A Zooarchaeological Study of the Roman North-western Provinces 9780860541684, 9781407328126

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Opening Quotation
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
Preface
List of Plates
List of Maps
CHAPTER ONE ZOOARCHAEOLOGY -- The possibilities and limitations
CHAPTER TWO SHEEPEN -- The first century A.D. in Roman Britain
CHAPTER THREE COLCHESTER -- The first to fifth centuries A.D. in Roman Britain
CHAPTER FOUR CHELMSFORD -- The first to fourth centuries A.D.
CHAPTER FIVE THE ROMAN NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES, EXCLUDING BRITANNIA
CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Citation preview

A Zooarchaeological Study of the Roman North-western Provinces

Rosemary-Margaret Luff

B A R International Series I 3 7 1982

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122 Banbury

Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker; M.A.

B.A.R.-S1J7, 1982:: 'A Zboarc haeologic al Study of the Roman North-western Provinces' © Rosemary-Margaret Luff, 1982 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541684 paperback ISBN 9781407328126 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541684 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

' A g ood d eal o f

t he r ash a nd h asty

g eneralization o f o ur t ime a rises f rom t he u nreliability o f t he e vidence u pon w hich i t i s b ased. I t i s n ext t o i mpossible t o g ive a c ontinuous n arrative o f a ny a rchaeological i nvestigation t hat i s e ntirely f ree f rom b ias; u ndue s tress w ill b e l aid u pon f acts t hat s eem t o h ave a n i mportant b earing u pon t heories t hat a re c urrent a t t he t ime w hile o thers t hat m ight c ome t o b e c onsidered o f g reater v alue a fterwards a re p ut i n t he b ackground o r n ot r ecorded, a nd p osterity i s e ndowed w ith a l egacy o f e rror t hat c an n ever b e r ectified. B ut w hen f ulness a nd a ccuracy a re m ade t he c hief s ubject o f s tudy, t his e vil i s i n a g reat m easure a voided.'

L ieutenant-General P itt-Rivers 1 888.

C ONTENTS p age A cknowledgements P reface L ist o f P lates a nd M aps C HAPTER O NE Z OOARCHAEOLOGY - T he p ossibilities a nd l imitations 1 .1

A b rief h istory o f t he s ubject

1

1 .2

A ims a nd m ethods

2

1 .2.1 1 .2.2 1 .2.3

S ampling T aphonomy Q uantification

5 5

1 .2.4 1 .2.5 1 .2.6

B utchery I dentification S exing

1 4 1 5

1 .2.7 1 .2.8

W ithers h eight A geing

1 9

3

8

1 8

S ummary

2 5

C HAPTER T WO S HEEPEN - T he f irst c entury A .D.

i n R oman B ritain

2 .1

I ntroduction

2 6

2 .2

B one f ragment c ount o f t he m ain d omestic s pecies

2 8

2 .3

B utchery 2 .3.1 C attle b utchery 2 .3.2 S heep/goat b utchery

3 0 3 0 3 3

2 .3.3

3 4

P ig b utchery

2 .4

M inimum n umber o f a nimals

3 5

2 .5

T he S heepen c attle

3 5

2 .6

S ocio-economic c hange i n t he f irst c entury B .C. t o f irst c entury A .D.

o f R oman B ritain

5 0

2 .7

T he S heepen s heep/goat

5 3

2 .8

T he S heepen h orse

6 1

2 .9

T he S heepen p ig

6 1

2 .10 T he S heepen d ogs

6 1

2 .11 T he S heepen b irds

6 3

2 .12 W ild a nimals

6 5

2 .13 P athology o f S heepen a nimals

6 5

p age 2 .14

S heepen - T he b ackground o f t he p re-Roman I ron A ge a nd e arly R oman P eriod ( first c entury) 2 .14.1 2 .14.2

C attle s ize S heep s ize

2 .14.3 2 .14.4

P ig s ize H orse s ize

6 9 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1

T ABLES 2 :1 - 2 :18 C HAPTER T HREE C OLCHESTER - t he f irst t o f ifth c enturies A .D.

i n

R oman B ritain 3 .1

T he T rinovantian l andscape

9 7

3 .2

T he R omano-British p opulation

9 8

3 .3

T he B alkerne L ane d eposits a t C olchester

9 9

3 .4

B one f ragment c ount

1 00

3 .4.1

1 00

U se o f o x s capulae a s s hovels/scoops

3 .5

B utchery

1 02

3 .6

A c omparison o f t he b one f ragment c ount f or S heepen a nd C olchester

1 04

3 .7 3 .8

3 .9

M inimum n umber o f a nimals o f t he m ain d omestic s pecies

1 05

T he f requency o f s keletal e lements p er s pecies 3 .8.1 C attle

1 07 1 07

3 .8.2 3 .8.3

1 08 1 08

S heep/goat P ig

T he C olchester c attle

1 08

3 .10 T he C olchester s heep/goat

1 18

3 .11 T he C olchester p ig

1 27

3 .12 T he C olchester h orse

1 30

3 .13 T he C olchester d ogs

1 30

3 .14 T he C olchester b irds

1 31

3 .15 W ild a nimals

1 31

3 .16 M etrical a nalysis o f a nimal b ones f rom v arious s ites i n R oman B ritain 3 .16.1 M etrical a nalysis o f R omano-British

1 31

c attle M etrical a nalysis o f R omano-British s heep/goat M etrical a nalysis o f R omano-British

1 32

3 .16.2 3 .16.3

h orse 3 .17 T he f irst B ritain

t o f ifth c enturies A .D.

T ABLES 3 :1 - 3 :27

1 34 1 36

o f R oman 1 36

C HAPTER F OUR

E mt

C HELMSFORD - T he f irst

t o f ourth c enturies A .D.

4 .1

I ntroduction

4 .2

R itual b one d eposits

1 75

T he Chelmsford

4 .2.2

T he s ignificance o f t he h orse s kulls

4 .2.3

H orse b urial

1 89

4 .2.4

Foundation d eposits

1 90

4 .2.5

T emple s acrifices

1 91

4 .2.6

Puits

f ungraires

1 93

4 .2.7

' Odd'

d eposits

1 93

a nd b ones

4 .3

1 76

4 .2.1

C helmsford - t he

' votive' w ell d eposit

f rom s ite AR

1 76 1 86

f irst f our c enturies A .D.

1 94

4 .3.1

A nimal b one r emains f rom t he C helmsford

4 .3.2 4 .3.3

C attle s exing T he C helmsford b irds

4 .3.4

T he C helmsford d ogs

1 98 1 98

4 .3.5

B utchery

2 01

4 .3.6

T he s ize o f

s ites

4 .3.7

1 97 1 98

t he C helmsford d omestic

a nimals

2 01

T he C helmsford h orses

2 04

TABLES 4 :1 - 4 :19

C HAPTER F IVE T HE R OMAN N ORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES, E XCLUDING B RITANNIA 5 .1

I ntroduction

2 37

5 .2

rovincial d iet T he R oman N orth-western P

2 48

5 .3

rovincial h T he R oman N orse orth-western P

2 52

5 .4

rovincial T he R oman N orth-western P

2 58

5 .5

heep/goat rovincial s orth-western P T he R oman N

2 61

5 .6

rovincial p ig T he R oman N orth-western P

2 63

5 .7

rovincial d og T he R oman N orth-western P

2 63

5 .8

oultry rovincial p T he R oman N orth-western P

2 64

5 .9

I ntroduced s pecies 5 .9.1 T he a ss - E quus a sinus

2 64

5 .9.2

T he d omestic c at - F elis c atus

2 65

5 .9.3 5 .9.4

T he c amel T he p eacock - P avo p avo

2 65 2 65

5 .9.5

T he

2 66

5 .9.6 5 .9.7

T he e lephant T he g uinea f owl - Numidia m eleagris

c attle

f allow d eer - D ama d ama

5 .10 W ild a nimals T ABLES 5 :1 - 5 :32

2 64

2 66 2 66 2 66

C HAPTER S IX C ONCLUSIONS 6 .1

T he C anton o f t he T rinovantes

3 07

6 .2

B ritannia a nd t he o ther N orth-western P rovinces

3 08

6 .3

T he w ider i mplications o f

3 10

B IBLIOGRAPHY

t his r esearch

3 11

A cknowledgements Many p eople h ave h elped d irectly a nd i ndirectly i n t he e ffort t o p roduce

t his b ook which o riginated a s p art o f a d octoral r esearch

p roject.

I am g rateful

t o t he D .E.S.

f or f inancing my r esearch w hile

Iw as a g raduate s tudent a t C ambridge University. P hilosophical S ociety who e nabled m e t o c omplete p rovided m e w ith f unds t o t ravel a broad. Iw ould l ike t o t hank M iss J oan L iversidge C ambridge)

I t hank t he C ambridge t his w ork a nd w ho

( Dept. A rchaeology,

f or h er c ontinued s upport a nd e ncouragement w ithout w hich

t his b ook w ould n ot h ave b een c ompleted. P . A rmitage

( B.M., N at.Hist.)

t hanks a re d ue

I am m ost g rateful

f or h is i nterest a nd h elp.

t o D r

M y e special

t o D r G raeme L awson a nd Mr P aul D rury who p rovided m e

w ith much i nformative d iscussion.

I a m a lso i ndebted t o B ob W ilson,

B etty W estley, R osalind N iblett, P aul D rury, C live P artridge, N ina a nd P hilip C rummy who f reely g ave i nformation c oncerning t heir w ork. I t hank J . Musty o f t he D .O.E.,

P aul Drury,

R osalind N iblett a nd

P hilip C rummy f or a llowing m e t o p ublish my f aunal a nalytical r esults f or S heepen,

C olchester a nd C helmsford.

C lassical A rchaeology,

P rofessor A .

h uge amount o f a nimal b one i n t he ARK b asement; M r E .E.

J ones a nd B .D.

( Dept.

I t hank h im a nd a lso

T hompson f or t heir u nfailing c heerfulness.

W ith r egard t o t he c ontinental material, o f P rofessor J .

S nodgrass

C ambridge) v ery k indly a llowed m e t o s tore t he

I a m v ery a ppreciative

B oessneck's g enerosity i n a llowing m e t o b orrow much

p ublished a nd u npublished m aterial f rom t he University L ibrary i n Munich.

S imilarly, Dr A .T.

C lason

( Biol.-Arch.Institute,

G roningen)

p rovided me w ith p apers a nd b ooks t hat w ere u nobtainable i n B ritain a nd g ave me much v aluable a dvice. f or t heir r eadiness

t o h elp.

I t hank t hem b oth m ost s incerely

Iw ould a lso l ike t o t hank D r V .

P rummel

f or k indly a llowing m e t o u se h er u npublished manuscripts. A dvice c oncerning b one p athology was r endered r eadily b y C olonel J . H ickman a nd Dr A .R. J ennings ( Cambridge V et. S chool) a nd a lso b y M r C hris C ollis ( Equine R esearch S tation, N ewmarket) who v aliantly X -rayed t he C helmsford a nd W ickford h orse s kulls. I e xpress m y g ratitude. I t hank Mr A .S. C larke o f t he R oyal S cottish Museum, E dinburgh f or a llowing m e s kulls.

t o e xamine a nd m easure t he N ewstead h orse

T he p hotography w as

s kilfully e xecuted b y G wil O wen t o whom

I a m t hankful. I e xtend a s pecial w ho e ncouraged m e

t hank y ou t o t he Directors o f E icon R esearch

t o p roduce t his b ook.

H owever c ompletion w ould n ot

h ave b een a chieved w ithout t he a ssistance o f Mrs S ally R oberts who t ransformed a h orrendous m anuscript i nto l egibility. I am m ost g rateful. I s hould l ike t o t hank m y p arents a nd u ncle Mr a nd M rs L .B. a nd T .G. Luff f or t heir wholehearted s upport a nd p atient e ncouragement. I t hank t hem d early.

L astly I am i ndebted t o my husband, D r T ony H ooley

w ho made m e l augh when m oments w ere b leak - my d eepest t hanks.

P reface T his b ook i s a n i nvestigation i nto t he v arious t ion,

p articularly s ocio-economic,

t ypes o f i nforma-

t hat c an b e r evealed b y R oman a nimal

b ones. E mphasis i s p laced o n t he a nimal b ones b ecause t here i s a s carcity o f p ublished d ata c oncerning o ther z oological r emains, e .g. m olluscs,

f ish a nd i nsects.

Z ooarcha2ology, a g lobal b asis.

S ince n o s tandard m ethodology e xists i n

p ast a nd c urrent a nalysis t echniques a re r eviewed o n T he c hoice o f t echniques i s l argely d etermined b y

t he t ime a vailable f or a nalysis a nd t he o verall c ost e ffectiveness. T he a uthor h as d evised a m ethod o f r ecording b utchery p atterns, w hich e ases t he d ifficulties i nvolved i n c omparison o f s ites. U sing b one material f rom a v ariety o f r elated s ites i n R oman E ssex, t he v alidity o f

t he a nalysis m ethods c hosen i s d iscussed.

i nclude C helmsford,

C olchester a nd S heepen

( Fig.

1 .1).

T hese s ites

T he a rea i n

w hich t hey l ie i s n aturally d emarcated o n t he e ast by t he N orth S ea, o n t he s outh by t he R iver T hames, i ts

o n t he w est b y t he L ea V alley a nd

t ributaries a nd i n t he n orth w est b y t he w atershed o f t he B oulder

C lay.

T he p hysical g eography o f t he whole a rea l ies w ithin t he L ondon

B asin. T o t he n orth o f C helmsford i s a s heet o f e asily w orked B oulder C lay w ith o utcrops o f g lacial s ands a nd g ravels, e .g. e xposed a long r iver v alleys a nd a round C olchester a nd C helmsford. S outh o f C helmsford i s t he l ess f ertile b elt o f L ondon C lay which i s v irtually c ontinuous e xcept f or p laces c apped b y b eds o f p ebbles,

g ravels a nd s and.

Much

o f E ssex i s e ndowed w ith many f resh w ater s prings a nd s treams. R esults s ites

f rom t he E ssex s ites a re c ompared w ith t hose f rom o ther

i n B ritain a nd a lso t he C ontinent,

R hineland,

S witzerland a nd

i .e.

F rance,

t he N orth G erman P lain.

B elgium ,

H olland,

I n p articular,

i nformation has b een g ained by a m etrical i nvestigation o f h orse,

m uch c attle

a nd s heep/goat s pecies i n t he R oman N orth-western P rovinces. T he F igures a nd M aps

r eferred t o i n e ach C hapter w ill b e f ound

a djacent t o t he f irst p oint o f r eference while

t he T ables h ave b een

g rouped t ogether a t t he e nd o f e ach C hapter t o l ighten t he t ext. T he f ollowing s tatistical

s ymbols a re u sed:-

n

-

number

✓

-

r ange

X

-

m ean

s

-

s tandard d eviation

V

-

c oefficient o f v ariation

-

c oefficient o f d ifference

C .D.

L ist o f P lates

P late 1

C ow mandible,

P late

P ole-axed c ow s kull

2

p age

p ossibly g nawed b y r odent f rom S heepen

P late 3

C attle h orn c ores

P late 4

T wo d eformed s heep h orn c ores

3 1 3 2

f rom S heepen

4 8 ( centre) w ith

t wo n ormally d eveloped h orn c ores

6 6

P late 5

L esion i n p arietal b one o f S heepen c ow s kull

6 7

P late 6

F ractured p ig humerus a nd f emur p ig m etapodials w ith e xostoses

( above); ( below)

6 8 1 19

P late 7

C attle h orn c ores f rom C olchester

P late 8

F our h orned s heep

P late 9

H orse s kull C HAR 2 96.

D orsal v iew

1 79

P late 1 0

H orse s kull C HAR 2 96.

L ateral v iew

1 80

P late 1 1

H orse s kull C HAR 2 96.

V entral v iew

1 81

P late 1 2

H orse s kull C HAR 2 78.

D orsal v iew

1 82

P late

H orse

s kull C HAR 2 78.

L ateral v iew

1 83

P late 1 4

H orse s kull C HAR 2 78.

V entral v iew

1 84

P late 1 5

C attle h orn c ores

P late 1 6

49, H orse s kull BW 1

4 ,

1 .

D orsal v iew

2 07

P late 1 7

kull B H orse s W 1 49,

4 ,

1 .

L ateral v iew

2 08

P late 1 8

W 1 49, H orse s kull B

4 ,

1 .

V entral v iew

2 09

P late 1 9

H orse s W 1 49, kull B

4 ,

2 .

D orsal v iew

2 10

P late

H orse

49, s kull BW 1

4 ,

2 .

Lateral v iew

2 11

P late 2 1

W 1 49, H orse s kull B

4 ,

2 . V entral v iew

2 12

P late

andible orse m X -ray p hotograph o f C helmsford h

1 3

2 0

2 2

f rom C olchester c .

4 9 A .D.

1 28

2 00

f rom Chelmsford

2 17

L ist o f Maps

M ap 5 .1

D istribution o f I ron A ge S ettlements

( La T ene)

M ap 5 .2

D istribution o f R oman P rovincial T owns a nd

2 39

C ivil S ettlements

2 41

M ap 5 .3

D istribution o f R oman P rovincial V illas

2 43

M ap 5 .4

D istribution o f S ettlements o utside

M ap 5 .5

t he

R oman Empire

2 45

D istribution o f R oman P rovincial F orts

2 47

, 4 ••

b 1 : 1 •r l

.

g i ,

r eproduced b y c ourtesy o f C helmsford A rchaeological T rust.

C HAPTER O NE

Z OOARCHAEOLOGY - T he p ossibilities a nd l imitations

b ioarchaeology i s n ot i n t he f inal a nalysis b iological, i t i s a rchaeological b ecause i t i s c oncerned w ith c ommunities whose b ehavioral p atterns w ere c onditioned a nd mediated b y a nd c ulture-communities...' ( J.G.D. C lark 1 972, 1 5)

1 .1

A b rief h istory o f

t he s ubject

I n N orth-western Europe l ogical s ites

t he

s tudy o f f aunal r emains f rom a rchaeo-

s tarted i n t he l atter p art o f t he n ineteenth c entury.

U nfortunately,

i nterest was

l ithic a nimals.

c hiefly f ocused o n t he f ossilised P alaeo-

I n F rance much p ost-Palaeolithic material was

c arded w ithout p roper s cientific a nalysis,

e .g .

G auls d uring J ulius C aesar's s iege o f A lgsia R l itimeyer

t hrough

( 1861),

d is-

t he h orses u sed b y t he

( Poulain 1 976).

H owever

i n h is w ork o n t he S wiss Lake Dwellings d iscussed

t hree i mportant z ooarchaeological a nd d omesticated s pecies,

b )

t hemes;

h istory o f

a )

d ifferences b etween w ild

t he d omesticated s pecies,

a nd

c ) s tock b reeding a nd h unting p ractices o f d ifferent c ultures i n o ne a rea. Many w orkers f ollowed h is l ead p articularly o n C entral E uropean material,

e .g.

S tuder,

K eller, Duerst,

A dametz a nd H ilzheimer.

I n B ritain, G eneral P itt-Rivers' c lassic r eports s tand o ut, p art icularly t he a ccounts o f t he a nimals e xcavated f rom t he R omano-British v illages o f R otherley, t heir b uild a nd A t t he

t urn o f

W oodcuts a nd W oodyates

s tructure w ith r eference

t o

i n w hich h e d escribes

t ype

s pecimens

( 1887-1892).

t he c entury, D anish r esearch w as w ell u nder w ay w ith

t he ' Kj Akenm f 6ddinger' - k itchen r efuse m ounds f rom l ate M esolithic a nd N eolithic s ettlements which h ad b een s ituated a long o ld c oastlines ( Winge 1 903).

I n t he N etherlands d uring t he n ineteenth c entury a nimal

r emains w ere b eing a nalysed f rom t he

t erpen

( Schoor 1 887; C lason 1 973a).

T hus a t t he e nd o f t he n ineteenth a nd b eginning o f

t he

t wentieth c en-

t ury a uthors w ere l isting f auna a lthough n o r eal q uantification w as g iven, i t i s

i .e.

G lastonbury L ake V illage - ' Remains a re s o numerous

i mpossible t o i ndicate

s ented.'

t he

t hat

t otal n umber o f i ndividuals r epre-

( Boyd-Dawkins a nd J ackson 1 911,

I t w as n ot u ntil 1 928 o ne o f

t he

t hat t he S wiss,

6 49). L ouis R everdin e ffected

f irst a ttempts a t q uantifying a nimal r emains w ith s ites o n

L ake N euchätel.

H e made a t horough d etermination o f m easurements,

p roportions o f a dults a nd y oung,

r aces a nd s pecies p ercentages.

h e c ompared d ifferent l ayers.

1

A lso

H ans P eter U erpmann

( 1973a)

h as

c laimed t hat

t he f irst s erious

a ttempts t o e xtract s ocio-economic i nformation f rom a rchaeological f inds w ere m ade i n E astern E urope ( Kubasiewicz 1 956; P aaver 1 958). I n

t he U .S.A.

f aunal

s tudies

i nitially p rogressed t hrough m ethods

u sed t o

t ackle P alaeo-Indian B ison K ill

1 955).

L ater i n t he 1 960's d ue

( 1976)

t he i mportance o f

t o

S ites

( White 1 952,

t he w ork o f p eople

1 953,

1 954,

l ike F lannery

s ite e cology was r ealised.

I n s ome p arts o f E urope t here i s s till a d earth o f i nformation c oncerning f aunal r emains ( see C hapter F ive); t hus G autier c ommented i n 1 968,

' In B elgium,

h owever,

a lmost n o

o f w ild o r d omesticated a nimals

s tudies h ave b een p ublished

c ollected f rom a rchaeological

a lthough s everal s ites y ielded w ell p reserved f auna." 2 41). 1 .2

A ims a nd m ethods

' Any b one r eport i s s imply o ne man's v iew; a d efinitive b one r eport.'

t here i s n o s uch t hing a s

( Payne i n H iggs 1 972,

I n 1 970 a t t he B udapest C onference G eschichte d er H austiere)

7 9).

( Domestikationsforschung u nd

b oth L awrence a nd C lason c alled f or a

s tandardisation o f m ethodology. make

s ites

( Gautier 1 968,

L awrence

t hese c omparisons b roadly p roductive

t hus

s ums u p,

' In o rder t o

( between s ites) w e n eed t o

r each a s much a greement a s p ossible o n c riteria f or o steological i dentification,

p ertinent i nformation t o b e i ncluded i n t he r eport,

t echniques f or r ecording a nd r etrieving d ata a nd t he whole f ield o f a nalysis f rom methods t o o bjectives.' ( Lawrence 1 973, 3 97). I n h is b ook, C haplin

( 1971)

T he S tudy o f Animal B ones f rom A rchaeological

S ites,

c arefully a nd s ystematically e xplained h ow t o u ndertake

a f aunal a nalysis.

H e d iscussed t he m ore i mportant m ethods a nd

s uggested w ays o f i mprovement.

T hese w ill b e d iscussed a s

t he t ext

u nfolds t ogether w ith m ore r ecent w ork. H owever t here i s s till n o g eneral a greement c oncerning m ethodology a lthough G rigson ( 1978) p rop osed a b lueprint f or a nimal b one r eports i n a rchaeology,

o mitting

d iscussion o f t he p roblems i nvolved. C omparison o f m y d ata w ith t hat o f o ther r esearchers h as b een a lmost i mpossible s ince f ully. d ue

t o

t heir a nalytical m ethods a re n ot e xplained

T his i s a v ery s erious p roblem , l ack o f

a fter a nalysis. P itt-Rivers'

s torage f acilities b one

p articularly i n B ritain w here s amples

F uture w ork o n t he material i s

t end

t o b e d iscarded

t hus i mpossible a nd

r emarks o f n early a c entury a go r ing l oud a nd c lear,

' ... p osterity i s e ndowed, w ith a l egacy o f e rror t hat c an n ever b e r ectified.' ( Frontispiece 1 888). A lso r esearchers h ave p references f or d ifferent m ethods. C hapter F ive d escribes t he d ifficulties e nc ountered when G erman a nd E nglish m ethods o f s exing R oman c attle b ones a re

c ompared. S ome w orkers d o n ot y et w ant

( 1977,

1 32) writes,

c orrelate m ethods

' While

t he

t o s tandardise m ethods,

C asteel

f rustrations i nvolved i n a ttempts

t o

f aunal s tudies d one b y d ifferent i nvestigators u sing d iverse

c an r eadily b e a ppreciated

t he i dea o f i mposing a u niform

f ramework f or s uch s tudies b efore b eing f ully a ware o f t he r ange o f

2

a pplicability o f e ven t hese f ew m ethods a vailable a t t he p resent d oes n ot s eem t o b e a s tep i n t he r ight d irection .' I n a nother p aper C asteel

( 1977)

i llustrates t he d iverse t erminology i n c urrent u se,

e xample m any d ifferent

1 977,

s ymbols a re u sed t o r epresent t he

f or

s ame s tatistic .

H owever a t t he I nternational C ouncil o n A rchaeozoology i n J uly ( British Mus., N at. H ist.), s everal w orking g roups w ere c reated,

o ne o f w hich w as t o s tandardise methods. p rove p roductive i n t he f uture . 1 .2.1

I t i s h oped t hat t his w ill

S ampling

' A h ypothesis i s...

t he o bligatory s tarting p oint o f a ll e xperimental

r easoning. W ithout i t n o i nvestigation w ould b e p ossible a nd o ne w ould l earn n othing; o ne c ould only p ile u p b arren o bservations. T o e xperiment w ithout a p reconceived i dea i s t o w ander a imlessly.' ( Claude B ernard 1 865) I f a n e xcavation i s u ndertaken t o t est a h ypothesis, t hat h ypot hesis m ay h ave n othing t o d o w ith f aunal s tudies y et m ay i ncidentally y ield l arge q uantities o f b one. T he f aunal d ata h as b een p roduced b y a ccident a nd i n f act p robably a ll t he d ata f or R omano-British a nd l ater t owns h as b een u nearthed a s a r esult o f a n e xperiment c onducted f or a nother r eason . T eamwork i s v aluable w hen s ites a re c hosen f or t heir a bility t o y ield d ata h elpful t o a n umber o f c urrent r esearch t opics, b ut c are must b e t aken t hat t his d oes n ot r esult i n a n e xcav ation i nadequate i n a ll a spects r ather t han s ome. Many b one r eports a re merely l ists o f a nimal s pecies t acked o nto t he e nd o f e xcavation r eports. One q uestions t he u se o f r eports w here p ossible s ources o f s ampling b ias h ave n ot b een c onsidered . I t i s i mportant t o d efine t he q uestions t o b e a nswered b y t he a rtefacts b efore d igging u p t he s ample . T his w ill a ffect t he e fficiency w ith w hich t he s ite i s d ug,

e .g. w hether s oil

s ieving s hould b e u sed o r

n ot. E ven t hough s ome w orkers h ave b een a ware o f t his ( I ligham 1 967; P ayne 1 972; C lason a nd P run imel 1 977), G amble ( 1978) i s q uite r ight i n p roclaiming t he g eneral d iffidence o f t he z ooarchaeologist i n s tating h is/her a ims a nd o bjectives. T he

s ites I a m d ealing w ith i n t his b ook a re

' urban s ites' a nd

p ose s pecial p roblems o f t heir o wn. I t i s i mpossible t o e xcavate t otally e ach s ite a nd s o, ' Selectivity b ecomes t he c ardinal p rincipal i n u rban a rchaeology' ( Biddle 1 974, 1 04 i n R hatz). I t i s s alutary t o r emember t hat l ess t han 2 % o f t he t otal a rea w ithin t he d efences a t W inchester w as e xcavated d uring 1 961-1971 a m ost a mbitious r esearch p roject .

( Biddle 1 973) and t his w as

One o f t he m ajor d ifficulties i n s ampling f rom a multi-period s ite i s t hat o f r esidual material. A lthough o ne c an n ever b e s atisf ied t he d eposit i s f ree f rom c ontamination , l arge s amples f rom w ell s ealed f eatures h elp p artially t o a lleviate t his p roblem . Another d ifficulty n ot g enerally a ppreciated i s t he f act t hat t here i s a h uge b acklog o f b one w aiting t o b e a nalysed, n one o f w hich i s s ieved .

I t

a ppears t hat t he r elative f requencies o f t he l arge s pecies a re v irt ually u naffected b y i t ( Barker 1 975). H alstead ( in p rint) h as c laimed t hat w ith t he R omano-British v illa W endens Ambo,

3

' Fairly e xtensive

s ieving o n t he s ite d id s uggest t hat, a lthough a n umber o f s mall b one a nd p ot f ragments w ere n ot b eing f ound d uring e xcavation, t he l oss o f u seable i nformation w as r elatively s light.' P ayne ( 1975) v ehemently d isputes t his w ith e vidence f rom t he F ranchthi C ave, G reece w hich w as e ntirely s ieved . H owever i t w ould t ake o ne w orker b etween f orty a nd f ifty y ears t o c omplete t he b one a nalysis ( Gamble 1 978) t hus e mphas ising C lason a nd P rummel's p oint ( 1977, 1 75), ' But i sn't t here a m oment w hen w e m ust a cknowledge i f t he t ime s pent o n t hese i dentific ations i s r ewarded b y t he a mount o f e xtra i nformation t hus o btained .' N one o f my s ites h as b een s oil s ieved ; o n s ome r escue e xcavations t here s imply i s n ot e nough t ime. T he h uge i nput o f h uman e ffort v ersus t he s mall o utput o f r esults i s a f ailing b eing e xperienced n ot o nly b y f aunal a nalysts,

b ut a lso p ottery a nd

t ile r esearchers.

A t t he C onference o n S ampling ( 1978), G amble a nd C herry s uggested t hat m any l evels o f e nquiry r equired o nly s mall s amples, e .g. f or r elative p ercentages o f d omestic s pecies. G amble's p aper i s i mportant b ecause h e h as p ointed o ut t hat t he q uestions t o b e a nswered d etermine t he s ize o f t he s ample n ecessary . H e h as p roduced a m odel f or e stimat ing a ppropriate s ample s ize a nd s ampling f ractions f or r anked z ooa rchaeological q uestions. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat w ith t he R omano-British U ley T emple b ones a m ere 1 0% o f t he s ample w ould h ave b een s ufficient t o a nswer s ome g eneral q uestions. Ih ave w orked o ut t he s tandard o f b one r ecovery f rom m y s ites b y m easuring t he l engths o f t he u nidentifiable b one f ragments

( not

r ecently b roken, i .e . W atson's F ragmentation Method 1 972). T his, t aken i n c onjunction w ith t he r ecovered m icrofauna r evealed a r easona bly g ood l evel o f r ecovery f or a ll s ites. C haplin ( 1971) h as p rovided, a s a g uideline, a l ist o f t opics c oncerning a nimal b ones f rom a rchaeological s ites. W ith m y o wn d ata I h ave m odified a nd a dded t o t his

l ist a s

f ollows :-

S ubjects t o b e i nvestigated 1 .

D iet o f i nhabitants. A d istinction must b e made b etween w aste f rom f ood c onsumption a nd w aste f rom s laughter a nd i ndustry. I t i s n ecessary t o b ear i n m ind t he q uantity o f m eat c onsumed a nd t he a vailability o f a nimal b y-products s uch a s m ilk a nd c heese.

2 .

B utchery p ractices.

3 .

Animal h usbandry. A ge a nd s ex d eterminations, i n c ertain i nstances c an r eveal s laughter p atterns a lthough c are must b e t aken t hat d ietary p reference i s n ot t he d eciding f actor.

4 .

Animal p athology.

5 .

H unting, r atio o f w ild t o d omestic animals.

6 .

I ndustries, a )

7 .

P ets k ept.

b one, b )

t anning,

4

c )

h orn,

a nd d )

g lue .

8 .

E vidence o f e nvironmental c onditions, a nd m icrofauna.

9 .

A nimals

e .g.

b irds, w ild m ammals

s acrificed .

1 0.

Animal

1 1.

S patial d istribution p atterns o f s keletal e lements, p erhaps s ignifying r ubbish d isposal, s laughter a reas e tc. I t

s ize.

i s v ital

t o k now t he g eology a nd

t opography o f

e ach s ite a s

w ell a s t he n ature o f t he a rchaeological d eposits i n o rder t o u nders tand t he i ntegration o f t he a nimals w ith t heir e nvironment. O ne o f

t he m ajor p rinciples o f

s ampling i s t he r ange o f p ossible

v ariation t o b e s ampled a dequately. T herefore n ot o nly h ave I l ooked a t c hronological d ifferences i nter a nd i ntra s ites b ut a lso I h ave c onsidered s patial d ifferences i ntra s ites, i .e. d eposits f rom d ifferent a reas o f t he s ame s ite. s ites i t i s i mportant t o b ear o f s upply o f meat. 1 .2.2

c omparing b one I n d ealing w ith u rban

i n m ind m ethods o f m arketing a nd s ources

T aphonomy

O nce t he s ample h as b een r ecovered, f actors a ffecting b one p res ervation f rom t he t ime o f b utchery u p u ntil e xcavation must b e c ons idered . T aphonomic s tudies a re n ow p laying a n i ncreasingly i mportant p art i n z ooarchaeological s tudies. ' Taphonomy i s t he d etailed s tudy o f t he t ransition o f a nimal r emains f rom t he b iosphere i nto t he l ithosphere a nd t hus e xplores p ost-mortem r elations b etween o rganic r emains a nd t heir e xternal e nvironment.' ( Efremov 1 940, q uoted b y N oe-Nygaard 1 977). O bservations o n t he c ondition o f b one w hether h ard,

s oft, b rittle,

c olouration e tc. w ould b e u seful h ere b ut i nformation i s s canty ( see C oy 1 975). ' Old' b ones a re d efined a s t hose w hich s how s igns o f w eathering ( i .e. c racked, c razed o r f laked s urfaces). I f t he b ones h ave a ' fresh' a ppearance t his s uggests b urial o r t hat e ntry i nto w ater h as t aken p lace f airly r apidly ( Behrensmeyer 1 975). S ome b ones d evelop s plit-line p atterns a nd t hese c an g ive a n i dea o f h ow l ong t he b one h as b een l eft l ying a round o n t he g round 1 .2.3

1 969,

Q uantification

I n q uantifying f aunal

r esults t hree m ain m ethods a re u sed .

a )

N umber o f b one f ragments.

b )

M inimum n umber o f a nimals

c )

W eight o f b one f ragments.

( M.I.N.).

L ist o f v ariables a ffecting b one 1 .

( Tappen 1 964,

f ragment r ecovery

P oor r etrieval

5

1 970).

2 .

W eathering

3 .

B ias i n f avour o f m ature b ones

4 .

B ias d ecreasing t he i mportance o f s mall b ones a nd i ncreasing t he i mportance o f l arge b ones ( Payne 1 972)

5 .

P hysical a nd c hemical c omposition o f b ones

( Brain 1 967)

6 .

C limate a nd n ature o f s oil

T appen e t a l.

7 .

P ost-depositional a ctivities o f m en a nd a nimals - T aphonomy

8 .

C ooking p rocesses

9 .

B utchery p ractices

1 0.

S election o f b one f or t ools

( Ducos 1 968;

( Cornwall

1 966;

P ayne 1 972;

G rant 1 975)

1 970)

( Payne 1 972)

W orkers h ave a dhered t o u sing t he n umber o f b one f ragments f or m any r easons, o ne b eing t hat i t i s t he o ldest m ethod a nd i s t he o nly way e arly r eports c an b e c ompared. T here a re s everal d rawbacks i n u sing t his m ethod s ome o f which c an b e c ompensated f or, e .g. d ifferent a nimals h ave d ifferent n umbers o f b ones, i .e. a d og h as 5 2 t o 5 8 p halanges, a p ig 4 8, a c ow 2 4 a nd a h orse 1 2. O ne c an n ever b e s ure o f t he i ndependence o f b one f ragments f rom e ach o ther. A lso b ones a re n ot e qually i dentifiable. P alaeontologists w ere u sing M .I.N.

i n t he 1 920's a nd 1 930's a nd

W hite i ntroduced i t i nto American a rchaeology i n t he 1 950's.

C asteel

s ays, ' that t he M .I.N. c oncept w as b eing p resented e xplicitly i n t he e arly 1 880's i n R ussia'. ( 1977, 1 25). A lthough t his i s p robably t he m ore p opular m ethod c urrently i n u se t here a re s till m any p roblems t o b e r esolved. G rayson p ointed o ut t hat M .I.N. v aried g reatly a ccording t o whether s ite s tratigraphy w as u sed ( i.e. m aximum d istinction m ethod) o r s tratigraphy n ot u sed ( i.e. m inimum d istinction m ethod). A s G rayson s ays, ' There s eems t o b e n o s et w ay o f d etermining t he c lusters o f f aunal material w ithin a n a rchaeological s ite w hich a re i n t urn u sed t o c alculate M .I.N.' ( 1973, 4 33). I gnoring t he q uestion o f r etrieval ( 1972) a )

f rom d ifferent l evels,

C lason

c oncentrated o n f our m ethods o f e stimating M .I.N.

C alculation o f

t he s keletal p art o f t he s pecies m ost n umerous i n

t he s ample. b )

C areful a nalysis o f e ach s keletal e lement, m atched a gainst o thers i n r espect o f a ge, s ex a nd s ize; a d ecision i s m ade a s t o w ich b one b elongs t o o ne i ndividual ( Chaplin 1 971), i .e. G MT = where G MT = G rand M inimum N umber o f a nimals r epreeented, C t otal n umber o f c omparable p aired e lements, o f d issimilar

c )

a nd D

/ 2+D t , =

= t otal n umber

e lements.

T he m andible i s o ne o f t he m ost f requently f ound b ones o f t he s keleton. T eeth c an i ndicate w hether m andibles a re f rom t he s ame i ndividual o r n ot

( Higham 1 967).

i s a pplied t o l arge s amples a nd b ) 6

I f n o m andibles a re p resent, t o s mall

s amples.

a )

d )

The n umber o f e lements i n t he s keleton o f e ach s pecies u naffected b y

' cultural'

n otion,

o r p reservational f actors.

T his i s a v ery v ague

u nacceptable s ince i t i s e xtremely d ifficult t o d etermine

which e lements w ould n ot b e a ffected b y e ither c ultural o r p res ervational f actors ( Perkins 1 973).

b )

S umming u p, a ) t ends t o o ver-represent s pecies w ith s mall n umbers, t ries t o a void t his a nd c ) t ries t o c ombine a ) a nd b ).

C lason f elt t he m ain d isadvantage o f a ll f our m ethods w as t hat m ore o ften t han n ot t he n umbers o btained w ere l ow a nd i t w as i mpossible t o c alculate p ercentages h aving a ny s ignificance.

M .I.N.

o bviously

e xaggerates t he i mportance o f t he r arer a nimals. P ayne ( 1972 i n H iggs) s uggested t hat b y c omparing t he r epresentation o f d ifferent b ones p er s pecies s ome o f t hese p roblems c ould b e o vercome. I f t he r elative a bundance o f t he d ifferent b ones w as s imilar i n a ll c ounts t hen o ne c ould b e c onfident a r easonable p icture h ad b een a ttained. c ould b e l ooked f or i f t he c ounts w ere d ifferent.

P atterns

M any d ifferent

m ethods o f c alculating M .I.N. h ave b een p roposed ( Ziegler 1 965, 1 973; K rantz 1 968; B ökönyi 1 969, 1 970; C haplin 1 971; C lason 1 972; U erpmann 1 973a, 1 973b; P erkins 1 973). C asteel ( 1977) c ompared C haplin's m ethod w ith t hat o f K rantz who t ried t o e stimate t he n umber o f a nimals i n t he o riginal p opulation; h e c oncluded t hat C haplin's w as t he m ore v alid s ince K rantz's l acked a n e mpirical b asis a nd w as l imited t o m atched p airs o f e lements. At a ll t imes t he t ype o f s ite b eing d ealt w ith must n ot b e f org otten. N oddle ( 1975b) c laimed M .I.N. w as o f l ess v alue i n u rban c onditions where r etail b utchery m ight h ave b een p ractised t han o n a r ural s ite. G rant ( 1975) a lso p ointed o ut t hat a lthough M .I.N. t ells u s t he n umber o f a nimals d ealt w ith, i t i s u nable t o d istinguish b etween a nimals r epresented b y j oints r ather t han c arcases, s ome a nimals a re c ollected f or i ndustrial p urposes.

o r w hether

T he t hird m ethod o f c omparing s ites c onsiders t he w eight o f b one. T his w ill b e s ubject t o t he s ame v ariables a s t he n umber o f f ragments m ethod. I n a ny c onsideration o f d iet i t w ould b e much m ore u seful t o t hink i n t erms o f m eat p otential t han p ercentages o f b one f ragments o r M .I.N. T wo m ethods o f c alculating t he m eat p otential a re:1 .

Multiplication o f t he w eight o f b one p er s pecies b y a f actor r epres enting t he m ean w eight o f a n i ndividual.

2 .

T he W eighing M ethod o r ' Weigemethode' which w as o riginally d evised b y K ubasiewicz ( 1956) w ho s tated t hat f or c attle a c onstant r el ationship e xisted b etween s keletal w eight a nd m eat w eight. H e m aintained t hat t he s keleton m ade u p 7 % o f t he b ody w eight a nd t hus b y w eighing a rchaeological b one o ne c ould d etermine b ody w eights. C haplin

( 1971)

c riticised t he

' Weigemethode'

s aying t hat i t

a ssumed t he m eat/bone r atio i s c onstant f or a ll s pecies which i s u nproven. B ut s till w orkers c ontinued t o u se i t. I n a r ecent p aper C asteel ( 1978) u sing m odern d ata f or d omestic p igs p roved t hat t he b asic a ssumption o f t he w eight m ethod ( i.e. t hat a c onstant r elations hip e xists b etween b one w eight a nd m eat w eight w ithin a t axon) w as i n e rror f rom 2 8% t o 2 243% a nd t hus p roved t his t o b e h ighly u nreliable. 7

U sing t his

s ame d ata h e g raphically s howed t hat t he r elationship

b etween p ercentage-bone-by-weight,

a nd m eat w eight i n p igs f ollowed a

d ownward c urve; t hat i s, t he p ercentage o f b one d oes n ot r emain c ons tant b ut d ecreases n on-linearly a s m eat w eight i ncreases. C asteel p ointed o ut t hat t he m ajor p roblem w ith t he w eight m ethod i s t hat o ne i s m aking e stimates o f m eat w eight f ar i n e xcess o f t hose k nown t o o ccur i n a s ingle i ndividual o f a t axon. H is d ata e xtends u p t o 8 1 K g f or d omestic p igs. H e s ums u p, ' Thus i f t he b one w eights f or p igs f rom a n a rchaeological a nalysis e xceed 1 0 K g t hen t o f ollow t he a pproach o f K ubasiewicz a nd o thers r equire

t o a ssume a ll b ones c ome f rom a s ingle

i ndividual o f s ome i ncredible y et p redictable w eight.' 7 4).

( Casteel

1 978,

O ne o f t he m ain p roblems i n a ssessing b ody w eight i nvolves s easonal w eight f luctuations a nd g rowth r ates which D oney e t a l. ( 1974) f ound w ith S oay s heep. C haplin ( 1971, 6 8) s uggested t hat d ressed w eight s hould b e u sed i n p reference t o b ody w eight i n o rder t o c ounteract t his. T here a re, h owever, d ifficulties i n d efining e xactly w hat t he d ressed w eight i s. N oddle ( 1973a) d evised a m ethod w hereby b one m easurements c ould i ndicate c attle b ody w eight. B ones f rom m odern c attle o f k nown f at f ree c arcase w eights w ere m easured, e .g. m etatarsal m id-shaft m ediol ateral a nd a ntero-posterior w idth d imensions. A multiple o f t hese m easurements w as p lotted a gainst t he f at f ree c arcase w eights a nd N oddle c laimed a s traight l ine r elationship g oing t hrough t he o rigin ( Noddle 1 973a, 3 80). H owever t he p oints o n t he g raph a re v ery d iffuse a nd a s traight l ine f it d oes n ot n ecessarily p ass t hrough t he o rigin. F urther, N oddle h as f ound t hat t he d ifferent b ones f rom t he s ame s keleton d o n ot g ive c onsistent r esults. T his m ethod, a s N oddle h ers elf h as m entioned, n eeds much m ore r efinement. A nother m ethod ( Uerpmann 1 973b) a ssumes t hat t he b ody w eight r atio o f U ngulates ( cattle:sheep) i s s imilar t o t he r atio o f w eights t hat a re i mposed o n t he c ross s ections o f b earing s keletal p arts. T hus r atios o f s quared p roximal m etacarpal w idths o f b ody w eight

( w).

T here i s

( c.s.)

c an b e c ompared t o r atios

s till o ne f inal m ethod i n u se,

i .e.

m ultiplication o f M .I.N . b y a n e stimated f actor w hich i s m eant t o b e t he meat w eight o f o ne i ndividual o f t he t axon ( White 1 953; C arter 1 965;

S mith 1 975;

S tewart a nd S tahl 1 977).

S umming u p, t here i s n o e xact m ethod o f d etermining t he b ody w eight o f d omestic a nimals, a t b est o nly r elative v alues b etween t he s pecies c an b e g iven. S ince t he pH o f B ritish s oils c an v ary c ons iderably a cross o ne s ite t he u se o f b one f ragment w eight h as b een e liminated. T hus I h ave u sed t he f inal m ethod m entioned, i .e. m ultip lication o f M .I.N. b y t he e stimated f actors o f C arter e t a l. ( 1965), w hich a re c ow 4 08 K g, h orse 3 63 K g, s heep 5 6.7 K g, a nd p ig 9 0.7 K g. 1 .2.4

B utchery

B utchery i s a v ery much n eglected t opic a nd many w orkers f eel l ists o f s keletal e lements

( proximal/distal e tc.)

s uffice i ts r ecording.

H owever i t i s t he t echniques u sed t hat a re i mportant. I t i s e ssential t o b e a ware o f a ny p atterning o f b utchery m arks o n d ifferent b ones b ecause t his w ill h ave a m ajor e ffect o n t he u ltimate n umber o f f ragm ents a nd M .I.N.

N oe-Nygaard h as e mphasised 8

t his p oint i n h er w ork o n

M esolithic W est E uropean S ites,

' Comparisons o f f aunas f rom d ifferent

s ites b ased o n t he n umber o f b one

f ragments m ust b e p receded b y a nalysis

o f t he marrow f racturing t echniques u sed a t t he v arious s ites. T he n umber o f f ragments p er e stimated M .I.N. s hould i ndicate t he d egree o f t aphonomic l oss.' ( 1977, 2 18). N oe-Nygaard g ave f our h ypotheses t o e xplain t he i nterdependence b etween n umber o f r ecovered b ones, e stimated M .I.N. a nd b utchery a nd m arrow f ragmentation t echniques. 1 . T he n umber o f f ragments p er i ndividual o f a s pecies d epends o n t he b utchery a nd marrow f racturing t echniques e mployed. 2 . D ifferences i n b utchery a nd m arrow f racturing o f d ifferent s pecies o n a s ite r esults i n d ifferences i n t he p roportion b etween n umber o f f ragments a nd e stimated M .I.N. 3 . T he d egree o f r etrieval o f d ifferent s pecies o n a s ite d epends o n t he b utchery a nd m arrow f racturing e mployed. 4 . D ifferences i n t he p roportions o f f ragments t o e stimated M .I.N. o f a s pecies a t d ifferent s ites e xpress t he d egree o f t aphonomic o verprint, o ther t hings b eing e qual. s trong a nd v ice v ersa.

I f t he p roportion i s s mall

t he o verprint i s

T here h as b een a t endency i n s ite r eports t o i gnore u nidentified f ragments o f b one b ut a lthough t he s keletal e lement c annot b e r ecognised t he s pecies c an ( Watson 1 972). T here i s v aluable i nformation t o b e g ained f rom t heir s tudy ( Uerpmann 1 973a; P rummel 1 975; L awrence 1 978). P rummel w eighed a nd c ounted b one f ragments f rom P eriods 1 , 2 , 3 , 6 a nd t he M iddle A ges o f t he R oman V alkenburg F ort. S he f ound t hat t he m ean w eight o f c attle b one f ragments w as n ot t he s ame i n e ach p eriod. S mall f ragments w ere c ollected f rom P eriod 1 a nd i n l arge n umbers; m edium s ized f ragments f rom P eriod 2 i n l arge n umbers; m edium s ized f ragments i n s mall n umbers f rom P eriod 3 . L arge s ized f ragments w ere c ollected f rom P eriod 6 a nd t he M iddle A ges, b oth i n s mall n umbers. B ecause o f t heir s mall s ize, t wo t hirds o f t he c attle b ones f rom P eriod 1 c ould n ot b e d etermined. F or o ther P eriods t he u ndetermined f ragments m ake u p n ot m ore t han a q uarter o f t he t otal n umber. P rummel c oncluded t hat

t he d ifferences i n t he d imensions o f

t he

b one f ragments m ay b e t he r esult o f d ifferences i n b utchery t echnique p ractised ( see a lso S chmid 1 967). V alkenburg Z .H . P eriod

1 962.

A pprox. D uration

I

B os T aurus I dentified

( yr)

U nidentified N o.fgs/yr

f ragments

f ragments

2 .5

8 1

1 61

I I I II

2 .5 2 2.0

1 50 1 56

V I

5 0.0 5 0.0

M id.Ages

M ean W t o f f gs

( Gms)

9 7

1 5.8

3 7 5 7

7 5 9 .7

3 1.0 3 3.4

5 29

8 4

1 2.2

5 6.4

1 79

3 8

4 .3

5 5.9

9

T here a re c uts,

s everal r easons why butchery p atterns

c hopmarks a nd s awmarks o n b one)

d ifficulty i n r ecording. K ooros 1 975)

1 972,

1 975;

b ut t hese a re

a g eneral

S everal w orkers h ave

B iddick & T omenchok 1 975; t oo

( i.e.

h ave b een i gnored.

a r ecord o f O ne i s

s uggested m ethods

t he ( Sadek-

B oessneck & v on d en D riesch

t ime c onsuming f or t he a verage w orker.

l ack o f u nderstanding p revails c oncerning

S econdly

t he f racturing o f

b one. R aymond Dart o riginally made a v aliant p ioneering a nalysis o f b reakage i n t he Makapansgat f ossil b one a ssemblage, a lthough i ts i nterp retation i s n ow o pen t o s peculation d ue B rain

( Dart 1 957).

t o t he r ecent f indings o f B ob

C urrently R ob B onnichsen

( 1979)

i s w orking c losely

o n t he s ubject. I h ave d eveloped my o wn numerical p rocedure f or r ecording b utchery p atterns

t hus a llowing e asy c omparisons i nter a nd i ntra s ites.

E ach l ong b one o f c ow, p arts,

i .e.

a nd Unit 3 .

p roximal,

p ig,

s heep/goat c an b e s plit i nto

t hree

s haft a nd d istal c orresponding t o U nit 1 , U nit 2

T he p roximal a nd d istal u nits t hemselves c an b e f urther

s ubdivided i nto h alves a nd q uarters.

H alving i n a ntero/postero 4 d irection

h alving i n

6

m edio/lat d irection

q uartering i n a ntero/postero a nd m edio/lat d irection

3

h alving i n a ntero/postero d irection

8

5 h alving i n 7 m edio/lat d irection

q uartering i n a ntero/postero a nd m edio/lat d irection

M a nd L a re u sed i n c onnection w ith t he medial b one r espectively.

I f p art o f

t hen U nit 1 -2 o r 3 -2 i s u sed.

a nd

9

l ateral

s ides o f a

t he s haft i s s till a ttached t o

1 o r 3

Any o ther t ypes o f butchery p eculiar

t o

e ach s pecies b one t ype h ave b een g iven f urther b utchery u nits a ccording

1 0

BUTCHERY

UNITS

F IG.

1 :2

CATTLE

Unit

Unit

1

s capula cut

Unit

3 , neck

Unit

2 , glenoid cavity

intact

through

and

supraglenoid tuber

1 1

4 , blade

supraglenoid

tuber

BUTCHERY

UNITS

FIG.

1 :2

contin. CATTLE

PELVIS

Unit

2

acetabulum halved Unit

1

Unit

Unit

3

i schium

acetabulum/pubis

Unit

5

4 acetabulum/

i lium

1 2

t o t he d esignations s hown.

( Fig.

1 :2).

O n m y b utchery c harts I t herefore h ave r ecorded t he U nit p er b one p er s pecies a nd a lso w hether t here a re a ny c utting, c hopping o r s aw marks a s w ell a s e vidence o f c hewing b y c arnivores a nd r odents e tc. T he g eneral c ondition o f t he b one w as a lso n oted. T he manner o f t his r ecording i s i mportant b ecause s ites c an b e c ompared v isually v ery e asily a nd a ny d ifferences c an i nstantly b e p icked o ut. F or e xample, v an M ensch 's w ork ( 1974) a t t he R oman F ort, Z wammerdam i n H olland s howed m uch c attle l ong b one h ad b een q uartered, i .e. t he e piphyses f or p ossible s oups. O bviously t he n umber o f c attle b one f ragments o n t his s ite w ould b e m uch h igher t han o n a s ite w here p erhaps r oasting o f m eat w as m ore c ommon a nd t he l ong b ones w ere l eft v irtually i ntact. S o f ar i t h as b een i ntimated t hat a ccurate r ecording o f m ethodology i s v ital i f a ny c omparisons a re t o b e v alid. O nce a ll t he f actors h ave b een w eighted i n d etermining M .I.N. a nd t he n umber o f f ragments t hen i t h as b een a ssumed t hat w ith a r easonable s ample s ize t he t wo m ethods s hould g ive s imilar r esults. A number o f s tudies c omparing t hese q uantitative m easures h ave i lluminated t he i nherent d ifficulties i n u sing t hem. I n 1 968, D ucos ( and a lso G ejvall 1 969) s howed g raphically a p arabolic c urve r elationship b etween M .I.N. p lotted a gainst t he n umber o f f ragments. P ayne ( 1972) d emonstrated t hat t he r elative f requency o f p ig :sheep/goat:cow a t L erna 2 a nd 3 i n t wo d ifferent s amples w as s ign ificantly d ifferent a t t he 1 % l evel u sing i dentified s pecimens b ut i n t erms o f M .I.N. t he s amples w ere n ot s ignificantly d ifferent a t t he 1 0% l evel. H e e xplained t his b y s tating t hat d ifficulty i n t he s tatistical t reatment w as c aused b y s imple i nflation - a f ew a nimals m ay b e r epres ented b y a l arge n umber o f i dentified s pecimens. G rayson ( 1978) s howed w ith t he a id o f s everal s ites t hat l ike D ucos a nd G ejvall a p arabolic c urve w as o btained p lotting t he M .I.N. n umber o f b one f ragments.

r atio a gainst t he

G raph s howing t he r elationship b etween t he m inimum n umber o f a nimals a nd t he n umber o f b one f ragments ( after G rayson 1 978)

M IN

E = n umber o f b one f ragments

1 3

I n h is p aper h e h as s hown t hat o ne c an f ind o ut a l ower l imit ( for M .I.N.

a nd n umber o f b one

b etween t he

t wo a re n ot v iable.

f ragments) b elow w hich c omparisons O bviously t his w ill v ary f rom s ite t o

s ite. T his i s am ost u seful p iece o f w ork a nd v ital i nformation t o b e i ncluded i n a ny b one r eport . 1 .2.5

I dentification

B efore a ny o f t he a bove m ethods o n q uantification c an b e u sed, a n a ccurate i dentification o f t he d ifferent s keletal e lements p er s pecies must b e a ccomplished ( Cornwall 1 956; E llenberger a nd B aum 1 956; R yder 1 968;

P ales a nd L ambert 1 971;

S chmid 1 972).

A g ood i dentification i s p roportional t o t he l evel o f e xpertise o f t he a nalyst . H owever s pecies i dentification i s n ot a c lear c ut m atter. V arious c riteria h ave b een p ut f orward t o d istinguish s heep a nd g oat m orphologically ( Boessneck a nd T eichert 1 964; S chramm 1 976). T hese c riteria h ave n ot b een f ound u niversally a pplicable, e .g. t he d istinction o f s heep/goat f rom C ayonu ( Lawrence 1 973) a nd 5 0% o f N oddle's s kull c ollection o f M anx, J acob a nd B lack S t. K ilda s heep s howed f lat f rontal-parietal s utures, a f eature t hought m ore c haracteristic o f g oats ( Noddle 1 978). I t w ould b e h elpful i f w orkers w ould m ention t hese d iscrepancies i n t heir r eports. P fund ( 1961) u sing m easurements, f ound t he r atio A SG ( base o f s pine t o e dge o f g lenoid c avity) a gainst m inimum n eck w idth f airly g ood f or e mphasising t he r elative s limness o f c aprid s capulae. H igham ( 1966) a dvised c aution s ince t he m agnitude o f t he d egree o f o verlap b etween t he t wo s pecies w as 1 4 .5%. U sing a s mall s ample o f m odern male a nd f emale s heep/goat b ones f rom N epal h e f ound t hat t he r atio o f t he m inimum a ntero-posterior d iaphysial w idth a gainst m inimum t ransverse w idth ( metacarpal) s ignificantly d ifferent b etween s heep a nd g oats ( C.D. b etween r atios f or f emale g oats a nd m ale s heep 1 .56 i ndicating a 6 % o verlap). T his r atio t aken t ogether w ith B oessneck's m orphologic al d istinction o f t he m etacarpal d istal a rticulatory s urface p roved a r easonable s eparation ( Boessneck 1 964). B ut h e d id n ot f ind t he s ame r esult w ith t he m etatarsals ( male a nd f emale s heep a nd m ale a nd f emale g oats, c f S tudents t t est - i n n o c ase w as t he v alue o f t s ignificant a t t he 5 % l evel p ossibly d ue t o t he i mmaturity o f t he b ones u sed). T he K iel s chool ( Klein a nd R eichstein 1 977; S pahn 1 978) h ave c laimed a 7 0% s eparation o f s heep/goat o n t he b asis o f t he l ong b ones u sing m aterial f rom t he m edieval s ite o f H aithabu. P ollock ( 1976) h as c onsidered d istinctions o f s heep a nd g oat s kulls. B oessneck's ( 1964) s eparation o f s heep/goat m etacarpals w as a chieved b y e xpressing t he d iameter o f t he d istal c ondyle a s a p ercent age o f t he d iameter o f t he d istal t rochlea. S heep g ive a v alue o f m ore

t han 6 3% a nd g oat l ess

t han 6 3%.

A s imilar m ethod w as

l ater d e-

v ised b y P ayne ( 1969) w ho p lotted t he m edio-lateral w idth o f t he c ond yle ( w c ond) a gainst t he a ntero-posterior w idth o f i ts e xternal t rochlea

( w t roch).

T he s ituation i s c omplicated w ith d omestic v ersus w ild p ig s ince n o m odern c omparative s amples h ave b een a nalysed . H ammond ( 1932) s howed t hat d omestic m eat a nimals h ave much t hicker b ones i n p roportion t o t heir l ength t han w ild a nimals h ave. 1 4

O ne p resupposes s eparation

s hould b e p ossible m etrically.

I t w as a ssumed b y B oessneck

( 1963)

a t

S eeberg B ürgaschisee-Sud a nd C lason w ith t he V alkenburg material t hat a d ifference i n s ize e xisted b etween w ild a nd d omestic s wine. ( 1966)

u sed B oessneck's m easurements

Maglemosian s ites a s h is

H igham

f or w ild p ig a nd d ata f rom t wo

c riteria f or p resence o f w ild p ig a t

T rOddebjerg. W orking o n European w ild p ig d entition, Matschke ( 1967) f ound a major d ifference i n t he u pper a nd l ower f ourth p remolar e ruption s equence. I n t he d omestic p ig u pper p remolar 4 e rupted b efore p remolar 4 .

l ower

D istinction o f w ild a nd d omestic p ig

L OWER MOLAR 3 4 1 M ax.

W ILD P IG

l ength

(u m0

DOMESTIC P IG 4 0

Max.

S ince mandibles a s ite, F lannery

B readth

(

t end t o b e o ne o f

( 1960)

s ummarised t he

p ig d omestication b oth i n E urope a nd

)

t he more r obust b ones f ound o n t ooth e vidence f or o rigins o f

t he N ear E ast.

T eichert

( 1966)

i n h is c lassic p aper o n p ig w ithers-height s ummarised m any p apers c oncerned w ith d omestic/wild p ig s eparation o f C entral European p reh istoric s ites.

L ater K ratochvil

( 1973) p rovided d iscriminatory

c haracters o n t he a cropodium f or s eparation o f d omestic a nd w ild p ig. U nfortunately t he b iggest p roblem l ies i n t he f act t hat i t i s n ot y et p ossible

t o s eparate i mmature w ild p ig a nd d omestic p ig.

I n a ny b one a nalysis

i t i s w ise t o b e a ware o f a nimals m issing.

I n t he R omano-British a nd i ndeed p re-Roman I ron A ge p eriod r ed d eer a ppears v ery s carce.

C ertainly i ts numbers w ere d eclining d ue

t o

t he i ntense N eolithic o nslaught but w ere t hey r eally t hat s carce? I t i s p ossible s ome b one f ragments may h ave b ecome c onfused w ith c attle. 1 .2.6

S exing

G rouping a nimals i nto males,

f emales a nd c astrates

i mportant i nformation r egarding husbandry p ractices. methods a re s till

s omewhat h azy a nd u nresolved.

T he most n otable c ontribution i n o f H igham

c an g ive

U nfortunately

t his f ield i s u ndoubtedly t hat

( 1966) w ho b y u sing modern d ata d emonstrated s tatistically

t hat t he s exes o f c attle b reeds c ould b e s eparated m etrically. P rior t o t his i n 1 946 Dottrens c oncluded f rom a n a nalysis o f t wo i mmature b ulls a nd

t welve a dult c ows o f

u nspecified b reed t hat male p halanges

1 5

h ave g reater b readth t o l ength r atios t han f emale p halanges. L ater ( 1960) Z alkin m easured t he m etapodials f rom 8 2 i ndividuals o f t he K almyk b reed o f c attle ( 59 c ows, 1 0 b ulls a nd 1 3 o xen). H e r eported t hat t he m etacarpal d isplayed s exual d imorphism b etween b ulls a nd c ows ( a f inding o f H ammond 1 932), c ows w ere o f s imilar l ength.

a lso t hat t he m etapodials o f b ulls a nd F urther t hat i f t he r atio o f t he d istal

e piphysis t o t otal l ength w as c alculated, o xen g rouped b etween c ows a nd b ulls. H e f ound t he m etatarsal o f l ittle u se b ecause o f t he l arge r ange i n a bsolute s ize. H oward ( 1963) u sing 1 36 m etapodials f rom r ecent c attle, b reed u nspecified, c onstructed 2 i ndices which s he m aintained w ere r easonably c onstant w ithin e ach s ex . F urthermore s he s tated t hat d espite a lterat ions i n t he a bsolute s ize, t he r elative p roportions o f t he b ones h ad n ot c hanged w ith t ime t o a ny g reat e xtent, a n i mportant i mplication f or a rchaeological m aterial. H oward's i ndices D istal b readth l ength

f or s exual s eparation o f c attle M id-shaft w idth

x 1 00

l ength

T ake D B/L f or t he m etacarpal

x 1 00

T ake M B/L f or t he m etacarpal

f emales

2 4.8 - 3 3.6

( 40)

1 2.9 - 1 9.5

o xen

2 9.3 - 3 2.9

( 8)

1 4.0 - 1 8.3

m ales

3 2.5 - 3 7.8

( 18)

1 8.6 - 2 4.5

I a gree w ith t he o bservation o f C haplin h ave l imited d iscriminatory v alue.

( 1971)

t hat t hese v alues

H owever t hey d o p rovide a u seful

c omparison w ith s ome o f H igham 's m ethods. T ake D B/L f or t he m etatarsal

T ake MB/L f or t he m etatarsal

f emales

2 2.1 - 2 8 .6

( 44)

1 1.5 - 1 4.7

o xen

2 4.6 - 2 7.5

( 8)

1 2.7 - 1 5.8

m ales

2 4.8 - 3 0 .3

( 18)

1 4.7 - 1 9.2

H oward a lso c onstructed i ndices f or t he s kull O H/FB x 1 00

O H - b asion t o t he o ccipital c rest F B - n arrowest p art b etween o rbits a nd h orn c ore b ases

a nd O B/OH x 1 00

O B - o ccipital b readth m easured b etween p osterior m argins o f t he t emporal f ossae.

I f i ndex O H/FB i s h igher

t han O B/OH t he s kull i s i nvariably f emale

b ut i f i ndex O B/OH i s h igher

t he

T hese i ndices d o n ot a lways

s kull i s i nvariably m ale. f orm a d istinct d etermination o f s ex

( Deger 1 :41 1 970). I n D anish s kulls o f d omestic N eolithic m ales, D egerb ( 61 f ound t wo i ndividuals h aving t he O H/FB i ndex h igher t han t he O B/OH i ndex. O ne w as a n a dult f airly y oung a nimal o f 4 y ears o ld p erhaps e xplaining t he d iscrepancy b ut t he o ther w as a n a dult w ith s trongly g rooved h orn c ores a nd w orn t eeth.

1 6

T he major a ssumption i n H igham 's w ork i s m odern b one

t hat,

' If f or a ny g iven

s exual d imorphism i s e stablished t hen i t w ill b e a ssumed

t hat q ualitatively s imilar d imorphism w as

d isplayed b y t he s ame b one

d imension

s ame

f rom p rehistoric a nimals o f

1 7).

H is a nalysis w as p erformed o n

A ngus

( fore a nd h ind l imbs

t he

s pecies.'

o f 4 0 c ows a nd 4 0 s teers)

( fore a nd h ind l imbs o f 2 7 c ows

( Higham 1 966,

t wo b reeds o f c attle;

a nd a b ull).

T he

A berdeen

a nd R ed D anish

c arcase w eights a nd

a pproximate a ges o f d eath o f e ach a nimal w ere k nown.

T he c oefficient

o f d ifference w as c alculated i n o rder t o a ssess which b one d imensions w ere

s exually d imorphic.

o f s exual d imorphism, p layed l ittle, t o b e

e .g.

C ertain b one d imensions

e .g.

a stragalus

l ength.

w hile o thers d is-

M easurement o f l ength a ppeared

l ess s exually d imorphic t han b readth.

l imb e xpressed m ore

s howed h igh d egrees

m etacarpal d istal w idth,

s exual d imorphism t han

A lso b ones o f

t he f ore

t he h ind l imb.

A lthough

H igham l acked many c omplete m etapodials h e p ointed o ut t hat Z alkin ( 1960) h ad f ound t he m ean l ength o f c ow metacarpals t o b e s tatistically i dentical w ith t he m eans f or b ulls b ut s ignificantly s horter t han f or s teers.

T he

l ow d egree o f o verlap b etween c ow,

c arpals, i .e.

o n

s teer a nd b ull m eta-

t he b asis o f p roximal a nd d istal w idth-to-length r atios

e nabled m ost c omplete m etacarpals b e s eparated i nto c ows,

( from a nimals o f

bulls o r s teers.

B ones

t he s ame b reed)

s howing

t o

t he m ost marked

s exual d imorphism w ere t he metacarpal, r adius a nd m andible i ncluding d entition. H igham a lso p roved w ith a t heoretical s tatistical t est t hat a s ample o f 1 5-20 s pecimens i s a ll a ccurate e stimate o f M ennerich 's work t radictory r esults

t hat i s n eeded t o p rovide a n

t he p opulation m ean a nd v ariance.

t o

( 1968)

o n 8 0 I llyrian c attle p roduced s ome c on-

t hose o f Z alkin a nd H igham.

T hese r esults w ill

b e d escribed i n m ore d etail i n Chapter T wo. T he b reed i s a p rimitive, s mall, l ate maturing o ne a nd i t i s k nown t hat t he s maller t he c attle a re,

t he more P erhaps

d ifficult i t i s

t o

s ex t hem

( Uerpmann 1 973a).

t he b iggest p roblem r aised i s

d ifferent b reeds a nd s ex; D eger lx 61 c ommented,

t hat o f a dmixture o f

a v ery r eal p roblem i n t he R oman P eriod .

' A c ertain s ex d etermination,

p articularly r egar-

d ing t he e xistence o f b ullocks, i s o nly p ossible when t he b ones c omp ared b elong t o t he s ame b reed o r a nimal p opulation. R egarding p reh istoric r emains s keletal p arts

t his m eans

must b e a t h and.' L ooking

t hat a f airly c omprehensive a mount o f

f rom a c omparatively l imited a rea a nd ( DegerbS1

1 970,

f or e vidence o f c astration i n

D egerb A a sserted

t hat

t he e vidence

s pace o f

t ime

5 2). t he N eolithic p eriod,

i s o ften s elf-contradictory a nd

u nconvincing. H igham e ssential 1 .

I f

c arpal

( 1966) w as i ntensely a ware o f

t hat

t he

t he b ones s ample

f ollowing p oints

o f o ne

s ex c omprise o ver 5 %

t o 1 0% o f t he

t he v ariance w ill b e s ignificantly g reater

f or e ither p ure male o r p ure 2 .

t his p roblem a nd i t i s

f rom h is w ork a re w ell u nderstood.

S ample v ariability m ay b e

f emale

t otal m etat han

t hat

s amples.

i ncreased b y a dmixture o f b reeds a nd/or

s ex. T he m inimum t hickness o f h as b een u sed

t he a cetabular w all o f t he p elvic g irdle

t o d istinguish t he

s exes o f C apra i bex, D ama d ama, 1 7

C ervus e laphus, A lces a lces a nd B ison b onasus ( Boessneck, J equier a nd S tampfli 1 963; L emppenau 1 964). I n a m odern s ample o f N epal s heep, H igham ( 1966) s uggested t hat t he m inimum t hickness o f t he e minentia i liopectinea m ight b e s exually d imorphic. H e f ound t hat i n am ixed N epalese s heep a nd g oat s ample a ll i nter-sexual t -tests o n t hese t wo d imensions w ere s ignificant ( only s mall s ample u sed). E stimates o f v ariance f or male a nd f emale c aprid p elves o n t he b asis o f m inimum t hickness o f t he a cetabular w all i s s ignificantly g reater a t t he 1 % l evel t han t hat f or f emale c aprid p elves o nly. W ith c aprid h umeri H igham f ound t hat a d ifference i n s ize ( on t he b asis o f m aximum t rochl ea w idth) e xisted a t t he 5 % l evel f or m ale a nd f emale h umeri. H owever t he h igh d egree o f o verlap a ssociated w ith a c oefficient o f d ifference o f 0 .55 s uggests t hat t his i s n ot a r eliable d imension f or s exing. A rmitage ( 1977a) h as d evised a m ethod f or s exing n ot o nly m ale a nd f emale s heep b ut a lso c astrates a s w ell; a ) p elvis - b y m orp hological f eatures a nd m easurement o f a nd b ) h orn c ores.

t he

t hickness o f

t he a cetabulum

S exing o f s heep l ong b ones r emains u ndetermined d ue t o t he o verl apping v ariation o f m ale a nd f emale m etapodials ( Uerpmann 1 973a). Z alkin ( 1961) a nd H aak ( 1965) h ave p ublished s tudies o n m odern s heep b ones. H owever, c lear s exual d imorphism i s s een i n t he g oat m etapodial b y t he t ime t he e piphyses f use a nd i dentification i s u sually p ossible ( Schramm 1 976). A rmitage a nd C lutton-Brock ( 1976) h ave a ttempted s exing c attle h orn c ores w hile H atting ( 1975) i nitiated a s tudy o f s heep h orn c ores. A t K iel, R eichstein's a pproach i n s eparating t he c attle s exes u sing m ultivariate a nalysis h as n ot y et y ielded s atisfactory r esults ( personal c ommunication). 1 .2.7

W ithers h eight

T he v alue o f aw ithers h eight i s t hat i t a llows m any d ifferent b ones w ithin a s pecies t o b e c ompared a t t he s ame t ime. F actors f or t he l ong b ones o f d ifferent s pecies h ave b een s ummarised b y B oessneck a nd v on d en D riesch

( 1974).

T wo p oints must b e c onsidered i n u sing

t hese f actors: 1 .

T he l ength r atio o f t he u pper a nd l ower b ones

f or t he f ore a nd

h ind l egs m ust b e c omparable w ith t hose o f t he s tandard a nimals u sed t o a chieve t he f actors. 2 .

T he e rror f actor o f

t he w ithers h eight s hould b e c alculated .

Im easured t he l ong b ones o f t hree S oay s heep A rchaeology,

C ambridge u niv .)

( Department o f

a nd m ultiplied t he l engths b y t he

a ppropriate f actors d erived b y T eichert

1 8

( 1975).

S OAY F 7

l ength

h umerus r adius

1 22 1 40

f emur t ibia

1 53 1 90

( mm)

w ithers h eight 5 2.2

m etacarpal

1 13.5

5 6.3 5 4 5 7.2 5 5.5

m etatarsal

1 27

5 7.7

h umerus

1 37

5 8.6

r adius f emur

1 47 1 61.5

5 9.1 5 7

t ibia m etacarpal

1 95.5 1 16

5 8.8 5 6.7

m etatarsal

1 27.5

5 7.9

h umerus r adius f emur t ibia

1 29 1 36 1 53 1 82

5 5.2 5 4.2 5 4 5 4.8

m etacarpal m etatarsal

1 09.5 1 22.5

5 3.5 5 5.6

E rror i s

( cm )

2 .75 c m

S OAY X J 6

E rror i s 1 .55 c m S OAY N 6 6

E rror i s 1 .05 c m

I t i s a lso i nteresting t o b ear i n m ind t he a verage p ercentage d ifference b y which a r am e xceeds a e we i n c ertain d imensions H igham 1 966). w ithers h eight V oltz

( 1920)

F reyer

( 1918)

1 .2.8

b ody l ength

( after

t horax b readth

1 5.4

1 6.0

1 7.7

7 .4

1 1.3

9 .7

A geing

' The a geing o f a nimals f rom s keletal r emains o f a ny a ntiquity c annot b e a n e xact s cience a nd c alls f or t he e xercise o f c onsiderable j udgement.' ( Silver 1 969, 3 00). T he p rior c onsideration b efore a ny a ttempt a t a geing i s m ade, i s j ust what s ort o f a ccuracy i s n eeded. I t i s g enerally b elieved a n a nimal c an b e r eliably a ged t o w ithin 3 m onths o f t he f irst t wo y ears o f l ife p roviding e nough m andibles a re a vailable. H owever e vidence i s s urfacing t hat c ontradicts t his. O bviously i t w ould b e a dvantageous t o a ge a s c losely a s t his e specially w hen q uestions o f a utumn s laughter

1 9

a re r aised.

I t s eems a pparent a t t he m oment t hat t his w as n ot a s

w idespread a s o riginally b elieved i n t he p rehistoric p eriod.

I ndeed

i t p robably o nly h appened i n t he M edieval p eriod w hen t he c rops f ailed. E webank ( 1964) m entions t hat r eference t o h ardship d uring w inters g enerally r efers t o c attle. A lso t he a utumn w ould b e t he b est t ime f or s laughter s ince g razing.

t he a nimals w ould b e i n g ood c ondition a fter s ummer

C lose a geing c an g ive i nformation n ot o nly o n d ietary p references b ut a lso t he a ge a t which a nimals w ere s acrificed a nd e ven t heir s eason o f d eath . F urthermore d ata c an b e o btained c oncerning t he a ge s truct ure o f t he f lock o r h erd w hich i n t urn w ould r eflect t heir e conomic s tatus, b ut g reat c are i s n eeded i n m aking i nterpretations. A geing t eeth a fter a ll t he p ermanent t eeth h ave e rupted h as b een a ttempted b y m easurement o f t ooth h eight ( Carter 1 975), w ear p attern o f t he e namel a nd d entine ( Payne 1 973; G rant 1 975) a nd a lso t hin s ectioning o f t he s econdary d ental c ementum i n o rder t o c ount t he g rowth r ings ( Higham a nd S axon 1 968, 1 969). A lthough H igham a nd S axon h ave c laimed t he l atter m ethod c an b e u sed t o a ge a ny o vine s pecies t o w ithin 3 t o 6m onths, i t h as n ot b een u sed i n t his s tudy s ince t he t ime e xpenditure w ould h ave b een c onsiderable. L et u s c onsider t he v ariables t hat a ffect t ooth e ruption a nd w ear a ges. 1 .

I ndividual v ariation C haplin

( 1971,

7 9) h as i ndicated t hat i n d ifferent a reas s ome

f emale s heep m ay l amb a t d ifferent t imes a ccording t o e nvironmental c onditions. T he g eneral t endency i s f or m aturation t o o ccur e arly i n f emales

( Morris 1 972);

t his h as b een t otally i gnored i n a rchaeo-

l ogical r eports. R ecently Andrews

( 1975) h as p roduced s ome s tartling d ata o n

d ifferent b reeds o f c attle o f known a ge a nd s ex. H e i nspected t he t ooth e ruption o f 7 78 a nimals o f a ll a ges, v arying b reed a nd s ex; h e f ound q uite a w ide r ange o f v ariation. A s t his v ariation m ight h ave b een t he r esult o f b reed o r s ex d ifferences h e t hen u sed o nly F riesian f emale c attle i n t he s tudy. T hese a nimals c ame f rom f arms w ith a h igh l evel o f h usbandry. A gain t here w as m uch v ariation i n t he a ge a t w hich a ny s tage o f d ental d evelopment m ight b e s een. A ge o f i ncisor e ruption f or F riesian f emale c attle

N o.

o f c attle

A ge i n d ays M inimum

M aximum

A verage

T otal v ariation

4 2

1 p r i ncisors e merg.

5 45

8 82

6 90.4

3 37 d ays

3 3

2p rs i ncisors e merg.

6 93

9 34

8 40.42

2 41 d ays

1 3

3p rs i ncisors e merg .

8 91

1 140

1 052.38

2 49 d ays

2 0

A ndrews h as

f ound d ifferences i n t he r ate o f m olar e ruption b etween

m ale a nd f emale c attle b ut h e h as n ot y et q uantified h is f indings. T he d ifferences a ppear s imilar t o t hose o f t he r ostral t eeth w here t he b ull t ends t o e rupt i ts t eeth b efore t he h eifer, w ith t he s teer b etween t he t wo. T he p rincipal r esult o f t his i s t hat f or a nimals o f a g iven a ge t he v ariation o f t ooth e ruption i s v ery g reat. M atschke ( 1967) i n a geing w ild N orth E uropean h ogs, f ound t ooth e ruption a nd r eplacement t imes v aried c onsiderably a mong t he h ogs, e ven t hough t hey w ere l itters r aised u nder a pproximately t he s ame c onditions. c reased a s t he s exes. 2 .

T his v ariation i n-

t he a nimals g rew o lder b ut n o d ifference was n oted b etween

L ife s pan T ooth w ear i s a n i ndication o f r elative a geing a nd M orris

( 1972)

h as a rgued t hat t his i s where i ndividual v ariation c ould b e a p roblem , p articularly i n v ery o ld a nimals w here w ear c hanges h ave b ecome s o s light a s

t o b e c louded b y t he n ormal v ariation b etween i ndividuals.

I t i s i mportant t o know w hat r elative l ife s pans

( ignoring c ulling)

c ould b e e xpected f or e arly h istorical a nimals. H artwig ( 1959) e xamined t he m ost i mportant r easons a ffecting p remature c ulling o f a nimals i n G ermany f rom 1 940-1960 ( particularly c attle). H is i nvestig ation o f 1 9 d ifferent b reeds r evealed a n a verage l ifespan o f 7 .1 y ears . T he m ajority o f a nimals w ere c ulled b efore a ttaining t he y ears o f h ighest m ilk p roductivity. H e f ound t hat t he p rincipal r easons f or c ulling c ows w ere s terility, t uberculosis a nd m astitis. e .g.

G erner ( 1952), B aden S terility P iel a nd R umbaur ( 1948), W urttemberg F reudenberg a nd F rancke ( 1956), 1 2 f arms i n t he C entral-German D istrict D inkhauser ( 1940), L ower S axony

3 2% T uberculosis 4 .2% 2 4.3% 4 .6% 5 4.8% 2 3%

1 2.8%

I t i s t empting t o a ssume t hat t hese s ame f actors m ight w ell h ave o perated i n p rehistoric t imes, b ut t here i s e vidence s uggesting t hat a ncient a nimal b reeds w ere p robably h ardier t han t hose f rom t he r ecent p ast. F or e xample, t he H ebridean s heep, ( classified a s a p rimitive b reed) b elonging t o t he L eckford F lock h ave b een r ecorded a s h aving o nly o ne c ase o f d ifficult l ambing o ut o f a bout 4 00 l ambings a nd n o a dult s heep h ad d ied o f i llness d uring a p eriod o f 2 0 y ears ( Ark, J uly 1 979, 3 .

2 06).

D iet N utrition h as

s ignificant e ffects o n t he d ates o f e ruption o f t he

t eeth ( Wiener a nd P urser 1 954). A lso s oil a nd g rass t ype i s o f g reat i mportance i n t ooth w ear; S ilver ( 1969, 2 90) m entions t hat s ome D artmoor p onies a s a ged b y t oothwear a lone g ive a ges 2 y ears e xcess o f a ctual a ge.

I n s ome i nsectivorous b ats,

i n

t ooth w ear c an b e

a n u ncertain i ndicator o f a ge e ven when t he d iet i s u niform .

I ndivid-

u als o f 1 8 y ears o r m ore m ay s till e xhibit s ound t eeth, l eading t o t heir a ge b eing v ery m uch u nderestimated ( Hall, C loutier a nd G riffin 1 957).

2 1

4 .

A vailability o f s trontium a nd f luorine c ompounds R egional d ifferences i n t ooth h ardness d epend o n t he a vailability

i n f ood a nd d rinking w ater o f s trontium a nd f luorine c ompounds n ecessary f or c alcification. 5 .

G enetic v ariations G enetic v ariations i n d ental s tructure a re k nown i n m ice

( Gruneberg 1 956). C ertain a llelomorphs m ay s uffer h ighly a ccelerated t ooth w ear a nd h ave t eeth w orn d own t o t he g ums a t t he a ge o f 6w eeks o r l ess. B arnicoat a nd H all ( 1960) h ave n oticed t hat w ear i n s heep t eeth c an b e i ncreased w ith c ertain u ndesirable a natomical c haracteri stics which a ppear t o b e h ereditary i n o rigin. 6 .

H uman e rror T here i s a lways h uman e rror i n m aking a s ubjective a ssessment o f

t oothwear. S ummarising,

c omparisons b etween s ites must t ake i nto a ccount

v ariation i n e ruption d ue t o g enetic, f eeding d ifferences.

g eographical, m anagement a nd

M ethods c urrently i n u se a )

T ooth e ruption d ates

C urrently t here i s much c oncern w hether t o u se m odern o r o ld a geing d ata a s g iven b y S ilver ( 1969). W ilson ( 1978) h as d emonstrated t hat t he e conomic i nterpretations c an b e q uite d ifferent . S ince t he s equence o f t ooth e ruption i s n ot a ffected b y t he e nvironment, n utrition e tc. f it.

i t h as b een u sed t o d etermine w hich e ruption d ates a re t he b est F or s heep t he m odern s equence b eing p remolar 2 ) t ogether f ollowed b y p remolar 4 p remolar 3 )

whereas

i n t he I ron a ge

p remolar 3 ) p remolar 4 )

t ogether f ollowed b y p remolar 2

Ewebank ( 1964) s uggested t hat s ince t he s equence o f e ruption w as l ikely t o b e c ontrolled p urely b y g enetic f actors, t hen s equential d ifferences i n v arious g roups c ould b e r egarded a s b y-products o f s elective b reedi ng. F urther, t hese t raits c ould b e c hanged b y g eographical m ovements o f a nimals. E webank n oted t hat t he c rypt f or m olar 3 w as v isible i n t he m andible b y t he t ime m olar 2 c ame i nto w ear, w hereas S ilver g ave a p eriod o f a bout 2 y ears b etween t he e ruption d ates o f t hese t wo t eeth i n s emi-wild h ill s heep. T he q uestion a rises a s t o h ow a ccurate a re t hese ' old a ges'. I n 1 927 P rofessor S ir G eorge T . B rown w rote, ' It i s i mpossible t o a void t he c onclusion t hat t he o riginal v ersion o f t he d evelopment o f t he t eeth w as b ased o n i mperfect o bservation, o r o n t he c ustom o f o ne w riter q uoting i n g ood f aith f rom a nother.' ( Brown 1 927,

4 ).

2 2

S ir G eorge q uestioned t he l ate e ruption d atings o f e arlier a uthors s ince f rom 1 850 t o 1 902 w ith i ntensive b reeding n o c hange w as s een i n t he e ruption d ates. I ncidentally P rofessor B rown s et d own t he r ules g overning a ge a nd d entition f or t he R oyal S mithfield S how , w hich h ave r emained u nchanged f rom 1 889 u ntil c omparatively r ecently w hen t hey w ere r eviewed b y A ndrews ( 1975) a s p reviously m entioned. b )

W ear p atterns I n 1 967 L owe u sed t ooth e ruption a nd w ear,

i .e.

t he c ombined

t echnique, a nd f ound i t m ost a ccurate f or a ge d etermination o f t he r ed d eer, C ervus e laphus. H e a chieved a s uccess r ate o f 8 8% a nd f ound t his m ethod e ven b etter t han g rowth r ings i n t he c ement. G rant ( 1975) a nd P ayne ( 1973) b oth d eveloped m ethods f or r ecordi ng t he t ooth w ear p atterns o f s heep. W orkers h ave f ound t he m ethods n ot d irectly c ompatible, e .g. W ilson ( in p ress) c laimed d ifficulty i n r elating t he w ear s tages o f G rant's m ethod; h e f ound t hat w ear s tages A t o E o f P ayne w ere m oderately c onsistent w ith w ear s tages 0 t o 3 2 o f G rant, b ut P ayne's s tages F t o G c onsiderably o verlapped G rant's s tages 3 3 t o 4 1. P ayne's m ethod a ppears p referable s ince o dd w ear s tages c an b e r ecorded a nd b roken m andibles c an b e m ore a ccurately d esignated t o a ge s tages.

T hus

A lso t he a ge s tages a re q uite b road.

T ooth w ear i s d ependent o n f actors t hat d iffer b etween s ites. t ooth w ear c an o nly r eveal i nformation c oncerning a ge g roups i n

o ne p opulation. c )

M easurement o f

t ooth h eight

T his m ethod w as e liminated b y S everinghaus ( 1949), w orking o n w hite-tailed d eer, s ince i ndividual v ariation i n t ooth s ize was s ufficient t o p reclude u sing s uch m easurements f or c onstructing a ge s pans. C arter's m ethod

( 1975)

e ncompasses a n umber o f u nresolved b iases.

1 .

H e d oes n ot t ake i nto a ccount t ooth s ize v ariation.

2 .

I t h as n ot b een p roven t hat t ooth w ear r ates a re u niform w ithin

a n a nimal g roup. 3 . B oth t he a bove f actors c an b e i nvestigated b ut t he t hird b ias, i .e. t he d ecision o n w hich t ooth e ruption d ates t o u se, i s d isturbing. F or e xample,

C arter h aving e stimated t he r ate i n w ear,

h eight m easurements

c omputed

f or t he d ifferent t eeth i n t he m andibles.

H e

-t hen p lotted t hese i n a h istogram a nd f ound a s eries o f p eaks e very e ight m onths. C arter ( 1975, 2 31) s tates: ' The r ate o f w ear w as t heref ore r ecalculated u sing t he d ata o f S ilver ( 1969) f or a ges a t which t eeth e rupt i n u nimproved a nd h alf-wild s heep. T hese b eing a bout 5 0% g reater t han t hose o f E webank ( 1964) g enerated a m uch m ore p lausible 1 2 m onth c ycle.' T his d ecision i s c ertainly n ot j ustified o n s cient ific g rounds.

2 3

d )

A geing b y e piphysial f usion

S ilver ( 1969) h as warned a bout a geing b y e piphysial f usion s ince t he a ges a re b ased o n r adiographically f used e piphyses t hat m ay i n f act h ave s eparated f rom t he s haft a fter t he c artilage h ad b een b roken. W atson ( 1978) f ound a s erious f law i n t his m ethod, ' The m istake l ies i n t reating a r ange a s i f i t w ere a p oint.' F or e xample, t he d istal e nd o f a s heep metacarpal f uses b etween 1 8 a nd 2 4 m onths. I f o ne c onsiders a s ample o f s heep m etacarpals 4 0% o f w hich a re f used, t he c urrent o pinion w ould s ay t hat 4 0% o f t he s heep d ied a t o ver 1 8 t o 2 4 m onths.

B ut W atson s tates,

' Any f used b one must b e f rom a n

i ndividual t hat d ied a t o ver 1 8 m ths b ut i s n ot n ecessarily f rom a n i ndiviaual t hat d ied a t o ver 2 4 m ths. A ny u nfused b one m ust b e f rom a n i ndividual t hat d ied a t u nder 2 4 m ths, b ut i s n ot n ecessarily f rom a n i ndividual t hat d ied a t u nder 1 8 m ths.' ( Watson 1 978, 9 7). G rouping t he s keletal e lements a ccording t o t heir f usion a ges w ould p roduce d istorted r esults. C anby 's m ethod ( 1977) a ttempts t o o vercome t his. S he made a n a ttempt t o r epresent a ge g roupings g raphically . T he y ears f rom b irth t o m aturity w ere d ivided i nto a rbitrary s ix m onth p eriods. A b one w hich f used a t 2 1 y ears w ould b e r epresented o nce i n e very c ategory f rom 2 y ears o n i f f used o r b elow 2 1 y ears i f u nfused; t he y oungest s tages w ere o mitted u nless t he b one w as s mall o r p orous. A geing w as m ore a ccurately u ndertaken w ith r ecently f used b ones a nd b ones w ith b oth t he p roximal a nd d istal e piphyses p resent. T his m ethod h as t he a dvantage t hat b ones o verr epresented i n l ater o r e arlier s tages c ancel o ut l eaving s ome d efinite p eaks. H istograms c an b e d rawn w hich s how t he p ercentage o f p ossible o ccurrences i n e ach a ge g roup ( this d oes n ot s how t he o riginal n umber o f b ones p resent i n e ach a ge g roup). W hen t hese r esults w ere c ompared w ith t hose f rom t he m andibles ( Hayton R oman F ort) f or s heep, t he m andibles g ave c onsistently g reater a ges t han t he o ther b ones. C anby t hought t his m ight h ave b een d ue t o t he s mall s ample s ize b ut i ndicated i t c ould a lso r eflect t he i mperfect u nders tanding o f e piphysial a nd t ooth e ruption a geing i n a ncient a nimals. A lso a t G ussage A ll S aints H arcourt

( 1979b)

f ound t hat a geing a

c ow v ia t he m andible g ave a n a ge 1 y ear o lder t han t he e piphyses. G rant ( 1972), i n a n i nvestigation o f t he F ishbourne P igs, a ssumed t hat t he c onsiderable d egree o f w ear o n t he f irst a nd s econd m olars b efore e ruption o f t he t hird m olar i ndicated t hat n ineteenth c entury f igures o f a geing s hould b e u sed. S he t hen m ade a n a ttempt t o c orrel ate t he d ate o f f usion o f t he d istal e nd o f t he m etapodial w ith t he e ruption o f t he

t eeth .

A ssuming t he m etapodial f uses b etween 2 a nd 2 y ears a nd u sing n ineteenth c entury d ates f or t ooth e ruption, i .e. t he t hird m olar e rupts a t 3y ears, s he f ound t hat i n a ll p eriod o f o ccupation 7 2% t o 8 6% o f t he m etapodials w ere u nfused; t hus t he t ime o f f usion o f t his b one must b e a fter t hat f or t he e ruption o f t he t hird m olar. M any t hird m olars s howed o nly a s mall a mount o f w ear a nd i t w ould s eem t he m etapodials f used w hen t he p ig w as b etween 3 t o 4y ears o ld. I t i s m ost l ikely t hat t he p igs h ad b een c astrated a nd t he e pip hysial c losure d elayed . S ince R oman t imes c astration w as p ractised

2 4

i n o rder t o p revent y oung d omestic b oars f ighting a nd i t i s a lso w ell k nown t hat m eat o f c astrated a nimals a ges o f f usion m ight b e g reater

t astes b etter.

F urther,

S ilver's

t han a ssumed a t p resent a nd a lso i t

i s p ossible t hat m odern t ooth e ruption d ates a re m ore a pplicable.

P igs

a re o mniverous a nimals a nd t he h igh d egree o f w ear m ight b e s ymptomatic o f a c hange o f d iet. S ummary S ome o f t he m ain m ethods u sed a nd p roblems e ncountered i n f aunal a nalysis h ave b een d escribed. l ack o f a b asic m ethodology i s h ampering t he e mergence o f z ooarchaeology a s a s erious d iscipline i n i ts o wn r ight. I n t he r emainder o f t he b ook t he a uthor h as u sed t he f ollowing m ethods a s w ell a s m any o thers. 1 .

Q uantification:-

N umber o f F ragments M ethod, M .I.N. m ethod.

A c omparison b etween t he t wo m ethods w as p erformed a fter t he m ethod o f G rayson ( 1978). 2 .

E stimation o f m eat p otentials v ia t he

f actors o f C arter e t a l.

( 1965). 3 .

S exing:-

s exing i s n ot e asy a nd a s many d ifferent m ethods a s

p ossible s hould b e u sed i n c hecks. T he a uthor h as f ound t he m orphology o f t he p elvic g irdle v ery u seful a s a c heck o n H oward 's, H igham 's a nd M ennerich 's m ethods

( 1963;

1 966;

1 968).

4 . A geing w as p erhaps t he m ost d ifficult m ethod t o r esolve. T he m ethods o f P ayne ( 1973) a nd G rant ( 1975) w ere u sed f or s heep, a nd p ig a nd c ow mandibles r espectively.

W ith r egard t o e piphysial

f usion,

t his m ethod s hould b e u sed w ith c aution. 5 . M easurements w ere u ndertaken u sing t he o utline d evised b y v on d en D riesch ( 1976) a nd w ithers h eights w ere e stimated a fter B oessneck a nd v on d en D riesch

( 1974).

E very s ite i s u nique s ince d ifferent v ariables w ill b e a t w ork b ut i t i s o nly w hen w e c orrect f or t hese v ariables t hat q uantitative c omparisons w ill b e v alid. A t t he n inth I nternational C ongress o f P rehistoric a nd P rotohist oric S ciences h eld i n N ice, 1 976, M eadows d iscussed t he f actors a ffecting t he t rue r epresentation o f t he b one o riginally d eposited. B esides p oints a lready m entioned i n t his t ext, h e c ited t he r espons ibility o f t he a nalyst. T aking a side t he a rchaeological h ypotheses, t he m ethodical s ampling a nd p ainstaking e xcavation, i t i s u ltimately t he f aunal a nalyst w ho d etermines t he c ontents o f a b one r eport .

2 5

C HAPTER T WO

S HEEPEN - T he f irst c entury A .D.

' Most o f

i n R oman B ritain

t he i sland i s f lat a nd o vergrown w ith f orests,

o f i ts d istricts a re h illy.

I t b ears g rain,

c attle,

a lthough m any

g old,

s ilver a nd

i ron. T hese t hings, a ccordingly, a re e xported f rom t he i sland a s a lso h ides, a nd s laves, a nd d ogs t hat a re b y n ature s uited t o t he p urposes o f t he c hase. T he C eiti, h owever, u se b oth t hese a nd t he n ative dogs f or t he p urposes o f w ar t oo.' ( Strabo i v, 5 , 2 ). 2 .1

I ntroduction

S heepen H ill ( Fig. 2 :1) c ommanded a n i mportant p osition i n p reh istoric a nd h istoric t imes; i t w as t he s ite o f a r iver c rossing a nd f avoured a f ine s eaward v iew . T he g eological f oundation o f t he a rea i s T ertiary L ondon C lay. T wo r ivers, t he C olne a nd t he R oman, d emarc ate a n atural p eninsula o f l and, which i s f lanked b y 5 0 f oot a nd 1 00 f oot c ontours t hat f all a way t o t he e stuary m arshes. T he g reater p art o f t he p eninsula i s m ade u p o f w ell d rained g ravel w ith a s mall c entral l oamy b and ( 100 f oot a .s.1.). A lthough t he v alleys o f t he C olne a nd R oman R ivers e xhibit e xtensive b elts o f L ondon C lay, t here i s a n a rea o f l ow l evel g ravel a nd l oam o ccurring o n t he s outh s ide o f t he C olne o pposite S heepen F arm . H ere t he C olne i s p roceeding t hrough a b road f lood p lain. S heepen i s s eparated f rom t he g ravel r idge o n w hich C olchester l ies b y a s mall s teepsided v alley; t he d istance b etween t he t wo s ites i s c . 1 .6 K m . T he s ite o f S heepen i s w ell d rained, f airly w ell s helt ered a nd t here a re g ood s upplies o f f resh w ater f rom t he S heepen S prings

t o

t he w est.

S hortly a fter t he C onquest, R oman m etal w orkers a ppeared o n t he s ite,

( that i s w ithin t he S heepen D yke,

j ust a bove

t he f lood p lain o f

t he r iver), w hich h as r evealed t races o f B elgic o ccupation. r emains c ame f rom a s eries o f r ubbish p its d ated:G roup

1

P re-Roman

G roup 2 G roup 3

4 4 t o 4 9 A .D. 4 9 t o 6 1 A .D.

G roup 4 G roup 5 G roup 6

4 4 t o 5 4 A .D. 4 7 t o 6 1 A .D. 5 4 t o 5 7 A .D.

G roup

5 4 t o 6 1 A .D.

7

F irst N eronian

2 6

T he a nimal

e ▪l

4 4 4 4

•

4

re )

0 00

4

1

4

i r k.• l e

I 1

1I • . C : ) "

4

•

•

aka

4

" •Y' I f'1 4

I , I ,

e e n

4

1 i

I H 1 I

1 .1

i 4 r-

1!

I I e i

14 1

I S

k r )

• 4 •

I :

1

-

1

s

I

4

\

e ll :

1

C O

la

I I I I4

C T

4

I

,c r

Il

r e )

• 0 •1 1 ei

r 3 e

u

4

US

e

•_ J I _ __ _e_ _ _ I L --I F • l e

, . . ,

j 1

4

•

4 < 4 e n r e )4 4 H z =

1 : 2 1 1 : 1 :3

d i t i i e tu t wu - -

4

• •

BALKERNE

•

L ANE

•

7

I i

1 '

I , I ,

S 66

P ub l ic b u i ld ing

-

F o r tress d i tch

. 1 .............................

•

4 1

G roup 8 G roup 9

5 7 t o 6 1 A .D. 4 4 t o 6 1 A .D.

S econd N eronian

T he d ating o f t hese g roups i s b ased u pon t he d ating u sed b y H awkes a nd H ull i n t heir C amulodunum E xcavations ( 1947); t he t erminus p ost q uem d ates a re m ainly s uggested b y h istorical d ocumentation a nd a re t herefore p ossibly s ubject t o s ome l ater m odification. T he m etal w orkers w ere c oncerned w ith t he m anufacture a nd r epair o f m ilitary e quipment. D uring 4 4 t o 4 9 t he l egionary f ortress o ne k ilometre t o t he e ast w as o ccupied a nd l ater, c . 4 9, t he g arrison was w ithdrawn a nd t he C olonia C laudia V ictricensis f ounded. T he m ajority o f p its a re d ated 4 9 t o 6 1 A .D., w hen m etalworking s pread a cross t he s ite.

M any o f t he p its h ad o riginally b een d ug a s g ravel p its a nd t he

m ajority w ere q uickly f illed w ith r ubbish. S uccessive r ubbish p its o ften c ut i nto e arlier p its; p roblems o f c ontamination a re m inimal h owever, s ince t he p its a s 6 1 t he p resence o f p ottery t he m anufacturing b ase f or t he p redominant i ndustry . l ies i n i ts l imited p eriod

aw hole c over a l imited p eriod . I n 4 9 t o a nd t ile w asters i ndicate t hat S heepen w as t he n ew C olonia, a lthough m etalworking w as T he i mportance o f t he s ite f or f aunal s tudies o f o ccupation.

A nimal b one f ragments o f w eight 1 ,574 k ilograms w ere a nalysed . T he f ollowing c reatures w ere p resent: h orse, c attle, s heep, g oat, p ig, b ear, r ed d eer, r oe d eer, h are, d og, f rog a nd b ird . O ut o f a t otal o f 8 ,143 f ragments, 6 ,752 w ere i dentified . 2 .2

B one f ragment c ount o f t he m ain d omestic s pecies

A f ragmentation a nalysis o f b one w as p erformed ( Watson 1 972) u sing b ones w ith o nly o ld b reaks. T heir l engths w ere r ecorded and a r easonable l evel o f r ecovery w as o btained ( Fig. 2 :2). T aking i nto a ccount t he d ifficulty o f a ccurately d ating t he p its,

T able 2 :1 i llus-

t rates t he n umber o f b one f ragments f or e ach p eriod ( excluding h orse a nd b irds). A lthough t he e xact d ating o f t he s ite may b e m odified i n f uture, t he p hasing s hould s till b e b roadly t he s ame. A s triking d ifference i s a pparent b etween m aterial f rom c ontexts d ated 4 4 t o 4 9 a nd 4 9 t o 6 1. I n t he p re-Roman a nimal b one s ample w hich was s mall,

c attle p re-

d ominate w ith p ig a nd s heep/goat a n e qual s econd. T he p its d ated 4 4 t o 6 1 A .D. ( post-conquest) r eveal a n i ncrease i n c attle w ith a d efinite d ecrease o f s heep/goat a nd a d ecrease o f p ig. H owever t he t imespan i ncludes t he o ccupation o f t he f ortress, t he l ater w ithdrawal o f t he g arrison a nd t he s etting u p o f t he C olonia i n 4 9.

I f p it g roups 2 a nd

3 a re s tudied t hen a s izeable r eduction i n c attle c oincides w ith t he e stablishment o f t he C olonia t ogether w ith a l arge i ncrease i n s heep/ g oat, w hile t he p ig l evels r emain c onstant. T he g roup 6 p its i ndicate t he s ame t rends a s t hose o f g roup 3 w ith a s maller i ncrease o f s heep/ g oat w hile t he g roup 7 p its s how a d ecrease o f p ig b ut a l arger i ncrease o f s heep/goat. D omesticates f rom g roups 4 a nd 5 h ave p ercentage r atios w hich s pan p art o f b oth t he f ortress a nd C olonia p eriods; t hey w ere m ore s imilar t o t he g roup 3 d eposits t han g roup 2 . I t s eems l ikely t herefore t hat t he d ifferences b etween g roups 2 a nd 3 , t hat i s t o s ay t he decrease o f c attle, s light d ecrease o f p ig a nd d efinite i ncrease o f s heep/goat, r eflect s ome o f t he c hanges o ccurring w hen t he L egionary F ortress w as r eplaced b y t he n ew C olonia . 2 8

HISTOGRAM ( AFTER

OF

UNIDENTIFIABLE

WATSON

1972

BONE

FRAGMENTS

)

F IG.

300

2 :2

-

250

200

FREnt JENCY

150

_

100

5 0

0

2

4

6

LENGTH

2 9

8

10

1 2

B efore a ccepting t hese r esults i t i s v ital t o s can t he c ontents o f t he p its ( Table 2 :2) i n o rder t o a ssess whether t he b one r efuse w as t he r esult o f r andom f ood r efuse d isposal o r t he w aste a rising f rom b utchery. F or e xample,

t he g roup 2 p its m ight c ontain a h uge n umber o f c attle

w aste b ones ( non m eat b earing) t hus d istorting t he r esults.

f rom s laughter, p halanges a nd m etapodials,

Whole a nimals, c ow , s heep/goat a nd p ig w ere butchered o n t he s ite a nd t heir r emains d istributed b etween t he p its; m eat a nd n on-meat b ones w ere m ixed t ogether . N o d ifferences i n b utchery w ere f ound b etween t he p its o f e ach p eriod; t hus i t w as d eemed p ermissible t o g roup t hem a s a w hole, a ccording t o t he p hasing. 2 .3

B utchery L t i s e xtremely d ifficult t o p resent a c omplete p icture o f t he

R oman butchery p rocess, e ven t oday t here a re n umerous m ethods o f c utting a c arcass. A lso i t m ight b e a sked, o f w hat r elevance i s t his t o t he a rchaeologist? I t w as e mphasised t hat t he b utchery o f a s ample o f b one m ust b e e xamined i n d etail s o t hat c omparisons w ith o ther s amples m ight p rove v alid. F or e xample, i f c ow f emora a re s mashed i nto s mall f ragm ents o n o ne s ite a nd o n a nother s ite l eft w hole, t he c alculation b ased o n t he n umber o f b one f ragments p er s pecies c ould b e r adically d istorted w hen t he t wo s ites a re c ompared. T able 2 :3 i ndicates t he p recision o f t he R oman b utcher i n h is u se o f t ools. S evering a cross j oints w as u ncommon a nd m ost l ong b ones e xhibited c hops b elow a nd a bove p roximal a nd d istal e piphyses. T his T able w ill b e d iscussed i n c onnection w ith r esults f rom o ther E ssex s ites

i n l ater c hapters. 2 .3 .1

C attle b utchery

I t w as

f ound t hat 2 .8% o f t he c attle b ones h ad b een g nawed b y

d ogs a nd t wo c omplete mandibles h ad b een g nawed by a s mall r odent a bout t he s ize o f a water v ole o r r at ( Plate 1 ). I t i s i mpossible t o s ay w hether r at was d irectly r esponsible b ut i t h as b een f ound i n a R oman s tratified c ontext a t Y ork, i .e. t he b lack r at, R attus r attus ( Rackham 1 979). D efinite e vidence o f p ole-axing w as f ound i n P it 2 38, d ated 4 4-61, ( see P late 2 ) where t he b low was d irected a t t he f rontal b one. A f ew s kull f ragments h ad c hopmarks o n t he s uperior s urfaces o f t he o ccipital c ondyles.

H owever t he h ead w as mainly s evered f rom t he

b ody b y o blique c hop marks d irected a cross t he d orsal s urface o f t he a xis a nd a tlas. C hops w ere f requently m ade t hrough t he t emporal a nd f rontal p rocess o f t he z ygomatic b one a nd t hrough t he a nterior p ortion o f t he z ygomatic b one i tself, t hus r eleasing p art o f t he o rbit. S ome o f t he f rontal b ones h ad c uts a cross t hem . T he mandibles w ere c hopped u p i n o rder B efore

t o r elease

t he g ood p roportion o f c heek m eat.

t he h ead w as r emoved t he a nimal w as p robably s kinned,

t he

h ide b eing a v aluable c ommodity . S everal m etacarpals a nd m etatarsals h ad k nife c uts o n t heir m edial a nd l ateral p roximal e dges.

3 0

v I •r 4

0

P ole-axed c ow

f rom S heepen .

T he m etapodials w ere g enerally s evered f rom t he l egs a c ouple o f c entimetres b elow t he p roximal s urface. S ome m etapodials w ere f urther d ivided b y c hopping o ff t he d istal e nd; t he s hafts w ere a bsent f rom t he p its c oncerned . T hese b ones a re p articularly u seful f or b one w orking. N one o f t he v ertebrae s howed s igns o f m edial c leavage; t he c erv ical v ertebrae r emained a lmost w hole h aving s light l ateral t rimming . T he t horacic a nd l umbar v ertebrae w ere c haracterised b y t he r emoval o f t he l ateral p rocesses a nd i n s ome c ases t his was p erformed s o c lose t o t he v ertebra c entral a xis t hat t he s pines h ad a lso c ome a way. A f ew c audal v ertebrae h ad c hop m arks a t r ight a ngles a cross t he a xis o f t he b ody, t hus s evering t he t ail. I t i s n ot t hought w orthwhile

t o e xplain e very c ut a nd c hop m ark

o n t he b ones; t he w ork w ould b e t oo t ime c onsuming a nd t he r eturn w ould b e v ery l ittle. T he t ables a re s elf e xplanatory . I t s hould b e p ointed o ut t hat s ome d istal a nd p roximal b ones h ave b een q uartered a nd t his t ype o f b utchery s hould b e l ooked f or i n l ater s amples a s e vidence o f a d istortion f actor i n t he b one f ragment c ount . H aving e stablished t hat b utchery was b roadly t he s ame f or a ll p eriods l et u s e xamine t he f requency o f o ccurrence o f e lements ( Table 2 :2). T he m ost i mportant p oint t o n otice i n t he c attle b utchery i s t hat n o p articular j oints a re c ompletely a bsent f rom t he s ite. R ecov ery o f t he s maller b ones e .g. t o t heir s mall s ize.

c arpals a nd t arsals w as d ifficult d ue

P it g roups 4 a nd 6 r endered n o p roximal h umeri,

t hough a ll t he o ther g roups d id; h owever g roup 4 s hows a l arge p rep onderance o f h umerus s hafts. T he c ow p roximal h umerus c onsists o f l ight c ancellous t issue w hich i s p rone t o d isintegrating e asily ( Brain 1 967). P it g roups 2 a nd 3 s how c omparable f igures f or t he r atio o f t he b one f ragment p ercentages o f h umerus a nd r adius ( meat b earing b ones) t o t he m etacarpal ( non m eat b earing b one) a nd a lso t he r atio o f t he b one f ragment p ercentages f emur a nd p roximal t ibia ( meat b earing b ones)

t o t he m etatarsal

( non m eat b earing b one).

B one f ragment r atio o f m eat b earing t o n on-meat b earing b ones i n c attle

G roup 2 G roup 3

P eriod

F ore

4 4 t o 4 9 4 9 t o 6 1

2 .6:1 2 .4:1

l imb

H ind l imb 0 .9:1 0 .7:1

W hen g roups 4 a nd 6 a re c onsidered a c lear d ifference i s o btained . 4

4 4 t o 5 4

1 0 :1

0 .6:1

G roup 6

G roup

5 4 t o 5 7

1 4:1

1 .03:1

B oth t hese g roups s how a s harp i ncrease i n t he p ercentage o f p elvic r emains o ver t he o ther t wo g roups w ith t he c . 5 4 t o 5 7 s ample a lso s howing a s harp i ncrease i n t he s kull a nd v ertebrae r emains. 2 .3 .2

d ogs.

S heep/goat b utchery

I t w as f ound t hat 1 0 .6% o f t he b one f ragments w ere c hewed b y T hree s kulls o f s heep, i .e. t he r ight s ide, h ad b een s agittally

3 3

s plit,

am ethod c ommonly f ound o n p re-Roman I ron A ge s ites:

L ittle

W oodbury ( Jackson 1 948); G lastonbury ( Boyd-Dawkins a nd J ackson 1 917); M aiden C astle ( Jackson 1 943); A shville ( Wilson 1 978); B ishopstone a nd N ewhaven ( Gebbels 1 978). T wo o f t he s kulls w ere r ecovered f rom P it 1 02 ( 54 t o 6 1) a nd t he o ther f rom P it 1 12 ( 54-61). T he h ead w as r emoved f rom t he b ody b y c hopping t hrough t he a xis, n ormally a t r ight a ngles b ut o ne a xis w as s plit s agittally a nd a lso t wo c ervical v ertebrae d isplayed t his. R egarding T able 2 :2 t he r atio o f t he p ercentage n umber o f b one f ragments o f h umerus a nd r adius ( meat b earing b ones) t o t he m etacarpal ( non m eat b earing b one) a nd t he r atio o f t he p ercentage n umber o f b one f ragments o f f emur a nd p roximal t ibia ( meat b earing b ones) t o t he m etat arsal ( non m eat b earing b one) i s a s f ollows:B one f ragment r atio o f m eat b earing t o n on-meat b earing b ones i n s heep/goat P eriod

F ore

G roup 3 G roup 7

4 9 t o 6 1 5 4 t o 6 1

1 1.2:1 1 .1:1

1 :1 0 .6:1

G roup 9

4 4 t o 6 1

1 :1

0 .5:1

b ones

l imb

H ind l imb

G roup 3 s hows a much h igher r atio o f m eat t o n on-meat b earing t han t hose o f 7 a nd 9 . T his c ould p erhaps i mply e xtra m eat

b eing b rought o nto t he s ite but e vidence o f b one w orking c ould p ossibly a ccount f or t his d iscrepancy; e .g. v arious a rticles o f b one w orking u tilised t he s heep/goat m etapodials. T he g roup 3 p its r evealed l arge numbers o f b roken h orncores w hile g roup 9 c ontained m any s kull a nd mandible f ragments. O ne s heep h orn c ore a nd a g oat h orn c ore w ere c hopped o ff c leanly a t t he b ase. 2 .3 .3

P ig b utchery

D ogs w ere f ound t o h ave c hewed 2 .8% o f t he b one f ragments. A s w ith s heep/goat t he s kull w as c hopped i n I ron A ge f ashion i n o rder t o e xtract t he b rains; t hus t hree s kulls w ere s plit s agittally a nd i n o ne c ase t he c leaver w as d irected i nto t he p arietal b one a t t he b ack o f t he s kull. S everal r ight h alves o f p igs h eads w ere r ecovered f rom t he e arly f irst c entury m ilitary l ayers a t L incoln ( Harman 1 973a). T he t hree S heepen s kulls w ere r etrieved f rom t he f ollowing p its 1 19, 1 27 a nd 1 38, d ated c onsecutively t o 4 9-61, 4 4-49 a nd 4 9-61. O ne s kull w as c hopped a cross t he s uperior s urface o f t he o ccipital c ondyles a nd 1 2 a tlases w ere c hopped s agittally, p robably a s a r esult o f t he s hape o f t he b one, i n o rder t o s ever t he h ead. T he g roup 4 p its s how a l arger p ercentage o f h umerus s hafts t han t hose o f g roup 6 . T here w ere n o d istal f emora f ound i n p its d ated 4 4 t o 5 4. T he g roup 6 s ample w as c haracterised b y many s kull f ragments a nd a d istinct d isc repancy b etween t he number o f u lnae a nd r adii. I n g roup 2 t here w as a h igher p ercentage o f t he b ack l eg t han f ront l eg w hen c ompared w ith g roup 3 . T he r everse w as t rue i n g roup 3 p its.

3 4

2 .4

M inimum n umber o f a nimals

T here i s a c ertain n umber o f b one f ragments b elow w hich a c alculat ion o f M IN i s n ot a ccurate ( see C hapter O ne). A ccording t o t he m ethod o f G rayson ( 1978) M IN/E ( minimum n umber o f a nimals d ivided b y t he n umb er o f b one f ragments) w as p lotted a gainst E ( number o f b one f ragments). C omparisons b etween M IN a nd E w ere f ound n ot t o b e v alid b elow 6 0 f ragm ents ( Fig. 2 :3). I n o rder t o c alculate M IN a ll t he p it c ontents b elonging t o e ach p eriod w ere a malgamated, t he a ssumption b eing t hat i t w ould b e u nlikely t hat a ll t he b ones o f o ne s laughtered a nimal w ould b e d eposited i n o ne p articular p it; i n a ny c ase, s ome o f t he p its c ontained s mall a mounts o f b one, l ess t han 6 0 f ragments a nd w ould h ave g reatly i nflated c alculation o f M IN. W ith t he M IN m ethod t he i mportance o f p ig i s v ery m uch e mphasised ( Table 2 :4); i t a ppears f irst i n o rder o f p reference o ver c attle a nd s heep/goat i n e very g roup e xcept g roup 7 w here i t i s j oint f irst w ith s heep/goat. I n p its d ated 4 9 t o 6 1, 5 4 t o 6 1 a nd 5 4 t o 5 7 c attle a ppears s econd. W ith t he n umber o f b one f ragments m ethod i t w as h inted t hat t he i mportance o f s heep/goat i ncreased f rom c . 4 9-61 A .D. U nfort unately t he g roup 2 a nd g roup 4 d eposits a re n ot r eliable e nough t o m ake a n a ssessment o f t he i mportance o f s heep/goat v ia M IN. H owever g roups 7 , 9 a nd 4 s ignify i ts p redominance o ver c attle where i t a ppears i n s econd p lace t o p ig. I t w ould b e u nwise t o r ely a bsolutely o n t he a ctual p ercentage f igures; i t i s t he r elative o rder o f t he s pecies w hich i s i mportant. T he MIN f igures f or p ig w ere l argely b ased o n t he w ell r epresented m andibles; t hey a re r obust b ones a nd s urvive much b etter t han t he r est o f t he p ost-cranial s keleton. A lso t hey a re much m ore s ubstantial t han t hose o f c attle a nd s heep/goat. H owever i n t he r elative a ssessment o f m eat p otential i t c an b e s een t hat c attle f ar s urpass t he o ther t wo s pecies a s C unliffe ( 1978) h as p ointed o ut f or p re-Roman I ron A ge s ites. T he f ollowing r atio i s b ased o n t he a verage c arcass w eights u sed b y C arter e t a l. H awkes H ill I ron A ge F armstead. c ow

s heep

4 08 K g

5 6.7 K g

7 .2

1

( 1965)

f or

p ig 9 0.7 K g 1 .6

T he n umber o f f ragments o f b one p er p eriod p er s pecies w as m ultiplied b y t he r elevant u nit a nd t he whole p rocess w as r epeated u sing M IN. T able 2 :5 s hows p ig i n s econd p lace a fter c attle w ith s heep/goat t hird. I t i s e ssential t o r emember

t hat t he r elative f requency o f t he

s pecies r epresents t he e ating h abits o f t he i nhabitants a nd n ot n eces'sarily t he s laughter p attern o f t he f armer. 2 .5

T he S heepen c attle B eef w as

t he m ost i mportant f ood i tem o f t he S heepen i nhabitants,

b ut m eat p roduction w as n ot t he main p urpose f or w hich c attle w ere k ept s ince

t he a nimals w ere

s laughtered a t a n a dvanced a ge. 3 5

' 4 ›

HNO2

JO

0 0

0

O D

SINHWDVU LI

= H

0

_

UH2W I IN

c o 0

H ISNIV9V

0

H/NI W

JO

0

HdVUD

MIN/E t v U i

N ) 0

c t ) 0

N J 0 0

0

CO 0

0 N J

3 6

I n o rder o f H igham

t o d etermine

( 1963;

1 969)

t he

s ex o f

w ere u sed,

t he a nimals c onsumed,

t he m ethods

i .e. m easurements o f m etacarpal d istal

e piphysial w idth w ere p lotted a gainst d istal w idth a nd t hose o f m etac arpal d istal t hickness w ere p lotted a gainst d istal w idth ( Figs. 2 :4 a nd 2 :5). F ig.

2 :4 s hows a c ontinuous a rray o f p oints w ith a c lustering i n

t he c entre;

n o v isual

s eparation w as a pparent.

T he i ndices o f H oward

( 1963) w ere c alculated ( Table 2 :6) s o t hat t he s ex o f t welve c omplete m etacarpal b ones c ould b e t entatively d etermined. A s ex r atio o f 1 0 f emale

:1 c astrate/female

: 1 male w as

f ound w ith

t he DB/L i ndex,

a nd

8 f emale/castrate w ith t he MB/L i ndex. O ne M B/L i ndex f ell o utside t he l ower r ange f or f emales. I f a b one's MB/L i ndex was c astrate/female a nd i ts DB/L i ndex f emale

t hen i t w as a ssumed f emale.

T he o ne d ubious

c astrate/female DB/L i ndex b one l ies w ithin t he r ange o f v ariation o f f emales a nd s teers. F ig. 2 :5 s hows a s imilar p attern t o t hat o f F ig. 2 :4. B esides

t he m etacarpal,

i ndicators o f s ex.

t he r adius a nd p halanx I ( fore)

a re g ood

Unfortunately n ot e nough r adii w ere a vailable b ut

t he measurements f or p halanx I ( fore) w ere.

F ig.

2 :6

s hows

t he m axi-

mum p roximal w idth p lotted a gainst t he maximum p roximal a rticulatory s urface.

Again a c ontinuous a rray o f p oints c an b e o bserved w ith n o

s eparation. A lthough

t he m etatarsal

t he metacarpal, n evertheless F ig.

2 :7 d oes

i s n ot a s s trong a n i ndicator o f i t i s

s till a v alid b one

s ex a s

t o u se.

I ndeed

s uggest s ome s ort o f s eparation i s o ccurring when t he

m etatarsal e piphysial w idth i s p lotted a gainst t he maximum d istal w idth. H oward's DB/L i ndex ( Table 2 :7) o n 1 0 c omplete b ones g ave a s ex r atio o f 9 f emale : 1 f emale/castrate/male a nd t he MB/L i ndex 9 f emale : 1 f emale/castrate. A f ew o f t he a nimals a re v ery s mall a nd d o n ot o ccur w ithin t he l imits s he g ives. T he l argest b one o n t he g raph, D ,

r evealed v alues

o r c astrate a nd

f or

t he DB/L i ndex t hat c ould b e male,

t he MB/L i ndex f emale o r

f airly l arge g ap b etween B d.

c astrate.

5 2.9 a nd 5 6.6 i t w as

S ince

f emale

t here i s a

t hought v alid

t o p er-

f orm a p rincipal c omponent a nalysis. T he e quation f or t he

l ine o f l east-squares b est f it w as f ound t o

b e Y = 0 .67X + 1 2.5 A n e quiprobability e llipse w as c alculated f or B d.

4 2

t o 5 4

e ncompass a ll s ide

( as e xplained b y A rmitage 1 977a).

t he l arger g rouping,

t he p oints a nd i ndeed l eft s ome f emale m etatarsals o ut-

t he c luster. M easurements o f

t arsal

( Fig.

2 :9)

t he s capula

( Fig.

2 :8)

a nd t hickness o f

d emonstrated a s imilar s catter a s F ig.

t he H igham m ethod h as g iven n o c lear i ndication o f a lthough o f

i .e.

T he e llipse d id n ot

t he

i ndices o f H oward h ave

t he a nimals m ay b e B ecause Z alkin

s uggested

2 :7.

t he m etaT hus,

s ex s eparation

t hat a l arge p roportion

f emale.

( 1960)

s howed t hat c ow ,

bull a nd s teer m etacarpals

c ould b e s eparated b y d istal w idth-to-length r atios, a n a ttempt w as made u sing t he S heepen d ata ( Fig. 2 :10). A s eparation i s a pparent a nd 3 7

DISTAL

EPIPHYSIAL WIDTH 4 = .

4 = . O D

HdVUD

0

mm

r l \ idUVDVIH I A I

30

0

› > .

•

1

•

•

•

• •

c o

• •8 e ng t

•

•

• •

• 7

•

r IVIS IQ

•

ISNIVDV

0 1

HIC IIM

W

r IVISÄHdIdH

O D

HIC IIM

r IVISIC I

•

OMB

0

0

•

•

L f l

• • •

•

•

• • •

• •

• •

• •

•

• •

C N

0 0

0 0 C N

L IU I

SSHNNDIF I LL

(P G)

3 9

C N C N

PROXIMAL N . ) 0

N . ) N )

WIDTH

N ) , A

( Bp)

N ) 0 1

mm N ) 0 0

L O 0

N )

0

L . . ) N )

0 ' d

I V H

•

0 h i h i 0 7 1 t i l

•

• •

XNV r IVHd

•

N ) N . )

• • • • •

• •

•

ÄUOIV r If IDIL LUV

• •

N . . ) U i

N . ) 0 1

• •

•

• • • 5 44:

•

•

• • •

•

4 0

•• N

H W

< U

• 0 •

AGAINST

•

E 4 •

EPIPHYSIAL

•

•

•

•

• •

•

METATARS AL

•

• •

•

•

M IM

0 1

C r ) • c f .

HIGIM qVISÄHdIdH

4 1

UVISIG

GLENOID CAVITY BREADTH

ISHIVSUD

U . > 0

U . ) . A

L1 4) / OD

( BG)

4 . N J

mm i = . 0 1

U l 0

U l . 4 = .

u i 0

U l

f a .

—

• U l OD

•

•

•

•• •

• • •

01 N J

•

0 • •

•

• • •

•

•

• •

•

•

J

0 •

-

. 4 OD

t i l Z 0 1 3 Z

•

-

0 T i

3

1 3 OD N J

t u -

n > 1 3 1 3

t u

4 2

F r i H n

•

0

•

• L c )

• ( N I I n

•

• • •• • ••

•

•

•

THICKNESS

•

•

• • • • • •

0

b l u l

• •

8 •

c 0

( PH)

HIC IIM

4 3

r IVISIC I

• •

•

DISTAL N J

WIDTH/TOTAL

LENGTH

( Bd/GL)

N . )

x I00 mm

U i 0

U . ) U i

METACARPAL

>•

OF

•

GRAPH

1 0

H U i

n•

DISTAL WIDTH/TOTAL

•c

LENGTH x I00

•

AGAINST

C O 0

TOTAL

H 0 0 U l

•

4 4

H oward's i ndices h ave b een m arked.

T here a re n o s ignificant d iffer-

e nces i n l ength b etween c ow a nd b ull m etacarpals b ut b ulls

t end t o h ave

b roader d istal w idths t han c ows. S teer m etacarpals h ave o n a verage g reater l ength w ith t he s ame b readth a s b ulls. I t s eems l ikely t hat t he p oint i n t he t op l eft h and c orner o f F ig. 2 :10 c ould b e a m ale, p ossibly a b ull, w ith t he r emaining p oints f emale. I f t his i s t rue, t he c ows e xhibit a g reat r ange o f v ariation i n l ength. I n 1 946 D ottrens p ointed o ut t hat t he b roader B P/GL f ore-phalanx I ( proximal w idth d ivided b y t otal l ength) o f m ales e nabled t heir s eparat ion. F ig. 2 :11 d oes s uggest a s imilar g rouping t o t he m etatarsal g raphs. I t i s n ecessary t o m ention h ere t he c onclusions o f M ennerich 's r esearch ( 1968).

H e i nvestigated t he m etacarpals o f 8 0 a nimals o f

t he I llyrian o r B us rindes c attle

( 40 c astrates,

1 9 m ales,

2 0 f emales)

w hich h e c ollected i n B osnia. T his s hort h orned b reed i s s mall, p rimit ive a nd l ate m aturing. T he c attle h ave l ived f or c enturies i n b arren, m ountainous c ountry - h ence t heir s mall s ize. t hese a nimals a re r egarded a s w orking a nimals,

F irst a nd f oremost i .e. o xen; i n s econd

p lace t hey a re e xploited a s s uppliers o f m eat a nd l astly m ilk p roduction w hich i s v ery much i n t he b ackground. M ennerich e stablished t he f ollowing p oints:1 .

T here w as n o i ncrease i n t he h eight o f o xen a nd t he l ength o f

o xen,

b ull a nd c ow m etacarpals s carcely d iffered f rom o ne a nother.

H igham p roduced s imilar e vidence w ith A berdeen A ngus c attle

( 1969).

2 . T he o verlapping i n l ength/breadth i ndices b etween c ow a nd b ull i s s mall, b ut m etacarpals o f o xen a nd b ulls c annot b e d ifferentiated f rom o ne a nother i n t heir g rowth f orm a nd h e m aintained t hat t he b ulls c an e ven b e e xcelled b y t he o xen i n t he l ength/breadth i ndices. H e t hus c oncluded t hat o x a nd bull m etacarpals c annot b e s eparated s atisfacto rily. T he o xen a re b etter f ed t han t he b ulls w hich a re o nly k ept f or b reeding a nd a re s laughtered a s s ubadults o r y oung a dults. M ennerich m aintained t hat t he r elatively g ood f eeding a nd h eavy w ork h ad a g reat i nfluence o n g rowth t hrough t he b readth o f t he b ones. M oreover g rowth i n h eight w as t hought t o h ave b een s uppressed b y h eavy w ork, t he m etac arpals g rowing s carcely l onger t han t hose o f b ulls a nd c ows. H owever, s ince t he a nimals w ere c astrated a s l ate a s 1 t o 2 y ears o ld t hen t heir g rowth a nd d evelopment w ould b e s imilar t o t hat o f a b ull. C astration i n m edieval c attle w as p erformed 1 0 t o 2 0 d ays a fter b irth A rmitage,

( Dr P .

p ers.co u m .).

M ennerich p repared a d iagram f or m etacarpals f rom r ecent c attle p opulations, p re a nd e arly h istorical c attle. T he a dvantage o f s uch a d iagram i s t hat t he p oints a re d oubly d etermined b y r elative b readth m easurements.

F ig.

2 :12 i llustrates

t his a nd a gain H oward's i ndices

h ave b een m arked o n t he g raph. T he o ne m ale b one K d oes s eparate e asily f rom t he f emales. S mall h orned c attle w ere i dentified t ogether w ith t he l arger s hort h orned v ariety a fter t he m ethod o f A rmitage a nd C lutton-Brock ( 1976), s ee P late 3 , T able 2 :8. V ery s mall t ypes o f c attle a re n otoriously d ifficult t o s ex ( Uerpmann 1 973a) a nd t his

4 5

FIG. 2 :11 CATTLE

GRAPH LENGTH

60

OF

FORE

AGAINST

PHALANX TOTAL

I PROXIMAL WIDTH/TOTAL LENGTH

•

E 0 0 H

x — 4 0

55

' -

PROXIMAL WIDTH/TOTAL

LENGTH

a i 0 : 1

•

• •

• 50

•

ME M

••

•

• • • • • • •

• •

• • •

•

t

S

•

•

45

_ •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

• •

•

•

•

•

•

40

I

45

5 5

5 0 TOTAL

LENGTH

4 6

( GL)

60 mm

GRAPH

OF

MENNERICH

P . 1m

I AGAINST

INDEX III

S INDEX

INDEX

III

r e )

0

: co

—•

— 5 •

c r ,

•

•

C O

I XH I C INI

4 7

P late 3

C attle h orn c ores

f rom S heepen.

M ennerich's

i ndices f or s exual s eparation o f c attle m etacarpals

I ndex I s mallest b readth d iaphysis l ength

I ndex I II

g reatest d istal b readth l ength

m ight w ell e xplain s ome o f t he d ifficulties e ncountered w ith t he S heepen m aterial. F urther e vidence w as s ought t o e lucidate t he p icture, t hus t he m orphology o f t he p elvic g irdle w as i nvestigated. I n f emale c attle t he i lio-pectineal p rocess i s f lattened a nd t ends t o b e p ointed f orw ard . I t i s c onnected w ith a c oncave d epression u nder t he a cetabulum w hich e xhibits a s hallow m edial r im . T he p ubic b one i n c ross s ection i s l ozenge o r d iamond s haped. I n m ale c attle t he p ubis a nd m edial a cetabulum r im a re m uch t hicker w ith n o c oncave d epression u nder t he a cetabulum , t he p ubis t ends t o b e m ore o val. T his g ave t he s upporting e vidence n eeded, 1 9 f emales : 2 m ales! T hus i t c an b e r easonably c oncluded t hat t he s ample o f c attle b ones c ontains a h igh p roportion o f f emales, i .e. t he f ood t hat t he i nhabit ants o f S heepen a te. I ndeed t he c oefficient o f v ariation ( V) o f t he d istal m etacarpal w idths i s 5 .3, f airly l ow, i ndicating t hat t here w as n ot much a dmixture o f s ex/breed. S ince c attle w ere n ot s laughtered a t t he p rime a ge f or m eat c ons umption a nd whole a nimals w ere b utchered o n t he s ite, i t c ould b e a rgued t hat s exing r eflects t he a nimal h usbandry t hat w as b eing p ract ised l ocally . A h igh i ncidence o f f emales i s s uggestive o f a d airy e conomy b ut t he c orroborative f acts a re s trongly l acking, e .g. e vidence o f t he s laughter o f c alves u nder s ix m onths. C alf p roduction i s n ecessary f or t he e stablishment o f l actation i n t he c ow s ince t his o nly h appens w ith t he o nset o f t he g estation p eriod a nd t he b irth o f t he c alf. I f m ilk o r m ilk p roducts, e .g . c heese, w ere t o b e u tilised b y a c ommunity t hen c alves w ould h ave t o b e d isposed o f e arly i n t heir l ives s o t hat t hese i tems w ould b e f reely a vailable. C urrent p ractice r ecommends t hat t he c alf s tays w ith t he m other o nly a c ouple o f d ays a nd t hen t he m other h erself i s m ated a fter 1 0 w eeks

( M .A .F.F.

1 971).

T hus e ach y ear

o ne c ow g ives b irth t o o ne c alf. T hus t he n umber o f c alves b orn e ach y ear i s g reatly i n e xcess o f t he numbers n eeded f or h erd r eplacement o f a ged a nimals a nd many a re s laughtered f or v eal.

4 9

This evidence is not only lacking from the rural site of Sheepen but also the nearby Canabae situated outside the fortress as well as the later Colonia itself. In fact, convincing evidence of calf slaugh­ ter is very difficult to find in the Romano-British Period. With regard to the Sheepen material, 35 mandibles had molar 3 erupted which in the majority of cases was well worn (Fig. 2:13). The mature mandibles are supported by the percentages of unfused epiphyses which are low in all periods, 5.3% to 9%. Possibly the innnature animals were sent elsewhere, though this seems unlikely (Chapter Three). The large number of females could be barren cows, but this seems an unus­ ually large number. A difference in the sequence of tooth eruption might signify a difference of breeds (the term breed cannot be used in the strict sense) since nutritional and environmental factors are not important. Order of premolar eruption in cattle P2

P3

½E

J

C

(after terminology of Ewebank 1964)

P4

E V

The bias is so strongly towards females that the author feels this may represent a deliberate policy in animal husbandry. 2.6

Socio-economic change in the first century B.C. to first century A.D. of Roman Britain

In order to understand this branch of economics it is essential to have some knowledge of population structure and growth. Various authors have proposed figures for the Iron Age. For instance Brothwell (1972) suggests figures from 50,000 to 500,000 for the whole Iron Age. Admitting the evidence was tenuous, Cunliffe (1978b, 124) defined a model describing the relationship between population growth and socio-economic change in the Southern British Iron Age.: 'On balance it seems fair to argue that agricultural improvement and population developed in parallel during the first half of the first millenium, population increase encouraging the evolution of new farming regimes (1000-600 B.C.). A little later the introduction of iron and the creation of centres for exchange offered further scope for increase but soon a crisis situation was reached which led to a long period of stress (400-100 B.C.). This was finally relieved when external forces drew Britain into a system of long distance trade which soon led to the evolution of an urban economy allowing scope for population growth once more (100-43 B.C.). Ideas concerning population in the later Roman Period will be briefly discussed in Chapter Three. In 1971 Peacock showed the importance of amphorae as trade indi­ cators in pre-Roman Britain. L ater Rodwell (1976) pointed out that most of the amphorae (Dressel lB - second half of the first century) 50

PATTERNS WEAR TEETH

5 ' t 9

S ' 09 5 "85 S • 9 S

1

S ' 1 7 5 5 *Z5

FREQUENCY

AGAINST

AGE

( USING

5 *Z9

5 '05 5 8t.

MANDIBLE

S '91 7 5 '1 71 '

OF

S. 5 'Ot

4-

5 '8£

AJN MÖHU LI

HOVINHDUnd

5 1

h ad b een f ound i n T rinovantian t erritory a nd s uggested t hat t his

t ribe

c ould w ell h ave c ontrolled t he w ine i mportation f rom I taly, w ith C amulodunum b eing a l ikely p ort. S ince t he w ine w as c onsumed g enerally, t he i mported g oods w ere p robably s old i n t he m arkets o f m ajor c entres s uch a s C amulodunum t ogether w ith i mported p ottery . I ndeed t he s ettlement p attern o f t he T rinovantes s ustained g reat c hange i n t he f irst c entury B .C. R ectangular h ouses r eplaced r ound a nd m ore r egular f ield s ystems w ere d evised t hus s uggesting i mprovem ents i n a gricultural

t echnique

( K .

R odwell 1 979,

3 28).

D uring t he e arly R oman o ccupation, h ides a nd c attle w ere e xported f rom B ritain ( Strabo i v, 5 ,2). T he i mportance o f B ritain c oncerning h ide e xport c annot b e u nderestimated s ince b etter s kin q uality i s g enerally o btained f rom a nimals r eared i n c ool m oist c limates ( Reed 1 972, 3 7). T he R oman Army w as

t he g reatest u ser o f l eather i n t he R oman

W orld a s e videnced b y i ts d emand f or c lothing, l eather b oat s ails ( Caesar B .G., i ii, 1 3), b oat c overings ( instead o f t arpaulin), p urses, s addles, h arness a nd s traps o f d raught a nimals, s hield a nd s cabbard c overings, b attle s creens a nd o ther m ilitary p rotective d evices. I ndeed a s R ichmond ( 1967, 1 32) p oints o ut t he n eed f or h ides m ust h ave b een e normous. T here i s d ocumentary e vidence s howing t hat t he R oman r equirement f or l eather c ould n ot a lways b e s upplied f rom t he i mmediate n eighbourhood, f or e xample, t he F risians r evolt a gainst t he s evere R oman t axation i n t he f orm o f o x h ides ( Tacitus, A nnals, i v, 7 2). F urther,

t he p resence o f t he C olonia must h ave i mposed a s evere

d rain o n t he s urrounding n ative r esources o f c attle a nd i ndeed o ther a nimals. F rere p oints o ut t hat T acitus, p robably s peaking f rom a n o fficial s ource, c alculated t he t otal c asualties a t L ondon, S t. A lbans a nd C olchester d uring t he B oudican R ebellion ( 60/61 A .D.) a s 7 0,000 ( Frere 1 978, 2 96). A llowing f or e xaggeration, t he f igures s uggest a p opulation o f 1 5,000 e ach f or C olchester a nd S t. A lbans, a nd p ossibly 3 0,000 f or L ondon. T he c ost o f n ot o nly p roviding f ood b ut a lso r aw p roducts i n t he f orm o f l eather must h ave b een c onsiderable. T hus l arge b reeding h erds w ould h ave b een v ery n ecessary . I t s eems t herefore t hat a n e xtensive l ong d istance t rade o perated i n t he i mmediate p re-Roman P eriod i nvolving s ome f orm o f u rban e conomy l eading t o a p opulation g rowth. I t a lso s eems p ossible t hat t he e arly R oman P eriod s aw a s udden e mergence o f l arge u rban markets o n a f ar l arger s cale t han e ver b efore. T his, t ogether w ith e xporting a nd t he n eed t o f eed a nd c lothe t he a rmy c ould h ave l ed t o a r apid e xponential g rowth i n t he h erd s tructure; h ence t he d ominance o f c ows i n t he S heepen s ample.

I n t he c lassical l iterature c attle a re r egarded v ery much a s

w ork a nimals, i .e. o xen, b ut c ows c an j ust a s e asily b e u sed f or t ract ion: e .g. t he p rimitive t riple p urpose R ossa P ontremolese C attle, t he c ows o f w hich c an b e u sed f or d raught w ork i n l ate s tages o f p regnancy w ithout a ny b ad e ffect o n t he m other o r c alf C arenzi

1 978).

5 2

( Ferrari;

C rimella,

2 .7

T he S heepen s heep/goat I n t he m ajority o f c ases i t i s e xtremely d ifficult t o d istinguish

b etween b ones o f t he s pecies s heep a nd g oat .

T he m ost r eliable i ndi-

c ators a re t he h orn c ore a nd p elvic g irdle. G oat w as k nown t o b e p resent i n t he s ample b ecause a h orn c ore w as f ound i n P it 1 53 ( c. 5 4 t o 6 1). A lso P ayne's m ethod ( Fig. 2 :14) i solated a t l east f our b ones t hat c ould p ossibly b e g oat ( Payne 1 969).

i .e.

N oddle ( 1978) s howed t hat B oessneck a nd T eichert 's i ndex ( 1964) t he h eight o f t he s capula n eck d ivided b y t he m inimum l ength o f

t he n eck ( SLC/ASG) w as n ot a g ood s eparator o f s heep a nd g oat. U sing m odern s pecies a s e vidence, s he p ointed o ut t hat t he S oay s heep o verl apped w ith t he d omestic a nd w ild g oat s amples. T his r einforced H igham 's f indings ( 1966) w ith N epalese s heep where h e f ound t he d egree o f o verlap b etween t he t wo s pecies w as 1 4 .5%. T he S heepen i ndices ( Fig. 2 :15) d o n ot o verlap w ith N oddle's S oay s heep o r d omestic g oats. S ince o nly e ight b ones p rovided t he n ecessary m easurements i t c annot b e a ssumed t hey r epresent t he t otal s ample o f s heep/goat o riginally p resent. H owever, t hey d o i ndicate t he p ossible p resence o f l ong t ailed s heep e arly i n t he R omano-British p eriod . N oddle ( 1978) p ointed o ut t hat s capulae o f s hort t ailed b reeds, e .g. t he S oay h ave c omparat ively l onger n ecks t han t hose o f l ong t ailed b reeds, w hile c ross b reeds f all i nbetween. T he S heepen i ndices r anged f rom 0 .74 t o 0 .93 a nd c oincided w ith m easurements f or t he C lun F orest B reed .

R yder

( 1964)

c laimed t hat i n

t he l ate I ron Age t he m ain s heep w as p robably l ike a s hort t ailed S oay a nd t he R omans p ossibly i ntroduced a m ainly h ornless white-faced b reed. T he l ong t ailed S heepen s heep c ould w ell r epresent t his i ntroduction. H igham ( 1966) p ostero d iaphysial f icantly d ifferent w hile t he m ajority

f ound t hat t he r atio o f t he m etacarpal a nterow idth a gainst minimum t ransverse w idth i s s ignib etween s heep a nd g oats. F ig. 2 :16 s hows t hat o f t he p oints c ome f rom o ne p opulation t here i s a t

l east o ne p oint S D15 ( th. 1 0) t hat c ould b e g oat. T his i solated p oint w as a lso n oted o n o ther g raphs, e .g. F ig. 2 :15 ( scapula), F ig. 2 :17 ( metacarpal),

a nd F ig.

2 :18

( tibia).

S eparation o f t he s exes i s n ot e asy b ecause t here i s s o much o verlapping. Z alkin ( 1961) i nvestigated 1 34 d omestic s heep o f 1 1 b reeds a nd f ound s ex d ifferentiation n ot m arked.

T he m ale m etapodials

o n a verage w ere l onger a nd l arger a lthough c astrates c ould n ot b e i dent ified. T he i ndex f or t he m etacarpal, m id-shaft-width d ivided b y l ength x 1 00, h as b een c laimed t o v ary w ith s ex ( Pfund 1 961; H aak 1 965; s ee F ig . 2 :19). O n t he b asis o f t he p revious i nformation t he p oint w ith G L 1 32 h as b een a ssumed t o b e g oat. S ummarising, t he m ajority o f b ones w ould a ppear t o c ome f rom s heep w ith t he o ccasional g oat a mong t hem . S exing v ia t he l ong b ones w as u nsatisfactory a nd t he o nly t hree h orn c ores o f s heep g ave a r atio o f 2m ale t o 1 f emale. g irdle f ragments o f s heep g ave a s ex r atio o f 8 f emales ( after t he m ethod o f A rmitage A c onsiderable n umber o f

E leven p elvic t o 2m ales

1 977a). s heep w ere

s laughtered i n t he

f irst y ear

a s d educed b y P ayne's m ethod ( Fig. 2 :20); 1 5.5% b etween 0 t o 6m onths, a nd 2 7.4% b etween 6 t o 1 3 m onths, i n o rder t o s upply t he S heepen

5 3

TROCHLEA WIDTH

•

•

• 0 METACARPAL

AGAINST

CONDYLE

CONDYLE

• WIDTH

IVOD/dHHHS

TACARPAL

• 55 5

mm WIDTH TROCHLEA O D

C O

5 4

t \ . ) H 0

•

• •

3

•

-

•

o c

SHEEP/GOAT

00

CO

r -

r • •

CT

0 c r )

4

GLENOID

AGAINST

•

• •

•

DISTANCE

SCAPULA

•

•

c c e -4

u n i '

(YTS)

HIGIL V I

5 5

) 1311 \ 1

ANTERO-POSTERIOR

C O

DIAMETER m in

C

H

t• . )

O D

•

OF

•

METACARPAL

•

• •

0

I

•

••

• •

I I I. . ••

• • •e t S o

MID-SHAFT THICKNESS

•

• • •

•

••

•

• •

• •• ••

• ( Ds

•

•

•

•

AGAINST

•

• •

WIDTH

•

IVOD/dHHHS

C : 5 1

5 6

METACARPAL

DISTAL

WIDTH/TOTAL

•

0

ww

( 00 1 x r 19/Pg)

5 7 WIDTH

AGAINST

DISTAL

•

0

r I

•

•

•

• • •

•

•

•

•

0 c \ I

HIDNH VHIGI M

SHEEP/GOAT

TIBIA DISTAL N J

N J

WIDTH

( Bd)

m in

N )

0

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

• •

• 0

N J

•

•

`

IVOD/dHHHS

4 2 .

5 8

•• O D

SHEEP/GOAT

•

1 .. . .

-

N M H

0 M H

C O N H

-

-

•

•

•

-

L O N H

e i N I

H E

N N H

0

Z

0

-

•

N H

c o

•

-

H H

. -

l 0 H H

-

. 1, H H

•

•

METACARPAL

( 1 ) H Z

N H .

• •

H

0 H H

N H

wm

001

x E L ION TI

H H

0 H

qVIOI/HIGI M

5 9

0 1

IJVHS

GIN

M

E i U

Z w 4

a < E 1 0

E 1

0

H

N )

W

0

0

0

( %) U-1 0

0

a

o

C / D H

z 0 h i > I -C z t u

H

10 WVUDOISIH

FREQUENCY

C r i

— k C t u i > X i C r )

z

) 3

H

0

t4

t u

4 = . .

U i

> 0 t u

H o

VJOD/dHHHS

> 0 t l i

X r i

6 0

t -r i

H 0 N J •• N ) 0

i nhabitants w ith l amb. I t i s u nlikely t hat t his i s a n e xample o f a utumn s laughter s ince i t i s n ow e stablished t hat t his w as m ore o f a m yth t han a r eality i n t he p re-Roman I ron Age ( Higgs 1 963). 2 .8

T he S heepen h orse T he h orse w as r epresented a t S heepen b y 1 1 f ragments a nd 1 m olar.

N o e vidence s uggested t hat t he h orse w as a n i tem o f f ood a nd i ts s tat ure w as t ypical ( 11.7 h ands) o f t he s mall p re-Roman I ron A ge p ony. 2 .9

T he S heepen p ig

U sing t he d ata g athered b y F lannery ( 1960), l ength m easurements o f u pper a nd l ower m olar 3 p roved t hat t he S heepen p ig s ize f ell w ithin t hat o f m odern d omestic E uropean S us s crofa ( Table 2 :9). E xcept f or o ne s pecimen, l ong b one m easurement w as a voided d ue t o t he i mmaturity o f t he a nimals. A ssuming t he m etapodial e piphyses f use a t 2 t o 2 1 y ears,

t he p er-

c entage o f u nfused m etapodials i s 4 6.9%. i .e. h alf t he s ample i s o lder t han 2 t o 2 1 y ears. I f S ilver's m odern e ruption d ata i s u sed ( Silver 1 963), i .e. m olar 3 e rupts a t 1 7 t o 2 2 m onths t hen 9 0% o f t he S heepen m andible s ample i s 1 7 t o 2 2 m onths o ld o r l ess a nd t herefore t hese t wo a geing m ethods d o n ot a gree. H owever, i f S ilver's e ighteenth c entury d ata i s u sed w ith m olar 3 e rupting a t 3 y ears t hen s ome a greement i s r eached ( Fig. 2 :21). S exing o f t he mandibular c anines g ave a r atio o f 4 6 m ales t o 1 8 f emales. P etch ( 1980) r elates t hat t raditionally i n E ngland y oung m ale p igs w ere c astrated b y 8w eeks o f a ge b ecause t he c arcass w ould b e t ainted i f l eft e ntire. C olumella s uggested t hat b oars s hould b e c astrated a t n ot l ess t han 6 m onths a nd V arro p referably a t o ne y ear ( White 1 970). W hite a lso g athered e vidence w hich i ndicated t hat t he R omans c ould p roduce d iffering f lavours b y a ltering t he d iet. T hat t he a nimals a t S heepen w ere c astrated s eems a r easonable p robability; i t i s w ell k nown t hat b oar p ork r eared t he w rong w ay c an p roduce a s trong t aint m aking t he m eat a lmost i nedible. P etch h as l ikened t his t o ' the p ungent a roma o f r otting f ootball s ocks' ( Petch 1 980). A lso male a nimals a re l ess l ikely t o f ight i f t hey a re c astrat ed .

U nfortunately t he mandibular c anines w ere t oo b roken t o g ive a ny

m etrical d ata c oncerning t his. 2 .10

T he S heepen d ogs T he f irst c entury p its c ontained 1 70 f ragments o f d og,

o f w hich b elonged t o b urials:

P it 1 46 h eld 2 b urials

s everal

( 79 f ragments),

o ne b eing a n o ld a rthritic d og a nd P it 1 20 r evealed t he r emains o f 2 a nimals, o ne a n a dult d og a nd t he o ther a p uppy o f l ess t han o ne y ear. T his p articular p it a lso h ad a n u nusual a ssortment o f b ird b one

( see n ext s ection). T he s ize o f t he d ogs

g iven b y H arcourt

( 1974)

( Table 2 :10)

c oincided w ithin t he r anges

f or p re-Roman I ron A ge a nd R omano-British

d ogs.

6 1

0

SNUH ,1, 1 ,Vc 1

2 7 IVHM

H .LHHI

JO

CO

ÄDNHI IÜHt Il

MANDIBLE FREQUENCY

0

6 2

2 .11

T he S heepen b irds F owl g reatly o utnumbers

b one

t he o ther s pecies w hether t he n umber o f

f ragments o r M IN m ethod i s u sed

( Tables 2 :11 a nd 2 :12).

W ith t he

n umber o f f ragments m ethod, r aven a ppears s econd b ut w ith M IN, t he m allard a ppears s econd . T he m allard i s m ore l ikely t o b e t he s econd f ood i tem s ince

t he r aven o ccurs a s m ore o r l ess w hole s keletons.

P it 1 20 ( 49 t o 6 1) a t f irst s ight p roduced a c urious a ssortment o f b ones, i ncluding n early t wo c omplete r aven s keletons, t he r emains o f t wo w hite t ailed e agles a nd a lso t he b ones o f o ne c omplete d og s keleton a nd p uppy . A lthough t he r aven w as e ndowed w ith p rophetic w isdom b oth i n t he C lassical R oman a nd C eltic w orld, i n a r ural e nvironm ent i t c ould b e r ather a p est. I t i s a w ell k nown s cavenger a nd r ecent r eports h ave s hown i t g uilty o f a ttacking a nd e ven k illing y oung l ambs. T he w hite t ailed e agle p refers c oastal a reas o r l arge i nland w aterways a nd s hould n ot b e r egarded a s a n u nusual o ccurrence a lthough i t i s l ess c ommon t oday. T he c ommon c rane G rus g rus, n ow e xtinct i n B ritain, w as c ommon i n b ogs a nd w ooded s wamps; o utside t he b reeding s eason i t c ould b e f ound i n marshes a nd o n s and b anks. M arshes a nd m eadows a re t he h abitat o f t he b lack-tailed g odwit; i t w inters a long s eashores w ith m udflats. A lso t he w igeon, A nas p enelope i s c ommon t o m arshes, m eadows a nd s wamps w here i t b reeds. T he k not, C alidris c arnutus b reeds i n t he H igh A rctic a nd i n w inter c an b e f ound a long s ea s hores w ith mudflats. C rex c rex, t he c orn c rake i s l ocally c ommon i n m eadows a nd f ields w ith d ense v eget ation. T hus t he e vidence o f t he b irds i ndicates a m arshy e nvironment w ith d ensely v egetated m eadowland; t his f its i n w ell w ith t he a bundance o f p igs. T here i s n ow a s trong b ody o f e vidence p ointing t o t he e xistence o f G allus i n t he p re-Roman I ron A ge ( Camulodunum , J ackson 1 947; K ingsd own C amp, J ackson 1 930; S lonk H ill, S heppard 1 977; G ussage A ll S aints, H arcourt 1 979b; S keleton G reen, P artridge, p ersonal c ommunication; W inklebury, C aesar f owls,

J ones 1 977 a nd B ishopstone, ( B.G.

x ii,

h ares o r g eese;

1 6)

i nforms u s

i .e.

t he f emale

1 978).

t hat t he B ritons d id n ot e at

t hey w ere k ept a s p ets.

T able 2 :13 i ndicates t he s ize o f g ives a r atio o f 7 f emales t o 2 males i ndicative o f am ale).

G ebbels

t he f owl a nd t he t arsometatarsus ( i.e. p resence o f t he s pur b eing

T he s ize o f t he S heepen f irst c entury s pecimens

t arsometatarsus,

c ompares v ery w ell w ith t hose o f t he

I ron A ge O ppidum o f M anching i n B avaria

( Schweizer 1 961;

s ee a lso F ig.

2 :22). f emale

t arsometatarsus

G reatest l ength

6

6 6.7

M anching

7

6 6.3

S heepen F irst C entury

C astration o f f owls w as p ractised b y t he R omans. V arro ( De R e R ustica i ii, 9 ), l ater r eiterated b y C olumella, s tated t he o peration i nvolved t he b urning o f

t he l eg s purs w ith r ed h ot i rons,

6 3

t he w ounds

FIG. 2 :22 FOWL

cgApH

OF

AGAINST

TARSOMETATARSUS

TOTAL

LENGTH

DISTAL WIDTH

1 4

13

f t

-

12

g 1 1

r 7 . 1 a 10 E 1

9

f 50

60

70 DISTAL WIDTH

6 4

80 ( Bd)

90 mm

100

b eing h ealed w ith c lay.

T his m ight w ell h ave r esulted i n d eformation

t o t he u nderlying b ony p art b ut t he a uthor h as f ound n o e vidence o f t his, p ossibly b ecause t he s pur i s j oined t o t hin s eptum w hich c an b e b roken v ery e asily. 2 .12

t he

l eg b one b y a v ery

W ild a nimals

H unting c ontributed v ery l ittle t o t he S heepen e conomy. A ltogether 1 2 f ragments o f h are w ere f ound, 2 f ragments o f r ed d eer a nd 7 a ntler f ragments a nd o ne f ragment o f r oe d eer. H owever t he m ost i nteresting w ild m ammal b one f ragment c ame f rom t he m andible o f a b rown b ear. M artial w rites o f b ears b eing i mported f rom S cotland a fter t he c onquest o f A gricola i n t he f irst c entury i n o rder t o k ill c riminals i n R ome ( De S pectaculis v ii, 3 ). T his p erhaps i mplies t hat b ears d id n ot o ccur f requently i n E ngland, p articularly t he s outh e ast i n t he f irst c entury A .D. T oynbee ( 1973) i nforms u s t hat o ut o f a ll t he w ild a nd d angerous a nimals s ought a fter f or d isplay i n p ublic a nd p rivate s pectacles, t he b ear w as t he m ost u biquitous. I t s eems l ikely t hat t his b ear r epresents p ossibly s ome t rophy f rom h unting i n t he n orth o r t he p resence o f a n a nimal u sed i n b ear b aiting . 2 .13

P athology o f S heepen a nimals

P late 4 s hows t wo g rossly d eformed s heep/goat h orn c ores ( Pits 1 01). T he p athology w as p ossibly c aused b y t raumatic o r n utritional p roblems. W hen t he h orn c ore b egins t o d evelop, i ts e mbryonic c ells a re v ery s ensitive t o a ny f orm o f i njury; t his i s w hy m any a bnormalit ies o ccur i n y oung a nimals s ince t he r apidly d eveloping c ells p rovide a s uitable e nvironment f or v iruses a nd b acteria. I f nutritional c auses w ere t he u nderlying f actors r esponsible f or t he d eformation o ne w ould h ave e xpected t o h ave r ecovered m ore a bnormal h orn c ores. T herefore i t i s s upposed t hat t rauma c aused t he d eformity . T he c attle s kull e xhibited i n P late 5 s hows a l esion i n t he p ariet al b one w hich o ccurred b efore d eath . S imilar d iscoveries w ere m ade o n f ive m edieval c attle s kulls a t Y ork ( Ryder 1 970) a nd t wo m edieval s kulls a t E xeter ( Maltby 1 979). T he c ause c annot b e a scertained f or c ertain b ut R yder p roposed t hat t he h oles c ould h ave r esulted f rom a n a cute i nflammatory c ondition c aused b y i ncreased v ascularisation a nd t hat c attle w earing y okes m ay h ave e xperienced t his. T wo p ig l ong b ones,

a r ight h umerus

( Pit 1 02)

a nd a r ight f emur

( Pit 1 37) e xhibited f ractures, t he v ertical a nd h orizontal d isplacem ent r esulting i n a t hickening o f b one ( Plate 6 ). A c ervical v ertebra o f a c ow s howed s pondylosis a nd s everal c attle s econd p halanges w ere a ffected b y o steoarthritis. A l ack o f

t he s econd p ermanent p remolar was f ound i n c attle m an-

d ibles f rom P its 2 03, 1 02, 2 52 a nd 3 16; A ndrews a nd N oddle ( 1975) t hought t he c ondition w as q uite c ommon a nd s uggested a v ariety o f r easons T wo

f or i ts o ccurrence. f owl u lnae, P its 1 20 a nd 1 36 a nd a t ibiotarsus i n P it 2 38

r evealed f ractures which h ad s ubsequently h ealed. c arpus h ad a lso s uffered a f racture ( Pit 1 10).

6 5

A g oose c arpometa-

P late 4

Two d eformed s heep h orn c ores d eveloped h orn c ores.

( centre) w ith t wo n ormally

P late 6

F ractured p ig h umerus a nd f emur w ith e xostoses

( below).

( above); p ig m etapodials

2 .14

S heepen - T he b ackground o f t he p re-Roman I ron A ge a nd e arly R oman p eriod ( first c entury)

I n o rder t o a ssess t he a ftermath o f t he R oman I nvasion o n I ron A ge a nimal h usbandry, i t i s e ssential t o e xamine d ifferent t ypes o f s ite w ithin t he s ame g eographical a rea, t hrough a s et p eriod o f t ime p referably p rior a nd t hroughout t he R oman O ccupation. T his i s b eing i nvestigated b y t he a uthor w ith t he s ites a lready m entioned i n t he C ivitas o f t he T rinovantes. T able 2 :14 l ists t he m ain d omestic a nimal s pecies f rom s ome m ajor s ites i n t he p re-Roman I ron A ge a nd f irst c entury o f o ccupation. T he s ites h ave b een c ompared v ia t he N umber o f B one F ragments M ethod s ince t he M IN m ethod w as n ot u sed f or e arly r eports. O f t he p re-Roman I ron A ge s ites 1 5 a re s heep/goat d ominated a nd 1 1 a re c attle d ominated. T hese f igures

s hould n ot b e r igidly a dhered t o, b ut t hey d o i ndicate

t he i mportance o f s heep/goat w hich o ther r esearchers h ave a lready n oted ( Cunliffe 1 978a). C unliffe a lso o bserved t he g reat i mportance o f m anure, p articularly s heep m anure: ' It i s n o e xaggeration t o s ay t hat w ithout l arge f locks, g rain p roduction o n i ts I ron A ge l evel w ould h ave b een i mpossible t o maintain.' H e a lso p ointed o ut t hat s heep n eed f ar l ess w ater t han c attle ( Cunliffe 1 978a, 1 84). P ig o nly a ppears i n s econd p lace t o c attle a nd s heep/goat o n t hree s ites, i .e. F ord S treet B raughing, C roft Ambrey a nd H awkes H ill. I t r anges f rom 1 .6% a t G lastonbury t o 3 3.7% a t F ord S treet B raughing. T he s econd i mportant s tatement m ade b y C unliffe c oncerning t he I ron A ge p eople o f t he s outh w as t hat, ' The I ron A ge f armers o f t he s outh w ere b eef e aters', which i s a lso t rue o f t he R oman P eriod. T his was b ased o n t he f act t hat a c ow g ives f ar m ore m eat t han a s heep. C learly m any o ther f actors h ave t o b e c onsidered c oncerning t he i mportance o f s heep i n t he I ron A ge, i .e. c limate, t opography, g eology a nd p olitics.

F or i nstance W ilson

( 1978) h as n oted w ith I ron A ge s ites

i n t he U pper T hames V alley t hat t he r atio o f s heep t o a rable i ncreases f rom F armoor, t he l owest r iver s ite t hrough A ppleford, t he f irst t errace t o C ity F arm a nd

o f

t o A shville o n t he s econd t errace.

O verwintering o f s tock w as n ot a p roblem o n m any o f t he s ites: 2 6% t he G rimthorpe s heep w ere o verwintered a t l east t wice; a t E ldon's

S eat 4 0% o f

t he s heep l ived t o m ore t han 2 y ears a nd a pproximately t he

s ame p ercentage w as f ound a t H awkes H ill. A t C roft Ambrey a lmost h alf t he a nimals w ere 2 y ears o ld w hen k illed a nd o nly 6 % o f t he c attle w ere u nder 4 y ears. C atcote h ad 3 2.5% o f s heep s laughtered i n t he t hird y ear b ut 2 2 c attle m andibles h ad n ot r eached t he o ptimum a ge f or m eat o r c alving. M ost o f t he s heep a t C oygan w ere k illed a t 2 y ears a nd a t H ardingstone a l arge n umber o f s heep a nd c attle w ere o verwintered. A t S lonk H ill, o verwintering w as n ot a p roblem f or c attle a nd s heep a nd B eckford h ad 7 0% s heep o verwintered o nce a nd a t l east 4 0% t wice w ith a ll t he c attle s urviving t heir f irst w inter. B ut t he s ituation w as d ifferent a t B arley w here 3 9% o f t he s heep w ere k illed i n e ach o f t he f irst t wo y ears a nd a lso A shville w here 3 7.5% w ere k illed i n t he f irst y ear a nd 2 3.2% i n t he s econd y ear. T his m ost l ikely r epresents a d ietary p reference f or y oung m eat w hich w as r easonably p lentiful a nd n ot a utumn s laughter. S heepen s howed s imilar f igures t o B arley a nd A shville. 6 9

B oth B eckford a nd H ardingstone a re n otable h orse b ones.

f or l arge n umbers o f

T here i s e vidence o f e quine b utchery f rom t he f ollowing

s ites: K ingsdown C amp ( Jackson 1 930), G lastonbury ( Boyd-Dawkins a nd J ackson 1 917), L ittle W oodbury ( Jackson 1 948), a nd C roft Ambrey ( Whitehouse a nd W hitehouse 1 974). I t i s e xtremely d ifficult t o p rove t hat t his p ractice p rovided f ood f or h uman c onsumption; t he c arcass c ould h ave b een s tripped t o p rovide m eat f or d ogs. H owever i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat j oints o f p ig a nd h orse h ave b een f ound w ith a n I ron A ge b urial o f a h uman f emale a t W hitcombe n ear D orchester ( Aitken 1 965) - p ossible e vidence o f D urotrigian H ypophaggy! T he i mportance o f t he h orse a t B lewburton I ron A ge H illfort w as r evealed w hen t wo c omplete h orse s keletons w ere f ound b uried i n t he e ntrance p assage. T his a ppears t o h ave b een t he r esult o f s ome r itual a ctivity ( see C hapter F our where r itual d eposits o f a nimal b ones, h orses, a re d iscussed).

i ncluding

At C roft Ambrey i t w as s tated t hat, ' Both c attle a nd s heep m ay b e b red f or m ilk b ut c attle a re much m ore p roductive a nd c ertainly w ould h ave b een t he m ain s ource i f d airy f arming w as p ractised o n a c onsiderable s cale.' ( Whitehouse a nd W hitehouse 1 974, 2 20). H owever, a s e xplained w ith t he S heepen material, e ven w hen a p reponderance o f c ows w as s hown t o e xist, e vidence f or d airying d oes n ot n ecessarily f ollow . A t A shville s exing o f t he c attle p elves s uggested m any f emales b ut s upporting e vidence f or d airying w as l acking.

O ut o f t he 1 0 f irst-century m ilitary s ites,

5 s howed c attle

w ere t he m ost i mportant s pecies v ia t he N umber o f F ragments M ethod, f ollowed b y s heep/goat a nd t hen p ig, e xcept f or t he A ldgate F ort w here p ig a nd s heep/goat w ere e qually i mportant, a nd C hichester w here o nly c attle r emains w ere f ound; 4 f orts h ad s heep/goat f irst w ith c attle s econd f ollowed b y p ig. A part f rom F ishbourne, p ig i s n ot v ery i mport ant a nd r anges f rom 0 t o 2 0% o n s ites w hich i s s urprising c onsidering i ts p opularity i n t he R oman W orld ( see f rontier m ilitary s ites i n C hapter F ive). S upplies o f s alted p ork m ay a ccount f or i ts l ow n umbers a nd a lso t he f act t hat t he s oldiers w ere p robably o btaining r equisitions f rom t he l ocal n atives. T he m iddle o f t he f irst c entury w as a t ime o f u nrest a nd a rmies w ere c onstantly o n t he m ove l eaving l ittle t ime f or s teady a gricultural p ursuit. A t L ongthorpe o nly 1 3.7% o f t he s heep w ere i mmature a nd 5 .4% o f t he c attle. T he p eak a ge o f k illing o f s heep a t H ayton w as 2 t o 3y ears a nd o f c attle 21 i t o 3y ears. A mong t he f irst c entury R oman a nd N ative s ites, 7 w ere c attle d ominated a nd 3 s heep/goat d ominated. T he m iddle a nd l ate f irst c entury d eposits a t Exeter s howed a s light i ncrease i n t he i mportance o f s heep i n t he l ater p eriod. O n o nly o ne s ite w as p ig s econd i n o rder o f i mportance, i .e. C lausentum. P ig r anged f rom 4 .9% t o 2 8.4% a nd t he W ar D itches s amples i ndicate t hat i n t he f irst c entury p ig b ecame m ore i mportant. T he F ishbourne s ample f rom t he m ilitary d epot i s u nique a mongst t he I ron A ge a nd f irst c entury d eposits s ince i ts b one s ample i s o verw helmingly p ig d ominated

( 42.8%).

c entages

( Table 2 :1).

3 8.1% a nd 3 5.9%

S heepen h as

7 0

t he s econd h ighest p er-

2 .14.1

C attle s ize

I n t he f irst c entury A .D. v ery m uch f rom t hat o f

t he m ean s ize o f c attle d id n ot d iffer

t he p re-Roman I ron A ge w here t he m ean m etacarpal

l ength r anged f rom 1 67.7 mm a t L ittle W oodbury t o

1 80.3 mm a t I vinghoe

B eacon ( Table 2 :15). T he R oman f irst c entury s ites, i ncluding S heepen f it w ell i nside t hese l imits. C atcote, a n I ron A ge s ettlement i n N ort humberland a nd S heepen i n E ssex h ave i dentical m eans e ven t hough t he s ites a re s everal h undred m iles a part. T he m ean m etacarpal l engths o f I vinghoe B eacon a nd S heepen a re n ot s ignificantly d ifferent a t t he 0 .01

l evel o f s ignificance

( using t he s tatistical S tudents t -test).

A lso t here i s n o s ignificant d ifference b etween t he m etatarsal l engths o f f irst c entury S heepen a nd p re-Roman I ron A ge B arley a t 0 .01 l evel o f s ignificance ( using S tudents t -test). B arley a nd Durrington W alls p roduced t he l ongest m etatarsals k nown i n t he I ron A ge, 2 26 a nd 2 25 mm r espectively. I ndeed t he I ron A ge c attle b ones o f D urrington W alls ( Wiltshire) a nd M ount P leasant ( Dorset) a re w ell w ithin t he N eolithic s ize r ange a nd a re l arger t han a ny o thers r ecorded. T able 2 :15 g ives t he l ength o f t he M ount P leasant r adius b eing 3 18 mm ( Harcourt 1 979a). N aturally w ith t hese s amples i t i s n ot k nown w hether o ne i s c omparing b ones o f c ows w ith c ows o r b ulls e tc. F ew w orkers h ave b een a ble t o s ex t heir c attle b ones; h owever W ilson ( 1978) p ublished d ata c oncerni ng t he w ithers h eight o f c ows f rom s everal I ron A ge s ites i n t he T hames V alley. T able 2 :16 s hows t hat t he S heepen r ange o f w ithers h eight f alls w ithin t hose f rom t he T hames s ites a nd i ndeed t he m ean o f

t he S heepen c attle i s i dentical w ith t he m ean f rom F armoor. 2 .14.2

S heep

s ize

T able 2 :17 s hows t hat t he S heepen t ibiae c .44 t o 6 1 A .D. h ave a n i dentical m ean d istal w idth t o t hose f rom t he R oman v illa o f F rocester, f irst c entury. A lthough t he I ron A ge G rimthorpe s heep a ppear l arger t han t hose f rom S heepen, t he S tudents t -test s hows n o s ignificant d ifference a t t he 0 .01 l evel. S imilarly s heep f rom W andlebury I ron A ge H ill F ort a ppear l arger but t he s ample i s t oo s mall t o i ndicate w hether t his i s s ignificant o r n ot. H owever, t he m ost i mportant f eat ure o f T able 2 :17 i s t he s ize o f t he m etatarsal b ones f rom A shville a nd A ll C annings C ross. T hese s ites d emonstrate s ome o f t he l argest I ron A ge b ones a nd i t i s n otable t hat o nly 1 0 R oman s ites o ut o f 3 1 i n T able 3 :18 h ave m easurements i n t his s ize r ange, i .e. g reater t han 1 40 1 1 1 1 1 i n t otal l ength . 2 .14.3

P ig s ize

S heepen o nly p roduced o ne m easurable b one, a t ibia o f l ength 1 74 mm t hat g ave a w ithers h eight o f 6 8.3 c m ( Teichert 1 966). T he d omestic p igs a t S heepen w ere o f a l ong l egged v ariety. 2 .14.4

H orse s ize

D uring t he I ron A ge ( Table 2 :18) p onies o f 1 0 t o 1 3 h ands c ommonly e xisted, b y t he l atter p art o f t his p eriod l arger h orses w ere b eing b red e .g . B arley ( Luff, u npubl.). T his c ould b e t he r esult o f g elding, b etter b reeding o r e ven i mports. I n f irst c entury R oman B ritain i t a ppears t hat i n s ome a reas t he p attern c ontinued a long I ron A ge l ines,

e .g.

S heepen w hile o ther s ites h ave y ielded r emains o f much l arger h orses, e .g.

F rocester 1 5.7 h ands. 7 1

I n c onclusion, r ealised

t he i mportance o f p ig a t S heepen w as o nly f ully

t hrough t he M IN m ethod,

c onsidering o ther s ites. g reater t han t hose

f or s ome o f

H owever c attle p rovided

a p oint w orth b earing i n m ind when

I n s everal p eriods

t he p ercentages w ere

t he p re-Roman I ron A ge s ites m entioned.

t he g reatest a mount o f m eat a lthough t here

n o e vidence f or d airying o n a l arge numbers t hrough t he f irst c entury.

s cale.

I ron Age c attle a nd s heep/goat were g enerally s mall a nimals, n ew e vidence s uggests b oth h orse,

t hat t here was

s heep/goat a nd c attle i n

a s

S heep/goat i ncreased i n

but

a g reater v ariation i n s ize o f t he p re-Roman P eriod.

T his c ould

p ossibly r epresent a n i nflux o f n ew b lood f rom o utside B ritain o r a n i ncrease i n b etter b reeding. I mport o f a nimals i n t he I ron Age w as n ot u nknown, T he

f allow d eer i s

t he

l ast g laciation a t t he e nd o f

i ntroduced t he s pecies i nto G aul l arge p arks

( Columella 9 .1).

t inguish f rom o ther d eer W heeler

( i.e.

t he a ntlers.

( 1932,

1 31)

t he P leistocene E poch. f rom A sia where

T rade a cross

n ot b e a n u nlikely p ossibility . m eans a re b y

T he a uthor h as

t he C hannel w ould t herefore

F allow d eer a re v ery d ifficult t o d isf rom t he b ones)

I t i s

a nd t he o nly r eliable

t herefore n ot w ithout i nterest t hat

t he

I ron Age

( 1964)

f ound t wo

l evels a t t he W ar D itches.

t entatively s uggested t hat

t he p resence o f many

t he f irst c entury S heepen d eposits w as d ue

number o f h erds.

T he R omans

f ound a s hed f allow d eer a ntler i n t he p re-Roman

p ieces o f w orked a ntler i n

i n

t he f owl.

t hey w ere k ept i n

l evels a t L ydney i n G loucestershire a nd P hillipson

c ows

e .g.

t hought t o h ave b ecome e xtinct i n B ritain d uring

t o t he i ncreased

T his i ncrease was i nitiated b y t he e mergence o f

l arge u rban markets,

a n i ntensive e xport t rade a nd a rmy r equirements.

7 2

T able 2 :1

P it G roup

B one F ragment C ount o f t he M ain D omestic S pecies - S heepen

P eriod

C attle

%

P ig

%

S heep/Goat

%

1

p recong.

3 5

4 1.2

2 5

2 9.4

2 5

2 9.4

2

4 4 t o 4 9

2 02

5 6.3

1 29

3 5.9

2 8

7 .8

3

4 9 t o 6 1

4 73

4 3.6

3 77

3 4.8

2 24

2 1.6

4

4 4 t o 5 4

1 22

4 2.4

1 15

3 9.9

5 1

1 7.7

5

4 7 t o 6 1

3 4

4 8 .6

1 7

2 4.3

1 9

2 7.1

6

5 4 t o 5 7

2 36

4 5.8

1 96

3 8.1

8 3

1 6.1

7

5 4 t o 6 1

1 283

4 7.0

7 98

2 9.2

6 51

2 3.8

8

5 7 t o 6 1

9

4 4 t o 6 1

T otal

9

1

6 33

6 2.9

2 41

2 4.0

1 32

1 3.1

3 107

5 1.7

1 714

2 8 .5

1 188

1 9.8

7 3

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9 4

( 1976).

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1 96

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C amulodunum

C HAPTER T HREE

C OLCHESTER - T he f irst t o f ifth c enturies A .D.

' ...

t hey r ebelled .

W ith t hem r ose

S ervitude h ad n ot b roken t hem,

i n R oman B ritain

t he T rinobantes a nd o thers.

a nd t hey h ad s ecretly p lotted t ogether

t o b ecome f ree a gain. T hey p articularly h ated t he R oman e x-soldiers w ho h ad r ecently e stablished a s ettlement a t C amulodunum . T he s ettlers d rove t he T rinobantes f rom t heir h omes a nd l and, a nd c alled t hem p risoners a nd s laves.' ( Tacitus, Ann. X IV, 3 1). 3 .1

T he T rinovantian l andscape C ontrary t o e arlier o pinions w hich s uggested much o f t he a rea

w as w ooded, p erceptive f ieldwork h as r evealed t hat l arge a reas o f l and w ere o pened u p i n t he p re-Roman p eriod. F or e xample, p re-Roman r ectilinear f ield s ystems h ave b een d emonstrated a t L ittle W altham w here t he R oman r oad t o B raintree c uts d iagonally a cross f ields a nd t racks l aid o ut o n t he v alley s lopes ( Drury 1 978, f ig. 7 4). R elics o f s imilar s ystems a re a lso k nown f rom B raintree i tself a nd K elvedon ( Drury e t a l. 1 976, F ig . 4 9; R odwell 1 978b, F ig. 1 1.5). I n t he R oding v alley l ong s inuous b oundaries o ccur p re-dating t he m ain R oman r oads ( Rodwell 1 978b, F ig. 1 1.8). T he m ain p rehistoric b oundary n ow e stab lished b y p arish b oundaries, t racks t he e astern watershed o f t he R oding r iver f or a bout 4 0 km . A pproximately r ectangular l and b locks a re d emarcated b y o ther p arish b oundary s ections b etween t he m ain p reh istoric b oundary a nd t he r iver. S ince t hese p re-Roman f ield d ivisions h ave s urvived, i t i s e vident t hat t he c anton was n ot t otally r eorganised a long R oman l ines a fter t he C onquest. T his i s o f i mmense i mportance i n t he l ight o f T acitus' r emarks, a nd i ndeed R odwell h as c ogently a rgued f or n ative o wnership c oncerning t he f irst c entury E ssex v illas, p articularly R ivenhall s ituated 1 0 m iles s outhwest o f C olchester . H e warns, ' We m ust b e c areful n ot t o a llow a f ew b rief b ut s tirring r emarks b y T acitus t o s trip t he s outheast o f a l and-owning n ative a ristocracy ' ( Rodwell 1 978a, 1 8). R oman l and p lanning i s a ttested i n t wo l arge a reas o f E ssex,

i n

t he T hurrock r egion a nd t he D engie p eninsula w here r ecent e xcavations a t A sheldham h ave s uggested a R oman d ate f or t he l atter f ield s ystem ( Drury a nd R odwell 1 978). T he v irtual a bsence o f v illas a nd t he e stab lishment o f R oman c oastal s alt w orkings p oints t o t hese a reas b eing p ossible I mperial e states. D rury ( 1979) has c ontrasted t hese t racts 9 7

o f p lanned R oman l andscape, which c onsists o f m ainly L ondon c lay a nd g ravel t erraces, w ith t hose o f t he l ate I ron A ge where t he l andscapes e volved o n b oulder c lay, g lacial h ills a nd t he a lluvium o f c entral E ssex. T he f ormer w ould b e s uitable f or p asture a nd i ndeed R odwell ( 1979, 1 65) m entioned t hat s heep a nd c attle b ones h ad b een f ound i n t he R ed H ills, r elics o f c oastal s alt w orkings, a lbeit i n s mall n umbers T he i nteresting p oint h ere i s t hat s ome o f t he f aunal a ssemblages c ont ained o nly n on m eat b earing b ones, t hat i s s kulls a nd f oot b ones. P ossibly c arcasses w ere p repared a nd s alted, t o b e t ransported i nland l ater. A lso f ish c ould h ave b een e xploited a s w ell, s ince a h igh p remium w as s et o n s alt f ish i n t he R oman w orld. A lthough t he T hurrock a nd D engie a reas e vinced n o e vidence o f R oman c enturiation, a erial r econnaissance h as s uggested i ts o ccurrence i n t he v icinity o f C olchester n ear G osbecks ( G.D.B. J ones 1 979, F ig .1). T he L ondon r oad w as s hown t o c ontinue n orth e ast t o F ordham H eath a nd a p reviously u nknown r oad r an a long a p arallel a xis s outh w est - n orth e ast t o a p osition c lose t o t he G osbecks t ribal c entre. T he d istance b etween t he t wo r oads was 3 x 2 0 R oman a ctus ( actus E 7 10 m a nd 2 0 a ctus d ivisions a re s tandard m ajor c enturiation u nits). J ones c laims t hat t his i s e vidence f or p re-Boudican l and e xpropriation i n t he T rinovantian a rea. H e b ases h is a rgument o n a n e xtract f rom T acitus s tating t he R oman c olony w as f ound o n ' agros c aptivos' ( Tacitus, A nn . X II, 3 2). H owever R ichmond ( 1946, 6 1) p ointed o ut t hat t he a grimens ores d id n ot o rganise l and f rom w hich e nemies h ad b een d riven. H e m aintained a R oman m ight t herefore t ake a s m uch a s h e p leased o f t his t erritory, t hus e mphasising T acitus' r emarks a t t he b eginning o f t his c hapter. I t i s p ossible t hat t his p attern o f s o c alled c enturiation o ccurred a fter t he B oudican r evolt, c oincident w ith t he s evere r epris als o f S uetonius P aulinus. C ertainly T acitus s hould n ot b e t reated a s a n a bsolutely r eliable s ource. F urther e vidence o f l and o wnership m ight b e s ought f rom v illas i n t he e nvirons o f C olchester b ut s carcely a ny w ork h as b een a ccomp lished w ith t he v iew t o i nterpreting t he v illa p lans a nd s tratigraphy. S o whether t his p attern o f l and u se i s p re o r p ost B oudican r emains a m oot p oint.

( Boudica h as b een s pelt a fter J ackson 1 979,

2 55.)

A n a ttempt a t a ssessing t he t erritoria a round C olchester w as m ade b y R odwell ( 1975). H owever t his w as h ampered s ince n o s ecure p oints c ould b e p lotted n orth a nd s outh o f t he c olonia.

R odwell

( 1975,

s ee

F ig. 2 ) i ndicates t hat t he b oundary t o t he w est a nd s outhwest p robably l ay s omewhere i nside t he m iddle d yke s ystem , t hat i s t he T riple d yke. 3 .2

T he R omano-British p opulation

I n C hapter T wo, s ection 2 .6, i t w as s uggested t hat t he l ate I ron A ge p opulation h ad i ncreased q uite d ramatically f or a n umber o f r easons. S ome l ogical a rguments h ave r ecently b een p roposed f or t he i ncrease i n p opulation o f t he R omano-Britons

( M.E.

J ones 1 979).

H ygiene h as b een

c ited a s h aving a v ital e ffect o n m ortality e specially i n t he u rban c ontext w ith f requent b athing e liminating l ice a nd f leas, known c arriers o f t yphus a nd p lague. F urther, J ones p oints o ut t hat e nvironm ental c onditions c an a ffect t he p otency o f s ome d iseases; i s a n i mportant c onsideration.

9 8

t hus c limate

D uring t he R oman R epublic a nd E mpire, t he I talian a nd E uropean c limate w as b ecoming w armer. C irca 5 00 B .C. t he c limate h ad b een c older

t han t he p resent d ay,

b ut b y t he f ourth c entury A .D.

i t m ay

h ave b een w armer t han n ow. I n t he f ourth c entury A .D. t he v ine w as c ultivated i n P aris a nd p ossibly i n a f ew p laces i n t he s outh o f E ngland. I n c entral a nd n orth w est E urope a f ew w inters w ere m arked b y t heir s evere f rosts, A .D. 1 34, 1 73, 2 07, 2 21 a nd 2 31. H owever v ery s evere f rosts w ere n ot d istinguished u ntil b etween A .D. 3 59 a nd 5 65 ( Lamb 1 977, 4 25). I n t he c ase o f R oman B ritain c limate w as f avourable f or a gricult ure a nd t hus p opulation g rowth. A lso g ood d rainage, t he o rganisation o f p rovincial a nd c antonal a dministration, a bility f or m ovement o f r esources, a nd s torage o f t axes p aid i n k ind t o I mperial g ranaries ( thus a llowing r esources f or a ny c alamities), m ade c onditions c onducive t o a n i ncrease i n p opulation. F rere

( 1978,

2 96)

s uggested a p opulation o f c .

2m illion a t t he

e nd o f t he s econd c entury A .D. F rom a c onsideration o f l iterary a nd b otanical e vidence, t ogether w ith s ettlement p atterns, J ones c oncludes t hat a t i ts p eak t he R omano-British p opulation w as b etween 3 t o 4 m illion p eople ( I 4 .E. J ones 1 979). A s imilar e stimate o f 4m illion w as m ade b y F owler

( 1978,

7 ), who

maintained t hat t here w as a r elatively s teep r ise i n t he p opulation g rowth b etween 1 000 B .C. a nd t he f irst c entury A .D. I t i s r elevant t o r eiterate h is c omments: ' The l and-scape i mplications o f t his i n t erms o f s ettlement p atterns a nd t ypes, o f t erritorial a rrangements, o f f ood p roduction a nd o f c ulture c ontact i n A tkinson 's s ense h ave n ot y et r eceived t he a ttention t hey d eserve b ut t hey w ere s urely c ons iderable.' 3 .3

T he B alkerne L ane d eposits a t C olchester

R oman a nimal b one was e xamined f rom s ite E a t B alkerne L ane. T his s ite i s c omprised o f 6 p eriods o f o ccupation which a re d escribed a s f ollows. ( see F ig. 2 :1, p . 2 7) P eriod 1 . 4 3-49 A .D. T his i s c ontemporary w ith t he l egionary f ortress a nd c onsists o f a c ivil s ettlement o utside t he m ilitary d efences. P eriod 2 .

4 9-60/61 A .D.

I n t his p eriod t he C olonia w as f ounded

c . 4 9 a nd t he l egionary r ampart a nd d itch w ere l evelled. L ater i n 6 0/61, h ouses f ronting t he t own 's w estern r oad w ere b urnt. P eriod P eriod P eriod P eriod

3 . 4 . 5 . 6 .

6 0/61 c . 7 5 e arly t hird

- c . 7 5 A .D. t o e arly s econd c entury A .D. s econd c entury t o t hird c entury A .D. c entury t o f ourth c entury A .D.

P hilip C rummy h as d escribed a nd s ummarised t his s equence o f d evelopments i n B ritannia 1 977, 9 5. A l arge p roportion o f t he P eriod 1 a nd 2 b ones c ame f rom t he L egionary D itch a nd f rom p its d ug a long i ts e dge. I n t he B ritannia a rticle, C rummy i ndicated t hat t he r emains e xcavated f rom s ite E ,

P eriod 1 a nd 2 ,

c ould b e c ompared f avourably

w ith t hose r ecovered b y H awkes a nd H ull a t C amulodunum ,

9 9

t he t ype o f

o ccupation a t b oth p laces p robably b eing t he s ame.

H owever t he a nimal

b one e vidence f rom N iblett's e xcavations a t S heepen ( Chapter T wo) s uggests t he n ature o f o ccupation was p ossibly q uite d ifferent a nd f or t his r eason b oth s ites w ill b e c ontrasted a nd c ompared t ogether i n t his c hapter. D eposits o f b one f rom l ater p eriods e manated f rom r easonably s ecurely d ated f eatures, t hat i s l arge p it a nd d itch g roups. I n c ons idering d eposits o f b one f rom a n u rban c ontext, n obody h as f ully d ealt w ith t he m ajor p roblem o f r esidual m aterial. O ne w ay o f t esting w hether a n a ssemblage c ontains much r esidual b one i s t o e xpress t he n umber o f l oose t eeth p er s pecies a s a p ercentage o f t he t otal n umber o f b ones. I f t he p ercentage i s g reater t han 5 0% o ne c an s uspect a h igh l evel o f c ontamination. O n t his b asis t he d eposits f rom B alkerne L ane d o n ot a ppear t o s how a h igh l evel o f r esidual b one. T he b one a ssemblages b elonging t o P eriod 1 w ill b e r eferred t o a s G roup 1 d epos its, t hose o f P eriod 2 , G roup 2 e tc. H enceforth, B alkerne L ane w ill b e a bbreviated t o B KC. 3 .4

B one f ragment c ount Animal b one f ragments n umbering 5 ,141 w ere a nalysed f rom t he

B alkerne L ane s ite E , t he s pecies i ncluding c attle, s heep, g oat, p ig, h orse, d og, c at, r ed d eer, r oe d eer, h are, f ox a nd a v ariety o f b irds. A f ragmentation a nalysis o f b one r easonable l evel o f r ecovery.

( section 1 .2.1; F ig.

3 :1)

s howed a

A ll t he g roups s how t hat c attle a re b y f ar t he m ost i mportant s pecies ( Table 3 :1). H owever, i t h as b een c laimed t hat t he e arly c anabae d eposits o f s ite E , t hat i s P eriod 1 , c ontained l arge n umbers o f o x s capulae t hat w ere p ossibly u sed a s s hovels o r s coops ( Crummy 1 977, 7 5). 3 .4.1

U se o f o x s capulae a s s hovels/scoops

P revious r esearchers h ave d eclared o n t he b asis o f e xtremely t enuous e vidence t hat R omano-British o x s capulae h ave b een u sed a s s hovels o r s coops, e .g. J ackson ( 1947, 3 51) w ith 2 s capulae f rom C amulodunum , N oddle ( 1974, 7 6) w ith s capulae f rom S egontium a nd M arples ( 1974, 1 23) w ith 1 3 s capulae f rom L ongthorpe. I n t hese c ases o nly t he b utchery p attern h as b een o bserved a nd n ot t he w ear p attern o n t he b lade. I ndeed, R ees ( 1979, 3 19) s tipulates t hat i t i s t he w ear m arks a long t he b lade a nd t he b ack o f t he b one, w hich must b e t he d eciding f actor i n i nterpreting t he t ool's f unction. S he m aintains t hat s he h as o nly f ound o ne s capula w ith p olish, s haped s capula f rom C orbridge.

a nd a l ittle w ear,

t hat i s,

a

T he 1 49 s capulae f rom t he B KC s ite E g roup 1 d eposits d o n ot g ive a ny c onclusive e vidence t hat t hey w ere e ver u sed a s t ools. T he b utchery p attern i s r easonably u niform a cross a ll t he s ite E p eriods

( see s ection

3 .5). I n f act i f t he a uthor w as t o i nterpret t hese b ones a s t ools, p urely o n b utchery e vidence, t hen i t w ould h ave t o b e s aid t hat m ost R omano-British s capulae w ere u tilised a s s hovels o r s coops. A nnie G rant c oncluded t hat t he m arks o n t he P ortchester s capulae h ad r esulted f rom b utchery a nd n ot t ooling

( see M arples 1 974).

1 00

HISTOGRAM

OF

UNIDENTIFIABLE

( AFTER WATSON

1972

BONE

FRAGMENTS

) FIG.

3 00

250

FREQUENCY

200

150

100

_

50

0

2

4

6

LENGTH

1 01

( cm)

8

10

3 :1

I t i s d ifficult t o i magine s capulae e ver b eing u sed o n a l arge s cale,

D own,

s ince w ooden s hovels w ould h ave b een s uch a v ast i mprovement.

I n t he c onstruction o f t he e xperimental e arthwork o n O verton W iltshire, w orkers w ere g iven t he c hoice o f u sing o x o r h orse

s capulae ( Dimbleby a nd J ewell 1 966, 5 1). H orse s capulae w ere p ref erred b ecause o f t heir a natomy, b ut s capulae i n g eneral w ere f ound t o b e i nefficient t ools, n ot v ery g ood a s s hovels, s lightly b etter a s s crapers. I n c onclusion t he s capula w as m ost i nefficient c ompared w ith a w ooden s hovel. T he d istribution o f w ooden s pades i n t he p re-Roman a nd R oman p eriod c an n ever b e k nown w ith c ertainty d ue t o p oor p reservation c onditions. I ron s pades w ere n ot c ommon i n t he p re-Roman I ron A ge b ut t here a re m any e xamples o f R omano-British i ron s pade s hoes. I n f act, t he e arliest s ecurely d ated e xamples a re a p air f rom C olchester d ated t o t he 4 0 's A .D., f rom a m ilitary c ontext ( Rees 1 979, 3 26). I n t his c onnection,

i t w ould s urely b e

t o t he a dvantage o f t he a rmy i tself

t o i ssue o r i nstruct t he g eneral p opulace c oncerning i ron-tipped s pades. W ood w ould h ave b een l ocally a vailable a nd i ron i tself w as n ot i n s hort s upply a s M anning r elates, ' Clearly t he r equirements o f t he y ears f ollowing t he c onquest w ill h ave i ncreased b y l eaps a nd b ounds, a nd t he s heer q uantity o f d iscarded s crap m etal f ound o n s ites o f t his p eriod makes i t c lear t hat t his d emand w as s atisfied a nd t he v alue o f t he m etal w as s o l ow t hat s mall p ieces w ere r arely w orth t he t rouble o f r eforging.' ( Manning 1 979, 1 16). B efore a ny o f t he C olchester a nd S heepen s ites c an b e c ompared, i t i s n ecessary t o d escribe d ifferences i n b utchery t echnique b etween t he s ites, s ince t his c ould a ffect t he n umber o f b one f ragments r ec overed ( section 2 .3). 3 .5

B utchery

I n t his s ection, t he a uthor w ill o utline t he b utchery o f t he T rinovantian c ow while p ointing o ut d ifferences o f t echnique b etween t he S heepen a nd B alkerne L ane b one a ssemblages o f 4 4 t o 6 1 A .D. T ables 2 :3 a nd 3 :2 w ill b e u sed i n t his c onnection. F rom T ables 2 :2 a nd 3 :3, i t i s a pparent t hat a nimals w ere l ed i n o n t he h oof f or s laughter, t hat i s a t S heepen a nd C olchester. C attle w ere k illed o n b oth s ites b y p ole-axing t hrough t he f rontal b one. P ole-axed c ow s kulls h ave b een f ound a t C orstopitum , P ortchester.

G odmanchester,

S cole a nd

A fter s laughtering t he c attle, t he f irst s tep i n b utchering w as h ide r emoval. E vidence o f s kinning w as d ifficult t o f ind, t he S heepen m etapodials e xhibited k nife c uts t o

t hat e ffect

( section 2 .3.1), b ut

n o c lear e vidence w as f ound o n t he C olchester b ones.

T he c uts o n t he

m etapodials w ould h ave r esulted f rom t he h ide b eing c ut a round b oth t he f ront a nd h ind l egs w ith a s harp i mplement. N o d ifferences i n m etapoaial b utchery c ould b e s een, b oth s ites s howing s imilar b reakage. I t i s n ot o bvious whether t he h ead w ould h ave b een r emoved f rom t he c arcass b efore o r a fter s kinning. B one g roups 2 - 4 o f B KC s ite E c ontained f airly h igh n umbers o f v ery s mall s kull f ragments. I t i s a pposite

t o n ote

t hat w ith t he R udston v illa m aterial C haplin a nd

1 02

B arnetson

( 1980) p roposed t hat t he s carcity o f s kull f ragments a nd

m andibles

( sheep,

c attle a nd p igs)

i n c ontrast t o

t he a bundance o f

t eeth w as d ue t o t he p rocessing o f t he s kulls, p ossibly b y b oiling. T he p rocessing c ould h ave p rovided f ood f or h umans a nd d ogs a s w ell a s p roviding f at a nd g elatin. T he s carcity o f t eeth i ndicates t hat t his p ractice w as n ot f ollowed o n t he r emaining E ssex s ites u nder c onsideration; h owever i t d oes p oint o ut t he u sefulness o f t he h ead a s a f ood i tem . I ndeed t he h ead o f a c ow p rovides a f air p roportion o f m eat. T his w ould b e i n t he f orm o f c heek m eat ( masseter muscle), b rain a nd t ongue. B efore t he masseter muscles c ould b e r etrieved, t he m andibles h ad t o b e r emoved;

o n a ll t he s ites

t he m andibles w ere v ery much b roken u p,

t he

m ain l ines o f b reakage o ccurring t ransversely a cross t he d iastemata a nd a cross t he a ngle o f t he r amus. I t w as c ommon p ractice t o c hop l oose t he v entral b order o f t he mandible i n p igs but n ot i n c attle; t his e nabled a ccess t o t he marrow c avity . T he h ead w as r emoved b y e ither s evering t he n eck b etween t he a tlas a nd o ccipital c ondyles o f t he s kull o r m ore o ften t he f irst t wo n eck v ertebrae, t he a tlas a nd a xis, w ere c hopped t ransversely i n s ome f ashion. T he f ormer m ethod r evealed n icks o n t he s uperior s urfaces o f t he o ccipital c ondyles while t he l atter m ethod i nvolved a v ariety o f t ransverse a nd s agittal c hopmarks o n t he v entral a nd d orsal s urf aces o f t he v ertebrae. A fter t he h ead w as r emoved c arcasses w ere n ot s plit i nto t wo s ides v ia s agittal chopping t hrough t he v ertebral c olumn. D ifferent k inds o f v ertebrae f rom a ll s ites r evealed s ome l ateral t rimming w ith o ccasional v entral a nd t ransverse c hopping . T he s acrum h owever, d id r eveal m id-line b reakage t ogether w ith l ateral t rimming. T he l ow o ccurrence o f c audal v ertebrae m ight b e a ccounted f or b y t heir r emoval w ith t he h ide d uring s kinning. P robably t he f ore a nd h ind f oot b ones w ere n ext r emoved. I n t he c ase o f t he h ind f oot, t hat i s t he h ock j oint, t he c alcaneum s howed a s imilar t rend i n b utchery f or m ost s ites, t hat i s, i ts d istal p rojection h ad b een c hopped o ff. T he a nterior p art o f t he a stragalus r evealed s ome t ransverse m arks b ut n ot o n t he p art c overed b y t he t ibia, t hus i t w ould a ppear, i n m any c ases, t his j oint w as n ot f lexed a t t he t ime o f b utchery. R egarding t he c arpal j oint, a l ack o f c arpal b ones p revented a n a ccurate a ssessment o f b reakage. B oth j oints r evealed b reakages i n t he m etapodial b ones a f ew c entimetres b elow t he j oint. T he d istal e xtremities o f t he t ibiae a nd r adii w ere c hopped c lose t o

t he e piphyses i n many c ases.

A s w ith

t he h ead, t his w as n ot a p art o f t he b ody n ecessarily d iscarded. C haplin ( 1965, 1 93) c ommented i n h is w ork o n H adrian 's W all, ' foot b ones w hich a lthough n ot a j oint c ommonly e aten t oday, w ould n everthel ess p rovide b ody f or a s tew.' I n r emoving t he f orelimb,

t he C olchester s houlder j oint w as

f requently b roken b y c hops t hrough t he s upraglenoid t uber o f t he s capula c ostal s urface; v ery r arely i s t he s capula b roken a cross i ts n eck ( Table 3 :2). T his b utchery m ethod w as p erformed n ot o nly o n t he B KC

s ite E g roup 1 b ones b ut a lso g roups 2 a nd 4 .

Q uite o ften t he

s pine i s b roken a lso b ut t his c ould b e d ue t o i ts r elative f ragility . H owever t he S heepen s capulae s how q uite d ifferent b utchery m ethods i n t hat a pproximately 5 0% h ave b een c hopped a cross

1 03

t he n eck

( Table 2 :3).

B KC s ite E , g roup 6 s hows s imilarities t o B KC s ite E , g roups 1 a nd 2 . T he f ew p roximal h umeri e xhibit c hops t hrough t he m edial a nd l ateral t uberosities b ut a gain t here w ere d ifferences b etween S heepen a nd C olchester.

A t B KC s ite E ,

g roups 1 a nd 2 e xhibited m uch m ore d istal

q uartering o f t he b one t han t hose o f S heepen w here t here a ppeared m any m ore i ntact s hafts a nd d istal e piphyses ( Tables 2 :3 a nd 3 :2). E lbow j oint b reakage a t b oth C olchester a nd S heepen w as a chieved v ia c hops t hrough t he o lecranon f ossa a bove t he d istal h umerus e pip hysis. W hen t he b reakage o f t he r adius i s c ompared b etween t he S heepen g roup a nd B KC s ite E g roups 1 a nd 2 , a s w ith t he h umerus, t he C olchester r adii a re m uch m ore c hopped u p. T he p roximal a nd d istal e piphyses a re c hopped i n h alf a ntero-posteriorly whereas a t S heepen t here w ere a l arge n umber o f i ntact p roximal a nd d istal e lements. N o p elves w ere f ound i ntact, t he a cetabulum . I n s ome i nstances,

a ll w ere c hopped u p m ainly t hrough

t he r im o f t he a cetabulum h ad b een s haved i n

s eparating t he p roximal f emur f rom t he s ocket. A ll t he b one g roups f /om b oth S heepen a nd C olchester r evealed a h igh p roportion o f c hopped u p s hafts t ogether w ith t he d istal e xtremity. I n t he c ase o f t he t ibia t he S heepen g roups h ad t he p roximal p ortion d ivided i nto t wo a ntero-posteriorly a nd m any d istal e piphyses h ad b een h alved. A t C olchester, p articularly t he g roup 1 d eposits, d istal h alving o f t he t ibia a ntero-posteriorly w as m ore c ommon. M etapodial b ones f rom a ll p eriods w ere c ommonly c hopped a cross t he s haft t hough t he p roximal a nd d istal e xtremities w ere m ostly l eft i ntact. I n c onclusion, t he B alkerne L ane b one g roup d eposits, p articularly g roups 1 a nd 2 , i n c ontrast t o S heepen , r eveal a much m ore i ntensive p rogram o f h alving a nd q uartering t he p roximal a nd d istal l ong b one e xtremities, p ossibly f or s tews a nd s oups. A s imilar f inding o ccurred i n t he v ici o utside t he F orts a t L ancaster ( Potts 1 974) a nd Z wammerdam ( van M ensch 1 974). S aws w ere n ot u sed t o c ut u p a ny o f t he d omestic a nimal b ones. H owever, t hey w ere u sed o n a ntlers a s w as a lso o bserved a t T histleton a nd G adebridge P ark T he p ig,

( Harcourt 1 974).

s heep a nd g oat h ave m uch s maller b ones t han t he c ow a nd

h ardly a ny d ifferences i n b utchery p ractice w ere f ound b etween t he b one g roups o f S heepen a nd B alkerne L ane s ite E .

T hus u nlike t he c ow ,

a d etailed a nalysis o f b utchery w as n ot t hought n ecessary a t t his s tage. 3 .6

A c omparison o f t he b one f ragment c ount f or S heepen a nd C olchester C learly t he d ifferences b etween B KC s ite E a nd S heepen c annot b e

, wholly e xplained b y e nvironmental s ection 2 .1 a re c .

f actors.

T he s ites a s d escribed i n

1 .6 km a part a nd i t i s v ery l ikely t hat t heir f ood

s upplies c ame f rom s imilar l ocal s ources. M anning h as a rgued c onv incingly t hat m ilitary s ites o f t he H ighland Z one o btained a l arge p art o f t heir n eeds f rom l ocal a griculture Manning 1 975, 1 12).

1 04

O ne m ajor b ias a ffecting t he c omparison o f d escribed i n t he p revious s ection.

t hese s ites h as b een

A n a ttempt t o o vercome

t his

d ifficulty w as m ade b y o nly c ounting t he m edial p ortion o f t he C olc hester e piphyses. H owever q uartering o f t he b ones r endered t his e xtremely d ifficult. T hus a t S heepen,

c attle r emains a re much f ewer i n n umber t han a t

B KC s ite E , p ig i s m uch m ore i mportant while s heep a re s carcer i n P eriod 2 b ut b ecome m ore f requent i n P eriod 3 ( Tables 2 :1 a nd 3 :1). A t B KC s ite E n o c hange i s v isible b etween t he g roup 1 a nd 2 b one d eposits. H owever c hanges a re a pparent a t S heepen w ith g roups 2a nd 3 , t he i ncrease o f s heep a lready m entioned a nd d ecrease o f c attle, t he p ig l evels r emaining c onstant. A rchaeological e vidence a t S heepen i ndicates t hat s emi-military n on-native m etalsmiths w ere w orking u nder m ilitary a uspices. A c omp aratively h igh s tandard o f l iving w as i ndicated b y t he a bundant S amian ware, f ine g lassware, c oins a nd s mall b ronzes. T wo g old-plated b ronze r ings, t wo b ronze d ice, a b ronze d ice s haker a nd f ine c ameo w ere f ound i n b uilding I V o n s ite I II

( Niblett, p rivate c ommunication).

S mithying w as o ne o f t he o ccupations c arried o ut a t t he s ite E C anabae. T he s ite E b uildings w ere r ather i nsubstantial, m ade o ut o f w attle a nd d aub, t hus r ebuilding w as v ery f requent. A l ow s tandard o f i nterior d ecoration w as e videnced b y a bsence o f w all p laster a nd v ery f ew r emains o f r oofing-tiles. T he p re-Boudican c olonial b uildings w ere i nferior t o t hose o f L ion W alk. T hese b uildings w ere s ituated o n t he C olchester-London r oad a nd h ad t imber f rames. T hus i t w ould b e r easonable t o s uppose t hat s ocial d ifferences b etween t he t wo s ites c ould h ave a ffected t he d iet o f t he i nhabitants. T he p ercentage o f p ig r emained s imilar i n P eriods 1 a nd 2 a t S heepen ( groups 2 a nd 3 ) e ven a lthough t he C olonia w as e stablished i n c . 4 9. S ince t here i s n o n atural b uilding s tone i n t he a rea a n e norm ous a mount o f w ood m ust h ave b een c onsumed i n s etting u p t he n ew C olonia. H ence t he s ignificance o f t he p ig o n t he S heepen s ite t hus e mphasising t he h igher s ocial s tatus o f t his s ite. I n s ection 2 :14 t he s ite w ith t he c losest p ercentage o f p ig t o S heepen w as F ishbourne. T he p ost-Boudican s ites a t B alkerne L ane s how a d ecrease i n p ig w ith i ts n umbers i ncreasing f rom t he t hird c entury o nwards. S heep/goat a ppear m ore i mportant i n t he l ate R oman P eriod. C attle p ercentages r emain s imilar u p u ntil c . 7 5 A .D. when t here i s a d ramatic i ncrease a t t he e xpense o f s heep/goat a nd p ig. I ts n umbers d windle f rom t he s econd c entury o nwards a s 3 .7

s heep/goat i ncreases.

M inimum number o f a nimals o f

t he m ain d omestic s pecies

F igure 3 :2 i ndicates a l ower l imit f or t he n umber o f b one f ragm ents b elow w hich a c omparison w ith M IN i s n ot v alid.

T his c oncept

w as e xplained i n s ection 1 .2.4. A t S heepen t he i mportance o f p ig w as s trongly r ealised t hrough a pplication o f t he M IN m ethod ( section 2 .4). S ince c omparisons o f b one g roups f rom t he B alkerne L ane w ere n ot v alid b elow a bout 1 50

1 05

MI N/E

0

N J 0

0

0

Ui

0

JO

HdVUD

0

H/NIW

0 0

H ISNIVDV

N . ) 0 0

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_

0 0

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0 0

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0 0

OF

LD

BONE

0 0

FRAGMENTS.

0 0 0

106

f ragments, g roups 2 , 4 a nd 5 f rom s ite E c ould n ot b e u sed. A part f rom g roup 1 t he r emaining g roups i n T able 3 :4 d id n ot d igress g reatly f rom t hose o f T able 3 :1. A s c attle s capulae c ompletely d ominate t he g roup 1 s ample e lement, g roup 1 ,

i t w as

t hought p referable

t o u se t he n ext m ost c ommon

t he m andible. T hus t he i mportance o f c attle i s d iminished i n s o i ncreasing t he l evels o f s heep/goat a nd p ig.

I t i s s ensible t o t reat t hese p ercentages i n t he s ense o f b eing r elative a nd n ot a bsolute. I n t he r elative a ssessment o f m eat p otent ial ( Table 3 :5), c attle a re b y f ar t he m ost i mportant s pecies ( see s ection 2 .4 f or e xplanation o f c alculation). 3 .8

T he f requency o f s keletal e lements p er s pecies

3 .8.1

C attle

I n T able 3 :3 t he b one g roups w ith t he h ighest p ercentages o f s capulae a re B KC s ite E g roups 1 a nd 2 ; i ndeed s capulae a re t he m ost f requently o ccurring e lements i n t hose p articular g roups. A lso i f t hese B KC g roups a re c ompared w ith S heepen g roups o f t he s ame p eriod ( Table 2 :2)

t hen q uite d ifferent c onfigurations a re a pparent.

T he l arge p ercentage o f s capulae i n a p oor v icus s ettlement o uts ide a f ort i s p uzzling. b one.

T he s capula i s a n i mportant m eat b earing

S ome i lluminating r esults h ave b een o btained c oncerning t he

s patial d istribution o f b one o n Dutch R oman m ilitary s ites ( van M ensch a nd I jzereef 1 977a). T he i nterior o f t he V alkenburg a nd Z wammerdam f orts b oth r evealed l arge n umbers o f s houlder b lades w hile t he v icus o utside t he Z wammerdam f ort e xhibited l arge n umbers o f w ell c hopped u p l ong b one. A lso t he R hine C hannel n ear Z wammerdam a cted a s a d eposit f or o ffal, i n p articular p elvis a nd s pine f ragments. I t c annot b e e ntirely e liminated t herefore

t hat t he B KC s ite E

g roup 1 s capulae h ave n ot c ome f rom t he C olchester f ortress, s ince t he l egionary d itch w as l ocated a t B alkerne L ane o ver a d istance o f 1 38 m etres a nd a l arge p roportion o f s capulae w ere f ound i n i t. C onversely t he c hopped u p b one c ompares w ell w ith t he v ici a t L ancaster a nd Z wammerdam . B KC s ite E g roup 1 d eposits h ave a h igher p roportion o f m eat b earing t o n on-meat b earing b ones a s c ompared t o S heepen. g roup 2 d eposits p rove

H owever t he

t he r everse.

B one f ragment r atio o f m eat b earing t o n on m eat b earing b ones i n c attle f ore l imb ( humerus/radius : m etacarpal) B KC S ite E S heepen

G roup G roup

1 2

7 .4 0 .4

G roup 2 G roup

3

h ind l imb ( femur/tibia : m etatarsal)

:1 : 1

2 .7 0 .5

: 1 : 1

2 .6

:1

0 .9

: 1

2 .4

:1

0 .7

:1

1 07

3 .8.2

S heep/goat

U nlike t he c attle r emains f rom B KC s ite E g roup 1 , t he s heep e xhibit a f airly h igh p roportion o f w aste b ones, t hat i s, n on m eat b earing m andibles, p halanges a nd m etapodials. T his i s a lso e vident f or t he g roup 3 b ones. F rom t he t hird t o f ourth c entury o nwards, m ore m eat b earing b ones o f t he f orelimb a re a pparent T his c an b e s ummarised i n t he f ollowing t able.

( Table 3 :3).

B one f ragment r atio o f m eat b earing t o n on m eat b earing b ones i n s heep/goat f ore l imb ( humerus/radius

h ind l imb

:m etacarpal)

( femur/tibia

:m etatarsal)

G roup 1

0 .7

:1

1 .1

:1

3 6

0 .5 3 .8

:1 : 1

0 .2 0 .1

:1 :1

3 .8.3

P ig

I n a c onsideration o f T able 3 :3, g roups 3 a nd 6 s how a s triking n umber o f m etapodial b ones. A lso g roups 3 a nd 6 e xhibit t he h ighest p ercentages o f s kull f ragments, n eck v ertebrae w ere t otally a bsent f rom g roup 3 , o ne a tlas w as p resent i n g roup 6 . P ig t rotters w ere a f avourite d ish d uring a ll p eriods o f o ccupation a t B alkerne L ane. B one a rtefacts b elonging t o t he a t B utt R oad, C olchester a nd s uggest C rummy, p rivate c ommunication). T he l ong b ones; t he s capula o f a n o x a nd

f ourth c entury h ave b een f ound a p ossible w orkshop n earby ( Nina b one o riginated f rom o x a nd h orse t he p elvic g irdle o f a p ig w ere

p ositively i dentified b y t he a uthor. B ones l ow i n n umber o r a bsent i n T able 3 :3 c ould w ell r epresent i tems u sed i n t he b one i ndustry, f or i nstance, t he a bsence o f c attle p roximal-metacarpal b ones f rom g roup 4 , s ite E . 3 .9

T he C olchester c attle T he e arly i nhabitants o f C olchester m ainly a te m ature b eef,

4y ears o ld

( Fig.

3 :3).

3 t o

Y ounger a nimals w ere a lso c onsumed a t t he

a ge o f 1 8 m onths t o 3y ears o ld. M odern a geing d ata w as u sed s ince t he t ooth e ruption s equence f ollowed t hat p attern ( Silver 1 969) a nd f or t he r easons g iven i n s ection 1 .2.8 . T hese p articular m andibles, 3 8 i n n umber, w ere r ecovered f rom t he L egionary D itch a t t he B alkerne L ane s ite E . T he r esults d irectly c ontradict t hose o btained f rom S heepen w here t he c attle w ere s laughtered a t a n a dvanced a ge ( Fig. 2 :13). G rant 's a geing m ethod ( Grant 1 975) w as u sed i n o rder t o c ompare t he t wo s ites, t he c omparison b eing v alid s ince t he m andibles c ame f rom t he s ame e nv ironment. V ery f ew m andibles w ere a vailable f or a geing f rom B KC s ite E g roups 2 t o 5 . H owever t he n umber o f u nfused e piphysial b ones w as l ow i n a ll t he p eriods o f o ccupation.

1 08

AFTER

OF

GRANT

HISTOGRAM

1975)

MANDIBLE

FREQUENCY

AGAINST

AGE

USING

TEETH

S 'ZS

S ' OS S ' 8 1 7

S 'Ot 7

S '8E 1 > 1 -

S '9£

S ' N

0

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1 09

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PATTERNS

T he s ex o f t he a nimal b ones w as i nvestigated f rom s ite E , g roups 1 a nd 2 u sing t he m ethods o f H igham , a s d escribed i n s ections 1 .2.6. F ig. 3 :4 d oes n ot s how a c lear s eparation. W hen t he i ndices o f H oward a re a pplied ( section 1 .2.6 a nd T able 3 :6), i t i s p ossible t hat t he m ajority o f p oints i n t he l ower l eft h and c orner b elong t o f emales; o ne p oint i n t he m iddle o f t he g raph, C , i s a n i ndeterminate c astrate/ f emale. U sing s lightly d ifferent m easurements i n F ig. 3 :5 a s imilar p icture i s a pparent, w ith a p reponderance o f f emales i n t he l ower l eft h and c orner. I dentical m easurements o n t he m etatarsal b one ( Figs. 3 :6 a nd 3 :7) a nd t he a pplication o f H oward 's i ndices ( Table 3 :6) p roduced c omparable r esults, s howing a g reater n umber o f f emales a s o pposed t o m ales/castrates. P roximal w idth a nd p roximal a rticulatory w idth m easurements d id n ot e nable a s exual s eparation f or t he f irst f orephalanx ( Fig. 3 :8). A nalysis o f t he 6 1 A .D.

S heepen c attle f rom t he s ame p eriod c irca 4 3/44-

p roduced s imilar r esults.

S ome r esearchers h ave c laimed t hat

a g reater n umber o f c ows o ver c astrates s hould b e e xpected, s ince m ales w ere k illed a t a y ounger a ge ( Maltby 1 979, 3 4). H owever, s ince t he n umber o f u nfused m etapodials i s e xceedingly l ow o n b oth s ites a nd t he l evel o f r ecovery o f i mmature b one h igh t hen t he f ollowing a ssumpt ion c an b e m ade. I f t he m ajority o f m andibles o n b oth s ites a re o lder t han t hree y ears, t he m etapodials which f inally f use b etween t wo a nd t hree y ears p resumably r eflect t he s ex o f t he s ample. T he v ital p oint n ow t o c onsider,

i s w hy t wo s ites w ith d ifferent

b ovine a ge s tructures s how a p reponderance o f f emales. A b old h ypot hesis w as p ropounded i n s ection 2 .6 f or t he S heepen s ite, w hich w as t hat t he v ast i ncrease o f p opulation n ecessitated a n e quivalent i ncrease i n t he c attle h erd s tructure. A f urther p oint i n c onnection w ith t his i s t hat a f airly h igh s tandard o f l iving w as e njoyed b y t he S heepen i nhabitants.

S urely i f y oung t ender b eef w as r eadily a vailable t hen

i t w ould h ave b een p urchased o r r equisitioned. A lso i f m ales a nd f emales w ere b orn i n e qual n umbers, t hen t here must h ave b een a r easona ble n umber o f m ales/castrates a vailable - j ust w here w ere t hey s ent? I t i s p ossible t hat t hese a nimals w ere t he o nes b eing e xported ( live) a s S trabo d escribes i n t he f irst c entury A .D. ( opening q uotation o f C hapter T wo).

T ransport w ould h ave b een n o p roblem s ince C olchester

w as s ituated i n a n i deal p osition, o n a n avigable r iver. A lso b rine w as u sed f or p reserving m eat i n t he R oman w orld a s w ell a s f ish, v egetables a nd f ruit. S ince t he E ssex c oastal s ites, t he R ed H ills, h ave p roduced m uch e vidence o f R oman s alt w orkings, b een s alted d own e asily a nd t ransported e lsewhere.

m eat c ould h ave

G reat d iscretion i s r equired i n t rying t o i nterpret t hese r esults b ecause m any m ore s ites o f t his p eriod n eed t o b e a nalysed.

( Fig.

I n ac onsideration o f t he c attle m etacarpals f rom s ite E , g roup 6 3 :9), H igham 's m etacarpal d istal w idth w as p lotted a gainst d is-

t al e piphysial w idth.

T he d eductions

t hat c an b e m ade f rom t his g raph

a re l imited b y t he f act t hat o nly t wo m etacarpals y ielded i ndices t hat c ould b e s exually d etermined ( Table 3 :6; H oward 1 963). T he l ower l eft h and p oint w as b elow t he r ange H oward g ives f or f emales a nd t he o ther p oint w as m ost l ikely f emale. I t w ould a ppear t hat t here w as q uite a w ide r ange o f v ariation a mongst f emale c attle. F ig. 3 :10 e xhibits s imilar f eatures

t o F ig.

3 :9.

1 10

T he s ame m easurements f or t he

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WIDTH

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r IVISIC E

m etatarsal w ere p lotted i n F igs.

3 :11 a nd F ig.

3 :12.

P oints A a nd B

w ere a ssigned f emale a nd c astrate i n F ig. 3 :11 ( Table 3 :6; H oward 1 963) a nd i t i s p ossible t he i ntervening p oints w ere f emales a lthough t he e vidence i s r ather t enuous. U nlike

S heepen v ery f ew p elves r emained i ntact e nough f or a s exual

a ssessment. F our p elves f rom t he B KC s ite E g roup 3 d eposits w ere f emale a nd o ne f rom g roup 6 w as f emale. A lso o nly a s mall n umber o f h orn c ores w ere f ound ( Plate 7 ). 3 .10

1 ,

2 ,

T he C olchester s heep/goat G oat w as i dentified a mong b one a ssemblages f rom s ite E , g roups 4 a nd 6 b y t he m ethod o f P ayne ( Figs. 3 :13 a nd 3 :14; r efer

s ection 1 .2.5). O nly t wo s capulae p rovided m easurements f or t he i ndex S LC/ASG ( height o f t he s capula n eck d ivided b y t he m inimum l ength o f t he n eck). T hese i ndexes a re 0 .88 ( BKC s ite E g roups 1 /2) a nd 1 .05 ( BKC s ite E g roups 3 /4); t he l ower v alue i s o utside t he r ange N oddle g ives f or d omestic g oats a nd S oay s heep w hile t he h igher v alue i s w ithin t hese r anges ( Noddle 1 978, F ig. 3 7a). I ndeed t he l ower v alue c oincides w ith m easurements f or t he l ongtailed C lun F orest b reed a s d id s ome o f t he S heepen e xamples. T his i s n ot s urprising s ince i t i s m ost l ikely t hat t he b ones c ame f rom s imilar f locks. I n F igures

3 :15 a nd 3 :16,

H igham 's m easurements

f or s eparation

o f s heep/goat a re p lotted ( refer s ection 1 .2.5), t he d ata h aving b een e xtracted f rom s ite E g roups 1 a nd 2 a nd t he l ater R oman l evels o f s ite E . T he e arly R oman m easurements d o n ot e xhibit a c onvincing s eparation but t he l ate R oman m easurements d o a ppear t o f orm t wo l oose g roupings, w ith t he u pper r ight h and g roup p ossibly c orresponding t o g oats. M orphological d istinction o f s heep/goat, a lthough n otoriously d ifficult, w as u ndertaken w ith t he r esult t hat v ery l ittle b one c ould b e p ositively i dentified a s g oat. T he t ibia w as

t hen i nvestigated a nd F ig.

3 :17 r eveals a p lot o f

t he d istal w idth a gainst t he d istal t hickness f or t he l ater R oman b ones o f s ite E . T wo d istinct g roupings a re a pparent f or t he l ate R oman c oordinates. F our p lots o f b ones f rom g roup 1 , s ite E h ave a lso b een i ncluded. A s w ill b e s hown l ater t here i s a s izeable d ifference b etween b ones o f t he e arly a nd l ate R oman p eriods. R esearch o n m odern s heep h as d emonstrated t hat t he m aximum d istal t ibial w idth o f w ethers i s c . 1 04% t hat o f e wes ( Noddle 1 975a, 2 53). R eferring t o F ig.

3 :17

t he m ean m easurement o f t he u pper c luster

i s 2 7.6 a nd t he m ean m easurement o f t he l ower c luster i s 2 4.3. m ing t he u pper c luster r epresents w ethers

A ssu-

t hen t he d istal t ibial w idth

o f t hese w ethers i s 1 13.6% o f t he l ower c luster p ossibly r epresenting e wes. T his g ives a r atio o f 3w ethers : 2 e wes. H owever i t s eems m ore l ikely t hat F ig. 3 :17 r epresents a s pecies s eparation. T he h igh p ercentage c oefficient o f v ariation o f m etacarpal l ength f or B KC s ite E g roup 6 i n T able 3 :16 i s s triking w hen c ompared w ith t he o ther s ites. T his v alue c ould w ell

r eflect a s trong a dmixture o f g oat,

b eing s hort a nd s tocky.

1 18

t he b ones

GRAPH

OF

METATARSAL

DISTAL

WIDTH AGAINST

DISTAL

EPIPHYSIAL WIDTH PIG.

3 :11

CATTLE

6 7

BKC

E 6

6 5

6 3

61

5 9

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55

WIDTH

5 7

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45 4 1

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4 7

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4 9

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1 20

5 5 mm

5 7

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n n

t r i t T l

IVOD/dHHHS

•

S . HNÄYd

3

NOIIVUVdHS

•

HNIq

H

h03

TROC HLEA WIDTH

IVOD/dHHHS

TI M INOD

• w

O D U l

H 0

•

•

• •

AFTER

PAYNE

METACARPAL

CONDYLE

TROCHLEA WIDTH

AGAINST

CONDYLE

WIDTH

LINE

FOR

PAYNE'S

SHEEP/GOAT

SEPARATION

SHEEP/GOAT

C Y " )

•

••

r i

•

r H

1 23

0 r H

C 51

HIGI M VT-1 1D0 2 11 ,

C O

•

—

•

•

•

•

1 24

IJVHS-GIN qV c II IVDVIHN ä0

O D

•

•

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• HIGIM ISNIVOY SSHNADIHI

a

HdVUO

l . 0

IVOD/dHHHS

0

H

O D

Z/I

ANTERO—POSTERO DIAMETER mm 1 -1 N i

SHEEP/GOAT

r I

• •

•

•

•

• •

•

•

• •

I da

•

METACARPAL

•

C T 1

C O

T 1

0 rH

O D

ww UHIHWVIG OUHISOd-OUHINV

1 25

TIBIA

DISTAL WIDTH

( Bd)

mm

I

•

•I • • • •

•

•

ISNIV9V HIGI M

0

•

• • •

•

SSHMADIHI

• N )

•

•

•

•

t u

1 26

t u

IV00/dHHHS

w

S umming u p,

g oat a ppears m ore p redominantly i n t he l ater R oman

s amples t han t he e arly o nes. I n s everal w ays g oats c ould h ave b een s uperior t o s heep, f or e xample, b efore r efrigeration, g oats w ere u nr ivalled a s a s ource o f f resh m ilk o n s ea v oyages. T hey c ould e ndure t he m otion a nd c onfinement o f s hips b etter t han a ny o ther a nimal ( LO W 1 845). A lso g oat h air p roduces g ood r opes. I n t he f irst c entury c anabae o f C olchester s heep/goat w ere m ainly s laughtered u nder 2 y ears o f a ge ( 44%) a nd b etween 3 a nd 4 y ears ( 32%). T he m ethod o f P ayne ( 1973) w as u sed t o a ssess t he a ge r anges o f 5 0 m andibles ( Fig. 3 :18). R egarding t he S heepen mandibles ( Fig. 2 :20) a m uch h igher p ercentage o f l ambs w ere k illed i n t he f irst y ear. I t i s a p ossibility t hat h ere l amb s laughter r eleased e wes m ilk f or h uman c onsumption. W hile a h igher p ercentage o f l ambs w ere c onsumed a t S heepen, m any m ore a dult s heep i n t heir t hird y ear a nd t herefore a t t heir o ptimum b ody w eight w ere e aten a t f irst c entury C olchester. T he r emaining m andible s amples a re n ot r eally l arge e nough t o b e v ery r eliable. H owever t hey d o p rovide s ome i ndicators; f or i nstance, t he 1 3 m andibles d ated 6 0/61 - e arly s econd c entury, s uggest s heep/ g oat w ere b eing s laughtered s lightly e arlier t han t he p re-Boudican p eriod. N umber o f M andibles

A ge o f S heep

( after P ayne 1 973)

1 6

2- 6 m onths 6 - 1 2 m onths

4 1 1

1 - 2y ears 2 - 3y ears 4 - 6 y ears

A s w ith c attle a ll p eriods.

t he n umber o f u nfused s heep/goat e piphyses w as l ow i n

F our h orned s heep w ere p resent i n t he R oman p eriod c .

4 9 A .D.

a t

C olchester, a s e videnced b y a s pecimen f rom B alkerne L ane S ite A , A 116 L 17. P olycerate s heep a lso e xisted a t I ron A ge L ongthorpe, t he R oman f ort o f N ewstead a nd p ossibly B ronze A ge J ahrlshof ( Noddle 1 980). T here i s a t endency f or a ll t he s hort-tailed i sland s heep o n t he l ittoral o f w estern E urope t o p ossess m ore t han o ne p air o f h orns ( Ryder 3 .11

1 969).

( Plate 8 ).

T he C olchester p ig P ork w as a m uch m ore p opular d ish a t S heepen.

E vidence o f t he

h unting o f w ild b oar d id n ot e merge f rom t he S heepen s ite, b ut t here i s a p ossibility t hat w ild b oar w as h unted a round C olchester i n t he l ate R oman p eriod. 2 5.2 mm t o 3 8.5 m m,

F ive l ower t hird m olars r anged i n l ength f rom g iving a m ean m easurement o f 3 3.6 mm . T he u pper

p art o f t he r ange n ot o nly c oincides w ith m easurements f or d omestic m odern E uropean S us s crofa b ut a lso m odern w ild E uropean S us s crofa ( Table

2 :9 a nd

s ection 2 .9).

A lso

t he l argest m easurements a re o ut-

s ide t he r ange f or t he F ishbourne p igs, a lthough t hey a re n ot a s l arge a s s ome o f t he S hakenoak b easts which h ave a r ange o f 2 9 t o 4 0 mm . A p iglet s keleton w as f ound o n B alkerne L ane s ite A , which i mplies p igs

1 27

F our h orned

f rom C olchester c .

SHEEP/GOAT

0

( 2 C 1

C 7 1

OD

AGAINST

AGE

l t )

. 11

f = a

PAYNE'S

METHOD

C Y 1

USING

O F

MANDIBLE

FREQUENCY

. • •' 1

0 L r ,

0

0 c f )

(96 )

0 c \ 1

AZN2a 10H2 1 ,1

1 29

0

0

w ere p ossibly k ept i n a nd a round t he m ade a t E xeter ( Maltby 1 979).

t own i tself.

S imilar f inds w ere

S exing v ia t he mandibular c anines r esulted i n a p reponderance o f m ale a nimals a s a t S heepen, t hat i s, 6 m ales t o 2 f emales a t B KC s ite E , g roup 1 , a nd 4 m ales t o 1 f emale a t B KC s ite E , g roup 6 . A geing t he p igs, u sing t he m andibles a nd m axillae, w as d ifficult b ecause t hey w ere s o f ragmentary. T hus G rant's a geing m ethod c ould n ot b e a pplied. H owever a l arge p roportion o f t he p igs f rom a ll p eriods h ad t he t hird m olar j ust e rupting a nd w ere a ged c . 3y ears ( Silver 1 969; o ld a geing m ethod). C olumella r eports t hat p ork w as b oned i n A ncient I taly a nd t his s hould b e b orn i n m ind when a ssessing i ts i mportance v ia t he N umber o f F ragments M ethod; ' Therefore, h aving k illed y our p ig w hen i t i s t hirsty, b one i t t horoughly. F or t his m akes t he s alted f lesh, l ess o ily, a nd c auses i t t o k eep b etter.' ( Columella X II, 5 5). T his c ould w ell b e a c ause o f i ts a pparent s carcity o n s ome s ites. 3 .12

T he C olchester h orse

T he o ccurrence o f h orse i s l ow i n a ll p eriods a t C olchester ( Table 3 :1). T here i s n o e vidence t hat i t w as e ver c onsumed b y t he i nhabitants. M etacarpal m easurements i ndicate t hat a nimals o f 1 2 t o 1 3 h ands w ere p resent. 3 .13

T he C olchester d ogs

A t C olchester t he b odies o f d ogs t ended t o b e b uried a s aw hole, t ogether w ith o ther d omestic r ubbish . F or e xample, 2 4 b ones o f a n a dult b urial c ame f rom t he c ontext E 859, L 324. D og b ones w ere n ot b utchered a t C olchester o r S heepen, t here i s e vidence t hat t hey w ere f rom I ron A ge A shville

a lthough

( Wilson 1 978).

W hether t he m eat w as c onsumed b y h umans w ill n ever b e k nown, a lthough t his d id o ccur i n t he R oman w orld ( section 5 .7). P itt-Rivers ( 18881 892) h as c laimed t hat d og w as c onsumed b y t he i nhabitants o f R other l ey, W oodcuts a nd W oodyates a lthough t he a uthor f eels t he p roof i s l acking. T able 3 :7 i llustrates

t he v ariation i n s ize o f t he C olchester

d ogs. B KC E 6 p roduced a n e normous r adius w hich g ave a w ithers h eight o f 7 5.7 c m , o utside t he R omano-British d og r ange g iven b y H arcourt ( 1974). T his b one m ight h ave b elonged t o a w olf o r p ossibly a r ather l arge g uard o r h unting d og. T he l argest d og a t S heepen e xhibited a w ithers h eight o f 5 3 c m . I n f irst c entury C olchester c .

8 0 A .D.,

d ogs o f a t ype a kin t o

t he D achshund w ere b eing b red. T he B alkerne L ane s ite A r evealed e vidence o f t his i n t he f orm o f a t ibia w ith t he p roximal e piphysis a nd s haft b ent a t a r ight a ngle F 34).

t o t he m ain a xis o f t he b one

( A115

T his b one m atched e xactly a t ibia o f aD achshund i n t he B ritish

M useum o f N atural H istory.

1 30

3 .14

T he C olchester b irds C hicken a nd m allard w ere

t he m ost p opular b irds c onsumed b y t he

t own d wellers o f C olchester i n t he t hird t o f ifth c enturies 3 :8). t his.

( Table

B oth t he N umber o f F ragments M ethod a nd M IN m ethod a greed o n T he g rey l ag g oose w as n ot s o p opular; w oodcock, t ufted d uck,

t eal, w himbrel,

b lack-tailed g odwit,

c urlew,

l apwing a nd g olden p lover

a lso p rovided s ome s ustenance. I n R oman t imes a s urprising v ariety o f b ird w as e aten. F or i nstance a t F rocester v illa t here w ere b ones o f t hrush, b lackbird, l ark a nd r obin ( Bramwell 1 979). A lso, o n t he c ont inent, a p rofusion o f b ird f or t he t able o ccurred i n t he R oman k itc hen a t A ugst ( section 5 .2). I n B ritain

t oday,

t he l apwing i s a bundant i n m arshes, m eadows,

m oors a nd f ields. O utside t he b reeding s eason i t h as b een r ecorded i n f locks o f v arying s ize, s ometimes m ixed w ith g olden p lovers. T he b lack-tailed g odwit e njoys a s imilar h abitat, w intering o n mudflats, a s d o t he w himbrel a nd c urlew. T he w oodcock i s c ommonly f ound i n w oods w ith b ogs a nd w et g round, a nd t he t ufted d uck p refers t o n est n ear l akes a nd s wamps a s d oes s urface f eeding d ucks.

t he t eal w hich i s

t he s mallest o f t he

P ortchester a nd F ishbourne s how a s imilar o rder o f p reference f or t he main b ird s pecies a s C olchester ( Eastham 1 975; 1 971). A t E xeter w oodcock r epresents 1 0% o f t he b ird b one s ample ( Maltby 1 979) w hile a t C olchester i t r epresents 6 .2%. H ardly a ny r eports h ave m easurements o f b ones a ppended t hough o ne c an s ometimes g et r ough e stimates o f s ize a s a t F rocester where t he b ulk o f f owl b ones was s aid t o r epresent t he u sual s mall v ariety. H owever a t P ortchester, a m etrical a nalysis r evealed v ery l ittle v aria tion i n s ize o f t he d omestic f owl

( Eastham 1 975).

T he s ize o f

t he

F ishbourne f owl w as q uite d ifferent, t he m easurements s uggesting t hat av ariety o f d ifferent b reeds o f c hicken w ere k ept. T arsometatarsi m easurements i n T able 3 :9 a nd a lso s ection 2 .11 r eveal

t hat C olchester h as

t he l argest b irds.

H owever n o s ize i mprove-

m ent w as s een b etween t he f irst c entury S heepen s ample a nd t hat b elongi ng t o G p6E a t t he B alkerne L ane s ite. 3 .15

W ild a nimals O nly 1 0 f ragments o f w ild a nimals w ere r ecovered f rom t he s ite E

d eposits a t B alkerne L ane

( Table 3 :10).

H unting w as n ot a n i mportant

a ctivity. 3 .16

M etrical a nalysis o f a nimal b ones f rom v arious s ites i n R oman B ritain C aution must b e e xercised i n a ny s ize c omparison o f a nimal b ones

f rom d ifferent s ites.

S pecies a nd s ex d ifferentiations h ave n ot b een

s ecurely e stablished f or s heep a nd g oat

( refer s ections

1 .2.5).

W ith

c attle, p roblems c oncerning s pecies a re n ot i n question a nd s exing c an b e r esolved, i f a s m any d iverse m ethods a s p ossible a re u sed. A s f ar a s h orses a re c oncerned, i nsufficient r esearch h as b een p erformed c onc erning t he e ffects o f g elding o n b one s tructure, 1 31

a lthough i t i s k nown

t hat t aller a nimals r esult.

R oman l iterature,

s culpture a nd e pigraphy

p oint t o t he a bundant u se o f mules i n t he E mpire. U nfortunately a lthough a sses c an b e d istinguished f rom h orses w ith r easonable e ase ( B8k8nyi 1 972), mules p resent p roblems. Armitage ( 1979) i dentified t he j awbone o f am ule f rom t he R oman l evels a t B illingsgate B uildings, C ity o f L ondon a nd t his w as d ated c irca 1 25 - 1 60 A .D. H is i dentification w as b ased o n t he s ize a nd s hape o f t he m andible, a nd t he e namel p attern o f t he m olar t eeth. H owever h e e mphasised t hat t he e namel p atterns o f e quid t eeth c an b e v ariable a nd m ore h orse a nd mule j aws n eed t o b e s tudied b efore a p ositive i dentification c an b e m ade. O ne w onders h ow much m ule, p articularly p ost c ranial f ragments, h as b een m issed i n a nalyses. I ncrease i n s ize m ight a lso b e a r esult o f b etter b reeding a nd f eeding. G eological d eposits a ffect s oil t exture, d rainage a nd f ertil ity w hich i nfluence t he s orts o f g razing a vailable f or s tock; t his g razing c an i n t urn h ave a n e ffect o n t he v igour o f a n a nimal. A lthough i t i s m isleading t o u se

t he t erm ' breed '

w hen r eferring

t o a ncient d omestic a nimals, a t ype c an b e e stablished t hrough a d esc ription o f b uild a nd s tructure. G eneral P itt-Rivers m ade a n i mmense a nd u nparalleled c ontribution t o R omano-British s tudies w ith w ork o f t his n ature ( Pitt-Rivers 1 892). H e s ecured v arious m odern a nimal s keletons, ( for i nstance, N ew F orest a nd E xmoor p onies, a B lack K erry c ow , a B rown C art h orse, a S t. K ildan r am a nd e we, a H orned D orset r am a nd a H ighland H orned e we, a b lack r etriever d og, l arge s ized r etriever d og, s mall s ized f ox t errier) a nd c ompared t hem w ith t he e xcavated a nimal b ones f rom t he R omano-British v illages o f R otherley, W oodcuts a nd W oodyates o n C ranbourne C hase. P itt-Rivers' S t. K ildan s heep a re o f t he S oay t ype a nd n ot w hat i s n ow k nown a s S t. K ildans. ( Jewell, A rk 1 980, 8 8). T his w ork w as a dmirably e xtended t o w ork o n G lastonbury L ake v illage b y B oyd-Dawkins a nd J ackson ( 1917). A n a ttempt a t s tandardisation o f m easurements w as a ttempted b y v .d. D riesch i n 1 976; p rior t o t his, n ot m any u seful m easurements w ere t aken b y r esearchers, f or e xample m id s haft w idths o f l ong b ones. T hus a lthough t he h eight o f a n a nimal w as a scertained, k nowledge o f w hether i t w as r obust o r g racile r emained u nknown . 3 .16.1

M etrical a nalysis o f R omano-British c attle

I n 1 963, t he f ollowing c onclusions w ere d rawn f rom a n a nalysis o f c attle f rom R omano-British s ites, ' Remains o f o xen f rom R oman s ites s how e vidence f or t he e mergence o f l arger b easts t han c ommonly e xisted i n t he p receding c enturies. B ut e qually t here w as n o o verall i mprovem ent o f t he s tature o f c attle, a nd t he s pectrum o f s izes o f b ones.' ( Jewell 1 963,

8 8).

T hat t hese r emarks s till h old t rue, c an b e d etermined b y a c ons ideration o f T able 3 :11 w hich d emonstrates c attle m etatarsal l engths. S ome p erspective o f s ize i s p rovided b y m easurements

f rom P itt-Rivers

t est a nimal, a f ive y ear o ld K erry c ow . A s c an b e s een, m any s ites r evealed e vidence o f l arger a nimals t han t he K erry. T he l argest m etatarsal c attle b ones w ere f ound o n t he f ollowing s ites:-

G adebridge P ark v illa,

C orstopitum, P ortchester,

1 32

B arton

C ourt F arm v illa, s ite E 6,

H ucclecote v illa,

A ppleton,

W oodyates,

C olchester B alkerne L ane

T histleton v illa a nd W oodcuts.

t he m easurements a re c onsidered, f ound a t G adebridge P ark v illa, t he H ucclecote v illa

W hen t he m eans o f

l arge a nimals a re a gain p redominantly B arton C ourt Farm v illa, A ppleton a nd

t ogether w ith b easts

f rom G reat C hesterford.

C orstopitum a nd P ortchester p roduced t he

l argest b one

s amples a nd

b oth s howed a s imilar v ariation i n s ize a lthough s everal h undred m iles a part. A s J ewell n otices

t here w ere

s till c onsiderable numbers o f

t he

d iminutive C eltic S horthorn t ype, f or i nstance a t t he f ollowing s ites;f irst c entury F rocester, C orstopitum, P ortchester, f irst t o f ourth c entury E xeter, E ,

g roups

C oygan,

f irst c entury C olchester - B alkerne L ane s ites

1 a nd 2 - W oodcuts, W oodyates,

R otherley.

S ome o f

t hese

t he p re-Roman I ron A ge

B arton C ourt Farm v illa a nd

s ites e xhibited s maller a nimals

s ites,

f or e xample G lastonbury,

t han s ome o f

C roft Ambrey,

B arley, G ussage A ll S aints, G rimthorpe, I ron A ge A shville a nd F armoor ( Table 2 :15). B arton C ourt F arm v illa h as v ery s mall a nd l arge v arieties o f c attle. S o f ar i t h as b een s hown

t hat l arger a nimals d id e merge i n t he

R oman p eriod a nd a cross a w ide g eographical a rea w ith t he s maller v ariety s till b eing h erded. H owever, i n o rder t o d educe whether t here was a n i mprovement i n

s tature d uring t he R oman p eriod,

s amples a re n eeded,

t uries o f o ccupation. a nd i s

l arge s tatistical

f rom c losely d ated c ontexts,

c overing t he f our c en-

T his i s l acking i n R omano-British b one s tudies

s eriously h ampering a ny f urther s ynthesis o f t he c urrent

material. F rom t he E ssex s ites, E ,

g roups

1 ,

2 a nd 6 ),

e vidence i s r ather

S heepen a nd C olchester

t enuous.

c arpal i n T able 3 :12.

( Balkerne L ane s ites

c attle a ppear t o b e i ncreasing i n s ize but t he T he s ame r esults a re s een w ith t he m eta-

L ittle W altham s hows c omparative r esults.

H arcourt h as c laimed t hat t hroughout t he f our c enturies o f o ccupation a t G adebridge P ark v illa, i nteresting, t he c ountry.

s ince t his Also,

t here w as n o

c hange i n c attle s ize w hich i s

s ite p roduced s ome o f

t he l argest a nimals i n

E xeter r evealed n o e vidence o f s ize i ncrease a nd

i ndeed t hroughout t he R oman P eriod t he c attle w ere v ery s mall, C eltic S horthorn v ariety.

b etween t he E xeter a nd B arton C ourt F arm c attle n ificance,

S tudent t -test).

o f

t he

T here i s a s ignificant d ifference i n s ize ( 0.01 l evel o f s ig-

A t F rocester t he a nimals b ecome

a nd t heir l imbs b roader w ith t he p assage o f F or e stimation o f build a nd s tructure

t aller

t ime. t he s lenderness i ndex i s

v ery u seful b ut u nfortunately n ot many s ites u tilise

t his,

w idth m easurements o f t he m etapodials w ere i nvestigated.

t hus d istal G adebridge

P ark a nd T histleton a s m ight b e e xpected h ave t he w idest d istal e xtremi ties t ogether w ith S hakenoak, a nd l ater R oman C olchester ( Balkerne L ane s ite E 6). I n f act t he means o f T histleton a nd C olchester a re v ery s imilar.

( Table

3 :13).

u ry F rocester w ere n ess i ndex t o

T he C eltic S horthorn a nimals f rom f irst c ent-

f airly s tocky c reatures,

t he much

t aller a nimals

h aving a s imilar s lender-

f rom G adebridge P ark.

When t he m etacarpal b ones a re a nalysed i n t he s ame way a s t he m etatarsals, e xtra i nformation i s o btained f rom a dditional s ites.

1 33

T able

3 :12

s hows

t hat s ites w ith t he l argest b ones a re n ot o nly G ade-

b ridge P ark v illa, C orstopitum, l ate R oman C olchester ( Balkerne L ane s ite E 6), B arton C ourt F arm v illa b ut a lso G reat C hesterford a nd f ourth c entury F rocester. I f t he m eans o f t he m easurements a re c onsidered t hen t he l argest a nimals c ome f rom G reat C hesterford, l ate R oman C olc hester ( BKC s ite E 6), G adebridge P ark v illa, t he e arly s econd t o e nd o f t hird c entury l evels o f G odmanchester, f ourth c entury F rocester a nd F armoor. S imilarly, t he s mallest a nimals w ere r epresented b y E xeter, C orstopitum , B arton C ourt F arm , S heepen, C oygan, L ongthorpe, W oodcuts a nd f irst c entury t o e arly s econd c entury G odmanchester, W oodyates.

T here i s

i ncrease b etween

R otherley a nd

s ome i ndication a t G odmanchester f or a c attle s ize

t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies A .D.

F rom t he m etatarsal s lenderness i ndices a nd d istal w idth m easurem ents G adebridge a nd S hakenoak e xhibit m uch t hicker b ones w hich m ay b e a r esult o f s exual c haracters ( Table 3 :14). S ome r esearchers h ave s coffed a t t he u se o f w ithers h eight w hen c omparing a nimal s izes, m aintaining l ong b one l engths a re q uite a deq uate. H owever i n t his s ection d ata h as b een u tilised f rom t wo d iffere nt t ypes o f b ones w hich n eeds t o b e s ynthesised. T hus w ithers h eights w ere e stimated u sing t he f actors o f F ock ( 1966) a s r eviewed b y B oessneck a nd v .d. D riesch ( 1974). T able 3 :15 s hows t he d ata i n d escending o rder o f s ize. T he m ean v alues i ndicate t hat t he s ites w ith t he l argest a nimals a re G reat C hesterford, l ate R oman C olchester ( BKC s ite E 6), A ppleton, G adebridge P ark v illa, H ucclecote v illa a nd e arly s econd t o e nd o f t hird c entury G odmanchester. F inally a r ight c attle r adius f rom V indolanda ( GL 3 35 mm ) g ave a w ithers h eight o f 1 44 c m ( using t he f actors o f M atolcsi 1 970), t hus s urpassing t he o ther s ites m entioned . 3 .16.2

M etrical a nalysis o f R omano-British s heep/goat

I n o rder t o a ssess

t he

s ize o f t he a nimals m entioned i n T ables

3 :16 t o 3 :21 s ome m easurements f rom G eneral P itt-Rivers t est a nimals h ave b een i ncluded t ogether w ith d ata f rom t he S oay s heep m entioned i n s ection 1 .2.7. T he l argest m etacarpal b ones, t hat i s a bove 1 40 mm i n t otal l ength , w ere u nearthed f rom t he s ites: H igham F errers, T histleton v illa, l ate R oman C olchester ( BKC s ite E , g roup 6 ) a nd t he e arly s econd t o e nd o f t hird c entury l evels o f G odmanchester. T hose s ites w ith t he h ighest m ean v alues w ere G adebridge P ark v illa, C olchester ( BKC s ite E , g roup 6 ), t he f irst t o e arly s econd a nd s econd t o e nd o f t hird c entury l evels a t G odmanchester

( Table 3 :16).

S ome o f t he s mallest b ones o f t he p eriod w ere f ound a t W oodcuts, C hew P ark v illa, C orstopitum, R udston v illa, W oodyates, C olchester ( BKC s ite E ,

g roup 6 ),

R otherley a nd S heepen .

T he S ite E p eriod 6

B alkerne L ane s ite a t C olchester s howed a w ide r ange o f v ariation w hich a lso e mbraced s ome o f t he l argest a nimals. C onversely C hew P ark v illa e xhibited t he l owest m ean v alue f or t he l ate R oman p eriod a nd R udston i n t he f ourth c entury a lso s howed a l ow m ean v alue. I n f act a t t he 0 .1 l evel o f s ignificance ( Students t -test) t he f irst c entury S heepen a nimals w ere l arger t han t hose o f f ourth c entury R udston.

1 34

V ery f ew s lenderness i ndices w ere a vailable f or c omment.

T he

a nimals a t F rocester w ere s mall a nd s lender a s w ere t hose f rom C hew P ark v illa. I n f act t he m ajority o f i ndices s uggests s lender l imbed a nimals, t he h igh v alue f or S hakenoak p ossibly s uggesting g oat a dm ixture. I f t he d istal w idth v alues a re c onsidered s everal s ites h ave i dentical m eans, R oman C olchester ( Table 3 :17).

C hew P ark v illa ,

( BKC s ite E ,

R udston a nd S heepen.

g roup 6 ) h as

L ate

t he h ighest m ean v alue

I f t he m etatarsal b ones a re e xamined t he f ollowing s ites d emons trated t he l argest b ones: l ate R oman C olchester ( BKC s ite E , g roup 6 ), F indon W ell, t he s econd t o t hird c entury l evels a t F rocester, f ourth c entury l evels a t F rocester, A ppleton, E xeter, C olchester ( BKC s ite E , g roups 3 a nd 4 ), t he s econd t o e nd o f t hird c entury l evels G odmanchester, G adebridge v illa a nd T histleton v illa ( Table 3 :18). S ites w ith t he h ighest m eans i ncluded G adebridge v illa, W oodyates, T ripontium a nd t he s econd t o t hird c entury l evels o f F rocester. O nce m ore t he s lenderness i ndices r evealed m ainly s lender l imbed a nimals a nd t he d istal w idth m eans s uggested b roader l imbed a nimals a t C olchester ( BKC s ite E , g roup 6 ). ( Table 3 :19). B oth T ables 3 :16 a nd 3 :18 i ndicate t hat s heep i mproved i n s ize f rom t he f irst t o f ourth c enturies a t C olchester; a dditional e vidence f rom S heepen s upports t his. A lso t ibia d istal w idth m easurements ( Table 3 :20) s trengthen t his p roposal u sing t he S tudents t -test. T here i s a s ignificant d ifference a t t he 0 .01 l evel b etween t he f irst c entury S heepen b easts a nd t hose f rom l ate R oman l evels o f C olchester ( BKC s ite E 6). T here a re s imilar p ointers f or t he m id f irst c entury t o e arly s econd c entury a nd e arly s econd t o e nd o f t hird c entury l evels o f G odmanchester a lthough t he s amples a re v ery s mall. T ibia d istal w idth m easurements e mphasise t hat t here w as n o i mprovement o f s heep d uring t he f our c enturies a t R oman E xeter ( Table 3 :20) a nd t he v illa a t R udston. I n a c omparison o f t he t hird t o f ifth c entury l evels a t B arton C ourt F arm v illa a nd C olchester s ite E 6) t -test),

t here w as a s ignificant d ifference a t t he 0 .01 l evel t he s heep a t C olchester a ppearing l arger.

( BKC ( Students

W ithers h eight w as e stimated f or t he m etacarpal a nd m etatarsal b ones u sing t he f actors o f T eichert

( Table 3 :21).

T hus i n c onclusion t he i nhabitants o f G odmanchester

( mid f irst

t o e nd o f t hird c entury l evels), C olchester ( late R oman p eriod), T histleton R oman v illa, G adebridge v illa, H igham F errers a nd W oodyates w ere b reeding t he l argest t ypes o f s heep i n t he c ountry.

A s c an b e

s een f rom T able 3 :21 s ome o f t hese a nimals w ere much l arger t han t he S oay s heep o r e ven P itt-Rivers D orset H orned R am, t hat i s, C olchester ( BKC s ite E ,

g roup 6 )

a nd G odmanchester,

t he e arly s econd t o e nd o f

t hird c entury. I n t his s urvey o f s ize a mong R omano-British s heep,

i t i s d ifficult

t o d etermine w hether t he a nimals w ere b red p rimarily f or m eat o r w ool. A s s een i n s ections 1 .2.5 a nd 1 .2.6 d ifferentiation o f s pecies a nd s heep/goat s exes h as n ot b een c ompletely r esolved,

1 35

s o much a mbiguity

r emains.

H owever t here i s

f locks

i mprove

t o

o f w ool

r emains

s ome e vidence

f or s elective b reeding o f

t he q uality o f t he f leece,

f rom V indolanda

I t i s s ignificant t hat i n t he p revious t he

t hat i s f rom a n a nalysis

( Wild a nd R yder 1 977). s ection

s ites p roducing t he l argest c attle a lso p roduced

t hat i s, where

G adebridge P ark v illa,

t he m id f irst

s heep a nd

t o e nd o f

( 3.16.1),

s ome o f

t he l argest s heep,

l ate R oman C olchester a nd G odmanchester

t he

t hird c entury l evels p roduced l arge

t he e arly s econd t o e nd o f

t hird c entury l evels p roduced

l arge c attle. 3 .16.3

M etrical a nalysis o f

M eek a nd G ray t hree

( 1911)

t he R omano-British h orse

c laimed t hat i n t he R omano-British P eriod

s izes o f h orse e xisted:a )

a t ype o f 1 41 h ands.

b )

a t ype a pproximating

t he

s ize o f a N ew F orest p ony,

a round 1 21 h ands. c ) a s mall s ized a nimal a pproximating t he p ony,

i .e.

1 11

t hat i s

s ize o f a n E xmoor

h ands.

T hey a cknowledged t he p resence o f e ven l arger a nimals s ince a t ibia a nd a m etatarsal a nimal o f 1 41

f rom t he C orstopitum c ollection i ndicated a n

t o 1 5 hands.

I t w ould a ppear f rom T ables 3 :22 a nd 3 :23 t hat many R omano-British h orses w ere o f p ony t ype. I ndeed e arly r eports f requently m ention t his a lthough m easurements w ere n ot i ncluded. w ere m entioned a t S hakenoak v illa,

P ony s ized i ndividuals

C hew P ark v illa a nd V indolanda.

L arge a nimals, 1 41 h ands a nd a bove, o ccurred a t L ynch F arm , C orstopitum , N ewstead, G adebridge P ark v illa, f irst c entury l evels F rocester R oman v illa,

W oodcuts,

W oodyates,

F armoor,

f irst t o

f ifth

c entury l evels B arton C ourt F arm v illa a nd S cole. I n s ection 5 .3,

i t i s s uggested t hat s maller c avalry h orses a re

much m ore e asy t o m anoeuvre.

P ossibly t he l arge b easts o ccurring o n

t he v illa a nd f armstead s ites w ere u sed i n c onnection w ith r ounding u p s heep a nd c attle. A f armer w ould g ain a c onsiderable a dvantage f rom b eing s eated o n a t all h orse. b ones

L arge numbers o f h orse a nd c attle

i n a ssociation h ave b een f ound a t A ppleton,

B ucks,

a nd R ockbourne D own e nclosure

N orfolk,

( Applebaum 1 972,

H ambledon,

2 09).

H ardly a ny s ite r eports p rovided m easurements o f m etapodial m ids haft w idth o r m id s haft c ircumference

s o c onclusions c oncerning b uild

a nd s tructure c ould n ot b e c arried o ut s atisfactorily. 3 .17

T he f irst

t o f ifth c enturies A .D.

R ecently K ing

( 1978)

e xtensively r eviewed s ome a spects o f R omano-

B ritish a nimal b one r eports. o f which was

o f R oman B ritain

H e c ame

t hat s heep b ecame l ess

t o a number o f c onclusions o ne

i mportant d uring t he R oman p eriod,

while c attle a nd p ig b ecame m ore i mportant. l ocation o f n ew s ites,

m ore

s uitable

1 36

t o

T his was r elated t o t he

t he r aising o f c attle a nd p igs.

I n T ables 3 :24 t o 3 :27, t he a uthor h as i ncluded 1 8 n ew s ites. S he h as omitted f rom K ing's p aper b one r eports which a ppeared u nrelia ble,

f or e xample,

W estley s tates

t he r eport o n t he B radwell R oman v illa, w here

t hat a ll

t he b ones w ere d erived f rom s uperficial c on-

t exts ( Westley 1 975, 5 ). A s i n C hapter O ne, s ites h ave b een c ompared v ia t he N umber o f B one F ragments m ethod. I n s ome b one r eports w here M IN i s u sed t he t otal n umber o f b one f ragments i nvolved i n t he a nalysis i s n ot a lways n oted. T hus i t i s i mpossible t o a ssess whether o ne i s d ealing w ith a r easonably l arge s ample. A lso, t he a uthor d oes n ot a gree w ith K ing ( 1978, 2 27) t hat t he t wo m ethods a re d irectly, c onditionally, c omparable ( section 1 .2.4).

i f

l he d ata i n T ables 3 :24 t o 3 :27 g ives d irect e vidence o f t he d iet o f t he i nhabitants a nd i ndirect e vidence o f t heir h usbandry p ractices. M any b iasses a re i nvolved i n i nterpreting t he f aunal r emains ( Chapter O ne) a nd t hat o f b utchery t echnique ( section 1 .2.4) h as b een n oted a nd e mphasised b y t he a uthor.

A s b one r eports

f or l arge a reas o f

c ountry, f or e xample, W ales a nd " N orthern E ngland a re l acking, d istributions must t ake t his i nto a ccount.

t he

a ny

I n o rder t o d etermine w hether c attle b ecame m ore i mportant i n t he l ate R oman p eriod i t i s e ssential t o s tudy t he s ame s ites t hrough t he f our c enturies o f o ccupation. T his w as a ccomplished w ith t he l imited a mount o f material i n T ables 3 :24 t o 3 :27. N ineteen o ut o f 2 1 s ites s howed a d efinite i ncrease i n c attle i n t he l ater R oman p eriod a nd 1 6 o ut o f 2 1 s ites r eveal a c orresponding d ecrease o f s heep/goat. O nly 8 o ut o f t he 2 1 s ites p roduced a d efinite i ncrease o f p ig. A lthough s ites l abelled ' Roman' s eem u nhelpful f or t he t rends b eing f ollowed, t hey a re i mportant i f p re-Roman d ata i s a vailable. F or i nstance, B ishopstone, a n ative f arming s ettlement, w as o ccupied f rom t he B ronze A ge t o S axon t imes a nd i ts f arming p ractice w as h ardly i nfluenced b y t he R oman o ccupation. I ron A ge N azeingbury a nd S lonk H ill while s howing a n i ncrease i n p ig, d emonstrated a d ecrease i n c attle. I n s ection 3 .16.2 t he l argest t ypes o f s heep w ere f ound a t G odmanchester, C olchester, T histleton, G adebridge P ark v illa , H igham F errers a nd W oodyates. F rom T able 3 :25, G adebridge P ark v illa s hows s heep w ere i mportant i n t he f irst t o s econd c entury b ut l ess i mportant i n t he f ourth c entury. A t T histleton t hey a ppeared d ominant i n t he s ample. O f t he r emaining s ites, o nly W oodyates e xhibits a r easonably h igh p ercentage o f s heep r emains, 4 6%. H owever, s ince t he b one s ample w as d ated f irst t o t he f ourth c entury i ts i mportance a t a ny p articular p eriod c annot b e d etermined. I f d ata f rom T ables 3 :24 t o 3 :27 i s c onsidered, t hen s ome o f t he s ites w ith o ver 5 0% s heep a lso b red s ome o f t he s mallest s heep, f or e xample, R otherley a nd R udston. K ing ( 1978, 2 12) s howed t hat a ssemblages w ith 3 0% o r m ore s heep b ones w ere m ainly c onfined t o t he d ry

l ight s oils o f

t he l owlands.

O ne m ajor p oint t o b e e mphasised i n t his s ection i s t hat a bsence o f s heep b ones i n l ater R oman d eposits ( which a re p rimarily f ood r efuse d eposits)

d oes n ot n ecessarily m ean s heep b ecome l ess i mportant i n t he

l ater E mpire. F rere p oints o ut t hat w oollen g oods w ere i mportant i n t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies, p articularly f or e xport, D iocletian 's

1 37

P rice E dict m entions t wo B ritish p roducts a nimals b red f or w ool T he i ncrease

( Frere 1 978,

3 37).

T hus

s hould n ot b e e xpected i n t hese l ater d eposits.

i n n umbers o f c attle b ones i n t he t hird a nd f ourth

c enturies c ould b e l inked t o a p roposition m ade b y P ercival ( 1976, 1 16). H e s tated t hat i f h eavier c lays a nd f allowland w ere b eing p loughed b y t he

f ourth c entury,

l arger p lough t eams w ould h ave b een n ecessary t o

p ull t he h eavier p loughs w ith c oulter a nd m ouldboard. A lso, l arger m ore r obust a nimals w ould b e a n i mprovement i n t his d irection a nd t here a re h ints o f t his i n s ection 3 .16.1. A t F rocester t hrough t he c enturies, t he m ature p ercentage o f a nimals r ises t hroughout, s uggesting i ncreasing u se o f s heep f or w ool a nd c attle f or t raction ( Noddle 1 979). O n t he m ajority o f s ites f rom T ables 3 :24 t o 3 :27 t here w as a h igher p ercentage o f c attle s laughtered w ith a f ully e rupted b ut n ot h eavily w orn d entition. T hus m any a nimals w ere k illed o ff a t t heir o ptimum b ody w eight. S heep w ere s laughtered a t a v ariety o f a ges, 2 t o 4y ears b eing q uite c ommon a nd a s w ith c attle, t he a nimals w ere a t t heir o ptimum b ody w eight. A t A shville t here w as a m uch s maller p roportion o f y oung m andibles i n t he R oman p eriod a nd s imilarly a t B arton C ourt F arm v illa. W ilson s uggests t hat t his c ould e ither r epresent s heep b eing k ept t o a g reater a ge i n t he R oman p eriod o r t hat t he y oung s heep w ere b eing m arketed e lsewhere. I t i s a bundantly c lear t hat t his d ilemma c an o nly b e s olved b y s tudying t he b ones f rom a v ariety o f d ifferent t ypes o f s ite c hronologically r elated a nd w ithin a c lose g eographical a rea. I f t he y oung s heep w ere b eing m arketed e lsewhere, i t i s v ery l ikely t hat t hey w ould b e f ound i n t own d eposits. A t R oman E xeter t he m ain p eak o f s laughter w as 1 5 t o 2 6 m onths; a t G odmanchester s heep w ere s laughtered a t c . 2 y ears i n t he m id f irst t o e arly s econd c entury l evels; a t l ate R oman C irenc ester t he a nimals w ere k illed a t c . 1 5 m onths. E vidence o f l amb s laughter i s s parse a nd i ts o ccurrence i n t he s emi-military l evels a t S heepen a nd t he m ilitary l evels o f C helmsford ( section 4 .3.1) i s t hus s ignificant. S exing c attle b ones i s a d ifficult p rocedure

( section 1 .2.6)

a nd

h ardly a ny s ites h ave g iven c onvincing e vidence f or a s atisfactory s eparation. M altby ( 1977, 1 63) h as r emarked o n t he d ifficulties o f t ransporting m ilk f rom t he f arm t o t he t own. H owever t here i s n o r eason w hy c ows c ould n ot h ave b een k ept t o g raze o n t he t own t erritoria. B efore t he c oming o f t he r ailway, m ilk w as m ade i nto b utter a nd c heese o r f ed t o l ivestock. M ilk f or l iquid c onsumption w as p roduced i n t own d airies, i n a nd a round t he t owns. P ossibly t his w as p ractised o n a m odest s cale i n R omano-British t owns. T he s ame r emarks c ould b e a pplied t o f orts a s w ell. V ery f ew r emains o f d og a nd c at h ave b een f ound, w ith o ne e xcept ion a t P ortchester where t here w as a h igh p roportion o f d og a nd c at. I t i s n otable t hat s everal t own s ites h ave v ery f ew f ragments, e .g. E xeter, G odmanchester, C helmsford a nd C olchester. T his s uggests t hat t he a nimals w ere a ccorded s eparate b urial.

1 38

CV

+C o C C /

r 4

• 4 "

r-I

r 4

c v

i n c ' )

1 1

CV

CI

In

C / 1

CV

r I

1 s s

N r 4

se

C s 1 r I r I

▪ 4 / 1 . 0

•

‘ . 0

c . )

C O

0

C r ,

N

C ri

c o

C I N.

CO

c 0

‘ .0

C l )

r I

C O

‘ .0

0

c v

r 1

1 1

r I

C T ,

C V

N -

C O

r 1

C l )

c v

CO

." . . ,. / J

r 4

V0

1 `,

C l )

r 4

in

c .

01

0

r I •

L C D e I

N

r 4 ▪

1 39

CV

Cl )

1 -

4 -

i f )

t hird-fourth c entury

▪

s econd-third

CV

7 5 - e arly s econd c entury

N , e

5 0 - 6 0/61

B one F ragment C ount o f t he M ain D omestic S pecies - B alkerne L ane,

C olchester

3 ▪' r 4

•

( 3 u pper m olars)

0

T able 3 :2

B ONE

C olchester B utchery C harts

B UTCHERY U NIT

M andible

3 0

4 7.6

2

1 2

1 9

3

1 5

2 3.8

6

t otal

1

7 0

6 8 .0

2

2 0

1 9.4

4 t otal

8 .7

4

3 .9

2

5 0

2 6.6

3

1 4

7 .4

5

1 9

1 0 .1

7

2 8

1 4 .9

8

4 0

2 1.2

3 7

1 9.7

9

1 88

1

1 9

1 1.5

3

1 6

9 .7

4

3 8

2 3.0

5

5 2

3 1.5

2

4 0

2 4 .2

t otal

M etacarpal

9

1 03

t otal

R adius

9 .5

6 3

3

H umerus

N UMBER O F B ONES

1

4

S capula

( BKC 1 /2)

1 65

1

5 0

3 7.6

1- 2

2 8

2 1.0

3

3 9

2 9.3

5

4

3 .0

6

6

4 .5

7

3

2 .2

2

2

1 .5

5

1

0 .8

t otal

1 33

1 40

T able 3 :2

( continued)

B ONE

B UTCHERY U NIT

P elvis

1

1 5

2 8.8

2

3 0

5 7.7

3 4 t otal

F emur

5 .8

4

7 .7

1

1 5

1 7.9

2

4 0

4 7.6

3

1 4

1 6.7

2 - 3

1 5

1 7.8

8 4

1

1 5

1 4 .4

2

1 0

9 .6

5

4 8

4 6.2

3

1 1

1 0.6

7

2 0

1 9.2

1 04

t otal

M etatarsal

3

5 2

t otal

T ibia

N UMBER O F B ONES

1

4 0

3 4.5

1- 2

1 0

8 .6

2 - 2

1 1

9 .5

2

4

3

3 8

4

3

6

1 0 1 16

t otal

1 41

3 .4 3 2.8 2 .6 8 .6

h . C D N i L n

l

r

•

g l ) r t 1 ) h . M c n h i u ) 0 1 •

' '

r l

r•( 1 ) r ) C l ) M . I » c n r g e M r +

o e l o

C l )

0

r •h . M . • r . r . c f 1 — • 0 g l ) h . f 1 3 o M M M

E :E a lgal

2 gVe2> c V, > ' ,2e CP% )ez2 2T r u D : 7• @ Z 4 1r g , Z T , 2 : 24 )2 . J .

f H D (e 1 ) t > 3c 1 ) h A l nt 4 1 3c( " )> > . ; n c M D X , f D r t r t r . r ) 5 c ) , Im . •I . r t f D e t r ) i C i . • r t < u ) ( » m' • Z ". h . M • Z • • • E n P . ) P -1 C M 0 < A ) • < C D < X e • 1 C I ) (D r t M L O N J m . f D r e ( 7 ' M

e l c r p ) P i f D

( 3 . 1 C D

aE

2E

H 0 H > L -" I

m + r + N J h . h . h . C h 4, m . h . h . m . L o V D C h , 4 h o 4, . 4 . . 4 4, L o , . . 0 t. . , N J h . 0 N i m D N i 0 L n C O L n C O V D m . L o C A C h N i 4, L a N i h . . 4 , L o ,4 M D l n L o L . ) m . L 4

h . C D h . r + C D C D t . C m m . h . C D F . h . C ) m D C h C D N i 4, , 4 , 4 4, L o h . C D u p m + • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • N J 1 40 N / i L o ,o L n C O m D M . L o C h L n N i h . N ) L o L n 4, L a L o C O L O

N J N J r +

L n

N a 0

U . ) C O L o L O

( . ) •

c c

•

•

o •

N i

•

•

•

C o . P • C o 4 >

Ch

L n L o

L a

m .

h .

M . N i

C D C D

h . C o L n •

•

•

•

L n L n

•

l n 4 " . C O C D 0 L o L n • • • • • • m . C A 4, 4, C M 4,

h j h . m . N i N i h . C ) C h ,4 c h , 4

M . t o

h . h . C O N J N i c o

c m

•

V D L n m .

•

•

•

C h

I —

a t i ? a l q u t z a i n N d p u

C O C h

N J

C O

m . N i N i 4-- V h . N i L A

N . ) N i N i L ni .n .z, 0 0 ", c c 4

h . m . C m 0

t a l

O 0 0 0 - 4 > L O C D h . C D I . N i •J • • • • • • L o L n L I, r . C m L n L o h . C O m . l n C m N a

4> N i • •

•

h . L o

m .

m .

h . m . C h L o

h . N i

M . L o

N i h .

M .

h .

•

•

•

•

•

N i

N J

N i m .

•

L o

,4

m .

L O

N i

,a

N i

M .

4 >

C O

Z * -

N i

N i V D • • C o

•

•

M . C D m . L n

L O

l n 4 > N i

•

( J . r . C T, L . )

•

•

,4

L O L o C O

N i V D h . L n 4 > l n C D N i

L n

N i

0

r + h . I M . V L O N i C D L n C D L n

•

C O

40 / 1

•

L n •

•

N i •

•

. 4 " -

N i

4, C O

•

•

L n N i C o .4 C o N i L o

C A

M . C D C m 0, L o C o N i

4 >

M . L n N i V J L o C o C o 4 > • • • • • • • C h C O . 4 1 40 / . R * - N J

•

h . m + N i • • m . c o

L n C h

•

h . C D

U ) L a

r t r t

r )

L n V D

z •

r, h . r + 4 > C O h . m D

•

•

L o h . m . m . e . m . N i 0 N i m . M D m D h . M . C o N J

h . C h C D C m LP •

•

N ) N i

h . N i m + m . L n L o L n N 2

te.

CV

0

, • 4

a ) c n L n N 4 L t / 4 1 . 0

4 . )

L f )

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Cn

. 7 i f ) V) CV 41 / 1 - 0

CV

t — I C T N CO e . 4 CV CV

ri

t oo

g ,e

0

0

v 1

r -

C V C ' )

r 4 C V

c n

C • I • 2 '

V) CV CV

1L t 1

c o

C V r 1 0

C V C V . 7

i n , J D

0

r — i CV • •

C T , C O . 7 0 0 r l

i n

) 4

o c . )

•

4t / 1 )

.

0 L t ) •

r4

r s . Cn CI r . 1 P 4

•

•

•

4o / 1

1 CV CV

C r ,

•

C V e l 1 1

C I r I

V ) ( X ) • •

0 . 1

r I

, r )

c m

< : ;

r " )

r I r 4

Lf l r . ) C . ) . 1 > c s 4 N I c s 4 • • • • • • • • • • • •

1 1 , £ ) / 4C 1 , C r ,

• • • • • i t 1 c r .

i n c o L C s i

c o c n

•

C V

C V C V • 7 • N D • • • 1 I 1 -1C V c n c n

0

• 1 1

C V V D • . 1 -4 r-I

v . )

•

c 4i r / 1 -4

C-

• • • • • • 0 c o

o c s 4 c o 0

L i)

0

0

C ' )

r . . 4

c s . ) 4 i n c t l i 4 c o

a )

c oi . c l c o i i . 0 i 4 i t )

r — I li , —I . 1 4 •r I . " C ;

) 4

U

M. . .4

, • 4 C L I

W

C O

r — f

c o I i c n X c di 4

4

C I . Q ) • e I

c d

c t i

c z >

Z. r 4

0

c d

5J D4 )

1 43

c n

.4

1 " . 1 • 0 0 0 0

c n L O

c n

Ln cn C.1

c o c o ,. c o EL I 4 ) g .. . c u O. 2 > , c d c d u c i fi 1 a ) c e a ) a ), 4 a ) = cn a . : Z Zcn = c4 Z E O c t + . .E -.ZE-iP 1 •

L r l

v ertebrae v ertebrae

•

c ) 4 . )

C )

4C V C V C V C N

C 7 ,

r • -

a ) a ) c d 1 . 4. ) 2 ( 1

4 . )

4 . 1 14

1 4 a ) c u

• ••

•

C . 1

•

• lj

N . 1

•

c i

. C c i t O 1 . 4

, C

c i ) 4 )

N . 4 0 1 c . )- 4 ) 4 ) a ) •. C c i c y l c ic n c a c l ) 0 0

< E -

N i

e J c-3 x f D 1 3 M m . r i r t

0 3

M. 0 3 0 c o 1 . C i 3 t ; . 1 : 3 1 3 ) t — .

f l 3

r r

X

0 3

r i c n M t . .

t — .

h . ( A h . 0 0 • • • • • l n 4. / 1 0 1 40 /

H › i i m•C D Oa E l

g 3

La N ) t . . .

N J

X C D r r

r i

40 / 1

N 2

V D

V

0 •

C T ,

c o

F .

N i M . ‘ . 0 C D 0 3

I v

K J LJ U I C ) c o

G

0 • /0 4 1

Z = C i , G ` . < XX 0 G

1 -1

G

M. I — 'G

r n

I »

m i P 3 M

N i N i C O C D N i

-

h .

C h

C po = C / 2 Z m . 1 3 G M 0 3 G G 5 1 3 ) G

1 —‚ V

•

, c e

LO

• V

E :E nquI

•

' 1 1 H z " c u 0 3 t i

11011

u uni

1 .1 G • E l

> . > t . X M. I — . r n s u 0 3

m .

9103

P 3

M • •

( ) ( D t l < .

a rac taliat t

0 3

n cs 3 c -3 • 1 3

» aol il

r r

> G r t

a nic ialiat t

0 3

a ri c ialian

t l

( 0

a eac ialiat t .

H 0 H

N i L a

0 0 • / 4 1 0

CM

U 3 1— . 1, 3 C )

. g %

h .

L a N i ( . › C h

0

C o ( . 0

•

•

N i •

N i C D

C D

4 >

•

•

•

•

4> CM C . )

N i N J C O

1 -1 C D L a ( A •

•

•

4 C D Z •

•

•

•

U . ) N i

C . ) C D C h L n

L n C o

•

•

•

N i N i C h N i L 0

h . •

•

N J . P s .

•

l n C M C O V D L O

N i

N i •

U J

•

L n Ln C h N i C M h . VD

l n

h . N i h .

•

•

•

C. ) C M L. )

L. ) LO

h .

N i N i • • ln L n

C O

L. ) C M L a

N i 4 > N i 4. / 1 0

1 44

L n

•

•

CA ) L. ) C O L . )

h .

L . ) •

•

•

C ) •

M . 0 0 C h

L . ) h . h . N i h . N i L n C h l n N i L a 1 40 U / . 3

V N i U . O D V • • • • • p • N . ) c o

h . h . ,J h . N i

h . 4 › C D m . • • 0 0 C h

h .

F . e • . N J • • • • L a L a

C I D

h . r . L n , j • • • • C T, C O C O

N i C M

N i l n

c r o

C olchester

r I • 00 \

i f )

B alkerne L ane,

rl

C11

CI CN

C Y )

r 4

C r )

4 )

M inimum N umber o f

al N.

CO 1 1

r I

c . ) C f )

r 1 CI

c

0

i n

r i r I

0 C • 1

( 1 )

t hird-fourth

( mandible)47.4

t he M ain D omestic S pecies

01

C Y )

r 4 C Y )

\ SD 0 \ -0

0 L . r )

r i

C s4

U

4 1

\ SD

4 _ )

T able 3 :5 A .

M eat W eight P otential

T he N umber o f B one F ragments

S ITE E

G roup

D ate

C attle

%

S heep/Goat

1

4 3 - 5 0

7 380

9 2.9

2 21

2

5 0 - 6 0/61

2 635.2

9 2.9

8 6

5 724

9 3.5

8 28

9 6.4 9 1.7

3

6 0/61 - 7 5

5

e arly s econdt hird c entury

6

t hird-fourth c entury

B .

4 636.8

T he M inimum N umber o f A nimals

%

P ig

2 .8

3 39.2

0 .4

3

1 15.2

4 .1

1 64

2 .7

2 35.2

1 3

1 .5

1 7.6

2 28

4 .5

1 93.6

3 .8 2 3 .8

( MIN)

S ITE E

G roup

D ate

C attle

%

S heep/Goat

%

P ig

1

4 3 - 5 0

1 29.6

8 4.7

9

5 .9

1 4.4

9 .4

2

5 0 - 6 0/61

2 23.2

9 2.5

7

2 .9

1 1.2

4 .6

3

6 0/61 - 7 5

5

e arly s econd-

1 44

9 3.3

4

2 .6

6 .4

4 .1

9 1.4

1

1 .2

6 .4

7 .4

7 .8

9 .6

5 .8

7 9.2

t hird c entury 6

t hird-fourth

1 44

8 6.4

c entury

1 46

1 3

T able

3 :6

H owards I ndices

f or C attle M etapodials

M etacarpal

D istal b readth l ength

B KC E 1 /2

B KC E 6

x 1 00

M id-shaft b readth l ength

x 1 00

A

2 8.8

F emale

1 5.4

F emale/castrate

B

2 8.5

F emale

1 5.5

t

C

3 0 .3

F emale/castrate

1 6.8

i t

A

2 3.3

B

2 7.8

A

2 1.6

1 0.6

B

2 2.2 F emale

1 1.1

C

2 4.1

"

D

2 3.9

"

1 1.6

F emale

E

2 4.1

"

1 1.7

F emale

F

2 2.7

"

1 0.6

1 0.5 F emale

1 5.7

F emale/castrate

M etatarsal

B KC E 1 /2

B KC E 6

A

2 3.5

F emale

1 1.6

F emale

2 5

F emale/castrate/male

1 4

F emale/castrate

1 47

• r t

C Z N

G m u )

( D

c r ? r t

N i

q u 2Tag s a a t i gTm • ( 1 ) • c n r t H a f D

f i Q

r t

Ni

0 0 I -1

‘ •

1 48 H a

N i X I

N N i i

C f )

u oTlrmIlsH 1 q2TaH s aa t ilTm pur 2 oG j o s lua lmainsraw a uog 2uoi

t r i

l eTaq s zat ilTm

o n ! h C D

l anopirl l i aljr)

• ( D H• C l )

1 g2Tat i s iatpTm

C D

a alsa l lo up -

1 q2Tat i

O C 3

T able 3 :8

N umber o f B one F ragments a nd M inimum N umber o f A nimals p er s pecies - C olchester,

S pecies

N o.

B KC S ite E 6

o f b one f ragments

M IN

C hicken

G allus

5 9

M allard

A r ias

3 7

6

1 1

3

G rey l ag g oose W oodcock T eal

A nser

S colopax r usticola

8

2

2

I

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

P luvialis a pricaria 6

1

A nas c recca

T ufted d uck W himbrel L apwing

s p.

A ythya F uligula N umenius p haeopus

V anellus v anellus

B lacktailed G odwit G olden P lover

1 3

L imosa l imosa

1 49

( MIN)

T able 3 :9

G reatest L ength o f F owl b ones

( GL ) mm

S ite

H umerus W oodcuts

2

7 4 - 7 4

7 4

L ongthorpe

3

6 7.5-74

7 1.8

3 .8

6 0.5-75.3

6 9

4 .9

3

6 8-74.1

7 3

4 .5

2

6 8.6-74.1

7 1.4

3 .9

6 7.9-88

7 6.8

6 .3

E xeter C olchester ( BKC S ite E 6)

1 4

F emur C olchester ( BKC S ite E 6) E xeter

1 1

L ongthorpe

8 0.5

U lna C olchester ( BKC S ite E 6)

4

6 3.1-74.9

6 8.3

5 .8

L ongthorpe

2

7 1-73.5

7 2.2

1 .8

E xeter

8

5 9.9-76.7

6 7.2

5 .5

T arsometatarsus - m ale C olchester ( BKC S ite E 6)

2

8 1.7-85.4

8 3.6

2 .6

L ongthorpe

2

7 9.5-82.5

8 1

2 .1

E xeter

5

6 3.8-89.2

7 7.6

M anching

3

6 9-75.5

7 2.8

T arsometatarsus - f emale L ongthorpe

3

6 6-71

6 7.7

2 .9

E xeter

8

6 6.2-79.1

7 2

5 .3

1 50

T able 3 :10

G roup

B one F ragment C ount o f t he W ild S pecies

D ate

R ed D eer

R oe D eer

H are

F ox

1

1

S ITE E 1

4 3 - 5 0

1

2

5 0 - 6 0/61

1

1 /2

1

2 /3

1

3

6 0/61 - 7 5

1

6

t hird-fourth c entury

2

1

1 51

T able 3 :11

G reatest L ength o f C attle M etatarsal B ones

( GL ) m m

S ite W itcombe

1

S heepen

1 1

C oygan

5

G ussage A ll S aints

1 8

2 16 1 90 .5-220

2 02

8 .2

1 95-209

2 01.8

6 .8

1 98

5 .4

1 89-206

V indolanda

1

2 03

C olchester ( BKC E 1 /2)

7

1 95-213

2 01.3

6 .4 1 8 .7

( BKC E 6 )

2

2 06.5-233

2 19.8

1C .

3

1 72-200

1 90.7

4C .

4

2 03-217

2 09

F rocester

4 -5

C .

1

2 15

G odmanchester ( early 2 t o e nd t hird C . )

4

2 07-226

2 13.8

8 .4

G odmanchester ( mid 1 C . t o e arly 2 C .)

2

2 01-222

2 11.5

1 4.8

1 81-244

2 07.2

R udston

4C .

C orstopitum R awreth

1 6 5

4 -5 C .

2 14 1 0.3

1

2 25

D urrington W alls

1

2 18

T ripontium ( late 3 C . - 4C .)

6

2 05-217

2 10.7

4 .6

H ucclecote

3

2 11.5-237

2 20.5

1 4.3

G adebridge

3

2 08-254

2 27.3

2 3.9

T histleton

2 05-231

2 15.8

8

S hakenoak

1 3 2

2 08-210

2 09

1 .4

G reat C hesterford

2

2 19-223

2 21

2 .8

1 95-231

2 08.8

1 0 .7

2 00-209

2 03.3

4 .6

1 96-233

2 11.2

8 .6

2 26-233

2 29.5

W oodcuts

1 4

R otherley

6

W oodyates

1 7

A ppleton

2

P ortchester B arton C ourt F m 3 -5C. L ittle W altham 4 5-60AD c .300 A .D . E xeter 5 0-300 A .D . 3 00+ L ongthorpe

1 08

1 83-240

2 6

2 00-238

1

2 11

1

2 25

5

1 st C .

1 1.96

1 90-205

1 99

5 .51

1 91-219

2 04.4

9 .24

2

1 91-228

2 09.5

2

2 12-212

1 0

K erry c ow ( P-R )

2 20.5

1 52

2 6.2

T able 3 :12

G reatest L ength o f C attle M etacarpal B ones

( GL) m m

S ite

L ongthorpe

6

E xeter 3 00+

1 3

5 0-300

5

B arton C ourt 3 -5 C .

1 8

1 65-183.5

1 74.4

8 .9

1 59-183

1 74.3

6 .6

1 66-194

1 74.8

1 0 .0

1 60-211

1 92.7

1 0 .4

1 89-192

1 90 .5

F armoor R -B

2

T ripontium

1

1 92

C olchester

1

2 10

G adebridge P ark

3

1 92-204

1 96.3

6 .6

T histleton

9

1 79-191

1 86

3 .5

S hakenoak

8

1 74-190

1 84.1

4 .7

G reat C hesterford

2

1 99-222

2 10.5

1 6.3

C olchester B K0

2

2 03 .5-207

2 05.2

2 .4

1 4

1 62-188 .5

1 76

7 .9

1 0

1 65-182

1 72 .5

5 .6

1 71-187

1 79.2

6 .6

E 6

S heepen C oygan C olchester B KC F rocester

1

E

1 /2

4

C .

1

2 -3 C .

3

1 68 1 72-184

1 78.7

6 .1

4 C .

3

1 82-200

1 91.3

9 .0

4 -5 C .

2

1 82-192

1 87

7 .1

M odern S horthorn

2 80

G odmanchester 2 -end 3 C m id 1 -early 2 C L ynch F arm

9

1 78-199

1 94

1 4.7

6

1 68-192

1 82

7 .9

1

1 97

C orstopitum

8 7

1 57-203

1 82.6

1 0.2

W oodcuts

1 3

1 68-199

1 84.5

1 0.2

1 70-178

1 74

4 .0

R otherley

3

W oodyates

1 2

D urrington W alls A shville

R -B

R -B

1 70-191

1 82

6 .4

2

1 86-188

1 87

1 .4

2

1 83-192

1 87 .5

2

1 68-187

K erry C ow ( P-R ) W itcombe

1 82-183

1 53

1 77.5

1 3.4

Table 3:13

Cattle Metatarsal Distal Width (Bd) Measurements (mm)

Site

r

n

Little Waltham

X

45-60

1

49

300+

1

54.5

s

Colchester BKC , E6

35

47.7-64.2

53.1

3.9

Sheepen

52

43-58.7

47.6

3.5

Vindolanda

30

45 -· 55

50

Colchester BKG, El

20

44.9-55.8

47.9

3.1

11

44.7-50.4

48.4

2.9

3

45.1-49.2

47.3

2.0

50.3

5

BKC, E3/4 BKC, ES

127

Carstopitum

59.3

Rawreth Tripontium

6

43.5-52

46.6

3.5

Gade bridge Park

3

58 - 68

62

5.3

Thistleton

13

49 - 62

53.3

4.6

Shakenoak

4

51 - 67

58.8

6.6

Hoc kwold

1

Bainbridge 3

c.

1-2

c.

46

4

46.8-54.4

50.7

4.03

4

45.9-56.8

49.5

4.9

154

T able 3 :14

C attle M etacarpal D istal W idth ( Bd) M easurements

( mm )

S ite T ripontium

2

5 0-55.5

5 2.8

3 .9

G adebridge P ark

3

6 0 - 6 7

6 4.3

3 .8

T histleton

9

5 0 - 6 1

5 5.9

4 .2

S hakenoak

8

5 0 - 7 0

5 8.9

8 .5 3 .5

C olchester B KC, E 6

2 8

4 7.2-62.5

5 6.8

V indolanda

3 3

4 9 - 6 2

5 4

C olchester B KC,E3

2

5 2.3-54.4

5 3.4

1 .5

B KC,E5

3

5 0 .2-58.6

5 3.4

4 .5

B KC,E3/4

3

5 2-60.8

5 5.4

4 .7

4 8.4-60 .7

5 2.8

4 .2

B KC,E1/2 F rocester 1 C . S heepen

1 2 1 4 0

5 3 4 5.6-58 .6

5 1.1

5 1 - 6 1

5 6.7

1 55

4 5 - 7 3

5 4.4

5 .6

B arton C ourt 3 -5 C .

3 0

4 6 - 7 0

6 2.1

6 .2

E xeter

5 0-300

3 0

4 4.5-60.6

4 8 .6

4 .69

3 00+

1 9

4 4.3-55

5 0

2 .4

R udston 4 C . C orstopitum

7

1 55

2 .7

T able 3 :15

C attle W ithers H eight

( cm )

a fter F ock ( 1966), u sing t he

M etacarpal a nd M etatarsal

M etacarpal

S ite

M etatarsal

G t.Chesterford

1 21.4-135.4

1 28.4

1 18.3-120.4

1 19.3

C olchester B KC, E 6

1 24.1-126.3

1 25.2

1 11.5-125.8

1 18 .6

R awreth 4 -5C.

1 21.5 1 20 .2

L ynch F arm 1 17.1-124.4

G adebridge

1 19.7

A ppleton

1 12.3-137.2

1 22.7

1 22-125.8

1 23.9

1 08-128.5

1 19.1

1 70 .8

M odern S horthorn 9 7.6-128.7

1 17.5

D urrington W alls

1 13.5-114.7

1 14.1

T histleton

1 09.2-116.5

1 13.5

B arton C ourt 3 -5C.

1 17.7 1 10.7-124.7

1 16.6 1 13.9

L t.Waltham 4 5-60

1 21.5

c 3 00 A D 1 17.1

T ripontium G odmanchester e arly 2 - e nd 3 C . m id 1 -early 2 C .

1 11.8-122 1 08.5-119.9

1 15.4 1 14.2

1 08.6-121.4 1 02.5-117.1

1 18.3 1 11

1 13.9-128

1 19.1

L ongthorpe

1 00.6-111.9

1 06.4

1 03.1-123.1

1 13.1

E xeter 5 0-300 3 00+

1 01.3-118.3 9 7 - 1 11.6

1 06.6 1 06.3

1 02.6-110.7 1 03.1-118.3

1 07.5 1 10.4

S heepen

9 8.5-115

1 07.4

1 02.9-118.8

1 09.1

C oygan

1 00 .6-109.8

1 05.2

1 05.3-112.9

1 09

1 02.1-111.2

1 06.9

H ucclecote

G ussage A ll S aints

1 09.6

V indolanda C olchester B KC,1 B KC,1/2 F rocester

1C . 2 -3 C . 4C . 4 -5 C .

R udston C orstopitum

.

1 04.3-114.1

1 04.9-112.2 1 11-122 1 11-117.1

1 09.3

1 02.5 1 09 1 16.7 1 14.1

1 05.3-115

1 08.7

9 2.9-108

1 03

1 09.6-117.2

1 12.9 1 16.1 1 15.6

4C . 9 5.8-123.8

1 56

1 11.4

9 7.7-131.8

1 11.9

T able 3 :15

( Continued )

S ite

M etacarpal r

M etatarsal X

r

7

S hakenoak

1 06.1-115.9

1 12.3

1 12.3-113.4

1 12.9

W oodcuts

1 02.5-121.4

1 12.5

1 05.3-124.7

1 12.8

R otherley

1 03.7-108. ,6

1 06.1

1 08-112.9

1 09.8

W oodyates

1 03.7-116.5

1 11

1 05.8-125.8

1 14

A ppleton

1 22-125.8

1 23.9

P ortchester

9 8.8-129.6

K erry c ow

1 14.5

F armoor

1 15.3-117.1

1 16.2

A shville

1 11.6-117.1

1 14.4

R oman C olchester

1 28.1

1 57

T able 3 :16

S heep/Goat M etacarpal L ength M easurements ( GL) m m

S ite

n

B ainbridge 1 -2 C . 2 nd C .

1 1

D urrington W alls

2

1 21-127

1 24

E xeter

3

1 12-127

1 19

H igham F errers

1

1 41

E ast M ailing V illa

1

1 37

G adebridge P ark

3

T histleton

2 7

S hakenoak

r

G ussage A ll S aints C olchester B KC, B KC, B KC, B KC,

E 6 E 3 E l E 4

1 26-133

1 30 .7

V

4 .2

3 .4

4 .04

3 .1

6 .1

5 .1

1 15-143 1 24

1 2

1 11-122 .5

1 18.4

3 3

1 04-122

1 14

1 07.5-146

1 33.2 1 11.5 1 20 .8 1 17

4 1 6 1

s

1 23.5 1 13.0

1

S heepen

X

1 13-130

4 .6

4 .1

1 8.1

1 3.6

8 .04

6 .6

F rocester 1 C . 2 -3 C .

1 3

1 14-122

1 25 1 16.7

4 .6

3 .9

G odmanchester m id 1 -2 C . e arly 2 - e nd 3 C .

2 2

1 31-138 1 39-147

1 34.5 1 43

4 .9 5 .6

3 .6 3 .9

H adrians W all T urrets

1

R udston 4 C . C orstopitum

2 -4 C .

C hew P ark V illa

1 15

1 9

1 06-118

1 13

3 .7

3 .3

1 1

1 06-135

1 20

9 .1

7 .6

1 05-119

1 11.8

5

4 .5

5

W oodcuts

2 5

9 9-137

1 22.1

R otherley

1 2

1 11-137

1 15.3

7 .5

6 .5

W oodyates

5

1 07-122

1 14.6

6

5 .2

L ongthorpe 1 C .

9

1 09-128.5

1 19

7 .1

6

D orset H orned R am ( P-R )

1 34-136

S t. K ilda R am ( P-R )

1 10-112

S t. K ilda E we

( P-R )

H ighland H orned E we B ishopstone

1 07-107 ( P-R )

1 18-119 2

1 22

T ripontium

3

1 22-123

1 22.7

5 .8

G reat C hesterford

2

1 21-134

1 27.5

9 .2

H ockwold

1 20.5

1 58

T able 3 :17

S heep/Goat M etacarpal D istal W idth ( Bd) M easurements

S ite

X

S heepen

1 8

C olchester B KC,E, 6 B KC,E, 4 /5

1

B KC,E,

9

1 /2

B KC,E, 3 F rocester

R udston

3

1 11-132

2 1.8

1 .4

2 5.8-27.3

2 6.8

0 .8

2 1.8 2 1.1-26.3

2 3.6

1

2 1

1C .

1

2 5

2 -3 C .

2

4C .

B arton C ourt 1 -2 C . 3 -5 C . C hew P ark V illa

1 4

1 8 - 1 9

1 8.5

0 .7

2 0 - 2 4

2 1.8

1 .2

1 1 3 5

2

2 2 2 1 - 3 0

2 4

2 .3

2 1 - 2 2

2 1.8

0 .4

1 59

( mn)

T able 3 :18

S heep/Goat M etatarsal L ength M easurements

S ite

n

r

E xeter

9

1 20-143

X

s

V

6 .6

5 .2

1 .4

1 .2

1 23.3

8 .8

7 .1

1 26.2

A ppleton

1 34

A shville R .B .

1 39

B ainbridge 1 C . l ate 2 C . 3C .

1 2

1 20-122

1 14 1 25 1 21

H ockwold

1

1 30

F armoor

1

1 47

S heepen

6

G ussage A ll S ainst I A

1 15-137

1 23

5 .5

4 .5

2 1 1 1

1 18-120

1 19 1 42.5 1 32 1 49

1 .4

1 .2

F rocester 2 -3 C . 4C .

4 1

1 21-145

1 31 1 40

G odmanchester 2 -early 3 C.

1

1 43

H adrians W all 6 T urrets

1

1 27

C olchester B KC, B KC, B KC, B KC,

E 2 E 3/4 E 3 E 6

2 9

1 09-128

( GL) m m

R udston 4 C .

1 8

1 15-130

C orstopitum

1 0

1 23.7

1 1.6

4 .6

3 .7

1 08-128

1 20

6 .2

5 .2

C hew P ark V illa

8

1 14-130

1 19.9

4 .6

3 .8

T ripontium

6

1 25-137

1 31.7

5

3 .8

7 .4

5 .5

F indon W ell

1

G adebridge P ark

6

, Thistleton

2 1

S hakenoak

1 49 1 28-144 1 27-142

1

W oodcuts

1 7

1 35

1 35 1 14-139

1 25

7 .4

5 .9

R otherley

6

1 19-126

1 23.3

2 .9

2 .4

W oodyates

4

1 30-137

1 34.8

3 .3

2 .4

D orset H orned R am ( P-R)

1 47-147

S t . K ilda R am ( P-R )

1 22-124

S t . K ilda E we

( P-R )

H ighland H orned E we

1 15-116 ( P-R )

1 27-128

1 60

T able 3 :19

S heep/Goat M etatarsal D istal W idth

( Bd) M easurements

X

S ite

S heepen C olchester B KC,

E 6

B KC,

E l

8

1 8.8-21.7

2 0.1

1

2

2 2.6-24.3

2 3.4

1 .2

2 1.8

B KC, E 3/4

2

2 0.6-23.8

2 2.2

2 .3

B KC,

4

2 0 .5-22.1

2 1.2

0 .8

E 1/2

R udston 4 C .

1 8

1 9.2-22.8

2 0.4

0 .9

C orstopitum

1 0

1 7 - 2 0

1 9.6

1 .1

C hew P ark V illa

6

1 9 - 2 1

2 0.2

0 .8

T ripontium

6

2 0.3-24

2 1.7

1 .3

G adebridge P ark

3

2 1 - 2 3

2 2.3

1 .2

H ockwold

1

B ainbridge F ort 3 C .

2

B ainbridge

2 3 2 0.1-24.1

2 2.1

l ate 2 C .

2 0.8

F lay .Traj

2 3.4

B arton C ourt 3 -5 C .

9

2 0 - 2 8

1 61

2 2.9

2 .8

( m om )

T able 3 :20

S heep/Goat T ibia D istal W idth

( Bd) M easurements

S ite

n

r

X

T ripontium

5

2 4 - 2 6

1 2 3 3

C olchester B KC,

E 6

S heepen

( mm )

S

V

2 5.4

0 .9

3 .5

2 3.6-28 .3

2 6.6

1 .6

6

2 0 .5-25.6

2 2.8

1 .4

6 .1

V indolanda

4

2 6 - 2 7

2 6.8

0 .5

1 .9

C olchester B KC, E l

4

2 2.1-23.4

2 2.9

0 .6

2 .4

F rocester 4 C .

2

2 3 - 2 3

2 3

1C .

6

2 1 - 2 4

2 2.8

1 .3

5 .7

2 0 - 2 5

2 2.8

1 .6

7

2 -3 C .

1 2

H adrians W all T urrets 2 b

4

2 1 - 2 4

2 2.6

1 .4

6 .2

2 c

2

2 4 - 2 5

2 4.5

0 .7

2 .8

2 4 - 2 7

2 5

1

4

S hakenoak

1 1

R udston 1 -mid 2 C .

5

2 2.9-23.8

2 3 .7

0 .9

3 .8

2 -4 C .

3

2 2 - 2 4

2 3

1

4 .3

B arton C ourt 1 -2 C . 3 -5 C . E xeter

1

2 0

3 8

2 0 - 3 1

2 4.5

2 .1

8 .6

5 0-100

2 1

2 1.3-29.2

2 3.1

1 .5

6 .5

1 00-300

3 0

2 1.4-25.9

2 3.3

1 .2

5 .2

3 00+

1 5

2 2.3-27

2 3 .9

1 .2

5

1 62

T able 3 :21

S heep/Goat W ithers H eight ( cm )

a fter T eichert

( 1975 ), u sing

t he M etacarpal a nd M etatarsal

S ite

M etacarpal

E xeter

5 4.7-62.1

M etatarsal

5 8.2

5 4.5-64.9

5 7.3

A ppleton

6 0.8

A shville R B .

6 3.1

B ainbridge 1 -2 C . l ate 2 C.

6 0.4 5 4.5-55.4

3C . H ockwold

5 1.8 5 6.8 5 4.9 5 9

F armoor

6 6.7

S heepen

5 4.3-59.9

5 7.9

4 9.5-58.1

5 6

G ussage A ll S aints

5 0 .8-59.6

5 5.7

5 2.2-62.2

5 5.8

C olchester B KC,E,1 B KC,E,2 B KC,E,3/4 B KC,E,3 B KC,E,4 B KC,E,6

5 5.2-63.6

5 9.1 5 3.6-54.5

5 4 6 4.7 5 9.9

5 2.6-71.4

5 4.5 5 7.2 6 5.1

5 5.7-59.6

6 1.1 5 7.1

6 4 - 6 7.5 6 8 - 7 1.9

6 5.8 6 9.9

6 4.9

H adrians W all T urrets

5 6.2

5 7.6

R udston

5 1.8-57.7

5 5.2

5 2.2- 5 9

5 6.2

C orstopitum

5 1.8-66

5 8.7

4 9 - 5 8.1

5 4.5

C hew P ark V illa

5 1.3-58.2

5 4.7

5 1.8-59

5 4.4

5 6.8-62.2

5 9.8

F rocester

1C . 2 -3 C . 4 C ,

G odmanchester m id.1 e arly 2 C . 2 -3 C .

4C .

T ripontium

6 7.6 5 4.9-65.8

6 7.6

F indon W ell G adebridge P ark T histleton

5 9.5 6 3.6

6 1.6-65

6 3.9

5 8.1-65.4

6 1.3

5 7.6-64.5

5 6.2-69.9

6 1.3

6 0.6

S hakenoak W oodcuts

4 8 .4-67

5 9.7

5 1.8-63.1

5 6.8

R otherley

5 4.3-67

5 6 .4

5 4-57.2

5 6

W oodyates

5 2.3-59.6

5 6

5 9 - 6 2.2

6 1.2

1 63

T able 3 :21

( Continued)

S ite

M etacarpal

M etatarsal

7

r

r

D orset H orned r am ( P-R )65.5-65.5

6 6.7-66.7

S t.Kilda R am ( P-R )

5 3.8-54.8

5 5.4-56.3

S t.Kilda E we

5 2.3-52.3

5 2.2-52.7

( P-R )

H ighland H orned E we ( P-R ) D urrington W alls

5 7.7-58.2 5 9.2-62.1

H igham F errers

6 8.9

E ast M alling V illa L ongthorpe

5 7.6-58.1 6 0.6

6 7 5 3.3-62.8

1 64

5 8.2

i

T able

3 :22

H orse M etacarpal L ength M easurements

S ite

n

T ripontium

7

r

2 05-217

H ockwold

( GL) mm

7 2 10.2

s 5 .4

1 88

T histleton F rocester

2C .

L ynch F arm C olchester,

B KC E 2

C aerleon C orstopitum

7

2 20-236

2 25.1

5 .4

2

2 10-220

2 15

7 .1

1

2 20

1

2 36

1

2 40

1 0

2 17-235

2 26.4

5 .9

C olchester B KC, E 6

3

2 11-224

2 18.7

6 .8

W oodcuts

8

1 91-229

2 05.2

1 3.4

R otherley

1 4

1 80-220

1 98.6

1 0.9

W oodyates

1 7

1 98-240

2 21.5

1 1.1

A shville

R .B.

1

2 27

A ppleton

R .B.

1

2 06

I .A.

1

1 96

n

1 -2 C .

2

i t

3 -5 C .

B arton C ourt

1 98-200

1 99

2 01-227

2 14.3

1 65

T able 3 :23

H orse M etatarsal L ength M easurements

S ite

( GL) m m

X

G odmanchester m id 1 - e arly 2 C .

1

2 57

L ynch F arm

1

2 80

R udston

1

2 50

C orstopitum

4

2 26-290

2 53.3

2 9.7

T ripontium

8

2 45-260

2 52.2

6 .8

T histleton

5

2 48-272

2 60.2

1 1.1

G adebridge

2

2 52-280

2 66

1 9.8

G odmanchester

1

2 47

H ockwold

1

2 51

S hakenoak

1

2 42

C olchester

1

2 48

W oodcuts

7

2 13-285

2 40

2 8.6

R otherley

1 4

2 21-250

2 43.1

1 3.6

W oodyates

1 3

2 37-280

2 62.8

1 4.2

A shville

R .B.

1

F armoor

R .B.

4

2 38-286

2 58.9

I .A .

2

2 42-276

2 59

I t

1 -2 C .

2

2 32-238

2 35

I

3 -5 C .

6

2 60-282

2 66.7

B arton C ourt

L ittle W altham N ewstead

3 00+

2 70

2 1 1

2 41 2 55-287

1 66

2 75.2

1 0.6

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1 4 4

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P . . f — • ND 1 . .

C HAPTER F OUR

CHELMSFORD - T he f irst t o f ourth c enturies A .D.

' Small

t owns m ust b e s tudied i n c lose r elation t o

t heir r ural e nviron-

m ent . T hese s ites a re c ommonly t reated a s t hough t hey w ere a ll m inor u rban s ettlements. I n a f ew c ases t here i s a mple j ustification f or t his v iew b ut t his s hould n ot b lind u s t o t he f act t hat i n a ll i nstanc es t here w ere 1 976, 9 9). 4 .1

t he s trongest p ossible l inks w ith t he l and.'

( Todd

I ntroduction

C helmsford i s s ituated o n t he m ain R oman r oad b etween L ondon a nd C olchester, i n t he c entral p art o f E ssex, a nd c ommands t he c rossing o f t he R ivers C an a nd C helmer n ear t heir c onfluence ( Fig. 1 .1). T he s ite i tself s tands o n t he s outhern s lope o f t he C an v alley. B oth t he R ivers C an a nd C helmer h ave w ell d eveloped f lood p lains, e specially t o t he e ast o f t he c onfluence a nd i n e arly t imes t hese w ould h ave b een e xposed t o r egular w inter o r s pring f looding. N orth o f C helmsford l ies

t he B oulder C lay P lateau o f H igh E ssex.

T his s lopes g ently s outhwards a nd l ies b etween 1 00 a nd 2 00 f t O .D. a nd i s d rained b y t he R ivers B rain, T er, C helmer, C an a nd R oxwell B rook. T o t he s outh a cross t he C helmer v alley t he l and a gain r ises t o a g ene ral l evel o f b etween 1 00 a nd 2 00 f eet b ut t he l andscape i s m arked b y s everal p ronounced r ises a ttaining a pproximately 3 00 f eet. T he t wo r egions a re d istinct g eologically, t he n orthern p lateau b eing c overed b y a t hick s equence o f g lacial d eposits w hile t he s outhern a rea i s c haracterised b y T ertiary s trata, o nly l ocally c apped w ith g lacial d eposits. R ecent m apping i ndicates t hat L ondon C lay f orms t he b ase o f t he d istrict, a s i ndeed i t d oes f or m ost o f c entral a nd s outhe rn E ssex . T errace d eposits a but o nto t he a lluvium i n s everal p laces a nd f orm a b ench a l ittle a bove f lood l evel. T hese a re c omposed o f f luvial s ands a nd g ravels a nd a re u sually c apped w ith s tony l oam d eposits. G lacial s ands a nd g ravels c rop o ut o n t he s lopes a bove t he t erraces. A lthough a c omplete s oil s urvey i s n ot y et a vailable f or E ssex, t he p rincipal f eatures o f t he c ounty a re l arge t racts o f b oulder c lay t o t he n orth a nd a n e xtensive a rea o f L ondon c lay t o t he s outh, t he f ormer b eing u nder t he p lough a nd t he l atter m ainly d evoted t o d airy f arming. I n 1 795, V ancouver d escribed t he l and a round C helmsford a s c onsisting o f a d eep r ich t ender l oam i ntermixed w ith s ome v eins o f g ravel. 1 75

A t otal o f 6 ,978 a nimal b one f ragments w as a nalysed f rom a ll t he C helmsford s ites, i .e. s ites AA, S , A R , Z , AK a nd T . O f t his t otal 3 418 f ragments c ould b e i dentified a s c attle, h orses, s heep/goats, r ed d eer, r oe d eer, f oxes, c ats, d ogs, h ares a nd b irds. N one o f t he C helmsford s amples w as s oil s ieved s o i n o rder t o a scertain t he q uality o f b one r ecovered a f ragmentation a nalysis w as p erformed ( Watson 1 972); t hat i s t o s ay, s amples o f u nidentified b one f ragments w ere m easured f or l ength, l ength a nd f requency t hen b eing p lotted. O nly b ones w ith o ld b reaks w ere u sed. A r easonably g ood l evel o f r ecovery w as d educed ( Fig. 4 .1). T he e xceptionally h igh n umber o f f ragments i n t he 0 -3 c m c ategory i s d ue p artly t o m aterial f rom s ite AR, w here a g reat d eal o f b one h ad b een s mashed i nto v ery s mall p ieces 4 .2

( Section 4 .2).

R itual b one d eposits

I n t his s ection t here i s a d escription o f t he ' votive' w ell d eposit f rom s ite AR o f t he C helmsford Mansio c omplex . I n t he c urrent l iterature, m uch c onfusion h as a risen c oncerning t he d istinction o f r itual, a s o pposed t o n on-ritual d eposits. I ndeed t he i mportance o f u nderstanding a ny d ifferences h as b een c ommented o n b y o ne p rehistorian, " Two i mmediate p roblems s tand b etween t his e vidence ( animal b ones) a nd t he p rehistoric e conomy. T he f irst i s t he i mportance o f R itual. A n e arly s uggestion o f t his k ind w as m ade b y M ortimer w ho o bserved t hat I ron Age b urials i n Y orkshire c ould b e a ccompanied b y c omplete g oat s keletons b ut b y o nly t he l ong b ones o f t he p ig." ( Bradley 1 978, 3 5). T herefore, i t i s e ssential t o c ompare a nd c ontrast t he C helmsford f ind w ith s imilar e xamples f rom t he p re-Roman a nd R oman I ron A ge. I n a ddit ion, s ome e xamples o f ' odd' d eposits i n g eneral, b oth i n B ritain a nd o n t he c ontinent a re m entioned. 4 .2.1 G rant

T he C helmsford ( 1975,

3 98)

' votive'

w ell d eposit

h as n oted t hat

( site AR, F 31) F ig.4:2

' It i s c lear s ome p its a nd e spec-

i ally w ells c ontain a nimal b ones w hich d o n ot s eem t o b e t he r esult o f h aphazard r ubbish d isposal. T hese a re t he p its w ith y oung a nimal c arc asses, w hole o x s kulls, c omplete d og a nd c at s keletons a nd h uman i nf ant b ones. I t w ould a ppear t hat s ome s ignificance w as a ttached t o t he d eposits t hrown i nto w ells a nd t he h igh p ercentage o f y oung s heep f ound t here m ight r eflect t his.' T he w ell o n S ite AR ,

d ated 1 50 t o 2 00 A .D.

a nd 6 .5 m etres d eep,

h ad b een r e-cut a t l east s ix t imes o ver a p eriod o f 5 0 y ears. T he c ontents o f e ach s haft w ere a s f ollows ( unless s pecifically m entioned, b ones o f s heep a nd g oat h ave n ot b een d ifferentiated): S haft 1 ( bottom o f w ell) E xcellently p reserved h orse s kull

( AR

2 96, P lates 9 -11), 1 3-15 y rs, m ale; mandible f ragment, 2 1 y r a nd d eciduous m olar o f y oung h orse; s heep m andible, 9 -12 m ths; 4 g oose b ones c .

( leg); 6 c ockerel b ones ( leg). S haft 2 . E xcellently p reserved h orse s kull

9y rs, m ale a nd a ssociated p ost-cranial b ones,

l eft m etatarsal s acrum ,

I I,

p halanges I a nd I I,

l eft c alcaneum ,

l eft f emur,

( AR 2 78,

P lates 1 2-14)

l eft m etatarsal I II,

4 c ervical v ertebrae,

l eft a stragalus,

r ight a nd l eft o s i nnominata,

a xis f ragment,

a tlas,

l eft t ibia,

2 l umbar v ertebrae.

T he

w ithers h eight o f t his h orse w as 1 4.0 h ands ( Vitt 1 952). O ther f aunal r emains c omprised 7 f oetal l ambs ( complete s keletons); 2 y oung s heep m andibles, c . 9 -12 m ths; a dult s heep ( well w orn m axilla); r ight m and ible o f c at;

8 r aven b ones

( wing). 1 76

. •• • ••

C I

8 t ,1

a 1 1 ) XD U

1 77

. 0 n ba

in

GL

0

M ode rn

C h e lm s f o rd AR W e l l F 3 1

^

S andy b nckea r th

S ha f t 6

S ha f t 5 2 6 .00

P lan A

4e . P lan A

S ha f t 4• ‚k

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . .. .

°

( . 1 ) • z 2 . • -•

,

2 5 0 0 S ha f t 3

C a lca reous b nckea r th

2 66 2 65 P lan E l 2 4 0 0

P lan B

S ha f t 2

Wa te r t ab le 1 978

0, g

G rave l

r ee et m e t res lam

F ig .

4 :2

. 4 1 1 1P

C he lm sfo rd S i te AR : s e c t ion a nd p l an o ft h e w e l l ,S 31; r e p roduced b y c ou r te sy o fC he lm sfo rd A rchaeco log ica lT ru s t .

" 4 3

P late

9

H orse

s kull

C HAR

2 96.

D orsal v iew.

H orse s kull

C HAR 2 96.

L ateral v ie

C O $ 1 0

e • -i

C Z " r 1 g : 1 4

s kull C HAR 2 96.

V entral v iew .

-

H orse s kull

V entral v iew.

S haft 3 .

S heep m andible,

c .

6 m ths; p ig,

s kull f ragment.

S haft 4 . T wo h orse s kulls ( AR 2 09, m ale, c . 7y rs a nd A R 2 13, i mmature, c . 2 1 y rs); 2 c alf s kulls ( in 4 0 f ragments, 5 -9 m ths); 3 f oetal l ambs c ockerel b ones

( metacarpals); ( leg).

s heep

c .

6m ths

( whole s keleton);

3

S haft 5 . H uman t horacic v ertebra; m ature B os s kull ( AR 1 98, i n 9 0 f ragments); h orse s kull ( highly f ragmented c ranium , 4 0 f ragments); c alf m axilla, c . 1 5-18 m ths; 2 y oung s heep s kulls ( frontal/maxilla, 1 8-24 m ths). S haft 6 . H uman s kull ( one f ragment); B os s kull f ragments; y oung c alf mandible, 1 8 m ths; d og m andible; f owl b one ( leg). T he f oetal l ambs w ere i dentified f rom t he d entition a nd t he m etac arpal d iaphysial l engths f or which H abermehl ( 1975) g ives f igures. L ittle r esidual b one i s p resent, s ince n o l oose t eeth w ere f ound. I ndeed, t he i mmature s heep m andibles a nd l ong b ones w ere v ery w ell p reserved,

e .g.

t he f oetal

l ambs.

S ince t he s ite i s a djacent t o t he Mansio, t he r emains o f w orno ut h orses c ould h ave b een d isposed o f i n a d isused w ell. H owever, i n s hafts 1 a nd 4 t here a re t he r emains o f h orses which w ere c ertainly n ot o ld e nough f or l ight w ork. F urthermore, where a re t he p ost-cranial b ones o f t he o ther f our h orse s kulls a nd t he l imb b ones f rom t he h orse's r ight s ide i n s haft 2 ? D itch 6 7 o n s ite AR y ielded s ome h orse b ones, b ut t hese p redate t he w ell d eposit. N one o f t he h orse r emains s howed s igns o f b utchery. I t i s c urious t hat s hafts 2 a nd 4 c ontained s uch a l arge number o f f oetal s heep. P resent-day l ambing o ccurs i n t he e astern c ounties e ither b etween m id-January a nd t he e nd o f F ebruary o r b etween m id-March a nd m id-April. A l ate-lambing f lock a ppears t o b e m ore p rofitable t han a n e arly o ne f or a n umber o f r easons i ncluding a d eath r ate a s h igh a s 2 0% a mong y oung l ambs i n t he f ormer ( James 1 960). T hese l ambs c ould t hus r epresent c asualties f rom a n e arly l ambing, t heir o ccurrence i n t he t own emphasising t he r ural n ature o f C helmsford o r t hey c ould b e t he r emnants o f a s pringtime s acrifice. V arious b ird b ones o ccurred i n t he w ell, a ll t he s pecies h aving s ignif icance i n t he R omano-Celtic w orld. F or i nstance t he r aven w as t hought b y t he C elts

t o b e c apable o f p rophecy

( Ross 1 974,

3 68).

R avens a re

c ommonly f ound o n R omano-British s ites b ut i t i s e mphasised t hat i n c onnection w ith t he C helmsford w ell, o nly t he w ing b ones o f 4 r avens w ere f ound. S ome z ooarchaeological e vidence o f i ts u se i n a ' ritual' c onnection i s p rovided b y W inklebury I ron A ge H ill f ort ( R . J ones 1 977). A whole s keleton w as f ound s pread e agled o n t he b ottom o f p it 2 611. T he c arpometacarpus e xhibited p athological b one c hanges. T he g oose w ill b e m entioned i n t he n ext s ection t ogether w ith E pona. S haft I c ontained s ome c ockerel b ones w hich c ame f rom a v ery l arge b ird; t he t otal l ength o f t he f emur ( GL) w as 9 3.9 mm a nd t hat o f t he t ibiotarsus, 1 34.4 mm .

I n a c omparison o f f owl b one f rom t he R oman N orth-western

P rovinces ( Section 5 .8) t he C helmsford f emur b one i s t he l argest o f i ts k ind, e xceeding t hose o f L auriacum i n N oricum. T he p eculiarities o f s kulls,

t he d eposit,

f oetal a nd y oung l ambs,

p articularly t he i solated h orse

h uman b one,

r aven,

c ockerel a nd g oose

b ones s uggest t hat t his c ould p ossibly b e a ' votive'

d eposit.

B one f ound a round t he w ell w as a nalysed w ithin t he s even p eriods o f o ccupation p resent. T he w ell w as f illed d uring p eriod V I:3 ( Table 1 85

4 :1). A l arge a mount o f t he b one c onsisted o f m inute s kull f ragments ( 500) a nd w as d istributed a s f ollows: P eriod I V, 8 7; p eriod V , 2 00; p eriod V I :1, 2 13. P eriods I V, V a nd V I:2 a re c haracterised b y m any m ore p ost-cranial h orse f ragments.

T hese,

a long w ith V I:3 r evealed

l arge f ragments o f a h orse s kull. C omplete h orse s kulls, t o t hose i n t he w ell, w ere a s f ollows: I V V V I:2

AR 1 08A AR 6 6 AR 9 0

c . c . c .

7 .7 y r 8 .1 y r. 5 y r

V I:3

AR 1 85

c .

7y r.

i n a ddition

m ale m ale

A n eonatal b aby b urial ( AR 3 11) w as a ssociated w ith p eriod V I:1, a s w as p art o f t he c ranium o f a h ornless s heep ( AR 2 86). T he h orse b ones f rom I V a nd V m ainly c onsisted o f a tlases, a xes, v ertebrae, c arpal a nd t arsal b ones. P eriod V I:3 l evels a lso c ontained a l eft m andible f ragment o f H omo

( AR 2 89),

a l ower s econd m olar o f a c at

( AR 8 9), a nd 3 h orse m olars ( AR 1 6, 8 9). A t otal o f 2 1 s heep/goat mandible f ragments f rom p eriod V I:3 l evels w as a ssigned t o v arious a ge s tages, a fter P ayne ( 1973) ( see T able 4 :2). S lightly m ore s heep a ppeared t o h ave b een k illed o ff i n t he f irst t welve m onths b ut n ot a s m any a s i n t he s ite I V d eposits ( 69.2%).

( 38.1%)

T here i s n othing p articularly u nusual a bout t his k ill-off p attern. T he s keletal e lement d ebris p er s pecies i n p eriod V I:3 a nd a lso i n t he o ther p hases s hows a p reponderance t owards t he l ess m eat-bearing b ones, i .e. m etapodials, m andibles, s kull f ragments a nd v ertebrae. T hese p articular h orse s kulls a nd b ones f rom C helmsford d o n ot r epresent ' head a nd h oof' b urial s ince o ther b ones w ere p resent n or d id a ny o f t he s kulls s how s igns o f b eing n ailed u p. T his w as p ract ised w ith c ow s kulls, e .g. t he s tone c arvings o f c ow s kulls w ith g arlanded h orns d epicted o n t he N imes A rch .

A lso t his d eposit i s

u nique i n t hat s kulls o f h orses w ere f ound a round a s w ell a s i n t he w ell, p articularly i n t he a djacent d itch . 4 .2.2

T he s ignificance o f t he h orse s kulls a nd b ones f rom s ite AR

C unliffe ( 1975, 8 9) h as d rawn a ttention t o t he f act t hat o f t he n umerous d eities w orshipped i n t he R oman w orld, ' a s urprising number' w ere c onnected w ith w ater. A t S ilchester i n i nsula x xxiiB, a n a psidal b uilding a nd p ortico w ere e xcavated; b ehind t hese s tructures w as a s mall v alley s tream . B oon ( 1974, 1 56) h as d escribed t he b uildings a s N ymphaea o r s hrines o f w ater-deities. A w ell o nly 2 m etres b ehind t he b uildings c ontained 2 p ots a nd s kulls o f h orse,

s heep a nd o xen.

T he p ractice o f s acrificing a n a nimal i n a w ell i s d escribed b y H orace, ' Spring o f B andusia, b righter t han c rystal, w orthy o f r ich w ine, w orthy o f f lowers, t omorrow b rings y ou a g oat, o n w hose f orehead t he y oung h orns g row w ith p romise o f l ove a nd b attles. I t's n ot t o b e: y our c ool w aters w ill f low r ed w ith t he b lood o f t he p layful k id .' ( Horace,

1 86

O des 3 ,

1 3)

A part

f rom t he O ctober H orse F estival

e vidence f or R oman h orse s acrifice i s

( Ogilvie 1 974),

s cant.

d ocumentary

T he G reeks s acrificed

h orses t o P oseidon a nd X erxes p ropitiated t he r ivers which h e c rossed b y s acrificing white h orses t o t hem ( Herod, V II, 1 14). O ne o f t he p revious D isney P rofessors o f A rchaeology a t C ambridge wrote a marv ellous t he

t reatise o n t he h orse

I llyrians,

T acitus

( Ridgeway 1 905).

I n t his h e d escribes

P ersians a nd G reeks a s s acrificing w hite h orses.

( Germania,

1 0)

d escribes h ow white h orses w ere h eld i n e steem

by t he G ermans, ' Although t he f amiliar m ethod o f s eeking i nformation f rom t he c ries a nd t he f light o f b irds i s k nown t o t he G ermans, t hey h ave a lso a s pecial m ethod o f warnings f rom h orses. t he

t heir o wn - t o t ry t o o btain omens a nd

T hese h orses a re k ept a t t he p ublic e xpense i n

s acred woods a nd g roves

t hat I h ave m entioned;

a nd u ndefiled b y a ny t oil i n t he s ervice o f man. k ing,

o r t he

walk b eside

c hief o f t he s tate, t hem t aking n ote o f

y oke

t hey a re p ure white T he p riest a nd t he

t hem t o a s acred c hariot a nd

t heir n eighs

a nd s norts.

N o k ind o f

omen i nspires g reater t rust, n ot o nly a mong t he co l la t ion p eople, b ut e ven among t he n obles a nd p riests, who t hink t hat t hey t hemselves a re but t he s ervants o f g ods'

t he g ods, w hereas

t he h orses a re p rivy t o t he

c ouncels.'

O n p resent e vidence h orse s acrifice a ppears t o b e v ery much a S candinavian-Teutonic t radition. D eposits o f h orse s kulls a nd f oot b ones h ave b een f ound i n Danish,

S wedish a nd G erman b ogs,

( South Z ealand, D enmark), F erdinand

( 1961);

T eichert

S weden),

( 1974);

S kedemosse

K arpf a nd G ejvall

( 1968);

( Oland,

B arsbek

a lso i n S outh R ussia a s e arly a s ( 1962)

O berdorla,

K r.

B oessneck,

( North G erman P lain), t he

e .g.

v .d. N obis

f ourth c entury A .D.

R isley

Mühlhausen, D riesch( 1952);

P iggott

o bserved t hat t he t radition i s e videnced i n t he c emeteries o f

t he s ub-mesolithic c ommunities

o f

( e.g.

O storf a nd T angermunde o n t he E lbe;

Västerbjers,

i n G otland,

t he e arly s econd m illenium B .C.

O len I sland a nd t he K ola p eninsular i n N .W.

Russia a nd t he L ake B aikal

r egion o f S iberia). H orse d eposit.

s kulls a nd e xtremity b ones A t D onnstetten,

K r.

r evealed b ones

o f h orse,

H owever b y f ar

t he g reatest number o f bones b elonged t o t he h orse,

t here b eing 6 s kulls t he

c ow,

c an a lso o ccur i n o ther t ypes o f

M ünsinger a w ell was e xcavated w hich s heep/goat,

p ig,

d og a nd r ed d eer.

a nd t he a ssociated e xtremity b ones.

f ind i s Hadrianic-Antonine

( 117-161 A .D.)

i s a n i mportant f ind s ince i t s hows

t hat t his

i s n ot n ecessarily c onfined t o b ogs a nd s hould b e

l ooked f or e lsewhere.

c onnections b etween w ell,

c ult o fferings, A lcock

f eels

b etween t he

8 )

l atter t wo d eposits, b ogs

T his

t ype o f h orse s acrifice

T hus a lthough t here a re p ossible ( 1965,

T he d ate o f

( Zimmerman 1 970).

l ake a nd b og

t here i s a b asic d ifference ' inspiring s uperstitious a we a nd

t error'. I n h er p aper o n s hafts, p its a nd w ells a s s anctuaries o f t he B elgic B ritons, R oss ( 1968) m entions s everal s ites where ' votive' d eposits o f h orse s kulls a nd b ones, n ot j ust f eet, have b een f ound. I ndeed s he emphasises t hat t he d istribution o f s hafts, p its a nd w ells i s v ery much i n t he s outh e ast o f B ritain. H owever, t he a uthor p roposes t hat t he s pread c ould p ossibly b e much w ider i f o ther t ypes o f s ite w ere u sed f or

t he s ame r itual.

A s a t D onstetten, where a w ell was u sed

i nstead o f

a b og,

i n a reas where i t was d ifficult t o b ore s hafts,

r ivers a nd

l akes m ay h ave b een u sed. 1 87

e tc.

A t A rdleigh i n E ssex a h ollowed-out t ree

t runk,

p acked i nside

a nd o utside w ith c lay, w as f ound i n a 1 .5m d eep p it i n g ravel. Among t he b ones a nd R omano-British s herds i nside w as t he s kull o f a y oung h orse. I n " Where B eards W ag A ll: t he r elevance o f t he o ral t radition", G eorge E wart E vans r elates, ' While I w as d iscussing t he f ind ( Ardleigh) w ith D avid T .-D. C larke, C urator o f C olchester M useum, h e r emarked, " You 've r eminded m e o f s omething - a n i ncident when I w as a b oy. M y f amily f armed a t H emel F empstead, a t W ood L ane, L everstock G reen, o n t he s ite o f t he p resent N ew T own. W e w ere d eepening a w ell, a nd a n o ld f arm-worker who w as h elping s aid: " They m ay f ind a h orse's h ead d own t here. " ( Evans 1 977, 2 26). A lso S mith ( 1978) d escribes h ow a f arm n ear B armby M oor i n E ast R iding w as l osing c attle, ' ... a nd s o t he f armer c onsulted t he l ocal w ise m an G eorge W ales, k nown t o b e a r eligious man. W ales o rdered a ll t he f arm h ands o ut o f s ight a nd w ith t he f armer's h elp h e d ug a p it i n t he g ateway o f t he f arm a nd b uried a y oung f oal. T his w as f ollowed b y s ome k ind o f i ncantation a nd t he nailing u p o f h orseshoes.' S he g ives a s a r eference f or t his W .D. W ood-Rees, ' A H istory o f B armby M oor f rom P rehistoric T imes',

1 911,

D eposits o f p ossible ' votive' f ollowing s ites b y R oss ( 1968). A rmsley, H ampshire B ekesbourne, K ent B irchington, K ent H eywood, W iltshire N ewstead P its I , V II,

5 9-61. h orse b ones w ere n oted a t t he

X VII, X XII, X XIII,

X XIV,

L VI, L XXXIX,

X CII

N orthfleet, K ent R amsgate, K ent G reenhithe, K ent H ardham , S ussex S andwich, K ent S ome a dditional B ritish s ites w ere n oted b y t he a uthor. A t t he I ron A ge H ill F ort o f W inklebury, t hree w hole s kulls e merged f rom c ontexts 3 919 ( pit 3 916, 0 076/1366) o ne h orse s kull, a nd 2 137 ( pit 2 129,

0 836/1326)

t wo h orse s kulls.

A s ection a cross

t he F ulham P alace M oat,

L ondon r evealed a R oman

h orse a nd d og s kull buried t ogether i n a p it f acing e ast a nd s ealed o ver b y t he R oman r oad s urface ( Nat . H istory Museum , B .M.) T he h orse w as o ld, a ged a t l east 1 5 y ears. A t I ron A ge Appleford o n t he T hames f loodplain a h orse s kull o f c . 5 y ears o ld w as e xcavated f rom a p it ( in W ilson 1 979) a nd s everal p its a t S outh C adbury C astle c ontained d eliberately b uried s kulls o f c attle a nd h orses ( Alcock 1 969, 3 6). A l arge l ate R oman w ell a nd s urrounding a rea w as e xcavated a t A llen a nd H anburys, W are. T he w ell c ontained many c omplete s keletons o f p igs a nd d ogs a t t he b ottom .

A n a lmost i ntact h orse s kull c ame

f rom a p it w hich h ad b een c ut b y t he w ell.

T wo o ther h orse s kulls,

o ne c omplete a nd o ne b roken c ame f rom t he f oundation t renches o f a s mall n earby r oadside t emple. T here w as a s catter o f i nfant b urials t o t he w est o f t he t emple a nd t wo v otive t riple v ases t o t he e ast s ide b uried i n t he s urface o f t he s oft s andy s ide t rack t o E rmine S treet ( Clive P artridge,

p ers.

c omm .).

T wo a djoining p its a t B ishopstone i n

1 88

t he l ate R oman P eriod r evealed i n t he o ne p it t he v ertebrae, u nfused, o f a c ow a nd i n t he o ther a n i mmature h orse w ith f ragmented s kull a nd a rticulated v ertebral c olumn, w ith e piphyses u nfused . N o l imbs w ere p resent b ut t here w ere o ne p air o f s capulae a nd a m axilla 3 -4 y rs ( Gebbels 1 975). D eposition o f i solated h orse

l imbs i n p its h ave b een n oted a t

W alls, S taff. ( Ross, p ers. c oan .); B arton C ourt F arm , a n I ron A ge p it ( 397) w hich c ontained t he a rticulated b ack l egs o f a h orse a nd t he r ight b ack l eg f rom b elow t he f emur o f a c attle b east

( Wilson,

p ers.

c omm .); W inklebury w here c ontext 2 254 r evealed p art o f a t horax a nd a n a rticulated h ind l imb o f a h orse. T he C eltic g oddess E pona was p atroness o f h orses, a nd i s a ssociat ed w ith a nd o ften h as t he s ymbols o f t he M atres w ho w ere a lso r iver g oddesses. W orship o f E pona w as l argely c entred i n e astern G aul a t A leise-St.-Reine w here M agnen h as c atalogued o ver 2 53 i nscriptions a nd m onuments t o t he g oddess ( Magnen 1 953). E vidence o f t he c ult i s s carce i n B ritain. A l ife-sized h orse's h ead f rom a s tatue w as u ncove red o n t he s ite o f a t emple a t W roxeter ( Lewis 1 966), p erhaps i ndicat ive o f E pona w orship. R oss ( 1974, 4 01) d escribes a f unerary t ile f rom R oussas d ating t o t he f ourth c entury A .D. w hich s hows ' the h ag-like g oddess r iding s ide s addle o n t he b ack o f a g oose.' O ther a nimals a ssociated w ith E pona a re t he d og a nd t he r aven; a s tele f rom A ltrier s hows E pona w ith a d og a nd r aven ( Green 1 977, 3 14). T here a re m any o ther e xamples o f

' votive'

s hafts,

p its a nd w ells

l isted b y R oss ( 1968) t hough a f ew o f t hese c ould b e n ormal r ubbish d umps. D eposits o f d og r emains m erit s pecial a ttention s ince, a s w ith t he h orse i t w as n ot c ommonly e aten a nd h ence i ts b ones w ould n ot n ormally c onstitute f ood r efuse. T here a re r emains f rom a w ell a t A sthall, O xfordshire, 5 s keletons o f t errier-type d ogs, a h orse's j awb one a nd o ther a nimals; a nother w ell a t C aerwent r evealed 5 d og s kulls a nd i n a s haft a t E well t here w as a l arge b eheaded d og, p lus a c ock a nd h are ( Ross 1 968). D og c remations w ere d iscovered i n a r itual s haft a t W arbank, K eston ( Fox 1 967) a nd i n a 2 00ft s haft n ear t he M untham C ourt T emple t here w ere m any d og s keletons ( Worthing Museum ). O n t he N orth G erman P lain a t B arsbek,

a s acrificial b og,

d og w as

t he m ain a nimal s acrificed i n t he f irst c entury A .D. ( 73%). O ther a nimals i ncluded c attle, s heep, h orse, p ig, g oat a nd f ox ( Nobis 1 952). I n B ritain, o n t he U pchurch M arshes, s even p uppies w ere b uried i n u rns w ithin a n a rea o f 2 5 f eet d uring t he l ate s econd t o f ourth c enturies ( Hume 1 956). A s imilarity o f e nvironment i s a pparent b etween t hese t wo s ites. I n t he R oman-Celtic w orld t he d og w as c onnected w ith h ealing a nd d eath. P ossibly t he p revious e xamples h ad s ome s ort o f c onnection w ith t he u nderworld. 4 .2.3

H orse b urial

H orse b urials a re n ot u nknown i n t he R oman p eriod, b oth w ithin a nd o utside t he E mpire. I n E urope t here i s a c oncentration o f b urials i n t he m iddle o f t he D anube b asin, i .e. w est H ungary a nd e ast A ustria ( Müller-Wille 1 972, A bb. 3 8). N ot o nly d oes t his a rea e mbrace p arts 1 89

o f t he R oman p rovinces o f N oricum a nd P annonia b ut a lso S armatian t erritory. A n e xample o f h orse b urial i n G aul i s p rovided b y t he s ite o f S ogny-aux-Moulins ( Marne) w here 2 6 g rave-pits w ere e xcavated ( Schaefer 1 926; M üller-Wille 1 972). N o h uman i nterment w as r ecorded a nd t wo o f t he p its c ontained t wo h orses. T he f inds w ere d ated t o t he s econd c entury A .D. b y c oins b uried w ith t he a nimals. D ogs, g oats a nd o ther a nimals h ad b een d eposited i n t he p its, t ogether w ith v essels a nd o ther o bjects. Müller-Wille p oints o ut t hat t he p ainstaking l aying d own o f t he c adavers a nd t he g iving o f g ifts s hows t hat t he f unerals f ollowed d etermined r ites. T his i s b orne o ut b y t he b urial o f t he d onkey a t H eidelberg d escribed i n s ection 5 .9.1. T he o bvious p arallel o f p lacing t he c oin i n t he j aws, w ith t hat o f p lacing i t i n t he m outh o f h umans, i n o rder t o p ay t he f erryman C haron i n t he u nderworld i s s triking. T here i s n othing i nexplicable c oncerning t hese b urials; t hey a re s traightforward p et b urials a nd a re e xcellent e xamples o f R oman r egard f or a nimals. B urials h ave a lso b een f ound a t K refeld G ellep ( section 5 .3) w hich w as R omans a nd t he B atavians.

t he s cene o f a b attle b etween t he

B arton C ourt F arm v illa e xhibited a h orse b urial

( 298) b ut

u nfortunately m any o f t he b ones h ad b een p loughed a way. a s b eing p ost I ron A ge.

I t w as n oted

I n E ngland a d ouble h orse b urial w as f ound a t I ron A ge F armoor. T wo p artly d ismembered h orse s keletons w ere e xhumed, o ne l ying o n t op o f t he o ther ( F37, A rea 1 ) i n a s mall r ound b ottomed p it. T he f ront l imbs, c audal a nd s ome s acral v ertebrae w ere l acking f rom b oth s kelet ons, a nd a lso t he u pper s keleton h ad n o m andible. E vidence s uggests t he a nimals w ere s kinned L ambrick

( 1979)

t ion i s d oubtful.

( Wilson 1 979).

c laims t hat t he e vidence f or a ' ritual'

H owever h e d oes m ention,

c onnota-

q uoting C unliffe,

t hat

i solated h orse f orequarters h ave b een f ound i n p its. T hus a r itual b urial c annot b e e ntirely e liminated . W ilson e ndorses t his b y c omp aring t he F armoor h orse a ges ( 4 t o 5 4 y ears a nd 3 t o 4 4 y ears) w ith t he B lewburton h orses ( section 4 .2.4) ( two a t 5 y rs) s kull o f s imilar a ge, f ound buried i n a p it.

a nd t he A ppleford

P iggott m entioned t he o ccurrence o f a d ouble h orse b urial R omano-British) 1 962,

u nder a r ound b arrow a t E ast H endred,

B erks

( possibly

( Piggott

1 18). 4 .2.4

F oundation d eposits

M iranda G reen h as n oted t hat f oundation d eposits a nd b urials w ere f airly w idespread o ccurrences a nd w ere u sed t o a ppease t he g ods o r t o ward o ff e vil s pirits ( Green 1 976, 7 3). T he a uthor h as n oted t hat h orse b urials h ave b een f ound b eneath w alls a t t he R oman T heatre o f L enzburg ( Schmid 1 966c) a nd t he R omano-British s ite o f B inscombe G odalming

( Done 1 977).

A lso 7 0 y ards w est o f t he R omano-Celtic t emple

a t B ourton-on-Grounds i s a b asilical b uilding w here h orses w ere b uried u nder t he t hreshold t ogether w ith 2 00 o r m ore c oins ( late t hird t o f ifth c entury) ( Green 1 965). T hree a lmost c omplete s keletons o f y oung l ambs ( a f ew m onths o ld) w ere f ound i n a c onstruction t rench o f t he f ort w all a t W atercrook ( Fifield 1 979). A t C hew P ark v illa g roups o f a nimal b ones w ere f ound b uried i n s oil c lose t o t he w alls o f t he v illa.

1 90

T he p eculiarity o f t he d eposit h inted t hat t hey m ight b e f oundation b urials.

S eventeen a nimals w ere d istributed i n 1 0 g roups,

e ach g roup

c onsisting o f m ainly s eparate l egs a nd h eads w ith a p ortion o f n eck a ttached ( Harcourt 1 977). B ushe-Fox ( 1913), e xcavating a t emple a t W roxeter, u ncovered a p ot c ontaining o x b ones u nder t he f oundations o f t he s outh e ast c orner o f t he a mbulatory w all.

H ill,

I n t he U pper T hames V alley, a t t he I ron A ge f ort o f B lewburton 4 c omplete h orse s keletons w ere f ound i n t he e ntrance p assage

( after H arding 1 972, 7 0). T hese b urials a re f aintly r eminiscent o f t he f oal b urial a t B armby M oor i n s ection 4 .2.2. H arding a lso p oints o ut t hat s imilar b urials o f o x a nd h orse w ere f ound b y t he s outhern g ateway o f P imperne, D orset. 4 .2.5

T emple s acrifices

H ardly a ny r esearch h as b een u ndertaken o n t emple a nimal b ones. I n m any e xcavation r eports t hey a re o nly n oted f leetingly.

H owever,

o ne n otable e xception i s t he h uge d eposit o f b one f rom t he f ourth c entury U ley T emple. N inety-four p ercent o f t he r emains c ome f rom s heep/goat w ith a h igh p roportion b eing g oats. T here w ere t wo k inds o f g oat, o ne w ith s traight h orn c ores a nd t he o ther h ad h orn c ores d isplaying a d istinct t wist . M ature m ale g oats w ere p referred a nd t he d eliberate r emoval o f f rontals a nd h orn c ores w as a c haracteristic o f t he c ult. T he r emaining a nimals w ere c attle, 2 %, p ig, 0 .75%, h orse, 0 .03%,

d og,

1 % a nd f owl,

2 %.

T here w ere a lso d eer,

s mall m ammals,

b irds, a mphibians a nd s hellfish ( Levitan 1 977). T he g reat n umber o f g oat b ones a nd p resence o f c ockerels s uggests t he d eity w orshipped w as M ercury. A lthough t he a uthor has s till t o r eceive a f inalised d ating f or t he o ctagonal R oman T emple a t C helmsford, s ome p arallels a re e merging i n c omparison w ith U ley. A h igh p roportion o f s heep/goat i s a pparent w ith a p redominance o f s heep i n t he f orm o f r ams. A s a t U ley, t here w as a n i ntentional r emoval o f f rontals a nd h orn c ores. C ockerels w ere p resent a s w hole s keletons m inus h eads a nd a lso c attle, h orse, r ed d eer, r oe d eer, d og a nd h uman i nfants i n much s maller n umbers. P ossibly t he d eity b eing w orshipped w as M ercury. O ne p eculiarity, w hich a t p resent s eems u nique t o t his s ite, i s t he f airly h igh i ncidence o f d isease. O ut o f a ll t he s ites a nalysed a t C helmsford, t he t emple s ite ( CH/K) h as b y f ar t he g reatest p ercentage o f p athological b one. T he s heep w ere a m otley b unch, m any j aws s uffering t ooth o vercrowding a nd p eriodontal d isease. T here w ere a lso a s urprising n umber o f f ractured l eg b ones. A h orse m etatarsus h ad a s light t wist a bout i ts l ong a xis a nd e xhibited a n e xostosis. I t m ight b e a rgued t hat o nly t he b iggest a nd b est a nimals w ould h ave b een s acrificed; a fter a ll t here w ere s uch s tringent c onditions l aid d own f or t he s acrificial a ct i tself ( Ogilvie 1 974, 4 8-49). O n t he o ther h and i t a ppears e minently s ensible t o r id o neself o f w eak, s ickly a nimals. I ndeed t he c lassical a uthors c laim t his w as c ommon p ractice. ( Varro I I, 5 ). I n t his c onnection i t i s i nteresting t o n ote

t hat s ite A R P eriod

V I r evealed a n avicular b one o f a h orse s howing a dvanced n avicular d isease ( Dr C . C ollis, E quine R esearch S tation, N ewmarket).

1 91

S heep b urials w ere

f ound b eneath t he s lab f loor o n t hree s ides

o f t he R oman T emple a mbulatory a t H enley W ood, Y atton ( Wilson 1 964). T hey a re d ated c . 2 25-250 t o t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury A .D. I n a R omano-Celtic s hrine a t C aerwent a fter 2 65 A .D , a d og s kull, b ird a nd s nake b ones w ere f ound w hich m ay b e e vidence o f a h ealing c ult. O utside t he t own w alls, r itual p its w ere u ncovered n ear a p olyg onal R omano-Celtic t emple. O ne w ell c ontained h uman a nd o x s kulls, t wo c ontained t he s kulls o f 5 d ogs ( Ross 1 968). A 2 00 f oot d eep w ell, d ated t o t he f irst c entury A .D. a nd c ontaining d og s keletons w as l ocated a t t he R oman T emple, M untham C ourt. T wo s hallow p its i n t he t emple f loor c ontained o x s kulls, b ones a nd a j ug ( Holleyman a nd B urstow 1 957; L ewis 1 966). A n o x s kull h ad b een p laced b ehind t he a ltar i n a s pecial c avity a t t he T riangular T emple, V erulamium c . 3 00 A .D. T he T emples o f H ockwold a nd V erulamium b oth h ad d eposits o f p ig a nd b ird b ones; a t t he f ormer s ite t hey w ere e xcavated f rom t he b ases o f t he c ella c olumns ( late t hird t o f ourth c entury) w hile a t t he l atter s ite, t hey w ere f ound i n a s eries o f s mall p its i n t he T riangular T emple t ogether w ith s heep a nd o x b ones ( Lewis 1 966). A s a t C helmsford, d eposits o f f owl b ones o ccurred a t H ockwold. A lso i n f ront o f t he H ockwold T emple t wo e arly s econd c entury c remations h ad b een b uried, s ealed b y d eposits o f a ntlers. B oth t he p re-Roman a nd R oman l evels a t L ydney h ad d eer r epresented b y a ntlers, i n t he f ormer d eposits, f allow d eer, a nd i n t he l atter d eposits, r ed d eer w hich a lso h ad s awn o ff a ntlers ( Wheeler 1 932). T he p resence o f f allow d eer i n t he p re-Roman l evels i ndicates t he s anct ity o f t he s ite s ince t his s pecies w as r are i n b oth t he p re-Roman a nd R oman p eriod. I n S witzerland a nimal b ones f rom t he R oman T emple a t H üttenboschen s howed t hat t he s tag w as t he m ost i mportant a nimal s acr ificed ( via t he n umber o f b one f ragments) f ollowed b y t he h orse a nd t hen t he e lk ( 57 s tag, 3 0 h orse, 2 5 e lk, 2 o x, 1 r oe d eer, I b ear, 1e agle, 1 m an). T he b ones w ere s ituated a t t he t emple's s outheastern e dge o n t he s hore o f a l ake ( Schmid 1 966b). A t E lst, a R oman t emple i n H olland, c attle w ere t he a nimals m ainly s acrificed ( 654 c attle, 2 7 s heep/goat, I s heep, 1 g oat, 1 7 p ig, 2 h are a nd 1 d og; B ogaers 1 955). T he d eities w orshipped i n t hese t emples c an o nly b e g uessed, p articu larly w hen C eltic e lements a re i nvolved. B ones f rom r itual m eals c overed t he f loor o f t he a nteroom o f t he T emple t o M ithras a t C arrawburgh. P ig b ones w ere c ommon w ith s ome l amb/kid a nd v eal, c hicken l eg a nd w ing b ones w ere f ound o n t he n ave f loor.

A s kull o f a c hicken w as f ound i n a r itual d eposit b elow t he

a ltar o f M ithras,

C arrawburgh

( Fraser

1 951).

T he t hird t o f ourth c entury R omano-British s hrines a t B rigstock , N orthants a re u nique a mong t emple/shrine d eposits b ecause w hole a nimal ' carcasses h ad b een b uried i n t hem , e .g. y oung s heep/goat s keletons ( F14 o f t he c ircular s hrine a nd F 48 o f t he p olygonal s hrine). A lso a rticulated f orelegs a nd h indlegs o f o x w ere p ut o n t he f loor s urface o f t he c ircular s hrine ( King 1 963). T his i s r eminiscent o f t he i solat ed a rticulated h orse a nd c ow l imbs m entioned i n 4 .2.2. T he c ult f ollowed i s a t p resent u nknown b ut f our b ronze h orse f igurines, t wo w ith r iders, w ere f ound. 1 92

4 .2.6

P uits F unjraires

T he r itual i mportance o f s ome s hafts b ecame k nown i n F rance w ith t he ' Puits F un raires'. T hese a re r itual o r b urial p its f ound o n G allic a nd G allo-Roman s ites, p articularly i n A quitaine, a g reat n umb er d ating f rom 5 0 t o 3 0 B .C. T he p ractice c ontinued u ntil t he f ourth c entury A .D. T hey t end t o b e c haracterised b y n ot o nly c remations a nd f unerary o fferings, i ncluding p ottery a nd d omestic a nimal b ones, b ut a lso b y a nimals a nd f rogs. O ne a t t he v illa o f r epresented o ut

i n t he f orm o f i nsectivores a nd a mphibians, e .g. t oads e xample i llustrates t he t ype w ell; e .g. t he f our p its M ontmaurin, f ourth c entury, w here 9 1 a nimals w ere o f 5 50 f ragments ( Poulain-Josien 1 958). T here w ere

3 i nsectivores i ncluding t he g reater w hite-toothed s hrew , 1 6 r odents r epresented b y w ater, f ield a nd r ed-backed v oles a nd 7 2 a mphibian s pecies e mbracing t he t oad a nd f rog. 4 .2.7

' Odd '

d eposits

E xplanations f or t hese d eposits a re d ifficult t o f ind. a ) U nderneath B asel C athedral a R oman p it w as f ound c ontaining t he r emains o f a y oung b ear, c . 3 m ths, a k itten c . 21 2 m / ths, a p uppy c . 3m ths a nd a n a dult h en. L arge a mphora s herds c overed t he p it. S chmid ( 1966a) i nterpreted t his a s a s pringtime s acrifice. b ) A t L e S anctuaire d es B olards ä N uits S aint G eorges ( ate d 'Or), 4 95 f ragments o f b one w ere e xcavated o f w hich 4 67 w ere s houlder b lades ( Poulain 1 976). c )

I solated a nimal s kulls b uried w ith 3 i nfant i nhumations w ere f ound

a t B arton C ourt F arm ; e .g. a R omano-British s heep s kull a nd i nfant, ad og s kull a nd i nfant a nd a nother d og s kull a nd i nfant. O utside t he R oman t own o f B ath o n t he e ast b ank o f t he A von, t wo s tone c offins w ere f ound, o ne c ontaining a m ale ( ?) i nhumation a nd t he o ther a h orse s kull ( Scarth 1 876, 2 8; C unliffe 1 969, 2 16). S carth s tates h orse s kull h ad b een f ound i n a s tone c ist a t C ombe D own . d )

t hat a nother

A t t he N orth C ave, Humberside, w ere 4 b urials o f c omplete c ows.

I n o ne c ase, c arcass

a ll f our l imbs w ere c ut o ff a nd l aid s eparately,

o ver t he

( Mackay, A rchaelogical E xcavations 1 974).

e ) A g rave w ith a w hole c ow s keleton w as f ound a t R egensburg. T he g rave c ontained t he r emains o f numerous e ggs, t wo c lay v essels w ith e ggs, a c oin a nd a k nife. C opper c oins numbering 7 50 c overed t he g rave which d ates f rom 2 55 A .D. ( von E lbe 1 975, 3 25). I t i s k nown t hat r eal e ggs w ere o ften p ut i n burials o r v otive d eposits ( Arthur 1 977, 3 68) p resumably a s f ood o ffering t o s ustain t he d ead o n t he j ourney i nto t he a fterlife. I t i s b elieved t hat t he b urial o f t he R egensburg c ow w as c onnected w ith f ertility r ites

( von E lbe

1 975).

f ) D avies ( 1967) r ecords a t radition t hat a t R ibchester a s kull o f a n o x w as f ound c overed w ith l eather a nd s tudded w ith g old . H e s tated t hat t he s kull m ust h ave b een u sed f or s ome s acrificial p urpose a nd a f ew l ines f rom t he C hristian p oet P rudentius b rings t o l ife t his p ossibility,

1 93

' A l arge bull, w ith g rim ,

s haggy f eatures

a nd g arlands o f f lowers r ound h is n eck o r e ntangling h is h orns, T he v ictim 's h ead i s a nd

t he

s heen o f

i s e scorted

t o t he

s pot.

s himmering w ith g old

t he g old

l eaf

l ends c olour

T he a nimal d estined f or s acrifice

t o h is h air.

i s a t t he a ppointed p lace.'

( Prudentius P eristephanon 1 0, T he a uthor h as n ot p rovided a n e xhaustive d eposits.

T he a im w as

b one e vidence R oman.

t o

i n o rder

1 021)

l ist o f v otive b one

t ry t o c onnect v arious p ieces o f e nigmatic

t o r eveal

t he r eligious

s ide o f

t he P rovincial

E xtreme c aution must b e e xercised i n a n i nterpretation o f a ny

r eligious

i tem.

a ccount o f

D rury p rovides a s plendid e xample o f t his i n h is

t he L ittle W altham p ots.

' The b uried p ots 1 68 a nd 1 76 a re

e nigmatic. I f t hey a re c ontemporary w ith t he h uts i n which t hey w ere f ound, t hey s eem t oo s mall t o b e p ractical c ontainers s unk i nto t he f loor.

W hilst o ne m ight s uggest a v otive f unction,

a m ore p rosaic

s olution i s p ossible - w ere t hey, f or i nstance, m ouse t raps? T he p rofile o f 1 68 w ould c ertainly p revent a ny m ouse f rom c limbing o ut h aving o nce 4 .3

f allen i n.'

Chelmsford - t he

( Drury 1 978,

f irst f our c enturies A .D.

T he f ollowing i s a l ist o f i n

t he

t ext

( fig.

i ncluding t he

1 25).

4 :3).

t he d ifferent t ypes o f s ite d iscussed

S ites AR,

AK a nd Z f orm t he Mansio

P hase

S ite AA

I V

f eatures a ssociated w ith t imber b uildings F 2.10

P hase V S ite S

P hase

6 0/65-80

P its F 2.9

c .

V I

P its F 1.8

c .

1 20/130-200/210

I V

P ost-Boudican F ort

c .

6 0/5-80

V

8 0-120/130 C ivilian buildings o n r oad f rontage

VI:2

F illing o f

V II:1

C ivilian buildings

c .

2 00/10-300

V II:2 V II:2

D itch f ill K ilns

c . c .

3 00-410 3 00-350

P hase V I

S ite T

t own d efences c .

1 20/130-160 1 60/75-200/10

C ivilian f eatures P its

s econd c entury t hird c entury

V II:2

C lay p its

f ourth c entury

V II:2

V otive d eposit

f ourth c entury

V II:1

A lthough a g reat d eal o f b one w as e xamined o f i t w as v ery

8 0-120/130

VI:1

c .

f rom t hese

f ragmentary a nd o f a r esidual n ature.

Irom r eliably d ated c ontexts w ere u sed a nd s ome o f v ery s mall.

c omplex,

' votive w ell'.

s ites,

much

O nly s amples

t hese

s amples a re

T hus a ny c onclusions d rawn f rom t his e vidence must b e

m ade w ith r eservation.

F ollowing t he m ethod o utlined i n s ection 1 .2.4

o nly s amples with t he number o f b one

f ragments g reater t han 9 0 c ould

b e c ompared v ia

4 :4).

t he M IN m ethod

( Fig.

1 94

f r om

t he

l a te

R oads ze ge re

f i rs t

c en tury

k nown

o nwards c on jec tured

D ens i ty o f o ccupa t ion b o ld s t ipp le

F ig.

4 :3

T he R omano-British s mall

t own a t C helmsford

( Caesaromagus) ;

r eproduced b y c ourtesy o f C helmsford A rchaeological T rust.

GRAPH

OF

mIN/E

AGAINST

E

FIG.

4 :4

6 0

MIN

50

of

= Minimum Number Animals

E = Number

40

of

Bone

Fragments

-

30

20

10

0 0

50

100

1 50

200

1 96

2 50

3 00

3 50

400

4 50

4 .3.1

A nimal b one r emains

f rom t he C helmsford s ites

S ites Z a nd AK S ites Z a nd A K a re c onsidered t ogether, s ince t here w as v ery l ittle b one f rom AK ( Table 4 :3). I n a ddition t o t he t abulated b one, Z P eriod V I:3 a lso p roduced a f ragment o f a f ox ( L115), 2 f ragments o f h are ( L115), a nd 5 f ragments o f c at ( Z15; a b urial). H ardly a ny r emains o f c at w ere p resent i n C helmsford, w here

t hey w ere p rofuse.

b ones o f a verage l arger.

s ize.

S ite

u nlike P ortchester

( Grant 1 975)

T he C helmsford p artial burial c ontained T hose a t G adebridge P ark v illa w ere much

T otal

l ength o f h umerus

( mm)

S mallest b readth o f d iaphysis

C helmsford

1 50-200 A .D.

9 7

G adebridge P ark

7

1 46

"

1 - 2C .

1 1

1 01

8

P eriod V l evels o n b oth s ites y ielded s imilar n umbers f ragments. m andible,

T he d og b urial p remolar 4 ,

( AK 2 9,

2 t ibiae

f ragments.

S ites

S ,

T he d og w as

P eriod V I:2,

3 )

2 u lnae

l ess

o f h orse

c onsisted o f

( proximal e piphyses,

( proximal e piphyses n ot f used), s kull

( mm )

( epiphyses n ot f used)

t han 1 1

a r ight

n ot f used),

2 f emora

a nd 3

y ears o ld a t d eath.

T a nd AA

T he f aunal r emains f rom t hese t hree s ites a re s ummarised i n T able 4 :4. I t must b e s tressed t hat t he e conomic p attern w hich emerges f rom t he f ollowing d iscussion m ay b e c onsiderably c hanged i n t he f uture a s a p rogressively l arger a mount o f m aterial b ecomes a vailable f rom C helmsford.

H owever,

s ince

t he b one d eposits

v otive t hey h ave b een e xcluded f rom t his I n m ents

t he

f irst c entury,

s uggests

e vidence f rom t he p ercentage number o f

s heep/goat i s m ore d ominant t han c attle.

t icularly e vident i n w here

f rom s ite A R a re p ossibly

c onsideration.

t he P eriod I V l evels o f

l amb w as v ery p opular.

f rag-

i s p ar-

t he p ost-Boudican f ort

T his c ontrasts w ith e vidence f rom t he

f irst c entury l evels o f S heepen a nd B alkerne L ane, c attle w as

T his

t he p redominant s pecies.

C olchester where

I n s ection 2 :14,

4 o ut o f 1 0

f irst c entury m ilitary s ites had s heep/goat i n p rimary o rder o f i mport ance, i n

e .g.

Margidunum,

t he c ivilian

L incoln, Waddon H ill a nd H od H ill.

l evels o f SV I:1

s heep/goat 2 7.4%;

t here i s

p ig 7 .3%) w hereas

a s wing

s ite AA V I

H owever,

t owards c attle

( F1.8)

h as

( 65.2%;

s imilar p er-

c entages o f s heep/goat ( 46%) a nd c attle ( 43.9%) w ith p ig a t 1 0.1%. D uring t he R oman p eriod, t he l evel o f p ig f luctuates b etween 2 .9% a nd 1 2.3% e xcept i n P eriod I V o f 2 7.8%.

t he p ost-Boudican F ort w hen i t r ose

T his p ercentage i s n ot a s l arge a s

S heepen b ut i s g reater t han t hose a t l ate R oman p eriod, SV II:1

7 8.9%

- AA V I

( F1.8),

t he p ercentages

t he B alkerne L ane s ite.

c attle a re c learly d ominant,

a nd a lso i n SV II:2,3 6 5.5%. S I V,

S V I:1,

I n

e .g. t he

t o

f ound a t

SV I:2,

I n t he 7 0.7%;

l arger b one

s amples

S V I:2 a nd S V II:2,3 - s heep/goat r anges

f rom 2 3.2% t o 4 7.9%. T he e vidence

f rom t he N umber o f F ragments M ethod i s

a r elative a ssessment o f M IN

s upported b y

( Table 4 :5), b earing i n m ind c omparisons 1 97

o f s amples b elow 9 0 f ragments w ill b e s ubject t o e rror.

I f t he m eat

w eight p otential i s c onsidered ( Table 4 :6) t hen a s w ith C olchester a nd S heepen t he m ost i mportant a nimal w as t he c ow ( for e xplanation o f t he m ethod, s ee s ection 2 .4). A lthough c attle p rovided t he b ulk o f t he m eat f or t he p ost-Boudican F ort, l amb a nd s uckling p ig w ere e vidently p opular. S heep m andibles f rom t his p hase, 2 6 i n number, w ere a ged b y P ayne's m ethod ( 1973). M ost o f t he a nimals w ere k illed i n t he f irst y ear ( 69.2%), i n m arked c ontrast t o t he s ituation i n t he f ourth c entury c ivil s ettlement ( S V II:2) where o ver 5 0% s urvived t wo w inters ( Table 4 :7). I t w ould b e r ash a t p resent t o d iscuss a gricultural e conomics i n d etail o n t he b asis o f s uch a f ew m andibles. H owever, i f t his e vidence i s c onsidered w ith t hat o f t he e piphysial f usion d ata t here a ppears t o b e a n i ncrease i n t he number o f mature s heep a fter t he s econd c entury ( Table 4 :8). I n s ection 3 .17 i t w as i ndicated t hat w ool b ecame m ore i mportant i n t he l ater R oman p eriod a nd e vidence f rom C helmsford s upports

t his.

N either c attle n or p ig p rovided e nough m andibles f or a geing. T he r atio o f f used t o u nfused p ig m etapodials f or t he p ost-Boudican f ort w as 1 :7. T hroughout t he f irst t o f ourth c enturies m ainly m ature c attle w ere e aten ( Table 4 :8). 4 .3.2

C attle s exing

T he f ourth c entury c attle b ones ( S V II:2) w ere s exed a fter t he m ethods o f H igham a nd M essage ( 1963). T he m etacarpal m aximum d istal d iaphysial w idth a nd m aximum d istal w idth m easurements w ere p lotted i n F ig. 4 .5. T he D BL a nd M BL i ndices o f H oward ( 1963) w ere u sed o n t he t hree c omplete b ones s o t hat t heir t ertiary s exual c haracter m ight b e r ealised. T his i s i ndicated i n F ig. 4 .5. I t i s t herefore l ikely t hat t he l arger g rouping i s t hat o f c ows a nd t he s maller o f c astrates, t he r atio b eing 1 1:3. A v ariety o f t he C helmsford h orn c ores f rom t he f irst t o f ourth c entury a re i llustrated i n P late 1 5. 4 .3.3

T he C helmsford b irds

F ish b ones w ere n ot f ound b ut a v ariety o f b irds c ontributed t o t he d iet, t he m ost p opular b eing f owl ( Table 4 :9). N o w aterfowl w ere r ecovered i n c ontrast t o S heepen a nd t he l ater R oman l evels o f B alkerne L ane,

C olchester.

M ost o f t he b one w as f ragmentary t hough a f ew i ntact

b ones w ere m easured ( Table 4 :10). I f t hese b ones a re c ompared w ith t hose f rom o ther R omano-British s ites ( Table 3 :9), t he t arsometatarsus a nd u lna d o n ot a ppear p articularly l arge. H owever, t he h umerus m ean m easurement i s l arger t han t hat o f B KC s ite E 6, C olchester, E xeter, L ongthorpe a nd W oodcuts. A q uotation f rom M artial f urther s upports t he e vidence i n 2 .11 t hat t he R omans g elded c ocks, ' That t he c ock m ight n ot g row t hin b y o ver i ndulgence, h e h as b een g elded' ( Martial X III, 6 3). 4 .3.4

T he C helmsford d ogs

A m ale d og burial f rom T 10,

P eriod V I c ontained a r easonably

i ntact s kull a nd much o f t he p ost-cranial s keleton. T he s kull w as m easured a fter H arcourt ( 1974) a nd v .d. D riesch ( 1976): 1 98

DISTAL WIDTH

L C .

• 0

MAXIMUM DISTAL WIDTH

EPIPHYSIAL WIDTH

AGAINST

r c i

•

04- 0

•

•

0 — L n

• •

I n

0

7

L n I n

0

w il

HJUIM

I VISÄHdIdH

1 99

L n

T LSI U

P late 1 5

C attle h orn c ores

f rom C helmsford.

T he m ost p osterior a spect o f

t he o ccipital

t uberance t o t he a nterior margin o f b etween t he c entral i ncisors I II

N asion t o a lveolare ( Harcourt 1 974) B asal l ength ( v.d. Driesch 1 976) S nout i ndex

g ives

( Harcourt 1 974)

t he m edial

6 8.8 1 16.9

( Harcourt 1 974)

5 7.2

M easurements I a nd I II a re w ell w ithin t he r ange o f f or R omano-British d ogs ( Harcourt 1 974, 1 65). E vidence o f a rthritis was

p ro-

i ncisor a lveoli 1 20.3 mm

f ound o n t he

s ize H arcourt

l eft d istal humerus.

A nother d og burial was f ound a t s ite S 3 68(2) V 11:2, c onsisting o f 1 8 f ragments. A l eft f emur e xhibited a c hop t hrough t he d istal l ateral c ondyle. S ome l ong b one m easurements a re r ecorded i n T able 4 :11. w ithers h eights w ere e stimated a fter H arcourt m easurement f or S heepen

t he h umerus

( Table 2 :10).

( 1974).

T he

T he

l ength

f its w ell w ithin t he r ange g iven f or

H owever,

t he

l ength o f

t he C helmsford r adius

i s much g reater t han t hose o f S heepen a nd c ompares w ell w ith a r adius o f 2 32 mm f rom C olchester, B KC s ite E 6 ( Table 3 :7). B oth t he C helmsford a nd C olchester r adii c ome f rom v ery l arge d ogs, p ossibly h unting o r g uard a nimals, a nd a re o utside t he r ange o f R omano-British m easurem ents t hat Harcourt g ives ( 1974, 1 66). 4 .3.5

B utchery

T he b utchery m ethod d evised i n s ection 1 .2.4 h ad n ot b een d evised w hen t he C helmsford s amples w ere b eing a nalysed.

T herefore n o n umerical

d escriptions o f b utchery p atterns a re a vailable.

I ndeed s ome o f t he

d eposits e xhibited m uch f resh b reakage a nd w ould h ave b een u nfit f or s uch a n a nalysis. T he s keletal e lement p ercentages p er s pecies h ave b een c alculated i n T able 4 :12 V I,S I V ,

a nd f ig.

f or AA F 1.8 VI, o f mandibles w here T his

4 :6 a nd 4 :7

SV I:2 a nd S VII:2. S I V

f ewer m etapodials, a d istinct

H owever i n t he o n t he

f or t he main p eriods,

i .e. AA F 1.8

c attle butchery was b roadly s imilar

S V 1:2 and S VII:2,

i n SV 1:2;

s uggests

T he

e xcept f or

t he g reater p ercentage

e xhibited q uite a d ifferent p attern,

but m ore

s capulae a nd h umeri w ere u tilised.

t endency

t owards

t he m ore m eat b earing b ones.

f irst t hree p eriods g enerally,

l ess m eat b earing b ones,

t here w as a c oncentration

m etapodials a nd p halanges.

A s imilar p attern w as o bserved i n s heep/goat butchery i n A A F 1.8 V I, SV 1:2 a nd S V II:2 a lthough A A F 1.8 d id n ot h ave a s m any m andibles. O verall

t here w as a p reponderance o f m etapodials.

f ew m etapodials, S amples

b ut m ore m eat-bearing b ones

o f p ig butchery w ere

m etapodials, 4 .3.6 T here

I n c ontrast S I V h ad

( humeri,

l ow e xcept f or S I V ,

r adii a nd f emorae).

w here

t here w ere m any

humeri a nd r adii. T he

s ize o f

t he C helmsford d omestic a nimals

i s a d istinct d ifference i n s ize b etween t he m etacarpals o f

f ourth c entury C helmsford a nd B alkerne L ane, s amples w ere

t oo s mall

E 6,

C olchester.

f or a s tatistical a nalysis.

2 01

T he

A lthough t he

p . )

0

r i- 0 H

( 1 )

0

: 1 )

2 0

i 5 f i < x < <


>

Z 1 4 4 ) r ö 0 ( W , rH O U 4 J r ö

C olchester b ones w ere l arger, t hose f rom S heepen w ere a g reat d eal s maller t han t he C helmsford o nes. D istal w idth m easurements, p artic ularly o f t he t hird c entury, w ere a kin t o t he C olchester s pecimens ( Table 4 :13).

T here a ppeared n o r eal i mprovement i n s ize o f t he

C helmsford c attle t hroughout

t he f our c enturies o f o ccupation.

U sing t he f actors o f F ock

( 1966),

s houlder h eights w ere e stimated

f or male a nd f emale b ones ( Table 4 :13 a nd 2 :16). I n t he l ate R oman p eriod a t C olchester, B KC, E , s ix c ows w ere p resent t hat w ere a s s mall a s t he s mallest c ows a t S heepen, i .e. 1 .03 m . A lso l arger a nimals e xisted a s d escribed i n s ection 3 .16.1.

T he C helmsford c ows w ere

l arger t han S heepen but n ot a s l arge a s s ome o f t hose f rom C olchester. U nfortunately t here w ere n o m easurements a vailable f rom male a nimals. I f t he s heep/goat m etacarpal l engths i n T able 4 :14 a re c ompared w ith t hose i n T able 3 :16 t hen t he s heep o f t he m iddle t o l ate s econd c entury a ppear i n t he u pper e nd o f t he s ize s cale. T he s ingle f irst t o s econd c entury C helmsford m etacarpal m easurement c ompares w ell w ith t he S heepen m ean. D istal t ibia w idths f rom C helmsford ( Table 4 :15) w ere a nalysed i n c onnection w ith t hose f rom o ther R omano-British s ites ( see T able 3 :20). F irst c entury b ones a ppear l arger a t C helmsford t han a t C olchester a lthough t he s amples a re v ery s mall. W ith r egard t o t he t hird a nd f ourth c entury b ones t hose o f C helmsford a nd C olchester a re v ery s imilar i n s ize. I t s hould b e n oted t hat s ome o f t he l argest s heep/goat o ccurred a t C olchester i n t he l ate R oman p eriod. 4 .3.7

T he C helmsford h orses

P onies o f 1 0, 1 1 a nd 1 2 h ands w ere c ommonly k ept i n t he p re-Roman I ron A ge t ogether w ith a f ew l arger h orses ( section 2 .14.2). P rel iminary e vidence f rom W ickford s uggests t hat t he i nhabitants c ontinued a long e arly I ron A ge l ines, t he h orses h aving a w ithers h eight o f 1 2.6 a nd 1 2.2 h ands ( Luff, u npublished). A t C helmsford ( Table 4 :16) t he h orses a ppear t o h ave i ncreased i n s ize o ver t he f our c enturies, t he l argest b eing 1 4.4 h ands. W hether t his was d ue t o g elding, b etter b reeding o r i mports c annot b e d etermined a t p resent. S t. J erome ( a.d .

Z ech .

I X,

9 ) w riting i n t he f ourth c entury, A .D.,

i ndicates t he

h igh v alue s et b y w orldly m en o n G allic g eldings. A part f rom t he s ite A R w ell d eposit,

r emains o f h orses w ere s cant.

O nly o ne b utchered h orse b one h as b een p ositively i dentified a t C helmsford ( T F 2A, P eriod V II:2, h umerus). I t c annot b e c ertain i f h umans a te t he m eat a lthough P liny ( XXVIII, 2 65) r ecommended i t a gainst s wine s ickness. T he C helmsford h orse s kulls a re c ompared w ith t hose f rom W ickford, N ewstead ( Luff, u npublished), W oodcuts, W oodyates ( Pitt-Rivers 1 892), a nd C amulodunum ( Jackson 1 947). I ntact a rchaeological h orse s kulls a re r are f inds a nd a part f rom E wart's w ork o n t he N ewstead h orse s kulls " (Ewart 1 907), v ery l ittle r esearch h as b een d one . T here i s a lso a l ack o f d ata f rom m odern h orses. I n c omparing S wiss C eltic h orse s kulls w ith S cythian o nes, M arek ( 1898) c laimed t hat a lthough t he c erebral p ortion o f t he s kull w as e qual i n t he t wo g roups, t he f acial p art was s horter i n t he S wiss C eltic h orses.

B 8k8nyi

( 1974,

2 73)

2 04

i n h is a nalysis o f G erman, A var

a nd H ungarian h orses f ound t here was a d ifference i n t he r elationship b etween f rontal b readth a nd b asal l ength a s e xpressed b y t he F rontal I ndex f rontal w idth x 1 00) b asilar l ength H owever, h e d erived n o s ignificant d ifferences i n t he h orse p opulat ions b y c omparing o ther p arts o f t he s kull a nd s kull p roportions, e .g. c omparisons o f t he l ength o f t ooth r ows, d ifferences b etween t he f acial a nd c erebral p arts o f t he s kull, t he p attern o f t he m olars, o r s hape o f t he o rbits. I n 1 912, O sborne p ublished a n a rticle, C raniometry o f t he E quidae, i n which h e s ummarised a nd c riticised t he m any d iverse m ethods o f m easuring a nd a nalysing s kulls, i ncluding E wart 's ( 1907) s ystem f or t he N ewstead s kulls. H e p ointed o ut t hat E wart 's F rontal I ndex f rontal w idth l ength x 1 00)

(f acial

w as n ot a s a ccurate a s t he C ephalic I ndex f rontal w idth x 1 00) (b asilar l ength i n d escribing t he w idth a nd l ength o f s kulls. T he r elative w idth o f h orse s kulls i s a n i mportant i ndicator o f t heir e astern o r w estern o rigin, t he e astern r aces b eing b roadfronted a nd t he w estern f aces n arrow ( Nehring 1 884). V arious s chemes o f s eparation h ave b een p rop osed,

p erhaps

t he m ost p opular a nd u seful b eing t he F rontal I ndex

( 1 38k8nyi 1 974), w hich i s t he s ame a s t he C ephalic I ndex o f O sborne ( 1912).

t o

T able 4 :17 s hows t he h orse s kulls g rouped i nto t ypes a ccording t he v alue o f t he F rontal I ndex . T he g rouping w as b ased o n v alues

g iven b y N obis

( 1962) w hen h e i nvestigated e arly h istorical h orses.

T he p roblem o f i nterpreting R oman h orse s kulls i s v ery d ifficult s ince o ne i s d ealing w ith a v ery m ixed h orse p opulation ( i.e. I talian, C eltic, G reek, I llyrian, T hracian, S cythian, n ear-Eastern a nd S panish). I t i s n ot s urprising t hat a w ide d iversity i n s ize a nd s kull s hape i s f ound n ot t o m ention t he t ransitional f orms b etween e astern a nd w estern h orse t ypes. T here i s a l arge v ariation i n t he F rontal I ndex ( 40.08 - 4 6.2)

i .e.

a nd a lso t he b asal l ength

( 403-505 mm ).

F igure 4 .8 d emonstrates t he r ange i n s ize o f t he h orse s kulls, t he g reatest s kull w idth h as b een p lotted a gainst b asal l ength.

T he t wo C helmsford s kulls a re i n t he u pper r ight p art o f t he f igure, b oth b eing d efined a s o f a verage s ize. H owever C helmsford 2 96 h as a n arrow f orehead w ith a c onvex p rofile a nd C helmsford 2 78 h as a n a vera ge b road f orehead w ith a d ished p rofile ( Plates 1 0 a nd 1 3). T he W ickford s kulls a re s maller t han a verage, t he s maller h aving a n a verage b road f orehead w ith d ished p rofile a nd t he o ther a n arrow f orehead w ith s traight p rofile ( Plates 1 6 - 2 1). I t i s i mportant t o e mphasise O sborne's c omments t hat v ariation i n s ize d ue t o a ge, s ex, f avourable o r u nfavourable e nvironments v itiate a ny s ystem o f a bsolute m easurem ents. T hus F ig. 4 .9, w hich u tilises t he F rontal I ndex, g ives a much c learer p icture o f t he t ypes o f s kull p resent, i .e. t hose w ith n arrow , a verage a nd b road f oreheads.

2 05

GRAPH

OF

GREATEST

SKULL WIDTH AGAINST

BASAL

LENGTH FIG.

4 :8

IRON AGE/ROMAN HORSES

230

-

ON3

2 20 _

N40

ON9

• ;CH 2 78

2 10

WY N6. OC H 2 96 • •N 1 N80 1 4/ NE ON7

•

x

200 _ r t i C

M

ONF (P -R )1

ONE

' 4 1 90 c n E 1

IE (P -R )WF N5 1 0. •

E 180 -

I

i 1

•NE

I •WF

N2*

1 70-

*WC 1 60 3 75

A00

DWARF ( PONY)

425

VERY

4 50

SMALL

SMALL

4 75

SMALLER1AVERAGE

LARGER

THAN

THAN

S IZE

AVERAGE

BASAL C

CH

LENGTH

( mm )

( SITE

AR)

P -R PITT-RIVERS

E EXMOOR

WC WOODCUTS

N NEWSTEAD

WF WICKFORD

NE

NEKKERSPOEL

AVERAGE

NF NEW FOREST

CAMULODUNUM CHELMSFORD

500

( BELGIUM )

2 06

M N WOODYATES

G )

z

rI C t i ( 0 1 . 4 0

A

r i

r I 1 4

t )

P late 1 7

7 2 .

a ) •

4 . 3

•

r 2 : 1 e 4 r i • • C O

$ . 4

CO r 1

4 )

s kull BW 1 49,

D orsal v iew .

H orse s kull B W 1 49,

CV.

CD

4 . 1 C L I r I r : 1 4

L E

L ateral v iew.

0 c u

GRAPH

OF

SKULL

FRONTAL

INDEX AGAINST

BASAL LENGTH

FIG.

4 :9

IRON AGE/ROMAN

HORSES

4 9 BROAD

FORE—HEAD

4 8

0 X z46 E 1 9

•N I D

eN5 •E(P -R )

4

•C

445 c rJ -

AVERAGE

•N3

FORE—HEAD

0 N9

Es 4 4

°

N4

•WF Z 4 3 0

2

W C

CH 2 7 8

• N 2

N 8 o

' NARROW

a

N 7 •

e WF

FORE—HEAD

E 4 z 4 1 0

° N 6

NF ( P-R) 4 1

• C H2 9 6 •N I

4 0 3 85

405

4 25

4 45

BASAL

LENGTH

2 13

4 65

mm

485

5 05

T he a uthor was u nable t o t race a ll t he N ewstead h orse s kulls, t hough s he m easured 1 5 o f w hich 1 0 o ccur i n T able 4 :17 a nd F ig. 4 .9. T hese h orses s how a w ide v ariation i n s ize w ith b asal l engths 4 03 t o 5 05 mm i ncluding o ne s kull l arger t han a verage. E wart c laimed t he N ewstead c ollection c onsisted o f 3 t ypes o f a nimal:- ( i) t hose c haract erised b y a v ery n arrow f acial r egion, ( ii) t hose c haracterised b y a s hort b road f ace, a nd ( iii) t hose h aving a v ery l ong f ace b ent d ownw ards s o a s t o f orm a d istinct a ngle w ith t he c ranium. O sborne p ointed o ut t hat t he F acio-Cranial I ndex c hanges r apidly a s t he h orse m atures. F urther t he a ngle b etween t he f ace a nd c ranium a lters g reatly d uring g rowth. I ndeed T able 4 :17 s hows t hat t he N ewstead h orses e mbraced b oth t hose w ith v ery n arrow a nd v ery b road f oreheads t ogether w ith s ome i ntermediate t ypes. A lso t here w as a f airly w ide r ange o f v ariat ion w ith t he C ranio-Facial I ndex ( Table 4 :18 a nd F ig. 4 .10) o f 4 4.1 t o 6 0.5. T he C helmsford a nd W ickford h orses l ay w ithin t his r ange. N ewstead h orse 3 p roved t o h ave a l ong f ace w ith f airly b road f orehead, w hile N ewstead h orse 2 h ad a m uch s horter f ace i n r elation t o t he c ranium b ut a lso h ad a r easonably b road f orehead. T he f ollowing s kulls e xhibited

' wolf t eeth':

C amulodunum , N ewstead

1 929/40/7, 1 929/40/5, 1 929/40/6, 1 929/40/12. W olf t eeth a re s mall f unctionless t eeth w hich h ave n o d eciduous p redecessors a nd a re t he r emnants o f t eeth w hich w ere f airly l arge a nd f unctional i n s ome o f t he e xtinct a ncestors o f t he h orse ( Lydekker 1 912). T he p rofiles o f t he C helmsford, W ickford a nd N ewstead h orse s kulls a re e xhibited i n P lates, 1 0, 1 3, 1 7 a nd 2 0 a nd F ig. 4 .11 r espectively. W ickford ( BW 1 49, 4 , 1 ) a nd C helmsford 2 78 s how c oncave o r d ished p rofiles, C helmsford 2 96 s hows a c onvex o utline a nd W ickford ( BW 1 49, 4 ,2) s hows a m ore o r l ess s traight o utline. T he 1 0 N ewstead s kull p rofiles d rawn f rom t he a uthor's p hotographs i n F ig. 4 .11 r ange f rom d ished ( Newstead 2 ,5,7,8), s traight ( Newstead, 1 ,4,6,9) t o c onvex ( Newstead 3 ). H orse

t eeth

A s tudy o f t eeth i s i mportant, b ecause i t c an r eveal t he a ge, h ealth a nd b reeding o f t he h orse. X -ray e xamination s howed d eep j aws p roviding i mplantation f or l arge s trong t eeth w hich w ere g enerally i n v ery g ood c ondition ( Plate 2 2). T he W ickford h orse s kull h ad t he r ight s econd m olar r otated t hrough 9 0° ( Plate 1 8). I n s ome s trains o f H ighland, S hetland a nd W elsh p onies t his i s q uite a c ommon c ondition. N o o ther d ental i rregularities f or e xample, s mall i ncisors a nd l arge m olars w hich m ight i ndicate i ntensive c ross-breeding, w ere n oticed. T he C helmsford h orse l ifespans w ere e stimated u sing M erillat ( 1905) a nd t he American E quine A ssociation o f P ractitioners O fficial G uide ( 1966) f or t he i ncisors, a nd L evine ( 1979) f or p remolars a nd m olars. T he l atter m ethod i nvolves m easuring t he h eight o f t he t ooth f rom t he d ivision o f t he r oots t o t he t op o f t he e namel s urface. I n t he c ase .o f

c omplete s kulls,

t hese t eeth c ould n ot b e m easured d irectly a nd h ad

t o b e X -rayed, t hus i ntroducing s ome d istortion . T he r esults a re p resented i n T able 4 :19 w here i t w ill b e s een t hat t he i ncisors a nd t he p remolar/molar m ethods p roduced s imilar r esults. I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he h orse i s n ot u seful u ntil o ver t hree y ears o ld a nd m any o f t he C helmsford a nimals d ied b efore t en y ears.

2 14

L n

INDEX

FACIAL

CRANIO-FACIAL

AGAINST

•

0

L C )

I n

XHUNI

2 15

L 0 I )

0 e n

e n 0

L I )

• e r

r I VIDVI —OINVhD

0

LENGTH

m

FACIAL

INDEX

= LENGTH

OF

CRANIUM

ROMANO-BRITISH

0 e n

0

» e n

0

0

x 100

NEWSTEAD

HORSE

SKULL

PROFILES

F IG. 4 :11

Nasal bone Akrokranion

STRAIGHT

DISHED

PROFILE

PROFILE

CONVEX PROFILE

STRAIGHT

PROFILE

DISHED PROFILE

STRAIGHT

PROFILE

DISHED PROFILE

DISHED

PROFILE

STRAIGHT PROFILE

DISHED PROFILE

2 16

X -ray p hotograph o f C helmsford h orse m andible.

S exing o f

t he h orses w as n ot c ompletely r esolved d ue t o l ack o f

s pecific c riteria. W ell d eveloped c anines w ere t aken t o s ignify m ale a nimals a lthough 2 2% o f f emales h ave t hem ( Habermehl 1 975). A ll t he N ewstead h orses d isplayed c anines, s ome b etter d eveloped t han o thers. T he p ossibility o f g eldings c annot b e d ismissed a lthough V arro s tates t hat w hole h orses w ere p referred f or t he a rmy, s ervice ( II, 7 ,14). P lates

1 1,

a nd g eldings f or r oad

1 4 a nd 2 1 s how t hat C helmsford 2 96,

W ickford B W 1 49(4),2

a nd C helmsford 2 78 e xhibit w ell d eveloped c anines a nd a re m ost l ikely m ales.

2 18

1

4 4

2 0

o f b one

C ' ,

4 4

4 4 r n

C 91

4 4

0

r — I

N o.

( MIN)

o f t he M ain D omestic S

c . )

C V

C V

7 2 4

o f b one

C V

C O

C V

Z r

c 0

c s , • 41

N o.

S HEEP/GOAT

N umber o f B one F ra m ents a nd M inimum N umber o f

r . 4

t n

E — f H U

4 -4

c t )

c r 1 0 4 4 4 C C a 4 4 0

c o

C O

t r-1

r d

T able 4 :1.

0

C O I 0

0 CV

. 4 I 0 c 0

L f)

0

0

CV 1 -1

t f) r . I

C V

oI

I 4 n C V H I

I 0 4 1 1 H I

C V H I

0

4 ,1

2 19

V II:1 2 00-300

• 0 4 1

L x . ) I . 4-• N i I ( A )

. .— ., . .. . ' ' , . . ./ • •—, ,— ,

, . . ... ., , .... .

2 20 . . ."

r D

•Z :t 7

a lq -ei

s aT upuvw 3 0

a a t is . 3 0 a 2y

s t Ilm 9 -Z

s . . . j

C M

r t

aicupurb i £ :IA XV a l -F s m oij s

P • I (S C : ›

X ouanbaij %

N i

/ zuanbazg % a A prin t unD

N i

Z I-9

Li

n 0

S ites Z a nd

N o

N umber o f B one F ra

N o.

o f b one N o.

o f b one

n ts a nd M inimum N umber o f A nimals o f t he M ain D omestic S •

a )

CV

C *1

0 •r 4 1 4

a ) C f ) .7

r •4 In

CV

4 . 4

2 21

. 4

r -4

1 -4

4 4

U Z I 3 4

CV

C -7

01

I f )

1 -4

r 4

•

. 4 0 ,

' 0 h • • f t C l )

0 • ö ) • m ' .


v 4

r I

1 1

1 1

T i e

T i c a

c r )

c o

0 )

G

0

CI

C O

.

0

c o a )

4 i 4 . 0 C . )

T i c o a )

c l

4 ) c r )

>

C . )

z

C U 4 4 c o

z

a ) z

( 1 ) 4 . ) C O >

0 1 z

C r ,

C helmsford

• , : 7

0,

W ickford 1 49

CO

z

e 1 C U

. 0

v 4

c e

t 4

( Pitt R ivers)

. • • • ••

2 33

N ew F orest p ony

N ewstead

N arrow f orehead

o

. • • ••

C helmsford 2 96

C O

W ickford B W 1 49

e • -•

W ESTERN G ROUP

0 C U

. 1 .s . . . .,

N ewstead

A verage - b road f orehead

N arrow F orehead

I ron A ge a nd R omano-British H orse F rontal I ndices

C ' )

c a

9 4 C O

U 0 0 0 3

" 0 0 0 3

r d

> , 0 0 0 3

T he n umbers o ccurring a fter t he b rackets f or t he N ewstead H orses r efer t o t hose i n F ig . 4 :8-4:10.

7-

T able 4 :18

R omano-British H orse C ranio-Facial I ndices

C ranio-Facial I ndex

l ength o f c ranium l ength o f f ace

C helmsford 2 78

4 9.2

C helmsford 2 96

4 6.9

W ickford 1 49

( 4)

( 1)

5 0.2

W ickford 1 49

( 4)

( 2)

4 9.2

1 929/40/5

4 4.4

1 929/40/12

6 0.5

1 929/40/7

4 4.1

1 929/40/10

4 8.7

1 929/40/9

4 7.8

1 929/40/4

4 9.0

1 934/48

5 0.0

1 929/40/8

4 7.0

1 929/40/3

4 9.0

1 934/48

4 7.2

2 34

x100

N -

r -i

$ . 4

r . •

( Incisors c .

( Incisors 9 y r)

S tandard d eviation

( Incisors 5 y r)

tr )

0 ▪ 1 ▪

N .

,0

s . 0 0

e n 4 '

O N

C O

• C o

C c

I

a ,

N .

, o

. 4 H

V ) • C O

01

I

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. 1 1

1

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› 4

c a c t )

C D , 1

C o

I

I

c ‘ i

N .

O D

H

I

N

•

r • • c x ) • • • • •

c • 1

1 . 1

I •

1

1 V ) •

e n

-

M I

1 ,

L n

1

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i f )

• v z .

•

r • •

1

c n 0

. n

C • . I • C o

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1 1

0

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c . 4

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c 4

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c o r • •

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1 20/130-160/75

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1 20/130-160/75

c q • t r $

. 0 ,

E 4

e •

4 1

c v

0

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C '

0

C q

c I

1 i n

0

0

•

r 4

1j

L t

C V

C I

c s .

I

0

0 I

I

l ete s kulls

1 0

0 C O 1 0

0 0 3 1 0

0 C O 1 0

> 1 1

> 1 4

>

>

O D

c o

g 4

< 4

< 4

c o

v o

0 c v

0 r s i

0 r s t

0

1 0

1 ▪ 0

-1 0

1 0

c o

c o

c o

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1 20/130-160/75

P eriod a nd d ate

L n

0 l I

• -• 4

I •

1 . i

S ite a nd f eature

T able 4 :19

C helmsford H orse L ife S

o

r 4

1 1

N

C • 1

4 4

1 1

1 1 C 7▪ , 4 ' ‚ 4

▪ 0" , a-

1 4

0

C S ,

C O

\ C D

C V

C V

N .

c r ,

0

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2 35

c n

C . 1

l t 1 ▪

▪ H

H • 0

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C / 3

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Ni H

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• -•

e — . w

1 —, oo N i

< 1 1 H

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N i 0 V D

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L . J 0 0 1 N

4 . J 0 0 1

0

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( Iriom s nonp paa)

< 1 4 4 1 •• N i

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2 36

6 1: 47 a Ic r el ,

H C-

a aroraj p ur a lTs

( . . ) 0

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V H

C HAPTER F IVE

T HE R OMAN N ORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES,

EXCLUDING B RITANNIA

" Wherever R oman c olonization c ontinued f or a c onsiderable t ributed s ignificantly t o r aising t he

i mprovement o f t he

t ime i t c on-

t he s tandard o f a griculture.

l ocal s tock a nd

t he

B y

i mportation o f n ew b reeds,

l ivestock b reeding e xperienced a v igorous u pswing. I n t he C eltic p rov inces t his i s m ost c onspicuous i n t he b reeding o f c attle." ( Keller 1 919, 4 8). 5 .1

I ntroduction R egarding f aunal r emains,

s ites

t here i s a d earth o f w ell s tratified

i n N orth-western E urope,

R hineland),

a nd s o

C entral Europe

( France,

B elgium, H olland a nd t he

i t w as n ecessary t o i nvestigate material f rom

( Switzerland a nd Austria)

t o u nderstand t he s ituation w ithin

a s w ell.

t he E mpire,

F urther,

i n o rder

e vidence must b e

s tudied

i n c onjunction w ith t hat f rom w ithout t he Empire; t hus s ome s ites t he f ree p arts o f G ermany a nd H olland have b een i ncluded. I n 1 958,

B oessneck,

i n a c lassic p aper,

d escribed t he o rigin a nd

e arly h istory o f C entral E uropean d omestic a nd w ild a nimals. B 8kBnyi

( 1974)

L ater

p roduced a n excellent v olume e ntitled " History o f

D omestic Mammals i n C entral a nd E astern Europe". ( 1977a)

f rom

R ecently C lason

r eviewed t he European e vidence f or h unting a nd c attle b reeding

f rom t he N eolithic

t o

t he M iddle Ages.

s he o nly i ncluded a f ew s ites h as emerged,

h ence

S ince

t he

t ime s pan i s

f rom t he R oman P eriod.

t he n eed f or a n u p-to-date

s ummary .

l arge,

Much n ew d ata T he a uthor

e mphasises

t hat s he i s u sing t he r aw d ata f rom t he

s ites m entioned i n

T ables

t o 5 :10.

t he i nterpretation

5 :1

U nless s pecifically m entioned

i s purely h er o wn w ork.

S ite r eferences n ot m entioned i n T ables 5 :1

t o 5 :5 h ave b een l isted a t t he e nd o f O ne o f i s,

a s

t he m ost i mportant p oints

s tressed i n C hapter O ne,

t he

t his C hapter. t o h ave emerged

b etween r esearchers i n d ifferent c ountries; d ifficult

f rom t his s tudy

l ack o f a s tandard m ethodology c onsequently i t h as p roved

t o g ive a b alanced p icture o f a nimal h usbandry a cross

t he

P rovinces. F or i nstance, t he F rench f aunal r eports v ery r arely m ention t he s ex o f c attle while G erman p apers f requently s ex u sing m etapodials. S ome G ermans h ave a ccepted t hat s exing i s n ot a c lear-cut m atter. e xample, P iehler

S wegat ( 1976)

( 1976)

w ith

F or

t he K l inzing-Quintana m aterial a nd a lso

w ith t he V emania material, who p ointed o ut t hat

2 37

t here

i s a b order l ine a rea b etween s mall n ative b red m ales a nd l arger b red f emales w here d etermination o f s ex i s n ot p ossible. W hen o ne o f t he i ndices o f t he E nglish s cientist H oward ( 1963), i .e. D B/L, d istal b readth d ivided b y l ength, i s a pplied t o t he s exed m etapodials ( metac arpals)

f rom t he G erman s ites

t hen o nly a 6 4% c oincidence i s o btained,

t hat i s o nly 4 7 o ut o f 7 4 m etapodials a greed w ith b oth t he E nglish a nd G erman m ethods. T he G ermans s eparate c attle m etapodials s exually v ia w idth-to-length i ndices, o n t he b asis o f r esearch b y Z alkin ( 1960). W ith t he A ltenstadt m aterial, S neider ( 1958):i ndex 1 i ndex 2 -

H abermehl

( 1967)

u sed t he i ndices o f

s mallest b readth o f d iaphysis x 1 00 g reatest l ength g reatest p roximal b readth x 1 00 g reatest l ength

R egarding I ndex 1 , v alues o f a bove 1 7 r endered t he b one m ale a nd b elow 1 7 f emale. H oward's r esearch ( 1963) h as s hown t hat t his i s n ot a r eliable w ay t o d istinguish t he s exes s ince t here i s s o much o verlapping b etween m ale, f emale a nd c astrate. I ndex 2 a nd a s imilar i ndex s ubs tituting d istal b readth f or p roximal b readth d oes a ppear t o a llow s ome s eparation i n m ost o f t he f aunal r eports t he a uthor h as s tudied. H owever t here i s m uch a mbiguity i n t he m iddle, a s m entioned b y P iehler a bove; t hus c aution i s n ecessary i n a ny a ssessment o f s ex m entioned i n t he f ollowing r eport. R eichstein ( private c omm ., K iel) h as h ad l ittle s uccess w ith a m ultivariate a nalysis o f c ow b ones. T he G ermans u se t wo o ther m ethods o f d etermining s ex, i .e. u se o f t he h orn c ores a nd p elvic g irdle. T he f ormer G erman t echnique i s k nown t o b e t he l east r eliable f ollowing t he w ork o f A rmitage a nd C lutton-Brock

( 1976).

T ables 5 :1 t o 5 :5 s how t he number o f b one f ragments p er d omestic s pecies f or t he f ollowing t ypes o f s ite:R oman F orts a nd M ilitary I nstallations R oman T owns a nd C ivil S ettlements R oman V illas a nd N ative F armsteads R oman P eriod S ettlements o utside t he Empire L a T ene P eriod s ites

-

T able T able T able T able

5 .1 5 .2 5 .3 5 .4

- T able 5 .5

T ables 5 :6 t o 5 :10 s how t he number o f b one f ragments o f w ild s pecies f or s imilar s ites. T he n umber-of-bone-fragments m ethod w as u sed s ince i t i s t he o ldest m ethod a nd t he m ajority o f s ites u tilised i t . H owever, o ne s ite, t hat o f t he f irst t o f ifth c entury l evels o f M arseilles, e mp l oyed t he M IN m ethod o nly . S ome o f t he f igures f rom t he o riginal r eports h ave b een m odified t o g ive a m ore r ealistic p icture, e .g. a ntler f ragments h ave n ot b een i ncluded i n ü one f ragment n umbers. M aps 5 :1

t o 5 :5 i llustrate

t he d istribution o f d ifferent t ypes

o f s ite. I t i s e vident f rom t hese s preads t hat s ome a reas h ave c on.t ributed n o e vidence; e .g. i n F rance t he f ollowing r egions h ave n ot b een s tudied b y t heir r esearch w orkers,

B ritanny,

t he A lps,

t he M assif

C entral a nd t he E ast ( Poulain 1 976). G autier's r emarks c oncerning B elgium a re s ignificant i n t his r espect ( section 1 .1). T he a gricult urally r ich a reas a round T ongres a nd B avai o f t he C ivitas N erviorum a nd T rier o f t he C ivitas T reverorum h ave n ot y ielded a ny s ubstantial b one e vidence. S ome a reas h ave s oils n ot c onducive t o t he p reservation o f b one. 2 38

DISTRIBUTION OF

IRON AGE

SETTLEMENTS

2 39

\ ( LA TENE)

MAP 5 .1

i

1

G UNZBURG

2 8

2

XANTEN

3

B ASLE

4

P FAFFENHOFEN

5

LAURIACUM

6

OVILAVA

7

MAGDALENSBERG

8

H UFINGEN

9

N IJMEGEN

I

1 0

CAMBODUNUM

1 1

MARSEILLES

1 2

B UTZBACH

1 3

LUSIGNY

1 4

L E T UC D E MOURLON

1 5

AUTERIVE

1 6

S T.

1 7

FONTAINES

1 8

PARIS

1 9

E PFACH

2 0

R EGENSBERG

2 1

S T.

2 2

A UGST

2 3

ENGEHALBINSEL B EI B ERN

2 4

LA GRAUFESENQUE

2 5

POCKING

2 6

H ETEREN

2 7

V LAARDINGEN

R OMAIN S ALEES

HARD

2 40

LA CONDAMINE

DISTRIBUTION OF

ROMAN

PROVINCIAL TOWNS AND CIVIL

2 41

MAP 5 .2 SETTLEMENTS

1

FROITZHEIM

2

L IGARDES

3

W EHRINGEN

4

MARZOLL

5

C ALISSANNE

6

MONTMAURIN

7

CANTALONNE

8

LE MESNIL D E B ARON

9

P UYSEGUR

1 0

P IECE D E RANCE

1 1

R IJSWIJK

1 2

B ERG

1 3

B ELLIKON

1 4

ALPNACHDORF

1 5

G ORBELHOF

1 6

ERSINGEN-MURAIN

2 42

DISTRIBUTION

OF

ROMAN

PROVINCIAL VILLAS

2 43

MAP

5 .3

1

V ELZEN

2

S NEEK

3

P ADDE PO EL

4

F EDDERSEN W IERDE

5

T OFTING

6

WULF S HOF

7

H ODORF

8

B ARNKRUG

9

T RIT S UM

1 0

EI NS WARDEN

1 1

J EMGUMKLO S TE R

1 2

B ENTUMERS I EL

1 3

S TILLFRIED

1 4

H ES SENS

1 5

i t GROS SO RNER-MOLMECK

' 2 44

DISTRIBUTION

OF

SETTLEMENTS

OUTSIDE THE

2 45

ROMAN

EMPIRE

MAP

5 .4

1

VALKENBURG

2

Z WAMMERDAM

3

D ORMAGEN

4

i t KUNZ I NG QUINTANA

5

B OIDURUM

6

SC HAAN

7

V EMANIA

8

VI NDONI S SA

9

DANGSTETTEN

1 0

R ODGEN

1 1

LAURIACUM

1 2

G ELLEP

1 3

A LTENSTADT

1 4

A SC IBURGIUM

2 46

DISTRIBUTION OF

ROMAN

PROVINCIAL FORTS

2 47

MAP

5 .5

5 .2

T he R oman N orth-western P rovincial d iet T he p ercentage f requency o f o ccurrence o f

f or f ood h ave b een c alculated s heep/goat,

a nd p ig.

s ince

i s v ery l ittle

t here

o n a m oderate V emania,

H orse h as n ot b een i ncluded

s cale.

D ormagen,

Q uintana,

t he main d omesticates

( Tables 5 :1 t o 5 :5),

c onclusive e vidence

i .e.

c attle,

i n t his e stimate

t hat i t w as e aten e ven

A f ew butchered h orse b ones h ave b een f ound a t

G ellep,

F roitzheim , Mainz, Magdalensberg,

L auriacum , M arseilles

a nd R ijswijk.

S ome o f

K ünzing-

t he h orse b ones

h ad b een g nawed b y d ogs a t R ijswijk a nd m any m ore a t Marseilles

( Jourdan

1 976b) w here i t w as p roven t o b e a s tandard m ethod o f d isposal. A n umber o f h orse s keletons w ere r ecovered f rom t he R hine b ed o utside t he f ort o f Z wammerdam t hus i ndicating t hey w ere n ot u sed f or f ood. B y c omparison a knackers y ard f or h orses w as d iscovered o utside R omano-British f ort o f

S tanwix which w as

t he A la P etriana M illiaria

( Birley 1 961).

w as o nly e aten i n emergencies, i n t he N orth S ea, c ast o nto r emote w ashed u p w ith

' Some

e .g.

I t w ould a ppear

t hat h orse f leet

O thers m ore numerous,

where m en w ere o bliged

o r s tarved

t o d eath.'

t o e at

w ere

t he h orses

( Tacitus, A nnals

a nd t he r evolt o f C ivilis ( Tacitus, H istories I V, 6 0) emergency r ations g ave o ut. T hey h ad b y n ow c onsumed

t he

t he b ase o f

t he w recking o f G ermanicus'

s hips w ent d own.

i slands,

t hem ,

f or c enturies

I I,

2 4),

' all n ormal a nd t he mules,

h orses a nd o ther a nimals which a d esperate p light c ompels m en t o u se a s

f ood,

h owever u nclean a nd r evolting.'

T he e vidence o f butchered h orse b ones d oes n ot n ecessarily m ean t hat t he h uman p opulation w as e ating h orse m eat, b een s tripped o ff t he b one a nd f ed t o t he d ogs.

i t c ould w ell h ave

H aving a pplied t he number-of-bone-fragments m ethod t o Dutch material,

C lason

( 1978,

4 31) made

t he

i mportant o bservation t hat

' Pig

r emains c ome i n t he s econd p lace i n t he R oman c astella a nd t owns w ith a d ominating i nfluence. p opulation,

I n t he v illages a nd f arms o f t he a utochthonous

s heep/goat r emains

c ome s econd,

j ust a s i n t he s ettlements

f rom t he p receding p re-Roman I ron Age a nd i n t he u noccupied n orthern p art o f I t

t he N etherlands.' i s n ecessary t o e xercise c aution b efore a ccepting t his s tate-

ment s ince

t he e nvironment would h ave b een a m ajor f actor i n c hoosing

t he a ppropriate a nimals.

A lso

t he l arge L a T ene O ppidum o f M anching

h ad t he s ame o rder o f p reference ( Table 5 :5) a lthough R oman i nfluence w as a lready a pparent w ith r eference t o t he p ossible i mport o f h orses ( section 5 .3).

O n t he N orth G erman P lain,

t he m ajority o f

s ites h ave

c attle p redominating f ollowed b y s heep/goat a nd t hen p ig b ut t wo B arnkrug a nd H odorf h ave p ig i n s econd o rder o f i mportance.

s ites,

T odd

( 1975, 1 20) u sing o nly t he N obis s ites o f T able 5 :4 p ointed o ut t hat t his w as d ue t o t he s urrounding e nvironment, ' In t he c oastal marshland ( i.e.

a t E inswarden,

p astures b ut n o .r iverine

m arshes

T ofting a nd H essens) w here

t rees,

t here w ere e xtensive

s heep r earing f ollowed t hat o f c attle.

( Barnkrug a nd H odorf)

l ay c lose

t o

t here w as m ixed w oodland p roviding a mple m ast f or p igs s wine h usbandry t ook p recedence o ver

T he

t he G eest w here s o t hat h ere

s heep r earing.'

S imilarly, t he F eddersen W ierde t erp i s a c oastal m arsh s ite s ituated o n t he r ight b ank o f t he W eser e stuary n ear B remerhaven, h ence

t he p redominance o f c attle f ollowed b y s heep/goat.

2 48

B oth

B entumersiel a nd J emgumkloster a re r iver m arsh s ites o n t he l ower r eaches o f

t he Ems; B entumersiel i s a ' Flachsiedlung'

( settlement o n

l evel g round) a nd J emgumkloster i s a ' Terp' ( settlement o n a rtificial m ound). I n c ontrast t o t he F eddersen W ierde, J emgumkloster h as p igs i n s econd o rder o f i mportance t o c attle w hile a t B entumersiel a re a lmost o f e qual i mportance.

t hey

T he r elative p roportions o f c attle, s heep/goat a nd p ig a t E ins w arden d uring t he t hree p eriods d oes n ot c hange r adically. S ome o f t he t erpen s ites o f N orth H olland s how a p redominance o f c attle f ollowed b y s heep/goat, s imilar t o t he N orth G erman c oastal s ites, e .g.Paddepoel a nd T ritsum .

T his i s p robably d ue t o t he s imilar e n-

v ironmental c onditions. H owever, a lthough o ther D utch n ative s ites, e .g. H eteren a nd V laardingen, b oth n ative v illages w ithin t he R hine a rea, h ave a s imilar r atio o f p ercentages t o P addepoel a nd T ritsum, t hey d iffer f rom t he n earby R oman s ites o f Valkenburg, Z wammerdam a nd N ijmegen where p ig i s m ore i mportant . R ijswijk,

an ative f armstead i n t he R oman o ccupied p art o f S outh

H olland ( both p eriods) h as a gain s imilar p ercentages t o t he o ther n ative s ites, i n t hat c attle p redominate, f ollowed b y s heep/goat a nd t hen p ig ( Table 5 :3). T hus C lason 's r emarks

( ibid)

d o h ave s ome s ignificance.

D ocumen-

t ary e vidence i ndicates t hat t he R omans w ere v ery f ond o f e ating p ork. G autier ( private c omm.) i n h is r esearch o n t he a nimal r emains i n t he c emetery n ear t he O udenburg R oman F ort i n B elgium , f ound t hat t he m ain o fferings w ere c hicken, p iglets a nd h alf-heads o f p ork. H e m aint ained t hat t he g reat f requency o f p iglets s uggested t hat t he g raves w ere t hose o f s oldiers. S heep a nd p ig w ere r aised i n l arge n umbers b y t he B elgae w ho e xported w oollen g oods a nd s alted p ork i n g reat q uantities t o R ome a nd a ll I taly ( Strabo I V, 1 97). H igh n umbers o f h orse r emains w ere f ound i n b oth p eriods a t R ijswijk, ( 27.3% a nd 1 4.1%), t he F eddersen W ierde ( 14.1%), J emgumkloster ( 10.4%) a nd B entumersiel ( 16.6%). T he a ge s tructure o f t he l ast t hree s ites s uggest h orse k eeping o n a c onsiderable s cale. T hese p ercentages were b ased o n t he n umber o f h orse f ragments p er t otal n umber o f d ome stic b one f ragments. R egarding t he m ilitary s ites i n T ables 5 :1, 1 4 o ut o f t he 1 7 s ites h ad t he o rder o f p reference c attle, p ig a nd s heep/goat, t he e xceptions b eing V indonissa where s heep w ere s econd i n i mportance a nd B oiodurum ( Passau, G ermany) a nd Dangstetten - where p ig was p redominant. B oiodurum i s u nusual i n t hat n o r emains o f w ild a nimals w ere f ound a s a lso a t A sciburgium . D angstetten i s o ne o f t he o ldest L egionary C amps i n S outh G ermany p erhaps built i n c onnection w ith t he c ampaigns o f D rusus a nd T iberius i n 1 5 B .C. f or c onquest o f t he l and b etween t he A lps a nd t he D anube o r a s p art o f t he p rojected i nvasion o f C entral G ermany . T he p ercentage o ccurrence o f h orse o ut o f a ll t he d omestic a nimals r anged f rom 0 % a t t he V alkenburg F ort 2 t o 2 9.4% a t A sciburgium . T he a ss w as i dentified f rom o nly o ne s ite, K l inzing-Quintana U erpmann c laimed

( 1977)

t o h ave

( 1 b one).

i dentified 1 07 mule a t D angstetten

w hich m ade u p 0 .6% o f t he t otal s ample; h orse m ade u p 0 .6% a lso.

2 49

O nly a f ew f ragments a nd h ardly a ny d og, I n c ontrast, o f

3 4

t he

o f c at w ere p resent among

l atter r anging f rom 0 .02%

t he c ivilian s ettlements

( Table 5 :2)

s ites w ith t he o rder o f p reference c attle,

3w ith c attle,

s heep/goat,

p ig.

t he m ilitary s ites

t o 2 .6%.

p ig,

h ave

1 9 o ut

s heep/goat a nd

S heep/goat d ominated s ites a re f ound

a t:O rder o f i mportance L a G raufesenque L a C ondamine R ogues

( Gard)

( Gard)

Marseilles L usigny S t .

( Gard)

( Provence)

S heep/goat

P ig

C attle

S heep/goat

P ig

C attle

S heep/goat

C attle

P ig

S heep/goat

P ig

C attle

( Cöte d 'Or)

S heep/goat

P ig

C attle

( Belgium)

S heep/goat

C attle

P ig

M ard

W ith t he S t. o f s heep

t o

M ard v icus,

t he nature o f

G autier a ttributes

t he s oil,

t he h igher p ercentage

t he p oor c alcareous

t he B as-Luxembourg g iving a d eficiency o f w ater, f or

t he r aising o f s heep.

La G raufesenque,

a re s ituated i n Languedoc,

t he

s andstone o f

t raditionally g ood

L a C ondamine a nd R ogues

s urface o f w hich c onsists a lmost

e ntirely o f T ertiary l imestone.

T his f orms h ills a long t he f oot o f

t he e scarpment o f

T he v egetation i s o f a p oor M editer-

t he C evennes.

r anean t ype a nd i s c urrently o nly u sed f or g razing s heep i n w inter w ith s ome c ultivation o f o lives. T he f ollowing c ivilian s ites p lace p ig f irst i n o rder o f d ominance:S t.

O rder o f i mportance P ig S heep/goat

R omain

Auterive Augusta R aurica

( Mansio)

Augusta R aurica

( floor I nsula 3 0)

L orenzberg,

e arly R oman

( 0-50 A D)

H owever i n l ate R oman

t imes,

S heep/goat

P ig

C attle

S heep/goat

P ig P ig

C attle C attle

S heep/goat S heep/goat

t hat i s

p ig,

s heep/goat.

C attle

t he f ourth c entury A .D.,

c attle b ecome m ore i mportant a t L orenzberg a nd t o c attle,

C attle

P ig

t he p roportions

c hanged

T uc d e Mourlon h ad c attle f ollowed b y

p ig a nd s heep/goat e qually. T here ( Augst)

i s n o d oubt

e njoyed p igs

t hat t he a ffluent i nhabitants o f Augusta R aurica

i n

t he

f orm o f b oiled o r r oasted p ig t rotters,

p ork c utlets a nd s ucking p ig

( Schmid 1 967).

H orse a s a p ercentage o f r anges

f rom 0 .3%

t o 9 0.4%.

t he

T he

t otal number o f d omestic a nimals

l atter o riginated f rom a k nackers

y ard i n P aris a nd s o d oes n ot r eflect a n a ccurate f igure

( Table 5 :2).

T hus t he h ighest f igure o btained i s 1 2.9% f rom B urgstall. A gain a s w ith t he f orts, c at o nly o ccurred i nfrequently; d og a ppeared s lightly m ore f requently When

t han i n

t he f orts

( 0.06%

t o 6 .4%).

t he v illa a nd f armstead s ites w ere i nvestigated 8 o ut o f

1 9 v illas w ere p ig d ominated, c ivilian s ettlements; ( Table 5 :3).

O ut o f

f erence p ig,

c attle,

8w ere c attle d ominated a nd t he

t he

a c ontrast w ith b oth t he f orts a nd

8 p ig d ominated s ites,

s heep/goat w hile 2 h ad p ig,

2 50

3 s heep/goat d ominated

6 h ad t he o rder o f p res heep/goat,

c attle.

I n a ll o f t he 8 c attle d ominated s ites, 6 h ad t he o rder o f p ref erence c attle, p ig , s heep/goat w hile 2 h ad c attle, s heep/goat, p ig. O ut o f

t he r emaining 3 s heep/goat d ominated s ites,

s heep/goat,

2 h ad t he o rder

c attle p ig, while o ne h ad t he o rder s heep/goat,

p ig,

c attle.

H orse r anged f rom 0 .2 t o 6 .6%, c at w as a gain v ery s parse a nd d og 0 .3 t o 4 .1%. T he t rue p osition o f t he h orse i n t he e conomy o f a ll t hese t ypes o f s ites i s d ifficult t o d etermine s ince i t w as n ot a n i ntegral p art o f t he d iet; n either w ere t he c at a nd d og a nd p ossibly t he a nimals w ere a ccorded s eparate b urial. I n T able 5 :3 o ne v illage i n S outh H olland;

f armstead i s r ecorded,

d ifferent f rom t hose o f t he v illas, c attle, s heep/goat, p ig . A ll

t hat o f R ijswijk

t he a nimal p roportions i n b oth p eriods a re q uite i .e.

t he o rder o f i mportance i s

t he d ifferent t ypes o f s ite e xhibited o nly a s mall p ercentage

o f p oultry,

t he m ost p opular b eing t he c hicken ,

G allus g allus.

P roblems

o f p reservation c ould p artially a ccount f or t his. T he u nique e xcavat ion o f t he k itchen a t A ugusta R aurica p roduced a p rofusion o f b ird b one f or t he t able ( Schmid 1 972). F or e xample:6 44 f ragments c hicken 3 1 g oose 5 3

d uck p igeon

5 4 8 8 2

p artridge b lackbird t hrush

T he f ollowing s pecies w ere r epresented b y s ingle b ones: c herry-finch , c haffinch, s hrike, n ightingale, g arganey, w oodcock, h azelhen a nd p heasant.

s tarling, g oosander,

C ertain t rends c an b e s een t o b e o perating b etween t he d ifferent t ypes o f s ite. I t w ould b e v aluable t o u nderstand a ny c hronological d ifferences b etween s ites. F or i nstance, L orenzberg a s a lready m ent ioned i ndicated t he i mportance o f c attle i n t he f ourth c entury. H owever f or t he m ajority o f s ites m entioned i n T ables 5 :1 - 5 :10 o nly o ne d ate h as b een g iven a nd i n s ome c ases t he d eposit h as j ust b een l abelled ' Roman '. A l ogical s tarting p oint w ould b e t o e xamine s pecific g eographical a reas e ncompassing d issimilar s ites o f v arying c hronologies. I n t his w ay t he a rea c an b e s tudied a gainst i ts g eological a nd t opog raphical b ackground a nd l ater t he a reas c an b e c ompared w ith e ach o ther. I t w as f elt n ecessary t o s ummarize t he w ork a lready a ccomplished o n E uropean m aterial w ith t he v iew t o p ointing o ut p ossible i mprovem ents. T able 5 :11 i llustrates t he p ercentage r atio o f d omestic t o w ild s pecies. H unting w as n ot a m ajor o ccupation o f s oldiers, f armers a nd s ettlers i n g eneral, e ven o utside t he E mpire; s ome s ites d id p rove t o b e e xceptions, S chaan O vilava

t hat i s b elow 9 0% d omestic a nimals. 8 1.8% 7 5.1%

M ontmaurin 6 9.6% A lpnachdorf 8 7.8% B ellikon

7 9.5%

D omestic s pecies i t I I I

I

t

I t

( small s ample)

2 51

:1 8.2% :2 4.9% :3 0.4% :1 2.2% :2 0.5%

F or e xample:W ild s pecies T I

I t

I t

T he l ast t hree s ites a re v illa s ites a nd p erhaps i t i s n ot s urprising t hat t hese r ural s ites s how h igher p ercentages o f w ild s pecies. T ables 5 :6 t o 5 :10 i llustrate

t he d ifferent s pecies p resent o n e ach

s ite. T he E uropean w ild b oar, r ed a nd r oe d eer w ere b y f ar t he m ost p opular. A ntler f ragments w ere n ot i ncluded i n t he f inal c ounts. Unfortunately t he a uthors o f s ome o f t he F rench s ites h ave n ot m ent ioned h ow g reat a p art h unting p layed i n t he e conomy, e .g. L e M esnil d e B aron , C alissanne I I, C antalonne, P uysegur a nd ' Piece d e R ance'. W ith r eference t o a utumn s laughter, n o c onclusive e vidence h as b een f ound b y t he a uthor o n a ny o f t he E uropean s ites. O ne p eculiarity w orth m entioning,

a re t he c urious h oles f ound i n

t he c attle s houlder b lades, p ossibly d ue t o c onservation o f b eef b y s moking . T his h as b een f ound a t t he V alkenburg, Z wammerdam ( van M ensch a nd I jzereef 1 977a), A ugusta R aurica ( Schmid 1 967), n ative s ettlements b oth w ithin a nd o utside t he Empire i ncluding t he F eddersen W ierde ( Reichstein 1 972), a nd t he l ate B ronze A ge s ettlement o f A ndijk ( van M ensch a nd I jzereef 1 977b). A t t he F eddersen W ierde, R eichstein a lso f ound h orse s capulae e xhibiting t his p henomenon. V an M ensch a nd I jzereef w ere c onvinced t hat s cratch m arks f ound o n t he e dges o f t he s capulae h ad r esulted f rom s craping a way t he f irmly a ttached m eat a fter s moking . A s patial a nalysis o f t he b one d istribution ( van M ensch 1 974) r evealed t hat t he i nteriors o f t he f orts o f t he V alkenburg a nd Z wammerd am h ad h igh p ercentages o f s capulae b ut l ow p ercentages o f t he p elvis a nd s pine w hich r epresented o ffal f rom s laughter. F urther, a t Z wammerdam l ong b one f ragments w ere a bsent f rom t he f ort a nd t he R hine C hannel w here t he m ajority o f o ffal w as d eposited; i nstead t he v icus o utside t he f ort r evealed t hat t hey h ad b een u tilised f or s oup.

M ore w ork o f

t his n ature i s n eeded. 5 .3

T he R oman N orth-western P rovincial h orse S everal r esearchers h ave u ndertaken s pecialist s tudies c oncerning

I ron A ge h orses, o ne o f t he e arliest b eing M arek ( 1898) w ho e xamined t he H elvetian G allic h orses o f S witzerland a nd c laimed t hey b elonged t o t he e astern g roup o f b reeds, r esembling, a part f rom s ize, A rab h orses. L ater S chwerz ( 1918) h ave b een o f e astern o rigin.

a lso c onsidered t he C eltic h orses

t o

B 8k8nyi ( 1968) i nvestigated m any b one s amples f rom t he e arly a nd l ate I ron A ge i n C entral a nd E astern E urope. H e d ifferentiated t wo g roups:

a )

e ast g roup, w ithers h eight 1 21.1 - 1 49.4 c m ( 11.9 t o 1 4.7

h ands) w ith a verage 1 36.15 c m ( 13.4 h ands); b ) w est g roup, w ithers h eight 1 09.9 - 1 49.4 c m ( 10.8 t o 1 4.7 h ands) w ith a verage 1 26.07 c m ( 12.4 h ands). T he s lenderness i ndex o f t he m etapodials f or t he e astern g roup i s r elatively a lthough n ot s ignificantly t hicker t han t hose o f t he w est g roup. I n h is b ook

' History o f D omestic M ammals i n C entral a nd E astern

E urope', B 8k8nyi ( 1974, 2 55) m ade t he c hallenging r emark: ' Celtic h orses w ere t he m ost t ypical r epresentatives o f t he w estern g roup. I n t his c onnexion w e h ave t o d estroy t he r omantic s upposition c reated b y t he e nd o f t he p ast c entury a nd a live i n s ome p laces e ven t oday

2 52

t hat t he C elts w ere h orses

t he b est h orse b reeders o f t he I ron A ge,

t he b est i ndividuals o f t he p eriod.'

B Bk8nyi h imself a cknowledges, m ade u p o f M anching m aterial.

a nd t heir

I t m ust b e e mphasised a s

t he w estern s ample w as

t o a g reat e xtent

T he C elts w ere o bviously i nterested i n h orse b reeding s ince C aesar p ointed o ut t hat t hey ( the G auls) i mported f oreign h orses, ' And w hereas t he G auls a re p articularly f ond o f h orses a nd p ay h uge p rices f or t hem , t he G ermans d o n ot i mport t hem a t a ll. T hey u se o nly t heir h omebred a nimals, w hich, t hough s mall a nd u gly, a re m ade r emarkably s trong a nd e fficient t hrough d aily t raining.' ( B.G. I V, 2 ). T his d oes s uggest t hat t he h orses w ere b eing t ransported f rom s outh o f t he A lps a nd P yren2es. F urther L ivy ( xliii, 5 ,5) d escribes h ow C . L aelius a nd M . A emilius L epidus, c onsular e nvoys t o C incibilis, a t ransalpine G allic K ing,

b rought g ifts a nd g ranted h is r equest t o b uy h orses i n I taly.

S everal I ron A ge s ites h ave r evealed e vidence o f s uch p ossible i mports i n t he f orm o f l arger i ndividuals. M anching - B oessneck e t a l. ( 1971) t hought t he l arger i ndividuals, t hat i s 1 50 c m w ithers h eight, w ere R oman i mports, w hile B 8k8nyi s aid t hey w ere r epresentatives o f t he e astern g roup a nd i ndicated c ommercial e xchange w ith t he S cythians. M ost o f t he b ones h ad c ome f rom a nimals o f w ithers h eight b etween 1 10 a nd 1 37 c m . N ekkerspoel - G autier

( 1968)

c laimed t hat s ome o f t he h orses a t

N ekkerspoel w ere R oman i mports,

i .e.

1 46 c m w ithers h eight; h e b ased

h is a ssumption o n t he f act t hat t he h orses d id n ot s how t he b road f orehead e xhibited b y t he e astern t ype o f h orse. A t E prave a n I ron A ge c ave i n B elgium ( Gautier 1 970b) t he h orses r anged i n s ize f rom 1 13 t o 1 20 c m. H allstatt, S t. R omain a nd V ix - I n t he H allstatt p eriod t he a nimals w ere l ittle d ifferent f rom t he p receding B ronze A ge b ut i n t he L a T ene p eriod m uch b igger h orses h ave b een f ound f rom t he p its o f V ieille T oulouse, L arina, M ont-Joly, C hgrence, E starac a nd V idelles ( PoulainJ osien 1 964). C eltic h orses m ust h ave b een r easonably g ood s ince G ermanicus r eceived a s upply o f t hem i n A .D. 1 5 w hile h e was c ampaigning a gainst t he G ermans ( Tacitus, A nnals I I, 5 ). A lso t here i s t he e vidence t hat G allic h orses w ere e xported t o R ome ( Horace, O des B ook I , O de 8 , T o L ydia). I ndeed t he R oman C avalry w as n ot R oman i n t he t rue s ense b ut S panish,

G allic a nd G erman

( Pauly/Wissowa/Kroll

1 9 s .

1 440).

T here

w ere n o L atin words f or m any o f t he t echnical e xpressions r egarding t he c avalry, e specially f or v arious f ormations a nd m anoeuvres. D rill o rders w ere g iven i n G allic o r I bero-Celtic t hroughout s ervice. T he l arger h orses m entioned e arlier c ould p ossibly b e g eldings; t he R omans w ere a ware o f g elding.

S trabo

( III,

2 49)

i nforms,

' All

t he S cythians a nd S armation t ribes h ave t he p eculiar c ustom o f g elding t heir h orses

t o m ake

t hem d ocile.

F or t heir h orses t hough s mall a re

v ery s pirited a nd d ifficult t o manage.'

G elding d elays f usion o f t he

l ong b one e piphyses t hus t he b one g rows l onger a nd t he a nimal t aller. F rank ( 1962) t hought t he l arger h orses a t M anching c ould h ave r esulted f rom g elding .

A lso o ther r esearchers t hink i t p ossible t hat t he l arger 2 53

h orses a rose f rom t he c astration o f t he n ative a utochthonous h orse p opulation ( Clason 1 967; v an W ijngaarden-Bakker 1 970; G autier 1 968, 1 970, 1 972). V ery l ittle r esearch a ppears t o h ave b een d one o n t he s ubject o f g elding. T hree s izes o f h orse m ade u p t he Manching m aterial, s mall, m iddle a nd l arge. B oessneck ( 1971) t hought t he m iddle g roup h ad b een d erived f rom t he s mall p re-Roman n ative b reeds a nd t he l arge g roup r epresented R oman i mports. N obis ( 1955a) i dentified t he m iddle s ized h orse a mong t he N orth-west G erman f aunal r emains a nd s imilarly c laimed a d escent f rom t he G erman n ative h orse. C lason a nalysed t he t hree g roups w ithin t he V alkenburg f aunal m aterial. T ables 5 :12 t o 5 :17 s how t he l ong b one m easurements f or t he N orth-western P rovincial h orse. W ithers h eight h as b een e stimated a fter V itt ( 1952) a s d escribed b y B oessneck a nd v on d en D riesch ( 1974). T he l argest m etacarpal l engthwise a pparently c omes f rom t he R oman f ort o f t he V alkenburg i n S outh H olland, 2 77.5 m m ( 16.4 h ands). H owever t his b one o riginated f rom material C lason d escribed i n 1 967; i n t he r eport s he m entioned t hat a lthough t he bulk o f t he m aterial w as R oman t here m ight b e a s mall a dmixture o f m edieval m aterial. T he n ext l argest a nimals c ame f rom H enri Barbusse ( Paris) a nd S tillfried ( Austria), b oth 2 54 mm ( 15 h ands) a nd C ambodunum 2 50 mm ( 14.8 h ands). T he m eans f or t he V alkenburg a nd C ambodunum w ere 2 53 mm ( 14.9 h ands), a nd 2 37 mm ( 14 h ands) r espectively. T he f ollowing t able i s a l ist o f t he r emaining l argest m etacarpals t ogether w ith t he m ean s izes f or t he s ame b one t ypes. S ite

L argest b one

X anten L orenzberg K refeld G ellep P faffenhofen ( 1969 E xc)

2 48.5 2 43 2 42

M ontmaurin

2 40 .5 2 40

( 14.7 ( 14.4 ( 14.3 ( 14.2 ( 14.2

( m u )) h ands) h ands) h ands) h ands) h ands)

M ean m easurement

( mm )

2 29 2 18.2 2 26.2 2 31.2

( 13.2 h ands) ( 12.9 h ands) ( 13.4 h ands) ( 13.7 h ands)

2 01.1 2 16.8 1 97.5

( 11.9 h ands) ( 12.8 h ands) ( 11.7 h ands)

P re-Roman s ites M anching H euneburg L a T ene

O utside t he P rovinces, B entumersiel e xhibited X o f 2 13.7 mm ( 12.6 h ands), B arsbek ( a s acrificial s ite) 2 11 mm ( 12.5 h ands) a nd W urten 2 09.2 mm ( 12.4 h ands). H owever S tillfried i s a lso s ituated o utside t he P rovinces b eing a cross t he D anubian L imes ( Map 5 :4) n ear G änsernd orf, N iederösterreich . W hen t he m etatarsal i s c onsidered n ot o nly f ound a t:-

2 54

( Table 5 :14)

l arge b ones w ere

S ite

L argest b one

( mm)

M ean m easurement

( mm )

X S tillfried L orenzberg

2 96.5

( 15.3 h ands)

2 94

2 96.2

( 15 h ands)

2 64.6

K refeld G ellep

2 88 P faffenhofen ( 1967/9 E xc)285 H enri Barbusse 2 85

( 14.9 h ands) ( 14.7 h ands) ( 14.7 h ands

2 73.5 2 71.7

( 14.1 h ands) ( 14 h ands)

C ambodunum V alkenburg

2 85 2 84.5

( 14.7 h ands) ( 14.7 h ands)

2 86.6

( 13.9 h ands)

2 88

( 14.9 h ands)

2 69.8

( 14 h ands)

2 88

( 14.9 h ands)

2 74

( 14.2 h ands)

b ut a lso:K l inzing-Quintana L auriacum ( milit.)

T he l argest b one c omes f rom B utzbach v illage, 3 03 mm ( 15.7 h ands), w ith X o f 2 80.8 ( 14.5 h ands). I ts s lenderness i ndex i s t he t hird h ighest i n t he t able. R egarding t he m etacarpal

s lenderness i ndex,

D ormagen e xceeds

a ll o ther k nown R oman s ites w ith a n i ndex o f 1 7.5, a pproximately t hat o f m odern c old b looded h orses. T his f ind i s v ery i mportant s ince i t s hows h eavy h orses d o n ot o nly o ccur a t t he b eginning o f t he m igration p eriod b ut a lso o ccur e arlier i n f avourable b iotopes. T he n ext h ighe st v alue o ccurs a t X anten w ith 1 6.7, t hen B arsbek, a s acrificial s ite, 1 6.4 a nd t hen B utzbach w ith 1 6.2 ( Table 5 :15). B entumersiel h as t he h ighest m etatarsal s lenderness i ndex 1 3.8 f ollowed b y B utzbach w ith 1 2.8 ( Table 5 :13). T he l argest r adius b y f ar e manated f rom S tillfried, 3 79 m i l t ( 15.2 h ands), t he n ext l argest c ame f rom t he c ivilian s ettlement o f P faffenh ofen,364 a i m ( 14.7 h ands) a nd f ollowing t hat t he b attlefield o f K refeld G ellep, 3 60 mm ( 14.5 h ands) a nd t he R oman v illa o f W ehringen 3 59 m i a ( 14.5 h ands). T he L a i ene s ites o f M anching a nd L a T ene g ave m ean m easurements o f 3 00.4 mm ( 12.1 h ands) a nd 3 08.5 mm ( 12.4 h ands) r espectively ( see T able 5 :16). A t O pmerkingen, G autier ( private c omm .) d iscovered t he r emains o f l arger h orses b rought b y t he R oman m ilitary - t he s maller h orses h e t hought b elonged t o t he a utochthonous p opulation. I n H olland, P rummel ( private c omm .) h as d istinguished b y a s eries o f s tatistical t ests b etween t he h orses o f t he m ilitary a nd n ative p opulations. T he h orses o f t he native p opulation i n t he R oman I ron A ge a re s ignificantly l ower a t t he w ithers t han t he h orses o f t he R oman m ilitary o ccupation. W ithers h eight

( cm)

H olland

c omparison o f n ative a nd R oman m ilitary h orses ( from P rummel,

X ( cm )

S ite R ijswijk - n ative

f arm

i n

p rivate c on l i aunication)

r ange

( cm )

s tandard d eviation

2 2

1 31.4(12.9)

1 23.6(12.2)-144(14.2)

4 .63

V alkenburg)military i n- 1 9 K esteren ) stallations 2 0

1 40.6(13.8) 1 42.3(14)

1 30.7(12.9)-152(15) 1 34.4(13.2)-148.8(14.6)

5 .88 3 .29

2 55

T he f igures i n b rackets r epresent t he w ithers h eight i n h ands.

T he

Valkenburg d ata h as b een e xtracted f rom t he l ater e xcavations. W hen t he c oefficient o f v ariation ( V) i s c onsidered ( Table 5 :12), L orenzberg, V alkenburg, B utzbach a nd K refeld G ellep s how h igh v alues, a c haracteristic o f t he R oman P eriod i n g eneral. M anching g ives a f airly h igh v alue t hough n ot n early a s h igh a s t he a forementioned s ites; i t d oes s urpass s ome R oman s ites b ut t his i s p robably b ecause o f t heir r ather l ow n umbers. T he m ajority o f R oman s ites h ad r emains o f a verage s ized h orses. Marseilles, P faffenhofen, K refeld G ellep, M ainz, S tillfried, M ontmaurin, A sciburgium, V alkenburg a nd L orenzberg a lso h ad h orses o f l arger t han a verage s ize. U nfortunately, v ery f ew s kulls h ave b een p reserved f rom t he R oman I ron A ge ( Table 5 :17). F ig. 5 .1 s hows t he s pread o f d ata w ith m ost o f t he p oints c lustering o n t he l eft h and s ide o f t he g raph b eing o f a verage a nd l ess t han a verage b asal l ength.

T he l argest s kull f ound

a t M arseilles i s i n a c lass o f i ts o wn a nd h as a b asal l ength o f 5 70 mm . T he s mallest M arseilles s kull f alls w ithin t he r ange o f t he r emaining s kulls. T he c hronologically l ater G ross8rner M olmeck s kulls ( 5 - 6 C . A .D.) h ave b een i ncluded t o s well t he n umbers. W hen c ompared w ith t he B ritish R oman I ron A ge s kulls

( section

4 .3.7) i t c an b e s een t hat t he g reatest M arseilles s kull i s m uch l arger t han t he C helmsford/Newstead s kulls, t he b asal l engths o f which d o n ot s urpass 5 25 mm . T he m ajority o f h orses i n T able 5 :17 w ere o f t he n arrow f orehead ( Western) v ariety; w ere c alculated a ccording t o N obis ( 1962).

t he f rontal i ndices

O ne s ite s tands o ut a s o f p rimary i mportance;

t hat o f K refeld

G ellep. I t i s i mportant b ecause o f t he l ight i t s heds o n t he a ge a nd s ex o f battle h orses. A t K refeld G ellep, N obis ( 1973) d escribed h ow 3 1 R oman h orses w ere b uried a s a r esult o f a b attle w ith t he B atavians, c .

6 9 A .D.

H ardly a ny a nimals w ere o lder t han 7 y ears;

4 t o 5 y ears

was t he p referred a ge o f t he b attle h orses a nd m ore t han h alf w ere male, m ost p robably s tallions. T wo g raves c ontained a nimals w ith s houlder h eights o f 1 17 c m ( 11.5 h ands) a nd 1 26.5 c m ( 12.5 h ands) w hile o ther h orses v aried i n h eight b etween 1 38 c m ( 13.6 h ands) t o 1 54 c m ( 15.3 h ands), ( X 1 46 c m , 1 4.4 h ands). T he s maller h orses f rom G ellep w ere t hinner t han t he l arger o nes. N obis a nswered t he q uestion o f w hether t he l arger h orses w ere i mported o r s elected f rom l ocal b reeds by a s tudy o f t he e namel f old p icture o f t he u pper a nd l ower t eeth . H e f ound a g reat d eal o f s imilarity b etween t he s maller a nd l arger h orses a nd c ame t o t he c onclusion t hat t he l arger o nes h ad b een b red f rom a s pecialised s election o f C oncluding,

t he s maller o nes.

t he m ean w ithers h eight o f R oman m ilitary s ites

v aried b etween 1 2.7 t o 1 4.9 h ands; t he v illas, 1 2.5 t o 1 4.5 h ands; . the c ivilian s ites 1 2.7 t o 1 5 h ands; t he R oman e x-Provincial s ites 1 2.4 t o 1 3.9 h ands a nd L a T ene s ites 1 1.7 t o 1 2.8 h ands, a nd e arly I ron A ge 1 3.2 h ands. T hus s ome R oman s ites e xhibited a t l east t wo s izes o f h orse; t he s mall n ative o ne 1 2 t o 1 3 h ands a nd a l arger v ariety o f m ore t han 1 4 h ands. T he c ivilian s ites t ended t o a dopt l arger h orses. T his i s v ery i nteresting a nd c ould p erhaps b e i nd irectly c onnected t o t he u se o f t he C ursus P ublicus, s ince e ntire h orses w ere p referred f or ( Varro V II,

1 4 a fter W hite

t he a rmy a nd g eldings f or r oad s ervice 1 970,

5 03). 2 56

GRAPH

OF

GREATEST

SKULL

WIDTH AGAINST

BASAL

LENGTH IRON AGE/ROMAN

c n 0

•

HORSES

B BARSBEK

NE NEKKERSPOEL

Mr MARSEILLES

=0

u nn HIC II I v l

2 57

c n 0

•

'M IMS

V V WURTEN

0

0

i n

-

•

_ J •

i n

i n

i n

L n

i n

N I N 7

r 1 N I

0 N 7

C 7 1 r 1

C O r 1

ISHIVH1 19

0 L n

r-)

0 C T 1 e t,

•

c o

0

r e ' )

0

A lso S ir Walter G ilbert B art ( 1900) i n ' Small H orses i n W arfare' p ointed o ut t hat a s maller c avalry h orse i s much m ore u seful i n m anoeuvres t han a l arger o ne, ' Everything i n t he c avalry h orse h as l ong b een s acrificed t o s ize.

T he n ew i mportance o f t he m ore m obile

i nfantry e mphasised t he n eed f or a s maller m ount f or t he s oldier - a c ob, o r p ony s ay o f 1 4.2 h ands.' 5 .4

T he R oman N orth-western P rovincial c attle

T hroughout t he R oman N orth-western a nd C entral P rovinces c attle w ere t he m ost i mportant s pecies, r egarding m eat p otential. T he a urochs, B os P rimigenius i s t hought t o h ave b ecome e xtinct i n B ritain d uring t he B ronze A ge a nd t he s ite o f C harterhouse W arren F arm i n t he M endips r ecords i ts l atest e xistence, 3 245 ± 3 7 b p ( BM-731) ( Burleigh a nd C lutton-Brock 1 977). I t i s p robable t hat m ore i ntensified p ersecution b y m an i n t he B ronze A ge t ogether w ith l oss o f h abitat r esulted i n t he f atal d ecline o f t he s pecies. D espite i ts d emise i n B ritain t he a urochs c ontinued t o e xist o n t he c ontinent a lthough i ts n umbers w ere d windling. A f ew a urochs b ones h ave b een a ttested a t a number o f R oman s ites, f or i nstance, D angstetten, Z wammerdam , Magdalensberg, E ngehalbinsel, M anching, E rsingen-Murain a nd p ossibly H l ifingen, P faffenhofen, X anten a nd t he A ltenstadt f ort.

I n t he N etherlands

t he a urochs w as a bsent e ven i n

t he p re-Roman p eriod, ' The a bsence o f t he a urochs i n t he p rovinces o f N orth a nd S outh H olland must b e e xplained b y t he g eographical n ature o f t hese p rovinces. T he n arrow c oastal a rea w hich was h abitable f or m an w as s eparated f rom t he h igher s andy s oils i n t he e ast b y e xtensive b ogs t hat w ere u nfit f or h abitation .' ( Clason 1 967, 1 05). T he b one w all d ensity a nd s ize v ariability h elps t o d istinguish t he l arge d omestic a nimal f rom t he w ild o ne, b ut w ith f ragmentary b ones, d etermination i s d ifficult. U sing l arge a mounts o f m aterial f rom D enmark, D egerb f hl ( 1970) d emonstrated t he g reat v ariability w ithin t he a urochs o f t he s ame a rea b ut f rom d ifferent p eriods. H e c ommented u pon t he p roblems w hich a rise f rom t his i n d istinguishing w ild a nd d omestic f orms. T he f ollowing d ata h as b een t aken f rom D egerb01 ( 1970) a nd i llustrates t he r ange o f v ariation o f B os p rimigenius m etapodials. Aurochs - B os p rimigenius T otal l ength o f m etacarpal

2 44 - 2 78 m m 2 30 - 2 53 mm

male f emale

T otal

2 70 - 3 15 mm 2 68 - 2 83 mm

m ale f emale

l ength o f m etatarsal

M etacarpal S lenderness I ndex m id s haft w idth (t otal l ength x 1 00)

1 8.4 - 1 9.1 mm

m ale

1 5.6 - 1 7 mm

f emale

M etatarsal S lenderness I ndex

1 3.5 - 1 3.3 mm

m ale

m id s haft w idth otal l ength x 1 00) (t

1 1.6 - 1 2.5 mm

f emale

2 58

O n c urrent m orphological e vidence i t w ould a ppear t hat v ery l ittle a urochs b one i s p resent o n c ontinental R oman s ites. S ome o f t he m etac arpal b ones i n T able 5 :18 c oincide w ith t he l ower l imit D egerb01 g ives f or a urochs f emales, t hat i s, P faffenhofen a nd X anten w here i t w as t entatively i dentified a nd a lso a t B utzbach . T he s ize v ariation o f m ale a nd f emale a urochs h as b een c onsidered b ecause t here a ppears a c onsiderable s ize d ifferentiation b etween R omano-British a nd R omano-Gallic c attle b ones. F or i nstance t he l argest d omestic a nimal f rom B ritain g ives a w ithers h eight o f 1 44 c m ( see

3 .16.1) w hile o ne f rom P aris g ives a h eight o f 1 54.4 c m . I n a c onsideration o f s ize t he m etapodials g ave

b er o f c omparable r esults ( Tables 5 :18 t o 5 :21); r evealed o nly e ither m etacarpals o r m etatarsals,

t he g reatest n um-

s ince s ome s ites c omparisons w ere

a chieved b y e stimation o f t he w ithers h eight. A s m entioned p reviously, b one s exing i s n ot i nfallible; t hus t he m ean v alue o f t he f actors f or m ale a nd f emale w ere u sed a fter t he m ethod o f F ock ( 1966) a s d esc ribed b y B oessneck a nd v .d . D riesch ( 1974). I t m ust b e e mphasised t hat B oessneck a nd v .d. D riesch 's r eview o f w ithers h eight e stimation p ointed o ut t he i naccuracy o f B oessneck's m ethod ( 1956) w hich g ives a s houlder h eight t hat i s t oo h igh. H ence a ny c alculation o f w ithers h eight m ade p rior t o 1 974 m ust b e r echecked. T able 5 :23 s hows c arpal a nd m etatarsal .

t he w ithers h eight a s e stimated f rom t he m etaT able 5 :24 s hows t he w ithers h eight a s e stima-

t ed f rom t he r adius u sing t he f actors o f M atolcsi ( 1970) a s d escribed b y B oessneck a nd v .d. D riesch ( 1974). M easurements o f t he r adius ( total l ength) a re r ecorded i n T able 5 :22. T he s ites w ith t he l argest e stimated w ithers h eight a re g iven i n d escending o rder o f i mportance. S ite

E stimated w ithers h eight

H enri Barbusse W ehringen

1 54.4 1 51.8

X anten M ontmaurin L auriacum ( civil.) G ünzburg B utzbach

1 48.4 1 45.8 1 45.3 1 44.9 1 43.1

P faffenhofen

1 41.2

W hen

( 1967 E xc.)

( cm )

t he m ean m easurements o f s houlder h eight a re c ompared t he

f ollowing o rder i s o btained: W ehringen P faffenhofen

( 1967 E xc.)

L auriacum ( milit.) D ormagen L auriacum ( civil.) F roitzheim

1 42.2 1 38.3 1 33.7 1 33 1 28.4 1 28.1

A c ouple o f R hine v alley s ites c an t hus b e a dded t o t he l ist,

t hose

o f D ormagen a nd F roitzheim . T hese r esults r ather d estroy t he o ld n otion t hat t he n earer t he h eart o f t he E mpire t he l arger t he a nimals w ere.

I t must b e e mphasised t hat a lthough l arge b oned a nimals o ccur

a t W ehringen, H ouwald b ones w ere

( 1971)

c laimed t hey w ere n ot a urochs

t hin a nd l ight . 2 59

s ince

t he

W hen

t he

W ehringen

s lenderness

( 18),

R odgen

a nd Künzing-Quintana

i ndex o f t he m etacarpal w as i nvestigated,

( 18.1),

( 17.2)

F roitzheim ( 17.5),

g ave

D ormagen

t he b roadest r esults.

( 17.2)

S urprisingly

V emania p roduced v ery s lender l imbed c attle ( 13.8), m ore s lender t han t hose o utside t he P rovinces, t hat i s B entumersiel ( 15.5) a nd t he L a T ene p eriod s ite M anching i n m ind t hat

( 15.4),

A s imilar p icture i s

( 11.4)

T he

s mallest w ere

( Table 5 :19).

g iven b y t he m etatarsal w ith t he a ddition

o f P faffenhofen a nd W ehringen ( 12.5).

a lthough i t o bviously must b e b orne

t hese m ight j ust b e s exual d ifferences

( 13.5),

F roitzheim ( 12.8)

f ound a t B entumersiel

a nd D ormagen

( 11.2)

a nd V alkenburg

( see T able 5 :21).

M ennerich

( 1968)

t hought

l ength a nd b readth i ndices a nd G ellep,

w as d ue

t hat t he v aried d isplay i n metapodial

o f t he R hine s ites, D ormagen,

t o b reeding m ethods,

f eeding,

F roitzheim

c limate a nd a ge

when c astrated. T he n ew i nformation t hat a nd 5 :24 r einforces

t he a uthor has g athered i n T ables 5 :23

t he s parse i nformation o f T odd

( 1975,

1 18)

t hat

t here was ' no s ign o f a ny c hange i n s ize o f b reeding o f c attle i n marshland s ettlements d uring t he R oman P eriod.' I ndeed T acitus ( Germania,

5 )

l ivestock,

b ut t he a nimals a re m ostly u ndersized a nd e ven t he c attle

d escribes

t he G erman c attle,

l ack t he h andsome h eads At B entumersiel

t hat a re

o f

i n

t he f orm o f

t he e xport t rade.

t heir natural g lory.'

t here w as a n a bundance o f i mported g oods, p ar-

t icularly R oman c eramics; i mports

s ince

t here w as n o e vidence o f R oman

c attle p erhaps

t he n ative c attle f ormed p art

T acitus r elates

number o f t hem t hat t he G ermans

( Germania,

t ake p ride i n f or

w ealth t hey h ave a nd a re much p rized.' t he R oman L imes, ( Apagy,

e .g.

T iszavasvari,

a lready i ndicated l argest h orses 3 92)

' ...

( BBkönyi

t hat S tillfried a cross

t he c attle t he

5 ),

' It i s

t he m ere

t hese a re

t he o nly

S ome l arge a nimals d id c ross

t he D anubian L imes D erecske)

d uring t he R oman P eriod.

c oncerning

r elevant,

' It i s w ell p rovided w ith

i nto S armatian s ettlements 1 974).

A lso t he a uthor h as

t he D anubian L imes h as W aterbolk's r emarks

t he

( 1975,

s heds a t W ijster, N orth H olland a re m ost

s tall w idths w ere g enerally g reater

o ther c ontemporary s ettlements.

t han o n a ll

T hough s ituated o utside

t he R oman

L imes, t he a rchaeological r ecord s hows a s trong R oman i nfluence i n t his s ettlement a nd i t i s q uite p ossible t hat t his i nfluence a lso i ncluded t he r aising o f b etter q uality c attle.'

Waterbolk's c omments

a re i mportant s ince s o f ew b one r eports a re a vailable f or G erman s ites o f

t his p eriod . Native

I ron A ge c attle h ave b een c ompared t o

a nd K erry c attle. T ables

M easurements o f

3 :11 a nd 3 :12.

a nimals,

e .g.

t he s mall D exter

t he l atter h ave b een d escribed i n

S ome s ites a ppeared t o s pecialize i n l arger

L auriacum t own,

P faffenhofen, W ehringen, D ormagen,

G ellep a nd F roitzheim while o thers c ontinued r earing t he s maller n ative b reeds

t ogether w ith t he

l arger t ypes,

e .g.

V alkenburg,

R egensberg,

M ontmaurin, Auterive, Magdalensberg, X anten a nd L orenzberg. C ollis ( 1973) h as d rawn a ttention t o t he w ide r ange i n v ariation o f t he M anching c attle b one m easurements, a f act t hat l ed S chneider ( 1958) a nd Dürr ( 1961) t o s uggest t he l arger a nimals m ight b e R oman i mports. T his h as a lready b een p ostulated f or

2 60

t he h orse b ones b y B oessneck e t a l.

( 1971). a lkünyi ( 1974) d escribes R oman c attle o f C entral a nd E astern E urope a s h aving a w ithers h eight o f b etween 1 20 a nd 1 40 c m . I t i s p ossible t hat s ome o f B 8künyi's s houlder h eight v alues a re t oo h igh ( v .d . D riesch a nd B oessneck 1 974, 3 46). T he a uthor h as a lready s hown t hat i n W estern E urope much l arger b easts o ccurred f ar e xceeding t his u pper l imit. H ornless c attle h ave b een f ound a t t he V alkenburg a nd R ijswijk P eriod 2 a nd P eriod 3 . O n t he m ajority o f t he s ites i nvestigated, m ost o f t he a nimals w ere a ged 3 y ears o r o lder. C attle o lder t han 3 y ears o ccurred a t M arseilles, X anten a nd t he F eddersen W ierde ( 61.3%). M ainly o lder a nimals w ere d escribed f or A sciburgium, C ambodunum , B utzbach, L orenzberg a nd L auriacum w here t hey w ere s laughtered b etween 5 a nd 8 y ears. A t B entumersiel 7 2.7% o f t he c attle h ad m olar t hree i n w ear a nd w ere t hus a ged 3 y ears; 5 0% o f t he Magdalensberg c attle a ppeared o ver 3y ears w ith o nly 2 .5% u nder 6 m onths. A t A uterive 7 9.3% o f t he p opulation w ere a ged 2 1 t o 3y ears a nd a t V emania t wo t hirds o f t he a nimals w ere s laughtered o ver 2 1 y ears. A t M anching 4 1.3% o f t he c attle w ere o lder t han 3 y ears. A lthough i mmature a nimals a re o bviously p resent i n t hese s amples, n o s ite h as p roduced e vidence o f a l arge number o f v ery y oung c alves ( veal) t hus r eleasing t he m other t o p roduce m ilk f or h uman c onsumption - a d airy e conomy p roper. H l ifingen w as q uite d ifferent f rom t he o ther s ites i n t hat t he m ajority o f t he a nimals w ere s laughtered b et ween 9 a nd 1 2 m onths, i .e. 5 1% ( 45.7% o ver 3 y ears) s pecifically f or m eat. T his i s i n d irect c ontradiction t o White ( 1970) w ho m entioned t hat t here w as n o e vidence t hat l ivestock w as d eliberately b red f or e ating b ut w hether o r n ot t he R oman I talian t radition o f f arming c an l egitimately b e a pplied t o t he P rovinces i s am oot p oint. 5 .5

T he R oman N orth-western P rovincial s heep/goat

A llowing f or t he d ifficulty o f d istinguishing s heep/goat, o nly a s mall p ercentage o f t he b one s ample f rom s ites c ould b e a ttributed t o g oat. W ehringen w ith a r atio o f 4 s heep t o 5 g oat w as t he e xcept ion. H ornless g oats w ere f ound a t L auriacum a nd t he M agdalensberg s ettlements; t hey w ere a lso k nown t o C olumella ( VII, 6 ). H ornless s heep w ere f ound a t C ambodunum , R ijswijk, V alkenburg, S t. M ard a nd O pmerkingen . I n t he N etherlands h ornless s heepskulls w ere f ound i n t he p re-Roman I ron A ge l evels a t S panjaardsbergje ( Clason 1 977b). T he m ajority o f t he a nimals w ere s laughtered a t a n a ge g reater t han 2 y ears, f or e xample L auriacum , A uterive, B utzbach, Magdalensberg, M ainz, F eddersen W ierde, B entumersiel a nd M arseilles. An e xception w as V emania w here o nly 3 0% o f t he a nimals w ere o lder t han 2 y ears. A t P faffenhofen i t w as s tated t hat t wo t hirds o f t he s heep/goat h ad n ot r eached 3 t o 4y ears while a t G ünzburg a nd M arzoll,

h alf t he

a nimals w ere s laughtered b efore 3 y ears. A ccording t o c lassical a uthors s heep a re i mportant i n t he f irst p lace b ecause o f t he v alue o f t he t heir w ool ( Varro I I, 2 ; C olumella V II, 3 ) a nd g oats b ecause o f m ilk

( Varro I I,

3 ,2; V ergil G eorgics I II,

2 61

3 94; G alen V I,

7 65).

T he m etacarpal a nd m etatarsal w ere b oth u sed i n c alculating t he s heep w ithers h eight a fter t he m ethod o f T eichert ( 1975) a nd a lso t he g oat w ithers h eight a fter t he m ethod o f S chramm ( 1967), b oth m ethods c ited b y B oessneck a nd v .d. D riesch ( 1974). U nlike o ther l ong b ones, m etapodials a re e asier t o d istinguish b etween t he t wo s pecies. T he g reatest l ength o f t he m etapodials a re r ecorded i n T ables 5 :25 a nd 5 :26. S ites w ith t he l argest e stimated s heep w ithers h eight a re, d escending o rder o f i mportance, a s f ollows:- ( see T able 5 :27) L auriacum ( civil.)

7 4.1 c m

R egensberg X anten B utzbach W ehringen V indonissa

7 3 .1 7 2.1 7 0.9 7 0.4 6 9.9

i n

T he m ean m easurements o f s houlder h eight a re i n d escending o rder o f i mportance: W ehringen L auriacum ( civil.)

7 1.3 c m 6 9.2

X anten P faffenhofen

6 8.4 6 8

( 1967 E xc.)

R egensberg

6 7.1

A s w ith c attle t he l argest a nimals a re n ot c oncentrated j ust i n C entral E urope, t hat i s, f or e xample, t he R oman P rovince o f N oricum, b ut r ange a s

f ar a field a s X anten. I n C hapter O ne t he w ithers h eights o f t hree m odern-day S oay s heep

w ere g iven,

h aving b een m easured b y t he a uthor .

T he w ithers h eight

e stimated a ccording t o t he m etacarpal a nd m etatarsal u sing t he f actors o f T eichert r anged f rom 5 3.5 t o 5 7.9 c m . T he S oay i s b elieved t o b e a s urviving r elic o f t he s mall p rehistoric s heep h erded b y p re-Roman p eople. M ost o f t he m easurements i n T able 5 :27 p roved t o b e m uch l arger t han t his. H owever t hey w ere n ot a s l arge a s s ome o f t he s heep o ccurring o n R oman v illas i n H ungary w hich w ere 8 4 t o 8 8 c m w ithers h eight. B 8k8nyi ( 1974) t hought t hat t hey m ight b e w ethers ( castrates); but m ostly t he a verage w ithers h eight o f t he H ungarian s heep w as a l ittle a bove 6 9 c m t hus i ndicating t hat t hey w ere s lightly l arger t han t hose o f N orth-west E urope. I n s ome a reas t he s mall n ative s heep c ontinued t o b e b red a longs ide t he l arger v ariety, e .g. M arseilles, D ormagen, L auriacum ( military l evels), Auterive,

a nd B utzbach.

W hen t he m eans o f t he d istal t ibia w idth a re c ompared, P faffenhofen, L auriacum ( civilian l evels), h ighest v alues

P ocking, D ormagen a nd V emania h ave t he

( Table 5 :28).

N ot m any b ones w ere a vailable f or c alculation o f t he g oat w ithers h eight ( Table 5 :29). T he m eans r anged f rom 6 5.5 t o 7 1.9 c m . a gain, a s w ith s heep, h aving o ne o f t he h ighest v alues.

2 62

L auriacum

5 .6

T he R oman N orth-western P rovincial p ig P ork f ormed a p opular p art o f t he R oman d iet, m any o f t he a nimals

b eing s laughtered b elow 2 1 y ears o f a ge, f or e xample a t V emania a nd K ünzing-Quintana t wo t hirds o f t he p opulation w ere s laughtered b efore t heir s econd y ear. A t P faffenhofen t wo t hirds o f t he p igs d id n ot s urvive t heir f irst y ear; t he A sciburgium p igs w ere k illed a t b etween 6m onths a nd 2 y ears o ld; a t t he M agdalensberg s ite, 9 2% o f t he a nimals w ere s laughtered u nder 2 1 y ears a nd a t X anten t hey w ere butc hered b etween 3 t o 1 2 m onths. H owever Auterive w as a s urprising e xception; a pproximately t wo t hirds o f t he p igs w ere o lder t han 2 1 y ears. O utside t he p rovinces t he p icture w as d ifferent; a t t he F eddersen W ierde, t he m ajority o f a nimals w ere o lder t han 2 y ears a s a t B entumersiel a nd M anching. W here t he a nimals c ould b e s exed, u sually v ia a m andible, t he number o f m ales o utnumbered t he f emales g reatly ( Table 5 :30). S ince m any o f t he p igs w ere i mmature i t was t hought u nwise t o p ursue a ny s ize d ifferentiation v ia t he l ong b ones. O ccasionally t he R omans m ixed w ild a nd d omestic s wine t o i nvigorate t he s tock ( Pliny V III, 5 .7

7 9).

T he R oman N orth-western P rovincial d og At t he p re-Roman s ite o f Manching o ne

c ut m arks o n t hem ;

t hird o f t he d og b ones h ad

b utchered d og b ones w ere a lso f ound a t S t. R omain

( in t he H allstatt P eriod), L a T ene 2 a nd 3 , L arina-Chatelans ( Poulain 1 960), t he o ppidum o f G eneva ( Revilliod 1 926) a nd t he S chlossberge ( Duerst 1 904). I n t he R oman P eriod d og w as e aten o nly v ery o ccasionally, p erhaps i n t imes o f emergency, f or e xample a t V emania a lthough P liny ( 29, 5 8) c laimed t hat i n R ome t he f lesh o f p uppies w as c onsidered t o b e s uch p ure a nd e xcellent f ood t hat i t o ften t ook t he p lace o f o ther s acrif ices. P uppies w ere f requently e aten a t d inners g iven i n h onour o f t he g ods a nd a t i naugural b anquets. T able 5 :31 s hows d og.

t he l ong b one m easurements

( total l ength)

f or

I n t he R oman P eriod t he d warf d og w as i ntroduced; b ent b ones

l ike t hose o f t he d achshund w ere f ound a t L auriacum , W ehringen, F roitzheim , G ellep a nd D ormagen. T he w ithers h eight o f t he b ones w ere e stimated a ccording t o t he f actors o f H arcourt ( 1974). A t t he f ollowing s ites t he l argest d ogs o ccurred:L orenzberg D ormagen, F roitzheim ,Gellep

7 1 c m ( withers h eight) i t e i 7 0 .3

V emania

6 7.4

R ijswijk

6 5

H arcourt

( 1974)

i n h is s urvey o f

i t

i t

' The D og i n P rehistoric a nd E arly

H istoric B ritain' c oncluded t hat t he h eight r ange o f t he R omano-British d og was b etween 2 3 a nd 7 2 c m , i ts m ain f eature b eing v ariability i n h eight,

b uild a nd s kull s hape;

t he N orth-western P rovincial d ogs

v aried i n s ize b etween 2 1.5 a nd 7 1 c m s o n o n otable d ifferences i n s ize a re a pparent . 2 63

S ince i t i s i mpossible t o d istinguish d og a nd w olf w ith t he l ong b ones a lone, H arcourt c laimed t hat s ome o f t he l arger b ones m ay b e w olf. 5 .8

T he R oman N orth-western P rovincial p oultry

T he o ldest r emains o f d omestic f owl k nown f rom E urope a re f ound a t t he H euneburg i n t he l ate H allstatt p eriod. I t w as a lso p resent i n t he p re-Roman I ron A ge s ettlement l ayers a t t he Amsterdam w aterw orks n ear B loemendaal ( Clason 1 967). G oose o ccurred i n E urope i n t he p re-Roman p eriod ( Boessneck 1 958). P liny d escribes t he G erman g oose ( Pliny I X, 2 7) a s s maller t han t he R oman a nd t ells o f g eese b eing d riven f rom B elgium t o I taly f or g ooseliver ( X, 5 3). A ccording t o G ustav K lein, q uoted b y C lark ( 1948, 1 26) t he b reeding o f t ame g eese a mong t he a ncient G ermans d eveloped t o m eet t he d emand f or f eathers f rom C lassical I taly . Z euner ( 1963) i nforms u s t hat t he G reeks a nd R omans r arely r eared d omestic d ucks; h owever a f air number o f d uck b ones w ere f ound a t R oman M agdalensberg ( Dräger 1 964). A s m entioned i n s ection 2 .11 f owl w ere c astrated b y t he R omans. N ot o nly w ere f owl b red f or t he t able but a lso f or c ock f ighting. T his w as p opular a nd i n t he m iddle o f t he f irst c entury A .D., h eavy b ets w ere b eing m ade ( Columella V III, 2 ). T able 5 :32 i ndicates t hat L auriacum a nd t he V alkenburg h ad b y f ar t he l argest f owl. A t L auriacum t he g oose b ones w ere a lso l arger a nd s tronger t han a ny o thers. 5 .9

I ntroduced s pecies 5 .9.1

T he a ss - E quus a sinus L .

P oulain-Josien

( 1964) h as c laimed e vidence o f

t he a ss i n t he L a

T ene P eriod a t l a C roix-des S ables a M ainz ( Charente) a nd a lso V ieille T oulouse. I n t he R oman P eriod L auriacum a nd K l inzing-Quintana b oth p roduced a ss r emains b ut u nfortunately t he d ating i s n ot a bsolutely c ertain. A t C ambodunum b oth S chlosser ( 1888) a nd B oessneck ( 1957) f ound t he r emains o f a ss. N orth o f t he A lps i t h as b een f ound i n a R oman c emetery o utside H eidelberg ( Lüttschwager 1 966). O ne g rave c ontained t he p artial s keleton o f a d onkey ( mandibles a nd n eck v erteb rae) a nd b etween i ts j aws w as a c oin o f T rajan d ated t o 1 00 A .D. A t W urttemberg,

V ogel

( 1940)

i dentified a ss.

I n F rance r emains o f

t hree a sses w ere f ound i n t he R omano-Gallic l ayers o f P aris ( Poulain 1 962), L usigny, A uterive a nd M arseilles. A c remation c emetery a t S t. P allaye ( Yonne) d ug b y C arre P a nd D ousson ( unpublished) r evealed, i n g rave n umber 3 , -c arpal

p artially b urnt s heep f ragments a nd a v ery s mall m eta-

o f a n a ss.

T he a ss h as b een f ound a s f ar a field i n t he N orth W est a s a t t he R oman F ort o f N ewstead

( Ewart 1 911).

o f b urden b ut w ere o ccasionally e aten

2 64

A sses w ere m ainly u sed a s b easts ( Pliny V III,

1 70).

5 .9.2

T he d omestic c at - F elis c atus L .

I t i s

g enerally a cknowledged t hat t he d omestic c at o riginated

f rom t he A frican w ild c at,

F elis

s ilvestris

l ibyca.

C lason

( 1967)

c laimed t hat t he European w ild c at, F . s ilvestris s ilvestris was n ot o f t he r ight t emperament t o h ave p articipated. R ecent E uropean z oolog ical r esearch h as s upported C lason's v iew a nd s uggests F elis l ibyca i s

t he p robable a ncestor

H owever P ocock, e stic c at,

i n a n i nvestigation o f

t he o rigin o f t he E nglish d om-

s urmised t hat t he A frican w ild c at w as d omesticated f irst

a nd t hat l ater g enerations i nterbred w ith c laimed

t hat when F elis s .

t he y oung r esemble m ore

s ilvestris

( Kratochvil a nd K ratochvil 1 976).

H e

s .libyca

t he d omestic s triped t abby v ia p elage c haracteristics

t han e ither p arent

( Pocock 1 907).

s ame c ontext a s a h ouse m ouse a t t he S aints, E ngland

t he n orthern w ild c ats.

s ilvestris i s i nterbred w ith F elis

( Harcourt 1 979b).

t he European w ild c at

K ittens w ere f ound i n t he

I ron A ge

T hus

s ite o f G ussage A ll

t he g enetic c ontribution o f

t o o ur p resent d ay d omestic s pecies c annot b e

e ntirely r uled o ut. T he d omestic c at w as

s upposedly i ntroduced i nto E urope d uring

t he R oman I mperial P eriod ( Zeuner 1 963). T ables 5 :1 t o 5 :5 i ndicate t he s carcity o f c at i n g eneral o n R oman s ites a lthough t his c ould b e d ue t o s eparate b urial. t ion i n c ertain a reas l e M ont Auxois

C ertainly t he c at was

o f s ociety,

( Champ P laige),

l ooked o n w ith a ffec-

f or e xample t he d epiction f ound a t

c arved o n a t able

l ing a c at w ith a c ollar a nd b ell

l eg,

o f a b oy c rad-

( Esperandieu 1 937).

E xcavations a t P ompeii h ave p roduced n o e vidence o f d omestic c at b ones,

a lthough a m osaic d epicts a w ild c at d evouring a p artridge

( Naples M useum ). O utside

T his s uggests

t he P rovinces,

t hird c enturies, A .D.

i ts

t he c at w as ( Nobis

s carcity i n t he e arly R oman P eriod. f ound a t T ofting i n t he

s econd t o

1 955c).

I t s hould b e n oted t hat i t i s q uite d ifficult t o d istinguish t he b ones o f d omestic a nd w ild c ats. 5 .9.3

T he

c amel

T he r emains o f c amel h ave b een u ncovered a t V indonissa 1 910,

1 919;

H escheler-Kuhn 1 949),

V ienna

L orenzberg, V emania a nd Marseilles. t he c amel w as b rought t o Europe m ilitary u nits. h orses

( Berger-Thenius

B ök t inyi

( 1974)

t he R omans;

A part f rom i ts u se a s a p ack a nimal, 7 ;

i t w as

G eoponica X VI,

2 2).

i n t he a rena

( Suetonius,

N ero 2 ;

A lso c amel m ilk was d runk b y

t hought p leasant i f o ne p art o f m ilk w as d iluted

w ith t hree p arts o f w ater 5 .9.4

s uggested t hat

f rom W est A sia o r N orth A frica b y

a nd c amels w ere r aced a gainst e ach o ther

D io C assius LX,

( Keller

1 951),

( Pliny X I,

2 37;

X XVIII,

1 23).

T he p eacock - P avo p avo

T he p eacock w as i ntroduced b y t he R omans b erg a nd L auriacum

( civilian l ayer).

2 65

i nto W ehringen, M agdalens-

5 .9.5

1 927)

T he f allow d eer - D ama d ama

S ome w orked p ieces o f a ntler w ere r etrieved f rom T rier ( Hilzheimer a nd t he V alkenburg F ort P eriod 2 w here a m etatarsus h ad b een

w orked i nto a p en w ith a b ronze n ib ( Prummel, p rivate c omm .). T here i s a p ossibiltiy t hat a f ragment o f a ntler m ay h ave c ome f rom a t erp ( Van G iffen 1 913). A t A ugst ( Augusta R aurica), a f ew f allow d eer f oot b ones w ere f ound i n t he R oman l ayers d ated t o a bout 1 00 A .D. T he o ccurrence o f d eer p arks i n G aul h as b een m entioned ( Chapter O ne, s ummary). 5 .9.6

T he e lephant

A part f rom t he d iscovery o f a 1 2 f oot l ong c omplete e lephant s keleton, u ncovered i n 1 777 i n aM aillane h ouse c ellar a nd p ossibly a ttributed t o H annibal, n o a uthentic r eports o f e lephant i n t he R oman I mperial P eriod a re k nown t o t he a uthor. S cullard ( 1974) h as e nl ightened u s o n t he d ifficulties o f t ransporting e lephants i n b oats. D io C assius ( LX) w rites t hat C laudius i n A .D. 4 3 i ncluded a n e lephant f or t he c onquest o f B ritain. 5 .9.7

T he g uinea-fowl - N umidia m eleagris

G uinea f owl w as f ound i n t he S aalburg, t he R oman l imes c amp i n t he T aunus M ountains i n W . G ermany ( Zeuner 1 963). 5 .10

W ild a nimals

B os p rimigenius h as a lready b een d iscussed i n c onnection w ith t he d omestic c attle. B oth C ambodunum a nd t he M agdalensberg h ave r emains, p urporting t o b e t hose o f b ison; d ifferentiation o f b ison a nd a urochs h as b een i nvestigated b y t he f ollowing a uthors,

O lsen

( 1960), a nd S tampfli ( 1963). C lason ( 1977) c laimed t hat e lk r emains w ere s carce i n p rehistoric s ettlements i n m iddle E urope, ' Only f rom t he e arly e neolithic s ettlement o f P olling, B avaria a nd t hose o f E golzwil 3 , N iederwil a nd S eeberg B urgäschisee-Süd i n S witzerland a re e lk r emains k nown '. ( Clason 1 977c, 1 19). H owever s everal f ragm ents o f e lk w ere f ound i n t he R oman P eriod a t t he V alkenburg f ort, V emania, M agdalensberg a nd B utzbach . B eaver a nd o tter w ere n ot u nu sual f inds o n s ites a nd c ould p rovide f urs a nd m eat. A mphibians w ere o ccasionally c onsumed b y t he R omans, f or e xample f rogs l egs. T hi lry ( 1977) h as s ummarised t he e vidence f or t his p ract ice f rom t he s ites o f C ambodunum, A ugusta R aurica, P forzheim a nd E rsingen-Murain. A n i ndication o f R oman c uriosity i s r eflected i n t he r ecovery o f am ammoth t ooth f rom R oman l evels a t A ugusta R aurica ( Schmid 1 969). T here a re s ome b one d eposits o n t he c ontinent t hat c an o nly b e d escribed a s

' very o dd ';

s ome o f t hese h ave b een d iscussed i n c onjunction w ith

r itual R omano-British b one d eposits i n C hapter F our. I n c onclusion, t he i nhabitants o f t he N orth-western a nd C entral P rovinces m ainly a te o lder a nimals, t he m ost p opular b eing t he c ow, a lthough y oung p ig o ccurred f airly f requently .

2 66

P ossibly t he e ating o f

o lder a nimals i n t he l ater R oman p eriod c an b e p rice e dict where

p ound a nd l amb/kid a t 1 2 d enarii a p ound. l ittle

t o

t he g eneral

L arger a nimals s pecies

( ass)

l inked t o D iocletian's

s heep/goat a nd c ow f lesh was s old a t 8 d enarii a d iet a nd w as

H unting c ontributed v ery

l ooked o n m ore a s a s port.

( cattle a nd h orses)

a nd t he p resence o f i mported

i n t he L a T ene p eriod i n Europe s ignify R oman i nfluence

a lready a t w ork.

I n t he R oman P eriod

l arge a nimals

( cattle a nd s heep),

a re f ound i n t he N orth-west P rovinces e qualling t hose o f P rovinces, t hat i s, N oricum ( Lauriacum ).

t he C entral

T he major p roblem e ncountered b y t he a uthor h as b een t he l ack o f s ites,

l et a lone

s tratified s ites

i n s uch a v ast a rea

( Maps 5 .1

5 .5).

R eferences

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t ext

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2 67

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1 974

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1 969

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Muller 1 955 Duerst 1 904

R eichstein 1 973

1 969

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K ey t o R eferences

W aldmann 1 967.

Amschler 1 949.

S treitferdt 1 972.

B oessneck 1 964.

H ouwald 1 971.

J ourdan 1 976.

H ornberger 1 970.

B oessneck 1 958.

S auer-Neubert 1 968.

a '

D annheimer 1 964. C lason 1 977a . G autier 1 970a . B aas

1 966.

M uller 1 967. P oulain-Josien 1 971. 1

S chmid 1 970. S chmid 1 967. S chmid 1 966a . S tampfli

1 959.

S tampfli 1 960. H abermehl 1 960. B oessneck 1 967. P oulain-Josien 1 962. P oulain-Josien 1 967. P oulain-Josien 1 964. P oulain-Josien 1 955.

2 72

B oessneck 1 957.

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