Current Research on the Romanization of the Western Provinces 9780860547280, 9781407348742
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English Pages [128] Year 1992
Polecaj historie
Table of contents :
Cover
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
Editors' introduction
Foreword
Rural Integration in the Roman West: An introductory essay
The Romanization and de-Romanization of Belgic Gaul: The rural settlement evidence
'Opportunity' or 'Opposition' in Roman Gaul?
L'Armorique Romaine: Mutations et Resistances
La Place de la Normandie dans l'Empire Romain de la fin de l'independance jusqu'au Verne siècle de notre ere
Un Finisterre Atlantico en época Romana: la costa Galaica (NW de la peninsula Iberica)
An Atlantic Finisterra in Roman times: the Galician littoral of the north-western Iberian peninsula
The monetization of a third world economy: money supply in Britain in the first century AD
How was technology transferred in the western provinces?
Celtisme et Romanite: de l'Empire Romain ä l'Europe Unie (Divertissement geopolitique)
Citation preview
Current Research on the Romanization of the Western Provinces Edited by
Mark Wood and Francisco Queiroga
BAR Int ernat ional Series 575 1992
Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 575 Current Research on the Romanization of the Western Provinces © The editors and contributors severally and the Publisher 1992 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860547280 paperback ISBN 9781407348742 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860547280 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1992. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.
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C on ten ts
L i s to fC on t r ibu to r s
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E d i to r s 'i n t roduc t ion F o reword b y P rofesso r Ma lco lm T odd
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R u ra lI n teg ra t ion i nt h eR oman We s t : a ni n t rodu c to ry e s say M .M i l len T he R oman iza t ion a nd d e -Roman iza t ion o fB e lg ic G au l : t h er u ra ls e t t lemen te v id en ce C .C . Ha se lgrove a nd C .J .S cu l l
1
9
' Oppo r tun i ty ' o r' Oppo s i t ion ' i nR oman G au l? J .D r inkwa te ra nd H . V e r t e t
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L 'A rmo r ique R oma ine : Mu ta t ion se tR e s i s tance s P .G a l l iou
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L aP lace d el aN o rmand ie d an sl ' Emp i re R oma in d el af i n d el ' i nd6pendance j u squ 'au Y es i èc le d en o ir ee r e P .B la szk iew ic z
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U nF in i s te r r eA t lan t ico e ne poca R omana : l ac o s ta G a la ica ( NW d el ap en in su la I b e r ica ) J .N ave i ro L ope za nd F .P e r e zL o sada
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A nA t lan t ic F in i s t e r ra i nR oman t ime s :t h eG a l ic ian l i t to ra l o ft h en o r th -we s te rn I b e r ian p en in su la J .N ave iro L öpe za nd F .P e r e zL o sada
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T he mone t iza t ion o f at h i rd w o r ld e conomy :m oney s upp ly i n B r i ta in i nt h ef i r s tc en tu ry AD P .J . C a sey
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How w a st e chno logy t r an sf e r red i nt h ew e s t e rn p rov ince s? K . G r eene C e l t i sme e tR oman i t6 :d el ' Emp i r eR oma in äl ' Eu rope U n ie ( D iver t issemen t üopo l i t ique ) Y .P er r in
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C on tr ibu tor s
P a tr ick B la szk iew icz , Mu see d e N o rmand ie , L og is d e s G ouve rneu r s , C hâ teau , 1 4000 C aen ,F rance P .J ohn C a sey ,D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fD u rham , 4 6 S add le rS t r ee t , D u rham DH 1 3 NU J ohn D r inkwa ter ,D epa r tmen to fC la s s ica l&A r chaeo log i ca lS tud ie s ,T he Un ive r s i ty , N o t t ingham NG7 2 RD P a tr ick G a l l iou ,U n ive r s i te d eB r e tagne O cc iden ta le , 2 9285 B re s t ,F r ance K ev in G reene ,D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy , T he U n ive r s i ty ,N ewca s t le -upon -Tyne NE 1 7 RU C o l in Ha se lgrove , D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fD u rham , 4 6 S add le rS t ree t , D u rham DH 1 3 NU J uan N ave iro L öpez , A rea d eA rqueo lox ia ,D epa r tamen to d eH i s to r ia 1 ,F a cu l tade d e X eog r af ia eH i s to r ia ,U n ive r s idade d eS an t iago d eC ompo s te la ,G a l ic ia ,E spar ia F erm in Wrez L o sada , A rea d eA rqueo lox ia ,D epa r tamen to d eH i s to r ia 1 ,F acu l tade d e X eog ra f ia eH i s to r ia ,U n ive r s idade d eS an t iago d eC ompo s t e la ,G a l ic ia ,E spa r ia Mar t in M i l le t t ,D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o f Du rham ,4 6S add le rS t ree t , D u rham DH 1 3 NU Y ve s P err in ,U n ive r s i te d e S a in t -E t ienne , 4 2023 S a in t -E t ienne ,F rance C hr is S cu l l , I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon , 3 1 -34 G o rdon S qua re , L ondon WC 1H O PY Hugue s V er te t , 6 6 b ou leva rd S a in t -Exupe ry , F -03400 Y zeu re , F rance
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E d i tors ' i n troduc t ion T he m a jor i ty o ft h e c on tr ibu t ion s t ot h i sv o lume w e re p r e sen ted a t at wo -day s ympo s ium o n O ppor tun i ty o rO ppo s i t ion? :L i f ei nt h e We s tf rom R oman C onque s tu n t i lt h ee nd o ft h eR oman Emp ire ,h e ld i n t h e D epa r tmen t f o r E x te rna l S tud ie s , U n ive r s i ty o f O xfo rd o n 1 3 th -14 th N ovembe r 1 989 . T he s i x ty p a r t ic ipan t s t h a t a t tended t h e s ympo s ium i n c luded a r chaeo log i s t s a nd a nc ien th i s to r ian sf r om u n ive r s i t ie sa nd mu seum si nB r i ta in ,F rance ,S pa in a nd P o r tuga l . T he a im o ft h e s ympo s ium w a s t op rov ide a n i n fo rma l s e t t ing f o rt h ep r esen ta t ion a nd d i scu s s ion o fc u r ren t r e sea r ch o n t h e R oman iza t ion o ft h e w es ter np rov ince s . C ons ide rab le a t ten t ion h a s a l ready b een d evo ted t ot h is t h eme i nr e cen t y ea r s b u t a st h e f ou r teen p ape r s p r e sen ted a tt h es ympo s ium d emon s t ra ted ,t h ee x ten to ft h ep rob lem c on t inue st op rov ide s cope f o rs yn the s i sa sw e l la sn ew a nd p rog r e ss ive r e sea r ch . B o th t h ep ape r sg i ven a tt h es ympo s ium a nd t h ose c on t a ined i nt h i sv o lume i n co rpo r a te e v idence d e r ived f r om t h ep hy s ica lr ema in so f u rban a nd r u ra l s e t t lemen t s , f r om a r tefac t s t ud ie s a nd f r om w r i t ten s ou rce s . T he se d ive r se e l emen t s ,l a rge ly d e r ived f r om t h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd ,p rov ide t h eb a s i sf o ri n t e rp r e ta t ion so f t h ep r eva i l ing s o c ia la nd e conom ic c ond i t ion si nt h ep rov ince s . T ha tt h es ympo s ium w a s as ucce s s may b ev i ewed i nt h el i gh to ft h e s ugge s t ion m ade b y m any p ar t ic ipan t s t h a tt h ep roceed ing s s hou ld b ep ub l ished . G iven t h ef a c tt h a t ap ub l ica t ion h ad n o t p rev iou s ly b een e nv i saged s ome s peake r s h ad m ade a l te rna t ive a r rangemen t s o rh ad o t he r c omm i tmen t s . O ft h e t e n p ape r s i nt h i s v o lume , t wo c on t r ibu t ion s a r e f r om c o l league s w ho w e re u nab le t oa t tend t h es ympo s ium i t se lf .T he r ema in ing p ape r sa r er e v i sed v e r s ion so f t h o se p re sen ted a tt h e s ympo s ium a nd i ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t af u l lE ng l i sh t r an s la t ion o ft h e S pan ish p ape rb y N ave i ro L opez a nd P e r ez L o sada h a sb een i n c luded ; r e ade r s a r ed i r ec ted t o t h eS pan i sh v e r s ion f o rt h en o te sa nd r e f e r ence s . T he e d i to r sw i sh t ot h ank t h ef o l low ing c o l league s : Ma lco lm T odd f o rk i nd ly p rov id ing t h eb ackg round t ot h es t udy o fR oman iza t ion i nt h ew e s t er np rov ince sa nd f o rh i sc ommen t so n t h e c on t r ibu t ion s t ot h i s v o lume ; t h e c ha i rmen w ho p re s ided o ve r i n d iv idua l s e s s ions o ft h e s ympo s ium n ame ly , J ohn L loyd ( I ns t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy , O xfo rd ) , T im P o t te r ( Br i t i sh Museum , L ondon ) , K ev in G reene ( Depa r tmen t o fA r chaeo logy , N ewca s t le -upon -Tyne ) a nd P a t r ick G a l l iou ( Un ive r s i te d e B re tagne O cc iden ta le , B re s t ) . T hank s a r e a l so d ue t o t h e C a lous te G u lbenk ian F ounda t ion ( L i sbon ) . T he s ympo s ium w a so rgan ized b yL i sa B rown ,F ranc i sco Q ue i roga a nd Ma rk Wood . Ma rk Wood a nd F r an c is co Q ue i roga I n s t i tu te o fA r cha eo logy , Oxfo rd . J u ly 1 991
F oreword S ee ing t h eR oman Emp i r ef r om b e low i sn ow a na ccep t ed p u r su i ts of a ra so u re v idence a l low s u st o make t h ea t temp t .F o r ty y ea r sa go t h e re w e re f ew w ho s aw a ny g r ea tp u rpo se i nd o ing s o a nd i ti so ne o ft h e mo s tw e lcome a nd e ncou rag ing a spec t s o ft h ep a s tf ew d ecade st h a ts uch p rob lem s a r en ow a pp roa ched j o in t ly b ya nc ien th i s to r ian sa nd a r chaeo log i s t s . I ti se ven mo re w e lcome t h a t ac on s ide rab le n umb e ro fy oung s cho la r s a r e i n c rea s ing ly d i f f icu l t t oc l a s s ify u nde re i the rh ead ,b u ta r ee qua l ly a th ome i nb o th d i sc ip l in es .T h i si se v iden tf r om t h ep ape r s t h a tf o l low a nd c an o n ly a uge rw e l lf o rt h ef u tu re . A l though n o t a lway s m ade e xp l ic i t , t h e p ape r s a nd d i scus s ion a tt h e S ympo s ium o f N ovembe r 1 3 a nd 1 4 , 1 989 , c en t red o n t h e R oman iza t ion o f t h e w e s tern p rov ince s , b u t a pp roached t h a tn exu s o fp rob lem s a l ong p a th s t h a t h ave b een f r e sh ly c u t . I ti s at r u i sm t h a t m a jo rr evo l t sa ga in s tR ome i nt h e We s tw e re r ema rkab ly r a r e ,b u tw ha td oe st h i s s i gn i f y? Wa s t h e r e ad u l la cqu ie scence b yt h em a jo r i ty c oup led w i th amo r ee n thu s ia s t ic a ccep tan ce b yt h o se w ho s aw w ay s i n w h ich t h ey c ou ld b enef i t? Wa s t h e re s imp ly ar e s igned ( a nd r e a l is t ic ) a pp rec ia t ion t h a t t h e re w a s n o th ing e l se t od o b u t k nuck le u nde r ? T he se a r e t h e p r ed ic tab le r e a c t ion s . L e s s e xpec ted , p e rhaps , i st h er ange o fr e spon ses d i scus sed i nt h e c on t r ibu t ion s t o t h i sv o lume .P rov inc ia l h i s to r ie s ,w i th t h e i ri n ev i tab ly g ene ra l iz ing t o ne , h ave t e nded t om a sk t h e v a r ia t ion i nn a t ive r e ac t ion t oR oman o ve r lo rd sh ip . T h i si sn o t s ome th ing w h ich i sw e l l r evea led b y t h e l i t e ra ry a nd e p ig raph ic s ou r ces . T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence p a in t s w i th a b roade rb ru sh b u ti t sv a lue i sn o tt ob eu nde r ra ted . I n a l l p re indus t r ia l s oc ie t ie s t h e i mpo r tance o f l a nd a nd l a nd -owne r sh ip d om ina tes e ve ry th ing . Me r chan tg roups a nd o t he r s a b le t om ake money ,n a tu ra l ly b uy t h e i rw ay i n to t h e l a ndown ing m i l ieu . I nt h e w e s te rn p rov ince s t h e re w a s n o s e r iou s c ompe t i t ion t ot h e l a nded o rde r . A gr icu l tu re h e ld i t s o wn o ve r t r ade , t o t h e e nd o f t h e Emp i re . I n c onsequence , t h e R oman e conomy r ema ined i n a n u ndeve loped s t a te , al a rge p ropor t ion o f t he p opu la t ion r ema in ing a tt h el e ve lo fs ub s i s tence o rn o t much a bove i t .T h i sw a sn o te s sen t ia l ly a l te red b y t h e d eve lopmen t o fu rban iza t ion i nt h e We s t . I ndeed , t h a t d eve lopmen t s e em s a l l t h e mo re e x t rao rd ina ry , g i ven t h e e conom ic c on tex t w i th in w h ich i tt o ok p l a ce . T he w r i t ten e v idence r e la te s l a rge ly t ot h e u ppe re che lon s o fs o c ie ty a nd f o r ab road e rp i c tu re w e mus t t ur nt ot h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T he b u lk o ft h i s v o lume i sc ompo sed o fe f fo r t s t o make s en se o ft h a t r e co rd i n an umbe ro fr eg ion s . T he r ew i l lb ec on t inu ing d eba te a bou tm any o ft h ep rob lem sw h ich t h e se p ape r sa dd re s s . T he e x t en ta nd s i gn i f icance o fc omme r c ia la c t iv i ty i so ne s u ch ,a l r eady much d i scus sed i no t he r v o lume s , b u t s t i l l r equ i r ing c l o se ra t ten t ion t ot h e a r chaeo logy o ft h e s ub jec t . A no the ri st h e d eg ree o f mone t iza t ion w i th in t h eR oman e conomy , l o ng a s sum ed t ob e much g rea te rt h an i t r e a l ly w a s . S o i mp re s s ive a r e c e r ta in f e a tu re s o ft h e e a r ly R oman Emp i re ( u rban iza t ion , t h e e s ta tes o f s ub s tan t ia l l a ndowne r s , ar e la t ive ly s t ab le c u r rency ) t h a t t h e re i sa n e ve r -p re sen t d ange ro fp a s s ing o ve rt h el owe rr e a che so ft h es o c ia la nd e conom i c s c a le ,w he re l i f ew a sl i ved o n s t anda rd st h a tc an b er e ga rded a s" Roman " o n ly i n al im i ted ,t e chn ica ls en se . S ome mode rn c ommen ta to r s h ave a s sumed t h a t t h e s ub s i s tence e conomy v i r tua l ly d i sappea r ed i nt h ee a r ly Emp i r e .T ha tv i ew r e ce ive sl i t t le ,i fa ny , s uppo r ti nt h ef o l low ing p age s . R oman p rov inc ia l s t ud ie s a r e o cca s iona l ly a ccused o fb e ing s t uck i na n u nproduc t ive g roove , t r amme l led b ys t r ic ta dhe r ence t ol i t e ra ry s ou r ce s ,a nd f e a r f u lo fs ub jec t ing t h em a te r ia l e v idence t on ew mod e l s . S uch s t r ic tu r e sc anno te a s i ly b ea pp l ied t ot h ep ape r sp r e sen ted i nt h i s v o lume . Ma lco lm T odd D epa r tm en to fH i s to ry & A r chaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fE xe t e r . J u ly 1 991
v i
Rura l I n tegra t ion i n t he R oman Wes t : a n i n troduc tory e ssay M .M i l le t
e v idence h a sb een g i ven ac l ea ri n te rp re ta t ive s i gn if i cance w h ich i tp e rhap s l a ck s i n t h e mo re e mp i r ica l ly b a sed d i scuss ions . T h is a pp roach a l so p laces a dd i t iona l s i gn if i cance o n t h e t y pe s o f s i te s r ep re sen ted a s w e l l a s t h e i rt o ta ln umbe r s ,a st h eh ypo the s i so fi n c rea s ing s i ze so f l a nd -ho ld ing sb u td ec rea s ing n umbe r so f owne r s h a s b e en r e la t ed t ot h ei n c rea s ing o pu lence o ft h ev i l la so n t h el a nd . T hu s , i n as imp l if ied f o rm , t h e h ypo thes i s i st h a t t h e g row ing h unge rf o rl a nd i nl a te R epub l i can I t a ly g ene ra t ed b y t h e i n com ing w ea l th p roduced b y c onques t a nd s ub sequen t i mpe r ia l e xp lo i ta t ion l e d t ot h e g row th i ns i ze o fl a ndho ld ing sw i th t h ee l i te g a in ing a dd i t iona lp rope r ty a t t h e e xpens e o ft h e p e a san t s . I nt h eA ger C osanu s t h i s i s s e en a sr educ ing t h e n umbe ro fs ma l le r f a rms tead s a s t h e n umbe r s o f v i l la s i n c rea se s ( Ca rand in i a nd S e t t i s 1 979 , i lu s . 5 -8 ) . I n te rp r e ta t ion s s u ch a st h e se w h ich h ave r e la ted t h e a r chaeo log ica le v idence t o mode l so fl a rge s c a le p roce s se s a r e s t imu la t ing , n o t l e a s t i nt h e s i gn if icance t h ey g i ve t o s ome a ppa ren t ly u np repo s se s s ing d a ta . H oweve r , Ih ave d oub t sa bou tw he the rt h ea r chaeo log ica ld a ta u sed g i ve a ny mo re t h an as upe rf i c ia ls uppo r tf o rt h e se i n te re s t ing b roade r mode l sw h ich a r ea f te ra l lt h er e su l to fh i s to r ica l a r gumen t r a the r t h an o r ig ina l ly a r chaeo log ica l w o rk . I fw e t a ke t h e A ger C osanu s a s o u r e xamp le t h e r e a r e t wo o b je c t s f o r d oub t . F i r s t , t h e a r ea a r ound C o sa h a s b een e xam ined b y t wo d i f f e ren tt e ams w ho se m e thod so fs t udy v a r ied ( Dy son 1 978 ; C a rand in i a nd S e t t i s 1 979 ) . T h i s , w i th t h e d i f f e ren t s ca le a nd s cope o f t h e i r w o rk , h a s r e su l ted i n m a rked v a r ia t ions i n t h e p ub l i shed r e su l t s ( F ig . l a a nd l b ) . Among s t t h e d i f f e rence s , o ne m ay n o t e t h a t am uch l e s s m a rked p a t t er n o f s e t t lemen t d e c l ine i ss e en i nt h e m uch l a rge rs amp le o fs i te ss t ud ied b yD y son t h an i nC a rand in i ' s mo re s pa t ia l ly c i r cums c r ibed s amp le . T h i s v a r ia t ion i nt h e t o ta l n umbe r s o fs i te so ccup ied t h rough t ime i sd i ff icu l tt o i n te rp re t i ft h e g ene ra l h ypo the se s a bou t c hange s i nt h e I t a l ian l a nd s cape a l ready d i s cu s sed a r e c o r rec t . S e cond ly , a l though t h e d e ta i l o f t h e e v idence o f s i te t y p e s d e r ived f r om D yson ( F ig . 2 a ) a ppea r s c on s i s ten t w i th t h e c oncep t o f a n i n c rea s ing d om inance o f l a rge r s i te s t h rough t i me , w hen t h ed a ta a r ep r e sen ted b yp e r cen tage ,t h ep a t t er ni sf a r f r om c l ea r ( F ig . 2 b ) , a nd c an s u re ly n o t b e t a ken a s u namb iguou se v idence t os uppo r tt h eg ene ra lm ode l .T he se v a r ia t ion s m ay b e a ccoun ted f o r s imp ly b y s amp l ing d i f f e rence s ,i np a r t icu la rt h eb ro ade r ,l owe ri n ten s i ty s u rvey z one e xam ined b y D y son , b u t t h e d i f f e rence s s u r e ly u r ge c au t ion s i nce a ny f undamen ta lc hange i ns e t t lemen ts hou ld s u re ly p roduce a p a t te rn w h ich i ss u f f ic ien t ly r obu s t t o s how t h rough d e sp i te d i f f e r en ts amp l ing s t ra teg ie s . O the r s h ave r e ac ted t o s im i la r d oub t s a bou t t h e r e la t ion sh ip o fs u r vey d a ta t og ene ra l m ode l sb yr e tu rn ing t ot h ep r ima ry s ou rce s ,b o th a r chaeo log ica la nd h i s to r i ca l , t oq ue s t ion t h eo r ig ina li n te rp re ta t ion su pon w h ich s ome o f t h eg ene ra l mode l s w e re t h em se lve sb a sed . T hu sP a t te r son ( 1 987 ) h a s e xam ined t h e s uppo sed c r i s i s i ne a r ly i mpe r ia l a g r icu l tu re i nI t a ly b y t a k ing ad e ta i led l ook f i r s t a tt h e h i s to r ica l e v idence . H i s a na ly s i s o ft h e h i s to r ica l s ou r ce s c a s t s s e r iou s d oub t s o n t h e e v idence o f t h e a g r icu l tu ra l c r is is i n t h e e a r ly Emp i re w h ich i s c en t ra l t o m any d i scuss ions . F u r the rmo re , i n h i s e xam ina t ion o f t h e a r chaeo log ica le v idence f r om A pp enn ine I t a ly h ei n te rp re t s
T he p r e sen t p ape r i si n tended a s ab r ief i n t roduc t ion a nd s hou ld t h e re fo re b et r ea ted a s ap r e l im ina ry s t a temen ts i n ce i ti sm y i n ten t ion t o c o l lec t f u r the r d a ta a nd u nde r take a dd i t iona la na lyse si nt h en ea rf u tu r e . My l o ng t e rm a im i s t oe xp lo re t h ep o ten t ia lf o rt h eu s eo ff i e ld s u rvey d a ta f o r a dd re s s ing b road q ue s t ions c once r ned w i th t h e s o c ia l a nd e conom i c s t ruc tu re s o ft h e w e s te rn R oman p rov ince s . T he b a ckg round t ot h i s w o rk l i e s i nt h eb e l ie ft h a t aw ea l th o f e v idence f r om r e cen t f i e ld s u r vey s h a s y e t t ob e p rope r ly a nd f u l ly e xp lo i ted . T he e v idence i so f ten e n t i re ly i g no red b y a n c ien th i s tor ian s ,a nd w he r e a temp t sh ave b een m ade t o u se i t , t he i n te rp re ta t ions h ave t oo o f ten b een m e thodo log ica l ly n a ive , o r t h e n ew i n fo rma t ion h a s b een u sed s imp ly t oi lu s t ra te i n te rp r e ta t ion sd e r ived f r om o t he r s ou rce s .I ns ho r t ,t h ev a lue o fs u rvey d a ta a sa ni n dependen t s ou rce o f e v idence h a s n o t b een f u l ly r e a l ized , a nd t h e a pp rop r ia te t e chn ique so fs ou r ce c r i t ic i sm h ave h a rd ly b een d eve loped .I np re sen t ing t h ef o l low ing i d ea s , Id r aw h eav i ly o n t h e w o rk o f t h e A ger T arraconen s is S u rvey , j o in t ly d i rec ted w i th S imon K eay , t h e m e thodo logy a nd b ackg round f o r w h ich h ave b een d i scu ssed e l sewhe re ( M i l l e t t 1 991 A a nd B ;K eay a nd M i l le t ti np r e s s ) . T ho se a t temp t s w h ich h ave b e en m ade t ou s e f i e ld s u rvey d a ta h ave o f ten b een c on ce rned w i th i n fo rma t ion f r om I t a ly , w he re t h e w o rk o ft h eB r i t i sh S choo l a tR ome h ad a f o rma t ive i mpac t o n t h e c r ea t ion o f t h e s urvey m e thodo log ie s c u r ren t ly i nv ogue . S uch a na ly se s b ea r a n i n t e re s t ing r e la t ion sh ip t o t h e m ode o f o pe ra t ion o f t h e a na ly s t . T hus P o t te r t a ke s a n e mp ir ica l a pp roach i n h i s s umma ry o f t h e w o rk i n S ou th E t ru r ia ( 1979 ) w h ich s yn the s ized t h e d a ta a nd u sed i tt op roduce m ap s w h ich i lus t r a te c hange s i n s i te d i s t r ibu t ion t h rough t i me . T he m ap sp r oduced i nt h i si n va luab le e xe r c i se w e re u s ed a st h e b a s is f o r i n te rp re t ing t h e c hang ing g eog raphy o f t h e l a nd s cape ,w h ich w a sd i scu s sed i nr e la t ion t ot h ei mpa c to f h i s to r ica l e ven t s . A t al e ss s y s t ema t ic l e ve l , as im i la r e mp i r i ca la pp roach t ot h ea g r icu l tu r eo ft h i sa nd o t he ra r ea s o f t h e R oman We s t h a s b een f o l lowed b y G reene i nh i s a mb i t iou s s yn the s i s o ft h eR oman e conomy ( 1 986 ) . T he se s t ud ie sh ave t h e s t reng th t h a tt h ey h i gh l igh tb road p a t te rn s o f t h e s e t t lemen t a nd a g r icu l tu r a l e v idence . H oweve r , b e cau s e o f v a r ia t ion i nt h e mode s o fd a ta c o l le c t ion a nd u nce r ta in t ie s a bou t t h e c hang ing f r equency o f m a te r ia l c u l tu re w i th in a ny o ne a rea t h ey a r e d i f f icu l t t o u se s y s tema t ica l ly b ecau se i ti si mpo s s ib le t ob e c e r ta in t h a t l i ke i sb e ing c ompa red w i th l i ke e i the r a c ro s s t h e w ho le e mp i r eo re ven t h rough s ho r tp e r iod so ft i me . A na l ter na t ive a nd e s sen t ia l ly d educ t ive a pp roa ch t o s u rvey d a ta i si lu s t ra ted b y t h e w o rk s o f s ome w ho a r e i n t e r e s t ed i n t h e b road p roce s se s o f c hange w i th in p a s t s oc ie t ie s . F ie ld s urvey d a ta h a s a trac ted a t ten t ion f r om t h o se i n te re s ted i n t h e e f f ec t s o n t h e l a nd scape o f t h e g row t h o f Emp i re a nd t h e i n c rea s ing d emand b y t h ee l i t e s i nI t a ly i nt h el a te R epub l ic a nd e a r ly Emp i re f o rm o re l a nd i nt h eP en in su la ( s ee s umma ry d i ag ram ,H opk in s 1 978 , 1 2 , f i g .1 .1 ) . I n e xam in ing t h i s p rob lem C a rand in i a nd h i s a s so c ia te s h ave u sed t h e f i e ld s u rvey e v idence f r om t h e C o sa a r ea i n t h e i r e xpos i t ion o f t h e r o le o f t h e s l ave e conomy i nt h e d e c l ine o fr u ra l s e t t lemen t i nI t a ly d u r ing t h i sp e r iod ( Ca rand in ia nd S e t t i s 1 9 79 ) .I nt h i ss t udy s u rvey
1
M . M i l le t t
t h ee f f ec to ft own so n s u r round ing s e t t lemen tp a t te rn s . We t h e refo re n eed t o c on t inue t o a t temp t t o d eve lop m e thodo log ie s f o r i n te rp re t ing t h e m ea n ing o f s u r f a ce d i s t r ibu t ion s a nd mu s t t r y i np ub l ica t ion s t o d i s t ingu i sh b a s ic w o rk ing f a rms tead sf r om t h o se r e s idence st h ep r ima ry r a i son d ' ê t re o fw h ich w a sp ub l ic d i sp lay .T he mo re s ub t le u s eo fd e ta i led s u rvey t e chn iques i n c lud ing g eophy s ic sa nd g eo chem i s t ry o f f e rs ome h ope o fp rog r e s sh e re . I ni n te rp r e t ing t h i se v id ence w es hou ld b ewa re n o tt o t r ea tf i e ld -wa lk ing e v idence t o ou nc r i t ica l ly a sw e mu s ta l so c once rn o u r se lve s w i th t h e p rob lem s o f v a ry ing s i t e v i s ib i l i ty . T h i si t se l fv a r ie ss of i e ld -su rvey d oe sn o ts imp ly m ea su re s i te n umbe r s b u t a l so s i te v i s ib i l i ty . T h i s v i s ib i l i ty i s af u nc t ion o f : ( 1 ) t h e a b so lu te f r equency o f m a te r ia l c i rcu la t ing i n p a s t s oc ie t ie s ( M i l le t t 1 991 B ; S chof ie ld 1 989 ) ; ( 2 ) t h e r obus t iv i ty , o r r e s i s tance t o e r o s ion w i th in t h e p loughso i l o f t h e m a t e r ia l c u l tu re ( C row the r 1 983 ; M i l le t t 1 985 ) ; a nd ( 3 ) t h e v a r ia t ion s i n s u r f a ce c ond i t ion sa nd o t he rb i a sa f f ec t ing t h ew a lke r sa tt h e t i me o f r e cove ry ( Ha se lg rove 1 985 ) . Me t hod s h ave b een d ev i sed w h ich a t temp t t od ea l w i th s ome o ft h i s v a r ia t ion ( M i l le t t 1 991 B ) b u t m any s u rvey a na ly se s d o n o t t a ke t h e se f a c to r s i n to a ccoun ta nd a s sume t h a t t h e m a te r ia l o n t h e s u r f ace p r ov ide s a n u nb ia sed map o fp a s ta c t iv i ty . T he m o s tc ommon ly f o und a r te f a c tt y pe , p o t t e r y , h a s av a r y ing f r equency t h rough b o th t ime a nd s pace . I n t h e A ger T a r raconen s i s s u rvey f o ri n s tance , m a te r ia lo ft h e I b e r ian R epub l i can p e r iod s i sa bou tt w ice a sf r equen ta st h a to ft h e e a r ly Emp i re , w h ich i si t se lf a bou tt w ice a sf r equen ta st h a t o ft h e l a te Emp i re .T h i s m ean s t h a te ven b e fo r e t h e f a c to r s o fr obu s t iv i ty a nd c ond i t ion s o f r e cove ry a r e c on s ide red , s i te s o ft h e l a t e Emp i re a r e c ons ide rab ly m o r e d i f f icu l tt o l o ca te b y s u r vey t h a t t h o se o f R epub l ican p e r iod ( c f . S chof ie ld 1 989 ) . F u r the rmo re , e v idence f r om av a r ie ty o f c on tex t s s ugge s t s t h a t p o t te ry i sl i ke ly t ob e d i f f e ren t ia l ly d i s t r ibu ted b e tween d i f f e ren ts e t t lemen t s ,s os i te s l e s s w e l l i n teg ra t ed w i th in t h e s y s tem , l i ke t h e s ma l le s t f a rm s tead s , a r e l e s s l i ke ly t oh ave r e ce ived p o t te ry i nq uan t i ty t h an t h o se o fh i ghe rs t a tu s w h ich w e re mo re c l o se ly i n teg ra ted , l i ke v i l las ( M i l le t t 1 987 ) . T hus i n ap e r iod o f c e ram ic s c a r c i ty t h e v i s ib i l i ty o fs ma l le r s i te s m ay w e l lb e r e duced f u r the r . We m ay t a ke a ne xamp le o fs ome o ft h e se e f f ec t so n a n a ppa ren t ly c l ea r g r aph o f n umbe r s o f s e t t lemen t s i te s t h rough t i me ( F ig . 4 ) . T h is e xamp le c ome s f r om t h e e x tens ive s u rvey o f t h e l owe r Guada lqu iv i r v a l ley i n S ou ther n S pa in p ub l i shed b y P ons ich ( 1 974 ; 1 979 ; 1 987 ) . A l though t h i s s u rvey w a s n on in tens ive i tc ove red a n e no rmou s a r ea a nd h a s b een p ub l i shed a t au s e fu l l e ve l o f d e ta i l . T he p a t t e rn s e en o n t h e g raph o ft wo s amp le a r ea s a ppea r st os how as t eady g row th o fs e t t lemen td en s i ty u pt o t h et h i rd fou r th c en tu ry AD w i th as t eady d e c l ine t h e r ea f t e r . T h i s p a t te r n i sr e pea ted o ve r mo s t o f t h e p ub l i shed a r ea . H oweve r , i fw e l o ok a ts ome o f t h e e v iden ce u pon w h ich t h e g raph i sb a sed i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e d a t ing i sb a sed p r in c ipa l ly u po nt h eo ccu r rence o fc e r ta in t y p e so ff i ne w a r e a nd a mpho ra . F o r t h e g raphs a nd m ap s o f s e t t lemen t d i s t r ibu t ion b a sed o n t h i s s u rvey t ob e v a l id m ea su re s o f t h e v a ry ing i n t en s i ty o fp a s t s e t t lemen t , t h e f r equency a nd d i sp e r s ion o fd i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e se p o tt y pe sm u s th ave b een m o re o rl e s s c on s tan tt h rough s pace a nd t i me . We a l ready k now t h a t t h i s c anno t b e a s sumed a s i ti sn o t t h e c a se e l sewhe r e .I nt h eG uada lqu iv i rt h e r ea r ea l so i n d ica t ion st h a t
v a r ia t ion s i nt h ep a t te rn o fr u ra l s e t t lemen t i nt e rms w h ich d o n o t s uppo r t t h e i d ea o f ag ene ra l c r i s i s i n t h e e a r ly Emp i re . P a t te r son 's d e ta i led a r chaeo log ica l a rgumen t i s c onv inc ing a nd s how st h a tt h ev a r ied p a t te rn s o fs e t t lemen t h i s to ry r e su l tl a rge ly f r om l o ca lf a c to r sw h ich d on o tr ef l ec t g ene ra l t r end s ( s ee a l so F ig . 3 ) . H i s c onc lu s ion t h a t g ene ra l iz ing e xp lana t ions a r e u n l ike ly t o b e o f v a lue e l sewhe re ( Pa t te r son 1 987 , 1 38 ) s e em st od i sa l low a ny i d ea t h a t m a jo r l o ng t e rm p roce s se s l i e b eh ind s ho r t t e rm e ven t s . T h i s Id oub t . F o r m e , P a t te r son ' s c onc lus ion r a ises t wo i s sue s . T he p r inc ipa l d i f f icu l ty i st h a t t h e m a te r ia l w i th w h ich P a t te r son i s d ea l ing c omes f r om I t a ly , w he re t h e c omb ina t ion o f v a r ia t ion i nt h e p hy s ica l g eog raphy w i th t h e c ompa ra t ive ly c l o se p rox im i ty t oR oman i t se lf s e ems l i ke ly t oh ave p roduced i d io sync ra t ic p a t ter n s w h ich a r e h eav i ly i nf luenced b y l o ca lf a c to r sa nd d i ff i cu l tt oi n te rp re t i nr e la t ion t ob r oade rp a t ter n s w i th in t h ew e s ter np r ov ince s a s aw ho le .T ot a ke a na na logy ,t h ee conomy o fS ou th -Ea s t E ng land t o day i sn o to r iou s ly a t yp ica l o ft h a to f t h e w ho le o ft h e UK . U s ing t h e c en t ra l I t a l ian d a ta i tt h u s b ecome s v e ry d i f f icu l tt of i l te r -ou ts ho r t te rm a nd l o ca l ized c hange s f r om l o nge r t e rm p roce s se s . T o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t h e t wo i ti sv i ta l t op roduce ab a lanced o ve ra l l p i c tu re w i th in w h ich o ne c an c ompa re i n d iv idua l r e su l t s f r om p a r t icu la r a r ea s . T o s e ek g ene ra lp a t te rn s i nt h e se d a ta w e m u s t f i r s t e n su re t h a tw e h ave s e ns ib ly s t ruc tu red a nd r e p re sen ta t ive s amp le so fa r ea s . My s e cond p o in ti so ne w h ich a l so h a sm o re g ene ra l r e levance , a nd i ti st h e q ue s t ion o fw ha t w e a r e m ea sur ing i nf i e ld s u rvey . T h i s q ue s t ion u nde r l ine s t h e n ece s s i ty f o r d eve lop ing a nd r e f in ing t e chn ique so f' s ou r ce c r i t ic i sm ' f o r w e c anno t a s sume t h a t t h e m a te r ia l f ound o n t h e s u r f ace p rov ide a n u nb ia sed s amp le o f p a s t a c t iv i ty ( Ha se lg rove 1 985 ; M i l le t t 1 991 A ) . T he re a r e t wo a spe c t s t o t h is p r ob lem : t h ef i r s tc once rn st h es i te s t h em se lve s ; t h es e cond t h e i rv i s ib i l i ty o nt h es u r f ace . When w e l o ok a ta ny d i s t r ibu t ion o fR oman s i te s i n t h e c oun t ry s ide w e m u s t b e c a re fu l t oc on s ide r h ow t h ey s hou ld b e i n te rp re ted i na ny r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e a nc ien t e conomy . I ti sa l l t o o e a sy t o m ake ad i rec t , a nd f a l se , e qua t ion b e tween v i l la s a nd t h e p roduc t ive e conomy . T he o pu len tv i l la i st h er e su l tn o to f ap a r t icu la r mode o fw ea l th p r oduc t ion ,b u to f ad ec i s ion t od i sp lay e x i s t ing w e a l th i na p a r t icu la r w ay . T hu s t h e v i l la o f H ad r ian a tT ivo l i , o rt h e l a t eR oman a r i s to c ra t ic v i l la a tP i azza A rme r ina o n S i c i ly , i sn o tt h ep roduc to ff a rm ing i n al o ca l i ty , b u tr e p re sen t s a d ec i s ion t o i n du lge i n t h e c on sp icuou s c onsump t ion o f w ea l th a c cumu la ted f r om a c ros s t h e e mp i re i n as i ng le b u i ld ing p ro jec t . I ti st h e re fo re as t a temen t o fe conom ic , s o c ia la nd p o l i t ica lp owe r ; as t a t emen tw h ich i s mo s tl i ke ly t ob em ade n o tw he re t h ew ea l th w a sc r ea ted o ro b ta ined b u t w he re t h e re a r eo t he r s w o r thy o ft h e h onou r t oi mp re s s . I t i s mo re l i ke ly t h a t s uch a s t ruc tu re w i l l b e b u i l t i n a f a sh ionab le l o ca l i ty c l o se t o ap o l i t ica l c en t re r a the rt h an i n ar emo te r u ra la r ea w ha t eve rt h ef e r t i l i ty o ft h el a nd ( Hodde r a nd M i l le t t 1 980 ) . C onve r se ly , t h e m a jo r i ty o f mo re m ode s t f a rm s tead s w h ich d o n o t a sp i re t ot h e d i sp lay o f w ea l th a nd s t a tu sa r em o r el i ke ly t oi n d ica t e t h e s u cce s so f t h e e conomy i n ap a r t icu la r a r ea , h oweve r r emo te f r om u r ban c i v i l iza t ion . H oweve r o bv iou s t h i s m ay s e em i th a s n o t m uch i n fo rmed a na ly se s o f s u rvey r e su l t s a nd f ew s u rvey d e s ign s h ave a t t emp ted t om ea su re s uch f a c to r s a s
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R u ra lI n teg ra t ion i nt h eR oman We s t . . .
T h i sc l ea r ly o ve r s impl if ied mode ld oe sn o tp rov ide a f u l lo ra d equa te e xp lana t ion f o rt h ep roce s se s i np l ay ,b u tI w ou ld s ugge s tt h a t s ome mode l s uch a st h i s w h ich s t r ive s t oa ccoun t f o r t h e v a ry ing v o lume o f m a te r ia l c u l tu re i n c i r cu la t ion i n d i f f e ren t a r ea s a s w e l l a s i t s d i f f e ren t ia l o ccu r rence o n s i te s i s n eeded i f w e a r e t o t a ke t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fo u re v idence v e ry much f u r the r . S im i la r ly , t h e re i sa nu rgen tn e ed f o r mo r es u rvey d a ta t ob ep ubl i shed i ns u ch aw ay t h a ti tc an b eu sed f o rc ompa ra t ive s t udy b y o t he r s .F o rt h i s w en eed s u rvey r epo r t s w h ich c on ta in t wo t h ing s . F i r s t ac l ea rs t a temen to fw ha tw a s c o l lec ted , w ha t w a sn o t ,a nd h ow t h e s u rvey w a sc onduc ted . S econd ly ,w e n eed q uan t if ied a c coun t so ft h em a te r ia lf ound . W i th t h e se p r econd it ion sm e t , Iw ou ld s ugge s tt h a ts u rvey d a ta s hou ld b e a b le t op rov ide m a jo r n ew i n s igh t s i n to t h e e conom ic g eog raphy o ft h e a nc ien t w o r ld . I tw i l l e qua l ly p rov ide a s ound e mp i r ica lb a s i sf o rj udg ing t h eu t i l i ty o ro t he rw i se o f t h e i n te re s t ing g ene ra l mode l s o f t h e R oman e conomy w h ich a r en ow i n c r ea s ing ly w ide ly d i s cu s s ed .
t h e v o lume o fc e ram ic s i nc i r cu la t ion d i d v a ry . T hu s f o r i n s tan ce , t h e s i te s o f t h e f i f th s ix th c en tu r ie s a r e a lmo s t w holy i d en t if ied b yt h ep r e s en ce o fs t amp d eco ra t ed ' C la ra ' ( A f r ican R ed S l ip )p o t te ry , w h ich i sf a rl e s s c ommon t h an t h e t h i rd a nd f ou r th c en tu ry v a r ie t ie s . I nt h e w ho le s u rvey a r ea i to c cu r s o n o n ly a bou t 1 0% o ft h e s i te so nw h ich t h e e a r l ie r t y pe s a r e f ound . Wh i l s t t h i s m ay o f c ou r se r e su l t f r om ad ecl ine i nt h en umbe ro fo c cup ied s i te s ,i ti se qua l ly p robab le t h a t i ti si np a r t ar e su l to f ad e c l ine i nt r ade i n t h i st y pe o ff i ne p o t t e ry .T h i si ss u ppo r t ed b y ap rov i s iona l a na ly s i s o ft h e p o t te ry f r om t h e s u rvey w h ich s how s t h a t t h e se l a te s t w a re s a r e mo s t f r equen t ly f ound o n t h e s i te s mo s ti n teg ra ted w i th in t h e s e t t lemen ts y s t em , t h a ti st h o se c l a s s if ied a sn uc lea t ed s e t t lemen t sa nd v i l la sr a the rt h an t h e o rd ina ry f a rms tead s . Af a r mo re d e ta i led a na ly s i s o f t h e s u r vey r e su l t si sn eed ed b e fo re t h ee v idence i th a sp roduced c an b eu sed a s as ound b a s i sf o r ad e ta i led u nde r s tand ing o f t h ed eve lop ing s e t t lemen ts y s tem i nt h i se conom icaly v i ta l a r ea o ft h e Emp i re . S ome may f i nd t h e se p o in t s ar a the r d ep re s s ing c au t iona r y t a le , d emon s t ra t ing n o m o re t h an t h e f a c t t h a t f i e ld su rvey e v idence i so fd ub iou sv a lue . I ,h oweve r ,t h ink t h i s w ou ld b e am i s take , f o r a l though t h ee v idence Ih ave p r e sen t ed s ugge s t st h a tt h ei n te rp r e ta t ion o fs u r vey d a ta i sa c omp lex e xe rc ise , i ta l so s ugge s t s t h a t w e may b e al i t t le c l o se r t o d eve lop ing a w ide ly a pp l icab le m e thod f o r s t udy ing o ne a spec t o f t h e e xchange e conomy o f t h e R oman We s t t h rough a n u nde r s ta nd ing o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f p o t te ry . O ne o f t h e d i f f icu l t ie s w i th s ome p rev iou s i n te rp re ta t ions o f s u rveys h a s b een t h a t t oo d i rec t a c onne c t ion h a sb een d r awn b e tween s u r f a ce f i nd s ,s i te sa nd p opu la t ion s . I fw e r e cogn ize t h a t much o f w ha t w e a r e m ea su r ing i sa cce s s t om a t e r ia lc u l tu re , i tm ay b ep o s s ib le t o s t a r t t h ink ing a bou t s u rvey r e su l t s i n t e rms o f t h e p roce s se s o f e conom ic g row th a nd d e c l ine a c ro ss t h e Emp i r e . T he s u rvey d a ta a r ea f t e ra l , p rov id ing u sw i th a n u npa r a l le led s ou rce o fi n fo rma t ion a bou tt h ed i s tr ibu t ion o f w ide ly s p r e ad g ood so ve rv e ry c on s ide rab le r e g ion s . L e t u s f o l low t h i s t h rough w i th as i ng le w o rk ing h ypo the s i s . I td oe s a ppea r f r om an umbe ro fs u rvey s t h a t t h e re i s ap eak i nt h e q uan t i ty o fp o t te ry f o und o n s i te s i n t h e p e r iod f o l low ing s oon a f te r c onque s t , b u t t h i s i s f o l lowed b y al o ng a nd g r adua l d e c l ine ( e g .F ig . 5 , i f n umb e r s o fs i te s a r e t a ken a s ap r oxy f o r t h e a moun t o f m a te r ia l i nc i rcu la t ion ) . Iw ou ld s ugge s t t h a t t h i s c an b e i n t e rp re ted a s as imp le e conom ic e f f ec t o f i n co rpo ra t ion w i th in t h e R oman Emp i re , a nd m ay b e s e en a s a' b ow w ave ' o f e conom ic i mpac t . Iw ou ld s ugge s t t h a t t h e i mmed ia t ea f te r -ef f ec to fc onque s ta nd i n co rpo ra t ion w a st o p rov ide o ppo r tun i t ie sf o re conom i ca dvan cemen tf o r aw ide r a nge o ft r ade r sa nd p rov inc ia l sw ho t h u sp ro spe red ,g i v ing a cce s st o an ew r a nge o fg ood s o n am uch w ide rr a nge o f s i te s t h an p rev ious ly . T h is a ccoun t s f o r t h e p eak i n n umbe r s o f v i s ib le s i te s . H oweve r , g iven t h e n on p rog re s s ive n a tu re o f t h e R oman t a xa t ion s y s tem t h e w ea l th a ccumu la ted i nt h e h and s o fa n i n c rea s ing ly s ma l l n umbe r o f p eop le a nd t h e h e igh t o f t h e w ea l th p y ram id b e came f u r the r a ccen tua ted . A s t h e e conom ic b ene f i t s o f Emp i r e w e r e g radua l ly r e ta ined b y ap rog re s s ive ly s ma l le r n umbe r o fp eop le , s o t h e n umbe r s o f s i te s w i th a c ce s s t o R oman g ood sd ec r ea sed ,w h i l s tt h eo pu len ce o fs ome o ft h e c on t inu ing s i te s b e came a ccen tua ted u n t i l i n t h e l a te R oman p e r iod t h es y s tem c o l lap sed i no ni t se l f .
R ef erences CARAND IN I , A .a nd S ETT IS , S .1 979 : S ch iav i ep ad ron i n e l l 'E t ru r ia R omana : l av i l la d iS e t t e f ines t r e d a l lo s cavo a l la m o s t ra ( Ba r i ,D eD ona to ) . DYSON , S . L . 1 978 : S e t t lemen t p a t te rns i n t h e A ge r C o sanu s .J ou rna lo fF i e ld A r chaeo logy 5 ,2 51 -68 . GREENE , K . 1 986 : T he A rchaeo logy o f t h e R oman E conomy ( London ,B a t s fo rd ) . HASELGROVE , C .C . 1 985 : I n f e rence f r om p loughso i l a r tef ac t s amp le s . I n H a se lg rove , C .C . , M i l le t t , M . a nd Sm i th , I .M . ( e d s . ) , A rchaeo logy f rom t h e P loughso i l ( She ff ie ld ,D ep t .o fP reh i s to ry a nd A r chaeo logy )7 30 . HODDER , I .R .a nd M ILLET ! ' ,M . 1 980 : R omano -Br i t i sh v i l la sa nd t own s : as y s tema t ic a na ly s i s . W or ld A r chaeo logy 1 2 -1 , 6 9 -76 . HOPK INS , K . 1 978 : C onqueror s a nd S l aves ( Cambr idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ) . KEAY , S .J .a nd M ILLET! ' , M . ( i np r e s s ) : S u r f ace s u rvey a nd s i te r e cogn i t ion i n S pa in : t h e A ge r T a r raconen s i s s u r vey a nd i t sb a ckg round . I nS cho f ie ld ,A . J . ( e d . ) ,A r te f ac t S ca t te r s( Ox fo rd ,O xbow ) . M ILLETT , M . 1 985 : F ie ld s u rvey c a l ib ra t ion : a c on t r ibu t ion . I nH a se lg rove , C .C . , M ilen , M . , a nd S m i th , I .M . ( e d s . ) , A rchaeo logy f rom t h e P loughso i l ( She f f ie ld , D ep t .o fP reh i s to ry a nd A r cha eo logy )3 1 -7 . M ILLET ! ' , M . 1 987 : Aq ue s t ion o ft i me ?A spec t s o ft h e f u tu re o f p o t te ry s t ud ie s . B u l le t in o f t h e U n iver s i ty o f L ondon I n s t i t iu t eo fA rchaeo logy 2 4 ,9 9 -108 . M ILLET ' ' , M . 1 991 A : R oman t own sa nd t h e i rt e r r i to r ie s : a n a r chaeo log ica l p e r spec t ive . I n R ich , J .a nd Wa l lace H ad r i l l , A . ( e d s . ) , C i ty a nd C oun t ry i nt h e A nc ien t W or ld ( London ,R ou t ledge ) 1 69 -189 . M ILLE 'IT , M . 1 991 B : P o t te ry : p opu la t ion o r s upp ly p a t te rns? I n B a rke r , G . a nd L loyd , J . ( e d s . ) , R oman L and scapes ( London , A r chaeo log ica l Monog raph s o ft h e B r i t i sh S choo l a tR ome ) 1 8 -26 .
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M . M i l le t t
PATTERSON , J .R . 1 987 : C r is is : w ha t c r is is ? R u ra l c hange a nd u r ban d eve lopmen ti ni mpe r ia lA ppenn ine I t a ly . P aper so ft h eB r i t ish S choo la tR ome 5 5 , 15 -46 .
PONS ICH , M . 1 987 : I mp lan ta t ion R u ra l e A n t ique s u r l e B a s -Guad a lqu i v i r 3( Mad r id ,C a sa d eV e lazquez ) . POTTER , T .W . 1 979 : T he C hang ing L and scape o fS ou th E t rur ia ( London ,P au lE lek ) .
PH ILL IPS , C .W . ( e d . ) 1 970 : T he F en land i n R oman T im es ( London ,R oya lG eog raph i ca lS oc ie ty ) .
S CHOF IELD , A . J . 1 989 : U nde r s tand ing e a r ly m ed ieva l p o t te ry d i s t r ibu t ion s :c au t iona ry t a le sa nd t h e i ri mpl ica t ion s f o rf u r the rr e s e a r ch .A n t iqu i ty 2 40 ,4 60 -70 .
PONS ICH , M . 1 974 : I mp lan ta t ion R u ra le A n t ique s ur l e B a s -Guada lqu iv i r 1( Mad r id ,C a sa d eV e l a zque z ) . PONS ICH , M . 1 979 : I mp lan ta t ion R u ra le A n t ique s u r l e B a s -Guada lqu iv i r 2( Mad r id ,C a sa d eV e la zque z ) .
4
Ager Cosanus ( Dyson )
7 th -6 th BC
5 th -4 th BC
R epub l ican
E a r ly Emp i re
M id -La t e Emp i re
F igu r el a :N umbe r so fs i t es o fd if er en tp er iod sf ound i nD y son ' s( 1978 )s ur vey o ft h eA ge rC osanu s ( a r two rk : a u tho r )
5 0 -
Ager Cosanus ( Carand in i )
4 0 -
—
e —
— 4 1- -
A ger C osanus V i l las
3 0 -
N umbe ro fs i t e s
2 0 -
10 -
0
3 rd -2nd BC
2 nd BC -AD
3 rd -7 th AD
F igu re l b :N umbe r so fs i te so fd if e r en tp er iod sf ound i nC arand in i ' ss u rv ey o ft h eA ge rC osanu s . ( Da ta f r om C a rand in i a nd S e t t i s 1 979 , i l u s . 5 8 . A r two rk : a u tho r )
5
N umb e ro fs i t e s
R ep ub l ic
E a r ly E mp i r e
M id -L a t eE mp
F igur e2 a : C a t egor ies o fs i t es w i th in t h eA ger C o sanus a sr e cord ed b yD yson ( 1978 ) . ( a r two rk : a u tho r ) K ey : A . S i te sw i th e l abo ra t ea r ch i tec tu re B .S i te sw i th b a s ic a r ch i tec tu ra le mbe l l i shmen t C . S i te sw i th p la in a r ch i tec tu re D .S u r f ace s c a t te r sw i thou ta r ch i tec tu ra le v idence
1 20
1 00 — 8 0 —
6 0 —
4 0 —
2 0 —
R epub l ic
E a r ly E mp i r e
•
D
•
C
▪
B
•
A
M id -L a t eE mp
F igur e2 b : C a tegor ie so fs i te w i th in t h eA ger C o sanu s( f rom F ig .2 a )p r esen t ed a sp ercen tages . ( a r two rk :
a u tho r )
6
4 00 —
3 00 -
2 00 -
•
A ger V e ie tanus A ger F a l iscus A ge r C apenas
0 7t h -6t h BC
5 th -4 th BC
R epub l ic
E a r ly Emp i re
M id -La te Emp i re
Numbe ro fs i te s
F igur e3 :C ompa ra t iv e .p a t tern so fs e t t l emen ti nd i f f eren ta r eas o fS ou th E trur ia . ( Da ta f r om P o t te r 1 979 . A r two rk : a u tho r )
•
P un ic
R epub l ican
l s t -2nd AD
3 rd -4 th AD
S ev i l la A lca lä d e l R io
5 t h -6 th AD
F igure 4 :G raph ss how ing n umber so fs e t t l emen t sr e cord ed i nt wo s amp le a rea s w i th in t h e G uada lqu iv ir S ur vey . ( Da ta f r om P on s ich 1 974 . A r two rk : a u tho r )
7
8 0 — • 7 0 6 0 5 0 -
N umbe ro fs i te s
4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0
I L a te F i r s t
I I E a r ly S e cond L a te S econd
I E a r ly T h i rd
I L a te T h i rd
I E a r ly F ou r th
I L a te F ou r th
F igur e5 :N umber s o fs i t es i nt h eF en land S ur vey . ( Da ta f r om P h i l l ip s 1 970 . A r two rk : a u tho r )
8
The Roman iza t ion a nd d e -Roman iza t ion o f B e lg ic Gau l : t he r ura l s e t t lemen t e v idence C . C . H a se lg rove a nd C . S cu l l v a r ie sb e tween d i f f e ren tg roup s a nd r e g ion s ,d epend ing o n s uch f a c to r s a s p re -ex is t ing s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l o rgan isa t ion , t h e n a tu re , i f a ny , o f p re -conque s t a c cu l tu ra t ion ,a nd t h ep hy s ica le nv i ronmen t . A na ly s i sa ta p rov inc ia l l e ve l c an e a s i ly c onf la te t o o m any d i f f e ren t t r end s ,a sB u rnham ( 1 986 )h a sa r gued ,c oncea l ing av a r ie ty o f u nde r ly ing p a t ter n s o r p ro ce sse s . I n B e lg ic G au l t h e p rob lem i s e spec ia l ly a cu te g i ven t h e s hee r s i ze a nd d i ve r s i ty o ft h ep rov ince , e v idenced b o th a r chaeo log ica l ly a nd h i s to r ica l ly . F o r e xamp le , c ompa red w i th much o f c en t ra la nd s ou the rn G au l ,B e lg i ca w a sr e la t ive ly u na f f e c ted b y Med i te r ranean i d ea s a nd g ood s p r io r t o C ae sa r , y e t w i th in t h ep rov ince t h e re i s ac l ea r g r ada t ion b e tween t h e s ou th a nd t h ef a rn o r th ( Ha se lg rove 1 990a ) ,a nd i tc an b en o c o inc id ence t h a tR oman i d ea sw e re t a k en u pm o re g r adua l ly i nt h el a t te ra r ea . Much h a rm c on t inue s t ob e d one , t o o , b y f a i lu re t o d i s t ingu i sh r i go rou s ly b e tween t h o se c hange s s e ti nm o t ion b y t h e c onque s t , a nd t h o se w h ich m e r e ly r ep re sen t a n i n tens if ica t ion o f e x is t ing t r end s . S ome t ime s t h is i sa ma t te r o f p reconcep t ions , s ome t ime s o f i n comp le te e v idence o rp oo rd a t ing , s ome t ime so fa l l t h re e . F o l low ing Ma r t in J one s 'w o rk ,i ti sw ide ly a ccep ted t h a t am uch m o r e s i gn if i can t p ha se o f a g r icu l tu ra l i n nova t ion o ccu r red i n B r i ta in d u r ing t h el a te rl i on A ge t h an f o l low ing t h eR oman c onque s t , w h ich m e re ly a dded ar a nge o fe xo t ica , c hange s t h en b e ing mo re o ne s o fd eg r ee t h an o fk i nd ( J one s 1 981 ) . T h i s i sa lmo s t c e r ta in ly t h e c a se i n B e lg ic G au l , t o o , a l though m o re d e ta i led e v idence i ss t i l l r e qu i red . O u ro wn w o rk i ss how ing t h a t p ro ce s se s o f s e t t lemen t e xpans ion w h ich o n ly b e come r e ad i ly a ppa ren ti nt h e R oman p e r iod , o w ing t ot h e g r ea te r v i s ib i l i ty o f t h e m a te r ia l c u l tu re a nd t h e s i te s , i n f a c t o r ig ina ted e a r l ie r , i n t h e I r on A ge . C onve r se ly ,e v idence i sa l so e me rg ing t h a ti ns ome s phe re s t h e p a r t icu la r c ond i t ions p reva i l ing a t t h e t ime o f t h e c onque s t ,o f ten o fn og r ea ta n t iqu i ty , m ay h ave b een m o re s i gn if ican t i n d e te rm in ing G a l lo -Roman s e t t lemen t d eve lopmen t st h an l o nge r te rm e conom ic o re nv i ronmen ta l f a c to r s . S im i la rc on s ide ra t ion s a r e a l so r e levan t t ot h e l a te Emp i re a nd t h e e a r ly Me rov ing ian p e r iod . A s w i th R oman iza t ion , t h e d eve lopmen t s e v idenced b y c hange s i n m a te r ia lc u l tu re ,b u r ia lp r a c t ice a nd s e t t lemen ti nt h ef o u r th a nd f i f th c en tu r ie s w e re t h em se lve s t h er e su l to fp roce sse s o pe ra t ing a t al o ca l a sw e l l a s ar e g iona l o ri n te r reg iona l l e ve l . T he i mpa c to fm i l i ta ry c r is is , t h ep a ce a nd n a tu re o f s o c ia la nd p o l i t ica lc hange ,a nd t h ec ha rac te ra nd i n ten s i ty o fG e rman ic s e t t lemen tw e re n o tu n ifo rm , a nd w ou ld h ave p r ovoked d i f f e r en tr e spon se so rp r e c ip i ta ted d i f f e r ing d eg r ee s o fc hange . A s se s s ing t h e i re f fe c t s i sf u r the rc omp l ica ted b y t h el o nge r te rm t r an sfo rma t ion s o ccu r r ing i nG a l lo -Roman s o c ie ty , a nd b y t h e l i ke l ihood t h a t r e spon se s t o c hange w ou ld h ave v a r ied w i th c l a s sa nd s t a tu s .
I n troduc t ion T h i sp ape ri sc once rned w i th t h eb eg inn ing a nd t h ee nd o f t h e R oman p e r iod i n B e lg ic G au l ; s pec if ica l ly w i th t h e w ay s i n w h ich r u ra l s e t t lemen t a r chaeo logy m igh t c on t r ibu te t o a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e e a r l ie s t a nd l a te s t p ha se s o fG a l lo -Roman s oc ie ty , a nd w i th t h e p re l im ina ry r e su l t s o fr e cen t f i e ld -wo rk i nt h e A i sne v a l ley , a nd t h e i r i mp l ica t ions f o r o u r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e se a ge s o f t r an s i t ion . I n a pp roa ch ing t h e G a l lo -Roman p e r iod f r om t h e p e r spec t ive o f p reh is to ry o n t h e o ne h and a nd e a r ly m ed ieva l a r chaeo logy o n t h e o t he r , w e d o n o t f olow t h e c onven t iona l' t op -down 'a pp roa ch t ot h es t udy o ft h ep e r iod w i th t h ec on s t ra in t s t h a ti tm ay i mpo se .P roceed ing f r om a g ene ra l k now ledge o ft h e R oman w o r ld t oa s se s s h ow f a r i n d iv idua lp rov ince sf i ta ni d ea lt y p ec an r e duce t h es t udy o f R oman iza t ion s imp ly t o e s tab l i sh ing w hen a nd h ow i n ten s ive ly f e a tu re s w e r e ga rd a s' R oman ' a ppea r , a nd t h e s t udy o fd e -Roman iza t ion c o r re spond ing ly t oc h ron ic l ing t h e i rd epa r tu re o rp e r s i s tence ,w i th t h ea t tendan td ange rt h a t m o r e c omp lex p roce s se s o fa ccommoda t ion , a ccu l tu ra t ion a nd o rgan ic c hange m ay b e o ve r looked . T he o ve ra l l f r amewo rk t h a tw e h ave i si n va luab le i nt h a t i te s tab l i she s o u r b a s ic p o in t s o f r e f e rence , b u t b eyond t h i s t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween h i s to ry a nd a r chaeo logy i so f t en t o o b egu i l ing , a nd c an d i sgu i se o u r i g no rance o f s oc ie ty a nd e conomy i n ap a r t icu la rr e g ion a sa na logy w i th e l sewhe re i n t h e Emp i re i ss ub s t i tu ted f o r e v idence f r om t h e a r ea w h ich a c tua l ly c once rn s u s , o r h i s to r ica l s ou rce s a r e r e qu i red t ob ea ra n u n rea l i s t ic w e igh to fi n te rp re ta t ion . O u r a pp roa ch i nt h i s p ape r m igh t b e l i kened t o S i r E dmund L ea ch ' s' B lack B ox ' ( Lea ch 1 973 ) . I t sc on ten t sa r ed e s t ined t or ema in u nknown t ou s i nd e ta i l , b u t b y o b se rv ing t h e i n pu ta nd o u tpu t ,a nd b yc ompa r ing t h em , w ec an g o s ome w ay t owa rd s e s tab l i sh ing w ha t f o rm t h e c on ten t s mu s t t a ke . T hus , b y l ook ing a t p re -Roman a nd p o s t -Roman s o c ie t ie s o ft h e s ame a r ea t o ge the r , a nd i nt h e s ame w ay , w e c an a l so h ope t o t h row s ome l i gh t o n t h e R oman s o c ie t ie st h a tc ame b e tween . T he re a r e t wo c en t ra l p o in t s h e re . F i r s t , t h is a pp roa ch e nab le s u s t o s e t 5 00 y ea r s o f R oman r u le i n B e lg ic G au l i nt h ep e r spec t ive o f 10 00 y ea r s o fc on t inu i ty o r c hange . S econd , w e a r e a sk ing t h e s ame s o r t s o f q ue s t ion s o f t h e p re - a nd p o s t -Roman a r chaeo logy , a nd f a c ing s im i la r d i f f icu l t ie s . Wh i le t h e re c an b e n o s imp le e qua t ion b e tween t h em , t h ep r e - a nd p o s t -Roman s o c ie t ie s i nw h i ch w ea r ei n t e re s t ed a r ee s sen t ia l ly s ma l l -sca le ,r u ra l a nd a g ra r ian , a nd a r e mo s te f f ec t ive ly a pp roached t h rough a r chaeo logy . I fw e a r e t o a dd re s s s ub s i s tence a nd o t he r e conom ic s t ruc tu res , p opu la t ion s i ze a nd d ens i ty , d emog raphy , e ven a spec t s o f s oc ia l s t ruc tu re a nd p owe r r e la t ion sh ip s , i tm u s t b e t h rough m a te r ia l r ema ins . T o t h e e x ten tt h a tw ea r e s ucce s sf u l , w ec an e x tend t h i sa pp roach t ot h er u ra la nd u ndo cumen ted p opu la t ion sw h ich m ade u p m o s to ft h ei n hab i tan t so ft h eR oman w o r ld . We f e e l , t h e refo re , t h a t t h e mo s t p rof i tab le w ay f o rwa rd i st h rough d e ta i led r e g iona ls t ud ie s . R oman iza t ion , h oweve r u n i fo rm t h es upe r f ic ia lo u t come ,w a s t h er e su l to f p roce s se s o pe ra t ing e s sen t ia l ly a t al o ca l i sed l e ve l . E ven w i th in as i ng le p rov ince , t h e f o rm a nd d eg ree o f c hange
T he s e t t lemen t b ackground W i th t h e se p rov i so s i n m ind , l e t u s e xam ine t h e b a s ic i n te rp lay b e tween s e t t lemen t c on t inu i ty a nd c hange i n B e lg ic G au l i nt h ep e r iod u p t o AD 2 00 ,a nd i nt h et h i rd t o s i x th c en tu r ie s AD ,b e fo re d eve lop ing s ome o ft h e s ei s sue s i nm o re d e ta i l i nr e la t ion t ot h ep a r t icu la rr e g ion w he re w e a r e w o rk ing , t h e A i sne v a l ley i n s ou the rn P i ca rd ie . A s W igh tman ( 1 985 )h a sr em inded u s ,w en eed t oa n swe rs u ch
9
C . C . H a se lg rove a nd C . S cu l l
q ue s t ion sa s : ( 1 )w e re t h es ame s i t e so ccup ied o ne i the rs i de o f t h e R oman c onque s t? , ( 2 ) d o t h e s e t t lemen t t y pe s c hange , p hy s ica l ly o r e conom ica l ly? , ( 3 ) d oe s t h e o ve ra l l p a t t e rn o fs i t ing a nd e xp lo i ta t ion c hange s i gn if i can t ly ,a nd i fs o ,h ow s udden ly? a nd ,a bove a l l ,( 4 )w hen d ot h em a jo r c hange s ,i fa ny ,o ccu r ,a nd d oe st h ep a t te rn v a ry a c ro s st h e p r ov ince ? Am a jo r p rob lem h e re i su nden iab ly t h e v a r iab le p a t te rn o fr e cen ta r cha eo log i ca la c t iv i ty i nn o r the rn F r ance ( F ig . 1 ) . O n t he P ica rd ie c ha lk land s , A gache 's i n te rna t iona l ly -known a e r ia l s u rvey s h ave t r an sfo rmed o u r k now ledge o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion a nd d en s i ty o ff ermes i nd ig2nes a nd G a l lo -Roman s e t t lemen t s a l ike ( Aga che 1 978 ) . I nA i sne , B ou reux ' s w o rk h a s h ad s im i la r r e su l t s , p a r t icu la r ly o n t h e g rave l t e r races o f t h e A i sne i t se l f ( Bou reux 1 974 ) ,b u t as im i la rd ep th o fc ove rage i sl a ck ing o u t s ide t h e se a r ea s . S ys tema t ic g round s u rvey h a s b een e ven m o re r e s t r ic ted ,a ne xcep t ion b e ing P a ren t ' sw o rk : h i s f i e ld -wa lk ing d i scove r ie sf r om a1 5 km .r a d iu sa r ound F e re e n -Ta rdeno i s( A i sne )h ave a dd ed 3 2n ew G a l lo -Roman s i te s t ot h e 1 7 p r ev iou s ly k nown ( a n i n c rea se o fn ea r ly 2 00% ) , w h ich u nde r l ine s t h e i n adv i sab i l i ty o fr e ly ing t o o h eav i ly o nt h eo l de ri n fo rma t ion ( Pa ren t 1 972 ) . B a sed o n t h e s amp le o fe xcava ted s i te sr e co rded i n G a l l ia s i nce 1 970 , t h e p a t te rn o f s i te s i n ve s t iga ted u nde r moder n c ond i t ion s i sa l so f a r f r om i d ea l . T he p i c tu re i s d om ina ted b y t h e m enace o f g rave l e x t rac t ion a l ong t h e r i ve r t e r ra ce s o ft h e P a r i s B a s in . T he l a ck o ff olow -up t o A ga che ' sw o rk i nS omme i se spec ia l ly m a rked ,w he re s i t e s h ave g ene ra l ly b een e xcava ted ,i fa ta l l ,o nt o os mal as c a le t or e so lve b a s ic p rob lems . A l l t o ld , t h ea ve rage n umbe ro f l a te h on A ge s i te so fa l lt y pe se xcava ted s i nce 1 970 i so n ly 6 . 2 p e r d4a r temen t , m any i nf a r f r om i d ea l c ond i t ion s . D i sp ropo r t iona te ly f ew r u ra l s e t t lemen t s h ave b een e xcava ted c ompa red w i th n uc lea ted s i te s , a nd e x ten s ive e xcava t ion s a r e v i r tua l ly c onf ined t ot h er i ve r t e r race s . I n s ome a r ea s , c eme te ry a r chaeo logy s t i l l p r edom ina te s . F o r t h e G a l lo -Roman p e r iod t h e f i gu re i s 3 7 .4 s i te s p e r dea r temen t ,a nd f o rt h ee a r ly m ed ieva lp e r iod 1 3 .1 s i t e sp e r d 6pa r temen t . H oweve r , t h e se a ve rage s c oncea l w ide d i f f e rence s i n n umbe r s b e tween d 6pa r temen t s , a nd t h e v a ry ing e mpha s i s o n d i f f e ren t t y pe s o fs i te f r om p e r iod t o p e r iod ( F ig . 2 )g r ea t ly c omp l i ca te s t h e s t udy o fs e t t lemen t c on t inu i ty . F o r e xamp le , 7 3% o f t h e e a r ly m ed ieva l s i te s a r e c eme te r ie s , c ompa red w i th o n ly 1 4% o f t h e G a l lo R oman s i te s . C onve r se ly , 5 1% o f t h e G a l lo -Roman s i te s a r e t own s o ro t he r s e t t lemen t s , c ompa red w i th af i gu re o f o n ly 1 8% f o rt h ee a r ly m ed ieva ls i te s . T he l im i ta t ions o f t h i s d a ta b a se f o r t h e s t udy o f l a te rI r on A ge ,G a l lo -Roman a nd e a r ly m ed ieva l s e t t lemen t c on t inu i ty a r e o bv iou s . N eve r the les s , a s sum ing t h a t e xcava ted s i te sp rov ide ar e a sonab ly r e p re sen ta t ive s amp le l ,
1 .T he f i gure s i n Ga l l ia , a l though r e a sonab ly c omp r ehens ive , a r e n o t c omp le te . T he c omp i la t ion s a r e n on s tanda rd , a nd n o t a l t h e r e levan t s i te s n ece ssar i ly r epo r ted . I n a dd i t ion , s ome s i te s h ave h ad t o b e om i t ted h e re a s t h e r e w a s i n su f f ic ien t e v idence a bou t t h e ir p rec i se d a te , a nd s ome mu l t i -p e r iod s i te s w h ich f el w i th in t h e r em i t o f t h e D i r ec t ion d e s A n t iqu i t6 s P rih i s to r ique s w i l l h ave b een r epo r ted i nG a l l ia -Prdh i s to i re , w h ich w a s n o t c on su l ted . I n mo s t c a se s , h oweve r , t h e re i sn o r e a son w hy t h e e xcava t ion s r epo r ted i n G a l l ia s hou ld n o t b e f a i r ly r ep re sen ta t ive o f t h e o ve ra l l p a t te rn o f e xcava t ion s i n e ach d 6pa r temen t . F o r t h e p u rpo se o f t h i s c omp i la t ion , t h e dea r temen t s o f G r ea t er P ar i s h ave b een t r ea ted a s a s i ng le u n i t , n ame ly t h e I l e -de -F r ance .
i ts hou ld b e p o s s ib le t od raw s ome g ene ra l c onc lu s ion s . F o rt h i sa na ly s i st h es i te sh ave b een d i v id ed i n to f ou rm a in g roup s : t h os ew i th e v idence f o ro ccupa t ion i nt h el a te h on A ge , t h e e a r ly Emp i re , t h e l a te Emp i re a nd t h e e a r ly m ed ieva l p e r iod . S ome w i l l t hu s a ppea r i nt wo o r mo r e s e t s .T he d a ta a r ep r e sen ted a sh i s tog ram si nF igu re s3 5 . T ak ing t h e f i r s t t wo g roups , t h ose w i th l a te r I r on A ge o ccupa t ion a nd e a r ly G a l lo -Roman o ccupa t ion ( F ig . 3 ) , t h e o ve ra l l d eg ree o fc on t inu i ty i n to t h ep o s t -conque s t p e r iod a ppea r st ob es ma l l ,a l though w i thou td e ta i led c a se s t ud ie s i tc anno t b e e s tab l i shed w he the r m a jo r o r m ino r s h i f t si ns e t t lemen tl o ca t ion w e re i n vo lved . B o th g roup so f d a ta s ugge s t t h a t t h ep e r iod c .7 0 -25 BC w a s o ne o fv e ry c ons ide rab le c hange ( Ha se lg rove 1 990a ) . Mo re G a l lo R oman s i te s s e em t o s t a r t a t t h is p e r iod t h an e i the r c on t inue f r om e a r l ie ro rw e re f ounded u nde rA ugu s tu s ,y e t t h e l a t t e r i so f ten h e ld t ob e t h e k ey p e r iod o f s e t t lemen t d eve lopmen t . C onve r se ly , t h ep ropo r t ion o fl a te h on A ge s i te s a bandoned i n t h e p e r iod c .7 0 -25 BC i sa l so h i gh . W i thou t mo re d e ta i led e v idence , h oweve r , w e s hou ld n o t p r e sume t h a tt h e se c hange s a r ed ue s o le ly t ot h ec onque s t , a sm a rked d i s con t inu i t ie sa l so o ccu ri nt h ee a r l ie rI r on A ge s e t t lemen t r e co rd . T he c hange s o f t h e f i r s t c en tu ry B C , t h en , mu s t b e s e en i n t h e p e r spec t ive o f l o nge r te rm s e t t lemen tc hange a nd c on t inu i ty t h roughou tt h eI r on A ge . Ah i gh p ropo r t ion o fe a r ly G alo -Roman s i te s ( 5 2% i nt h eC al la s amp le ) w a s f ounded i nt h ep e r iod c . AD 2 5 1 00 . T h i s a ppa ren t ly r e p re sen t s a n o ve ra l l i n c rea se i nt h e t o ta ln umbe ro fs i te s ,c on f i rm ing t h a tt h el a te rf i r s tc en tu ry AD w a s ap e r iod o fp a r t icu la rb u i ld ing a c t iv i ty i nB e lg ica : o ve rh a lf o fa l v i l la sa ppea rt oh ave b een b u i l ta tt h i st i me . T he rea f te r , t h e n umbe r o f n ew f ounda t ions s e em s t o d ec l ine , a l though , a s m igh t b e e xpec ted , t h e n umbe r o f i n hab i ted s i t e s a ppea r s t oh ave b een a ti t s h i ghe s t d u r ing t h es e cond c en tu ry ,7 0% o fa ls e t t lemen t sh av ing e v idence f o ro ccupa t ion d u r ing t h i sp e r iod . I ndeed ,t a k ing t h eG a l lo R oman p e r iod a s aw ho le , t h es upe r f i c ia lp i c tu re i so ne o fa h i gh d eg ree o f s e t t lemen t c on t inu i ty ( F ig . 4 ) . E xc lud ing p ub l ic t own s , 5 3% o f s e t t lemen t s k nown t o h ave b een o ccup ied d u r ing t h ee a r ly Emp i r ew e re a l so o c cup ied d u r ing t h e l a te Emp i re , a nd 7 8% o f s i te s k nown t oh ave b een o ccup ied d u r ing t h e l a te Emp i re h ad b een o ccup ied d u r ing t h e e a r ly Emp i re . T h i sr e p re sen t s a n o ve ra l l d ec l ine i nt h e t o ta l n umbe r o f s i t e s f r om t h e l a te t h i rd c en tu ry w h ich , r a the r t h an s imp ly r ef lec t ing af a l l i nt h e r u ra l p opu la t ion , w ou ld a l so a c co rd w e l l w i th t h e i n c rea s ing n uc lea t ion o f r u ra l s e t t lemen t s ugge s ted b y W igh tman ( 1 978 ; 1 985 ) . H oweve r , i ti sd i f f icu l tt or e conc i le t h e a ppa r en td eg ree o f s e t t lemen t c on t inu i ty w i th t h e r e su l t s o f W igh tman 's a na lys i s o f t h e c eme te ry d a ta , w h ich s ugge s t s am a jo r d i scon t inu i ty i np a t ter n s o f r u ra l s e t t lemen t b e tween t h e e a r ly Emp i re a nd t h el a te Emp i re ,a t t r ibu tab le i np a r tt ot h e p o l i t ica l a nd m il i ta ry i n s tab i l i ty o f t h e l a t e r t h i rd c en tu ry . Ac oun to fe xcava ted G a l lo -Roman c eme te r ie sr e co rded i n G a l l ia s i nce 1 970 g i ve s av e ry s im i la r p i c tu re t o t h a t o b ta ined b y W igh tman f r om h e rv e ry m uch l a rge rs amp le , s uppo r t ing t h e c onc lu s ion t h a t t h e d i sc repancy b e tween s e t t lemen ta nd c eme t e ry d a ta i sg enu ine : o n ly 2 9% o fe a r ly Emp i re c eme t e r ie s a r e k nown t oh ave b een i nu se d u r ing t h e l a te Emp i re , a nd o n ly 2 7% o fl a te Emp i re c eme te r ie s a r ek nown t oh ave b een i nu s ed u r ing t h ee a r ly Emp i re . T he d i s c r epanc ie sb e tween s e t t lemen ta nd c eme t e ry d a ta m igh t b ee xp la ined b y an umbe ro ff a c to r s , i n c lud ing d i f f e ren t ia l s u rv iva l a nd v i s ib i l i ty b y s i te type a nd d a t e ,
10
T he R oman iza t ion a nd d e -Ro rnan iza t ion o f B e lg ic G au l . . .
i n comp le te e xcava t ion , a nd t h e l i ke l ihood t h a t t h e b a ld f i gur e s f o r c on t inuou s o ccupa t ion o r r e -occupa t ion m ay d i sgu i s ei mpo r tan tc hange si nt h en a tu re o f as e t t lemen to r t h e i n ten s i ty o f a c t iv i ty . F o r i n s tance , t h e d ependen t s e t t lemen t o f t h e v i l la c omp lex a tF ame chon ( Somme ) c on t inued t ob e o ccup ied , w i th s ome r e bu i ld ing , a f t e r t h e ma in d we l l ing -hou se w a s a bandoned i n t h e l a te t h i rd c en t tuy .T h i sh a sb een i n t e rp r e t ed a se v iden ce t h a tt h ee s ta t e c on t inued t ob ew o rk ed b y at i ed o rr e s iden tl a bou rf o r ce o n b eha l f o fa n a b sen tee l a nd lo rd . S uch ap a t te rn m igh t b e mo re w ide ly r epea t ed ; i n d eed , m igh tb ee xpec ted a t at i me w hen g r ea t magna te s w e re i n c rea s ing t h e i r p owe r a nd e s ta t e s a tt h e e xpen se o f l e s se r l a ndowne r s (W igh t rnan 1 978 ) . E qua l ly , h oweve r , t h ev e ry d i f f e ren tc onc lu s ion s t o b ed r awn f r om as upe rf i c ia le xam ina t ion o fs e t t lemen ta nd c eme t e ry c on t inu i ty e mpha s ize t h ed ange r so fa s sum ing a ny s imp le e qua t ion b e tween as i ng le c ommun i ty , s e t t lemen t s i te a nd c eme t e ry ( c f .B ulough 1 983 ) . Ac eme te ry n eed n o t s e rve as i ng le s e t t lemen to rc ommun i ty , a nd ac ommun i ty m ay b ed i spe r sed a mong an umbe ro fs e t t lemen ts i te s .N o r c an i tb e a s sumed t h a t t h e f a c to r s g ove rn ing t h e u se o r a bandonmen t o fc eme te r ie s n eed c o inc ide p r ec i se ly w i th t ho se a f f e c t ing t h e c ha ra c te r , l o ca t ion a nd s u rv iva l o f i n d iv idua ls e t t lemen ts i t e s . D a ta f o r t h e l a te Emp i r e a nd e a r ly m ed ieva l p e r iod s ugge s t ad rama t ic d ec l ine i n t h e o ve ra l l n umbe r o f s e t t lemen t s f r om t h ef i f th c en tu ry ,a nd af a rg r ea te rd eg ree o fd i s con t inu i ty t h an i sa ppa ren t a ta ny t i me i nt h e G a l lo R oman p e r iod ( F ig . 5 ) . O n ly 1 % o f l a te Emp i re s e t t lemen t s h ave e v idence f o r e a r ly m ed ieva l o ccupa t ion , a nd 4 5% o fe a r ly m ed ieva l s e t t lemen t s a ppea r t ob e n ew s i te s . T h is l a t te r f i gu re w ou ld b e g rea te r i fl a te e mp i re v i l la s a nd n uc lea ted s e t t lemen t s w i th e v idence f o r o ccupa t ion i n to t h ee a r ly Me rov ing ian p e r iod ,b u tn ol a t e r , w e re t ob e e xc luded f r om c ons ide ra t ion . T he c eme te ry e v iden ce g i ve s amo re e x t reme p i c tu re : 3 5% o fl a te Emp i re c eme t e r ie s a r ek nown t oh ave b e en i nu s ed u r ing t h ee a r ly m ed i eva lp e r iod ,b u to n ly 1 0% o fe a r ly m ed ieva lc eme t e r ie s a r ek nown t oh ave b een i nu se d u r ing t h el a t e Emp i re . T h i s r uns c oun te r t o W igh tman ' s c onc lus ion t h a t t h e t h i rd c en tu r y s aw g rea te rd i s rup t ion i nt h e c oun t ry s ide t h an d i d t h e f i f th ( W igh tman 1 985 , 2 56 , 3 08 -9 ) . E ven t a k ing i n to a ccoun t t h e u nce r ta in t ie s a r i s ing f r om t h e v e ry s ma l l n umb e ro fk nown e a r ly m ed ieva l s e t t lemen t s a nd t h e f a c t t h a to n ly av e ry s ma l lp ropo r t ion o fk nown c eme te r ie sh ave b een c omp le te ly e xcava ted ,t h ef i f th s ix th c en tu r ie se me rge o nt h i se v idence a s ap e r iod o fm a jo rd i scon t inu i ty . A rchaeo log ica l g ene ra l iza t ions a bou t l a te G a l lo R oman a nd e a r ly m ed ieva lp a t t e rn so fr u ra ls e t t lemen th ave b een h e av i ly d ependen tu pon t h eb u r ia lr e co rd ;t h ea ppa ren t d i s c r epan c ie sb e tween s e t t lemen ta nd c eme t e ry d a ta t h e r e f o r e h ave s e r iou s i mp l ica t ion s . A t i t s s imp le s t a nd mo s t g ene r a l , t h is a pp roach c an b e s e en i nc once rn w i th t h e i mpa c t o f t h e G e rman ic i n va s ions a nd t h e o r ig in s o f Me rov ing ian h egemony r e f le c ted i n a n e mpha s is o n i d en t i f y ing F rank s o r o t he r g roup s , a nd o n c ha r t ing t h e p rog r e s s o f G e rman ic s e t t lemen t f r om t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f Me rov ing ian c eme te r ies . T he s imp le e qua t ion o f Me rov ing ian c eme te ry w i th i mm ig ran t G e rman ic c ommun i ty w ou ld n o tn ow b ea cc ep t ed ( J ame s 1 979 ; P i le t 1 980 ; Y oung 1 986 ) , a nd t h e t emp ta t ion t o a t t r ibu te c hange si nt h e s e t t lemen tr e co rd s imp ly t oF rank so ro t he r s e t t le r s -t ot h ei mpa c to f' l e sv agu e sg e rman ique s ' -s hou ld a l so b e r e s is ted . Mo re s oph i s t ica ted r e cen t a pp roa che s ,
h oweve r , h ave a l so a s sumed a s imp le o ne to -one r e la t ion sh ip b e tween b u r ia l c ommun i ty a nd s e t t lemen t c ommun i ty , a nd b e tween s e t t lemen t s i te a nd c eme te ry . Du rand ' s w o rk o n m ed ieva l v i l lage o r ig in s i n O i se , f o r i n s tance , s t i l lr e l ie sh eav i ly o nt h ep e r ce ived a s soc ia t ion o f e a r ly m ed ieva l c eme te r ie s a nd h i gh m ed ieva l c hu r che s t o a r gue f o r ad i re c tc on t inu i ty o fs e t t lemen tl o ca t ion f r om t h e Me rov ing ian p e r iod ( Du rand 1 988 ) . Mode l s o f r u ra l s e t t lemen tp a t t e rn ing a nd s e t t lemen td eve lopmen td e r ived f r om t h ec eme te ry r e co rd , a l though u se fu l , mu s tr ema in a s t a r t ing p o in t , t ob e t e s t ed a ga in s tg ood q ua l i ty s e t t lemen t d a ta . T he n eed f o r s y s tema t ic f i e ld -wo rk a nd d e ta i led r eg iona l s t ud ie s i sf u r the r e mpha s ized b y t h e v a r iab le p i c tu re w h ich e me rge s i n B e lg ic G au l a s aw ho le t h roughou t t h e p e r iod w h ich c once rn s u s . T he c on t ra s t b e tween n o r th a nd s ou th i n t h e p re -conque s t p e r iod h a s a l ready b een n o ted ; d u r ing t h e l a te Emp i re t h e c on t ra s t b e twe en r i ch l a t ev i l la sl i ke Me r c in -e t -Vaux a nd B lan zy le s F i sme s ( A i sne ) a nd t h o se s u ch a sF amechon , f o r i n s tance , m ay s ugge s t ag r ea te r s t ab i l i ty a nd p ro spe r i ty i n t h e S o i s sona i st h an e l sewhe re i nP i ca rd ie ( Baya rd 1 986 ) . T he A i sne V a l ley P ro jec t T he A i sne V a l ley r e g ion o fs ou ther nP i ca rd ie h a s a l ready b een m ent ioned d ue t ot h ei n ten s i ty o fr e cen ta r chaeo log ica l w o rk t h e re , b o th a e r ia l s u rvey a nd l a rge sca le r e scue e xcava t ions a l ong t h er i ve r g rave l s . A r chaeo log ica l ly , t h e a r ea p rov ide s at r an se c t c .5 0 km . l o ng a l ong t h e r i ve r b e tween t h er ema rkab le l a te L aT ene n uc lea ted s e t t lemen t s a t C ond&su r -Su ippe , a nd V i l leneuve S t . G e rma in a nd P omm ie r s , a nd R e ims a nd S o i s son s , w h ich a r e g ene ra l ly h e ld t o h ave b een t h e c en t ra l p l ace s o f t h e R em i a nd S ue s s ione s ( D emou le a nd I l e t t 1985 ) . T he se c i v i ta tes , o f c ou r se , f i gu re p rom inen t ly i nC ae sa r f o r t h e i r c on t ra s t ing a t t i tude s t oR oman i n te rven t ion , w i th t h e R em i b ecom ing h i s mo s t i mpo r tan t a l l ie s i n n o r the rn G au l a nd R e im s b e com ing t h es e a to ft h eR oman g ove rno ro fB e lg ica . B o th w e re m a jo r p ub l ic t owns d u r ing t h e l a te Emp i re , w i th R e ims t h e c ap i ta l o f B e lg ica S e ,cunda , a nd b o th w e re i mpo r tan t c en t re s u nde r t h e Me rov ing ian a nd C a ro l ing ian mona rch s . T he s t udy a r ea a l so s pan s t h e g eo log ica l t r an s i t ion b e tween t h e o pen c ha lk land o fC hampagne a nd t h el i me s tone p l a t eaux a nd r i ve rv a l ley so ft h eP a r i sB a s in , e nab l ing a c ompa r i son o f s e t t lemen t d eve lopmen t s i n c on t ra s t ing e nv i ronmen t s . T oday t h e a r ea i s l a rge ly a g r i cu l tu ra l . D u rham U n ive r s i ty ' s l o ng te rm r e sea r ch p rog ramme o nt h ed eve lopmen t ,d en s i ty a nd c ha ra c t e ro fs e t t lemen th e re d u r ing t h e f i r s t m i l lenn ia BC a nd AD b egan i n 1 983 . I t a ims t oo f f se t t h e e x i s t ing b i a s t om a jo r s e t t lemen t s a nd t h eg r ave l t e r ra ce s t h rough e xcava t ion o nr u ra l s e t t lemen t s a nd a n i n ten s ive f i e ld -wa lk ing p rog ramme , d e s igned t o r e la te t h e d i f f e ren t c omponen t s o ft h e s e t t lemen t p a t ter n : r u ra l a nd u rban , p re -Roman , R oman a nd p o s t -Roman , v a l ley , s l ope a nd p l a t eau . O ne m a jo r e xcava t ion h a s b e en c omp le ted a t B eau r ieux , L e s G reve s ( Ha se lg rove a nd L ow the r 1 988 ) ,a nd s i nce 1 988 t h ee mpha s i sh a s s h if ted t o i n ten s ive f i e ld -wa lk ing a nd t r ia le xcava t ion o n o t he r s i t e s . A t t h e s ame t i me , w e a r e a b le t od raw o n t h e r e su l t s o f r e cen t e xcava t ion s o n r u ra l s e t t lemen t s b y F rench t e am s w o rk ing i nt h es ame a r ea ( E .R .A . 1 2a nd D .R .A .P . ) . T he f i e ld -wa lk ing p rog ramme i sc en t red o n f ou r 2x 1 0 km .t r an sec t s o r ien ta ted n o r th sou th a c ro s s t h e v a l ley a c ro s s t h e g r a in o f t h e l a nd scape , s amp l ing t h e p r inc ipa l
1
C . C . H a se lg rove a nd C . S cu l l
c au t iou si na r gu ing t h a tt h e re e x i s ted t h roughou tt h er e g ion a n u rban ized b a se t os uppo r ts ub sequen tR oman iza t ion . A t p re sen t , t h e k i nd o f ' c r is i s ' mode l e l abo ra t ed b y C o l l i s ( 1982 ; 1 984 )a ppea r s t oo f f e r amuch c l o se rf i tt ot h ed a ta . T h i s mode l w ou ld d i re c t ly l i nk t h e e s tab l i shmen to ft h e se f o r t i f ied c en t r e s a nd t h e a bandonmen t o fa l o r mo s tr u ra l s i tes d u r ing a ma jo r c r is is , t h e r u ra l p opu la t ion s ub sequen t ly r e tu rn ing t ot h e i rf a rms w hen t h ee me rgency h ad p a s sed . V a r iou s o u t come s , i n f a c t , a r e p o s s ib le , a nd mo re t h an o ne c ou ld b er e levan tt ot h eA i sne V a l ley i nt h e f i r s t c en tury BC . S ome t imes t h e e l i te a nd a r t i san p opu la t ion m ay h ave s t ayed o n a tt h e n ew c en t re f o r t h e a dvan tage s t h i s o f f e red , o n ly t h e f a rme r s r e tu rn ing t ot h e c oun t ry s ide . I nt h e e nd , i tw a s R oman c ho ice , t o o , w h ich a s su red t h ed eve lopmen to fR e ims b u tt h ea bandonmen to f o the r n a t ive s i te s f o r n ea rby n ew f ound a t ion s s uch a s S o i sson s o rS t . Q uen t in . H oweve r ,t h er u ra ls e t t lemen tp a t t er ni nt h em id la t e f i r s t c en tu ry BC a l so d i f f e r s ma rked ly f r om b e fo r e . T he s ma l lo pen f a rm s tead sf ound a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h ec en tu ry a r er e p la ced b yl a rge r , mo re o rgan ized e n c lo sed s e t t lemen t s ( Beau r ieux ; M i s sy su r -A i sne ,L e sG a rdo t s )w h ich p robab ly c omp r ised a n umbe r o f f a rm ing u n i t s . T h i s g a the r ingt o ge the r i sl i ke ly t or ef l ec t t h e c hanged c ond i t ion s o ft h e p o s t -c r is i s p e r iod . I n t h e i r l a you t a nd s oc io -econom ic s t ruc tu r e ,p e rhap sc omp r i s ing t h e d wel ing so f al o ca l e l i te f am i ly u n i t a nd t h e i r d ependen t s , t h e se n ew ly -founded a g r icu l tu ra l e s tab l i shmen t s c an b e s ugge s ted a s p o s s ib le f o r e runne r so ft h es t one -bu i l tc ou r tya rd v i l l a sw ide sp re ad i n B e lg ic G au l . T he se l a te r s i te sc anno th ave a ppea red o u to f n o th ing . R a the r t h an h av ing t o s eek d i rec t c on t inu i ty b e tween t h ei s o la ted f a rm s tead s w he r e t h em idd le L aT ene e l i te i ss uppo sed t oh ave r e s ided , s uch a sV e rbe r ie , O i se ( B lanche t e ta l . 1 983 ) , a nd t h e c ou r tya rd v i l la s w i th t h e i r m an i f e s t ly l a rge ra g r icu l tu ra lp opu la t ion s , t h ee x i s t ence o f t h e se l a rge e n c lo sed s e t t lemen t s s ugge s t s a n i n te rmed ia t e s t age i nt h ep r o ce s s . I nt h es ugge s t ion o fa ne x t ended s o c ia l u n i t a nd i t s d ependen t s , t h e re i sa n o bv iou s l i nk w i th t h e i d ea so fJ . T . S m i th ( 1 978 ) . I nt h e A i sne V a l ley , t h e R oman i n va s ion o f5 7 B C c anno th ave b een t h ec r i s i s t h a tp rec ip i ta t ed t h e t empo ra ry p e r iod o fe x t r eme n uc lea t ion ,a sC onde ,a nd p robab ly o t he r s i te s , w e r e f o unded w el b e fo re t h i s d a te . I n s t ead , w e m ay p e rhap se nv isage ap ro longed p e r iod o fs t r e s sg o ing b a ck t o t h e s t a r t o f t h e l a te L a T ene , whe the r i no r ig in m i l i ta ry p o l i t ica l o r , p e rhap s l e s s l i ke ly , s oc io -e conom ic . N o t a l l t h e f i r s tc en tu ry BC f a rms tead e nc lo su r e s d eve loped i n to v i l la s , o f c ou r se : s ome d id ( Beau r ieux ) , o t he r s w e re a bandoned ( M i s sy -su r -A i sne ) , o r s u f f e r ed ad im inu t ion i n s t a tu s a nd c on t inued a sf erm es i nd igine s . T he p re l im ina r y r e su l t s o fo u r f i e ld -wa l k ing a nd r e cen t e x cava t ion s o n t h e n ea rby c ha lk ( f o re xamp le : A th ie s sou s -Laon )m ay i mp ly a s im i la r , t h ough n o t i d en t ica l , p a t ter n o f r e -o rgan iza t ion t h e re i nt h es ame p e r iod . We m ay s ugge s t , t h e re fo re , t h a t t h ef o re -runne r s o f t h eG a l lo -Roman c ou r tya rd v i l la ss hou ld b es ough ti nt h o se a r ea s o f B e lg ic G au l w i th a s pec if ic c omb ina t ion o f c i rcum s tance s : s u i tab le e conom ic a nd s o c ia l c ond i t ion s s uch a s f e r t i le s o i l s a nd ap owe r fu l l a nded e l i te ( Duva l 1 984 ) , a nd a p a r t icu la r h i s to ry o f L a T ene c r i se s c u lm ina t ing i nt h eR oman c onque s t . O ve r ap e r iod o ft i me t h e se p r e s su re sm ay h ave l e dt of undamen ta lc hange si nt h e r u ra ls e t t lemen tp a t te rn ,w h ich w e re t h eb a s i so fs ub sequen t d eve lopmen t s , a l though n o t e ve rywhe r e i n B e lg ic G au l
g eo log ica l a nd t o pog raph ic z one s ( F ig . 6 ) . F rom e a s t t o w e s tt h e se a r e : ( A )t h eo pen C hampagne c ha lk land s ,( B )t h e z one o ft r an s i t ion b e tween t h ec ha lk a nd l i me s tone p l a t eau , ( C ) t h e v a l ley p rope r a nd t h e s l ope s a nd p l a teaux t ot h e n o r th a nd s ou th , ( D ) t h e s andy s o i l s a nd t e r race s a tt h e c onf luence o ft h er i ve r sA i sne a nd V e s le .T he n o r the rn a nd s ou the rn h a lve so fe a ch t r ans ec ta r e s t agge red b y 2km . t o m ax im ize t h e e a s t -we s t c ove rage o f t h e r i ve r v a l ley , e nab l ing a mo re c omp rehen s ive a s se s smen t o f h ow t h e s e t t lemen tp a t t e rn m igh tv a ry w i th d i s tance f r om t h em a jo r c en t re s a te i the r e nd o ft h e s t udy a r ea . U p t oA p r i l 1 990 , 2 4 .7 s q . km . h ad b een l i ne -wa lked a t 2 0m . i n te rva l s , m a in ly i nt r an sec t s A -C , f o l lowed u p i ns e lec t c a se s b y s y s tema t ic i n t en s ive c o l lec t ion o n s i te s l o ca ted d u r ing t h e i n i t ia lpha se . D e ta i led a na ly s i sh a sy e tt ob ec omp le t ed ,b u t p r e l im ina ry a s se s smen t i n d ica te s a n o ve ra l l d ens i ty o f 1 . 6 s i te sa nd 2 . 6 s c a t te r sp e rs q . km .T he b r eakdown b yp e r iod i sa sf o l low s : p robab ly l i on A ge : 1 8 s i te s a nd 2 2 s c a t te r s ; l a te I r on A ge a nd G a l lo -Roman : 2 4 s i te s a nd 3 0 s c a t t e r s ; e a r ly m ed ieva l : 1 3s i te sa nd 1 6s c a t te r s . S eve ra l l o ca t ion s d i sp lay s i gn i f ican t mu l t i -pe r iod a c t iv i ty , p o in t ing t o t h e e x i s tence o f p r ef e r red z one s o f s e t t lemen t ,b o th o nt h et e r ra ce sa nd p l a teaux e dge s .I ns ome a r ea st h ed en s i ty i ss u ch a st os ugge s tb o th s h i f t s f r om o ne l o ca t ion t oa no the rn ea rby a nd t h e c o -ex i s tence o fs i te so f d i f f e r ing f u nc t ion o rs t a tu s . O ne g ood e xamp le i st h e a r ea a r ound S oup i r , w he re a p rog ramme o f t r ia l e xcava t ion s t a r ted i n1 989 ( Ha se lg rove e t .a l . 1 990 ) . L a t eI r on A g ea nd E ar ly G a l lo -Roman A l though c onven t iona l w i sdom i st h a tt h e m o re f e r t i le b u t l e s s t r a c tab le l i mon s o i l so ft h ep l a teau t o p sw e re n o tf u l ly e xp lo i ted u n t i l t h e G a l lo -Roman p e r iod , t h e f i e ld -wa lk ing e v idence s ugge s t s t h a t t h e se a r ea s w e re a l ready b e ing e x ten s ive ly a nd i n c re a s ing ly u t i l ized d u r ing t h e l a te r I r on A ge a l though , a s t o day , s e t t lemen t a vo ided t h e e xpos ed p l a teau t o p i n f a vou r o f mo re s he l te red s l ope a nd e dge l o ca t ion s . T h i sa c co rd sw i th o t he ri n d ica t ion st h a tt h eP a r i s B a s in w a s a n a r ea o fa bove -ave rage p opu la t ion d en s i ty a t t h i s p e r iod ( Cae sa r d e B e l lo G a l l ic° , 1 .4 ; H a se lg rove 1 990a ) . F o r t h e f i r s t c en tu r ie s BC a nd AD , h oweve r , t h e s e t t lemen t r e co rd i s e s sen t ia l ly o ne o f d i scon t inu i ty ( Ha se lg rove 1 990b ) . T h is h as s eve ra l i n te re s t ing i mp l ica t ion s . Mo s ts i te s o ccup ied i nt h em id la te I r on A ge w e re a ppa ren t ly s ma l l , o pen f a rm s tead s ( f o r e xamp le : B eau r ieux , L e sG reve s ; J uv incou r t -e t -Dama ry , L e G ue d e Mauchamp ; B e r ry -au -Ba c , L e C hem in d e l aP eche r ie ) , w h ich , w i thou te xcep t ion , a ppea r t oh ave b e en a bandoned i nt h e l a te s e cond o r e a r ly f i r s t c en tu r ie s BC . A bou t t h i s g ene ra l p e r iod , m a jo r f o r t if ied n uc lea t ion s s u ch a sC onde s u r -Su ippe ,R e ims , V i l leneuve S t . G e rma in a nd P omm ie r s a ppea r . T he s t r ic to r thogona ll a you to ft h e se s i t e s ,a nd t h e i r f u nc t iona l s ubd iv i s ion i n to l i v ing a r ea s , w o rk shop s a nd a gr icu l tu ra l z one s s t rong ly i mp l ie s t h a t t h ey w e re p l an t ed s e t t lemen t s ,r a the rl i ke t h ef o r t i f ied n ew t own sa nd b a s t ide s o f t h e M idd le A ges , r a the r t h an t h e p roduc t o f o rgan ic g row th . A l l , e xcep tR e im s , w e re r e la t ive ly s ho r t l ived . O f t h e o t he r s o n ly P omm ie r s , a d ja cen t t oS o i ssons , w a s s t i l l i n ten s ive ly o ccup ied i nt h e A ugu s tan p e r iod ( Ha se lg rove 1 990b ; 1 990 c ) . T he r e i s t h u s l i t t le t o f a vou r i n te rp re t ing t h ese n uc lea t ions a s t h e a pex o f ad eve lop ing s e t t lemen t h i e ra rchy , a nd w e mus t t h e re fo re b e c o r re spond ing ly
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T he R oman iza t ion a nd d e -Roman iza t ion o f B e lg ic G au l . . .
w i th t h e se c ha rac te r i s t ic s d eve loped v i l la s . Many s uch a r ea s ,h oweve r ,d id . L a te G a l lo -Roman a nd E a r ly Med i eva l W igh tman h a s l i s t ed an umbe ro fc hange s a ppa ren t i nt h e r u ra l s e t t lemen tp a t te rn o fB e lg ic G au l f r om t h e l a te t h i rd c en tu ry w h ich s he a t t r ibu ted t ot h e i n c rea s ing p owe r o f g r ea tm agna te sa tt h ee xpen se o fl e s se rl a ndowne r sa nd t h e i r a b i l i ty t or e -o rgan ize p opu la t ion a nd l a nd scape , a nd t o p o l i t ica l a nd m i l i ta ry i n secu r i ty ( W igh tman 1 978 ; 1 985 , 2 43 -66 ) : an uc lea t ion o fs e t t lemen t ; ad rop i np opu la t ion ; a nd a n i n c rea s ing m i l i ta r iza t ion o f r u ra l s e t t lemen t a nd p opu la t ion , i n c lud ing t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f n ew d ef ended s i te s a sa tV i reux -Mo lha in ( A rdenne s ) , t h e r e -u se o fI r on A ge h i l l fo r t sa sa tV e rmand ( A i sne ) ,a nd t h ei n t roduc t ion o f aG e rman ic m i l i ta ry e l i te . T he s pe c ia l s t a tu s o f S o i s son s u nde r A eg id iu s a nd S yag r iu s h a sb een u s ed t oa r gue f o ra g r ea t e r u nde r ly ing s t ab i l i ty i np a t t er n s o fr u ra l s e t t lemen t a nd i nt h e l e ve l o fr u ra l p opu la t ion i n to t h e p o s t -Roman p e r iod t h an e l sewhe re i n B e lg ic G au l , w i th e s ta te s c onso l ida ted i n t h e f ou r th o r e a r ly f i f th c en tu r ie s b y p o t en ta te f am i l ie s s u ch a st h e S yag r i ip a s s ing mo re -o r le s s i n tac ti n to t h e h and s o fF rank i sh e l i te s o rt h e c hu r ch a f t e r C lov i s ' d ef ea t o f S yag r iu s i n AD 4 86 , c onven t iona l ly r ega rded a s t h e t e rm inus p os t q uem f o r a u tonomou s F rank i sh s e t t lemen ti nt h e S o i s sona i s . T he e x ten t t ow h ich p o s t -Roman s e t t lemen tc hange s i nB e lg ic G au l a s aw ho le c an b e a tr ibu ted t ow a r f a re a nd r a id ing o r t h e i mpa c t o f F rank i sh s e t t lemen t o r c onque s t i s n o t c l ea r , b u t i f c on t inu ing p o l i t ica l c on t ro l b y G a l lo -Roman p o ten ta te s d im in i shed t h e i r e f f ec t s i n t h e S o is son s a r ea o ne m igh t l eg i t ima te ly e xpec t t o r e cogn ize l a te G a l lo -Roman s e t t lemen tp a t te rn s a si mpo r tan td e te rm inan t s o ft h e p o s t R oman l a nd scape . T h i s p ropo s i t ion s hou ld b e t e s tab le a ga in s ta r chaeo log i ca le v idence ,a nd p rov ide s ac onven ien t b ackg round a ga ins t w h ich t o e xam ine t h e p re l im ina ry e v iden ce f r om f i e ld su rvey . I ts hou ld b e n o ted , h oweve r , t h a t t h e s pec ia l p o l i t ica l s t a tu s o f S o i s sons h a s r e cen t ly b een s t rong ly q ues t ioned ( J ame s 1 988a ; 1 988b ,7 0 1 ) . T he c u r ren t s t a te o f r e levan t a r chaeo log ica l k now ledge i n t h e A i sne V a l ley i sp a t chy . S eve ra l e a r ly m ed ieva l s e t t lemen ts i te sh ave b een e xcava t ed i nt h e s t udy a r ea s i nce 1 970 , a l l o n t h e t e r race g rave ls , n o tab ly Me rov ing ian -pe r iod f a rms tead s a tC onde -su r -A i sne a nd J uv incou r t -e t -Dama ry ( Baya rd 1 989a ) , a nd b o th Me rov ing ian a nd l a t e Me rov ing ian -Ca ro l ing ian s e t t lemen t s a t B e r ry -au -Bac . T he se h ave p rov ided e x t reme ly u se fu l i n fo rma t ion ,e sp ec ia l ly a bou ts t ruc tu re s ,b u ta sy e tt h e re a r e i n su f f i c ien td a ta t oa l low c onf iden tc ha ra c te r iza t ion o ft h e r a nge o fs e t t lemen tt y pe s , l e ta l one t oa dd re s sq ue s t ion s o f h i e ra r chy , o ro ff unc t iona l o re conom ic c hange . T he re i sa d ea r th ,a l so ,o fe xcava ted l a t eG a l lo -Roman s i t e s . T he re a r e , mo reove r , mo re s p ec i f ic p rob lems w h ich c on s t r a in t h ee x ten tt ow h ich s u r f a ce c o l lec t ion d a ta c an b e u sed t oe xam ine e a r ly m ed ieva l s e t t lemen ti nd e ta i l ,a nd t o c ompa r ei tw i th t h el a te G alo -Roman p i c tu re . T he re i sf a r m o re G a l lo -Roman p o t te ry i n t h e p lough so i l t h an e a r ly m ed ieva l , p r e sumab ly r ef le c t ing d i f f e rence s i ns upp ly a nd d i sca rd . T h i s c omp l ica tes d i ach ron ic c ompa r isons ( c f . M i l le t t 1 985 ) , a nd i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t e a r ly m ed ieva l s i te s , n o t a s c l ea r ly v i s ib le a r chaeo log ica l ly a s G a l lo -Roman o ne s , a r e u nde r rep re sen ted i no u r f i gu r e s . Ap a r t icu la r p rob lem h e re i st h e e v idence f r om C onde -su r -A i sne t h a t Me rov ing ian s e t t lemen t c e ram ic s , d i s t inc t f r om t h e
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c ha rac te r i s t ic f une ra ry w a re s , r ep re sen t ac on t inua t ion o f G a l lo -Roman t r ad i t ion s a nd m igh t e a s i ly b e m i s taken f o r G a l lo -Roman i ne xcava t ed a s semb lage s , l e ta l one i nf i e ld w a lk ing c o l le c t ions ( Cadoux 1 981 , 2 60 ) . Much w o rk r ema ins t o b e d one o n t h e d a t ing o f e a r ly m ed ieva l c e ram ic s ; t h e c h rono log ica l i mp rec i s ion c an s uppo r t o n ly c rude p e r iod iza t ion a nd c aus e s f u r the r u nce r ta in t ie s . T he p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t med ieva l a nd mode rn v i l lage s f o s s i l ize e l emen t s o f al a te G a l lo -Roman a nd e a r ly m ed ieva l l a nd scape ,a sh a sb een s ugge s ted f o rS omme ( Aga che 1 975 , 6 75 , 7 07 ; W igh tman 1 985 , 2 60 ) , w i th t h e i mp l ica t ions t h a tt h i sw ou ld h ave f o rf i e ld -wa lk ing ,a l so h a st ob eb or ne i nm ind . N one the le s s , s ome i n te re s t ing c onc lus ion s c an b e d rawn e ven f r om t h e p rov i s iona l r e su l t s o f f i e ld -wa lk ing . O f n i ne l a t e Emp i re s e t t lemen t s i d en t if ied , f ou r h ave e v idence f o r e a r ly m ed ieva l o ccupa t ion , b u t o n ly o ne s ur v ive s u n t i l t h e e nd o ft h ef i r s tm i l lenn ium AD . F ou ro f 1 2 e a r ly m ed ieva l s e t t lemen t s i te s h ave n o e v idence f o r p rev iou s G a l lo -Roman a c t iv i ty , a nd i nf i ve f u r the r c a se s G a l lo -Roman m a t e r ia l c anno tb e d a ted c l ose ly e nough t o d emon s t ra te t h ep robab i l i ty o fc on t inuou so ccupa t ion r a the r t h an l a t e rr e -u se o ft h es i te .O ft h ef ou re a r l ie r Me rov ing ian s e t t lemen t s k nown f r om e xcava t ion , t wo a ppea r t o b e e n t i re ly n ew s i te s . S ix o f 1 h i gh m ed ieva l s e t t lemen t s a l so a ppea r t ob e n ew f ounda t ion s . E ven i fa l l 1 7 mode rn v i l lage s a nd h am le t s w i th in t h e s u rvey a r ea h ave b een c on t inuou s ly o ccup ied s i nce t h e G a l lo -Roman p e r iod , i ti s n one the le s s c l ea r t h a t c on f igu ra t ions o f r u ra l s e t t lemen t h ave n o tb een w ho l ly s t a t i c s i nce t h ef ou r th c en tu ry . S ub s tan t ia l ly f ewe re a r ly m ed ieva l s i te s a r e k nown t h an G a l lo -Roman . T he o ve ra l l d en s i ty o f G a l lo -Roman s e t t lemen t s d e tec ted b y f i e ld -wa lk ing i sc . 1p e r s q . k m . , w h i le t h a to fe a r ly m ed ieva l s e t t lemen t s i sc . 1p e r 1 . 9 s q . km . E ven a l low ing f o r t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t e a r ly m ed ieva l s i te sa r eu nd e r rep re sen ted ,t h i sa r gue sf o r as ub s tan t ia ld rop i nt h e r u ra l p opu la t ion i nt h e p o s t -Roman p e r iod , t h ough e xa c t ly w hen i su nc lea r . T he p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e l owe r d ens i ty o f e a r ly m ed ieva l s i te s m igh t b e e xp la ined b y a n uc lea t ion o f s e t t lemen t i sn o t s uppo r t ed b y t h e f i e ld w a lk ing d a ta ,a nd t h ee v idence f r om t h ef ew e xcava t ed s i t e s s ugge s t s t h a td i spe r sed f a rms t ead s o rh am le t s a r e am a jo r f e a tu re o ft h e Me rov ing ian -pe r iod l a nd s cape . T he d rop i n t h en umbe ro fs e t t lemen t s i s mo s tm a rked o n t h ep l a t eaux , w he re o n ly o ne s i gn if i can tc oncen t ra t ion o fe a r ly m ed ieva l ma te r ia l i s k nown a ga ins t f i ve G a l lo -Roman . I f t h e a g r icu l tu ra le xp lo i ta t ion o ft h ep l a teaux i nt h el a te l i on A ge a nd G a l lo -Roman p e r iod sg enu ine ly r ef l ec t s ah i gh d en s i ty o fp opu la t ion i nt h er e g ion , t h ed i sp ropo r t iona te s c a r c i ty o f e a r ly m ed ieva ls e t t lemen t so nt h ep l a teaux m ay c o r robo ra t e ap o s t -Roman d e c l ine i np opu la t ion d en s i ty . T h r ee o ft h ef ou rl a te Emp i r es i t e sw i th e v idence f o r e a r ly m ed ieva l a c t iv i ty a r e a mong t h e mo s t e x tens ive f ound , a t8 ha . -13ha . T he l a rge s t , w h ich h a s e v idence f o r o ccupa t ion i n to t h e h i gh m ed ieva l p e r iod , i so ne o f t h e s i te sa r ound t h e v i l lage o fS oup i r , l i eu -d i t L aC hap e l le d e S t . P ie r re . T he w ide r c on tex t o f t h i s s i te i sk nown f r om f i e ld -wa lk ing a nd t r i a le xcava t ion ( F ig .7 ;H a se lg rove e t .a / . 1 990 ) . T h i ss t rong ly s ugge s t s al o ca l p a t te rn o fs ma l l sca le s h if t s o fs e t t lemen t s i te w i th in t h e s ame g ene ra l l o ca t ion , t h et e r ra ce g r ave l s ,w h i ch c hanged i nt h el a te G a l lo -Roman p e r iod w i th t h ee s tab l i shmen to n t h e l owe rv a l ley s l ope o f t h e s i te a tC hape l le d e S t . P i e r re . T h i s i n t u rn s u rv ived u n t i l s e t t lemen t s h i f ted t o t h e s i t e o f t h e p res en t v i l lage
C . C . H a se lg rove a nd C . S cu l l
( s t radd l ing t h el owe rs l ope sa nd t e r ra ce )s ome t ime b e fo re o r d u r ing t h e t we l f th c en tu ry , w hen t h e p re sen t c hu r ch w a s b u i l t . B o th t h e f i e ld -wa lk ing a s semb lage f r om C hape l le d e S t . P ie r re a nd i t s l o ngev i ty s ugge s t i mpo r tance : al a te G a l lo -Roman v i l la ,p e rhap s , w h ich r e ta ined i t s s t a tu s a sa m agna te f a rm t h roughou t t h e e a r ly m ed ieva l p e r iod . T he e me rgence o fa n e x ten s ive h i ghe r -s ta tu s s e t t lemen t u nde r t h el a te Emp i re w ou ld f i tw el w i th t h em ode lo fs e t t lemen t n uc lea t ion a nd c hang ing s oc ia l r e la t ion s p ropo sed b y W igh tman . O the r e x ten s ive l a te G a l lo -Roman s i te s m igh t a l so b es e en i nt h i sc on tex t ,a nd t h ee xcava ted s e t t lemen ta t B eau r ieux , L e s G reve s , w h ich f a i l s i nt h e f ou r th c en tu ry , c ou ld b e s e en a s ac a sua l ty o ft h i s p roce s s . I tw ou ld b e a m i s t ake ,h oweve r ,t oo ve r -empha s ize t h en u c lea t ion o fr u ra l s e t t lemen t a t t h is t ime . S ca t te r s o f l a te G a l lo -Roman m a te r ia l o ve r 2 ha . -3ha . a r e p e rhap s b e s t i n te rp re ted a s s i ng le f a rms o rh am le t s , a nd s u ch as e t t lemen t ,a bandoned i nt h e l a te f ou r th o re a r ly f i f th c en tu ry , h a sb een e xcava ted a tJ uv incou r t -e t -Dama ry ( Baya rd 1 989b ) . F i e ld -wa lk ing h a s a l so r e vea led o t he r e xamp le s o f l o ng te rm s h if t s o f s e t t lemen t s i te w i th in a r e la t ive ly c onf ined a r ea . A tB raye -en -Laonno i s( F ig . 8 ) ,a ne x t en s ive c oncen t ra t ion o f m a te r ia l s pann ing t h e l a te l i on A ge t o e a r ly m ed ieva l ( a nd i n c lud ing ac eme te ry , i n d ica ted b y h uman b one )i sk nown a d jacen tt o ad i s c re te e a r ly m ed ieva l h i gh m ed ieva ls i te ,i t se l fa d ja cen tt ot h e mode rn v ilage ;a l l a r e o n t h e l owe r v a l ley s l ope s . A t V ie i l -A r cy ( F ig . 8 ) , o n t h e t e r race g rave l s s ou th o f t h e r i ve r A isne , d i sc re te c on cen t ra t ion so fP reh i s to r ic ,G alo -Roman ,e a r ly m ed ieva l a nd h i gh m ed ieva l m a te r ia l s ugge s t al o ng a nd c omp lex s equence o f s e t t lemen t mob i l i ty a nd mu ta t ion . T he e xcava ted s e t t lemen t s a tB e r ry -au -Bac a ppea r t oc on f i rm s ma l l sca le s h if t so fs e t t lemen ts i te d u r ing t h e Me rov ing ian p e r iod , a nd a l so s ugge s t an uc lea t ion o fs e t t lemen t i nt h e l a te Me rov ing ian -Ca ro l ing ian p e r iod . A c hange i n s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s o r ar e -o rgan iza t ion o f t h e l a nd scape t owa rd s t h ee nd o ft h e f i r s tm ilenn ium AD w ou ld e xp la in t h e m a rked d i scon t inu i ty b e tween b o th l a te G a l lo -Roman a nd e a r ly m ed ieva l s e t t lemen t s o n t h e o ne h and a nd h i gh m ed ieva ls e t t lemen t so nt h eo t he r . A l though t h e s t udy i ss t i l l i ni t sp r e l im ina ry s t age s , s ome c l ea r p o in t s e me rge . N e i the r t h e l e ve l o f r u ra l p opu la t ion n o rp a t t er n s o fr u ra l s e t t lemen tr ema ined s t a t ic f r om t h e l a te Emp i re t ot h e h i gh M idd le A ge s , a nd i ti s c l ea rt h a tf a c to r sg ove rn ing b o th t h em ob i l i ty o fi n d iv idua l s e t t lemen t s a nd t h e l o ng te rm r hy thm s o f n uc lea t ion a nd d i spe r s ion h ave t ob e t a ken i n to a c coun t i ne xp la in ing t h e d eve lopmen to ft h ep re -f euda l a nd f e uda l l a nd scape s . T he o ccu r r en ce o fe a r ly m ed ieva lm a t e r ia lo nt h em o r ee x ten s ive l a te G a l lo -Roman s i te s , e spe c ia l ly a tS oup i r , m ay s ugge s t t h a t l o ng te rm s t ab i l i ty o f l o ca t ion a nd s t a tus i s mo re l i ke ly t ob e f ound a tt h e h i ghe r l e ve l s o f t h e s e t t lemen t h i e ra r chy . T he s i tua t ion a tC hapele d eS t . P i e r re m ay w e l l b e e xcep t iona l , h oweve r , a nd i na ny c a se t h e l o ng la s t ing i mpo r tance o f as i ng le s e t t lemen tn eed n o ti mp ly t h a tt h e re w a s n o c hange o f o wne r sh ip , n o r t h a t e s ta te h o ld ings o r o t he re l emen t so ft h el a nd scape r ema in ed u na l t e red . T ran s i t ion t o a mo re d i spe r sed p a t ter n o f s ma l le r a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lemen t sd u r ing t h e i mmed ia te p o s t -Roman p e r iod ( i ft h i sg ene ra l iza t ion c an b ea l lowed o nt h eb a s i so f t h es c an ty e v idence a va i lab le ) ,m igh ts ugge s t ar u ra ls o c ie ty b a sed m o re o n s ma l le r , mo re s e lf suff ic ien t u n i t s t h an v i l lage o re s ta t e c ommun i t ie s . T h i s c ou ld b e e xp la ined b y i n vok ing f r ee G e rman ic s e t t le r s w i th r i gh t s d en ied t h et i ed
1 4
G a l lo -Roman p ea san t ry , a nd t h e a ppea rance o f n ew s t ruc tu ra lt y pe s ,i n c lud ing G rubenhäu ser ,i nt h es e t t lemen t r e co rd i sc on s i s ten t w i th t h e c eme te ry e v idence f o r n ew G e rman ic e l emen t s i n t h e r u ra l p opu la t ion . T he re i sn o e v idence , h oweve r , t h a tc hange c an b e a tr ibu t ed s o le ly t o i mm ig ran t g roups , a nd t herefo re c omp lemen ta ry e xp lana t ions mu s t a l so b e s ough t . D eve lopmen t s p r e c ip i ta ted b yt h es pe c if i cm i l i ta ry a nd p ol i t ica lc ond i t ion s o f t h e l a te Emp i re n eed n o t h ave s u rv ived t h e i r p a s s ing ; p r ima r i ly d e f en s ive a r rangemen t s ,t h e re fo re ,m ay h ave b e en r e la t ive ly s ho r t l ived ,a l though t h e re i se v id ence t os ugge s t t h a t s ome d e f ended c en t re s , s uch a sV i r eux - Mo lha in , m ay h ave r ema ined f oc i f o r as u r round ing a r ea l o ng a f t e rt h e i r m i l i ta ry p opu la t ion h ad d i spe r sed . A l te red e conom ic c ond i t ion s , e spe c ia l ly t h e c on t rac t ion o f t h e ma rke t f o r a g r icu l tu ra l s u rp lu s , w ou ld r educe t h e i n cen t ive f o r o r gan ized p rodu c t ion o f ap rof i tab le s u rp lu so nr u ra le s ta t e s . C o r re spond ing c hange si nt h ee conom ic a nd s o c ia lf u nc t ion o f l a nd , w i th i n c rea s ing e mpha s i s u pon i t s i mpo r tance a s t h eb a s i so fs ub s i s tence f o rt h ep oo ra nd s t a tu s f o rt h er i ch ( W ickham 1 984 ; W igh tman 1 985 , 3 10 ) ,m igh tt h e re fo r eb e ap l au s ib le c on t ex tf o rt h ee s tab l i shmen to f mo re d i sp e r sed , s e lf -suf f ic ien t h o ld ings w i th in e s ta te s w hose t i ed p opu la t ion h ad p r ev iou s ly b een c oncen t ra t ed i nf ewe rl a rge r s e t t lemen t s . T he p os s ib il i ty t h a t t h e e mpha s i s o fF rank i sh o ve r lo rd sh ip c hanged f r om t r ibu ta ry r i gh t s t o d i rec t l a ndho ld ing d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f t h e Me rov ing ian p e r iod h a s t ob e c on s ide r ed a s af a c to r t h a t m ay h ave i n vo lved a f u r the rr e -o rgan iza t ion o ft h el a nd scape ( c f .T heuw s 1 990 ) . As h i f tt owa rd sl e s si n ten s ive , mo re s ub s i s t ence -o r ien ta t ed f a rm ing m igh t a l so b e a ccompan ied b y an a tu ra l d rop i n p opu la t ion o ve r s eve ra l g ene ra t ions ( p e rhap s i n vo lv ing c u l tu ra l c hange s o r a dap ta t ions s uch a s h i ghe r a ge s o f m a r r iag e ) ,w i thou tp r e c ip i ta t ing t h el o ng te rm d emog raph i c a nd e conom ic s t re s s t h a ti ss ome t ime s h e ld t oc ha rac t e r ize t h ee a r ly M idd le A ge s ( c f . C hape lo ta nd F o s s ie r 1 985 , 1 5 2 6 ) . H oweve r , mo re d e ta i led c ompa ra t ive d a ta i sr e qu i r ed f r om f i e ld -su r vey a nd e xcava t ion b e fo re s u ch h ypo the se s c an b e t e s ted a dequa te ly ; u l t ima te ly , t o o , t h e s t udy m u s t a l so i n teg ra te c eme te ry d a ta a nd d ocumen ta ry e v idence ;I n t h e m ean t ime w e a r e t a k ing o n ly t h e f i r s t s t ep s t owa rd s d e f in ing , l e t a l one e xp la in ing i n d e t a i l , t h e c hang ing b a lance b e tween c on t inu i ty a nd c hange i nt h e l a te R oman a nd e a r ly m ed ieva ls e t t lemen tr e co rd . A cknow ledgements T hank s a r e d ue t oD r . E .J ame s , D r . J .E van s a nd P ame la L ow the r , w ho r e ad a nd c ommen ted u pon d ra f t s o f t h i s p ape r ;a nd t oY vonne B eadne l l ,R obe r tB radb rook a nd P am L ow the r w ho p r epa red r e spec t ive ly F igu r e s 1a nd 6 ,2 5 , a nd 7 .
T he R oman iza t ion a nd d e -Roman iza t ion o f B e lg ic G au l . . .
R ef erences AGACHE ,R . 1 975 : L ac ampagne äl ' epoque r oma ine d an s l e s g rande s p la ine s d u n o rd d e l a F rance d ' ap re s l e s p ho tog raph ie s a e r ienne s . I nT empo r in i , H . a nd H aa se W . ( e d s . )A uf s t ieg u nd N ied ergang d er r öm i schen W e l t 2 4 , ( Be r l in )6 58 -713 .
HASELGROVE ,C .C . 1 990b : L a te rI r on A ge s e t t lemen ti n t h e A i sne V a l ley : s ome c u r ren tp rob lems a nd h ypo the se s . I n D uva l , A . , L e B ihan , J . -P . , a nd Menez , Y . ( e d s . ) L es G au lo i sd 'Armor iqu e ( Quünpe r ,A c te sd ux l ec oloque d e l ' A .F .E .A .F 1 988 , R evue A rcheo log ique d e l ' Oue s t s upp lemen t3 )2 49 -259 .
AGACHE , R . 1 978 : L a S omme p rg -roma ine e tr oma ine d ' ap r d sl e sp rospec t ion sa g r ienn e s ab as s ea l t i tud e( Am ien s ) .
HASELGROVE , C .C . 1 990c : A s ys tema t ic s u r face c o l lec t ion a t P omm ie r s . U n iver s i t ies o f Durham a nd N ewcas t le A rchaeo log ica lR epor t sf or 1 989 ( Du rham ) 1 3 1 5
BAYARD ,D . 1 986 :L aP i ca rd ie d an sl ' An t iqu i te t a rd ive .I n L aP i ca rd i e :b e r ceau d el aF ran c e( Am ien s ) . BAYARD , D . 1 989a : L e v i l lage m e rov ing ien d u ' Gue d e Mauchamp ' aJ uv incou r t -e t -Dama ry .I nA r chdo log i e :g rand s t r a vaux e nP ica rd ie :A u to rou t eA 26 ( Am ien s ) 1 0 1 -110 .
HASELGROVE , C .C . , a nd LO WTHER , P . 1 988 : E xcava t ion sa tB eau r ieux L e sG reve s , D epa r temen tA i sne , 1 987 . U n ivers i t ies o f Durham a nd N ewcas t le A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t sf or 1 987 ( Du rham )2 7 -36 .
BAYARD , D . 1 898b : Une p e t i te f e rme g a l lo roma ine e t ab l ie a ub o rd d el ' A i sne . I nA rchgo log ie : g rand s t r avaux e nP i ca rd ie :A u torou t eA 26 ( Am ien s )9 6 -7 .
HASELGROVE , C .C . , LO WTHER , P . , a nd S CULL , C . J . 1 990 : E xp lo ra to ry e xcava t ions a t S oup i r , L e P a rc , U n iver s i t ies o f Du rham a nd N ewcas t le A rchaeo log ica l R epor t sf o r1 989 ( Du rham ) 3 5 -39 .
BLANCHET , J . -C . , BUCHSENSCHUTZ , 0 . , a nd MEN IEL , P . 1 983 : L a ma i son d e L a T ene moyenne d e V e rbe r ie ( O i se )' L eB u i s son C amp in ' .R evue A r chgo log ique d eP i card i e 1 ,9 6 -126 .
J A MES ,E . 1 988a : C h i lde r ic , S yag r iu s e tl ad i spa r i t ion d u R oyaume d eS o i s son s .R evue A r chgo log ique d eP ica rd i e3 4 ,9 12 .
BOUREUX , M . 1 974 :P rospec t ion sa d r ienn es d an sl ' A i sne e n1 97 4 :L aonno i s ,S o i s sona i se tT ard eno i s( Laon ) .
J A MES ,E . 1 988b : T he F rank s( Oxfo rd ) .
BULLOUGH , D . 1 983 : B ur ia l , c ommun i ty a nd b e l ie f . I n Wo rma ld ,P .e ta l . ( e d s . ) ,I d ea la nd r ea l i ty i nF rank i sh a nd A ng lo -Saxon s oc ie ty ( Oxfo rd ) 1 77 -20 1 . BURNHAM , B . 1 986 : T he o r ig ins o f R omano -B r i t i sh s ma l lt own s . O x f ord J ou rna lo fA r chaeo logy 5 2 , 1 85 -203 .
J ONES , M .K . 1 981 : T he d eve lopmen t o fc r op h u sband ry . I nJ one s , M .K . a nd D imb leby , G . ( e d s . ) , T he e nv i ronmen t o fm an ( Oxfo rd , B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s 8 7 ) 9 5 1 27 .
CADOUX , J . -L . 1 981 : I n fo rma t ions a r cheo log ique s : P i ca rd ie .G a l l ia 3 9 ,2 57 -288 .
L EACH , E .R . 1 973 : C onc lud ing a dd re s s . I n R enf rew , C . ( e d . ) ,T he e xp lana t ion o fc u l tu r ec hange ( London )7 6 1 -771 .
CHAPELOT , J .a nd FOSSEER , R . 1 985 : T he v i l lage a nd h ou s ei nt h eM idd le A ges ( London ) .
M ILLETT , M . 1 985 : F ie ld s u rvey c a l ib ra t ion : a c on t r ibu t ion . I n H a se lg rove , C .C . , M i l le t t , M . , a nd S m i th , I .M . ( e d s . ) , A rchaeo logy f rom t h e P loughso i l ( She ff ie ld , D ep t .o fP reh i s to ry a nd A r chaeo logy )3 1 -7 .
COLL IS , J .1 982 : G radua l g row th a nd s udden c hange u rban iza t ion i n t empe ra te E u rope . I n R enf rew , C . a nd S hennan , S . ( e d s . ) , R ank ing , r e source a nd e xchange ( C amb r idge )7 3 -77 . COLL IS ,J .1 984 : O pp ida : e ar l ie s tt owns n or th o ft h eA lp s ( She ff ie ld ,D ep t .o fP r eh i s to ry a nd A r chaeo logy ) .
PARENT , R . 1 972 : L e p eup lemen t p r eh i s to r ique e n t r e l a Ma rne e t l ' A isne ( 2 ) . T ravaux d e l ' Ins t i tu t d 'Ar t P rgh i s to r ique 1 4( Un ive r s i t ed eT ou lou se le -M i ra i le ) .. P ILET ,C . 1 980 :L an g cropo le d eF rgnouv i l le :i t ud ed ' un e p opu la t ion d e l af i n d u 3 e c ll af i n d u 7 e s i èc le ( Oxfo rd , B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t s8 6 ) .
DEMOULE , J P . a nd I LETT , M . 1 985 : F i r s t m i l lenn ium s e t t lemen ta nd s o c ie ty i nn o r the rn F rance : ac a s es t udy f r om t h e A i sne V a l ley . I nC hamp ion , T .C . a nd Megaw J .V .S . ( e d s . ) , S e t t lemen t a nd s oc ie ty : a sp ec t s o fw e s t E u ropean p reh i s tory i n t h ef i r s t m i l lenn ium B .C . ( Le ice s te r ) 1 93 2 2 1 .
SM ITH , J .T . 1 978 : V i l la s a s ak ey t os o c ia l s t ruc tu re . I n T odd , M . ( ed . ) , S tud ies i n t h e R oman -Br i t i sh V i l la ( Le i ce s t e r ) 1 49 -185 . THEU WS , F .C .W .J . 1 990 : C en t re a nd p e r iphe ry i n N o r the rn A u s t ra s ia ( 6 th -8 th c en tu r ie s ) : a n a r chaeo log ica l p e r spec t ive . I n B e s teman , J .C . e ta l . ( e d s . ) , Med ieva l a r cha eo logy i nt h eN e ther land s( A s sen )4 1 -69 .
DURAND , M . 1 988 : C ime t ie re s e th ab i ta t s : l ' eme rgence d u v i l lage a u s ud -oue s t d u d epa r temen t d e l ' O i se . R evue A r chg o log ique d eP i ca rd ie 3 4 , 1 63 -170 .
WICKHAM , C . 1 984 : T he o t he r t r ans i t ion : f r om t h e a nc ien tw o r ld t of e uda l i sm .P a s ta nd P r e s en t 1 03 ,3 36 .
DUVAL , A . 1 984 : R eg iona l g roup s i nw e s te rn F rance . I n Ma c r eady , S .a nd T homp son , F .H . ( e d s . ) , C ros s -Channe l T rad eb e tw een G au la nd B r i ta in i nt h eP r e -Roman I r on A ge ( London ,S o c ie ty o fA n t iqua r ie sO c ca s iona lP ape r4 )7 8 -9 1 .
WIGHT MAN , E .M . 1 978 : No r th -ea s te rn G au l i n l a te a n t iqu i ty : t h e t e s t imony o fs e t t lemen tp a t t e rn s i na n a ge o f t r an s i t ion .B er ich t en R .O .B 2 8 , 2 41 -250 .
HASELGROVE ,C .C . 1 990a : T he R oman i sa t ion o fB e lg ic G au l : a r chaeo log ica l p e r spec t ive s . I n B lagg T .F .C . a nd M i l le t t M . ( e d s . ) , T he E ar ly R oman Emp i re i n t h e W es t ( Ox fo rd )4 5 -71 .
W IGHTMAN ,E .M . 1 985 : G a l l ia B e lg i ca ( London ) . YOUNG , B .K . 1 986 : E xemp le a r is toc ra t ique e t m ode f une ra i re d ans l aG au le m e rov ing ienne . A nna le s : E con . S oc . -C iv 4 1 , 3 79 -407 .
1 5
SE INE-MAR IT I ME
C I r e
C O
C D . o
•B eauva i
s ' ARDENNES
E ar ly Med ieva l
••
1 6 •
•
0
c , • •
0
L a te I r on A ge E =75
5 0-
C a tego r ies 1N uc lea ted S e t t lemen t 2R u ra l S e t t lemen t 3C eme te r y 4R e l ig ious S i te 5U nca tego r ized
2
3
4
5
G a l lo -Roman 0 / 0
C a tegor ies
E =449
1P ub l ic T own 2N uc lea ted S e t t lemen t 3V i l la 4R u ra l S e t t lemen t 5C eme ter y 6R e l ig ious S i te 7I n dus t r ia l S i te 8F or t 9U nca tego r ized
3 0-
1
2
3
4
5
7
6
8
9
E a r ly Med ieva l 0 / 0
E = 157
8 0—
C a tegor ies 1P ub l ic T own 2R u ra lS e t t lemen t 3C eme ter y 4C hu rch o rM onas ter y 5U nca tego r ized
7 06 05 04 0-
F igure 2 :P ropor t ion so fl a t eI r on A ge , G a l lo R oman a nd e a r ly m ed ie va ls i t e type sr epor ted e xca va t ed i nn or the rn F rance :1 970 -1986 . ( A r two rk : R . B r adb rook )
3 0— 2 01 00— 1
2
3
4
5 1 7
a E =73
7 0—
7 0-
6 0—
6 0-
5 0—
5 0-
4 0-
4 0-
3 0—
3 0-
2 0-
2 0-
1 0—
1 0—
0—
1
2
3
L a te I r on Age
0
3
4
5
6
7
E ar ly G a l lo -Roman
C a tego r ies 1E nds L a T äne I / 1 1 1a ( i e b y 7 0 /60 BC )
2E nds L a T öne I l b ( i e b y3 0 /20 BC ) 3O ccup ied c on t inuous ly ( 100 BC -AD 1 00+ ) 4O ccup ied f r om L a T äne I l b ( i ef r om 7 0 /60 -3 0 /20 B C ) 5F ounded u nde rA ugus tus ( i e 3 0 /20 BC -AD 1 0 /20 ) 6F ounded cAD 1 0 /20 -cAD 1 00 7F ounded cAD 1 00 -cAD 2 00
F igure 3 :S i te c on t inu i ty /d i scon t inu i ty f rom t h es econd c en tury BC t oc . AD 2 00 . H i s togram ss how : ( a )s i te a bandonmen td ur ing L a TMe I I ; ( b )p er iod o ffo unda t ion o fG a l lo -Roman s i te st oc . AD 2 00 .A l ls i te types a re i n c luded . ( A r two rk : R .Bradb rook )
S e t t lemen ts ( e xc lud ing p ub l ic t owns ) % 8 0—
E =99
7 0-
%
1 =145
6 0-
6 05 04 03 02 01 0-
1
o -
2
E ar ly Emp i re
2
3
L a te Emp i re C a tegor ies 1E nds E a r ly E mp i re 2E a r ly E mp i re -La te E mp i re 3B eg ins L a te E mp i re
C eme te r ies %
i =31
8 0-
0 / 0
8 0-
1 =34
7 06 05 04 03 02 01 0-
1
o -
2
E a r ly Emp i re
2
3
L a te Emp i re
F igu re 4 :S i t ec on t inu i t y /d i scon t inu i ty f rom e ar ly Emp ire t ol a t e Emp i re . ( A r two rk : R . B radb rook ) 1 9
S e t t lemen ts ( exc lud ing p ub l ic t owns ) %
9 0-
1 , =99 %
8 0-
8 0-
7 0-
7 0-
6 0-
6 0-
5 0-
5 0-
4 0-
4 0-
3 0-
3 0-
2 0-
2 0-
1 0-
1 0-
0-
1
0 -
2
E . 20
2
3
E a r ly Med ieva l
L a te Emp i re
C a tego r ies 1E nds L a te Emp i re 2L a te Emp i re -Ea r ly M ed ieva l 3B eg ins E a r ly M ed ieva l
C eme te r ies %
E = 114
9 08 0—
%
1 , = -34
7 0-
7 0-
6 0-
6 0—
5 0-
5 0-
4 0-
4 0—
3 0-
3 0—
2 0-
2 0—
1 0-
1 0—
0 -
1
0—
2
2
3
E a r ly M ed ieva l
L a te Emp i re
F igu r e5 :S i t ec on t inu i ty /d i scon t inu i ty f rom l a t e Emp i r et oe a r l ym ed ie va l . ( A r two rk : R . B r adb rook ) 2 0
B RUSSELS e
1 f bConchi-sur-A isne
e n-Laonn
0
L and o ver 1 00m
I 0
s a l
1 w
0 0
•
I I 3
c
I I
2 1 a E
5c 7 )
/ Sur face c oncen tra t ion O ld g rave l p i t Co l lec t ion u n it •
1 989 T r ia l e xcavat ions
I I r on Age I
Ga l lo-Ro man
I I
P reh is tor ic , Ga l lo-Roman E ar ly Med ieva l
I V
L a te I r on A ge/Ear ly Ga l lo-Ro man
S oup ir
t
L e P a rc
C eme te ry t 1 4
1 5
48
1 8
1 7
2 9
28
F igu r e7 : Ma jor s t uf ace c oncen t ra t ion so fa r cha eo log ica lm a t er ia la round S oup i r . ( D raw ing : P .L ow the r )
2 2
8
0
2 3
Co l lect ion U n i t
Z. 4 1 1 -
' Oppor tun i ty ' o r ' Oppo s i t ion ' i n R oman Gau l? J .D r inkwa t e ra nd H .V e r t e t e xp la ined a st h eo u t come o fe i the r an ega t ive o r ap o s i t ive r e spon se t oc hanged m i l i ta ry a nd p o l i t ica l c i r cums tance s . O n t h e o ne h and , w e m igh t e nv i sage a l e ade r les s a nd d emo ra l i sed G a l l ic p opu la t ion r e s ign ing i t se l fs ubm i s s ive ly t ot h ef a c to fc onque s t .R ome , h av ing d e s t royed t h e f l owe r o f t h e i n dependen t G a l l ic n ob i l i ty i nb a t t le , t o ok c a re t o n eu t ra l ize o bv iou s r ema in ing p o ten t ia lf oc i o fr e s i s tance ( f o r e xamp le , t h e d ru id s : D r inkwa te r 1 983 , 3 80 , a nd t e r ro r ized i n to i mpo tence a l lw ho s ub sequen t ly s howed a ny i n c l ina t ion t od i spu te h e r r u le ( f o re xamp le , t h e T reve ran s ena to r ia lc l a s s ,w h ich f l ed e nm as se o ve rt h eR h ine i n AD 7 0 : T a c i tu s ,H i s tor iae 5 . 19 ) .T he i mpe r ia lp owe rw a st h en a b le t o i mpose i t s o wn c u l tu re a nd v a lue s , t h rough t h e s up reme ly e f f ic ien tm ed ium o fi t so wn l a nguage , o n t h o se l e ade r s o fG a l l ic s o c ie ty w ho s u rv ived ( s ee n ow L e jeune 1 988 , f o r t h e s peedy d i sappea rance o f C e l t ic f r om i n sc r ip t ion s ) . Ou t o f t h i s p roce s s wou ld e me rge t h e u ncon sc iou s a ccep tance b y t h e c onque red o f t h e R oman w o r ld -v iew , w i th t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f t h e Emp i re b e ing r e cogn ized ( by p agan a nd C h r i s t ian a l ike : c f . O r igen , C on tra C e lsum 2 . 30 ) a s ' t he e nd o f h i s to ry ' , a nd t h e r e jec t ion , l e t a l one t h e c o l lap se , o f t h a t Emp i re a s a n i mpo s s ib i l i ty a cco rd ing t ob o th n a tu ra la nd d i v ine l aw . O n t h eo t he rh and , w h i le a ccep t ing t h a t , i nt h e f i r s t i n s tance , t h e G au l s r e s igned t h emse lve s t o t h e f a c t o f c onque s t b e cau se t h ey h ad n o c ho ice i n t h e m a t te r , w e m igh t a r gue t h a t t h ey s oon b egan t oa pp re c ia te t h a t t h e re w e re a dvan tage s t o b e g a ined f r om i t : t h a t a s i mpe r ia l s ub jec t s t h ey m igh t e n joy b enef i t s n o t a va i lab le t o o u t s ide r s . I ns ho r t , w em igh tc oncede t h a t' o ppo s i t ion ' w a s r ende red a l e s s f a vou red o p t ion b y t h e p re sence o f ' o ppo r tun i ty ' .
Oppos it ion T he re c an b e n o d oub t t h a t R ome a cqu i red mo s t o f h e r p o s se s s ion s i n n o r th -we s t E u rope b y r i gh t o f c onque s t . N o r the rn G au l ,f o rs u r e ,w a st a ken a nd s ubdued b ym i l i ta ry f o rce , a ga in s tt h ew i she s o ft h em a jo r i ty o fi t s i n hab i tan t s . I tw ou ld , t h e refo re , b e l e g i t ima t e t oe xpe c t s ome s i gn o f s ub sequen t r e s i s tance t o R oman r u le b y t h e i n d igenou s p opu la t ion o f t h i s c oun t ry , m an i f e s t ing i t se lf a ti t s mo s t e x t r eme i na rmed r ebel ion . H oweve r , a f te r V e rc inge to r ix ' s G rea t R evo l t o f5 2 BC w e e ncoun te r o dd ly f ew o pen r e vo l t s , a nd n one t h a t m ay b e d esc r ibed a s p o s ing a s i gn i f ican t t h rea t t o t h e t e r r i to r ia l i n teg r i ty o f t h e R oman Emp i re . O f t h e f ou r i n c iden t st h a ti mmed ia te ly s p r ing t om ind : t h er i s ing o f AD 2 1 w a sl o ca l ized ,i l -o rgan ized a nd f a ta l ly d i v ided ;V index ' s d ec la ra t ion a ga in s tN e ro , i n AD 6 8 , a r o se o u to fi mpe r ia l , n o t s pec if ica l ly G a l l ic , d i scon ten t w i th t h i s e mpe ro r ' s c onduc t ; t h eI mper ium G a l l ia rum o f AD 6 9 / 70 w a sa ga in u nde rm ined b y i n t e r -Ga l l ic r i va l ry , a nd m ay a nyway h ave b een mo re o f aR oman c on s t ruc t t h an a n a u then t ic G a l l ic m ovemen t ;a nd ,m uch l a te r ,t h e' Gal ic Emp i re 'o f AD 2 60 2 74 w a s c l ea r ly a r e ac t ion a ga in s t R oman n eg le c t , n o t R oman c on t ro l ( D r inkwa te r 1 983 , 2 8f , 4 0f a nd 4 5f ; D r inkwa te r 1 987 , 2 43f ; U rban 1 985 ) . I ndeed , i ti st ob e n o t ed t h a t b y t h e f i f th c en tu ry , w hen G e rman ic i n va s ion a nd c h ron ic c i v i l w a r p rov ided b o th t h e o ppo r tun i ty a nd , m o r eove r , t h en e ce s s i ty f o rt h el e ade r so fG a l l ic s oc ie ty t o s e ek t h e i r o wn s a lva t ion , i n dep enden t o fR ome , t h ey s t i l l s howed ar ema rkab le r e luc tance t od o s o( D r inkwa te r a nd E l ton f o r thcom ing ) . We m u s tb e c a re fu ln o tt ot r ea tt h eG au l s 'r e la t ive ly m u ted o ppo s i t ion t o R oman r u le a s u n ique i n t h e e xpe r ience o f t h e Emp i re : w i th f ew e xcep t ion s ( mo s t n o tab ly , o f c ou r se , t h e J ew s ) , o nce o ve r come , i t s s ub je c t p eop le s r ema ined r ema rkab ly q u ie scen t . H oweve r , s u ch c on s ide ra t ions s hou ld n o t i n h ib i t u s f r om p u r su ing t h e q ue s t ion o ft h e r e a son s f o r s pe c if ic G a l l ic d oc i l i ty ; a nd i n t h i s r e spec t t wo b road r e spon se s s ugge s t t h em se lve s . T he f i r s ti n vo lve s s t ra igh t fo rwa rd f orce m a j eu re , a nd e nv i sage s G au l a s t h e v i c t im o f as o r t o fc on t inu ing c onque s t . T he o ve r r id ing s t ra tegy b eh ind R ome ' s p r e sence i nt h e n o r th w e s t w a s t h e p ro te c t ion o f I t a ly f r om o ve r t h e A lp s ( D r inkwa te r 1 987 ,2 55 ) .T h i se nd c ou ld h ave b een a ch ieved b y t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f a n E lbe f r on t ie r b u t , a s e ven t s t u r ned o u t , i tc ame t od epend o n t h e h o ld ing o ft h eR h ine . T he R h ine g a r r i son p ro tec ted t h e Med i te r ranean f r om G e rman ic a t tack ; b u t , h e lped b y au n ique r o ad - a nd r i ve r b a sed s ys tem o f c ommun ica t ion a nd t r anspo r ta t ion ( D r inkwa te r 1 983 , 1 24 f ) ,i ta l so s e rved t ok eep t h eG au l so f t h e h i n te r land f i rm ly i n c heck : c ommune i n G ermanos G a l losque s ubs id ium ( Tac i tu s , A nna l es 4 . 5 .2 : " The G e rman g a r r i son w a s r e ady t oc ope i n d i f f e ren t ly w i th t h e G e rman o rt h eG au l " ) . T he s e cond e xp lana t ion f o rr e la t ive G a l l ic q u ie scence i s mo re c omp lex , a nd l a y s much l e s s s t re s s o n t h e c on t inu ing p rox im i ty o f R oman m i l i ta ry p owe r . I n s tead , i ta s sume s t h a t t h e G au l s c ea sed t or e s i s t R oman o ccup a t ion b ecau se t h ey a c cep t ed i n t eg r a t ion w i th in t h e Emp i re : p o l i t ica l ly , e conom ica l ly a nd c u l tu ra l ly t h e G au l sb ecame ' R oman s ' . L e t u s p u rsue t h i s s e cond l i ne o f t hough t . ' Accep tance ' , ' i n teg ra t ion ' a nd t r oman iza t ion ' c an b e
Oppor tun i ty? T he t h e s is t h a t t h e G au l s d id n o t o ppo se t h e R oman Emp i re b ecau se , i n g ene ra l , t h ey d id w e l l o u t o f i ti s p robab ly t h ec u r ren to r thodox e xp lana t ion f o r t h e q u ie to f G au l u nde r R oman r u le . H oweve r , t h e q ue s t ion t h a t w e w i sh t oa dd re s sd i r ec t ly h e re i sw he the rw em ay a s sume t h a t a l l G au l s b enef i ted f r om t h e R oman P ea ce , o r o n ly a p r iv i leged f ew . A s t h e e xpe r ience o f moder n s o c ie ty h a s m ade u s o n ly t o o w e l l a wa re , i ti sn o t u nknown f o r o ne m an ' so ppo r tun i ty t ob ea no the r ' s e xp lo i ta t ion . I ti sp o s s ib le t o p roduce a r gumen t s i n f a vou r o f i n c rea s ing g ene ra l p ro sper i ty i n G au l u nde r t h e H igh Emp i re . P e rhap s t h e mo s td rama t ic i n d ica t ion o ft h i s i st o b e s e en i n t h e e v idence t h a t i sc u rren t ly a cc ru ing f o r a r e la t ive ly h i gh l e ve l o f p opu la t ion i nt h i s c oun t ry d u r ing t h e R oman p e r iod ( D r inkwa te r 1 983 , 1 69 f ; c f .W igh tman 1 985 , 1 2 1 ; H e r r ing 1 986 ) . O n t h i s b a s i s , G au l m igh t b e s e en a s ar e a sonab ly ' h appy 'l a nd ;a nd ,c r ude ly ,t h a ta sf a ra s i t s i n hab i tan t s w e re c once rned t h e R oman Emp i re w a s ' a g ood t h ing ' . I n c omp le te c on t ra s t , h oweve r , i ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t oa rgue t h a t m o re d e ta i led a na ly s i s o fG a l l ic p ro spe r i ty r e vea l s t h a t i tp roduced b o th w inne r sa nd l o se r s . I ti sn o t d i f f icu l t t o i d en t ify t h o se w ho b ene f i ted f r om R oman r u le ( s ee D r inkwa te r 1 990 , f o r f u l le r d i scu s s ion o fa l l t h e f o l low ing ) . I nt h e f i r s t p l a ce w a s t h e i n d igenou s l a nd -own ing a r i s toc racy . T ho se o fi t sm embe r s w ho s u rv ived t h ec onque s t , a nd m ade t h e i rp eace w i th t h e c onque ro r s , r e ce ived c onf i rma t ion o f t h e i r p owe r a nd
2 5
J .D r inkwa te r a nd H . V e r te t
p o s i t ion w i th in t h e i r c i v i ta tes , a nd c on t inued t o e n joy o ppo r tun i t ie s f o rm il i ta ry g l o ry ,b oo ty a nd i n c rea sed s t a tu s i ns e rv ice w i th t h e R oman a rmy . S ome a tl e a s t , a si nt h e c a se o fV index ,w e re a b le t os t ep o n to t h es t age o fi mpe r ia l a dm in i s t ra t ion a nd p o l i t ic s . A dm i t ted ly , t h i se a r ly ,p e rhap s a bno rmaly ,p owe r fu la r i s to c racy ,s e ems t oh ave s u f f e red a s e ve re d ec l ine t owa rd st h ee nd o ft h ef i r s tc en tu ry AD ,b u t i tw a s r e p laced b y a no the r t h a t g rew a lmo s t a s w ea l thy , w h i le p ruden t ly a vo id ing t h e o bv iou s d ange r s o f d i re c t i n vo lvemen t i n i mpe r ia l a f f a i r s . T h is l a te r a r i s to c ra cy w ou ld h ave o wed much o f i t s w ea l th t o at h r iv ing G a l l ic e conomy t h a tw a s ,i r on ica l ly ,s t imu la t ed b yt h ep r e sence o f t h e R oman g a r r i son o n t h e R h ine . S ome o f i t s m embe r s m ay e ven h ave d eve loped t h e i r o wn t r ad ing in te re s t s , t h a t w ou ld h ave b rough t t h em i n to c on tac t w i th t h e s e cond g roup o fp eop le i nG au l w hom w e m ay s a f e ly a s sume t o h ave p rof i t ed f r om t h eP ax R omana ,n ame ly t h et r ade r s . T he se s hou ld b e d i v ided i n to t wo c a tego r ie s . T he f i r s t i n c lude s t h e l a rge -s ca le , l o ng -d i s tance r i ve r sh ippe r s a nd w ho le sa le r s , d e scr ibed i ni n s c r ip t ion s a sn au tae a nd n ego t ia tores . U sua l ly w ea l thy a nd i nf luen t ia l w i th in mo r e t h an o ne c ommun i ty ,i ti st h e se m en w ho w ou ld h ave d ea l t w i th t h e l a ndowne r s , a nd p o s s ib ly e ven h ave m a r r ied i n to t h e i r f am i l ie s . I n t h e s e cond g roup a r e t ob e f ound t h e s hopkeepe r s a nd s k i l led a r t i sans o f t h e c i t ie s a nd t own s . C lea r ly ,t h e se p eop le e n joyed as o c ia ls t a tu si n f e r io rt ot h a t o ft h en au ta e a nd n ego t ia tor e s ,b u tt h ey w e re p roud o ft h e i r c a l l ing s a nd t h e i r a ch ievemen t s , a nd t o ok g r ea t c a re t o c ommemo ra te t h em o nt h e i rg r ave -monumen t s . B u to fc ou r se , t h ep eop le j u s td es c r ibed d i dn o t , f o r t h e mo s t p a r t , a c tua l ly p roduce t h e g ood s t h ey s o ld , b ough t ,p roce s sed a nd s o ld a ga in f u r the rd own t h ec ha in o f c on sump t ion . I ti sn ow a pp rop r ia te t oa sk a f te r t h e e x ten t t ow h ich t h o se w ho d id -w ho t o i led i nt h e f i e ld s a nd t h e w o rk shop s -s ha red i nt h ep ro spe r i ty o ft h e i rs o c ia lb e t te r s . G iven t h en o to r iou sp auc i ty o fe v idence f o rt h ec ond i t ion o f t h e o rd ina ry p eop le o f t h e Emp i re , t h i s i sa n e x t reme ly d i f f i cu l t q ue s t ion t oa nswe r w i th a ny d eg ree o fc e r ta in ty , b u t at e n ta t ive r e sponse i s p o s s ib le o n t h e b a s i s o f h ypo the se s a r i s ing o u t. o fo u r o wn r e cen t w o rk o n a spec t s o ft h es o c ia la nd e conom ic d eve lopmen to fG au l . I ti sc l ea r ,f o re xamp le , t h a tt h el a rge sca le f i newa re i n du s t ry o f c en t ra l G au l d i d n o t e me rge g r adua l ly , a s a r e su l t o f t h e s pon taneou s a c t iv i ty o f s ma l l , p ro spe rou s , i n dependen tc r a f t smen ,b u i ld ing o ni n d igenou st r ad i t ion so f c e ram ic m anufa c tu re . R a the r , i n t h e l a te r -f i r s t c en tu ry BC / ea r ly -f i r s t c en tu ry AD , i tw a s e s tab l i shed d e n ovo o n t h e i n i t ia t ive o f e x te rna l , e conom ica l ly s i gn if i can t t h i rd p a r t ie s w ho , f r om t h e s t a r t , h ad a st h e i ra im t h e s a t i s f y ing o fm o re t h an l o ca ld emand s . T he i n du s t ry c on t inued t ob e o wned , d i rec ted a nd d eve loped b y s u ch p eop le ; a nd , m o s t i mpo r tan to fa l l ,i t sp roduc t sc on t inued t ob em a rke t ed o ve r l o ng d i s tance s b y t h em : w e m ay l e g i t ima te ly c a l l t h em n ego t ia tor es , e ven ' e n t rep reneu r s ' . T he a c tua lp roduce r so f t h is p o t te ry , t hough j u r id ica l ly f r ee , w e re i n s oc io e conom i c t e rms t o ta l ly d ependen t u pon t h e e n t rep reneu r s . T hey d i d n o t o wn , o r e ven l e a se , t h e s i te s o n w h ich t h ey w o rked ; a nd t h ey d i d n o t s ha re i nt h e w ea l th t h ey c r ea ted . T hey m ay b e t e rmed ' p oo r ' ( Ve r te t 1 974 ; 1 989 ; f o r thcom ing ) . A s im i la r mode l o f p oo r -dependency m ay b e c on s t ruc ted f o rt h en o r the rn G a l l ic w oo l len i n du s t ry . Wo rk i nt h em any p roce s se sr equ i red f o rt h ep roduc t ion o fh i gh q ua l i ty w oo len c l o th m ay h ave b een c a r r ied o u tb y al a rge
2 6
n umbe r o f' o u t -wo rke r s ' , o rgan ized b y g rea tc l o th ie r s a nd p a id b y t h e i r e mp loye r s i n c a sh o n c omp le t ion o f c omp le t ed q uo ta so fy a rn , w eb se t c . : i . e .b yp i e ce ra te . A s i nt h ec a se o ft h ec en t ra l G a ll i c p o t t e r ie s , t h i s w ou ld h ave r e su l ted i n aw o rk fo r ce t h a t , t h ough h igh ly s k i l led a nd n om ina l ly i ndependen t , w a s l i v ing a h and to -mou th e x i s t en ce ,t o ta l ly r e l ian tf o ri t sl i ve l ihood o nt h eg ene ro s i ty a nd c omme r c ia l s u cce s so fo t he r s . T hough p e rhap s n o ta s p oo r a s t h e i r c ou s in s i n t h e s ou th , t h e se p eop le w e re , i t m ay b ea r gued ,e qua l ly a se xp lo i t ed ( D r inkwa t e r 1 981 ,2 31 ; D r inkwa t e r 1 982 ) . T he t wo c a se sj u s td i scu s sed c once rn t h ec ond i t ion s o f w o rke r s i n w ha t m ay b road ly b e d e sc r ibed a s t h e ' i ndu s t r ia l ' s e c to r o f t h e G a l lo -Roman e conomy ; b u t t h i s s e c to r w i l l h ave b een o f o n ly ma rg ina l i mpo r tance i n c ompa r i son w i th a g r icu l tu re . A s f a ra s a g ra r ian s o c ie ty i s c once rned , a r chaeo logy h e lps u s t o l o ca te a f ew ( s u rp r i s ing ly f ew ) o ft h e v e ry r i ch i nt h e i r ' p a la ce ' -v i l la s , a nd s a y al i t t le a bou t t h e p eop le w ho p robab ly c omb ined a g r i cu l tu r a l w i th a r t i sana l a nd c omme r c ia l a c t iv i t ie s i nt h e v i c i ; t h rough i tw e k now mo s ta bou t t h e ' g en t ry ' i nt h e i r m ed ium -t os ma l l s ized v i l la s ( Dr inkwa te r 1 983 , 1 29f a nd 1 730 .H oweve r ,e xcava t ion h a sn o tc on s ide rab ly a dvanced o u rk now ledge o ft h e l i v ing -cond i t ion s o ft h er u ra l l a bou r f o rce o fG au l u nde r t h e H igh Emp i re . None the l e s s , o t he r s ou rce s o f i n fo rma t ion may a l low u s t o m ake t wo o b se rva t ion si nt h i sr e ga rd . I nt h e f i r s t i n s tance , w e m us t a lway s b ea r i nm ind t h e l ow s t a tus o f t h e a g r icu l tu ra l l a bou re r . A cco rd ing t o C ice ro ( De R e P ub l ica 3 . 9 .16 ) , t h e p re -Conque s t G a l l ic w a r r io rc on s ide red i tad i sg race t os t oop t os u ch w o rk ; a nd i ti ss t r ik ing t h a t i n C ae sa r ' s d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e ma jo r d e i t ie so ft h eC e l t i cp an theon t h e re i sn o m en t ion o f ag od o fa g r icu l tu re .I np r e -Roman G au l ,t h et a sk so ft h ef i e ld a nd t h e b y re w e re r e se rved f o r t h e p oo r , a nd t h e e n s laved ( Rabe i sen a nd V e r te t 1 986 , 2 9 ) . R oman G au l w i l l h ave s e en l i t t le c hange . A r i s to c ra t ic p r e jud ice a ga in s t t h e f r ee p ea san t ry w i l l c e r ta in ly h ave b een r e info r ced t h rough e xpo su re t oC la s s ica l e duca t ion a nd i t s d i spa ragemen t o f m anua l l a bou r ; a nd , t h ough i th a s c onven t iona l ly b een a c cep t ed t h a ts l ave sc e a sed t ob e as i gn i f ican te l emen ti nt h e G a l lo -Roman a g r icu l tu ra l l a bou r f o rce , a n a t temp t h a s r e cen t ly b een m ade t or e v ive t h ei d ea o fl a rge s ca le s l ave ry i nr u ra l G au l ( Sam son 1 989 ) . C e r ta in ly , w ha t w e k now a bou t t h e g r ea t G a l l ic l a ndowne r s o f l a te r R oman G au l s ugge s t s t h a t t h ey d i d n o t t r ea t t h e i r d ependan t s , w he the r f r ee o rs l ave ,p a r t icu la r ly w e l l . O ne t h ink s , f o re xamp le ,o f w ha t C .E . S tevens t e rmed S idon ius A po l l ina r is ' ' a r i s to c r a t ic d i sda in f o rt h eh umb le rc l a s se s 'a nd o ft h eg ro s s h ypoc r i sy o ft h i sa r i s to c ra t ic C h r i s t ian b i shop w hen d ea l ing w i th t h e s e xua l a bu se o f af ema le d ependan tb y a no the ro f h i so wn c l a s s : " One c an m ake a l lowance s , " h e s a y s , i n o ne o f h i s l e t te r s , " fo r t h e u ncu l tu red " ; b u t t h i s i sj u s t w ha t t h e G a l l ic s ena to r d id n o t d o ( S tevens 1 933 , 8 50 . I n g ene ra l , i ndeed , a s w e mu s t c on t inue t o r em ind o u r se lve s , t h e m a s s o f t h e G a l lo -Roman p opu la t ion m u s t h ave l i ved u nde rt h ea l -pe rvad ing ,e x t ra lega l ,' s e igneu r ia l ' a u tho r i ty o ft h e a r i s to c racy a nd t h e g en t ry , i n aw ay t h a t w ou ld s t i l l h ave b een r e cogn ized a nd a ccep ted i nt h er u ra l
' Oppo r tun i ty ' o r ' Oppo s i t ion ' i n R oman G au l?
a r ea so ft h i sc oun try a sl a te a st h eb eg inn ing o ft h ec u r ren t c en tu ry ,b u tw h ich i sc omp le te ly a l ien t o mode rn t h ink ing ( P e rc iva l 1 969 ) . T he s e cond p o in t c once rn s af e a tu re o f t h e G a l l ic c oun t ry s ide a l ready r e f e r red t o , n ame ly i t sr e la t ive ly l a rge p opu la t ion .A dduced e a r l ie ra se v id ence f o ri n c r ea sed G a l l i c p ro spe r i ty , i ti sp o s s ib le t od ep loy t h e s ame p henomenon i n s uppo r t o f q u i te t h e c on t r a ry a r gumen t . A s med ieva l e xpe r ience s how s , i n ap re indu s t r ia l s oc ie ty as u s ta ined i n c rea se i nt h e r u ra lp opu la t ion w i l l i n ev i tab ly d ep re s s t h e s t anda rd o f l i v ing o f t h e t e nan t a nd f r eeho lde r t h rough i n c rea sed r e n t s , s ho r te r l e a se s , a nd l owe r w age s f o r w o rk d one f o ro t he r s . T he s ame f a c to r sw i l l , o fc ou r se , w o rk t o t h ep ro f i t o ft h e r u ra l l a nd lo rd ( D r inkwa te r f o r thcom ing ) . O ne i sb ound t o a sk o ne se lf w he the r s uch c ond i t ions o b ta ined i n H igh R oman G au l , a nd i ndeed w he the r a c onc r e t ei n d ica t ion o fs u ch l a nd -p r e s su r ei st ob es e en i nt h e c o lon i sa t ion o f t h e A gr i D ecuma tes , l a te i n t h e f i r s t c en tu ry , b y l e v iss imus q u isque G a l lorum ( Ta c i tu s , G e rman ia 2 9 .4 : " al t h ew a s t re l so fG au l " ) . D iscuss ion T he d i re c t ion o ft h ep r eced ing a r gumen t sm ay b ei n d ica ted a s f o l low s . T he r e la t ive r a r i ty o f o u t r igh t o ppo s i t ion t o R oman r u le i n G au l may , u p t o ac e r ta in p o in t , b e e xp la ined b y G a l l ic a pp rec ia t ion o ft h eo ppo r tun i t ie s t ob e f ound i nw i l l ing c o -ope ra t ion w i th t h e Emp i re . H oweve r , t h i so ppo r tun i ty w a st h ep r e se rve o ft h ep r iv i leged f ew ,a nd l e dt ot h ee xp lo i ta t ion b yt h em o ft h ep owe r le s sm any .T he l o to ft h e m a jo r i ty o ft h eG a l lo -Roman p opu la t ion m ay b e j udged , i na b so lu te t e rms , a s h av ing i mp roved , g i ven i t s e n joymen to fa dvan tage sn o ta va i l ab le b e fo re t h eC onque s t , s u ch a sg ene ra l p ea ce , b e t te r c ommun ica t ion s a nd g r ea te r a c ce s s t or aw ma te r ia l s ( f o r e xamp le , i r on ) a nd f i n i shed g ood s ( f o r e xamp le , f i ne p o t te ry p roduc t s ) . O n t h e o t he r h and ,t h e se p eop le w e re b e ing o u t s t r ipped i nt h ea cqu i s i t ion o fs t a tu sa nd w ea l th b y t h o se w ho a c tua l ly c on t ro l led l a nd a nd t h em ovemen ta nd p ro ce s s ing o fi t sp roduc t s : r e la t ive ly s p eak ing ,t h ep oo rw e re b e com ing e ve rp oo re r .A nd t ot h e i r m a te r ia l p ove r ty m igh t b e a dded c u l tu ra l p ove r ty , a s t h e l e ade r s o f G a l l ic s oc ie ty s pon t aneou s ly a ccep ted t h e l a nguage , b e l ief s a nd v a lue s o f t h e G reco -Roman , a s o ppo sed t ot h e C e l t ic , w o r ld . I nb r ie f , t od r aw amode rn p a ra l le l , t h e ' p ro spe r i ty ' o fH igh R oman G au l w a s n o tt h a t o f We s t G e rmany , b u t o f a n e f f ic ien t T h i rd Wo r ld d i c ta to r sh ip . T he p oo r w e r e b ound t ot h e r i ch b y c l o se t i e s o f d ependence a nd p a t ronage , a nd s ow e re u nab le d i rec t ly t o a r t icu la te t h e i r g r ievance s a ga in s tt h e s y s tem ; u n le s s , t h a t i s ,w ec an s e e s ome th ing o ft h e i rr e sen tmen t i nt h e c heap r e l ig iou s p i p ec lay f i gu r ine s o ft h ec en t ra l G a ll i c p o t te r ie s , w h ich m ay p e rhap s e xp re s s a tl e a s t af o rm o f ' s p i r i tua l r e s i s tance ' t ot h e R oman o rde r ( Ve r te t 1 984 ; R abe i sen a nd V e r te t 1 986 ; c f . W igh tman 1 976 , 4 08 ) . S o t i gh t ly c on t ro l led as oc ie ty w ou ld , h oweve r , b eh i gh ly s e n s i t ive t o d i s loca t ion c au sed b y p ro longed e x te rna l a gg re s s ion a nd c i v i l s t r i f e , s uch a s o ccu r red i n t h e l a te r th i rd c en tu ry ( D r inkwa te r 1 981 , 2 31 ; D r inkwa te r 1 983 , 1 25 ) . I ti s p e rhap s i nt h i s c on tex t t h a t w e m igh t s e t t h e n o to r iou s B agaudae , a s t h e l owe r o rde r s o f G au l , h av ing b een a bandoned b y t h e i r p a t rons , m ade s h if t t o f e nd f o r t h emse lve s a nd , h av ing t a s ted f r e edom , w e re r e luc tan t t o h ave i mp e r ia lo rde rr e s to r ed b yt h ee mpe ro rC a r inu sa nd h i s s u c ce s so r s( D r inkwa te r 1 984 ,3 660 .
2 7
C onc lus ion : f u ture work T he p i c tu r e t h a t w e h ave p a in ted h e re o ft h e c ond i t ion o f t h em a jo r i ty o ft h eR omano -Gal ic p opu la t ion i ss omb re i n h ue -a nd d e l ibe ra te ly s o ,i no rde rt op rovoke d i s cu s s ion a nd d eba t e . We m u s te mpha s ize t h ev e ry t e n ta t ive n a tu r eo fo u r s ugge s t ion s ; h i s to r ian s a nd , i np a r t icu la r , a r chaeo log i s t s , w il n eed t op o se a nd f i nd a n swe r sf o r aw id er a nge o fb a s ic q ue s t ion s b e fo re 'a ny d eg ree o f c e r ta in ty i n t h i s r e spe c t b ecome s p o s s ib le . F o r e xamp le , i na t temp t ing t o c a s t a f i na lb a lance o ft h ea dvan tage sa nd d i sadvan tage sf o rG au l o f t h e c oun t ry ' s f o rced i n teg ra t ion w i th in t h e R oman Emp i re i tw il b ee s sen t ia la ts ome s t age t om ake d i re c ta nd d e ta i led c ompa r i son b e tween c i rcums tance s p reva i l ing i n G a l l ic s o c ie ty b e fo re a nd a f t e r t h e c onque s t ; a nd t h i s w il n o tb e e a sy . S uch a n u nde r tak ing w il r un u p a ga in s tb o th t h e o bv iou s d i ff icu l t ie s i n vo lved i na s semb l ing s u ff i c ien t g enu ine ly c ompa rab le a r chaeo log i ca ld a ta ,a nd t h ea wkwa rd , p e rhap s e ven e mba r ra s s ing , o b l iga t ion o fh av ing t oa r r ive a t amo ra lj u dgemen to nR oman i mpe r ia l i sm . I ft h eR oman Emp i re w a sn o t' ag ood t h ing 'w hy d ow es t udy i t ;a nd i fi t w a s , h ow a r e w e t o r e conc i le s uch a v e rd ic t w i th c on tempo ra ry d i sapp rova lo fc o lon ia l i sm i na l li t sf o rm s ? L ikew ise , w e mu s t g ive t hough t t o t he l i ke ly d i f f e rence b e tween a g r icu l tu ra l w o rke r s a nd a r t i san s i n r e spe c t o f t h e q ua l i ty o f t h e i r l i ve s d u r ing t h e p e r iod o f R oman r u le ; a nd h e re , t o o , t h e re w i l l b e g r ave p rob lems b o th i nc o l le c t ing a nd i na s se s s ing i n fo rma t ion . T hough t h e c ond i t ion s o f t h o se w ho p roduced f i ne p o t te ry a nd w oo len g ood sm igh tc on t inue t oe x c i te o u rs ympa th ie s ,w e s hou ld b ea ri nm ind t h a tt ot h e' p oo r 'c r a f t smen t h emse lve s t h e se m ay h ave r e p re s en t ed aw e lcome ,i n deed s ough t -a f te r , e s cape f r om t h eu n rem i t t ing g r ind o ft h ea g r icu l tu ra lc yc le ( c f . Wo l f 1 971 , 2 640 : e scape f r om t h e much d e sp i sed p e a san t ry .I n d eed ,i na lf u tu r ew o rk w em u s tb ep r epa r ed t o r ema in f l ex ib le i no u r a t t i tude s . T hu s , p ay ing a t ten t ion t o w ha tw a sh appen ing e l sewhe re i nt h e Emp i re ( f o re xamp le , N o r th A f r ica ) , w e m ay p e rhaps e ven r e cogn ize t h e a dvan tage t o t h e i r c oun t ry o f t h e r e la t ive ly mode s t a mb i t ions a nd a c t iv i t ie s o f t hose w ho h ave b een c ha rac te r ized a bove a s h av ing ' e xp lo i ted ' t h e G a l l ic p opu la t ion . A sh a sa l ready b een n o t ed , f r om t h ee nd o ft h e f i r s tc en tu ry u n t i l t h ef i na lq ua r te ro ft h et h i rd , G au l s w e r e n o ta c t ive i np a r t ic ipa t ing i ni mpe r ia l c a ree r s , p re f e r r ing a mo re i n d i re c tr o le i ni nf luenc ing t h ea f f a i r s o ft h e Emp i re . T h is r e luc tance h a s l o ng b een c ommen ted u pon b y s c ho la r s , b u t s u rp r i s ing ly l i t t le a t ten t ion h a sb een g i ven t o i t s c o ro l la ry : t h a t t h e a b sence o f G a l l ic s ena to r s a nd e que s t r ians m ay s ugge s t t h a t G a l l ic w ea l th w a s n o t s y s t ema t ica l ly r emoved f r om G au lt op u r cha se ,s ay ,e s ta te s i nI t a ly a nd f i ne h ou se s i nR ome . O n t h i s a r gumen t , G a l l ic l a ndowne r sa nd g r ea tt r ade r s w i l lh ave s pen tm uch o ft h e i r i n come i nG au li t se l f ;a nd d i r ec te v idence f o rt h i sm ay b et o h and i nt h es hape o fu r ban s ty le a men i t ie s b u i l tb yp r iva te b ene f a c t ion i nr u ra la r ea s( c f . D r inkwa t e r 1 983 , 1 790 . I ti s , o f c ou r se , p o ss ib le t h a t t h e se f a c i l i t ie s w e re i n tended p r inc ipa l ly t oi mp re s st h ef a vou red f ew w ho h ad t h el e i su re a nd e duca t ion t oa pp r ec ia te t h em t ot h e i rf u l l . O n t h eo t he r h and ,t h ey m ay s e rve t os ugge s tt h a tG au ld i dn o ts u f f e rt h e s cou rge o fa b sen tee l a nd lo rd i sm , a nd h i n t t h a t i t s c oun t ry l i f ew a sn o t ac omp le te c u l tu ra lw a s t e land . F ina l ly , a mong t h e mo s t s i gn if i can t q ue s t ion s t h a t r ema in t ob ea n swe r ed c on ce rn ing t h el e ve lo fe conom ic a nd s o c ia l o ppo r tun i ty t h a te x i s ted i nR oman G au lp o s s ib ly t h e mo s ti mpo r tan tc once rn s t h er o le o ft h eR h ine a rmy . Many
J .D r inkwa t e r a n d H .V e r t e t E ng l i sh speak ing s c ho la r s h ave a c cep ted t h a tt h ep r e sence o f t h ese t r oops g ene ra ted , i n H opk ins ' p h ra se , a " comp lemen ta ry f l ow o ft a xe s a nd t r ade " t h a ti r iga ted t h e e conomy o f t h e G a l l ic h in te r land ( Hopk in s 1 980 ; D r inkwa te r 1 983 , 1 29 ; W igh tman 1 985 , 1 48 ) . H oweve r , i t s hou ld b ep o in ted o u tt h i sh ypo the s i sh a sy e tt ob ep roved i nd e ta i lf o rG au la s aw ho le ;a nd w es hou ld r ema in a l e r tt o t h e p o s s ib i l i ty , a nd c on sequence s , o ft h e l e vy ing o fa rmy r e qu i remen t si nk i nd .
L E JEUNE , M . 1 988 : R eceu i l d es I ns c r ip t ion s G au lo i se s , I .1: t e x te s g a l lo -g t rusque s , t e x tes g a l lo la t ins s ur p i e r r e ( Pa r i s ,G a l l ia S upp lemen t4 5 ) . P ERC IVAL , J .1 969 : S e igneur ia l a spe c t s o f l a te -Roman e s ta te -managemen t . E ng l i sh H is tor ica l R ev iew 8 4 , 4 49 4 73 . RABE ISEN , E . a nd VERTET , H . 1 986 : L es f i gur ines g a l lo -roma ine se nt e r re c u i t e d 'A le s ia ( D i jon ,P ub l ica t ion s d uC en t re d eR eche r che s u rl e sT echn ique sG r e co roma ine s 1 ) . SA MSON , R . 1 989 : R u ra l s l ave ry , i n sc r ip t ions , a r chaeo logy a nd Ma rx : ar e spon se t oR am say Ma cMu l len ' s L a te R oman S l ave ry ' .H i s tor ia 3 8 ,9 9 -110 .
R ef erences DR INK WATER ,J . F . 1 98 1 : Money r en t sa nd f ood rende r s i nG a l l ic f une ra ry r e l ie f s . I nK ing ,A .a nd H en ig ,M . ( e d s . ) , T he R oman W es t i n t h e T h i rd C en tu ry ( Oxfo rd , B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t s 1 09 )2 15 -233 .
S TEVENS , C .E . 1 933 : S idon ius A po l l ina r is a nd H i sA ge ( Ox fo rd ,C la r e ndon ) . URBAN ,R . 1 985 :D ie B a tav erauf s tand u nd d i eE rh ebung d e sJ u l iu sC iv i l i s( T r ie r ,T r ie re rH i s to r i she F o r s chungen . 8 ) .
DR INK WATER , J . F . 1 982 : T he w oo l t e x t i le i n du s t ry o f G a l l ia B e lg ica a nd t h e S e cund in i i o fI g e l . T ex t i le H i s tory 1 3 , 11 -128 .
VERTET , H . 1 974 : P auv r e s p o t ie r s , p auv re m i se re . L es Dos s ier sd el ' A r chdo log ie 6 ,8 5 -89 . VERTET , H . 1 984 : R e l ig ion p opu la i re e t r appo r t a u p ouvo i r d ' ap r e s l e s s t a tue t tes e n a r g i le s ou s l ' emp i re r oma in . I nD aub igney , A . ( e d . ) , A rchgo log ie e tr appor t s s oc iaux e n G au le ( Pa r i s , CNRS ) , 7 2 -122 .
DR INK WATER , J .F . 1 983 : R oman G au l : t h e T hree P rov ince s ,5 8 BC -AD 2 60 ( London ,C room H e lm ) . DR INK WATER , J . F . 1 984 : P ea san t s a nd B agaudae i n R oman G au l . C la s s ica l V i ew sn . s . 3 ,3 49 -371 .
VERTET , H . 1 989 : R e che r che s t i r l e s a t e l ie r s d e l aG au le c en t ra le , r e su l ta t s , p rob leme s , p ro je t s . I nR ive t , L . ( e d . ) , A c t es d u c ongrg s d e L ezoux , 1 989 ( So c ie te F rança ise d ' e tude d el ac e ram ique a n t ique e nG au le ) 1 -19 .
DR INK WATER , J .F . 1 987 : T he G a l l ic Emp ire . S epara t i sm a nd C on t inu i ty i nt h eN or th -W es te rn P rov inces o ft h eR oman Emp ir e AD 2 60 -274 ( S tu t tga r t , S t e ine r ) . DR INK WATER , J . F . 1 990 : F o rb e t t e ro rw o r se ? T owa rd s a n a s se s smen to ft h ee conom i c a nd s o c ia lc onsequence so f t h eR oman c onque s to fG au l . I nB lagg ,T .F .C . a nd M i l le t t , M . ( e d s . ) , T he E a r ly R oman Emp i re i nt h e W e s t ( Oxfo rd , O xbow )2 10 -2 19 .
VERTET ,H . F o r thcom ing : O b se rva t ion s s u rl as o c io log ie e tl ' e conom ie d e s a t e l ie r s d e p o t ie r s e n G au le c en t ra le . ( Commun ica t ion äl aS o c ie t eN a t iona le d e sA n t iqua i re sd e F rance ,2 1 m a r s , 1 990 ) . WIGHTMAN ,E .M . 1 976 : I l ya va i te n G au le d eux s o r t e s d e G au lo i s . I n P ipp id i , D .M . ( ed . ) , A ss im i la t ion e t r g s i s tance äl ac u l tu r eg rg co roma ine d ans l em ond ea nc i en ( Bucha re s t /Pa r i s , T ravaux d u V Ie c ong re s i n te rna t iona l d ' e tude sc l a s s ique sd e Mad r id 1 974 )4 07 -419 .
DR INK WATER ,J . F .F o r thcom ing : T he B agauda ei nf i f th c en tu ry G au l . I n D r inkwa te r , J . F . a nd E l ton , H . ( e d s . ) , F if th -Cen tu ry G au l : Ac r i s i so fI d en t i ty? DR INK WATER ,J . F .a nd E LTON ,H . ( Ed s . )F o r thcom ing : F if th -Cen tury G au l : A c r is i s o fI d en t i ty? ( Camb r idge , CUP ) .
WIGHTMAN , E .M . 1 985 : Ga l l ia B e lg ica ( London , B a t s f o rd A cad em i c ) .
HERR ING ,G . 1 986 : T he S oc ie ty a nd E conomy o fP o i tou C ha ren tes i n t h e R oman P er iod ( Unpub l i shed O xfo rd D .Ph i l . t h e s i s ) .
WOLF , E .R . 1 971 : O n p ea san t r ebe l l ion s . I n S han in , T . ( e d . ) , P easan t s a nd P ea san t S oc ie t ie s ( Ha rmond swo r th , P engu in )2 64 -274 .
HOPK INS , K . 1 980 : T axe s a nd t r ade i n t h e R oman Emp i re .J ourna lo fR oman S t ud i es 7 0 , 1 0 1 -125 .
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L 'Armor ique Roma ine : Mu ta t ions e t R e s is tances P .G a ll iou A uc ou r sd e sv i ng td e rn ie re sa nne e s ,n o t r ec onna i s sance d e l ' A rmo r ique d e l ' Age d u P e r e t d e l ' epoque r oma ine a c on s ide rab lemen tp rog re ss, at e lp o in tq ue l aB re tagne e s t s a n s d ou t e ,d ec ep o in td ev ue ,l ' une d e sr e g ion s f r an9a i se s l e s m ieux e t ud ie es . S i l e s g rand s s i te s d e h au teu r n ' on t g ue r ee n co re d onne l i eu ad e st r avaux d eq ue lque a mp leu r , l e sf o u i l le sd ' e tab l i s semen t so uve r t sd ' epoque l a ten ienne s e s on t m u l t ip l iee s ( Le B ihan 1 984 ; G io t 1 990 ; H yve r te tL e B ihan 1 990 ; L e B ihan e ta l . 1 990 ) , n ou s p e rme t tan t d e m ieux a pp rehende r l ' e ta t s oc ia l e te conom ique d e s t r ibu s a rmo r ica ine s d ans l e s d eux s i t c le s p re cedan t l ac onque te r oma ine , e t ude q u 'e s t v enue c omp le te r l er e -examen d e s m onnayage s a rmo r ica in s e n t rep r i sd epu i sq ue lque sa nnee s p a rK a the r ine G rue l( G rue l 1 981 ; 1 989 ) . L ' e tab l issemen t d ' un c orpus d es a mpho res r e pub l i ca ine sd e couve r te sd an sl ' Oue s td el aF rance ,p ro je t q ue n ou sa von sm ene ab i en v o ic iq ue lque sa nne , e s( Gal iou 1 982a ) , e t q u 'e tof f en t r egu l ie remen t d e n ouve l le s d ecouve r te s ( Ga l l iou 1 990 ) , ar eve le l ' ex is tence d ' un c omme r ce al o ngue d i s tance e n t re l ' A rmo r ique e tl es ud d e l aG au le e ta ,p a r a i l leu r s , c onfo r te l e s t h e se s d e B a r ry C un l i f f e -t h e se sa ppuye e sp a rl e sd e couve r te sf a i t e ss u rl e s d eux s i t e s m a jeu r s d 'Heng i s tbu ry H ead e td 'A le t e n S a in t Ma lo -d e l ' ex is tence d ' echange s i n t ense s e n t r e l e s d eux r i ve s d e l a Manche al ' ex t reme f i n d e L a T ene ( Cun l if f e 1 978 ; 1 982 ) , e t a i n s i p e rm i s d e m ieux c omp r end re l e s r e a c t ion sd e s Anno r ica in s äl ac onque t ed el ap en in su le C e st r avaux d en a tu re e td ' amp leu rd i ve r se s o n tt r e s c e r ta inemen t p e rm i s d e mon t re r q ue , c on t ra i remen t a u m y the p a r fo i s t r op c omp la i sammen tr e pandu , l ' A rmo r ique d e l af i n d eL a T ene n ' e ta i t p a s u ne r e g ion r e cu lee q u i s e s e ra i td eve loppee al ' e ca r td e sg r ande s mu ta t ion ss o c ia le se t e conom ique sq u i a f f ec ta ien tl ' Eu rop e ac e t te é poque .O nn e s a u ra i te ne f f e td ou te r , al ' examen d ec e sd i ve r se sd onnee s , q ue l ' A rmo r ique a i t e t e i n teg ree , n e s e ra i t -ce q ue s u r u n mode m ineu r , ac e sa mp le sp henomene sq u i p r epa ra ien tl e t e r ra in äl ac onque t er oma ine ( Ga l l iou 1 983a , 1 3 -20 ) . L e s v es t ige s m a te r ie ls d e s e venemen t s m i l i ta i re s a ccompagnan t c e t te d e rn ie re , d e n a tu re i le s t v ra i t r op e vane s cen te ,n ' on tg ue re s u s c i te d et r avaux d er e che r che ,l e s a r cheo logue s r eg ionaux a yan t p r e f e re f a i re p o r te r l e u r s e f fo r t ss u rl af o u i l le d e sp r inc ipa le sa gg lome ra t ion sa n t ique s d e l ar e g ion -C o r seu l , R enne s , V anne s e tQ u impe r o n t a i n s i f a i tl ' ob je td ' impo r tan te s o pe r a t ion sd e t e r ra in ( F iche t d eC la i r fon ta ine e tK e rebe l 1 989 ; A nd re 1 988 ) -d eg r and s e t ab l i s semen t sr u raux c omme K e radennec e nS a in t -F regan t ( F in is t e re ) , a u d ebu t d e s a nnee s 7 0 ( Sanque r e tG a l l iou 1 969 ; 1 970 ; 1 972a ) , o u L a G uyome ra i s e n C ha t i l lon su r S e iche ( I l le -e t -V i la ine ) ( P rovo s t A . 1 984 ; 1 985 ; 1 986 ; 1 987 ) d an s l e s a nnee s 8 0 , a i n s i q ue s u r d e s p ro spec t ion s s y s t ema t ique s d e v a s te s t e r ro i r s p a r v o ie t e r res t re o u a e r ienne ,p ro spec t ion s q u i o n tt r ouve l e u rc onc lu s ion d an s l a p ub l ica t ion d e r e cue i ls d e s d ecouve r tes r e cen te s e t a nc ienne s ( P rovo s t M . 1 988 ; L e roux 1 989 ; L angouö t e t D a i re 1 9 89 ; G a l l iou 1 989a ) . D e s p r em ie re s s yn the se s d e n o s c onna i s sance s o n t e nf in e t 6 p ub l iee s , t a n t s u r l e s d ive r se s c i v i ta tes a rmo r ica ine s ( Pape 1 978 ; R ouane t L ie sen f e l t 1 980 ; L angouö t 1 988 ) q ue s u r l ' ensemb le d e l ' A rmo r ique ( Gal iou 1 983a ) . C e s t r avaux d ' amp leu r v a r iee o n t t o u s mon t re q ue l ' A rmo r ique r oma ine , d i v i see e n c i nq c i v i ta tes , a va i t e t e
2 9
d o t& d e sm eme ss t ruc tu re sp o l i t ique se ta dm in i s t ra t ive sq ue l e sa u t re su n i te st e r r i to r ia le sd el aG au le ( l ' ep ig raph ie n ou s mon t re a i n s i q ue l ac i te d e sR iedone s e t a i t g e ree p a r u n s ena t [ s ena tus e n 1 35 , o rdo e n 2 38 ] ) , l e p ouvo i r r epo san t , ic i c omme a i l leu r s , e n t r e l e s m a in s d e r i che s g au lo is r oman ises , t e l l e r i edone T i tus F lav ius P o s tum inu s ,p re ' t re d uc u l te i mpe r ia l , h ono re d u f l am in ica t p e rpe tue l d e Ma r s Mu / /o , d eux f o i s d uumv ir , l ev ene te L uc iu s T au r ic iu sF lo ren s , m emb re d el ac a i s se d e s G au le s e tp a t ron d e s n au t e s d e l aS aöne e td e l aL o i re , o ue nfm l e c o r io so l i te L ucanu s C an iu s , q u i , a van t d ' accede r al a p r e s idence s up reme d u C onc i l ium G a l l iae , a va i te xe r ce l e p a t rona td e sn au te sd uC onf luen t( Ga l l iou 1 983a ,4 0 -43 ) . C omme d an s b i en d ' au t re s p rov ince s d e l ' Emp i re , P avane & d e l a r oman i sa t ion s e ma rque p a r l e d eve loppemen t d e s v i l le s , c ap i ta le s d e c i v i ta te s c omme Condate ( Renne s ) , F anum Mar t is ( Co r seu l ) , C ond ev icnum ( Nan te s ) , Dar ior i tum ( Vanne s )e tV org ium ( Ca rha ix ) , e t p e t i tes a gg lome ra t ions s econda ires ( Locma r iaque r [ Mo rb ihan ] , T aden [ Cö tes -d 'A rmo r ] , Q u impe r [ F in i s te re ] ) , o rgan i see s -d u mo ms p ou r l e s p r em ie re s -p a rl em a ilage r e gu l ie rd ep l an so r thogonaux e t s ouven t d o tee s d e g rand s monumen t s p ub l ics ( t heä t re a K e r i l ien ,L ocma r iaque r ,C o r seu l ( ? ) ; b a s i l ique äR enne s e t V anne s ; a queduc aC a rha ix ,R enne se tL ocma r iaque r ,e t c . ) ( Ga l l iou 1 983a , 5 9 -86 ) . B ien q ue s ouven t mode s te s , c e s v i l le s e tv i c i n ' en r emp l i s sa ien t p a s mo ms l e s f onc t ion s t r ad i t ionne l lemen t d evo lue s äP urbs d ans l e monde c l a s s ique , t o u t e n a s su ran t l e s i n d i spensab le s t r an sf e r t s o smo t ique s e n t re l e s c ampagne se tl em onde e x te r ieu r . E n A rmo r ique , c omme p a r tou t a i l leu r s e n G au le , l ' e conom ie r e po sa i te ne f f e ta van tt o u ts u rl ' exp lo i ta t ion d e sr e ssou r ce s a g r ico les , c e q u i e xp l ique , s an s a ucun d ou te , l e g r and n omb re d ' e tab l i s semen t s r u raux ( e nv i ron 100 c hez l e s O s i sme se t8 50 c hez l e s C o r io so l i te s )r e pe l& s u rl et e r ra in g räce a u mob i l ie r a r cheo log ique e t a ux m a te r iaux d e c ons t ruc t ion e pandu s e n s u r f ace o u d e couve r t s l o r s d e p ro spe c t ion sa e r ienne s .C e sd e rn ie re s ,a i n s iq ue l e s f o u i l le s p a r t ie l le s o u t o ta le s d e c e s v e s t ige s m on t ren t , d an s l a p l upa r td e sc a s ,d e sv i l lae äc ou rf e rmee ( ' cou r tya rd v i l la s ' ) o u ab ä t imen t s d i spe r ses e nc lo s p a r u n mu r d ' ence in te , b ä t ie s s e lon d e sp l an sq u i s er e con t ren tc l an st o u tl en o rd d e l a G au le ( Ga l l iou 1 974 ; 1 982b ) . L a p lupa r t d e c es e n semb le sn es a u ra ien t , i le s tv r a i ,e ga le rl e sg r ande sv i l lae d e N a rbonna i se , d 'Aqu i ta ine , o u d u S ud -Oue s t d e s I l e s B r i tann ique s , m a i s t emo ignen t , d ans l e ur t r e s g rand m a jo r i te ,d ' une c e r ta i ne p ro spe r i te ,q ue m a rque l ap r e sence d es y s teme sd ' hypo cau s te s ,d ' endu i t sp e in t s , d ed a l lage s e n o pus s e c t i le e tp a r fo is d e mo sa ique s . N ou s a vons d one c e r ta inemen tl äl e sr e s idence sp r ima i re s o u s e conda i re s d e g roupe ss o c iaux r e la t ivemen ta i se s ,d ec e t te c l a s se m oyenne d e s c ampagne s g a l lo roma ines d on t n ous c ommen9on s , d epu i sq ue lque sa nnee s am ieux p e r cevo i rl er o le d an sl av i e e conom ique , s o c ia le e tp o l i t ique d el aG au le ( P ica rd 1 975 ; D r inkwa te r1 983 ,c hap i t re 8 ) . S ' i l e s t e v iden t q ue l ap ro spe r i te d e l ap en in su le , ä l ' epoque r oma ine c omme d ' a i l leu r s a u jou rd 'hu i , s e f onde a van tt o u ts u rl e sb ene f ice s &gage sp a rl av en t ed e ss u rp lu s a g r ico le s , o n n e s au ra i t o ub l ie r q ue l es o l d e l aB re tagne r e ce le d ' app r ec iab le sq uan t i t e sd em ine ra i s( e ta in ,p l omb ,o r , f e r ) ,q u i ,e xp lo i t& al ' epoque r oma ine ,p euven ta vo i re t o f f e l e s b enef ice s d e s p rop r ie ta i re s t e r r iens e t p e rm is l e
P . Ga l l iou
c e ram ique s d ' u sage o u d i ve r s o b je t s d e l av i eq uo t id ienne n ' ec la i re g ue re p l u sc ed if i c i le p rob leme ,l ap l upa r td ec eux c in e c ompo r tan t e n e f f e t q u 'un a n th roponyme , s ouven t t r onque .L ' un ique i n sc r ip t ion e nl a ngue g au lo i se c onnue e n A rmo r ique ( P lume rga t [ Mo rb ihan ] ) ( Be rn ie r e tL e jeune 1 970 ) , n e s au ra i t d onc & re c ons ide r& c omme l ' u l t ime v e s t ige d ed i a le c te sc e l t ique sq u i e u ssen te t eb a laye sp a rl e f l o t mon tan t d u l a t in , ma i s b ien p l u tö t c omme u n t emo ignage t i e s ma rg ina l d e l ' ex is tence d ' une l a ngue l a rgemen t p a r lee , ma i s n on &r i te ( F leu r io t 1 980 , 5 5 -59 ) . O n a dme t t ra v o lon t ie r s , e n e f f e t ,ma i s s a n s e n a vo i r d e p reuve f o rme l le , q ue l ' e ssen t ie l d e l a p opu la t ion a nno r ica ine , v r a i semb lab lemen t i le t t re , p a r la i t e nco re l e g au lo i s , p ei l t -e he m ä t ine d e l a t in , l e s i n s c r ip t ion s l a t ine s men t ionnees c i -de ssu s n e t emo ignan t a l o r s q ue d e l ' ex i s tence d e m i l ieux o u d e c ouche s s o c ia le s a i se s e t r e la t ivemen tr oman i se s ,p ou rl e sque l sl el a t in c on s t i tua i tu n e l emen te s sen t ie ld ep romo t ion s o c ia le . I e n v a d e m eme , e n f a i t , d e l a r e l ig ion d e s p opu la t ions a rmo r ica ine s . S ' i l e s t v ra i q u e l af ou i l le e n c ou r sd us a nc tua i re l a ten ien d e sS ep t -Pe r tu i t se nS a in t -Ma lo am i s e n e v idence u n a bandon d u s i te s ou sA ugu s te o u a u d ebu td ur e gne d e T ibe re , b eaucoup d ef ana a rmo r i ca in s , b i en q ue b ä t i s al ar oma ine ,p a ra i ssen ta vo i re t ee ke s s u r l es i te d e l i eux c on sa c re s d e l af i n d eL aT ene , s i non p l u s a nc iens e ncore l, d on t i l s a ssu ren t , s e lon t o u te v ra i semb lance , l ac on t inu i te . D e l am eme m an ie re , s il e n om d e s d iv in i te s v ene ree s e n A rmo r ique a l ' epoque r oma ine e s t t i e s g ene ra lemen tl a t in i se ( Ma r s Mu l lo , Mar s V ic innus , Me rcur ius A tepomarus , e t c . ) e ts il e s s t a tue s c u l tue l le s r e s so r t issen t s ouven t ad e s s t y le s d ' o r ig ine m ed i te r raneenne , i le s t b i en e v iden t q u 'en A rmo r ique c omme a i l leu r s e n G au le , l ' i n terpre ta t io r omana n e f u t q u 'un d egu i semen t t r an spa r en t d on t o n h ab i l la i t l e s v i eux d i eux e tl e s a nc ienne s c ou tume s . O n v o i ta i n s i c ohab i te r , c l an s l e s m eme s l a ra i re s , d e s s t a tue t t e s d e t e r re b l anche f i gu ran t V enu s a nadyomene e t l a d ee s se -me re g au lo i se a s s ise c l an s u n f a u teu i l d ' o s ie r , o u l e s b r onz ie r s o s i sme s f nonne r d e b i en f r u s te s s t a tue t tes d e Ma r s , d on t i le s t p a r fo i s d i ff i c i le d e r e conna i t re l ap a ren te a vec l ' o r ig ina l g r e co roma in . B ien a nc re s d an s l ' imag ina i re c o l le c t i f , l e s c u l te sd e sA rmo r ica in st emo ignen td ' une v e r i tab le p e r enn i t e d e sc r oyance se tp r a t ique sp r e roma ine s , s a ns a ucun d ou t e p l u s a f f i rmee d an s l e s c ampagne s q ue d an s l e s v i l le s , q u 'a t te s t ea u s s il af r equen ta t ion d e s monume n t s n& l i th iqu e s e td e s c ave rne s n a tu re l le s p ou r d e s p r a t ique s r i tue l le s o u m ag iques 2 o u l ap e rmanence , b i en a u -de lä d e l ' epoque r oma ine , d e r i te s i n d iv idue l s e tc o l le c t if s . L e s c ou tume s f u ne ra i re sd e sA rmo r ica in si l u s t ren td ' a i l leu r sp a r f a i t emen t c e c on se r va t i sme d e s m en ta l i te s e tc e t te d i cho tom ie e n t re u ne c l a s se f i nanc ie remen te tc u l tu re l lemen tp r iv i leg ie ee tl a m a sse d ' une p opu la t ion q u i , d el an ouve l le c u l tu re , n ' ava i t i n teg re q ue l e s a spec t s l e s p l u s s upe r f ic ie l s . O n c ons ta te a i n s iq ue ,a l o r sq ue l ap l upa r td e sA rmo r ica in sc on t inua ien t d ' inc ine re r l e u r s m o r t s j u squ 'aux p rem ie r e s d&enn ie s d u I Veme s i è c le ,p l apn tl e sc end re sc l an su nm ode s t er e cep ta c le e n fou i e n t e r r e e tc r eu san t s ouven t ap r ox im i te d e s ' p u i t s r i tue l s ' p e rme t tan t a ux v i van t s d e c ommun ique r a vec l e s
d eve lopp emen td ' une c l a s se d ' a r t i san sl i b r e s( Gal iou 1 983b ; 1 983c ) . I le nv ad ' a i l leu r sd em eme d e sr e s sou r ce sm a r ine s , d i rec temen te xp lo i tee s p ou rl ' a l imen ta t ion q uo t id ienne d e s c ommunau te s m a r i t ime s o u l a v en te s u r l e s ma rche s u rba in s ,o ui n je c tee sd an sd e si n du s t r ie sd et r an sf o rma t ion , d on t l ap l us c onnue e s t c e l le d e s s a la i son s d e p o i s son , i mp lan t& a u I eme s i èc le s u r l e l i t to ra l d e s O s isme s ( Sanque re tG al iou 1 972b ) . L ' en semb le &onom ique c omp lexe d on tn ou sv enon s d e d ef in i r l e s c ompo san te s m a jeu re s n e p ouva i t , d e t o u te e v idence ,s ep a s se rd ' un r e seau d ec ommun ica t ion sd en se e t b i en e n t r e tenu . L e ma i l lage d e s v o ie s , d e s se rvan tv ine s e t c ampagne s e t r a t tachan t l a p en insu le a l a G au le c on t inen ta le ,e s t ,e nc on sequence ,p a r t icu l ie remen ts e r r e ,l e s p r em ie r se l emen t sp a ra i s san ta vo i re t em i se np l a ce d an sl a p rem ie re m o i t ie d u I e r s iè c le a p . J . -C . ( m i l l ia i re d e K e r scao e nK e rn i l i s )e tr ensemb le s ' e t re d eve loppe a uc ou r s d e s s i ec le s s u ivan t s . I i y at r e s c e r ta inemen t l aP un d e s v ec teu r se s sen t ie l sd e se change s &onom ique sa vec l er e s te d u m onde r oma in , b i en q u ' i l n e f a i l le c er ta inemen t p a s n eg l ige r l e r o le t e nu d an s l ' Oue s t p a r l e c omme rce m a r i t ime . N ou s c onna is sons c e r te s f o r t m a l l e s p o r t s a nno r ica in s , d on t l e s g&g raphe s a n t ique s n ou s o n t l a i s se q ue lque s n oms -P or tus B r iva tes , P or tus S a l iocanus , V indana P or tus c hez P to lemee , p a r e xemp le -e ti le s t p robab le q ue , d ans l ap l upa r t d e s c a s , i l s s er e du i sa ien t q ue lque s a ppon temen t s d e b o i s o u ad e s g reves o ü l ' on p ouva i t t i re r l e s n av i re s a u s e c . Ie s t n eanmo in s c e r ta in q u ' i l st e na ien tu ne p l ace e s sen t iele c l an sl ec omme r ce d el a p en in su le , s e rvan ta u t r ans i td e s p roduc t ion s r e g iona le s e t d e s m a rchand i se s i mpo r tee s ( y in , h u i le , c e ram ique s , e t c . ) . L a g rande a bondance d e s s i g i l lee s d u s ud d e l aG au le e t s u r tou t d e G au le d u c en t re s u r t o u s l e s s i te s r oma ins d 'Anno r ique t emo igne a i n s id el ' impo r tance d ec e se change s ( Ga l l iou 1 982 c ) . L e sd onnee sd on tn ou sv enon sd ef a i re e t a tp euven t , s an s a ucun d ou te , n ou s p e rme t t re d e c onc lu re q ue l e s c iv i ta tes a rmo r ica ines c onnu ren t u n n iveau d e d eve loppemen t p o l i t ique , s oc ia l e te conom ique e n t o u t p o in t s emb lab le äc e lu i d e s a u t re s u n i te s t e r r i to r ia le s d e L yonna i se o u d e B e lg ique , e n b ref q u 'e l le s f u ren t p a r f a i temen ti n t eg ree s al ' Emp i re . Is e ra i tp ou r tan ti n exac t d e c r o i re q ue c e t te i n teg ra t ion s ' a ccompagna d ' une t o ta le a ccu l tu ra t ion d e s c ommunau te s p en in su la i re s , q u 'une r oman i sa t ion f o rt& o ul i b r emen tc on sen t ie s u ff i t ag omme r t o u tl ' he r i tage c u l tu re l l a ten ien . S il ' on a dme tq ue l ' examen d u c o rpu s e p ig raph ique d ' une r e g ion e s t u n b on g u ide d e l a p ene t ra t ion d es h ab i tude s r oma ine s e t d e l a l a ngue l a t ine d an s d e s c ommunau te sn ouve l lemen ta cqu i se s al ' Emp i re ,o n s ev o i t a l o r sc on t ra in td er e conna t t re q ue l am ode d e s i n sc r ip t ion s p ub l ique s o up r ivee s ( q u ' i l s ' ag i sse ,c l an sc ed e rn ie rc a s , d e d ed icace s o u d ' ep i taphe s ) n e t o ucha g ue re l ' Oue s t d e l a G au le .O nn ' yc omp t ee ne f f e tg ue r ep l u sd ' une c i nquan ta ine d ' insc r ip t ions , s u r tou t c oncen t ree s d ' a i l leu r s äN an tes ( ded icaces e t e p i taphe s ) e t R enne s ( ded icace s ) , d es a gg lome ra t ion s i mpo r tan te s c omme V org ium ( Ca rha ix ) e t Dar ior i tum ( Vanne s ) , p ou r tan t t o u te s d eux c ap i ta le s d e c i v i tas , n ' en a yan t p a s l i v re u n s eu l f r agmen t . C e l le s -c i , s ouven tp eu e xp l ic i t e so ur e pe t i t ive s ,n en ou sl i v ren tq ue d e r a re s i n d ice s d u d eg re d er oman i sa t ion d e s d ed ican t s e tn e n ou s p e rme t ten t g ue re d ej uge r d e l ap ene t ra t ion d u l a t in h o r s d e s m i l ieux u rba ins o u d e s g rande s e xp lo i ta t ions r u ra les . L ' e tude d e s g raf f i t i q ue p o r ten t s ouven t l e s
1 .C ' e s t l e c a s äT ronoen e n S a in t -Jean T ro l imon ( F in i s ter e ) ( Duva l 1 990 ) , T rogouze l e n D oua rnenez ( F in i s te re ) , S e rmon e n Mo rdele s ( 1 1e -e t -V i la ine ) , P a rc -a r -G roa s e n Q uünpe r ( F in i s te r e ) . 2 .U n a u te l i n sc r i t a va i t a i n s i e t e p l ace ä l ' en t ree d u v a s te monumen t m ega l i th ique d u P e t i t -Mon t e n A rzon .
3 0
L 'A rmo r ique R oma ine : Mu ta t ion s e tR e s i s tance s
d i spa ru s l o r s d e c e r ta ine s f e te s d e F a rm & c e l t ique , l e s c l a sse s l e s p lu s f o r tunee s d e s v i l le s e t d e s c ampagne s o rna ien t l e s t ombe s d e l e u r s d e fun t s d ' un monumen t d e p i e r re -m au so lee , s t e le i n sc r i te o ud eco r& -d on tl es t y le t r adu i tp a r fo i s d ' indub i tab le s i nf luence sm ed i te r raneenne s . L ' examen d e ta i l le d e s t ombe s e t d u mob i l ie r f une ra i re m on t re , d ' a i l leu r s , d e r ema rquab le s d i f f e rence s d ans l e s p ra t ique s f une ra i re s q u i v i ennen t , l ä e nco re , s ou l igne r r he te rogene i te s oc ia le e t c u l tu re l le d e s c ommunau te s a rmo r ica ine s( Gal iou 1 989b ) . L e sd onnee sd i ve r se sd on tn ou sv enon sd ef a i re e t a t n ou sd onnen te nf a i t av o i ru np ro f ond c l ivage e conom ique e tc u l tu re l e n t re d e s g roupe s s oc iaux a i se s ( n egoc ian t s , p rop r ie ta i re st e r r ien s )e tr e lat ivemen tr oman i se se tu ne v a s te p opu la t ion ' s ubme rgee ' d e p e t i t s p aysans , d ' ouv r ie r s a g r ico le s e t d e p e cheu r s q u i , s ' i ls g oü ta ien t l e s r a re s e l emen t s d u n ouveau c on fo r t m a te r ie l d on t i l s p ouva ien t d i spo se r ,n ' ava ien tc ependan ta cce s al an ouve l le c u l tu re q ue l o r s d e l e u r v i s i te a u ma r che l o ca l o u äl ' occa s ion d e s r ep re sen ta t ions ' t heä t ra les ' q u i s e d onna ien t d an s l e s c onc i l iabu la d e s c ampagne s o u l e s t h eä t re s d e s p e t i te s v i l le s . C e v a s te p ro le ta r ia t u rba in e t s u r tou t r u ra l , d on t n ou s n e c onna i s sons ma lheu r eu semen t l ' ex i s tence e t l e mode d e v i e q ue p a r b r ibe s e pa r se s 3,c ons t i tua i t d e t o u te e v iden ce u nf o rm idab le p ö le d er e s i s tance äl ap ene t ra t ion d e n ouve l le s v a leur s s p i r i tue l le s e t c u l tu re l le s ( on s a i t d ' a i l leu r sq ue c ef u tc hez l e sp agan i q ue ,q ue lque s s i e c le s p l u s t a rd , l ' Eg l i se r e ncon t ra l e s p l u s g r ande s d i f f icu l te s a r epand re l a n ouve l le f o i ) , a i ns i q u 'un r e se rvo i r d ' a f f ron temen t s s oc iaux e ngend re s p a r l e s t e n s ion s e n t re g roupe s e tc l a s se s a ux i n te re t s e ta ux a sp i ra t ion s s ouven t c on t rad ic to i r e s 4. L 'ab sence d e t e x te s e xp l ic i te s , l e s d i f f icu l te s d ' in te rp re ta t ion d e s v e s t ige s e ts t ruc tu re s a r cheo log ique s r e nden t c ependan t f o r t a l ea to i re t o u te t e n ta t ive v i san t a d ece le r , d ans r evo lu t ion d e s c ommunau t e s g a l lo roma ine s d 'A rmo r ique ,d e s mouvemen t sd ' oppo s i t ion o rgan i s ee a lan t a u -de lä d e l as imp le r e s i s tance p a s s ive . O n p eu t c e r te s c ons ide re r q ue l a p resence d e n omb reuse s monna ie s i mpe r ia le s m u t i lee s d an s l ' enfou i s semen td eP o r t -Ha l iguen e n Q u ibe ron ( Mo rb ihan ) m an if e s te l ' oppo s i t ion d e s A rmo r ica in s al ar eo rgan i sa t ion d el aG au le e n t rep r i se p a r A ugus te ( G ia rd 1 967 ; Gou lpeau 1 985 ) , o u q ue l a d e s tr uc t ion d el ab ou rgade d 'A le te td em onumen t su r ba in sa C a rha ix e tQ u impe r t e rno igne d ' une v i ve r e s i s tance a ux m e su re s i mpopu la i re s p r i se s p a r T ibe re ( Ga l l iou 1 981a ) , m a is i lf a u t b i en a voue r q u 'on p eu t t o u t a u s s i b i en yv o i r l ' e f fe t d e s d e rn ie r s s oub re sau t s d e l al u t te q u i o ppo sa i t , d epu is l e d ebu t d u I e r s i èc le a y . J . -C . l e s s e c teu r s ' a r cha ique s 'd el as o c ie te g au lo i se ( g rand sI f eodaux 'e n tou re s d el e u r sc l ien t se tv a s saux ) a ux g r oupe s ' mode rn i s t e s 'd el a ' b ou rgeo i s ie 'c omme r 9an te , ' b ou rgeo i s ie 'd on tr eche c d el a r e voke d eF lo ru se tS a c rov i ra s su ra l et r iomphe ( Lewu i l lon 1 975 ) . O n p eu t m esu re r l ' amp leu r d e c e lu i -c i a u d eve loppemen te conom ique d el aG au le d an sl e sd e cenn ie s q u is u iv i r en t . 3 .L es h ab i ta t s d e t ype i n d igene , p a r fo i s r e p6 ri s d ' av ion , n ' on t g uer e d onne l i eu ä d e s f ou i l le s s u iv ie s e t n ou s n e l e s c onna i s son s q u 'ä t r ave r s q ue lque s d 6couve r te s f or tu i te s ( Le B raden , Q u imper , K emo te r , Q u impe r , e t c . ) . 4 .R ien n e p rouve , c on t ra i remen t al ' op in ion df endue p a r P .Do cke s ( 1980 ) q ue c e s t e ns ions s oc ia le s s o ien t d ue s p ou r l ' e s sen t ie l a l ' ex i s tence d ' un g r and n omb re d ' e sc lave s d an s l e s d oma ine s r u r aux .
I le nv ad em eme , av ra id i re ,d el ac r is eq u it o ucha l ' A rmo r ique a l a f i n d u I eme s i èc le e t q ue ma rque l ' en fou i s semen td ep lu s ieu r s t r e so r s mone ta i re s ( Mon t f o r t s u r - Meu [ I l le -e t -V i la ine ] , P le s t in le s -Greve s [ Cö te s d 'A rmo r ] e t c . ) , e tl ' abandon , t empo ra i re o u d e f in i t i f , d e p lu s ieu r s e t ab l i ssemen t s r u raux ( Le V a ly -C lo i s t re e n L a R oche -Mau r ice [ F in i s te re ] , L e C ava rdy e n S a in t -Eva rze c [ F in i s tb re ] ,e t c . ) ( Ga l l iou 1 983 ,2 43 -245 ) . S il ' on p eu te i re t e n te d ' yv o i rl ' ef e td ' un b and i t i sme d em a s se e td e sr e voke s s oc ia le s q u i s e coub ren t l a G au le a l a f i n d u r egne d e C ommode e tq u i n ece s s i te ren t l ' i n te rven t ion d e l ac oho r te l y onna i se c on t re l e sb ande sd e Ma te rnu s( He rod ien ,1 . 10 .3 ) s i non m eme d ' un mouvemen t p l u s g ene ra l e nco re , d on t t emo igne ra i tl ' ep i taphe d eL .A r tor iu sC a s tu s5,f a u t i lp ou r a u tan tp en se rq ue c eux -c it r adu i sen tu na n tagon i sme v i s ce ra l d e sc ouche sd e f avo r i see sd e sc i v i ta te s a nno r ica ine se nve r s u n o rd re e conom ique e t u ne c u l tu re d om inan te q u i m en na ien t d ' ann ih i le r l e s f ondemen t s m eme s d e l e u r e x i s tence e t d e l e u r s p i r i tua l i te , o u b i en a l o r s q ue c e s e xp lo s ion s p onc tue l le s n e c o r re sponden t , e n f a i t , q u 'a d e s p ro te s ta t ion s c on t re l e s d y sfonc t ionnemen t s d ' un s y s teme q ue n u l -o u p r e sque -n e s ongea i t ar eme t t re g l oba lemen t e n c au se ? N i r a r cheo log ie , n il e s t e x te s , n e p e rme t ten td e t r anche rd ef in i t ivemen te n t re c e sd eux i n te rp re ta t ion s ,b i en q ue l ar e p r i se e conom ique q u i s em an i f e s t e e n A rmo r ique d an sl ap rem ie re mo i t ie d u Mine s i èc le p a ra i s se s ou l igne r l ar e s i s tance d u s y s teme e conom ique e ts o c ia l a ux a s sau t s d on ti lv ena i td ef a i r el ' ob je t( Ga l l iou 1 981b ) . I n te r rompan tc e t t er e lance ,l ac r i se q u is ed eve loppa d an s l ed e rn ie rq ua r td us i èc le v i n tc ependan tr e ve le r ,e td e f a 9on p a r t icu l ie remen t c rue , l af r ag i l i te d ' un s y s teme o ü r accep ta t ion d ' une n ouve l le c u l tu re p a ru ne p a r t ie d uc o rp s s o c ia le t a i tn ece s sa i remen ts ou s tendue p a rl er o le e m inen t q ue l u i c onf e ra i t , äl ' i n te r ieu r d e l a c ommunau te , u ne e conom ie g l oba lemen tp ro spe re .L ' ec rou lemen td e sr e seaux e conom ique sd el ap en in su le ,q u is em a rque p a rl af e rme tu re d e si n du s t r ie sd es a la i son s ,l er e cu ld e s c u l tu re se tl ' avance d e l af o re t , l ' abandon d e s v i l lae e td e n omb reux q ua r t ie r s u rba in s -s i non d e s v i l le s e l le s -meme s -e s t d ' au tan t p l u s r ema rquab le d an s s a r ap id i te e t s on a mp l i tude q u ' i l s e m an if e s te p a r tou t d e l am eme m an ie re -t o u te s l e s v i l lae f ou i l lees a c e j ou r e n B re tagne mon t ren t d e s t r a ce s d ' abandon o u d ' o ccupa t ion s omma i re -e tn e t r adu i tp a s u n p henomene p a ssage r ma is u ne c r ise d ef in i t ive , s ' a ccompagnan td ' une r up tu re r a d ica le -m a lg re , l äe nco r e , q ue lque s s oub re sau t s e te mbe l l ie s -a vec l e s e l emen t s l e s p lus c a rac te r i s t ique s d e l a c u l tu re ma te r ie l le d e l a ' b ou rgeo i s ie 'g a l lo roma ine ( Gal iou1983 , 2 74 -278 ) . O n n e s au ra i t v o i r , e n e f f e t , d ans r e f fond remen t d ef in i t i f d e s i ndu s t r ies d e s a la i sons , l e r e t rec i ssemen t d e s n oyaux u rba in s , l ' abandon d e s v i l lae d an s l ec ou ran t d u I Veme s iè c le a p re su ne p ha se d ep aupe r i sa t ion t r e sm a rque e( 7 5% d e s e t ab l is semen t s a g r ico le s d e s C o r io so l i te s W on t l i v re a ucun mob i l ie rd uI Veme s iè c le : L angout 1 988 ,2 46 ) ,q ue l ar e su l tan te d ' une s ine d ec r i se se conom ique sc omp lexe ss i c eux -c in es ' accompagna ien td ' un d e la i s semen tg ene ra l -o u d ' un r e fu s -d e s e l emen t sp r inc ipaux d uc ad re d e v i eg a l lo r oma in , d ' une v e r i tab le d e roman i sa t ion , p a r t i cu l ie i emen t s e n s ib le d an sr hab i ta tu rba in e tr u ra l . C e l le -c is et r adu i tp a r l an r ine d e s a queduc s ( Ca rha ix ) , r i ns ta l la t ion d ' hab i ta t s 5 . D 6couver te a S tobrez ( Yougo s lav ie ) , c e t te ei taphe m en t ionne l ' i n te rven t ion d e l aV I V ic tr ix e td e s " a i le s b re tonne s " c on t re d e s " Arm (o r ica in s ) "( ? ) ( C IL i f i , 1 2791) .
3 1
P . Ga l l iou
d eve loppemen td el av i le a n t ique ,d 'Augu s t e äN e ron R evu e A r cheo log ique d el ' Oue s t6 ,1 39 -149 .
s omma i re sc l an sl e st h e r rne sd e sv i l lae 6,o ül ' on r e couv r eo u a r ra che l e sp avemen t sd ec a l ca i re e td em a rb re p ou re t ab l i r d e ss o l sg ro s s ie r si n c luan tp a r fo i su nm il ia i re a r ra che c l an s l e s p a rage s ( Le C lo s L o ry , P loua sne ) o u b i en e nco re l ' abandon d e s t a tue s d i v ine s p ann i l e s d e t r i tu s ( Po in t e d u G ue t , P loma rc 'h , D oua rnenez ) , p henomene s q u i , p r i s s e pa remen t , n es on tc e r te sp a s t r e s s i gn if i ca t if s , m a i s d on t l a s omme s ans c e sse c ro i ssan te n ou s r eve le d ' amp le s m ouvemen t sc u l tu re l sc l an sl ' Anno r ique d uB a s -Emp i re . S in ou s n e d i s t inguon s p a s e nco re p a r f a i t emen t l e s c au se s e tl e s r y thme s d e c e s e venemen t s , q u ' i l s e ra i t s an s d ou te i mp rud en td er a t ta che re xc lu s ivemen ta us ou levemen t d e s Bacaudae e n 2 84 7 i l e s t i nden iab le q ue l e s b ou leve r semen t s e conom ique s e ts oc iaux q u i a f f ec te ren t l ' A rmo r ique a u I Veme s i èc le , e n t ra inan t d e p rofonde s m od if i ca t ion s c l an s l ' occupa t ion d u s o le tl as t ruc tu re d el a p rop r ie te f onc ie r e , a i ns i q u 'un e c la temen t d e s s t ruc tu re s s oc ia les t r ad i t ionne l le s , m i ren t a n u l e s f a ib le sse s s t ruc tu rele sd ' un o rd re i n ega lemen ta ccep t ed an sl as o c ie te g au lo i se e ts i gn i f ie ren ta i n s i l af i n d el ar oman i te . Al af m d u I Veme s i è c le l e s v i l le s e t a ien t &se r ie s o up re sque , l e s v e s t ige sd e s v i l lae a bandonnee se np a s se d ' ê t re r e couve r t s p a rd en ouveaux p a rce l la i re s( Langout e ta l . 1 984 ,6 3 ) ,l e s t e chn ique s d e c on s t ruc t ion q u i a va ien t f a i t l af i e r te d e l a G au le o ub l ie e s . L 'A rmo r ique a l la i t b a scu le r d ans u ne p ro toh i s to i re d on t e he n ' e ta i t p eu t -e t re j ama i s t o ta lemen t s o r t ie .
F LEUR IOT ,L .1 980 :L es o r ig ine sd el aB re tagne ( P a r i s ) . GALL IOU , P . 1 974 : L e p l an d es v i l la s ( d 'A rmo r ique ) A rcheo log ia 7 4 ,2 7 -33 . GALL IOU , P . 1 981a : L a p rem ie re mo r t d 'A le t : u ne h ypo the se D os s i e r sd uC en t r er eg iona la r cheo log iqu ed ' A l e t 8 ,3 7 -40 . GALL IOU ,P .1 981b : We s te rn G au li nt h et h i rd c en tu ry .I n K ing , A . a nd H en ig , M . ( e d s . ) , T he R oman W e s t i n t h e t h i rd c en tur y ( Ox fo rd , B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica l R epor t s I S 1 09 )2 59 -286 . GALL IOU , P . 1 982a : L es a mphores t a rdo -repub l ica ines d e couv er t e sd ans l ' Oue s td el aF rance e tl e si mpor ta t ion sd e v i n si t a l ien s al af i nd el ' Age d uF e r( B re s t ) . GALL IOU , P . 1 982b : L es v i l la s r oma ine s d 'A rmor ique . ( Tou r s , A c te s d u c o l loque : L a v i l la r oma ine d ans l e s p rov in ce sd un o rd -ou e s t )9 5 113 . GALL IOU , P . 1 982c : S ig i l lee d e G au le d u S ud e n A rmo r ique : d i f fu s ion e tp rob leme s .R .C .R .F . A c ta ,2 1 -22 , 17 -130 . GALL IOU ,P .1 983a :L 'Armor ique r oma ine ( B ra spa r t s ) . GALL IOU , P . 1 983b : M ine s e tm e taux c l an s l ' Oue s td e l a G au le . I nD ome rgue , C . ( e d . ) ,M ines e tf onder ies a n t iques d el aG au le ( P a r i s )2 1 -32 . GALL IOU , P . 1 983c : I r on i n I r on A ge a nd R oman Anno r ica . Of a4 0 ,7 7 -83 .
R ef erences ANDRE , P . 1 988 : L ' imp lan ta t ion d ' un c a r refou r . I n L eguay , J . -P . ( e d . ) , H i s to i re d e V annes e td e s a r eg ion ( Tou lou se )9 28 .
GALL IOU ,P .1 989a : C a r t ea rcheo log ique d el aG au le :L e F in i s t e r e( P a r i s ) . GALL IOU , P . 1 989b : L es t ombes r oma ines d ' Armor ique ( P a r i s ) .
B ERN IER , G . e tL E JEUNE , M . 1 970 : L a s t e le e p ig raphe d eP lume rga t( Mo rb ihan ) .A nna l es d eB r e tagne 7 7 -1 ,6 55 6 77 .
GALL IOU ,P .1 990 : C omme r ce e ts o c ie te e n A rmo r ique ä l ' Age d u F e r . I n D uva l , A . , L e B ihan , J . -P . , Menez , Y . ( e d s . ) L es G au lo i s d 'Armor ique ( Qu impe r , A c te s d u x i i e c o l loque A .F .E .A .F 1 988 ,R evue A r cheo log ique d el ' Oue s t s upp lemen t3 )4 7 -52 .
CUNL IFFE ,B . 1 978 :H eng i s tbury H ead ( Lond re s ) . CUNL IFFt , B . 1 982 : B r i ta in , t h e V ene t i a nd b eyond . O x f ord J ou rna lo fA r chaeo logy 1 1 ,3 9 -68 .
G IARD , J . -B . 1 967 : L e t r eso r d e P or t -Ha l iguen . C on t r ibu t ion a l ' e tude d u monnayage d 'Augu s t e . R evue n um i sma t ique 19 -139 .
DOCKES , P . 1 980 : R evoke s b agaude se te n sauvagemen t , o u l ag ue r re s o c ia le e n G au le . I nD ocke s , P .e tS e rve t , J . M .S auvages e te nsauvage s( Lyon ) 1 43 -262 .
G IOT , P . -R . 1 990 : S ou te r ra in s e th ab i ta t s al ' Age d u F e r e n A rmo r ique . I nD uva l , A . , L e B ihan , J . -P . , Menez , Y . ( e d s . ) L es G au lo i s d 'A rmor ique ( Qu impe r , A c t e s d u x i i e c o l loque A .F .E .A .F 1 988 ,R evue A r cheo log ique d el ' Oue s t s upp lemen t3 )5 3 -62 .
DR INK WATER , J . 1 983 : R oman G au l : t h e T hree P rov ince s ,5 8 BC -AD 2 60 ( Lond re s ) . DUVAL ,A . 1 990 : Q ue lque sa spe c t sd u mob i l ie rm e tal ique e n f e r a nc iennemen t r e cue i l l i aT ronoen e n S a in t Jean T ro l imon ( F in is te re ) . I n D uva l , A . , L e B ihan , J . -P . , Menez ,Y . ( e d s . )L e sG au lo i sd 'Armor ique ( Qu impe r ,A c te s d u) ( H ec o l loque A .F .E .A .F 1 988 ,R evue A r cheo log ique d e l ' Oue s ts upp lemen t3 )2 3 -45 .
GOULPEAU , L . 1 985 : U n s econd t r eso r d ' epoque a ugus teenne d ecouve r t a P o r t -Ha l iguen ( Qu ibe ron , Mo rb ihan ) .R evue A r cheo log ique d el ' Ou es t2 ,8 3 -94 . GRUEL , K . 1 981 : L e t r e sor d e T rebry ( Cö tes -du -No rd ) . P r em i e rs i èc l ea van tn o t r ee r e( P a r i s ) .
F ICHET DE CLA IRFONTA INE , F . e t IdRüBEL , H . 1 989 : C o r seu l ( Cö te s -du -No rd ) .Le s p r em ie re s & ape s d u
6 . Ce s t l ec a s d e t o u te s l e s v i l lae
GRUEL ,K . 1 989 :L am onna i e c h ez l e sG au lo is ( P a r i s ) . HYVERT , J . e t L E B IHAN , J . -P . 1 990 : L e s h ab i ta t s c ö t ie r sa rmo r i ca in s äl ' Age d uF e r .I nD uva l , A . ,L eB ihan , J . -P . , Menez ,Y . ( e d s . )L es G au lo i sd ' Armor ique ( Qu impe r , A c te s d u ) ( H e c o l loque A .F .E .A .F 1 988 , R evue A r cheo log ique d el ' Oue s ts upp lemen t3 )7 1 -84 .
f ou i l l6e s e n A rmo r ique .
7 . C e s ou levemen t e s t b i en a t te s t6 p a r l e s econd p an6gy r ique d e Mame r t in ( T reve s , 2 89 ) , A urel iu s V ic to r ( L iber d e C aesar ibu s) , Eu rope ( Brevar ium a d u rbe c ond i t ia ) , O ro se ( H i s tor iae a dv er su s p agano s ) .
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L 'A rmo r ique R oma ine : Mu ta t ions e tR es i s tance s
LANGOUET , L . , FAGUET , G . , GOULPEAU , L . , LANOS , P . 1 984 : L 'occupa t ion r u ra le a l ' epoque g a l lo r oma ine d an sl en o rd d el aH au te -B re tagne .I n ,L angouö t ,L . ( e d . ) , L a p rospec t ion a rchgo log ique e n Hau te -Bre tagne ( Sa in t - Ma lo , L es Doss ier s d u C en t re R eg iona l d 'A r cheo log ie d 'A le tG )5 5 -145 .
P APE , L . 1 978 : L a c i v i tas d es O s ismes ä l ' gpoque g a l lo r oma ine ( Pa r is ) . P ICARD , G . -C . 1 975 : Ob se rva t ions s u r l ac ond i t ion d e s p opu la t ions r u ra le s d ans l ' Emp i re r oma in . A .N .R .W . 1 -3 , 9 8 -111 . P ROVOST , A . 1 984 , 1 985 , 1 986 , 1 987 : L a v i l la g a l lo r oma ine d e l a G uyomera is e n C hä t i l lon -sur -Se iche ( Rappo r t sd ef o u i l le i n ed i t s ) .
LANGOUET ,L . 1 988 : L es C or ioso l i te s ( Sa in t - Ma lo ) . LANGOUET , L . e t DA IRE , M . -Y . 1 989 : L a c i v i tas g a l lo r oma ine d es C or ioso l i tes .L em i l ieu r u ra l( Renne s ) .
P ROVOST , M . 1 988 : C ar te a rchgo log ique d e l aG au le :L a L o i re -A t lan t ique ( Pa r i s ) .
L E B IHAN , J . -P . 1 984 : V i l lages g au lo is e tp arce l la ires a n t ique sa uB raden ( Qu imp e r ) .
ROUANET -L IESENFELT , A -M . 1 980 :L a c i v i l i sa t ion d es R iedones ( B re s t ,A r cheo log ie e nB re tagne s upp lemen t2 ) .
LE B IHAN , J . -P . , BARDEL , J . -P . , MENEZ , Y . , TANGUY , D . 1 990 : L e s e t ab l i ssemen t s r u raux d u S econd A ge d u F e r e n A rmo r ique . I n D uva l , A . , L e B ihan , J . -P . , Menez ,Y . ( e d s . )L es G au lo i sd ' Armor ique ( Qu impe r ,A c te s d ux n ec o l loque A .F .E .A .F 1 988 ,R evue A rcheo log ique d e l ' Oue s ts upp lemen t3 )9 7 -114 . L EROUX , G . 1 989 : L a c i v i tas g a l lo -roma ine R i edone s .Le m i l ieu r ura l( Renne s ) .
SANQUER , R . e t GALL IOU , P . 1 969 : L e ' c hâ teau ' g a l lo r oma in d eK e radennec e n S a in t -F regan t( F in i s t&-e ) .A nna le s d eB re tagne 7 6 -1 , 1 77 -179 . SANQUER , R . e t GALL IOU , P . 1 970 : L e ' c hâ t eau ' g a l lo r oma in d eK e radennec e n S a in t -F regan t . P rem ie r sr e su l t a t s . A nna l es d eB re tagne 7 7 -1 , 1 63 -227 .
d es
SANQUER , R . e t GALL IOU , P . 1 972a : L e ' c ha teau ' g a l lo r oma in d e K e radennec e n S a in t -F regan t . A nna les d e B re tagne 7 9 -1 , 1 67 -2 15 .
L E WU ILLON , S . 1 975 : H is to i re , s o c ie te e tl u t te d ec l a s se s e nG au le : u ne f eoda l i te al af i nd el aR epub l ique e ta ud ebu t d e l ' Emp i re . A .N .R .W . 1 -4 , 4 25 -583 .
SANQUER , R . e t GALL IOU , P . 1 972b : G arum , s e i e t s a la i son se n A rmo r ique r oma ine . G a l l ia 3 0 -1 , 1 89 -223 .
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L a P lace d e l a Nor mand ie d ans l ' Emp ire Roma in d e l a f i n d e l ' independance j usqu 'au V er ne s i èc le d e n o tre e re P .B la szk iew icz I ntroduc t ion A u r e ga rd d e n o s c onna i ssance s , n o tammen t d e s t e x te s a nc ien s , l ' ac tue l le N o rmand ie n ' a p robab lemen t j ama i s o ccupe d e p lace p r iv i leg iee d ans l ' Emp i re R oma in , c on t ra i r emen t ad ' au t r e s r e g ion s , c omme w i le s d e s t r ibu s d e sR eme s ,d e sE duens o u d e sT rev i r e sp a re xemp le . C e c i n ev au t ,b i en e v idemmen t ,q ue p ou rc e t te r eg ion p r i se c l an s s ag l oba l i te e tn on p a sp ou r l aS e ine , p a re xemp le , e ts on ' c ou lo i r e conom ique u t i le ' , c a s p a r t icu l ie r s ' i l e n e s t . E n e f f e t ,q ue s a von s -nou sd ec e t t er e g ion al ' epoque d el ap e r te d es on i n dependance ?E l le e t a i to ccupee p a rn eu ft r ibu s ,s ep t e n G au le C e l t ique : l e s U ne l le s , A b r inca te s , B a joca sse s , V iduca s se s ,L exov ien s ,E suv ien se tA u le rque sE bu rov ice s , e td eux e n G au le B e lg ique : l e s C a le te se tl e s V e l ioca s se s . L a S e ine e tl a Ma rne c on s t i tuan t ac e t te é poque l al im i te e t hn iqu ee n t r el e st r ibu sc e l t e se tb e lge s ,c eq u in ' empöcha i t n u l lemen t u n t r af ic f l uv ia l i mpo r tan t , l ' exemp le d u c omme rce d e l ' e ta in e n p rovenance d e l ' ac tue l le C o rnoua i l le s ( S t rabon , I V .1 .14 e tI V .3 ) v e r s Ma r se i l le v i a l ep ay sd e s C a le te s e tp eu t -e t re d e sL exov ien s ,p u i sp a rl a S aöne e tl eR höne ,e tc e al ' epoque d el ' i ndependance ,e ne s t l am e i l leu re p reuve . P a r l as u i t e , l ' impo r tance d e c e t r a f ic p e rdu r e ra e ts ' amp l if ie ra s ou s l ' o ccupa t ion r oma ine ( vo i r i n f ra ) . D ep l u s , l o r sque l ' on c ompu l se l e st e x te sa nc ien s ,1 e s tf r appan td ec on s ta t e rq ue l e sc onque ran t sr oma in sn ' on t p as e t e ' ma rque s ' p a rc e t te r eg ion e n t a n t q u 'en t i te . L eu r s i n fo rma t ions s on t s ouven t v ague s e t t e nue s , C e sa r l u i m eme n ' in teg re t i lp a sc e sp eup le sc l an su ng r and e n semb le a rmo r i ca in ,c eq u i ac on t r a r io t e nd d ' a ileu r s ad emon t r e rq ue c e t t er e g ion e s te n g r ande p a r t ie t o u rnee v e r sl am e re tp l u s p a r t icu l ie r emen tv e r ss ac ou s ine b r e tonne s u rl ' au t re r i ve d e l a Man che .D 'a i l leu r s , is u f f i td er e ga rde rl ' imp lan ta t ion d e s s i te sp r inc ipaux , t a n t al ' epoque d el ' i ndependance p ou rl e s o pp ida q u 'a l ' epoque r oma ine p ou rl e sv ile s . C e s v i l le s o n t , c l an s l ap l upa r t d e s c a s , u n r appo r t a ve c l an av iga t ion , q u 'e l le s o i t f l uv ia le o u m a r i t ime : C ou ta nce s ,B ayeux ,a vec p robab lemen ts on p o r ts u rl ac ö te d an s l ar e g ion d eP o r t -en -Be s s in , V ieux ,p ro che d el ' O rne , L is ieux , o ü o n t e t e t r ouve s l e s r e s t e s d ' un p o r t u t i l i se d e s l ' epoqu eg au lo ise ,H a r f leu re tL i l lebonne ,d on tl ' impo r tan ce e conom ique s ev e r ra f r e inee , s u i t e al ' ensab lemen td e l e u r p or t , e te n f in R ouen , q u i n e c e s se ra d e c ro i t re j u squ 'a d even i rc ap i ta le d el ap rov ince d eL yonna i se I eme a uB a s Emp i r e . L ' imp lan ta t ion d e s v o ie s r oma ine s e s t d e t r o i s s o r t e s , d ' une p a r t d e s v o ie s p a ra l le le s äl ac ö te e tp l u s o u mo ms e l o igne e s d e c e l le -e i , r e l ian t l e s c i te s l e s u ne s a ux a u t re s , d ' au t re p a r t u n s y s teme d e v o ie s b eaucoup p lu s c omp lexe e td en se e n v an & d e S e ine , R ouen e n & an t l e n oeud d e c ommun ica t ion p r inc ipa l d ' oü p a r ten t d e s v o ie s v e r s Am ien s ,P a r i se te nf in ,p ou rl ap a r t ie o cc iden ta le d el a N o rmand ie ,l ar i ve g au che d el aS e ine yc omp r i s ,t r o i sa xe s d e p ene t ra t ion n o rd sud ä s avo i r l a v o ie V a logne s C ou tance s -Av ranche s -Renne s , c e l le p a r tan t d e V a logne s v e r sC ha r t r e sv i aB ayeux -V ieux Jub la in s -Le Man se te nf in l av o ie R ouen -Ev r eux -Ch a r t re s -O r lé an s . A u B a s -Emp i re , n o tammen t v e r s l af i n d u I Ieme s i èc le ,l aN o rmand ie s e ra r a vagee , al af o i sp a rl e sG e rma in s q u i o n tp e r ce l el i mes g e rman ique e tp a rl e sp i ra te s s a xon s q u i p i l le ron t l e s d eux r i ve s d e l a Manche e td e l am e r d u
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No rd . C e t te c r i se e n t ra ine ra u n c hangemen t d ans l ' u rban i sa t ion .O nc on s t ru i ra d e sr empa r t sa u tou rd e sv ine s , c omme p a r e xemp le a C ou tance s , A v ranche s , R ouen , E v reux , B ayeux e t C he rbou rg q u i d ev iend ra u ne p l a ce m i l i ta i re ; al ' i nve r se V ieux ,L ilebonne e tH a r f leu rp e rd ron t d e l e u r i mpo r tance . L ' au to r i te i mpe r ia le , n o tammen t s ou s l ' eg ide d eC on s tance C h lo re ,g ouve rneu rd e sG au le sd e2 92 3 06 , s e ra a men & a l u t te r t ou t al a f o i s c on t re l e s G e rma ins , l e s p i ra te s s axon s e t A l le c tu s , a s sa s s in e t s u cce s seu rd el ' u su rpa teu rC a rau s iu s , l e que lp ro f i t an td el a c r i se d e l ' Emp i re , a t te s t& e n t re a u t re s p a r l e s n omb r eux e n fou i s semen t s d e t r e so r s mone ta i re s s u rl af r ange c ö t ie re ( J igan 1 982 ; J i gan 1 986 ; L o r io t 1 980 ; L o r io te tD e lapo r te 1 980 ) , s ' e ta i t p roc lame e mpe reu r e ta va i t a u to r i t e s u r l e s d eux r i ve s d e l a Manche , aR ouen n o tammen t . Lea d e d e lab r emen td ec e t t ep a r t ie d el ' Emp i r ee t a i tt e lq ue l ' au to r i t e i mpe r ia le c r ea l el i t u ss axon i cum ( d on tl ap r inc ipa le s ou r ce d er e n se ignemen te s tl aN o t i t ia D ign i ta tum ) ,d on tl e sc i te s m i l i ta i re sp r inc ipa le s d an s n o t re r e g ion e t a ien tC ou tance s , A v ranche se tR ouen ,v e r sl e sque l le ss e ron td ' a i l leu r sr e p l ie s d i ve r s c on t ingen t s m i l i ta i re s , p a rm i l e sque l s l e s L e t e s , p eup le s ad em i b a rba re s i n teg res a l ' Emp i re , d ans l e s r e g ions d e B ayeux e tC ou tance s . Ac on t rar io , l ac i te d e V ieux r e s te ra v i l le o uve r te e tp e r ic l i te ra p ou rn ' e t re p l u s al a f md el ' Emp i r eq u 'une d ependance d eB ayeux . N eanmo in s ,m a lg re c e sa cqu i s , l ' e tude d ' une p a r td e l ac e ram ique , q u 'e l le s ol ii mpo r t& o ud ef a b r ica t ion l o ca le e td ' au t re p a r td el ' a r t i sana tn ou sp e rme td em e su re ru np eu p lus c l a i remen t l ' evo lu t ion d e c e t te r eg ion e t , e ven tue l lemen t ,d ' eva lue rs on r o le d ez one d ep a s sage ,d one d em ieux a pp rehende rl e sg r ande st e ndance sc omme r c ia le s q u il ac a ra c t e r i sen t . N ou sa von sd one p r i sl ep a r t id ep r e sen te rc e t te e t ude d em an ie re c h rono log ique ,c l an s l am e su re d up o s s ib le b i en e n t endu . E n p r eambu le i f a u t d ' abo rd s ou l igne r q ue t o u t l e m a t e r ie lc e r am ique n es e ra p a st r a i t ed el am öme f awn ,c e , c i t i en ts an sd ou t ep l u s äl ' e ta td el ar e che r che q u 'au r e f le td el a r e a l i te h i s to r ique . At i re d ' exemp le , o n p eu tc on s ta te rq ue l e sc e ram ique sb l anche sd el ' A l l ie r ,q ue l e s' b u t t -b eake r s 'e t l e s v a se sb ob ine s s on tp r e sen t s u np eu , u n p eu p a r tou t . L e p rob leme d e sg obe le t s d 'Aco e s td i f f e r en t , i le n e x i s te t i e s p eu e tl ap l u sg r ande p a r t ie e s tl o ca l is ee aE v reux . L ' e tude d e l a s i g i l lee a e t e e f fec tuee s u r l e s e s tamp i l le s , e tc e v o lon ta i remen t , d ' une p a r t p a rce q u ' i l n ' e ta i tp a sp o s s ib le m a t e r ie l lemen td ev o i re td ec l a s se rd e s m i l l ie r s d et e s son s &co re s r e pa r t i s d an s t o u te l ar e g ion e t d ' au t re p a r tp a r ce q ue l e se s tamp ile sr e p re sen t en tu nv e c t eu r s u f f i sammen t f i ab le p ou r c a rac te r ise r l a d i f fu s ion d e s d i f f e ren t s a t e l ie r s m eme s in ou s s a von s p a ra i l leu r s q ue l a p ropo r t ion d e s i g i l lee e s tamp i l lee v a r ia i t d ' un a t e l ie r au n a u t re . I mpor ta t ions a u H au t -Emp ire T ou t d ' abo rd , q ue s a vons -nou s s u r l ap r e sence d e s i g i l le e p recoce i t a lo -gau lo ise e s tamp i l lee e t d e g a l lo -be lge e s tamp i l lee? L a s i g i l lee i t a lo -gau lo ise ( i ta l ique o u l y onna ise ) e s t a u n omb re d e 3 3 e xemp la i re s p ou r 1 26 e xemp la i re sd e g a l lo -be lge e s tamp i l lee , c e l le -e ip rovenan t c l ans s on i mmense m a jo r i te d e s a t e l ie r s d e l aV e s le e td e V e r tau l t( F ig . 1 ;B la szk iew icz e tD av id 1 987 ) . Ap e r iode d e
P .B l a szk i ew i cz p roduc t ion e ga le ( 20 a y . J . -C . a2 0 a p . J . -C . ) , e n t r e l e s 1 2 s i t e s d e d e couve r te d e s 3 5 e xemp la i re s d e g a l lo -be lge e t c eux d e sn eu fe xemp la i re sd es i g i l le ei t a lo -gau lo i se ( F ig .2 ; B la szk iew icz e tJ i gan 1 988 ) ,l e ss i te sl e sm ieux r e p re sen t& p a r l as i g i l lee i t a lo -gau lo i se s on t C ou tance s , L i s ieux e t E v reux ; l e s c e ram ique s g a l lo -be lge s s on t m a jo r i ta i remen t r e p re sen tee s aC ou tance s ( d eux e xemp la i re s ) , E v reux ( 16 e xemp la i re s ) e t R ouen ( qua t re e xemp la i re s ) . Ap e r iode e ga le , o n p eu td onc c on s ta te r l ap r imau te d e l ac e ram ique g a l lo -be lge s u r l ' i ta lo -gau lo ise . D e f a Qon p lu s g ene ra le , d onc e n t e nan t c omp te d u n omb re t o ta l d ' e s tamp i l le s , t a n t i t a lo -gau lo i se s q ue g a l lo -be lge s , o np eu t c ons ta t e rq ue l e s s i te s n o rmand s o n t e t e m ieux a pp rov i s ionne s e n p rodu i t s g a l lo -be lge s q u 'en i t a lo -gau lo is d on t l e s a t e l ie r s s on t e n p h a se d ed e cl in .L ap r e sen ce c oncom i tan t ed ec e sd eux t y pe s c e r am ique sc oncer n ee s sen t ie l lemen tE v reux e tR ouen ,a ve c t o u te fo i s u ne d i f fu s ion p lu s i mpo r tan t e aE v reux , R ouen p a ra i s san tn ' ete q u 'une i mp lan ta t ion d e mo ind re i mpo r tance p ou rc e t te p e r iode . L ec a sd eC ou tance se s tp l u ss pe c i f ique ,p a r ce q u 'on yr e t rouve c e s d eux p rodu i t s d ans d e s p ropo r t ions s e ns ib lemen tc ompa rab le s . L ec a s d u c amp d e B enouv i l le ( u ne e s tamp i l le d es i g i l lee l y onna i se )p ou r ra i tm an i f e s te rl e s ouc i d u c onque ran tr oma in d e s t uve i l le r l ' embouchu re d e l ' O rne e tc ep r eco cemen t . D e rn ie r p o in t ac on s ide re r p ou r c e s c e ram ique s , l a g r ande m a jo r i te d e s c e ram ique s g a l lo -be lge s p rov ien t d u c ou lo i r u t i le d e l a S e ine ( 126 e xemp la i re s p ou r 1 4 e n B a s se -No rmand ie ,d on ts ep tp ou rl es e u lv i cu s d et a nneu r s äC aen ( v o i r i n f ra ) , c e q u i mon t re c l a i remen t l ' ex i s tence d ' un v a s te c ou ran t c omme r c ia l e s t -oue s t ( B la szk iew icz e t D av id 1 987 ) . D an s l em eme o rd re d ' idee s ( F ig . 3 ) , l e s v as e s a g l ap re p l omb i f e re d uc en t re d el aG au le ( J igan 1 988 ) s on t s i tu& d an s l e u rg rande m a jo r i te d an s l ec ou lo i ru t i le d e l a S e ine ( 49 e xemp la i re s ) , e n H au te -No rmand ie , p ou r 1 3 e xemp la i r e se nB a s se -No rmand ie . E n o u t re , l a p l ace d u m a te r ie l p rovenan t d e s n ec ropo le s ye s tp r eponde ran te , s o i tp r e s d e9 0% d u t o ta l . C e c h if f re , d ' a i l leu r s , e s t a man ie r a vec p recau t ion p u i squ 'une g r ande p a r td ec e sd e couve r te s a6 ee f f ec tuee a u s i èc le p r eceden t p a r l e s ' An t iqua i re s ' , l e sque l s a va ien t l ' a s su rance d ' y t r ouve r d e s o b je ts e n b on e t a t d e c onse rva t ion . Ma lg re c e la , l a n a tu re d e s s i te s d e c on somma t ion n ' inf lue p a s s u rl af r equence d e s f o rme s . A l i t r e d ' exemp le , l e s f o rme s mou lee s s on t m a jo r i ta i r e s , s o i t p r e sd e7 0% ,a l o r sq ue l e sf o rme sl i s se sr e p re sen t en t 1 0% e t l e s f i gu r ine s 2 0% . D 'a i l leu r s , n ou sa r r ivon s ad e s r e su l ta t s a na logue s ac eux d e G reene ( 1 978 ) d an s s on e t ude s u r l e s v a se s p l omb i fe re s e n G rande -B re tagne . D e rn ie r p o in t a s i gna le r , l a m a rque r a r i ss ime ANN IO r e t rog rade a e t e t r ouvee s u ru ne c r u che m ou lee d an sl an ec ropo le d uG rand J a rd in aL i s ieux . D ix s i tes n o rmand s s u r p re s d ' une c en ta ine r e p re sen ten t7 5% d ut o ta ld es i g ile ee s tamp i l lee ( F ig .4 ) ,l a r e pa r t i t ion d ec e t t ec e ram ique s ' ope re d el af Kon s u ivan te : 3 % p ou r l eg roupe i t a lo -gau lo i s , 3 7% p ou r l eg roupe d u S ud d el aG au le ,5 0% p ou rl eg roupe d uC en t re d el aG au le e te n f in 1 0% p ou rl e sa t e l ie r sd el ' E s t . P ou r l eI e r s i èc le , h o rm i s l ef a i t q ue l eg roupe d e s a t e l ie r s d u S ud d e l a G au le e s t m a jo r i ta i re , s o i t 3 72 e xemp la i re s p ou r 4 5 e xemp la i re s d u C en t re , l e s s i te s l e s m ieux r e p re sen t& s on t R ouen , a vec 1 98 e xemp la i re s ,
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E v reux , a ve c 6 0 e xemp la i res , e t L i s ieux , a vec 4 3 e xemp la i re s . I if a u t n o te r e ga lemen t q ue l a B a s se -No rmand ie s emb le c on s t i tue r l al im i t e n o rd -oue s t d e l ad i f fu s ion d e l ' a t e l ie rd e Mon tan s ,h o rm i sl aG rande -B re tagn e . P ou r l eH er ne s i èc le , l e s a t e l ie r s d u C en t re s on t r e p re sen t& p a r4 60 e xemp la i r e s ,d on t 1 80 p ou rl as ca l ec i te d eR ouen , 5 5 aL i s ieux , e tE v reux , q uan t ae i le ,e n l i v r an t 2 7e xemp la i r e s . L ar e p r e sen ta t iv i te d e s s i g i l lee sd u S ud t r ouve e se n N o rmand ie s emb le t o u t af a i tc ompa rab le ac ele d e sg r and s s i te s g a l lo roma ins , l en omb re max imum c o r re spondan t a ux a nnee s4 0 a8 0d en ot ee r e ,l er a ppo r te n t re l ap e r iod e 1 ( d e 0a4 0 )e tl ap e r iode 2( d e4 0 a8 0 )& an td el ' o rd re d ' une e s tamp i l le p ou rs i x . L ar e p r e sen ta t iv i te d e sa t e l ie r sd uC en t re d el aG au le s emb le , e i le a u s s i , l og ique , s on max imum d e p roduc t ion & an t l e s a nne e s 1 50 a2 00 d e n ote e r e . E n r evanche , i l a ppa ra i t c l a i remen t q ue l e s s i g i l lee s d e l ' Es t o n t e t e d i f f u see sb eaucoup p l u st o t ,d onc a uc ou r sd e sa nnee s 1 0° 1 50 d en ote e r e ,e t ,d ep l u s ,n on p a se xc lu s ivemen ts u rd e s s i te su rba in s ,c e c iv a lan tt o u ta u mo ms p ou rl a No rmand ie . At i re d ' exemp le , aR ouen , p ou r u ne ' Anode e ga le , l e r a ppo r te s td el ' o rd re d ' un e xemp la i re d el ' E s tp ou rt r o i sd u C en t re . P u i s , d an s l ad e rn ie re p e r iode d e p roduc t ion , i l d im inue f o r temen tp ou rn ' e t re p lu sq ue d ' un e xemp la i r ed e l ' E s tp ou rh u i td uC en t re . P a r a i l leu r s , l ' e tude q u i ae t e m en& a p enn i s d e p r ec i se r c e r ta ine s d onnee s c h rono log ique s p ou r l e s s i te s n o rmand s . G loba lemen t ,l e ss i t e sl e sm ieux a pp rov i s ionne s a u I e r s i èc le s on t C ou tances , E vreux e t R ouen . C u r ieu semen t , l e s i te d e L i l lebonne , d on t o n c onna i t p ou r tan t l ' impo r tance p ou r c e t te p e r iode , e s t e t rangemen t a b sen t( c eq u ie s tp eu t -e ' t re l ' e xemp le d e sl ü n i t e se ven tue l le s d e c e t y pe d ' i tude s ) . A u I eme s iè c le , l e s s i te s l e s m ieux a pp rov i s ionne s ,t a n te ns i g ilee d uC en t re q ue d el ' E s t ,s o n t R ouen , L i s ieux e tL i l lebonne , p a r o rd re d e c ro i s san t . E n r evanche , o n p eu t n o ter l ' ef fondremen t d es a pp rov i s ionnemen t s aE v reux , c e q u i s emb le e t re d an s l a l o g ique d e sc ho se s . D e rn ie r p o in t p a r t icu l ie r a p r ec i se r , s u r 9 6 e xemp la i re s d e s i g i l lee d e l ' Es t , 5 5 a ppa r t iennen t a ux a t e l ie r sd 'A rgonne e t ,q u ip l u se s t ,p r e sd e sn eu fd i x ieme sd e c e s c e ram ique s s on t l o ca l i see s s u r l ec ou lo i r u t i le d e l a S e ine .D ep l u s ,e le ss on ta s so c iee s ,d an sl ap l upa r td e sc a s , ad e s g obe le t s r a inu re s sab le s , ad ep re s s ion o u n on , d e s I eme I I Ieme s i ec le s d e n o t re e r e , f a b r ique s e ga lemen te n A rgonne . P re s d e s t r o i s q ua r t s d e c e s g obe le t s , d on t 2 00 e xemp la i re s p ou r l e s eu l R ouen , o n t e t e d ecouve r t s e n H au t e -No rmand ie ( F ig . 5 ;B la szk iew i cz e tD u fou rn ie r 1 9 87 ; B la szk iew i cz e tD u f ou rn ie r1 989 ) . P a r c on t re , e n B a sse -No rmand ie , e t p lus p a r t icul ie remen td an s l ap l a ine d e C a en , l aq ua s i -ma jo r i t e d e sg obe le t ss on tg r i s ap ä te b l anche e ts et r ouven ta s soc ie s ad e ss i g i l le e sd uC en t r ed el aG au le a uI eme s i èc le d en o i r e e r e ( B la szk iew icz e tD u fou rn ie r 1 987 ) . A u t r e p henomene i n t e re s san t , b i en q u 'anecdo t ique , l ap r e sen ce d e c e ram ique p rovenan td e sa t el ie r sd e We t te rau ( F ig . 1 4 ) . C e s p rodu i t s , f a b r ique sa u Ieme s iè c le d en oi r ee r e ,o n te t ed e couve r t sa R ouen e n q uan t i te i mpo r tan te l o r s d e l a f ou i l le d ' un b ä t imen t q u i s emb le e t re u ne ' h a l le ap o i s sons ' ( Ha lbou t 1 989 ) . An o t e r6 ga lemen t , s u rl ar i ve d ro i t ed e l aS e ine ,e t p l u sp a r t icu l ie remen t äR ouen ,l ap re sence d ec e ram iqu e sd e
L a P lace d e l a No rmand ie d an s l ' Emp i re R oma in . . .
( Laubenhe ime r 1 989 ) . T ou te sc e sc on s ta ta t ion s n ep euven t d onc q ue n ou s i n c i te r ar e s te rd an sl ' exp ec ta t ive j u squ 'ä c e q ue l ' t tud e ,t a n t mo rpho log ique q ue p hy s i co ch im ique ,d ec e m a t e r ie ls o i tr 8 a l i s8e ,t ud eq u ie s te nc ou r sd ' 8 1abo r a t ion .
L abu i s s ie re e td e l aC a lo t te r ie , d a tab le s d e s H eme Ileme s i e c le sd en o t re e r e ,c e sa ram ique s& an tb i en c onnue sd an s l ' e x t reme n o rd -oue s td el aG au le ,d em eme q ue d an st o u te l a p a r t ie e s t d e l aB re tagne i n su la i re e tp lu s p rt c i s&nen t ' N ew F re sh Wha rf aL ond re s( R i cha rd son e tT ye r s 1 984 ) . G a sp a r t i cu l i e r s Leude d el ac &am ique d i te ' p ompt ienne 'n ' ap a s8 0m en8e b i en d ans c e t a r t ic le e t c e v o lon ta i remen t . E n e f f e t , l o r squ 'on c onna i tl e s d i ff i cu l t e sd ec a ra c tt r i sa t ion ( d ue sa u p rof i lm eme d ec et y pe d ec i ram ique )e td er e s t i tu t ion al e u r a i r e d e p roduc t ion , u ne s eu le i n t thode f i ab le e x i s te : l a c a r ac tt r i sa t ion p hy s ico -ch im ique . C e l le -c i n ' en & an t q u 'ä s on p r 8ambu le , n ou s p ouvon s s eu lemen t c on s ta te r , d an s q ue l ac &am ique p omp 8 ienne e s tp i t sen te s u r p r a t iquemen t t ou s l e s s i te s n o rmand s , d u I e r a u I Veme s i è c le ,d an sd eg r ande sp ropo r t ion s ,n o tammen t aR ouen e t E v reux . U ne e xcep t ion c ependan t , l ' ex i s tence d ' une e s tamp i l le s u r aram ique d e s t y le g a l lo -be lge ac ouve r te r ouge ,t r ouvte aR ouen ,e tp rovenan td e sa t e l ie r sd eT hu i sy e tS ep t -Sau lx ( F romo l s 1 939 ) . L ' e s tamp i l le l o go typ ique e s t c ompo ste d ' une s u i te d e b a r re s p l u s o u mo ms d i agona le s l e su ne sp a rr a ppo r ta ux a u t re s .E l le ad ' a ileu r sd onn8 l i eu ä d eux l e c tu re s d i f f t ren te s ( Tu f f reau -L ib re 1 981 ; F romo l s 1 939 ) . Ma i s , l ep r inc ipa l i n ee t , o u t re s on e s tan ip ile s u r c ouve r te p ompt ienne , r e s ide s an s d ou te d ans l e s 1 3 p e r fo r a t ion si n comp le te sa ppo st e ss u rl ep ou r tou ri n tt r ieu r d uf o nd . D ep l u s ,c e sp e r fo ra t ion ss emb len tf o nc t ionne rp a r s y s t eme b i na i re . F au t i l l u i a s s igne r u n r o le c u l ina i re o u t o u ts imp lemen td 8co ra t i f ? A ucune 8 t ude d ' impo r tance s u r l e s a mpho re s n ' a e nco re 6 t 8 m en & a b i en , h o rm is s u r c e l le s d e B a s se N o rmand ie ( Den iaux 1 980 ) ,e nco re q ue l ' on p u i s s er e g re t t e r l ' ab s ence d ' 8 tude sp hy s ico -ch im ique s e f f e c tu8e s a l o r s . L e s a mpho re s s e ron t d onc t r a i t8e s t i e s b r ievemen t , a u m eme t i r e q ue l ac t ram ique p omp8 ienne e td ' a i l leu r s p ou r l e s m eme s r a i son s . L e s a mpho re s s er e t rouven t s u rl ap l upa r t d e s s i t e s e tc e l le s q u i s on t p r t sen te s l ep l u s m a s s ivemen t s on t l e s D re s se l 1( s ou s type s A , Bo u C ) , D r e s se l 2 -4 , D r e s se l 7 13 , D re ss e l 2 0 , a i n s i q ue l e s P a scua l 1 ,c omme p a re xemp le aC ou tance sa vec l e sP a s cua l 1e tD re s se l2 4 , B ayeux a ve c l e sD re s se l 2 0 , aC aen a vec l e sP a s cua l 1e t D r e s se l 1 , aJ o r ta vec u n iquemen td e sD re ss e l2 0 , aL i s ieux a ve c d e s D re sse l 7 11 e t aE xme s a vec u n iquemen t d e s D r e s se l I A( F ig . 6 ) . E n c e q u i c once rne l e s d a ta t ion s , o n p eu t c on s ta te r q u 'ho rm i sl ' ampho re m a s sa l io te d 8couve r t e äl ' embouchu re d e l ' O rne , e tv ra i semb lab lemen t d a tab le d u I Ieme s i èc le a van t n o t re e r e , e t l e s s e r ie s d ' ampho re s d a tab le s d e l ' i n e endance t r ouvt e s äE xme se t äN a cquev ile ,l ag r ande m a jo r i tt d e c e s p rodu i t s a ppa r t ien t a u H au t -Emp i r e a vec , n o tammen t , u ne s t r ie 8 t onnammen t c oh&en te d 'eoque a ugu s t 8enne aC ou tance s , c e q u i c on f inne l ' impo r tance d e c e t te c i te a c e t te é poque ( Le P esan t 1 963 ) . Q uan t a ux o r ig ine s d e f ab r ica t ion d e c e s a mpho re s , if a u t e t re e x t r ememen tp ruden t . E n e f f e t , s il ' on s ai lq ue l e s D re ss e l 2 0s e rva ien ta ut r anspo r td el ' hu i le d eB t t ique ,n ou ss a von s 8 ga lemen tq ue s il e s D re s se l 1 ,s e rvan ta ut r an spo r td uv i n , p euven tp roven i r s o i t d u L a t ium , d ' E t ru r ie , d e C ampan ie , s o i td ' a te l ie r s d eN a rbonna i se , t e lq ue S a in t Ju s t , o um eme d eL yonna i se , aL yon m eme ,l e sD re s se l2 4p rov iennen td e T a r ra cona i se e td e C ampan ie , m a i s q ue p a s mo ms d e 1 3 a t e l ie r s d eN a rbonna i se e td eux d eL yonna i se ( C rouz i l le s Mougon e t L yon ) e n o n t 8 ga lemen t f ab r iqu8es
3 7
I mpor ta t ions a u B as -Emp ire L e s c t ram ique s i mpo r tte s e n N o rmand ie a u B a s -Emp i re p rov iennen t d ans l e u r g rande m a jo r i tt d e q ua t re r e g ion s d i f f& en t e s . L a e t ram ique d i te ' a p rodu i te s c ion t o u te v r a i semb lan ce d an sl eC en t re -Oue s td el aG au le ,e s tt r ouvte e np e t i t eq uan t i t8 l el o ng d e sc ö te s e ts u rd e s s i te s o ud an s d e sn i veaux t a rd i f sc omme Av ranche s ,C he rbou rg , V ieux , C aen e t R ouen . E l le e s t c ons tammen t a s soc i8e a l a c &am ique d 'A rgonne d 8co r8e a l a mo le t te e tl aB lack B u rn i shed W a re l ( BB1 c i -ap re s )d uD o r se t . L ac &am ique d 'A rgonne d eco r& äl a mo le t t e( F ig .7 ; H a lbou te tJ i gan 1 987 )e s tp rt sen te s u r3 2s i te s , ar a i son d e 50 e xemp la i re s , d on tp lu s d e 1 80 aR ouen , 10 aB ayeux e tp re s d e6 5 aE v reux . S u rp re s d e 5 50 e xemp la i re s , 5 30 a ppa r t iennen t al af o rme C hene t 3 20 . C e t te aram ique e s t p rt sen te i n va r iab lemen t s u r t o u te s s o r te s d e s i te s c omme B ayeux , p ou r l ' hab i ta t u rba in , o u S a in t - Ma r t in -de F on t enay , c omme e xemp le d e n dc ropo le r u ra le . Q ua t re d e c e sc &am ique ss o r ten td el ' o rd ina i re d ep a rl e u rf o rme e td u f a i t q u 'e l le s s on t 8 p ig raphe s . T ro i s d ' en t re e l le s s on t d e s f o rme s C hene t 2 38 e ts on t s i gnte s CONCOR aE v reux , R ouen e t Anüe re s su r I ton ,l ad e rn ie re & an tb eaucoup p l u s r a re d e p a r s a s i gna tu re ALL INUS OF , s i g le s eu lemen t c onnu p a r a i l leu r s aK e rvenne c -en -Pon t -C ro ix ( Ga l l iou 1 974 ) . L e s aram ique s r omano -b r i tann ique s ( F ig . 8 ) , q u ' i l s ' ag i s se d e BB1 ,d eN ew F o re s td u I Ie rne s i èc le ,d eG rog T emp e red d u I Veme s i èc le , t r ouvte s aC he rbou rg o u a u B uque t , p re s d e R ouen , d 'Oxfo rd d u I Veme s i èc le , d 8couve r te d ans l an t c ropo le d e T ourv i l le la -R iv ie re [ o u b i en m eme a u H au t -Emp i re d e s mo r t ie r se s ta rnp i l l8 sd a te s d e l af i n d u I e r s i èc le ] ( B la szk iew icz e ta l . 1 988 ) , o n t 8 t 8 d 8couve r te ss u ru ne I r en ta ine d es i te sn o rmand s .H o rm i sc e s d 8couve r te s p onc tue l le s , l a c t ram ique m a jo r i ta i remen t p r t sen te e s tl a BB1 d u D o r se t( F ig . 9 ) , p l u s d e 6 00 v a se s , d on t 1 50 e nv i ron aC he rbou rg ,7 0 aR ouen e tp l u sd e3 00 B ayeux , r ep r8 sen tan t p re s d e 2 0% d u t o ta l g l oba l d e a ram ique äB ayeux e te nv i ron 1 0% aC he rbou rg e tR ouen ( F ig . 1 0 ) . L e s c ook ing p o ts r ep it sen ten t e nv i ron 5 6% d e l ' en semb le d e BB1 , l e sg obe le t s 2% ( d on tc u r ieu semen tl e s n eu fd i x ieme so n té t ét r ouvi sl o r sd e sf o u i l le sd en t c ropo le s t a rd ive s d an s l ar eg ion d e C aen ) , l e s j a t te s 1 8% e t l e s a s s ie t te so up l a t sp r e sd e2 3% . P a r c on t re , t r o is aram iques p rovenan t d e F r houv i l le ( Pho to s 1e t2 )e tB ayeux ( Pho to 3 )o n tP ue t r e a ppa ren t8es c h im iquemen t a l a BB1 , ma lg r8 u ne d i s semb lance m o rpho log ique a vec l e sp rodu i t sa u jou rd 'hu i i d en t i f ie sd uD o r se t( B la szk iew icz 1 990 , ap a ra i t r e ) . U ne d i za ine d e s i te sn o rmand s ,n o tammen tB ayeux , R ouen e tC he rbou rg ,o n t äl af o i sd e sc &am ique sd 'A rgonne d 8co rte s al a mo le t te e td el a BB1 d an sd e sp ropo r t ion sd e u ne B B1 p ou rd eux d 'A rgonne dco rt e s al a mo le t t e . L a q ua s i -ma jo r i tt d e l a BB1 d tcouve r te s u r l e c on t inen t p rov ien t d es s i te s n o rmand s , a i ns i q ue d e B re tagne , ma i s , h o rm is Me t , e n mo ind re i mpo r tance . P a r c on t r e , e n P i ca rd ie , c e t te c t ram ique e s t q ua s i i n ex i s tan t e , p a r ce q ue c e t te r e g ion f a i sa i tp robab lemen tp a r t ie d ' une a u t re
P . B la szk iew icz
c a ra c t e r is en tp a ru nf ond p l a te tl ap r d sence d e t r o i sr a inu re ss u ru ne l e v re p l a te .L eu ra i re d e d i s t r ibu t ion e s tf o rmee d ' un t r i ang le e ng loban t l e s c i tes d e B ayeux , L i s ieux e t F a la ise ( Du fou rn ie re t Ma r in 1 987 ) . C ependan t , u ne a mpho re mo rpho log iquemen ta na logue ,b i en q ue c h im iquemen td i ve rgen te , a6 t 6d ecouve r te aC okhe s te r ( c ommun ica t ion p e r sonne l le d e R . S ymond s ; P ho to 5 ) a i n s i q ue s u r c i nq a u t r e ss i te sb r i tann ique s( Bu she -Fox 1 932 ) .
a i re e omme r c ia le ,l al i gne S o len t -Se ine e nc on s t i tuan ts a n s d ou te l al im i te . C e t te d i spe r s ion d e BB1 e s t d ' a i l leu r s a r a pp roche rd ec ele d el aB re tagne i n su la i re o ül a BB1 m i se a uj ou rs u rl e s s i te s d u S ud -Oue s tr e p re sen te j u squ 'a 6 0 % d u t o ta lg l oba ld e c e ram ique ( Fu l fo rd 1 987 ) . E nr e vanche , t o u te l ap a r t ie e s te tn o rd e s to ccupee m a jo r i ta i remen tp a r l e s c e ram ique s d 'Oxfo rd e tp a r l a BB2 d u K en t e td e l a r e g ion d eC o lche s t e r . L es p roduc t ions l o ca les ( F ig . 1 ) I ie x i s t ep ou rl aN o rmand ie u ne mu l t i tude d en o t e sc l an sd e s r e vue s l o ca le s , s i non a nc ienne s , s u rd e s m en t ion sd e f ou r s q u ' i l ss o ien td et u i l ie r , au sage d ome s t ique o ud ec e r am ique u sue l le . E n l ea a c tue l d e n os c onna i s sance s , i l a6 t 6 n eanmo ins p o s s ib le d ' ex t i rpe r d e c e l o t q ua t re a t e l ie r s p r inc ipaux :
4 .L ' a te l ie r d e L yon s la -Fo re t , d on t o n s a i l p eu d e c ho se , s ic e n ' e s t q u ' i l p ra t iqua u ne monop roduc t ion d ' o l lae g r ise s , am e t t re p robab lemen te nr a ppo r ta ve c' impo r tan ts i te d ec on somma t ion q u '6 ta i tR ouen ,o üd ' a i l leu r s l e sp roduc t ion sd ec e ta t el ie rs on tr epe r to r iee s e n q uan t i t6 n on n eg l igeab le d an s l em a te r ie l i s su d e sf ou i l le s .
1 .U n a t e l ie r d ' im i ta t ion d e BB1 f a b r iquan t m a jo r i ta i remen t d e s c ook ing p o t s e td e s a s s ie t te s . C e t te p roduc t ion , b i en q ue t r e s p roche d el a BB1 ,s e &ma rque d ec e l le -e ip a r u ne c ou leu r p lu s o c re e t s u r tou t p a r u n m icacage d e s urface t i e s d ense . L a c a rac te r i sa t ion , t a n t p hys ico -ch im ique q ue m o rpho log ique , d e f in i t l ad i spe r s ion d e c e s p rodu i t s c l an s l ap a r t ie n o rd -oue s td u B e s s in , n o tammen t aD eux Jumeaux ,a i n s iq ue s u rl e s s i t e sd un o rd d uC o ten t in ,t e l sq ue C he rbou rg e tR ev i l le , e t , p ou r l aB re tagne c on t inen ta le , s u r l e s i te d e C o r seu l ( commun ica t ion p e r sonne l le d e F . F iche t d e C la i r fon ta ine ) . T ou t c e m a te r ie l p rov ien t d e s i te s t a rd i f s d u B a s -Emp i re . C e t a t e l ie r n ' e s t p a s l o ca l i se a l ' heu re a c tue l le ( B la szk iew icz 1 990 , a p a ra i t re ) .
L e s a u t re s a t e l ie r s s on t a u n omb re d e 3 6 ( J igan e t Ma r in 1 987 ) . Ma lheu reu semen t ,l ap l u sg r and ep a r t ie d ec e s f ou r s a6 t 6 f ou i l lee a nc iennemen t e tl em a te r ie l e s t s o i l 6 pa rp i l le , s o i lp e rdu . N eanmo in s , t r o i sd ec e sa t el ie r sn ou s o n tf ou rn id um a te r ie l v i s ib le : A len pn ( F ig . 1 5 ,n Q 1 ,4 ,5 , 7 ,8 ,9 , 1 ) , L i s ieux ( F ig . 1 5 , n Q 2 ,3 ,6 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 7 ) e tH a r f leu r ( F ig . 1 6 ) . C e s p roduc t ion s s on t c a rac te r i s t ique s d u ma t e r ie l r e connu s u r l e s d i ve r s s i te s n o rmand s e t s e r e sumen t ad es c e ra rn ique s u sue l le s e t c u l ina i re s , a s s ie t te s o u m a rm i te s , d on t l ag r ande m a jo r i t 6 e s td a tab le d uH e rne s i èc le d en o t re e r e . E lemen t s d 'Ar t i sana t e t d e C ommerce L e s s ou r ce s ap ropo s d e l ' a r t i sana t e td u c omme r ce s on t d i f f e ren te s e tc omp lemen ta i re s , d ' une p a r t l e s d e couve r te s e f f e c tu6 e s l o r s d e f ou i l le s a r cheo log ique s , d ' au t re p a r t l e s m en t ion s o u i n s c r ip t ion s 6 p ig raph ique s p ro f e s s ionne l le s , n o tammen t p ou r l e s m e t ie r s d u c omme rce , l e sque l s a l ' i n s ta r d e s a u t r es r eg ions d e l ' Emp i re s on t m a jo r i ta i re s ( Goud ineau 1 980 , 3 12 ) . Q u i p lu s e s t , u n n omb re s u f f i san t d ' in scr ip t ion s d an s u n c r 6neau c h rono log ique c ohe ren t ( m i l ieu d u I eme -f in d u I Ieme s i èc le d e n o t re e r e ) c onceman tl et e x t i le e x i s te p ou rq u ' i ls o i tp o s s ib le d ' eme t t r e q ue lque sc onc lu s ion s .L el i ne t a i td é jà c u l t i e ac e t te é poque al af o i sc he zl e sC a le te s ,l e sV e l ioca s se s ,l e sE bu rov ice se t l e sV iduca s s e s . E n r evanche , l e s m en t ions d e f ou lons e t d ' un v es t iarus p euven t c once rne r t ou t a u tan t l et r ava i l e tl e c omme r ce d ul i nq ue d el al a ine .O r ,l e sr e g ion sd ' Ev reux e t d e V ieux c onv iennen t t o u t af a i t ä1 1 6 1 evage o v in ( d e n o s j ou r s e nco re ) . L ' u t i l i sa t ion d e l al a ine p ou r l et i s sage e s t d one v r a i semb lab le . L e f i l age e s te ga lemen tc e r t if i e p a rl a mu l t i tude d e f u sa io le s d 6 couve r te s s u r d e n omb reux s i t e s n o rmand s , t o u t c omme l e t i ssage a R ouen o ü f u ren t d e couve r t sd en omb reux p o in9on s( Ha lbou te ta l . 1 982 ) ,o n aV ieux o ü u n l o ti mpo r tan td e m e t ie r s at i s se rv e r t icaux a 6 t 6 m i s a uj ou r d an s u n q ua r t ie r a r t i sana l d a te d u I Ieme s iè c le ( F lamba rd i n ed i t ) .U ne i n s c r ip t ion f u lt r a i r ec ofobo r e d ' a ileu r sp robab lemen tl e sd ecouve r t e sd eV ieux :
2 .L ' a te l ie r d e s V en te s , s i tue p r e s d ' Ev reux , f u t f ou i l le p a r t ie l lemen tp a rM . L e P e san t , i yau ne t r en ta ine d ' ann6e s .C ec en t r e ad ' abo rd p rodu i tv r a isemb lab lemen td e sg obe le t sg r i sa p ä te b lanche , morpho log iquemen t c ompa rab le s a ux p roduc t ions a rgonna ise s , p u l sd e sm o r t ie r s ,d e sc r u che se td e sm a rm i t e s t r ipode s . Ma i sl ' o r ig ina l i t6 d ec e ta t e l ie rr e s ide c l ans l e s mo r t ie r s e s tamp i l l6 s . E n e f f e t , u ne p a r t ie d e c e s mo r t ie r s r e cue i l l i s e n f ou i l le p o r ta i t d e s s i g le s d e c i nq p o t ie r s d i f f e ren t s : C . I .C . , P apa f e c i t , P ix t i ta l , C re scen t ius , Ma rce l l inu s , a i ns i q u 'un p o in9on m a t r ice S ILV IN I , d on ta ucun e xemp la i re s t i r m on ie r n ' a d ' a i l leu r s 6 t 6 r e le e ( B la szk iew icz e ta l . 1 988 ; P ho to 4 ) . 3 . L 'a te l ie r d i t ' d 'A rgences ' ( F ig . 1 2 ) , p u i squ ' i l s ' e s t a ve r6 q ue l ' a rg i le d e l ar eg ion d 'A rgence s d ' une p a r t e t q ue l e s a na ly se s c h im ique sd e sp rodu c t ion sd ec e ta t e l ie rd ' au t r e p a r t s on t i d en t ique s , b i en q u ' i l n e s o i t p a s e nco re l o ca l i se a vec p r ec i s ion , ap rodu i td eux t ype s d e aram ique , l e s a mpho re s d i te s ' n o rmande s 'e td e sc r uche sl i ee sp robab lemen t al ac u l tu re d el av i gne f o r tr e pandue d ' a ileu r s a u tour d 'A rgences a u h au t Moyen A ge ( G rego i re d e T ou rs ) . C e s a mpho re s s e
" Aux D ieux Mäne s , P ou r S ex tus S enod iu s S eve ru s ,f a b r iquan td ee lemen t s ,s e sl e r i t ie r s o n tf a i tp o se r[ c e t t ep i e r re ]" ( C IL X I I I ,3 168 ) .
3 8
L a P l ace d e l aN o rmand ie d an s l ' Emp i re R oma in . . .
E n r a ppo r t a ve c l ef ou lage , if a u t n o te r l am i se a u j ou r aE v reux d ed eux p i sc ine s ,d on tl ' une ,e n 1 974 ,p r e sd e l ac a thed ra le , &ai lr e l iee al ' I ton . L ' insc r ip t ion d eP ub l iu s S u il iu s ,d a tab le d e sa nnee s 1 38 -144 d en o i re e r e ,a yan tp r i s s o in d ef a i re e xecu te r ,a ve cl ' au to r i sa t ion d us ena teu rC a iu s P ra s t ina P aca tu s ,l e ga ti mpe r ia l ,e ts u rd ec r e td e sd ecu r ion s , l e t r ava i l d ' une p i sc ine a l ' u sage d e s f ou lons d e Med io lanum , n ous f a i t p ense r d ' une p a r t q ue c e c o l lege d eva i t r e p re sen te r u n g roupe p ro f es s ionne l i mpo r tan t , d ' au t re p a r tq u 'on n ep eu tc e r t i f ie rq ue c e sd eux p i s c ine so n t u n r a ppo r td i rec t a ve c c e t te i n sc r ip t ion ,m a i s , s it e le t a i tl e c a s ,q u 'e l le so n tP u s e rv i ra ur e s ser age d e s ma i l le sd ut i s su p a rt r empage c eq u 'exp l ique ra i tp eu t -e t re " l ' au to r isa t ion d u s e na teu r " l o r squ 'on c onna i t l ' impo r tance d el am a s se d ' eau u t i l i see e t u see r e levan t d e c e t r ava i l . E nf in , aR ouen ( Ha lbou te ta l . 1 982 ) ,d e s p i gmen t sq u io n tP u e i r eu t il i se s p a r u n a r t isan t e in tu r ie r o n t e t e t r ouve s c l ans u n q ua r t ie r a r t i sana l . L at a nnage e s ta t te s te aR ouen ,C aen ( vo i rs up ra )e t G ibe rv i l le ( d eC aumon t 1 831 ) . L e t r ava i ld e l o se s tc onnu e n d i f f e ren t s e nd ro i t s d e N o rmand ie , b ien q u 'aucun i n ven ta i re n ' en a i t e t e f a i t . N eanmo in s , l es i te d e R ouen p a ra i t e t re l em e i l leu r e xemp le d e c e t te a c t iv i te . E n e f f e t , l o r sd ed eux f o u i l le se f f ec tuee se nd eux e nd ro i t se td ' epoque s d i f f e ren t e s ,r u ed e sA r s in se tp l a ce d el aC a thed ra le ( Ha lbou t e ta / . 1 982 ) , d e s d epo to i r s i mpo r ta n t s d e d e che t s d e t a i l le d ' os f u r en t d e couve r t s , c e q u i i n d ique p robab lemen t l a p r e s en ce d ' a r t i san st a b le t ie r s .U na t e l ie rd ' o r f ev re r ie ,d a te d e l af i n d u H er ne -débu td uI Ieme s i è c le ,f u tm is a uj ou rc l an s u n q ua r t ie ra r t i sana l ,p l a ce d e l aC a thed ra le . D en omb reux c r eu se t s ,a ve cp ou rc e r ta in sd e st r ace sd ' o ra uf ond ,a i n s iq ue d e st ö le sd eb ronze t r ava i l lee s , yf u r en td ecouve r t s .E n f in ,i l f a u tn o t e r , c omme i n d ice sd ' a r t i sana t ,l ap r e sence d ' un f ou r d ev e r r ie re td ' un f ou rd eb ronz ie r . L o r s d e l af ou i l le d e s f o s se s L ou i s V I I I ( Ha lbou t 1 989 ) , u n b ä t imen t d a te d u I Ieme s iè c le f u t &gage e t , d ' ap res s on p l an d ' ensemb le e t l a g r ande q uan t i te d e p o i s son s , is emb le q u ' i l f a i l le i n t e rp re te r l ed i t b ä t imen t c omme u ne h a l le ap o i s son s . AV ieux , f u td ecouve r te ,e n 1 975 ,u ne s t ruc tu re l i ee a uc omme r ce ( Be r t in -Ha lbou t 1 976 ;P i le t 1 984 ) .D an sc e t te m a i son d e t ru i te p a r l ef e u v e r s l af i n d u H e ine s iè c le d e n oi r e e r e , d e n omb reux f r agmen t s d e v a se s e n c e ram ique c ommune e ts i g i l lee , n ' ayan t j ama i s e t e u t i l i se s , f u ren t r e cue i l l i s . I l se t a ien tt o u s s i l l ie s a up i ed d e s mu r s . O np eu t d onc c on je c tu re r d ' une p a r t q u ' i l s e t a ien t s t ocke s s u r d e s e t age re sm u ra le se nb o i se tq ue d ' au t re p a r tl ' ex i s tence d ' un f o u rd ep o t ie ra u s ud d ec e t te m a i son e t a i tp robab lemen ta m e t t re e n r a ppo r t a vec c e l le -c i . D e p l u s , l ' ex i s tence d ' un c o f f re r emp l i d ' o rge e td e Me l el o ng d ' un mu r p e rme t d ' eme t t r e l ' hypo the se q ue n on s e u lemen t c e c omme rpn t f a b r iqua i t d e l ac e ram ique c ommune , m a i s q u 'en o u t re i f a isa i tc omme r ce d ec e t te p rodu c t ion o ud ec ele d ' un a r t i san v o i s in a s so c ie e ad el as i g i l lee e t ad ug r a in . P ou r c e q u i e s t d u t r af ic f l uv ia l , i lf a u t s ou l igne r l ' ex i s tence d e 1 ' p i rogue s ' monoxy le s , m ise s a u j ou r e n B a s se -No rmand ie ( Ede ine 1 964 ; C o rd ie r 1 972 ) . T ou te fo i s , d an s l ap l upa r t d e s c a s , e tj u s temen t p a r ce q u ' i l s ' ag i t d e d ecouve r te s a nc ienne s , l e u r d a ta t ion r e s te h ypo the t ique . N eanmo in s , h o rm is l e sp i rogue s d e couve r te s aB aup te e tä R auv i l le la -P lace ( Ca rbonneaux e ta / . 1 985 ) e td a tee s p a r 1 4C d u V eme s i èc le d e n oi re e r e , l ad ecouve r te d e t r o i s e pave s p r e s d u b ac d e Mondev i l le e n 1 80 1 ( Ge rva i s d e L ap r ise 1 80 1 ) s emb le e t re u n i n d ice p lus s e r ieux d e
3 9
c omme rce e t d e t r an spo r t f l uv ia l e n No rmand ie p ou r l ' epoque r oma ine . U n d e c e s b a teaux c on tena i t u n g rand n omb re d es emele sd ec hau s su r e sa i n s iq u 'un g r and n omb re d ec ome sd eb ov id e s .L ' au teu rr ema rque q ue c e t t ed ecouve r t e s emb le d a t e r d ' une é poque a n te r ieu re a c e l le d 'An ton in , p u i sque c e b a teau e t a i t e n seve l i p lu s p ro fondemen t q u 'un a u t r eb a t eau a t tenan t ac e lu i -c id uque lf u ren tm ise sa uj ou r d es monna ie s al ' ef f ig ie d 'An ton in l e P ieux . • C e t te d ecouve r t ee s td oub lemen ti n te r e s san te ,d ' une p a r tp a r ce q ue l ap r e sen ce d ec ome sd eb ov ide se s t am e t t le p robab lemen t e nr a ppo r td i r ec ta ve c l et r ava i ld el ' o se td ' au t re p a r tp a r ce q u 'on s a l tq ue l ev i cu s d eC aen ,d onc e nr a ppo r td i rec ta ve c u n c omme r ce f l uv ia l s u r l ' O rne , e t a i t u n v i cus o ü l a p r e sence d e st a nneu r se s ta t t e s t& ( J igan e t Mar in 1 981 ) . B ien q ue n e c once rnan t p a s d i re c temen t l ac i te d e R ouen e l le -meme , if a u t m en t ionne r l ' i n sc r ip t ion s u r u n c i ppe e n c a lca i re , t r ouve aL yon e td a te d e s a nnee s 2 40 a 3 10 d en o i r ee r e( V ipa rd 1 987 ) : " Aux D ieux Mäne s e t al am emo i re e t e rne l le d ' I ll ioma ru sA pe r ,n ego c ian te nl i n ,o r ig ina i re d e l ac i t e d e s V e l ioca s se s , a dm is a u n omb re d e s c o lon s l yonna i s . I n co rpo re p a rm i l e s u t r icu la i r e s e t ab l i s aL yon , q u i v e cu t q ua t re v i ng t -c inq a n s s a n s c onna i t re a ucun t r oub le , s on f i t sA p r iu sI l l ioma ru s ap r i ss o in d ep ose r [ c e monumen t ] as on p e re t i e s c he r , e t l ' a d ed ie s ou sF as c ia" . C e r te s , e n a ucun c a s , i n ' es t a f f i rme q ue c e m a r chand e t a i t e ga lemen t e t ab l i aR ouen . N eanmo in s , e n t e nan tc omp t ed es e so r ig ine s ,i ln ' e s tp a si n te rd i td ep en se r q ue c e p e r sonnage a i t p u , t o u t e n n e s ' e tan tp a s i n s ta l le R ouen , a vo i r d e s r e la t ion s c omme r c ia le s a vec l ac i te d e s V e l ioca s se s . E n e f f e t , l ' on s a l tp e r t inemmen tq u 'une p a r t ie n on n eg l igeab le d uc omme rce p a s san tp a rl aS e ine a r r iva i ta L yon p ou r e i r e r e d i s t r ibuee v e r s l er e s te d e l ' Emp i re . L e d e rn ie re xemp le e p ig raph ique d ' impo r tance l i ea uc omme r ce e s t l es a umon d ep l omb d e couve r t aL ilebonne e td a tab le d e s a nnee s 1 95 a 2 11 d e n oi r e e r e ( V ipa rd 1 987 ) . C e s aumon p rovena i t v ra isemb lab lemen t d e s m ine s d e C ha r t e rhou se o u t o u t a u mo ms d e m ine s p e r iph6 r ique s a c ele s c i .C e t t ed ecouve r t e ,l i ke ac ele d us aumon d ep l omb d e S a s senay ( p re s d e C hä lon -su r -Saöne , C . I .L 2 612 ) , c onf i rme t a n t l ' ex i s tence d e r e la t ions c omme rc ia le s i mpo r tan te s a vec l aB re tagne i n su la i re q ue l er o le j oue p a r l aS e ine ac e t t eé poque . E lemen ts d e C onc lus ion E n p rem ie r l i eu , i t f au t s ou l igne r l a p r imau te d e s c e ram ique sg a l lo -be lge s ,l e s i mpo r ta t ion sd es i g i l lee s i t a lo g au lo i se s n e r e p re sen tan t q ue l eq ua r t d e s g a l lo -be lge s . C e t te q ua s i -exc lu s iv i te & an t e f f ec t ive , t a n t s u r l ec ou lo i r u t i le d e l aS e ine q u 'en B a s se -No rmand ie , d emon t re , s ' i l e n e t a i t b e so in , l ' e f f ic ience d ' un g r and a xe c omme r c ia l e s t o ue s t , m a i s e ga lemen t q ue l a r oman i sa t ion , o u t o u t a u m o ms l ' image q ue l ' e tude d u mob i l ie rp eu tn ou sd onne r ,n e s ' e s tp a se f f ec tuee p r eco cemen t ,h o rm i ss u rd e ss i t e sc omme C ou tance s o u E v reux . E n r e vanche , e tc e la r e s te c l an s l a l o g ique d e s c ho se s , l e s s i g i l lécs , q u 'e l le s s o ien t d e l a G rauf esenque m a is e ga lemen t d e Mon tan s , s on t t r e s l a rgemen tr e pandue se nN o rmand ie . L ed ebu td uI eme s i èc le d en oi r ee r ev e r ra u ne r ude c oncu r rence e n t re l e sp rodu i t sd ' a te l ie r sn ouveaux d an sc e t te
P .B l a szk iew icz r eg ion , c eux d e l ' E s t e tc eux d u C en t re . L e s p rodu i t s d e s a t e l ie r sd el ' E s t , d ' a ileu r si mpo r t e se np l u sg r ande q uan t i t6 e tp l us p recocemen t q u 'on n e l es ou Nonna i tj u squ 'a lo r s , v o ien t l e u r l im i te s ud d e d i f fu s ion s u r l aS e ine . Ma i s l e p henomene l e p lus e nse ignan t e s t l e r e su l ta t d e l a c ompa r a i son d e sp rodu i t ss i g ile e sd uS ud e tc eux d uC en t re e nG au le . S il ' on c on s ide re l eS ud -Oue s td e l aG au le , e tp l u s p a r t icu l ie remen t l ' ac tue l le A qu i ta ine , l er a ppo r t e s t d e 1 0 s i g i l lee s d u S ud p ou ru ne d uC en t re . S u rd e s s i t e s t e l s q ue P o i t ie r s , T ou r s , C ha r t res e t Am iens , c e r appo r t e s t d e l ' o rd re d e 1 0 s i g ilee sd u S ud p ou rq ua t re as ep td uC en t re s u ivan tl es i te c on s id e r& L ' amo r ce d ' une i n ve r s ion d e t e ndance s ' e f f e c tue e n A rmo r ique , as avo i rq ue p ou r 1 0s i g i l l ee sd uS ud p r 6 sen te s , i le ne x i te n eu fd uC en t re ( R ibemon t 1 973 ) .P a rc on t re ,e n N o rmand ie , l er appo r t s ' inve r se , as avo i r q u ' i l e s t d e 1 0 s i g i l lee sp ou r 1 4d uC en t re . C e s c on s ta ta t ions , a j ou t ee s al ' exemp le d u p o l ie r S enex , d on t l e s l i eux d e d ecouve r te s on t B ou rbon -Lancy , p u i s A nge r s ,L e Man s , L i s ieux ( s ou su ne f o rme i n e t l i te ) e t e nf in C o rb r idge , f o r t d u l imes b r i tann ique , p e rme t ten t p eu t -e t re d e r e cons ide re r l e s a xe s d e d i f fu s ion e t d e c omme r c ia l i sa t ion , o u t o u t a u m o ms d e l e u re n a d jo ind re d ' au t re se tc ev e r sl aB r e tagne i n su la i re e np a r t icu l ie r . A u B a s -Emp i re , h o rm is l a s i g i l lee d 'A rgonne , d eco r& o u n on al am o le t te , q u i s er e t rouve s u r l aq ua s i m a jo r i t6 d e s s i te s n o rmand s , d em eme q ue l e sp roduc t ion s d e J au lge s -V i l l ie r s -V ineux e t d e l a aram ique d i te ' a l ' eponge , l ag r ande m a jo r i t6 d e s c e ram ique s i mpo r tge s s e t r ouve e i re l a BB1 d uD o r se t . E ne f f e t ,c e t te c e ra rn ique ,a u m eme t i t re q ue l as i g i l lée d 'A rgonne , e s t t i e s p r 6 sen te , l a S e ine c on s t i tuan t s a l im i te n o rd d e d i f fu s ion ä h au te d en s i ti . D e p lus , c es i mpo r ta t ions s on t a me t t re v ra i semb lab lemen te nr a ppo r ta ve cl ap r e sence m i l i ta i re l i ée a u t r ac tu s a rmor i canu s an erv icanus d on tr e leva i tc e t te r e g ion ac e t te é poque . U n a u t re e l emen t e s t äm e t t re p robab lemen t e n p a ra l le le a vec l a p resence d e c e p rodu i t , c e lu i d e s N ego t ia tores B r i tann ic ian i . I if a u t , e n e f f e t , s ou l igne r l ' ex i s tence d ed eux m en t ion s 6 p ig raph ique s d ' impo r tance ä p ropos d ' un m a rchand o u d ' une f am i l le d e ma rchand s v e l io ca s se s ,d a tab le sp robab lemen td ud ebu td e Ika le s i è c le d e n o t re e r e . L ap r em ie re e s tc e l le d ' un a u t e ld 6d icace äl a d ee sse N eha lenn ia , t r ouve d ans u n s anc tua i re a l a C o l i jnp laa tz , d onc e n t re l a Meu se e tl eR h in , o f f e r t p a r P lac idus , f i l s d e V iduc iu s , n egoc ian t a vec l e s I l e s B r i tann ique s . O r o n s a i t q ue l o r squ 'un n 6goc ian t au ne s pec ia l i t6 c onnue ,c e l le -c ie s ti n d iquie . D an sc ec a sp r ec i s , a ucune m en t ion p ro f e s s ionne l le n ' e tan t a ppo r t6e , o n p ei l t d onc c on jec tu re rq u ' i ld eva i ta s sume ru n n ego ce d i ve r s i f ie .
4 0
L as e conde e s tc e l le d el ' o f f rande d ' un a r cu s e td ' un i a nu s , d onc d e se nd ro i t sd ' 6 change s ,d eL u c iu sV iduc iu sP l a c id iu s , f i l s o u p e t i t f i l s d e P la c id iu s aN ep tune o u aJ up i te r D o l ichenu s . I le s tv ra isemb lab le q ue c e c i toyen p o s se t la i t u ne s u c cu r sa le äY o rk . L a f i l ia t ion d e c es d eux p e rsonnage s e s t v r a i semb lab lemen tu n i nd ice q uan t al ' ex i s tence d e f i rme s s p ec ia l ie e sc l an sl ec omme r ce al o ngue d i s tance e t ,c l an sc e c a s p r ec i s , d e f i rme s s pe c ia l i see s e n t re Y o rk , R ouen e tl e l i mes g e rman iqu ev i al eR h in o ul a Meu se . E n f in , j er a ppe le ra i l ' ex i s tence d e l ad e t l ica ce d u c onse i l d e s T ro is G au les a r ega rd d e T i tu s S enn iu s S o l lemn i s , c i toyen v iduca s se , d on t l af onc t ion , t o u t a u mo ms a uc ou r sd e sa nnee s2 30 -2 40 d en o t r ee r e ,e t a i td ' ê t re p r epo s i a ux m ine s d ef e rc l an s l ec ad r ed e l ' adm in i s t ra t ion f 6 d6 ra le , c ha rge q ue c e p e r sonnage p ouva i t d ' a i l leu r s e ven tue l lemen te xe rce rp ou rl u i -meme c l an s s ap rop re c i t e , v u l ar i che s se d e c e t t e r eg ion e n m ine ra l d e f e r . D an s l e m eme o rd re d ' idee s , in ' e s t p a s i n te rd i t d e p en se r q ue l ' a s s is tance d e T i tus S enn ius S o l lemn is a C laud ius P au l inu s , l e ga t d 'Augu s te , p rop re teu r d e l a B re tagne i n f e r ieu re e n 2 21 d e n o t re e r e , f u t p robab lemen t d ' o rd re 6 conom ique e ti n du s t r ie l . At i re d ' exemp le , In ' e s tq ue d e r e ga rde rl e sb e so in sd ' une a rm6e e nb i en sd ec onsomma t ion ( V ipa rd 1 987 ) . E nf in , h o rm i s l e c omme rce a l o ngue d i s tance c omme , p a r e xemp le , l e s i n d ice s a yan t t r a i t a u c omme r ce d e l ap i e r re d e C aen , g r äce n o tammen t ad eux d e couve r t e sp onc tue l le sd es t a tue t te s al ' e f f ig ie d el ad ee s se F o r tune t r ouvee se nB re tagne i n su la i r e aB igno rV i l la ( F r e r e 1 982 ) e tC h i lg rove V i l la ( Down 1 979 ) , e te ven tue l lemen t d u f e rs il ' on c on s ide re l ar i che sse d u s ou s -so l n o rmand , e t p l u s p a r t icu l ie remen t c l an s l ar eg ion d e V ieux ( Ha lbou t e t a l . 1 987 ) ,a i n s iq ue l ad ed icace [ Deo ] V o lk [ano ] ( CIL X I I I , 3 164 ) t r ouvee äV ieux e n l ' honneu rd eV u lca in ,p a t ron d e s f o rge ron s , l e s e xemp le s e ven tue ls d e l ' expo r ta t ion d e p rodu i t sf a b r ique se nN o rmand ie r e s ten te x t rememen tt e nu s . T ou te fo i s , l e s d ed icaces ä T i tus S enn ius S o lemn is e t L uc iu s V udu c iu s P l ac idu s s emb len t c on t red i re c e t e t a t d e f a i t . Ma lheu r eu semen t , in e s ' ag i t l äq ue d ' ind ice s i s o le s p a rr a ppo r t äu n c on tex te d e c omme rce g l oba l . P a rc on t re , c e r ta ine s d ecouve r te s a r cheo log ique s o u6 p ig raph ique s s u r l ' a r t i sana t o u l ec omme r ce , c omme l ad 6d icace d e L uc iu s V id ic ius P l a c id iu s o u l es aumon d e p l omb d e L i l lebonne p a r e xemp le , c onf i rmen t l ' hypo the se d e l ' ef f ic ience d u c ou lo i r u t i le d e l aS e ine , n o tammen t c omme t e te d e p on t o uz one ja lon c l an sl ec ad r ed uc omme r ce al o ngue d i s tance , a u m eme t i r ed ' a i l leu r s q ue l eR h in o u l a Meu se , e n t re l a B re tagne i n su la i r ee tl er e s te d el ' Emp i r e . R emerc iemen ts L e s d e ss in s e tl e s c a r te s o n t6 t 6 r e a l i se s p a r Ma r ieNoe l le E v ra rd . L e s p ho to s o n t 6 t 6 r 6a l i s6es p a r P a t r ick D av id ( Mu s ee d eN o rmand ie ) .
L a P lace d e l aN o rmand ie d an s l ' Emp i re R oma in . . .
FRERE , S . 1 982 : T he B igno r V i l la . B r i tann ia 1 2 , 1 35 1 96 .
R ef erences BERT IN -HALBOUT , D . 1 976 : R appor t d ac ty lograph ie d epose al aD i rec t ion R eg iona le d e sA n t iqu i te sH i s tor ique s d eB a s s e -N o rmand ie .
F RO MOLS , J . 1 939 : L 'a te l ie r c e ram ique d e S ep t -Sau lx ( Ma rne ) d ecouve r t e tf ou i l le p a r M . B ry . B u l le t in d e l a S oc ie te A r cheo log ique C hampeno i s e 3 ,3 1 -76 .
BLASZK IE W ICZ , P . 1 988 : R eac tua l isa t ion d e l aB la ck B urn i shed 1 e t s on i mp l ica t ion s u r l e s c ou ran t s c omme r c iaux t r an smanche a u B a s -Emp i re . D an sR ive t ,L . ( e d . ) ,A c t es d u c ongr2 sd 'Orange , 1 988 ( Soc ie te F rança i se d ' e tud ed el ac e ram ique a n t ique e nG au le ) 2 09 -2 14 .
FULFORD , M .G . 1 987 : L a c e ram ique e t l e s e change s c omme rc iaux s u r l a Manche a l ' epoque r oma ine . D an s R ive t , L . ( e d . ) ,A c t es d u c ongr2s d e C aen , 1 987 ( Soc ie t e F r an ça ise d ' e tud ed el ac e ram ique a n t ique e nG au le )9 5 106 .
BLASZK IE W ICZ , P . ( a p a ra i t re ) : C a rac te r i sa t ion e t d i f f us ion d e s c e ram ique s r omano -b r i tann ique s e ta ng lo s axonne s e n No rmand ie . XXX IXe c ongr2s d u S axon S ympo s ium t e nu aC aen e n 1 989 .
GALL IOU ,P .1 974 :N o te d ec e ramo log ie a rmo r ica ine : U n t e sson d e s i g i l lee d 'A rgonne a mo le t te e p ig raphe d e K e rvennec -en -Pon t -C ro ix ( F in i s te re ) .A nna le sd eB re tagne , 8 1 -1 , 1 3 -16 .
BLASZK IE W ICZ , P . , CL IQUET , D . , DAV ID , P . , DUFOURN IER , D . , BUCUR , I .1 988 : U na t e l ie rd ep o t ie r d u I l e s i èc le d an s l a f o re t d 'Ev reux ( Eu re ) . R evue a r cheo log ique d el ' Oue s t5 ,7 9 -95 .
GERVA IS DE LAPR ISE . 1 80 1 : Manu sc r i ti n éd i td epo se a l aB ib l io theque Mun ic ipa le d eC aen , MS i nf o l io , d a te d u 2 8f l o rea la nI X . GOUD INEAU , C . 1 980 : L e s v i l le s d e l ap a ix r oma ine . H i s to i r ed el av i eu rba ine 1 ,2 33 -390 .
BLASZK IE W ICZ , P . , e t DAV ID , P . 1 987 : E s tamp i l le s s u rc e ram ique g a l lo -be lge e nN o rmand ie a uI e rs i èc le .D an s R ive t , L . ( e d . ) ,A c tes d u c ongr 2 s d e C aen , 1 987 ( Soc ie t e F r ança i s ed ' e tude d el ac e ram ique a n t ique e nG au le )5 1 -57 .
GREGO IRE DE TOURS : H i s to i re d e s F rancs , t r adu i td u l a t in p a rR .L a touche , 2v o l . , e c l . L e s B ele sL e t t re s ,P a r i s , 3 28 e t3 57 p .
BLASZK IE W ICZ , P . , e t DUFOURN IER ,D . 1 987 : C a ra c t e r i sa t ion e td i f f u s ion d ug obe le t sac e nN o rmand ie d u m i l ieu d u I e r al af i n d u I e s i è c le . D ans R ive t , L . ( e d . ) , A c te sd uc ongr 2s d eC aen , 1 987 ( Soc ie te F rança i se d ' e tude d el ac e r am ique a n t ique e nG au le )7 5 -80 .
GREENE , K . 1 978 : Mou ld -deco ra ted C en t ra l G au l ish g l azed w a re i nB r i ta in . I nA r thu r ,P .a nd Ma r sh ,G . ( e d s . ) , E ar ly F ine Wares i n R oman B r i ta in ( Oxfo rd , B r i t ish A r cha e log ica lR epo r t s5 7 )3 1 -60 . HALBOUT ,P . 1 989 : U ne h ale a ux p o i s son s aR ouen a ux H eine s i e c le s ?G a l l ia 4 6 , 1 63 -172 .
BLASZK IE W ICZ , P . , e t DUFOURN IER ,D . 1 989 : D i f f us ion d e s g obe le t sb run s d 'A rgonne e n t re l af i n d u I e r s i èc le e tl af i n d u I l e s iè c le e nN o rmand ie . G a l l ia 4 6 , 2 53 2 59 .
HALBOUT , P . , HITE , D . , ROY , N . , VAUDOUR , C . , VAVASSEUR , J .1 982 : R ouen g a l lo -roma in . C a ta logue d ' expo s i t ion .
BLASZK IE W ICZ , P . , e t J IGAN , C . 1 989 : L es i mpo r ta t ion sd ec e ram ique se s tamp i l lk se nN o rmand ie ( I e r I Ie s i e c le s ) : e t ude q uan t i ta t ive e th i s to r ique .D an sR ive t ,L . ( e d . ) ,A c t e sd u c ongr 2s d eL e zoux , 1 989 ( Soc ie t eF rança i se d ' e tude d el ac e ram ique a n t ique e nG au le )2 09 -22 1 .
HALBOUT , P . , e t J IGAN , C . 1 987 : L a c e ram ique d 'A rgonne d e co ree äl a mo le t te d e s I Ve -Ve s i e c le s . D an s R ive t , L . ( e d . ) ,A c te s d u c ong r2s d e C aen , 1 987 ( So c ie te F r ança i se d ' e tude d el ac e ram ique a n t ique e nG au le )4 5 -48 .
BUSHE -FOX , J .P . 1 932 : T h i rd r e po r to ft h ee xcava t ion s o f t h e r oman f o r t a tR ichbo rough ( Ken t ) . R esearch r epor t c omm i t t ee S oc ie ty o fA n t iquar ie s 1 0 .
HALBOUT , P . , P ILET , C . , VAUDOUR , C . 1 987 : C a ta logue d e s o b je t s d ome s t ique s e t d e s a rme s e n f e r t r ouve s e n N o rmand ie d u I e r a u XVe s i èc le . C ah ier s d e s A nna l e sd eN o rmand i e2 0 .
CARBONNEAUX , E . , MAR IN , J . -Y . , CHARLES , E . 1 985 : U ne p i rogue m onoxy le t r ouve e äR auv i l le la -P la ce ( Manche ) c onservee a u Mu see d e N o rmand ie .A nna les d e N ormand i e3 5 -3 ,2 29 -239 . d 'an t iqu i tes
J IGAN , C . 1 982 : I nven ta i re d e s t r e so r s m one ta i re s g a l lo r oma in s( Ca lvado s ) .R ecue i ld ' e tude so f f en e nh ommage a u D oyen M i che l d e B oüa rd .A nna le s d e N ormand ie n ume ro s pec ia l ,2 89 -304 .
CORD IER , G . 1 972 : P i rogue s m onoxy le s e n F rance . B u l le t in d el aS oc ie te P reh i s to r iqu eF ranca i s e7 ,2 06 -2 11 .
J IGAN , C . 1 986 : I nven ta i re p rov i so i r e d e s t r e so r s d e monna ie s r oma ine s d ecouve r t s d an s l ed epa r temen t d e l a Manche .A nna le sd eN ormand i e3 6 -3 , 1 87 -203 .
CAU MONT , A . d e , m onum en ta le s 2 ,2 30 .
1 831 :
C ours
J IGAN ,C . 1 988 :L e sv a se s ag l ap re p l omb i fe r et r ouve se n N o rmand ie : E ta td el aq ue s t ion . D an sR ive t ,L .( e d . ) ,A c te s d uc ongr 2 sd 'Orange , 1 988 ( So c ie t eF ra f l ise d ' e tude d el a c e ram ique a n t ique e nG au le ) 1 89 -205 .
DEN IAUX ,E . 1 980 :R e che r che ss u rl e sa mpho re sa n t ique s d e B a s se -No rmand ie . C ah ier s d es a nna les d eN ormand ie 1 2B . DO WN , A . 1 979 : C h iches ter e x cava t ions i v , 1 8 1 -183 , p l . X I
J IGAN , C . , e t MAR IN J . -Y . 1 981 : A r cheo log ie u r ba ine a C aen .P ub l ica t ion sd u Mu sa d eN ormand ie 2( Caen ) .
DUFOURN IER , D . , e t MAR IN , J . -Y . 1 987 : U ne p roduc t ion d ' ampho re s d u I l e s i è c le d an s l eC a lvado s . I n R ive t , L .( e d . ) ,A c tes d u c ongr2s d e C aen , 1 987 ( Soc ie te F r ança i s ed ' e tude d el ac e ram ique a n t ique e nG au le )2 3 -27 .
J IGAN , C . , e t MAR IN J . -Y . 1 987 : I n ven ta i re d e s s i te s d e p roduc t ion d e c e ram ique g a l lo roma ine d ecouve r t s e n N o rmand ie .A nna l es d eN o rmand i e3 7 -4 ,3 17 -337 .
EDE INE , B . 1 964 : P i rogue s m onoxy le s d ecouve r te s e n B a sse -No rmand ie . B u l le t in d e l a S oc ie te P reh i s tor ique F ran ca i s e ,3 46 -354 .
LAUBENHE IMER ,F .1 989 : L e sa mpho re sg au lo i se ss ou s l ' Emp i re : r e che r che s n ouve l le s s u r l e u r p roduc t ion e tl e u r c h rono log ie . A nf ore R omae e S t or ia E conom ica : U n D ecenn io d iR echer che .A t t id e lC o l loqu io d eS i enna ( 2 2 -27
4 1
P .B la szk iew icz R IBE MONT , F . 1 973 : C on t r ibu t ion a l ' g tud e d u Ma ine a n t ique .R eche r che ss un l ac g ram ique s i g i l ld ed an sl e sc i t e s d es A u lerque s , D iab l in tes e t C enoman s . (Memo i re d e m a i t r i se s ou tenu al ' Un ive r s i t6 d eP a r i sI V , 2v o l ) .
m agg io 1 986 ) ( Co l lec t ion d e l ' Eco le F rança ise d e R ome )114 , 1 05 -138 . L E P ESANT , M . 1 963 : L e s o r ig ine s a n t ique s d e C ou tance s .R evu ed ed dpa r temen td el a Manch e5 ,6 -29 .
R ICHARDSON ,B . ,e t TYERS , P .A . 1 984 : No r th G au l i sh p o t te ry i nB r i ta in .B r i tann ia 1 5 , 1 33 -141 .
LOR IOT , X . 1 980 : T reso r s d e monna ie s r oma ines d e couve r te s c l ans l ed epa r temen t d e l ' Eu re . Mé langes d e N um isma t ique , d 'Archdo log ie e td 'H i s to i r e o f en täJ ean L af aur i e 1 5 , 1 25 -143 .
S TRABON : G dograph ie , t e x te e t ab l i e tt r adu i t p a r F . L a s se r re , 9v o l . ,6 d .L e sB e l le sL e t t re s ,P a r i s , 1 966 -1981 . TUFFREAU -L IBRE ,M . 1 981 : L ' indu s t r ie d el ac e ram ique g a l lo -be lge c l an sl av an& d el aV e s le .R evu eA rchgo log iqu e C hampeno i se 2 ,8 1 -93 .
LOR IOT , X . , e t DELAPORTE , J . 1 980 : L es t r e so r s d e monna ie s r oma ine s d ecouve r t s c l an s l ed epa r temen t d e l a S e ine - Ma r i t ime . C ah ie r s d e sA nna les d eN ormand ie 1 2A , 2 5 -59 .
V IPARD , P . 1 987 : E p igraph ie g a l lo -roma ine d e l a L yonna ise s econde . ( Memo i re d e m a i t r ise s ou tenu a l ' Un ive r s i t ed eC aen ,6 95 p ) .
P ILET , C . 1 984 : V ieux a n t ique ( A raegenuae , V iduca s se s ) . R evue a r chdo log ique d el ' Oue s t 1 ,6 3 -84 .
A nnexe : L i s t e d e ss i t es m on t rg sd an sl e sf i gure s
1 .N acquev i l le , 2 .T ou r lav i l le , 3 .B a r f leu r ,4 .V a logne s , 5 . Mon tebou rg , 6 .P o r t -Ba i l , 7 .C ou tanc e s , 8 . Av ranche s , 9 . P on taubau l t , 1 0 . Mon tane l , 1 . V i l led ieu le s -Pole s , 1 2 . P e t i t -Ce l land , 1 3 . L i son , 1 4 . D eux -Jumeaux , 1 5 . B ayeux , 1 6 . C ou r seu l le s , 1 7 . B e rn ie re s -su r - Me r , 1 8 . S a in t -Aub in s u r -Me r , 1 9 . L uc -su r - Me r , 2 0 . C aen , 2 1 . L ouv igny , 2 2 . F on ta ine -E toup e fou r , 2 3 . B a ron su r -Odon , 2 4 . V ieux , 2 5 . F on t enay le -Ma rm ion , 2 6 . C agny , 2 7 . B annev i l le la C ampagne , 2 8 . Mou l t , 2 9 . J o r t , 3 0 . Mon tme re i , 3 1 . A lenvon , 3 2 . S ee s , 3 3 . E xmes , 3 4 . L is ieux , 3 5 . P ennedep ie , 3 6 . H on f leu r , 3 7 . P lan che s , 3 8 . O r igny le R oux , 3 9 . S a in t -Ouen -de la -Cou r , 4 0 . L a C hape l le Mon t l igeon .
F igu re 1 .( Galo -be lge e s tamp ilee ) 1 .C ou tance s , 2 .B ayeux , 3 .C a en , 4 .L i s ieux , 5 .B r ionne , 6 .H a r f leu r , 7 .C o l lev i l le , 8 .S a in t -Ma r t in -de -Bo sche r v ile , 9 .R ouen , 1 0 . O i s se l , 1 . C audebec le s -E lbeu f , 1 2 . P i t ie s , 1 3 . L ouv ie r s , 1 4 . L e V ie i l E v reux , 1 5 . E v reux , 1 6 . C ra couv i l le . F igu re 2 .( Compa ra ison e n t re g alo -be lge e ts i g i l lee a r e t ine ) 1 .C ou tance s ,2 .B ayeux , 3 .C a en ,4 .F on ta ine -E toupe fou r , 5 .V ieux , 6 .B enouv ile , 7 .L i s ieux , 8 .C ra couv i l le , 9 .L e V ie i l E v reux , 1 0 . E v reux , 1 . B e r thouv i l le , 1 2 . L ouv ie r s , 1 3 . P i t ie s , 1 4 . C audebec le s -E lbeu f , 1 5 . R ouen , 1 6 . S a in t Ma r t in -de -Bo sche rv i l le , 1 7 . L i l lebonne , 1 8 . H a r f leu r , 1 9 . C o l lev ile ,2 0 . C any -Ba rv i l le .
F igu re 7 .( A rgonne d eco r& al a mo leu e ) 1 .C he rbou rg , 2 .C ou tance s , 3 . Av ranche s , 4 .B ayeux , 5 . S a in t -V igo r le -G rand , 6 .S a in t -Aub in su r - Me r , 7 .C a en , 8 . Mondev i l le , 9 .F on ta ine -E toupe fou r , 1 0 . B a ron -su r -Odon , 1 . V ieux , 1 2 . S a in t - Ma r t in -de -Fon tenay , 1 3 . V a lf r ambe r t , 1 4 . L is ieux , . 1 5 . G isay la -Coud re , 1 6 . C ro th , 1 7 . B r eu i lpon t , 1 8 . L eV ie i l -Ev reux , 1 9 . A rn ie re s -su r I ton ,2 0 . E v reux , 2 1 . Mondev i l le , 2 2 . G iso r s , 2 3 . Mu id s , 2 4 . L ouv ie r s , 2 5 . P it i e s , 2 6 . L e ry , 2 7 . C audebec le s -E lbeuf , 2 8 . T ou rv i l le la -R iv ie re ,2 9 .E lbeuf , 3 0 .O i s se l , 3 1 . G rand C ou ronne , 3 2 .F o re td uR ouv ray , 3 3 .R ouen .
F igu re 3 .( Ce ram ique sp l omb i fe re s ) 1 .C ou tance s , 2 . C aen ( v icus ) , 3 . B a ron -su r -Odon , 4 . L i s ieux ( n ec ropo le ) ,5 .B r ionne ( n ec ropo le ) ,6 .T h ibouv i l le , 7 . L e P le ss i s -Sa in te -Oppo r tune , 8 . E v reux ( hab i ta t e t n ec ropo le ) , 9 . S a in t -Aub in -su r -Ga i l lon , 1 0 . C aha igne s ( n e c ropo le ) , 1 . Mu id s ( h ab i ta t ) , 1 2 . C audebec le s -E lbeu f ( nec ropo le ) , 1 3 . R ouen , 1 4 . N euchä te l -en -Bray , 1 5 . V a t tev i l le la -Rue , 1 6 . L i l lebonne ( n e c ropo le ) , 1 7 . B o lbec ( n ec ropo le ) , 1 8 .H a r f leu r( n ec ropo le ) .
F igu re 8 . (a ram ique s r omano -b r i tann ique s e t a ng lo s a xonne s ) 1 .C he rbou rg ( c as trum ) , 2 .R ev i l le ( h ab i ta t ) , 3 .D eux J umeaux ( v i l la ) , 4 . B ayeux ( hab i ta t ) , 5 . F on ta ine E toupefou r ( v i l la ) , 6 .C a en ( v icus ) , 7 . B a ron su r -Odon ( f anum ) , 8 .V ieux ( h ab i ta t ) , 9 .S a in t -Ma r t in -de -Fon t enay ( v i l la ) , 1 0 . G ibe rv i l le ( n ecropo le ) , 1 . H e rouv i le t te ( n ec ropo le ) , 1 2 . S anne rv i l le ( nec ropo le ) , 1 3 . F renouv i l le ( n ec ropo le ) , 1 4 . L i s ieux ( h ab i ta t ) , 1 5 .R ug le s ( hab i ta t ) , 1 6 . G isay la -Coud re ( v i l la , n e c ropo le ) , 1 7 . C on c le su r I ton ( hab i ta t ) , 1 8 . E v reux ( hab i ta t ) , 1 9 . L e V ie i l -Ev reux ( s anc tua i re ) ,2 0 .P i t ie s( n ec ropo le ) ,2 1 .T ou rv i l le la -R iv ie r e ( n ec ropo le ) , 2 2 . A nnev i l le ( v icus , v i l la ) , 2 3 . R ouen ( h ab i ta t ) ,2 4 .L eB uque t ,E lbeuf ( v icus ) , 2 5 . C audeb e c -en C aux ( h ab i ta t ) ,2 6 .N euv i l le le -Po l le t( n e c ropo le ) .
F igu re 4 .( S ig i l lee e s tamp i l lie [ s i te sm a jeu r s ] ) 1 .C ou tance s , 2 .B ayeux , 3 .C aen , 4 . V ieux , 5 .J on , 6 . L is ieux , 7 . E v reux , 8 . L e V ie i l -Ev reux , 9 . R ouen , 1 0 . C audebe c -en -Caux , 1 . F o re td e B ro tonne , 1 2 . V a t tev i l le l a -Rue , 1 3 . L i l lebonne , 1 4 . Mau lev r ie r , 1 5 . H a r f leu r , 1 6 . S a in t e -Beuve -en -R iv ie re , 1 7 .N euv i l le le -Po l lei F igu re 5 .( Gobe le t sg r i se tb run s ) 1 .A v ranche s ,2 .B ayeux , 3 .S a in t -Aub in -su r - Me r ,4 .C a en , 5 .B rev i l le le s - Mon t s ,6 .F on ta ine -E toupe fou r ,7 .V ieux ,8 . B a ron su r -Odon , 9 .S anne rv i l le , 1 0 . L i s ieux , 1 . G isay la C oud re , 1 2 . L e s V en te s , 1 3 . E v reux , 1 4 . L e V ie i l -Ev reux , 1 5 . L e s D amp s , 1 6 . L e s A nde ly s , 1 7 . P i t ie s , 1 8 . R ouen , 1 9 . Y e rv i l le , 2 0 . B eaubec la -Ro s ie re , 2 1 . E s le t te s , 2 2 . B a ren t in , 2 3 . L i l lebonne , 2 4 . H a r f leu r , 2 5 . C o l lev i l le , 2 6 . C any -Ba rv i l le ,2 7 . O r iva l ,2 8 . F ecamp .
F igu r e9 .( B la ck -Bu rn i shed Wa r e! ) 1 .C he rbou rg ( c as trum ) , 2 . R ev i l le ( h ab i ta t ) , 3 .D eux J umeaux ( v i l la ) , 4 . B ayeux ( hab i ta t ) , 5 . F on ta ine -
F i gu re 6 .( Ampho r e se nB a s se -No rmand ie )
4 2
L a P lace d e l a No rmand ie d an s l ' Emp i re R oma in . . .
E toupefou r ( v i l la ) , 6 .C aen ( v icus ) , 7 . B a ron -su r -Odon ( f anum ) , 8 .V ieux ( hab i ta t ) , 9 . S a in t - Ma r t in -de -Fon tenay ( v i l la ) , 1 0 . S anne rv i l le ( necropo le ) , 1 . F renouv i l le ( n ecropo le ) , 1 2 . G isay la -Coud re ( v i l la , n ec ropo le ) , 1 3 . P i t res ( nec ropo le ) , 1 4 . A nnev i l le ( v icus ,v i l la ) , 1 5 . R ouen ( h ab i ta t ) , 1 6 .N euv ile le -Pole t( ne c ropo le ) .
F igu re 1 2 . ( Ampho r e sn o rmande s ) 1 .C he rbou rg , 2 .B ayeux , 3 .V ieux , 4 .B a ron su r -Odon , 5 . C aen , 6 . B rev i l le les - Mon t s , 7 . L is ieux , 8 . J or t , 9 . H a r f leu r .
F igu re 1 .( A te l ie r sd ec e ram ique e n No rmand ie ) 1 .F e rmanv i l le , 2 .V a lcanv i l le , 3 .S a in te -C ro ix -Hague , 4 . L 'E tang -Be r t rand , 5 . F resv i l le , 6 . S a in t -Jo res , 7 . S a in t Ma r t in -d 'Aub igny , 8 . S aon , 9 .L e Mo lay -L i t t ry , 1 0 . L uc s u r - Me r , 1 . S a in t -Con te s t , 1 2 . C aen , 1 3 . F eugue ro l le s B u l ly , 1 4 . V ieux , 1 5 . A rgence s , 1 6 . L o re , 1 7 . H e loup , 1 8 . A le Non , 1 9 . C handa i , 2 0 . L is ieux , 2 1 . P e r ie r s -en -Auge , 2 2 . L e s V en tes , 2 3 . E v reux , 2 4 . V e rnon , 2 5 . S a in te O ppo r tune -du -Bo sc , 2 6 . L a H aye - Ma lhe rbe , 2 7 . I lev i l le s u r - Mon t for t , 2 8 . F ou rme to t , 2 9 . L a Ma i l le raye -su r -Se ine , 3 0 . H a r f leu r , 3 1 . T h ie t rev i l le , 3 2 . I nchev i l le , 3 3 . N o t re D ame -d 'A l ie rmon t , 3 4 . S a in t -Aga the -d 'A l ie rmon t , 3 5 . C ro ixda l le , 3 6 . E sc lave l les , 3 7 . F o rge s le s -Eaux , 3 8 . L yons la -Fo rö t .
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F igu re 1 3 . ( A r t i sana te nG au le ) 1 .T ong re s ( Adva tuca ) , 2 .C o logne ( Co Ion ia Ag r ipp ina ) , 3 . B ava i ( Bagacum ) , 4 . T röve s ( Augus ta T revo rum ) , 5 . Am iens ( Sama robr iva ) , 6 . B ayeux ( Augus tudo rum ) , 7 . Rouen ( Ro tomagus ) , 8 . P a r is ( Lu te t ia ) , 9 . R e ims ( Du roco r to rum ) , 1 0 . R enne s ( Conda te ) , 1 . L e Mans ( Su ind inum ) , 1 2 . Nan te s ( Por tu s N emne tum ) , 1 3 . A nge r s ( Ju l iomagus ) , 1 4 . O r leans ( Cenabum) , 1 5 . T our s ( Caesa rodunum) , 1 6 . T royes ( Augus tobona ) , 1 7 . S t ra sbou rg ( A rgen to ra te ) , 1 8 . A u tun ( Augu s tudunum ) , 1 9 . S a in te s ( Med io lanum ) , 2 0 . L ezoux ,2 1 . L yon ( Lugdunum ) , 2 2 . V ienne ( V ienna ) , 2 3 . B o rdeaux ( Bu rd iga la ) , 2 4 . L a G raufesenque , 2 5 . T ou louse ( To losa ) , 2 6 . O range ( A raus io ) , 2 7 . A r les ( A re la te ) , 2 8 . N a rbonne ( Na rbo Ma r t iu s ) , 2 9 . Ma r se i l le (Ma s s i l ia ) .
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F igure 1 :G a l lo -be lge e s tamp i ld ' e . ( Vo i rl ' annexe p ou rl al i s te d es i te s ;D e s s in : M -N .E v ra rd )
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F igur e2 :C ompa ra i son e n t re g a l lo -be lge e ts i g i lMe a ri s t ine .
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