Cult and Character: Purification Offerings, Day of Atonement, and Theodicy 9781575065588

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CULT AND CHARACTER

CULT AND CHARACTER Purification Offerings, Day of Atonement, and Theodicy

Roy E. Gane

Winona Lake, Indiana Eisenbrauns 2005

ç Copyright 2005 by Eisenbrauns. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gane, Roy, 1955– Cult and character : purification offerings, Day of Atonement, and theodicy / Roy E. Gane. p. cm. Includes indexes. ISBN 1-57506-101-5 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Purity, ritual—Judaism. 2. Yom Kippur. 3. Bible. O.T. Leviticus— Criticism, interpretation, etc. 4. Theodicy. I. Title. BM702.G35 2005 296.4u9—dc22 2005009783 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984. †‘

Dedicated to my teacher, Jacob Milgrom

whypb htyh tma trwt (Malachi 2:6)

Dedication One evening in the 1980s, Prof. Jacob Milgrom relaxed with his students during a break in the “Advanced Biblical Hebrew Texts” seminar that he conducted in his Berkeley home. To explain his preoccupation with Leviticus, he told us a story about a yeshiva student who noticed that his teacher was studying a certain page of Talmud. On a subsequent day, the student was surprised to find the rabbi perusing the same page. When he inquired why, the teacher simply responded: “I like it here.” Since that evening in Berkeley, Milgrom has moved through the sacrificial and purity instructions of Leviticus 1–16 and on to the legislation of chapters 17–27. But now it is the student who lingers. I am still pondering the sacrifices, especially the tafj (purification offering) and the ceremonies of Yom Kippur. Why? “I like it here.” Before participating in Milgrom’s seminar, I had no interest in Leviticus whatsoever. Without the inspiration, mentoring, and example of scholarship that he has provided through his teaching and published writings, the present book would never have been contemplated, let alone written. So this humble offering is respectfully and affectionately dedicated to Jacob Milgrom.

Contents Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix

Part 1 Ritual, Meaning, and System 1. The Locus of Ritual Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3

Ritual actions have no inherent meaning 4 Ritual = activity + attached meaning 6 A structural approach is inadequate for identifying ritual meaning 9 The meaning/function of a ritual is the goal assigned to its activity system 12 A “ritual” is an activity system with a special kind of goal 14 Systems theory concepts can aid interpretation of Israelite rituals 18 The biblical text provides instructions for physical performance and interpretations of activities 21 Conclusion 24

2. The System of tafj Rituals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 In the final form of the biblical text, the Day of Atonement rituals function within the larger system of Israelite rituals 25 Challenges to the unity of Leviticus 16 do not prevent consideration of the Day of Atonement rituals as a system 31 Scholars present diverse interpretations regarding the role of the special Day of Atonement services 37 Conclusion 42

Part 2 Purification Offerings Performed throughout the Year 3. Outer-Altar Purification Offerings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 The ritual procedure includes some activities that are mentioned in the text and others that are not 47 The overall goal/meaning of an outer-altar purification offering for sin is to purge evil on the offerer’s behalf, prerequisite to forgiveness 49

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Contents Activity components contribute to the overall goal Conclusion 70

52

4. Outer-Sanctum Purification Offerings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 The ritual procedure includes some activities that are mentioned in the text and others that are not 71 The sevenfold sprinkling of blood “before the veil” is performed in front (east) of the incense altar 72 The overall goal/meaning of an outer-sanctum purification offering for sin is to purge evil on the offerer’s behalf, prerequisite to forgiveness 80 Activity components contribute to the overall goal 87 Conclusion 90

5. Purification-Offering Flesh: Prebend or Expiation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 When priests eat the flesh of purification offerings at which they have officiated, they contribute to expiation 91 The priests participate with Yhwh in bearing the culpability of the people 99 Conclusion 105

6. Purification Offering: Purgation of Sanctuary or Offerer? . . . . . . . . . 106 Physical ritual impurities are purified from offerers 112 Moral faults are purified from offerers 123 The special Day of Atonement purification offerings remove moral faults and physical impurities from their offerers through purgation of the sanctuary 129 Some purification-offering formulas refer to removal of either moral faults or physical ritual impurities from offerers 130 An outer-altar purification offering purges the outer altar at the time of its initial consecration 130 Inner-sanctum purification offerings on the Day of Atonement purge the sanctuary and its sancta 133 On the Day of Atonement, a nonsacrificial goat for Azazel is an instrument to purge the moral faults of the Israelites by carrying them away 136 Following initial decontamination of the altar, purification offerings throughout the year, except for the inner-sanctum sacrifices of the Day of Atonement, only purge their offerers 136 Conclusion 142

7. Pollution of the Sanctuary: Aerial or Only by Direct Contact? . . . . . 144 Some serious moral faults pollute the sanctuary from a distance when they are committed 144 Milgrom’s “miasma” theory is based on his general theory of the tafj sacrifice, which generalizes from specific cases of automatic defilement 151

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Only inner-sanctum purification offerings on the Day of Atonement can remove automatic defilement 154 Automatic defilement is nonmaterial in nature 158 “Legal” and “biological” approaches to sin are intertwined in the purification-offering system 160 Conclusion 162

8. Blood or Ash Water: Detergent, Metaphorical Carrier Agent, or Means of Passage? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Purification-offering blood uniquely serves to carry away contamination 164 In outer-altar and outer-sanctum purification offerings, the offerer is the source of defilement carried by the blood 167 A purification offering transfers imperfection in mitigated form from the offerer to Yhwh’s sanctuary 176 Water mixed with ashes of the red cow can be directly applied to persons because it is not already carrying their impurity 181 Impurity of participants in the red cow ritual comes from persons to whom the ash water is subsequently applied, rather than constituting some kind of super-sanctity 186 The verb rpk metaphorically expresses removal of an impediment to the divine-human relationship 191 Conclusion 197

9. The Scope of Expiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Physical ritual impurities and moral faults are related but distinct 198 Nondefiant sinners can receive the benefit of expiation through sacrifice, but defiant sinners cannot 202 Conclusion 213

Part 3 Phases of rpk 10. Inner-Sanctum Purification Offerings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 On the Day of Atonement, five main rituals are structurally bound together as a unified system 217 Two inner-sanctum purification offerings form a unit 221 The purification-offering procedure includes some activities that are mentioned in the text and others that are not 222 Two performances of the inner-sanctum purification-offering paradigm are interwoven and then merged 229 The inner-sanctum purification offerings purge ritual impurities and moral faults from the three parts of the sanctuary on behalf of the priests and laity, and reconsecrate the outer altar 230

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Contents The inner-sanctum purification offerings accomplish rpk that is beyond forgiveness 233 Activity components contribute to the overall goal 235 Conclusion 240

11. The Purification Ritual of Azazel’s Goat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 The live goat is banished from the sanctuary court to the wilderness 242 The overall goal of the ritual with Azazel’s goat is to banish moral faults from the Israelite camp 243 Confession and leaning two hands serve to gather the moral faults and transfer them to Azazel’s goat 244 The tafj of Azazel’s goat is a unique, nonsacrificial “purification ritual” 246 Purgation (rpk ) on the live goat returns the moral faults of the Israelites to their source: Azazel 261 Conclusion 265

12. Two Major Phases of Sacrificial rpk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Some scholars have argued for one phase of sacrificial rpk 267 The one-phase theory is not adequately supported by the biblical data 273 There are two phases of sacrificial rpk for expiable sins 274 The two-phase theory accounts for data that would otherwise be problematic 277 Conclusion 284

13. Trajectories of Evils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 The words [vp, tafj, and ˆw[ represent distinct categories of evil 285 Categories of evil have different dynamic properties 291 Categories of evil follow different trajectories 298 The purpose of the Day of Atonement is to preserve the justice of Yhwh’s administration 300 Conclusion 302

Part 4 Cult and Theodicy 14. Divine Justice and the Cost of Kindness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 The Day of Atonement is Israel’s judgment day 305 The Israelites are to demonstrate their continuing loyalty to Yhwh on the Day of Atonement 310 Moral cleansing beyond forgiveness recognizes the need for loyalty to endure 316

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Yhwh’s kindness/mercy carries a cost of judicial responsibility 318 Conclusion 323

15. Divine Presence and Theodicy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 The Israelite cult involves theodicy on the corporate level 324 Yhwh meted out retributive justice from his sanctuary 329 Ritual remedies for human imperfection enact theodicy 331 Conclusion 333

16. Loyalty and Royalty in Hebrew Narrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Numbers 14 illustrates divine sin-bearing 334 Some narratives concerning David and Solomon describe a two-phased treatment of offenses, with loyalty as the decisive factor in the ultimate verdict 337 Conclusion 353

17. Yearly Accountability in Mesopotamian Cult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 The Nanshe New Year 355 There are similarities between the Nanshe New Year and the Israelite Day of Atonement 356 There are differences between the Nanshe New Year and the Israelite Day of Atonement 360 The Babylonian New Year Festival of Spring 362 There are similarities between the Babylonian ceremonies of Nisannu 5 and the Israelite Day of Atonement 363 There are differences between the Babylonian ceremonies of Nisannu 5 and the Israelite Day of Atonement 370 Final days of the Babylonian New Year Festival of Spring, like the Israelite Day of Atonement, involve accountability for loyalty and determination of destiny 374 Conclusion 378

18. Conclusion: Cult and Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Index of Authors 383 Index of Scripture 387

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Contents

Acknowledgments To Jacob Milgrom goes the primary credit for stimulating and equipping me to tackle this daunting project. Thanks are also due to other members of my Ph.D. committee—Profs. Anne D. Kilmer, Frits Staal, and Ruggero Stefanini—for their contribution to the 1992 dissertation (“Ritual Dynamic Structure: Systems Theory and Ritual Syntax Applied to Selected Ancient Israelite, Babylonian and Hittite Festival Days,” University of California at Berkeley) 1 that laid much of the methodological foundation for the present work. I am grateful for encouragement, feedback, and ideas from Baruch Schwartz (Hebrew University of Jerusalem), Richard Davidson (my department chair at Andrews University), Moise Isaac (my student at Andrews University), Constance Gane (my wife), and Glenn Hartelius (Santa Rosa, California). My secretary—Kathy Ekkens—and a succession of research assistants—Jan Sigvartsen, Oleg Zhigankov, Wann Fanwar, Afolarin Ojewole, and Gregory Arutyunyan—have facilitated collection of secondary source material. My wife and daughter, Constance and Sarah, have given loving support and patient toleration through the long and grueling gestation and birth of this book. Last and foremost, I thank God for his Torah and for the opportunity to learn from it. 1. Now published as Ritual Dynamic Structure (Gorgias Dissertations 14, Religion 2; Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias, 2004).

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Abbreviations General Akk. Ant. b. Ber. CD cstr. Fr. H Óag. Hor. infin. Ker. m. masc. Mena˙. MT neb njb njpsv nrsv obj. obv. P Pesa˙. pf. pl. poss. prep. pron. rev. Ros Has. rsv Sebu. sing. subj. suff. t.

Akkadian Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews Babylonian Talmud Berakot Cairo Genizah copy of the Damascus Document construct French Holiness documents, sources, or redactions Óagigah Horayot infinitive Kerithot Mishnah masculine Mena˙ot Masoretic Text New English Bible New Jerusalem Bible New Jewish Publication Society Version New Revised Standard Version object obverse Priestly documents, sources, or redactions Pesa˙im perfect tense/aspect plural possessive preposition pronoun/pronominal reverse Ros Hassanah Revised Standard Version Sebuºot singular subject suffix Tosefta

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Abbreviations Taºan. Tem. Tg. Onq. y. Zeba˙.

xv

Taºanit Temurah Targum Onqelos Jerusalem Talmud Zeba˙im

Reference Works AA AB ABD AfOBei AHW AnBib ANET ANETS AOAT AoF AOTS ASORDS ATA ATD AThR ATS AUSDS AUSS BBR BDB BEATAJ BETL Bib BibB BibT BIS BKAT BM BN BO BRLJ BSac BSem BSC

American Anthropologist Anchor Bible D. N. Freedman, ed. Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6 vols. New York, 1992 Archiv für Orientforschung Beiheft W. von Soden. Akkadisches Handwörterbuch. 3 vols. Wiesbaden, 1965–81 Analecta Biblica J. B. Pritchard, ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 3rd ed. Princeton, 1969 Ancient Near Eastern Texts and Studies Alter Orient und Altes Testament Altorientalische Forschungen Augsburg Old Testament Studies American Schools of Oriental Research Dissertation Series Alttestamentliche Abhandlungen Das Alte Testament Deutsch Anglican Theological Review Alttestamentliche Studien Andrews University Seminary Dissertation Series Andrews University Seminary Studies H. Zimmern. Beiträge zur Kenntnis der babylonischen Religion. Leipzig, 1901 F. Brown, S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs. Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. Oxford, 1907 Beiträge zur Erforschung des Alten Testaments und des antiken Judentum Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium Biblica Biblische Beiträge Bibliothèque Théologique Biblical Interpretation Series Biblischer Kommentar: Altes Testament Beth Miqraª (or Beth Mikra) Biblische Notizen Bibliotheca Orientalis Brill Reference Library of Judaism Bibliotheca Sacra Biblical Seminar Bible Student’s Commentary

xvi BTB BZ CAD

Abbreviations

Biblical Theology Bulletin Biblische Zeitschrift The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Chicago, 1956– CahRB Cahiers de la Revue biblique CB Century Bible CBC Cambridge Bible Commentary CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly CHL Commentationes Humanarum Litterarum CJ Conservative Judaism COS W. W. Hallo, ed. The Context of Scripture. 3 vols. Leiden, 1997–2003 CSHJ Chicago Studies in the History of Judaism CTM Concordia Theological Monthly CTQ Concordia Theological Quarterly DARCOM Daniel and Revelation Committee Series DSB Daily Study Bible EAC Entretiens sur l’Antiquité Classique EgT Église et théologie EncJud Encyclopaedia Judaica. 16 vols. Jerusalem, 1972 ErIsr Eretz Israel ETSS Evangelical Theological Society Studies EvQ Evangelical Quarterly EvT Evangelische Theologie ExpBib The Expositor’s Bible ExpTim Expository Times FAT Forschungen zum Alten Testament FOTL Forms of the Old Testament Literature FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments GKC E. Kautzsch, ed. Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar. Trans. A. E. Cowley. 2nd ed. Oxford, 1910 HALOT L. Koehler, W. Baumgartner, and J. J. Stamm. The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Trans. and ed. M. Richardson. 2 vols. Leiden, 2001 HAT Handbuch zum Alten Testament HKAT Handkommentar zum Alten Testament HS Hebrew Studies HSAT Die Heilige Schrift des Alten Testamentes HTR Harvard Theological Review HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual IB G. A. Buttrick et al., eds. Interpreter’s Bible. 12 vols. New York, 1951–57 IBC Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching IDBSup K. Crim, ed. Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible: Supplementary Volume. Nashville, 1976 IJT Indian Journal of Theology Int Interpretation

Abbreviations IRT ITC ITL JAGNES JANES JAOS JBL JCS JETS JJS JM JQR JSJ JSNTSup JSOT JSOTSup JSQ JSS JTS KTU LBC LBS Les LHC MTZ NAC NCB NEchtB NIB NICOT NIVAC OBO OBT Or OTG OTL OTM OtSt PAAJR QD RB RevExp

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Issues in Religion and Theology International Theological Commentary International Theological Library Journal of the Association of Graduate Near Eastern Students of the University of California at Berkeley Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society of Columbia University Journal of the American Oriental Society Journal of Biblical Literature Journal of Cuneiform Studies Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society Journal of Jewish Studies P. Joüon. A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew. Trans. and rev. T. Muraoka. Subsidia biblica 14/1–2. Rome, 1991–93 Jewish Quarterly Review Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods Journal for the Study of the New Testament: Supplement Series Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Journal for the Study of the Old Testament: Supplement Series Jewish Studies Quarterly Journal of Semitic Studies Journal of Theological Studies M. Dietrich, O. Loretz, and J. Sanmartín, eds. Die Keilalphabetischen Texte aus Ugarit. AOAT 24/1. Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1976 Layman’s Bible Commentary Library of Biblical Studies Lesonénu Layman’s Handy Commentary Münchener theologische Zeitschrift New American Commentary New Century Bible Neue Echter Bibel The New Interpreter’s Bible New International Commentary on the Old Testament NIV Application Commentary Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis Overtures to Biblical Theology Orientalia Old Testament Guides Old Testament Library Old Testament Message Oudtestamentische Studiën Proceedings of the American Academy of Jewish Research Quaestiones disputatae Revue biblique Review and Expositor

xviii RevQ RIDA RlA SBLDS SBLSymS SBONT SCR SFSHJ SJLA SJOT SJT SKGG SM SÖAW SR SSAOI SSN ST TDOT

THAT ThT TLJS TLOT TMC TOTC TWOT TynBul UBL UBSHS VT VTSup WBC WMANT YOS ZABR ZAW ZNW ZTK

Abbreviations Revue de Qumran Revue internationale des droits de l’antiquité Erich Ebeling et al., eds. Reallexikon der Assyriologie. Berlin, 1928– Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series The Sacred Books of the Old and New Testaments Studies in Comparative Religion South Florida Studies in the History of Judaism Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament Scottish Journal of Theology Schriften der Königsberger gelehrten Gesellschaft, geisteswissenschaftliche Klasse Studia Moralia Sitzungen der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien Studies in Religion Sacra Scriptura Antiquitatibus Orientalibus Illustrata Studia Semitica Neerlandica Studia Theologica G. J. Botterweck, H. Ringgren, and H.-J. Fabry, eds. Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Trans. J. T. Willis, G. W. Bromiley, and D. E. Green. Grand Rapids, 1974– E. Jenni and C. Westermann, eds. Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten Testament. 2 vols. Munich, 1971–76 Theologisch Tijdschrift Taubman Lectures in Jewish Studies E. Jenni and C. Westermann, eds. Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament. Trans. M. E. Biddle. Peabody, Massachusetts, 1997 The Torah: A Modern Commentary Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries R. L. Harris and G. L. Archer, eds. Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. 2 vols. Chicago, 1980 Tyndale Bulletin Ugaritisch-biblische Literatur United Bible Societies Handbook Series Vetus Testamentum Vetus Testamentum, Supplements Word Biblical Commentary Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament Yale Oriental Series Zeitschrift für altorientalische und biblische Rechtsgeschichte Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde der älteren Kirche Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche

Introduction Through the swirling smoke of Aaron’s incense, and of scholarly theories, the present volume steps toward the meaning enacted on µyriPUKIh" µ/y, “the Day of Purgation,” commonly known as Yom Kippur or “the Day of Atonement.” Leviticus 16, which prescribes the rituals of the great Day, could be termed the inner sanctum of the Torah. Here alone, at the heart of the middle book of the Pentateuch, the high priest approaches the center of ancient Israelite religion: the deity Yhwh in his awesome Holy of Holies. Leviticus 16 portrays the character of Yhwh, not by theological assertions, narrative, or even poetry, but by instructions for cultic deeds to be performed in his presence. 1 The effects of these rites on Yhwh’s sanctuary and community profile harmony between divine justice and kindness. 2 Yhwh’s way of dealing with imperfect people of various kinds of character demonstrates his own holy character. 3 By treating moral evil both as relational/legal breach and as pollution, the Israelite system of tafj rituals (“purification offerings” = so-called “sin offerings”) addresses both the standing and the state of Yhwh’s people. This system shows the way not only to freedom from condemnation, but also to healing of character, which is defined in terms of loyalty to Yhwh. Freedom and healing come together on the Day of Atonement, when freedom from condemnation previously granted is affirmed at Yhwh’s sanctuary for those who show themselves loyal to him. In the process, the Israelite cult characterizes Yhwh as a just king.

1. H. Gese aptly describes “cult” as “worship in ritual procedures” (Essays on Biblical Theology [trans. K. Crim; Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1981] 100). 2. See the observation of M. Douglas that she finds in Leviticus “no conflict between internal versus external religion, or justice versus ritual. As I read it, Leviticus makes a truly brilliant synthesis of two equations: justice of people to people, and justice of people to God” (“Holy Joy: Rereading Leviticus—The Anthropologist and the Believer,” CJ 46 [1994] 10; cf. 13–14; cf. F. Crüsemann, The Torah: Theology and Social History of Old Testament Law [trans. A. W. Mahnke; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996] 306). 3. Cf. Ps 77:14[13]—ÚK