Comprehensive Biomedical Physics. Volume 1. Nuclear Medicine And Molecular Imaging; Volume 2. X-ray And Ultrasound Imaging; Volume 3. Magnetic Resonance Imaging And Spectroscopy; Volume 4. Optical Molecular Imaging; Volume 5. Physics Of Physiological Measurements; Volume 6. Bioinformatics; Volume 7. Radiation Biology And Radiation Safety; Volume 8. Radiation Sources And Detectors; Volume 9. Radiation Therapy Physics And Treatment Optimization; Volume 10. Physical Medicine And Rehabilitation [Volume 1, 2 , 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10] 9780444536327
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English Pages [3987] Year 2014
![Comprehensive Biomedical Physics. Volume 1. Nuclear Medicine And Molecular Imaging; Volume 2. X-ray And Ultrasound Imaging; Volume 3. Magnetic Resonance Imaging And Spectroscopy; Volume 4. Optical Molecular Imaging; Volume 5. Physics Of Physiological Measurements; Volume 6. Bioinformatics; Volume 7. Radiation Biology And Radiation Safety; Volume 8. Radiation Sources And Detectors; Volume 9. Radiation Therapy Physics And Treatment Optimization; Volume 10. Physical Medicine And Rehabilitation [Volume 1, 2 , 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
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Table of contents :
Comprehensive Biomedical Physics, Vol. 1-10
Title Page
ISBN (print): 9780444536327
EDITORIAL BOARD
CONTENTS
Volume 1 Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging
Volume 2 X-Ray and Ultrasound Imaging
Volume 3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Spectroscopy
Volume 4 Optical Molecular Imaging
Volume 5 Physics of Physiological Measurements
Volume 6 Bioinformatics
Volume 7 Radiation Biology and Radiation Safety
Volume 8 Radiation Sources and Detectors
Volume 9 Radiation Therapy Physics and Treatment Optimization
Volume 10 Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
PREFACE
Volume 1: NUCLEAR MEDICINE AND MOLECULAR IMAGING
Title Page
CONTRIBUTORS
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 1: NUCLEAR MEDICINE AND MOLECULAR IMAGING
1.01 History of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging
Glossary
1.01.1 Introduction
1.01.2 Discoveries of the Early 1900s That Underpin Nuclear Medicine
1.01.3 Earliest Radiation Detection Systems
1.01.4 Contemporary Photon Detectors
1.01.5 Scintillation Detector Materials
1.01.6 Two-Dimensional Gamma Scanners and Cameras
1.01.7 Three-Dimensional Imaging
1.01.8 Image Processing and Data Analysis
1.01.9 Radionuclide Production
1.01.10 Radiotracer Syntheses Instrumentation
1.01.11 Hazards and Absorbed Radiation Doses
1.01.12 Selected Applications
1.01.13 Molecular Imaging, Born in Mid-1990s
1.01.14 Short History of Organizational Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging
1.01.15 Future Expectations
Appendix A Major Steps in the Chronology of Nuclear Medicine and Nuclear Molecular Imaging
Appendix B
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
1.02 Single-Photon Radionuclide Imaging and SPECT
Abbreviations
1.02.1 Introduction
1.02.2 Instrumentation
1.02.3 Acquisition Modes and Image Formation
1.02.4 Imaging Procedures
References
1.03 Dynamic Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography
Glossary
Preface
1.03.1 Introduction
1.03.2 Principles of Tracer Kinetic Modeling
1.03.3 Spatiotemporal Modeling of Dynamic Image Data
1.03.4 Summary
Appendix A1 Solving One- and Two-Compartment Models Using Laplace Transforms
Acknowledgments
References
1.04 Scatter Correction in SPECT
Glossary
1.04.1 Introduction
1.04.2 Source of Scattered Photons
1.04.3 Impact of Scatter on Reconstructed Slices
1.04.4 Ways to Lessen the Amount of Scatter Acquired
1.04.5 Goal of and Dilemma for SC Strategies
1.04.6 Energy Spectrum-Based SC Strategies
1.04.7 Spatial Domain-Based SC
Acknowledgments
References
1.05 Compton Emission Tomography
1.05.1 Limitations of Mechanical Collimation in SPECT
1.05.2 Compton Cameras Use Electronic Collimation to Determine Cones of Origin
1.05.3 Back Projection of Compton Cones Is Useful for Locating Discrete Sources
1.05.4 Escaping Photons and the Compton Continuum
1.05.5 Analyzing a Recorded Event
1.05.6 Compton Image Reconstruction
1.05.7 Uncertainties in Compton Camera Measurements
1.05.8 Compton Camera Instrumentation
1.05.9 Future Perspectives
Acknowledgment
References
1.06 Positron Emission Tomography
Glossary
1.06.1 Introduction
1.06.2 Basics of Positron Decay
1.06.3 Making an Image – Overview
1.06.4 Primary Detection
1.06.5 Decoding
1.06.6 Real-Time Detector Corrections
1.06.7 Detector Corrections Applied During Image Reconstruction
1.06.8 Basic Image Reconstruction
References
1.07 Time-of-Flight Positron Emission Tomography*
Glossary
1.07.1 Introduction
1.07.2 Basics of TOF PET
1.07.3 Brief History of TOF PET
1.07.4 Timing Basics
1.07.5 Optimizing Timing Resolution in PET
1.07.6 Conclusions
References
1.08 Time-of-Flight PET Reconstruction Strategies
Glossary
1.08.1 Introduction
1.08.2 Basics of TOF-PET Reconstruction
1.08.3 3D TOF-PET Reconstruction Algorithms
1.08.4 Data Corrections
1.08.5 Impact of TOF-PET Reconstruction
References
1.09 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)/Computer Tomography (CT)
Glossary
Abbreviation
1.09.1 Introduction to Positron Emission Tomography/Computer Tomography Imaging
1.09.2 Design Features of PET/CT Systems
1.09.3 Attenuation Correction in PET/CT
1.09.4 PET/CT-Specific Artifacts and Corrections
1.09.5 Dosimetry
1.09.6 PET/CT in Clinical Applications
1.09.7 Conclusion
References
1.10 High-Resolution Small Animal Imaging
Abbreviation
1.10.1 Introduction
1.10.2 Small Animal PET Using MWPC
1.10.3 Animal Models
1.10.4 Applications
1.10.5 Conclusion
References
1.11 Emission Tomography Motion Compensation
Glossary
1.11.1 Introduction
1.11.2 Motion in PET and SPECT
1.11.3 Motion Types and Effects
1.11.4 Monitoring Methods
1.11.5 Motion Compensation
1.11.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
1.12 Tracer Kinetic Models in PET
1.12.1 Introduction
1.12.2 Compartmental Models
1.12.3 Input Functions and the Tissue Response
1.12.4 K1, k2, Blood Flow, and Extraction
1.12.5 The Blood Flow Model
1.12.6 Glucose Metabolism in the Brain
1.12.7 Neuroreceptor Model
1.12.8 Occupancy of Receptor Sites Measured Using PET
1.12.9 The General PET Compartmental Model
1.12.10 Summary
Appendix
References
1.13 Absorbed Radiation Dose Assessment from Radionuclides
Glossary
Abbreviations
1.13.1 Introduction
1.13.2 The MIRD Schema
1.13.3 Facilitation and Limitations of Absorbed Dose Estimates
1.13.4 Dosimetry and Absorbed Dose Definitions
1.13.5 Summary
Appendix A Conversions Between Traditional to SI Units
Appendix B Unusual Case for Dose Estimate of Ingested Polonium-210
Appendix C Example of Pu-239 Residual from Tissue Samples
References
Volume 2: X-RAY AND ULTRASOUND IMAGING
Title Page
CONTRIBUTORS
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 2: X-RAY AND ULTRASOUND IMAGING
2.01 Physical Basis of x-Ray Imaging
Glossary
2.01.1 Introductory Concepts
2.01.2 Interaction Processes
2.01.3 x-Ray Tubes and Beam Quality in Diagnostic Radiology
2.01.4 Examples of x-Ray Image Formation and Contrast Mechanisms
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Websites
2.02 Physical Parameters of Image Quality
Glossary
2.02.1 Introduction
2.02.2 Spatial Resolution
2.02.3 Noise
2.02.4 Contrast
2.02.5 SNR and Rose Model
2.02.6 Contrast-to-Noise Ratio and Contrast-Detail Analysis
References
2.03 Computed Tomography
Glossary
2.03.1 Introduction
2.03.2 The Concept of Tomography
2.03.3 From Projections to Slices
2.03.4 Evolution of CT Technology
2.03.5 Physical Limitations of CT Imaging
2.03.6 Protocol Optimization for Specialized Clinical Applications
References
2.04 Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology
Glossary
Abbreviations
2.04.1 x-Ray Sources for Intraoral Radiography
2.04.2 Detectors for Intraoral Radiography
2.04.3 Panoramic Radiography
2.04.4 Cephalometric Radiography
2.04.5 Cone Beam Volumetric Imaging
References
2.05 Breast Imaging
Glossary
Abbreviations
2.05.1 Requirements for Early Detection of Breast Cancer
2.05.2 x-Ray Sources
2.05.3 Digital Detectors
2.05.4 Mammography Equipment
2.05.5 Image Display
2.05.6 Digital Breast Tomosynthesis
2.05.7 Advanced Applications
References
2.06 Dual-Energy and Spectral Imaging
Glossary
2.06.1 Basic Theory (see also Chapter 2.01)
2.06.2 Current Clinical Implementations
2.06.3 Preclinical Dual-Energy and Spectral Imaging Implementations (see also Chapter 8.18)
2.06.4 Image Noise, Contrast, and Dose Considerations
References
2.07 Quality Controls in x-Ray Imaging
Glossary
2.07.1 Introduction
2.07.2 QC for Radiology Equipment
2.07.3 QCs in CR and DR Systems
2.07.4 QCs of Mammography System
2.07.5 QCs of Dental Radiology Equipment
2.07.6 QCs in Digital Angiography
2.07.7 QC of CT Equipment
2.07.8 Summary of Periodicity of QCs
References
2.08 x-Ray Imaging with Coherent Sources
Glossary
2.08.1 Introduction
2.08.2 Phase-Sensitive Techniques for x-Ray Imaging
2.08.3 Phase Retrieval and Post-Processing
2.08.4 Open Challenges and Future Perspectives
References
2.09 High-Resolution CT for Small-Animal Imaging Research
Glossary
2.09.1 Introduction
2.09.2 Fundamentals of Micro-CT Design
2.09.3 Reconstruction Algorithms
2.09.4 Image Quality
2.09.5 Applications of Small-Animal Micro-CT
2.09.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
2.10 Radiation Protection and Dosimetry in x-Ray Imaging
Glossary
2.10.1 Introduction
2.10.2 The ICRP Framework for Radiological Protection
2.10.3 Dosimetric Quantities Relevant for Planar x-Ray Imaging
2.10.4 Dosimetric Quantities Relevant for CT Imaging
2.10.5 Dosimetry in Practice
Appendix Most Commonly Used Dosimeters
References
Relevant Websites
2.11 Fundamentals of CT Reconstruction in 2D and 3D
Glossary
Abbreviations
2.11.1 Introduction
2.11.2 Radon Transform in 2D
2.11.3 Back Projection
2.11.4 Radon Transform Inversion
2.11.5 Practical Back Projection
2.11.6 Sinogram Restoration
2.11.7 Sampling Considerations
2.11.8 Linogram Reconstruction
2.11.9 2D Fan-Beam Tomography
2.11.10 3D Cone-Beam Reconstruction
2.11.11 Iterative Image Reconstruction
2.11.12 Summary and Future Trends
References
Relevant Websites
2.12 The Basics of Ultrasound
Glossary
2.12.1 Introduction
2.12.2 US Propagation in an Ideal Fluid
2.12.3 US Propagation in a Nonideal Fluid
2.12.4 Pulse-Echo Imaging
2.12.5 Final Remarks
References
Relevant Websites
2.13 Ultrasound Imaging Arrays
Glossary
2.13.1 Introduction
2.13.2 Array Transducers
2.13.3 Beam Profile
2.13.4 Apodization
2.13.5 Beam Processing
2.13.6 Echography: Reflection and Backscattering Imaging
2.13.7 Image Quality
2.13.8 Plane Wave Imaging (Ultrafast US Imaging)
2.13.9 Synthetic Aperture Imaging
References
2.14 Doppler Ultrasound
Nomenclature
Abbreviations
2.14.1 Introduction
2.14.2 Continuous-Wave Doppler
2.14.3 Pulsed-Wave Doppler
2.14.4 Color Doppler Imaging
2.14.5 Vector Velocity Imaging
2.14.6 Recent Developments in Ultrasound Imaging of Blood Flow
References
2.15 Ultrasound Imaging Modalities
Glossary
2.15.1 Introduction
2.15.2 Reflection Imaging
2.15.3 Nonlinear Imaging
2.15.4 Quantitative Imaging
2.15.5 Emerging Imaging Modalities
References
2.16 Nonlinear Acoustics
Glossary
2.16.1 Introduction
2.16.2 Plane Waves in Nonlinear Lossless and Lossy Media
2.16.3 Three-Dimensional Nonlinear Equations
2.16.4 Harmonic Imaging
References
2.17 Biomedical Applications of Ultrasound
Glossary
Abbreviations
2.17.1 Introduction
2.17.2 Clinical Diagnostic Pathways: The Old and the New
2.17.3 From Planar Through Tomographic, to Multidimensional Imaging
2.17.4 US in Clinical Practice: Advantages and Disadvantages
2.17.5 Brief Historical Notes and Modern Ideas
2.17.6 Why and How US Imaging Works
2.17.7 Probes and Transducers
2.17.8 Usual Application of US in Medicine
2.17.9 M-Mode and B-Mode Sonography
2.17.10 Basic Principles of Clinical US
2.17.11 Ultrasound Anatomy
2.17.12 Other Practical Applications of Clinical US
2.17.13 Operative Ultrasound
2.17.14 Doppler US
2.17.15 Doppler US for Hemodynamic Evaluation
2.17.16 Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound
2.17.17 Elastography
2.17.18 The Physical Basis of Aerated Organs US Imaging
2.17.19 New Applications: Lung US and Integrated US Imaging
2.17.20 Conclusion
References
2.18 Biological Effects in Diagnostic Ultrasound
Glossary
2.18.1 Introduction
2.18.2 DUS Exposimetry and Dosimetry
2.18.3 Heating and Thermal Bioeffects in DUS
2.18.4 Nonthermal Tissue Interaction and Bioeffects in DUS
2.18.5 Bioeffects Associated with Gas-Body Activation and Cavitation in DUS
2.18.6 Critical Discussion of Bioeffects in DUS
References
2.19 Simulation of Ultrasound Fields
Nomenclature Operators
Parameters and Functions
2.19.1 Introduction
2.19.2 Basic Acoustic Equations
2.19.3 Semianalytical Methods
2.19.4 Numerical Methods for Linear Ultrasound Fields
2.19.5 Numerical Methods for Nonlinear Ultrasound Fields
References
Relevant Websites
2.20 Ultrasound Research Platforms
Glossary
2.20.1 Introduction
2.20.2 General Characteristics of an Ideal Platform
2.20.3 State of the Art of Research Platforms
2.20.4 Detailed Architecture of Sample Platforms
2.20.5 Innovative Applications of Open Platforms
2.20.6 Discussion
References
Relevant Websites
Volume 3: MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING AND SPECTROSCOPY
Title Page
CONTRIBUTORS
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 3: MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING AND SPECTROSCOPY
3.01 Fundamentals of MR Imaging
Glossary
Nomenclature
Symbols
Variables
3.01.1 Introduction
3.01.2 MRI Equipment
3.01.3 Basic Theory of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
3.01.4 Relaxation
3.01.5 Basic Pulse Sequences
3.01.6 Image Formation
3.01.7 Advanced Pulse Sequences
3.01.8 Parallel and Non-Cartesian Imaging
References
3.02 Image Contrast and Resolution in MRI
Glossary
Nomenclature
3.02.1 Introduction to Spatial Resolution
3.02.2 Magnetic Field Gradients and Spatial Encoding
3.02.3 Slice Selection
3.02.4 Gradient Strength and Image Resolution
3.02.5 SNR Considerations
3.02.6 NMR Microscopy
3.02.7 Introduction to Image Contrast
3.02.8 T1-Weighted MRI
3.02.9 Suppression of T1 Components (Fluid Attenuated Inversion Recovery, Short TI Inversion Recovery, and Double-Inversion Reco
3.02.10 T2-Weighted MRI
3.02.11 Susceptibility Contrast
3.02.12 Functional MRI
3.02.13 Other Contrast Mechanisms
3.02.14 Contrast Agents
References
Relevant Websites
3.03 Perfusion Imaging and Hyperpolarized Agents for MRI
Glossary
Nomenclature
3.03.1 Introduction
3.03.2 Perfusion Imaging
3.03.3 Hyperpolarized Agents
References
Further Reading
3.04 High Versus Low Static Magnetic Fields in MRI
Glossary
Nomenclature
3.04.1 Introduction
3.04.2 Characteristics of Increasing Static Magnetic Fields
3.04.3 Some Consequences for Selected MR Applications
3.04.4 Discussion
References
3.05 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
Glossary
Abbreviations
3.05.1 From Neural Activity to the BOLD Signal – The Physiological Basis of fMRI
3.05.2 fMRI Methodology
3.05.3 From Research to Clinic – Clinical Use of fMRI
3.05.4 Conclusions
References
Relevant Websites
3.06 Diffusion-Weighted MRI
Glossary
Nomenclature
3.06.1 Introduction
3.06.2 Diffusion Process and Scalar DW Imaging
3.06.3 Diffusion Tensor Imaging
3.06.4 q-Space, Diffusion Spectroscopy, and Imaging
3.06.5 HARDI and Beyond
3.06.6 Structural Connectivity Inference and Applications
3.06.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Websites
3.07 MRI of the Brain
Glossary
Nomenclature
3.07.1 Introduction
3.07.2 MR-Based Modalities for Assessing Brain Anatomy
3.07.3 MRI in Normal Brain Development
3.07.4 MRI in Normal Brain Aging
3.07.5 MRI of the Brain in Pathologic Conditions
3.07.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
3.08 MRI of the Cardiovascular System
Glossary
Abbreviations
3.08.1 Introduction
3.08.2 Special Considerations and Challenges of CMR
3.08.3 Techniques and Sequences Used for CMR
3.08.5 Future Trends in CMR
References
Relevant Websites
3.09 MRI of the Liver
Glossary
Abbreviations
3.09.1 T1-Weighted Sequences
3.09.2 T2-Weighted Sequences
3.09.3 Gadolinium-Enhanced T1-Weighted Sequences
3.09.4 Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Contrast Agent
3.09.5 Artifacts
3.09.6 Liver Protocol
3.09.7 General Considerations of MRI of the Liver at 3 T
3.09.8 Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of the Liver
3.09.9 Noncooperative Patients
3.09.10 Emerging Developments in MRI
References
Relevant Website
3.10 MRI of the Pancreas and Kidney
Glossary
Abbreviations
3.10.1 Introduction
3.10.2 Techniques
3.10.3 MRI of the Pancreas
3.10.4 MRI of the Kidney
3.10.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
3.11 MRI of the Small and Large Bowel
Glossary
Abbreviations
3.11.1 General Issues in Small Bowel Imaging
3.11.2 MRI of the SB: Technical Aspects
3.11.3 Clinical Applications
3.11.4 MRI of the Large Bowel
3.11.5 MR Colonography: Technical Aspects
3.11.6 Indications for MR Colonography
3.11.7 MRI of the Small and Large Bowel: Conclusions
References
3.12 MR Imaging of the Prostate
Glossary
Abbreviations
3.12.1 Introduction
3.12.2 Equipment
3.12.3 MRI Examination for Prostate Cancer
3.12.4 Role of MRI in Prostate Cancer
3.12.5 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Prostate
3.12.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
3.13 MRI of the Breast
Glossary
Abbreviations
3.13.1 Introduction
3.13.2 Special MRI Techniques for Breast Imaging
3.13.3 Basic Breast Pathology
3.13.4 MRI of Nonmalignant, Nontumorous Breast Lesions
3.13.5 MRI of Benign Breast Tumors
3.13.6 MRI of Malignant Breast Tumors
3.13.7 Dynamic MRI
3.13.8 DWI of Breast Tumors
3.13.9 Susceptibility-Weighted Imaging for Microcalcifications
3.13.10 Biological Correlation
3.13.11 Clinical Applications
3.13.12 Conclusion
References
3.14 MRI of the Female Genitourinary Tract
Glossary
Abbreviations
3.14.1 Introduction
3.14.2 Normal Anatomy
3.14.3 MRI Techniques in the Female Pelvis
3.14.4 Pathologies of Uterus
3.14.5 Adnexal Disease
3.14.6 Conclusion
References
3.15 Three-Dimensional Multispectral MRI for Patients with Metal Implants
Glossary
3.15.1 Introduction
3.15.2 Theory
3.15.3 Application of 3D-MSI Methods
3.15.4 Discussion
3.15.5 Conclusions
References
3.16 Fundamentals of MR Spectroscopy
Glossary
Nomenclature and Symbols
3.16.1 Basic Concepts
3.16.2 Nuclei that Can Be Used for MRS
3.16.3 Key Methodologies
3.16.4 Complexities and Caveats
References
Further Reading
Relevant Website
3.17 Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) of the Brain
Glossary
Abbreviations
3.17.1 Introduction
3.17.2 Neurodegenerative Diseases
3.17.3 Psychiatric Disorders
3.17.4 Somatoform Disorders
3.17.5 Vascular Disorders
3.17.6 Intracranial Neoplasms
3.17.8 Demyelinating Diseases
3.17.9 Developmental Disorders
3.17.10 Epilepsy
3.17.11 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
3.18 MR Spectroscopy (MRS) of the Prostate
Glossary
Abbreviations
3.18.1 Introduction
3.18.2 Prostate Cancer
3.18.3 MRS of the Prostate
3.18.4 Clinical Applications of MRS for Prostate Cancer
3.18.5 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
3.19 MRS of the Breast
Glossary
Abbreviations
3.19.1 Introduction
3.19.2 1H-MRS and the Choline Signal in the Diagnosis of Breast Cancer
3.19.3 Monitoring Response to Neoadjuvant Systemic Therapy with MRI and 1H-MRS
3.19.4 Technical Aspects
3.19.5 In Situ 31P-MRS of Breast Cancer
3.19.6 Future Directions – Hyperpolarized 13C Choline Imaging and Spectroscopy
Acknowledgments
References
3.20 Potential and Obstacles of MRS in the Clinical Setting
Glossary
Abbreviations
3.20.1 Introduction
3.20.2 Some Basics Concerning MRS in the Clinical Setting
3.20.3 Conventional Approaches to Processing Localized Spectra
3.20.4 Obstacles Related to Fourier-Based Analysis and Postprocessing Fitting
3.20.5 What Do Clinicians Expect from MRS?
3.20.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
3.21 Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Imaging
Glossary
Nomenclature
3.21.1 Introduction
3.21.2 Multiple Types of Imaging Based on the Chemical Shift
3.21.3 Theory
3.21.4 Technology
3.21.5 Quantification
3.21.6 Applications in Humans
3.21.7 Other Applications
3.21.8 Problems of MRSI
3.21.9 Conclusions
References
3.22 Clinical Applications of Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Imaging
Glossary
Abbreviations
3.22.1 Introduction
3.22.2 Diagnosis/Detection
3.22.3 Grading/Assessment of Aggressiveness
3.22.4 Treatment Selection/Response Assessment/Prognosis
3.22.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
3.23 In Vivo Two-Dimensional Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
Glossary
Nomenclature
3.23.1 Introduction
3.23.2 Basics of 2D MRS
3.23.3 Modeling a Single Isolated Spin 1/2 System
3.23.4 Modeling a Weakly Coupled Spin-Pair System
3.23.5 2D Localized Correlated Spectroscopy
3.23.6 Clinical Applications of Single Voxel 2D L-COSY MRS
3.23.7 Other Sequences in Single Voxel 2D MRS
3.23.8 Multivoxel 2D MRS
3.23.9 Quantification in 2D MRS
3.23.10 Future Directions
Acknowledgments
References
3.24 Basic Science Input into Clinical MR Modalities
Glossary
Abbreviations
3.24.1 Introduction
3.24.2 Metabolic Biomarkers of Breast Cancer – MRS of Choline Metabolism
3.24.3 Sodium MRI of Renal Function
3.24.4 Final Comments
Acknowledgments
References
3.25 Mathematically Optimized MR Reconstructions
Glossary
Abbreviations
3.25.1 Introduction
3.25.2 Standard Versus Advanced Signal Processing Methods in MR
3.25.3 Results of the FPT Within 1D MRS
3.25.4 Other Applications of the FPT Within MR
3.25.5 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
3.26 Interdisciplinarity of MR and Future Perspectives with a Focus on Screening
Glossary
Nomenclature
3.26.1 Introduction
3.26.2 Challenges Entailed in the Interdisciplinarity of MR
3.26.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of MR with a Focus on Screening
3.26.4 Outlooks for the Future of MR with a Focus on Timely Cancer Diagnosis
3.26.5 Conclusion: Public Health and Policy Implications
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Volume 4: OPTICAL MOLECULAR IMAGING
Title page
CONTRIBUTORS
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 4: OPTICAL MOLECULAR IMAGING
4.01 Bio-optical Imaging
Glossary
Nomenclature
4.01.1 Introduction
4.01.2 Light Produced by Living Organisms
4.01.3 How Do Living Organisms Produce Light?
4.01.4 So What Exactly is Bioluminescence?
4.01.5 Functions of Bioluminescence
4.01.6 Types of Bioluminescence, Bioluminescent Organs, and Control of the Light Emission
4.01.7 Fluorescence
4.01.8 Luminescence Science: From Past to Present
4.01.9 Conclusion
References
4.02 Signal-Relevant Properties of Fluorescent Labels and Optical Probes and Their Determination
Glossary
Abbreviations
4.02.1 Introduction
4.02.2 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
4.03 Fluorescent Proteins
Glossary
4.03.1 The Green Fluorescent Protein Nude Mouse
4.03.2 The Nestin-Driven GFP Nude Mouse
4.03.3 The RFP Nude Mouse
4.03.4 The CFP Nude Mouse
4.03.5 Cancer Cells Expressing GFP in the Nucleus and RFP in the Cytoplasm
4.03.6 Imaging the Recruitment of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts by Liver-Metastatic Colon Cancer
4.03.7 Multicolored Stroma to Image Interaction with Cancer Cells
4.03.8 Making Patient Primary Tumors Glow in Nude Mice by Coloring the Stroma with Fluorescent Proteins
4.03.9 Making Metastasis from Patient Tumors Glow in Nude Mice by Coloring the Stroma with GFP
4.03.10 Non-invasive Imaging of Orthotopic Pancreatic-Cancer-Patient Tumors Colored by GFP and RFP Stroma in Nude Mice
4.03.11 Color-Coded Real-Time Subcellular Fluorescence Imaging of the Interaction between Cancer and Stromal Cells in Live Mice
4.03.12 Non-invasive Subcellular Multicolor Imaging of Cancer Cell-Stromal Cell Interaction and Drug Response in Real Time
4.03.13 Stromal Cells are Necessary for Cancer Cells to Metastasize
4.03.14 Visualizing Stromal Cell Dynamics by Spinning Disk Confocal Microscopy
4.03.15 Conclusions
Dedication
References
4.04 Fluorescent Nanoparticles
Glossary
4.04.1 Introduction to Luminescence
4.04.2 Materials and Synthesis
4.04.3 Specific Aspects for Medical Use
References
4.05 Molecular Imaging Probes: Activatable and Sensing Probes
Glossary
4.05.1 Introduction
4.05.2 Activation Strategies
4.05.3 Photochemical Aspects of Probe Activation
4.05.4 Targeting Moieties
4.05.5 Molecular Imaging Applications
4.05.6 Summary
References
Relevant Website
4.06 Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer Probes
Glossary
Abbreviations
4.06.1 Introduction
4.06.2 The Principle of Resonance Energy Transfer
4.06.3 Design of FRET Pairs
4.06.4 FRET Applications
4.06.5 Intramolecular and Intermolecular FRET
4.06.6 Methods to Detect FRET
4.06.7 Conclusion
References
4.07 Multimodal Optical Imaging Probes
Glossary
4.07.1 Introduction
4.07.2 Multimodal Optical Imaging Probes
4.07.3 Discussion
4.07.4 Conclusion
References
4.08 Fluorescent Reporters and Optical Probes
Glossary
Abbreviations
4.08.1 Introduction
4.08.2 Classes and Optical Properties of Fluorescent Dyes for Biomedical Imaging
4.08.3 Chemistry of Fluorescent Dyes
4.08.4 Summary and Conclusion
References
4.09 Advanced Fluorescence Microscopy
4.09.1 Introduction
4.09.2 The Fundamentals of Optical Microscopy
4.09.3 Advanced Linear Fluorescence Microscopy
4.09.4 Nonlinear Superresolution Fluorescence Microscopy
4.09.5 Conclusion
References
4.10 Uncovering Tumor Biology by Intravital Microscopy*
Glossary
4.10.1 Introduction
4.10.2 Animal Models for IVM
4.10.3 Intravital Microscopic Modalities
4.10.4 IVM Studies for Tumor Biology
4.10.5 Summary and Outlook
Acknowledgment
References
4.11 Two-Photon Microscopy
Glossary
4.11.1 Introduction
4.11.2 Basics of Laser Scanning Microscopy: The Excitation and Emission Process
4.11.3 Linear Optical Microscopy
4.11.4 Nonlinear Optical Microscopy
4.11.5 Second-Harmonic Generation Microscopy
4.11.6 Nonlinear Versus Linear Microscopy in Biomedical Imaging
4.11.7 Biomedical Application of TPLSM
4.11.8 Conclusion
References
4.12 Optical Frequency-Domain Imaging
Glossary
4.12.1 Introduction
4.12.2 High-Sensitivity and High-Speed OFDI
4.12.3 System Implementation
4.12.4 Functional OFDI
4.12.5 Endoscopic OFDI
References
4.13 Raman-Based Technologies for Biomedical Diagnostics
Glossary
4.13.1 Introduction
4.13.2 Background and Instrumentation
4.13.3 Raman Microspectroscopy
4.13.4 Applications
4.13.5 Signal Enhancement Techniques
4.13.6 Conclusions
References
Relevant Websites
4.14 Optical Coherence Tomography
Glossary
4.14.1 Introduction
4.14.2 Low-Coherence Interferometry and TD-OCT
4.14.3 Low-Coherence Interferometry and FD-OCT
4.14.4 Adjuvant OCT Techniques
4.14.5 Summary
References
Relevant Websites
4.15 Two-Dimensional In Vivo Fluorescence Imaging
Glossary
Abbreviations
4.15.1 Introduction
4.15.2 Principles of Fluorescence Imaging
4.15.3 Methods to Improve Specificity and Sensitivity
4.15.4 In Vivo Applications of 2D Fluorescence Imaging
4.15.5 Conclusion
References
4.16 Bioluminescence Imaging
Glossary
Abbreviation
4.16.1 Luciferase as a Reporter Gene for In Vivo Imaging
4.16.3 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
4.17 Inverse Models for Diffuse Optical Molecular Tomography
Abbreviations
4.17.1 Introduction
4.17.2 Fluorescence Molecular Tomography
4.17.3 Bioluminescence Tomography
4.17.4 Summary
References
4.18 Hybrid Optical Imaging
Glossary
Abbreviations
4.18.1 Introduction
4.18.3 Microcomputed Tomography
4.18.4 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
4.18.5 PET and SPECT
4.18.6 Handling
4.18.7 Image Fusion
4.18.8 Segmentation and Analysis
4.18.9 Improvements for Reconstruction
4.18.10 Conclusion
References
4.19 Optoacoustic Imaging
Abbreviations
4.19.1 Introduction
4.19.2 Generation and Detection of Optoacoustic Signals
4.19.3 Imaging Approaches
4.19.4 Multispectral Imaging
4.19.5 Quantification of Optoacoustic Images
4.19.6 Contrast Enhancement Approaches
4.19.7 Applications in Biology and Medicine
4.19.8 Conclusions
References
4.20 Fluorescence-Guided Surgery: A Promising Approach for Future Oncologic Surgery
Glossary
Abbreviations
4.20.1 Introduction
4.20.2 Influences on Fluorescent Signal
4.20.3 SLN Mapping Using Fluorescence Imaging
4.20.4 Tumor Detection Using Organic Fluorescent Probes
References
4.21 Confocal Laser Endomicroscopy Applications
Glossary
4.21.1 From Endomacroscopy to Endomicroscopy, Two Centuries of Evolution
4.21.2 Principle of Confocal Laser Endomicroscopy
4.21.3 Preclinical Applications
4.21.4 Clinical Applications
References
4.22 Optical Imaging in Mammography
Glossary
Nomenclature
Abbreviations
4.22.1 Introduction
4.22.2 History
4.22.3 Materials and Methods
4.22.4 Indications
4.22.5 Studies
4.22.6 Conclusion
References
4.23 External Transdermal Procedures
Abbreviations
4.23.1 Introduction
4.23.2 A Brief History of OI for Clinical Diagnostics
4.23.3 Current OI Technology with Clinical Potential
4.23.4 Clinical Examples
References
4.24 High Content Screening and Analysis with Nanotechnologies
Glossary
Abbreviations
4.24.1 Introduction
4.24.2 High Content Screening and Analysis
4.24.3 Biocompatibility of Novel Imaging Probes Based on Nanoparticles
4.24.4 Summary
References
Volume 5: PHYSICS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS
Title Page
CONTRIBUTORS
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 5: PHYSICS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS
5.01 Electrical Activities in the Body
Glossary
Nomenclature
5.01.1 Origin of Electrical Body Activity
5.01.2 Equilibrium (Diffusion) Potentials
5.01.3 Resting Membrane Potential
5.01.4 Measurement of Membrane Potentials
5.01.5 Action Potentials
5.01.6 Voltage Clamp and Patch Clamp Techniques
5.01.7 Propagation of APs
5.01.8 Single-Cell Recordings of APs and Trains of APs
5.01.9 Synaptic Potentials
5.01.10 Sensor Potentials and AP Trains
5.01.11 Extracellular Recordings from the Nerves
5.01.12 Bioelectrical Events in the Muscles
5.01.13 Recording Electrical Body Signals from the Body Surface
References
5.02 Electrocardiography
Glossary
5.02.1 Cardiac Autorhythm
5.02.2 Control by the Autonomous Nervous System
5.02.3 Intracardial Electrical Control Signals: Action Potentials
5.02.4 Diagnostic Control Signals: ECG and Vectorcardiogram
5.02.5 Leads for the ECG
5.02.6 The Electrocardiographic Acquisition Chain
5.02.7 Clinical Applications
5.02.8 ECG-Related Techniques
5.02.9 Corollary
References
5.03 Bioelectric Measurements: Magnetoencephalography
Glossary
5.03.1 History
5.03.2 Basics
5.03.3 Instrumentation
5.03.4 Analysis and Interpretation Methods of MEG
5.03.5 Artifact Rejection Methods
5.03.6 Basic Research: Evoked Fields
5.03.7 Basic Research: Spontaneous Brain Activity
5.03.8 Fetal MEG
5.03.9 MEG in Animal Models
5.03.10 Current MEG Clinical Applications
5.03.11 Upcoming MEG Clinical Applications
5.03.12 Combining MEG with Other Imaging Methods
5.03.13 Future Developments
5.03.14 New Research and Clinical Applications
Acknowledgments
References
5.04 Tissue Impedance Spectroscopy and Impedance Imaging
Glossary
Abbreviations
5.04.1 Introduction
5.04.2 Conduction of Electricity Through Tissue
5.04.3 The Measurement of Tissue Impedance
5.04.4 Normal Tissue Impedance
5.04.6 Electrical Impedance Tomography
5.04.7 Conclusions
References
Relevant Website
5.05 Blood Flow Measurement
Glossary
5.05.1 Introduction
5.05.2 Blood Flow in Large Vessels
5.05.3 Tissue Blood Flow
References
5.06 Measurement of Temperatures of the Human Body
Glossary
5.06.1 Introduction: Requirements to Physiological and Clinical Temperature Measurement
5.06.2 Physical Principles and Technical Devices of Temperature Measurement Suited for Medical Applications
5.06.3 Topography of Temperatures of the Human Body
5.06.4 Determinants of Body Temperatures
5.06.5 Measurement of Internal Body Temperatures
5.06.6 Measurement of Skin Temperatures
5.06.7 Assessment of Mean Body Temperature
References
5.07 Force Measurements
Glossary
5.07.1 Introduction
5.07.2 Force Distribution and Pressure Measurements
5.07.3 Electromyography
5.07.4 Conclusions
References
5.08 Smart Homes: Ambient Intelligence and How IT Can Help Increase Longevity
Glossary
Abbreviations
5.08.1 Introduction
5.08.2 ICT for Remote Collection of Health Data
5.08.3 Smart Home Initiatives
5.08.4 From Data to Information
5.08.5 Discussion
5.08.6 Conclusion
References
5.09 Wearable Sensors
Glossary
5.09.1 Introduction
5.09.2 Advantages and Limitations
5.09.3 Design Issues
5.09.4 Technology and Applications
5.09.5 Biomechanical Sensors
5.09.6 Sensors for Monitoring the External Environment
5.09.7 Other Sensors
5.09.8 Integrating Signal Sensors
5.09.9 Future Perspectives
References
Relevant Websites
Volume 6: BIOINFORMATICS
Title page
CONTRIBUTORS
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 6: BIOINFORMATICS
6.01 Artificial Neural Networks
Glossary
6.01.1 Introduction
6.01.2 Multilayer Perceptron
6.01.3 Self-Organizing Map
6.01.4 Summary
References
6.02 Learning Rule-Based Models – The Rough Set Approach
Glossary
6.02.1 Introduction: Learning and Rule-Based Models
6.02.2 Basic Concepts of Rough Sets
6.02.3 Quality Measures and Statistical Significance
6.02.4 The Modeling Process
6.02.5 Advanced Rough Set Modeling
6.02.6 Case Studies: Rough Sets in Bioinformatics
6.02.7 Rough Sets Versus Statistical Classification
6.02.8 Other Learning Approaches in Bioinformatics
Acknowledgments
References
6.03 Algorithms for Mapping High-Throughput DNA Sequences*
6.03.1 Introduction
6.03.2 Mapping Algorithms
6.03.3 Mapping in Practice
References
Relevant Websites
6.04 Text Mining
Glossary
6.04.1 Introduction
6.04.2 Resources
6.04.3 Tasks and Methods
6.04.4 Applications
6.04.5 Community Evaluations and Challenges
6.04.6 Outlook
References
6.05 Semantic Web, Ontologies, and Linked Data
Glossary
6.05.1 Introduction
6.05.2 Semantic Web
6.05.3 Ontologies
6.05.4 Linked Data
6.05.5 Summary
References
Relevant Websites
6.06 Nomenclature of Genes and Proteins
6.06.1 Introduction
6.06.2 Human Gene Nomenclature
6.06.3 Human Variation Nomenclature
6.06.4 Vertebrate Gene Nomenclature
6.06.5 Insect Gene Nomenclature
6.06.6 Fungal Gene Nomenclature
6.06.7 Plant Gene Nomenclature
6.06.8 Bacterial Gene Nomenclature
6.06.9 Protein Nomenclature
6.06.10 Summary
References
6.07 Phylogenetic Analyses
Glossary
6.07.1 Phylogenetic Analyses
6.07.2 Phylogenetic Tree Reconstruction
6.07.3 Practical Applications of Phylogenetic Methods
6.07.4 Some of the Most Widely Used Phylogenetic Software Packages
6.07.5 Conclusion
References
6.08 Computational Approaches for Predicting Mutation Effects on RNA Structure
Glossary
6.08.1 Introduction
6.08.2 RNA Structure and Function
6.08.3 Impact of Mutations on RNA Structure and Function
6.08.4 Computational Assessment of the Impact of Mutations on RNA Structure
6.08.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
6.09 Chemoinformatics
Glossary
6.09.1 Introduction
6.09.2 Basic Techniques in Chemoinformatics
6.09.3 Major Application Areas of Chemoinformatics
6.09.4 Chemoinformatics in the Context of Medical Physics
6.09.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
6.10 Lipidomics in Metabolomics
Glossary
6.10.1 Biological System
6.10.2 Metabolomics
6.10.3 Lipidomics
6.10.4 Outlook
Acknowledgment
References
Relevant Websites
6.11 Genome-Scale Metabolic Models: A Link between Bioinformatics and Systems Biology
Glossary
6.11.1 Introduction
6.11.2 Genome-Scale Metabolic Models
6.11.3 Analysis of Metabolic Networks
6.11.4 Integration of Omics Data
References
6.12 EBI and ELIXIR
Glossary
6.12.1 The Origins of Databases and Bioinformatics
6.12.2 Data for Today’s Life-Science Research
6.12.3 The Data Deluge
6.12.4 Open Science and Innovation
6.12.5 Standards
6.12.6 The Importance of Curation
6.12.7 EMBL-EBI: Its Origins, Purpose, and Structure
6.12.8 Service Teams
6.12.9 Research Teams
6.12.10 The Organization of Data Resources, Compute, and Storage at EMBL-EBI
6.12.11 Genes, Genomes, and Variation
6.12.12 Molecular Atlas
6.12.13 Proteins and Protein Families
6.12.14 Molecular and Cellular Structures
6.12.15 Chemical Biology
6.12.16 Molecular Systems
6.12.17 Cross-Domain Tools and Resources
6.12.18 Training in the use of Databases
6.12.19 Industry Collaboration
6.12.20 ELIXIR: The Pan-European Research Infrastructure for Life-Science Data
6.12.21 ELIXIR: The Road to Managing Europe’s Life-Science Data
6.12.22 Technical Implementation
6.12.23 ELIXIR and the Future
References
Relevant Websites
6.13 Databases and Datasources at SIB, Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics
6.13.1 SIB History and Mission
6.13.2 ExPASy: SIB Bioinformatics Resource
6.13.3 neXtProt: A Human Centric Knowledge Platform
6.13.4 The Swiss-Prot Group and Databases
6.13.5 SIB Resources at Large
6.13.6 Coordination of Education Activities by SIB
6.13.7 Involving the Research Community in Resource Development
6.13.8 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Volume 7: RADIATION BIOLOGY AND RADIATION SAFETY
Title Page
CONTRIBUTORS
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 7: RADIATION BIOLOGY AND RADIATION SAFETY
7.01 Early Events Leading to Radiation-Induced Biological Effects
Glossary
7.01.1 Introduction
7.01.2 A Survey on Radiation Interaction with Matter
7.01.3 The Track Structure Method: Applications and Examples
7.01.4 Approaches to Predict Biological Effects from Radiation Characteristics
7.01.5 Examples of Needs for Further Insights
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Websites
7.02 Microbeam Radiation Biology
Glossary
7.02.1 Introduction and Development of Microbeams
7.02.2 Charged Particle Microbeams
7.02.3 x-Ray Microbeams
7.02.4 Electron, UV, and Laser Microbeams
7.02.5 Biological Studies with Microbeams
7.02.6 Future Studies
7.02.7 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Website
7.03 Molecular Radiation Biology
Glossary
7.03.1 Introduction
7.03.2 The DNA Damage Response
7.03.3 Signal Transduction and Radiosensitivity
7.03.4 Exploiting Molecular Radiobiological Knowledge to Improve Cancer Therapy
7.03.5 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Websites
7.04 Cellular Radiation Biology
Glossary
7.04.1 Cell Population Kinetics
7.04.2 Cell Death Assays
7.04.3 Colony Formation and Cell Growth Assays
7.04.4 Model Systems
7.04.5 Survival Curves and Survival Curve Models
7.04.6 Hyper-Radiosensitivity
7.04.7 Sublethal and Potentially Lethal Damage Repair
7.04.8 Dose-Rate and Fractionation Effects
7.04.9 Relative Biological Effectiveness
7.04.10 Radiosensitizers
References
Further Reading
7.05 Normal Tissue Radiobiology
Glossary
7.05.1 Pathogenesis of Normal Tissue Radiation Reactions
7.05.2 Assessment and Documentation of Normal Tissue Side Effects
7.05.3 Radiation Effects in Specific Tissues and Organs
7.05.4 Radiation-Induced Cancer
7.05.5 Acute Radiation Syndromes
7.05.6 The Rs of Radiotherapy – As Applied to Normal Tissues
7.05.7 Reirradiation Tolerance of Normal Tissues
7.05.8 Principles for the Mitigation of Normal Tissue Complications
References
7.06 Tumor Radiation Biology
Glossary
7.06.1 Tumor Models and Assays to Measure Radiation Response
7.06.2 Methods of Assessing Response
7.06.3 Model Specificity of Therapeutic Studies
7.06.4 Tumor Pathophysiology and Hypoxia
7.06.5 The Tumor Microenvironment – The Importance of the Tumor Vasculature in the Response to Irradiation: Angiogenesis and Vas
7.06.6 Drug Radiation Interactions
7.06.7 Molecularly Targeted Therapy
7.06.8 Factors Affecting Tumor Radiation Response (the 5 Rs) and Predictive Assays
References
7.07 Accurate Analytical Description of the Cell Survival and Dose–Response Relationships at Low and High Doses and LETs
Glossary
Abbreviations
Nomenclature
7.07.1 Introduction
7.07.2 The Cell Survival Curve
7.07.3 The LET Dependence of the Cross Section
7.07.4 The Relative Biological Effectiveness
7.07.5 The Oxygen Enhancement Ratio
7.07.6 The Repairable–Conditionally Repairable Damage Model
7.07.7 The LET Dependence of a, b, and c
7.07.8 The Relation between the RCR, Linear, and LQ Models
7.07.9 Dose–Response Relations for Organized Tissues
References
7.08 Genetic Susceptibility and Predictive Assays
Glossary
Nomenclature
7.08.1 Introduction
7.08.2 Candidate Susceptibility Genes for Radiotherapy Adverse Events
7.08.3 Susceptibility Genes for Radiation-Induced Cancers
7.08.4 Assays for Proliferation, Hypoxia, Tumor Radiosensitivity, and Normal Tissue Radiosensitivity
7.08.5 High-Throughput Assays
7.08.6 Summary
References
7.09 Genetic Effects and Risk Estimation
Glossary
7.09.1 Introduction
7.09.2 Historical Background
7.09.3 Framework for and Goal of Genetic Risk Estimation Used by the Scientific Committees and in Studies of the Children of A-B
7.09.4 Germ-Cell Stages and Radiation Conditions of Relevance
7.09.5 The Doubling Dose Method of Risk Estimation
7.09.6 Genetic Diseases in Humans
7.09.7 Spontaneous Mutation Rates of Human Genes
7.09.8 Radiation Genetic Studies with Mice
7.09.9 The DD Estimate Used in UNSCEAR (2001) and BEIR VII Report (NRC, 2006)
7.09.10 The Concept of Mutation Component
7.09.11 Molecular-Biology-Based Advances in the Last Decade of the Twentieth Century That Are Relevant for Genetic Risk Estimati
7.09.12 Recapitulation of the Key Quantities Used in Risk Equation and Current Risk Estimates
7.09.13 Human Data on Genetic Effects of Radiation
7.09.14 Genetic Risks and Radiation Protection Guidelines (Dose Limits) of the ICRP from the Mid-1950s to the Present
7.09.15 Genetic Risk Estimation in the Twenty-First Century
Appendix A Genetic Predisposition to Cancer and Its Impact on Cancer Risks to the Population
Appendix B Data on Radiation-Induced Mutations in Mouse Females
Appendix C Cytogenetic Studies on RadiationInduced Reciprocal Translocations in Mice and Some Primate Species
Appendix D Induction of Germ-Cell Mutations at ESTR Loci in the Mouse and Miniand Microsatellite Loci in Human Germ Cells
References
Relevant Websites
7.10 Light Ion Radiation Biology
Glossary
7.10.1 DNA Damage and Repair
7.10.2 Chromosome Damage
7.10.3 Celland Tissue-Dependence of RBE
7.10.4 The Oxygen Effect and Tumor Heterogeneity
7.10.5 Repair, Dose Rate, and Fractionation Effects
7.10.6 Biological Comparison of Ions, Protons, and Neutrons
7.10.7 Microdosimetric and Track Structure Models for Carbon ion Radiotherapy
References
7.11 Radiological Protection of Patients and Personnel
Glossary
Nomenclature
7.11.1 Fundamentals and Principles of Radiation Protection
7.11.2 Conventional Film Radiography
7.11.3 Digital Technology for Radiography
7.11.4 Mammography
7.11.5 Computed Tomography
7.11.6 Interventional Procedures Guided by x-Ray Imaging
7.11.7 Nuclear Medicine
7.11.8 Radiation Therapy
References
Relevant Websites
7.12 Radiation Biology of Radiation Protection
Glossary
7.12.1 Introduction
7.12.2 Tissue Reactions
7.12.3 Stochastic Effects
7.12.4 Radiation Delivery Pattern, Quality, and Radiation Weighting
7.12.5 Conclusions
References
7.13 Radiation Biology of Tissue Radiosterilization
Glossary
7.13.1 Introduction
7.13.2 Need for Sterilization Treatment
7.13.3 Interaction of Radiation with Matter and Microorganisms
7.13.4 Radiosensitivity of Microorganisms
7.13.5 Effects of Radiation on Tissues and Tissue Components
7.13.6 Dosimetry Requirements
7.13.7 Bioburden and Radiation Sterilization Dose Validation
7.13.8 Conclusion
References
Relevant Websites
7.14 Established and Emerging Methods of Biological Dosimetry
Glossary
7.14.1 Biological Dosimetry is an Important Tool for Managing Cases of Human Radiation Exposure
7.14.2 Ionizations – Luminescence Assays
7.14.3 Radicals – Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
7.14.4 DNA Damage Induction, Signaling, and Repair
7.14.5 Chromosome Aberrations
7.14.6 Somatic Mutations
7.14.7 Tissue, Organ, and Systemic Responses
7.14.8 Concluding Remarks
References
Relevant Websites
7.15 Radiation and Environmental Protection
Glossary
7.15.1 Introduction
7.15.2 Environmental Protection as an Agreed Objective
7.15.3 Creating a Framework for Environmental Protection
7.15.4 Potential Application to Different Exposure Situations
7.15.5 Conclusions
References
Relevant Website
7.16 Biological Effects and Health Consequences of ELF and RF Fields
Glossary (from WHO, 2007)
Abbreviations
7.16.1 Introduction
7.16.2 Sources and Exposure
7.16.3 ELF and RF Health Effects
7.16.4 Health-Risk Assessment and Guidelines
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Websites
Volume 8: RADIATION SOURCES AND DETECTORS
Title Page
CONTRIBUTORS
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 8: RADIATION SOURCES AND DETECTORS
8.01 Electron Linear Accelerators
Glossary
8.01.1 Structure and Principles
8.01.2 Linacs for RT: Then and Now
8.01.3 Pencil Beam 6 MeV x-Ray Cancer Therapy System
References
8.02 Synchrotron Radiation
Glossary
Abbreviations
8.02.1 Creation of x-Rays by Synchrotron Radiation
8.02.2 Insertion Devices
8.02.3 Beamline Equipment
8.02.4 Beamline Design for Biomedical Applications
8.02.5 Beamlines Currently Available for Biomedical Imaging and Therapy Experiments
8.02.6 Examples of Biomedical Studies Using SR
References
8.03 Inverse Compton Scattering Sources
Glossary
8.03.1 Introduction
8.03.2 Applications to Biological and Medical Uses
8.03.3 Conclusion and Future Aspects
Acknowledgments
References
8.04 Tabletop Synchrotron Light Source
Glossary
8.04.1 Introduction
8.04.2 Principle of Tabletop Synchrotron MIRRORCLE
8.04.3 Hard x-Ray Production Using BS
8.04.4 EUV and Soft x-Ray Productions Using SCR
8.04.5 FIR Production in PhSR
8.04.6 Application Fields of Hard x-Rays
8.04.7 Application Fields of FIR
8.04.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Relevant Websites
8.05 Free-Electron Laser Sources
Glossary
8.05.1 Fundamentals of Free-Electron Lasers
8.05.2 Applications of FELs
8.05.3 Summary
References
8.06 Petawatt Laser and Laser Ion/Electron Accelerator
Glossary
8.06.1 Petawatt Laser and Laser Ion Accelerator
8.06.2 Radiotherapy with Electron Beam Generated by Laser-Plasma Accelerators
Acknowledgment
References
Relevant Website
8.07 Electron-Impact Liquid-Metal-Jet Hard x-Ray Sources
Abbreviations
8.07.1 Introduction
8.07.2 Electron-Impact x-Ray Sources
8.07.3 Liquid Jets
8.07.4 High-Brightness Electron-Beam System
8.07.5 LMJ Microfocus x-Ray Sources
8.07.6 Applications
8.07.7 Summary and Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
8.08 Laser-Impact Metal Droplet EUV Source
Glossary
Abbreviations
8.08.1 Introduction
8.08.2 LPP-EUV Source Systems
8.08.3 Key Technology Development
8.08.4 Latest Status of GL200E Construction
8.08.5 Future Development Plan
8.08.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
8.09 x-Ray Free-Electron Lasers
Glossary
8.09.1 Introduction
8.09.2 Radiation from Electron Bunches
8.09.3 The SASE Process
8.09.4 Statistical Properties of SASE Radiation
8.09.5 Brilliance
8.09.6 Requirements on Electron Beam Parameters
8.09.7 The Electron Source
8.09.8 Bunch Compression and Beam Dynamic Aspects
8.09.9 The Free-Electron Laser FLASH
8.09.10 Medial Applications of x-Ray FELs
References
Relevant Websites
8.10 Ion Linac and Synchrotron
Abbreviations
8.10.1 Features of Acceleration by Synchrotron
8.10.2 Linear Accelerator
8.10.3 Synchrotron
References
Relevant Websites
8.11 FFAG
8.11.1 Introduction
8.11.2 Scaling and Non-Scaling FFAGs
8.11.3 Zero-Chromatic Beam Optics of FFAG
8.11.4 Features of FFAGs
8.11.5 FFAG for Medical Applications
References
8.12 Cyclotrons
Abbreviations
Symbols
8.12.1 Introduction
8.12.2 Type of Cyclotrons
8.12.3 Configuration of Cyclotron
8.12.4 Cyclotrons for Medical Applications
References
Relevant Websites
8.13 Neutron Sources
Glossary
8.13.1 Introduction
8.13.2 History of Neutron Source
8.13.3 Neutron Requirements for BNCT
8.13.4 Neutron Source for BNCT
8.13.5 History of Reactor-Based Neutron Sources for BNCT
8.13.6 Accelerator-Based Neutron Source
References
8.14 Radionuclide Production
Glossary
8.14.1 Radionuclide Production in Nuclear Reactors
8.14.2 Radionuclide Production Using Accelerators
8.14.3 Concluding Remarks
References
Relevant Website
8.15 Diamond Detectors for Dosimetry
Symbols
8.15.1 Introduction
8.15.2 Material Properties
8.15.3 Theory: Induced Photoconductivity
8.15.4 Natural Diamond
8.15.5 Synthetic Diamonds
8.15.6 Diamond as TL Dosimeter
8.15.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Relevant Websites
8.16 Scintillator-Based Detectors
Glossary
Nomenclature
8.16.1 Introduction
8.16.2 Light Sensors
8.16.3 Inorganic Scintillators
8.16.4 Storage Phosphors – Thermoluminescence and Optically Stimulated Luminescence
8.16.5 Organic Scintillators – Crystals, Plastics, and Liquids
References
Relevant Websites
8.17 Active Pixel CMOS-Based Radiation Detectors
Glossary
8.17.1 Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Image Sensors
8.17.2 Detector Architecture
8.17.3 APS Electro-Optical Performance
8.17.4 Physical Characteristics of the Imagers
8.17.5 Applications in Medicine
References
8.18 CdTe Detectors
Glossary
8.18.1 Introduction
8.18.2 Compound Semiconductor Detectors
8.18.3 x-Ray and g Ray Spectroscopy with Semiconductor Detectors
8.18.4 CdTe Detectors
8.18.5 Medical Applications: Energy-Resolved Photon Counting Detectors
References
Relevant Websites
8.19 Amorphous Silicon Detectors
Glossary
8.19.1 Amorphous Silicon Technology Is Driven by Consumer Large Area Flat-Panel Displays
8.19.2 Principle of Operation for Amorphous Silicon Flat-Panel Imagers
8.19.3 Evaluation of Imaging Performance
8.19.4 Emerging Detector Technology
References
8.20 Selenium Detectors
Glossary
8.20.1 What Is Selenium?
8.20.2 Why Electrostatic Imaging, Why Solid State, and Why a-Se?
8.20.3 A Generic Digital a-Se Integrating Detector – What Are the Commonalities of a-Se Detectors?
8.20.4 Predicting Image Quality – Noise and Resolution
8.20.5 Selenium Is the Most Versatile of All x-Ray Imaging Materials
8.20.6 Summary
References
8.21 Silicon Photomultipliers
Abbreviations
8.21.1 Introduction
8.21.2 Light Detection in Semiconductors
8.21.3 A Brief History of Silicon Photomultipliers
8.21.4 Characteristic Properties of a Silicon Photomultiplier
8.21.5 SiPM Application to Large Detectors
8.21.6 SiPM-Dedicated Readout Chips
8.21.7 Digital SiPM
8.21.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Websites
8.22 Gas Electron Multiplier (GEM) Detectors: Principles of Operation and Applications
Glossary
Abbreviations
8.22.1 Gaseous Detectors: Historical Background
8.22.2 Early Observations with the GEM
8.22.3 GEM Manufacturing and Performance Optimization
8.22.4 Multi-GEM Structures
8.22.5 Signal Formation and Detection
8.22.6 GEM Chambers Construction
8.22.7 GEM Detectors’ Operation and Performances: Charged Particles
8.22.8 Detection of Neutral Radiation
8.22.9 Cryogenic and Dual-Phase Detectors
8.22.10 Light Emission and Optical Detection of Tracks
References
Relevant Websites
8.23 Silicon Trackers
8.23.1 Introduction
8.23.2 Detector Principles
8.23.3 Different Types of Substrates
8.23.4 Front-End Electronics Developments
8.23.5 Pattern-Recognition Technologies and Track Fitting
8.23.6 Examples of Possible New Applications
References
Volume 9: RADIATION THERAPY PHYSICS AND TREATMENT OPTIMIZATION
Title Page
CONTRIBUTORS
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 9: RADIATION THERAPY PHYSICS AND TREATMENT OPTIMIZATION
9.01 Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter
Nomenclature
9.01.1 Introduction
9.01.2 Charged Particles
9.01.3 Photons
References
9.02 Particle Transport Theory and Absorbed Dose
Glossary
9.02.1 Phase Space Density
9.02.2 The Collision Free Transport Equation
9.02.3 The Liouville Equation
9.02.4 The Boltzmann Equation
9.02.5 Differential Particle Fluence and Absorbed Dose
9.02.6 The Fokker–Planck equation
9.02.7 The Fermi–Eyges Solution
9.02.8 Attenuated Transport of Charged Particle Beams
9.02.9 The Fluence of Fragments in Broad Primary Ion Beams
9.02.10 The Fluence of Fragments in a Narrow Primary Pencil Beam
9.02.11 The Photon Transport Equation
9.02.12 General Theory of Radiation Dosimeters
References
9.03 Biophysical Basis of Ionizing Radiation
Glossary
9.03.1 Introduction
9.03.2 Interaction of Radiation in Mammalian Cells
9.03.3 Modeling of DNA Damage
9.03.4 Structural Change as a Consequence of DNA Damage and Repair
9.03.5 New Phenomena in Radiation Biology
9.03.6 Concepts in Radiation Track Simulation
9.03.7 Microdosimetry
Appendix
Examples of Energy Depositions by Single Tracks in a DNA Segment
Table of Strand Break Production
References to Monographs*
References
9.04 Modeling of Radiation Effects in Cells and Tissues
Glossary
9.04.1 Modeling in Radiation Biology and Radiation Therapy
9.04.2 Modeling of Radiation Effects on Subcellular Scales
9.04.3 Models of Cell Killing
9.04.4 Modeling of Biological Effects in Tissues and Organs
9.04.5 Further Radiation Effects and Their Modeling
9.04.6 Concluding Remarks
References
9.05 From Cell Survival to Dose–Response Relations for Organized Tissues
Abbreviations
Symbols
9.05.1 Radiation Quality and Radiation Effects
9.05.2 Current Cell Survival Models
9.05.3 The Dose–Response Relations
9.05.4 Dose–Response Relation for Hypoxic and Generally Heterogeneous Tissues
9.05.5 Radiation Response with Spatially Varying Dose, Clonogen Density, and Radiation Resistance
9.05.6 Radiation Response with a Microscopic Distribution of Radiation Resistance and Uniform Dose
References
9.06 Dose–Response Relations for Tumors and Normal Tissues
Abbreviations
Nomenclature
9.06.1 Determination of Dose–Response Relations
9.06.2 Clinical Examples for the Determination of Dose–Response Relations
9.06.3 Factors Affecting the Determination of Dose–Response Relations
9.06.4 The Impact of Interand Intrapatient Radiosensitivity Variation on Treatment Plan Evaluation and Radiotherapy Optimization
References
9.07 Accurate Description of Heterogeneous Tumors by Their Effective Radiation-Sensitive and -Resistant Cell Compartments
Abbreviations
Nomenclature
9.07.1 Introduction
9.07.2 Theoretical Approach
9.07.3 Results
9.07.4 Discussion and Conclusions
References
9.08 Tumor Hypoxia
Glossary
9.08.1 Significance of Oxygen for Radiation Sensitivity
9.08.2 The Tumor Vasculature and Microenvironment
9.08.3 Measuring Hypoxia and Predicting Radiation Response
9.08.4 Targeting Tumor Hypoxia
9.08.5 Hypoxia-Guided Radiotherapy
9.08.6 Future Aspects
References
9.09 Long-Term Effects and Secondary Tumors
Abbreviations
9.09.1 Introduction
9.09.2 Radiation Carcinogenesis
9.09.3 Data on Radiation-Induced Cancers
9.09.4 Risk Estimations from Radiation Therapy Survivors
9.09.5 Factors Influencing Risk Estimates in Radiation Therapy Survivors
9.09.6 Dose Dependence of the Risk for Second Cancers
9.09.7 Modeling the Risk for Second Cancers from Radiation Therapy
9.09.8 The Impact of New Treatment Approaches
9.09.9 General Considerations
References
9.10 Patient Dose Computation
9.10.1 Background
9.10.2 Patient Modeling
9.10.3 Beam Modeling and Commissioning
9.10.4 Dose Calculation Methods
References
Relevant Websites
9.11 Convolutions and Deconvolutions in Radiation Dosimetry
9.11.1 The Concept of the Convolution Integral in Radiation Dosimetry
9.11.2 Examples of Convolution Integrals: Gaussian and Lorentz Convolution Kernels
9.11.3 The Fourier Transformation
9.11.4 Fourier’s Convolution Theorem
9.11.5 Fourier Deconvolution and Other Deconvolution Methods
9.11.6 Iterative Deconvolution
9.11.7 Convolution Model of Detector Resolution in Dosimetry
References
9.12 Fundamentals of Physically and Biologically Based Radiation Therapy Optimization
Nomenclature
9.12.1 Introduction
9.12.2 Fundamentals of Treatment Optimization
9.12.3 Objective Functions for Treatment Optimization
9.12.4 Mathematical Methods for Treatment Optimization
9.12.5 Simultaneous Optimization of Beam Orientation, Intensity Modulation, and Dose Delivery Varians in Radiation Therapy Using the P++ Optimization Strategy
9.12.6 Summary and Conclusions
References
9.13 Brachytherapy Physics
Glossary
Abbreviations
9.13.1 Introduction: History and Principles
9.13.2 Brachytherapy Sources – General Discussion
9.13.3 LDR Brachytherapy Physics
9.13.4 HDR Brachytherapy Physics
9.13.5 Pulsed Brachytherapy Physics
9.13.6 Electronic Brachytherapy Physics
9.13.7 Liquid Brachytherapy Physics and Procedures
9.13.8 Microbrachytherapy (Labeled Microspheres)
9.13.9 Physics of Interstitial Implants
9.13.10 Physics of Intracavitary Insertions
9.13.11 Physics of Surface Applications
9.13.12 Dose Calculations
References
Relevant Websites
9.14 Stereotactic Radiation Therapy Planning
Abbreviations
9.14.1 Fractionated Stereotactic Radiation Therapy
9.14.2 Single-Fraction Stereotactic Radiation Therapy
9.14.3 Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy
9.14.4 Radiobiological Background of SRT
9.14.5 Imaging Before SRT and for Treatment Planning
9.14.6 Immobilization for SRT
9.14.7 Image Guidance for SRT
9.14.8 Treatment Systems for SRT
9.14.9 Treatment Planning
9.14.10 Dose Prescription in Treatment Planning
References
9.15 Modulated Arc Therapy Planning
9.15.1 Background of MAT and Evolution of Terminology
9.15.2 Treatment Planning Algorithms
9.15.3 Treatment Planning Strategies
9.15.4 Planning Study Results
9.15.5 Plan Accuracy Considerations
9.15.6 Summary of IMAT
References
9.16 In-Room Image-Guided Radiation Therapy
Abbreviations
9.16.1 Introduction
9.16.2 In-Room IGRT Imaging Technologies
9.16.3 Image Registration
9.16.4 IGRT Correction Strategies
9.16.5 In-Room IGRT Position Correction Strategies
9.16.6 Monitoring Treatment Response
9.16.7 QA in IGRT
9.16.8 Contraindications for IGRT
9.16.9 IGRT in the Preclinical World
9.16.10 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
9.17 Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy Planning
Glossary
9.17.1 The Concept of Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy
9.17.2 Optimization of Fluence Distributions
9.17.3 The Means to Deliver Optimized Fluence Distributions
9.17.4 Direct Aperture Optimization
9.17.5 Multicriteria Planning Methods
9.17.6 Clinical Application of IMRT
References
9.18 Adaptive Treatment Planning
9.18.1 Introduction
9.18.2 Imaging Technologies
9.18.3 Image Registration
9.18.4 Implementation of ART
9.18.5 Accelerator-Based Machines
9.18.6 Radiobiologically Based ART
References
9.19 Light-Ion Radiation Therapy Planning
Glossary
9.19.1 Introduction
9.19.2 Physical Properties of Light-Ion Beams
9.19.3 Radiobiological Properties of Light-Ion Beams
9.19.4 Models Used in Treatment Planning
9.19.5 Optimization Algorithms
References
9.20 Stereotactic Radiation Therapy
9.20.1 Early History
9.20.2 History of the Leksell Gamma Knife
9.20.3 Conventional Linear Accelerators for Stereotactic Radiation Therapy
9.20.4 Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy
9.20.5 Dedicated Stereotactic Radiation Therapy Machines: CK System
9.20.6 High Dose Rate for Stereotactic Radiation Therapy: FFF Irradiations
9.20.7 Dedicated Stereotactic Radiation Therapy Machines: Vero
9.20.8 Dedicated Stereotactic Radiation Therapy Machines: ViewRay
9.20.9 Summary
References
9.21 Biologically Optimized Light Ion Therapy
Glossary
Abbreviations
Symbols
9.21.1 Introduction
9.21.2 Development of Advanced Biologically Optimized Light Ion Therapy
9.21.3 Clinical Advantages Using Biologically Optimized BIOART and QMRT Approaches
9.21.4 Flexible Cost-Effective Dose Delivery
9.21.5 Conclusion
References
Volume 10: PHYSICAL MEDICINE AND REHABILITATION
Title Page
CONTRIBUTORS
CONTENTS
10.01 Biomechanics of Musculoskeletal Adaptation
Glossary
10.01.1 The Musculoskeletal System
10.01.2 Connective Tissues
10.01.3 Mechanical Characteristics of Musculoskeletal Components
10.01.4 Adaptation
10.01.5 Summary
References
10.02 Mechanics of Biofluids in Living Body
10.02.1 Fluid Characteristics
10.02.2 Fluid Statics
10.02.3 Fluid Dynamics
10.02.4 Characteristics of Fluid Motion
10.02.5 Case Study: Pressure and Flow in an Arterio-Venous Graft for Vascular Access
References
10.03 Bioelectromagnetism in the Living Body
Glossary
10.03.1 Introduction
10.03.2 Overview of the Biological Effects Including Static, ELF, and RF Electromagnetic Fields
10.03.3 Exploration of Cellular-Level Medical Application of Electromagnetic Fields
10.03.4 Health Evaluation by the World Health Organization
10.03.5 New Guideline of the International Commission on Non-ionizing Radiation Protection
10.03.6 Historical Progress of Electric Stimulation
10.03.7 The Clinical Application of the Electromagnetic Field in Basic Research
10.03.8 Summary
References
10.04 Ion Channels in the Cell Membrane: Structure, Function, and Modeling
Glossary
10.04.1 Basic Properties of Ion Channels
10.04.2 Electrochemical Gradients, Ion Channels, and the Resting Membrane Potential
10.04.3 Voltage-Gated Channels Generate Action Potentials
10.04.4 Structure–Function Relationship of Voltage-Gated Ion Channels
10.04.5 BK Channels: Gated by Voltage and Ligand
10.04.6 HCN Channels: Gated by Ligand and Inversely Gated by Voltage
10.04.7 Neurotransmitter-Gated Channels and Synaptic Transmission
10.04.8 Ion Channels Containing Only Pore Domains
10.04.9 Transient Receptor Potential Channels: Sensing the Environment
10.04.10 Light-Gated Ion Channels: A Powerful Research Tool
10.04.11 Concluding Remarks
References
Relevant Websites
10.05 Water Biology in Human Body
10.05.1 What is ‘Water Biology’?
10.05.2 Water Dynamics in Human Body
10.05.3 AQP Water Channels
10.05.4 Summary and Perspective
References
10.06 Human Immune System
Glossary
Nomenclature
10.06.1 The Components of the Immune System
10.06.2 Evolution of the Immune System
10.06.3 General Aspects of Immune Responses
10.06.4 Functions of the Immune Response
10.06.5 Immunopathology
References
10.07 Hyperthermia Therapy for Cancer
Glossary
10.07.1 Thermal Therapy Options
10.07.2 Heating Technology
10.07.3 Thermal Dosimetry
10.07.4 Clinical Impact of Hyperthermia for Cancer Therapy
10.07.5 Summary and Future Directions
References
10.08 Ultrasound Therapy
Glossary
10.08.1 Introduction
10.08.2 Physics of Ultrasound
10.08.3 Ultrasound Interaction with Tissue
10.08.4 Ultrasound Technology for Clinical Treatments
10.08.5 Major Clinical Results
10.08.6 Conclusion
References
Relevant Websites
10.09 Laser Surgery
Abbreviations
Nomenclature
10.09.1 Introduction
10.09.2 Classifications of Laser Surgery
10.09.3 Main Processes and Main Parameters Related to Laser Surgery
10.09.4 Tissue Thermal Damage: Changes of Structural and Optical Properties of Biotissues as a Result of the Laser Thermolysis
10.09.5 Latent Tissue Damage: Changes of Physiological, Structural, and Optical Properties of Biotissues as a Result of Laser Ab
10.09.6 Types of Laser Light Delivery to Biotissues
10.09.7 Monitoring and Control of Laser Surgery
10.09.8 Laser and Laser Surgery Safety
10.09.9 Advantages, Limitations, and Future Trends of Laser Surgery
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Websites
10.10 Photodynamic Techniques in Medicine
Glossary
Nomenclature
10.10.1 Introduction
10.10.2 PDT Energetics
10.10.3 PDT Light Sources and Delivery Systems
10.10.4 PDT Dosimetry
10.10.5 PDT Response Monitoring
10.10.6 New Directions in PDT
10.10.7 PDD and Guided Therapeutics
10.10.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
10.11 Electro-Muscle Stimulation Therapy
Abbreviations
10.11.1 Transcutaneous Stimulation Using Pulsed Current
10.11.2 Stimulation of Normally Innervated Muscle
10.11.3 Stimulation of Denervated Muscle
10.11.4 Sensory, Motor, and Pain Responses
10.11.5 Stimulation Using Sinusoidal Alternating Current
References
Relevant Websites
10.12 Defibrillation
Glossary
10.12.1 Introduction
10.12.2 Brief Historical Overview of Defibrillation Mechanisms
10.12.3 Early Insights Provided by Modeling of the Defibrillation Process
10.12.4 State-of-the-Art 3D Models of Defibrillation
10.12.5 VEP Induced by the Shock in the 3D Volume of the Ventricles
10.12.6 Activity Originating from the VEP Established by the Shock
10.12.7 Mechanisms for the Isoelectric Window Following Near-ULV Shocks
10.12.8 Shock-Induced Phase Singularities and Filaments
10.12.9 Concluding Remarks
References
Relevant Websites
10.13 Electroporation Therapy
Glossary
Nomenclature
10.13.1 Introduction
10.13.2 Theoretical Considerations of Electroporation
10.13.3 Clinical Procedures and Results of Electroporation-Based Therapies
10.13.4 Conclusion
References
Relevant Website
10.14 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
10.14.1 Introduction and General Physics: TMS and rTMS
10.14.2 Potential Clinical Applications
10.14.3 Conclusions
References
10.15 Biophysical Bases of Acupuncture
Glossary
10.15.1 Introduction
10.15.2 The Initiating Mechanism of the Acupuncture Effect
10.15.3 The Biophysical Basis for Meridian and AP Function
10.15.4 Acupuncture Signal Transfer Mechanisms in Neural Networks
10.15.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Relevant Websites
10.16 Music Psychophysics and Therapy
10.16.1 Introduction
10.16.2 Acoustics and Psychology of Music
10.16.3 The Profession of MT
10.16.4 Medical MT
References
Relevant Websites
10.17 Medical Bionics
Glossary
10.17.1 Introduction
10.17.2 Overview of Electrical Stimulation of Neural Tissue
10.17.3 The Electrode–Tissue Interface
10.17.4 Safe and Efficacious Electrical Stimulation
10.17.5 Developing Clinically Viable Bionic Devices
10.17.6 Commercial Medical Bionic Devices
10.17.7 Future Medical Bionic Devices
10.17.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Website
10.18 Cold Plasma Therapy
Glossary
10.18.1 Introduction
10.18.2 Cold Plasma Physics, Chemistry, and Technology
10.18.3 Plasma Interactions with Biological Objects
10.18.4 Nonthermal Microbicidal Plasma Effects
10.18.5 Plasma Interactions with Mammalian Cells and Tissues
10.18.6 Cold Plasma Applications
10.18.7 Future Perspectives
References
Relevant Websites
10.19 Smart-Drug Delivery and Target-Specific Therapy
Glossary
10.19.1 Introduction
10.19.2 A Variety of Nanoparticles Used for Therapeutics and Diagnostics
10.19.3 Advantages of Using Nanoparticles
10.19.4 General Issues Concerning Nanoparticles
10.19.5 Two Examples of Nanoparticles Developed for Therapy and Diagnosis
10.19.6 Toward Developing Multifunctional Nanoparticles
Acknowledgment
References
10.20 Orthopedic Physical Therapy
Glossary
10.20.1 Introduction
10.20.2 Therapeutic Modalities of Physical Therapy
10.20.3 Regional Consideration of Physical Therapy
10.20.4 Key Success Factors
10.20.5 General Discussion
10.20.6 Conclusion
References
10.21 Neurological Rehabilitation
10.21.1 Neurology
10.21.2 Rehabilitation Medicine
10.21.3 Neurological Rehabilitation
References
10.22 Pulmonary Rehabilitation
Glossary
10.22.1 Symptoms and Disability Associated with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
10.22.2 The Role and Definition of Pulmonary Rehabilitation
10.22.3 The Changing PR Population – Who to Refer?
10.22.4 Components of a PR Program
10.22.5 Core Components of a PR Program
10.22.6 Education – Self-Management
10.22.7 Intensity and Duration of a Program
10.22.8 Maintenance
10.22.9 Mobility Aids
10.22.10 The Rehabilitation Team
10.22.11 Quality Assurance and Audit
10.22.12 Setting
10.22.13 Exacerbations
10.22.14 Performance Enhancement
10.22.15 Training Adjuncts or Strategies
10.22.16 Summary
References
10.23 Principles and Applications of Vestibular Rehabilitation
Glossary
10.23.1 Introduction
10.23.2 First Tenet: Vestibular Afferents Encode Angular Rotation from Six Semicircular Canals, and Linear Acceleration and Tilt
10.23.3 Second Tenet: For High Accelerations, Head Rotation in the Excitatory Direction of a Canal Elicits a Greater Response th
10.23.4 Third Tenet: Reverberating Circuitry in the Vestibular Nuclei Allows the Brain to Detect Low-Frequency VOR, Thus Perseve
10.23.5 Fourth Tenet: Sudden Changes in Otolith Activity Evoke Changes in Perception of Tilt and Postural Tone
10.23.6 List of Relevant Web Pages
10.23.7 Conclusion
References
Relevant Website
INDEX
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
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