Comparative Studies in the Archaeology of Colonialism 9780860543022, 9781407339054

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Addresses of Contributors
Table of Contents
Introduction
Chapter One: Comparative Historical Archaeology and Archaeological Theory
Chapter One Bibliography
Chapter Two: The Scandinavian Colonisation of the North Swedish Interior, 500 -1500 A.D.
Chapter Two Bibliography
Chapter Three: Eskimo-European Contact Archaeology in Labrador, Canada
Chapter Three Bibliography
Chapter Four: Spanish Colonial Archaeology in the Southeast and the Carribean
Chapter Four Bibliography
Chapter Five: The Archaeology of Spanish Colonial Site in California
Chapter Five Bibliography
Chapter Six: Archaeological Evidence of Spanish Miltary Policy in Northern New Spain 1700 - 1821
Chapter Six Bibliography
Chapter Seven: Colonizing the Virginia Frontier: Fort Christianna and Governor Soptswood's Indian Policy
Chapter Seven Bibliography
Chapter Eight: The Archaeology of Colonial Australia
Chapter Eight Bibliography
Chapter Nine: Studying Russian America: Research Problems in Need of Attention
Chapter Nine Bibliography

Citation preview

Comparative Studies in the Archaeology of Colonialism

edited by

Stephen L. Dyson

BAR International Series 233

1985

B.A�R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

UA R -S2JJ,1985:'Comparative Studies 1n the Archaeology of Colonialism'. ©

The Individual Authors,1985

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543022 paperback ISBN 9781407339054 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543022 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

A DDRESSES O F C ONTRIBUTORS

P rofessor A tholl o f O tago,

A nderson,

B ox 5 6,

P rofessor B rad B artel U niversity, P rofessor M ary 2 32

S an

D epartment o f A nthropology,

D unedin,

N ew Z ealand

D epartment o f A nthropology,

,

D iego,

B eaudry,

B ay S tate R oad,

U niversity

S an

D iego S tate

C alifornia 9 2182

D epartment o f A rchaeology, B oston,

B oston U niversity,

M assachusetts 0 2215

P rofessor K athleen D eagan, D epartment o f A nthropology, T he F lorida S tate M useum, U niversity o f F lorida, G ainesville, F lorida 3 2601 D r.

T imothy D illiplane, D epartment o f N atural o f P arks, 6 19 W arehouse D rive, S uite 2 10,

R esources, A nchorage,

D ivision A laska

9 9501 P rofessor

S tephen

U niversity,

L .

D yson,

M iddletown,

D epartment o f C lassics, W esleyan C onnecticut

0 6 15 7

P rofessor R obert L . H oover, S ocial S cience D epartment, C alifornia P olytechnic S tate U niversity, S an L uis O bispo, C alifornia 9 3 1 407 P rofessor R . I an J ack, D epartment o f H istory, S ydney, S ydney, N .S.W. 2 006, A ustralia D r . S usan

K aplan,

T he U niversity M useum,

3 3rd a nd S pruce S treet, D r.

J ack S .

W illiams,

A rizona 8 5716

3 232

U niversity o f P ennsylvania,

P hiladelphia, N .

T he U niversity o f

P ennsylvania

T ucson B oulevard # 206,

1 9101 4

T ucson,

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Addresses of Contributors Introduction:

Stephen L. Dyson

1.

Brad Bartel

2.

Atholl Anderson

38

3.

Susan Kaplan

53

4.

Kathleen Deagan

77

5.

Robert L. Hoover

93

6.

Jack S. Wi11iams

115

7.

Mary C. Beaudry

130

8.

R. Ian Jack

153

9.

Timothy Dil1 iplane

177

Comparative Historical Archaeology and Archaeolog­ ical Theory

8

The Scandinavian Colonisation of the North Swedish Interior 500-1500 A.D.

Eskimo-European Contact Archaeology in Labrador, Canada

Spanish Colonial Archaeology in the Southeast and the Caribbean

The Archaeology of Spanish Colonial Sites in California

Archaeological Evidence of Spanish Mi1 itary Pol icy in Northern New Spain 1700-1821

Colonizing the Virginia Frontier: Fort Christanna and Governor Spotswood 1 s Indian Policy

The Archaeology of Colonial Australia

Studying Russian America: Need of Attention

Research Problems in

INTRODUCTION The idea for this volume arose from two sources. The first was my interest as a Roman historian and archaeologist in the spread of systems of Roman political and economic control, especially in the western Roman Empire, and the way that control was reflected in the distribution of material goods (Dyson 1985a). Roman archae­ ologists are familiar with the way that the same types of pottery and lamps show up in the most remote outposts of the Empire and even beyond the frontier. They serve as a reflection not only of Roman power and influence but also of a changing native life style which required these goods and the social rituals for which they formed a base. This abundant material culture was also a reflection of a pow­ erful and flexible economy strong in both craft production and marketing skills. The Romans were probably the greatest producers of attractive items for the ordinary man of any society until the eighteenth century (Dyson 1985b). We do not have the written docu­ ments that allow us to trace the economic and social structural changes behind these d�velopments, but archaeologists have been skillful in locating the sources of production, dating the items produced and reconstructing something of their distribution patterns (Peacock 19 82). The second inspiration came from my work as an historical archaeologist in Middletcwn, Connecticut (Dyson 1982). The prosper­ ous middle class houses of the Middletown mercantile class with their abundant English ceramics and glass reminded me of prosperous Roman provincial villas and town houses in France and Spain with their imported lamps and terra sigillata pottery. One difference that became obvious quickly to a Roman oriented historian was that while the Roman historian is ever conscious of the Roman provincial site as being part of that larger social, political and economic system which we label the Roman Empire, the historical archaeologists working in North America showed much less of a consciousness that the society they were studying was part of a world wide process of change that was military and political but was also social, economic and material. While one particular subsystem was receiving a great deal of attention, the larger entity was neglected as was the total picture of world-wide change of which both were a part. The reasons for this more 1 imited focus in historical archae­ ology are seve,al. Most historical archaeologists in North America have been trained either as anthropologists or historians with a specialty in a particular region. They are not students of English or Spanish colonial history or archaeology. They have tended to stress the special quality of one part of the New World experience rather than its place in a much larger process.

Another factor also accounts tor this perspective. Roman archaeology as a discipline began in the core country of Italy during the Renaissance, even though local antiquarian studies of Roman pro­ vLncial archaeology soon developed in other par� of Europe. What we in North America call historical archaeology is either just beginning to emerge in the core countries of the modern colonial world system or has not begun at all. The British Post-Medieval archaeologists are the most developed in their interests and techniques and are beginning to produce important studies on the sites, material culture and cultural processes that were behind the spread of British objects and influences to its colonial world and beyond. Similar research in France, Holland, Spain and other continental colonial countries is either much less wel 1 developed or non-existent. In studying an historical process that spread out from a core and shaped a number of provincial scenes, this lack of knowledge of developments at the center is a major problem. Another problem is the lack of comparative work between the provincial areas themselves. ·In the former Roman provinces, archae­ ology as a discipline developed in a number of areas at about the same time. While these national and local tradition6 of archaeology have evolved at different paces and today produce models of differing sophistication, still it is possible through archaeology to compare the process of Romanization in Britain, Spain and Germany and high1 ight both similarities and differences. This is not the case with the historical archaeologists. Dur­ ing the period of the sixteenth through the nineteenth centuries, European colonial influences spread into virtually every part of the globe. Yet inmost of these areas, the post contact periods have seen 1 ittle archaeological attention and often what 1 ittle has been done has received only local o� regional attention. Historical archae­ ology in North America has been most abundant and the North Ameri­ cans can be considered the founders of the discipline of historical archaeology, yet even here one sometimes finds a certain parochial ism with Spanish and Anglo oriented historical archaeologists having 1 imited contact and even Spanish colonial archaeologists working in the west and southeast having less than optimum communication. The time seems ripe to break out of this parochial ism and develop a discipline of comparative colonial archaeology. Historians such as Immanuel Wallerstein and Ferr.dinand Braudel (Wallerstein 19 80, Braudel 1984) have stressed the concept that there emerged in the post medieval world a new world system that involved both Europe and areas of America, Asia and Oceania in a complex military, social, economic and commercial relationship. This spread of European politi­ cal, social and economic influence and the emergence of world inter­ connection was by the late seventeenth and eighteenth century accom­ panied by changes in production systems that led Europe and especially England to produce increased quantities of material goods that could be spread along these networks . The increase in the quantity and types of material goods is of key importance here. The industrial and consumer revolution which was centered in England made a greater variety of goods available on the world market than at any time since the collapse of Rome. These are actively marketed by merchants at all levels of society 2

of society (McKendrick, Brewer, Plumb-1982). Many of these goods werein rela­ tive l y permanent materials such as ceramics and glass which became part of the archaeological record and provide complementary documents to allow the archaeologists as well as the historians to study this colonial process. It was to encourage this type of global thinking about archae­ ology and the colonial process and tq help break down localism that this volume was conceived. The editor wanted to bring together papers by a variety of scholars working on the subject of western colonial ism. Emphasis would be on the various processes of post medieval colonialism, but some effort would also be made to consider those processes as they existed in the medieval and even the classi­ cal world. The decision was made to include just the west, even though the archaeology of Islamic and Chinese colonial ism would have provided very interesting comparisons. These latter fields are very complex and deserve collected studies in their own right. Invitations were sent o'ut to scholars working in virtually every area of western colonial archaeology. Since these papers had to be something that scholars were willing to prepare for this special volume, we had to depend on the special interest of the con­ tributors. These are not papers produced for a special meeting. Since several of the scholars were working in subject areas relatively unknown to archaeologists outside of their region, I asked that the papers be as synthetic �s possible. In the end I was pleased by the range of papers that we obtained. Several significant areas are, however, missing due either to the lack of research in the field or, as in the case of the historical archaeology of northern Ireland and Greenland, from the press of work which did not allow archaeologists working there to contribute. The editor hopes, however, that this volume will stimulate other similar collections and ultimately an international meeting in which historical archaeologists working world­ wide can assemble to discuss problems of mutual interest.and concern. One of the tasks of an editor i.s to provide a precis of the volume and a few comments on each of the papers. I will not attempt to summarize each of the papers, but rather will state briefly what I see as the significance of each for the vo�ume in hand. Both chronologically and in terms of theoretical concerns, Professor B�ad Bartel 's paper quite rightly opens the volume. As an anthropolog1:t he attempts to place the process of colonialism in as wide as possible a context viewing it from both the side of the dominant power and those who were dominated. As an archaeologist he reminds us of the fact that most of the people affected by colonialsm and imperialism were il 1 iterate or only partly literate and that the changes brought about in their 1 ives by the colonial process can only be studied with any degree of objectivity through the process of material cul­ ture studies the most important subdivisi·on of which is archaeology. With his spe�ial interest in the western Roman provinces, Professor Bartel connects the modern colonial cycle with the first really comprehensive western colonial experience. The striking parallels between Roman and post Roman colonialism in certain areas encoura�es or social scientists to find similar patterns in complex human behav1 in different areas and periods. The essay by Professor Atholl Anderson provides a good transi

3

t ion b oth i n t ime p eriod a nd i n t he t ype o f c olonization. T he e nd o f t he R oman E mpire h ad s een w hat m ight b e c alled r everse c olonization w ith g roups o utside o f t he R oman E mpire c rossing t he i mperial b orders, r aiding b ut a lso s ettling w ithin t he t erritory o f t he O ld E mpire . T his p rocess o f c omplex,

i nternal

c olonization

c ontinued

t hroughout

t he M iddle A ges. O ne o f t he m ost i mporant d evelopments i nvolved t he c olonization b y c ore E uropean g roups o f t he b order a reas t o t he n orth a nd e ast o f E urope. T he m ost d ramatic e xample o f t his e xpansion w as t he p ush o f f irst G ermans a nd t hen R ussians t o t he e ast w hich e vent ually c arried R ussian p ower t o S iberia a nd t he P acific O cean.

p rocess

P rofessor A nderson d iscusses a m ore l im ited e xample o f t his i n S candinavia. H e s hows t hat a m odel o f p easant e xpansion

i nto n ew r elatively u ndeveloped a griculture l and i s t oo s imple a nd t hat s uch f ringe a reas p rovided t he c ore E uropean a rea w ith a c omplex v ariety o f r esources. H e a lso s hows t hat t he p rocess o f e xpansion i nto s uch m arginal

a reas w as a p rolonged o ne

i nvolving a n umber o f

c ycles o f e bb a nd f low . A rchaeologists a nd h istorians h ere a s e lsew here h ave t o w ork c losely t ogether t o i llum inate t heee o ften p oorly d ocumented e pisodes i n E uropean e xpansion. F inally, P rofessor A nders on's p aper r eminds u s o f t he f act t hat b y t he t ime t he s o-called A ge o f D iscovery b egan, t he E uropeans w ere e xperienced c olonialists. T he p aper b y D r. S usan o f t he c olonial p rocess. T he

K aplan t akes u s i nto t wo o ther a spects f irst i s t he l ong h istory o f m arine

r esource e xploitation a nd t rading t hat p receded t he a ctual t ion o f N orth A merica. I n s ome a reas s uch a s N ew E ngland, p resented a " softening

p rocess ' ' w hich n ot o nly a ccustomed

c o lonizat his r et he

i ndige-

n ous p opulation t o t he E uropeans, b ut t hrough t he s pread o f d isease d ecimated t he n atives a nd d isrupted t heir s ocial s tructure.

e ties

S uch i mmediate c o llapse w as n ot t he f ate o f a ll n ative s ocii n N orth A merica, e specially t hose l ocated o utside a reas w here

E uropean r emained

s ettlement w as f easible. T he n atives w hose s ocial s tructure i ntact o ften u nderwent c omplex s ocial a nd e conom ic c hanges

a s t hey a djusted

t o t he E uropean

p resence a round a nd w ithin

t heir

t erritory. H istorians g enerally t end t o w rite h istory f rom t he c olonists ' v iew o f t he f rontier a nd h ave o ften i gnored t he c omplex p rocess o f c hange w hich t ook p lace w ithin t he n ative s ociety o n t he o ther s ide o f t he f rontier. D r. K aplan s hows h ow a rchaeology a nd e thno-history c an b e c ombined t o t race c hanges i n t he N eo-Esk imo g roups i n L abrador f rom t he s ixteenth-nineteenth c enturies w hich a re r eflected n ot o nly i n t he p ortable m aterial c ulture b ut a lso i n s uch b asic f orms a s h ouse t ypes a nd h ow t hese c hanges o perating i nside a nd o utside t he e skimo s ociety.

r eflected f orces

T he S panish e stablished t he f irst g reat c olonial s ystem i n t he N ew W orld. T he a rchaeology o f m uch o f t hat s ystem r emains p oorly s tudied. H owever, t he r esearch o f a rchaeologists w orking i n F lorida, t he C aribbean a nd i n t he U nited S tates' S outhwest a nd C alifornia h ave b egun t o c hange t hat s ituation. P rofessor D eagan p rovides a n o verv iew o f o ne o f t he o ldest a nd m ost c omplicated o f t he H ispanoA merican c ultural a reas, t hat o f F lorida a nd t he C aribbean. T wo s pecial p oints i n t he p aper r equire e mphasis. T he f irst i s t hat t he H ispanic c olonial e nterprise w as a c omplicated m ovement t hat c hanged t he s hape o f t he W estern w orld. T he s econd i s t hat t he S panish w ere m ore s uccessful

t han

t he E nglish

i n

i ntegrating t he n atives

i nto

t heir

s ystem .

A rchaeology

r em inds u s o f t he

f act

t hat w hile n ative

c ultures i n F lorida a nd t he C aribbean m ay h ave d isappeared f rom t he h istorical r ecord t his w as d ue i n p art t o t he f act t hat t hey b ecame p art o f t he S panish A merican s ociety. T he h igh p ercentage o f i ndig enous c eramics o n e arly H ispanic A merican s ites, e specially i n F lorida p rov ide v ivid t estimony o f t his d evelopment. T he e xcavations i n F lorida a lso p rovide a v ivid i ndication o f t he g row ing p ower o f t he E nglish e conomic m achine a nd i ts a bility t o p roduce m aterial g oods f or t he w orld m arket. T he S panish m ay h ave g ained p olitical c ontrol o f F lorida f or a b rief p eriod a fter t he A merican R evolution, b ut

t he a rea

r emained

s trongly u nder

t he

i nfluence o f B ritish e co-

n om ic p ower. I f

t owns

h ave t ended

t o b e t he

f ocus o f t he a rchaeology

i n

t he S panish C aribbean, m issions a nd f orts h ave d rawn t he p rincipal a ttention o f a rchaeo logists w orking o n S panish s ites i n C alifornia a nd t he S outhwest. P rofessor R obert H oover i n h is r eview o f t he p ast a nd c urrent s tate o f m ission a rchaeology i n C alifornia r em inds u s o f t he i mportance t hat t he m ission s ites h ave, n ot o nly f or u nderstanding t he d evelopment o f e cclesiastical a rchitecture i n t he N ew W orld, b ut a lso f or r econstructing t he a cculturation p rocesses t hat w ere g oing o n i n t he a reas u nder t he c ontrol o f t he m issions. T heir m ajor r ole w as t o g ather t he I ndians a round a c entral p lace a nd t o t urn t hem i nto C hristians p ractising a b asically a gricultural e conomy .

T he a rchaeology o f t he m issions p rovides

i mportant,

c omplex

i nformation o n t he w ays i n w hich t hese n atives d id a nd d id n ot b ecome w hat t he S panish w anted t hem t o b e. T he a rticle a lso f orcefully r em inds u s o f t he p roblems i n p reserving a nd r ecovering o ne o f t he e arliest c olonial o f

i ts

f astest

a rchaeological

r ecords

i n

t he U nited

S tates

i n o ne

g row ing a reas.

A s a s tudent o f t he R oman

f rontier,

Ih ave b een m ade a cutely

a ware o f t he r ole o f t he m ilitary o n t he f rontier, n ot o nly a s a p ower f actor b ut a lso a c omplex s ocial a nd e conom ic i nstitution w hich h ad a p rofound e ffect o n

l ife w ithin a nd

b eyond

t he f rontier

r egion.

T he s ame s ituation h as e xisted o n m ore r ecent c olonial f rontiers. U sing t his p erspective, D r. J ack W illiams s eeks t o i llum inate t he c omplex h istory o f t he S panish n orthern f rontier. H e s hows h ow t his c omplex i nteraction o f r emote E uropean p lanning, i nadequate r esources a nd t he s pecific f rontier c onditions s haped t he S panish m ilitary i nstitutions i n v ery p articular l ocal w ays w hich a ffected n ot o nly m ilitary t actics a nd s trategy b ut a lso t he w ay t hat t he s oldiers l ived o n t he f rontier. W ith s hifts

t he p aper b y M ary B eaudry,

f rom N ew S pain

g overnors o f c olonial

t he

t o N ew E ngland a nd V irginia

h ad

f ocus o n t he f rontier

t he p roblems

i n d eveloping a n

t hat

t he

I ndian p olicy

w hich w ould p rovide b etter p rotection f or i ndigenous g roups o n t he c olonial f rontier a nd c ontrol b oth t he a ttacks o f t he s ettlers a nd t he u nscrupulous a ctions o f t hose e ngaged i n f rontier t rade. T he s pecial c oncern o f h er p aper i s t he f rontier p olicy o f A lexander S potswood, g overnor o f V irginia, w hich l ed t o t he f oundation o f F ort C hristanna a nd t he w ay t hat e xcavations h ave i llum inated t he s tructures o f t he f ort a nd t he l ife o f t he s mall g roup t hat l ived t here. T he o ngo ing r esearch a t F ort C hristanna a llows a n i ncreasing l y d etailed

u nderstanding o f t he w ay t hat a c omplex,

t ier p olicy a ffected

t he s ettlement

5

p attern a nd

s hifting f ron-

l ifeways o f o ne

s mall

s egment o f

t he V irginia

f rontier.

O ne o f t he m ajor c oncerns o f t his v olume w as t o s how n ot o nly h ow d ifferent c olonial s ystems f unctioned a t v arious t i mes a nd p laces, b ut a lso t he w ay t hat t he s ame c olonial s ystem d eveloped i n v ery d ifferent a reas. F or t his p urpose, t he e ssay o f P rofessor R . I an J ack o n A ustralia i s o f s pecial i mportance. H e p rovides a v ery d etailed o verview o f t he a ctive p rogram o f h istorical a rchaeo logical r esearch i n A ustralia a nd t he w ay t hat t his h as i llum inated t he m aterial

c ulture s ide o f

l ife

i n A ustralia t hrough t he n ineteenth

c entury. T he d evelopments i n A ustralia s hould p rovide a m odel f or h istorical a rchaeology i n o ther B ritish c o lonial a reas a nd a llow u s t o p ut t he N orth A merican e xperience i n a l arger c o lonial c ontext. F ocus o n

t he B ritish,

F rench a nd

S panish c o lonial

s ystems c an

l ead t o a n eglect o f a f ourth m ajor e xample o f f rontier e xpansion w hich i s t hat o f R ussia. M oving s teadily e astward, R ussian c olonists u ltimately r eached t he n orthwestern s hores o f N orth A merica w here t hey e stablished a p resence w hich l asted w ell i nto t he n ineteenth c entury. T imothy D illiplane l ays s pecial s tress o n t he n eglect o f t his a spect o f t he N orth A merican c olonial e xperience a nd l ays o ut a genda o f o f

i ssues

t o b e a ddressed a s

i nvestigations

i n

t he p resently v ery

R ussian A merican

I n c oncluding,

s ites

a n

l im ited n umber

i ncreases.

t he e ditor o f t hese p apers c an o nly

r epeat

t he

p oint t hat w hat i s a ssembled h ere i s o nly a s mall f ragment o f w hat i s b eing d one a nd c an b e d one i n t he f ield. T he c ursory e xam ination o f a n ineteenth c entury m ap s howing E uropean c olonial d ominion s hows h ow m any a reas a re n ot r epresented i n t his v olume. H opefully, t he p apers w ill

d emonstrate t he v alue o f

i nterdisciplinary

i nteraction.

T hey w ill a lso, h opefully, r em ind a rchaeologists a nd h istorians o f t he d egree t o w hich t he c olonial p rocess w as e xpressed i n m aterial t erms a nd h ow,for m any e lements o f t hat p rocess, e specially a spects c entering o n t hose g roups t hat w ere c olonized, t he a rcheological r ecord i s o ften t he m ajor o r o nly s ource . A f ull u nderstanding o f t he c olonial p rocess i n a ll i ts a spects c an t hus o nly c ome f rom a f ull

c ollaboration

b etween

t he a rchaeologist a nd

t he h istorian.

B IBLIOGRAPHY B raude],

F .,

1 981-84,

C ollins, D yson,

S .

C ivilization a nd C apitalism,

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L ondon.

L .,

1 982,

' Material

C utlure,

S ocial

S tructure a nd C hanging

C ultural V alues: T he C eramics o f E ighteenth a nd N ineteenth C entury M iddletown, C onnecticut," A rchaeology o f U rban A merica, R oy S . D ickens, J r., e d., A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork, p p. 3 61-3B0. 1 985a, P ress,

T he C reation o f t he R oman

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C ambridge,

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C .

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M alone a nd

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S .

S toddart, e ds.

M cKendrick, N ., J . B rewer, J . H . P lumb, 1 982, T he B irth o f a C onsumer S ociety, I ndiana U niversity P ress, B l oo m ington. P eacock,

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i n

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7-

L ongman,

S ystem,

N ew Y ork.

A cadem ic

1 .

C OMPARATIVE H ISTORICAL A RCHAEOLOGY A ND A RCHAEOLOGICAL T HEORY B rad

B artel

A BSTRACT T he d ata b ase f or h istorical a rchaeo logy c ould b e u sed m ore e ff ectively w hen a nalyzed i n t erms o f v ariable s ituations i nvolving p olicies o f s ocial d om ination. D efinitions a nd p rocesses r elated t o c olonialism, i mperialism a nd c ultural r esponses b y i ndigenous p opulat ions a re d iscussed u tilizing h istoric a nd e thnographic e xamples. T he p otential

f or p attern

a rchaeological

r ecognition a nalysis a iding c omparative

i nterpretation

i s a lso

i ncluded.

I ntroduction T he R omans h eld p ortions o f t he c ountry, n ot e ntire r egions b ut s uch d istricts a s h appened t o h ave b een s ubdued .. t he s oldiers w intered t here, a nd c ities w ere b eing f ounded. G radually t he b arbarians [ Germ ans] a dapted t hemselves t o R oman w ays, g etting a cc ustomed t o h olding m arkets, a nd a ssembling p eacef ully. B ut t hey h ad n ot f orgotten t heir a ncestral w ays, t heir i nborn n ature, t heir o ld p roud w ay o f l ife. .As l ong a s t hey w ere u nlearning t heir a ncient c ustoms g radually.. . they d id n ot p rotest .

a gainst t hese c hanges i n t heir m ode o f l ife. B ut w hen Q uinctilliuS V arus w as a ppointed g overnor... a nd a ttempted t o t ake t hese p eople i n h and, s triving t o c hange t hem, D io 5 6,

[ Cassius W ithin o ne

.

.

. their p atience w as e xhausted

3 9141 .

i nsightful

o bservation,

t his

R oman a uthor o f t he 2 nd

c entury A .D. h as e ssentially d iscussed t he u sual p attern o f p ush-pull s ocial r elationships e ntailed w ithin c olonialism a nd n ative r esponse. O ften h istorians ( e.g. D uby 1 974) a nd a rchaeologists ( e.g. W ells 1 97 2 ) a ssume t hat t he d ominating p ower h olds s ecurely a ll r egions o btained t hrough w arfare o r t reaty, p opulations

w ith

t otal

a ccu lturation b y t he

t o t he d om inating v alue s ystems.

F or e xample,

i ndigenous M illar

( 1967: 9 -10), s ocial

i n s peaking o f t he R oman E mpire s tates b y 2 00 A .D. a u niform ity i n l anguage a nd m aterial c ulture e xisted. H e g oes

o n t o s ay

t hat: . outside o f

I taly a nd G reece,

t he s ociety a nd

c ulture o f a ll a reas o f t he E mpire w as f ormed b y t he i mportation, b y c onquest, e m igration o r a ssim i l ation o f a d om inant a lien c ulture, a nd i ts i mposi t ion o n, c ulture

o r f usion w ith, [ 1967:

-

t he p re-existing n ative

910 1 -

C learly s uch s implistic s tatements a re n ot w arranted w hen o ne u nderstands c omplexity o f h uman b ehavior w ith r egard t o s ocial c ontro l s ituations k nown f rom h istorical, a rchaeological o r e thnographic d ata. O ur p urpose

i s

t o d iscuss

t he v ariation w ithin

8-

t he s ocial

p ro -

c ess o f

c olonial-imperial

a ctivity,

u sing e xamples f rom m any d ifferent

e cological, t emporal a nd s ocial s ituations i n o rder t o s how h ow a rc haeologists c an d evelop r esearch s trategies t o a ccount f or s ingular f ieldwork e xamples, a nd t o i ntegrate a ll w ithin a p robablistic m odel o f d om inance a nd r esponse. F inally, t he a rchaeological u se o f p attern r ecognition w ill

b e d iscussed w ith e xamples

f rom B ritish a nd

R oman

f orms o f c ontro l. T his c hapter i s n ot m eant t o e xhaust a ll e xamples o f t his f orm o f b ehav ior, b ut t o a cquaint t he a rchaeologist w ith t ypes o f

s ocial

c ontrol

w hich a re m ost a rchaeo logically v isible.

O perationalizing C o lonialism a nd T he

s ocial

q uite v aried.

s cience

O ften,

I mperialism

l iterature d iscussing

c olonialism a nd

p ower a nd d ominance

i mperialism a re u sed

c hangeable t erms, o r n ot e xplicitly d efined. ( 1 978: 6 3 ) s tates t hat a m ark o f i mperialism

i s

i nter-

F or e xample, W hittaker i nc ludes s uch t raits a s:

I . 2 .

d irect t erritorial c onquest a nd a nnexation, p rovincial a dm inistration,

3 .

l evying o f t ribute, l and e xploitation,

5 . 6 .

u nequal

4.

a s

a lliances,

t rade m onopolies.

O thers ( e.g., H orvath 1 972) w ould s uggest t hat 1 , 2 , a nd 1 4 a bove w ould b e p rimary d efining c haracteristics o f c olonialism, w hile i n a r ecent v olume o n t he s ubject ( Garnsey & W hittaker 1 978), n one o f t he c ontrib utors c ould a gree o n d efinitions o f e ither t erm. G arnsey a nd W hittaker ( 1978: 1 ) s ee i mperialism a s a ny o ppressive o r a busive r ule, F inley ( 1978) v iews i t a s m ostly e conom ic e xplo itation, w hile T hornton ( 1965:

2 ) F or

v iews a ll

i t a s a n

s ocial

i mage o f d om inance.

s cience d isciplines

t he

i mportance o f e xplicit

a nd p rogrammatic d efinitions o f t hese t erms i s a c ritical f irst s tep i n o rganizing r esearch a nd g enerating t heory. T here h ave b een o ver 1 4 ,000 y ears o f n umerous s tate s ocieties , c ontrolling o ther g roups. U nder w hat c onditions ( e.g., e cological, s ocia l) d oes s uch a s tate s ociety i nstigate d om inance? D oes a c olonial-imperial a b and-level s ociety d ifferent f rom a c hiefdom g roup? l ated m odel

p ower c ontrol T hese a nd r e-

h ypotheses a sked o f t he d ata a re n eeded t o b e p laced i n s ome w hich e nables p rediction o r p ostdiction. P revious s ocial s ci-

e ntists h ave i nfrequently e xam ined s ufficient n umbers o f c olonial c ase s tudies, o r w hen e xam ining s ocial p ower h ave n ot e ven g iven c onsiderat ion

t o t he

l ong-term p rocess o f h ow d om inance a nd

n ative r esponse a re

d isplayed. A fter a f ull c entury e xam ining c o lonialism a nd i mperialism, t he a nthropologist h as y et t o d evelop a ny c omprehensive t heory. R ecent e thnological ( e.g., H . G . S mith 1 974; B urling 1 97 1 4; F ogelson a nd A dams 1 977) a nd a rchaeo logical s tudies ( e.g., T rigger 1 971 4; F riedman a nd R ow lands 1 977) d evoted t o p olitical r elations h ave s idestepped a s ynthetic t reatment o f

t he c o lonial

q uestion.

T here a re s o m any d ifferent d efinitions o f c olonialism a nd p erialism a s T hornton t hat

t o m ake t he t erms a l most u seless.

( 1965:

b eing

b y

1 977),

c o lonialism

t he n atives o f

t heir

i s

i mperialism

p light, w hile

9-

F or e xample,

i m-

t o

s een f rom b elow '; i mperialism i s a n

e thos o f g overnance;

a f orm o f n ational

a ggressiveness

( 1965:4).

D ifferential e mic p erspectives a l ways c ome i nto p lay, a nd a re c learly p ortrayed b y S oviet a nd U nited S tates d ictionary d efinitions. K o lonizatsiya [ co lonialism] i s d efined i n S oviet d ictionaries a s ' the s eizure o f a c ountry.. . accompanied b y t he s ubjection, b rutal e xploitat ion a nd s ometimes a nnihilation o f t he l ocal p opulation.' ' W ebster's d efinition i s ' the s ystem i n w hich a c ountry m aintains f oreign c o lon ies f or t heir e conomic e xploitation." T he S oviet e mphasis o n f orcef ul a nd a ll-encompassing e xploitation l aid d own i n M arxist t heory a nd r econsidered b y L enin ( 1939) d iffers i n d egree a nd k ind f rom t he i nh erent t echnical p roblem o f e conomic e xploitation u sed b y t he U nited S tates o r B ritain. F inally, s ome p owers, l ike t he E gyptians, d id n ot h ave a s pecific 1 978).

l inguistic t erm f or

i mperialism o r c olonialism ( Kemp

F rom a n e tic p erspective, w hat w e a re d ealing w ith i s s ome f orm o f d om ination a nd c ontrol b y rpresentatives o f a s tate s ociety o ver a nother p eople a nd t erritory. A s w ill b e m ade c lear t hrough v arious e xamples,

t he f orm o f d omination

u sually

i s m ilitary,

e conom ic o r

i deological, w hile t he r epresentatives m ay b e d irect p olitical o r m ilitary s taff o f t he d ominating s tate, o r, i n m any 1 8th a nd 1 9th c ent ury e xamples, q uasi-formal r epresentatives ( i.e., c harted c ompanies) ( Sutherland 1 952). S ome c olonies h ave e ven b een p rivately o wned ( e.g., K ing L eopo ld's C ongo ) ( Slade 1 962). I t w ould b e a m istake t o b e lieve t hat a l most a ll c o lonial o r i mperial v entures w ere f or e conom ic e xp loitation a nd r esulted i n p rofit f or t he p ower. O nly a v ery f ew c o lonies h ave b een p rofit m akers ( e.g., C ongo f or B elgium, I ndonesia f or t he D utch). T he v ast m ajority o f c o lonies n ever w ere e conom ica lly p rofitable, b ut g ave p owers p olitical l everage i ngs w ith o ther e mpire-building n ations. T here c ontrol h as

i n

i nternational

d eal-

i s n o d oubt t hat t he v ery p rocess o f c olonial a nd i mperial h ad a m ajor s ocial e ffect u pon i ndigenous p opulations

t hroughout t he w orld, a nd i ndirectly o n t he m aterial c ulture c ompos ing t he a rchaeological r ecord. F or e xample, a t t he p eak o f t he B ritish E mpire ( 1933), a pproximately 2 5° / s o f t he w orld's p opulation ( 502 m ill ion) a nd 2 3.85 ° / s o f t otal l and s urface ( 12.2 m illion s quare m iles) w ere c ontrolled b y t his s ingle p ower; a p rocess w hich t ook 3 00 y ears ( Fieldhouse 1 967: 2 22). S uch c ontrol m ust h ave h ad a d ramatic e ffect u pon t he f uture a rchaeological r ecord o f s ocieties w orldw ide. T hese s tatistics t rolling

t ake

i nto a ccount o nly o ne o f m any E uropean

p opulations a ll

a cross

A dding t o t he c onsequences

t he g lobe a t

t hat

p owers c on-

t ime.

f or a rchaeo logy h as

b een

t he h istori-

c al l ayering e ffect o f w hen m ore t han o ne p ower c ontrols t he s ame t erritory a nd s ocieties s uccessively; s uch a s t he D utch a nd t hen B ritish c ontrol o f S outh A frica ( Thompson 1 960 ), o r t he F rench t hen B ritish c ontrol e thnicity,

o ver E gypt.

p o licy a nd

E ach p ower w ill

b ring

r ationale f or e xisting o n

i ts o wn

f oreign

s tamp o f

s o il.

S ome

a reas o f t he w orld, s uch a s N orth A frica, h ave b een u nder a m u ltitude o f c olonial p owers ( e.g., R oman, F rench, B ritish) f or o ver 2 ,000 y ears. A long w ith t his p roblem o f

l ayered

t emporal

c olonial

c ontrol,

t he a rchaeologist m ust a lso b e a ware o f s patial l im its o n c ontro l w hich a re r elated t o d iplomatic a greement r ather t han p hysical b ounda ries. I t i s s ometimes a ssumed b y t he a rchaeo logist t hat c ontrol w ill

10-

h ave a h igh c orrelation w ith n atural b oundaries o f a r egion ( e.g., a w hole i sland, l arge r iver c orridor). T here a re n umerous e xamples w here c ontrol i s d ivided a rtificially b etween t wo o r m ore p owers w ith l ittle r egard

f or

p hysical

b oundaries.

A g ood e xample

i s

t he s plit

o f B orneo b y t he D utch a nd B ritish d uring t he 1 9th c entury ( Vandenb osch 1 944). A rchaeo logical s ampling s trategies w ould h ave t o b e s tructured a ccordingly t o t ake i nto a ccount s uch p ossibilities, s ince g reatly d ifferent s trategies o f c ontrol m ay b e

t aking

a nd

k inds o f n ative r esponse

p lace w ithin e ach t erritory.

T he a rchaeo logical

d ata b ase

r emains c rucial

t o a n

u nderstand

-

i ng a nd e xplanation o f c o lonial a nd i mperial c ontro l. A lmost a ll h istorical c olonial s ituations h ave b een e xamined s olely f rom w ritten d ocuments w ithout a rchaeo logical d ata. W ells' ( 1972) a nalysis i s a n e xception, b ut h is u se o f R oman a nd G ermanic a rchaeological d ata i s u sed o nly f or c onfirmation o f c hronology, m ent o f l egions; n ot t he u nderstanding o f o ccur w hen s ocieties c ome T he d ue

t o

h istorical

i nherent

b ias

i nto c ontact

m aterial

m ust

b y a uthors,

o r

a nd

s patial l ocation a nd m ovet he s ocial p rocesses w hich c onflict.

b e s upplemented m isleading

b y a rchaeo logy

s tatements

a bout e xact-

l y w hich e thnic g roup i s b eing c ontrolled. F or e xample, i t i s u nc lear f rom J ulius C aesar's C ommentaries w hether G ermanic o r C eltic g roups e x isted o n a g i ven

p ortion o f t he R hine

A side f rom t he a rchaeological c onfirmation o f i nformation d erived

( Wells

1 972:

3 0).

r ecord b e ing u sed a s i ndependent f rom e thnographic a ccounts ( e.g.,

T acitus' G ermania) o r i nscription, i t a cts t o t est h ypotheses a bout t he n ative s ociety's r esponses t o c o lonial o r i mperial d om ination. M ost o f t he g roups w hich h ave b een c ontrolled a re i lliterate, a nd t he o nly b alanced r esearch s trategy t o e xamine c o lonialism a nd i mperial i sm m ust i nvolve a rchaeology. M y o wn r esearch c oncerning R oman s trat egies

o f c ontrol

i n t he p rovinces o f P annonia a nd

U pper M oesia m ust,

o f n ecessity, i nclude a g reat d eal o f a rchaeo logy o w ing t o 1 ) a n a bs ence o f n ative I lly r i an-speaking l iteracy, a nd 2 ) r elatively l ittle t extual i nformation o r i nscriptions w hen c ompared t o o ther p arts o f t he R oman E mpire. F inally, i t s eems a s i f w e a re w asting o ver 1 4 ,000 y ears o f m aterial c ulture d ata b ase f or m aking c omparisons a mong v arious s ituations o f c ontrol, a nd u ltimately f irmer p redictive p ower i f w e d o n ot

u se a rchaeology.

F igure 1 p resents a p robablistic m atrix m odel o f t he s trategies d evised b y c ontrolling p owers. A s w ill b e d iscussed i n a l ater p ort ion, t he f igure r epresents t he m ost l ikely s ituations w hich m ay h ave o ccurred h istorically a nd e thnographically. T he m ajor d istinctions p resented h ere a re o perationaliZing c o lonialism a nd i mperialism a s c ontrol t hrough t he p resence o r a bsence o f s ettlers f rom t he d om inat i ng g roup r espectfully, a nd t heir u se o f t hree s trategies ( i.e., e radication

/r esettlement, a cculturation, s ocial e quilibrium ). T he

c ombination o f

a g i ven

s trategy w ith a f orm o f

c ontrol

w ill

r esult

i n a s pecific o utcome; e ach w ith d ifferent c onsequences f or t he a rchaeo logical r ecord. I t i s f elt t hat i f a rchaeologists c enter t heir h ypothesis t esting a nd f ieldwork t echniques a round t his m atrix, m ore p roductive t heory b uilding w ill r esult. T his m atrix m odel w as f irst d evised b y H orvath ( 1972) t o e xam ine e thnographic e xamples o f c ontrol. H ere i t i s a dapted w ith m odification f or b oth e thnographic a nd

a rchaeological

c onsideration. 11-

E ach o f t he s ix m atrix o utcomes m ay o r m ay n ot b e t he e xclusive c ontrol a dopted b y a n ation. I t i s r are t hat a c ontrolling p ower u tilizes o ne s uch p olicy f or a g iven s ociety, e cology, o r f or t he e nt ire e xtent o f t heir e mpire. O ften, m any o f t he s olutions a re u sed t ogether o r s equentially f or m ax imum p opulational c ontrol a nd e xp lo it ation. S pain i n t he A mericas a nd R ussia i n C entral A sia b oth h ad t o c onquer a nd c ontrol l arge p opulations c omprising a m ultitude o f e thnic g roups. A f lexible a pproach u tilizing c ombinations o f c olonial e quil ibrium a nd i mperial r esettlement w as s uccessfully u ndertaken. T he a rchaeo logist s hould e xpect a c ombined c ontrolling a pproach i n a ll s ituations w here t here T wo o ther t o u nderstand

i s

s ocial

a nd/or

c onsiderations n eed

t he e xtent

e cological

v ariation.

t o b e d iscussed.

t o w hich a g iven c o lonial

F irst,

f orce

i n o rder

i mpacts

u pon

a n ative s ociety, t he i ndigenous p opulation m ust b e e xamined b y t he a rchaeo logist a s t o p re-contact a daptation ( technological, s ocial, i deological), d uring c ontro l, a nd a fter c ontrol h as c eased. T heref ore, t he a rchaeology o f c o lonialism m ust o f n ecessity i nclude a l arge t emporal

s pan

S econdly, e thnic

f or a ny g iven s ituation.

t he a rchaeologist m ust

g roups u nder c ontro l.

b e s ure o f

t he

T he d etection o f e thnic

i dentity o f t he i dentity f rom

t he a rchaeological r ecord i s j ust b eing d eveloped ( e.g., H odder, 1 977, 1 978, 1 979), s ince m uch o f t he s ocial t heory f rom w hich i t i s d erived i s r ecent ( i.e. B arth 1 969). S ome c ontrol s ituations a re e xtremely c omplicated, l ike t he i dentification o f I llyrian, D acian, T hracian a nd C eltic g roups a long t he D anube c orridor u nder R oman r ule ( Bartel 1 980). M aterial s igns o f s elf-identification ( e.g., d ress, j ewelry, f ood p reparation) a nd m echanisms o f b oundary m aintenance m ust b e e xa mined

s o t hat o ne c an c oordinate w ritten d ata w ith t he

a rchaeo logi-

c al. T hroughout t he f o llow ing s ections o f t his c hapter, v arious h ist orical a nd e thnographic e xamples a re o ffered f or e ach o f t he s ix o utcomes o f

t he m atrix,

a long w ith s ome c omments a bout

n ative

r e-

s ponses t o t hese m ethods o f c ontrol. A rchaeological e xpectations f or h ypothesis-testing r elative t o e ach o utcome a re a lso p resented.

S ocial

P erspectives o n C ontrolling P rimary t o a n o verall

a nd

B eing C ontrolled

u nderstanding o f c olonialism a nd

i mperi-

a lism, o ne h as t o u nderstand t he o riginal i ntent o f t he s ociety w anti ng t o c ontrol o thers. T he h istorical r ecord i s s triking i n s imil arity o f e mc p erspective f or I ntent f est d estiny'

s eems o ften

s ocieties.

t o b e a ssociated w ith

r egardless o f w hether

i t

t he

c oncept

o f

i s R ome u nder A ugustus,

' maniv ar i-

o us 1 9th c entury E uropean p owers i n A sia a nd A frica, o r f ledgling U nited S tates i n T exas a nd C alifornia. M uch o f i t h as a r acist o ver t one; A ugustus s eeing e xpansion a s a d ivine m ission, C aesar's C omment aries o r C icero 's s peeches v iew ing R oman e xpansion b ringing g lory, ter ritorial s ecurity a nd e conom ic a dvantages ( Brunt 1 978: 1 61) , P liny t he E lder s uggesting t he R omans' a bility t o c onquer a ll t hose a round t hem

i s d ue t o g reater p iety

i sm o f c aring f or u sually

s maller

( Balsdon

1 979:

t hose s ocieties d ifferent

i n p opulation a nd

l ess

12-

2 ), i n

o r

B ritish

s ocial

p aternal

i nstitutions,

t echnologically e quipped.

-

l ook a t

A long w ith p hilosophy o f o riginal i ntent f or c ontro l, o ne m ust t he d om inating g roup's p olicy o f c ontrol. H ere t here i s a

g reat d eal m ore v ariation. T he F rench f all a t o ne e xtreme, h aving d eveloped a c onscious p o licy o f a ssim ilation f or n atives ( at l east t hose w hich w ere u rban-living) ( Deschamps 1 953). C o lonies w hich w ere c lassified a s b eing i ncorporated, s uch a s t he A ntilles, h ad l OO ° / F rench c itizenship ( Roberts 1 929). I n o ther a reas, s uch a s p arts o f N orth a nd W est A frica, o nly t hose w ho w ere u rban o r F rench e nclaved wellers b ecame c itizens, w h ile r ural p opulace r emained u naccultura ted

a nd

f ull

o r

h ad

n o

l egal

r ights

a s

F rench

( Fieldhouse

1 967:

3 06 - 3 07).

C o lonial p owers s uch a s t he D utch a nd B ritish d id n ot w ant e ven m ajority a ssim ilation b y n atives t o t heir v alues. A

m inority o f B ritish c olonies c omprised

f ull

l egal

r ights

( i.e., d o-

m inion s tatus) w ith t he v ast m ajority o f n atives i n o ther a reas c lassified a s ' protected p ersons' w ith m inimal l egal s tatus a nd n o c oncerted e ffort t o a ssim ilate. W hereas t he F rench s ystem f ostered t he h ighest d egree o f a cculturation b y t he n ative u pper c lasses ( urban dwellers), t he m ore s elective B ritish s ystem r esu lted i n h ighest d egree o f a cculturation b y i ndigenous m iddleclass w ho c om p rised c ivil s ervice a nd m ilitary p ositions ( especially i n In d j a) A lthough m uch o f o ur u nderstanding o f d om inating r ationale c omes f rom t he l ast 3 00 y ears o f c olonial h istory, w e d o h ave s ome w ritten d ocumentation f rom e arlier p eriods. M uch o f t his d ata c omes f rom R oman

s ources.

T he R oman I ndo-European h eritage a nd t he c oncept o f f am ily h ouseho ld m embers a nd

l egal s ystem f ostered s ervants b eing e xploited

b y t he m ale h ousehold h ead. O n a m acro-level o f g overnmental p olicy, p rovinces w ere t reated i n a s im ilar f ashion - d om inated b y R omans b ut e ntitled t o j ust t reatment, s idered e qual. R omans b elieved t ory b rought

e ven t hough n atives w ere n ot c ont hat d om ination o f p eople a nd t erri-

a bout a sphaleia--security a gainst e xternal

n atives a nd a dm inistrators. H owever, i t w as r eally f or t hose w ho l ived i n c ities a ny c ase,

R oman p o licy a mounts

a ttack f or

s eems a s i f t his c oncern ( Nutton 1 978: 2 10-211). I n

t o a n e arly v ersion o f

' white m an's

b urden' T he u pper-class R omans

t ended

t o h o ld n atives

i n c ontempt.

F or e xample, V elleius t hought t hat G ermans o nly h ad v oices a nd l imbs i n c ommon w ith h umans, w hile C icero l abelled v arious C eltic a nd N orth A frican s ocieties a s s avage o r b arbaric ( Garnsey 1 978: 2 52). A s

i mportant

f or a c omplete u nderstanding o f p ower

p roblems

i s a ny i nformation c oncerning w hat c ontrolled p opulations b elieved a bout t heir p light. S ince m ost d om inated g roups w ere i lliterate a nd a uthors w ere n ot i nterested i n n ative w orld v iew, w e h ave v ery l ittle d ata a bout T he

J ews

t his

s ubject.

s aw t heir c onquest

b y t he R omans a s

p unishment

f or

B iblical m isconduct ( de L ange 1 978: 2 58). F or t he m ost p art, t he J ews w ere p assively r esolved t o t heir s ituation, b ut s aw t hemselves a s

s uperior

g reat

t o t hose w ho c onquered

t hem .

R omans w ere p erceived a s

s inners. T he G reeks a lso h eld

t he R omans

13-

i n c ontempt,

a nd

s aw t hemselves

a s s uperior.

T his w as d ue

t o a l onger

t radition o f

s cholarship

( Crawford 1 978). M any G reeks r ejected R oman c itizenship; e ither i ndividually o r c o llectively a s a c ity. A cculturation r ates r emained l ow . T his h istorical i nformation h as b een c onfirmed b y a rchaeo logi c al e xcavation o f G reek c ities i n S icily ( Blake 1 947: 2 28) w here a rchitectural s tyles r emained t he s ame t hrough t i me. U pper-class R omans a lso b elieved t he G reeks i ntellectually s uperior. R omans i n I taly h ad a h igh r ate o f G reek l anguage u se a nd G reek m aterial c ult ure p reserved.

H ere w e h ave a r are c ase o f s elective r everse a ccul

-

t uration. L ooking a t

a ncient o r m odern e xamples o f d om ination w e m ay b e

a ble t o u nderstand v arious e m ic o rientations c ontro lled. T he m ost i mportant q uestion f or w hether t he v arious e m ic r ationales a re a s n ation o f s ocial c ontro l p rocesses p er S e.

t o c ontro lling a nd b eing t he a rchaeologist i s

i mportant a s e tic e xam iS ome h istorians h ave r e-

j ected a ny s ynthetic a nalysis o f c o lonialism - i mperialism b ecause o f t he l ack o f w ritten r ecords f rom t he s ide o f t he c ontrolled p opula t ion, o r t hat w e h ave o nly t he e mic p erception o f t he c ontro lling e lite ( e.g. T hornton 1 965). I n a s ense t his c riticism h as m erit. H owever, t he h istorian o r p olitical s cientist f orgets t hat t he a rchae o logical r ecord i s a s ource o f t esting f or v ariables f orming t he s tructure o f d om inance s ituation. A lthough m uch o f t he e m ic p ers pective i s l ost i n a rchaeology, t he p atterning m aterial c ulture a ll ows e xplanation

f or

b oth w hy a nd

h ow a s ociety o r

r egion w as c on -

t rolled.

E radication

a nd

R esettlement

A lthough n ot a c ommon s trategy, o w ing t o r esulting s ocial r ep ercussions f ostered b y i ts u se, e radication a nd r esettlement h ave b een u sed a s a n i nitial s tep w ithin t he e ntire p rocess o f s ocial d om ination. S ometimes i t h as b een u sed w hen c ertain n atural r es ources a re f ound t o b e i mportant o r a fter e stablishment o f c ontro l a s a r eminder o f c ontinued f orce. F or e xample, i n 5 B .C. J ulius C aesar m assacred a G erman t ribe w hich c rossed t he R hine b ecause h e f elt t hey w ould c ombine w ith d isloyal C eltic g roups t hen u nder R oman c ontrol ( Brunt 1 978: 1 714) . E radication m ay b e a s lower p rocess t han s ingle e xamples o f w arfare. T he T asmanian e radication ( Calder 1 871 4; P lom ley 1 969) i s o ne s uch e xample. A rchaeo logically, e radication t hrough b attle l eaves r elatively l ittle t race, e xcept f or f ortuitous m ass b urial,

s ettlement

R esettlement l ife a nd

t ime.

e xist

a g iven

i n

i s

b urning o r

b attlefield

a m ore f requent

R esettlement o ccurs

a rtifacts.

s o lution,

b eing

f requently w hen

r egion w ith p otential

l ess c ostly

p lural

i n

s ituations

i nterethnic c onflict,

o r w hen

a r egion b ecomes e cologically i mportant. F or e xample, i n 6 0 A .D. t he R oman l egate T iberius P lautius S iva r lus A elianus r elocated a pp roximately

1 00,000 p eople o f S armatian h eritage a way f rom t he D anube

s outhwards, t hus a llow ing t he t raditionally D anubian I llyrian, D acian a nd T hracian p eoples t o r esettle w ithin t he v acated z one ( Millar 1 967: 2 71). J ulius C aesar o rdered t he H elvetii t o r eturn t o t heir a nd

p reviously h eld

r eturn S uch

t erritory

t o a gricultural r esettlement

i n o rder

p ursuits

p o licies,

( Wells

t o r ebuild 1 972:

s ettlements

3 5 ).

s ometimes e ncompassing h undreds o f

14-

t housands o f p eople o f d iverse e thnic m embership, h ave g reat i mplicat ions f or t he a rchaeological r ecord. A ny t ime a s ociety, o r a n umber o f e thnic g roups a re r elocated, t hey w ill c ome i nto c ontact w ith p rev iously u nknown s ocieties, t hus t ouching o ff n ew n etworks o f s ocial a nd e conom ic c ommunication w hich w ill a lter p atterns o f m aterial c ulture d istribution ( through t rade, i ntermarriage, e co logical a daptation). P olicies o f c olonial e radication o r r esettlement w ill o ccur w hen s ettlements o f p eople f rom t he d ominating p ower n ow r eplace t hose w here n ative p opulations o nce l ived. T hese n ew c olonial s ettlements e x ist i n t he r egion f or e conom ic e xplo itation o r t erritorial b oundary c ontro l. I n t hese i nstances o ne w ill p lacement o f a n e ntirely n ew c ulture

h ave a s udden a rtifactual r es tratified a bove t he t raditiona l

o ne.

r egion

I mperial p olicies o f e radication o r r esettlement w ill l eave a t otally d evoid o f h uman s ettlement. T he a rchaeological r ecord

w ill a ppear a s a n e mpty c ell, w ith w hat w as t he s ociety w hich e xisted i n t he l ocation. I n a ny c ase, o f

h uman

a rchaeological

p opulations

s eemingly t he

' death'

o f

e xam ination o f m ovement o r s laughter

i s a r elatively d ifficult t ask.

L arge-scale m igrations o f

g roups

i s o ften a rchaeologically

i n-

v isible ( Crossland a nd B irchall 1 973). T here h ave b een n otable h ist orically d ocumented m ass m igrations ( e.g. S lavic m igrations o f t he 6 th c entury A .D.) w hich h ave l eft a l most n o m aterial t race. M igrat ions w hich d o n ot h ave a s pecific g eographic g oal m ay h ave t he a rchae o logical

a ppearance o f

l ation m odelling w ill

r andom-walk,

a nd

o nly t hrough a ppropriate s imu-

w e h ave a n o pportunity t o p osition d isplaced

g roups.

P o lic ies o f A cculturation B y a cculturation w e m ean

t he c hange o f v alues b rought a bout

b y

e xposure t o, a nd a cceptance o f, n ew c ustoms a nd t raditions. I t d oes n ot m atter w hether t his c hange i s v oluntary o r f orced, a s l ong a s i t l eads t o s ocial c hange. T he s ocial a nthropologist m ost o ften v iews t his

c hange a s

i ndividual

c ho ice

r ather

t han

g roup d ecision.

I mport -

a nt t o c onsider i n c ases o f c olonialism i s w hether, a s i n t he c ase o f F rance, a ctive a cculturation o f n atives i s p art o f o ffic ial p o licy a nd p hilosophy, a nd w hether t he i ndigenous s ocieties, o w ing t o t heir o wn

s ocial

i nstitutions

a re s ufficiently f lex ible t o a llow f or s uch

c hange. T he u se o f

t he

t erm a cculturation w ith o ur m atrix m odel

i s n ot

m eant t o m ean t otal a cculturation t o t he v alues o f t he d om inating g roup T here h ave n ot b een a ny s uch h istorically o r e thnographically k nown c ases. R ather i t i s m eant t o m ean a m ajority o f n atives c rossc utting a ll s ocial c lasses o r d escent g roups b eing t ransformed t hrough t hem . A cculturation o f a s ociety w ill t ake a l ong t ime a nd u sually o ccurs f irst w ith t he i ndigenous u pper o r m iddle c lasses w ith a t rickling e ffect i nto o ther p art o f t he s ociety. A s F allers ( 1965) a nd o thers h ave s tressed, t he i mpositions o f a ny c olonial a dm inistra t ion w ill s till l eave s ome f orm o f t raditional l eadership a nd d ec ision m aking

a t

t he

k inship

l evel.

T hus o ne m ight e xpect

15-

i n

s ituations o f

c olonial a cculturation t o h ave a c hange i n t echnology a nd e conomic s ystems ( occupations, p roduction, c onsumption), w ith l ess c hange i n i deology a nd

k inship.

B y c ases o f i mperialistic a cculturation w e m ean t ransformations o f o nly e conomic s ectors o f n ative l ife. W hen c olonizing s ettlement a nd s ocial i nteraction b etween n ative a nd c olonizer i s e ven m ore r es tricted, w e v iew t hat a s a n e quilibrium s ituation ( see b elow ). O ften a d om inating s ociety u tilized a f lex ible a pproach

i ncor-

p orating a spects o f c olonial a nd i mperial a cculturation. O ne o f t he b est e xamples c omes f rom c o lonial p olicy b y v arious p owers i n h andling r egions o f N orth A frica. p owers i n

( Roman,

t erms o f

F rench,

E xam ination o f

I talian,

S panish)

p rincipal s hows

N orth A frican

r emarkable s im ilarity

t he p hilosophy o f a cculturation u sed

t o c ontrol

v ery s im i-

l ar i ndigenous s ocieties. A lthough n ever a nalyzed i n d etail, o ne f eels t hat t he s imilarity o f c ontro l p olicy f or N orth A frica i s p rim arily d ue t o e cological v ariab les, s uch a s M editerranean c oastline, s patial l ocation o f u rban s ite , n atural r esource l ocation, a nd i nl and

p astoral

a daptation w ith

l ow p opulation d ensity.

R oman c olonization b rought a bout l egion m ovements i nto t he a rea a nd l arge-scale n ative r esettlement p rograms w ith R oman t akeo ver o f t he b est a gricu ltural l and. N orthern ( coastal) l and w as a pp ropriated o n am assive s cale, a nd R oman c o lonizers g ranted l arge p lots ( 120 a cres/colonizer) f or f arm ing a nd g razing. L ater, a s c ommon p ractice, r etired l egionnaires a nd a cculturated p rovincials w ere g ranted p lots ( Garnsey 1 978: 2 21 4 ). W hole t ribes w ith a h igh d egree o f a cculturation w ere g ranted l and t racts ( Garnsey 1 978). C o lonial c ontrol o f c oastal c ities b y a ll p owers h as b een t o t otal i n N orth A frica. W ithin t hese s ettlements, a ccultura-

c lose

t ion r ates, e specially a mong n ative e lite g roups h ave b een e specia lly h igh. N eighboring t owns a nd v illages, s trong ly c ontrolled e conom ica lly a nd

s ocially b y t hese p rincipal

c it ies, a lso h ad

h igh r ates o f

a cculturation. T his c o lonial w as c ombined w ith

a cculturation p o licy f or c oastal

i mperial

f orms o f a cculturation

N orth A frica

i n m ore r ural

s ec-

t ions o f c entral a nd s outhern z ones. P rior t o a ny c olonial p ower e xisting i n N orth A frica, t he p eriodic m arket w as a n i mportant f ocus f or e conomic r edistribution, i ntegration a nd t he d issem ination o f s ocial

a nd

i nformation.

M ore

r ecently,

t he

s uq c ontinues

t his

t rend.

A ll t he c olonizing p owers i n N orth A frica r ecognized t he s ocial e conomic p ower o f t he p eriodic m arket. A lthough a llowing i t t o

c ontinue, s uit

t hey a ltered

t he

l ocations a nd

c onditions o f

e xistence t o

t heir g overnance.

T he p re-colonial m arket w as h eld i n a g iven l ocation o ver 1 21 8 d ays ( solar s chedule ). T his s chedule w as a djusted s lightly s o a s t o c oincide w ith t he R oman l unar p attern o f e very 1 1 4 d ays ( 1/2 l unar m onth) ( Shaw 1 979: 9 7 ). M ore r ecent c o lonial a dministrative p owers i n N orth A frica e ssentially c ontinued

r ule.

t he

1 4 d ay s chedule.

T he l ocation o f m any m arkets r emained t he s ame a fter c o lonial S uch p eriodic m arkets a re c onsciously p laced i n l ocations n ear

16-

g ood w ater d ers

s upply,

b etween

a t

t ribal

c rossroads o f

t erritorial

T he t raditional a s a l ocation l ection

m arket

f or f inding

p oints,

t rading c aravans,

a nd

n eutral

b or-

h oldings.

s erved

s easonal

t he c olonial

l abor f or

p ower e conomically

h arvesting,

a nd a s p ropaganda s tations f or

a s

t ax c o l

r eceiving a nd

-

t rans -

m itting s ensitive i nformation. O w ing t o f ears o f l arge a ssembly l eading t o r ebellion, t here a lways e x isted s ome m inimal c o lonial p resence a t a p eriodic m arketplace.

T he S panish p o licy

i n p arts o f

t he N ew W orld a lso r earticulated t he t raditional m arket s ystem i n o rder t o a id i n c ontro l a nd , i ncrease d egree o f a ssim ilation ( e.g., C .

S m ith

1 976;

B rom ley

1 976).

O ther R oman r uling s ituations o ffer g ood e xamples o f l arges cale a cculturation. T he i ndigenous u pper c lasses w ithin t he p rov ince o f S panish B aetica a bandoned

t heir

t raditional

l anguage,

d ress a nd

t otal a ssemblage o f e thnic i dentification i n f avor o f R oman l ifestyle a nd l egal c itizenship, w hile m uch o f n orthern a nd w estern S pain r et ained

t raditional

I bero-Celti 'c

l ifestyle a nd

m aterial

c ulture.

T he

d ifference i n a cculturation i s d ue p rimarily t o s outhern S pain ( Baetica) h av ing l onger R oman r ule a nd c ontaining a c lustering o f v ital

m etallurgical T actitus'

r esources

a ccount o f

( M illar

h is

1 967:

1 56).

f ather-in-law A grico la's p o licy a s

g overnor o f B ritain i s a n e xample o f f orced a cculturation o f t he n ative e lite t o R oman v alues. A s im ilar s ituation s eems t o h ave e x isted i n G ermany, w here a rchaeological e v idence f rom t he c emetery s ite o f B ad N auheim h as u pper c lass n ative b urial w ith t ypically A ugusta-Roman c eram ics T he

( Wells

1 972:

t hrust f or p o licies o f

l y t ake r e ligious a nd

i deological

2 33).

c o lonial

a cculturation m ay

t racts.

F or e xample,

i nitial -

t he f irst-

l ine B ritish c o lonialism i nto C hina a nd J apan w as v ia C hristian m iss ionary w ork ( Greenberg 1 951). T he m ultitude o f o ther I ndo-European s ocieties c ontro lled b y R omans w ere r elatively e asy t o a cculturate ( compared w ith n on- ndo E uropean) b ecause o f i nterpretatio R omana; n amely t he e quation o f n ative d eities w ith R oman o nes ( Nock 1 972: 7 52). T he d eities w orshipped b y s uch I ndo-European g roups a s C elts o r I llyr i ans w ere c omparab le t o t he R oman o nes b ecause o f a 5 ,000 y ear s hared h eritage. A side

f rom c onscious p olicy a llow ing f or

h igh r ates o f a ccul

-

t uration, c ertain e co logical f actors m ay c ome i nto p lay a nd f oster s uch a c ultural c hange. R ecent c o lonial p owers h ave b een m aritime c ontrolling e mpires. T he o nly r ecent e xception t o t his i s t he 1 9th c entury R ussian c o lonization o f a djacent l and m asses ( Central A sia). N ations s uch a s P ortugal, S pain a nd F rance c ontro lled i sland g roupi ngs d istant a nd s mall i n t erritory. T his l ack o f l arge t erritory t o c ontrol m ay f oster i ncreased s ocial r elationships a mong n atives a nd a dm inistrators, e ventually l eading t o l arge-scale a nd l ong-term a ccult uration. G ood e xamples o f s uch i sland c ontrol i nclude P ortugal's h oldings i n E ast A sia ( Fleidhouse 1 967: 147 ) a nd F rench c ontrol o f G uadeloupe, a n i sland o f . o nly 5 81 4 s quare m iles, b ut w hich h ad o ver 100 c olonial o f

a dministrators

b ureaucratic o fficials

a cculturative e ffect

u pon

( Thornton

1 965:

1 85).

S uch

l arge n umbers

r elative t o a rea m ust e ventually h ave a n t he p opulation.

17-

T he a rchaeo logical o f p artial o r f ull t ion i s o ccurring,

i mplication o f c o lonial

a nd

i mperial

p o licies

a cculturation h as n ever b een t ested. I f a ccu lturao ne w ould e xpect a c hange t hrough t i me i n m aterial

c ulture t o o ccur w ithin h ouseholds o f n ative p opulations t o i rcreased a mounts a nd c lasses r epresenting a t otal r ange o f e xposure t o t he f oreign v alue s ystems. A long w ith s ettlement m aterial, b uria l d ata w hich c an d ocument c hange i n c orpse d isposal, b ody o rienta f lon, s pat ial l ocation o f t he c emetery, o r g rave g oods m ay b e i mportant. T he s pread o f a cculturative v alues a nd m aterial c ulture m ay b e q uite l ike t hat o f C larke's r egional s ub-cultural a ssemblage ( 1 968 : 2 37). G radua lly t hrough t i me o ne w ould s ee i ncreased a mounts o f ' foreign' a rtif acts w ithin t raditional a ssemblages, c ulm inating i n a l most t otal, o r c omplete c hange a l

' death '

e xhibit

o f

t o t hese n ew f orms o f m aterial

c ulture;

t he m ateri-

a p revious c ulture.

H istorical a nd e thnographic c ases o f c o lonial a cculturation t endencies f or a cculturation t o o ccur f irst a nd w ith g reatest

r ates o f c hange a mong t he e lite o f t he i ndigenous p opulations ( if t he s ociety i s i nternally s tratified t o b egin w ith). H owever, t he a rcha eo logist m ust n ot l ose s ight o f t he f act t hat c ulture c hange c an o ccur w hereby t he d irection o f a cculturative c hange i s d irectly o pp osite t he u sual p attern o f n atives c hanging t o v alues h eld b y t he c ontrolling s ociety. F or e xample, i n M anchu d om inated C hina, t he d ominant m inority w as ( van d er

S prenkel

I nstances

a cculturated

t o c ustoms o f

t raditional

s ociety

1 962). o f

i mperialism w ith a cculturation a re m ore s ubtle

q uestions o f a rchaeological d iscovery. T he s ocial c hanges t ake p lace w ithin e conom ic i nstitutions, u sually t he m arketplace o r t rade n etw ork . O ther c omponents o f t he s ociety, i ncluding t he m aterial c ult ure, m ay n ot b e d rastically a ffected. W hat w ould b e n eeded i s a r esearch d esign e xam ining l ong-term t emporal c hanges i n s patial l ocat ion o f

m arkets,

c ommodities

t raded,

a nd

t ransport n etworks.

E quilibrium S ituations T he c ontrol

s ituation w hich

i s h istorically m ost

c ommon

i s

o ne o f c olonial s ettlers o r a dm inistrators c onfined t o s pecific s ettlements w ithin a t erritory o f a g iven s ociety o r g eographical r eg ion. A lmost a ll d aily a ctivities f or t he c ontrollers a re c onducted w ithin t he c onfines o f t his e nclave s ettlement, w hich u sually h as a s pecific f unction.

T hus

t he e nclave r esembles

i n p art

a t ypical

r esi-

d ence s ettlement i ncorporating l ife a ctivities w ith s ome a dditional f unctions. T he e nclave l ifestyle, i ncluding h ouse a rchitecture, s ubsistence, a nd d iscard s trategy, m ay r esemble t o a g reat e xtent t hat o f t he f ounded o verall

' mother'

n ation.

F or

e xample,

t he e nclave c olonies

i n I onia a nd M egara b y G reeks h ave g reat m aterial c ulture t o G reece ( Graham 1 964:

o f s uch

s im ilar e nclaves c an

M iletus

f ounded

d uplication o f T he

b e q uite e xtensive.

s im ilarities i n 5 ) . T he r epetition T he

G reek c ity o f

7 5 e nclaves t hroughout t he M editerranean; e ach a G reek w ay o f

r ationale f or

l ife.

e nclave c ontro l

p osure t o n ative p opulation

i s

u sually

t hrough m inimal

s ocial

e x-

i n t erms o f w anting s tabilized

e conom ic t ransactions a nd d ecreased c iv il a dm inistration -- a l owp rofile s trategy. T his a pproach a llows f or t he m ost e fficient c ontro l

18-

a nd e xploitation o f l ocations w aterways, l im ited

n atural

i n c ultural

b elieved

r esource s ites) e xposure a nd

i mportant

w hile

r etain

( e.g.,

i ndigenous

c oastlines,

p opulations a re

t heir n ative v alues.

W here

empires c ontro lled v ast t racts o f l and ( e.g., B ritain i n I ndia, S pain i n t he A mericas) t his w as t he o nly f easible a pproach t o a cq uiring r esources a nd k eeping p acified l arge p opulations. U nlike t he p reviously d iscussed p o licies, a cculturation o f n atives w as n ot c ons ciously p art o f

t he e nclave a pproach.

O ne o f t he b est e xamples o f l arge-scale a nd l ong-term e nclave p olicies c omes f rom t he R ussian c onquest a nd c olonization o f C entral A sia d uring t he 1 9th c entury ( e.g., d 'Encausse 1 967; P ierce 1 960; B acon 1 966). T he R ussians w ere c onfronted w ith a m ultitude o f s ocie ties d iffering g reatly i n d egree o f s edentism, l anguage a nd t echn ology ( but f or t he m ost p art I slam ic i n b elief). S trategy w as o ne o f e stablishing m ilitary c enters a t s ocially i mportant l ocations, s upplemented b y t reaty o bligations w ith p owerful g roups ( e.g., U zbeck l y t he m ilitary e nclaves w ere t rans K hanates o f B ukhara). G radual , f ormed i nto b oth m ilitary a nd c ivil-administrative c enters w ith n ative e lders r etaining l aws p revailing i n m ost

c ontrol i n t raditional v illages a nd I slam ic s ituations. B y t he e nd o f t he 1 9th c entury,

R ussian s ettlers m oved i nto t he a rea f or f arming a nd p astoralism w ith t he r esulting d isplacement o f n ative p astoralists a nd i ncreasing f orced a cculturation o f t he r emaining n ative p opulation. I f o ne e xam ines

t he B ritish s trategy

i n

I ndia

( Thompson a nd

G arratt 1 93 1 +), S panish i n t he A mericas ( e.g., P arry 1 9 0, 1 966), o r R oman i n P annonia a nd U pper M oesia ( Bartel 1 980) , o ne w ould s ee r em arkably s im ilar a pproaches o f c ontro lling l arge a nd e thnically d iv erse p opulations t hrough e nclaves o f s mall n umbers o f c olonial m ilitary a nd a dministrative s ettlers. T here

i s c onsiderable v ariation

i n

t ype o f c olonial

e nclave.

S ome l ike t he G reeks i n S icily o r E uropeans i n N orth A merica a mount t o o rganic e xtensions o f s ettlement l ifestyle i n t heir h omeland. T he E uropean s ettlers i n e astern N orth A merica t ook w ith t hem a s m uch m at erial c ulture a s c ould b e t ransported ( Fieldhouse 1 967: 9 9 ). O ften, t hese s ettlement e nclaves w ere s patially l ocated w here t here w as l ittle i nteraction w ith n atives. F or e xample, t he f irst E uropean c olonial e nclave i n A frica w as b y D utch s ettlers a long t he C ape o f G ood H ope a ctivity.

i n t he 1 8th c entury. N o n ative s ettlement I t w as o nly l ater, d uring B ritish c ontro l

b arred t heir a nd Z ulu e xpan-

s ion f rom t he n ortheast, t hat a n e nclave s ituation w as t ransformed i nto a c o lonial f rontier w ave p roblem o f c onflict ( De K iew iet 1 937). O ne o f t he v ery b est a rchaeological e xamples o f c olonial e nc laves c omes f rom t he E gyptian M iddle a nd N ew K ingdom c onquest a nd c ontrol o f N ubia ( Kemp 1 978). W alled t owns i ncorporating c ivil a nd r eligious f unctions f or a dm inistrators w ere e stablished; a ll c ult urally i solated f rom t he i ndigenous p opulation. T hese ' temple t owns ' h ad o n a s maller s cale b ehaviors o f l arge E gyptian c ity t o t he n orth. I n a s i milar f ashion, t he R oman c oloniae, u sually c omposed o f r etired l egionnaires w as a s ettlement e nclave w ith s tandard c onstitution a nd l egal r ights e xisting i n a p rovincial s ituation s urrounded b y n ative g roups ( Millar 1 967 : 8 14) . E nclaves w hich w ere e stablished i n C eltic o r G reek r egions b y R omans h ave m aterial c utlure a nd s ettlement a rchitecture m ore i n c ommon w ith t hat o f I talian R oman c ities t han

19-

t he

i mmediate e nvirons. A v ariation o n

t he s ettlment e nclave w ould

b e t hose

s ituations

w here n ative s ettlements a lready e xist i n l ocations d esired b y t he c o lonizing p ower. A t ake-over w ith b uilding a lteration w ould e nsue, h aving t he e ffect o f p ossibly c hanging f unctions o f t he s ite. F or e xample, a C eltic h ill-top s ettlement e xisted a t t he s trategic l ocat ion o f t he j unction o f t he S ava a nd D anube r ivers f or h undreds o f y ears p rior t o R oman m ovement i nto w hat i s n ow S erbia, Y ugoslavia. T hese w aterways w ere c rucial t o c ontro l a nd t rade, s o t he R omans t ook t he

l ocation

a nd

t ransformed

l arge m ilitary f ort

t he p revious C eltic

s ettlement

i nto a

( Singidunum ).

A rchaeologically,

s uch s ituations

s hould

b e p lainly s een

i n

t he

s tratigraphy a nd a rtifacts o f a g iven s ite t hrough t ime. T his e xamp le s till r emains a n e nclave s trategy, s ince t he n ative i nhabitants w ould b e d isplaced. S uch f orts a re e xamples o f specialized function enclaves. Enc laves o f t his t ype u sually a re l ocated a s p art o f a m oving ' wake' o f f rontier e xpansion ( Bartel 1 980: 1 9-23) d uring a p eriod o f c onq uest a nd

b oundary c ontro l.

S ome f orts,

l ike t hose

i n

h eld C arolinas o f N orth A merica ( South 1 977a), w ere o f s ometimes i n u se f or o nly s ix m onths t o t wo y ears. O ther

s pecialized e nclaves o ccur

f requently,

a nd

t he B ritishs hort d uration,

c ould

h ave

g reat c onsequences f or t he l ong-term c omplexion o f c ontrol. E uropean p resence i n A ustralia b egan a s l ocations f or B ritish c riminals ( penal e nclaves). T hese s ites w ere q uite s izable; f rom t he f irst s uch p enal c o lony i n S ydney i n 1 788 u p t o 1 868, 1 30,000 c onv icts h ad b een s ent t o A ustralia ( Fieldhouse 1 967: 2 147 ). T he a dministrative a nd m erchant s upport p opulations f or t he p enal s ites e ventually f ounded s ettlement e nclaves p rivate

( Mills

1 915).

i nitiative;

T he m ost

n ot

T hese c ivilian b egun

s ettlements w ere t he

r esult o f

b y B ritish p o licy.

c ommon f orm o f e nclave

i s

t he o ne r elated

t o s pecial-

i zed e conom ic c oncerns. A lmost e very c olonizing p ower h as e stablished s uch e nclaves d evoted t o e xtraction, p roduction a nd t ransportation o f g oods. T here a re n umerous e xamples, i ncluding P ortuguese p lanta t ion e nclaves

i n

B razil

( Boxer

1 963),

S panish s ilver m ines a nd

f acto-

r ies t hroughout t he A mericas, R oman l ead a nd i ron m ines i n S pain a nd Y ugoslavia ( Healy 1 977) o r J apanese m arket c enters a nd p orts o f T aiwan ( Crissman

1 976).

E nclaves o f a s pecialized e conom ic p ursuit e xhibit r egularity l arity h as t here

t ends t o e xist

a dministrative l ocated

s o a s

a s ingle c o lonial

i mportance

( i.e.,

c ity o f

p rimate c ity).

t o t ake a dvantage o f e fficient

g reatest e conom ic a nd T his

S uch c ialized I t

( Smith u rban

1 976:

i s

( coastal,

e xport o f n ative o f t he c olonial

3 0 -3 2).

c olonial

c enters,

a long w ith s maller a nd

t ask s ites f orm a s ystem o rganized

i s a v ertical

s ettlement

t ransport

r iverine) a nd c oordinate e conom ics o f p roduction a nd n atural r esources, a s w ell a s a dm inistrative c ontro l h interland

a d egree o f

i n s patial c onfiguration a cross t he l andscape. T his r egub een a nalyzed b y e conom ic g eographers. I n s uch s ituations

h ierarchy o f

s ettlements e ncompassing,

20-

m ore

s pe -

f or e conomic p urposes. a t

t he

l owest

l evel, s ingle p urpose e xtraction a nd p roduction s ites a nd r ural m ark ets, t hen n ative d istrict m arket t owns, a nd f inally t he s ingle p rim ate c ity. T his s o lar s ystem, u nlike c lassic c entral p lace c oordina t ion o r n etworks h as a ll t he f low o f c ommodities t owards t he s ingle p rimate c ity. S uch a s ystem h as b een a nalyzed i n m odern A frican c olonial

s ituations

( Vance

1 970;

T he e stablishment o f u rban a nt f or

J ohnson

1 970).

p rimate c ities m ay h ave s ome

i mport-

c ultural c onsequences f or t he i ndigenous p opulation, a nd h ence t he a rchaeological r ecord. F or e xample, d uring t he 5 0 y ears o f

J apanese c ontrol o f T aiwan d uring t he l ate 1 9th a nd e arly 2 0th c ent uries, a s eries o f m arketing a nd a dm inistrative e nclaves w ere e stablished. T he c onstruction o f r oad n etworks a nd i mportance o f m arkets i nto t hese c enters m ade f or e asy a ccess b y t he n ative p opul ation; t his i n t urn m ade f or a s ignificant d ifference i n n ative s ocial i nteraction a nd m arriage p atterns ( Crissman 1 976). T he d iff erences

i n d escent a nd

r esidence w ould

b ution o f n ative d omestic m aterial E quilibrium s ituations a lso b een c ommon.

h ave a n e ffect

u pon d istri-

c u lture.

i nvolving

W e a re r eferring

i mperialistic p o licies

t o t hose t imes w hen

h ave

t reaty o r

c lientage a rrangements a re e stablished b etween t wo s ocieties, b ut w ithout a ny, o r o nly a l ow l evel o f a dministrative o r m ilitary f orces e xisting i n t erritory o f a c ontro lled g roup. f or s uch t reaties t o o ccur i s a lso e conom ic, a n e mpire n eeds a ' buffer z one'

b etween

T he u sual r ationale b ut i t m ay o ccur w here

i ts p ossessions a nd

a nother

p ower. O ne o f i mperial

t he b est

p olicy

a rchaeo logical

i n S outhwest A sia

e xamples

c omes

f rom t he E gyptian

( especially S yria)

d uring t he N ew

K ingdom ( Kemp 1 978: 3 8 -3 9). H ere t he E gyptians w ere f aced w ith l ong e stablished c ity-state g roups w ith t raditions o f u rbanism, l iteracy, h igh-grade t echno logy a nd l arge p opulations r elative t o E gypian m ilitary s trength. A s eries o f c lientage t reaties w ere f ormed b etween h ereditary A sian k ings a nd E gypt, w hereby t he k ing m aintained c ity-state c ontrol w hile s wearing a llegiance t o P haroah a nd o ffering y early t ributes. A rchaeologically, s uch a r elation s hip m ay o nly b e s een t hrough w ritten t reaty d ocuments a nd a t rick le o f

t rade g oods

b etween p atron a nd

c lient.

A long t he R oman f rontier ( limes s ystem ) t here e x isted a nother e xample o f i mperial e quilibrium. V arious p astoral c hiefdom s ocieties ( i.e., S armatianS, H uns) h ad t reaties t o c ease r aiding i n r eturn f or m arketing p rivileges i n t he v arious f ort e nclaves ( M csy 1 974) M ore r ecently, e ast

a nd w est

d uring

1 8th c entury E uropean e xplo itation o f

c oasts o f A frica,

m aterial

c ulture w as

t raded

t he

f or

s laves o r g um t rees. N o E uropean m ilitary, a dm inistrative o r c ivil s ettler p opulation e x isted. D uring t he 2 0th c entury t he s trategy w as c hanged t o c o lonial e nclaves w ith B ritish s upervision, b ut d ayt o-day a dm inistration i n h ands o f h ereditary c hiefs w ith n ative l aw a nd c ourts ( i.e., D ual M andate p olicy) ( Dilley 1 937; L ugard 1 965; P erham

1 937). O n a l arger

o ver

E urope

U nited

i n

s cale

t he

S tates c ould

s uch e conom ic

1 2th c entury o r

i nfluence a s

J apanese

I slam ic c ontro l

i nfluence

i n m odern

b e c onsidered m acro e xamples o f e conom ic

21-

i mperi-

a lism i n e quilibrium . A n a rchaeological s trategy l arger f orms i s p robably b eyond o ur f inancial a nd F or b oth c olonial r eferring t o w hat D . L . l ibrium . i mperial

t o d eal w ith t hese sam pling b oundaries.

a nd i mperial s ituations, w e a re s pecifically C larke ( 1 968 : 1 4 9-50) c alled m etastable e qui-

S uch a s ystem i s i n c ultural b alance b etween c o lonial o r n ation a nd n atives o nly i n t he a bsence o f a s uitab le c ata -

l yst, w hich

i f

i ntroduced,

w ould

s ignificantly a lter

t he e x isting

s ocial r elationships. A n a rmed r ebellion a gainst a n e nclave b y n atives ( such a s i n R oman G ermany) m ay c hange p olicy f rom o ne o f c olonial e quilibrium t o t hat o f e radication. A s i n R ussian C entral A sia, a n i nflux o f s ettlers m ay c hange p olicy t owards f orced a ccul t uration. T herefore, a ll a rchaeo logical s ituations h ypothesized t o b e s ome f orm o f e quilibrium c ontrol s hould b e i nvestigated w ith s uff ic ient t emporal s cale s o t hat p otential c atalysts o f s ocial c hange l eading

t o s hifts

i n o rganizational

I ndigenous R esponse T he p otential b eing

c ontrolled

p o licy m ay

b e o btained.

t o C ontro l' f or,

a nd

k inds o f

g roup-oriented

b y a nother g roup a re s ome o f

r esponses

t he m ost

t o

i nteresting

b ehavioral s tudies c onducted b y s ocial a nthropologists. O ur m ajor p roblem l ies i n t he d egree o f a rchaeological v isibility o f s uch a ction. T he m ost f requent t ype o f r esponse i s s ome f orm o f m ilitary u prising. S uch a r esponse m ay s tem f rom m any c ircumstances. E xa mples i nclude t he A merican R evolution o f E uropean s ettlers, I ndian M utiny o f

1 857

( Chiro l

1 910)

a nd

,

t he

1 964), a ll a gainst B ritain ( only t he d igenous r esponse); t he s lave r evo lt i n t he l ate 1 9th c entury ( Stoddard 1 901 4 -7 i n s outhwest A frica a gainst A byssinians a gainst I talians o f r esistance t o R oman r ule,

B oer W ar o f

1 899

( MacM illan

I ndian e xample i s a t rue i ni n H aiti a gainst t he F rench

1 911 4); t he H erero u prising o f G ermany ( Henderson 1 962) ; a nd t he

i n 1 896 ( Darkwah 1 971). A s a n e xample a l ocal N orth A frican l eader n amed

T acfarians f ormed a c oalition o f p astoral g roups w arring ( unsuccess f ully) a gainst t he p rovincial r ule f or s even y ears ( Garnsey 1 978: 2 52). a ll

W ith t he e xception o f

t he

r est w ere n ot

t he A merican a nd A byssinian e xamples,

s uccessful

a nd

b rutally s uppressed.

S uch a r esponse m ay h ave a d egree o f a rchaeological

v isibility

s im ilar t o t he e radication p olicies p reviously d iscussed. S hort o r l ong t erm w arfare, o ften a mounting t o s kirm ishes, h as l ow m aterial v isibility.

W ith p rotracted

r ebellion,

c hanges

i n p atterns o f s et-

t lement l ocation, a nd e x istence o f s mall c amp s ites, m ay e ven h ave t he a rchaeo logical a ppearance o f s ome f orms o f s ites g enerated b y b and

s ocieties A nother

( Binford f orm o f

1 980).

i ndigenous

r esponse

i s

i n

t erms

o f

i deological

r evitalization m ovements. S uch n ativistic r evivals a re s een f req uently i n t he e thnographic r ecord ( e.g., W orsley 1 957). T here h ave a lso b een s uch m ovements i n t he p ast. I n 6 9 A .D. a p erson n amed M arcus o f

t he C eltic B oii

c laimed

t o b e d ivine a nd a ccumulated

a p-

p rox imately 8 ,000 f o llowers. T his n ativ istic r evo lt w as c rushed b y a nother C e ltic g roup, f ully a cculturated t o R oman v alues ( M illar 1 967:

1 52).

I n

r ural

R oman-held A lgeria o f

22-

t he 3 rd

c entury A .D.

a nnual f airs w ere h eld w ithout c olonial a dministrative p erm ission, o wing t o d ivine c ommandment o f t hree l ocal n on-Roman d eities ( Juba, G enius V anisnesi l ocal

l eaders

‚

D ii

( Shaw

I ngirozoglezim )

1 979:

w ho s poke t hrough v isions t o

9 1 4-100).

R ev italization m ovements

h ave n ever

b een

s tudied a rchaeologi

-

c ally. I t a ppears t hat u nless i deological m ovements a re o n a l arge p opulational s cale, o r i f t extual m aterial o ccurs, a nalysis m ay n ot b e a rchaeologically v isible o r m istaken f or c ontinuation o f p revious i deo logica l b eliefs w ithout i ntervention b y t he d om inating p ower. R ather t han a r esponse t o c ontrol, t hey m ay b e m istaken f or a f ormal p o licy o f a llowing t hese p eople t o c ontinue b eliefs ( some e quilib rium p o licy ). T hese r esponses, e ither m ilitary o r i deological, t end t o b e l ast r esorts c onducted b y s ections o f t he i ndigenous p opulation.

t he

T he m ost f requent r esponse t o p o licy i s n ot a s a cceptance o f s ome d egree o f a cculturation.

U se o f P attern R ecognition

i n

i n C olonial

r eactive;

n amely

A rchaeo logy

D uring t he l ast d ecade t here h ave b een s ome i mportant a dvances t echnique o f q uantitative a nalysis r elated t o c olonial s tudies.

S outh ( 1977a, b ; 1 978a, b ; 1 979) a nd h is a ssociates ( e.g., F erguson 1 977; L ew is 1 977) h ave , i nvestigated B ritish p atterns o f c ontro l i n t he U nited S tates d uring t he 1 8th c entury, e xam ining i ntra- a nd in te r-site f unctioning, e thnicity a nd s ocial s tratification. W hat i s b eing a nalyzed a re t he w ays a B ritish C olonial S ystem w ill p erp etuate b ehavioral s elves a s

s ites

r egularities,

b y-products

S outh f ound t hat ( civilian h omes,

i n

w hich w ill

t he a rchaeological

i n

t urn p attern

t hem-

r ecord.

b y e xcavation o f t he e ntire r ange o f B ritish s hops, f orts) a nd o rdering o f m aterial c ul-

t ure i nto c ertain c lasses o f o bjects ( e.g., k itchen, a rchitectural) o ne c an d erive v arious i mportant c ontrasting p atterns w hich w ould ' fingerprint'

a B ritish C olonial

i n

S tates w ithout

t he U nited

S ystem o bserved

f urther

h istorical

a rchaeo logically d ocumentation.

S outh, f o llow ing K aplan ( 196 1+ ) , ,calls t his m ethod o f a rchaeo l ogical i nquiry p attern r ecognition. B y p attern w e m ean a r elation s hip b etween

t wo o r m ore e lements;

t he e lements

r elated

r epeatedly,

d irectly o r s equentially i n t he r eal w orld ( Kuhn 1 971 4: 6 6). A ny p attern c onsitutes a n i nformation s et. T his c onsitutuent i nformat ion e nables

t he a rchaeologist a s o bserver

t o m ake

i nferences a bout

s omething o ther t han t he p attern i tself o r a t l east o ther t han t he o bserved p ortion o f t he p attern. T he i nferences m ade a re a f unction o f t he p attern a nd i ts r elation t o t he f orces t hat p rod uced i t, a nd t he o bserver's p rior k nowledge o f a g iven p attern a nd t he f orces w hich c reated i t. T he r ecognition o f p atterns i nvolves a f ormal m eta-process b y w hich u ncoded s ensory i nputs f rom a g iven p attern i n t he e nvironment s electively a ctivate a c oded p attern o r -

g roups o f p atterns l eading c an

t o a n

b e v iewed

t erns

i s

a lready

l earned a nd

i nference t hat

a n

i n t he e nvironment.

a n a ct o f d ecoding

s tored

i n

i nstance o f t hat T herefore,

i nformation

23-

t he c erebral

c ortex,

p attern c urrently

r ecognition o f p at-

f rom a g iven

i nput.

B riefly, S outh ( 1977a) h ad d elineated t hree p atterns w hich r eo ccur a t s ites o f t he B ritish C olonia l S ystem i n t he e astern U nited S tates. T he B runsw ick p attern i s t he s patial r egularity o f s econdary r efuse d isposal a t e ntranceways t o v arious r uins, s uch a s h ouses, s hops a nd f orts. T he C aro lina p attern i s o ne o f h igh r atios o f a rtifact t ypes s ubsumed u nder t he a rtifact c lass ' K itchen' r elative t o a rtifact t ypes s ubsumed u nder t he c lass ' Architecture ', a nd r e lat ive t o o ther a rtifact c lasses ( e.g., f urniture, a rms, c lothing ). T he F rontierpattern e xhibits a n i nverse r atio t o t hat o f t he C aro lina p attern; h igh a rchitecture t ypes r elative t o l ower k itchen t ypes i n a pproximately t he s ame m agnitude o f f requency p ercentage. W hat a re t he b ehav ioral r elationships e xpressed t hrough t hese p atterns o f r efuse? T he B runsw ick p attern i s h ighly r eflexive o f e thnicity a nd t he e ncu lturation p rocess o f s ocialization. F or e xample , i n a s tudy c omparing 1 8th c entury B ritish-Co lonial a nd G erman-American g arbage d isposal p atterns, t here w as f ound t o b e a s ignificant d iff erence i n s patial l ocation o f t he r efuse ( Carrillo 1 977). T he d iff erences b etween t he C aro l i na and F rontier p atterns a re n ot t hat e asily e xp lained. T hey m ay b e d ue t o a f lurry o f b uilding a ctivity o ver a r elatively s hort t emporal s pan i n f rontier-colonizing s ituat ions f orming h igh p ercentages o f a rchitectura l a rtifacts ( e .g., n ails, c lamps) c ompared t o e conom ic c onditions i n p olitically m ore s table d omestic a reas ( Caro lina p attern) w hereby k itchen m iddens a ccumulate a nd k itchen a rtifacts h ave a g reater p robability o f b eing i n m assed d iscard a nd a rchaeo logical r ecovery c ontexts. l t i s f elt h ere t hat t he m ethod o f p attern r ecognition, m odes o f a nalysis, a nd t he c lasses o f p atterns f ound f or t he B ritish C olonial S ystem a re h ighly a daptable t o a lmost a ll c olonial a rchaeol ogical s ituations w orldw ide. T he r ationale f or t his r ests w ith : 1 ) b ehavioral r egu larities a ssociated w ith c olonial/imperial c ontro l, n amely h igh p robability o f e ither e radication, f orced a ss imilation o r f orm o f m etastable e quilibrium ; 2 ) l im ited s ets o f i ndigenous s ocietal r esponses t o c o lonial c ontro l, n amely s trong e thnic s elf-identification m aintenance, a cc u lturation, m etastab le e quilibrium; 3 ) r eplication o f t he e nculturation p rocess f or a g iven e thn ic g roup ( i .e ., B runswick p attern), n ame ly e thnicity p erpetuation a nd

l ow-level

e thnic c hange o n

i ndiv idual

b asis;

1 4 ) s patial a nd f unctional n ature o f c olonial d omestic s tabili zation b eh ind t he ' wake' g radient o f f rontier m ilitary e xpansion a nd c onflict; a nd,

5 ) s uch a r estricted s et o f b ehavioral r egularities c orrel ated w ith a c oncom itant s et o f r egularly r eoccurring a rchaeo logical r efuse. U sing t he a rchaeo logical s ituation i n t he R oman p rovinces o f P annonia ( western S erbia, e astern C roatia) a nd U pper M oesia ( eastern S erbia) , w e h ave b egun t o e xam ine t he a pp l i cabi 1i ty o f p attern

r ecognition

f or

t his

s pecific c o lonial

E mp ire.

D uring t he l ast 1 5 y ears a n umber o f a rchaeo logica l s ites s panning t he 2 nd-4th c enturies A .D. ( dating b ased o n n um ismatic, c eram ic, i nscription a nd e thnohistoric d ata ) f or P annonia a nd U pper M oesia ( M csy 1 97 1 4). u rban s ettlement

( e.g.,

S irm ium

=

h ave b een e xcavated T hey s pan a r ange f rom

m odern S remska M itrovica) w ith a

24-

l arge d iversity o f r uin t ypes ( e.g. 'pub lic f orum b u ildings, s hops, v illas, s ports a renas) t o l arge m ilitary c amps ( e.g., S ing idunum m odern B elgrade, V iminacium = m odern K osto lad , s mall f orts ( e.g., B oljetin o n t he s outher b ank o f t he D anube ), a nd s pecialized m ining s ites ( e.g., K raku 'lu Y ordan, M t. K osmaj) A lso e xcavated h ave b een R oman r u ins o f u nknown f unction, s uch a s t he s ite o f G amzigrad n ear Z aje ar w hich h as b een v ariously c laimed t o b e a n e mperor's p alace, l arge h unting v illa, o r M oesian a dm inistrative c enter. T he d iversity o f e xcavated s ites w ithin a 2 00 y ear o ccupation s pan a llows f or a c oncrete t est o f t he p attern r ecognition m odel. T he M oesian-Pannoni an e xample i s aw orthy t est o f t he p attern r ecognition m odel's v alidity b ecause i t m eets a ll n ecessary c riteria ( South 1 977a: 9 0): .

a )

L arge c o llection f rom t otally e xcavated

b )

L arge c o llection f rom s ampled

s ites

( Sirm ium

v illa),

c ) G amzigrad,

s ite

E xamples o f d omestic o ccupation M inic ip ium DD),

( Kraku'lu Y ordan)

( Sirm ium, C ari in G rad,

d ) E xamp les o f s ite o n w h ich s pecialized a ctivity o ccurred ( Kraku'lu Y ordan, S irm ium s hop s ites), e ) E xamples o f s econdary m idden i mmediately a djacent t o r uin i n t he y ard ( Sirmium v illa, B o ljetin, V im inacium, C ari in G rad), f )

E xamp le o f s econdary m idden d iscarded

p ation o f s tructure h ad

c eased

( Sirm ium f orum ,

i n r u in a fter o ccu-

v illa ),

g ) E xample o f s econdary m idden d eposited a t a p lace r emoved f rom t he i mmediate v icin ity o f t he o ccupants d iscarding t he r efuse ( Singidunum,

V im inacium ),

ccupation h ) E xamples o f m idden r esulting f rom d omestic o ( Sirm ium, Cara in G rad, G amzigrad ), ccupation I ) E xamp les o f m idden r esulting f rom m ilitary o ( Singidunum, V im inacium, B o ljetin ),

i )

E xamples o f m idden r esulting f rom p ublic o ccupation

Q

C ollection

-

( Kraku 'lu Y ordan, i ng

S irm ium s hops,

h uman b ehav ior 1 )

r epresenting a w ide r ange o f a ctiv ities r eflect-

( Sirm ium )

C o llection

t o r ecover s mall

V im inacium ),

r ecovered

s peciments

i n a c ontrolled

m anner u sing s creens

( Kraku 'lu Y ordan),

m ) C ollections f rom w hich t otal a rtifact c ounts w ere a vaila ble, a nd n o s electivity o f a rtifacts o n t he b asis o f v alue j udgments h ave b een m ade c oncerning c uration o f o bjects. ( Only a pprox imate e xample i s f rom K raku'lu Y ordan, w ith t otal c ounts f rom s ampled a nd

s creened n )

C o llections c overing a t

o f o ccupation o ) t ance

s oundings.), r epresented

C o llections

( a ll

l east

i OO y ears

f rom s ites d istributed o ver

( The P annonian-Moe .slan

i n c ombined

t ime

s ites),

s ites

s pan a t otal

s ome s patial

d is-

t erritory o f a pprox-

i mately 3 6,000 s quare m iles.) U nfortunately, a s w ith s ome o f ' S outh's s ites, n one o f t hese R oman s ites w as o rig inally e xcavated w ith p attern r ecognition i n m ind, a nd o nly o ne, K raku 'lu Y ordan, w as e xcavated

u nder s creening a nd

s ampling p rocedures. 25-

W ith t his c aveat u nderstood, ' l et u s l ook a t s ome p relim inary s tatistical c omparisons a mong t hese R oman s ites i n t erms o f t he f ormul ae d eveloped b y S outh, a nd t hen c ompare t he R oman f rom t he B ritish-American s ystem .

p atterns

t o t hat

T he R omano-Brunswick P attern O nly a l imited s et o f t otally e xcavated r uins a re a vailable f or U pper M oesia a nd P annonia. T hese i nclude t he v illa s ite a t S irm ium ( Locality 4 ), C ari in G rad v illa, a nd S irm ium s hops. D ensit ies o f c eramic a nd m etal a rtifacts f ound a t S irm ium i n b oth t he v illa a nd s hop a reas a re t hree t imes g reater i n t he r ear p ortions e xternal t o t he s tructures. F or t he s hop l ocalities t his w ould b e t he z one p aralle l a nd C ar iin G rad

b ehind t he s treet. T he v illa s ites a t b oth S irm ium a nd a lso s how t he s ame r ear e ntrance/exit d isposal o f s econd-

a ry r efuse. A s im ilar p attern t o t hat o f t he B ritish-American C olonia l S ystem i s a lso e xhibited i n a l ow b one t o a rtifact r atio ( 1:40) i n t he r efuse d eposits a djacent t o t h se o ccupied r uins. A s a t entative g eneralization u ntil m ore c omplete e xcavations a re c onducted, w e m ay s tate t hat o n R omano-Illyria r , s ites o f t he 2 nd4 th c enturies A .D., c oncentrated r efuse d eposits w ill b e f ound a t r ear p oint o f e ntrance/exit i n d wellings a nd s hops. N o m ilitary f ortific ations h ave b een e xcavated i n n ecessary t otality t o j udge r efuse p atterning f or

s uch a c lass o f r uin.

T he R omano-Carolina P attern A lthough

t here

i s a p aucity o f t otal

a nd

c ontrolled

e xcavation

o f R oman r uins i n S erbia, s ome p atterns a re d iscernible w hich a pproxim ate t hat o f t he C aro lina c olonial p attern. R aw c ounts a nd f requency p ercentages a re a vailable f or v arious a rtifact t ypes f alling u nder t he c lasses o f ' k itchen' , ' architecture', ' person', ' activity', ' arms', a nd ' clothing '. T he s ettlement r uins l ocated w ithin p olitically s tabilized p ortions o f t hese p rov inces s how s imilarities i n t he r atio o f h igh a mounts o f k itchen a rtifacts v ersus l ower a mounts o f a rchitectural a rtifacts; t hus e quate w ith t he B ritish-American

s ituation

( Table

d omestic f unction a t S irmium D D ( horrem ) ‚ a nd G amzigrad.

a nd

i ).

( villa),

I ncluded

a re t he

C ari in G rad

r uins o f

( villa),

M unicipium

A lthough t he r ange o f v ariation i s l arge w ithin e ach c lass, t he r anking o f t he a rtifact c lasses o f l ess v alue a re c hangeable,

t here a re s cale a nd r anking p atterns a mong a ll s ites h aving h igh k itchen v ersus l ow a rchitecture r atios. A s w ith t he B ritish-American C olonial S ystem, w e h ypothesize t his r efuse p attern i s r eflexive o f l ow-output d ay-to-day c onsumption b ehaviors. C omparing t he o verall s tatistics f or t he B ritish-American a nd R oman-Illyrian r uins s how s imilar

s cale a nd

r anking o f a rtifact c lasses.

T he m ajor d ifference

i s t hat R omano-Illyrian s ites t end t o h ave g reater u ring a ctivities w ithin d omestic r uins.

26-

a mount o f m anufact-

T he R oman

F rontier P attern

T he g rouping o f D anubian f orts a nd

e ncampments

( Singidunum,

V im-

i nacium, B oijetin) a nd t he f rontier s tabilized s ite o f K raku'lu Y ordan e xhibit a h igh a rchitectural v ersus l ow k itchen r atio o f a rtifacts ( Table 2 ). T his i s t he p attern s hared w ith t he B ritish-American c olonial

s ystem a nd p robably

r epresents

l arge-scale s hort-span

b uild-

i ng a ctivity. A lso, a ll B ritish-American a nd R omano-Illyrian m ilit ary s ites s how h igh r atios ( upwards o f 9 0° / ) o f n ails v ersus a ll o ther m etal a rtifact t ypes. T he w ide r ange i n p ercentages o f a rtifact c lasses f or t he R omanoI llyrian g roup i s d ue t o t he i nclusion o f t he K raku'lu Y ordan r uin ( Bartel, K ondic r easons: ] )it i ng p rocedures, T he r uin's i ron

a nd W erner 1 979). T his r uin w as i ncluded f or t wo i s t he o nly s ite e xcavated t hrough s ampling a nd s creena nd 2 ) i t r epresents a n on-military f rontier s ite. m anufacturing s pecia lty i s s een q uite c learly f rom

t he c ounts a nd f requency p ercentages p er a rtifact c lass i n T able 3 . I n f act, t his s ite c onsitutes r esearch o n a n ew p attern, t hat o f m anufacture. A ll b one m aterial ( for g lue p roduction), 9 0° / o f t he c eramics a nd 3 09 o f t he m etal a rtifacts a re r elated t o u tilitarian a spects o f t ool p roduction. I f t his r uin w as n ot i ncluded i n t he c omparison, t here w ould b e a s tronger r elationship b etween t he m ilit ary

f rontier z ones f or

t he t wo c olonial

R omano-Illyrian s ites e xhibit t ecture a rtifact t ypes:

s ystems.

T he t hree o ther

a n e xtremely h igh p ercentage o f a rchi-

P reliminary s tatistical a nalysis h as s hown s cale a nd r anking s im ilarities a mong p rovincial R oman s ites a nd b etween B ritishA merican

a nd R oman-Illyrian

C o lonial

S ystems.

T he

i mportant q uestion

r aised i s w hy s uch p atterns s hould o ccur? A lthough a g reat d eal o f c ontrolled s ystematic e xcavation i s n eeded i n t he f uture, i t i s h yp othesized h ere t hat c ertain b ehaviors c ross-cutting d ifferent s ocial c ontrol s ituations w ere i n o peration. F irst, w e h ave t wo i dentical p atterns o f r efuse d isposal ( Brunswick p attern) r ef lex ive o f s eparate e thnic e nculturation. S econdly, t he C arolina p atterns r epresent s ocial c ontrol s tabilization a nd a cculturation i n c olonial a reas r em oved f rom t he e ver-changing f rontier l ine. T hese f rontier p atterns o f r apid d eployment a nd a bandonment o f m ilitary o utposts o ccur w here ver p otential i ntergroup c onflict m ay a rise, o r d uring t emporary e stablishment o f t erritorial b orders. S outh 's w ork

i s n otable f or a n umber

o f

r easons.

F irst,

i t

a mounts t o f ieldwork e xcavation a nd a rtifactual m easurement t echniques f or d ealing w ith c o lonial a rchaeology. T he c lasses o f a rtifacts u sed ( e.g., a rchitecture, k itchen, p ersonal) t o c ompare r atios o ccur a nd r eoccur a t s ites g enerated b y a g iven c olonial p ower w ithin a ll t errit ory c ontrolled. S outh's o riginal e xcavation s trategy c alls f or c omplete e xcavation o f r uins; a n e xpensive a nd t ime c onsum ing t ask w hich i s n ot a lways p ossible. H owever, i f p roper s ampling s trategies a re u sed,

i al

s uch

r estrictions

s hould

n ot

h o ld.

S econdly, o ur c omparative e xam ination o f B ritish a nd R oman c o lonb ehaviors c learly s hows t he m ore g eneralizing o utcome o f t he

a pproach.

P attern

r ecognition

i s w orthwhile

i n a nalyzing c ertain

r egularities w hich c ross-cut d ifferent c olonial p owers. s tandardized t echnique u seful r egardless o f c ontrolling

27-

I t i s a s ociety o r

t ime p eriod. T his i s d ue t o, i n t he c ase m entioned h ere, t he s ame p o licies b y B ritish a nd R oman a dm inistrations. I n b oth i nstances c o lonia l e nclaves ( i.e., F rontier P attern) a nd c o lonial a ccu lturated s ettlements ( i.e., C arolina P attern) e x isted. T he a rtifacts a nd c lasses o f a rtifacts a re t o b e e xpected a s s uch m ilitary e nclaves a nd s tabilized d omestic s ettlements. F inally, t he B runsw ick P attern r epresentative o f e thnic e nculturation i n d iscard i s n ot r elated t o a ny o f t he s ix o utcomes f rom t he m atrix m odel; b ut c ould b e u sed t o p inpo int e thnicity o f e ither a g iven n ative s ociety p rior t o c u lture c ontact, o r t he e thnicity o f t he c ontro lling s ettler p opulation. S outh's w ork i s t herefore l im ited t o t wo o utcomes o f c o lonial p o licy ( colonial e quilibrium a nd a cculturation) a nd s ays n othing a bout i mp erialistic p o licy o r s trategyof e radication a nd r esettlement. B ut i ts v irtue o utweighs t he p resent l im itations, s ince i t d oes e nab le s tandardized c ross-cultural m easurement.

S ummary a nd C onclusions W e h ave a ttempted t o d evelop a p robab listic m odel o f s ocial d om ination w hich w ill a ccount f or a lmost a ll s ituations f aced i n t he a rchaeo logical r ecord. T he r egularity t hrough w hich m any d ifferent p owers h ave m anipulated n ative s oc ieties a nd l and c annot b e d ism issed F rom o ur e xamination, c ertain t estable h ypotheses e merge f or f urther a rchaeological r esearch : 1 .

P o licies o f a cculturation o ccur m ost f requently w here e mpires c ontrol s mall p opulations o ccupying s mall t err itories, a nd w hen a g iven e mpire h as a cculturation a s a c onscious p art o f t he ir p hilosophy o f g overnance.

2 .

E nclave p olicies o ccur w hen c ontro lling l arge p opulat ions o ccupying l arge t erritories. T he a rchaeo logist s hould e xpect a n e nclave s trategy t o b e s ocia lly u nstable.

3 .

E radication a nd r esettlement-po licies t end t o p recede e nclave d evelopment a nd o ccur w here l and w ill b e u sed b y t he d om in ating p ower f or n atural r esource e xplo itation o r b oundary m aintenance .

L i .

N ative r esponses,

a lthough h aving a l arge m ilitary c omponent,

t end t o a lso c ontain a s trong i deolog ical s ary t o s timulate n ative c ohesion.

c omponent n eces-

F inally, i t i s f elt t hat t he a rchaeological d ata b ase h o lds t he k ey t o t he t rue d evelopment o f a c omparative a nthropologica l t heory o f s ocia l

p ower a nd c ontro l.

28-

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C rossland, R . A . a nd A nn B irchall ‚ e ds. i n t he A egean, D uckworth, L ondon. D arkwah, D e

K ofi

‚

1 971,

C entral

N .

R .

M .,

1 978,

H einemann,

F actor

T aiwan. ' '

C arol

A .

I n

S m ith,

B ronze A ge M igrations

1 973,

,

M enel i k o f E thiopia,

K iew iet, C . W ., 1 937, T he I mperial U niversity P ress, C ambridge.

d e L ange,

i n W est

A nalysis, V o lume I: S ocial S ystems, 1 23-11 48, A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork.

L ondon.

i n S outh A frica,

" Jewish A ttitudes t o t he R oman

E mpire."

I n I mperialism i n t he A ncient W orld, P . D . A . G arnsey a nd C . W hittaker, e ds., p p. 2 55-282, U niversity P ress, C ambridge.

R .

d 'Encaussee, Hl ne C arr re, 1 967, " Systematic C onquest, 1 865-1884, a nd O rganizing a nd C olonizing t he C onquered T erritories." I n C entral P P.

A sia:

1 31-171,

A C entury o f R ussian C olumbia,

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D eschamps, H ubert, 1 953, L es Mthodes e t F rance, F irm in-Didot, P aris. D illey, M . R . N ew Y ork.

,

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D uby, G . , 1 974, I thaca.

B ritish P olicy

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1 977, ' An A rchaeological-Historical A nalysis o f D ecember 1 780-April 1 781. I n R esearch S trategies

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F erguson, L . G ., F ort W atson:

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1 967,

1 978,

S tanley S outh,

" The

e d.,

E mpires,

4 1-71,

D elacorte,

F ifth C entury A thenian

S heet.' ' I n I mperialism i n a nd C . R . W hittaker, e ds.,

p p.

E mpire:

N ew Y ork. A B alance

t he A ncient W orld, P . D . A . G arnsey p p. 1 03-126, U niversity P ress,

C ambridge. F ogelson, R . D . a nd R . N . A dams, e ds. P ower, A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. F riedman,

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a nd M .

J .

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,

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2 23 - 2 54,

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30-

P ress,

C ambridge.

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P .

D .

A .

a nd

C .

R .

W hittak er ,

1 978,

' Introduction."

I n

I mperialism i n t he A ncient W orld, P . D . A . G arnsey a nd C . W hittaker, e ds., Pp. 1 -6, U niversity P ress, C ambridge. G raham, A . J . , 1 964, C olony a nd M other C ity B arnes & N oble, N ew Y ork. G reenberg, M ., 1 951, B ritish T rade a nd 1 880, U niversity P ress, C ambridge.

0 .,

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G reece,

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i n A ncient

i n

t he G reek a nd

i n G erman C olonial

R .

1 842-

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H istory,

F .

C ass,

H odder, I an, 1 977 ,' 'Distribution o f M aterial C ulture i n t he B aringo D istrict, W estern K enya, ' ' M an 1 2 ( 2), p p. 2 39 - 2 69. --1978, ' Social O rganization a nd H uman I nteraction: T he D evelopm ent o f S ome T entative H ypotheses i n T erms o f M aterial C ulture." I n T he S patial O rganization o f C ulture, 1 99 - 2 69, D uckworth, L ondon. --

I an

H odder,

1 979, " Econom ic a nd S ocial S tress a nd M aterial A merican A ntiquity 1 4, p p. 46 -454 .

H orvath,

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' A D efinition o f C olonialsm," C urrent A nthro-

1 972,

1 3(1),

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4 5 -5 7 .

J ohnson, E . A ., 1 970, T he O rganization o f S pace i n D eveloping C ountries, H arvard U niversity P ress, C ambridge. K aplan,

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K emp, B . J ., 1 978, ' I mperialism a nd E mpire i n N ew K ingdom E gypt. ' ' I n I mperialism i n t he A ncient W orld, P . D . A . G arnsey a nd C . K uhn,

R .

W hittaker,

A lfred,

e ds.,

7 -58, U niversity P ress, C ambridge.

p p.

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1 974,

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L ewis, K . E . , 1 977, ' Sampling t he A rchaeological F rontier: R egional M odels a nd C omponent A nalysis." I n R esearch S trategies i n H istorical A rchaeology, S tanley S outh, e d. , pp. 1 51-202, A cad em ic P ress, L ugard,

L ord,

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1 965,

H amden W .

M .,

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i n

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( CT). 1 964, -B antu,

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B riton,

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e d.,

1 967,

T he R oman

N ew Y ork.

31-

E mpire a nd

i ts

N eighbors,

M ills,

R .

C .,

1 915,

T he C olonizat .ion'of A ustralia,

Mcsy, A ndr as , 1 974, P aul, L ondon. N ock,

P annonia a nd U pper M oesia,

F .

C ass,

R outledge

L ondon.

&

K egan

A . D ., 1 972, ' The R oman A rmy a nd t he R oman R eligious Y ear." I n E ssays o n R eligion a nd t he A ncient W orld, Z . S tewart, e d., p p. 7 36-790, H arvard U niversity P ress, C ambridge.

N utton,

V .,

1 978,

" The

B eneficial

I deology."

I n

A ncient W orld, P . D . A . G arnsey a nd C . R . p p. 2 09-222, U niversity P ress, C ambridge. P arry, J . H ., C entury, --1966,

1 940, T he S panish T heory o f E mpire U niversity P ress, C ambridge.

T he S panish S eaborne E mpire,

P erham, M ., 1 937, O xford,

K nopf,

N ative A dr n in ' istration

P ierce, R ichard A ., 1 960, o f C alifornia P ress,

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t he

t he S ixteenth

N ew Y ork.

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i n

e ds.,

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P lomley, N . J . B ., 1 969, ' An A nnotated B ibliography o f t he T asmanian A borigines, ' ' R oyal A nthropological I nstitute O ccasional P ayers 2 8. R oberts, S . H ., 1 929, H istory o f F rench C olonial 2 v ols., F . C ass, L ondon.

P olicy,

S haw,

R oman

B rent

D .,

1 979,

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P eriodic M arkets

i n

1 870 - 1 925,

N orth A frica

a s M echanisms o f S ocial I ntegration a nd C ontrol.' ' I n R esearch i n E conomic A nthropology, V ol. 2 , G eorge D alton, e d., p p. 9 1-117, J A! P ress, G reenw ich ( C T ). S lade, R . M ., L ondon.

1 962,

K ing L eopold's

C ongo,

I nstitute o f

R ace R elations,

S m ith, C arol A ., 1 976, ' Regional E conomic S ystems: L inking G eographic al M odels a nd S ocioeconom ic P roblems," I n R egional A nalysis, V ol. I : E conom ic S ystems, C arol A . S m ith, e d., p p. 3- 6 3, A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork. S outh, S tanley, 1 977a, A cademic P ress, --1978a,

' Pattern

M ethod a nd T heory N ew Y ork.

R ecognition

A ntiquity 4 3(2),

p p.

i n

i n H istorical

H istorical

A rchaeology,

A rchaeo logy, ' ' A merican

2 23-230.

--1978b, ' Research S trategies f or A rchaeological P attern i n H istorical A rchaeology, ' ' W orld A rchaeology 1 0(1), --

1 979,

' Historic

A ntiquity

414

S ite C ontent, ( 2),

p p.

S tructure,

2 13 - 2 37

32-

a nd

R ecognition. 3 6-50.

p p.

F unction, ' ' A merican

S outh, S tanley, e d., 1 977b, o logy, A cadem ic P ress,

R esearch S trategies N ew Y ork.

S toddard, T . L ., 1 914, T he F rench M ifflin, N ew Y ork. S utherland, L . P olitics,

R evolution

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T acitus, C ornelius, 1 967, P enguin, B altimore. T hompson, E . a nd G . R ule i n I ndia,

i n

i n H istorical

S an D omin o,

i n

E ighteenth C entury

A gricola a nd G ermania,

H .

M attingly,

G arratt, 1 934, R ise a nd M acmillan, L ondon.

T hornton,

D octrines o f

--

1 965,

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1 977, I mperialism i n t he T wentieth C entury, s ota P ress, M inneapolis.

T rigger,

B ruce,

o logy 6 , V ance,

1 902-1910,

J ohn W i hey,

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U niversity o f M inne-

1 974, 19-h e A rchaeology o f G overnment," W orld A rchae9 5-106.

p p.

C ., 1 970,

t rans.,

F ulfillment o f B ritish

T he U nification o f S outh A frica, O xford.

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C ompany

T hompson, L . M ., 1 960, U niversity P ress, A .

A rchae-

T he M erchant's W orld,

P rentice-Hall,

E nglewood

C liffs

( NJ). V anderbosch, P ress, v an d er

A .,

1 944,

T he

D utch

E ast

I ndies,

U niversity o f C alifornia

B erkeley.

S prenkel

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,

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I nstitutions

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W ells, C . H ., 1 972, T he G erman P ol i cy o f A ugustus: A n t he A rchaeo logical E vidence, C larendon, O xford.

E xam ination o f

W hittaker, C . R ., 1 978, ' Carthaginian I mperialism i n t he F ifth a nd F ourth C enturies.' ' I n I mperialism i n t he A ncient W orld, P . D . G arnsey a nd C ambridge. W orshey,

P .,

C .

1 957,

i n M elanesia,

R .

W hittaker,

T he T rumpet

e ds.,

S hall

M acGibbon a nd

K ee,

33-

p p.

5 9 -9 0,

S ound: L ondon.

A .

U niversity P ress,

A S tudy o f

' Cargo'

C ults

r

r-

N.

C 'J

I

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Cj

()

c )

I

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C D C D C )

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(V.)

f l

N,

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( U

T h e C a r o l i n a & R o m a n o C a r o l i n a A r t i f a c t P a t e r n s

4 )

0 I —

A r t i f a c t G r o u p

C )

• r -

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K raku 'lu Y ordan A rtifact P attern

A rt ifact G roup

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1,306

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36-

C o lon ia l ism ( sett lers )

E rad ica t ionR ese t t lemen t

A ccu l tu ra t ion

E qu i l ib r ium ( me tas tab le )

F igure

1 :

( no s e t t le rs )

a b rup t c u l tu re c hange ( r ep lacemen t )

-

I mpe r ia l ism

r e g iona l ' emp ty c e l l '

s l ow i n d igenous c u l tu re c hange

s l ow i n d igenous c hange i n e conom ics

s e t t lemen t

i n d igenous

e nc laves ' 2c u l tu res '

c u l tu r a l m a in tenance

A m atrix o f p robable b ehavioral

o utcomes

i n

s ituations o f p ower d om ination, b ased u pon e thnographic a nd h istorical e xamples ( after H orvath

1 97 2 ) .

3 7-

2 .

T HE S CANDINAVIAN C OLONISATION O F T HE

N ORTH

S WEDISH

I NTERIOR,

5 00

-

1 500 A .D.

A tho l I A nderson

A BSTRACT D uring t he l ate I ron A ge a nd M edieval p eriods t here w as a n e xpansion o f S candinavian s ettlement i nto t he i nterior o f n orthern S weden, p articularly t o c entral Jmtland. T he c olonists w ere e conom ically d ependent u pon f arming, f ishing, t rapping a nd t he e xtraction o f b og i ron. C onsideration o f v arious a ttractions t o s ettlement i n t he i nt erior s uggests t hat g row ing p ossibilities f or t rade i n s kins, f urs a nd i ron w ere m ost i nfluential, a nd t hat t he d ecline o f t hese i n t he l ater M edieval p eriod l ed t o a p artial c ontraction o f s ettlement.

I ntroduction N orrland,

t he n orthern

t wo-thirds o f S weden,

i s a l and o f d ark

c onifer f orests p ocked w ith t arns a nd m ires a nd s lashed b y c old r ibbon l akes a nd r ivers; u nmistakeably a n e xtension o f t he g reat E urasian t aiga. E ven t oday m uch o f i t h as a c haracter f oreign t o t he m ilieu o f t he Mlar p rovince a nd t he S outh, t he i nhabitants o f w hich e pitom ize t he d ifferences i n t he s aying t hat ' North o f t he D al r iver t here a re n o m ore o aks, c rayfish o r n obles." I n h istoric d ominantly b y a lly t he l ast

t imes

( post

1 500 A .D.)

N orriand w as c olonised p re-

F ennoscandian p easants d rawn t o w hat h ad b ecome v irtuf rontier o f E urope, a w ilderness s o l ittle k nown a nd

s parsely p opulated t hat e ven i n t he 1 850's " . . people t alked a bout i ts ' unlimited p ossibilities' a lmost a s A mericans d id a bout t heir .

W est" ( Gottman 1 969:167). T hey w ere e ncouraged t o m igrate t here b y t he S wedish c rown, a nxious t o s ettle i ts n orthern t erritories a cquired d uring t he e xpansion p hase o f t he 1 7th c entury, a nd e qually a s d etermined t o h old t hem i n t he f ace o f C ossack p lundering d uring t he r etreat f rom e mpire i n t he 1 8th c entury. B eyond t he c oastal t owns m ost o f t he h istorical c olonists w ere s mall s ubsistence f armers u ntil t he l ate 1 9th c entury, w hen a p eriod o f f amine a nd t he l abour d emands o f r apidly e xpanding t imber a nd m etal i ndustries s aw t he d ecline o f t rans-humant p astoralism ( f boding) d ifficult a gricultural a reas. T his

h istorical

‚

a nd w ithdrawal

f rom t he m ost

p hase o f c olonisation w as n ot,

h owever,

t he

i nitial a ttempt b y S candinavians 1 t o c reate p ermanent s ettlements t he n orth, n or t he o nly t ime t hat t he w estern a nd n orthern t hrust o f

t he a gricultural

f rontier

i nto t he

38-

i nterior h ad

f altered.

i n

I t w as,

i n f act, a m illennium e arlier t hat ' t he f irst e xtensive s ettlements o f t he i nterior f orest o f N orriand b egan. T his e arlier c olonisation p hase a nd t he r easons f or i ts g rowth a nd p artial d ecline a re t he c onc erns o f t his p aper.

T he N orrland

w hich t he

I nterior

F or p resent p urposes, t hat p art o f t he i nterior o f N orrland i s o f m ost i nterest c an b e d efined a s t he a rea l ying b etween

L jungan

a nd U r ne

r ivers a nd

s tretching

f rom t he N orwegian m ountains

t o w ithin 5 0 -8 0 k m o f t he B othnian c oast; w hich g enerally m eans t o t he p oint o f t he h ighest q uaternary s horeline ( Figure 1 ), b elow w hich f ine-grained s edimentary d eposits a re c ommon a nd h ave b een p eriodic ally

s ettled b y p eople p ractising

a r ather m odest a griculture s ince

a pproximately 2 500 B .C. ( Huttunen a nd T olonen 1 972). I nland, o n t he g lacially-planed A rchaean S hield, s oils f or t he m ost p art a re t hin, p odsolised a nd i nfertile. I n s outhern J mtland a nd f rom t he n orth s tretching f ar i nto L appland, pine h eaths p redominate ( Figuçe 3 ), b ut i n c entral J mtland t here e xists a r ichly u ndergrown s pruce f orest ( Lindqvist 1 966) w hich r eflects t he c onjunction o f t wo u niquely f avourable c ircumstances; a b and o f l ime-enriched C ambro-Silurian r ocks ( the ' Siluromr de' i n F igure 3 ) a nd t he p enetration o f A tlantic c limatic i nfluences a cross t he w estern m ountains, w hich a t t his l atit ude a re n arrower a nd l ower t han a nywhere e lse a long t he S candinavian c hain. C entral Jmtland i s t hus q uite u nlike t he r emainder o f t he N orriand i nterior i n i ts u nusual s uitability f or a griculture. T rue, o nly 3 % o f i ts l and i s a rable ( Bruno 1 960), b ut a rable l and b arely r eaches 10' i n a ny o ther d istrict o f t he n orth. A s econd c onsequence o f t hese a dvantages i s t hat t he r ichness o f t he f orest i n d eciduous s pecies p rovides a m ore f avourable e nvironment i n c entral J mtland f or t he p rinciple w ild u ngulate, t he m oose ( Alces a lces), t han e lsew here i n t he i nterior. L astly, a nd p erhaps m ost i mportantly f rom a n h istorical p oint o f v iew, t he s ame t opographical f eatures w hich p erm it t he i ntrusion o f A tlantic w eather a ppear t o h ave b een e xploited b y t ravellers a nd t raders c rossing t o . a nd f rom t he B othnian s hores s ince a t l east t he N eolithic p eriod ( Clark 1 948), a nd c ertainly b y t he l ater I ron A ge t he c entral Jmtland r outes w ere r egularly t rav ersed.

T he C ourse o f C olonisation H ow e arly S candinavians f irst b egan t o s ettle t he i nterior f orests o f N orrland i s a m atter o f c onjecture, f or a mongst t he d efic iencies o f t he e arliest r elevant d ata a re a ny u nequivocal m eans t o d istinguish S candinavian f rom o ther p opulations ( particularly S aamic), o r t he d iffusion o f S candinavian t raits f rom s ecure e vidence o f s ettlement.

O pinions a re p olarised o n

B audou ( 1978:23), Z achrisson t he v iew t hat t he i ndigenous t he I ron A ge, w ere a ncestral a rguing t hat f erent

t hey w ere m ore

p opulation a nd

t he

f irst o f

t hese

i ssues w ith

( 1976:99) a nd A nderson ( n.d.) a dopting i nhabitants o f t he N orrland i nterior, b y t o t he S aamer a nd S elinge ( 1979:182-91) l ikely S candinavian,

s ocio-economic s tructure

c ontemporaries.

39-

a lthough o f a d if-

t han

t heir c oastal

T he s econd i s a m ore c omplex r atter, n ot l east b ecause t he f irst f ive o r s ix m illennia o f N orriand's i nterior p rehistory a re r epresented b y c amping a nd

h unting

s ites,

b ut

t he

f irst m illennium A .D., w hen a ll

t he m ain c hanges t ook p lace, a l most e xclusively b y b urial s ites. S ince t he e arliest c ategory o f t he l atter, t he ' lake g raves' ( Figure 2 ), e xhibit c onstruction m odes,

b urial

c ustoms a nd a rtefacts o f d istinctly

S candinavian f orm, a nd e ven a f ew b ones o f s heep o r g oat, B audou ( 1978 ) p roposes t hat t his i s e vidence o f a t l east s easonal u se o f t he i nteri or b y a n a griculturally p roficient S candinavian p opulation. Y et i t i s c urious t hat t he n earest s uch p opulation, a long t he c oast, b uilt g raves o f q uite a nother f orm . T he i nland

s outh N orriand ' forest' o r

' lake' g raves a re t ypical n ot o f a ny c ontiguous f arming p opulation b ut o f s imilar g raves i n t he i nterior o f D alarna t o t he s outh w hich o nly i n t urn a ppear t o b e d erived f rom t he f arming s ettlements o f t he o lder I ron A ge i n t he Mlar a nd L ake V anern r egions ( Selinge 1 976:70). A dd

t o t his

t he

r elative p aucity o f p alynological

e vidence f or f orest

c learance i n t he i nterior a nd t he c orrespondence o f t he l ake g rave l ocations w ith i ndigenous h unting c amps a nd, s ays S elinge ( 1979:91), a n h ypothesis o f i nternal c hange s timulated b y t he d iffusion o f m or t uary c ustoms,

a mongst o ther t hings,

i s m ore a ppropriate.

I n a ny e vent, t he g row ing i nterest o f c oastal a nd s outhern S candinavians i n t he i nterior w hich i s d emonstrated b y t he e arly ' lake g raves,' w hatever t heir i nterpretation, g rowth o f a p ermanent s ettlement a round

s oon a fter c ulminated i n t he t he ' Great L ake' ( Storsj3r i)

o f c entral J mtland ( Figure 1 ). T his s ettlement b egan i n t he M igrat ion p eriod ( 5th-6th c enturies) a nd i s m arked b y g rave m ounds o f t ypical l ate I ron A ge f orm i n w hich, a mongst t he f unerary o fferings, t here i s e vidence o f a rable a nd p astoral a griculture. T he a rtefacts a nd

b urial

c ustoms o f

t he m ounds

i ndicate c ontacts w ith t he e stablished

f arming d istricts o f b oth t he T r nde1ag a nd t he B othnian c oast w hich a re s o c lose t hat t here c an b e n o q uestion o f a nything b ut a n a ctual c olonisation f rom o ne o r b oth o f t hese r egions, e specially t he f ormer. P artly f rom t he s ame p eriod d eposits o f a rtefacts, m any

( about 6 th-8th c enturies A .D.), a re i n c aches w hich m ight m ark t he f ormer

e xistence o f b urials,

t he

o f

S torsj3n;

i n

a long

t he H otingssj5,

l ine o f

t he

l ar e

l akes

t o t he n orth

V ilhelm ina a nd A rjeplog d istricts

( Zachrisson 1 976:1 04 , 17, 1 22). I n c entral J mtland t he g rave m ounds s how t hat t he e arliest s ettlement w as c oncentrated a round t he s outheastern s hores o f S torsj3n a nd n earby. I n t he V endel p eriod ( 7th a nd 8 th c enturies) t here w as a l im ited e xpansion t o M attmar i n t he n orthwest a nd

s ion

t o F r5s6n,

t he m ain

i sland,

w here a f ort w as b uilt.

I n t he V iking p eriod ( 9th-llth c enturies) t he s trongest e xpanb egan. S ettlement o f a reas p reviously c olonised w as i ntensified

a nd n ew s ettlements

s prang

u p a round

t he n orthern a nd w estern

s hores

o f S torsj5n a nd a round t he l akes t o t he s outheast ( Janson, B i6rnstad a nd H varfner 1 962, S elinge 1 976). F urther a field, t here w ere s mall o utposts e stablished a long t he u pper I ndal R iver a nd i n t he g reat f orest s tretching t o t he n orth o f S torsjo r l. I n t he l atter c ase t here w ere s ettlements b oth r easonably c lose t o S torsj5n a t L it, O fferdal a nd H ammerdal, p robably a lso a t S tr cn is, a nd s ome a t a c onsiderable d istance ( and n ot n ecessarily o riginating f rom S torsj6n) a t J orm lien, 4 rjep1og a nd m ost n otably a t Lng n i n H otingssjö ( Figure 1 ). T o t he s outh o f

S torsj5n,

t ions o f

I ron A ge m ounds

r eflect

t he

i n

p arallel

t he m ountains o f Hrjedalen, ( Figure 3 ),

e xpansion o f N orwegian

40 -

s everal

m ostly o f V iking a ge, s ettlement

c bncentra p robably

i nto t he

i nterior

( Sei i nge

1 976:56).

A t t he b eginning o f t he e arly M iddle A ges ( 11th - 1 3th c enturies) C hristianity s pread r apidly t hrough t he n orth. O ne o f t he c onsequences w as t hat b urial c ustoms c hanged i n w ays t hat s everely r educe t he a rchaeological v isibility o f g raves ( mound b uilding a nd l avish g rave o fferings w ere b oth a bandoned a nd i t b ecame d esirable t o b e b uried i n t he c hurchyard r ather t han o ut a t t he h omestead). H owever, a rchaeological e vidence d oes i ndicate t hat t he n orthern o utposts, n otably Lng6n, w ere a bandoned b y t he e nd o f t he 1th c entury ( Hvarf n er 1 953) a nd t here i s n o e vidence, a rchaeological o r h istorical, o f s ettlement c ontinuing i n t hese i solated a reas. E lsewhere t he p ost1th c entury c ourse o f c olonisation i s, i n t he m ain, o nly a ble t o b e r econstructed f rom h istorical r ecords. T hese i ndicate t hat s ettlem ent c ontinued t o e xpand t hrough t he f orests n orth o f S torsj n u p t o S tröms d uring t he e arly M edieval p eriod a nd t o t he s outheast i n t he R evsund d istrict, b ut t hat i n t he l ater M edieval p eriod ( 13th-15th c enturies) t here w as a s trong r etrenchment. T axation b ooks f rom t he e arly 1 6th c entury r ecord t hat i n Jmt1and s ome 3 00 f arms h ad b een a bandoned a s t he s ettlement f rontier r etreated t owards S torsj3n a nd t he e ast, a nd a s imilar r etreat o f t he a grarian f rontier--in t hese c ases

t owards

t he c oast--seems

M edelpad a s w ell

A t trac t ions

o f

( Selinge

t he

1 976,

t o h ave o ccurred

i n A ngermanland

a nd

1 979:140-144).

I nterior f or C olonists

W hy w ere S candinavians d rawn t o t he N orriand i nterior i n t he f irst m illennium A .D.? I n t he c ase o f t he f irst u ndisputed S candinav ian s ettlement, a t S torsj i n, w e c an i mmediately r ule o ut, I t hink, a ny s uch a ttraction a s a n e scape f rom l and h unger e lsewhere o r a c hange o f e nvironmental c onditions s ignificantly f avourable t o f arm ing i n t he i nterior. I n t he l ate I ron A ge, c ultivable l and w as s till r eadily a vailable ( Engelmark 1 978: 8) a nd m uch m ore a ccessible o n t he B othnian c oast t han i n t he i nterior, a nd c limatic c onditions f or f arm ing w ere w orse d uring t he I ron A ge u p t o t he V iking p eriod t han a t a ny t ime f or t hree m illennia p reviously ( Zackrisson

t hey h ad b een 1 976:1 ). T he

S torsjön c olonists w ere c ertainly i nvolved i n f arming a nd p referent ially s ettled t he r elatively s weet l ands o f t he S iluromr de ( Figure 3 ),

b ut

i t w as n ot

t heir o nly,

o r p erhaps

p rimary,

m eans o f

s ubsistence.

E ven i n h istorical t imes p ioneer f arm ing i n N orriand c ould h ardly b e d escribed a s m uch m ore t han c omplementary t o f ishing, f owli ng a nd h unting. T he d evelopment o f t he m ain a daptational p ractices b urn b eating ( svedjan) t o c reate t emporary g rain f ields a nd t hen c attle f orage a s t he b irch, r owan a nd o ther s pecies r eturned; t he u se o f w ater m eadows t o p romote h ay g rowth; a nd t he m obile p asturing o f f arm s tock a t s easonal c amps ( f bodar)--only p rovided f arming w ith a r elatively p recarious h old i n t he i nterior. A bout a n a cre o f b arley--which m ight f ail t o r ipen o ne y ear i n t hree--a d ozen c attle a nd 2 0 s heep o r g oats w ere t ypical o f a f am ily f arm i n t he 1 8th a nd 1 9th c enturies ( Tegengren 1 952, B ylund 1 956). I t i s u nlikely t hat I ron A ge a griculture w as a ny m ore p roductive. M uch o f t he s ubsistence, a nd a ny l uxuries, p robably h ad t o c ome f rom t he p roceeds o f f ishing, f ur t he l and

t rapping a nd h unting a s i n h istorical t imes. W ith r espect l atter i n p articular t here i s a bundant e vidence i n c entral a nd

i t

i s

c oncentrated

i n

t he a reas o f

41

-

t o J mt-

I ron A ge s ettlement.

T he m oose w as, a nd i s, t he p r in cip le g ame b east o f N orr land t o t he s outh o f t he U r ne w atershed. I n t he i nterior, m oose d rift i nto t he w estern m ountains i n t he s ummer a nd b ack i nto t he f orest a nd v alleys i n t he w inter. T his f act h as f or t ime i mmemorial b een h eld a gainst t hem i n t he f orm o f m oose t rapping p its ( f ngstgropar) p laced a cross t he l ine o f m ovement. S ome 2 0,000 t rapping p its h ave b een f ound i n N orriand, t he g reatest c oncentration o f w hich, a nd t he l arge st n umber o f p it-trap s ystems ( where p its h ave b een b uilt i n r ows a cross t he c ountryside, s ometimes e xtending f or m ore t han 1 0 k ilom etres), i s t o b e f ound i n t he t erritory i mmediate ly t o t he n orth o f S torsj6n ( Set i nge 1 974, 1 976). S ince t he u se o f t rapping p its w as n ot p roscribed u ntil 1 864 A .D. m any a re u ndoubtedly o f h istorical a ge, b ut t hey w ere c onstructed a s e arly a s 3 000 B .C. i n t he i nterior ( Jensen 1 973) a nd r adiocarbon d ates i ndicate t hat a t l east s ome o f t hose n orth o f S torsj6n, i ncluding p its i n l arge t rapping s ystems, d ate t o t he V iking p eriod ( Selinge 1 974:33). T here i s a lso h istoric al e vidence t o s uggest t hat t rapping m oose i n t he f orest n orth o f S torsj6n w as a n i mportant o ccupation o f J amtlanders a s e arly a s t he 1 3th c entury ( Janson a nd H varfner 1 966:52) a nd e state t ransfer d ocum ents f rom t hroughout t he M iddle A ges s tress t he v alue, s ometimes p reem inent v alue, o f e stab lished p it s ystems a gainst t he f arm i tself ( e.g. J anson a nd H varfner 1 966:58). H unting, e specially f or m oose, m ust t herefore b e r egarded a s a n a ttraction t o s ettlement i n t he i nterior, s pecifically t o S torsjon a nd t he c ountry e xtending a long t he l ine o f m ajor l akes t o t he n orth, w here t he S iluromr de p rovides a g reater a bundance o f m oose f orage t han e lsewhere i n N orrland s i nterior. I t c an h ardly b e d oubted t hat t rapping a nd t rading b eaver a nd o ther f ur-bearing s pecies f or a n e xternal m arket w as a n i mportant a ttraction t o c olonists a s w ell, b ut t his a ctivity h as l eft n o d irect t races i n t he a rchaeo logical r ecord a nd i t w as p robably d eclining i n i mportance, d ue t o o ver e xploitation a nd c hanging p atterns o f t rade ( below ), b y t he b eginning o f t he h istorical p eriod. D uring t he V iking p eriod f ur t rading s eems t o h ave b een i mportant i n t he a reas n orth o f S torsj 6n w here t raditional a ccounts o f f ur t rading w ith t he S aamer, e specially i n E gil ' s s aga ( Jone 1 960), r einforce t he a rchaeo logical e vidence o f S candinavian o utposts f ar f rom s ettled c ountry o r g ood a rable l and b ut i nhabited b y p eople o f c omparative w ealth a nd f ar r eaching c ontacts ( Janson a nd H varfner 1 966). T he p eriod d uring w hich Lng5n, t he p rincipal o utpost, w as a S candinavian c emetery c orresponds q uite c losely w ith t he t ime s pan o f t he V iking t rade a long t he R ussian r ivers t o B yzantium a nd t he C aliphate. A mongst t he g rave g oods f rom Lng n t he o riental b ronze b elt m ountings i n g rave 1 2 ( c. 9 00 A .D .) a nd t he p urse o f I ndian l izard s kin i n g rave 6 ( 10th c entury) r eflect t he p enetrating i nfluence o f t he e astern t rade f ar i nto t he n orthern w ilderness, w hilst t he 5 s ilver c o ins f rom w estern E urope i n g rave 1 0, t he l ast i nterrment o n t he s ite ( c. 100 A .D.), u nderline t he w aning a ttraction o f t he e ast b y t his t ime a nd t he g rowth o f l ocal a nd E uropean m arkets, n ot n early s o r eady o r a ble t o p ay t he p rices d emanded o f t he s ilver-rich A rabs a nd B yzantines f or t he l uxury o f b eaver a nd s able f ur. A nother m arketab le c ommodity o f t he N orriand i nterior, f or h ome a nd S candinavian c onsumption a t l east, w as i ron s melted f rom t he d eposits o f 1i n ionite d ug i n t he s wamps. S torsj6n, e specially i n t he s outh a nd e ast, w as a m ajor c entre o f t his d omestic i ndustry d uring

42-

t he l ater I ron A ge a nd e arly M ediev al t imes ( Magnusson 1 974). B og i ron s melting h ad e x isted i n n earby a reas o f N orway f rom t he l ast c enturies B .C. a nd a lthough t here i s n o c onvincing e vidence o f t he ' lake g raves' p eople b eing i nvo lved i n t his i ndustry ( Baudou 1 978:20) i t i s c onceiva ble t hat

i t w as a n

i mportant

f actor

i n

t he

i nitial

c olonisation o f

c entral Jmtland. I ron s melting o vens t here h ave b een c onsistently d ated t o t he V iking p eriod a nd a f ew t o a s e arly a s t he t hird c entury A .D.

( Magnusson p ers.

c omm.).

B y t he

l ate

I ron A ge,

i ron

b lanks

f or

k ettles, t ools o r w eapons w ere b eing r egularly t raded b etween t he A tlantic a nd B othnian c oasts t hrough S torsjön, w hich m ust i tself h ave b een o ne o f t he m ajor s ources o f s upply ( Thalin 1 973). S ubsistence f arming, m oose t rapping, b eaver t rapping, i ron s melting o r t rade: a ll m ay h ave b een i mportant f actors i n t he c oloni sation o f t he N orrland i nterior, b ut w hich a mongst t hem w ere t he m ost i nfluential? I n m y v iew i t w as t he o pportunities f or t rade b ased p rimarily u pon f urs a nd s econdarily u pon h ides a nd i ron. W e d o n ot k now, b ut i t i s n ot t oo f anciful, I t hink, t o v iew t he n orthe rn s pread o f t he ' lake g rave ' s' o ut o f c entral S weden, p erhaps a long t he o ld i nland t rail ( Baudou 1 978:22), a s a m anifestation o f t he e arly s tages o f a f ur t rade. S ome l ocal w ealth, a nd f urs a re t he o bvious c hoice, m ust h ave b een e xtracted i n r eturn f or t he i mport o f f oreign a rtefacts, w hether t he p eople w ere S candinavian o r n ot. I t i s a lso w orth p ointing o ut t hat t here a re m orphological s im ilarities b etween t he e arly ' lake g raves' o f s outhern N orrland a nd t hose o f n orthern Jmtland a nd A ngermanland i n t he V iking p eriod, a s a t L ang5n, w here

t heir c onnections w ith

t he f ur

t rade a re n ot

i n q uestion.

F ur t rading i s w idely h eld t o h ave b een t he o riginal a ttraction f or s ettlement i n t he M igration p eriod a t S torsj n ( Janson, B iirnstad a nd H varfner 1 962, B i rnstad 1 965) w hich w as t he m ain ' way-station' f or N orwegian c olonists t ravelling b ack a nd f orth b etween T r ndelag a nd

t heir w ealthy B othnian c olonies T he m arked g rowth o f

( Slomann

s ettlement

i n

1 950,

B akka

1 971).

t he V iking a nd e arly M edieval

p eriods c ould b e r elated t o a s mall a melioration o f t he c limate ( Zackrisson 1 976) w hich w ould h ave f acilitated a n e xpansion i n t he a gricultural f rontier, a nd t his e xplanation s eems t he m ost l ikely i n t he c ase o f t he g rave m ounds s ituated h igh i n t he Hrjedalen m ountains; t hey a re p robably t he g raves o f s easonal h erders. N evert heless,

t he V iking p eriod w as a lso t he

t ime w hen

t he

f lourishing

t rade t o t he e ast d emanded a bove a ll, f rom S candinavia, t he f urs w hich w ere t he n atural w ealth o f N orrland. C entral J àmtland w as f ortunately p laced i n t his r espect b ecause i t w as l ocated i n t he h eart o f t he f ur-bearing r egion, a nd i t l ay a thwart t he m ost p ractic able r oute, f rom t he e ast t o S outhwestern N orway a nd E urope, n orth o f t he p irate-infested D anish s traits. N idar s ( later T rondheim ) w as a n i mportant t rade c entre a nd i t i s w orth o bserving t hat o net hird o f a ll

A rabian c oins

i n

( Marstrander

1 956).

( 1967:152)

L uuko

N orway h ave b een n otes

f ound

i n T r ndelag

t hat T r nder V ikings

m aintained p osts o n t he B othnian c oasts a t w hich t hey m oored t heir s hips f or t he w inter b efore t ravelling t he S torsjö r oute t o T rondheim . T he p articipation o f t hrough t heir w ealth a round t raders

t he

Jmtland

p eop le

s ettlement i s m arked, i nter a lia, S torsjön. A t Rsta, f or e xample,

( an o ccupation m arked

b y s ets o f s cales

i n

t he t rade f low ing

b y g raves o f u nusual a re b urials i n w hich t o w eigh c oins a nd

h acksilver) w ere b uried i n r ichly app ointed s leighs c omplete w ith h orses a nd s ilver d ecorated t rappings a nd a long w ith t he w eaponry t hat n o g ood V iking w as e ver w ithout ( Kjellmark 1 905). T he s leighs, a nd a lso s ets o f c rampons, r eflect t he i mportance o f t he w inter f or f ur t rading j ourneys i nto t he f orest. S elinge ( 1976:71) a rgues t hat m oose h ides w ere p robably a m ajor t rading i tem a s w ell, a v iew s ust ained b y t he i mportance o f l eather w orking i n I ron A ge S weden i n g eneral

a nd e xtending a cross

t he B altic t o s uch e arly t owns a s

N ovgorod ( Thompson 1 967). I n s hort, c olonising t he i nterior, w hich i nvolved d eveloping t he i ron i ndustry, e xploiting t he f ur b earers, a nd i nvesting a c onsiderable e ffort i n t he m oose t rapping s ystems, i s c onvincingly a ttributable t o t he b ringing o f N orrland i nto d eveloping S candinavian t rading n etworks.

C auses o f t he S ettlement

R etreat

P recise d ata o n t he t ime o f a bandonment o f m ost s ettlements a re n ot a vailable, b ut i t s eems t hat t he n orthern o utposts s uch a s Lngön h ad b een a bandoned b y t he b eginning o f t he 1 2th c entury, a nd m any o f t he p ioneer f arms i n t he h interland o f S torsjön d uring t he 1 4th a nd 1 5th c enturies. T he e nd o f t he n orthern s ettlements i s m ost p lausibly a ssociated w ith e ither, o r b oth, t he e nd o f e conom ic t rapping, o r t he e nd o f a v iable t rade. B oth p robably o ccurred. H istorical r ecords i ndicate t hat m ost o f t he f ur r egions o f E uropean R ussia w ere s eriously d epleted b y t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c enturies ( Veale 1 966) a nd t he s ame i s l ikely t o h ave b een t he c ase e ven e arlier i n c entral N orriand. C ert ainly t he l ater f ur t rade, w hich s ought s quirrels i n p articular a nd w as c ontrolled b y t he F innish ' birkarlar' m erchants, c oncentrated o n t he f orests o f n orthern N orrland a nd F inland. T he e astern t rade r outes o f t he V ikings b ecame i ncreasingly d ifficult i n p roportion t o g rowing r esistente f rom t he c itizens o f K iev a nd N ovgorod a nd w ere c ut a ltogether b y T artar a ttacks i n t he 1 3th c entury. B y t his t ime, h owever, w arfare b etween S weden a nd N ovgorod h ad c ommerce i mpossible ( Serning 1 956).

r endered a ny

r egular

T he d ecli ne o f s ettlement i n C entral Jmtland i s m ore d ifficult t o a ccount f or. M any o f t he d eserted h omesteads m ay h ave b een a band oned, a lmost a t a n i nstant, d uring t he r avages o f t he B lack D eath w hich r eached N orriand i n 1 349-50 A .D. A nother p ossibility i s t hat t he e xpansion o f s ettlement w hich o ccurred d uring t he c limatic a melio ration o f 8 00-1300 A .D.

w as c orrespondingly f ollowed

b y a s ettlement

c ontraction a s e arly e ffects o f t he ' Little I ce A ge ' b egan t o b ite. O n t he w hole t his d oes n ot l ook p articularly l ikely. T he ' Little I ce A ge' w ould n ot h ave b een t roublesome f or a rable a griculture, t he m ost s ensitive a spect o f i nterior e conomies, m uch b efore t he m id-15th c entury a nd w idespread c rop f ailures, j udging b y h istorical e vidence f rom e lsewhere

i n N orrland

( Zackrisson

1 976:14),

a re u nlikely t o h ave

o ccurred b efore t he 1 6th c entury. B esides, a rable a griculture w as a c omparatively m inor c omponent o f M edieval s ubsistence i n t he i nterior. T he b roader p ossibility r aised b y c limatic c hanges i s o f s ome l ong-term, a lmost r egular . , e bb a nd f low i n c olonisation a gainst t he m argins o f a gricultural

v iability.

S elinge

( 1979:144)

h as

s uggested

t hat a gricultural s ettlement o f m arginal a reas i n N orriand m ay h ave f ollowed s uch a c yclical p attern o f e xpansion a nd c ontraction; t he t hree e xpansive p eriods b eing

i n Migration,

-44-

V iking-Early M edieval

a nd

H istorical t imes. H e d oes n ot a ttribute t he c ycles t o c limatic e vents b ut i t i s d ifficult, b eyond o rthogenetic m odels, t o s ee h ow e lse s uch a n

h ypothesis

c ould b e s upported.

A s hift

i n

t rading p atterns h as,

Is uggest,

m ore t o

r ecommend

i t a s a g eneral h ypothesis f or s ettlement r ecession i n t he L ater M iddle A ges. I n t he 1 3th a nd l ith c enturies, c hanges w hich w ere a ll d etrimental t o t he c ommerce o f t he C entral N orrland i nterior b ecame u nbearably h eaped o ne u pon a nother. T he e arlier a ttenuation o f t he e astern

t rade,

' birkarl'

t he

r ise o f N ovgorod,

m erchants,

a ll

o f w hose

K arelia,

i nterests

a nd

l ay

t he m onopolist

i n

t he h igh n orth

o f F ennoscandia r ather t han C entral N orrland, a nd t he r ise o f t he M anse i n t he s outhern B altic, w ith i ts a ttention d irected t owards d ried f ish a nd o ther p roducts o f s outhern S candinavia, c ombined t o r educe Jmtland t o s omething o f a m ercantile b ackwater. I t i s a lso q uite p robable t hat r eserves o f o ne o f t he m ain s ubsistence a nd t rading r esources, t he m oose, w ere b ecoming s eriously d epleted a t t he s ame t ime. I t i s d ifficult t o f ind a ny e vidence o f t his o ne w ay o f t he o ther, b ut t here m ay b ' e s ignificance i n t he f act t hat d uring t he 1 3th a nd 1 4th c enturies t here w ere s everal p romulgations s eeking t o r egularise m oose h unting c ustoms i n J mtland a nd p revent s laughter d uring

t he

s pring a nd

s ummer

( Janson a nd

H varfner

1 966:52,

6 0,

6 2).

C onclusions T he f rom b eing t lement p ansion

i nitial

c olonising p hase o f

f ully u nderstood,

t he N orrland

f or a lthough

t he

i nterior

b road

i s

f ar

s equence o f s et-

i s c lear e nough t he p atterns o f l ife a nd t he i mpetus o f e xr emain o bscure. A griculture w as u ndoubtedly a c omponent o f

s ubsistence w hich m ade s ettlement a round S torsj6n a r ational c hoice, b ut, i n B i6rnstad's w ords ( 1965:76), ' ...the S torsji s ettlement i n J mtland c an s carcely b e e xplained a s a p easant c olonisation." E xc ept a t t he w idest c ontinental s cale o f A lexander's ( 1972, 1 978) ' moving f rontier' m odel, i t w ould t hus q uite m isrepresent t he e vidence t o i nterpret E urope. T he

i t a s t he l ast r ipple o f a gricultural d iffusion i n c olonists o f t he N orrland i nterior w ere f armers, c ertain-

l y, b ut t hey w ere e qually f ishers, h unters, t rappers, m etal w orkers a nd t raders, a nd t hey s eem t o h ave a ccommodated a ll t hese f unctions o n a l argely d omestic b asis. T his k ind o f m ixed e conomy, w hich m akes t he N orrland e vidence f it c olonisation m odels s uch a s t hose o f B ill inqton ( 1967) r ather u ncomfortably, i s a n e ntirely a ppropriate r es ponse t o t he u ncertainties o f t he c ircumpolar e xistence, a nd c an b e f ound e lsewhere a mongst c ontemporary S candinavian c olonies a t t hese l atitudes,

s uch a s

H owever, b een

i n G reenland

i t m ust

( Gad

b e e mphasised

1 970:39, 5 6 -5 7, 8 0-86 ). t hat

i t d oes

s i mply t he o pportunity t o p ractise t his

n ot

s eem t o h ave

s ubsistence s trategy

w hich a ttracted c o lonisation, s ince p eople w ith b asic p roficiency i n i t h ad l ived o n t he m argins o f t he i nterior a nd t ravelled t hrough i t f or c enturies b efore t hey s ettled t here. T he i nertia w as o verc ome, i t i s s uggested, b y t he d emand f or b oreal f orest p roducts w hich d eveloped d uring t he l ate I ron A ge a nd r eached i ts p eak i n t he V iking a nd e arly M edieval p eriods. T he S candinavian d emand f or i ron a nd t he i nternational d emand f or s kins a nd f urs f ound t he c entral i nteri or o f N orrland

n ot o nly w ell-endowed a s a s ource o f s upply,

a lso n eatly p laced

i n

t he m iddleman's

45-

p osition a long a n

b ut

i mportant

r oute o f t he t rading n etwork. A s t Ie i nternational t rade d isintegrated a nd r esources b ecame d epleted o r n o l onger i n d emand, s ettlement f ell b ack u pon t he c entral e xistence.

a rea a nd

i nto

i ts

h istorical

m ould o f a p easant

N ote: 1 . T he t erm ' Scandinavian' i s u sed t o d istinguish p eople o f i nitial s outhern S candinavian o rigin f rom t hose o f g enerally S aamic ( Lappish) a ncestry ( c.f. Z achrisson 1 976).

A CKNOWLEDGMENTS S ome o f t he i nformation c ontained i n t his p aper w as g athered i n S weden i n 1 975. A mongst t he p eople w ho a ssisted m e s o g enerously t hen I m ust m ention: P rofessor E vert B audou ( Umea), D r. K las-Gor n S el i nge

( SHM)

‚

L ars

U 5thman

( SHM)

‚

M useum ). F or m ore r ecent m aterial B audou a nd D r. S elinge. M y t hanks M artin F isher f or t he m aps.

a nd G ert M agnusson

( J mt l and C ounty

Ia m m ost g rateful t o P rofessor t o A nn R ayner f or t he t yping a nd

B IBLIOGRAPHY

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m anland, " V ol. 7 i n S . J anson, R apport ö ver a rkeologiska u nders kningar a v F j l1sj lvens k allomr de Rrstr mssj arna iD orotea s ocken, A ngermanland, H otingsj n I Tgs j6 s ocken, B odumsj6n I B odum s ocken, F j llsj,n I F j �l lsj6 s ocken o ch F j lIsj lven f ran S il t ill A kvisslan, F j llsj , R amsele o ch A dalsl i den s ocknar, A ngermanland, 1 951-1952, R eport R iksantikvarie mbetet, S tockholm.

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J anson,

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49-

\ V i[ h e i mc i / / '\

IJo rm l ien

I

. Langön ( H o fi n gss jdn ) S

N 3ERMANL M

0

t r bms C 1 - --.

•

O f ferdo t