Mexica Buried Offerings: A Historical and Contextual Analysis 9780860543053, 9781407339276

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
LIST OF AZTEC DEPOSITS IN APPENDIX I
I. INTRODUCTION
II. CULTURAL BACKGROUND ON THE MEXICA AZTECS
III. PREVIOUS ATTEMPTS TO INTERPRET MEXICA CACHES
IV. METHOD
V. PRE-MEXICA CACHES AND BURIALS
VI. INTRODUCTION TO MEXICA BURIED OFFERINGS
VII. SOURCES ON MEXICA CACHES
VIII. SOURCES ON MEXICA FUNERARY BURIALS
IX. TYPES OF DEPOSITS OF MEXICA CACHES
X. LOCATIONS OF MEXICA CACHES
XI. CONTENTS OF MEXICA CACHES
XII. CONCLUSIONS
NOTES
NOTES TO APPENDIX I
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Plates

Citation preview

Mexica Buried Offerings A Historical and Contextual Analysis

Debra· Nagao

BAR International Series ·235

1985

·B.A.R.

122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B. Se., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

IlAR -S235,1985 ©

'Mexica Buried Offerings_'•

Debra Naqao,1985

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543053 paperback ISBN 9781407339276 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543053 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T ABLE O F C ONTENTS P age P reface L ist I I I I II

I V V

o f A ztec D eposits

i n A ppendix I

v i

I NTRODUCTION

1

C ULTURAL B ACKGROUND O N T HE M EXICA A ZTECS

3

P REVIOUS A TTEMPTS T O I NTERPRET M EXICA C ACHES

6

S eler O ther E arly A ttempts

6 8

R ecent

9

S tudies

M ETHOD

1 1

P RE-MEXICA C ACHES A ND B URIALS I ntroduction

1 3 1 3

P re-Classic P eriod O lmec A rea B asin o f M exico:

D ispersed S ettlements

B asin o f M exico:

T eotihuacan

1 3 1 5 1 6

M aya A rea O axaca

1 6 1 7

C hiapas

1 8

C lassic P eriod B asin o f M exico: C entral M exico: M aya A rea

T eotihuacan

1 8

X ochicalco

20 2 0

O axaca

2 2

C hiapas

2 3

P ost-Classic P eriod B asin o f M exico

2 3

M aya A rea

2 4

O axaca

V I V II

V III

2 6

S ummary

2 6

I NTRODUCTION T O M EXICA B URIED O FFERINGS

2 9

S OURCES O N M EXICA C ACHES A rchaeological S ources: T he E xcavation o f

3 0

Mexica C aches E thno-historical S ources: S ixteenth C entury C hroniclers o n M exica C aches

30

S OURCES

3 6

3 3

O N M EXICA F UNERARY B URIALS

A rchaeological S ources:

T he E xcavation o f

Mexica a nd A ztec B urials

3 6

E thno-historical S ources: S ixteenth C entury C hroniclers o n M exica F unerary P ractices

3 7

C hroniclers o n H istorical F unerary C eremonies Mexica R ulers i ii

o f 4 1

I X

X

X I

T YPES O F

D EPOSITS

O F M EXICA C ACHES:

4 3

C ontinuities I nnovations

4 3 4 4

L OCATIONS O F M EXICA C ACHES

4 6

C ontinuities

4 6

I nnovations

4 7

C ONTENTS O F M EXICA C ACHES

4 8

C ontinuities O rigins o f

4 8 4 8

O bjects F ound

i n T emplo M ayor C aches

G reenstone B eads L apidary O bjects:

5 0 H eirlooms,

F igurines,

a nd

P laques

5 3 5 5

C hipped O bsidian A rtifacts

5 6

S acrificial R emains a nd P erishable O fferings

5 7

M utilated S tone S culpture

5 9

R ed

P igment

E vidence o f

6 0 I ncineration

6 1

S ummary

6 2

I nnovations

6 2

F lint Knives

6 2

T wo Horned D eity C omplex S culptures o f t he T wo-Horned D eity

6 4 6 4

O ccurrence a nd C haracteristics

6 4

P revious

6 5

I dentifications

R e-interpretation T onacatecuhtli i n T extual S ignificance o f

a nd P ictorial S ources

t he B urial o f T onacatecuhtli

6 6 6 7 6 8

S tone T laloc V essels

7 1

G reenstone S culpture

7 1

L apidary V essels M asks

7 2 7 3

I nsignia a nd L apidary M iniatures

7 4

C opper B ells a nd O ther M etal O rnaments S and a nd G ravel F ill

7 8 7 9

S ummary

8 0

O ther S tone S culpture X II

5 2

S hells a nd Marine M aterials P ottery R eceptacles a nd B raziers

8 0

C ONCLUSIONS

8 3

N otes A ppendix I : L ist B ibliography

8 8 o f M exica C aches P ublished

M aps P LATES

i v

t o D ate

1 02 1 42

P REFACE

T he p resent

p ublication i s b ased

o n a t hesis w ritten i n 1 982 f or

a M aster o f A rts d egree i n t he D epartment o f A rt H istory a nd A rchaeol ogy a t C olumbia U niversity i n N ew Y ork. I n r evising t he m anuscript f or p ublication i n 1 984 o nly m inor c hanges w ere made i n t he o riginal t ext. E ntries w ere a dded t o u pdate t he b ibliography a nd t he a ppendix o f o fferings, w hile s everal o f t he p lates f ound i n t he o riginal t hesis w ere o mitted. I n t he p roduction a nd

p ublication o f

t his e ssay I o we t hanks

a n umber o f i ndividuals a nd i nstitutions. F irst, I a m i ndebted D r. D oris H eyden f or u rging m e t o p ublish t his t hesis w ith B .A.R . w ould a lso l ike t o t hank D r. A nthony H ands o f B .A .R . o n t he p reparation o f t he m anuscript f or p ublication. I

o we

a g reat d eal o f

t hanks

t o D r.

t o t o I

f or h is a dvice

C ecelia F .

K lein o f

t he

U niversity o f C alifornia a t L os A ngeles f or h er i nspiring l ectures t hat f irst i ntroduced m e t o P re-Columbian a rt a nd c ultures. I a m g rateful t o D r. E mily U mberger f or h er g enerosity i n s haring i nf ormation a nd i deas, a nd f or h er a dvice a nd s uggestions. I w ould a lso l ike t o t hank L ouise B urkhart f or c larifying t he u se o f N ahuatl t erms u sed

M ora

i n t his p aper.

I a m i ndebted t o L icenciado P ablo E lhore a nd S e%ora E speranza o f t he M exican N ational I nstitute o f A nthropology a nd H istory

f or p ermission t o p ublish W ithout t he f inancial

t he I nstitute's p hotographs. s upport a warded

t o m e b y t he D epartment o f

A rt H istory a nd A rchaeology a t C olumbia U niversity, t he c ompletion o f t his s tudy w ould n ot h ave b een p ossible. S pecifically C olumbia U niversity's P resident's F ellowship ( 1980-1982) a nd a s ummer t ravel g rant t o g o t o M exico ( 1981) f rom t he D epartment o f A rt H istory a nd A rchaeology e nabled m e t o d o t he r esearch f or t his e ssay. a lso l ike t o t hank m y p arents f or t heir c ontinued f inancial s upport d uring t he c ompletion o f m y s tudies. F inally, E sther

I

w ould

l ike

t o e xpress m y d eepest g ratitude

P asztory f or h er w ise c ounsel,

p atience,

a nd

I w ould a nd m oral

t o

D r.

e ncouragement

d uring m y y ears a t C olumbia. A lthough

Ia cknowledge i nspiration r esulting

f rom

w ith t he i ndividuals m entioned a bove, I a ssume c omplete b ility f or a ny s tatements a nd e rrors m ade i n t his e ssay.

d iscussions r esponsi-

L IST O F A ZTEC D EPOSITS

I N A PPENDIX I

T ENOCHTITLAN P age I

1 791

" Tomb o f a S acred A nimal".

1 03

I I - X IV

1 900

B atres.

1 03

X V

1 936

E l V olador.

1 08

X VI - X VII

1 948

B almori-Moedano.

1 08

X VIII

1 966

C ontreras-Angulo.

1 09

X IX - X XXVI X XXVII - X XXVIII X XXIX - C XXXIII

1 968-72 1 977

M etro.

1 09

R ecinto S agrado.

1 978-c.1980

P royecto T emplo M ayor.

1 14 1 14

T LAT nOLCO C XXXIV - C XXXVIII

c .1944

E spejo.

1 38

C XXXIX

c .1966

A ngulo.

1 40

T ULA C XL - C XLIII

c .1950

A costa.

1 40

O THER S ITES C XLIV

?T izapan.

1 41

C XLV

c .1970

C hapultepec,

C XLVI

c .1930

T excoco.

C XLVII

c .1950

C empoala,

v i

C anal 5 .

1 41 1 41

V eracruz.

1 41

I .

I NTRODUCTION

D uring

t he f ifteenth a nd

s ixteenth c enturies,

t he M exica A ztecs

b uried l arge q uantities o f p recious m aterials i n t heir c apital T enochtitlan, w hich i s p resently c overed b y d owntown M exico C ity. 1 T hese d eposits c ontained a w ide v ariety o f b eautifully c rafted o bjects. I ncluded w ere m iniatures, s culptures, o rnaments, v essels, a nd w eapons, f ashioned o ut o f l uxurious o r s ymbolically i mportant m aterials, s uch a s g reenstone, o bsidian, s hell, a nd f lint. T he d eliberate c ollection a nd i nterment o f t hese l avish a nd d iversified o bjects h ave l ed i nvestigators t o c all t hese a ssemblages " votive c aches" o r " buried o fferings." P laced d irectly i n b uilding f ill, i n s tone-lined r ooms, o r i n s tone b oxes, m any o f t hese r ich o fferings h ave b een e xcavated f rom t he s tructure k nown a s t he T emplo M ayor, t he r itual a nd p olitical f ocus o f t he A ztec e mpire. 2 N oteworthy a re t he m any o bjects o f n on-Mexica o rigin t hat h ave b een f ound i n t hese o fferings. T hese m ight r epresent t ribute e xacted b y t he M exica, g ifts b rought t o t he c apital b y l ords o f o ther t owns, o r h eirlooms u nearthed b y t he M exica t hemselves. T he p urpose o f

t his

s tudy i s

t o

i nterpret

t he m eaning

o f

c ertain

a spects o f M exica b uried o fferings. B efore e xamining t hese r itual d eposits, i t i s n ecessary t o d efine s everal b asic t erms t hat w ill b e u sed i n t he f ollowing d iscussion. T he t erm o ffering r efers t o t he p resentation o f a s acrifice o f o bjects o r o f l ives, e ither h uman o r a nimal,

g iven

N ahuatl v erbs

t o p ropitiate o r p ay h omage f or " to s acrifice"

a nd

t o

" to o ffer"

s upernaturals. a re i dentica ,

T he w hich

i llustrates t he c lose i dentification b etween t he t wo a cts. B roda ( 1971:259, 2 75) s uggests t hat a s acrifice c an b e v iewed a s a c ontract i nvolving a n i mplicit e xchange r elationship b etween h umans a nd s upern aturals.

I n m any i nstances,

a s acrifice o r a n o ffering e ntails

t he

r itual d estruction o f a n o bject, s o t hat i t i s p ermanently r emoved f rom m undane c irculation t o b e p laced i n a c ontext w here i t a ttains a s acred

s ignificance.

I n s um,

a s a d onation o r d estruction o f i n t he a ct A

p recious c ommodities

t hat b ecome h oly

o f d edication t o a s upernatural.

c ache i s

d edicatory

a n o ffering o r a s acrifice c an b e s een

o r

s pecifically a b uried c eremonial

i n

o ffering

f unction.

t hat i s a ssumed

A rchaeologists

t o b e

f requently

d escribe c aches w ith t he t erm " votive," w hich i s n ot m eant t o i mply a v ow, b ut r ather s erves t o d istinguish b uried o fferings f rom u tilitar ian s torage p its ( W. C oe, 1 959:77; 1 965a:462). C eremonially i nterr ed d eposits h ave b een k nown f rom t he t ime o f t he O lmecs ( c.1200-800 B .C.), h owever t he p recise f unction o f c aches t hroughout t ime i s u nclear. P ossible e xplanations f or t he s ignificance o f t he i nterment o f o fferings t o t he M exica a re v aried a nd w ill b e c onsidered l ater. A c ache i s a lso d istinct i n f unction f rom a f unerary o r m ortuary o ffering, h owever, i n m any a rchaeological c ontexts i t i s d ifficult t o 1

d istinguish b etween

t he t wo

( W.

C oe,

1 959:77).

T his m ay r esult f rom

a p roblem i n c ontemp2rary t erminology o r p erhaps f rom a n o riginal o verlap i n c oncepts. C aches g enerally f unction t o c ommemorate o r c onsecrate t he e rection o f a m onument, a c alendrical e vent, o r t he c onstruction o r d estruction o f a b uilding. T hey m ay d edicated t o a s pecific d eity o r c ult. A c ache s ometimes

a lso b e c ontains

h uman r emains, h owever, t hese r emains c onstitute a p art o f t he o fferi ng i tself. I n b urials, o n t he o ther h and, s keletal r emains a re t he f ocus o f h omage. T he d eceased i ndividual i s b uried w ith o fferings t hat p robably s erve a s u seful o r s ymbolic o bjects i n t he a fterlife. D espite t hese d ifferences, t he n ature o f o fferings i n b urials a nd c aches a re o ften s imilar. A lmost 1 00 b uried o fferings h ave b een e xcavated i n t he M exica A ztec c apital o f T enochtitlan ( Matos, 1 982). S peculation o n t he m eaning o f M exica c aches d ates b ack t o t he b eginning o f t he 2 0th c entury. E arly s cholars e xamined t he s ymbolism o f i solated c ached o bjects ( Seler, 1 960a; P ef tafiel, 1 910), w hile m ore r ecent i nvestigat ors h ave i nterpreted t he g eneral f unction o f c aches w ithin a s ociop olitical c ontext ( Matos, 1 979a, 1 980 ). Y et, t o d ate t here h ave b een n o s ystematic a ttempts t o a nalyze t he n ature o f M exica v otive a rtif acts. A lso l acking i s a c onsideration o f M exica A ztec o fferings w ithin t he p ractices.

h istorical c ontext o f t raditional M esoamerican v otive I t i s t he i ntention o f t his s tudy t o e xamine e xcavated

o fferings i n o rder t o d efine M exica v otive p ractices w ithin t he c ontext o f M esoamerican t raditions, a nd t o i nterpret M exica v otive s ymbolism . T he o rganization o f t his e ssay i s g overned b y t wo p rimary a ssumptions: t hat t he M exica A ztecs w ere a ware, t o a c ertain e xtent, o f P re-Mexica v otive a nd m ortuary p ractices a nd f rom t radition w ere d eliberate a nd m eaningful.

t hat t heir d eviations T he f irst s ection, a

s urvey o f P re-Mexica v otive a nd m ortuary d eposits, i s p resented n ot m erely a s a h istorical b ackground, b ut r ather i s i ntended t o d efine t raditions i n P re-Mexica v otive a nd m ortuary c ontexts. I n t he n ext s ection , M exica o fferings w ill b e c onsidered w ithin t his f ramework o f t radition i n o rder t o d etermine c ontinuities a nd c hanges i n M exica p ractices. W hile c ontinuities a re m eaningful a nd i nteresting, o f p erhaps g reater s ignificance a re M exica i nnovations. T hese c hanges p robably r epresent i ntentional a ttempts o n t he p art o f M exica e lite t o e laborate o n e xtant r itual p ractices. T his e laboration s erved t o s anctify t he p osition o f

t he M extea a s s upreme r ulers i n t he B asin o f

M exico.

a nd

T his i t i s

A ztec

e ssay d eals w ith t he a nalysis o f a rchaeological m aterials i mportant t o r ecognize t he f ragmentary n ature o f d ata o n

b uried

o fferings.

T ime,

e nvironmental

f actors,

e arly

u n-

s cientific e xcavations, a s w ell a s l ooters h ave i mpaired o ur a bility t o f ully r ecover t hese r emains. E xcavation r eports a re o ften n ot p ublished a t a ll a nd t he q uality o f p ublished d ata v aries g reatly. S ome s ources f ail t o m ention p recise a rchaeological o r a rchitectural c ontext o r t he s pecific q uantity o f m aterials l imitations a ffect t he s pecificity o f c onclusions i n t his

s tudy.

2

e xcavated. T hese t hat c an b e r eached

I I.

C ULTURAL B ACKGROUND O N T HE M EXICA A ZTECS

T he f ourteenth c entury B asin o f M exico w as i nhabited A ztecs, a g eneral n ame f or t he N ahuatl-speaking p opulation

b y i n

t he t he

a rea. A ccording t o l egend, t he M exica, a s pecific b ranch o f t he A ztecs, l eft t he s acred p lace o f o rigin, k nown a s A ztlan, i n t he y ear o ne f lint ( ce t ecpatl). A fter a s eries o f m igrations a nd v arious t ribulations,

t he

M exica r ose t o c onquer t he l ocal g roups

w ho

h ad

i nitially e mployed t hem a s m ercenaries. T hey f ounded t he c apital o f t heir e mpire i n L ake T excoce o n t he i sland-city o f T enochtitlan, s upposedly i n t wo h ouse ( ome c alli) i n 1 325 ( Umberger, 1 981:268). T he r itual a nd p olitical f ocus o f t heir e mpire w as t he T emplo M ayor, l ocated w ithin t he s acred w alled e nclosure o f t he C eremonial P recinct. M exica p olitics

a nd

r eligion w ere v irtually i nseparable a nd b oth

w ere o rganized a long t he l ines o f a b inary s ystem. T he k ing o r h ead r uler w as k nown a s t he t latoani. A lthough p rimarily e nvested w ith p olitical p ower, t he t latoani/king o ften h ad r eligious r esponsibilit ies a s w ell. H e w as a ssisted a nd a dvised b y a c o-ruler, u sually a r elative, k nown a s t he c ihuacoatl ( "Serpent W oman"), w ho w as o ften i dentified a s a h ead p riest. T he c ihuacoatl/chief a dvisor w as, h oweve/., t imes.'

a nd

a lso

k nown t o h ave p layed a n i mportant p olitical

r ole

a t

T he

s tructure o f M exica e lite r eligion w as a lso a d ualistic o ne

w as

s ymbolically r epresented

i n t he f orm o f

t he

T emplo

M ayor

i tself. A p yramid s urmounted b y t wo t emples, t he T emplo M ayor w as d edicated t o t he t wo m ain d eities o f t he M exica A ztec e lite, T laloc a nd H uitzilopochtli. T la Joc w as a n a ncient g od a ssociated w ith w ater, f ertility, a nd h istorical c ontinuity ( Pasztory , I n P ress a ). H uitzilopochtli, o n t he o ther h and, w as a y oung g od o f w ar, a ssoc iated

s pecifically w ith t he r ise o f t he M exica n ation .

A lthough s hort-lived ( c.1325-1521), t he M exica e mpire w as t he m ost e conomically p owerful a nd g eographically e xtensive h egemony i n a ll o f M esoamerica. R ule o f t he v ast t erritories w as d ivided b etween t hree

c ities,

T enochtitlan

f orming

w as

w hat

c learly

w as

c alled

t he

T riple

t he c ontrolling c entre o f

t he

A lliance. a lliance,

w hile t he o ther t wo m embers, T excoco a nd T lacopan , p layed s ubsidiary r oles. T o g overn t heir e xtensive c onquests, t he M exica d id n ot s end o ut c olonists o r g overnors, r ather t hey m aintained c ontrol b y e xacti ng

t ribute.

A t

r egular

i ntervals d uring

t own w ere c harged w ith b ringing t o

T enochtitlan

t o b e u sed

t he y ear,

f ood, m antles,

a ll

s ubjugated

a nd v alued c ommodities

f or t he m aintenance o f

t he p alace

e lite

a nd i n c eremonies i nvolving t he r edistribution o f g oods. F urtherm ore, t ribute w as o ften e xacted i n t he f orm o f l abour, g eared t oward m assive r ebuilding o r c onstruction p rojects. L ong d istance t rade w as a lso u ndertaken, b y m erchants ( pochteca) w ho s ometimes a lso a cted a s s pies f or t he s tate

( Sahagün,

1 959:25ff). 3

I n

r esponse

t o

f requent

r ebellions b y

t ribute-bound

c onquered

t owns, t he M exica u sed p hysical c oercion ( via r itualized w arfare a nd s acrifice) a s w ell a s i deological i ntimidation ( via a rt a nd r eligion) t o m aintain c ontrol o ver t heir v ast e mpire. H uman s acrifice w as a s tandard e lement o f m any e lite M exica c eremonies, p rimary m eans o f a cquiring v ictims f or s acrifice.

a nd w arfare w as t he D eath i n s acrifice

o r b attle w as e xalted a nd g lorified a nd p ublic c eremonies i nvolving s acrifice b ecame l arger a nd m ore e laborate ( Broda, 1 976; 1 978b; n .d.). A rt a nd r eligion w ere a lso u sed i n t he s ervice o f t he s tate t o i mpress a nd i ntimidate e nemies o f t he M exica. P ublic c onstruct ions, p articularly e nlargements o f t he T emplo M ayor, w ere i ntended t o o verwhelm a nd i mpress b oth a llies a nd e nemies o f t he M exica ( Broda, n .d.). E lite m onuments, g enerally s tone s culpture, c ombined p olitical ( Townsend,

a nd c osmological s ymbolism t o l egitimize M exica r ule 1 979). T he M exica p antheon g rew w ith e ach c onquest, a s

t he g ods o f d efeated p eoples w ere c aptured i nto t he M exica s ystem. ° H istory w as a lso o f g reat

i mportance t o

a nd

o ften

t he M exica,

v iewed w ith g reat a mbivalence ( Pasztory, 1 976). a nd e mulated g reat c ivilizations o f t he p ast,

i ncorporated

b ut i t

w as

T he M exica a dmired s uch a s t hat o f t he

T oltecs. H owever, t hey e nvisaged t hemselves a s s uperior t o a ll p revious c ivilizations i n m ilitary a nd p olitical m atters. T hey w ere i nsecure

a bout

t heir r ole a s i ntruders i n t he B asin o f

M exico,

y et

t hey w ere p roud o f t heir r ise f rom h umble, b arbaric o rigins t o s upreme r ulers. D ue t o t his a mbiguous v iew o f t he p ast, t he M exica w ere t orn b etween e mphasizing c ontinuities w ith p revious t raditions a nd w ith d istinguishing T he

t hemselves a s u nique a nd u nusual.

M exica d epicted

p revious

c ultures

t hemselves a s l egitimate s uccessors t o

t hrough t he d eliberate m anipulation

o f

a ll

h istory.

T hey a ttempted t o s ecure t heir p osition a s v alid r ulers b y t racing t heir l ine o f d escent f rom t he T oltecs a nd b y i ntermarrying w ith t he l ocal e lite o f t he B asin o f M exico. O ld b ooks c ontaining M exica h istories w ere b urned d uring t he r eign o f I tzcoatl a nd h is c o-ruler T lacaelel a nd n ew h istories w ere w ritten ( Sahagün, 1 961:191). I mport ant p olitical e vents w ere s cheduled t o t ake p lace o n h istorically o r m ythically i mportant d ates t o u nite M exica h istory w ith c osmic t ime ( Umberger, " history,"

1 981:209). T hrough t his r eplication o r r epetition o f t he M exica p erpetuated t he m yth t hat t hey w ere f ulfilling

t heir d estiny b y b ecoming s upreme r ulers. A lthough t he M exica v iewed t he p ast t hrough a g olden h aze, t hey t hemselves w anted t o r ival, i f n ot s urpass, t he a ccomplishments o f t heir p redecessors. T he T oltec c ivilization w as o ften e nvisioned a s t he

p innacle o f c ultural a chievement,

p articularly i n l apidary

a nd

f eatherwork c raftsmanship a nd m onumental a rt w orks. A rchaeologica lly, t he r emnants o f T oltec c ivilization d o n ot d isplay e vidence o f s uch a rtistic r efinement, r ather w hat r emains a re l arge, b locky, p hysically i mposing s tone m onuments. b y

t he

M exica,

T hese T oltec r uins w ere a dmired

p articularly f or t he p roperties o f

p ermanence

e ndurance : " In t hat a rea t hey ( the T oltecs) m ade w hat w as t heir t emple...Today i t s tands; i t e xists, c ons idering t hat i t i s r ock, o f s tone..."

i ndestructible; f or i t i s o f ( Sahagün, 1 961:165). 4

a nd

T he b ols

M exica w anted

c ommemorating

o nly

e qual,

T he

M exica

b ut

t o

t o

t ime,

t hey w anted

s ors.

l eave s imilar m onuments a s p ermanent

s urpass

w ere k nown

f orms

t o

t heir a ccomplishments,

e mphasize

h owever

t he a chievements o f

t o h ave

i mitated T oltec

t heir c onnections w ith

t o o utdo

T hey a ttempted

t o

t he

t heir a nd

s ymt o n ot

p redecessors.

T eotihuacan

t he p ast.

a rt

7

A t t he s ame t heir p redeces-

t his b y " permanently

m onumentaliz-

a rtistic c reations

a chieve

t hey w anted

o f

i ngu o r " preciously m iniaturizing" c ertain f orms. F or e xample, t he M exica p ermanently m onumentalized f orms s uch a s s hells, T laloc e ffigy v essels, s tone

r eed

t lesnakes, p recious, T o c aches,

l uxurious r eturn

a nd

t o

f ish,

c anoes,

o bjects

d eposit

t he c entral

s uggest

C ertain a spects

o f M exica c aches t here

a re

a re

t heir

t inuities p retations

t opic

a wareness o f

t he

a nd

d eity

r ati nto

o f

t his

o r t o

i n c aches.

e ssay,

n amely

s elf-consciousness c ontents, a nd

B efore

i n M exica v otive p ractices,

e xamining

o f

g roups.

f rom

s pecific a spects

e xamined.

5

t o

a nd m eans

i nnovations

a nd

b e

M exica s eems

t hose o r P re-Mexica

e laborations

t o d istinguish M exica c aches

o f M exica c aches w ill

i nto

p addles w ere m iniaturized

p redecessors. i nnovations

a nimals

i nsignia,

l ocations,

s imilar

a lso v arious

d eliberate a ttempts

a nd

p lants

b raziers,

t hat w ere o ften p laced

a s imilar h istorical

H owever,

a v ariety o f

O n t he o ther h and,

s erpents,

b e p resent.

o f

y ear b undles,

s culpture.

o f

p revious

t hat t hose c oni nter-

I II.

P REVIOUS A TTEMPTS T O I NTERPRET M EXICA C ACHES

A lthough t o

d ate,

a c onsiderable n umber o f M exica c aches h ave b een f ound

l ittle w ork h as b een d one t o i nterpret

t hese

d iscoveries.

M ore f requent a re l ists o r d escriptions o f a rtifacts f ound i n c aches ( e.g. B atres, 1 902; C ontreras, 1 979a a nd b ; E spejo, 1 944, 1 945; E strada B almori, 1 979; G amio, 1 922, 1 979; G ussinyer, 1 968, 1 969, 1 970a a nd b ; P ef tafiel, 1 910). S tudies o f c ached m aterials h ave b een p ublished s poradically s ince t he l ate 1 9th c entury. T hese a nalytical w orks h ave b een a ffected b y t he l ack o f c urrent t rends i n i nterpretation .

a rchaeological d ata a nd

b y

T he m ethods a nd c oncerns i n t he i nvestigation o f M exica b uried o fferings h ave c hanged t hroughout t ime. I n e arly a ttempts t o a nalyze M exica c aches, s cholars w ere c oncerned w ith i ndividual m onuments a nd t he i nterpretation o f s ymbolism. M ore r ecently, s cholars v iew m onum ents a nd a rtifacts i n a b roader c ultural c ontext i n w hich e conomic, s ocial, a nd p olitical, a s w ell a s r eligious, a spects a re c onsidered. D ue t o t he p aucity o f p revious s tudies, e ven g eneral a nd m inor i nterpretations f or s pecific o fferings w ill b e m entioned s ense o f t he r ange o f i nterpretations t o d ate.

t o

g ive

a

S eler E duard S eler ( 1960a) i s t he f irst s cholar t o h ave a ttempted t o i nterpret M exica b uried o fferings. S tudying m aterial e xcavated b y B atres ( 1902), S eler d oes n ot s ystematically a nalyze e ach o ffering b ecause

c aches c onstitute o nly a s mall p art o f h is l engthly

a rticle

d escribing r ecent f inds i n M exico C ity. T he s ignificance o f v otive o fferings i s, t herefore, o f s econdary i mportance i n h is d iscussion. S eler o ccasionally a ttempts t o i nterpret s pecific a rtifacts a nd t o r elate t hem t o t heir a rchaeological c ontext, w hat l ittle w as r ecorded b y B atres. H owever, h e t ends t o f ocus o n e laborate a nd u nusual p ieces, k nives, i s

w hile o bjects t hat o ccur i n l arge q uantitie s , ( such a s f lint a nd g reenstone b eads) a re o nly s uperficially m entioned. H e

p rimarily c oncerned w ith i conography a nd

h e b ases m onuments, a s w ell

a s o n 1 6th c entury t exts

S eler

r eligious

s ymbolism

a nd

h is i nterpretations o n c omparisons w ith t he o ther A ztec n ative m anuscripts ( e.g. C odex B orbonicus, C odex B orgia),

i dentifies

( particularly S ahagün).

t he g reenstone,

s keletal g oddess,

f ound b eneath

a l ayer o f t ezontle s tone a t t he f ront o f a s taircase, a s c ouatlicue m ocivaquetzqui, p atronness o f w omen w ho d ied i n c hildbirth w ho w ere c onceived t ezontle,

o f a s w arriors ( Seler, 1 960a:839ff). T he m aterial, a nd t he l ocation o f t he f ind, a t t he f oot o f a s taircase,

p robably i ndicate t hat t he s culpture w as b uried i n A ztec t imes. H owever, S eler d oes n ot e xamine t he a rchaeological c ontext t o a sk w hy t he m onument w as b uried i n t he f irst p lace. H e i s m ore c oncerned

w ith t he s ymbolism o f

t he

s culptural d etails,

w hich h e i nterprets a t

l ength. B atres F ind n o. 4 i s p artially i nterpreted b y S eler ( ibid.: 8 46ff). T wo r ed b raziers w ith s pherical f eet a nd r ound a ppliqué o rnamentation i nterest S eler, w ho i dentifies t he a pplied d ecoration a s t he b reast o rnament o f Q uetzalcoatl. 8 T he o ther a rtifacts ( addit ional p ottery v essels a nd b raziers, f lint k nives, a nd h uman b ones) a re o nly m entioned i n p assing a nd t he a rchaeological c ontext o f t he f ind, a s epulchre i n r ectangular f orm," i s i gnored ( Batres, 1 902:16). S eler d oes, h owever, m ake t he i nteresting o bservation t hat m any

o f

t he o bects w ere f ound

i n p airs,

w hich h e m aintains w as

t ypical m anner i n w hich o bjects w ere o ffered

t he

t o t he g ods.

S eler g enerally i nterprets c omplete o bjects a s o pposed t o f ragm entary r emains. H e f ocuses o n s tone s culpture a nd w hole p ottery a rtifacts f rom t he l argest f ind e xcavated b y B atres, F ind n o. 5 ( Seler, 1 960a:848ff). g reenstone f igurines,

O ther m aterials a nd a rtifacts, i ncluding m asks a nd b eads, f lint k nives, s hells, m etal

o rnaments, w orked b one, a nd b roken p ottery, a re b arely m entioned o r a re o nly s uperficially t reated. H e i dentifies t he s mall s tone, s eated m ale i dol w ith t wo b umps o n t he h ead a s a m ountain-rain-water g od a nd s hrine. l arger d eity.

t herefore h e i dentifies t he f ind s pot a s a m ountain g od H e g oes o n t o s uggest t hat s imilar s mall s tone i dols a nd a

s tone s culpture f rom F inds n o. 6 a nd n o. 7 r epresent t he s ame H e s upports h is i dentification w ith a ssociated a rtifacts,

s uch a s g reenstone b eads a nd f igurines, b oth a ssociated w ith w ater. H e s uggests t hat t he p resence o f f lint k nives a nd s hell t rumpets s ubstantiate h is i dentification, h owever h e d oes n ot e xplain h ow t hese a rtifacts a re a ppropriate. H e a lso n eglects t o m ention t hat t he t wo-horned i dol, t he s o-called f ocus o f t he s hrine, i s a n i mage s maller t han m ost o f t he o ther a rtifacts w ith w hich i t w as d eposited. T he t wo E hecatl s culptures, w hich a re a ctually m ore t han t wice t he h eight o f t he s mall, t wo-horned i dol, a re i nterpreted a s c arytids t hat w ere o rnamental i n f unction a nd w ere u sed t o s upport a n a ltar. S eler a lso d iscusses t he i conog pphy o f v arious e laborate p ottery o bjects i n c onsiderable d etail. A lthough i n t his i nstance S eler a sks h ow c ertain o bjects r elate t o a m ountain g od s hrine, h e n eglects t o a sk w hy t hese o bjects w ere b uried a t t he f oot o f a s taircase i n t he f irst

p lace.

S eler

( 1960a:868ff)

i nterprets

a h ollow ,

t ower-like

c onstruc-

t ion, B atres' F ind n o. 8 , a s a l ocation w here c hildren s acrificed t o t he m ountain g ods w ere p laced. H e c onsiders a lternate i dentificat ions s uch a s t he l ocation w here X ipe s kins w ere d eposited a fter t he T lacaxipehualiztli f estival, d uring w hich t he f layed s kins o f s acrif icial v ictims w ere d onned b y p riests, o r w here s acrificed e arth g oddess H owever,

i mpersonators w ere p laced a t t he f estival o f O chpaniztli. h e o pts f or t he m ountain g od i nterpretation d ue t o t he c lose

p roximity o f a nd n o.

7 .

t he s o-called m ountain g od

i dols o f F inds n o.

A c onsiderable a mount o f h uman b one a nd

s kull

5 ,

n o.

6 ,

f ragments

a nd a shes w ere f ound w ithin t he t ower, a s w ell a s o bsidian k nives a nd a s mall s eated i dol p ainted r ed. S eler's i nterpretation i s o f p artic ular i nterest b ecause h e b rings u p t he p ossibility t hat t hese d eposits m ay h ave b een m ade a t s pecific c alendrical f estivals, a n i nterpretation t hat ( HistSricas, 1 980).

h as b een s tated

a gain m ore

7

r ecently

b y

B roda

S eler a lso p resents a n i nteresting t he s kull 8 72ff).

a nd u nusual

i nterpretation o f

a ltars f rom F inds n o. 1 8, n o. 2 5, a nd n o. 2 6 ( Seler, H e i dentifies t hese m onuments d ecorated w ith r elief

1 960a: s kulls

a nd c ross h ones a s s eats o r s hrines o f T ezcatlipoca ( momortli) w hich w ere e rected a t c rossroads. H e b ases h is t heory o n s culptural r eplicas o f t ied b undles f ound b uried w ithin t he s kull a ltars. T hese s culptures

a re

g enerally

i dentified

a s

r eed

y ear

b undles

( xiuhmolpilli), h owever S eler i dentifies t hem a s r ush b undle s eats ( tolicpalli) p articularly a ssociated w ith O macatl, t he G od o f F easti ng, a nd T ezcatlipoca, a w ar g od w hose n ame m eans " Smoking M irror." I n a c onvoluted a rgument, s culptures ( one d eath a nd T he o ther d ate, o ne f lint, T ezcatlipoca.

M any

h e l inks c ertain d ates c arved o n t hese t wo r eed) w ith T ezcatlipoca a md O macatl. i s v ery l oosely a nd v aguely l inked w ith

s imilar s tone s culpture h ave b een f ound

t o d ate

a nd t hese h ave b een i dentified a s y ear b undles. S imilar s kull a ltars a re a lso d epicted i n t he c odices w ith o ther d eities b esides T ezcatlipoca. F or e xample, 2 av oracious, s keletal, f emale g oddess, i dentified a s M ictlantecuhtli, i s d epicted o n p age 8 8 o f t he C odex M agliabechiano. S eler i dentifies ( Seler, 1 960a:884ff).

B atres F ind n o. 2 4 a s a s hrine t o T laloc T his c ache c onsisted o f s tone s pheres, f lint

k nives, a nd c opal i dols, i dentified a s m ountain g ods b y S eler. H e c onnects t his d eposit w ith t he f estival o f E tzalqualiztli i n w hich p riests b rought o fferings o f c one-shaped p ieces o f c opal a nd r ubber ( ulli) f igurines ( Sahagün, 1 951:85). H e i dentifies t he s tone b alls a s e nlarged " beads," s ymbolic o f w ater. S eler ( ibid.:885ff) c onfirms B atres' i dentification o f M acuilx ochitl ( Five F lower, G od o f d ancing a nd m usic) i n F ind n o. 2 7. H e d escribes t he m iniature c lay a nd s tone m usical i nstruments f ound i n t his c ache a s a ppropriate o bjects t o b e p laced w ith t he g od o f m usic. H owever, h e d oes n ot d iscuss t he s ignificance o f t he v ermillion r ed p igment t hat c overed t he e ntire d eposit o r w hy t he e ntire a ssemblage w as b uried

i n t he f irst p lace.

S eler's

w ork i s

i mportant b ecause

i t r epresents

t he

f irst

m ost e xtensive a ttempt t o a nalyze a nd i nterpret v otive c aches. e ver, h is i nterests a re p rimarily i conographic a nd r eligious.

a nd H owT hese

c oncerns l imit t he t ype a nd r ange o f q uestions t hat h e a sks a bout a n a rtifact a nd a n o ffering. H e o ften t ends t o g loss o ver o bjects t hat o ccur i n m assive q uantities ( such a s f lint k nives) a nd t o f ocus o n u nique a nd

u nusual p ieces.

O ther E arly A ttempts A lso a mong

t he e arly o r f ormative a nalyses o f v otive c aches

s cattered a nd m iscellaneous i nterpretations o f s pecific A gain, t he p rimary c oncerns o f t his g roup a re r eligious g raphic, h owever, I nterpretations a re

a re

o fferings. a nd i cono-

t he n ature o f c onclusions v aries g reatly. b ased o n a v ariety o f s ources, i ncluding t he

a rchaeological r ecord a nd c omparisons o f a rtifacts w ith s imilar k nown p ieces,

w ith n ative m anuscripts,

a nd w ith 1 6th c entury t exts.

A lcocer ( Castillo T . a nd S olfs O ., 1 975:35) s uggests t hat t he M acuilxochitl o ffering e xcavated b y B atres m ight h ave c ommemorated t he c onstruction o f a b allcourt. H owever, A lcocer's i nterests a re 8

p rimarily i n r econstructing t he l ocations o f b uildings w ithin t he C eremonial P recinct o n t he b asis o f t exts, t herefore h e d oes n ot c onsider w hy t hese p articular o bjects w ould h ave b een p laced i n s uch a c ommemorative o ffering. C aso

( 1967:129ff) m entions

t he s tone y ear b undles e xcavated

b y

B atres i n h is d iscussion o f t he A ztec c alendar. H e e xamines C olonial P eriod p ictorial m anuscripts ( Codex B orbonicus a nd C odex M agliab echiano) t o p rove t hat T ititl, a c eremony d edicated t o t he d ead, i s a ctually a c eremony c ommemorating t he e nd o f a 5 2-year c entury. T he C odex B orbonicus i llustration o f T ititl ( page 3 6) i ncludes t he d epict ion o f

a s kull p latform a nd m ummy b undle,

w hich C aso c ompares

t o

t he

s kull a ltar a nd s tone r eed b undle d iscovered b y B atres. T he s kull a ltar i s d ecorated w ith s kulls a nd c rossbones, a lso d epicted o n t he s kirt o f t he E arth M onster, a nd b urial o f t he " dead" o r c ompleted b undle.

i s c onceived o f a s a t omb f or t he c entury, s ymbolized b y t he r eed

N oguera ( 1968) i nterprets t he c ache f ound a t " El V olador," w hich c onsisted m ainly o f p ottery, o n t he b asis o f t extual a ccounts o f t he N ew

F ire

C eremony.

H e s uggests

t hat

t he

d eposit

r epresents

t he

c ollective d isposal o f o bjects b y d ifferent t owns j ust p rior t o t he d rilling o f N ew F ire. T his i nterpretation i s r elated t o C aso's d iscussion o f t he b urial o f t he y ear, w hich i s a lso a c eremony j ust p rior t o t he d rilling o f N ew F ire. H owever, t he t wo s ources w ith d eposits c ontaining c ompletely d ifferent t ypes o f o bjects. W ith

t he

a id o f A ztec

s tyle p ictorial m anuscripts a nd

d eal

t extual

s ources, A ngulo ( 1966a) i dentifies t he c omponent p arts o f a b urned o ffering f rom T latelolco. H e l inks v arious p arts o f t he o ffering w ith v ery s pecific c eremonies a nd s ymbols. H owever, u ltimately h is i nterpretations a re s o s pecific a nd f ragmentary t hat d ifferent p arts o f d ifferent c eremonies a ppear t o b e c ommemorated b y t his s ingle o ffering. R ecent S tudies

t o

M ore r ecent s tudies h ave a dopted a m ore c omprehensive a pproach t he s tudy a nd i nterpretation o f c aches. C oncerns a re n ot p urely

i deological, r eligious, a nd m ythological, r ather, m aterial a spects s uch a s s ocial, e conomic, a nd p olitical f actors p lay a n i mportant r ole. A lso, t here i s a g eneral m ove a way f rom i nterpreting s ingular a nd u nique m onuments a nd a rtifacts, a ad r ather t o e mphasize g eneral q uantities. E duardo M atos M octezuma ( 1978; c hief p roponent o fferings. H e

1 979a a nd

b ;

1 980 ;

1 982b)

i s t he

o f t he n ew a pproach t o t he i nterpretation o f b uried e stablishes a d ialectic i n w hich c aches r eflect t he

t wo m ajor c oncerns o f M exica i deology - w arfare a nd f ertility. W ar i s s ymbolized b y a rtifacts a ssociated w ith d eath ( e.g. s kulls, s acrif icial b lades, s keletons) a nd b y M exica o ppression i n t he f orm d emanding t ribute ( e.g. f oreign m asks, f igurines). F ertility

o f i s

e xpressed p rimarily b y s ymbols o f w ater ( e.g. s hells, T laloc i mages, f ish, c anoes, s erpents). T o d ate, M atos h as i nterpreted c aches e xcavated i n t he T emplo M ayor i n t hese g eneralized a nd n on-specific t erms. A lthough h e r ecognizes t hat c ertain c ommodities a re p articul arly a ssociated w ith t he M exica h orizon, h e d oes n ot p ursue t he 9

p ossible

s ignificance o f

c oncentrates o n a rtifacts

t hese a rtifacts a nd m aterials.

R ather,

h e

t hat a re n on-Mexica i n o rigin a s o bjects o f

t ribute. O n t he b asis o f w hat i s k nown o f M exica t ribute p ractices, m any c ommodities f ound i n c aches d o n ot a ppear t o r epresent t ribute. T he r elationship b etween c ached o bjects a nd t ribute w ill b e e xamined i n g reater d etail i n t he c hapter o n t he c ontents o f M exica c aches. A nita B obry ( 1976:2-3,

4 7,

2 9) p resents a n i nterpretation o f

t he

c olossal g reenstone C oyolxauhqui H ead t hat i s r elated t o M atos' e conomically r ooted i nterpretation o f t he T emplo M ayor c aches. S he s uggests t hat t he C oyolxauhqui H ead m ay h ave b een a d edicatory o fferi ng t o t he H uitzilopochtli T emple g iven a s a f orm o f t ribute b y X ochimilco, t he c entre o f l apidary a rts. T he p resentation o f t he h ead o f t he d ecapitated C oyolxauhqui m ay h ave s ymbolized t he s ubmiss ion o f X ochimilco a s a c onquered c entre. J ohanna B roda

( Histbricas,

1 980 :36;

1 971;

i n p ress),

l ike M atos,

h as i nvestigated t he g eneralized p roperties o f A ztec c aches, o pposed t o f ocusing o n s pecific m onuments. H owever, s he d oes

a s n ot

e mphasize t he d icotomy b etween T laloc a nd H uitzilopochtli. R ather, s he b elieves t hat t he s ymbolism o f t he T emplo M ayor t ranscends s pecif ic d eities a nd r elates t o t he g reater s ignificance o f t he T emplo M ayor a s a xis m undi a nd s acred m ountain. S he e mphasizes t he f ertility, v egetation , a nd w ater s ymbolism r epresented b y t he o bjects f ound i n c aches. S he m aintains t hat t he b urial o f o fferings r elated t o a c ult o f " natural p hilosophy" i n w hich t he e arth h ad t o b e f ed a nd f ertilized t o s ustain h uman l ife. R econstructing f estival c ycles b ased o n d iverse 1 6th c entury a ccounts, B roda s uggests t hat s ome o f t he T emplo M ayor o fferings m ay r elate t o s acrifices o f c hildren a t f estivals d edicated t o t he r ain g ods. S everal o f B roda's i nterpretat ions ( Broda, i n p ress) r elate t o t he i deas p resented h owever, b oth w orks w ere d eveloped i ndependently.

i n t his p aper;

C onsiderable p rogress h as b een m ade i n t he s tudy o f c aches

s ince

t he e arly 2 0th c entury, h owever t here a re s till s everal a spects o f M exica b uried o fferings t hat h ave n ot y et b een e xamined. L acking i s a n e xamination o f M exica c aches w ithin a h istorical f ramework . S uch a b road, h istorical s tudy c ould d efine a spects o f v otive p ractices t hat c an b e c onsidered t ypically o r u niversally M esoamerican o r d istinctly M exica. A lso l acking i s a s ystematic c onsideration o f b asic a spects o f M exica c aches, s uch a s t he c ontent, t he l ocation , a nd t ype o f d eposit o f a c ache. D iscussions o f t he c ontents o f v otive o fferings

o ften g ive g reater a ttention t o

e xotic,

u nusual,

a nd

s ingular p ieces t han t o m aterials t hat o ccur i n g reat q uantities, w hich a re f acilely d ismissed a s " precious" o r " symbolic o f s acrif ice." A lso l acking i s a n i nvestigation o f t he l ocation a nd t he b urial o f a c ache. A lthough t he b urial o f p recious o bjects h as o ccurred s ince t he t ime o f t he O lmec, t he a ct o f b urial h as s pecific c onnotations f or t he M exica. T he p resent s tudy w ill e xamine t hese a spects w ithin a h istorical f ramework.

1 0

a ttempt

t o

I V.

M ETHOD

M exica

o fferings w ill i nitially b e e xamined w ithin t he

c ontext

o f a c hronological s urvey o f M esoamerican o fferatory p ractices. T his s urvey w ill c over m ajor h istorical p eriods ( Pre-Classic, C lassic, P ost-Classic) a nd g eographical o r c ultural a reas ( Basin o f M exico, O axaca, O lmec, a nd M aya a reas). W ithin t his c hronological a nd g eog raphical f ramework , a c omparison o f v otive a nd m ortuary o fferings i s u ndertaken t o d efine t raditions i n v otive p ractices a nd t o c larify t he r elationship b etween v otive a nd f unerary p ractices. T ypes o f i nterment, l ocations o f c aches, a nd c ontents o f d eposits a re c ons idered f or v otive a nd m ortuary o fferings. C ontents o f d eposits a re d iscussed p rimarily i n t erms p ottery, s tone, b one, m etal, d ivided

i nto a rtifact

o f m aterials ( greenstone, s hell, f lint, e tc.), w hich a re f urther s ub-

t ypes ( idol,

w eapon,

v essel,

o rnament,

e tc.).

G eneral M esoamerican o fferatory p ractices a re d efined i n o rder d etermine t o w hat e xtent t he M exica A ztec m aterial i s a typical a nd

t o t o

f ocus o n i ts u nique a spects. T he

i nterpretation

o f b oth t he t raditional

a nd

t he

i nnovative

a spects o f A ztec c aches i s b ased o n a nalyses o f a rchaeological c ont ext a nd s ymbolism o f v otive a rtifacts. T he d iscussion o f a rchaeol ogical

c ontext

c onsiders t ypes a nd l ocations o f

d eposits.

A ztec

c aches a re o ften p laced i n c ists, d irectly i n b uilding f ill, o r i n s tone r eceptacles. D eposits a re g enerally l ocated b eneath m onuments, s uch a s s kull a ltars a nd s tone b raziers, o r b eneath c eremonial a rchit ecture, i n s tairways a nd a t t he c entre a nd c orners o f t emples. C ache s ymbolism i s d iscussed i n t erms o f t he i conography o f m edia a nd o bject t ype. T he A ztecs a ssociated m eanings w ith p articular m ater ials o ften b ased o n i nherent q ualities, s uch a s t exture, c olour, d ensity, a nd s heen. T ypes o f o bjects, s uch a s i nsignia , w eapons, o r i dols, w ere a lso s ignificant a nd o ften d epicted o r s ymbolized p art icular d eities. A spects

o f

c ache i conography a re f urther i nterpreted w ith

t he

a id o f c omparisons w ith o ther f orms o f A ztec a rt a nd w ith 1 6th c ent ury e thno-historical s ources. C omparisons w ith o ther f orms o f A ztec e lite a rt, s uch a s s tone s culpture, a re u seful i n t he i dentification o f d eities a nd i nsignia. A ztec-style p ictorial m anuscripts, s uch a s t he C odex M agliabechiano a nd t he r itual7divinitory s ection o f t he C odex B orbonicus, c ontain i nformation o n i conography a nd c alendrical s ymbolism, w hich m ay h elp t o e xplain a spects o f v otive s ymbolism. S ixteenth c entury t extual s ources, r anging f rom r eligious-historical d ocuments t o N ahuatl p oetry, c ontain b eliefs a nd m etaphors r elevant t o i conographic i nterpretations. P articularly u seful i s t he v olume b y B ernardino d e S ahagan, " Earthly T hings," c ontaining t he

a S panish F ranciscan m issionary, o n s tatements g iven b y n ative i nformants o n

s ignificance o f v arious m aterials

( Sahagan,

1 1

1 963).

T he c onsiderable b ody o f m ore c ontemporary

s cholarship,

d ating

f rom t he 1 9th c entury t o t he p resent, i s v aluable f or i conographic a naylisis, b ut i t m ust b e u sed w ith c aution d ue t o t he c hanging i nterests o f s cholars o ver t he l ast h undred y ears. S ome e arly s cholars, s uch a s S eler a nd B eyer i n t he l ate 1 9th c entury, i nterpreted e verything i n t erms o f a stral m ythology. B y f ocusing o n t he i ntricacies o f i ndividual s ymbols, f unction o f t he o bject w ere o ften l ost. a s B roda, a ttention

t he c ultural c ontext M ore r ecent s cholars,

a nd s uch

M atos, P asztory, a nd T ownsend, c ounterbalance t he p revious t o i conographic d etail b y i ncorporating s ocial, e conomic,

a nd p olitical c onsiderations i nto t heir i nterpretations o f A ztec c ulture. U seful i nformation i s t o b e f ound i n b oth o f t hese a pproaches a nd b oth o ld a nd n ew w orks w ill b e c onsulted i n t his s tudy. T he

u ltimate

a im o f

t his p aper i s

t o e xplore t he

s ymbolism a ssociated w ith A ztec v otive o fferings. c ould a lso b e s tudied f or d ifferent p urposes, s uch c hronologies o r a nalyzing t rade a nd

b eliefs

a nd

M exica c aches a s d eveloping

t ribute r elations b etween c ities.

H owever, t hese s ubjects a re n ot c overed i n t his s tudy, w hich f ocuses o n s ymbolism. B ecause t he p ublished i nformation o n c aches i s s o f ragmentary, t he i nterpretations i n t his p aper a re p resented a s e xperimental h ypotheses a nd a re i ntended f or f uture r esearch.

1 2

p rimarily a s

a

f oundation

V .

P RE-MEXICA C ACHES A ND B URIALS

I NTRODUCTION rical a nd f unctional a spects o f A b asic k nowledge o f t he h ist o M esoamerican o fferatory p ractices i s e ssential i n o rder t o u nderstand een l ittle c omparative s tudy o f M exica c aches. T o d ate t here h as b hronological p eriods a nd g eoo fferatory p ractices o f d ifferi e c g raphical a reas i n M esoamericä. F urthermore, n o o ne h as y et c or nith t hose o f f unerary o fferings. p ared t he c ontents o f v otive c aches w ntention o f t his D ue t o t his l ack o f a g eneral b ackground, i t i s t he i or m ajor c hronos urvey t o d efine b oth v otive a nd m ortuary o fferings f s a c ontext i n l ogical p eriods i n M esoamerica t o s erve u ltimately a w hich t o v iew M exica o fferings. D espite g aps i n p ublished i nformation, a ttempts w ill b e m ade i n t his b rief s ummary t o c haracterize o fferatory p ractices f or m ajor p eriods a nd a reas i n d escriptive, r ather t han i nterpretative, t erms. N o

a ttempts w ill b e m ade t o a nalyze s ymbolism b ecause n o t exts

v ive f rom t hese e arlier p eriods t o a id a nce o f t extual s ources f rom t he 1 6th s tudy o f A ztec m aterial. H owever, n ature o f t hese l ate s ources, t hey

s ur-

i n i nterpretation. T he a bundc entury w ill b e u seful i n t he b ecause o f t he p roblematical c annot e asily b e a pplied t o

e arlier c ultures. L imitations i n t ime p revented a n e xhaustive s tudy o f e very p ublished e xcavated M esoamerican o ffering, s o t hat t he p resent s tudy i s m eant t o s erve m erely a s a r epresentative s ample. A dmittedly w hat f ollows i s f ar f rom f ascinating r eading, h owever, d ue t o t he s cattered n ature o f t he s ources o f c aches, a c ompilation o f t his k ind i s n ecessary a s w ell a s u seful. P RE-CLASSIC P ERIOD T he O lmec A rea T he

O lmecs,

c onsidered

t he f irst m onument-building

c ulture

M esoamerica, f lourished b etween c .1400 B .C. t o 4 00 B .C. H eartland" i s t he a rea o f T abasco w here t he m ajor c entres, S an L orenzo,

L aguna d e l os C erros,

a nd T res Z apotes,

a re

i n

T he " Olmec L a V enta, l ocated.

O utside t he h eartland, O lmec i nfluences s pread t o G uerrero ( Oxtotitl an a nd J uxtlahuaca) a nd M orelos ( Chalcatzingo). Hallmarks o f O lmec c ulture

i nclude

m onumental

t hree-dimensional

s tone

s culpture

a nd

r igidly o riented c eremonial c entres w ith l arge e arthen m ounds. A lthough o nly f ragmentary a rchaeological i nformation i s a vailable, i nterpretations o f e conomic a nd p olitical a spects o f O lmec c ulture a re o ften p osited. L arge q uantities o f i mported s tone a nd g reens tone, u sed i n s culpture a nd c aches, s uggest f ar-flung t rade n etw orks,

w hile

i s o ften c ited

t he e normous a s

s cale o f O lmec a rchitectural u ndertakings

e vidence o f a p owerful c entralized 1 3

a uthority.

A lthough o rientation o f t wo m ay

c haracteristics c eremonial

s uch

c entres

a s O lmec-style c arving a nd

l ink

r igid

S an L orenzo a nd L a V eyia,

t he

s ites d iffer i n t ypes a nd l ocations o f c ache d eposits. T his b e p artly d ue t o t he f act t hat t he f lorescence o f L a V enta w as

l ater t han t hat o f S an L orenzo. O fferings a t L a V enta a nd S an L orenzo w ere b uried d irectly i n t he e arth w ith l ayers o f c innabar a nd m ulti-coloured s ands ( Drucker, e t.al., 1 959; M . C oe a nd D iehl, 1 980). C aches w ere c ommonly l ocated b eneath e arthen m ounds o n o r n ear t he c entral a xis o f L a V enta, w hile a t S an L orenzo, d eposits w ere m ore c ommonly made o n t op o f r idges a nd e lsewhere i n t he s ite n ot a long t he c entral a xis ( M . C oe, 1 968a:47-8; 1 968b:86). T he c ontents o f v otive d eposits a t S an L orenzo a nd L a V enta a lso d iffer. B uried o fferings a t S an L orenzo r arely c ontain j ade, p erhaps b ecause B .C.

t rade

i n g reenstone m ay n ot h ave o ccurred u ntil

O ne e xceptional o ffering c ontained

a fter

s erpentine c elts,

8 00

f ragments

o f p ottery, a nd t urtle s hell ( M . C oe a nd D iehl, 1 980 :101). S tacked m etates w ith m anos w ere f ound i n o ne S an L orenzo d eposit, w hile a nother c ontained m agnetite o r h ematite b eads ( ibid.:34, 3 3; M . C oe, 1 968a:57). M ore c ommon w ere i ntentionally d efaced s tone m onuments b uried w ith s pecial c eremony, h owever i t i s u nclear i f a ny " votive" f unction w as o riginally i ntended

( M .

C oe,

1 968b:85-6).

T hese c aches

w ith m onuments s uggest a c onceptual l ink w ith f unerary o fferings w hereby s tone s culpture w as r itually k illed a nd c eremonially b uried. T he

r ichest o fferings a re s lightly l ater i n d ate a nd c ome

f rom

L a V enta, w here t here a re t hree m ain t ypes o f c aches. T he s o-called " massive o ffering," u nique i n t he h istory o f v otive p ractices, c ons ists t o

o f

c arefully s haped

g reenstone s labs p laced d eep i n t he g round

f orm m osaic-like m asks o r p avements.

A nother

t ype

c onsists

o f

g reenstone a nd s tone c elts, s ome m irrors, a nd o ccasionally g reenstone f igurines. T he l ast t ype c ontains o nly p ottery v essels, w hich m ay h ave h eld p erishable o fferings. A ll

o f

t he f ive k nown O lmec m ortuary b urials

O nly o ne c ontained h uman r emains,

a ssumed

c ome f rom L a V enta.

t o b e d ecayed

i n t he o ther

i nstances. I nterments l acking h uman r emains w ere i dentified a s b urials o n t he b asis o f c offer-like c onstructions a nd t he p lacement o f p ersonal o rnaments s uggestive o f a h uman w earer. T hese s tonel ined t ombs w ere l ocated b eneath m ounds o n t he c entral a xis o f t he s ite.

A

l ayer o f

c innabar o r c oloured

c lay o ften c overed

t he f loor

o r t he e ntire b urial i tself. F unerary o fferings p rimarily c ontained p ersonal o rnaments, o ften m ade o f j ade a nd o ther p recious m aterials, m irrors, o bsidian d isks, g reenstone f igurines, c elts, a nd a wls, a nd r arely p ottery. P ersonal o rnaments, m irrors, a nd p erforators o ccur i n a f ew o ther c ontexts n ot i dentified a s b urials. I t r emains u nc lear w hether t hese w ere a lso b urials o r w hether t hey r epresent a nother I n a nd

t ype o f v otive o ffering. t he

O lmec a rea t here a re s mall d istinctions b etween

b urial o fferings.

e arth,

w hile

b urials

v otive

V otive o fferings a re p laced d irectly i n a re p laced

i n s tone-lined

o ften l ocated b eneath a rchitecture o r s culpture,

t ombs.

C aches

t he a re

w hile b urials a t L a

V enta o ccur o nly i n m ounds o n t he c entral a xis o f t he s ite. B oth t ypes o f o fferings a bound i n i mported j ade, h owever t he n ature o f m anufactured o bjects d iffers. J ade s labs a nd s tone s culpture a re r estricted t o c aches. F unerary o fferings c ontain m ore p ersonal o r 1 4

u seful

o bjects s uch a s o rnaments a nd

c eremonial

i mplements,

i ncluding

a wls a nd s tingray s pines, p ossibly u sed i n a uto-sacrifice, m irrors o r o bsidian d isks, p ossibly d ivinatory t ools.

a nd

T he B asin o f M exico - D ispersed S ettlements P opulation w as d ispersed i n s mall v illage s ettlements p rimarily i n t he s outhern B asin o f M exico b etween 1 200 B .C. a nd 3 00 B .C. T he b est k nown s ites d ating f rom t his p eriod a re T latilco, T lapacoya, Z acatenco, T icoman, a nd E l A rbolillo. T hese P re-Classic s ites l ack m onumental

a rchitecture a nd

s culpture a nd,

p roduction o f c eramic f igurines.

r ather,

a re k nown f or t he

1 2

n

ere v ery t ive o fferings i n t he P re-Classic B asin o f M exico w o f l imer are. V aillant m entioned t he d iscovery o f t wo " caches" lades" a t s tone b alls a t T icoman a nd a " cache o f b eautiful o bsidian b alls w ere E l A rbolillo ( 1934:305; 1 935:243). L ava o r p umice s tone b n c aches c ommon a t E l A rbolillo a nd Z acatenco, b ut w ere n ot f ound i a nd V alliant h as s uggested t hat t hese b alls w ere b olas o r m issile s tones ( 1935:243). H e d oes n ot c omment f urther o n t he o bsidian b lade c ache, a d eposit o f p articular i nterest b ecause o bsidian a ppeared f requently i n c oeval c aches a t T eotihuacan, a s ite w ith a m onopoly o ver o bsidian . C hän ( et.al., 1 952:14) d istinguished b etween b urials a nd b uried o fferings a t C erro d e T epalcate, n ear T latilco. T hese b uried o fferings c onsisted o f s acrificed c hildren a nd w ere s aid t o r elate t o n ew p latform s uperpositions. T ypical l ocations, t ypes a nd c ontents o f c aches c ould n ot b e d etermined o n t he b asis o f t his m eager

i nformation .

T ypes,

l ocations,

c learly d elineated. t he e arth i n p its, f ew c rude s tone ( PiNa C hän, l ocated n ear

c ontents o f

f unerary d eposits c an b e m ore

B urials w ere m ost

a nd

f requently p laced d irectly i n

p ossibly l ined w ith m ats ( Vaillant, 1 931:317). A s lab t ombs a re k nown f rom s lightly l ater p eriods

1 955:68; V aillant, 1 935:298). B urials w ere g enerally o r b eneath r esidential s tructures. P ottery o bjects

( regular a nd m iniature v essels, e ffigy v essels, f igurines, a nd s tamps) w ere t he m ost c ommon g rave o fferings. O rnaments o f j ade o r s hell, a nd i mplements, s uch a s o bsidian b lades, m anos, h ammerstones, b one n eedles, o r m irrors, w ere a lso d eposited w ith t he d ead. O ccas ionally d ogs, c hildren, a nd a dults w ere s acrificed a nd p erhaps a s c ompanions o r a ttendants f or t he d eceased 1 972:365; i nstances

a nd

b uried, ( Romano,

i n s ome C hän, 1 955:69). R ed p igment o ccurred urial s ometimes c arbon a nd a shes a ppeared a s p art o f a b

c eremony ( Vaillant,

1 935:298;

R omano,

1 972:366).

A g reater a mount o f e nergy w as i nvested i n b urials t han i n c aches a t P re-Classic d ispersed s ettlements i n t he B asin o f M exico. T his c an b e e xplained b y t he l ack o f c eremonial c entres w ith m onum ental a rchitecture a nd s culpture, w hich w ere u sually t he f oci o f v otive

a ctivities

f or t he O lmec.

I n t he B asin o f

w ere m ade d irectly i n t he e arth b eneath r esidential w ere a lso c ontained

t he c entres o f r itual a ctivity . l ocally m ade o bjects i ncluding

d omestic i mplements, a nd m irrors) w ere i mported.

l uxury o r r itual

1 5

M exico,

b urials

s tructures,

w hich

G rave o fferings g enerally p ottery, u tilitarian o r i tems

s ome o f w hich ( jade,

T he B asin o f M exico - T eotihuacan L ate i n t he P re-Classic P eriod, c .100 B .C. t o A .D.200 , t he s ite o f T eotihuacan g ained c ontrol o ver t he B asin o f M exico. S ettlements s hifted

t o

t he

n orthern p art

o f

t he B asin w ith t he

g reatest

c on-

c entration o f p opulation c entred a t T eotihuacan i tself. T he s ite r eached a p eak d uring t he C lassic P eriod, h owever i t w as d uring t he P re-Classic, T eotihuacan's T zacualli ( 100 B .C. - A .D.100) a nd M icc aotli ( A.D.100 A .D.200) P hases, t hat t he r igid g rid p lan o f t he c ity w as l aid o ut a nd t he l argest s tructures, s uch a s t he P yramids o f t he S un a nd M oon, a nd t he T emple o f Q uetzalcoatl, w ere b uilt. T eotih uacan's p re-eminent c ontrol o ver t he B asin i s s ometimes a ttributed t o p olitical d omination t hrough f orced r esettlement ( Sanders, P ars ons, a nd S antley, 1 979:107), o r e conomic s pecialization v ia a m onop oly o ver o bsidian m anufacture a nd S imple c aches w e u f ound

t rade.

i n t he n orthern p art

o f

t he c ity d uring

t he T zacualli P hase. V otive o fferings w ere s ealed i n p its b eneath f loors o r p laced d irectly i n b uilding f ill. A t O ztoyahualco, d eposits w ere m ade i n p latforms ( Millon a nd B ennyhoff, 1 961:518), w hile a t t he P yramid o f t he S un, c aches w ere p laced b elow t he l ower t unnel f loor a nd i n t he P lataforma A dosada ( Millon a nd D rewitt, 1 960 :374). C ontents o f d eposits w ere s imple a nd c ontained o nly l ocally a vailable m aterials s uch a s p ottery a nd o bsidian. B roken p ottery, a n o ccasional p ottery f igurine f ragment, a nd a c rude T laloc e ffigy v essel w ere f ound i n T zacualli c aches ( Millon, 1 960 :4-5; M illon a nd B ennyhoff, 1 961:518, 5 20 ; M illon a nd D rewitt, 1 960). O bsidian a rtifacts i ncluded b lades, m iniature p oints, a nd f lat, s chem atic, M illon,

g ingerbread-boy-shaped D rewitt, a nd B ennyhoff,

f iguriies 1 965).

( Millon a nd D rewitt,

O nly o ne c ache i s k nown f rom t he M iccaotli P hase.

1 960 ;

T his d eposit,

f rom t he s outhern p art o f t he s ite, w as p laced i n t he f ill i n t he c entre o f t he T emple o f Q uetzalcoatl. T he c ontents o f t his v otive o ffering w ere m uch m ore d iversified t han T zacualli P hase d eposits a nd i ncluded i mported m aterials s uch a s g reenstone a nd s hell. I n a ddit ion

t o

o bsidian p oints,

b lades,

a nd

f lat

f igurines,

u ndulating

o bsidian f orms, c ommonly r eferred t o a s " serpents," w ere a lso I ncluded. P ottery h uman a nd a nimal h eads w ere f ound, h owever t here w ere n o p ottery v essels. G reenstone a nd s hell o rnaments a nd g reens tone f igurines, i ncluding h eirlooms a nd t rade p ieces i n a v ariety o f s tyles,

w ere a lso

f ound.

T he e mergence o f t he m ajor u rban a nd c eremonial c entre o f T eotihuacan m arked a c hange i n o fferatory p ractices i n w hich c aches p layed a m ore i mportant r ole t han p reviously s een a t d ispersed s ettlements i n t he B asin o f M exico. F or P re-Classic T eotihuacan, c aches

o ccurred

b eneath

f loors

o fferings

i n c onjunction w ith m onumental a rchitecture i n o r d irectly i n b uilding f ill.

c ontained

l ocally

o bsidian, w hile l ater d eposits a s j ade a nd s hell.

a vailable i ncluded

T he e arliest

m aterials, i mported

p its v otive

p ottery

a nd

l uxury i tems,

s uch

T he M aya A rea D uring M aya

t he L ate P re-Classic

i nhabited

s ites

( c.600 B .C.

t o 2 90 A .D.) P eriod,

s uch a s U axactün a nd T ikal 1 6

i n

t he

t he

s outhern

w hile c aches w ere o ften p laced

i n m ounds

( Marquina,

1 964:335).

B oth

i mported a nd l ocal m aterials ( such a s p ottery a nd j ade) w ere p laced i n v otive a nd f unerary c ontexts ( Caso, 1 965:899-900), w hile o ther o bjects h ad a m ore r estricted d istribution. F or e xample, j ade o r s hell o rnaments w ere m ore c ommon i n b urials, w hile j ade f igurines a nd l arge, s tone b alls w ere f ound i n c aches ( Caso, 1 965:902). e nigmatic s tone b alls r ecall t he p umice b alls f rom T icoman, t he m eaning a nd

1 9

T hese h owever

f unction o f t hese o bjects r emain o bscure.

C hiapas T he s ite o f C hiapa d e C orzo h ad a l ong h istory s panning t he P reC lassic P eriod t o t he C lassic P eriod ( c.100 B .C. t o 8 00 A .D.). D uri ng t he e xploration o f m ounds a t C hiapa d e C orzo, t he e W orld A rchaeological F oundation e xcavated m any b urials a nd c aches. T hese v otive a nd f unerary d eposits w ere f ar f rom l avish, y et t hey w ere u seful t o e xamine f or b asic d ifferences b etween t he t wo t ypes o f d eposits. V otive

a nd m ortuary o fferings a t C hiapa d e C orzo o ften d iffered

o n t he b asis o f l ocations a nd t ypes o f d eposits. V otive o fferings w ere a lways f ound i n m ounds, p laced d irectly i n b uilding f ill o r a s i ntrusive d eposits w ithout f ormal r epositories ( Lowe a nd A grinier, 1 960 :55). P re-Classic b urials w ere o ften f ound i n r efuse d eposits a nd l ess f requently i n a ssociation w ith m ounds o r s tructures u ntil t he L ate P re-Classic, c .1-200 A .D . ( Agrinier, 1 964:66-73). O ther t ypes o f f unerary d eposits i ncluded p lacement i n c ists, u rns, a nd t ombs. T here w as a lso a c ategory o f s imple b urials, p laced d irectly i n b uilding f ill w ith l ittle o r n o a ccompanying o fferings. T hese d eposits m ay h ave b een d edicatory o fferings o f s acrificial v ictims, a s o pposed t o f unerary d eposits ( Lowe a nd A grinier, 1 960 :50 , 5 3, 5 4). T he b urial o f p araphanelia, s ometimes d eliberately b roken, d irectly i n b uilding f ill p aralleled t he b urial o f t he d ead. U sed p arap hanelia, d rained o f i ts c eremonial e fficacy, m ay h ave b een c ons idered " dead," w hile t he d eliberate d estruction o f o bjects m ay h ave b een e quivalent t ive p urposes. T he

t o

c ontents

t he s acrifice o f v ictims i nterred

o f

c aches w ere s imilar t o

f or

b urial

c ommemora-

o fferings

i n

m aterials d eposited, h owever t he q uantity a nd t he n ature o f a rtifacts d iffered. P ottery v essels o ccurred r egularly i n b oth t ypes o f o fferi ngs, w hile i mported s hell, j ade, m arble, o r i ron p yrite o rnaments o r m osaic o ccurred o ccasionally. B oth d eposits a lso r arely c ontained b one a nd o bsidian f ragments, a s w ell a s v olcanic t uff p ebbles a nd p ottery f igurines. C aches g enerally c ontained f ewer a rtifacts t han b urial o fferings a nd d eliberately b roken p ottery o ccurred m ore c omm only i n c aches. I mplements, s uch a s m anos, m etates, c hisels, o r s pindle w horls, o n t he o ther h and, w ere r estricted t o f unerary o fferi ngs. C LASSIC P ERIOD B asin o f M exico - T eotihuacan T he

s ite o f T eotihuacan,

w ith i ts o rigins i n t he

P re-Classic,

c ontinued t o d ominate t he B asin o f M exico d uring t he C lassic P eriod. T eotihuacan's i nfluence o ver m uch o f M esoamerica r eached i ts p eak 1 8

d uring

t he E arly M iddle C lassic

( c.

3 50 t o 5 00 A .D.),

w hile e xtensive

r ebuilding p rojects w ere u ndertaken a t t he s ite i tself d uring t he X olalpan P hase ( c. 4 00 t o 6 50 A .D.). T eotihuacan s tyle p ottery, f ound i n e lite b urial c ontexts i n t he s outhern l owland M aya r egion , s uggests t rade r elations b etween t he e lites o f T eotihuacan a nd M aya s ociety, w hile w eapon-bearing T eotihuacan " ambassadors" d epicted i n m onumental a rts a t M onte A lbän a nd T ikal s uggest m ilitary d omination. A lthough t he s ite's i nfluence d ecreased l eft a l asting i mpact o n M esoamerica.

a fter 5 00 A .D., T eotihuacan T alud-tablero a rchitectural

p rofiles, t ripod v essels w ith s lab f eet, a nd a h ieratic t wo-dimens ional, e mblematic a rt s tyle a re a ll c onsidered c haracteristics o f T eotihuacan i nfluence i n M esoamerica. C lassic P eriod c aches b asically c ontinued P re-Classic P eriod t raditions. 21 V otive d eposits w ere s till p laced d irectly i n b uilding f ill, a nd o nly o ccasionally i n p its p rotected b y s tone s labs ( Linn , O fferings w ere b uried b eneath 1 942:142-3; C aberera, 1 982:33). 22 f loors i n r esidential c ompounds o ften a t t he e ntrance t o r ooms, i n t he c entre o f r ooms, o r i n p orticos, a nd a lso i n a xially i mportant l ocations i n c eremonial a reas, s uch a s a t t he f oot o f s tairways o r a t t he c orners o f m ounds. T he c ontents o f v otive o fferings r emained b asically t he s ame a s i n P re-Classic t imes. P ottery o ccurred m ore f requently a nd v ases,

i n a w ider v ariety o f

a nd m iniatures.

f orms,

T hese v essels

s uch a s

s ometimes

t ripods,

s erved

b owls,

a s c ontainers

f or o fferings o f i mported a s w ell a s l ocally a vailable m aterials. I mported g reenstone a nd s hell o rnaments a s w ell a s u nworked j ade a yi g reenstone f igurines w ere d eposited i n C lassic P eriod c aches. L ocally a vailable c ached m aterials i ncluded o bsidian ( points, r ings), p yrite ( mirrors), a nd b one f ragments

s tone ( polishers, m anos), w orked b one ( needles), ( human s kull, d eer, h are). 24

C lassic P eriod f unerary d eposits a t T eotihuacan w ere m uch m ore a bundant i n o fferings t han c oeval c aches. P laced i n l arge j ars w ith o val b odies o r d irectly i n t he e arth w ithout s pecial c onstructions, b urials w ere m ade b eneath r esidential c ompounds o r i n c eremonial m ounds. 25 B urial o fferings w ere l arger a nd c ontained m ore v aried m aterials t han c oeval v otive o fferings. S tandard p ottery c omponents i ncluded t ripods, b owls, v ases, m iniatures, a nd o ccasionally c lay s tamps ( Serrano a nd L aguna, 1 974:120 ; Un t ie, 1 942:140 ), f igurines ( Linn6, 1 934:62; 1 942:131, 1 33, 1 40 ; S errgpo a nd L agunas, 1 974:120), o r T laloc v essels ( Marquina, 1 922:159-60). ' G rave d eposits i ncluded i mported s hell a nd g reenstone o rnaments a s w ell a s s hells c ontaining b eads o r b urned o fferings o f c lay a nd c opal ( Marquina, 1 922:160-1). U tilitarian i mplements w ere a n i mportdnt c omponent o f m ortuary o fferi ngs a nd i ncluded o bsidian p oints a nd b lades, b one n eedles, s tone b owls, m iniature m anos a nd m etates, p ottery s pindle w horls, m iniature v essels. O ther c ommon o fferings w ere s late d isks r emnants o f r ed o r y ellow p aint, l umps o f s lightly f ired c lay a nd f ound

a t

w orkshop

c ertain c ompounds a nd ( Linnä,

1 942:130 ;

a nd w ith

a s w ell a s s heets o f m ica . C rude u nfired c ontainers w ith p aint w ere s uggest

t he p resence o f

S errano a nd L agunas,

a n

a rtisan

1 974:119).

D uring t he C lassic P eriod a t T eotihuacan, f unerary o fferings w ere m uch m ore p revalent t han v otive c aches. B oth t ypes o f d eposits w ere f ound i n a xially i mportant l ocations i n c eremonial m ounds o r b eneath r esidential s tructures. C aches a nd b urials c ommonly c ont ained

l ocal c eramics a nd

o bsidian i mplements, 1 9

a s w ell a s

i mported

j ade

a nd

s hell

o rnaments.

I n a ddition,

b urials c ommonly c ontained

a

w ide v ariety o f u seful o bjects o r m iniature r eplicas, s uch a s b lades, m anos, m etates, s pindle w horls, n eedles, o r o ther i mplements, w hile c aches c ontained a dditional r itual a nd s ymbolic o bjects, s uch a s m irrors a nd

f igurines.

C entral M exico - X ochicalco D uring

t he L ate C lassic P eriod

( c.

6 00 t o 9 00 A .D.),

T eotihua-

c an's i nfluence o ver t he B asic o f M exico d ecreased a nd l ocal c entres r ose i n i mportance. T hese s ites w ere k nown f or a n e clecticism b ased o n T eotihuacan, M aya, O axaca, a nd V eracruz c haracteristics. X ochic alco, o ne o f t hese L ate C lassic r egional c entres i n M orelos, c omb ined d iverse s tylistic t raits a nd m aterial c ulture. T alud-tablero a rticulation a nd t he o rganization o f m ounds a round p lazas, t ypical o f T eotihuacan, w ere c ombined w ith M aya c haracteristics s uch a s t he e rection o f s telae a nd t he l ack o f a n o verall g rid p lan f or t he s ite. V eracruz f eatures, s uch a s b allcourts a nd t he u se o f d ouble o utlines i n r elief s culpture, a lso o ccurred a t X ochicalco. C aches

a nd

b urials w ere g iven s imilar t reatment a t

X o eicalco,

h owever c aches w ere m ore e laborate t han f unerary d eposits. v otive a nd f unerary o fferings w ere p laced d irectly i n b uilding

B oth f ill

o r o n a n e arlier l evel o f c onstruction c overed b y a l ater a ddition. C aches w ere a lso s ometimes p laced i n s tone b oxes o r s pecially c ons tructed a xis o f

s tone c ists. L ocations o f d eposits o ccurred o n t he c entral c eremonial s tructures, h owever b urials w ere m ade n ear t he

f ront o f t emple s tructures, f urther b ack i n t he t emple. F unerary

a nd

w hile c aches w ere p laced

v otive o fferings c ontained

i n t he c entre o r

i mported

a nd

l ocally

a vailable m aterials. S hells a nd s hell o rnaments, j ade o rnaments, g reenstone r elief p laques a nd f igurines i n d iverse s tyles, s tone d isks, a nd o bsidian p oints o ccurred i n b oth v otive a nd m ortuary c ontexts. C eramic v essels, w ere c ommonly f ound i n c aches a nd o nly r arely i n b urial o fferings ( Saenz, 1 962a). C rude p ottery T laloc v essels, f ound i n o ne c ache, w ere n oteworthy b ecause t hey w ere a lso f ound

i n

T eotihuacan a nd A ztec v otive d eposits.

C aches

c ontained

o ther o bjects n ot c ommonly f ound i n b urials, s uch a s t urquoise a nd b one f ragments, o bsidian e ccentrics ( known p rimarily i n t he M aya r egion), a nd o nyx v essels ( perhaps f rom O axaca). I t a lso a ppears t hat s tone s culpture w as s ymbolically k illed a nd t hen b uried. T he t hree s o-called X ochicalco " stelae" w cre f ound f ragmented, p ainted r ed,

a nd

b uried

i n a c ist i n B uilding A ,

a long w ith a s tone Huehue-

t eotl ( Old F ire G od) b razier ( Saenz, 1 962a:69-70). T hese s culptural o fferings r ecall t he d eliberate m utilation a nd b urial o f m onuments a t S an L orenzo, T ikal, a nd T ula, a nd m ay h ave b een p laced s hortly b efore t he a bandonment o r d estruction o f t he s ite. A lso n oteworthy i s t he H uehueteotl f ragment b ecause o ther c aches a t C erro d e l as M esas ( Stirling, 1 941:292) a nd T ula H uehueteotl b raziers. 28

( Acosta,

1 974:45) h ave b een f ound n ear

M aya A rea T he A .D.) M aya

s o-called

" Classic P eriod"

i n M esoamerica ( c.

2 90

t o

9 00

w as d efined b y t he e rection o f d ated m onuments i n t he s outhern l owlands. T his M aya r egion e xtended f rom s outhern C hiapas t o 20

n orthern B ritish T ikal, U axactün,

H onduras P alenque,

a nd i ncluded s uch w ell-known s ites a s Y axchilän, a nd C opän. T hese a utonomous

c entres w ere l inked b y M aya i ntellectual a nd a rtistic a chievements. T he M aya d eveloped n ot o nly a n e laborate c alendrical s ystem , k nown a s t he L ong C ount, t o r ecord l inear a s o pposed t o c yclic t ime, b ut t hey a lso d eveloped c omplex h ieroglyphic s ystem t o r ecord L ong C ount d ates a nd d ynastic e vents. I ntricate r elief c arving, t he e rection o f s telae, a nd e laborate p olychrome p ottery w ere h allmarks o f M aya a rtistic d istance

a chievement. T he M aya p articipated i n t rade n etworks w ith t he B asin o f M exico,

e xtensive l ongO axaca, c oastal

r egions, o bsidian,

a nd t he G uatemala h ighlands t o o btain s uch c ommodities a s a labaster, a nd s hell, w hich w ere i mportant i n v otive a nd

m ortuary c ontexts. V otive

p ractices w ere 5 4versified

a nd

e laborate a t

M aya

s ites

d uring t he C lassic P eriod. P ractices d iffered b etween s ites a nd s ometimes c hanged t hrough t ime a s w ell. I n s ome c ases a c lear f unct ional d istinction i s made b etween t he c ontents o f c aches d eposit e w ith m onuments a s o pposed t o c onstructions ( W. C oe, 1 962, 1 965a-b).' M onumental c aches w ere p laced b eneath s telae o r a ltars ( Stromsvik, 1 941;

L ongyear,

b eneath

1 952; W .

p lazas,

t emples o r l ocations.

C oe,

b allcourts,

p alaces, D eposits

d irectly i n f ill, s tone-lined c ists.

1 959),

w hile

p latforms,

s tructural a nd

c aches o ccurred

b eneath

s urfaces

o f

o ften n ear d oorways o r i n a xially i mportant w ere p laced i n i ntrusive p its i n s tructures,

i n p ottery r eceptacles, i n s tone c ontainers, C aches g enerally c ontained p ottery v essels,

o r i n w hich

o ften h eld o ther p arts o f t he o ffering. I mported j ade a nd s hell w ere d eposited i n t he f orm o f o rnaments a nd r arely a s f igurines ( W. C oe, 1 962:498; 1 959:82). I mported o bsidian a nd f lint ( blades, p oints, c ores, e ccentrics, i ncised p ieces) w ere i mportant c omponents o f C lassic P eriod c aches, p articularly a t T ikal w here t he d istribution o f e ccentric a nd i ncised f lint a nd o bsidian d efined d ifferent t ypes a nd p hases o f d eposits ( W. C oe, 1 965b, 1 962). O ccasionally s acrif icial r emains o f s mall a nimals, h umans, a nd s tingray s pines, p oss ibly u sed i n b lood s acrifice, w ere a lso d eposited i n v otive o fferi ngs. T he C lassic P eriod M aya, s tone m onuments ( Coggins, 1 975,

l ike t he O lmec, 1 :182, 1 88, 2 63,

b uried m utilated 3 81). S telae w ere

r itually i nterred a t T ikal d uring s ome c eremony i n w hich i ncensarios w ere b roken a nd p art o f t he o fferings w as b urned. T ypes,

l ocations,

a nd

c ontests o f M aya b urials w ere e ven m ore

e laborate t han c ontemporary c aches. 1 M ortuary d eposits w ere p laced d irectly i n h oles i n t he g round, i n b uilding f ill, i n u rns, i n c ists, i n t ombs, a nd i n c aves ( Ruz L huillier, 1 965:441). L ocations o f b urials i ncluded r efuse d umps, r esidences, p lazas, p atios, p latforms, p yramid

c ores,

a nd

t emples

( ibid.:443).

L ike C lassic P eriod

c aches,

M aya m ortuary o fferings c ontained p ottery v essels, a nd o rnaments o f j ade, s hell, a nd o ther m aterials. J ade a nd o ccasionally p ottery f igurines a lso o ccurred i n s ome c ases ( Moedano K oer, 1 946; P enderg ast,

1 965:212;

T rik,

1 963;

R uz L huillier,

1 955:100).

I mported

o bsidian o ccurred i n t he f orm o f u seful i mplements ( blades, c ores, p oints) i n b urials, b ut n ot i n e ccentric o r i ncised f orm, p resumably o f s ymbolic i mportance. F lint w as r are i n f unerary d eposits i n g eneral a nd o ccurred o nly i n t he f orm o f b lades i n L ate C lassic P eriod d eposits. S tingray s pines, a r oyal p rerogative, w ere a lso p laced i n t ombs ( Coggins, 1 975, 1 1:383). A nimal r emains ( e.g. b ird, m onkey,

c rocodile,

t urtle)

a nd h uman b one w ere s poradically f ound 2 1

i n

b urials

a s w ell.

A rtifacts

c oeval

v otive o nes,

f ound

i ncluded

i n m ortuary c ontexts,

b ut

n ot

i n

l uxury i tems s uch a s a labaster o r o nyx

v essels a nd r ed p igmentation, a s w ell a s u tilitarian o bjects m etates, s pindle w horls, n eedles, a nd o ther i mplements.

s uch a s

T he C lassic P eriod M aya m ade e laborate v otive a nd f unerary o fferings t hat w ere b asically s imilar i n t ypes a nd l ocations o f C aches a nd b urials w ere p laced d irectly i n t he e arth, i n d eposits. b uilding c hambers.

f ill, i n p ottery r eceptacles, c ists, o r s tone-lined B oth v otive a nd m ortuary d eposits w ere m ade i n a ssociation w ith s tructures ( temples, p alaces, p lazas), h owever o nly c aches w ere d eposited b eneath m onuments s uch a s s telae. C oggins s uggested a c lose s ymbolic r elationship b etween t ombs, t emples, a nd s telae a t T ikal. T ombs w ere o ften c overed o ver b y t emples, w hich w ere t he p rimary l ocations f or t he e rection o f s telae. V otive o fferings p laced i n c onjunction w ith s telae m ay t herefore h ave r esulted f rom r epeated c eremonies t o h onour t he d eceased b uried b eneath t he t emple a t a d ate s ubsequent t o i nterment. F unerary o fferings a re g enerally d edicated t o i ndividuals, w hile c aches a re g enerally c onnected w ith a s tate c ult. d evoted t o

A mong t he M aya, t he s tate c ult w as t he d ynastic c ult, t he v eneration o f M aya r ulers. T his m ay h elp t o e xplain

t he c lose r elationship b etween v otive a nd M aya v otive a nd

f unerary d eposits h ad

f unerary d eposits. s imilar c ontents,

i nclud-

i ng p ottery v essels, s hells, j ade a nd s hell o rnaments, a nd o bsidian b lades o r c ores. I n a ddition, h uman r emains, a nimal b ones, s tingray s pines, a nd m osaic w ork w ere o ccasionally p laced i n b urials a nd c aches. O ther m aterials o ccurred i n s pecifically l imited c ontexts. F lint b lades w ere p rimarily r estricted t o v otive c ontexts u ntil t he L ate C lassic P eriod, w hen t hey w ere s ometimes p laced a round t ombs. E ccentric f lints a nd i ncised a nd e ccentric o bsidians w ere f ound o nly i n c aches a nd n ever i n b urials. R estricted t o m ortuary o fferings, o n t he o ther h and, w ere p ottery f igurines, a labaster v essels, i ncised b ones, r ed p igmentation, a nd u tilitarian i mplements ( metates, s pindle w horls). O axaca M onte

A lbän w as a c eremonial-political c entre w ith

P re-Classic

o rigins t hat w ent t hrough i ts g reatest p eriod o f g rowth d uring t he C lassic P eriod ( c.200-700 A .D., M onte A lbän P hase I II). T his p eriod c oincided w ith T eotihuacan e xpansion i n o ther p arts o f M esoamerica a nd T eotihuacan i nfluence i s e vident a t M onte A lbän i n s telae r eliefs d epicting T eotihuacan-costumed i ndividuals a nd i n t he u se o f a v ariant o f t alud-tablero b uilding a rticulation. T he n ature o f T eotihuacan a nd M onte A lbän i nteraction i s u nclear, m ilitary,

c ommercial,

C aches

a nd

o r i ntellectual

h owever c olonial,

r elations a re o ften p osited.

b uri es o ften d iffered

i n

t ypes,

l ocations,

a nd

c ontents o f d eposits. V otive o fferings w ere p laced i n s tone b oxes o r c ists, w hile f unerary d eposits w ere m ade i n s tone-lined, c ruciform t ombs w ith n iches a nd a d ecorated f acade. M ortuary d eposits w ere o ften l ocated u nder p atio f loors, w hile c aches o ccurred i n a w ider v ariety o f c ontexts s uch a s a t t he c orners o f s tructures, b eneath p latforms, i n t he c entre o f m ounds, o n s tairways, o r w ith s telae. T he b asic c ontents o f c aches a nd b urials w ere s imilar, h owever c ert ain c ommodities h ad a r estricted d istribution. C eramic v essels, 2 2

e ffigy u rns, v essels a nd

j ade o rnaments, s hells, s mall a nimal b ones, a nd o nyx f igurines o ccurred i n b oth m ortuary a nd v otive d eposits.

C rude, g eometric a nd s chematic g reenstone f igurines w ere p laced i n b urials a nd c aches, h owever T eotihuacan s tyle g reenstone f igurines, w ith

r emnants

o f r ed p igmlit a nd p ossibly

w ere r estricted s tone p laques,

r epresenting

h eirlooms,

t o c aches. J oined a labaster f igurines a nd g reend epicting a f rontal f igure o ften w ith a m onster-maw

h eaddress, a lso o ccurred o nly i n v otive c ontexts. 34 F lint a nd o bsidian i mplements ( blades) o ccur o nly i n c aches. A lthough u seful o bjects w ere t ypical i n o ther M esoamerican f unerary c ontexts, u tilitarian a rtifacts w ere r are i n Z apotec t ombs. B urials c ontained p rimarily l uxury a nd p restige i tems. E xotic m aterials, f ound m ainly i n t ombs a nd n ot c aches, i ncluded o rnaments o f o bsidian, r ock c rystal,

a mber,

q uartz,

a nd m ica.

C hiapas C hiapa d e C orzo,

a s ite w ith P re-Classic

o rigins,

c ontinued

i nto

t he C lassic P eriod. T he m ajority o f e xcavated c aches a nd b urials d ate t o t he P re-Classic p hases o f t he s ite, h owever, s everal f all i nto t he s ite's

C lassic P eriod p hase ( c.

2 00-800 A .D.).

3 5

T ypes, l ocations, a nd c ontents o f v otive a nd f unerary o fferings f or t he C lassic P eriod w ere s imple a nd r emained b asically t he s ame a s P re-Classic

d eposits

. w ith

a f ew m inor c hanges.

B oth

c aches

a nd

b urials w ere c ommonly a ssociated w ith s tructures, d eposited d irectly i n b uilding f ill o r i n p ottery v essels. M ortuary d eposits a lso o ccurred i n t ombs, h owever c aches s till r arely h ad f ormal r epositor ies. P ottery v essels, j ade b eads, a nd s mall a nimal b ones o ccurred i n b oth v otive a nd f unerary c ontexts. P ebbles, e ither v olcanic t uff o r w ater s tones, a nd p ottery s herds w ere m ore c ommon i n C hiapan c aches t han i n b urials. M ortuary d eposits c ontained a w ider v ariety o f i mported m aterials, s uch a s s hell o rnaments, j ade a nd s hell m osaic, o bsidian b lades a nd f ragments, a nd o ccasionally p yrite. U tilitarian o bjects d id n ot o ccur i n C lassic P eriod b urials a s f requently a s i n P re-Classic f unerary c ontexts, h owever c arved b one i mplements a nd

s pindle w horls o ccurred o ccasionally.

P OST-CLASSIC P ERIOD B asin o f M exico I n t he e arly P ost-Classic P eriod, T ula w as a n i mportant c entre i n t he B asin o f M exico. T he s ite h ad i ts r oots i n t he L ate C lassic P eriod, c oeval w ith t he r ise o f X ochicalco a nd C holula a nd t he d ecline o f T eotihuacan . I n t he P ost-Classic P eriod f rom c . 9 50 t o 1 150 A .D., T ula w as c onsidered t o b e t he c apital o f t he m ilitaristic, e xpansionistic T oltec e mpire, w ith o utposts a s f ar a way a s i n t he Y ucatän. A l ong-standing p roblem i n t he s tudy o f T ula h as b een t he c ontradictory n ature o f l ater t extual, a rchaeological r ecord. T o t he A ztecs, g reat

T oltec e mpire d uring a " Golden A ge"

h istorical s ources a nd t he T ula w as t he c apital o f a o f c ivilization a ssociated

w ith t he m ythico-historical r uler Q uetzalcoatl. H owever, T oltec a rchaeological r emains a re c rude, p oor, a nd r ough, a nd s uggestions h ave b een m ade t hat T ula m ay a ctually h ave b een a c olony o f a C hichgn I tzä e mpire. M aterial r emains a t T ula r eveal a n e clecticism, t ypical o f

t he L ate C lassic P eriod,

c ombining s outhern M aya t raits, 2 3

s uch a s

t he

e rection

n orthern

o f

s telae a nd

t he c asual

M aya c haracteristics

o rganization

i ncluding

o f

t he c arving o f

s ites,

a nd

c hacmools

t he e xtensive u se o f c olonnades. T he a rchaeological r ecord i s t her c omplicated b y t he d estruction o f m uch o f t he s ite a t t he o f i ts a bandonment a nd b y t he s ubsequent m odifications m ade b y A ztecs, s ite.

w ho

r eturned

D espite

t he

t o

p erform v arious c eremonies

a nd

a nd f urt ime t he

t o h onour

c onsiderable d estruction a nd m odification

t he

o f

tq

s ite, s everal c aches O n t he o ther h and,

f rom t he T oltec P eriod h ave b een f ound i ntact. t here i s l ittle i nformation o n T oltec p eriod

b urials

t he

d ate

a t T ula.

O f

t o A ztec p hases o n L ocations,

r elatively m ents,

t ypes,

s imple.

s uch

a s

b allcourts,

f ew f unerary d eposits t he b asis o f a nd

c eramics.

c ontents

m ounds,

a nd

a ltars,

b uildings,

a nd

t he m ajority

o f T oltec v otive d eposits w ere

O fferings w ere b uried

c hacmools

r eported, 3 /

i n a ssociation w ith

a nd

w ith

s tructures,

v estibules.

M ost

m onus uch a s

d eposits w ere

m ade d irectly i n s tructural f ill, h owever s ometimes c ylindrical s tone r eceptacles w ith r ed l ids w ere u sed i n c aches a ssociated w ith m onum ents. O n t he b asis o f c ontents, t here w ere s everal d ifferent t ypes o f d eposits. M onument-related c aches g enerally c ontained p recious m aterials b eads,

a nd

l uxury i tems

a nd m osaic

f ill w ere o ften c omposed G uatemalan i n

a tlantids

o f

T ula w ere

b urial

o f

C lassic

s tone

s hells,

d irectly

S tone

f ill. f ound

s culpture,

e xample,

s egmented a lso

i s b elieved

i mportd

p olychrome

s culpture w as o ften f ound

F or

a nd

t he f amous

b uried

b uried

m onumental

i n t he

f ill

o f

a

1 945:37-8).

T he

s een a s O lmec S an L orenzo a nd

L ate

t o

1 942:135;

s hell

i n b uilding

T oltec-Mazapan c eramics,

t hrough M ound B ( Acosta,

X ochicalco,

p laced

a nd N icaraguan o r C osta R ican

1 974:16).

s tructural

t rench r unning

D eposits

3 °

e ntirely o f

p lumbate w are,

p ottery ( Healan, d irectly

s ugl a s g reenstone p laques,

f ragments.

h ave o ccurred

a t

t he d estruction

a nd a bandonment o f t he s ite. A lso o f i nterest w as t he d iscovery o f a T eotihuacan-style H uehueteotl b razier n ear E l C orral, a lthough n ot d eposited i n a c ache ( Acosta, 1 974:45). S imilar f ragments h ave b een f ound

i n c onnection w ith c aches

a nd C erro d e

l as M esas

a t X ochicalco

( Stirling,

1 941:292).

( Saenz,

1 962a:69-70),

3 9

M aya A rea M aya c ulture c ontinued t o f lourish i n t he n orthern l owlands i nto e arly P ost-Classic P eriod a fter m ost s outhern M aya s ites w ere

t he

a bandoned

a t

t he

e nd

o f

t he C lassic P eriod.

C hichen I tzä

w as

a n

i mportant c entre f ounded d uring t he C lassic P eriod. I t w as a bandoned c . 1 000 A .D., b ut i t r emained a n i mportant p ilgrimmage c entre u ntil t he

t ime

s outh

t o

o f

C onquest.

p atterns o f t rade i n s ocio-economic p roduction.

T he

s hift

t he n orth w as b elieved

A t

i n s ettlement

t o

l ocation

f rom

f rom a

c hange

h ave r esulted

t he i n

f rom a n o verland r oute t o a s ea r oute. T his c hange p atterns w as a ccompanied b y i nnovations i n a rtistic C hich6n I tzä,

a chievements

i ncluded

t he c arving

o f

c hacmools a nd s erpent c olumns, t he d evelopment o f a m ural p ainting s tyle, a nd t he c onstruction o f g reat c olonnades, c orbelled v aults, a nd

a ltars w ith a tlantid

s upports.

C hi V 15n I tzä c aches v aried d eposit. ° V otive o fferings m ents, s uch a s a ltars a nd

i n

t ype,

w ere b uried c hacmools,

2 4

l ocation,

a nd

c ontents

o f

i n a ssociation w ith m onuo r i n a xially i mportant

l ocations

r elated

t o c eremonial

s tructures,

s uch a s i n t he c entre o f

s tairways, b eneath d oorways, a nd a t c orners o f s tructures. d eposits w ere p laced d irectly i n b uilding f ill, i n s tone-lined d rical

c ists ( like T ula),

a nd

i n r ectangular c ists,

T hese c ylin-

o r i n s tone o r

p ottery v essels. C hichgn c aches c ontained a w ide v ariety o f m ater ials, p articularly i mported o nes. G reenstone o rnaments ( beads, p endants,

p laques) w ere t he m ost r egular c ache c omponent,

c eramic v essels a nd e xclusive c ontexts. f ragments,

f ollowed b y

s hell o rnaments, w hich o ften o ccurred i n m utually O ther i mported l uxury m aterials i ncluded q uartz

a labaster

b eads,

t urquoise,

s hell,

a nd p yrite m osaic.

O ccasionally h uman s kull f ragments a nd a nimal b ones, e specially b ird r emains, w ere p laced i n c aches. F lint a nd o bsidian, f ashioned i nto p oints o r b lades,

w ere v ery r are a nd d id

n ot n ecessarily o ccur

i n t he

s ame c ontext a s b one r emains. O ne d eposit, p laced i n a n iche i n a s tairway a t t he C aracol, c ontained a s tele w ith g lyphs, a c ircular s tone r elief, a nd a f ew o bsidian f ragments ( Marquina, 1 964:892). T his s culptural d eposit r ecalls b uried s culpture a t S an L orenzo, X ochicalco, a nd T ula, a nd m ay h ave b een b uried a t t he r ededication o r a bandonment o f t he b uilding.' 1 O nly d eposited

a f ew b urials h ave b een f ound a t C hichen I tzä. 4 2 B urials i n j ars w ere f ound i n t he C aracol p latform a nd b urials i n

c ists a nd a c ave w ere f ound a t t he G reat P riest's T omb. T he C aracol v essel b urials c ontained c remated r emains, b ut n o o fferings, a nd t hese d eposits m ay a ctually h ave b een v otive o fferings. T he b urials a ssociated w ith t he s o-called " High P riest's G rave" w ere p articularly r ich a nd v aried i n c ontents. S imilar t o C hich6n c aches, b urial o fferings c ontained c eramic v essels o r s herds a nd g reenstone b eads. I mported s hell o rnaments a nd j ade p laques o ccurred f airly r egularly, w hile o bsidian, f lint, a nd a nimal b one w ere v ery r are. M ortuary o fferings a t t he G reat P riest's T omb a lso c ontained a v ariety o f p recious c ommodities n ot f ound i n c aches. L uxury i tems i ncluded c rystal b eads, c opper b ells, p earls a nd a m arble v ase. C opal a nd p ottery i ncensario f ragments w ere f ound i n a f ew c ases w ith e vidence o f b urning o f o ther p ortions o f t he o ffering. O nly o ne d eposit c ontained h ammerstones a nd t his p aucity o f u tilitarian i mplements, w hich

w ere o ften i ncluded

i n m ortuary d eposits o f o ther M esoamerican

c ultures, m ay r eflect t he e lite s tatus o f t his d eposit. P ortions o f " images" a nd " idols" w ere a lso f ound ( E.H. T hompson, 1 938:50 , 5 2), h owever i t i s u nclear w hether t hese w ere f rom s tone o r s tucco s culpt ure a nd

w hether

C hichgn a nd

t hey w ere d eliberately m utilated

I tzä c aches a nd b urials d iffered

c ontents o f d eposits.

i n

b efore i nterment. t ypes,

l ocations,

W hile c aches w ere c ommonly p laced d irectly

i n f ill o r i n s tone o r p ottery v essels, b urials w ere d eposited i n c ists a nd c averns. 43 C aches w ere b uried w ith m onuments o r i n a xial o r c ardinal l ocations a ssociated w ith c eremonial a rchitecture. B urials w ere n ot d eposited w ith t he s ame c oncerns f or a xiality, a lthough t he g eneral s acred c haracter o f t he l ocation ( e.g. n ear c aves) m ay h ave b een i mportant.

C aches a nd b urials o ften

c ontained

l uxury, i mported, a nd s tatus i tems. P ottery v essels a nd g reenstone a nd s hell o rnaments w ere c ommon o fferings. O ther i mported l uxurious m aterials i ncluded a labaster o r m arble, t urquoise, c rystal, p earls, a nd q uartz. F lint a nd o bsidian b lades a nd a nimal b one r emains w ere r are

i n b oth c ontexts.

b oth c ontexts, b ut s tricted t o b urials,

S tone s cultpure m ay a lso h ave

o ccurred

t his r emains u nclear. C opper b ells w ere h owever t his i s p robably a n i ndication o f 2 5

i n r et he

l ater d ate o f t he p articular m ortuary d eposit. C opal a nd s tones, p ossibly m eant t o s ymbolize s ustenance a nd u seful r espectively, w ere r are a nd r estricted t o m ortuary o fferings.

h ammero bjects

O axaca P ost-Classic

O axaca

( Monte A lbän V :

c .

1 000-1520

A .D.)

i s

g enerally a ssociated w ith t he M ixtecs. T he n ame r efers n ot o nly t o a n e thnic g roup ( the M ixtecs), b ut a lso t o a g eographic a rea o f n orthern O axaca ( the M ixteca A lta a nd M ixteca B aja), a nd a n a rtistic s tyle ( often r eferred t o a s t he M ixteca-Puebla s tyle). T he M ixtecs r e-occupied

s ites

s uch a s M onte A lbän f ollowing

t he

d ispersal

o f

Z apotec p opulation i nto s mall s ettlements a fter t he d ecline o f T eotihuacan. I n a ddition t o M onte A lbän, o ther M ixtec c entres i ncluded M itla a nd Y agul, s ites k nown f or e laborate s tone m osaic a rchitectural o rnamentation. D ue t o M ixtec r e-use o f Z apotec s ites, i t i s f requently d iff icult t o d etermine w hether a n o ffering i s Z apotec o r M ixtec. O ften t he p resence o f m etal o bjects, c onsidered a l ate i ntroduction i nto M esoamerica, i s u sed t o i dentify M ixtec d eposits. M any M ixtec d eposits w ere l ooted, a nd e xcavated f unerary a nd v otive o fferings r emain p oorly p ublished. H owever, i t a ppears t hat M ixtec c aches a nd b urials w ere h ighly e labo ute o n t he b asis o f a l avish t omb e xcavated

( no.

7 )

t hose

o f

a t M onte A lbän.

T ypes a nd

l ocations o f M ixtec d eposits w ere s imilar

t o

t he Z apotecs, h owever M ixtec o fferings c ontained a w ider v ariety o f i mported m aterials. M ixtec t ombs, o ften w ith r ectangular p lans a nd n iches, o ccurred i n p atios, w here c aches w ere a lso f ound ( Marquina, 1 964:340, 3 43). C ommon c ontents i n b oth v otive a nd f unerary d eposits w ere p ottery v essels, m osaic, a nd j ade a nd c opper o rnaments. I n a ddition, t ombs c ontained o ther p ersonal o rnaments o f g old, a nd s ilver ( Caso, 1 932; C aso, 1 935:26), s hell, p earl, o bsidian , o nyx, a nimal t ooth, j et a nd a mber ( Caso, 1 932). O bsidian, f ashioned i nto p oints f or b lood d rawing r ituals, a nd s acrificial v ictims w ere p laced i n t ombs, a s w ell a s p ottery e ffigy u rns, m osaic w ork, a nd o nyx v essels. A nimal b ones c arved w ith I ntricate d esigns w ere a lso f ound i n M onte A lbän T omb 7 . /0 L ike Z apotec f unerary o fferings, M ixtec b urial

o fferings

p rimarily c onsisted o f

l uxurious

a nd

p restigious

i tems a s o pposed t o u tilitarian o bjects. H owever, s pindle w horls w ere f ound i n T omb 7 a nd t hese p robably h ad a s ymboiic a s w ell a s a u seful v alue. O f p articular i nterest w ere a j ade f an h andle c arved w ith a s erpent a nd a m osaic-encrusted s kull m ask w ith a k nife s tuck i nto t he n asal c avity. T hese a rtifacts w ere v ery s imilar t o o bjects f ound i n c aches a t T enochtitlan ( Caso, 1 932, c f. M atos, 1 980 :75, 8 2). S UMMARY T he

b urial

o f

v otive

a nd

f unerary

o fferings

a re

i mportant

c eremonial a ctivities t hat h ave b een k nown s ince t he t ime o f t he O lmecs. W hile p articular a spects o f v otive a nd f unerary p ractices a re s pecific t o c ertain c ultures o r p eriods, v arious g eneralizations c an b e m ade r egarding b oth v otive a nd m ortuary d eposits. V otive o fferings o ccur m ore f requently a mong c ultures t hat c onstruct b ig c ivic/ceremonial c entres a nd a ppear t o h ave a s pecific f unction r elated

t o m onumental c onstruction o r m ajor m onuments e rected b y a nd 2 6

f or

a

p olitical g roup.

T hese d eposits

g enerally

c ommemorate

a n

i mpersonal e vent r elated t o n ew c onstructions, p robably a ssociated w ith a p olity's c ult. S uch c elebrations p robably s erved t he n eeds o f t he r uling g roup i n t heir a ttempts t o p reserve t heir p osition w ithin t he e xtant p ower s ystem. O n t he o ther h and, s pecialized t reatment o f t he d ead i s c haracteristic o f a ll c ultures. E laborate t ombs a ppear t o h ave f unctioned o n t he h uman o r i ndividual l evel i n w hich t he i nterred i ndividual i s h onoured. I n c ultures w here m ortuary o f c onstitute t he m ore i mportant c eremonial a ctivity

( e.g.

M aya,

M ixtec), i t a ppears t hat t he s tate c ult w as t he d ynastic c ult i tself, d edicated t o t he v eneration o f r ulers a nd t heir l ineage t ies. T here a re e ssentially t wo t ypes o f d eposits f or b oth v otive a nd f unerary o fferings. T he f irst t ype c onsists o f o bjects b uried i n s pecialized a nd d iscrete r epositories, w hich i nclude p ottery a nd s tone v essels, c ists, a nd t ombs. T he s econd t ype o f d eposit l acks s uch a c ontainer a nd i s p laced d irectly i n t he e arth, i n b uilding f ill, a nd i n i ntrusive p its i n f loors. T he m ost c ommon m eans o f d eposit u sed i n b oth v otive a nd f unerary c ontexts a re d iscrete p ott ery

v essels

o r s tone c ists.

c aches o ccur i n d istinct d irectly i n t he e arth a nd

H owever,

i n s ome c ases b urials

a nd

t ypes o f d eposits. F or e xample, b urial b urial i n t ombs a re c learly a ssociated w ith

f unerary c ontexts. O n t he o ther h and, b urials i n s tone v essels, i n b uilding f ill, a nd i n i ntrusive p its i n f loors, g enerally i n c erem onial s tructures, a re m ore f requently a ssociated w ith c aches. V otive a nd m ortuary d eposits o ccur i n a v ariety o f l ocations i ncluding c eremonial a reas, r esidential a reas, a nd n atural a reas. I n c eremonial c ontexts, d eposits a re p laced i n c eremonial s tructures, s ometimes a lligned w ith t he c entral a xis o f t he e ntire s ite, i n p atios, a nd i n a ssociation w ith m onuments ( such a s s telae, a ltars, a nd c hacmools). D eposits i n r esidential c ontexts a re b uried b eneath h ouses o r i n r efuse d umps, w hile " natural" a reas r efer t o l ocations s uch

a s

c ommon b urials

h illsides a nd

c aves.

C eremonial s tructures a re

l ocations o f b oth v otive a nd m ortuary d eposits. a nd c aches o ften o ccur i n d ifferent l ocations.

t he

m ost

O therwise, O nly c aches

a re b uried n ear m onuments, w hile f unerary d eposits a re m ore f requently a ssociated w ith r esidential s tructures, a nd n atural a reas s uch a s h illsides a nd c aves. T he

c ontents o f v otive a nd m ortuary d eposits a lso r eflect

c er-

t ain

c ontinuities w hen e xamined i n t erms o f m aterials a nd t ypes o f p la ce d i n o f f e r in g 9 . T h r o u g h o u t t h e h i s t o r y o f M e s o a rtifacts o f f e r in g s c o n t a in a c o m b in a t i o n o f e x o t i c , i m p o r t e d a merica, ( such a s g reenstone, s hell, a nd o bsidian) a s w ell a s m aterials g enerally a vailable f rom t he l ocal e nvironment ( pottery, m aterials h uman b one, a nimal b one, a nd s tone). M aterials c ommon t o b oth v otive a nd m ortuary c ontexts a re p ottery, s hell, h uman, a nd a nimal b one, s tone, g reenstone, o bsidian, p yrite, a nd o ther l uxury a nd l apidary s tones.

O n t he o ther h and,

c ommodities s uch a s w orked b one,

s tingray

s pines, a nd r ed p igmentation a re m ore c ommonly a ssociated b urials. F lint, m etal a nd a labaster a ppear a t a r elatively d ate, a nd o ccur o nly r arely i n a ny t ype o f o ffering. O bjects

w ith l ate

p laced i n o fferings r eflect c ertain b asic c oncepts s uch

a s s tatus, s acrifice a nd u tility. I tems o f s tatus i nclude p ersonal o rnaments ( necklaces, e arplugs, b eads, p ectorals, e tc.) o ften m ade o f 2 7

l uxurious m aterials. a nd

a nimal

S acrifice i s

e xpressed

s acrificial v ictims a s w ell

a s

b y t he d eposit o f

b y

i mplements

o f

h uman a uto-

s acrifice s uch a s a wls, s tingray s pines, b lades, a nd o ther p erforat ors. U tility i s r epresented b y i tems o f d aily u se ( manos, m etates, s pindle

w horls,

e tc.)

p recious

m aterials

p robably

a lso

o f

h ave

a s w ell

s ymbolic

c ategory o f " ceremonial" o r f acts o f u nknown f unction, p ottery i ncised

f igurines, b ones,

s ymbolic

a nd

C ommon

s tatus ( ornaments), a nd s ymbolic v alue

c eremonial

a nd

i ncised

p igmentation,

S ome o f

r eplicas m ade o r

m eanings.

o f

r eplicas T his

o bsidians,

l ast

c arved

w hich a re p resumed

t hese a rtifact

v otive a nd m ortuary d eposits, c ontexts.

o r

o r

M iniatures

" symbolic" o bjects i ncludes c ertain a rtis uch a s g reenstone c elts, g reenstone a nd

e ccentric r ed

m eaning.

a s b y m iniatures

s uch u seful o bjects.

t o

a nd

h ave

s ome

t ypes a re c ommon t o

b oth

w hile o ther a rtifacts a ppear i n l imited

t o b oth v otive a nd m ortuary o fferings

a re i tems

o f

s acrifice ( perforators a nd s acrificial v ictims), ( figurines, c elts). U tilitarian o bjects o ccur

m ore f requently i n f unerary c ontexts, w hile s ymbolic o r o bjects ( incised o bsidians, s tone s culptures) a re m ore

c eremonial c ommon i n

v otive c ontexts. M exica o fferings m any

r espects.

t ions,

a nd

t raditional

r eflect

H owever,

c ontinuities w ith P re-Aztec d eposits i n

c ertain i nnovations o ccur

c ontents o f v otive o fferings. p ractices

a ppear

t o

i n

t ypes,

r epresent d eliberate

a ttempts

e laborate o n c ertain c eremonial p ractices. T he n ext s ection d eal p rimarily w ith c ontinuities a nd c hanges i n M exica c aches. t o

t he c onsiderable o verlap a nd

l oca-

M exica m odifications

c onfusion b etween v otive

o f t o w ill D ue

a nd m ortuary

d eposits, M exica c ache a nd b urial p ractices a s r epresented i n t he a rchaeological r ecord a nd i n h istorical t exts w ill a lso b e r eviewed.

2 8

V I.

I NTRODUCTION T O M EXICA B URIED O FFERINGS B efore a ny a ttempt

i t i s b ased.

t o i nterpret M exica c aches c an b e u ndertaken,

n ecessary t o r eview t he s ources o n w hich p resent k nowledge i s D ue t o t he o verlap b etween v otive a nd m ortuary o fferings

e vident i n P re-Mexica d eposits, a b ackground i n b oth c aches a nd b urials i s u seful. M exica v otive c aches a re p rimarily p ublished i n a rchaeological s ources, w hile e thno-historical r eferences a re r are. M exica f unerary d eposits, a lthough e xcavated i n c onsiderable n umbers, a re n ot w ell r epresented i n t he p ublished a rchaeological r ecord. T herefore, 1 6th c entury c hronicles s erve a s a b asis f or t he r econs truction o f M exica m ortuary b eliefs a nd p ractices. I t i s i mportant t o b e a ware o f t he l imitations ' i n t hese s ources, b oth a rchaeological a nd

t extual, P erhaps

i n o rder

t o v iew a nd u se

t hem c ritically.

t he d istinction o r t he i nterrelations b etween

m ortuary

a nd v otive p ractices c an b e m ore c learly d efined t hrough a n e xaminat ion o f t he t wo p rocesses. B oth o f t hese c eremonial a ctivities a re r elevant t o t he d iscussion o f M exica c aches, w hich a ppear t o r epresent t he i ntegration o f e lements f rom b oth a cts. T he f ollowing d iscussion o f s ources u sed i n u nderstanding M exica c aches a nd b urials w ill s erve a s a b ackground f or t he s ubsequent e xamination o f s pecific a spects o f v otive p ractices, n amely t ypes o f i nterment, l ocations o f d eposits, a nd c ontents o f o fferings. T hese t hree e lements w ill b e v iewed p articularly i n h istorical t erms e mphasizing c ontinuities a nd i nnovations w ith P re-Mexica d eposits.

2 9

V II.

S OURCES O N M EXICA C ACHES

P resent k nowledge o f M exica v otive c aches i s p rimarily b ased o n a rchaeological s ources w ith m inor r eferences i n e thno-historical a ccounts. O nly f ragmentary a rchaeological i nformation o n c aches i s p ublished a nd i s s cattered a mong e xcavation r eports, c atalogues, a nd p assing r eferences i n v arious b ooks a nd a rticles. A t t imes t he p ublished m aterials a re u nsystematic a nd n ot s pecific s o t hat i t i s d ifficult t o r econstruct t he l ocation o r c ontents o f a d eposit. T he i mportance o f v otive c aches i s s uggested b y t he r ichness a nd q uantit ies o f c aches b uried n ote

i n T enodhtitlan.

t hat c aches a re r arely m entioned

t hey d epicted

H owever,

i t i s

i nteresting

i n 1 6th c entury t exts n or

t o a re

i n p ictorial m anuscripts.

A rchaeological S ources:

T he E xcavation o f M exica C aches

T he f ollowing d iscussion b riefly s ummarizes t he e xcavation o f M exica c aches. A ttempts a re made t o l ocalize f inds o n M aps 3 t o 5 . H owever,

i n s ome i nstances,

a dequate a rchaeological

i nformation

i s

l acking a nd t he e xact f ind s pot i s u nclear. T he l ocations o f m any o f t he f inds d iscussed i n t his c hapter a re r econstructed o n t he b asis o f d escriptions g iven i n t he r eport c orrelated w ith M ateos H iguera's ( 1979) c atalogue o f d iscoveries m ade i n M exico C ity. I nitially , e xcavations i n T enochtitlan a re d iscussed, f ollowed b y f inds made i n T latelolco a nd o ther s ites. p ublished t o d ate c an b e f ound T he a rchaeological

A c omplete l ist o f i n A ppendix I .

e xcavated

s tratigraphy o f T enochtitlan,

a nd

c aches

t he T emplo

M ayor i n p articular, i s c omplex a nd a t t imes c onfusing. T he M exica n ot o nly e nlarged, b ut a lso c hanged t he o rientation o f t he Templo M ayor. O n t he b asis o f e xcavations t o d ate, t here w ere a t l east s even m ajor r econstructions o f a ll f our s ides o f t he T emplo M ayor, p lus a t l east f our a mplifications o f t he f acade a lone ( Matos, 1 981: 1 9). I n 1 521, t he S paniards l evelled T enochtitlan a nd p roceeded t o b uild d irectly o n t op o f A ztec r emains. I n m ost i nstances t he a ccidental b urial o f o bjects t hat o ccurred d uring t his d estruction c an b e d istinguished f rom t he d eliberate i nterment o f v otive o f m ade b y t he M exica. r eceptacles,

C aches w ere g enerally p laced

s uch a s i n v essels,

r ooms c overed w ith t ezontle

i n s tone b oxes,

i n

d iscrete

o r i n s tone-lined

s labs.

T he e arliest k nown d iscovery o f a c ache w as m ade

i n 1 791

( Le6n y

G ama, 1 832:11-13; H umboldt, 1 979:58-9). T his f ind w as p robably made s outh o f t he C eremonial P recinct, p erhaps n ear t he s outheast c orner o f t he P laza d e l a C onstituci6n ( Map 4 , n ear A rea 3 6). 4 6 , A q uad r angular, s tone-lined c ist, i dentified a s t he " tomb o f a s acred a nimal," w as f ound t o c ontain a f ine p owder, t he b ones o f a n a nimal t entatively i dentified a s a c oyote, a nd s ome w ell-made c lay v essels c ontaining c opper b ells. I n

1 900

T his

L eopoldo B atres

" tomb" w as m ore p robably a c ache. ( 1902;

M ateos 30

H iguera,

1 979:215 - 2 0 ;

C astillo T .

a nd

S olis O .,

1 975:35ff;

S eler,

1 960a:846ff)

d ug f rom

e ast t o w est a long E scalerillas S treet ( now A venida R epüblica d e G uatemala b etween A rgentina a nd B razil). T his a rea m ay h ave i ncluded l ater e pochs o f t he T emplo M ayor a s w ell a s t he a rea i n f ront o f t he t emple, p erhaps e xtending a long t he w est a xis o f t he C eremonial P recinct ( Map 4 , A rea 1 4). B atres d iscovered a w ide v ariety o f c eremonial o bjects, i ncluding s tone s culpture, e laborate c eramics, g reenstone n ecklaces a nd f igurines, f lint k nives, s hells, a nd m any o ther s mall s cale a rtifacts. U nfortunately, h e o ften n eglected t o m ention t he a rchaeological o r a rchitectural c ontext o f h is d iscover ies, a nd t herefore, i t i s u nclear w hether h e u nearthed c aches, a ltar f urnishings, o r e ven c eremonial r efuse. I n s ome i nstances, B atres m entions t hat f inds w ere d iscovered b eneath a s lab o f t ezontle s tone, a t ypical m aterial u sed i n A ztec c onstructions. I t c an p robably b e a ssumed t hat s uch d eposits r epresent d eliberately b uried c aches, a s o pposed t o t he a ccidental i nterment o f o bjects a t t he d estruction o f T enochtitlan. M iscellaneous m onuments f rom 1 897-1902 e xcavations w ere p ubl ished b y P anafiel ( 1910), h owever t he p recise f ind s pot f or i ndiv idual o bjects w as n ot s pecified. O bjects r esembling o ther c ached a rtifacts i ncluded t wo u rns f illed w ith a shes a nd i n t he f orm o f s kulls, s upposedly f rom E scalerillas S treet ( Penafiel, 1 910 :12; S eler, 1 960a:895), a nd s everal t epetlacallis o r s tone b oxes o f u ns pecified

p rovenance ( Penafiel,

1 910 :21-3).

M anuel G amio ( 1979:143; 1 922:206; M ateos H iguera, 1 979:220) e xcavated a t rench i n t he s outhwest b ody o f t he T emplo M ayor c . 1 914 ( Map 4 , A rea 1 6). H e u nearthed a v ariety o f s mall o bjects, s uch a s m iniature w ood s pearthrowers, s hells, p ottery, c lay f igurines, s tone s kulls, c ones a nd s tylized s hell-shaped f inials. P recise a rchaeol ogical c ontext i s l acking a nd i t i s u nclear w hether t hese o bjects, w hich r esemble a rtifacts d iscovered b y B atres, w ere f rom c aches. E duardo N oguera ( 1968:149-50 ; M ateos H iguera, 1 979:231ff) u ne arthed a r ich c ache s outh o f t he C eremonial p recinct i n 1 936 i n a n a rea k nown a s " El V olador" ( Map 4 , A rea 4 0). D eposited i n a s tonel ined c hamber, t his v otive c ache i ncluded a s s tone b ox, v essel, a nd T wo-Horned G od s culpture, s hells, a nd a n e normous q uantity o f p ott ery,

m ostly

u tilitarian A ztec I II a nd

s ome c eremonial A ztec

P oly-

c hrome. I n 1 948, H ugo M oedano K ner a nd E lma E strada B almori ( Estrada B almori, 1 979:183ff; M atos, 1 979:10) e xcavated p art o f t he s outhern f acade o f t he T emplo M ayor a nd d iscovered t wo a dditional c aches ( Map 4 , A rea 1 6). T hese c ontained s uch o bjects a s a s mall T wo-Horned s tone i dol, s hells, a nd s hell o rnaments, f lint k nives, o bsidian p oints,

c opper b ells, g reenstone v essels,

E duardo C ontreras 2 44) w as

( 1979a;

A ngulo,

a nd

s kull m asks.

1 966b;

u nearthed a c ache n ear t he T emplo M ayor c . f ound i n t he s outh s ide o f w hat w as p erhaps

M ateos H iguera,

1 979:

1 966. T his o ffering t he f ourth e poch o f

t he T emplo M ayor ( Map 4 , n ear A rea 1 6). D eposited i n a l arge s tone c ist, t his c ache c ontained a T wo-Horned G od s culpture, m asks, f igurines, o rnaments, i nsignia, m iniature r eplicas, b ells, s kulls, f lint k nives, a nd a nimal b ones. 3 1

s hells,

c opper

D iscoveries

i nside a nd

o utside t he C eremonial P recinct w ere m ade

i n t he l ate 1 960 s w hile t unneling f or t he P ino S uärez s ubway s ystem ( Gussinyer, 1 968; 1 969; 1 970a; 1 970b ; 1 972; M ateos H iguera, 1 979:2414 ). K nown a s t he " Metro" e xcavations, s tructures, s culptures, a nd s mall-scale a rtifacts w ere f ound d ispersed a long t he s ubway r oute, u nder C alle d e T acuba, A venida J osé M aria P ino S uärez, a nd A venida J ose M aria I zazaga ( Map 3 a nd 4 ). W ithin t he C eremonial P recinct, c aches w ere f ound a long t he w est a xis o f t he p recinct, w hile o ther b uried o fferings w ere f ound, o ften i n a ssociation w ith s mall a dorator ies, a long A venida d e I zazaga t o t he s outh o f t he C eremonial P rec inct. C aches w ithin t he C eremonial P recinct c ontained a rtifacts s uch a s f lint k nives, s kulls, p ottery, b ird b ones, a nd g reenstone, s hell a nd

c opper o rnaments.

M etro c aches

f rom o utside

P recinct c ontained s tone s culpture, f lint k nives, o rnaments, b ird b ones, a s w ell a s m aguey t horns. T he 1 978 d iscovery o f

t he C eremonial

p ottery,

t he m onumental C oyolxauhqui

s hells,

r elief s parked

i nterest i n t he T emplo M aj or a nd t he P royecto T emplo M ayor w as s tarted. A l arge a rea e ast o f A venida R epüblica d e A rgentina, b ehind t he C atedral M etropolitana, w as s ectioned o ff f or i ntensive e xcavat ions ( Maps 4 a nd 5 ). D uring t he p ast f our y ears m ore t han 8 0 c aches h ave b een u nearthed i n t he b ody o f t he T emplo M ayor a lone ( Blanco P adilla, 1 978; C abrera C astro, 1 979; C ontreras, 1 979b ; G arcia C ook a nd A rana A ., 1 978; G arcia C ook, 1 978; M atos, 1 978, 1 979a, 1 979b, 1 980 , 1 981, 1 982c; Hist6ricas: 4 6; P aris, 1 981). B uried o fferings s panning t he e ntire h istory o f t he T emplo M ayor h ave b een f ound i n s taircases, i n t he b ack o f t he p yramid, a s w ell a s b eneath t he s urm ounting t win t emples a t t he t op o f t he s tairs. T hese d eposits, a lthough n ot f ully p ublished, a re r emarkable f or t he r ichness a nd d iversity o f t heir c ontents. N umerous s tone s culptures ( including m any r epresentations o f t he T wo-Horned G od), g reenstone n ecklaces a nd f igurines, f lint k nives, s hells a nd o ther m arine m aterials, l apidary m asks a nd m iniatures, s kulls, a nd m etal b ells w ere a mong t he m any a rticles

f ound

i n t hese c aches.

S everal c aches h ave a lso b een d iscovered a t T latelolco. A s mall i sland-city i n L ake T excoco, T latelolco w as j oined t o t he n orth o f T enochtitlan. T latelolco h ad i ts o wn c eremonial p recinct a nd t win t emple p yramid a nd w as p articularly f amous f or i ts e normous c entral m arketplace. T wo l arge u rns w ith f ertility g oddess e ffigies, s upp osedly f rom T latelolco, w ere p ublished b y Pe lafiel ( 1910 :12-13, p ls. 3 0-1),

h owever

t heir a rchaeological c ontext w as n ot

s pecified.

O ne

w as r eportedly f ound f ull o f s kulls a nd o ther o bjects ( ibid.:13). T hese u rns b ear a s triking r esemblance t o t he e ffigy u rns w ith a n u nidentified

d eity

f ound

i n many T emplo M ayor c aches

A ntonieta E spejo ( 1944; 1 945) 1 944-5 i n t he b alustrades a nd

( Plate

1 0c).

e xcavated f ive b uried o fferings i n t he b ack o f t he m ain t emple

i n a t

T latelolco. S he u nearthed c onsiderable a mounts o f o bsidian k nives, a s w ell a s b ird b ones, m aguey t horns, c opal, a long w ith a f ew h uman r emains,

g reenstone o rnaments,

a nd

f lint k nives.

A b urned

o ffering

c ontaining b ird b ones, m aguey t horns, f lint k nives, a nd v arious o ther w eapons, w as d iscovered i n t he r eurbanization p roject o f N onoalcoT latelolco i n 1 962 b y J orge A ngulo ( 1966a), h owever t he p recise l ocation o f T ula, a nd

t his e xcavation i s u nclear ( Plate 1 1c). n orthwest o f T enochtitlan ,

r eligious

s ignificance t o

w as a s ite o f g reat h istorical

t he M exica. 3 2

I t w as a lso

t he

l ocation

o f

M exica c eremonial

a ctivities,

i ncluding

t he b urial

o f o fferings.

D ated o n t he b asis o f a ssociated a rchitectural c onstructions a nd A ztec I II c eramics, s everal M exica c aches w ere f ound b uried i n t he b alustrades a nd s tairway o f B uilding C a nd o ne w as f ound i n B uilding 3 , R oom 2 ( Acosta, 1 954, 1 955). T hese d eposits g enerally c ontained f lint k nives, g reenstone n ecklaces o r b eads, a nd o ccasionally c eram ics. 4 7 S everal T oltec a nd A ztec b raziers w ith a pplique T laloc f aces, s ometimes c ombined w ith m aize d eity a ttributes ( Plate 8 c a nd 1 0a), w ere a lso f ound ( Acosta, 1 954:108-110). T hese b raziers a re n oteworthy b ecause t hey a re s imilar t o M exica T laloc b raziers e xcav ated

i n T enochtitlan ( cf.

P late 1 0b).

V arious A ztec p eriod c aches h ave a lso b een f ound a t C hapultepec, T excoco, T izapan , C empoala, a nd C alixtlahuaca ( Map 2 ). F ound i n c onjunction w ith s tucco-covered s tone c anals a nd r ain g od a nd g oddess s culptures,

t he

c ache a t

C hapultepec,

a t own l ocated o n

t he

l ake

s hore w est o f T enochtitlan, c ontained a n i ncense l adle a nd r emnants o f a t ripod b razier c ontaining g reenstone b eads ( Cabrera, e t. a l., 1 975). A nother c ache w as f ound n ear t he s hores o f L ake T excoco, e ast o f T enochtitlan ( Mateos H iguera, 1 934). T his c ontained a t erracotta w ater g oddess f igurine, a l arge q uantity o f A ztec c eramics ( both f ragments a nd c omplete p ieces), f ragments o f m usical i nstruments, a nd g reenstone b eads. A nother c ache c ontaining a h ybrid w ater/maize g oddess, h owever i n t his i nstance m ade o f g reenstone, w as f ound p laced i n a s tone b ox a t T izapan, t o t he s outhwest o f T enochtitlan. 48 T he b ox i s o f p articular i nterest b ecause i t i s p ainted w ith f our T lalocs o n t he i nner l id a nd a c halchiuitl ( greenstone j ewel) s prouting m aize o n t he i nterior o f t he b ottom h alf ( Plates 2 b a nd 2 c). C onsiderably f urther e ast, a t t he c onquered s ite o f C empoala i n V eracruz, a c ache m ade u p e ntirely o f p ottery o bjects w as f ound i n a s mall a ltar n ear t he m ain p yramid ( Garcia P ay6n, 1 955). T his o fferi ng i ncluded t wo e ffigy b raziers, i dentified a s Q uetzalcoatl a nd X ochipilli, t ripod v essels, aQ uetzalcoatl e ffigy, a nd f ragments o f a n

o celotl h ead.

Q uetzalcoatl,

i n h is E hecatl

f orm,

w as a lso t he

f ocus o f a p ossible c ache a t C alixtlahuaca, a s ite t o t he w est o f t he B asin o f M exico. A l ife-sized s culpture o f a m an w earing s andals, a l oincloth, a nd a b uccal m ask, w as f ound b uried t his s ite ( Plate 3 8b; M arquina, 1 964:225). E thno-historical S ources:

i n t he r ound

t emple a t

S ixteenth C entury C hroniclers o n M exica

C aches

F ray

S ixteenth c entury d ocuments, c ompiled b y m issionaries s uch a s D iego D urän a nd T oribio d e M otolinia, d escribe m any M exica

c eremonies

a nd

r itual p ractices.

M exica

o fferings

d eposited

b owls, p laced o n a ltars, a nd t hrown i nto f ires a re m entioned q uently, h owever r eferences t o b uried o fferings a re r are a nd t ered.

B roda

c ollection o f

( 1971)

a nd M atos

( 1981a) h ave b egun

t he

i n

f res cat-

s ystematic

t hese r eferences.

S ources t hat r efer s pecifically t o o bjects b uried i n t he T emplo M ayor a re r are. D urän ( 1967, 1 1:228, c ited i n M atos, 1 981a :190-1) d escribes g reat q uantities o f p recious s tones a nd j ewels t hat w ere t hrown i nto t he f ill o f t he T emplo M ayor w hile u nder c onstruction d uring t he r eign o f M otecuhzoma I . a ll t owns t o b ring p recious s tones, b uried

i n t he c onstruction t o

M otecuhzoma o rdered t he l ords o f p articularly g reenstones, t o b e

s how h onour a nd 3 3

r everence t o h is

g od.

A ccording M ayor

t o M atos,

( Matos, S ome

t his w ould

c orrespond w ith E poch I V o f

t he T emplo

1 981).

c aches

m ay

b e

r elated

t o

a nnual

c alendrical

f estivals.

D uring t he U ey t ozortli c ycle, d edicated t o c orn d eities C hicomecoatl a nd C inteotl, s ome s ources d escribe a f estival t o T laloc, t he r ain g od ( Broda, 1 971:277ff). R ich o fferings w ere b rought t o T laloc b y m embers o f t he h ighest e lite, i ncluding M otecuhzoma I I, N ezahualpilli ( king o f T excoco), a nd k ings o f T lacopan a nd X ochimilco. A fter p riests s acrificed a c hild i n t he p atio o f t he T laloc t emple a t C erro T lalocan, M otecuhzoma e ntered t he s anctuary w ith r ich v estments t o d ress t he i dol a nd t he s maller m ountain g od a ttendant i dols. T he k ings o f t he a llied t erritories p erformed t he s ame c eremony a nd e ach k ing o ffered f ood a nd p recious g ifts t o t he i dol. F inally, t he p riests s prinkled t he i dol, v estments, f ood, a nd o ther o fferings w ith t he b lood o f t he s acrificed c hild. A t t he e nd o f t he f estival, 1 00 s oldiers h ad t o g uard t he r ich o fferings a t t he T laloc s anctuary b ecause H uexotzinco a nd T laxcala, e nemies o f t he M exica, a lways t ried t o r ob t hese r iches. O fferings, o ther t han t he p erishables o f f ood a nd f eathers, w ere b uried a t t he t emple, w hich w as c losed u p u ntil t he f ollowing y ear ( Durän, 1 967, I , c hapter 8 , c ited i n B roda, 1 971:277-79). A ccording

t o a n a ccount b y M otolinia ( Part

1 ,

c hapter 1 8,

c ited

i n B roda, 1 971:292), T laloc a nd C halchihuitlicue i mpersonators w ere s acrificed d uring t he c ycle o f E tzalcualiztli, a c eremony d edicated p rimarily

t o

r ain d eities.

T hese v ictims w ere n ot

e aten,

t heir r emains w ere p ut i n a c ave - o r s ilo - l ike p it, e xact l ocation o f t his d eposit i s n ot s pecified. I n

r ather

h owever

t he

d uring

t he

a p articular c eremony f or t he s carcity o f m aize

c ycle o f T epeilhuitl, a c eremony d edicted t o m ountain g ods, t wo y oung v irgins w ere s acrificed. T heir b odies w ere d eposited i n u nderg round c hamber a t a n a doratory d edicated t o t he t laloques. A ppare ntly t he b urial o f c orpses i n t he u nderground c hamber o f t his a dorat ory w as 1 971:307).

a

t ypical c ustom a ssociated w ith

t he

t laloques

( Broda,

M otolinfa d escribes a n a nnual s acrifice o f c hildren b y d ecapitaT he v ictims w ere s upposedly o ffspring o f

t ion t o h onour T laloc. 50 l ords a nd n ot o f s laves.

T he r emains o f

t hese v ictims w ere w rapped

i n m antles, a nd p ut i n a s tone b ox ( Motolinfa, P art 1 , c hapter 2 0 , c ited i n B roda, 1 971:275). P cmar g ives a s imilar d escription , b ut s ays t hat t he d ecapitated r emains w ere t hrown i nto a v ery d ark a nd d eep c avern t hat w as i n s ome r ocks n ext t o t he i dol ( Pomar, p aragraph 7 4,

c ited

i n B roda,

O ther

1 971:275).

d eposits d o n ot a ppear t o b e r elated

t o p articular a nnual

c eremonial c ycles. O fferings o f s acred a nd p owerful o bjects w ere b uried a t T ula. F or e xample, M otecuhzoma I I o rdered p riests t o b ury C ortes' ( Durän,

g ift o f f ood a t t he Q uetzalcoatl t emple a t t his a ncient s ite 1 967, 1 1:267; T ezozomoc, 1 980 :691). C onsidered a g ift f rom

Q uetzalcoatl w rapped

h imself,

i n r ich m antles,

t his

f ood w as p laced

i ncensed,

i n a s pecial

g iven b ird

s acrifices,

s tone

b ox,

a nd b uried

a midst g reat c eremony. I t

a ppears

t hat

t he A ztecs a lso b uried v aluables 3 4

t o p rotect

t hem

f rom

t he S panish.

F or e xample,

i n a r egion s outh o f

P opocatepetl

t here w as a m ountain ( Cerro T eocuicano) v enerated b y t he l ocal i nh abitants. T his m ountain h ad a n a doratory d edicted t o t he t laloques t hat

h oused

T his

a g reenstone

i dol

i dol w as v ery p recious

o f

t he

s ize o f

a n e ight-year o ld

a nd w as o ften i n d anger o f

b eing

c hild. s tolen

b y e nemy c ities o f t he M exica. A t t he a rrival o f t he S paniards, t he l ocal i nhabitants b uried t he s tatue i n t he m ountain, p erhaps t o h ide i t

o r

t o

c ited

p rotect

i n B roda, T he

c aches

i t

q uantities s uggest

f rom t he S paniards

( Durän,

1 967,

I ,

c hapter 1 8,

1 971:306).

t hat

a nd

r ichness o f

t hese w ere

a rtifacts

f rom

i mportant d eposits,

T emplo

M ayor

o ften p laced

b y

m embers o f t he h ighest e lite. T extual s ources s upport t his a ssumpt ion t o a c ertain d egree. S ome d eposits m ay r elate t o t he d emands o f r ulers a ppear a nd

d uring t o

r esult

i mmediate

s ignified r epresent

t he

e nlargement o f

f rom s pecific c eremonial

t he T emplo

a nnual

n eeds.

M ayor,

f estivals, T he b urial

o r o f

o bjects

m ore t han " sacrifice" a nd " offering." S ome a ttempts t o p rotect o r h ide p recious o bjects.

3 5

w hile

f rom

o thers

p articular m ay

d eposits

h ave m ay

V III.

S OURCES O N M EXICA F UNERARY B URIALS

I n a rchaeology, i t i s o ften d ifficult t o d istinguish b etween a b urial a nd a v otive c ache. A n e xamination o f b urial p ractices a longs ide v otive c ustoms m ay c larify a d istinction b etween t he t wo t ypes o f d eposits o r m ay e stablish o r s uggest a r elationship b etween t he t wo. S cattered i nformation o n M exica f unerary p ractices c an b e f ound i n

a rchaeological

a nd

e thno-historical

s ources.

A lthough c onsider-

a ble n umbers o f A ztec b urials h ave b een e xcavated ( particularly i n T latelolco), v ery f ew o f t he e xcavations h ave b een p ublished. T extu al s ources, s uch a s C olonial P eriod p ictorial m anuscripts a nd t he w orks o f 1 6th c entury c hroniclers s uch a s S ahagün, D urän, a nd T ezozom oc, a re m uch m ore i nformative o n t he m ortuary p ractices o f b oth t he e lite a nd eommoners. A rchaeological S ources: P ublished

T he E xcavation o f M exica a nd A ztec B urials

r eports o n t he e xcavation o f A ztec p eriod b urials a re

r are a nd s cattered. A f ew r eferences c an b e f ound o n T enochtitlan, T latelolco, T enayuca, a nd T ula, h owever o nly f ragmentary i nformation i s p rovided.

A t

t imes i t i s u nclear w hether t he " burial"

i s i ndeed a

f unerary d eposit o r w hether i t i s a v otive c ache. S everal

b urials h ave b een f ound

i n t he T emplo M ayor a nd o utside

t he C eremonial P recinct i n T enochtitlan . I n t he r ecent T emplo M ayor e xcavations, a t l east t hree b urials w ere e xcavated i n t he T emplo M ayor i tself.

D eposit n o.

3 4,

f ound b eneath t he e arliest H uitzilo-

p ochtli t emple, i ncluded a p olished o bsidian f unerary v essel c arved w ith a s kull, a w hite s tone v essel w ith a f ull-figure T laloc e ffigy, a nd 3 4;

o rnaments s uch a s a g gld b ell a nd a s ilver m askette ( Map 5 , n o. M atos, 1 980 , 1 982). T wo o ther f unerary u rns w ere f ound n ear

t he C oyolxauhqui o val

r elief i n D eposits n o.

1 0 a nd n o.

1 4 ( Map

5 ,

n o. 1 0 , n o. 1 4; M atos, 1 980). T hese p ottery u rns w ere f inely c arved w ith d epictions o f T ezcatlipoca a nd X iuhtecuhtli. A lso f ound i n D eposit n o. 1 4 w as a n ecklace o f o bsidian d ucks. D uring t he M etro e xcavations,

f ive b urials w ere f ound

o utside t he C eremonial P recinct

a long C alle d e T acuba ( Map 3 a nd 4 ). T wo o f t hese b urials w ere s urrounded b y o fferatory v essels a nd s tone a nd c lay f igurines. T he o ther t hree b urials c ontained t extile f ragments a nd s erpentine-shaped p ieces o f w ood, r eminiscent o f T laloc's l ightning b olt H iguera, 1 979:241).

m any

s taff ( Mateos

D uring t he r emodelling o f t he N onoalco-Tlatelolco u rban z one, b urials w ere f ound b eneath w hat w ould h ave b een t he c eremonial

c entre o f T latelolco ( Matos, 1 975:96; C astillo T ., a nd S olis O ., 1 975:52). P resumably m ost o f t hese d eposits w ere p laced d irectly i n t he e arth, b ecause n o m ention i s m ade o f c ists, t ombs, o r b oxes. I t i s a lso u nclear w hether t hese d eposits w ere f ound i n r elations t o a ny a rchitectural s tructure. B urials o f i ndividuals w ere g enerally a ccompanied b y o fferings. v essels a nd o ccasionally

C ommon o fferings c onsisted o f p ottery o bjects t hat i ndicated t he s ex a nd 3 6

o ccupation o f t he i ndividual. F or e xample, w ood i mplements u sed i n w eaving a nd t extile r emains w ere f ound i n o ne b urial ( Matos, 1 975:97). O ne d eposit w ith c remated h uman r emains c ontained t hree c eremonially b roken X ipe f igurines, a nd A ztec I II s herds ( Flores G arcia, c hild w as g reenstone

f lint p oints, o bsidian b lades, 1 970 :43). I n a nother b urial, a

p laced i n a c lay u rn a long w ith a n a dult b ead, a t erracotta Q uetzalcoatl f igurine,

a wls a nd a m aguey t horn f or a uto-sacrifice 1 975: 5 2-3). B urials

i n c ylindrical

h and a nd

( Castillo T .

b one, a o bsidian

a nd S olis O .,

s epulchres a nd c lay u rns w ere

f ound

a t

t he m ain t emple a t T enayuca a t t he f oot o f t he p latform o f t he l ast e poch ( Noguera, 1 935a:163ff). B oth b urials a nd c remated r emains w ere f ound. B urial 1 w as e xtraordinarily r ich i n c ontents w ith a v ariety o f s hell, o bsidian, g old, c opper, g reenstone, a nd o ther s tone o rnam ents; o bsidian d arts a nd b lades; f lint p erforators ( leaf p oints); c oarse t extile r emains; a nd a s mall, f inely p olished p otsherd. A lso f ound w as a s tone s phere ( 6cm i n d iameter) s et o n a b ase, r eminiscent o f l arger s tone s pheres e xcavated b y B atres. T he o ther b urials g enerally c ontained o bsidian p oints a nd b lades, p ottery, s herds, a nimal b ones, a nd o ccasionally f lint p oints o r s pindle w horls. B urials d ated b een

f ound

t o t he A ztec h orizon o n t he b asis o f c eramics h ave

a t T ula.

H owever,

i t i s u nclear w hether t hese

b urials

w ere m ade b y A ztec i nhabitants a lready i n t he a rea o r w hether t hey w ere m ade s pecifically b y t he M exica. I n t he m ain c eremonial a rea, A ztec p eriod b urials w ere f ound n ear B uilding 4 a nd f urther n orth i n B uilding 1 o f E l C orral ( Acosta, 1 963:66-68, 7 1; 1 974:50). V ery s imple i n c ontents, t hese b urials s ometimes i ncluded c lay v essels o r, v ery r arely, a n o bsidian o r s hell f ragment. A P ost-Toltec, s tonel ined, r ectangular M exica t omb w as a lso f ound i n B uilding 3 , R oom 2 . A ztec I II c eramics s uggest t hat t his w as p robably a M exica d eposit, u nfortunately t he t omb h ad b een s acked i n p re-Hispanic t imes ( Acosta, 1 963:53). E thno-historical S ources:

S ixteenth C entury C hroniclers o n M exica

F unerary P ractices S ixteenth c entury p ictorial a nd t extual s ources p rovide c ons iderable i nformation o n t he f unerary p ractices o f d ifferent l evels o f A ztec s ociety.

C olonial p eriod p ictorial d ocuments e xecuted

i n a

n ative s tyle, s uch a s t he C odex M agliabechiano a nd i ts d erivative t he C odex I xtlilxochitl, d epict b urial c eremonies o f b oth c ommoners a nd l ords.

M issionaries,

s uch a s B ernardino d e S ahagün ,

D iego D urän,

a nd

T oribio d e M otolinia, a lso c ollected i nformation o n b urial c ustoms o f d ifferent m embers o f A ztec s ociety. O ther m issionary s ources, s uch a s B artolome d e L as C asas, G er f timo d e M endieta, a nd F rancisco J avier C lavigero,

a lso

d escribe

A ztec m ortuary p ractices,

h owever

t hese

a ccounts a re l argely d erivative a nd a re b ased o n S ahagün, M otolinia a nd o ther e arlier s ources. M estizo d escendants o f A ztec n obles, s uch a s D on H ernando d e A lvarado T ezozomoc ( on T enochtitlan), d e A lva I xtlilxochitl ( on T excoco), a nd D iego M uüoz T laxcala), a lso r ecorded g eneral f unerary p ractices

D on F ernando C amargo ( on a s w ell a s

a ccounts o f s pecific h istorical c eremonies. T he f ollowing s urvey o f t he l iterature o n A ztec m ortuary p ractices w ill d iscuss t wo a reas: M exica

f unerary c eremonies

i n g eneral a nd h istorical a ccounts o f t he

f unerary c eremonies o f M exica r ulers. 3 7

I n

t he

M exica c onception o f v arious

a fterlifes,

t he

w ay

a n

i ndividual d ied d etermined t he f inal r esting p lace o f t he s oul a s w ell a s t he c eremonial t reatment o f t he d eceased's b ody. T he M exica b elieved i n t he e xistence o f a t l east f ive a fterworlds: M ictlan ( "Place o f t he D ead"); ( "Place o f T laloc");

T onatiuh i chan ( "Home o f t he S un"); T lalocan C ihuatlampa ( "Place o f 5 0-l e W omen"); a nd z . T onacatecuhtli i chan ( "Home o f T onacatecuhtli"). M ost h uman r em ains w ere i nitially c remated a nd t hen b uried, s uch a s t hose d estined f or M ictlan o r T onatiuh i chan. H owever, u nder s pecial c ircumstances, h uman r emains w ere b uried d irectly i n t he e arth. T hese b uried r em ains w ere d estined f or T onacatecuhtli i chan. M ictlan,

" Place o f

f or t he s oul o f w omen, c hiefs,

t he h eavens

o f

t he D ead," w as

T lalocan,

t he m ost

C ihuatlampa,

o r

c ommon r esting p lace

a ny m ember o f M exica s ociety. P easants, w arriors, p rinces - a nyone w ho d ied o f m ost s icknesses, o ld

a ge, o r o ther " natural" c auses, w ent t o M ictlan . n orth, M ictlan w as c onceived o f a s a d ark, w indy,

A ssociated w ith t he c old r ealm, a p lace

o f d escent a nd t ermination, w ithout o penings o r o utlets ( Sahagün, 1 952:39). F unerary c eremonies t o h onour t he d ead c onsisted o f t wo b asic p arts: t he a ctivities l eading u p t o t he c remation o f t he b ody a nd t he i nterment o f t he a shes a nd o ther o fferings. T hese t wo c omp onents w ere s tandard a spects o f t he c eremony a nd v ariations r eflect t he s ocial s tatus o f t he d eceased, o ften e vident i n t he f orm o f r icher o r p oorer o fferings. T o p repare a b ody f or c remation,

t he c orpse w as w rapped

i n p aper

o r c loth, d epending o n t he s tatus o f t he d eceased ( Sahagün, 1 952:394 3; C . M agliabechiano: 6 6r-72r; C . I xtlilxochitl: 1 04r-104v). W ater w as o ffered t o t he d eceased i n a b owl, w hich w as a lso p laced i nside t he m ummy b undle ( Sahagün , 1 952:40). A s a s ymbol o f t he h eart, a g reenstone w as p laced i n t he m outh o f a c hief o r p rince, w hile a c ommon g reenish s tone o r a p iece o f f lint w as p laced i n t hat o f a c ommoner ( ibid.:45). H air f rom t he c rown o f t he h ead w as s omet imes k ept

a s a m emory o f

t he d eceased

a nd w as d eposited

i n a p ainted

b ox ( Motolinia, 1 903:244). A n i mage o f a s mall y ellow d og w as h ung a round t he n eck o f t he b undle t o s ymbolically s erve a s a g uide i n t he a fterlife E ach f itting

( Sahagün,

1 952:41).

m ummy b undle w as a rrayed w ith a dornments a nd f or

t he

s ocial

r ole o f

t he d eceased

b urned d uring t he c remation c eremonies. t heir i nsignia, s hields, w eapons, c apes,

a nd

t hese

a ccoutrements w ere

t o

b e

W arriors w ere b urned w ith a nd w ar s poils. W omen w ere

b urned w ith c ombs, c ane s talks, w aistbands, s keins, s huttles, a nd o ther w eaving i mplements. M erchants w ere b uried w ith t heir w ealth , s uch a s j aguar p elts, p lumes, a nd o ther r iches ( C. M agliabechiano: 6 8r),

w hile c ommoners w ere b uried w ith f ood,

a nd,

i f a vailable,

w ith

p aper o fferings ( ibid.:69r). I n a ll c ases, t he p urpose o f t hese o fferings w as t wo-fold. T he d eceased w as t o o ffer a ll t he a ccoutrem ents w hich h ad t he D ead. d eceased

a dorned h im o n e arth t o M ictlantecuhtli,

F urthermore, w arm a nd t o

o bsidian-bladed w inds o f

t he L ord o f

a ll o f t hese o bjects w ere b urned t o k eep t he p rotect h im f rom t he f rigid a nd v iolent t he N orth a nd M ictlan ( Sahagün,

1 952:41).

A fter a p eriod o f t ime, t he m ummy b undle a nd a ccoutrements w ere b urned. T he a shes a nd a ny o ther r emains ( e.g. g reenstone, o bsidian) w ere c ollected a nd p laced i n a s mall j ar f or c ommoners ( ibid.:43), o r 3 8

.

a b ox,

p resumably f or e lite ( Motolinfa,

1 903:245).

I n t he c ase o f

l ords, a n i mage o f t he d eceased w as p laced o n t op o f t he b ox a nd t his s erved a s t he f ocus f or a dditional c eremonies ( ibid.:245). A p it, a lso c alled a c ave, w as d ug i n t he g round i n t he d ead o ne's h ome o r i n t he t ribal t emple, d epending o n t he s tatus o f t he d eceased, a nd t he v essel w as i nterred ( Sahagün , 1 952:42-3). I n t he c ase o f i mport ant e lite, s laves w ere s acrificed a fter t he c remation w as c ompleted a nd t hese s laves w ere b uried s eparately ( ibid.:43). P ost-mortuary c eremonies c ontinued a t r egular i ntervals a t w hich t ime s acrifices a nd o fferings w ere a gain made. T hese o fferings i ncluded s laves, s mall a nimals, i ncense, f ood, f lowers, o r t obacco ( ibid.:43).

w ho

T onatiuh i chan , H ome o f t he S un, w as t he d estination f or t hose m etaphorically o r l iterally d ied o n t he b attlefield. W arriors

w ho d ied

i n b attle,

s acrificial v ictims,

a nd s py,merchants w ho d ied JJ

o n m issions a broad w ent t o t he " Home o f t he S un. C onceived o f a s a p lace o f w ealth, j oy, f lowers, a nd p reciousness, t he H ome o f t he “

S un w as f ields),

d escribed a s a p lain ( a p lace o ften e quated w ith b attlew here t horny t hings l ike m agueys a nd m esquites, s ymbols o f

t hose s lain i n w ar, g rew ( Sahagün, 1 952:47). D eath o n t he b attlef ield w as c onsidered a g reat h onour, a s e xemplified b y s uch d escript ions a s, " Perhaps t hou w ilt r eceive t he g ift, p erhaps t hou w ilt m erit d eath b y t he o bsidian k nife, t he f lowered d eath b y t he o bsidian k nife" ( Sahagün, 1 969:172, F N 4 ). A fter d eath, w arriors, v ictims, a nd m erchants b ecame k nown a s e agle-ocelot w arriors, w ho h elped t he s un i n h is d aily a scent f rom d awn t o m id-day ( ibid.:163). A fter f our y ears, t hey w ere t ransformed i nto v arious b irds o f p recious f eathers, f ree t o s uck t he h oney o f d ifferent f lowers ( Sahagün, 1 952:47-8). I f a s py m erchant o r w arrior d ied a way f rom h ome, t he r elatives m ade a n e ffi g i mage o f p ine b ranches t o b e c remated ( Sahagün, 1 957a:697 0). T his w ood e ffigy w as a dorned w ith a ll t he p aper o rnaments a ppropriate f or a m ummy b undle a nd a t m idnight, t he b undle w as b urned i n t he c ourtyard o f t he l ocal t emple. A ccounts d iffer f or m erchants w ho d ied o f n atural c auses a t h ome. I n s ome a ccounts i t a ppears t hat t he m erchant w as g iven t he s ame t reatment a s c ommoners, l ords, a nd w omen d estined f or M ictlan ( C. M agliabechiano: 6 8r). I n o ther a ccounts, ( Sahagün,

t he b ody o f t he d ead m erchant w as n either b urned n or b uried 1 969:25). T he c orpse w as a dorned a nd b ound t o a c arrying

f rame. T he d eceased w as c arried t o a m ountain t op, w here t he b ody w as l eft t o b e c onsumed. M eanwhile, a s tatue w as p repared a nd w as b urned i n t he m erchant's h ouse a t 1 957a:70). W omen

w ho d ied

s ome t ime b efore s unset

i n c hildbirth w ent

t o a h eaven k nown a s

( Sahagün,

C ihuat-

l ampa ( Sahagün, 1 969:161). L ocated i n t he W est, C ihuatlampa w as a c old p lace, i nhabited o nly b y w omen a nd a ssociated w ith w inds a nd t he s etting

s un ( Sahagün,

1 953:14,

2 1).

I f a w omen d ied

i n c hildbirth ,

s he w as c onceived o f a s a w arrior d efeated i n t he b attle o f c hildb irth a nd s he b ecame k nown a s am ocihuaquetzqui. 5 . 5 I n M exica c osm ology, t hese d eified w omen a ccompanied t he s un a fter t he e agleo celot w arriors i nto t he w est.

i n t he s un's d aily " battle" f rom n oon t o i ts d escent A fter t he d eceased w oman w as b athed a nd d ressed i n

n ew g arments, h er h usband c arried h er t o t he T emple o f t he C ihuap ipiltin. H e w as a ccompanied b y o ld w omen a nd m idwives w ho s houted b attle c ries a nd s kirmished i n m ock c ombat w ith y ouths. A s t he s un s et, t he d eceased w oman w as b uried i n t he e arth a t t he t emple o f t he C ihuapipiltin ( Sahagün , 1 969:161-2). B odily p arts o f w omen w ho d ied 3 9

i n c hildbirth w ere b elieved h usband

h ad

4 g

g uard

t o e mbody m agical p owers,

t he b ody f or f our

n ights

t herefore

f rom

t he

g raverobbers

( ibid. : 161-2).

a t

T lalocan, " Place o f T laloc," w as t he h ands o f T laloc b y l ightning,

t he h eaven f or t hose w ho d ied d rowning, o r c ertain s kin

d iseases ( Sahagün, 1 952:45). A ssociated w ith e ternal g rowth, f ert ility, a nd s pringtime, T lalocan w as s aid t o b e a p aradise o f w ealth a nd p rosperity ( Sahagün, 1 969:115; 1 953:14). I ndividuals d estined f or T lalocan w ere b uried a nd n ot c remated. F irst t he c orpse w as a rrayed i n T laloc a ttire: f ish a maranth p aste w as p laced o n t he c heeks,

l iquid

r ubber

a pplied

t o t he f ace,

a nd b lue

p apers

w ere

a ttached t o t he f orehead. T hen a p aper l ock o f h air w as a ttached t o t he b ack o f t he h ead, p aper c apes w ere a rranged o ver t he b ody, a nd l arge s taffs o f w ood w ere p laced i n t he h ands. F inally, m ountain g od i mages ( tlaloque) w ere ( Sahagün, 1 952:45). 5 /

p laced b efore t hem

a nd

t hey

w ere

b uried

f T onacatecuhtli," w as t he f inal i chan, " Home o d ie d ( S a h a g ü n , 1 9 6 9 :1 1 5 ) . L ike c hildren w ho c o n c e i v e d o f a s a g a r d e n p a r a d i s e, T lalocan, T onacatecuhtli i chan w as xhorted R epeatedly e f ull o f t rees, f lowers, a nd f ruits ( ibid.:115). c hildren b abies o r a s " pure," " clean," a nd " precious," i nnocent p r ecious t o d estined f or t his h eaven w ere m etaphorically c ompared T onacatecuhtli r esting p lace f or

g reenstone, b uried a nd

b racelets,

a nd

t urquoises.

i n f ront o f m aize b in

" fine"

t o

s ignify t hat

t hey w ent

t o a

" good"

p lace ( ibid.:116).''

T he w ay a n i ndividual d ied d etermined t he

w ere

T hese d ead c hildren

s oul.

O ne

o f

t he

f ive r ealms,

t he f inal

r esting p lace o f

t his u ltimate d estination

w as

s ymbolized b y t wo f actors: t he t reatment o f t he c orpse a nd t he l ocation o f t he b urial o f t he r emains. C remation w as b y f ar t he m ost c ommon p ractice a nd w as u sed f or t hose d estined f or M ictlan a nd p ossibly f or T onatiuh i chan a s w ell. T he c orpse w as c remated w ith i nsignia a nd i mplements r elated t o t he s ocial r ole o f t he d eceased. T hese u seful a nd w orldly o bjects a ccompanying t he c orpse w ere t o b e o ffered t o t he L ord o f t he D ead i n M ictlan. T he p rocess o f b urning t he o ffering w as s pecifically l inked w ith M ictlan, f or i t w as s aid t o p rovide w armth a gainst t he b iting c old w inds o f t he N orth. U ltim ately, t he c harred r emains w ere c ollected a nd b uried b eneath h ouses o r t emples, T he

d epending o n t he s tatus o f

d ead

t he i ndividual.

w ho w ere b uried w ithout c remation w ere

d estined

f or

C ihuatlampa, T lalocan, o r T onacatecuhtli i chan. T he l ocation w here t he c orpse w as b uried d etermined t he f inal d estination f or t he d ead s oul a nd a ny a ccompanying o fferings. W omen w ho d ied i n c hildbirth, d estined f or C ihuatlampa, w ere b uried i n t he T emple o f t he C ihuapipiltin. B abies w ere b uried n ear g ranaries, w hich w ere t he p laces o f s ustenance t hat m etaphorically e qualled T onacatecuhtli i chan,

o r

P lace

o f

t he L ord

o f

S ustenance.

U nfortunately,

t he

s ources d o n ot s pecify w here t hose d estined f or T lalocan w ere b uried. P erhaps t he f inal r esting p lace f or t hese i ndividuals w as a ssociated w ith m ountains

i n g eneral o r

e ven w ith p yramids o r t emples

t o T laloc.

40

d edicated

C hronicles o n t he H istorical F unerary C eremonies o f M exica R ulers S everal

f unerary u rns h ave b een e xcavated

i n t he T emplo M ayor o f

T enochtitlan a nd t hese a ppear t o c orrespond w ith h istorical a ccounts t hat d ocument t he b urials o f s pecific M exica r ulers. A xayacatl a nd T izoc w ere s aid t o b e b uried a t t he " feet o f H uitzilopochtli" ( Durän, 1 967, 1 1:300 , 3 11; T ezozomoc, 1 980 :456), w hile A huitzotl w as s aid t o b e o r

b uried n ear t he " Stone o f t he S un" w hich w as c alled c uauhxicalli e agle v essel ( Tezozomoc, 1 980 :570 ; D urän, 1 967, 1 1:395).

T lacaelel, t he c ihuacoatl/chief a dvisor o f a ll o f t hese k ings, d ied d uring t he r eign o f A huitzotl a nd w as c remated a nd b uried " next t o t he s epulchers o f o ther k ings" ( Durän, 1 967, 1 1:369). D urän

( 1967,

1 1:295ff,

3 11ff,

3 92ff)

a nd T ezozomoc

( 1980 :433ff,

4 54ff, 5 68ff) d escribe A xayacatl's f uneral i n g reat d etail, w hile t he c eremonies f or T izoc a nd A huitzotl a re s tated t o b e s imilar t o A xayac atl's, b ut m ore g rand a nd e laborate. A lthough b oth s ources a re s upposedly b ased o n t he s ame o riginal, w hich i s n ow l ost, D urän's v ersion o f A xayacatl's f uneral i s m uch m ore d etailed t han T ezozomoc's d escription, w hich p rovides a s lightly d ifferent p erspective o f t he c eremony. t icipation

F or e xample, T ezozomoc e mphasizes T lacaelel's a ctive p ari n t he c eremony a nd s tates t hat t he M exica i nvited t heir

e nemies i n o rder t o

s how t heir l argesse ( Tezozomoc,

1 980 :433).

T he b asic s tructure o f t he f unerary c eremonies o f M exica k ings r esembled t he c eremonies f or a ny m embers o f A ztec s ociety d estined f or M ictlan . T he e ntire p rocess, h owever, w as m uch m ore e laborate b ecause a dditional r ituals e mbellished t he b asic c eremony. p articipants w ere i nvolved a nd t he e ntire f uneral b ecame

M any m ore a p ublic

s pectacle a kin t o e lite d isplays d uring c alendrical f estivals i n c onjunction w ith t he c ollection o f t ribute a t T lacaxipeualiztli, E tzalcualiztli, O chpaniztli, a nd P anquetzaliztli ( Broda, 1 970 :237). S imilar t o t hese f estivals, t he f unerary c eremonies f or a k ing c haracteristically i nvolved t he c ollection a nd r edistribution o f r ich a nd l avish g ifts, t he p ublic p articipation o f r ulers f rom a llied c ities, r ies.

a nd

t he s ecret p articipation o f r ulers f rom e nemy

t errito-

T he f irst p art o f t he k ing's f uneral c oncerned a ctivities l eadi ng u p t o t he c remation o f t he m ummy b undle. O ne b y o ne, r ulers o f a llied c ities, w ho w ere i nvited t o p articipate i n t he c eremonies, p resented t he d ead k ing w ith s laves a nd a c ostume o f r ich i nsignia ( jewels

a nd

m antles).

O ther k ings b rought

r ich g ifts

o f

s laves,

p aper, mantles, j ewels, w omen's g arments, o r a ny o ther s pecialities o f t he c ity. A t n ight, l ords o f e nemy t erritories, s uch a s T laxcala, H uexotzinco, a nd C holula, s ecretly e ntered t he c ity. T hese l ords b rought t he s pecial c ommodity o f t heir r espective c ity, a s w ell a s w eapons, w arrior c ostumes, a nd i nsignia, a ll a s g ifts. A n e normous f east f ollowed a nd l arge q uantities o f b read, f owl, c acao, f lowers, a nd t obacco w ere s erved. T he e nemy l ords w ere g iven m antles a nd w eapons, a fter w hich t hey d eparted. A llied l ords w ere g iven r ich c ostumes

f rom t he d ead k ing's t reasury,

c eremonies. a nd a w god i nside. 59

a nd

t hey s tayed

f or f urther

A l arge b ower ( tlacochcalli, " house o f s leep") w as m ade s tatue o f t he k ing d ressed a s H uitzilopochtli w as p laced T he c ostumes o f

t hree o ther d eities ( Tlaloc,

Y oualahuan o r

X ipe, a nd Q uetzalcoatl) w ere i n t urn p laced o n t op o f t he s tatue, p ulque-drinking p riests e ntered a nd s cattered p ulque a ll o ver 4 1

a nd t he

a rea.

T he l ords

t hen p laced

t he s tatue a nd

t he k ing's m ummy

b undle

n ext t o t he H uitzilopochtli i dol a nd s et e verything o n f ire. T he k ing's s laves, h unchbacks, d warfs, a nd s ervants, w ho w ere t o b e s acrificed, w ere d ressed i n n ew g arments a nd t he k ing's p ossessions w ere t ied t o t heir b odies. T he l ords t hen e xhorted t hose w ho w ere t o b e s acrificed t o s erve t he k ing w ell a nd t o t end t o h is c omforts a nd n eeds. T hese v ictims w ere t hrown o n t heir b acks a nd w ere s acrificed o n a t eponaztli ( drum) s et u p n earby, a nd t heir h earts a nd b lood w ere t hrown i nto t he c rematory p yre. T he c remated b urned,

s econd r emains a ll

p art o f a nd

t he c harred

t he c eremony c onsisted o f

s ubsequent c eremonies. r emains w ere c ollected

t he b urial o f

A fter

e verything

a nd d eposited

t he h ad

i n a p it

a t t he f eet o f H uitzilopochtli o r n ear t he " Stone o f t he S un," a long w ith s acrificial h earts, j ewels, f eathers, a nd m antles. T he p rinc ipal l ords o f f oreign t erritories m ade s peeches w ith t heir l ast c ondolences a nd w ith t hanks. ; T hey t hen d eparted t o t heir h ome t errit ories. T he w ives a nd f amily o f t he d eceased k ing t hen f asted, s upp osedly f or 8 0 d ays, a t t he e nd o f w hich t hey m ade a nother s tatue, w hich t hey d ressed i n t he s ame f ashion. w ith s acrifices, s ongs, d ances, d rinking,

A nother c remation c eremony e tc., w as p erformed a nd 1 18

c harred r emains w ere b uried w ith j ewels a nd r iches o f t he k ing. T his c eremony w as r eferred t o a s " cabo d e a no" ( "end o f y ear") a nd w as i mmediately f ollowed b y c eremonies f or t he e lection a nd i nstallat ion o f t he n ew r uler. T he c oronation o f a n ew k ing w as, t herefore, c learly s een a s a r ebirth o r n ew b eginning, a nd w as s aid t o t ake p lace o n t he d ate o ne c rocodile ( ce c ipactli), r itual 2 60-day c alendar. T he

f unerary c eremonies

t he f irst d ate o f

f or k ings d iffered

i n s everal

t he

r espects

f rom o ther b urials. T he m aking a nd d ressing o f a n i mage o f t he k ing i n f our d eity c ostumes a nd t he r epetition o f t he e ntire c eremony a t a l ater p oint i n t ime i s r estricted t o t he c eremonies o f M exica k ings. G ifts o f r ich f eathers a nd p recious s tones, t o h onour a nd s erve t he d ead k ing i n t he n ext l ife, w ere a lso p resented t o k ings a nd l ords. T he f unction o f o fferings a ccompanying M exica k ings d iffered f rom t hose o f o ther i ndividuals. A ccording t o S ahagün ( 1952:41), o fferi ngs b urned w ith t hose d estined f or M ictlan w ere m eant t o b e g ifts f or M ictlantecuhtli, w hile t he h eat o f t he p yre w as m eant t o w arm t he d eceased. O n t he o ther h and, D urän ( 1967, 1 1:392) s uggests t hat t he o bjects a ccompanying M exica k ings w ere o fferings t o t he d eceased a nd t hat t hey w ere m eant t o f unction a s u seful o bjects t o s erve t he k ing. N o m ention i s m ade o f t he n eed t o k eep w arm. I n f act, r eferences a re m ade,

d uring

t he c eremonies,

k ing's f inal r esting p lace

t o t he h ouse o f r esplindent l ight a s

( Durän,

1 967,

4 2

I I:296).

0

t he

I X.

T YPES O F D EPOSITS O F M EXICA C ACHES

C ontinuities T ypes o f d eposits o f M exica b uried s imilar t o t hose made i n P re-Aztec t imes.

o fferings a re i n m any w ays P re-Mexica v otive o ffer-

i ngs a re p laced d ireg5ly i n b uilding f ill, i n c ists, o r i n s tone o r p ottery r eceptacles. A s o f D ecember, 1 978, M atos ( 1978:15) n oted t hat o f f ifteen c aches f ound i n t he T emplo M ayor, e ight w ere f rom c ists, f ive o ccurred d irectly i n b uilding f ill, a nd t wo w ere p laced i n s tone b oxes. I n a ddition, t wo o ther d eposits w ere f ound i n c eramic v essels, b ut t hese w ere p robably f unerary u rns. O fferings w ere o ften b uried i n t he g round o r d irectly i n b uildi ng f ill. B uried o fferings h ave b een f ound i n t he f ront, b ack , a nd s ides o f t he b ody o f t he T emplo M ayor i tself ( Matos: 1 978:15; S ee M ap 5 , D eposits n o. 6 , n o. 9 , t he C eremonial P recinct, a n

n o. 1 2, n o. 1 5, n o. 2 0). A lso w ithin o ffering w as f ound b uried b eneath a

c eremonial b razier ( Gussinyer, 1 972). O utside t he C eremonial P rec inct, o fferings w ere o ften d episited i nside o r n ear t he b ases o f a doratories

( Structure A -2,

O fferings b uried l imits o f

L -2,

L 2;

G ussinyer,

1 968,

1 970a).

i n c ists h ave b een f ound w ithin a nd

t he C eremonial P recinct.

M exica c ists

o utside t he

c haracteristically

h ad r ectangular t ezontle s lab w alls a nd s tucco f loors. I nside t he C eremonial P recinct, c aches i n c ists w ere f ound i n a ssociation w ith a c eremonial b razier ( Gussinyer, 1 972), i n B atres D eposits n o. 4a nd n o. 1 6 ( Batres, 1 902), a nd i n d ifferent l evels o f t he b ody o f t he T emplo M ayor i tself ( Matos, 1 978:15; S ee M ap 5 , D eposits n o. 1 -5, n o. 7 , n o. 8 , n o. 1 1, n o. 1 3, n o. 1 6, n o. 1 7). S outh o f t he C eremonial P recinct, c ist d eposits i ncluded t he c ache a t E l V olador ( Noguera, 1 968), t he e arly c ache f ound n ear C oatlicue ( Le6n y G ama , 1 832; H umboldt, 1 945).

1 979),

O fferings

a nd

w ere

t he f ive o fferings a t T latelolco

a lso

p laced

i n s tone b oxes

( Espejo,

t hat w ere

1 944,

b uried.

6 3

I n t he C eremonial P recinct, b oxed o fferings w ere f ound i n t he p latf orm o f t he T emplo M ayor e poch l abelled 4 b ( Matos, 1 978:15; S ee M ap 5 ,

D eposits n o.

1 8,

( Gussinyer, 1 972). C eremonial P recinct,

n o.

1 9,

n o.

4 1)

a nd w ith a c eremonial b razier

M any b oxed o fferings w ere a lso f ound o utside t he f or e xample i n B atres D eposit n o. 2 2 ( BatKes,

1 902) a nd i n a ssociation w ith s everal a doratories ( Structure L `-2, S tructure A -2, a nd S tructure L -3; G ussinyer, 1 968; 1 970a ; 1 970b). C ontinuities i n t ypes o f M exica d eposits s uggest b asic f unctions f or c aches t hat m ust h ave b een u niversal i n M esoamerica. D eposits f ound d irectly i n b uilding f ill p robably r epresented d edicatory o fferings, d eposited t o c onsecrate n ew c onstructions o r t emple e nl argements, w hich m ay i n t urn h ave s erved t o c ommemorate e vent. S tone c ists a nd b oxes b oth s erved a s p ermanent a nd r eceptacles

t o

p rotect

a n

o ffering. 4 3

T hese

r eceptacles

a nother d urable a lso

s ymbolically

d elimited

a s pecific

t o o ccupy. I n r are i nstances, T oltec c ylindrical c ache b oxes. b urial

c ontexts

a nd

w as

s acred

s pace

t hat

t he o ffering w as

t here w as r ed p igment o n t he l ids R ed p igmentation o ften o ccurred

p robably c onnected w ith b lood

o f i n

a nd d eath.

I nnovations I n

p revious

f requent a nd

a nd

t raditions,

b oxed

s quare s tone r eceptacles w ere

c ylindrical b oxes

o ccurred

o n

w as

t hese

b oxes

t acles. c oherent o n

I mages T laloc,

a t C hichen I tzä,

a t T ula a s w ell. p igment

t he d eposit

a t

T he o nly

o n t he l ids o f

l east

t wo

a nd

b urial

e xcavated

i n-

a nd

a

f ew

o rnamentation

s ome

o f c aches.

c ache b oxes

o f t he E arth M onster, s ometimes a re k nown f rom o ther b oxes t hat

e xcavated,

a nd

t hese may p erhaps

( Plates l b a nd 1 c). T latelolco ( Deposits p ainted M atos,

r ed

f ound

r elatively

B oth c ylindrical

T oltec

r ecep-

A mong t he M exica, t he d ecoration o f c ache b oxes r eflects a i conographic s ystem t hat r eveals s ome n otion o f t he M exica

c onception o f k nown

o fferings w ere

t he b oxes w ere r arely e ver d ecorated.

r ed

7 8).

w ith w ere

l a

a nd

2 b).

c haracteristics o f n ot s cientifically

h ave b een v otive r eceptacles a s w ell

F lint k nives w ere p ainted o n s everal c ists a t n o. 3 a nd n o. 4 , E spejo, 1 945). S ome b oxes w ere

( Gussinyer,

1 980 :

I mages o f T laloc a re ( Plates

1 970n,

I n a ddition,

1 972) o ne o f

o r b lue t he r ed

( Gussinyer,

1 970a;

b oxes w as c arved

w ith

d ates. T he p rimary M exica i nnovation i n

t ypes o f d eposits

i s

t he p aint-

i ng o r c arving o f c ache r eceptacles, c ists. T he t hree r ecurrent s ymbols,

i ncluding b oth c ache b oxes a nd T laloc o r T laltecuhtli, f lint

k nives,

t o

a nd

r ed

p igmentation,

a ppear

f orm a c oherent

i conographic

w hole t hat r eveals b asic c oncepts o n t he s ignificance o f t he o f a n o ffering. P rimarily t wo r elated i deas a re e xpressed, s ustenance a nd d eath. i n

t he

f orm

o f

s ource o f d estruction t he

s ource o f

t wo

e xcavated

T laloc

o r

M ayor o n t he

o uter

s urfaces

h ave

b een

o ne

b ox

i s c arved

o f

t he

a s w ell

l egs

o n

h ybrid

i s d epicted

a s

( Plate

l a a nd 2 b).

a re c arved

L egs

w ith

( one o n e ach

s uggest

a nthropomorphically v iewed

a s

t hat a s

4 1

a nd

o f

t his

w hose h ands

a re

T hree o f

t he d ates s ide).

t he e ntire

t he b ody o f

l east

n o.

T he l id

w ith a f ace o f T laloc,

t wo

t his b ox

o n a t

f rom T emplo M ayor D eposit

i tself

t he

a s w ell

i tself.

l id d irectly b elow h is m outh.

t he b ox

c onnected s een a s

a v oracious m onster,

t he e arth

b oxes,

s ide o f

r ain, a nd

f orm o f

t he T izapan c ache

c arved 1 1

t he

( Tlaltecuhtli) w hich i s

a T laltecuhtli/Tlaloc

( ache

T emplo

h ands,

i n

t hese c oncepts a re c losely

M onster

s ustenance a s

t he o ther f rom

a nd

B oth o f

t he E arth

b urial n amely

1 3 T he

t he r eed

f ace,

r eceptacle t he

d eity.

may O n

t he T izapan b ox, f our T lalocs i n a f rontal, d isplayed p osition, m ore c haracteristic o f t he E arth M onster, a re a rranged a round a j ewel c omposed o n

t his

t laloque)

o f

r ed

a nd

T la ltecuhtli.

p rominent

t he b ottom o f

w irer

a v isual

h ave T laloc

i nterior o f o ne

w ith

b lue c oncentric c ircles.

f orms

r eceptacles, a nd

a nd

b ox

a nd

e xample,

t eeth,

p en, o ther

s tone b oxes,

T laltecuhtli t here

T he d epiction o f T laloc

s imultaneously r eading T laloc

p ossibly c ache

i conography.

O n t he b ottom

i s a v oracious

E arth M onster h ead

w hile a h ybrid T laloc/Tlaltecuhtli

a nother b ox

( Pla te l b

S ullivan ( 1974) h as s ig g od. T he r ecurren

( or

a lso

i s c arved

o n

a nd l c).

g ted t hat T laloc w as b oth a n e arth a nd a t a n e arth g od ( either T laloc o r 4 4

T laltecuhtli)

i n c ache b oxes s uggests

c onceived o f a s T he i mplication

t hat

t he r eceptacle i tself

w ez

t he b ody o f t he e arth d eity o r t he e arth i tself. i s t hat t he c ached o ffering w as s ustenance t o b e

p laced i n t he v oracious a nd f anged m outh o f t he E arth M onster a nd i nto t he E arth i tself. A s s uch, t he o ffering w as " planted" l ike a s eed i n t he e arth f or m an's s ustenance. M aize, h uman s ustenance, i s d epicted i nside t he T izapan b ox g rowing f rom a g reenstone w hich i s a t ypical o bject p laced i n c aches ( Plate 2 b). F lint k nives,

f rom c ist

f ied d estruction a nd

i nteriors a t T latelolco,

s ustenance.

j ewel,

p robably s igni-

F lint k nives w ere s acrificial

t ools

u sed i n t he d estruction o f h uman l ives a s o fferings t o t he g ods. T hey a lso s ymbolized t he v oraciousness o f t he E arth M onster, w ho i s o ften d epicted w ith a p rojecting f lint k nife t ongue, e ager t o r eceive s ustenance i n t he f orm o f s acrificial h uman l ives o r p recious o bjects ( Plates 2 a a nd 1 6b). T he d ecoration o f t he i nterior o f t he c ache r eceptacle w ith f lint k nives a lso i dentified t he c ist a s t he m outh o r b ody o f t he E arth M onster. R ed

p igment o n c ache b oxes p robably a lso r epresented d eath

t ermination. o ccurred

T hroughout

t he p rehistory o f M esoamerica,

i n f unerary c ontexts t o c over a ll o r p arts o f

a nd

r ed p igmept

t he

b urial.

° 5

I n m ortuary c ontexts, r ed p erhaps s ymbolized t he s pilling o r l oss o f b lood o f t he d eceased. T he c onnection b etween r ed c ache b oxes w ith d eath a nd t ermintion i s s upported b y o ne b ox ( Pino S uärez b ox, G ussinyer, 1 970a) c arved w ith 1 3 r eed, 1 3 h ouse, 1 3 r abbit, a nd 1 3 f lint, d ates w hich p robably r epresented t he l ast y ear o f e ach q uarter o f a 5 2-year c entury ( Umberger, 1 981:108). T he d eath a nd t ermination s ymbolism o f s ome c ache b oxes s uggests t hat i tself w as c onsidered s acrificed a nd d ead. I n

s ummary,

t he

p recious

o ffering

t he M exica e laboration o f c ache b oxes r eflected

a

u nified i conography c entering o n s ustenance a nd d eath. B oth o f t hese c oncepts w ere e xpressed i n t he a ct o f b urial i tself. W hat w as b uried i n t he e arth? S eeds a nd t he r emains o f t he d ead w ere t he m ost c ommon t hings t o b e b uried. S eeds w ere p lanted f or m an's s ustenance, j ust a s d ead t hings w ere b uried a nd " planted" f or t he e arth's s ustenance. C ached a rticles m ay a lso h ave b een b uried a s o bjects s ymbolically s acrificed

f or t he s ustenance o f

t he e arth.

T he a ct o f b urial w as a n

i mportant a spect o f f unerary s ymbolism. T hose i ndividuals d estined f or t he h eavens o f T laloc, T onacatecuhtli, a nd t he C ihuateteo w ere b uried i n l ocations t hat o ften s ymbolically i ndicated t he f inal r esting p lace f or t he s oul. B oth T laloc a nd T onacatecuhtli a ppear t o p lay i mportant r oles i n M exica c aches, r eflected i n t he a rticles c ontained i n v otive c ontexts. P erhaps T emplo M ayor c aches w ere i ntended t o s ymbolize a s acrificial a ppeal d edicated s pecifically t o T onacatecuhtli o r T laloc a s p roviders o f s ustenance.

4 5

X .

L OCATIONS O F M EXICA C ACHES

C ontinuities L ocations o f M exica c ache d eposits w ere t raditional i n m any w ays w ithin t he c ontext o f M esoamerican p ractices. C eremonial a rchitect ure, p articularly t emple p yramids, h ave b een t he m ost c ommon l ocat ions f or o fferings. P re-Mexica c aches w ere o ften b uried i n c ores, i n s tairways, a t c orners, o r o n t he c entral a xis o f t emple p yramids. S ome

P re-Mexica g roups

( Olmec,

Z apotec,

M aya,

a nd T oltec)

b uried

o fferings i n a ssociation w ith m onuments. L ikewise, t he M exica d eposited c aches w ith c eremonial s tructures ( both m ain t emples a nd s maller a doratories) a s w ell a s w ith m onuments ( braziers, s kull a ltars, s culptures). I n a ddition t o t he c ontexts m entioned f or P reM exica d eposits, M exica c aches w ere a lso b uried i n b alustrades a nd i n t he b ack f acade o f p yramids. M ost P re-Mexica c aches w ere p laced o nly a long t he c entral a xis o r a t c orners o f s tructures, h owever, i n t he T emplo M ayor, t he M exica b uried c aches i n e very i maginable l ocation. C ontinuities i n l ocations o f c ache d eposits s uggest m ost

u niversal,

f unctions

f or v otive o fferings a mong

b asic,

a l-

M esoamerican

g roups. F or e xample, t he t emple p yramid h as l ong b een t he l ocation f or t he b urial o f o fferings o f p recious g oods. A s a s acred c erem onial

s tructure,

b urial o f v alued T he

t he

t emple w as a n a ppropriate l ocation

o bjects

f or

t emple p yramid

s ymbolical a nd

f or

t he

p ractical r easons.

h as b een i nterpreted

a s a s ymbol

a ssociated

w ith b irth a nd o rigins. K rickeberg ( 1950) h as s uggested t hat t he t emple p yramid r epresented n ot o nly a m ountain b ut a lso t he c elestial r ealm . M ythical m ountains, s uch a s C hicomortoc, C oatepec, a nd C olh uacan,

w ere

M exica a nd w ere s aid w ere s aid p yramid

i mportant

l ocations c onnected w ith t he b irth

o f

t he

t heir p atron g od H uitzilopochtli. F urthermore, a ncestors t o h ave d escended f rom t he h eavens ( ibid.:303) a nd b abies t o " descend" t o t he e arth ( Klein, 1 972:35). T he t emple

w as p erhaps s imilarly v iewed

a s a f ountain n r a

s ource

f or

l ife. Y et a t t he s ame t ime, t he t emple w as " voracious" l ike t he e arth, a nother c reative s ource r esponsible f or t he " birth" o f v egetat ion. B oth h ad t o b e f ed a nd s ustained, t he e arth w ith w ater, s eeds, a nd s olar r ays, a nd t he t emple w ith a rticles s ymbolizing t hese p rec ious a nd

e ssential

T he t emple w as w as

a lso

g roup.

a A s

s ubstances. n ot o nly a s acred,

v isible s ymbol s uch,

i t

o f

c eremonial

s tructure,

t he p ower o f a p olity

w as o ften t he l ast s tronghold

o r i f a

a n

b ut

i t

e thnic

t own

w as

b esieged, a nd t he u ltimate a ct o f c onquest w as t he c apture o r d efacem ent o f t he e nemy's i dol. I n m ore p ractical t erms, t he t emple o f a t own

w as

t he m ost

t enaciously

t he s afest p lace t o h oard

p rotected b uilding,

p recious c ommodities.

4 6

t herefore i t

w as

I nnovations B asic l ocations o f M exica c aches a re n ot u nusual, r ather w hat i s s triking i s t he i ncrease i n t he q uantity o f o fferings c oncentrated i n a s ingle s tructure - t he T emplo M ayor i n T enochtitlan. I n n o o ther i nstance h ave s o m any c aches b een a massed i n a ny s ingle c eremonial s tructure, r egardless o f i ts i mportance. T his c oncentration i s d ue t o t he v ery s pecific a nd i mportant r ole t hat t he T emplo M ayor p layed i n M exica c ulture a nd T he

i deology.

T emplo M ayor o ccupied

t he " centre"

i n a s eries o f

e xpanding

c ontexts. S patially i t w as t he l argest a nd m ost i mportant s tructure, t he " heart," o f t he C eremonial P recinct o n t he i sland-city o f T enocht itlan. G eographically, t he T emplo M ayor w as i n t he m iddle o f L ake T excoco, s urrounded b y t he V alley o f M exico a nd t he v ast t erritory o f t he M exica. h ave b een

C osmologically , T enochtitlan a nd t he C eremonial P recinct i nterpreted a s t he c entre o r " navel" o f t he u niverse

( Townsend, 1 979:43), t herefore, t he T emplo M ayor, o ccupy t he s ame p ivotal p osition. T he e conomic, M ayor

b y e xtension,

T emplo M ayor w as a n o vert s ymbol o f M exica a nd r eligious p ower. A s a c eremonial s tructure,

w as

t he r itual

f ocus o f

w ould

p olitical, t he T emplo

t he M exica e mpire a nd b oth a llied

a nd

e nemy l ords w ere i nvited t o p articipate i n c eremonies c onducted h ere. B roda n otes t hat t he f ront f acade w as r econstructed a t l east 1 1 t imes, w hile t he b ack w as o nly e nlarged f ive t imes ( Broda , n .d.:14). T hese e nlargements w ere i ntended t o c reate a n i ncreasingly i mposing m onument t hat s erved t o i ntimidate a nd i mpress b oth a llies a nd e nemies o f

t he M exica.

T he T emplo M ayor a lso f unctioned a s a b ank v ault f or t he M exica. T enochtitlan w as n ot o nly t he m ain p olitical a nd r itual f ocus f or t he M exica, b ut i t w as a lso t he e conomic h eart o f t he e mpire a s w ell. T ribute w as b rought t o t he c apital a t r egular i ntervals a nd p recious g ifts w ere a lso b rought f or s pecial o ccasions, s uch a s t he f uneral o f a r uler. L avish a nd r ichly v aried o bjects w ere b uried i n t he T emplo M ayor i tself. W hatever w as b uried i n t he T emplo M ayor b ecame t he p ermanent p roperty o f t he M exica. O ther p recious c ommodities c oll ected i n t ribute o r r eceived a s g ifts w ere e qually c ontrolled b y t he M exica, a lthough t hese o ther g oods w ere n ot n ecessarily b uried. V aluables t hat w ere n ot c ached, w ere r edistributed i n c eremonies a s g ifts t o l ords o r t o w arriors w ho h ad d istingutshed t hemselves b attle. T he M exica t herefore ontrolled t he r elative a bundance s carcity o f

a ny g iven c ommodity.

T he T emplo M ayor w as a nd

t he M exica e mpire,

T ownsend,

i n a nd

1 979).

s een a s b ut

T his

t he c entre n ot o nly o f T enochtitlan

a lso o f

s ingle

t he e ntire c osmos

( Broda,

s tructure w as t he m ost

n .d.;

s acred

a nd

p owerful l ocation i n r itual, p olitical, a nd c osmological t erms, a nd w as t herefore t he m ost t enaciously g uarded l ocation i n t he M exica e mpire.

T his m ade

o fferings, p ractical h oarded

i t

a n a pprrpriate a nd d esirable p lace

n ot o nly f or a nd e conomic

t o

d eposit

r eligious a nd s ymbolic r easons, b ut a lso f or r easons o f m aximum s ecurity f or p recious,

c ommodities.

4 7

X I.

C ONTENTS O F M EXICA C ACHES

C ontinuities M any o bject

o f

t ypes,

t he

a rticles c ached

r ather

t han a s

b y t he M exica c an

u nique p ieces.

b e

v iewed

a s

T hese o fferings w ere n ot

r andom a ssemblages u nified s olely o n t he b asis o f p reciosity. R ather, e ach o bject t ype p robably h ad a m ultiplicity o f m eanings, w hile m ore p articular s ignificances m ay h ave d epended o n t he a ssociated a rtifactual c ontext. I n s ome c ases, c ache c omponents p erhaps f unctioned a s i nterchangeable u nits i n a s ystem o f v isual a nd c onceptual

p uns.

I t

i s u nclear,

h owever,

t o w hat

e xtent

v arious

m eanings w ere c onsistently a ssociated w ith p articular a rtifacts. U nfortunately, t here i s n ot e nough i nformation a vailable t o f ully i mplement a c ontextual a nalysis. I t i s, t herefore, o ften n ot p oss ible

t o d etermine s pecific m eanings

f or m any o f

t he o bjects

f ound

i n

M exica c aches. T he c ontents o f M exica c aches w ere s imilar i n m any w ays o f P re-Mexica c ultures. C ertain o bjects a nd m aterials c aches w ere c ommon i n b oth v otive a nd m ortuary c ontexts

t o

t hose

i n M exica t hroughout

M esoamerica, w hile o ther a rtifacts h ad a m ore s pecific d istribution i n e ither c aches o r b urials. O fferings t hat w ere u niversally p laced i n

m ost

d eposits

t hat

t he M exica c ontinued

t o c ache i ncluded

o rna-

m ents a nd f igurines m ade o f g reenstone a nd o ther p recious m aterials, p ottery r eceptacles, s hells, c hipped o bsidian a rtifacts, a nd h uman , b ird,

a nd

o ther s mall a nimal

s acrifices.

I n a ddition,

t he c aching o f

p erishable s ubstances, s uch a s f ood, f lowers, o r c acao, m ay h ave b een w idely p racticed a s w ell, h owever i n m ost i nstances t hese r emains h ave l ong

s ince p erished.

T he w ide g eographical, t emporal, c ertain o bjects s uggest t he u niversal

a nd f unctional d istribution o f r egard h eld f or c ertain c om-

m odities. T heir s pecific m eaning t hrough t ime, h owever, c annot b e d etermined b ecause i t i s u nclear t o w hat e xtent t here w as a n u nderl ying p an-Mesoamerican s ystem o f v alues a nd b eliefs a ssociated w ith t hese m aterials. S ome o bject , ,, s uch a s m utilated s tone s culpture, w ere t raditionally d eposited o nly i n c aches, w hile o ther a rticles, s uch a s m asks, w ere p rimarily f ound i n f unerary c ontexts. T he M exica m ay h ave i ncorporated a spects o f f unerary o fferings i nto c ache d eposits, a d ead,

p erhaps i n o rder

k illed,

t o s ymbolically a llude

o r s acrificed

t o t he i nterment

o f

o Ffering.

O rigins o f O bjects F ound i n T empi° M ayor C aches M atos

( 1978:15)

h as e mphasized

t he f oreign o rigin o f m ore

t han

8 0% o f t he o bjects c ached i n t he T emplo M ayor a nd h e s uggests t hat t his r epresents t ribute f rom a reas s uch a s G uerrero, P uebla, t he G ulf C oast, a nd t he M ixteca. A lthough n o c omplete r ecords o f w hat t he M exica c ollected i n t ribute h ave s urvived, i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat c ached m aterials o ften d o n ot c orrespond w ith w hat w as k nown t o 4 8

h ave

b een c ollected.

s tuffs, e ither

M exica t ribute p rimarily c onsisted

o f

f ood-

mantles, a nd c orvge l abour. T he b ulk o f t ribute w as u sed i n t he m aintenance o f t he c ourtly e lite o r i n c eremonies

i nvolving t he r edistribution o f g ifts t hat t ook p lace a t v arious t imes. S ome o bjects r eceived i n t ribute w ere p ossibly p ut i n c aches. F or e xample, t he t ribute l ist o f t he C odex M endoza m entions r ed s eashells ( Cooper C lark, 1 938, I II:38r), s trands o f j ade b eads ( ibid.: 3 7r, 4 3r, 4 6r, 4 9r, 5 2r), t urquoise s tones, m asks, a nd m osaic s hields ( ibid.: c opper b ells ( ibid.: e xotic b irds ( ibid.:

4 0r, 4 0r), 3 1r,

5 2r),

g old o rnaments ( ibid.:

4 6r,

4 7r),

b alls o f c opal ( ibid.: 3 6r, 3 7r), a nd 5 5r). 66 H owever, m any a rticles a re n ot

m entioned i n t ribute l ists, s uch a s g reenstone f igurines, f lint k nives, o bsidian b lades, l apidary m iniatures, s tone a nd g reenstone s culptures, a nd a v ariety o f e xotic a nimals s uch a s s awfish a nd c rocodiles. 67

m ay

T he

M exica c ollected g oods b y m eans o ther t han

h elp

t o e xplain a g ood d eal o f

t ribute,

t he c ached m aterials

f ound

w hich i n t he

T emplo Mayor. F or e xample, t he M exica a cquired l uxurious g oods a t p olitical a nd r eligious c eremonies. T orquemada m entions g ifts o f s trands o f g old, s ilver, p recious s tones, p lumes, a nd o ther r iches p resented t o I tzcoatl a nd M otecuhzoma I a fter t he cA aquest o f v arious t owns ( Torquemada, 1 975, 1 :200 , 2 07, 2 18-19, 2 27). °° I n o ne v ictory c elebration, t he T emple o f H uitzilopochtli w as s aid t o h ave b een c overed w ith b lood a nd a dorned w ith w ar s poils ( ibid.: 2 18-19). N o r eference i s made s pecifically t o t he b urial o f o bjects i n t he H uitz ilopochtli T emple o n t his o ccasion ,

h owever p ossibly t he r ich s poils

w ere i nterred a fter t he c eremonies. C onquered t owns a nd p rovinces v oluntarily p resented M exica r ulers w ith g ifts a t c ertain f estivals i n r ecognition o f t heir s ubj ugation. T he c hroniclers s tress t hat t hese -esents w ere n ot g iven o ut o f o bligation, p resumably t he m otivation o r t ribute, b ut r ather o ut o f c ustom ( Motolinia i n Z orita, 1 963:281; C arrasco, 1 967:128). D uring t he a nnual U ey t ozortli c eremony ( "Great V igil"), f or e xample, l ords b rought r ich o fferings a nd

p articipated

d edicated t o T laloc. A t t he e nd o f t he w ere b uried a t t he T laloc T emple H istoria d e 3 . es i ndias d e n ueva e spana, 1 971:277-9). " L ocal r ulers w ere a lso g ifts T hese

i n e laborate c eremonies

f estival t hese r ich o fferings a t C erro T lalocan ( Durän, v . I , cp. 8 , c ited b y B roda, k nown t o h ave b rought l avish

t o t he f unerary c eremonies o f M exica r ulers 4n T enochtitlan. r iches w ere i ncinerated w ith t he k ing's m ummy b undle a nd w ere

s ubsequently i nterred ( Durän, 1 967:300 , 3 11,

i n t he T emplo M ayor i n a t l east 4 9 kme i nstances 3 45); T ezozomoc, 1 980 :456, 5 70). "

T he M exica m ay h ave a cquired p recious o bjects t o b e c ached d uring t heir o wn " archaeological" e xploits. T hat t he M exica d ug u p T oltec . riches a t T ula i s s uggested b y t he f ollowing p assage: ..the

r emnants

o f T oltec p ottery

a re

t here;

c ups a nd p ots o f t he T oltecs c an b e d ug u p t he r uins, T oltec n ecklaces a re o ften d ug t he

e arth,

g reenstones,

a nd

marvelous

e merald,

f rom f rom

b racelets,

p recious

t urquoise..." ( Sahagün,

1 961:167)

4 9

I f t he M exica d iscovered a c ache d eposited b y a nother g roup, t hey c ertainly h ad n o q ualms a bout d igging i t u p. F or e xample d uring t he s earch f or p recious

s tones,

" ...there t hey f ind a lready w ell f ormed,

t he p recious s tone, p erhaps p erhaps a lready b urnished.

P erhaps t hey s ee s omething b uried t here e ither i n s tone, o r i n a s tone b owl, o r i n a s tone c hest; p erhaps i t i s f illed w ith p recious s tones. T his t hey c laim t here." ( Sahagün, 1 963:221) E xpeditions f or p recious o bjects u ndertaken b y t he M exica t hemselves m ay h elp t o e xplain s ome o f t he n on-Mexica c ached a rticles, p articul arly l apidary h eirlooms s uch a s O lmec- a nd T eotihuacan-style m asks, a X ochicalco-style r elief p laque, a nd M ezcala-, G uerrero-, o r T eotihuacan-style f igurines. S uch a rtifacts m ay h ave b een a cquired t hrough t rade o r t ribute, yet i t a lso r emains p ossible t hat t he M exica t hemselves d iscovered t hese p ieces w hile u nearthing o r b urying o fferings a t o ld

t ies,

s ites.

W hether t he p roduct o f M exica t rade, t ribute, c eremonial a ctivio r a rchaeological e xpeditions, e xotic a nd f oreign m aterials a nd

o bjects w ere c ommon i n M esoamerican c aches. T he M aya i mported o bsidian, w hile i nland c ultures a cquired s hells f rom c oastal a reas. F urthermore, t he O lmecs, T eotihuacanos, Z apotecs, a nd T oltecs i mported

g reenstone

f rom t he d istant

l owlands.

I n

a ddition ,

T eo-

t ihuacan, X ochicalco, a nd Z apotec c aches a lso c ontained h eirloomed o r f oreign l apidary f igurines. T he r estricted a vailability a nd r arity o f v arious c ommodities i ncreased t he

o ffering

t he v alue,

s tatus,

a nd

r epresented w hich m ade t he o bjects i deal

p ower

t hat

s acrifices

i n

c aches. I t t hat

i s n ot

c hanges i n m aterials a cquired

d istinguish M exica o fferings

R ather, i t i s i ntensification, p ractices

-h rough

f rom t hose u f

t rade o r t ribute

p revious

c ultures.

t he i ntroduction o f n ew a rtifact t ypes, a nd t he m anipulation, a nd e laboration o f c ertain e xtant

a nd b asic

f orms t hat m ake M exica

c aches

u nique.

B efore

e xamining c hanges i n t he c ontents o f M exica c aches, o fferings r epres enting M exica c ontinuities w ith p revious t raditions w ill b e I nterpreted. G reenstone B eads G reenstone b eads w ere c ommonly f ound i n P re-Mexica a nd M exica c aches a nd b urials. I n M exica o fferings, t hey w ere f ound n ot o nly i n c aches a t T enochtitlan, b ut a lso a t T latelolco, C hapultepec, a nd T excoco.

O ther

l apidary

o rnaments,

s uch

a s

o bsidian

c ollars,

a labaster b eads, a nd o ther g reenstone o rnaments a ppear t o r epresent s ingular a nd u nique o bjects, a nd i t i s d ifficult t o i nterpret t heir m eaning

b eyond

G reenstone,

t heir s ignificance a s p recious a nd

o n

t he

o ther

h and,

w as

G reenstone

w as

i mbued w ith a m ultiplicity

l uxurious o bjects.

a ssociated

w ith

p articular

q ualities. o f

meanings

o ften

b ased o n i nherent q ualities. C haracteristics s uch a s t he c olour a nd s urface q uality g enerated c onceptual l inks b etween g reenstone a nd o ther p recious c ommodities. T he g reen c olour o f t he s ubstance w as 50

c ompared

w ith t he s himmering,

f eathers

( Sahagün,

1 963:222-3).

i rridescent

e merald g reen o f

T he b urnished

q uetzal

s urface o f g reenstone

w as l ikened t o t he g littering r ays o f t he s un a nd t he g listening s urface o f w ater ( ibid.: 2 22). G reenstone w as a lso s aid t o a ttract m oisture a nd t o b ecome w et ( ibid.: 2 22-3). M oisture w as p robably l inked n ot o nly w ith w ater, b ut a lso w ith b lood, b oth o f w hich w ere r egarded a s p recious l iquids. U ltimately a ll o f t hese p recious c ommodities ( water, b lood, s olar r ays, a nd g reenstone) w ere s een a s p recious o fferings a nd a s M etaphorically, e steemed, p raise r elated

v aluable,

s ustenance f or t he e arth.

g reenstone w as e quated w ith a nything c herished,

d esirable,

a nd

p recious,

w orthy o f

e nvy a nd

( Sahagün, 1 963:222). A lthough g reenstone w as c onceptually t o a v ariety o f o ther p recious s ubstances, n ot a ll o f t hese

c ommodities w ere s uitable f or b urial i n c aches. I t i s t he p ermanence a nd d urability o f g reenstone t hat d istinguish i t f rom p erishable v aluables

s uch

c ached. / 1 o bsidian,

T he d ensity o f g reenstone w as e quated w ith t he h ardness o f a nother p recious s ubstance t hat w as p olished a nd r efined

i nto w ould

a s

w ater

o r

f eathers,

w hich

w ere

p robably

b eautiful o bjects. B oth o f t hese m aterials w ould t herefore m erit s toring, h oarding a nd c aching. G reenstone w as c ached

a s i solated b eads,

a s w ell a s

n ot

e ndure

a nd

i n t he f orm

o f s trands. G reenstone b eads w ere o ften p laced i nside s hells o r o ther r eceptacles a nd m ay h ave s ymbolized d roplets o f w ater ( Seler, 1 960a:852). G reenstone c ollars w ere v alued o rnaments r estricted t o t he h ighest m embers o f A ztec s ociety. S aid t o b e t he " lot o f r ulers, o f t he o ld o nes," a nd " property o f t he n oblemen" ( Sahagün, 1 963:222), g reenstone t urquoise,

w as t he e lite o f p recious s tones, s uperceded o nly b y w hich w as c onsidered p roperty o f t he g ods ( ibid.: 2 24).

N oblemen n ot o nly w ore s uch f inery, b ut a lso t hey o ffered m agnificent p recious s tones a nd j ewels t o t he g ods, a nd t - T laloc i n p articular ( Durän,

1 971:155).

A s d eity i nsignia,

g reelstone n ecklaces f ormed

p art o f t he c ostume o f T laloc ( Sahagün , 1 950 :2; D urän, 1 971:155) a nd C hicomecoatl ( Sahagün, 1 950 :7), b oth d eities a ssociated w ith a gric ultural f ertility. G reenstone

w as s ignificant

c ious c ommodity, t he

g lyph

n ot m erely a s a b eautiful

b ut a lso a s a s ymbolic e mblem .

c halchihuitl

( greenstone)

a nd

p re-

R elief c arvings

h ave b een f ound

i n

t he

o f

C ere-

m onial P recinct ( Vega S osa, 1 979:75ff). T he c halchthuitl g lyph c ons isted o f a l arge c entral d isk, o ften c omposed o f c oncentric r ed a nd b lue b ands, w ith s maller c ircles p laced a t t he f our c orners. T he m eaning o f t his s ymbol i s s uggested b y t he d epiction o n t he b ottom o f t he i nterior o f t he T izapan c ache b ox o f a c halchihuitl g lyph s prouti ng m aize. T he c halchihuitl r epresented a f ertile s eed c ontaining t he p otential f or b oth h uman a nd v egetal g rowth. W hen p lanted/ c ached, t his s eed/greenstone w ould y ield m aize/symbolic f ertility o r a bundance t o s ustain m an/the M exica n ation . L ikewise, w ere c ompared t o g reenstone b eads ( Sahagün 1 969:115) w ere l ike p recious

s eeds

i mbued w ith t he p otential

s mall c hildren b ecause t hey

f or g rowth.

I n s ummary, g reenstone b eads w ere a p recious a nd v enerated c ommodity f or d ifferent r easons. M etaphorically a nd c onceptually e quated w ith a v ariety o f e steemed b ut e phemeral m aterials, g reens tone w as d esirable f or h oarding b ecause i t w as a d urable s ubstance. S ymbolically, i t w as a ssociated w ith w ater, b lood, a nd s olar r ays, 5 1

w hich

w ere

a ll

v iewed

a s n ecessary f or

t he

e arth's

s ustenance.

G reenstone n ecklaces f ormed p art o f t he i nsignia o f C hicomecoatl T laloc, b oth f ertility d eities. C hicomecoatl, g oddess o f m aize,

a nd w as

m ore f requently w orshipped b y c ommoners, w hile T laloc, a g od o f t he e arth a nd o f r ain ( Sullivan, 1 974), w as v enerated b y a ll m embers o f A ztec s ociety. T he e lite o ffered t he g reatest q uantity o f g reens tones a nd r ich j ewels t o T laloc, p erhaps i n a ppeals f or f ertile e arth a nd a bundant r ain, n ecessary c onditions f or g rowing m an's s ustenance. M exica n obles, t herefore, m ay h ave c ached g reenstone t o s imultaneously f eed a nd i nseminate t he e arth w ith s ymbolic s ustenance i n o rder t o i nsure t he f uture a bundance a nd f ertility o f m ankind. L apidary O bjects:

H eirlooms,

F igurines a nd P laques

H eirlooms h ave b een k nown f rom o fferings a t T eotihuacan, X ochic alco, T ula, C hichgn I tzä, a nd M aya a nd Z apotec s ites. I n M exica c aches, l apidary herlooms i ncluded f igurines a nd o rnaments i n a w ide r ange o f s tyles. L arge q uantities o f M ezcala o r G uerrero-style f igurines h ave b een f ound i n M exica c aches, a s w e a s T eotihuacan a nd M ixtec-style f igurines ( Plates 3 a t hrough 4 a). A X ochicalcos tyle g reenstone r elief p laque a nd i ncised p endant p laque i n a s ty e o f u nknown p rovenance h ave a lso b een f ound ( Plates 4 b a nd 4 c). T hese a ncient l apidary p ieces a ppear o nly i n M exica c aches f rom t he C eremonial P recinct ( especially i n t he T emplo M ayor) a nd w ere p erhaps v alued

b y

t he h ighest m embers o f M exica s ociety f or

t heir

g eneral

a ssociations w ith a ntiquity.

M atos

T he o rigins o f t hese f oreign a nd h eirloomed p ieces i s u nclear. b elieves t hat t hese o bjects c ame f rom t ribute e xacted b y t he

M exica ( Matos, 1 978:15; 1 980). 1 :200 , 2 07, 2 18-19; N icholson,

N icholson , p ersonal

c iting T orquemada ( 1975, c ommunication, O ctober,

1 981), s uggests t hat t he m assive q uantities o f G uerrero-style f iguri nes a nd m asks f ound i n T emplo M ayor c aches m a: h ave b een w ar s poils t aken b y t he M exica a fter c onquests i n G uerrero. I t i s a lso p ossible t hat t he M exica u nearthed t hese o bjects t hemselves w hile i nvolved i n t heir o wn " archaeological"

t erms

e xploits a t v arious l ocations.

H eirlooms i n M exica c aches w ere p robably v iewed a s p owerful o bjects a ssociated w ith t he p ast.

i n g eneralized H eirlooms a nd

f oreign l apidary p ieces d o n ot g enerally o ccur i n i solation w ithin

a

c ache, b ut r ather a ppear t o b e d eposited a long w ith o ther o ld o r a lien p ieces. T here i s, h owever, n o a pparent p attern i n d istribution t o

s uggest

t hat

t he M exica w ere a ware o f h istorical

a nd

c ultural

d ifferences r epresented b y t hese a rtifacts. H eirlooms w ere p robably v alued f or t heir a ntiquity a nd a ge m ore t han s pecific h istorical o r d ynastic a ssociations. C onnotations o f a ge a nd a ntiquity w ere a lso a ssociated w ith p articular s tyles t hat made h eirlooms p owerful a nd v enerated o bjects. T he M exica w ere k nown t o h ave i mitated e arlier a rtistic s tyles, p articularly i n t he e arly p hases o f M exica a rt. 75 I n s ome c ases i t i s u nclear w hether a c ached o bject w as i ndeed a n a ncient p iece t hat h ad b een h anded d own f or g enerations, o r w hether i t w as a n i mitation o f a n e arlier f orm. U ltimately t he d istinction i s u nimportant b ec ause a rchaisms i n s tyle s erved t he s ame p urpose a s h eirloomed p ieces t o c reate t he i llusion o f c ontinuities w ith p revious t raditions.

5 2

M ost t ion

o f

l apidary f igurines l ack a ttributes a llowing p articular s upernaturals.

t he i dentifica-

W hen d eities c an b e

r ecognized,

t here i s a c ertain c onsistency i n s ubject m atter. W ater o r m ountain g ods a ppear t o b e r ecurrent t hemes i n l apidary f igurines. S everal M ixtec-style T laloc f igurines a nd p laques h ave b een f ound a M exica s tyle w ater/maize g oddess ( Plates 5 a t hrough 5 c).

a s w ell a s T he f re-

q uent d epiction o f w ater d eities i s a ppropriate c onsidering t he c onnection b etween g reenstone a nd w ater. H owever, T laloc's a ppeara nce i s a lso n oteworthy b ecause h e i s n ot o nly a g od o f w ater a nd f ertility, c al

b ut

a lso a g od

o f g reat a ntiquity w ith p articular h istori-

a ssociations f or t he M exica ( Pasztory, H eirlooms

a ntiquity. s ome c ases

w ere

p robably

v enerated

I n p ress a ). a s g eneralized

s ymbols

o f

T he p recise s ource f or t hese o bjects i s u nclear a nd i n t hey m ay h ave b een i mitations r ather t han a ctual h eir-

l ooms. R uling g roups t raditionally a ttempted t o e mphasize l inkages w ith t he a ncestors t o l egitimize p ositions o f a uthority. T he M exica c ontinued t his p ractice b y b urying a ncient o bjects t hat r epresented p owerful l inks w ith t he g reat c ivilizations o f t he p ast i n o rder t o s ymbolize

t he s mooth t ransition b etween P re-Mexica a nd M exica r ule.

S hells a nd M arine M aterials S hells v otive a nd

o ccurred i n b oth w orked a nd u nworked f orm i n P re-Mexica m ortuary c ontexts. T he M exica w orked s hell t hrough

p olishing, p erforation, a nd c arving, i nto a v ariety o f o rnaments. U nwd rked s hell a nd o ther m arine m aterials, s uch a s c oral a nd s ponge, w ere a lso c ached b y t he M exica. R aw o r u nworked m arine m aterials w ere e xceptions t o t he u niversal M esoamerican p ractice o f d epositing o nly w orked a nd r efined m aterials i n o fferings. 76 T he i mportance o f t hese marine o fferings m ay h ave r esided i n t heir d istant o rigins a s w ell a s i n t he f act t hat e ven b efore t hey w e ,— c ut m an , t hey w ere a lready w orked b y n ature.

a nd

p olished

b y

S hell a nd o ther m arine m aterials w ere s ometimes v aluable b ecause t hey w ere a cquired f rom f ar-away G ulf o r P acific c oasts. A s e xotic a nd i mported m aterials r esulting f rom t rade o r t ribute, s hells r ef lected e conomic a nd p olitical s tatus. N oteworthy i s t he c oncentrat ion o f m arine m aterials i n c aches a t T enochtitlan ( particularly i n t he T emplo M ayor), a nd t heir a bsence i n d eposits a t T latelolco a nd o ther c entres. T his m ay h ave r esulted f rom T enochtitlan's c entral r ole i n t he c eremonial r edistribution o f c ertain m aterials. I n B ernal D iaz d el C astillo's ( 1956) d escription o f T latelolco's e norm ous market, i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t he o mission o f s hells a nd o ther m ar : !ne m aterials, p erhaps m ore r estricted t o T enochtitlan's c ontrol. S hell o rnaments o ccurred i n b oth m ortuary a nd v otive o fferings a mong m ost P re-Mexica c ultures, e specially T eotihuacan. A mong t he M exica,

s hells w ere p olished,

w ere c ompletely s haped o rnaments.

p erforated,

a nd

s trung

t ogether,

o r

r eworked a nd c arved i nto d isk-, r ing-, o r o therI n s everal i nstances, a s pecific e lement o f d eity

i nsignia c an b e i dentified, s uch a s Q uetzalcoatl e ar a nd b reast o rnaments ( Plates 3 5c a nd 3 5d). T hese a dornments w ith s pecific s upernatural a ssociations w ill b e d iscussed l ater i n t he s ection o n u nique a spects o f M exica v otive p ractices i n c onnection w ith i nsignia. 5 3

C ertain

n atural

q ualities o f s hells m ade

t hem

s ignificant a s o rnaments. T he s mooth a nd p olished p articularly t he g lossy s heen o f m other o f p earl,

a ppealing

a nd

s urface o f s hells, w as a esthetically

a ppreciated b y t he M exica ( Sahagün , 1 963:231). T he n oise-making q uality o f c ertain s hells w as a lso s ignificant. W arriors w ore s hells t hat r attled

i n o rder

t o

f righten t heir e nemies

( Tezozomoc,

1 980 :312)

a nd t he s hells o f c ertain s ea s nails w ere c alled " rattling o bjects" w hile o thers w ere r eferred t o a s b ells ( Seler, 1 960b, 1 1:436). I t a ppears t hat b ells, s hells, a nd r attles m ay h ave b een c onceived o f a s n oisemaking w arnings r attlesnake.

a ssociated

w ith

d anger a nd

t he

s ound

o f

a

U nworked m arine m aterials w ere l ikewise v alued f or p articular i nherent q ualities. I n l argely u nmodified f orm, s eashells, c oral, a nd s ponge r etained t heir n atural a ssociations w ith t heir s ources o f o rigin, n amely l arge b odies o f w ater. B roda ( in p ress) h as a lso i nterpreted t he p rofusion o f m arine m aterials i n M exica c aches a s t he s ymbolic e xpression o f t he p resence o f t he s ea. T he s ymbolic i dentif ication b etween s hells a nd w ater i s e mphasized i n s ome i nstances b y t he

a pplication o f b lue a nd

b lack p aint

( both a ssociated w ith

w ater

a nd T laloc) t o s hells f ound i n c ertain c aches ( Gussinyer, 1 970a). S eashells ( tapachtli) w ere a lso s een a s h ard, b one-like c ontainers t hat h oused e dible c reatures ( Sahagün, s hells w ere l ike h uman. b one t hat s erved c reatures, f unctioned ( Matos,

1 963:60 , 2 30 ). A s a s v essels c ontaining

s uch, l ive

a nd c ontaining s ustenance. S ometimes t he s hell i tself a s a r eceptacle f or a n o ffering s uch a s a g reenstone

1 980 :81),

C ertain

a nother m etaphor f or s ustenance.

s hells h ad

a dditional m eaning.

R ed

p articular c haracteristics t hat g ave t hem a n s eashells w ere s ingled

o ut

a s t ribute i n t he

C odex M endoza ( Cooper C lark, 1 938, 1 11:38r) a nd S ahagün's i nformants m entioned c hili-red a nd v ermillion s hells ( tapachtli; S ahagün, 1 963:230).

T hese r ed

s eashells m ay h ave b een

1 articularly

a ssociated

w ith b one, w hile t he r ed p igment m ay h ave b een v iewed a s b lood. T he s piral s hape o f o ther t ypes o f s hells ( tecciztli) made t hem v alued f or t heir n oise-making p roperties. T hese s hells w ere s aid t o b e b lown a nd p robably f unctioned a s c eremonial t rumpets ( ibid.: 2 31). S eashells w ith r ough, s cabrous, h oney-combed e xteriors a nd s mooth, s hiny, i rridescent i nteriors w ere h ighly p rized a nd w ere g iven t he a ppelations q uetzalatzcalli, c halchiuhatzcalli, a nd u itzitzilatzcalli ( Sahagün, 1 963:231). C ertain s hells h ad o ther d istinguishing c haract eristics t hat m ay h ave h ad c ounterparts i n t he h uman r ealm. F or e xample, s piny s hells m ay h ave b een e quated w ith r ulers o r n oblemen, d escribed

a s

( Sahagün,

1 969:245).

" spiny"

T herefore,

a nd

s hells

v ariety o f g eneral

a nd

" thorny"

a nd

b ecause n o o ne c ould d raw n ear t hem

o ther m arine m aterials

s pecific m eanings.

p robably

I n g eneral,

h a4

a

t hese c ommodi-

t ies w ere a ssociated w ith t he e conomic a nd p olitical s tatus r equired t o o btain t hese m aterials f rom f ar-away p laces i n t rade o r t ribute. W orked a nd u nworked m arine m aterials h ad m ore s pecific m eanings. T he a esthetic a ppreciation o f p olished a nd w orked s urfaces m ade s hell o rnaments p recious o fferings. T he n oisemaking p roperties o f s hells m etaphorically l inked t hem t o b ells a nd r attles, m aking t hem f eari nspiring s ymbols o f w arning. U nworked a nd u nmodified m arine m ater ials w ere p robably s ymbolically c onnected w ith w ater, h uman b one, a nd

v essels

f or p recious

s ustenance.

C ertain v arieties o f 5 4

s hell

m ay

h ave h ad m ore s pecific f unctions a s c eremonial b een a ssociated w ith r ulership a nd b lood.

t rumpets o r m ay

h ave

p ottery w as a s tandard

c om-

P ottery R eceptacles a nd B raziers I n

P re-Mexica c aches a nd b urials,

p onent o ften s erving a s a r eceptacle f or o ther p arts o f t he o ffering, a nd s pecialized c ache v essels w ere t he m ost s tandard f eatures o f M aya a nd Z apotec c aches. A lthough p ottery a rtifacts o ccurred i n M exica c aches, t hey w ere n ot a s tandard e lement. N oteworthy i s t he a lmost c omplete a bsence o f A ztec p ottery i n T emplo M ayor c aches. O nly t en p er c ent o f t he c eramic m aterial f rom t he T emplo M ayor i s p rehispanic ( Ahuja O ., o ften w as S ome

1 982:245). W hen p ottery o ccurred i n M exica c aches, i t s ignificant f or s ymbolic m ore t han f unctional r easons.

v essels

w ere

h eirlooms o r i mitations o f

o lder

f orms,

w hile

o thers w ere i mported o r s pecialized c eremonial w ares. P ottery h eirlooms o r i mitations o f e arlier s tyles p robably h ad a m eaning s imilar t o t hat o f l apidary h eirlooms t o s ymbolize l inks w ith p ast t raditions. S everal T eotihuacan s tyle v essels h ave b een f ound i n c aches ( Batres, 1 902:17; G ussinyer, 1 970a; C astillo T . a nd S olis O ., 1 975:54), w hile T oltec P eriod G uatemalan p lumbate w as f ound i n t he T emplo M ayor e xcavations ( Matos, 1 980 :34) ( Plates 6 a, 6 b a nd 7 a). T wo o ther f orms w ith h istorical c onnotations a re v essel a nd t he T laloc e ffigy b razier. T he M exica m ay

t he T laloc h ave f ound

T laloc v ases a t T eotihuacan o r X ochicalco o r m ay h ave s een t hem d epicted i n m urals a t T eotihuacan. A s mall c eramic T laloc V essel i dentical t o t he t ype k nown f rom T eotihuacan w as f ound i n O ffering n o. 6 ( Wagner, 1 982:122-123; B onifaz N ufo, 1 981: f g. 7 8), b ut i t i s u nclear w hether t his o bject i s a n h eirloom o r a n A ztec i mitation o f a T eotihuacan f orm. T he M exica v ersions o f t he T laloc v essel a re o ften p olychromed

a nd

a re m uch m ore r efined

a nd

e laborate t han t he

t ypes

k nown f rom T eotihuacan a nd X ochicalco ( Plate 9 a c f. 8 a a nd 8 b). I n a ddition, t he s ymbolic i dentification o f t he v essel a s a s ource f or r ain a nd f ertility o r m aize i s r einforced b y o ther e ffigy v essels. A w ater g oddess e ffigy v essel w as f ound i n R oom 2 ( Plate 7 b), w hile a p air o f m aize g oddess e ffigy v essels w ith i ncised T lalocs o n t he b ack h ave b een f ound i n R oom 3 ( Matos, 1 981; E . U mberger, p ersonal c omm unication,

D ecember,

1 981).

T he M exica a lso p roduced b raziers a lmost i dentical t o o r e laborate t han T oltec p eriod e ffigy b raziers o r u rns f ound a t

m ore T ula

( Plates 1 0a a nd 1 0b c f. 8 c). T hese m ay r epresent a ttempts t o i mitate a nd/or s urpass p ottery f orms o f e arlier c ultures. T his p rocess o f i mitation a nd e laboration s erved t o e mphasize c ontinuities b etween M exica a nd P re-Mexica c ultures a nd a lso t o s uggest M exica s uperior ity. T hese b raziers o r u rns o ften d epicted T laloc o r a T laloc/Maize D eity h ybrid, w hich s uggests a s imilar f unction f or t hese r eceptacles a s s ymbolic s ources f or w ater, m aize, a nd s ustenance i n g eneral ( Plate 1 0c c f. O ther i ncluded

1 0a).

s pecialized e xotic

t ypes o f p ottery d eposited

i mported w ares.

M any e xamples o f

c hromed M ixteca-Puebla w are ( Noguera, 1 979:231ff; B atres, 1 902) h ave b een f ound s ide o f t he C eremonial P recinct ( Plate 6 c). 5 5

i n

M exica

c aches

e xquisitely p oly-

1 968; M ateos H iguera, i n c aches i nside a nd o utT hese e xotic a nd u nusual

s pecimens o f v aluable,

p ottery w ere n ot m ere r eceptacles,

b ut

r ather w ere a lso

l uxurious w ares.

U nusual a nd e laborate c eremonial p ottery w as a lso d eposited i n M exica c aches. I ntricately p ainted i ncense p ots a nd l adles w ere f ound i n o ne d eposit u nearthed b y B atres ( 1902:20ff). S keletal i magery w as a r are t heme i n A ztec c eramics. C inerary u rns i n t he f orm o f 1 1:895;

s kulls w ere f ound a t C alle d e l as E scalerillas ( Seler, 1 960a, P ehafiel, 1 910), w hile s kulls a nd c rossbones w ere p ainted Q n

p ottery f rom E l V olador ( Noguera,

1 968; M ateos H iguera,

1 979:232).

P ottery v essels w ere o nly s poradically d eposited c aches a nd w ere o ften s ignificant f or s ymbolical r ather

7 7

i n M exica t han f unc-

t ional r easons. S ome w ares h ad h istorical c onnotations, w hile o ther t ypes w ere e xotic a nd l uxury i tems. R ain o r m aize d eities o ften o ccurred o n e ffigy v essel o r b razier f orms a nd m ay h ave a lluded t o t he v essel a s s ource f or w ater, m aize, o r s ustenance i n g eneral. S pecialized c eremonial t ypes o f c eramics w ere a lso d eposited i n c aches, h owever t heir p recise m eaning i s u nclear.

C hipped O bsidian A rtifacts

e tc.)

C hipped o bsidian a rtifacts ( blades, a rrows, p erforators, c ores, t ypically o ccurred i n c aches a nd b urials i n t he B asin o f M exico

s ince P re-Classic

t imes.

E xceptions

t o

t his r ule w ere

t he o fferings

o f T ula, h owever, t he s ignificance o f t his e xclusion i s u nclear. C hipped o bsidian o bjects w ere d eposited i n M exica c aches i n t he f orm o f b lades o r p rojectile p oints. C hipped

o bsidian

p robably h ad

a v ariety o f m eanings

b ased

o n

n atural a nd f unctional q ualities o f t he m aterial i tself. O bsidian w as a d ense, g lassy, h ard, b rittle s ubstance t hat w as f laked a nd c hipped t o f orm s harp c utting e dges ( Sahagün, 1 963:226-7). T here w ere m any v arieties o f o bsidian, r anging f rom a c ommon v ariety u sed t o m ake f unctional t o

r are,

f ashioned

i mplements

p recious,

( razors,

b eautiful

s crapers,

v arieties

t hat

i nto p recious o r c eremonial o bjects.

a wls, w ere

c ores, p olished

e tc.) a nd

T his l atter t ype o f

o bsidian w as s aid t o s hine, t o b e l ike t he l ovely c otinga, a nd t o b e l ike w ater a bout t o f orm a d roplet ( xiuhmatlalitztli; i bid.: 2 27). P olished o bsidian a rtifacts w ill b e d iscussed l ater i n t he s ection o n u nique a spects o f M exica c aches. O bsidian

w as

f laked

i nto

a v ariety o f

f unctional

i mplements,

i ntimately c onnected w ith t he m eaning o f t he m aterial i tself. O bsidian w as c hipped t o f orm s harp a nd p ointed e dges f or c utting a nd p erforating. A s s uch, o bsidian w as n aturally c onnected w ith w eapons, a nd s acrificial a nd a uto-sacrificial i mplements. T hese f unctional a ssociations t o o bsidian, d eath,

d eath

w ere r eflected i n m etaphorical a nd s ymbolical a llusions w hich c entre o n i magery r elating c oncepts o f s acrifice,

t ermination,

a nd d evouring.

O bsidian w as m etaphorically a nd s ymbolically c onnected w ith a nd s acrifice. N ahuatl p oetry o ften a lludes t o " death I v ; t he

o bsidian b lade" w hich r eferred t o t he g lorified d eath o f a w arrior i n b attle o r s acrifice ( Matos, 1 975). I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat o bsidian i s u sed i n r efined p oetic i magery, w hile f lint i s n ever

5 6

f ound

i n a c ontext

o f

l iteral

o r

s ymbolical

r efinement.

O bsidian w as

a lso c onnected w ith t he o bsidian-bladed w inds, t he c old, b iting w inds o f M ictlan ( Land o f t he D ead), w here t here w as a lso a n o bsidiank nifed h ill ( Sahagün, 1 952:41). C alendrically, o bsidian ( itztli) w as a lso a ssociated w ith t he t ermination o r " death" o f t emporal c ycles. P ersonified a s I tztapaltotec, o bsidian w as p aired w ith X iuhtecuhtli ( Old F ire G od)

a s t he L ord

r itual c alendar O bsidian

( Caso,

o f

t he 2 0th t recena,

1 967:26).

t he l ast m onth o f

t he

/ 8

o verlapped w ith f lint

i n s ome a rchaeological

c ontexts

a nd s ymbolical m eanings. I n T enochtitlan, o bsidian w as o ften f ound i n c aches c ontaining f lint. F lint, h owever, w as c learly o f g reater i mportance

i n T enochtitlan,

w here i t w as c ached

i n e normous

q uanti-

t ies i n t he f orm o f k nives, w hile o bsidian w as f ound p rimarily i n t he f orm o f p rojectile p oints. C hipped o bsidian a rtifacts ( blades a nd p oints) w ere p articularly c oncentrated i n T latelolco, w here f lint b lades w ere r arely f ound. T his u nequal d istribution m ay r eflect t he h igher s tatus o f T enochtitlan o ver T latelolco. F lint, a d ense, v olcanic s tone, w as a lso f ashioned i nto s harp i mplements, h owever i ts s ymbolic m eaning w as d istinct f rom t hat o f o bsidian. O bsidian i mplem ents w ere s ometimes s tuck i nto t he j aw o f s kulls, h owever m uch m ore f requent T he

w ere f lint k nives i nserted

o bsidian

m ace

i nto

t he n asal o r

o ral

s tuck i nto t he j aw o f a s kull i n o ne

c avity.

c ache

w as

p erhaps a p unned a llusion t o d eath i n w ar o r s acrifice. B oth o bsid ian a nd f lint w ere b asically a ssociated w ith s acrifice a nd d eath, b ut o bsidian c ould, u nder c ertain c ircumstances, r epresent b eauty a nd r efinement, w hile f lint w as a lways c oarse a nd r ough a nd h ad a m ore c omplicated

s ignificance w hich w ill b e d iscussed

C hipped

l ater.

o bsidian o bjects o ccurred c ommonly i n M exica c aches a nd

s ignified s acrifice, d eath, a nd t ermination. S uch a ssociations w ere b ased o n i nherent q ualities o f t he m aterial t hat m ade i t s uitable f or s harp c utting e dges u sed i n b attle o r s acrifice. S uch l ethal, b iting e dges c onjured u p i mages o f v oracious a nd d evouring e arth a nd d eath d eities, w hich w ere f requently d epicted w ith b lades e merging f rom t heir s keletal o ral o r n asal o rifices ( Plates 1 6a a nd 1 6b). A s a n i nstrument o f d eath, o bsidian w as a ssociated n ot o nly w ith t he t ermin ation o f h uman l ife, b ut a lso w ith t he e nd o f v arious t emporal c ycles a s w ell. S acrificial R emains a nd P erishable O fferings S acrifices

o f h umans a nd

s mall a nimals w ere d eposited

s poradic-

a lly i n P re-Mexica v otive a nd m ortuary c ontexts. H uman s kulls w ere t he m ost f requently d eposited b one r emains p laced i n M exica c aches, f ollowed b y b ird s acrifices a nd a v ariety o f o ther a nimal o fferi ngs. 79 R are a nd e xotic a nimals, d eposited i n c aches, i ncluded c rocodiles, j aguars, s awfish, a nd f ish. T he p resence o f c ache v essels, u sually e mpty b ut o ccasionally w ith o rganic r emains, s ugg ests t hat b uried t ime,

s acrifices o f

o fferings.

p erishable m aterials w ere a lso d eposited

T hese r emnants,

p articularly f rom P re-Mexica H uman

s kulls a nd b ird

h owever,

h ave r arely s urvived

i n o ver

t imes.

s acrifices w ere f requently

d eposited

i n

c aches a nd a ppear t o h ave h ad a g eneral s ignificance a s e nduring s ymbols o f s acrifice. B ones, w orked i nto a wl-like o bjects, w ere o ccasionally c ached, p erhaps a s a ctual i mplements o r s ymbols o f a uto-

5 7

s acrifice. B one, l ike s hell, w as r egarded a s a p ermanent, s ymbolic r eceptacle o f l ife ( Sahagün, 1 963:230). W orked h uman a nd a nimal s kulls, o ften w ith a f lint k nife i nserted i n t he n asal o r o ral a perture, i zed f orm,

i ndicate t hat t hese a rtifacts w ere d eposited i n s keletald evoid o f r emnants o f l iving f lesh ( Plates ha a nd 1 1b).

A s " empty" r eceptacles o f l ife, t hese m ay h ave f unctioned a s s ymbols o f d eath a nd s acrifice. T he f requent a nd w idespread o ccurrence o f b ird r emains f ound i n c aches i s n ot s urprising, f or S ahagün s ays t hat " all k inds o f l iving t hings," p articularly v arious b irds, w ere r egarded a s s uitable g ifts f or o fferings ( Sahagün, 1 951:181). C ertain

c ached

s acrifices o f

e xotic a nimals m ay h ave

h ad

m ore

p articular m eanings. C rocodiles f rom r iverine o r s wampy e nvironments w ere f ound i n C oyolxauhqui C ist 1 a nd 3 ( Blanco P adilla, 1 978). T he t wo c rocodiles f ound i n C oyolxauhqui C ist 1 m ay h ave a ccompanied t he t wo s tatues o f t he T wo-Horned G od f ound i n t his c ache. C ipactli, o ne v ersion o f t he e arth m onster, w as i dentified a s a c rocodile, t heref ore p erhaps t he c rocodile h eads s erved t o i dentify t he p resence o f T onacatecuhtli a nd s ymbolized c reation, b eginnIngs, a nd o rigins i n t he f orm o f t he d ate 1 c rocodile ( ce c ipactli). " T he c rocodile h ead i n C oyolxauhqui C ist 3 d id n ot a ccompany a T wo-Horned d eity s culpt ure,

a nd

p erhaps

f unctioned

a s a g eneral a uspicious

s ymbol,

b ecause

t he d ate o ne c rocodile w as c onsidered a d ay o f g ood f ortune, l ucky f or m erchants a bout t o e mbark o n a j ourney ( Sahagün, 1 959:9) a nd f or t he c oronation o f M exica r ulers ( Durän 1 967, 1 1:311). S awfish s nouts w ere a lso f ound i n c aches, s ometimes i n a ssociation w ith t he T woH orned G od ( Plate 1 1c) ( Contreras, 1 979a; C astillo T . a nd S olis O ., 1 975:43; A ngulo, 1 966a). K nown a s a cipaquitli, t he s awfish o r s wordf ish w as r elated t o t he c rocodile ( cipactli) l inguistically a nd s ymbolically. B oth w ere p erhaps v iewed a s d evourers, a nd b oth m ay h ave b een e quated w ith c ipactli a s t he m ythological e arth m onster o r a s

a d ay s ign.

F urthermore,

t he c rocodile a nd s ymbols a lluding

t he m arine o r r iverine a ssociation o f

s wordfish w as p erhaps r etained s o t hat t hese w ere t o t heir w atery o rigins. M arine f ish a nd o ther

m aterials f rom t he o cean w ere a lso f ound i n C oyolxauhqui C ists 1 3 , a nd t hese m ay h ave s ymbolized w atery o rigins a s w ell. O ther

r are o r u nusual

s uch a s c oyotes

a nimals

( Blanco P adilla,

f ound

1 978:35)

i n c aches o r d ogs

a nd

i ncluded c anines, ( Gussinyer,

1 970b;

H eyden, 1 970), o r f elines, s uch a s j aguars ( Garcia C ook a nd A rana A ., 1 978:39). T hese a nimal s acrifices p robably h ad s pecific m eanings, h owever n ot e nough i s t hese m aterials. " Newly f ormed"

p resently k nown t o p ermit

a nd p erishable c ommodities,

t he i nterpretation o f

i ncluding m aize

a nd

o ther f ood, f lowers, c hia, c opal, i ncense, r ubber s pattered p aper, a nd b lood c overed m aguey t horns, w ere a lso p recious o fferings ( Sahagün , 1 951:181, 1 84-5). T hese e phemeral m aterials h ave r arely s urvived o ver t ime a nd i t i s u nclear t o w hat e xtent C ached c opal, h owever, w ere d eposited i n c aches. 81

s uch p erishables h as s urvived i n

s everal d ifferent f orms, s ymbolic o f s acrifice. C opal f igurines w ere p erhaps e quated w ith h uman s acrifices, w hile c opal k nives w ere p erishable v ersions o f o bsidian o r f lint k nives ( Plate 1 2a). F lint k nives s tuck i nto b alls o f c opal p erhapq s ignified a k illed o r b itten s acrifice t o b e c onsumed

b y

t he e arth. "

5 8

A lthough s acrificial

r emains

a v ariety o f s pecific m eanings, r emains i s t he g eneral c oncept

f ound

i n M exica c aches p robably h ad

t hese a re n ow l ost t o u s. t hat p erishable s acrifices

A ll t hat a nd m ore

p ermanent s ymbols o f s acrifice w ere i mportant c omponents o f c aches. A s m entioned i n t he e arlier d iscussion o f d efinitions a nd t erminolog ies,

t he

N ahuatl w ords

f or s acrifice a nd o ffering w ere

t he

s ame.

T he c oncepts o f d eath, d estruction, a nd t ermination, i nherent i n t he s acrificial a ct, w ere i ntegral a spects o f M exica o fferings. T hese c oncepts w ere m aterially a nd s ymbolically r epresented i n c aches t he f orm o f a ctual s acrificial r emains o r a s o bjects a lluding

i n t o

s acrifice. M utilated S tone S culpture T he

m utilation,

d estruction,

a nd

c eremonial b urial

o f

s tone

m onuments w as p racticed b y s everal P re-Mexica g roups a t s uch s ites a s S an L orenzo, X ochicalco, T ikaI, T ula, a nd C hichen I tzä. The M exica b uried c onsiderable a mounts o f s tone s culpture, h owever i n o nly a f ew i nstances w as t he s culpture d amaged, m utilated, o r s ymbolically k illed. I n many c ases, t he b uried s culpture w as b uried u nbroken. I n a ddition, c ached m onuments o ften t ook a s tandard f orm o f a p articular d eity, t he T wo-Horned D eity. T hese w ill b e d iscussed i n t he l ater s ection o n u nique M exica v otive p ractices. T here a re o nly a f ew e xamples o f M exica s culpture t hat w ere l iterally o r s ymbolically d amaged b efore i nterment. A d ancing m onkey w ith

a b uccal m ask ( Ehecatl-Ozomatli)

b uried

s culpture w as

f ound b roken a nd

i n t he s tairway o f a s mall a doratory o utside

t he

C eremonial

P recinct ( Gussinyer, 1 969) ( Plate 1 2b). T he g reenstone s keletal g oddess e xcavated b y B atres w as p artially b roken, d amage w hich p rob a bly o ccurred b efore i nterment ( Batres, 1 902:14-5) ( Plate 1 3a). h i 4 E xamples o f s culptures t hat w ere p erhaps s ymbolically k illed i ncluded t he M acuilxochitl d eposit f ound o utside t he C e i :emonial P recinct w hich w as c ompletely c overed w ith r ed p lacement f igures,

o f l eft

p igment

( Batres,

1 902:45ff),

s ix c rudely c arved s tandard b earers a nd l eaning o n t he s tairway o f t he t hird

a nd

t he

t wo s tanding e poch o f t he

T emplo M ayor ( Matos, 1 978:14-15) ( Plates 1 4a t hrough 1 4c). A lso f ound i n t his l ocation o n t he t hird e poch s tairway w as a s tuccoc overed

h ead w ith T laloc

f eatures,

f angs a nd g oggles,

e merging

f rom a

s erpent. T here

d oes n ot a ppear t o b e a s ingle o r u niform e xplanation f or

a ll o f t hese m onuments. T he b Loken d ancing m onkey may h ave b een t he o ld i dol i nterred a t t he r ededication o r r econstruction o f t he a dorat ory. T he e ight l eaning s tanding s culptures m ay a lso h ave b een " laid t o r est" a t t he r ededication o f a n ew e poch o f c onstruction o f t he T empi°

M ayor.

d eposits, s o l ike a d ead v ariety

o f

R ed

p igment

w as

o ften .

a ssociated

w ith

m iniature m usical

i nstruments,

w hich

w ould

a ppropriate b urial o fferings f or t he g od o f ancing a nd b oth s ymbolic a nd u seful o bjects ( Plate 1 4b). °A J B atres a nd o f

m ortuary

t hat t he M acuilxochitl s culpture m ay h ave b een i nterred h uman b eing. T he a ccompanying a rtifacts i ncluded a

s keletal g reenstone g oddess i s m ore d ifficult

h ave s ingi n g n g

b een a s

t o e xplain

i nterpret. T his g reenstone s culpture w as f ound b eneath a l ayer t ezontle n ear w hat w ould h ave b een t he s teps l eading u p t o t he

H uitzilopochtli

t emple,

w here s everal 5 9

i conographically r elated m onu-

m ents

w ere

a lso

f ound.

T hese m onuments i ncluded

a nother

s keletal

g oddess ( Seler, 1 960a:844), t he c olossal C oyolxauhqui g reenstone h ead, t he C oyolxauhqui m onolithic r elief, a nother r elief C oyolxauhqui h ead f ragment ( excavated b y G amio; H .B. N icholson, U niversity S eminar, O ctober, 1 981), a nd a s culptural r elief f ragment o f a d ism embered b ody f ound A rana A ., 1 978). T he

i n o ne o f t he C oyolxauhqui

c ists

( Garcia C ook a nd

g reenstone s keletal g oddess w as a u nique e xample o f

s culpture

t hat

c ombined

" archaistic"

t raits w ith M exica

M exica

c onventions

a nd c ompletely u nique c haracteristics ( Plates 1 3a a nd 1 3b). U mberger ( 1981:80) p oints o ut t hat t he f orm o f t his m onument i s b ased o n a t ype o f s culpture f rom T eotihuacan. H owever, i t a lso w ears t he f inely c arved, t iered a nd f eathered p anache c onsistently s een o n M exica C oyolxauhqui m onuments, w hile t he b otom o f t he s culpture b ears a n A ztec T laloc/Tlaltecuhtli h ybrid ( an e arth g oddess w ith g ogglel ike e yes a nd T laloc f angs) a lmost i dentical t o t he o ne d epicted o n t he b ottom o f t he c olossal C oatlicue ( Plates 1 3b a nd 1 3c). T he s keletal h ead o f t he m onument l inks i t t o g oddesses o f w omen w ho d ied i n c hildbirth.

t he C ihuateteo, p atron H owever, u nlike t hese

s tandardized i mages, t he g reenstone g oddess i s c arved w ith f our s keletal a rms a nd a s i pll f igure, a lso w ith f our a rms, i s c arved o n t he b ack o f

t he h ead.

°

U mberger ( 1981:83) s uggests t hat t hese s culptures m ay h ave b een c reated t o c elebrate t he b irth o f H uitzilopochtli i n 1 f lint ( 1480) a t t he e nd o f t he r eign o f A xayacatl. M atos ( Umberger, 1 981:82) b elieves t hat t he Huitzilopochtli h alf o f t he T emplo M ayor w as c onc eived o f a s C oatepec, " Hill o f t he S erpent," w hich w as t he m ythical s etting o f t he b irth o f Huitzilopochtli a nd t he e vents l eading u p t o t he d ecapitation o f h is s ister C oyolxauhqui. T he b urial o f t hese m onuments

a t

t he b ase o f

t he h ill o f C oatepec w ould

t herefore r epli-

c ate t he p ortion o f t he H uitzilopochtli b irth s tory c ycle c ulminating i n t he d ecapitation a nd d estruction o f C oyolxauhqui, t he e nemy s ister o f

H uitzilopochtli a nd o f

t he M exica n ation.

R ed P igment R ed p igmentation, f ound

i n

o ften i n t he f orm o f c innabar o r h ematite,

a v ariety o f m ortuary a nd v otive c ontexts.

I n

t he

w as P re-

C lassic P eriod i t w as f requently a ssociated w ith b urials a t L a V enta a nd T latilco, a nd l ater, d uring t he C lassic P eriod, i t w as k nown i n M aya t ombs. D uring t he C lassic P eriod, r ed p igmentation b egan t o o ccur i n v otive c ontexts a t X ochicalco, M onte A lbän, a nd l ater a t T ula. I n M exica v otive c aches, r ed p igmentation o ccurs i n a f ew i nstances

t hat a ppear

t o b e p articularly r elated

t o t he c oncepts

o f

d eath a nd b urial. I n M exica c aches, r ed p aint w as f ound t o c over a ll o r p art o f a n o ffering. I n t he c ache w ith a s culpture o f M acuilxochitl ( God o f d ancing a nd s inging), t he e ntire o ffering w as c overed w ith r ed p igm ent ( Batres, 1 902:49). T he a ssociated a rtifacts c onsisted o f a rticles i ndicative o f t he s tatus o f t he i nterred i ndividual, w hich w as a c ommon f eature o f f unerary o fferings ( Plate 1 4b). T hese o fferi ngs i ncluded a v ariety o f m iniature p ottery a nd s tone m usical i nstruments - a ll o bjects a ppropriate f or t he g od o f d ance a nd m usic. T hese a ccompanying a rtifacts s uggest t hat t he s culpture m ay h ave b een

60

c onceived

o f

a s

" dead"

r epresented b y t he r ed R ed

o r

" killed"

a nd

t his

w as

s ymbolically

p igmentation c overing t he e ntire d eposit.

p igmentation

a lso

o ccurs

o n

i ndividual

o bjects

w ithin

c aches, s uch a s o n v essels ( Estrada B almori, 1 979), o n g reenstone f igurines ( Garcia C ook a nd A rana A ., 1 978; C ontreras, 1 979a; A ngulo, 1 966b; B atres, 1 902:30), a nd o n s ome s hells ( Garcia C ook a nd A rana A .,

1 978).

t he

b lood

I n a ll o f s pilled

a t

t hese i nstances,

t he r ed

t he s ymbolic s acrifice

c olour m ay s ymbolize o r

d eath

o f

t hese

o bjects. E vidence o f I ncineration I n

P re-Mexica c ontexts,

c ommonly

a ssociated

w ith

c aches.

A f ew e xceptions,

t he i ncineration o f o fferings w as m ore

c remation

b urials,

h owever,

r ather

h ave b een f ound,

t han

v otive

s uch a s

t he

t erminal d eposits o f M aya s telae w ith b urned r emains. I t i s n otew orthy, h owever, t hat t he M aya d id n ot c remate t heir d ead, s o t he s ignificance o f i ncineration i s u nclear i n t his c ase. I n M exica c ontexts, c arbonized r emains h ave b een f ound i n a c ouple i nstances ( Garcia C ook a nd A rana A , 1 978:51ff; A ngulo, 1 966a), a nd t hese may r epresent o fferings c remated a nd b uried a s i f d ead. T emplo M ayor D eposit n o. 3 , m onolith, w as a c ylindrical c ist w ell a s a v ariety o f p recious o bsidian, s hell, a nd m etal, a s w ell

a ssociated w ith t he C oyolxauhqui t hat c ontained b urned r emains a s o bjects o f l apidary m aterials, a s f lint k nives a nd e xotic a nimal

b ones ( Garcia C ook a nd A rana A ., 1 978:51ff). T hese t ypes o f o bjects r esemble t he i nsignia a nd p recious o bjects b uried w ith s tone s culpt ure, h owever t his r ich d eposit l acked a ny s culpture. S tatus i nsign ia a nd e xotic o bjects w ere o ften p laced i n m ortuary d eposits o f t he c remated r emains o f M exica k ings ( See C hapter V III). I t a ppears p ossible t hat t his d eposit, w hich d id c ontain c harred h uman r emains, w as a ctually a n e lite b urial, p ossibly e ven t he b urial o f A huitzotl, w ho w as s aid t o h ave b een b uried n ext t o t he c uauhxicalco ( Tezozomoc, 1 980 :568ff). 8/ I f n ot a n a ctual b urial, p erhaps t hese r emains r esulted f rom b urial c eremonies s ubsequent t o t he i nitial b urial o f t he c remated

r emains.

A nother b urned o ffering w as

f ound

a t T latelolco

( Angulo,

1 966a).

I n c ontrast t o t he T emplo M ayor b urned o ffering, t hir . c ache c ontained i mplements o f w ar, s acrifice, a nd a uto-sacrifice, s uch a s a n o bsidian b lade, a f ew f lint k nives, a a wfish s nout, w ood s pearthrowers a nd m aces, a nd m aguey t horns. I n a ddition , t he s acrificial r emains o f s everal b irds a nd a c rocodile w ere a lso f ound. O ther c aches w ith s imilar c ontents a re c ommon a t T latelolco, c ontained i ncinerated r emains. T herefore, o f b urning m aterial o r

h owever n one o f t hese t he p recise s ignificance

i s u nclear i n t his i nstance d ue t o l ack t extual r eferences.

o f

c omparative

T he i ncineration o f a n o ffering i s a p rocess c ommonly a ssociated w ith c remation. A mong t he M exica, b urned c ache d eposits o ccur v ery r arely a nd i n s ome i nstances m ay r epresent b urials. O n t he b asis o f i nformation

p resently

b urial o f b urned

a vailable,

o fferings

a

i s u nclear.

6 1

p recise s ignificance

f or

t he

S ummary T he M exica c ontinued t o o ffer m any o bjects s imilar t o t hose b uried b y e arlier g roups i n M esoamerica. I t i s l ikely , h owever, t hat t he p recise m eaning o f t hese o bjects d iffered f or v arious c ultures t hroughout t ime d epending o n a ccompanying s ocio-political s tructures a nd r eligious s ystems. O bjects r eflecting c ontinuities w ith P reM exica v otive t raditions i ncluded a v ariety o f l uxurious, f unctional, a nd

s ymbolic

e lements.

L uxurious

a nd

e xotic

l apidary

s tones,

p articularly g reenstone, w ere f ashioned i nto o rnaments o r w ere h oarded a nd d eposited a s h eirlooms. S hells a nd o ther m arine m ater ials i mported f rom l ong d istances w ere a lso c ached i n b oth w orked a nd u nworked f orm. F unctional o bjects, s uch a s p ottery r eceptacles, w hich m ay h ave f unctioned a s c ontainers f or p erishable o fferings, a nd c hipped o bsidian a rtifacts, m any o f w hich m ay h ave b een p erforators f or a uto-sacrifice, w ere a lso i mportant c ache c omponents t hroughout t ime. S ymbolical e lements o ften a lluded t o d eath a nd t ermination. T hese s ymbols i ncluded s acrificial r emains ( either a nimal o r h uman), d amaged s tone s culpture, r ed p igmentation, a nd e vidence o f i ncinerat ion . M ost o f t hese a rticles a ppear t o h ave h ad a m ulti-faceted s ignificance f or t he M exica, h owever i t i s u nclear t o w hat e xtent t he m eaning d epended o n t he p articular c ontext o f t he p iece. I nnovations F rom t he p receding d iscussion, i t i s c lear t hat t he M exica c ontinued t o c ache o bjects s imilar t o t hose d eposited b y e arlier g roups i n M esoamerica. T here a re a lso c omponents o f M exica c aches t hat a re o fferings.

c ompletely u nique i n t he h istory o f M esoamerican b uried N ew a rtifact t ypes i ntroduced i nto t he v ocabulary o f

v otive o fferings s tone m onuments,

i nclude f lint k nives, l apidary s culptures,

i conographically s tandardized d eity i nsignia, a nd l apidary

m iniatures. O bjects m ore c ommon t o m ortuary o fferings, s uch a s m asks a nd m etal o rnaments, a re a lso i ntroduced i nto v otive c aches b y t he M exica. s ome o f

T he a ddition o f t hese d ifferent t ypes o f a rtifacts r eflects t he u nique a spects o f t he s ociety t hat p roduced t hem.

F lint K nives

M aya

O bjects m ade o f f lint w ere v ery r are i n P re-Mexica o fferings. c aches c ontained e ccentric f lints a nd s ometimeF f lake b lades,

w hile i solated c aches a t M onte A lbän ( Caso, 1 938:65) a nd C hichän I tzä ( Marquina, 1 964:855; T ozzer, 1 957:85) c ontained a f ew f lint b lades. T oltec P eriod d eposits a t T ula l acked f lint, h owever P ost-Toltec, A ztec I II c aches c ommonly c ontained s mall q uantities o f f lint k nives. F lint, t herefore, a ppeared t o b e p rimarily a ssociated w ith t he A ztec h orizon. I n M exica c aches, p articularly t hose i n t he T emplo M ayor, f lint k nives w ere u biquitous, a nd o ften o ccurred i n m assive q uantit ies ( Plate 1 5a). T he s ymbolic i mportance o f t he f lint k nife ( tecpatl)

t o t he M exica c annot b e o verstated.

b ased o n a w ide r ange o f c onnotations: m ythological, h istorical, a nd c alendrical.

I ts s ignificance f unctional,

F lint a nd k nife w ere a lmost s ynonymous t erms b ecause f lint p rimarily f ashioned i nto s acrificial i mplements ( Plate 1 5b). f unction o f t hese o bjects w as t o t ear, t o c ut, a nd a s s uch f lint w as a ssociated w ith t eeth,

6 2

w as

s ymbolical,

w as T he

a nd t o y ield b lood, c laws, s pines, a nd

t horns ( Beyer, 1 919:87). K nife a lso s tood i ndependently a s a s ymbol, w hich i s s uggested b y t he o ccurence o f c oarse s tone k nives, made o f a v ariety o f d ifferent m aterials, i n o ne c ache a ssociated w ith t he C oyolxauhqui r elief ( Garcia C ook a nd A rana A ., 1 978:43). T hese n onf unctional k nives w ere p robably r eplicas o f s acrificial k nives w ith s ymbolic s ignificance. T he c oarseness o f t he s tones s uggests a n e quation w ith f lint, w hich w as a lso c onsidered c oarse a nd r ough. F lint w as n ot m erely a s acrificial t ool, u sed a nd d iscarded i n c aches a s a f unctional i mplement, r ather i t h ad a n i ndependent v alue. F lint

o ccasionally o ccurred

i n o ther

f orms o r

i n p articular c ontexts

t hat i llustrated i ts s ymbolic s ignificance. S ometimes r ound b alls o f c opal w ere f ound a ttached t o u nhafted f lint b lades. C opal, a r esinous s ubstance, w as f requently o ffered a s b urned i ncense o r a s m odelled f igurines o r b alls. A ttached t o f lint k nives, t he c opal b all m ay h ave b een s ymbolically k illed o r b itten b y t he s harp b lade. S ome

f lint

b lades h ave r emnants o f c onch a nd

t urquoise m osaic

f aces

( Plate 1 5c), w hich m ay h ave r epresented d ates ( E. U mberger, 1 980 , p ersonal c ommunication). F lint s ometimes o ccurred i n c onjunction w ith s acrificial r emains, h owever t he c orrelation w as n ot a bsolute.

d eath

A s a t ool f or s acrifice, f lint w as s uperficially a ssociated a nd d estruction. C ached h uman a nd a nimal s kulls h ave

w ith b een

f ound w ith f lint k nives i nserted i nto t he n asal o r o ral c avity t o f orm a n i mage r epresenting d eath ( Plates ha a nd 1 1b). K nives a re o ften d epicted i n t he n ose a nd m outh o f M ictlantecuhtli a nd T lalt ecuhtli, d eath a nd e arth d eities r espectively, i n t he c odices ( Plates 1 6a a nd 1 6b). o r v oracious a spects.

T hese t raits p robably r efer t o t heir d evouring F urthermore, c ommoners w ere c remated w ith a

c ommon g reenish s tone o r a p iece o f f lint ( texoxoctli) p laced i n t he m outh ( Sahagüg 8 1 952:43; M atos, 1 975:68), a s a s ymbol o f t he h eart o f t he d eceased. T he w ith T his

d eeper

a nd m ore p ervasive s ignificance f or f lint

w as

n ot

s acrifice a nd d eath, b ut r ather w ith o rigins a nd b eginnings. s ymbolic a spect o f f lint i s e vident i n m ythical a nd c alendrical

a ssociations w ith f lint a nd t he f lint k nife. I n A ztec m ythology, f lint k nife w as b orn t o t he p rimordial c ouple, C itlallatonac

t he a g8

C itlalinicue ( Brundage, 1 979:35-6, 7 6, 1 67; N icholson, 1 971:400-1). ° A t b irth, t he f lint k nife f ell f rom t he n ight s ky o n t o C hicomortoc, t he mythological H ill o f t he S even C aves, w hich w as c onceived o f a s t he A ztec p lace o f o rigin. F rom t his s ingle f lint k nife, s prang t he 1 ,600 g ods. A s imilar M ixtec m yth r einforces t he a ssociation b etween f lint k nife a nd o rigins i n L ate P ost-Classic t hought. I n t he C odex V indobinensis,

t he c ulture h ero

f icial k nife ( Furst,

n ings t une,

C alendrically, a nd o rigins. 1

F lint

w as

1 978:95,

( 9 W ind)

i s b orn f rom a l arge s acri-

1 00).

f lint ( tecpatl) w as a lso a ssociated w ith b eginC onsidered a n a uspicious d ay s ign o f g ood f orr egarded

a s

l ucky f or t hose b orn o n

t his

d ate

( Sahagün, 1 957:77), p robably d ue t o i ts m ultiple s ymbolic a ffiliat ions. 1 F lint w as t he d ay s ign a nd b irth d ate o f H uitzilopochtli, a s w ell a s t he d ate o f h is f estival ( Sahagün, 1 957:77). I t w as a lso t he n ame o f t he y ear o f t he M exica d eparture f rom A ztlan ( Olmos i n G aribay, 1 973:41). T he m ythico-historical a rrival o f t he M exica a t T ula w as a lso C aso, 1 971:

s aid t o h ave t aken p lace o n t his d ate ( Durän, 1 964:21; T able 5 ). H istorically, 1 F lint w as t he y ear o f t he 6 3

o verthrow i t

w as

o f t he

( Umberger,

t he T epanecs d ate

o f

t o g ain M exica i ndependence a nd

t he " birth"

o f

t he

M exica

n ation

t herefore a s

w ell

1 981:280).

O n t he b asis o f n atural q ualities o f f lint i tself, t he m aterial a ssociated w ith f ire, r oughness, a nd p erhaps w ith t he M exica

w as

n ation i tself.

A ssociated

w ith f ire,

" This ( flint)

h as f ire w hen i t

i s s truck, s parks c ome o ut f rom i t, ( which) b urn, b urn t hings, s et t hings a fire..." ( Sahagün, 1 963:228). T he f ire-producing q ualities o f f lint made i t a n a ppropriate m etaphor f or w arfare a nd s acrifice, o ften

r eferred

1 :79-88; d escribed

t o w it h0 f ire a nd s moking m etaphors ( Garibay, 1 964, 9 1 11:20 , 4 9). F lint w as a lso a v olcanic, i gneous r ock, a s " slick, s lick i n a ll p arts," a nd " asperous... r ough...

s cabrous... ( and) d ented" ( Sahagün , 1 963:228). F lint w as t hus r egarded a s a r ough, c oarse s ubstance t hat s parked a nd s tarted f ires. T his i mage w ould h ave b een a n a ppropriate m etaphor f or t he M exica, f or

t hey v iewed

t hemselves a s b arbaric,

B asin o f M exico w ho " set f ire t he l ocal g roups i n t he a rea. T he l ar

f lint k nife w as

s ignificance

t o"

c oarse

i ntruders

( fought w ars w ith)

t herefore a n i mportant

f or t he M exica n ation.

a nd

i nto

t he

c onquered

s ymbol w ith p articu-

O n a s uperficial

l evel,

t he

f lint k nife w as a t ool o f s acrifice a nd w as a ssociated w ith d eath a nd d estruction . T he f lint k nife a lso h ad a s pecific m eaning a ssociated w ith o rigins a nd b eginnings i n c osmological, m ythological, c al, a nd c alendrical c ontexts. I t w as c losely i dentified w ith t he b irth o f o f

t he M exica m at

e,

b ut

h istorin ot o nly

a lso m ay h ave b een a s ymbol

t he M exica p eoples t hemselves.

T he T wo-Horned D eity C omplex S tone m onuments w ere k nown f rom P re-Mexica c aches,

h owever m ost

o f t hese s culptures w ere r itually d amaged b efore i nterment. A mong t he M exica, h owever, u nmutilated s tone a nd l apidary s culpture w ere c ached. F ound i ndependent o f s hrines o r a ltars, m any o f t hese s culpt ures w ere p erhaps m ade

s pecifically f or b urial.

T he m ost n umerous e xamples o f c ached M exica s culpture d epict a s tandardized d eity: a s eated m ale w ith t wo p rotuberances r ising f rom t he

c rown o f h is h ead.

T his g od w ill b e r eferred

t o a s

t he

" Two-

H orned D eity" a nd h is i dentity w ill b e d iscussed a nd i nterpreted b elow . T he i mportance o f t his d eity i s c learly d emonstrated b y h is w idespread d istribution t houghout T enochtitlan c aches a nd h is u niform a ssociation w ith l avish o fferings. H e w as c haracteristically b uried w ith a v ariety o f o fferings r esembling t he t ypes o f o bjects f ound i n e lite m ortuary c ontexts, n amely s tatus i nsignia a nd u seful a rticles. F or e xample, h e i s o ften a ccompanied b y a ttributes s uch a s l apidary masks, a nd l apidary a nd m etal o rnaments, o bjects, i ncluding s tone T laloc v ases, v essels

o r b y s ymbolically u seful a nd l apidary s taffs a nd

9 2

S culptures o f

t he T wo-Horned D eity

O ccurrence a nd C haracteristics T he a nd

T wo-Horned D eity a ppears

i s k nown f rom a t

i n c aches

t hri mhout

l east 1 8 e xcavated c aches.

64

T enochtitlan

M any o f

t he

T wo-

H orned I dols

f ound

i n M exica c aches a re r efined,

w ell

e xecuted

c arv-

i ngs, a t t imes o f c onsiderable i ntricacy ( Plates 1 7a t o 1 8c). H owe ver, m any s mall, c rudely c arved v ersions o f t his d eity a re a lso k nown, w hich s uggests t hat h e w as a n i mportant f igure f or b oth t he e lite a nd c ommoners i n A ztec s ociety ( Plate 2 0b). T he c haracteristic f eatures o f t his d eity a re f airly s tandardi zed. H e i s t ypically d epicted i n a c ompact, s eated p osture w ith h is k nees d rawn u p t o h is c hest a nd w ith a rms c rossed o ver h is k nees. H e w ears

o nly a k notted

l oincloth a nd

a f ew i nsignia.

T wo

r ounded

o r

r ectangular p rotuburances r ise f rom t he t op o f h is h ead. H is h eadb and i s u sually d ecorated w ith r ound j ewels o ften w ith a c url-shaped p rojection i n t he c entre o f h is f orehead. H is e ar o rnaments g enera lly c onsist o f a s quare p laque w ith a l onger p endant h anging f rom t he c entre. O n t he n ape o f h is n eck, h e w ears a b road, f an-shaped a ttachment. S ometimes h e w ears a v ertical p anel o n h is b ack c arved w ith o val b umps n otched a t t op a nd b ottom o r w ith a s imilar n otched f orm i n l ow r elief ( Plates 1 7b, 1 8a a nd 1 8c). O ften, h e i s d epicted w ith t wo t eeth p rojecting f rom t he u pper c orners o f h is m outh. H is f ace p aint, w hen i t s urvives, i s m ostly b lue, e xcept f or t he o val o f r ed

a round

h is m outh.

P revious I dentifications D espite t he s tandardization o f i nsignia a ssociated w ith t his d eity, t he i dentity o f t his g od h as b een d isputed. H e h as b een c alled X iuhtecuhtli ( Castillo T . a nd S oils O ., 1 975; M atos, 1 980), T epeyollotl ( Nicholson a nd K eber, 1 983; E strada B almori, 1 979:186; M ateos H iguera, 1 979), am ountain o r w ater g od i n g eneral ( Seler, 1 960a:850-3), o r s pecifically a s o ne o f t he t laloque, N appatecuhtli ( Heyden, 1 970). T he p rominent a ppearance o f t his d eity i n M exica c aches c alls T he

f or a c areful

t wo h ead

r econsideration o f h is

i dentity.

p rotuburances a re p erhaps h is m ost u nusual

a ttri-

b ute. T hese h ave p reviously b een i dentified a s f iredrills, c arapaces, a nd m aize e ars. X iuhtecuhtli ( the O ld F ire G od,

t urtle G od o f

T urquoise a nd t he S olar Y ear) i s o ften d epicted w ith t wo i n h is h eaddress a nd t hese a llude t o t he d rilling o f

f iredrills n ew f ire.

T urtle c arapaces h ave b een i dentified o n t he l apidary w hite s tone d epiction o f t his T wo-Horned G od ( Plates 1 8b a nd 1 8c) a nd o n a n e xtremely

f ine

c arving

o f

t his d eity

i n

t he

B asel

M useum

f ür

M ore a bstract t urtle c arapaces V ölkerkunde ( Plate 2 1a a nd 2 1b). 94 a re s een o n t he b acks o f speral r epresentations o f t he T wo-Horned G od ( Plates 1 7b a nd 1 8a). ' A dvocates o f s uch d iverse i dentificat ions a s X iuhtecuhtli a nd T epeyollotl h ave u sed t he t urtle a s e arth s ymbol t o s upport t heir r espective i dentifications b ased o n a ssumpt ions r egarding t he s tructure o f t he A ztec i deological s ystem. X iuhtecuhtli p roponents e mphasize t he d ialectical o r d ualistic n ature o f A ztec

t hought

a nd

t hus m aintain t he b alancing o f o pposites,

e arth

( turtle) a nd f ire ( Xiuhtecuhtli), w as i ntended ( F. S olis O lguin, p ersonal c ommunication , 1 984 ; M atos, 1 982b). T epeyollotl s upporters e mphasize t he t errestrial n ature o f T epeyollotl, r eflected i n t he n ame

o f

a nd K eber,

t he d eity t ranslated 1 983).

a s

" Heart o f

t he M ountain"

( Nicholson

T he t urtle s hell f orms h ave a lso b een i dentified

a s m aize e ars, w hich a re c onnected w ith T onacatecuhtli a nd T onac acihuatl a s L ords o f S ustenance ( Pasztory, 1 983; N agao, i n p ress). I n t he w hite s tone e xample a nd t he B asel p iece, m aize t assels a re 6 5

c learly

d elineated. 96 A nother i dentification w as p roposed b y D ietschy ( 1941), w ho s uggested t he B asel s culpture r epresented a f usion o f T onacatecuhtli a nd Q uetzalcoatl. H is i nterpretation i s s omewhat d eities.

c onfusing, p articularly w ith r egard t o t his f usion o f N evertheless, h is g enerally o verlooked i dentification

m erits a ttention a nd

r eassessment.

R e-interpretation D espite

t he a pparent d isagreement o ver m eanings,

i nterpretations a re r elated

i f

t his T wo-Horned D eity i s

a ll o f

t hese

i dentified a s

O meteotl ( Sacred D uality), a lso i dentified a s T onacatecuhtli a nd T onacacihuatl. T onacatecuhtli c an b e s een t o e mbody t wo b asic c onc epts:

c reation a nd

s ustenance.

c uhtli,

a nd m ountains,

F iredrills,

a ssociated w ith X iuhte-

a ssociated w ith T epeyollotl a nd N appatecuhtli,

a re b oth s ymbols o f c reation a nd b eginnings. S ustenance

i s r epresented

t he t urtle c arapace. f ertility g oddesses,

o vertly b y m aize a nd

s ymbolically

b y

T onacacihuatl a nd X ochiquetzal, b oth m other a nd a re d epicted w ith t wo t asselled e ars o f c orn

g rowing o ut o f t heir h eads ( Plate 2 2a). S ustenance i s a lso p erhaps e xpressed i n t he f orm o f a v isual m etaphor o r p un a s a t urtle c arap ace. T his l atter i nterpretation i s s upported n ot o nly b y t he v isual a mbiguity o f t he c orn a nd t urtle f orms i n s culpture, b ut a lso b y l inguistic a nd

b iological

T he N ahuatl 1 970 :149), w hich

e vidence.

w ord f or h uman s ustenance i s t önacayöil ( Molina, o ften r efers s pecifically t o m aize ( Karttunen,

1 983:245). I t i s _ possible t hat t önacäyötl w as h eard a s a p un o n " abundant t urtle" ( tonaca - ä yötl). T he A ztecs e steemed c omplex a nd s ubtle m etaphors ( Sahagün, 1 969:1, 1 1, 1 7ff), a v erbal a esthetic t hat c an p erhaps

a lso b e a pplied

t o A ztec

i magery ( Pasztory,

V owel l engths s upport t he h ypothesis t hat " turtle" ( ayo4 p m ay h ave s ounded l ike 1 983:16,

2 45).

F urthermore, s titute T urtles

1 983:81-84).

" hot/abundant" ( tonaca) t onacayotl ( Karttunen,

t he

r eproductive

m eans o f

t he t wo

s pecies

c on-

a nother s triking c onceptual l ink b etween m aize a nd t urtles. l ay, o r " plant", t heir e ggs i n t he s and f rom w here t hey h atch

t o b ecome e dible c reatures, j ust a s k ernals o f c orn ( and o ther p lants) a re p lanted i n t he e arth t o b ecome e dible m aize ( Sahagün, 1 963:60). S uch a ural a mbiguities a nd r eproductive s imilarities m ay h ave s erved a s t he b asis f or t he f requent a nd p layful j uxtaposition a nd c onceptual e quation o f m aize a nd t urtle. T he i ncorporation o f s uch a h umorous p un i s n ot u nlikely c onsidering t he a pparently p layf ul a spect o f t he T wo-Horned G od, w ho i s s een b roadly g rinning s ome e xamples ( Matos, 1 980 :74; P aris, 1 981:66). T he

e xalted

t eristics. t he r oyal h eadband

T he

s tatus o f

t his d eity i s s uggested b y o ther

j ewelled h eadband

i s p erhaps

t he

i n

c harac-

c halchiuhtetelli,

h eadband w ith a c otinga b ird i n t he c entre. H owever, t he o f t he B asel f igure ( Plate 2 1a) a nd t he d epiction o f T ona-

c atecuhtli i n t he C odex V aticanus A ( Plate 2 3a ; C . V aticanus A 1 2v) a ppear t o h ave a j ewel w ith a s erpent a nd f ire s erpent r espectively. I n t he o ther s culptural e xamples, t his c entral p rojection i s d epicted a s a h ighly s tylized c url s o t hat i ts o riginal f orm i s u nclear. T his h eadband

i s

g enerally

w orn

b y s olar o r 6 6

l ordly

d eities

s uch

a s

T onacatecuhtli,

X iuhtecuhtli,

T onatiuh,

a nd M ictlantecuhtli.

I n a

c ouple o f e xamples, t he h eadband i s r eplaced b y a t wisted c ord, a t ype o f h ead o rnament a ssociated w ith T laloc a nd f ertility d eities ( Plate 1 8b a nd 2 0a c f. 9 a, 2 4b, 2 5a). T he i s

a lso

t oothless g rin p robably a lludes s ometimes

s ymbolized b y a b eard

t o v enerated ( Plate

o ld

a ge,

2 1a).

w hich

A mong

t he

i dentifications p reviously s uggested, T onacatecuhtli a nd X iuhtecuhtli a re t he o nly d eities w ho a re r egarded a s a ncient, w hile t he o thers ( Tepeyollotl,

N appatecuhtli)

a re c onsidered

y outhful.

p aint, b lue w ith a r ed o val a round t he m outh, w ith a ny k nown d eity ( see N agao, i n p ress). O ther a spects o f c oncepts o f f ertility,

T he

d oes n ot

f acial

c orrespond

t he i nsignia o f t he T wo-Horned G od r elate t o r ain, a nd s ustenance. T he o rnament a t t he

n ape o f t he n eck i s p robably a t laquechpaniotl, a p leated p aper f an w orn b y w ater, m ountain, a nd f ertility d eities ( Seler, 1 960a:850 ; B roda, 1 971:264). T he m ost c ommon e ar o rnaments w orn b y t his d eity a re s quares w ith p endant c entres a nd o ccasionally a c rescent-shaped n ose o rnament i s a lso w orn. T hese i nsignia w ere w orn b y p ulque g ods, w ho a re a lso c losely e gnnected w ith f ertility a nd a bundance ( Broda, 1 971:210 ) I n c an a nd

( Plate 2 5c). s ummary,

t he i nsignia o f

t he T wo-Horned G od

s uggest

t hat h e

b e i dentified a s O meteotl o r t he c ombination o f T onacatecuhtli T onacacihuatl. H e s hares X iuhtecuhtli's f iredrill h eaddress,

r oyal h eadband, a nd t oothless g rin o f o ld a ge t o i ndicate h is s tatus a s a n o ld g od o f c reation. H is h eaddress p rotuburances a lso r esemble t hose o f T epeyollotl, " Heart o f t he M ountain," a nd t hese a bstract p rojections m ay r epresent s tylized m ountains, a lluding t o p laces o f o rigin . L ike f ertility d eities, s uch a s X ochiquetzal, h is h eaddress s ometimes c ontains m aize e ars, w hich a lso o ccur i n p layful v isual p uns i n t he f orm o f t urtle c arapaces a s s ymbols o f s ustenance. T he f an-like p rojections i n b ack o f h is h eaddress l ink h im w ith m ountain, r ain, w ater, a nd f ertility d eities, w hile h is e arplugs r esemble t he t ype w orn b y p ulque g ods. T onacatecuhtli i n T extual a nd P ictorial S ources

a nd

V isual r epresentations o f O meteotl o r T onacatecuhtli h is i mportance i s l argely r econstructed o n t he b asis

c entury t extual

e vidence r ecorded

b y m issionaries.

I n

a re o f

r are 1 6th

P re-Conquest

i magery, o nly a f ew r epresentations a re k nown f rom M ixtec c odices, s uch a s t he C odex B orgia. N o d epictions, h owever, a re k nown f rom A ztec t imes. F rom C olonial P eriod s ources, o nly a f ew r epresentat ions a re k nown f rom A ztec s tyle p ictorial m anuscripts, s uch a s t he C odex V aticanus A ( 3738). O meteotl i s e xhorted a s a s upreme g od o f c reation i n N ahuatl p oetry o r r hetorical s peeches r ecorded b y 1 6th c entury m issionaries. H e i s s imultaneously i dentified w ith s everal m ale a nd f emale c reator p airs s uch a s O metecuhtli/Omecihuatl ( Lord a nd L ady o f D uality), a nd T onacatecuhtli/Tonacacivatl P ortilla,

i n

( Lord

a nd

L ady

o f

S ustenance)

( Leön

1 963:90).

O meteotl's a ssociations w ith c reation a nd o rigins a re e xpressed t he A ztec s tyle C odex V aticanus A a nd t he M ixtec C odex B orgia 6 7

( Plate 2 3b;

C .

V aticanus A 1 2v;

C .

B orgia 1 ).

A s

t he

f irst

p atron o f

t he 2 60-day r itual c alendar, T onacatecuhtli i s s een f lanked b y t he p rimordial c ouple. A s a s ymbol o f c reation, a f lint i s s hown b etween t he c reator p air, a nd t he A ztec r epresentation i ncludes f iredrills, a lluding t o t he d rilling o f n ew f ire, p rojecting f rom t he h eads o f t he c ouple. T onacatecuhtli's

r ole a s a s upreme g od

a nd L ord

o f

S ustenance i s

e xpressed o nly i n t he A ztec v ersion ( Plate 2 3a; C . V aticanus A 1 2v). T he C odex V aticanus A o pens w ith a d epiction o f O meteotl a s l ord o f O meyocan,

t he

h ighest o f h eavens

( Plate 2 3a).

H is

r oyal

j ewelled

h eadband i s d istinguished f rom o ther j ewelled h eadbands b y t he f ire s erpent a nd j ewel a bove t he f orehead. T hese a ttest t o O meteotl's s upremacy o ver o ther d eities. 99 H is r ole a s L ord o f S ustenance i s e xpressed b y t he m aize e ars b ordering h is m at-like s eat a nd f illing h is r oyal d iadem b ehind h im. F urthermore t he t ext a ccompanying t hese i llustrations d escribes T onacatecuhtli a s c reator ( C. V aticanus A l v, 1 5v; C orona N uhez, 1 964, 1 :179).

o f

t he

w orld

I n t extual s ources, T onacatecuhtli i s o ften c redited w ith c osmog enesis ( Garibay K ., 1 964, 1 :175; 1 973:23). H e i s f requently a nd i nterchangeably r eferred t o a s T onacatecuhtli/Tonacacihuatl, O met ecuhtli/Omecihuatl, o r O meteotl. H e i s s aid t o r eside i n O meyocan, w hich i s t he p lace o f D uality a nd s ource o f a ll l ife ( Sahagün, 1 969:175ff; " Histoyre d u M echique" i n G aribay K ., 1 973:103; P once d e L eon i n G aribay K ., 1 973:121; G aribay K ., 1 964, 1 :27, 9 3; 1 973:23). T onacatecuhtli/Tonacacihuatl i s o ften r eferred t o a s " Our M other, O ur F ather,"

a s

a re n umerous o ther m ale/female c reator

p airs;

h owever,

t his a ppelation d enotes n ot o nly t he b irth-giving a spects o f t hese d eities, b ut a lso t he p arental r ole a s p rotector a nd s ustainer ( Sahagün, p ress).

1 969:13ff,

c f.

r eferences t o

T onacatecuhtli's r ole a s

r ulers,

p rotector a nd

1 9ff;

s ustainer i s

N agao,

i n

e xpressed

i n

n umerous t exts. H e f eeds h is o ffspring, t he p eople, b y p roviding s ustenance, e specially m aize ( Garibay K ., 1 964, I :175, 5 3, 7 9; G arib ay K ., 1 965, 1 1:64, 1 00 , 1 04; H eyden, 1 983:39-43). A t t he s ame t ime,

T onacatecuhtli

p rovides

s ustenance f or t he g ods

b y

s ending

b abies t o t he e arth. H uman l ives, i n t he a cts o f s acrifice a nd s acrifice, s erve a s f ood f or t he g ods ( Sahagün, 1 969:91). T onacatecuhtli i s p articularly a ssociated w ith b egilnings a nd t ion, a s w ell a s w ith m aintenance a nd c ontinuation.

a utoT hus, c rea-

T he S ignificance o f t he B urial o f T onacatecuhtli W hat

i s

t he

p ossible s ignificance o f

t he

b urial

o f

T onaca-

t ecuhtli? C ertain a spects o f t he a ssociated o bjects p laced w ith t he i dol s uggest t hat t he s culpture w as b uried a s a " sacrificed" o fferi ng. g rave

T he n ature o f a rtifacts b uried w ith T onacatecuhtli r esembles o r m ortuary o fferings, w hich g enerally c onsisted o f e mblems

i ndicative o f t he d eceased's s tatus i n l ife, a s w ell a s u seful o bj ects t o s erve i n t he n ext l ife. T he o fferings f ound w ith t his T woH orned G od a re a mong t he o nly M exica c aches t o c ontain s uch o bjects a s m asks a nd s pecific e lements o f d eity i nsignia, s uch a s s taffs, a nd e ar a nd p ectoral o rnaments. C ertain o bjects p articularly r einforce t he i dentification o f T onacatecuhtli. C rocodile h eads a nd s awfish s nouts

m ay p erhaps

r epresent

t he d ate 1 C rocodile, 6 8

a ssociated

w ith

b eginnings c alendar. w ith

a nd T onacatecuhtli's r ole a s f irst p atron o f t he r itual F urthermore, s everal o fferings c ontain r ound s labs c arved

a b order o f w avy l ines r esembling

r ays o r f lames

( Plate

2 4a).

( Batres, 1 902:16ff, 3 9-30 ; 3 1ff). I n s ome i nstances, a t urquoise g lyph w as c arved i n t he c entre ( Seler, 1 960a:854). T hese c arved d isks r esemble t he b elly a nd T laltecuhtli c reature s een o n

n avel o f t he c omposite T laloc/ t he b ottoms o f s everal m onuments

( Plates l c, 1 3b, a nd 1 3c), a nd m ay r epresent t he n avel o f t he e arth, t hat i s t he c entre o f t he e arth, t he d welling p lace o f O meteotl. T he b urial o f a s culpture o f O meteotl w as p robably a s acrifice d edicated t o O meteotl h imself. I n A ztec t hought, t he c oncept o f t he s acred p ower o f a d eity c ould b e r epresented b y a r itual i mpersonat or, b y a n i dol, o r b y a ny f ramework w earing t he i nsignia o f a d eity ( Hvidtfeldt, 1 958). T he s acrifice a nd b urial o f O meteotl m ay t heref ore h ave b een a d irect a ppeal t o t he f orces o f c reation a nd s ustena nce. I t i s n oteworthy t hat'Ometeotl w as b uried n ot a s a d amaged o r b roken s culpture, b ut r ather a s a " newly f ormed" t hing, l ike a s eed ( cf. S ahagün , 1 951:181, 1 84-5). S ustenance a nd a gricultural f ert ility w ere m ajor c oncerns o f t he a grarian p opulation. P erhaps t he s mall, c rude T wo-Horned I dols r epresented p etitions o r o fferings t o O meteotl o n b ehalf o f t he c ommoners. T onacatecuhtli w as i mportant, n ot o nly t o c ommoners a s a f ertib ut a lso t o t he e lite a s a s upreme g od o f o rigins a nd a s l ity d eity, ll l ife. T he b urial o f T onacatecuhtli i n T enochtitlan, a s ource f or a i n t he T empi° M ayor, e mphasized t he i dentification o f p articularly c apital a s t he c entre o f t he u niverse. D eliberate t he M exica c onnect T enochtitlan w ith t he c entre o f o rigins a nd a ttempts t o s ustenance m irrored T enochtitlan's r ole a s a c entre f or t he r edistrib ution o f g oods, p articularly f oodstuffs a nd o ther c ommodities c oll ected i n t ribute. T he i mportance o f s ustenance a lso f ound e xpress ion i n t he p olitical r ealm. M ythologically, t he t ransference o f p olitical p ower f rom t he T oltecs t o t he A ztecs w as s ymbolized t hrough t he a cquisition o f m aize ( Broda, 1 971:285). T his a ttempt t o c orrel ate c osmic a nd m ythological e vents w ith t he a ctivities o f t he M exica w as a c ommon o ccurrence, s anctifying t he a cts o f t he e lite. ( For f urther d iscussion o f t he r elationship b etween O meteotl o r T onacatecuhtli

a nd

t he T emplo M ayor,

T he q uantity s uggest t hat h e w as o r

i nsignia

s ee N agao,

i n p ress.)

o f c rude a nd r efined v ersions c f T onacatecuhtli a n i mportant g od, y et n o m ention o f d epictions o f

a ssociated

w ith

t his

d eity

c an

b e

f ound

i n

t he

c hronicles. A ccording t o P omar ( Garibay K ., 1 964 1 :175), O meteotl w as n ever r epresented i n h uman f orm o r a ny o ther f orm, r ather t he g od w as o nly

i nvoked v erbally.

T his m ay a ccount

f or t he f requent

r efer-

e nces t o t his s upreme g od u nder a v ariety o f a ppelations i n s peeches a nd r hetoric ( Sahagün, 1 969) a nd t he c oncomitant l ack o f k nown v isual r epresentations. T onacatecuhtli p ublicly,

l ized

b ut

D espite P omar's i mages

w ere

a ssertion,

c arved,

n ot

i t r emains p ossible t hat

t o b e

r ather s pecifically t o b e b uried

d isplayed

o r

s een

a s s acrifices.

I t i s p ossible t hat T onacatecuhtli b urials m ay h ave b een g eneraa ppeals f or s ustenance u ndertaken a t v arious p arts o f t he y ear.

H owever, i t i s a lso p ossible t hat t hese d eposits m ay h ave r elated t o s pecific c alendrical c ycles o r h istorical e vents. F or e xample, s everal c ache c omponents r ecall a spects o f T epeilhuitl ( "Hill F east

6 9

D ay"), c ated

a lso k nown a s H uey P achtli, t o

d eities. f ocused

t laloque,

t epictoten ,

" Great P achtli," X ochiquetzal,

a f estival d edia nd

o ctli/pulque

T he c elebrations o f t he c ommoners a t T epeilhuitl o ften o n s ustenance a nd m ay h ave h ad a n e lite c ounterpart i n t he

c aches o f t he T wo-Horned G od. D uring t he c ycle o f T epeilhuitl, m ountain g od i mages m ade o f t zoalli d ough, w hich w ere

s mall l ater

" decapitated" a ndOue aten, m ay h ave h ad a n e lite c ounterpart i n t he i T wo-Horned D eity. W ood s ticks c arved w ith s erpent h eads a nd d olll ike i mages o f e catontin ( small s ervants o f E hecatl, t he W ind G od) w ere p laced i n f ront o f t he m ountain g od i mages a nd may h ave b een t he e quivalent f igurines.

o f t he e lite b urial o f r attlesnake s taffs a nd g reenstone F urthermore, t he m ountain g od i mages w ere l ater d ressed

i n p aper o rnaments a nd g iven f ood o fferings, m uch a s t he T wo-Horned G od w as a ccompanied b y r ich d eity i nsignia a nd p recious o fferings. P art o f t he c ycle w as d edicated t o t he s carcity o f m aize a nd t he s acrifice o f X ochiquetzal, a c omplex g oddess s ometimes i dentified w ith T onacacihuatl, w hich w ould a ll r elate t o T onacatecuhtli's r es ponsibility a s L ord o f S ustenance. I t

i s

a lso p ossible

t hat

h ad a s pecific h istorical

t he b urial

s ignificance.

o f T onacatecuhtli

s culptures

P erhaps t hese d eposits w ere

d esperate a ppeals f or s ustenance m ade i n c onnection w ith t he d evastat ing f amine o f 1 454. U mberger ( 1981:82) s uggests t he i mportance o f t his e vent i n s haping M exica c alendrics, h istory, a nd a rt. O n t he b asis o f d ata p ublished D eity M ayor,

t o d ate,

i t a ppears p ossible t hat T wo-Horned

c aches m ay o nly p ostdate t he f ourth m ajor e poch o f t he T emplo w hich h as b een c onnected w ith t he r eign o f M otecuhzoma I

( 1440-69)

( Matos,

s ymbolic o f t his l evel,

t he y ear 1 454, w here a c ache

H orned G od w as I n

1 981:50).

A p laque w ith t he d ate 1 R abbit, w as i ncorporated ( Templo M ayor n o.

i nto t he b ack f acade o f 2 0) c ontaining t he T wo-

f ound d irectly b eneath t his d ate ( Matos,

s ummary,

i t

a ppears

t hat

p erhaps

t he T wo-Hom ed

1 979b).

D eity

r epresents

O meteotl, a lso k nown a s O metecuhtli ( Lord o f D uality) a nd T onacatec uhtli ( Lord o f S ustenance). H e w as i mportant t o c ommoners a s a g od o f a bundance, f ertility, a nd s ustenance. I n a ddition t o t hese q ualit ies,

T onacatecuhtli

h ad

a f urther m eaning f or M exica e lite.

A s a n

o mnipotent g od o f c reation a nd s ustenance, h e w as t he d ivine e quival ent t o t he M exica a s s upreme r ulers, r esponsible f or t he c reation o f a n ew e mpire a nd

f or t he s ustenance o f

t he c osmos.

H is o ccurrence i n c aches p robably s ymbolized h is d eath a nd b urial a s a s acrificial v ictim a id a s a s eed t o i nsure f uture s ustena nce. P erhaps t hese t wo c oncepts w ere s o c losely r elated t hat t hey w ere p erceived s imultaneously. A s a s acrificial v ictim o r s eed, t he i mage o f T onacatecuhtli p robably r epresented a p etition f or f ertility a nd s ustenance. H is i nterment i n T enochtitlan s ymbolically p laced t he M exica c apital

a t

t he c entre o f

t he T emplo M ayor i n p articular, n avel o f

t he e arth,

t he p lace o f

t he u niverse.

T enochtitlan,

m ay h ave b een c onceptualized a s b irth a nd o rigins,

a nd

a nd t he

a lso a s

t he

m ythological H ill o r s ource o f S ustenance. T enochtitlan, a s c entre f or t he r edistribution o f g oods c ollected i n t ribute w as, f act, t he s ource o f s ustenance f or t he e mpire. T hese a ppeals

t he i n f or

s ustenance v ia t he b urial o f T onacatecuhtli m ight h ave b een m ade r egularly i n c onnection w ith e lite c elebrations o f c alendrical c eremonies, h istorical

o r

m ay

h ave

r epresented

s ituation. 70

a r esponse

t o

a

p articular

S tone T laloc V essels T he

M exica c ached

n ot

o nly p ottery T laloc

e ffigy

v essele i

a lso p ermanent, s keuomorphic v ersions i n s tone ( Plate 2 4b). 1U m entioned i n t he e arlier s ection o n p ottery i n M exica c aches,

b ut A s t he

T laloc v essel w as a n a ncient f orm, d ating b ack t o X ochicalco a nd e arly T eotihuacan. M ore r efined a nd e laborate t han t he P re-Mexica v ersions, t he M exica T laloc v essel m onumentalizes a nd p ermanently c ommemorates

f orm b ecause i t i s c arved o f s tone r ather A s a s y m b o l i c f o r m , t h e T l a l o c e f figy t han modelled f rom c lay. 10z v essel w as p robably a ssociated w ith T laloc a nd h is a ssistants, t he t laloque,

t he a ncient

r elated

t o t he t epictoten w ho w ere s mall m ountain g ods.

I t

i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat m ountains w ere a lso c onceived o f a s v ess els c ontaining w ater ( Broda, 1 971:259), s o t hat T laloc v essels may h ave b een s ymbols o f m ountains a s w ell a s o rigins. T he p robably

s ignificance o f a

s tone T laloc v essels i n O meteotl c aches

m ulti-faceted

o ne.

T he h istorical

i mplications

o f

w as a n

a ncient a nd v enerated f orm u ndoubtedly i mbued t he T laloc v ase w ith p articular e steem a nd i mportance a ppropriate a s a n o ffering t o a ccomp any a s upreme a nd a ncient g od. T he p ermanent m onumentalization a nd r efinement o f t he f orm w as p robably m eant t o s uggest M exica s uperior ity i n a rtistic r efinement. F urthermore, a s a s ymbol o f T laloc a nd t he t laloques, t he T laloc e ffigy v essel r epresented t he s ource f or r ain a nd w aters, p aralleling T onacatecuhtli's r ole a s s ustenance. I n f act, i n o ne h ymn r ecorded b y S ahagün, a ppealed

t o a s t he p roducer o f

s ustenance

( Sahagün,

s ource f or T laloc w as

1 951:208).

G reenstone S culpture G reenstone s culpture o ccurred i n t he f orm o f a nthropomorphic s culpture a nd s keuomorphic v essels. G reenstone w as a n e xtremely l avish a nd l uxurious m aterial, s o o bjects i n t his c ategory r epresent s ingular a nd u nique p ieces r ather t han g eneralized t ypes. A s i ndiv idualized p ieces, e ach p robably h ad a p articular m eaning, w hich i s n ot a lways c lear. T wo

g reenstone s culptures h ave b een p ublished

f rom

t he

r ecent

T emplo M ayor e xcavations. A f ine g reenstone T laloc s culpture w as f ound i n T emplo M ayor R oom 2 ( See M ap 5 ), i n t he s ame c ache a s t he w hite s tone T wo-Horned G od. A n e normous r elief, d ep 4 c ting a s keletal g oddess, w ith f eatures o f v arious e arth g oddesses, w as f ound i n R oom 1 ( See M ap 5 ), m irroring t he p osition o f R oom 2 b ut o n t he H uitzilopochtli s ide o f t he T emplo M ayor ( Plates 2 5a a nd 2 5b). 1U3 T he g reenstone s culpture c an

b e

m outh,

i dentified c ruller n ose,

f ound w ith t he a labaster T wo-Horned G od

a s T laloc o n t he b asis o f f an-like h eaddress,

a nd

r inged

e yes,

f anged

t wisted c ord h eadband

( Plate 2 5a). H is p ointed o r c onical h ead i s s omewhat u nusual a nd m ay s ignify h is r elation t o t he t epictoten o r m ountain g ods, a ssociated w ith w ater a nd s ustenance. T he T laloc s culpture m ay h ave b een o f e qual i mportance a s t he a labaster O meteotl a s a p etition f or f ertil ity, a bundance, a nd p erhaps r ain i n p articular. T he b urial o f T laloc n ear t he b ase o f t he T laloc s ide o f t he T emplo M ayor m ay h ave c onceptually a ssociated t he n orth h alf o f t he T emplo M ayor w ith T lalocan, a p aradise o f e ternal g rowth, a bundance, a nd s pringtime. Y et t he T emplo M ayor m ay h ave s imultaneously b een v iewed a s 7 1

T onacatepetl, o rigins

t he

H ill

a nd d uality.

t ible c oncepts, a nce a nd

o f

S ustenance,

I n g eneral

i dentifying

t erms,

a nd O meyocan,

t he p lace

t hese w ere r elated

t he T emplo M ayor a s

t he h eart

o f

a nd c ompao f s usten-

l ife.

T he

f inely c arved

g reenstone r elief

o f

a f emale d eity w as

f ound

i n a c ist a t t he b ase o f t he Huitzilopochtli s ide o f t he T emplo M ayor ( Plate 2 5b). A lthough t here w as n o T wo-Horned G od i n t his p articular c ist, t here w ere t wo O meteotls i n a n earby c ist ( Templo Mayor n o. 1 ) t hat w as a ssociated w ith t his o ne. B oth o f t hese d eposits ( no. 1 a nd n o. 5 /Room 2 ) w ere f ound b eneath t he C oyolxauhqui m onolith, n o. 1 d irectly w est o f a nd n o. 5 d irectly e ast o f t he m onumental r elief ( Plate 2 6a). T he c areful p lacement o f t hese t wo c ists s uggests t hat t hey w ere d eliberately c onstructed a nd a ssociated w ith t he C oyolxauhqui m onolith. T his d eity h as c haracteristics o f v arious e arth g oddesses. T ypical o f e arth g oddesses i n g eneral, s he h as a f leshless l ower j aw. L ike

T oci

( "Our G randmother,"

a lso k nown a s T lalliyiollo - " Heart

o f

t he E arth," a nd T eteu I nnan, " Mother o f t he G ods," S ahagün, 1 950 :4), t his r elief h as r ound c heek o rnaments, a s tarry s kirt, a nd w hat T u b e a g old d isk i n t he m iddle o f h er s hield ( Seler, 1 960b:469). S he m ay i n f act r epresent C itlallinicue, " She o f t he S tarry S kirt," o ne o f t he p rimordial c reator d eities. C haracteristic o f T lazoteotl, a nother e arth a nd f ertility g oddess k nown a s " Eater o f F ilth," s he a lso h as

s pindles

S he

b ears

i n h er h air. t wo d ates,

1 R abbit a nd 2 R abbit o n h er

c hest.

1

R abbit w as c osmologically a ssociated w ith t he b eginnings o f t he p resent e ra a nd t he e arth ( Umberger, 1 981:270). H istorically , i t w as t he y ear o f t he f amine o f 1 454, a fter w hich i t b ecame a p articularly i nauspicious d ate o ften c arved o n e arth a nd d eath g oddesses ( ibid.: 2 71). 2 R abbit w as a d ate f requently a ssociated w ith p ulque ( ibid.: 2 72), a nd w as a lso t he n ame o f a p ulque g od, O me T ochtli. T his l atter d ate r elates t o t he h alf f igure d epicted o n t he g oddess's c hest ( Plate 2 5b c f. 2 5c). P ulque a s a p recious l iquid w as c learly a ssociated w ith a bundance a nd f ertility ( Broda, 1 971:210). P ulque g ods w ere c losely r elated t o t he t laloques, g ods o f w ater a nd f ert ility. T herefore, t his i mage a ppears t o r epresent a n e arth g oddess a ssociated w ith a bundance a nd f ertility s ymbolized b y r eferences t o p ulque, a m etaphor f or s ustenance. L 6pez A ustin ( 1979) h as i dentif ied

t his

s culpture a s M ayahuel,

a p ulque g oddegs a ssociated w ith t he

m oon. L apidary V essels

a nd

A labaster s keuomorphic v essels w ere f ound a s e xtremely p recious e xotic o fferings i n M aya, Z apotec, a nd M ixtec t ombs, h owever

p rior t o t he i l mica, t here m ay n ot h ave b een a t radition o f g reens tone v essels. A lthough g reenstone v essels o ccur r arely i n M exica c aches, t hey, l ike m onumental s culpture, a ppear t o b e u nique a nd u nusual T wo

p ieces i mbued l apidary

e xcavations

w ith p articular s ymbolic s ignificance.

v essels

f ound

d uring

t he

P royecto

p robably r epresented M exica a ttempts

T emplo

M ayor

t o i mitate a rchais-

t ic f orms ( Plates 2 6b a nd 2 7a). B oth w ere f ound i n O ffering n o. 20 , w hich c ontained a T wo-Horned D eity s culpture p lus o ther h eirlooms o r 7 2

a rchaistic i mitations o f e arlier f orms, s uch a s O lmec, a nd G uerrero s tyle m asks, a nd M ixtec f igurines ( Matos, g reenstone v essel, l abelled " Teotihuacan" i n s tyle, t ripod w ith a r ounded l id ( Matos, 1 980 ) ( Plate 2 6b). b asic f orm r esembles T eotihuacan T hin O range p ottery,

T eotihuacan, 1 979b). O ne w as a s hallow A lthough t he n o c omparable

g reenstone p ieces a re k nown f rom t he s ite o f T eotihuacan . T he o ther l apidary v essel i s a n e ffigy v ase w ith M ictlantecuhtli ( Plate 2 7a). T his v essel r ecalls T oltec p lumbate e ffigy v essels, w hich o ften d epicted a t hree-dimensional f rontal, s tanding f igure w ith a rms o uts tretched

a t

t he

s ides,

o ften b earing w eapons,

s taffs o r o ther i nsig-

n ia. M ictlantecuhtli d oes n ot b ear a nything i n h is u praised h ands, b ut t he f ormat a nd c omposition a re s imilar t o T oltec p rototypes, b ut t ranslated i nto a p recious l apidary s tone. A nother

t ype o f g reenstone v essel,

f ound

i n a T wo-Horned D eity

c ache, w as b ased o n a s ymbol, a s o pposed t o a h istorical f orm. S everal e xamples w ere f ound i n t he E strada B almori c ache ( Estrada B almori,

1 979).

T his v essel

t ype h ad

a r ound

b ody,

r esting

o n t ripod

s upports, a nd a f laring r im o rnamented w ith a n i ncised u ndulating b and i nterspersed w ith c ircles. H andles w ith t hree p ointed p roject ions, d ecorated w ith c ircles, o rnament e ach s ide ( Plate 2 7b). T he s hape a nd d ecoration o f t his v essel r esemble t he p ulque s ymbol s een o n m antles a nd p ulque g od i nsignia ( Plate 2 7b c f. 2 7c). I t i s l ikely t hat t his v essel s ymbolized a bundance a nd f ertility, b ecause b oth t he m aterial, g reenstone, a s w ell a s t he f orm o f s ymbol, w ere a ssociated w ith t hese c oncepts. 106 T herefore,

t he v essel,

a p ulque

l apidary v essels c ached w ith s culpture d epicting

t he

T wo-Horned D eity w ere i mportant s ymbolic o bjects. I n s ome c ases, t he v essel f orm i mitated h istorical p rototypes. N oteworthy i s t he M exica t ranslation i nto t he u ltimate p recious m aterial, n amely g reenstone, p erhaps t o s urpass t he w orks o f t heir p redecessors. O ther f orms a re k nown t o d epict s ymbolic e mblems t hat u nderscore t he r elation b etween g reenstone a nd a bundance a nd f ertility. M asks I n P re-Mexica t imes, v arious g roups p laced m asks i n m ortuary d eposits t o a ccompany t he d eceased. T he P re-Classic i nhabitants o f t he B asin o f M exico s ometimes b uried t heir d ead w ith p ottery m asks, w hile t he M aya, Z apotec, a nd M ixtec i nterred l apidary " masks," s ome o f

w hich

m ay

a ctually h ave b een p ectoral

o rnaments.

I t

i s

t he

M exica, h owever, w ho i ntroduced l apidary a nd s kull m asks i nto v otive c ontexts. M asks e xecuted i n a v ariety o f s tyles a nd m ade o f g reens tone, o bsidian, a nd o ther l apidary s tones, h ave b een f ound i n M exica c aches.

H uman s kulls,

b een m asks, O n p rimarily

c ut,

p erforated,

h ave a lso b een f ound

t he

b asis o f

a nd w orked

i nto w hat m ay h ave

i n c aches.

i nformation p resently a vailable,

i n c aches w ith a nthropomorphic

l arly d eposits w ith t he T wo-Horned D eity.

s tone

m asks

s culpture,

o ccur

p articu-

T he o ccurrence o f m asks

i n

M exica c aches t hat c ontain s tone s culpture s uggests t hat t he l apidary m ask m ay h ave f unctioned a s p art o f t he i nsignia o f t he s culpture. L ike

e lements o f c ostume b uried w ith d eceased

m ay h ave h nped

t o

i dentify t he g eneral

i ndividuals,

s tatus o f

t he m ask

t he d eceased

i n t he

a fterlife. ' A lthough t here i s n o d irect n umerical c orrespondence b etween m asks a nd s culptures, t here i s o ften a g eneral c orrelation i n 7 3

s izes

( Plate 2 8a). M ost

o f

t he l apidary m asks

f ound

i n c aches a ppear

t o b e

f oreign

i n s tyle a nd s ome a re c learly h eirlooms. A g reenstone O lmec m ask t urned u p i n o ne o ffering a t t he b ack o f t he T emplo M ayor ( Deposit n o. 2 0), w here T eotihuacan s tyle g reenstone m asks w ere f ound a s w ell ( Plates 2 8b a nd 2 9a). S ome o f t he o ther m asks i n a f oreign s tyle h ave c arved g lyphs, ( Plates 2 9b a nd 2 9c;

w hich h ave n ot s ee A huja O .,

y et b een i dentified, 1 982b). T hese m asks

o n t he b ack i n a n a lien,

n on-Mexica s tyle a re o ften l abelled " Guerrero" o r " Mezcala" s tyle, h owever t he a ctual o rigin o f t hese p ieces i s u nclear. B locky, f lat, y et h ighly p olished o bsidian a nd w hite s tone m asks w ere f ound i n o ne T emplo M ayor o ffering. T hese l atter m asks w ere a utomatically l abell ed " Guerrero" i n s tyle, e ven t hough l ittle i s k nown o f t he " Guerrero" o r " Mezcala" s tyle. C learly i t i s a n o ld s tyle r epresent ed i n c aches f rom t he E arly C lassic P eriod o n. I t i s p ossible t hat t hese f lat, s implified m asks m ay h ave b een r egarded a s h eirlooms b y t he M exica a nd t hat t he o bsidian a nd w hite s tone e xamples a re M exica i mitations o f f orms r egarded a s a ncient a nd p owerful. F urthermore, i t h as b een s uggested t hat t he " Teotihuacan s tyle" masks f rom t he T emplo M ayor a re A ztec c opies, r ather t han h eirlooms ( Pasztory, I n p ress b ). T he

q uestion

o f

t he

o rigin o f

t hese

m asks

c annot

y et

b e

a nswered. S ome p ieces a re c learly h eirlooms, w hich m ay h ave b een d ug u p b y t he M exica o r m ay h ave b een p resented t o t hem a s t ribute. E xtant t ribute l ists m ention o nly t urquoise a nd r ed s tonemasks, d o n ot d iscuss a ny m ade o f g reen s tone. I f n ot t he r esult o f

b ut t ri-

b ute, t hey m ay h ave b een b rought a s p recious g ifts, p ossibly e ven a s h eirlooms, b y o ther r ulers f or p articular c eremonies. A mong s kull 1 1a).

t he o nly m asks t hat a ppear

t o b e d istinctively M exica a re

m asks w ith l ife-like i nlaid e yes o f s hell a nd h ematite ( Plate 1 0b i S kull m asks m ay h ave b een u sed d uring p articular c eremonies

r elated

t o

t he i nterment

o f

t he o ffering.

T hese m asks m ay h ave b een

b uried a s " used" r itual o bjects t hat h ad b een d ivested o f t heir s piritual p owers a fter u se. T hey m ay a lso h ave b een s ymbolic o bjects s ignifying d eath a nd t ermination, a ssociated w ith d eities s uch a s M ictlantecuhtli ( Plate 1 6a). M asks

p robably

f unctioned

a s

i nsignia

s keletal

a ccompanying

d eath

i nterred

d eity s culptures i n M exica c aches, m uch a s m asks w ere b uried d eceased i ndividuals i n P re-Mexica c ontexts. L apidary m asks o ften

h eirlooms,

p owerful

f or

t heir

a ssociation

w ith

w ith w ere

a ntiquity.

T hese w ere p robably i nterred a s a ncient a nd s acred o bjects t hat p erhaps s erved t o e mphasize M exica c ontinuity w ith P re-Mexica t radit ions. T he s kull m asks w ere u niquely M exica a nd m ay h ave b een d iscarded r itual i mplements o r m ay h ave b een i ndependent s ymbols o f d eath a nd

t ermination.

I nsignia a nd L apidary M iniatures I n b uried t heir w ere

P re-Mexica

m ortuary d eposits,

i mportant

i ndividuals

w ith o rnaments a nd s ymbolic m iniature o bjects s tatus. I n c oeval v otive c ontexts, h owever, n ot c ommon a nd

a rticles

o f

i t

i s t he M exica w ho i ntroduced

r ank i nto c aches.

S uch 7 4

i nsignia a nd

w ere

i ndicative o f t hese a rticles m iniatures

s ymbolic

a nd

o bjects

w ere m ost

f requently b uried w ith a nthropomorphic

l arly r epresentations o f

t he T wo-Horned D eity.

s uch a dornments a nd m iniatures m ay h ave h elped

1 09

t o

s culpture,

p articu-

I n t hese c ontexts, i dentify t he i nter-

r ed s culpture a nd m ay a lso h ave s erved a s a rticles t o b e u sed b y t he d eceased i n t he a fterlife. N ot e very c ache w ith t he T wo-Horned D eity c ontained r ich s tatus i nsignia o r s ymbolic m iniatures s o t hat c aches w ith t he T wo-Horned G od p erhaps h ad d ifferent m eanings a nd f unctions d epending

o n t he s pecific

S tatus

e mblems

i tems d eposited w ith t he s culpture.

i ncluded

s taffs,

a nd

e ar,

n ose

a nd

p ectoral

o rnaments f ashioned f rom a v ariety o f p recious m aterials. O bsidian w as t he m aterial m ost c ommonly w orked i nto d eity i nsignia, p art icularly d ifferent t ypes o f s taffs. W hile P re-Mexica g roups r arely c ached p olished o bsidian o bjects, t he M exica e steemed c ertain v ariet ies o f o bsidian. C ertain t ypes w ere, f or e xample, r egarded a s a ncient a nd a s b elonging t o t he T oltecs ( tolteca i ztli; S ahagün, 1 1 963:227), 1 0 w hile o ther v arieties w ere v alued f or t heir b eauty. O ther h ighly e steemed m aterials, s uch a s t urquoise, g reenstone a nd g old,

w ere a lso c ached

a s i nsignia.

O f

t hese t hree m aterials,

t ur-

q uoise w as t he m ost h ighly r egarded a nd w as h eld t o b e " lot o f t he g ods" ( ibid.: 2 24), f ollowed b y g reenstone, w hich w as " lot o f t he r ulers ( ibid.: 2 22), a nd t hen b y g old w hich w as a lso a ssociated w ith t he e lite ( ibid.: 2 34). C ertain t ypes o f i nsignia w ere made o nly o ut o f p articular m aterials. F or e xample, b atons ( maces) w ere m ade f rom o bsidian o r w ood, w hile o ther t ypes o f s taffs w ere m ade o f w hite s tone o r b one. B odily o rnaments w ere g enerally m ade f rom s hell o r metal. T he m ost c ommon t ype o f i nsignia i n M exica c aches w ere h and-held o bjects. I n T emplo M ayor c aches a w ide v ariety o f r ecurring d eity s taffs o ccur i n b oth m iniature a nd n ormal s izes, o ften w ithin t he s ame c ache. T he c urved, h ook-shaped o bsidian s taffs, k nown f rom T emplo M ayor D eposit n os. 1 , 6 , 1 1, 1 7, 2 0 , a nd t he C ontreras-Angulo c ache, p robably r epresent t he x iuhcoatl s taff o f Q uetzalcoatl ( Plates 3 0a a nd 3 0b). T he o bsidian b aton s taffs, f ound i n T emplo M ayor D eposit n os. 1 , 6 , 1 1, 1 3, 1 7, 2 0 , R oom 3 , a nd t he C ontreras-Angulo c ache, c ould r epresent t he b aton c arried b y s everal p ulque g ods, o r m ay r epresent w arriors w eapons i n g eneral ( Plate 3 1a c f. 3 1b a nd 3 1c). T latelolco c aches c ontained w ooden b atons, w hich o ccasionally w ere p ainted g reenish b lue, a c olour p erhaps a lluding t o H uitzilopochtli a nd h is w eapons ( Espejo, 1 945). B ole o r w ood s peart hrowers w ere s ometimes f ound i n a ssociation w ith b atons, i n t he C ontreras-Angulo

a nd

M etro

L -3 c aches a s w ell

a s

a t

T latelolco.

T hese may r epresent t he b lue m osaic c overed s pearthrower o f H uitzilopochtli o r m ay b e g eneralized s ymbols o f w arrior s tatus. A nimal-headed s taffs made f rom b one o r w hitish s tone, f rom T emplo M ayor D eposit n os. 1 , 1 1, 1 7, 2 0 , 4 1, 5 8, a nd B atres n o. 5 , r esemble t he d eer-headed s taffs a ssociated w ith t he c osmic p rogenitors C ipactonal a nd O xomoco ( Plate 3 2a c f. 3 2b). A f lint v ersion o f t he l oom k nife, g enerally a s ymbol a ssociated w ith C ihuacoatl ( Seler, 1 960b:479), R emensis 6 ,

a nd I lamatecuhtli a nd X ochiquetzal ( Codex T elleriano 1 9) w as f ound i n T emplo M ayor D eposit n os. 6 a nd 1 1,

w hile a w ood

v ersion w as

f ound

i n B atres n o.

5 ( Plate 3 3b c f.

3 3c).

O ther m iniature s taffs a lso a ppear t o b e a ssociated w ith p art icular d eities. T he a labaster s taff, s ometimes l abelled " solar r ay" f rom T emplo M ayor D eposit n os. 1 1, 1 7, 2 0 , 2 4, a nd 5 8, p robably 7 5

r epresents l ity, 3 2d). n os.

t he r attle s taff

a ssociated w ith X ipe,

a nd v arious

m ountain, a nd w ater d eities ( Seler, 1 960b:467) T he u ndulating b lack s tone s taff f rom T emplo 1 1,

2 0 ,

2 4,

a nd 5 8,

f erti-

( Plate 3 2c c f. M ayor D eposit

i s p robably t he l ightning b olt s taff o f

T laloc ( Plate 3 3a c f. 3 3c). A f an-shaped o bsidian o bject, f ound i n a T latelolco c ache, may b e a s ymbol o f m erchants o r o f Y acatecuhtli, t he m erchant g od. A w hite-stone m iniature t ravelling s taff, s ymbol o f Y acatecuhtli, w as f ound i n o ne T emplo M ayor b oxed c ache ( no. 4 1), w here a m iniature p ossibly r epresenting a s acrificial b anner w as a lso f ound ( Plate 3 4a c f. 3 4b). A lthough t he T wo-Horned D eity s culpture i s c arved w ith e ar o rnaments, s hell a nd g reenstone e ar i nsignia w ere f ound i n c aches a ccompanying

t his d eity.

C urved

s hell e ar

p endants,

i nsignia

o f

Q uetzalcoatl, a nd g reenstone e ar b obs i n t he f orm o f s olar d isks w ere f ound i n t he C ontreras-Angulo c ache. I t i s u nclear w hether t he l atter w ere m eant t o s ymbolize s olar i nsignia o r w hether r epresented v isual p uns c omparing g reen s tone t o t he g littering o f

t hey r ays

t he s un.

N ose o rnaments w ere f ound i n a t l east t wo c aches w ith t he T woH orned G od. F orked o bsidian b ars f rom T emplo M ayor D eposit n os. 1 , 1 1, 1 3, 1 7, a nd 2 0 a ppear t o r epresent t he f orked i nsignia o f X ipe ( Plate 3 4c c f. 3 4d). A n e laborate g old b utterfly n ose o rnament ( yacapapalotl), o ften a n e mblem w orn b y C halchihuitlicue a nd X ochiquetzal

( Seler,

1 960b:581),

w as

f ound

i n B atres n o.

5 .

A v ariety o f p ectoral o rnaments w ere a lso f ound i n c aches. Q uetzalcoatl's s hell w ind j ewel b reast o rnament w as f ound i n t he C ontreras-Angulo c ache ( Plate 3 5d c f. 3 5a). S hell a nd g old d isks, p erhaps t he a nauatl o r r ing-shaped i nsignia o f T ezcatlipoca, P aynal, o r H uitzilopochtli ( Seler, 1 960 , V I:21*), w ere f ound t reras-Angulo a nd B atres n o. 5 c aches r espectively.

i n t he L arge

C ong old

d isks, f ound i n B atres n o. 5 c ache, m ay p erhaps r epresent t he p ect oral o f C halchihuitlicue o r T onatiuh o r t he g old s hield o f T oci. R ound t urquoise m osaic p laques, f ound i n t he C ontreras-Angulo c ache, m ight r epresent P aynal's o r X ochipilli's s hield, h eaddress e mblem ( Plate 3 5b c f. 3 5a).

o r

Q uetzalcoatl's

O ther l apidary i nsignia a re e ven m ore b affling. d isks, f rom T emplo M ayor D eposit n os. 1 , 3 , 5 , 6 , 1 1,

R ound o bsidian 1 3, 1 5, 1 7, 2 0 ,

a nd C ontreras-Angulo c aches, h ave b een I nterpreted a s e ye i nlays ( Garcia C ook a nd A rana A , 1 978:39) o r a s m iniature b owls ( Castillo T . a nd S olis O ., 1 975:51). R attlesnake h eads a nd t ails, f ashioned f rom o bsidian, w ere a lso f ound i n T emplo M ayor D eposit n os. 1 , 3 , 5 a nd 1 3.

T he s ignificance o f

t hese i s

a lso u nknown.

M iniaturized l apidary s ymbols w ere a lso f ound w ith t he T woH orned G od. S mall b raziers w ith k notted b ows i n t he m iddle w ere m ade o f

w hite

s tone o r o ther v arieties o f

s tone.

T emplo M ayor D eposit n os. 1 , 1 5, 4 1, ( Plate 3 6a). M atos ( 1982) h as s uggested H uitzilopochtli

a nd

t hat

T hese w ere

t hese b raziers r epresent t he

H uitzilopochtli i n t he T emplo M ayor. w ere m eant t o r epresent p ermanent a nd

f ound

i n

a nd C ontreras-Angulo c aches t hat t he b ow i s a s ymbol f or p resence

o f

I t i s a lso p ossible t hat t hese p recious s ymbolic o fferings o f

f ire. A g reenstone G uerrero-style h ouse m odel w as f ound i n t he C ontreras-Angulo c ache a nd t his m ay h ave s ymbolized a d ate ( 1 h ouse/

7 6

A g reat u nusual

v ariety o f

b oxed

P aris,

1 981).

i nsignia.

S ome

F or

h arpoon,

a nd

w as

t o b e

s aid

3 6c).

A s

t heir

t imes

a nd w hite b ut t hese

t he

t laloques, 4 3,

c ould

h e w as

s aid

t o

m iniature o bjects

e xample

t hose w ho

d eities

a s O pochtli

a lluded

o wned

t hree-pronged

s ymbols

t o t he d onors

w orshipped

o r w orked

w ith c anoes,

a nd C halchihuitlicue

d eities,

P erhaps t he

s ome

o ffering,

1 950 :6-7,

o f f or

w ho p atronized

( Sahagün,

i n

g reenstone

f or w ater

o f

w ho

( Plate

t hose w ho m ade

b e

M iniature c anoes, made o f

h ave b een n atural

1 980 ;

r epresent

1 950 :16)

r aise a nother p ossibility ( Plate 3 6c).

i n a n

( "Left"),

p atron g od o f

a nd h e w as

1 6).

t o

s pearthrower, ( Sahagün,

f ound

( Matos,

e mblems o f O pochtli

t hese o bjects

t he w ater,

( ibid.:

s tone,

t hese

a w hite s tone

a re p erhaps

i nventor o f o n

w ere 4 1

t hese p recious o bjects a ppear

e xample,

o ne o f

l apidary m iniatures

T emplo M ayor D eposit n o.

o f

p addles

l iving

a ncient

p recious

o ffering,

s uch

1 6).

O ther g reenstone a nd s hell m iniatures f rom D eposit n o. 4 1 d epict a nimals, o ften a ssociated w ith w ater, s uch a s f ish, f rogs, l izards, d ucks, a nd o ther s erpent o r e el-like c reatures ( Matos, 1 980 ; P aris, 1 981) ( Plate 3 6b). B roda h as p ointed o ut t he w atery a ssociations o f many

o f

t hese o bjects a nd

b een

o fferings made

s ymbolism i n

i s

v iew o f

a xis

o f

t o T laloc

a ssociated t he b urial

t he T laloc

a nimals,

a nd

s uggests

( Histbricas,

o f

t his c ache

i n t he

H owever,

t hey m ay

1 980 :46).

w ith w ater a nd T laloc,

t emple.

t hat

h ave

M uch o f

w hich i s

t he

a ppropriate

s tairway o n t he e ast-west

t his c ache m ay h ave h ad

o ther

m eanings a s w ell. U mberger h as t ies

s uggested

o f m iniature

s imilar

l apidary

e xamples m ade

c ation). i tems,

T he

i n

t he c omparison b etween

t he

l arge

f ish i n t his c ache

t he

a ppearance

c lay

i n

T arascans w ere

i ncluding

a nd

t he T arascan a rea ( personal

f amous

l apidary w orks

a nd

f or

t heir

g old

a nd

q uanti-

p roduction o f s ilver

o f

c ommunil uxury

f ish ( Chadwick,

1 971:690-1). " Fish" w as a lso t he d istinctive c omponent o f t he g lyph f or M ichoacan, t he T arascan c apital, w hich r oughly t ranslates a s " Place o f

p ossessor o f

d ominance o f f ish a nd T arascans a s d onors o f O ther

r itual

f ish"

( Macazaga O rdoeo,

1 979:101).

s mall s cale l apidary o bjects m ay t his o ffering. 1 11

o bjects

w ere a lso

t ransformed

i nto

T he

p re-

t o

t he

p oint

o recious

m inia-

t ures t hat w ere d eposited i n T emplo M ayor n o. 4 1. W hat h as b een c alled a w hite s tone " hatchet" ( Matos, 1 980 :81) m ay a ctually r epres ent a s acrificial b anner, w hich w as c arried o r w orn b y v ictims i n c eremonies. t his

O ther

c ache

s erpents

i ncluded

a nd

r attlesnake

A lthough t here

p recious a s mall

many

m iniatures o f u nknown s ignificance s tone

s taffs

e lements

a re m any p roblems

i n

j ar,

( Matos, o f d eity

t he

a nd

a v ariety o f

1 980). i nsignia c an

i nterpretation o f

b e

t hese

i dentified, a rtifacts

c aches. I t a ppears t hat t he i nsignia o f d ifferent g ods m ixed t ogether w ithin t he s ame c ache. O n t he b asis o f a rchaeological

a nd

s ignificance o f

t hese c ombinations

i n f ull-sized s ame c ache. Q uetzalcoatl p ulque g od

c ontextual

o r m iniaturized

i nformation a vailable a t f orm,

i n

u ndulating

i s o bscure.

i n

a re o ften f ragmentary

p resent,

t he

I nsignia a lso o ccurs

o r b oth a re c ombined

w ithin

t he

T he m eaning o f t his d ifference i n s ize i s a lso u nclear. i nsignia o ccurs m ost f requently, f ollowed b y w arrior o r

i nsignia.

O therwise a v ariety o f 7 7

c reator,

w ater,

e arth,

a nd

m aize

d eities a ppear

t o b e r epresented

A s s ymbols o f n atural f orces, t hese s pecific a spects o f t he o mnipotent

i n o ne

f orm o r

i nsignia p erhaps a nd m ultii 'aceted

a nother.

a lluded p owers

t o l f

O meteotl. C opper

B ells

a nd O ther M etal O rnaments

L ittle

s urvives

o f P re-Columbian m etalwork i n M esoamerica.

T he

S paniards w ere p articularly i nterested i n f inding p recious m etals i n t he N ew W orld a nd a ny g old t hat t hey c ould a cquire w as m elted d own a nd s ent b ack t o S pain. T his m ay a ccount f or t he s carcity o f m etal a rtifacts s urviving f rom P re-Columbian M esoamerican c ultures. I t a lso

a ppears

r elatively o ccurrence.

t hat

l ate

m etalwork w as

d ate,

w hich

i ntroduced

i nto M esoamerica

m ay a lso h elp

t o

e xplain

a t

i ts

a

r are

1 1

M etal

o rnaments

w ere k nown f rom a f ew

P re-Mexica

v otive

a nd

m ortuary t raditions. A t C hich6n I tzä, g old r epouss6 d isks w ere f ound i n t he S acred C enote o f S acrifice, a nd a f ew c opper b ells o ccurred i n t he C hief P riest's G rave, h owever n o m etalwork w as f ound i n b uried c aches a t t his s ite. A f ew c opper b ells w ere f ound i n Z apotec t ombs, b ut a gain, n ot i n c aches. S pectacular e xamples o f M ixtec g oldwork s urvive, h owever s uch p recious o bjects w ere f ound o nly i n t ombs a nd n ot i n c aches. T he T arascans w ere a lso k nown f or t he p roduction o f e xquisite g old a nd s ilver o rnaments a s w ell a s c opper a rtifacts, a nd t hese o l ojects w ere o ccasionally f ound 2 70-3). L " B oth b ells

M exica c aches a nd

a re t he m ost

i n e lite b urials

t ombs c ontain m etal

c ommon o bjects,

w hile g old

( Weaver,

a rtifacts.

b ells a nd

1 972:

C opper

p endants,

a nd

s ilver o rnaments a re e xtremely r are. P recious m etal a rtifacts a re p rimarily r estricted t o o fferings f ound i n t he C eremonial P recinct, a lthough a s mall b ar o f c opper, i n a T latelolco c ache ( Espejo,

p ossibly a n ose o rnament, w as f ound 1 945:19). A n A ztec p eriod s epulcher

a t T enayuca a lso c ontained g old 1 63-4).

a nd

C opper, s ilver, w as

c opper o rnaments

( Noguera,

1 935:

a lthough n ot g iven t he s ame e xalted s tatus a s g old a nd t he m ost f requently o fferred m etal i n c aches. C opper

b ells w ere o ften M ayor D eposit n os.

f ound i n c aches w ith t he T wo-Horned D eity 1 , 6 , 1 1, 1 7, 2 0 , C ontreras-Angulo c ache ;

( Templo E strada

B almori c ache; B atres n o. 5 ), p erhaps a s i nsignia f or t he g od p erhaps a s i ndependent s ymbols. C opper r attles w ere a lso f ound A ztec c remation b urials ( Tenayuca B urial n o. 1 ; T emplo M ayor n o. p ossibly a b urial) a nd o ther c aches l acking t he T wo-Horned G od G ussinyer's C eremonial B razier C ache). T he b ased t ies

s ignificance

o f c opper b ells

a mong

t he M exica

i s

o r i n 3 ,

( e.g.

p erhaps

o n t he n oisemaking p roperties o f b ells c ombined w ith t he q ualia ssociated w ith c opper. T he s ound p roduced b y r attles w as

s ometimes 1 960b:436). ( Tezozomoc,

e quated

w ith t he n oise m ade b y b ells

a nd

s eashells

( Seler,

W arriors w ore r attling s hells t o f righten t heir e nemies 1 980 :314), a nd t he n oise t hat t hese o bjects p roduced m ay

h ave c onjured u p t he i mage o f t he v enerated a nd f eared r attlesnake. A s s uch, b ells o r r attles p erhaps s erved a s w arnings o f d anger a nd m ay h ave b een u sed

t o

i nspire f ear.

7 8

s aid

I t i s n oteworthy t hat o nly t he " chili-red" v ariety o f c opper w as t o e xist i n P re-Hispanic t imes, w hile t he y ellow a nd b lack t ype

w as

c onsidered

C astilian

( Sahagün,

1 963:234).

T he

d escription

" chili-red," t erms a lso u sed t o d escribe c ertain s hells, w ould h ave b een a ppropriate d esignations f or h ot, s moking, a we-inspiring, a nd f eared c opper r attles. F urthermore, w hat c an b e g leaned f rom b rief d escriptions i s t hat c opper w as c onsidered r ather r ough a nd c rude ( ibid.: 2 34). C opper w as t herefore a m aterial l ike f lint, l ike t he M exica t hemselves; d angerous.

i t

w as c oarse y et a t

t he s ame

t ime

f iery

a nd

I n c ontrast t o c opper, g old a nd s ilver o rnaments w ere o ccasiona lly d eposited i n M exica b urials a nd, v ery r arely , i n c aches. B atres n o. 5 i s t he o nly p ublished c ache w ith g old o rnaments, i ncluding a b utterfly-shaped n ose o rnament a nd s everal g old d isks a nd r ings. T hese w ere t entatively i dentified a s t he i nsignia o f v arious d eities s uch a s X ochiquetzal, T ezcatlipoca, a nd Q uetzalcoatl. E xquisite a nd e laborately w orked g old a nd s ilver o bjects w ere m ore c ommonly b uried a s r ich i nsignia i n m ortuary c ontexts i n t he C eremonial P recinct, s uch a s i n T emplo M ayor n o. s uch a s T enayuca ( Plate 3 7a;

3 4, o r i n e lite b urials a t o ther s ites, N oguera, 1 935). G old b ells w ere r arely

f ound i n T emplo M ayor c aches ( nos. 2 , 3 , 3 4, 3 9; P late 3 7b). T emplo M ayor D eposit n os. 3 4 a nd 3 9, b oth f unerary b urials, e ach c ontained a g old b ell ( Matos, 1 980 ; 1 982a:47), w hile n os. 2 a nd 3 w ere p roblemat ical d eposits. D eposit n o. 2 w as p reviously e xcavated o r s acked, a nd D eposit n o. 3w as u nusual b ecause i t w as p laced i n a c ylindrical c ist a nd i ncinerated. T he l atter m ay h ave b een a n o ffering c onnected w ith f unerary, r ather t han v otive, r ites. I t i s n oteworthy t hat b oth o f t hese d eposits w ere made i n a ssociation w ith t he C oyolxauhqui r elief. P erhaps t he g old b ells w ere i nterred t o s pecifically i dentify t hese o fferings w ith " She o f t he G olden B ells," C oyolxauhqui. T he M exica m ay h ave c ached m etal o bjects f or t heir s ymbolic s ignificance m ore t han f or t heir e conomic o r a esthetic v alue. C opper, a r ough m aterial o f n o p articular b eauty, w as o ften c ached i n t he

f orm

o f

r attlers o r b ells,

i nspiring s ymbols.

w hich m ay h ave b een i mportant

O n t he o ther h and,

g old

a nd

s ilver o rnaments,

a we n ot

c ommonly f ound i n c aches, w ere f ashioned i nto i ntricate a nd d iversif ied a dornments f or i mportant e lite i ndividuals i n b urials. I n c aches, g old b ells m ay h ave s erved a s pecific f unction t o t he o ffering a s o ne f or C oyolxauhqui. S and

i dentify

a nd G ravel F ill W hile P re-Mexica c aches c haracteristically c ontained

m aterially

v aluable o bjects, M exica o fferings o ften i nclude g oods s ignificant p rimarily f or s ymbolic r easons. S everal M exica o fferings t hat c ont ain t he T wo-Horned G od ( Templo M ayor D eposit n os. 1 , 2 0) a lso h ave a l ayer o f s and o r o f s and a nd g ravel f loor. d iffers

7 , 1 1, 1 7, t he c ache

T he p lacement o f s and o r g ravel a ppears t o b e d eliberate a nd f rom t he c ommon f ill o f e arth a nd r ubble , )

T he H orned

6 , o n

s ignificance G od

o f

i s u nclear.

o ther

m aterials

b olic

e nvironment

s and

f rom t he s ea, f or

a nd g ravel

P erhaps

s and

c ontributed

t he T wo-Horned G od 7 9

i n c aches w ith

a nd g ravel,

l ike

t he s hells

T woa nd

t o t he c reation o f a s ym-

( cf.

B roda,

i n p ress).

I t

i s

a lso

s ible. f ice o f

p ossible

( actually t he f our a nd

T emplo

t he

s ignificance i s m ore e soteric

a nd

i nacces-

t he i mpersonator) " entered" o r " went d own i n t he s and...In d irections s he e ntered, o r w ent d own i nto t he s and"

( Sahagün, s and

t hat

S ahagün d escribes p art o f t he X ilonen, m aize g oddess, s acrit he T ecuilhuitontli f estival c ycle, d uring w hich t he g oddess

1 951:97, g ravel,

M ayor.

o fferings

r elated t he

O f

t he s ix o fferings k nown

a re l ocated

h uman t o

s kulls.

t o h ave s and

o n t he H uitzilopochtli

W ith t he e xception o f D eposit

c onLained

S ahagün i s c entre o f

1 33).

a ll

P erhaps

n o.

7 ,

s ide o f a ll

o f

t hese

t he s acrifice d escribed

t hese o fferings b uried

o r t he

i n t he T emplo M ayor,

b y t he

f our d irections.

S ummary T he

T wo-Horned

D eity w as

f requently b uried

i n c aches

i n

T eno-

c htitlan . H e h as t entatively b een i dentified a s O meteotl o r T onac atecuhtli, t he S upreme P rogenitor a nd s ource f or a ll s ustenance. A bundant a nd l avish, t he o fferings b uried w ith t his d eity c onsisted o f

a s tandardized

r epertory o f

o f

f orms b orrowed

f rom f unerary c ontexts.

t he

T laloc

a ctual e xecuted

s tyles

t hemes o f f ashioning

d eveloped

o ut

O ld

t ypes,

o bjects

a s w ell

( ceramics,

t ransform L apidary

n ew o bject

a nd masks),

i n s ize o r b y

r ials.

a nd

a f orm k nown f rom T eotihuacan

( figurines

i n a rchaistic

h owever, t hem

v essel,

h eirlooms

o ld

a nd

X ochicalco,

s culptures).

m onumentalizing l uxurious m ate-

o f

t he M exica d esire t o

p recious,

s urpass

s uch a s masks,

f rom P re-Mexica m ortuary c ontexts

v otive c ontexts w ith t he T wo-Horned G od.

a rtifact

t he w orks

A rticles

i nsignia,

b urial

o f

o f

t o b e b uried

T he e ntire v otive

o f i n

d eposit

t he s upreme

t he T wo-Horned D eity/Ometeotl

t he s acrifice o f t he d eity. i n h onour o f t he g od i tself,

t hat

a ll

a nd m etal o rna-

w as p robably m eant t o s ignify a r oyal f unerary b urial f or d eity, r epresented b y t he T wo-Horned G od s culpture. 1 14 f unerary

M exica,

t hem o ut

t heir p recursors.

T he

o bjects

T he

t heir p redecessors b y

ments w ere b orrowed

r epresented s acrificed

a s

i ncluded

a s M exica

s culpture w as a n ew c ategory o f c ached o f

a s w ell

t ypes

p robably

J ust a s I mpersonators w ere t he s tone s culpture a dorned

w ith t he i nsignia o f t he g od w as a lso a r epresentative t hat c ould b e s acri ed i n a n a ppeal f or s ustenance. T he b urial o f O meteotl w ith r ich d ane i ngs

o fferings l c .vel,

i n T enochtitlan s erved

t he b urial

o f

i n T enochtitlan e nabled

p recious o bjects

a nd

t he M exica

m aterials

i n

T emplo M ayor. i t a lso s erved t o h er ne f t he s upreme p rogenitor, T his

e mphasized

s evera l

t he s upreme g od

T enochtitlan's

t he

o f

f unctions.

t o h oard

s afest

O n a mun-

t he u niverse w ith o fferv ast

p lace i n

q uantities

o f

t he e mpire,

t he

; dentify T enochtitlan a s t he h eart o r T onacatecuhtli, L ord o f S ustenance. c entra l

r ole a s a

s ource

f or

t he

s ustenance o f t he A ztec e mpire ( through t ribute a nd r edistribution) a nd p ositioned T enochtitlan a s t he c entre o f t he c osmos a s a w hole. O ther S tone S culpture i n a ddition t o r itually mutilated s culptures a nd i mages o f t he T wo-Horned D eity, a f ew o ther e xamples o f t ure h ave b een s tone r eplcas T hese

s tandardized s tone s culp-

f ound i n M exica ( . ! aches. T hese i ncluded s keuomorphs o r o f r eed y ear b undles a nd a s ingle e xample o f a f rog.

s culptures,

l ike

t he c eremonially d amaged

t he s tandardization o f i conography w ith t he T o-Horned D eity. R ather,

s culptures,

l acked

a nd a rsociated a rtifacts f ound t hese a ppear t o r epresent u nique

d eposits w ith p articular m eanings. R eed -c entury"

15

b undles t hat

w ere

i mportant

s ymbols

o f

w ere p ermanently m onumentalized

s tone. M any s tone r eplicas o f r eed b undles b een f ound, b ut n ot a ll o f t hese w ere c ached.

t he

A ztec

5 2-year

a nd c ommemorated

( xiuhmolpilli) h ave T wo s kull a ltars o r

p latforms w ere f ound t o c ontain t wo s tone r eed b undles e ach 3 7c) ( Batres, 1 902:39ff, 4 5). C aso ( 1967:129ff) e quated t he m ent

o f

s tone r eed

b undles w ith h uman b urials.

i n

H e s uggested

( Plate i nter-

t hat

t he

r eed y ear b undle w as b uried a s a m ummy b undle i n t he s kull a ltar, w hich h e i nterpreted a s t he b ody o f t he e arth m onster t o s ymbolize t he b urial o f t he d ead c entury b efore t he d rilling o f N ew F ire. He p articularly a ssociated t his e vent w ith t he a nnual T ititl c eremony, w hich h e c onsidered t he l ast m onth o f t he A ztec c alendar. T he d ates c arved o n t hese r eed b undle m onuments s upport t he h ypothesis t hat t hese w ere b uried t o c ommemorate t he e nd o f a 5 2-year ( ome a catl) w as a y ear o f N ew F ire, w hile 1 F lint ( cc i mportant d ate a ssociated w ith o rigins a nd b eginnings e ver, i t d oes n ot a ppear l ikely t hat r eed b undle

c ycle. 2 R eed t ecpatl) w as a n a s w ell. H owm onuments w ere

r egularly b uried i n s kull a ltars a t t he e nd o f e very 5 2-year c ycle, r ather t his i nterment w as p robably m ade a t a p articular p oint i n h istory, p erhaps t o c ommemorate o r i naugurate t he c onstruction o f t hese s kull-and-cross-bone m onuments t hemselves. T he s ignificance o f t he d ate 1 D eath ( cc m iquiztli), a lthough a ssociated w ith t he d eity T ezcatlipoca, i s n ot e ntirely c lear i n t his c ontext, s o t hat p erhaps t his d ate f unctioned a s a r eferent t o a p articular d ate i n h istory. A f rog c ove5ed w ith b lue s tucco w as f ound i n a c ache b ox i n M etro S tructure L 2 ( Gussinyer, 1 970a:11). T his d eposit p erhaps r epresents a t erminal o ffering o f s ome k ind b ecause t he c ache b ox i tself w as p ainted r ed a nd c arved w ith d ates o f t ermination w ith 1 3 a s a c oefficient. A t l east t hree s tone f rogs w ere f ound a t t he b ack o f t he T emplo M ayor, h owever i t i s u nclear w hether t hese s culptures w ere r elated t o v arious s hrines o r a ltars i n t he a rea. A s culpture o f a s eated male p ulque g od w as f ound i n T emplo M ayor D eposit n o. 6 ( Plate 3 8c). T his s culpture a ppears t o b e u nique i n T emplo M ayor c aches. I t c an b e i dentified a s a p ulque d eity o n t he b asis o f f acial p aint a nd i nsignia - f an h eaddress a ttachment, e ar o rnaments, a nd l unar n ose o rnament ( cf. P late 2 5c). P ulque, l ike w ater

a nd

b lood,

w as

r egarded

a s a p recious

l iquid

e ssential

f or

h uman a nd d ivine s ustenance, t hus p ulqne g ods w ere c losely r elated t o g ods o f w ater a nd f ertility ( Broda, 1 971:210). D ue t o s imilarities i n s cale a nd p osture, t his s culpture i s p erhaps a v isual p lay o n t he c oncept o f t he T wo-Horned G od ( cf. P lates 1 7a a nd 1 7c). H owever, t he d iadem a nd t he s mooth, u ndecorated b ack o f t he s culpture d istinguish i t f rom r epresentations o f t he T wo-Horned G od. I t w as d eposited i n c onjunction w ith a s culpture o f t he T wo-Horned G od, p erhaps s ize t he s acrificial a ppeal f or f ertility a nd a bundance.

t o e mpha-

T wo E hecatl c arytids o r s upport f igures w ere f ound i n B atres D eposit n o. 5 ( 1902:19) ( Plate 3 8a). T he p recise a rchaeological c ontext o f t hese p ieces w as n ot d escribed, s o t hat i t i s u nclear w hether t hey w ere d eposited i n a c ache. t ures d epicting E hecatl h ave b een f ound, t o r epresent t erminal r ededication o f a s ite.

A lthough o ther c ached s culpt hese o ther e xamples a ppear

o fferings d eposited a t t he d estruction o r A d ancing m onkey w earing t he b uccal m ask o f 8 1

E hecatl

w as b roken a nd

( Plate 1 2b;

G ussinyer,

c ached

i n a r ound

1 968).

a doratory

A nother s tanding

a t

T enochtitlan

s culpture w earing a

b uccal m ask w as f ound b uried i n t he p latform o f a r ound t emple a t C alixtlahuaca ( Plate 3 8b ; M arquina, 1 964:225). T he E hecatl a tlantids e xcavated b y B atres b ear t races o f r ed p igment, s uggesting t hat p erhaps B atres

t hese t oo w ere i ntended t o b e s ymbolically k illed. H owever, E hecatls w ere f ound b uried w ith m any r ich o fferings, w hile

t he o ther t wo d eposits

l acked

s uch f inery.

T hese s upport f igures p robably h ad a p articular s ymbolic s ignif icance b ased o n t heir f orm a nd i conography. T he " atlantid" o r " carytid" s upport w as a v enerated f orm a ssociated w ith T oltec m onum ents, e xemplified n ot o nly b y t he f amous a tlantids o f T ula, b ut a lso b y m any s mall-scale w arrior s upport f igures ( Acosta, 1 954:108, 4 9). O ther h eirlooms, s uch a s g reenstone f igurines a nd p laques,

L m. w ere

a lso f ound i n t his c ache a nd t hese o bjects m ay h ave s erved t o e mphas ize h istorical c ontinuities w ith p revious t raditions. E hecatl w as a f ertility-related m anifestation o f Q uetzaalcoatl, a c omplex a nd m ulti-faceted d eity ( Nicholson , 1 971:416, 4 28-30). c onceived o f a s o ne o f t he t laloque o r t epictoten.

E hecatl w as a lso T hese b eings w ere

i mportant f ertility d eities, w ho w ere a lso c onceived o f a s u pholders o r s upporters o f s ustenance a nd f ertility ( Broda, 1 971). W hile t hese f or

a n

a ltar, t hey m ay a lso h ave b een i mportant s ymbols a s u pholders h istorical t raditions a s w ell a s o f s ustenance a nd f ertility.

E hecatl

s upport

f igures m ay h ave b een f unctional

o f

8 2

s upports

X II.

C ONCLUSIONS

T he a merican T his

M exica b urial o f o fferings r eflects a m ixture o f p an-Mesob eliefs w ith c oncerns t hat w ere p articular t o t he A ztecs.

c ombination o f

t radition a nd

i nnovation i s

p robably n ot a

f or-

t uitous o ne, b ut r ather a ppears t o h ave r esulted f rom t he s patial a nd t emporal s elf i mage h eld b y t he M exica. T he b asic c oncept o f b urying o fferings i s i ntegrally r elated t o w hat i s p erhaps a g eneral M esoa merican b elief i n ac ycle o f d eath a nd r ebirth i n w hich p arallels c an b e f ound i n t he s ocial, b iological, a nd c osmological r ealms. O n t he o ther h and, t he i ntroduction o f n ew t ypes o f o fferings i nto c aches A ztecs

r eflects t he u nique v iew o f " Mexica i dentity" h eld b y t he i n t he l ate P ost-Classic P eriod. T he M exica v iew o f t heir

s ocial

r esponsibility,

t heir r ole i n h istory,

a nd

t heir

p osition

w ithin t he u niverse l ed t o t he e laboration o f m any o f t heir a nd c ultic p ractices, i ncluding p ublic c eremonies a s w ell a s

r itual v otive

o fferings. T he c yclic v iew o f b irth, d eath, a nd r ebirth, w hich c an a lso b e s een m ore g enerally a s g rowth, d estruction, r egeneration, a re n ot r estricted t o M esoamerica, h owever t he M exica d evelopment o f t his t heme t ook a p articular f orm i n m etaphor, r itual, a nd a rt. T he p rocesses o f " offering" a nd " sacrifice" w ere r egarded a s " contracts" w ith s upernatural f orces o r d eities f or s pecific e nds o r f or g eneral w ell b eing ( cf. B roda, 1 971:259, 2 75). T he s equence o f " food s ustenance - l ife," a b asic r equisite f or h uman s urvival, w as e quated i n t he b iological r ealm w ith " seed - i nsemination - g rowth." B oth o f t hese n atural c hains w ere i n t urn a pplied t o r elations w ith t he g ods i n t he u nstated, b ut i mplicit, e xchange r elationship i n t he a cts o f o ffering a nd s acrifice. H umans s ustained t he g ods w ith f ood, e ither b lood s acrifices o r p recious o fferings, i n e xchange f or r eturns s uch a s r ain,

a gricultural

A mong o f

a bundance,

t he M exica,

d escending

o r h uman f ertility.

t he b urial

m ovement,

o f o fferings

r elates t o

w hich w as c onceptually e q u ated

t he a ction w ith

b oth

b irth a nd d eath ( Klein, 1 972:35). B abies w ere b elieved t o " descend" f rom O meyocan, t he d welling p lace o f O meteotl i n t he 1 3th l ayer o f h eaven, t o b e b orn o n e arth ( ibid.: f or t he e arth w as p erhaps v isualized

3 5). M etaphorical s ustenance i n s imilar t erms: r ain " descen-

d ed"

" descended"

t o

f eed

t he e arth,

w hile

s eeds

a s

t hey w ere p lanted

i n t he e arth. D eath w as a lso c onceived o f i n t erms o f f ood " descendi ng" i nto t he g aping m outh o f t he e arth. T he d ead, a s m ummy b undles o r a s c remated r emains, w ere b uried i n t he e arth, w hich w as o ften d epicted w ith g aping, f anged j aws, v oracious a nd e ager t o r eceive s ustenance. T he s etting s un w as a lso c onceived o f a s d ying i n i ts d aily " descent" i n t he w est. S ustenance, i nsemination, o ffering, a nd s acrifice w ere t herefore a ll m etaphorically c onnected w ith " descent" a nd w ere c onceived o f a s w ays o f i nsuring t he c ontinuation o f t he d eath/rebirth c ycle. A spects

o f

M exica

b uried

o fferings 8 3

i llustrate

t he

i ntegral

r elationship b etween t he c oncepts o f d eath, a nce,

a nd

i nsemination.

b irth,

T he l arge q uantities

o f

s acrifice, s acrificial

s ustenf lint

k nives f ound i n M exica c aches a re n ot m erely s ymbols o f d eath a nd d estruction. R ather, t hey a re a lso i mportant s ymbols o f l ife a nd b eginnings, a ssociated w ith t he b irth o f H uitzilopochtli a nd o f t he M exica n ation. T he d epiction o f v oracious T laloc o r T laltecuhtli i mages a nd f lint k nives o n c ache r eceptacle i nteriors a nd t he u se o f r ed p igment t o c over a ll o r p art o f t he o ffering a ppear t o i dentify t he

b urial

o f

t hese o bjects a s

i n t he e arth's b ody. i nterpreted a s t he ( Krickeberg, 1 950),

" sacrificed"

a nd

" dead"

t hings b uried

T he b ody o f t he t emple i n p articular h as b een c osmic m ountain, t he s ource f or a ll o rigins a nd b y e xtension t he b ody o f t he f ertile e arth

m onster h erself. O bjects b uried i n t he b ody o f t he e arth, a nd t emple b y e xtension, s ymbolically f ed a nd i nseminated t he e arth t he s ame t ime. H uman s acrifices a nd o fferings o f b lood a nd w ere c ommonly v iewed a s s ymbolic s ustenance f or t he g ods.

t he a t

h earts C osmic

s ustenance w as a lso r epresented b y s uch p erishable v aluables a s f lowers, c opal, p ulque, a nd c acao, a s w ell a s b y d urable c ommodities s uch a s g reenstone a nd p recious s tone b eads. S hells, b ones, r . eramic a nd s tone T laloc v essels, a nd o ther f ertility d eity e ffigy v essels w ere p erhaps

r egarded

a s

s ymbolic

T he p rocess o f b urying

c ontainers

a n o ffering h ad

f or s uch s ustenance. e conomic,

p olitical,

a nd

s ymbolic s ignificance. T he i nterment o f p recious o bjects i n t he b ody o f a t emple, t he T emplo M ayor i n p articular, w as o ne m eans o f h oardi ng a nd p rotecting v alued c ommodities. I n M exica p olitics, t he o stentatious d isplay o f w ealth w as u ndertaken t o f righten a nd i ntimid ate e nemies ( Durän, 1 967, 1 1:341). T he b urial o f c opious r iches i n c aches i ncreased t he p olitical a nd s upernatural p ower o f t he T emplo M ayor

a s a s ymbol o f

t he M exica n ation.

T he p rocess o f b urying

a n

o ffering w as o ne w ay o f s ymbolically k illing o r d estroying t he o fferi ng a s a s acrifice t o s ustain t he g ods. M uch h as b een s aid o f h uman s acrifice a s a m eans o f f eeding t he g ods, p articularly t o i nsure t he d aily r ising o f t he s un. I t a ppears, h owever, t hat M exica c aches r eferred s pecifically t o a ppeals f or f ertility, e ither h uman o r a gricultural.

T he a ct o f b urying a n o ffering,

a s o pposed

t o

t ossing

i t i nto f ire o r w ater, w as p robably c onnected n ot o nly w ith t he b urial o f t he d ead, b ut a lso w ith t he p lanting o f s eeds. N otions o f i nsemination a nd s ustenance p lay a p rominent r ole i n M exica c aches, w hich o ften c ontain m aterials a ssociated w ith f ertility d eities. S everal

o f t he i nnovative a spects o f M exica v otive c ache

p rac-

t ices r eflect t he p articular i mage t hat t he M exica h ad o f t hemselves i n t ime a nd s pace. M exica a mbiguity o ver t heir p osition i n h istory r esulted f rom t heir p olitically i nsecure a nd u nstable r ole a s i ntrud ers

i nto

p ast,

e xemplified b y s uch

t he B asin o f M exico.

I n a we o f

s ites a s T ula,

t he

m ythico-historical

T eotihuacan,

a nd X ochicalco,

t he M exica s ought t o c ompensate f or t heir l ack o f a t radition o f l ineage t ies w ith l ocal a ncestors b y i ntermarrying w ith l ocal e lite. T hey r eshaped t he p ast b y r ewriting t heir h istories, b y i mitating a rt f orms o f p revious c ivilizations, a rt w orks o f t heir p redecessors.

a nd b y t ransporting a nd r e-erecting Y et a n e gocentric p ride o ver t heir

h umble b eginnings l ed t he M exica t o a ttempt t o d istinguish t hemselves f rom p revious c ultures. I n a n e ffort t o o ut-do t heir p recursors, t he M exica

u ndertook t he e xpansion o f

r itual,

a rt,

a nd

t he e mpire a nd

a rchitecture.

8 4

t he e laboration

o f

S patially, t ions, v erse

t he M exica,

l ike m any o ther i mperialistic c iviliza-

v iewed t hemselves a s t he c entre, h eart, o r n avel o f t he u nii n a s eries o f e xpanding c ontexts. T he T emplo M ayor, t he

p rincipal s ymbol o f M exica p olitical a nd r eligious d omination, w as s et i n t he C eremonial P recinct, w ithin T enochtitlan, a n i sland i n L ake T excoco i n t he m iddle o f t he A ztec e mpire. T enochtitlan, a nd t he

T emplo M ayor

c entre o f T he

i n p articular,

w as u ltimately c onceived

o f a s

t he

e thno-centrism

a nd

t he e ntire u nverse. r esult

o f

t his

p eculiar c ombination o f

i nsecurity o ver t heir l owly o rigins l ed t o t he c reation o f a u nique v iew o f M exica i dentity a nd r esponsibility. T his d ialectical v iew o f " Mexicahood"

w as

m anifested

i n s pecific a spects

o f

M exica

p ractices. P erhaps t he u ltimate s ymbol o f M exica i dentity, k nife e merged a s a n i mportant c omponent o f M exica c aches

v otive

t he f lint t hat w as

g lorified i n h istorical, m ythological, a nd c osmological t erms, b ased o n t he n atural p roperties o f f lint a nd t he f unction o f t he k nife i tself. S imultaneously a n i mage o f b irth a nd d eath, t he f lint k nife w as f iery ( a m etaphor f or " war-like"), r ough, a nd c oarse l ike t he b arbaric M exica t hemselves, a nd i t s erved t he s ame f unction a s t he M exica t o f uel t he u niverse b y y ielding b lood, n ecessary a s s ustena nce f or

t he c osmos.

M exica

a mbiguity o ver

t heir p osition i n h istory w s

r eflected

i n

t he c ontents o f M exica b uried o fferings. T he M exica r ecognized t he g reatness o f p revious c ivilizations i n g eneral t erms a nd t hey c ached h eirlooms s uch a s a n O lmec m ask, T eotihuacan m asks a nd c eramics, a nd G uerrero f orms

s tyle m asks a nd

w ere

t ransformed

f igurines.

A t

t he s ame t ime,

a nd r efined b y t he

M exica

o ther a ntique

i nto

m onumental

s tone s culpture o r i nto b eautiful l uxurious o bjects m ade o f p recious m aterials. T laloc e ffigy v essels, f or e xample, w ere a n a ncient v enerated f orm k nown f rom s ites s uch a s T eotihuacan a nd X ochicalco. T he M exica c reated e laborate v ersions o f t he T laloc v essel i n p ott ery, a s w ell a s i n t he f orm o f s tone s culpture, m onumentalizing t his h istorical f orm i nto a n e nduring s ymbol. A c ommon T eotihuacan P eriod t hin o rangeware v essel t ype, t he s hallow b owl w ith f laring r im a nd t ripod s upports, w as t ranslated b y t he M exica i nto p recious g reens tone, a mong t he m ost l uxurious m aterials i n M esoamerica. T he M exica v iew o f

t his c entral

p osition i n p resent g eographical

a nd i n t imeless c osmological s pace, l ed t o t he d evelopment a nd e labor ation o f t he s tandardized T wo-Horned G od o ffering. T his i nnovative c ache t ype a ppears t o s ymbolize t he d eath a nd r oyal b urial o f t he s upreme p rogenitor d eity, O meteotl, a s a s acrifice p etitioning f or s ustenance. T he b urial o f O meteotl s erves a d ouble f unction. A ppealing s acrifice p rovide i nterest s ymbol

o f

t o t he i nterests o f o f O meteotl i ndicated

a ll m embers o f A ztec t he r esponsibility o f

s ociety, t he t he M exica t o

" sustenance" f or h umans a nd f or t he c osmos. O f t o t he e lites o f M exica s ociety w as O meteotl's s upremacy a nd

o mnipotence,

a p osition t hat

p articular r ole a s a

t he M exica

f elt

t hat t hey t hemselves o ccupied. F urthermore, t he b urial o f O meteotl t ransformed t he T emplo M ayor i nto a s ymbolic c entre o r " heart" f or h uman a nd

o n

c osmic

l ife.

T he s ignificance o f O meteotl a s a s ymbol o f c entrality o perated a v ariety o f l evels. I n t he e veryday r ealm, t he b urial o f

O meteotl

i dentified

t he c entre o f a s tructure ( e.g. 8 5

P ino-Suärez M etro

S tructure

L -3).

c htitlan a t f icial

I n p olitical

t he " heart"

v ictims

a nd

o f

a nd

e conomic

t erms,

t he M exica e mpire.

t ribute)

f lowed

t o

i t

" Blood"

t he " heart"

l ocated T eno( both

s acri-

( Tenochtitlan)

t o

b e p umped o ut i n t he r edistribution o f g oods t o s ustain t he e mpire. I n m ythico - h istorical s ymbolism, t he T emplo M ayor, t he m ajor l ocation o f O meteotl b urials, w as p erhaps c onceptually e quated w ith T onac atepetl,

t he

m ythical m ountain s ource o f

a ll

s ustenance.

I n c os-

m ological t erms, t he b urial o f O meteotl i n T enochtitlan s erved t o i dentify t he M exica c apital w ith t he d welling p lace o f t he s upreme p rogenitor i n O meyocan, c onsidered t he " navel" o f t he u niverse a s w ell

a s

t he h ighest

O meteotl

o f a ll h eavens.

a nd T laloc

a re

t he m ajor d eities

r epresented

i n T emplo

M ayor c aches, h owever t he c ult o f t he T emplo M ayor i s g enerally a ssociated w ith T laloc a nd Huitzilopochtli, n ot O meteotl. T hese t hree t ime,

d eities o ccupied d ifferent p ositions i n c osmological s pace, a nd r eligious r itual.

m ythico-historical A n e xamination o f

t he b eliefs a nd c ultic p ractices a ssociated w ith T laloc, H uitzilop ochtli, a nd O meteotl r eveals b asic c oncepts o n t he d ifferent n ature o f

t hese d eities. T laloc,

H uitzilopochtli,

a nd O meteotl p layed d ifferent r oles i n

t he c ontext o f m ythico-historical t ime. T laloc w as c onsidered a n o ld g od, a ssociated w ith h istory a nd a ntiquity ( Pasztory, I n p ress a ). Huitzilopochtli, o n t he o ther h and, p atron o f t he n ew M exica n ation.

w as c onsidered a y oung g od, t he O meteotl t ranscended m ythico-

h istorical t ime. H e w as a ssociated w ith t he o rigins a nd b eginnings o f t he u niverse a nd t ime i tself i n t he f orm o f t he 2 60-day r itual c alendar.

i n

T he p ositions o ccupied b y T laloc, H uitzilopochtli a nd O meteotl c osmic s pace w ere a lso d istinct. A lthough k nown p rimarily a s a

g od o f r ain, T laloc w as e arth ( Sullivan, 1 974).

a lso a f ertility g oc t a ssociated w ith t he Huitzilopochtli w as a ssociated w ith s olar

i conography a nd w ith t he d irection " up." O meteotl, o n t he o ther h and, d efied s patial b ounds. H e w as a ssociated w ith t he n avel o r c entre o f t he e arth, h ighest o f h eavens.

y et a t t he s ame t ime h e w as s aid t o d well i n t he O meteotl's p osition w as p erhaps c onceived o f a s

a c ontinuous c entral v ertical a xis, a s o pposed t o a s ingular f ixed p oint i n h orizontal s pace ( E. P asztory, p ersonal c ommunication). C ultic

p ractices,

a ssociated

w ith

a s m easured

t hese t hree g ods

t hrough r ituals

s how d ifferent

a nd

r oles

s acrifices, f or

T laloc,

H uitzilopochtli, a nd O meteotl. M any s acrifices a nd r ituals f or c omm oners a nd e lites w ere k nown t o h ave b een d edicated t o T laloc, w ho w as a p rominent f igure i n b oth t he 2 60-day r itual c alendar a nd t he 3 65-day s olar/agricultural c alendar. t he f ocus o f e lite c ultic p ractices. i n t he 2 60-day d ivinatory c alendar, v als

d uring

H uitzilopochtli w as p rimarily A lthough h e d id n ot p lay a r ole h e w as h onoured

t he 3 65-day s olar c alendar.

O meteotl,

i n s everal

f esti-

a lthough a

g od

i mportant t o a ll m embers o f A ztec s ociety , w as n ot k nown t o b e t he f ocus o f a ny s acrifice, r itual, f estival, o r c ult a mong t he M exica. A s f irst p atron o f t he 2 60 4 -day r itual c alendar, h e w ould h ave b een i mportant

t o a ll m embers o f A ztec s ociety i n c ommon c oncerns s uch a s

p rognostications,

n aming

n ewborn b abies a s w ell a s d etermining

f ortunes o f a ll u ndertakings.

8 6

t he

T he

a ccessibility o r v isibility o f T laloc,

O meteotl

e xhibited

r epresentations d ifferent media

i n A ztec

r itual

p ractices

H uitzilopochtli,

i s

e vident

i n

a rti

a nd -t ic

o f t hese g ods a s w ell. M any I mages i n 1 v ariety n f ( stone s culpture, g reenstone, t erracotta, c eramic)

d epicted T laloc, s o t hat h e w as a f requently s een, v isible ( 1 .4ty. I t i s s triking t hat t here a re n o known s urviving A ztec i mages o f H uitz ilopochtli. made

o f

I t h as b een

s uggested

s ome p eri8hable m aterial,

s upreme g od

o f

t he M exica,

t hat

t he Huitzilopochtli

s uch a s w ood,

h e w as a p articular

i dol w as

o r p erhaps a s

t arget

t he

f or d estruction

b y t he S panish. T he c hronicles s ay t hat O meteotl w as n ever d epicted i n h uman f orm ( Garibay K ., 1 964 1 :175). H owe ,y er, p erhaps h e w as c arved

t o b e

s pecifically h idden a nd b uried,

s o

t hat

w ould

, -

) t b e

v isible. T he i nvisibility o f O meteotl i n c aches a ppea r s t o h ave b een d eliberate a nd t o h ave h ad a s ignificance t hat l elates t o t he i dent ity s een.

h e

o f

t he g od

h imself.

O f ieteotl w as p robably n ot

1 1b A s a s upreme d eity a nd a n e mbodiment w as p erhaps t oo s acred t o b e s een. I mages

b een c arved n avel

o f

s pecifically f or b urial

t he e arth.

T his

s erved

i n T enochtitlan, t o

O meteotl w as b uried

r esponsibility

s ustain a ll

e nce, a nd

t he

t he M exica t o

t hrough human s acrifice,

w arfare,

p romotion o f h uman f ertility a nd

8 7

t o

b e

h is h ome i n t he

i dentify t he p ivotal

o f T enochtitlan i n t he c osmos. o f

m eant

o f c osmic d ualities, o f u meteotl m ay h ave i mportance

t o i ndicate

a spects o f

c osmic

t he a cquisition o f a gricultural

t he

e xist-

t ribute,

a bundance.

N OTES 1 .

T enochtitlan,

t he i sland

c apital o f

t he M exica,

w as

s et i n L ake

T excoco i n t he B asin o f M exico. I n 1 521, t he c ity w as r azed b y S panish c onquerors w ho b uilt t heir o wn c ity d irectly o n t op o f t he A ztec r emains. 2 .

T he

T emplo M ayor

( "Main T emple") w as a n e normous

p yramid

s ur-

m ounted b y t win t emples d edicated t o T laloc, t he r ain g od, a nd H uitzilopochtli, t he p atron g od o f t he M exica. I n t his p aper, t he t erm " Templo M ayor" w ill b e u sed t he m ain t emple i n T enochtitlan. 3 .

M olina ( 1977:90r,

1 06v)

t o r efer s pecifically

t ranslates b oth v erbs,

" to o ffer"

t o

a nd

" to s acrifice", a s t lamana a nd u emmana. M ana i s t he r oot o f b oth w ords a nd m eans t o " spread" ( Karttunen, --- 083:135). B oth t lamana a nd u emmana h uentli r efer t o t he " spreading" o f a n o ffering. 4 .

M olina ( 1977:106v)

s pecifically l ists

" to s acrifice o r t o o ffer

s omething t o t he d ead" a s t onaltia a nd m icca u emmana. T he t erm m icca u emmana r efers t o o fferings " spread" f or t he d ead, w hile t onaltia w arm i n

d escribes o fferings b urned t o k eep t he d ead p erson t he a fterworld. T his s pecificity o f t erms s uggests

t hat m ortuary o fferings w ere d istinguished, a lly, 5 .

T he

a t

l east c onceptu-

f rom v otive o fferings. r ole

o f c ihuacoatl a s p olitical m over i s

e xemplified

b y

T lacaelel, w ho w as a dvisor f or I tzcoatl, M otecuhzoma I , A xayac atl, T izoc, a nd A huitzotl. H owever, i t a ppears u nlikely t hat T lacaelel's a ctions c ould b e c onsidered 6 .

A rt

a nd

t ypical

r eligion m ay n ot h ave b een e ntirely

f or t he o ffice. a nd

c onsciously

m anipulated b y t he M exica e lite. I t i s i mportant t o k eep i n m ind t hat b elief i s e ssential f or t he e fficacy o f a ny i deologic al s ystem. T he M exica i dentification w ith s upernaturals r ef lects t he s uperiors.

n atural p rocess o f a r uling g roup e mulating T his p rocess p laces t he r uling e lite o utside

r ealm o f m undane h uman i nteraction, t heir o wn a ctions 7 .

t hereby

i ts t he

t ransforming a ll o f

i nto s acred o nes.

A n e xample o f a T eotihuacan-based i mitation i s t he g reenstone s keletal c arving e xcavated b y B atres o n E scallerillas S treet ( Umberger, t ions o f

1 981:80). A ctual T oltec c arvings a s w ell a s i mitat he T oltec s tyle a re a lso k nown f rom T enochtitlan.

T oltec-style w arrior s culptures a nd a M exica i mitation w ere f ound a t G uatemala 1 2 ( Mateos H iguera, 1 979:213-4), w hile t he " Banqueta r eliefs" a re w ell-known i mitations o f t he T oltec s tyle. 8 .

B eyer ( 1922:275-6) n oted t hat s imilar d ecorative e mblems b een f ound a t T eotihuacan a nd A zcapotzalco. H e c omments, s urprise, a nd

o n t he p reservation o f

s uggests

t hat

t hese

t he A ztecs i mitated

s tyle.

8 8

" Teotihuacan"

h ave w ith

b raziers,

o bjects i n a T eotihuacan

9 .

T o

e xplain

s ymbolism

t he

d epiction o f

i conography o f

f ire

a nd

o n c ertain i ncense l adles i n a m ountain g od

s moke s hrine,

S eler s uggests t hat t he d ecoration o f t he t ools r eflects t he f unction o f t he l adle, n amely t o b urn i ncense. H e a lso f ocuses o n t he s olar i conography o f t wo e laborately p olychromed w hich h e i dentifies a s c uauhxicalli o r " eagle v essels,"

v ases, r ecep-

t acles f or b lood a nd h eart s acrifices. H owever, t hese v essels b ear n o r esemblance t o o ther k nown " eagle v essels" i n s tone o r g reenstone, h is t heory. 1 0 .

a nd

t here a ppears

e vidence t o

s upport

W . C oe ( 1959:108-116) p resents a c ursory, b ut u seful, s urvey o f M esoamerican c aches d iscovered u p t o 1 959. H owever, h e f ocuses p rimarily

o n

t he M aya l owlands a nd

w hile o ther a reas, M exico, a merica" 1 1.

t o b e l ittle

s uch a s O axaca,

a re l umped t ogether u nder ( ibid.: 1 15-116).

t he

G uatemala

V eracruz, t he

a nd

h ighlands, t he B asin o f

" remainder

o f

M eso-

L a V enta a nd S an L orenzo a re t he m ost e xtensively e xcavated O lmec c entres, t herefore m ost o f t he l iterature o n o fferings p ertains t o t hese t wo s ites. D rucker, H eizer, a nd S quier ( 1959) g iven a n e xcellent s ummary o f t he 4 2 c aches a nd f ive t ombs d iscovered a t L a V enta, w hile a n e arlier r eport b y D rucker ( 1952) i ncludes m ore d etailed i nformation o n t he t ombs. N o b urials a nd o nly a f ew c aches h ave b een f ound a t S an L orenzo ( M . C oe a nd D iehl, 1 980 ; M . C oe, 1 968a :47-8, 5 2, 5 7; 1 968b; M . C oe e t. a l., 1 966).

1 2.

C uicuilco

( D.F.)

a nd

T otimehuacan ( Puebla)

w ere

l ate

P re-

C lassic s ites w ith m onumental a rchitecture, h owever t here w as n o a vailable i nformation o n b urials o r c aches f rom t hese s ites. 1 3.

T he p ublished r ecord c ontains m ore i nformation o n b urials t han o n c aches. M uch o f t he l iterature o n b urials p ertains t o T latilco ( Pif ta C hän , 1 955; P if ia C hän e t. a l., 1 952; P orter, 1 953; R omano, 1 972; C ovarrabuias, 1 957) e ven t hough m ost o f t he g rave l ots e t. a l.,

f rom t his s ite h ave n ot y et b een p ublished ( Tolstoy 1 970). O ther b urial d ata f rom t his p eriod c ome f rom

V aillant's e xcavations a t Z acatenco, ( 1930 , 1 931, 1 935). 1 4.

R eports d escribe o nly v otive o fferings a t

T eotihuacan .

T icoman ,

f or

a nd E l A rbolillo

t he L ate P re-Classic

T zacualii P hase c aches c ome f rom t he O ztoya-

h ualco z one t o t he w est a nd n orthwest o f t he P yramid o f t he M oon ( Millon , 1 960 ; M illon a nd B ennyhoff, 1 961) a nd f rom t he P yramid o f t he S un ( Millon a nd D rewitt, 1 960 ; M illon, D rewitt a nd B ennyhoff, 1 965). A M iccaotli P hase v otive d eposit i s k nown f rom t he T emple o f Q uetzalcoatl i n t he C iudadela ( Rubin d e l a B orbolla, 1 947). 1 5.

S imilar o bjects p lus a v ariety o f o thers w ere f ound b y P grez ( 1935) a nd N oguera ( 1935:31-53) i n t he t unnel b eneath t he P yramid

o f

o bjects

c onstitute

t he S un.

H owever,

i t i s u nclear

d iscrete o fferings o r

w hether

c eremonial

t hese r efuse.

M illon, D rewitt a nd B ennyhoff ( 1965:26) r efer t o t hese a s " caches," e ven t hough t he p ublished d ata d o n ot p rovide s pecif ic i nformation r egarding l ocation a nd g rouping. 8 9

1 6.

L iterature o n P re-Classic

c aches a nd

b urials

i n t he M aya r egion

i s s cattered a nd s parse. C oggins ( 1975) i ncludes i nformation o n b oth b urials a nd c aches a t T ikal. B rief s ummaries o f v otive o fferings a re g iven b y W . C oe ( 1965a, 1 965b) o fferings b y R uz L huillier ( 1965, 1 968). 1 7.

T he

m ajority

v ariety, f rom

f rom

t he

a nd

o f

o f o bsidian a t P re-Classic T ikal i s

o f

t he G uatemala h ighlands,

P achuca-Teotihuacan

a rea

w hile g reen i s

r are

f unerary

t he

g rey

o bsidian,

( Moholy-Nagy,

1 975:511-514). I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat a lthough g reen o bsidian w as i mported f rom g reater d istances, 7 5% o f i t o ccurr ed i n o ccupational d ebris, w hile 6 6% o f t he G uatemala g rey o bsidian o ccurred i n c eremonial c ontexts ( ibid.: 5 16). 1 8.

A lthough m ore t han 1 50 t ombs h ave b een e xcavated a t M onte A lbän, t hese h ave b een o nly f ragmentarily p ublished. U seful s ummaries o n t he P re-Classic P hases o f M onte A lbän c an b e f ound i n C aso ( 1965:899-903) a nd M arquina ( 1964:335-7). I nformation o n v otive c aches i s f requently r eferred t o i n p assing ( Caso, 1 965). D ating i s f requently u nclear i n t he i nitial e xcavation r eports, s o t hat i t i s d ifficult a c hronological f ramework.

1 9.

2 0 .

J ade f igurines f irst a ppeared i n c aches d uring M onte A lbän I I ( 200 B .C. - 2 00 A .D.); i n l ater p hases t hey o ccurred i n a w ider v ariety o f

c ontexts.

S ee

a nd R ozaire ( 1960 :15),

H icks

A grinier 2 1.

t o p lace m any o fferings w ithin

Q uite

a

( 1960 :55-63), f ew

L owe ( 1962:23ff),

M ason ( 1960a:17-19;

C lassic P eriod b urials h ave

L owe

a nd

1 960b:9). b een

e xcavated

a t

T eotihuacan ; h owever, r elatively f ew c aches h ave b een f ound. M ortuary o fferings h ave b een r eported a t t he C iudadela ( Marq uina, 1 922), a t t he T lamimilolpa a nd X olalpan c ompounds ( Linn , 1 942, L a V entanilla,

1 934), i n t he a reas a round t he R io S an J uan a nd a b arrio o n t he o utskirts o f t he s ite ( Noguera,

1 935; S errano a nd L agunas, 1 974; C abrera, 1 982:32; S änchez, 1 982a:241), i n t he n ortheast a rea o f t he C iudadela ( Jarquin a nd M artinez, 1 982:103, 1 20), a nd i n o ther a reas ( Gonzälez a nd F uentes, 1 982; Q uintanilla, 1 982:356; B asante, M anera , a nd S oruco, 1 982:373). C lassic P eriod c aches h ave b een r eported a t t he P yramid o f Q uetzalcoatl i n t he C iudadela ( Rubin d e l a B orbolla, 1 947; D osal, 1 925), a round t he C iudadela a rea ( Jarquin a nd M artinez, 1 982:92), a nd i n h abitational z ones s uch a s o f

t he T lamimilolpa c ompound ( Linn , 1 942), t he g roup n orthwest t he S an J uan R iver ( Sänchez, 1 982a:236, 2 43), a nd i n t he

C alle d e l os M uertos C omplex 2 2.

L inng C ache

( Sanchez,

1 982b:311).

( 1942:142-3) r eported t hree c aches a t T lamimilolpa. I a nd I I i ncluded s ymbolically o r r itually i mportant

i tems s uch a s p ottery m iniatures, c ylindrical t ripods a nd s hells. C ache I II c ontained a n u nornamented j ar t hat L inn6 c ompared w ith w ater s torage v essels f rom T lamimilolpa a nd X olalpan. I t a ppears t hat " Cache I II" i s a s torage w hile C ache I a nd I I a re p robably v otive o fferings.

90

d eposit,

2 3.

U nworked

j ade a nd g reenstone f igurines w ere f ound o nly i n

T emple

o f

Q uetzalcoatl

o ffering

( Rubin

d e

l a

t he

B orbolla,

1 947:67). 2 4.

R ubin d e l a B orbolla ( 1947:67) a lso r eported e nigmatic y ellow p aste d isks. H e s uggested t hat t hese s erved a s a b acking f or f igurine h eads,

w hich w ere f ound

Q uetzalcoatl o ffering,

i n t he P re-Classic P yramid

h owever n ot

o f

i n t he l ater C lassic P eriod

deposit. 2 5.

L inn 6r eports s ingle e xamples o f s tone-lined g raves a t T lamimil olpa ( 1942:125-6) a nd a t X olalpan ( 1934:54), h owever t hese a re b oth u nusual

2 6.

C rude c ache

e xamples.

T laloc e ffigy v essels w ere a lso f ound i n t he P yramid o f t he S un. S ee t he

i n a P re-Classic s ection o n P re-

C lassic T eotihuacan. 2 7.

B oth f unerary d eposits a nd c eremonial

v otive o fferings h ave b een f ound

s tructures a t X ochicalco.

C aches w ere e xcavated

i n i n

t he P yramid o f Q uetzalcoatl, a s w ell a s i n B uildings A a nd C ( Saenz, 1 962a 1 963, 1 964), w hile b urials w ere f ound a t t he R oom o f t he O fferings, t he P yramid ( Saenz, 1 962b, 1 963, 1 964). S aenz

( 1962b)

S tructure

A

o f Q uetzalcoatl,

a lso d escribes a rtifacts a s

" offerings."

f ound

A mong t he

a nd B uilding C

o n t he

f loor

d iscoveries

w ere

o f a

p laque w ith g lyphs, t wo y okes, a b razier, a n i ncomplete s eated c lay f igurine, a n o nyx m ask w ith c onch a nd p yrite i nlays, a nd a f at s tone s tatuette. t ered o n t he f loor o f

H owever, t hese o bjects w ere f ound t he r oom a nd i t i s u nclear i f t hey

s catt ruly

r epresent o fferings. 2 8.

T he c ache a t C erro d e l as M esas, 7 82 o f

p ieces o f

a s ite i n V eracruz,

j ade a nd o ther p recious m aterials

p roveniences ( Drucker,

1 955;

S tirling,

c ontained

f rom a v ariety

1 941).

T he d eposit

c ontained a l arge n umber o f h eirloom p ieces, i ncluding f iguri nes, p erforated p laques, e arspools, d isks, c elts, c eremonial p erforators, a nd u nstrung b eads. A r ed p ainted r elief o f a monkey

a nd

a t urtle w as p laced

o ver

t he b uried

o ffering a nd

c lay H uehueteotl b razier w as f ound n earby ( Stirling, 3 01). T he d ating o f t his d eposit i s u nclear. ( 1955:29) s uggests a L ower I I H orizon d ate ( c. B .C.), h owever B ernal ( 1969:147) p roposes a

a

1 941:292, D rucker

4 00 B .C. C lassic

- 1 00 P eriod

f unerary

p rac-

d ate. 2 9.

T he

r ichness

a nd

c omplexity o f M aya v otive a nd

t ices i s e vident i n t he c onsiderable b ody C lassic P eriod c aches a nd b urials. W . C oe, c losely s tudy v otive d eposits, ( 1965a) p osits

o f l iterature o n t he o nly s cholar t o

s ummarizes M aya c ache p ractices

a nd p rovides a d etailed s tudy o f P iedras N egras d e( 1959). H e a lso s ynthesizes f unctional a nd t emporal

c hanges i n c aches a t T ikal ( W. C oe, 1 965b, 1 962), h owever t he e ntire c orpus o f c aches a t t his s ite h as y et t o b e p ublished. A dditional b its o f f ound i n C oggins

i nformation o n T ikal v otive d eposits c an b e w ork ( 1975). O ther s ites w ith p ublished

9 1

v otive

d eposits

i nclude

C opän

( Stromsvik,

1 941;

L ongyear,

1 952), P alenque ( Ruz L huillier, 1 955, 1 958a a nd d ), Q uiriguä ( Stromsvik, 1 941), a nd U axactün ( Ricketson, 1 937; S mith, 1 950). 3 0 .

L ate C lassic T ikal e xhibits t he c learest e xample o f t his s tandardization o f p ractices. M onumental c aches c ontained o ne o r t wo s pecialized c ache v essels, n ine e ccentric f lints o f p redictable f orm, a nd e ight o r n ine e ccentric o bsidians, a lso o f p redictable f orm. C ontemporary s tructural c aches l acked t he c oncern f or n umerical

s ymbolism a nd c ontained

s hells,

e ccentric

o bsidians, a nd d ifferent v arieties o f i ncised o bsidians. C oeval b urials c ompletely l acked f inely w orked e ccentric a nd i ncised 3 1.

o bsidians a nd

f lints

( W .

C oe,

1 962,

1 965a-b).

I n t he s tudy o f M aya f unerary p ractices, R uz L huillier i s t he m ost u seful g eneral s ource, s ynthesizing a t remendous a mount o f d ata ( 1968, 1 965). F or m ore s pecific i nformation , C oggins' w ork o n T ikal b urials i s t he m ost c ompete s tudy o f f unerary p ractices a t a s ingle s ite ( 1975; s ee a lso W . C oe, 1 962:4995 00 ; T rik, 1 963. E xcavation r eports w ith b urials f rom o ther s ites i nclude A ltun H a ( Pendergast, 1 965), J aina ( Moedano K oer, 1 946), P alenque ( Ruz L huillier, 1 955, 1 958b-d, 1 961; S aenz, 1 956), 1 950).

3 l.

P iedras N egras

( W.

C oe,

1 959),

a nd U axactün

B oth c aches a nd b urials h ave b een e xcavated a t M onte A lbän a nd o ther Z apotec s ites. V otive d eposits a t M onte A lbän h ave b een p ublished b y A costa ( 1958-9) a nd C aso ( 1935, 1 938, c aches a t C uilapan, a Z apotec s ite, h ave b een B ernal

3 3.

( Smith,

( 1958).

M any t ombs h ave b een e xcavated,

1 965), w hile r eported b y h owever

t hese

h ave n ot b een c ompletely p ublished. M ortuary d eposits b een s ummarized b y M arquina ( 1964:33-46) a nd c an a lso b e i n C aso's w ork ( 1932, 1 938, 1 965).

h ave f ound

C rude s chematic g reenstone f igurines, o ften l abelled " Teotihuac an" o r " Mezcala" s tyle w ere a lso f ound i n m any c aches a t T enochtitlan.

3 4.

C aso ( 1965:907-8) d escribes s uch p laques a s " Maya-inspired." E xamples f rom M onte A lbän I V ( 700-1000 A .D.) a re g enerally f latter a nd I nfluences. t ihuacan,

m ore s chematic, S imilar " Maya"

P alenque,

C opän,

a nd a re s aid t o s uggest M ixtec p laques h ave b een f ound a t T eo-

X ochicalco,

a nd T ula,

h owever

t heir

p recise o rigins a re u nclear. 3 5.

B urials a re s ummarized b y A grinier ( 1964), w hile c aches a re m entioned b y v arious s ources ( Hicks a nd R ozaire, 1 960 ; L owe, 1 962;

3 6.

L owe a nd A grinier,

1 960 :63;

M ason,

1 960a:21-3;

1 960b:9).

T oltec p hase c aches h ave b een r eported f or s everal s easons o f e xcavations ( Acosta, 1 942; 1 945; 1 954; 1 963; 1 974; H ealan, 1 974). T hanks g o

t o W endy S chonfeld

f or h er h elp

t ion o n T ula.

9 2

i n p roviding i nforma-

3 7.

B urials d ated c eramics

t o

h ave

t he A ztec H orizon o r c ontaining A ztec I o r b een f ound

a t

T ula

( Acosta,

1 945:45,

I I

4 8-51;

1 963:66-68, 7 1), h owever, t here a re p roblems i n d ating A ztec I a nd I I c eramics. A ztec I a nd I I p ottery h ave b een f ound i n c onjunction w ith e arly P ost-Classic c eramics a t o ther s ites i n t he s outh o r c entral a rea o f t he B asin o f M exico ( Heidi K ing, 1 981, p ersonal c ommunication), h owever n ot a t T ula. T ulaM azapan c eramics a re c learly f ound i n e arlier l evels a t T ula t han A ztec t ype c eramics ( Acosta, 1 942: 1 49; 1 945:46-61). I t i s t herefore a ssumed t hat b urials w ith A ztec I o r I I c eramics a re P ost-Toltec i n d ate. 3 8. 3 9.

S ee F ootnote 3 4. A ccording

t o

a n

a rticle i n aM exican

n ewspaper

( "En

T ula,

Hallazgo d e l a G ran U rbe T olteca" b y F ernando M erez, E xcelsior J une 1 0 , 1 980) r ecent e xcavations a t T ula h ave u ncovered c erem onial

p latforms

c ontain c eramics

w ith o fferings.

T hese d eposits

s upposedly

a rtifacts f rom t he M aya a rea a s w ell a s p olychrome a nd p recious s tones f rom Q uintana R oo a nd Y ucatän.

However, t hese f inds b ear l ittle r esemblance t o p reviously e xcavated o fferings a t T ula a nd t he r eliability o f t his a ccount i s o pen t o q uestion. 4 0 .

A c onsiderable n umber o f c aches h ave b een e xcavated I tzä a t t he C aracol ( Ruppert, 1 935; C astillo s ub-structure ( Marquina, ( Ruppert,

1 943),

M arquina, 1 964:855),

t he T emple o f t he C hacmool

a t

C hichen

1 964:892), t he t he M ercado

( Morris e t.

a l.,

1 931:186), t he T emple o f t he W arriors ( Morris, e t. a l., 1 931), t he N orth a nd N ortheast C olonnades ( ibid.: 1 84-5), a nd M ausol eum I ( Tozzer, h ighly d isputed,

1 957:85). T he c hronology o f C hich6n I tzä i s h owever i t i s n ot t he c oncern o f t his p aper t o

p ursue t his p roblem. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote, h owever, t hat t he m ajority o f C hichgn I tzä c aches c ome f rom s o-called C hichen-Toltec p hases o f c onstruction, p articularly C ohodas'

4 1.

P hase I -II T ransition a nd P hase I V ( Cohodas,

1 975:200-1).

I t

o f

i s

u nclear

i f

t here i s

a ny

d estruction o f t he s culpture L orenzo, X ochicalco, a nd T ula. 4 2.

4 3.

e vidence a t

C hichgn

O nly

a f ew b urials h ave b een r eported

c ome

f rom

t he C aracol

( Ruppert,

m utilation

I tzä,

a t

f rom t he s ite a nd

1 935)

a nd

t he H igh

T hompson,

S acrifices

o f v arious o bjects a nd h uman b ones w ere a lso

" drowned"

S an

t hese

P riest's

G rave ( E.H.

1 938).

i n t he S acred C enote ( Tozzer, 1 957). L ike b uried t hese c ommodities w ere p erhaps t hrown i nto t he

4 4.

a s

o r

f ound

o fferings, C enote a s

o fferings.

T his r ich b urial i s r ecorded b y C aso ( 1932), w hile r eferences t o M ixtec t ombs c an b e f ound i n M arquina ( 1964:340-6) a nd C aso ( 1935:26; 1 965:908-930). T here i s v ery l ittle i nformation o n M ixtec c aches,

h owever M arquina m entions o ne d eposit

( 1964:343).

9 3

i n p assing

4 5.

I ntricately b urials

4 6.

T his

c arved

a t T ikal

c ache w as

b een b uried 4 7.

a s

b ones

a nd

( Coggins, f ound

a lso o nyx v essels

1 975:187ff,

n ear

2 95ff,

t he c olossal

a n o ffering

t o

w ere

f ound

i n

4 56ff).

C oatlicue

a nd m ay

h ave

t his m onument.

M exica p eriod c aches a t T ula d iffer f rom T oltec p hase c aches i n b oth c ontents a nd m anner o f d eposit. I n c ontrast t o M exica d eposits, T oltec o fferings c ommonly c ontained s olely p ottery o bjects o r

e lse

p recious

g reenstone p laques. o f

r eceptacle,

l ids,

w hile

a rticles,

T oltec

w ere p laced M exica

s uch a s

c aches,

s hells,

i f d eposited

i n c ylindrical

a nd

e ngraved

i n s ome

s tone b oxes

t ype

w ith

c aches w ere m ore c ommonly b uried

i n

r ed r ec-

t angular b oxes o r c ists. 4 8.

U nfortunately

t he a rchaeological

c ontext

a nd

o ther c ontents o f

t his o ffering h ave n ot b een p ublished. 4 9.

T his a doratory, l ocated t o t he

k nown a s t he a yauhcalli ( "house o f f og") w as w est o f a p lace c alled T epetxinco ( Broda,

1 971:273). T here w ere f our o f t hese a doratories a t t he d inal p oints o n t he s hore o f t he l ake. B roda s uggests t hese s tructures m ay h ave r epresented t he t laloques i n T lalocan. 5 0 .

5 1.

M otolinfa d oes

n ot

t hat

i t

T he

c ontents o f

g ive

t he d ate o f

t he m ythical

t his

r esidence o f

c eremony,

b ut

s tates

o ccurs o nce p er y ear. t hese

r ecently e xcavated

d eposits h ave n ot

b een f ully p ublished. U ndoubtedly t hese b urials v ariety o f o ther r ich a nd p recious o bjects. 5 2.

c art hat

I t i s p ossible t hat t he M exica b elieved w orlds. T he d irectional a ssociations o f T lalocan

a nd

T onatiuh

i chan;

c ontained

y et a

i n a dditional a ftert he h eavens a re E ast -

N orth - M ictlan;

a nd

W est

-

C ihuatlampa. T onacatecuhtli i chan i s n ot m entioned i n a ssociat ion w ith a ny p articular d irection. N one o f t he h eavens, t o m y k nowledge,

i s

a ssociated w ith t he S outh,

r ealm k nown a s U itzlampa, 5 3.

I t

i s

i nteresting

f unerals w ars.

w ith G eneral

b undle o r a ctivities

t o

a ccounts

a ccounts o f b urials

t ocus

i s

a nd

( Sahagün,

c ompare g eneral d escriptions

h istorical

o f

a fter

o n t he p reparation o f

f eared

1 953:14). w arrior s pecific t he

m ummy

t he i mage, w hile h istorical a ccounts e mphasize t he o utside o f t he b undle, s uch a s a ssociated p ublic

c eremonies w hich o ften i nvolved t ion o f

a d readed

" Place o f T horns"

t he c ollection a nd

r edistribu-

g ifts.

5 4.

I t

u nclear w hat

5 5.

I f t he w oman d ied b efore t he b aby e merged, t he m idwife r emoved a nd d ismembered t he b aby p iece b y p iece w ith a n o bsidian k nife ( Sahagün,

h appened

t o

t he

1 969:160).

94

a ctual

b ody.

5 6.

A t

o ne

p oint

S ahagün s ays

b efore t he b ody w as b uried

t hat

t hese

( 1969:161).

" relics"

w ere

H owever,

r emoved

h e g oes o n t o

s ay t hat y oung w arriors m ight d ig u p a c orpse t o r ecover t he w oman's l eft a rm m iddle f inger o r s ome o f h er h air ( ibid.: 1 62), w hile r obbers w ould t ry t o s teal a w oman's l eft f orearm ( ibid.: 5 7.

U nfortunately, d estined

5 8.

1 62).

I t

S ahagün

d oes n ot

s ay w here

t hese

f or T lalocan w ere b uried.

i s a mbiguous w hether i t

i s t he l ocation ( in f ront o f

b ins) o r t he a ct o f b urial i tself t hat c hildren g o t o a " fine p lace." H owever, o ther u ncremated, h ad

i ndividuals

b uried d ead,

i t

s hows i n t he

s eems t hat

m aize

t hat t hese c ontext o f

t he a ct o f b urial

a n h onorific s ignificance.

5 9.

I n s ome v ersions i t i s u nclear w hether t he i nsignia i s o n t he k ing s c orpse o r o n t he s tatue.

6 0 .

U nfortunately

D urän

d oes

n ot

s ay w here

t hese

p laced

r emains

w ere

b uried. 6 1.

T his

d istinction

m ay r esult

f rom i nherent d ifferences i n

s ources, w hich d o n ot o verlap o n t his p oint. m oc d eal w ith e lite f unerals a nd p articular m onies,

t he

D urän a nd T ezozoh istorical c ere-

w hile S ahagün d eals w ith f unerary p ractices i n g eneral

t erms. 6 2.

T he

t erm

" cist" g enerally r efers t o

o r h ollowed s mall r oom,

a t omb m ade o f

s tone s labs

f rom t he r ock. H ere t he t erm i s u sed t o d escribe a l ined w ith s tone s labs a nd i s d istinguished f rom a

b ox o r c hest p rimarily o n t he b asis o f c onstruction . g enerally m ade o f c arved f orm. 6 3.

M any

s eparate s labs,

w hile a b ox i s a

M exica s tone b oxes h ave s urvived,

h owever i t

A c ist

i s

m onolithic

i s

u nclear

h ow m any o f t hese w ere u sed f or c ached o fferings. O ther p oss ible f unctions h ave b een s uggested. S ome m ay h ave b een u sed t o s tore s acred p araphanelia, t o s erve a s r eceptacles f or c rematory r emains, o r a s c ontainers f or b lood o r h eart s acrif ices ( Pasztory, 1 976). 6 4.

T his T laloc/Tlaltecuhtli h ybrid a lso o ccurs o n t he b ottom, t he s urface i n c ontact w ith t he e arth i tself, o f c ertain m ajor m onuments, s uch a s t he c olossal " Coatlicue" a nd t he g reenstone s keletal g oddess e xcavated b y B atres t o 1 3c.

6 5.

A n a t

6 6.

e xception o ccurs C hichen I tzä ,

c opal

S ee P lates 1 3a

i n t he u se o f b lue p igmentation i n b urials

b ut t his i s a n a nomaly.

O ther s ources s ubstitute r ed s eashells ( Scholes a nd A dams, a dd

( 1902:53).

f igurines

( ibid.:

s tones o r r ed s tone m asks f or r ed 1 957:78, 1 14, 1 46, 1 82, 2 13) a nd 5 3ff).

9 5

6 7.

S ome

o f

M exico, i n

g reat

f lint

a nd

o bsidian .

H owever,

q uantities

a nd

i t w as n ecessary

t he

B asin

o f

t hese w ere c ached

t o w ork t hem

b efore

t hey w ere b uried. 1 967:131) m entions

O ne a nonymous a nd u ndated s ource ( Carrasco, f lint a nd o bsidian a mong g oods c ollected i n

t ribute,

o ther q uestionable a spects o f

s ource 6 8.

t hese c ommodities w ere a vailable n ear s uch a s

h owever

s uggest

T hanks

g o

t hat

t o

i ts a ccuracy

H .B.

t his a nonymous

i s d oubtful.

N icholson

f or

t hese

s uggestions

a nd

r eferences. 6 9.

S ee

C hapter V II o n E thno-historical

f or a m ore d etailed 7 0.

s ources o n

M exica

c aches

a ccount.

S ee C hapter V III o n E thno-historical a ccounts o n h istorical f unerary c eremonies o f M exica r ulers f or m ore d etailed i nformat ion.

7 1.

F eathers w ere o ften f ashioned n ia,

w hich

w ere

o ccasions. s hell,

a nd

i nto w arrior c ostumes a nd

r edistributed

E nduring b one,

a nd

b y t he r ulers

p recious m aterials,

o n

i nsig-

c eremonial

s uch a s

w ere c oveted b y t he M exica a nd

s tone,

w ere b uried

i n

c aches. 7 2.

T he

m ajority

e ither

o f

f igurines d eposited

h eirlooms,

t raditions,

c learly l inked

o r w ere a t

l east

i n

M exica

s tylistically

f oreign,

c aches w ith

p ossibly c oeval,

w ere

e arlier p ieces.

A r are e xample o f a M exica s tyle f igurine w as d eposited c ache a t T izapan ( Plate 5 c). 7 3.

T he

a ntiquity o f M ezcala f igurines h as b een d isputed.

p resent d iscussion, v ant. s ince

S imilar

t hese

A

7 6.

a ge o f

I n t he

t hese o bjects i s i rrele-

T eotihuacan a nd

i mitated

a nd

a rchaic

p laques h ave b een f ound

M onte

s culptures f orms

f igurines a s o ld

i ncised

q ue, a nd o bscure. 7 5.

a ctual

a

T heir i mportance i s t hat t hey h ave b een k nown a nd c ached m uch e arlier t imes. T herefore, t he M exica p robably

r egarded 7 4.

t he

i n

A lbän,

s tyle

h owever

s keletal

b ench

t ypes.

a t T eotihuacan,

t heir

p recise

s culpture,

a nd

r elief c arvings w ere

b y t he M exica ( Umberger,

T oltec a mong

1 981:80,

P alen-

o rigins

a re

w arrior

a rchaistic

3 9).

R are e xceptions i ncluded o ne d eposit w ith u nworked j ade i n t he P yramid o f Q uetzalcoatl a t T eotihuacan ( Rubin d e l a B orbolla, 1 947:67).

7 7.

T he

E l

V olador c ache w as u nusual

u tilitarian

v essels

i n

a ddition

i n t o

c ontaining

h undreds

s pecialized

o f

c eremonial

w ares. T he f iner a nd m ore e laborate v essels w ere f ound p laced n ear t he T wo-Horned G od i dol, w hile t he r est o f t he c ist w as f illed p ersonal

w ith m ore c ommon w ares,

m ostly A ztec I II

c ommunication).

9 6

( Heide

K ing,

7 8.

T he t onalpohualli w as t he 2 60-day c eremonial a nd r itual c alendar o f t he A ztecs. I t c onsisted o f 2 0 m onths ( trecenas) o f 1 3 d ays. E ach d ay o f t he r itual c alendar w as n amed b y t wo e lements:

1 )

a n umerical c oefficient

f rom 1 t o 1 3 a nd 2 )

o ne

o f 2 0 d ay s igns. I n a ddition t o t his 2 60-day r itual -d ivinitory c alendar, t here w as a 3 65-day s olar c alendar ( xiuümopohualli), w hich

c onsisted

o f

1 8

m onths

t hat

w ere

2 0

d ays

l ong

( veintenas). 7 9.

H uman r emains o ccur o nly i n c aches f rom w ithin t he C eremonial P recinct a t T enochtitlan a nd T latelolco, b ut w ere n ot f ound i n o ther a reas, e xcavations.

80 .

C ipactli

a nd

o rigins

a nd

s uch

a s

i n t he P ino-Suärez

M etro

c e c ipactli i n p articular w ere b eginnings.

1

c rocodile

w as

o r

V olador

a ssociated

w ith

t he

d ate

f irst

i nvented b y t he p rimotdial c ouple O xomoco a nd C ipactonal ( Sahagün, 1 957:4) a nd w as a lso a ssociated w ith T onacatecuhtli a s t he f irst l ord o f t he t recenas ( Caso, 1 967:210). C ipactli w as a lso a ssociated w ith T onacatecuhtli a s p atrons o f t he d ay ( ibid.: 2 1). 8 1.

t he f irst o f

t wenty

C oyolxauhqui C ist 1 , a lso k nown a s T emplo M ayor D eposit n o. 1 , c ontained v egetal m aterials, f ibre, p lant r emains, f lowers, a nd c opal ( Garcia C ook a nd A rana A ., 1 978; B lanco P adilla, 1 978), w hile o ne M etro o ffering c ontained a c acao s eed ( Castillo T . a nd

8 2.

S olis O .,

1 975:55).

L arge s tone b alls w ere a lso f ound i n M exica c aches. S eler ( 1960a:884-5) a ssociates t hese w ith b eads o ffered t o T laloc a nd r ound b alls o f d ough o ffered t o T laloc a t E tzalcualiztli. T he M exica o ften c arved i n o ther m aterials.

s tone r eplicas m onumentalizing f orms made T he l arge s tone b alls, may t herefore h ave

b een m onumentalized s culptures s ymbolizing b alls d ough, o r o ther m aterials o ffered i n t hese f orms. 8 3.

I t

i s g enerally a ssumed

t hat

s uch r itual d estruction

a t t he a bandonment o f t he s ite. T here i s s pecific e vidence t o s upport t his h ypothesis, f alse o ne. H owever, i t i s b eyond e xamine t his q uestion f urther. 8 4.

T his

g reenstone

o f

i dol w as f ound

o ccurred

a ctually l ittle w hich m ay b e a

t he s cope o f

b eneath a

c opal,

l ayer

t his p aper

o f

t o

t ezontle

( Batres, 1 902:14-5). N o m ention i s m ade o f a ny o ther g reens tone f ragments t hat m ay h ave b een f ound. I t a ppears l ikely t hat

t he

f ragmentary c ondition o f

i nterment w as 8 5.

M usical

t his p iece a t

t he

t ime

o f

i ntentional.

i nstruments

w ere a lso a ssociated w ith

t he

s umptuous

t emple b uilt b y N ezahualcoyotl i n h onour o f O meteotl ( Ixtlilxoc hitl, 1 892, 1 1:227-8). T he l ocation o f t his t emple i s d es cribed

a s

" in f ront o f a nd o pposite t he m ain t emple o f Huitzi-

l opochtli" p resumably a t T excoco D eposit w ould a lso h ave b een l ocated t he T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct.

9 7

( ibid.: 2 27). i n t his l ocation,

B atres' b ut i n

8 6.

M ulti-appendaged i s

t he

b eings a re u ncommon i n A ztec a rt,

i nsignia r ather t han t he b ody i tself

t hat

b ecause

i t

i s a s ource o f

p ower ( Pasztory, 1 982). T he M exica f requently c reated c omp letely n ew a nd u nique m onuments f or e lite f unctions a nd i t a ppears t hat t his l arge g reenstone s keletal g oddess -b elongs t o t his c ategory o f m onumental 8 7.

s culpture.

T his i nterpretation d oes n ot f it i n w ith M atos r ecent d ating o f t he e pochs o f t he T emplo M ayor, w hich h e b ases o n d ates c arved

o n

t eenth r ulers.

c entury c hronicles o n t he b uilding p rograms o f t he T emplo M ayor D eposit n o. 3 r elates t o M atos" E poch 4 b,

t he b ack o f

t he T emplo M ayor c orrelated

w ith

s ix-

a ssociated w ith A xayacatl's r eign ( 1469-1481) ( Matos, 1 981:50). A huitzotl ( 1486-1502) i s c onnected w ith E poch 6 , w hich l acks a ny c arved d ate. A xayacatl w as b uried a t t he " feet o f Huitzil opochtli" ( Durän, 1 967, 1 1:300 , 3 11; T ezozomoc, 1 980 :456); p erhaps 8 8.

t his r efers

t o t he f oot o f t he H uitzilopochtli t emple.

F lint w as s ometimes c alendrically a ssociated w ith d eath a nd t ermination . 1 F lint w as t he d ate p atronized b y T onatiuh a nd M ictlantecuhtli a s L ords o f t he t enth t recena ( Caso, 1 967:21). A lso 1 F lint w as a ssociated w ith t he N orth a nd t he L and o f t he D ead ( Sahagün, 1 953:21). N oteworthy i s t he M exica c onceptual i ntersection

b etween

b eginnings a nd e nds i n t he v iew

N orth a s t he d irection o f t he p lace o f A ztec o rigins a s w ell a s o f t heir L and o f t he D ead ( Mictlan). 8 9.

C itlalinicue i s a lso i dentified w ith T onacacihuatl, t he s upreme c reator g od T onacatecuhtli ( Nicholson,

o f

t he

( Aztlan)

t he w ife o f 1 971:401).

S he i s a lso e quated w ith T eoteoinnan, a n o ld e arth g oddess, a nd I lamatecuhtli, a n o ld f ire g oddess ( Brundage, 1 979:227). F urthermore, t he f lint k nife i s a lso s een a s t he o ffspring o f C ihuacoatl 9 0 .

F lint's

a ssociation

l ogically. w hen t he P ortilla, 9 1.

( Sahagün,

1 956

1 :46).

w ith

f ire

i s

a lso

i llustrated

m ytho-

F lint w as t he y ear o f t he t hird s un, c alled 4 R ain, w orld w as d estroyed w hen c onsumed b y f ire ( LeSn 1 963:38).

M iscellaneous

c alendrical a ssociations w ith f lint

i nclude

i ts

a ssociation w ith T ezcatlipoca a s t he 1 8th p atron o f t he d ay ( Caso, 1 967:21) a nd i ts p ersonification a s t he s econd L ord o f t he N ight ( ibid.: 2 0). T he s ignificance o f t hese c alendrical a ssociations, h owever, r emain o bscure. 9 2.

M any

o f

i nterred

t hese

a rticles

s culpture,

s erve t o i dentify t he s tatus

h owever

t he i dentification a nd

o f c ertain o bjects i s o bscure. t ypes

o f

D eity

a rtifacts a re f ound

o f

t he

s ignificance

I n a f ew r are i nstances,

t hese

i n c ontexts l acking t he T wo-Horned

( Templo M ayor D eposit n o.

3 ).

P ossibly a n i mage o f

s ome

e phemeral m aterial, l ong s ince d ecayed, m ay h ave s erved t he s ame f unction a s t he s tone i dol, o r t he d eposit w as a m ortuary b urial.

9 8

9 3.

C aches 1 )

c ontaining

t he T wo-Horned G od

T empi° M ayor D eposit

A rana, 1 978); 2 ) ( Wagner, 1 982); ( Wagner,

1 982);

s culptures; n o. 1 1)

2 4

( Matos,

6 )

TM n o.

1 3

1 982);

i nclude

t he

s culptures;

1 981);

( Wagner,

8 ) T M n o.

1 0)

T M n o.

( MNA e xhibition,

1 982a:

( 2

6 8);

1 3)

1 982);

f ollowing:

G arcia C ook a nd 3 ) T M n o. 6 5 ) T M n o. 1 1

7 ) TM n o.

2 0 ( Wagner,

1 982);

6 0 ( MNA e xhibition,

7 /82);

1 2) T emple A ,

C ontreras-Angulo

1 4) B almori-Moedano B atres n o. 5 ( Batres,

6 );

2 6ff);

1 6)

B atres n o.

( ibid.:

1 8) E l V olador

( Noguera,

A lthough t he B asel

p iece w as

n ical

t he u nusual

q uality a nd

n ot

1 7)

1 7

( 2

9 )

T M

7 /82);

O ffering F

e xcavation ( Angulo,

1 966b; C ontreras, 1 979a); ( Estrada B almori, 1 979); 1 5) 2 9-30); 9 4.

6 1

1

T M R oom 2 ( Matos, 1 980 : 7 5); 4 ) T M n o. 7 ( Wagner, 1 982);

W agner,

( Paris,

T M n o.

n o.

e xcavation 1 902: 2 5-

B atres n o.

7 ( ibid.:

1 968). e xcavated,

t he r efined

i conography o f

t his

t ech-

p iece,

t he

l atter o f w hich i s n ow c orroborated b y t he e xcavated w hite s tone s pecimen ( Plate 1 8b a nd c ), a ttest t o t he a uthenticity o f t he B asel 9 5.

9 6.

s culpture.

B atres

d escribes

D eposit

n o.

N oteworthy

s imilar

f orms

6 ( Batres,

1 902:

i n s everal

e xamples

o n t he b ack o f

s mall

i dols

f rom

2 6ff). i s

t he

a bstraction a nd

r ectili-

n ear s tylization o f t hese p rotrusions. T his a bstraction s ugg ests t hat t he f orms m ay b e p urely c onceptual s ymbols a lluding t o

" duality"

o r " twoness."

f rom

t he h ead m ay a lso

t hey

c ould

T he r ectangular

r epresent

a llude t o T epeyollotl

f orms

p rotruding

s tylized m ountains. ( "Heart

o f

I f

s o,

t he M ountain")

N appatecuhtli ( a m ountain g od a s w ell a s a t laloque). F or m ore d etailed d iscussion o f t hese p rotuberances, s ee N agao,

a nd a i n

p ress. 9 7.

F or

f urther d etails,

s ee N agao,

9 8.

P ulque w as a s lightly a lcoholic b everage r eserved c onsumption o n c eremonial o ccasions.

9 9.

I n

t he C odex V aticanus A ,

i n p ress.

t his

r oyal h eadband

i s

f or

e lite

p articularly

a ssociated w ith T onacatecuhtli, h owever i n o ther c odices, s uch a s t he C odex B orgia a nd t he C . F ejgrväry M ayer, t his h eadband i s 1 00 .

w orn b y

a v ariety o f

o ther d eities,

p articularly s olar g ods.

T zoalli w as a d ough made o f a maranth, m aize, I t w as o ften f ashioned i nto i mages w hich w ere

a nd b lack h oney. s acrificed a t t he

e nd o f c eremonies a nd d ivided a mong t he s pectators, w ho a te t hem a s s omething s acred ( Broda, 1 971:300). S ee a lso B roda ( 1976) f or d ifferent l evels o f p articipation b y c ommoners i n t he d ifferent c alendrical c eremonies.

9 9

e lite

a nd

1 01.

T laloc V essels a re k nown f rom s everal c aches a long w ith T woH orned G od s culptures - 1 ) T emplo M ayor n o. 1 ( 2 T laloc V essels w ith 2 s culptures; ( Wagner, 1 982);

G arcia C ook a nd A rana, 3 ) T M n o. 1 3 ( Wagner,

1 978); 1 982);

2 ) T M n o. 6 4 ) T M n o. 2 0

( Wagner, 1 982); 5 ) T M D eposit F ( Matos, 1 982a: 6 8-69); 6 ) T M n o. 1 7 ( 2 T laloc V essels w ith 2 s culptures; Wagner, 1 982; C ontreras a nd L una, 1 982); 7 ) C ontreras-Angulo c ache ( Angulo, 1 966b; C ontreras, 2 6); 9 ) B atres n o. I t i s H orned

1 979a); 6 ( ibid.:

8 ) B atres n o. 2 6ff).

5 ( Batres,

1 902:

i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he B asel M useum h as a G od s culpture a s w ell a s a s tone T laloc V essel,

T wob oth

f rom t he s ame c ollection. 1 02.

I n s ome i nstances, t hese s tone T laloc V ases w ere n ot a ctually h ollowed o ut v essels. T he T laloc " vessel" i n t he B asel M useum i s c arved w ith o nly a s light d epression o n t op ( E. P asztory, p ersonal

1 03.

c ommunication).

O ther b uried g reenstone i mages i ncluded a g reenstone w ater g oddess f igurine f ound a t T izapan a nd a g reenstone s keletal g oddess u nearthed b y B atres. B oth o f t hese o bjects w ere d isc ussed e arlier i n t he s ection o n g reenstone r itually d amaged s culpture r espectively.

1 04.

a nd

T he s kull a nd c ross b one d ecoration o n h er s kirt m ay r epresent a p un f or n ight o r s tarry s ky s kirt ( Pasztory S eminar, 1 980). F urthermore,

t he

r ound

f orm

i n t he c entre o f h er

a ctually r epresent h er b elly o r n avel a nd m eant t o " navel o f 1 05.

f igurines

A

b e i ndicated, f ire."

g reenstone

b ody

m ay

i f a g old c entre

w as

m ay h ave b een a p un f or

v essel w ith a T laloc e ffity i s

t he

o n

v iew

e arth's

i n

t he

T eotihuacan Hall a t t he M useo N acional d e A ntropologfa i n M exico C ity. H owever t he p recise o rigins o f t his p iece a re u nclear, a nd P eriod a t a ll. 1 06.

i t

m ay n ot b e f rom T eotihuacan o r

T he g reenstone v essel

a s

t he

s ource f or a bundance a nd

C lassic

f ertility

i s

s uggested b y a r elief c arving o f a t laloque o n t he s ide o f a b ox i n t he B ritish M useum ( Nicholson, 1 971:415). D epicted i s a v essel w ith a c halchihuitl g lyph, s ymbolizing g reenstone, o verf lowing w ith w ater, maize, a nd o ther v egetation. 1 07.

I t i s p rimarily g eneralized m asks o f u nidentified t hat w ere p laced i n M exica c aches, h owever, o ne l apidary ( Matos,

T laloc m ask w as f ound i n a T emplo Mayor o ffering 1 980 :74). A lso T laloc g oggles o r f angs w ere o ften

p ainted o n m asks a s w ell a s o n f igurines 1 08.

i ndividuals e xceptional

( Matos,

1 982).

A t urquoise m osaic-covered s kull w as f ound i n a r ich M ixtec t omb a t M onte A lbän ( Tomb n o. 7 ; C aso, 1 932), h owever t his w as p robably n ot a m ask.

100

1 09.

A t

l east

e ight c aches c ontaining

t he T wo-Horned G od

a nd

i nsig-

n ia h ave b een f ound - 1 ) T emplo M ayor n o. 1 ( Garcia C ook A rana, 1 978); 2 ) T M n o. 1 1 ( Matos, 1 980); 3 ) T M n o.

a nd 2 4

( Paris, 1 981; M atos, 1 980); 4 ) T M n o. 6 ( Wagner, 1 982); 5 ) T M n o. 1 3 ( Wagner, 1 982); 6 ) T M n o. 1 7 ( Wagner, 1 982); 7 ) T M n o. 2 0 ( Wagner, C ontreras,

1 982); 1 979a);

8 ) C ontreras-Angulo c ache ( Angulo, 1 966b; 9 ) B atres n o. 5 ( 1902:16-26). S imilar

i nsignia h ave b een f ound a nd 1 10 .

n o.

5 ( Matos,

O bsidian d eified

i n o ther T emplo M ayor c aches:

3

1 980).

w as a lso c onnected w ith a ntiquity a nd o ld a ge i n f orm a s I tzpapalotl

( "Obsidian B utterfly"),

C hichimec E arth G oddess a nd c hildbirth ( Heyden, 1 974:13). 1 11.

n o.

i ts

a n a ncient

p atronness o f w omen w ho

d ied

i n

T he T arascans o f M ichoacan w ere e nemies t hat t he M exica w ere n ever a ble t o c onquer. ' Although M atos ( 1982) a sserts t hat a ll f oreign o bjects f rom t he T emplo M ayor o fferings c ome o nly f rom a reas t hat w ere c onquered a nd s ubjected t o t ribute b y t he M exica, i t i s n oteworthy t hat e nemy l ords w ere k nown t o h ave p resented a t

1 12.

r oyal

t he M exica w ith g ifts o n c ertain o ccasions,

s uch a s

f unerals ( See C hapter 8 ).

T he o ne e xception o ccurs i n a C opän s ubstela c ache, w hich c ontained b its o f b rass w ire, a f lake o f c opper, a nd f ragments o f

a

C entral

A merican g old

f igurine

( Stromsvik ,

1 941:71).

L ongyear ( 1952:112) s uggests t hat t hese o bjects w ere g athered i n t he P ost-Classic P eriod b y p ilgrims v isiting t he d eserted c eremonial c entre. P asztory ( 1978:9) c onsiders i t a n e xample o f f ar-reaching t rade c ontacts i n t he L ate C lassic P eriod. W hatever t he c ase, i t i s a n u nusual e xample a nd n ot t ypical o f M aya o fferings. 1 13.

M etalworking w as c onsidered a f oreign i ntroduction i nto T arasc an c ulture, p erhaps f rom t he M ixteca ( Chadwick , 1 971:690-2), W estern

M exico

o r

t he

M aya

r egion

( Maldonado

C ardenas,

1 980 :225). 1 14.

T hanks g o t o E loise K eber w ho n oted t he s imilarity b etween c ache e lements a nd d eity c ostumes p laced o n t he r uler's b undle a t f unerary c eremonies ( E. P asztory s eminar, 1 981).

1 15.

S eler ( 1960a:876ff) t he g od o f f easting,

i dentifies t hese a s r ush s eat b undles o f O macatl. S ee C hapter 3 f or m ore s pecific

i nformation o n S eler's 1 16.

i nterpretation.

T he A ztecs w ere k nown t o

h ave c arved

i ntricate i mages

t hat w ere

n ever m eant t o b e s een. W ell k nown e xamples i nclude t he d epict ions o f t he T laloc/Tlaltecuhtli h ybrid f ound o n t he b ottoms o f s everal

m onuments,

s uch a s

t he c olassal

B atres g reenstone s keletal g oddess

101

" Coatlicue"

( Plates 1 3b a nd

c ).

a nd

t he

N OTES

o f

T O A PPENDIX I

W hat f ollows i s a l ist o f e xcavated c aches c ompiled o n t he b asis p ublished s ources. T he d eposits a re l isted r oughly i n t he c hrono-

l ogical

o rder

N ot t hat w as

a ll

i n w hich o f

t hey w ere

B atres - f inds

f ound.

a re

i ncluded

h ere.

O nly

t hose e ntries

t ruly a ppeared t o r epresent c aches w ere s elected. T his d ecision b ased o n t he d escription o f t he a rchaeological c ontext o r c on-

t ents

o f

t he d eposit

T here

t hat

s eemed

a re a f ew o missions

e xcavations.

I f

n ot

t o r esemble o ther k nown c aches. i n

t he l istings

e nough i nformation w as

f or t he T emplo

a vailable

t o g o

M ayor b eyond

l isting t he b asic l ocation o f t he d epposit, w hich t he r eader m ay b y l ooking o n M ap 5 , t hen t he e ntry w as u sually o mitted f rom

f ind t he

l isting. F urthermore,

i nformation

o n

t he

c ontents

o f

T emplo

M ayor

d eposits l isted a fter R oom 2 i s p articularly s canty, t herefore t hese r econstructions a re b ound t o b e p articularly f ragmentary a nd i ncomp lete. C ategory w hich t ions.

4 ,

" Publication",

r efers

t o

s ources

o f

i nformation,

i nclude p ublished w orks, p ublic l ectures, a s w ell a s e xhibiM NA s tands f or t he M useo N acional d e A ntropologfa i n M exico

C ity.

10 2

AP P E N D I X L ist I .

I

o f M exica C aches P ublished 1 791,

t o D ate

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

T ype: C ist, s tone-lined, q uadrangular L ocation: S outh o f T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct. N ear

" Tomb o f a S acred A nimal"

s outheast c orner o f t he P laza d e l a

C onstituci6n. C oatlicue) 4 )

P ublication:

( Found

L e6n y G ama,

n ear c olossal

1 832:11-13; H umboldt,

1 979:

5 8-9 5 )

C ontents: w ell m ade c lay v essels f ine p owder

( perishable r emains)

a nimal b ones ( coyote?) c opper b ells ( in p ottery v essel)

I I.

1 )

E xcavation:

S eptember 1 4,

1 900 ,

B atres D eposit n o.

2 ) 3 )

T ype: I n F ill ( ?) L ocation : W ithin T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct. P ossibly f rom l atest e pochs o f s outhwest

0

a rea o f T emplo M ayor o r i n f ront o f H uitz ilopochtli s ide o f T emplo M ayor. F ound 4 )

I II.

n ear s mall s taircase f acing W est. P ublication : B atres, 1 902:14 ; M ateos H iguera,

1 979:215

5 )

C ontents: 6 0 b eads ( greenstone?) 3 0 c opper b ells

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

T ype: C ist ( ?) L ocation : W ithin T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct. P ossibly f rom l atest e pochs o f s outhwest

S eptember 6 ,

1 900 ,

B atres D eposit n o.

1

a rea o f T emplo M ayor o r i n f ront o f H uitz ilopochtli s ide o f T emplo M ayor. F ound b eneath l ayer o f t ezontle s tone a t s taircase f acing W est. 4 )

P ublication :

B atres,

2 15; 5 )

S eler,

n o.

1 ) 2 )

M ateos H iguera,

t o b eads a nd b ells o f B atres

D eposit

0 .)

E xcavation : S eptember 2 8, 1 900 , B atres D eposit n o. 4 . T ype: C ist, r ectangular " sepulchre." A ctually i t i s u nclear w hether o bjects w ere f ound i nside c ist b ecause " sepulchre" f inds f or t his d ay.

•3 )

1 979:

1 960a:839-43.

C ontents: B roken G reenstone S keletal I dol ( Possibly r elated

I V.

1 902:14-15;

f oot o f

L ocation :

i s l isted

a mong

W ithin T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct i n f ront o f H uitzilopochtli T emple 103

4 )

P ublication: B atres, 1 902:16-17; M ateos H iguera, 2 15; S eler, 1 960a: 8 46-7

5 )

C ontents: 4 p ots

1 979:

1 5 b owls 1

h edgehog

2

r ed b raziers w ith s pherical f eet a nd a pplique d ecoration l arge b raziers w ith s pherical f eet a nd w hite

2 1

e ffigy u rn

p aint c ylindrical s urface

i ncense p ot w ith r ough i ncrusted

n umerous h uman b ones 4 0 f lint b lades

V .

1 )

E xcavation:

B atres D eposit n o.

5 .

2 ) 3 )

T ype: C ist ( ?), f ound b eneath l ayer o f t ezontle L ocation: W ithin T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct

i n

4 )

f ront o f H ultzilopochtli T emple P ublication: B atres, 1 902:16-27; M ateos H iguera, 2 15-6; S eler, 1 960a:847ff

5 )

O ctober 2 8,

1 900*,

1 979:

C ontents: M any g reenstone a nd o ther s tone b ead n ecklaces 1 g reenstone p laque w ith f rontal f igure 1 1

g reenstone X ochicalco s tyle r elief p laque T eotihuacan-Mezcala s tyle f igurine

2 l apidary p erforated h eads 1 l apidary p erforated t iger-knight c arving M other o t p earl n ecklace s nail s hells v arious o ther t ypes o f s hell n ecklace

s hells

p olychrome i ncense l adles p olychrome i ncense p ots l idded v essel w ith r ugosities e arthen d isk c lay d isk w ith r ose o rnaments p olychrome e ffigy f igure ( cf. P uebla a nd O axaca X antil f igures) 1 o bsidian a rrow p oint 2 l ollipop s haped o bsidian o bjects w ood d isk g lobe-shaped w ood i nstrument w ith o blong a ttachment 2 s mall w ood h eads 1 s mall c oyote h ead f ragment o f f inely c arved h uman b one s tone s kulls 2 s tone r ing-shaped 3

s tone d isks

p ieces

( some w ith c arvings)

B atres d ates D eposit n o. 5 a s O ctober 2 8 i n h is l ist o f o bjects f ound, h owever, p hotographs o f t he f inds a re d ated O ctober 1 0 a nd 1 6. S eler a nd M ateos H iguera h ave c onsidered a ll o f t hese a s o bjects f rom t he s ame l ots, w hich t hey d ate O ctober 1 6. 10 4

2

s tone p erforated

2

s tone h eads

c onical p ieces

f ragments o f c oiled s tone s nake 1 s tone d isk w ith c ircular p erforation 1 s tone r ectangle w ith r elief s nake 1 b roken o nyx d isk 7 m iscellaneous s tone i nstruments o r i mplements 1 12 k nives o f d ifferent s hapes a nd c olours 1

e normous k nife ( 61 c m.

1 1

k nife w ith r ed a nd w hite h ieroglyphs s mall T wo-Horned i dol ( 17 c m. t all)

l ong)

1 T laloc V essel i n s tone ( 12 c m . 1 m ask ( 18 c m. l ong) 1 1 s mall m asks

t all)

s hell i nsignia f ragments b one a nimal-headed s taff w ood w eaving i nstrument 4 2

s trings o f c opper b ells g old d isks w ith p erforations

6 1

g old r ing-shaped d isks g old b utterfly n ose o rnament

1 1 1 2

c opper s kull s tone i dol w ith h ands o n b reast s tone i dol E hecatl s upport f igures

P ossibly B atres D eposit n o.

V I.

5 i s r elated

t o n o.

t all)

6 ,

w hich

w as

f ound

1 ) 2 ) 3 )

E xcavation : O ctober 1 7, 1 900 , B atres D eposit n o. 6 T ype: I n F ill ( ?) L ocation : W ithin T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct i n

4 )

f ront o f H uitzilopochtli T emple P ublication: B atres, 1 902:26, 2 8-9; M ateos H iguera, 1 979:216; S eler, 1 960a:851

5 )

a t

( 18 c m.

t he s ame l evel.

C ontents: g reenstone a nd m any o ther s tone n ecklaces s ome g reenstone i dols 7 2

l ittle s tone h eads t rapezoidal u rns w ith l ids

s everal c hild s kulls 6 s eated c opal i dols w ith h igh h eaddresses, 2

c opal

f ragments

7 0 f lint k nives 6 s mall s tone T wo-Horned S tone T laloc V essel " Sad I ndian" s tone i dol, 4

V II.

p lus

f ragments c opal i dol h eads

s mall

s tone i dols

i dols

t all)

s quatting w ith c rossed

( 5 - 9 c m.

O ctober 1 8,

( 14 - 1 8 c m.

1 900 ,

t all)

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

T ype : I n F ill ( ?) L ocation: W ithin T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct

B atres D eposit n o.

f ront o f H uitzilopochtli T emple 10 5

a rms

7 i n

4 )

P ublication:

B atres,

2 16-7; 5 )

1 902:29-30 ;

S eler,

M ateos H iguera,

C ontents: 3 2 g reenstone a nd s tyle)

o ther s tone f igurines

1 l ong g reenstone i dol p ainted r ed m any s hells a nd s nail s hells j aw b one o f a q uadruped ( feline?)

V III.

1 )

l ong)

b lood

T wo-Horned G od i dol ( about 3 8 c m. t all) b asaltic s tone d isk p ainted w hite w ith r eliefs o n b oth s ides

2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation :

5 )

( 55 c m.

1 1

E xcavation:

s tained

( Mezcala

2

f lint k nives

O ctober 2 3, N ovember 1 3,

4 )

1 979:

1 960a:851-3

1 900 , 1 900 ,

B atres D eposit n o. B atres D eposit n o.

8 a nd 1 3

C ircular t ower-like c onstruction w ith s tepped t urrets a nd r ectangular h ollow i n t he c entre

W ithin T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct i n f ront o f H uitzilopochtli T emple P ublication: B atres, 1 902:31-2, 3 6-7; Mateos H iguera,

1 979:217; S eler, C ontents: 2 o bsidian k nives

1 960a:868-70

f ragments o f s kulls a nd o ther h uman b one s mall s eated i dol p ainted r ed a nd w ith g reat d eal c harcoal d ust i n c entre ( 13 c m. t all) s mall c ircular s tone w ith c ircular h old

I X .

N ovember 9 ,

1 900 ,

i n c entre

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

T ype: I n p it i n g round, c overed b y l arge f lagstones L ocation : W ithin T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct i n

4 )

f ront o f H uitzilopochtli T emple P ublication: B atres, 1 902:38-9; M ateos H iguera,

B atres D eposit n o.

1 6

1 979:

2 18 5 )

C ontents: g reenstone a mulet o f h uman h ead w ith o celotl h eaddress 1 s nail s hell ( found i n p ot) s mall y ellow, r ed c lay p ottery f ragments 2 0 p olychrome p ottery f ragments 1 s mall p ot 1 e arthen d isk f ragment w ith 2 p erforations c arnivorous a nimal b ones r ing-shaped s tone 9 c onical s tone o bjects 1 f lint k nife ( 30 c m. 1 00 c opper b ells 1 l og ( 2 m . l ong)

X .

N ovember 2 0 ,

l ong)

1 900 ,

1 )

E xcavation:

B atres D eposit n o.

1 8

2 ) 3 )

T ype: S kull a ltar d eposit L ocation: W ithin T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct f ront o f H uitzilopochtli T emple

i n

10 6

o f

4 )

P ublication:

B atres,

2 18; 5 )

1 902:39-43; M ateos H iguera,

S eler,

1 979:

1 960a:872ff

C ontents: s everal o rnaments o f m other o f p earl s ome f lint k nives 2 s tone r eed y ear b undle s culptures ( xiuhmopilli)

X I.

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype: S tone b ox L ocation: W ithin T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct

N ovember 2 8,

4 )

f ront o f Huitzilopochtli T emple P ublication: B atres, 1 902:43; M ateos H iguera, 2 18-9;

5 )

S eler,

1 900 ,

B atres,

D eposit n o.

2 2 i n

1 979:

1 960a:883

C ontents: 5 0 g reenstone b eads ( in b ox) 1 s mall c lay t ripod p ot w ith o dd h andles s everal h uman b ones ( in b ox) 1 l arge p orphyry s phere w ith b ase s et a s l id b ox 3 c onical s tone b ox

s tones i n s pike f orm

1 6 f lint k nives

X II.

( in b ox)

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype: S kull a ltar d eposit L ocation : W ithin T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct i n f ront o f H uitzilopochtli T emple P ublication : B atres, 1 902:45; M ateos H iguera, 1 979:219

4 ) 5 )

X III.

D ecember 7 ,

C ontents: 2 s tone r eed

1 )

E xcavation :

2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation:

4 )

D ecember 1 3,

I n f ill

5 )

1 900 ,

B atres D eposit n o.

( ?);

1 900 ,

B atres D eposit n o.

a ll o bjects p ainted

2 7

r ed

W ithin T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct i n f ront o f H uitzilopochtli T emple P ublication : B atres, 1 902:47-9; M ateos H iguera, 1 979: 2 19-20 ; S eler, 1 960a:889ff; C astillo T . a nd

C ontents: 1 s eated * 5 9

1 975:35-40 ,

I -XV

i dol w ith c rested h eaddress

( 95 c m.

t all)

c lay p ots w ith h ead a nd 2 h andles c lay d rums ( teponaxtli)

7

c lay d rums

3 1 5

c lay r attles a nd f ragments c lay f lute c lay f luted h uman b one i nstruments ( chiconaurtli) a nd

i n f orm o f g lyph f or " stone"

f ragments

1 c lay t urtle d rum a nd f ragments m iscellaneous p ottery f ragments 4 s tone d rums 2

A ll o f

2 5

b undle s culptures ( xiuhmopilli)

S olis 0 .,

*

f or

s tone " quivers"

t hese c lay a nd

s tone i nstruments a re m iniatures 1 07

s tone d rumsticks 1 s tone t urtle 1

X IV.

X V.

s tone " instrument"

1 )

E xcavation :

c a.

1 900 ( ?),

C alle d e E scalerillas

2 ) 3 )

T ype: ? L ocation:

4 ) 5 )

C eremonial P recinct? P ublication: P enafiel, 1 910 :12; S eler, C ontents: 2 c inerary u rns i n f orm o f s kulls

C alle d e E scalerillas.

1 936,

N oguera,

W ithin T enochtitlan 1 960a:895

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype: C ist, r ectangular L ocation: S outh o f T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct

4 )

P ublication : 1 979:231-2

5 )

C ontents:

N oguera,

E l V olador c ache

1 968:149-50 ;

M ateos H iguera,

L arge q uantity o f p ottery v essels, i ncluding p olyc hrome w ares, s kull o rnamentation , u tilitarian w ares i n v ariety o f s hapes a nd f orms b iconical c ups, s aucebowls, e tc.

( bowls,

j ars,

s hells 1 s tone T wo-Horned i dol 1 s tone b ox ( worked w ith r ubber f rom t he G ulf c oast) 1 l arge s tone j ar 3

X VI.

1 )

p ieces o f b asalt

E xcavation:

1 948,

M oedano K oer a nd E strada B almori

c ache 2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation :

?

4 )

P ublication : C astillo T . a nd S olis 0 ., E strada B almori, 1 979:183ff

5 )

C ontents: 2 j adeite v essels ( in p ulque s ymbo]

W est

p art o f s outh f acade o f T emplo M ayor

s mall c ircles o f w hite j ade 2 s hells a nd s mall c onches 1 p otsherd 2 o bsidian p oints ( inserted o f s kull) u nidentified c opal

X VII.

1 )

a nimal

i n u pper

f lint k nives ( 1 i n s kull) T wo-Horned G od ( 16 c m. t all)

1

c hild

s kull m ask w ith i nlaid

1 948, c ache

2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation :

s hape)

j aw a nd

p alate

b ones

8 1

E xcavation :

1 975:41-2;

e yes

M oedano K oer a nd E strada B almori

( 2)

? W est p art o f

s outh f acade o f T emplo M ayor 10 8

4 ) 5 )

P ublication:

C astillo T .,

a nd S olis 0 .,

E strada B almori, 1 979:183ff C ontents: 3 j adeite v essels ( in p ulque s ymbol 3 p erforated c onch d isks 2 o void c onch o rnaments ( oyohualli) 2 s hells 1

s hell n ecklace

2 5 1

c opal f ragments f lint k nives c hild s kull m ask h alf m oon o f f lint w ith w hite j ade

1 975:41-2;

s hape)

( mosaic?)

n earby c opper b ells

X VIII.

1 )

E xcavation:

2 )

T ype:

c a.

3 ) 4 )

L ocation : S outh s ide o f T emplo M ayor P ublication: A ngulo, 1 966b; C ontreras, T . a nd S olis 0 ., 1 975:42-52,

5 )

C ontents:

C ist

1 966,

C ontreras a nd A ngulo C ache

( ?)

M ateos H iguera, g reenstone b eads g reenstone f igurines

1 979; C astillo X X-XLIII;

1 979:244

( including M ixtec T lalocs,

G uerrero a nd M ixtec s tyle f igurines) g reenstone t emple m odel ( Guerrero s tyle) 8 s hells 3 s hell n ecklaces 5 o bsidian r ecut p oints 1 s awfish s nout 5

s kulls, s ome w ith s hell m outh c opal a ttachments f lint k nives w ith c opal 1 T wo-Horned G od

e ye i nlays a nd k nives

a ttachments a nd m osaic

1 5 1 1

s tone T laloc v essel g reenstone M ezcala s tyle m asks o bsidian m ask m arble mask

1 3

o bsidian c urved, h ooked s taff ( xiuhcoatl) m iniature o bsidian m aces

2

o bsidian b owls

1 1 1

p air o f g reenstone s olar e arplugs p air o f s hell Q uetzalcoatl e ar o rnaments s hell Q uetzalcoatl p ectoral

3

b one s pearthrowers

3 3 2

t urquoise m osaic p laques p erforated s hell d isks c ircular s hell p laques

i n

f aces

( atlatl)

c opper b ells s mall w ood h ead

X IX.

1 )

E xcavation:

2 )

T ype:

c a. 1 968, N W c orner

P laced

M etro e xcavation,

i n c eramic v essels

10 9

S tructure A -2,

3 )

L ocation:

S outh o f T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct. N ear P ino-Suärez S tation , A venida P inoS uärez a nd A venida J ose M aria I zazaga, L inea

4 ) 5 )

1 o f M etro P ublication: G ussinyer, C ontents: 2 v essels b ird b ones

X X.

1 ) 2 ) 3 )

4 )

X XI.

E xcavation:

1 968; M ateos H iguera,

1 979:242

c ontaining ( parrots a nd g eese)

c a.

1 968,

M etro e xcavation,

S tructure A -2,

S W c orner T ype : I n e arth L ocation: S outh o f T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct. N ear P ino-Suärez S tation , A venida P inoS uärez a nd A venida J ose M aria I zazaga, L inea 1 o f M etro P ublication : G ussinyer,

1 968; M ateos H iguera,

1 979:242

5 )

C ontents: r emnants o f a b razier

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype : I n e arth L ocation : S outh o f T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct.

c a. 1 968, S E c orner

M etro e xcavation ,

S tructure A -2,

N ear P ino-Suärez S tation , A venida P inoS uärez a nd A venida J ose M aria I zazaga, L inea 4 ) 5 )

X XII.

X XIII.

1o f M etro P ublication: G ussinyer,

1 968; M ateos H iguera,

1 979:242

C ontents: T urkey r emains

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype : I n p it i n s tairway L ocation: S outh o f T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct.

c a.

1 969,

M etro e xcavation,

S tructure L -2 1

4 )

A venida P ino-Suärez a nd A venida J ose M aria I zazaga, L inea 2 o f M etro P ublication : G ussinyer, 1 969; M ateos H iguera, 1 979:242

5 )

C ontents: b roken s culpture o f d ancing m onkey w ith b uccal m ask

1 )

E xcavation :

c e.

1 970 ,

L -2 4 , W . 2 ) 3 )

4 )

S tructure

T ype : S tone b ox, p ainted b lue L ocation: S outh o f T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct. A venida P ino-Suärez a nd A venida J ose M aria I zazaga, L inea 2 o f M etro P ublication : G ussinyer, 1 970a ; M ateos H iguera, C astillo T .

5 )

M etro e xcavation ,

s ide

a nd S olis 0 .,

1 975:53-5,

1 979:243; X LVII-L

C ontents: g reenstone b eads 3 v essels ( "Teotihuacan s tyle") 6 s hells, s ome w ith b lue a nd b lack p aint m iscellaneous v egetal m aterial, i ncluding 1 c acao s eed 1 10

X XIV.

1 ) 2 ) 3 )

E xcavation: T ype:

c a.

1 970 ,

M etro e xcavation,

L -2 2 , c entre S tone b ox p ainted

L ocation :

r ed

S tructure

a nd c arved w ith d ates

( 13

h ouse, 1 3 r abbit, 1 3 r eed, 1 3 f lint) S outh o f T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct. A venida P ino-Suärez a nd A venida J osé M aria I zazaga,

L inea 2 o f M etro

4 )

P ublication : G ussinyer, 2 43

1 970a ;

5 )

C ontents: 1 v essel w ith r ubber t races

M ateos H iguera,

1 979:

1 b razier w ith a shes r emains o f a s awfish s nout m aguey t horns 4 c opal c akes 1 s tone f rog w ith b lue p aint f lint k nives

X XV.

1 )

E xcavations: 9 a. 1 970, M etro e xcavation, S tructure L -2 , 4 s mall b oxed o fferings a t 4 c ardinal d irections

2 ) 3 )

T ype: S tone b oxes L ocation : S outh o f T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct.

4 )

A venida P ino-Suärez a nd A venida J osé M aria I zazaga, L inea 2 o f M etro P ublication : G ussinyer, 1 970a ; M ateos H iguera, 1 979:

5 )

2 43 C ontents: b eads ( greenstone?) c opal f lint k nives

X XVI.

1 )

E xcavation:

c a. L -3,

2 ) 3 )

1 970,

M etro e xcavation,

S tructure

i n b ody

T ype: C ist L ocation : S outh o f T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct. A venida P ino-Suärez a nd A venida J osé M aria I zazaga, L inea 2 o f M etro

4 )

P ublication :

G ussinyer,

2 43; 5 )

H eyden,

1 970b ;

M ateos H iguera,

1 979:

1 970

C ontents: b eads ( greenstone?) .1

v essel w ith r emnants o f b lue p aint

c opal 1 T wo-Horned d eity w ith p olychrome p aint

X XVII.

1 )

E xcavation :

c a.

1 970 ,

M etro e xcavation ,

a t f oot o f E . I n f ill ( ?)

S tructure L -3,

s tairway

2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation :

4 )

I zazaga, L inea 2 o f M etro P ublication : G ussinyer, 1 970b ; M ateos H iguera,

S outh o f T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct. A venida P ino-Suärez a nd A venida J osé M aria

1 11

1 979

5

C ontents: 4 5 p arakeets p arrots 3 c ranes * mat maguey d ucks

X XVIII.

1 )

t horns

E xcavation:

c a. W .

2 ) 3 )

1 970 ,

M etro e xcavation,

S tructure L -3,

s ide

T ype : S tone b ox L ocation: S outh o f T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct. A venida P ino-Suärez a nd A venida J osé M aria I zazaga, L inea 2 o f M etro

4 )

P ublication : G ussinyer, 2 43

5 )

C ontents: o bsidian p oints w ood p oints 1 m iniature w ood

1 970b;

M ateos H iguera,

1 979:

s pearthrower

m aguey t horns d og b ones f lint p oints

X XIX.

1 )

E xcavation:

c a.

1 972,

M etro e xcavation,

B razier

o ffering 2 ) 3 )

T ype: I n e arth ( ?) L ocation: N ear W est

e ntrance t o C eremonial P recinct

a t

c orner o f C alle R epüblica d e G uatemala a nd R epüblica d e B rasil 4 ) 5 )

P ublication : G ussinyer, 1 972; M ateos H iguera, C ontents: 1 1 s kulls p laced f acing w est

1 979:242

s hell c ollar a nd p ectoral a nd b ead 1 6 o r m ore o bsidian k nives a nd b lades 1 3 1

o bsidian p oint m iscellaneous h uman b one f ragments j ar w ith l ong n eck

3 0+ f lint k nives, o ften i nserted i n s kull's m outh 9

g roups o f 3 i n

c opper b ells

o bsidian e ar o rnaments

X XX.

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype : S tone b ox , p ainted r ed L ocation: W ithin C eremonial P recinct.

c a.

1 972,

M etro e xcavation O n C alle

R epüblica d e G uatemala b etween C . 4 )

*

R epüb.

B rasil a nd A rgentina P ublication : G ussinyer, 1 972; M ateos H iguera,

1 979:242

T he m at, m aguey t horns a nd d ucks a re m entioned o nly b y M ateos H iguera ( 1979)

a nd

n ot

b y G ussinyer

( 1970b).

1 12

d e

5 )

C ontents: 1 3 s kulls c ollar o f

l arge p erforated

b eads a nd

s hells

6 5 f lint k nives c opper f ragments

X XXI.

1 ) 2 ) 3 )

E xcavation : c a. 1 972 ( ?), M etro e xcavation T ype: C ist L ocation : W ithin C eremonial P recinct. O n C alle R epüblica d e G uatemala b etween C . R epüb.

d e

B rasil a nd A rgentina 4 )

P ublication :

5 )

C ontents: 8 h uman s kulls m any s hells a nd b eads

M ateos H iguera,

1 979:241-2

6 0 f lint k nives

X XXII.

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype: B ox w ith s tuccoed i nterior L ocation : W ithin C eremonial P recinct. O n C alle R epüblica d e G uatemala b etween C . R epüb. d e B rasil a nd A rgentina P ublication: G ussinyer, 1 972; M ateos H iguera, 1 979:242

4 )

X XXIII.

c a.

1 972,

M etro e xcavation

5 )

C ontents: 3 s kulls

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

T ype: I n e arth ( ?) L ocation: W ithin C eremonial P recinct.

d ate ( ?),

M etro e xcavation A round C alle

R epüblica d e G uatemala a nd S eminario 4 ) 5 )

P ublication: M ateos H iguera, 1 979:244 C ontents: P art o f a n o ffering o f c eramics i n d ifferent f orms t hat m ust h ave c ontained

X XXIV.

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

T ype: ( ?) L ocation:

4 )

I zazaga, L inea 2 o f M etro P ublication : M ateos H iguera, 1 979:243

5 )

X XXV.

1 )

d ate

M etro e xcavation

S outh o f T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct. A venida P ino-Suärez a nd A venida J ose M aria

C ontents: p ulque c ups a nd

E xcavation :

( ?),

f ood.

o ther c lay v essels

d ate ( ?),

M etro e xcavation,

2 b urial

o fferings 2 ) 3 ) 4 )

T ype: ? L ocation: W ithin C eremonial P recinct. P ublication : M ateos H iguera, 1 979:241

113

C alle d e T acuba

5 )

C ontents: c eramic v essels s tone f igurines c lay f igurines

X XXVI.

1 )

E xcavation:

d ate ( ?),

M etro e xcavation,

3 b urial

o fferings 2 ) 3 ) 4 ) 5 )

T ype: ? L ocation: S outh o f T enochtitlan C eremonial P recinct P ublication : M ateos H iguera, 1 979:241 C ontents: t extile f ragments w ood o bjects i n s erpentine f orm s imilar l ightning s taff

X XXVII.

1 ) 2 )

E xcavation: c a. 1 977, T ype : R ed s tone b ox

3 ) 4 )

L ocation: I n s outhwest q uadrant o f C eremonial P recinct P ublication : V ega S osa, 1 979:57

5 )

C ontents: g reenstone f igurine s pindle b ead a xe/adze o f

X XXVIII.

X XXIX.

t o T laloc's

S tructure A O ffering

u nspecific m aterial

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

c ache) T ype: I n e arth L ocation: W ithin s outhwest q uadrant o f

4 )

P recinct P ublication: V ega S osa,

c a.

5 )

C ontents: 2 s kulls 6 c lay s tamps

1 ) 2 )

E xcavation : T ype: C ist

3 )

L ocation:

4 )

1 977,

1 978,

S tructure M " burial"

1 979:61,

( probably

C eremonial

p iano 1 1

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit n o.

E poch 4 b o f T emplo M ayor. W est o f C oyolxauhqui r elief P ublication: G arcia C ook a nd A rana A ., 1 978:37-49; G arcia C ook, 1 978; B lanco P adilla, 1 978; P e n . G 6mez,

5 )

( 1st l evel)

1 978

C ontents: g reenstone b eads 1 8 s hells c oral m iscellaneous m arine m aterial 2 1

c rocodiles c oyote

f ish b ones b ird b ones 5 h uman s kulls b one p erforators 114

1

w ood

f ragments

v egetal m aterial, c opal

f ibres,

p lant

r emains,

f lowers

2 t ypes o f s and, r ough a nd f ine 1 7 f lint k nives, s ome w ith m osaic f aces 1 6 s tone k nives 2 T wo-Horned G ods 2 1 3 3

s tone T laloc V essels s kull m ask w ith o bsidian m ace i n j aw o bsidian c urved s taffs ( 1 n ormal, 2 m iniature) o bsidian m aces ( 1 n ormal, 2 m iniature)

3 o bsidian s erpent h eads a nd t ails 3 o bsidian f orked X ipe s ymbols 2 m iniature a labaster d eer s taffs 7 (?) o bsidian " disks" 1 t urquoise m osaic d isk a nd m osaic f ragments 2 m iniature a tone b raziers c opper b ells

X L.

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

T ypes: C ist L ocation: E poch 4 b o f T emplo M ayor.

1 978,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

C oyolxauhqui r elief. o r e xcavated 4 )

P ublication:

5 )

2

S outh o f

P reviously s acked

G arcia C ook a nd A rana A .,

G arcia C ook,

D eposit n o.

1 978:50 ,

5 3;

1 978

C ontents: 3 g reenstone b eads r emains o f a n i nfant 3 g old b ells

X LI.

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

T ype: C ylindrical c ist. E ntirely i ncinerated L ocation: E poch 4 b o f T emplo M ayor. N ortheast o f

1 978,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

4 )

C oyolxauhqui P ublication: G arcia C ook a nd A rana A ., 1 978:51-53; G arcia C ook, 1 978; B lanco P adilla, 1 978:36-7

5 )

C ontents: g reenstone b eads o ther o rnaments, i ncluding p endant c rown o bsidian k nives a nd s hell c oral,

p oints

f ragments s ponges

f ish r emains c rocodile f ragments b ird r emains h uman r emains t extile r emains c opal a shes f lint k nives s tone m aces o bsidian m ace o bsidian s erpent

r attle 115

D eposit n o.

i n f orm o f

s mall

3

o bsidian d isks g old

b ells a nd d isks

s ilver b ells c opper b ells

X LII.

1 )

E xcavation:

2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation:

4 )

P ublication: G arcia C ook a nd A rana A ., G arcia C ook, 1 978

5 )

C ontents: D ecapitated s tucco-covered r elief s culpture, c ons isting o f t orso a nd s eparate a rms a nd l egs. r elief

X LIII.

1 978,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit n o.

4

C ist E poch 4 b o f T emplo M ayor. o f C oyolxauhqui r elief.

o f

a c himalli

B eneath a nd

e ast

1 978:54-57.

( shield)

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype: C ist L ocation: E poch 4 b o f T emplo M ayor. C oyolxauhqui r elief

4 )

P ublication: G arcia C ook a nd A rana A ., 1 978:58-65; G arcia C ook, 1 978 ; B lanco P adilla, 1 978:36-7

5 )

C ontents: g reenstone a nd o ther-stone b eads 1 2 g reenstone a nd o ther s tone f igurines, i ncluding M ezcala a nd T eotihuacan s tyles. S ome w ith r ed 2

1 978, P royecto T emplo M ayor, ( Also k nown a s R oom 1 )

a nd y ellow p aint g reenstone p laques ( pectorals)

a nd d eity o bsidian k nives

a nd

s hells s hell o rnament,

c onch p ectoral

E ast

D eposit n o.

5

o f

e ngraved w ith h ead

p oints

c oral m arine p lants b ird b ones w ood a nd m osaic r emains c opal f lint p oints a nd k nives g reenstone r elief s culpture o f o bsidian d isks 1 o bsidian s erpent r attle m etal

X LIV.

1 )

e arth g oddess

f ragments

E xcavation:

1 979,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

R oom 2 ( frag.

d ata) 2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation:

C ist

4 )

a xis o f T laloc T emple P ublication: M atos, 1 980 , 1 981; P aris,

E poch 4 b o f T emplo M ayor.

1 982

116

F ront P latform o n 1 981;

A huja 0 .,

5 )

C ontents: g reenstone M ezcala s tyte f igurines s hell n ecklaces w ith f ish a nd f rog-shaped s hells, r attlesnake h ead a nd t ails

h eads,

s hells b ones a labaster T wo-Horned G od g reenstone T laloc s culpture b lack p ottery C halchihuitlicue e ffigy v essel g reenstone M ezcala s tyle m asks,

X LV.

s ome w ith g lyphs

1 )

E xcavation:

c . 1 980 , P royecto T emull M ayor, ( frag. J ata)

2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation:

4 )

P ublication: M atos, 1 981

5 )

C ontents: 2 M ixteca-Puebla s tyle p olychromed

R oom 3

C ist E poch 4 b o f T emplo M ayor. B eneath O ffering n o. 4 8 I n s mall a ltar o n T laloc s tairway o f T emplo M ayor 1 981:37;

1 982;

1 982a:60 ;

P aris,

u rns w ith u mi7e

d eity o n f ront a nd T laloc o n b ark g reenstone M ezcala s tyle f igurines j aguar s kull w ith f lint k nife t ongue l arge c opal f igures M ezcala s tyle g reenstone m asks g reenstone b eads a labaster A ztec

c .

s tyle f igurine ( MNA e xhibition 7 /82)

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype: p laced o n s teps, c overed b y c onstructional f ill L ocation : E poch 3 s tairway o f T emplo M ayor. R oth

1 978,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

4 )

P ublication : M atos, 1 978, 1 980 , 1 981, 1 982; 1 981; H ernAndez P ons, 1 982 C ontents: H uftzilopochtli s ide: 6 s tandard h earers

T laloc a nd H uitzilopochtli

5 )

S tairway

z ides o f T emple P aris,

2 s tanding s culptur9s w tth a rms o n c he w : 1 s culptures, i ncluding T lalor h ead

T laloc s ide :

E a lerging f rom s erpent b ody, 1 s tlndard b earer w ith p ulque g od n ose o rnament

Yulf.

1 )

E xcavation: I n

c .

n o. f ill

1 979,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit

6

2 )

T ype :

3 )

L ocation :

4 )

C oyolxauhqui r elief P ublication: M atos, 1 980 ; P aris, 1 981; W agner, 1 19-124, 1 40-2; B onifaz N ueo, 1 981:

E poch 4 b o f T emplo M ayor.

5 3, 5

6 0 ,

C ontents: g reenstone a nd 5

M ixtec

s tyle

7 5,

7 8,

o ther

W est

o f

8 7

s tone b eads

s tone

f igurines

117

( penates)

1 982: f g9.

6

M ezcala s tyle

s tone f igurines

2 2 m other o f p earl s hells u nworked s hells - X ancus s hell b eads o r p endants 1 M exica s tyle c eramic T laloc v essel 2 T eotihuacan s tyle c eramic T laloc v essels 3

h uman s kulls

b ird r emains 2 s wordfish s nouts 6 t urtles w ood f ragments,

s ome w ith r emnants o f

m osaic c opal f ragments a nd f igurines f lint k nives, s ome w ith m osaic 1 1

t urquoise

f aces a nd

1

T wo-Horned G od s culpture P ulque G od s culpture ( with d iadem a nd n oseplug) w hite s tone M ictlantecuhtli v essel

2 6 1

s kull m asks w ith i nlaid e yes M ezcala s tyle m asks M ixtec s tyle T laloc m ask

c opal l unar

f lint w eaving i mplement f lint k nife w ith c renellated e dge f lint k nife i n u nusual f orm 2 o bsidian c urved s taffs 1 o bsidian m iniature m ace s taff 4 4

o bsidian b uttons, s ome w ith c opper i n t he c entre s tone e ar o rnaments

2 5

s hell d isks s hell p endants ( eheilacacoxcatl)

2 s hell s pearthrowers S tone ( tezontle) T laloc s culpture l arge t ezontle b razier c opper b ells s and

X LVIII.

a nd g ravel

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

n o. 7 T ype: C ist L ocation: E poch 5 f ill c overing E poch 4 o f T emplo

4 )

c .

f ill

1 980 ,

D eposit

M ayor, m iddle o f s outh f acade P ublication: M atos 1 980 , 1 981, 1 982a: 2 5, 2 8, 1 982b: 1 18; W agner, 1 982; A lvarez, 1 982; A lvarez, D iaz, a nd P olaco, 1 982; D iaz-Pardo, 1 982; P olaco R .,

5

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

1 982;

B onifaz N u%o,

1 981:

f g.

C ontents: s tone b eads u nworked s hells

( Strombus a nd X ancus; m any s mall

s hells) c oral ( 5 d ifferent t ypes) s hell b eads s ea u rchin s pines 1 c eramic T laloc v essel 2

c eramic d eity e ffigy v essels

1 2

c eramic o llin s ymbol c eramic s pirals 1 18

6 1

1

c eramic

r attlestaff

1 c eramic b razier w ith " pestle" 1 6 m iniature o bsidian p oints i n g roups o f 4 a nd 5 2m asses o f c opal b ird r emains 1 s wordfish s nout f ish b ones 4 0 t urtles 2 c rocodiles 7 1 1

b one p oints f lint k nife T wo-Horned G od

s culpture

2 s hell d isks a nd p endants s and c overed f loor o f c ist

X LIX .

1 )

E xcavation :

c . n o.

2 ) 3 )

1 980 ,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit

8

4 )

T ype: C ist L ocation : E poch 3 o f T emplo M ayor. B ack o f T emplo M ayor, c entre o f H uitzilopochtli s ide. P ublication: M atos, 1 980 , 1 981, 1 982a: 2 6, 2 9-31;

5 )

C ontents:

W agner, 1 982 ( believed t o h ave b een s acked t imes)

f igurine h ead b ird r emains s wordfish s nout

i n p rehispanic

r emains

f ish b ones s mall p erforated

s hells

b urned r emains p erishable m aterials 8 f lint k nives

( vegetal a nd/or f ood m atter)

s mall f lint k nives 2 b alls o f u nidentified w hite m aterial L .

1 )

E xcavation :

c . 1 980 , n o. 9

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit

2 )

T ype:

3 ) 4 )

L ocation: E poch 4 o f T emplo M ayor, s outh f acade P ublication : M atos, 1 980 , 1 981, 1 982a l . 3 1-32; W agner, 1 982; B onifaz N u n, 1 981: f g. 8 4

5 )

C ontents: v arious

I n f ill

s tone b eads

2 s tone M ezcala s tyle f igurines 2 s tone M ixtec s tyle T laloc f igurines s mall s hells c oral j aguar r emains

( penates)

( annex)

b one p erforators 1 c opal f igurine 1 c opal m ass t races o f i ncineration s tone m iniatures

( including a xe,

f igure)

( 1 s tone e ar o rnament, 2 s tone s pearthrowers, a nd 2 c opper b ells a lso a ppear i n W agner, 1 982 c hart, b ut n ot i n t ext) 119

L I.

1 )

E xcavation:

c .

1 980,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation:

4 )

P ublication :

E poch 4 f ill c overing E poch 3 o f T emplo M ayor, n orth o f C oyolxauhqui r elief M atos,

1 980 ,

1 18; P aris, 1 982 5 )

D eposit

n o. 1 0 f unerary u rn

1 981,

1 981;

1 982a:

3 2,

1 982b:

M ercado 1 982:349;

C ontents: 1o range c lay f unerary u rn f rom V eracruz

W agner,

( ?)

i ncised

w ith X iuhtecuhtli c remated h uman b one r emains g reenstone p ectoral i n f orm o f

L II.

1 )

E xcavation:

2 )

T ype :

3 )

L ocation :

4 )

5 )

c . 1 980 , n o. 1 1 I n f ill

s erpent

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit

E poch 4 b o f T emplo M ayor. N ear s erpent h ead o n H uitzilopochtli s ide o f c entral

b alustrade P ublication: M atos, 1 978, 1 7; 1 980 ; P aris, 1 981; W agner, 1 982; B onifaz N uNo, 1 981: f g. 6 3

5 8,

C ontents: 2 1 g reenstone b eads o ther s tone b eads 5 3 6 1 0 3

s tone M ezcala s tyle f igurines s mall o bsidian p oints ( in g roups o f 4 o r 5 ) m other o f p earl s hells S pondylus s hells

3 X ancus s hells o ther s mall s hells,

s ome p erforated

s ea u rchin s pines 1 c eramic v essel w ith u nidentified d eity e ffigy 1 c eramic d eformatory c radle 6 s kulls b ird r emains 1 s wordfish s nout

( with i nfant

s kull o n e nd)

1 1 t urtles 6 c opal f igurines 3 c opal m asses w ood r emains, s cme w ith t urquoise m osaic r emnants o f r ed p igment ( cinnabar) 4 f lint k nives 1

T wo—Horned G od

1 2

s tone b razier s kull m asks

s culpture

5

M ezcala s tyle m asks

1

f lint c urved

1 1

o bsidian c urved s taff o bsidian m iniature m ace

s taff

2 1

o bsidian b uttons o bsidian n ose o rnament

4

s tone e ar o rnaments

1 2

a labaster d eer s taff a labaster s erpentine s taffs

1 20

9 3

s hell d isks s hell s pearthrowers

1 74 c opper b ells ( coral, a T eotihuacan s tyle m ask,

2 s hell p endants,

a nd 1 c ut s hell e heilacacoxcatl a ppear i n W agner 1 982 c hart, b ut n ot i n t ext) s and a nd g ravel f ill

L I

M

L IV.

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype: I n f ill L ocation: E poch 5 f ill o f T emplo M ayor. B ack o f T emplo M ayor, c entre o f H uitzilopochtli

4 )

P ublication: P aris, 1 981; W agner, L una, 1 982:82

5 )

C ontents: 1 M ezcala f igurine

1 )

c . 1 980 , n o. 1 2

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

1 1 3

f lint k nife m edium-sized s tone b razier g reenstone T laloc v essels

2

c opper b ells

E xcavation:

c . n o.

1 980 , 1 3

1 982;

D eposit

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

( frag.

D eposit

d ata)

2 ) 3 )

T ype: C ist ( ?) L ocation : E poch 4 b o f T emplo M ayor. o f f ront p latform

4 )

P ublication: P aris, 1 981; 1 982 c alendar i ssued L oteria N acional d e M 6xico

5 )

C ontents: 1 T wo-Horned G od

( MNA e xhibition,

s tone T laloc v essel

s ide

C ontreras a nd

I n e xact

c entre b y

7 /82)

( MNA e xhibition,

7 /82)

o bsidian r attlesnake h ead a nd t ail s kull m ask w ith i nlaid e yes a nd f lint n ose m iniature o bsidian m ortar ( MNA e xhibition, 7 /82) o bsidian b ifurcated o rnament ( MNA e xhibition, 7 /82) o bsidian m iniature m ace

L V.

1 )

E xcavation :

c . n o.

1 980 ,

( MNA e xhibition,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

7 /82)

D eposit

1 4

2 ) 3 )

T ype: f unerary u rn L ocation : E poch 4 f ill o ver E poch 3 o f T emplo M ayor,

4 )

P ublication: M atos, 1 980 , 1 981, 1 982a:33, 1 982b:118; P aris 1 981; W agner, 1 982; M ercado, 1 982

5 )

C ontents: 1 7 s tone b eads

n orth o f C oyolxauhqui

t wisted 1 1

r elief

( 14 o bsidian d uck h ead

t ubular o bsidian b eads,

b eads;

2

1g reenstone

b ead) b one p oint o rangeware f unerary u rn ( from V eracruz?) w ith

T ezcatlipoca c remated h uman b one r emains 1 f ragment o f a n o bsidian d isk ( 2 s tone p oints l isted i n W agner 1 982 c hart,

•

1 21

b ut

n ot

L VI.

i n

t ext)

1 )

E xcavation:

c . 1 980 , n o. 1 5

2 ) 3 )

T ype: I n f ill L ocation: E poch 5 f ill c overing E poch 4 o f T emplo M ayor. B ack o f T emplo M ayor, c entre o f H uitzilopochtli s ide

4 ) 5 )

P ublication : C ontents:

M atos,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

1 980 ,

1 981,

1 982a:34;

D eposit

W agner,

1 982

1 g reenstone M ixtec s tyle T laloc f igurine ( penate) m other o f p earl s hells S pondylus s hells a nd v arious p erforated

s mall

s hells,

s ome

c oral ( 5 v arieties) 1 o bsidian k nife 1 s wordfish s nout f ish b ones 1 t urtle 1 c opal f igurine 1 1 1

f lint k nife l arge g reenstone T laloc s culpture ( 42 c m.) s tone ( tezontle) T laloc s culpture

1 2

s tone s eated s kull m asks

3

o bsidian b uttons ( 2 s hell d isks a lso l isted c hart,

L VII.

1 )

E xcavation:

c . n o.

L VIII.

i n W agner 1 982

b ut n ot i n t ext)

1 980,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit

1 6

2 ) 3 )

T ype: C ist L ocation: W est

4 )

b ehind t he T emplo M ayor. E poch 5 o r 6 . P ublication: C ontreras a nd L una, 1 982; Wagner, 1 982

s ide o f A ltar 4 ,

P atio o f

t he A ltars

5 )

C ontents: 5 l arge g reenstone b eads 1 e mail T wo-Horned G od s culpture ( 25 c m.)

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

L Ix.

f igure

c .

1 980 ,

D eposit

n o. 1 6A T ype: I n s mall n iche L ocation: s mall n iche e ast o f D eposit n o. 1 6, s epar ated b y a s tone s lab. P atio o f t he A ltars b ehind t he T emplo M ayor. E poch 5 o r 6

4 )

P ublication :

5 )

C ontents: 5 g reenstone b eads

1 )

E xcavation :

C ontreras a nd L una,

c . n o.

2 )

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

T ype:

1 980 ,

1 982;

Wagner,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

1 7

C ist

1 22

1 982

D eposit

3 )

L ocation:

E poch 5 o f T emplo M ayor.

4 )

P ublication:

B ack o f T emple i n

c entre M atos,

1 979b,

1 980 ,

1 981;

P aris,

1 981;

1 982 c alendar i ssued b y L oterfa N acional d e M exico; W agner, 1 982 5 )

C ontents: 20 g renstone b eads 2 2 s tone b eads 4 X ancus s hells s mall s hells s ea u rchins c oral ( 4 t ypes) 1 s wordfish s nout b ird b ones f ish b ones t urtles 1 2 s crapers m ade o f

a g reen s tone

m iniature o bsidian p oints i n g roups o f 4 a nd 5 1 8 b one p oints 5 2

h uman s kulls m asses o f c opal

w ood r emains, s ome w ith m osaic 1 0 f lint k nives m iniature f lint p oints i n g roups o f 4 a nd 5 2 T wo-Horned G od s culptures 2 s kull m asks 2 m edium-sized s tone b raziers 1 s mall g reenstone b razier 2 s tone T laloc v essels 1 2 4 1 2

o bsidian o bsidian o bsidian o bsidian o bsidian

c urved s taff m iniature m aces b uttons w ith c opper n ose o rnament s erpent h eads a nd r attles

3 1

g reenstone e ar o rnaments a labaster d eer s taff

1 a labaster r attle s taff 4 s hell d isks 4 s hell s pearthrowers c opper b ells s and a nd g ravel f ill ( 4 g old o r t umbaga o bjects a re l isted c hart,

L X .

1 )

E xcavation:

i n W agner 1 982

b ut n o m ention made i n t ext)

c .

1 980 ,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit

n o. 1 8 S tone b ox

2 )

T ype;

3 )

L ocation:

E poch 4 o f T emplo M ayor,

n ear s erpent

i n

c entral b alustrade o n T laloc s ide o f T emple 4 ) 5 )

P ublication: M atos, 1 982 C ontents:

1 980 ,

1 981,

1 982b:118; W agner,

s tone b eads 1 3 g reenstone M ezcala s tyle f igurines v arious s mall s hells m asses o f c opal

123

( 1

T wo-Horned G od b ut

L XI.

1 ) 2 ) 3 )

4 ) 5 )

l isted

n ot m entioned

i n c hart

i n W agner 1 982,

i n t ext)

E xcavation:

c . 1 980, P royecto T emplo M ayor, D eposit n o. 1 9 T ype: S tone b ox L ocation: E poch 4 o f T emplo M ayor, n ear s erpent i n c entral b alustrade o n H uitzilopochtli s ide o f T emple P ublication: M atos, 1 980 , 1 982

1 981,

1 982b:118; W agner,

C ontents: s tone b eads 1 3 g reenstone M ezcala s tyle f igurines v arious s mall s hells m asses o f c opal

L XII.

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

n o. 2 0 T ype : I n f ill L ocation: E poch 4 o f T emplo M ayor. c entre

c .

1 980 ,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit

B ack o f T emple i n

4 )

P ublication: M atos 1 979b, 1 980 , 1 981; P aris, 1 981; 1 982 c alendar i ssued b y L oterfa N acional d e

5 )

C ontents: g reenstone b eads a nd u nworked o ther s tone b eads

M exico; W agner,

1 982 g reenstone

7 6

s tone M ezcala s tyle f igurines s tone M ixtec s tyle f igurines ( penates)

1

g reenstone M exica s tyle f igurine,

p ossibly o f

X ochiquetzal m other o f p earl s hell 4 X ancus s hells v arious s mall s hells s ea u rchins c oral ( 2 t ypes) 1 c eramic d eity e ffigy v essel 1 c eramic b razier o r d eformatory c radle 9 s kulls b ird

r emains

1 s wordfish s nout 1 0 t urtles 4 2

f lint k nives T wo-Horned G od

1 1

s tone T laloc v essel s tone M ictlantecuhtli v essel

1

T eotihuacan s tyle g reenstone t ripod v essel w ith

5 2 1 3

M ezcala s tyle m asks T eotihuacan s tyle m asks O lmec s tyle m ask s kull m asks

1 3

l arge t ezontle b razier o bsidian m iniature m aces

s culptures

l id

1 24

( 1 l arge a nd 1 s mall)

2

o bsidian b uttons

1 6 1

o bsidian n ost o rnament s tone e ar o rnaments s tone m ace

1 1 2

a labaster d eer s taff a labaster r attle s taff a labaster s erpentine s taffs

1 1

s hell s pearthrower c ut s hell e heilacacoxcatl

2 24 c opper b ells s and a nd g ravel f ill ( 1 o bsidian c urved s taff, f ragments o f t urquoise m osaic, 3 8 s tone p oints, 5 s hell d isks, a nd 2 s hell p endants l isted i n W agner 1 982 c hart, b ut n ot m entioned

L XIII.

1 )

E xcavation:

c . n o.

2 ) 3 ) 4 ) 5 )

i n t ext)

1 980 ,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit

2 1

T ype: C ist L ocation : E poch 3 o f T emplo M ayor, b ehind T emple o n T laloc s ide P ublication: M atos, 1 980 ; P aris, 1 981; H asbach 1 982a C ontents: g reenstone b eads m other o f p earl s hells p olychrome p astillaje T laloc v essel 2 1

s mall b alls o f c opal f lint k nife

b ird r emains s wordfish s nout

L XIV.

1 )

E xcavation:

c . n o.

1 980, 2 2

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

( frag.

2 ) 3 )

T ype: C ist L ocation: E poch 5 ( ?)

4 )

c orner o f T emple P ublication: M atos 1 982c m ap ( Dec.

1 981)

C ontents: a labaster m iniature r attle s taff

( MNA e xhibition,

5 )

o f T emplo M ayor,

7 /82) a labaster m iniature d eer h eaded e xhibition, 7 /82)

L XV.

D eposit

d ata)

1 )

E xcavation:

c . n o.

1 980 , 2 3

s taff

( MNA

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

( frag.

D eposit

d ata)

2 ) 3 )

T ype: C ist L ocation: E poch 4 b o f T emplo M ayor,

4 )

a xis w ith T laloc T emple P ublication: M atos, 1 980 ; P aris, 1 981

5 )

n ortheast

f ront p latform o n

C ontents: c eremonial u rn w ith u nidentified d eity c eramic s piral d isk

( MNA e xhibition,

7 /82)

c eramic r attle s taff ( MNA e xhibition, c eramic o llin s ymbol ( MNA e xhibition,

7 /82) 7 /82)

125

L XVI.

1 )

E xcavation:

c . 2 4

1 980 ,

( frag.

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit n o.

d ata)

2 ) 3 )

T ype : I n f ill ( ?) L ocation: E poch 4 b o f T emplo M ayor.

4 ) 5 )

P ublication: M atos, 1 980 ; C ontents: 1 T wo-Horned G od

F ront

p latform o n

a xis w ith T laloc T emple P aris,

1 981

a labaster m iniature r attle s taff a labaster m iniature s erpentine s taff

L XVII.

L XVIII.

L XIX .

1 )

E xcavation :

c .

1 980 ,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

n o. 2 5 ( frag. I n f ill ( ?)

2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation:

4 ) 5 )

P ublication: C ontents: ?

1 )

E xcavation:

E poch 2 o f T emplo M ayor. s ide , M atos,

c .

1 980 ,

1 980 ,

2 )

T ype :

3 )

L ocation :

4 ) 5 )

P ublication: C ontents: ?

1 )

E xcavation:

1 981

1 980,

c . 1 980 , n o. 2 7 I n f ill

D eposit

d ata)

E poch 2 o f T emplo M ayor. s ide M atos,

B ack o f T laloc

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

n o. 2 6 ( frag. I n f ill ( ?)

D eposit

d ata)

B ack o f T laloc

1 981

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit

2 )

T ype :

3 ) 4 )

L ocation: P atio o f t he A ltars, b ehind T emplo M ayor P ublication : C ontreras a nd L una, 1 982

5 )

C ontents: v ariety o f

s mall

s hells

m other o f p earl f ragments a labaster f ragment o f a s erpent 2 w hite f lint k nives c opper b ells

L XX.

L XXI.

1 )

E xcavation:

c .

1 980 ,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

n o. 2 8 ( frag. I n f ill ( ?)

2 )

T ype :

3 )

L ocation:

E poch 2 o f T emplo M ayor. T emple

4 )

P ublication:

5 )

C ontents:

1 )

E xcavation:

2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation:

M atos,

D eposit

d ata)

1 980 ,

N orth o f T laloc

1 981

?

c .

1 980 ,

n o. 2 9 I n f ill

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

( frag.

d ata)

E poch 2 o f T emplo M ayor, H uitzilopochtli T emple 1 26

s outh o f

D eposit

L XXII.

L XXIII.

4 )

P ublication:

5 )

C ontents: b one r emains o ther e lements

M atos,

1 980 ,

( not

1 981,

1 982a:42

s pecified)

1 )

E xcavation :

c . 1 980 , P royecto T emplo M ayor, n o. 3 0 ( frag. d ata)

2 ) 3 )

T ype : C ist ( ?) L ocation : E poch 4 b o f T emplo M ayor. F ront p latform o n a xis w ith T laloc T emple a nd l ocated b eneath

4 )

n o. 2 3 P ublication: M atos,

5 )

C ontents:

1 )

E xcavation: T ype:

3 )

L ocation :

4 ) 5 )

1 981,

1 982a:42

?

c . n o.

2 )

1 980,

1 980, 3 1

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

( frag.

1 )

C ist

E poch 4 b o f T emplo M ayor. F ront p latform o n a xis w ith T laloc T emple P ublication: M atos, 1 980 , 1 982a:45; P aris, 1 981; B onifaz N u n, 1 981:fg. 9 0 C ontents: 3 M ezcala s tyle f igurines

E xcavation :

c . n o.

L XXVI.

1 980 , 3 2

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

T ype : I n f ill L ocation: E poch 3 ( or 2 ?) o f T emp lo M ayor. T emplo M ayor, T laloc s ide

4 ) 5 )

P ublication: M atos, 1 982a:45 C ontents: a ll p erishables - s oil r emoved t extiles,

D eposit

R ack

f or a na lysis;

o f

p erhaps

e tc.

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

T ype: I n f ill ( ?) L ocation: E poch 2 o f T emplo M ayor.

c . 1 980 , P royecto T emplo M ayor, n o. 3 3 ( frag. d ata)

D eposit

I nside

4 )

H uitzilopochtli T emple P ublication: M atos, 1 980 ; P aris, 1 981

5 )

C ontents:

1 )

E xcavation:

?

c . n o.

1 980 , 3 4

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

( frag.

T ype: f unerary u rn L ocation: E poch 2 o f T emplo M ayor.

4 )

H uitzilopochtli T emple P ublication: M atos, 1 980 ; P aris, 1 981 C ontents: o bsidian l idded

D eposit

d ata)

2 ) 3 )

5 )

f eatures

( frag. d ata)

2 ) 3 )

s eeds,

L XXV.

D eposit

d ata)

s hells 1 p olychromed T laloc v essel w ith i ncised

L XXIV.

D eposit

I n c entre o f

f unerary u rn c arved w ith s kull

1 27

s ilver m askette g old b ell i n o llin s hape a labaster V eracruz s tyle T laloc e ffigy v essel ( Matos,

L XXVII.

L XXVIII.

1 )

E xcavation :

c .

L XXX.

2 )

T ype :

3 )

L ocation:

4 ) 5 )

P ublication : C ontents: ?

1 )

E xcavation:

P royecto T emplo M ayor, D eposit

T ype:

3 )

L ocation:

d ata)

E poch 2 o f T emplo M ayor. o f T laloc T emple M atos,

c .

1 980 ,

n o. 3 6 I n f ill

2 )

1 980,

N ortheast c orner

1 981

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

( frag.

4 ) 5 )

C ontents:

1 )

E xcavation:

c .

1 980 ,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

n o. 3 7 ( frag. I n f ill ( ?)

T ype:

L ocation: C ontents:

M atos, ?

1 )

E xcavation:

c . 1 980 , P royecto T emplo M ayor, n o. 3 8 ( frag. d ata)

2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation:

4 )

H uitzilopochtli T emple P ublication : M atos, 1 980 , 1 981, 1 982a:47

1 980 ,

D eposit

d ata)

3 ) 5 )

1 981

D eposit

C ist E poch 2 o f T emplo M ayor. B eneath s acrificial s tone i n f ront o f

C ontents: s acrificial k nives a nd E xcavation :

c . n o.

2 ) 3 )

B ack s ide

c ontext - m ainly c ontained m odern o bjects

2 )

1 )

D eposit

d ata)

E poch 3 ( or 2 ?) o f T emplo M ayor. b ehind H uitzilopochtli T emple P ublication: M atos, 1 982a:45

5 )

L XXXI.

1 980 ,

n o. 3 5 ( frag. I n f ill ( ?)

d isturbed

L XXIX .

1 982)

1 980 , 3 9

p oints

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

( frag.

T ype: f unerary u rn L ocation : E poch 2 o f T emplo M ayor, H uitzilopochtli T emple

4 )

P ublication:

5 )

C ontents: t ecalli v essel

M atos,

1 980 ,

c remated r emains g old b ell s mall s tone o rnaments

D eposit

d ata)

1 981,

i nside

1 982a:47

( MNA e xhibition,

2 s mall g reenstone p laques o bsidian l ip p lug ( MNA e xhibition,

1 28

7 /82)

7 /82)

L XXXII.

L XXXIII.

1 )

E xcavation:

c .

1 980 ,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation :

4 ) 5 )

P ublication: C ontents: ?

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

n o. 4 1 T ype: S tone b ox i nside c ist L ocation : E poch 4 b o f T emplo M ayor.

n o. 4 0 ( frag. I n f ill ( ?)

d ata)

E poch 2 o f T emplo M ayor. T laloc T emple M atos,

c .

1 980 ,

1 980 ,

D eposit

A t

e ntrance

t o

1 981

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit

F ront p latform o n

a xis w ith T laloc T emple 4 )

P ublication :

5 )

C ontents: S tone b ox - c arved

M atos,

1 980 ;

P aris,

1 981;

G onzälez,

w ith T laloc o n l id;

l egs o n s ides o f b ox; l id; b lue i nterior

1 982

g lyphs a nd

h ands o n s ide o f

I nside b ox : 6 4 g reenstone b eads 3 a labaster b eads 5 M ezcala s tyle g reenstone f igurines 2 6 z ocmorphic f igurines ( including l izads, s erpents, d ucks)

f ish,

1 a labaster f ish 3 0 s hell f ish 4

s hells

1 8

m iniature s tone v essel g reenstone p ectorals ( zoomorphic a nd

a nthropo-

1

m orphic) g reenstone T laloc h ead

2

M ezcala s tyle g reenstone m asks

2 1 1 1

m iniature c anoes ( greenstone a nd w hite s tone) g reenstone s taff g reenstone e ar o rnament g reenstone s erpentine s taff

1

w hite s tone m iniature a tlatl, t rident/harpoon, b razier, L -shaped s taff, s acrificial b anner/axe w hite s tone m iniature p addles

2

m iniature s tone p olisher o r w eaving

i mplement

O utside b ox: 4 16 s piral s hells 6 4 c onches 4 f ragments o f g reenstone 1 2

s mall c eramic v essel b one f ragments

s pines

L XXXIV.

1 )

E xcavation:

c . 1 980, P royecto T emplo M ayor, n o. 4 2 ( frag. d ata)

2 ) 3 )

T ype : I n f ill ( ?) L ocation : E poch 2 o f T emplo M ayor. T laloc T emple

4 )

P ublication:

5 )

C ontents:

M atos,

1 980 ,

?

1 29

1 981

D eposit

N orth s ide o f

L XXXV.

1 )

E xcavation:

c . 1 980 , P royecto T emplo M ayor, n o. 4 3 ( frag. d ata)

2 ) 3 )

T ype : I n f ill ( ?) L ocation: E poch 2 o r 3 o f T emplo M ayor.

D eposit

B ack o f

T laloc s ide

L XXXVI.

L XXXVII.

L XXXVIII.

L XXXIX.

X C.

4 ) 5 )

P ublication: C ontents: ?

M atos,

1 980 ,

1 981

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

T ype : I n f ill ( ?) L ocation: E poch 2 o f T emplo M ayor i nside H uitzilopochtli T emple

c . 1 980 , P royecto T emplo M ayor, n o. 4 4 ( frag. d ata)

4 )

P ublication:

5 )

C ontents: G uatemalan p lumbate d og e ffigy v essel

M atos,

1 )

E xcavation :

c .

1 980 ,

1 981;

T ype:

3 )

L ocation :

1 981

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

n o. 4 5 ( frag. I n f ill ( ?)

2 )

P aris,

4 ) 5 )

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

i n c entre o f T laloc

c . 1 980 , P royecto T emplo M ayor, n o. 4 6 ( frag. d ata)

4 )

T ype : I n f ill ( ?) L ocation: E poch 2 o r 3 o f T emplo M ayor. T emplo M ayor i n c entre P ublication: M atos, 1 980 , 1 981

5 )

C ontents:

1 )

E xcavation: T ype :

L ocation:

c .

1 980 ,

D eposit

d ata)

4 ) 5 )

C ontents:

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

n o. 4 8 ( frag. d ata) T ype : C ist ( ?) L ocation: E poch 4 b o f T emplo M ayor.

4 )

o n T laloc s ide o f p latform P ublication: M atos, 1 981; P aris, 1 981;

B ack p art

o f

?

c .

1 980 ,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

C ontents: 2 5-35 s kulls a nd b ones

D eposit

B elow s mall a ltar H istt ericas

o f c hildren b etween t he a ges

o f 4 -7 y ears o f a ge 1 1 p olychromed T laloc h eads ( stone) 1

B ack p art o f

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

E poch 2 o r 3 o f T emplo M ayor. T emplo M ayor i n c entre. P ublication: M atos, 1 980 , 1 981

5 )

D eposit

?

n o. 4 7 ( frag. I n f ill ( ?)

3 )

D eposit

d ata)

E poch 2 o f T emplo M ayor, T emple P ublication: M atos, 1 980 , 1 981 C ontents: ?

2 )

D eposit

t urquoise m osaic d isk

X CI.

1 )

E xcavation:

c .

1 980 ,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit

n o. 4 9 I n f ill

2 )

T ype :

3 )

L ocation:

4 ) 5 )

P ublication: C ontents: s hells

E poch 6 (?) o f T emplo M ayor. T laloc s ide o f T emplo M ayor

A rea b ehind

M atos 1 982a:49

k nives ( references t o D eposits n os. 4 9 t o 5 2 s ay t hat s ome h ave s mall s culptures o f f lutes a nd " old g ods", p erhaps r efering t o t he T wo-Horned G od)

X CII.

1 )

E xcavation :

2 )

T ype :

3 )

L ocation :

4 ) 5 )

c . 1 980 , n o. 5 0 I n f ill

E poch 6 ( ?) o f T emplo M ayor. T laloc s ide o f T emplo M ayor P ublication: M atos, 1 982a:49 C ontents: s hells k nives ( see X CI.

X CIII.

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit n o.

A rea b ehind

4 9)

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype: I n f ill L ocation: E poch 6 ( ?)

4 )

H uitzilopochtli s ide o f T emplo M ayor P ublication: M atos, 1 982a:49

5 )

c . 1 980 , n o. 5 1

D eposit

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

o f T emplo M ayor.

D eposit

A rea b ehind

C ontents: s hellS k nives ( see X CI.

X CIV.

1 )

E xcavation :

2 )

T ype :

3 )

L ocation:

D eposit n o.

c . 1 980 , n o. 5 2

4 9)

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit

I n f ill

4 )

E poch 6 ( ?) o f T emplo M ayor. A rea b ehind H uitzilopochtli s ide o f T emplo M ayor P ublication : M atos, 1 982a:49

5 )

C ontents: s hells k nives ( see X CI.

X CV.

D eposit n o.

c . 1 980 , n o. 5 3

4 9)

1 )

E xcavation :

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

2 ) 3 )

T ype: I n f ill ( ?) L ocation: A rea n orthwest o f T emplo M ayor,

4 )

m arble f loor; E poch 5 ( ?) P ublication: M atos, 1 982c - m ap v olume

5 )

C ontents:

? 131

D eposit

j ust b eyond

X CVI.

1 )

E xcavation:

c . n o.

1 980 ,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit

5 4

2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation:

C ist

4 )

M ayor P ublication: M atos 1 982a:53,

5 )

C ontents:

E poch 4 b

( ?),

n orthwest

c orner o f T emplo

5 5

8 g reenstone b eads 2 g reenstone b racelets r emains o f a b ird p lume a nd e vidence o f i ncineration f ragments o f c loth

l eaf

1

c eramic s piral d isk

1 4

m iniature t ripod b razier n on-functional f lute e ffigies

w hite p aste o r d ough c anoe,

p addle,

s pearthrower,

t rident

X CVII.

1 )

E xcavation:

c . n o.

1 980,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit

5 5

2 ) 3 )

T ype: S tone b ox L ocation: E poch 3 f ill o f T emplo M ayor.

4 ) 5 )

T laloc T emple P ublication: M atos, 1 982a:53 C ontents: T he s tone b ox w as e mpty, b ut

N orth o f

i s b elieved

t o h ave

c ontained p erishables.

X CVIII.

1 )

E xcavation:

c . n o.

1 980 ,

P royecto T emplo M ayor.

D eposit

5 6

2 )

T ype:

3 ) 4 )

L ocation: E poch 5 ( ?) o f T emplo M ayor. N orth s ide P ublication : M atos, 1 981; 1 982 c alendar o f t he L oterfa N acional d e M 6xico; H asbach, 1 982a

C ist

5 )

C ontents: g reenstone b eads m other o f p earl s hells 2 b alls o f c opal b ird b one r emains s wordfish s nout r emains p olychromed, p astillaje T laloc v essel f lint k nife

X CIX.

1 )

E xcavation:

c . 1 980 , n o. 5 7

2 ) 3 )

T ype: I n f ill ( ?) L ocation: S outheast

4 )

P ublication:

5 )

C ontents: k nives o ther s tone o bjects

L ocated

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

q uadrant b ehind T emplo M ayor.

i n f ront o f a s mall

M atos,

D eposit

1 982a:54

( not

s pecified)

a ltar

C .

1 )

E xcavation:

c .

2 ) 3 )

T ype: I n f ill ( ?) L ocation: E poch 4 o f T emplo M ayor.

n o.

1 980 , 5 8

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit

( frag. d ata) N orthwest

c orner

o f T emple 4 )

P ublication: M atos, 1 982a:55; M atos, 1 982c, m ap v olume - 2 d eposits l abelled n o. 5 8

5 )

C ontents: s hells t urtle s hells s kull m ask a labaster d eer s taff a labaster r attle s taff a labaster s erpentine-shaped s taff c eramic d eformatory c radle ( MNA e xhibition,

C I.

1 )

E xcavation:

c .

1 980 ,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

n o. 6 0 ( frag. I n f ill

2 )

T ype:

3 ) 4 ) 5 )

L ocation : E poch 4 o f T emplo M ayor, P ublication: M atos, 1 982a:55 C ontents:

1 ) 2 ) 3 ) 4 ) 5 )

C III.

C IV.

C V.

1 )

E xcavation :

c .

1 980 ,

D eposit

d ata) s outheast c orner

T wo-Horned G od S culpture ( MNA e xhibition,

C II.

7 /82)

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

7 /82)

D eposit

n o. 6 1 ( frag. d ata) T ype: C ist ( ?) L ocation : N orth s ide o f T emplo M ayor i n f ront o f s erpent h ead f lanked b y b raziers; E poch 5 (?) P ublication: M atos, 1 982a:55 C ontents: T wo-Horned G od S culpture ( MNA e xhibition, 7 /82)

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

c . 1 980 , P royecto T emplo M ayor, D eposit n o. 6 2 ( frag. d ata) T ype: I n f ill L ocation: E poch 4 o f T emplo M ayor, s outh s ide

4 ) 5 )

P ublication : C ontents: ?

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype : I n f ill L ocation: N orth o f T emplo M ayor;

4 ) 5 )

P ublication : C ontents: ?

1 )

E xcavation:

M atos,

D ecember,

1 981 m ap

c . 1 980 , P royecto T emplo M ayor, n o. 6 3 ( frag. d ata)

M atos,

c . n o.

2 ) 3 )

1 982c:

1 980 , 6 4

1 982c:

E poch 5 ( ?)

D ecember,

1 981 m ap

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

( frag.

D eposit

D eposit

d ata)

T ype : I n f ill L ocation: E poch 6 ( ?) b eneath m arble f loor s outhwest o f T emplo M ayor

1 33

C VI.

C VII.

C VIII.

C IX.

C X.

4 )

P ublication:

5 )

C ontents:

1 )

E xcavation:

M atos,

c .

T ype:

3 )

L ocation:

D ecember,

1 981 m ap

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

( frag.

D eposit

d ata)

4 )

E ast o f ( behind) T emplo M ayor, n ear s outh e nd P ubliction: M atos, 1 982c: D ecember, 1 981 m ap

5 )

C ontents:

?

1 )

E xcavation:

c . 1 980, P royecto T emplo M ayor, n o. 6 7 ( frag. d ata)

2 ) 3 )

T ype: I n f ill ( ?) L ocation : N orth o f

4 ) 5 )

P ublication : C ontents: ?

1 )

E xcavation:

2 )

T ype:

3 ) 4 ) 5 )

L ocation: N orth o f T emplo M ayor; e poch 5 ( ?) P ublication : M atos, 1 982c: D ecember, 1 981 m ap C ontents: ?

1 )

E xcavation:

T emplo M ayor;

M atos,

c .

1 980,

n o. 6 9 I n f ill

c .

1 982c:

( frag.

1 980,

2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation:

4 ) 5 )

P ublication: C ontents: ?

1 )

E xcavation:

1 981 m ap

c .

1 980 , 7 5

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit

d ata)

1 982c:

D ecember,

a xis w ith

1 981 m ap

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

( frag.

D eposit

d ata)

W est o f T emplo M ayor o n e ast-west C oyolxauhqui m onolith M atos,

D eposit

E poch 5 ( ?)

D ecember,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

n o. 7 0 ( frag. I n f ill

n o.

C XI.

1 980,

n o. 6 5 I n f ill

2 )

1 982c:

?

D eposit

d ata)

2 ) 3 )

T ype: I n f ill ( ?) L ocation: N orth o f T emplo M ayor,

4 )

5 ( ?) P ublication: M atos,

5 )

C ontents:

?

1 )

E xcavation:

c . 1 980, P royecto T emplo M ayor, n o. 7 6 ( frag. d ata)

2 )

T ype :

3 )

L ocation:

4 )

P ublication:

5 )

C ontents:

1 982c:

n orthwest

D ecember,

a rea ;

E poch

1 981 m ap

D eposit

I n f ill A rea n orthwest o f T emplo M ayor, m arble f loor; E poch 5 ( ?) M atos,

1 982c:

?

1 34

D ecember,

j ust b eyond

1 981 m ap

C XII.

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

n o. 7 7 ( frag. d ata) T ype: I n f ill L ocation: E poch 5 ( ?) o f T emplo M ayor.

c .

1 980 ,

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

W est

D eposit

o f T emplo

M ayor

C XIII.

4 ) 5 )

P ublication: C ontents: ?

1 )

E xcavation:

M atos,

c . n o.

1 980, 7 8

1 982c:

D ecember,

1 981 m ap

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

( frag.

D eposit

d ata)

2 )

T ype:

3 ) 4 )

L ocation: I n R ed T emple, s outh o f T emplo M ayor P ublication : P aris, 1 981; M atos, 1 982a : 6 0 , 1 982c

C ist

5 )

C ontents: s tone d rum e ffigy s tone t urtle

s hell i nstrument w ith a ntler p ercussant

c arved o n b ottom s tone e agle h ead l arge s tone k nives

C XIV.

C XV.

C XVI.

C XVII.

1 )

E xcavation:

c .

1 980 ,

n o. 7 9 I n f ill

2 )

T ype :

3 )

L ocation:

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

( frag.

D eposit

d ata)

4 )

E poch 6 ( ?) o f T emplo M ayor. T o w est o f T emplo M ayor o n a xis w ith s outhernmost s erpent o f f acade P ublication : M atos, 1 982c: D ecember, 1 981 m ap

5 )

C ontents:

?

1 )

E xcavation:

c . 1 980, P royecto T emplo M ayor, n o. 8 0 ( frag. d ata)

2 ) 3 )

T ype : I n f ill L ocation: W est o f T emplo M ayor o n a xis w ith c entral s erpent h ead o n T laloc s ide o f T emple ; E poch

D eposit

4 )

4 b ( ?) P ublication: M atos,

5 )

C ontents:

?

1 )

E xcavation:

c . 1 980 , P royecto T emplo M ayor, n o. 8 1 ( frag. d ata)

2 ) 3 )

T ype : I n f ill L ocation: E poch 6 ( ?) o f T emplo M ayor. B eneath m arble f loor t o s outhwest o f T emplo M ayor

4 )

P ublication:

5 )

C ontents:

1 )

E xcavation:

M atos,

1 982c:

D ecember,

D ecember,

1 981 map

D eposit

1 981 m ap

?

c . n o.

2 ) 3 )

1 982c:

1 980 , 8 2

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

( frag.

D eposit

d ata)

T ype: I n f ill L ocation : E poch 4 o f T emplo M ayor. b ehind T emplo M ayor

1 35

S outheast c orner

4 )

P ublication:

P aris,

1 981;

1 982 c alendar

L oterfa N acional d e M exico; D ecember, 5

i ssued

M atos,

b y

1 982c:

1 981 m ap

C ontents: T eotihuacan s tyle d ark g reenstone m ask w ith s hell a nd

o bsidian e yes a nd

t eeth

2 g reenstone e arplugs M exica s tyle a labaster m ask w ith e ye

C XVIII.

1 )

E xcavation:

c . n o.

C XIX.

2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation:

4 )

P ublication:

5 )

C ontents:

1 )

E xcavation:

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

( frag.

D eposit

d ata)

I n f ill E poch 4 ( or 5 ?) o f T emplf, M ayor. c orner b ehind T emplo M ayor M atos,

1 982c:

D ecember,

S outheast

1 )V1 map

?

c . n o.

C XX.

1 980 , 8 3

i nlays

1 980, 8 4

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

( frag.

2 ) 3 )

T ype: S tone B ox L ocation: N orth o f T emplo M ayor,

4 ) 5 )

P ublication: C ontents: ?

M atos,

c .

1 980,

s outheast

o f T emple B

1 982a:70

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

T ype: I n f ill L ocation: N orth o f T emplo M ayor, T emple,

D eposit

d ata)

P royecto T empi( ) M ajor, P laza o f

D eposit A

t he E agle

n orth b uilding

4 )

P ublication:

5 )

C ontents: 1 2 f lint k nives w ith

M atos,

1 982c:56, r ed

6 6;

G utigrrez,

1 982:1 06

p igment

s ea s hells c oral

C XXI.

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

T ype: I n f ill L ocation: N orth o f T emplo M ayor,

4 )

T emple, e ast b uilding P ublication: M at s, 1 982a:56, 6 6;

5 )

c .

1 980,

3

l arge c opal s hell

1 )

o f

B

t he E agle

n utiArroz,

1 Q 2 : 106

a nd

E xcavation:

f igurines s ome a ttached

r ed

c .

t o

c opal

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

t o

b ack w all o f E agle T emple 4 )

P ublication: C ontents:

D eposit

d ata)

T ype: S tone B ox L ocation: N orth o f T emplo M ayor,

5 )

b alls w ith

p igment

1 980,

( frag. 2 ) 3 )

P laza

D eposit

' ontents: s ea s hells f lint k nives,

C XX1I.

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

M atos,

1 982a:66

?

136

e ast o f

( behind)

C

C xXIII.

1 )

E xcavation:

c .

1 980 ,

2 )

T ype :

3 ) 4 ) 5 )

L ocation: N orth o f T emplo M ayor. P ublication : M atos, 1 982a:68 C ontents: ?

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

T ype : I n f ill L ocation: N orth o f T emplo M ayor.

4 ) 5 )

a nd B P ublication: M atos, C ontents: ?

1 )

E xcavation:

( frag.

C XXIV.

C XXV.

2 ) 3 ) 4 ) 5 )

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

d ata)

S tone B ox

C XXVII.

C XXVIII.

T o e ast o f T emple

c . 1 980, P royecto T emplo M ayor, ( frag. d ata)

D eposit

B etween T emples

1 980 ,

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

( frag. d ata) T ype: I n f ill L ocation : N orth o f T emplo M ayor.

4 ) 5 )

T emples A a nd B ( mislabelled D ecember, 1 981 m ap i n M atos, P ublication : M atos, 1 982a:68 C ontents: ?

1 )

E xcavation:

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

2 )

T ype :

3 )

L ocation:

4 ) 5 )

P ublication: C ontents: ?

1 )

E xcavation:

2 )

T ype:

3 )

L ocation:

L ocated

N orth o f T emplo M ayor. s tairway

b etween

P ublication:

M atos,

n ear

1 982a:68

N orth o f T emplo M ayor. w est s ide o f T emple A

C ontents:

D eposit H

I n T emple B ,

c . 1 980 , P royecto T emplo M ayor, ( frag. d ata) I n f ill

4 )

D eposit G

" J" o n 1 982c)

c . 1 980, P royecto T emplo M ayor, ( frag. d ata) I n f ill

5 )

F

s culpture

1 )

M atos,

E

A

c . 1 980, P royecto T emplo M ayor, D eposit ( frag. d ata) T ype: I n f ill L ocation: N orth o f T emplo M ayor. I n c entre o f e ast s tairway o f T emple A P ublication: M atos, 1 982a:68-69 C ontents: s hells

c .

B

1 982a:68

f lint k nives 1 s mall T wo-Horned G od s tone T laloc v essel

C XXVI.

D eposit D

1 982a:68

?

1 37

D eposit

I n f ront o f

s teps

I

o n

C XXIX .

1 )

E xcavation:

c .

1 980,

( frag.

C XXX.

C XXXI.

C XXXII.

C XXXIII.

C XXXIV.

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

D eposit J

d ata)

2 ) 3 )

T ype : I n f ill L ocation: N orth o f T emplo M ayor. S teps o f T emple C ( mislabelled " K" o n D ecember, 1 981 m ap i n

4 )

P ublication :

5 )

C ontents:

?

1 )

E xcavation:

c . 1 980, P royecto T emplo M ayor, ( frag. d ata)

2 ) 3 )

T ype : S tone B ox L ocation: N orth o f T emplo M ayor. L ocated b eneath u pper f loor o f T emple A ( mislabelled " G"

M atos, 1 982c) M atos, 1 982a:68

4 ) 5 )

D ecember, P ublication : M atos, C ontents: ?

1 )

E xcavation:

2 )

T ype :

3 )

L ocation:

c .

1 980 ,

( frag. I n f ill

1 981 m ap i n M atos, 1 982a:68

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 )

T ype : S tone B ox L ocation: N orth o f T emplo M ayor.

4 )

o f T emple C n ear s tair P ublication: M atos, 1 982a:70

5 )

C ontents:

I n w est

D eposit M

B eneath u pper f loor

?

c . 1 980, P royecto T emplo M ayor, ( frag. d ata) I n f ill ( ?)

L ocation:

s tairway o f

c . 1 980 , P royecto T emplo M ayor, ( frag. d ata)

1 ) E xcavation: T ype:

D eposit L

d ata)

4 ) 5 )

3 )

o n

1 982c)

P royecto T emplo M ayor,

N orth o f T emplo M ayor. T emple A P ublication: M atos, 1 982a:70 C ontents: ?

2 )

D eposit K

N orth o f T emplo M ayor. b elow O ffering H M atos,

D eposit N

I nside T emple B ,

4 )

P ublication:

5 )

C ontents:

1 982a:70

1 ) 2 ) 3 )

E xcavation: c . 1 944, T latelolco, E spejo e xcavation T ype : S tone b ox L ocation: I n f ront s tair o f m ain t emple a t T latelolco

4 )

P ublication :

5 )

C ontents: 4g reenstone b eads ( inside b ox) 5 5 o bsidian b lades ( 3cm. t o 1 5cm . i n l ength) ( inside b ox)

?

E spejo,

1 944,

3 s kulls c otton t hreads 1 38

1 945

s tone b ox 1s mall b ar o f

C XXXV.

C XXXVI.

c .

c opper

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype: S tone b ox ( ?) L ocation: I n f ront s tair o f m ain t emple a t T latelolco

1 944,

4 )

P ublication :

5 )

C ontents: 8 o bsidian b lades

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype: B ox w ith p ainted k nives o n i nside s urface L ocation : I n t he b ack o f t he m ain t emple a t T latelolco

4 ) 5 )

P ublication: C ontents:

E spejo,

c .

1 944,

E spejo,

T latelolco,

1 944,

E spejo e xcavation

1 945

T latelolco,

E spejo e xcavation

1 945

1 4 o bsidian b lades b ird r emains 1w ood s pearthrower m aguey t horns 5 c opal k nives m iscellaneous c opal 1w ood o bject ( merchant s taff o r s erpent 1 o bsidian " fan" O bjects p laced s ymmetrically

C XXXVII.

c .

1 944,

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype: S tone b ox w ith p ainted k nives o n i nside s urface L ocation : I n t he b ack o f t he m ain t emple a t T latelolco

4 )

P ublication:

5 )

C ontents: 1g reenstone b ead 4 o bsidian b lades b ird b ones

E spejo,

T latelolco,

s taff?)

E spejo e xcavation

1 945

1 s kull 1w ood s pearthrower 2 s taffs w ith b lue p igment m aguey t horns 2 f lint k nives S ymmetrical p lacement o f

C XXXVIII.

o bjects

1 ) 2 ) 3 )

E xcavation : c . 1 944, T latelolco, E spejo e xcavation T ype: S tone B ox L ocation : I n f ront o f c entral b alustrade o f m ain

4 ) 5 )

P ublication : C ontents:

t emple,

T latelolco

E spejo,

1 945

1o bsidian b lade b ird r emains m iscellaneous h uman b ones 2 c opal k nives S ymmetrical p lacement o f o bjects

1 39

C XXXIX .

1 )

E xcavation:

2 )

T ype:

c .

1 966,

3 ) 4 ) 5 )

L ocation: ? P ublication: A ngulo, C ontents: 1 o bsidian b lade

T latelolco,

A ngulo e xcavation

b urned o ffering 1 966a

1 s awfish s nout 1 s erpent h ead 3 b irds ( raptorial) 3w ood s pearthrowers 3 3 4 5

C XL.

1 )

E xcavation:

2 )

T ype:

3 ) 4 ) 5 )

C XLI.

w ood m aces u nidentified w ood m aguey t horns f lint k nives

C ontents: 3 o rangeware v essels

E xcavation :

2 )

T ype:

5 )

T ula,

A costa e xcavation

I n f ill ( ?) P laced a fter t he d estruction o f t he b uilding L ocation: a bove c ircular s tone d rum, t o t he n orth o f t he s tairway o f B uilding C , T ula P ublication: A costa, 1 954: 8 4

1 )

3 ) 4 )

c . 1 950 ,

o bjects

c .

1 950 ,

( dated A ztec I II)

T ula ,

A costa e xcavation

I n f ill ( ?) P laced a fter t he d estruction o f b uilding L ocation: a bove b alustrade o f B uilding C , T ula P ublication : A costa, 1 954: 8 4 C ontents: b razier

t he

f ragments w ith a ppliqu6 d ecoration

1 f lint k nife w ithout p oint

C XLII.

1 ) 2 ) 3 )

E xcavation: c . 1 950 , T ula, A costa e xcavation T ype: I n f ill ( ?) P laced a fter t he d estruction o f t he b uilding L ocation: F ound a bove b alustrade o f B uilding C , T ula

4 )

P ublication :

5 )

C ontents: 2v essels

A costa,

8 6

( Aztec I II)

4 n ecklaces o f

C XLIII.

1 954:

c .

j ade,

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype: C ist L ocation: B uilding 3 ,

1 950 ,

4 )

P ublication :

5 )

C ontents: 4 f lint k nives,

A costa,

a labaster,

T ula,

T ula

1 47

c arefully p laced

1 40

s hells

A costa e xcavation

R oom 2 , 1 955:

a nd

i n a r ow

C XLIV.

1 ) 2 )

E xcavation: d ate? T izapan T ype: S tone b ox w ith 4 T lalocs p ainted o n l id; g reenstone j ewel s nrnuting m aize o n i nterior

3 ) 4 )

L ocation : ? P ublication:

5 )

C ontents: g reenstone f igurine d epicting h ybrid m aize/water

n one

( On v iew a t M useo N acional d e A ntropologia, M gx.)

g oddess

C XLV.

1 )

E xcavation:

2 ) 3 ) 4 )

T ype: I n f ill ( ?) o r e arth ( ?) L ocation : C anal 5 , C hapultepec P ublication : C abrera, C ervantes,

c .

1 970,

C hapultepec,

5 )

C ontents: i ncense l adle , r emnants o f t ripod

C abrera e t.

a nd S olis,

a l.

1 975

b razier

5 g reenstone b eads

C XLVI.

1 ) 2 ) 3 ) 4 ) 5 )

E xcavation: T ype:

c .

1 930 ,

T excoco,

M ateos H iguera

?

L ocation : ? P ublication:

M ateos H iguera,

1 934

C ontents: y ellow c lay f igurine o f 2 g reenstone b eads l arge q uantity o f

s eated w ater g oddess

c eramics

( bowls, i ncensariors, l ids, e tc.)

2 f ragments o f m usical i nstruments ( flutes?) d isk-shaped o bjects w ith p erforation

C XLVII.

1 )

E xcavation :

2 ) 3 )

T ype: I n e arth ( ?) L ocation : A ssociated w ith s mall a ltar b etween g reat

c .

1 950 ,

C empoala,

G arcia P ay6n

p yramid a nd c ircular b uilding 4 ) 5 )

C empoala P ublication : G arcia P ay6n, C ontents: c lay Q uetzalcoatl

t o t he n orth,

1 955

e ffigy

c lay Q uetzalcoatl b razier c lay X ochipilli b razier t ripod v essel w ith c ylindrical h andles f ragments o f c lay o celotl h ead

141

s upports a nd

t rilobe

B IBLIOGRAPHY A costa,

J orge R .

1 942

" La t ercera t emporada d e e xploraciones

a rqueol6gicas e n

T ula , H idalgo, 1 942." R evista M exicana d e E studios A ntropol6gicos 6 (3):125-157. 1 945

" La c uatra y q uinta t emporadas d e e xploraciones a rqueol 6gicas e n T ula, H idalgo, 1 943-1944." R evista M exicana d e E studios A ntropol6gicos 7 :23-64.

1 954

" Resumen d e l os i nformes d e l as e xploraciones a rqueo1 6gicas e n T ula , H idalgo, d urante l as V I, V II y V III t emporadas, 1 946-1950 ." I NAH I nstituto N acional d e Antrop ologfa e H istoria A nales 8 (37):37-115.

1 955

" Resumen d e l os i nformes d e l as e xploraciones a rqueo1 6gicas e n T ula, H idalgo, d urante l as I X y X t emporadas, 1 954-1954." I NAH A nales 9 (38):119-169.

1 958-59

" Exploraciones a rqueol6gicas e n M onte A lben, X VIIIa t emporada, 1 958." R evista M exicana d e E studios A ntropo1 6gicos 1 5:7-50 .

1 963

" La d ecimotercera t emporada d e e xploraciones H idalgo." I NAH A nales 1 6(45):45-76.

1 974

" La p irämide d e E l C orral d e T ula, H idalgo." I NAH D epartamento d e M onumentos P rehispänicos. C olecci6n C ientffica. A rqueologfa 3 3 P arte):27-50 .

A grinier, 1 964

P rimera

P ierre " The A rchaeological B urials a t C hiapa d e C orzo a nd T heir F urniture." N ew W orld A rchaeological F oundation P apers n o.

A huja O ., 1 982

( Proyecto T ula:

e n T ula,

1 6,

p ubl.

n o.

1 2.

G uillermo " Excavaci6n d e l a C ämara I I." I n E l T emplo M ayor: E xcavaciones y E studios, e d. E duardo M atos M octezuma, 1 61-172. M exico: I NAH.

p p.

A lvarez, 1 982

T icul " Restos d e v ertebrados t errestres e n l a o freda 7 y c onc lusiones." I n E l T emplo M ayor: E xcavaciones y E studios, e d. E duardo M atos M octezuma, p p. 1 61-172. M exico: I NAH.

A lvarez, 1 982

T icul, E dmundo D faz-Pardo, a nd O scar J . P olaco R . " Relaci6n d el m aterial i dentificado d e l a o frenda 7 ." E l T emplo M ayor: M atos M octezuma,

A ndrews, 1 975

E xcavaciones y E studios, p p.

1 73-184.

M exico:

R ichard I ntroduction t o C lassical N ahuatl. T exas P ress.

1 42

e d.

I n

E duardo

I NAH.

A ustin:

U niversity o f

A ngulo,

V .

J orge

1 966a

" Un t lamanalli e ncontrado e n T latelolco." m ento d e P rehistoria, P ublicaciones 1 8.

1 966b

" Una o frenda e n e l T emplo M ayor d e T enochtitlan." B oletfn 2 6:16.

B asante, 1 982

O scar,

C arlos M ünera,

I NAH D eparta-

I NAH

a nd E nrique S oruco

" Salvamento a rqueol6gico e n l a z ona c omercial y e stacionam iento." I n M emoria d el P royecto A rqueole sgico T eotihuacan 8 0-82, e d. R . C abrera C astro, I . R odriguez G ., a nd N . M orelos G ., p p.365-385. ( INAH, C olecci f t C ientffica, A rqueologfa 1 32)

B atres, 1 902

L eopoldo A rchaeological E xplorations i n E scalerillas S treet, C ity o f M exico. M exico. ( Reprinted i n M atos, 1 979a, p p.61-90 .)

B ernal, 1 958

I gnacio " Exploraciones

e n C uilapan d e G uerrero.

1 902-1954."

I NAH D irecci6n d e M onumentos P rehispähicos. 1 969

B eyer, 1 919

I nformes 1 7.

T he O lmec W orld. T ranslated b y D oris H eyden a nd F ernando H orcasitas. B erkeley: U niversity o f C alifornia P ress. H ermann " Objetos d e f orma a migdaloide e xistentes e n r epresentac iones m exicanas d e l a t ierra." E l M exico A ntiguo 1 (4):82-90 .

1 922

" Relaciones e ntre l a c ivilizaci6n t eotihuacana y l a a zteca." I n L a P oblaci f t d el V alle d e T eotihuacan I , e d. M . G amio, p p. 2 73-293. M exico: S ecretarfa d e A gricultura y F omento, D irecci f t d e A ntropologfa.

B lanco P adilla , A licia 1 978 " Anälisis d e l os m ateriales b iol6gicos e n l as o frendas a C oyolxauhqui." A ntropologfa e H istoria ( INAH B oletfn E p. I II) 2 4:31-38. B obry, A nita 1 976 T he C olossal S tone H ead o f

t he A ztec G oddess C oyolxauhqui:

A n I mage o f C onquest. M .A . C olumbia U niversity, m ent o f A rt H istory a nd A rchaeology. B onifaz N uho, R uben 1 981 E l A rte e n e l T emplo M ayor, M exico-Tenochtitlan.

D epart-

M exico:

I NAH/SEP. B roda, J ohanna 1 970 " Tlacaxipeualiztli: A R econstruction o f a n A ztec C alendar F estival f rom 1 6th C entury S ources." R evista E spahola d e A ntropologfa A mericana 5 :197-274. 1 971

" Las f iestas a ztecas d e l os d ioses d e l a l luvia." E spanola d e A ntropologfa A mericana 6 :245-327.

1 43

R evista

1 976

" Los

e stamentos

e n e l

c eremonial m exica."

I n E stratifica-

c i6n S ocial e n l a M esoamerica P rehispänica e d. C arrasco, 1 978a

J .

B roda,

e t.

a l.,

p p.37-77.

b y P .

M exico:

S EP/INAH.

" Cosmovisi6n y e structuras d e p oder e n e l M exico p reh ispänico." 1 65-172.

1 978b

C omunicaciones,

" Relaciones

n .d.

P royecto P uebla T laxcala 1 5:

p olfticas r itualizadas:

E l

r itual

c omo

e xpre-

s i6n d e u na i deologfa."

I n E conomfa e I deologfa e n e l

M exico P rehispänico, 2 21-254.

b y P .

I .

C arrasco a nd J .

B roda,

p p.

I deology o f t he A ztec S tate a nd H uman S acrifice. P aper g iven a t S ymposium o n " Centre a nd P eriphery: T he T emplo M ayor a nd t he A ztec E mpire." B oulder, C olorado, N ov. 5 -9, 1 979. M S. 4 1pp.

I n

" The P rovenience o f

P ress

v ision'."

A ztec T emplo M ayor, B rundage, 1 972

1 979

t he O fferings:

T ribute a nd

' Cosmo-

P aper g iven a t D umbarton O aks S ymposium o n t he

B urr C artwright A R ain o f D arts: o f T exas P ress. T he F ifth S un:

1 983.

T he M exica A ztecs.

A ustin:

A ztec G ods, A ztec W orld.

U niversity

A ustin:

U niver-

s ity o f T exas P ress. C abrera C astro, 1 979

R uben

" Restos a rquitect6nicos d el R ecinto S agrado e n e xcavac lones d el M etro y d e l a r ecimentaci6n d e l a C atedral y S agrario." I n E l R ecinto S agrado d e M exico-Tenochtitlan : E xcavaciones 1 968-69 y 1 975-76, e d. C . V ega S osa, p p. 5 56 6.

1 982

M exico:

I NAH.

" El P royecto A rqueol6gico T eotihuacan." 8 0-82,

P rimeros R esultados,

R odriguez, C abrera, 1 975

a nd N .

M orelos,

p p.

R uben , M aria A ntonieta C ervantes, O lguin, " Excavaciones e n C hapultepec, 1 5

( Ep.

I I):

C arrasco P izana, P edro 1 967 " Relaciones s iglo X VI." C asas, 1 967

C aso, 1 932

e d.

R .

7 -40 .

I n T eotihuacan

C abrera C astro, M exico:

a nd F ellpl R .

M exico,

D .F."

I .

I NAH. S olis

I NAH B oletfn

3 5-46.

s obre l a o rganizaci6n s ocial i ndigena e n e l E studios d e C ultura N ahuatl 7 :119-54.

F ray B artolome d e l as A pologetica H istoria S umaria. 2v ols. M exico: U niversidad N acional A ut6noma d e M exico. A lfonso " Monte A lban: R ichest A rchaeological F ind i n A merica." N ational G eographic M agazine L XII ( 4):387-512.

1 44

1 935

" Las

e xploraciones e n M onte A lbän,

T emporada 1 934-1935."

I nstituto P anamericano d e G eografia e H istoria P ubl icaci6n 1 8. 1 938

" Exploraciones

e n O axaca,

q uinta y s exta t emporadas,

1 936-

7 ." I nstituto P anamericano d e G eograf í a eH istoria P ubl icaci6n 3 4. 1 965

" Lapidary W ork, G oldwork, a nd C opperwork f rom O axaca." I n Handbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians 3 , e d. G . W illey , p p. 8 96-930 .

1 967

A ustin:

U niversity o f T exas P ress.

C alendarios p rehispänicos. A uton6ma d e M exico, H istbricas.

1 971

C astillo T ejero,

C hadwick , 1 971

U niversidad N acional

I nstituto d e I nvestigaciones

" Calendrical S ystems o f C entral M exico." I n H andbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians 1 0 , e d. G .F. E kholm a nd I . B ernal. A ustin:

1 975

M exico:

U niversity o f T exas P ress.

N oemi a nd F elipe R .

S olis O lguin

" Ofrendas m exicas e n e l M useo N acional d e A ntropologia." C orpus A ntiquitatum A mericanensium V III. M exico: I NAH. R obert " Archaeological S ynthesis o f M ichoacan a nd A djacent R egions."

I n H andbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians e d.

G . E kholm a nd I . P ress.

B ernal.

A ustin:

C lavijero, F rancisco J avier 1 945 H istoria A ntigua d e M exico. P orrüa.

b y

U niversity o f T exas

4v ols.

M exico:

E ditorial

C odex B orbonicus 1 975

C odex B orbonicus. C ommentary b y K arl A nton N owotny. G raz: A kademische D rucku. V erlagsanstalt.

C odex B orgia:

S ee S eler 1 963

C odex F ejerväry-Mayer:

S ee S eler 1 901

C odex M agliabechiano 1 970 ( CL. X III. 3 ( B.R.232)) B iblioteca N azionale C entrale d i F irenze. G raz: A kademische D rucku. V erlagsanstalt. C odex M endoza:

S ee C ooper C lark 1 938

C odex T elleriano-Remensis: C odex V aticanus 3 738 ( "A") 1 979 ( Also k nown a s C .

S ee C orona N unez 1 964

R ios) G raz:

V erlagsanstalt.

1 45

A kademische D rucku.

C oe,

M ichael D .

1 968a

" San L orenzo a nd t he O lmec C ivilization." I n D umbarton O aks C onference o n t he O lmec, e d. E .P. B enson , p p. 4 1-78. W ashington,

1 968b

C oe,

D .C.:

D umbarton O aks.

A merica's F irst C ivilization . Heritage P ublishing C o., I nc.

M ichael D .

1 980

a nd D iehl,

N ew Y ork :

A merican

R ichard A .

I n t he L and o f O lmec: T enochtitlan . 2 v ols.

T he A rchaeology o f S an L orenzo A ustin : U niversity o f T exas

P ress. C oe,

M ichael D .,

1 966

R ichard A .

V eracruz." C oe,

D iehl,

F rancisco B everida P .,

a nd P aula

a nd R ay K rotzer " Exploraciones a rqueol6gicas e n S an L orenzo T enochtitlan, I NAH B oletfn 2 4:21-25.

W illiam R .

1 959

" Piedras N egras A rchaeology: B urials." M useum M onographs, P ennsylvania 4 .

1 962

A rtifacts, C aches a nd U niversity M useum,

" A S ummary o f E xcavation a nd R esearch a t T ikal, 1 956-1961."

G uatemala,

A merican A ntiquity 2 7:479-507.

1 965a

" Caches a nd O fferatory P ractices o f t he M aya L owlands." I n Handbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians 2 , e d. G . W illey, p p. 4 62-468. A ustin: U niversity o f T exas P ress.

1 965b

" Tikal: T en Y ears o f S tudy o f a M aya R uin i n t he L owlands o f G uatemala." E xpedition 8 (1):5-56.

C oggins, 1 975

C lemency P ainting a nd D rawing S tyles a t T ikal: I conographic R econstruction . 2 v ols. s ity M icrofilms.

C ohodas,

H arvard U niversity,

A n H istorical a nd A nn A rbor : U niverP h.D.

M arvin

1 975

T he G reat B all C ourt a t C hichen I tza, v ols. C olumbia U niversity , P h.D.

Y ucatan,

1 978

" Diverse A rchitectural S tyles a nd t he B all G ame C ult: T he L ate M iddle C lassic P eriod i n Y ucatan." I n M iddle C lassic M esoamerica: A .D. 4 00-700 e d. E . P asztory, N ew Y ork: C olumbia U niversity P ress.

C ontreras, 1 979a

p p. 8 6-107.

E duardo " Una o frenda e n l os r estos d el T emplo M ayor d e T enocht itlan." I n T rabajos a rqueol6gicos e n e l c entro d e l a c iudad d e M 6xico, e xico: I NAH.

1 979b

M exico.

E .

M atos M octezuma,

p p.

1 99-204.

" La p resencia d e T laloc e n e l T emplo M ayor." d esarrollo 2 4:27-30 .

1 46

C iencia y

2

C ontreras, 1 982

E duardo a nd P ilar L una E . " Excavaciones, S ecciön 2 ." I n E l T emplo M ayor: E xcavaciones y E studios, e d. E duardo M atos M octezuma, 7 1-102. M exico: I NAH.

C ooper C lark, 1 938

J ames

C odex M endoza.

C orona N uf lez, 1 964

P P•

3v ols.

L ondon:

W aterlow a nd S ons,

L td.

J ose

" Codex T elleriano-Remensis."

I n A ntigüedades d e M exico,

b asadas e n l a r ecopilaci f t d e L ord K ingsborough I . M exico: S ecretaria d e Hacienda y C r6dito P üblico. C ovarrubias, M iguel 1 947 " Tipologia d e l a i ndustria d e p iedra t allada y p ulida d e l a c uenca d el r io M ezcala." S ociedad M exicana d e A ntropol ogia, M esa R edonda s obre p roblemas a ntropol6gicos d e M exico y C entro A merica, 1 957 D avies,

I ndian A rt o f M exico.

C uarta R euni6n :

N ew Y ork:

8 6-94.

A lfred A .

K nopf.,

I nc.

N igel

1 973

T he A ztecs:

A H istory.

N ew Y ork:

G .P.

P utnam's

S ons.

D iaz d el C astillo, B ernal 1 956 T he D iscovery a nd C onquest o f M exico. T ransl. b y A .P. M audslay. N ew Y ork: F arrar, S traus a nd G iroux. D iaz-Pardo, E dmundo 1 982 " Restos d e p eces p rocedentes d e l a O frenda 7 ."

D ietschy, 1 941

T emplo M ayor:

E xcavaciones y E studios,

M octezuma,

1 51-160 .

H ans " Zwei

p p.

M exico:

e d.

I n E l

E duardo M atos

I NAH.

a ltmexikanische S teinbilder v on S onnengöttern."

E thnos 6 (1-2):75-96. D osal, P . 1 925

" Descubrimientos a rqueol6gicos e n e l T emplo d e Q uetzalc oati ( Teotihuacan)." M useo N acional d e A rqueologia, H istoria y E tnologia A nales E p.

D rucker, 1 952

1 955

1 959

t .

1 11:216-219.

P hilip " La V enta, T abasco: A S tudy o f O lmec C eramics a nd A rt." B ureau o f A merican E thnology B ulletin 1 53. " The C erro d e l as M esas O ffering o f J ade a nd O ther M aterials."

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D urän , F ray D iego 1 964 T he A ztecs: T he H istory o f t he I ndies o f N ew S pain. T ranslated b y D . H eyden a nd F . H orcasitas. N ew Y ork: O rion P ress. 1 47

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" Las o frendas h alladas e n T latelolco." A cademia M exicana d e l a H istoria M emorias 4 (3) ( Tlatelolco a t raves d e l os t iempos 5 ):15-29.

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T rabajos a rqueol6gicos e n e l c entro d e l a C iudad d e M exico e d. E . M atos M octezuma, p p. 1 83-189. M exico: I NAH. F ernändez, 1 966

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4 7-53. F ernändez, 1 946

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J ill L eslie " Codex V indobinensis M exicanus I : A C ommentary." I nstitute f or M esoamerican S tudies, S tate U niversity o f N ew Y ork a t A lbany P ublication n o.

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G uti f trez 1 982

U NAM.

" Informe p reliminar a cerca d e l os e nterramientos p reh ispänicos e n l a z ona a rqueol6gica d e T eotihuacan, M exico." I n T eotihuacan 8 0-82, P rimeros R esultados, e d. R . C abrera C astro, I . R odriguez, a nd N . M orelos, p p. 1 131 19.

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T rabajos a rqueol6gicos e n e l c entro d e l a C iudad d e M exico, e d. E . M atos M octezuma, p p. -3 05-275. M exico: I NAH. M atos M octezuma,

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A rt o f A ztec M exico, Washington,

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t he G od X ipe."

I n F alsifications

a nd M isreconstructions o f P re-Columbian A rt, e d. E .H. B oone, p p. 7 7-105. W ashington , D .C.: D umbarton O aks. 1 983

A ztec A rt.

I n P ress

N ew Y ork:

" The A ztec T laloc: a

A brams.

G od o f A ntiquity."

P aper p resented a t

X LIII I nternational C ongress o f A mericanists, V ancouver, C anada, 1 971. T o b e p ublished i n M exico i n H omenaje a T helma S ullivan,

U NAM.

155

I n

" Texts,

P ress b

A rchaeology,

- R eflection." T emplo M ayor,

A rt,

a nd H istory i n t he T emplo M ayor

D umbarton O aks S ymposium o n t he A ztec 1 983.

P ef la G emez, R osa M aria 1 978 " Anälisis d e l os r estos h umanos e n l as o frendas a C oyolxauhqui." A ntropologfa e H istoria 2 4 ( INAH B oletfn E p. I II):39-51. P ehafiel, 1 910

A ntonio D estrucciem d el T emplo M ayor d e M exico A ntiguo y l os M onumentos E ncontrados e n l a C iudad, e n l as E xcavaciones d e 1 897 y 1 902.

M exico:

S ecretarfa d e F omento.

P endergast, D avid M . 1 965 " Maya T ombs a t A ltun H a."

A rchaeology 1 8:210-217.

P erez, J osé R . 1 935 " Exploraci f t d el T ünel d e l a P irämide d el S ol."

E l M exico

A ntiguo 3 (5/8):91-95. P iha C hän , 1 955

R oman L as c ulturas p recläsicas e n l a c uenca d e M exico.

M exico:

F ondo d e C ultura E con6mica. P iha C hän, 1 952

R omano P acheco,

a nd E .

P arey f t M oreno

" Tlatilco: N uevo s itio p recläsico d el B asin d e M exico." T latoani 1 (3-4):9-14.

P olaco R , 1 982

P orter, 1 953

R omän A .,

O scar J . " Los i nvertebrados d e l a O frenda 7 d el T emplo M ayor." I n E l T emplo M ayor: E xcavaciones y E studios, e d. E duardo M atos M octezuma, p p. 1 43-150 . M exico: I NAH.

M uriel " Tlatilco a nd t he p re-classic c ultures o f t he N ew W orld." V iking F und P ublications i n A nthropology n o. 1 9.

P roskouriakoff, T atiana 1 962 " Civic a nd R eligious

S tructures a t M ayapan."

C arnegie

I nstitution o f W ashington P ublication 6 19:87-164. Q uintanilla M tz., P atricia E . 1 982 " Estructura 6 9." I n M emoria d el P royecto A rqueoleeico T eotihuacan 8 0-82, a nd N .

C ientffica, R icketson, 1 937

e d.

M orelos G .,pp.

R .

C abrera C astro,

3 55-360 .

( INAH,

I .

R odriguez C .,

C olecci6n

A rqueologfa 1 32).

O liver G . J r., a nd E dith B ayles R icketson " Uaxactun , G uatemala, G roup E , 1 926-31." C arnegie I nstitution o f W ashington P ublication 4 77.

1 56

R omano,

A rturo

1 972

" Sistema d e e nterramiento e n T latilco." S ociedad M exicana d e A ntropologia, X II M esa R edonda: R eligi6n e n M esoa merica, e d. J .L. K ing a nd N . C astillo T ejero, p p. 3 68. M exico: S ociedad M exicana d e A ntropologia.

R omero,

3 65-

J avier

1 935

" Estudio d e l os e ntierros d e l a P irämide d e C holula." M useo N acional d e A rqueologia, H istoria y E tnografia A nales E p.

R ubin d e l a B orbolla, 1 947

V ,

T .

2 :5-36.

D aniel F .

" Teotihuacan: O frendas d e l os I NAH A nales 2 :61-72.

R uppert, 1 935

t emplos d e Q uetzalcoatl."

K arl " The C aracol a t C hichen I tza, Y ucatan." t ion o f W ashington P ublication 4 54.

1 943

" The M ercado,

C hichen I tza,

Y ucatan."

C arnegie I nstitu-

C arnegie I nstitu-

t ion o f W ashington C ontributions t o A merican A nthropology a nd H istory 8 (43)

( Publ.

5 46).

R uz L huillier, A lberto alenque: 1 955 " Exploraciones a rqueol6gicas e n P A nales 6 ( 34, p t. 1 ):79-110 .

1 952."

I NAH

1 958a

alenque: " Exploraciones a rqueol6gicas e n P A nales 1 0(39):69-116.

1 953."

I NAH

1 958b

" Exploraciones a rqueol6gicas e n P alenque: A nales 1 0(39):117-184.

1 954."

I NAH

" Exploraciones a rqueol6gicas e alenque: n P

1 955."

I NAH

1 956."

I NAH

1 957."

I NAH

1 958c

A nales 1 0(39):185-240 . 1 958d

" Exploraciones a rqueol6gicas e n P alenque: A nales 1 0(39):241-299.

1 961

" Exploraciones a rqueol6gicas e alenque: n P A nales 1 4(43):35-90 .

1 965

" Tombs a nd F unerary P ractices i n t he M ayan L owlands." I n Handbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians 2 , e d. G . W illey , p p. 4 41-462.

1 968

A ustin:

U niversity o f T exas P ress.

C ostumbres f unerarias d e l os a ntiguos m ayas.

M exico:

U niversidad N acional A ut6noma d e M exico. S aenz, 1 956

1 961

C esar A . " Exploraciones e n l a P irämide d e l a C ruz F oliada." M exico, D irecci6n d e M onumentos P rehispänicos, I nformes 5 . " Tres

e stelas

e n X ochicalco."

R evista M exicana d e

E studios A ntropol6gicos 1 7:39-63.

157

1 962a

" Las e stelas d e X ochicelco." d e A mericanistas,

1 962b

1 963

A cta :

" Xochicalco: T emporad v 1 960 ." M exico, M onumentos P rehispänicos, I nformes 1 1. " Exploraciones

e n l a p 'rämide d e l as

e mplumadas, X ochicalco." A ntropol6gicos 1 9:7-26. 1 964

X XXV C ongreso I nternational

y M emorias 2 :69-81.

" Ultimos d escubrimientls e n X ochicalco."

F ray B ernardino d e F lorentine C odex: S pain.

I bid.,

B ook I I

1 952

I bid.,

B ook I II

I bid.,

B ook V II

t he B inding o f

b y A rthur J .0.

( Part 3 ):

A nderson a nd C harles E .

A merican R esearch.

B ook I

T he C eremonies.

( Part 4 ):

T he O rigin o f t he G ods.

( Part 8 ):

T he S un,

M oon,

a nd S tars,

a nd

t he Y ears.

1 954

I bid.,

B ook V III

1 955

I bid.,

B ook X II

1 956

D ireccig in

G eneral H istory o f t he T hings o f N ew

T ranslated

1 951

I NAH.

I nformes 1 2.

D ibble. S anta F e: S chool o f ( Part 2 ): T he G ods.

1 953

s erpientes

R evista M exicana d e E studios

d e M onumentos P rehispänicos, S ahagün, 1 950

D epartamento d e

( Part 9 ): ( Part

K ings a nd L ords.

1 3):

T he C onquest o f M exico.

H istoria g eneral d e l as c osas d e N ueva E spana. E d. A ngel M aria G aribay. 4 v ols. M exico: E ditorial P orrüa.

1 957

F lorentine C odex .. T rans. A .J.O. A nderson a nd C .E. D ibble .. B ook I V ( Part 5 ): T he S oothsayers; B ook V ( Part 6 ): T he O mens.

1 959

I bid.,

B ook I X ( Part 1 0):

1 961

I bid.,

B ook X ( Part 1 1):

1 963

I bid.,

B ook X I

1 969

I bid.,

B ook V I ( Part 7 ):

S anchez 1 982a

S änchez,

T he P eople. E arthly T hings. R hetoric a nd M oral P hilosophy.

J esus E .

" El c onjunto N W d el R io S an J uan." I n M emoria d el P royecto A rqueol6gic T eotihuadan 8 0-82, e d. R . C abrera C astro, ( INAH,

1 982b

( Part 1 2):

T he M erchants.

I .

R odriguez G .,

a nd N .

C olecciön C ientifica ,

M orelos G .,

p p. 2 27-246.

A rqueologfa 1 32)

" Exploraciones e n e l a rea S W d el C omplejo C alle d e l os M uertos." I n M emoria d el P royecto A rqueol6gico T eot ihuacan 8 0-82, e d. R . a nd N . M orelos G ., p p. C ientifica,

C abrera C astro, I . R odriguez G ., 2 49-270 . ( INAH, C olecciön

A rqueologfa 1 32).

158

S anders,

W illiam T .,

1 979

J effrey R .

P i trsons

T he B asin o f M exico.

S choles,

F rance V .,

1 957

a nd R obert

N ew Y ork:

a nd E leanor B .

S .

S antley

A cademic P ress.

A dams

" Informaciön s obre l os t ributos q ue l os i ndios p agaban a M octezuma, a f to d e 1 554." D ocumentos p ara l a h istoria d el M exico C olonial 4 .

( MIxico:

S eler , E duard 1 901 C odex F ejgrväry-Mayer:

J ose P orrüa e H ijos)

E ine a ltmexicanische B ilderhand-

s chrift d er F ree P ublic M useums i n L iverpool B erlin. 1 903

" Las e xcavaciones e n e l

( 12014/M).

s itio d el T emplo M ayor d e M exico."

A nales d el M useo N acional d e M exico 7 :235-262. 1 960

G esammelte A bhandlungen. D ruck-u.

1 960a

6v ols.

G raz:

A kademische

V erlagsanstelt.

" Die A usgrabungen a m O rte d es H auptempels i n M exico." G esammelte A bhandlungen I I, p p. 7 67-904. A kademische D ruck-u. V erlagsanstalt.

1 960b

G raz:

" Ein K apitel a us d en i n a ztekischer S prache g eschriebenen u ngedruckten M aterialen z u d em G eschichtswerke d es P . S ahagun." G esammelte A bhandlungen I I, A kademische D ruck-u. V erlagsanstalt.

1 963

C omentarios a l C 6dice B orgia. F renk.

S errano S änchez, 1 972

M exico:

2 v ols.

p p.

4 20-508.

G raz:

T ranslated b y M .

F ond) d e C ultura E conömica.

C arlos

" Un s itio d e e ntierros c eremoniales e n C holula, P uebla. S ociedad M exicana d e ‘ ntropologia, X II M esa R edonda:

I t

R eligiön e n M esoamgrica, e d. J .L. K ing a nd N . C astillo T ejero, p p. 3 69-373. M exico: S ociedad M exicana d e A ntropologfa. S errano, 1 974

S imeon ,

C arlos a nd Z ald L agunas " Sistema d e e nterramlento y n otas s obre e l m aterial o steol6gico d e l a V ertanilla, T eotihuacän , M exico." A nales 7 ( 4):105-144. R gmi

1 885

S mith , A . 1 950

D ictionnaire d e l a 1 Pngue N ahuatl. N ationale. L edyard " Uaxactun,

G uatemala

P aris:

I mprimerie

E xcavations o f 1 931-1937."

I nstitution o f W ashington , 1 962

I NAH

C arnegie

P ublication 5 88.

" Residential a nd A ss , c iated S tructures a t M ayapan." C arnegie I nstitution o f W ashington P ublication 6 19: 1 65-320.

159

S oustelle,

J acques

1 961

D aily L ife o f

t he A ztecs.

S tanford:

S tanford U niversity

P ress. S pranz,

B odo

1 964

G öttergestalten i n d en M exicanischen B ilderhandschriften d er C odex B orgia-Gruppe.

W iesbaden :

F ranz

S teiner V erlag

G MBH. S tirling,

M atthew W .

1 941

" Expedition u nearths b uried m asterpieces o f N ational G eographic M agazine L XXX :277-302.

S tromsvik,

c arved

j ade."

G .

1 941

" Substela C aches a nd S tela F oundations a t C opan a nd Q uirigua." C arnegie I nstitution o f W ashington P ublication 5 28.

S ullivan ,

T helma D .

1 966

" Pregnancy, C hildbirth, a nd t he D eification o f t he W omen W ho D ied i n C hildbirth." E studios d e C ultura N ahuatl 6 :63-75.

1 974

" Tlaloc:

A N ew E tymological

I nterpretation o f

t he G od's

N ame a nd W hat I t R eveals o f H is E ssence a nd N ature." d el X L C ongreso I nternazionale d egli Americanisti

A tti

( Roma-Genova). T ezozomoc,

D on Hernando d e A lvarado

1 980

C rönica M exicana, C odex R amirez. A notada p or M anuel O rozco y B erra. M exico: E ditorial P orraa, S .A.

T hompson,

E .H.

1 938

" The H igh P riest's G rnve,

C hichen I tza,

Y ucatan,

M exico."

F ield M useum o f N aturi ll H istory A nthropological S eries 2 7(1). T hompson,

J .

1 960

E ric S .T.

M aya H ieroglyphic W riting.

N orman:

U niversity o f

O klahoma P ress, T olstoy,

P aul

1 970

a nd L .

I .

P aradis,

" Early a nd M iddle P reclassic C ultures M exico."

T orquemada, 1 975

F ray J uan d e M onarquia I ndiana.

V ol.

U niversidad N acional T ownsend, 1 979

i n t he B asin o f

S cience 1 67:344-351.

R ichard " State

1 ( of 7 v ols.) M exico:

A ut6noma d e M exico.

F razer a nd C osmos

i n

t he A rt

o f T enochtitlan."

D umbarton

O aks S tudies i n P re-Columbian A rt a nd A rchaeology 2 0 . W ashington, T ozzer, 1 957

D .C.:

D umbarton O aks.

A lfred M . " Chichen I tza a nd iU C enote o f S acrifice." Harvard U niversity P eabody M useum o f A rchaeology a nd E thnology M emoirs

1 1-12. 160

T rik,

A ubrey S .

1 963

" The S plendid T omb o f T emple I a t T ikal, E xpedition 6 (1):2-18.

U mberger, 1 981

1 982

E mily G ood A ztec S culptures, H ieroglyphs, U niversity, P h.D.

G uatemala."

a nd H istory.

C olumbia

A ztec M exico: D iscovery o f t he T empi° M ayor. P amphlet p ublished i n c onjunction w ith e xhibition a t t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory,

V aillant,

N ew Y ork,

1 982.

G eorge C .

1 930

" Excavations a t Z acatenco." A MNH A merican M useum o f N atural H istory A nthropological P apers 3 2(1).

1 931

" Excavations a t T icoman."

A MNH A nthropological P apers

3 2(2). 1 935

" Excavations a t E l A rbolillo."

A MNH A nthropological

P apers 3 5(2). V ega S osa, 1 979

W agner , 1 982

C onstanza ( coord.) E l R ecinto S agrado d e M exico-Tenochtitlan, 1 968-69 y 1 975-76. M exico: I NAH.

D iana " Reporte d e l as o frendas e xcavadas M ayor: E xcavaciones y E studios, M octezuma, p p. 1 19-142. M exico:

W eaver, 1 972

M uriel P orter T he A ztecs, M aya,

E xcavaciones

e n 1 978."

I n E l T emplo

e d. E duardo M atos I NAH.

a nd T heir P redecessors.

N ew Y ork:

S eminar P ress. Z orita, 1 963

A lonso d e L ife a nd L abor i n A ncient M exico:

T he B rief a nd S ummary

R elation o f t he L ords o f N ew S pain... T ransl. b y B enjamin K een. N ew B runswick, N .J.: R utgers U niversity P ress.

1 61

1 .

M ajor M eKica

c enters e mpire.

A merica,

i n Mesoamerir :a. ( After H ardov,

N ew Y ork,

B razill.,r :

S haded J . m ap

a rea

U rban

a pproximates

P lanning 1 9( iR),

i n

e xtent

o f

P re—Columbian

• T IZAYMCA MuCHUCTOCA

•

• T EmAZCALAPAM

• C ITLALTEPEC •

COVOTCPIC •

MU IT M AN

•

T CPOTZOTLAM•

L eg

XOLOC

XAZ ZCA N C

e)

•

TrOlX0 JACAM

• ATLATONCO CVAUT ITLAN •

• • XCATEM I EC

TULACT LAC CUAUMT I E KC T ENAYUCA T LALMCPANTt4A

• •

•

•

•

•

A T CA POT ZALCO O TOHCALPULCO •

TE , e.E0C0

Ac OPAw • POPO TLAN

T I II ICOCO

•

mUXXOTLA

•

COATLO KMAN

T tPITZ INCO •

A T LACU IMUAYAN

ACOLMAM

TEPCXA M S

C h e le s AL MUAC .Am

•

M I XCOAC • I i TANuAc AN

COYC iACAN T IZAPAN • U lT 1 .0 1 .0CNC .0

• IXTAPALUCA

NU IPULCO TLALPAN

• • CMALCO

CRAL : GO • IM I M M MO M M M M IND

2 .

M ajor c ities

i n B asin o f M exico.

( After S ahagün,

1 955).

3 .

T enochtitlan p recincts.

w ith m odern s treets,

M etro

( After N ational,Geographic

1 43

r oute,

a nd

( 5):647.

c eremonial 1 973).

A e

rVIC

1 1 .0 15 .

o f 2 e c ide t

P oem l a ic .' o f r e» ip lo MAyor • — " gno -S t Aar t3 f r i er r i O R o c /e t • E L a hog —

, f l awf

G M 1. 4

.1

0 ,

Y ok o ta .

4 .

D owntown N umbers H iguera,

M exico r efer

C ity

w ith

l ocations

t o M ateos Higuera

1 979:275).

( 1979)

o f

m ajor

c atalogue.

e xcavations. ( After M arlos

5 .

L ocations o f e xcavated o fferings i n T emplo M ayor. 1 982c: D ecember, 1 981 m ap).

( After M atos,

l id.

• r I C 0

0 . )

• r 4

C . ) C, r 4 r e r — I

T empi° M ayor n o.

o n s tone b ox

s tone b ox.

o n c ache b ox

E A

T laloc/Tlaltecuhtli

T laloc

0 0 4 4 ) 0 . 4 : 3

. / 3

C . )

P rovenance u nknown.

( After S eler,

( After C aso,

( After M atos,

` ' ,. . . , , •• .-

IS_ f " . .

-

2 a

B urial

o f d ead

l ord

i n t he

e arth.

( After C .

M agliabechiano

6 7r)

2 b

T lalocs o n c ache b ox

l id.

T izapan.

( Courtesy o f

C olumbia

U niversity P hoto C ollection)

2 c

M aize w ith g reenstone ( Courtesy o f

j ewel

o n c ache b ox i nterior.

C olumbia U niversity P hoto C ollection)

T izapan.

T eotihuacan S tyle g reenstone f igurine.

T emplo M ayor n o.

S tyle g reenstone f igurine.

C ontreras-Angulo

•

C4 0

0

( Garcia C ook a nd

( Castillo a nd S olis,

4a

Mixtec Style figurine. Contreras-Angulo cache. (Castillo and Solfs, 1975: Pl. XXVIC)

4b

Xochicalco Style greenstone plaque. (Batres, 19 02 : 2 4)

4c

Greenstone pendant plaque of unknown provenance. 5 cm • (Batres, 19 02 : 2 4)

L:

20.1 cm.

Batres no. 5. 10.8 x 9 cm.

Approx.

L:

Sa

Mixtec Style Tlaloc or Mountain God figurine. Contreras­ Angulo cache. L: 20 cm. (Castillo and Sol!s, 1975: Pl. XXVC)

Sb

Mixtec Style plaque incised with Tlaloc head. no. 41. L: 13.S cm. (Matos, 1980: 49)

Sc

Mexica Style greenstone maize/water goddess figurine. Tizapan. (Christopher Couch photo)

Templo Mayor,

6 a

T oltec, A zcapotzalco, o r T eotihuacan S tyle u rn. M exico, N ational M useum o f A nthropology. ( Personal p hoto)

6 b

G uatemalan p lumbate c anine e ffigy v essel. 4 4.

6 c

H :

1 4.5 c m.

( Matos,

1 980 :

M ixteca-Puebla S tyle p ottery. H iguera,

1 979:

2 31)

T emplo M ayor n o.

3 4)

E l V olador c ache.

( Mateos

7 a

T eotihuacan S tyle p ottery v essel. o ffering.

H :

1 5.2 c m.

P ino S uArez L -2 b oxed

( Castillo a nd S olis,

1 975:

P l.

X LVIIIa)

7 b

W ater g oddess

e ffigy u rn.

( Matos

6 5)

1 980 :

T emplo M ayor R oom 2 .

H :

3 3 c m.

8a

Teotihuacan pottery Tlaloc vessel. From cache at juncture of Plataforma Adosada and Pyramid of the Sun, Teotihuacan. (Millon, Drewitt, and Bennyhoff, 1965: 69)

8b

Xochicalco pottery Tlaloc vessel. From cache at Structure C, Xochicalco. (After Saenz, 1964: 1�m. 3)

8c

Toltec Tlaloc effigy Brazier. lam. 23)

From Tula.

(Acosta, 1954:

72,

9 a

M exica p ottery a pplique T laloc v essel. H :

9 b

3 5 c m.

( Matos,

1 980 :

M exica p ottery i ncised T laloc v essel. ( Christopher C ouch p hoto)

T emplo M ayor n o.

2 1.

2 9)

T emplo M ayor n o.

3 1.

t r.)

F rom T enochtitlan.

•

b razier.

F rom T ula.

g 1

Mexica T laloc

T laloc/Maize d eity e ffigy b razier.

r ••

0

. • •

C )

0 4 ) 0 4 1 • 0

0 4 )

C . )

H uman s kull m ask

T emplo M ayor n o.

c i

A pproximate L :

T emplo M ayor n o.

c . )

( Blanco P adilla,

0

c o

o

• 4

T latelolco,

f lint b lade

s tuck i nto

c a

r — I

c 0

40 / 1

•• 0

0

a o

C . ) c a

r — I

C N D

c i

C I )

0

c n

4 . ) • • 0 c o

0 c A

r I

• r 1

c n

( f )

c a

. r 3

C . )

. 4

• 4

1 2a

1 2b

C opal

f igurines.

B atres n o.

2 3.

( Batres,

1 902:

4 6)

S culpture o f d ancine m onkey w ith b uccal m ask ( EhecatlO zomatli).

M etro L 2 o ffering.

( Gussinyer,

1 969:

3 2)

13a

Greenstone skeletal earth goddess. cm. (Emily Umberger photo)

Batres no. 1.

Dia.:

13b

Greenstone skeletal earth goddess, carving on bottom. no. 1. (After Batres, 1902: 53)

13c

Carving on bottom of colossal Coatlicue. Mexico, National Museum of Anthropology. (After Pasztory, 1983: 159)

65

Batres

1 4a

M acuilxochitl

s culpture.

1 4b

M acuilxochitl

s culpture w ith o fferings.

( Batres,

1 4c

1 902:

B atres n o.

2 7.

( Batres 1 902:

B atres n o.

4 9)

2 7.

4 8)

S culptures o f s tanding f igures i n s itu. o f T empi° M ayor, Huitzilopochtli s ide.

S tairway o f 3 rd e poch ( Matos, 1 981: F oto 4 )

-

1 5a

M assive q uantities o f 1 902:

1 5b

F lint k nives.

1 975:

F lint k nife w ith m osaic 1 1..

B atres n o.

C ontreras-Angulo c ache.

( Castillo a nd S olis,

1 5c

f lint k nives.

5 .

( Batres,

1 9)

L :

1 7

c m.

( Matos,

f ace

P l.

( tecpatl).

1 980 :

L :

3 0 .5 a nd 2 4.5 c m.

X XXIIB a nd C )

6 9)

T emplo M ayor n o.

6 o r

1 6a

M ictlantecuhtli w ith f lint k nife n ose.

1 6b

T laltecuhtli

w ith f lint k nife

3 eler,

T:

1 960,

7 15)

t ongue.

( After C .

C .

B orgia 1 3)

B orbonicus.

( After

T wo-Horned D eity,

T emplo M ayor n o.

T emplo M ayor n o.

( Garcia C ook,

A pproximate H .:

0

b ack v iew.

f ront v iew .

r • • C r l

( Garcia C ook,

0

c 3 . 4 $ 1

r •

0

0

o

g 3 4

0 4 . 3 0 . 0

2

0 a )

T empi .° M ayor R oom 2 .

T emplo Mayor R oom 2 .

r 4

A labaster T wo-Horned

o

o

0

( I )

• •

C s 1 r s 4 C •1

••

S uärez L -3

P ino S uärez

( 1 )

• t4 0

P1

2O a

T wo-Horned D eity, c m.

2 0b

( Seler,

f ront

1 960a :

a nd

S mall T wo-Horned D eities. ( Batres,

1 902:

2 8)

b ack v iew.

B atres

n o.

7 .

8 53)

B atres n o.

6 .

H :

1 4-18 c m.

H :

3 8

T wo-Horned D eity,

b ack v iew.

B asel M useum f ür V ölkerkunde.

( Esther P asztory

( Esther P asztory

2 2a

T onacacihuatl.

2 2b

X ochiquetzal w ith t urtle , c arapace b ack d evice. C .

2 2c

( After C .

T elleriano R emensis 5 r)

X ochiquetza1 w ith t urtle c arapace b ack d evice. C .

( After

F ejgrväry M ayer 2 9)

F ejgrväry M ayer 1 8)

( After

2 3a

T onacatecuhtli

a s L ord

2 3b

T onacatecuhtli a s L ord

o f O meyocan.

o f

f irst

( After C .

t recena.

V aticanus A 1 v)

( After C .

B orgia 6 1)

•' 1 0 1

• . %% vw • i"

"‘ M% , 1 ,1 , 11YAvnv e. 'ON ... . . . • • •1.•

24a

View of Two-Horned God with flaming disk and figurines. Ba tre s no • 7 . ( Batres , 19 02 : 3 0) .

24b

Stone Tlalvc Vessel. Templo Mayor no. l. cm. (Garcfa Cook and Arana, 1978: 42)

Approximate H:

20

r • J

C U i n

W • , i " —I W i 2

4 — I

C O

c i ) ( i ) 7 1

4 3

c • 1

M agliabechiano 5 3

T emplo M ayor n o.

=

P ulque D eity.

G reenstone E arth

T emplo M ayor R oom 2 .

A

• •

I1

L I

C D

e o 0

r q

c . )

( After P asztory,

26a

Plan of Coyolxauhqui Cists.

(After Garc!a Cook, 1978:

26b

Greenstone Teotihuacan Style vessel. H: 5.8 cm. (Matos, 1980: 58)

20)

Templo Mayor no. 20.

C .

+T

-C. d t d 7 RA UP-K IN+ L z x