i ngratis 7 79 ( capescere: b ut c apessi a t 5 09), P etrus C hrys ologus s ermo 4 2 ( Migne 5 2.318B; c apescit) a nd p erhaps G regory o f T ours, h ist . F ranc . 9 .25 ( p.381.26 A rndt; ad r egionem i psam c apesc endam [ s .u .1 .: v ariants c apiendam a nd ( most M SS) c apessendam ]). T he g lossae P hiloxeni w arn t hat c apessitur i s s pelt n on p er s c ( at C 30 P in e-Lindsay ). S ince c apesciit i n T acitus a nn . 1 2.30.2 a nd c apesc ere i n A ppuleius a poZ. 8 6 a re e xploded c orruptions, a c onsequence

1 17

o f a ccepting a d ate f or d e r ebus b ellicis i n t he t hird q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury w ould b e t o m ake t he a nonymus's c apescit , i f t his i s r eally w hat h e w rote, t he e arliest r ecorded i nstance ( to m y k nowledge) o f t he f orm p er s c . A s f or t he i diom, p ugnam c apess ere i s n ot u ncommon i n L ivy ( 2.6.8, 2 .20.10, 1 0.5.4, 1 0.19.15, 4 0.33.6). F or t he i mplications o f t he f requentative l atitantes s ee s ection [ e ] i mmediately b elow . e ]

p articiples

a s

n ouns

T he a nonymus i s n oticeably f ond o f q ualifying t hese w ith a n a dverb: s o v iii.2 l atenter i ncedentium , i x .1 i nferius l atitantes ( the f req uentative i s s ensitively u sed, e xpressing t he c ontinuous s tate o f t he v erb's a ction), x i.1 s imiliter o bstantia . I n t his l ast c ase, w here t he a djectival o r s ubstantival s imilia w as a n e asy a lternative, t he a uthor d isplays a c ertain s ense o f l inguistic f inesse i n r ememb ering t he v erbal o rigin o f h is s ubstantive. H e h ad p erhaps d isplayed i t o nce b efore i n a d ifferent h andling o f t he p articiple a s n oun, a t p raef .11, w here i nuenta , r ather t han i nuentiones , i s u sed t o m ean ' inventions', t hat i s, a ctual m echanical d evices: i nuentio s hould s trictly s ignify t he a bstract p rocess o f i nvention, a nd i t i s u sed i n p recisely t hat s ense e arlier i n t he p reface ( 11) a nd a t x viii.4: w hile i nuenta d enotes t he r esult o f p ractical a ctivity . Y et t he d ist inction i s l ess o bviously p reserved i n t he p hrase f ound a t p raef .14 a nd x viii.8, p ontis i nuentio , w here i nuentio v erges o n t he c oncrete; a nd i t b reaks d own a ltogether a t x viii.7, w here m achinarum i nuentio nes i s a n e xact e quivalent o f t he m achinarum i nuenta a t p raef .11. P erhaps a fter a ll w e s hould n ot c redit t he a nonymus w ith t oo m uch s ubtlety . C ertainly h e s tretches i nuentio i nto t he a lmost c oncrete s ense ' d esign ' a t v iii.1 f abrica u tili e t c ommoda i nuentione p raeparanda ( a v ery q uaint p hrase); a nd b oth i nuentio a nd i nuentum m ean s omething v ery c lose t o ' discovery ' a t p raef .7 a nd i .7 r espect ively.

f ]

s yntax o f t he

v erb

a C onsecutive q uod w ith a f inite v erb ( indifferently i ndicative o r s ubjunctive w ithout d istinction o f m eaning) r eplaces a ccusative a nd i nfinitive a fter v erbs s entiendi a c d eclarandi a t p raef .6 c onstat ... q uod ... c onsecuta e st , v i.1 s ciendum e st q uod p erstringat . . e t a ppetat , v ii.6 s ciendum e st . . q uod i aculatur , a nd x vi.4 a dMonendi s umus q uod s unt s ubsternenda . N ot a g recism ( whatever m ay h ave b een t he o rigin o f t he c onstruction ) b ut a c oll oquialism w hich i nvades f ormal p rose r elatively l ate ( effectively f rom t he s econd a nd t hird c enturies, e specially i n e arly c hristian w riting) a nd e ven t hen c arefully a voided b y f astidious w riters. T he p oint d oes n ot n eed t o b e l aboured h ere; i t i s s ufficient t o h int t hat w e a re d ealing w ith a l ate w riter e vidently u npractised i n l iterary c omposition ß T he a ctive i nfinitive a ppears a s c omplement t o e st , i n t he s ense o f d ebet w ith p assive i nfinitive, a t p raef .6 e st c onsiderare . T here

1 18

i s n o n eed t o s ee a G reek c onstruction h ere; G reek m ay h ave h elped i n t he f ormation o f t he i diom, b ut i t i s p erfectly a cceptable a s a L atin t urn f rom t he s ilver a ge; t he e xample o f T ertullian ( as a t d e p udicitia 7 .14 e st .. r etractare) m ay a ccount f or i ts v ogue a mongst c hristian w riters. I n A mmianus 3 0.4 .8 u idere e st , w here t he a uxilia ry h as t he f orce o f l icet r ather t han d ebet, t he c onstruction m ore n early a pproaches EC TLV L ei , a nd i s p robably a g enuine g recism, a lthough t he i nfluence o f c ontemporary p ractice, a nd o f A mmianus' b eloved G ellius ( noctes a tticae 1 3.25.31 e st .. i nuenire) i s n ot t o b e u nder-estimated h ere. y F or w hat t he i nformation i s w orth, t he p rolative i nfinitive a t x .1 h oc i aculi g enus .. n on .. c onsueuit e mitti f inds a c uriously e xact p arallel i n V egetius 3 .4 m edicina c onsueuit

a pponi. 8 h abere i n i ts e xtended s ense ' to p rovide' i s f ound a t v .6 h uius m odi p rouisionis u tilitas h abet i n a ugmentum p rouincialium u et eranos a nd x viii.10 q uae .. h abet d e n auigii f acilitate r emedium . T he r equired s ense i s i n i tself n ot w holly u nclassical, b ut b oth u sages a re s lightly u nconventional. I n t he f irst c ase, h abet u eter anos, t he p ersonal o bject o f h abet m eaning ' provide, p roduce' i s a pparently u nexampled e lsewhere. A nd i n t he s econd c ase, h abet r emedium , w here h abet i s u sed a s i n t he V ulgate, T obias 6 .7 q uod r emedium h abebunt i sta , w e s eem t o h ave m oved a way f rom c lassical u sage i n t hat t he p hrase o ught s trictly t o m ean e ither ' i t i s i n p ossession o f a r emedy ' ( so p antheras r emedium q uoddam h abere q uo c um e ssent u sae n on m orerentur , C icero n .d .2.50 .126) o r ' there i s a r emedy f or i t' ( so h abet c urationem , C elsus 4 .2.5, a nd h abet c urationes , V itruvius 1 .6.3); n either o f t hese s enses i s p ossible h ere . I n P liny n .h .11.41.118 u enenum h oc r emedia s ecum h abet t he r eflexive m akes a n e ssential d ifference .

E T here i s ap ainful a nd s lightly b ewildering p assage i n i i.8, w here c onsiderare s imultaneously g overns t wo d istinct c onstructions, f irstly a s traightforward a ccusative o f t he i nner o bject a nd s econdly a n i ndirect q uestion: f amosa r egna c on idera , .. q ua h aec h onoris l aude .. f rugalitas c ommendet . T he o blique c lause i s i tself v ery a wkwardly p ut t ogether, a nd t he a uthor 's e motion h as e vidently t riumphed o ver w hat l ittle a bility h e p ossessed t o e xpress h imself w ith d irectness a nd c larity . g ]

g erundive

a s

future

participle

passive

A d evice f avoured b y l ater p rose, p rominent i n t he a nonymus: p raef .15

a sserens

c unctam r em p ublicam p raedictis r emediis s ubleuandam:

p raef .17 s i q uid .. l iberius o ratio p rotulerit , a estimo u enia p rotegench im: x ix .6 1 . > rotegendi s unt a b o mni t elorum n ube . E lsew here t he s trict g erundival s ense i s m aintained: v i.4 h uius m odi n ationes a rmorum s unt m achinis p rosequendae: x viii.8 s iue t erra s int s ubeunda d iscrimina . B ut s uch i nstances a s v iii.1 e rit h uius c ompositio u el f abrica p raeparanda a nd x ix .7 f alcatis c urribus e xercenda u ictoria e st a re d istressingly a mb iguous .

1 19

h ]

e llipse

o f t he v erb

T he a uxiliary i nfinitive i s o mitted i n i ndirect s tatement o n t hree o ccasions i n t he h igh-flown p reface, e vidently a s a n e legance o f s tyle: 1 1 a dnectenda c redidimus, 1 5 a sserens .. r em p ublicam s ubleuandam , 1 7 a estimo u enia p rotegendum . A f inite a uxiliary i s o mitted a t i i.4 d omus c iariores e ffectae ( the r epletae e arlier i n t he s entence i s p urely p articipial): a nd c opulative e st i s d ropped, t o g reat r hetorical e ffect, i n x viii.4 h oc t ar nen m irae u irtutis a rgumentum . A t v ii.1, e xemplum b allistae, c uius f abricam a nte o culos p ositam s ubtilis p ictura t estatur , a s tartling e llipse d eprives t he s entence o f i ts v erb, b ut t he s ense r emains q uite c lear, a nd w e n eed n ot p uzzle o ver w hat m ust b e m entally s upplied .

4

ADVERBS

a ]

f orms

a nd m eanings

a T he c ompound d esuper i s w orthy o f p assing a ttention a t x vi.2 a nd 3 , d esuper a utem u na p arte c irculis e xstantibus . . i n m arg inibus a utem f irmitatis g ratia d esuper e xtensis . T he v ery c lose r epetition ( to b e d iscussed l ater ) i s m ore i nteresting t han t he f orm, w hich i s u ncommon b ut c lassical.

ß p arumper o f s pace, h owever, i n x .2 f istula e iusdem f erni p arumper e xtensa , i s a ltogether e xceptional. G regory o f T ours u ses t he a dverb s ubstantivally o f q uantity ( hist . F ranc . 7 .45 [ p .322.7 A rndt] a dMiscentes p arumper f arinae, a nd d e u irtutibus s . M artini 2 .32 [ p.621.12 K rusch] p arumper ° lei e licuit ); a nd b oth h is a nd t he a nonymus's u sages m ust d epend o n t he r eplacement b y p arumper o f p aulum ( as s ubstantive i n G regory, a s a dverb i n t he a nonymus). F or t he a nonymus's u sage I c an f ind n o s atisfactory p arallel. H e u ses p aulisper c onventionally ( i.3, i i.8 ); i s h is s patial p arumper a p ersonal p eculiarity? b ]

a dverbial

d egree

C omparatives w ith p ositive f orce a t x iv.4 f alces l ongius a b a xe p orrectas a nd ( far l ess n oticeably ) i x.1 i nferius l atitantes; w ith p ositive o r s uperlative f orce a t v ii.4 d eponitur c elerius; p erhaps g enuinely c omparative a t x i.1 u t p lumbi p ondere e t p ennarum c elerit ate a diuta r otunditas t eli f acilius c lipeos u aleat p enetrare. It ake t he c omparative t o h ave s uperlative f orce i n t he t reacherous p hrase i n t antum l ongius u adit a t x viii.5, t hough h ere a gain a p ositive f its t he c onstruction. U ncertainties i n t he c orrect u nders tanding o f a dverbial d egree a re v ery s imilar t o t hose e ncountered i n d ealing w ith h eightened a djectives, o n w hich c onsult 2 [e] s upra .

5

C ONJUNCTIONS,

a ]

a lternatives

D ISJUNCTIONS,

PARTICLES

a nd p ossibilities

T hese a re u sually a symmetrically e xpressed. T he n egative a lternatives

1 20

' neither ...nor' a re g iven i n p raef .7 a s n eque a ut , a nd t he q uadruple d enials ' neither...neither ...neither...nor' a re e xpressed i n p raef .6 b y n ec n ec a ut .. a ut . T he q uadruple p ossib ilities ' whether...whether ...whether...or w hether' a ppear i n p raef .9 a s s eu s eu u el s iue: t he v ariation i s c onscious a nd d eliberate. A m uch m ore h azardous u se o f w ords c an b e s een a t x viii.8 s iue s iue a ut S i , w here a lternatives h ave r eplaced d isjunctives; t he t hree c lauses a re m eant t o d enote p arallel b ut i ndependent e ventualities, a nd w e m ust t ake t hem a s i f t hey w ere i ntroduced b y s i a ut e i a ut e i .

b ]

c onnectives

a T he a ggressive i nitial e rgo r einforced w ith a n ear d emonstrative a t i ii.2 e rgo h uic q uoque p arti a nd v iii.2 e rgo h ic i dem t ichod ifrus m ay b e a n a uthor 's m annerism. ß T he a nonymus s hows a d ecided t endency t owards c lose c onnexion o f h is s entences w ith t he h elp o f t he u sual a pparatus o f p articles a nd c onjunctions, q uidem , a utem , e nim , u ero , e tiam , e rgo , i gitur . T his s eeking a fter c onnexion i s o ften o btrusive ( as t hroughout c hapter x ix, f or e xample ) a nd s ometimes l eads t o r edundancy ( the e nim a t t he o pening o f i i.2 ). T he f irst s entence o f e ach p aragraph n aturally t ends t o s tand a lone; b ut e ach s ucceeding s entence i s c oupled t o i ts p redecessor, w hether o r n ot a ny l ogical r elationship e xists, b y s ome w ord o f c onnexion o r d isjunction ( the p articles o f c .xviii m ay p rof itably b e s tudied f rom t his p oint o f v iew ); a nd t he i mpression g iven i s o f aw riter r elatively u nversed i n l iterary e xpression a tt empting a n e laborate s tyle o f w hich a n i mportant f eature i s c onc eived t o b e t he u nremitting u se o f c onnectives t o a rticulate i ndiv idual s entences w ith r espect t o e ach o ther a nd t o i ntegrate t hem i nto t he f inished p aragraph . B ut s ometimes t he t ransitions a re s o u nskilfully m anaged t hat o ne i nclines t o s uspect t hat t he a uthor i s s imply t rying t o h old a d isparate s et o f t houghts t ogether b y t he c heapest p ossible m eans. T he a nonymus i s, i n f act, l east h appy i n h is h andling o f c on junctions i mplying d irect c onsequence; q uam o b r em ( i.3), i gitur ( iv .1), n am ( xvi.2) f orm e xceptionally h arsh t ransitions i n t heir c ontexts ( while, c onversely , s ed i n x vi.2 r etains s carcely a ny o ppositional f orce a t a ll). T he h eavilyl aboured p reface i s, h owever, o rganized w ith c onspicuous s uccess; t he r esourceful s ubtlety o f a rticulation h ere s hould b e c ontrasted w ith t he a wkward t ransitions o f , s ay, c hapter i .

6

P REPOSITIONS

a ]

a , a b

N otice a s uperioribus c urribus d issimilis a t x iv.1, f ollowed b y p riori .. c urrui d issimilis i n 2 . T he d ative, t hough n ever s o c ommon a s a g enitive, i s v ery c iceronian, t he a c onstruction f ar o therwise: t he e arliest i nstances s eem t o b e i n S olinus ( 53.17) a nd [ Lactantius] m ort . p ersec . 8 .1, a nd i t b ecomes f irmly e stablished i n l ater w riting ( uulgata , D aniel 7 .19, A ugustine q uaest . h ept . 3 .45, S alvian g ub . d ei 6 .1.4 [ p .67 .24-5 H alm ], S idonius e p . 4 .24.3 [ p.75. 7L uetjohann], C assiodorus i n p s . 3 4.11).

1 21

b ]

d e

d e i s f ound t o r eplace o ther p repositions i n a ccordance w ith i nf ormal l ate p ractice: s o f or e a t v .4 m iles d e s equentibus s cholis u ocatur , x v.2 d e c oactili c onficitur , d e m ollibus Z anis c omposuit , x vi.2 p ropter a quam d e p uteis f öllibus h auriendam , x viii.10 h abet d e n auigii f acilitate r emedium: f or a i n x xi.1 d e t ua s erenitate r emedium : a nd f or o ne o r o ther o f t hese a t v .7 d e s umma i ntegritatis i ntercipit , w here t he d e s eems t o c lash h ideously w ith t he c ompounding e lement o f t he v erb. T he m ost d aring u se o f t he p reposition c omes a t x v .3 d e l ibycis p ellibus f aciem , w here t he p repositional p hrase f orms a n a nalytic g enitive c ase. T he m ode o f e xpression m ay w ell h ave b een i nfluenced b y t he p ersistence i n t he w riter 's m ind o f d e c oactili a nd d e m ollibus Z anis f rom t he p revious s entence, b ut t he r esult i nevitably r ecalls s uch a nalytic c olloquialisms a s E geria 's d e h eramento e t d e a rgento m odica f rustella ( itinerarium 1 4.2). C ]

e ,

ex

A s urprisingly u northodox, n ot t o s ay i ncorrect, u se o f e x a ppears i n i i.3 ex a uro e rogand 7 . d iligentia, a n o ver-compressed e xpress ion . e x a uro a nd e rogandi m ust c ohere, t hough a t f irst s ight o f t he i mmediate c ontext t he r eader m ight l egitimately t hink t hat w e a re d ealing w ith a n a dnominal e x w ith c ausal f orce, l inking c aecitas w ith a urum , ' a b lindness c aused b y g old ', s o c ompletely d oes t he s yntactical a rticulation o verride t he l ightly-marked r hythmic p att ern b efore t he p arenthesis: a caecitate quadam ex auro, q uod p retiosius h abetur , p rofusior erogandi d iligentia f uit . Ih ave n ot s een a p arallel t o t he p recise m eaning o f e x a uro e rogandi h ere, b ec ause e x , w hen u sed w ith e rogare, w ould n aturally d enote t he s ource, n ot t he m aterial, o f t he p ayment: s o i n t he c ommon c lassical f ormula e rogare e x a erario . C onceivably e x a uro w as s uggested b y t he c ompound e -rogare; b ut o ne c annot b e s ure. T he a uthor h as i n a ny c ase a ll b ut l ost c ontrol o f t his s entence . d ]

i n

I t i s e nough t o n ote t hat f ieri i n ( x .2 f it a utem e x l igno in m odum s agittae facto, x vi.2 u tres f iunt in m agnitudinem t rium e t s emis p edum; b oth i diosyncratic u sages, w ith t he v erb i n a s lightly d ifferent s ense i n e ach ) i s a c ollocation o f o verwhelmingly l ate a ttestation . A s f or c ase-usage a fter t he p reposition, a t o ne p oint i n t he t ext ( xii.2 c ultris in o rdinem e xstantibus) i n t akes a n a ccusative w here a n a blative w ould h ave b een p redicted; a nd t he p receding i n p ugnam m ay h ave b een r esponsible f or t his. e ]

per

i s a mbiguous a t v ii.3 h abet f or a mina p er q uattuor p artes: d oes i t a pply t o h abet o r t o f oramina? I f t he f ormer, i t a cts d istributively; i f t he l atter, i t s tands f or i n o r t rans . E lsewhere i n t he t ext t he pn :position i s f airly e venly d ivided b etween s patial ( xvi.3) a nd i nstrumental ( xiv .5) u sages.

1 22

I I

VOCABULARY

1

L EXICAL

AND

I TEMS:

C OMPOSITION

S ENSES

AND

SPELLINGS

W ords f ound o nly i n t he a nonymus a re m arked w ith a n a sterisk

* ascogefyrus ( xvi p icture-caption, c hapter-heading; x ix.3 ). O n t he w hole a m ore s uccessful c ompound (6 .cx6c + yg ( pupa .) t han t he m ongrel c urrod repanus o r t he c lumsy t horacomachus. T he s pelling w ith f- i s c ertain ; s ee e specially m y c ritical n ote t o x ix.3. G reek i s t he n atural l anguage o f a ncient s cientific t erminology, a nd h ence, p resumably, t he a nonymus' p redilection f or h is g rotesque b ut e ndearing f ormations. *clipeocentrus ( viii-ix p icture-caption, i x c hapter-heading ). A c ompound o f m ixed a ncestry, c lipeus + x gv -r pov ( for x& \ ) -c . p ov i n t he s ense ' rivet' s ee P ausanias 1 0 .16.1). T he m asculine i nflexion i s p erhaps d ue t o t he c ontinuing i nfluence o f t he c lipeus e lement, a s c urrus may p ersist i nto t he g ender o f c urrodrepanus; t hough t his e xplanation f ails i n t he c ases o f a scogefyrus a nd t horacomachus.

c livanus S o s pelt b y E a t x v .2, w ith s pirant f or s top. T he w eight o f c ont emporaneous e vidence i s o verwhelmingly o n t he s ide o f t he e tymol ogically-approved ( xXi . f 3avoc) b- s pelling ( Ammianus 1 6.10.8 c libanarios c odd., 1 6.12.22 c libanario c odd., h istoria a ugusta A lex . S eu . 5 6.5 c libanarios c odd., c odex t heodosianus 1 4.17.9.3 c libanariorum c od.), t hough t wo m anuscripts o f V egetius w rite c livanarii(s) i n 3 .24 ( p.117 .5 L ang), a nd I sidore 's e tymology, c livanus a c liuo d ictus ( orig . 1 5.6.5), p oints t o a n i nvasion b y t he u- f orm. T he s pirensis, h owever, w as a bsolutely c onsistent i n s pelling d erivatives o f c libanus w ith b- w herever t hey a ppear i n t he n otitia ( or .v.29, v .40, v i.32, v i.40, v ii.31, v ii.32, v ii.34, x i.8, x i.22, x i.26, x i.28; o c.vi.24, v i.67, v ii.185, i x .33) a nd i s u nlikely t o h ave i tself i ntroduced t he p honetic c orruption i n a s ingle o ccurrence o f t he b asic n oun i n a nother t ext . c livanus i n d .r .b . x v.2 s hould t herefore g o b ack b eyond E ; p erhaps o nly t o E 's a ncestor, b ut p erhaps f urther, a nd, n olente S criuerio , Ia llow t he t ransmitted s pelling t o s tand a s p ossibly a uthorial. T he w ord s eems t o h ave b een a ssimilated i nto s ermo c astrensis b y w ay o f t he G reek-speaking E ast: A mmianus 1 6.10.8 c atafracti e quites, q uos c libanarios d ictitant ( sc. P ersae ); h istoria a ugusta A lex . S eu . 5 6.5 ( 'ex a ctis s enatus', c laims t he w riter, b ut t he r esemblance t o t he p hrase o f A mmianus j ust q uoted i s s uspicious) c atafractarios, q uos i lli ( sc. P ersae)

c libanarios u ocant .

1 23

c unctus D elicate s hades o f t he c oncept ' all' a re d issolved i n t his a djective, w hich r eplaces t otus a t p r . 1 5 c unctam r em p ublican a nd o mnis a t i i.2 c unctorum ...cupiditates . e c currodrepanus T he c omponents a re o ccasionally d ivorced a nd s eparately i nflected i n t he m anuscripts ( discussion i n m y c ritical n otes t o c . x ii p icturec aption a nd c hapter-heading, x iv p icture-caption ), b ut i t i s p ractically c ertain t hat w e h ave h ere a g enuine t hough b arbarous c ompound o f c urrus a nd 6pgnavov ( or 6pc mivn), f ormed p erhaps b y t enuous a nalogy w ith t he w ell-established G reek e xpression am = 8pc r c avn c p6pov ( Xenophon, a nabasis 1 .7.10, 1 .8.10; P olybios 5 . 5 3 .10; D iodoros 1 7.53 s ub i nit .; L ucian, Z euxis 8 m ed .; a nd c ompare t he S ouda e ntry, aper cavn( p6pa . T U4 )Ln mx). F ulgentius ( uirgiliana c ontinentia 7 52, p .94.14-15 H elm ) s upplies a f antastic e tymology f or d repan(u )s a s ap roper n ame: D repanos e nim q uasi d rimipedos, drimos e nim acer d icitur , pes u ero puer u ocatur . *delectabilitas I n a s ense i n w hich t he r oot m eaning i s s trongly f elt, a t i .2 o pum d electabilitas, t he ' wideness o f c hoice' o f w ealth, i .e. t he ' prof usion ' o f w ealth . S chrijver p roposed t o r eplace t he w ord b y d electabilitas, w hich, i n a ddition t o t he d ubious r ecommendation o f b eing i tself ä nag, m akes n onsense o f t he t ext i n t he i mmediate p resence o f n ul/o u etustatis m ore . d esperatus W ithout v erbal f orce, ' desperate' n ot ' despaired-of ', i n x viii.8 c ontra d esperati h ostis a udaciam . Av ery r are s ense i n e arly p rose ( Cicero, i n C atilinam 2 .5.10 d esperatorum h ominum f lagitiosi g reges) b ecoming s lightly m ore c ommon l ater ( Augustine, i n p salmos 6 7.31 d esperatissimi p eccatores). I sidore ( origines 1 0 .72) i ndicates f or h is a ge a w idespread a cceptance, p erhaps a c olloquial q uality, o f t he d eveloped s ense: d esperatus uulgo u ocatur m alus a c p erditus n ec i c on u llius p rosperae s pei. f amosus P robably i n t he c ommon l ater s ense ' famous', n ot ' infamous', i n x viii.5 D anubii, f amosi p ro l atitudine f iuminis ( compare e .g. A mm ianus 2 3.6.65 d uo f hmosi n ominis f lumina , O echartis e t B autis: M artianus C apella 6 .641 F ormiae e tiam L aestrygonum h abitatione f amosae. P etronius, a t 7 0.10 p rasinianus ...famosus, n eatly s hows t he i ncipient a mbivalence o f t he w ord ). O r s o It ake i t i n t ransl ating d .r .b . x viii.5; b ut s ome r elic o f t he b ad s ense m ay s till s urvive i n t he w ord h ere, a nd i t c ould b e t ranslated ' notorious' ' w ithout a ppreciable d amage t o t he t hought. N o s hade o f t he p ejora tive s ense i s p resent i n t he f hmosa r egna o f i i.8. W hatever t he m eaning o f t he a djective a t x viii.5, i ts c onstruction t here, f am osus p ro, i s c onfined t o t he a nonymus: i t i s u sually c onstructed, i n a ll s enses, w ith a p lain a blative o f c ause o r r espect ( Pliny, e pist . 2 .11.1 p ersonae c laritate f amosum ); a nd i n i i. 8 , a ntiauae

1 24

p aupertatis f ämosa r egna , a lthough f amosus c . g en . i s o nce f ound ( Appuleius, m et .10 .11 m andragoram ...grauedinis c ompertae f ämosum ), a ntiquae p aupertatis i s d escriptive g enitive w ith t he n oun. f igurare ( i.5,6,8; f iguratio i ii.4; b ut f igura i n a d ifferent t hough a llied s ense i n 1 .8 a nd i ii.1). A s a pplied t o t he s triking o f c oins, a d istinctively l ate u sage ( codex t heodosianus 9 .22.1.7 f iguratum s olidum , 1 2.7.1.3-4 s olidos n ostris u ultibus f iguratos). T he a nonymus' c onstruction i n i .5 a eris q uoque c opiam i n s imulacris p ropriis f igurabant i s u nique: a p lain a blative i s n ormally u sed w ith t he v erb ( historia a ugusta A lex . S eu . 2 5.9 A lexandri h abitu n ummos p lurimos f igurauit), a nd a c onstruction w ith i n i s f ar l ess s trained a t c odex t heodosianus 9 .21.7.2-3 q uidquid e x a uro

h ominum p rivatorum i n m onetis p ublicis r eppereris f iguratum *fixorium ( viii.2; i x .1). M ore p robably n euter t han m asculine w ith c lauus u nderstood. A s pecial t ype o f n ail, p erhaps a r ivet, f or w hich c lauus w ould b e i nadequate, m ust b e i ntended: t he P aulus e x F esto g loss ( p.208a L indsay ) f ixulas: f ibulas, i f s ecure, p rovides t he f aintest o f p arallels t o f orm a nd m eaning.

* fulminalis ( xviii p icture-caption , c hapter-heading, 6 , 1 1). T he f orm i s f ound h ere o nly ; f ulmineus i s u sual. T he a nonymus i s n ot a lone i n l ikeni ng t he b linding s uddenness a nd e xplosive p ower o f h is m achine's o peration t o a t hunderbolt: V egetius ( 4.22, p .144.2-3 L ang; t he m aterial r e-worked b y a n i nterpolator i n c .29, p .149.1-2 L ang) w rites o f t he o nager t hat q uanto a mplior f uerit , t anto m aiora s axa

f ulminis

m ore

c ontorquet .

l iburna ( pr .12; x vii p icture-caption, c hapter-heading,1,3; x viii.9). ' Acro' c omments, o n H orace e pod .1.1 i bis l iburnis, t hat l iburnae n auiculae s unt t extae u iminibus , a nd t he P aris s cholia X q )( I )i bid . d escribe t heir f unction i n a s ea-battle: .. c um l iburnis , i d e st n auiculis

l ibycis q uibus u tuntur n egotiatores L ibyae: e t h i e tiam q ui p roelium n auale o rdinant c um h is n auiculis d iscurrunt i nter m aiores n aues, o rdinantes m ilites p er s ingulas n aues . V egetius g ives m ore f acts a nd s upplies t he e tymology o f t he w ord: d iuersae a utem p rouinciae q uibusdam t emporibus m an i p lurimum p otuerunt , e t i deo d iuersa g enera n auium f uerunt . s ed A ugusto d imicante a ctiaco p roelio, c um L iburnor um a uxiliis p raecipue u ictus f uisset A ntonius, e xperimento t anti c ertaminis p atuit L iburnorum n aues c eteris a ptiores . e rgo s imilitud ine e t n omine u surpato a d e arundem i nstar c lassem r omani p rincipes t exuerunt: L iburnia n amque D almatiae p ars e st I adertinae s ubiacens c iuitati, c uius e xemplo n unc n aues b ellicae f abricantur e t a ppell antur l iburnae ( 4.33, p .151.11 s qq . L ang: p erhaps i nterpolated a t t he e nd). I f Z iburna a lways c onnoted a s mall, l ightly-built, f ast g alley , t he w ord i s c onspicuously i ll-applied t o t he p onderous o x-powered p addle-ship o f d .r .b . x vii.

1 25

p lumbata ( p/ . t ribolata o r t ribulata , x -xi p icture-caption, x c hapter-heading, x i.1; p / . mami f lata , x -xi p icture-caption, x i c hapter-heading ). P lural i nstances i n V egetius ( 1.17, p .19 .21 - p .20 .1 L ang: p lumbatarum q uoq ue e xercitatio , q uos m attiobarbulos u ocant , e st t radenda i unioribus) a nd c odex t heodosianus ( 9 .35.2 § 1, w here t he p lumbata i s s een a s a n i nstrument o f t orture: p lumbatarum u ero i ctus, q uos i n i ngenuis c orporibus n on p robamus, n on a b o mni o rdine s ubmouemus, s ed d ecemp rimos t antum o rdinis c uriales a b i mmanitate h uius m odi u erberum s egregamus , i ta u t i n c eteris a nimaduersionis i stius h abeatur m oder atio c ommonentis . C ompare 1 1.7.3.1 -3 : n emo c arcerem p lumbatarumque u erbera a ut p ondera c a la .g ue a b i nsolentia i udicum r epperta s upplicia i n d ebitorum s olutionibus u el a p eruersis u el a b i ratis i udicibus e xpauescat ). O f t he t wo e pithets a pplied t o p lumbata b y t he a nonymus, m ami//ata i s d isarmingly f rank, a nd t he p articipial-adjectival f ormation i s u nique ( mammatus o r m ammeatus w ould b e m ore r egular [ mamillanae w ith f icus i n P liny h .n . 1 5.19.69 m eans ' breast-shaped '], a nd m amillare [ verb] i s n ot r ecorded ). t ribolata o r t ribulata , h owever - o n t he s pelling-variants a nd a t extual p roblem s ee m y c ritical n ote t o t he p icture-captions a nd h eading o f c . x -m ay b e f ound e lsewhere i f t he o lder e ditors a re r ight i n f ollowing t he g r eading a t P alladius 1 .42.3 f alciculas b reuissimas t ribulatas ( so G : t ubulatas D PKLSM t abulatas J G ): b ut t hat r eading c an o nly b e s ustained i f w e a ttribute t o i t a s ense ( 'sharp', ' pointed', e ven ' jagged') a dhering f ar l ess l iterally t o t he b ase t ribulum t han t hat e mployed b y t he a nonymus .

q uadrirotis ( vii p icture-caption, c hapter-heading ). A r ecently-restored e ntry i n D iocletian 's e dictum d e p retiis ( cap . 1 5 .42a G iacchero = 1 5 .38a [ Latin c orrupt] L auffer: 6 3 J ournal o f R oman S tudies ( 1973).99-110 a t p .102) g ives t he L atin w ord, c urrum q uadrirotem , n ot r ecovered b y t he e ditors f rom t he a lready-known p arallel e ntry i n t he G reek, xdppov T ETpdTpoxoy. s equentior W ith a etas i n i .8, p ushing t o i ts l imit t he n atural e xpression s equens a etas ( at, e .g., P liny h .n . 2 3.1.20 ). T here s eems t o b e n o o ther r ecorded i nstance o f t he c omparative o f s equens.

* thoracomachus ( xv p icture-caption, c hapter-heading, 1 , 3b is, 4 ; x ix.2). I neptly f ormed f rom e r (4 ) (1E ( in w hich s ense? t he b reast o r t he b reastplate?) a nd t he r oot o f wixouc t t ,. S aumaise ( cited i n T hompson 's a ppendix) p roposed t o r ead e xpositio t horaconacti a nd w ould p resumably h ave e xtended t he c orrection t hroughout: i t i s a ttractive e nough (Tä . v co 4 . -D 5 . [ Hesychios] = ' felt ': d e c oactili ...conficitur , d .r .b .xv.2 ), b ut t he n umber o f o ccasions o n w hich t he c hange w ould h ave t o b e m ade i s a gainst i t -u nless w e s uppose a r igorous p rocess o f i nterp olation o f t he -m ach - f orm a t a ll p oints - a nd I s uspect t hat i t c redits t he a nonymus, q uite u n justifiably o n h is o bserved p erforma nce, w ith a k nowledge o f G reek e qual t o S aumaise's o wn .

1 26

* tichodifrus ( viii-ix p icture-caption ; v iii c hapter-heading, 1 , 2 ; i x.1; x ix.S, 6 ). T he e ffect o f c ompounding t he d ry a nd p rosaic TET , X0 C w ith t he p oetically-coloured ö t cppoc ( admittedly f ound i n am ilitary c ontext a t A rrian, t aktika 1 9.3 ) i s b izarre. T he s pelling i s c ertain, a nd t he g ender o f t he s econd G reek e lement p robably e xplains t he L atin m asculine. uis c arries a n u ncommon s ense i n a urum a rgentumque e t l apidum p retiosorum m agna u is ( ii.2 ), b ut t here i s a c lose s imilarity h ere w ith C icero 's m agna u is a uri a rgentique i n t usc . d isp . 5 .32.91. T he r esemblance b etween t he t wo p hrases i s p robably a ccidental; e ven l ess d oes x ix .8 Z ongus m achinarum s iue t ormentorum o rdo l ook l ike a c onscious r emin iscence o f t he V ergilian t ag o rdine Z ongo ( at e .g. a eneid 1 1.143-4), a nd t he d irect q uotation f rom ' an e xcellent o rator ' r eported i n p raef .5 r emains u nidentified a nd - d espite R oman o ratory 's p enchant f or s tating, i n l apidary l anguage, t he b lindingly o bvious - m ay b e f ictitious. uotiuus i n t he s triking p hrase u otiva d ireptio a t i v .4 f in ., t akes t he p ass ively e xtended s ense ' desired, l onged-for, e agerly-awaited ' e arliest r ecorded f or A ppuleius ( e .g. m et . 7 .13 i nit .) a nd T ertullian ( e.g. a pologeticum 9 .2, . .Tiberii , q ui i psos s acerdotes i n e isdem a rbori-

b us t empli s ui o bumbratricibus s celerum u otiuis c rucibus u iuos e xp osuit ).

2

A BSTRACTION

AND

a ]

a bstract n ouns

S UBSTANTIVAL

S TYLE

T he a nonymus t hinks i n a bstractions: a bstractions o f t ime ( antiquitas , p osteritas , u etustas ), a bstractions o f e xtent ( capacitas , d ensitas , e normitas , e xtremitas , l atitudo , m agnitudo , m edietas , m ediocritas , p opuZositas), a bstractions o f e thical v alues ( diuinitas , h onestas , i mprobitas , i niquitas , l ibertas , p ietas , p rauitas , u eritas), a bst ractions o f i nherent n ature ( aequalitas , a uxilium , d iuersitas , i ngenium , i ntegritas , q ualitas ) a nd o f a ttributed q uality ( admiratio , a speritas , c aecitas , c alliditas , c eleritas , c lementia , c ommoditas, c upiditas , d ifficultas , d ignitas , f acultas , f elicitas, f irmitas , f ragilitas , f rugalitas , i mbecillitas, l argitas, l iberalitas, l icentia , m aiestas , n ecessitas , n obilitas , n ouitas, p aupertas , p otestas, p rou identia , r otunditas, s agacitas , s implicitas, s oliditas , s ollicitudo , t arditas , t emeritas , u ilitas , u tilitas ). E ven f rom t his i ncomplete

1 27

l ist i t c an b e s een t hat t he a bstracts i n -t as e asily p reponderate o ver t he r est; t he t ext o f a bout 3 340 w ords c ontains n o l ess t han 5 4 d ifferent -t as a bstracts ( the c ount e xcludes c iuitas f or o bvious r easons) i n a t otal o f 1 18 i nflexions. T he f avourite i s u tilitas , w hose i nflexions a ppear o n f ifteen o ccasions a nd i n a t l east s ix d ifferent s enses. ( There a re, b esides, f our i nstances o f u tilis). O ne w ord, d electabilitas, w as c oined t o g ratify t his d epraved t aste, a lthough e lsewhere t he a nonymus s eems t o h ave m issed h is o pportunities; h e c hooses t o w rite a d u iciniam p ugnaturi h ostis i n x ix.6, w here a d u icinitatem s hould h ave b een e qually p ossible, a nd s uperior u ita i s a f orced a nd u nconvincing s ubstitute f or a ntiquitas i n i .4. C ompelled t o g loss h is q uasi-technical t erms i n c . x vii, h e f alls b ack o n -t as f orms: x vii.2 i n c uius a lueo

u el c apacitate . . q uarum s upra a mbitum u el r otunditatem w here r otunditatem i s r ecollected f rom x i.1 a nd c apacitas a ppears f or t he o nly t ime i n t he t ext. T he p receding s entence, x vii.1, c ontains i mbecillitas , u tilitas a nd f acilitatem w ithin t he s pace o f e ight w ords. T he a nonymus d etaches h imself f rom p ersonalities, s ubmerging t hem i n a bstraction: d olosa b arbaries s tands f or d olosi b arbari i n v i.1, a nd t he p ossessorum d istributa s ollicitudo g uards t he d efence -w alls p roposed i n c . x x. T he a bstract q ualities o f m achines a lso t ake p recedence o ver t he m achines t hemselves: m achinae h uius a dMiratio e xpresses ' this a mazing m achine' a t x iv.1, a nd i n x ix.3 a scogefyri a uxilium m eans n ot ' the a ssistance o f t he i nflatable b ridge' b ut t he i nflatable b ridge i tself, c onsidered a s au seful o bject. O ne m ay f eel a s light t ension h ere b etween t he s everely p ractical p urposes o f t he d evices a nd t he a bstract a ttributes w hich a re c hosen t o r epresent a nd r ecommend t hem. B ut t he u ncertainty o f t he a uthor's t ouch i s r evealed b y t he s ubstitution o f am ore p ers onal f or a n a bstract q uality i n u irtus ( not u is ) a nimalium a t x vii.1 f in .

b ]

substantives

and

s yntax

R eliance o n s ubstantives t o c arry t he w eight o f t he m eaning h as i mportant s yntactical c onsequences. S o i n t he a nonymus' p hrase q uo p rotectior e adem b allista o peretur ( viii.1) t he d ominance o f n oun o ver v erb a ttracts t he q ualification f rom a dverbial t o a d , j ectival f orm . E lsewhere w e f ind a n a bstract n oun u sed i n p reference t o av erb-form , t he s ubject o f t he a voided v erb b eing g iven a s a d ependent g enitive o r a djectivally ; b allistae i ncessum e xpresses b allistam i nced entem i n v iii.1, a nd i n x ix .3 m ilitarem u iam r eplaces m ilites u iantes . Am ore s uspicious t endency a ppears i n t he c lauses a t i i.3 a nd v i.S p rolusior e rogandi d iligentia f t tit a nd u t s it f acilis i mitandi c onfectio : t he v erbs h ere a re n eutral, m ere a uxilia ries t o t he n ouns o n w hich t he w hole f orce o f t he e xpression i s t hrown, i n am anner c haracteristic o f t he a nalytical t endencies o f c ontemporaneous c olloquial s yntax, w here, i n i ts m ost d eveloped f orm , s trong n ouns, w eak v erbs a nd p repositional i ndications o f a gency r eplace t he s ynthetic d ominant v erb. E geria ( itinerarium 1 .2) w rites c onsuetudo e st u t f iat h ic o ratio a b h is q ui u eniunt

1 28

f or c onsuetum e st u t h ic o rent q ui u eniunt : t he a nonymus i s n owhere s o i nformal o r s o r evealing i n h is s yntax a s t his, a nd y et h is p rofusior e rogandi d iligentia f uit i s ap araphrase o f ( it m ight b e ) d iligenter p rofusiusque e rogatum e st ( I a m n ot r esponsible f or t he c hoice o f t ense h ere), a nd u t s it f acilis i mitandi c onfectio i s a n a nalysis o f u t f acile c onficiantur ( sc. m achinae) i mitando . A nd I h ave a lready c alled a ttention ( above, s ection I .6.[b]) t o a n e xp ression, d e l ibycis ...pellibus ...faciem ( xv.3 ), i n w hich t he a nonymus a nalyzes a g enitive c ase.

3

I MAGE

AND

METAPHOR

I t i s p erhaps n either a ccidental n or i nappropriate t hat t he a nonymus f requently e mploys, i n a t ext d ealing w ith r eform a nd i nvention, t he v ocabulary o f b irth a nd propagation a s a s ource o f m etaphor: s o i ngenii ...magnitudo , q uae u irtutum o mnium m ater e st ( praef .6 ), n omin is t ui g loriam p ropagare ( ii.7; q ui r omano n omini d ebitos a ffectus p ropagatis i n f ilios i s b arely m etaphorical i n p raef .8), n e p rofusa l argitio s emina m agis e xcitet p roeliorum ( i.1; t he i mage i n t he v erb i s u sed w ith a s trangely d ifferent e mphasis i n v i.5, i n e xcitandis a rmorum g eneribus ), n on a mplius b ellorum f lorebit i mprobitas ( i.1), e xpensis g rauidam r em p ublicam ( v .3; t here m ay b e s ome l exical c onf usion w ith v .3 g rauet h ere), u t ...utres ...non e xtollant u terum ( xvi.2), i mpetu p arturiente d iscursum ( xvii.2). L ight a nd d ark— n ess a re e qually o bvious a nd u seful s ources o f i magery i n s uch a c ontext: n e c ommixtionis l icentia ...integritatem p ublicae u tilitatis o bfuscet ( iii.2), l egum ...sententias ...iudicio a ugustae d ignationis i llumines ( xxi.1), a nd a n e xtreme t ransfer o f i llustrare i n t he p ref ace , 7a nd 1 0, c um b arbarae g entes n eque f acundia p olleant a ut d ignitatibus i llustrentur a nd ( more c uriously ) l imitum s olitudinem ..incola s ecurus i llustret . O ther m etaphors a re d rawn f rom p hysical s ensation : f rom s ound i n p ictura p raenuntiante ( iii.4), c ircum— l atrantium ...nationum ...insania ( vi . 1), i ustitia p rofitente ( xxi.1); f rom b odily a ffliction i n t ributariae f unctionis l aborat i llatio ( v .1), q uietem p acis l acerant ( vi.3 ), t horacomachus p luuiis u erberat us ( xv .3); f rom weight i n n e ...fides ...uelut f allacem i n p osterum g rauet ( praef .3 ), c umulatus h onoribus m iles e xultet ( praef .10; t he v erb i s n ot i ntended l iterally ); a nd f rom s trength i n u t d iuina c onsilia d iuinis s uccessibus c onualescant ( praef .1), a rmorum u igorem ( praef .15), r es p ublica m oribus d itata f irmabitur ( iv.5; t he i mage o f ' enrichment' g ives d irection t o t he i mage o f ' strengthening'). i i.2 s qq ., e specially a t 5a nd 6 , i s ap assage d ominated b y t he i mage o f f ire; ..cunctorum d andi h abendique c upiditates a ccendit ... s ed

a fflicta p aupertas i n u arios s celerum c onatus a ccensa ... i nflammando o dia ... p roduxit < inopia> m agis q uam s uccendit a udacia . T his f ollows am iscalculated l iquid i mage, i i.1 h uius a uaritiae o rigo h inc

1 29

c reditur e manasse. A n e asy m etaphor f rom a n i tem o f c lothing h esitantly s ubmitted i n x x .1, u t p rouinciarum q uies c ircumdata q uod am p raesidii c ingulo i niaesa r equiescat . N one o f t his i s v ery n ew . E ven q uies ...circumdata ...praesidii c ing ulo i s n ot s o d aring a s t he a uthor t hinks; A ppuleius a pproaches i t i n d e m undo 7 .304, A sia .. c onstringitur o ceani c ingulo . A nd t he r est a re o bvious e nough. A mongst h is m ore f orceful m etaphors t he a nonymus m ay b e c onsidered t o h ave b een m ost s uccessful w ith t he c ircumlatrantes n ationes w ho q uietem p acis l acerant, i mages o f av iolence a ppropriate t o t he c ontext a t v i.1-3; w ith t he f irst, c ompare t he c ircumlatrantes p hitosophi o f L actantius d iu . i nst . 2 .8.50 a nd t he c ircumlatrantes h aeretici o f A ugustine e pist .65.1, a nd w ith t he s econd, S eneca 's p hrase a d ...pacem ...lacerandam i n d ia1 .4.35.5. B ut e lsewhere o ne m ay w ish t o q uestion t he e xtent t o w hich t he a uthor w as a ware o f t he m etaphorical q uality o f s ome o f t he w ords w hich h e c hooses t o e mploy . E very c urrent v ocabulary c ontains s ubdued, s uppressed o r e ven d ead m etaphors, a nd L ivy 1 . 5 8 .7 u estigia u iri a lieni, C ollatine, i n l ecto s unt t uo s tands a s a f rightful w arning o f w hat c an h appen w hen a l atent m etaphor i s i gnored. I n t he c ase o f a t l east o ne w ord t he a nonymus d isplays t hat c oarseness o f d iction w hich r esults f rom t he o ver-riding o f a c oncealed i mage ( and a lso t hat w hich r esults f rom a n i mprecision o f m eaning). S trictly s peaking, t he s cythes a re n ot ' unfolded' f rom t he s tub-axles o f t he c urrodrepanus, n or i s t he a scogefyrus a ctually ' unfolded' f rom b ank t o b ank o f a r iver, a nd y et e xplicare, t he m ot j uste f or n either o peration, i s u sed f or b oth i n x iv.4 a nd 5 l icep c onuertere...explicatas f alces... f unis u ero, q uo l axato ...explic antur f alces a nd i n x vi.3 h oc i dem o pus...ad a lteram f acile e xplic abitur r ipam . W hat i s a lso n oticeable i n t he a nonymus' s tyle i s t he n ear-personific ation o f a bstracts a chieved b y c oupling t hem a s s ubjects t o p ersonal v erbs. F rom s uch n atural e xpressions a s t he s lowness o f p romotion w hich d iscourages m en f rom a rmy s ervice ( v .5) a nd t he m ateriel w hich p rovokes a n e ngagement ( xix.1), w e p ass t o a n a bstracted a fflicted p overty w hich h as b efore i ts e yes n o r espect f or l aw o r h onour ( ii . 5), a n i ngenious n ecessity w hich d iscovers ( xvi.1), a u tility w hich s ummons ( xvii.1), t he o peration o f m achines w hich r epels ( xix.4), ar otundity w hich h as p ower t o p enetrate o bstacles ( xi.1), a y ielding w eight o f t he e nemy w hich m editates f light ( xix .7), a nd a t l ast w e f ind e xplicit p ersonification; t he b allista, g uardian o f t he f rontiers ( xviii.11), t he f earful a pprehension w hich, w ith c leverness a s i ts m istress, c ontrives t he w oollen s hirt ( xv.2), a nd t he j ustice w hich d elivers i ts r uling ( xxi.1). I t i s a c urious c onsequence o f t he l ate r etreat i nto a bstraction t hat t he p ossibilities o f i magery s hould b e s o s trikingly e xtended.

1 30

4

P ROSE

R HYTHM

T he a nonymus e mploys f ive a ccentual c lausulae, t he t hree n ormal b asic t ypes a nd a s tandard v ariant o f e ach o f t wo o f t hese. T he p atterns a re: ( 1)

. 00.0,

w here

'd enotes a n a ccented a nd ° a s lack s yllable.

Iw ill c all t his t he ' ( cursus) i n t he a nalysis w hich f ollows.

planus

, a bbreviated t o p l

0 , . 000 . , planus 2 ' o r p 2, a c ommon e xtension o f planus 1.. 0 T he t hird s yllable v ery o ften c arries a s econdary a ccent, ( 2) ( 3 )

. 00.00

'tardus

1

o r tl.

' tardus 2 ' o r t2, a n e xtension o f tardus 1 . T he (4 ) t hird s yllable m ay f all a t a s econdary w ord-accent, . 0.0.00 0 0 0

( 5 )

0 0

. 0000.0

' velox' o r v . T he f ourth s yllable a lmost a lways c arries a s econdary a ccent, . 00.0.0. T he i ncidence o f t hese p atterns a t t he m ajor p auses i n t he r hetoric al a rticulation o f t he t ext i s a s f ollows:

p raefatio 1 : u estrae c ommoditas t l tissimi p rincipes t l t c ; nporiL,s t l cessibus c onualescant V . p raefatio 2 : hello c omposui t l m isso p l f ides o stendi p l .

tati s ufficiat t l

p raefatio 3 : p osterum g rauet p l p raemii l oco p l ( p rosequatur v ) dacia d eclinare v . p raefatio 4 : rata c ognoscere t l

renda

mento p rae-

c esserit , p osco p l

l ateat i nquirentem V .

p raefatio 5 : f uerint a pprobati v o ptimus o rator p 2 r it t l .

tura d onaue-

p raefatio 6 : s entiat q uam l oquatur v l itteris a cquisita v netur i nuentio t l o mnium m ater e st t l tate s ubnixa p l . p raefatio 7 : demus a ccidere t l a lieni p 2 .

tatibus i ilustrentur v bentur

p raefatio 8 : tate d iligitis t l r it t l .

gatis i n f ilios t l

p raefatio 9 : u estrae t ractantibus t l c ultoribus t l l ucra t ractantibus t l s ingulorum v iecta t estabitur t l.

tatis i ntule-

uato c ontentis p l t errae tate g audentibus t l c ommoda

p raefatio 1 0 : c ultor h abeatur p 2 sante c ontumelia t 2 i llustret p l p oena d uplicetur p 2 m iles e xultet p l . p raefatio 1 1: toru s p rocurentur v

uenta r eferemus p 2 .

p raefatio 1 2: terio p raeualere v t urbae o bruantur p 2.

1 31

curus

p raefatio 1 3 : tata s ollertia t l p 2 h ostium s trages p l . p raefatio 1 4 : oni o nerosa p 2 p ortabunt p l .

turus i nuadat p l

a rte m uniatur

busque n ecessarium t 2

p raefatio 1 5 : a rbitror d esignatis v tatis a pporto p l s ubleuandam v u estrae c Zementiae t l n obis a liena p 2 .

menta mediis

p raefatio 1 6: patos e ffugiunt t l g estiui p l .

tatibus p eregrinus v

p raefatio 1 7: tate p rotulerit t l l ibertatem v .

u enia p rotegendum v

ferre

sophiae

1 .1 : ( -atur a erarii t l) e xcitet p roeliorum v tatis r eprimatur p 2 rebit i mprobitas t l sidia r ecreantur V . 1 .2 : uanda p rofuderit t l i .3: dentia r eferenda v

tatibus s ubuenire v . genis h abuerint t l

1 .4: m oenibus l aetabantur v

centia u ideatur v .

teriam c onferebant v .

1 .5: monia f igurabant v . i .6: tati s uppeteret t l u sui h abuerunt v . i .7: tatis i nuentum p l

i gne s olidatam p 2

onibus f iguratam v

m odico s ignauerunt v

toribus u tebatur v .

1 .8 : dante m ateria t l sabat o rnatus p l menta m editata p 2 osius f igurauit v turnior f uit p l toque s ignauit p l u sibus p roficiens t 2 crata p ermansit p l. 1 .9: mercia s ignabatur v . 1 .10 : cilius p rosequatur v r aui V . i i.1 p retii h abebatur v

poribus d iuersas p 2

tatibus p rope-

merciis a ssignauit v c reditur e manasse v .

1 1.2 : t emplis r eposita t l

p ublicum p eruenisset v

tates a ccendit p l.

1 1.3 : u ultu s ignatum p l f uit p l .

gatio u ideretur v

i i.4 : ores e ffectae p l

Zentia o ppressis p 2 .

1 1 .5: natus a ccensa p l

o culis h abens p l

1 1.6 : fecit i mperia t l cendit a udacia t l .

ciniis p ersequendo v f ouit t yrannos p l

1 1.7: dentiae t uae p l g loriam p ropagare V . 1 1.8 : uolue m emoriam t l rupta c ommendet p l .

osius h abetur v

gentia

a rtibus c ommendauit v .

o ptime i mperator v r egna c onsidera t l

tor i p rospicere t l o pibus n orant p 1

1 1.9 : p enitus n on h abebant v . p ublicae n on f erenda v f raudibus d eprauata v one s ollici t at t l tatis i maginem t l tatur , i mminuit t l Zenta c alliditas t l nosa n ecessitas t l tractibus i ntulerunt v esse s implicitas t l.

1 32

benda c orrectio t l i nsulam c ongregentur v u sibus p rofut uri v t errae p rohibiti t l f raudibus o pportuna v tatis o bfusc et p l . netae p raestabitur t l onis a ppareat t l

m ercis o ccasio t l .

ante s ubieci p l .

i v .1 : a rtibus u exant p l cranda c upiditas t l tatibus i nimica t 2 rentia d ignitatum v m issos e xistimant t l cedit i niquitas t l ran i m edicina p 2 . i v .2 : p ossit i niquitas t l

u ires e xhauriant t l

i v .3 : lorum i llibata e st t 2 i v .4 : ronum c omparatio t 2 t ura v tiva d ireptio t l .

s oli p eccarent p l .

p raeda d iscessit p l . menti c oemptio t l

m oenibus p rofu-

i v .5 : c upidi m oderentur v tata f irmabitur t l . v .1 : p ublicae i ncommodis t 2 borat i llatio t l . v .2 : gusta f astidiat t l

m erito r epellendis v benda u eniamus p 2

e xitum d eclarabo v .

v .3 : a liquot p eractis p 2 menta p eruenerit t l p ublicam g rauet p l g audeat a bsolutus v ten or s uccedens p 2 uissimis r eleuabit v . v .4 : l ocum u ocatur p l

natus a bscedat p l

turus a ccedat p l .

v .5 : p ublic c ,T , r ecreabit v onis i mminuet t l v .6 : onis u tilitas t l d onis o pulentos p 2 fenderant l oca p l m ilite c ollatores v .

t arditas p rohibebat v . lentes a gricolas t l

v .7 : lorum r uina p l serta m ilitia t l tatis i ntercipit t l d amna s upplenda s unt t l geni i uniores p 2 triculis c ontinentur v a rmis e xerciti t l pendio s ubleuati v t ulerit s ubrogandi v . v .8 : i ta p rouisis p l

nebit e xercitus t l

v i .1 : stringat i nsania t l v i.2 : s iluis t eguntur p l

p rimis s ubsidia t l .

losa b arbaries t l . cantur p ruinis p l

n imio p roteguntur v .

v i.3 : f acile q ueunt p l

atis i ncursibus t l .

v i .4 : m odi n ationes p 2 d ae v .

m oenibus d efenduntur v m achinis p rosequen-

v i .5 : neribus o riatur v u ero d istantem p l c onfectio t l . v ii.1 emplum b allistae p l

oni s ubieci p l

tura t estatur p l .

v ii.2 : q uattuor f acilitas t 2 b ellicos t rahit p l gittas i mpellat p l m anus i mitata p 2 . v ii .3 : q uattuor p artes p l

ducta e t f iexa p l

v ii .4 : ponitur c elerius t 2 v ii .5 : cessitas u ocet p l v ii .6 : o pera u irorum p 2

tandi

rata c onsistat p l .

rigitur s ubleuata v . f lexus e rigitur t l .

torta i aculatur p 2 .

1 33

a rtis i ndustria t l

v iii.1 : s umpsit e xordium t l retur a scensus p l cendus i ncessum p l lista o peretur p 2 sitio u el f abrica t 2 one p raeparanda p 2 . v iii.2 : milior f abricatur v lare u estigia t l one d efendit p l tenter i mpulsus p l . v iii.3 : perior l atitudo v genter a ptatis p l

isque c onfixis p l atur f acultas p l .

i x .1: m odicus c lipeus t l genter m unitus p l betur i doneus t l o perit g estientem v difri o ppositus t l mone s uspensus p l ferius l atitantes v c omminus u enientum V . x .1: i aculi g enus p l detur i nstructum p l sueuit e mitti p l c omminus u adit p l ferre p erniciem t l p erimit i nf ixum p 2 cantis i nfigitur t l f uerit c onuersum p 2 i nferat u ulnus p l . x .2 : tatum i nfigitur t l

rumper e xtensa p l

t ribuli e mergunt p 2 .

x .3 : nentis a mplecti p l . x i.1 : p ennis a dhaerentibus t 2 x ii.1 : hicuZi g enus p l

tate a diuta p l

u aleat p enetrare v .

detur i nstructum p l

x ii .2 : genter m uniti p l

p ugnae n ecessitas t l .

stantibus c ommunitur v

x ii.3: c urrus a ptantur p l a nsulas h abentes p 2 c ant t 2 e rigunt f alces p l . x ii .4 : 7 ,, stibus i mmittant p 2 x iii .1: t ractu d iscurrit p l toribus g ubernatur v . x iv .1 : p arte d issimilis t l x iv .2 : one d issimilis t l

atur a sc ensus p l .

xati q uidem e xpli-

s trages e fficiant t l tute p rotegitur t l

f erro c ircumdatis p 2

b ella c ognoscunt p l . renda p ericula t l

p ositis c ommunitur V .

gacitas r egit p l .

x iv .3 : tate s ecernitur t l

m inus a mplectitur t l .

x iv .4 : a xe p orrectas p l . x iv .5: a xes e riguntur p 2 x v .1 : tauit a ntiquitas t l

p arte e xteriore v untur i ncursus p l . tati s ubiecit p l .

x v .2 : mani c onficitur t l gistra c omposuit t l misque d iscrimen p l hon is ufficiant t l .

tate n on l aederent t l

x v .3 : p luuiis u erberatus v ficiat u estientem v usdem t horacoma c hi t 2 s uperinducere t l . x v .4 : comacho i nducto p 2 n omen a ssumpsit p l l ateri a ptato p 2 m iles a rmabitur t l .

o creis i nductis p 2

x vi .1: tineri e xercitus t 2 cursus i mpediat t l pend io f acile t l u su p raecipuum t l osa n ecessitas t l one c omponitur t l . x vi.2: a rte m ollitis p l f öllibus h auriendam v flati t umuerint t l p iana p erficiat t l i nuicem c olligantur v c irculis e xstantibus t 2 tuntur u ncini p l p ontis a dsociata v catur i ntegritas t l .

1 34

x vi.3 : i mpetum m eatus p 2 cabitur r ipam p l f erreis p alis p l d esuper e xtensis p 2 undi p er f luuium t l tineris a pparatu v t emporis s patium t l Z iberam f acultatem v . x vi .4 : terea s umus p l

nenda u estigiis p l

x vi.5 : Zistae d ispositae t l

d eneget f irmitatem v .

mento c onsistat p l .

x vii .1: doneam b ellis p l mana p rohibebat p 2 o pe s ubnixa p l u irtus i mpellit p l .

tilitas u ocet p l

x vii.2 : m achinis a diuncti p 2 teribus u oluunt p l natibus e lid entes v fectu o perantur p 2 ente d iscursum p l . x vii .3 : s emet o perantibus t 2 p ugnam c apescit p l e ntes v tritu c omminuat t l .

c omminus u eni-

x viii .1: oni n ecessarium t 2 u su c ompertum e st t l e recto p 2 missus i mpellit p l . x viii .2 : m ilitum t rahi p l m achinis a cquisitis v . x viii.3 : milius t ela p l

tudo p ermittit p l u ocet u tilitas t l

n isibus a dnitentes v e rigit n unc d eponit v .

x viii .4 : tutis a rgumentum p 2 tate c onnexum p l terio i nseruiret v a rtis i nuentio t l . x viii .5 : a rtibus c ommunita v u aleat p enetrare V .

primitur

l ongius u adit p l

o pera g ubernat p 2 tudine f iuminis t l

x viii.6: e tiam n uncupata v tatur e ffectum p l . x viii.7 : uicte i mperator p 2 cabis e xercitus t l a ndo v a rtis i ngenio t l pereris u alituras v . x viii.8 : unda d iscrimina t l h ostis a udaciam t l r is t 2 culta t emeritas t l a nte q uam u eniat t l curret i nuentio t l . x viii.9: h ostis o bsideat t l tatis i ngenio t l burna t ranscurrens p l m ora u ictoriam t l . x viii.10 : u iribus r esistet p 2

u iribus o buia gmina p ersequeatus i mpediet t l

b ubus s ubacta p l

n ititur f irmitate v

x viii .11: l imitum c ustos p l sterium q uaerit p l o r t l ferre p otuisset p 2 tata Z argitur p l .

tate r emedium t l.

tute p raestanti -

x ix .1 : p rouocet c ertamina t 2 pressa m inuatur p 2 minibus o rdi n are v m ilibus i nstruantur v pressa p opulositas t 2 xiliis a bundans p 2 c opiis o pprimatur V . x ix .2: m ilitem p lagas p l comacho m uniri p 2 nentibus r ebus p l tilitas a rmari p 2 goribus s ufficiat t 2 p ossit o ccurrere t l c lipeis a ssumptis p 2 rumque e uenit p l d ensitas i naccessa v tate r efugium t l. x ix.3 : tina s ubsidia t l tatum u ehiculis t l tetur a uxilium t l retur o ccursus r l r es i ta t ulerit t l cilitas o fferatur v . x ix .4: c eteras n ationes v s uppetit u irtus p l ratu s uperanda p 2 dustria p roponenda v u iribus r esistat p 2 g entis r efutet p l .

1 35

x ix .5 : sten o u irorum p 2

sidiis p rofuturam v .

t egmine l atentes p 2 x ix .7 : h ostium p ondus p l

h ostis a dueniant t l

sidia m editetur v p oplites i ncidantur v .

x ix .8 : can i p ermiserint t l x ix .9 : tilior c ura p l s ubuenire v .

f erreis c ommunitis V .

o rdo c ircumdet p l

torum d ucatur p l

h ostis i nfestet p l .

d ubiis r ebus p l

c asibus

x x .1 : l imitum c ura p l l atus i mperii t l stella p rospicient t l t urribus e rigantur v s umptu c onstituat t l grariis e xercendis v sidii c ingulo t l laesa r equiescat p 2 . x xi.1: uina p rouidentia t 2 tissime i mperator v sid iis c omparat is v tate r emedium t l rarum m ed icinam p 2 asque s ententias t l iecto l itigio t l onis i llumines t l sistit a lienum p 2 ceri

c ertandi p l

titia p rofitente v m erita s ingulorum V .

T his c onspectus g ives t he f inal r hythm o f e very s entence, t ogether w ith t he s ubsidiary f alls i n an umber o f c omplex s entences w hich s how a n u nusually h igh d egree o f c oncern f or t he i nternal r hythmic s tructure. p 1 a nd t l, i n r oughly e qual p roportions, a re t he m ost c ommon c adences, w ith v i n t hird p lace. t 2 i s i nfrequent, a nd i s m ore l ikely t o b e f ound a t a n i nternal p ause t han a t s entence-end, w here p 1 a nd v a re f avoured. M any s entences f all, j ust a fter t heir b eginning, o n a s ubsidiary c lose o f p 1 t ype. T he p attern t l o ften o ccurs i n g rouped s uccession, b ut t he f ine s equence o f t l c adences i n p raefatio 9 , r eflecting t he p arallel s yntax o f t he c lauses, m ay b e a n a ccidental e ffect o f t he c hoice o f w ords; t he r un o f i nternal t l f alls i n i ii.1 a lmost c ertainly i s. I n c ontrast w ith p raefatio 9 , p arallel c lauses i n x iii.1 a re n ot a rranged i n p arallel r hythm . T he c lausulae o f t he m ost a mbitious p assages - t he p reface a nd x viii. 7 -11 - s how a bout a s m uch v ariety w ithin a nd b etween s entences a s t he m ore s traightforward p arts o f t he e xposition; t he r hythmic r esources i nadequately r eflect t he c hange o f t one, a nd t he m ost s kilfullyo rganized p assage i s t o b e i dentified n either i n t he p reface n or i n c . x viii b ut a t x vi.1-3 . ( xviii.8, l ike x vi.1, s hows a n o bsessive p ersistence o f r hythm w hich m ay b e c onnected w ith t he p ersistence o f w ords a nd f orms c haracteristic - a s w e s hall s ee - o f t he a uthor 's s tyle). S everal p aragraphs o pen w ith a s entence c ontaining f requent a nd v aried i nternal f alls i v .1, i x .1, x vii.1), b ut t hereafter t he h andling o f r hythm s eems l ess c ontrolled: t he a morphous x .2 d isa ppoints a fter t he t aut c onstruction o f x .1. C lausula h elps t o d ecide t ext a t t he l ast w ord o f i x .1

( where C M 's

u enientium i s l ectio f acilior a nd p roduces a n i mpermissible c adence) a nd f orbids R einach 's r ecreabuntur - a voided b y t he a nony ms p recisely b ecause o f i ts r hythmic f orm - a t i .1 f in . S tudy o f t he c lausulae s eems t o h ave n o p ractical a pplication e lsewhere. M uch o f w hat w e s ee m ay b e n o m ore t han t he r esult o f a n i nstinctive f eeling f or r hythmic s hape; b ut t he p references a nd a rrangements j ust n oticed a re a s ufficient i ndication t hat t he a nonymus w as c oncerned i n s ome m easure a t l east t o c ast h is p rose i nto a cceptable r hythmic f orms.

1 36

I II

S TYLISTIC

1

S OME

a ]

anaphora

D EVICES AND

R HETORICAL

C HARACTERISTICS

F IGURES

T he f igure c onveys t he i mpassioned a ppeal o f p raef.8 ..principes , q ui g ioriam b onae o pinionis p erpetua f elicitate d iligitis, q ui r omano n omini d ebitos a ffectus p ropagatis i n f ilios

b ]

a syndeton

e xpresses d ramatically t he a gitation o f i i.6 p opulando a gros , q uiet em l atrociniis p ersequendo , i nflammando o dia , w here t he o rder i s p owerfully c hiastic, a lthough t he a nonymus , e ither f rom e xcess o r d eficiency o f a rt, h as n ot a rranged h is c lauses i n c rescendo. c ]

c hiasmus

I mmediately p receding t he c hiastic a syndeton j ust n oticed w e f ind

n ullam r euerentiam i uris a ut p ietatis a ffectum i n i i.5. T he s truct ure i s s lightly s haky : n u/lam i n t he l eading p hrase t hrows t he i ntended o pposition v isibly o ut o f b alance, a nd e quilibrium i s u neasily r estored b y u nderstanding u l/um ä nö m ouvoü i n t he s econd l imb .

d ]

f igura o k n i 5 xoLvoG

A w eak e xample a t x iii.1 u nius h ominis a rte r egitur e t u irtute p rot egitur , w here t he g enitive i s c ommon t o b oth c lauses. O n c onstruct ions i mplying a n u nderstanding A ub m ouvoü i n i i.5 a nd ( perhaps) x v.2 s ee r espectively [ c ] a bove a nd [ o] b elow . e1

f igura e tymologica

x viii.2 r adiorum n isibus a dnitentes: i neptly c onstructed s entence.

f ]

a n i nexpensive o rnament i n a n

h endiadys

A s ingle i dea m ay b e i ntended i n m anus i mpetu e t u iribus ( x.1) a nd i n s agittarii l ibertatem e t m anus ( vii.2); b ut t he s econd o f t hese i s m ore c onvincingly e xplained a s a z eugma ( [o] b elow )

g l

h omoioteleuton

S uch r iming t erminations a s t hose i n v .4 c omparatio , ..coemptio , ..direptio c ould b e a ccidental; b ut a rte r egitur e t u irtute p rot egitur i n x iii.1 l ooks d eliberate.

h ]

h yperbaton

O nly a n e xtreme e xample n eed b e n oted, x vi.3 t ranseundi .. t een w ords i ntervene] .. f acultatem .

1 37

[ four-

i ]

l itotes

A n i nstance, w hose d egree o f f orce i s s omewhat i ndeterminate, v .1 r atione n on i ncongrua .

j ]

i n

o xymoron

T he c ollocation d eflexus e rigitur i n v ii.5 m ight b e d ignified b y t his t itle; b ut i t i s m ore p robably a n a ccidental h arshness.

k ]

paronomasia

A w riter w ith a f iner s ense o f t he c hoice a nd p lacing o f w ords w ould n ot h ave a llowed t he m omentary s uspicion o f a p un i n x xi.1 a d c iuilium c urarum m edicinam . I n x ii.3 a nd 4 f Unes ...funera t he a pparent p lay o n s ound s eems, i n v iew o f t he d istance b etween t he t wo i tems, t o b e a s pecial c ase o f t he p ersistence o f w ords i n t he a uthor's m ind ( on w hich s ee b elow, s ection 2 ). T his m ay a lso b e t he t rue e xplanation o f t he e choes a t x vi.2 u tres ...non e xtollant u terum a nd x vii.3 l iburnas c omminus u enientes ...comminuat , a lthough i n b oth t hese c ases t he w ords a re p hysically c lose e nough t o a dmit t he p ossibility o f a d eliberate p lay o n s ound .

1 ]

p ersonification

i s d iscussed w ith I magery ,

m ]

a bove,

s ection 1 1.3.

p leonasm

u era f ides i n i .10 a nd i ntegra f ides i n i ii.3 c ome d angerously c lose t o r edundancy o f e xpression, t he f ormer p erhaps m ore s o t han t he l atter; a nd t here i s a s light s uperfluity i n r emedium a d c iuilium c urarum m edicinam a t x xi.1 w hich w ould h ave b een l ess n oticeable i f m edicinam h ad b een t urned v erbally . n ]

variatio

A p articularly s elf-conscious e xample o f t his a mongst t he c onj unctions i n t he p reface, 1 0 q uem a d m odum ... u nde ... q uo p acto ... q uo a rgumento; a nd t he p hraseology f or p arallel c onc epts i s v ery d eliberately v aried i n x vi.2 a nd 3 , e t e st p riori

q uidem c urrui h ac r atione d issimilis ... h ac d iuersitate s ecernitur ... o ]

as ecundo u ero c urru

z eugma

m akes a s tartling a ppearance i n x v.2 a d m ensuram e t t utelam h umani p ectoris ; u nless o ne p refers t o r egard t his a s av ariety o f c onstruction C t i t ,x ouvo0, w ith a d i mplied i n a d ifferent s ense w ith t he s econd n oun. A lmost e qually c rude i s t he c lear z eugma i n x viii.9 l iburna ...rotis a c b ubus s ubacta: b ut s agittarii l ibertatem e t m anus i mitata i s l ess p rominent i n v ii.2, a s entence i n w hich a lso t he w ord-order o f t he p hrase d uobus s ubiunctis e t a rmatis e quis c onverts a p lain e xpression i nto a n a lmost z eugmatic c olloc ation . T hE d ouble s ubject i n t he t ransmitted t ext o f i .6 u t u ero

e mendi e t 7 4 endendi u tilitas e t u t f acultas r egiae l argitati s upp eteret , o n w hich s ee m y c ritical n ote, i s t o b e e liminated b y e mendation .

1 38

2

R EPETITION O F WORDS

T his I t ake t o b e t he m ost r emarkable c haracteristic o f t he a uthor's s tyle. T he r ecurrence o f p articular w ords ( utilitas, f or e xample) a t s hort i ntervals, s ometimes w ith a c hange o f s ense, i s s ufficiently o bvious a t a f irst r eading o f t he t ext; a nd c lose e xamination o f t he p rose r eveals h ow p ervasive t he r epetitions a re, e xtending b eyond s ingle w ords t o w hole p hrases a nd c onstructions, a nd o ften f orming s equences o f c onsiderable c omplexity, w here r ecurrences o f o ne i tem a re i nterwoven w ith o r o verlap t hose o f a nother . P ostponing g eneral c omment u ntil t he e nd o f t his s ection, I g ive n ow, i n c ondensed q uotations, a s urvey o f t he m ost c onspicuous r epetitions o f w ord, f orm , r oot, i diom , p hrase a nd c onstruction f ound i n t he c ourse o f t he t ext, p rinting i n b old t ype t he r ecurring i tems.

[ a ] p raef .2-3:

d e l argitionum u tilitate .. n on q uod i stud t am i nmensae u tilitati s ufficiat s ed u t .. i n r eliquis p ossit u tilitatis f ides o stendi. p roinde n e promissioni f ides a ccommodata p oenam p raemii l oco, s i promissiosecus c esserit , p osco N otice t he c hange i n m eaning b etween t he f irst t wo a ppearances o f u tilitas a nd t he l ast, a nd b etween t he t wo e xamples o f f ides.

[ b ] p raef .6-15:

a ut e loquentia l itteris a cquisita c onsecuta e st u tilitates a rtium • n eque f acundia p olleant a ut d ignitatibus illustrentur q uae n ostris s ensibus c ommoda p rouidentia d iuinitatis i ntulerit .. p ro s aeculi u estri f elicitate gaudentibus, c onsequemini e x h oc o pere c ommoda s ingulorum e rectis c astrorum m unitionibus i ncola s ecurus illustret c umulatus h onoribus m iles exultet • i ngenii magisterio p raeualere talis e st e xcogitata s ollertia u t e quus .. tali a rte m uniatur u t .. s ine c uiusquam magisterio e fficiat m unus c oncessu d iuinitatis a pporto .

[ c ] p raef .13 w ith x ii.4:

e fficiat m agnas h ostium s trages.

( praef .13)

u t

( xii .4 )

q uas u ero t urbatis o rdinibus s trages e fficiant

[ d ]

i .1 w ith i i.1

( i.1)

n e profusa l argitio s emina m agis e xcitet p roeliorum .

( ii.1).Constantini t emporibus profusa largitio

1 39

a ssignauit .

[ e ] i .4-10, a n e xceptionally i ntricate p assage w hich I t ranscribe

i n e xtenso: 4 i n q uorum d ecorem u niuersam auri argentique materiam c onfere5 b ant . aeris quoque copiam i n s imulacris p ropriis a d u irtutis 6 s uae t estimonia f igurabant. ut u ero e mendi e t u endendi u tilitas ** e t u t f acultas regiae t argitati s uppeteret , i n a eris usum e xcultam p olitius t errai n , c ertis quoque e xpressionibus f iguratam, 7 auro argentoque r eposito usui h abuerunt . sed p osteriores f astid ientes p riscae u ilitatis i nuentum f ormatis e c oriis o rbes auro m odico signauerunt, q uibus r egum m unificentia e t c ommutationum 8 n ecessitas i ntactis c olZatoribus utebatur. sequentior uero a etas, aeris r edundante materia q uam p ublicus i am m oenium r ecus abat o rnatus, d iuturna ut p rior m onumenta m editata a es u alidum i pso pondere p retiosius f igurauit; c uius species pro q ualitate, ut d ix imus, ponderis d iuturnior f uit , sed p otentia regalis pro l icentia speciem s uam t antw n i n auro argentoque s ignauit, quae pro r euerentia f igurae n ullis 9 usibus p rof iciens ad h onorem regium s acrata p ermansit . aeris a utem materia, quae i c zm pro copia u ilior e rat, ad d ona 1 0 m ilitaria e t uaria p opulorum c ommercia signabatur. sed ut u era f ides d icta f acitius prosequatur, f ormas e t species c ommodas a tque pro t emporibus d iuersas uariasque u eterum p rouisiones e xprind c olorw n qualitatibus p roperaui . T his i s v ery a rresting. S ome o f t he r epetitions w ere, p erhaps, u navoidable: t hus a eris i n 5 a nd 6 , a uro i n 6 a nd 7 , a eris a nd a es i n 8 , s ince t he a nony ms c annot a void m entioning g old a nd b ronze a t t hese p oints: a nd i t i s p robably r ather u nfair t o d raw a ttention t o t he o bvious f ormula a urum a rgentumque i n i ts v arious i nflexions a t 4 , 6 a nd 8 . S ome o f t he e choes m ay h ave a risen a ccidentally ( so p erhaps t he t wo m odal u ts i n 8 , a nd t he s equence r egiae - r egalis - r egium [ 6-8-9]); s ome o f t he r epetitions a re q uite d eliberate ( such a s t he t wo f inal u ts i n 6 a nd t he c alculated u ariatio o f u ero - s ed - u ero - s ed b etween 6 a nd 8 ). B ut s uch r ecurrences a s f igurabant - f iguratam - f igurauit - f igurae,

s ignauerunt - s ignauit - s ignabantur , p ro - p rd - p ro - p ro - p ro a nd d iuturna - d iuturnior a re i ndicative e ither o f a n o bsessive h abit o f t hought o r o f a c hronic p overty o f v erbal i nvention. O bserve a lso t he p reoccupation w ith c omparative f orms ( mostly w ith g enuinely c omparative f orce ) t hroughout t he w hole o f t he c hapter, s uperioris - p osteriores - s equentior - p rior - p retiosius -d iuturnior - u ilior - f acilius. S ome i tems i n t he s entences p rinted a bove a ppear i n t he s urrounding c ontext: c ollatoribus i n 7r ecalls t he i nescapable c ollatorum o f 1 , a nd l icentia i n 8p icks u p t he s ame w ord i n ad ifferent s ense a t t he e nd o f 3 : o ne w ord, l argitio , o utside t he m ain a rea o f r epetitions g iven a bove, a ppears t wice e arlier i n t he c hapter ( 1 a nd 2 ). S entence 1 0 t erminates c hapter i , a nd - s ignificantly - w ith t he p ause i n t he t rain o f t hought t he a uthor b reaks o ut o f h is o bsession w ith c ausal p ro: t he w ord i s s till i n h is h ead, b ut i n t he n ew p aragraph ( ii.1 a urum p ro a ere) h e c an u se i t i n a nother m eaning.

1 40

[ f ] i i .2-6: c unctorum d andi h abendique c upiditates a ccendit. e normis i am e t g rauis e rogatio u ideretur p rofusior e rogandi d iligentia f uit . s ed a fflicta paupertas, i n u arios s celerum c onatus a ccensa q uos a d g loriam u irtutis t uae p roduxit < inopia> m agis q uam s uccendit a udacia .. i n p osterum n ominis t ui g loriam p ropagare .. antiquae paupertatis f ämosa r egna c onsidera •

•

•

[ g ] ii.1-2: s olidorum f igura a liquantorum f raudibus d eprauata e mentis e nim e undem s olidum f raudulenta c alliditas n e c ommixtionum l icent ia f raudibus o pportuna i ntegritatem p ublicae u tilitatis o bfuscet •

•

•

[ h ] i v .1-2: q uae p rouincias a uaritiae a rtibus u exant , a ccedit e tiam i udicum e xecranda c upiditas .. a b h is p rocedit i niquitas u nde d ebuit s perari m edicina . e t t amquam s ua r ebus s ufficere n on p ossit i niquitas, e xactores i n p rof Ugandis r ebus h uius m odi d irigit u nus q uisque q ui d iuersis r apinarum a rtibus c ollatorum u ires e xhauriant . q uod s i p rouincias c asti e t i ntegritatis c upidi m oderentur H ere I m ight a lso h ave d rawn a ttention t o a uaritiae a nd r apinarum b efore t he t wo a ppearances o f a rtibus . T he r epetition o f r ebus, w hich I t ake t o b e t he e ssential r eason f or d eleting t he w ord b etween s ua a nd s ufficere, i s i n f act a n a rgument f or r etaining i t i n t he t ext . S imilarly t he p resence o f o tio i n v .3 m akes t he r estoration o f o tio f or t aZiot a t v .4 m ore, n ot l ess, a ttractive . • [ i ] v .3-5: n e .. r em publicam g rauet, h onesta m issione d onatus u acans s ibi o tio g audeat a bsolutus. i n c uius l ocum p osterior s uccedens t otum n umerum p er c erta t emporum s patia expensis g rauissimis r eleuabit . .. h ic q uoque p ari l iberalitate * otio d onatus a bscedat q uae r es n on s olum expensis g rauidam r em publicam r eleuabit , s ed e tiam A n i nstructive p assage . T he e lements r es p ublica - g rauare/grauis/ g rauidus - e xpensa , d ifferently c ombined, p roduce a s purious e ffect o f v ariety f rom p ainfully l imited v erbal r esources; a nd v ariation o f w ord-order a nd p hrasing ( but n ot o f i nflexional f orms ) l ends a s imilarly s uperficial a ir o f n ovelty t o * otio d onatus a bscedat i n 4 , p icking u p o tio g audeat a bsolutus i n 3 .

1 41

E i] v ii.3-6 :

q uibus p ro c ommoditate r erum c ircumducta e t f lexa, f acillime a d o mnes i mpetus p arata c onsistat . q uae q uidem a f ronte c ochleae m achina e t d eponitur c elerius e t e rigitur s ubleuata . s ed h uius t emo c ita e t f acili c onuersione d eflexus e rigitur.

[ k] v ii.5 w ith x vii.1,

x viii.3 a nd x ix.2:

i n q uamuis p artem n ecessitas u ocet q uocumque u tilitas u ocet p ro u t u ocet u tilitas p ro u t m embrorum p oscit u tilitas A s imple c ase o f a r epeated f ormula ; o f t he l ast t hree i nstances.

b ut n otice t he c lose g rouping

[ 1] v iii.1-2:

p er h unc f acilior i n m urum paretur a scensus , .. q uo p rotectior e adem b allista o peretur; e rit e rgo h uius q uoque c ompositio u el f abrica uti/i e t c ommoda i nuentione p raeparanda. e rgo h ic i dem t ichodifrus n on a ltiorsed humilior f abricatur u t i ntra se p ossit l atenter i ncedentium c elare u estigia : q ui i ntra se t ectos a b o mni i ncursione d efendit, d uobus s ane r otis a d p romouend am m achinam l atenter i mpulsus . S omething o f a c hain-reaction s eems t o h ave t aken p lace h ere. T he f irst c omparative , f acilior , p ersists i n t he w riter's m ind a nd d ist orts t he f ollowing g rammar, w here t he a djective p rotectior i s a t otally u nexpected s ubstitute f or t he a dverb: t he a ttraction c ont inues i nto t he u nnecessarily c omparative d egree o f a ltior a nd h umilior . ( These t wo w ords a re c orrectly r eferred a s a djectives t o t he s ubject, t hough t he p hrase i s r epeated i n a dverbial g uise i n x viii.3). T here i s a n i neffectual a ttempt t o c onceal a p overty o f v ocabulary i n t he v ariation b etween s imple a nd c ompound, p aretur ...

p raeparanda .

[ m]

i x.1 w ith x vii.3 :

( ix .1) c lipeus, f ixoriis m inutis a d s oliditatem s ui d iligenter munitus minit i nferius l atitantes a b i ncursu c omminus u enientum . ( xvii.3 )

E r]

o mnes a duersarias l iburnas c omminus u enientes.

x .1-3 :

h oc i aculi g enus , q uod in m duma s agittae p ennis u idetur i nstruc tum , .. in h ostem c omminus u adit : q uod e xcipienti g emina r atione u idetur a fferre p erniciem : a ut e nim p erimit i nfixum a ut s ine

1 42

m anere d ilapsum e t i n t erra in p ositum p lantae c aZcantis i nfigitur, e o q uod i n p artem q uamlibet s i f uerit c onuersum , ex l atere a culeo ex s e e minente i nferat u u nnus. f it a utem ex hg -no i n m odum s agittae f acto, c ui f errum s ubtiliter in f ormam u enabuli a ptatum i nfigitur .. i n s umma a utem p arts e iusdem i aculi affiguntur p ennae C onsider h ere t he s ix a ppearances o f i n c . a cc . ( the i nstance w ith a blative a t t he b eginning o f 3 s tands o utside t he s equence), t he u nenterprising v ariation i n t he c ompounds o f f igere, a nd t he ( inadvertent?) r epetition i n f it .. f acto .

[ o] x .1, t he a uthor 's s tandard i ntroductory f ormula a ppearing w ith s light v ariations a t x ii.1, x iii.1, x v.2, x vi.3 a nd x viii.1:

( x .1)

h oc i aculi g enus, quod i n m odum s agittae pennis u idetur i nstructum,

( xii.1)

huius modi p ugnacis u ehiculi g enus, p raeter m orem u idetur i nstructum,

( xiii.1)

i n h oc

c urriculo,

quod

quod a rmis

d iscurrit ,

( xv . 2 )

hoc e nim uestimenti g enus,

( xvi.3)

hoc i dem opus .. a d a lter c zm e xplicabitur r ip a m : quod t ranseundi p er f luuium p raebebit Z iberam f acult atem .

( xviii.1)

quod

c onficitur

huius m cmii ballistae g enus .. s upra c eteras i mpetu e t u iribus p raeuaZere u su c ompertum e st .

x .1 a nd x ii.1 s hare a n i dentical v erbal i diom i n t he r elative c lause x iii.1 r epresents a s everely a dapted f orm o f t he s tock p hrase: a nd i n x vi.3 t he r elative d oes n ot i ntroduce a p arenthesis.

[ p ]

x i.1 w ith x viii.6:

( xi.1)

c lipeos a duersarii e t s imiliter o bstantia ualeat penetrare.

( xviii.6)

D anubii

l atitudinem ualeat p enetrare.

x ii.2 w ith x iv .1 ( xii.2)

cultris i n o rdinem e xstantibus c ommunitur

( xiv.1)

c lipeis a cuto f erro c ircumdatis

c ommunitur

i n o rdinem i n t he f irst q uotation i nvolves a s omewhat h arsh c aseu sage a fter t he p reposition. A p lausibly a ccusatival s ense c an b e f orcibly e xtracted f rom t he p hrase ( 'projecting i nto, i .e . s o a s t o f orm , ar ow ') b ut a n a blative i s w hat t he m ore n atural s ense ' in a r ow ' r equires; t he i dea i s l ocal, n ot o f m otion o r s uperposition. C onsiderations o f e uphony m ay h ave p rompted t he a ccusative, b ut a b etter e xplanation m ay b e f ound i n t he i nfluence o f t he p receding p hrase, c itato c ursu i n p ugnam r apiunt . B y c ontrast, i n t erra i n p ositum a nd i n p artem q uamlibet c onuersum a t x .1 a re, d espite a c ontext o f i n c . a cc ., s urprisingly a ccurate u sages. 1 43

E r]

x ii.3-4 w ith x iv.4-5:

( xii.3-4)

f unes laxati q uidem explicant, r epressi a utem , erigunt falces. q ualia u ero h uius m odi m achinae f unera h ostibus i mmittant

( xiv.4-5)

l icet c onuertere laxatis f unibus explicatas falces f unis u ero , q uo laxato a ut explicantur falces a ut r epresso s uper e osd em a xes eriguntur

E s ] x v .1 -4 ( I q uote e xtensively ): .. a d l euamen c orporis a rmorum ponderi e t a speritati s ubiecit . h oc e nim uestimenti g enus, q uod d e c oactiii a d m ensuram e t t ute l a i n p ectoris h umani c onficitur t imoris s ollicitudo c omposuit u t hoc i nducto p rimum l orica u el c livanus a ut h is s imilia f ragilitatem c orporis ponderis a speritate n on l aederent , m embra q uoque uestientis l abori s ufficiant . s ane n e idem t horacomachus p luuiis u erberatus i ngrauescente pondere a dficiat u estientem, d e l ibycis b ene c onfectis p ellibus a d i nstar e iusdem t horacomachi f aciem c onueniet superinducere. h oc i gitur , u t d iximus, thoracon n who i nducto, s occis e tiam .. e t f erratis o creis inductis, superposita g alea , .. m iles a rmabitur .

[ t]

x vi.1 w ith x viii.8 a nd x ix .2:

( xvi.1) n e i nterdum n ecessario i tineri exercitus f luuiorum ( quod plerumque euenit) o ccursus impediat ( xviii.8)

e i u ictricem exercitus meatus impediet

c ursum f luuiorum u spiam

( xix .2) n e s it ( quod u su p lerumque euenit) p ro a rmoru r r z l atitud ine s iluarum d ensitas i naccessa

[ u]

x vi.2 -5 :

i ta u t c um i dem u tres s piritu i nf lati t umuerint n on e xtollant u terum d esuper a utem u na parte c irculis e xstantibus e x a ltera i mmittuntur u ncini , e t i ta i n f ormam p ontis a dsociata partibus explicatur i ntegritas. s ed h oc i dem o pus o bliquo u sque a d a lteram explicabitur r ipam f unibus u alidis i n m edio q uidem s ub i psis u tribus p ropter incedentium sustinendum p ondus, i n m arginibus a utem f irmitatis g ratia d esuper e xtensis .. s uper u trium c ompaginationem c ilicia s unt i ncedentium substernenda u estigiis n e l ubrica p ellium c onfectio i nsistendi d eneget f irmitatem T he f inal s entences o f c .

x vi a re d ominated b y g erunds a nd g erundives,

s ustinendum - t ranseundi - a dMonendi - s ubsternenda - i nsistendi; s ee t he f ull c ontext. c onsistat a t t he e nd o f 5 m ay h ave b een s uggested, s ubconsciously, b y i nsistendi i n 4 ; t he e cho w ould b e a s i nsidious a s t he p rompting o f s ubsternenda b y s ustinendum , b oth f ollowing a n i nstance o f i ncedentium . T he j ingle u tres - u terum i s c omparable w ith t he c omminus - c omminuat o f x vii.3 ( below, [ v]) a nd i s e qually o bjectionable. f irmitas, i t m ay b e n oted, s tays w ith t he a uthor a nd r e-appears i n x viii.10.

1 44

[ v ] x vii.3: h aec e adem t ar nen l iburna t anto u irium f remitu p ugnam c apesc „ u t o mnes a duersarias l iburnas c omminus u enientes f acili a ttritu c omminuat.

[ w ] x viii.1-11: h uius m odi b allistae g enus .. s upra c eteras i mpetu e t u iribus praeualere u su c ompertum e st: a rcu e tenim f erreo s upra c analem q uo s agitta e xprimitur e recto u alidus n erui f unis e andem s agittam m agnis u iribus i n h ostem d imissus i mpel l it. h unc t ar nen f unem n on m anibus n eque u iribus m ilitum t rahi f abricae i psius m agnitudo p ermittit .. p ro d ifficultate r ei u iribus m achinis a dquisitis . b allistam t ar n en i psam .. c ochleae m achina p ro u t u ocet u tilitas n unc e rigit n unc d eponit u nius t antum o tiosi h ominis a d o fferendam t antum m odo i mpulsioni s agittam o pera g ubernat , u idelicet n e m inueretur a rtis i nuentio. e x h ac i gitur b allista t ot e t t antis i ngenii a rtibus c ommunita expressum t etum i n t antum l ongius u adit a ppellatio ne s ua u iritun t estatur e ffectum . h is i gitur , i nuicte i mperator , m achinarum q uoque i nuentionibus c ommunitam p otentiam i nuicti d uplicabis e xercitus, h ostium i ncursibus n on u i s olum e t u iribus o buiando s ed e tiam a rtis i ngenio .. c um .. p er o mnia e lementa m achinas r eppereris ualituras. f ugientium a gmina p erseq ueris a ut s i u ictricem e xercitus c ursum f luuiorum u spiam m eatus i mpediet , p ortatilis p ontis p eculiaris s uccurret i nuentio. q uod s i n auali h ello t erras f ugiens m aria h o. s tis o bsideat , n ouo c eleritatis i ngenio r otis a c b ubus s ubacta f iuctibus l iburna t ranscurrens r estituet s ine m ora u ictoriam . q uis e nim h uius u iribus r esistet...? ...id s ibi a rtis i ngenio d otata l argitur . T he i nteractions o f t he v ocabulary a re h orrifyingly c omplex , a nd o nly o ne o f t hem ( the r hetorical f lourish i nuicte i mperator i nuicti e xercitus) c an e ven r emotely b e r egarded a s d eliberate. f irmitate i n 1 0 ( not g iven a bove) i s r ecollected f rom x vi.3 a nd 4 , w hile p ro u t u ocet u tilitas ( 3 ) d erives f rom v ii.5 a nd x vii.1 a nd w ill r eappear a t x ix .2. c ommunita - c ommunitam i s as urvivor f rom c ommunitur i n x ii.2 a nd x iv .l. F aced w ith t he i nvolved r epetitions d isplayed a bove, i t w ould b e u ngracious t o d raw a ttention t o t he r epetition o f s uch t erms a s f unis i n t he e arly p art o f t he c hapter a nd m achina t hroughout.

[ x ] x ix .1-2: n e u irtus c ompressa m inuatur c onueniet d ucem s patia t ernis a gminibus o rdinare n e c ompressa p opulositas s uis c opiis o pprimatur . c onueniet t ar nen m ilitem t horacomacho m uniri

[ y ] x x .1 ( end ) w ith x xi.1

( beginning: c hapter-heading o mitted ):

u t p rouinciarum q uies c ircumdata q uodam p raesidii c ingulo i niaesa r equiescat . d iuina p rouidentia , s acratissime i mperator , d omi f örisq ue r ei p ublicae praesidiis c omparatis

1 45

H ow a re w e t o a ccount f or t hese v erbal r epetitions i n t he t ext? D iff erent e xplanations m ust b e i nvoked i n d ifferent c ases. S ome o f t he r ecurrences a re, w ithout d oubt, p erfectly i nnocent, a rising f rom n atural r e-statements o f l eading i deas: t hus, t he a nonymus c ould s carcely a void r epeating t he w ords f or ' bronze' a nd ' gold' i n c c. i -i . C losely c onnected w ith r epetitions o f t his t ype a re t hose w hich r esult f rom t he d eficiency o f L atin s ynonyms f or a g iven c onc ept - u esicae w ould b e n o s ubstitute f or u tres i n c . x vi - a nd f rom t he r eady a vailability o f s uch s et f ormulae a s h uius m odi . I n t hese c ases i t i s n ot t he f act t hat a w ord o r a n i diom i s r epeated w hich s trikes u s s o f orcibly a s t he r emarkable i ncompetence s hown i n r epeating i t s o o ften a nd a t s uch c lose i ntervals. A gain, s ome o f t he r epetitions a re a s imple c onsequence o f t he a bstract o r t echnical n ature o f t he m aterial a nd t he a bstract t erms i n w hich t he a uthor c hooses t o d eploy i t: h e i s p re-occupied w ith s uch c onc epts a s a rs , i ngenium , i ntegritas, c ommoditas , n ecessivas a nd l arg itio , a nd i nsists o n e xpressing h is i deas b y r eference t o t heir q ualities o f f acultas, d ifficultas, u tilitas , e ven - i n c onnexion w ith a s haped w eapon - r otunditas . B ut i t i s c lear t hat m any o f t he r epetitions o riginate i n a s heer p overty o f v erbal i nvention. l argitio i s i nevitably p rofusa , a urum a nd a rgentum a re i nextricably l inked, u tilitas a nd n ecessitas f req uently ' summon' o r ' require ', s uccessive g enerations ' figure' o r ' mark ' t heir c oinage, t he s tate i s g rauida o r g rauata w ith e xpensa g rauissima ; a nd s o o n. W e w atch w ith a c ertain w ry a musement a s t he a nonymus s huffles h is f ew p oor w ords a round i n a d esperate a ttempt t o m ake t hem , l imited a nd i ntractable t hough t hey a re, e xpress h is n ovel a nd s tartling p erceptions; u niting, f or e xample, i n t he w ords i ngenii a rtibus c ommunita e xpressum a t x viii.5, f our i tems w hich a ppear s eparately a t d ifferent p oints i n t he s urrounding c ontext. Y et t here i s s omething m ore i nsidious, a p robably s ubconscious f eature o f t he a uthor's h andling o f l anguage, t o b e d etected i n t hose c ases w here a r epetition t akes t he f orm o f t he a pparent s ugg estion o f o ne w ord b y t he m orphology, e tymology, o r e ven t he m ere s ound, o f ap receding o ne. a ccendit a nd a ccensa i n i i.2 a nd 5 d ictate s uccendit i n 6 ; t he g roup e xercituslfluuiorum o ccursus i n x vi.1 ( the v ertical l ine s hows t he s yntactical a rticulation o f t he w ords i n c ontext) p rompts t he g roup e xercitus c ursum lfluuior um i n x viii.8; m inutis i n i x .1 m ay h ave s uggested t he f ollowing m unitus, a nd t his c ertainly p rompts t he v erb ( munit ); i ncedentium s ustinendum i n x vi.3 s eems t o b e r ecollected i n i ncedentium s ubs ternenda i n t he s entence n ext f ollowing ; a nd c omminus i n x vii.3 m ay ( unless t he p lay o n s ound i s c onscious a nd d eliberate) h ave s uggested t he v erb c omminuat, f ollowing a t t hree w ords ' d istance . E ven i n c ases w here t he a uthor m ay j ustly b e s uspected o f h aving s ought v ariety , t he e ffect i s a chieved o nly b y t he a lternative u se o f s imple a nd c ompound f orms f rom t he s ame r oot ( so p aretur ..praeparanda i n v iii.1) o r b y r inging t he c hanges o n a vailable c ompounds ( thus t he s equence i nfixum ...infigitur ...infigitur ... a ffiguntur i n x .1 -3 ). O ccasionally , i ndeed, t he s urvival o f a f orm i n t he a uthor 's m ind s eems a ctually t o h ave d istorted h is g rammar. p rotectior , s tanding q uite u nexpectedly f or p rotectius ( adverb) i n v iii.1, i s p receded

1 46

b y f acilior , a nd t he c ombined i nfluence o f t hese t wo c omparative a dj ectives o verflows i nto v iii.2's n on a ltior s ed h umilior ( contrast x viii.3 n on a ltius s ed h umilius); a nd i n t akes a ccusative r ather t han a blative i n x ii.2 c ultris i n o rdinem e xstantibus , w here a n i n c um a ccusatiuo i mmediately p recedes. A nd t he a uthor i s s ometimes c aught u p, e specially w ith h is p repositions, i n a n o bsessive r epet itiousness w hich h e s eems h elpless t o c ontrol, f rom w hich h e i s u nable o r u nwilling t o e scape, o r o f w hich, p erhaps, h e w as n ot e ven a ware; s o t he r epeated i diom t alis...ut i n p raef .13, t he f ive p ros i n s uccession i n t he s ame s ense a t i .8-10, t he i ns a nd e xs o f x .1-3, u iribus f our t imes r epeated i n x viii.1-2, a nd t he s tock i ntrod uctory f ormula h oc m achinae ( iaculi , u ehiculi, u estimenti) g enus, q uod ..., f irst d evised a t x .1 a nd r e-used a t x ii.1, x v.2, x vi.3 a nd x viii.l. A s a f inal c omplication , l et i t b e s uggested t hat t he i nfluence o f w ords m ay n ot a lways h ave p roceeded i n t he s ame, f orward d irection. W e h ave n o m eans o f k nowing w hether, o r h ow, o r h ow o ften t he a uthor m ay h ave r evised w hat h e h ad w ritten ( that h e m ade a t l east o ne r ev ision o f h is w ork I w ould c onjecture f rom t he a ppearance o f r ei p ublicae p raesul i n a n u nrelieved c ontext o f p rincipes i n t he p reface; s ee a bove, s ection I .1.[a], m y n ote o n v ocatives). I t i s t herefore n ot i mpossible t hat i n t he c ourse o f a ny c orrection w hich w as a pplied t o t he t ext c ertain i tems m ay h ave e xercised a r etrospective i nfluence o n p receding m atter, t he a uthor r ejecting, i n a n e arly p art o f a p aragraph, a w ord o riginally w ritten i n f avour o f a w ord i n s ome w ay s imilar t o i t w hich h ad s uggested i tself i n t he c ourse o f w riting.

3

C OARSENESS

O F

V ERBAL

T EXTURE

A d irect c onsequence o f t he e xcessive l imitation o f t he a uthor's r esources o f e xpression a nd l iterary i magination i s ap erceptible c oarseness o f t he v erbal t exture, t he v isible r esult o f a d isinclin ation t o c hoose w ords w ith p recision, a s ubservience t o c onventional m odes o f e xpression, a nd a n i nsensitivity t o t he e ffect o f w ords w hen w oven i nto a c ontext. E ach o f t hese f actors w ill b ear s crutiny:-

I mprecision o f l anguage i s m ost e vident i n t he c ase o f t he r epeated i tems o f v ocabulary , w here t he f ine a nd e xact a djustment o f w ord t o m eaning i s r eplaced b y t he u se o f s ome f avourite w ord w hose s emantic f ield r oughly c overs t he d esired s ense. T he c ompleteness o f t he p ontoon b ridge e xplicatur , ' is a chieved', b y t he a ssembly o f i ts c omponents; a nd i mmediately a fterwards t he c ompleted b ridge e xplicab itur , ' will b e b uilt o ut' w ith g reat e ase t o t he o pposite r iverb ank ( xvi.2-3). A t i .8, s pecies m eans s uccessively , a t a d istance o f o nly t welve w ords, ' type ( of c oin )' a nd ' portrait ( of a k ing)': i t h ad m eant ' variety ' a t p raef .9. u tilitas , h eavily o ver-used b y t he a nonymus a s a n a ll-purpose a bstract - i ts i nflexion o ccur, i n t otal, f ifteen t imes i n a t ext o f s ome 3 340 w ords - m eans ' public

1 47

s ervice ' ( praef .2, b is), ' expedient' ( praef .2), ' discovery ' o r ' progress' ( praef .6), ' welfare' ( iv .1), ' requirements' ( xix .2), e ven - u nexpectedly - ' utility ' ( vii.2 ). B ut t here i s n o c ause f or a larm i n t he a uthor 's e xtended u se o f a rs, w hich n ow a pproaches ' art ' ( praef .6) a nd n ow ' science ' ( xviii.11), t aking i n o n t he w ay t he m eanings ' skill' ( xiii.1) a nd ' technique' ( xvi.2); t hese a re a ll s enses w hich t he w ord m ay l egitimately b ear . C onventionality o f l anguage a ppears m ost c learly i n t he t hreadbare a d jective a nd t he t rite m etaphor. T he a nonymus' e pithets - a nd h is p rose i s n ot d istinguished b y ap rofusion o f a djectives - a re f or t he m ost p art f lat a nd s ometimes m erely d ecorative. T he r es p ublica i s i nevitably f elix ( praef .1) a nd s o a re i ts l imites ( xviii.11) t his, d espite t he r eal s tate o f a ffairs w hich o ur a uthor p erceives a ll t oo c learly . f ides i s u era a t i .10 a nd i ntegra ( this i s p erhaps s uggested b y t he e arlier i ntegritatem ) a t i ii.3: t he a djectives a re o rnamental t o t he p oint o f t autology . O r s hould o ne r ather s uppose t hat t hese a re s ymptoms o f a l inguistic i nflation, p arallel w ith t he i nflation o f t he l ate i mperial c urrency, w ith t wo d ebased w ords a cting w here o ne w ould f ormerly h ave s ufficed? A s f or m etaphors, t he a nonymus c annot r esist t he v enerable i mage o f m edicine a nd c ure ( xvi.1, x xi.1), a nd a m achine i s p redictably e ndowed w ith a ll t he r efinements o f a rt ( xviii.11), w hile h atreds a re n aturally i nflamed a t i i.6. M ercifully t he e mperor i s n ever d iscovered a t t he h elm o f t he s hip o f s tate, t hough h e i s a sked t o e nlighten a s ituation a t x xi.1: t he v erb i n t his l ast i mage, i llustrare, i s u sed i n a d iffer ent b ut e qually t ired s ense a t p raef .7, m ore b oldly i n p raef.10. I nsensitivity t owards t he h andling o f w ords m anifests i tself i n m any d ifferent w ays - t he r edundant e xpression, t he b adly-managed m etaphor, t he u npremeditated a mbiguity , t he h arsh o r e lliptical t urn, t he c acophonous p hrase, t he i ll-ordered c onstruction, t he a wkwardness o f t ransition, t he s udden l apse o f t one, t he c lash o f t he i mages w hich w ords c ontain. [ 1] R edundancy o f e xpression h as b een p artly t ouched o n i n m y r emarks o n c onventionality o f e pithets, a bove; m ore e xtens ive e xamples o f t he s ame r egrettable t endency t owards p leonasm c an b e s een i n x ix.5 d uorum g estatus m inisterio u irorum a nd x xi.1 r emedium a d c iuilium c urarum m edicinam. [ 2] I h ave a lso r eferred a bove t o t he g eneral t riteness o f t he a nonymus' m etaphors; b ut t heir v ery c onventionality b egins t o s eem a v irtue w hen w e r eflect t hat, w here t he w riter d oes s trike o ut a n e xtended i mage f or h imself , t he r esult i s a n e mbarrassing f ailure, i nconsistent, t autologous a nd d issonant ( ii.1 h uius a uaritiae o rigo h inc c reditur e manasse); t hough h e m ay b e c onsidered t o h ave b een m ore s uccessful w ith t he o ne-word i mage i n c ingulum, a pplied t o aw all w ith m ile-castles, a nd a pologised f or w ith a q uodam, j ust b efore t he e nd o f x x.1. [ 3] A mbiguity i s o ne o f t he m ost p owerful w eapons a t t he c ommand o f t he l iterary a rtist, b ut, a ppearing a ccidentally , i t m ay s uggest a c ertain i ndifference t o l inguistic f inesse. A mbiguities - n o d oubt u nintentional - c an b e d etected h ere a nd t here i n t he a nonymus' l anguage: i n p raef.8, i s r omano n omini c oupled m ore c losely w ith d ebitos o r a ffectus? I n v i.1, s hould o ne t ake u bique w ith t he p receding p articiple o r t he f ollowing v erb? I n x vi.1, i s i nterdum w ith t he a d jacent n ecessario o r t he r emote i mpediat? A nd i n x vi.2, d oes p artibus d epend o n a dsociata o r o n e xp licatur? T he e xplicitly s yntactical a mbiguity s urrounding t he c ases o f q uicquam a nd m achina i n x iii.1 h as b een h andled e arlier ( under t he

1 48

h eading A ccusative i n s ection I .1.[a] a bove); i t r emains t o d iscuss t he p roblem o f x viii.5 i n t antum l ongius u adit, w here t he s imultan eous p resence o f t wo c onstructions b lurs t he s yntactic a rticulat ion. A t f irst v iew, i n t antum Z ongius a ppears t o c ohere a s a n i nt ensified i ta Z onge; a nd a f eeling t hat t his c onstruction i s p resent p ersists e ven w hen i t i s s een t hat Z ongius i n f act a pplies l ess c losely t o t he p receding a dverbial g roup t han t o t he v erb, a nd t hat t he r esulting v erbal c omplex Z ongius u adit i s m odified b y i n t antum r eplacing i ta a s t he d irect a ntecedent o f t he c onsecutive c lause. [ 4 ] Ah arshness c an b e d etected i n t he u se o f u arie t o m ean b oth ' in v arious w ays ' a nd ' for v arious r easons' i n i x.1; i n t he u ndue c ompression o f m eaning i nto t he s olitary d iuturnior i n i .8; a nd i n s uggerenda w ithout a n i ndirect p ersonal o bject i n p r.1: w hile a n e llipticality o f e xpression p roduces t he j arring n ull .° u etustatis m ore o f i .2 a nd t he b adly-coordinated f unibus u alidis i n m edio q uidem s ub i psis u tribus p ropter i ncedentium s ustinendum p ondus, i n m arginibus a utem f irmitatis g ratia d esuper e xtensis i n x vi.3. [ 5 ] T he c areless j uxtaposition o f t he a uthor's b eloved a bstracts i n tas o ften w ounds t he e ar; i ii.1 d isplays a t otal f ailure t o c ontrol t hese a nd o ther s ounds, e mentis e nim e undem s olidum f raud ulenta c alliditas e t u endentis d amnosa n ecessitas d ifficultatem q uandam i psis c ontractibus i ntulerunt, n e r ebus p ossit i nteresse s implicitas. [ 6 ] T he d ouble s yntax o f i i.8 f ämosa r egna c onsidera , q ua h aec h onoris l aude...frugalitas i ncorrupta c ommendet i s v ery s trained, a nd x vi.2 a lmost d isintegrates t hrough t he i ntrusion, s hortly a fter t he b eginning, o f a l ong p arenthesis. [ 7 ] T he t ransi tion t o a r elative c lause i s v ery b adly m anaged i n i .8, w here t he q uae o f t he f inal s entence r efers b ack t o s peciem a cross t wo n euters w hich a t f irst i t s eems t o p ick u p; a nd t he o ccasionally a brupt t ransitions o f t hought a re, i n g eneral, i neffectively d isg uised b y c onnective p articles ( above, s ection I .5.[b]). [ 8 ] T he u ncertainty o f t one o f t he a nonymus, h is f ailure t o s ustain a c onsistent l evel o f d iction a nd s tyle, c an b e s een i n m iniature i n p r .15, m agnum 2 obis m unus c oncessu d iuinitatis a pporto, a ss erens p rouidentia p ietatis u estrae a rmorum u igorem e t c unctam r em p ublicam p raedictis r emediis s ubleuandam, w here t he p edestrian p raedictis b rings t he f light o f e loquence t o t he g round. O n t he l arger s cale, f ormal w ords s uch a s o pitulante ( pr.7), f as ( pr .4), n uncupamus ( ii.9; n uncupata w ith t he u nique b y-form f ulminalis a t x viii.6), g estiui ( pr ,16 ), c ita ( vii.5) a nd e xordium ( viii.1) c oe xist w ith s uch f lat o r c olloquial t erms a s t he b ene w ith a dject ives a t x i.1 a nd x v.3, t he d iffident q uodäm m odo o f x vii.1 a nd x viii.9, t he c liche h uius m odi a t x ix .5, m amiZlata ( xi c hapterh eading ), t ractantibus ( pr .9 b is) a nd r ebus i n i ii.1 a nd i v.2 ( bis). I t w as o f t he n ature o f t he s ubject a nd i ts t reatment t hat a ppeals t o s uch a bstract a ttributes o f s overeignty a s c lementia, f elicitas, m aiestas a nd s erenitas s hould c onsist w ith t he n ames o f u tilitarian i tems o f m ilitary e quipment: b ut t he u ncompromising u se o f t echnical t erms a lmost p assim - f iscal i n c c. ii i, a dminis trative i n c . i v, m ilitary i n c c. v -xx - c ontrasts w ith t he p ainful l iteralness o f e xposition o f p arma , h oc e st m odicus c lipeus i n i x.1 a nd t horacomacho i nducto ( qui g raeca a ppellatione e x t uitione c orp oris n omen a ssumpsit), s occis e tiam ( hoc e st c alciamentis) e t f erratis o creis i nductis i n x v .4. A nd [ 9] t he h orrible c lash o f i mages i n p icturam ... c oloribus adumbratam i n v i.5 r esults f rom a f ailure t o t hink c losely e nough a bout w ords; t he a nonymus h as s imply n ot p erceived t he m etaphor w hich a dumbrare s carcely c onceals.

1 49

4

THE

STYLE:

A GENERAL

S UMMARY

T he a nonymus h as c omposed a n o ratio ( praef .17 ; v i.5), a t o nce a n a ddress , a s peech , a s upplication , ar equest : a nd h is p rose c ons tantly t hreatens t o b reak d own u nder t he s train w hich t he v aried d emands o f t he m aterial a nd t reatment i mpose u pon i t. P lain , c omp ressed a nd d irect i n t he s pecification o f am achine , i t a spires t o e loquent c ommendations c harged w ith t he w indy i nflation o f r hetoric ; d ispassionate i n d iscussion , i t w ill s uddenly s urge u p, d riven b y t he f orce o f c onviction , i n a n o utburst o f f ebrile e nergy ; f iercely i ndependent i n o utlook, i t p reserved t he f rigid c ourtesies o f a n a ddress t o a uthority ; c losely a nalysing c ause a nd e ffect, i t f ails t o c hoose w ords a ccurately ; c logged w ith a bstractions, i t s eeks t o c onvey r emedies f or a f rightful r eality ; p ervaded b y v erbal r epetition , i t c onveys e xtreme o riginality o f t hought. R ebarbative, c oarse , u neven a nd d ifficult , i t i s n ot w holly d evoid o f a c ertain t ouching a ppeal; t he G reek n ames f or t he i nventions, c lumsy t hough t hey a re , a re i rresistibly e ndearing ; a nd I w ould a sk t he r eader w earied w ith r hetoric a nd m echanics t o c onsider s ympathetically a s entence o f g reat c harm , x v.4, w here t he a nonymus , h aving s tumbled t hough a n e tymological n ote a nd a h oc e st g loss, b uilds u p a s equence o f s hort c lauses i nto a c limax o f p ace a nd a ttack, a nd t he c hapter e nds, l ike t he m ost p erfect o f l ogical d emonstrations, w ith a n a ir o f t riumphant d elight. S amuel J ohnson s aid o f R ichard B entley 's o nly k nown E nglish p oem t hat ' they a re t he v erses o f a m an o f s trong m ind, b ut n ot a ccust omed t o w rite v erse ; f or t here i s s ome u ncouthness i n t he e xp ression'. S lightly a dapted, t his v erdict w ill d escribe a dmirably t he p rose s tyle o f t he a uthor o f d e r ebus b ellicis . A nd c an o ne g o f urther? I s t his u ncouth a nd f orcible p rose t he w ork o f am an o f s trong m ind n ot m erely n ot a ccustomed t o w rite, b ut a ctually n ot a ccustomed t o w rite L atin? I d o n ot s uggest t hat t he a nonymus w as a G reek: a G reek w ould h ave h andled t he c ompound m achine-names m ore f astidiously : b ut t he s tuttering l anguage o f t he t reatise, t he a uthor's i ntimate a cquaintance w ith t he a rmy a nd t he e nemies o f t he e mpire , h is v ivid p erception o f e conomic f ailure ( so a ccur ate t hat i t b est b efits a n e xternal, n ot a n i nternal o bserver), a nd t he p ossible i mplication o f a s trange s entence i n t he p reface ( 7 : n am ...barbarae g entes ...minime ...a r erum i nuentione ...habentur a lieni ) — a ll t hese i ndications, p ut t ogether, s uggest t o m e t hat t he a nonymus was a man of l arge i ntellectual c uriosity w ith a n e lementary g rounding i n rhetoric but l ittle e xp erience of f ormal written e xpression; t hat h e h ad a cq uired, p robably i n t he p rovinces, s ome e xperience of f inancial affairs a nd t he f iscal system; t hat h e was a n a rmy man, p erhaps an officer, p erhaps c onnected w ith t he a rtillery, but n ow i n r etirement ( praef .16 o tio persuasus , n on a deo a r erum c ommoditatibus p eregrinus); and that h e was p erhaps h imself, by origin, a m ember of one of t he b arbarae g entes who were howling around the R oman e mpire a nd whose a ssaults h is l ittle t reatise, i n a ll i ts p athetic urgency, was i n g reat part d esigned t o r esist. 1 50

I NDICES C oncordance t o t he L atin t ext A nalysis o f

t he c ontents o f t his e dition

C oncordance

t o

the Latin t ext

1 3 a : p r .4,7 ,15,16; i i .3 ; i ii.2; v i .5; v ii .4; x ii .2; x iii.1 b is; x iv .1,3 8a b : i v .1,3; v .5; v iii.2; x iv .4; x ix .6; x xi .2 1a bscedat :

i x .1;

3 6 a d : p r .5; i .5,8 ,9; i i.2,6; i v .1; v .1,3 ,4 ,5,6; v ii .2,3; v iii.2; i x .1; x iii.1 b is; x iv .1,4 ,5; x v .1 b is ,2 ,3, x vi .1,3; x vii.1; x viii.3,4,11; x ix .2,3 ,6,9; x xi .1 1a deo : p r .16

v .4

1ä bsolutus: v .3

1a dficiat: x v .3

1a bstinere :

2 a dhaerentes: x .2; x vii .2

i i .8

1a bundans . x ix .1

1a dhaerentibus : x i .1

1a bunde : p r .3

1a dhibenda :

2 a c : v i.2; x i .1

1a dhuc : v .6

1a ccedat : v .4

1a diuncti: x vii .2

1a ccedit :

2 a diuta : x i .1; x v .2

1a ccendit : 1a ccensa :

i v .1 i i.2

i ii.2

1a dmiratio : x iv .1

i i .5

1a dmonendi: x vi.4

1a ccidere : p r .7

1a dnectenda : p r .11

1a ccipiet: x i.1

1a dnexis : x vi.2

1a ccammodata : p r .3

1a f in itentes : x viii .2

2a ciem : p r . 1 3 ; x ix .8

1a dquisitis : x viii.2

1a cquirendis : p r .11

1a dsociata : x vi .2

1a cquisita : p r .6

1a dueniant: x ix .6

1a culei : x .2

1a duersarias: x vii.3

1a culeo : x .1

1a duersarii : x i.1

1a cumen : x i.1

1a dumbratam :

1a cutis : x ix .6

1a equalitate : x vi .2

1a cutissimae : x ii .3

1a erarii: i .1

1a cuto : x iv .1

1a ere :

1 53

i i.1

x i.5

1a ereae : 5a eris : 1a es :

1a limenta : v .1

i ii .4

1a liquantorum : i ii .1

i .5,6,8 ,9; i i .3

1a liquid : x iv .1

i .8

1a estimo : p r .17

1a liquot: v .3

1a etas :

i .8

1a lium : v .4

1a euum :

i i .8

1a ltera : x vi.2

1a ffecit :

1a lteram : x vi .3

i i .6

1a ffectum :

1a ltior : v iii .2

i i .5

1a ffectus : p r .8

1a ltius : x viii.3

2a fferre : x .1; x viii.11

1a lueo : x vii.2

1a ffiguntur : x .3

1a mbientium : x x .1

1a fflicta :

1a mbitum : x vii.2

i i .5

1a ffluentia : p r .6

1a missorum : v .7

1a ggrediendi : v iii .2

1a mittatur : x ix .2

1a gmen : x ix .8

1a mnibus : p r .14

2a gmina

1a mplecti : x .3

x viii .8 ; x ix .1

2a gminibus : x ix .1,4

1a mplectitur : x iv .3

1a grariis : x x .1

2a mplius :

1a gricolas : v .6

1a ngustiora : x ix .8

3a gros :

1a nimabit : v .5

i i .6,8 ; v .6

i .1; v .3

1a lt : p r .5

2 a nimalium : x vii .1 ; x ix .9

1a lia : p r .15

1a nimi

1a liae : v ii .6

1a nnonarum : v .3

1a liena : p r .15

1a nsulas : x ii.3

1 a lieni : p r .7

2 a nte : v ii.1 ; v iii .1

1a lienum : x xi .2

1a ntea :

1 54

-

x viii.7

i i .1

1a ntequam : x viii.8

2a rgento :

1a ntiquae :

1a rgentum :

i i.8

i .6,8 i i .2

1a ntiquitas: x v .1

1a rgumento : p r .10

1a ntiquitus: i i. 2

1a rgumentum : x viii .4

1g perta : x viii .8

1a rmabitur : x v .4

2g pparatu : x vi.3 ; x ix .4

1a rmandam : x viii .11

1a pparatus : x ix .1

1a rmari : x ix .2

1a ppareat :

1a rmatis : v ii.2

i ii .4

1a rmatur : v iii.2

3a ppellatione : v iii.1 ; x v .4; x viii .6

3a rmis : v .7 ; x ii .1,2 1a ppetat: v i .1 1a pporto : p r . 1 5

9 a rmorum : p r .6,15; v i .4,5; x iii.1; x v .1,2; x ix .2 b is

1a pprobati : p r .5

1a rreptis : x v .4

1a ptantur : x ii .3

3a rte : p r .13 ; x iii.1; x vi.2

1a ptatis : v iii .2

4a rtibus : i i.5; i v .1,2; x viii .5

1a ptato : x v .4 1a ptatum : x .2

5 a rtis : v ii.2; x vii .2; x viii .4,7 ,11

2a pud : p r .6; x vi.2

1a rtium : p r .6

2a quam : x vi .2; x vii.2

2a scensus : v iii . 1; x ii.2

1a rabica : x vi .2

1a scogefyri :

1a rabunt : v .6

1a speritate :

1a rbitrio : x ii .3

1a speritati:

1a rbitror : p r .15

1a sserens

1a rcu : x viii.1

1a ssidua : x x .1

1a rcus : x .1

1a ssignauit . i i.1

2a rgenti: p r .10; i .4

1a ssumpsit : x v .4

1 55

.

p r . 1 5

1a ssumptis : x ix .2

3b allista : v iii.1; x viii .5,11

1a tque :

6b allistae : v ii .1,6; v iii .1; x .1; x viii.1,8

i .10

1a ttritu : x vii .3

2b allistam : x viii .3; x ix .5

2 a uaritiae : i i .1; i v .1

1b arbarae : p r .7

2a udacia : p r .3 ; i i .6

1b arbaries: v i .1

1a udaciam : x viii.8

1b ella : x ii.4

1a ugmentum : v .6

1b ellatoribus : x iii.1

1a ugusta : v .2

1b ellatoris : x iv .3

1a ugustae : x xi.1

1b ellicam :

i .1

1a ugustis : v .1 1b ellicis: x ix .5 1a urea :

i i .9

1a ureae :

1b ellicos : v ii.2

i ii .4

3a uri : p r .10 ;

1b ellicum : x v .1 i .4; i i.4 1b ellicus: x ix .1

4a uro :

i .6,7,8 ; i i.3 1b ellis : x vii.1

3a urum : i i .1,2,9 1b ello : x viii .9 1 9 a ut : p r .3 ,6 b is ,7,14; i i.5; v .7 b is ; v i .2 t er ,4 b is; x .1 b is ; x iv .5 b is ; x v .2; x viii.8

4b ellorum : p r .11 ; x ix .4

i .1; v .7;

3b ene : x j .1 ; x ii .2; x v .3 7a utem :

i .9; v ii .6; x .2,3; x ii .3 ; x vi .2,3

1b ini: x vii.2

1a uxiliis : x ix .1

1b onae . p r .8

1a uxilio : p r .12

1b oues : x vii.2

1a uxilium : x ix .3

1b reue : x vi .3

1a xe : x iv .4

1b reuius : v .2

1a xes : x iv .5

1b ubus : x viii .9

1a xibus : x ii.3 1a xium :

v iii.2

1c aecitate :

1 56

i i.3

1c aelesti : p r .1

1c erte :

1c alcantis : x .1

1c ertis :

1c alciamentis: x v .4

1c essante : p r .10

1c allidae :

1c esserit : p r .3

x ix .4

i i .9 i .6

1c alliditas: i ii.1

2c eteras: x viii .1; x ix .4

1c amporum : x viii .8

1c ilicia : x vi.4

1c analem : x viii.1

1c ingulo : x x .1

1c apacitate : x vii.2

1c irculis: x vi .2

1c apescit : x vii.3

1c irculo : x iv .5

1c apitulum : p r .2

1c ircumdata : x x .1

1c asibus : x ix .9

1c ircumdatis : x iv .1

1c astella : x x .1

1c ircumdet: x ix .8

1c astellorum : v i .4

1c ircumducta : v ii.3

1c asti : i v .5

1c ircumlatrantium : v i. 1

1c astrensium : v .7

1c ita : v ii.5

1c astrorum : p r .1 0

1c itato : x ii .2

1c atafracto : x iv .5

1c iuilium : x x1 .1

2 c ausa : v .1 ; x .3

1c iuitatum : v i .4

1c elare : v iii.2

1c lariores :

1c eleritate : x i.1

2 c lementiae : p r .9 ,15

2 c eleritatis : x .3 ; x viii.9

1c lementissimi: p r. 8

1c elerius : v ii .4

2 c lipeis :

1c enteni : v .7

1c lipeos :

1c erta : v .3

1c lipeus :

1c ertamina : x ix .1

1c livanus : x v .2

1c ertandi : x xi .2

1 wactili: x v .2

1 57

i i .4

1c oartatam : x ix .8

2 c ommoditate : v ii .3 ; v iii.1

2 c ochleae : v ii .4 ; x viii .3

1c ammoditatibus: p r .16

1c oemptio :

1c ammunita : x viii.5

i v .4

1c ogitauit: x v .1

1c ammunitam : x viii .7

1c ognoscere : p r .4

1c ammunitis : x ix .6

1c ognoscunt: x ii.4

2 c ammunitur : x ii .2; x iv .1

1c olendos :

1c ammutationum :

1c olere :

v .6

i .7

1c ampaginationes: x vi .4

i i .8

1c ollatores : v .6

1c amparatio :

1c ollatori: i i .7

1c amparatis : x xi .1

1c ollatoribus:

1c ampendio : x vi .1

3c ollatorum :

i .7

i v .4

1c ampertum : x viii .1

i .1; i v .1,2

1c olligantur : x vi .2

1c amponitur : x vi .1

1c oloribus : v i .5

1c ampositio : v iii .1

1c olorum :

1c amposui: p r.2

i .10

1c amitetur : x ix .3

1c amposuit : x v .2

1c a rmendan it •

2 c ampressa : x ix .1 b is

i i .5

1c ammendet: i i .8

1c onatibus : x vii.2

1c ammercia :

1c onatus :

i .9

i i .5

1c ammerciis: i i.1

1c oncessu : p r .1 5

1c amminuat: x vii .3

1c ondendis :

3c omminus: i x .1 ; x .1 ; x vii .3

2 c onfectio : v i .5; x vi .4

1c ammixtionis : i ii.2

1c onfectionis : x vi.2

4c ammoda : p r .8 ,9; v iii .1; x x .1

1c onferebant: i .4

1c ammodas :

1c onferre : p r . 1 6

i ,10

1c ammoditas: p r .1

1 .4

1c onficitur : x v .2

1 58

1c onfixis : v iii.2

1c ontrarias : x xi .1

1c onfusas: x xi .1

1c ontumelia : p r . 1 0

1c onfusionis : v .2

1c onualescant: p r .1

1c onfusis : x ix .1

3c onueniet : x v .3; x ix .1,2

1c ongregentur : i ii.2

1c onuentio :

2 c ongressibus : p r .1 3 ; x ix .5

1c onuersione :

1c onnexum : x viii.4

1c onuersum : x .1

1c onscientia : p r .3

1c onuertere : x iv .4

1c onsecuta : p r .6

3c opia :

1c onsequemini

1c opiam : i .5

1c onsidera :

-

p r• 9

i i.8

i v .3

i .9;

v ii . 5

i i .4; x ix .9

1c opiis : x ix .1

1c onsiderare : p r .6

1c ord': x ix .4

1c onsilia : p r .1

1c orlis : i .7

2 c onsistat: v ii.3 ; x vi.5

1c orpori : x ix .4

1c onsistit : x xi.2

3c orporis : x v .1,2,4

1C onstantini :

1c orrectio :

1 1 .1

i ii.2

1c onstat: p r .6

1c ratibus : v iii.2

1c onstituat: x x .1

1c redidimus

1c onstrictum : x ix .8

1c reditur :

i i.1

1c onsueuit: x .1

1c riminum :

i i.6

1c ontentis : p r .9

3c ui: v .4; x .2; x ix .4

1c ontiguae :

2c uiquam : v iii.2; x ii.2

i ii.2

1c ontinentur : v .7

-

p r.11

7c uius : i .8 ; v .3; v ii.1,2 ; v iii.2; x ii.2; x vii .2

1c ontinetur : p r .6 2c uiusquam : p r .1 2,13 1c ontra : x viii .8

1c ulpam : i ii .1

1c ontractibus: i ii.1

1c ultor : p r .10

1 59

1c ultoribus : p r .9

2d amna : i ii . 1; v .7

1c ultris : x ii.2

2 d amnis :

1 0 c um n on n isi a duerbiaZiter r epertum : p r .3 ,4,7 ,17 ; i i .2,3; x vi .2; x viii .7 ; x ix .1,7

i i .6; v .8

1d amnosa : 1d andi :

i ii .1

i i.2

1c umulatus : p r . 1 0

1d antium : p r .1 0

1c unctam : p r .1 5

1D anubii : x viii .5

1c unctorum : i i.2

9d e : p r .2 ; v .4,7 ; x v .2 b is ,3; x vi .2; x viii.10; x xi .1

1c upid' :

i v. 5

1c gpiditas : i v .1

1d ebitos : p r .8

1c gpiditates :

1d ebuit: i v .1

i i.2

3c ura : x vi .2; x ix .9; x x .1

1d ecedentium : v .4

1c urae : i i .7

1d ecem : p r .12

1c urarum : x xi .1

1d eclarabo : v .2

1c uras: v .5

1d eclinare : p r .3

1c urrentibus : x vii .2

1d ecorem :

3c urribus : x iv .1; x viii .8; x ix .7

1d ecurrit : p r .5

1c urriculo : x iii.1

1d eductum : x i .1

2 c urru : x iii.1; x iv .3

1d eerunt: v .8

1c urrui: x iv .2

1d eest : v .4

1c urrum : x ii .2

1d efecta :

2 c urrus : x ii .3 ; x iii .1

1d efenderant: v .6

1c ursu : x ii.2

1d efendit: v iii .2

1c ursum : x viii .8

1d efenduntur : v i .4

1c ursus : x vii .1

1d efensae : v i .3

1c ustos : x viii.11

1d efensioni: x viii.1

i .4

i .1

1d efensore : v iii.2

1 60

1d ignemini: p r .8

1d eflexus : v ii .5 1d electabilitas :

1d ignitatibus : p r .7

i .2

1d eneget : x vi .4

1d ignitatum :

i v .1

1d enique : i i .8

1d ilapsum : x .1

1d ensitas : x ix .2

4d iligenter : v iii.2; i x .1; x ii .2 ; x vi .2

1d eponit : x viii .3 1d iligentia :

i i .3

1d eponitur : v ii .4 1d iligitis: p r .8 1d epra mta : i ii .1 1d imissus : x viii .1 1d eserta : v .7 1d irecta : x i.1 1d esiderata : p r .4 1d ireptio : i v .4 1d esiderio : v .6 1d irigenda : x viii.3 1d esignatis : p r .15 1d irigit :

i v .2

1d especta : i v .1 1d iscernuntur : x xi.2 1d esperati: x viii .8 1d iscessit :

i v .3

2 d esuper : x vi .2,3 1d iscrimen : x v .2 1d etecti : x ix .6 1d iscrimina : x viii .8 1d icam : x viii.4 1d iscurrit : x iii .1 1d icent : x ii .4 1d iscursum : x vii.2 1d icta :

i .10 1d iscossionis: i ii .4

1d ictum : x vi .2 1d ispositae : x vi.5 1d ifficultas : v i. 5 2 d issimilis: x iv .1,2 1d ifficultate : x viii .2 1d istantem : v i. 5 1d ifficultatem :

i ii .1 1d istat: x iii.1

1d ifficultatibus : p r .14 1d istributa : x x .1 1d igiti : x .3

1d itata :

1d ignationis : x xi.1

i v .5

1d iuersa : i ii.1

1 61

1d iuersas: i .10

1d ucatur : x ix .9

3d iuersis : p r .9; i v .2; v i.4

1d ucem ; x ix .1

2d iuersitate : x iv .3; x viii.4

1d ucendus : v iii .1

2 d iuina : p r . 1 ; x xi .1

1d udum : v .6

1d iuinis : p r .1

2 di : i ii.1; x iv .3

2 d iuinitatis : p r .8 ,15

1d uo : x ii.2

1d iutius : v .3

4d uobus : v ii .2; x iii.1 b is; x ix .1

1d iuturna :

i .8

1d iuturni : v .2

4d uorum : v ii .6; x ii .3; x iv .2; x ix .5

1d iuturnior : i .8

1d uos : x iv .2

1d ixerim : p r .15

1d uplex : x ix .9

3d iximus: i .8 ; i i.3 ; x v .4

1d uplicabis : x viii.7

1d ocebimus

1d uplicetur : p r .1 0

.

p r .12

1d ocumento : p r .2 1d olos : x ix .4

2e :

i .7 ; x ii .2

1d olosa : v i .1

2e a : v .5; x viii.11

1d olus : x ix .4

3e adem : v iii.1; x iii .1; x vii.3

1d ami: x xi .1 1e ar n : p r .12 1d amus : i i .4 1e andem : x viii .1 1d ona :

i .9 1e asdem : x .3

1d onatus : v .3 ,4 1e ffectae : i i.4 1d onauerit : p r .5 1e ffectu : x vii.2 1d onis : v .6 1e ffectum : x viii .6 1d otata : x viii.11 1e fficiant: x ii.4 3d uabus: v iii .2 b is; x viii .2

1e fficiat: p r .13

1d ubiis : x ix .9

1e ffugiendi: x ix .3

1 62

1e ffugiunt : p r .16

1e quitem : x iv .3

1e genis : i .3

1e quitum : x ii.3

5e iusdem : x .2,3 ; x ii.3 ; x v .3 ; x ix .6

1e quorum : i v .4 2e quos: x iv .1,2

1e lectione : p r .7 2e quus : p r .13; x iv .3 1e lementa : x viii.7 1e rat :

i .9

1e lidentes : x vii .2 1e rectis : p r .10 1e lisum : x .1 1e recto : x viii .1 1e loquentia : p r .6 1e manasse : 1e mend' : 1e mentis :

6e rgo : p r .5; i ii .2; v i.4; v iii .1,2; x ix .6

i i.1

i .6

1e rigantur : x x .1

i ii.1

1e rigit : x viii.3

1e mergunt : x .2

2e rigitur : v ii .4,5

1e minente : x .1

1e rigunt : x ii .3

1e mitti: x .1

1e riguntur : x iv .5

1e molumenta : v .3

6e rit : p r .4; i i .7; i ii .3 ; v iii.1 ; x viii.11; x ix .9

1 6 e nim ; p r .6,10,14; i i.2; i ii.1,3 ; i v .3 ; i x .1; x .1 ; x iv .1 b is; x v .2; x vi.2; x viii.10,11; x xi.2

1e rogandi :

i i .3

1e rogatio :

i i .3

1e normia : v .1 1e rroris : v .2 1e normis :

i i.3 2e runt: v .6; x vi .5

1e normitate : x ix .2 4e o :

3 1 e st : p r .1,6 t er ,13,14,17; i .3; i ii .2,3; i v .3; v .1; v i .1 ; v ii .2,6; v iii.1,2; i x .1; x iii.1; x iv .1,2; x v .4; x vi .2 b is; x viii.1,11; x ix .4 t er ,7 ; x x .1

i v .1 ; v .3 ; v iii .1; x .1

1e os: x vi.2 1e osdem : 2e qui : x iii.1; x iv .5

8 9 e t : p r .15; i .1,6 t er ,7,9,10; i i .2,3 b is ,6,7 b is,8 b is; i ii.1 b is ,2,4; i v .2,4,5 b is;

3e quis : v ii.2; x ii.2; x iii .1

1 63

v .6 b is ,7,8 t er ; v i.1,3 ,4; v ii.2 b is ,3,4 b is ,5; v iii .1, 2t er ; x .1 b is; x i .1 q uinquies; x ii.2; x iii .1 t er ; x iv .1,2, 3b is ,4 ; x v .1,2,4 b is; x vi.1 b is,2 b is ,3 b is; x viii .1 ,5 ,7, 9 ,10 b is; x ix .2 q uinquies,3 b is, 4q uinquies; x x .1 b is

1e xerciti : v .7 4e xercitus : v .8 ; x vi.1; x viii.7 ,8 1e xhauriant:

i v .2

1e xistimant: i v .1 1e xitum : v .2

1e tenim : x viii .1 1 5 e tiam : p r .6,10 b is ,11; i v .1; v .5 b is; x iii .1; x iv .2,4; x v .4 ; x viii.5,6,7; x ix .4

1e xordium : v iii.1 1e xpensa :

i v .4

2e uenit; x vi .1 ; x ix .2

2e xpensis : v .3,5

1e um : p r .4

1e xperietur : x viii .8

1e undem : i ii .1

1e xplicabitur : x vi.3

1e untem : x ix .2

1e xplicant: x ii.3

1 6 e x : p r .2,9,11,15; i i.3,4 ; v .6; v ii.6; v iii .1 ; x .1 b is ,2; x v .4; x vi .2 b is; x viii .5

1e xplicantur : x iv .5 1e xplicari : x ix .8

1e xactionum : p r .10

1e xplicatas: x iv .4

1e xactores:

1e xplicatur : x vi.2

i v. 2

1e xcipienti : x .1

1e xpressionibus :

1e xcitandis: v i .5

1e xpressum : x viii .5

1e xcitet: i .1

1e xprimi :

1e xcogitata : p r . 1 3

1e xprimitur : x viii .1

1e xcultam : i .6

1e xquisita : p r .14

1e xecranda : i v .1

1e xstantes : x vii .2

1e xemplum : v ii .1

2e xstantibus : x ii.2; x vi.2

1e xercenda : x ix .7

2e xtensa : x .2; x i.1

1e xercendis : x x .1

1e xtensis : x vi .3

2e xerceri : x vii.1; x xi .2

1e xteriore : x iv .5

1 64

i .6

i .10

1e xtollant: x vi .2

1f acultatem : x vi.3

1e xtolluntur : v i .2

1f acultatum :

2e xtra : p r .10 ; v .7

1f acundia : p r .7

1e xtremitate : x i.1

2 f alcatis : x viii.8 ; x ix ,7

1e xtremitates : v iii .2

4f alces : x ii .3 b is;

1e xultet: p r .10

1f allacem : p r .3

1f abrica : v iii.1 1f äbricae :

x viii .2

1f amosa :

i i.8

1f amosi :

x viii .5

x iv .4,5

1f as: p r .4

1f abricam : v ii .1

1f astidiat: v .2

1f abricatur : v iii.2

1f astidientes : i .7

1f aciem : x v .3

1f astidii : p r .11

1f acies : x iii .1

1f astidio : v .7

2f acile : v i .3 ; x vi .1

1f elicis : p r .1

2f acili : v ii.5; x vii .3

3f elicitate : p r .6,8 ,9

1f acilior : v iii.1

1f elicitati: p r .16

2f acilis : v i .5; x ii .2

2 f elicium :

2f acilitas : v ii .2; x ix .3

i i.8 ; x viii.11

1f ere : p r .14

1f acilitate : x viii .10

1f erenda :

1f acilitatem : x vii . 1 4 f acilius : x ix .3

i .3

i ii .1

1f erratis : x v .4

i .10; x i.1; x vi.3 ;

2 f erreis : x vi .3; x ix .6 2 f erreo : x viii.1 b is

1f acillime : v ii .3

1f ern : x .2

1f acto : x .2

2 f erro : x ii.2; x iv .1 2 f acultas :

i .6; v iii .2

2 f errum : x .2; x i.1

1f acultate : p r .2

1f idem : x viii .8

1 65

4f ides : p r .2,3 ; i .10; i ii . 3

1f luuio : x vi.3

1f igura :

3f luuiorum : p r .14; x vi.1; x viii.8

i ii .1

1f iguräbant : 1f igurae :

i .5

2 f luuium : x vi.3 ; x ix .3

i .8

1f iguratam :

1f ollibus : x vi .2

i .6

1f igurationis : 1f igurauit :

1f oramina : v ii.3 i ii .4

1f oris : x xi.1

i .8

2 f ormam : x .2 ; x vi .2

1f ilios : p r .8 1f irmabitur :

2 f ormas : i v .5

i .10; i ii.4

1f ormatos: i .7

1f irmissimis: x x .1

1f ouit :

1f irmitate : x viii.10

i i.6

1f ragilitatem : x v.2

1f irmitatem : x vi .4

2 f raudi :

i ii.3 ; i v .5

1f irmitatis : x vi.3 2 f raudibus : i ii.1,2 1f iscalium : 1f istula :

i v .3

1f raudulenta : i ii.1

x .2 1f remitu : x vii.3

1f it : x .2 1f rigoribus : x ix .2 1f iunt :

x vi.2 1f rons : v iii .2

1f ixis: x vi .3 2 f ronte : v ii.4; i x .1 2 f ixoriis: v iii.2 ; i x .1 1f rugalitas :

i i .8

1f lexa : v ii.3 1f rumenti: i v .4 1f lorebit :

i .1 1f uerat:

i i .3

1f luctibus : x viii .9 1f uerint: p r .5 1f luminibus : v i .3 1f uerit : x .1 1f luminis : x viii.5

1f ugae : x ix .7 1f ugiens : x viii .9

1f luminum : x ix .3

1 66

1f ugientibus : p r.13

1g estiui : p r .16

2 f ugientium :

1g laciales : x ix .2

x viii.8 ; x ix .7

2 f uit: i .8 ; i i.3

1g ladio : x v .4

2 f ulminalis: x viii .6,11

4g loriam : p r .8 ; i .1; i i .6,7

1f unctionis : v .1

1g radus :

2 f unem : x viii .2 b is

2g raeca : v iii . 1 ; x v .4

1f unera : x ii .4

3g ratia : p r .11,17; x vi.3

1f unes : x ii .3

2 g rauet : p r .3; v .3

3f unibus : v ii . 6; x iv .4 ; x vi.3

1g rauidam : v .5

2 f unis : x iv .5 ;

1g rauiores :

x viii.1

i i .6

i v .1

1f uscinis . v iii.2

1g rauis: i i.3

1f uturae :

2g rauissimis - i i .6 ; v .3

i ii.4

1f uturis : p r . 1 5

1g ubernat: x viii.4 1g ubernatur : x iii.1

1g alea : x v .4 1g audeat : v .3

1h abeantur : v .7

1g audentibus : p r .9

1h abeatur : p r .1 0

1g emina : x .1

1h abebant :

1g eneribus : v i .5

1h abebatur :

1g ens : x ix .4

1h abendi :

1g entes :

v i .2

1h abens :

1g entis :

x ix .4

1h abentes : x ii.3

7g enus : p r .12; v ii.6; v iii .1; x .1 ; x ii .1 ; x v .2; x viii.1

i i .9 i i.1

i i .2 i i .5

1h abentur : p r .7 1h aberentur :

i v .2

1g estatus: x ix .5 1g estientem :

4h abet : v .6; v ii .3 ; x iv .1 ; x viii .10

i x .1

1 67

2h abetur : i i.3 ; i x .1

1h onoris: i i.8

1h abitabunt: v .6

1h os: v .7

1h abuerint:

3h ostem : v ii.2; x .1; x viii.1

i .3

1h abuerunt: i .6

1h ostibus : x ii .4

5h ac : p r .3 ; x viii.5

1h ostilis: x vi.5

i i.4; x iv .2,3 ;

4h ostis: x viii.8,9; x ix .6,8 1h ae : p r .12 4h ostium : p r .13 ; x iv .4; x viii.7; x ix .7

4h aec : i i.8; i v .1; v .3 ; x vii.3

1h uic :

i ii .2

1h aerenti: x iv .5 6h uius : i i.1; v ii .5; v iii.1; x iv .1; x viii.4 ,10

2h anc : v ii .2; x vi.1

8h uiusmodi : i v .2; v .6,7; x ii .1,4; x viii .1; x ix .5

1h auriendam : x vi .2 1h i :

i v .1 1h umana . x vii .1

5h ic : v .4 ; v iii .2; x iv .1,2,4 1h umani: x v .2 1h iemis : x v .2 1h umilior : v iii .2 1h inc : i i.1 1h umilius: x viii.3 9h is : p r .11,15; i v .1,3 ; v ,8 ; x v .2; x vi.2; x viii.7; x x .1

3h unc

1 4 h oc : p r .2 b is,9; v ii .6; i x .1; x .1; x ii.2; x iii .1; x v .2 b is, 4b is; x vi.3; x viii.4

-

p r .14 ; v iii.1; x viii.2

1i aculatur : v ii.6

1h amines : p r .14

2 i aculi: x .1,3

2h aminis: x iii .1; x viii .4

5 i am : p r .15; i .2,8 ,9;

3h aminum : p r .5 ; x iv .2; x viii .4

2 i bidem : x iv .2; x xi .2

1h onesta : v .3

2 i d : v iii .2; x viii .11

1h onestate : x xi .2

4i dem : v iii .2 ; x v .3 ; x vi.2,3

1h onorem : i .8

1i doneam :

1h onoribus: p r .1 0

1i doneus: i x .1

1 68

x vii .1

i i.3

1 1 i gitur : p r .9,12,15; i i.7; i v .1; v .6; x v .4; x vi.2; x viii.5,7; x ix .5 1i gne :

x vi.5

1i mpellat : v ii.2 2 i mpellit : x vii.1; x viii.1

i .6

3i mperator : x xi.1

1i gnota : p r .15 1i isdem :

1i mpedimenta :

i i .7; x viii .7;

x vii .2 1i mperatoriae :

v .5

1i llatio : v .1 1i mperia : 1i llibata :

i i .6

i v .3 1i mperil: x x .1

1

i ii .3

1i llis:

i v .4

1i mperium : v i.1 3i mpetu : x .1; x vii.2; x viii.1 1i llo : x iv .3 1i mpetus : v ii .3 1i llos : p r .16 1i mplendae : p r .17 1i lium : p r .5 1i mprobitas :

i .1

1i llumines : x xi.1 1i mprobitatis :

x xi .1

1i llustrentur : p r .7 1i mpulsioni : x viii.4 1i llustret : p r .10 1i mpulsus : v iii .2 2 i maginem :

i ii .1; v i.5 7 6 i n : p r .2 b is,3 b is,6 b is,8 , 1 0 b is,11,13,14; i .3 b is,4, 5 ,6,8 ; i i.2,4,5,7; i ii.2 t er; i v .1,2; v .3 ,4,6,7 t er ,8; v i.1, 5 ; v ii.2,5; v iii .1; i x .1 b is; x .1 q uater ,2 b is,3 ; x i .1 t er ; x ii.2 b is,3; x iii.1 b is; x iv .1, 3 ,5; x v .4; x vi.2 b is,3 t er ,5; x vii.2 b is,3; x viii .1,5,11; x ix .1,5 ,9; x x .1

1i mbecillitas : x vii.1 1i mitandi : v i.5 1l mitata : v ii.2 1i mminuet : v .5 1i mminuit :

i ii.1

1i mmittant: x ii .4

1i naccessa : x ix .2

1i mmittuntur : x vi.2

3i ncedentium : v iii.2; x vi.3 ,4

1i mmoderata :

1i ncessum : v iii .1

i .2

1i mpediat : x vi.1

1i ncidantur : x ix .7

1i mpediet :

1i ncitandos: x iv .1

x viii .8

1 69

1i nclinatum :

1i ngerat : p r .13

x ix .7

1i ncola : p r .10

1i ngrauescente : x v .3

1i ncommoda :

1i nimica :

i v .1

i v .1

1i ncommodis: v .1

2 i niquitas :

i v .1,2

1i ncongrua : v .1

1i nlaesa : x x .1

1i ncorrupta :

i i. 8

1i nmensae : p r .2

2 i ncursibus :

v i .3 ; x viii .7

1i nnexi : x ii .3

1i ncursione : v iii.2

1i nopia :

1i ncursu :

1i nopinatis : v i .3

i x .1

i i .6

1i ncursus : x iv .5

1i nquirentem : p r .4

1i ndignationem : p r .3

1i nsania : v i.1

1i nductis: x v .4

1i nseruiret : x viii.4

2 i nducto : x v .2,4

1i nsistendi :

2i ndustria : v ii.2; x ix .4

1i nstar :

1i nferat : x .1

1i nstinctu : p r .1

1i nferenda : x iii .1

1i nstruantur : x ix .1

1i nferius :

2 i nstructum : x .1 ; x ii .1

i x .1

x v .3

1i nfestet: x ix .8

1i nsulam :

2 i nfigitur : x .1,2

1i ntactis :

1i nfixum : x .1

1i ntegra :

1i nflammando :

i i.6

x vi .4

i ii .2 i .7 i ii .3

2 i ntegritas : v .8 ; x vi.2

1i nflati : x vi.2

1i ntegritatem :

i ii .2

6 i ngenii : p r .2,6,12; x vii .1 ; x viii .5,11

2 i ntegritatis :

i v .5; v .7

4i nter : 4i ngenio : p r .5; x viii .7,9,11

i ii.1; x v .1,2; x x .1

1i ntercipit :

1i ngeniosa : x vi.1

v .7

3 i nterdum : p r .4; i x .1; x vi .1

1 70

1i nteresse :

1i pso :

i ii.1

i .8

1i nteriecta : x x .1

1i psum : x iv .3

1i nteriecto : x .2

1i stud : p r .2 1 1 i ta : p r .12; i .3; v .7,8 ; x vi .2 b is; x viii.4 ; x ix .1,3 ; x x .1

1i ntorta : v ii .6 3i ntra : v iii.2 b is; x vi .3 1i ntueatur :

i .1

1i tineri : x vi .1

1i ntulerit: p r .8

1i tineris : x vi.3

1i ntulerunt :

1i udicio : x xi.1

1i nu2d2t

.

i ii .1

p r .13

1i udicum :

i v .1

1i nuecti : x ii.2

1i ugum : x iv .3

1i nueniri : v i.3

1i umenta : p r .14

1i nuenta : p r .11

1i uniores : v .7

4i nuentio : p r .6,14; x viii .4,8

1i uris :

2 i nuentione : p r .7; v iii.1

1i ustitia : x xi.2

i i .5

1i nuentionibus: x viii.7 1i nuentum :

i .7

1l aborat: v .1

1i nuicem : x vi.2

1l abori : x v .2

1i nuicte : x viii.7

1l aborum : v .6

1i nuicti: x viii.7

1l acerant: v i.3

1i nuitandi: p r .5

1l aederent: x v .2

1i psa : x vi .2

1l aetabantur :

1i psam : x viii .3

2 l anceis: v iii.2; x v .4

1i pse : p r .3

1l anis: x v .2

2 i psis: i ii .1; x vi .3

1l apidum :

3i psius: i i .3; x viii .2; x ix .6

1l argitate :

1 71

i .4

i i .2 i i.7

1l argitatem : p r .10

1l euamen : x v .1

1l argitati :

1l euandi : p r .11

i .6

3l argitio : i .1,2; i i .1

1l euibus: x ix .3

1l argitionum : p r .2

1l ibello : p r .2

1l argitur : x viii .11

1l iberalitate : v .4

1l assitudini: x ix .9

1l iberam : x vi.3

1l ateat: p r .4

1l iberior : x ix .8

2 l atenter : v iii.2 b is

1l iberius: p r . 1 7

1l atentes :

2 l ibertatem : p r .17; v ii .2

x ix .6

2 l atere : v ii .2 ; x .1

2 l iburna :

1l ateri: x v .4

1l iburnae: p r .1 2

3l ateribus: x ii.3 ; x vi.2; x vii .2

1l iburnam : x vii.1

1l ateris: x iv .5

1l iburnas: x vii .3

1l atior : x ix .3

1l ibycis: x v .3

1l atitantes :

i x .1

3l icentia : i .3 ,8; i ii.2

1l atitudine

x ix .2

1l icet: x iv .4

-

x vii.3 ; x viii .9

1l atitudinem : x viii.5 ,

1l igatur :

x iv .5

1l atitudo : v iii .2

1l igno : x .2

1l atrociniis: i i .6

1l imites: v .6

3l atus: v i .1; x ix .8 ; x x .1

4l imitum : p r .10; v i .1; x viii .11 ; x x .1

1l aude: i i.8 1l itigio : x xi.1 1l audem : i .1 1l itteris: p r .6 1l aus

-

p r .3 3l oca : v .6; v iii.2; x ix .8

1l axati: x ii .3 3l ocis: p r .9; v i .1; x i.1 1l axatis : x iv .4 1l oco : p r .3 1l axato : x iv .5

4 l ocum :

1l egum : x xi.1

v .3 ,4 b is ,7

2 l ocus: i ii .3 ; i v .5

1 72

2 l ongius : x iv .4 ; x viii .5

3m aiestatis: i .1 ;

1l ongus : x ix .8

1m aior : p r .5

1l oquatur : p r .6

1m niori: x ix .4

1l orica : x v .2

1m alls

1l oris : x vi .2

1m anebit: v .8

1l ubrica : x vi.4

2m anibus : x vii.1; x viii.2

2l ucra : p r .9; i v .4

1m anuballistae :

.

i ii .1,2

i i.5

x vi.5

4m enus : v ii.2; x .1; x vi.5; x viii.11 3m adhina : v i .4; x iii.1; x viii.3 1m arginibus : x vi .3 3 madhinae: v iii.1 ; x ii.4; x iv .1 1 man: p r .11 1m adhinam : v iii . 2 1m aria : x viii.9 4 machinarum : p r .1 1; x viii .7 ; x ix .4,8

1m ater : p r .6

1m achinas: x viii .7

2m ateria : i .8 ,9

4 machinis : v i. 4; x vii .2,3 ; x viii .2

1m ateriam : i .4 1m atriculis: v .7

3m agis: p r .6; i .1; i i.6 1m atura : v .8 2m agisterio : p r .12,13 1m axime : x viii.7 1m agistra : x v .2 1m e: p r .3 1m agna •i i.2 1m ea : p r .17 1m agnas : p r .13 1m eae: p r .2 1m agni: i i.1 2m eatus: x vi .3 ; x viii .8 1m agnis: x viii .1 1m edicina : i v .1 3m agnitudine : x viii .5

x iii.1 ; x vii .1 ; 1m edicinam : x xi .1

2m agnitudinem : i ii . 4; x vi.2

1m edietate : p r .10

2m agnitudo : p r .6; x viii.2

1m edio : x vi .3

1m agnum : p r .15

1m ediocritatis : p r .2

1 73

1m editata : i .8

2m inime: p r .7,14

1m editetur : x ix .7

2m inisterio : x viii .4; x ix .5

2m elius : x ii .4; x x .1

1m inisterium : x viii .11

1m embra : x v .2

1m inori : v .7

1m embrorum : x ix .2

1m inoribus: x ix .2

1m eminimus : x ix .6

1m inuatur : x ix .1

1m emoratae : v i .2

1m inueretur : x viii .4

1m emoriam : i i.8

2m inus: x iv .3; x viii .11

1m ensuram : x v .2

1m inutis :

1m ercatores: i v .1

1m ira :

1n erd s: i ii .3

1m irae: x viii .4

1m ercium : p r .9

1m iro : x vii .2

1m erita : x xi .2

1m issione : v .3

1m erito : v .1

1m issos : i v .1

2

1m oderentur :

p r .3 ,17

i x .1

x v .1

4m iles : p r .10; v .4 b is ; x v .4

2m odico :

1m ilibus : x ix .1

1m odicus :

1m ilitarem : x ix .3

3modum :

1m ilitaria :

i .9

1m cdus : p r .10

1m ilitaris :

v .3

3m oenibus :

i v .5

i .7 ; x .2 i x .1

x .1,2; x vii.2

i .4; i v .4 ; v i .4

1m ilite : v .6

1m cenium :

1m ilitem : x ix .2

1m ole : x vii .3

1m ilitia : v .7

1m olem : v .2

2m ilitiam : p r .9; v .5

1m ollibus : x v .2

3m ilitum : v .1; x viii .2; x ix .1

1m ollitis : x vi.2

1m illenis : x x .1

3m onetae :

1 74

i .8

i ii.1,2,3

1m ontibus : v i.2

3n ationes : p r .7; v i.4 ; x ix .4

1m onumenta :

1n ationum : v i.1

i .8

1m ora : x viii .9

2n atura : p r .5,7

1m ore : i .2

1n aturae : p r .6

1m orem : x ii .1

1n aturalibus: v i.1

1m oribus :

1n auali: x viii .9

i v .5

1m ulta : p r .16

1n aualibus: x vii.1

1m ultum : x ix .5

1n auibus : p r .12

1m unerum :

1n auigii : x viii.10

v .7

1n auis: x vii.2

1m uniatur : p r .1 3 1m unificentia :

1 8 n e : p r .3 ; i .1; i ii .1,2; v .2,3; v i.5; v iii.2; x v .3; x vi .1,4,5; x viii .4; x ix .1 b is ,2,8

i .7

1m uniri : x ix .2 1m unit: i x .1

7n ec : p r .3 ,6 b is; v i .3 ; x iii.1

i ii .3 ;

i v .5 ;

1m uniti : x ii.2 1n ecessario : x vi .1 1m unitiones : x x .1 2n ecessarium : p r .14; x viii .1 1m unitionibus : p r .10 1m änitis: x ii .2

5n ecessitas : i .7 ; x ii.1; x vi.1

1m unitus :

1n ecessitate : p r .17

i x .1

i ii.1; v ii.5;

1m uniuntur : x iv .5

2n ecessitatibus: p r .11; i .2

1m unus: p r .15

1n ecnon : v iii .2

1m urali : x viii.1

1n egotiatoribus : p r .9

1m uro : x x .1

1n equaquam : x ix .8

2m urum : v iii .1; x viii .8

3n eque : p r .7 ; 1n erui :

6n am : p r .5,7 ; x viii .8

i i.6;

i v .1 ; v i.2 ;

x .1 ; x viii.2

x viii.1

1n ihil : v i .5 1n ihilominus: i i. 3

1n amque : v ii .2

1n imio : v i .2

1 75

1n isi : x iii .1

1n umerus : x ix .9

1n isibus : x viii .2

1n ummariis : i ii.2

1n ititur : x viii .10

3n unc :

1n obilitas: p r .6

1n uncupamus: i i. 9

2n obis: p r . 1 5 ;

1n uncupata :

i .3

i .3 ; x viii .3 b is

x viii.6

1n amen : x v .4 1n amini: p r .8 1n aminis :

1o bfuscet: i ii .2

i i.7

1o bliquo : x vi.3

1 9 n on : p r .2,15,16; i .1,4 ; i i .9; i ii .1 ; i v .2; v .1,5,8 ; v ii .6; v iii .2 ; x .1; x iv .2; x v .2; x vi .2; x viii .2,7

1o bsideat: x viii.9 1o bstantia : x i .1

1n onnullae : v i .2 3n onnumquam : p r .5; v .7 ;

1o bruantur : p r .12

1o buiando :

i x .1

x viii.7

1n orant: i i.8

2o ccasio :

1n ostris : p r .8

1o cculta : x viii .8

1n otabiles: i v .2

1o cculto : x iv .3

1n oui: p r .14

1o ccupatio : v .2

1n ouis

1o ccupatos: p r .16

.

v i.4

i ii.3 ;

i v .3

1n ouitatis : x iv .1

1o ccurrere : x ix .2

2n ouo : x vi .3 ; x viii .9

2o ccursus: x vi .1 ; x ix .3

1n ube : x ix .6

1o creis : x v .4

1n ulla :

1° culls :

i ii.3

i i .5

1n ullam :

i i .5

1o culos : v ii.1

1n ullis :

i .8

1o dia :

i i .6

1n umero : p r .14

1o fferatur : x ix .3

2n umerosior : v .4 ; x viii.11

1o fferendam : x viii .4

1n umerum : v .3

2a mne :

1 76

i i .8 ; v i.1

1o pulentos: v .6

4a mnes : p r .6; v ii .3; x iv .5; x vii.3

2o pum : p r .6; i .2 3a mni: v ii .2; v iii.2; x ix .6 1o pus : x vi.3 3a mnia : x v .1; x viii .7 ; x ix .3 2o ratio : p r .9,17 1o mnibus : i ii .2 1o rationi : v i .5 1a mnis : x ix .4 1o rator : p r .5 1a mnium : p r .6 1o rbes: i .7 1o nerosa : p r .14 1o rdinare :

x ix .1

1o pe : x vii .1 2o rdinem : v .4; x ii.2 2o pera : v ii .6; x viii .4 2o rdinibus: x ii.4 ; x ix .1 2o perantibus: x vi .5; x vii.3 2o rdo : v .3 ; x ix .8 1o perantur : x vii .2 1o riatur : v i.5 1o pere: p r .9 1o rigo :

i i .1

1o peretur : v iii.1 1o rnatus: i .8 1o perit: i x .1 1o stendi: p r .2 2o pibus: i .4; i i.8 4o tio : p r .9,16; v .3 ,4 1o pifices: i ii .2 1o tiosi: x viii.4 1o pinionis: p r .8 1o tiosis: i .4 1o pis: x viii .11 1o pitulante : p r .7 1o pportuna : i ii .2

1p ace: p r .15

2o pportunis : p r .1,9

1p acis : v i.3

1o ppositus: i x .1

1p acto : p r .10

1o ppressis : i i .4

1p alls :

1o pprimatur : x ix .1

2p aludibus: p r . 1 4; v i .3

1o ptime ( uocatiuus):

i i .7

x vi.3

2p arata : v .8 ;

1o ptimus: p r .5

v ii.3

1p aretur : v iii .1

1 77

1p ari : 1p arma :

2p enetrare : x i .1; x viii .5

v .4

1p enitus: i i.9

i x .1

3p ars: p r .5; x ii .2; x iv .1

1p ennae: x .3

5p arte: p r .3 ; x .3 ; x vi.2

1p ennarum : x i .1

x iv .1,5;

1p ennas : x .3

3p artem : v ii .5; v iii.2; x .1

2p ennis : x .1; x i.1

1p artes : v ii.3

1 3 p er : p r .12; i i .6,8 ; i ii .1; v .3 ; v ii .3 ; v iii.1,3; x iv .5; x vi.3; x viii.7 ,8 ; x ix .2

1p arthicae : x ii .1 1p arti :

i ii.2

1p artibus : x vi .2

1p eracta :

1p arturiente : x vii.2

1p eractis : v .3

1p arum :

1p ercipiens: v .3

i v .2

i v .3

1p arumper : x .2

1p eregrino : x vi .3

1p assibus: x x .1

1p eregrinus : p r . 1 6

1p atrum : i .3

1p erficiat: x vi .2

1p agca : p r .11

1p ericula : x iii.1

2p aglisper :

i .3 ; i i.8

1p erimit :

1p agpertas :

i i .5

1p ermansit :

x .1 i .8

1p aupertatis: i i.8

1p ermiserint: x ix .8

1p agperum : i i.4

1p ermittit : x viii.2

1p eccarent: i v .2

4p erniciem : x ix .1

i i .4 ; x 1 ; x iv .4;

1p ectoris: x v .2 1p erpauci: p r .14 1p eculiaris : x viii .8 1p erpetua : p r .8 1p edestram : x v .4 1p erpetuum : i ii .2 1p edum : x vi.2 1P ersarum : x ix .4 2p ellibus: x v .3 ; x vi.2

1p ersequendo : i i .6 1p ersequeris : x viii.8

1p ellium : x vi.4

1 78

1p ersonarum : p r .7

2p onderis :

1p erstringat :

3p ondus : x iv .3 ;

v i .1

i .8 ;

x v .2 x vi.3 ; x ix .7

1p ersna us: p r .1 6

2p ontem : p r .14 ; x vi .5

1p ertinentibus :

3p ontis : p r .14 ; x vi.2; x viii.8

x ix .2

1p eruenerit: v .3

1p oplites: x ix .7

1p eruenisset: i i .2

1p opulando : i i.6

1p hilosophiae : p r .17

1p opulorum :

2p ictura :

1p opulos :

i ii .4 ; v ii.1

2p ietatis : p r .1 5;

1 .9

i ii .1

1p opulositas : x ix .1

i i. 5

1p lagas : x ix .2

1p orrectas: x iv .4

1p lana : x vi .2

1p ortabunt: p r .14

1p lantae : x .1

1p ortat: x iv .3

1p lenitudo : x vi.2

1p ortatilis: x viii .8

1p lenum : x v .4

1p ortatum :

3p lerumque : v i .2; x vi .1; x ix .2

1p oscit: x ix .2

1p lumbi : x i .1

1p osco : p r .3

2p lumbo : x .2 ; x i .1

1p ositam : v ii.1

1p lura : p r .15

1p ositis : x iv .1

1p lures : v .5

1p ositum : x .1

1p luuiis : x v .3

1p ossessorum : x x .1

1p oena : p r .10

5p ossit : p r .2; i ii .1; i v .2; v iii .2; x ix .2

x ix .3

1p oenam : p r .3 1p ost: x ix .6 1p olitius: i .6 1p olleant: p r .7

3p osterior : v .3 ; x ii .2; x iv .1

3p ondere :

1p osteriores: i .7

1 .8 ; x i .1; x v .3

1p onderi : x v .1

1p osterioris: x iv .5

1 79

1p osteritatis :

1p raestabitur :

x v .1

i ii.3

2p osterum : p r .3 ; i i.7

1p raestantior : x viii .11

1p otentia : i .8

1p raesulem : p r .4

1p otent l am : x viii .7

2p raeter : x ii .1; x ix .4

1p otentium : i i .4

3p raeterea : x vi .4; x viii .11; x x .1

1p oten t: i .2 1p raeualentes :

v .6

1p otestates : p r .6 2p raeualere: p r . 1 2; x viii .1 1p otiti : v .6 1p retii : 2p otius :

i i .1

i .1,4 1p retiosius :

i .8

1p otuerint: x .3 1p retiosorum : i i. 2 1p otuisset : x viii.11 1p retiosus : 1p rae :

i i .3

i i .5 2p rimis : v .8 ; v i .1

1p raebeatur : x ii.2 1p rimum :

x v .2

1p raebebit : x vi.3 2p rincipes: p r .1,8 1p raecipua : x vi.2 1p rior :

i .8

1p raecipuum : x vi .1 2p riori: x iii .1; x iv .2 1p raeda :

i v .3 1p riscae : i .7

1p raedictis : p r . 1 5 1p rivatae : i i.4 1p raemii: p r .3 2p rivato : p r .4,9 1p raemisso : p r .2 2 1 p ro : p r .2,3 b is ,9,17 ; 1 .8 t er ,9,10 ; i i .1; v ii .2,3; x ii .3 ; x iii.1; x vii .1,3 b is; x viii.2,5; x ix .2

1p raemium : p r .3 1p raenuntiante : i ii . 4 1p raeparanda : v iii .1

1p rocedit :

1p raesidia : x ix .7

1p rocurentur : p r .1 1

1p raesidii : x x .1

1p roduxit :

1p raesidiis : x xi .1

1p roeliorum :

1 80

i v .1

i i .6 i .1

1p roficiens: i .8

1p ropugnaculo : x iv .1

1p rofitente : x xi.2

2p rosequatur : p r .3 ; i .10

1p rofligandis :

1p rosequendae: v i. 4

i v .2

1p rofuderit: i .2

1p rospicere : i i.7

2p rofusa : i .1 ; i i.1

1p rospicient :

1p rofusior : i i .3

1p rotectior : v iii .1

1p rofutura : i v .4

1p rotegat: x ix .5

1p rofuturam : x ix .5

1p rotegendi: x ix .6

1p rofuturi: i ii .2

1p rotegendum : p r .17

2p rohibebat :

1p rouida : x v .1

v .5 ; x vii .1

1p rohibenda : v .1 1p rohibiti :

x x .1

5p rouidentia : p r .8 ,15; x xi.1

i .1,3 ;

i ii.2 1p rouinciae : i v .5

1p roinde : p r .3 1p rouincialium : v .6 1p ramissio : p r .3 2p rouinciarum : p r . 1 0; x x .1 1p ramissioni: p r .3 2p rouincias :

i v .1 b is

1p ramissionis : p r .17 1p rouisiones :

i .10

1p ramouendam : v iii .2 1p rouisionibus: v .1 1p ramptu : v .7 2p rouisionis: v .5,6 1p ropagare :

i i.7 1p rouisis: v .8

1p ropagatis : p r .8 1p rouocet: x ix .1 1p roperaui : i .10 2p rout: x viii .3 ; x ix .2 1p roponenda : x ix .4 1p roximis : p r . 1 5

1p ropriam : x ix .1

1p rudentiae: i i.7 1p ropriis :

i .5 1p ruinis : v i .2

1p roprium : p r .1 0

1p ublicae :

4p ropter : p r .17 ; x vi .2, 3 b is

i ii .2

1p ublico : x x .1

1 81

1p ublicum : i i. 2

1q uantum : x .3

1p ublicus : i .8

1q uarum : x vii .2

1p ugnacis : x ii.1

2q uas : x ii.4 ; x x .1

1p ugnae : x ii .1

1q uasi :

3p ugnam : x ii .2 ; x v .4 ;

x vii .3

1p ugnaturi: x ix .6

i v .2

2q uattuor : v ii .2 ,3 1 6 -que : p r .10,14 ; i .4,6,8 ,10; i i.2 b is; v i.3,4 ; v iii .2; x iii.1; x v .2; x vii.3 ; x xi.1 b is

1p ulsu : x .1 1p uteis : x vi.2

1q uer n : p r .5 3q ua : p r .6 ;

i i.8 ; v i .5 1q uenadmodum : p r . 1 0

3q uadam : i i .3 ; x iv .1 ; x vi.2 1q ueunt: v i.3 1q uadratis : x ix .4 9q ui : p r .5,8 b is; i v .2; v .7; 2 4 q uae : p r .6,8 ,11,15 b is; i .1,3 ,8 ,9; v iii.2; x ii.4 ; x v .4; x ix .6 i i .8 ,9; i v .1,3 b is; v .5,6; v i .3 ,4; v ii.4 ; x iii .1 ; x v .1; x viii.10,11 ; 2q uia : p r .16; v .7 x ix .4 6q uibus : p r .6,11 ; i .7 ; v ii .3 ; 1q uaeque : x ix .1 x ii .3; x ix .7 1q u2erit : x viii .11

1q uibusque : p r .9

1q u2lia . x ii .4

2q uicquam : p r. 5; x iii .1

1q ualitas : i ii .4

1q uicquid : x viii .11

1q ualitate :

3q uid : p r .6,17 ; x xi.2

i .8

1q u2litatibus : i .10

7q uidem : p r .7,15 ; v ii .4; x ii .3; x iv .2; x vi .3 ; x x .1

9q uam : p r .6; i .3 ,8 ; i i .6; i ii .4; x .2; x vii .1 ; x ix .4 ; x xi.2

1q uies : x x .1

1q uam libet :

2q uiet :

x .1

i i .6; v i.3

2q uamobrem : p r .8 ; i .3

1q uinquageni : v .7

1q uamuis : v ii.5

1q uinquaginta : p r .14

1q uandam : i ii .1

1q uinque : v .3

1q uanto : x viii .11

1q uis : x viii .10

1 82

6q uo : p r .10 b is; x viii .1 ; x ix .3

v iii.1; x iv .5 ;

1r ecusabat: i .8 1r edacta : p r .16

1q uocumque :

x vii .1 1r edacti: i ii.2

3 1 q uod : p r .2,6,7 ; i .2 ; l i .1,3 b is; i v .1 ,5; v .4; v i.1; v ii.6 ; v iii.1 b is; x .1 t er ; x ii .1 ; x iii .1 t er ; x iv .2,3 ,5; x v .2; x vi .1 b is,3,4 , x viii .9; x ix .2

1r edundante : i .8 2 r eferemps : p r .10,11 1r eferenda : i .3

3q uodam : x vi .3 ; x vii .2 ; x x .1 1r efugium : x ix .2 2q uodammodo :

x vii .1; x viii .9 1r efutatur : i ii.1

1 0 q uoque : p r .14; i .5,6; i ii .2; i v .4 ; v .4 ; v iii .1; x v .1,2; x viii .7

1r efutet: x ix .4 1r egalis: i .8

5q uorum : p r .9; x vi .2 ; x x .1

i .4 ; v .1 ; 2r egiae : i .6; i ii.1 1r egiis: v .6

3q uos : p r .15; i i .6; v .5

1r egit: x iv .2 1r adii : x vii .2

1r egitur : x iii.1

1r ad iis

1r egium : i .8

.

v ii .6

1r adiorum : x viii.2

1r egna : i i.8

1r apinarum :

2 r egum : i .7; i i .3

i v .2

1r apiunt: x ii .2

2 r ei: v iii .1; x viii.2

6r atione : p r .10; i ii.1 ; v .1 ; . x .1 ; x iv .2; x vi.1

1r eiecto : x xi.1 6 r eipublicae : p r .1,4; v .1; x x .1; x xi.1

1r e : p r .6 6r ebus : i .3 ; x ix .2 . 9

i ii.1 ;

i v .2 b is;

1r elatis : v .1 1r eleuabit: v .3

1r ecreabit: v .5 1r elicto : x .3 1r ecreantur : i .1 1r elinquetur : i v. 5 1r ecte : p r .5 1r ectores :

2r eliquis: p r. 2; x ix .2

i .4

1r am : x vi.1

1 83

i ii .1;

1r emediis : p r .15

1r etro : x viii .2

1r emedio : v .7

1r etrorsum : x viii .2

3r emedium : x vi .1; x viii .10; x xi .1

2 r ettulimus : p r .15; x ix .4

1r emissa : p r .10

2 r euerentia : i .8; i v .1

1r emorum : x vii.2

1r euerentiam : i i .5

3r empublicam : p r .15; v .3 ,5

1r euolue : i i.8

1r epellenda : x iii .1

2 r ipa : x vi .3 ,5

1r epellendis: v .1

1r ipam : x vi .3

1r epent ma : x ix .3

1r itu : x viii.9

1r epletae : i i .4

1r obur : p r .10

1r eposita : i i .2

1r amano : p r .8

1r eposito : i .6

1r amanum :

1r eppereris: x viii .7

1r ot a rum : v ii .2

2 r epperit: x ii.1; x vi.1

1r otas: x vii.2

1r epressa :

4 r otis : v iii .2; x vii.2; x viii.2,9

i i .7

v i .1

1r epressi: x ii .3 1r otunditas : x i .1 1r epresso : x iv .5 1r otunditatem : x vii .2 1r eprimatur : i .1 1r otundum : x i .1 1r equiescat: x x .1 1r uina : v .7 6 r erun : p r .4 ,7,16,17 ; v ii.3 ; x viii .4

1r upturus : p r . 1 3

3r es: v .5,7 ; x ix .3 1r esistat :

x ix .4

1s acrata :

i .8

1r esistet: x viii .10

1s acratissime: x xi .1

1r espicere: p r .8

1s acratissimi : p r .1

1r espublica : i v .5

1s aeculi : p r .9

1r estat: x xi .1

1s aepe: i i. 6

1r estituet: x viii .9

1s agacitas : x iv .2

1 84

1s agacitate : x viii .7

1s emis : x vi.2

1s agitta : x viii .1

3s emper : p r .1,6; v iii .1

2s agittae : x .1,2

1s ensibus : p r .8

2s agittam : x viii .1,4

1s ententias : x xi.1

1s agittarii :

v ii.2

1s entiat : p r .6

2s agittas: v ii .2,6

1s entire: p r .5

5s ane : v iii .2; x v .3 ; x ix .2,4; x x .1

1s equentibus: v .4 1s equentior :

1s celerum :

i .8

i i .5 1s erenitate : x xi .1

1s cholis: v .4 1s eruanda : i .2 2s ciendum : v i . 1 ; v ii .6 4s eu : p r .9 b is;

x viii.3 b is

1s cilicet : v .7 1 4 S i: p r .3 ,17; i .1,2; i v .2,5; v .4,7 ; x .1; x viii.4,8,9; x ix .3 ,9

1s cutati : x ix .6 1s cuto : x v .4

2s ibi : v .3; x viii .11 7s e : p r .13; i v .1; v ii .6; v iii.2 b is; x .1 ; x viii .11

1s ic :

1s ecernitur : x iv .3

1s ignabatur :

1s ecundo : x iv .3

1s ignatum :

1s ecura : v .8

1s ignauerunt: i .7

1s ecurus : p r . 1 0

1s ignauit: i .8

1s ecus: p r .3

1s iluarum : x ix .2

2 2 s ed : p r .2,4 ,6; i .1,4,7 ,8 ,10; i i .1 ,5; v .2,5; v ii .5,6; v iii.2; x .1; x ii .2; x iv .2; x vi .2,3; x viii .2,7

x xi.1 i .9

i i .3

1s iluis : v i .2 1s imilia : x v .2 1s imilibus : x i .1

1s e n t : x vii.3 1s imiliter : x i.1 1s emetipsum : p r .13 1s emina :

1s implicitas :

i .1

i ii.1

1s imulacris: i .5

1 85

8s ine : p r .7,10,12,13 ; x .1; x viii .9; x x .1

1s ollicitat: i ii.1

i v .3;

2s ollicitudo : x v .2; x x .1

1s ingula : x ix .1

2s olum : v .5; x viii .7

1s ingularis: x iii.1 3s patia : v .3 ; x vi .2; x ix .1 1s inguli : x viii .2 2s patio : x .2,3 1s ingulis : x ii .2 1s patium :

x vi.3

2s ingulorum : p r .9 ; x xi .2 1s peciem : i .8 1s int: x viii.8 3s pecies : p r .9; i .8 ,10 4s it : p r .3 ; v i .5; x ix .2,9 1s perari: i v .1 6s iue : p r .9,13 b is; x ix .8

x viii .8 b is; 1s piritu : x vi.2

1s occis : x v .4

1s pentaneis : x iv .1

1s ocietate : i ii .2

1s tabili: x x .1

1s olacio : x v .2

1s tipendiis : v .3

1s ole : v i.2

1s tipendio : v .7

1s oli: i v .2

1s tipendiorum : v .5

1s olidatam : i .6

2s tragem : p r .13 ;

1s oliditatem : i x .1

1s tudia : x xi .2

2s olidorum : i ii.1,2

2s ua : i v .2; x viii.6

1s olidum : i ii.1

2s u2e : i .5; v iii.1

1s olitam : p r . 1 0

2s uam : i .8 ; i i.5

1s olitudine : i ii .3

2 s ub : x vi.3 ; x ix .6

1s olitudinem : p r .1 0

1s ubacta : x viii.9

1s olitudinibus: v i. 2

1s ubeunda :

1s ollemnia :

2s ubieci: i ii .4; v i.5

i v .4

x ii.4

x viii .8

2s ollertia : p r .13 ; x v .2

1s ubiecit : x v .1

1s ollicitant: p r .15

2s ubiecta : p r .9 ; v ii .2

1 86

1s ubire : x viii .8

2s ufficiat: p r.2 ; x ix .2

1s ubit :

1s uffragante :

x iv .3

i ii.3

1s ubiturus : x v .4

1s uggerenda : p r .1

1s ubiunctis : v ii .2

5s ui : i x .1; x i.1; x iii .1; x vii.1,3

1s ubleuandam : p r . 1 5 2s uis: x ii .3 ;

x ix .1

1s ubleuata : v ii.4 3s umma 1s ubleuati :

p r .6; v .7; x .3

v .7 1s umpsit : v iii .1

2 s ubnixa : p r .6; x vii.1 1s umptu :

x x .1

1s ubnixae : p r .6 1s umus : x vi.4 1s ubrogandi 3s ubsidia :

.

v .7 8s unt: p r .5,15; i v .4 ; v .7 ; v i .3 ,4; x vi .4; x ix .6

i .1; v .8 ; x ix .3

2s ubsidiis: v i .4; x ix .5

3s uper : x .3 ; x iv .5 , x vi .4

1s ubsternenda : x vi.4

1s uperanda : x ix .4

1s ubter : x vi .2

1s uperetur : x ix .3

1s ubtilis :

1s uperimpositis: v iii.2

v ii .1

1s ubtiliter : x .2

1s uperinducere : x v .3

1s ubuectionem : x ix .9 .

2s uperior : v iii .2; x iii.1

1s ubuectioni : p r . 1 4

1s uperiore : x iii .1

1s ubueniendum : p r .17

1s uperiorem : v iii .2

2s ubuenire :

1s uperioribus: x iv .1

i .2;

x ix .9

1s uccedens : v .3

1s uperioris: i .4

1s uccendit: i i.6

1s uperposita : x v .4

1s uccessibus : p r .1

1s uppeteret: i .6

1s uccurret : x viii.8

1s uppetit: x ix .4

1s ufficere :

1s upplenda :

i v .2

1s ufficiant : x v .2

v .7

1s uppleturus :

1 87

v .4

1t eli: x i.1

5s upra : x .2; x ii.2; x viii .1 b is 1s uspensus :

1t ells: x ix .2

i x .1

2t elorum : x iv .5; x ix .6

1s ustinendum : x vi .3 1t elum : x viii .5 1s utis: x vi .2 1t emeritas: x viii .8 1 ta ro : v ii.5 1t abulatis: x ix .6 2t emone : i x .1; x iv .3 4t ali : p r .13 ; v .7; x v .2; x vi .1 1t emplis :

1 1 .2

1t alibus: v i.4 3t emporibus : p r .1 ; i .10; i i .1 1t alis : p r .13 1t emporis: x vi .3 3t am : p r .2 ;

1 11 .4; v .2 2t emporum :

1 2 t amen - p r .7; i i.3 ; v i .3 ; x vi .5; x vii.3 ; x viii.2,3 ,4; x ix .2,3, 8 ,9

i i .8 ; v .3

1t emptauerit:

x viii .8

1t endunt: x viii .2 1t amquam :

i v .2 1t enentis :

x .3

2t anta : 1 .3; v ii .2 1t enuioribus :

i i .4

1t antae : v .2 1t ergo : x ii .2 1t antis: x viii .5 1t ernis :

x ix .1

3t anto : x .3 ; 'xvii.3 ; x viii .11 5t antum : x ix .1

i .8 ;

2t erra : p r .11 ;

x viii.8

2t errae : p r .9;

i ii.2

x iv .2; x viii.4,5;

2t antummodo : p r .6; x viii .4

2t erram : 1 .6; x .1

1t arditas : v .5

1t erras: x viii.9

1t ecta : v i.1

1t errenis: p r .13

1t ectos: v iii.2

1t errestri: x viii.9

1t egmine : x ix .6

1t errestris : x viii.10

1t eguntur : v i.2

1t estabitur : p r .9

2t ela : x iii .1 ; x viii.3

2t estatur : v ii .1; x viii .6

1 88

1t estimonia : 1 .5

1t ribulata : x i.1

1t horacomachi: x v .3

1t ribuli: x .2

2t horacomacho : x v .4 ; x ix .2

1t ribunalibus: p r .6

1t horacomachum : x v .1

1t ributariae : v .1

1t horacomachus : x v .3

1t ributorum : p r .1 0

3t ichodifri: i x .1 ;

1t rium : x vi .2

x ix .6 b is

3t ichodifrus : v iii.1,2; x ix .5

1t riumphorum : i .1

1t imoris: x v .2

1t ua : x xi .1

1t hrones : v .7

2t uae :

1t ironum : i v .4

1t ui: i i.7

1t itulis: p r .9

1t uitione : x v .4

1t itulorum :

2t ulerit : v .7 ; x ix .3

i v .3

1 1 .6,7

3t ormentorum : v i .5 ; x ix .8 ,9

1t umuerint: x vi.2

2t ot: x viii .4 ,5

2t urba :

1t otius: v .1

1t urbae : o r .12

1t otum : v .3

1t urbatis : x ii.4

2 t ractantibus : p r .9 b is

1t urribus: x x .1

1t ractu : x iii .1

1t utelae: x x .1

2t ractus: x iii.1; x viii.1

2 t utelam : x v .2; x ix .2

1t rahente : x iv .3

1t yrannos :

x viii.4; x ix .1

i i .6

1t rahi: x viii .2 1t rahit : 1t rans :

1u arans: v .3

v ii .2

1u acantia : v iii.2

x ix .3

1t ranscurrens: x viii .9

2u ad it

1t ranseundi :

1u agae : v i .2

x vi.3

x .1 ; x viii.5

2n aleat: x i .1; x viii .5

1t ribuatur : v iii .2

1 89

1u alidis : x vi .3

1u erberibus : x iv .1

1u alidum : 1 .8

1u eritatis : p r .3

1u alidus: x viii .1

1 0 u ero : p r .13,17; i .6,8 ; v i.5; x ii.3 ,4 ; x iv .3 ,5 ; x ix .7

1u alituras: x viii .7 1u aria :

4u erum :pr .16; i ii.4 ; v .7 ; v i.5

i .9

1u arias :

1 .10

1u estientem : x v .3

1u arie :

i x .1

1u estientis : x v .2

1u arios: i i. 5

1u estigia : v iii .2

5u bi: i ii.3 ; v .3 ; x ix .4 ,8 ; x xi.2

1u estigiis : x vi .4

2u bique : v i.1 ; x x .1

1u estimenti : x v .2

3u ehiculi : x ii .1; x iv .1 ; x viii.10

1u estiti : x iv .5

1u ehiculis: x ix .3

1u estitu : x ii .2

1 6 u el: p r .9,10,11; 1 .3 ; i v .4 ; v .3 ,4 ; v iii .1; i x .1; x ii.4 ; x v .2,4 ; x vii.2 b is; x ix .9 b is

1u estra : p r .15 6u estrae : p r .1,9,15 b is, 1 6; i ii .2

1u elocissimum : p r .12 1u estri: p r .9 4u elut: p r .3 ;

i v .1 ; x .2; x iv .1 1u eteranos : v .6

1u enabuli : x .2 1u eterum : i .10 1u endendi :

1 .6 1u etustatis :

i .2

1u endentis: i ii .1 1u exant: i v .1 1u enia : p r .17 1u i: x viii .7 1u eniamus : v .1 1u iam : x ix .3 1u eniat: x viii .8 1u iciniam : x ix .6 1u enientes : x vii .3 1u ictoria : x ix .7 1u enientum : i x .1 1u ictoriam : x viii.9 1u era :

i .10 1u ictoriis : p r .11

1u erberans . p r .13

1u ictricem : x viii.8

1u erberatus: x v .3

1u ideatur :

1 90

i .3

6 u idelicet : 1 1 .4; i ii .2; x .3 ; x ii.2; x viii.4

i v .2;

1u itulinis: 1u na :

x vi.2

x vi.2

1u idemus: p r .7 1u nam : 1u ideretur :

i ii .2

i i.3 1u ncini: x vi .2

3u idetur :

x .1 b is;

x ii .1 1u nco : x viii .1

1

x x .1 3u nde :

p r .2,10;

i v .1

1u igorem : p r .15 2 u ndique: p r .16;

i ii .2

1u ilibus: i i.1 1u niuersam : 1u ilior :

1 .4

i .9 1u niuersis: p r.9

1u ilitatis:

i .7

1u indicantur : v i. 2

3u nius: x iii .1; x iv .2; x viii .4

1u indictam : 1 1.5

2 u num : p r .2 ; x xi.1

1u iolentia :

1u nus :

i i .4

x iv .3

1u ires:

i v .2

2u nusquisque : p r .6 ;

1u irga :

x i.1

1u c ibis : p r .15

2 u iri : x ii .2;

x viii .2

8u iribus: x .1 ; 7 ,10; x ix .4 2 u irium :

1u ocäbuli: v iii.1

x viii.1 b is,2 b is,

x vii .3 ;

1u ocatur :

v .4

3u ocet: v ii.5; x vii.1; x viii.3

x viii .6

5 u irorum : v ii .6 ; x vii.1; x viii.11; x ix .1,5 3u irtus: x vii .1;

1u oluunt:

x vii .2

1u otiva :

i v .4

2 u sibus:

1 .8 ;

1u spiam :

x viii.8

1u squam :

i v .5

x ix .1,4 i ii.2

2 u irtute: x iii.1; x viii.11 3u irtutis:

1 .5 ;

i v .2

i i .6; x viii .4

1u irtutum : p r .6 2 u sque : x vi.3 ; x ix .6 1a ls: i i.2 1u isum : v .1

4u su : x ii .4; x vi .1; x viii .1; x ix .2

1u itae :

1u sui :

i .4

1 91

i .6

2 u sum : i .6; x v .1 1u sus: v ii .2 3 9 u t: p r .1,2,5,12,13 b is,15; i .6 b is,8 b is,10; i i.3 ; i ii.2 b is,4; v .1,7; v i.5 ; v ii.2,6; x i.1 : x iv .2; x v .2,4; x vi .2 b is; x vii .3 ; x ix .1,2, 6 ,9; x x .1 b is; x xi .1 1u tebatur :

i .7

1u terum : x vi .2 1u tili: v iii.1 1u tilia : p r .16 1u tilior : x ix .9 1u tilis: x x .1 9 u tilitas: p r .4 ; i .1,6; v ii.2; x v .1; x vii.1; x viii.3 ; x ix .2

v .6;

1u tilitate : p r .2 1u tilitates: p r .6 1u tilitati: p r .2 1u tilitatibus:

i v .1

2 u tilitatis: p r .2;

i ii .2

1u tpote: v .7 2 u traque: x vi.3,5 2 u tres: x vi .2 b is 1u tribus :

x vi.3

2 u trium : x vi .2,4 1u ulnere: x .1 1u ulnus: x .1 1u ultu :

i i .3

1 92

Analysis

of

the

contents

of

this

edition

TRANSLATION

TEXT N ote o n p resentation,

2 P reface,

p raefatio, 3 -4 C OMMODAE A VCTORITATIS V ARIAE P RISCORVM M ONETAE,

2 3-24

T HE V ARIOUS S UITABLY-AUTHORISED C OINS O F T HE A NCIENTS

4

id e i nhibenda l argitate, 5

IS trict c ontrol of p ublic d onations, 2 5

i i e x q uibus t emporibus p rofusio u el a uaritia c oeperit, 5 -6

I I T he p eriod a t w hich e xtrav agance a nd g reed b egan , 2 6

i ii d e f raude e t c orrectione m onetae, 6

I II F raud , a nd t he r eform of t he m int, 2 6-27

F ELIX I NCHOATIO S ACRAE D IVINAEQVE M ONETAE, 6

A F AVOURABLE N EW S TART F OR T HE S ACRED A ND D IVINE C URRENCY

i v d e i udicum p rauitate, 7

I V C orruption a mong t he p rovincial g overnors, 2 7

v d e r eleuando m ilitari s umptu , 7

VR eduction o f m ilitary e xpenditure, 2 7-28

v i d e b ellicis m achinis, 8

V I M ilitary m achines,

B ALLISTA Q VADRIROTIS, 8

T HE F OUR-WHEELED B ALLISTA

v ii e xpositio b allistae q uadrirotis, 8 -9

V II D escription of t he f ourw heeled b allista , 2 9

C LIPEOCENTRVS, T ICHODIFRVS, 9

T HE S HIELD A C LOUS T HE C HAR-MURAILLE

v iii e xpositio t ichodifri, 9

V III D escription of t he c har-muraille, 2 9-30

i x e xpositio c lipeocentri, 9

I X D escription of t he s hield c lous, 3 0

P LVMBATA M AMILLATA , P LVMBATA [ ET ] T RIBOLATA,

T HE T HE

x e xpositio p lumbatae t ribulatae, 1 0

1 0

[ et]

2 8-29

' BREASTED ' J AVELIN ' CALTROP ' J AVELIN

XD escription of t he ' caltrop' j avelin, 3 0

x i e xpositio p lumbatae m amillatae, 1 0

X I D escription of t he ' breasted' j avelin , 3 0-31

C VRRODREPANVS,

T HE C HARIOT A F AUX

1 1

x ii e xpositio c urrodrepani, C VRRODREPANVS S INGVLARIS,

1 1

X II D escription of t he c hariot f aux, 3 1

1 2

T HE C HARIOT A F AUX F OR O NE R IDER

1 93

x iii e xpositio c urrodrepani s ingularis, 1 2

X III D escription o f t he c hariot f aux f or o ne r ider , 3 1

C VRRODREPANVS C LIPEATVS,

T HE C HARIOT A F AUX W ITH S HIELDS

1 3

x iv e xpositio c urrodrepani c lipeati, 1 3

X IV D escription o f t he c hariot f aux w ith s hields, 3 2

T HORACOMACHVS,

T HE D EFENSEUR D E P OITRINE

1 4

x v e xpositio t horacomachi, 1 4-15 A SCOGEFYRVS,

X V D escription o f t he d 6fenseur d e p oitrine,

3 2-33

T HE P ONT D 'OUTRES

1 5

x vi e xpositio a scogefyri, 1 5

X VI D escription o f t he p ont d 'outres, 3 3

L IBVRNA ,

T HE W ARSHIP

1 6

x vii e xpositio l iburnae, B ALLISTA F VLMINALIS,

1 6

X VII D escription o f t he w arship, 3 4 T HE

1 7

' THUNDERBOLT '

B ALLISTA

x viii e xpositio b allistae f ulminalis, 1 7-18

X VIII D escription o f t he ' thunderbolt' b allista , 3 4-35

x ix d e b ellico a pparatu, 1 8

X IX M ilitary e quipment ,

x x d e l imitum m unitionibus, 1 9

X X D efence o f t he f rontiers,

x xi d e l egum u el i uris c onfusione p urganda, 1 9

X XI R emoval o f c onfusion i n t he l aws a nd t he l egal sstem , 3 6

3 5-36 3 6

T RANSMISSION O F T HE T EXT P rimary a nd s econdary w itnesses, 3 9. C opies o f t he s pirensis: C ( Oxford ), 4 0 ; M ( Munich ), 4 0-42; V ( Vienna-Trento), 4 2; P ( Paris), 4 2-43 . P roblem o f c opy-text f or t he e ditio p rinceps, 4 3 . G helen's e ditions f or F roben, 4 4-45 ; B ilde v on R heinau 's e ditions, 4 5-46; c onnexion b etween t he t wo s cholars, 4 6-47; M SS f rom t he U pper R hinel and k nown t o t hem , n ow l ost, 4 7-48 . C ontents o f M S u sed b y G helen f or t he n otitia-group, 4 8 ; t his M S n ot C M P o r V , 4 9-50; i ts i dentity w ith t he s pirensis-tradition, 5 0-51, d emonstrated f rom a lternative t radition o f d escriptio u rbis c onstantinopolitanae, 5 1-52. T he s pirensis d escribed, 5 2-53; i ts c ontents, 5 3-54; n ot a n o rganic w hole, 5 4; i nsular s cript i n t he n otitia-group, 5 4-55; c aroline s cript o f t he s urviving l eaf o f i tinerarium A ntonini, 5 5. G helen 's v ariants i n d .r .b . a nd t he n otitia c onsidered a s c orrect ions o f s pirensis r eadings, 5 5-58 ; h is c opy-text t he s pirensis i tself , 5 8 ; e xternal r easons f or t his i dentification, 5 9; i nternal r easons, 6 0-61. F ate o f M SS u sed b y G helen a nd B ilde v on R heinau,62.

1 94

C ontents o f e ditio p rinceps, 6 2-63 ; t heir o rder, 6 3 ; o mission o f d e g radibus c ognationum , 6 3-64. e x u 1timis B ritannis; M oelbrigte; t he o rigin o f t he s pirensis, 6 5-66. N OTES S ubstantive n otes: o n c odices d escripti, 6 6 ( n.2 ): e ntries i n t he S peyer m inute-book r elating t o t he s pirensis, M , a nd O tt H einrich, 6 7-68 ( n.4): t he c opy f or G helen 's A mmianus, 6 8-69 ( n.13): G helen's m isidentification o f t he i mperator a nd fUii a ddressed i n d .r .b ., 6 9-70 ( n.17): t opographical t exts a t S peyer, 7 0 ( n.25): t he a lterc atio H adriani e t E picteti a s a c omponent o f t he n otitia-group, 7 0-71 ( n.26): c omposition a nd d ate o f t he s pirensis, 7 1 ( n.29); i ts p resence a t S peyer 1 436-1552, 7 2 ( n.39): n ature o f c opy f or e ditio p rinceps o f n otitia-group, 7 3 ( n.42): c opy f or B ilde 's V elleius, P ickel's H rotsuith, t he S ubiaco A ugustine, 7 3 ( n.44): c ollation o f t he 1 552 n otitia v olume, 7 4 ( n.45); a p roblem i n i ts l ast q uire p erhaps r eflecting o n c ontents, 7 4 ( n.45): o fficial t exts i n i nsular s criptoria, A lcuin a nd t he a 1tercatio, 7 4-75 ( n.48). APPENDIX:

PREVIOUS

G helen , S chrijver, T hompson, 7 8 . EXCURSUS:

T HE

7 6:

EDITIONS

OF

P anciroli,

L abbe,

PRINTING

OF

THE

T HE

T EXT S chneider,

EDITIO

R einach,

7 7:

PRINCEPS

T wo d ated i llustration-blocks, 7 9-81: t ime-scale o f b lock-cutting a nd a vailability o f e xemplar, 8 2. C ontinuity o f p rinting, 8 2: d emonstrated f rom w rong-fount a nd b roken l etters, 8 3-84; f rom r epeated i llustration-blocks, 8 4-89; f rom b lind i mpressions o f t ype p acking o ut c hase, 8 9-91. C onclusions: t he s pirensis a s e xemplar o f t he e ditio p rinceps, 9 1-92.

T EXTUAL

C RITICISM

S ubstantive n otes: a c orrection a nd s upplements i n p r.3, 9 5-96: ap re-archetypal r eading i n p r.5, 9 6: f alse c oncord r etained i n p r.7, 9 6: G helen w ith P V ( and s o E ?) a gainst C M i n p r.9, 9 7: t extual d isturbance i n p r.10, 9 7 : a c rux i n i .1, 9 8-99: a s upplem ent i n i .3, 9 9: a l acuna d etected i n 1 .6, 9 9-100: i nsular e rror o f V i n i i.6, 1 00: s upplements i n i i.6, 1 00: a c orrection i n v .4, 1 01: d ittography i n E i n v .7, 1 02: M V a nd G helen i n d ifficulty w ith a E r eading i n v ii.6, 1 02-103: G helen a gain w ith P V ( and s o E ?) a gainst C M i n ar eading d ecided b y c lausula i n i x .1, 1 03 : v ariants a nd a d eletion i n xp icture-caption a nd c hapter-heading, a nd a t heory o f t itling, 1 03-104: a s upplement i n x i.1, 1 04:

1 95

c urrodrepanus o r c urrus d repanus i n x ii, 1 05: a s upplement i n x ii.2, 1 05 : i nsular e rror o f Pin x ii.3, 1 05: b reakdown o f t ext ' n x iv.3, 1 06: s pelling o f t horacomachus i n x v, 1 07 : p erversion o f t erminations i n E , 1 07 ( on x v .4): s pelling o f a scogefyrus i n x vi, a n i nsular e rror a nd t heory o f t itling , 1 08 : i nsular e rror o f C i n x ix.3, 1 09: E c orrupt a nd u nclear i n x xi.1, 1 09.

L ANGUAGE A ND S TYLE G RAMMAR N OUNS A ND P RONOUNS: t he c ases, 1 13-114: s pecial u ses o f t he p ronoun, 1 14-115 . A DJECTIVES: m orphology , c oncord , a djective a s n oun, a djective f or a dverb, a djectival d egree, 1 15-116 . V ERBS: t ense, m ood, 1 16; v oice, m orphology, 1 17 ; p articiple a s n oun, s yntax o f t he v erb, 1 18-119 ; g erundive a s f uture p articiple p assive, 1 19; e llipse o f t he v erb, 1 20. A DVERBS: f orms a nd m eanings, a dverbial d egree, 1 20 . C ONJUNCTIONS, D ISJUNCTIONS, P ARTICLES: a lternatives a nd p ossibilit ies, 1 20-121; c onnectives, 1 21. P REPOSITIONS: a /ab , 1 21; d e , e /ex , i n , p er , 1 22. VOCABULARY AND

COMPOSITION

L EXICAL I TEMS ( SENSES A ND S PELLINGS): a scogefyrus , c lipeocentrus , c livanus , 1 23; c unctus , c urrodrepanus , d electabilitas , d esperatus , f amosus , 1 24; f igurare, f ixorium , f ulminalis , l iburna , 1 25;

p lumbata , q uadrirotis , s equentior , t horacomachus , 1 26 ; t ichod ifrus , u is , u otiuus , 1 27 . A BSTRACTION A ND S UBSTANTIVAL S TYLE: s tantives a nd s yntax, 1 28-129. I MAGE A ND M ETAPHOR : P ROSE R HYTHM : STYLISTIC

s ources,

a nalysis,

1 29;

1 31-136;

D EVICES AND

a bstract n ouns,

d iscussion, d iscussion,

1 27-128;

s ub-

1 30 . 1 36 .

CHARACTERISTICS

S OME R HETORICAL F IGURES: a naphora, a syndeton, c hiasmus, f igura T L6 . x ouvoü, f igura e tymologica, h endiadys, h omoioteleuton, h yperbaton, 1 37; l itotes, o xymoron, p aronomasia, p ersonification, p leonasm, v ariatio, z eugma, 1 38 . R EPETITION O F W ORDS:

a nalysis,

1 39-145;

d iscussion,

1 46-147.

C OARSENESS O F V ERBAL T EXTURE: i mprecision o f l anguage, 1 47 ; c onventionality o f l anguage, 1 48 ; i nsensitive h andling o f l anguage, 1 48-149. T HE S TYLE: A G ENERAL S UMMARY a nd d escription o f t he a uthor,

1 96

1 50.

7

M ANUSCRIPT

I LLUSTRATIONS

T HE

I LLUSTRATIONS

I n t he f ollowing p lates d e t he

r ebus

b eilicis

1 0291

i n

f rom t he

t o

l at.

t ext);

m isc.

M*

( the

s pirensis

P ( parisinus

Oxford ,

f or

paring t hese

s ources: 3 78); s et

l atinus

o f

9 661).

Nationale,

Munich;

s upplying t he p lates

i llustrations of t hey appear

Paris;

t he

B odleian

p hotographs

u sed

a llowing u s

t hem.

1 98

t raced

t he back of M );

We a re most

a nd t he

a nd f or

l atinus

i llustrations a t

i n

C ( oxoniensis

M ( monacensis

a nd b ound u p

t he B ibliotheque

S taatsbibliothek,

t welve

r eproduced a s

f ollowing manuscript

c anonicianus

a nd

a re

t he

t o

g rateful

Bayerische L ibrary, i n p republish

P R IS CORVM

P R IS CORVM

P LATE

( a)

( b)

II:

a s i n C

a s

i n P

F ELIX

I NCHOATIO S ACRAE D IVINAEQVE M ONETAE

P LATE

( a)

( b)

a s

a s

I V:

i n M

i n M *

F ELIX

I NCHOATIO

S ACRAE D IVINAEQVE M ONETAE

P LATE V :

( a)

a s

i n

C

( b)

a s

i n P

B ALLISTA Q VADRIROTIS

P LATE V I:

( a)

( b)

a s

a s

i n M

i n M *

B ALLISTA Q VADRIROTIS

P LATE V II:

( a)

( b)

a s

a s

i n

C

i n P

T ICHODIFRVS

C LIPEOCENTRVS

P LATE

( a)

a s

i n M

( b)

a s

i n M *

V III:

T ICHODIFRVS

C LIPEOCENTRVS

P LATE

I X:

P LVMBATA

( a)

a s

i n C

( b)

a s

i n P

( c)

a s

i n M

( d)

a s

i n M *

[ ET]

T RIBOLATA

P LVMBATA M AMILLATA

P LATE X :

( a)

( b)

a s

a s

i n C

i n P

C VRRODREPANVS

P LATE X I:

( a)

a s

i n M

( b)

a s

i n

M *

C VRRODREPANVS

P LATE X II:

( a)

( b)

a s

a s

i n

C

i n P

C VRRODREPANVS

SIN GVLAR IS

P LATE X III:

( a)

a s

i n M

( b)

a s

i n M*

C VRRODREPANVS

S INGVLARIS

P LATE X IV:

( a)

a s

i n C

( b)

a s

i n P

C VRRODREPANVS

C LIPEATVS

P LATE X V:

( a)

( b)

a s

a s

i n M

i n M *

C VRRODREPANVS

C LIPEATVS

P LATE X VI:

( a)

( b)

a s

a s

i n

C

i n P

T HORACOMACHVS

P LATE X V II: T HORACOMACHVS

( a)

( b)

a s

a s

i n M

i n M*

P LATE X X:

( a)

( b)

a s

a s

i n C

i n P

L IBVRNA

P LATE X IX :

( a)

a s

i n M

( b)

a s

i n M *

A SCOGEFYRVS

P LATE X VI II: A SCOGEFYRVS

( a)

( b)

a s

a s

i n

C

i n P

P LATE X XI:

L IBVRNA

P LATE X XI I: B ALLI S TA

( a)

a s

i n

( b)

C

a s

i n P

F VLMI N AL I S

P LATE X XIII:

( a)

( b)

a s

a s

i n M

i n M *

B ALLISTA

F VLMINALIS